c!.

,WiiRKS O F WILLILAM KBNT

PUBLI SaED BY
J OHN WI LEY & SO&.
The Mrzhanical Flnglaeers Pocket-Book.
A f;efarer,ce Book of Rules, Tables, Data, ;md
Formu!~, for the Use of Engiueers. Mechanics,
ers~d Students, xl + 1461 pages, 161n0, nmmcco,
$5.00 net.
Steam-Boi!er Zconomy.
E treatise an theTheory and Practice of Fuel
Economy in the Operation of Steam-Boilers.
xiv .G 458 pages, 136 ti!gms, Svo, cloth, $4.00.
j WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some
i
THE
P
,
A REFERENCKBOOE OF RULES, TABLE& DATA,
AniD FORM-IL& FOE THE USE OF
ENGINEERS, MECZANICS,
AND STUDENTS.
t
BY
~iLL1.M K E N T , M.E., Sc.D.,
Cmsulting Engine&.
Member Amer. Soey Mechl. Engrs. and Amer. Inst. Mining Engrs.
EI GHT H EDI T I ON, REWRI T T EN. !
TOTAL ISSUE SEVENTY-ONETHOUSAND.
r
.rl
NEW YORK:
JOHN. WILliY & SONS.
L O N D O N : CHA~AN & HFL, LUIIIIT&. ~
,.
1w3. :
the materi&$ay
- - --~~~ .~I._
no. l onger Se accur at e,
.
COPYRIGHT, 1896, 1902, 1910,
BY
WILLIAM KENT.
Eighth Edition entered at Statiw.srs Hall
TSPOGRAPHY BY
5tanbope @me0
c. H. (i l LSON . COMPdNY
BOSTON. . ?. . A
PRESS OF
BRAUNWORTH &CO.
BCJ OKBI NDERS AN0 PRI NTERS
BROOKLYN, N. Y.
._-.__.. -L., --.-~
~WARNING: This is a ; 910 edi t i on. f&6;
i
-
PREFACIE_ TO THE FIRST EDITION, ;S%.
MOKF than twenty years ago the author began ta follow the sdvice
given by Nystrom: Every engineer should make his own pocket-book.
as he proceeds in study and practice, to suit his particular business.
The manuscript pocket-b.ook thus begun. however, s-n gave place to
more modern means for disposing of the accumulation of engineering
facts and figures, viz., the index rerum, the scrap-book. the collection of
indexed envelopes, portfolios and boxes, the card catalogue, etc. Four
years ago, at the request of the publishers, the labor was begun of selecting
from this accumulated mass such matter as pertained to mechanical
engineering, and of condensing, digesting, and arranging it in form for
publication. In addition to this. a careful examination was made ok the
transactions oft. engineering societies; and of the most important recent
works on mechanical engineering, in order to ml gaps that might be left
in the original collection and insure that no important facts had been
o v e r l o o ke d.
Some ideas bare been kept in mind during the prepam& of the
Pocket-book that will. it is believed, Krause it to differ from other works
of its, class. In the first place it was considered Chat the heid of roecbani-
cal engineering was so great, and the literature of the subject so vast. that
as Xt.ie space as possible should be given to subjects wbieh especially
beiong to civil engineering. While the mechanical engineer must con-
tinually deal with problems which belong properly to civil engineering,
this latter branch is so. well covered by Trautwines Civil Engineers
Pocket-book that any attempt to treat It exhaustively would not OILY
EU no long-felt want, but would, occupy spacewhich shouid be given
to mechanical engineering.
Another idea. prominently kept in view by the author hai been that he.
would not assume the position of an (authority * $n giving r&S and
fwicwh for. designing, but only tbatl of compiier, giving sot only the.
name of the originator of the, rule, where it was known, but also the vdurn@
and page ,from which IBM was ta~ken, so that. its derivation may be tr8ced
when desired. When different fo-mlhe for the same p:ob&o have been
found they have been given in cm-mast, and. in many oases examples
have been calculated by eaeh to show the difference between them. In
some. csses~ these differences are quite remarkable, as wih be seen render
Safety-valves and Crank-pins. OecasionaUy the study OP thesedifferenCes
has led to the authors devising a n&v formuta, In. which ease the da&a-
tion of the formula is given.
1 Much attention has been paid to the abstracting of data of experiments
from recent periodicsl~ literature, and numerous references to other data
are given. In this respect the preeent work will be found to differ from
other Pocket-books.
w--...- ,^~ A___
accurate
iV
PREFACE.
The author desires to express his obligation to the many persons who
have assisted him ln tur preparation cf the work, to manufacturers who
have furnished their catalogues and given permission fOF the use Of their
tables, and to many engineers who have contributed original data and
tables. The names of these persons are mentioned in their proper places
in the text, and in all cases it has been endeavored to give credit to whom
credit is due. The thanks of the author are also due to the following
gentlemen who have given assistance in revising manuscript or proofs
of the sections named: Prof. De Volson Wood, mechanics and turbines;
Mr. Frank Richards, compressed air; Mr. Alfred R. Wdff, Windmills;
Mr. Alex. C. Humphrey% illuminating gas; Mr. Albert E. Mitchell, loco-
motives; Prof. James E. Dent.on, refrigerating-machinery; Messrs. Joseph
Wetzler and Thomas W. Varley, electrical engineering; and Mr. Walter
S. Dlx, for valuable contributions on sever& subject,s, and suggestions
as to their treatment.
WILLIAM I(E%T.
PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.
SEPTEMBER, 1912.
DITRING the first ten years folio?& the issue of the first edit,ionof this
book, ln 1895, the attempt was made to keep it up to date by t.he method _
of cutting out pages and paragraphs, inserting new ones in their places, by
inserting new pages lettered a, b. c, etc., and by putting some new matter
in an appendix: In this way the book passed to its 7Fh edition.in October,
1904. After 50,000 copies had been printed it was found that the electro-
typed plates were beginning to wear out, so that extensive resetting of type
would soon be necessary. The advances in engineering practice also had
been so great that it was evident &hat many chapters required to be entirely
rewritten. It was therefore determined to make a thorough revision of the
book, and to reset the type throughout. This has now been accomplished
after four years of hard !abor. The size of the book has increased over 300
pages, in spite of all efforts to save space by condensation and elision of
much of the old matter and by resetting many of the tables and ft~rmuke
in shorter form. A new style of type for the tables has been designed for
the book, which is believed to be much more easily read than the old.
The t.hanks of the author are due to many manufacturers who hnye fur=
nished new tables of materials and machines, and to mariy engineers who
have made valuablecontributions and helpfulsuggestions. He is especially
indebted to his son. Robert Thurston Kent, M.E., who has done tine work
of revising manufacturers tables of materials and has done practically all
of the revising of the subjects of Compressed Air, Fans and Blowers, Holst-
ing and Conveying, and Machine Shop.
.CONTENTS.
(For Alphabetical Index see page 1417.)
MATEEiK4TICS.
Arlthmetie.
Arithmetical and Algebraical Signs
PAQE
GreatestCommonDlvisor..........:::::::::::.:::::::::::::::: i
Least.Common MultJple
Fractions.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
. . Decimals...:::::::::::::::::::::: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..r
Table. Qcimal Equivalents of Fractions Gf&ki&d : : : : : : : : : :
:
Table. Products of Fractions expressed in Decimals.
3
Compound or Denominate Numbers.
; . . . . . . . , ~ 4
. . . . . .
. . . . . . .
ReductionDescendingandAscending..........::::::::::::::::.
Decimals of a Foot Equivalent to Fractions of an Inch
ii
Ratio and Proportion.
. . . . . . . . . . . 5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Involution. or Powers of Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -7
Table,
.,
First Nine Powers of the First Nine Numbers. :; 7
Table. First Forty Powers of 2
. . . . . . . . .,
Evolution.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t
Cube Root
Square Root. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
ALligation .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . ..C
Permutation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Combination : : :>,_: : : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P ~10
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arithmetical Progression.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~10
Geometrical Progressibn
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Percentage, Profit and Loss, Efficieficy
: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ::
Interest
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,: . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discount,.
..x.: . . . .
:z
. .
CompoundIl;terest:::::::::::. ...
.......
.... ......
....... ...
.....
. .. . .. .. ... . .
. _...,
: : : : I : 1~: : : : :
:?5
Compound Interest Table, 3, 4, 5, and 6 per cent : 1 4
Equation of Payments.. .. ;
Partial Payments.,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :i
Annuities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . ,15
Tables of Amount, Present Values, etc., of Annuities. . i ... . . . . . : . . ; 15
Wei ght s and Measur es. ~
LongMeasure...;..................~.........: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Old Land Measure...........................~.:.: . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nautical Measure.
Square Measure.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SolidorCubicM~a~;;;!::::::::::~:.::.:~::.:::::::::::~:::::
..............
Liquid Measure. .
The Miners Inch :::.~~::::::::::::::::::::::
Apothecaries Fluid Measure ., _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..... .d ......
.............
............
... i ..........
............
an Incorrect
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
the material may no-longer be accurate .
.......
.......
.......
Balance
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. i..
. . . .
. . . .
. . .
:. . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
..................
.. ., .............
................
.......... . ......
................
.................
................
................
................
................
..................
Board and Timber Measure.
. . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table. Contents in Feet of Joists, Scanthngs, and Timber
. . . . . . .
French or Metric Measures.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
British and French Equivalents.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metric Conversion Tables
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compound Units
of Pressure and Weiglit
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Water, Weight, and Bulk.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Air Weigbt and Vo!ume
of W&k Pow&, and Duty.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Velocltv . . . . . . . . .
.....................
................................................
Wire and Sdett Metal Gauges.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Twist-drill and Steel-wire Gauges
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F . . . . . . . .
Circular-mil Wire Gauge
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
New U. 6. Standard Wire and Sheet Gauge, 1893
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Decimal Gauge........................................~ . . . . .
Algebra.
iddition, Multi
E
licat.ion, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Powers of Num ers
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parentheses, *Division
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple Equations and Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
Equations containing two oi more Unknown Q.uaiitlties.
........................
Elimination
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quadratic Equations . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theory of Exponents.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Binomial Theorem.
:. . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geometrical Probiesw ~of Construction
.....................
of Straight Lines.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ofTriangles.......................................- . . . . . .
of Squares and Polygons. . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of the Ellipse.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of the Parabola. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of the Hy erhola........................................:.
oftheCycr\d P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :.: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of the Tractrix or Schiele Antl-fnctlon Curve.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ofthespir~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Rings .inside a Circle. .,_
.................................................................
.
ofArcofaLargeCircle. ..-
-
ofthecatenary .-...-.....................................
of the Involute..
...
. - .., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :.
of plotting Angles. : - . ._.................. . . . . ..-.........
Geometrical PropostMons ................. _ . . . . . . i ........ -
Mensuratton. Plane Surfaces.
&adrilateral, Parallelogram, et; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . :
Trapezium and 'I'rapezozd . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
Triar-I--
Poly,$Z.
..
%&ik ~fPolyg0ns
.............................................................. .......
Irregular Figures
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PropertiesoftheCircle.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Values of II and its Multiples, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relationsofarc.chord,etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relations of circle to inscribed square, etc. :
. . .
Formulas for a Circular Curve.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sectors and Segments..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .*
Circular Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-~..e . . . . . . . .
The EXi
The He1 x . P
se. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..- . . . . i:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~heSpiral.......................~.....................-.~.: .
3orfaces and Volumes of Similar Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.------------~. - _ _.. _ _ ...... ~_b> ....... . _
!Qd?NING: This is a 1910 edition. some of t
CUNTENTS.
Mensuratloor, Solid Bodies.
Prism p ran;id.~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L.. .. i.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
dzdge
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rectang;ii. jj&..ii. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
$Y$f-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
zphere
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sphericni ;r;ha..;i .I ::::::::: ::::: :::::: . . . . . i.. . . . . . ... . . . . . .
Spherical Polygon
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ThePrismoid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Prlsmoidal Formula
Polyedj on . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spheric~i zor;e :
Spherica,segme~~................
................
Spheroid or Ellipsmd
....................................................................
. . a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \
. . . , . . . . . . . . i Cytindrica, Ring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~, . . . . . . . .
Solids of Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spindles.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..?.........~ . . . . . . . . . . .
Frustrum.df,.j: ..-@. . . . . . . . . .
PaFabolic cool
2
*-., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
volume of & Cask. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IFregularSolids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pl ane Trl gonknetry.
3olution of Plane Triangles. . . . . . . . .
Sine.Tangent,Secant,etc . . . . . . . . . .
Signs of the Tngonometric Functions .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ::I:::::
Trigonometrical Form&e . . . . . . . . . . . ~....~.....~.-.....~...~ . .
Solution of Plane Right-angled Triangle; : 1: 1: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Solution of Oblique-angled.Triangles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L Analytical Geometry.
t
Ordinates-and Abscissas . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equations of a Straight Line, Interseciidns..etc...... : : : : : : : 1: : : : : :
Equations of the Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EquationsoftheEllipse..............::::::::::::::::::::::::
Equations of the Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equations of the Hyperbola.
Logarithmic Curves.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,:
..........................................
.
Differential Calculus.
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . : . .
Differentials of Algebraic Functions. ............................................................
.~,
Formulae for Differentiating.
....
Partial Differentials. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - -
T-.----l-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lmeg:rals .................................................
Formulae for Integration :..........................~
Integration between Li.mlllts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.........
Quadrature of a Plane Surfa&.
.:.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quadratuke tif Surfaces of Revotution
elibature of Volumes of Revolution
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. -. . . . -_. .. -. . . . . . . . . . .
Second, Third, etc., Differentials . . . . ; ........ 1'; . . . . . . . .
Mac!aunns and Taylors Theorems. . - -_ _ _ . - . . _. - . . . --. .
ataxlma andMinima ............ -.-.
.............
.. ...... . - .c. . _ .
DifPerential of an Exponentutl F.unction . z. _ - -_-_-_ : : : :
.mrithms........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ----; -. . . _. ,...:.
INferential Forms which have Known Integrals . . . . -..-.. - . .
Exponential Fun&ions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - .. - -. - : . _ _ . : .: .
Gircul,a+ Functions ..L.....--..-- -..
That Cycloid
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integral CalCtius
. . i.~.
. . . . . . . . . . . I.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;.. .
-_- I_..-
,he material may nolonger be accurate
. .
_.
--
i.
. . .
. .
. .
v i i
CONTENTS. . . .
Vlll
CONTENTS.
The Slide Rule. ~
PAQPI
$3 .
,ExamplessolvedbytheSiide~R~le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . . .
Logarithmic Ruled Paper.
Plotting on Logarithmic Paper.. . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,. . . . . . . i
Mathematical Tables.
85
Sizes and Weights of RooEng xr^4--:..lr~
..
LiU~;II~LS. ...........
pnri+cotta
Tin P!ates ...........................................................
.ates:: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I .L
. I
. . &L
61 .I
&e anmg 1es . .
6. 8
Weights \
Sky-lie:ht G l a s s . . .
If V a r i o u s R o o f - c o v e r i n g s . _. .
Cast-iron Pipes or CI olumns :
Weights and Thickn
. .
e s s a f Ca s t - i r o n P i p e s .
Safe Pressures on Cast-iron P i p e . . . . . .
Cast-iron Pipe Fittings . . . . . . .
Slandard Pipe Flanges. . . . . ~. . . .
. .
. .
Straight-way Gate Valves. _ . . . . . . . .
Forged Steel Flanges. . . . . . . . . . . .
St andard Hose Cou l i ngs. . . . . .
Standard Sizes of $elded Pipe . . . :_ . . .
Wrought-iron Welded Tubes . . . . . . . .
Shelby Cold-drawn Tubing. . . . :. . ,..... ,~ . .
Riveted Iron Pipes. . . . . . . . .
Weight of Iron f
Of
Ri vet ed Pi pe. . . . .
Spiral Riveted Pi 5e................. ........ . . . . . .
Riyetc:d Eydrauii& Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . .
call,ed.P&es.L.. . . . . . - ..l.. . . . . .~.~ . . . ........ . . . ..~_
Forged Steel Flanges for Riveted Pii ........ . . . . . .
Sea
7
m.iess Brass Tubing. . . . . . . . . . . ?e. ........ . . . . . .215,
.. .
L%d and Tin-lined
tper T.ubbjng - . . . . .
- Lead Pibe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
......
........ ......
Wooden Stave Pipe3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .......
Weight of Copper Rads. . . . _. . . .
Weight ;f %pper and Brass Wire and Plates. . . ;
SheeiandBarBrass _.__. ,__..._.,., . . . . .._.....
II I
Alurzinimi Sheets and Rars _,_ . .
Whitworth Screw-threa?
Screw-thread, U. S.
Automobile Screws and
:Ei
187
:z
1g-j
190
.191
192
194
:z
199
200
207
208
;$l
212
212
212
214
214
,216
i4:t
218
218
219
z2:
gg
Es
223
223
g;
52
2.
227
%
229
%
231
231
us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nuts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
International Screw-thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
rew-threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 Bolts, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
!a& for Bolts and Taps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Screws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . .
i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~~~~md. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limit-gauges for SC:
Size of Iron for Standarc
Sizes of Screw-thre
Set Screws and Tap
Acme Screw-threat
Machine Screws. A.S.M.E. Standan
Standard
Machine Screw Heads
Weieht of Bolts with Head!
. . . .
c
.._...
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
.._...
. . . . .-
. . . . . .
..a.,.
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
87
E
109
-1.10
1.11
. . -
170
::;
g
175
175
175
El
175
175
l i 6
Ei
:;zi
176
176
177
Formul a f or I nt erpol at i on ~.
______..........................~.~ *
Reciprocals of Numbers 1 to 2000. . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Squr,res, Cubes, Square Roots, and Cube Roots from 0.1 to 16CG . .
Sauares and Cubes pf Decimal
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Powers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fifth Roots and Fifth
Circumferences and Areas
Circumferences of Circles i
11 inches in diam
. .
. .
of Circles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~.._ n Feet and Inches3from 1 inch to 32 feet
Areas of the Segn --~~
Lengths of Circular Arcs, Degrees Give
Leneths of Circular Arcs, Height of Arc
eter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ients of a Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: Given. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spheres. . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents of Pipes and Cylinders, Cubic Feet and Gallons.
........................
Cylindrical Vessels, Tanks, Cisterns, etc.
Gallons in a Number of Cubic Feet ... .................................................
Cllbic Feet in a Number of Gallons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Square Feet in Plates 3 to 32 feet long and 1Inch wide.
Capacities of Rectangular Tanks in Gallons. . . . . .
..................................... Number of Barrels in Cylindrical Cisterns and Tanks
~garitbms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table of Logarithms . ........: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hyperbolic Logarithms. . . . . .
Natural Trigonometrical Functions : : : : 1: : : : : : : : : :
..........................
Logarithmic Trigonometric-,! Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Materials.
Chemical Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specific Gravity and Weight bfMate;iais 1: :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : : : :
The Hydrometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metals, Properties af . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aluminunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ant i mo ny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bisn!uth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Co per...........................~...................i
God P
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iridium . . ,~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Icod
................................................................
:.i..
........
.
.............
. .... ................
Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manganese..........................................- . . . . . .
Mercur~.......................................~ . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nickel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g;tte$uirn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
m;^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LI,1........................................................
Zinc . . ..- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaueaus Materials.
Order of Maiieabiity, etc., of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Measures and Weights of Various Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Formuiae and Table for Calculating Weight of Rods, Plates, etc.. . . 178
Commercial Sizes of Iron and Stee! Bars.
Weights of Iron Bars.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..v . . . . . . 180
of Iron and Steel Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of Flat Rolled Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................: . . . . . .
+;:,
ofPlateIron.........................................t . . . i84
of Steel Blooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-e . . . ,185,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rou% H-&--I&$-; I:-.-.-.... : . :. : . . . . .
G;;reolts
Weigt
Sizes of Turnbuckles.
Tinners Rivets. . . . .
Material Required per
Railway Sni
Boat Spik
Wrought Soike
Cut. Nai
W
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 ..... ._ ..................... .......
Its of Cone-head Rivets.
: ................
..............................-.
_______.___._...........;................
. . . .
Mile
. . . . . . . ........................... 232
of Ranroad Track. . . . . .: . . 22?
.,_KeS. ...................... .. .___
es
..................................................
.._....,..........,
gg;
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:.-.-ls.:....:.::i::::::::::l::.::;....:
233
cod Screws. . . ; . . . . ,
.......................................................
.,
.. ;g
: t3gy.s
. . . . . . . . . . . . 234
. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:. ._
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~ . . . . . . . . . .
xetc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
235v ?iit . .
Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
:e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
for Galvanized Iron Wire. . . . . .
238
. ., . . . .. . . . . . . . . ., ....... 239
.._ _ 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : ..
........
?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ed&n br($cular-ml1 Gauge ..........
.
...........
: : : 3 : :,: : ;g
tipper Wire Table, +. . . . . . . 240
! material may no longer be accurate
I
. PAGEI
Insulated Wire
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copper Telegraph Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stranded Copper, Feed Wire. .
Ruie for Resistance of Copper Wnz
.............................................................
ii4
1
Wires of Different Metals
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specifications for Copper Wire
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
$2;
WireRopes
. .
Transmission or Haulage Rope.
Pkough-steel Ropes
....
J,angLay Rope
.............
........
.i
.........................................
;&%i
246
&lvanized Iron Wire Rope
....................................................................................................................................
$
Cable Traction Ropes.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flat Wire Rope.s....................................~ . . . . . . .
2::
Q,Jvani~.& Steel Cables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Hawsers.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
Galvanized Steel-wire Strand.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . .
Notes on use of Wire Rope.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
z$
TLocked Wire Rope.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . .
256
Chains and Chain Cables.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
sizes of Fire 9rick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
2::
Welahts of Logs. Lumber, etc
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254. 25:
255
256
Fire-Clay in .&i&&z
... _.
.....
. . . . . . :
Refracto&ess of hmerlcan Fire-bnck
..........................................
;. ......
Slag Slicks and Slag Blocks.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XlagnesiaBricks.........................................-~ . .
Asbestos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strength of Mat eri al s.
Stress and Strain
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elastic Limit
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . .
Yield Point...........................................~ . . . . . .
Modulus of Elasticity.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . .
Resiliczce
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elastic Limit and Ultimate Stress.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
aepee.ted Stresses. ..........................................
Repeated Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stresses due to Sudden Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Increasing Tensile Strength of Bars by Tmistmg
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tensile Strength.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
Measurement of Elongation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shapes of Test Specimens.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compressive Strength
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Columns, Pillars. or Struts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hodgkinsons Formula. ~Euiers Formula.
+
. . . . . . . . _
Rankines Formula.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gordons Formula.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
yr.oug_ht-iron Columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
Bum Columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Straight-line Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Working Strains in Bridge Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strength of Cast-iron Columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safe Load on Cast-iron Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . .
Strength of Brackets on Cast-iron Columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :.
Eccentric Loading of Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MomentofInertia_
=. :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radius of Gyration.
..=.;.;~;=:~~= .&*;
. . . . . . . . . ..I.........._................*.
Element9 of TJsuai Se&ions . . . . ..s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . < . . . . . . . . . .
Transvers.2 Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Formule for Fiexure of Beams.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . .
~ Safe Loads on Stee
Beams ,of Uniform
PTperties $ g;led S
~!I Beams . . . . . . . . . . . -.* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i.
Strength. . . . ..-...........................
tructural Shapes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L .
:ei I Beams. . .
*
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _..
Beams. . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
sl Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~. ._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _...-...*.- . . . . . . .
:lei . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. .~. . . . . . . .~. .,.
Irs........~.........,.....~................
r-- -~I
..-I. .
*.
a+.*- ._. .
: lnis i s a wiu wition.
Some
iiT OKTENTS. CONTENTS. xi
PAQE
i of Z-bar Columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. . . . . .
~L...VL.U. ..Ll and Safe Load on Channel Columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2%:
ethlehem Soecial. Girder and H-beams, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
ic Resistance to Torsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
zombined Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Stress due to Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
streneth of Flat Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
less of Flat Cast-iron Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
$h of Unstayed Flat Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
.ced Heads of Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3i4
rth of Staved Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
gP)jting umder Water Pressure. . . . . ;. . . . . . . . . . . . 315
V&1= .I0 ,,,J Domed Heads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
3w Cylinders u~nder Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
*ers-under Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
apacit of Steel Rollers and Bal1.s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
ofHolowCylinderstoCollapse.. r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Pressure of Tubes or Flues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
#r Corrugated Fumaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 For!&!a fo
Hollow Co]
pn,rlinrr PI
?I~&%& Wire Nails, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . .
.. .>ught-iro r. Bolts.
&?~~~$&& on Bolts . . .....................................
s and their Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 323.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
..................
..325,3$
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
. . . . ..: . . . . . .
z?
itand Plpc
-
-Ja.t.nr-pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Haterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Riveted Steel V. -. .._
Kirkaldys Tests ,of 1
,Cast I-
::::: i?
Steel iails an&T&&
St.od A rlec: Sha.ft.c Snrinr S t
;lron............~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . uuV
stings .
-j
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
m, Fbrgmes. etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33;; :
i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-.eel..............................
.E
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
333
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .c . . . .
Copper, Brass, Bronze. etc
933
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wire-rope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -^_
Tire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:.
and Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
,eit,inti-Can+& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. *._**, ___* -,
. . . . . . .
_----~~
. . .
.. ............................................................
:
Jood
:
??Tests.. .l
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..
_.
. .
....................
. ............. **__. _ .....
Tensile Strength of Wir
Wai~ertown Teqtine-machinf
Riveted .Joi
Wrought-iron Bars. ComDressic
Steel Eye-ba-- .
Wrought-iron C
.nts .....:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
m Tests. . . . . . .
.Y.S
!dl;mns ......
.-.
......................................
no1a iirawn Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_** .-,.*3. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tests of Steel Ande
Shearing Strength-. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relation of Shearing to Tensile Strength.. . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . ~. . . .
Strength of Iron and Steel Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . _ . .~. . . . . . . . . . . .
_

Tllreading Tests of pi e p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*....*.. . .

Tubes used as Co nmns.. . . . . . .ls:. . . . . . . . . . . . . L. ._ . . . . . .-
., 342 _
--_ **** *_ _._-.., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methods of Testing .Harrlneaa nf Meta
Holdin
Strengt53
Power of, Boiler-tubes.. . - ._ . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . :.
of Glass..
as3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~..*.......a.... 344.
Strengthof Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..- - . . . . . . . . . . 2....
Copperat HighTemperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1....- . . . . . -.
Strength of Tmiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-. . . . . . . .,. . . . . . . . . . . . i
Expansionof Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- = . - . . . T
Tests of American Woods.. . . . . . . . . .
Shewir.e Rt.rwwt.h of
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . .
Woods. . ;. . . . . .1 i . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
tone. e&c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f . .._.. *..
eeine................................-.......:
.d
:ment Mortar. .,...:...,.............*.
ibu .,
,?
----------.-
2 material may no'longer be accurate
/
CONTENTS.
Riveted J oints.
Fairbairns Experimer- _ ncs . . . . . .
Loss of Strength by Punching. . .
Strength of Perforated Plates. . .
Hand vs. Hydraulic Riveting. . . .
Formuhe for Pitch of Riri?s-. . . .
FropL..:-..- -= .-:-*- >rf.inna UI JOILLLY . . . , . . . . . . .
Efficiencies of-Joints . . . . . . . . . . .
Diameter of Rivets. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shearing Resistance of Rivet Iron
Strength of Riveted Joints. . . . . .
Riveting Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Xii CONTENTS.
-.a..
405
406.
407
Moduli of Elasticitv of Various Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tests of Portland Cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Properties of Cork. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vu!canized India-Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . .
Nickel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aiuminum, Properties and Uses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alloys.
........ ........
.................
.................
.................
.................
...... ..........
.................
.................
.................
.................
Alloys of Copper and Tin, Bronze. . . . . . . . . .
Alloys of Copper and Zinc, Brass . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variation in Strength of Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copper-;in-zinc Alioys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L;quation, or tiepa:~t%n of Metals . . . . .. . . .
A!~ogs used in ?-:.>s r.~?mdrn?s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tobin Bronze. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copper -zinc-irooi- A&, ys . . .
Adow of Cnr;~c:. itn sno Lead ............................
..................
..................
...................
..................
..................
..................
..................
.................
..................
..................
..................
..................
..................
...... ...........
............ ... . ..
..................
..................
..................
..................
..................
..................
..................
...................
..................
..................
..................
...................
..................
...................
..................
..................
Iron and Steel.
Classification of Iron and Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grading of Pig Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
kro~nufacture of Cast Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lence of Silicon Sulphur, Phos. and ,Mn on Cast Iron . . . . . . . . .
,orrnnir Constituents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ast Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I and Castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . ..:...............~ . . . . . . . . .. ..421.
Phcsplor L&rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aluminum .Uioys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alloys for Lasting under Pressure. . . . . . . .
The Thermit Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Caution as to Strength of Alloys. . . . . . .
Alloys of Aluminum, Sjicon and Iron. .
,ygs~ura~Igmnum buoys . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U. 3-m, Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.--~
lnoug,ILLicst: LuYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. .
. .
. . .
.
.
. .
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
;ton cross,-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n~iljje Cast Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
+n rrnn Converted into Gray. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
St IiOn .....................................
02 Metai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UILGL 1 vu_ delting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Addit.inns nf Titanium, etc., to Cast Iron,
:. ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:GG&Gi 1 . . . . . .
Permanent Expansion of Cas
Mixt---- -
c '3,at Trnn with S
.......
,t Iron by Heating.
UT~: UI L-. _____ ..___. -,teel. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bessemerized Cast Iron
r-on
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t Tn,n ........................
tstmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-~,n.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Igr,n or ..-.-..--- .- __I Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..-h+r-on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,_ .. .--,.l t Iron. . . . . . . . .
ught Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
.... ........
............
.............
.............
: ...........
.............
:anese Bronze. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ian Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
er-nickel Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
s of Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
de Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
letai Alloys.
/ . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. LC
Fusi?
Bearing 5
Bearing Metal Practice
White ,Metal for Eng
Alloys co,
Whit
IO7 . . . . . . . . . . . .
:ine Bearings . . . . . . . . .
itaining Antimony. . . . . . . . . . . .
e-metal Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Type
Babbitt metal
Bad, Cast II..
Malleable Cas. ___._
Design of Malleab!e C;
Specific~tio=n~f,sf,~~~~~~~~-~r(
@r;
U~LY 11,~
Chemistry of Wrought Ire-.
Influence of Rolling on Wronpl
Specifications for Wro
Stay-bo., _. It. Troll. . . . . . . . . . .
.
Tenacity of Iron at High Temperatures .
Effect of Cold on Strehdh of Iron. . . . . . .
Expansion of Iror
-,----~-~
.&& 1 by Heat. . . . . . . . . . . .
Durabib,, . it.7 9f Cast Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion of Iron and Stee-
il. . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion of Iron and Steel Pipes.. . . . . .
Electrolytic Theory,. and Prevention of Corrosion .
Chrome Paints, Anti-corrc-l .
,S,Vl?
Corrosion Caused by Stray Elecl
YiC Currents. ......................
Electrolytic Corrosion due
to Overstrain. . . . . . . . . . . . .
,pr,:servative @a.tinm~ Pa.ints~ et. -;c . . . . . . .
&&~~~~, Bo@?-BarIf . etc . . . . . . . Inoxydatien J:
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solders................................
Ropes and Cables.
............
............
.... ..,.......
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
.............
............
............
............
.
Strength of Hemp, Iron, and Steel Ropes.
Rope for Hoi.sting or Transmission. .
Flat Ropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cordage, Technical Terms of . . . .~.
Splicing of Ropes.. . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . . . . .
Cargo Hoisting.. . . . . . . . . .
Working Loads for Manila Rope I . i . ,
Knots. . . . . . . . . . ~. . . .
Life of Hoisting and Transmission Rope..
EfEciency of Rope Tackies . . _ . . . . . . . . .
Splicing Wire Ropes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .
.
,.....
. . . .
5
. .
. .
. . . . .
. . . . .
.~ . . . .
. . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
............
.............
............
............
............
.: ..........
............
............
............
............
S.........<.................. Aluminum Coating
Galvanizing . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . .
!ak,.rs.Ai~ine~ Galvan!% hn C?tlmi
.... . ........................
.*.&&a yJ v .,.__ entation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I~L11.~_
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . .
..,,,ztur e of Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .>. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,cible,J%ssemer and Open Hearth Steel.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Springs.
Laminated Steel Springs. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Helical Steel Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carrying Capacity of Springs. . . . . . . . .
Elliptical Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Springs to Resist Torsional Force. . . . . .
Helical Springs for Cars, etc.
Phosphor-bronze Springs.
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
Chromium-Vanadium Spring Steel . . . . .
Test of a Vanadium Steel Spring. . .
-. _
Steel. .
Relation between Chemical and Physical Properties.
. . .. . . . . . . . . 1
Electric Conductivity
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
izg
Variation in Strength
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
material may no.longer b&-accurate
C.ONTENTS.
x v
xiv, CONTENTS.
I
Bending Tests of Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EFFect of Eeat Treatment and of Wohk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hardening Soft Steel. . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Cold. Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of Full-sized and Small Fieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recalescence of Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Critical Point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . .
Metallography . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Burning, Overheatmg, and Restormg iSteel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . .
Working Steel at a Blue Heat .................................
Oil Te.mpering and Annealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brittleness due to Long-continued He:ating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Influence of Annealing upon Magnetic Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Treatment of Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
May Carbon be Burned out of Steel 2.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Nickine a Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conical .Pem
Centrifugal uUlc.cI.
Angina, CLG:IL&y
Height due to Veiocirg
paral,e,o,7rsm of T7aI,%,,:.:....
V&city Yiue to I
Mass,
1 CLLIbIC.3 ...............
?alling a Given Height
Force of Acceleration.
. . . .
Forinuia! for Acceiers
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motion on I--:-- n
tied Mot,ion .
LLCLIII~:?I r-lanes
~vlomentutn, V&Viva
. . . . . . . . . . :
............
Work, Foot-pound.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fundamental, Equations in Dynamics.
Power. Horse-power. . . .
Energy.
.. . . . . . . . . . .I: 1: 1
.
Work of Acceleratron
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work of Accelerated Rot&&.... : : : 1 : 1 : 1
Force of a Blow.
Imnact of Bodies
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
:yofRec .lofGuns
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
------i oYEnergy. . . . . . : : : : : : : : : 1: :
,
Energ
Conse, ~i~b~o~
Sburces of E
Perpetual Motion
Efficiency of a M;
Animn!-,F?tyer, M
Man-wheel., Treat
W-L ^C ^ n ^
Horse-rm . .
ln,e.rgy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..............................................
achine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-px.G
I MlIlS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lhIitaraa.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
4 9 6
497
497
498
z
499
500
:o:
5 0 2
502
502
502
%
504
z:i
505
g
507
461
461
Specific Gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .! . . . . .
Welding of Steei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Occasional Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Segregation in Ingots and Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Endurance of Steel under Repeated Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Thermit Welding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ory-acetylene Welding and Cutting of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid-compressed Steel
Steel castings . . . .
......................................................
::::::::::::::
Crucible~Steel.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E%c: cf I%;& ua Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating and Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tempering Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rinds of Steel used for Xfferent Purposes. ......................
E&h-speed Tool Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manganese Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chrome Steel. .
Nickel Steel . . : 1.................................................................................
....
AluminumSteei...........................................::
Tungsten Steel ..
Copper Steel. .......................................
;.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-.........: ................
Nickel-Vanadium Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Static and Dynamic Properties ofStee1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strength and Fatigue Resistance of Steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chromium-Vanadium Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Treatment of alloy Steels. . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S
IF
cifications for Steel. .. . . . . . . . .
r&-strength Steel for Shipbuilding
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fire-boxSteel.. . . . . . .
Steel Rails
........................ . . . . . . . . . . :::.::::::::::::::
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
ME CHANI CS,
464'
"$5
466
"4%
469
4 6 9
470
470
The 1
The baur.
The Movir
The Toggl
,Tpe $I@
Elements o!
Lever.
~---=dve;::;::::::::::~::::
1g strut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e-oint
d
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.e Plane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
me weage
~~~ar~w.::::::::::::::::::::::
e ......................;.
-.
?ullq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I Pulley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ndlass . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I Axle. . . . . ;. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
m Gear. . . . . . . .
Stresses in Framed Structures.
.-
Cranes and Derricks. . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Shear Poles and Guys :. . . . . . . . . . . . 516
KingPostT~ssorBndge.........::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 5 1 7
Queen Post Truss
Burr Truss
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....~...... 617 .
. *. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pratt or Whrpple Truss
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..i......i.......... 5:;
MethodofMoments...::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::r: 5 1 9
Howe,Trnss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Warren Girder.. . . . . ; .
620
Roof Truss
r...........~......,............,...... ;;:-
the Eeono~~e~~ .~..~ie . . . . ..- . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $22
-*
Mechanics.
...... ..i ...
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
............
.............
............
............
............
............
............
..............
...............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
...............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
ii5
2;:
475
475
4%
477
478
479
448s:
484~
4 8 4
Thermometer!
HE AT. Q
Matter, Weight, Mass . . . . . -. . . . . _. . . -. . . -. . -. :
Force, Unit of Force
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ .........
Inertia . . . . . . . . .. Zue*ons Laws of Moiio;l
. . . . . . . . .
_. ....... . . -
..
"
......
.. .c ....... .
. . ,., .,
...
.,
Resolution of Forces.
-
........
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. .. _ _. . . . _, ..
Para!lelogiam of Force3 . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . ,I . .. . - . . . . . _ ..
Moment of a Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statical Moment, Stability. .
Stability of a Dam
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parallel Forces.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Couples
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equilibrium of Forces
_
CenterofGravitg..,.:::::::::::::.::::::.:::::::::::::
Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Centers of Oscillation and Percussion
Centerand RadiusofGyration -.-.-..~..- . . . . ..-
ThePendulum..
. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :::::1::.:::::,::::::::
s and Pyrometers. . : : . . . .
. \,
. . . . &$
.d Fahrenheit degrees compared..* : 1 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5:
yrometer . . . . . . . . . . ..;i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
rlcPpometer.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - .................
~g
............ ~5in j::~j;
r be accurate'
, he
xvi CONTENTS.
CONTENTS.
Seegers Fire-clay Pyrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wiborgh Air Pyrometer... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mesure and Nouels Pyrometer.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Uehling and Steinharts Pyrometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air-thermometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
High Temperatures judged by Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boiling-points of Substances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Melting-points
UI:itofdeilt .............................................................................................
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HeatofCombusti.on.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heltt Absorbed by Decompositron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specific Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal Capacity of Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .;. . . . . . . . .
Expansion by Heat. . . . . . . . . . . .
Absolute Temperature, Absolute Zero.
......................................................
Latent Heat of Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . .
Latent Heat of Evaporation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total Heat of Evaporation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evaporation and Drying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evaporation from Reservoirs.
Evaporation by the Multrple System ...........................................................
Resistance to Boiling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manufacture of Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solubility of Salt
,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..$ . . . . .
Salt Contents of Brines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cs;icr5itrativn of &i&j&i Soiutio.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evaporating by Exhaust Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drymg m Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Driers and Drying, ., . . . . . . . . . .
-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ueslgn of urvme An
Humid
Radiat
Black-body Radiatic
Conduction and
Rate of External Con
Heat Conduction of Insulating
Heat Resist
Steam-pipe
Transmission through Plate
Transmission in Condenser
Transmission. of Heat
Transmission through Gas
Heating, Water by St
$f;Fm!ss!on rrom A!
Cool&
Tram
zhermodyn
Reversed Carnot Cycle, Refrig
Principal Equations c
....... ~I ~_ -~~_Iparacus. . . . . . . . .
,ity Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................
ion of Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................
m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................
Convection of Heat. . .................
duction. . . . . . . . .......... .......
Materials 555,
ante, Reciprocal of Heat Cohd%<v& : l: : 1: : :I : : : : . .
Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
%Gs:::::::::::::::~:::
in Feed-water Heaters . . . . . . . . . :.... :....... :................
$-iron Plates., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
earn Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ./. . . . . . . . .
.r or Gases to Water . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . .
imission morn rlame to Water . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
<of .~ir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:mission from Steam or Hot Water to Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,amics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;ntropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
eration
)f a Perfect Gas
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
545
5%
03
551
5.51
5.52
553
554
, 556
E;
561
563
i%
565
566
567
568
569
572
573
E%
Construction of the Curve PVn=C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Temperature-Entropy Diagram of Water and Steam. . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES.
Exuansion of Gases.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Boyle and Marrlottes Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Law of Charles, Avogadros Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Saturation Point of Vapors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Law of Gaseous Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5i8
FlowofGases...;
Absorption by Liquids.
................................................................................. ;I;
Liquefaction of Gases, Liquid Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5fo
Properties of Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air-manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*
G: This isa-?$jti
. . . . . . r . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . .
,.......................%!
-.---~,-m__-___-.~*~
edition. Some of
B%:OmetiiC Piessures.
PAGE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
581
Press~reatDiffereilt.4ltitudes.........~~~~~~~............... 5 8 2
Levelmg b
To find Diil
the Barometer and by Boiling Water : : : : : : : 1: : : : : : :
erence in Altitude.
582
Moisture in Atmosphere.
.............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
582
Weight of Air and IMixtures of Air and Vapor : 1 :'.'.'.'.': : : : : : : : :584, $$
Specific Heat of Bir : . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
the material
_I----
may io.ime accurate
Flow of Air.
Flow of Air through Orifices
Flolv of Air in Pipes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effects of Bends m Pipe. ...........................................
: : 1: : : 1: 1: : : : : : :
Flow of Compressed Air.
. . . . .. .. . . . . .
..
:
. . . . . . . . . . . ;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tables of Flow of Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loss of Pressure in Pipes.
: 1
......................
Anemometer Measurements
1: 1: 1: 1: : : : : : :
%qualization of Pipes.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : . : : : : : : : : : :
Wind.
Force of the Wind . . . . . . . . wi,,d PressurP in Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ind~l~s........................:::::::::~
Capacity of Windmills.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . Economyof Windmills,.,~:~:.
...............................................................
Electric Power from Windmiffs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compressed Air.
Heating of Air by Compression. .......................
Loss of Energ- in Compressed Air
: . . . . . . .
Volumesand ressures..........::::::::::::::::::::::::::~: 6
Loss due to Heating.
Horse-power
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Required for Compressron.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Workof AdiabaticCompressionof Air....:...:::::::::::::::::
Compressed-air Engines. . ; . . . . . . . Gompound Air~compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i.
Table forAdiabaticCornpresk~dI;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Mean Effective Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mean and Terminal Pressures.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air-compression at Altitudes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Popp Compressed-air System
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Small Compressed-air Motors.
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Efficiency of Air-heating Stoves.
Efficiency of Compressed-air Transmissidn : : 1: : 1: :
. . . . . ........................................
.
ElIiciency of Compressed-air Engines. . . . . .. :
Bir-compressors
Requirementsof~o~~~;iiis.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Steam Required to Compress 1 Cu. Ft. of Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compressed air for Pumping Plants ;
Compressed air for Hoistmg Engines. .............................. ........................
Practical Results with Air Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Intake Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compressed air Motors with Return Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Intercoolers for Air-compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Centrrfugal Air-compressors.
High-pressure Centrifugal Fans.
Test of a H ..............................................................................
.-.
............
Pneumatic K
draulic Air-compressor
ostal Transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mekarski Compressed-air Tramways.
Compressed AX WorkingPumps in Mines.
....................................... z........
Compressed Ajr for Street Railways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :.
_ -
.
Centrifugal Fans . . . . . . . . . .
Fans and Blowelb
. . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I . . . . . . :. ...
Best Proportions of Fans. ..... .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressure due to Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :-
Experiments with Blowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . : . .
I _..
6 2 6
ii.
* xv111
CONTENTS.
Capacit . of Fans and Blowers.
Table oi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Centrifugal Fans, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Pressure Blowers for Cupolas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . .
Sturtevant Steel Pressure-blower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Re&tance on Capacity of Fans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sirocco Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multivane Fans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................
Methods of Testing Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Efficiency of Fans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diameter of Blast-pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Centrifugal Ventilators for .Mmes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Experiments on Mine Ventrlstors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Disk Fans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Efficiency of Disk Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Positive Rotary Blowers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam-jet B.;i,vers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Blowing Engines . . . .; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam-jet for Vemllation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HEATING AND VENTILATION.
Ventilation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . :...::. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CL....
@.mntity of Air Discharged th. _lo . . rn*l-h n Yentilatlng Dnct . . . . . . . . . .
Heating and Ventilating of Large Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standards for Calculating Heatmg Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating Value of Coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Transmission through Walk, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
tilowauce for Exposure and Leakage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,
Aeatine bv Hot-air Furnaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
-~-~~ -~~; i,
Carrymg Capacity of Air-pipes
Volume of Ah at Different Tern era
Sizes of Pipes Used in Furnace Eea
Furnace Heating with Forced Ai
SRated Caoacity of Boilers for House
....... . ................... .- ...
.tures .......................
ting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating . . . . . . _. . . . . : . . . . . .
Capacity of Grate Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam Heating, Rating of Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Testing Cast-iron Heating Boilers ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proportioning House Heating Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coefficient of Transmission in Direct Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Transmitted in Indirect Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Short R!des for Computing Radiating Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carrying Capacity of Steam Pipes in Low Pressure Heating
Proportioning Pipes to Radiating Surface. . . . . . . . . ......................
Sizes of Pipes in Steam Heating P!.ants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resistance of Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Removal of Air. Vacuum Svstems . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overhead Steam-pipes. . ~.
Steam-consumption in Car-heal
Heating a Greeahouse by Steam
Heating a Greenhouse by Hot P
Velocity of-Flow in Hot-water Heating
-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
rater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot-Water HeaAtng. .........................................
Sizes of Pipe for Hot-water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sizes of Flow and Return Piues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eeating by Hot-water, -with-Forced C:irculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Blower System of Heating and Ventilating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Plenum System. . . . . . . . . . .
stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-_
Heat Radiated from &lls in-the Blower Sy
Test of Cast-iron Heaters for Hot-blast Work
Factory Heating bv the Fan &-stem. :. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~
CONTENTS. Xix
.!. PA&
Heating by Electricity. . . . . . , . 684
hline-ventuation . . . . 685
F r i c t i o n o f Air i n U n d e r g r o u n d Pessages. 685
Equivalent Orifices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
WATER.
Expansion of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Weight of Water at Different temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,687, 688
Pressure of Water due to its Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689,690
Head Corresnonding to Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Buoyancy . . . . . . . . .. ........... 1. . . . .
Boiling-point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Freezing-point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sea-water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ice and Sno.~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specific Heat of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compressibilit of Water.
Impurities of XTater ..............................
Causes of Incrustation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Means for Preventing Incrustation. . . . .
Analyses of Boiler-scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hardness of -dater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purifying Feed-water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Soft.Tmng Hard Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................. 690
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6;;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . %
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
................. 691
................. 692
..................................
fY33
.................
................. 2::
.................. 695
Hy&&lics. Flow of Water.
.
Fornmlle for Discharge through Orifices and Weirs
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flow of Water from Orifices.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flow in Open and C!osed Channels.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Formulae for Flow.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chezys Formula. . . . . . .
Values of the Coefficient c
............................... .. ................................. . . . .
:. :. .693,
Taisle, Fall in Feet per mile, etc.
. . . .!. . .._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yalues of d; for Circular Pipes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.rcys- F o r _ _ _ _ - .
Knt.t.erS Formula.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.mtlla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
tnnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ttbm Velocities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
._ .-;ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Velocity of Water in Open Ch:
Mean Surface and Bog
Safe Bottom and Mean Yeloch
Resistance of Soil to Erosion. , .
_._.......__...........
Aikding and Transp0rtin.g Power of Water.. . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . .
Gr,ade 01
F 54ew63ra . . . . . . . . . . . .
FJow of %terin& id-in& Pipe .,..,. . . . . . . . . . . . . .._.............
Table of TTlnw nf m _ __ __ __ .ater in Circular Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707
Short Fo.,A.Y--. . . . . . . .
Flow of Water in House-servm
Flow of FV~t.er t.hrnll!
Loss of I&,.2. . . . . . . . r. .
Yalues of the Coefficient of Fr
Resistance at the Inlet of a Plot
Flow of Water in Riveted P
Coxs FL _...__- .
Exponent i al Fori ..-. - . . . :
Friction.Loss in Clean Cast-Iron P
hpproximate HydraL..- ,_ ..~~~ ;~
Compound pi es anrl Plnea w1t.h Rranche
Effect of Ben and R
HVr~~..l~ r.
-.rrnlllrn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . .
epipes............~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fh Nozzles i,;l --_-e
..............................................................
*.:
,ictron.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-.,:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ipes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
?rmllla.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
mr,lm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
llir Formula3 _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . +..r - _____ _._.... .:s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - .,
___ _ .._ Curves~. _ . . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P
,,,,.,,yra,de-litie..
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1FPineLines:
..............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..I
. . . . . . . .
IS..
. .
.:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I UI L lrU.Y Y-l
+&by Valves, etc. . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L-,.--l Dinn ~.l._ .., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . r.. . . . . . . . .
.-&ers. . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d.
,!,cil un1*yll- ...l10 ..
- ---,ms. ..... .,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,mmer
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r.,.*. ...
L&, _ _ _ ~~~
Rifled Pipes for Convevine Oi
LOP AC Drc.nc.l,?va c&l,!
Air-uoul,u ray-u. . . . .~.~., . . . . . . . . .
$-tlcal Jets . . . . ; ~ . ; . . . ~. . . ~. . . . . . . .
+-- nn,i.mroA +.h,v,,,d, M
Fire ot.r~m
Water Ha
. . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ast Heatmg.. . . .
nd Heated Chimneys:: : .: :,I : : : : ,: .: : : ,:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..a.
-~- -I-L,l....-- _- - , - .
1910 edition. Some of
CONTENTS.
CONTENTS. XXi
Price Charged for Water in Cities.. . . :. . :. . . . . . . . ,, . . . . . . . .. . . . .
PAmi
722
Hydrant Pressures required with Different Lengths and Sizes of
Hose. . .
-.FrictionLossesi;;kdsk.:::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::
Pump Inspection Table. .
Rated Capacity of Steam ~~e-en~~:::::::::.
TlleSiphon................................:::::::::::::::::
Measurement of Flowing Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Piezometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PitotTubeGauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum and Mean Velocities in Pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TheV~nturiMeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurement of Discharge by Means of Nozz1e.s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flow through, Rectangular Orifices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . .
Measurement of an Open Stream. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,, .............
Miners Inch Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . .. :. . . . . . . . . . .
Flow of Water over Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?. .
Franciss Formula for Weirs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weir Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bazins Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The cippoleti, or Trapezoidal Weir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
Water-power.
PowerofaFallofWater.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....
Horse-power of a Running Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..* . . . . .
Current Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bernouillis Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.Maximum Efficiency of a Long Conduit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mill-power. . . . . . . .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Value of Water-power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . .
Water Wheels; Turbine Wheels.
Water Wheels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proportions of Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-Tests of Turbines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dimensions of Turbines. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: . . . . :. . .
-Rating and Efficiency of Turbines. ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,Rating Table for Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turbines of 13,500 H.P. each . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Fall-increaser for Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tangential or Impulse Water Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . .
Th- Pelton Water Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Considerations in the Choice of a Tangential Wheel.
Control of Tangential Water Wheels
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . .
Tangential Water-wheel Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Amount of Water Required to Develop a given rforse-Power
.Efficienc
. . . . . .
of the Doble Nozzle
9 P
. . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water P ants 0 crating under High Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Formulae for Ca culating the Power of Jet Water Wheels . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
~.
The Power of Ocean Waves.
;:Utiliiation of Tidal Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I.
: . . . .
I
P u mp s .
E
725
725
z
727
7%
E
729
729
22
731
732
733
733
734
734
734
734
735
E
;;7
742
743
743
746
747
747
;I::
749
;z:
753
753
754
754
756
I Theoretical Capacity of a Fump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f Death of S&ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L..........................................
Lift:puml p. . . . . . . . . . .
h Pipes and
:ect-acting Pump. . . . . . .
Pumps.
Pump-passages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pump.: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
r=KJn ..:
rn~.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OughValves.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-L---r&-~..- - ~ -
. . . . . .
. . ___~ -
his is a 19' IO edition. Some
PiOE
Boiler-feed Pumas . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
762
762
;:;
763
763
76-l
E
766
768
770
2
771
772
%
775
%
z
777
778
778
I%gh&ty .Pur;;phg.En~nk ........... : 1 : : : : : : : : : 1 1
The dAuria Pumping Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . .
A 72,000,00O-Gallon Pumping Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Screw Pumping Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Finance of Pumping Engine Economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cost of Pumping 1000 Gallons per mmute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Centrifugal Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design of a Four-stage Turbine Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relation of Peripheral Speed to Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tests of De Lava1 Centrifugal Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A High-duty Centrifugal Pump. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rotary Pumps.~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tests of Centrifugal and Rotary Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Duty Trials of Pumping Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leakage Tests of Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notable High-duty Pump Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vacuum Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Pulsometer . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-..............: . .
Pumping by Compressed All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Jet Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Injector . ....
A&l~~Pg~. .c;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.::::::::::::::
eep Oil-wells..................................-.
The IIydrauiic Ram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quantity of Water Delivered by the Hydraulic Ram . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hydraulic Pressure Transmission.

Energy of Water under Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Efficiency of Apparatus.
Hydraulic Presses. ................................................................................
Hydraulic Power in London. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic Riveting Machines. . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HydraulicForging........;..: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic Engme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FUEL.
Theory of Combustion . . . . . . . .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .;. .. . . . . . . . .
Analyses of the Gases of Combustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature of the Fire. ..; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Classification of Solid Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Classification of Coals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analyses of Coals. :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . .
Caking and Non-caking Goals. .. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cannel Coals . . . . ..~...,.......~
Rhode Island Graphrtic Anthracite. .........................................................
Analysis au.d Heating Value of Coals.. . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approximate Heating Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tests of the U. S.-Geological Survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . .
Lord and Haass.Tests :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SiZeS of Anthracite c;oal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Space occupied by Anthracite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bernice Basin Pa
:. . . . . . . . . .
. . Coal.
Connellsvllle doal and Coke.
.,
................... ......
..
................. .L.. ............ . ............
Bituminous Coals of the United states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;.WestemLignites . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . ; : .. ;
AnalyslsofForeignCoals..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sampling Coal for Analyses
.... ~.:.:;;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . : .
Relative Value of Steam Coals,:
:;: . . . . .: . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calorimetric Tests of Coals.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
Purchase of Coal Under Specificatio& : : : : .: : : : 1:
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .....
Evaporative Power of Bituminous~eQals.
+.
. . . . . . . . . . 1. : ,. ., . . ., . . . . .
Weathering of Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ipressed Fuel
i.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........
. : . . . . . . . . b .... ; ........ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xxii CONTENTS : \
Soace R.enllhd for n. Water-gas Plant. .._. . -. ., . . . . 2. . . .
PAOE
sting Gas.. . . . .
R!w
%sinPipes . . . . . . . .._ ,,.._._ ..:..::.
mnc:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . .~. &i
. . . ..~..-..........__........~~
-;:a.
Coke. . . . . . .
ZEV
PAOE
.~.....~...............................~.......
iments m Cokmg.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : %i
ashing-. . . .. . . . . . . . .I.~ .~.~. . . . . . . _ . . . . . . .
Tacture . . . . . . . . . _ . . . Ei
feat and Gases from Coke-
Recovery of By-products in Coke Manu!
Generation of Steam from the Waste 1
'.ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....1
Products of the Distillation of Coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W o o d as F u e l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating Value of Wood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Composition of Wood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Charcoal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yil-ld of Charcoal from a Cord of Wood. . . . . .
Consumption of Charcoal in Blast Furnaces. .
Absorption of Water and of Gases by Charcoal
Composition of Charcoals . . . . . . . . . : ..........
Miscellaneous Solid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dust-fuel - Dust Explosions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PeatorTurf...........................~.:.
Sawdust as Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wet Tan-bark as Fuel. ....................
Straw as Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bagasse as Fuels in Sugar Manufacture. . . . . . .
SK
Liquid Fuel.
..................
............... ...
..................
..................
..................
..................
..............a ...
........ ..........
...............i ..
..................
...................
..................
Products of Distillation of Petroleum . . .
Lima Petroleum. . .,. i . . . _ . . . .
Value of Petroleum as Fuel. . . . . . . ;
Fuel Oil Burners. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil vs. Coal as Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . ~. .
Alcohol as Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specific Gravity of Ethyl Alcohol . . . . .
Vapor Pressures of Saturation of Alcohol
; i$
................_
..........P~ .....
.................
.................
..................
.................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
and other Liquids.
~ Fuel Gas.
Carbon Gas.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._.
Anthracite Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bituminous Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~..........
Water Gas. . . . .
Natural Gas in Oh~odahd%l&a : :: : : : : : : : 1: : : 1:
Natural Gas as a Fuel for Boilers.. . . . ; . . . . . . .
Producer-gas from One Ton of Coal.. . . . . . . . .
Proportions of Gas Producers and Scrubbers _ . . . . _
Combustion of Producer-gas. . . . . . . . . . . i.. . . . . .
Gas ,Producer Practice. . . .
Capacityof Producers . . . . :::::::::::::::::::::
High Temperature Required for Production of COa
The Mond Gas Producer. . . . . . . .
Relative Efficiency of Different Coals in Gas-engine
Use ,of Steam in Producers and Boiler Furnaces : . ;~
Gas Fuel for Small Furnaces. . . . . . . .~. .-. . . . .
Gas Analyses by Volume and by Weight. :. :. ; . : : _
Blast-furnace Gas. . . . . . . . . . .~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . , .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . ,.. . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
.-. . . . , .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . .
Tests. , .
i:.
. ..~ . . . .
: . . . . . . .
:.: . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
8 0 8
8 0 8
8 0 9
. 810
. . I. . .
. . . . . . 8::
. . . . . . 312
. I, . . 812
. . . ...
. . . . . . 2
. . . . . . 8ti
,
...
......... isi
. . . . . .
. . . . . . E
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
ii;
. . . . . .
. . . . . . 29
. . . . . . 819
. . . . . . 8 2 0
. . . . . . a21 .,
. . . . . . 8 2 2
. . . . . .
. . . . . . is22
. . . . . .
. . . . . . 882
. . . . . .
. . . . . . :z:
i:c. .~. _~
;. .
,,~, .,
t.2,
Acetylene. .
Acetylene and Cal&m Carbide.
Calcium carbidk . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .8 2 5
Acetylene Generators ...~.Bl...e;s : : . . . . . . . . ? . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . .
820
86
The,AcetyleneB,owpipe.... . . . . . . . . . . ..-..............827
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
), ~,
~,~b.,
,.>.; _~
.;,.:,
;.,! ,,
,~.Y.Li,.. ..Coal-ga$ . . _
Illuminating Gas. ,.~ I ._ .,
:~~~~:~~:,.:,Water-gas -.-*a . . . . . . . ,...............................i..... 8 2 8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~...~..........
:i::~.i Analyses of Water-gas and &al-gas
. . . .,....i :. d.. _. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
& -1: Caiarific Equivalents of Constituents
8;;:
~~~~;~~~EfRciencyofaWater-gasplant..
8 3 0
.....:::1:1I:::1::: 830
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
%6 edi t i on. Some oi~
STEAX
Temperature and Pressu.? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.eat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
team. . . . . _ _ _. . . . . . . _. :. ..
.---.ed Steam . . . . . . . . . . . .
Idv4ent of Heat. . . . . . . . .
team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I Steam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,m:. . . . . . . . . . . . .
T o t a l H-~-.
Latent Heat of S
Specific Heat of Saturat
The Mechanical Eq-. _
Pressure of Saturated S
Volume of Saturated ___
Volume of Superheated Stea
Snecihc Densitv of Gaseous Steam.. . . . . . .
rheated Steam. . . . : Specific Heat of Supt...-.
Regnaults Experiments.. . . . . . . . . .
Table of the Properties of Saturzted Steam .
Table of the Properties of Super;,>ated Steam.
..........
.........
.........
,.-. ......
.........
.........
.........
.........
.........
.........
.........
....... i
.. . ...... . .
.
: Flow of Steam.
Napiers Approximate Rule.. . Flow of Steam Fhrough a Nozzle .,..e.*. . . . , . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . -. . .
FlowofStzaminPines...,,.......::::::::::::::,::::::::::::
Table qf Flow of Steam in Pi z!S
Carrying Capacity of Extra
.......... .,......_._
HPeavJ Steam Pip
..........
es.
Flow of Steam in Long Pipes, Le ouxs Formufa
................
Resistance to Flow b
.I--~ . ...........
Bends, Val,ves, etc
Size3 of Steam-pipes or Stationary Eng K
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:. _ . .
ines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ .
Sizes of Steam-pipes for Marine Engines.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pmportioning Pipes for Minimum Loss b
Available Max .num Efficiency of Expaa
Radis#Jon and Friction. .
J .^.
(ea steam. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam-pipes.
F
Bursting-tests of Copper Steam-pipes. . . _ . . . . . . . . . . .
Failure of a Copper Steam-pipe. . . .
I I . - - . . - _. __ Wire*oundSteam-pipes........:.::::?:::::::.:::
Materials for Materials for Pipes and Valves for Superheated Steam
Riveted Steel
Vrflves in
Steam-pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~. .
Steam-pipes.
The Steam
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loop... . _ . .,. . . . . . . . . . :. :. . . . . . . . _
Loss from an Uncovered . . . . . . . . _ . ;
Condensation in an
Steam-pipe.
Steam Receivers
Underground Pipe Line.. . . . . . . . .
in Pipe Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . .
Equation of Pipes. . . . . . . . . .
Identification of PowerHouse Pip& by&ion..: : : :
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
- THE STEAM-BOI LER.
TheHorse-power of a Steam-boiler . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . ... . . _. . __ _ .
Measures for Comparing the Duty of Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam-boiler Proportions. . . . . _ .... I - _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UnitofEvaporation _........................-
Heating-surface
. . -)- .._ . . . . . . _
.
Horse-power;Buiid~~..;iati;;g::::~::::.::::::::I::I::::::::: I.
Grate-surface. . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Areasof Flues . . . . . . . . .. .: .
Air-passages-Through Grate-bars.
..
. ::.
.PerformanceofBoilers ..::.
......
...........
..................
......
_
........
.. ........ . . . . . . . .
_
i..
Conditions which Secure Economy
. .._ :1..:,.!:::: 1
_. . . . . . : :
Air Leakage in Boiler Settings.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
EfficiencyofaBoiler
. . . . . . . . . . . . _.. . . .
. .... .............
.................
:.
.I
AutographicCOaRecorders ._.,
............. c
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. :?::I::::::::::
Relation of Effictency to Rate of DiSvfng, Air Supply, etc
, TestsofSteam-boilers
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;..-- . . . . . ...~..-....- ..
t material may no.longer be accurate
8 4 4
8 4 4
,845
gig
8 4 8
E
.849
8 5 0
x x i v
CONTENTS.
Boilers at the Centennia! Exhibition. . . . . . ~. . . * . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum Boiler E
--------7
ciency wrth Cumberland Coal
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_... --.~. _
z
n1er.s Using Waste Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~~~ rles for Conducting Boiler Tests. . . . . . . . . _ . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Balance in Boiler Tests: . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table of F:.&ors of Evaporatron . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strength of Steam-boilers.
Rules for Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
sneii-piate Form&e ........................... i .............
iX&
Rules for Flat, Plates. .......................................
Furnace Formuhe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
giy
Material for Stays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loads allowed on Stays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii$
Girders
Tube plates.
.........................................................................................
......... .e
gi$
Material for Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Holding Power of Boiler Tubes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ifi
Iron rerms Steel Boiler Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . .
Rules for Construction of Boilers in Merchant Vessels m U. S. . . . . .
iii
Safe-working Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flat-stayed Surfaces.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
gii
Diameter of Stay-bolts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strength of Stays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . .
@
Boiler Attachments, Furnaces, etc. -
Fusible Plugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam Domes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ig3
Height of Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88g
Mechanical Stokers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Hawley Down-draught Furnace. .,
Under-feed Stokers . . . . . . . . ............................................
................
f%&
890
Smoke Prevention.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Burning Illinois Coal without Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
233;
Conditions of Smoke Prevention
Forced Combustion. .
................... ............................
,
.......................
:.
;;;
Fuel Economizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal Storage
894.
. . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Incrustation and Corrosion. .. _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83;
Boiler-scale Corn
B
ounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
Removal of Har Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
Corrosion in Marine Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
Use of Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
Effect of Deposit on Flues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
Dangerous Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 901
Safety-valves.
Rules for Area of Safety-valves. .... :. ........................ 902
Spring-loaded Safety-valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
The Injeitor.
Equation of the Injector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
Performance of Injectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
Boiler-feeding Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~......i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
Feed-water Heaters.
Percentage of Saving Due to Use of Heaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..
Strains Caused by Co!d Feed-water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.i!X&
Calrulation of Surface of Heaters and Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
~Open vs. Closed Feed-water Heaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
, <S, ;,:rPd.
S t e a m *Separators. :.
.:~~:~~.,.:.-Efficiency-of Steam Separators . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . :, . . , . . . . . . . . . . 911
CONTENTS,
t
Determination of Moisture2 in Steam.
Steam Calorimeters
PAGE . ,
GoilCa,orimeter ,..:.::: ~~~~~~~~~................. 92; ,
Throttling Calorimeters. . . . . . . . . : : : : : 1: : : 1: 1: : : : : 1: : : 1: : : : : :
Separating Calorimeters. . . . . . _ . . .
918
Identification of Dry Steam . . . . . . . . . *. . . . . . . . . . .
UsualAmountofMoistureiratkj;i;.::::::::::::::::::::::::::
i:i
915
Chimneys.
Chimney ~Draught Theory . . . . . . . . . . .-. .-. . . . . . . . . .
Force or Intensity of Draught. . . . . . . . . . . .
Rate of Combustion Due to B
:eight of Chimney. .
Wigh Chimneys not iu--------
Height of Chimneys 1
Protection, of Chit
Fe$gg grdr ~&r&t k&: : :
nney from, Lightning. . . . . . . . . .
pb& ,g &ge ,of @IFineys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stabilit
111 JSrlC!f Chimneys. . .
y, of Chimneys
..:. . . . . . . . . . < . . . . .
Steel Cnimney:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
s.....
Reinforced Concrete
Sheet-in
chGn;ys. . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . .
)nChimneys . . . . . . . . . . ..~.......::::::::
. THE STEAM ENGINE.
,......._~_...
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
Expansipn of Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mean and Terminal Absolute Pressures.
Calculation of Mean Effective Pressure. .............. : : : : : 1: : : : : 1: : : 1 :
Mechanical Energy of Steam Expanded Adiabatically
Measures for Comparing the Duty of Engines.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Efliciency, Thermal Units per Minute
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Real Ratio of Expansion.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : :
. . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Corn ression..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clearance in Ip
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ow- and High:-speed Engmes .............................................
Cvlinder-condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water-consumption of Automatic Cut-off Engines. ....................................
Experi.ments on Cylinder-condensarion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indicator Diagrams ErrorsofIlidicators: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pendulum IndicatorRig.;~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
The Manograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Lea Continuous Recorder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indicated Horse-power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rules for Estimating Horse-power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
Horse-power Constants.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..* . . . . . .
Tableof Engine Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
To Draw Clearance on Indicator-diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
To Draw Hy erbola Curve on Indicator-diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theoretical 46ater Consumption.
LeakageofSteam:...........,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .\
Cor&ound Engines.
Advantages of Compounding.. . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . .
Woolf and Receiver Types of Engines.. . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combined Diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . e. _
Proportions of Cylinders in Compound Engines.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Receiver Space . . . . . . . . ; , . . . . : . . . :. . . . . . . . . . .~. . . . . .
Formula for Calculating Work of Steam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
calculation of Diameters .of Cylinders . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . .: .
znsion Eng i ne s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.E of Cvlinders. .
.-
. . .
: crylhici&s.:.. : : : : : ~: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
. . . . . ~....:::.~::,:::_::::r::\:::i~
Engines
rrough Passages.
e-expansion Engine.
.........................
:.;
........... .....
:
ie-expansion -Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
he mate61 maTno' l%?$%e accurate "
' . ,
Ei
931
933
933
E
935
936
936
937
337
938
939
939
939
940
940
940
941
942
E
9::
Piston-rod Guid
The Connecting
$?gzed @nn
pi ~. 71 -
Piston Pzscking-rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -:. . . .
Fit of Pi!ston-rod . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . .
tiiy
Diameter of Piston-rods . . . . . ._ . . . . . . - _ .. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . 1002
es.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-. . . . 1.002
-rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
rcting-rod Ends . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . ,_ __ .. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . 1005
ecting-rods.. . . . .._: -.-_- :.~. ... ..- -..- .--- -. . . . . . . 1~005
tie I;ran4c-pin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -~. ... 1005
... @rossbead-tin or Wrist-Din . . . . . . . . ..--. ..... .:.-_ .-:.;+-:. ..-.-. 1,009
CONTENTS.
Steakeixgine Economy.
._
PAGE
. Economic performance of Steam-engineS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q57
Feed-water Consum
s
tion of Different Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sizes and Calculate Performances of Ver@al IXigh3peed Engine.
igi
The Wiilans Law, Steam mnSUm
Relative Economy of Engines un8
tion at Dltferent Loads . . . . . . . . . 962
er Variable Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam consumption of Various Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;;;
Steam Consumption in Small Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam Consumption at Various Speeds. . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
%;
Capacity and Economy of Steam fiFe Engmes
. . . . . . . . . .
_
Economy Tests of High-speed Engmes
...............................
:
;;;
Limitation of Engine Speed . . . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
British High-speed Engmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advantage of High Initial and Low-back Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99;;
Compz.rison of Compound and Single-cylinder Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . 968
Two-cylinder and Three-cylinder Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Lentz Compound Engine.
._
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . .
)X%;
Steam Consumption of Different Types of Engine . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . 969
- S&am Consumption bf Engines with Superheated Steam . . . . . . . . . _ :
Efliciency of Non-condensing Compound Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;$
Economy of Engngiaes under Varying Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . .
Effect of Water in Steam on Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9;;
Influence of Vacuum and Superbeat on Steam Consumption. . . . . . 972
Practical Application of Superheated Steam . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
Performance of a Quadruple Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
influence of the Steam-jacket
:. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
z$z
Best Economy of the Pipt,on Steam Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
Highest Economy of Pumping-engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sulphur-dioxide Addendum ~to Steam:eng@e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;;i
Standard Dimensions of Direct-connected Generator Sets . . . . . . . . ,979
Dimensions of Parts of-Large Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ::. 979.
Large Rolling-mill Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
Counterbalancing Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preventing Vibrations of Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
!33;
Foundations Embedded in Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
Most Economical Point of Cut-off . . . . . . . . . :_ . . . . . . _I_ ;. . . . . . . . . . . 9 8 1
Type of Engine used when Exhaust-steam is used.for JXeating . . . . .981
Cost of Stream-power .......................
Cost of Coal for Steam-power ......................................... ., :.
.981, %3;
. ....
Relative Commercial Economy of Compound and Triple-expansion
Engines . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
Power-plant Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economy of Combination of Gas Engines .arrd Turbines,. . . . . . . . . .
;Jz
Analysis of Operating Costs of Power-plants. . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Storing Steam Heat in Hot Water. . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ig
@i;ilizmg the Suns Heat as a Source i3t Power .. :. ..........
Rules for Conducting Steam-engine Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93~
.~.
Dimensions of Parts of Engines.
Cvlinder _ _ . . _ . . . . . . .. . .~. - .- _ - _ _.__ .- _ _- . . . . . . . . . . . 996
erearanceofPiston.........l.........:...................... 9 9 6
Thickness of Cylinder . . . . . . . ..-.. _ _.-_ _ - .._-. .-. . . . . . . ..-.. . QQ?
Cylinder Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. .
~~~~~~~:,~qlts:..;....:::::::::,::::::,:::::::::~:.::::::~::::: %i
999
e Cranklarm . . . . - ,...................... ....... . . . . -... Hi+09
! Shaft, Twisting Resistance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..,. :-....~. . . .- 1OlQ _,
-e_ ..~. __*-
NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some
CONTENTS. xxV;i
Resistance to Bending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equial~t Twisting Momer;t.
Fly-wheel Shafts . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LengthofShaft-bear~~~~::::::::::I:::::::::::::::::::::
Crank-shafts with Center-crank andDoubie-crank Arms
Crank-shaft with two Cranks Coupled at 90.
.......... .I
Crank-shaft
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
with three Cranks at 120. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Valve-stem or Valve-rod.
SizeofSlot-link..
.........................................
TbeEccentric.............
:::-::.
: : : : : : : : : : : :
.. . . . . . . . . . . ..
The Eccentric-rod
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reversing-gear. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current Practice in Engine Proportions, 1897.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current Practice in Steam-engine Design, lO%
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shafts and Bearings of Erigines
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
., . . s: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculating the Dimensions of Bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Engine-frames or Bed-plates.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . .
PAG?I
1012
:E
:::5
1018
1019
1019
1020
:%
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
Fly-wheels.
Weieht of F!y-PrheP!s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* Weght of Flv-wheels for A!ternating&nrreGt Units.
Centrifugal l?orce in
.................................
1026
102%
Fl
8
-wheels. ,.:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . 1029
Diameters for Various peeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
Strains in th Rims
8,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Arms of F!y-w..ee! s and Pu!!eys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ . . . .
Thickneds of Rims
1032
. . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
A Wooden Rim Fly-wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . 1033
Wire-wound Fly-wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034
The Slide-valve.
)efinitions,LaB,Lead,e4~..~:: ,::::::::::::::: ::::: :::: :::::::::
iweets Valve lagram
he Zeuner Valve-diagram . . . . . . ,. ; . . . . . . ~_ . . . .
?ort Opening, Lead, and Inside Lead . : . . _, _
Crank Angles for Connecting-rods of Different Lengths . . _
Ratio of Lap and of Port-opening to Valve-travel. . . _
Relative Motions of Crosshead and Crank. . _ . .
Deriods of Admission or Cut-off for Various Laps and Travels.. . . .
+&ton-valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . .
SettingtheValvesofanEngine _............._. _____.._...._.:
To
Lint-motion . . . . , .
utanEngineonitsCenter..._........ . . . . . . . ._..__.......
. .
The Waischaert Valve-gear~:.:::::::::::::::::.~:::::::::.~.~:::::
1034
g;
it
1040
1041
Ez
:E
1043
1044
1046
Governors.
,.
Pendulum or Fl
$7
-ball Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .L . . . . . . . . . 104?
To Change the peed of an Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
Ply-wheel or Shaft Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: 1048
The Rites Inertia Governor. . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- .. 1048
Cakulation.of Springs for Shltft-gOVeiilOrS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iO48
Condenser& Air-bumps, Circula&g-pixmps, ktc.
r&r-- T_. A-...,.---- -,
Lne ljonaenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..:... .~... . . .
nserTubes.. . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :.i.?:.; . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l..~.. . . . . . .
the material may nolonger b e accurate~
. . .
xxv111 CONTENTS.
PAOE
Four-cyclt and Two-cycle Gas-engines . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperatures and Pressures Developed
Calculation of the Power of Gas-engmes ..............
_
..............................
Pressures and Temperatures at End of Compression. . . . . . . . . . .
Pressures a?d Temperature at Release
after Combustion. .......................................
Mean Effective Pressures
Sizes of Large Gas-engines
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Engine Constants for Gas-engines
,
Rated Capacity of Automobile En&&s : : : ......... :...... : .: :: :: :: : 1 :
Estimate of the Horse-power of a Gas-engine.
Oil and Gasoline Engines
;:. . :
The Diesel Oil Engine.
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......
. ...... .
....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TheDeLaVergneOllEnglne..
AlcoholEngines..
Ignition
.............................. :::::::::::::::::::::
.
Timing ....... ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~~~~:~~:
Governing.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas and Oil Engine Troubles
..~, . . .
Conditionsof MaximumEffic~e;;cL:::::::::::::::::::::::::,::.:
Heat Losses in the Gas-engine. . . .
Economical Performance of Gas-engines : : : : : : : : 1: : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Htilizatlon of Waste Heat from Gas-engines
Rules for~conducting Tests of Gas and Oil Engines: : 1.:: : : : : : 1 I.
I
I
The Westinghouse Double-fl
Mechanical Theory of the Stea
B
Velocit
Speed of the Bi
Comparisrn o f Impulse and Reacti
Loss due ? Yndag
Effi ci ency he Machii
Steam Consumption_of Tur
The Largest 8
Botary Steam Engines-Steam Turbines.
Rotary Steam Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impulse and Reaction Turbines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The DeLaval Turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TheZolleyorRateauTurbine.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Parsons 'iurbine . . . . . .
,d~~u;blI;;!.~:::::::::::::::::::::
m Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ieat -Theory of the Steam Turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,y of Steam in Nozzles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,ades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
on Turbines ..;. . . . . . . . . . ., . . . .
:e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:bines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iteam Turbine. . . . . . . .
Steam Consumption of Small Steam Turbines : : : : : : : : : 1: : : : : : :
Low-pressure Steam Turbines. . . . . . . .
Tests of a 15,000 K.W. Steam-engine 1 urbine D&t . . : : 1: : : 1: : : :
Reduction Gear for Steam Turbines.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
%%
1062
1062
:Ei
1063
1064
I965
1066
1066
1066
:i%
:EE
%I:
1071
Naphtha Engines-Hot-air Engines.
Naphtha Engines . . . . . . . 1071 -
Hot-airorCaloricEngineS::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 1071
Test of a Hot-air Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Internal Combustion Engines.
E
:;;i
1975 .
1075
1076
1076
1077
:o;:: - 1077
::7:
1078
1678 F
1079
1079
5%
1080
1080
1081
,108l
IS I& a -19~5 edition.
Some
--
of
Air-pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Area through Valve-seats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Leblanc Condenser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circulating-pum
Feed-pumps for %I
...... . . . . . . . .
arme Engines.
I~.
........................................................
An Evaporative Surface Condenser
Continuous Use of Conderising Water. ...................................................
Increase of Power by Condensers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advantage of High Vacuum in Reciprocating Engines. . . . . . . . .
TheChoiceofaCondenser.= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cooiing Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tests of a Cooling Tower and Condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evaporators and .Distillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;
1055
Et
E::
1057
%
1059
1059
1060
::::
CONT E NT S .
LtiCOMOTIVES.
ResistanceofTrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resistance of Electric Railway Cars and Trains
. . . . . . . . . ; . . . . .
Efficiency of the Mechanism of a Locomotive.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adhesion, .................................................
Tractive Force ..... .. .:.
Size of Locomotive Cyhnders.
...................................................................
Horse-power of a Locomotive.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Size of Locomotive Boilers.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Woottens Locomotive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grate-surface, Smokestacks, and Exhaust-nozzles
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fire-brick Arches
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economy of High Pressures
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leading American Types :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Classification of Locomotives.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam Distribution for High Speed.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Formulae for Curves.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speed of Railway Trams . . . .
Performance of a High-speed
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Locomot:ve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Efficiency of American Loc@motives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lccomotive Link-motion . . .., . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dimensions of Some American Locomotives.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mallet Compound Locomotive.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:ndicatecl Water Cor?:umpt.ion . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indicatoffests of a Locomotive at High-speed
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Locomotive Testing Apparatus :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weights and Prices of Locomotives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Waste of fuel in Locomotives.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advantages of Compounding.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .? . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Depreciation of Locomotives. .. :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Average Train Loads. . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .
Tractlve Force of Locomotives, 1893 and 1905
......................................
Superheating in Locomotives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Counterbalancing Locomotives.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Narrow-gaugeRailways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Petroleum-burning Locomotives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fireless Locomotives.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-propelled Railway Cars.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compressed-air Locomotives. . . . . .. :.
Air Locomotives with Compound Cyhnders
............................................
SHAFTISG.
Diameters to Resist Torsional Strain
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . .
Deilection of Shafting
. . . . . . . . . . l.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horse-nowe; Transmitted by Shartmg.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . .
Flange Conpiings . . . . . . . . .I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ElTect of Cold Rolling
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hollow Shafts. :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sizes of Collars for Shaftmg: . I :.
Table for Laymg ,?ut Shaftmg.
............................... .............................
.PULLEYS.
Proportionsof Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..: . . . . . . . . . . . :.
Convexity of Pulleys.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,. . . . . . . . . . . .
ConeorStepPulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . - . . . . .
Burmesters Met,hod for Cone Pulleys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speeds of Shafts with Co-e ~Pulleys ., . . . . . ::~: :,. . . . . . . . . . . _. .
Speeds in Geometrical F:ogresston I.. . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~.
,~ ,. :_ i-
BELTI NG.
Theory of Belts and Bands : . . : . . . . . . . .,. . . .;! . :. . . . . . . .I;. . . . .
Centrifugal Tension.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Belting Practice, Formulae for Beltmg. . . . . . . . , . . . . . .!. -. . . . . . . . .
,. Horse-powerofaBeltonelnchwide.... . . . . . .J,....,....q--l..O+
le material may nolonger be accurate -
.-
A. F. Nagles Formula.
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Width of BeIt for Given Horse-power. . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. . .
Belt Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
&&rs Rules for Bdtl~g . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bashs &i<s Q P. Beltmg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notes on Beltmg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lacing of Belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Setting a Belt on Quarter-twist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
To Find the Len
7
th of Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
To Find the Ang e of t.he Arc of Cont.act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . .
To Find the Length of Belt when Closely Rolled. . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . .
To Find the Approximate Weight of Belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relations of the Size and Speeds of Driving and Driven Pulleys
Evils of Tight Belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sag of Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arrangements of Belts and Pulleys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Care of Belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
StrengthofBelting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adhesion, Independent o:! Diameter
.Endless Belts. ;.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Belt Data
Bett Dressing.
.............................................................................................
Cement for C!Ct.hGiLC5GXi .................................
Rubber Beitliig ............................................
SteeI Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roller Chain and Sprocket Drives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Belting versus Chain Drives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A 350 H.P. Silent Chain Drive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GEAXING.
Piteh, Pitch-circle, etc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diametral and Circular Pitch.. . ~.....~~....
Diameter of Pitch-line of Wheels f&m yO.toi66 Teeth: I.-:: ::I .,
Chordal Pitch . . _ . PFoportions of Teeth::I. .I .f I.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. . . . . .:.. . I . . . .
Gears with Short Teeth ..*. .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~.
Formulrefor Dimensionsofi;eeti;.:.::::::::::::::::I::::::::
Width of Teeth.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._ ..~__ _..__ _.
Proportion of Gear-wheels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,
Rules for Calculating the Speed of Gears and Pulleys.
. . . . . . . . . . .
Milling Cutters for Interchangeable Gears
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forms of the Teeth.
The Cycloidal Tooth
,
The Involute Tooth
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: . . . . .
Approximation by Circular Arcs.
Stepped Gears
...............................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TwistedTeeth..
S irai Gears .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
$ ~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::I::::::::::]:::
orm Gearin
The Hindley orm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Teeth of Bevel-wheels
Annular and Differential ~e~~r;g::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::
E@c!ency of Gearing.
.....
Effic!ency of WormGearing.
Efficrency of Automobile
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:.
Gears
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . ;.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t ,i
,: Strength of Gear Teeth.
..I ................. 1148
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150
.I..... ~.~.~.... ,...
EC
::::::::::::::::::,~:,~,I353
~),~ . . . . . . . i.....?..~),
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ W -.
-.. 2
edition. Some of t
. . .
I., .,
Power Transmitted by Friction Drives.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Friction Clutches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coil Friction Clutches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HOISTING AND CONVEYING.
Workin Strength of Blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chain-b ocks 7 ...........
Efficiency of Holstmg Tackle.
........................................ ......
.. ,, ......................
Proportions of Hooks. ........
..~............................
Iron versus Steel Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heavy Crane Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
!
trength of Hooks and Shackles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ower of Hoisting Engines. . . .
Elfeet of Slack Rope on Strain in Hoisting.
................................................
Limit of Depth for Hoisting
LargeXoistmgRecords..
.....................................................................
Pneirmatic Eoisting . . . . ..>
Counterbalancing of WLdmg-engines
.............................................................
.
Cranes.
&lassification of Cranes
.
. . . . . . . . . . ....
Position of the Inclined Brace in a Jib Crane.
.........................................
Electri Overhead Traveling Cranes
4%
.. ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Power equired to Drive Cranes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dhirensions, Loads and Speeds of Electric &arms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Notable Crane Installations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electric rersas H draullc Cranes
6
. . i ;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A1504onPlllar rane
. . . . . . . .
i
Compressed-air Travelmg Cranes ..........
....... :. ....................................................
Power Required for Traveling Cranes and Hoists
..
~~~h~~e~ets ..........................................................................................
: Coai-handtig Machinery.
W&ght of Overhead Bins . . .;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
Supply-pi es from Bins.
e,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tspes. of
al Elevators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combmed Elevators and Conveyors
...........................
Coal Conveyors. ..
.........................................
3orse:power of Conveyors... .,
Weight of Chain and of Fhghts
.:.
............................
.........................
:......
Bucket, Screw. and Belt Conveyors
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0s acity of Belt Conveyors.
Bept Conveyor Construction.
...............................................................
.
i
Horse.power to Drive.Belt Conveyors. .I.. . . . . .
. ::. . . . . . . . . . . .
Reiitive Wearing Power of Conveyor Belts.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Wire-i&e itaulage. .~
. . . . . . . . . . : .
&&actmg.I*&md Plane.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
&npleEnglnePlane.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,.........-
.
%l.ropeSystem . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~..~. . . . . . . .
EndlessRo
Tr
System.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i..
.
--I1.:I:~:
. . . . . . . . . . .
Wire-rope. ramways..
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Shss in Hoisting-ropes on Incbned Planes
.................................
;...a,
.........
AnAerialTramway.2.1mileslong..
.Fonnul~forDeaeCtionofaWireCable..
. . . . . . .
....
;...:.i:
. .
..,: ..;.
........................
::.
Suspe~ionCablewaysand~l~Ho~sts~...:~..~~..~~..~.....~..~
Temdon Required to Prevent Wire Slippmg on Drums.
....
i
- Taper Ropes of Uniform Tensile Strength . . ; ;-f;.;;. : .; . . .;
.....
:: ~, ...
j . . : . . : WIMM&E Tl . &. NSMI S@k . .. I,
Ropes.....-:...:.:;......;..; .., . . . . . .
.; ...
. . . . . . . . . ;.;..1.;.;.:, . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 1: z;..~ ...... i . . . . . . . . . .
material may nolonger be accurate
. . .
CONTENTS. xxxlll
: Friction Brak& and Friction Clutches.
Friction Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Friction Clutches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MagneticandElectricBrakes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design of Band Brakes. .. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Friction of Hydraulic Plunger Packing....................
Lubrication.
Durability of Lubricants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Qualiiications of Lu.bricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examination of Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specifications for Petroleum Lubricants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Penna. R. R. Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grease Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Testing Oil for Steam Turbmes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
QuantityofOiltorunanEngine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cylinder Lubrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Soda Mixture for Machine Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water as a Lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Achesons Deflocculated Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* SolidLubricants.. . . . . . . . . ;.-
Graphite, Soapstone, Metalme. .......
.
......................................................
Yxxxii CONTENTS.
PAQC
::si
1186
1187
1187
:::i
1188
8%
1191
K%
ii93
1194
Bending Stresses of Wire Ropes. .. :
Horse-power Transmitted.
.... . ..I . .
. . . . . ;. . . . . . . . .
Diameters of Minimum Sheaves . . . . . . . . . . .
DeflectionsoftheRope
5$&s of span
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . ..:
Long-distance Transmission
Inclined Transmissions ................................. . : : : : : : : : :
Bending Curvature of Wie Ropes. . . . . . . . .
.........
.........
.........
.........
.........
.........
.........
.........
........
.........
... . ....
........
........
........
........
........
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
ROPE DRIVING.
Form&e for Rope Driving. . . . . ._. . . . . . . . . . .
Horse-power of Transmission at Various Speeds
Sag of the Rope between Pulleys _ . . . . . . . . . .
Tension on the Slack Part of the Roue. . . . . . . .
Data of Manila-Transm&ion Rqpe. . . . . . . . . . .
Misceflarieous Notes on Rope-driving. . . . . . . . .
Cotton Rope!3.....% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
. . .
.
. . . .
.
. . .
. . .
.......
.......
.......
.......
,..~ ..-
.......
.......
FRICTION AND LZiBRI&%TiON.
ient of Friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n of Solids.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fpest... . .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
?riction . . . . . . . . . . . .
: onRails . . . . . . . . . . .
Laws of Umuoncatea k
Friction of Tires Sliding
Coefficient of Rolling Friction. . . . . . . . . . . .
Laws of Fluid Friction . .
Angles of Re
. . . . . . . . j . . . . . . . . .
ose of Building Materials.. . .
Coefficient of- ,vction of Journals. . . . . . . . . . E. .
l....................... Friction of Motior
Experiments on Friction of a Joume
\ Coefftcients of Friction of Journal
Coefficients of Friction of M
Value of An
.
. . .
. . . .
. . . . .
,.....
. . . .
. .
. .
. . .
. .
.
THE FO-?J NDRY.
.
Practice. . . . . :-......~..........:...G
,,,acity of Drgerent Cupolas
.........................................
tilralg;lug a Cupola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Imorovement of Cu&$ mp;aciiCe.m: : 1 . . . . . _, . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Charges in Stove Foundries. :;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foundry Blower Practice :
Results of Increased Drivmg
....................................................................
Power R.nmir.4 for a Cupola Fan.
~$&&~~~f &,&
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-7
Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loss of Iron in Mel ... tmg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ear Julcaners
gL -* ;.___
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
---=-tss of Large Castings : yu,s
%%lt
ge of Castings. . . . . .
............................
:. .' ..................................
,zf Cast Iron by Heating.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hard Irun uurj uX A-- +o Excessive Sdicon.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferro Alloys for _ =. Foundry Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dangerous Ferro--1, .,-icon
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,I - ~,%,rn
Quality of Fcuno.
.~.__ . . . . . . . . . . .
.Cast,ings made in $eyr%ient
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cast-iron Mold
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weight of &n+inoa frnm Woivht. nf Pdt,ctl
.. uu.~u I..ZS .. --=e- __ _ -__. :n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. n
EI%F
;dand.. . . . . . . . . . . :,..: . ..!. . . . . . . . . . . :, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v Ladles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cast-iron for Bear
Friction of M--
Morins Laws of E
Laws of Friction of well-lubrical
Allowable Pressur
kl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
with Oil Bath. . . . . . . .
rotion and of Rest
tizfriction Metals.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
mgs . . .
e&al Under Steam-pressure.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: : : i : : : ! :
rrktio.n .. 1. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:ed Journals.
us ou Bearing-surface.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil-pressure in a Bearmg . . _ .............. . . . . . . .
Friction of Car-journal Brasses............ . . . :.
Experiments on Overheating of Bearings. ; . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moment of Friction and Work of Friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1205
Tests of Large Shaft Bear@g
1205
3 . . . . . . . . .
Clearance between Jour
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
nal and Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . .~:. . . . . . . . . .
Allowable Pressures on orarmgs
1206
n_--:--_
P.........................~ . . . .
Bearing Pressures for Heavy Intermittent Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
X%6
Bearings for Very High Rotative Speed :: .,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1207
1208
Thrust Bearings m Marine Practice.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208
. Bearings for Locomoi
T:. Bearings of Corhss Eng
......
.. .1197, ::99
. . . . . . 1198
. . . . . .
. . . . . . ::9El
. 1200
. . . . . .
. . . . . . :z
. . . . . . 1203
. . . . . .
. . . . . . Et:
:~
Temperature of Engine Bearings
.I ~%:Pivot Bearings
.,,t.r ~: ,-The S&i& -
.;, .Friction of a Fla
.,- :Mercury-bath Pivot . .~.
,: ~~:_~ Ball Bearings, R
:.$ ; Friction Rollers
tivfzeb. ...................... i ......... :. X208
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208
3
i ............... ............................................................
y3;
Cxn-ve........................................... 1209
t Pivot-hearing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.;;m;
oller Bearmgs,etc...: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,1210
-:. .... .-' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1210
krmgs .................. ..h.......
Searing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :2::
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1212
:e of Ball Bearings . ; ~.:: ; . : . : . . . . . . . . . . . 1214
jearings
#I----
i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1214
nes. . C. . . . . . . . . . .,...~. ..... :. . . . . . . . . ........ 1215
^I-- -* -fries. . : . . . . . . . . . . . . .: ;~. . . . . . . ;, ~.1215
. . .
. . .
.*.
. . .
. . .
. . .
,. . .
. . .
IU 1 l!d.lg
is a 191 edition. Some of t
- ., .,
I
THE MACHINE SHOP.
Speed of Cutting Tools. . .
Table of Cutting Speeds. .
.Spindle S eeds of Lathes ,.
Rule for eearing Lathes. .
,Change-gears for Lathes . .
Quick Change Gears.. . . I
Metric Screw-threads . . - .
ColdCbisels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :......-..
. . . 2
t.he Tn.wr m a T&he. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
.*
........ .; ..... ....................
....................................
...................................
........
.... ........................
........................... . .......
........:. ...........:. ...... .........
................
....................
---. -~
Settmg ___
Taylors Ex~;&&~;A:-~,-~ StW?l
Proper Sha e of Lath
Forging ana
Best Grinding Wheel for Tc
___. l...........~.. . . . . . . . . . . .
.L.
,-.. - - - -
,c~_l 2,:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _
~G~~m~T~~~~~s::j.......::~:.l.:!~,~:::i::::::,:::: ,:
. . . .
a...
.
Chatter . . . . Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :.......-...~....
. . . ..C...............
. . . . . . . . . . . .:...... *..
. . . . .~. .,. ,,,~.,( ,...I F,, ,
material may no-longer be a&k&
CONTENTS.
xxxiv CONTENTS..
DYNAMOXEXERS.
PA
F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1:
~onv.Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1:
meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l&&brakes. ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ez: .!
T&&m-&ion Dynamometers.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1282
I CE MAKI NG, OR REFBXGERATING MACHLWS.
Operations of aRefrigerating-.Machine . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressures, etc., of Available L%
s
ulds . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Properties of Ammonia and Su phur Dloxlde Gas
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Snlllhility of Ammoma,
.....................................
e4 nf Sat,urated Vauors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12t
-------:
Proper&- _ _ ___-.-.
Heat Generated by Absorp^tion of
Cooling Effect. Comoressor
I:
1288 Ammonia . . . . . . . .
different (
__-. -- ._~~~ ~~
Volume and Poweir Required. with
$oolinf Agents ......... .. ., . . . . . . . . .
IL~PPF M~a.n W.ffective, and Vaporuer Pressures. ................
Refrlgeratmg Effect. . . . . . . . . .
b~fddri~m Solution. ................................
Best High Sped Toot Stee! - @eat Treatment.
Best Metho of Treatmg Tools, m Small Shops.
.... .
., _
...
. ..
Quality of Different Tool Steels. . . . _ .. . .......... ., .__ . .
Parting and Thread Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Durability of Cutting Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I$conomical Cutting Speeds . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
New High Speed Steeis, 1909. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use of a Magzt to Determine Hardening Temperature
Case-hardening, Cementation Harveyizing
Change of Shape due to Hardening and Tempering.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.* . . . . . . .
. . . . - . . . .
. . . . i . . . .
. . L . . . . . .
. . . : . . . . . .
/... e...l243
. . . . . . . 1.
. . . . . . . .
. . . . ., . . _.
. . . . L I L . .,
Mw CutteE i. .................................... . *
Teeth of Milling Ctitters
.........
Keywa
_
s in Milling Cut
Power ii
.;tbrs
eauired for Milling
...........................................................................
:. . . . . . . . . . .
Extreme Results with Milling Machines
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
Speed of Cutters ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T ical Milling Jb~~ :
....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,
M%ng with or against Feed
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modern Milling Practice
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lub~cant for Mil,in .~t . . . . . . . . . . q
Mlltmg-machine us US.
i
.i;.
Ianer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., $. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dril$, Speed of D~s, _. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . ;. . . . . . . ., High-speed Steel Drfils . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .
.PowerReauired toDri;;:J~.~r~g::::::::::::::::::::
Extreme tiesults ~with 8
jrlgh-spet
- .
.amal Unus
. . Experiments on Twist,
Drills....~..::: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: Ii Resistance Overcome in Cutting Metal.::.~:::.~::::::::::::11:::
Heavy Work on a Planer
Horse-power to run L;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ithea.
., . .
Powerequired for Macnr
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. ne Tools
*..*....., . . . . . . . . . 1256
..
Power used by Machine Tool
.O.. ..
3 . .
.: .125&b ................
Size of Motors for Machine -
..........
I ~l'OOlS
, .... (L .. ., .. I .... ., .......
Horse-Dower Reoulred1 tq Drive Shaftmg
......
............
. ................
...
I..
~; ~~~~ _~~~~,~~
Power used in Machme-shol
. . ...........
xl . . . . . .
Power Required to Drive Mact
: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
unes m Groups. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ratios of Cond V..Y...., ______ - _____.
Propertjn of Rrine used to absorb
Chloride.-.- _-___
1^^ mi.,+inn l7ffn
*Ic~:-Lu~,*l,,~ ,...a .........
. ......
..-. ......................
T?ther-mjac Ina % ........................... .K ................ ., ......
I-__ .-
Air-mat
,hincw
. . ..Y.. . . . .
Carbon Dioxide Ma
.............................................
,chmes . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methyl
%
mhines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S+dphur
hlorjde Mf~ ~~_
ioxlde Machmc-
52. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
^,.I. i-n TT&.,o. Tlnnr nf Wa,ter . . ..-...:-. . . . . . . . . . . . .;. . . . . . .
L1mzlllrjJ ULUT5 . Y: Y I ..
immnnirr. f!nmnrenslon-machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: Systems. _ . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.i 1-Y-.-- -____ _ _-_~.
Dry, Wet and Elooded
Ammonia Absorption-machines. .
Relative Performance of COmpreS
msx,dnnnxr -f g Rpfrip~.pR,t.inp-machine
. . . . . . . . . . . . ...........
s&n and Absorption Machines. . 1294
.u:;
9
wuL.Atz,LrJ I .f A. ...o1------a --------2 .........................
zig5
@
Caiinrier-heatme
........................................... __
_ .-- -_..- ,-..
,tnc Efficiency.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . it%
.I.. . . ..-.:...
.___.. Jeratmn. . _ . . . . . . . . . . .1297, -_.
-se-power. . . . . . = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1297
Tect Camoressor . _k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f7
MY,: ~j$
.*
,.----ines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1300 *;
Ir --_I -._- -...
_ ?r. Minute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *.
allI.@ fnr RlxfneP~tlne-machlneS, _ . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .&
1300 .)I _ __
,___.__ y _ .~~--ts.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-
Conden,-..- ..
Cooling Tower ~r~~i~~~~~-~e~~~~~~~,t,in~ Plan
Test Trials of Refrigeratins-maoh
Compar&on of Actut. II-e _..--.
Performance of Ammoma ComPrJ
Economy of Ammnnin CoIDDreSSlon-DI
lx.-m nP T)n+,r\
.mes..................~ . . . . . .
rl n.nd-Thmretical Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
tssslon-m&hies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,achinee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
__-___ ___.- -~ _
Kv,uluLiLrrurtofTest.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lomrwrature Range
tv thy Ammnrk
.......................
.................................................. ...-,
The Cold Saw
Abrasive Processes.
Reeses Fusing.&l;y:: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;..: . . . . . . . . ..I.
euttingStonewithwi;e . . . . . . . . ..I....... F -...,.....-... *...:*i
:i
~
The Sand-blast,. . -. . .,~. . . _. : . . . . . . . . . . . *. . . . . . . . . . . --. . . . . -
Emery-wheels
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..m....I....m.....s
f
Grindstones . . . .,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. . . . . . . . . .i2~4-
. . . . . . . ..I................*.....*........*..
t262
!62
k262
126%1267
.12@
--"'r'
Metenr .__-. . . . ~;
nakmg Machmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.ne . _ I I .
perfor&;;; ig-g;:;
Performance of a 7.5~ton Refrigerating-macm
Ammonia Corn ression-marhinn~ Result
. Performance 0Pa Single-ac., --
Performance of Ammonia Absorn
Means fnr A nnlrrino
. .
a1 IGG-La,un~Y~. . . . . . . .
$ztfis~ the New York Hy@a Ice-making Plant
An Absorption Evaporatol .
Ice-making wZ*k 77-knl.o+ 0,
Tons of Ice p-. ____ - .-
Standard Ice Car&s or MO
Various Tools and Processes.
_, _..~ s of Tests.. . .
Ammonia CompreSSOr
_____._ ._. ~_ltion-machine . . . : . .
..- the Cold. . .. .I~
..Cn,x+,rm
.................. y ..
.............
1;
151.:
:;:;
1312
~1314
1314
..c--
. . . .._.......... ,I
:&I&&g Sjstem . . . . ~ . . . ~ L . . :. . . .
;;*;, ~.~.~,'.~
lllllUA.,(LU.YUYeam.- _... i . . . . . . . . . . . ...++-....m.
1316
,.13,.
l:${
mTnnnf Coal. .~.~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._.. ~:.e.-- . . . . . . . .
.dda. ;: z. -., . _.. _.. . . . . 1.. Z..,..--. . .,:z
..m
:,=::$
-&
Efficient
.9
of a Screw. . . . .
Ta,Ta, prd s . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*........
.*-.~..>...............................
ciency of Screw Bolts. . _ . .
FL;
Efficiency of a Differential Screw
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
.I............-....,.........*
Taper Bolts, Pins, Reamers, etc. .
Morse Tapem. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . *.C..* .,.....
TheJarnoTaper ._..... ..~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *~..i..: frf
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*............
Punches, Dies, Press- es . : ..
Clearance between Puncn a
...... .~. .... ....................
Size OY Blanks for Drr----
,nd~l~:
..............................
Presstire o f - - - - ~~
owltlg-press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.urop-press...................................;
+,.
i. FIow o f Mt.,,
,tots
5 jt, ~Forcing znd Sur~lnmg
LLz,l:L_ &...& : : . . . . . . . . . . .
,: ~.,i~ aafi Allonr~~nr~o fnr 12 ,I__~,: ,--.-- -. Jectricai i&&&j
.........................

;:.:Run~,,~g r.qf
.., ... .............
f. ;.
*a.. .. T... .........
..$j l, g-
z......... i......C . . . . . . ~...,I ..,. .._.. .,.. i . . . ...
.ttequlred to Start Force and Shrink Fits.. . . . . . :. . i .;. . ; ;
Ig Parts of Machines in Series
. f27S
tiearing, etc. .
. . . . . . . . ?...? . . . . . :...;
_,
.powerof set*crervs . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . tr..T.<...~t.,;f.. ::;i
--,-----~-power of Keys
. . . . ..I.... :*;.: . . . . . . . ..*...... ~1.
. . . . . . . .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~;;.:~;...i
m&
!NlNG: Thi s i i . a 19Ta<dj
- - . L
ition. Some of t
Rules for Me--*snm
The Difn1a.rp
&,c.eh
ment&a,Vef& . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . d.....::...~....
,,,,&~<~l;;fFineness . . . . . . . . .;:;q. . . . . . . . . . . . t---..----....~.
Coefficient of Water-lines.
..ti; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .>...
.;.,;: . ..*. ,,
.,. ~,
CONTENTS . x x x v
DYNAMOXEXERS.
Phr-
meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
~onv.Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
---ter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
$r%%m-brakes . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1282
tiv CONTENTS..
Best High Sped Tool, Stee! - He&t Treatment. .
Best Metho of Treating Tools, m Small Shops ......
............
s...
.........
,s
. . . 4 $zgLSteels ..h..h...........,..* . . . . . . i. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D,O Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
s. ..-..., ......................... 1245
Qual i ty of Differen
Parting and Threat
Durability of Cuttil _
Economical Cutting Speed
New High Speed Steeis, 1909. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~. . . . . .~. . . . i.. . . 1.
Use of s, Magilet to Determine Hardening Temperature. . . . . . . . .
Case-hardenine. Cementation. Harvevlsing . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ _ _
ICE MAKING, OR REFRXGERATING MACHLWS.
Operations of a Refrigerating-.Machine . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressures, etc., of Available Lr
s
mds . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:;28:
Properties of Ammonia and Su phur Dloxlde Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1285
Snl,ubillty of Ammonla . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
>nmtit=s nf Sat,nrated Vaoors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :Ei:
--.
PrL _ _ _-_---.~~~
H&?$~ers,ted by Absorp^tinn of Ammonia. . . . . 1.. . . . _ . . . . .
1288
Cooling Effect, Comnresso:
different C
r Volume and Power Required, with
oollng Agents . . . . . : . . ., . . . . T . . . . . .
O~PP~ M~a.n W.ffective~ and Vaporuer Pressures. . . Ez
igeratmg Effect. . . . . . . . . .
nf-6-AGun Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:EE
due to Hardening and Tempering
. . . . . . . . . . . . .,
i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . .
?Ej.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
scbinee
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
Feed. ..I..,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................... . . . . . .
. . .
.
................. ..................
.. Ratios of Condc. ..Y.... , ______ - _____. ., _
Properties of Rrine used to absorb Refi
Chloride,.---.-.
1^^ mi.,+inn l7ff
I-__ .-_
Air-math
----. . . . *
Carbon Dioxide M.
Methyl hloride M
% S&hur ioxide ML. ______
&fZAL TT&.,o. Tlnnnr nf Wa
*~~~:-~u~,*l,,~ ,,,.xt.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1291 :
EYher-rnac Ina % _ . . . . . . . . ., . , . . . . . . . . . . . . .K . *. . . . . . . _ . _ - . ., . .~ . 1291
tincw . . . .~. . . . . . . . .,. . . . . . . . . . . -. . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
&a~
s,chines . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ *. . . k292
aohines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; _. . . . . . . . . ..- .
i292 3 - _--
i%
w?
1292
. . . . . . . . . . . . ;. . . 1293
whines. . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . __. .~. . . . . . . . . :
. . ,ter . . ..-....-. . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . .
,ClllrjJ ULUT5 . Y: Y.
nmnnirr. f!nm ression-machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*_~. . . . . . . . . . . .
E
12
looded Systems. _ . . _ . _ . _ . . . _ . . . . - . . - . . . . . ., . . .
.AL... -.-I _--_-
Dry, Wet and
Ammonia Absorption-machines.
Relative Performance of COmPre
~sx,dnnn.r -f 9 Rpfrip~.pR,t.inP-machin,
&&n and Absorption Machines. . 1294
1295
wu.Atz,LrJ I Y Lrrr..ror-.----~ --------
e.........................
-*:...a^- t.^^Aic, ~~....i.................
ctlce
Lubricant for Mlllin
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sutters
__ ....
s. ilaner
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 ori)~s~, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mining-macnine _v
Drilis. Speer
High-speed Steel Drills
Power Required to Drive High-sp
Extreme Results with RadK -
Experiments on 1.
:Resistance Overcome m c;ur
Heavy Work on a Pia
Horse-power to rt- T
Power required for Macm
Power used by Machine Tool
Size of Motors for Mach- -
: ......................................
Need Drills.
llX=IUS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
wist, D+s :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
;tmg Metal..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . ;.;; ....
mer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
rq+athes
, . . , . . . . . . . . . ., . .
. . . . . . . .
. ne -Tools
J.. . . *.....~.., . . . . . . . . . 1256
. . .. .... .: .1258- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
, s . . . . . ~. . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . .~ . ~. . . . . . . . . i _. .
me ~1001s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . .
:sa to Drive Shaftmng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...%...
1296
Horse-Dower Reauh .
Power used in~~M&%ine-shol
Power Required to Drive Macnmes
xl .............
-~~~
....................
in Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .;;; gJ$
:: . * .
~yuuUe~-!,r;~~.L~~. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
Volumetric Efficrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Poundsof Ammonia per Ton of R.efrmeral
Mean Effective Pressure, and Hc
The Voorhees Multiple El.... :
Size and Capacities of Ammonia Machines
Piston Speeds a.nd Revolutions ner hf
____ .._ ..~~G*on
rise-power ..............................
.IAJI, ;;97 .<;
. . . . ~:
Tect Camoressor
r__
.. _a% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LYI
_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41299
mute. -._- -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Refrieprrrtine-machieS.
*.
Condensers for
~3!?!2
mu
Cooling Tower ~~~~~~~~~&&,6&?iZ2
...................... . ___
,,ting Plants . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . &Ul
Test Trials of Refrigerating-macl
unes..................~ . . . . . .
Comparison of Actut. II- -..--
rl n.nfi-Theoretical Capacity.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;302_
:
Performance of Ammonla COmP,
ression-mr+lnes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1~
Economy of Ammnnin CoIDDre&DIl ,-machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1;
,_-___ ___.- -~ _
TBl"psraruL~ 1
,,ul yL LLGpV$a;fgTest
~._^^_&.. ^
............................................................................
Metering the, 1_._..-._ ____. .
Lmmnr;~~ .......... :i...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Performance of Ice-maklnb L.~1-----7-
0) Ma.rhrnea .; ........ ., ..... _ . .....
Performance of a 75ton Refrigemtm
.g-ma&me . . . . . ..- .- - . .
Ammonia Corn
P
ression-machines Resu
. . . . . . . . .: . . . . .
. _ ... As of Tests
. Performance 0 a Single-acting i-..:----
hmmnnla Compressor. . . . . . . . . . .
Performance of Ammonia AbsorDtlOn-
.machine . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1312 ~_
Means fpc- A nnlrrino ., .
y. Rp,, LJ ..sa the Cold .. .: .I:, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
1 T^ ,. . ...C,%+,,,. ,3
1 IGG-La,un~Y~. . . . . . . .
$%%?he New York Hygeia Ice-making
. . . . . . . . . . . .
~:git
Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An Absorption Evaporator Jr*-1
gal&g System.. .-- - .. . . . ..: . . . . . . . .
:13;g ,.~.~
Ice-m&king wjdk Zhvknl.o+ Q(
ibI1uAII(Luoy uveam.: _ ... i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1316 -:;
Tans of Ice pc. ____ - .- vTnnnf Coal.
-
...................
.._ ..~:.e.--. .........
,.1318
Standard Ice Cans or MO)ds.;: ..: .-.,.e. ......... a.:- .......... . 8 I+2
... .
:;y$$
...
I JIk&E ENGINEERING;
/-, . .
~ ..::.t; p
R&s for Measufing and Obt&ning ?&lige 'Of VeSSek. : i
!3!6,
*,zy
.........
TheDisplacementofa.Vesse!.
1317
CoefficientofFinenesg.. . . . . . Y:.G:;:q..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..d.....::...~
. . . .
:>
1317
.I._
;,, ; Coefficient oft Water-lines .~.
Ii;.
..~....,t..-...-.....~.:i~,~....,~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .., . .> ... .;.,;:. ..*.
.
, 5; :I,,.i+ \**
,;:~q
The Cold Saw
Abrasive Processes.
Reeses Fusing.~k~~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~..I . . . . . . . . . . . .
cuttingStonewithwi;e . . . . . . . . ..I....... F -...,.....-... *...:*i :EE
The Sand-blast,. . -. . .,~. . . _. : . . . . . . . . . . . *. . . . . . . . . . . --. . . . . -
1262
Emery-wheels
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..-.........-.....- 1262
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . :.: . ..I... 1283-1267
G r i n d s t o n e s . . . . . . . ..I................*.....*........*.. $264-1288
Various Tools and Processes.
fimc!ency or ocrew BI(
Efficiency of a Differe
pop;; ,Br
,-- _I-- n.
+ apx ............................
Punches, Dres, Presses.
Clearance between Punch&ljie:
. . . . . . . . . .:. y
...
Size OY Blanks for Drawing-press
..... .......
Pressure of Drop-press.
i .FIow of Metals. ..
......................................
of & Screw. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.*-.~.>. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
intial Screw
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ws, rms, zrmmers, etc.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;,:P% :,x
. . . . ..C.~.~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . ., . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . ..i;
. . . . . . . . . . . .
_,
T ....
..<...? . . . . . .
#
. . . . . . . . . ., . . , : ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
126~3
1269
1270
i%
mr
----
.a 19~~<dition.
---2
Some of t
Xxxvi CONTENTS.
h
I
PI.Ols
ReslstanceofShips . . . . . . . . ...! . . . . . - . . . . . .;... . . . . . . . . . ..:.
(Iroefficient of Performance of Vessels.. . . . . . . . .
1317
Defects of the Common Formula for Resistance . . . . . . _. : : : :
Rankmes Formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. . .
:i:i
E. R. Mumfords Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1319
Dr. Kirks Method. . . . . . . . . . . .~.~. . . . .
I319
To End the I.H.P. from the Wetted Surface,. . . . . . . .
1329
Relative Horse-power required for Different Speeds of Ve&els . : :
1320
Resistance per Horse-power for Different Speeds . .
Estimated Displacement, Horse-power,, etc.. of Steam-vessels . 1 . .
::5:
Speed of Boats with Internal Combustion Engines . . . . . . . . . : :
1322
I322
The Screw-propeller
Pitch and Size of Screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I . . . . . . . . . . .
Propeller Coefficients.
1324
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Efficiency of the Propeller.
1 3 2 5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pitch-ratio and Slip for Screws of Sta:ldard Form
1326
Table for Calculating Dimensions of Screws.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : E7 ;-
:;
/~.C:*.
Marine Practice
_
Dimensions and Performancebt Notable t\tlantic Steamers. . . . . . 1328
Relative Economy of Turbines and Reciprocating Engines . . . . . . . 1328
;~Marine Practice. 1901. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329
Comparison of Marine Engines, 1872, 1881, 1891, 1901. . . . . . . . . . 1329
Turbines and Boilers of the Lusitania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330
Performance of the Lusitania, 1908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: . . . . 1330
Relation of Horse-power to Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1331
.. --Beciprocating Engines with a Low-pressure Turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . 1331
The Paddle-wheel
_
,y; .~ .<;
:&+;; ;
Paddle-wheels with Radial Floats. . . 1331
FeatheringPaddle-wheels . . . . . . . .._ ::.::::::::::::-:::::::::::
Efficiency of Paddle-wheels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1331
1332
Reaction of a Jet . . .
J et Propulsion
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
CQNSTRUCTlON OF BUILDINGS
Foundatlsns
Bearing Power of Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-Bearing Power of Piles. . .
1333.
Safe Strength of Brick Piers . . :, 1.1: : : : : : : : 1: : : : : : : 1.1 : 1 1.1 : : : : : :
~Thicknees of Foundation Walls . . . . :. . . . :.,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ .
;g;; _
1334
: .; ,t
x5:+-, ~,.,
.:;dx: :,,,~
Masonry
Allowable Pressures on Masonry. . : . . .
.z\ ,,~
~~ :>I;+ ,;... of
Crushing Strength of Concrete. . . : . . . . . . . . : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
1 3 3 4
I334
Beaks and Girders
, / ,.
. ... . . . . . ..;., . . . . . . . . . . . , .._.........
Stresses in Structural Materials.
~1335
1335
Beams .. . :: . . ~. . . . . . . . . . ... 1: : : : : : 1336
,, .
Walls
- : Thickness of Wai; ,li~Bulldings ,.
,,-,, . . _~. . . _ .
~, ,:Walls of Warehous;~ :, Stores, Factories. and Stables. .*.... : 1 : : f : : : :;;; -
Floors. Columns and Posts
-. I
ipports . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ns ana rosts.. . . .:, . . . . .: ::. .::a:::~. ..I:.. . .
1337
. . . . . . . . . . . ;
oofBulldlngs.:.::: . . . . . . ;;...z.....i .._. . . . ... . . . . . . . . .
I 3 3 7
I-elColumns:.~ .._. ;_:
1338
~......-
.g:
nd Supports ) : 1.1 1~;. 1.1. i, *~ - : . . . ; ~. . . . :
1338
:i. 1 v, *. . ~. . . . , . !,I ,
.I338
-..>d-.. ....~
G: This is a 1910 edition. S%k%~~~.-i:
of -
S+roin~ on Girders and Riv __._.~~ ........
~~,;~~u% Load on Floors
ets.....................
M-...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g..-..,..- !trPneth of Floors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mill co1um.-- ns..........;........................
Safe Distribut ed Loads on Southern-pine Beams. . . .
Maximum Spans for 1, 2 and 3 inch Plank,
Approxlrna. Cost of Mill Bulldlngs
. .
i . .
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
PAOE
1338
EZ
1341
:%
1342
E L E C T R I C AL ENGINEEBSING .
c. G. S. System of Physical Measurement
Practical Units used in Electrical Calculations ...................
!
...................
;;%;
Relations of Various Units.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Units of the Magnetic Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:;X;
Equivalent Electrical and Mechanical Uruts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1347 ;
Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analogies between Flow of Water and Electricity
I., 2
. . . . :. . . . . . . . .
iiig
Electrical Res i s t anc e .
Laws of Electrical Resistance. . . . . . . : . . . . . : ; . . .
Electrical Conductivity of Different Metals and Al
Conductors and Insulators
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resistance Varies with Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . .
Annea!ing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standard df k&&&e of Copper Wire
Direct Electric Currents
OhmsLaw...................................~..........:.
Series and Parallel or Multiple Circuits
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resistznce of Conductors in Series and Parallel.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Internal Resistance. . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Power of the Circuit.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrical, Indicated, and Brake Horse-power.
. . . . . . . .,
Heat Generated by a Current
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating of Conductors.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating of Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . .
Fusionof Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Allowable Carr Ting Capacity of Copper Wires
2
. . . . . . . . .
Underwriters nsulation ..... :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-.
Drop of Voltage in Wires Carrying Allowed Currents :.
Wiring Table for Motor Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_ Copper-wire Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . :
kXectric Transmission, Direct-
Section of Wire Required for a Given Current. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weight of Copper for a Given Power.. . .:. . . .~. :. . . . . . . . . .
:35:
Short-circuiting. . . : . ; 1: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EconomyofElectrlcTransmission..:::...:.~:..::..~ ,.......
:.
,~~~~~
Wire Table for 110,. 220, 500. 1600, Andy 2000 volt Circuits ;. . . . .
Efficiency of Electric Systems. : . : ; . . 1; . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:~~~
Resistances of Pure Aluminium Wire. :. . ; 1.. . : . . . . . . . . . .
Systems of ElectriEal Distribution . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
$ig
Table of Electrical .Horse-powers . ; . . . j . ; . . . . . . . . . . : . . :. . .
/ 1364 ,, ,:;;;,
cost of Copper for Long-distance Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - .I>365;, .;;:;!:.,
. Etectric Railwajrs
. LL9 >$ : ~:.:,;
_- _, I
, .~Z~~ ?&
- Electric Railway Cars and. Motors . . .
./! izT.
: . . . . . . . . . . ., .
:r*
.1366 J;;:g!
A 4660-H.P. Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . . . . .: .~.&. . . . . . I366 .,&$$~
*uyl:
Eleckc Lighting; - Il~~lnatlo~
L: lllUlii&tion . . . . . . . .~..........~ . . . .
. ;; . . . . . . :. . ; ;;.:. . . . . .
Tltlitg, Defialtlon$ . : : . .'. ::; ::-. :. . . ._. . . . . . .':.I T;'. -....
cok,,. ._..,., . &a.U..._.-l nr Vsl1n.3r n f Tll~rmina.nt~ . .'. . . . . . ~..'..'...i.i.S.~.'.
of Jllnminationto Visioni. ..*'i.. . . -. '. : . . .:. .~.':-~..:~.'~: .
,. '.
material may-nolo&Y be a&&e
1..
XxXVlll CONTENTS.
Arc Lamps. .-. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . :. . . . . . .
Illumination by Arc Lamps at Different Dktances
Data of Some Arc Lamps.
..................
: : ......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Watts per Square Foot Required for Arc Lighting.
......
.....
The Mercury Vapor Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : :
......
Incandescent Lamps
......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rating of Incandescent Lamps .?.
!. . . . . . . .
. . .
Incandescent Lamp Characteristics.
............................... , . : :
......
......
Variation in Candle-power Efficiency and Life. : : : :
......
. . . . . . .
Performance of Tantalum and Tungsten Lamps.
.......
Specifications for Lamps.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Lamps. .:I 1:
......
Nernst Lamp.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cost of Electric Lighting.
......
Electric Welding
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electric Heaters
............................ : : : : : : : :
......
......
Electric Furnaces ....: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
......
Silundum
......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electric Batteries
Description OT Storage-batte.%es or kcumuiators . . . . . . . . . .
Sizes and :Veights of Storage-batteries
1378
Efficiency of a Storage Cell . . .I 1: 1: 1 1: 111. .: 1: 1 1: 1:
1379
Rules for Care of Storage-batteries. . _ . . . :. . . :
1380
Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
Electrc-chemical Equivalents . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . l.. . ~. . .I
:3388:
%82
I
The Magnetic Circuit
B;-&p.t.yx.L; ..; . ...:: ::::: ::::: ..........
Tractive or Lifting Force of a Magnet
......:: . .
. . . . . .
Determining the Polarity of Electra-magnets
: : : 1. : 1 : :. : 1384
Determining the Direction of a Current.
. ..............
.. ....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
....
:
..
1385
. . . . 1385
Dynamo-electric iMachines
Kinds of Machipes ES regards. M,Q~-- J m:-;:--
Moving Fc--
Torque of an AI
Torque. Horse-puwcr s!L~, ~~01
Electra-motive F o r c e
Strength of the Magn
ry.6 L I LLllg
wee OI a uynamo-eiectnc Machme
..............
-mature.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.-._.__ .~.J -~
utions.. :1.
:%
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
oXXneArmatureCircuit..
1386
etic Field
. . . . . . . . . . :::::: 1386
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1387
Altemnatine: Currents
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. c . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . _ . . _
i
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
A.ltemating Current Circuits
Chulationof AIternating Current Circuits . . .
Relative Weight of Copper Required in D&rent Syste;; . . : : 1: :
1396
Rule for Size of Wires for Three-phase Transmission Lines.
1398
Notes on High-tension Transmission . . _ .~. . . . . . . ; . . . . . . : : : : : :
:%z .
-_. --F...--_~ .-_-
j WARNING: This is a 1910 edition??%%6;i-i
CONTENTS. XXXiX
Transformers, Converters, etc.
PAGE
Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1400
Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401
Mercbry Arc Rectifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401
Electric IWotors
C:assificstion of Motors. . . 1401
The Auxiliary-pole Type of Motors . . . . . . 1402
S p e e d o f E l e c t r i c M o t o r s . . .
Speed Control of Motors. ~Rheostats . E
Selection of Motors for Different Kinds of Service.
y 405
T h e E l e c t r i c D r i v e i n t h e Ma c h i n e S h o p . 1407
Choice of Motors for Machine Tools. . 140:
Alternating Current Motors
Synchronous ,Motors . . . . . . . . . . r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1408
Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409
Induction Motor Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409
Alternating Current Motors for Variable.Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1412
Sizes of Electric Generators and Motors
Direct-connected Engine-driven. Generators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1412
Bek-driven Generators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Belt-dri~n lMotors
::y- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Belt-driven Alternators. :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
Xachines with Commutating Poles . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413
Small Engine-driven Alternators. . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . .
Railway Mdtors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E:
Small Polyphitse, Single-phase, and Direct-current Motors. . . . . . . 1415
Symbols Used in Electrical Diagrams ...................... 1416
.
. .
.
,
.
I mat~fi$~a>-;lo longer be accurate
I
NAiSfES AND ABBREVIATIONS OF PERIODICALS AND
TEXT- BOOKS FREQUENTLY RGFERRED TO IN
THIS WORK.
Am. Mach. American %chinist.
App. Cyl. Mech.
Bull. I. & S. A.
Appletons Cyclopexlia of Mechanics, Vols. I and II.
Buiietin of the American Iron and Steel Association.
B~a~:-rs Elasticity and Resistance of Materials.
Clark! R. T. D. D. K. Clarks Rules. Tables, and Data for Mechanical En-
tneen* Clar . 9. E. D. K. Clarks Treatise on t.he Steam-Engine.
Cd. Cot!. Qly. Columbia College &uarterly.
El. Rev. Electrical Review.
El. Worid. Electrical World and Enzineer.
Engg. Engineering (London). -
Eng. News. Engineering News.
Eng. Rec. Engineering Record.
Engr. The Engineer (London).
Fzirbairns Useful Information for Engineers. ~
Flynns Irrigation Canals and Flow of Water.
Indust. Eng. Industrial Engineering.
Jour. A. C. 1.P;. Jnu:nai of American Charcoal Iron Workers Association.
Jonr. AS% Eng. :SOC.
Jour. F. I.
Journal of the Associatlnn oi Engineering Societies.
Journal of the Franklin Institute.
Kapp? Electric Transmission of Energy.
ka;~ys Apphed Mechamcs.
Machinery.
Me&ans Strength of Materials.
Modern .Mechanism. Supplementary volume of Appletons Cyclopedia of
Mechanic.
Peabodys Thermodynamics.
Pro~~~~~.F& V. E. Proceedings Am. Socy of Heating and Ventilating
Proc. A. S. T. M.
Proc. Inst. C. E.
Proceedings Amer. Socy for Tedting Materials.
Proc, Inst. 1\1. E.
Proceedings Knstitution of Civil Engineers (London).
Proceedings Institutiorr of Mechanical Engineers (Len-
don).
Pr-eeech
it
itj
R
Reports
ngs Engineers Club of Philadel hia.
nnkine, S. E. Rankines The Steam I!
ankines Machinery and Millwork.
ngme rntl other Prime .Movers.
ankine. R. T. D. Rankines Rules, Tables, and Data.
sports of U. S. Iron and Steel Test Board.
of 0. S. Testing Machine at Wat,ertown. Massachusetts.
. .-...
modynamics.
A of Marine Engineering.
Hydraulics
tevens Institute Indicator.
eiectric Machinerv.
, /
-
I
anual of the Steam Engine.
Thurstins Materials of Engineering,
Trans. A. I. E. E.
cans. A. I. g. E.
Transactions American Institute of Electrical Em..-.~
Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers.
L. S. M. E.
ransactions American Society of Civil EI ~kzrneers.
Transactions American Society of Mechanical En1
., -. . . - . - -
gineers.
I TatIS. A . ^5. c;. l!J.
Trans. A
T
lhutrrrine s C;IVII JS ngineers Yocket Bo o k .
The Locomotive (Hartford,
Unwins Elements of Ma ~~~
Connecticut).
Weisbacbs Mechanics of EngineeriEg.
Woods Resistance of Materials.
. . -.
Woods Thermodynamics.
.-.__ ~.--____-_~_-~ --..-:a
edition. Some of
ALa Al pha
I3 @ Beta
I y Gamma
A. 6 Delta
E c Epsilon
z < Zeta
N Y Nu
2. 6 Xi
O o Eicron XI lr
i
T 7 Tau
Y v U~psilon e
Q $3 Phi
Rho
X x Chi
p P
* $ Psi
2 -3 F Sigma fl w Omega
. Arithmetical and Algebraical Signs and Abbreviations.
Greek Letters.
i- plus (addition).
t- positive.
-. minus (subtractixrj.
-. negative.
f plus or minus.
F minus or plus.
= equal s .
X multiplied by.
abor a.b = a X b.
. f divided by.
/ divided by.
a
- = a/\= a + b.
b
12-16 = $?
0. 2 =E;0. 002 =
i.
\
1000
scuare root.
. to (proportionj.
ii to 4 as 3 is to 6.
2 : 4, ratio of 2 to 4 = 2/4.
:. therefore.
f- grQater than.
< less than.
0 square.
0 round.
o degrees, arc or thermometer.
rninut& or feet.
w seconds or inches.
n I accents to distinguish letters,
log y logarithm.
loge or hyp log = hgperbollc loga-
% per cent. ,
--~-~~_
material may no longer
P.. p.. pressure or load.
H.P., horse-power.
I.H.P., indicated horse-power.
B.H.P., brake horse-power.
h. p., high pressure.
i. p., intermediate pressure.
1. low pressure.
A%.G..
American -Wire Gauge
(Brown & Sharpej.
B!W.G., Birmrngham Wire Gauge.
r. p. m., or revs. per min., revolu-
tions per minute.
. = quantity, or volume.
-u-L--- -.
I
t3e accurate
- parenthesis, brackets,
vlnculum; denoting
that the numbers enciosed are
to be taken, together: as,
(a+b)c=BfX5=35.
a2, aa, a squared, a cubed.
an, a rased to the nth power.
t
03 = -;/a; a: 4 tfaa.
a-1 = 1; a-2 = L.
100 = II? to t he %th power =
1,000,000,000.
sin a = the sine of a.
sin-i a = thQ arc whose .sinQ iS a.
1
sin a-1 = 7.
sin a
L right angle.
L perpendicular to.
;in. sine.
:os. cosine.
tan, tangent.
332, secant.
versin. versed sine.
:ot, cotangent.
:osec, cosecant.
covers, cc-versed sine.
In Algebra, the first letters of
the al
generaly used to denote known P
habet. n, o, c, d, etc., are
qusntit~ies, and the last letters.
w, z, y, 2, etc., unknown quantities.
Abbreviations and Symbols corn-
manly used.
i. differential (in calculus).
s
, integral (in calculus).
A, delta, difference.
Z., sigma, sign of summation.
r, pi. ratio of circumference of
circle to diameter = 3.14159.
g. acceleration due to gravity =
32.~6 ft. per second per second.
Abbrez~ations f&quently u s e d in
this Book.
L., I., length in feet and inches.
B., b., breadth in feet and inch,es.
D., d.. depth or diameter.
H., h., height, feet and inches.
T., t., thickness or temperature.
V.. v.. velocity.
F., force.. or factor of safety.
f;, coefficient of friction.
E., coefficient of elastlclty.
I?., r., radius.
W., w., weight.
2
ARITHMETIC.
ARITIiMETIC.
0 The user of th+! book is supposed to have had a trai+ng in arithm,etic as
~~11 as in elemeitary algebra.
Only those rules are @ven here which are
apt to be easily forgotten.
GREATEST COMXON RlEASURE, OR GREATEST
-
COHMON DIVISOR OF TWO NUMBERS.
yule _ Dlvlde the greater number by the less; then divide the divisor
by the iemainder, and so on, dividing always the last, d!vlsqr by the last
remainder until there is no remamder,
and the last dlvlsor 1s the greatest
common nieasure required.
LEAST CO3lBION ,OFTWO OR MORE
.
.
yule - Divide the given numbers by. any n;Fdb;;ttFh%; ~itl~;~~;~~~;
greates; number of them without a remamder,
the undivided numbers in a line beneath.
Divide t,he second line as before,
and so cn, until there are np two num-
b
er
s that can be divided: then the continued product, of the dtvlsors. last
quotients, and undivided numbers will give the mull;lple reqmred.
FBACTIONS.
~~ reduce aco-on fraction ,to its lowest terms. - Divide both
terms by their greatest common &visor: %z.= 3/4.
~~ change an improper traction to amIxed number. -- Divideat:;
numerator by the denommator: the quotient 1s the wkole number.
the remainder placed over the denormnator 1s the fraction: B/J = 93/d.
To change a mixed number to an improper fraction. - Mu!.tiply
the whole number bv the denominator of the fr.actlon; to the product add
the numerator. plate the sum over the denommator: 17/s = :5/s.
60 express k whole number in the formof a fraction with a,given
denominator. - Multiply the whole nymber by the$;;en denommator.
and place the product over that denormnator: 13 =
.
T o redlce a compound to a Slmpk fraction, ak.0 to multiPly
fract,ions. -
Multipiy the numerators together for a new numerator and
the denominators togetb~ei for a new denommator:
TO reduce a complex to a simple fraction. -The numerator and
denominator must each first be given the form of a simple f!aCtlOn; then
multiply the numerator of the upper fraction by the denommator of the
lower for the new numerator, and the denominator of the upper by the
numerator of the lower for the nelv denormnator: __-.-
718 718 28 i
13/4.=G=5%=g
To divide fractions. - Reduce both tp qhe form of simple fraction%
invert the divisor, and proceed as in multlpl&lOn:
DECIMALS.
3
by all the ,denominators except its own for the new numerator, and all
the denommators together for the common denominator:
1 1 3 21
14 18
2 Z TZG E E.
add the numerators and place their sum over the common denominator:
To add fractions. 7 Reduce them to a common denominator, then
21 + 14 + 18 53
42 = -=111/Q.
4 2
TO subtract fractions. - Reduce them to a common denominator
subtract thenumerators and place the difference over the common denom:
inator:
DECIMALS.
To add decimals. -
Set down the ,figures sb that the decimal points
a_rel p; 6; bove the other, then proceed as ,in simple addition: 18.75 + 0.012
Tosudtract decimals. -Set down the figures so that the decimal
pomts are one above the other, then proceed as.in simple subtraction:
18.75 - 0412 = 18.73s.
To multlp!y decimals. - Multiply as in muitiplication of whole num-
hers., th,en point Of f as many decimal places as there are in
multipl!c?nd taken together: 1.5 x 0.02 = ,030 = 0.03.
multlpller and
To dlyldedeclmaIs.- Divide as in whole numbers and po.
the quotient as many decimal places as those in the dividend excj int off in
in t.he divisor. eed those Ciphers must be added to the dividend to make it,
places at 1,east equal those in the divisor, and as many more as it i 3 decimal
tz oh;;;3 14 the quotient: 1.5 + 0.25 = 6. 0.1 i 0.3 = 0.100i s desired
00 f 0. 3
Cancellation of tractions.
-In compound or multiplied fr?ctio+
divide any numerator and any denominator by any number wbcb ~11
divide them both dthout remainder. striking out the numbers thus
divided and Settiny down the quotients in then stead.
To reduce fra&ons to a common denommator. - Reduce e.ach
a-A~t:rr,, ~tn ttlp..form of a ~simple fraction; then multiply each
numerator
~L..--.-..~~_~ .__.__,. .Jk~
~%GNI NG: This i s a 1!310w&ition. SOme of the material
T
,,,+~,y Eonvert a cowon fraction into a decimal. -Divide the nume-
. .L_ >~~-~
.or, adding to the numerator as many ciphers
!a1 Point as are necessary to give,the number of decimal
,$e result: l/3 = 1.0000 i 3 = 0. 3333 f.
x
?$mal into a common fraction. -Set dnwn tha
~utf uenommat
%&aby adecir
places desired in i
TO convert a ut
.decimal as a
l onger accurate
l - 64
1- 32
z-2
5- 64
3- 32
. 7;s
I
9-54
5- 32
11-54
3- 16
-
-
Decimal Equivalents of Fractions of One Inch
. 078125
. 09375
: 120; 375
. I 40625
. 15625
. I 71875
. I 875
;I$;
19- 64
5- 16
21- 64
I I - 32
23- 64
3- 8
::z
27- 64
7- 16
-
-
. 328125
. 34375
:335;375
. 453125
. 46875
:i:4375
33- 64
17- 32
35- 64
9-16
z
43- 64
11-16
::Z
. 609375
. 625
. 640625
. 65625
:%!
. 703125
. 71875
. 734375
. 75
49- 64
$:E
13- 16
53- 54
27- 32
55- 64
7- 8
57- 64
:Ei
15- 16
61- 64
31- 32
63- 64
1
.
-
m; ; 5
. 796875
. 8125
. 890625
. 90625
. 921875
. 9375
. 953125
. 96875
. 984375 _
1 .
COMPOUND NUMBERS.
5
decimal point in the numerator, and reduce the fraction thus formed to its
lowest terms:
0.25 = $ = i ; 0.3333 = 3333 = iv nearly.
10000
,
To reduae a recurring decimal to a common fraction. - Subtract
the decimal figures that do not recur from the whole decimai including
one set or recurring figures:, set down the remainder as the numerator of
I
the fraction. and as many nines as there are recurring figures followed by
as many ciPbers as there are non-recurring figures, in the denominator.
Thus:
Subtract
0.790;;054, the recurring figures being 054.
s= (reduced to its lowest terms) g.
C3MPOUND QR D E N O M IN A T E NK&ERS.
Reductipn deseeqding. -To reduce a compound number to a lower
denomjnat!on. Multiply the number by as many units of the lower
dyommatlon as makes one of the higher.
3 yards to inches: 3 36 X = 108 inches.
0.04 square feet to square inches: .04 X 144 = 5.76 sq. in.
If the given number is in more than one denomination proceed in steps
from the highest ,d-omination to the next lower, and so on to the lowest,
addmg in the umts of each denomination as the operation proceeds.
3 yds. 1 ft. 7 in. to inches: 3X 3=9.+1=10, 10X 12=120,+;=127in.
Reduction.ascending. -To express a number of a lower denomina-
tion in terms of a higher. divide the number by the number of units of
the lower denomination contained in one of the next higher: the quotient
is m the higher denomination, and the remainder, if any, in the lower.
127 inches to higher denomination.
127 + 12 = 16 feet + 7 inches: 10 feet + 3 = 3 yards + 1 foot.
Ans. 3 yds. 1 ft. 7 in.
. To ex:,iess the result in decimals of the higher denomination divide the
given number by the number of units of the given denomination contained
In one,of the required denomination, carrying the result to as many piaces
of decimals as may be desired.
127 inches to yards: 127 c 36 = 319/m = 3.5277 + yards.
Decimals of a Foot Equivalent to Inches and Fractions
of an Inch.
Inchc
?4
%i
2%
: : : i i !
.5417
.6250
.7083
.7917
.a750
.95e3
?4
:%
.I971
.2604
.343e
.427 I
.5104
:~~%
:;$g
.9271
.06250
.I458
:E
:E2
.5625
:%Z
.e!25
:l%
.09292
.I563
.2396 .
:%Z
:E;
.6563
9396
18229
.9063
.9896
--A---.----L.--
material may no.longer be accurate
6
ARITHMETIC.
POWERS OF NUMBERS.
7
COI?lpOUtld
?roPortlon, or Double Rule of Three, -By this rule
aresol ved uasl orc
4
*^T like the one just given, in which two or more statings
are require- by +hn..nmis _..*,
is one third t
, .A- && L~;e of three.
In it, as in the single rule there
*n*,r+h nr ..a-..
erm. which is of the same kind and denomination as the
;;;;; I 1~ Uired term, but there may be two or more first and second
. Setlown the third term, take each pair of terms of the same kind
separately, and arrange them as firsts and second by the same reasoning as
: ,,,%.,+~A :.. LI... ..:-~.I- *
RATIO AND PROPORTION.
Ratio is the relation of one number to another, ps obtained by dividing
the first number by the second.
Synonymous with quotrent:
Ratio of 2 to 4. or 2 : 4 = 2/4= l/2.
Ratio of 4 to 2. or 4 : 2 = 2.
smgle rule o* tnree, r
naking the greater of the o&r-the
.-_ _.__-
Cxample: If 3 men rem;
day. how many men working 10 F S
in 3 davs?
considered alone should require the answer to begreater
second terms.
the first ter.ms one under the other, and likewise all the
terms together..
MultiplyI au tne nrst terms together and all the second
Muitipiy the product of all thesecond terms by the third
term. and divide this ?roduct by the product of all the first te:ms.
ve 4 cubic vards in one ds.77 working 12 hours a
iours a day will remove 20 cubic yards
Yards 4: 20
HD%s lo i 1:
Products 120 : 240 : : 3 : 6 men. Ans;
. _._&3^_ : l ho nn13~lit.v of two ratios.
of~,db~~~~Z~:~~~r~~~~~~ti
Ratio of 2 to 4 equals. ratio
l us, 2 : 4 : : 3 : 6; read, 2 is to 4 as 3 1s to 6.
The f&t and fourth terms ~~~_.
are called the extremes or outer terms, the
second and third the means or inn
:er terms.
The product of the means equal!
s the product of the extremes:
a: 4 : : 3: 6; 2 X 6 = 12; 3 x4 = 12.
Hence, given the first three terms to find the fourth, multiply the
second and third teims together and.divide by the first.
2: 4: :
4x3 6.
3 : what number? Ans. --2-- =
Algebraic expression of proportion. -a : b : : c : d; % = 2; ad s bc:
To abbreviate by cancellation, an one of the first terms may cancel
either the third or any of the secon
cl terms: thus, 3 in first cancels 3 in
third, makmg it 1, 10 cancels into 20 making the latter 2, which into 4
yi&y ii 2.6which into 12 makes it 6, and the figures remaining are only
. .: :.
From the above equations may also he derived the fOiIOwing:
b:a::d:c a fb:a::c +d:c
afb:a-b::cfd;c-d
a:c::b:d a +b:b::c +d:d an : bn : : P : dn
a.b=c:xd a-b:b::c-d:d q/G : qi : : $ <d
a-b:z::c-d:c
>&an proportional between two given numbers, 1st and 2d. is.suc,h
a number that the ratio which the first hears to it equals the ratio which it
bears to the second. Thus, 2 : 4 :: 4 : 8; 4 is a mean proportional between
2 and 6. To find the mean proportional bet,ween two number.?. extract
the square root of their product.
Mean proportional of 2 and 3 = 42 X 8 = 4.
INVOLUTION, OR POWERS OF NUMBERS.

Involutlqn isthe continued multiplication of a number by itself a given

number of times. The number is called the root, or first power and the
products are called powers.
the thirc!jyy,ef,ih;zjbe.
The second power is called the sqbare and
performL,
The operaticn may be indicated without being
J W,LALL~ a J, ^ -mall f i gure called the indez or exponent to the
Fight of and a little above y..l j
T o ml
+L -oat; thus, 33 = cube of 3. = 27.
ultiPiy two or more oowers of the same number, add t.hel? expo-
Dents: thus. 22 y F)a - 06 ----i
-.I
L- , 01~ 4 X 8 = 32 =26.
0 divide twdp&~rs of the same number, subtract their exponents:
thus, 23 + p = 21 = 2; 22 + 2 z= 2-2 = & = ; .
The exponent may
thus be negative.
number = 1.
Z8 + 23 = 2O = 1, wh&e ihe zero power c* ---
JI any
The Erst power of a number is the number itself. Ph.3
lllr
exponent may be fractional, as 2f 23 which means that the root is to be
raised to a power whose exponentis ihe numerator of the fraction and
the Foot whose sign is the denominatoF is to be extracted (see Evolution)
The exponent may be a decimal, as 20.6, 2k6. read two to the five-tenths
power. two to the one and five-tenths power.
means of Logarithms (which see).
The& powers are solved by,
Single Rule of Three; or, finding the fourth term of a ProPortion
wh.en three terms are given. - Rule. as above, when the term,s ,are stated
in iheir proper order, multiply the second by the third and divide by the
first. The difficulty is to ~.I..
qtl+e the terms in their prooer order. The --- _.._ _..~.~,
term which is of th#e same sind as the required or fourth term is made,the
third; the first a.od -.-- second must be like each other in kind and denomina-
tion. To det,,...... . . . erminn which is to be made second and which first requires
a little reasonins. If aln inspection of the problem shows that the answer
shout- -I d he
given tern
greater than the third term, then the greater of the other$v;
IS should he made the second term - otherwise the first.
,
3 men remove 54 c ubic feet of rock ina
r1a.o. how manv men will remove
in the same time 1n rl l hi c vards? The a
third term: the answer is to be more than three men. .therefore make the
greater quantity, 10 cubic yards, the second term: but as it IS not thesame
denomination as the other term it must be reduced, = 270 cubic feet.
The proportion is then stated:
) \, .-i7n
.
First Nine Powers of the First Nine Numbers.
5th
POW3
1
2%
1024
3125
7776
16807
: s; : t
6th
Power.
1
7%
4096
15625
46656
117049
262144
531441
7th
Power.
12:
2187
16384
38 125
279936
823543
2097152
4782969
8th
Power.
25:
6561
65536
390625
1679616
5764801
16777216
43046721
A_~_.
9th
.Power.
%
512
729
51:
1 9 6 8 3
262144
1953125
10077696
40353607
134217728
387?20@
* ,
51 : 270 : : 3 : z (the required number); z = a 2; = 15 men.
The problem is more complicated if we increase the number of given
terms. Thus, in the above question, substit.ute for the words in the
same time the words in 3 days. First solve it as above, as if the work
were to be done in the same time: then make another proportion, stating
it thus: If 15 men do it in the same time, it will take fewer men to do it in
3 days: make 1 day the second term and 3 days the first term. 3 : 1: :
1.5 men : 5 men.
7-w-w - - . .___ _I .~.~..~a -~.~.-
i WARNING: This is a 1910 edition, Some 0
he material may no l cnger De accura
!
ARITHMETIC.
The Plrst Forty Powers of 2.
:
i
16
2:
128
256
134217728! 36
26843545 37
536e70 $ -8
107374l C~, ; 9
2147483bd: j i0
4294967296
8589934592
17179069184
34399730358
EYOLUTION.
68719476736
137436953472
274877906944
549755813800
1099?1 I $27776
Evolution is the Ending.of the root {or extracting #he root) of any
number the power of which 1s given.
The sign 4 indicates that the square root is to be extracted: 9 9 7,
the cube root, 4th root, nth root.
A fractional exponent with 1 for the numerator of the fraction is also
used to indicate that the operation of extracting the root is to be per-
formed; thus, 21, 29 = 42, q.
When the power of a number is indicated, the invol;.:.~on not being
formed. the estraction of any root of that power may also be indicate
cFer- by
dividing the index of the power by the index of the root, indicating the
division by a fraction. Thus, extract the square root of the 6th power
of 2:
dF= 24 = 3 = 23 = 8.
The 6th power of 2, as in the table above, is 64; +% = 8.
DiEicult problems in evolution are performed by logarithms. but the
smlare root and the cube root mav be extracted directly accordmg to the
i&i- piGi below. The 4th root is the square root of the square root.
The 6th root is the cube root of the square root, or the square root Of the
cube root: the 9th root is the cube root of the cube root,: etc.
To Extract the Square Root. -Point off the given number into
periods of two places each, beginning with units. If there are decimals.
point these off likewise, beginning at the decimal point, and supplying
as many ciphers as may be needed. Find the greatest number whose
square is less than the first left-hand period, and place it as the first
figure in the quotient. Subtract its squa,re from the left-hand period,
and to the remainder annex the two Egures of the second period for
a dividend. Double the first figure of the quotient for a partial divisor;
find how many times the latter is contained in the dividend exclusive
of the right-hand figure, and set the figure representing that number of
times as the second figure in the quotient, and annex it to the right of
the partial divisor, forming the complete divisor. Multipl
by the second figure in the quotient and subtract the proB
this divisor
uct from the
dividend. To the remainder bring down the next eriod and roceed as
before, in each case doubling the figures in the root a ready foun F X to obtain
the tnal divisor; Should the product of the second Egure in the root by
the completed divisor be greater than the dividend, erase the second
figure both from the quotient and from the divisor, and substitute the
next smaller figure. or one small enough to make the product of the second
.---fieure..hx.the divisorhss thaqorequal @the di,e~dend. . . ~__,~_
i MRNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
ECKL,RE ROOT.
i . 141d9i 6i 36 r1. 77245 $
1 8
3544851908936
] 1772425
CUBE ROOT.
9
C U B E R O O T .
i,SSi,365,963,625~~
1
300 x 12 =
30x 1 X ,*E
300- x P
60
4
364/ 728
% 2 : =43200 153365
2 x g z ..log
44389 132867
300 X 1232 =
30X 123 4g
45m; 20498963
16
45534761 18213904
2285059625 .
300 X 12342
30X X234X 5 =
=; : %: I ;
52= 25
457011925 2285059625
To extract the square root of a!raction, extract the root of a numerator
and denominator separately.
a decimal,
To Extract theCubeRoot. - Point off the number into periods of 3
figures each, beginning at the right hand, or units place. Point off
decimals in periods of 3 E
cube that does not Qlf
ures from the decimal point. Find thegreatest
exce
figure in the required root.
the left-hand period; write its root as the Erst
Subtract the cube from the left-hand period,
and to the remainder bring down the next eriod for a dividend.
Square the first figure of the root: mu tlply by 300. and divide the F.
product into the dividend for a trial divisor: write the quotient after
the first figure of the root as a trial second figure.
Complete the divisor by adding to 300 times the s
figure, 30 times the product of the first by the secon
uare of the first
1
square of the second figure. Muitipl
Egure. and the
subtract the product from the remain2
this divisor by the second figure;
er. (Should the product be greater
than the remainder, the last Egure of the root and the compiete divisor
are too large; substitute for the last figure the next smaller number, and
correct the trial divisor accordingly.)
To the remainder bring down the next period, and proceed as before to
End the third figure of the root -that is. square the two figures of the
root already found: multiply by 300 for a trial divisor. etc.
If at any time the trial divisor is greater than the dividend, bring down
another period of 3 figures, and place 0 in the root and proceed.
The cube root of a number will contain as many figures as there are
Periods of 3 in the number.
To Extract a Higher Root than the Cube. -Thefourth root isthe
square root of the square root; the sixth root is thecube root of the square
root or the square root of the cube root.
mently found by the use of logarithms.
Other roots are~most conve-
ALLIGATION.
of different.ingredients when the quantity
c, d. etc., and their respective values per
-_--_-A__ -:
material may nolonger be accurate
10 ARITHMETIC.
k = the sum of the quantities = a + b + c + d, etc.
P = mean value or priceper unit of A.
AP = aw f bx + c?/ + dz, etc.
p = aw + bx + c?/ + d.z, .
A
PEBMXJTATION
shows in how many positions any number of things may be arranged in a
row; thus, the letters a, b, c may be arranged in SIX positions, viz. abc, acb,
cab. cba, bat, bca.
Rule. - Jlultiply together all the numbers used in counting the things;
thus, permutations of 1. 2. and 3 = 1 X 2 X 3 = 6.
positions can 9 things in a row be placed?
In how many
1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9=362880.
-
COMBINATION
shows how many arrangements of a few things may be made out of a
greater number. Rule: Set down that figure which indicates the greater
number, and after it a series of figures diminishing by 1. until as many are
set down as the number of the few things to be taken in each combination.
Then beginning under the last one, set down said number of few things;
then gomg backward set down a series diminishing by 1 until arriving
under the first of the upper numbers. Multiply together all the upper
numbers to form one product, and all the lower numbers to form another;
divide the tipper product by the lower one.
How many combinations of.9 things can be made, taking 3 in each com-
bination?
9 X 8 x 7 504
l X' X3
= - = 84.
6
AIHTHMXTICAL PICOGRESSION,
in a series of numbers, is a progressive increase or decrease in each succes-
sive number by the addition or subtraction of the same amount at each
step. as 1. 2. 3.1. 5. etc., or 15, 12. 9, 6. etc. The numbers are called terms.
and the equal increase or decrease the difference. Examples in arithmetl-
cal progression may be solved by the following form&e:
Let n = first term, 1 = last term, d .= common difference, n = number
of t.erms. s = sum of the terms:
I = a + fn - l)d, =.-id, &de + (u -id),
2s
=- - - ( 1 =
1"
k+ 2
(n - l ) d.
, q=-2FZ[2Gi - ( i i - l j dj ,
1 +a 12 - 02
- - - - - f ~+j J - - .
2
= (I +I $. =L[2Z
2
- cn - 1)dl.
a=1 - (n - l)d,
_ (n - 1W
(1 +;+2&,~ $1. 2 s
d,z-a
n - l
= $8 - an)
P - a2
n(n - 1)
=2s-1-u
- xnl - s) .
Iz(n - 1)
l - a
r-dfl,
_ d - 2a f d(2a - d)z + 8ds
2d
-.
2s
={+a
U + d t 4\/(2t -!- d)* - 8ds.
. 2$
---,-.
1 ~-&-.A, ---.-~ -~_- ~~~~ . .
MARNI NG: Thi s is a 1910 edition. Some
of
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.
11
GEOMETRICAL PRQGBESXfON.
in a series of numbers. is a progressive increase or decrease in each sue-
cessive number by the same multiplier or divisor at each step, as 1, 2, .+ 8
16. etc., ,or 243, 81. 27. 9, etc. The common multiplier is called the ratio:
Let a = first term, 1 = last term, r = ratio or constant multiplier, 12 =
number of terms, m = any term, as 1st , 2d, etc., s = sum of the terms:
a + (T - 1)s
= _- - ,
r
= (1. - l)sr--1
r-1 L
log1 = logn + (n - l)logr, l(s - p-1 - a(~- a)n-1 = 0 .
m = arm--l
log m = log a + (m - 1) log T.
.
s = a(+ - 1) Tl - 0,
T-l = -
I+ - 1
T - l T1L -+---l .
1
a=;n-,
= CT - 1)s.
rn--1
loga=logZ-((n-1)logr.
s-u
s - 1;
s
a a
,n - -
s - l
,--l+-= .
z 0
s- 1
n = 109 1 -- hx a + 1
log r
= log [a + (T - 1)sl - log a,
log T - -
log 1 -- log n
=log(s-a)-log(s-z)+l
= lop 2 - log [lr - (r - l)sl + 1.
log r
Population of the United States.
(A problem in geometrical progression.)
Year. Population.
Increase in 10 Annual Increase,
E
31,4&3,321
Years, per cent. per cent.
39,818.449* 26. 63
:i:B xp; , ; n3; $: Z
El : ?i T: 29~: ~20
25. 96 34. 86
2. 25
1.994
191; E,st. 83.577.090
-.-- 21. 834
Est. * 1.840
91,554,ooo
Est. 20.0
1.840
Eslim.ated Population in Each Year from 1870 to 1909.
(Based on the above rates of increase, in even thousands.)
1875. . . .
)@. - . .
44. 690 1885.
45, 373 1886. : :
1078"" 46, 800 1807. . .
1879: : : : 47093 49: 011 Mm&. *
. . .
1 I
A..-
-
56, 043
57. 301
3; o";
61: 247
I WO. . . . 62, 622
l - 391. . . . 63, 871
1892. . . . 65, 145
1893. . . . 66, 444
1894. . . . 67, 770
I
-
1895. . . . 69, 122
l &396. . ' . . 70, 500
1897. . . . 71, 906
); tw&: . 73. 34;
. . 74, 803
1900. _ .
; 9"o; F. . . . .
76,295
77, 699
1903. . .
79. 129
1904. . .
80, 585
82. 067
1905. . :
p- m: : .
83, 577
~85, 115 86. 6al *
1908. . : 68, 276
19@3. . . 89, 900
-
ition of 1.260,378, estimated error of the census of
No. 16, Dec. 12, 1890.
-A...--~~ _
I
no l onger De accurate
12 ARITHMETIC.
.
The preceding table has been calculated by logarithms as follows:
iog T = log I - log a + (n - I), log m= loga + (m- 1) logr
Pop. 1900. . .76,295.220 log = 7.8824988
:890...62.622,25Olog = 7.7967285
--~-
diff. = -0857703
n = 11, 71 - 1 = 10: dii?f. + 10 = .COS57703
add Ion for 1890 7.796i2S5
: fg;
log for 1891 = 7.80530553 No. F 63,871 . . .
add again .00557703
- -
log for 1892 7.5138S256 No. = 65,145.. .
Compound interest is a form of geometrical progression; the ratio
being Z plus the percentage.
PERCEXTAGE: PROFIT AND LOSS: PER CENT
OF EFFICIENCY.
Per cent means by the hundred. A profit of 10 per cent means a
f
ain of $10 on every $100 expended. If a thing is bought for $1 and sold
or %2 the profit is 100 per cent; but if it is bought for $2 and sold for $1
the loss is not 100 per cent, but only 50 per cent.
Rule for percentage: Per cent gain or loss is the gain or loss divided by
the orizinsl cost, and the quotient multiplied by 100.
Efficiencv is dctined in engineerin, as the quotient output divided by
innrlt. that is. the ener~v utilized divided by the energy expended. The
diRer&ce between the idput and the output is the loss-Or waste of energy.
Expressed as a fraction, efficiency is nearly always less than unity. Ex-
messed as a ner cent. it is this fraction multiolied bv 1%. Thiis we mair
by that a mbtor h& an efficiency of 0.9 or df 90 per cent.
The efficiency of a boiler is the ratio of the heat units absorbed by the
boiier in heating water and making steam to the beating value of the coal I
burned. The saving in fuel due to increasine the etficiency of a boiler
from 60 to 75?& is not 25%. but only 20n0. The rule is: Divide the gain
in efficiency (15) by the greater figure (75). The amount of fuel used is
inverse!y pro ortional to the ediciency; that is, 60 Ibs. of fuel with 75%
efficiency wll do as much work as 75 lbs. *ith 60% efficiency. The .P
saving of fuel is 15 Ibs. which is 20% of 75 Ibs.
EWT!XtEST AND DISCOUNT.
Interest is money paid for the use of money for a given time: the
factors are:
z). the sum loaned. or the nrincipal:
&the time in gears; - -
T, the rate of interest:
Z. the amount of interest for the given rate and time:
Q = p + i = the amount of the principal with interest
at the end of the time.
Form&e:
i = interest = principal X time X rate per cent = i = go ;
0 = amount = principal + interest = p + g :
d - rate = E$;
P
P@
- principal = +!? = a _ 1oo;
0 P time =
.
Some if
INTEREST AND DISCOUNT. 13
If the rate is expressed decimally as a per cent, - thus, 6 per cent
= .06. - the formulie become
i=pr~;a=p(lfrt); r=A* t=..J-;
i
a .
Pt' w
p=G~l++t
Rules for finding Interest. -Multiply the principal by the rate per
annum divided by 100, and by the time in years and fractions of a year.
If the time is given in days, interest =
principal X rate X no. of dars
365X 100
In banks interest is sometimes calculatea on the basis of 360 days to a
year, or 12 months of 30 days each.
Short rules for interest at 6 per cent, when 360 days are taken as 1 year:
Multiply the principal by number of days and divide by 6000.
Multiply the principal by number of months and divide by 200.
The interest of 1 dollar for one month is f cent.
Interest of 100 Dollars for Different Times and Rates.
Time 2% 3% 4% 6% 6% 8% 10%
: %Lh
$2.F6$ &3.F5 'S4iiO $ 5 . 0 0 $6.$ $S:$) $lO.dO
1 day=& year .0055& .0083f .011i~f.013~~13.016~3 .02229
.83&
.0277g
1 day=& year .005479.008219 .010959 .013699 .016438.0219175.0273973
Discount is interest deducted for payment of money before it is due.
Truediscount isthe difference between the amount of a debt payable
at a future date without interest and its present worth. The present
worth is that sum which put at interest at the legal rate will amount to
the debt when it is due.
To find the present worth of an amount due at a future, date.,divlde;;z
amount by the amount of $1,placed at interest for the given time.
discount equals the amount minus the present worth.
What discount should be allowed on $103 paid six months before it is
due, interest being 6 per cent per annum?
103
1+1X.06X!
= $100 present worth, discount = 3.00.
;, 2
Bank.discount isthe amount deducted by a bank as interest on moneys;
loaned onJromlssory notes. It is interest calculated n$ on the. actuaA
aiim toaneu lx&t on the gross amount of the note, from w+h the &count
isdeduct& in advance. It is also calculated on the basls.of 360 days
in the year, and for 3 (in some banks 4) days more than the,tlme specified
in the note. These are called days of grace, and the note 1s not payable
till the 1st of these days. In some States days of grace have been
abolished.
What discount will be deducted by a bank in discountin
payable 6 months hence? Six months = 182 days, add 3
8
a note for $103
ays grace = 185
days, SO3 185 = $3.176.
Compoo%?hterest. - In compound
the principal at the end of each year, (or shorter
Let p = the principal, r = the rate
Years, and a the amount:
a = amount = p(1 + r)n; r = rate =
= principal =
(l &q
; no. 01 years= n==
l og a - l og 8.
log(1 + r)
__c_-.~ -.
may no' longer be
ARITHMETIC.,
Compound Interest Table.
(Value of one dollar at compound interest, compounded yearly, at
3, 4. 5, and 6 per cm&from I to 50 years.)
3
1. 3842
1%:
1. 5126
I . 5550
Der cent
__
4 5
- -
1. 04 1. 05
I . 0816 1. 1025
1. 1249 I . 1576
1. 1699 1. 2155
1. 2166 1. 2763
1. 2653 1. 3401
I . 3159 1. 4071
1. 3686 1. 4774
1. 4233 I . 5513
I . 4eO2 I .6289
i . 53941 I . 7103
1. 6010 I . 7958
1. 6651 I . 8856
I . 7317 1. 9799
1. 8009 2. 0789
6
I .Ob
I.1236
1 :E
I .3362
I.4165
1. 5036
1 : E
I . 79oe
I . e9e3
2. 0122
%E
2. 3965
3
2. 4272
: : E
3. 7815
4, 383e
Per cent
- -
4 5 6
- -
1. 8730 2. 1829 2. 5403
I . 9479 2. 2920 2. 6928
2.0258 2.4066 2.6543
2. 1068 2. 5269 3. 0256
2. 1911 2. 6533 3. 2071
2. 2787 2. 7859~ 3. 3995
2. 3699 2. 9252 3. 6035
2.4647 3.0715 3.8197
2. 5633 3. 225, 4. 0487
2. 6658 3. 3863 4. 2919
3. 2433 4. 3219 5. 7435
3. 9460 5. 5159 7.6862
4. 8009 7. 0398 I O. 2858
5. 8410 8. 9847 13. 7648
7. !064 11. 4670 14. 4204
At compound interest at 3 per cent money wiii double itself in 23 r/z years.
at 4 per cent in I7213 years, at 5 per cent in 14.2 years, and at 6 per cent in
11.9 years.
EQUATION OF PAYMENTS.
By equation of payments we find the e uivalent or averagetime in
which one payment should be made to cance a number of obligations due P
at different dates; also the number of days upon which to calculate interest
or discount upon a gross sum which is composed of several smaller sums
payable at different dates.
Bulo. - Multiply each item by the time of its maturity in days from a
fixed date, taken as a standard, and divide the sum of the products by
the sum of the items: the result IS the average time in days from the stana-
cxY3 cl9tn
.4 owes B $100 due in 30 days, $200 due in 60 days, and $300 due in 90
days. In how many days may the whole be paid in one sum of $6007
100X30+200X60+300X90=42, 000; 42. 000+600=70 days, mhs.
A owes B 8100. 8200, and $300. which amounts are overdue respectively
30. 60. and 90 days. If he now
days interest should he pay on tR
ays the whole amount, $600, how many
at sum? Am. 70 days.
PARTIAL PA~YMENTS.
To compute interest on notes and bonds when partial payments have
been made.
of
Unit~ed States Rule. - Find the amount of the principal to the time
the Erst payment. and. subtracting. the payment from it, find .the
am;mt of the remainder as a new pnncipai to the time of,the next pay-
.
_ _ ,I
w--w-. I_-~. .--~..--,~ _-. ~__-_- ,~.^ .,
WARNING: Thi s is a 1910 edition. Some~f
ANNUITIES.
.15
TI +hena.vment. is less than the interest. find the amount of the Principal
toThy&;%& the&n of the payments equals or exceeds the interest
rune and subtract the sum of the payments from this amount.
-*$roceed in this manner till the-time of settlement.
Note. - The principles upon which the prece .I:; rule is found.ed are:
1st. That payments must be applied first to discharge accrued interest,
and thenthe remainder, if any, toward the discharge of the principal.
2d. That only unpaid principal can dram interest.
3Icreantile 3Iethod. -When partial payments are made on short
notes or interest accounts, business men commonly employ the foilowmg
method:
Find the amount of the whole debt to the time of settlement; also find
the amount of each payment from the time it was made to the time of
settlement. Subtract the amount of payments from the amount of the
debt: the remainder will be the balance due.
ANNUITIES.
AnA.nrnrity is a Exed sum of money paid yearly, or at other equal times
agreed upon. The values of annuities are calculated by the principles of
compound interest.
1. Let i denote interest on $1 for a year, then at the end of a year t.he
amollnt will be 1 + i. At the end of II. years it will be (1 + 01.
.
2. The sum which in n years will amount to 1 is (1 ; d),i or (i +i) -nS
or the present value of 1 due in n years.
*
.
3. The amount of an annuity of 1 in any number of years n is
(1 f i)-1.
i
4. The present value of an annuity of 1 for any number of years n is
1 - (If G--n.
i
5. The annuity which 1, will purchase for any number of years n is
1 - (1; i)-, .
6. The annuity which would amount to 1 in n years is (1 i Ok _ l *
Amounts, Present Values, etc., at 5% Interest.
I . .
;; :
5. :
6 . .
i: :
1:: :.
.
(1) (2)
(I++ (i+%f
1. 05 . 9523el
1. 1025 1. 157625 : I %: : ; :
l l : z%;
. e22702
.783526
( 3)
I +i ) n- i
i
1. 00
2. 05
3. 1525
4. 310125
5.52563 I
6.801913
8. 142008
9. 549109
II .026564
12. 577893
.952381
1. 859410
2. 723248
3. 545951
4. 329477
5.075692
5.786373
6.4632 I 3
1. 05
. 537805
: %Z
. 230975
. I 97017
: 1: %
. 140690
. ~129505
iT
.-
(6)
i
I - i - p- 1
I . oo
. 487eo5
: ; : k%
. I 80975
ARITHMETIC.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
TABLBS FOB CALCULATING SINKING-FUNDS
PRESENT VALUES.
Engineers and .others connected with municipal work and industrial
enterprises often find it necessary to calculate payments t.o sinking-funds
which will provide a sum of money sufficient to pay off a bond issue or
other debt at the end of a given period, or to determine the present value
of certain annual charges. The zcompanying tables were computed by
hfr. John W. Hill. of Cincinnati, Engg News. Jan. 25, 189-L
Table I (opposite pqge) shows the annual sum at various rates of interest
required to net SlOOO m from 2 to 50 years, and Table II shows the present
value at various rates of interest of an annual charge of $1000 for from 5
to 50 years, at five-year intervals, and for 100 years.
Table IL - Capitaiization of Annuity of 31COO for
from6 to 100 Years.
Rate of Interest. per cent.
2% 3 3 l/2 4 4% 6 6V2 6
5 4, 645. 88 4. 57960 4, 514. 92 4. 451. 66 4. 329. 45 4. 268. 09 4, 212. 40
10 8. 752. 17 8. 530. 13 8, 316. 45 8. 110. 74
4, 389. 91
7. 912. 67 7. 721. 73 7. 537. 54 7. 360. 19
I 5 12 381. 41
15 589. 215
Il,937.80 11. 517. 23 Ii.1 18.06 i O. 739. 42 10. 379. 53 10. 037. 48 9. 712. 30
20
18y424. 67
I 4 877. 27 14 212. 12
25 17: 413. 01 16: 481. 28
13, 590. 21 13, 007. 88 12. 462. 13 11. 950. 26 11. 469. 96
15. 621. 93 14. 828. 12 14. 093. 86 13. 413. 82 12. 783. 38
19 600. 21 18 391. 85 17 291. 86 16 288. 77 15~372. 36 I 4 533. 63 I 3 764. 85
21 487. 04 20 000. 43 18 664. 37 17 460. 89 16: 374. 36 15: 390. 48 14: 488. 65
23 1 14. 36 21 354. 83 19 792. 65 18: 401. 49 17, 159. Ol 16. 044. 92 15. 046. 31
24 518. 49 22 495. 23 20 719. 89 19. 156. 24 17. 773. 99 16. 547. 65 15. 45S. 85
25 729. 58 23 455. 21 21: 482. 08 19, 761. 93 18. 255. 86 16. 931. 97 15. 761. 87
31: 598. 81 271655. 36 24. 504. 9621. 949. 21 19. 847. 90 18. 095. 83 16. 612. 64
WEPGRTS AND MEASURES.
Lbng Measure. -Measures of Length.
1; k:P = 1 foot.
= 1 yard.
1760 yards, gr 5280 feet = 1 mile.
Additional measures of length in occasional use: 1000 mils = 1 inch:
4 inches = 1hand; 9 inches = 1 span; 2% feet = 1 military pace: 2 yards
= 1 fathom: 51/2 yards, or 161/z feet = 1 rod (formerly also called pole Or
perch).
Old Land Pleasure. - 7.92 inches = 1 link: 100 links, or 66 feet. or 4
rods = 1 chain; 10 chains, or 220 yards = 1 furlong; 8 furlongs, or 80
chains = 1 mile; 10 square chains = 1 acre.
Nautical Measure.
6080.2\~~~ip& 1.15156 str+t- ) I: y,;;z mile, or knot.*
,Zj nautica!
lcitl
m$zs
^^_^^ .
mues, or tiy.108
abatute miles )=
1 degree (at the equator).
=circumferenceof theearthat theequator.
I .:1
60 degrees
m~rimirn.l+.v ta.ken t,hn round figure of 6080 ft. which is the * The British ____ _ .___ __ ______ . .._ ~~~
length of the measured &le used in trials gf vessels. The value varies
:rom 6080.26 to 6088.44 ft. according to different measures of the earths
diameter. There is a difference of opinion among writers as to. the use
Of the word knot to mean length or a distance - some holdmg that
it should be used only to denote a rate of s eed. The length between s
knots on the lop l i mis l/,~nof a nautical mle. or 50.7 ft., when a half:
LUGa De? hour.
&id;s~ th% a$&ed of IO knots is equ& to 10 nautical minute glass is
. . . . . . . . . . . ..~. . . . . . . .
. . .
rmOVIIO h4)rnO- N*-$ul.Q
-- --v-w !x?E$~
L%s95:
edition.
18 ARITHMETIC.
Square Measure. -Measures of Surface.
144 sq~~c$~hes, or 183.35 circular
I =
1 square foot.
9 square feet
30114 square yards, or 272114 square feet
= 1 square yard,
10 sq. chains, or 160 sq. rods, or 4S40 sq.
_ 1 square rod.
yards, or 43560 sq. feet
1 acre.
640 acres = 1 square mile.
An acre equals a sq.uare whose side is 205.71 feet.
Circular Inch; Circular Mil. - A circular inch is the area of a circle
1 inch in diameter = O.i854 square inch.
1 square inch = 1.2732 circular inches.
A circular mil is the area of a circle 1 mil or 0.001 inch in diameter.
10002 or 1,000,OOO circular mils = 1 circular inch.
1 square inch = 1.273,239 circular mils.
The mil and circular mil are used in electrical calculations involving
the diameter and area of wires.
Solid or Cubic Measure. -Measur es of Val ume.
1725 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot.
27 cubic feet. = 1 cubic yard.
1 cord of wood = a pile, 4 X 4 X 8 feet = 128 cubic feet.
1 perch of masonry = 161/s X 11/s X 1 foot = 243/d cubic feet.
L i qui d M easur e.
4 eills =1 ni nk
Old Liquid Measures. - 31 r/s gailons = 1 barrel: 42 galions = 1 tierce;
2 barrels, or 63 gallons = 1 hogshead: 84 gallons, or 2 tierces = 1 pun-
cheon; 2 hogsheads, or 126 gallons = 1 pipe or butt;.? pipes, or 3 pun-
cheons = 1 tun.
A gallon of~water at 62 F. weighs 8.3356 Ibs.
The U. S. gallon contains 231 cubic inches; 7.4805 gallons = 1 cubic
foot. A cyiinder 7 in. diam. and 6 in. high contains 1 gallon. very nearly
or 220.9 cubic niches. The British Imperial gallon contains 277.274 cub&
Inches = 1.20032 U. S. gallon, or 19 Ibs. of water at 62 F.
The gallon is a very troublesome unit for engineers. Much labor might
be saved if it were abandoned and the cubic foot used instead. The
capacity of a tank or reservoir should be stated in cubic feet..and the
$tp,e:sof a pump in cubic feet per second or in millions of cubic
One cubic foot per second = 86,400 cu. ft. in 24 hours.
million cu. ft. per 24 hours = 11.5741 cu. ft. per sec.
feeAt.;
The MinersInch. - (Western U. S. for measuring flow of a stream
of water.) An act of the California legislature. May 23. 1991. makes the
standard miners inch 1.5 cu. ft. per mmute, measured through any aper-
ture or orifice.
The term &liners Inch is more or less indefinite, for the reason that Cali-
fornia water corn anies do not all use the same head above the centre of
the aperture. an$the mch varies from 1.36 to 1.7.3 cu. ft. per min., but
the most common measurement is through an aperture 2 ins. high and
whatever length is required, and through a plank IV4 ins. thick. The
lower edge of the aperture should be 2 ins. above the bottom of the meas-
uring-bos.and the plank 5 ins. high above the aperture, thus making a 6-in.
head above the centre of the stream. Each square mch of this opening
represents a mmers mch, which is equal to a flow of 1 r/z cu. ft. per min.
Apothecaries Fluid Measure.
60 minims - 1fluid drachm. 8 drachms = 1 fluid ounce.
In the U. S. a fluid ounce is the 128th part of a U. S. gallon. or 1.805
cu. ins. It contains 456.3 grains of water at 39O F. In Great Britain
the.fluid ounce is 1.732 cu. ins. and contains 1 ounce avoirdupois, or 437.5
,-ITwJ~~~~ at 62 F.
---_. A-- _-__--._-. _..~ ~-..-~ - - -
;WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 19
Dry Measure, U. S.
2 pints = 1 SW@. 8 quarts = 1 peck. 4 pecks = 1 bushel.
The standard U. S. bushel is the Winchester bushel, which is in cylinder
form, 181/s inches diameter and 8 inches deep, and, contains 2150.42 cubic
inches. I
A struck bushel contains 2150.42 cubic inches = 1.2445 cu. ft.: 1 cubic
foot = 0.80356 struck bushel. A heaped bushel is a cylinder 18% i.nches
diameter aud 8 inches deep, with a heaped cone not less than 6 inches
high. It is e uai to lV4 struck bushels.
The British9rnperial bnshe! is based on the Imperial gallon, and contains
,y such gailor?s. or -1 ~Q18.192 cubic inches = 1.2837 cubic feet. The Engiish
quarter = 8 Imperial bushels.
Capacity of a cylinder m U. S. gallons =, square of diameter. in inches
X height m inches X .0034. (Accurate within 1 part i,n lOO,OqO.),
Capacity of a cylinder in U. S. bushels = square of diameter in mches
X height in inches X0.0003652.
Shipping Measure.
Regisler Tan. -For register tonnage or for measurement of the entire
internal capacity of a vessel:
100 cubic feet = 1 register ton.
This number is arbitrarily assumed to facilitate computation.
.S/tipping Ton. - For the measurement of cargo:
I
1 U. S. shipping ton.
49 cubic feet = 31.16 Imp. bushel s.
32. 143, I J . ST _
42 cubic feet = &$r~~$%$$s?
I . .
Carpenters Rule. -Weight a vessel will carry = length of keel X
breadth at main beam X depth of hold in feet f 95 (the cubic feet
allowed for a ton). The result will be the tonnage.
For a double-decker
instead of the depth of the hold take half the breadth of.the beam.
Measures of Weight. -W$wEtdupois, or Commerebjl
.
drachms, or 437.5 grains = 1 ounce, oz.
ounces, or 7000 grains = 1 pound, l b.
pounds - 1 quarter, qr.
quarters
= 1 hundredweight. cwt. = 112 Ibs.
ii;uiFsd weight
= 1ton of 2240 Ibs., gross or long ton.
= 1net, or short. ton.
.6 pounds = 1 metric ton.
1 stone = 14 pounds; 1 quintal = 100 pounds.
drachm, quarter, hundredweight, stone, and qmntaI are now
used in the United States.
Troy Weight.
24graitw = 1 pennyweight, dwt. .
g ~~~~weights = 1 ounce, oz. = 489 grains.
= 1 pound, lb. = 5760 grains.
Troy weight is used for weighing gold and silver. Tbigraic; tk;gTz
fn Avoirdupois, Troy, and Apothecaries waghts.
*
weighing diamonds = 3.168 grains = 0.205 gramme. .:
.-me--cc_- .
material may nolonger be accurate .
,,, ,,,, ~,,
20 ~~~ITHMETIC.
Apothecaries Weight.
20 grains = 1 scruple. a
3 scruples = 1 dracbm. 3 = 60 grains.
8 drachms - 1 ounce. 3 = 480 grains.
12 ounces = 1 pound, lb. = 5760 grains.
To determine whether a balance has unequal arms. - After weigh-
ing an article and obtaining equilibrium. transpose 4h.e article and the
weights. If the balance is true, it will remain in equrbbnum; if untrue,
the pan suspended from the longer 97~ wirr de~pend II .-.A. .,a.. UCVVIYU.
To weigh correctly on an in--~---- ~.~~~~~~~--. [correct balance. - First. bv substitu-
tlon. Put the article to be weighed in one an of the balance and counter-
nnine it bv anv convenient heavv artic es P Dlaced on the other nan.
whence 1 mean solar day is 3~ 558.91 lunger than a sidereal day, reckoned
In mean solar time.
R<mo& the article to be weighed and substitute for it standard weights
until equipoise is again established. Tile amount of these weights is the
weight of the article.
Second. by transposition. Determine the apparent weight of the
article as usual, then its apparent weight after transposing the article and
the weights. If the difference is small, add half the difference to the
smaller of the apparent weights to obtam the true weight. If the differ-
ence is 2 ner cent the error of this method is 1 Dart in 10.990. For larger
differen&. or to obtain a perfectly accurate result, multiply the two
apparent weights together and extract the square root of the product.
CireuIar Measure.
.
60 seconds, * = 1 minute, .
60 minutes, = 1 degree, O.
90 decrees = 1 ouadrant.
360 . ~" = cirtiumference.
Arc of angle of 57.3. or 369 + 6.2832 = 1 radian = the arc whose length
is equal to the radius.
Time.
60 seconds = 1 minute.
;; pjn;stes = 1 hour.
= 1 day.
365 days, 5 ho%sl,% ~min%w~%econds = 1 year.
B the Gregorian Calendar every year whose number is divisible ey 4
is a eap year, and contains 366 days, the other years containing 365 days, T
except. that the centesimal years are leap years only when the number of
the year is divisible by 400.
The comparative values of mean solar and sidereal time are shown by
the following relations according to Bessel:
365.24222 mean solar days = 366.24222 sidereal days, whence
1 mean sol ar day = I.00273791 sidereal days:
1 sid eal day = 0.99726957 mean solar day;
24 hours mean so ar tune = 24h 3 f . 5e.555 sidereal time:
24 hours sidereal time = 23a 56~1 4a.991 mean solar time,
BOARD AND TIRIBER MEASURE.
Board Measure.
In board measure boards are assumed to be one inch in thickness. To
obtain the number of feet board measure !B. M.) of a board or stick of
square trmber. multiply together the length in feet, the breadth in feet,
and the thickness in Inches.
TO compute the measure or surface in square feet. - When all
dimensions are in feet, multiply the length by the breadth, and the prod-
UCt wdl give the surface required. .
-
Some of
WEIGHTS AND ME.4SLJRES. 21
When either of the dimensions are in inches, multiply as above and
divide the product by 12.
When all dimensions are in inches, multiply as before and divide product
by 144.
Timber Measure.
To compute the volume of round timber. i When all dimensions
are in feet, multiply the length by one quarter of the product of the mean
girth and diameter. and the product will give the measurement m cubi c
feet. When length is given in feet, and girth and diameter in inches,
divide the product by 144; when all the dimensions are in inches, divide
.~ ~. . On
oy l,%O.
To compute the volume of square timber. -When all dimensions
are in feet, multiply together the length, breadth, and depth; the product
will be the volume in cubic feet. When one dimension is given in inches
divide by 12. when two dimensions are in inches, divide by 144; when &
three dimensions are in inches, divide by 1728.
Contents in Feet of J oists, Scantllng, and Timber.
Length in Feet.
Si ze. / 12 1 14 1 16 1 18 1 20 ( zz 1 24 / 26 / 28 1 30
, - -
Feet Board Measure.
-
9
i g"
23
26
19
;
56
65
42
%
84
90
; ;
2'i
I i 7
1: ;
168
196
229
-
i
,
- . .
~, : ,, , ,, ,~ ,,: ,::
,22 AFIITH METIC.
FRENCH OR METRIC MXASURES.
The-metric unit of length is the metre = 39.37 inches.
The metric unit of weight is the gram = 15.432 grains.
The following prefixes are used for subdivisions and muitiples: Milli =
%ooq, Centi = Vito. Deci = i/10. Deca = 10, Hecto = 100, Kilo = 1000,
blyns = 10,000.
FBENCH ANl BRITISH (AND AMERICAN)
EQUIVALENT RIEASURES.
Measures of Length.
FRENCA. BRITISH and U. S.
1 .metre
0. 3048 metre
z ;9i.&inches, or 3.25083 feet, or 1.09361 yards.
1 centimetre = 0.$937 inch.
2.54 centi,metres = 1 inch.
1 miilimeire = 0.03937 inch, or l/25 inch, nearly.
25.4 miilimetres = 1 inch.
1 kilometre - 1093.61 yards, or 0.62137 mile.
Of Surface.
FRENiX. BRITISH and U. S.
1 square metre
0.836 square metre
7 ( y:;;6 ;;gg fy;&.
0.0929 square metro
= 1square yard.
= 1 souare foot.
square centimetre
square centimetres
square millimetre
square millimetres
centiare = 1 sq. metre
are = 1 sq. decametre
hectare = 160 a:es
sq, ki!ometre
sq. myriametre
0.155 square inch.
1 square inch.
0.00155 sq. in. = 1973.5 circ. mils.
1 souare inch
:C);66&squEre feet.
I
107641 = 2.4711 acres.
&$%3; 3~9 s$. mi !es = 247. 11 ,
Of Volume.
FRENCH.
1 cubic metre
9.7645 cubic metre
0.02832 cubic metre
BRITISI and U. 8..
1 cubic decimetre
= { &g& ,;g p:;
28.32 cubic decimetres = 1 cubic ioot.
1 cubic centimetre = cubic~inch. 0.061
1 16.387 cubic centimetres cubic centimetre= 1 miliiiitre = = 1 cubic inch.
1 ceatilitre = 0.061
1 decihtre =
0. 610
cuiic irip.
1 iitre = 1 cubic decimetre 6. 102 ; : : ;
1 hectoiitre or decistere
=61. 023 = 1.05671 quarts,
=3.5314 cubic feet =2.5375 bushels,
1 stere, kfioiitre, or cubic metre=1.308 cubic yards-228.37 bushels,
ug.3.
L
Of Capacity.
F R E N C H. BRITISR and Il. S.
t
61. 023 cubic inches,
1 iitre <- 1 cubic decimetre) =
0.03531 cubic foot,
0.2642 gallon (American),
28.317 litres
2.202 pounds of water at 62O F.
4.543 litres
= 1 cubic foot.
3.785 Iitres
= 1 gallon (British).
= 1 gallon (American).
I
WE IGH TS AND MEASURES. 23
I
FRENCH.
Of Weight.
BRITISH and U. 5.
0. 064: : : : : i %
= 15.432 grains.
28.35 gramme
= 1 grain.
1 kilogramme
= 1 ounce avoirdupois.
0.4536 kilogramme
= 2.2046 pounds.,
= 1 pound.
1 tonne or metric ton = 0.9S42 ton of 2240 pounds,
1000 kilogrammes =
I
19.68 cwts..
1.016 metric tons
2204.6 pounds.
=
1016 kilogrammes =
1
1 ton of 2240 pounds.
Mr. 0. H. Titmann, in Bulletin No. 9 of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey, discusses the work of various authorities who have compared the
yard and the metre, and by referring all the observations to a common
standard has succeeded in reconciling the discrepancies within very
narrow limits. The following are his results for the number of inches in a
metre according to the compariso ns of the authorities named: 1817.
Hassler, 39.36994 in. 1818. Kater, 39.36990 in. 1835. Baily, 39.36973
in. 1866. Clarke. 39.36970in. 1885. Comstock. 39.36984 in. The mean
of these is 39.36982 in
The value of the metre is now defined in the U.,S. laws as 39.37 inches.
French and British Equivalents o! Compound Units.
FRENCH. BRITISH.
i gramme per square miilimetre
1 kiloaramme ner souare
1
-1. - 1 - .A
centimetre
1.0335 kg. er sq. cm. = 1 atmosphere
0.070308 ki ogramme per square centimetre P
1 kilogrammetre
1 gramme per litre = 0.062428 lb. per cu. ft.
of Water at 62 F.
1grain per gallon = 1 part in 58,349
= 0.017138 grammes per litre.
1.422 12s. p,x s$. ifi.
1422.32
; : $23 : ; : : ; ; ; :
llb. per square inch.
7.2330 foot-pounds.
58.349 grains per U. S gal.
1.7138 parts per 100,000
METRIC CONVERSION TARLES.
The following tables, with the subjoined memoranda, were published
in 1890 by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, office of standard
weights and measures, T. C. Mendenhall, Superintendent.
Tables for Converting U. S. Weights and Measures -
Customary to Metric.
6=
7=
6=
9=
Inches to Milii-
metrcs.
152. 4003
I 77. 8004
%t%
LINEAR.
Feet to Metres.
I . 828804
2. 133604
2. 438405
2. 743205
Yards to Metres.
0. 914402
1 I 328004
2. 743205
3. 657607
4. 572009
5. 48641 I
6. 400813
7. 315215
8. 229616
Miles to Kilo-
metres.
I A0935
3. 21869
4. 02804
6. 43739
. . ~ 0. 04674
9. 65600
I I . 26543
12. 87470
14. 40412
----_ _
material may no longer IFaccuratC .
ARITHMETIC.
METRIC CONVERSION TABLES. 25
24
-
7-
SQUARE.
WEIGHT.
3quare In&e3 to squsre Feet to
Square Centi- Square Deci-
metrw. metres.
Square Yards to
Square Metres.
Avoirdupois
Pounds to Kilo-
grammw.
:rains to Miiii-
grZMIUXlW.
64. 7909
129.5978
194. 3968
259. 1957
323. 9946
388. 7935
453. 5924
518. 3914
5s3. 1903
Acres to
Hectares.
31. 10348
"9Ei E
124. 41392
155. 51740
EZ~:
05. 0486
113. 3981
141. 7476
-vxBruuur-w
--vL-.-~~ - ._- ~- ._____
j WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
l =
gz
4=
5=
6=
7=
t3=
. 9=
-
6. 452
12. 903
19. 355
25. 807
32. 250
X?
51. 613
58. 065
9. 290
18. 581
27. 871
37. 161
46. 452
tE; ; i
74. 323
83. 613
K%
;::::
4. 181
5. 017
5. 853
%
04047
YE; '
I : 6187
2. 0234
2. 4281
E: 72:
3. 6422
170. 0972
198. 4467
226. 7962
255. 1457
186. 62089
217. 72437
240. 02705
279. 93133
ZE
3. 62874
4. 08233
-2
1 chai n = 20. 1169 metres.
I square mi l e = 259 nectares.
I fathom = 1. 829 me&s.
I n~uti cal mi k. = 1853. 27 metres.
I foot = 0. 304801 metre.
1 av&. pound = 453. 5924277 graces
15432. 35639 grains = I kilogramme.
Cubic Yards to
Cubic Metrea.
0. 765
1. 529
%:
3. 823
4. 587
5. 352
%A?
CAPACITY.
-
-
_-
-
-
-
-
Quarts to Litrea
5. 67816
yg
8. 5172;
CUBIC.
-
Cubic Inches to Cubic Feet to
Cubic Centi-
metres.
!
Cubic Metree.
.
Tables for Converting U. S. Weights and Measures -
Metric to Customary.
Bushels to
Hectolitrw.
-
l =
2=
3=
4=
5=
6=
7=
8=
9=
LINEAR. 16. 387
32. 774 %Z%
49. 161 65. 549 EE
81. 936 0. 14158
90. 323
i i 4. 7i O t%: ~
131. 097 147. 484 I %Z
0. 35242
. 0. 70485
1. 05727
I : %?: :
2. 11454
; : : Ei
3. 17181
1. 093611~
2. 187222
3. 280833
; mm; ;
3. 28083
6. 56: 67
9. 84250
13. 12333
16. 40417
19. 68500
- 22. 96583
26. 24667
29. 52750
-
-
-
I =
2=
3=
4=
5=
6=
7=
8=
9=
3. 72822
4. 34959
4. 97096
5. 59233
6. 561667
7. 655270
0. 748809
9. 042500
E%
314. 9600
354. 3300
i-z
2=
3=
4=
5=
-
,
_ -
Fluid Dracbma
to Millilitres or
Cul&0~,nti-
SQUARE.
GF%E2
Fluid Ounces to
Millilitrea.
7-i
-
tc
-
Square Centi-
metros to
Square Inches.
I ,
.-
I
Square Metres
3 Square Yards.
1. 196- - -
2. 392
3. 588
4. 704
5. 980
Square Metrea
to Square Feet.
I
:::t
11. 09
I t: :
; : : A:
29. 57
33. 28
$E
80. 72
118. 30
147. 87
177. 44
207. 02
236. 59
266. 16
37::;:84:
11. 35632
15. !4176
18. 92720
22. 71264
26. 49800
30. 28352
34. 06896
2. 471
; : : : ;
9. 884
12. 355.
10. 764
2 1 . 5 2 8
E%
53. 819
0.1550
0. 3100
Ez *
0. 7750
1%
1 9 . 7 6 8
22. 239
;= 0. 9300 64. 583 75. 347 3 8: i : %t 86. 111 9. 568
~; 9= 13950 96. 874 10. 764
> .
- -
matt2ri a 1 G~hger i Faccurate '
.
Some of the
6 ,ARITHMETIC.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 27
Milliem or Tonnes to
Pounds Av.
Quint& to
Pounds Av.
/
220. 46
2: ; i
881. 84
1102. 30
Gmmmw t o Ouncea.
T r o y .
0. 03215
0. 06430
5 0. 09645
Z%
%%
0. 25721
0. 28936
,
Cubic Centi- Cubic Deci-
metros to Cubic metres to Cubic
Inches. Inches,
Cubic Metros
Cubic Feet.
?ubic Metros to
Cubic Yards.
6=
7=
8=
9=x
0. 3661
EG
0. 5492
61. 023
1i EJ ; ; :
244. 093
305. 117
1.308
$.Z:
5. 232
6. 540
7. 048
9. 156
I ?: %
35.314
70. 629
105.943
141. 258
176. 572
1 X2
1763. 68
1982. 14
366. 140
427. 163
i %: ; : (:
%:Z
282. 516
317. 830

The British Avoirdupois pound was derived from the British standard
Troy pound of 1758 by direct comparison, and it contains 7000 grams Troy.
The grain Troy is therefore the same as the gram Avondupors, and. the
pound Avoirdupois in use in the United1 States is equal to the Bntlsh
CAPACITY,
pound Avoirdupois.
By the concurrent action of the principal governments of the world an
International Bureau of Weights and Measures has been estabhshed near
-
_
T
--
Litres to
Quarts.
Milhlitres or
Cubic Centi-
litzw to Fluic
Drachms.
0. 338
0. 676
1. 014
1. 352
1. 691
2. 029
2. 360
' t170h
3. 043
Hektolitres
to
Bushels.
Paris.
The International Standard Metre is derived from the Metre des
Archives, and its length is defined by the distance between two lmes at Go
C$n~~grade. on. a platmum-rrrdmm bar deposIted at the Internatronal
The International Standard Kilogramme is a mass of platinum-iridium
deposited at the same place, and its weight fn vaeuo is the same as that of
the Kilogramme des Archives.
Conies of these internat.iona! standards are deposited in the oflice of
standard weights and measures of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
The litre is e ual to a cubic decimetre of water, and it is measured b
the quantity o distilled water which, at its maxnnum density. WI 1 I
I
counterpoise the standard kilogramme m a vacuum: the~volume of such
a quantity of water being. as nearly as has been ascertamed, equal to a
cubic decimetre.
The metric svstem was legalized in the United States in 1866,.
Mar!!
1. 0567
2. 1134
i : : ; : ;
5. 2834
6. 3401
7. 3968
t: : : : :
2. 6417
5: E
10. 5668
13. 2085
15. 6502
18. 4919
21. 1336
23. 7753
2. 8375
5. 6750
8. 5125
11. 3500
t4. 1075
1. 62
1. 89
; :
2. 16
2. 43
attempts weremade during the 40 years following to have tne U. S.
Congress pass laws to~make the metric system the le al standard. but they
have all failed. Similar attempts in Great Britain Kave also failed. For
arguments for and against the metric systemsee~the report of a COIIHAittee
of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1903. Vol. 24.
WEIGHT.
Hectogrammes
( 100 grammw)
to Ounces Av.
o o?nFiY F
Avoirdupois. COMPOuND UNITS.
. Measures of Pressure and Weight.
I =
2=
3=
$z
6=
7=
6==
9==
-
-_
-
0. 01543
%%!!;
0. 06173
0. 07716
3. 5274
7. 0548
1%~;
17. 6370
E9Z
6. 61386
a. 81849
I I . 02311
15432.36
30864. 71
46297. 07
61729. 43
77161. 78
92594. 14
108026. 49
123458. 85
138891. 21
1lb. per square inch.
.
1 ounce per sq. in.
0. 12346
0. 13889
21. 1644 13. 22773
24. 6918 15. 43235
20. 2192 17. 63697
31. 7466 19. 84159
1atmosphere (14.7 Ibs. per 4
.l
-_
-**Da% ---~..- ---~ - - ~..-..-I_.~~ ~~. ~; _ .2J
j WARNING: This is a 1910 edition, Some of
I
L-
ie material may no
28 ~I~ITH~VE~XC.
COMPOUND UNITS - ~Co?~tinued).
I
inch of water at 132~ F. zx
inch of water at 32O F. =:
foot of water at 62O F. =
i
inch of mercury at 62O P.
0. 03609 l b. or . 5774 oz. per sq.in.
5. 196 I bs. per square foot.
0.0736 in. of mercury at 62 F.
5.2021 lbs. per square foot.
0. 036i 25 i b. Lo .
0. 433 ib. per sq+are !;I
62. 355 Ibs.
0. 491 lb. or 7.86 oz. per sq. in.
1. 132 ft. of water at 62O F
13.58 ins. 1 62O F:
Weight of One Cubic Foot of Pure Water.
.4! 32 F. (freezing-point). .
39.1 F. (maximum de~ii~iiyj;:::.
62.418 Ibs.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62. 425
1: 62 F. (standard temperature).. .
212 F. (boiling-point, under 1 atm&&.rej*.i:: : 1: 59.76
62. 355 : :
Ameri can gal l on = 231
British = 277. 274
cubic if. $f wa$r ?t 62;F. z ;i;;;; Ibs.
Weight and Volume of Air.
SC Pressure weighs 0.080728 lb.
1. per sq. in.
rices per sq. in.
hes of water at. F\YJ W
1cubic ft. of air at 32 F. and atmosphe..
1 ft. in height of air at 32O F. =
0. 0005606 I h
0.008g70 ou,
0. , 015534 inc
~------ -.
For air at any other temperature T Fahr. multiply by 460 + (460 + T).
1 lb. prezsure p:r sq. ft.
1 .
=
12. 387 ft. of air at 32O F.
1 ounce (
sr9. ,?.
=1784.
I inch of water at 62O F.
= 111.48
: ; 1: 1;
I I
a.
Par air at any other temperatu=;k m$& iy ;4$0 + T)+ 460.
1 atmosphere = 14.696 lb. per sq. in. = 760 mm; or 29.9: in. of niercury.
Measures of Work, Power, and Dut y .
Work. -The sustained exertion of pressure through space.
through a space of one foot.
unit of wor k . - Gne foot-pound, i.e., a pressure of one pound exerted
ft.-ibs. per minute, or 550 ft.-lb
Horse-power. -The rate of work. Unit of horse-power = 33 000
. s per second = 1,980,OOO ft.-lbs. per hour
Heat unit =heat required to raise 1 l b. of water lo F. (from 39 to 40~):
Horse-power expressed in heat units = 3m =
,-
42.416 heat units per
minute = 0.707 heat unit per second = 254i7Eeat units per hour.
1 lb. of fuel per H. I?. per hour =
1
v545heat units
1 980 000 ft.-lbs. p$r I,?. ,f fEeI.
~.000~000 ft.-h. per lb. of fuel =i.98 Ibs. of fuel per H. P. per hour.
Velocity.-Feet persecond= gz = !%?
15 X miles per hour.
Gross
tons per mi l e
1760
q 2% = i$h. per yard (single rail.)
WIRE AND SHEET-METXL GAUGES.
29
WISE AND SE&T-METAL GAUGES COMPARED.
%lEZ
00000
0000 . 454 . 46
3 . 259 . 22942
9 . I 48
. I 34
. I 1443
10 . I 0189
; ; . f g . y#;
13 : Q95 : 07196
14 , 083 . 064OP
15 , 072
16 , 065
. 0570:
. 0508:
17 . 058 . 04521
18 . 049 . 0403
19 . 0421 . 0358
20 . 035 . 03 191
21 . 032 . 02841
22 . 028 . 0253,
23 , 025 . 0225
; ; . g2 . 0201
26 : Ol 8 : : !: tf
27 . 016 . 0141
28 . 014 . 0126
29 . 013 . 0112
30 . 012 31 . Ol : pg
32 . 009 . 0079
3 3 . 008 . 0070
34 . 007 . 0063
35 . 005 . 0056
36 . 004 . 005
23 : : i %
39 : oo: :
-c .
%
gpj
.m E$
32-m
asg
g& $2
DsF6
.
inch.
.49
22
:%
. 33 I
: %
. 263
: %
. 207
: %
: E
1 . I 35
. I 2
. 105
, . 092
; . 08
:
. 072
a63
6
: %
i
104 I
. 035
;
. 032
7 : %
, 023
. 02
ZJ
. 01- s
. 017
2
. Ol 6
. Oi 5
i : k%
z : I %
. 01
I . OQ
, 009
i ; : E
. 0075
4 . 007
-
.
ritish Imperial
Standard
iWire Gauge.
ndard
ritain
i884.)
Illim.
!. 7
. 78
1. 97
1%
@
162
. Oi
i . 4
3. 89
i . 38
1. 88
1. 47
t: : :
r g
i : 64
1. 34
: : : :
1. 63
3
! . 02
: : I
. 71
. 6l
. 56
. 51
. 46
: Z
. 35
. 31
: Z
3:
. 21
11;
: I :
3
: A:
: : ;
: oO
: E
. 025
.~
--_ .~A~--
i he material ' Mornay no' l onger be accurate
WIRE AND SHEET-METAL GAUGES. 31 30
ARITHMETIC.
EDISON, OR CIRCULAR BIIL GAUGE, FOR ELRC-
TRICAL WIRES.
TEE EDISON OR CIRCULAR MIL WKRE GAUGE.
I
For tab& of copper wires by this gauge, giving weights, electrical
rw stances, etc., see Copper Wire.)
Mr. C. J. Field (Stevens Indicalor, July, 1887) thus describes the origin
T
&z&r
Diam-
I I
Gauge
Mils.
&et@: Num-
ber.
70,000
75, 000
264. 58 I 190
273. 87
80, 000 282. 85
85. 000
i i i
291. 55
90, 000 300. 00 2;
95, 000
100, 00b
308. 23
316. 23
110. 000
280 300
331. 67
120, 000
320
130, 000
344. 42 340
360. 56 . 360
140, OOG' 374. 17
150, 000 387. 30
160, 000 400. 00
170. 000 412. 32
180. 000 424. 27
/
--
-
Circular Diam-
Mils.
eter in
Miis.
190,000
200,000
435.89
22o. 000
447.22
240. 000
469. 05
260, 000
489. 90
509. 91
280, 000 529. : 6
300. 000
320, 000
547. 73
565. 69
340. 000
360, 000
583. I O
600. 00
of the Edison gauge:
The Edison company experienced inconvenience and loss by pot having
a wide enough range nor sufficient number of sizes in. the ex:stipg gauges.
Tbls was felt more particularly in the central-station work m making
electrical determinations for the street system.
They were.compelled to
make use of two of the existing gauges at least, thereby mtroducmg a
romolication that was liable to lead to mistakes by the contractors and
12, 000 109. 55
15, 000 122. 48 90
20. 000 141. 43
25. 000 158. 12 1%
30. 000 173. 2 1
35, 000 187. 09
110
40, 000 200. 00 13":
1_ ..~
linemen.
In the incandescent system an even distribution throughout the entire
system and a uniform pressure at the point of dehvery are obtamed by
calculating for a given maximum percentage of loss from the potential as
delivered from the dynamo.
In carrying this out, on account of lack. of
regular sizes, it was often necessary to use larger sizes than the occasion
demanded, and even to assume new sizes for large underground conductors.
The engineering department of the Edison company, knowmg the require
merits, have designed a gauge that has the widest range qbtamable and
a large number of sixes which increase in a regular and umform manner.
The basis of the graduation is the sectional area, and the number of the
wire corresponds. A wire of 100,000 circular mils area IS No. 100: a wire
of one half the size will be No. 50; twice the size No. 200.
In the older gauges, as the number increased the sise decreased.
With
this gauge, however, Jhe number increases with the wire, and the number
mdtiplied hy 1000 ~111 give the circular mlls.
The weight per m&foot. 3.00000302705 pounds, agrees with a specific
graritv of 8.899, which is the latest figure given for copper.
yhe ampere
capac<tv which is given was deduced from experiments made I;! the, com-
nanys laboratory, and is based on a rise of temperature of 50 F. in the
45, 000 212. 14
j o. 000 223. 61
55. 000
I %
234. 53
60,000
160
244.95
65. 000
170
254. 96 I 80
TWIST DRILL AND STE:EL WIR,E GAUGE.
(Morse Twist Drill and IMachine Co.)
-
-
-7
Size.
I
NO Size.
Gaz
:E!
. 0595
. 0550
. 0520
. 0465
. 0430
. 0420
. 0410
. 0400
Size.
I
NO
i n c h . -
. I 200 41
. I 160 42
I
. !!?O 43
. I 065 46
Size. No
v-
inch.
.I910 21
.I690 22
.I850 23
. i ai o 24
. I 800 25
: 1: : 0" 2' ;
. I 695 26
. I 660 29
. I ~610 30
Size. NC
- -
Inch.
. I 590 31
. I 570 32
. I 540 33
: 1- E : ;
. I 470 36
: %: 8'
. I 360 39
. 1285 40
b.
-_
I
-
ivire.
In 1893 Mr. Field writes, concerning gauges in use by electric$ enggneers:
Tine B. and S. gauge seems to be in generai use for the smaner sizes. up
to 100 OOO c.m., and in some cases a little larger.
From between one and
two hhndred thousand clrcuiar miis upwards, the Edison gauge or !tS
.equlvalent 1s praotically in use, and there is a general tendency to de%-
nate all sizes above this in circular mils, specifying a wire as 200.000,
400 000 500, 000, or 1.000,000 c.m.
In the electrical business there is a large use of copper wire and rod and
other materials of these large sizes, and in ordering them, spa&X Of
them, specifying, and in every other use, the general method 1~ to simply
s ecify the circular milage.
I think it IS going to be the only system in
&e future for the designation of wires. and the attainin
of it means
nracticallv the adoption of the Edison gauge or the metho
5 and basis Of
- -
mch.
. 0960 51
. 0935 52
. 0890 53
: E% E
. 08l O 56
. 0785 57
. 0760 58
: K% 2 I
.
this gauge as the correct one for wire sizes.
TEE U. s. STANDARD GAUGE FOR SHEET AND
PLATE I RON ANIJ ~STEEL, 1893.
STUBS STEEL WIRE GAUGE.
(For Nos. 1 to 50 see table on page 29.)
Size. Size.
I
I
Size.
-
inch.
. 323
: : A;
, 295
. 290
. 28 1
: I : ;
: E: ,
inch.
. 257
: E
. 242
. 236
St.eel
stubs
NaI.
-. _
51
2;
2;
2;
: z
60
- -
-
NO
-
-
.I
Wire Gauge is used in
make, and is also used
NO Size. Size.
-
-
Inch.
:E ::
TGK-
. 026
. 055 64 :E 5:
: E
:Z
. 022
:z
. 03 I
: : : 8"
77
: i : : 7' ;
: E
. 027
. Ol 4
80 . 013
measuring drawn steel wire or
by many makers of American
Size.
inch.
,413
:%
2;;
, 368
: : : i
. 339
, 332
There is in this country no uniform or standard gauge. and the same
numbers in different gauges represent different thicknesses of she+. or
ii
lates. This has given rise to much misunderstandmg and friction
etween employers and workmen and mistakes and fraud between dealers
. and consumers:
An Act of Congress in 1893 established the Standard Gauge for sheet
iron and steel which is given on the next page. It is based on the fact that
a cubic foot of iron weighs 480 pounds.
A sheet of iron 1 foot square and 1 inch thick weighs 40 pound< or 640;
ounces, and I ounce in weight should be l/s40 inch thmk.
The scale has .
been arranged so that each descriptive number represents a eerta!n
number of ounces in weight and an equal number of 640ths of an inch ln
dri:hFodSui,
drill rods.
thickness.
The law enacts that on and after July 1, 1893, the new gauge-shall be.
Used in determining duties and taxes levied on sheet and plate won and
the
____j_l_c--. I_.-. -_I-~..---~- ~.__.
$U%NI.NG: This is a 1910 edition. Sork~?
XT
ARI THMETI C.
TRE DECIMAL GAUGE. 33
.
steel: and that in its application a variation of 2 l/z percent either way may
be allowed.
The Decimal Gauge. -The legalization of the standard sheet-
metal gauge of 1893 and its adoption by some manufacturers ,of
sheet iron have only added to the existing confusion of giEnges. A jomt
committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engmeers and the
American Railway Master Mechanics Associstion in 1595 agreed to
recommerld the use of the de,cimal gauge, that is, a gauge whose number
for each thickness iS the number of thousandths of an inch in t.hat t&k-
ness. and also to recommend * the abandonment and disuse of the VR~IOIIS
other gauges now in use. as tending to confusion an< error. A notched
gauge of oval form, shown in the cut below. has come mto use as a standard
form of the decimal gauge.
In 1904 The Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co. abandoned the use of
gauge numbers in referring to wire, sheet metal, etc.
Weight of Sheet Iron and Steel. Thickness by Decimal Gauge.
U. S. STANDARD GAUGE FOR SFIEET AND PLATE
IRON AND STEEL, 1893.
.
1
I
8
:
2,
:~
5.
: :
: :
: :
2.
1
i :
1:
I . ,
1.
!I : <
0.
0. 1
0. t
i : i
; : ;
-I
2. 7
I . 90625
I . 1 125
z: : !
. 73 125
, 937s
. I 4375
: F
, 953 125
. 55625
. I 59375
, 7625
, 365625
96675
, 571875
175
778i 25
38125
?84??5
7859375
5875
42075
27
11125
9525
873125
: E: t
535
555625
17625
: ; %P
E
280
260
240
220
200
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
s i
70
60
8
L/ :
6
1- 2 0. 5
15- 32 0. 46875
7- 16 0. 4375
13- 32 0. 40625
3- 8 0. 375
!O. 9. 072
18. 75
97. 65
8. 505
17. 50
91. 55
7. 938
i 6 . 2 5
85. 44
7. 371
15.
79. 33
6. 804 73. 24
13. 75 6. 237
12. 50
67. 13
5. 67
I . 25
61. 03
5. 103
$625
54. 93
4. 819 4. 536 51. 88
48. 02
9. 375 4. 252
8. 75 3. 969
45. 77
; S;
42. 72
3. 402 3. 685 39. 67
6. 875
36. 62
3. 118 33. 57
6. 25 2. 835
5. 625
30. 52
2. 552
5.
27. 46
2. 268
4. 375
24. 41
I . ?84
3. 75
21. 36
1. 701 18. 31
3. i 25 i . 417
; : ; I 25
15. 26
1. 276 I . 134 13. 73
2. 25
12. 21
I . 021
2.
10. 99
0. 9072 9. 765
1. 75 0. 7938
1. 50
8. 544
0. 6804
1. 375
7. 324
0. 6237
1. 25
6. 713
0. 567
1. 125 0. 5103
6. 103
5. 49
I . 0. 4536
; : ; ; 5 0. 3402 0. 3969
4. 882
4. 272
) . 6875
3. 662
0. 3119
I . 625
3. 357
0. 2835 3. 052
215.28
201.82
EZ
161. 46
148. 00
134. 55
121. 09
KG
100. 91
94. 10
87. 45
; 4: ; :
67. 27
k%:
47. 09
40. 36
: 0: 2;
0
26. 91
24. 22
2153
18. 84
16. 15
14. 80
13. 46
12. 1 I
10. 76
2
7. 40
6. 73
5 Weir
3 squa1
in P
i - T -
%
E
slrt
2 L?z
i 6:
0, 2
s--z-
1. 52 2. 40
1. 65 2. 60
1.78 2. 80
1. 90 3. 00
2. 03 3. 20
2. 16 3. 40
2. 28 3. 60
2. 41
2. 54
3. 80
4. 00
2. 79 4. 40
3. 18 5. 00
3. 43 5. 40
3. 81 6. 00
4. 19 6. 60
4. 57 7. 20
5. 08 8. 00
5. 59 8. 80
6. 10 9. 60
6. 35 IO.00
Weight per
Square Fcot
in Pounds.
3:; \o
db
k?z
Fi%Q
CT !ii
s;i: 3
l??dO
ea vl
c(----
0. 08 0. 082
0. 16 0. 163
0. 24 0. 245
0. 32 0. 326
0. 40 0. 408
0. 48 0. 490
0. 56 0. 571
0. 64 0. 653
0. 72 0. 734
0. 80 0. 816
3. 88 0. 898
1. 00 1. 020
1. 12 1. 142
1. 28 1. 306
1. 44 1. 469
1. 60 1. 632
1. 80 I . 836
2. 00 2. 04C
2. 20 2. 244
I l - 32 0. 34375
5- 16 0. 3125
9- 32 0. 28 125
17- 64 0. 265625
l - 4 0. 25
5- 64 0. 234375
7- 32 0. 21875
3- 64 0. 203 I 25
3- 16 0. 1875
l - 64 0. 171875
5- 32 0. I 5625
9- 64 0. I 40625
$24
3- 32 , yi ; ; ; 5 .
5- 64 I ~, ; , : 5,
9- 128 1i i : ; i Oj i i S
l - 16 0. 0625
9- i 60 0. 05625
I - 20 0. 05
7- 160 0. 04375
3- 80 0. 0375
I - 320 ; : ; I ; ; ;
i - 32
9- 320 0. 028125
l - 40 ~0. 025
7- 320 0. 021875
3- 1. 10 0. 01875
I - 6- C 0. 0171875
l - 64 0. 015625
16
i l
i6
i 4
%m -
%.?4l
3km
a?5
VlW
3/m
7/500
i/64+
Q/540
%I
%oo
/a0
7/m
1132 +
91250
%i
9hw
I20
ho 1 .
29 9- 640 30 I - 80 0. 0140625
0. 0125
0. 3571875
31 7- 640
32 13- 1280
0. 0109375 : : : : : : I 25
33 3- 320 0. 01015625 0. 25796871
0. 009375 0. 238125
34 I I - 1280 35, 5- 640 0. 00859375 0. 2182812!
37117- 2560 36 9- 1280
0. 0078125 0. 1984375
0. 00703125. 0. 17859371
38 I - 160 O. O0664062 ~. ; E8; ; , , ;
0. 00625 .
; : ; 625 0. 2268 0. 2551 2 746
I . 4375
2. 441
0. 1984
I . 40625
2, . 136
0. 1843
I . 375
1. 983
0. 1701 I . 831
I . 343 75 0. 1559
I . 3125
1. 678
0. 1417
I . 28125
1. 526
0. 1276
$562
1373
0. 1205 0. 1134 1. 297
1. 221
34 ALGEBRA. ,
ALGi3Bti.A.
Addition. - Add a, b. and - c. Ans. a + b - c.
Add 2o and - 3n. Ans. - a. Add 2ab, - 3ab. - C, - 3c.. Ans.
- ab - 4c. Add a2 and 2~. Ans. a* + 2a.
Subtraction. -Subtract a from b. Ails. b - a. Subtract - a from
- b. Am. - b + a.
Subt r act b + c from a. Ans. a - b - c. Subt r act 3azb - 9c f r o m
4a2b + c. A n s . a2b + 10~.
and proceed as in addition.
RULE: Change the signs of the subtrahend
TvIultiplication. - Multiply a by b. Ans. ab.
Ans . a% + ab2.
Multiply ab by a f b.
&fultiplya+ b bya+b. 4~. (a-t-b) (a+b)=uZ+2ab+b*.
Mu l t i p l y - a bye - b. Am. ab. Mul t i pl y - a by b .
Like signs give plus, unlike signs minus.
Ans. - ab.
Powers of numbers. -The product of two or more powers of any
number is the number with an exponent equal to the sum of the powers:
a2 X a = ~5: u2b2 X ab = ajb3: - Tab X 2ac = - 14azbc.
To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, multiply each term of the
polynomral by the monomial and add the partial products: (6a.- 3b)
X 3c = 1Sac - 9bc.
To multiply two polynomials, multi
term of the other and add the partiaP
ly each term of one factor by each
- 15ia2 - 38ab + 24b2.
pr oduct s: ( 5a - 6b) x (3a - 40)
The square of the sum of two numbers = sum of their squares + twice
their product.
The square of the difference of two numbers = the sum of their squares
- twvlce their product.
The product of the sum and difference of two numbers = the difference
of their squares:
(a + b)z = a2 + 2ab + b2; (a - b)z = aa - 2ab + bz;
(a + b) X (a - b) = aa - bz.
The square of half the sums of two qua.ntities ii equal to their product
plus the square of half their difference: = &, + (E+)*.
The square of the sum of two quantities is equal to four times their
proaucrs. plus the square of their difference: (a + bF = 4ab + (a - bP.
The sum of tt
plyh;lm -~~~~~~
le squares of two quantities equals twice their product;
re square of their difference: a* + bZ = 2ab + (a - b)z.
O i
square of a trinomial = square of each term + twice the oroduct
i each term by each of the terms that folloJy it: (a + b + c)~ = G+ bz
t- 6 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc: (a - b - c)z= a2 + 7~12 + cf - 2ab- 2acf 2bc.
The square of (any number + i/s) = square of the number + the number
+ i/4; = the number X (the number + 1) + r/g: (a + /z)~ = o* + u f i/4.
= a(n + 1 j + l/a. (4 l/2)2= 42 + 4 + l/4= 4 X 5 + 114 = 20 l/4.
The product of any number + r/s by any other number + 11s = product
of the numbers + half their sum + r/4.
+ l/4.
(a + i/s) X (b + l/z) = ab + &(a +b)
411s X 6112 = 4 X 6 + i/2(4 + 6) + 114 = 24 + 5 + 114 = 26ti4.
Square, cube, 4th power, etc., of a binomial a + b.
(a+b)z=a2+2ab+b2;(a+b)3=a3+3a*~+3abz+bs
(a + b) = a4 + 4aab + 6azb2 + 4ab3 +. b.
In each case the number of terms is one greater than the exponent 01
the power to which the binomial is raised.
2. In the first term the ex onent of a is the same as the exponent of the
power to which the binomia
ceedmg term.
P.1s rarsed, and it decreases by 1 In each suc-
increases gy 1 in each succeeding term.
3. b ap ears in the second term with the exponent 1. and its exponent
4. The coefficient of the first term is I.
5. The coefficient of the second term is the exponent oP the power tc
whmh the binomial is raised.
ALGEBRA.
35
6. The coefficient of each succeeding. term is found from the next pre-
ceding term by multiplying its coefficient by the ex
onent
R
of a. and
dividing the product by a number greater by 1 than t
e exponent of b.
(See Binomial Theorem, below.)
Parentheses. - When a parenthesis is preceded by,a plus sign it may
be removed without changing the value of the expression: o +. b t (a +
b) = 2a + 2p. When a parenthesis is preceded by,a minus signlt m-a9
be removed lf we change the signs of all the terms wrthm theparenthtils:
. - Ia - b - c) = 1 -- a -:. b + c. When a parenthesis- fs wrthm a
\ --
Larenthesis remove the inner one first: a - [b - {c -(d -e)) ] = (1 -Lb -
{c-d+.e)]=a-[b-c+d-el=a-b+c-dde.
,+ m~~ltrnl~mtion Gem x. has the effect of a Darenthesis, i n th~at the
_ yy.c~~~ .,._ 1_o__. , . . .~~~~
operation mdlcated by rt must be performed before the operations of
addition or subtraction. a + b X a + b = a + ab +. b; wplle <a + b)
x (a + b) -= a2 + 2aO + hz, and (a + b) X a + b = a + a0 + 0.
nce of any sion between two parentheses, or between, a quan-
la.rent.hesis. inhicates that the oarenthesis 1s to be multiphed by
The abse
tity and a I
the quantil
Division
have like Si
.-.- ~.~~~,
ty or arenthesis: a(a + b +-c) = a* + ab + ac.
- Tge quotient is positive when the dividend and divisor
,gns. and negative when they have unlike signs: abc f b = UC;
abc + - b = - ac.
To tlivlde a monomial by a monomial, write the dividend over the
divisor with a line between them. If the expressions have common factors.
remove the common factors:
To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide each term of the poly-
nomial by the monomial: (Sci, -. 12ac) + 4a = 26 - 3~.
To divide a polynomial by .z, polynomial, arrange both dividend a.nd
divisor in the order of the asc.r:iKling or descending powers of some COmmOn
letter and keep this arranco;.~~ent throughout the operatton.
Divide the first term of tl,e dividend by the first term of the divisor, and
write the r&It as the firs!, tcr:n of the c uotient.
Multiply all the terms ci tl;e divisor
t, y the first term of the quotient
and subtract the producr~ E;~rn t.he dividend.
If there be a remainder,
consider it as a new divide-id ihd proceed as before: (a2 - b2) t (a + b).
n - bz I a + b.
.
a.? i ab I a - b.
----~,- -
- ab - bz.
- ab - b.
The difference of two equal odd powers of any two numbers isdivisible
by their difference and also by their sum:
@3-b3)i(a-b)=a2+ab+b? (us-b3)i(a+b)=a2-ab+P.
The di&!rence of two equal even powers- of two nu,mbersis di_visibie by
their difference and also by their sum: (a2 - 0 A
- n, = I,. + ,I
The sum of two equal even powers of two n
zmbe>g is Got di;isibie by
.n hljt when t.he esoonent
either the difference or the sum of the number,. -..
. . .._._ __.- .~~_
cf each of the two equal powers is corn osed of an odd and an even factor,
the sum of tk. L __-I --_.^_ :,. Ai,ricih,n RTr +hP mmnf t, hp. Dowers expressed
,e geIl yuwr;, ,a urrrolylu Y.l
(-**or. Thus ~8 + p 1s not ;ii%i%?i;fkms&+y o r by-z - Y,
is divisible by z* + y2.
.mole eonations. - An equation is a statement of equality between
l&the even lucyU
Si
two expressibns; as. a + b = c + d.
A simple equation, or equation of the first degree, is one which contains
only the first power of the unknown quantity.
If equal changes be made
(by addition subtraction, multiplication, or division) in both side-s of An
equation, the results will be equal.
Any term may be changed from one side of an equationto another,
Provided its sign be changed: o + b = c + d; 0 = C + d - b.
To solve
ALGEBRA.
an equation having one unknown
ing the unknown quantity to
transpose all the terms involv-
terms to the other side; combine like terms, au
and all the other
coefficient of the unknown quantity.
both sides by the
Solve 8.~ - 29 = 26 - 3x. 8x + 32 = 29 + 26; 11x = 55; x = 5, ans.~
Simple algebraic problems containing one unknown quantity are solved
by makin: z = the unknown quantity, ax>d stating the con+ticns of t he
r;bleblem m the form of an algebraic equatmn, ant! then solvmg the equa-
What two numbers are those whose sum 1s 4s and difference 141
Le t I = t he s mal l er number , 5 + 1-i t he gr eat er . z + z + 14 = 4%
22 = 34. x = 1;; z + 14 = 31, ans.
Find a number whose treble exceeds 50 as much as its double falls short
of 40. Let z = the number.
Proving, 54 - 50 = 40 - 36.
3.~ - 50 = 40 - 2~; 5.c = 90; z = 18, a ns .
Equations containing two unknown quantities. - If one equation
contains two unknolvn quantities, z and y. an indetinfte number of pairs
of values of z and v may be found that will satisfy the equation, but if a
second equation be given only one pair of values can be found that Ri1l
satjsfy both equations. Simultaneous equations, or those that may be
satisfied by the same values of the unknown quantities, are solved by
combining the equations SO as to obtain a single equation containing only
one unl;nown quantity. This process is called elimination.
Elimznatmn by addition or subtraction. - Muttiply the equation by
such numhers as will make the coefficients of one of the unknown quanti-
ties equal In the resulting equation. Add or subtract the resulting equa-
tlons according as they have unlike or like signs.
Silbstituting value of 1/ in first equation, 22 + 3 = 7; z = 2.
Eiinzino:ion bu substitution. - From one of the equations obtain the
value of one of the unknown quantities in terms of the other.
Mubsti-
tute for this unknown quantity its value in the other equation and reduce
the resulting equatiorls.
So,ve (;; ; !y 1 ;: I;]: From (1) we find x = 3 >3.
Substitute t!lis value in (2): 3 +7y=7; =2-t-9Y +14y=14,
whence u = - 2. Substitute this value in (1): 2r * 6 = S; I = 7.
Elimination bg comparison. - From each equation obtain the value of
one of the unknown quantities in terms of the other.
from ihese equal values, and reduce this equation.
Form an equation
Sol ve 2z - 9y = 21. (1) and 32 - 4y = 7. (2). From (1) we find
x= 11 f9V
2
From (2) we find z = 7 3 4.
Equatingthese values of z, l1 z = q; 19u = - 19; y = - 1.
Sllbstitute this value of y in (1): 2x + 9 -2 11; z = 1.
If three simultaneous equations are given containing three unknown
quantities, one of the unknown quandities must be eliminated betwee:: Tao
pairs of the.equations; then a second between the two resulting eqt:ations.
QuadratIc equations. - A quadratic equation contains the square of
the unknown quantity, but no higher
the square only: an affected quadratic it
ower. A pure quadratic contains
0th the square and the first power.
TO sohe a pure quadratic. collect the unknown quantities on one side
and the known quantities on the other; divide by the coefficient of thh.
unknywn quantity and extract the square root of each side of the resulting
equation.
Solve 3X2 - 15 = 0. 322 = 15: 22 = 5; z = 4.
A root like 6. which is indicated, but which can be found only approxi-
mately, is called a surd.
ALGEBRA.
Solve 322 + 15 - 0. 3 2 = - 15; 22 = - 5: z = d/-5.
The square root of - 5 cannot be found even approximately, for the
square of any number positive or negative is positive;. therefore a root
which is indicated, but cannot be found even approximately, IS called
tmaginary.
azx~.*-3abz~ .A -2; mu
+(l make the coefficient of z2 a soual
Tn .solwz an affected quadralic, 1. Convert the equation into the form
Itiplying or dividing the equation if necessary, so as
:e nln.ber.
-iy-~CoinpIete the square of t.lie first member of the equation, so as to
convert it to the form of uJ.r2 + 2abz + b*,
which is the square of the
binomial oaf b, as follows: add to each side of the equatioc the square of
the quotient obtained by dividing the second term by L~KB the square
root of the first term.
3. Extract the square root of each side of the resulting equation.
Solve 3~2 - 4~s 32. To make the coefficient of Z* a square number,
multiply by 3 : 9x2 - 122 = 96; 12~ + (2 X 3x) = 2: 22 = 4.
Compl et e t he s quar e: 92 - 122 + 4 = 100. Ext r act . t he
The s
root:
3 2 - 2 = fk 10, whence z = 4 or .- 2%.
9
uare root of 100 IS
either + 10 or - 10, since the square of - 10 as we.1 as + 102 = 100.
Every affected quadratic may be reduced to the form az2+bz+c==0.
- b + v/b= - 4ac.
The sol ut i on of t hi s equat i on i s z = --
2a
Froblems involving quadratic equations have ap arently two splutions.
as a quadratic has two roots. Somebimes both wd be true solutions, but .P
eenerallv one only will be a solution and the other be inconsistent with the
&nditi&s of the-problem.
The sum of the squares of two consecutive positive numbers is 481.
Find the numbers.
T.et z = one number. z +I the ot,her. 22 + (I + 1)s = 4 8 1 . 222 +
-_.
2X + 1 = $81.
22 + 5 = 240. Completing t he s quar e, xa -i-x + 0. 25 7.2405.
l?:ur.ractinr t,he root we obt~ain X+ 0.5 = f 15.5; Z
= 15 or - 16. me
__~_.~ ,.... ~_ ..~.
negative root - l&is inconsistent with the conditions of the problem.
Quadratic eouations containing two
unknown ouantities reauire
di&rent methods for their solution. according to the for% of theequations..
For these methods reference must be made to works on algebra.
Theory of exponents. -- ?Ja when n is a positive integer is one of 12
equal factors of a.
qp .
means a is to be raised to the mth power and the
nth root extracted.
( 7Jm means that the nth root of a is to be taken and the result
raked tb the mth power.
@=(~)m =
a n. When the exponent isafraction, the numera-
tcf indl+a& a.iower, a nd t he de nomi na t or a root. oelz=dG = as;
ciJ/Z =t/as =01.5.
To extract the root of a quantlt:: raised to an indicated power, divide
the exponent by the index of the required root: as,
Subtracting I from the exponent of a is equivalent to dividing by a:
1 1
0*-l= al = a; .1-r _ ao = C!= 1. ao-l =a-1 = -. a--1--1=a--2=--
a a a*
A number with a negative exponent denotes the reciprocal of the num- .
ber with the corresponding positive exponent.
A factor under the radical sign whose root can be taken may, by having
the root taken, be removed from under the radical sign:
d;E;b=v~xdii-a6
..,
--~
the mater lai
may
.~ ~~
, onger be accurate
GEOMETRICAL PBOBLEMS.
A facto; outside the radical sign may be raised to the corresponding
power and placed under it:
Binomial Theorem. - To obtain any power, as the nth, of an expre+
sio.1 of the form z + a
n-2
The following laws hold for any term in the espansion of (a + z)n.
The exponent of x !s less .by one than the number of terms.
e exponent of 2.
The last factor Of the numerator is greater by one than the exponent of a.
Thc,lsst, factor of the denommator is the same as the exponent of z.
rn tne rtn term tne exponent or z will be r - 1.
The exponent of a will be n - (7 - l), or n - I + 1.
The last factor of the numerator will be n - T + 2.
The last factor of the denominator will be = r - 1
Hence the rth term =
n(n - l)(n - 2) . . . (n - ri- 2) ub-p+ zp*
I. .2.3 . . ..(r-1)
.
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
N O T E. - Thi s met hod i s mos t
useful on very large scales, where
strarght edges areina
mukirks of the numg
plicable.
Any
ers 3, 4, 5 may
be taken with the same effect, as 6.8,
10. or 0, 12, 15.
1. To bisect a straight line, or
an arc of a circle (Fig. 1). - From
the ends~ A, B, as centres, describe
arcs intersecting at C and D, a n d
draw a line through C and D whi ch
will bisect the line at E or the arc
at F.
2. To draw a perpendicular to
a straight line, or a radial line to
a circular
Problem 1.
arc. - Same
C r) is pcrpendicr% iz
the line A B, and also radial to the
2.rP ---.
3. To draw a perpendicular to
a straiph,ht line from a given point
in $ha, lme ( Fi g. 2) . - Wi t h any
radms. from the given point .4 in the
l i ne B C, cut the line at B and C
With a longer radius describe arcs
from 13 and C, cutting each other at
D, and draw the perpendicular D d.
4. From the end A of a given
line A D to erect a perpendicular
AE (Fig. 3). - From any centre F
above A D. describe a circle passing
through the given point A. and cut-
ting the given line at D. Draw D F
and produce it to cut the circle at E.
and draw the perpendicular A E.
second Method (Fig. 4). - From
the given
A E equaP
oint A set off a distance
t o t hr ee pa,rts, by any
scale; and on the cemres A and E
v&h radi i of four and fi ve part;
fespectrvely,
~2% c.
descnbe arcs intersect-
Draw the .perpendicular
GEOMETRXCAL PROBLEMS.
5. To draw a perpendicular to
a s t r a i g h t line fronl a n y poi nt
wi thout it (Frg. 5 ) . - Fr o t h e
point A, with a sufficient rad,,~ .s cut
the given line at F and G, and, from
these points describe arcs cuttmg at
B.
Draw the perpendicular A E.
6. To draw a strai ght J ine
parallel to a given line, at a given
distance apart (Fig. 6). - Fr om
the centres A, B, in the given lure.
with the given distance as radms,
describe arcs C. D, and draw the
p3;rallel lines C D touchmg t.he arcs.
7. To divide a straight lin? into
a n,umber of equal parts (Frg. 7).
- To divide the line A B into, say,
five parts, draw the line -4 C at an
angle from -4; set off five e ual parts;
dr aw B5 and draw pars lels, to ,rt f
from the other points of divrsron m
A C. These parallels divide A B as
of unequal parts; setting off divisions
on d C, pro ortionill by a scale to the
required Zivisions, an,d drawmg
~;;~lle~ ,c;yttz$3-4 .BB., 1 ;;etrzran$e;
xi *
triangles.
8. Vpon a straight line to draw
p,n angle equal to a given angle
(Fig. 8). - Let A be the given angle
and P G the line. From the point A
with any radius describe the arc D.E.
F r o m F wi t h t h e s a me radius
des cr i be I H. Set off the arc fH
equal to D E, and draw F H, The
an,gfe F is equal to A, as reqmred.
10. To draw an angle Of 45
(Fig. 16). - Set off the distance F I;
draw the perpendicular I H equal to
I F, a,nd join H F to form the angle at
8. The angle at H is also 45.
I
.L
A
6
Fro. 6.
Fro. 8.
F I G. i0.
40
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
C
Fro. 11
C -.-* .-
,, :..
:* ;
$
,
FI G. 12.
11. To bisect an angle (Fig. 11).
-Let. ACB be the ang e; wrth C as
a centre draw an arc cutting the
sides at A. B. From A and B as
centres. describe arcs cutting each
other at D. Draw CD. dividing the
anglc into two equal parts.
12. Through two gi.ven points
to describe an are of a circle wit,h
a given radius (Fig. 12). -From
the points A and B as centres. with
the given radius, describe arcs cut-
ting at C: and from C with the same
radius describe an arc A B.
13. To And thecentreof acir&
or of an arc of acircle(Fig. 13). -
Select three points, A. B, C.. in the
urcumference. well apart: wrth the
same radius describe arcs from these
three points, cutting each other, and
dr a w t he t wo l i ne s , D E , F G
t hr ough t hei r i nt er sect i ons. The
point 0, where they cut, is the centre
of the circle or arc.
To describe a circle passing
through three given points. -
Let -4. B, C be the given points, and
proceedss in last problems to find the
centre 0. from which the circ!e may
be described.
circle passing through
14. To describe an arc to;e2
given points when the centre is
not available (Fig. 14). - Fr om
t he e xt r e me poi nt s A .
centres, describe arcs -4 $B 2
Through the third point Cdraw
Fro. 14.
-15. To draw a tangent to a
c!refe from a Tiven jroint in the
errcumference F:g. 1 ) . - T h r o u g h
the grven point A, draw the radial
hne A C: and a perpendicular to it
3 G, whrch is the tangent required:
- ~_- - - - . - . _- ~. . . _- - - . - ~~. . . ~- _- .
..~ ____ ~..
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. 41
pfj. To draw tangents to a
circle froma point without it (Fig.
- F r o m d, wi t h t h e r a d i u s
y& describe an arc BC D, and
from C, with a radius equal to the
$%meter of the ?rcle, cut the arc at
J oi n BL, CD. cut t i ng t he
circle at l&F, a n d d r a w dE, -4 F,
the tangents.
NOT E. - When a tangent is
already drawn, the exact point of
contact may be found by drawing a
perpendicular to it from the centre.
17. Between two inclined lhaes
to dravv a series of circles touching
these lines ard touching each
other (Fig. 17).-Bisect the inclina-
tion of the given lines AB, CD. by
the line N 0. From a point. P in this
line rlrawthenernendicular PB to the
line -4 B, andoriP describe the circle
BD, touching the lines and cutting
t.hP rentre line at E. From E draw
E-F perpendicular to the centre line.
cutting A B at F. and from F
describe an arc E G. cutting A B at
G. Draw G H parallel to B P ,
giving H, the centre of the next
ci rcl e, t o be descri bed wi t h t he
radius HE. and so on for the next
circle IN.
Inversely. the largest circle may
be described first. and the smaller
ones in succession. This problem is
of frequent use in scroll-work.
18. Between two inclined lines
to draw a ci rcul ar segment tan-
gent b to the lines and passin
through a point F on the line F5
which. bisects the angle of t h e
lines (Fig. 18). -Through F dr aw
DA at right angles to FC; bisect
the angles A and D. as in Problem
11. by lines cutting at C, and from
C with radius C F draw the arc H F G
required.
19. To dravv a circular arc that
will be tangent to two given lines
dB and C D inclined to one another,
one tangkntial point E being given
(Fig. 19). - Draw the centre line
G F. Fr om E draw E F at r i ght
to angles A B; then F is the centre
of the circle required.
20. To describe a circular arc
foining two circles, and touching
one of themat a given point (Fig.
20). -To join the circles A B, FG.
by an arc touching one of them at
F. draw the radius E F, and produce
it both ways. Set off F H equal to
the radius AC of the other circle;
join CH and bisect it with the per-
8 .
endmular L I . cut t i ng E F a t I .
n the centre I. with r adi us I F,
describe the arc FA as required,
tt3e materi al may no
FIG. 17.
FIG. 18.
FIG. 19.
FIQ. 29.
~~__------_--~_-_--,
-~longer be accurate
42 GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
FIG. 21.
A B
FIG. 22.
E
AAD
I3
c
F!c. 2.3.
FIG. 24.
21. TO draw a circle with a
given radius .R that will be tan-
fg*&~~~~~ %2: tf%:ct
A with radius equal R plus radius
of A. and from centre of B with
radi us equal t o R + radius of B
draw two arcs cutting each other id
e. which. will be the cemre of the
circle required,
22. To construct an equilat.eral
triangle, the si des bzin-
(Fig. 22). - On the ends of%n%$?
A, B, with A R as radius, describe
arcs cutting a6 C, and draw A C. C B.
23. To construct a t r i angl e of
unequal s i d e s ( Fi g . 2 3 ) . - On
either end of the b%e A D. with the
side B as r adi us, descr i be an arc.
and with the side C as radius, on the
other end of the base as a centre. cut
the arc at E. Join A E, D E.
24. TO construct a square on a
given straight line A B (Fig. 24)
-With A B as radius and A and k
?s centres, dra.:: arcs A D and B C,
Intersecting at E.
Risect E B a t
8. Wi t h E as cent r e and E F a s
radius, cut the arcs A D and B C
in D and C. Join A C, C D. a n d
D B to form the square.
2% TO c ons t r uc t a rectangle
with given base E F and height E H
(Fig. 25). - On the base E F dr aw
the perpendiculars E H. F G equal
F
to the height, and join G H.
FIG. 25.
FI G. 26.
26. To describe a circle about
a. triangle (Fig. 26). -Bisect two
sldss A B. A C of the triangle at
E F, and from t hese poi nt s draw
per pendi cul ar s cut t i ng at K. O n
the centre K, with the radius K A,
draw the circle A B C.
27. TO inscribe a circle in a
triangle (Fig. 27). - Bisect two of
the angles A. C. of the triangle by
GEOMETRXCAL PROBLEMS.
43
lines cutting at D: from D, draw a
perpendicular D E to an,y side,, and
wlt,h D ,4 as radius describe a circle.
When the triangle is equilateral,
draw a~ perpendicular from one of the
angles to the opposite side. and from
the s i de s et otf o n e thxd of t he
perpendicular.
28. To describe a circle about
a, square, and to inscribe a squrt.re
h a circle (Fig. 2s). - To describe
the circle, draw the diagonals A B,
c D of the square, cutting at g.
On
the centre E, with the radms A B,
describe the circle.
To inscribe the square. - Draw
the two diameters, A B, C.D, at rIghe
angl es, and j oi n t he pomts A, B,
c D. to form the square.
NO T E. - In the same way a CirCk
may be described about a rectangle-
29. To inscribe a circle in a
square (Fig. %I). -To mscnbe the
circle draw the diagonals A B. C D
of thi square, cutting at E; draw the
perpendiculnr E F to one s$e, a n d
with t he r adi us E F descnbe t h e
circle.
30. To describe a square about
a circle (Fig. 30). -.DrnW two
diameters A R, C D at right angles.
Wi t h t he radics of the circle and 111
A B C and D as centres. draw the
* fok half circles which cross one
another in the corners of the square.
31. To inscribe a pentagop in
acircle (Fi g. 31).,--Draw dmn-
even A C, B D at right angh Cut -
ting at O. Bisect A o at E, and from
E with radius E B. c u t A c a t F;
frbm B wi t h radi us B F, cut the
circumfkrence at G, H, and with the
same radius step round the circle to
Z and K; join the points SO found to
form the pentagon.
F I G. 2 7 .
FI G. 25.
A G c
D F
FIG. 29.
GEOMETRICAL PRbBLEMS.
D E
J
A
0,
.------- $ ---- --_ 0
\
h F
FI G. 34.
FIG. 35.
upon a given stral ht hne ( lg.
3 3 . To . construci a Fexapn
33), - From A and the ends of
t he gi ven l i ne, with kadius A B,
d?cnbe arcs cuttmg a t .g; frqm g,
nnth the rachus o A, descn e a c&e.
with the same radius set off the arc;
A ,G. G F, and B D, DIE. Joi n t he
Pomts so found to form the hexagon.
The side of a hexagon = radius of its
circumscribed circle.
34. To inscribe a hexagon in a
circle (Fig. 34). - Draw a diam-
eter A C B. From A and B as
centres, with the radius of the circle
A C. cut the circumference, at D, E.
F. G, and draw A D, D E, etc., to
form t he hexagon. The radi us of
the circle is equal to the side of the
hexagon: therefore the points D E,
etc.. may also be found by step$ng
the radius six times round the circle
The angle between the diameter and
the sides of a hexagon and also the
exterior angle between a side and an
adjacent side prolonged is 60 degrees;
therefore a hexagon may conven-
iently be drawn by the use of a 60-
degree triangle.
35. To describe a hexagon
about a circle (Fig. 35). - Draw a
diameter A D B, and with the radius
A D. on the centre A. cut the circum-
ference at C: join A C. and bisect it
ulth the radms D E; through ZS draw
FG. parallel to AC, cutting the diam-
eter at F, and with the radius D F
describe the circumscribing circle
F H. Within this circle describe a
hexagon by the preceding problem.
A more convenient method is by use
of a go-degree triangle. Four of the
sides make angles of 60 degrees with
the diameber. and the other two are
parallel to the diameter.
39. To describe an octagon on
a given straight line (Fig. 36). -
Produce the given line A B b o t h
ways, and draw perpendiculars A E.
B F; bisect theexternal angles A and
octacon.
3% To convert a square into
an octagon (Fig. 37). -Draw the
diagonals of the square cutting at e-
from the corners A B, C D wi t d
A e as radius, deschbe a&
chttin
th,e si des at gn. fk, h.m, apd 01,
an8
b,t,;oh, pomts so fou.nd to form the
Adjacent srdes of an octa-
gon make an angle of 135 degrees.
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
38. To inscribe an octagon$
a ci r cl e ( Fi g. 38) . --Draw
.,jiameterS, A C, B D at right angles;
bisect the,afcs A B, B C, etc.. at e f,
;~,,;ll,d,;;n A e, e B, etc., to form
i
39. To descri be an octag?n
ahout a circle (Fig. 39). 7 Describe
a square about the given circle A, B;
draw perpendiculars h k. etc,. to ttz
di agonal s, t ouchi ng t he circle
form the octagon.
,
40. To describe a polygo? of
any number of sides upon a given
straight line (Fig. 40). - Produce
the given line A B, and on A, w!th the
radius A B, describe a sernlclrcle:
divide the semi-circumference lnt0
as many equal parts as there are to
be sides in the polygon -say. In
this example, five side%, . Draw lines
from A through the divlslonal points
D b and c. omi t t i ng one pplnt a;
add bn t he centres.B. D, with t h e
radius A B, cut A b at E and A C at F.
Draw D E, E F, F B to complete the
polygon.
41. TO inscrlbe a circle within
a poaygon ( Fi gs. 41, 42) . - When
the polygon has an even number.of
sides (Fig. 41), bisect two OPPoslte
si des at A and B; dr a w -4 B, and
bisect it at C by a diagonal D E, and
with the radius C A descri be t he
circle.
When the number of sides is odd
(Fig: .42), bisect two of the sides at A
and ~1 and draw lines A E, B D to the
opposite angles, intersecting at .C;
from C. with the radius C A, descnbe
the circle.
82. To describe a circle without
a pdvgon (Figs. 41. 42). -Find
the c&m C as before, and with the
radius C D describe the circle.
43. T O inscribe a polygon of
.any number of sides within a circle
(FI
Lf
. 43). -Draw the diameter A B
an through the centre E draw the
4
2
C
0
FIG. 38.
FIG. 39.
FI G. 40.
Fm. 41.
Fm. 42.
II--...--,~.~~. ~_~
the material may- no l&i be accurate
46 GEOMETtiICAL PROBLEMS.
~~~diculpr E C. cutting the circle
Divide E F into four equal
,parts: and set off three parts equal
t o t hose from F to C. Divide the
di amet er A B into as many e ual
parts as the polygon is to have sl?J es;
and from C draw CD, through the
second point of division, cutting the
circle at D. Then A D is equal t,o one
side of the polygon. and by stepping
round the circumference with the
length A D the poiygon may be com-
pleted.
:
Number
of Sides.
I
Angle
at Centre.
Table of Polygonal Angles.
Number
of Sides.
Angle
at Centre.
Number
of Sides.
Angle
at Centre.
In this table the angle at the cent& is found by dividing 360 degrees the
number of degrees in a circle, b
by setting off round the centre o1
the number of sides in the poiygon.ard
the circle a succession of angles bv means
of the protractor. equal to the angle in the table due to a given nu*mber of
sides, the radn so drawn will divide the circumference into the same num-
ber of parts.
A
8
D
FIG. 44.
Fm. G.
44. To describe an ellipse when
the length and breadth are given
(Fi g. 44). -A e, t r ans ver s e axis.
C D. conjugate axrs; F G. foci.
The
sum of the distances from C to F
and G. also the sum of the distances
from F and G to any other point in
the curve, is equal to the tra,nsverse
axis. From the centre C. with A E
as radius, cut the asis A B at F and
6. the.foci; fix a couple of pins into
the axes at F and G. and loop on a
thread or cord upon them equal in
Iength to the axis A B, so as when
stretched to reach to the extremity
C of the conjugate alris. as shown in
dot-lining. Place a pencil inside the
cord as at H, and guiding the pencil
!n this .way, keeping the cord equally
m tensron, carry the pencil round the
.~$;~~v, G, and s o des cr i be t he
NOTE. -This method is employed
in setting off elliptical garden-plots,
walks, etc.
2cj Method (Fig. 45). - Along the
straight edge of a slip of stiff paper
mark off a distance a c equal to A c
half the transverse axis: and from
to C D, hf the conjugate rurie.
the same oint a distance a b equal
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
Place the slip so as to bring the point b on the line A B of the transverse
axis and the point c on the line D E; and set off on the drawmg the POsl-
tionof the point a.
Shifting the slip so that the point b travels on the
transverse axis, and t he point c on the conjugate axis, any number of
ooints in the curve may be found, through whmh the curve may be
traced.
3d Melhod (Fig. 46). - The action
of the preceding method may be
embodfed so as to afford the means
of describing a large curve contm-
uously by means of a bar m k, wth
steel points m, 1. k, riveted into brass
slides adjusted to the length of the
semi-axis and Exed with set-screws.
Arectangular cross E G, with gmdmg-
slots is placed, coinciding wrth the
two axes of the ellipse A C and B H.
By sliding the points k, 1 in the slots
and carrying round the oint m,, the
curve may be continuous! descnbed.
A pen or pencil may be xed at m.
4th Me!hod (Fig. 47). - Bisect the
transverse axis at C, land througn C
draw the perpendicular D E. making
CL) and C E each equal to half the
conjugate axis. From D or E, with
the radius AC, cut the transverse
axis at F, F, for the foci.
Divide
A C into a number of Tarts at the
points 1, 2. 3, etc.
With the radius
A I on F and F as centres. describe
arcs, and with the radius B I on the
same centres cut these arcs as shown.
Repeat the operation for the other
divisions of the transverse axis.
The
series of intersections thus made are
ooints in the curve, through which
Ihe curve mav be traced.
5th Method (Fig. 48). ---On the
two axes A B. D E as diameters, on
ters. on
&ntre C. descr i be ci r cl es; from a cent re C. describe circles; from a
number of points a, 0, etc.. in the number of points a, 6, etc., in the
circumference A F B, draw radii cut-
bdii cut-
ting the inner circle at a, y, etc. ting the inner circle at a, y, etc.
From a, b, etc., draw psrpendlCUlarS From a, b, etc., draw perpendiculars
to A B; and from a,, b, etc.. draw to A B; and from a,, b, etc.. draw
parallels to A B. cutting the resy;; parallels to A B. cutting the resy;;
tive DerDendiCLdarS at n,.o, et;.curve tive perpendiculars at n, o, etc.
intersections are points in the curve,
t hr ough whi ch the curve may be through which the curve may be
FIG. 46.
Fro. 47.
FIG. 48.
c
Fm. 49.
traced.
6th tiethod (Fig. 49). - When the
transverse and conjugate diameters
are given, AB. CD, draw the tangent
E F parallel to A B. Produce C.D.
and on the centre G with the radrus
of half A B, describe a semicircle
H D K. from the centre G draw anY
number of straight lines to the POlnts
E, r. etc., in the line E F, cutting the
Circumference at 2, m, 12. etc.; from
t he cent re o of t he el l i pse draw
straight line.?. to the points E. r. etc.;
and f r om t he poi nt s 2, m, T-S etc.,
draw parallels to GC, cutting the
lines o E, G r, etc., at L, M, N. etc.
\
~~ ~~_/ - - . - - . - . - - - - - _ ~. ~. .
the material : may no l onger be accurate
__ __^_.I~. . ~-
Th-e DIG Pornts m the circumference of the ellipse, and the curve may be
traced through them.
by extendmg the mtersectmg lines as indicated in the figure.
Points in the other half of the ellipse are formed
4 5 . To describe
approximately bp me% of elr-
ellipse
cular arcs. - Farst. - With arcs
of two radii (Fig. 50). -Find the
difference Of the semi-axes and set
lt Off from the centre 0 to aand c on
B
0 A and 0 C: draw a c, and set off
half a c t.o d; draw d i parallel to0 C
set off 0 e equal to 0 0; join e i and
draw. the parallels e m, dm.
From
FmP50.
m. with radius m C, describe an arc
through C: and from i describe an
arc through D; from d and e describe
ar cs t hr ough A and B. The f our
arciof;;m the ellipse approximately.
. - Thi s met hod does not
c.
aPPlY satisfactorily when the con:
Jugate axis is less than two thirds of
the transverse axis.
2d Method (by Carl G. Barth Fig
a
b
.51). -In Fig. 51 a bis the majo; and
cd the moor axis of the ellipse to he
approximated.
L a y otf b e e q u a l t o
the Semi-minor axis c 0. and use 0 e
9 radius for the arc at each extrem-
1tY of the minor axis. Bisect e 0 at
and 1a.y ogegequal to ef, and use 9
d
F I G. 51.
as radius for the arc at each extrem-
ity of the major axis.
The method is not considered applicable for casaS in which the minor
axiS 1s less than two thirds of the major.
4th Method (by F. R. Honey.
mdu ar e empl oyed
Figs. 53 a n d 5 4 ) . - Tgt~
the shmtest radius describe
t h e t wo a r c s wh i c h pass
through the vertices of the
maor axi s , with t he longest
t he t wo ar cs whi ch pans
thmlgh the vertices of the
mtnoraxis. and wtth the third
radius the four arcs which
connect the former.
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
A simple method of determining the radii of curvature is illustrated in
Fig. 53. Draw the straight lines a f and a c, forming any angle at a.
With
0 as a centre, and with radii a b and a c, respectively, equal to the Semi-~
minor and semi-major axes, draw the arcs b e and c d.
Join e d, and
through b and c respectively. draw b g and c f parallel to e d, mtersecting
0 c eat. g, and a t at f; a f is the. radius of curvature at the vertex of
the mmor axis; and a g the radius of curvature at the vertex of the w..
major axis.
Lay off d h (Fig. 53) equal to one eighth of b d.
Join e k, and draw c I;
and b I parallel to e h.
T&lie a k for the longest radius (= fl), a 2 for the
shortcut radius (= r), and the arithmeticill n~eau. Or One half the s~nn of
the semi-axes, for the third radius (= 2). and emPloY these radii for the
eight-centred oval as follows:
Let a b and c d (Fig. 54)
be the major and minor ~
axes. Lay off a e e q u a l
to r, and a f equal to p;
also lay off c g equal to R.
and c k equal to p. With
g s+ a centre and gh as a
radius, draw the arc h k-;
wi t h t h e cemre e a n d
radius e f draw the arc f k,
b
i nt e r s e c t i ng k k at k .
Dr aw t he l i ne g. k a nd
pr oduc e i t , rn;a!;!$ i I
equal to R.
and produce i t , maI&
k n equal to p. With the
cent re g and radius g c
(= R) draw the arc c 1;
wi t h t he cent r e k a n d
radius k 1 (== p) draw the
9
WP I m. and wi t h t h e
FIG. 54.
L.-
centre ean~d radius e m
(= r) draw the arc m a.
The remainder of the work is symmetrical with respect to the
3d Method: With arcs of three radii
(Fur. 52). - On the transverse axis
A ,B draw the rectangle R G on the
hei ght 0 C; to the diagonal A c
draw the perpendicular G H D. set
aff O ,K eqiual to 0 C, and describe a
semlclrcle on A K, and produce O c
to L; set off 0 ;II equal to (7 L
from D describe an arc with ra$ti
D M; from A, with radius o z cut
A B at :V; from H, with radiuSHl\r
cut arc a b at a. Thus the fiv;
centres .I). a, b. I-I, H are f o u n d
from which the arcs are described to
form the ellipse.
This proceSs works well for nearly
all Proportion9 of elhpses.
It is used
I n St r i ki ng Out vaul t s and st one
bridges.
axes.
,. 4g. The Pa r a bol a , - A pa r a bol a (D A * -- cc -
^ ^.._..^ ^..&.
I :- IL. ^___ __^ : ,.,,,?,,., ,#ir
tnat ever y poi nt in tut: UNY~ ~a r;qurnaJ ,&ant f r om t he dnectrix k L
and the focus F. The focus hes in the 2x1s
A B drawn from the vertex or head of the
K e L
. . A:..I.x^
he fimne into two I IA I
.- --:--~-
$% t
me vertex A IS equi di s t ant
R :- %rectrix and the focus, orA e= A F.
Any line parallel to the axis is a diameter.
A straight line,,as E G or D C, drawn aTrosS
the figure at right angles to the axis.1~ a
double ordinate, and either half of it 1s an
ordinzte. The ordinate to the axis E F G,
drawn through the focus, is called the pail*
A segment of the axis,
reckoned from tne vertex, is an abscissa of
the axis, and, it is~ an abscissa of the ordinate
orawn nom rne ,oase 01 ELI
-= le abs ci s s a Thus ,
Fm. 55.
A B is an abscissa of the ordinate B C.
Abscissae of a parabola are as the squares of t.heir ordinates.
To describe aparabola@hen an abscissaand itsordinate are given
(Fig. 55). - BiSeCt the given ordinate B C at a, draw A 0. and then 0 b
perpendicular to it, meeting the axis at b.
Set off A s, A F, each equal to
R b; and draw K eL
+
erpendicular to the axis.
Then,K L is the directnx
and F is the focus.
hrough F and any number of points. 0.0. etc., tn the
axis draw double ordinates, n 0 1~. etc.,
and from the centre F. with;:;
radii F e 0 e etc., cut the respective ordinates at E. G, n, n, etc.
curve may be traced through these points as shown.
2d &et&d: By means of a square and a cord
(Fig. 56). -Place a
0 Cir;O&lETLIICAL P R O B L E MS .
E
straight-edge to the directrix E N
and appi y t o i t a squar e L E G:
Fasten to the end G one end of a
thread, or cord equal in length to the
edge E G, and attach the other end
to the fo?us F; slide the square along
the straight-edge. holding the cord
taut against the edge of the square
by a pencil D, by which the curve is
described.
3d :l.fethod: When the height and
the base are given (Fig. 57). - Let
A B be the given axis, and C D a
N
double ordinate or base; to describe
a parabola of which the vertex is at
A.
F:G. 56.
Through A draw E F parallel to
and D F parallel to the axis.
C D. and through C and D drazibTd:
B C and B D i nt o any number.of
equal parts, say five, at a, b, etc., and
divide C E and D F into the same
numbe r of pa r t s . Thr ough t he
p0ints.a. b, c, d in the base CD on
each side of the aris draw perpen-
diculars, and through a, 5, c din C E
and .D F draw lines to the Vertex A
cutting the perpendiculars at e, f,g. k:
FIG. 57.
These are points in the parabola, and
the curve C A D may be traced as
shown, passing through them.
47. Ths fiypesbola (Fig. 58). - A hyperbola is a plane curve such
that the drference of the d1stance.s from any paint of it to two fixed points
H
IS equal t o a gi ven distac. e. The
fixed points are called the foci
T O c o n s t r u c t a hyperbola. -
Let F and F be the foci, and F F
the disrance between them. Take a
ruler longer than the distance F F
*
and fasten one of its extremities ai
the focus F. At the other extrem-
rtg. fi, at t ach a t hr ead of such a
length that the length of the ruler
shall exceed the length of the thread
Fro. 58.
by a given distance A B. At t a c h
the other extremity of the thread at
the focus F.
Press a pencil, P, against the ruler
and keep the thread constantly tense
while the ruler is turned around F ai
a ,centre.. Th e
will describe one
oint
t
of the pencil
ranch of the curve.
2d Method: By points (Fig. 59). -
From the focus F lay off a distance
F N equal to the transverse axis or
distance between the two branch; of
FIG. 5 9 .
t he czve, and take any other dls-
tame. as F EI, greater than P N.
With F as a centre and Ff H as a
radius describe the arc of a circle.
Then with F as a centre and V H as a radius describe an arc intersecting
the arc before described at p and q.
bola, for F o - F q is equal to the transverse axis 4 R
These will be points of the hyper-
If, with F as a Cntre and F l? a.s a radius, an arc be described and a
second arc he descnhed with P as a centre and iV H as a radius
rn the other branch pf the curve wdl be determined.
two points
the Centres. each pair Of radll WI11 determine two points in each branch,
The Equilateral Wyperbola. -
Hence by changing
The transverse axis of a hyperbola ia
_- , __. - _. , - . ~. . _- . ~_- _- ~- ~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Sotie<
*
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. 51
the distance, on a line joining the foci, between the two branches of the
curve. The conjugate axis is a line perpendicular to the transverse axis,
draWI from its centre, and of such a length that the diagonal of the rect-
angle of the transverse and conjugate axes is equal to the distance between
the foci. The diagonals of this rectangle, indetinitely prolonged, are the
n.surnptoles of the hyperbola,,lines which the curve continually approaches,
hlrt touches only at an infinite distance. If these asymptotes are perpen,
zid;iar to each other, the hyperbola is called a ?eclangular or equilateral
k?Iperbolu. It is a property of this hyperbola that if the asym,ptot_es are
t&en as axes of a rectangrlIar system of coordinates (see pnalyr!cal tieom-
etry), the product of the abscissa and ordinate of any point in tne curve !S
equal to the product of the abscissa and ordinate of any other
oint; or. if
p is the ordinate of any point and n its abscissa. and PI, an
2 2)1 are the
orzrtcand abscissa of any other point, pv = plvi; or PV = a Co~Qmt.
60). L.
The Cycloid (Fig.
If a circle A d b e
rolled al ong a st r ai ght
line A 6, any point of the
ci r cumf er ence a.9 A will
7~ 1 ;1 ~~.
zE;c;be a cur
a cqu. LIlti
ci r cl e i s calls &l-_- -^-^
\
--tin? circle.
generating pi
TO draw a CJKLUIIL. -
n..A,e the circumference
:u llltz gtmc-
and A t h e
lint.
^--..l-:_l
Zti;e generating circle
into an even number of equal arts, as A 1.12, etc.. and set off these.dls-
tances on the base. ThrougR the points 1. 2, 3. etc.,D;,n the circle
draw horizontal lines, and on them
set olfdistances la=Al, 2b==-42,3t=
A3, etc. The points A, 9, b, c, etc..
-*I \P noints in the cvclord. through
%ci-draw the curve:
49. The Epicycloid (Fig. 61) is
generated by a point D in one circle
D C rolling upon the circumference of
another circle A C B. instead of on a
flat surface or line; the former being
the generating circle, and the latter
the fundamental circle. The generat-
ing circle is shown in four positlo+%
i n whi ch t he generat i ng
oi nt is
-q-n--sivelv marked D, E.
b, D.
50. The Hypocycloid (Fig. 6%
is generated by a point in the gener-
ating circle rolling on the inside of
the fundamental circle.
When t he gener at i ng Circle =
radius of the other circle, the hypo-
cycloid becomes a straight line.
51. The Tractrix or Schieles
anti-friction curve (Fig. 63). - R
is the radius of the shaft. C, 1.2, etc..
t he a xi s . Fr om Q set off on R a
small distance. oa; .with radius Rand
cent re o cut the axis at 1. join a 1.
and set off a like small distance o 5;
from b with radius R cut axis at 2,
join b 2, and so on, thus finding
points o, a b c. d. etc., .through which
the curveis to be drawn.
FIG. 63.
62. The Spiral. -The spiral is a curve described by a point which
moves along a strught line according to.any given law, the line at the ~ama
? line is called the rs.di~~r
.- --.-
rrmenavmg a uniformangular mo t i o n . T h i ~~~~._- _.__ _____- v e c t o r .
m.
* If the radius vector increases directly
as the measuring anele. the spi r es,
~. ~~~~ _- ._. ___._ _ . dutio~n
thus gradually increasing their disl
tance from each other. t.he curve is
imedes
known as the spiral ~b;f -A&h
(Fig. 64).
I iki4 i6 casis curve is commonly used for
4 .
To de s c r i be i t dr a w t he
Fro. 64.
radius vector in several different
di r ect i ons ar ound t he rent.rn with
equal angles between- the~~:~F;eio$
the di$+nces 1, 2. 3, 4. etc., corresponding to the scale upon which the
curve IS drawn, as shown in Fig. 64.
. In the common spiral (Fig. 64) the
pttch rs.umform; that is, the spires
a r e eqtudistant.
Such a spiral is
made by rolling up a belt of uniform
thickness.
To construct a spiral with four
eentres (Fig. 6 5 ) . - G i v e n t h e
patch of the sptral. construct a square
about the centre. with the sum of
\
the four sides equal to the pitch
I
\ Prolong the sides In one direction as
FIG. 65.
shown; the corners are the centres for
each. ar c of t he esternal a ngl e s .
formmg a qnadrant of a spire.
63. To, And the diameter of a circle Into which a certain number of
rings.wtL At on its inside (Fig. 66).-For instance, what is the diameter
of a circle into whmh twelve t/r-inch rings will fit, as per sketch?
Assume
that we have found the diameter of the required circle and have drawn
t he r i ngs i ns i de bf i t . J oi n t he
centres of the rings b
as shown: ye then o% .
straight lines,
tam a regular
golygon with 12 sides, each side
emg equal t o t he di amet er of a
given ring. We have now to find
t he di amet er of a ci rcl e ci rcum-
scribed about this polygon, and add
the diameter of one ring to it. the
sum will be the diameter of the dir&e
anto which the rings will fit
Through the centres A and D of twd
adjacent rings draw the radii C A
and CD; since the
mdes the angle 2
olygon has twelve
a c B=15.
C D - 30 a n d
One half of the side
A D is equal to A B. We now give
Fro. 66.
the following proportion: The sine
of the angle A C B is to%?B ns 1 isto
the required radius
From this we
get the following rule: Divide A B by the sine of the angle A C B. the
quott@ n!tt be the radius of the circumscribed circle. add to the &rre-
spondrng drameter the dtameter of one ring; the sum will be the required
diameter F c~
64: To describe an arp a< 2~ ei-.-?+ CL*+= .
bY a oeam compass, bY means of
- ------ -UXLEI is too iarge to be drawn
--SuPPose the radtus JS 20 feet an
oints in the arc radius being given
arc whose half chord is 4 feet.
3.. .
It ts destred to obtain five
Draw a line .equal to the ha1
P
oints in ai
chord full
stse, or on a SRXG?.r scale if more convenient, and erect a perpendicular at
one end. thus.making rectangular axes of coordinates. Erect
diculars at Pmts I, 2. 3. and 4 feet from the 6rst perpendicular
per en
I%d
values of Y in the formula of the circle, d + y* = R2, by substituting for
edition. Some
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
53
2 the values 0, I. 2, 3. and 4. etc., and for I21 thequare_of
4 0 0 . The value=: b, io,= d/R2 - x2 = 4400. d399.
4396, thwdius,or 4391,
19. 975, 19. 90, 19. 774, 19.596.
Subtract the smallest,
or 19.596, leaving
0 . 4 0 4 . 0 . 3 7 9 . 0. 304, 9.178. 0 feet.
Lay off these distances on the five perpendiculars. as ordmates from the
half chord, and the positions of five pomts on the arc will be found.
IL,,.-... -*.,
I
5 5 . T he Caterdry AD UL:G
assumed by a perfectly flextbl
when its ends are fastened
ab
g.:..-
oints,_t$OTzight of a unit length
c,,rr; ~LKJuL,,.
of the catenary is
, in which e is the
lx~&;~;fs the Napierian system of log-
T o lot t h e c a t e n a r y . - Le t 0
(Fig. 6y) be the origin of coardinates.
Asstgning to a any value as 3, the
eauation becomes
!
i
; ! &
I
I
0 , I,.
r
4 3 3 i 1 i. 2. 3. 4.
To find the lowest Point of the FIG: 67.
curve.
put% = 0; :. g=; (@-t-e)= ; (1+1)=3.
Then put
;(e+-I>=,
x=1; :. y--
( 1. 396 +0.717) =3.17.
Put
2=2; :.
( 1. 948 +0.513) =3.69.
put r = 3 4 5 etc. etc., and find the corresponding values of V.
For
each value & Vwe oh& two symmetrlcal potnts, as for example p and d.
In this way, by making al;;;Foyt
~geqgl$~ ;i2t%&, 7, and 8, t h e
In each case the distance from the origin to
the lowest point of the curve is equal to a; for
nuttins z = o. the general equation reduces to
alues ofa = 6. 7. and 8 the catenary
pproaches the parabola.
For deriva-
tion of the equation of the catenary see Bow-
sers Analytic Mechanics.
66. The involute is a name given to the
curve which is formed by the end of a stnng
which is unwound from a cylinder and kept
t aut . conse
wih always
uently the string.as it J,s unwound
3.re in the directton of.a tangent
to the cvlinder. To describe the involute of
any given circle, Fig. 68. take any point A on
its circumference, draw a diameter A B. and
from B draw B b perpendic$;tr to:A B. Make
B 5 equal in length to hau tne ctrcumference
Afro. 66.
of the circle. Divide B b and the senn-urcum-~
ference into the same number of equal parts,
From each point of drvtston .I, 2.
3 et,c on the circumfere&?ds% lines to the centre C of the crrcle.
Then draw la1 perpendicular to Cl; 2 ar perpendicular to C2: and
so on. Make Ial equal to b b,; 2 es equal to b 5%; 3 as equal to b br:, and
so on. Join the points A, al, aa, as. etc., by a curve: this curve d be
.the required involute.
1 may
~.~~_~,:~: ,,,:,,~ ,,,,,, ~,,,~,,, 54
GE OME T R I C AL PR&OSIT&NS.
6.7. Methqd of plotting angles without using a
radw of a cycle whose,c?rcumference is 360 is 57.
8
retractor. - The
57.296).
(more accurately
Striking a sermcircie with a radius 57.3 by any scale spacers
set to 10 by :he same scale v~lll divide the arc into 18 spaces of iO each
and interm.ediates can be measured indirect1.y at the rate of 1 by scale fo;
each lo. or Interpolated by eyeaccording to thedegreeof accuracyrequired.
The following table shows the chords to the above-mentioned radius for
every 10 degrees from 0 up to X10.
By means of one of these a100
Pomt, is fixed I!pon the paper next less than. the required annle, and the
remrtmder IS kud Off at the rate of 1 by scale for each degree:
Ap.e. Chord. Angle.
Chor d. Angl e.
100.
................. 0 . 9 9 9 40"
9 . 9 8 5 50c...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 9 . 1 9 2
20"
45.429
9"3~: . . . . . . . . %G
3 0 " ....................
1 9 . 8 9 9 60"
2 9 . 6 5 8 70"......,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7 . 9 9 6 10o"."""" $:;;;
65.;27
110.
................
9&36,
GEOMETRICAL PROPOSITIONS.
! on the hypothcnuse is equal to the
ide.
In a right-angled triangle the square
sum of the s ares on the other two s
If a trlaflg e 1s equilateral, it is equi ?
If a straght line from tte vertex of a
it bisects the vertical
If one side of a tria
angle and ir - ---
sum of tI.- _ .._ . . .
If two triangle
corresponding sides are aroportlonal.
If the sides of apolygon
exterior angles equals fou
re-enterine ane1p.c b
angnlar: and ?$iee WPS~.
.n isosceles triangle bisects the base,
I per lendicular
,ngle is produce
to the base.
he +.wn interior and
d
o
s are mutua 1.y equiangular, they are similar and their f
, the exterior angle is equal to the
posite angles.
are produced in the same order, the sum of the
r nght angles. (Not true if the polYgon has
In a qlla&&%al, the sum of the interior angles equals four fight
angles.
In a p%rall$logram. the opposite sides are equal: the opposite angles are
equal: It 1s bl,sected by Its diagonal, and its diagonals bisect each other.
thrI~~ft~;h~;fts are not In tbe same straight line, a circle may he pzsed
~. If tbb arcs are intercepted on the same circle, they are proportional to
t.hP I. -I- -0rrespondinn ane1e.q at. t.he cent*-
--.- --.I._.
If tW0 irCS ar&~sirqii~~, <hey are propcrtional to their r adi i .
The are?s ?f two circles a,re Proportional to the squares of their radii.
If a radms IS Per
the arc subtended l?l
endlcular to a chord, it bisects the chord and it bisects
y the chord
A str+iight line twwg to a iircle meets it in only one point, and it 1s
perpendicular to th? radms drawn to that point.
If from a Pomt WIthOUt a Circle tangents are drawn to touch the circle
there are but two; they are equal, and they make equal angles with the
chord loinine the tangent nninta
if two lines are Parallel chords or a tangent and parallel chord, they
intercept equal arcs of a circle.
If an angle at the circumference of a circle, between two chords is sub-
tended bY the same arc as an angle at the centre. b&ween two r&i, the
angle at the cir,cu,mfersnce is equal t.o half the angle at the centre.
if a triangle IS mscnbed in a semicircle, it is right-angled
If two Chords intersect each other in a circle the rectangle of the seg-
ments of the one equals the rec:tangle of the se&---+- -& *&- --L
And if one chord is a diameter and the oth&
rectangle of the segments of the diameter is
half theother chord
1 . . .-
the segments of the L.-.-
ana tne nalf chord is a meadproportional~~<e~~
iianwtnr
If an angle is formed b<%nzent
of the arc intercepted
and chord, it is measured by one half
the centre subtended
I byibe~ch&-;that is, it is equal to half the angle at
by the chord.
QNING: This is a 1 9 1 0 edition. Some of the?
a
MENSURATION - PLANE SURFACES.
55
Degree of a Enilu:au Curve. -
This last proposition is useful in stakin
out raiV*ay curves. A curve is designated as one of so many degree%
an5
the decree is the angle at the centre subtended .by a chord of 100 ft..
To
lay outa curve of n degrees the transit is set at rts begmmne or
Potnt of
curve, pointed in the direction of the tangent,, and turned thrpugh %zn
degrees. a point 100 ft. distant in the line of sight will be a point In the
curve. The transit is then swung l/?n degrees further and a 100 ft.chord
is measured from the 3
oint already-found to a point in the new hne of
sioht which IS a secon pomt or station in the curve.
*Thk radius of a lo curve is 5i?9.65 ft.. and the radius of a Curve of any
degree is 5729.65 ft. divided by the number of degrees.
MENSURATIOtit.
EXANE SURF-ICES.
Quadrilateral. -
A four-sided figure.
Parallelogram. -
A quadrilateral with opposite sides Parallel.
V&et&. -Square: four sides equal, all angles right angles.
R+-
angle: opposite sides equal, all angles risht angles.
Rhombus: four side
eq-uai opposite angles equal, angles not right angles.
Rhomboid: opposite
sides equal, opposite angle3 equal, angles not ngbt angles.
Trapezium. -
A quadrilateral with unequal sides.,
Trapezoi d. -
A quadrilateral with only one pair of opposite sides
naralld.
Diagonal of a square = 42 X side2 = 1.4142 X side.
two adjacent sides.
Diag. of a rectangle = qsum Of squares of
Area of any parallelogram = base X aWude.
Area of rhombus or rhomboid = product of two adjacent sides X sine
of angle included between them.
Area of a trapezoid = product of half the sum of the two parallel sides
bv the perpendicular distance between them.
-To find the area of any quadrilateral Agure. - Divide the quad-
rilateral i,lto two triangles; the sum of the areas of the triangles 1s the
are$i, multiply half the product of the two diagona,ls by the sine of the
anwle at .theii intersection.
ko And t,be area of a quadrilateral which may be iqscribed in e
circle - From half the sum of the four sides subtract each side severally.
multi&Y the four remainders together; the square root of the product 1s
side; or @2 X 0.433013.
-. ~~~~. ~.___ _._._-_- - ._._- -_~_.-.
no longer be accurate
thearea.
Triangle. -A thre,e-sided plane figure.
V&&es. - Right-angled. having one right angle: obtuse-angled. ha+
ing one obtuse angle: isosceles,
having two equal angles and two equal
sides: eouilateral. having three equal sides and equal angles.
~c.n nnotc.a of pve~v triangle = ISOT.
_
Hypothenuse o f a right-any
ite the right
.__ _....
angle, = t/sumof the squares of the other two sids?i a and b are the
two sides and e the hypothenus$ c*=aa -!-
b
2. a=dJca-b?=d((c+b_)((c-b).
,
If the two sides are equal, side - hyp + 1.4142; or hYp X.70(1-
- To And the area of a trian
R U L E 1 Mul t i pl y t he ba s e
g
18:
Y half the altitude.
RULE 2: WultiplY half the product of two sides by the sine of the
included angle.
RULE 3. From half the sum of the three sides subtract. each side
severally. multiply together the half sum and the three remamders., and
extract t&e s uare root of the product.
The area o? an equilateral tnangle is equal to one fourth.@ square of
a243
one of its sides multiplied by the square root of 3, = - n 4
a being the
,a
AREA OF I RREGULAR FI GURES.
5 7
V
MENSURATION.
heleht.~
Areaof atriangleg&en, to find base: Base = twice area+ perpendicular
n~n And the area of a regular polygon, when the length of a side
~-v----
-- ~~
only is given:
RULE. - Multiply the square of the side by the multiplier opposite to
tbe name of the polygon in the table.
Len th of a side of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle = diam.
x sib ?f80 + no. of sides).
No. of sides sin (1,8O/n)
No. sin (1800/a)
No. sin (180/n)
.3 0:;;%3:; 9 0.34202
i
2&i
K .30902 .28173
g 0.2on1
17 .19509 .1X375
; :; :;;g: 18 19 .17365 .16458
8 :g$j 14 .22252 20 .I5643
To ilnd thearea of an irregUlar
figure, (Fig. 69). - Draw ordmates
gross Its breadth at equal dlStanceS
,F&t; t&f&t and the-last ordinate
each being one half space from the
ends of the f i gure. Find the averCage
br e a dt h by adding t oge t he r t he
lengths of these lines included be-
tween the boundaries of the figure,
and divide by the number of the lmes
added multiply this mean breadth
hv t,hpIeurth. The greater the num-
To fhd the area of a regular polyrron:
Rum. - MultiplY the length of a side by the perpendicular distance to
the centre:
2.
multi
Or. multlPlY alf the penmeter by the perpendicula; let fall from the Yr
ly the produet by the number of side4 and divide lt bY
centre on one of the sides.
The perpendicular from the centre is equal to half of one of the sides of
half side.
the Polygon multtphed by the cot angent of the angle subtended by the
The angle at the centre = 360 divided by the number of sides.
-
FIG. 69.
-i --- -:---~
berpf lutes t he ne<rer t he approxi-
matton.
ln a figure of very irregular outline, a~ an indicator-diagram from a
high-speed steam-engine, mean lines may be substl tU?d f or the actual
lines of the figure, &--I -^ n-A
nC tn in~nr~~t the ~lnrf,lMions. so t hat ,
Table of Regular Polygons.
&ira spaces mclosed. -
2d Method. T HE T RAPEZOIDAL R U L E. - Divide the figure into any
sufficient number of equal parts: add half the sum of the two end ordmates
to the sum of all the other ordinates: divide hy the number , o, , s~~; ;
fthat is, one less than the number of ordinates) to obtai n
ordinate and multiply this by the length to obtain the area.
3d kleihod. sIMPSON8 RUI,E. L Divide the length of the figure into sny
even number of equal narts, at. the common distance D apart. and draw
ordinates through the points of division to touch the boundartry lines
Add together the first and last ordinates and call the sum A ; add to,gether
the even ordinates and call the sum R: add to;;;er the odd ordinate%
except the first and last, and call the sum C.
.
Radius of Cir-
cumscribed
Circle.
&Y
area of the figure =
At4:+2CxD.
riangle
zmre
entagon
exagon
eptngon
ctagon
Dnagon
wagon
ndeeagor
xfW3gOI
.OoO 0.5773 ,414 0.7071 0.2887 1. 732 1200
,2380.8506
:11 155 I.15241.0000
0.5O0O1.4142 0.66621.1756 90
72
0. 666 I. 0000 6O
1.03830.86775126
,0831. 3066 ,0641. 4619 !.2071
051 I.618
I.373701684 0 7653 45
40
0 4 2 I.7747 1.53880.6183 6
037 1. 9319 1.70280.5634 32 43
I..8660. 5176 30
.I962
4thbfethod: DURAND'S RULE. - Add together 4110 the sum of the first
and last ordinates 1 l/lo the sum of the second and the next to the last
(or the penultimaies), and the sum of
all the intermediate ordmate+
Multiply the sum thus gained by the common distance between the ordt-
nates to ob&n the area, or divide this sum by.the number of spaces to
ol&ln t he mean or di nat e.
Prof. Durand descrlhes the method of obtaining his rule ln Er@ee$g
News. Jan. 13+189-i.
He claims that it. is more accurate than StmPspn s
rule and practically as simple as the trapezoidal rule..
He thus descn;:
its application for approximat,e integrationof drfferentral ewati Ons.
definite integral may be represented graphtcally bY an area.
Thus. let.
I I
.
short dlam., odd number of sides, = rad. of ins&bed circle + rax;. oi
* Short diameter. even number of sides = diam of inscribed circle
clrcumscnbed circle,
edition. Some of
.
th
1 ln which u is some function of CC. either known or admitting
on or measurement.
Any curve plotted wtth z as absctesa 7~ -7
lnate will then represent the variat.ion of u with 5, and the, ~ii
:;
58 MENSURATION.
area between such curve and the axis X will represent the. integral in
questIon, no matter how simple ur complex may be the real nature of the
f u n c t i o n U.
Substituting in the rule as above given the word volume for area
did the word section for ordinate, it. becomes applicable to the
tietermination of volumes from equidistant sections as well as of areas
from equidistant ordinates.
Having approxima&Q obtained an area bye the trapezoidal rule the
area by, Durands rule may be found by adding algebraically to the &m of
the ordmates used in t&e trapezoidal rule (that is. half the S~JIYI nP t .ho ad
5th Nethod. - Draw the figure on cross-section paper. Count the
number of squares that are entirely included within the boundary. then
estimate the lraLctional parts of.sg!ares that are cut by the boundary. add
.~~~ .
together these fracrlons. ann anti thy $1,
The result is the area in ti
-_ _--.. . ..m to the number of whole squares.
t h e r u l i n g
nits of the dlmeneions of the squares.
The finer
of the cross-section paper the more accurate the result.
6th Methou. - use a p
7th Method. - With a
Ianimeter.
chemical balance; sensitive to one milliersl,m
draw the figure on&p& of uniform thickties? and cut it-out carefullv:
weigh the piece cut out, and compare its
square mch of the paper as tested b
weight with the weight pei
NY weighing a Piece of rectangular shape.
ordi nat es + sum of the other ordinates) l/lo oi (sum of penultimates
-
sum of iirst and last) and muitiplying by the common distance between
the ordinates.
T EE CIRCLaE.
Cireumference=$Fmeter X 3.;;;6, nearly; more accurately, 3.14159265359.
Approximations, y = 3.143: F3 = 3.1415929.
The mtio of circum. to diam. is represented by the symbol z (called Pi).
Area == 0.7854 X square of the dameter.
Multiples of X.
Irr =
2~
3.14159265359
=
3x
6.28318530718
= 9.42477796077
4x =
5~
12.56637061436
=
6n
15.70796326795
= 18.84955592154
9rr = 28.2743338:231
Multiples of z.
Ratio of diam. to circumference = reciprocal of x = 0.3183099.
Reciprocal of 1[4~=1.27324.
Multiples of I/x.
l/x = 0.31831
2/7z = 0.63662
3/n = 0.95493
t/z = 1.27324
7/x = 2.22817
3ir = 2.54645
9/r = 2.86479
LO/n = 3.18310
L2/n = 3.81972
x/2 = 1.570796
x/3 = 1.047197
x/6 = 0.523599
n/12 =
a/360 =
0.261799
0.0087266
360/n = 114.5915
n2 =
9.86960
l/n? = O.lO1321
4/n =
s/
1.772;153
i
-=
Log , =
0.564189
0.49714987
Jog n/4 = i.895090
5/n = 1.59l.55
6/n = 1.90986
I
Diam. in ins. = 13.5405 d/area in sq. ft.
Area ksq. ft. = (diam. in inches)2 x .0054542.
n AI-
u = ulameier,
R = r adi us , C = ci r cumf er ence A = area
v----_--~ ~--.--.--- ~.---.__ ~- ..-_. ----- -,.__ :
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition,
SOme of t
I,kth of the arc. L = (8~ - C) + 3. Pr of essor Wi l l i amson shorn..
that w&n the arc subtends an angle of 30~. the radius. bPmg 100,000 feet
(nteea,rlv 19 miles), the error hy this formula is about two Inches, or l!SOOOOO
part df the radius.
When the length of the arc is equal to the rachus, I.e.,
when it subtends an angle of 57O.3, the error is less t.han 1/768O.part of the
ra.dius. Therefore, if the radius is 100.000 feet,, the .error Is. less tbal:
lOooOO/;6SO = 13 feet,. The error increases ralJ@y vnth the Increase o-
the a,ngle subtended.
For an arc of 120 the error IS 1 part in 400; for an
arc of 180 the error is 1.18%.
~..-~~------
l~-rrPay ti6 -long&r be accurate
THE CI RCLE. 59
c= D. =2&; = 24
x 9
D
; = 26; = 3.545G;
CD
;q..D+9854;= +4RzX.T854;=nRZ; =$D; +.67953C2;=T.
0.31831C; = 2
z
-ii: =
1.12838 l/n;
: = 0.159155c; =
2
JTc; =
0.564189 4;1.
Areas of circles are to each other as t.he squares of their diameters.
To And the length ot au arc of a circle:
RULE 1. As 360 is to the number of degrees in the arc, so is the circum-
ference of the circle to the length of the arc.
RULE 2. Multiply the diameter of the circle by the number of degrees
inthe arc, and this product by 0.0087266.
Relations of Arc, Chord, Chord of Half the Arc,.etc.
Let R = radius, D = diameter, L = length of arc.
C =: chord of the arc, c = &?rd of half the arc,
V = rise, or height of the arc,
Length of the arc = L = 9 (very nearly). = 6~~x1~7vv + 2c, nearly,
= J o+4v2 x lOV2 + 2c near,y
150 + 33 vz
ChordofthearcC,=240 - V1; = dD2 - (D -
z 22/w - I I ? - - Vl~: =2 l/(0- V) )
2v)z; =8C - 3L
-
_
\ -- , 1
.
3.
(3L+a i- 8.
1
Chord of half the arc, c = l/2 d/c2 ;-4$z+; dti X V; =
Diameter of the circle, D =$
;=
v ;
Rise of the arc, VW.
CZ
=z ; =12 ( D - t/D* - C2)*
(or if V is greater than radi;
= c2
fi2Ecf d/o2 - c*);
2.
Hai! Haif the chord of the arc is a mean proportional between the rise and
the diameter minus the the diameter minus the rise: l/2 C = dV X \ D - V).
Length of the Char, yUII-._-. Length of the Chord subtending an ang e at the centre = twice the
sine of half the angle. sine of half the angle. (See Table (See Table of Sines.)
Ordinates to Circubv Ama- - Ordinates to Ci r cul ar Arcs. - C=c hor d, V=height of the arc. .or
middle ordinate x = abscissa, or distance mea:sured on the chord from Its T....- -_
centrn central point, ?I= ordinate, or dist,ance from the arc to the chord at the
point2,V=~--Z/Rz-l/*C2; y=dR2-~2-(R-V).
Length of a Circular Arc.
- Huyghenss Approxtiation.
60 MENSURATION.
MENSURATION. 61
d2R(R--(R +b)(R-b)
26(2R - m), =2R sin rf2I.
2T cos 1J 2Z.
R exsec l/21. =- R tan ifsI tan QZ.
T tan 114 I .
Diameter of circle
Circumference of circle X 0.28209
x 0. 88623) =
side of equal square.
Circumference of circie x 1.1254
Diameter of circle
Circumference 0; circle z ~:%%S
= perimeter of equal square.
r
Area of circle x 0.90031 sdp;vet;r
= side of inscribed square.
Area of circle X
Area of circle x
.d. = area of circumscribed square.
Ski: of sqzare x EE = d,iam. of circumscn ed circle.
. 6.
2
;:442:
1 a~zuz inscribed sye., II
6 ,
Perimeter of SqXuare x
32449
= diam. of equal circle.
= circum.
Square inches x
yy,23 = , I al
.d d = circular inches.
-~~ .~~ .__-I .__-_ -._ ._. ...~.~__~.,~..~. .-. .,. - -
;RNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some of the~i
In the measurement of an arc which is described with a short radius the
error isso small that it may beneglected. Describing an arc with a radius
of 12 inches subtem!ing an angle of 30. the error is l/56000 of an inch.
To measure an arc when it subtends a large angle, bisect it and measure
each half as before--in this casemaking B=length of the chord of half the
arc, and b=lengthof thechordof onefourth thearc; thenZ,=(16b-22B)e3.
Formulas for a Circular Curve.
J. C. Locke, Eng. Nezos, March 16, 1908.
c = d/3Ra, = %,/a? + b2,
d =s= dR(2R - d\ /(2R + c) (2R - c)), = 2R s i n t/al.
m =$-,=R F v(Ei+g)(R - g), = Rversi/:!Z,
= R sin QZ tan y4I , - Qc tan itar.
a = &, = R -d/(R + b) (R - b), = 2R ( si n t/21)*, = R vers I,
= R sin I tan l/s I. = b tan ifsI. = T sin I.
T = R tan i/21. I = $X 57.?95iSO. R = ; x 57.295750.
L =I R i 0.01745329, = 3- .
R2 sin I LR Rb
Area of Segment - y- --2--
I= 3--- 2
I&elation of the Circle to its Equal, Inscribed, and Circum-
scribed Squares.
l at
Sectors and Se
T .
ents. -To find the area of a aeclor of a circle.
RULE 1. Multip y the arc of the sector by half its radius.
Ruus 2. As 360 is to t,he number of degrees in the arc, so is the area of
the cirrle to the area of the %&or.
RULE 3. Multipiy the number of degrees in the arc by the square of the
radius and by 0.005727.
To fi nd the area of a segment of a tirclet Find t.he area of the sector
which has t.he same arc, and also the area of the triangle formed by the
chord of the segment and the radii of the sector.
Then take the sum of these areas. if the segment is gre%ter than a semi-
circle, but take their difference if it is less. (See Tilble of Segments.)
Another Method: Area of segment = l/s R2 (arc-sin A), in which A is
the central ang!e, R the radius, and are the length of arc to radius 1.
To End the area of a segment of a circle when its chord and height only
are given. First. End radius, aa follows:
..radi,~s = 1_ squ.ue of half the chord
2 C height
+ hei ght .
1
2. Find the angle subtended by the arc. as follows: half chord *
radius = sine of half the angle. Take the corresponding angle from a
table of sines. and double it to get the angle of the ai~c.
3. Find area of the sector of which the segment is a part:
area of sect.or = area of circle X degrees of arc -+ 360.
4. Subtract area of triangle under the segment:
Area of t.riangle = half chord X (radius - height of segment).
The remainder is the area of the segment.
When the chord, arc. and diameter are given, to find the area.,
From
the length of the arc subtract the length of the chord. Multiply the
remainder by the radius or one-half diameter: to t.he product add the
chord multiplied hy the heig,ht, and divide the sum by 2.
Given diameter, d, and height of segment, 11.
When h is from 0 to l/qd. arca = h~l.766dh - h,:
,a II I a.
l/qd to l/2(!, ar ea = hdO.O17d2+ 1.7dh - h2
(approx.). Greatest error 0.23%, prhen h = 1/4d.
To find thqchord: From the diameter subtract the height; multiply
the remainder by four times the height and extract the square root.,
When the chords of the arc and of half the arc and the rme are given:
To the chord of the arc add four thirds of the chord of half the arc; mul-
tiplv the sum by the rise and the product by.0.4?426
(a oroximate).
circular Ring, - To find the area of a nng
mclude$-between the cir-
cumferences oftwo concenlric circles:
Take the dlffrrence between the a.reas
of t,he two circles: or. subtract the souare of the less radiIIs from t,he square
of the greater, andmultiply their difference by 3.14159.
The area of the greater circle is equal to xR*;
and the area of the smaller,
zr2.
Their difference, or the area of the ring, is n(Ra. - r*).
The Rliipsc. - Area of an ellipse=product of Its semi-axes X3.14159
=product of its axes X0.785398.
The Ellipse. - Circumference (approxima.te) = 3.1416
lP+ d2
2
*.D
am! d being the two axes.
Trautwine gives the followin
R
as more accurate: When the longer axis
D is no:, more than 9ve. times t e length of t.he shorter axis, d,
Circumference = 3.1416 4
.I
02 _ (D - dP ~,
2
s.s
---..--,_,_I__ _.,.. ~_
erial may no longer be accurate
.
,,,
MEBiiURATION.
When D is more than 5d, the divisor 8.8 is to be replaced by the following:
ForD/d-6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16
Divisor = 9 9.2 9.3 9.35 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.68. 91f.5 92: 93:2 2:s
50
10
An accurate formula is C= ~(a + b)
in which A=
a - b
1 + T + $ + s6 + l$5$ +. . .
a t b
-. -InPenieurs Taschenbuch, 1896. (a and b, s emi - axes . )
Carl G. Barth (lMachinery, Sept., 1900) gives as a very close approxi-
m&on to this formula
C = n(a +b) ;; 1;&.
-4rea of a segment of an ellipse the base of which is parallel to one of
the, axes,of the ellipse. Divide the height of the segment by the axis of
which It. 1s part, and.find the area of a circufar .segment, in a t.able of circu-
lar segments, of which the height is equal to the quotient: multiply
area thus found by the product of the two axes of the ellipse.
the
Cycloid. - A curve generated buy the ,rolling of a circle on a plane.
Length of a cycloidal curve = 4 X diameter of the generating circle
Length of the base- circumference of the generating circle:
Area of a cycloid = 3 X area of generating circle.
Helix (Screw). -A line generated by the provressive rotation of a
pomt around an,axis and equidistant from its cent&.
Length of a @lax. - To the square of the circumference described by the
generating pomt add the souare of the distanceadvanced in one revolution
and take ilie square root of their c111r
tions of the generating point.
._ --.n multiplied by the number of revold
Or,
d(c2 + h2)n = length, n being number of revolutions.
Spirals. -Lines generated by the progressive rotation of a point
around a fixed axrs. with a constantlv increasing dist.ance from the RY,C:
A p&e spiral is made when the point-rotates-in one mane
. ..- ----I.
A csnzcal SP?.T~ 1s made when the p.oint rotates around an axis at a
progressmg di r - - - *~
axis, as arc
<Lance nom us center, a~nd advancing in the direction of the
Nund a cone.
rr,Fo;l4g$ of a plane spiral line. - When the distance between the coils is
by
RULE. 7 Add together the greater and less diameters. divide their sum
2; multrply the
lutions. i,
uotient by 3.1416, and again hy the number of revo-
Or, take t e mean of the length of t.he greater and less circum-
ferences and multiply it by the number of revolutions.
Or,
length = HZ F, d and d being the inner and outer diameters.
Lenqth of (f cynical spiral line. - Add t.ogether the greater and less
diameters; drvrde therr sum by 2 and multiply the quotient. bv 3.1416.
To the.square of the product. of this circumference and the number of
revolutrons of the sprral add the square of Dhe height of its axis and take
the square root of the sum.
Or, length = i(-%$)+ hs.
SOLID BODKEs.
. S.wfacep and Volumes of Similar Solids. -The surfaces of two
srmrlar sohds are to each other as t.he squares of their linear dimensions.
the volumes are aa t.he cubes of their linear dimensions.
If L = the side
_---_--~ ~..~____.,. _~ .__-_ A
\ RNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the ~
MENSURATION. 63
of a cube or other solid, and I the side of a similar body of different size,
,g, s. the surfaces s.na V, ZI. t he vol umes r espect i vel y, R : s :: Lz : 12;
v : v :: I I .3 : 13.
The Prism. - To.find the mrface of a right prism: Nultiply the perim-
eter of the base hy the altitude for the convex surface.
To this add the
areas of the two ends when the entire surface is required.
Volume of a prism = area of its base X its altitude.
The pyramid. - Convex surface of a regular pyramid = perimeter of
its base X half the slant height. To this add area of the base if the whole
surface is required.
Volume of a pyramid = area of base X one third of the altitude.
To find thesw(,ace of a fncslum pf a regular p?/ramid: Multiply half the
slant height hg t..e sum of the penmeters of the two bases for the convex
awf ac e. To this add the areas of the two bases when the entire surface is
-----;--~
reqmred,
lo tind thevolume of a f?ustum of a p?/ranzid: Add together the areas of
the two bases and a mean proporticnal between them, and multiply the
wm by one third of the altitude.
(Mean proportional between two
numbers = square root of their product.)
Wedge. - A wedge is a solid bounded by five planes, viz.:
a rectangular
base, two trapezoids, or two rectangles, meeting in an edge, and two
triangular ends. The altitude is the perpendicular drawn from any pomt
in the edge to the plane of the base.
To find the volume of (z wedge: Add the length of the edge to twice the
length of the base. and multiply the sum by one sixth of the product of
the height of the wedge and the breadth of the base:
Rectangular prismoid. - A rectangular prismold is a solid bounded
by six planes, of which the two bases are rectangles. having their corre-
sponding sides parallel, and the four upright stdes of the sohd are trape- ,
zoids.
To find the volume of a recfangular prismoid: Add together the areas of
the two bases and four times the area of a parallel sect.ion eq!rallv drstant
from the bases, and multiply the sum by one sixth of the altrtude.
Cyl i nder . - Ccnvex surface of a cylinder = penmeter. of
base X
altitude. Tothis add the areas of the two ends when the entlre surface IS
required.
Volume of a cylinder = area of base X altitude.
Cone -c,nvex surface of a cone = circumference of base X half the
slant height. To this add the area of the base when the entire surface is
reqmred.
Volume of a cone = ~area of base X one third of the altitude.
To find the surface of a frustum of a ron.e: Multiply half the side by the
sum of the circumferences of the two bases for the convex surface; to this
add the areas of the two bases when the entire surface is reqmred.
To find the volume of a frustum of a cone: Add together the area:3 of
the two bases and a mean proportional bet~ween them, and multip1.Y
the sum by one third of the altitude.
Or, Vol. = 0.261So@* + cz + bc);
a = altitude: b and c, diams. of the two bases.
Sphere. - To find the surface of a sphere: Multiply the diameter by the
$~4;r$rence of a great circle; or, mulhply the square of the dramet.er bY
. .
Surface of sphere = 4 x area of its great circle.
1 , I = convex surface of its circumscribing cylinder. -
Surfaces of spheres are to each other as the squares of their diameters.
To find the volume of a sphere: Multiply the surface by one third of the
radius. or multiply the cube of the diameter by r/6: that is, bY 0.5236,
Value of =I6 to 10 decimal places = 0.5235987756.
.
The volume of a sphere = Z/3 the volume of its crrcumscribing cylinder. 1
- alumesnf snheres arc to each other,.as.tbe-~~bes.,of then dIameteR%
L: ,;,
Gerial may no longer be accurate P.~
) . . .
m ~~~~-
MENSURATION.
Spherical triangle. -To find the area of a spherical triangle: Compute
the surface of the quadrantal triangle, or one eighth of the surface of
the.sphere. From the sum of the three angles subtract two right angles;
divtde the remainder by 90, and multiply the quotient by the area of the
quadrantal triangle.
Spherical
the surface oI!
olygon. - To find thearea of a spherical polvgon: Compute
the quadrantal triangle. From the sum of all the angles
subtract the product of two right angles b.y the number of sides less two;
divide the remainder by 60 and muitiply the quotient by the area of the
quadrantal triangle.
The prismoid. - The prismoid is a solid having parallel end areas, and
may be composed of any combination of prisms, cylinders, wedges, pyra-
mtds. or cones or frustums of the same, whose bases and apices lie in the
end areas.
Inasmuch as cylinders and cones are but special forms of prisms and
pyramrds. and warped surface solids may be divided into element~ary
forms of them, and since frustums mav also besubdivided into the elemen-
tary forms. it is sulhcient to say that all prismoids may be decomposed
mto prisms, wedges. and pyramids. If a formula can be found which is
equally apphcable to all of these forms, then it will apply to any combi-
natmn of them. Such a formula is called
The Prismoidal Formula.
Let A = area of the base of a prism, wedge, or pyramid:
AI. A?. A, = the two end and the middle areas of a prismoid. or of any of
its elementary solids; h = altitude of the prismoid or elementary solid;
V - its volume:
v = :(A~+~A, +A~).
For a prism, AI. A, and AZ are equal. = A; V= i X 6A =hA.
For a wedge with parallel ends, Az=O.A,=$ AI ;V=t(A1+2d1) =y.
For a cone or pyramid, AZ =0, Am =;i AI ; V =t (AI + AL ) =$.
I
The prismoid,al tormu!a is a rigid formula for all prismoids.
The only
approxtmation mvolved 1.n Its use is in the assumption that the given solid
may be generated by a ngh? line moving over the boundaries of the end
ai-PR.R -_ _-_.
The,area, of the middle section is never the mean of the two end areas if
the pnsmord contams any pyramids or cones among its elementary forms.
When the three SectIons are similar in form the rlirn~nnnn of the middle
area are always the means of the corresponding end dimensions. This
fact often enables the dimensions, and hence the area of the middle section,
to be computed from the end areas.
Polyedrons. - A polyedron is a solid bounded by plane polygons.
regular polvedron IS one whose sides are all
A
To find the surfaceof a r
e
9
ular polyedron. -
ual repular polygons.
%ulti$y the area of one of
the faces by the number o faces: or. multiply the square of one of the
edges by the surface of a similar solid whose edge is unity.
A TABLE OF THLREGTJLAR POLYEDRONS WHOSE EDGES ARE UNITY.
No. of Faces.
ccL-IIL.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
exaedron.
4
ctaedron., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ki:
. . . . . . . . . ..*........
odecaedron
8
x:4
:osaeclron
. a - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.._~.~~
is a 1910 edit
Volume.
0.1178513
1.0000000
0.4714045
7.6631189
..2.1816950~
of the I
MENSURATION.
To find the volume of a re ulsr pol edron. - Multiply the surface
by one third of the perpendicu ar let fal from the centre, on one of the 7 9
faces: or, multiply the cube,ci me of the edges by the solidrty of a srmilar
polycdron whose edge is umty.
Solid or revolution. - The volume of any solid of revolution is equal
to the product of the area of its generating surface by the length of the
path of the cent.re of gravity of that surface.
The convex surface of any solid of revolution is equal to the product of
the perimeter of its generating surface by the length of path of its centre
of grsvity.
Cylindrical ring. -Let d = outer diameter; d = inner diameter:
t/?(d - d) = thickness = t; l/4 Xt2 = sectional area; l/s(d +d) = mean
d&uneter = M: nt = circumference of section: x M = mean ci r cum-
ference of ring; surface = x t X K ~14; = l/4 9(dz - d?); =9.86965 t M:
= 2. 46741 (d2 - (12); vol ume = l/4 x t 114 r:; = 246i741 tz M.
Spherical zone. - Surface of a spherical zone or segment of a sphere
= its altitude X the circumference of a great circle of the sphere, A
great circle is one whose plane passes through the centre of the sphere.
Volwne of a zone of a sphere. - To the sum of the squares of the radii
of the ends add one third of the square of the height; multiply the sum
m the heighi and by 1.5708.
Sphercal segment. - Volume of a spherical segment wit,h one base. -
Multiplyhalf the height of the segment by the area of the base, and the
cube of the height b
$
6.5236 and add the two products. Or, from three
times the diameter o the sphere subtract twice the height of the segment;
multiply the difference by the square of the height and by 0.5236. Or, to
three times the square of the radius of the base of the segment add the ,
square of its height. and multiply the sum by the height and by 0.5236.
Spheroid or ellipsoid. - When the revolution of the generating sur-
face of the s heroid is about the transverse diameter the spheroid is
prolate, and w1en about the conjugate it is oHate.
Convex surface of a segment of a spheroid. - Square the diameters of the
spheroid, and take the square root of half their sum; then, as the diameter
from which the segment is cut is to this root so is the height of the segment
to the proportionate height of the segment to the mean diameter. Multiply
the product of the other diameter and 3.1.116 by the proportionate height.
Convex surface of a frustum or zone of a sphero*:d. - Proceed as by
rev&us rule for the surface of a segment, and obtain the proportUate
height of the frustum. Multiply the product of the diameter parallel to
the base of the frustum and 3.1416 by the proportionate height of the
frustum.
Volume of a spheroid is equal to the product of the square of the revolv-
ine axis by thelkted axis and by 0.5236. The volume of a spheroid is two
thirds of that of the circumscribing cylinder.
Volumeof a segment of a spheroid. - 1. When the base is parallel to the
revolving axis, multiply the difference between three times the fixed ax19
and twice the height of the segment, by the square of the height and by
square of the revolving axis, and
the segment by the square of the height and by 0.5236. MuhIP Y the 3
ht of
product bv the leneth of the fixed axis, and divide by the length of the
revolving axis.
Volume of the middle frustum of a spheroid. - 1. W
Circular. or
diameter a, R
arallel to the revolving axis: To twice the square C
rl t.hfi SCIIIR.~P of the diameter of one end: multipfy
hen the ends are
If the middle
, fhc+s,,m hv -_-- - - - - - -*
2. When the ends are elliptical, or.
To twice the product of the transverse and conjugate dtan
middle section add the product of the transverse and coruugat.e.dia-m$
of one end: multiulv the sum by the length
the length of the,frustum and by 0.2618.
perpendicular to the.revolving axis:
leters of the
:rs
1 of the frustum ana oy u.2018.
Spindles. -.Figures generated b the revolution Of a Plane area.
bounded by a curve other than a circle. when the curve is revolved about
a chord per endicular to its axis or about its double ordinate. They are
designated I& the name of the a& or curve from which they are generated,
as Circular, 1 Zhiptic, Parabolic, etc., etc.
-.-.~.-. ~~~~__ --.,- _.__-.-_ _
;erial may no l onger be accurate
----- ~~__L__.
mNING:
_~ .--~.~. .-,
This is a 1910 edition.
66 MENSURATION.
Convex surface of a circuZar s
tiply the!ength by the radius oP
indle, zone. or segment of it. - Rule: Mul.
the revolvmg arc; multiply this arc by the
central chstance. or distance between the centre of the spindle and centre
of the revclvmg arc: subtract this product from the former, double the
remamder, and multiply it b 3.1416.
Vol ume of a circular spzn le. - Multiply the central distance by half ,B
the area of the revolvrng segment; subtract the product from one third of
the zube of half the length, and multiply the remainder by 12.5664.
volume of frustlln Or zone of a circular spindle. - From the s
half the length of the whole spindle take one third of the square of
uare of
Balf the
length of the frustup, and multiply the remainder by the said half length
of the frustum; multiply the central distance by the revolving area which
generates the frustum: subtract tbis product from the former, and multi-
plp~the remainder by 6.2832.
Volume of a segmt%t of a &cular spindle. -+ Subtract the length of the
segment from the half length of the spindle: double the remainder and.
ascertam the volume of a middle frustum of this len+h. subtract the
rcsulf from the volume of t.he whole spindle and halve t%e iemainder.
vc&nr! of, a cycloidal spindle= fi;.e eighths of the volume of the circum-
scribing cyhnder. -,Multjply the product of the square of twice the dia-
meter of the generatmg circle and 3.927 by its circumference, and divide
this product bv 8.
Pira.bolie ekoid. - Volume Of a parabolic conoid (generated by the
revolution pf a parabola on its axis). - Multiply the area of the base by
half the heieht.
Or multiply the square of the diameter of the base by the height and by
. 0.3927.
Volume o a frustum of a parabolic conoid. - M.ultiply half the sum of
me areas ofthe two ends bv the heieht
Volume of a uaraholic s&&iK~~&&~&d by the revolution of a parabola
on its basej. 2Muit
n.Yld hv n 4
-.. -. ASS.,
:iply the s
9
uare of the middle diameter by the !ength
The volume o a parabolic spindle is to that of a cylinder
of the same height and diameter as 8 to 15.
Volume of the m.iddle frustum of a parabolic spindle. - Add together
8 tim.es the square of the maximum diameter, 3 times the square of the
end diameter, and 4 times the product of the diameters
sum by theJength of the frustum and by 0.05236.
Multiply the
This r;le is applicable
for calculatmg the content of casks of parabolic form.
Casks. - To find the volume of a cask of any form. - Add together 39
times the square of the bung diameter, 25 times the square of the head
diameter, and 26 times the product of the diameters
Multiply the sum
by the length. and divide by 31,773 for the content inImperial gallons, or
by 26.470 for U. S. eallons.
This rule v:as framed by fir. Hutton, on the supposition that the middle
third of the length of the cask was a frustum of a parabolic spindle, and
each outer third was a frustum of a cone.
To rind the ultage of a,~@, the quantity of liquor in it when it is not full:
1. For a &zng cask: Divzde the number of wet or dry inches by the bung
diameter in Inches. If the quotient is less than 0.5 deduct from it one
fourth part of what it wants of 0.5.
part of the excess above 0.3.
If it exceeds 0.5:add to it one fourth
whole,content of the cask.
Multiply the remainder or the sum by the
The product is the quantity of liquor in the
cask, in gallons, when the dividend is wet inches; or the empty space, if
dry inches.
2. For a standing casl;: Divide the number of wet or dry iqches by tht
length of the cask. If the quotient exceeds 0.5 add to it one tenth of its
excess above 0.5; if less tha:l 0.5, subtract from it one tenth of what it
wants of 0.5. Xulti Iv the sum or the remainder by the whole content of
the cask.. The pro8. uct IS the quantity of liquor in the cask, when the
dividend IS wet inches; or the empty spac:~. if dry jnches.
Volume of cask (approximate) Il. S. ganons = square of meau diam
X length in inches X 0.0034. Mean diameter = half the sum of the
bung and head diameters.
.Voluple of an irregular solid. -Suppose it divided into
bhngpnsmsorother bodies measurattle by preceding rules
art s resem-
And the con-
tent of each part; the sum of thecon;entsls thecubiccontents of thesolid.
Some of
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
The content of a small part is found nearly by multi\Fti;gea;;;g. sum
of the areas of each end by the
The contents of small P .
erpendicular &stance
irregu ar sohds may sometimes be found by im-
mersing them under water in a prismatic or cylindrical vessel, and obs,erq-
inp the amount by which the level of the water descends wh?n ,the sohd IS
withdrawn. The sectional area of the vessel being multiphed by the
descent of the level gives the cui-- ^^-^-^
0r~ cwieh the solid in air and in water: the difference is the weight of
water it displaces. Divide the weight in pounds by 62.4 to obtain yolume
in cubic feet, or multiply it by 27.7 to ohtain tl:.? volumt in Cubic mcbes.
When the solid is verv large and a great degree of accuracy is not
~a.---.
:,;&%b -meaa~re 1t.n~ i&ngth,- breadth, -and depth in several dinereriL
lean of the measurement for each dimension, and
reQY..,..u, ._.-- I-._- -_I
nlaces. and take the n
h&$y the three means together.
When the surface of the solid is very extensive it is better to divide it
in~to triangles, to find the area of each triangle, and to multiply It. by the
mean depth of the triangle for the contents of each triangular portmn; the
contents of the triangular sections are to be added together.
The mean depth of a triangular section is ohtamed by measuring Fhe
depth at each angle, adding together the three measurements, and.takmg
one third of the sum.
the materi a
PLANE TRIGONOMETR,Y.
Trigonometrical Functions.
%ver triangle has six parts - three angles and three side?.
When any
three oB these parts are given, provided one of them, 1s a side, the other
parts mav be determined. Ry the solutzon 0f.a tnangle 1s. meant the
determinition of the unknown parts of a triangle when certam purts are
given.
The complement of an angle or arc is what.remains after subtracting the
angle or arc from 90.
In general, if we represent any arc by A, its complement is 90 - A,
Hence the complement of an arc that exceeds 90: is negative.
The supplement of an angle or arc is what remams after subtracting;:;
angle or arc from 180.
If -4 is an arc its supplement 1s lSOO - A.
supplement of an arc tha:t exceeds JSO is. ne@lve.
The sum of lhWhree angles of a trzangle zs equal to 1SO.
Either ang!e is
the supplement of the other two.
In a right-angled triangle. the right
angle being equal to 90.
each of the acute angles is the complement of
the other.
In all right-angled triangles hawing the sameacute angle. the sides have 10
each other the same ratio.
These ratios have received special names, as
follows:
If A is one of the acute angles, a the opposite side, b the adjacent side:
and c the hypothenuse.
The sine of the angle A is the quotient of theoppos+te sidedivided by the
hypothenu.se. S i n A = a.
The tangent of thean& i is thequotient of theoppositesidedivided by
theadjdeent side. T a n A = :.
The secant of theangleA is thequotient of thehypothenusedivided by the
adicicent side. I ec A =I . b
The cosine (cos), cot&gent (cot), and c~s~~.?nt ~?Y?~!!.a~fa~ _
are resnectivelv the sine. tangent. i
gle
tnd secant of tne comp!ernertc ye. hat
cngle. - lhe~ terms sine cosine etc., are called trigonOmetnCa1 fUnC0OnS.
In a circle whose radius is u&ty, the sine of an arc, or of the angle @the
cetiemeasured b? that arc, is theperpendidar let fall from One eStrem.ti?l of
thearc upon tke a!. zameter passirlg th,rough the other ertrFti?l.
!be tangent of an arc is the(in< ?&iCh touches the nrc& ~4 one eztrm%
.-
1 may no l onger De accurate
68 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
of thearc. and is limited by thediameter (produced) passing through tb.e other
extremiiw
The secant of an arc is that part of the produced diameter which is inter-
cepted between thecentre and thetangent.
The versed sine of an arc is that part of the diam& intercepted between
theextremity of thearc and thefoot of fhe sine.
In a circle whose radius is not unity, the trigonometric functions of an
arc ~tl be equal to the lines here defined, divided by the radius of the
cirrl~ ---l.l.
11 ICA (Fig. 71) is an angle 111 the first quadrant, and CF =radius.
F G
The sine of the angle = cad . cos = g=&.
I -4
Tan = ltad . Secant = g. Cot =-g.
Cosec z CL. Versin =
R s d
-.
Ksd
If radius is 1. then Rad in the
omitted. and Sine = F G, etc.
denominator is
The sine of an arc = half the chord of twice the
M
arc.
FIG. 71.
The sine of the supplement of the arc is the
same as that of the arc itself.
= FG=sinarcFA.
Sine of arc B D F
The tangent of the su plement is equal to the tangent of the arc, but
with a contrary sign.
The secant of the sup
a contrary sign.
fin BDF = - BM.
Set B
lement IS equal to the secant of the arc, but with
F = - CM.
Sigy of the functions in the four quadrants. -If wee divide a
circle into four quadrants by a vertical and a horizontal diameter the
upper right-hand quadrant is called the first, the upper left the seiond
the lower left the third. and the lower right the fourth.
functions in the four quadrants are as follows:
The signs of thi
Sine and cosecant.
First quad. Second quad. Third quad. Fourth quad.
Cosine and secant
:
+
Tangent and cotakgent. +
+
The values of the functions are as follows for the &glcs specified:
- .-
.4ngIe . . . . .
Sine .
Cosine _
T a n g e n t . .
Cot angent .
Secant . . . _ . .
Cosecant . .
Versed sine.,
i
iv
.-
L -
3
,
-
7
:
-
0
L60
0
1
a
1
10
Cl
- - ,
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 69
TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMUWE.
The following relations are deduced from t.he properties of similar
triangles (Radius = 1):
sin A
cos A : sin -4 : : 1 : tan .I, whence tan A = colj;
sin ;I : cos .4 : : 1 : cot --1.
CBS .4
* I cotan A = 7 ;
bm .-l
CS -4 : 1 ::1:secA, *
1
set A = ~. .
cos ;I !
sinA:l ::l:cosecA. cosec-4 =,A;
tan A : 1 : : 1 : cot A t an A =k4.
The sum of the square of the sine of an arc and the square of its cosine
eqz$ umty. l~~~,,2+Ac~~~~=A f.
1 + cot2 -1 = coseEZ .4.
Funetious of the sum and dikrence of two angles:
Let the two angles be denoted by A and B. their sum A + B = C. and
their difference A - B by D.
sin (A+ B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B: . . .
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B: _ .
{i]
s i n ( A - B) = s i n A c o s B - cos A s i n B ; . (:3)
eo s ( A - B ) = cos A CDS B +s i n A s i n 13. . (4)
From these four form&e by addition and subtraction we obtain
s i n ( A +B) + s i n ( A - B ) = 2 s i n A cps B: .
s i n ( A + B) - s i n ( A - B ) = 2 co s A SIU B;
(5,
c o s ( A +B) +cos ( A - B ) = 2 ~9s A c?sB;
p!;
cos ( A - B) - cos(d + B ) = 2 sm A sm B. . (4,
If we put A f B =C, and -4 - B = D, then A = l/z CC+ D) and B =
l/?(C - D), and we have
sinC+sinD=2sin1/2(C+D)cosVz(C-D);. . (9)
si n C - sin D = 2 cos %(C +D) sin Vz(C - D): .
cost +cos~D=2cos%(C+D)cos42(C-DD);.
F o s D - cos C = 2 s i n l/z(C -I- D) si n Va(C - D). . .
$3
(12)
Equation (9) may be enunciaie& thus: The sum of the sines of,an.y two
angles is equal to twice the sine of half the sum of the angles multWhe? by
the cosine of half their difference. These formuhe enable us to transform
a sum or difference into a product.
The sum of the sines of two angles is to their difference as the tangent of
half the sumof those angles is to the tangent of half their difference.
sin A +sin B
sin A - sin B =
2 sin %(A + B) cos %(A-3 _ tan /?,(A + B).
2 cos l/z (A +B) sin l/z (d - B) tan 1/2(A - B)
(13j~
The sum of the cosines of two angles is to their difference ?s the cotan-
gent. of half the sum of those angles is to the tangent of half their dlfierence.
cos A +cos B ~COSQ(A + B ) cosva(A--B) I Ct1/2(A+B). (1.~
*
L cos B - cos A =2 sin I /Z (A +B) sin 1i2 (A -B) t a n /?(A - B)
The sine of the sum of two angles is to the sine of their difference as the
sum of the tangents of those angles is to the difference of the tangents.
sin (A +B) Stan A + tan-i.
sin (A & . .
!,
_--___-.. ___^I~~~.~.-_-
WARNI NG: This is a ,I~~910 edition. Some of
ti dy no longer be accurate
70 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
sin (-4 +B)
cos A cos B
- tanA+tanB; t an (A + B) =. pt,,>tzc% :
sinfA - B, =tan/f - tanB. tan A - tan B
cos A cos B
tan(A-B)=-
I+tanA tanB
cos (A +J 3)
cos A cos B
=l-tanAtanB;
cot (A+B)=cotAcotB-l
cot B +cot A
cos (A - B)
CS A CS u
=l+ tanAtanB;
cot (-4 _ B) = E!t A cot B + 1
cot B - cot a .
Functions of twice an angle:
sin 2-i ~= 2 sin A cos A; cos2A = coGA - sinxA;
tan 2.-i =
2 tan A
1 - tan A
I
I
cot A = cot.2 A - 1
2COG ;1
Functions of half an angle:
sin i/s A = f
1 - cos A .
cos~hA =+
1 +cosA.
2 2 :
tan %A=4
1 - cos A
1 + cos A
CotQA =f lCcosA.
1 - cos A
For tables of Trigonometric Functions, see Mathematical Tables.
Solut.ion pf Plane Right-angled Triangles.
Let A and B be the two acute angles and C the right angle and a, b, and
c the sides opposite these angles, respectively, then we have
1 . sinA =cosB =F;
3. tan A = cot B = %:
b
2. cos A = si n B = ;; 4. cot A = tan B = %.
1. In any
angles IS equaP
lane right-angled triangle the sine of either of the acute
nuse.
to the quotient of the opposite leg divided by the hypothe-
2. T!ie cosine of either of the acute .angles is equal to the quotient of
the adjacent leg divided by the hypothenuse.
3. The,tangent,of either of the acute angles isequal to the quotient of
th:,op
-P
osite leg divided by the adjacent leg.
he, cotangent of either of the acute angles is equal to the quotient
of t.he adjacent ieg divided by the opposite leg.
5. The square of the hypothenuse equals the sum of the squares of the
other two sides.
Solution of Oblique-angled Triangles.
In
The folloting propositions are proved in works on plane trigonometry.
any plane triangle -
Theorem 1. The sines af the angles are proportional to the opposite
sides.
:?%orem 2. The sum of any two sides is to their difference as the tan-
gent of half the sum of the opposite angles is to the tangent of half their
differertce~
Theorep 3. ,If from any angle of a triangle a perpendicular be drawn to
the opposite side or base, the whole base will be to the sum of the other
two sides as the drfference of those two sides is to the difference of the
segments of the base.
4 CASE I. Given two angles and a side, to find the third angle and the
ot!ier two sndes.
1. Tne third an
2. The sides may be found by the .ollowing proportion:
f
le = 180 - sum of the two angles.
--.---.-___ .
This is a 1910 edition. Some of
1
t h e I
XNALYTICAL GEO METRY . 71
The sine of the angle opposite the given side is to the sine of the angle
op
E
osite the required side as the given side is to the required side.
ASE II. Given two sides and an angle opposite one of them,
to find
the third side and the remaining angles.
The side opposite the given an
n.nele as the sine of the given
le is to the side opposite the required
ang e IS t.o th,e sine of t-he, required, angle. f.
Cam ~~~
s is founa by suotractmg tne sum or tne owner two rrom
rd side is found as in Case I.
sn two sides and the included angle. to find the third C&E I I I . Giv
side and the remaining angles.
The sum of the required angles is found by subtracting the given angle
from 180. The differenceof the required angles is then found by Theorem
II. Half the difference added to half the sum gives the greater angle, and
half the difference subtracted from half the sum gives the less angle.
The
third side is then found by Theorem I. _._~
Another method:
Given the sides c. b, and the included angle A, to find the remaining side
a and the remaining angles B and C.
From either of the unknown angles, as B, draw a perpendicular Be to
the opposite side.
. Then
,
Ae=cmsA. Be=csinA. e C = b - A e , BereC=tanC.
Or, in other words, solve Be, Ae and BeC as right-angled triangles.
CASE IV. Given the three sides. to find the angles.
Let fall a perpendicular upon the longest side from the opposite angle,
dividing the given triangle into two right-angled triangles.
The two seg-
ments of the base may be found by Theorem III. There will then be
f;n=the hypothenuse and one side of a right-angled triangle to find the
For areas of triangles, see Mensuration.
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY.
Analvticxl eeometry is that branch of Mathematics Tvhich has for its
rminatiqn of.the forms and magnitudes of geometrica object--the detel----...~
magnitudes by means of n.na.lvsis -- -----.I---.
Ordinates and abr
lines YY.
XX beinp
and YY
.L
jcissas. - In analytical
XX are used as coiirdinate axes,
geometry two intersecting
the axis of.abscissas or axis of X. ,o
?he axis of ordinates or axis of Y.
A. the intersection, is called the origin of co-
ordi nat es. The di st ance of -any,.point P
from the axis of Y measured parallel to the
ed the abscissa of the point,
T-- A:-a^?ce from the
the axis of _-
- -
axis of X is call
as AD or CP, Fig. 72. 1~s U~~NL~
axis of X measured parallel to
Y. i s called t he ordzzate. a s AC o r ru.
The abscissa and ordinate taken together
are called the coordinates of the point P .
The angle of intersection is usually taken as
a right angle, in which case the. axes of X
and Y are called rectang@zr ~~~~~~~~~~ ,, YY,YY.
I
Y
FI G. 72.
_ The abscissa of a point IS aesignated by the letter z and the ordinate
by Y.
The equafions of a point are the equations which express the distances
of the point from the axis. Thus z = a. 1~ = b are the equations of the
Point P.
Equations referred tc rectangular coi%dinates. -The equation of
a line expresses the relation which exists between the coordinates of every
Point of the line.
Equation of a straight line, 21 = az f. b, in which a is the tangent of the
angle the line makes with the axis of X, and b ~the distance above A Ina
which the line cuts the axis of Y.
Every equation of the first degree between two variable;? is the equation
i
.-__--__-
;erial may no longer be accurate
72
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY.
of a straight line. as Ay + Bz + c = 0, which can be reduced to the fora
y=ax*b.
Equatron of the distance between two points:
D =/e- x)z -+ ( y - y)z,
in which.ry. xu are the,coBrdinates of the two points.
Equation of a hne passlng through a given point:
y - y = u(x - 2).
in ?Wch rj/ are the co-rdinates of the given point, a. the tangent of the
angle the hne makes with the axis of 5, being undetermined, since any
number of hnes may be drawn through a given point
Equation of a hne passing through two given points:
y- y*=1J
xq(x - z ) .
Equaticn of a line parallel to a given line and through a given point:
y - y = a(r - x).
Equation of an angle V included between two given lines:
t ang V = ti 1
A
in Jvhich a and a are the tangents of the angles the lines make with the
ams of abscissas.
If the lines are at right angles to each other tang V = 00, and
1 + aa = 0.
Equation of an intersection of two lines, whose equations are
y = ax + b. a n d y = ax + b ,
b-U
xz _.--
a - a
and y =
ab - ab
a - a
Equation of a perpendicular from a given point to a given line:
\
y - y = -- ; (x - 2).
Equation of the length of the perpendicular P:
p=y-aa,--b
- - .
41 tar
The circle. -Equation
the centre. and radius = tz:
of a circle, the origin of coijrdinates being at
x? + y? =RS.
If the origin is at the left extremity of the diameter, on the axis of X:
y2 = 2Rx - x2.
If the origin is at any point, and the coordinates of the centre are xy
(I - x)2 + (y - y)2 = RZ.
Equati.on of a tangent to a circle. the coardinates of the point of tan-
gency bemg zy and the origin at the centre,
yy + xxn = RZ.
The ellipse. - Equation of an ellipse, referred to rectangular coordi-
nates nrth axis al the centre:
A2y2 + BW = A2B2,
in which A is half the transverse axis and B half the conjugate axis.
---_
ion. Some of
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY.
73
Equation of the ellipse w:ren the origin is at the vertex of the transverse
ad: -^
y* = -&L)Ax - x2).
The eccentricity of an ellipse is the distance from the centre to either
focus, divided by the semi-transverse axis, or
e=dA2-B?m
A
The parameter of an eilipse is the double ordinate passing through the
focus. It is a third proportional to the transverse axn and Its conjugate.
or
2A : 2B :: 2B : parameter; or parameter = L$
Any ordinate of a circle circumscribing an ellipse is to the corresponding
ordinate of the ellipse as the semi-transverse axis to the semi-conjugate.
4ny ordinate of a circle inscribed in an ellipse is to the cqrrespondutg
ordinate of the ellipse as the semi-canjugate axis to the semi-transverse.
Equation of the tangent to an ellipse, origin of axes at the centre:
A2yy +BQx = A2B2,
y.r being the coordinates of the point of tangency,
Equation of the normal, passing through the point of tangency, and
perpeudicular to the tangent:
The normal bisects the angle of the two lines drawn from the Point of
tangency to the foci.
The lines drawn from the foci make equal angles with the tangent.
The parabaia. -Equation of the parabola referred to reCtangu!ar
coordinates. the origin bei
i
at the vertex of its axis, yz = 2px, In wmch
2p is the parameter or doub e ordinate through the focus.
The parameter is a third proportional to any absmsa and its correspond-
ing ordinate, or
x:y::y:2p.
Equation of the tangent:
\
yy = p(s + z),
1/r being coordinates of the point of tangency.
Equation of the normalt
y - y =~ - C(x - x).
P
The sub-normal, or projection of the normal on the axis, is constant, and
equal to half the parameter.
The tangent at any point makes equal angles with the axis and with the
line drawn from the print of tangency to the focus.
-
The hyperbola. - Equation of the hyperbola referred to rectangular
Coordinates, origin at the centre:
A2yZ - BxY = 3 A2&?,
in which A is the semi-transverse axis and B the semi-conjugate axis.
Equation when the origin is at the right vertex of the tranSverse aUs:-
yz = g(2Az + x2).
Conjugate and equilateral hyperbolas. ---If on the Conjugate axis,
4
t.
_---_-.w__~_
no longer be accurate
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some
-
74
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
as a transverse, and a focal distance equal to t/A* + ~2, we construct
the two branches of a hyperbola., the two hyperbolas thus constructed are
called conjugate hyperbolas.
e
B
If the transverse and conjugate axes are
w
uat. the hyperbolas are called equilateral, in which case Yz-~z= .--AI
en A IS the transverse axis. and 22
verse aa&
- Y* = - Bz when B is the trans-
The parameter of the transverse axis is a third proportional to the tran.+
verse axis and its conjugate.
2d : 2B :: 2B : parameter.
The tangent to a hyi perbola bisects the angle of the two lines drawn from
the point of tange-~.cy tiu bof: IVGI.
f_ IL.. . -^^I
The asymptotes of a hyperbola
described on the axes, indeiinitely P~VUUL
1 are the diagonals of the rectangle
--yed in both directions.
The asymptotes continually approacl
tangent to it at an infinite distance from ilAG Ge:llLl~e.
;Ih_th_e_-h-_yperbola, and become
Ecwlateral hyperbola. - In an equilateral hyperbola the asympt-tes
make equal angles with the transverse axis, and are at right angles to e&h
other. With the asymptotes as axes, and P = ordinate V = abscissa
PI T a constant. This equation is that of the expansion of a perfect
gas. in wmch P = absolute pressure, V =volume.
Curve of Expansion of Gses.- Pp = a constant
or P, VP =p2~vzn
in wmch YI and Vz are the volumes at the pressures k1 and UP,.
these are grven, the,esponent n may be found from ~.
When
the formula
The differential
of its consecutive I.UII
of a variable quantit. is the difference between any two
VII,,,OQ. ha- il i.. :- .e ~.. .
. L~,~~~~r: ib ~5 oiuenmtety smai
Il.
writing d before the quantity. as dz, which is read d:
It is expressed by
T h e termGpis{ .-
ifferential of z.
tion of 2.
dr
zalkd the differential coefficient of y regarded as a func-
,~ . . . .
It is ai s ca!led the first derived function or the derivative.
The mfferential of a function is equal to its differential coefficient mui-
tiplied b y t h e diff---m . ^ .
:rentlal or tne independent variable; thus. g&r = dy.
--:-L,^ -... ~~... .
The limit of a vallauit: quantity I S
a ppr oa c he s , so R.P st ia=+ *n A;=-- *-
quantit
that v a l u e to which it continually
.- -- II .I~ uv U*~KI~ irom it b y less t h a n a n y assignable
The &ferentiat coefficient is t!
the independent variable to the i
se limit of the ratio of the increment of
The differential of a constant (
ncrement of the function.
The differential of a product of
luantity is equal to 0.
constant multiplied by the differ,
a constant by a variable is equal to the
ential of the variable.
If u = A v , du = A dv.
~=lo!+! PI - l og P2
l o g v2 - lee VI
ConSc sections. - Every equation of the second degree between two
variables will represent either a circle. an ellipse. a parabola or a hyperbola.
These CUN~S are those which are obtained by intersecting the surface of a
cone by planes, and for this reason thev are called conic sections
+garitbmic curve. -A logarithmic curve is one in which one of the
coordmates of any point is the logarithm of the other
The coordinate axis. to which the lines denoting the logarithms are
P
arahei is cabed the ozzs of hganths, and the other the axis of numbers
f Y is the axis of logarithms and z the axis of numbers, the equation of the
curve IS y - log z.
If the base of a system of logarithms is a, we have ag = z, in which ?J is
the logarithm of z~
Ed system of logarithms will give a different logarithmic curve.
I f
V = 0,x = 1. ,Hence every logarithmic curve will intersect the axis of
number s at a distance from the origin equal to I.
IFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
DI FFERENTI AL CALCULUS.
75
In ang curve whose equation is Y = f(z), the differential coefficient
!!.!& 5 tan a; hence, the rate of increase of the funct.ion, or the ascension of
.
the curve at any point, is equal to the tangent of the angle which the
tangent line makes with the axis of,abscissas.
All the operations of the Ditferential Calculus comprise but two obj,ects:
1. To find the rate of change in a function when it passes from one state
of vallle to another, consecutive witch it.
To find the actual change in the function: The. rate nf change is the
dis&ential coefficient, and the actual change the different@.
DifPerentialS of algebraic functions. - The differential of the sum
or difference of any number of functions.
dependent on the same vanabie,
is equal to the sum or difference of their differentials taken separately:
I f u=g+z-w,
du = dy +dz - dw.
The differential of a product of two functions dependent on the same
variable is equal to the sum of the products of each by the differential of
the other:
d(uv) = sdu+udv.
d(w) du ds
-=-;I +
uc
Thedifferential of the J(,,
roduct of any number of fun:tions is cjual to
the sum of the products w ictt arise by mu~ltiplying the differential of each
function by the product of all the others:
d(uls) =I s du +us dt +ut ds.
The differential of a fraction equals the denomin.ator intO the diffeientiai
of the niimerator minus the numerator i&o the differential ot the denom-
inator, divided by the square of the denominator:
,4t _ d (z-) = ,2 u dv.
6 du du
If the denominator is constant, da =0. and dt =T s u
If the numerator is constant, du = 0, and dt = - %*
The differential of the s uare rOOt Of R quantity i.S NfUal t0 the differen-
9 tiai of the quantity divide
by twice the square root 0 the WantIt?.
\
If * = y2.
or v a 4 dv = du, =; &2du.
p/U
The differential of any power of a function is equal to the exponent multi-
plied by the function raised to a powerless one, multiphed bY the differen-
tial of the function, d(un) =
nn
n-du.
Formulas for differentiating algebraic fUnCtiOnS.
-1. d(a),= 0.
2. d (ax) = adz.
3. d (x + y) = dx + dy.
4. d (z - y) = dx - dy.
5. d (zy) = x dj +y dx.
7. d (xm) =mm- dx.
8. d (d;) =-%-.
24x
-!Y-
dx.
To find the differential of the form u = (,a + brnjrn:
Multiply the exponent of the parenthesis into the ex ponent Of the va+
., t
ble within the parenthesis,
into the coefhcient of the vanable. into
~~__._,__
erlal may no longer be accurate
76 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
bipomial raised to a pnwcr less 1, into the variable within the parenthesis
raised to a power less 1, into the differential of the variable.
d u = d(a i b~)~ = mnh(a + b.~.~.)~-z~- dz.
To fin.d the rateof,change for a given value of lhe .uariahle:
Find the differential coelficient. and substitute the value of the variable
in the second member of the equation.
EXAMPLE. -
Hence the rate of change in t,he volume is three times the square of the
edge. If the edge IS denoted by 1, the rate of change is 3.
Aplicalion.
The coetficlent of expansion b\- heal of the volume of a
body is three times the !mear coefficient of -spansion.
Thus if the slrlc
of a cube expands 0.001 Inch, its volume expands 0.003 cubic inch.
= 1.003003001.
I.001
4partial differential coefficient is the differential coefficient of a
fl.Jnction Of two or more variables under the supposition that only one
of them has changed its value.
4, partial differential is the differential of a frtnction of tkvo or more
vanables under the supposition that only one of them has changed its
value.
The total differential of a function of any number of variables is equal
to the sum of the partial differentials.
If21 = f (zv), the partial differentials are !$ dx, dzidy,
Ifu = I ? +Y3 - 2, du = ;<dx f $du f ;$dz; =-3ztlx +su? dy - cl,-.
Integrals. - An intparnl i s a f unct i onal -expression drrivcrl frorl a
differentml.
Integration 1s t he operiltion of finding t he primlt,lve func-
Lion from the differential function.
It is indicated by the sign
read the integral of.
equals 22.
Thus j?:tdz = z:; ,
read the integrt ~~~~~. _
To integrate an expression of the form rn.~?-d~ or xrndr add 1 to the
cxPonent of the vanable. and divide by the new exponent and by the
differential of the variable:&?dz = ~3.
whe n m = - I.
Forfi-
!Applicable in all cases except
dz see formula 2. page SI.)
Tire integral of the product of a constant by the differential of a varl-
able 1s equal to the constant multiplied by the integral of the differential:
s
axm dz =a
s
zmdz =a
1
___ p+1
mfl *
TGe integral of the a!gehraic s um of any number of differentials is
eq& to the algehralc sum of their integrals:
du = 2ax2dx - hgdy- zz (lz;
s
2
du=z ax3 - $2 -;.
Since the differential of a constant is 0, a constant connected with a
vanablem by t he sign + or - chsappears fn t he di f f e r e nt i a t i on. t hus
d(a +z, ) = dxm =mzm--
dr. . H e n c e i n integratine a diffekential
exPreWon we must annex to the Integral obtained a co&ant represented
by C to compensate for the term which may have been lost in differen-
tiation. Thus i f we ha ve du = adz. dg =a a. Integrating
Lf J

t/ = ax f c.
- ---I. .~, ~~.~ ~--~ ~.._____..
Thi s is a 1910 edition. Some Of the mat
DiFFERENTiAL CALCULUS.
77
The constant C. which is added to th,e first integral, must have such a
value as to render the functional eqnatlon true for every posslblt value
,
that may he attributed to the vanahle.
Hence, after .havmg found the
first integral equation and added the constant C, If we then make
the variable equal to zero. the value which the function assumes will be
the true value of C.
An indefinite integral is the first integral obtained before the value of
the constant C is determined.
\ particular inte?ra! is the intearnl after the value of (3 has been found.
h definiteintegr~l is the integral corresponding to a given value of the
vaiiable.
Integration between limits. -
Having found the indefinite.integral
and the particular integral. the next step ii to find the delinite Integral.
and then the definite integral between given Iimtts. of ,the var.labte.
Tlie intemral of a function, taken betI\-een two h,nut% mdlcated by given
values of 2 is equal to the difference of the defimte Integrals correspond-
ing to thos6 limits.
The expression
s
z
dy=a dz
s
.
2
ic read: Inte9al~ of the differential 0L !1.
taken between the Iin@ z and
$: the leastllmit, or the limit corresponding to the subtractive Integral,
being placed helow.
Integrate du = g.$ dz between the limits z = 1 and 2 = 3, u being equal
to 81 when z = 0. /j =/
0x2 ds = 3x3 + C; C = 81 when z = 0, then
s
z= 3
du = 3(3)3 + Sl, minus 3(1)3+ 81 = 78.
.c= 1
Integration of particular f0rnnS.
To integrate a differenlia.1 of the form du =,(a +hzn)mzn-i dx.
I. If there ls a constant factor, place It without the sign of the integral,
and omit the power of the variable Kithout the parenthesis and the &ffer-
entiat;
Augment +he exponent of the parenthesis bF 1, and then divide
thk quantity, with the exponent
so increased, by. the exponent of the
par nthesis, mto the exponent of
e, Into he coefficient of the vanabte.
theW;;Ettle v,ythm t h e parenthesis.
s
&= (a+ born+ + (7.
(m + 1)nb
The differential of an arc is the hypqthenuse of a right-angle triangle of
which the base is dz and the perpendicular dg.
- -
If .z is an arc, dz = z/d~' + dy
2 = / ddx2 f dYr-
Qnadraturc of a, plane figure.
The diff e-Liid f the area of 0
the diff&~&d of the abscissa.
pkzne surface is equal to the ordinate into
d.s = ydz.
To apply the principle enunciated in the last equation, in finding the zrea
of any particular plane surface:
pind the value of y in terms Of z,
from.the equation of the boun?ing line;
subst i t ut e this value in the differential
equation, and then Integrate
between the required limits of 2.
Area of the arabola. T-
1
Find the area of any portion Of tlls cm-
man par abol a w ose equation is
. I^
,a
-.-__
112 = 2pz;
whence y = V ZPz.
j
:erial may no loti@be accurate
DIFFER.ENTIAL CALCULUS.
Substituting this value of y in the differential equation ds - y dz gives
If we estimate the area from the principal vertex, z = 0, y = 0, and
C = 0; and denoting the particular integral bv s. s = ~zt,~
That is. the area of any portion of the parabola, es&ated from the
vertex, 1s epual to 3/3 of the rectangle of the abscissa and ordinate of the
extreme Point. The curve is therefore quadrable
Quadrature of surfaces of revolution. -The differential of a surface
cf .re.volutlon I$ equal to the circumference of a circle perpendicular to the
axls IntO the differential of the arc of the meridian curve.
in wh:
- . . ich V is the radi.us of a circle of the bounding surface in a plane per-
Penoicular to the axls of revolution. and L is the absrissx~ ,,F dist.a~nnn n,
th.> _,^_^ o---. .I~
*LIT; ~r*llt: lrom 6ne ongm of CoGrdinate axes.
Therefore, to find the volume of
Find the
any surface of revolution:
terms of 2 argo (I=, tnen
J?ue ?f 2/ and dv from the equation of the meridian curve in
and integrate between
substitute these values in the differential equation,,
f.hP nrnmA,. 1i.-..:r- ^f -
pc LIlLl23 1 .c.
RY aPPhcation of th6t&re we may End:
The curved surface
.ference of the base into
of a cylinder equals the product of the &cum.
The convex surface O
the altitude.
the base into half the stain, L
$:&cone equals the product of the circumference of
leight.
The surface of a sphere is e
to the curved surface of the G:II~cuIIL~~n,
!qual to the area of four great circles, or equa.1
,.: _^.. __~~~_._.
,mg cylilider.
Cubature of volumes of revointic
volume generated by the revolution of
m. - A volume of revolution is a
called the arig
a plane figure about a fixed line
If we denote th.O volume by V dV = & d.r.
The %rea 01 a circle described by any ordinate ?I is 1;!/:; hence the diffe::-
entlal ok a volume of revolutic- :- ----~ 1
I
to the axis into the differenti
~111s WJUBI ~0 rne area of a circle perpendicular
4 nf t,he axis.
The differential of a voiuze,;
figure about the axis of Y is %zZ du
:nerated by the revolution of a plane
To find the value of V for any &en volume of revolution.
Find the .vak of Y* in terms of z from the equation of-the meridian
Curve. substitute this value in the differential equation, and then integrate
between the reqmred limits of I.
BY application of this rule
The volume of a cylinder
byJ.he altitude.
ye may find:
1s equal to the area of the base multiplied
altitude.
!he volume of a cone is equal to the area of the base into one third the
The volufne of a Prolate spheroid and of an oblate s
the revplutmn of an ellipse around its transverse an
res
P
ectlvelY)
i?
heroid (formed by
its conjugate axis
f the axes are equal, the spheroid becomes a sphere and its
are each equal to two thirds of the circumscribing c -1inder
i *R2 X LJ = i zD3; R being radius and D diameter.
vo ume 1 f
bS,,a?!-,a!4itude.
The volume of a paraboloid is equal to half the cylinder having the same
third the altitude.
~~~~ volume of a pyramid equals the area of the base multiplied by one
Second, third, etc., differentials. -- The differentcalcoefficient being
thus, obtain the second differential coe&ient:
? function of the independent variable it may be differentiated, and.we
i
-- - ~. ~- - _I .
l
. Thi.; is a 1910edi t i on. of
I)IFFERENTIhL CALCULUS
, l d$9 = 65
Dividing by dz, we have for the second differential
Wxl
%
coefficient zz9
which is read: second differential of u divided by the square -
of the differential of x (or dz squared).
d=u
The third differential Coefficient zs
is read: third differential of ti,

divided by dx cubed.
The differentials of the different orders are qbtained by mu~tiPl;~J~,
the differential coefficient
by the correspondmg powers of dx;
2 dz3 - third differential of U.
dx
sion of the f i r s t di f f e r e nt i a l coefffcient. - If -? n a v e a curge
who;e equa:-- ir 1, E
rr referred to rectangular coordmates, the cur\e
will re,edeL~~~~t~e-a~~~ if OX when 2 is positive, and approach the
axis when it is negative when the curve lies within the first angle Of the
coardinate axes.
For ail angles and every relation of !I and 2 the curye
will recede from the axis of X when the ordmate and first dlfferentlal
coeficient have the sake sign, and approach it when they have different
If the tangent of the curve becomes parallel to the axis Of X at any
signs. d?l
Poi nt z = 0. If the tangent becomes perpendicular to the axis of X at
.
any point $ = mm
stgu of tie second differential eoeffleient. - The ~~c~~edi~;;~$~~
coefficient has the same sign as the ordinate when th;>
toward the a:i_s of abscissa and a contrary s%n when lt.ls concave. .
. - For developmg into a sen;s any function
~~$$$aTi~~F~;e$ -J zf f Cx* + 0x3 + Ex , etc. , In dmh
, , , .1
u = (u)
250
In applsing the formula, omit the. expression? z = 0. although the
coefficients are always found under this hypothesis.
EXAMPLES :
r m (m
( a + 2) = am + ma- 23-r
- 1) am-22,
2
m (m -
+i 2
1) cm - 2)p-axs + etc*
.3
-=--z+$-$+ . . .
$
1 1 -, etc.
afx a a*
an+1
sum or difference of two independent variables, as u = f@ f II).
~~~~~~~~ ~he,,~e~. - For developing into a seii? ins functi0.n of the
- -
d is x-&at g becomes Khen
in dhh u is what ,& becomes when Y = 0, 5
u = 0, etc.
Maxima and mjnima.
_ To find the maximum or minimum value
of a function of a smgle variable:
1, Find the first differential coefficient. of the function, place, it wual
to 0 and determine the,roots o! the e&!$~~&d substitute each real root.
2: Find the second differential Coe
/, :
1,~ in
may no
_( .*
i
in succession, for the variable in the second member of the equation
Each root which gives a negative result will correspond to a masimui
value of the function, and -each which gives a positive result will corre-
spond to a minimum value.
ET.~MPLE. -.Tp find the value of z which wili render the function y a
malrlmum or muumum m the equation of the circle, ~2 + 22 = fiz;
-=-z
dv
tlz Y
; making - z = 0 gives z = 0.
The second differential coefficient is: ~~ = - :J?i
d%J
Whenz=O,y=R; h e n c e s~i=-i,
which being negative, IJ is a
maximum for R Dositive.
In applying tl+ rule to practical examples we first find an expression for
the fur+lon which is t? be made a maximum or minimum.
2. If in
be omitted
s,uch expression a constant quantity is found as a factor it may
m the operation; for the product will be a marimc:;u ora mim-
mum when the variable factor is a masimum or a minimum.
3.. Any value ?t.the inde
maximum or a m!rumum wlIT
endent variable which renders a function a
maximum of m!mmtun:
render any pgwer or root of that funct~ion a
hence we may sortare both members of an equa-
tion to free it OI rxhcals before differentisting.
B.v these rules we mav find I
The m@mum rectangle which can be inscribed in a triangle i.= one
whose altitude is half the altitude of the triangle.
The altitude of the maximum cylinder which can be inscribed in a cone
is one third the altitude of the cone.
The.surface of a cylindrical vessel of a given volume open at the top,
is a mummum when the altitude equals half the diamettr.
The altitude of a c@nder inscribed in a sphere when its conres surface is
a maximum is r d\/. T = radius.
The altitude of a r$inder inscribed in a sphere when the volume is a
maximum is 2r i 43.
Bfaxima and+ #inima without the Calculus. - In the equation
?J = a + b.x + CZ-, m. yhich a, b, and (: are const ant s, ei t her posi t i ve or
negat!ve, 1f c be posltlve u i s a mi n i mu m wh e n z = - I, + 2~: if c b e
negative ?J is a maximum when x = - b +2~.
bx i-c/z. y is a minimum when bx =c/x.
In the equation u = a +
APPLIC.~TION. -The cost of electrical transmission is made up (1) of
fixed charges. such as superintendence, repairs. cost of poles etc. which
may be represented by a; (2) of interest on cost of the wire &hi& varies
~lth the sectional a!ea. and may be represented bv 0~. a& (7) of cost of
the energy wasted m transmission, which varies in\~e&ely with the area
of the.l=re. or C/Z.* The t ot al cost , 2 = a + Dr + c,I, i s a mi ni mum
when ikm 2 = item 3. or bx =c/x
Differential of an exponential function.
Ifu = ax . . . . . . f . . . .(l)
then& = daz = a%& 1 . . . . . . . ( 2 )
in which k is a constant dependent on a.
1
The, relation between a and k is n x = e: whence a = ok
Fthwz:h e = 2.7182818 . . . (3)
the base of the Naperian s~st~mofloga-
Loklthms. -The logarithms in the Naperian system are denoted by
2. Nap. log or hyperbolic log, hyp. log. or log, ; and In the common system
a!wayr by log.
I; = Nap. lug a, log Q = k log, . . . , , . (4)
DIPFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
8 1
The common logarithm of e, = log 2.7182815 . . . = 0.4342945 . . ,
is called the modulus of the common system, and is denot,erl by 31.
Hence, if we have tire Naperian logarithm of a num,ber we can find the
common logarithm of the same number by m~ltiplymg by the modulus.
Reciprocally, Nsp. log = corn. log X 2.3025851.
If In equation (4) we make a = 10, we have
1 = I; log e, or k = log e = M.
That is, the modulus of the common system is equal to 1. divided by the
Naperian logarithm of the common base.
From equation (2) we have
du da=
-=-z
ax
k dx.
u
If we make a = IO. the base of the common system, z = log ZL, and
That is the differential of a common logarithm of + qupntity is equal to
the diffkrential of the quantity divided by the quantity, Into the modulus.
If we make a = e. the base of the Naperisn system, z becomes the Nap~e-
rian logatithm of ZL, and k becomes 1 (see equation (3)); hence dl = 1.
and
d ( Nap. l og u) = dz = 3 ; = $.
That is the differential of a Naperian logarithm of a quantity is equal to
t he diderentisl of t he quant i t y di vi ded by t he qusntlty: and 111 t he
Naperian system the modulus is 1.
Since k is the Naperian logarithm of a. du = a21 a dr.
That is, the
differentiai of a function of the form
az is equal to the function. into the
Naperian logsrithm of the base a, into the different@ of the exponent.
If we have a differential in a fractional form, In which the,numerat:or IS
the differential of ihe denomln:itor, the integral is the vaperlsn logarithm
of tl%& denominator.
Integrals of fractional differenttals of other forms
are giiren below:
DifPereutiaJ f o r ms whi c h have k n o wn ,integrals; CXponential
functions. (1 = Nap. log.).
82 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
Circ+r functions. --Let z denote an arc in the first
sine, z Its cosine, u its versed sine, and tits tangent; and the 8
uadran~ y its
ollowingnota-
t,ion be employed to designate a.n arc by any one of its functions, viz..
sin- y denotes an arc of which 1~ is the sine,
cos-lx .I a. .L 8,
x is the cosine,
tan-*t a <a 1 II
t is the tangent,
(read arc whose sine is y. etc.). - we have
forms which have known integrals (r = radius):
t he following differential
zdz = sin z + C;
-sinzdz =cosz+C:
= sin-111 + C;
= cos--x-P c;
- = versin --L D + C:
= tan-r If C;
drq = sin-r y + C:
s
- T dz
drc2 =cos --i 2 + c;
s,
sin z dz =versin z + C;
= tanz+C;
s
T dv
~2rv f ,112
= versin--l 2, + C;
r2 dt
-
f-2 + t*
= tan-r t + C;
s
du
da?2
=sin -1 z +C;
-di
d/,2 - u.2
= cos-1 i + c;
s
dx
-..-===w =
~2au-- IL2
versin --1 E+ C;
a du
I - -
u az+uZ
= ts,n-rz+ C.
The cycloid. - If a circle be rolled along a straight line any point of
the crrcumferenc,-, as P, will describe a curve which is called a cycloid.
The circle 1s called the generating circle, and P the generating point.
\RNING: Thi s is a 19~10 edi t i on. Some of th
~THE SLIDE; RULE.
The transcendental equation of the cycloid is
z = versin-1: - d&y - y?,
and the differential equation is d.r =
y dx
d/ry - p
The area of the cycloid is equal to three times the
area of the generating circle.
The surface described by the arc of a cycloid when
revolved about its base is equal to 64 thirds of the
generatin circle.
The vo ume of the solid generated by revolving
a cycloid about its base is equal to five eighths of the
circumscribing cylinder..
Integral calculus. --In the integral calculus we
have to return from the differential to the function
from which it was derived. A number of differential
expressions are given above, each of which has a
known integral corresponding to it, which., being
differentiated, will produce the given differential.
In all classes of functions any differential expression
may be integrated when it is reduced to one of the
known forms; and the operations of the integral cal-
culus consist main1 in making such transformations
of given differentta expressions as shall reduce them .9
to equivalent ones whose integrals are known.
For methods of making these transformations
reference must be made to the text-books on drfferen-
tial and integral calculus.
.
THE SLIDE. RULE.
The slide rule is based on the principles that the-
addition of logarithms multiplies the numbers which
they represent, and subtracting logarithms d!vr,des
thwumbers. I3y its use the operattons of multtphca-
tion division the finding of owers and the extractton
of rbots mai be performer? rapidly and with an ap-
proximztion to accuracy which is sufficient for many
With a good lo-inch Mannheim rule the
* Fe%Fzobtained, are usually accurate to l/4 of 1
er
cent. Much greater accuracy is obtained with cy m-
r!
drical rules like the Thacher.
The rule (see Fig. 73) consists of a fixed and ,a
sliding part both of which are ruled with loganthmm
-scales: that is, with consecutive divisions spaced not
equally as in an ordinary scale, but in proportion
to the logarithms of a series of numbers from 1 to
10. . By moving the slide to the right or left the loga-
rithms are added or subtracted, and multjplicatron
or division of the numbers thereby effected. The
scales on the fixed part of the rule are known as the
A and D scales and those on the slide as the B a nd
C scales. A and B are the up er :and C and D
are the lower scales. The A a nB B scales are each
divided into two left hand and right hand, each
being a reproduction, one half the size, of the C and
D scales. A runner.
strip of celluloid with a
to facilitate some of the operations.
each scale begins with
.-.-b~ -_ -.-...-.--_c_.-
eriaxiy n- 6 ~l onger be accurate
FI G. 13.
:
is is a 1910 edi t i on.
54 THE SLI DE RULE. LOC,ARITHbIIC RULED PAPER.
the index of the scale. In,using the scale the figures 1. 2, 3, etc., are
to be taken either as representing these numbers, or as 10, 20. 30 etc.
100, 200, 300, etc., 0.1, 0.2. 0.3. etc., that is. the numbers multiplied o;
divided b
given profT
10. 100. etc., as may be most convenient for the solution of a
lem.
r
85
LOGARITHMIC RULED PAPER.
W. F. Durand (Eng. News, Sept. 25, 1593.1
The following examples will give an idea of the method of using the
slide rule.
Propwtion. - Set the first term of a proportion on t~he c scale opposite
the second term on the D scale, then opposite the third term on the C
scale read the fourth term on the D scale.
Ex.%>rpLE..--Find the fourth term in the proportion 12 : 21 :: 30 : z.
&fove,the shde to the right until 12 on C coincides with 21 on D, t hen
opposlt~e 30 on C read z on D =52.5.
instead of C and D.
The A and B scales may be used
AS plottptl on orrlinn,rp cross-section paper the linpc whi c h e xpr e s s
rcl;ltiotli brtneen two \-;lriahlcs arc 11sl1;~11?. ~~urv~~ii, ill111 mu.3t he pl ot t ed
poi[lt by point from a table previou+g comput ed. It is only where the
exponents involve<1 in the rel;lt,ionsh:p are umty t.hnt t he l i ne becomes
st,raizht and m:iv he drawn irnmediate1.v on the determinat.ion of two of
~lizclliplication. - Set the index or figure 1 of the C scale to one of the
factors on D.
EXAJIPLE. - 25 X 3. Move the slide to the right until the left index
of C coincides with 25 on the D scale.
found the product on the D scale, = 75.
Under 3 on the C scale wili be
Division. - Place the divisor on C opposite the dividend
quot.ient will be found on D under the index of C.
on D, and the
E.Y~.\IPLE. - 750 i 25.
cides with 750 on D.
Move the slide to the left until 25 on C coin-
D, = 30.
Under the left index of C is found the quotient on
Co.mbined Mtiliplicalion and Di vi si on. - Arramze the factors to be
multIplied and divided in the form of a fraction with one more factor in
the numerator than in the denominator, supplying: the factor 1 if necessary.
Then perform alternate division and multiplication. using the runner to
indicate the several partial results.
E~AMMPLE. - 4 3 ; 6 8 = 8.9 nearly. Set 3 on (3 over 4 on D. s e t
runner to 5 on C. then set 6 on C under the runner, and read under 8 on
C the result 8.9 - on D.
I nvol uti on und Evolution. -The numiiers on scales A and B are t he
squares of their coinciding numbers on the scales C and D and also the
numbers on scales C and D are the square roots of their coinciding num-
bers on scales A and B.
.EXAYPLE. - 4? = 16.
on -S_
Set the runner over 4 on scale D and read 16
416 = 4. Set the runner over 16 on A and read 4 on D
In extracting square roots, if the number of digiits is odd, take the num-
ber on the left-hand scale of A: if the number of digits is even, take the
mmber on the ri
To cube a num
ht-hand scale of A.
%
tion.
er. perform the operations of squaring and multiplica-
EXAMPLE. - 23 = 8.
on
Set the index of C over 2 on D, and above 2
B read the result 8 on A.
Eztroction of Ike Cube Root. - Set the runner over tbe number on A
then move the slide until there is found under the runner on B the samd
number which is found under the index of C on D; this nudber is the
cube root desi red.
EXAMPLE.- +-= 2. get the runner over 8 on A. move the slide
a!on.< until the same number appears under the runner on B and under
the mdex of C on D; this will be the number 2.
Triso~ometrical Computations. - On the under side of the slide (which
is reversible) are placed three scales. a scale of natural sines marked S
;,s,;le of natural tangents marked T. and between these a scale of equal
the top.
To use these scales. reverse the slide bringing its under side to
Coinciding with an anale on S its sine wlil be found on A and
comciding with an angle on T will be found the tangent on D.
tangents can be multiplied or divided like numbers.
Sines and
of
LY,, *_ .,_... ~.. ~. ~~ ~~~~ _
for all relationships which iilvoive inultiplkation. division, -&sing to
nnwvers. or extraction of roots. the lines representing them are straight.
&$sticb relationship may be represented-by an equation of the form:
1/ = Bxnn. Taking logarithms we have: lo:: 7~ = log B +n IOK 2.
Logarithmic section paper is a short and ready means of plot,ting such
lovar;hmic equa,tions. The scales on each side are logarithmic instead
ofuniform, as in ordinary cross-section paper. The numbers and dj?-
sions marked are placed at such points that their distances from the ongm
are proportional to the lo~&ritbms of such numbers instead of to the
numbers themselves. If we take any point, as 3, for example, on such a
scale the real distance we are dealing with is log 3 to some particular
base,and not 3 itself. The number at t.he origin of such a scale is always
1 and not 0. because 1 is the number whose logarithm is 0. This 1 may.
hnwwer. reoresent a unit of any order. so that quantities of any size _.._ . -.. ~~~
- whatever may be dealt with.
If we have a series of values of z and of Bxn, and plot on logarithmic
section paper x horizontally Andy Btn vertically, the actual distances
involved will be log x and log(D.?), or log B +n log x. But tt!ese d,is-
tances will give a straight line as the locus. Hence all relatlonshlps
expressible in this form are represented on logarithmic section.paper by
strairht lines. It follows that the entire locus may be determmed from
any two points; that is, from any two values of Bxn; or, again, by any one
point and the angle of inclination: that is, by one vaiue of B.T~ and the
vallle of n, remembering that R is the tangent of the angle of m&nation
to the horizontal.
A single square plotted on each edge with a logarithmic scale from 1
to 10 may be made to serve for any number whatever fro? 0 to m. Thus
to es r&s graphically the locus of the equation: ?I = xsl2. Let Fig.. ip
denot a souare cross-sectioned with Zoearithmic ?4 scales. as described.
%lnnn~e t.tZt.jthere WPT@ inindt,o it. and t0 each other on the richt and ..___ ,__.._ - .--. ~~ ~~~
abo&an?&+%%~e series of such squares similar!y divided. Th<n. con-
sidering, in passin,g from one square to an adjacent one to. the right or
above, that the umt becomes of next iligher order, such a senes of squares
would. with the orooer variation of the unit, represent all values of either
2 or 1, between Oand ~0.
Suppose the original square divided on the horizontal edge into 3 parts,
and on the vertical edge into 2 parts, the points of division being at A.
B. D, F G, I. Then lines joining these points, as shown. will be at an
inclinatibn to the horizontal #hose tangent is s/z. Now, beginning at 0.
6F will give the value of &2for values of z from 1 to that denoted. by HF.
or OB Or about 4.6. For greater values of x the line xould run intothe
adiacint souare above. but the location of this line. if continued.. worl.!d
bekxactly~similar to tliat of BD in the square before us. Therefore the
line ED will give values of ~~~12 for z between B and C, or 4.6 and IO. the
corresponding values of y being of the order of tens, and nnging from 10
to 31.3. For larger values of x the unit of x is of t,he higher orger. and
we run into an adjacent sqllare to the right without change Of Urllt for Y.
ln this square we should~ traverse a line similar t.o ZG. Therefore,, by a
Proper choice of units we may make use of IG for the determmatlon of
^.
values of .rl2 where z lies between 10 and the ValUeat G,Or BDOUt.~l.~-
we should t,hen rn into an adjacent sql:are above, requiring the umt .on
o be of the next higher order, and traverse a line similar to A-E, w&h
: ~1.
f i
~~..~.~__._ ----.-,--
. . .
may
no l onger De accura- ce
LOGARI:rHMIC RULED PAPER.
takes us finady to the opposite corner and completes the cycle. Follow-
ing this, the same series of lines would result for numbers of succeeding
orders.
The value of z3/s for any value of 2 between 1 and co mav thus he read
from one or another of these lines. and likewise for any value between
0 and 1. The location of the decimal point is readily found by a little
attention to the numbers invo!ved. The l i mi t i ng vniues of z for any
given line may be marked on it, thnis enabling a proper choice to he readily
made. Thus, i n Fi g. 2 we mark UE as 0 - &6, UD as 1.6 - 10, IG as
--.__-.~_I_. ..,--~,~
ARNING: This is a 1910 edition,
F I G. 7 4 .
10 - 21.5, and AE as 21.5 - 100.
ueiii~~wtn. A& ml s e r v e fo
If values of .c less than 1 are to he
dealt with, AE will serve for values of z hetwcen 1 and 0.215 IG for
values between 0.2i5 and 0.1 values between 0.2i5 and 0.1, BD for values between 0.1 and 0.046, and
OP for values hetween 0.046 arm U.UUI. OP for values hetween 0.046 and 0.001.
The principles involved in thir -^-- The prmciples involved in this case
-
other, and in general if the expom
m
other, and in general if the exponent he re
v be readily extended to any
set of set of lines may he drawn by dividing on
kesented by m/n, tt,e comp,&,
tl
side of the square into m and
the other Into n parts, and joining the points of division as in Fig. 74.
In
aii there will be (m + n - 1) lines, and opposite to any point on X there
w~ii be n hnes corresponding to the n different beginnings of the nth root
$,;nbre Will be Cm + n - 1) l i nes. and oonosite to any~po;lntoE X-there
Some of the
INTERPOLATION.
of the mth power, while op osite to any point on Y will he m lines corre-
rnding t o t h e d i f f e r e n t g 0 e=uuungs of the mth root of the nth power.
here the complete number of lines would he quite large.-,it is usually
unnecessary to draw them all. and the number may he huuted to those
necessary to cover the needed rsuge in the values oi x.
If. instead of the equation g = xn, we have a constant term as a mufti-
plier; giving an equat.ion~in the more general form 1 =@,.or BX m/n,
there wi l l be t he same numtxr of lines alld at t!it. iarr~e It~~ltnntton. btlt
all shifted vertically through a distance equal to log ,B. If. therefore,
we start on the axis of Y at the point B. we may draw m the same series
of lines and in a similar manner. In this way PI) represents the locus
giving the values of the areas of circles in terms of their diameters, hemg
the locus of the equation A =l/1 lr d* or ?I = l/4 x X2.
If in any case we have z in the denominator such that the eouation is
in the form 1, =B/zn this Is equal to 1~ = Bx-I . and the same general
rules hold. The linesin such case slant downward to 6he right instead of
upward. Logarithmic ruled paper, with directions for the use, may he
ohtained from lieutIe & Esser Co., 19 Fulton St., New York.
.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES.
Formula for Interpolation.
.
an
= a, + (n - 1)&f
(n-l;,?+?) ($+ (n-1) ( n - 2 ) ( n - 3 ) o.+
1.?.3
. . .
;
a, = the first term of the series: R, number of the required term: a,, the
required term; d,, &, da, first terms of successive orders of differences
between a,, a?, Q, a,, successive terms.
ESU~IJLE. - Requi r ed the log of 40.7, logs of 40. 41.42.43 heinggivenas
below.
Terms ai, aa, a~, tip,: 1.6021 1.6128 1.6232 1.6335
1st differences: 0.0107 0.0104 0.0103
; "d I I - 0. 0003 + - 0. 0002 0. 0001
\
For log. 40. ri = 15 log 41, n= 2; for log 40 7, n = 1.7; n - 1 = 0.7; n - 2
=.-- 0. 3; n - 3 = - 1. 3.
a, = 1.6021 f0.7 (0.0107)~f
( 0. 7) ( - 0. 3) ( - 0. 0003) +(0. 7~~- n. 3~(- - 1. 3~~0. 0002)
2 6
=1. 6021+ 0. 00749+ 0. 000031+ 0. 000009 =i.6096 +.
RECIIROCALS OF NUMRERS.
5
:
2
-I-
I27iCO7874C
914378125
9i.0077519
130: -0076923
I .0076335
::g;:::g
4 -0074626
5 0074074
6.a?73529
7:.0072992
8~-0072~3~
9:.0071942
4m~~
$070oo7o~?
4 -0069444
5,.0068965!
6~.0068493
7!.0068027:
81GO675671
9:.0067114
150i.O,&&66;
11.X66225;
2)-0065789f
31.xX5359!
$W&
;:gi$::
dOOf~329,
9 dO62893
160-3062500
1 .ci?62111~
2 ao61728.
3 0061349:
4 Gofm75l
5 .oo60606
6 .0060241(
7 .m59@30:
81I-~0595231
9100591716
70/.005&323i
I .00584795
2 .00581395
3, .00578035
4 .a0574713
5 .00571425
6 .?0568182
7 CO564972
8.00561798
9. .00558659
!30!.00555556
1 ..I0552436
2 .m549451
3.00546448
4 SKI543478
5 .m540540
6 .X)537634
71Gu534759
8/.00531914
9.00529100
2
4
3
I
: I
5
I
I
I
I
1
,
,
Ii
-
I X052356
2,.0052083
3.0051813
4.005154fj
5a051282
6 .0051020
7 .JO50761
8 .0050505
9 GO50251
m.005OoOO
I m49751,
2 .00495d4
3 .0049261
4 m49014
5 a048780
I I ao4739~
It .0047169t
I3 ..I046945
14 .Bl6729(
15004651I(
16.30462%1
17.0046082~
18/.0045871~
I9.00456621
20.0045454~
I DO45248
2 co45o-l5
3 .00448431
4 .IxM4642
5 Jm4444.
6 .0044247(
7 .0044052
4 260 00384615
I I .00383142
i 23.00381679
00380228
z 45.003787&.X)377358
I 6 .00375940
; 7 .00374532
7 8/.003731349a037I747
: 270I .00370370
.00369004
: :: :g;z%
: 4.0036J%3 5CO363636
f
6 CO3623I 9
7 .0036101I
i 8.00359712
1 280 9 00358423
:&I357143
i I .I0355872
2 .00354610
6 34Go353357
.003521I3
i 65.00350977.I0349650
: 87DO348432
00347222
: 2I ao343643
II0342466
f 43.00340136.I@341297 130.m4347e:
i/.0043290(
2.0043103;
3!.004291&
4!.00-12735(
51 .CO42553;
6 XXI423725
7 .OtM21941
8..004201@
9i .004l&llC
40!.00416667
1~00414938
2!.00413223
3!.00411523
4!.XWO9836
5 .~408163
81.I!@03226
9~.00401606
~01.004OOOOO
I !.Jo398406
2.0039&325
_~_~~. ~~.
n .
I 2 m331I26
3 .00330033
4 00328947
5 .m327869
6 II0326797
7 II0325733
8 SXt324675
9 .30323625
310/.00322581
I I .00321543
12bO320513
13~.00319489
14!.00318471
15.00317460
Some of the
RECIPROCALS OF NU>lIRJRS.
Sn.I0195695
I2.M)l95312
13.XJl94932
141.00194552
151,0019-1175
16i OU:53i98
I7.oO193424
I8.CiIl93050
19.I0I92678
52fll.o01923&3
I .001~1939
2 .0019i571
3 00191205
;::1E:
6 .001901I4
7 ml89753
8 .X1189394
9 .00189036
53; :$$gg
2 0018i9iO
3 .00187617
4 00187266
5 M1lM916
6 CO186567
7.0018.522u
8.00185874
9 ,00185528
10 ,I0185185
I ,00184643
2 .0016-1402
3 .00184162
4 .001838L7
5 .COl63~
6 .cOl8315!
7 ,00182Sl:
8 .0018246~
91.0018214~
i50.0018181>
I .MlIRl48l
2 .XJlRI l5l
3 .lo1m93:
4 .0018050
5 .0018016~
6 .0017A95~
7 .x-J17953
8 .001792l
9.0017R89
560.31X857
1.0017825
2 .I017793
3 0017762
;f2fHxH~
6.0017667
7 .0017636
t :tEY
570 .ool754~
11.001751:
2.clol74&
3 .301745;
i.001736l I
7.ool73310
3 .00173010
9 .oOli2712
O,.OOli2414
l.ooli2l!7
2 .00171821
3 .00171527
4.00171233
:, Do;oo~
7.oOI70358
8 .COl700&3
9.oOI69779
0.00169491
I .00169205
;:!f%sz
;fmm;
6 .X1167785
7 .00167504
8.COl67224
9 .m166945
0cQl66667
I .00166389
2 .loi66lI3
3 .$X1165837
4 .I0165563
5 .JOl652E9
6 .Qol65016
7.ooI64745
8.00164474
9 .m164204
I O .00163934
11!I0163666
I2.ool63399
1;:g;;cm
15~00162602
161.00162338
17 .00162075
I8.10161812
I9.~I61551
120.oOI61290
I .00161031
2 .Cul60772
3 .00160514
5 alamJ$
6,lOI 59744
7 ..m5949a
8 .00159236
9 $0158982
530 .00158730
I .m58479
2 .00158228
3 .I0157978
4 .W157729
5 .00157480
6 .00157233
7.00156%6
9 fmoo
640.oOI 56250
s9
MATHEMATICAL TABLES,
NO.
""ZY
-
. 1
I
641 .ool56#x -
2 .00155763
3 .00155521
4 .00155279
5 .OOI55039
6 .00154799
7 .00154559
8 .00154321
9 .00154083
650 .00153846
I .00153610
2 .I0153374
3 .00153140
4 .00152905
5 .I0152672
6 00152439
7 .00152207
8 .m151975
9! .I0151745
660; .m151515
?j :~~~1$~
; .ygs3;
5 :00150376 :
51 .CKJl50150
71 NJ149925
8 .@0149701
9 .x3149477
6 7 0 .00149254
I .CKll49031
2 .00148809
a fmY;g
;i :g;Igg ;
7 .00!47710
8. .I0147493
91 .Wl47275
Y! yxoo;;
2 .00146628
3 .00146413
4 .00146199
5 .00145985 7
6 .00145773
7 .00145560
8 .J0145349
9 .00145137
690 .WJl44927
1 .00144718
2 m44509
3 .m44300
4 .lOlMG92
5 .00143@85 7s
6 DO143678
7 .00143472
8 .00143266
9 .00143@5,
700 ml42857
1 DO142653
2 .00142450
3 .00!42247
4 .OCl42045
5 ml418447 ;
- -
706.001416f
7 a014144
8 .0014124
9I10014104
7101.0014084
lll~OOl4Oh-1
I2.0014044
I3.0014025
14.3014005
15 GO13986
16 .OOl3966
17 co13947
I8.0013927
19.0013903
720 .0013888
i G513869
2 .0013850
3 mI?A?I
4 .Wl3812
5 .I013793
6.0013774
7 .0013755
8 .0013736
9 0013717
7301.0013698
I .00136?9
2 .0013661.
3 OOl3642~
4 DO136241
5 OOl3605.
6 .3013587~
7 .0013568:
8 0013550
9.0013531~
~40/0013513i
I I 0013495~
4/00134m
5 .lO13422t
6 .0013404!
7 on173Rh~
8.0013369(
9 GO13351I
50.0013333:
I .0013315~
Z,.(x)132975
3 .JOI32802
4 .I0132626
5 .0013245C
6 00132275
7 .OOl32loC
8 .00131926
9 .00131752
cym(oo;g
2 ml31234
6 .00130548
7 .I0130378
8.0013020.8
9.00130039
0.00129870
-
INING: This is
-_
a 1 9
No. ,
Re:iY-
RECIPROCALS OF NJ.MBERS. 91
RECIPROCALS OF NUMBERS.
IJse o f rrciprocals. -
Reciprocals may be convenienbly used to facili-
t,
\
e computations in long: dl
,ri*inn. Instead of dividing as usual, multIply
tlw d~\wlend bv t h e re,,:---
is especially
1.3,
CL~,~~UC~I of the divisor. The method.
useful when many different dividends are required to he divided by the
same divisor. In this case find the reciprocal of the divisor, and .maKe a
srn,LlI table of its multiples up to 9 times, and use tl$s as a multlphcatlon-
tadle inst.ead of actua1l.v performing the multiplicatron m e,ac,h case.
EX.kMPLE. -9~71 and several other numbers are to be dlvlded by 1633.
The reciprocal of 1638 is ,000610500.
N~lt,inlm of the
reciprocal:
13: .0006105
The table of multiples is made by continuous addi-
.on I 2210
tion of 6105. The tenth line is written to check the
en 1 O,, c nn~l=cy of the addition. but it is not afterwards used.
dim:
n:vidrnd 9871
5. .00305.5 ,
6 . .0036fi30
7 . .0047735
^^ ..I > .a
UL ._..~
.0006105
Take from table $: : : : : :
0 . 0 4 2 7 3 5
8. . _ 00.488$0
8. .-LYJ4
.00*54945
9 . . . 005.4945
.0061050
Quotient. , . .
6 . 0 2 6 2 4 5 5
1;:
Correct Quotient b y dirwt. &vision. . .
6.0262515
__ -_ .~.~
The result will generally be correct
to as many figuresas there are signj:
ficant fig:l,res in the reciprocal. less one, and the error of the next @Jlre W!ll
i n general not exceed ^_
LLC.
Tn +,be above examnle the reciDrocal has SlX . ..r-- -~~
-fin --y+;e result is correct to five placesof figures.
s i g n i f i c a n t figres, 6105uu, ~LLU M. ~-~
~._I~-.- _~
96 MATHEMATICAL TABLES.
NC,. Sq. Cube.
R%i.
- -
I I OOULJ l ooooou I O. 4. 6416
- -
I 55 10201 1030301 24025 10. 0499 4. 6570 3723875
10404 1061208 156 24336 10. 0995 3796416
12. 4499 5. 3717
4. 6723
1 10609 10816
1092727 157 24649
12. 4900 5. 3832
10. 1489 4. 6875 3869893
1124864 158 10. 1980 24964
12. 53005. 3947
4. 7027 3944312
159 25281 4019679
12. 569815. 406l
12. 6095~5. 4175
5
:
III
I I (
I I ;
I I I
i 15
I I 025 I I 57625 10. 2470 I I 236 4. 7177 160 1191016 25600 10. 2956
I I 449 1225043 4. 7326 I 61 25921
4096000 12. 6491 5. 4288
10. 3441 4173281 12. 6886 5. 4401
I I 664 4. 7475 1259712 162 26244 10. 3923
I I 881 4. 7622 163 1295029 26569
4251528 12. 7279 5. 4514
10. 4403
4. 7769 i 64 26896
4330747 12. 7671, 5. 4626
4410944 12. 8062 5. 4737
12100 1331000 I O. 4881 12321 4. 7914 ! 267631 165 27225 10. 5357
12544 4. 8059 1404928 166 27556
4492125 12. 8452, 5. 4848
10. 5830 12769 4. 8203 1442897 167 27889
4574296 12. 8841 5. 4959
10. 6301 4657463 12. 9228 5. 5069
12996 4. 8346 1481544 168 28224
10. 6771 4. 8488 169 28561
4741632 : 2. 9615 5. 5178
4826809 13. 00005. 5288
13225 1520875 10. 7238 13456 4. 8629 1560396 170 28900
10. 7703 13639 4. 8770 1601613 171 29241
4913000 13. 0384 5. 5397
13924, 10. 8167 4. 8910 1643032 172 , 29584
5000211 13. 0767 5. 5505
I Z(
l 2I
l2i
I 23
I 24
14161'
10. 8628 4. 9049
1685159 173 29929
5088448 13. 1149, 5. 5613
10. 9087 4. 9187 174 30276
5177717 13. 152915. 5721
5268024 13. 19095. 5828
14400 1728000 14641 10. 9545 177! 561 4. 9324 I 75 30625
11. 0000 14884 1815848 4. 9461 176 30976
5359375 13. 22885. 5934
15129 I I . 0454 ~&XX367 4. 9597 177 31329
5451776 13. 2665 5. 6041
I 25
126
I 27
129
129
130
I 31
132
I 33
134
15376 I I . 0905 4. 9732
5545233 13. : 3041~5. 6147
1906624 178 31684
I I 1355 4. 9866 179 32041
5639752 133417~5. 6252
5735339 13. 3791 5. 6357
15625 1953125 15876 I l . 1803 5. 0000 2000376 I 80 32400
16129 I I . 2250 5. 0133
5832000 13. 4164 5. 6462
2048383 I 81 32761 5929741 13. 453615. 6567
16384
11. 2694'
2097152 5. 0265 182 33124
16641 11. 3137 2146689 5. 0397 183 33489
6028568 13. 4907 5. 6671
I I . 3578 5. 0528 184 33856
6128487 13. 5277 5. 6774
6229504 13. 5647 5. 6877
16900 2197000 I 7161 I I . 4018 2248091 11. 4455' 5. 0658 185 34225 6331625 13. 6015 5. 6980
17424 2299963 5. 0788 186 34596
17689 I I . 4891 2352637 5. 0916 187 34969
6. 434856 13. 638215. 7083
135
136
137
I 38
139
140
I 41
i 42
I 43
144
179% I I . 5326 2406104 5. 1045 I 88 35344
6! i 39203 13. 6748/ 5. 7185
11. 5758 5. 1172 189 35721
6444672 13. 7113/ 5. 7287
6751269 13. 7477 5. 7388
18225 2460375 l a496 I ! . 6190 2515456 5. 1299 190 36100
18769 I I . 6619 2571353 5. 1426 191
6859000 13. 7840 5. 7489
36481 6967871 13. 8203 5. 7590
19044 I I . 7047 2628072 5. 1551 192 36864
19321 11. 7473
7077888 13. 8564 5. 7690
2685619 5. 1676 193
I I . 7898
37249
5. 1801 194 37636
7189057 13. 8924 5. 7790
7301384 13. 9284 5. 7590
19600 2744003 19951 11. 8322 2803221 5. 1925 ! 95
co164 I l . 8743
38025
2863283 5. 2048 196 38416
7414875 13. 9642 14. 0000~5. 8088 5. 7989
7529536
! 0449 I l . 9164 2924207 5. 2171 197 38809
to736 11. 9583 5. 2293 2985984 I 98
12. 0000
39204
7645373 14. 035715. 8186
5. 2415 199 39601
7762392 14. 0712 5. 8285
7880599 5. 8383 14. 1067
! I 025 ! I 316 3048625 12. 0416 5. 2536 200
3112136
12. 0830 12. 1244 5. 2656' 5. 2776
40000 8000000 14. 1421 5. 8480
i ; ; , oi 3176523
3241792
202 201 8120601~14. 1774 5. 8578
k2ol 12. 1655
40401 40804
3307949
5. 2896 203
12. 2066 4. 3015
41209
204 41616
150
I 51
22500 22e01 3375000 12. 2474 3442951 5. 3133 205
12. 2882 5. 3251
42025 8619125 14. 31765, 8964
152
23i 04 3511808 206 42436
12. 3288 5. 3368
8741816 14. 3527 5. 9059
153
23409 3581577 207
12. 3693
42849
5. 3485
8869743 14. 3875a5. 9155
154
23716
-
3652264 208 43264
12. 4097 5. 3601
8998912
209 43681 9129329
14. 42zz~5. 9250
14. 45685. 9345
__I __. . ___. ~~~ _. ~. . ~ . ~~- . - ~. - . - . ~~ ~~~~~
~\&ING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the m
55
211
$1:
214
215
; 1:
218
219
ZF
: ; :
224
225
s: ;
228
229
: : :
z:
234
22: :
237
230
239
24C
241
$2
244
er
SQUARES, CUBES, &JABE AND CUBE R O O T S. 97
Sq. 1 -Cube.
_. 14100' 926l OOOm5. 9439 265 70225 18609625' 16. 2788 6. 4232
14521 9393931 14. 5258 5. 9533 266 70756 18821096 16. 3095 6. 4312
14944 9528120 14. 5602 5. 9627 267 71289 19034163 16. 3401 6. 4393
15369 9663597 14. 5945 5. 9721 268 71824 19248832 16. 3707 6. 4473
I 5796 9800344 14. 628: 5. 9814 269 72361 19465109 16. 4012 6. 4553
16225 9938375
I 6656 10077696
14. 6629 I 5. 9907
'
270 72900 19683000 16. 4317 6. 4633
14. 69696. 0000 271 73441 19902511 16. 4621 6. 4713
I 7089 10218313 14. 73096. 0092 272 73984 20123648 16. 4924 6. 4792
17524 10360232 14. 76486. 0185 273 74529 20346417 16. 5227 6. 4872
17961 10503459 14. 79866. 0277 274 75076 20570824 16. 5529 6. 4951
P3400 10648000 14. 83246. 0368 275 75625 20796875 16. 5831 6. 5030
18841 10793861 14. 8661 6. 0459 276 76176 21024576 16. 6132 6. 5108
19284 10941048 14. 8997 6. 0550 277 76729 21253933 16. 6433 6. 5187
19729 11089567 14. 93326. 0641 278 77284 21484952 16. 6733 6. 5265
50176 11239424 14. 96666. 0732 279 77841 21717639 16. 7033 6. 5343
50625 11390625 15. 00006. 0822 280! 78400 21952000 16. 7332 6. 5421
51076 11543176 15. 0333 6. 0912 281 78961 2218804! 16. 7631 6. 5499
51529 11697083 15. 06656. 1002 282 79524 22425768 16. 7929 6. 5577
51984 11852352 15. 0997 6. 1091 283 80089 22665187 1' 6. 8226 6. 5654
52441 12008989 15. 1327 6. 1180 284 80656 22906304 16. 8523 6. 5731
52900 12167000 15. 16586. 1269 285 81225 23149125 16. 8819 6. 5808
5?36l 12326391 15. 1987 6. 1358 286 81796 23393656 16. 9115 6. 5885
53824 12487168 15. 2315 6. 1446 287 02369 23639903 16. 9411 6. 5962
54289 12649337 15. 2643 6. 1534 288 82944 23887872 16. 9706 6. 6039
54756 12812904 15. 2971 6. 1622 289 83521 24137569 17. 0000 6. 6115
55225 12977875 15. 3297~6. 1710 290 84100 24389000 17. 0294 6. 6194
55696 13144256 15. 362: 6. 1797 291 84601 24642171 17. 0587 6. 6267
56169 13312053 15. 39486. 1885 292 85264 24897088 17. 0880 6. 6343
56644 13481272 15. 4272 6. 1972 293 85849 25153757 17. 1172 6. 6419
57121 13651919 15. 45966. 2058 294 86436 25412184 17. 1464 6. 6494
57600 13824000 15. 49196. 2145 295 87025 25672375 17. 1756 6. 6569
58081 13997521 15. 52426. 2231 296 87616 25934336 17. 2047 6. 6644
58564 14172488 15. 5563 6. 2317 297 88209 26198073 17. 2337 6. 6719
59049 14348907 15. 5885 6. 2403 298 88804 26463592 17. 2627 6. 6794
59536 14526784 15. 6205 6. 2488 299 89401 26730899 17. 2916 6. 6869
60025 14706125 15. 6525 6. 2573 300 90000 27000000 17. 3205 6. 6943
60516 14886936 15. 68446. 2658 301 90601 27270901 17. 3494 6. 7018
61009 15069223 15. 71626. 2743 302 91204 27543608 17. 3781 6. 7092
61504 15252992 15. 74806. 2828 303
91809 27818127 17. 4069 6. 7166
6200~1 I . 5438249 15. 7797 6. 2912 304 92416 28094464 17. 4356 6. 7240
62500 1' 5625000 15. 81146. 2996 305 93025 28372625 17. 4642 6. 7313
63001 15813251 15. 84306. 3080 306
93636 28652616 17. 492~9 6. 7387
63504 16003008 15. 8745 6. 3164 307
94249 28934443 17. 5214 6. 7460
64009 16194277 15. 9060 6. 3247 308
94864 29218112 17. 5499 6. 7533
64516 16387064 15. 93746. 3330 309
95481 29503629 17. 5784 6. 7606
65025 16581375 15. 9607 6. 34- 13 310
96100 29791000 17. 606' 3 6. 7679
65536 16777216 16. 00006. 3496 311
96721 30080231 17. 6352 6. 7752
66049 16974593 16. 0312 6. 3579 312
97344 30371328 17. 6635 6. 7824
66564 17173512 16. 06246. 3661 313 97969 30664297 17. 6918 6. 7897
67081 17373979 16. 0935 6. 3743 314
98596 30959144 17. 7200 6. 7969
67600 17576000 16. 1245 6. 3525 315 99225 31255875 17. 7482
68121 17779581 16. 15556. 3907 316 99856 31554496 17. 7764
68644 17984728 16. 18646. 3988 317 100489 31855013 17. 8045
69169 18191447 16. 2173 6. 4070 318 101124 32157432
69696 18399744 16. 2481 6. 4151 319 101761 32461759 17. 8326 17. 86061
1_- __.
. , _. . . . . . ~~, . ~~~ . ~. . ~~ , . . . - . - . - . - _. . .
11 may no longer be accurate
6. 8041
6. 8113
6. 8105
: : : : ZG
95 MATHEMATICA; TABLES.
%/ 102400
3211
32768000~17. 8985/ 6. 8394
103041 33076161i 17. 9165~6. 8470
322' 10368. 4 33386248! 17. 9444~6. 8541
3231 104329 33698267' 17. 9722i 6. 8612
3241 104976, 34012224: 18. 00006. 8683
I I I
325/ 105625 34328125i 18. 0278: 6. 8753
326; 106276 34645976~i 8. 0555~6. 8824
327: 106929 34965783~18. 0831' 6. 0094
328 107584
3291 108241
35287552~18. 1108. 6. 8964
3301
35611289~18. 1384~6: 9~34
108900
331:
35937000~18. 1659! 6. 9! 04
109561 36264691/ 18. 1934, 6. 9174
332; 110224 36594368' 18. 2209i 6. 9244
3331 110889
334; ! I 1556
36926037/ 18. 2383~6. 9313
37259704 18. 2757' 6. 9382
335! 112225
336; 112896
37595375~18. 3030~6. 9451 I I
337;
37933056~18. 3303f 6. 9521
113569 38272753! 18. 3576/ 6. 9589
3431 117649
344j
40353607118. 5203' 7. 0000
118336 40707584 18. 5472~7. 0068
3451 119025 41063625
346!
18. 5742 7. 0136
119716
347: 120409
41421736~18. 6011~7. 0203
348~ 121104
41781923! 18. 6279~: . 0271
349;
42144192! l 8. 6548: 7. 0338
121801
350' 122500
351 123201
42508549~l e. 6815: 7. 0406 42835000! 18. 7083! 7. 0473
35. 7,
43243551' 18. 7350
123904
7. 0540
353! 124609
43614208~18. 7617~7. 0607
354; 1253! 6
439869771l 8. 7883I 7. 0674
44361864
36l i 1303211
362: 1310441
47045881~19. 0000' 7. 1204
47437928! 19. 0263: 7. 1269
363i 13! 769 47832147/ 19. 0526, ~7. 1335
364! 132496 48228544: l 9. O788: 7. l 4OO
390 152100 59319000 19. 7484
391 152881
7. 3061
59776471 19. 7737
3928153664
7. 3124
60236288 19. 7990 7. 3186
393; 154449 60698457 19. 8242 7. 3248
61162984 19. 8494 7. 3310
61629875 19. 8746 7. 3372
62099136 19. 8997
397: 157609
7. 3434
3981158404
399 159201'
62570773 63044792 19. 9499 19. 9249 7. 3494 7. 3550
63521199 19. 9750 7. 3619
400; 160000 64000000~20. 0000 7. 3681
401~160801 7. 3742
402: 161604
64481201~20. 0250
64964808~20. 0499
4031162409
4041163216
65450827; 20. 0749
7. 3803
7. 3864
65939264i 20. 0998 7. 3925
414' 171396 7095794420. 3470 7. 4530
415; 172225'
416tl 730561
71473375! 20. 3715 7. 4590
417~173889i
71991296/ 20. 3961 . 7. 4650
72511713' 20. 4206
418' 174724 7303463220. 4450 '
7. 4710
4191175561 73560059/ 20. 4695I
7. 4770
7. 4829
42k772411 420~176400
422i l 780841
746l 8461~20. 5l 8~ 74088000 20. 4939 7. 4948 7. 4869
423' 178929i
75151448, 20. 5426, 7. 5007
424 179776
75686967120. 5670
76225024120. 5913
7. 5067
7. 5126
425 1806251~
426' 18! 474/
427 I 182329 i
428 183184
429 184041
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS. 99
445 198025 88121125 21. 0950 7. 6346
446, 198916. 8871653621. 1187 7. 6403
4471 199809 89314623 21. 1424 7. 6460
448i 200704 89915392 21. 1660 7. 6517
449 201601 9051884921. 18967. 6574
450 202500 9112500021. 2132 7. 6631
451 203401 91733851 21. 23687. 6688
452 204304 92345408 21. 2603 7. 6744
453 205209 92959677 21. 2838 7. 6800
454 206116 9357666421. 3073 7. 6857
, 456 4551 207936
207025 94196375 21. 3307 7. 6914
9481881621. 35427. 6970
457 208849 95443993 21. 37767. 7026
458 209764 96071912 21. 4009 7. 7082
459 210681 96702579 21. 4243 7. 7138
460 211600 9733600021. 4476 7. 7194
461 212521 97972181 21. 47097. 7250
462 213444 98611128 21. 4942 7. 7306
463' v i 4369 99252847 21. 5174 7. 7362
464 215296 9989734421. 5407 7. 7418
465 216225
466 217156
100544625 21. 56397. 7473
10119469621. 58707. 7525
467 218089
468 219024
101847563 21. 6102 7. 7584
10250323221. 6333 7. 7635
469 219961 10316170921. 65647. 7695
470 220900 10382300021. 6795 7. 775C
471 221841
472 222784
104487111 21. 7025 7. 7805
473 2Z3729
10515404821. 72567. 786C
474 224676
105823817 21. 7486 7. 7915
106496424 21. 7715 7. 797C
475 225625 476 107171875 21. 7945 7. 8025
477 226576 10785017621. 8174 7. 8079
478 227529 108531333 21. 8403 7. 8134
228484
479 229441
7. 8l EE
109215352 21. 8632 7. 8243 109902239~21. 8861
&I Square
-.
z 184900
431 185761
432 106624
4331 187489
4341 188356
435' 189225
436 190096
437 190969
430 191844
439 192721
440 193600
441 194481
442 195364
4431 196249
4441 197136
Cube.
R%.
__- _ _ -
7950700020. 7364 7. 5478
80062991 20. 7605 7. 5537
80621568 20. 78467. 5595
8118273720. 8087 7. 5654
8174650420. 8327 7. 5712
82312875 20. 8567 7. 5770
825ei 856 20. 8806 7. 5828 .
83453453 20. 9045 7. 5906
84027672 20. 9284 7. 5944
846045! 9 20. 9623 7. 6001
8518400020. 9762 7. 6059
85766121 21. 0000 7. 6117
86350888 21. 0238 7. 6174
86938307 21. 04767. 6232
875, 28384121. 0713 7. 6289
480 481 230400 110592000 21. 9089 7. 8297
231361 111284641 21. 9317 7. 8352
! 82 232324 111980168 21. 9545 7. 8406
. 483
k484
233289 112678587 21. 9773 7. 846C
234256 11337990422. 0000 7. 8514
. -
--- 185 235225 114084125 2m' m
186236196 11479125622. 0454 7. 8622
187 237169 115501303 22. 0681 7. 8676
188 238144 116214272! 22. 0907 7. 8730
189239121 l 1693016922. 1133 7. 8784
190240100 117649000 22. 1359 7. @837
191 241081 118370771 22. 1585 7. 8891
192 242064 119095488 22. 1811 7. 8944
193 243049 119823157 22. 2036 7. 8990
194244036 120553784; 2. 2261 7. 9051
495 245025 12126' 375 22. 2486 7. 9105
396246016 12202393622. 2711 7. 9158
497 247009 122763473 22. 2935 7. 9211
498 248004 123505992 ' 2. 3159 7. 9264
499249001 12425149922. 3383 5. 9317
500250000 l 25OoooOO 22. 3607 7. 9370
501 251001
502 252004
125751501 22. 3830 ? . 9423
126506008 22. 4054 . 9476
503 253009 127263527 22. 4277 7. 9520
504 254016 12802406422. 4499 7. 9581
505 2550251128787625 22. 47221 7. 9634
506256036 12955421622. 4944 7. 9686
507257049 130323843 22. 5167 79739
508258064 131096512 22. 5389 7. 9791
509 259081 13187222922. 5610 7. 9843
510260100 13265100022. 5832 7. 9696
511 261121 13343283i 22. 6053 7. 9948
512262144 134217728 22. 6274 8. 0000
513 263169 135005697 22. 6495 8. 0052
514264196 13579674422. 6716 8. 0104
515 265225 13659087522. 6936 8. 0156
516266256 13738809622. 7156 8. 0208
517267289 138188413 22. 7376 8. 0260
518268324 138991832 22. 7596 8. 0311
519269361 13979835922. 7816 8. 0363
520270400 14060800022. 8035 8. 0415
521 271441 141420761 22. 8254 8. 0466
522272484 14223664822. 8473 8. 0517
523 273529 143055667 22. 8692 8. 0569 ' - ,
524274576 143877824 22. 8910 8. 0620
525275625 144703125 22. 9129 8. 0671
526276676 14553157622. 9347 8. 0723
527277729 146363183 22. 9565 8. 0774
520 278784 147197952 22. 9783 8. 0825
529279841 14803588923. 0000 8. 0876
538280900 14887700023. 0217 8. 0927
531 281961 149721291 23. 0434 8. 0978
532283024 150568766 23. 0651 8. 1028
533 284089 15141943723. 0868 8. 1079
534285156 15227330423. 1084 8. 1130
535 286225 153130375 23. 1301
536287296 15399065623. 1517
537288369 154854153 23. 1733
538289444 155720872 23. 19481
539290521 15659081923. 2164
erial may no longer be accurate tion. Some of the mat
100 MATHEMATICAL TABLES.
Cube.
5451
1461
297025 161878625 23.3452/8.1683
2981 I6 162971336 23.3666~8.1933
5471
5431
299209~163669323 23.3880 8. I983
300304 164566592 23.4094 8.1833
549 301401 165469149 23.4307 8.1892
550 302500 166375000 23.4521 8.1932
551 303601 169284151 23.4734 8.1982
552
553
304904 168196608 23.4949/8.20?1
305809,169112399 23. 51608. 2Oal
554 306916 I 7003146423. 53728. 2130
5551 I
556!
308025,170953875 23. 55a4, a. Zl aO
559
3091361171899616 23.599718.2229
558i
310249 1. 192808693 23.600818.2298
311364 17374l tt223. 6220 8.2329
559i 5601 312481 174676879 23. 6432 313600 17561600023. 6643 8. 2377
S6l i
a. 2426
562;
314921 196558481 23.685418.2495
3I 5844 179504328 23.7065 8.2524
563: 5641 316969 178453547 318096 23. 72768. 2593
19940614423. 74898. 2621
5651
566
319225 180362125 23. 7697 8.2690
567;
320356 181321496 23.9908
568
321489/ 182284263
8.2919
23. 8118 8.2968
322624 tP3250432 23.8328 8.2816
579 335241 194104539 24.0624 8.3348
580 336400 195112000 5ai ! 24.0832 3 3 9 5 6 1 196122941 8 . 3 3 9 6
582: 338924 197137368
24. 10398. 3443
583 339889 1~98 155289
24. 1247 a. 3491
584 24.1454 3 4 1 0 5 6 t99196704 a . 3 5 3 9
24.1661 a.3587
585 342225 586 200251625 343396 24. 18688. 3634
587 201230056 344569 24.2094 8.3682
583 345744 202262GQ3124. 2281 8.3930
589 346921203297472~24.24a7 204336469j 24. 2693a.3777
8. 3825
---.
595 35402~' 2106448/ 5' 24. 3926 6. 4108
5963552l 62tt7Oa736~24. 4131 8. 4155
597 356409 212976193 24.4336 8.4202
598 357604 2t3@4J19Z124.454,3 8.4249
599 3588012 14921799 24. 4745 8. 4296
600360000 2 16000000 24. 4949 8. 4343
601 361201 219081801 24.5153 8.4390
602 362404 2181692Oa 24.5359, 8.4439
603 563609219256229 24.5561 8.4484
6043648161220348a64 24. 5764 8. 4530
605 366025. 221445125 24.5969 6.4577
606 367236! 22254501624. 617l 8. 4623
609 3684491223648543 24.6394 8.4690
608 3696641224755712 24.6599 8. 4916
609 370881 225866529 24.6779 8.4763
610 37210022698100024. 6982' a. 4809
611 373321~22809913124. 7184 8. 4856
612 374544i229220928 24.9386 8.4902
613 395769!230346399 24.7588 8.4948
614376996~23147554424. 7790 8. 4994
615 378225 232608375 24. 7992. 8. 5040
616 3794561233944596 24.8T.93 8.5086
619 3806a9~234aa5113 24. 8395 a. 5132
618 381924i 236029032 24. 8596 8. 5178
621 3856411239483061 24. 9199 8. 5316
622 3868a4! 240641848 24. 9399 a. 5362
623 388129! 241804367~24. 9600 8. 5408
624 3893761242990624 24.9800 8.5453
625 390625,244140625 25.0000 8.5499
626 3918761245314376 25.0200 8.5544
635 &3225 256049895 25.1992 8. 5952
636 404496 257259456 25.2190 8,.5997
637405769258474853 25. 2309 8. 6043
638 409044 259694092 25.2589 8.6089
639408321 260917119 25.2984 a.6132
I i
640 40960026214400025. 2982 8. 6T; rq
641 410881 263374721 25. 3180 0. 6222
642 412164264609288 25.3379 8.6267 I j
643i 41344926584770725. 3574 8. 63I 2
6444l 47362670899a425. 37~2, 8. 6357
I I
tion. SOME! Of the MZ
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE AND CUEE ROOTS. 101
- - .c-
650 422500274625000 25. 4951 8. 6624
651 423801 295894451 25. 51478. 6668
652 425104,279169808 25.5343 a. 6713
653 426409 298445097 25.5539 8.6757
654 42771627972626425. 5734 8. 6801
655 429025 281011395 25.5930 8.6845
656 430336 282300416' 25. 6125 8. 6390
657 431649 283593393 25. 63208. 6934
658 432964 284890312 25. 6515 8. 6978
659 434281 2a619i i 7925. 67l Oa. 7022
660 435600 28749600025. 6905 a. 7066
661 436921 288804781 25.7099 8.71 IO
662 438244129Ol i 7528 25. 7294 a. 7154
663 439569291434247 25.94888.7198
664 440896 292954V44 25.7682 8.9241
665 442225 2940j 96E1X78768. 7285
666 4435562954Oi 329625. 80708. 7329
669 444889 296940963 25.8263 8.7373
660 446224 29807963225.8457 a. 7416
669 447561 29941830925. a6508. 7460
670 448900 300763000 25. 88448. 7503
691 450241 30211191125. 9037 8.7549
672 451584303464448 25. 92308. 7590
677 452929 304821217 25. 9422 8. 9634
674 454276 306182024 25.9615 a .7697
675 455625 30754687525. 9808 0. 7721
676 456976 308915996 26.0000 0.9964
679 458329 310288933 26. 0192 8. 7807
698 4596Ei 431166575226. 03a4 8.9850
699 461041 313046839 26. 05768. 7893
680 46240~3i 4432000 26.09688.9937
681 463961 31582! 241 26. 09608. 7980
"%
46512431721456826. 11518. 8023
60 466489 318611989 26.1343 8.8066
L 684' 467856 32001350426. 15348. 810S
685 469225 321419125 26. 1725 8. 8152
. ~606 47059632282885626. 19168. 8194
687 471969324242703 26. 2107a. aZ3;
688 47334432566067226. 22988. a28~
689 474721 32708276926. 24888. 832?
690 496100 328509000 26.2679 8.036t
691 49?481/329939371~ 26.2869 6.8406
692 478364 3313?3888 26. 30598. 845!
693 480249 332812557 26. 32498. 8495
694 4016363342553a426~3439a. a536
.695 483025 335702395 263629 8.857I
696 484416 337i 5353626. 38l a' a. 862, 2
697 485809 338608893 26. %N3a. a661
698 489204 340068392 26.4199 8.890(
6%' 488601 34153209426. . Ga68. 874l
700 490000 3430000~~ 26.4595 $.i)J90 755 570025~430368895 27.4773 9. 1057
701
702
491401 344472101
4928041345948408
26.4764 8.8833 756 591536432Oal 216 27. 4955 9. 1098
26.~53 8.%3?5 757 593049 433998093 29.51?6 9.113&
. . I
. 703 494209 342428927 26.5 1 : ' - I a. 891 9 758 5945~4 4355195122?. 53l a 9. l tJ 8' <
495616 348913664 26. 5343
____~ .~A
8. 8959 ; 7 5 9 57608i 43724549927.5500.9.12l8, .
s-ial may 110 l onger be accurate
~1~. /Square Cube. , Root , hmt
1 Sq. 1 Cube
' ?5 511225 365525875 26. 7395 8. 9420
rl 6 512656 367061696 26. 7582 8. 9462
719 5! 4r, 89' 3686Ol al 3 26.9969 8.9533
' l a 515524370146232 26. 7955 8. 9545
719 516961 371694959 26. aI 42 8. 9587
720 518400 393248000 26.832P G.3628
721 519841 374805361 26. 8514 8.9690
722 521284 37636904826. 8701 a. 9711
r231522929 379933067 26.8689 8.9952
124 524176 379503424 26.9092 8.9794
725 5256253al OJ al 25 26. 9258 8. 9835
726 527076 392659176 26.9444 8.9876
727 528529 384240583 26.9629 8.9918
128 529984 385820352 26.9015 8.9959
729 531441 387420489 29.0000 9.0000
730 532900 3~9017000 29.0185 9.0041
731 53436! 390619891 27.0370 9.0082
732 535a24392223168 29.0555 9. 0123
733 537289 393832839 29.0940 9.0164
734 538756 395446904 27.0924 9.0205
735 540225 399065395 27. 1109 9. 0246
736 54169639868025627. 1293 9. 0287
739 54316Y~400315553 29.1497 9.0328
738 544644~401949292 27. 1662, 9. 0369
739 546121 40356341927. i 846 9. 0410
740 547600 405224000 27.2029 9.0450
741 549081 406869021 27. 2213 9. 0491
742 55056440851848829. 2397 9. 0532
743 552049410172407 27.25bO 9. 0572
744 553536 411030784 292764 9.0613
745 555025 413493625 29.2949 9.0654
746 556516 415160936 29.3130 9.0694
747 558009416%32923 29.3313 9.0735
748 559504, 4185089922?. 3496 9. 0775
749561001. ' 420189749 29.3679 9.081.6
750 562500 421895000 27.3861 9.085@
751 564001 423564751 29.4C44 9.0896
752 565504 42525WO8 29.4226 9.0937
753 569009 426957797 29.4408 9.0977
754 56851642866106- ?27. 4591. 9. 1~I ~
102 MATHEMATWAL ~BLES.
No. Square. Cube.
! I
Sq. 1 Cd
Root: i ROI
7d 577600~438976000i mnz
761 579121i 44071 1081127. 5862 9. 12
762
7641 7631
580644 44245072%! 27. 6043 9. 13.
582169 5%3696, 44594374- ! ; 2?. 6405; 9. 14 444144947127. 6225 9. 13
765 585225
766 586756
447697125127. 65%6/ 9. 14,
76%i 7671
449455096I 27. 6767 9. 141
585289 45 I 2 I 7663( 27. 694% 9. 15:
589324 769 591361 452984832127. 7128 9. 15:
I I 454756609j 27. 7308 9. 16
770j 592900 456533000 27. 7489 9. l b!
7711 594441 45831401 I 27. 7669 9. 16
7721 595984 460099648 27. 7849 9. 17:
773 597529 461889917I 27. 8029 9. ! 7;
7741 599076 463684%24; 27. 8209 9. 181
7751 600625 465484375~17. 8388 9. 185
7761 602: 76 467288576; 27. %568 9. l Ei
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778, 605284 4709i O952 27. 8927 9. 197
7791 606841 472729139 27. 9106 9. 201
780, 6084~Oi 4745520U0 27. 9285 9. 205
781 6099611476379541 27. 946419. 209
782 611524 478211768 27, 96~3 9. 217
783 613089 480048687 27. 982119217
784; 614656 481890304 2E. OOx! 9, 220
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8001 64000015 12000000 28. 2843 9. 2832
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824 678976 559476224/ 28. 7054/ 9. 3751
825 680625 5615 15625
826632276
827 683929 565! i O9283 28. 7576 9. 3865
82%685584 567663552 28. i 753 9. 3907
029 687241 569722789 28. 7924 9. 3946
830 688900 571787000 28. 8097 9. 3978
931 690561 573956191 28. 8271 0. 4016
332 692224 575930368. 28. 8444 9. 4053
333 693889 57800953720. 8617' 9. 409;
934 695556 580093704 28. %) 91 9. 4124
335 697225 5 32182675 28. 8964 9. 4166
3361698896 5~34277056 28. 9137 9 4204
337 700569 5%6376253! 28. 9310 9: 4241
338 702244 588480472' 28. 9482 9. 4279
139 70392 1 590589719 29. 9655 9. 43 16
50 722500! 614125000~79. i 54%~ 9. 4727
51 724201 61629X i l 129. 1719; 9. 4764
52 725904 6 I 84702081 29. 1890: 9. 480 I
53 727609 620650477 29. 20621. 9. 4838
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j f w7327361627222016 29. 2575. 9. 4949
57 734449 629422793 29. 2746 9. 4986
58 736164 631628712 29. 2916 9. 5023
59 737881 633839779 29. 3087 9. 5060
j 0 739600 636056000 29. 3258 9. 5097
i l 741321 638277381 29. 3428 9. 5134
i 2 743044 64050392%29. 3598, : . 5 I 7 I
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15 748225 86 749956 64721462: , / 29. 4109 I 649461896 29. 4279
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9 81753424 755161
653972032 29. 4618
656234909 29. 47~38.
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Li on. Some of the rn;
6QUARES, CUBES, SQUARE AND CUBI X ROOTS. 103
877~
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7691291674526133 29. 6142 9. 5717
8791
770884~67693615229. 631I 9. 5756
772641 679151439 29. 6479 9. 5792
980 774400 681472000 29. 6648 9. 582%
881 776161 683797841 29. 6816 9. 5865
tJ 8. 2 777924i 686128968 29. 6985 9. 5901
883 77960? 688465387 29. 7153 9. 5937
884 781456 690807104 29. 7321 95973
885 7%3225 693154125 29. 7489 9. 6Ol C
886 7%4996 695506456 29. 7658 9. 6046
%a%$ 8871
786769 697864103 29. 7825 9. 6082
7Re544 700227072 29. 7993 3. 6118
989 79032 I 702595369 29. 8161 9. 6154
890 792 100 704969000 29. 0329 9. 6190
P9l 793881 707347971 29. 6496 9. 5226
892 795664 70973228%29. 8664 9. 6262
893 797449 722121057 29. %831 9. 629%
900 310000 729000000 30. 0000 9. 6549
901 811801 731432701 30. 0167 9. 6585
4f 90 813604 8 I ~409 - 733870808 7363 I 4327 30. 0333 30. 0500 9. 6620 9. 6656
904 817216 7. 38763264 30. 0666 9. 6692
510 828100~753571000/ 30. 1552 9. 6905
911 829921 756058031j 30. 18289. 6941
912 831744 75%55052%: 30. 1993 9. 6976
913 - 833569 761048497 30. 2159 9. 7012
! ?I 4 835396 763551944 30. 2324 9. 7047
915 837225 766060875 30. 2490 9. 7082
916 839056 768575296 30. 2655 9. 71 I 8
917 840889 771095213 30. 2820 9. 7153
91% 842724 773620632 30. 2985 9. 7188
- 919 844561 776151559 30. 3150 9. 7224
920 846400 778688000 3033 I 5 9. 7259
921 848241 781229961 30. 3480 9. 7294
922 850084 78377744%30. 3645 9. 7329
' 923' 851929 786330467 30. 3809 9. 7364
b&+241, %53776 78888902t 39. 3974 9J 400.
wal may no l onger be
ro. Squarel Cube.
I I
sq. Cube
Root.. Root.
935 874225 817400375 30. 577%9. i 785
936 E76096 820025856 30. 5941 9. 7819
37 877969822656953 30. 6105 9. 7854
938879844825293672 30. 626% 9. 7EE9
939 881721 827936019 30. 6431 9. i 924
30. 6594 9. 7959
30. 6757 9. 7993
30. 6920 9. 8028
3O. i OE3 9. 8063
30. 7246 9. 8097
945 ti 93025 843908625 3C . 7409 9. 8132
946 a94916 846590536 30. 7571 9. 8167
947 896803 a49278123 30. 7734 9. 8201
946 898704 85 I 97 I 392 30. 7896 9. 8236
949 900601 854670549 30. 8C5R 9. 8270
I 950 902560 857375000 30. 82211 9. %305
951904401 660085351~30. 83%3 9. 8339
952 90630: 862501408 30. 8545 9. 8374
953 903209j 865523177~30. 8707 9. 3408
954 910116 860250664 30. 8869~ 9. 8443
955 912025 870983875 30. 9031 9. E477
30. 9192 9. 851 I
30. 9354 9. 8546
30. 9516 9. 8580
30. 967J 9. 8614
30. 9839 9. 8648
31. 0005 9. 8683
31. 0161 9. 8717
963 927369~893056347 3 1. 0322 9. 8751
964 929296 895841344 3 1. 0483 9. 8785
965 931225 898632125 31. 0644 9. 8819
966 933 156 90! 428696 3 1. 0805 9. 8854
967 935089 90423 1063 3 1. 0966 9. 8888
968 937024 907039232 3 I . 11271 9. 8922
969 938961 909853209 3 I . 1288 9. 8956
970 940900 912673000 31. 1448 9. 8990
971 942841 915498611~31. 1609 9. 9024
972 ?447%4 918330048 3 1. 1769 9. 9058
973 946729 921 I 673 I 7 3 1. 1929 9. 9092
974 948676 924010424 31. 2090 9. 9126
975 950625 926859375 j ? . 2250 9. 9160
accurate
104 IvIATHEMATICrlL T&ES. -
SQ,J.&RES, C@ES, SQUilRE AND CUBE ROOTS.
105~
-
.i5 --
___~ -----..--.-~--
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No. Square. Cube,
~ _~___
mI 188100 129502901) o 33. 0151 10. 2914
, 091 1190281 1298596571 33. 0303, ! 0. 2946
11392 1132464 1302170688 33. 0454310. 2977
, 093 I I 94649 1305751357 33. 0606 10. 3~109
, rva 11 36836 1309338584~33. 0757 10. 3040,
1149, 1320201 1516910949~33. 8969; 10~4739
, 095
1096
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1201216 131553273633. 1059! 10. 3103
, 150 1- i 132 500 1520875Od33. 9, 16! 10. 4769
1151 1324801 1524845951 33. 9264 I O. 4799
l o97 1203409
I I 52 1327104 1528823@05 33. 941 I 10. 4830
l o98 12056i J 4 1320139673, 33. 1210/ 10. 3134 1323753192/ 33. 1361~ 10. 3165
I I 531 1329409 153280857; 33. 9559 10. 4360
1099 1207801 1327373299 33~151: I O. 3197
1154 133171611536800264 23. 9706 I O. 495
33. 1662 l o. 3228 I I 55 1334025 1540798875 33. 9853 I O. 4921
33. 1813 10. 3259 1156 1336336 154480441~34. 0000 10. 4951
1338273208 33. 1964 10. 3290 1157 133W94911548816895 34. 0147 10. 4981
1341919727 33. 2, 14 10. 3322 I I 58 1340%4! 1552836312 34. 0294 10. 5011
I , 59i I 343281 1556862679 34. 0441 I $. 5042
I 106 1223236 13528Wo16 33. 2566 10. 3415
I I 60 1 1345600 l j 60396000 34. 0588 I O. 5672
1161 1347921 i 1564936281 34. 0735 10. 5102
1 i Oj 1225449 1356572043 33. 2716i 10. 3447
1162 1350244 156898352d 34. 0881 I O. 5132
1108 1227664 1360251712 33. 2866 I O: 3478
1229881 1363938029 33. 3017 i o. 35091
I I 63 1352569 1573037747 34. 1028 10. 5162
] pyj
1164 13548%1577098944 34. 1174 i o. 5192
l , l o 1232100 136763, 000 33: 3167/ 10. 3540
1165 1357225 1581167125 34. 1321 I O. 5223
1111 1234321 1371330631 33. 3317110. 3571
1166 1359556 15852422% 34. 1467 10. 5253, 1167 1361889 1589324463 34. 1614 I O. 5283
I I I 2 1236544 1375036928 33. 3467 10. 3602
tl I 3 1238769 1378749897 33. 3617 10. 3633
1 I 68 1364224 1593413632 34. 1760 10. 5313
1114 12m! ! ~469544; ??. 3766 I O. 3664
1169 1366561, 1597509809 34. 1906 10. 5343
9851 970225
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10. 2408
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ING: This is a 1010 edition. Some of the mat
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SQUAR&, CUBES, SQU,ARE AND ClJ!% ROOTS.
107
- -
- - -
No. Square. Cube.
squa,re,
Cube.
-_-
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131( j 1716: 00224809100036. ' 939 I O. 9418 ' 863225 2543392' 25 36. 9459 I , . 0929
' 31' 1718721 225L243231 36. 2077 10. 9446 1366 1865956254@3958%36. 9594/ 11. 0956
' 312 17213442258433328 36. 2215 10. 9474 1313 1723969/ 2263571297/ 36. 2353 10. 9502 1368 1871424~2560108032 1367 186W392554497863 36. 9730' 1. 0983 36. YS65/ 11. 1010
, 314 17265%226574714436. 24?' ' 0. 9530 1369' ! 87416l j 2565726409 37. 00( w; 11. 1037
' 315 ' 7292252273930875 36. 2629 10. 9557 ' 37G 1876900~2571353OQO37. 0135 ' : . I 064
, 316' ' 73l 8562279' 224%36. 2767 10. 9585 ' 37, 1879641 257598781' 37. 0270 11. 1091
' 3' 7 17344892284322Oi 3 36. 2905 I O. %i ?
: 372I I 18623&425826308#, 37. 0405 ' 1. 11' 8
, 318 173712422e9529432 36. 3043 ' 0. 9640
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' 323 175032Y2315685267 3b. 373' I O.
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' 414 19993%2527145944 37. 6032 ' I . 2240
15456000 36. 5752 ' 4' 5 2002225 2833' 48375 37. 6165 ' 1. 2267
1416 ZO05056~39' 592%37. ~"~~93
20078892845178713 37. 643' ' I . 2320
20' 0724285' 2~32 37. 6563 ' 1 2346
20' 356' 285724305937. - ' 1 2373
may no longer be accurate : .
' t
t
j C u b e . / z&;u,,;, N o . j / ibe. I&, 1 $;i, No. Square j
I - rZOi 20~6~, ~3~, 37. M329 I I . 2399 ~/ ?, 75625i 3209046875~38. 405i i ~2
14211 2019241j 286934146137. 6962 11. 2425
1422 2022084i 2875403448 37. 7094 I l . 2452
l i 231 2024929! 28814i 3%7 37. 7227 I I . 24781 1478
2, 78576/ 3215j 78, 76~z8, 4, 87 l , , 38~ q
2, 8! 52$?2221 l 8 33 $4318 , 1, 38i j
, 424
I I
2027776 289j 553024, 37. 7359, I I . 2505
2184%4/ 3L?f j &7
$1 52 38. ~, , , 3909
ZI 8744, 13235&5239] 38. 457~ 1 I , 3935
108 MATHEWIITCAL TABLES.
14251 14261 2033476j 2899736776, 77. 7624 2030625~2893640625! 37. 7492~ I l . 2557 I I . 2531
2036329! 2905841433~37. 7757 I l . 2583
1481 1480 21904t. M/ 324, 792~/ 3~, 47~ 11. 3960
14211
1429 1423 2042041 20391841291 2918076j 85 i 954752! 37. 7889 I l . 2610
1482 2, 93361 32- 18: 67641! 38. #38j l i . 3986
1483
1430, I
1 37. 8021 I l . 2636 1484
2: 99~9; 326154556; ! ; 8. 5~7 2196324! 32549521, +8. 496& 11. 4037 11. 4Ol 2
2044~~292423i oocI 137. 8153 220522513274759125/ 38, 5357 i
22022j 6. 3268, 47904/ 338. j ~7 11. 4063
14311
1432
204716, j 2930345991 j 37. 82t16 I I . 2662
! 433/
~0~~24~293~935~l - , i . 8418
i I . 2639 1485 I 486 2208! 96; 328! 379256i 38, j e7! 11. ~9 11. 41 l 4
2053489~294264973- 137: 8550
221 I l 69j 32@?008303/ 38~56! 6/ , 1. 4140
14341 2056356~294NH450437. 8e2
2217121~3301293, 69~38~587611 22l 4: 4$3294646272; 38. 57~6/ I 1. 419, I . 4165
1435 2059225/ 2954987875/ 37. &3014 I l . 279
I
1436 20620961296116985613i . 8946
1490
I I
2220100~33079~- t@0 38 6005 I I . 4716
14371 2064969~2%7360453~37. 9079 I I . 28
, 491 222308, 3314, , 3; 7, j &, 35 , , , &, J
14%j 2067844~297355%72! 37. 9210 1 I
1492 2226064/ 3321187458; j s6264 I I . 4268
1439, 2Gi O72; i 2979767519; 37. 9342
I 493
I I . z8 1494
2229019~332; ~971) 157/ 38. 6394~1 I , 4293
223203613334661784 38. 6523 11. 4319
1495 1496
1497
22380161, 3348071936 2235025i 3341362375 38. 6652 I l . 4344
1498
224l OO G/ 3354790473 36. 6782 I I . 4370
38. 691 I l . 4395 I
1499 22~~33615l 7992, 38. 7o- M/ 11. 442, 2247001 3368254499 3e. 7169 I I . 4446
226502513408862625
2268036] 3415f &222216
2271049! 3422470&3
227406. $34292&3512 38. 8330 11. 4675
2277081~3436115229 38. ~458 11. 4700
2280100~34429510@) 38. 8587, I l . 4725
z2t) 312113449795831t38. 87, 6 , ~~475~
228614413456649728 38. 88441 I 114776
2289169i 3463512697 38. 8973/ , , . #01
22921%/ 3470384X4 38. 9, 02] 11. 4826
I NG: Thi s i s a 1910 edi ti on. Some of the m
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS.
1il9
1575 2480625139M84375 39. 6863, I l . 6348
2483576i 391443C976 39. 69899; I I . 6373
1577 2486929 3921637033 39. 7115 11. 6398
1578 2490084 3929352552 39. 7240 I I . 6422
, 544 2383936 3683797184 39. 2938 I 1. 5580
1579 2493241 3936827539 39. 7366 I I . 6447
I 545 2387025 3687953625I 39. 3065 I 1. 5605
1580 249640@3944312000 39. 7492 11. 647,
, j j g 23901! 636951193~6/ 39. 3192 11. 5630
1581
11. 64%
1547 2393209 ?702294323 39. 3319 i l . 5655
1582
2499561! 3951805941 39. 7618 1 I . 6520 39. 7744
I 543 23%304h709478592 39. 3446 I I . 5680
1503
2502724: 3959309368 I I . 6545
1549 2399401 3716672149 39. 3573 I I . 5705
1554 2509556! 3974344704 39. 7995
1550 2402509 3723875t700, 39. 3700 I I . 5729
1585
2505889~3966322287 39. 7869~ i 11. 6570
11. 6594
, 551 240501 373108715l j 39. 3827 I l . 5754
1586
2512225 3981876625 39. 8121 39. 824611, . 6619
1552 2403704 373830&608. 39. 3954 11. 5779
1587
25153%i 3%9418056 I l . 6643
1, 553 2411809 3745539377 39. 4081 , I . 5804
1588
25185@3 99@69K13 39. 8372) 39. 8497tl l . W
1554 2414916 3752779464 39. 4208 1 I . 5829
1589 25217444001529472 4012U9946939. 8623~l 1. 6692 2524921
1555 2418025 3760028875 39. 4335 11. 5854
1599 2528l OWOl %79ooo 39. 8748
15% 2421136 3767287616 39. 4462 11. 5879
1557 2424249 3774555693/ 39. 4588/ i i . 5903
242j 3&$378i 8j j i i 2 j 9. 4j 1j ~i i . 5920
24304. 31 I 3789119879 I 39. 4342 11. 5953
2433600 3796416Oi NI 39. 4968 11. 5978
2436721 3803721481i 39. 5095 i 1. 6003
243W381103632f l 39. 5221 11. 6027
24429~9 3WWj,547)39,5348 I l . 6052
24460% 3825694144
sQr; ~RES AND CUBES OF DECIMALS.
I
No. ,!Jquare
I
Cube.
.
No.\Sqwre\ Cube. 1 No. 1 Squar e . )
Cube.
CIRCVMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 111
- CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.
I&lTI3EMATICAL TdRLES.
FIFTH ROOTS AND FIFTH POv;ERfS.
(Abl -
ea.
- -
1. 465
1. p;
I . 183
t: %
: : 2;
2. 871
1. 282
2. 718
; : g: :
7. 173
8. 707
0. 265
1. 849
: : : 2
6. 745
8. 426
bo. 132
, I .862
13. 617
, 5. 397
, 7. 2ol
j 9. 029
r0. 882
! $ ' 6: ;
&589
78. 540
90.516
;4:::
06. 590
f 33. ; "6;
; ; : a$;
97: 205
; 3. ;y
g:;!
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' 22: 72
125. 19
' 27. 69
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' 37. 89
11: : : : :
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--
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t0001923/ 8
. 00077 7/ 16
. 00: 73 l / 2
. 00307 9/ 1tj
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. 01227 l l i 16
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l5il6
.04909
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. 07670 1/ 1a
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112962 Z/ 4
. 15033 5/1f
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. ' 9635 112
. 22\ 66 Q/ I I
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. 30680 314
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t. 9462
1. 2806
1. 6211
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1. 566
2. 962
3. 364
3. 772
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5. 033
5. 466
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41. 6
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POWt-2.
' 02400000
i 15856201
130691232
147008443
164916224
184528125
205962976
229345007
254803968
282475249
312500000
345025251
380204032
41Al 95493
459165024
503284375
550731776
601692057
656356760
714924299
777600000
84459630'
9' 6' 32832
992436543
1073741824
' 160290625
' 252332576
135Oi 25107
! 45393?j $
' 56403i 349
1680700000
1804229351
1934917632
' 073071593
! 219006624
! 373046875
! 535525376
! 706784' 57
! a$7134368
1077056399
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i 486784401
' 707398432
939040643
, I 82119424
' 437053125
704270176
984209207
277319168
584059449
904900000
240321451
590815232
956883693
339040224
' 37809375
153726976
587340257
139207968
$9900499
6 i 2
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:2 2
~6 2
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16 :
3 3
16 3
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16
116
6. 283
6. 4X
- 35 . 0052
. 40 . Ol OZ
. 45[ . Ol 84
. 50
- 55
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. 60 . 0777
- 65 . ' I 60
1: :
. I 680
. 23731
. 80
. 85 : tZ!
1. 40 5. 3782~
1. 45 6. 4097:
1. 50 7. 59371
1. 55 8. 9466!
1. 601 10. 4858
1. 651 12. 2298
I . 701 14. 1586
1. 75 16. 4131
1. 80 18. 8957
1. 851 21. 6700
1. 9Oi 24. 7610
I . 951 28. 195'
2. 001 32. 0000
2. 05 36. 2051
2. 10 40. 8410
2. 151 45. 9401
2. 201 51. 5363
2. 25i 57. 6650
2. 301 64. 3634
2. 35; 71. 6703
2. 40: 79. 6262
2. 451 88. 2735
2. 50: 97. 6562
2. 55i l O7. 820
2. 60~~118. 814
2. 70i 143. 489
2. 80; 172. 104
2. 9Oi 205. 11'
3. OOi 24j . 000
3. l Oi ZG6. 292
3. 201335. 544
3. 301391. 354
3. 40 454. 354
3. 50 525. 219
3. 60 604. 662
. 7i Oi T
. 55914
. 60132#
. 64504
' . 69029
. 73708
116
:,,~a ,: .,
-..:L-..~-_~
rru*-L
wial may no longer be accwate,
113
MATIIFMATICAL TABLES.
CIRCURlFFJRENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.
113
- 7
Diam .j Ci AI T:
I _
145.
2
153.
156.
159.
! 62.
165.
167. ,
i ; 0. ,
I 73
yf ;
182. 1
I %
191. :
194. 1
z;
204: ;
207. :
11o. t
t13. t
! 17. C
! 20. ?
! 23. <
! 26~$
130. 3
; ; ; : ;
t40. 5
, 43. Y
, 47. 4
50. 9
54. 4
58. 0
61. 5
65. 1
68. 8
72. 4
76. 1.
79. 8
21'
31. 0:
: 8": i i
: z
10. 2<
14. 1t
18. I C
! 2. 0(
6. 05
0. 06
4. 10
5. 16
: : 2
I . 50
1. 66
1: : ;
7. 28
1. 54
-
Circ
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69. 1
; ; I '
70. ;
2: :
: : : :
; g: ;
73. 4
73. 8
74. 2
: 5": 0"
75. 3
75. 7
76. 1
76. 5
2 :
77. 71
78. 1.
78. 5.
; ; : ; r
109: : ;
10. 5!
10. 55
11: : :
i i : : ;
i 2. 8. t
13. 25
i 3. 64
' 4. 03
' 4. 43
4. 82
5. 21
5. 60
6. 00
6. 39
6. 78
7. 17'
: : Zi :
z: : : ;
9. 14:
9. 531
' : ET
. 713
2%
: %
, 677
: E
. 855~
, 248
-
__-
:ircum. 1 Area. c
- -
146. 4771- rm. 4 5
146. 8691 1716. 5
147. 262, 1725. 7
l 47. 655! 1734. 9
145. 048; l i 44. 2
148. 440 1753. 5
140. 833: 1762. 7
149. 226; 1772. 1
l 49. 618i 1781. 4
150. 011/ 1790. 8 J '
150. 4041 18@O. l
150. 796/ 1809. 6
151. 1891 1819. 0
15l . 582/ ! 828. 5
151. 975' 1837. 9
152. 367 1847. 5
152. 760! 1857. 0
, 153. 153 ' 866. 5 5
153. 545 1876. 1
153. 938 1085. 7
154. 331. 1895. 4
, 154. 723! 1905. 0
;
155. l l bI ! 9l 4. 7
155. 5091 1924. 4
155. 9021 1934. 2
' 56. 2941 1943. 9
' 56. 6871 195317
157. 080 1963. 5
157. 472 1973. 3
", 157. 865
I
1983. 2
l 58. 258 1993. 1
158. $50 2003. 0
i 59. 043 2012. 9
159. 436 2022. 8 I
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3 2
6 1
9 :
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k, ;
G-3,
75. 8
, 86. 6
, i Z: :
119. 2
I J 0. I
Ml . 1
i 52. 0
163. 0
t&Y:
$96. 1
507. 2
518. 3
5; ; : : ~
551, . 8
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: 2: :
608. 0
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642. '
i 653. 5
: 664. 9
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! 699. 3
! 710. 9
! 722. 4
X754. 0
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2792. 2
: 88: : : ' :
2827. 4
2839~. 2
2851. 0
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2886. 6
g80: :
2922. 5
2934. 5
; ; ; : : :
2970,. ti
2982. 7
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30H. 3
3043. 5
3055. 7
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3092. 6
3l Q4. 9
311T. 2
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-
319
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189
' 82
75
; 67
' 60
' 53
I 6
51
Area.
m5
718. 69
324. 64
: : : : 6":
: %;
754. 77
760. 07
766. 99
773. 14
3E1
791. 93
797. 98
804. 25
810. 54
816. 86
823. 21
829. 58
: : : : 2
848. 83
855. 30
861. 79
868. 31
874. 85
881. 41
88t3. 00
894. 62
901. 26
907. 92
914. 61
S21. 32
928. 06
9T4. 82
941. 61
948. 42
Z: : :
-
96G. 00
975. 91
982. 84
E%
303. 8
J l O. 8
117. 9
125. 0
132. 1
M9. 2
146. 3
) 53, 5
' 60~. 7
68. 0
Z
39. 8
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I ; $
! 6: 7
I - ?; 1
pp. 6
46 '
38
31
24
17
; ; j
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73
i 5 ;
16 ;
' 2 j 2
p' ;
7: s 43. 5
14. 43. 9
!S 44. 3
l / q 44. 7
3; s 45. 1,
l j 2 45. i
s/ a 45. 9,
314 46. 3
7; s y;
15.
' i ' g 47. 5
' 14 47. 9f
w3 48. 3(
: I 2 48. 61
51, 49. 0.
3i 4 49. 4l
vg 20' : z";
1 6 .
' ! s 50. 61
' ! 4 51. 05
3i 3 ; I : ; :
' I ? !
5!8 52. 22
314 52. 62
i kj 52. 01
1- L 53. 40
' 18 53. 80
' i 4 54. I 9
: i s 54. 58
' i 2 54. 97
5/ B' 55. 37
314 55. 76
i / a 56. 15
19; 56. 54
h 56. 94
114 53. 33,
3i 8 : 87: : : 113
ve 58. 51;
314 58. 901
7; ' s 39. 291
19. 59. 69(
' ! a 60. 08:
I i 4 60. 47(
7 60. 86~ 61, . 261
51; 61. 65~
314 62. 04t
7!a 62. 435
20. 62.03i
' i a 63. 225
I t4 63. 617
+a 64. 010
' ~12 64. 403
5s' ~ 64. 795
314 65. 188
?' a 65. 581
21.
65. 973
' / a 66. 366
114 66. 759
3h. ~ 62. ' 52
112 67. 544
es- . 47. 93- 7
3i 4t 68. 330
3ia:n.l Circ
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120. 951\ 1164. 2
! 21. 344 l i 71. 7
121. 737 1179. 3
122. 129 1186. 9
122. 522
l 22. 915/
1194. 6
1202. 3
123. 308 1210. 0
j 123. 700 ' 24. 093
1217. 7
1225. 4
I 124. 486 1233. 2
, 124. 578 1241. 0
l 125. 271 1248. 8
125. 664 1256. 6
) 126. 056 1264. 5
: 126. 443 126. 842 1272. 4 1280. 3
; 127. 235 127. 627
1288. 2
' 296. 2
4 128. 020 1304. z
8 128. 413 ' 312. ~
i / i ' 36~. 267 ; i $:
Li z 136. 659
5/ s ' 371052 ' 494.
3
4137
i
1
.7
:z 5
.5
. 2
. 9
. 6
. 3
: : 5
, : :
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. 9
. 9 6
: ' 9
1. 9 .
I . 0
' . 1
--.I_
is a md
er be accurate
This ial may no l( Some 0
MATHEMATICAL TABLES.
CIRCU~WERENCES AND AR,EAS 03 CI RCLES.
115
Dim./ Circum. 1 Area.
i I
I
;
i
f
:
6
II
iam k-cum. 1 Area. h7?a.
x73-3
4995. 2
5010. 9
: o: z: :
5058. 0
5073. 8
5089. 6
5105. 4
: I : : : :
5153. 0
5 1 6 8 . 9
5164.9
j200.8
5216. 8
i 232. 8
i 24. 3 9
1264. 9
; 28i . O
; 297. I
313. 3
, 329. j
345. 6
361. 8
378. I
394. 3
410. 6
426. 9
443. 3
459. 6
476. 0
492. 4
506. 8
525. 3
541. 8
558. 3
574. 8
i 91. 4
i o7. 9
i 24. 5
r41. 2
157. 8
174. 5
191. 2
07, 9
~2 5
58. 3
75. I
91. 9
08. 8
25. 7 .
42. 6
59. 6
2:
I O: 6
2: ;
51.8
78. 9
96. 0
13. 2
so. 4
$7. 6
268. 606 57
268. 999 57
274. 889 60
910 edition. Some of tk
1 :
, ;
: ;
i6
i 7
I 8
19
ircnm. Area.
_ _ .-.-
76. 067, 6064. 9
76. 4601 6082. I
76. 853! 6099. 4
77. 2461 61 16. 7
77. 630 6134. 1
78. 031, 6151. 4
78. 424; 6168. 8
78.816i 6 1 8 6 . 2
79. 2091 6203. 7
79. 6021 6221. 1
79. 994: 6238. 6
80. 3871 6256. 1
BO. 7801 6273. 7
,8l.l73i 6 2 9 1 . 2
81.565i 6 3 0 8 . 8
:Sl .95RI 6 3 2 6 . 4
82. 35 I 1 6 3 4 4 . I
02. 743r 6361 . 7
: a3 136 6379. 4
; 83: 529 6397. I
k3. 9211 6414. 9
184. 3141 6432. 6
~84. 7071 6450. 4
! 85, IOO/ 6 4 6 8 . 2
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385. 885 6503. 9
t86. 278 6521. 6
i 86. 670 6539. 7
G37. 063 6557. 6
B7. 456 6575. 5
~37. 848 6593. 5
l t38. 241 661 I . 5
208. 634 6629. 6
209. 027 6647. 6
289. 419 6665. 7
209. 012 6683. 8
290. 205 6701. 9
290. 5971 6720. 1
290. 990 6738. 2
291. 383 6756. 4
291. 775 6774. 7
292. 168 6792. 5
292. 561 681 i .i
292. 954 6829. 5
293, 346 6847. f
293. 739 6866. 1
294. 132 6084. 1
294. 524 6902. :
294. 917 6921 . :
295. 310 6939. l
295. 702 6958. :
296. 095 6976. :
296. 488 6995. :
296. 081 7013.
297. 273 7032.
297. 666 7051.
290. 059 5069.
298. 451 7088.
298, 044 7106.
299. 237 7125.
299. 629 7144.
300, 022 7103.
300. ~15 7181.
300. 807 7200.
12
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118
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318
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I f - 199. 49! 1 3! 66
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314: 200. 277 3191
7. 8 i 200. 669 3204
6- L I 201. 062 3217
1 i 201. 455 3229
1 i 201 847 3247 i 4, .
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;
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/ 204. 204[ 3318.
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) 207. 345: 3421.
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41 208. 131/ 3447.
8: 208. 5231 3460. ,
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Bi 210. 094j 3512. :
j 210. 487, 3525. :
at 210879/ 3538.t
41 211. 272i 3552. C
8j 211. 665 3565. ;
2 212. 058l 3578. :
a 212. 450! 3591. ;
4i 212. 843 3605. C
i i 234. 414 3658. 4
pi 214. 806/ 3671. 8
: / 215. 1991 3685. 3
11 215. 5921 3698. 7
I 215. 984i 3712. 2
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i 219. 519 3834. 7
1 219. 911
220. 304
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I 221. 482 3903. 6
221. 875 3917. 5
222. 268 3931. 4
222. 660 3945. 3
223. 053 3959~2
223. 446 3973 ,
223. 838 3987. i
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138
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18. 41 13273. 23
1. 55 13478. 22
4. 69 13684. 78
7. 83 13892. 91
: 0. 97 114102. 61
: 4. I 2 14313. 88
17. 26 14526. 72
a40 14741. I 4
3. 54 14957. I 2
i 6. 68 15174. 68
19. 82 15?93. 80
12. 96 15614. 50
16. 1 I 15836. 77
19. 25 16060. 61
i 2. 39 16286. 02
15. 53 16513. 00
i s. 67 16741. 55
i i . 81 16971. 67
j 4. 96 17203. 36
i 8. 10 17436. 62
I I . 24 17671. 46
74. 38 17907. 86
77. 52 ~18145. 84
30. 66 18385. 39
33. 81 18626. 50
36. 95 18869. 19
>0. 09 19113. 45
93. 23 19359. 28
36. 37 19606. 68
99. 51 19855. 65
02. 65 i ; Ol O6. 19
05. 80 120358. 31
08. 94 20611. 99
12. 08 20867. 24
15. 22 2! 124. 07
18. 36 21382. 46
21. 50 21642. 43
24. 65 21903. 97
27. 79 L2167. 08
30. 93 22431. 76
, 34. 07 22698. 01
, 37. 21 22965. 83
i 40. 35 23235. 22
i 43. 50 23506. 18
i 46. 64 23778. 71
i 49. 78 24052. 82
j 52. 92 24328. 49
j 56. 06 24605. i 4
$59. 20 24884. 56
j 62. 35 25164. 94
j 65. 49 25446. 90
568. 63 25730. 43
571. 77 26015. 53
574. 91 26302. 20
578. 05 26590. 44
581. 19 26880. 25
584. 34 27171. 63
587. 48 27464. 59
590. 62 277 9. 11
593. 76
2
280 5. 21
596. 90 28352. 87
600. 04 28652. 11
603. 19 , 28952. 92
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7332. 8
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7581. 5
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10386.
1056M.
10751.
10935.
1%: :
11499.
I 1689.
11882.
1%:
I %I
I : : : : :
a 1
-.-~ll~ -.
WARNING: This is
accurate
I m.. Ci rcum. /
AFOB.
__-
1027. 301 83913. &
1030. 44 84496. 28
1033. 58 85012. 25
1036. 73 85529. 86
1039. 8' 86049. 01
1043. 01, 86569. 73
1046. 15 87092. 02
1049. 29 87615. 88
1052. 43 88141. 31
1055. 58 88668. 31
1058. 72 89196. 88
1061. 86 89727. 03
1065. 00' 90258. 74
1068. 14 90792. 03
1071. 28 91326. 88
1074. 42 91863. 31
1077. 57 92401. 31
1080. 71 92940. 88
1083. 85 93482. 02
1086. 99 94024. 73
1090. 13 94569. 01
i 093. 27 95114. 86
1096. 42 95662. 28
1099. 56 96211. 28
' 102. 70 96761. @4
105. 84 97313. 47
I
108. 98 97867. 60
112. 12 98422. 96
115. 17 98979. 80
118. 41 99538. 22
I
121. 55 100098. 21
124. 69 100659. 77
127. 83 101222. 91
i 30. 9~i ~l Oi 787. 60
134. 11 102353. 87
137. 26 102921. 72
140. 40 103491. I 3
143. 54 104062. 12
146. 68 104634. 67
149. 82 105208. 80
152. 96 105784. 49
156. 11 106361. 76
159. 25 106940. 60
162. 39 107521. 01
165. 53 108102. 9)
168. 67 108686. 5t
171. 81 109271. 66
174. 96 10985R. 35
178. 10 110446. 62
' 81. 24 111036. 45
84. 38 111627. 86
87. 52 112220. 83
90. 66 l l 2i 315. 38
93. 81 113411. 49
96. 95 114009. 18
00. 09 114608. 44
03. 23 115209. 27
06. 37 115811. 67
09. 51 116415. 64
12. 65 117021. 18
15. 80 117628. 30
16. 94118236. 98
22. 08 118847. 24
25. 22 119459. 06
18. 36 120072. 46
11. 50 120687. 46
14. 65 l 2130~&
_,~,
. .
edition. Some
CIRCUMFERENCES
Aroa.
rial may no l onger
AND AREAS OF CI RCLES. 117
Xrcum .I Area. lDiam
be accurate
.
RNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the ma
-- --
. ce, :
=, TI.-.._ -.- _. ~.
I
122 MATHEMATICAL TbBLES. LENGTIiY OF CIRCULAR ARCS.
123
-
Ri
Diz
Area.
.2bb
. 267
. 2?
. 271
: 22: 32
.274
. 275
: %
. 278
279
. 28
. 281
. 284
. 285
. 286
. 287 .
. 288
. 209
. 29
. 291 :
. 292 .
. 293 .
. 294
. 295
.296
.297
.298
:P9 1
, 301
: : i :
. 304
. 305
. 306
-Ii5
.lb&
. 169:
170;
. 171(
. I 715
, 172E
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$91
592
593
194
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196
197
198
199
10,
102
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Area
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933
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F.~~rorons FOB LENGTHS OF CIRCULAR ARCS.
,m.
G--
; 5
ib
:;
9
-
Minutes.
106IO87
1063995
g%;
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0078540
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74
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' 6
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i 8
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57
56
118
I 51
-
. 97738,
. 99483
- ' 76
segment see Mensuration, page 61.
LJWGTHS OF CI RCULAR ARCS.
(Uegrees bei ng gi ven.
Radi us of Ci rcl e = 1.1
Fonxo~.~.
-Length of arc =
3.1415927
180
Y radius X number of de:-rees.
number of degrees by the radius.
RYE. - MultipIg the factor in the tndle (see next page) for any given
.EXAWLE. -
Factor from table for 780
Givenit curveof a radius of 55 feet and an angle of 780 20~.
Factor from table for. 20; .. ...*-. * *
Factor. .
. . . . ..I....... :$:g:!i
1.3671746X55=75.19feei......-..... . . . . . . . . . 1.3671746
----.
Thi-ii- edition. Some of the-
.A
mz
:;i . .
u.~.--~.
?ial may no
_~-.-I---___--~..~~ _
longer be accurate
MATHEMATIUL TABLES.
SPHE.RES .
LENGTHS OF CIRCULAR ARCS,
;
(Diameter = 1. Given the Chord and Height of the Are.)
SPHEBES.
(Some errors of 1 in the Iast. figure only.~
From TRAGTWINE.)
Dinm.
;ur-
ace.
3UP
f ace.
T

-7
I
1
1
1
i
i
--1-u- YS.L Izrlgrib y l,i,e cI,ri,.
in the column of heights the number equal to this quotient.
corresponding number from the column of Ieng:it~s.
Takeouttz:
Jflllti )lv t hi s lust
number by the hw$b of the given chord; tile product will be ennth f thP
nm I
- ' 306. 16 504. 21
314. 16 523. 60
322. 06 543. 48
330. 06 563. 86
338. 16 584. 74
z%
363. C5 650. 46
371. 54 673. 42
380. i 3 696. 91
388. 83 720. 95
397. 61 745. 51
406.49 770.6)
415. 48 796. 33
424. 50 822. 58
433. 73 849. 40
443. 01 876. 79
452. 39 904. 78
471. 44 %2. 52
490. 87 1022. 7
510. 71 1085. 3
530. 93 1150. 3
551. 55 1218. 0
572. 55 1288. 3
, 593. 95 1361. 2
615. 75 1436. 8
L
637. 95 1515. 1
,
'
~ 660. 52 1596. 3
L
683. 49 1680. 3~
706.851767. 2
730. 63 f 857. 0
754. 77 1949. 8
779. 32 2045. 7
804. 25(2144. 7
1
829. 57 2246. 8
855. 29 2352. 1
-
4
88 I . 42 2460.6
907. 93 2572. 4
' 4
934. 83 2607.6
2
962. 12 2806. 2
4
989. 80 2926. 2
1017. 9 3053. 6
1046. 4 3182. 6
I 1075. 2 3315. 3
1104. 5 345r. 5
1134. 1 3591. 4
1164. 2 3735. 0
1194. 6 3882. 5
, 1225. 4 4033. 7
1256. 7 4188. 8
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314 :
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3.
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trial may
-111.
Ifthearcis greater than a .*--kixle. first find the di amet er f r om the
Pormu!a. &am. L= (sqlfare of h,a!f chord t rise) + rise: tile formula is true
whether the arc excess a sermwcie or not.
Then find the cjrcumferenc*e.
Frpm the chsmeter subtract the given height of kc. the rtmninrier is,il! b
heght of the g+maller arc of the circle: find its length according to the rule:
snd subtract It from the circumference.
-
-
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1. 00007,
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1.0006 I . I 56 1.06368
1.00107
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1. 00167
1. 06530
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1. 00240
1. 06693 . t
. I 62
1. 00327
1. 06858 . 21
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1. 00426
1. 07025 . 25
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1. 07194 . 25
. I 63 1. 07365 . 2:
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51571
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53518
53910
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54696
55091
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1. 26288 .4I
I .26588 .4i
1. 26892 .41
1. 27196 . 42
1. 27502 . 42
I . 27510 . 42
1.281 I8 .42
I . 28428 .42
I .28739 .43
I .29052 .43
1. 29366 .43
I.2968I . 43
1. 29997 . 43
I . 30315 . 44
1. 30634 . 44
1. 30954 . 44,
1. 31276 . 44,
1. 31599 . 44,
1. 31923 . 45
1. 32249 . 45;
! . 32577 . 45
x32905 . 45t
. 33234 . 45f
. 33564 . 46
. 33896 , 462
. 34229 , 464
. 34563 . 466
. 34899 , 468
35237 . 47
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. 35914 . 474
. 36254 . 47b
p; ; g . 4$3
, 37283 1482
37628 .484
37974 . 486
; ; gf ~ $8
39021 . 492
39372 , 494
39724 . 496
40077 . 498
40432 . 50
the<
c___
lOngeri;e accurate no
----u
k:
I~ .~I_.-,-.
This is a 1913 edition.
CAPMT-JT OF CYLINDIUCAL YESSXLS.
kPHERES 7 Continued.
CONTENTS IN CUBIC FEET AND U. S. GALLONS OF PIPES
ANIB CYLINDERS OF VARIOUS IXAMETERS AND ONE
FOOT IN LENGTH.
am.
I -_
Di,
-
i0
i1.
72.
7%
7tL
75.
76.
7 7.
78.
' 423
1 gal l on = 231 cubic inches. 1 cubic foot = i.4SO5 gallons. Dia
30.
1
1
3
31.
1.
1,
3;
32.
I /
$
33.
: :
3/
34.
%!
35.
ij;
36.
vi
37.
112
38.
I2
39.
?2
PO.
112
-7
. . g/u3
515
lVl0
314
13/l%
I 314
2
Zll.4
2 v2
2314
--
Pot. 1 Foot in
Length.
?or I Foot in
Length.
*. 7
!. I
1. 2
1. 7
i . 9
' . 6
: . 9
I . 9
13
13(
13A
137
' 47
150
153
157
1611
g!
172i
175;
1795
--
I ' 56' 5 183471
i ; ; ; ; 187402
' 6286 1; : ; ; ;
16513 m
16742 ; ; ; i , ' ;
' 6972 207903
I 7204 212' 75
17437 216505
17672 220894
' 7908 225341
' 8' 46 229840
18386 234414
16626 239041
18869 243728
19114 248475
19360 253284
196oi 258155
: 9856 263088
!ol o6 268083
10336 273141
: 0612 278263
i O867 283447
1124 288696
' 382 294010
' 642 2' 99388
1904 304831
2' 67 310340
2432 315915
2698 32' 556
!966 327264
Q35 333039
1506 338882
1; ; ; 344792
3507i :
1328 356811
I 1606 362935
, 685
i
369' 22
' 65 375376
447 381704
730
0' 6 394570
302 401109
I
388102
590 407721
960 414405
I
172, 421161
$64 427991
159 434894
' 55 441871
153 4 4 8 9 2 0
152 456047
I53 463248
53 470524
59 477874
65 485302
72 492808
81 500388
3. 49'
3. 682
34: K9
4. 286
4. 498
"4: ; : :
' 5: : "9:
7. 99:
: : : ; I
9. 80
I O. 44
11. : 1
1: : i :
13.22
13.96
-
i.Ft.
SISO
rea in
1. Ft.
-
. S;
LIS..
31
. In.
L.
;:::
;::i
7. 99
2. 521
22%
2. 885
3. 012
gp;
!0. 66
!I . 58
t2. 53
3. 142
' 3%
3. 976
4. 276
13. 50
2: :
29. 74
31. 99
2: : : :
7. 065
7. 461
7. 87f
given, in the table,
multipl
its capacity
i:
its capa-
y 9. etc.
j, multiply the cap.ac1t.Y
:loser approximation 15
the actual temperature
. 0025
. 004
. 0057
2%;
u. Ft.
also c
rz33 Ln
q. Ft. c
_-
:%
. 2867
. 3068
. 3276
. 349l
: 5G
. 4176
.441a
. 4667
. 4922
: : I p5:
. 373c
. 124(
. I 632
. 206t
: %
. 367:
. 430'
. 4991
. : : : r
. 652:
. 6Ol ?,
: zo3
. 690:
I . 7211
: : z:
. 852: 2
. 92!!
9
. 994
1: %
1. 227
1.310
1. 396
i the capacity of pipes greater tnan the
ie table for a pipe of one-half the mvens
or one of one-third its size, and multi1
y the weight of water in any of the given 5
feet bY 62 l/4 or the gallons by 8113, or , i !
, by the weight of a cubic foot Of water
$l$he dimensions of a cylinderin inches, tot find its ca9acity in u. 5.
1s: Square the diameter, multiply by the lengt~h and by 6.69S4.
If da
diameter, 2 7 length.&llons-
d2X 0. 7854X1
I ; o. oo34 dr1. If b andI;are
23r .
in feet. gallons = 5.S75 PL.
4 114
4 I2
;3/4
5114
K4 nc
nc
:ecJ
GALLONS AND CUBIC FEET. 1. 29
1 2 8 MiTHiMATICAL T ABL E S .
CYLINDRICAL VESSEIS, TANKS, CISTERNS, ETC.
Diameter in Feet and Inches, Area In Sqiiare Feet, and U. S.
Gaiions CaPacity for One Foot in Depth.
1 gallon = 231 cubic inches =
1 cubic foot
, 7. 480. 5
= 0. 13365 cubic feet.
GALLONS AND CUBIC FEET.
. .
United Sbates Gall.;ns in a given Number of Cubic Feet.
t cubic foot -7.4SO519 U.S.gsllons; 1 gallon=331 cU.i~.=0.1,3368056cu.fl.
Gals.
Ifoo
,p;
9::
10. 4
1: : :
14. 7
16. 3
17. 9
19. 7
2: '
25. 5'
27. 5,
29. 7,
3i . 9
34. 3
: t: :
41.7i
: ; : ; ' i
49. 91
: g;
58. 9;
62. 0<
65. 21
Z: Z
75. 4;
78. 95
82. 6;
2: :
94. 0:
97. 96
I Fi : : :
118. 97
123. 42
; 27. 95
' : : : : t
42. 02
X;
56. 83
61. 93
; ; : : 8"
77. 72
83. 15
-
Il.
I
- -
n.
I
e
i
5
I
f
I
I
1
j
i
;i
: I
i
I
i
:
i
5
-
Diar a.
-i-
z. / Gals. 1 Diam.j ;,,a. !
Gals.
- - -
Gallons. Cubic Ft. :ubieFt.
%
800
900
1, 000
2, 000
%%
5' 000
6; OOO
Z::
523. 6
598. 4
673. 2
748. 0
1. 496. 1
2. 244. 2
2. 992. 2
3. 740. 3
. 44. 468. 3
5. 236. 4
5, 984: 4
6. 732. 5
7, 480. 5
52. 363. 6
0.75
1. 50
2. 24
: : ; :
; : g
5. 98
6. 73
7. 45
14. 96
%z"
37. 40
44. 88
: ; : i :
67. 32
74. 80
149. 6
224. 4
299. 2
s.ooG-
9. 000
! 0. 000
20. 000
30, 000
3%
741005. 2
149. 610. 4
224, 415T. i
299. 220. 8
324. 025. 3
448. 831. 1
523. 636. 3
598, 441. 5 '
673, 246.
748. 051. 9
1, 496, 103. 8
2, 244, 155. 7
2, 992, 207. 6
40. 000
50, 000
60. 000
90, 000
100. 000
200, 000
%$%I
3, 740, 259. 5
4,485,3 I 1.4
5. 236. 363. 3
5, 984, 4!5. 2
6. 732, 467. 1
m&JJ;
7oc: ooo
800. 000
900, 000
7, 480, 519. 0
L
113. I01 846.03
i
117. 86' 881. 65
' KJ i i ts
137. 89 1031. 5
1 143. i 4 1070. 8
, 146. 49
153. 94
1110. 8
159. 48
1151. 5
1193. 0
Cubic Feet in a given Number of Gallons.
-
I
Cubic Ft.
I
Gallops Cubic Ft.
133. 680. 6
267, 361. 1
401, 041. 7
534, 722. 2
668, 402. S
802. 083. 3
935. 763. 9
1, 069, 444. 4
1, 203, 125. 0
1, 336. 805. 6
:ubic Ft.
- -
::2
. 401
. 535
. 668
Gallons.
133. 681 1, 000. 000
267. 361
401. 042
; P&y&;
%: %
4: ooo: ooc
5, 000, 000
. a02 6, 000 802. 083 6. 000. 000
. 936 935. 764 7. 000. 000
I % z%9' 000 1. 069. 444 y$J ~~
1. 337 l c: ooo
\ , 203. 125
1. 336. 806 I o: ooo: ooo
Cubic Feet per Second, Gallons in X4 hours, etc.
- ^_^_
Cu. ft. per sec.
Cu. ft. per min
U;,S. Gfi!s.!s. min.
4 hrs..
7.480519
10,771.95
t0
l . . ! l 47472
92. 334
Z. 2801
133. 681
1,000.
1, 4 m, occ
8335. 65
If hydraulic
and use cubi c
/
3741.3 5788. 66
unnecessary measure
would stop usn~ It,
1s wouid be saved.
~.~,.~. -.-~ ..,-.,. _
accurate
il _ __ _ - -.
pump mar
~anv tedious
lufacturers
; caldulatior
ion. Some of
,,,,
130 . MATHEMATICAL TABLES.
NU?vIl3ER OF SQUAZE F E E T I N P L AT E S .
131
SQUARE FEET IN FLATES. - Conicnvcd.
NUllIBER OF SQUARE FEET IN PLATES
LONG, ~AAND 1 INCH WIDE.
3 TO 32 FEET
For other widthsmultiply by the width inimhes. 1 sq. in.=0.00694/ssq.ftt.
-i
-
I.
-.
Ins.
Long.
-
3quare
Feet.
Ft. and
Ins.
Long.
-7
T
1
3quare
Feet.
3
Ins.
Long.
_ -
210
2li
212
213
214
215
216
: i i
219
220
221
222
223
: ; Yl
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
z
: z;
23. 3
%
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
2:
; : 7
: : i
2;
2: ;
258
f C
261
%5
264
265
2;
260
IDS.
,ong
quare
Feet.
2. 278
2. 285
2. 292
2. 299
E;
2. 319
Z3' :
2. 34
2. 347
2: : :
; : : : :
2. 302
; : ; w;
Z3
Zi
2. 431
2. 438
; : Y
Et
2. 472
2. 479
2. 486
Z' "
2. 507
i : : : :
; : : ; i
2. 542
' 2: : ; :
2. 563
2. 569
2%
2. 59
2. 597
EG
2%
2. 632
E2
' 2: : i 3
2. 667
~22%
<
_-
.I
%
1. 472
1. 479
1. 406
! : 5493
; : g
1. 521
1. 528
1. 535
1. 542
1. 549
32:
1. 569
1: : : :
1. 59
1. 597
1%
1%
1. 632
I . 639
1. 645
1. 653
1. 659
1. 667
1. 674
l . 6RI
1. 688
1%' :
1: : : :
1: : ; i
1. 736
1%'
1. 757
i : : ?i
I : %!
1. 792
1. 799
I : %
1: : ; :
i:E
E
1. 86; t
. 25
. 2569
. 2639
. 2708
: Z
: %i
. 3G56
. 3125
. 3194
. 3264
. 3333
: ; : ; 3
. 354f
. 3611
. 368l
. 375
: ; : &Z
. 3958
. 4028
. 4097
. 4l 47
. 4236
. 4?06
, 437s
. 4444
. 4514
. 4583
. 4653
. 4722
. 4792
. 486l
. 493l
. 5
e
--
3
7
7
i
,
,
i
. 652t
. 659;
: %i
. 68Of
. 687:
. 6944
: %
g;
2; :
: E"
. 7569
. 7639
. 7708
: 3Z
. 7917
. 7986
. 8056
Bl 25
I 3194
. a264
. 6333
. a403
~3472
. 5542
~3611
. 868i
, 875
. 8619
. 8889
. 8958
. 9028
. 9097
. 9167
. 9236
. 9306
, 937s
. 9444
. 9514
: Z
: E
. 986l
. 9931
, 000
. 007
: %
, 028
, 035
, 042
. 049
11
1:
-
iquare
Feet.
73%
1. 063
I . 069
1. 076
1. 083
1. 09
1. 097
I . 104
I . 1 I 4
c: ;
i I f
22
1. 153
I : i 2
1. 174
I . 181
1: FZ:
I . 201
1. 208
I : ; : :
1. 229
1. 236
1. 243
1. 25
I : %
1. 271
I . 270
11; :
1%
I . 313
I : : : :
1. 333
I . 34
I . 347
. 354
, 361
: %
, 382
: E
. 403
. 41
: : ; :
#. 431
I . 438
i : Z
Ins.
Long
__
2
Z!
zt
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
I 08
109
I 10
I l l
I I 2
I 13
I I 4
115
116
I I 7
118
119
120
I 21
I 22
123
124
I 25
126
l 2?
I 28
I 29
1; :
I 32
133
134
135
136
1; :
139
140
I 41
I : ;
I 44
145
146
I 47
48
149
150
L%
-
;:,
15,
1: ;
15:
151
I S!
lb<
;g
23
16t
I 67
16E
l 6q
I 70
I 71
172
173
1: ;
176
177
178
179
180
I 81
I 82
I %
I 85
106
187
188
I 89
190
I 91
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
: z
?02
203
!04
LO5
106
Z8
209
-
%
271
%
%
276
277
278
, 279
280
281
' 282
283
204
285
286
287
200
289
290
291
292
293
%
; ; ;
298
; z:
301
302
303
%
%
308
: 7; :
311
312
313
; I ;
2;
: I :
E?
z; :
; s;
326
327
328
329
330
331
2;
334
335
336
337
: : t
340
341
342
343
: : 2
346
347
348
; : z
351
: : :
354
325
%
; : t
360
361
362
363
; : 2
366
367
360
%
371
; ' 7;
: : 2
: : ;
: : t
380
381
' 3: ;
; : ;
301
-
. 5069
: %
. 5278
. 5347
. 5417
. 5486
: : : : :
: : ; : I !
. 5t334
. 5903
. 5972
X1042
. 61! l
: 2 j
. 6319
. 6389
. 6458
I
-
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no l onger be accurate
CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL CISTERNS AND TANKS. 133
NUiWBEItX 0 BARRELS (31 1-2 GALLONS) IN
CISTERNS AND TANKS.
' barrel = 3 I ?$ gsllons =
31. 5 x 23'
1728
=4. . 71094 cu. ft. Reciprocal=0.237477
CAPACI TI ES OF RECT.ANGULAR TA--S IN u S.
GALLONS, FOR EACH FOOT IN DEPTH.
.
I cubic foot = 7.&05 U. S. gallons.
Length of Tank.
Widtf
TaZfk.
-
D;$h
Feet.
--
feet. 1
4
- _.
59. 82
: 74. 8(
89. 7; 7 I
04. 7: I I
' 9. 65) I
. . . I
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. .
Diameter in Feet.
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
- - - - -s__--___-_
6. 714 9. 139 11. 937 ' 5. 108 ' 8. 652 22. 54926. 859 31. 522 36. 557
33. 6 45. 7 59. 7 75. 5 93. 3 "2. 8 134. 3 ' 57. 6 ' 82. &
40. 3 54. 8 71. 6 90. 6 I l l . 9 ' 35. 4 ' 61. 2, ' 89. 1 2' 9. 3
47. 0 64. 0 83. 6 ' 05. 8 ' 30. 6 ' 58. 0 ' 88. 0 220. 7 255. 9
53. 7 73. 1 95. 5 120. 9 149. 2 ' 80. 6 214. 9 252. 2 292. 5
60. 4 82. 3 ' 07. 4 ' 36. 0 ' 67. 9 203. 1 241. 7 263. 7 329. 0
6~7. 1 91. 4 ' 19. 4 ' 51. 1 ' 86. 5 225. 7 263. 6 3' 5. 2 365. 6
73. 9 ' 00. 5 131. 3 ' 66. 2 205. 2 248. 3 295. 4 346. 7 402. 1
80. 6 ' 09. 7 ' 43. 2 ' 81. 3 223. 8 270. 8 322. 3 378. 3 438. 7
87. 3 "8. 8 155. 2 ' 96. 4 242. 5 1293. 4 349. 2 409. 8 475. 2
94. 0 ' 2~7. 9 ' 67. 1 2' 1. 5 261. 1 3' 6. 0 376. 0 441. 3 5' 1. 8
100. 7. 131. 1 179. 1 226. 6 279. 8 338. 5 402. 9 472. 8 540. 4
W. 4 146. 2 ' 91. 0 241. 7 298. 4 361. 1 429. 7 504. 4 584. 9
' 4. 1 ' 55. 4 202. 9 256. 8 3' 7. 1 383. 7 45, 6. 6 535. 9 621. 5
2C, 9 164. 5 214. 9 271. 9 335. 7 406. 2 4S3. 5 567. 4 658. 0
27. 6 ' 73. 4 226. 8 267. 1 354. 4 428. 8 510. 3 598. 9 694. 6
34. 3 ' 82. 8 238. 7 302. 2 373. 0 451. 4 5372 630. 4 731. 1
-
feet
2
(4. 8
i 6. I
j 7. 3,
. .
. . .
. .
. . .
,
-
1.
i
6
5
: I
I
t. in
2 6
-
17. 4(
16. 7:
. . .
. .
. .
. .
. .
it. i1
3 1
i 2. 3
5. 4
' 8. 5
PI . 6
. .
. . .
. . .
2. i;;.
i /
fe;t. f;. t. fe;t. f;. i(;n. f?t.
-l--~----
5
42. 0
~: : ~
56. 0
60. 6
65. 3
E: Z
79. 3
83. 9
88. 6
93. 3
-1.
i in
2 6
: 6
4
4 6
: 6
. : 6
7
z9. 9;
.
. .
. .
. . .
.
. . .
. . .
. .
. .
/
67. 32 74. 81 84. 16 93. 5' 82. 29 89. 77
l OO. ?9 112. 2'
' 02. 86 "2. 2' 97. 25 ' 04. 73
' 23. 43 ' 34. 65 ' 21. 56 ' 30. 91
1' 7. 62 ' 30. 9'
134. 65 ' 49. 61
' 44. 00 157. 09 ' 70. 18~183. 27 ' 45. 87' 157. 09
164. 57 179. 53 ' 94. 49 209. 45
151. 4@ 168. 3' ' 85. 14~201. 97 2' 8. 80' 235. 62
. . ' 87. 01 205. 711224. 41 243. Sl j 261. 92
. . . . . . 226. 28 246. 86 267. 431288. 00
. . . . . . . . 269. 30 291. 7413' 4. 18
. . . . . . . . , I 316. 05 I 340. 36
.
.
. . . . 1 . . . 1 . . 1 . . . ( . . . 1366. 54
Z.Z
I
Length of Tank.
h
i.
-
in.
i
,
) j
Id
2
1
-
-
ft.
7
-
' 12.
140.
168. :
196. :
224. 3
-
in. fee
6 8
- -
21 "9.
26' 149.
z: , ,
179.
g; . :
4' ;
; ; I
269. :
z99. ;
$
t: ; : ;
186. S
' 2 4
t: sB: : ' 8 4
4178. 7
. .
. . .
252:
280. 1
f 30: : ;
164. t
192. 7
120. 2
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . .
- -
--
ft..
8
-
127.
158. '
190. :
g; ;
286. 1
; g:
i 8l . f
113. 3
i45.0
2::
40. 4
. . .
. .
. .
. . .
. .
. .
.
-
- 7
f eet . f; . 9 1;. I feet. ft. in. 10 feet. ft. in. feet.
__j___ 10 6 11 --/.--- 11 6 12
zt
-
6:
:: :
37:
t, "j
i4 5
16 :
t&3 0
1' 4
13 4
' 5 5
5
-
> :
2 t
: 6
4
4 6
5
5 6
6" 6
: 6
ae 6
9
9 6
i i i 6
i i 6
12
Dimneter in Feet.
I
134. 65 142. 13 168. 31 177. 66 ' 49. 61 187. 01 ' 57. 09/ ' 64. 57
' 96. 36
172. 05 ' 79. 53
202. 97 213. 19 224. 41 ; 205. 7'
235. 63 248. 73
261. 82
235. 63 246. 86
2' 5. 06 224. 41
258. 07 269. 30
269. 30 284. 26 299. 22 274. 90' 288. 00
3' 4. 18 329. 14
101. 09 3' 4. 18
3- 14. 10 359. 06
302. 96 319. 79 $36. 62 355. 32 336. 62
!70. 28 390. 85
374. 03 353. 45 370. 28
411. 43 392. 72 4' 1. 43
387. 11 403. 94
432. 00
430. 13 448. 83
103. 94 426. 39
137. 60 461. 92
448. 83 452. 57 473. 14
466. 23 471. 27 493. 71
510. 54 534. 85
5' 6. 15
538: 59 493 71
17
53. 90:
269. 5
: ?i : : :
431. 2
485. 1
: z: :
646. 8
700. 7
754. 6
808. 5
862. 4
%: ;
18
60. 43
302. 2
E: G
483. 4
543. 9
604. 3
664. 7
E
' 48. 2
208. 6
19
I 67.33;
,
336. 7
E: !
538. 7
i %: :
I
I
077. 3 I
I 144. 6 1
I 2l J . O I
279. 3 I
346. 6 I
-- - -
20 21 22
74. 606 90. 273
34% 4M; 53 493. 5 451. 4 541. 6
Ei 658. 0 575. 8 631. 9 722. 2
%: EE E5
%: 3 987. 0 904. 8 ' 083. 3 993. 0
969. 9 1069. 3 1173. 5
1%: ' 233. 8 1151. 5 1263. 8 1354. 1
1' 93. 7 13' 6. 0 ' 444. 4
1268. 3 1398. 3 1534. 5
1342. 9 1480. 6 1624. 9
K: :
y: y ' 7' 5. 2
, 1805. 5
41 966 47. 74;
zor/ . e 238. 7
251. 8, 286. 5
293 FI
3397
334. 2
382. 0
377. 7 429. 7
449. 7 477. 5
461. 6 525. 2
503. 6 573. 0
545. 6 620. 7
. .
. . .
. .
. . .
. . .
587. 5 660. 5
629. 5 7' 6. 2
671. 5 764. 0
713. 4 8' 1. 7
755. 4 . p59: 5
797. 4 907. 2
839. 3 ' 955. 0'
. . . ( . 1 . . . 1 . . . 1 . . . 1 . . . 11077. 2
-...-A- I I
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
some of ?ia~l may no lbn@r be accurate . ~, . .
MIJNBER OF BARRELS (31 l-2 GALLOSS) IN CISTERNS
AND TANKS. -Continued.
Depth
F : t. ~3
P.
I
24
: 493. 3 98. 6661%
; 690. 7 592. 0 644. 6 752. 0
8 789. 3 859. 5
9 888. 0 966.9
! : 1085. 3 986. 7 1 1074. 3
1;
1181. 8
I 1282. 7 184. 0 1289. 2
1396.6
14 1381. 3 1504. 0
1: i 578. 7 1480. 0 1611. 5
1718. 9
--
2
I
I
I

s
-
116.57
582. 9
699. 4
%: Z
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877. 4 941. 1 1007. 2
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1359. 7
1316. 0 1411. 7 1510. 8
1495. 6
1462. 2 1568. 6 1678.6
1631. 6
1608. 5 1725. 4 1846. 5
1767. 6
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1900. 9 2039. 2 2 182. 2
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LOGARITHJIS.
Logarithms (abbreviation log). - The lop of a number is the exponent
f the dower t o wh i c h i t i n nw~~csr7.r +r. roire _ f----l -..-x--- _
the gjden number. The fi xed nuniber is called the base. Thus if the
-. . -- .-~q= - LI-LCU Iumoer to proauce
base 1s. IO, the log of 1000 is 3. for IO3 = 1000.
There are two svstems
of 106s In general use. the common, in which the base is10. and the Vaperian
or hliperbok, m which the base is 2.7182~1825 . ,_ . . The Gao;rian ha.&
is commonly (
Nap. log O f I. llle ab
len_qted b.v e. as in the equation eY = z. in which y is the
breviatlon log, is commonly used to denote the
system of logs. the log of 1 is 0: the log of the base t.aken in that
In any sysbem the base of which is greater tha; 1 the logs of
greater than 1 are positive and the.logs of ail nimbers less
than 1 are negative.
The modulus of anp system is equal to the reciprocal of the hTaperian log
of the base of that system.
of the common system is 0.4342945.
The modulus of the Nape&n systkm is 1, that
The log pf a number in any system equals the modulus of t.hat system x
the Napenar, log of the number.
The h!merbdicor Naperian log of any number equals the common
l og X 2. 3025SE. l .
Every log consists of two Parts. an entire part called the characterislic
or index, and the decimal part, or matiissa.
in the usual.t+bles of common lops. with the decimal point omitted
The mantissa only is give;
The
charactenstuz IS found by a simple rule, viz.. it is one less than the &mber
of figures to the left of the decimal point in the number whose 10~ is to be
found. Thus the characteristic of numbers from 1 to 9.99 + is 0 from
10 to 99.99 + is 1, from 100 to 999 + is 2, from 0.1 to 0.99 -1: is - 1: from
0.01 to 0.099 + is -2, etc. Thus
l og of , 2000
I
is
200 ss
3.30103: 2. 30103: log of 0.2 - ! iz 1.30103. or 9.30103 - l o
I I.
-
6, 6 ;
I
** 1.30103:
0.02

2.30103 8.30103 -
I -
10
0. 3Ol O3;
0.002

-
Q. 0003
3.30101
* 4. 3010 3;
7.30107
6. 30103
10
- - 10
LOGARITHMS OF XUAIBERS. 135
-
The minus sign is frequently written above the characteristic t hus:
log 0.002=3.30103. The characteristic only is negative, the decimal part,
or mantissa, being always positive.
When a 106 consists of a negative index and a positive mantissa, it is
usual to write the negative sign over the index, or else to pdd 10 t? the
index, and to indic$e the subtraction of 10 from the resultmg loganthm.
Thus log 0.2 = 1.30103, and this may be written 9.30103 - 10.
111 tables of I?gxrithmic sines, etc.. the - 10 is generally omitted, as
bein, understoorl.
Rules for use of the table of logarithms. -To find the log of any
whole number. - For 1 to 100 inclusive the log is given complete in the
small table on page 136.
For 100 to 999 inclusive the decimal part of thelog is,ziv-en opposiie the
given number in the column headed 0 in the table (including the two
figures to the left, making six figures). Prefis the characteristic, or
iridex, 2 .
--- 000 to 9999 inclusive: The last four figures of the log are found
A&- +nt t. hrPe figures of the given number and in the vert.ical
e fonrth figure of the given number; prefix the two
which is 3.
=I. I
opposite l,llj L,-. _.___.
column headed with th,
Egures under column 0. and. the index,
For numbers over 10,000 having. QT. - . .~~~~. ~~,~_~~ ~, ~~~
part of the log for the first four rhgts as above. multiply the fiitference
hel min thn l--t column bv the remaininw dirrit or digits. and divide by 10
>n or more dirdts: Find the decimal
L- --Y one rlieit. mor e. hv 10~ if there be two more. and so on: If t h e r e UCUMJ -___ ._____ ______. -.. - - - ~. .~.~~~
add the quotient to the log of the first four dieits and preti?c the index,
which is 4 if there are five digits, 5 if there are six digits. and so on.
The
table of proportional parts may be used, as shown below.
To And the log of a decimal fraction or of a whole numher and a
decimal. - First find the log of the quantity as if there were no decimal
ocint. then prelix thz index according to rule: the index is one less than
the number of figures to the left of the decimal Point.
Required log of 3.141593.
JARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t .
106 Of 3. 141 = 0.497O;G& Diff. = 135
FrT&m propo.Qiotior.al pa+
_
cc=
o9 = 1242
4 I . 003 = 011
_---
.
log 3.141593 0.497149s
To And t1.e numher corresponding to a given log. - Find in the
t ahl the log nearest to the decimal part of the given log and take the
first!& digits of the required number from. the column N and the to,p or
:z;t of the column containing the.log which 1s the nest less than the given
To find the 5th and 6th digIts subtract the log in the table from the
B
v>n log, mukiply the difference by 100, and divide by the figure In. the
iff. column opposite the log: annex the quotient to the four dl@ts
already found, and place the decimal point accqrdmg to the rule: the
number of figures to the left of the decimal point IS one greater than the
index. The number corresponding ta d log is called the anti-logarithm-
Find the anti-log of.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.497150
Next lowest log in table corresponds to 3141 . . . . 0.497068
Diff.=82
Tabul ar diff. = 13s: 82 + 135 = 0.59 i-
The index being 0, the number is therefore 3.14159 +.
To muMply two numbers h the use of logarithms. - Add together
the logs of the two numbers, anB find the number whose log !s the sum.
To divide two numbers. -
Subtract the log of the div!sor from the
log of the dividend, and find the number whose log is the chfference.
Logof a fraciion. L o g o f a/ b =l og a -leeb.
To raise a number to any given power. - Multiply the log of the
number hv the exponent of the power, and find the-number Whose log
is the prpduct.
To find any root oc a given n&her. - Divide the log of the number
by the index of the root. The quotient ic the log of the root.
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
-I L. 000.1
[No. 109 L. 040.
5 9 7 8 9 Diff.
8600 9026 9451 9876- - - - - -
- - 0 3 0 0 0 7 2 4 1147 1570 1993 2415
424
; 012837 7033 l 3259 7451 3680 7868 8284 4100 4521 8700 9116 4940 9532 5360 9947- - 5779 6197 66161
420
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416
5
02;::;
1603 2016 2428 2841 3252 3664 4075 4486 4896
412
c 57715 L - C Leaa A942 7350 7757 8164 8571 89781
408
j Gj;ii t)j~$~~~------~~
0195 0600 1004 1408 1812 22161 2619 3021 404
9 033424 7426 3026 7825 4227 8223 4628 8620 9017 5029 I (5430 I 5830 I 6230, 6629 I 7028 i 400
04b -. I I I t ;
24141 981 l / - - - - - I -
02071 06021 0998 397 - - - - I
PROPORTI ONAL PART S.
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ter of the m
LOGARITHMS OF NUAfUERS.
139
r bh. 134 L. 130.
135
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
No. 110 L. 041.) N,,. 120 L. 079.:
*. I
0
120
lr
5
7
/
4
5
179181
- -
382785
6360
- 9905
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6910
100371
3804
7210
9 110590
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350
349
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346
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9210 6495 9606 9993 6805 7275
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I 7286 7666 8046 8426
- - - ~~~ I
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I ~93, ~==oI 19241 23091
386
956319942;w-w
383
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70711
m- e. 1
373 376 379
- ~~~
i j 071882 5547 1 ' 22501
5912,
26171 - I - ' - - - 29851 3352 I 3718 UWOI 4085 1~407 44511 07761 4816' 11451X 5182
6276; 66401 73681 84571 7004 7731! 80941 8819
366 370
363
_-A
0903 1231 1560
4175 4504 4830
7429 7753 8076
PROPORTI ONAL PARTS.
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365
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363
362
361
360
359
358
357
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--. ~. --
This is a 1910
--- .~ -.~~-~-_..-.-
edition. Some of the teri al ~may no l onger De accura- ce .
LOGARITHbTS OF NUMBERS.
140
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
135 L. NO.
-K
135
6
8
9
140
1
:
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2
7
9"
No.1
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0142 0449 0756! I 0631 1370 1676 1982 307
5640 59431 6246 6549
6852 7154 7457 7759' 8061 303
8664 8965/ 9266 9567 9&6&- L
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1067 , 967' 2266 2564 2863 3161
- 0168 0469 0769 1068 301
4650 4947 5244 5541
3758 4055 299
7613 7908 8203 8497
6726 7022 297
- - -
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0555 o&48 114, 1434
I 3478 3769 4060 4351
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6957 7221 264
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8791
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1 1 7 6 1 2 8 7 1 3 9 9
2 2 8 8 2 3 9 9 2 5 1 0
111
3397 3 5 0 8 3 6 1 8
4503 4 6 1 4 4 7 2 4
5 6 0 6 5 7 1 7 5 8 2 7
6 7 0 7 6 8 1 7 6 9 2 7
110
7805 7 9 1 4 8 0 2 4
8 9 0 0 9 0 0 9 9119
9 9 9 2 - -
109
108
6 4 8 9 6 5 9 6 6 7 0
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PR~PORTI ~NASJ PARTS.
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81.2
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79. 8
79.1
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117
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115
114
113
112
P R O P O R T I O N A L PARTS.
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123
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72. 8
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~~ARN~N~: This is a 1910 editio6:~~
Ie mate+ial,may no longer be accurate
N o . 4 1 5 L.Sls.]
[No. 4.50 L. 662
~0.460 L.662.1
[No. 499 L.698.
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7 3 6 4E30 4 9 2 4 5018 51121 5 2 0 6 5 2 9 9 5 3 9 3 5 4 8 7 9 4
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5 4 6 7 6 4 0 7733s 7 3 2 6 i92Oi 8013/ 8106 8199; 8291
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2 6 5 .I358 1451 1543 1636 1728 1821, 19131 2 0 0 5
190 2 2 8 3 2 3 7 5 2 4 6 7 2 5 6 0 2 6 5 2 , 2 7 4 4 28361 2 9 2 9
II3 3205 3297 3390 3482 3574 3666' 37581 3850
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7 3 1 7 7 4 0 4 7 4 9 1 7 5 7 8 7 6 6 5 7 7 5 2
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PROPORl UAL PARTS.
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1 2 3'4 5 0 7
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Diff.
Diff.
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PROPORTIONAL PARTS.
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1
3 4
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10.5
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31. 5
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IARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some of the material iiay no l kj er be accurate
2
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19.2
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18. 6
18.4
18.2
18.0
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LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
152 ~ LOGARI THMS OF NUMBERS.
No. 545
- .- L. 736.1 [No. 5 8 4 L. 767.
i--Ii - ' R I 4 ! 5 1 6 1 7 i 8 : 9 I"=
--
73
0
6397
7193
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--
6 7 9 5 6 8 7 4 6953 -%%I7113
7272 7352 7431 751 I 7 5 9 0 7 6 7 0 7749,
8067 8146 8225 8305 8 3 5 4 8 4 6 3 8543
0860 8939 90\8 9 0 9 i
9651 9731 9810 9889
--___
No. 500 L. 6!38.1
[ No. 544 L . 736.
3 4 5 6 7
3377 3463 3 5 4 9 4236 3635 4322 3721 4408 3 8 0 7
4494
3893
4579
3 9 7 9 4 0 6 5
5094 5179
5265
4665
86
5949
5350
4751
5436 5522
4 8 3 7 4 9 2 2
6035
6120
5 6 9 3 5 7 7 8
6803
6206
5607
6888 6291
6974
6i76
7059
6462
7144 7229 73 I5
6 5 4 7 6 6 3 2
7400 7485
j !
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1 3
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0
69897
983
10363
1152
1939
2725
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5075
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2
56f
641
70070
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243
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586
671
8745:
9271
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7 6 5 5 7 7 4 0 8 5 0 6 8 5 9 1 7826 791 I
8 6 7 6 8 7 6 1
7 9 9 6 8 0 8 1 0166 825 I
8 0 4 6 8931 9 0 1 5 9 1 0 0
8336
9 3 5 5 9 4 4 0 9 5 2 4
9609 9 6 9 4 9 7 7 9 9863 9 9 4 8
9185 85
A
- - - -
0 2 0 2 0 2 8 7 1048 1132 0 3 7 1 0 4 5 6 ~_--
1217 1892 1976 1301
0 5 4 0 0 6 2 5 0 7 1 0 0 7 9 4
1 3 8 5 1 4 7 0 15541 1639
ii::
2060 2144
1723
2 7 3 4 , 2818 2 9 0 2 2 9 8 6
2566
3 5 7 5 3659
22293070 233154 I3 2397 2481
3 2 3 8 3 3 2 3 3407
4414 4 4 9 7 3 7 4 2 3 8 2 6
458 I 5251 5335 4665
3 9 1 0 3 9 9 4 4 0 7 8 4 1 6 2
4 7 4 9 4 8 3 3 4 9 1 6 5 0 0 0
4246 84
54181 s502 5586 5 6 6 9 5 7 5 3 5 8 3 6
5084
5920
600:
%
850;
9 3 3
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181;
2634
.3454
76
PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 4 7 4 2 5 5 5 2 6 3 5 2 7 1 5 2 7 9 6 2 8 7 6 2 9 5 6 3037 3 1 1 7
2 7 8 335.3 3 4 3 8 3 5 1 8 3598 3 6 7 9 3 7 5 9 3 8 3 9 3919
0 7 9 4160 4 2 4 0 4320 4400 4430 4560 4640 4720 80
880 4 9 6 0 5 0 4 0 5 1 2 0 5 2 0 0 5 2 7 9 5 3 5 9 5 4 3 9 5 5 1 9
6 7 9 5 7 5 9 5 8 3 8 5 9 1 8 5 9 9 8 6 0 7 8 6 1 5 7 6 2 3 7 6 3 1 7
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66. 4
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16.0
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15.6
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15.2
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33.2
32.0
32.4
32.0
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30.8
30.4
30.0
29.6
Diff.
P:ROPORTI ONAL PARTS.
Diff.1 1 1 2 J 3
-
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34. 8 43.5-
34. 4
.
43. 0 6 0 . 9 69. 6 7 8 . 3
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WARNING:?his is a 1910 edition. Some of the
p*:iEl,,
,n$,%ial may no longer be accurate
154 :
,,,
LOGARITHNS OP NUMB E RS .
No. .585 L. 71
0
mi3
7.59,
863;
937:
77011:
$21
232:
3051
;;;!
524;
597'
6701
742;
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5330
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7460
8168
8875
9581
'90285
0988
1691
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3790
4488
5185
2;:
7268
7960
8651
[No. W-J L, .;99.
11 2 1 3') 4 16 ! 6 1 '7 18 1 9 IDiff.
-%dm 7 5 2 7 7601 7675 mlm
8 1 2 0 8 1 9 4 8 2 6 8 8 3 4 2 8 4 1 6 8 4 9 0 1 8 5 6 4 1 7 4
8 7 1 2 8 7 8 6 1 8860 8 9 3 4
9 4 5 1 9525; 9 5 9 9 9 6 7 3
- -
%?0263! 0 3 3 6 0 4 1 0
0 9 2 6 0 9 9 9 1 1 0 7 3 1 1 4 6 1 2 2 0 1 2 9 3
1 6 6 1 1 7 3 4 1 1 8 0 8 1 8 8 1 1 9 5 5 2 0 2 8 ,
23951 2 4 6 8 1 2 5 4 2 2 6 1 5 2 6 8 8 27621
31281 32011 3 2 7 4 3 3 4 8 3 4 2 1 3 4 9 4 1
3 8 6 0 3 9 3 3 4 0 0 6 4 0 7 9
4590 4 6 6 3 4 7 3 6 4 8 0 9 4 8 8 2 4 9 5 5 5 0 2 8 5 1 0 0 5i73'
73
53191 5 3 9 2 5 4 6 5 5 5 3 8 5 6 1 0 5 6 8 3 5 7 5 6 5 8 2 9 59021
6 0 4 7 6 1 2 0 6 1 9 3 6 2 6 5 6 3 3 8 6411 6 4 8 3 . 6 5 5 6 6 6 2 9 '
6 7 7 4 6 8 4 6 1 6 9 1 9 6 9 9 2 7 0 6 4 7 1 3 7 72091 7 2 8 2 7 3 5 4
7 4 9 9 7 5 7 2 ' 7 6 4 4 7 7 1 7 7 7 8 9 7 8 6 2 7 9 3 4 , 8 0 0 6 8 0 7 9
8 2 2 4 , 8 2 9 6 8 3 6 8 8 4 4 1 8 5 1 3 8 5 8 5 8 6 5 8 ' 8 7 3 0 8 8 0 2
89471 9 0 1 9 9 0 9 1 9 1 6 3 9 2 3 6 9 3 0 8
9380
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9 6 6 9 , 97411 9 8 1 3 9 8 8 5 9957--,-w-
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00291 0101' 0 1 7 3 0 2 4 5
11091 1181 1 2 5 3 1 3 2 4 1 3 9 6 1 4 6 8 Ij4Ol 1 6 1 2 1684
18271 1 8 9 9 1 9 7 1 2 0 4 2 2 1 1 4 21861 2258 2 3 2 9 2 4 0 1
25441 2 6 1 6 26t?3 2 7 5 9 2 8 3 1
326Oi 3 3 3 2 3403 3 4 7 5 3 5 4 6
2902
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3975i 4 0 4 6 4 1 1 8 4 1 8 9 4 2 6 1
3 6 1 8 3 6 8 9 3 7 6 1 3 8 3 2
4 3 3 2 4 4 0 3 4 4 7 5 4 5 4 6
4 7 6 0 4 8 3 1 4 9 0 2 4 9 7 4 5 0 4 5 5 1 1 6 5 1 8 7
5 4 7 2 5543 5 6 1 5 5 6 8 6 5 7 5 7 5 8 2 8 5 8 9 9 5 9 i o
6 1 8 3 6 2 5 4 6 3 2 5 6 3 9 6 6 4 6 7 6 5 3 8 6 6 0 9 6 6 8 0
6 8 2 2 ' 6 8 9 3 6 9 6 4 7 0 3 5 7 1 0 6 7 1 7 7 7 7 4 8 1 7 3 1 9 7 3 9 0
71
75311 76021 7 6 7 3 7 7 4 4 7 8 1 5 7 8 8 5 7956' 8 0 2 7 8 0 9 8
32391 8310; 8 3 8 1 8 4 5 1 8 5 2 2 8 5 9 3 86631 8 7 3 4 81304
3946, 9 0 1 6 ' 9 0 8 7 9 1 5 7 9 2 2 8 9 2 9 9 9x91 9 4 4 0 9 5 1 0
3651 9 7 2 2 9 7 9 2 9 8 6 3 9 9 3 3 -
- - - - -
0 4 2 6 0 4 9 6 0 5 6 7 0 6 3 7
II29 1199 1 2 6 9 1 3 4 0 1410
1 8 3 1 1 9 0 1 1971 2 0 4 1 2 1 1 1
2 5 3 2 2 6 0 2 2 6 7 2 2 7 4 2
3 2 3 1 3 3 0 1 3 3 7 1
3 9 3 0 4000 4 0 7 0
!528j 4527 4 6 9 7 4 7 6 7
!2Y4 53L4.5393 5 4 6 3
l949, 6 0 1 9 6 0 8 8 6 1 5 8
6 7 1 3 6 7 8 2 6 8 5 2
7 4 0 6 7 4 7 5 7 5 4 5
8 0 9 8 0167 8 2 3 6
8 7 8 9 8 8 5 8 8 9 2 7
PROPORTIONAL PARTS.
-7
9
~0.630L.i99.1
[No. 674 L. 829.
N.
630
I
2
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0 3 0 5 03731 0 4 4 2 0 5 1 1 05801 0 6 4 8
9 6 08541 09231 0 9 9 2 1061, 1129 1 1 9 8 12661 1 3 3 5
1541; 1 6 0 9 1 6 7 8 17471 1815
:i 2 2 2 6 2 2 9 5 2 1 6 3 2452; 2 5 0 0
18841 1952' 2 0 2 1
2568 2 6 3 7 2 7 0 5
4 2 29101 2 9 7 9 3 0 4 7 3 1 1 6 3 1 ' 3 4
3252 3 3 2 1 3 3 8 9
25 35941 3 6 6 2 3 7 3 0 3 7 9 8 3 8 6 7
3935 4 0 0 3 4 0 7 1
0 8 4 2 7 6 4 3 4 4 4 4 1 2 4 4 8 0 4548 4 6 1 6 4 6 8 5 4 7 5 3
89 4957 5025 5693 5161 5229 5297 5365 5433 68
6 9 5 6 3 7 5 7 0 5 5 7 7 3 5 8 4 1 5 9 0 8 5 9 7 6 6 0 4 4 6 1 1 2
' 4 8 6 3 1 6 6 3 8 4 6 4 5 1 6519 6 5 8 7 6 6 5 5 6 7 2 3 ;:g
i26 6 9 9 4 7 0 6 1 7 1 2 9 7 1 9 7 1264 7 3 3 2 7 4 0 0
103 7 6 7 0 7 7 3 8 7 8 0 6 7 8 7 3 7 9 4 1 8 0 0 8 8076 8 1 4 3
179 8 3 4 6 8 4 1 4 8 4 8 1 0 5 4 9 8 6 1 6 8 6 8 4 8/51 8 8 1 8
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i
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- - - - -.___v 0 0 3 1 0 0 9 8 0 1 6 5
1 0 0 0 3 6 7 0 4 3 4 0 5 0 1 05691 0 6 3 6 0 7 0 3 0 7 7 0 o$; 67
VI 1 0 3 9 1 1 0 6 1173 12401 1307 1 3 7 4 1 4 4 1
bj2 1 7 0 9 1776 1 8 4 3 l910! 1 9 7 7 2 0 4 4 2 1 1 1 2178
3 1 2 2 3 7 9 2 4 4 5 2 5 1 2 2 5 7 9 2 6 4 6 2 7 1 3 2 7 8 0 2 8 4 7
9 6 0 3 0 4 7 3 1 1 4 3181 3 2 4 7 3 3 1 4 3 3 8 1 3 4 4 8 :;A':
6 4 8 3 7 1 4 3 7 8 1 3 8 4 8 3 9 1 4 3 9 8 1 4 0 4 8 4 1 1 4
3 1 4 4 3 8 1 4 4 4 7 4 5 1 4 4 5 8 1 4 6 4 7 4 7 1 4 4780 ;;;;
9 8 0 5 0 4 6 5 1 1 3 5 1 7 9 5 2 4 6 5 3 1 2 5 3 7 8 5 4 4 5
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, 3 0 8 6 3 7 . 4 6 4 4 0 6 5 0 6 6 5 7 3 6 6 3 9 6 7 0 5 6 7 7 1 6 8 3 8
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7 6 9 8 7 7 6 4 7 8 3 0 7 8 9 6 7 9 6 2 8 0 2 8 8094
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1292 8 3 5 8 8 4 2 4 8 4 9 0 8 5 5 6 8 6 2 2 8 6 8 8 8 7 5 4 8 8 2 0
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1 9 2 4 0 9 8 9 1 0 5 5 II20
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1579 1 6 4 5 1710 1775
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PROPORTIONAL PARTS.
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WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some 6f the material may no l onger De accurate
LOGARITHRIS OF NUMBERS.
157
No. 720 L. 8X.1
[No. 564 L. 883.
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PROPQRTIONAL PARTS.
e material may no loncjer be accurate
No. 765 L. 853.1
[Nd. SO9 L. 908.
'.I 0 1 1 2 3 '4 5
' 6 ' 7 8 9 Di f f .
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9918 9974----~-~
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0 4 7 7 0 5 3 3 0589 0 6 4 5 0 7 0 0 0 7 5 6 0 8 1 2 0060 0 9 2 4
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15s LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
LO(;ARITH&fS OF NUMBERS.
159
NO. 810 L. 908.1
[No. 854 L. 931.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the materi al ,may n o longer~-be-gccurate
PROPORTIONAL PARTS.
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LOGARITHXS OF NUMBERS. 161
No. 900 L. 954.1
. [No. 944 L. g-i.5
160 LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
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366 MATI-IEibfATICAL TABLES.
NATUBAT, TRTGONOMETRICSL FUNCTIOSS.
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1.2322
1.2361
1. 2400
1. 2440
1.2480
1. 252'
1.2563
I:%:
1:z
EE
i :Ez
EZ
1. 3054
1 . 3 ' 0 2
1 . 3 ' 5 '
1. 3200
t 17<n
. .>a,"
1. 330'
!.3352
1. 3404
1 :;;?I;
1.3563
EZ
1. 3729
1. 3786
1.3843
1:?2:
k?J~~
1. 4142
- -
Cosee.
ttom of
-~,~ _ ,.,. -L---
This is a 1910 edition.
table upwards.~. _-
Some of the
LOGARITHMIC TRIGONOFETRICAL FUNCTIONS.
ltig
LGGARITHNIC SINES, ETC.
0 In.Neg. Infinite. In.New. 9 0
, ;8.24186 I I . 75814 6.1827"
In.Neg. Infinite!.
8.24192'11.75808
I O. 00000 I O.OOOOO~lO.OOOOO/
,8.54282 '1.45718~6.78474 8. 54308 11. 45692
9. 99235 '0.00007/ 9. 99993, 8 9
2 9. 90457 10. 00026 9. 99974 8 8
3 i 8. 7' 880 I I . 28120 7. 13687 8. 71940 11. 28060 9. 97665 10. 00060 9. 99940 87
4 8. 84358 I I . 15642 7. 38667 8. 84464 l J. 15536 9. 96860 10. 00106 9. 99894 8 6
9 8. 94030 ' 1. 05970 7. 58039 8. 94195 ' 1. 05805 9. 96040 ' 0. 00166 9. 99834 89
6 9. 02' 62 ' 0. 97838 9. 95205 10. 00239 999761 8 4
7
19.0'923 10. 98077 7. 73863
9. 08589 10. 9141' 7. 87238 9. 08914 10. 91086 9 . 9 4 3 5 6 lO.OG325 9 . 9 9 6 7 5 83
8 9. 14356 10. 85644 7. 98820 9. 14780 ' 0. 85220 9. 93492 ' 0. 00425 9. 99575 82
9 9. 19433 10. 80567 8. 09032 9. 19971 10. 80029 9.92612tiO.00538 9 . 9 9 4 6 2 81
'0 9. 23967 ' 0. 76033 8. 18' 62 9. 24632 10. 75368 9 . 9 ' 7 1 7 '0.006&5 9 . 9 9 3 3 5 8 0
1' 9. 28060 10. 7' 940 8. 264' 8 9. 28865 10. 7' 135 9. 90805 ' 0. 00805 3. 99195 7 9
12 9. 31788 ' 0. 682' 2 8. 33950 9. 32747 ' 0. 67253 9. 09877 10. 00960 9. 99040 78
l3 9. 35209 10. 64791 8. 40875 9.36336'10.63664 9. 88933 I O. 01128 9. 98872 77
14 9. 38368 10. 61632 8. 47282 9. 39677 10. 60323 - 9. 87971 10. 013' 0 9. 98690 7 6
15 9. 41300 10. 58700 8. 53243 9. 42805 10. 57195 9. 86992 ' 0. 01506 9. 98494 75
l6 9. 44034 10. 55966 8. 588' 4 9. 45750 10. 54250 9 . 8 5 9 9 6 ' 0 . 0 ' 7 ' 6 9 . 9 8 2 8 4
17 9. 46594 10. 534068. 64043 9. 48534 10. 5' 466 9. 84981 10. 0' 940 9. 98060
;;
' 8 9. 48998 ' 0. 51002 8. 68969 9. 51' 78 10. 48822 9. 83947 10. 02' 79 9. 9782' 72
19 9 . 5 ' 2 6 4 '0.487368.73625 9. 53697 10. 46303 9. 82894 ' 0. 02433 9. 97567 71
20 9. 53405 ' 0. 46595 8. 78037 9. 56107 10. 43893 9 . 8 1 8 2 ' '0.027Or 9. 97299 7 0
2 ' 9. 55433 ' 0. 44567 8. 82230 9. 58418 ' 0. 4' 582 9. 80729 ' 0. 02985 9 . 9 7 0 ' 5 6 9
22 9. 57358 '0.426428.86223 9. 6064' 10. 39359 9. 796' 5 10. 03283 9 . 9 4 7 ' 7 6 8
23 9. 59188 10.408128.90034 9. 62785 10. 37215 9. 78481 10. 03597 9. 96403 67
24 9. 60931 10.390698.93679 9. 64858 l o. 35142 9. 77325 10. 03927 9. 96073 6 6
25 9. 62595 10. 37405 8. 97' 70 9. 66867 10. 33' 33 9. 76' 46 ' 0. 04272 9. 95728 69
26 9. 64184 '0.358'69.0052' 9. 60818 ' 0. 3' 182 9. 74945 10. 04634 9. 95366
27 9.65705 10. 34295 9. 03740 9. 30717 10. 29283 9. 73720 10. 050' 2 9. 94988
'ii
28 9. 67161 '0.328399.06838 9. 72567 10. 27433 9. 72471 10. 05407 9. 94593 62~
29 9. 68557 10. 31443 9. 09823 9. 74375 10. 25625 9. 71197 10. 058' 8 9.94'82 61
30 9. 69897 10.30'0~9.12702 9. 76' 44 10. 23856 9. 69897 ' 0. 06247 9. 93753 6 0
3 ' 9 . 7 ' 1 8 4 10.288169.15483 9. 77877 10. 22' 23 9. 6857' ' 0. 06693 9. 93307 59
32 9. 72421 10.275799.18171 9. 79579 10. 20421 9. 672' 7 10. 07158 9. 92842 58
33 9 . 7 3 6 1 ' '0.263899~.20771 9. 81252 I O. 18748 9. 92359 59
34 9. 74756 '0.252449.23290 9. 82899 ' 0. 17101 9. 64425 10. 08143
9.65836 10.07641 I
9. 91857 5 6
35 9. 75859 10.24l41~9.25731 9. 84523 10. 15477 9.62984 ' 0. 08664 9. 91336 59
36 9. 76922 10. 2307819. 28099 9. 86126 ' 0. 13874 9. 6' 512 ' 0. 09204 9. 90796 54
37 9. 77946 10.2205419.30398 9. 8771' 10. 12289 9. 40008 10. 09765 9. 90235 53
38 9.78934'10.2'0669.32631 9. 89281 '0.107\9 %58471 10. 10347 9. 89653
39 9. 79887 ' 0. 20' 13 9. 34802 9. 90837 10. 09163 9. 56900 '0.l0950 9. 89050
;f
40 9. 80807 I O. 19193 9. 36913 9. 9238' 10. 07619 9. 55293 10. 1' 575 9. 88425 50
4 ' 9. 81694 10. 18306 9. 38968 9. 939' 6 10. 06084 9. 53648 10. 12222 9. 87778
42 9. 82551 10. 174499. 40969 9. 95444 10. 04556 9 . 5 ' 9 6 6 IO.;2893 9 . 8 7 ' 0 7
j
43 9. 83378 ' 0. 16622 9. 42913 9. 96966 10. 03034 9. 50243 l o. 13587 9.864!3 4 9
44 9. 84177 10. 15823 9. 44018 9. 96484 I O. 01916 9. 48479 10. 14307 9. 85693 4 6
45 19. 84949 10.150529.46671 10. 00000 ,0.00000\~9.46671
- -
l
Cosine. Secant. Covers. Cotnn.
F&n 45 to 90 read frombottomof tableupwards,
. .
materi ar. may no l onger be accurate
170 MATERIALS.
~ MATERIALS.
THE CHERZICAL ELEMENTS.
Common Elements (4?).
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
171
If the substance be lighter than the water, sink it by means of a heavier
~<.+DIIPP ~nrl deduct the weight of the heavier substance. S.,W ..--, I..-
Specihc grsv!ity determinations are usually referred to the-standard of
the weight, of v ___ . rater at 62 F., 62.355 lbs.
ment,ers have used 60 F. as the standarB
er cubic foot. Some exp:n-
, and others 32O and 39.1 F.
;ihere is no general agreement.
Given sp. gr. referred to water at 39.1 F..
to reduce it to the standard
of 62 F. multiply it by 1.00112.
Given sp. gr. referred to water at 62 F..
to find weight per cubic foot
multiply hv 62~35. 5. Given weight per cubic foot, to find sp. gr. mUltIPlY
by O.olf
jtjJ7.W-~Gi;en Sp. gr,, to find weight pt
:r cubic inch multiply by
0. 036085.
NWlle.
Aluminum
:~mt;~~ny
Barium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Eta?
Chlorine
~~~aium
Copper
-
_ _
!
I
27.1
120.2
75. 0
137.4
208.5
I 1 .o
80. 0
112.4
40.1
12.
:z
59.
63. 6
Pd Palladium
P Phosphor us
Pt Pl at i num
Ii Pot as s i um
Si Si l i con
Ag Silver
:a Sodium
F Strontmm Sulphur
Sn T i n
Ti Titanium
W Tungsten
Va Vanadium
Zn Zinc
Name.
-
Fluorine
Gold
~oY&s
::zm
Lead
Lithium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Nitrogen
Oxygen
19.
197.2
1.01
I%
55. 9
206. 9
7.03
E3
200.
58. 7
14.04
16.
Weight and Specific Gravit.y of Metals.
_
-
Specific Gravity.
RanT;ga;rrd-
several
Authorities.
2. 56 to 2.71
6. 66 t o 6. 86
9. 74 t o 9. 90
7. 8 to 8.6
8 . 5 2 t o 6 . 9 6
8 . 6 ltp8 8.7.
5. 0
- 0 . 5 to 8.6
19.245 to 19.361
8.69 to 8 . 9 2
22. 38 t o 2 3 .
6 . 8 5 :z $0
7.4
I;:07 :z IA:44
1.69 to 1.75
13. 60 $x813.62
1 3 . 3 7 to 1 3 . 3 8
8, 279 to 6. 93
2 0 . 3 3 &2.O7
10.4740t,;710.51 1
7.69* to 7. 932
7 . 2 9 1 & 7 . 4 0 9
17. to 17.6
6 . 8 6 t o .7.20
of Weight.
eight Weight
2. 67
G.
EE
1
2%
a.053
6.65
I .5s
5.0
a.55
A;;
22.30
%f
tp
I .75
13.62
I;:::
8.8
21. 5
0.865
%
7.854
G50
17.3
7 .a0
Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . .
Antimony . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
Cbrokum .
Cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
y;,,,,,, .........
............ I.
Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron, Cast . . . . . . . . . . .
Im,d Wmght
..............
:
.......
Manganese . . . . . . . . . .
Magnesium . . . . . . ., j:
166.5 0 . 0 9 6 3
421. 6 0. 2439
512. 4 0. 3544
536. 3 0. 3103
523. 8 0. 3031
521. 3 0. 3017
5 l 1. 4 0. 2959 The atomic.weights of many of the elements varv in the decimal place
as gtven by dtfferent authorities.
The above are the most recent values
referred to 0 = 16 and H = 1.008.
When H is taken as 1, 0 z 15.879
and the other figures are diminished proportionately.
Chem. Sot.. March, lS96.)
(See J our . Am:
552. I O. 3195
5 3 9 . 0 . 3 1 2 1
9 8 . 5 0 . 0 5 7 0
311.8 0 . 1 8 0 4
5 3 3 . I 0 . 3 0 8 5
200. 9 0. 6949
5 5 2 . 0 . 3 1 9 5
2: o.8076
$80: z%
709. 7 0. 4106
4 9 9 . 0 . 2 8 8 7
1 0 9 . 0.0641
849. 3 0. 4915
046.0 0.4900
834. 4 0. 4828
548. 7 0. 3175
1347. 0 0. 7758
5 3 . 9 0 . 0 3 1 2
655. I 0.3791
6 0 . 5 0 . 0 3 5 0
489. 6 0. 2834
458. 3 0. 2652
330. 5 0. 1913
1078. 7 0. 6243
436. 5 0. 2526
Ra.re Elements (27).
Beryllium, Be.
C&urn. Cs.
Iridium. In.
Lant.hanum, La,.
Ruthenium, Ru. Thallium. Tl.
Cerium, Ce.
Samarium, Sm.
Erbium, Er.
Molybdenum, MO.
Niobium, Nb.
Scandium, SC.
Selenium. Se.
;;;F$ u.
Gallium, Ga. Osmium, OS.
Germsmum. Ge. Rhodium, R.
Tantalum, Ta.
Yt,terbium, Yr.
Yttrium, Y.
Glucinum. G. Rubidium, Rb.
Tellurium, Te.
Terbium, Tb.
Zirconium, Zr.
Elements recently discovered (1900-1905): -Argon A 39.9. Krypton
Icr. 81.8; Neon. Ne., 20.0: Xenon, X. 125.0: constituents of the atmos:
Phere. which contalns about 1 per cent by volume of .4rgon and very
small quantities of the others.
Hel i um. He. 4. 0: Radi um ka 205.0.
Gadolimum. Gd. 156.0; Neodymium, Nd. 143.6; Prmsodymium, Pi, 120.5:
Thulium, Tm, 171.0.
Mercury. . . . . . . . .
Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Platinum . . . . . . . . . .
Potassium . . . . . . . . . .
Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . .
gtgl. .............................
Titanium . . . . . . . . . .
zzcgsten
........................
S P ECI F I C GRA V I T Y .
The specific gravity of a substance is its weight as compared with the
wetght of an equal bulk of pure water.
To flnd the s
W = weight oP
eciflc gravity of a substance
body in air; w = weight of bodi submerged in water.
* Hi d a nd bur ne d.
t Very pure and s~oft.
The sp. gr. decreases as the carbon is increased.
In the first column of figures the lowest are usually those of cast metals.
which are more or less porous; the highest are of metals finely rolled or f
.
1
Specific gravity = .lP
w - w
IRNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of thb<
SPECI FI C GRAVI TY.
173
fipeeific Gravity and Weight of Gases at Atmospheric Pressure
and 3VF.
(-Par other temper&&s and pr~essures see Physical Prqperties of Gases.)
MATERIALS.
Specific Gravi:
tY
. . 1.200 A$, Mu&tic.. . . . . . .
8
Nitric . . . . . . . . .
Sulpl?ur1c. . .
A l c o h o l , p u r e .
a1
6.
9 5 p e r Cellt..
5 0 p e r cent, .,
Ammpnia. 27.9 per cent
~Z%ZKiis;i&ide.. . . . .
.
Ether. Sulphuric.. . . . . .
Oil, Linseed.. . . . . . . . .
of Liquids at 60F.
. . . I . 2 1 7
. . . I .a49
.
. . ::872
. . . .
. . . t%:
. . . 2. 97
. . A::; . . .
........
........
........
........
........
........
,lar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vinegar . . .
. . . 0. 94
Water . . . . 11:::::::::::
Water, Sea . . . . . . .~. . . . . .
T-
1
.-
-
Density.
Air = I.
1:z
0.0895
%ki
I .9650
0. 7150
1.2510
E1;
0.8041
%%::* 12.388 I 1.209
%% 178.931 12.770
0. 07807
0. I2267
.g:;
o:K~~ :%Z
0.0725 I 13.792
0. 04754 0. 05020 ?b:%
A,ir.. . . . . . .
o x y g e n , 0 . .
Hydrogen, H . . . .
N i t r o g e n . N
Carbon monoxide, CO
Carbon dioxide, CO?
Methane.marsh-gas,CH.t
Et hyl ene, &Ha. . . .
Acetylene. CzHz . . . . .
A m m o n i a . NHs. .
Water vapor, Hz0 . . . ,
Compressiou of the follolvin
g, Fluids under a Pressure of 15 Ibs.
per Square Inch.
W a t e r . . . 0.00004663
Alcohol. . r . . 0.00002 I6
I
Ether.. . . . . . . 0.00006158
Mercury. . . . . . . O.OOUOO265
The Hydrometer.
The hydrometer is an instrrlment for determining the density of liquids
It is usuallv made of glass. and consists of three part,s: (lj the rlppe;
part, a graduated stem or fine tube of uniform diameter. (9) a bulb or
enlargement of the tube, containing air: and (3) a smull-bulb at ihe
Fottom, cputaininr: shot or mercury which causes the instrument to float
In a, vertlcsl position.
sPeclt% Rfavities. or t he
The graduations are figures representing either
Twaddel! s. Becks, and other hydrometers.
numbers of an arbitrary scale, as in BaumBs
There 1s a t.endency to discard all hydrometers with ariltrarv scales and
to use only those wluch mud in terms of the specific gravity dirkctly.
l
Specific Gravity and ITeight of Wood.
Baum& Hydrometer and SpeciAc Gravities Compared.
Formulz {HWY !;qu~ds. $p. gr. = 145 + (145 - dew. B .)
Light hquls, hp. gr. = 140 -+ (130 + de;. B:.,
-
P
-_
-7
Liquid
Htzi
Water
Sp. Gr
!3
r
. I
- -
1 .ooo
I .007
i %f
I.028
1.036
1.043
1.05 1
1.058
ZE
1.082
1.090
1.099
1.107
1.115
%3
1.142
Lj
. .
r I
L-
Specific
Gravity.
;:2;
lKZ:
0. 915
0. 909
0. 903
0. 897
0. 892
0. 806
0. 88 I
0. 875
0 . 8 7 0
0. 864
Ei : :
0. 849
0. 843
0. 838
>iquids
Jighter
than
pp;
. .
. . . . . . 19.0
.._... 20. 0
. . .._ 21. 0
. . .._.
. . .._. ;;:;
. . . . . .
. . . . . . 2:
. . . . . . 2b: 0
. . . . . .
. . . . _. %
I . 000
0.993 2: :
0. 986 3 1 . 0
0. 979
::;;t
2::
34. 0
E:; ;2::
0. 946 37. 0
I
-
0.0
1 .o
2. 0
3. 0
4. 0
5. 0
2
8. 0
9.0
* 10. 0
I I .o
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
1::;
Alder. . . . . . . 0. 56 to 0. 80- - O% 42
A&e.. . , . . . . . . . 0.73 0. 60 to t , o 0. 84 0.79 0. 76 0. 72 45 47
&znoo . , . . . . . . . . 0.31 0.62 to to 0.40 0.85 0.35 0.73 22
p&l . . . . . . . . . . . , 0.56 0.91 to to 0.74 1.33 0. 65 1.12 4: 70
0. 49 t o 0. 75 0. 62 3 9
. .: : 1:
: : 0. 48 to 0 . 7 0 0 . 5 9
Hat&i&k g& . 0.84 0.59 to 0.59
1 .OO 0.92 57
37
Hemlock. . . . 0,36 to 0. 41 0. 38 2 4
t o 0 . 9 4 ;;; 4;
I.151
1.160
1.169
1.179
I.189
I . 198
I . 208
I . 2 1 9
1:::;
1.250
1.261
I . 272
1.283
I . 295
I . 306
E::
1.343
38. 0
39. 0
40. 0
2:
2:
i%i
52. 0
:2-t
5&o
2:::
70. 0
75. 0
. . . . .
. . . . .
1.355
I . 368
1.381
1.4%
I::::
1.495
I . 526
1::;;
1. 629
1.667
I .706
I . 813
1.933
2.071
. . . . . .
,.....
-
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material .rn<j no lon@be~~accuratk
MATERIALS.
&~phn!!uIn
Brick. sriiz,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c
c<,,;rrrr;c;~~~;~
EELrri .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pres%il

. . .
Fire. __
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SamJ-hne.
Brieii,work $1 Lnorfa~
.........................................................
WsntnC
Cement. Americai2, 03t~31
..
PorthId
.........................
.I ..
. . . . . . . . . . . .
1
.......................
loose
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
Ch
inbarrrl...:..~..:.
...
cm?crere
::
.............................
.............
E:trilr. Iwse.
. . . . .
. .
I$rv. f:?m3t*f
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*,il;; :.
......................................................
Chicks
...........................
Grcinjte
...................
Cr3i-et.
) ..........
....................
G~:p.%m
..........
Horabieode
............................
Ice..
.......................
...... :--
Limes quick. & j&:: 1: 1:
....
.........
L' .i'~
Iloe..l.,r,@.
~iwm--la, Carbonate.
Krbie.
.............................................
........... ..1.
...
&wnry, dry
.I
&&: : : :
...........................
Jfica
drmed
.................. :::,
~for~,ar~ : : : : : : y : : 1.
&Id. .mft &n.jrrg
.............................
. . . . . . . .
Pirch.
. : : :
., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
pjzs~er of p,.&
Qwta
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sand
. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
+a vet.
+dhme.
...
+re
.................... .... ..................................................................................................
$:)y;::r&; ; 1.
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T.mo :
. . . . . . . . . .
T-i
*re
..................................................................
SP. Cr.
I .39
I .6
I .79
2.0
2.16
2.24 to 2.4
::A
1.79
2.8 to 3.2
3.05 to 3.15
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . ..._.*
I .92 to 2.4
1.92 to 2.48
I.15 to 1.28
1.44 to 1.76
4.
2.5 to 2.75
2.88 to 3.14
2.56 t o 2.72
I.6 to 1.92
2.08 to 2.4
3.2 to 3.52
3.88 to 0.92
I.@ to 0.96
z.30 to 2.90
!.4
!.56 to 2.88
!.24 to 2.56
1.;; to 2.88
:44 to 1.6
.67 to t .92
~15
:zi to 1.81
. . , . - a&
PROPERTI ES OF THE USEFUL bIET.1LS.
lzi
magnet.
Cadmium, Cd. ---At. wt. 112.4. Sp. gr. 8.6 to 8.;. A vuish-white
metal lustrous, with a fibrous fracture.
tllizesat about 6SO F.
Nelts below 500 * ..and vola-
It is used as an ingredleut II some fusible, 3tiOvS
mit,h lead. t i n. and bismuth.
Cubical expansion from 32O tc 212O l?..
.__.. ~~
0.0094.
cop
F
er, cu. -
19300
At. wt. 63.6. Sp. fir. 5.81 to.8.95. Fuses at. a$$
Dlstingulsbeti from atI other metals by INS redtli$h C$Or.
ductile ;nd malleable, and its tf+acity 1s next. to lro?.
f
1enslle StreWt 1
CJO ooo to 30,000 Ibs. per square Inch.
Heat conducrlrity 73.6% of that
ofsllver, and superior to that of other metals.
Electric conducti:~i!y
equal to that of gold and silyer.
Expansion by heat from 3Z! to J!2 F..
0.0051 of its ;dume. Specific heat 0. 093.
(See Coprer under btaeggth
of M:sterlals: also Alloys.)
Gold (Aurum), Au. T
At. wt~ 197.2. Sp. gr.. when pure and pressed
$,;~~l!.;~4.s Melts ,t about 1915 F.
The ,most malleable ano due-
One ounce Troy Mayo be Deaien SO as to COXer 169 Sq.
ft. of surface. +he average thickness of gold-leaf !J V%WJOQ of an in$.
or 100 sq. ft. per ounce.
One grain may be drawn mto a n~re 500 ft. In
iength.
The ductility is destroyed bv the presence of V?oocl part of lead.
bismuth, or antimony.
Gold is hnrdined by the addition of sdver~or ?f
) copprr.
U. S. gold coin is 00 parts gold and 10 par!s alloy. whlrh !s
ctnefiy copper with 5 little silver.
BY jewelers the fineness of gold 1S
expressed incarats. pure gol d bei ng
2~ carats. three-fourths tine 18
caiats. etc.
Iridium Ir - I r i di um i s one of t he ra<ei met al s . It has a wh i t e
lustre resembling that of steel: its hardness 1s about equa! t? that of the
;n the cold it is quite brittle, but at white ,heat It IS, SOme\v\ihat
G%lX&ble

It is one of the-heaviest of metals, havm:: a ?pec$F gravlry

of 22.38.
It is ext~remely infusible and almost ?bso!urely moxlchzable
For uses of iridium. methods of manufactunng It. etc., see paper by
pi. L. Dudley on the Iridium Industry, Trans. A. I. M. E., 1884.
iron (Ferrum) Fe.-At. wt. 55.9.
Sp. gr.iCast. 6,S5 Lo 7.48: Wrought.
7.4 to 7.9. purelron is extremely infusible, Its mehmg p01r.t bemg above
30000 F. but its*fusibility increases pith the addition of carbon. .CaSt
iron fuslhg about 2500 F.
Conductivlt,y for beat ll.ij. and for eteCtn+Y
12 to 14.8. silver being 100.
Expans i on i n buE,,!yF heat: .C?st Iroy
0.0033 and wrought i ron 0. 0035, from 32 t0 - -
east i&n 0.1298. wrought iron 0.1135: steel 0.1165.
Specific heat.
dast iron exposed
;~n~t;tinued heat becomes permanent11
es
Grate-bars should therefore be
snded 1 I/? to 3 Trr ,,,t $$s
a lo\\ed about 4 P
.
(For &ber properties see Iron and L
%eel under Strength o
PMaterials:)
w.9.i _~,
erial may no longer be accurate
176
MATERIALS.
Row under very slight +ain.
,?.,._ L... ..~~~ Lead dissolves to some estent in nure
,ter cont?unng c a r b o n a t e s
film of insoluble salt which prevents %rthrr n,rt.inn
or sulphates forms over it 4
.4lagnesium, Ma. - At. bt. 24.36.
brijlia~lt. mnllenble. and duct i l e.
Sp. gr. 1.69 to I.;5 Silver-white
It is one of the lightest of qetjls
welghtng only abotlt two thirds as much as aluminum
In the form dl
ligbi o f daZZllng
filings. wire. or tbir! ribbons it is highly combustible burning with 3
brllhat~cy.
f o r phot~~ra~plwt.
useful fur signal-lights a& for Hash-lights
of m3gm-.~ia
It is nearly non-corr~~~ive a thin film of carbonate
forming on exposure t o damp air, whi ch protects it f r om
further tmrosiio0.
add& to .%I giving about as much increase of strengthand batidness as
It may be alloyed with aluminum 5 per cent Mg
IO per cent of copper . Cubi cal espansion by heat O.OOK%, f&m320 ts
21Y F. 31rlls at 11OOO F. Specific heat 0.25.
.wercurY (Hydrargxrum). Hg. - At. wt. 199.5
liquid at telrtpi+ures above - 39O F., and boilsat 6SO F.
A silver-white metal
able as fplr?. s::yr,.
Unchang&
and Platmum in the atmosphere at ordinary tem-
p+ra~UE% but OXl+?rS t o t he red oxi de when near i t s
boiling- oint,
SP. gr.: when liquid 13.56 to 13.59. when frozen 14.4 to 14.j.
by str;tinniog tkroUgb a Cloth.
Easil;
earmshd by suiphur fumes, also by dust. from which it may be freed
be a[lort-ed to touch mercurv.
No metal except iron or platinum should
The smallest portions of tin lead zinc
and e?Wl copper c.0 a less e?tten?. cal;se i t t o t arni sh and 10s; its r;erfecd
liquidmt~y.
per deg. 0.00010t.
Coetficlrnt of cubical espausion from 32O to 21~ F. O.O!82;
metal :vitll a strong lustre. not
Siekel., Ni . -At. wt. 5%;. Sp. r. 8. 27 t o S. 93. A silrerx-wh&
tarnis
t&, bard. and as tenacious as iron.
i?mg on exposure to the air
.mar be made magnetic like iron.
It is attracted to the magiet and
Nickel is very difficult of fusion melt:
I:% at about 3000 F. Chiefly used in alloys with copper as &man-
nli~r. nickel-silver. etc.. and also in the manufacture of steel to mcrease
!tS ,hardness and strength. .also for nickel-plating.
rrom 32 to 21Z F.. 0.0035.
Specific heat 0.109.
Cubical expansion
P1afinu.m. Pt. - At. 1vy.t. 194.8.
fused ano refined it is as soft as copper.
very uii<tllt?., and as unatt.erable by o r d i n a r y agencies as g&d
-4 whitish steel-grar metal malleable,
Sp. gr. 21.15.
br the osybyd:ogrn, blowpipe or in strong electric current~s.
It is fu$ble?%i
When com-
bined with iridium It forms an alloy of great hardnes which has been
used for gun-venW and f or st andar d weigh& a nd m&&e s . The m&t
lmpo:+nt uses of p&mum 111 the arts are for vessels for chemical l&bo-
electnc lamps and for electrical contact points.
ratones an0 manulactones. and for the connecting xires in incandescent
32 to 2120 E.. 0.002;
Cubical expansion -from
qetak. and almost the same as ~1as.s.
less than that of any other meta! except the rare
able and dWtlle. and in hardness intermediate between goldand copper.
Mel t s at about 17.500 F.
It is the whitest of the metals very malle-
32 i0 2124 F.. 0.0658
j
-.
AELllp~~~~,i!~~tat_0.056. Cubical expansion from
-y . -z.IICC
As a conductor of heat it IS superior to a
f electricitr it IS equal to copper.
I, ,.,&.A.. . ..--*I
Tin iStannnm). Sn. - At . wt . 119.
&I CUCI UIELILID.
soft, mal l eabl e. of l i t t l p ct r mot l r *a- " - ,
@- - .Y s-,.-..-. rn.~
..J,. gr. f .a%>. wnite. lustrous,
inch, Fl,ses $ ~~2+-- -y-. r=llar-lty about 3500 lbs. per square
beat.% lieat conducti&+ 1 4 . 5 . e l e c t r i c conductivity 194. silver bein
1 ot senslblv volatile when melted at ordinary
IFI0 In each case.
Expanaon of volume bv heat 0.0069 fr& jq to 21~#
fiPeci6c heat 0.055. Its chief uses are for coating of she&on &l&j
t!!! P!aCe) and for malilng alloys with copper and other metals.
This iS ii 1916 edition. Some of
,MEASURES AND WEIGHTi OF VARIOUS MATERIALS.
At wt 65.4. Sp. gr. 7. 14. Mel t s at 780 F. ~Ola@Zes
an%&%;,e air when melted,
vith bluish-white fumes Of zmc ?X;dneti
It is ductile and malleable, but to a much less txtent. than coPPer*
its tenacity. about
5000 to 6000 lbs.
per square Inch, IS about. one tent@
that of wrought iron.
It is practically non-corrosive in the atmosphere.
a thin film of cArbonate of zinc g$n!;t ,,,o~~~6.Cu~f~~~r~~~~~~~
between 32O and 212 F,.,.O.OO88.
tirjty 29. heat contlxllvlty 36
silver l).el.ng
Its principal uses are
for coating iron surfaces, call~(lgillvanl~lng,
?,Oind fir making brass and
otl+er alloys.
Table Showi ng the Order of
BIalleability. Ductility:
Gold
Platinum
Silver
Silver
Iron
Tin
;rtT:
;;;;inum
Tin
Lead
Tenacity.
Iron
Copper
luminum
latinurn
%:
gy
Lead
Infusibility..
r;;;inum
PO7 er
x
Silver
Aluminum
Zinc
Lead
Tin
Brickwork.
- ~r,CKIy,h .a
-imated
CO
by t h e t h o u s a n d . and for
.yious thicknesses of wall runs as fol!ows:
I
An ordlnqry btlck measures about 8!/4 3 4 X 2 $lc~~;.e~~~eh&~~~~
t o 66 cubic jnches, or 26.2 @fkc +.n 3. cubic foot.
4 % m.
2888 cubic ln&es s 1.504 culm feet. . 29.47 bushels = &,~~s~o~$& per
~~~1. _ , A bushel of +uminous COW wciija I y Y--S--- ~~~
one acre of bituminous coal cont ai ns 1600 tons of --
b : , -I +hinbnPCE nf coal worl;ed.
15 to 25 per cent must be deducted for
Il3"LI "L I,,ry..y-ll I --
waste in m+ng.
1; ;i 4; cuttic feet
bituminous coal when broken down = 1 ton, 2;4O .il~s-
.anthra&e pr e pa r e d f or ma r ke t . = f fz;. &$ 1;:
i23 1:
ofcharcosl...: . . . . . . . . . . . .:....
~i&taa40,bs:
70.9
* I coke.,.,...............~.... 55to 6
z 50 tci 52
tbs.
~cublcfoo~ofanthracitecOal...........~~~~~~:::::
I* MtumincyJs coal . . . . . . . .
lb%
1
.* II
1
.I I. Cumberlanq (semj-bituminous) coal. . . .
z ,i,$&.
1
. aa Cannelcoal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...-.
C\~arca+ (bardwobd) . . . . . . . :. . . :
118.5~bs.
1
6. II = 18 !bs.
1
!a 66 (pln$)Y,................:...
A bushel of coke weighs 40
Iu 1881 the AmerIcaI! Ctprcoa!-IrQP WoZk
pounds (35 to 42.pounds).
ers. Assocl+tlon adopted for use in its official publlcatlons for the stana-
A bushel of charcoa1. -
ard bushel of charcoal 2748 cubic inches. or 2O pounds.
A ton of char-
coal is tq be taken at ?OOO pounds .
This figure of 20 pounds to t he
bushel was taken as a fair average of different bushels used throughout
the country, and it has since been established by 1aW In some States*
may
no l onger accurate
SIZES OF IRON AND STEEL BARS.
I79
1.45
M A T E R I A L S . .
For tubes use the coefficient of Dz in next to last column, as for rods,
and mult,iply it into (D -
d2); or multiply it by 4 (D1 - t2).
For hollow s heres use the coefficient of 03 in the last column, and
multiply it into PDs - da).
For hexagons multiply the weight of square bars by 0.866 (;hort
dlam. of hexagon = side of square).
For octagons multrply by 0.8-84.
Ores, Earths, etc.
13 cubic feet $ ordinarygold or silver ore, in mine = 1 ton = 2000 lb
20 .(
broken quartz.
18f eet of gr avei i nbank. .
.... ..........
........
. . . . . . . = I ton= 2000 lb::
. . . .
27cu$cfeet ofgmvelwhcn dry
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
= 1 ton
25
. . . . . . . .
s a n d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
...............................................
= 1 ton
. .*
earthinbank...........:::::
= lton:
=-I ton
.a *.
1: earth when dry clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
= 1 ton:
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
= 1ton.
COiWiWERCIAL SIZES OF IRON AND STEEL BARS.
Flats.
Cement. -Portland, per bbl. net, 376 Ibs., per bag
net . . . . . . . . .94 lbs.
Natural, per bbl. net, 282 lbs., per bag net ,.... . . . .
94 lbs
Lime.-Astruckbushel.......................... 72to75lbs
Grain. - 4 struck bushel of wheat = 60 Ibs.: of corn = 56 ibs.; of
oats = 30 tbs.
- -
I Width. T
I
,Vidth. , Thickness.
1
, - _ -
. -
hickness. Thickness.
112 to 1 112
va to 1314
114 to 1314
l/4 to 1 l/s
3/1l3 to 1314
l/4 to 1 rla
114 to 1 ria
l/4 to 2
l/4 t,o 2
Width.
314
7ia
1
1 r/a
1 l/4
1 s/a
1:;;
1314
Salt. -A struck bushel
Turks Island = 76 to 80 lbs.
of salt, coarse, Syracuse, N. Y. = 56 Ibs.;
:ti:;
114 to 2
114 to 2
114 to 2
l/4 to 2
l/4 to 2
l/4 to 2
11s t o s/a
l/a to 314
l/g t o W e
l/e to 1
l/a to 1 l/a
l/a to 1 r/a
118 t o 1 114
l/4 to 1114
3/16 to I 112
WEIGHT OF RODS, BARS, PLATES, TUBES, AND SPHERES
OF DIFFEBENT MbTERIrlLS.
Notation:
5 = breadth, t = thickness, s = side of square, D = ex-
te{nal diameter, d = internal diameter, all in inches.
SectIonal areas: of square bars = ~2; of flat bars = 21t.. of round rods
= 0. 7854 02; Of t ubes = 0. 7854 (D? - @) =3.1416 (Dt 1t*).
VOhme Of 1 foot In length: of square bars = 12.32. of Hat bars = lob&.
of round bars = 9.4248Dz; of tubes = 9.4248 (02- @j =ST.699 (Dt ->z):
m ~11. m
Commercial Sizes of Iron and Steel Bars.
I rOl l .
r14 to 13/s in., advancing by 1/ m in.: lsla in. to 5 in.,
ad?~$c$?~by l/3 i n . +eel.
l/4 in. to lrla i n. . advancing by %z In.;
1 r/g hr.-to 2 in., advancmg by .ll16 In.;
2 in. to 4 in., advancing by l/a in.:
4 to 6314 in., advancing by 1141%
Also the following intermediate sizes:
=lh4, zjlBz, ~91~~ 31ja4, ~1~~qM.WM.4%531~4, WW Wit. 1% and 1151=
%igt per foot length = volume X weight per cubic inch of mate-
rial. Reight of a sphere = diam.3.X 0.5236 X weight per cubic inch.
i
: :
e
~a
II
z
0
4 5 0 . 3 7 . 5
MO. lo.
469. 6 40. 8
5 5 2 . 46.
523.2 4 3 . 6
709. 6 59. 1
166. 5 13. 9
1;;:; 1;:;
- - -
i5-16 !?4?4 :;3$3
1:02 2 . 6 7 0 .I484
2 . 6 1 8 .1455
3 . 6 3 3 3 . 6 3 3 .302!
4 . 9 3 4 . 9 3
1.16 I.16 ::$
1.13 1.13 ,094:
0 . 2 1 0 . 2 1 .017r
Material.
i.39:
.38
r.67
.62
,461
Cast iron . . . . .
Wrought iron.. .
Skel.. . . . . . . . . .
Copper & Bronze
(copperand tin)
Brass
65 copper
. . . I
Lead..?.?I:.
i
A l u m i n u m .
GhSS. . .
Pi ne wood, dr y
1.48 3.870 .2150
D.347 0.908 .0504
9.34 0.891 .0495
l -16 0.164 .0091
-
W&t per cylindrical in.,
last col.+12.
1 in. iong.=coefficient of 02 i n next to
-
-,&
0 edition. Some of the I
,
*
W E I G H T O F IRON A N D S T E E L sEEETS.
181
WElGHT OF IRON AND STEEL SHEETS.
Wei ght s i n Pounds per Squar e Foot .
(For weights by the Decimal Gauge, see page 33.)
MATERIALS.
WEIGHTS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BAR.S OF WROUGHT
IRON IN POUNDS PER LINEAL FOOT.
Iron weighing 480 lb. per cubic foot. For steel add 2 per cent.
9 6
1::
103,
105.
107,
1 to.
I I'::
1:;:
1:;:
%:
46.'
51.'
57.1
63.:
;;;i
a1 .I
2
00.;
y;:j
2;
55.2
7o.c
35.2
!I03
:t:;
10.2
57.5
$5.2
13.3
11.9
%!
lo.
J. S. Star&$. y;Ue, 1893. (See
-
3
(Y
?hick:
?SS, I n .
ppros.
on. Ir
)
_-
20.
19.;
17.:
16.;
15.
I",:i
11.:
2:'
"s:,
;:
6 .
6.
::
I 4:
I7;:
i ::
2.
I,
1
1
1,
0
:
0
0
I "
, a
1 I ;
;
1 f
: i (
- -
81
- .
: Wd.
Tllickness by Bi r mi ngham Gauge.
75.64
77.40
79.19
:::2
84.69
YE
90.36
2::;
98.22
102.3
106.4
I l'::;
119.3
1;;:;
132.9
137.6
142.4
I;:::
157.2
1%
178.2
109.2
::::
224.0
236.3
M0.9
E%
!88.6
102.5
116.9
ii;:;
:Z:"
- _
18
i :
i5
'6
D
'6
:
I
i :
hick-
esa 1n
1ches.
I.454
:Z'
.34
.3
:%
..m
.22
::"8'
.I65
,148
,134
.12
.I09
,095
.083
:Ooif
,058
.049
,042
,035
.032
.028
.025
,022
.02
,018
.Ol6
.Ol4
,013
.Ol2
.OI
,009
:%
:%
I i
I I
!(
:
; I
!I
6
1.52
'.34
i.50
i.87
! .7.4
,.59
b.57
k.71
1%
I%
;:"4;
2:;
3.88
::;:
2.65
2.37
2:
1:;:
I.14
'%
.ei
.73
.65
.57
.53
.4q
5
\g
.I1
-
T
?I
a .16
.oo
.2c
.60
.oo
.36
'~36
::z
i. I?
:::i
i.92
i.36
1.80
t:;:
K32
5.88
t.60
1.32
I:::
I.40
1::;
I .oc
.et
.8(
.7;
2j
:-ii
.3(
.3:
.2'
1:
0
I1
It
3/l
l/4
511
318
It
iI2
518
I1
3f4
13/i;
7/8
5/11
1
Vll
1J 8
3111
l/4
5/u
3/ e
7110
l/2
I$f
115.
3;y
3/M
710
lV1a
2
Vlf3
la
3h
I4
5/16
318
iI6
I2
116
V8
I6
3
I
,6
I
6
6
6
6
5
3
3
I
/
Ii
IS
2;
O.Gl
.04
.05
.I6
.25
.3c
.50
.65
.82
1.02
1.23
1.47
1.72
2. 00
2. 30
2.61~
;I;:;
3.69:
4. 09
4.51(
;:4'::
5.89(
6.391
;:i:;
:::I5
9.204
9.028
10.47
II.14
11.82
12.53
13.25
14.00
14.77
15.55
16.36
17.19
18.04
-I 0. 5
0.4685
0.4375
Ei3
ii::::;
0.2813
;:g6
0.2344
EE
0.1875
::I::;
Kit"
O.lOY4
"3:!%
0.0703
0.0625
E:"
0.0438
0.0375
0.0344
::i%t
0.025
0.0219
K%?
oO:Ki
00:00%
O.OlOi
0.009
%I;
___-
20.40
75 19.125
i0 17.85
!5 16.575
15.30
15
50 I;:!$
25 1i:%
10.20
::' 98:;;;
125
;75
Ei7
25 ::%
62:
:::f
375
75 ;:I%
125 3.187
8125
,5 22:Z9
25
:75
E5
1.785
,511 1.53
:Z5 1%
.I25
$5
I:1p7
"0%
%'
0.701
0. 637
.5625,
,:54375 it::" 0.446
1.40625
I.375 "0:;~~
I.34375 0.351
I.3125 0.319
b.28125
!:E562
::;;I
0.255
24.f
25.2
t!:;
:::i
2;
33. 8
E:f
37. 9
39.3'
:;:;i
:::38:
46.61
;?J:;;
il.M
$3.3:
i5.01
i6.72
8.45
IO.21
Ii.99
P3.80
15.64
17.50
19.39
1.30
::;;'
7. 20
9. 22
1.26
::i:
7.55
?Z
4. 08
VI
3f4
3!1
718
1511
3
/Ii
l/8
3111
l/4
WI
3/s
7/U
I2
$
WC
3i4
13118
7/8
15/m
l/16
V8
Yl6
I4
VlE
3/s
7f16
Ii2
vl6
%I
!I@
314
13i16
7/s
l5/16
lh6
Is
3/16
I4
5/16
0.0
:Y
::
1:.
3
1.0:
I.31
1.5:
1.0;
2.2i
;:;;
3. 3:
3.7t
4.21
2:
5.74
6. 30
i%
8. 13
2%
0.21
0. 95
1.72
2.51
:::s'
3.05
i . 95
5.88
7.83
5.80
i.80
I.83
1.09
!.97
i
-
Iron. Steel.
As there are meny gauges in use differing frofn each othe~r,~~te~;;~~~~
thicknesses of a certain specified gauge, as the Blrmmgham,
the same by all manufacturers, orders for sheets and wires should alpr?Ys
state theweight per square foot., or the thickness in thousandths of aninch.
IRNING: Thi-s--is .a - 1910 edition.
A.3
Some of the ma
rial may no longer be accurate te,
k- I
T;;;,
3
.78
1.04
1.30
I.36
1.82
2.0%
57
E3"
3139
t.9":
1::;
+:69
t.2';
iI
I.73
i.99
~25
I.5 I
I.77
1.03
.29
.55
.BI
.07
.33
-
11/y
- -
o:iT1
,931
i:::
1.88
2. 19
::E'
3.13
3:%
Es"
1::;
i.31
i.63
i.94
i.25
~56
I.88
1::;
,.a I
'.I3
.44
.75
.06
.38
.69
.oo
-
III/s"
- - -
":Z
1.09(
1.46
1.82
2. 19
2. 55
::2
3. 65
4.01
4. 38
20"
::i:
E
6.93
4.29
il%
$39
3.75
?.I I
a.48
3.84
j.21
I:Z
.30
.67
-.-
2 14
O:if
l.JI
I .a3
2. 34
2.81
3.2%
3. 75
4. 22
E
5.63
E:
7.03
::;;
3.44
3.91
5:::
I.31
I:::
i.72
!, I9
!.66
i.13
t.59
8.06
'.53
.oo
__
Wjdths,
-
4
%
2166
::.Z
5.31
?iZ
7. 47
8.85
9. 74
10.63
I I.51
12.40
13.28
1;':;:
I
I
15.94 I
!6.%2 I
'7.71
A. 59 1
9:4%
MY%
:;A;
:
3.91 2"
4. 79
5. 68
YE;
22'
3
_-
- -
- -
6
7
:

1
1
;
i
:
:
:
I .
z&i
.41
.62
.03.
1.04
1.25
1.46
1.67
1.88
2;
2
$7;
;I;:
K75
5.96
1.4;
11::
i.00
I.2 I
i.42
i.63
i.83
1.04
::z
1.67
,.-
2314"
y3$
I:72
2%
504;
it::
5.73
Es"
E
;::;
f:::
1%
!:03
1.60
i. 1%
'.75
8.32
'.90
.47
.04
.61
19
176
&+-
---
3 ' .
z
I .A1
;:;i
::3:
:::;
$2
:Ti
3:75
2.38
;::t
I.25
I.%%
!.50
'" 13
1::;
.oo
.63
.25
RB
:50
.I3
.75
.3%
"0
2".
33-i
.83J
1.25
1.67
2.0%
2.59
::395
3. 75
4. 17
4. 58
E
5. 83
.E:
::%
CT:-
; : : :
9.5%
;::;
I%
I:67
1.08 '
1.50
1.92
'.33
- -
2llf
7-z
1.56
2.0%
2. 60
;:A;
4. 17
2
5.73
i:::
;:jy
3.33
;:3";
).90
j.42
I.94
1.46
'.95
1.50
'.OZ
'.54
8.06
'.58
.I0
.63
.I5
.67
G
y?j
2.34;
3.13
3.91
;2.:;
;I;;
7.81
R.59
z:::
Y:E
:::8"
3%
i . 63
j.41
'.I9
I.97
1.75
'.53 :
I.3 I
.09
.a0 2
.66
.44
.22 2
.oo 2'
-.--
z
2:50
3. 33
%
5. 83
El
8133
9,,17
%Y
I I . 6 7
12.50
13.33
18;
15103
IX
8133
9. 17
10.00
:0.%3
f:%
3:33
4. 17
5. 00
5. 83
6. 67
__
3 1/y
__
?:2
%
3. 65
2:::
5. 83
6. 56
7. 29
8. 02
8. 75
i:.E
0.94
1.67
:2
3:%5
4.58
i.31
i.04
i . 77
'SO
i.23
1.96
I.69
I.42
.I5
3%
.60
.33
-
25
-
3 '14'
m
I.31
2. 0:
2.71
3.35
4.06
ii:2
2:;;
7. 45
8. 13
8. 80
9. 46
2:;
I.51
::A:
::2
3:;;
5.25
i.93
I.60
I.28
1.96
I.64
I.3 I
I.99
.67
- -
13.13
Ii%i
IZ
!7:%l
,%I75
9.69
10.63
;;.;o"
3:44
E
6125
7. 19
!7.71
!8.70
!9.69
i,
1
Ii
-
Widths.
8.
I I
SW.
---
-
/4m. 6
- -
J /4* . 0.
1.09
2. 19
3.2%
4. 38
5. 47
$2
a. 75
9. 84
I%
2;:
15:31
p;;
lb.65
%
I
i
t
I
1.20
2. 40
3. 59
4. 79
5. 99
7. 19
"9::;
10.78
11.90
13.'18
'1%
I;:;:
19.15
;::z
",;:',2
31.15
Z:?
38.3;
I,30
::Ti
5.21
6.51
7.81
9.11
10.42
I I . 7 2
I i:E
15.63
Ii:;:
19.53
20. 83
$2:::
28. 65
:::i:
:t:i:
41.67
1.46 1.56
2. 92 3. 13
;:2 2%
I
.Z:;; 7:81 9.30
IO.21 10.94
I i . 6 7 12.50
13.13 14.06
14.58 15.63
16.04 17.19
17.50 16.75
18.96 20.31
20. 42 21.8%
21.88 23. 44
23.33 25. 00
26.25 20.13
29.17 31.25
32. 08 .34.3%
35. 00 37. 50
37.92 40.63
40.83 43.75
43.75 46. 08
46.67 50.00
1.67 1.77
3. 33
3. 54
I
2%
;.;;I
,"o:El 1::::
1 1 . 6 7 1 2 . 4 0
1 3 . 3 3 1 4 . 1 7
1 5 . 0 0 1 5 . 9 4
1 6 . 6 7 1 7 . 7 1
18.33 1 9 . 4 8
2 0 . 0 0 2 1 . 2 5
2 1 . 6 7 23. 02
2 3 . 3 3 2 4 . 7 9
2 5 . 0 0 2 6 . 5 6
2 6 . 6 7 2 8 . 3 3
3 0 . 0 0 31.8%
3 3 . 3 3 3 5 . 4 2
3 6 . 6 7 3 9 . 9 6
4 0 . 0 0 4 2 . 5 0
W; 46.?4
49.J%
5 0 . 0 0 5 3 . 1 3
5 3 . 3 3 5 6 . 6 7
1.8%
s:::
7. 50
9. 38
1:3
I5100
1%
20.63
;:::i
26.25
26.13
;;:%
34::::
2::;
::::;
60. 00
24::;
I
2::
10.42
12.50
146::;
18.75
20.83
22. 92
;::"ot
29. 17
2::;
;::i:
45.83
:i::;
58.33
2::;;
2. 50
5. 00
7. 50
10.00
12.50
1'5.00
17.50
20. 00
22. 50
25. 00
27. 50
30. 00
32.5G
35. 00
37. 50
%:"oE
:%!I
60. 00
65. 00
:;:"oi
80. 00
:
b
I
I
-
Weight of other &sea m-m easily be obtained from the above table by m%nS of
con--or divisions. Thus,
Weight of 12 X11/4 equals weight, of 12 X 1 plu? weight of 12X1/4. . . . . . . . . .
$!~:z$
or t~icewejghtof12X5/g,asitistw!ce~qthlck....I...........~:::::::::: a%.75
wei ght of 6x 115/,6 equals midway wpght between 6X I?/8 and 6 X
Weight of 24 XlQ6, being twice as made as 12X I%, W%h.S.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . -
75.0
6.
-
1.04
%
2:
6. 25
7. 29
0. 33
9. 38
10.42
I%
I::::
E
18.75
"2;::;
z :.
?? hdth
w.
(i%LSed 011 480 IbS. per Cubic FOOt.
- -
For Steel a&l 2 per cellt.)
ji
i9
io
1:
15
i
I9
IO
5h
-
43.:
%
:s
59:
62.5
65. t
Z:i
:c
e1:2
ii:;
90. 6
93. 7
100.0
106.3
112.5
E:!
131.3
137.5
143.8
I SC.0
156.3
162.5
160.8
175.0
I,:,.;
j3
JO
I3
i:
i0
53
IO
1
40. 00
43. 33
46. 67
:%
56. 67
2%
66. 67
X30
76. 67
80. 00
83. 33
86. 67
%3
96. 67
1EF;
113:3
120.0
126.7
133.3
I%
153.3
160.0
166.7
173.3
180.0
186.7
!gg
S~%E AND W?IC;HT O F R O O F I N G aI.ITERIALS.
187
Standard Wpigbts and Gauges of Tin Plates.
Americsn Sheet and Tin Plate CO., Pittsburg, Pa.
Trade term. 56 lb.
Nearest mire
%, uge No. 38
Weight per
sq. ft.. lb.. 0.257
Weight. box.
14x20 in.,
l b . . .,. 56
60 lb.
I
65 lb. 70 lb. 75 lb. 80 lb. 85 lb. 90 lb. 95 lb. 1001b.
37 35 35 34 33 32 31 31 301/ z
0. 275 0. 298 0. 322 0. 345 0. 367 0. 390 0. 413 0. 436 0. 459
60 65 i o 75 80 85 90 95 100
.,- -
L 1
T r a d e t e r m. . _. IC IXL
I X IXX
Nearest wire gauge
No.......,.....,,. 30 28 28 27
Weinht per sq. ft.,
lb:. ___,.,....,.._. 0.491 0.588 0.619 0.712
Weight.box. 14x20.
IXXX
26
0. 803
175
I
lb. . 107 128 135 155
XXXX
25
0. 895
195
I
KXXXY
24
0. 987
215
T r a d e t e r m . . DC
W&&t, per sq. ft., lb.. . 0.637
Neayest equi val ent in I
I
DX
0. 826
ln.ten. ._.
I X IXXX
r-----~~~
121/2xl7in. lOOsheets.per
box. lbs... . . . . . . 94
122
17x25 in. 50 sheets. per
box. Ibs.. . 94
122
15x21 i n. 100 sheets, per
1 4 0 181
b o x . ibs..
==
1:
-
DXS
0. 962
x x x x x
142
142
211
=
I
-
"E"
I - 6X
162
162
241
=
1:
Z==
I :
-
DTTzx?E
I - 7 x
182
I 82
271
SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF RO0FIXG RIATERIALS.
Corrugated Iron or Steel Plates.-Weight per 100 Sy. Ft., Lb.
(American Sheet and Tin Plnte Co., 190.5.)
SCHEDULE OF WEIGHTS.
-
I
I
! Xl / z in. Zl i 2xl / 2 in
i
U. S. Std
Sheet
Metal
Galige.
- -
I
-
3x3/ 4 in. jx7j8 in.
/
1/ 4X3/ 8i
: 9" i i
86 IO1
100 115
I 14 129
128 I 43
142 157
156 ! 7l
170 185
;
f
815
!OlI
111
.
-
$-z
2:
>.-
-
0;
Ii,
11:
I25
!6
ti
110
E
150
I 63
217
271
-
. 35
91
1: :
124
138
151
165
178
232
286
-
I
z
E
3
0
85
i al
111
124
138
151
165
178
232
286
>
1
-_
9:
1: :
124
138
I 51
165
178
232
256
-_
-
2
a3
l i b"
I Z3
136
150
163
217
271
123 138 123
136 151 136
I 50 165 150
163 i 78 I 63
217 232 217
271 Z85 271
I
-
Cover$g width of Plates. l apped one cor r ugat i on 24 i n. St andar d
lengths. 3. 6. 7. S. 9. and 10 ft.; maximum length 12 ft
Ordinary corrugated sheets should have a lap of I I/; or 2 corrugations
side-lap for :oofmg In order to secure water-tight side seams: if t,he roof
Is rather steep 1 r/2 corrugations will answer.
Some manufacturers make
a SPecIal high-edge corrugation on sides of sheets, and therebv are enabled
to secure a water-proof stde-lap with one corrugation only; thus saving
from 6% to 12% of material to cover a given area.
No. 28 gauge corrugated iron is generally used for applyin- to wooden
biuildings: but for applying to iron framework No. 24 gaugeh or heavier
should be, adopted.
Galvamzmg sheet iron adds about 2~ oz. to its weight per square foot.
Sizes and jet weight per Box of lOO-lb. (0.459 lb. Per W* ft.)
Tin Plates.
-
n
1
-
-
eighb
per
BOS.
100
100
200
143
I F
103
103
121
121
140
140
eight
Sheet:
Per
30x.
I i
Size of
Sheets.
per
Box.
eight
Per
30X.
I 55
i i
94
; g
105
I I 0
I l l
17. 7
-
W
_-
-
,ize of
I
,Sk
heets.
I
ieets
per
30s.
-
225
225
225
112
I I 2
11;
I I 2
I I 2
I Z
112
3 \v
I
.-
-
Size of Sheet s
She e t s . Bpoe&
*
Corrugated Arches.
-I l- For cqrrugated curved sheets for floor and ceiling construction in fire-
Proof buddmgs, No. 16. 18. or 20 gauge iron is commonlv used and sheets
may be curved from 4 to 10 in. rise - the higher the risk the &ronger the
arch. BY a series of tests It has been demonstrated that corrugated
arches ave the most satisfactory results with a base length not exceeding
6,ft.. and 5 ft. or even less is preferable where great strength is required
2. hese corrugated arches are made with II/~ X 318, 21/ z x i / 2. 3 x 3/ 4 and
6 X 7/ 8 in. corrugations, and in the same width of sheet as above men-
tioned.
I-
161 14 x31 112
183 111/ 4xZZ3/ 4 112
206 131/ 4x173/ 4
I 16 13V4x 191/ 4
1; ;
129 131/ 2X19%
143 131/ 2X 19314
; I ;
158 14 X183/ 4 124
204 I 4 X22
10 xl 4 225
: i
x20 I I 2
x28 112
I O x20 225
x22
: 11, 2x23
225
12 xl 2 z:
12 x24 112
I ? Xl 3 225
13 x26 112
I 4 x14 225
14 x28 112
Terra-Cotta.
Porous terra-colta roofing 3 in. thick weighs 16 lb. Per square foot and
2 in. thick, 12 lb. per square foot.
Ceiling made of the same material 2 in. thick weighs 11 l b. per square
foot.
Tiles.
Flat tiles W4X 1OQ X 5/ S in. weigh from 1480 to 14x1 lb. per square of
roof flO0 square feet). the lap being one-half the length of the tiie.
Tiles with grooves and @lets weigh from 740 to 92s lb. per square of roof
Pan-ti& 141/2X IOQ l ai d 10 i n. t o t he weat her wei gh GO lb. pe;
square.
For weight
P
er box of ot her t han loo-lb. pl at es, mu!t@Y bY the
figures in the ourth line o! the two upper tables.
and dlvlde by 100.
Thus for IX pl at es 20 X 25 In.. 200 X 135 + 100 =,270..
Tin plates are made of soft sheet steel coated tv!th tin.
The NoTds
charcoal and
coke plates are trade terms retamed from the tJmc
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Scme of the lil
SIZE AND WEI GHT OF ROOFI NG M.\TERI.%LS.
189
ivhen high-grade tin plates Jvere made from charcoal iron and lower
grade from coke !to~i (+eet Iron made with coke as fuel)
The terms
are now Used tP d+tmgmsh the percentage of tin coating ahd the fir&h
Coke plates, Wtb hght coating, are used for cans. Ch$rcoal plates are
designated by letters A to AAAAA, t he l at t er havi ng t he heavi est
cvatmg and the highest polish.
(14 X 20 in., 112 plates) arc called
Plates lighter than M-lb. per base bos
taggers tin.
Terne Plates, or Roofhip Tin, are coated with an allov of tin qnd letd,
I n t h e U. S. Eagle. N.11.
bixnrl t h e a l l o y i s 320, t i n &jfl lejd
The weight per II:! sheets of this brc*ld before and jfter &at& is ai
follows:
Slate.
Number and superficial area of slate required for One Square of roof.
(1 square = 100 square feet.)
Size.
Inches.
er per
par e.
- - - -
- -
267 9x16
Ox 6
1;; ...ui..
9x 0
OXl0
p4 .iii..
254 2X 8
90 .
1%:
f 33 . . ' i i s. .
12x20
70 . .
246 14x20 ' 2'
, _, , _, __ _. . ___. . . . . . . . . .
I C 1. 4 x 0
T,--.-~~. --
IC20 x25 1x14 x20
DI~LCK pta6es Y:j Fo 100 I
IX 20 x 25
-.
Aner coati ng 115 to 120
b. 190 co 200 lb. I5 to 130 lb. 350 to 260 lb.:
230 to 240
145 to 150
290 to 300
Y.Long terne sheet? are made in gauges. Nos. 20 to 30 from 90 to 40 in
b.!de and UP tc 120 In. long.
Co n t i n u o u s roofin tin ld 14 <and 28 in
nlde. Is made rrom terne coated sheets 72. YA and Qfj in: lo&T
seam and soldered. single IOCli
-4 box of 11 sheets 14 X 20 in. will cover approsimately 192 sq. ft.
of roof. Rat seam, or 583 sheets 1000 sq. ft
a sheet 20 X 28 in. will cover 47.5 sq. in., & 303 sheets 1000 sq. ft.
For standing seam roofing
box of 112 sheets.20 X 2Zj in. will cover approsimately 370 sq ft.
A
The mmmn +zes of tm plates are I O x 14 in. and multitiles of that
measure. The sizes most generally used are 14 x 20 and 0 x 2s In.
533
457
%
::::
El
277
0x12
9x 2
7x 14
8X14
9x14
' OX' 4
' 8x16
I I I I
,.YIL -_ s uare feet of roof covered by one
allowing ormula: 8
-..-I...-,.* on,larp fwt nf roof covered.
hs slate is usually laid, the nurrhYr nf
slate can be obtained from the fc
width X (length - 3 inches) = the IIIl,,,i, I yy~ ____ __
Weight d?%ate of various lengths and
thicknesses required for one
square of roof: based on the number of slate requifed for one square Of
roof taking the we;Dht nf I. cnbie. foot of slate at 175 pounds.
SPecifiCatlons for Tin and Terne Plate. (Penn&. R.R. Co., 1903.)
Material Desired.
Tin Plate. No. I Temr
-
_
No. 2 Terne.
LeT;th
Inches..
I2
14
16
g
::
K i n d o f c o a t i n g . . _.
Amount of coating per sq. ft..:::::
Weight. per sq. ft. of -
Grade IC _. _. _.
Gmde Ix. _. _.
Grade I , Y~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .
Grade I X~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grade I S~~YX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pure tin
0. 023 l b.
0. 496 0. 519 ' .
0. 625 " 0. 640 *a
0. 716
0. 808 "
0. 739
0. 900 . '
0. 831 "
0. 923 "
, sI n, 3, 161n. l , * I n. 3/ g I n . l/2 I n. j/a In. 3/ 41n. ' I n.
- -
- * -
403 . 724 ; z ' 1% ' 936 2760 : z:
2 2;
%
2902
' 842 1784 2670 2607 3567 3480
: z 650 2: 1: 30; 1740
2229 2174
637 85' ' 276
2' 29
2553 2508 %
4' 8 626 836 ' 254 1%
2093
2; 617 610 825 815 ' 238 1222 I "Q; :
2066
2478 3306
2039 2445 3263
pine Shingles.
I
I
Will be rejected if less than
.4mount of coating per sq. ft
Weight per sq. ft. of -
. . . . . . .
Grade IC.
Gnde IX
.......................................................
Grade 1-n.
Grade IILYX.
..........................
GradelXXXX.. . . . . . . . :...:::::1
I
0.0183 lb.
0.0183 lb.
~~~~~~ and weIght of shingles required to cover one square of roof:
In&es exposed to weather. . . . . . . . .
$$
5 511~ 6
720 655 600
Number of shin
i
les per square of roof.. .
4
Weight of shing es on one square, pound..
2,6 ,92
I I
173 ' 57 ' 44
The number of shingles per square is for common gable-roofs. For
hip-roofs add five per cent to these figures.
Each sheet in a shipment ,of tin or terne plate must (1) be cut as nearly
from flaws: (3) must double seam successfully under rcasonahle treatment-
eSact to s2z.e ordered as possible: c-3) must be rectangular and flat and free
(4) must show a smooth edge with no sign of fracture when bent through
an angle of 180 degrees and flattened down with a wooden mallet. (5)
mu.st be so near!y hke every other sheet in the shipment,
both in thickness
and in uniformity and amount of coating that no di&ulty will arise in
the shops, due to varying thickness of sh&ets.
a Some i f may no
~.~
1 onger be accurate
,,,~ ,, ,,,
190
MATERIALS.
Skylight Glass.
The weights of various sizes and
glass requxed for one square of roof.
thicknesses of fluted or rough plate.
WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES OR COLU>INS.
191
. .
WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES OR COLL9NS.
In Pounds per Lineal Foot:
Cast iron = 4.50 lbs. per cubic foot.
Veight~
r Foot,.
12.1
! 8. 4
18.0
L4. 5
31. 5
19. 8
27. 0
34. 4
21.6
29. 4
56.1
68.
46.1
:::
49.
62.
4::
65.
Thickness in
Inches.
I
Arealj?eequare
--
hick.
of
:eta1.
-
314
7/8
314
iI8
I4
18
Y4
Ii8
314
Il8
I
?
3
B
B
s
8
8
3
B
8
-
35
36
Weight in Lbs. per
Square of Roof.
-
\
DC
. -
Bore.
ore. Thicli.
I
of
Metal.
-cI
Veigh t
:r Foot.
112
5/ B
314
s/ B
314
112
J;gbi
54. 0
60. 2
;26::
71. 3
86.5
58. 9
74. 4
90. 2
7:.;
9319
6
I
61,
7
7:
i
6
5/8
314
112
5/8
314
l/2
5/8
314
112
5/8
314
518
314
'18
Va
314
718
5/8
314
718
5/8
314
Va
5f8
4 I
'8
's
'4
'8
'8
101. 2
2
108: 6
95. 9
E0
I
, oz: i i
123. 3
145. 0
12
d
2
8
'4
'2
7
8
I 9
20
21
22
-
162. 1
120. 4
1%
l 26: 6
DS.
i 7. 5
16. 5
14. 9
j 5. l
55. 6
: z
4514
%
5513
97. 0
130. 9
! 65. I
! 04. 3
! 39. 4
z74. 9
Ek; : :
i s4. 7
219. 1
; 2?
x&: ;
34317
273. 0
314. 2
354. 8
202. 4
324. 0
365. 0
291. 0
333. P
376. 9
299. 6
343. 7
: %
353: 4
399. 0
; LYi
41o: o
The weight of the two Ranges may be reckoned = Keight Of one foot.
-
Thi
ight
OOL
3/m 3.997
114
250
6.246
w3
350
13.880
vz
500
101.768 700
E 2
20x 100
94x 156
In the above table no a,l!r?wance is made for lap.
,If ordinary window-glass is used, single thick giass (about l/la inch
will we!gh about 82 lb. per square, and double thick glass iabout 11s inch
will melgh about 164 lb. per square, no allowance being made for l ap
j
bpx of ordinary wmdow-glass contains as nearly 50 square feet ai tht
8ze of the panes will admit of.
Panes of any size are made to order by
the rpanufacturers, but a great variety of sizes are usually kept in stock,
rangmg from 6 X 8 inches to 36 X 60 inches.
APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF MATERLUS FOR ROOFS.
American Sheet and Tin Plate Co.
Material.
Average
Weight,,
- -
.
Fe1 t an.
Glass. ,a 1.1. liUlljL%.. .
Hemlock sheathing,,
Lead, about I/- :r. f
Lath and plastic- tie)
ated galvanized iron. No. 20. unboarded
, I6 oa. standing seam... ..> ..
dmy+,.dkf-without sheathmg
........................................................................
.iinl.t6ie&: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,(I ,,.. .hick
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--iliq (or&nary).
plaster
............................................................
~.b,~~qyers
m. thick
I ;
...........................................
-?ublelap..:::::::::::::::::::::::::::
ublelaq. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mackite. 1 in. thick, w~tn 1
Neponset roofing, fer4 I-
SLe 3/1ain. t hi ck 9
S rucesheathing I
Slate: l/s in. thick.3riz:hI
Shingles. 6
1n.X 16m..1/3toweather . . . . . . . . .
Skyligh;oz gl,a:s. 3/1s to 113 in., inc. frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..__.......
..,: ._..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._...._._.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._..........
Slag foe . . . . .
Teme pi&?~.without shatnmg
km plate, IX. without sheathi-
Tiles &pan&h) 14~ .
Ti!es ( lain) IO l/2 in. x 6l/4 in. :
.~ .^1. .
White piy2
Yellow
+eatpiq
lwz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c VB - 5114 in. to weat,her .
f In. x lull2 In. -
5. I in. thick..
7114 in. to weather . . . . . . . .
.. ..
pine sheathing, , in. thick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 l/4
1 l/4
2
13/ a
2
: ::i
10
$
p/ 2
4t40 'O
l/2
18
vs
8;
4
may no ' WARNI NG: Th6%a 1910 edition. Some of
longer be accurate
THICKNESS OF CAST-IRON WATER-PIPES.
1 9 3
St andard Thi cknesses and Wcight.s o! Cast-Iron Pipe.
FOR FIRE-LINES AND OTHER HIGH-PRESSURE SERIICE.
MA.i?EdtAi,S.
STANDARD THICKNESSE~Pg~ WEIGHTS OF CAST-IRON
4.
-
I
(U. S. Cast-Iron Pipe & Fdy Co., 1968.)
I
Nominal In
side Diam. It
Chs3 . 4.
100 It. Head.
43 lb. Pressure.
Class B.
206 ft. Head.
8h lb. Pressure.
(U. S. Cast-Iron Pipe & Fdy Co., 1908.)
1s.

.
=
-
/.
1,
T Thick-
ess, Ins
-
--
--
Ft,.
ChSJ E. c1ils.s 1~. CILISS c. Clns H.
5oof 2tl j H$~l . 600 ft. Head.
260 lb.
7o03f oti , tyl . 800; ~j ~bycl .
3 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4~ . . . . . . . . . . .
6 ............
8 ............
10 . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. . . . . . . . . . . .
14 . . . . . . . . . . . .
16 ............
18 . . . . . . . . . . . .
20. . . . . . . . . . . .
24. . . . . . . . . . . .
30 . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 . . . . . . . . . . . .
42. . . . . . . . . . . .
48~ . . . . . . . . . . .
54. . . . . . . . . . . .
60. . . . . . . . . . . .
72 ............
84. . . . . . . . . . . .
0. 39
. 42
. 44
. 46
. SO
3;
. 60
. 64
. 67
. 76
. 88
. 99
i.iO
1. 26
1. 35
1. 39
1. 67
1. 72
14. 5
20. 0
30. 8
42. 9
57. 1
72. 5
89. 6
108. 3
129. 2
150. 0
204. 2
291. 7
3i . 7
512. 5
666. 7
800. 0
916. 7
1283. 4
1633. 4
Wt. per
Wt. per
-T-
Thick- -
-
Lgt.h.
n:ess. In:3. .
I
Ft. Lgth.
-- -- --
175
240
16. 2 194
370
21. 7 260
515 12
33. 3
47. 5
685 . 57
I El
870
63. 8
1075 : Z
82. I i i :
i : z
102. 5
: : t
125. 0 1%
1800
150. 0
. 80
1800
2450
175. 0 tml
. 89
3900
233. 3
! . 03
2800
4700
333. 3
1. 15
6150
454. 2
8000
j . 28 591. 7
1. 42
$EJ
750. 0
9600 1. 55
9ml
933. 3
l l ol m 1. 67
11200
15400
1104. 2 13250
1. 95
19600
1545. 8 18550
2. 22 2104. 2 25250
ZZ =
I
ZZZ
Class D.
4OU ft. Head.
173 lb. Pressure.
-
43. 3 520 0. 65 47. 1 565 0. 69 49. 6 595
' . 66 61. 7 740 . 71 65. 7 790 . 75 70. 8 850 .80 75. 0 900
. 74 86. 3 1035 . 80 92. 1 1105 . 86 100. 9 1210 . 92 106. 7 1280
82 113. 8 1365 . 89 122. 1 1465 . 97 135. 4 1625 I . 04 143. 8 1725
90 145. 0 1740 . 99 157. 5 1890 1. 07 174. 2 2090 1. 16 186. 7 2240
: 98 179. 6 2155 1.08 195.4 2345 1.18 219.2 2620 1.27 232.5 2790
1. 07 "20. 4 2645 1. 17 238. 4 2860 1. 28 267. 1 3205 1. 39 286. 7 3440
1. 15 263. 0 3155 1. 27 286. 3 3435 1. 39 320. 8 3850 I . 51 344. 6 4135
I . 31 359. 6 4315 1. 45 392. 9 4715 . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . , . .
1. 55 521. 7 6260 1. 73 585. 4 7025 . . . . . . . . _. _
1. 80 725. 0 8700 2. 02 820. 0 9840 _. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C l a s s c .
300 fb. Head.
130 I b. Pressure.
The above wights are per length to lay 12 feet, includi.ng standard
sockets; proportionate allowance to be made for any vana
t1on.
Weight of Underclround Pi pes.
( Adopt ed by the Nttl. Fire Pro-
-.-IE.>
Nominal In-
sideDiam. Ins
-i
tection.&ociation, 1905). Weights are not to be less than.rnose speclneu
when the normal pressures do not exceed 125 lbs. per sq. m.
When the
3s. heavier pipes should be used.
rhi ck-
!SS, In:
Wt. per
ne
--
5
_ -
Ihick-
T
Wt. per
Lgth.
n :ss. In!
Ft. Lgth.
--
normal pressures are in excess of 175 I I
The weights given include sockets.
Ft,.
Pipelins................: 4 6
8 10 12 14 16
Weightsper foot, Ibs
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 32 48 67 87 I69 133
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I O. . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18. . . . . . . . . . . . .
20. . . . . . . . . . . . .
24. . . . . . . . . . . . .
30. . . . . . . . . . . . .
36. ~ . . . . . . . . . . .
42 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48. . . . . . . . . . . . .
54. . . . . . . . . . . . .
60. ............
72. . . . . . . . . . . . .
84. . . . . . . . . . . . .
0. 45
1;
. 56
.b2
:2
. 80
. 87
. 9?
1%
1. 36
1. 54
1. 71
1. 90
2. 00
2. 39
17. 1
23. 3
: i : :
70. 8
~91. 7
E: 87
175. 0
208. 3
279. 2
2: :
716. 7
908. 3
1141. 7
1%: : 5
Ei 2
18.0 216
25. 0
430
300
. 55
625
38. 3
850
55. 8
1100 rz
76. 7 i ti
1400
100. 0
. 82
1725
129. 2
. 89
Ez
2100
158. 3 wai l
2500 1%
191. 7
3350
229. 2
1. 16
El
4800
6550 1: : :
2:
I F+%
625. 0
1. 78
i i i
825. 0 9900
I . %
13700
1050. 0 12600
2. 23
16100
1341. 7 16100
22850 i
2. 38 1583. 3 19000
. .
. . .
. . . .
. .
-
THI CKNESS OF CAST- I RON WATER- PI PES.
P. H. Baermano in a paper read before the Engineers: Club of Phiia-
delphia in 1882, ga;e twenty different formulas for determlNng the thick-
ness of cast-iron pipes under pressure.
The formulas are of three classes:
1. Depending upon the diameter only.
2. Those depending upon the diameter and head, and which add a COn-
stant.
3 Those depending upon the diameter and head, contain an additive
or &btractive term depending upon the diameter, and add a constant.
The more modern formulas are of the third class, and are as follow:
-^
t = 0.00008ILd + O.LY
t = O.OOOOOhd + 0.0133d
t = 0.00005E...
t = 0.000048hd i i
L--l,3
No.- 1.
oundry; No. 2.
No. 3.
. .
The above weights are per tength to lay 12 feet including standard
sockets; pvportionate allowance to be made for anyvariation.
nld -t 0.m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .U,,tm,
+ 0.296. . . . . . . . . . . .Warren F
_.-
iLf ,+ 0.0152d + 0 . 3 1 2 .
I.0133 + 0.3d .......................
E;;;;;,

1=~6669~~d~6.I~/d+0.15..
Box,
t = ij&6&hd + 0.4 - 0.0011d
:
t = O,OOOOO(h + 23O)d + 0 . 3 3 3 - 0.0033d.
...
............
....................... Whitman.
FanNflg,
ti,, t = 0.00015hd + 0 . 2 5 - 0.0052d.
.Meggs,
ateri al may no longer be accurate
MATERIALS.
THICKNESS OF CAST-IRON WATER-PIPES. 195
In ahichf = thickness in inches, R = head in feet, d = diameter in inches.
For R = 100 ft., and d = 10 in., formula? Nos: 1 to 7 inclusive give to from
0.49 to 0.54 in., but No. 8 gives only 0.35 in. Famings formula, now
(19(B) in most common use, gtves 0. 50 in.
I bnkine (Cirit Enginemin~g,, p. 721) says: Cast-iron pipes should be
rnr~irle 04 a soft and tough quahty of iron. Great attention should be paid
to moklmg them CopCtly. so that tbe thickness may be esactly uniform
so round. Each pipe should be tested for air-bubbles ant1 flaxs by ring-
i ng i t with it hammrr, and for st,rength 1)x ~slmsinp i t t o doubl e t he
inrr~tded greatest wrkrng pressure. The rule tor computing the thick-
ness of.a pipe to resist a given working pressure is t .= rp,~/. where r is
the radius in in&es, p t.he pressure in pounds per square inch, and f the
tensiie strength of the iron per square inch. Whe n f = 18.000, and a
i:a~:?r of safet,Jl of 5 is used, the above expressed in terms of d and h
: i ; ~~; ; : : ~i es t = Q. atI X 0. 433R +3000 = 0. 00006&.
by
i^iiere are limitations. however, arising from rlifl?culiies in casting, and
t,::,> strain produced by shocks, which cause t,he thickness to be made
grear s- &sn t.hat. given by the above formuls. ( See al so Bur st i ng
Strr ; of Ca~st-iron Cyl i nder s, under Cast I r on. )
Til~,
;:iost cpmmon defect of cast-iron pipes is due to the shifting of
tkk core, wEucb cauxs one side of the pip<: to he thinner than the other.
Unless the pipe is made of very soft iron the thin side is apt to be chilled
in casting. causing: it to become britt~le and it may contain blow-holes and
cold-shots. This defect sborlld be guarded against by inspection of
every pipe for urriformit,y of thickness.
Snfo Pressures, etc., for Cast-iron Pipe. -(Continut:tl.)
-
Size of Pipe.
51
91
12,
I S
19,
26~
i i
$71
$3,
78
I I 3
147
I 82
217
251
286
: : z
424
482
:
.a
i
.f
2
z
i
z
81
1;
14,
18,
22,
:
97 3
I 27 4
I 59 5
:.$I I i
348 I 3
: : 2 1:
537 20
. . .
.
1
c
.i
E
<
f
--
2 :
6 2
: 1
9 I (
7 1:
9 I (
6 I
2:
Thickness.
-:- -.
2
31 38 88
89 59 136
! 47 81 I 87
; 04 103 237
K- 2 124 286
I . 9 145 334
177 167 385
, . _ 188433
210 484
: : : j : : : : : : :
- I - .
-
3
5
i I
2;
i!
11/l& ......
314. .......
13/l& ......
7/g. .......
15/16. ......
I ...........
I is. .......
I l / 4. . . . . . . .
I s/ / 8. . . . . . . .
I l/z. .......
I 5/,........
1 314. . . . . . . .
I 718. . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . .
2%. .......
21/ q. . . . . . . .
2 113. . . . . . . .
2314. . . . . . . .
Safe Pressures and Equivalent Heads of Water for Cast-iron Pipe
of DiRerent Sizes and Thicknesses.
(Calculated by F. H. Lexis, from Fannings Formula.)
Size of Pipe.
/
4 6 16 j 18
NoTE.-The absolltte safe st,atic pressure which may
be put upon pipe is given by the formula P = 2,TSiSD.
! in which formula P is the pressure per square Inch; T.
the thickness of the shell:,S. the ultimate strengt,h per
square inch of the metal in tension: and D. t,he lnslde
diameter of the pipe. In the tables S is taken as 18.000
pounds per square inch, with a working strain of one-
dfth this amolmt or 3600 pounds per square inch. The
formula for t!:e absolute safe static pressure then is:
I = 7200/D.
It is however, usual to allow for water-ram by
increasing the thickness enough to
p pounds addit,jonal statx pressure, an
ETE,ES:k? ,
cient metal for good castmg and for wear and tear. a
further increase equal to 0.333 (1 - O.OlD).
The expression for the thickness then becomes
T = (P + lOOlD
7206
+ 0.333 (1 - &)*
and for safe working pressure
P =y(T - 0.333 (1- &))- 1 0 0 .
The additional sectio? provided as above re resents
an increased value under static pressure for the $
sizes of pipe as follows (see tabl e in mar,gin).
by;;r;:
to test the pipes up to one-fifth of the ultimate stren
$l
of the material. the pressures in the marginal. ta le
should be added to the pressure-values given In the
p.He above. ,
~,~, _~,.
?rial ,may no loriger be accurate
-
1
I
Lbs.
676
476
3:
276
248
226
: z
185
1; ;
156
149
143
133
I 26
116
e of the%
196 MATERIALS. CAST-IRON PIPE-FITTINGS. 197
CAST-IRdN PIPE-FITTINGS.
ApprOXi Mate Weights (The Massi!on Iron dr Steel Co.).
4160
5475
t%
2370
: E
1940
1810
1700
; : : ;
1380
3490
3010
2585
2315
2175
2070
1930
1835
1730
1635
1515
1415
1360
525 20x12
: ; ; : z no
310 24x24 1800
735 24x18 1480
615 24x14 1215
5; ; ; ; ; ; o 1035
860 24x3 E
735 30x30 2850
610 30x20 2020
510 30x16 1755
435 30x12 1475
I I 00 30x8 1255
935 30x4 1030
65 14x14 665
90 14x10 530
85 14x6 130 14x3 : :
I O5 16x16 810
E I 2P El :
175 16x3 415
165 18x18 1055
300 18x14 865
2M 18x10 695
205 18x6 395 18x3 2;
345 20x20 1335
255 20x16 I I 00
85
115
105
165
125
2
: : :
SE
225
495
: :
Taper Plugs.
3 7 8
i f i
I
1' 4
60 I 6
: : "o
I ; : 2 I 70 ; :
430
. . I ". . . . . . . . . ". . . . I ". . . . . . . . . TY . . . . . . . . "O".
6x6
6x3
8x8
8X6
8x4
8x3
Reducers.
' 4X3 : i I oo~! I ; ; p. i ; 2 295 16X6 220 20x14 430 30x24 865
%60 I ZXI O 230 14x4 220 165 18x16 18x12 435 345 24x20 20x10 380 645 30x18 36x30 1455 825
E, " ' i i I % I 65 140 16x14 16x10 355 290 20x18 18x8 280 520 24x16 24x12 485 555 36x18 950
These tables are greatly abridged from the ori~.rinltl. many intermediate
sizes being omitted. Increasers.
55 4x14 210 8x14 235 12x14 300 16x18 455 20x36 1310
95 6X8 I I 5 8x18 320 12x18 385 16x30 965 24x30 940
3x12 165 6x12 195 10x12 245 12x24 510 : 8x20 485 24x36 1380
%b 150 75 6x16 8x10 275 I 90 10x16 10x20 335 410 14x16 14x24 375 600 20x24 18x36 1220 700 30x38 1475
B r a n c h e s . Branches.
300 450 J Y
3x3
4x4
4x3
6X6
6x3
8x8
8~6
8x3
I Oxb
( 0x6
10x3
I ZX I :
12x8
12x3
14x1,
14x11
14x6
75
I I 5
1%
135
- 310
210
I 85
450
300
G;
470
i i i
: z
295
910
: E
385
I O&I
845
670
510
435
1455
1190
935
750
550
E
ZZZ
1520
Ez:
770
3390
g; ;
1695
I 400
I I 25
4565
: z:
2340
%
1360
=
P
4
;j
fY
- --- -
::
IE
130
170
210
! i
555
I E I
=
d
.a
a
VI
-
:i
I I 5
i i i
; i i !
775
910
1195
k:
-
20 35
25 45
i i 1:
I I 0 125
: i : 1: :
235 200
E : :
684 475
1015 630
: :
105
175
%
360
: ri
725
El
2070
ii:
I20
g
ii!
950
1330
20435
2720
i?
;fi
g
755
875
I I 35
%
3315
Split Tees.
. STANDARD PIPE FLANGES (CAST EON). 3x3
4x4
6X6
4x3
z: E :z ;!z
595 30x3 I 090 '
555 36x8 1460
i i : E 405 445 24x8 30x8 I I 30 780 36x3 1420
I
Adopted August. 1894. at a conference of committees of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the Master Steam and Hot Water
Fitters Association njth representatives of leading manufacturers and
rs of pipe. - T&s: A. S. M. E., xxi, 29.
..^ __-. .--.-- ._.._ ~~,~~~ .__
eri al , may no l onger be accurate
4R G: Th<s?s a 1410 edition. Some of th
STAPjDARD STRAIGHT-WAY GATE VALVES. 199
FLAXGE DIMENSIONS, ETC., FOR E X T RA HEAVY PWE
FITTINGS (UP TO 250 LBS. PRESSURE).
Adopted by a Conference of Manufacturers, June 25. 1901.
19s
~,~
MATERIALS.
T
he
he list is divided into two groups: for medium and high pressures,
frrst ranging up to 75 ibs. per square inch, and the serond up to
!OO Ibs.
Size of
Pipe.
IncZhes.
; I2
Diameter of
Bolt Circle.
Incp.
Size of
Bolts.
Inches.
3,/s
Y4
j!8
518
Z/J
314
314
314
718
7J8
518
:i
1
7J8
- -
7 4 31,/r
7112 4 31.
7314 0 31,
8113 8 31.
9ih a 31,
10314 8 31,
II314 8 31.
13114 I 2 31,
141f 4 I 2 11,
17 112 711
183/ 4 I 2 1
20 I 6 I
21114 I 6 I
22314 I 6 I l/l
25 20 I *jr
27 l/q 20 1 l:,
91/4291/z 20 I ' /
I l / 43l 3/ 4 24 I l l
3 J? 34 28 I 1J
5 l/3 36 20 131
2 42314 32 I3J
W&/z 36 I I
44 I I /
: : _
3 !8
6 YS
: : z
811,
9' 14
l o. j / ,
; i 7/ 8
14
1514
17314
-+y
$;p
263~:
28 314
31 1~14
3 112
{Y2
6
8'
9 - -
825
;I/4 1050.
!I/2 1330
! I , ' 2 2530
! 3/ 4 2100
I %
2360
i t/ 4 3200
ilJ2 4190
II/r 3610
i5J3 2 9 7 0
i3/4 4280
UJ4 4 2 8 0
1114 3660
,114 4210
!3J4 ;;$
1
it/r 4320
ii/r 5130
i3/4 5 0 3 0
j 5000
5114 4590
;;; ;;g
7314 6090
2
w
2 ' I ;
21/ :
2%
; zi
21/,
231~
231~
5
3x/:
3' k
35Jt
:$
3 3J<
33J+
314 4
718 4111
411.
4311
,114 47J;
l/3 531:
1314 531,
Zl!g
: :p
2 313
2v2
25/a
2314
STANDARD STRAIGHT-WAY GATE iALvES.
(Crane Co.)
Iron Body. Brass Trimmings. Wedge Gate.
Dimensionsin I nches: A, nominal size: B, face to face, flanged: C. diarn.
of flanges: D,.thickness of flanges: K. end to end, screwed; N., center to
top of non-nslng stem: 0, diam. of wheel: S. center to top of nsmg stem,
open: P, size of by-pass; F,~end to end, hub: T, diam. of hub; X. number
of t ur ns t o open.
K IV 0 s Y P
__--~---
6
7
*, ,_,
?rlal may no l onger be accurate
NOTES. - Sizes up Tao 24 inches are designed for 200 lbs. or less:
Sizes from 4 to 4s inches are divided into two scales, one for 200 Ibs.
the other for less
The sizes of boles given are for high pressure. For medium pressures
the diameters are 118 in. less for pipes 2 to 20 in. diameter inclusive, and
V4 in. iess for larger sizes. except 48-in. pipe, for wvhich the size of boit is
13/o i n
- Y-
Rben two lines of figures occur under one beading. the single columns
are for both medium and high pressures. Beginning with 24 inches, the
left-band columns are for medium and the right-hand lines are for high
oressures.
The sudden increase in diameters at 16 inches is due to the possible
insertion of wrought-iron pipe, making with a nearly constant width of
gasket a great~er diameter desirable,
When wrought-iron pipe is used. if thinner flanges than those given
are sufficient. it is proposed that bosses be used, to bring the nuts up to
the standard iengch :.
Pe!C.
This avoids the use of a remforcement around the
Figures in the 3d. 4th 5th and last columns refer oniy to pipe for
high qres~ure.
be
11% drilling valve flanges a vertical iine parailei to the spindles should
midwav betawn two holw on the unner side nf t he f l anem
G: This is a IS10 edition. Some of the i z
I
i/
200 MATtiR3ALS.
EXTRA HEAVY STRAI GHT-WAX GATE V.4LVEX
Ferrosteel. Hard Metal Seats. WedgeGate.
FORGED AND ROLLED STEEL FLANGES.
201
FOEGED AND BOLLED STEEL FLANGES. -Continued
J ZxtraWeavCompanion Flanges.
I
Extra Heavy High Hub Flanges.
A c
i
61' 2
71' 2
w4
9
I O
iOl2
: I
; ; ' I "
15
16
17%
20
22112
gv2
27
29 liz
; y/ z
:ium V
ts1ogu
293' 4 I 4
; ; I ' " 1;
423/s ;;
47
523' 4 5 60
673f , 24
673' 4 24
strs Heavy :
D N
11/B 145jg
13' 16 151/ a
i v4 173' 4
V/l6 18314
1318 20' 14
7/M 23
2 24314
15' 8 283' 4
13' 4 301/ z
' "l / 8 333' 4
371' 4
h/ 8 423' 4
23116 =I4
21/a
z3/ 8
21/ z
s/ 8
1314
es and E
C
1 I ' 8
' 1' 4
1114
1 ' I 4
' 5' 16
1 3/ 8
' 7' 16
' ' I 2
I ?16
' 5/ M
13' 4
' l Y1
I T/ a
i v4
' 1' 4
1 ' I 2
L/ 2
3
3112
4
; 1/ 2
--
-
i s/ 8
i 7' 16
9!16
' 5' 8
I 314
I 13h
17' 8
2
21116
z3/ 16
2114
z3/ 8
26' 16
2w
213' 1
3 V16
tj.
&
,zz
a
E
---
A B C
__---
A B
7-
3l / 8
3114
31/ 4
31' 4
33' 8
31' 2
3. 5' 8
3314
3q7' 8
43/ 8
4' 12
43' 4
L/ 2
zi $
al ) -
; "
-
112
5' 8
5/ s
518
5' 8
3' 4
3' 4
3' 4
3' 4
v/ 4
3' 4
3' 4
5 314
; 1' 4
7 1Qlj
9%
105/ M
11 3' 8
1z5/ 8
135/ s
143' 4
l 63hs
17114
18%
203' 4
221' 2
19114
211/d
"2; ' / a
273/d
29 314
313/ q
333' 4
353' 4
373' 4
: ; i j 1:
124112 6112
71' 2
8' 12
91' 2
171' 2 105' 8
183' 4, 115/ 8
20 12516
222' 2 137' 6
p2 I 47l a
l 57j 3
27 177/e
29 l/z I9 7/a
i
7
t
I O
?Z
ydra
3 3l a
4Vl 6
4"' 16 5
55' 16 6
513116 7
61' 4
613' 16 ;
77i 8 1;
91' 8
101/p I2
113/ , 6 14
1q16 15
145/ 8 I 6
' 513' 16 ' 8
173' 16 20
181/ 4
6112 2% 7/ 8
71' 2 21/ 2 I
12112 63' 16 11' 4
73' 10 1 Vlf
83h6 i 3/ 8
I 6 93' 16 f 7/1l
171' 2 105' 16 i 1/ 2
i 25/ , 6 i 5' 8
&213112 13' 4
231' 2 141/ i 11311
25 i5Vz 17f 8
I:
I 6
18
20
22
24 I
For dimensions of M
See Crane Companys ,
FORGED AND xc0~mD STEEL FWGES.
Dimensions in Inches. (American Spiral Pipe Works, 190s.)
Forged Steel Flanges for Riveted Pipe.
Riveted Pipe Manufacturers Standard.*
5/ 8 3' 4
% 3' 4
5/ 8 3' 4
' l / l 6 314
' I t16 7' 8
1 3' 8
. ' 3/ s
. . . 13' 8
. . . . ' 112
. . . 11' 2
j / l 6 . _. . 4
j / l 6 9' l 6 a
j / l 6 6116 8
V8 616 8
3' 8 Q' l 6
3' 9 5' 6
i
3' 8 5/ s
3' 8 %6
T/1,3 12
7/ 16 3/ 4 I 2
7' 16 , . . . 12
7' 16 3' 4 i 2
9' 16 3' 4 I 2
Standard Companion Fla,nges. Standard Shrink Flanges.
-
7i l 6
7' 16
7' 16
112
112
' I 2
' I 2
1' 2
J / 2
' I 2
' I 2
v2
112
* Flanges for riveted pipe are also made with the outside diameter and
the drilling dimensions the same as those of, the A. S. M. E. standard
(page ,198) and with the thickness as given m the second column of fig-
ures underThickness of Flange in the above table.
Curved Forged Steel Flanges a?e also made .for boilers and tanks,
k @ee c+iogue of &w&an Spa! Rpe WaTk% CWaq
AIBICID E
5 3' 4
"6 : g
; 7' 8
101
/ A 1 B
----
12112 712 i 1ll6 2 1 3
iz%? 8% 11' 8 25' 8
91/ a 1 l/s 23/a
105' 8 13' 16 3.
21
m/ 8 i I ' 33' 8
137' 8 13' 8
X21/4 147/ e 13' 8
33/ n
3 12
gf / 2 157' 0 17' 16 35' 8
t7v8 I gi l 37/ S
2nh 197/ s Ifi16 4%
18214
2Olu
2w4
. i ,
vial may no longer be accurate
1910 edition.
~_ZL~zaae
Some of the m;
The Rockwood Pipe J oint. -The system of flanged joints now in
common use for high pressures, made by slipping a Hange over the pipe,
es
P
andIng the end of the pipe by rolling or peening. and then facing it in
a athe, so that when the tlarxes of two Diues are bolted toaether the
bearing of the joint is on the en& of the pipes themselves and kot on &
Ranges, was patented by George I. Rockwood, April 5, 189i. No. 580,058,
and first described in hng. Rec., July 20, 1895. The joint as made by
different manufacturers is known by various trade names, as Walmanco,
Van Stone, etc.
WROUGHT-I RON (OIZ STEEL) WELDED PIPE.
For discussion of the Briggs Standard of Wrought-iron Pipe Dimen-
sions, see Report of the Committee of the A. S. 11. E. in Standard
Pipe and Pipe Threads, i886.
of t he bot t om of t he
rrans.. Vol. VIII, p. 29. The diameter
thread i s der i ved f r om t he f or mul a D -
(0.05D + 1.9) x ;I, in which D = outside diameter of the tubes, and z
the number of threads to the inch. The diameter of the top of the
thread is derived from the formqia 0.8 k X 2 + d, or 1.6 A + d. in which
d is the diameter at the bottom of the thread at the end of the pipe.
(Continued on page 207).
Foms OF CAS T- IRON FLINGES. (See tables on pages 203 to 206:.
(1) El bow. (2) 45 (3) S i d e
Elbow.
(4) Lone
gy;J;. Turn Elbow.
(5) Tee. (6) Side
Outlet T.
Sweep T.
(7) Single (8) Lateral. (9) Double (lO~r~;;,ble
Sweep T.
Elbow.
(11) Cross. (12) Re-
ducing
(lpO& (14) Re(. T (15) Red. (16) Reduc-
aross. Tee.
wth Side Si ngl e
Outlet. Sweep
mg Lateral.
Tee.
4ARNING: Thi*b- edition.

7
.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
i
I-
I!
ac c ur at e
Z
Run.. . _. _. .I,,.
A-Cent er t o Face of
I 8 21 22 73 24 27
2
Run.. .~n.
B-C&n ter to Face of
9 I O,2 II
11 v2 I 2
13 I 2
Outlet . . . . . .._..... I. ii l 21,2
,31/b 1 ,31/z , 15 1612
H:
z.. hze . . . . . . . . . . . . .._. I n. I'/* ,1/z ,;
For Skam Working pressures up to 250 pounds.
0 %A-Fsee t o Face.. .I. 81/z 9
21/z 3 41/z 5
Wenter to Face. . .I,,. 41,, 4~ 5
I I
5112 i
3112 ,4
I 3 I 5
6:/;2 :
7Y2 i
1;
7 8 9 I O I Z 14
Ti 21 23
l OI / I I l /z :;
29 :: ;; 4:
22 24
b-Center to Face.. .I. 411, 4~ 5
W2 'i
14% 15 I 6
:; 40
--I 2-G ter to Face of
51/2 6 712 8 w z 9 I O
3
I OV? I l l /2 13 14% 15 I 6
lzonx Radius Ells~In. . 6112 7
I :
l 8l j z 20 ;;
7% 8% 9
181/z 20 22
t;M$d$ius -of Long
9/2 w4 I I VZ l 23/4 I 4 15v4 l bV2 I 9 2,112 22314 24
k -c ent er to Face
i l 1 s k 3. I . 514 !%/a 61/4 6,7/s 73,s 73/d 81,? 95,8 107,~ ,2
26 i n 29 31l z 34
l 3
Ca-
,41/s 16% 187/s 20
of 450 E!!s., _. .__ .In. 21/2 2zyd 3
21% 23% 26 m/, 3c
v, diameter of Flange In. 5 6
a, rhieknessof FlangeIn. 314 y6
Yumber of B&s... 4
,Si z.e of Bol t s ..l n. l h 5/s
r D,m@h o f Bolts. ..I. 2114 2112
Bolt Circle... .In. 33ja 4*iz
d-
0,
T.,W PRESSURE CA ST - I RON FL A N GED FI TTXNGS
Size ._.___.._,,.._..,............... In. 1: 1;
16 I8 20 22 24
1: I 6
26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
-I
Size of Outlets, I., and smaller.. 10 I 2 l 4 15
l 8 18. 20 20 22 26 2M
g : .&&Face *-center tO to W? Face f of Run Run. .___. .In. I n. 20 I O 22 II
28 28 30
23 11% 24 I 2 26 I 3 14 14 ,j
32 32 36 38 40
/
/
2f
4T 44 46
30 32 ;; g
48 5,
,6
C:
2
~x !,!n.& HE.& %?& Hl TDRAUI ,l C FERROSTEEI , FLANGED FI TTI NGS
For Water Working Pressures up to 800 PoUndS.
i-ii
Tested to 2000 Pounds Press~lre per Sqre Ich.
Size.. . . . . . _ . . . . . .I.
5
6 7 8
Diameter of Flanges... . .:.
In.
.,;:k I ;,,~ :i :$; l 3Q I 5 I 6 I 7
Cm. to Face of Run or Outlet Strauxht,
sr Reducing Sizes, Tees and Crosses. In.
81,~ 91/2 10 I I
I I I ,? ,2,/z 131/z !5 16%
Center to Face of Elbows.. .I.
I on/~ 121/z 133/r I 5
,61/? ,7:I ,,, 2O:1,4 7.2314 24314
Radius of Sweep of E l b o w s . .I .
Sl ,? 95,8 9yy 12 13
I l l i s 161/z 161/a 2 0
Center to Fsee of 45O Elbows.. i.. .I.
511~ 51/> 6 Sl z 7
I .__
714 73/4 61/z 9/2
-- l__--ll -.-
.-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.
c
. . c1 Face to Face of Run.. II,.
2 21, 2 3 4 5 16
IOQ 12
3112 4% 7
13 14r/,
0
15 15%17 2:
14 I 5
I 8
I 6 I 8 20 22 24
a to
+sB-Center A-Center to Face. Face. . . . ..I. In. 8 21/z 21/i 9/1 IO 3 II 3 l/2 I 2 3 17. 112 3 131/ 2
33
14112
341/ : ! 361, ~ 39 43 46
3112
27
35 3%
:6:;; 4 i &, 2 19' / 2 201, ~ 241, ~ 30 3 2
.41/z 41,~ 5 51,~
2~31, ~ 3 5
6 6 61,~ 7 8
3;;t I :;i;;
~"e$Faceto' Faaceof Runi n
__- . -
+.i $ A-Center to Face. .I: 9
25 26 28112
v) Q~B-CetertoFaoe...In.
11~2 p, , 1; ' I N\ ; M; ; ; ; i l 12 ; ; t12 211, ~ 23
21/z 21,~ 3 3 3 3%
171, s 16*/ z
3% 4 411,
20 21 23 ;,;(;
5 5 51/ z 6 '
DIMENSIONS OF REDUCING LATERALS.
B
s;i Size......................I~. 4
?
n, kSizeofBrach . . . . . . . . . . . I.
Q- 2
-a Face to Face of Run... . .I.
d- 9 A-Center to Face.. . , . In.
r*fi B-Cent,er t o F a c e . . ,111.
0 C-Center to Face . . . . . . I.
Z!
. -
b$Faceto FaeeofRun...In. 1 4
m! $A-Center to Face.. . . . . In. I 2
0 4.a B-Center to Face.. . . . .In.
3 dg C-Center to Face.. . . . .In.
z
13
CD
- _ _ _ . ..-___
20. 21 23 26
q! If the Branch is larger thy gi ven in th$ I?wer tae, se the upper taljle.
The.dilesm?s of Reducing Flanfwl hlttlng:s ar e always reglllted 1)
2,
Fittws reducing o!l ihe run only. tlrelog body pattern ( upper tshl e
tile redllctio of the outlet.
For general dimensmns and templates for drilling, see page 20~.
1
~111 al ways be used.
Diaulet er.
_-_ _ --_
1s. Ins.
0. 405
: : : i
0: ; 2;
, 493
. a44 , 622
1. 050 , 824
I . 315 1. 049
I . 660 1. 380
1. 900 I . 610
2. 375 2. 067
2. 075 2. 469
3. 500 3. 068
4. 000 3. 548
4. 500 4. 026
5. 000 4. 506
5. 563 5. 047
6. 625 6. 065
7. 625 7. 023
8. 625 7. 981
9. 625 8. 94!
10. 750 10. 020
I I . 750 11. 000
12. 750 12. 000
14. 000 13. 250
15. 000 14. 250
16. 000 15. 250
18. 000
20. 000
l 7, . 250
19. 250
22. OCN
24. ooO1
21. 250
23. 250
-__ I-
I%
:% 7:
, 091 I 8
, 109 I 4
, 113 I 4
, 133 I l l ,
: 145 140 I l l ,
I l l /
$3" ' A' /
, 216 8
, 226 8
, 237 8
, 247 8
. 25R 8
, 280 8
, 301 I 3
, 322 5
, 342 8
, 365 8
, 375 8
,375 8
. 375 8
: : : : ;
, 375 . . . . .
, 375 . . . . .
, 375 . . , . .
. 375) . . . . .
Sect~iorwl Areas.
-----__
LbY. Inn. Ins.
0. 246 1.272 0.845
. 426 1. 696 1. 144
, 570 2. 121 1. 549
, 855 2. 639 1. 954
I . 140 3. 299 2. 589
' 2 1. 690 4. 131 3. 296
' 2 2. 290 5. 215 4. 335
2. 740 5. 969 5. 058
2 3. 690 7. 461 6. 494
5. 850 9. 032 7.757
7. 660 10. 996 9. 638
9. 240 12. 566 I l . 146
10. 900 14. 137 12. 648
12. 700 15. 708 14. 156
14. 900 17. 477 15. 856
19. 200 20. 813 19. 054
23. 800 23. 955 22. 063
28. 900 27. 096 25. 073
34. 300 30. 230 28. 089
41. 200 33. 772 31. 479
4h. 400 36. 914 34, 558
50. 900 40. 055 37.6W
56. 100 43. 982 41. 626
60. 700 47. 124 44, 768
64. 900 50. 265 47. 909
- , -
.-- Id
9. 431
--Fir KQ,X
14. 200 0. 12'
7. 074 , 221
: : z I ; : ; ; ; 6. 141 , 351 . 551
3. 638 4. 636 . 86(
2. 905 3. 641 I . 35L
2. 301 2. 768 2. 162
: : : A; 2. 372 2. 831
I . 848 4. 4~3(
39' 7 1. 547 1. 245 6. 49; 9. 621
, 955 I.077 12.566
, 849 , 949 15. 904
, 764 . &I 8 19. 635
, 687 , 757 24. 306
, 577 , 630 34.472
, 501 , 544 45. 664
, 443 , 479 50. 426
, 397 , 427 72. 760
, 355 , 381 90. 763
, 325 , 347 108. 434
: E . 288 . 3l A 153. 938 127. 676
, 255 , 268 176. 715
, 239 , 250 201. 062
, 212 , 221 254. 469
: 180380. 133 195 314. 159
, 164 452. 389
--- ----7--
q.
I
f t. sq. , 111
3. 0009 0. 05;
. OOl 6 . I 04
. 0025 , 191
. 0038 , 304
. OOhO , 533
, 009. l . 864
. Ol 50 I . 496
.OIYJ 2.035
. 0308 3. 336
. 045l 4. 783
. 0668 7, 393
. 0873 9. 887
I I 04 12. 730
: I 364 15. 947
1688 20, 006
: 2394 28. 890
.3lJl 38.730
. 4057 50. 027
. 5053 62. 786
. 6303 78. 854
. 7530 95. 033
. 8866 113. 097
. 069l l i 37. 886
. 2272 I 59. 4M5
. 3963 182. 654
.7671 233.705
. l Rl 7 291. 039
. 6398 354. 656
. I 416 424. 557
.OOOJ 1383. 8
. 0013 754. 36
. 002l 473. 91
.0037 270.03
. 0060 166. 62
. Ol O4 96. 275
. 014! 70. 733
, 023s 42. 913
. 0332 30. 077
. 0513 19. 479
. 0687 14. 565
. 0864 I I . 312
. I 107 9. 0301
, I 389 7. 1979
. 2006 4. 9844
. 2690 3. 7173
. 3474 2. 8784
. 4360 2. 2935
, 54X 1. 8262
. 6600 1. 5153
. 7854 1. 2732
, 9575 1. 0443
: i : s7: . 78838 . 90291
. 6230 . 61616
. 021l . 49478
. 4629 . 40603
, 9483 . 33918
Jy-
;ziE
Fi.5dl
krs.!
rig-;
; U, G
..-_
Cd.
0. 0030
. 0054
. 0099
. 0158
. 0277
. 0449
: %( :
. I 743
. 2487
. 3840
. 5136
. 6613
R28- l
I . 03' 13
1. 5008
2. 0124
f : E
4. 0963
4. 9368
i . 8752
7.1629
Lbs.
0. 0246
. 045l
. 0827
. I 316
. 2x9
. 3742
. 6477
. 8816
1. 4530
2. 0732
3. 2012
4. 2812
5. 5125
6. 9053
8. 6629
2. 5191
6. 7743
' : : %6'
4. 1456
I . 1513
8. 9735
9. 7077
9. 0603
9. 0931
1. 1992
Z: :
1. 8419
COLD- DRAWNSEA&lLESS S T E E L T U B E S .
In estimating the effective steam-heating or boiler surface of tubes
the surface in contact with air or gases of combustion (whether internal
or external to the tubes) is to be taken.
For beating liquids by steam. superheating steam, or transferring heat
from ime liquid or gas to another, the mean surface of the tubes is to be
taken.
Ou!side Area of Tubes.
To find t.he square feet of surfxe. .S. in a tube of a given length, L. in
feet, and diameter, d. in inches, multiply t~he I rwth in feet b>- the dinm-
eter in inches,a.nd by 0.2618. Or, S =
.?.1416 dL
=0.2615 dL. F o r t h e
diameters in the table below. multiply the liigtb in feet by tba figures
given opposite the diameter.
squar e
F%oY
Length.
quare Feet
per Foot
Length.
0 : M&
, I 963
. 2618
. 3272
. 3927
. 4581
. 5236
quare Feet
per Foot
Length.
Inches,
Di ameter.
Inches,
Diameter.
Inches,
3iameter.
114
l/2
314
1
1114
1 V?
1314
2
0. 5890
. 6545
. 7199
: f 3~~~
. 9163
. 9817
I . 0472
I . 3090
1: : : 2
2. 0944
2. 3542
; : %l
3. 1416
RI VETED I RON PI PE. 1
(Abendrot h & Rdot Xfg. Co.)
SheetG punched and rolled, ready for riveting, are packed in con-
venient form for shipment. The following table shows the iron and
yvets required for punched and formed sheets.
I
I
iumber Square Feet of
Iron Required to Jlake
IM) Lineal Feet Punched
and Formed Sheets
when put Together.
1600
I 700
I 800
1900
2000
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
Number Square Feet of
Iron Required to Make
100 Lineal Feet Punched
and For med Sheet s
when put Together.
Width
: Lap
in
Iches.
lquare
Feet.
i
1 112
IV2
1112
112
I l / y
1 V?
1 l/2
I l / 2
I 112
1: :
150
178
206
%s"
289
314
343
369
397
423
452
506
562
617
670
725
779
836
998
i i d t h
i i YP
Diam-
eter in
Inches.
Di am-
eter i n
[ nches.
:::
:zz :zz %g:
::: 1:: : : :
?W,rn, q.rw Q.Qh : : :
3 : : ::_
: : :
::.
3
: : : : : :
: : :
erial may no longer be accurate
2 1 2 MATERI ALS.
Weight and Strength of Riveted Hydraulic Pipe.
( Abner Doble Co., San Francisco. 1906.)
S = Safe head in feet. W=Wei ghti n po~~nds.
- 1 4-k. 5-in. 6-i;. 7-m. 1 B-in.
Thickness.
Cause.1 I n .
i-
SPI RAL RI VETED PI PE.
16 0. 062
2 , 078
. I 09
10 140
a : 171
. . . . . ~. 3/16
12 o-o78
I
. I 09
10 , 140
a . I 71
.......
....... YlS
.......
.
!!4
aa
....... 313
....... /I6
...... y2
....... 318
....... . 3/4
....... / l/8
mElGET OF ONE SQUARE FOOT OF SHEET-IRON FOB
MVETED PIPE.
Thickness b,y the Birmingham ?%ire-Gauge.
q-in. I O- i n. IZ-in. 1 l4-in. e
26 0. 91 I t3
24 16
0: ; ; ;
%
1. 25 El I 4 . G83
1. 56 1. 67 12 . I 09
16-in.
22-in.
I,,
!?i I
242
311 I
380
416
555
693
.36-k w-1)
I -
SPU&AL RIVETED PIPE.
t
Approximate Barsting Strength. Pounds per Square In&.
(American Spiral Pipe Works.)
Thickness.-U. S. Standard Gauge.
i 3.1 II>
j z.;
I i
;g 162 39. 5
7"R ! 259
ii I g;;
578 0815
693 106. 0
808 124. 5
924 142. 0
I
4ain. 54-h.
I
60-k 66-in. 72-in.
NG: Thi s i s a 1910 edili~on. SOE 0
I f 379
1500
1290
1070
z:
2:
629
2:
1560
1340
$2
935
890
780
720
670
625
989
920
470
429
390
2170
1860
1640
1460
1%
I080
i Ol 0
ET
a26
730 I
ii0
599
540
505
470
439
4i o
: "Q:
330
1 4 1 0
1295
I 210
-,* I l.
may no Ponger~i k acCi +i te
214
MATERIALS.
IWRGED STEEL FIANCES FOR RIVETED PIPE.
(American Spiral Pipe Works.)
; 33h 4 214
43hl 5%3 8
9
53/ m 6%3 8
I O
63110
i i ; : :
7 7h
l o :
; :
i ;
9114 l l V4 :
ro1/ 4 I 2 114
I l l / 4 133/ g I !
I 6 l i ?l / 4 I 4 11~ 12
17 I ! l 31/ 4 15 I f 4 12
l 4V4 I 6 l / 4 12
l 51/ 4 l 77/ 16 12
I I
-
>
--
I
-
211/ 4 16114 19114
23l f 4 %j , , 21114
I 2
25v4
i 6
28114 20vl S 2231~ 26Ullg I 6
El
243fg 272f4 i:
2
26% 24
2W8 31314 29314 28
38 303' 8 32%~ 33214 28
40
42
34318
36310
373f 4 3531~ 213
2. 9
32
46 403/ 8
39314
j 43314 32
I2
,;;;
V8
%
314
314
314
3/q
314
3/4
314
-
BENT AND COILED PIPES.
(National Pipe Bending Co., New Haven. Conn.)
Coik and Bends of Iron and Steel Pipe.
Si ze of Pi pe. . I
.
.
.Ioches
Least outside diameter
114 318 I!2 x/l/ i 1 l/4 I 112 2 2 l / 2 3
of coil..
. . . . . ._. .Ioches
I I
2 2 l / r 3 l / 2 4
I hj
6 I 8 I 2 16 I I 24 32
I I I I I I I I I
Size of pipe.. . . . . _. . .Inehes
Least oumide diameter
9 I O I 2
of coil... . . . .._ . __ .Ioches 40
92 I 05 130 156
Lengths continuous welded up to 3-in. pipe or coupled as desired,
Coils aud Bends of Drawn Brass and Copper
Tubing.
Size of tube. outside diameter.. Inches
Least outside diameter of coil Inches
Size of tube.
Least outslde outside diameter.
diameter of coil.
.Inches I
.Inches
18
l/q I S/ 6 1214 2 2114 2218 2~2; 3/ "
-19 /IO ]12/l4 116 118 i
-
Lengths continuous brazed. soldered. or coupled as desired.
SEAMLESS BRASS TUBES.
90 Bends in Iron or Steel Pipe.
(Wbitlock Coil Pipe Co., Hartford, Conn.)
Size pi pe, 1.D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Radius of bend.. . . . . . . . . . . I2
31/s l;
I3
End. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 31/ z 31,
C e n t e r t o f a c e . 15 I6 l/n I8 11
-I
Size pipe, O.D.. . . . . . . . . . . . . I4 16 I 8
Radius of bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
End. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7; 8;
Center to f ace. . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 77 87
,
g ital. Expsnsion.
hxpanslon. .V. 7f . S. 11/g. T o t a l 2
Tot al 17/s i; Flange broke.
:F; ;t$: Expanston. .V, 18/l& 8. 1%. T o t a l 211/16 i n :
Expansi on. Xv, 1%. S. 17/s. Total .i
2 0 0 Ibs: Expa ns i on, 1V. 1% S. 17/g. Tot al 3% ii:
FI;sn~,b~ke at
Quarter bend, full aerht pipe. Straight pipe 148 ft., one end. SO ibs.
Total expansion 1%. Flange leaked.
Quarter bend, extra heavy pipe.
Expanded 7/s in. when a flange broke.
Replaced with.a new flange, which broke when the expansion was 1% ln.
SEA3ILESS BRASS TUBE, IRON-PIPE SImX3.
(For actual dimensions see tables of Wrought-iron Pipe.)
Now&al We i ght ypm.
I
Weight
1 . perFoot. Slse. px Foot
ins. %;. i3y4. Ibs.
l/S I . 25
v4. . 43 1 1. 70
i f i . 62 30 I V4 1112 2j 50 *
"r,
-_
ins.
2
2112
3
3 ' l a
Ibs. i4.
4. 0
5. 75
8. 30
; ' I "
I O. 90 6
u. . . , , .
al may no longer be accurate
i
i -
, . ,
Nom.
Size.
Weight
per Foot.
216 MATERIALS. WEIGHT OF LEAD PI PE.
217
LEAD AN TI N EISE LEAD PIPE.
(Z:ntted Lead Co., New York, 1908.)
1 i
md
t>etrer.
Weight
3-
cx
per Foot. 2 5
Z e
I
,C.
Weight
,etter. per Foot,
and Rod.
PEE FOOT OF SEAMLESS DRASS TUBES.
(Taterbury Brsss Co., 1908.p
6 1 610 1 14
- - I
1%
I
-
A. W. G. 4
24
- -
. 020
-
St . :
: :
: t
. l i
. I f
. I S
. 22
. 25
. 2E
. 31
. 34
: $
- -
-
22
16
-
- 594
OjO
-
1.0,
.oi
1;
.I!
.I'
.2t
. 31
. 4i
: Z
. 4:
. 7(
. 71
. 61
. oc
. I 2
=
tg
-
: J nE
-
W?
-
, 039
. 04@
. O97
. 13
. I 5
. 21
. 27
. 33
2;
. 50
. 56
. 62
. 6%
: G
-
-
O~. OZO
, 032
. ~. 043
: 054
: Zi
, 112
. I 35
: I : !
. . .
. . .
. . ,
. . .
. . .
. . .
z
24 20
-
w96
-
0. 82
.Qi
1%
I 19
I.28
1.37
1.44
1. 55
1. 64
1. 74
I . 83
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
-
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
5
::
I::,
!:F
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
.A
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
..*
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
IGHT OF LEAD PIPE WHICH SHOULD BE USED FOR A
GIVEN HEAD OF WATER.
(United Lead Co., New York, 1908.)
Caliber and Weighty per Foot.
t Outside diameter.
I
Ia_
rial may no konger be accurate / &f
, @. : j
: a
WEIGHT OF COPPER AND BRASS WIRE AND PLATES.
Brown & Sharpe Gauge.
(F
ram tables of lesding manufacturers.) /l
6
\ \ ' ei &XrGPl ates
mr sl mare Foot.
I
7
I
Nei ghtof Pl ates
,er Square Foot.
3
e
ho.of T
3 Gauge.
0
Vei gbt of Wi re per
1000 Li ned Feet.
Vei ght of Wi re per
1000 Li neal Feet.
No. of
::ZUlge.
Thi cknessol
Di ameter.
' hi ckness or
Di ameter.
I
.-
.I i l-
Brass. :CJppW.
_.
I l Nl l .
O : k%:
. 022571
. 020100
. 017900
. 01594
: tE:
. 011257
. 010025
. OOtl 928
. 00795@
. 007080
. 006304
. 005614
. 005000
. 004453
. 003965
. 003531
. 003144
Th.
2, 45
I . 95
1. 54
1. 22
"%
, 610
, 464
, 384
, 304
, 241
, 191
, 152
, 120
. 0956
. 0757
. 0600
: : I ": :
. 0299
3peci f i c gravi ty. . . . . . . 8. 880
Wei ght per cubi c f t. . . 555.
BTZLSS. :Opper.
:opper. J OPPpF.
- -
TAS.
20. 84
18. 56
16. 53
14. 72
13. 11
I I . 67
10. 39
9. 26
8. 24
7. 34
6. 54
5. R2
5. 18
4. 62
4. 11
3. 66
3. 26
2. 90
2. 59
"2: ; :
1. 83
1. 63
, 1. 45
Brass. I
.-
Brass.
Lhs.
! %?
380. 67
Es:
189. 82
150. 52
' ZY
Et
47. 22
' 2; : ; 1:
23. 55
18. 68
14. 81
' Z
: : i i
4. 65
; : 2
c
. -
I.bn.
2. 317
1. 838
1. 457
I . 155
0. 916
, 727
. 576
. J 57
~362
?H7
: i 28
, 181
, 143
I I 4
. 0902
. 0715
. 0567
. 0450
. 0357
. 0283
lh.
I . 29
I . 15
I . 02
0. 911
, 811
: 2;
, 573
, 510
, 454
, 404
, 360
, 321
, 286
, 254
, 226
, 202
. I 80
: %
8. 386 t3. 698
524. 16 5, 436
l . bS.
1. 22
I . 08
0. 966
, 860
. 766
, 682
. 606
, 541
. 402
. 429
, 302
. 340
, 303
. 270
. 240
. 214
, 191
, 170
. I 51
. I 3
8. 218
513. 6
l . hs.
19. 69
17. 53
15. 61
13. 90
12. 38
I I . 03
9. 82
t: : ;
6. 93
6. 18
5, . 50
4. 90
4. 36
3. 80
3. 46
3. 08
: : : 4'
2. 18
1. 94
1. 73
1. 54
1. 38
Inch.
0.46000
. 40964
. 36480
. 32486
. 28930
. 25763
. 22942
. 20431
. I 8194
. : 1%
: 1%
. I 0189
: E%i
. 071961
: Ei
: i Z: ;
. 040303
. 035890
. 031961
J,bs.
640. 5
508. 0
%: i
253. 3
zoo. 9
159. 3
126. 4
100. 2
: %
15. 61
12. 4.
' 7: ;
I ; : ; :
: : :
/
SCREW-THREADS.
221
i,
220
MAT E RI AL S .
WEIGHT OF SHEET AND BAB BB.ASS.
i
-
. I
SCR~VV-TEt3EADS, SELLERS QR U. S. STANDARD.
- - - - - - -
BOLTS AND THREADS.
HE X. NCTS MD HEADS.
SqllfA
Bars
I. Ion
Lbs.
o:oo:64
. I 28
: E
. 5' 0
. 695
. 907
%
1. 72
2. 04
2. 40
2. 75
t: : ;
::::
4. 02
4. 45
4. 9'
: : i ;
6. 41
6. 95
7. 53
8. 12
z: : :
IO.0
10. 70
I I . 40
Thickness
Side or
Dism.,
Inches.
Sheet
Per
s ft.
9,bs.
46. 32
%:
: : : E
59. 95
62. 67
2: ; :
E: ; :
2; ;
81. 75
84. 47
87. 20
Z
8. 17
' 0. 90
13. 62
' 6. 35
! 9. 07
: Zl
27. 25
29. 97
32. 70
35. 42
38. 15
4o. e:
43. 60
0. 011
. 045
. 104l
: 1: :
. 4Ol
: : : ;
. 902
I . 11
I : : ;
I . 88
Go"
2. 85
2:
5. 12
5. 67
: : i i
7. 50
t%
9. 59
10. 34
I I . 12
I I . 93
13": : :
4. 52
-
I
r/ a
1 l i s
' 114
g
i v4
' l / a
2
2114
2*/z
f 3/ 4
3114
3112
: 3/ 4
4*/ 4
41/ :
431;
5
511,
; "'
-
In 1664 a committee o; the Franklin Institute rwommende? the adoP-
tion of the system of screw-threads and bolts which was dewed by Mr.
Wiliam Sellers of Philadelphia.
This system is now i;l general use In
the United States and it is commonly called the United States Standard.
The rule for p&portioning the thread is as follo!vs: ptide the pitch,
or wh&, is the same thing the side of the thread, l?to eight equal Parts;
take off one pzrt from tiJ top and fill in one part in the bottom of the
thread. then the flat top and bottom ~311 equal one-eighth of the pl:.ch.
ihe weking surface will be three-quarters of t.he pitch, and the diameter.
of screw at bottom of the thread will be expressed by the formula,
&Lam. of bolt - (1.299 + no. of threads per inch).
For s; sharp V-thread %th angle of 60 degrees the formula 1%
diam, of bolt - (1.733 + no. of threads Per inch).
; :
862
The angle of the thread in the Sellers system 1s 60 degrees.
( SPeCi f i c Gravity 2.68: 1 cu. in. = 0.0973 lb,
XP Ft.,
Lbs.
:E
I . 168
I.824
2. 627
4. 67'
h6 1 0. 876
' I 8
0. 004
1. 75'
114
. Ol 4
3 503
": ! ?4
3I a . 057 5 254 .Oi3
112
- 129
7. 006
$18
, 229
a. 757
: : z
, 358 , 456
' 0. 508 0. 5' 6
I
12. 260
' l / 4
' 4. 0" : %
! 17. 514
2
l/3 1. 433
2,017 2.063
E.022 3.668
I I
For further particulars regarding aluminum, see pp. 174,357.
SCREW-THREADS,
WHITWORTH CENGLISB) STANDARD.
g 4
a Lz
- -
iI4
- - -
20
VI 6 18
3/ a i 6
7hu 14
' 12
%I 3 i z
IR the Yhitworth OP Engl i sh s
I
degrees, and ;he pomt and root o
0.1373 X pitch.
P
stem t he angle of the thread fs 55
the thread a-6 rounded to a r;liliue of
The depth of the thread is 0.643 X ditch.
WARNI FKL This is a
et2
1910 edit-ion. the materi al
may
no l onger be accurate
SIZE OF ROUGH IRON FOR U. S. STANDARD BOLTS. 223
MATERI.\\I.S.
Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diameter, mm. . . . . . . . . . 275 25 l9 1:: 1:; 1;:
19
Pitch, mm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 48 0. x3 0. 39 0. 35 0. 38 0. 23 0: : : _
Thickness of Nutsand Rolt &a&.-In the above table the thickne..
of nlits and heads (rourhl i s elv
Many manufactur
. ~~---, -- -- en as equal to the diameter of the~b;c
ers make the thickness of nuts about r/s, and of bolt
neads ~4. of the diam. of the bolt.
Autompple Screws and Nuts. -The Association of Licensed Auto-
mobile M f rs (1906) adopted standard specifications for hexagon head
screws, cast.le and plain nuts known as the A.L.A.M. standard.
Material
to be steel, elastic limit not less than 60.000 lb?. per sq. in.. tensile Strenqh
not less than 100.000 Ibs. per sq. in.
U. S. Stanclan thread is used ?he
threaded portion of screws being 1 i/s times the diameter.
The castle nut
has a boss on the upper surface with six slots for a locking pin through
the bolt,.
LIJIIT GAUGES FOR IRON FOR SCREW-THREADS.
In adopting the Seders, or Franklin Institute, or United States Stand-
a
r
d as it is variously called, a difficulty arose from the fact that It IS
+,hehabit of iron manufnrtllrers to make iron over-size. and as there a,re
.sttm. if iron is too large it is necessary
Lo&tit away with the dies. So grea,t is this dXiculty, that the pyfcti.i;
J map-inv tnns a,nd dies over-size has become very general.
. ..-... i.D lr.. -._- -.-..
8eller.s syst,em is adopt~ed it is essential that iron should~be~obtained of the
correct size, or very nearly so. Of course no high degree of precision is
possible in rolling iron, and when exact sizes were demanded, t~he ques-
tion arose how much allowable variatton there should .oe from the true
size. It was proposed to make limit-gauges for mspecttng iron with two
openings one larger and the other smaller than the standard size. and
then specify that the iron should enter the large end and not enter the
small one. The following tabl e of dimensions for the hmrt-gauges was
adopted by the Master Car-Builders Assoctation in 1883.
Standard Automobi:c Screws, Castle and Plain Suts.
All dimensions in inches.
d = diam. of cotter pin.
P = pitch, or number of threads per inch.
P + 8 = flat top.
*
--
Differ-
ence.
0. 016
0. 017
0. 018
i %~
0. 021
-..
Differ- Size of
ence.
I
?I?
Large
E:g::
- -
?I:%!
0.8840
I . 0095
1. 1350
I . 2605
Small
End of
Gauge.
Small
End of
Gauge.
E%
EE
0.4930
0.5550
Large
End of
Gauge.
0%~
0. 3810
El %
0. 5700
__I - - --
0. 6170
0. 7415
0. 0660
0. 9905
I . 1150
I .2395
0. 010 c3
0. 011 314
0.012 7/8
0.013 I
0.014 1 l/S
0.015 ,114
:-&-A
I
-
3_!3?
/e-I
IS
l/B
!8
18
!S
18
18
118
18
-
T
._
_-
P
2
:i
20
18
I8
16
i4
14
-
H K
-
c E d
Caliper gauges with t,he above dimensions, and standard reference
gauges for testing them, are made by the Pratt & Whitney CO.
THE JL~XlM~X VARIATION IN SIZE OF ROTGn IRON
FOR U. S. STANDARD ROLTS.
Am. Mach.. hlav 12. 1892.
114
I16
318
7/E
111
116
18
11/l6
I16
I16
3132
3/:n
3132
18
vs
l/S
l/8
%3
%
.I.
-
.D
3!1a
VM
9132
2ll64
3/8
27164
w32
%4
%6
%2
3i4
/1e
VlO
3/32
3132
3132
if?
I?
3/3~
v32
3/32
3132
-/-
2-
3132
3/3?
18
Is
3/M
3116
I4
114
I4
114
I4
i8
18
Is
2132
5132
V32
5132
5132
V3?
-
By the adoption of the Sellers or U.S. Standard, thread taps and dies
keep their size much longer in use when Hatted in accordance with this
system than when made sharp
V, though it has been found advisable
in practice in most cases to make the taps of somewhat larger outside
diameter than the nominal size, thus carrying the threads furt.her towards
t, he V-shaoe and aliving corresponding clearance to the tops of the threads
I
-
when in the nut.s-or tapped holes.
Makers of taps and dies often have calls for taps and dies, U. S. Stand-
INTER?i
) THREAD <NET
?RIC S-STEM).
P = PltCh. = 1 - 00. of threads per mi!limeter.
Depth of thread = 0.6495 P.
Fla,t top and bottom of thread = one-eighth pitch.
Diam. at bottom of thread = diam. of bolt - :.29g p.
Diam.. mm. 6
Pit~ch. mm. 7 8 9
10 1.0 1.0 11 1.25 1.25 12 14 16
1.5 1.5
18 20 22 24 27
Diam.. mm.
1.75 2. 2.
Pitch, mm. 3.5 3!
33 36 2.5 2.5 2.5 3. 3.
3.5 4. 3942 4. 4.5 45 48 52 56 60
4.5 5. .f,. j.5 5.5
64 68 72 76 80
6. 6. 6.5 6.5 7,
ard for rough iron.
An examination of rough iron will show that much of it is rolled out of
round to an amount exceeding the limit of variation in size allowed.
In view of this it may be desirable to know what the extreme vana-
tion in iron may be consistent with the maintenance of U. S. bt.andard
threads i.e. threads which are standard when measured upon the angles,
the onI,; place where it seems advisable to have them fit closely.
hlr.
Chas A. Bauer the general manager of the Warder, Bushnell & Glessner
Co. at Sprinyileld Ohio, in 1884 adopted a plan which may, be,;;a;;:n;lads
follows: All colts whether cut from rough or finished stock.
ard size at the boitom and at the sides or angles of the threads, the Vari -
ation for fit of the nut and allowance for wear of taps being made in the
., machine taps. Nuts are punched with holes of such size as to give 85
per cent of a full thread, experience showing that the metal of wrought
nuts will then crowd into the threads of the taps sufficiently t0 giye
;g
racticaliy a full thread, while if punched smaller some of the metal wtll
e cut otit by the tap at the bottom of the threads, which is of cor,trse
Z Undesirable. Machine taps are made enough larger than the nominal
BRI TI SH ASSOCIATION STANDARD TRREAD.
The angle between the threads is 47~~.
0.6 X the pttch.
The depth of the thread is
The tops and bottoms of the threads are rounded with
a radius of 2111 oi the pitch.
Number . . . . . .
Diameter. mm.: 1 : : : : : : :
660
1 2 3 6
Pitch, mm
5.3 -
3464 352
..s..1.1.,.., I.00 0,90 $41 I?:+3 0 . 6 6 0 . 5 9 lz3
JARNING: Thi s is A 191d..klit~ion. Some of thk?
.- .
;erlal may no longer be accurate
224 M.1TERIALS.
ST A ND A RD SET - SC REWS A ND C A P- SC REWS. 225
to bring the tops of the threads up sharp, plus the amount allowed for
Et and wear of taps. This allows the iron to be enough above the nomi.
nal diameter to bring the threads up full (sharp) at top,, while if it is
small the only effect is to give a flat at top of threads: neither condition
affecting the actual size of the thread at the point at which it is intended
to bear.
rolled, the
Limit gauges zre furnished to the miils, by which the iron is
maximum size being shown in the third column of the table.
The minimum diameter is not given. the tendency in roiling being nearly
always to exceed t,he nominal diameter.
In making the taps the threaded portion is turned to the size given in
the eighth column of the table, which gives 6 to 7 thousandths of an inch
allovance for fit and wear of tap. Just above the threaded portion of the
tap a place is turned to the size given in the ninth column, these sizes
being the same as those of the regular U. S. Standard bo!t, at the bottom
STANDARD SET-SCREWS AND CAP-SCREWS.
American, Hartford, am! Yorcester Machine-Screw Companies.
(Compiled by W. S. Dix, 1895.)
(See tables below)
-.
vnirne ter o f ?zew..
Thre:rds p e r tnch.. _.
S i z e o f tap ~lrill.
Diameter of screw.. _. .
Threads p e r i n c h . . _.
S i z e o f tap dr i l l *.
of the thread, plus the amount ahowed for iit and wear of tap: or, in other
-wxds. g = U. S. St a n d a r d d + (D - D). Gauges like the one in the
cut, Fig. 75, are furnished for this sizing. In hnisbing the threads of the
* For cast iron. For numbers of twist-drills, see page 30.
Set-screws. ) Hex.Head Cap-screws. 1 Sq. Head Cap-screws.
Short Long
Diam. Di nm
of Head. of Hd
I-
-
_
I
I
I
I
Lengths E
(under of
He a d 1. Head
Short
I$$$~ Diam
of
He a d) . Uead
314 to 3 7llR
314 to 311, 12
314 to 3 112
; / , " : , " i 3/ ( /
%6
3/ 4 5/ 8
3/ 4to 4114, 13/ 18
3i 4 t0 7/ E
t, o
w21
4314: 1
114 to 5 1 l / O
l / z to 5 1114
314to 5 13l8
2 t o 5 1 I2
2
km@
)iam
f ::d E
: - -
0. 51
.5a
. 65
. 72
. 87
. 94
1. 01
1. 15
1. 30
1. 45
1. 59
1. 73
314 t,o 3 318
314 to3114 7/lS
314to3I2 112
314 t.0 3s/4 9116
314 t o4 ji8
314 to 4 la 11/N
I to 4112 314
114t o4314 718
112 to 5 1 vs
314 to 5 1 114
1 3i 8
1 112
0. 53 314to 3
$f 314314 to to 31143 /a
.ac 3/q to 3314
.a9 3/q to 4
.98 314to 4114
1. 06 I to 4%
I . 24 I 114t o 431.4
1. 60 I I / ? to5
I S. 77 1314 tc 5
1. 95 2 to 5
2. 13 j2114 to 5
FI G. 75.
tap a tool is used which has a removable cutter finished accurat.ely to
gauge by grinding, this tool being correct U. S. Standard as to angle,
and hat at the point. It is fed in and the threads chased until the Hat
point just touches the portion of the tap which has been t,urned to size
(I. Care having been taken with the form of the tool, with its grinding
on the top face (a fisture being provided for this to insure its being ground
properly). and also with the setting of t.he tool properly in the lathe, the
result is that the threads of the tap are correctly sized without further
attention.
STANDARD SIZES OF SCREW-THREADS FOR BOLTS
ASD TAPS.
(CHAS. A. BAUER.)
I
Flat Head Cap-screws. 1
Button-head Cap-
screws.
L
7
h
-
Inches
0. 0379
0. 0421
0. 0474
0. 0541
0. 5582
0. 0631
0. 0689
0. 0758
0. 0042
0. 0947
0. 1083
0. 1083
-
-.
f 1
. -
Ek?
1
0. 0070
C. 0078
0. 0089
0. 0096
0. 0104
0. 0114
0. 3125
0. 0139
2%
c. 0179
-
- 7- - -
T
-
_
-
T
_.
L
-
--
I :
I
A
l/4
VIG
3i8
7/l%
I i 2
%6
18
314
7h
: ' / 8
1' 14
d
,:;g;
0. 2403
Z: E
0~4400
J . 4543
0. 5069
0. 6201
0. 7307
0. 8376
0. 9394
I . 0644
Y- D
. _
:nches
0. 006
0. 006
0. 006
0. 006
0. 006
0. 007
0. 007
Ei :
0. 007
0. 007
0. 007
-
D
Inches
0. 2668
0. 3305
0. 3945
0. 4590
0. 5226
0. 5875
0. 0517
0. 7787
0. ?061
1. 0341
1. 1629
1. 2879
d --
Lengths
(including
Head:.
/
n D
- -
Inches
20 0. 2608
I 8 0. 3245
16 0. 3885
14 0. 4530
1; 1 tm;
I I 0.6445
ij I ;:;;;;
8 1 I . 0271
7 1. 1559
7 I . 2809
T
-
i
Dinm. of
Head.
-__
114
3!8
=I32
5/8
314
13116
7/8
I
118
1v/8
Diam. of
Head.
Lengths
(WKl3r
Head).
3/qto 2' I ?
314 to 2314
314to 3
314to3 114
314 t, o 31/ J
314 to33/ 4
3/ 4to 4
i to 4114
i 114to 4112
IV2to 4314
' 3' ; ; z ;
.-
-
Diam. of
Head.
Inches
0. 1915
0. 2463
0. 2998
Ego'
0. 4613
l M; ; y
0. 7377
0. 8446
0. 9464
1. 0714
7132$;l.$)
7116
%e
3/8
314
13/m
VII3
I:14
314 to 1314
314 to 2
3/4 to 2114
314 to 212
314 t o 2314
31;;;;
ill4to 3
I 112 to 3
1314 to3
-
314 t o 1314
y//4 lo 2
314 t o2114
31~to 2314
3/f :z;
1114 to 3
IV2to 3
1314 LO3
2to3
A = x!ominal diameter of bolt.
D = actual diameter of bolt.
.
D and d = diameters of tap.
H = hole in nut before tapping.
d = diameter of bolt at bottom of D = A + 0.2165/s.
thread.
d = A - 1.29904ln.
z = number of threads per inch.
h = 0.75~7/n = (D - d)/2.
4 = flat of bottom of thread.
h = deprb of thread.
- D - 0.85 (2 h).
--
Threads are U. S. Standard. Cap-screws are threaded 314lengthUP
to and including 1 inch diameter x 4 inches long, and 1121egt.ha$ove.
Lengths increase by i/4 inch each regular size between the limits given.
Lengths of heads, except Rat and button. equal diameter of screw.
The angle of the cone of the flat-head screw is 76 degrees, the sides
pking angles of 52 degrees with the top.
r i al may no longer be accurate
k?NiNG:~ This is a Igld~ed Lion, Some of the %T i t e
A. 8. M. F,. S TANDARD T.\Ps.
22
7
THE ACNE SCREW THREAD.
The Acme Thread is an adaptat,ion of the Commonlyused style of worm
thread and is intended to take t.he place of the square thread.
It is a
i&le shallower than the worm thread. but the same depth as the.sq;ye
thread and much stronger than the Iat,ter.
The an@e of the thread 1s -9 .
The various parts of the Acme Thread are obtamed as followS:
Widt,h of point of tool for screw or tap thread =
(a.;;.;{:7 + No. of Threads per in.) - 0.00X?.
\yidth of screw or nut thread = 0.3i07 + No. of Threads per in.
Dism. of Tap = Diam. of Screw + 0.0%.
A. S. M. E. STbND.iRD TAPS.
(Corbin Screw Corporation.)
Size.
RootDiameters.
I
PitchDiameters.
- - - !
i -
_
a Depth of Thread = (1 + 2 X No. of Threads per in.) + O.GlO.
>LWHISE SCREWS. - A.S.N.E. Standard.
The~American SocietY of Mechanical Engineers (1907) receivep a report
,~!I standard machine screws from its committee on that SubJ ect.
The
included angle of the thread is 60 degrees and a. flat 1s made at the top
and bo%om of t.he thread of one-eighth the basic dlamet~er.
A umform
i ncrement of 0. 013 inch exists between all sizes fro? 0 to 10 and 0.026
inch in t,he remaining sizes.
The pitches are a function of the dtameter
as expressed by the formula
Threads per inch = D :.i.ov.
- -
0
. 0770 . 0781 . OOl l
. 0886 . 0897 . COI I
. 0998 . I 01 . 0012
1116
: 1232 . I 129 . I 246 . 0013 . ool 4
. I 345 . I 359 , 001~
. I 475 . I 489 . ool I
. I 583 . I 598 . 0015
. I 70 . 1716 . OOl C
. I 944 . I 961 . OOl 7
A67 . 2184 . 0017
. 2403 . 242l . OOl @
. 2634 . 2652 . 001@
. 2894 2912 . OOl e
. 3118 . 3138 .002a
. 3334 . 3354 .0020
. 3594 . 3614 . 0920
. 3797 . 3818 . 002l
. 4057 . 4078 . 002l
The minimum tap conforms to the basic standard in all respects exept
diameter. The difference between the minimum tap and the maximum
screw provides an a!lowance for error in pit.ch and for wear of the tap III
service.
A. S. XI. E. STALNDARD XACHINZ SCREWS.
(Corbin Screw Corporation.)
-
OutsideDiameters. 1 Pit&Diameters.
--
Root Diameters.
Size.
SPECIAL T,\PS.
g;-
and
:hds.
er In
i-
M
m
I c
) f<
en
Dif-
v;; fer-
ence.
Mini-
mum.
O.OOi I 0.0538 I
. cml l , 064
. OO12 . 0732
. OOl 4 . 0809
. Ool 4 . 0774
. ool 4 . 0939
. Gol 4 . 0904
. 0014 . I 034
. 0315 , 099
. OOl 5 , 112
. OOl 6 . I 093
. 0015 . I 25
. OOl 6 . I 223
. OOl 6 . I 353
. OOi 7 . I 247
. 0015 . 151
. 0017 . I 377
. 0017 . I 637
. 0018 ~. I 789
: $I ; ; 2o$J
. 0020 . 2497
. Ci l ZO . 2668
. omo . 3017
. o?m . 3073
. 0020 . 3448
. OO20 . 3708
Jlini-
Itl,ll.
axi-
urn.
-
, 060
, 073
, 086
. 099
. I 12
. I 25
, 138
. I 51
. I 64
, 177
. I 90
. 216
, 242
. 268
3; :
. 346
, 372
. 39e
. 424
. 45c
-
I . 07364
. 086- 56
, 099- w
. I 1240
. 125- z
. 138- Z
. 151- : 22
. 164- E
, 177- z
. 190- g
: : $I ;
. 268- 20
. 294- I 8
: : : : I ; ;
: : E- Z
: Xt
3. 0559o. Oo21 0. 055
. ' 3663 . 0023 , 067
. 0757 . 0025 , 076
. 0837 . 0028 . 082
. 0803 . OO29 ~081
. 0967 . 0028 . 098
. 0933 . 0029 . 0935
. I 063 . OO29 . I 065
. I 021 . 003l . I 015
. 1! 5l . 0031 , 116
. I 125 . 0032 , 113
. 128l . W31 . I 285
. I 255 . 3032 . I 285
1385 . 0032 . I 405
: I 282 . 0035 . I 285
. 1541 . a031 . 154
1412 . 0035 . I 405
: I 672 . 0035 , 166
1826 . OO37 , 182
: 2086 . 0037 . 2O9
. ?l 76 . 0039 , 228
. 2536 . 0039 ~257
. 2708 . 0040 . 272
. 3056 . 0039 . 3125
. 3114 . 004l , 316
. 3488 . 0040 , 348
. 3748 . w40 . 377
0
I
:
4
z
i i
9
I O
1:
I 6
I 8
f z
;
30
1
;0.
/ :
I :
0028~0. 0505! 0. 0519~0. 00l ~
003 j . 06251 . 064 / . oOl 1
0032 . 0743/ - 07591 . OOI (
0035 - 08571 . 0874! . OOl ;
0038 .0966i .0985! . OOl !
GTJ J O' . I 0821 . l l O2\ . 002(
00421 . I 1971 . I 2181 - 002
0044 . I 3081 . I 3301 30;
, 0044 . 1438/ . 14f :
. 0047 . I 544 . 1567' : 002
. 0048 . I 66 16841 . OO2
. 0049 . I 904 : I 9281 . 002
. 0062 . 3745 . 3776i . 093
. OO62 . $I 05 . 4036/ . OO!
:ZO
. 0624
. 072l
. 0807
. 0910
. I 007
. I 097
. I 227
. I 307
: I %
. I 808
. 2014
: %l
: E9
! . 307
1 : 3204 3464
060- S
073- 7,
0864
W- 5
112- 4
, l 25- 4
. 138- 4
. l 5l - 3
. 164- 3
. l 77- 3
. 190- z
. 424-
. 450-
0. 0572
. 070
. 0828
. 0955
. I 082
. I 210
. I 338
. I 466
. l 59L
. 172?
. I 852
: %I
. 2621
, 288.
. 31*
: : 2
. 392
. 4171
.443i
i
1
I
I
-
RNING: This is a 1910 edif?on. Some of thk%
may no 1, onge+
SQUABES, CUBES. S UABE BOOTS AN?, CUBE BOOTS 01
NUXl&S FBoitlO.1 TO
1600.
9
1
No. 1 k-1 Cuba. ) Et, 1 E
;.
11
1
No. S
-- ---+.+-.~
I
- -.
:I5
.o, .ool
:k
.m3+ :3$ g If:
1 I?

1.1 9.6,
.oMJ
2% ho
:
10.24
.%25 .Ol%
.09
.0*7 3477 :4 *+ .:
IX
122,
:: -If
.MIY ,591.s
I1
.,c
:
2025
.6x3
:::
a
.I664
:%
l::f
55 3;225 .74,6 :E
::
93
I::::
1 L. 16.
25
31 2
:5
:Z
5
2
I;; ::9
::
.I 16.61
2
l%&g 9 ::
0 il
i6
17.64
- - -
i9.79, 1361 1.45(
32.760 I .7.39 1.47,
35.937 1.017 ,.+&
39.304 1.w I.M(
42.875 I.671 I.l,(l
46.656 ,,a97 ,.5)5
50.653 1.92, 1.547
54.672 1.949 1.560
1;
1:
1.1
I:,
;j
I.1
/:j
1.5
1.5
E
I::
1.8
ld!
1.9
1.91
2.
.I
1:
::
.6
.I
:9
3.
03 1:
I;:::
20.25
a
2:
i
61
..5
95 .9( 115 ::j
34
9zl; .9+
I:,, I:,,
,974, 2
::
21.16
1:0*5
30
II v.5
I.
P:Z
I.011 6 :
:9 : go 1
.
15 I:::
1.31
125
I:::
I
1.049
I.072
1.03; I j 26.0,
i5
I:::
f
$2
: !
i I
1.95
P:E
I.e.9 2.19 s
E I .07;
I.140 I.09 , : j
iL%
I5 I .a2 *5
, I
2.46
:
;;j ::if
1.162 1.10:
25
1%
1.11s ,
3 37
1.131
I::2
5 2 :.+o 3.72, 4
y;7 ,.I+ i7
:
1.15,
1::;:
0 : 16.
5 : :E I5
39
$2 :
I.265
1.285 ::% I :
7.21
I5
:2
;;mj
I
I .30+ 1.193
5.63i
1.123 1.205
1.342 1.216
:
k2:
4 z.2
422 !5
si
6.332
,
:::::
I.%0
I.378
Lz?a
1.396
1.239 f t : ::z
,I 226,
I.4142 p
1.449
9 : i 1 2 ;:::
7. i 9.
:b+
1O.M.S
1::;;:
I.433
1.517
I.301
a.41
;; 15.625
1%
i
i:%
17.576
I:%
1.611
1.357
1.375
.J
i .! II
!g
19.659
::%
I.643
I
I.392
I:;;:
,
?I
I.409
I.426
:I ::
27. 1.7321 1.4422
I
:5 ,
-
-
-. ._ -
NG:
. __. ___
Thi s i s a 19l Oai c6
68.92, 2.015 1.60,
74.0% 2.049 1.61,
79.507 2.074 1.626
65.W 2.098 1.639
91.125 ZIP, 1.65,
97.336 2.145 1.66,
D3.023 2.160 1.675
10.592 2.191 1.65,
p+9 2.214 1.6%
2.236, 1.7100
12.65, 2.256 ,.?,?I
nwm L&w 1.132
M.077 2.302 1.74,
17.464 t.324 1.754
6.375 1.345 1.165
5.616 2.366 1.776
5.193 2337 1.786
5.112 2.400 l.,W
5.379 2.429 1.007
6. 2.4495 1.0171
6.981 2.470 I.&?7
6.3211 t.490 1.637
D.047 2510 I.847
2.144 2.530 1.0w
4.625 2.550 ,..a%
I.496 2.569 1.816
I.763 2.560 I.855
t.432 2.608 LciQ5
;M9 2.627 1.90,
2.6456 1.9129
.911 2.665 I.922
0.40 2.663 1.93,
1.017 2.702 1.940
224 2.720 I.949
,075 2.m 1.957
__- -z:.z -.-.. -A
n. Some of the
94
hlATHEMATICAL TABmB.
._
NO
3
::
.+
::
.I
::
e.
::
::
::
::
.9
Y
12
1:
I5
1:
I!
:t
::
24
51
E
:9
g
35
if
:t
:
.2
k!.
w
SQUARES, CUBES, 8QUARE AND CUBE HOOTS. %I
61.T
65.61 53,)
6724 55,.3t
65.09 571.71
70.56 592.7(
72.25 614.11
73.W 636.0!
75.69 6M.Y
77.44 tdI.47
79.21 704.94
II. 729.
62.61 ,5,.5,
04.64 7mu
06.49 604.35
M,36 630.56
90.25 (151.3,
92.16 w4.73
94.09 912.6,
96.04 941.19
w.01 970.29
1% KY
18
1720
::H
!25 3375
;;
ix
E-z
6059
L!i
Ef
:::
I%
,302,
123 15625
:g
%!
2 21952
2,109
: :%Y
124 3ma
;: :kz
25 42875
E Es2
2 z:
22%
M
2%
;~L8m
1 may nc
3.162:
33IM
::Zi
3.741;
k9,
ET
b.2450
:3&E
t%
6.63~~
lOIl! ?r be ,
4275
4356
44.59
El
E
6724
%:
I
1
ra
7.4162 ,.0030
7.6158 3.0709
156533 8.7750 42543
174552 (1.0310 42727
b93039 0.0602 42W
il.2690 6.9443
ilM+l 9.
:3XB;
i51360 9.0554 4.3445
171117 P.IIo+ 4362,
192704 9.1652 4.3795
i,+,25 9.2195 43966
MO56 9.2736 4.4140
E.8503 9.3176 B1477. 93308 ::Z
rO4909 9.4340 4.4647
LzQooa 9.+u% 4.4814
15357, 9.5594 4.4579
r70b00 9.5917 +.51+4
!04,57 9.b437 4.530,
I30564 9.6954, 4.5460
DIJIEXS~ONS OF NACHINF: SCREtt XIEADS, ,. s. M. E.
SrANDMD.
6, ,A
T?.g%t
,027 ,072,
:9 :i%
:1 :IE
,049 .,m
.m ,140
,057 .15*1
I
.ca ,169
.om .ldbs
2% :E
,096 .2m
.I@4 .1101
.I!3 .1011
.I22 .mo
.I10 ,146~
,110 .3WI
.I47 ,424
RNI NG: Thi s i s- a 1910 edi ti ' on. Some of the ti ~g
-
WEIGHT CR 2 BOLTS WITH SQUARE HEADS.
229
kal may no l onger be a?%ate
MATERIALS.
CONE-READ BOILER RIVETS, \3:7EIGIiT PER 100.
(Hoopes & Townsend.)
Di:rm.. in.,
Scant.
TRACK BOLTS.
I states stanciart1 Hexagon Suts.
- - -
6. 3
6.
: : :
: : :
Sp. ir
LFz.Jf
Bolts. Nuts. I;,$$
Lb.
---I
iegs
3er
~lile.
Len+.
3/4mch
9. 35, 14. 4 17, 22: . . . . . . i
1O. Od 15. 2 18. 25' 21. 70,
l 0. 7Oi 16. 0 19. 28 23. 101
11. 40: 16. 8 20. 31 24. 501
17. 70 24. 0 29. 58 37. 10
18. 40 24. 8 30. 61 38. 50
19. 10 25. 6 31. 64 39. 90
19. 80 26. 4 32. 67 41. 30
20. 50 27. 2 33. 70 42. 70,
21. 20 28. 0 34. 73 44. 101
22. 60 29. 7 36. 79 46. 901
24. 00 31. 5 38. 85 49. 70'
25. 40 33. 3 40. 91 52. 501
26. 80 35. 2 42. 97 55. 301
28. 20 36. 9 45. 03 5a. 101
29. 60 38. 6 47. 09 60. 90
31. 00 40. 3 49. 15 63. 70
32. 40 42. 0 51. 27 66. 50
33. 80 43. 7 53. 27 69. 20
35. 20 45. 4 55. 33 72. 00
36. 60 47. 1 57. 39 74. 80
38. 00 40. 8 59. 45 77. 60
M. 80 52. 0 63. 57 83. 30
43. 60 55. 2 67. 69 88. 901
I hs. j l bs.
~
26. 55: . . . . . .
28. 0+. . . . . .
29. 45: 37. 0
30. 90' 38. 6
32. 35' 40. 2
33- m41. 9
35. 25 43. 5
36. 70. 45. 2
38. 151 47. 0
39. 601 48. 7
41. 05 50. 3
42. 50 51. 9
43. 951 53. 5
45. 40 55.1
46. 851 56. 8
48. 30; 58. 4
49. 751 60. 0
52. 65# 63. 3
55. 551 66. 5
58. 45; 69. 5
61. 351 73. 0
64. 25 76. 3
67.15 79.5
70. 05 82. 8
72. 951 86. 0
75. 85 89. 3
78. 75 92. 5
01. 65 95. 7
84. 55 99. 0
90.351105.5
95.151112.0
lbs. / Ihs.
:i ::::::I ._.... 1:::::.
,;:::::: :::::: ~. . . . . .
46
48
60
95
98 ~
1: : j
107 110 j
114
i
~
118
I 21
124
I 27
130
133
137
E;
I 58
165 /
I 72 ,
179
186
I 93 j
133
137
I 41
145
149
153
I 57
161
165
169
173
177
181
189
197
205
213
221
229
: :
254
263
272
281
297
314 _.
OCGHT WASH1~R.S. JZAINUFACTURERS STASDARD.
Dizm I
.-
ILl.
%3
314
7!8
I
12)
ii,:
1314
2
W4
64 :
66
-
1
-
rlo. in
LOO Lb
1200
E
600
570
460
432
366
356
In.
3116
114
v1e
3/8
The
I2
%3
;t
7l8
In.
1 a3
I 1,/d
3!8
I l/2
;T$
.4
! i!g
Bolt.
In.
I
! 18
1 114
i 3/B
1 112
I 518
I 314
I7!8
2
98
102
106
I I 0 /
I 14 ,
i ta i
122 /
13; i
SIZES OF CAST WASHERS.
Heads. . . . .
16. )
Thick.
In. In.
ljil6 I 1 5/8
I I Ii8 2V4
1 18 I 114
1 v4 I l/2 :
-
(Upson Nut co.. C!eve
II&?. Diam.! JIole.l Thick. 1 Bolt. Diam
* These two sizes are calcuiated for exact diameter.
TISXBUCKLES.
(Cleveland City Forge and Iron Co.)
Standard sizes made with right and left threads. D = outside diameter
Ill.
1 18
1 Ii4
1 3/8
3!4
.I
-
- - - -
In. In. In. In.
2114 .i&
%/16 II?
2314 $4 3:4
5/s
.a
13i,#j
314
iia 7!8
Fi2
6
FIG. 76.
of screw. A = length iu clear between heads = 6 ins. for all sizes,
B = length of tapped heads = 1 t/z D nearly. C = 6 ins. + 3 D nearly.
rial may no longer be accuF&
P
,~.-&
~~~R~~~G:~~ This is a 1910 ~edition. Some of the ma
232
MATERIALS.
iINP;IEI& RI%%%% F L A T WEADS.
Garland Nut &Rivet. Cr.
SPIKES.
233
To find gross tons per mile of track multi
yard) .bY 11 an? divide by 7.
ly weight, of rail (pounds
tp P
er
by weight of rail per yard.
To find feet o rad per gross ton divide 6 20
Splices and Bolts.
I,ew$i;e:f,Rails Number of Joints
Number of Bolts Xumber of Bolts
or Pails. L
Using Four-Hole Using: Six-Hole
tiplices. Splices.
:i b 2;
1280 1920
1408 2112
Spikes.
*i;
2
Kegs per Mile (4 Spikes to 3 Tie).
x
Si ze Measured
Under Head.
XATERIAL REQVIRED FOR ONE JIILE OF SISGLE T R A C K
RAILROAD.
(.$merican Bureau of Inspection and Tests, 1906.)
k
Using 33-Ft.
0.; R a i l s .
.P
f;
20 1 I 8 ) 16
< Ties per Rail.
__
Cross Ties.
33-Foot Rail. 30-Foot Rail.
Ties per Rail. Ties per &I&.
18 1 I 6 1 I 4
Ties per Rail.
Spacing of
Ties, Center
to ctm;er.
Ei . P
Ties per Xile.
20 32M)
I i i Ei
-
48. 7 43. 3 ' 37. 9 40. 6
36. 2 32. 2 20. 2 30. 2
43. 7 38. 0 34. 0 36. 4
33. 8 30. 0 26. 3 28.2
31. 7 20. 2 24. 6 26. 4
28. 2 23. 0 21. 9 23. 5
23. 9 21. 3 18. 6 19. 9
18. 6 16. 6 14. 5 15. 5
- - - -
2672 11264 9856 10560
6 x5/ * 260 49. 2 44. 3 39. 4
350 36. 6 32. 9 29. 3
290 44. 1 39. 7 35. 3
375 34. 1 30. 7 27. 3
404 32. 0 450 28. 5 f . t _ g5;
Bc& : ; 4; 21. 8 17. 0 19. 3 13. 1
: 12800 - - 11320 10240
18 3168
1:
2816
2464
R:
7eight per
Yard.
Lb.
Gross Tons
Per Mile.
100 157117 l O32/ 7
2 141317 1334: 7
1021: 7
942/ 7
85 i 25Vi 88
: : l l 7Q 815/ i
784: ; 70 ; ; ; ' I 7
7OZ/ 7
-ekht Per Gross Tons
per Mile.
Decimal Equivalent for l/7 = 0.143. Z/7 = 0.286. 317 = 0.429. 417 = 0.571.
J / 7 - 0. 714. e/ 7 = 0. 857.
WROUGHT SPI KES.
Number of Nai l s i n Keg ol 150 Pounds. I
114 in. Ys in. 7/ls in. 1:~ in.
2250. . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - i i . ! ! I . 662
- - -
3
3 v2 1890 1208 635 . __. . .
482 2: 306
455 256
ill2 1650 1464 I I 35 1064 . _. ___ . __. __ 10 9 . 573 . . . 424 391 300 270 E
_a I 380 1292 9 3 0 8 6 8 7 4 2 5 7 0 I I : z 2 0 3 180
For sizes and weights of wire spikes see Steel Wire Nails, page 235.
BOAT SPIKES.
Number QI Keg of 200 Pounds.
Length.
inch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - I , , / . . . . . . . . . . : . I . . . . - . . . . . . . .
. *
E
650
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
. . . . . .,.......... . ,
. . . . . . . . ,
_..__.......
5~~ ~1
5
trial may no longer be accurate
---
275
~~~~~~G: This is a 1910 editfon. Some of t'he'~%
234
MATERIALS.
iuMI%ER OF CUT NAII ND.
-T-
2
.-
::
2
v
P O
g
::
e
0
ti
-
. . . .
. . . .
.
130
2
68
.
j. TO THI
--
.
%
:z
168
124
as
70
55
44
34
23
I t7
I . 4
I O
a
E
48
36
g
16
. .
1100
720
%
: :
146
I 30
102
2
54
-
.._..
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
._....
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
28
. . . . . .
22
141/z
l2/2
9 112
:
224 126
98
128 75
110 65
9! , 55
71
2
i !
33
27 . _. . .
km. of
Body.
TOIJIENSIONS OF WOOD SCREl
Lengths.
2 /
/
ok&
g, 2 2
70. $2
: ;;y;
. I 368
30. 32 . 15w
30. 32 . I 631
24. 30. 32 . I 763
24. 30, 32 1894
12
14
I 6
: t
: :
26
: o"
. 242l
. 2684
. 2947
: : : : ' :
. 3737
2. :
- 4520
In.
3/t6-1/?
3116~%
311e-3/4
3;16-716
31,6-I
vq-I l/s
l/q-l 114
1/4-l 3/ p
1:4-l 1p1
20. 24
20. 24
6. 18. 20
16. IS
16. 18
16. I 8
14, I 6
14. 16
14. I 6
I I . 16
Diameter in Inches.
Length in 1
Ir,cbes.
3is
Lb. per I00
7116
h.pe r 10[
n
,b. :k 100.
wg
,b. per 100 b. ;$r 100.
16. 88
17. 18
I S. 07
19. 18
E: Z
26. 82
28. 25
30. 37
33. 88
35. 37
38. 94
44. 37
..........
..........
. . .
. .
34. 07
35. 88
39. 25
42. 62
47. 75
51. 62
55. 12
61. 88
68. 75
77. 00
90. 00
. . .._.......
64. 00
! G: ; ;
79. 37
t%
97. 50
. . ..~
, : . . _. . _. ___. :
108. 75
124. 75
Ilj: . . . . . . . . . . . .
I3i4. . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zliq.. . . . . . . . . . .
2 l/q_ . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 I : . i 2. . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41/ z . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51; : . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-
. .
l 6!
19;
23:
: : i
397
502
65@
851
136
402
828
1495
310
267
000
I I I
143
.
.
ii!
I J I
164
200
229
276
333
; : ;
714
947
I 68
523
077
758
556
000
926
610
I
5;
61
7(
I %
123
I 49
172
207
248
314
411
536
710
076
1143
1558
! 069
! 667
1750
I 444
I I f .
1314 2
l
- -
9
1 1
I O I I I 2
I
- - - _ - -
9
i
I f : I I
14 13
I 7 I 5
20 15
24 21
28 25
33 30
39 35
46 41
7 a
- -
r
; ;1,
; i
I I I O
13 I I
15 . .
I 8
, ,
. .
- . -
3:
;;
5:
6f
72
i i
I 20
1: :
198
251
329
429
568
701
913
I 246
I 655
! I 33
i ooo
z;
3t
5:
; I :
82
100
I I 5
138
165
209
274
357
473
504
761
038
379
17. 3
2:.
29;
341
4l d
49t
62t
1%
142c
I 752
2280
3116
G%:
7500
8888
I 420
2 ::
32 28
37 32
5: 38 r
; 7
, s
62
t; 75
I I 8 t: ;
1: ; 1: ;
215 204
306 268
406 350
500 438
653 571
890 779
182 .
4% 4
2
3314 ; ; :
4 113 4
;
5 112 5 411;
0
E: : ! . . . Z
9 . :
. .
: _
. . , . .
. . , , . , . .
. , . ,
.
. .
. . .
.
..I. ...,
I
.,,,,
::::::I:::::
3
i
2% :
. . . .._
. . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
, . . . . .
. . . . .
. .
0 ; :
20000 I
- 22
23702 I
30476 2
. . .
. . . 663
. . . . . 837
. . . . . . 1096
I 429
2840 1893
3504 2336
4571 3048
6233 4156
Ki : : I :
5000 10000
7777 11850
: 2056 15237
PLOUGH -STEEL WIRE.
239
Wei $k Per
Jot!& IN TELEGR~~PH WI R E S.
-The fewer t he j oi nt s i n a fine :fr;
All joints should be carefully made and wel! soldered over.
pbt$?joint may cauSe as much resistance to the electric current as several
miles of wire.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR GALVAXIZED IROS WIRE.
Issued by the British Postal Telegraph Authorities.
Diameter.
I
Test,s fo,T,,~~tn$h a n d 42 2 \
a
2
s
2
Allowed.
2
$
4
3
I
Allowed.
m
238 MATERIALS.
GALVAXIZED IRON WIRE FOR TELEGR,APH AND
TELEPHONE LINES.
(Trenton Iron Co.)
WEICZ~T PER MI L E- OH M. -This term is to be understood as dis-
tinguishing the resislance of material only, and means the weigh;oo;sscuec,h
material required per mile to give the resrstsnce of one ohm.
tain the mileage resistance of any wire. divide the . weight per mile-
ohm by the we&lit of the wire per mile. Thus in a grade of Extra
Best Best, of wh~eh the rveight per mile-ohm is 5090. the mileage resist-
ance of No. 6,frveigbt per mile 525 Ibs.) would be about 91/s ohms: and
No. 14 steel wrre, 6500 Ibs. weight per mile-ohm (95 Ibs. weight per mile),
would show about 69 ohms.
Sizes of Wire used in Telegraph and Telephone Lines.
No. 4. Has not been much used until recently:. is now used on
important lines where the multiplex systems are applied.
No. 5. Little used in the United States.
No. 6. Used for important circuits between cities.
No. 8. Medium size for circuits of 400 miles or fess.
No. 9. For similar locations to No. 8, but on somewhat shorter cir-
cults; untrl IatelY was the size most largely used in this country.
Nos. 10. 11. For Shorter circuit~s. railway telegraphs, private lines,
pohce and fire-a!arm hnes,.etc.
No. 12. For telephone hnes, police and fire-alarm lines. etc.
Nos. 13, 1-I. For te!ephone lures and short private lines: steel wire is
used most generally in these sizes.
The coating of telegraph wire with zinc as a protection against oxida-
tion IS now generally admitted to be the most efficacious method.
The grades of line wire are generally known to the trade as Extra
Best Best (E. B. B.). Best Best (B. B.), and Steel.
E x t r a Best Best is made of the very best iron. as neariv pure as
anv commercial iron, soft, tough, uniform, and of very high conduc-
ti$t.; its weight per mrle-ohm being about 5000 Ibs.
- Best oest 1s of iron. showing in mechanical tests almost as
good resufts as the E. B. B., but is not uite as soft and somewhat lower
in conductivitv: weight per mile-ohm a
The Steel
a out X00 lbs.
.mre is well suited for telephone or short telegraph lines,
and,the~weight per mile-ohm is about 6.500 !bs.
Tne rollowing are (approximately) the weights per mile of various
sizes of galvanized telegraph wire, drawn bY Trenton Iron Co.s cause:
NO.
Lbs
4. 5. 6, 7. 8, 9, 10. 11. 12, 13, -ii.
720, 610, 525, 450. 375. 310. 250, 200, 160, 12.5, 95.
TESTS OF TELEGRAPH WIRE.
?i
homing dat.a are taken from a table given by Xr. Prescott relat-
;t&of E. B. B. galvamzed wrre furnished the Western Union
L, nl
The
ing to
Telegr:ARC.
-
STRENGTH OF PI ANO- WI RE.
The average strength of English piano-wire is given as follows by
Webster, Horsfals & Lean:
12
!i
:E
225
0. 041 - 395
. 033 Tit
1: . 043 425
1:
. 035 305
;: :E El
. a37 340 22 ,052 650
I 7 , 039 360
These strenuths range from 360.000 to 349.096 &s~opeP,~$ott.o.$9~,
composi t i on o? this wire is as f0110wS: Carbon.
sulphur, 6.611; phosphorus, 0.018; manganese, 0.4&j.
,
PLOUGH
:-STEEL WIRE.
The term plough,
given in England to steel wire of high quality
wits derived from the fact that such wire is used for t,he COnStrUCtlOn of
ropes used for ploughing purposes.
not be uSed in this country as It
It is to be hoped that the te;gur;l
tends to confusron of terms.
-
Steel is known here in Some steel-works as the quallty of plate steel used
for ~the mold-boards of ploughs,
for which a very ordmary grade 1s
Size
of
Wire
Resistance.
Cemp. 75.8O Fahr.
.engtb
Feet
pez
lound
Iatio of
,reaking
eight to
Weight
,er mile.
0.238
, 220
. 203
, 180
, 165
,148
. I 34
. I 20
,199
.08?
Pounds
Ier mile.
-~.
8E6. 0
673. 0
572. 2
449. 9
378. 1
304. 2
%:;
GE
Grains
per foot
1043. 2
891. 3
758. 9
596. 7
501. 4
403. 4
330. 7
265. 2
218. 8
126. 9
Feet
her ohm
ohms
3er mile
Ei
9. 20
I I . 70
14. 00
17. 4
21. 2
26. 4
2;
958
i 27
618
578
g
%
104
5.51
7. 26
a. 54
10. 86
12. 92
16. 10
19. 60
24. 42
29. 60
51. 00
good enougn.
Experiments by Dr.
percv on the English plough-steel (so-called)
gave the following results: Specific gravrtY,
7.814; carbon, 0.828 per
cent. manganese, 0.58i per Cent:
silicon, 6.143 per cent: sulphur. 0.009
per cent: phosphorus nil: copper, 0.030 Per cent. No trace? of chro-
miur,, titanium or thgsten wer e f ound. The breakmg strarns of the
.~.....e~
wire were as rouows.
3. 05
G
:::;
::4:
3. 05
Diameter, inch, . . . O.uY3 .a3
._., -.-_-
pounds per sq. i nch 344. 966 957.666
224, 000 201, 600
The elongation was only from 0.75 to 1.1 percent.
material Jay no long& be accurate
WARNING: Thi-s is~~a -1910 ~ditioni
Some
-_y
the
j
-4
zi
t)! D
S1ONS. EGRT, ANV RESISTANCE OF PURE COPPEc W~RR.
. .
~Edlson or Ciretilar Dlll Ga u g e . ) tSee page31.)
Ciroulnl
Mila.
in
I
blsximum
Amperes.
Dhtnn~r i
Mil - 0.W
in.
- - -
I;::
26. 0
::::;
: : : :
09. 45
I 09. 55
Weight. 8~. gr. 0.0~9
Length
51. 6
l 2. %48
%
141. 43
r; ; . ; :
78. 6
86.8
i67:m
94. 9
l f12. 7
2:
110. 3
223. 61
117. 7
1: : : !
i %
254: w
134. 1
1460
E%
152. 6
282. 65
I
E:
%: G
, I : ; : :
i f : : :
198. 0
331. 67
210. 2
i i i : :
; z: g
374.l?
:f% i
024220
I
. 036328
. 0454I O
. 060548
075662
7x
121082
t: %
a6501
. I 81625
I %772
.ZII9OI
227043
. 242176
. 25?303
. 272434
. 287x77
~: %z
363267
. 393527
%6":
484m
: : z
: 9: ;
I
I
%: ; i
I
78705. 4 I
. %E :
966672
I . 029214 :
1. 069736 3,
= 0. 7' : 0 33 A.
--
Y%K-
-_
::::i
16. 464
41. 538
64. 902
115. 372
I sO.
259. 722
353 340
i i : : %
721. 026
872. 547
1036. 25. 3
1216. 586
1413. 264
p2; 62; ; ;
2083. 759
2336. 405
%; 2
3469. 950
A153. 433
4674. 226
5652. 099
6484573
7363. 042
E335. 525
9344, 666
I O411. 24l
ml 536. 661
3959, 567
6b12. ; 14
V4%. W7
; ; j ; w&
9521. 696
3340 Ml
7376. 652
F-
750 i
- . -
-.-
110. 087 66.054 : ; i : :
;::;;i 762. 3
: 6' : %
I : : ; : ;
1905. 7
K %I :
Q 4381 3334. 9
%
1811. "
4207. 7
6. 6069
$$g, y
4763. 6
; : oazo
Xi
4. 7192
6192. 9
6669 4.
0. 3850405
~%$
%i : ; ;
0086664
005- 470
0038522
0628301
%%
: E%
. OOG96315
mo; aoo; ;
00061635
. 00054172
00047990
00042807
00036415
wo34673
00028656
Oi l 024070
00020514
00017690
. 000154w
. 00013544
OOOl i 995
. wl o1070,
al moxmo~~;
. OOvO7163
0u000019
. om~' : ~, '
4
%EE
OI W2999
00002675
- 0 003497600
. 002098640
.001311700
, WO67457. 3
. 000699663
. 000524745
. WO419807
. 00014984G
004299863
. CSl 262400
. OCQ233227
. ooC209914
. OOOl 9062I
. 000174931
. WO161465
yw; ; ; ; ; ~
. wl 131193 2
Ql l O1234KJ
. OOo11i dJ 22 ti
cool ! 0; ?7
. cxI 0I 04960 I 2
. i Mc095410 II0
. 000084460 120
. $ma; ; , " 130
140~
:E%i
I 50
~: l i ! %: ~
E'
: z%: : : : T;
I 80
: i
g%; :
220
. C%l oO44360
240
260
. 00+3037484
. 000034986
. 0000: 2799
: I %
~%%Z
320
%
387. 39
4oa. 130
Et: :
: : : : ;
2904
~512. 0
%E
333. 0
4u. 05
353. 5
4B. 90
373. 7
509. 91
E: ?
529. 16
547. 73
: : : : : G%:
t4t. w
1 MI I F
-
25:
4. 4044
4. 1292
3.8065
3, 6706
3. 4773
: %Y:
2. 7528
2. 5411
2. 3596
2. i 323
2 0647
1 . I : :
I : l %
I , 5016
1. 3765
1. 2706
I 1798
I , l Ol Z
I . 0323
". p"%
7146. 0
7622. 3
8098. 4
6574. 7
9051. 6
9527.6
I%,
I %' :
14291 3
15243 9
1%
16102. 1
19055 4
20961 ,
26677 6
285&3. I
104688. 3
32393. 0 34298. 7
ll
Size 13.8: S
GiLllgC%
Fi re and
wentllcl
Proof.
SIOW
Burning.
WIRES OF DIFFEREN! METALS AND ALLOYS. 243
SFECIFLCATTOFS FOR HARD- DRAWN COPPER WIILE.
242 MATEIEIALS.
Stranded Copper Feed W4re, Weight in Founds. The Ijritish Post Otiice authorities req
wire supplied to them shall be of the leng
and conductivitles as set forth in ihe annex
-...--- -
ui re 1
: ths. I
: ed ta
ht hard-drawn copper
2s. weights, strengths,
i. (John A. Roeblings Sons Co.. 1,308.)
Weight per Stst,ute
Mile, lb.
Approximate Equiy-
dent Diameter, mils
Weight per Mile.
4
i
%
m
I..
~9800
5400
~: : I $
: 6l OO
Es
7300
6300
5400
3l W
0000
9000
7900
6900
5900
5070
4150
El !
2000
1770
1460
1220
' %
555
;Vesthtr-
proof
Wenther-
proof
-.
_-
I
_
. . I
. . .
.
20400
18600
1E
14900
12400
10500
9600
%i
6700
5600
4750
38PO
3wl
y; g
isio
1270
1030
045
695
460
-
I
- -
:.
2'
2
I '
1'
1,
1,
1
I
6
:!
FQ
- -
2208 5323
3184 Ill9
1150 6915
3132 2516
5104 8246
4493 6513
2883 4779
2080 3913
1272 3045
966: 1052
, %I 2 93ia
i240 8452
6441 7584
5639 6589
4E3l 5721
4023 4785
3405
"z; ;
A00
1346
1071
844
670
533
422
264
3935
3190
2544
2051
1599
1301
1004
820
668
544
359
-
j l o0
i 338
1575
3813
3050
2745
2440
2288
2135
1830
1525
1373
1220
1068
915
762
5690
$894
5098
4264
3456
$127
2799
2635
2471
2093
1765
1601
1436
1248
1083
907
645 745
513 604
z; 2:
255 303
203 246
160 190
127 I 55
I O1 126
80 103
50 68
-
7006
2700
i z
%i
5600
4900
4000
1800
0000
9100
8200
7l oC
6X3
5200
%Z
2760
: : :
1425
1090
%zi
410
2.~,~
i.75O.wO
1, 500. Cm
1. 250. 000
1. 000, ooo
900, 000
?5i a%
7oO: OCQ
6GQ. OMI
500, 000
450, Nnl
E&E
25o: ooo
3. &S.
G"%
OQO
00
008
i l 93
i 380
1508
1674
1332
! 992
! 822
! 650
! 235
1894
1724
1553
1345
I I 74
985
ml
653
522
424
328
270
206
170
I ' $
78
.
. .
. . .
860
; 520
i l En
1000
! 820
! 350
I 990
1820
1650
1440
1270
1060
E
583
2;
290
240
I 95
160
132
57
' 540
, 700
' 830
1940
' 980
, 640
i 280
i l O0
1920
! 460
! OYO
! 900
! 7Ca
I 500
1310
1120
960
785
625
510
380
335
280
230
I 95
I 65
I 05
.-
I(
; I!
F
4
WIRES OF DIFFERENT 91ETALS AND ALLOYS.
(J. ,3t2knall Svtl, Treatise on Wire.)
Brass Wire is commonly composed of an a!loy of IV4 to 2 parts of
comer to one Dart of zinc. The .snsilc strength ranpe:s from 20 to 40
to% per square inch. ixreasing with ihr perceEtsge of-zinc in the alloy.
German or Nickel Silver, m al!oy of copper, zinc, and nickel, is
practically brass whitened hy the addition of niczel. It has been drawn
mto wire as !ine as 0.002 inch diameter.
Platinum wire may be drawn into the finest Sims.. On account of its
high price its use is,practically confined to special scientitic instruments
and electrical apphances in which resistances to high temperature.
oxygen. and acids are essential. It expands less than other metals
when bested. It,s coefficjent of expansion being almost the same as
;zt$;f glass perm?>s Its lx1n.g sealed m glass ?vith?ut fear of crackmg the
It is Therelore used m mcandescent etectnc lamps.
Phosphor-brome Wire cont,ains from
from 1120 to l/g per cent of phosphorus.
2 to 6 per cent of tin and
detrimental to electric conductivitv.
The presence of phosphorus is
Delta-metal wire is made from an alloy of copper. iron, and zinc.
Its strength ranges from 45 to 62 t,ons Per square inch. It is used fo:
some kinds of wire rope, also for wire gauze.
posits of verdigris.
It is not subjec; to de-
It has great toughness, even lvhen its tensile
strength is over 60 tons per square inch.
Aluminum Wire.-Specific gravity 0.268. Tensile strength only
about 10 tons per sauare inch. It has been drawn as fine as 11.400
yards to the o&e, oi 0.042 grain per yard.
Aluminum Bronze, 90 copper, 10 aluminum,. has bigb strength and
ductility; is inoxidizabl?. sonorous. Its electnc conductivity is 12.6
per cent.
Approxi mate Rules fey the R@stance of Coppe,r Wire.-The
resistance of any coPPer1w~~~P51at.20 C. or 68 F., accordmg to Katthles-
sens standard, is R = - 7 ln which R is the resistance in inter-
d2
national ohms. I the length of the wire in feet, and d its diameter in mils.
(1 mil = Qar, inch.)
A No. 10 Wire. A.W.G.. 0.1019 in. diameter (practically 0.1 in.).
1000 ft. in length, has a resistance of 1 ohm at 680 F. and weighs 31.4
lbs.
If a wire of a given length and size by the American or Brown di
Sharpe gauge h+s a certain resistance, a wire of the same length and
three numbers lugher has twice the resistance, six numbers higher four
times the resistance, etc.
Wire gauge, A.W.G. No.. . . . . .
Relatjve resistance . . .
0:: ;
section or weight. . .
4 2
7 11 13 16 19 22
Vre 118 114 la 1
i k l/a h
8 16
Silicon Bronze, Patent& in 1882 by L. Weiler oi Paris, is made as
follows: Fluosilicate of
B
otash
calcium, carbonate of so
pounded glass. chloride of sodium and
a and' l ; l ; . e, are heated in a plumbago crucible,
and after the reaction takes plyc ~J e the contents are thrown into the
molten bronze to be treated. Silicon-bronze wire has a c0nductivit.y of
from 40 to 98 per cent of that of copper wire and four times more than
that of iron, while its tensile strength is nearly that of steel, or 28 to 55
tons per square inch of section.
sile strength increases.
The conductivity decreases as the ten-
Wire whose conductivity equals 95 per Cent of
that of pure copper gives a tensile strength of 28 tons per square inch.
but when its conductivity is 34 er cent of pure co per, itS. strength 1s
60 tons ner souare inch. It .is em8 largely used or t el egraph wi res. g. ?
It has g&t resistance t,o oxidation. I - -
Ordinary Drawn and Annealed CopperWire has a strensth of from
15 to 20 tons per square inch.
See wire table, A.W.G., under Electrical Engineering.
nal may no lor@ be acwrate
/
244 MATERI4LS.
WIRE ROPES.
STANDAltD HOISTING ROPE.
Before deciding npon iron or steel for ropes, it is betler to !*ave advice
from the manufactx:ers of wire rope.
In substituting steel for iron, it, LS well to use the same size of rope.
tllrrrhy taking full advantnge of the increased wearing capaclty of steel
over iron. The best steel is the only one to use, as inferi?r grades Fe
not as serviceable as good iron, because the constant ;nbr$lons to wh1cL
p:pes are subjected cause the poor steel to become bn,tt~le and Unsafe.
composed of 6 Strands and a. Peinp Center, 19 Wires to the Strand.
(John A. Roeblings Sons Co., 1QOY.)
See also pamphlets of John A. Roeblinss SOUS Co.. Trenton iron Co.,
A. Leschen & Sons Rope Co., and other makers.
I ,4
J.81
8.01
6.31
4.8
4. I
3.58
3.01
2.4
2-a
!2.8
18.9
15.60
12.40
9.60
8.40
7.20
6.20
5.00
4.20
. I
I -
II .95 228 45.6 C 8 3 1.58 34 6.80
9.85 190 37.9
8.00 156
9112 9 71s 23/q 1.20 26 5.20
31.2
6.30 124
8112 IO 3/4 21/4 0.89 19.4 3.88 3
24.8
;1,4 I;:;;
5jg 2 0.62 13.6 2.72
4.85 96 19.2
2x/4
4 IQ 5
2.20
4.15 84 16.8
w:s l3/40.50 I I . 0
5 II/? 43/4 3.55 72
6114 I!l3/; /:!
14.4 5314
.I l/z 0.39 8.8
I 314
l.76
IOU
%iz
7/1s I l/4 0.30
I I2
1318
6.8 1.36
4114 3.00 62 12.4 51/z 106 3!S 11/S 0.22 5.0 1.00
1 114
6 1114 4 2.45 50 10.0 5
I
7
IOC 5116 1
I l!S312
0.15
2.00 42
3.4 0.68
8.40 4112 1od 114 3/4 0. IO
213
2.4 0.48
112
This rope is almost universally employed for hoisting p11rpose.e nn
account of its Aesibilitp.
.y -.-
I t i s ma d e o f 6 st.m,nds PHI+ nf ~rrl~il
formed by tlvisting 19 wires togeti!er. and a hemp core or center,
., . ..zh is
tirn~es the he1.lp center is r
S o
m
e -
eplaced by a wire strand, which adds from 7
to 10 per cent to the strength of the rope: but the wear on the center is
as great as on the outside strands, and its use is not general1
This rope is very
advised.
ass over
EY
reasonab y small sheaves without injury. P
liable, and will wind on moderate-sized rums and
CT
Where it is . .-
M, drkms and sheaves larger than those indicated in the lists s
i? %d
be adopted, particularly when high speeds are employed sr when the .
working str.-i!? is greate; than one-fifth of the breaking strain as the
bending of a rope around a sheave is more destructive the hrabier the
strain on the roDe and the smaiier .th? sheave. The for
~~. -.._ .__ _._ .._
ItiSn$esssry. however. in son!e cases, - ?;!lere the spey&i<ge
,-.&ins.
rope is
' WARNING: This is a 1910 edition-. Some of the-ma
exCeSSlve. - to take it at one-eighth or one-tenth of the breaking stl~ain.
~.,*I
t e
TRANSNISSION OR H.4tJLAGE ROPE.
Composed of 6 Strands and a Hemp Center, 7 Wires to thttrand.
- -
5
9
1
: 7
3
I 5
, 6
-
- -
I
,
!
I
i
i
I
.b2
:::
.30
_ 22
.15
I.12
1.32 5114
- -
5
1
16
3.55
::oa:
2.00
I .51
I .20
0:::
I
C A ST STEEL.
-
8
4
.B
-
-
-
I l/q
I 3/a
I 114
1 G3
71
3/
11/l
i.68 2112
1.32 2114
0.96 2
0.68 I314
0.56 ll/a
4314 3.55 68 13.6 8% 19 51, 2 0.62 13.2
41/+ 3.00 58 11.6 ;1,4 20 9& !3/4 0.50 10.6
9.60 21 l/2 IliZ 0.39 8.4
8.00 6l,4 22 T/l8 11/4 0.30 6.6
6.40 5314 23 3/s lV8 0.22 4.5
4.80 5 24 5tla I 0.15 3.4
21,~ 0.69 18.6 3.72 4112 25 % 78 0.125 2.8
21/s 0.75 15.8 3.16 4
I , /, .,,,a
This rope is much stiffer than sta.:dard hoisting rope. It is made of
.6 strands, each of which is composed of .7 wires, all,dh;~;~& gJrno;
center. It may have, if it is desired. a wire center,
to 10 per cent to its strength, but it 1s then open to the objections
.--., --..-., .._ _
in may no long&- be accurat e
i
246 MATERIALS.
BLOUGH-STEEL ROPE.
Composed of 6 Strands and a Hemp Center.
19 WIRES 70 THE SrrR.n-D. l
GALVANIZED IROX WIRE ROPE. 247
and for certain purposes, mostly for haulage plants, inclined p!snes. and
street :ai!way cables, although it has also bee11 used for vertical ho!&
ln mines. etc. Its advantages are that it is somewhat more flexible
than rope If the same diameter &nd composed of the same number of
wires laid up in the ordinary manner: and (especially) that owing tw the
fact that the mires are laid more ari*.lly in the rope. longer surfacts of
the Ivire are exposed to wezzr, awl the e~?di~rance of the rope 1s thertby
[ncrensed. (Trenton Iron Co.1
8
9
:1,:
iOl/:
'03/1
IOU
lob
IOC
IOd
CABLE-TRACTIOX ROPES.
According t.o English practice, cable-traction ropes, of about 3% in
circumference, are commonly constructed with SIX strands .of 7 or 15
xvires, the lays in the strands varying frqm. say, 3 m. .to :3J/2 in., and
the Lays in the ropes from, say, 71/2 in. to 9 in. In the C,nited Sates. how-
ever strands of 19 wires are generally preferred, as hem:- more H&tile;
but on the other hand, the smaller external wires wear out, more rapidly.
The Market-s&reet Street Railway Company, San Francisco, has, used
ropes 1 l/g in. di,\m., composed of si? strands of 19 sfeel wres, mev$jmg
~,1/~, lb. per foot! the !ongest corXmuous length peinq 24,125 ft. The
&&go City RaIlroad Co. has enlployed cables of ldentlcal construction.
the longest length being 27,700 ft.
On the New York and Brooklyn
Bridge cable-railWay steel ropes 11,500 ft. long, containing 114 Wires,
61. 0
50. 8
41. 6
33. 0
25. 6
22. 2
19. 2
16. 4
13. 4
11. 2
I 1
I O
z
7 11:
6
51/ :
: ' . I
41.':
8. 80
6. 80
141/ 4
3314
; : ; ; ; 1/ 2
. 2. 90
2. 28
211,
2
; 1; : ( ' I 2
0. 90
0. 60
7/ a
213
I . 95 305
9. 85 254
8. 00 208
6. 30 165
4. 85 128
4. 15 III
3. 55 96
3. 00 82
2. 45 67
2. 00 56
have-been used.
GALVASIZED IROS WIRE ROPE.
For Ships Rigging and Derrick Guys.
Comnosed of 6 Strands and a Hemp Center. 7 or 12 Wires to the Strand.
-.
5
1112 43/4' 3. 55
1% . ! I / 4 3. 00
I V4 4 2. 45
l l i e y/ 2 T: $
718 23/d 1.20
314 2114 0. 89
U/ l 6 21/ s . 0. 75
.i!s 2 0. 62
S/l, 1314 0. 50 I 4
' I ? I V? 0. 39 I I 2. 20
7i l 5 I ' / 4 0. 30 8. 55 I . 71 21/ z 2
3i c, I l l s 0. 22 6. 35 1. 27
' i / 16 l 3. 15 4. 35
11/ z
0. 67
$132 '7!3i 0. 13 I 3. 65 0. 73
I I / 4
I
18. 2
15. 6
12. 8
10. 6
8.40
6.40
2
81i z I 9
8 20
'l/4 21
bV4 22
51i 3 23
: 24 25
3 V?
-
4. 81
4. 4(
Z
32: : ;
2. 5
2. 2
I . 9
1. 7
a
16
2
18
8
18
1. 44
1. 21
1. 00
0. 81
z
"0: : ;
i : : :
1: 53/ 4 114 9. 0 :
7. 3 4314
54: : 4%3314
32: ; 3 211.3
1.e 2 l/4
1. 4 2
44 1:1/2 I
qn 71
: "z 10 131
?I '
99112 ; ;
alI2 9:
23 a 11
20 7112 71
Ii
Plough-st.eel wire is made of high
grade of crucible steel, and will
stand .a strain of from 95 to 175 tons per sq. in.
Pl!,ugh-steel ropes are
used Instead of cast$eel or iron where it is neces.:ary to reduce the
dead weight, as, for Instance. with heavy or extremely long ropes when
t.he weight of the rope is a large item. They are also emploved when
the l oad on the rope of an existing plant has been materiallyincreased
and the sheaves and drums cam:ot be altered to meet the n&v require-
msnts. Jn this cn,se a plough-steel rope of t~he same size can be used
wth an increase in strength of 50 to 100 per cent. Plough-steel is,
therefore, applicable to conditions involving great wear and rough
usage. It is advisable to reduce all bends to a minimum and to use
somewhat iarger drums and sheaves than are suitable for the ordinarv
cast-steel rope. having a strength of 60 to SO tons per sq. in.
It is weI
to. ohtsm advice upon the adaptability of plough-steel ropes before
using them.
LANG WY $ ROPE.
In wire rope, as ordinarily made, the component strands are laid up
into rope in a direction opposite to that in which the wires are laid into
strands: that is, if t?e wires in the strands are laid from right to left.
the stfands are laid into rope from left to right.
Some!tlmes known as Universal Lay.
In the Lallg Lay.
the wires are laid into st r ands
and the strands into rope in the same direction: that is if the R re is laid
1 the strands from right to left. the strands are also l&d into rope from
right to ieft. Its use has been found desirable under certain conditions
Galvan&d wire rope has almost entirely superseded manila roQe for
shrouds and stays aboard ship.
It is cheaper in first cost, 1s no! affected
by weather and does not stretch and contract with, changes lq~tmOS-
heric conditions. on the other hand, it is quite as e&tlC as mamla rope.
!t isonly l/5 or& as large by hull-
, as a manila rope of e ual strength.
.%s less. It is
and offers only half as much surface, to .the wind. and wig
much less liable to accidents by cutting or chafing.
If galvanized rope of greater strength than that shown in the table
is desired, galvanized open hearth, cast-steel or plough-steel wre rope.
r+
a:can be obtained.
vial ,may no long& be accurate
INING: This is-a 1910 edit;@-. Some of the-ma
GALVANIZED STEEf, HAWSKRS.
GALVANLZED STEEL-%VIRE STRAND.
.
245 MATEI?TALS.
STEEL FLAT 10~~s.
(J. A. R.oeblings Sons Co.)
stack Guys, Signal Strand, etc.
Roeblings Sons Co., 1908,)
of 7 wires, twisted t.opether into a!
-
For SmoE
(J. i
This strand is cot~pos~
Dism.. in.
wt. per
1000 ft., lb
ed
-
I
:!e strand. ;inr
SL*el-wire F!jt Ropes are composed of a number of strands alter-
satei\, twisted t.o the right and left, laid alongside of each oth&,
sewed together wiclr soft iron wires.
place of round ropes in the shafts of
These r~fies are used at time:?:
mines. T h e y wind woo them.
sel\Jes on a narrow winding-drum. w h i c h takes (11, less roo~ti t ban ooe
necessary for a round rope. The soft-iron sewit x-wires wear out sooner
t&n t,he stee! st,rands, and then it becomes netessary to sew the rope
wth new iron wires.
ApprOX.
B rea Iii n 1
I
D&n., irl.
Strain. lb.
_ _ _
8500 7132. . . . . .
6500 3116. . . . . . . . : :
5600 .qL?. . . . . . . . . .
3800 Is. . . . . . . . . .
2500 3132. . . . . . . . . .
e of any strength from
.o run over sheaves or
Galvanized strand is made on applica.tion of 1%
60,000l b. to 350.000 lb. per sq. )n. \?ihen usec
pulleys the use of soft-iroE stock IS advisable.
FLEXIBLE STEEL-WIRE HAWSERS.
These hawsers are extensively used. They are made with six strands of
t,welve wires each, hemp centers being inserted in the mdividual strar1ds.w
well as in the completed rope.
steel, galvanized, and
The material employed is crucibleT-$
guaranteed to fuifill Lloyds requirements.
are only one-third the weight of hempen hawsers, and are suffi@e&iy
pliable to work round any bitts to which hempen rope of equvalent
strength c&n be apl>!ied.
l&inch tarred Russian hem;, hawser weighs about 39 lbs. per fathom.
IO-inch white manila hawser weighs about 20 Ihs. per fathom.
1 I/p-inch stud chain weighs about 68 Ibs. per fathom.
Pinch galvanized steel hawser weighs about 12 !bs. per fat.hom.
Each of the above csmed has about the same ten&e sireugth.
GALVhNLZED STEEL HAWSERS.
For Moori;rg; Sea or LakeToT ving.
Xl1 Strand consisting of
3;7 Wires.
-
Composed of 6 Strands and a Hemp Center, e:
13 Wires and a Hemp Core or of
I
Wt. per ft., lb
2. 38
2. 97
3. 30
4. 00
4. 27
4. 82
; : ; ;
___ -~-
I . 19 I 8
I .86
2.00 ::
2. 50 2.86 :i
::ii 47
3.90 :;
3. 6
5. 6
l/2x3
I2x3v2
6. 0 1/2x4
GdLVAivIZED S T E E L CABLES.
For Suspension Bri dges. (Roebl i ngs. )
Comaoseti of 6 Stra.nds- With Wire Center.
I,
DiaIIl.,
in.
Y&?
lb.
-
: r
- _
-z-
3. 70
3.10
%cum.,
in.
I2-Wire
Strand.
?7-Wire
Strand.
I
Approx.BreakingStrain,
t, ons ( 2WOl b. ) .
1ZWire
Strand.
37- Wi re
Strai i d.
12
155
142
I 31
120
109
99
; y
72
62
2
E
zt
- -
GALV-4NIIZED C.Ul - STEEL YACHT RI GGI NG
Vlil
_ Yl6
314
' lV1e
15/g
1 112
' 7/16
i 3/g
' '14
G3
VlJ
; l/l6
718
13/16
314
!:I:
5314
5v2
;l/4
4314
4I2
4I,4
4
6::;
5. 76
2;
4. 41
4. 00
: : Y i
22
2. 25
I 95
I . 69
1. 44
I . 21
' : E
6 Strands and a Iie
mi
-
3 Cat er . 7 or 19 Wires t,o the Strand.
vi-
g/l6
112
%Z
' 116
3la
5i16
-
E
1. 36
b. 30
I . 25
Xi
.
4
250 MATERIAQ3.
CH.\INS.
GRAINS .
Weight per Font, Proof Test and Breaking
Notes on the Use of Wire Rope.. (J. A. Roeblings Sons Co.)
(See also notea under various tables of wire ropes.)
Several kinds o.f wire rope are manufactured. The most P!iable
variety contiLm8 +x&Fen wires to the strand. The ropes with t\velve
vires and seven x!res m the strand are stifler, and are berter adapted for
standing role,, -I ., and r i ggi ng, ,
rape. and advice mu1 he ci\ en.
Orders should state the use of the
Wire r?pe is as pliable s,s new hemP rope of the same strength: the
former wvlll therefore run over the same-sized sheaves and pulleys as the
fatter. But the greater the diameter of the sheaves, pulleys,, or drums,
t he lonrer wire rope xx*ll last. Ihe minimum size of drum IS glvon in
t he table. Experi ence has demonstrated that the n-ear increa&r with
the sP)ced. It is, Therefore, bct,ter to increase t~he load than the speed.
~~v-e rope n?u.~f ?mt h e coiled or un~~oitcd like hemp r o p e. - W h e n
mounted on a reel. the latt,er should be mount.ed on a spindle or Rat
tcirn-table t,o pay off the rope. When foor!~~arded in a small coil, without
reel. rOli lt over the ground like a wheel, and run off the rope in that
Wyil\. An untwistinr or kinking must. be axroided.
To .Pr+wve xx-ire roPe, a ply raw linseed-oil wlt.h a piece of sheepskin,
~~0O~O~nJlde: or mix the 01 with equal parts of Spanish brown oi lamp. ?
1.
vtion: (Pennsylvania Rai!road Slxciiiq
I
Description.
Tw+i-sted ckin, _, IO3118 - - -
:
96 14
Perfection twisted cham
Str?f@-iiffk eh*?in. . .
1;; I/*
114314
,I # 1 .
. . 114314
Crane chain. . . . . .
I__
,V eight
Per
Foot.
Ih.
_-
0. 20
0. 35
0. 27
0. 70
1.10
1.60
1.60
2. 07
2. 07
Ei
%
5. 65
5. 75
7. 70
Z:%
12. 65
15. 50
:o:lZ
39. 00
I
1 Vs
I /4 .
1 v3
1 314
2 ,..._...
Elongation of all sizes, 10 per cent. All chain must
t est withqut, def~?rmatlon. A pi ece 2 ft. lorl: Out of
PKlof
Test.
Ll,S.
600
2, 500
2%
4 900
5635
6 400
7: 360
17%:
14 400
16: 560
Ireaking
Veight.
Lhs.
-Nominal
Diameter
of \\ire.
I,XlX~.
9132
3/16
3/10
iI4
5116
3/8
3!3
7116
~110
v2
112
va
81s
314
3/4
718
1
3, 200
5,000
7, 200
%z
11 270
12 800
14 720
20: ooo
he proof
00 ft. is
To Preserve rvire rope under water or Itnder ground, take mineral or
ve,!xtak!e t,ar, and add one bushel of fresh..~larl;ed lime to one bnrre! of
tar. which mdl neutralize the acid.
w%h the hot tar.
Boil it well. and saturate the roPe
To irive the mixture body, add some sawdxst.
The grcoves Of cast-iron
well-seasoned blocks of bar(f . :
ulle)s and sheaves should he filled !vitb
v.ocd. set on end. to be renewed when
wori, nut. 1~ !is end-mood will sag& wear a.nd increase
smaller Pilltevs 6r rol!ers whi ch suppor t t he ropes o n
snould be constructed on the same plan.
When large
high velocity. the grooves should he lined with leather.
wtb India robber. This is done in the case of shea!
transmission of power between distant point,s by
frequently rtins at the rate of 4OOO feet per minute.
means
stnm
eacll
in the proportion of unity,
sides of the former to each other.
From a great number of tests of bars and unfinished cables, the commit-
tee considered that the average ultimate reastance, and Proof tests of
chain cables made of the bars. whose diameters are QVen, should be
such as are shown in the accompanying table.
Locked Wire Rope.
Fig. 77 shows what is known as the Patent Locked Steel Wire Rope
made by the Trenton Iron Co. It is claimed to rxrear try0 to three times
FI G. 77.
.
as long as an ordinary wire rope of equal diameter and of like material
rvith an increased life for sheaves and rollers.
Sizes made are from l/i
to 2 inches diameter, with a minimum diameter of sheave of 4 and 12
feet respectively.
.
WARNING: This is a l!llO ~editi&-t~
S I ZES OF FIW.+BRICK.
253
SlZES OF FIRE-BRICK.
9-inch st,r;right 9 X ~112 X 2% inckes.
Soap.. _. 9 x l/42y2
Checker.. . . 9 X 3
I.
No. 1 Split . . . 9 X .4V2 X 1 l/4
No. 2 Split. . . 9 X -I/2 X 3
*,,
Jamb . 9 X 4 I/:! X %?
No. 1 ky. . p x 21b2 thick X W- to 4in<hes
252 MATERIALS.
lrersge resist,
=163%ofBar
POlKlClS.
I 172
79' 544
88' 445
97: 731
I x: ' :
128, 129
139: 103
150. 485
Dinm.
B,,.
Average resist.
= 163"$$ of Bar
Proof Test,
- -
Proof Test.
Pounds.
I 62,283
174. 475
187, 075
200, 074
g+; j :
24' 1' 463
E- 16: 040
Pounds.
77. 159
82. 956
88, 947
95. 128
101. 499
108. 058
114, 806
121, 737
4%::.
37' 820
42: 053
46, 460
51, 084
55. 903
60, 920
66. 138
71. 550
65 I>ric& To&KKgit: inside d&n.
.g x 2112 thi;k X:U/~ to 3 inches wide.
41 bricks to circle 3 ft. inside diam.
No. 4 key. . 9 X ?I/2 thick X 4% th Zl/4i~lCheS
wide. 26bricks to circle 1V2 ft. inside dl am.
No. 1 wedge ( or bullhead). . 9 X 4Vzwide 2 XVz
to 2 in. thick, tapering lengthwise.
102 bri cks to circle 5 ft. inside diam.
No. 2 wedge. . 9 x 4 112 x 2 112 to 1 l/a i n, t hi ck.
63 bricks to circle ?I/2 ft. inside diam:
N O. 1 arch. . 9 x 41/ 2x 211~ to 2 in. thlCk.
t.aprrinr: breadthwise.
$2 bricks to circle 4 ft.
Pi tch, Breaki ng, wof and Working Strains of Chains.
II,:e & Co.. Philadelphia.)
D. B. G. Special Crane
- -
i
$4
2-j
at2
2%
L7
$2
-t
3,361
5. 04l
7. 28(
I O. 081
l 3, 44i
16, 801
20, 72(
i 5. 2ol
30, 24(
35, 28(
40. 88l
3%
60: 48(
XI
84' OOC
91' 84(
01: 36(
09. 76(
20, 96(
31, 14(
-vi-
5i1a
%
7/M
l/2
Q/l6
5:s
Vlf
314
13llf
718
15llf
L!B
1vi
I3ll6
1$
i 318
1I16
I :/*
19/16
I314
:114
2liz
2314
3
Thl
inside
1, 932
2, 898
4. 186
5, 796
7. 728
9. 660
11, 914
14, 490
i 7. 388
20. 286
3: :
29: 568
33. 264
37, 576
41, 885
3: : ;
55: 748
2%
701762
82, 320
07, 520
36, 080
68, OOJ J
93, 088
17, 728
7 114
7 3i4
a distance worn center
: length
of 01
appr oxi mat e,
of link, but in prac
FOR CHAIN
and where exactne!
than thirty
SHE.YVES. - The c
times the diameter 01
EXAXPLE. -For l-inch chain
I . 288
1. 932
2, 790
3, 864
5, 152
6. 440
7, 942
9, 660
11. 592
13, 524
14, 989
17. 248
19. 712
22. 176
25, 050
27. 925
30, 800
33, 674
37. 165
40. 245
44, 352
47. 174
54, 880
71. 680
90, 720
12, ooo
28. 725
45. 152
l , 68(
2, 52C
3, 641
5. 0%
6. 720
8. 400
10, 360
12. 600
15, 120
17. 640
20. 440
23. 520
26. 880
30. 240
34, 160
; y;
6' 920
50: 680
i x:
65; 520
inside diam.
No. 2 arch. . 9 X 4%X 2%tJ ll/?.
42 bricks to circle 2 ft. inside diam.
No. 1 ske\v. 9 to 5 X 4% to 2112.
Bevel on one end.
N o . 2 skew _. 9 X 21/2X 4%to z1/2.
Equal bevel on both edges.
No.3ske~. ._,. 9 X ~QX 41/2to 1%.
Taper on one edge.
%-inch circle, 8 l/4 to jl!s X 4 l/2X 2V2..
edges curved, 9 bricks hne a 24-inch ClrCle.
36-inch circle. S3/4 t o 6 l/2 X 41/z X 2 l/2.
13 bricks line a 36-inch circle.
4%inch ci r cl e. Q3\4 to 7 1/4X 41/z X ~12,
17 bricks line a 4%inch circle.
--
1, 12
I , 68
2, 420
3. 360
4. 487
5, 6@l
6, 900
8. 400
I O. 087
I I , 760
13. 620
15. 680
17. 927
20, 160
22, 770
; e5*z
3( ; ' 617
33 780
361563
40, 327
43. 187
straight. .13V2 X Vs. X 6.
key No. 1. 131/2X 2% X 6 to 5 inch.
90 bricks turn a 1%ft. circle.
31/2inch key No. 2. 13112 X ~V2 X 6 to 4% inch.
.52 bricks turn a 6-ft. circle.
BGi n. Cirde Bridge wall, No. 1. 13 X 6% X 6.
Brid:e wall, No. 2, 13 X 6% X 3.
Milltile . . . . . . . . . lS..10,or4X6X3.
Stock-hole t,iles.. . 18, -3!1. or 24 X 9 X 4.
,
M-inch block . 1Y X 9 X 6.
cupola brick, 4 and 6 in. high, 4 and 6 in. radial width, to line shells
23 to 66 in. diameter.
4 g-inch straight brick weighs 7 lb. and contains 100. cubic inches.
( = 120 lb. per cubic foot.
Specific grarit.y 1.93.)
one cubic foot of ~~kl requres 17 g-inch bncks. one cubi c Yar d re-
wires 460.
Where keys, wedges, and other shapes are used, add 10
per cent in estimating the number required.
one i On of f i re- cl ay shoul d be sufficient to lay 3000. ordinary bricks.
n, Secure the best results, f i r e- br i cks silohlld be IaId, in the same clay
e 132 in
s requil
neter. i
lain u:
: 30-incu sheaves.
center of next is e ua1 to the
is allowed for we1!I This is
: ed, chain should be bade so.
,f possible, should be not less
8ed.
i-i,:, ,_,_ ~. _I . ..- r .,_ _ .z_ .~
material,may no longer be accurate WARNING: This is a 1910 edit?6 ~'~Some of?
254 MATERI.4LS.
from which they are manufactured.
It sh0~1d he used as a thin paste
and not as mortar. The thinner the joint the better the furnace wail
In orderiug brick.s, the service for which tiiey are required should be
stated.
Wcight of 1 Cord of Seasoned Wood, 1: 4 Cu. Ft. per Cord.
f,~Cwxy or sugar m;ip1e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !. . . . . . . . . . .
;~hiteoak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g-g lb.
Beech , rend oak or black oak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3: 250 1:
poplar, the!stnut or el m.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 350
Pi ne (nhit,eOk! %; \ Yay, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 000
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 2no * -,
NCNBER OF FIRE-BRICK REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS
CIRCLES.
-
Arch Brick; Key Ericks.
..I
/
Wedge Bricks.
-
. :
d
-
-.
?.
I
. .
.
. . . .
. .
I,..
. .
1:
z
i i
a:
6'
i t
; A
I S6
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
z
76
83
zi l
106
113
121
128
136
144
151
159
166
174
I SI
189
196
204
. . . . .
-
- -
I
I
I
I
I
1
1
I
I
I
I
-
-/
-.
42
49
57
64
2
i :
02
I O
z
32
40
; ' :
62
: ;
t:
-.
)
. . ,
60 __.
ci %
24 59
I i 79
9 8
9 8
9 8
9 8
9 8
: : : i i
: : : ; i
-
El
; :
9 8
98
+ r.i h
6 d :
I zz 2
- ( - -
: ; . i j . : :
9 25 ~. ,
38 . . ,
_. _ 32 ' 16
. _. 25 21
___ 19 32
. __I 13 42
. . 6 53
. . _ . _. _ 63
55
. __ . 52
. . . 47
. . _ 42
. . . . . 37
. _. . . _. 31
. __ . . _. 26
. 21
. __ . __. 16
i l
5
--
; i
-,
:I
-
.--
:I
.,..
1;
::
;:
;z
?I
104
113
113
I
.E
0:
N L
G : :
- - -
42 . _.
31 it
21 3f
I O 54
_. . 72
: : : : :
' . . : :
1
: _: : ;
: : : : 2"
: : : 5:
: : : : :
7 2
: : : : :
__. 72
ANALYSES OF FIRE CLAFS.
-- -
Brand.
For larger circles than 12 feet use 113 No. 1 Key, and as many Y-inch
brick as may be needed in addition.
i Mass. Inst of Technology 1871.
3 Report on Clays of New Jersey.
Prof. G. Hi Cook, 1877.
S Second Geological Survey of Penna., 1878.
4 Dr. Otto Wuth (2 sampl es), 1885.
6 Flint clay from Clearfield. and
Cambria nounties Pa., average of hundreds of analyses bp.HarbisoA?;1
Walker Refractodes Co., Pittsburg, Pa. *Same material ca cined.
other analyses from, catalogue of Stowe-Fuller Co., 1007.
WEIGHTS OF LOGS, LURIRER, ETC.
Weight of Gwen Logs to Scale 1000 Feet, Board Xeasure.
Yel l ow p! ne ( I
Norway pine
southern).
(Michigan).
................................................. 8,000 to 10,000 1
7,0c0 to f
..
7ff of stump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
mt of water
7,000 to ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.000 to 8.000 **
White pine (Michigan) 1;
Whibe p i n e ( P e n n s y l v a n i a ! , b.ark of f . _ . . _ . 5:iiou to
Hemlock (Pennsylvania),
i
Four acres of water are
Dark off.. _ . . . . . . . . . 6,000 to
;
: required to store 1,000,OOO feet of logs.
Refractoriness of Some American Fire-Brick. -- (I?. F. Weber,
A. I . M. R. 1904.) Prof. Heinrich Ries nobes that t.he fusibihty of Ne.w
Jerse
part
brick is influenced largely by its percentage of sihca,. but a!so In
Ii
almost any of the New Jersey fire-bricks could be reduced four or live
y the texture of the clay.
It was found that the fuslOn-Point of
cones by grinding the brick suEciently fine to pass through a loo-mesh
sieve.
. .,
Mr. Weber draws the conclusion from his tests of 44 bricks that it is
evident that the refractoriness of a fire-brick depends on the totai quan:
titv of fluves present the silica percentage and the coarseness of grain.
moreover chemical anaivsis alone cannot be used as an index of. the
refractoriness except within rather wide limits.
The following rablo
show= the composition, fusion-point,
and physical roperties of six most
is.
refra&ory and of five least refractory of the 4% bnc
&&.,
. .
-~--..s . . . . TV ;_,__~_,
,eri al may no loricj&%e accurate
I
Weight of 1000 Feet of Lumber, Board Measure.
Yellow or Norway pine.. . .:. . . . . . . .
White pine.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D:y, 3.000 lb.
3, 500 "
Green, 5,000 lb,.
4
4, 000
NNING: This is a 1910 &litxio& Some of thg II
MAT ERI ALS. MAGNESIA RRICKS. 251
MAGNESIA BRICKS.
Foreign Abstracts of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 1893. gives a
paper,by C. Bischof on th,e production of magnesia bricks. The material
most ln favor at present is the magnesite OP Styria. which, although Icy,3
pure~consmered as a source of magnesia than the Greek, has the property
of fritting at a high,tempernture without melting.
At a red heat magnesium carbonate is decomposed into carbonic acid
and caustic magnesia, which resembles lime in becoming hgdrated and
recarbonated when exposed to the air, and possesses a certain plasticity,
so that it can be moulded when subjected to a heavy pressure. By iong-
continued or stronger heating the material becomes dead-burnt, grving a
form of magnesia of high density, sp. gr. 3.8, as compared with 3.0 in the
plastic form, which is unalterable in the air but devoid of plasticitv. A
mixture of two volumes of dead-burnt with one of elastic magnesia can
be moulded into bricks which contract but !ittle in firing. Other binding
materials that have been used are: clay up to 10 or 15 per cent; gas-tar,
perfectlg freed from water. soda, silica, vinegar as a solutlon of magnesium
acetate which is readily decomposed by heat, and carbolates of alkalies
or lime, Among magnesium compounds a weak solution of magnesium
chloride may also be used. . For settin the bricks 1ightlY burnt, caustic
magnesia, with a small propdrtion of si ma td render it less refractory? is f.
recommended. The strength of the bricks may be increased by addmg
iron, either as oxide or silicate. If a porous product is required, sawdust
or starch may be added to the mixture. When dead-burnt magnesia is
used alone, soda is said to be the best binding material. See also papers
by A. E. Hunt, Trans. A. I. M. E., xvi, 720, and by T. Egleston, Trans.
A. 1. M. E., XI V. 458.
The average composition of magnesite. crude and calcined, is given as
follows by the Har!blson-Walker Refractories Co., Pittsburg (1907).
I ...
2
3 . ~
4. . .
5, .
6. .
40~. .
4l L. .
42, . .
43. .
44. .
- - .
(
L o c a l i t y . SiOz. .41?03. FezOa. .TiOr
J l i ssouri 5l . 5<
I ~e: ntl l cl i y 54. 9(
Pennsylvania. _, 53 . Of
Co! oracl o . . _. _. 93. 5
Kent ucky . , . _. .
Yew Ynrl - . . . _. \ i ! l : i j
Pennsyl vani a. . . . . 61 . i t
Pennsyl vani a. . 74.81
A l a b a m a .._. 67. I!
I n d i a n a . . 60.7t
K e n t u c k y . 60.5I
- 7
I<?1
WI1 t
3R. 26
3. 3. 19
I l . 16
2. 53
43. 08
20. 75
27. 13
16. 40
25. 05
31. 66
~32. 49
Per
cent.
I . 84
2. 13
2. 65
0. 62
2. 78
i . 20
2. 90
: : : 3
5. 67
2. 25
lw
cent
I . 97
i . 55
I . 80
0. 27
i : : :
I . 37
0. 77
0. 71
1. 58
I . 69
-
<
. /
2
j
;
-
Per
cent
Zi
1. 34
3. 01
6. 83
3. 81
7. 31
4. 74
4. 22
0~33
2. 99
-7
Per
cent.
10. 25
6. 91
5. 79
3. 90
12. 15
10. 55
I l . 58
8. 77
7. 76
7. 58
6. 93
1 FairlY uniform, angular flint-&v particles, constituting body of
brick. Largat. pieces .5 t,o 6 mm. in diameter. White.
Coarse-gmined: angul ar pieces of flint-clay as large as 9 mm.
age 4 to 5 mm. Light buff.
.4ver-
3 Coarse, angular Hint-clay particles, varying from 1 t.o 5 mm. in
diameter. Average 4 to 5 mm. Bufl.
4 Fine-grained quartz partmtes.
White.
Largest 2 to 3 mm. in diameter.
5 Medium grain; flint-clay particles, fairiy uniform in size. 3 to 4 mm.
Light buff.
B Coarse grain: 91:~ rtz part;cles. 4 t o 5 mm. i n di amet er, formi ng
abolrt 50 per cent of brick. Wh i t e .
4 Fine grain: small. mhite flint-clay part,icles, not over 2 mm. in
diameter ar!d not ehunt1ar. t. BuR.
* Medium grain: pieces of quartz with pinkish color and angular flint-
clay particles. About 3 mm. m diameter. Buff.
? Fine grain; even texture. Few coarse part.icles. Brown.
I3 Fine grain; some part~icles as large as 1 to 2 mm. in diameter.
( Angular, dark-color ?d. flinty-clay particles.
BUff.
Throughout a reddish-brc wn matrix.
Maximum size 5 mm.
SLAG BRICKS ANI: SLAG BLOCKS.
Slag bricks are made by mixing granulated basic slag and slaked lime
moloin ths mixture in a brick pr-:tss or by hand, and dryinu. The slllct
ii1 t.he S sgrangesfrom 22.5% to 357,; thea!umina andirono%de together T
from 16.1% to 21yp?,: the lime. from 40% to 51.5y0.~ The granulated slag
is dried a,nd p!ilverlzed. Powdered slaked lime is added in sufficient quan-
tity to brmg tne total calcium oxide in the mixture up to aborrt 5574.
visually a Smbll amount of water is added, The mixture is then molded
into shape. and the bricks are then dried for six to ten davs in the open
atr. Slag bricks weigh less than clay bricks of equal size. require less
mortar in laying UP. and are at least equal to them in crushing strength.
Slag blocks are made by running molten slag direct from the furnaces
into molds. If properly made, they are stronger than slug bricks. They
are, however. impervious to air-and moisture; and on that account
dwellings construct.ed of them are apt to be damp.
for foundatlons,or for paving blocks.
Their chief uses are
The properties required in a slag
paving block. viz: densit:y. resistance to abrasion, toughness. and rough-
ness of surface, vary mlth the chemical composition of the slag the
rapldlty of cooling, an.
d the character of the molds used. .,Blocks cast in
sand molds. and heavily covered with loose sand, cool slowlv and give
mu:11 better results than those cast in iron molds. -E. C. Eckel, Eng.
New?. BDril 30. 1903.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Sbrne~%?
Carbonate of magnesia
Magnesia. . . .
Si l i ca . .
Alumiua
Iron Oxide. .
Lime . . . . . . . . . .
Loss .
Grecian
Crude. Calcmed.
Styrian.
Crude. Calcined.
92.50% .
1. 50
at.;;%
0. 50 1 .oo
3.90
I.25 EZ
*
99.65 100.50
With the calcined Styrian magnesite of the above analysis it is not
necessary to use a binder either for making bri ck or for forming the
bottom of an open-hearth furnace.
ASBESTOS.
The following analpses of asbestoslare given by J. T. Donald, %np. and
M. Jour.. June 27. 1891.
Canadian.
Broughton. Templeton.
4lQM;% g;g%
2.81 .90 i:E
13.55 13.46
99.33 100.10
Chemical analysis throws light upon an important point in connection
wit.h asbestos. i.e.. the canse of the harshness of the Abre of some v
arleties.
Asbestos is principally a hydrous silicate of magnesia, i.e., silicate of mag-
ar%a combmed with water. When harsh fibre is analyzed It is found to
$ntain less water than the soft lime. In fibre of very fine UalitY from
Black Lake anal&s shomed 14.38% of water. while a harsh-:
~~~ ~~~ Iv
&red sample
gave onlY~-II:7ciOjb.~~~~ Ifsoft fibre be heated to a temperature that will drive
off a portion of the combined water there results a substance so brittle
that it mav be crumbled between thumb and flnger. There iS evidently
Laome connection between the consistency of the fibre and the amount ~of
r in its composition. ~., ~; . . . . ..m....- _--_ ~- .~,
,he material may no longer be accurate
255
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
STRENGTZ OF MATERI ALS.
EheSS an< Strain. -There i s much confusi on among wri t ers on
crength of materials a:; to rhe definit@n of these terms.
An esternai
-v.,., lpplied to 3 tmdy, so as to p~llt IL apart. I S reslsfed by ,an I nt er nal
or resistance, and the actioll of these forces C%IIS~S a displacement
r deformation. Ry somt writers the esternat force is
a Stress, and the internal force a strain: others rs!l the external
~~&-a strain and the internal force a st.ress; tlls confusl?n of terms 1s
not of importance, as the words stress and stral! are quite commonly
used synonymousl y, but t~he use of the word strsin to mean molecr~lar
displacement. deformation, or dist.ortlon.
as is the custom of some. 1s a
corruption of the tangrlage.
S e e fhgineering !Vews, J u n e 23. TS9.2.
Some authors in order 1.0 avoid confusion never use the word strain m
their writ,ings. Definitions by leading authorities are @ven below.
~trss,~. - A stress is a force which acts in t.he interior of a body. and
resists LIW erternitl forces which tend to change its shape.
A deformation
is the amount of ch+xe of shape of a body caused by the str$ss. -The
word strain is often used as synonymous with stress. and sometnnes It IS
a!so used to designate t.he deformation. (8lerrIman.)
Th&t Forrp hv which the molecules of a body resist a strain at any point
is called the stress at that oint.
The summation of the c v+ptacement.s of the molecules of a hod>- for a I!
eiven noint is &led the distortion or strain at the point considered.
-~ ~~- .-
(Burr.)
Stresses are the forces which are applied to bodies to bring illt,O.actiOn
t,heir elastic :.nd cchesive properties.
These forces cause alterations of
?he forms of the bodies upon which they Bet.
Shin is a name riven to
the kind of alteration produced by the st,resses.
The distinction bet.ween
stress and stmin is not always observed. one btng used for the other.
(WC0d. j
The use of the word stres.5 as synonymolls with
stress per square inch,
or \vith strength per square ir:ch, ~hordd be condemned as tacking In
precision.
Stresses are of rjifferent kinds, v i z . : lenSiZe, CO~~JWSSiW. !rtLtl~Sle~See for-
pres,s;re s@ess. or pu&. is a force tending t.. . . .
tends t,o bend it. h tcrsional stress tends to
tends t,o force one part of it to slide over the adjac
s+.rPssPs a.rr
sionnl and shehrinq stresses.
A I&sile atre.~,~. or 01111. is a force tending to elongate a piece.
.4 com-
n shorten it. A Ironscerse stress
twist it. A shearing stress
:ent part.
Tensile. compr&ive. and shearing I__ ..-..~ _. called ,simple Stresses.
Transverse stress is compounded of tensile and compressive stresses, ana
torsional of tensile and shearing stresses.
To these rive varieties of stresses might be added tearing stress, whic,h is
either tens& or shearing. but in which the resistance of different portlon~
of the material are brought into play in detai l , or one after the other
illstead of simultaneously. as in the simple stresses.
Ef f ects of Stresses. -The following general laws for cases of simple
tension or compression have been established by experiment (Mernrvan):
1. When a small stress is applied to a body, a small deformation 1s pro-
duced and on the remnvai of t,he stress the body springs back to Its original
form. For sma!l stresses, then. materials may be regarded as perfectly
elastic.
2. Under small st,resses the deformations are approximately proportional
to the forces or stresses which produce them, and also approsimatelY Pro.
portional to the length of the bar or body.
3. When the stress is great enough a deformation is produced which.i:
partly permarrent, that is. the body does not spring back entirely to Its
original form on removal of the stress. This permanent part is termed 2
set. In such cases the deformations are not proportional to the Stress.
4. When the stress is greater still the deformation rapidly increases ant
the body finally ruptures.
.5. .4 sudden stress, or shock, is more injurious than a steady stress oi
than a stress gradually applied.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
ELASTI C LIhPIT AND IItiLD POI NT
Elastic LQnit. -The elastic limit is defined as that Ioad at whit:h
the deformations cease to be proportional to the stresses, or at which
the rate of stretch (or other deformation) be-ins to increase.
It is also
defined a~ the load at which a permanent set &St. becomes visible
last definlQpn is nod considered as good as the first. as it is follnd &at $F{
some mat,erlals a set 0ccUrS with any load, no matter how small. and that
with others a,set which might be c:
alled permanent vanis!les with lnuse of
time. and as It lS,impossible to get the point of first set without removing
rhe whole load after each increase of load, \vhich is frequently incon,en-
ient. The elastic limit, def i ned, holvever, as
extensions begin t,o increase at a hi&t-
ihat stress at which t he
:r rate than the applied stresses.
usuauy corresponas very neari? with the point of first measurable ?er-
m.Tnnnt r-t
les the apparent elastic limit ai 1 tbe~$&t~o<ii&
[a plotted diagram in which the ordinates represent loads
and the abscissas the corresponding elongations] at which the rate of
deformation is 5O% erea.t~r t, hn, n i t.
strubcion. p. 19) deli1
stress diagram
is ate the origin. Ithe minimum rnt,el ' - . - . - - ~- - - -
. - . . _
An equivalent detimtion, proposed by the aut t i or . is-that point at which
;he. modulus of extension (length X increment of load per unit of section
+, increment of elongation) is two thirds of the maximum.
Fcr steel
with a moclulus of elasticity of 3O,OOO,OOO, this is equivaient to that
PbS.
oint at which the increase o f elongation in an g-inch specimen for 1000
per sq. In. increase of load is 0.0004 in.
/&d-po!nt. - The term yield-point has recent,ly been int~roduced int.0 Yi
the literature of the strengttl~of materials.
It is d&led as hat~point at
which the rate of stretch suddenly increases ra
the load. The diRerence between the elastic
idly with no increase of
the noint at whi mt. he mt. e c
limit, strictis defined as
nf stretch begins to increase. atid the vietd-
point. may in some cases be considerable.- This difference howeve? ~$il
non be &covered in short, test-pieces unless the readings of elongations
are ma$e by an exceedingly fine instrument. as 5 micrometer reading to
0.0001 Inch. In using a coarser ir nstrument. such as calioers resdinc to
I,/100 of an inch. the elastic limit and the yield-point wilt appear to be
simultaneous. Unfortunately for precision of language. the term yield-
Point was not introduced until lonp after the term elastic limit had beer,
almost unit-ersall,y adopted to signify the same physical fact which is now
defined by the term yield-point. that is. not the point at which the first
change in rat.e, observable only by a microscope, occlirs, but that later
point (more or less indefinite as to its precise posibion) at which the
lncrea,se is great enough to be seen by the naked eye.
method of determining the p
A most convenient
stretch 02
oint at which a sudden increase of rate of
ccurs in short specimens. when a test,inzz-machine in which the
Pulling is done by screws is used. is to note theyveight on the beam at.
the instant that the beam drops. During the ea,rlier
test, as the extension is steadily increased by the uniform
ortion of the
tion of the scr
! ut slow rota-
ews. the PO&C is moved steadily along the beam to keen it
In equipoise; suddenly a point is reached at which-the abeam .rops. and
will not rise until the elongation has been considerably increased by the
further rotation of the screws, the advancing of the poise meanwhile
being suspend<?d. This point corresuonds prsctlcallv to the noint at which
t he r at e of elongat,icn- sliddenly Cncreas&. a nd to t he pbint at whjch
an appreciable permanent set is first found.
which has hitherto been called in practice and in test-books the e astlc
I t i s al so t he point
limit, and it will probably continue to be so cal l ed. although the use 01
the ~PUFPI
: term Yield-uoint for it. and the restriction of the term elastic - . . - . -.
!imit to mean tile earher point a( which the rate of stretch begins to
Increase, as determinable only by micrometric measurements. is more
Precise and scientific. In order to obtain the yield-point by the drop of
the beam with approximate accuracy. the screws of the testing machine
must be r?iI1 very Slowly as the yield:point is approached, SO a? to cause
an elongation of not more t,han. say, 0.005 in. per minute.
In tables of strength of materials hereafter given, the term elastic limit
1s used in its customary meaning the point at which the rate of stress has
begun to increase as observable dv ordinary instruments or bv the dron of
the beam.
Point,
With this definition it his pm&ally synonymolis with yce!d-
material may no longer be accurate
260
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
CoeaRcient (or Modulus) of Elasticity. - This is a term express-
ing the relation between the amount of extension or cOm,PreSslon of a mate-
rial and the load producing that extension OK COmPreSsion.
It 1s defined as the load per unit of section divided by the extension per
unit of length.
Let p be the applied load. Ir the sectional area.of the Piece. l the length
of the part extended, A the amount of the extension. and.b the coefficient
of elasticity. Then P +
I; = the load on a unit of section: A -5 I = the
elongation of a unit of length.
Tham&%-ient.nf&sticitVissOlnAmes defined as t-he figure expr ess-
in- the load which would be necessary to dOng,ate a pieC$ Of one Square
i$h section to double its original length, provided the piece would not
break, and the ratio of extension to the force producing It remained Con-
stant.
Ifk
This definition follows from the formula abov;epmven, ,thus:
witl~~ihe;-;tHtIciir;lit. when the deformations are roportionai t o the
stresses, the coenicient of ela.sticity is constant, but eeyond the elastic
limit it deerearn- rctniAl.*
In cast iron _.....- ~~
~~:eXiZ&ierallv no anparent limit of elasticity. the defor-
mations increasing at a fasteirate than the st,resses, and, a permanent
set being produced by small loads.
The coefficient of elasticity therefore
is not constant during aLIy portion of a test, but grows smaller as the load
increases. Thecame is true in the case of ttmber.
Ins wrought iron and
steel. hov. _. _I
he coefficient of
elasticitv with
_.._ _-.~~~
IIPTTPF* there is a well-defined elastic limit, and t
ir that limit is nearly constant.
R.&lienee op Work of Resistance of a Material. -Within the
;ir timit ?.heresistancei ncr eas i ng uni f or ml y f r c
m7~~0 stre.93t o tne
elZ- l-_l, II-
stress at, the elastic-limit: the work done by a load applied gradually iS .,YLU3 - I../ -.-_ -
equal to one half t..- equal to one half the product of the final stress by the extension or other
rizforma,tinn. rizforma,tinn. BeVon~y~the Bwoncr the elastic limit,, the ext~nslOn.5mcreaslng more __.____. -..-~~~ ~~
mnid~v thS.n theloads. and the strain diagram (a Plot ted diagram showrng
t~~.~~~a,,b~e~lln~~~o stresses) apnroximating a parabolic form, :he
work is aooroximately equal to two thirds the product of tile maximum
_.._ __ _* ..-
Theamount __ ..--~~ ~-_~ : of pork reouired to break a bar, measured usually in in+
mid; is called its resilience: the work required to Strain it to the elastic
r:. 1rn.t isca!led its elastic resilience. (See below.)
Under a load applied suddenly the momentary elastic distortion is
equal to twice that caused by the same load apphed graddually.
When a solid material is exposed to percussive stress, as when a weight
fal!s upon a beam transversely, t~he work of resistance ts measured by the
nroduct of the weight into the total fall.
Y.--l-
stress, su
Fla~tic R.&llenee. -In a rectangular beam tested by transverse
lpported at the ends and loaded in the middle,
in wmch if P is the load in pounds at the elastic limit. R = the modulus of
transverse strength, or the stress on the extreme fibre, at the elastic limit,
E = modulus of eh&icity. D = deHection, 1. b,,and d = length, breadth;
and depth in inches. Substituting for P in (2) its value in (l), A= l/6 Rl
tEd.
The elastic r&lience = half the product of theload and deflection s
l/z P A and the elastic resilience per cubic inch = l/2 P?+lb<.
8ubstitutlng the values of P and ?r, this reduces to elastic resmence Per
cnblc inch = 1 g which is independent of the dimensions; and therefore
18 E
the &&lc resilience per cubic inch for trsnsverSe Strain may be used as *
modulus expressing one valuable quality of a material.
M?NING: This is a 1910 edition. Some O-f?
ELEVATION OF THE ELASTIC LIMIT.
261
Similarly for tension: Let P =tensile stress in pounds per square inch
St the elastic limit; e = elongation per unit of length at the elastic limit:
g = modulus of elasticity = P f e: whence e = P +E.
Then elastic resilience per cubic inch = 1/2pe=i g,
I,,.l --.i_. . - yJ -L.. A.. AA. LLUA~YUL! Ullil IIIUI~,,~,~ -. _. II_.IY.~ ..
C. 5. N.. independently, in 1873. that if wrought iron be subjected to a
stress beyOl:d Its elastic limit, but not beyoml its ultimate resistance and
then allowed to rest for a definite interval of time, a considekable
increase of elastic limit and ultimate resistance may be experienced.
other tvords. the application of stress and subsequent rest 9
In
increases
the resistance of vvrought iron. This rest may be an entire release
from stress or a simple holding the test-piwe at a given intensityof
stress.
Commander Beardsled prepared twelve specimens and subjected them
to a StresS equal to thec:timate resistance of the material without
breaking the specimens. These were then allowed to rest, entirely free
from StreSS, from 24 to 30 hours, after Wilicll they were again stressed
until broken. The gain in u1timat.e resistance by the rest was found to
vary from 4.4 to 17 per cent.
This elevation of elastic and ult,imate resistance appears to be peculiar
to iron and steel; it hss not been found in other metals.
Relation of the Elastic Limit to Endurance under apeated
Stresses (condensed from Engineering. August 7 1801). - When engi-
ePr9 fire hDml tn tnrt matnrinln i t x.7*. ~~m.m2....:~A
..-- _I .._- -_~-.. I- _* ~u.,
IV ,.u uuv.,,r-vSwrr;u that if a s,,eci-
men was loaded beyond a certain point it did not recover its original
dimensions on removing the load, but took a permanent set: this point
was cal!ed the elastic limit. Since below this point a bar appeared to
recover completely its original form and dimensions on removing the
load, it appeared obvious.that it had not been injured by the load, and
hence the working load might be deduced from the elastic limit by using
a small f.actor of safety.
Experience showed, however, that in many cases a bar would not carry
safely a stress anywnere near the elastic limit of the material as deter-
mmed by these experiments, and the whole theory of any connection
between the elastic limit of a bar and its working load bwame almost
discredited, and engineers employed the ultimate strength only in deduc-
ing tne safe working load to which their structureS might be subjected.
Still, as experience accumulated it was observed that a higher factor of
safety was required for a live load than for a dead one.
In 1871 Wohler oublished the results of a number of experiments on
bars of iron and steel Subjected to Live loads. in these experiments the
Stresses were put on and removed fmm the specimens without impact
but it was, nevertheless. found that the breaking strem of the materials
was in every case much below the statical breaking load.
Thus, a bar
of Iirupps axle steel having a tenacity of 49 tons per square inch broke
with a stress of 28.6 tons per square inch, when the load wan completely
removed and replaced without impact 170,000 times.
These experiments
were made on a large number of different brands of iron and steel and
the results were concordant in showing that a bar would break with an
alternating stress of only,, say, one third the statical breaking strength of
the material, if the repetitions of stress were sufficiently numerous.
At
the same time, however. it appeared from the general trend of the experi-
ments that a bar would stand an indefinite number of alternations of
stress, provided the stress was ke t below the limit.
Prof. Bauschinger defines the
2
asttc hmit as the point at which stress
ceases to be sensibly proportional to extension, the latter being measured
with a mirror apparatus reading to 1/5@Oi3 of a millimetre. or about
I/luOOOO in. This limit is always below the yield- oint
and may on
occasion be zero. On loading a bar above the yled-point, this point
rises withy the stress,
P
%
and the rise continues for weeks. months, and
osslbly for years if the bar is left at rest under its load.
On the other
and. when a bar is loaded beyond its true elastic limit. but below its
Yield-point, this limit rises. but reaches a maximum as the yield-point is
a Proached, and then falls rapidly, reaching even to zero.
tl!e bar
On leaving
at rest under a stress exceeding that of its primitive breaking-
! material may no longer be accurate
262 STRENGTH OF M.~TERI.~Ii3.
down point the elastic limit begins to rise again, and may, if left a SURE-
cient time, rise to a point much exceeding its preVlOllS value.
A bar has two limits of elasticity, one for tension and One fpr com-
pression. Bauschinger loaded a number of bars in tension until Stress
ceased to be sensibly proportional to deformation. The !oad was then
removed and the bar tested in compression until the elastic h.rmt.ln, this
direction. had been exceeded. This process raises the elastic hrnit in
;,PmmePression. as woul~l be found o testmg tne bar m compression a second
In place of this, however, it was now agr?m tested m tension. when
it w& found that the nrtiticial raising of the limit in compression had
lowered that in tension below its previous value. ,By repeating the
process of alternately testing in tension and compresslon, the t,wo hmitr
took up points at equal distances from the line of no load, both l! tension
and com~pression. These limits Bsuschj lger calls natural elastic hmits
of the bar. which for wrought iron correspond to a stress of about. 8% tons
Per square inch, but this is practically the limiting load to wluch a bar
of the same material can be strained alternately in ten%on and com-
pression, without breaking when the loading is repeated sufficiently often,
as determined by WBhlers method.
AS received from the rolls the elastic limit of the bar in tension is above
the natural elastic limit of the bar as defined by Bauschinger. havjng been
artificially raised by the deformations to which it has been subjected in
the process of manufsctrlre. Hence, when subjected to alternating
stresses, the limit in tension is immediately lowered. while that in com-
pression is raised until they both correspond to equal loads. Hence, in
Wiahlers experiments, in which the bars broke at loads nominal!y below
the e&tic limits of the material, there is every reason for concluding that
the loads were realiy greater than true elastic limits of the material.
This is contirmed by ,tests on the connecting-rods of engines. which work
under alternating stresses of equal intensity. Careful experiments on
old rods show that the elastic limit in compression is the same as that in
tension. and that both are far below the tension elastic limit of the
material 5s received from the rolls.
The common opinion that straining a metal beyond its elastic limit
injures it appears to be untrue. It is not the mere straining of a metal
beyond one elastic limit that injures it, but the straining, many times
repeated, beyond its two elastic limits. Sir Benjamin Baker has shown
that in bending a shell plate for a boiler the metal is of necessity strained
beyond its elastic limit, so that stresses of as much as 7 tons to 15 tons
per square inch may obtain in it as it comes from the rolls, and unless the
piate is annealed, these stresses will still exist after it. has been built into
the bailer. In such a case. however, when exposed to the additional
st.ress due to the pressure inside the bciier, the overst~rained portions of
the plate will relieve themselves by stretching and taLing a permanent
set. so that probably after a years working verv little difference could be
detected in the stresses in a plate built into the boiler as it came from the
bending rolls. and in one which had been annealed. before riveting into
p
lace and the first. in spite of its having been strained beyond its elastic
:
milts. and not subsequently annealed. would be as strong as the other.
Resistance of Netals to Repeated Shocks.
More than twelve years were spent by Wshler at the instance of the
Prussian Government in experimenting upon the resistance of iron and
steel to repeated stresses. The results of his experiments are expressed
in what is known as Wiihlers law, which is given in the following words
in Duboiss translation of Weyrauch:
Rupture may be caused not only by a steady load which exceeds the
carrying strength, but also by repeated applicaiions of stresses, none 01
which are equal to the carrying strength. The differences of these stresse:
are measures of the disturbance of continuity, in so far as by their increase
the minimum stress which is still necessary for rupture diminishes.
A practical illustration of the meaning of the first portion of this Ia*
may be given thus: If 50.000 pounds once applied will just break a b?l
of iron or steel. a stress very much less than 50,000 pounds will break 11
if repeated sufficiently often.
WARNING: This- is~a 1910 edition. Some of'?
STRESSES DUE To SUDDEN FORCES AND SHOCicS. 263
This isfullyconfirmed by the experiments of Fairbairnand Spsngenberg,
as well as those of WBhler; and, as is remarked by Weyrauch, it ma,y be
considered as a long-known result of common experience. It partially
accounts for what Mr. Holley has called the intrinsicaIly ridiculous
fxtnr of safetv of six.
Another long-known result of experience is the fact that rupture may
be caused by a succession of shocks or impacls. none of which alone would
he sufficient to cause it. Iron axles. the D&on-rods of steam hammers.
irid other pieces of metal subject to Eontinuousi,y repeat ed shocks.
lnvariahlv bresk after a certain length of service.
which is limited.
They have a life
Several years ago Fairbairn wrote: We know that in some cases
wrought iron subJected to continuous vibration assumes a crystalline
structure. and that the cohesive powers are much deteriorated, but we
are ignorant of the causes of this change. We are still ignorant. not
only of the causes of this change, but of the conditions under whxh it
takes place. Who knows whether wrought iron subjected to very slight
continuous vibration will endure forever? or whether to insure fina!
rupture each of the continuous small shocl s must amount at, least to a
certain percentage of single heavy shock (bath measured in foot-pounds),
which would cause rupture with one application9 W6h!er found in test-
ing iron by repeated stresses (not impacts) that in one case 400,000
applications of a stress of 500 centners to the square inch caused rupt.ure,
while a similar bar remained sound after 45.000.000 applications of a
stress of 300 centners to the souare inch (1 cent~ner = 110.2 Ibs.).
Who knows whether or not a-similar law holds true in regard torepeated
shocks? Suppose that a bar of iron would break under a single impact of
1000 foot-pounds, how many times would it be likely to bear the repetition
of 100 foot-pounds,.or would it be safe to allowit to remain for fifty years
subjected to a contmual succession of blows of even 10 foot-pounds each?
Mr. William Metcalf published in the Metall?~ryic:nl Review. Dec. 1877.
the results of some tests of the life of steel of different percentages of
carbon under impact. Some small steel pitmans were made, the specifi-
cations for which required that the unloaded machine should run 41/z
hours at the rate of 1200 revolutions per minute before breaking.
The steel was all of uniform quality, except as to carbon. Here are the
resul ts. T h e
0 . 3 0 C . r?n : ;: 2; ,I
0.49 c. ( 2-
iFLeEted aEd b+ befvre breaking.
;:6; c: .I
4 h. 5r m. l3roke without heating.
3 h. 50 m. Broke at weld where imperfect.
g:;i g: ::
5 h. 40 m.
18 h.
0.87 C. Broke in weld near the end.
0.96 C. Ran 4.55 m., and the machine broke down.
Some other experiments by Mr. Metcalf confirmed his conclusion, viz.
that high-carbon steel was better adapted to resist repeated shocks and
vibrations than low-carbon steel.
These results, however, would scarcely be sufficient to induce any
engineer to use 0.54 carbon steel in a car-axle or a bridge-rod. Further
experiments are needed to confirm or overthrow them.
(See description of proposed apparatus for such an investigation in the
authors paper in Trans. A. I . M. E.. vol. viii, p. 76, from which the above
extract is taken.)
Stresses Produced by Suddenly Applied Forces and Shocks-
(Mansfield Merriman, R. R. & Eng. Jour., Dec., 1889.1
TAPheth-~bhtwhichiprtmnn~d from a height h upon the end Of a
nn which is nroduced. The work ba<aid i,t,a,~~~,,,l;r;;melo;~ati~.. ,. ______ ._
Per f or med bv the fallinz weiEht. then. is m = P(hr+V), and this must
The stress in
equal the i&ernsl work of the resisting! moleCUk%r Stresses.
the bar which is at first o, increases up to a certain hmit Q. which is
@eater than P; and if the elastic limit be not exceeded the .elongatlon
Increases uniformly with the stress, so that the internal work 1s equal to
t material may no longer be accurate
264 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
.
the mean stress l,$ Q multiplied by the total elongation y. or W =1/z Qy.
Whence, neglecting the work that may be dissipated in heat,
1/z Qv - P h +P y.
If e be the elongation due to the static load P. within the elastic limit
u = $ C; whence Q = P (1 + 42). which gives the momentary
maximum stress. Substituting this value of Q, there results u = e
(1+&q. . wtuch IS the value of the momentary maximum elon-
&ion.
A shock results when the force P, before its action on the bar. is mov;;;
with velocity, as is the case when a weight P falls from a he@t h.
above forrr.ulus show that this height h ma be small if e is a small quan-
tity, and yet very great stresses and de ormations be produced. For 9
i ns t ance l et b = 4e, t hen Q = 4P and y =~ Je; al so l et h =12% t h e n
Q = 6Pand u = 6s. Or t.ake a wrought-iron bar 1 in. square and 5 ft.
lone: under a steady load of 5000 Ibs. this will be compressed about 0.012
:ht of 5000 lbs. in., supposing that-no lateral flexure occurs: hut if a we&
drops upon its e!al from the small height of O.O$S m. there will be produced.
the stress of 20.000 lbs.
A suddenfg a
mien t,hp rnd oP
plied force is one which acts with the uniform,intensitgP
t,he bar. but which has no velocity before acting upo~ it.
~~~~~~~~~~~&J&%~~ the case of h.=0 in the abdve formulas, and gives
2,;. 2~ jnd !I = 2s f or t he maximum s t r e s s pnd mr+:mum deforma-
Probablv t he act i on of a rapidly movmg train ,;c&a,,r$$;
nrnd~~res stressgs of this character. For a further dls
--~.----- --II-..-- ;-
_...-
subJWX in which the inertia of the bar is considered, see >lernrnans
Mecha&s of Materials. 10th ed., 1908.
Increasine t.he Tensile Streneth of Iron Bars by Twisting them.
-
Ernest LyRansome of San Fi-jncisco obtained a patent. in 1888, for
an improvement in strengthening and testing wrought metai and steel
rods or bars, consisting in twisting the same in a cold st.ate. . . Any
defect in the lamination of the metal which would otherwise be concealed
nco~ T h e i s r eveal ed bv twistine. and imperfections are shown at o
treatment m<y be jppiibd to bolts. suspension-rods or bars subjected to
tensile st.rength of any description.
Jesse .J. Shuman (Am. Sot. Test. Mat., 1907) describes severa. series of
experiments on the effect of twisting square steel bars. Foliowing are
some of the results:
Soft Bessemer steel bars l/3 in. square. Tens. Strength, plain bar. 60.400.
No. of turns per foot . . . :. ............... 3 4314 _ 5 314 5 I/s
Yield point, 19~. Per s.~.l~. 65, 600 72. 400 84.~00 84. 000 80. 800
Ult. strengt~l
Etongation In 8 in., y0 . . . . . . . . .
83,200 89, 600 92, 000 9,O.OOO 8;;8;0
10 5.75 6.35 7.5
B&emer. 0.25 carbon. l/zin. so. Tens. strength. plain bar, 75,000.
No. of turns er foot . . . . . . . .
Yield point, bs. per ~9. i&v. . . . 83.3600 P 83!00 8%0
&OO 8",.%0
Ult. strength . . . . 99,600
Eiongat,ion i n 8 i n . , % . . .
99'.;00 104,000 102:oOO 100,~06
Bars of each grade twisted off wbz given4zore t&s tha??ated.
Soft Bessemer, square bars, different sizes.
Size. in. sq... . . . . 14 1l.i 313 112 5/8 3/4 718 1 1x/8
No. of t ur ns f t .
Yield point. per
. . 4 3% 3 21/4 11/211/4 1 71s 314
Ult. strength Increase %* . . _. 111 82 64 83 85.5 77 %. . 37 38.6 41 33.5 34.3 29.7 $2.8 %.l &:9
Mr. Schkman recommends that in twisting bars for reinforced concrete.
in order not to be in danger of approaching the breaking point, the nurp-
ber of turns should be about half the number at which the steel is at Its
maximum strength, which for Bessemer of about 60.000 lbs. ten&
strengt.h means one complete twist in 8&o 10 times the size of the bar.
Steel bars strengthened by twisting are largely used in reinforced
concrete.
* Average of two tests each.:
WARNING: ~This~ is a~ 1910 edition. Some ??a
TENSILE STRENGTH.
TEGSILE STRENGTH.
Thefollon;ingdats are usually obtained in testing by tension in a testing-
machine a sample of a material of construction:
Ine load and the amount of extension at the elastic limit.
The maximum load applied before rupture.
The elongation of the piece, measured between =a.uge-marks placed a
stated distance apart before the test; and the reduction of area at the
PoLlrt of fracture.
lne load at the elastic limit and the maximum load are recorded in
pounds per square inch of the original area. The elongation is recorded
as a percentage of the stated length between the gauge-marks, and the
reduction of area as a percentage of the Original area. The coefficient of
elasticity is calculated from the ratio the extension within the elastic
limit per inch of length bears to the load per square inch producing that
extencfin
Description of Stem.
1 . 0 0 i n . l o n g . _.
0 . 5 0 i n . l o n g . .
0 . 2 5 i n . l o n g . .
Se,micircular groove, 0.4
m. rsdms. . .
Se$circ$ar groove. l/3
m. m&us. . . .
V- s ha pe d gr oove .
Eiastic Limit,
Lbs. per Sq. In.
64,900
65,320
68.000
75,000
86,000, &out
90,000, about
I!
lensile Strength
Lbs. per Sq. In.
116,360
134,960
I 17,000
Contraction of
Area. per cent.
49.0
43.4
39.6
3i .6
23 .o
Indetermina.te.
-
Test plates made by the author in 1879 of straight and grooved test-
Pieces of boiler-plate steel cut from the same gave the following results:
5 straight pieces,
4grooved
56,605 to 59,012 lp%
64,341 to 67,400
T,S. Av,$r. ;;Q;; I$
Excess of the short or grooved specimen, 21 per cent, or 15,114 lbs.
Measurement of Elongation. -In order to be able to Compare
records of elongation, it is necessary not only to ha\re a uniform length of
section between gauge-marks (say 8 inches). but to adopt a uniform
method of measuring the elongation to compensate for the difference
between the apparent e!ongation when the piece breaks near one of the
gauge-marks, and when it breaks midway between,them. The following
!Plethod is recommended (Trans. A. $. M. E., vol. ~1, P. 622):
_ .
ie material may -no loncji% b&Lad&kat6
266 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Mark on the specimen divisions of r/a inch each. After fracture measure
from the point of fracture the lengt,h of 8 of the marked spaces on each
f ractured portion (or 7 + on one side and 8 + on the other if the fracture
is not at one of the marks). The sum of these measurements, less 8
inches, is the elongation of S inches of the original lengtn.
If the fracture
is so near one end of the specimen that 7 + spaces are not left on the
shorter portion, then take the measurement of as many spaces (with the
fractional part nest to the fracture) as are left, and for the spaces lacking
add the measurement of as many corresponding spaces of the longer
port~ion as are necessary to make the 7 + spaces.
Shapes of Specimens for Tensile Tests. -The shapes shown in
Fi _y~ 75 were recommended bv the author in 1882 when he was connected
wi%the Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory. They are now in most general
use: the earlier forms, with 5 inches or less in length between shoulders,
being almost entirely abandoned.
k--
------1~~~*.2~!------
Nor.o~lkdSqusre or Hat bar, as
@
No. 2. Round har, as rolled.
No. 3. Standard shape for
flats or squares. Fillets
~--~-.-+-....-..~ 1;s inch radius.
No. 4. Standard shape for
r ounds. Fi l l et s r/s i nch
rsdius.
r-----
__I._-_
-I
L- - - - 4&&L __ _ -
No. 5. Government shape
1l
formerly used for marine
boiler-plates of iron. Not
recommended., as results
are generally in error.
PIO. 78.
Precautions Required in mrtkin.q Tensile Tests. -The testing-
machine itself should be tested, to determine whether its weighing
apparatus is accurate. and whether it is so made and adjusted that
in the test of a properly made specimen the line of strain of the testing-
machine is absolutely in line with the axis of the specimen.
The snerimen should be so shaned that it will not eive an incorrect
record of st,rength.
It should be of uniform minimum section for not less than eight inches
of its lei&h. Zicht inches is the standard length for bars. For forgings
and casti;es and-in snecial cases shorter lent!ths are used: these show
greater per&its&s of*elongation. and the length between gauge marks
should therefore always be stated in the record.
Ressrd : ust he had to the time occupied in making tests of certain
mate&is. Wrought iron and soft steel can be made to show a higher
than their actual apparent strength by keeping them under strain for s
great !ength of time.
In teiting soft alloys,,copper, tin, zinc. and the like, which flow under
constant strain, their highest apparent strength is obtained by testing
bhemranidlv. Tn recordinn tests of such materials the length of time
o&%$&l~in~;the test should be stated.
.I
For very accurate measurements of elongation, corresponding to incre
ments of bad tiuring the tests, the electric contact mirrometer. described
in Trans. .4. S. M. E.. vol. vi. p. 479, will be found convenient. When
readings of elongation are then taken during the test; a strain diagrarf
may be plotted from the reading, which is useful in comparing the quah
ties of different snecimens. Such strain diaerams are made automatically
by the new Olsen testing-machine,~described in Jour. Frank. ~Inst. 1891
The coefficient of elasticity should be deduced from measuremen
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some 0,
CO11 PRESSIVE STRENGTIi,
ohserved between fixed increments of !oad per uuit section. say between
2000 and l!LOC!j pounds per square inch or between 1000 and 11,000
pounds I nstead of between 0 and 10,000 pounds.
,CWJXPRESSIVE STRENGTH.
What is meant by the term compressive strengt,h has not yet been What is meant by the term compressive strengt,h has not yet been
settl ed by the authorities. and there exists more confusion in regard to settl ed by the authorities. and there exists more confusion in regard to
this term than in regard to any other used by writers on strength of this term than in regard to anv other used bv writers on st,rensfh of
;;;jterials. materials. The reason of this may be easily explained. The reason of this may be easily esplained. The effect. of a The effect. of a
compressive stress upon a material varies with the nature of Ihe material, compressive stress upon a material varies with the nature of Ihe material,
and with the shape and size of t,he specimen tested. and with the shape and size of t,he specimen tested. While the effect of a While the effect of a
tensile stress is to produce rupture or separation of particles in t,he direc- tensile stress is to produce rupture or separation of particles in t,he direc-
tion of the line of strain. the effect of a compressive st~ress on a piece of tion of the line of strain. the effect of a compressive st~ress on a piece of
material may be either to cause it to Hy into splint,ers. to separate into material may be either to cause it to Hy into splint,ers. to separate into
two or more wedge-shaped pieces and fly apart, to bulge, buckle. or bend, two or more wedge-shaped pieces and fly apart, to bulge, buckle. or bend,
or to flatten out and utterly resist rupture or separation oi particles. or to flatten out and utterly resist rupture or separation oi particles. AA
ni ece of soeculum metal (Conner 2. tin 1) under comntessive st,ress will piece.of speculum metal (copper 2, tin 1) under compressive st,ress will
exhibit no change of appearance until rupture takes place, and then it &mbit no* change of appearance until rupture takes place, and then it
will Hyto pieces as suddenly as if biown apart by gunpowder. will Hyto pieces as suddenly as if biown apart by gunpowder. A piece A piece
of cast iron or of stone will generally split into wedge-shaped fragments. of cast iron or of stone will generally split into wedge-shaped fragments.
A niece of wrought iron will buckle or bend. A niece of wrought iron will buckle or bend. A niece of wood-or zinc A niece of wood or zinc
may bulge, hut its action will depend upon its shape and size. A piece
of lead will flatten out and resist compression till the last degree; that is,
the more it is compressed the greater becomes its resistance.
Air and other gaseous bodies are compressible to hn
they retain the gaseous condition. Water not confinecf.
extent as long as
In a vessel is com-
pressed by its own weight to the thickness of a mere film, while n len
conAned in a vessel it is almost incompressible.
It is probable. although it has not been determined experimentali;,
that solid bodies when confined are at least as incompressible as water.
When they are not conlined. the effect of a compressive stress is not only
to she, ten them, but also to increase their lateral dimensions or bulge
them. Lateral stresses are therefore induced by compressive stresses.
The weighty per square inch of original section required to produce any
riven amount or percentage of shortening of any material is not a constant
uuantitv. but varies with both the leneth and the sectional area. with the
shape ot the sectional area, and with the relation of the area to the iength.
The . compressive strengt.h of a mQeria1. if this term be supposed to
mean the weight in pounds per square inch necessary to cause rupture,
may vary with every size and shape of specimen experimented upon.
Slill more difficult would it be to state what is the compressive strength
of a material which does not rupture at all, bi:t flattens out. Suppose we
are testing a cylinder of a soft metal Iike lead, two inches in length and
one inch in diameter. a certain weight will shorten it one per cent. another
weieht, ten ner cent: another fiftvner cent. but no wehrht that we can ~~.._ .-..,r-~_~-~~.. ~~..~~~~~~ ~~~
place upon it will rupture it, for it w~llflatten out to a thm sheet. What,.
then. is its compressive strength? Again, a similar cylinder of soft
wrought iron would probably compress a few per cent, bul ing evenly
all around; it would then commence to bend, but at first t.he %
be imperceptilbe to the eye and too small to be measured.
end would
Soon this
bend would be great enough to be noticed, a,nd finally the piece mie!? .be
bent nearly double., or otherwise distorted.
strength of this piece of iron?
What is the compress!ve
Is it the weight per square inch mtuch
corn xesses the piece one per cent or five
first bending (impossible to be disco.vere I?
er cent, that which causes the
), or that which causes a per-
Ceptible bend?
As showing the confusion concerning the definitions of compressive
strensth. the following .statements from different authorities on the
strengthof wrought iron are of interest.
Woods Resistance of Materials states, Comparatively few experiments
have been made to determine how much wrought iron will sustain at the
oint of crushing. Hodgkinson gives 65.00.1, Rondulet 70,800, Weisbach
Rankme 30,909 to~40,000. It is generally assumed that wrought
the material,may no longer be accurate
2 6 8 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
iron will resist about two thirds as much +ishing as to tension, hut the
experiments fail to give a very detinite ratio.
The following values, said to be deduced from the experiments of Major
Wade, Hodgkinson, and Capt. Meigs, are given by Haswell:
Amejican wrought irzn
(mean).
....................................... 127,720 Ibs.
English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
;,z,Xz ,
4::iko (
Stoney states that the strength of short pillars of any given material. all
having the same diameter, does not vary much, provided the length of
the piece is not less than one and does not exceed four or five diameters,
and that tire weight which will just crush a short prism whose base equals
one s
4
uare inch and whose height is not less than 1 to 1% and does not
4 or 5 diameters is called the crushing strength of the material.
%%uld be well if experimenters would all agree upon some such definition
of the term crusting strength, and insist that all experiments which.
are made for the purpose of testing the relative values of different materials
in compression he made on specimens of exact1
An arbitrary size and shape should be assumex
the same shape and size.
and agreed upon for this
The size mentioned by Stoney is definite as regards area of
~$%r?viz. one square inch
from one tofive diameters.
but is indefinite as regards length, viz.
in some metals a specimen five diameter;
long would bend, and give a much lower apparent, s,Jrength than a speci-
men having a length of one diameter. The wards ,.rill just crush are
aiso indefinite for ductile materials, in which the resistance increases
without limit if the piece tested does not bend. In such cases the weight
which ci~ilses a certain percentage of compression, as five, ten, or fifty per
cent, should be assumed as the crushing strength.
For future experiments on crushing strength three things are desirable:
First, an arbitrary standard shape and size of test specimen for comparison
of all materials. Secondly, a standard limit of compression for ductile
materiais. which shall be considered equivalent to fracture in brittle
materials. Thirdly, an accurate kuowtedge of the relation of the crushmg
strength of a specimen of standard shape and size to the crushing strength
of specimens of all other shapes and sizes. The latter can only be secured
by a very extensive and accurate series of ex erlments upon stl kinds of
materials, and on specimens of a great numger of different shapes and
sizes.
The author reposes, as a standard shape and size, for a compressive
test specimen or all metals. a cylinder one inch in length, and one half B
square inch in sectional area, or 0.798 inch diameter; and for the limit Of
compression equivalent to fracture, ten per cent of the original length.
The term compressive strength,
specimen,
or compressive strength of standard
would then mean the weight per square inch required te
fracture by compressive stress a cylinder one inch long and 0.798 inch
diameter. or to reduce its 1engt.h to 0.9 inch if fracbure does not take
place before that reduction in length is reached. If such a standard. or
any standard size whatever, had been used by the ea,rlier authorities On
the strength of materials, we never would have had such discrepancies
in their statements in regard to the compressive strength of wrought
iron as those given above.
The reasons why this particular size is recommended are: that the
sectional area. one-half s uare inch is as large as can be taken in the ordi-
nary testing-machines ,8 IO0 000 pounds capacity to include all the
ordinary metals of constructidn. cs.st and wrought iron, and the softer
steels: and that the length, one inch. is convenient for calculation of
percentage Of compression. If the length were made two inches,.manY
materials would bend. in testing, and give incorrect resu1t.s. Even in cast
iron Hodgkinson fcmnd as the mean of several experiments on variolts
grades. tested in specimens 3/4 inch in height, a compressive strength per
squares inch Of 94,730 pounds. while the meant of the same number d
Specimens~ of bhe same irons tested in pieces II/z inches fn height wad
tiAF&ING: Th i s i s a 19jO edition. Some-%;
COLUMNS, PILLARS, OR STRUTS.
only 88.800 pounds. The best size and shape of standard specimen
should. however. be settled upon only after consultation and agreement
among several authorities.
The Committee on Standard Tests of the American Society of.Mechan-
ical Engineers say (vol. xi, p. 634):
Although compression tests have heretofore been made on diminutive
sample pieces, it is highly desirable that tests be also made on long pieces
frown 10 to 20 diameters in length, corresponding more nearly with actual
practice, in order that elastic st,rain~ and change of shape may be deter-
mmeo by using proper measuring apparatus.
. The elastic limit. modulus or coefficient of elasticitv. maximum and
ultimate resistances. should be determined. as well as the increase of
seftibn at various points, viz., at bearing surfaces and at crippling point.
The use of long compression-test pieces is recommended, because the
investigation of short cubes or cylinders has led to no direct application
of the constants obtained by their use in commutation of actual structures.
which have always been and are now designed according to emphical for-
muhe obtained from a few tests of long columns.
COLUXVS, PILLARS, OR STEUTS.
hotation. -P = crushing weight in pounds: d == exterior diameter
in inches; a = area in square inches; L = length in feet; 1 = length in
inches: S = compressive stress, lbs. per sq. in.: E = modulus of elasticity
in tension or compression; r=least radius of gyration; +, an experimental
coefficient.
For a short column centrally loaded S = @/a, but for a long column
which tends to bend under load, the stress on the concave side is greater,
and on the convex side less than P/a.
Hodgkinsons Fbrmula for Colomns.
Botch ends rounded, the Both ends flat. the lengt!i
Kind of Column.
length of the column of the column exceed-
exceedmg 15 times its iog 36 times its diam-
diameter. eter.
Solid cylindrical col-
umns of cast iron.. . 1 p
- 33,380 2
8oiid cylindrical col-
urnne of wrought iron
P = 95,850d;
P = 98.920 "$
P = 299,600d3': -
5
These formulg apply only in cases in which ihe length is so great that
the column breaks by bending and not by simple crushing. Hodgkinsons
tests were made on small columns. and his results are not now con-
Ealers Formula tar Long Col~rnn~.
P/a = + E (r/l)? for columns with round or hinged ends. For columns
with fixed ends multiply by 4: wibh one end round and the other fixed.
multiply by 21/i: for one end fixed and the other free, as a post set !n the
ground divide by 4. P is the load which causes a slight deflection: a
load grka.ter than P will cause an increase of deflection until the column
fails by bendit?. The formula is now little used..
Chr i s t i e s T&s (Trans. A. S. C. E. 1884: iIftimanrs Mechani cs
of fiKclterials). - About 300 tests of wrought-i~ron struts were made. the
quality of the fron being about as follows: tensile,strepgth Per sq. In.,
,.,tq,. 49,600 Ibs., elastic limit 32,000 lbs.. elongation 18% In 8 ins.
he material -may no long&r be accu%&
270 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
The following table gives the average results.
--
Ratio Z/r
Length to
Least. Ra-
dius of
Slrmtioll.
20
40
60
: E
120
140
1: ;
200
. 220
240
260
280
; 2:
I
Ujtjmste Load, P/a, in Pounds per Square Inch.
I- Fixed Ends.
%%
36: 000
32, 000
30, 000
: ; I k%
23: OOO
: %I
i 5: ooo
13. 000
I I . ooo
Fiat Ends. Eiinged Ends. Round Ends:.
%li
;;g
29: 800
3%
20: ooo
16, 800
14. 500
12, 700
pg
a: 500
7. 200
6. 000
4. 300
3. 000
46. 1X0
40, 000
36, 000
3 1, 500
28, 000
; %i
16: 500
15so:
8 800
7: 500
2%:
f pf &;
3 500
2: 500
44. 000
36. 500
30, 500
25, 000
: %I :
12: soo
%%
; : ; g
4 300
3: ?300
3. 2GO
2. 800
2. 500
1, 900
1, 500
- -
The results of Christies tests agree with those computed by Eulers
formula for round-end columns with l/r between 150 and 400. but
differ wi del v from them in shorter columns. and still more widely In
columns wiih fixed ends.
Ranki ne s Formula (sometimes called Gordons), S =
P s
Or u = 1 + qb (l/?-)2
.4pplying Rankines formula Tao the results of
experiments. wide variations are found in the vahws of the empirical
coeiiicient +. blerriman gi ves t he followin,- values, w;dch are extensively
employed in practice.
Material.
1 Both Ends Fixed and
1 Fixed. Round. 1
B;t;uE;ds
Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cast I ron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ki'roughht Iron . . . . . . . . . . . _, . . . . .
Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I / 3. 000 1. 78/ 3, 000 4/ 3. 000
l / 5. 000 I . 78/ 5. 000 4/ 5. 000
I . 78/ 36, 000 4/ 36. 000
1. 78/ 25, 000 4/ 25. 000
The vs!ue to be taken for S is the ultimate compressive strength of the
material for cases of rupture, and the allowable compressive umt stress
for cases of design.
Burr gives the following values as commonly taken for S and 9.
For solid wrought-iron columns, S = 36,000 to 40,000. 4 = l/36.600 to
1/40.000.
For solid cast-iron columns, s = 80, 000, $ = 1q4p
For hollow cast-iron columns, P/a = 80,000 -i 1 + sgo ;F (d = outside
diam. in inches,.
WWNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
COLUMNS, PILLARS, OR STRUTS. 271
F H R F H R
Wrought Iron:
S =42,000 Ibs.,C=12S, 157. 203; limit of1/r=21S, 178, 138
Structural Steel:
s =52.500 I' C=li9.2!20,284: ** *' *I 195, 159.123
Cast Iron: s =80,000 * C=438, 537, 693;
. <. ,
122, 99, 77
Oak, f l at ends:
s = 5, 400 c=2s:
. I . I a
128
F. flat ends: N. hinged ends:
Mnrrirnon CAVP. l-h,= r---:-L
sLraignt-fine formula i s not suitable for investi-
ga%~~~iu;;;;1:th~t% for determining values of S due to given. ioads.
because S enters the formula in such a manner as to l ead to a cubi c
equation when it is the only unknown quantity. It may be used to f i nd
t$esafe load for a given column to withstand a given umt stress, or tp
Q nnl,,ml. fnr n
-ven l oad and unit stress. When so used, it is
ivide & -.ml..-n -F CI nnA Cl virrnn i n +ha tnhlr. hrr es
, - ustomary to dl . . - - . . . _ VLI l uCJ vI u _l l y u 6. . CI A 111 _yl l C YL*UAr uJ a. 1
I F. nrnd f l rtnr nf aaf otv
n__ ^__^- _,
I YI l . . . - - . - - - ^ - _ l - - _J .
+I , + *ho r. Qn+i nnol arcl n n
, f ! I e, Coopers speclficatmns require
.IU YL.r eG-,YLV.lY. Y.rY v ror a meuium-steel post of a through railroad
bridge sha,l be follnd fr-.n D I n - 17 C,,,n - On I I,. Ihc nnr en in
Y" Y" L, I L"". i n
which P is the ______ --=U-LU~LU di wrt rlzr- --I compression on the post ;;i;s~&!~tK
live-load corn ression
than one-thirB
IL ; :ne values of S and C here used. are a little less
of thos . I L e ci=?n in the table for round ends.
Workin Formulm for
Forms. -33 urr gives the f
Wrought-iron and Steel Struts of Various
ollowing practical formulae:
Kind of Strut.
p = Ultimate
p = Working
Strength,,
btrength =
lhtf ~e,c$,,ln.
l/s _iitimate.
lbs. per sq. in.
of Section.
Flat and fixed end iron angles and tees 44000 - 140 f (1) 8800 - 28: (2)
Hinged-end iron angles and tees,. .46OOO - 175 i (3) 9200 -35: (4)
Flat-end iron channels and I-beams. .40000 - 110 f (5) 8000 - 22: (6)
Flat-end mild-steel angles . . . . .52000 - 1SO i (7) 10460 - 36: (3)
Fl at - end hi gh- st eel angl es, 76000 - 290 i (9) 15200 -58: (10)
Pin-end solid wrought-iron columns .32000 - SO :
.~_~_ ~~ .t- ,......
? material may no longer be accurate
272 STRENGTH ,OF MATERIALS.
Equations (1) to (4) are to be used only between f ~40 and f = 206
L.
(5) and (8)
1 ,L .I 1 I. II 6. q 20 =: 200
8.
(7) to (10) 1: ;: 1: :: 1: =40 (6 1 31 200
(11) and (12)
=a 20 = 200
or j I 6 and i =: 65
Built Columns (Burr). -Steel columns, properly made. of steel
ranging in specimens from 65,000 to 73,000 Ibs. per square inch, should
give a resistance 25 to 33 per cent in excess of that of wrought-iron
columns with the same value of E + T, provided that ratio does net exceed
140.
The unsupported width of a plate in a compression member should not
exceed 30 times its thickness.
In built columns the dtansverse distance between centre lines of rivets
securing plates to angles or chennels, etc., should not exceed 35 times the
plate thickness. If this width is exceeded, longitudinal buckling of the
plate takes place, and the column ceases to fail as a whole, but yields in
detail -__-...
The thickness of the leg of an angle to which latticing is riveted should
not be less than l/g of the length of that leg or side if the column is pure1
a comoression member. The above limit may be passed somewhat in sCC3
ties and compression members designed to carry transverse loads.
The panel points of latticing should not be separated by a great,er dis-
tance than 60 times the thickness of the angle-leg to which the latticing
is riveted. if the column is wholly a compression member.
The rivet pitch should never exceed 16 times the thickness of the
thinnest metal pierced by the rivet, and if the plates are very thick it
should never nearly equal that value.
Burr gives the following general principles which govern the resistance
of built columns:
The material should be disposed as far as possible from the neutral axis
of the cross-section. thereby increasing T:
There should be no inltiil internal stress:
The individual portions of the column should be mutually supporting;
The individual portions of the column should be so firm1 7 secured t0
each other that no relative motion can take place, in or er that the 2
column may fail as a whole, thus maintaining the original value of r.
Stoney says: When t,he length of a rectangular wrought-iron tubular
column does not exceed 30 times its least breadth, it fails by the bulgin or
buckling of a short portion of the plates, not by the Aexure of the pi lar 7
as a whole.
WOBKTNG STRAITS ALLOWED IX BRIDGE MENBERS.
Theodore Cooper gives the following in his Bridge Specifications:
Compression members shall be so proportioned that the maximum load
shall in no case cause a greater strain than that determined by the follow-
ing formula:
p=%
8000
12
for square-end compression members;
1+
40,000 ri
P =
8000
for compression members with one pin and one square
1+
3o ii0 + end:
P =
80dO
P
for compression members with pin-bearings;
l + 20.000 7-z
. . . ..-A&
%ARNIN& This- is a~ 1910 edition. Some 01
WORKING STRAINS ALLOWED IN BRIDGE MEMBERS. 273
.
(These values may be increased in bridges over 150 ft. span. See
coooers Specifications.)
-UP- = the-allowed compression per square inch of cross-section;
2 = the length of compression member, in inches;
r = the least radius of gyration of the section in mchcs.
No compression member, however, shall have a 1engCh exceeding 25
times its least width.
TensCon Me?nbers. - All parts of the structure shall be so proportioned
Chat the maximum loads shall in no case cause a greater tension than the
following (except in spans exceeding 150 feet):
Pounds oer
sq. in.
On lateral bracing.. , . . . . . 15.000
On solid rolled beams, used as cross floor-beams and stringers 9,000
On bottom chords and main diagonals (forged eye-bars). 10,000
Onbottom chords and main diagonals (plates or shapes), net section 8,000
On counter rods and long verticslc cforued eve-hnr=l !2 *no
On counter and long ve ._ LyIcc) . y.~vV~l,, ..cv UL.\_YLYIL. y,vVV
On bot t om f l ange of r i vet ed cr oss- gi r der s, net sect i on. 8, 000
On bottom flange of riveted longitudinal plate girders over 20 ft. ~ onn
long. net section . . ,.._.................._._......,,I
On bc ;om ilange of riveted longitudinal plate girders under 20 ft.
long, net section . . . . . . . . a, . 7,000
On floor-bearn hangers, and other similar members hable to sudden
loading (bar iron.witl 1 forged ends) . . . . . . 6,000
On floor-beam hangers, ~~.~~ and other simi1a.r members liable to sudden
loading (plates,or shapes), net se&ion . ~ . . . . . 5,000
Members subject to alternate strains of tension and compression shall be
proportioned to resist each kind of strain Both of the strains shall, how-
ever be considered as increased b * an amount equal to s/lo of the least of
the two strains, for determining t-il e sectional area by the above allowed
strains.
The Phmnix Bridge Co. (Standard Specifications, 1895) gives the follow-
ing:
The greatest working stresses in pounds per square inch shall be as
follows:
Tension.
Steel. . I r on.
;,;%I; pou,r?ds. Floor-beam hangers, forged ends. . . 7,000 pounds.
Floor-beam hanrers. mates or ShaDeS. net
^_^ ,*
*.
1.
I.
I.
section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I. . ; . . . 6,uuu
Lower flanges of rolled beams. . . . . . . . . 8.000
Outside flbres of pins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,000
22,500 Pins for wind-bracing.
Lateral bracing. ................................... 15,000
Sheari ng.
9,000 pounds. Pins and rivets.. . . . . . :. . . 7,560 pounds.
Hand-driven rivets 20% less umt stresses.
For bmcing increase umt stresses 50%.
6,000 pounds. Webs of plate girders. . . . _. . . . . . . . 5,000 pounds.
Bear&g.
16.000 pounds. Projection semi-intrados pins and rivets, 12,066 pounds.
Hand-driven rivets 20% less unit stresses. For
bracing increase unit stresses 50 %.
THE STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON COLUMNS. 275
274 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
.
Compression.
*I d~s.met.ers from I.68 to 1.26 in.. all of them less than I/A in. thick.
~~e~~&?usedwas Low-Moor. Yorkshire, No. 3, said to be a good iron. not
very hard, earlier experiments on which had given a tensile strength of
1~ ii35 and a crushing strength of 109.801 Ibs. per sq. in. Modern cast-
Lengths less than forty times the least radius of gyration, P previously
found. See Tension.
Lengths more than forty times the least radius of gyration, P reduced
by following formulae:
;.znvLolirmns. such as are used in the construction of buildings. are pery
~~{er>~<in&ze! proportions, and quality of iron from the slender long
pillars used in Hodgkinsons experiments. There is usually no check, by
actual tests or by disinterested inspection, upon the quamy of the material.
The tensile. compressire, and tmnsverse strength of cast iron raries
through a great range (the tznsiie strength ranging from less than 16,.900
to over 40,000 lbs. per sq. in.), with variations in the chemical composition
of the iron, according to laws which are as yet very, 1mperCectly under-
stood and with variations in the method of meltmg and of casting.
&.v, in a,!sn a, wi ds variation in the strength of iron of the same melt
For both ends fixed, b =
P
I .
+ 36, 000 r2
For one end hinged, b =
P
l-i-
1 .
24, 000 7- z
For both ends hinged, b =
P
If
12 .
18,000 TZ
)ll.l .I --- - ..--- ---~~~~~-~~~
when cast into bars of different thicknesses-
Another difficulty in obtaining a practical formula for the strength of
cast-iron columns is due to the uncertainty of the quality of the casting.
and the danger of hidden defect s. such as interna! stresses due to unequal
cooling, cinder or dirt, blow-holes, cold-shuts. and cracks on the.inner
surface, which cannot he discovered by external inspection. Vs,nation
in thickness, due to rising of the core during casting. IS also a common
P = permissible stress previously found (see Tension): b = allowable
working stress per square inch; 1 = length of member in inches: r = least
radius of gyration of section u? inches. No compression member, how-
ever. s!iall have a length exceeding 45 times its least width.
Pounds per
sq. in.
defect.
In addition to these objections to the use of Gordons formula, for cast-
iron columns, we have the data of experiments on full-sized columns,
made by the Building Department of New York City (E&g Aews. Jan. 13
and 20, 1898). Ten columns in all were tested, six 1%inch. 1901/d Inches
long two g-inch, 160 inches long, and two 6-inch, 120 inches long. The
test; were made on the large hydraulic machine of the Phcenix Bndge Co.,
of 2,006,OOO ununds capacity, which was caiibr,ated for frictional error by
the repeated testing within the elastic limit of a large Phmmx column,
and the comparison of these tests with others made on the overnment
machine at the Watertowki Arsenal. i The average frictiona error was
calculated to be 15.4 per cent, but Enginecrzng News. revising the data,
makes it 17.1 er cent with a. variation of 3 per cent either way from the
average with &ferentloads. The results of the tests of the columns are
In counter web members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.500
In long verticals. . . . . . _. . . _. 1O;OOO
I n a l l ma i n- we b a nd l owe r - c hor d e ye - ba r s . . 13. 200
I n p l a t e h a n g e r s ( n e t s e c t i o n ) . 9.000
In tension members of lateral and transverse bracing . 19.000
In steel-sngie lateral ties (net section) . 15,000
For spans over 290 feet in length the greatest allowed working stresses
per square inc!r. in lower-chord and end main-web eye-bars, shail be taken
at
min. total stress
looo (l + max. total stress> i
TESTS OF CAST-IRON COLUMNS.
whenever this quantity exceeds 13,200.
The greatest allowable stress in the main-web eye-bars nearest the centre
of such spins shall be taken at 13,200 pounds per square inch: and those
for the miermedisce eye-bars shall be found by direct interpo!ation
Thickness. Breaking Load.
between the preceding values.
The
7
reatest allowable working stresses ;n steel plate and lattice girders
and rol ed beams shall be taken as follows:
Pounds per
Dism
Inches.
Pounds
er Sq. In.
Max. Pounds. Min.
It8
5/8
I3
/16
I
1 va
1 /a
I l/g
1WI34
13/16
1
13/64
I Q/m
17!a4
sq. iri.
Upper Range of plate girders (gross section). . . . . . . . . . IO.000
Lower flange of plate girders (net section). . . 10.000
In counters and long verticals of lattice girders (net section)
In lower .:zhords and main diagonals of lattice girders (net
9,000
;y;;;
24: 900
25, 200
32. 100
-E
i5
;;I0
15
34P 0 l
611;s
63132
I1116
l/4
li4
3132
5132
18
section). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .T . . . . . . . . . 1. . . . . . . . . . . .
In bottcm flanges of rolled beams
:; 10,000
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.000
In top Ranges of rolled beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,030
THE STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON COLUMNS.
I
Hodgkinsons experiments (first published in Phil. Trans. Royal Secy..
1840. and condensed in Tredgold on Cast Iron, 4th ed.. 1846), and Gordons
formula, based upon them, ve still used (1898) in designing cast-iron col-
umns. They are entirely inadequate as a basis ot a practical formula
suitable to the present methods of casting columns.
ft.
Hodgkinsons experiments were made on nine long pillars, about 7%
long, whose external diameters ranged from 1.74 to 2.23 in., and
average thickness from 0.29 to 0.35 in.. the thickness of each column also
varying, and on 13 short I pillars, 0.733 ft. to 2.251 ft. long, with exter-
--
Column No. 6 was not broken at the highest load of the testing
machine.
Columns Nos. 3 and 4 were taken from the Ireland Building. which
Collapsed on August 8. 1895: the other four &inch columns were made
from drawings prepared by the Building Department. as nearly as possible
duplicates of Nos. 3 and 4. Nos. 1 and 2 were ma$zsbg ;~du;d;~r~~a;;
,,.York with no knowledge of their ultimate use.
&r&..
he material may no longer be'accurate
IrlARNINk: This is a 1910 .edition. Some ?!
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
b
i-Y.-
a foundry in Brooklyn with the knowledge that they were to be tested
OS I to 10 were made from drawi ugs furnished by the Department.
AppIylng Gordons formula, a; used by the Building Department,
s=- SW00 a
1 lz... to these columns gives for the breaking strength per square
1 f$yjio$
inch of the 1%inch columns 57.143 pouuds. for the S-inch Coiumns 46,096
pounds, and for the B-inch columns 40,000. The strength of columns Nos.
3 and 4 as calculated is 128 per cent more than their actual strength: their
actual strength is less than 44 per cent of their calculated st.rength: and
the factor of safety. supposed to be 5 in the Building Law, is only 2.2 for
central !oading, no account being taken of the likelihood of eccentric
loading.
Prof. Lanza, Appl i ed Mechani cs, p. 372. quotes the records of 14
t&s of cast-iron mill columns. msdeon the Watertown testing-machinein
1887-88. the breaking sxength per square inch ranging from 23,100 to
63.310 pounds, and showing no relation between the breaking strength
per square inch and the dimensions of the columns. Only 3 of the 14
columns had a strength exceeding 33.506 pounds per square inch. The
average strength of the other 1 I was 29,600 pounds per square inch.
Lanza says that it is evident that in the case of such columns we capd\
rely upon a crushing strength of greater than, 25,000 or 3C,OOO pounds
per square inch of area of section.
He recommends a factor of safety of 5 or 6 width these figures for crush.
ing strength. or 5000
highest ailowabie safe P
ounds per square inch of area of section as the
oad. and in addition makes the conditions that
the length of the column shah not be
diameter, that the thickness of the metai
reatly in excess of 20 times the
shall be such as to insure a good
strong castmg, and that the sectional area should be increased if necessary
to insure that the extreme fibre stress due to probable eccentric loading
shall not be greater than 5000 pounds per square inch.
Prof. W. H. Burr (Eagg iVezua. June 30.1898) gives a formula derived
from
des-ri1
lotting the results of the Watertown and Phcenixviile tests, above
ed, which represents the average strength of the columns in pou,nds
per square i nch. It is p = 30.500 - 160 l/d. It is to be noted that this
1s an average val ue, and that the actual strength of many of the columns
was much lower. Prof. Burr says: If cast-iron columns are designed
with anything like a reasonable and real margin of safety, the amount of
metal required dissipates any supposed economy over columns of mild
steel.
Square Co!umns. - Square cast-iron columns should be abandoned.
They.are liable to have serious internal strains from difference in con-
tractron on two adjacent sides. Jo~hn F. Ward, Eny. Neurs, Apr. 16, 1896.
Safe Load, in Tons of 20@0 Lbs., for Round Cast-iron Columns,
with Turned Capitals and Bases.
Loadz being not eccentric, and length of column rrot exceeding20 times
the,diameter. Based on ultimate erusiling strength of 25,000 Ibs. per
sq. in. and a factor of safety of 5.
- -
Thick- f
Diameter, Inches.
696 f 6. 5
78. 5 86. 4
87. 2 9 h . i
95, 7 i o3. 5
103. 9 1 14. 7
: : : : f 123. 71
.
I:.../ . . . . / / I , . . . . I..... I..... 1~ . . .._.. I , . . . . . 1204..21:21' ,
WARNING: This is a 1910 editibn.
THE STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON COLUMNS. 277
For lengths greater than 20 diameters the allowable loads should be
decreased. How much they should be decreased is uncertain. smce suffi-
cient data of experiments on full-sized very iong columns. from which a
f;;m;+ for the strength of such columns might lie derived, are as yet
. . There is. however, rarely, if ever, any need of proportlomng
&-iron columns with a length exceeding 20 diameters.
Safe Loads in Tons of 2000 Pounds for Cast-iron Columns.
(By the Building Laws of New York City, Boston, and Chicago, 1897.)
New York. Boston. Chicago.
8a 5a 5 a
Square columns. 22 1 1
1+--- 500 d? l + 1067@ 1 + 800 dz
8n 5 n 5a
Round columns . . . i p 1 12
-
l + 400 @
1+800( 1? 1+-
600 ~9
a = sectional area i n square inches: 2 = unsupported length of colum,n
in inches: d = side of square column or thickness of round column m
inches.
The safe load of a 15-inch round column 1% inches diameter, 16 feet
lnno nomrri i no tn the IBWR of these cities would, be. in New York, 36 1 tons; _.._. -~~- _. .~~~~~
~~~o%n;!s;t&s; in Chicago, 250 tons.
The al l owabl e stress per square inch of area of such a column wonld be,
i n New York. 11.350 nounds: in Boston, 8300 pounds: in Chicago. 7850 *_ __.-.. - _.... ~~.~~~.
pounds. A safe stress of 5000 pounds per square inch woul d ti ve for the
safe !oad on the c(,lumn 159 tons.
obl~cldFLI. v1 uLackets on Cast-iron Columns. -The columns t est ed
RI-^--&L ,.e Et...
bv the New York Building Department referred to above had brackets
cast upon them, each bracket consisting of a rectangular shelf SUP-
ported by one or two triangular ribs. These were tested after the
columns had been broken in the principal tests. In 17 out of 22 cases the
brackets broke by tearing a hole in the body of the column, instead of by
shearing or transverse breaking of the bracket itself. The results were
surprisingly low and very irregular.
Reducing them to strength er
%
square inch of the total vertical section through tbe shelf and ri b or n 8.
they ranged from 2450 to 5600 Ibs.. averaging 4200 ibs.. for a load Con-
centrated at the end of the shelf, and 4100 to 10.900 lbs., averagmg 8000
lbs. for a distributed mad. (Engg News. Jan. 20, 1898.)
&ximum Permissible Stresses in columns used in buildings.
(Building Ordinances of City of Chicago, 1893.)
For riveted or other forms of wrought-iron cOhU.DnS:
AS=
12006 a
12 .
I = length of column in inches;
1c
r = least radius of gyration in inches;
36000 r z
a= area of column in square inches.
For rivet&or @her steel columns, if more than 63 r in length:
,s = 17, 600 - 6?. ~
If less than 66r in length: S = I3500 o.
For wooden posts:
8s
ae o = area of ost in square inches:
12 .
d = least si e of rectangular post in inches; 2
If-
25Odg
Z = length, of post in inches:
600 for white or Norway pine:
go0 for long-leaf yellow pine.
le material may no longer b&~GY.Zte
278 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
ECCENTRIC LOADING OF COLUBINS.
In: a given rectangular cross-section, such as a masonry joint under
pressure. the stress wN be distributed uniformly over the section only
when th:: resultant passes through the centre of the section: any deviation
from such a central position will bring a maximum unit pressure to one
edge and a minimum 40 the other;, when the distance of the resultant
from one edge is one third of the enWe wxlth of Phe joint, the pressure at
the nearer edge is t!vice the mvan pressure. while that at the farther edge
is zero, and thu when the resultant approaches still nearer to the edge
the pyessure at the farbhrr edge becomes less than zero: in fact, becomes
a tensIon. if the,materini rmgr@r. etc.) there is capable of resisting tension.
Or,, if,, as usu+l m masonry Joints. Fhe material ii practically incapable of
resIstIn!: ter+on. the press~e at the nearer edge. when the resultant
approaches It nearer than one t,hird of the width. increases very ra
and dangerously. becoming theoretically infinite when the
f
idly
reaches t.he edge.
resu tact
Wit9 a given position of the result,ant relatively t,o one edge of the joint
or section. a similar redi.%rihution of the pressures througnout the section
mav be brought abozt by simply adding to or diminishing the width of
thesection.
Let. P = the total pressure on any section of a bar of uniform thickness.
w = the width of that section = are& of the section, when thickness=l.
p = P/w = the mean unit pressure on the section.
II = the maximum unit pressure on the section.
m = the minimum unit pressure on the section.
d = the eccentricity of the resultant = its distance from the centre of
the section.
Wh e n d = i w then 3: = 2p and m = 0.
When d is greater than l/6 W, the resultant in that case being less than
o?e third of the wldih from one edge, p becomes negative.
wne. Jr., Engineering .Ve~s, Nov. 23. lS93.)
(J. C. Traut-
Eccentric &oading of Cast-iron Columns. - Prof. Lanz~ ,vrit,es
tne author as foll?wc: The table on page 2T6 applies when the result-
ant of the loads upon the column acts along its central axis, i.e. -
through the centre of gravit.g of everv section.
constructions. however. cases freqllenilj
In buildings anhP~t?lZ
; occur when the resultant load
does not pass through the centre of g&vi!? of the section: and then the
pressure is not evenly distributed over the section. but is greatest on the
side where the resultant acts.
(Examples occur when the loads on
t h e floors a r e n o t uniformlv rlixt.;~~
fibre stresses of the coi& Emmys l-l-.
Let P = total pressure 0
d = eccentricity of
eravitv of the
ibuted.) In these cases the outside
m should De computed as follows. viz.:
n the section:
resultant = its distance from the centre of
sertion
A = ar?a of ihe s&%i&,<n;ir its moment. of inertia about an axis in
its plane. passing through its centre of gravity. and perpendic-
ular to d:
c, = distance of most compressed and cz = that of least compressed
fibre from above stated sxis:
Sl = maximum and 82 = minimum pressure oer unit of area.
Then
s*=_pc(9
and
P (Pd)cz
A I
sz=x--. I
H+?:a assumed a certain lrial section for the column to be designed s1
~~.~..~- -2 computed. and. if it exceed the proper safe value. a different
section shorvld be used for which s1 does not el;ceed this value.
The proper safe value. in the case of cast-iron columns whose ratio of
!ength to diameter does not greatly exceed 20 is 5000 pounds per square
Inch when the eccentricity used in the computation of s, is liable to occur
frequently In the ordinary uses of the structure; but when it is one which
Can only occur in rare cases the value 8000 Ibs. per sq. in. may be used.
.A lone mP, on a column is more conducive to the production of eccen-
tncltY of loadmg than a short one, hence a long cap is a source of weakn
kAF?NiNG: This iss 1910 editibn.
MOMENT 0F INERTIA A N D RADIUS OF GY R AT I O N. 279
MOMENT OF INERTIA AND RADIUS OF GYRATIOS.
The moment of inertia of 8. section is the sum of the products of
each elementary area of the section into the square of its distance from an
assumed axis of rotation, as the neutral as%
Assume the section to be divided into a great many equal small areas,
o and that each such area has its own radius, ?-, or distance from the
&sumed a,sis of rotation. then the sum of all the products de?\-ed by
multiplying each a by the square of its I i: the moment of mertm. I , o r
1 = 2 arr, m ir-hich 2 is the sign of summation.
For moment of inertia of the weight or mass of a body see Mechani,:s.
The radius of gyration of the section equals the square root of the
quotient of the moment of inertia divided by $1~ area of the secrlon. If
K = radius of gyration, I = n;oment of inertia and A = area
-
R =1/I /A. I /A = R=.
The center of gyration is the point where the entire area might be
concentrated and have the same moment of inertia as the act.ual area.
The distance of this center from the axis of rotation is the radius of _ .~
gyration.
The moments of inertia of various sectioris are asfOllOWS:
d = di&meter, or outside diameter: dl = inside diameter; b = breadth:
h = depth; b,, hl, inside breadth and depth;
Solid rectangle I = V&h; Hollow rectangle I = %(bh3 - b1h19:
Solid square I = li,zb: Aollow square I = Vn(b - bl):
Solid cylinder I = Wrrrl: Hollow cylinder I = l/Mw(d - dl).
Mornent of Inertia about any Axi s. -If b = br eadt h and h =
depth of a rectangular section its moment of inertia about its centr;
axis (parallel to the breadth) is l/l? b/13,; and about one s!de 1s 11s bh3-
a parallel axis exterior to the se&Ion 1s taFen. and d = distance of t hi s
axis from the farthest side and dl = its &stance .from the nearest side.
(d - d, = h), the moment of inertia about this 5x1s is V3b ($3 _- d13).
The moment of inertia of a compound shape about any axi s I S $quai to
t. he elm of the moments of inertia. vith reference to the same ahls. of all
ti;e ;ectal~gLlijr~portions composini it.
Moment of Inertia of Compound Shapes.
(Pencog< Iion
Works.) -The m0mep.t of inertia of any section about any a?is 1s equal
to the I about a parallel axis passing through its centre of gravity + (the
area of the section x the square of the distance between the axes).
Bv this rule the momen?s of inertia or radii of gyration pf any single
sections being known. corresponding values may be obtamed for any
combination of these sections.
E. 4. Dixon (Am. A4ach., Dec. 15. 1898) gives the following formuia for
the moment of inertia of any rectangular element of a, built up beam:
I = l/3(h3 - h$)b, I = moment of inertia about any axis parallel to the
neutral axis h = distance from the assumed axis to the farthest fiber.
hl = distande to nearest fiber, ,h = breadth of element.
The sum of qhe
moment,s of inertia of all the elements, taken about. the center of, pravW
or neutral axis of the section. is the moment of inertia of the SeCtIon.
The polar moment of inertia of a surface is the sum of the p:odu<ts
obtained by multipl!.ing each elementary area by the square of Its dls-
tance from the cente; of gravity of the surface: it is equal 10 the sum of
the moments of ineriia taken with respect to two axes at right angles to
each other passing through the center of gravity.
It is represented by
J. For a solid shaft J = l/z? nd: for a hollows haf t , J = l/33 r(d - dl).
,, in which d is the outside and d the mside@&meter.
The polar radius of gumtim, R p =, ~/J /A. is defined as the radius of
a circumference alonw which the entlre area might be concentrated and
have the same p&r?noment of inertia as the actual area.
For a solid circular sectios .R,
2 = l,s D2: for a hollow circular sec-
tion zxp2 = ils(@ + 0).
i&omeuts of Inertia and Radius of Gyration for Various Set-
tions, and their Use in the Formulas for Strength of Gibers and
C,OlUmUS. - The st rengt h of sect i ons t o resi st strams.,,;;tb$ $E
ders or as columns depends not only on the area but
m of the section, $nd the property of the section w&h forms the
,~~. ,..>-a . .._
;he material hay 0 long& be aFf&gfG
280 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
ELEMENTS OF USUAL SECTIONS. 281
basis of the constants used in the formulas for strength of girders and
columns to express the effect of the form, is its moment of inertia about
its neutral axis. The modulus of resistance of any section to transverse
bending is its moment of inertia divided by t!re distance from the neutral
axis to the fibres farthest removed from that axis; or
Section moduius = -
Moment of inertia
Distance of extreme iibre f romaxis .
Moment of resistance = section modulus x unit stress on es&me ilbre.
Radius of Gyration of Compound Shapes. -- In the case of a
pair of any shape without a web the value of R can always be found with-
out considering the moment of inertia.
The radius of gyration for any section around an axis parallel to another
axis passing through its centre of gravity is found as follows:
Let r = radius of gyration around axis through centre of gravity; R =
radius of gyrution aro&,mther axis parallel to above: (I = distance
be t we e n ases: R =d\ /d? +r*.
When P is small; R may be taken as equal :o d without material error.
Graphical illethod for Finding Radius of Gyration. - Benj. F.
La Rue. Eng. Veuts, Feb. 3. 1893. gives a short graphical method for
finding t e radius of gyration of hollow, cylindrical, and rectangular
columns, as follows:
For cylindrical columns:
Lay off to IL scale of 4 (or 49) a right-angled triangle. in which the base
equals the outer diameter. and the altitude equals the inner diameter
of the column. or rice ~erso. The hypothenuse. measured to a scale of
unity (or 10;. will be the radius of gyration sought.
This depends upon the formula
G = ~%lom. of inertia + Area =1/a d/ D? f d?
in which A = area and D = diameter of outer circle. a = area and d =
diameter of inner circle, and G = radius of gyration. d/o2 +@ i s t he
expression for the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, in which D and
d are the base and altitude.
The sectional area of a hollow round column is 0.78WD? - d*), By
constructing a right-angled triangle in which D equals the hypothenuse
and d equats the altitude, the base will equal t/D2 - d. Calling the
value of this expression for the base B. the area will equal 0.7Sj4Bz.
Va;u;;~s~;;r;qbiare ,~olumns:
ut usmg a scale of 10. a right-a.ngled triangle of which
the base equals D or the side of the outer square, and the altitude equals d.
the side of the inner square.
which will be, proximately,
With a scale of 3 measure the hypothenuse.
a the radius of gyration.
This process or square columns gives an excess of slightly more than P
4%. By deducting 470 from the result, a close approximation will be,
obtained.
A very close result is also obtained by measuring the hypothenuse with
the same scale by which the base and altitude were laid off. and multiplying
by the decimal 0.29; more exactly, the. decimal is 0.28867.
The formula is
G =
Mom. of inertia
Area
= +i2
*J D2 +@, = 0.258fj7 d/o? +(I z
This may also be applied to an
diameters of an unsupported z
rectangular column by. using the iesser
co umn. and the greater diameters if the
commn is sllpported in the dire&ion of its least dimensions.
ELEMENTS OF USUAL SECTIONS.
Moments refer to horizontal axis through centre of gravity. This tatile
is intended for convenient application where extreme accurucy is not
important. Semi: of the terms are only a
co.rr,ect. Values for radius of gyration in tp
proximate; those marked * are
anged beams apply to standard
muumum sections only. A = area of section; b = breadth; h =depth;
D = dmmcter.
kARNING: This- is a 1910 edition. Some-?!
Shape of Section.
-
-
Moment
tf Inertia.
Section
dOddUS. E
bh3 *
-ii!-
rh -b&,3 *
1.2
bh? ZR
-
6
- - ~
h3- b;k,3
_ 6h
1164 rD
=0. 0491 D,
-
l/s? u D3
: 0. 0982 D
AD? - ad?
16
AD? - &cl?
BD
bhs
x-
-__
bh
24
Ah2
-
10. 2
Ah
7.2
-
. 4 11
K5
Ah,
93
Ah
-
I I .1
-
6.
I =
- -
- -
-_
- -
- -
-.
Ak
.-K
Ah
-
6. 66
.4h
n
Ah2 Ah
7.34 3. 67
AhJ
I
72
--
Ah h2
- 7 36.5
SqE%f
Least
Radius of
Radi us O f Gyration,
Gyrat~ion.
Least skle)*l Tea.% side *
1 2 / 3. 46-
The least of
?k? tWo; b
is Or r4
b?
2%
k?
z3
b2
22.5
bZ
i z5
i-
h+h
4. 69
D +*l
5. 64
__-
The least
If the two;
h b
4. 24 Or r 9
kb
2.6(h+b)
h
4.74
- -
b
4.74
b
4.58
b
33
6
a
h.
Distance of base from centre of gravity.
solid triangle, $; even angle. $1
uneven angle, A;
even tee, A; deck beam, A; all other. shapes
I. n
$!k,,given in the table, : or 5.
PswiaA^~, .., .,~- ,,.,^. ._
he material may no lon@r be accurate
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
TIMNSVERSE STRENGTH OF BE.UK-5.
TRANSVERSE STBENGTH.
In transverse tests the strength cf barsof rectangular section is found ,to
vary directly as the breadth of the spemmen tested, as the square Of rts
depth, and i nversel y as Its length. The deflectron under any load vanes
as the cube of the length. and inversely as the breadth and as the cube of
the depth. Represented algebraically, if S = the strength and D the
dehection, I the length, b the breadth. and 11 the depth.
0
S varies as !$ and D varies as b$3.
For the purpose of reducing the strength of pieces of Various sizes to
a -,ommon standard. the term modul us of rupli~re (represented by R) i s
used. Its value is obtained by experiment on a bar of rectangular sectron
siunported at the ends and l oaded in the middle and substrtntmg numermal
Gh22 in the following formula:
in mhict. .
breadth, and
1 P = the breaking load in pounds, 1 = the length in inches, b t he
d t~he depth.
Ir f r~nlww i s snmet,imes defined as the strain at the inst,ant
The mod~la, ,,, ._. .._ . ..__. ..- - -:~~~~;~ ~~~
of riipt,lre upon an:;;itlof the section which 1s most remote from the neu-
tral axis on the side which first ruptures. This definition.. howewr. is
hnue,l knoll :I. thmrv which is vet in disnote among authorities. and it is
be;;& i~;ilfine~;i& a mime&al value..or experimental constant, found
by the application of the formula above given.
From the above formula. making 1 12 inches, and b and d each 1 inch, it
fotlows that the modulus of rupture is IS times the l oad required to break
a bar one inch square, supported at two points one foot apart, the load
being applied in the middle.
Coefficient of transverse strength =
span in feet X load at middle in Ibs.
breadthininchesX(depthininches)~
= &th of the modulus of rupture.
Fundamental Formula? for Flesure of Beams (Merriman).
Resisting shear = vertical shear:
Resisting monient = bending moment;
Sum of tensile stresses = sum of compressive stresses:
Resisting shear = algebraic sum of all the vertical corn-,onent,s of the
internal stresses at any section of the beam.
If B be the area of the section and S, the shearing unit stress, then
resisting shear = AS,; and if the vertical shear = V, then V= ASS.
The ver!icul shear is the algebraic sum of all the external vert,ical forces
on one si de of the section considered. It is equal to the reaction of one
suoport. considered as a force acting upward, minus the sum of all the
vertical down\vard forces acting between the support and the section.
The resisling moment = algebraic sum of all the moments of the inter-
nal horizontal stresses at any section with reference to a point in that
section. = sr * i n which S = the horizontal uni: stress, tensile or com-
pressive as tChe case mav be upon the fibre most remote from the neutral
axis. c = the shortest distance from that libre to said axis. and I = the
moment of inertia of the cross-section with reference to that axis.
. The benrtinq momenl M is the algebraic sum of the moment of the
external forces on one side of the section with reference to a point in that
section = moment of the reaction of one support minus sum of moments
of loads between the support and the section considered.
&f , E
c .
The bending moment is a compound quantity = product of a force by
the distance of its point of ap lication from the section considered. the
dist.ance being measurwl on a me drawn from the section perpendicular F
to the direction of the action of the force.
edition. Some
X3-1 STRENGTH. OF MATERLALS.
Concerning the formula, M=SI/c. p. X?, Prof. Merriman? Eng. ~Veurs,
July 21. 1894, says: The formula quoted is true when the unit-stress S on
thepart of the beam farthest from the neutral axis is within the elastic limit
of the material. It is not true when this limit is exceeded. because then
the neutral axis does not pass through the center of gravity of the cro&
section, and because also the dilferent longitudinal stresses are not pro-
portional to their distances from that axis, these two requirements being
involved in the deduction of the formula. But in all cilses of design the
permi5sihle unit-stresses should not exceed the elastic limit, and hence
the formula applies rationall:;. without regarding the ultimate strength
of the materiaior any of thetiircumstnnces regarding rupt,ure. Indeed,
so great reliance is placed upon this formula that the practice of testing
beams by rupture has been almost entirely abandoned, and the allowable
unit-stresses are mainly derived from tensile and compressive tests.
APPRQIIMITE GREATEST SAFE LOADS IN LBS. OX STEEL
BEAJIS. (Pencoyd Iron Works.)
Based on fiber strains of 16.1@0 11~s. for steel. (For iron the loads should
be one-eighth less, corresponding to a fibre strain of 14.000 lbs. per square
inch.) Beams supported at, the ends am! uniformly loaded.
L = tenzth in feet between suooorts: a = i nt e r i or are2 in souare .,,.
A = sectIona area of beam iusquare
inches;
D = depth of beam in inches.
irlches:
d = interior depth in inches.
?u = working load in net tons.
Sreztest Safe Load in Pounds. Deiiection in Inches.
Shape of I
Secrion.
Load in
. \ I i ddl e.
Solid Brct. 890.4 D
angle.
L
667-4 D
- -
L
I
Hollow 667C A D-ad)
Cylinder
L
Even-
legged
Angle or
Tee.
EE5AD
- -
L
1525110
L
138OAD
L
I Beam.
1695rlD
L
Load I Load in
Distributed. Middle.
1780AD
uIL3
L 32.4DJ
I 780( .4 D-cd) WLX
L 32(AD%d)
1333.40 .WL3
- -
L 24.40
1333(,40-m/) WL3
L 24(.4 D-ad)
1770AD ___ ZUL3
__-
L 32dD
305GAD WL3
_ L 53d D
2760AD WL3
L 5UAD
- - - - -
3390.4D U,LJ
L 58A D
I I I I \
TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
q.he rules for rectangular and circular sections are correct. while those
~H.+.P~ and limited in their application
for the flanged sections are,approxin.-.-, _.._
to the standard shapes as gtven in the Pencoyd ta,bIes.
When tile section
of any beam is increased above the standard mimmum,dimensions. the
flanges remaining unaltered. and the web alone bemg tl+ckened. the ten-
d
e
ncy will be for the load as found by the rules to berm excess of the
~nt~?~~I. lxlt within the limits that it is possible to vary any section in the
~~i<i~~: the ruies~will apply without any serious inaccuracy.
The calculated safe loads will be approximately one half of loads that
,voill~l injrire the elasticity of the materials.
The rules for detlection apply to any load below the elastic limit, or
less than double the greaDest safe load by the rules.
If the beams are long without lateral support, reduce the loads for the
ratios of width to span as follows: .
Proportion of Calculated Load
forming Greatest Safe Load.
Length of Beam.
20 times flange width.
2; ,, II II
;; 50
60
;: ;:
70 *
~-l$e calcu,l,ated load.
S-10
7-10
;: 1:
6-10 1:
5- 10
1:
These rules apply to beams supported at each end.
For beams supporred
otherwise, alter the coefficients of the table as described below, refernng
to the resp+ive columns indicated by number.
Changes of CoefRcients for Special Forms of Beams.
Coefficient for Deflec-
tion
One sixteenth of the co-
efficient of col. IV.
Five forty-eighths of the
coe&ient of 1201. V-.
Four times the co&i-
cient, of col. IV.
Kind of Beam.
Fixed at one end, loaded
at the ot.her.
Fixed at one end, load
evenly distributed.
-
Both ends rigidly Exed.
I or a continuous beam.
with a load in middle.
Both ends rigidly fix:1
or a continuous beam:
with load evenly dis-
tributed.
One fourth of the coeffi-
cient, 031. II.
one fourth of the coeffi-
cient of 1201. III.
hii; $,e coefficient of
Formu]= ior Tr;lrrsverse Strength of Beams. - Referring to table
YE-
W=
Z=
E=
R=
! L&s,
load at middle:
total load. distributed uniformly;.
length. b = breadth, d = depth, tn inches:
modulus of elasticity:
modulus of rupture, or stress per square inch of extreme
fiber;
The above formuhe for the strength and stiffness of rolled beams of
various sect~ions are intended for convenient application in cases where
strict accuracy is not required.
-WARNING: This~iS a 1910 edi t
,.~~.,A
,ion. Some c
I = moment of inertia;
e = distance between neutral axis and extreme fibre.
For breaking load of circular section, replace bdl by 9.59d.
the material may no lon@be 'accurate
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
The value of R at rupture, or the modulus of rupture (see page 368),
is about 60.000 for structural steel, and about 110,000 for strong steel.
(Merriman.)
For casi iron the value of R varies great1 according to quality. Thurs.
ton f nl rnrt 45. 740 and 67.980 in No. 2 and. o. 4 cast iron. respectively. d _..__ -..- _... . ~~~~~ ~~,~~
Frrr beams timed a.t hot. 11 ends and loaded in the middie. Barlow. hv _ . ---... ._._-- -- - _.._ _..-- .~~~~
experiment. found the maximum moment of stress = l/6 P1 instead zf
1 iY P1, the result given by theory. Prof. Wood (Resist. Matls. p. 1%)
says of this case: The phenomena are of tot complex a character to admit
of s thorough and exwt amaiysis, and it is probably safer to accept the
results of Jlr. Barlow in practice than to depend upon theoretical results.
BEAMS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH THROUGHOTT THEIR
LESGTH.
The section is supposed in all cases to be rectangular throughout. The
beams shown in plan are of uniform depth throughout. Those shown in
elevation are of uniform breadth throughout.
B = breadth of beam. D = depth of bea.m.
Fixed at one end, loaded at the other2
curve parabola, vertex at loaded end : BD
aroportional to distance from loaded end.
The beam may be reversed, so that the
upper edge is parabolic, or both edges may
be parabolic.
Fixed at one end, loaded at tne other;
triangle. apes at loaded end; BD? propor-
tional to the distance from t,he loaded end.
Fixed at one end: load distributed: tri-
angle, apes at unupported end: BD' pro-
portionai tosquareoi distance from urisup-
ported end.
Fired at one end; load distrihuted:
curves two parabolas, vertices touching
e a c h o t h e r a t unsupporred e nd: BD*
proporbional to distance from unsupported
end.
Supported at both ends; load at any one
point; two parabolas, vertices at the
points of support, bases at point loaded:
SQZ proportional to distance from nearest
gomt ot support . .~The upper edge or
0th edges may also be parabolic.
Supported at both ends: load at any one
point; two triangles, apices at points oi
support, bases at point loaded: BD2 Pro.
nortional to distance from the nearest
point of support.
Supported at both ends: load distn.
buted: curves two narabolas. vertices.ai
the middle of the beam: bases centre lint
of beam; BD2 proportional to product ol
distances from points of support.
Su ported
but e ; x
at bot h ends; l oad distri
curve semi-ellipse: BD* proPor
t.ional t o t he pr oduct of t he distance
Bfrom the points of support.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of th
PROPERTIES OF ROLLED STRUCTURAL STEEL. 287
PROPERTIES OF ROLLED STRUCTURAL STEEL.
Explanation of Tables of the Properties of I-Beams, Channels,
Angles, Z-Bars, Tees9 Trongh and Corrugated Plates.
(The Carnegie Steel Co.)
The tables for I-beams and channels are calculated. for all standard
seighbs to which each pattern is rolled. The tables fo: angles are ca,l-
&ated for the minimum intermediate and maximum weights of the
various shapes, while the properties of Z-bars are given for thicknesses
differing by i/is in& For tees. each shape can be rolled to one weight
only.
Columns headed C in the tables for I-beams and channels give coeffl-
cients by the help of which the safe imiformly distributed load may be
rewlilv determined.
e---T-
Tn do this, divide the coefficient given by the span A \
or distance between suppc xts in feet.
If a section is to C- --I, it: selected (as will usually be the case), intended to
f.- - 1---LL
of span a!ready determined on, ascertain
-.:1> _^X,_:..^ ^..,a --Far I_ ,I*,, +h,-
carry a certain load mr a ~eu::~u
the coefficient which this load arm spau wm reqtio e, ~rw LFA~L c:, LI1e bpw.V
for a section having a coefficient of this value. The coefficient IS obtemed
by multiplying the load, in pounds uniformly distributed. by the span
2~~ --~A
tengtn in reeb.
In case the load is not uniformly dist,ributed. but is concentrated at the
middle of the span. multiply the load by 2. and then consider it as uni-
formiy distributed. The deflection mill be s/la of the deliection for the
latter load.
tz:LLb I 1;,r)vv puLLL~, ,3LILILY I YYI.CI.. _.&.-.,
LIILILI, LJ ,,- C,lrYYY or impact may be very considerable (the stresses pro-
duced in an unyielding inelastic material b
dnlrble those produced by the same loa2,
a load suddenly apphed. bem
in a quiescent state), it wd3
---l-l
sometin.,, .,- -_ .-&me w Oc. ha arlviw-- *- use .sti11 s..,,.&. nnu=r fiber stresses than those given
in the ,tables. In such cases ~---- the coefficients may be determined by
er square inch the y~~ciyn. T h u s . f,xr g +Y\~- =+ _~~__, I u /jlL.L. vress of 8000 pounds
ent will equal the coefficient for 16,000 poun s fiber stress, from J
th;l- : hl e, divided by 2.
{ection moduli are used to determine the fiber stress per square
inch in a beam. or other shape, subjected to bending or transverse stresses,
by simply dividing t, he bendine moment expressed in inch-pounds by the
InThe case of T-shapes with the neutral axis paral i el to the flange, there
will he two section moduli, and the smaller is given. The fiber stress cd-
culated from it will. therefore, give the larger of the two stresses in the
extreme fibers, since t. hrse stxesses are eaual to the bending moment
divided by the sect&i modulus of the section.
For Z-bars the coefficient (C) may be applied for cases where the bars
are subjected to transverse loading, as in the case of roof-purllns.
For angles there will be two section moduii for each position of .the
neutral axis since the distance between the neutral axis and,the extreme
fibers has adifferent val ue on one side of tbe axis from what it has on the
other. The section modulus given in the table is the smaller Of these two
Values.
Column headed X in the table of the properties of standard channels.
giving the distance bf the center of gravity of channel from the outside
of web is used to obtain the radius of gyration for columns or struts con-
sktingof two channels latticed, for the case of the neutral asi s Passing
through the center of the cross-section parallel to the webs of the channels.
This radius of gyration is equal to the distance between the center of
gravity of the channel and the center of the section, i.e.. neg1eCtln.g the
oments of inertia of the channels around their own axes. thereby Intro-
ucing a sliglit error on the side of safety..
(For much other important information concerning rolled s+ctUral
shapes, see the Pocket Companion
of The Carnegie Steel Co., Pittsburg,
0% price $2.)
e material may no
288
PROPERTI ES OF ROLLXD STRUCTUR.\L STEEL. 2 8 9 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Properties o! Carnegie Standard I-Beams--Steel.
:
1 35;
; -
: Xf
5
j p42
.x
.i : .0.3
s
:
x
. Fi
: ~X.0
G<F
-m.
3 4i . 2 &I
' . 71 392
8. 61 36. 2 2. 67 k-i
; . 5i 26. 2
E
0. 7
i . 4 24. 0
1. 3: 21. 8 1. 85
; : 2
1. 2' 15. 2
E
6. j
I . 1 13. 6 5. 4
I . 01 12. 1 1. 23 4. 8
! . 8f 7. 1 I . 01
! . 8 6. 7 0. 93 3
! . 7: 6. 4 0. 85 3. 2
! . 61
2:
0. 77 3. 0
! . 5:
! . 41 2. 7 2:
1. 3: 2. 5 0. 46 i . 71
I 1 ! cti ons standsrd: others are special.
pounns, ur.ifxmly distributed: 1 =spm in feet.
orces in foot-pounds: C = coetficient given above.
; C = Ll =S . W= y, ; ; f = Eher stress.
tee1
h,l
Y :,a
r+$
-.%:
:.; ;
e-2.:
z, -
;.zi
-%:
;
I
3%:
jz 3
5-
0. 74
0. 76
0. 78
0. 68
0. 69
0~72
0. 63
0. 63
0. 65
0. 57
: : : i
0. 59
0. 52
0. 52
0. 53
i
22s
c?
$
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223
5; n
L&L.
E i g
EC?
tit_ 11
c-2
z-.-
(y
128600
119400
110400
93100
; : : : :
64600
58100
51600
38100
36000
33900
31800
20700
19100
17600
of Ca1r
i
Wei gh
Per
Foot.
--
jr.
w :, 2
z<z
.z- g
22:
&I;
. . ..n.Fw
0 x5
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795. 6
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5. 2
5. 2
5. 1
5. 1
5. 0
5. 7
5. 6
5. 5
5. 4
5. 4
5. 2
: : I
6.a
5. 7
: : 2
: : :
: : i
5.i
5. c
5. c
5: l
4. <
4. f
4. t
4. ;
4. t
4. A
". i
2
4. f
4. f
P$
5. 15
1. 42
5. 07
1. 34
3. 61
1. 34
3. 60
Z. 87
3. 09
! . 79
L. 50
z. 21
z. 21
I . 91
1. 63
-
: ht
: l o;
Plates - negie Trout:h
7-i
i. ]
-
Steel. Propertic:.s
/.
&xmeEt 0:
Inertia.
Neutral
Ares
,f set
tion.
/
Section
iIOdUlUS
Axis as
befora
Radi us
Ii Gyra-
tion,
Axis 39
before.
I
Secti or
I ndex.
Si ze, i n
Inchcs. Axi s
Parsl l el tc
Length.
I l b.
16. 32
18. 02
19. 72
2: ; ' ;
f Cam
sq. in
4. 8
5. 3
5. 8
6. 3
6. 8
gi e 1 ,e
-
c
Area
,f 53%
tion.
3. 60
4. 13
4. 57 1. 77
: : : :
1. 96
2. 15
d Plates-Steel.
9: / 2x 3 314
91/ 2X 3314
9111x 3314
91/ 2x 3v4
9%X33/4
roperties
i
020
1. 13
1. 42
3. 33
3. 90
1. 25 0. 62
4. 79 5. 81 : : : i
6. 82 4.46 0.99
Weight
Per
Foot.
Si ze, i n
Inches.
l b.
8. 01
Kl :
17. 75
20. 71
23. 67
-
24
2
5. 2
6. 1
7. 0
3314 xiv2
3314 x I 9116
33/4 x 13/ a
123/16X2314
123116x213/16
~23/1~x27/~
IO pounds pel
~,.&aiG
Some of
* This coefficient used for buildings; for bridges use 12
sqwre inch, or multiply value in this column by 0.781%:
WARNING: Thins- is a 1910 edition.
.~.. ..~.~, .~~
le material may no longer be 'accurate
-
sire ~,oads, Uniformly Distributed,
for Carnegie Standard Steel I-Reams.
In Tons of 2M)O Lb.
19.92 15.99 10.85 0.39.
18.39 14.76 10.02 7 74 I
17.08 13.70 9.30 7.19
15.94 12.79 a.68 6.71
14. 94 11.99 8. 14 6. 29
-
14.06 ! 1.29 7.66 5.92
13.28 10.66 7.24 5.59
12.58 10.10 6.86 5.30
11. 95 9. 59 6. 51 5. 03
- -
Il.36 9. 14 6. 20 4. 79
10. 87 a. 72 5. 92 4. 58
10. 39 8. 34 5. 66 4.38
9. 96 7. 99 5. 43 4. 19
9. 56 7. 67 5. 21 4. 03
9. 19 7. 38 5. 01 3. 87
a.85 7. 11 4.82 3.73
8. 54 6. 85 4. 65 3. 59
8. 24 6. 62 4. 49 3. 47
7. 97 6. 40 4. 34 3. 36
i.17,1.04 7. 75 5. 16 3. 18 1.76
t . 64 9. 20 6. 46 4. 30 2. 65 1.47
3.84 7 . 8 9 5. 54 3. 69 2. 27 1.26
-
3.48 6.90 4. 84 3. 23 I .99 1.10
-
8.43 6.13 4. 31 2. 87 1. 77 0.98
7. 59 5. 52 3. 88 2. 58 1. 59 0.88
-
6. 90 5. 02 3. 52 2. 35 I.45 0.80
6. 32 4. 60 3. 23 2. 15 1. 33 0.73
5183 4 . 2 5 2. 98 1. 98 1. 22 0.68
m3 . 9 4 2. 77 1. 84 1. 14 0.63
5. 06 3. 68 2. 50 1. 72 1. 06 0.59
4. 74 3. 45 2. 42 1. 61 0. 99 0.55
4. 46 3. 25 2. 28 1. 52 0. 94 0.52
4. 2, 3. 07 2. 15 1. 43 0. 88 0.49
3.99 2.91 2. 04 1. 36 0. 84 0.46
3. 79 2. 76 1. 94 1. 29 0. 80 0.44
3. 61 2. 63 1. 85 1. 23 0. 76 0.42
01
ings.
dy f,g,res above the crqss
SO that the deflection wll
(Proper distance ir Feet. center to center of beams.)
-3:
z Distance
- between
3 +mtS
(u tn F e e t .
Y
12
3 13
0 I4
c 15
s 16
co 17
ST3
-I: 1;
CT: 20
c-~ 21
.
?i 22
=: 23 24
-
3 I.
-_-
S lb. I
-_-
60.7
42.1
3i . C
23.7
la.7
15.2
12.5
10.5
9.0
7.7
6.7
5.9
5.3
4.7
4.2
3.8
3.4
3.1
-
;2,;
1 wil
--iii
-
aa
71. 20 I . 18 I . 15 I. 12 I. !O I. Distance
- - -
- - between
1 lb. a0 lb. 165 lb. 55 lb. a0 lb./60 lb. 42 lb~ 40 lb.1 31.5 25 :b. Supportr
lb. in Feet.
- - - - - - - - -
2 6 . 9 1 0 8 . 6 86:6 6 5 . 5 x 6 0 . 1 4 3 . 6 3 3 . 2 2 6 . 6 1~3.1 5
09.8 92.6 73.8 55.8 67.0 51.3 37.2 28.3 22.7 15.4 6
94.7 79.8 63.7 48.1 57.7 44.2 32.1 24.4 19.6 13.: 7
82.5 6 9 . 5 5 5 . 5 41. 50.3 38.5 27.9 21.3 17.1 41.6 a
72.5 61.1 48.7 36.8 44.2 33.8 24.5 la.7 15.0 z 9
64.2 54.1 43.2 32.6 39.2 30.0 21.7 16.5 (3.3 9.0 10
57.3 48.3 38.5 29.1 34.9 26.7 19.4 14.8 11.8
51.41 43.3 34.6 26.1 31.3 24.0 17.4 13.2 10.6
8.0 II
7.2 12
46.4/ 3 9 . 1 31.2, 2 3 . 6 2 8 . 3 2 1 . 7 1 5 . 7 . 12.0 9. 6 6.5 13
42.1 35.5 28.3 21.4 25.7 !9.6 14.2 10.8 a.7 5.9 14
38.4 32.3 25.8 19.5 23.4 17.9 13.0 9. 9 7. 9 5.4 15
35.1 29.6 23.6 17.8 21.4 16.4 11.9 9. 0 7.3 4.9 16
32.2 27.2 21.7 16.4 19.6 15.0 10.9 a.3 6.7 4.5 17
29.7 7.7 6.1 4.2 18
27.5
25.0 20.0 15.1 18.1 13.9 1;:;
23.1 la.5 13.9 16.7 12.8 7.1 5.7 3.9
25.5 21.5 17.1 12.9 15.5 11.9 a.6 6.6 5.3 3.6 19
23.7 20.0 15.9 12.0 14.4 I 1.0 a.0 6.1 4.9 3.3 20
22. I 18.6 14.8 11.2 13.5 10.3 7.5 5.7 4.6 3.1 21
6-l
; , Oi
I lb.
-
80.5
55.9
41.1
31.5
24.9
9. 0
7.9
7. 0
6.2
5.6
5.0
4. 6
3.8
! rat:
i&k;
5 lb.
44.2
30.7
22.5
17.3
13.6
11.1
9.1
7.7
-
6.5
5.6
4.9
4.3
3.8
3.4
3.1
2.8
2.5
2.3
-
:n l o
a SC
ot ca
2.25
lb.
31.0
21.5
15.8
12.1
9.6
7.8
-
6.4
5.4
4. 6
4. 0
3.4
3.0
2.7
2. 4
2.2
1.9
1.a
I.6
pef !
re Ill
I cl?3
9.75 7.5 5.5
lb. l b. lb.
-
20.6 12.7 -%I
14.3 8.8 4.9
10.5 6.5 7% -
a.1 5.0 2.8
6.4 3.9 2. 2
5.2 3.2 1.8
4.3 2.6 1.5
3.6 2.2 1.2
3.1 1.9 1.0
2.6 1.6 c9
2.3 1.4 . . .
2.0 I.2
1.a 1.1 .
1.6 0.9,
1.4
1.3
I.2
I.1
-
are t be: jto
ng of the plaster.
2 25
rk 26
SD
27
28
29
30
For any
100. Thus
only sigu
20.61 17.41 13.91 10.51 12.61 9.61 7.01 5.31 4.31 2.91 22
other load than 100 lb. per square foot! divide thesparing g&n by
for a load of 150 lb. per square foot diwde by 1.5. Maximum tuber s
res above thecross-lines should beused for plastered ceilings, so that tbl
PROPERTIES OF ROLLED STRUCTURAL STEEL.
293 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Properties of Carnegie Standard Clmnnels -Steel.
1 /
;/
i i
i i
' I
; I
j !
$1
: i
; ; I
, 4!
121
, 3 ;
: 3si
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54
53
21
i
5
:
:
7
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g.
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12:
11.
10
9
8
8
6
2
1
:
, I
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%
: ; I
62'
53
44
35
- . I
. b!
. 51
. 48 5. 58
. 23 5. 62
1% : : : ;
. 21 4. 28
' : E ' 1: : :
8. 66 3. 35
8. 90 , 3. 42
i . 40 3. 52
! , 85 3. 66
! . ?O 3. 87
! . 98 13. 10
! . 45 3. 21
1. 95 3. 40
! $ ; : : ;
; ) : 98 2. 72
1. 25 2. 07
1. 07 2. 13
0. 88 2. 21
0. 32 1. 5t
0. 31 1. 01
0. 25 1. 1:
0. 20 11. 1.
6(
, 9 f
' 0 I
6 I
19 1
12
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. 3f
.bi
c*
5: . 4 61190
53. 7 57270
50. 0 53350
46. 3 49420
42. 7 45500
41. 7 44450
32. 8 35020
29. 9 3188C
26. 9 2874C
24. 0 2561C
21. 4 227N
23. 1 2464(
20. 6 2203(
18. 2' 1941(
15. 7 1680(
13. 4 1427(
15. 7 1676(
13. 5 144l f
1i . 3 12051
10. 5 1122~
8.6 9 2 0
::9 7%
6:; 6;:
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4. 3 462
4. 2 44
:
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$
%
d
2
gj
14. 7
; : : ;
10. 2
9. 9
I b: :
8. f
5
10. ;
; : ;
5. 1
4.
: : i
4. ,
2
2
4.
3.
5.
5.
4.
' 2:
; ,
:
:
;
:
I i
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00
IO0
LOO
100
100
300
jO0
$00
6OC
-
0?323
0. 803
%"si
%E
"0: : : :
0. 677
0. 678
EZ;
0. 651
0. 620
0. 609
00: : : ;
0. 585
2%
0. 587
0. 567
2: : ;
0. 57b
0. 583
t: : :
: : : i :
", : : ?;
%R
0. 48'
I Used for buildin s: for bridges use l-,
5
9 500 pounds, or multiply coca.
cient in this column y 0.73125.
L = safe load in pounds, uniformly dist.ributed: 2 7 span in feet:
M = moment of forces in foot-pounds:
C = coeffiwnt given above.
8fS
L y T ; M =f ; 12 =Lt = 8 .lf = 13: f = fiber stress.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the
PROPERTIES OF ROLLED STRUCTURAL STEEL. 295
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
properties of Carnegie Standard and Special Angles with Equal
Legs. Minimum, Intermediate, and Maximum Thicknesses
and Weights.
Prqperties ot Carnegie T-Shapes. - Steel.
%
c!
2
-
ix
Z
2. 55
3. 00
2. 40
2. 79
4. 56
i : : ; :
' 4: ; ;
3. 21
2. 73
2. 52
22: : :
1. 95
: : 3:
3. 45
ZY
"2%
3. 48
3. 12
2. 73
3. 21
2. 00
' 2: : ;
"2%
2. 16
: : ; i
1. 89
0. 84
1. 44
1. 26
: : 2
0. 75
E:
x
.T
.gg
. -t>
eFd -2
rr - ?U
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5%
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g
$2
5 .;ch
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,i _ 831;
03 E.c-
m DO uto-J
SE
022
$jp dLn
,g.- tjzn
,a7x...-
IlO. I
0:;: :::
I . 11 5. 1
E: Z 27
0. 58 1. 1
' 0. 60 I . 2
x' ; ' so: ;
1: ; : "6: ;
1. 18 5. 7
1. 15 4. 7
"0: ; ; ?I
0. 60 I . 0
0. 48 0. 60
?: : : 2'
I . 19 4. 3
1. 06 3. 7
1. 01 3. 0
0. 88 2. 4
0. 83 1. 9
: : : "z : : ;
1. 32 4. 8
1. 29 4. 3
1: ; : : : z
z: ; ; 2:
0. 88 1. 8
0. 71 1. 1
) 0. 53 1. 1
0. 97 1. 8
"0. 07 I . 4
' 0. 76 1. 0
0. 29 0. 05
0. 69 0. 6C
/ 0. 63 0. 45
1 0. 42 O. l t
) 0. 54 0. 2:
0. 42 0. 1:
1 0. 40 0. 01
0. 32 O. O!
:;:i
26. 4
37. 4
26. 5
14. 9
30. 6
21. 8
12. 3
19. 9
14. 3
8. 2
17. 1
12. 4
1: :
4. 9
8. 5
I ; : !
7. 7
: : :
"5:
2;
4. 0
2. 5
4. 6
: : ;
3. 4
: : 2
2. 4
?. O
16. 73
12. 34
7. 75
' : : ; :
Z: E
; 2:
5. 84
4. 18
: : Ei
3. 62
: : z
2. 43
1. 44
: : ; ;
. 1. 31
: : ; :
0. 90
: : i ?i
0. 81
I : : ; ET
0. 72 0. 57
1. 30 0. 59
1. 00 0. 55
0. 62 0. 51
i t: ; 0. 51 0. 47
; 5:
0. 40
1. 1 0. 35
1. 5 0. 44 0. 34
I . 2 0. 34 0. 32
0. 8 0. 24 0. 30
1. 0 0. 29 0. 29
0. 7 0. 21 0. 26
0. 9 0. 25
0. 6 0. 17 : : ; ;
2. 41
2. 30
2. 19
1. 86
1. 75
! . 64
1. 61
I : : :
I : E
1. 12
1. 17
1. 08
%i
0. 91
E
0. 02
0. 78
0. 81
C. 76
: : ; :
0. 70
0. 63
1 l/8
311%
I2
I
u/la
3/ s
1
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31s
13i 16
g/ l 6
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1311%
VlG
Vlt!
5/s
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l/4
112
;;;
IF2
3f8
3/l%
$;
311%
~I16
5/16
3h
ha
5/M
311%
313
114
110
16
v4
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114
ipy
3116
VU
3/l%
VI3
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m.
5 x3
5 X21,
41i?)(31,
4VzX3
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5
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48. 63
35. 46
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19. 64
14. 68
8. 74
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6 X6,
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4 x4
: 2:
3%X31/ :
3%X31/ :
: 1' 2xxi 1k
3 x3
3 x3
*23/ 4X23/ ,
l 23/ ~X23/
*23/ 4x23/
2v2x2v
.w2x2v
2v2x2v
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*21/ 4X21/
+2%X21/
i 5;
2 X 2
T
314 x I 31
1314 x 13!
314 x 131
112 x 1 11
rv2XIl/
1 l/2 x 111
1 l/4 x I v
1114xI ' I
v4 x I/
, 1 Xl
1
I : 1
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* /ax 71
3r4 x 31
.-314x 31
I
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2%X! I/., :
2 114 X2 114 !
2 x2
2 XI I / 3 1
1314 x I 314 :
I q?Xl 11~ ;
;
Angles marked * are SP
eci
Some light weight Ts of the smaller sizes are omitted.
..~ ~-,A
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
L>, _... .~~ -.-, 4SI -x ~~~._. ._~
me material may no longer be accurate;
PROPERTI ES OF ROLLED STRUC:TURAL STEEL. 297
Ssie Loads (Tons, 2000 Lb.) Uniformly Distributed for
Carnegie Standard and Special Angles With Equal Legs.
296 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Properties of Carnegie Standard and Special Angles with
Unequal Legs; Minimum, Intermediate, and iMaximum
Thicknesses, and Weights.
Distance between Supports in Feet.
of 1 Section
.-
lndil
tit
30. 75 3. 79 8. 02
22. 02 2. 76 5. 78
13. 47 1. 60 29. 24 2. 90 37%
21. 74 2. 11 5. 65
12. 86 1. 23 3. 25
16. 42' 3. 31 12. 61 2. 48 ET
8. 14 1. 57 2. 34
15. 67 2. 52
12. 03 1. 90
6. 60' 1. 02 1. 94
13. 92 1. 74 4. 45
10. 43 1. 27 6. 26 0. 75 : : z
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i l . 91
D. 95
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2
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1. 12
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0. 95
0. 92
0. 95
0. 74
%
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em of the smaller irltermediate si
2
2: ;
2. 86
9. 41
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8. 03
Z: i i
2. 60
3. 47
1. 55
2. 37
1. 28
1. 95
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4. 88 I
5. 24 I
6. 27
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4. 70
7. 73
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9. 14 7. 62
2: : : : : I ;
2. 58 2. 15
5. 35
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1. 73
4. 01 3. 21
1. 72 1. 38
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2. 31 1. 73
1. 03 0. 77
I . 58 I . 19
0. 85 0. 64
1. 39
0. 62
2; :
1. 29 0. 97 0. 78
3: %Y E
0. 43 0. 32 0. 26
0. 71
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2. 01
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6
7
. e
Size of Angle.
6 X6 Xi
6 x6 X318
$5 x5 Xl
*5 x5 x3/3
4 x4 X13/16
4 x4 x5/ 10
3vzx3vzx13/ m
3v~x3vzx5&3
; $ wi
*2314x 2314x 112
*23/4x23t4.x 114
2~12x2~/2Xv2
21/2x21/2x3110
*21/4X2l/4Xl/2
*2l / tX2 V4X3h
2 x2 x7/:3
2 X2 x3/ 10
13/4x1v4x7/10
13/4x13l4X3lltl
11/2X11/2x3/8
Il/aXIV2X1la
Il4X1V4X5ll6
1l/4xI ViXVa
; ;; $2
* 718x v8X3lle
* I3x
3l4x
T/s x %
3!4x 3116
314x 3/4x1/3
Mom
Inert:
I
L;
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5s .
52 .p
$a 4EG
%z:;; -
$g ;I$2
i--
s CY
4 z
- -
6. 02 4. 92
9. 50, 7. 53
7. 31 6. oa
4. 40 3. 95
9. 00' 10. 75
6. 41 8. 11
3. 61 4. 90
8. 50 7. 21
6. 06[ 5. 47
3. 421 3. 34
7. 111 9. 23
5. 23 7. 14
3. 23 4. 67
6. 67 6. 21
4. 92 4. 83
2. 56. 2. 72
5. 04 3. 71
4. 18 2. 83
2. 40 1. 75
5. 43 3. 60
3. 90 2. 75
2. 25 1. 73
~ ; . 4$ 5; ' ;
~ 2: 25 2. 59
5. 03 3. 47
3. 62 2. 66
2. 09 I . 65
4. 62 3. 33
1. 93 I . 50
3. 65 1. 72
1. 44 0. 78
2. 64 0. 75
1. 25 0. 40
2. 78 1. 42
I . 31 0. 74
: : : ; 0": ; :
2. 00 0. 64
0. 81 0. 29
1. 63 0. 26
1. 27 0. 21
0. 67 0. 1;
0": ; ; ; : ;
1 0. 53 0. 0;
I 0. 28 0. 0;
--
ti
--
:I2
I
1. 16
E
0. 43
0. 65
0. 27
i : Z
i YE
0. 27
0. 12
0. 17
0. 064
%I :
0. 05
i 0. 02
. 9
2J ; : 0
I I
E%5
- -
-
1
3. 49
4. 64
5. 72
i ! g
6. 05
688
E
6. 93
' 4: Z
2. 56
I . 01
0. 38
0. 58
0. 26
i : : ;
%
0. 13
0. 09
-
-
__
I
:
7
:
z
6
3
I
-
9 10
- -
0. 39 9. 35
4. 96 4, 46
5. 04 4. 57
2E : : i f
1. 43 1. 29
1. 78 I . 61
0. 76 0. 69
1. 33 1. 20
0. 58 0. 52
0. 77 0. 69
0. 34 0. 31
0. 53 0. 47
02. 3 0. 26
0. 43 0. 39
0. 18 0. 16
0. 34 0. 31
0. 14 0. 13
0. 24 0. 21
0. 11 0. 10
0. 18 0. 16
0. 083 0. 075
0. 110 0. 100
0. 043 0. 038
0. 065 0. 058
0. 029 0. 026
0. 033 0. 030
0. 018 0. 017
0. 020 0. 018
0. 014 0. 012
0. 014 0. 013
0. 010 0. 009
10. 33 1. 71 3. 62
7. 75 1. 25 2. 64
4. 69 0. 76 1. 54
7. 77 2. 30 2. 92
5. 86~ ! . 68
3.56 I . 01 1 f : i :
7. 34 I . 60 2. 87
5. 55 1. 23
3. 38 0. 74
4. 98 1. 65 2. 20
2. 33 0. 72
4. 13 0. 99
1. 80 0. 41 0. 75
' 2. 64 0. 53 1. 30
1. 36 0. 26
2. 28 0. 82 E
1. 17 0. 40
1. 92 0. 47
1. 09 0. 25 1. 14 0. 46 00: X
0. 51 0. 20 0. 29
0. 75 0. 26
0. 61 0. 20
0. 34 0. 11
0. 37 0. 12
0. 24 0. 09 0. 18
0. 09 0. 05
0. 05 0. 03
6 X4
6 x4
6 X3% 1
2
*5 x4 7/s
+5 x4 5/8
5 x4 313
5 x3 I2 7/n
5 X3112 5i8
5 X3 I/? %6
33/M
9/m
5 x3 5116
*4 li2 x3 13/H
*41/.2x3 9he
*412X3 5l 1t
1; x3112113!lC
*4
X3% 9/N
x31/2 51%
4 x3 13l l f
4 x3 9l l f
4 x3 5hf
3V?X3 13111
3112x3 5111
-V4X2 9111
*3ll4x2 I4
2112x2 1:I
2%X2 3/ l
*2I4x I 112 I/:
*2 I4x I 112 3/f
;;11.4 x 1112 3/l
x 13/81 /
*2 xI318 li
*13/ xX1 1
*I s/ ( / XXI l / 1
Safe loads given include weight of angle. Maximum fiber streq
16,000 pounds or square inch. Neutral axis through center of gravity
PWsllel to one eg. P Angles marked * are special.
-
A f Angles marked * are special.
are omitted.
~~,I,
j&
_ ._. _
he material rnay~ no longer Abe accurate MARNING: This is a 1910 edi t i on.
Some of
PROPERTIES OJ? ROLLED STRUCTURAL STEEL.
299
298 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Safe Loads in Tons (2000 Lb.) Uniformly Distributed for Stand-
ard Carnegie Angles with Unequal Legs. Properties of Carnegie Z-Bars.
zrticsl.) (Short Leg
I Distan
Size of .Ingle.
-
i
7-
T
-.
5
3 :
j1
6
6
6
G
,%
I
.%
I
.%
1
22. :
25. 2
28. f
29. :
31. '
34. 1
1: : :
l 6. ,
23.
26.
20.
1: :
12,
r-
_-
3
53
3
3
63
; 3
3
63
I 3
3
. % 2
I 2
1%i
a :
1%~
8,
1%
' 8
wee11::
5
I-
iupp3r
--
6
ts in
-
7
5eet.
---
8
--
9
-
2. 89
I . 22
2. 21
0. 94
I . 92
0. 78
! . 33
K3
0. 56
. I . 26
0. 55
0. 75
0. 31
El
0. 35
0. 15
- .
2. 53
1. 07
1. 93
0. 82
i . 6E
0. 68
! . I 6
t: : :
0. 49
1. 10
Z: Z
0. 27
0. 55
E:
0. 13
2. 25
0. 95
1. 72
0. 73
1. 49
~%
. . "- -
0. 44
LOO
: : G. i
0. 43
0. 59
0. 24
0. 49
0. 24
0. 27
0. 12
--
m f iT; LLSlrn er s
of gravity paral,
-
10
-
2. 02
0. 85
1. 55
0. 66
1. 34
0. 54
a. 93
0. 40
E
0. 88
E
0. 22
0. 44
0. 21
2: :
-
PSS,
I to
ii
r
X I 20. 21 10. 11
X3/ 8 8. 53 4. 27
6 X31/ : ! Xl 15. 47 7. 74
6 x31/ ?X3/ 8 / 6. 56 3. 28
Xj ' i ? x7/8 13. 44~ 6. 72
: ~31/ ; x~/ ~% 5. 44 2. 72
: 2
/ I X13! : % 9. 28 4. 64
x5/ 16 4. 00 2. 00
4 x3 X13tl % a. 96 4. 48
4 x3 X5/ 1% 3. 95 1. 97
31: 2x3 x1Q6 8. 80 4. 40
3112x3 x5/ , , 3. 64 1. 92
2l l ~XZ x 112
2. 45 1. 23
21/ 2x2 X3/ 1% 1. 07 0. 53
Safe loads given inch
1!3.000 lb. per sq. ip. Net
Img It!g.
2;:
5. 16
2. 19
4. 48
1. 81
3. 09
1. 33
2 . 99
1. 32
: : ; i
1. 76
E- 2
0. 71
0. 82
0. 36
:::;
3. 87
1. 64
3. 36
1. 36
2. 32
I . 00
; : ; i
2. 20
0. 96
1. 32
0. 55
I . 09
0. 53
0. 61
0. 27
;:Y;
3. 09
I . 31
2. 69
I . 09
A: $
1. 79
: . : ;
0: 77
I . 06
0. 44
El
0. 49
0. 21
::it
2. 24
0. 91
I . 55
0. 67
1 . 49
0. 66
1. 47
0. 64
". a8
0. 36
0. 73
0. 36
0. 41
0. 18
3 weight
ral axis tk
angl e. :
mgh cell t e
Safe Loads in Tons (2000 Lb.) Uniformly Distributed for Stand-
ard Carnegie Angles with rnequal Legs.
34. 6
38. 8(
43. 11
' 1E
19. 0'
19. 1'
21. 8
24. 5
23. 6
26. 1
28. 7
d
.o
;;
$
%
ES
2
4
q.in
4. 5'
5. 3'
6. 1'
74: ; :
4. 8
5. 2
5. 9
6. 6
r; : :
8. 3
-7
1
5
r,
1
6
6
6
6
t
.%
.%
5
16
k%
4
I 16
4,
1. 31 0. 74 61, 400
1. 33 0. 75 69, 000
1. 35 0. 76 76, 600
15.44
17. 27
19. 18
; : A!
9. 20
9. 05
10. 51
12. 06
(Long Leg Vertical.)
-
1 Feet. SupI
6
- -
7.13
2. 95
6. 96
2. 89
4. 34
1. 73
: : : i
: : : i
1. 96
0. 85
1. 64
E
0. 5c
rts ir
7 10
-
4. 2d
1. 77
%
2. 60
1. 04
??I
1. 53
%
0: 51
Z: Z
0. 61
0. 30
0. 37
0. 16
-
ress,
: I to
8 9
- -
4. 75
1. 97
d, 64
1. 93
Ei
2. 64
1%
0. 73
1. 30
0. 57
1. 10
%i
ET
0. 17
I
I
.i~-
i 6. l i
2. 53
5. 97
2. 48
: : i i
3. 39
1. 44
f i : : :
1. 68
X:
0. 57
i : : ;
0. 53
0. 22
5. 35
2. 21
: : :
3. 25
1. 29
2. 97
1: : ;
: : : ;
: : :
0. 50
0. 77
0. 37
0. 47
0. 19
6 x4 xi 42. 77'
6 x4 X3/ 8 17. i 1
6 x31/ 2x I 41. 76
6 X31/ ?X3/ % 17. 33
5 x3 X5/ 1% 10. 08
4 x3 x 13/ 1G 15. 31
4 x3 X5/ l % 6. 56
31; zx3 X13/ 1% 11. 73
31/ : XXl / ~x l / 4
3 x21/ 2x9/ 16 6. 13
I O. 691 8. 55
i . 43 3. 54
10. 44 8. 35
4. 33 3. 47
6. 51 5. 21
2. 59 2. 07
5. 93. 4. 75
; : ; ; I 3". ; ;
1. 64 I : 31
2. 93 2. 35
1. 28 1. 02
2. 47 1. 9;
I : : F: "S
0. 75 0. 60
0. 93 0. 75
0. 39 0. 31
21. 39 14. 26
8. 85 5. 90
20. 88 13. 92
8. 67 5. 78
13. 01 8. 68
5. 18 3. 45
I I . 87 7. 91
5. 04 3. 36
7. 65 5. 10
3. 28 2. 19
5. 87 3. 91
2. 56 1. 71
4. 93 3. 29
2. 00 1. 33
3. 07 2. 04
1. 50 1. M)
1. 87 1. 24
0. 77 0. 52
5. 27 12. 7
5i 8 ' 8
11/l% 20
314 23
16 6. 73 4. 83 2. 37 1. 55
8 7. 96 5. 50 2. 77 1. 55 1. 31
' 4 9. 26 6. 18 3. 19' 1. 55 1. 33
1 8. 73 6. 05 3. 18 1. 48 1. 25
i 2 9. 95 6. 65 3. 58 1. 48
37 11. 24 7. 26 4. 00 1. 49 1. 29 0. 69
114 6
i
1. 92 l . l O( 1. 21 1. 19 0. 55 15, 400
5/ 1% 8
2. 38 1. 40 1. 21 1. 21 0. 56 19. 000
31% 9. 7 2 86 3. 85 3. 92 2. 57
1. 57 1. 16 1. 17 0. 55 2, 600O
7j 1% 11. 4 3. 36 4. 57 4. 75 2. 98 1. 88 1. 17 1. 19 0. 56 23, 800
Q%, l 4. 2, I
112 12. 5 3. 69 4. 59 4. 85 3. 06 1. 99 1. 12 1. 15 0. 55'
4. 18, 5. 26 5. 70 3. 43 2. 31 1. 12 I . 171
0. 56 ; $o"o"
,
-
St
lie
Safe loads given include weight of angle. Naximnm fiber .
16.000 lb. per sq. in.
short leg.
Neutral axis through cexxter of gravity pxa
h
4
may no lon&r be 'accurate material e
PROPEltTIES OF ROLLED STRUCTURAL ST13E.L.
301 300 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Notes on Tables oi Z-Bar and Channel Columns.
(Carnegie Steel Co., 1903.)
nensions of 6, 8, and lo-Inch earnegic Z-Bar Columns.
-,-------
,.. .-
- / -
The tables of safe loads for steel Z-bar and channel columns are com-
pi l ed on the basis of an allowable stress per square inch of 13.000 pounds.
with a factor of safety of 4 for lengths of 90 radii and under and an allow-
a
ble stress deduced from t!re formula 17.100 --57 1 +. r for lengths greater
than 90 radii: 1 = length in feet: T = radjus of gsratiqnm inches.
l;Ltiorls are made by means of Gordon, formula. modmed for steel.
CaJ;;;
values used in these tables should he ux!d only xy!!ere the loads are mostly
statical and equal or nearly so on opposite sides of the column.
If the
eccentricity is great or the load subject to suaden changes the ,values
should be reduced according to circumstances.
The safe loads given m
the tables on channel columns range in value from 2 f r= 90 to about
[e-r= 1%. The size and spacing of lattice bars of channel coiuTm~~
should be proportioned to the sections compos!ng the COhma.
should not be less than 11/s inch X s/is mch for &Inch channels: 13/J X s/la
inch for 7- and S-ii,% channels; -9 X 5/ie inch for 9- and lo-mch ChaunefS;
9 X 3jr, inch for 1%inch channeis.
Sale Loads Pr. Tons (2000 Lb.) on Carnegie Z-Bar Columns
(Square Ends).
Dimensions and form of columns given in tables, p. 300.
6-INCH Z-BAR COLU;IZN.
3lfrl41f4 . .
s3f8 46f8 56fl6
j3f8 412 57116
3 Ii24 7116 5 g/l6
3lf2 46116 5 If2
35/a 4V165 618
. 45f8 5614
4 3t, 5 fl6
vg 4
I
-H--+i
a+-?%
Thickness of Metal, Inch.
l/4 I ~il,l
I
3/Y 71s I lf? 1 g/16 / v/8
_-,-----
1.86 l.!xJ j
I
1.88 j 1.93 1.90 1.95
_/__-,-----
314
-
l */ l G
.
.
.
.
.3/16
81. 61
81. 6j
; I ; '
61. 8
56. 9
51. 9
47. 0
42. 0
IO-in. co,, l-l Z-bars, .?A i/s in. deep.
j ? neb plate 7 in. X thick. of Z-bars.
A11 rivets or bolts 3/A inch diameter.
95.8 105.7 119.8
93. 6 107. 8 .
68. 6 74. 6 06. 8 . . .
68. 2 79. 8 . . .
72. 0 .
51. 7 65. 8 . . .
30. 6 49. 7
35. 2 45. 5
31. 7 41. 3
20. 3 37. 1
Dimensions of l&-Inch Carnegie Z-Bar Columns.
7
.k. Inches.
-I
-B. Inches.
- -
S-INCH Z-BAR COLL%IN.
?.a71 2.52 1 2.57 / 2.19 j 2.55 j 2.60 / 2.52 / 2 55 / 2.63 1
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
ie mat eri al may no l onger be xcurate
302 STRENGTH QF MATERIALS.
Safe Losds in Tons (2000 Lb.) on Carnegie Z-Bar Columns
PROPERTIES OF ROLLED STRUCTURAL STEEL.
303
Safe Load in Tons (2000 Lb.) on 14-Inch Carnegie Z-Bar
Columns (Square Ends). (Continued)
Section: 4 Z-bars 6 X 314 in. I Web Plate 8 X 3/4in. 2 Side Plates l4in. wide.
7
--
f (min.1 -i-
--
--
;
4
I
;
2
9
i
7
-
(Square Ends). (Continued)
IO-INCH Z-BAR COLUivfN.
- _-
28
_
:8
4 0
42
44
At.
48
50
306.1
296.
if;;:,
268.
259.
2:::
231.
2:::
203.
::::I:
307.
:
;g:!
$78::
a
gg:;
5
238.:
3 228.1
219.l 3
-
::i:
318.
308.
297.
:;::
2%
246.
E: .8
-
8
:
6
:
4
4
I
-
%:
359.
2
::::
302.
291.
279.
Z:
390.0
381.1
%P
346.1
334.5
;::::
299.6
E:Z
264.6
-- --
Section: 4 Z-bars 6l/la X 13/la in. 1 Web Plate 8 X 13h in. 2 Side Plates
14 in. wide.
-
-
. .
. . .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.
.
T
-
r
L) =
--
or
d in Tons (2000 Lb.) on 14-Inch Carnegie Z-Bar
Columns (Square Ends).
Lc
Dimensions and form of column given in table. p. 300.
Sect i on: 4 Z- ban 6% X VIE in. i Web Pl at e R X ll/la in. 2 &kPlate
I4 in. wide.
-
3:::
358.
347
zi
314
303
291
2%
258
247.
.:
.3
.:
.8
.6
::
i
348.
2;:
33%:
:9;:
284,
;:;I
253
242
231.
338.
337.
827.
318.
306.
296.
z;:
265
2::
234
224.
3.85
378.0
33:::: .
;;;::
;:;:i
303.8
292.3
281.6
::9::
3.82 3.82
I
3.63
- -
3 325. 5) 18.3
336. C
328. 9
308. 6 318~9
298. 9 308. 9
289. 2 298. 9
279. 5 289. 0
269. 7 278. 9
260. I 269.0
250.4 258.9
240.7 249.0
230.9 238.9
z21.3 229.0
-.
- i
r 294. C
286. 6
277. 8
269. 0
260. !
251. 3
242. 5
233. 7
224. 9
2! 6. 0
207. 2
278. 4
L
:T
.6
8
3.i3 . (min.) =
26
and undet
28
3 0
32
;:
ii
42
44
2
50
411::
401. 1
388. 6
376. 4
33%
339. 3
327. 0
3;:;
%:6
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
~. ~~,._
~.~ ~~, ~~. _~ ~. .~.__ _.~,
Some of the material Mayo-no longer be .accurate
Dimensions of and Safe Loads on Carnegie Channel
Col umns, Tons (2000 Lb.).
Safe Load in Tons (2000 Lb.) on 14-Inch Carnegie Z-Bar
Columns (Square Ends). (Continued)
Secti on: 4 Z- bars 61/ 8x7/ 8 i n. 1 Web Plate6X7ja in. 2 Side Plates 14 in. wide.
nn comnrisea 2 Channels Latticed or with 2 Side
. Plates. (Squire Ends.)
349. II
347. 4
336.
326. i
315. 3
304. 5
293. 8
283. I
272.
261. i i
250. 9
2%2
229. 5
422. t
$i : !
397. ;
385.
372. 8
359. 1
3461
: : ; ' : I
MS. !
295. :
283. t
-
15. 5
I I ' /
-
21 ' 1
T,engt,h of
Column
in Feet.
p = 2. 33 2. 32 2. 32 2. 32 / 2. 32 2. 32 2. 32 2. 32 2. 32
- - - . - - _ - - I ~_ p- - w
I 6 28. 6 52. 6 50. 6 64. 61 TO. 6 76. 6 82. 6 88. 6 94. 6 . . .
1
i
I 8 25. i 51. 7 57. 5 63. 4 tS. 3 75. 2 81. 1 87. 0 92. 9 . . .
37/ g 5314 20 26. 7 49. 1 54. 7 60. 3 65. 0 71. 4 77. 0 62. 6 88. 2 . . .
22 25. 3 46. 5 51. 8 57. 1 62. 4 67. 7 73. 0 70. 2 83. 5 . . .
( 24 23. 9 43. 9 48. 9 53. 9 50. 9 63. 9 66. 9 73. 9 70. 9 . . .
r= 2. 0012. 12 2. 13 2. 14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.18
14 54. 7 84. 7 90. / . , . . . , . . . . . . . . .
16 53. 0 84. 2 90. 4 96. 7 102. 7 108. 7 114. 7 120. 7 126. 7 . . .
8 37h 53/ 4 I 8 49. 9 79. 7 85. 6 91. 5 97. 4 103. 3 109. 2 115. 1 121. 0 . . .
20 46. 8 75. 1 80. 7 86. 4 92. 0 97. 6 103. 2 108. 8 114. 4 . . .
22 70. 5 75. 9 81. 2 86. 5 91. 8 97. 1 102. 5 107. 8 .
3. 72
401. 1
%: I
; ; ; : j
%: !
328. :
316:
?04. :
292.
279. ;
267. 8
412.
412.
400.
387. 1
; ; ; : i
350. ;
: : : : 1
3! %. Y
; "8?
275. :
3. 78
433. 1
, 433. i
421. 2
408. 2
395. 1
382. 0
369. 0
355~9
342. 8
E: f
303. 6
290. 6
359. 1
2; : :
336.
325.
314.
303.
292.
281.
270.
259.
?%
3%
357. '
Z: 1
324. 1
312. 8
361.
290.
278.
267.
256.
244.
%:1
368:
356. ;
345. .
333. '
322. '
310.
298. ,
207.
275.
$2; :
/ 1~~ ) / r = 1 3.11 I3.03 / 2.02 ~3.01 / 3.00 1 2.99 1 2.96 I2.98 12.97 (
' m_-- 70. 21 77. 7 85. 21 92. 71co. %1107. 7115. 2122. 7 7
89. 8 97. 0 104. 1 111. 2 118. 4 . . .
86. 3 93. 1 100. 1 106. 8 113. 7 , . .
82. 8 89. 3 95. 9 102. 4 109. 0
79. 21 65. 5 91. 8 98. 0 101. 2
. . .
. . .
- -
I
2. 84 1 2. 8. i / 2. 84 1 2. 84 1 2. 84 1 2. 85 1 2. 85 1 2. 77 2. 83
- -
75. 01135. t
72. 9 132. t
69. 0 127. ;
66. 7 121. ;
63. 7 116. 1
3. 87
- -
, . .
: ; : 2 : ' .
51. 0 . : :
z: zJ ' . . . .
4 6 . 3
z
i l
- -
3. 35
- -
123. 5 , . .
121. 3 _. .
117. 1 ___
112. 9 .
1 0 8 . 7
1 0 4 . 5
----- ---
42. 5 150. 0 157. 5 165. 0 172. 5 180. 0 187. 5 .
40. 0 14i . 5 154. 9 162. 3 169. 8 177. 2 WA. 7 . . .
34. 3 141. 5 148. 61155. 7 162. 9 110. 0 177. 1 . . .
28. 6 135. 4 142. 3 149. 1 155. 9 162. 8 169. 6 . . .
22. 9 129. 4 136. 0 142. 5 149. 0 155. 6 162. 1 . _.
_- .
j i
j l
I I
5 I
-
3. 74 3.52 3. 70 1 3. 68 13. 67 13~5 1 3. 64 13. 63
-
above weights of ~lumn shaft add weights of and bars.
material ,may no ion@-be *accurate WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Dimensions of and Safe Loads on Carnegie Channel
Columns, Tons (2000 Lb.).
Column comprises 2 Channels Latticed or with 2 Side
PROPERTI ES OF BETHLEHEM GI RDER BEAllIS. 307
The tables of special and girder beams give the sections and weights
casually rolled. Intermediate and heavier weights may he obtained
by special arrangement. The table of H columns gives only the muumum
and maximum weights for each sectron number. Many mtermedmte
weiehts are regularly made.
~The coefficients of strength given in the tables are based on a msxi-
mum fiber stress of 16,006 lb. per sq. in., which is allowable for quies-
cent loads, as in buildtngs. For moving loads the fiber stress of 12,.506
lb. per sq. in. should be usr~l, sntl the coefficients reduced proportton-
ately. For suddenly applied loads, as in railroad bridges, they should
be still further reduced. For a fiber stress of 8000 lb. per sq. m. the
coefficients would be one half those given in the tables.
For further information see handbook of Structural Steel Shapes,
Bethlehem Steel Co., South Bethlehem, Pa., 1907.
Phtes. (Square Ends.)
-
-I-
1.4
69. 1 . . . 116.
67.3 . . . l13.,
65.5 . 110.
63. 7 _. . 106.
135.
133.
129.
125.
122.
I I ?:
-
41. 11277. 6288.
38. 2 272. 6282.
34. 2 264. 9 274.
30. 3 257. 2 266.
26. 3 249. 5 258.
22. 4 241. 8 250.
I S. 5 234. 1 242.
-
ti
3
k
D
2
1.3:
15.
42.
39.
35.
31.
Z:
-
s
:
I
I.11
09.
D3.
94.
i ?
E:
-
- -
i ' 4
&
0' 31
8 2'
298.
293.
284.
275.
268.
: : e:
- -
8
3
!a.#
2
-
1.n
is
57. 4
82. 1
76.0
71. 5
b6. 2
-
-
-
.
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
-
' ,
, m
2
-
1. 10
i i
14. 1
05 :
g: i
77. 1
-
i 3
b:
2
3
3
h PI lh
2 *
s
2
>
-id
L?-2
I A. 32 4. 30 4. 2:
i 166. 9
- -
177. 4 187.
3 162. 8 172. 8 102.
5 158. 4 VS. 1 177.
b 154. 0 163. 4 172.
5 149. 6 i 58. 7 167.
4 145. 2 154. 0 162.
3 140. 8 149. 3 157.
_~-
l j 351. 1 372. 1 393.
7 344. 1 364. 6X5.
5 334. 4 354. 21374.
4 324. 6 343. 9363.
2 314. 9333. 5 352.
D 305. 1 323. 2 341.
31295. 3 312. 8 330.
-
- -
i 4
PROPERTI ES OF BETHLEHERI GI RDER BEANS.
-
200.
175.
180.
162.
160.
150.
92.
140.
' E:
70.
55.
44,
2:
4 h I
--/-
50.85 0.75
51. 35 . 68
- 52. 98 . 69
47. 81 . 65
47. 00 . 63
44. 13 . 62
41. 03 . 56
35. 31 . 5l
i l . 28 . 64
32. 88 . 52
27. 09 . 47
41. 28 . 80
30. 58 . bO
21. 52 . 42
p; $5
, .
1%: E
9: 52 . 28
-
a
0
5
0
0
:
:
0
! I
0
0"
0
0
5
Neutral
Lxis Coinoi-
dent with
:enter Line
of Web.
507. 6 3. 09
320. 2 2. 62
414. 5 2. 97
306. 5 2. 63
338. 3 2. 87
240. 0 2. 61
334. 3 2. 05
232. 0 2. 66
172. 4 2. 52
319. 2 2. 70
203. 3 2. 58
116. 6 2. 33
109. 5 2. 31
76. 1 2. 17
53. 6 2. 03
40. 7 I . 91
30. 3 I . 78 -
! 5. 0139! 54. 7 12. 47 610~3 6, 510, OOO 95. 2 I I I 1 I
12. 00 7851. 81 12. 37 523. 5 5, 583, 500 81. !
14. 35 7269. 0 11. 72 519. 2 5, 538, 200 81. 3
12. 006465. 1 I I . 63 461. 8 4, 925, 8Mi 73. 8
13. 60 5618. 7 10. 93 432. 2 4, 610, 200 68. 3
12. 00 5200. 4 I O. 86 ' 400. 0 4, 267, OoO 66. 6
I hOO 4241. 9 I O. 17 353. 5 3. 770. 700 54. 9
12. 003630. 7 10. 14 302. 6 3, 227, 200 44. 5
12. 502938. 3 8. 44 293. 8 3, 134. 200 62. 4
12. 002368. 9 8. 49 236. 9 2, 526, 700 45. 6
I I . 50 1595. 3 7. 67 177. 3 1, 890. ' 300 37. 1
To above weights of column shaft, add weights of rivets and lattice bars.
Bethlehem Special, Girder and H Steel Beams. These
beams are rolled on the Grey universal beam mill, and have wider
flanges than the standard $merican forms of I-beams, which are rolled
in grooved rolls. The special I-beams from 8 to 24 in. in depth have
the same seclion moduus or coefficient of strength as the standard
forms, but on account of putting a larger proportion of melal in the
flanges they are 10% lighter. For equal weights of sect.ions they have
a coefficient of strength about 5% greater than the standard shapes.
The 26, 28 and 30-in. beams are respectively equal in coefficient Of
strength to two ZO-in. 6.5 lb.. two 29-in. 80 lb., and two 24-in: 80 lb.
standard beams.
The girder beams from 8 to 24 in. in depth have a coefficient of
strength equal to that of two standard I-beams of minimum weight of
the same depth, but weigh 121/z% less than the two combined.
The rolled H, or column sections are designed especially for columns Of
buildings. Ail shapes having the same section number are rolled from
the same main rolls without change. Thus the 12-in. H column is rolled
in 3.5 different weights, the sectional areas ranging from 11.76 to 79.06
^- :_
I I . 75 1591. 5 6. 21 212. 2 2. 263. 500 67. 3
I I . 25 1219. 7 6. 32 162. 6 1. 734. 700 47. 4
10. 50 886. 5 6. 42 118. 2 1, 260, 900 20. 8
10. 00 540. 9 5. 12 90. 2 961, 600 28. 0
9. 75 452. 0 5. 18 72. 0~ 768, 000 19. 7
9. 00 244. 3 4. 34 48. 9 521, 200 14. 3
8. 50 169. 8 3. 90 37. 7 402, 500 12. 8
8. 00 113. 9 3. 46 28. 5 303, 800 I I . 4
B = Safe load in pounds uniformly distributed including weight of beam.
L = Span in feet. M =Moment of forces in foot-pounds. f= fiber stress.
W=C/L;M-~18; c= WL=SM=3/3fS.
The flanges of the special and girder beams have a uniform slope of
I 2%%, and the flanges of the H sections a uniform slope of 2%.
WARNING: -This is a 1910. e d i t i o n . S6me
,mw
no be *accurate
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Properties of Bethlehem Speeiztl I Beams.
Neut~ral-
Lxis Coin-
ident with
enter Line
of Web.
PROPERTI ES OF BETIILEHEM GIRDER BEAMS. 309
Dimensions and Properties of Bethlehem Rolled Steel.
14-Inch H Columns.
G
Neutral Axis
Perpendicular to
go4
Web at center.
a0
Table greatly condensed from or i gi nal .*
- - -
1. 52
. 40
. 44
. 45
I O. 00 5271
9. 60 4089
9. 15 3043
8. 85 2392
12. 23' 351. 4- 3. 748, 200 48. 7
11. 43 292. 1 3. 115. 700 41. 5
10. 71 234. 1 2, 496. 900 34. 9
9. 82 199. 3 2. k25. 900 36. 3
9. 60 186. 7 1. 991. 600 43. 8
9. 93 174. 2 1, 858, l OO 24. 4
8. 03 156: l 1, 665. 400 51. 5
8. 28 144. 8 1, 565, 8@3 32. 7
7. 98 127. 0 1. 354. 600 40. 4
8. 12 122. 3 1. 304, 500 31. 1
8. 22 119. 3 1. 272. 600 25. 3
8. 28 117. 6 1, 254, 800 22. 2
7. 15 98. 2 1. 047. 500 37. 4
7. 35 92. 5 987. 200 24. 8
7. 50 89. 0 t7. 4
I
949, 800
6. 13 106. 4 1, 134, 800 41. 2
5. 95 88. 9 948. 100 46. 6
6. 21 81. 4 868. 188 26. 5
5. 99 64. 6 689. 200 t9. 1
6. 12 62. 0 661. 200 22. 1
6. 28 59. 0 629. 200 14. 2
5. 04 45. 0 480, 300 16. 2
4. 97 37. 5 400. 300 16. 0
5. 07 36. t 385. 000 I I . 2
4. 09 26. 9 287. 300 16. 7
4. 22 25. 4 271. 3M 10. 6
4. 27 24. 6 262&W 7. 3
3. 70 20. 5 219, 100 13. 8
3. 78 19. 7 210. 300 I O, 0
3. 87 18. 9 201, 800 6. 5
3. 22 16. 2
3. 34 15. 0
V&z 1; : ;
3. 44 14. 3 152: OOO 5. 7
' 49. 7 2. 11
, 22. 6 1 . 9 8
93. 4 1. 87
82. 0 1. 82
1. 87
3. 24
8. 83 2240
8. 702091
71. 1 1. 71
67. 7 1. 79
H14
3. 50
3. 62
24. 2
21. 4:
8. 51 1561
8. 37 1468
71. 5 1. 72
67. 6 1. 78
HI 43
133/ g 112 8. 04 0. 33 12. 5:
14 13/13 13. 00 . 5127. 5(
I 4 13/ 10 14. 00 . 5l 29. 01
15 1 5/ l , 14. 31 . 8247. 7
I 5 1 S/ 16 14. 57 . 8248. 3<
157/ g I 3/ q 14. 84 1. 0965. 3'
68.
63.
E:
19. 9
18. 5
17. 6
17. 1,
. 49
. 42
. : :
7. 69 1270
7. 62 1223
7. 58 1193
7. 55 1176
45. 7 1. 51
44. 3 1. 54
43. 4 1. 57
43. 0 1. 58
35. 9 1. 44
34. 4 1. 49
33. 4 ! . 5?
HI 4k
16 , 113/ 1, 3 14. 88 1. 13 67. 8'
167/ g 2 l / d 15. 16/ 1. 41 85. 6:
1924. 7 256. 66. 32 659. 8 9O. t
i 774. 5 349. 56. 51 936. 6 126. :
2905. 9 363. 26: 55 978. 7 131. 1
$897. 7 462. 06. 75 1290. 7 170. :
3. 80
3. 88
7. 47 883. 1
7. 37 832. '
7. 30 601. .
1%Inch H Columns.
7. 15 797. ' 55. 11 1. 61
64.
54.
7. 20 666. t
7. 00 610.
40. 8 1. 47
37. 2 1. 53
2: I : : ;
22. 5 1. 42
-
-r
H13 s
H13
13. 4
12. 4,
I I . 21
36. 10. 6:
6. 81 484. ,
f J : J ; y: ' .
4
6. 30 270. 2 20. 41 1. 38
I i
41. 2 i 23/ 8
86. 6 I I I &12. 04 . 51 25. 48 793. 6 122. 1 5. 58 229. 9 38. 2 3. 00
91. 5 13 13/ 1, 3 13. 00 . 5126. 93 847. 4 130. 5 5. 61 286. 7 44.1 3.26
150. 5 14 I 5116 13. 31 . 8244. 27 1511. 4 215. 9 5. 84 504. 9 75. 9 3. 38
156. 4 14 I 51, ~ 14. 00 . 8245. 99 1581. 6 225. 95. 86 585. 1 83. 6 3. 57
219. 8 15 113//1,3 14. 31 1. 1364. 642404. 9 320. 76. 10 870. 2 121. 6 3. 67
$9' {; 7, s h3/ I a 2 1f 4 14. 8E 15. 16 1. 1366. 622492. 7 1. 4184. 093361. 9
HI3 a
HI 31b
- -
31.
28.
. 31
. 25
6. 16 225.i
6. 10 216. f
1%Inch H Columns.
27.
24.
22.
5. 94 134. t
5. 85 127. 1
5. 80 122. f
2: ; '
5. 6;
. 31
. 25
. 19
5. 50 92. r
5. 44 08. f
5. 38 85. 1
; : ; ;
4. 8;
-
24
. I 8
-
5. 37 64. ;
5. 26 6O. C
5. 19 57. c
14. 7 1.27
14. 2 1. 30
11. 7 1. 20
11. 1 1. 24
10. 8 1.27
a.5 1.12
a.2 1.15
7.9 I . 18
6. 8 1.05
6. 4 1. 09
6.1 -1.12
f ,.
l/3 8. 000. 33 11. 76 282. 1 41. 94. 90 42. 8 10. 7 : . 91
3/4 11. 04 . 4721. 60 5718 95. 5 5. ~15. 163. 7 29. 7 2- 15
, tk : ; : i ! : 7838. 9? 4722. 94 1141. 3 615. 6 175. 65. 41 102. 65. 18 208. 1 380. 7 61. 9 34. 7 3. 01 3. 13
11/ d 13. 00 . 7840. 61 1198. 8 184. 45. 43 68. 7~ 3. 32
1314 13. 31 1. 09 57. 96 1862. 2 266. 05. 67
446. 4> I
676. 6 l Oj . 7 3. 42
l 3/ 4 14. 00 1. 0960. 27 1950. 8 278. 7 5. 69 784. 8 112. 1 3. 6!
2114 14. 32 1. 41 79. 06 2777. 0 370. 32. 93 1086. 2 151. 7 3. 71
W =Safe load in pounds uniformly diskihuted including weight pf beam.
L = Span in feet. M= Moment of forces in foot-funds.
C =CoeEcients given in the table.
j = fiber ste.
IT =C/L; M = C/Y; C =WL =8M =2/3fS.
L- -
a; zs
$:4 ;;I:1
El 2
78. 0 12
132. 5~ I 3
- 812; i
138. 1 13
! 97. 1 14
Hi t1 J
2: : : 1;
: y
-
I I I I I II I t
mum and maximum weights of peach section number
he original table gives many intermediate weights.
-This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no 1, onger
-.
be
3iO STRENGTH, OF MATERIALS.
Dimensions and Properties of Bethlehem Rolled Steel.
TORSI ONAL STR.ENGTH. 311
TORSIONAL STRENGTH.
11-Inch H Columns.
Let a horizontal shtift of diameter = (I be fixed at one end. and at the
other or free end, at a ,~is
a horizontal lever arr
,Y = 1 from the fixed eno, iet there be fixed
Tritl~ jveight = P act i ng at a distance = a rrom
the asis of the shaft s : .l txist it; then Pa = moment of the applied
force.
Resisting moment = L\Viqt,ing moment = SJ;c. in which S = unit
shearing resistance, J = polar moment of inertia of the, section with
r
e
spect to the axis. and c = distance of the most remote fiber from the
axis, in a cross-section. For a circ-: with dlameter d
-
I
AxisGee;ter of
- - - - - - - - - - - -
38. 4 l O5/ , 38. 4 l O5/ , l/s 8.00 0.32 II .3( l/s 8.00 0.32 II .3(
61. 3 I I 61. 3 I I l l / l f j 10. 03 . 43 123. 0; l l / l f j 10. 03 . 43 18. 0;
65. 5 I I 65. 5 I I "/ l , j I I . 00 . 43 l 9. 2( "/ l , j I I . 00 . 43 l 9. 2(
115. 5 12 115. 5 12 13/ 1e I I . 31 . 7433, 9t 13/ 1e I I . 31 . 7433, 9t
Ei 1: Ei 1:
13! 1f 3 12. 00 . 74 35. 5< 13! 1f 3 12. 00 . 74 35. 5<
l "/ >e 12. 32 I . 06 51. 7( l "/ >e 12. 32 I . 06 51. 7(
79. 6
140. 5
148. 2
tl 8. C
4. 55 42: i 10. 6 1. 94
4. 72 112. t i 22. 4 2. 50
4. 75
4. 9b
5. 00
5. 24
147. C
280. ;
: : : : i
26. 7 2. 76
49. 6 2. 87
55. 6 3. 06
64. 1 3. 17
pa ~~_ 52 = xd3s = (l s
c 16 5.1
= 0.1963 d%; d =
Hl l r
HI 1
HII:
234. '
401. 2
434. t
843. 1
809:
1417. c
c
For hol:ow shafts of external diameter d and internal diameter d,.
For a rectangular bar in which h.and d are the long and short sides of
the rectangle Pa = 9.2?22 bdT3; and for a square bar wlth slde d, -Pa =
9.9999 d3S. \Merriman, . Mechanics of hlaterialsz 10th ed.)
Tile above formula? are based on the SUppOsItiOn that the sbes~ring
resistarc a~+. t1.n nnint, of the cross-section is proportional to lts distance
fn .
.l,- I _,._ll ~-..: -; ..~
,m tne axis; but this 1s true only within the elastic limit.
In mate-
&s canable of how. while the pxticles near the axis are strained within
the elastic limit those at some distance within the circumference may he
strained nearly to the ultimate resistance, so that the total reslstauce 1s
somrr!dng greater than that calculated by the formulae.
For u-orking
stren,th, however, the formulre may be used, with S taken at the safe
working unit resistance.
The ultimate torsional shearing resistance 7 is about the same as t.he
direct shearing resistance, and may be taken at 20,090 to 25.000 Ibs. per
square inch for cast iron, 45,000 lbs. for wrought iron, and 50,000 to
150.000 Ibs. for steeh according to its carbon and temper. Large factors
of safety- should be taken, especially when the direction of stress 1s re-
versed as in reversing engines, and when the torsional stress 1s com-
bined kith other stresses, as is usual in shafting. ( S e e Shafting.)
Elastic Be;istance to Torsion. - Let 1 = length of bar being
, twisted d = diameter, P = force applied at the extremity Of a lever arm
of length = o pa = twisting moment, G = torslonal modulus of, eias-
ticitv. e = angle through which the free end of the shaft 1s t wi st ed.
measured in arc of radius = 1.
For a cylindrical shaft,
lo-Inch XT Columns.
8. 000. 32 10. 95 192. 0 39. 4 4. 19 41. 9
5j s 9 04 40 14. 88
1.
272. 5 54. 5 4. 28 75. 1
54. 1 I O
vr.71
( 5/ g
i i I I / a
I l ~. OO . 3? L5. 91 296. 8 4. 32
10. 31 . / UZY. X 607. 0 i i O. 98 59. 4, 4. 55 ( 100. 4 XC! . ?
104. 7 I I 11/g I I . 00 . 70 10. 80
I I . 32 : . 024: . 64 I
643. 6 117. 0 4. 57 243. 7
155. 2 12 I Ye 1053. 6
I
175. 6 4. 80 387. 2
g-Inch H Columns.
-
-
HlOs
Ii!0
HlOa
10. 5 1. 96
16. 6 2. 25
20. 1 2. 51
?9. ! 2. 62
44. 3 2. 81
60. 4 2. 91
7. 0 1. 71
I l . 8 2. M)
14. 6 2. 26~
30. 2 2. 37
34. 6 2. 56
54. 6 2. 66
7. 0 1. 73
8. 1 1. 74
10. 3 2. 01
22. 7 2. 12
26. 4 2. 31
42. 8 2. 41
I- H9s
H9
43. 8 9 hl
85. 3 IO I vra
H93
90. 0 I O I l/l0
135. 6 I I I a/1,
7. 000. 28 8. 46 119. 3 27. 3 3. 76 24. 7
8. 04 36 I I . 95 177. 0 39. 3 3. 85 47. 6
9. 00 . 35 12. 88 194. 7 43. 3 3. 09 65.9
9. 32 . 67 25. 00 424. 6 84. 9 4. 11 140. 9
10. 00 . 67 26. 46 452. 6 90. 5 4. 14 173. 1
I O. 31 . 98 39. 87 762. 8 138. 7 4. 38 281. 6
-
8-Inch Ii Columns.
n@Gd
Pa=m;
e 32 Pal .
nd4G
G- 32Pal i 32
thd R
= 10. 186.
24. 4
28. 5
41. 1
94. 4
118. 9
199. 3
7. 00 0. 28 8. 15 - 93. 6 23. 8 3. 39
7. 04 . 32 9. 35 109. 1 27. 3 3. 42
8. 00 . 3I I O. 17 121. 5 30. 4
8. 32 . 63 21. 05 2' 35. 6 63. 5
9. 00 . 65 22. 35
9. 31 . 9434. 45
I I I
306. 8 68. 2
535. 9j i 07. i l
22
3. 70
3. 94
-
I
I
,
If a = angle of torsion in degrees,
H83 27. 7 7711
31. 8 8
H8 34. 6 8
71. 6 9
ma 76. 0 9
117. 1 I O
3
-
, e=2z; a=180B
180 X 32 Pal
-zz
5bR. 6 Pal .
180 R &dG dG
The, value of G is given by different authorities as from 11s to /s Of *
the modul us of elasticity for tension.
For steel it is generally taken as
$0~0,000 I bs. per sq. in.
WARNING: ~This is a 1910 edition.
Some&f t
312 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
COMBINED STRESSES.
Combined Tension and Flexure. - Let A =the area of a bar
subjected to both tension and fiexure. P = tensile stress applied at the
ends. F + A = unit tensile stress. S = unit stress at the fiber on the
tensile side most remote from the neutral axis, due to Resure alone; then
masimum tensile unit stress = (P +At i S. A beam to resist com-
bined tension and desure should be designed so that (P + .-l) f S shall
not exceed the proper allowable working unit stress.
Combined Compression and Flexure. - If P +A =unit stress
due to compression alone, and S = unit compressive stress at fiber most
remote from neiltral axis, due to flexure alone, then maximum compres-
s i ve unit stress = (P f A) + S.
Combined Tension (or Compression) and Shear. -If applied
tension (or compression) unit stress = p, applied shearing unit stress = o,
then from the combined action of the two forces
Max. S - i 413 + V&, Maximum shearing unit stress:
.\lax. ? = l/z p +v/v+ 1/4p*. Maximum tensile (or compressive) unit stress.
Combined Flexure and Torsion. - If S = greatest unit stress due
to Hexure alone, and S, = greatest torsional shearing uclt stress due to
torsion alorie, then for the combined stresses
&fax. tension or compression unit stress t = V2S +dSs2 +1/4S2:
Max. shear s = &d/$,2-t- 1/+S?.
Equivalent bending moment = 1:~ &f + l/2 diM2 + T*, where ,M = bending
moment and T= torsionai moment.
Formula for diameter of a round shaft subjected to transverse load
while transmitting a given horse-power (see also Shafts of Engines):
d3 _ 1 6 M +y 4% +402.WO$OO fI z,
xl 79
wher e M = maximum bending moment of the transverse forces la
and t = the safe al1owab.e tensile or compressive working strength Oi
pound-inches, H = horse-power transmitted. n = No. of revs. per mmute
the material.
Guests Formula for maximum tension or compression unit st,ress is
t = dS,? +&?(Phil. ;Uag., July. 1900). It is claimed by many writers to
be more accurate than Rankines formula. given above. Equivalent
bending moment = (Engg., Sept. 13 and 27, 1907; July IO,
Torsion. - For a vertical round shaft
carrying a load and also transmitting a given horse-power, the resuh-
ant maximum compressive unit stress
t=c: +
ncl
321.0002 g; + z.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some -of 1
in which P is the load. From this the diameter d may be found when t
and the other data are given.
Stress due to Temperature. - Let I = length of a bar. A =its sec-
tional Ada. c = coefficient of linear expansion for one degree, t = rise or
fall in tei;;perature in degrees. E = modulus of elasticity, A the change
of length due to the rise or fall t: if the bar i s free to expand or contract,
A = ctl.
If the bar is held so as to prevent its expansion or contracgti; $;
stress produced by the change of temperature = S = A&E.
ioming are average values of the coefficients of linear expansion for a
change in temperature of one degree Fahrenheit:
For brick and stone.. . . . . . . .._ a-0.0000050,
For cast iron . . . . . ..__.. a=0.0000056.
For wrought iron and steel.. a=O.Q000065.
STRENGTH OF FLAT PLATES. 313
The stress due to temperature should be added to or subtracted from
the stress caused by other external forces according as it acts to increase
nr to relieve the existing stress.
-iVhat stress willbe caused in a steel bar 1 inch square in area by a
&an&-e of temperature of 100 F.? S = ActE =1 X 0.0000065 X 100 X
nn~n00.000 = 19.500 Ibs. Sumose the bar is under tension of 19.500
[bi: ~h&ween rig~id abutments before the change in temperature takes
place, a cooling of 100 F. will double the tensIon, and a heatmg of 100
,vlll reduce the tension to zero.
STRENGTH OF FLAT PLATES.
For a circular plate supported at the edge, uniformly loaded, according
t0 Grsshof,
.rp
6f;
For a circular plate fixed at the edge, uniformly loaded,
in which f denotes the working stress,: r, the radius in inches: I, the thick-
ness hi inches; and p,, the pressure m pounds per s
For mat,hematicsl discussion. see Lanza. Applie1
uare inch.
Mechamrs.
Lanza gives the following table, usifik a factor of safety of 8. with ten-
sile strength of cast iron 20,000, of wrought iron 40,000, and of steel 80,000:
Supported. Fixed.
Cast iron.. . .t = 0.0182570 r 4; t = 0.0163300 r 4;
Wr ought i r on. .t = 0. 0117850 r 4; t = 0.0105410 r /p
Steel .: .1 = 0.0091287 r 4; t = 0.0081649 r /p
For a circular plate supported at the edge, and loaded with a concen-
trated load P applied at a circumfereuce the radius of which is ro:
for
r *
- = 10 20 30 40 50;
, ro
c = 4.07 5.00 5.53 5.92 6.22;
t=
The above formulae are deduced from theorrtical considerations. and
give thicknesses much greater than are generally used ,in steam-engme
g;$WEz;:eads. (See empirical. formula? under Dimenflons of Parts of
The theoretical formula? seem to be based on incorrect or
incomplete hypotheses, but they err in the direction of safety.
Thickness of Flat Cast-iron Plates to resist Bursting Pressures.
-Capt. John Ericsson (Churchs Life of Ericsson), gave the folloWng
,rules: The proper thickness of a square cast-iron plate will be obtaI ned
bY the following: Multiply the side in feet (or decimals of a f?ot) by
l/4 of the pressure in pounds and divide by 850 times the side in inches;
the quotient is the square of the thickness in inches.
For a circular plate multiply 11-14 of t,he diameter in feet bY l/4 of
the pressure on the pl&te in pounds. 850 times 11-14 of the
diameter in inches.
Divide by
[Extract the square root.]
,~~~. ~~,~~. ,~.. ~. .~~~ ~~~. -~,~,_ .._..
? material may no longer be -accurate
-
314 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Prof. Wm. Harkness, En&g ~Vews, Sept. .5, 1893. shows that these rules
can be put b a more convenient form, thus: For squar_ plates 2 m
o.oo495 $ x/7>. and for circular plates T = 0.00439 Ddp. where T I
thickness of plate. S = side of the square. D = diameter of the circle
and p = pressure in Ibs. per sq. in. Professor Harkness. however
doubts the value of the rules. and says that no SaCsfactory theoreticai
solution has yet been obtained.
T h e Stren.qth o f Unstaged Flat Surfaces. - Robert Wilson
(Engy, Sept. 24, IS;;) draws attention to the apparent discrepancy
between the results of theoretical investigations and of actIts experi.
ments on the strength of unstayed fiat surfaces of boiler-plate, such as
the unstayed flat crowns of domes and of vertical boilers.
On trying t,o make the rules given by the authorities agree with the
results of his experience of the strength of unstayed flat ends of cvlin-
drical boilers and domes that had given way after Ionr use. Jlr. Wilson
was led to believe that the rules give the breaking strength much lower
than It actually is. He describes a number of experiments made by
1Mr. Nichols of Kirkstal:, which gave results varying widely from each
other, as the method of suppoiting the edges of the plate was varied
and also varying wide1
actual results bemg in alf
from the calculated bursting pressures, the
cases very much the higher.
drawn from these restilts are:
Some conclusions
1. Although the bursting pressure has been found to be so high, boiler-
makers must be warned against attaching any importance to this, since
the plates deflected almost as soon as any pressure was put upon them
and sprang back again on the pressuie bemg taken OZ. This springing
of the plate in the course of time inevitably results in grooving or chan-
neling. which. especial!y when aided by the action of t~he corrosive acids
in t.he water or steam, will in time reduce the thickness of the plate. and
bring about the destruction of an unstayed surface at a very low pressure.
2. Since flat plates commence to deflect at very low pressures. they
should never be used without sta:-s: but it is better to dish the plates
when rhey are not stayed by flues, tubes, etc.
3. Against the commonly accepted opinion that the limit of elasticity
should never be reached in test,ing a boiler or other str!lcture, these ex-
periments show that an exceptidn should he made in the case of an un-
stayed fiat end-plate of a boiler, which will be safer when it has assumed
a permanent set that. will prevent its becoming grooved br the continual
variation of pressure in working. The hydraulic presstire in this case
simply does what shouid hsve been done before the plate was fixed.
that is. dishes it.
4. &se esperiments appear to show that the mode of attaching by
flange or ll.r- an inside or outside angle-iron exerts an important influence
on the manner in which the plate is strained bv the nressnre.
When the plate is secured-to an angle-iron, the stretchmg under pres-
sure IS. to a certain extent, concentrated at the line of rivet-holes, and
the plate partakes rat,her of a beam supported than fixed round the edge.
Instead of, the strength increasing as the square of the t.bickness, when
the plate IS attached by an angle-iron, it is probable that the strength
does not increase even directlv as the thickness. since the nlate tives
way simply by stretching at the rivet-holesl-a&i the thi&rC%& &te,
the less uniformly is the strain borne by the different larers of which the
plate may be considered tp be made up. When the plate is flanged, the
Range becomes compressed by the pressure against the hodr of the plate,
and near the rim, as shown by the contrary flexure, the inside of the plate
IS s!retched more than th.e outside, and it may be by a kind of
action that the plate
shearin
stretchinr: me e t .
gives way along the hne where the crushing ani3
5. These tests appear to show that the rules deduced from the theo-
retlcal investigations of Lam& Rankine, and Grashof are not, confirmed
by experiment. and are therefore not, trustworthy.
The rules of Lam& etc., apply only within the elastic limit.
Dec. 13. 189.5~1
(E&g,
Unbraced Wrought-iron Heads of Boilers
tit% Feb.. 1890). - Few experiments have been
&ad,*on
(The. Locomo-
the strength
of flat heads, and our knowledge of them comes largelv from theor
Experiments have been made on small plates 111s of an inch thic
%;
~WARNI~NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of tl
STRENGTH OF FLAT PLATES.
-+ the rln.tn. SO obtained cannot be considered satisfactory when we
!,?&& the-far thick&hesds that are used in practice, although the
Lines f o r mu l a . Mr. Nichols- has ma?e $x- ;G$tts agreed well wit.h RanL
perlments on larger heads, an!i from them he has deduced the following
rule: To find the roper thxkness for a flat unstayed head,, multiply
the area of the hea J by the pressure per square Inch that It IS to bear
safely, and multiply this hy t he desi red faytor ot safety (say 8): then
diride the prodllct by t en t i mes t he terlslk st rengt h of t he material
,& for the head. His rrlle for finttins the bursting pressure ~vhen the
dimensions of the head are given is: .\iultiply the thic,kness of Jlie end-
p1at.e in inches by ten t~imes the tensile st,reng!h .of the matenal used.
and divide the uroduct bv the area of the head III inches.
ln-~alr. Nicholss espehments the average tensile st,rength of the iron
used for the heads was 44.500 pounds. The results he obtained are
gi ven below, with the calculat,ed pressure. by his rule. for companson.
1. An unstaged flat boiler-head is 34112 inches in diameter and g/lo
inch thick. What, is its bursting pressure? The area of a circle 3-lV2
inches in diameter is 935 square inches: then 9/m X 44,500 X 10, =
?i non a.nd 2,52.000 + 9 3 5 = 2 7 0 oounds. t he c a l c ul a t e d burstmg
;;;~&~~&
-._~- ~._,~... ~~
The head actually burst at 280 pounds.
2. Head 34113 inches in diameter and 3/s inchdthick. The area = 935
square inches: then, 3/s X 44$?OX 10 = 16S,OOO, and 168, 000 f 935
= 180 pounds, calculated bursting pressure. This head actually burst
at 200 pounds.
3, Head 261/4 inches in diameter, and 3/g inch t.hick. The a.rea 541
sqllare inches: then. 3/3 X 44,SOO X 10 = 168,000, and 168.000 + 341
_ 211 1 no,,,,,,s T h i s had bnrst at 370 oounds.
- VIA __.. ~.~...~~
4. ti~~~& tnctles in diameter and% inch thick. The area = 638
square inches; thell. 3/s X 44.500 X 10 = 165.000. and 168.000 + 638
= 263 pounds, The actual bursting pressure was 300 pounds.
In the third exoeriment,~the amount the plate bulged under different
pressures was as fbtlows:
At, pounds per sq. in ..,.. 10 20 40 80 120 200
Plate bulged l/32 I16 113 114 318 314
The pressure was now reduced to zero, and t!le end sprang back 3/u1
inch leaving it with a permanent set of gila Inch.
The pressure of
200ibs. was again applied on 36 separate occasions during an inter@ of
five days the bulging and permanent set being noted on each occasion.
but withdut any appreciable difference from that noted above.
The experiments described were confined to plates not widely different
in their dimensions. so that Mr. Nicholss rule cannot be relied u
P
on for
heads that depart much from the proportions given in the examp es.
Strength of Stayed Surfaces. 7
A flat )late of thickness t is FLIP-
ported uniform1
uniform load p 1 )s. per sq+re inch. 9
by stays whose distance Eram Ce n t e r to r ent er IS 6
Each stay supports pa? lbs. The
greatest stress on the plate is
2 as
f = 9 F p.
(Unwin.)
For additic-- . ..+*..r ,.n tkio cllhior
*t see strength of Steam Boilers. ,llil, ,LIabbcL ,I bLII.7 YUYJLC
St,resses i,o Steel Plating due to Water-pressure. as in Ptittlng of
lulkheads (Engineering. May 22, 1891, page 629).
Yates has made calculations of the stresses b&$2~tS~;~
ubjected by external water-pressure, and
iclusions:
:.*,,hce
?o be the distance between the frames Or other
li(;lu ~..u~Pow, ~IKI *CL d represent the dep!h in feet. below the surfaSe
of the water of the plate under consideration. t = thickness sf P!ate In
inches D tLe deflection from a straight line under pressure In inches.
and P- stress per square inch of section.
For ouier bot$Om and ballast-tank plating, 6.= 420t/d. D should not
be greater than 0.05 X 2 a/12. and P/2 not greater than 2 to 3 tons;
for bulkheads, etc., a = 2352tld, D should not be greater tt-
material may no loncjk be -accurate
316 STRENGTH OF MATERI ALS.
9.1 x 2a/12, and P/2 not greater than 7 tons. To illustrate the appli.
cation of these form&e the following cases have been taken:
in
For Outer Bottom, etc. For Bulkheads, etc.
Thick-
ness of El%~
Spacing of
Frame3 should
zk,$T Depth of
iMaximum Spat-
\\Zter. j
inI7 of Rigid
Plating. \vnter. not exceed Plating. &ffeners.
in.
About 2 I
42
I
18
I
I
:E
( 40 -
WARNING: This is a 1910
I
It would appear that the course which should be followed in stiffening
bulkheads is to fit substantially rigid stiffening frames at comparatively
wide intervals, and only work such light angles between as are necessary
for making a fair job of the bulkhead.
SPHERICAL SHELLS AND DODIED BOILER-HEADS.
To And the Thickness of a Spherical Shell to resist a given
Pressure. - Let d = diameter in inches,, and p the internal pressure
per square inch. The total pressure which tends to produce rupture
around the great circle will be 1/4r:@p. Let S=safe tensile stress per
square inch, and t the thickness of metal in inches; then the resistance
to the nressure will be xdt 5. Since the resistance must be eaual to the
pressure,
1/4nd?p=ndtS. Whence t = @.
4 s
The same rule is used for finding the thickness of a hemispherical head
to a cylinder, as of a cylindrical boder.
Thickness of a Domed Head of a Boiler. - If S = safe tensile
stress per square inch. (1 = diameter of the shell in inches, and t = thlck-
ness of the shell, t = pd + 2s; but t he t hi ckness of a hemispherical
head of the same diameter is t = pd +4s. Hence if \ve make ihe
tadius of curvature of a domed head eaual to the diameter of the boiler.
we shall have t = g = g, or the thickness of such a domed head
will be equal to the thickness of the shell.
THICK HOLLOW CYLINDERS UNDER TENSION.
Lames formula, which is generally used, gives
r = r { ks) - )
t =thickness; ri=inside and r?=outside radius:
h - maxtmum allowable hoop tension at
- interior of the cylinder:
the
p = intensity of interior pressure:
s = tension at the exterior of the cylinder.
.
STEEL ROLLERS AND BALLS. 317
EXCJPLE: Let maximum unit stress at the inner edge.of the annuius
s 8000 lbs. per square inch, radius of cylinder = 4 inches. interior
pressure = 4060 I$ per square inch. Required the thickness and the
tension at the exterior surface.
For short cast-iron cylinders, such as are used in hydraulic presses.. it is
doubtful if the above formuhe hold true, since the strength of the cyhndn-
~a1 portion is reinforced by the end. In that case the strengr!i woulil .be
lilgher than that calculated by the formula. A rule used in pmctrce
for such presses is to make the thickness = l/in of, the inner cn-cum-
felznce. for pressures of 3000 to 4000 lbs. per square mch.
Hooped Cylinders. - For very high pressures, as m large guns. hoops
or outer tubes of forged steel are shrunk on inner tubes, thus bringing a
compressive stress on the latter which assists in resisting the tension due
to the internal pressure. For discussion of %amBs. and other formulae
for built-up guns, see hlerrimans Mechauics oi ~laterials.
.THIN CYLINDERS UXDER TESSIOX.
Let p = safe working pressure in lbs. per sq. in.:
d = diametc d = diameter in inches:
T = tensile T = tensile strength of the material, lbs. per sq. in.:
t = thickne t = thickness in inches;
f = factor c f = factor of safety:
c = ratio 01 c = ratio of strength of riveted joint to strength of soiid plate.
2 Ttc
jpd = 2T t c ; p = df;
l=I pd
2 Tc
I f T =50,000, j = 5, and c = 0.7; then
14.000t dp
P=
--. ; t =-.
d 14,000
The above represents the strength resisting rupture along a longitudinal
seam. For resistance to rupture in a circumferential seam. due to
pm/2 _ Ttz d c
pressure on the ends of the cylinder, we have --4- - 7 1
/
Or the strength to resist rapture around a circumference is twice as great
as that to resist rupture longitudinally: hence boilers a:e COmfnOnlY
Single-riveted in the circumferential seams and double-nreted m the
longitudinal seams.
cARRYIN& CAPACITY OF STEEL ROLLERS AND RALLS.
ial may no lon& be -accurate
C!arrying Capacity of a Steel Roller between Frat Plates. - (Merri..
man, Me&. of M&s.) Let s = maximum safe umt stress of the mate-
rial, 1 = length of the roller in inches, d = diameter, E = modulus of
el as t i ci t y IV = l oad. t hen II = Z/s?tfS (2 S;E)*.
Ta ki ng au = v/t.
and S = 15 000 and E = 30.000,OOO lbs. per sq. in. for steel the formula
reduces to b = 316 d. Coopers specifications for bridges, 199I, g!/
U) = 300 d. ecifications.~w = 1~09 % d.
1s erroneous )
(The rule given in some earlier s
The formula assumes t,hat onfy the railer is deformed by
the 10at1 but experiments show that the plates also, are deformed. and
,~ that the formula errs on the side of safety. Experiments by Crandall
318 STRENGTH OF AIATERIALS.
and lIarston on steel rollers, of diameters from I to 16 in. show that
their crushing loads are closely given by the formula VV = 880 ld. (See
Ko!ler Bearhigs.)
Spherical Rollers. -With the same notation as above. d being the
diameter of the sphere.
s = d/WE/l /4 d: W = 114 ndW/E. The
diameter of a sphere to carry a given load with an allowable unit-
stress ,q is d = 2 v/IvE/#. Thi s r ul e assumes t hat t her e Is no de.
formation of the plates between which the sPhere acts, hence it errs on
the .side of safety. (See Ball Bearings.)
RESLST.INCE OF HOLLOW CYLINDERS TO COLLAPSE.
Fairbairns empirical formula (Phil. T?a?K, 1858 is
t?.*Q
p = 9,675,600 -iTi, . . . . . . . (I)
where p = Pressure in Ibs. per square inch, t = thickness of cylinder,
d = diameter, and lengt.h, all in inches: or,
pm
p = 806,300 Ld, if L is in feet . . . . (2)
He recommends the simpler formula
t2
p = 9.675,600 i;i . . _ . . . . . (3)
as suff%ziently accurate fur practical purposes, for tubes of considerable
diameter and length.
The diameters of Fairbairns experimental tubes were 4, 6. 8. 10, and
12 inches, and their lengths ranged between 19 and 60 inches.
His formula (3) was until about !908 generally accepted as the basis of
rules for strength of boiler-Hues. In some cases. however, !irnits were
fixed to its applicat.ion by a supplementary formula.
Lloyds Register contains the following formula for the strength of
circular boiler-Hues, viz.,
. . . . . , . . (4)
The Eng!ish Board of Trade following formula for cir-
cular Hues, when t,he JOmts are wcGir~l, or mule with riveted
blat-straps. viz.,
p = 90,000 P
(t+ l)tf . . . . . . . . (5)
For lap-joints and for inferior workmanship the numerical factor may
be reduced as low as 60,000.
The rules of Lloyds Register, and those of the Board cf Trade, pre-
scribe further, that in no case the value of P must exceed 800 t/d. (3
In formulae (4), (5). (6) P is the highest working pressure in pounds
per square inch, t and d are the thickness and diameter in inches, I, 1s
the length of the flue in feet measured between the strengthening rings.
in case it is fitted with such. Formula (4) is the same as formula (3).
with a factor of safety of 9. In formula (5) the length I, is increased
by 1: the inHuence which this addition has on the value of P is, Of
cojurse. greater for short tubes than for long ones.
Nystrom has deduced from Fairbairn s experiments t,he following
formula for the collapsing strength of Hues:
4 !m
-1 . . . . . . . . . . (7)
=dd/L
where p. t. and d have the same meaning as in formuia (1). L is the length
in feet, and T is t.he tensile strength of the metal in pounds per square
inch.
If we assign to 7 the value 50,iiOO. and express the lengt,h of the flue in
inches, equation (7) assumes the following form, viz.,
p = 692,800 ---%. . . . . v . . . @)
d dl
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
RESISTANCE OF HOLLOW CYLINDERS. 319
Nystrorn considers a factor of safety of 4 sufficient in apPlying his formula.
(See A New Treatise on Steam Engineering. by J. W. Nystrom. P. 106.)
Formula? (l), (4). and (8) have the common defect that they make the
collapsing Pressure decrease indefinitely with increase of length, and
where p is the collapsing pressure in pounds per square inch, and d and 1
are the diameter and thickness expressed in inches.
Clark (S. E... v?l. i. P. 643) says : The resistance to collapse of plain-
riveted flues IS directly as the square of th,e thjckness of the plate. and
inversely as the square of the diameter. The support of the two ends
of the flue does not practically est,end over a length nf tube greater than
twice or three times the diameter. The collapsing pressure of long
tubes is therefore practically independent uf the length. Instances of
collaqsed Hues of Cornish and Lancashire boilers collated by Clark,
showed that the resistance to collapse of flues of Q-inch plates, 18 to
43 feet long, and 30 to 50 inches diameter, varied as the 1.75 power of
the diameter. Thus,-
for diameters of. . 30 35 40 45 50 inches.
the collapsing pressures were. . 76 58 45 37 30 lbs. per sq. in.
for7/18-inch plates the collapsing
pressures were.. . . . . . . 60 49 42 Ibs. per sq. in.
C. R. Roelk&, ins Van Nostrands Magazine. March, 1881, says that
Nystroms formula, (8), gives a closer agreement of the calculated with
the actual colla
tion than anv oP
sing Pressures in experiments on flues of every descrlp
the other formuhe.
For collapsing pressures of plain iron flue-tubes of Cornish and Lanca-
shire steam-boilers, Clark gives:
2,=
200,000 t*
d1.X .
For short lengths the longitudinal tensile resistance may be effective in
augmenting the resistance to collapse. Flues efficiently fortified py
flange-joints or 1100 s at intervals of 3 feet may be enabled t.o resist
from 50 lbs. to 60 bs. or 70 ibs. pressure per square inch more than f
Plain tubes, according to the t,hickn$ss of the plates.
(For strength of Segmental Crowns of Furnaces and Cylinders see
Clark, S. E., vol. i. pp. 649-651 and-pp. 627, 628.)
Formula for Corrugated Furnaces (E&g, July 24, 1891, P. 102).-
As the result of a series of experiments on the resistance to co&Pse
of Foxs corrugated furnaces, the Board of Trade and Lloyds Re@ster
altered their formula+ for these furnaces in 1891 as follows:
Board of Trade formula is altered from
12.500 2T
D
= wp to 14,000 x T
D
= WP.
T = thickness in inches:
D = mean diameter of furnace:
I VP = worliing pressure in pounds per square inch.
ail, -~---~-..,i...,~ ~.~,,. ,.
2 material may no l onger be - accurate
RESISTANCE OF HOLLOW CYLINDERS. 32i
J
COI,LAP.SING PRESSURE OP LA P- WE L DE D ST E E L TUBELI.
320 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Lloyds formula is altered from
1000 x (T - 2)
D
= ,,p to 1231x (7 - 2 )
D
= WP. Outside Diameter, 85/s In.; Length of Pipe, 20 Ft.
4v.?r-
age.
;::
565
548
536
1314
907
841
905
1872
I E
1485
1419
2397
2073
1807
1781
1762
T = thickness in sisteenths of an inch;
D = greatest diameter of furnace:
WP = working pressure in pounds per square inch.
- -
1
_-
-
Thick- Bursting Aver-
ness. Pressure. we.
1 8 6 0
2962
4095
964
: : ; i
' Z
920
1791
2441
592
1680
' : z
I 419
' %
i 03
t319
- -
hick-
,es.
In.
1. 176
1. 180
l . 18f
1. 184
t. 185
1. 212
I : %
1. 219
i . 268
I : ; : ;
I i 73
I : %
%
1. 309
1. 302
ength
Ft .
Bursting
Pressure,
gy. I,
lutsidc
Xam.
In.
Stplvarts Esprt*ir,lrnt:+. - Prof. Rl*irl T. Ste!r-art ( TI Y!I I S. rl .S.M. 15..
ssvfi, 730) made two series of te9h on Qisemer st eel l ap-wel ded t!tbes
3 to IO ins. &am. One series was made on tubes 3% in. outside dlam.
tvith the different commercial thicknesses of wnll. and in len:t~hS Of 31/z,
j, 10, I.5 and 20 ft. between transverse joints tending to hold the tube in
a circular form. .4 second series was made on single lengths of 20 ft.
Seven sizes from 3 t.o 10 in. outsille diam., in all the commercial thick-
nesses obiainable were tested. The tests showed that all the old for-
muke were ima,ppiicable to the wide range of conditions found in modern
prztice. The principal conclusions drawn from the research are as
2. 21
4. 70
1%
19. 72
2. 21
4. 70
10. 50
12. 79
2. 14
Zl :
14. 64
19. 64
2. 16
4. 64
9. 64
14. 64
19. 75
;;:I:;;
455- 650
j : ; : ; g
' 2p; '
700- 960
750- 1115
1475- 2200
1345- 2030
1150- 1908
1250- 1725
1250- 1520
2290- 2490
1795- 2325
1585- 2055
1520- 2025
I i 755I 960
3
:
i
:
6
f 5
;
:
8. 64
2: ;
I O
I O
I O
1558- 2175
y&3- 3~
860- 1030
2050- 2540
3075- 3375
5425- 5625
45O- 640
715- 1110
1200- 2075
mm; ;
1525- 1850
' "a5~3~; '
1250- 1520
1930- 2180
gi g
1275- 1385
follows:
1. The length of tube, between transverw joint.s tendinr t,o hold it
in circular form, has no rrlc tic al influence tipon tl
P
rollap5ing
of 5 commercial lap-welt cd tube so !ong as this length i s not less t h a n
p r e s s u r e
about six diameters of tube.
3. The formulae. based ~rpon this research, for the cO!hlpsin!Z Pres-
surw of modern iap-w&led Bessemer st,ee! tubes, for a11 lewths greater
thau six diameters. are as followi:
P = 1.000 (I - o/l - 1600 $) . . . . . (A)
P = Y6. 670; - l : j % _ . . . . . . . ( B)
Wh e r e P = trollal)Gng prt:.~~~~rr. poilnfls I~sr sq. incll. d = olltside
diameter of tube in inches, t = thickness of wall in inches.
Formula. A is for values of P less than 5Sl pounds, or for values of j
less than O.OY?. while formula B is for values qrwter t.han these. When
appl:-ing these formulae. to practice, a suitable factor of safety must be
applied.
3. The apparent fibre stress under whick the different tubes failed
varied from about iOO0 Ibs. for the relatively thinnest to 33.000 !bs.
per sq. ir.. for the relatively thickest walls. Since the average yield
point of the material was 37.000 and the tensile strength 55.000 Ibs.
per sq. in.. it would appear that the strength of a tube su!>jected to,a
axid collapsing pressure is not depez;ent alone upon either the elastic
limit or ultimate strength of the material constit.!ut~in,o It. The element
of greatest weakness m a tube is ibs departure from roundness, even
when t.his departure is reiatively small.
The Dable on the following page is a, wsed statement of the principal
resu1t.s of the te&s.
:OLL,WRING PR E S S U R E O F LAP-WELDEDSTEEL Tuma <LBS.PER SG. IN.)
Calculated bv Stewarts Formulie.
T- Outside Diameters. Inches.
2 112
In.
_- --
2081
; zi
4161
El
6241
6934
7628
8321
9014
1 In.
-
1503
2081
2659
3236
3814
4392
; z: i
: : ; :
7281
i : : ;
9014
9592
.
___,
: .
21n.
-
2947
3814
4671
5548
6414
7201
8148
9014
9881
. . .
. . . .
. . .
. . . .
. l . . .
. . , . .
. .
. . . . .
-
i In.
-
1 I n.
- -
I I n.
-
%I
I i i : :
2081
: z
3381
2: :
4681
5114
5548
5981
6414
6848
7281
7714
8148
8581
9014
9448
i In.
-
694
1041
1387
1734
2081
2427
f : E
3468
3814
4161
E
5201
: i z
6241
6580
6934
7281
In. In.
,....
. . .
217
297
g
935
! : I :
1503
I ! : !
2081
2273
2466
i i : ' :
3044
: 2;
I In. 0
. -
.
.E
925
1%
1792
2081
i i i !
2947
3236
3525
3814
4103
4392
4681
4970
: : i i
5887
%
564
701
1: ;
1647
1664
2081
2297
: : : :
2947
: : i :
27:
4031
. .
. . . .
GE
z
694
1: :
I %
1561
i 734
1907
2081
i f : : ' :
2601
2774
2947
. . .
. .
187
i g
512
633
%
12;
1450
1600
1766
1923
2061
i%l
2554
Rational Formulae for Collapse of Tubes. (S. E. Slocum, Ew7g.l
Jan. 8. 1909.)
Heretofore designers have been forced to rely either upon the anti-
quated experiments of Fairbairn. which mere known to be in error by
as much as loo?& in many cases, or else to apply the theoretical formu-
I;e of Love and ot,t,zrs. without knowing how far the assumptions on
which these formulae are based are actually realized.
A rational formula for thin tubes under external pressure,due to A. E. R.
Love, is
P = [2E/(l - m*)] (t/D)3, . . . . . . . (1)
in which P = collapsing xessure in Ibs. per sq. in.
E = modulus o e!asticity in Ibs. per sq. in. /
m = Poissons ratio of lateral to transverse deformation.
t = thickness of tube wall in ins.
D = external tube diameter in ins.
WARNING: This- is ~a 1910 edition. Some oFAthe
For thick tubes a special case of LamBs general formula is
P = i?ul(t/D) - (t/D)*], . . . . . . . . (2)
. .
in which v. = ultimate compressive strength in Ibs. per sq. in.
The average values of the elastic constants are for Steel, E -= 3O,OOO,,OOc,
m = 0.295, u 5 4 0 , 0 0 0 ; a n d f o r b r a s s , E = 14.000,OOO. m = 0.357,
u = 11,000.
Hence for thin steel tubes,
For thick steel tubes,
P = 65,72O,OOO (t/D)a
P =8 0 , 0 0 0 w/D) - wD\ jfl: 1 1
For thin brass tubes. P = 32.09O.OOO (tlD)s. . . .
For thick brass tubes, P = 2 2 , 0 0 0 [(t;D) - WD)Y. . .
It is desirable to introduce a correction factor C in (1) whj$es~;~
allow for the average ellipticity and variation in thickness.
rec,tion f o r ellipricity = C1 = (Dmi,~~Dma#. and that for variation ir
thickness = Ca = (t,,,la;txw,)3. From Stewarts twenty-five experiment!
C. = 0~967 and C.Z = 0. 712. The cor r ect i on f act or C = Cr CZ = 0. 69
add (1) becomes
p =C[2 E/(1 - rn?)] (tlDj3 . . . . . . (7
in which C = 0.69 for Stewarts lap-welded steel
ues , t = averagt
thickness in ins., and D = maximum diameter in ins,
The empirical formulas obtained by Carman (Univ. of Illinois, Bull
No 17. 1906). are for thin cold-drawn seamless steel tubes,
P = 50,200,000 WD)3,
and for thin seamless brass tubes,
P = 25,150.000 Q/D)3.
Carman assigns 0.025 as the upper limit of t/D for thin tubes and 0.0
as the lower limit of t/D ior thick tubes.
Stewart assigns 0.023 as th
limit of t/D between thin and thick tubes.
Comparing these with (3) and (5). it IS evident that the? correspon
to a correction factor of 0.76 for the steel tubes and 0.78 or the bras
tubes. Since Csrmans experiments were performed on seamless drap,
tubes. while Stewart used lap-welded tubes, it might have been antic
pat,ed that the latter wou!d develop a smaller percentage of the the<
retical strength for perfect tubes than the former.
Fnrmlrln. (2) for thick tubes when corrected for ellipticity and van; _- -.- .,_, ~~~ ~~~~
rion in thickness reads
P=2+C(t/D)[l -C(t/D)l . . . . . . (I
i n whi ch t = averaee thickness. and C = Cr, CZ, Cl bei ng equal 1
Dmin/Dmax; C? = brerageltmin.
From Stewarts experiments, average ellipticity C1 = 0.9874. ar
averaee variat,ion i n t hi ckness CI = 0. 9022; :. C = 0.9874 X 0.59:
= 0.89.
We have then, for thick lap-welded steel flues,
P =2 uc 0.89 (t/D) [l - 0.89 (t/D)]
and for thin lap-welded steel flues,
P = 0.69 12 E/(1 - m*)] (t/D)3
in which E = 30,000,000, m = 0.295, and u, = 38,500 lbs. per sq. in:
The experimental data of Stewart and Carman have made it p0sslh
to correct the rational formulas of Love and Lame to conform to act
conditions, and t.he result is a pair of sup
(8). which cover the entire range of
lementary formulas (7) al
materia s. diameters. and thickness P .
for long tubes of circular section. All that now remains to be do,th
the experimental determination ol the correction constants for
types of commercial tubes than those already tested.
HOLLOW COPPER BALLS.
Hnllnw copper balls are used as floats in boilers or tanks, to cotit
1 dicoha~rrro va,lvw snd we~~la~+,e the water-level. ,
___.._
feed an0
They a~&p~~;pin &l%s fron?&et
cop er, and a rib is forme
one half. Into this rib the other half fits anFt the two are then sol.der
or brazed together. In order to facilitate the brazing, a hole is. left
one side of the ball, t.o allow air to pass freely in or out; and this bole
WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some
HOLDING-ZOWER OF NAI LS, SPI RES, AND SCREWS. 323
made use of afterwards to secure the float to its stem. The original
lhickness,of the metal may be anything up to about t/is of an inch if
lhe spinrung 1s done on a hand lathe, though thicker metal may be used
ahen special machinery is provided for forming it.
In the process of
r.laning. the metal, is thinned down in places by stretching; hut the
t lnnest place 1s neither at the equator of the ball (i.e., along the rib) i-c
nor at the poles. The thinnest points lie along two circles, passing
around the ball parallel to the rib, one on each side of it, from a third
t0 a half of the way to the poles.
Along these tines the thickness may
he IO. 15, or 20 per cent less than elsewhere, the reduction depending
r0mewhat on the skill of the workman.
The Locomotive for October, 1891, gives two empirical rules for deter-
mining the thickness of a copper balk which is to work under an external
pressure, as foll0wS:
I Thickness = diameter in inches X pressure in pounds per sq. in:.
16,000
These rules give the same result for a pressure of 166 tbs. only. Ex-
AMPLE: Required the thickness of a 5-inch coooer ball to sustain
Pressures of. . . 50 100
Answer by first rule. .Ol56
Arwver by second rule ..0285
.O% 166-
.0312 .0519
.O% 250
.0781
Ibs.per sq.in.
inch
.0403 .0494 .0518 .05io .0637
,
HOLDING-POWER OF NAILS, SPIKES, ASD SCREWS.
(A. W. Wright, Western Society of Engineers, 1881.)
Spikes. - Spikes driven into dry cedar (cut 18 months):
Size of spikes. .~_. . . .5 X t/4in. sq. 6 X r/d 6 X i/s
L e n g t h d r i v e n i n . . 41/q in.
5 X3/8
Pounds resistance to drawing. rlvge. lbs.
5 in.
857
5 in. 4i/4in.
831 X691 1 2 0 2
From 6 to 9 tests each.. . . {pg.) :: 1;;;
923 po 1;;;
766 L
A. :M. Wellington found the fcrce required to draw spikes s/is X s/Is in.,
driven 4114 inch
in unseasoned 0
es into seasoned oak, to be 4281 lbs.; same spikes, etc.,
lak, 6523 Ibs.
Professor Pii. R. Johnson found that a plain spike 3/s inch s
driven 33/s inches into seasoned Jei
uare
rsey yellow pine or unseasoned cB
nut required al
est-
lout 2000 Ibs. force to extract it: from seasoned white
oak about 1000 and from well-seasoned locust 6000 tbs.
Experiments in Germany, by Funk, give from 2465 to 3940 lbs. (mean
Of many experiments about 3000 Ibs.) as the force necessary to extract a
Plain i/s-inch square iron spike 6 inches long wedge-
and driven 4~ inches into white or yellow pine. 2
ointed for one inch
the force required was about i/in part greater.
hen driven 5 inches
Similar spikes s/la inches
square, 7 inches long, driven 6 inches deep, required from 3700 to 6745
lhs. to extract them from pine; the mean of the results being 4873 lbs.
Ih all cases about twice as much force was required to extract them
from oak. - The spikes were all driven across the grain of the wood.
when driven with the grain, spikes or nails do not hold nith more than
half aS much force.
Boards of oak or pine nailed together by from 4 to 16 tenpenny c0m-
man cut nails and then pulled apart in a direction lengthwise of the
$$:, an:d across the nails, tending to break the latter in two by a
iearlng action, averaged about 300 to 400 tbs. per nail to separate
I.%...
ny trials.
tt=w as tne result of ma)
Resistance of Drift-1
Coolidge. in lS78.
aolts in Timber. -Tests made by Rust and
y!z N~;cy
In. SWare iron drove 30 in in is/is-in. hole, tbs. . . . . . ,26,400
: 2 round 6 34 6.. a lZ/la-in. by $8
I91.2dO
s quar e
. . . . . . .16,800
18 is/is-in.
,?I% round 1, $1
. . . . . . 14.600
;p;
,_ 23 rs/rg-in, I ~. . . , ~. ,13.204 14;4QQ
I
STRENGTH OF MATERI ALS.
Holdbg-power of Bolts in White Pine.
(Eugg NeF63Jt. 26+_::?!.
Lbs.
Average of all plain l-in. bolts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8224
Average of all lain bolts, 5;s to 1 l/s in
Average of all &-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,780:~
outs
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8383 8595
Round drift-bolts sl~oultl be driven in h0ies tsim 0f their diameter, and
square drift-bolts in holes whose diameter Is
14116 of the side of the square,
Force required to draw SCreWS out of NOWay Pine.
I/$ dla,m. drive screw 4 in. in, w00d. Power requfred, average ;;2; Ihs
.I
4 threads per in. ,5 In. ?n wood.
1; D bl e t hr d. 3 per!n., 4 tn. i,n.. ::
2730
II
L,y-scf3v, ;yr 1:.~:;;2 ,. ,
1: 1:
1465
. . II
,. .
- - 1. II .L
l/2 inch R.R. spike.. . . . . . . . .5
Force required to draw Wood Screws out of Dry Wood. -Test,
made by Mr. Bevan. The screws were about two inches in length, 0.2:
diameter at the exterior of the threads. 0.15 diameter at the bottom, thf
depth 0f the worm or thread being 0.035 and the number Of threads m,oa,
inch equal 12. They were passed through pieces of wood half an mcl
in thickness and drawn out by the weights stated: Beech, 460 Ibs.; ash
790 Rx.: oak. 760 Ibs.: mahogany, 770 Ibs.; elm, 665 lb%; sycamore
830 Ibs.
Tests of Lag-screws in Various Woods were made by A. J. Cor
University of Iowa, 1891:
Size
. Kind of Wood.
Size
Sc r e w. bf$z.
No.
Tests.
Seas,vned w h i t e oak . . . ;/ssin.
112 in. 4112 iy. 5037 3
. .
. . I. I
7/m ::
. . . . v2 ,I6 3/l?
::I/2 * :E
i
Yellow-pine stick _. . . . a/s
White cedar , uns eas oned. s/s
112 ;;
I.
I2
4 . .
3$00 ii
3405 2
Cut zersus Wire Nails. - Experiments were made at the Waterton
Arsenal in 1893 on the comparative direct tensile adhesion, in pure an
spruce. of cut and wire nails. The results are stated by Prof. W. H. Bu:
6,s fotlows:
There were 58 series of tests, ten pairs of nails (a cut and a wire na
in each) being used.
st.ances.
The tests were made in spruce wood in most i;
The nails were of all sizes. from 1% t.o 6 in. in length.
every case the cut nails showed the superior holding st~rength by a larl
percentage. In spruce, in nine different sizes of nails, both standal
and light weight the ratio of tenacity of cut to wire nail was ab0l
3 to 2. With the finishin nails the ratio was roughly 3.5 to 2. Wl!
box nails (lf to 4 inches long) the ratio was roughly 3 to 2.
The mei
&tperiority in spruce wood was 61%. In white pine, cut nails, drtV
with taper along the grain, shovved a superiority of lOO7,. and wt
taper across the grain of 13;%. Also when the nails were driven in tl
end of the stick..i.e.. along the grain, the superiority of cut nails w
lOOSo, or the ratio of cut to wire was 2 to 1. The total of the resu]
showed the ratio of tenacity to be about 3.2 to 2 for the harder WOO
and about 2 to 1 for the softer, and for the whole taken together t
ratio was 3.5 to 2.
Nail-holding Power of Various Woods.-Tests at the Waterto!
Arsenal on different sizes of nai l s fr m 8d. to 60d.. r educed t o hold1
power per sq. in. of surface in woo2, gave average results, in poun
as follows: white pine, wire, 167; cut, 405. Yellow pme. wtre. 31~;~~
662. White oak. wire, 940; cut, 1216. Chestnut, cut. 683.
ytip, 651;.~ cut, 1200.
,I:
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some-~of
STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON BOLTS.
325
Experiments by F. W. Clay. (Fngg News, Jan. 11. 1894.)
WOOlI.
-TeIlS
Plain. .Bz
White pine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . .106
Yellow pine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,190 130
nasswood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 x32
tcity of 6d n a i l s -
rrbed. Blued. Mean.
94 111
196
6
g5
143
300 55.5 360
01 319 220
$hiteoak.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.....2 2
Hemlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141 2
STRENGTII OI WROCGHT lIROS B OL T S .
(Cornouted bv A. F. 1Nnzrle.l
- -
0.400 0.126
0.454 0.162
0.507 0.202
0.620 0.302
0.731 0.420
0.837 0.550
0.940 0.694
I.065 0.893
I.160 1.057
1.284 I.295
I .389 I .5 15
I .49 I I.746
I.616 2.051
I.712 2.302
I.962 3.023
2.176 3.719
2.426 4.620
2. 629 5. 428
3.100 7.548
3. 567 9. 963
-
-
S
- -
I
I
ii
Stress upon Bolt upon Basis of
1 Prob-
3781 5041 6301 9451
640 SIO
808 1,010
1,205 p;;
I 680
2260 2750
2776 3470
3572 4465
41220 51285
5,180 6,475
6,060 7.575
6,984 8,730
8,204 10,255
9,208 I l,!ilO
12,092 15, II 65
14,676 16,595
18,480 23,100
21,712 27,140
30.192 37.740
39,852 49,8 I5
I.215
1,515
2,265
3. I50
k%:
$g;;
9:712
11,362
13,095
1 E
22:672
x2:
40:710
1,260 6,400
1,620 8,200
2.020 10,200
3, 020 15.200
4,200 21,100
5,500 27,500
6,940 34.500
8,930 44,000
10,570 52.000
12,950 63,000
15,150 74,000
17,460 84,000
20,5 IO . ..99.000
23,020 110,000
30,230 143,000
37,190 174,000
46,200 2 14,000
54,280 248,000
75,480 337,000
99,630 433,000
The U. S. or Sellers &stem of Screw Threads is used in the above table.
The Probable Breaking Load is based upon wrought iron running from
51,000 lbs. per sq. in. for i/s inch dinm. down to 43,500 lbs. for 4 in. diam.
For soft steel bolts add 20% to this coiumn
When it is known what mad is to be put upon a bolt, and the judgment
of the engineer has determined what stress IS safe to put upon the iron,
i00!i down in the proper column of said stress until the required load is
found, The area at the bottom of the thread wihgive the equivalent
@i&b o f a flat bar to thn~t nf tha hnlt
3 EfPect of Initial S
.I_ -_ .._ --..
train in Bolts. - Suuoose that bolts are used to
Connect two parts of a machine and that ihey are screwed u
&fore the effective load comes on the connected parts.
mlttal tension on a bolt due to screwing UD. and ~Pz = the load a
wards added. The greatest load may vary but little from PI or Pz,
@cording as the former or the tatter is Preater or it may a
value Pi + P2, depending upon the rel&ve rigidity of the
the parts connected.
iii
preach the
olts and of
Where rigid flanges are bolted together, metal t0
metal, it is probable that the extension of the bolts with any additional
iewion relieves the initial tension and that the total ten-ion is Pi or Prr
but in eases where elastic packing as india rubber, islnterposed. the
extensi0n of the bolts mav very lit&e affect the initial tension. and the
totai s t r ai n ma be near l y PI +P? Since~ the latter assUmPti0n is
more unfavorab& to the resistance of the bolt this contingent
ally be provided for. (See Unwin, Elements of Machine %
should
de mons t r a t i on. )
eslgn,
~.
! mater-la1 may no longer be -accurate
STAND-PIPES AND THEIR DESIGN.
3 2 7
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Forrest E. Cardull (.+fnclrin,er~.s Reference Series No. .2. 1963) states
the effect of iilitid stress in bolts due t0 screwmg them. tight as flllvs:
1 !Vh& the colt is more elastic than. the material It cympresses. the
st& ln the bolt is either the initial stress or the force aPPhed, wtwhever
is greater.
iVhen the material compressed is more ela,stic than the b!t. the
s&s in the bolt, is the sum of t,he initial stress and the force apphed.
Experiments on screwinz Up I/?, s!&
1 and 1114 in. bolts sho:ved t,hat the
stress prducd is ft,en Jullicient to break a %-in. bolt.
and that tht stress
varies &out as the square of the diameter.
Fr o m thsse esperlments
proi. Cardull calculates what he calls the working section of a.blt as
eql,.ll to its area, at the root of the thread, less the area of a l$;;.g~v~~~
at tile root of the thread times twice the diameter of the bolt,
the follolving table based on this rule.
olts. U. S. Standard
rhreads.
0. 126
0. 202
0. 302
0. 420
0. 550
0. 694
0. 893
1. 057
I .295
1. 515
1. 746
2.051
0
220
565
1, 000
1. 490
2, 055
2, 890
zt
5' 525
6: 525
7, 890
8, 990
$"4$
19' 63:
23: 36C
28. 45C
33. 33(
0
528
1, 356
2, 400
3, 476
4. 932
6, 936
8. 520
10. 504
2%
18' 936
21: 576
29, 472
x:
56' 064
68' 280
791992
,
I
I
3. 719
,
4. 620
5. 428
3'14
6. 510
3 112 7. 548
The st.resses on I)oLts causedby tightening the nuts by, a wrench m?J
be calculated as follows: Let L = the effective length ot the wrench *I
incles P = the force in pounds applied at the distance &, n = no. o
thr&tcis per inch of the bolt. T = tots! tension on the bolt if there yer
no friciion then ? = 2 an,LP.
Wilfred Lewis. Trans. A. S. M. <.. k7ve:
for the efficiency of a bolt E = 1 + (1 + nd), where d = external diamete
of the screw. T x E =2 x?I LP +(1 + nd) is the tension corr$cte
for friction. It also expresses the load that can be lifted by screwng
nut on a bolt or a bolt into a nut.
_!- - - -, -
1
I . 130
1. 400
2. 086
0
264
678
1, 200
1. 788
2. 466
3. 46F
4, 26C
5. 50:
6, 63C
STRENGTH OF CHAINS.
F lrm~lzs for Safe Load on Chains.-Writing the formula for the SF1
loa<; on chains p = K@, P in pounds, d in inches, the follolving figures 9
K are given by the authorities named.
Open link
U nwi n
2;;baCh
;p;: 11,200*
S~Od/&k
13:750; 11,000*
~I $: & 13, 200*.
* The lower figures are for much used chain. subiect frequently tc! t
maximum load, 6. A. Goodenough and L. E. Moore. Univ. of Illsno
.~, .&&g&i
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some
STAND-PIPES .4ND THEIR DESIGN.
(Freeman C. Coffin, New England Water Works Assoc., Eng. News,
llarch 16, 1593.) See also papers by A. H. Howland, Eng. Club of Phil..
15~7: B. F. Str hens, Amer. Water Works Assoc., Eng. News, Oct. 6
at111 13. 1sss; 2 -
April 25 and
hiersted, Rensselaer Sot. of Civil Eng.. Engg Record,
May 2. 1591. and W. D. Pence. Eng. 1Vew.s. April and May,
1~94: also, J. N. Hazlehwsts Towers and Tanks for Water Works.
The question of diameter is almost entirely independent of that of
height. The efficient capacity must be measured by the length from the
high-water line Tao a point below which it is undesirable to drarv the
ivater on account of ioss of pressure for fire-supply, whether that point
is the actual bottom of the stand-pipe or above it.
fluctuat,ion ought not to exceed 50 ft., in most cases.
This allowable
This makes the
diameter dependent upon two conditions, the first of which is the amount
fthe consumption during the ordinary interval between the stopping and
starting of the pumps. This should neverdraw the water below a point that
will give a good fire stream and leave a margin for still further draupht
for fires. The second condition is the maximum number of fire streams
and t,heir size wliich it is considered necessary to provide for, and the
maximum length of time which they are liable to have to run before the
pumps can be relied upon to reinforce them.
Another reason for making the diameter large is to.provlde for stability
against wind-pressure when empty.
The following table gives the height of stand-pipes heyond which they
are not safe against wind-pressures of.40 and 50 lbs. per square foot.
The area of surface taken is t he height multiplied by one half the
d i a m e t e r .
Diameter, feet.,. . . . . . .20 30 35
M,?x. he!$ht, I,@ $% 1::s . . . .45 70 150 .._
. . . . . . 35 55 80 160
Any form of anchorage that depends
plates near the bottom is unsafe.
upon connections with the side
By suitable guys the wind-pressure is
resisted by tension in the gnys, and the stand-pipe is relieved from
wind strains that tend to overthrow it. The guys should be attached to
a band of angle or other shaped iron that completely encircles the tank,
and rests upon some sort of bracket or projection, and not be riveted to
the tank. They should be anchored at a distance from the base equal
to the height of the point at which they are attached.. if possible.
The best plan is to build the stand-pipe of such diameter that it will
resist the wind by its own stability.
Thickness of the Side Plates.
The pressure on the sides tending to rupt.ure the plates by tension, due
to the weight of the water. increases in direct ratio to the height. and
alsp to the diameter. The strain upon a section 1 inch in height at any
?lnt is the total strain at that oint divided bv two - for each si de is
supposed to bear the strain equ&y. The totalpres&re at any point 1s
_ equal to the diameter in inches, multiplied by the pressure per square
\ inch, due to the height at that point. It may be expressed as follows:
H = height in feet, and f = factor of safety;
d = diameter in inches:
p = p&sure in Ibs. pei square inch;
0.434 = p for 1 ft. in height:
s = tensile strength of material per square inch:
2 = thickness of plate.
after an extensive theoretical and experimental
at these values give maximum stresses in the ext,ernal
to 40.320 lbs. per sq. in., which they consider much
Taking 20,000 as a permissible maximum stress,
ulae for safe load P = 8000 d2 for pen links and
ud links. They say that the stud link will within
from 20 to 25ye more load thamthe open link. but
ngth of the scud link is probably+zss than that of the
b!es of Size and Strength of Chains, page 251.
the material &y non lon& be -accurate
3 2 8 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Then the total &rain on each side per vertical inch
= 0.434Hd = P :
T = 0.434 Hdf =_ Pdf
2 2 2s 2s .
Mr. Coffin takes f = 5, not counting reduction of strength of .join(
equivalent to an actual factor of safety of 3 if the strengt,h of the nveted
joint is taken as 60 Per cent of that of the p&e.
The amount of the wind strain per square mch of metal at any joint
can be found by the following formula, in which
H-
T =
P=
4; :
na =
m=
height of stand-pipe in feet above joint:
thickness of plate in inches;
wind-pressure per square foot:
wind-pressure per foot in height above joint;
Dp where D is the diameter In feet:
average leverage or movement about nwtral
or central points in the circu erence: or.
sine of 45O, or 0.707 times the radius in feet.
axis
Then the strain per square inch of P!ate
(Hw) z
= circ. in ft. x mT
Mr. Coffin gives a number of diagrams useful ip the deg;ign qf stavd-
pipes,, together with a number of instances of failures. with dlscussm
of their probable causes.
Mr. Klersteds paper contains the following: Among the most prO!Id-
nent strains a stand-pipe has to bear are: that due to the static pressure
of the water, that due to the overturning effect of the wind on an, empty
stand-pipe, and that due to the collapsing effect., on the upper rings, Of
violent wind stcrms.
For the thickness of metal to withstand safely the static presK!re of
water, let t = thickness of the plate iron in inches; H = height of stand-
pipe in feet: D = diameter of st.and-pipe in feet.
Then assuming a tensile strength of 48.000 lbs. per square inch, 6
factor df safety of 4, and eJZciency of double-riveted la
J . H =l O.OOOpi
-joint equahn
0.6 of the strength of the solid plate, t = 0.00036 H X
t-3.6 L): which wil: give safe heights for thicknesses up to% to 3/4Of 3
inch. The same formula may akso apply for greater heights and tb!ck-
nesses within practical limits, If the joint efficiency be increased by trlPle
riveting.
The conditions for the severest overturning wind strains edst *hen
t he stand+? 1s empty.
Formula or mm -pressure of 50 pounds per square foot, wheid
diameter of stand-pipe in inches: z = hny unknown height of stand-
/-
WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL WATER PIPES.
3 2 9
the tensile strength from 58.330 to 65,390; the elongation in 8 inches
from 22Yzto32Y0b: reduction in area from 52.72 to 71.32%; 17 plates
z . . . ~~~~~~ - ~I ~1 _ the inspection.
put 01 11~ wqre reJeccea,m
The foiiow~ng t a b l e IScalculated by Mr. Kiersteds formulae. The
stand-pipe is intended to be self-sustaining: that is, without guys or
stiffeners.
&=ights of Stand-pipes for Various Diameters and Thicknesses of
Plates.
Diamrcen in Feet.
Thiokns?sS
of Plate
inFIXIT-
tions of
in Inch.
-
:t
60
:;
2
.
7.
.
.
-
6
-
55
*.
65
zfl
9":
.
.
7 8
- -
60 65
.
70 75
80 85
90 95
9 5 100
100 I IQ
..__ 115
.
. .
~-~ Heights to nearest 5 feet.
. I _I - I _I _I _I _I _ - -
55 50 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65 60 50 40 40. :::I:
75 70 55 50 45
90 85 70 60 55 2
: g S& 5;
100 100 85 75 70 65
II0 115 100 ES 80 75 2 2: 2
115 120 115 100 90 75 70 55
I25 130 130 110 100 t:
130 135 145 120 II5 105 "9: it 2;
145 155 135 I25 120 105 95 75
. 150 165 145 135 130 115 105 a0
. 160 150 140 125 I10 90
150 135 120 95
.Cn
7 130 105
IO
.-
Rings are to build 5 feet vertically.
WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL WATER-PIPES.
Riveted Steel Water-pipes (Engineering News, Oct. ~11. lS90, and
Aug. 1. 1891). -The use of riveted wrought-iron pipe has been common
In the Pacific States for many years, the largest being a 44-inch conduit
in connection with the works of the Spring Valley Water Co.. which
Npplies San Francisco. The use of wrought iron and steel pipe has been
necessary in the West! owing to the extremely high pressures to be with-
: stood and the difficulties of transportation. As an example; In connec-
1
tlon with the water supply of Virginia City and Gold Hill, Nev., there
)QBs laid in 1572 an 11 l/z-inch riveted wrought-iron pipe, a part of which
a head of 1720 feet.
? East. an imoortant esamnle of the use of riveted steel water
) in the trench and the extra ezcavaiion to give room
$$f-large riveted &eel pip& to
~.-.~ ,-.. ,..,,
is a 1910 edition. Some of the material .tiay no lon@r b&-accurate
330 STRENGTH OF MATERI ALS.
resist not ollly the internal pressure but also the external pressure from
moist earth in \\hich they are laid, together with notes on t le desuzn of a
ipe 1X ft diam. ~000 ft. long for the OntariOwater PqWr CO..Niagarb
E -- ah,by Joseph Mayer, will be found in EQJ. .\ ews, Apnl26, 1906.
STREXGTH O F VARIOCS RLITERLUS. E X T R A C T S FRO31
I<IRIiALDTS TESTS.
The publication, in a book by W. G. Kirksldy, of the results of many
thousand tests made during a quarter of a century by his father, r
7Cirk-alrlv ha;s made an imnortant cont ri but i on t o c
Iavid
,ur knowledge con.
~~&j~~(h&-&~&-& varia{ion iti strength of numerous materials. A
condensed abstract of these result:; was published in the .Jrrrerzcan iMa-
&jnl,$ &g 11 and IS, lS93, from which the following still further con.
densed evtrsrtu II~~P t.n,kPn I
The ti
..._--- -_- -lf .___.
gures for tenslIe and compressive stren 1, or, as Kirkaldy calls
them. pu!ling and thrusting stress, are given ln mds per square inch of
original section, and for bending strength in pounds of actual stress or
pounds Per BD (breadth X square of depth) for length of 36 mches
between supports. The contraction of area is given a,s a percentage of
the original area, and the estension as a percentage in a length of 10
inches, exePt when otherwise stated. The abbreviations T. Y., E. L.,
Concr.. and Est. are <ised for the sake of brevity. to represent tensile
strength, el;lstic limit, and percentages of contraction of area, and elon-
gation, respectively.
Cast Iron. -44 tests: T. S. 15,468 to 25,740 pounds: 17 of these
were unsound, the strength ranging from 15,46S to 24,357 pounds.
Average of all, 23,SO5 pounds.
Thrusting stress, specimens 2 inches long, I.34 to 1.5 in. diameter:
43 tests. ali sormd, 94,352 to 131.912: one, unsound, 93,759: average of
all. 113.825.
Brnding stress, bn.rs about 1 in. wide by 2 in. deep, cast on edge.
Ultimate stress 2876 to 3854: stress per BD? = 725 to 892: average,
80. A;-eraEe modi;lus of r upt ur e, R, = s/i st r ess per BD X !ength,
=
44.2SO. Ultimate deflection. 0.29 to 0.40 in.: average. 0.34 inch.
Ot,hrr test- of cast iron, 460 tests, 16 lots from various sources. gave
results \vith total range as follows: Pulling stress, I_.&% to 33.618
pounds: thrusbing stress, 66,363 t,o 175.950 pcunds; bending stress. Per
ED:. 505 to 1125 pounds; modul us of rupt ure, R, 27,270 t o 61, 912.
Ultimate deHection. 0.2: to 0.45 inch.
The specimen which was the highest in thrusting stress was also the
hiehest in bendine. and showed t he greatest deHection. but its tensile
The specimen with the highest tensile strengt.h had a thrusting stress of
l-13 939 and a bending strength, Per BD, of 979 pounds with 0.41 de-
He&on. The specimen lowest in T. S. was also lowest in thrusting and
bending- but gave 0.38 deflection. The specimen which gave 0.21 deflec-
tion had T. S., 19,185: thrusting, 104,281; and bendinK, 561.
Iron Castings. - 69 tests: tensile strength, 10.416 to 31.652; thrGst-
ing stress, illtimate per square inch, 53,502 to 132,031.
Channel Irons. -Tests of 1s pieces cut from channe1 irons. T. 9.
40.693 to 53,141 pounds pr~r square inch: contr. of area from 3.9 to
3.SY0. Est. in 10 in. frorr. :2.1 to 22.5%. The fractures ran ed all the
way from looyO fibrous to loo% crystalhe. The highest T. &. 53,14l*
with S.lCO contr. and 5,3q, ext., was 100 y0 crystalline; the low&t T. S.*
40,693. with 3.9 contr. and 2.1 y0 ext.. was 75y0 crystalline.
All the
fibrous irons showed from 12.2 to 22.5% ext.. 17.3 to 32.5 contr.. and
T. 9. from 43 426 to 49.615. The fibrous irons are therefore of me$nm
tenke strength and high ductility. The crystalline irons are of vanable
T. 5.. highest to lowest, and low ductility.
Lowmoor Iron I?ars. - Three rolled bars 2% inches diameter; t
e n
-
sile tests: elastic, 23,200 to 24,200; ultimate, 50,875 to 51.905; Contra-
tion. 44.4 to 42.5: extension, 29.2 to 24.3. Three hammered bars. 41h
inches diameter, elastic 25,100 to 24,200: ultimate. 46.510 to 49e223
contraction, 20.7 to 46.5: extension. 10,s to 31.6. Fractures of all. l)
per cent fibrous. In the hammered bars the lowest T. S. was a%
nanied bv lowest ductility.
~~WAREING: This is a 1910 sedition. ~ $&me of
KIRkALDYS TESTS.
331
iron Bars, Vari ous. - Qf a l ot of 80 bars of vari;,us si zes, some
rolled and some hammeren (the above Lowrnoor bars i ncl uded), the
lowest T.,S. (except one) 4O,SO,S pounds per square inch, was sho,vn hy
the Swedish hoop L bar 3V4,mches diameter. rolled.
,v5s 19,150 pounds ;
Its elastic limit
contraction 68. 7% and ext ens i on 37.7~~ in 10
inches. It was +lso the most ductile of al! t,he bars tested, and was 100%
hbrous. The lughest T. Y., 60,iSO pounds . with el ast i c l i mi t , , 29,400;
rontr., 36. 6: and ext. , 24..3/,, was shown by a Farnley 2-Inch bar
rollert. I t wa s a l s o lOO:% tibrous. The lowest ductility 2.65;, contr,:
ant1 4.1y0 est.. was shown by a 33/4-incil hammered bar., \vlt,hoiit brand.
1; also had the lowest T. Y.. 40.27s pounds. but rather high elastic limit
25,760 pounds. Its frscr.ure was 95% crystalline. Thus of the t\vo bars
shoming the lowest T. S., one was the most ductile and the other the
least ductile in, the whole series ic SO bars.
Genera&,, high ductility is at::dmpanied by low tensile strength. as in
the Swedish bars, but the Farnley bars showed a combinat~ion of high
ductility and high tensile strength.
Locomotive Forgings, Iron. - 17 tests average, E. L. . 3 0 , 4 2 0 ;
T. S., 50,521; contr.. 36.5: est. in 10 inches. 23.8.
l?roken Anchor Forgings, Iron. - 4 tests: average, E. L.. 23,525:
T. S.. 40.083: COlltr., 3.0; est. in10 i nches. 3. 8.
Kirkaldy Places these two irons in contrast to show the difference
between good and bad work.
of a most treacherous character,
The broken anchor materiai he says, is
a.nd a disgrace to any msnukacrurer.
I ron Pl ate Girder. -Tensi l e t est s of pieces cut from ariveted iron
Firder aftc, twenty years service in a railway bridre. Top plate aver-
age of 3 tests, E. L.. 26,600: T. S.. 40.806; contr., 16.1; est. in 10 inches
7.S. Bottom plate, average of 3 tests, E. L., 31.200; T. S.. 44.288:
contr.. 13.3: ext. in 10 inches, 6.3. Web-plate. average of 3 trsts, E. L..
28. 000: T. S.. 45.902: contr.. 15.2: est. in 10 inches, 8.9. Fra,ct.ures
all fibrous. The results of 30 tests from different parts of the girder
prove that the iron has undergone no change during twer;ty years of use.
St.eel Plates. .- Six plates 100 inches long.
various. 0.36 to0.97 inch.
2 inches wide, thickness
T. S.. 53.485 to 60,805; E. L., 29,600 to 33,200;
contr., 52.9 to 59.5; ext.. 17.05 to 15.57.
Steel Bridge Links. - 40 links from Ha,mmersmith Bridge, 1886.
A v e r a g e o f all.
Lowest T . S. ._
i
Zlghest T. S. and E. L..
Lowest E. L. . . . _.
; GEatesst Cont r act i on. .
/,
1
Greatest Ext ens i on. . ._
hat Contr. and Ext . .
j --
T. 3.
-.
-_
67.294
61).753
75,936
64,044
63.745
38 294
36:030
2:::
3&l 18
36.792
39.017
34.5%
30. I
31.2
E
40.8
6.0
Ext. in
.!QO in.
14.i 1%
15.51
12.42
13.43
15.46
Z
Fracture.
;rm-
ulsr.
-
s5%
i
1%
/
The ratio of elastic to ultimate strength ranged from 50.6 to 65.2 Per
i ~%!; average. 56.9 Per cent.
I 0.014. me
Extensiori in lengths of 100 inches. At 10,000 lbs. per sq. in.. 0.01s to
an, 0.020 inch: at 20,Onn Ihs. nw sn~ in.. 0.049 to 0.063: mean.
j .$f;:.
JJ Inch. at 30.000 Ibs. Per SC:,
i
in.. 0.083 toO.lOO; mean, 0.090; set at
%!oO Pounds n&r so. in..-0 to 0.002: mean. 0.
rhe mean exksidn bekw&en 10,000 to 36,000 lbs. per sq. in. increased
at the rate of 0.007 inch for each 2000 lbs. per sq. in. increment
least
This corresponds to a modulus of elasticity of 25.571.429.
increase of extension for an increase of load of 20,000 lbs. Per
n.. 0.065 inch, corresponds to a modulus of elasticity of 30,769,231,
the greatest, 0.076 inch, to a modulus of 26.315.759.
eel Rails. - Bending tests, 5 feet between supports, 11 tests of flange
72 Pounds per yard, 4.63 inches high.
L
he material may no longer be .accurate
.
STRENGTH OI+ MATERIALS.
KIRKALDYS TESTS.
EI&&;~;~. Ultipmo;$;.ress. Deflection at 50,000 Ultimate
Hardest. 34.200 60,960
Pounds. I)fyntjon.
Softest 32,000
Mean. _. 32,763
;g;;
;:C$ ins.
. . 1. .
91.
3.53 **
; .I
..I!1 untracked at 8 inches deflection.
Pulling tests of pieces cut from same rails. Mean results.
Elastic Ultimate Cont,rartion of
Stress. Pound+ ared of frac- Extension
per sq. in. ture. in 10 ins.
Top of rnils.. . 44,200
Pe8r3 sl(liOm.
19.9% 13.57,
Bottom of rails. 40,900 77:520 30.9% 22.8%
Steel Tires. - Tensile tests of specimens cut from Steel tires.
Highest . . _.
man. .
Lowest. .
I~UPP STEEL. - 262 T
E. L. T. S.
69:250 119,079
52,869 104,113
41,700 90,523
%lY
29.5
45.5
Ext. in
5 inches.
18.1
19.7
23.7
VICIiERS, So;vs & Co. - 70 Tests.
Ext. in
E. L. T. S. Contr. 5 inches.
Hiehest 58.600 120,789 11.8 8.4
Nran.. 5 1.066 101,264 17.6 12.4
Lo!vve?t. . 43.ioo S7.697 24.7 16.0
Not,e the correspondence hetween Krupps and Vickers StCeki aS t0
t,ensile st.rength and elastic limit, and their great difference in ContraC-
t,ion and elongation. The fractures of the Krupp steel averaged 22 er
cent silky, 78~ per cent granular: of the Vicker steel, 7 per cent ~11 .1: y,
93 per cent granular.
Steel Axles. -Tensile tests of specimens cut from steel axles.
P>\TENT SHAFT AND AZKLE TREE Co. - 157 Tests.
lht. in
Highest . . . . . .
Mean . . .
Lowest. . .
E. L. T. S. Contr.
99,009 21.1
72,099 33.0
61,382 34.8
-._..
5 inches.
16.0
23.6
25.3
VICKERS. SONS & Co. - 125 Tests.
E. L. T. S.
42.600 83,iOl
37,618 70,572
56,388 Lowest. . 30,250
Highest ........
Mean ..........
Shearing str+?ngth of the Whitworth shaft, mean ?f four tests, 40,654
lbs. per square Inch. or 66.3 per cent of the pulh,ng stress. Specific
gravlty of the Whitworth steel. 7.867; of the Vlckers , 7.856.
Spring Steel. - Untempered, 6 tests, average. I?. I+, 67.916: T. S..
115.66S; contr., 37.8: ext. in 10 inches. 16.6. Spnng steel untem-
pered, 15 tests, average, E. L., 38,785: T. S., 69,496: contr., 19.1: ext.
.n 10 inches. 29.S. These two lots were shipped for the same purpose,
~~,:rGlFv.ay~ carriage leaf springs.
$~~.el Castings. -44 tests, E. L.. 31,816 to 3.5,56i: T. S.. 54.92S.to
63~40; contr.. 1.67 to 15.8: ext., l.$ to 15.1. Sote the great vana-
tl& in ductility. The steel of the lnghest strength was also the most
ductite.
Riveted J oints, Pulling Tests of Riveted Steel Plates, Triple Riv-
eted Lap J oints, Machine Rivet.ed, Holes Drilled.
plat,es, width and thickness, inches:
12.25 X 1.01 14.00X0.77
12.372 10.780
528.000 455,210
42.696 42,227
62,280 68,045
68.55 62.06
64.7 72.9
Wh; :_e+f_r$ured:
,1.,7, nt
PtkEs? Pl!z!s?
rivets
sheared
PlM &II
holes. %XS.
Rivets, diameter, area a.nd number:
0.45 0.159, 24 0.64, 0.321, 21 0.95,0.708,12 1.08,0.916, 12 0.95,0.708.12
Ri+s~otal area: 6.741
d.
8.496 lO.G92 8.496
Strength of Welds. -Tensile tests to determine ratio Of strength of
: w&Id to solid bar.
IRON TIE BARS. - 28 Tests.
:
,;
St,rength of solid bars varied, from . . . . . . . . . . $,::A :; ~~,~@ ik;:
strength of welded hars varied from . . . . . . . . . . . ,
i i
37.0 tb 79.1%
, Ratio of weld to solid varied from . . . . . . . . .
IRON PLATES. - 7 Tests.
irength of solid plate from. . . . . . . . 44,851 to 47.481 lbs.
fj j
rength of welded plate from.. . . . . 26,442-t,;7?P3_: !,b2~
Ratgo
f weld tosolid.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3l.1 6 OO.Y%
1 -
CHAIN LINKS. - 216 Tests.
-- --- . .
reneth of solid bar from . . . . . . . It!,$?: t ~~,~~~ f:.
The average fracture of Patent Shaft and Axle Tree Co. steel was 33
j, Go 40.0** I>. strength of welded bar from . . . . . . . . . SY,OIJ
2 Ratio of weld to solid . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72.1 to 95.4%
per cent silky, 67 per cent granular.
The average fracture of Vickers steel was 88 per cent silky, 12 tier
;j 1~
cent granular.
?j !
IRON Bans. - Hand and Electric Machine-Welded.
%y teitts, solid iron, average . . . ._ . . . . . . . . .
19
;l;$c T,elded, average. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
St,eel Propeller Shafts. - Tensile tests of pieces cut from two
mean of four tests each. Hollow shaft, Whitworth, T. S., 61,290:
30.575; contr., 52.8: ext. in 10 inches, 28.6. Solid shaft, Vickers,
46 870. E. L.. 20 425; contr.. 44.4: ext. in 10 inches, 30.7.
?hr&ting tests Whitworth ultimate 56,201. elastic, 29,300:
30,000 ibs., 0.18 tier cent; Setat 40,000 ibs., 2.Oi per cent; set at 50.00
lb.. 3.82 per cent.
ultimate, 44.602: elastic, 22,250; set a Thrusting tests, Vickers,
30,000 lbs., 2.29 per cent; set at 40.009 Ibs., 4.69 per cent.
:
STEEL BARS AND PL.ITEB. - 14 Tests.
+ength 0f solid.. . . . / . . . . , . . . . . .
Lrength of weld. ,~. . . . . . . . . . . . . I ~. . . . . . ~..
10 weld to solid..
ha ratio of weld id &i$ ii $fi i& &a$ &&g from %t{ ib
oaf of the great variation of workmanship in welding.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Somers of the material may no longer be . accurate
334 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
KIRKALDYS TESTS.
Cast Copper. - 4 tests, E. L.. 5900: T. 24.5: ext., 21.8. average, S., 24,781: contr.,
moer Plates. -As rolled. 23 tests. 0.26 to 0.73 in. thick: E. L..
Wire. - Tensile Strength.
. 81,735 to 92,224
. 78,049
_. 81.114 to 98.578
37.607 to 46.494
34.936 to 45,210
35,052 to 62,190
S9.246 to 9i,SOS
103.272 to 318,523
barman silver, 5 lots
Bronze,llot ... . . . . ....
class, as drawn, 4 lots..
...
copper, as drawn, 3 lots
Copper annealed, 3 lots
..........
................................................................................. Copper (another lot), 4 lots.
Copper (extension 36.4 to 0.6%).
.Iron, 8 lots ..... ..... .. ................
Iron (extension 15.1 to 0.7%).
Steel, 8 lots ...........................
........
........
........
........
........
........
........
. . . . . . .
The steel of 318.823 T. S. was0.047inch diam.ia,nd ha? an extension of
only 0.3 per cent: that of 103,272 T. S. was ,O.lO( inch dmm.. _and had an
extenslon of 2.2 per cent. One lot.of.0.044 mch &am. had 26, ,114 T. S..
.rl 52 Der cent extension.
,.... -.- A~
Hemp Ropes, Untarred. - 15 tests of ropes from 1.53 to 6.90 inches
,jrcumference, weighing 0.42 to 7.77 pounds per fathom. showed an
ultimate strength of from 1670 to 33,808 pounds, the strength per fathom
weight varying from 2872 to 5534 pounds.
___ _____ .
CoDPer. - 74 tests (0.58 to 1.08 inch T. S.. Rl
23,714 to 46.540;
.~ --~---,
contr., 3.2 to 21.5; ext. ipio irich&, 0.6 to 10.2. -.
Thin Sheet Metal. - Tensile Strength.
Hemp kopes, Tarred. -
15 tests of ropes from 1.44 to 7.12 inches
circumference, weighing from 0.38 to 10.39 pounds per fathom, showed
an ultimate strength of from 1046 to 31,549 ounds, the strength per
fathom weight varying from 1767 to 5149 poun
3 s.
Cotton Ropes. - 5 ropes. 2.48 to 6.51 inches circumference, I._08 to
8.17 pounds per fathom. Strength 3089 to 23.2% pounds, or 24r4 to
3346 pounds per fathom weight.
Manila Ropes. - 35 tests: 1.19 to 8.90 inches circumference, 0.20 to
11.40 pounds per fathom. Strength 1280,to 65,550 pounds, or 3003 to
7394 pounds perfathom weight.
$erman sil---- 0 -A- German silver, 2 lots
Brocze, 4 lots.
...........
................
Bms! Brass. 2 lots
Copper, !,
..................
Copper, 9 lors. ................
Iron, Iron, 13 lots, lengthway. .......
pi l~.lqts. Iron. 13 lots, crossway. .........
Steel, 6 lots. ...................
Steel, 6 lots, c Steel, 6 lots, crossway. .........
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.......
.......
......
.......
.......
........
........
.......
75,816 to
73,380 to
44.395 to
30,470 to
44,331 to
39.838 to
49,253 to
55,948 to
yp ..~~ _
.n
11 Leather, single, ordinary t
4 Leather, single, He
.7 Leather, double, nrdinarv
8 Leather, double
6 cotton, soli id woven..
Belting.
anned. ..........
!lveti%. .................
___..._. I( tanned. .........
Helvetia .................
Tensile St.1
per square
a, -.----
Jtitcbed.. . .
sohd. woven
~~, tched . . . . .
woven . . . . .
lid, woven.. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
. . 3248 tc
. . 5631 tc
._, 2160 tc
. 4078 t(
. 5648 t(
. 4570 tc
Wire Ropes.
Selected Tests Showing Range of Variation.
I3 Hair. solid,
2 Rubber, so
. 2%
. 3852 tt
. . a71 tc
3 5159
3 4343
---l----- l-
Galvanized.
Ungalvsnizeti
TJngzlvanized
Galvanized
Ungalvanized .
Un,rralvanized . .
Gn~lvanized
Gnlvanized.
Galvanized.
Ungslvanizetl . .
Ungslvaoized .
Un&vanized .
Galvanized. .
Galvanized
Ung3lr~anizecl . .
Ungslvanized . .
Galvanized .
Galvanized. . .
tJnqalvanized . . .
Galvanized. .
Galvanized. . : : :
7.70 53.00 6
7.00 53.10 7
6.38 42.50 7
7.10 37.57 6
6.18 40.46 7
6.19 40.33 7
4.92 20.66 6
5.36 18.94 6
4.82 21.50 6
3.65 12.21
3.50 12.65 ;
3.82 14.12 6
4.11
3.31
1;:;; 2
3.02 2.68 ::z :
2.87 5.43 6
T:f 2.80 3.05 66
f:% ::z 2
I.1563 Main
;:;A,; Main and Strand:
Wire Core
).I004 Main and Strands
). 1302 Wire Core
).I316 Wire Core
1.0: 728 Main and Strands
1. I IO4 Main and Strand5
I. I693
I.0755
I.122 I
k?i,n
Wire Core
Canvas. - 35 lots: Strength, lengthwise, 113 to 408 pound: Per inch:
Crossways, 191 to 468 pounds per inch.
The grades are numbered 1 to 6,. but the weights are not liven. The
jltrengths vary considerably, even m the same number.
M&les 1 Crushing strength of various marb!ee. 38,tests. 8 kinds.
specimenswere 6-inch cubes. or columns 4 to 6 inches diameter. and 6
and 12 inches high. Range 7542 to 13.720 pounds per square inch.
columns 4 X 4 and
I 6 Granite X 4, 4 t; -crushing 24 inches high strength, 3 kinds. 17 tests: Crushing square strength ranges 10,026 to
; 13,271 Dounds Der square inch. (Very uniform.)
:
Stones. - (Probably sandstone, local names only glv;;!$$
tests, 6 X 6, columns 12, 18 and 24 inches high.
$t;z;g:E
ranges from 2105 to 12,122.
The strength of the column .24 i%hes long
1s generally from 10 to 2O per cent less than that of the 6-mch cube.
I.135 Main
I.080 Main and Strand
1.068 Main and Strands
I.105 Main
1.0963 Main and Strands
KlO6~ Main and Strands
I:06 191
1.0:
1721 Main and Stran&
Main
$781 Main and Strands
In=
Main
!
Stones - (Probably sandstone) tested for London Kz Northwestern
i
Railwav.e 16 lots, 3 to 6 tests in a lot.
Mean results of each lot ranged
from 3% to 11 956 pounds.
The variation ischiefly due to the stones
2, being from diffkrent lots. The different specimens in each lot gave
Wits which ge&ally agreed within 30 per Cent.
.,
6lARNING: This- is
a I sl O edition. Some
may
no longer be - accurate
338
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
MfSCELLANEOUS TESTS Ol? IRON AND STEEL.
339
$yg
Camp, Str.,
Tested with Two Pin
Length of Bars
7/g inch .....................
per sqgl;solbs.
Ends. 11,s inches. .................. 17:740
120 inches. 17/g :: ................... 21,400
2 114 ................... 22,210
CO>fPRESSION OF WROUGHT-IRON COLU>ISs-, LATTICED
BOX AND SOLID WEB.
ALL TESTED WrTH PI N ESDS.
Columns made of
tin,ch chaonel, so&l wzh.. . . . . . .
. . . .
6 " :I 1;
, (
. . .
R
.I
, ,
. . . . .
r, I *a .,. . . . ._.
&in& channels, with s/l&In. COntlnuOus
plat,es ... ........ .. ... .... .....
S/Is-inch rontinuous plates and anrl~.
\\idthof plst.es.lZin ..I in.nnd 7.35 m
.....
i/Is-inch continuous plates and angles
Plates 12 in. wide ..................
B-inch channels. lstt.iced ..............
R ** / . . . . .
8 II ,. *
&inch channels, Iattic:&, swelled skies.
8 ,* ;: 1: 1: 1: .
,I
0
Ii-i,ych channels, lat$ced. swelled side;
i o: : : : ; : __. _, ; ; , . .
* IO-inch charm&. latticed one side; con
tinuous plate one side.
t IO-inch channels, latticed one side; corl
tinuour Platte one side.. . . .
-
10.0
15.0
20.0
2206::
26.8
26.8
:s
20.0
26.8
13.4
20.0
26.0
16.0
:?i
25.0
25.0
9.031
9.977
"6:Zf
6.:41
i9.417
20.954
7.628
7.621
::66;:
3%:
11.94'
1;::;
11.93;
17.62:
17.72
432
592
755
,290
,,645
1,765
1.848
1,827
-i-
;0,220
!I,050
16.220
22.540
17,570
25,290
28,020
26,190
17.270
* Pins in center of gravity of channel bars and continuous plate, 1.63
inches from center line of channel. b&r;.
t Pins placed in center of gravity of channel bars.
TENSILE TEST OF SIX STEEL EYE-BARS.
COMPARED WWH SMALL. TEST INGOTS.
The steel was made by the Cambric Iron Compa:y. and the eye-par
beads made by Keystone Bridge Com~.?,ny by upsetilng and hsmmermg.
All the bars were made from one ingot.
Two test pieces, s/d-inch round.
rolled from a test-ingot. gave elastic limit 45.040 and 42,210 ppunds:
tensile strength, 73,150 and 69.470 pounds, and elongation in 8 Inch-*
22.4 and 25.6 oer cent respectively. The ingot from which the eye-bars
nrre made wils 14 inches square, roiled to billet, 7 X 6 inches.
eye-!,nrs were rolled to 6V2 X 1 inch.
Chemical tests gave carbon z%
$0 i1.;0; manganese, 0.64 to 0.73; phosphorus, 0.074 t0 0.098.
.~ ~~, I ,
~~~~~~~~~ This is a 1910 edi ti on. SOme of
Gauged
Length,
inches.
160
160
160
200
200
200
200
* Elastic
limit, Ibs.
per sq. in.
3T5:E
$,E
39:230
3i,640
Tensile
strength per
Elongation
sq. in., lbs.
per cent, in
Gauged Length.
2% 15.8
ip; 6:&O
6.96
8.6
12.3
64:4io
12.0
16.4
68,290 13.9
The average tensile strength of the s/d-inch test pieces was 71.310 lbs.,
that of the eye-bars 67,230 Ibs., a decrease of 5.77c. The average elastic
kimit of the test pieces was 45,150 lb+, t,hat of t.he eye-ba,rs 36,402 tbs., a
decrease of 19.4%. The elastic limit of the test pieces was 63.3% of
the ultimate strength, that of the eye-bars 54.2% of the ultimate strength.
Tests of 11 full-sized eye bars, 15 X lV4 to 2% in., 20.5 to 21.4 ft. long
between centers of pins, made by the Phoenix Iron Co., are reported in
Eng. News, Feb. 2, 1905. The average T.S. of the bars was 58,300 Ibs.
per sq. in., E.L., 32,500. The average T.S. of small specimens was
&3.000, EL., 37,000. The T.S. of the fulkized bars averaged 8.87,
and the E.L. 12.1% lower than the small specimens.
. EFFECT OF COLD-DRAWING ON STEEL.
Three pieces cut from the same bar of hot-rolled steel:
1. Original bar, 2.03 in, diam.. gauged length 30 in.. tensile strength
55,400 Ibs. per square in.: elon,gation 23.9%.
2. Diameter reduced in compression &es (one pass) .094 in.: T. S: 70.420;
el. 2.7% 1n 20 in.
3. . _ I . .I 1 I
O.TZin,.: T. S. 81,890;
el. O.O75L% in 20 in.
Compressioiitest of cold-drawn bar (same as No. 3), length 4 in., diam.
1.808 in.: Compressive strength per sq. in.,.75,000 tbs.; amount of com-
pression 0.057 in.: set 0.04 in. Diameter increased by compression to
1.821 in. in the middle; to 1.513 in. at the ends.
MISCELLANEOUS TESTS OF IRON AND STEEL. -
Tests of Cold-rolled and Cold-drawn Steel, made by the Cambria
Iron Co. in 1897, gave the following results (averages of 12 tests of each):
E. L.
Before cold-rolling. .35,390
After cold-rolling . .72,530
After cold-drawing.. .76,350
El. in 8 in. Red.
2;:37j
E:&P
8.92 34.2g
The original bars were 2 in. and 7/g in. diameter. Thi: test pieces Cut
from the bars were 3/d in. diam.. 18 in. long. The reduction in diameter
from t.he hot-rolled to the cold-rolled or cold-drawn bilr tvn- I;*. in in
: each case.
Cold Rolled Steel Shafting (Jones & Laughlins) l%a.in. diam. -
j
Torsion tests of 12 samples ga,ve apparent outside fiber stress, calculated
from maximum twisting moment. ;O.~OO to 82.900 lbs. per sq. in.; fiber
j stress at elastic limit, 32,500 to 3&SOO lbs. per sq. in.: shearing modulus
1
of elasticity 11 800 ooo to 12,100,00o: number of turns per foot before
fracture 1 $0 td 2 06. - Tech. Quar.. vol. xii, Se
TorsibnTests on Cold Rolled Slmfting. -
t. lS99.
j
PTich. Quar. XIII, No. 3.
p. 229.) 14 tests. Diameter about 1.69 in. Gauged length, 40 to
stress at elast,ic limit, 28,610 to 33,590 lbs. Per scl.
~ih~v 4+.r~s- . :rt. maximum load, 67,980 to 77,290.
ILIULLI3 I Lu.,.rL.*, 2 A, I,--- .J 12,030.000 lbs. per sq. In.
per foot hetween jaws at fixture. 0.413 to 2.49.
rinn rPoe+r _n R-fin& Iron. - 13/4 in. diam. 14 t~ests. Gau ed
,,ress at elastic limit, 12,790 to 19.140
f
bs.
340 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. STRENGTH OF IRON AND STEEL PIPE.
341
STRENGTH OF IRON AND STEEL PIPE.
T&s of Steel .tngles with Riveted End Connections. CF. P.
McIi;l,i,itt, Proc. .~.s.T.X., 1007.) -. The angles !rroke through the rivet
boles in all cases. The strength developed ranged from 62.5 to 70.10/,
of the ultimate st,rength of tire gross area, Or from 73.9 to 92% of the
calculated strength of the net section at the rivet holes.
Denth of oenet,ration at point. of mas
ha% Is independent of th-
-I--- --.----~----
e-width, hiit varies wit.h the thickness. If
d = tlcrith of penetration and t = thickness, $~~= 0.31 for a Hat knife,
d = O.& for a -lo bevel knife, and d = 0.16 V\jr3 for an So bevel knife,
The ultimate pressure per inch of width in Hat stee 1 bars is approsi-
matrly ~o.non lbs. Y. 1. lhe energ\ consnmed in fo: It-oounds per inch
width of steel bars is, approsim:; :ly: I thick, 1306~ ft.-1bs.l 1 r/z I
2.500: 13/4, 370! , :7/s, 4500; the
the square of the thickness.
~~zrgy increasing at a slower rate than
Iron angles require more energy than steel
ile irnn has rn he cut off. For anelr~ of the same size. sheet breilks WI1
hoi-rolld st~erl the resistance ner souare inch for re
.-.* -.---
II-- __.-
varies from t41)0 11)s. to ~).500~1bs., depending partly iipon its hardness
an,1 partly upon the size of its cross-area which latter element indirectly
limensions require hut greatly indicates the t.emperature, as t,he smaller u
a considerably longer time to reduce them down to size, which time
The force
tested by prrllitig o
required to thread 11/4-i n. pipe with two forms of die was
n 5 lever 21 ins. long. The results were as follows:
again means loss, of heat.
it is not probable that the resistance in practice can be brought very
much bc!ow the io\vest figures here given -viz.. 4490 Ibs. per square
inch -as a decrease of 1000 11)s. will henceforth mean a considerable
increase in cross-section and t~emprrature.
Rtblation of SbearinL: to Tensile Strength of DiPPerent Xetals.
E. G. ?zod. in a paper presented to the Institution of Alechl. Engrs.
(.lm. Mnch.. Jan. IS. 1906). descri!res a series of tests on bars and plates
Old form of die. iron pipe. . 83 to 57 lbs. pull, sdeel pipe 100 to 111 lbs.
Improved di., iro:i pipe.. . . . 5s to 62 lbs. pull, steel pipe, 60 to 65 lbs.
l\fr. Tho,nson ciws the folloving table showing spprosimn!ely the
steady pull iv pounds rc~luircc! at t.he end of a 16-m. lever to thread
twist and ~1;:~ iron and steel pipe of small sizes:
of different m&us. Thesprcimens were firmly clamped on two steel
plat~es with opposed shearing edges 4 ins. upart~. and a shearing block,
which was a sliding fit hetv;een t,hcse edges, was brought do!vn UpOIl
the specimen, so as to cut it in double shear, by a testing machine.
1 To Thread with Oiled 1
I
__ To I
Old
Twist
COm-
Lbs.
man
Dies.
2
112
81
259
173
c
61
:
75
7s
2
65
62
-
a b
9.7
13.4
!I.3
33.1
13.4
19.7
12.1
7.5
16.0
12.5
2.2
8.0
7.8
6.5
35.0
T
,
c
I
Ia b
-_--
Cast iron. A.. . . . .
Cast iron. B .._.
Cast iron. C.. . . .
Cast aluminum-
bronze.
Cast phosphor-
bronze. .
Cast phosphor-
bronze. . . . . . . _ .
Gun metal..
Yeilow brass..
Yellow brass.. .
5;: I22 102 152 110
91 150 240
1:: 286 140 420 176
I16 273 32i
Rolled phosphor-
bronze. .
Aluminum.. :
Aluminum alloy..
Wrought-iron bar..
Wld-steeLO.14 car-
bon.
Crucible steel, O.lZC
0.4.3c . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.71 c.............
n.77c.............
*/2 in. steel .................
l/2 in. iron .................. :: ::
3/4 in. steel .................
3/4 in. iron .................. 2 t:
1 in. steel .................
I in. iron .................. EiP
III
106
152
II1
122
60
I28
1::
126
74
The margin of safety is computed by adding 30% to the pull required
to thread with the old dies and subtracting the sum from the pull re-
quired to split the pipe. If the mechanic pulls on the dies beyond the
hmit. due to imperfect dies, or to a hard spot in the pipe, he will sPht
the ninu
-.-%i%oiler Tubes used its Columns. (Tech. Qtcat-. XIII, No. 3,
1600, p. 235.) Thirteen tests were made of old 4-in. tubes taken from
i worn-out boilers. The lengths were from 6 to 6 ft.., ratio l/r 53 to 71.
and thickness of metal 0.13 t?o 0.18 in. It is not stated whether the tubes
were iron or steel. The maximum load ranged from 34.600 to 50,030
lbs., and the maximum load per sq. in. from 17 100 to 27.500 lbs. Sir
i
new tubes also were Wsted with maximum loads .55,6CO to 64.800 1bs.q
and maximum loads per sq. in. 31,600 to 3S.100 lbs. The relation of
1
the strength per sq. in. of the old tubes to the ratio lir.was very variable.

being expressed approximately by the formula S = 41,000 - 300 l/r
2 ii5;. That of the new tubes is approximately S = 5Z,OOO - 300 l/r
Y
1
u. Tensile strength of t.he metal. gross tons per sq. in.: b. elongation
in 2 in.%: c. rat,io shearing + tensile strength. The results seem to
point, to the fact that t.here is no common law connecting the ultimate
shearin- stress with the ultimate tensile stress. the ratio varying greatly
with d?fferent materials. The test figures from crystalline materials.
such as cast iron or those with verv little or no elongation, seem to indicate
that the uitimate shear stress exceeds the ultimate tensile stress by as
much as 20 or 257,. whiie from those with a fairly high measure of
ductilittr. t.he uitlmate shear stress may be anything from 0 to 50% less
WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
h
than thkultimate tensile stress.
For shearing strength of rivets, see pages 407 and 413.
Z., .,, ~. . ..~ -_.a.-_
ie material tiay no longer be .accur8&
342 STRENGTH OF MATERIrlLS.
HOLDING-POWT3R QF BOILER-TUBES EXPANDED INTO
TUBE-SHEETS.
Experiments by Chief Engineer W. H. Shock, v. S. N,. on brass tubes,
21/z inches diameter, expanded into plates 3/4 inch thick, gal-e results
ranging from .%%O bo 46,000 lbs. Out of 4S tests 5 gave figures under
~Q.~I)Q !bs., 12 between 10.000 and 20.000 lbs., 1S between 20.000 and
3Q,o()O Ibj., IO between 30,000 and 40.000 lbs.. and 3 over 40.000 lbs.
Esperiment~s by Yarrow & Co., on steel tubes, 2 to ?I/4 inches diameter,
gave results similarly varying, ranging from 7900 to 41.il.j Ibs., the
majoritv ranging from 20.000 to 30.000 lbs. In 15 ex eriments on
4 and .iinch tubes the strain ranged from 20.720 to 6S.040 bs. P Beading
t~he tube does not necessarily give increased resistance, as some of the
lower tipures were obtained. with beaded tubes. (See paper on Rules
Governing the Construction of Steam Boiiers, Trans. Engineering Con-
gress, Section C, Chicago, lS93.)
The Slipping Point of Rolled Boiler-Tube J pints.
(0. P. Hood and G. L. Christensen, Trans. .4. S. M. E.. 190s).
When a tube has started from its original seat, the fit may be no longer
continuous at all points and a leak may result, althouch the ultimate
holdin! Dower of the tube mav not be imnaired. A small movement of ..- ~~,~. =~. ~~ ~~
the tube under stress his then the prelimilisry to a possible leak, and it
is of interest to know at what stress this slipping begins.
.AS resrl!t~s of :t series of exueriment~s wiith tube-sheets of from l/7 in.
to 1 in. in thickness and with &raight and t,apered tube seats. the adms
found that t.he slipninz point of a 3-in. Ill-gage Shelby cold-drawn tube
rolled into a str&lit. sniooth machined hole in a l-in-sheet occurs with
a pull of about 7.000 lbs. The frictional resistance of such tubes is about
750 lbs. ner su. in. of tube-bearing area in sheets 3/s in. and 1 in. thick.
Variolis deirees of rollinrr do not zreat~lv affect t,he noint of initial slin.
and for hi&? resistances t~G initial slip other resists& than friction ml::%
be depended iinoii. Cut,ting a lo-pitch sc:!are t,hread in the seai. about
0.01 io. deen xi11 raise the sliDoh&noint tb three or four times that in a
smooth hot&. In one test, thisth%d mai made 0.015 in. deep iu a s!leel
1 in. thick, girina an abutting area of about 1.4 sq. in., and a resistance
to initial slin of 45.000 Ihs. The elsst,ic limit of the tube was reached at
ahour. 3i.OUii lbs. ~
Where tubes give trouble from slipping and are required to i arry an
unusual load. the slim&e noint can be easilv raised bv serrating the tube
seat by ro!ling rvitii anldrdinary flue espjnder. the rolls of ivhich are
grooved about 0.007 in. deep and 10 grooves to the inch. One tube
thus serrated had its slipping point raised between three and four times
it.s usual value.
.
J IETHODS OF TESTING THE HARDSESS OF NETALS.
Brinells 11Iethod. J. A. Brinell. a Swedish engineer. in 1900 pub-
lished a method for determining the relat.ive hardness ol steel which has
come into somewhat extensive use. .4 hardened steel ball. 10 mm.
(0.3937 in.), is forced with a pressure of 3000 bg. (6614 lbs.) into a flat
surface on ?he sample to be t.ested. so as to make a slight sphericni in-
dentation, the diameter of which may be measured by a microscope or
the depth by a micrometer. The hardness is defined as t,he quoilent
of the pressure by the area of the indentations From the measurement
the hardness number is calculated by one of bhe following formrda?:
K = load, = 3000 kg., T = radius of ball, = 5 mm., R = radius atid
d = depth of indentation.
The following table gives the hardness ntimber corresponding to
different values of R and d.
W4RNING: This is a 1910 edition,
II
STRENGTH OF GLASS.
343
955 2.40 398
796 2.60 367
2:: s:::
341
318
z: 5%
298
7
281
434 3.60 265
R H cl I-J d H d H
-------__
3.80 251 2:: LE ::2 364 4.60
.1.00 239 :i:, 2::
1::
"j::: 217 22i 2.20 2.40 2: ::z 255 5.50 143 116
4.60, :z ;:f;: 555 4.00 228 6.00
4.80 i:i "4::: 2: 2:
ii
4.95 193 3.00 69
I II-I I I I
I%P ha.rrlnpss of sterl~ as determined bv the Brine11 method. has a
d&t ;~Tjtiolrio-thete;lsile strength, andis equal to the product of a
coeficient, C. into the hardness number. Experiments made in Sweden
with annealed st.eel sho,;ved that when the impression was made trans-
ve to the rolling direction, with H below 175, C! = 0.362: with H
ab I75 C = 0.3.i4. When the impression was made in the rolling
direction. &ith N below 175. C = 0.354: with If above 175. C = 0.324.
The producti:C~X If, or the tensile strength, is expressed in kilograms
per square millimeter.
_.._ _.._...
Electra-magnetic Xethod. -Several instruments have been de-
vised for testint: the hardness of steel by electrical methods. According
to Prof. D. E. Hughes (cuss. Mug., Sept.. 19OS), the magnetic capacity
of iron s;td steel is directly proportional to the softness, and the resist-
ance to a feeble external msnnetic force is directly as the hardness. The
electric ionduc$ivity of steel decreases with the increase of hardness.
(See Gitxxric Cdndutitivity of Steel, p. .)
The Sclerosco e.-This is the name of an inst~rument invented by
A. F. Shore for etermining the hardness of metals. It consists chiefly f
of a vertical &,ss tube in which slides freely a small cylinder of very
hmi ~t.eel:~~~noin:ed on the lower end. called the hammer. This hammer
is allowed to fali about 10 inches on to the sample to be tested, and the
distance it rebounds is taken as a measure of the hardness of the sample.
A scale on the tube is divided into 140 equal parts, and the hardness is
expressed as the number on the scale to which the hammer rebqunds.
Measured in this way the hardness of different substances is as follows:
Glass. 130: porcelain, 10; hardest stee:. 110: tool steel, lyO C., may be
as low as 31: mild steel. 0.5 C. 26 to 30: gray castings, 39; wrougbt
iron, 1s: babbitt metal, 4 to 10: soft brass, 12; zinc, 8; copper, 6;
lead, 2. (Cass. Mug., Sept., 1908.)
STRENGTH OF GLASS.
(Fairbairns Useful Informatio~n for Engineers, Second Series.)
Best Common Extra
Flint
Glass.
,rk~. Whigzsywn
Mean specific gravity. . _. . . , . , 3.078
Mean tensile strength, lbs. per sq. in., bars 2.413
;.s"g
2.450
-,
2,546
dc. thin plares 4.200 4,800 6.000
Mean crushg strength, Ihs. p. sq. in., cpldrs 27,582 39,876 31,003
do. cubes 13,130 20,206 21,867 -
The bars in t~ensi!e tests were about 1h inch diameter. The crushing
tests were made on cylinders about 3/4 inch diameter and from I to 2
inch on~a side, The mean inches high, and on cilbes approximately 1
transveise strength of glass, as calculated by Fairbairn from a mean
tensile strength of 560 Ibs. and a mean compressive strength of ?,I50
lbs.
P
er sq in., is, for a bar supported at the ends and loaded In the
midc le. w = 3140 ?@/l, in which ~(1 = breaking weight in lb% b =
breadth d = dkpth and I = length. in inches. Actual tests w]lI frob-
sh&v wide vaiiations in both directians from the mean c&u ated
gth. , ~. ~ - - , . _ .
;he materid may no l on$i r be *accurate
Sppcilic gravity _.
3171
Mod. nfelnst., thous. lbs.
Kelnrive f&w-t. resilience,
inch-pounds per cub. i
Crushing endwise, str.
per sq. in.-lbs.. .
Crushing across grain,
strength persq. in., Ibs
Tensile~strength per sq.
m
S!iear,irlg strength (with
xmn,. mean persq. in.
4
il
t
-
344 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
STRENGTH OF ICE.
Experiments at the University of Illinois in 1895 (Tt~e Technogm
vol. ix) gave 6%) tbs. per sq. in. as the average crushing strength of cu
h
g pb
of mnnu?nctlxed ice <ested- at I?:J F.,. and ~906 Ibs. f6r cubes test&$
14 F. Nat.ural ice, at 12 F.. tested with the direction of pressure parallel
to the original Water surface. have a mttiln of lOi0 Ibs., and tested with
the priwiirr~ perpwdiculur to t.llis surface 1845 Ibs. The mnze of varia-
tie ill ~trrngth of indivirllial 11iwes is about 50:; above and below the
me;m figures. the hwSt alld h~glxst figllFes being respectively 318 and
%I8 11)~. per sq. in. The tenxle strength of 34 samples tested at 19 to
23 F. was from 102 to 256 lbs. per sq. in.
STRESGTH OF COPPER AT HIGH TEXPER-4TL:RES.
The British Admiralty conducted some experiments at Portsmouth
bock>-3rd in 1~~7. on the elfect of increase of temperature on the tensile
strength of copper and various bronzes.
wu 111 rods 0.; in. diameter.
The copper experimented upon
The follolving table shows some of the resuits: .
Temperature.
E:thr.
Tensile Strength
in tbs. t,er sq. in.
TelfzWZ;Ure,
,n Ibs. per sq. I.
.~rnIs)lheric 23.115 300
100 23.366
2 1,607
4000
2003 22.1 to 500
21,105
19.597
Up to a temperntllre of 400 F. the toss of strength was only about
10 per cent,. and at 500 F. t,he loss was 16 per cent.
steam at, 200 11s. pressure is 38z
The temperatltre of
F.. so that according to these esperi-
ments t!w loss of strengbh at this point would not be a serious matter.
Above a temperature of 5W the strength is seriously affected.
STRENGTH OF TIMBER.
Strength of Long-leaf Pine (Yellow
Alabama (Buitetin No. 8. Forestry Div.
le. Pinus Palu,stris) from
Tests by Prof. J. B. Johnson).
Sept. of Agriccdture, 1893.
The fotlo\ving is a condensed table o ;,
cat tests of over ~000 specimens. from _ %? ,D.
e rane of results of mechsni-
tree5 from four tliferent sites
Av
Butt, Logs. Middle Lazy. Top Logs.
of 3 fi
Butt
J.449 to 1.039 0.57: to
a
0.859 03~4 to 0.90? 0.767
8,762 to 16,20017.640 to 17,126 4,268 to 15.554 12,614
4.930 to 13.1 IO 5,540 to
l.ll9to
Il.790 2.553 +O
3,1171.136to
Ii.950 9,460
2,982 842to 2,697 1,926
0.23 to 4.69 1.34 to 4.21 0.09 to 4.65 2.98
$781 to 9,850 5,030 to 9,300 4,587 to 9,100 7,452
675 to 2.094 656 to 1.445 584 to 1.766 1,596
3,600 to 3 1.690 6,33@ to 29,500 4,170 to 23.280 17,359
464 to I.299 539 to 1.230 484 to I. 156 866
STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 345
3. In the first 70 or 30 feet in !leight the values remain constant: then
occllrs a decrease of strength wlxch amounts at 70 feet to 20 to 40 per
cellt of that of the butt-log.
J. In shearing parallel with the grain and crushing across and par-
allel with the grain, practically no ditference was found.
5. Large beams appear 10 to 20 per cent weaker than small pieces.
6. Compression tests endwise seem to furnish the best average state-
Ine~~t of the value of woo~l. and if one test only can be made, this is the
safcsst,. as was ;~tso recwnized l,y BaIwch~n:er.
;. BLtxl timber is in no rcsprrt infvrior to unble~t timber.
The figures for crusnin:: across the grain represent the load required to
-nllQ~ :a. r!nmnrrssion of 1.5 per cent. The relative elastic resilience, in
lnl,ir inch nf +,I~H mn,t,prinl. is obtained bv measuring
CUllrr - _.___ .._ ..~
inch-i)olldS per Ct...... __.__. __ _.. ..- . . . . ~~~, ~-
of the transwrse t&t from tlG
;;;[<,y to t,he noii~t in the curve at which the rate of deHeetion is 50 per
cellt greater than the rste in the eariier part of t~he test wl!ere $e di+-
gram is,a straight line. This point is arlxt~rarlly chosen ~mce tnere 1s
_,, rlpfin1t.e elastic limit in timber as there is in iron. The st,renztil
,. -1._---- ---~~~-~~
at the elastic linut is the strength taken at this same point,. Timber
is not perfectly elastic for any load if left on any great length of time.
ong-leaf pine is found in all the Southern coast states from Nort,h
c
to Texas. Prof. Johnson says it is probably the strongest timber
in large sizes to be had in the Uniied States. In small selected speci-
mens. other species, as oak and hic!iory. may exceed it in strength and
toughness. The other Southern yellow pines. viz.. the Cuban, short-
leaf and the loblolly pines are inferior to the long-leaf nbor!t in the ratms
of their specific grsvities: the long-leaf being the heaviest of all t,he
ni ,,oe Tt: II.VWXPS Ikiln-dried) 48 oounds ner cubic foot, the Cuban 47.
Strength of S~IYI~C Timber. - The mwldus of rlipture of spruce
is given as follows by different sllthors: Hntficld. 9900 Ibs. per square
inch. Ranlcine 11,100; Laslett, 9045: Tmutwinc. 8100; Rodman, 6168.
Tradtwine a&es for use to deduct one-t,hird in the case of knotty and
poor timber.
Prof. Lanza in L5 tests of tar&e spruce beams, found a modulus of
rupture from 2995 to 5666 tbs.; the average being 4613 11)s. These
were average beams, ordered from dealers of good repute.
Tnm beams
of selected stock seasoned four years, zave 7.562 and K-18 lbs. The
modrdils of e&icitv ransed from 897,000 t,o l..%S,OOO, areragln -
1,294,ooo.
Time tests show much smaller values for bot,h mo~lulus of rupture and
modulus of elasticitr. ~A beam tested to 5500 lbs. in a screw mwhlne
was left over night.-and the resi stance was found nest, morning to have
dronned to about 3000, and it broke : it 3500.
Prbf. Lanza remarks that while i t ..II xvx necessary to use larger factors
,.c ^..F^L..
1 alLCb>,
__.l.^.. +t.- mnA,.lir\f . ..lnt..ro ll.0
,Y,,C,, L,,C LL,l,U L,,, 111 ,L11JL,L ..,re determined from tests wth
smaller pieces, it will be sufficient for most timber construct.ions. except
in factories to use a fwtor of four.
For breaking strains of beams. he
states thstit is better engineering to determine as t,he safe.load of a
timber beam the load that will not deflect it more than a certsm fractmn
of its spsn, say about l/30 to l/400 of its length.
Expansion of Timber Due to the Absorption of VVater.
(De Volson Wood. A. S. $1. E.. vol. s.)
Pieces 36 ): 5 in. of pine oak, and chestnut, were dried thoroughly,
and then immersed in waterfor 37 days.
The me&n per cent of elongation and lateral expansion were:
Pines Oak.
Ch&:.lt..
Elongation, per cknt . . 0.065
Lat&ral expansion, per cent . . . . 2.6
Expansion of wood by ITeat. - Trautwine gives for the expansion+
Of white pine for I degree Fahr. 1 part in 440,530. pr for 180 degrees
&I part in 2447, or about one-third of t,he espansmn of iron.
he material may no loncjer b&accurate
Some oi the deductions from the tests were as follows:
1. With the exception of tensile strength a reduction of moisture is
accornpanird by an increase in strength. stiffness, and toughness.
2.. Variation in strength goes generally hand-in-hand with SDeCific
gravity.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
346 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
TESTS OF AMERICAN WOODS. (Watertown Arsenal Tests, 1883.)
III all cases a large number of tests were made of each wood. Mini.
mum and maximum resulti only are given. All of the test specimens
had a sectional area of 1.575 x I.575 inches. The transverse test speci.
mens were 39.37 inches between supports, and the compressive test
specimens were 12.60 inches long. Modulus of rupt.ure calculated from
formula R = gz ; P = load in pounds at the middle, 1 = length, in
inches, b = breadth, d = depth:
Name of TVood.
Cucumber tree (Magnolia ncuminataj
Yellow poplar white wood (Lirioden-
dmn izrl~pifem) . . . . . .
White wood. Easswooci (Tibia Bmeri-
mm) .
Sugar-maple, Rock-maple (her sac-
charinwnj . . . .
Red maple (Am n;bruna) . .
Locust (Robinia psmdacacia) . . . .
Wild cherry (Prunes sewtim). ;
Sweet m.m (Liquidambar styraciflua)
Do:wood (Cwnus florida.). ._
Sour,gum, Pepperidgel(Nyssasyl~~tica
Persimmon (Diospyyros Virginiana) .
White ash (Fmzunis ;Imticana). . .
Sassafras (Sassa~-as oficinale) :. . . .
Slippery elm ( CTlm~s /&:a) . . .
White elm (Ulmvs Americana) .
Sycamore; Buttonwood (Platanus
occidentalis) . . . . . .
Butternu~t : white walnut (Jualans
mwea) . . . .
Black walnut (Juglans nigra) . . .
Shellbark hickory (Carr/a albaj .
Pignut (Carya porcinaji. . .. . .
White oak (Quercus a&a). _. . .
Red oak (QU~~CUS mbraj. ,. .
Black oak (Q~ercus fin,&&) . . . . . . .
Chest~nut (Caskmea ~1wzQati) . . . .
Beech (Fag~s ferruainea) .
Canoe-birch, paper-birch (Betula pa-
p?mm?a) . . . . . .
Cottonwood (Populus moniZi/era) _ .
White cedar (Th~ia occidentalis)
Red cedar (Junipens Virginiana).
Cypress (Sexodium Distichum) . _
White pine (Pinus stro6usj. . . . .
Spruce pine (Pinus gla6ra) . . . . .
Long-leaved pine, Southern pine
(Pinus mdustris) . . . ._ . .
WI&e sp&3 (Pick a&). . . . . .
Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis) . .
Redfir. veilow fir (Pseudotsuna Doua-
&siij :..

,..,................
Tamarack (L&z ~Americana) . . .
?
I-
i
_
Min.
7,440 12,050 4,560 7,410
6,560 11,756 4,150 5,790
6,720 I 1,530 3,810 6,480
9.680 20.130 7,460
8.610 13.450 6,010
12,200 21.730 8,330
8,310 I6.500 5.830
7,470 11,130 5,630
10.190 14.560 6.250
9.830 14.300 6,240
10.290 18,500 6,650
5,950 15,800 4,520
5,180 10,150 4,050
10.220 13.952 6,980
8,250 15,070 4,960
xii
I I :940
9,120
7,620
9,400
7,480
8,080
8.830
5,970
8,790
8,040
6,720 11,360 4,960 7.340
xz
14:c!70
11,560
7.010
l%::
5:950
13,850
Il.740
16.320
20,710
19.430
18.360
18,370
18.420
12,870
18,840
5.480
6,940
7,650
7.460
5,810
4,960
4,540
5:%
11,710
2%
5:640
9,530
5.610
3,780
13%
9:530
15.100
10,030
1g.z
5,770
3,790
2,660
4,400
5,060
3,i50
2,580
z%:
7:590
8.220
10,080
4,010
~:zl
17,920
16,770
4.880
6.810
Max.
Compression
Parallel to
1 Ewe
Grain, pa
per sq,
-
Min.
) inch.
Max.
'WARNING: This is a 19,lO~~editibn. Some of 1
THE STRENGTH OF BRICK, STONE, ETC.
347
Shearing Strength of American Woods, adapted for Pins or
Tree-mils.
J. C. Trautwine (JOIU. Franlclin Ins!.). (Shearing across the grain.)
per sq. in.
bh . . . . . ;;;I
ge;Tl .: .
II . ..~.._..._...__._..... 5595
cerlar (\vhrte). _. 1372
cedar (white). ._ 1519
Cedar (Central American) 34 IO
Cherry. ~. . . 2945
&.itnut 1536
Dogmood. 65 IO
Ebony.. . __ 7750
hum.. . . . . . . 5890
Hemlock.. . . _. _. . 2750
Locust. . . . 7176
Hickory . .!...%O%
Hickory .,..___..__,.,.._.,. 7285
%ple. ._ 6355
Oak. _. _. 4425
Oak (live) _. . 8480
Pine (white). _. . 2480
Pine (Northern yellow). . . . . 4340
Pine (Southern yellowi.. . 5735
Pine (very resinous yellow). 5053
Poplar. . . 44 I8
Spruce..................... 3255
Walnut (black) . . . . 4728
Walnut (common) . . . . . . . 2630
Transverse Tests of Pine and Spruce Beams. (Tech. Quar. XIII,-
No. 3, 1900, p. 226.)-Tests of 37 hard pine beams, 4 to 10 ins. wide, 6.to
12 ins. deep, and S-to 16 ft. length between supports. showed great vana-
tions in strength. The modulus of rupture of chfferent beams was as
follows: 1. 2970; 4. 4000 to 5000: 1. 5510; 1, 6220; 9. 7000 to 5000: 8.
;0;3 ~opoo3000; 4,900g to 10,000; 5,10,000 to 11,000; 3,11,000 to 12,000;
Si; tests of white pine beams gave modtili of rupture ranging from
1810 to 7810: and eighteen tests of spruce beams from 2750 to 7970 lbs.
per sq. in.
Drying of Wood.--Circular 111, U. S. Forest Service, 1907. .Sticks
of Southern loblolly pine 11 to 13 inches diameter, 9 to 10 ft. long, were
weighed every two weeks until seasoned, to find the weight of water
evaporated. The loss, per cent of weight, was as follows:
Weeks..... . . . . . .._...... . . . . 2 4 6 8 10 13 14 16
Loss per cent of green wood... . . . . 16 21 26 31 32 34 35 35
Preservation of Timber. - U. S. Forest Service, Circular 111. 1907,
discusses preservative treatment of timber by different methods. namely.
brush treatment with creosote and with cilrholinium; open tank treat-
ment with salt selution, zinc chloride solution; and cylinder treatment
with zinc chloride solution and creosote.
The increased life necessary to pay the cost of these several preserva-
tive treatments is respectively: 6. 16, 7, 13. 41, 27,. and 55%. The
results of the experiments prove that It will pay tmmng compam$s to
peel their timber, to season it for several months and to treat It mth a
) rd preservative. Loblolly and pitch pine have been most success-
ully preserved by treatment with creosote in an open tank.

Circular Nu. 151 of the Forest Service describes experiments on the
best method of t.reating lob!olly pine cross-arms of telegraph poles. j The
arms after being seasoned in znr are placed in a closed air-tight cyhnder.
a vacuum is applied sufficient t,o draw the oil (creosote, dead oil of coal
tar) from the storage tank inio the treating cylinder. Suffi+ent prte;;
are is then applied to force the oil into the heartwpod portion o
: timber and continued until the desired amount of oil IS absorbed, then a
: s vacuu& is mli>tzine$ ,rntil the surplus oil is drawn from the sapwood.
: :~
,, it is recommknded &at heartwood should finally contain about 6 lbs.
1,~:~ of oil per cubic foot, and sapmood about 10 Ibs. The preliminary bath
of live steam formerly used, has been found unnecessary.
Much valu,-
$able information concerning timber treatment and its benefits is con-
1. tabled in the several circulws on the subject issued by the Forest
$i~ &r-+0.3 ,
TEE STRENGTH OF BRICK, STONE, ETC.
at advance has recently (1895) been made in the manufacture
, in the direction of increasing their strength. Chas. P. Chase. *P
m-tng News says: Taking the tests as aven m standard en@-
g books eight or ten years ago, we find in Trautwine the strength ?f
given as 500 to 4200 lbs~ per sq. in. Now, taking recent tests la
--r
.._~~.., --- ~.~~ ~,~ .~~.. ,.~. .,. . . - - _ . _. _~ . , . _ ~~. _
! material may no longer be *accurate
34s
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
experiments made at Gatertomn Arsenal, the strengt)l ran.frOm 5000 to
TJ 000 lbs. per sq. in. In the tests on Illinois paving-brick, by ,Prof.
f.-o. Baker, we find an average strength in hard psvmg brick ol over
5000 tbs. per square inch. The average crushing Strength Of ten vai-ie.
ties of osving-brick much used in the West, I find to be 7150 Ibs. to the
square Inch.
.& test of brick made by the dry-clay process at \Vat.ertOlvn Arsenal,
accorrjine to p~cl:jm~,, shoved an averaxe rompressivn strel!gth of 3972 lbs.
per ~~1. in. In one uistance its rra~ilrrl -1973 I!)% *>yr sq. 111. A test was
made at the same plnce On a fancty pressed brick. The first crack
developed at a pressure of 305,000 tbs.. and the brick crushed at 364,300
!b;., or ll.130 Ibs. per sq. in. This indicates almost as .great COmPreSSlve
strength as granite paving-blocks, which is from 12,000 to 20,000 Ibs.
per ~(1. in.
The three following notes on bricks are from Trsutwines Engineers
S+ngtl: of Brick. - 40 to 300 tons per sq. ft., 622 to 4668 tbs. per
4 soft brick wiil crush under 450 to 600 lb% per sq. In.. or 30 to
%tFr;s ,i?, sqllare foot, but ? first-rate machine-pressed brick will stand
200 to 400 tons per sq. ft. (;;I i2 to 6224 lbs. per sq. in.).
Weight of Bricks. -Per cubic -foot, best pressed brick, 150 Ibs.;
good pressed brick: 131 ibs.; common hard brick, 125 lb%: good common
brick, 118 Ibs.: sott inferior Lrick. 100 Ibs.
Absorption of \Vnter. - . 4 brick will in a few minutes absorb 1/z to
3/d lb. of water. the last being l/7 of the weight of a na~nd-molded one,
or l/3 of its bulk.
Tests of Bricks, full size, on flat side. (Tests made at Watertown
Arsenal in 18Y:i.j ~- The bricks were tested between flat steel buttresses.
Compressed surfaces (the largest surface) ground approximately flat.
The bricks were all abolut 2 to 2.1 inches: thicx. 7.5 to 8.1 inches ion!&
and 3.5 to 3.76 inches wide. Crlishing strength per sqllare inch: One
lot ranKed from 11.056 to 16,734 Ibs.; a second, 12,995 to 22.351; 8
third. 10.:190 to 12,709. Other tests gave results from 5960 to 10.250
Ibs. per sq. in.
Tests of Brick. (Tech. &UT.. l900.) - Different brauds of brick tested
on the hro;ld .;urfxes, and an edge, gave results as follows, :bs. per sq. In.
(Tech. Qrtar. XII. No. 3, 1899.) 35 teds.
burned ~. ~.
Dover River. hnr~i
burn&.
Centd N. Y.. soft
burned _...
Central N. Y.. me-
dium burned..
Cmtral N. Y.. hard
burned..
Another lot. hard
burned..
smle.* te5ter1 on ed&!
i-
71
67
3R
36
36
36
36
Ii
6
-
iv-er-
agz.
7039
6241
5350
eo70
2!)0
3600
5360
7940
6430
- -
Masi- Xlini- Per cent Water
mum. mum. Absorbed.
--
, 1.::; 3587 15.15 to i9.3av. ,, .j.:: 3325 13.67 to 18.2 ;::
8630 39io 14.0 to 18.6 * II.6
10,940 5850 4.7 to 10.1 7.0
3060 1370 17.8 to22.0 19.9
4950 2080 16.6 to23.4 16.6
8810 3310 8.3 to 16.7 12.5
9770 7.6 to 12.9 10.6
10,230 6.2 to 18.7 !!.t
* Brand not named.
The per cent water absorbed in m meneral seemed to have a relation to
the streneth. the greatest absorption corresponding to the lowest strength*
and vice &-~a. but there were many exceptions to the rule.
. . a_
WARNING: This is a 1940 edition. Some 0'
THE STRENGTH OF BRICK, STONE, ETC.
349
St,rength of Common Bed Brick. - Tests of G; samples of Hudson
River machine-molded brick were made bg I. 8. W,oolson, King. i\ews.
&)ril 13, 190.5. The crushing strength. in 1 s. per sq. In.,. of 15 pale blick
ra,~ged from 160.7 to 4646, aver&% 3010; 44 medium, 2080 to 8944, av.
~)80; s hard bnckJ 2396 to 642c, av. 4960.
brick gave from 3324 to 9425, av. 6361.
Five Philadelphia pressed
8.7 to 21.4% by weight.
The absorption ranged from
The relation of absorption to strength varied
grratly. hut on the average there was an increase of absorption up to
39011 lbs. per sq. in. crushin, . v streu!;th, <ant1 beyon~l illat 5 decrea.$e.
The Strongest Brick ever tested at the Watertown Arsenal was a
paving brick from St. Louis, MO., which showed a compressive strength
of 38,446 Ibs. per sq. in. The absorption was 0.21% by weight anti
0.57~ hy volume. The sample was set on end, and measured 2.45 X 3.06
ins. in cross section. - Eny. NEWS. Mar. 14. 1907.
Crushin- Strength of Mwonry Materials.
taining-Wans.) -
(From Howes Re-
tons per sq. ft. tons per sq. ft.
Brick, best pressed 40 to 300 Limestones and marbles 250 to 1600
pki,.~ . . 20 to 30 Sandstone. . . . . 1.50 to 550
. . . . . . 300 to 1200 Soapstone. . . . . . . 400 to 800
Strength of Granite. -The crushing strength of granite is commonly
rated at 12,000 to 15,000 lbs. per sq. in. when tested in two-inch cubes,
and only the hardest and toughest of the commonly used varieties reach
a strength above 20,000 Ibs. Samples of granite from a quarry on the
Connecticut River, tested at the Watertown Arsenal. have shown a
strength of 35.96.5 Ibs. per sq. in. (Engirzeering Netus. Jan. 12,. lS93).
Ordinary grsnite ranges from 20,000 to 30,000 lbs. compressive strength
per sq. in. A granite from Asheville. N.C., tested at the Watertown
Arsenal. gave 51,900 Ibs. - Eng. News. Mar. 14. 1907.
Streng:th of dvnndi~le, Pa., Limestone. (EngineerZng Nevw~
Feb. 9, 1893.) -Crushing strength of 2-in. cubes: light stone 12,112,
gray stone 18,040, Ibs. per sq. in.
Transverse test of lintels, tool-dressed, 42 in. between knife-edge bear-
ings, load with knife-edge brought upon the middle between bearings:
Gray stone, section 6 in. wide X 10 in. high, broke under a load of 2;:1; I@
Modulus of rupture.. ._ . . . .
Light. stone, section 81/4 in. wide Xl0 in. high, broke under.. . 14.T20 1:
Modulus of rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.170
Absorption. -Gray stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.. . . . . . . . . . 0.051 of 1%
Light stone.. . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.052 of l$&
Tests of Sand-lime Brick. (I. H. Woolson, Eng. News, .JlJne 14.
1906). -Eight varieties of brick in lots of 300 to 800 were received from
different manufacturers. They were tested for transverse strength, on
Supports 7 in. apart, loaded in the middle: and half bricks were tested by
compression, sheets of heavy fibrous paper being inserted between the
8
#
eclmen and the plates of the testing machine to insure an even bearing.
ests were made on the brick as received, and on other samples aftM
drying at about lx? F. to constant weight, requiring from four to six
days. The moisture in two bricks of each series was determined, and
found to range from l Tao lo%, average 5.970. The figures of resuits
Pen below are the averages of 10 tests in each case. Other bricks of
ah lot were tested for absorption by being immersed 1/z in. in water for
48 hours, for resistance to 20 repeated freezings and thawing% and for
reistance to fire by heating them in a fire testing room. the bricks being
built in as s-in. walls to 17000 F. and maintaining that temperature
three hours, then coo&g them with a l+in. stream of cold water from
a hydrant. Transverse and compressive tests were made after these
treatments. The results given below are averages Of five test% except in
of the bricks tested after firinn in which two samples are areragcd.
em OF THE FIRE TEST. - Se&al large cracks developed in both
cd-lime and the clay brick walls during the test. These were no
In one wail than in the other. With the exception of surface
ration the walls were solid and in good condition. After they
~_, ,. __ ids ~,~..._
; he material ' may no lotic$r be - accurate
350 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS-.
were cooled the inside course of each wall was cuts through and specimens
of each series secured for examination and test. It was difficult to
secure whole bricks, owing to the extreme brittleness.
In general the bricks were affected by fire about half nay through.
Thev were all brittle and many of them tender xhen removed from the
~vvali. With the sand-lime brick, if a brick broke the remainder had to be
chiseled out like concrete, whereas a clay brick under like conditions
would chip out easily. The clay brick were so brittle and full Of Cracks
that the wall could be broken down without trouble. The sand-lime
bricks adhered to the mortar better, were cracked less, and lvere not so
brittle.
Designation of Brick.
l+I+\+lG
Modulus of
Rupture I
.
To of linx in bri
Premue for ha]
Hours in harder iin
Dried 320 505 1406 494
Increase, % 15.0 .
wet 248
After fire 17
31p9.O i 345
334 197 I 570
3.5
224t5 243
57 20 32 -24 I 27 37
A4 received 11175 2300 2871 1923 I610 2460 2669
Dried 2604 2772 3240 2476 1870 3273 3190
Increase, $I&
\vet &2
17.1 20.; 22.3 13.5 24.8 lb.3
2174 2097 1923 1108 2063 2183
Afit,; freez-
l59b lb19 2255 II74 1167 1851 1739
Aft&G fire 1807 2814 12573 2069 .I089 ,205l 4885
Transverse Strength of Flagging.
(N. J. Steel & Iron Co.s Book.)
EXPERINENTS JIADE BY R. G. H.~TFIELD AND OTHERS.
b = width of the stone in inches; d = its thickness in inches: 1 = dis-
tance between bearings in inches.
The hreal;ing loads in tons of 2000 lbs., for a weight placed at the center
of the space, will be as follows:
Bluestone flagging. _. 0174-f
Quincy granite.. 0.621
Littie Frills freestone.. 0.576
Belleville. N. J.. freestone. 0.480
Granite (another ouarry). 0.432
Connec$xut freest&e. : : .O.R:2
Dorchester freestone.. 0.264
Aubigny freestone.. . 0.216
Caen freest,one. . 0.144
Glass.. .l.OOO
Slst,e __ . ._ .I.2 to 2.7
Thus a block of Quincy gran;ie 80 inches ivlde and 6 inches thick.
resting on beams 36 inches in the clear, would be broken by a load resting
midway between the beams =
80 X 36
36 X 0.62-I = 49.92 tons.
STRENGTH OF LIME AND CEJ IENT MORTAR.
(Engineering, October 2, 1891.)
Tests made at the University of Illinois on the effects of adding cement
to lime mortar. In all the tests a good quality of ordinary fat lime W@
used, slaked for two days in an earthenware jar, adding two parts bY
Fveight of water to one of lime, the loss by evaporation being m
MRNING: This is a 19-10 edition. Some oi
VARIOUS MATERIALS. 351
tsh additions of mater. The cements used were a German Port- by frc
land,, Black Diamond (Louisville), and Rosendale. As regards fineness
of grinding, 80 per cent of the Portland passed through a No. 100 sieve.
a~ did 72 per cent of the Rosendale. A fairlv sham ..and. thorouehlv
sashed and dried, passing through a No. 18 sie<e and caughton a NoT3d.
sas used. The mortar in all cases consisted of two volumes of sand to
one of lime past,e. The following results were obtained on adding
various percentages of cement to the mortar:
Tensile Strength, pounds per square inch.
Age . { 4
Dayi.
Lime mortar. .
$? pfr cent Rosendale
2
Portland.
Rosendale :
1: Portland. 8
Rosendale IO
40 I'
60 "
:: Portland. 27
Rosendale
60 " Portland. 4;
;; ::
1; Rosendale
Portland A:
100
100 "
1: Rosendale IS
Portland. 90
-
: -
-
50 a4
I Days. Days.
-iii----
17 ::
E
27
;: 36
::
102
311/:i :;
210 145
2:; 2::
Tests of Portland cement.
(Tech. Quar. XIII. No. 3. 1900, p. 236.)
-
Neat cement:
Tension. Ibs.
per sq. in..
Compression,
Ibs. persq. in
1 1 Day. /ZDnys. 11,: Days/ I, Mo. 1 2 Jlos. 1 6 Mos. /I Yew.
I. -- ---
3 sand, I cem.
Comp.
454-232
13JX.G
l4::bO
79-92
1750,
780-820 915-920 950-1100
23.640 _..__.__ 34.000
1036-1190 "";Q5;~
..,.... ,
34$2" .., ._... 3$00 .
185-211 211-230 217-240 300-382i 280-383
3790 .__._.._ 7850 8000
4%0 .._..... 8250 to IO.&
MODULI OF ELASTICITY OF VARI0KE.S MATERIALS.
The modulus of elasticity determined from a tensile test of a bar of any
material is the quotient obtained by dividing the tensile stress in pounds
P
er square inch at any point of the test by the elongation per Inch of
ength produced by that stress: or if P = pounds of stress applied.
K = the sectional area. I = length of the portion of the bar in which the
measurement is made, and A = the elongation in that length, the modu-
PI
lW of elasticity E.= g + 3 = yh. The modulus is generally measured
within the elastic limiionl; in;;;&terials that have a well-defined elastic
limit such as iron and steel: and when not otherwise stated the modulus
1s understood to be the modulus within the elastic limit. Within this
lin& for such materials the modulus is practically constant for anY
given bar, the elongation being directly proportional to the stress. In
:he materia may no longer be .accurate
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Leh;l
Tin. cast.
Iron, cast .......
Iron, \vrought. ..
Steel. ..........
Marble .........
Slate. ..........
Glass. ..........
Ash ............
Brech ..........
Birch ..........
Fir. ............
Oak ............
Teuli.
wulrlilt.,
Pine, long-leaf (butt-logsj
Q.l;O.OOO
14;230;000
1:*;;0,;;; to
4:600:000
12,000,000 to
22.000.000 to
25.000,000 to
25,000,000
14.500.000
.5.000.000 _,.~~,~~~
y&o;
1:250:000 to 1.500,000
869.000 to 2.191.000
9i4.000 to 2,2s3.000
2.414.000
306,000
1,119,000 to 3,117.ooo
The maximum figures given by some earlv writers for iron and steel,
viz.. 40.000,OOO and~42.000.000, are undoubtedly erroneous.
The modulus
of elasticity of steel (within the elastic limit) is remarkably constant,
notn-it~hstanding great variations in chemical analysis, temper, etc. It
rarely is found below 29.000.000 or above 31.000,OOO. It is generally
taken at 30.000,OOO in emzineerins calculations. Prof. J. B. Johnson,
in his report on Long-leaf Pine, 1893. says: The modulus of elasticity
is the most constant and reliable property of ail engineering matenals.
The wide ranm of value of the modElus of elasticity of the various metals
found in plil& records must be explained by erroneous methods of
l-..l:-__ I2
Le~~~t.ensile test of cast iron by the allthor (Van Nostrands Science
Series, No. 41. page 45). in which the u!timate strength was 23.285 Ibs.
per sq. in., the measurements of elongation were made to 0.0001
and the modulus of elasticity was found to decrease from the
inch,
bepinmng
of the test, as follows: At 1000 Ibs. per sq. in., 25.000.000: at. 2000 Ibs.,
16.666.000: at 4000 lb%. 15.384,OOO: at 6000 Ibs.. 13.636.000: at 8000
Ibs.. 12.500,OOO: at 12.000 lbs., 11.-o 90,000; at 15,000 Ibs., 10,000,000;
at 20,000 lbs., 8,000 000; at 23,000 lb%, 6,140,OOO.
FACTORS OF SAFETY.
A factor of safety is the ratio in which the load that is just sufficient to
overcome instantly the strength of a piece of material is greater than the
greatest safe ordinary working load. (Rankine.)
Rankine gives the following
which occur in machines:
examples of the values of those factors
Dead Load,
Iron and steel.
Tirk.-r 1b 4 tt 3
Masonry.. . . 4
Live Load.
Greatest.
8 t; 10
Li ze;;Qd,
from 6 to 40
. . . . . .
. .
The great fact.or of safety, 40, is for shafts in millwork which transmfi
very variable efforts.
bJARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some
FACTORS OF SAFETY.
353
Unwin gives the following
n certain cases for rli!Ierent
lor ordinary contmgencles.
factors of safeFhe;hf$ have been adopted
materials. include an allowance
-
Live Load.
Dead Gxmporary In Permanent in Structures
Load. Structures. Structures. subj. to Shocks.
rrotyht iron and &eel 3 4 to 5
Ca?;t Iron . . 3 4
Tilrala(ir. . 4 TO
:o
.
i&kn.ork .................
hlasonry. ............ 20 ....
6
20 to 30
. . . .
. . . . .
unwin says that these numbers fairly represent practice based on
esperience in mnng nctllal cases, but they are not very trustworthy.
Prof. Wood in his Resist,ance of Materials says: In regard to the
margin that should be left for safety, much depends !lpon the character
of the loatlillg. If the load is simply a dead weight, the margin maY be
comparst.ively small: but if the structure is to be subjected to percus-
siveforces or shocks, t~hr margin should be comparatively large on account
of the indeterminate eifect produced by the force. In machines which
are subjected to a constant jar while in use. it is very difficult to deter-
mine the proper margin which is consistent with economy and safety.
Indeed. in such cases. economy as well as safety generally consists m
makmg them exressi ~rel y strong. as a singie breakage may cost much
more than the extra material necessary to fully insure safety.
For discussion of the resistance of materials to repeated stresses and
shocks. see pages 261 to 264.
Instead of using factors of safety, it is becoming customary in designing
to fix a certain number of polmds per sqlcare inch as the maximum stress
which will be allowed on a piece. Thus. in designing a boiler, instead of
naming a fa( Car of safety of 6 for the plates an:i 10 for the stay-bolts. the
ultimate i,ensile strength of the steel beine from 50,000 to 60.000 Ibs. per
sq. in.. an allowable working stress of 10.000 Ibs. per sq. in. on the )latgi
nnd 6000 Ibs. per sq. in. on the stay-bolts may be sp,ecified instesc r
also in the use of formulae for columns (see pxze 271) the dimensions of a
column are calculated after assuming a maslmum allowable compressive
stress per sqrmre inch on the concave side of the column.
The factors for masonry under dead load as given by Rankine and by
U&n. viz.. 4 and 20. show a remarkable difference, which may possibly
be esnl~~incd as follows: If the actual crushim? strentth of a nier of
masoriry is known from direct experiment, then Z factorof safety-of 4 is
sufficient for a pier of the same size and quality under a steady load;
but if the crllshitir strenrth is merely assumed from fin ures given by the
authorities (such as the &rushing str&t.h of pressed brick.
9
uoted above
from Howes Retaining Walls, 40 to 300 tons per square oat, average
170 tons). then a factor of safety of 20 may be none too great. In this
Case the f&tor of safety is resllv- a factor bf ignorance.
The selection of the proper factor of safety or the pro er maximum unit
stress for any given case is a matter to be largely etermined by the
@lgment of the engineer and by experience.
B
No defmit.e rules can be
@ve.n. The customary or advisable factors in many particular cases will
throughout this book. In Da found where these cases are considered
neral the following circumstances are to be taken into account in the
on+<,... ^P _. a^^ .^__
1,. When the ultimate strength of the mat,erisl is known within narrow
$%s, as in the case of structural steel when tests of samples have been
l~mnrlnt n.nfl kde, when the load is entirelv a steady one of a known
there is no reason to fear the deteriornt,ioh of the metal by c%%~,%~
lowest factor that should be adap,ted is 3.
y a portion of the load
ess
?. When the circr;mstances of 1 are modified b;
I& variable, as in floors af warehouses, the factorshould be not l
Z A
r %hen the whole load or nearly the whole is apt to be alternately
Put on and t,aken off, as in suspension rods of fldors of bridges, the factor
,+Ould he 5 or 6.
-1. When the stresses are reversed in direct.ion from tension to corn--
on, 2s in some bridge diagonals and parts of machines, the factor
be not less than 6.
,.. _ _~
the material may no longer be . accurate
354
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
5. When the piece is subjected to repeated shocks, the factor should be
not le, ss than 10.
6.
,XTL ^ +ho nlorais subject to deterioration from Corrosion the section
sho,~ldile~u;i~~~~
; increased to allow for a definite amount of CorrosLon
before the piece be s,
o far weakened by it as to require removal.
;. When the strei
ngth of the material,, or the amount of the load, or
~~~ .___-_ +,.in
rlot:, are LLICCL LIUI.I,
the factor should be Increased by an allowance suffi.
pien to cover the amount of the Uncertainty.
S, \Vhen the strains are of a complex character ,and Of. Uncertain
amount, such as those in t.he crank-shalt pf a reversmg $nU+ a very
his~h fac%or is necessary.
o&bly even as high as 40, the figure given by
:
Rdnkine for shafts in ml1 work.
f
~~~~~~~~~for Factor of Safety. 7 (F. E. Cardullo, Ma-hY. Jan,.
1906.) The apparent factor of safety 1s the product of four factors, or,
l 7 = 17, x h X e X d. - ,. ~~
a is the ratio of the ultim$.e str~@h of the material to it
s elastic !imjt,
a.~~-:. ~..z.L.:__ ..,,. i-l. t,
,,Ot the yield poillt but the true elastic urn!!! w\~~illl \YLIIUI rile material 1%
in so ftLr as we caidiscover, perfectly elastlc.and t,akes no,Permanent
set.
nincr the working stress within ~thls hmlt are:, (t) that
yond ~this hm!t: and
tl,e materia: will rupture If strained repe+edly be
(2, that the form and dimensions of the piece would be destroyed under
the same circumstances.
.)h: second factor, b, is one depending upon the character of the stress
produced within the mat.erial.
The esperlment~s of >Vohler proved that
tl)e repeated application of a stress less than the ultimate strength of a
material would rupture it.
Prof. J. B. Johnsons formula for the relatlop
between the ultimate strength and the carrying strength under COa
ditinns of variable loais i3 RS fOllOWS:
, .~ ___.
I\-here f is the
I carrying strength w;;?,q the load varies reJ$$e$
b,.t,veen a maximum value. p, and a mimmur;, yg.lue, PI, and
ultimate strength of the matenal.
The quanUt~les y sr,d 2, !iave pi;:
signs IThen they represent loads producin,g tenslon. and mmus signs whel
they represent loads producing compression.
If the load is variable the factor b must then have a value,
b = U/f = 3 - P,/P.
Takjng a load varying between zero and a madmum,
PI/P = 0,
and b = 2 - pi/p = 2.
Taking a load that produces alternately a tension and a compreSSi
equal in amount,
p= - p and p~ip =
-1,andb=2-ppllp=2-(-l)=S.
The third factor c depends upon the manner in which the load iS aPPlie
to t,he piece.
\Vl;eA the !oad is suddenly applied c = 2.
When not s
of ihe load is applied suddenly, the factor 1 is reduced accordmgly.
a certain fraction of the load, n/m,
is suddenly apphed, the factor
1 + n/m.
The last factor d. we may call the factor of igno,rsnce.[
AU .ti
other factors havk provided against known contingencies: thus provldl
against the unknotvn.
It commonly varies in value between 1% and
Bi+hIIIIPh nr~cxsionallv it becomes as great ~?S IO.
It pr@des~~ !$fjt
------;
,;*G$% or accidental overload, unexpectedly severe service, unrell*u
or imperfect materials and all unforeseen contingencies of manufactu
or operation.
When \ve know that the load will not be likely to !
increased that the material is reliable.
that failure will not resu1t.d
astrouslp or even that the piece for sorpe.reason must be small or hgt
this facto; will be reduced t.o its lowest hrm4. 1 l/z.
When iife or prOPeri
would be endangered hy the failure of the piece. this factor must be ma
larger.
Thus while it is 1 l/z to 3 in most ordinary Steel ConstrUCtlo
it is rarely lesi than 3% for steel in a boiler.
The reiiablllty of the material in a great measure determines the va\
of t,his factor.
For instance,. in all cases where It would be 1% for ?,
steel it is made 2 for cast Iron.
It will be larger for thos,e mate<
subj&t to internal strains, for instance for complicated castmgs, he%
.a
WARNING: This~ is a 1910 edition. Some??
THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CORE;.
355
forgings. hardened steel. and tl!e like. also for materials subject to hidden
defects. Such 2.9 IIlteiTlal f&w ill torgings, spongy place in castings etc.
It will be smaller for ductde and larger for brittle materials.
It & be
smaller as we are sure that the piece has received uniform treatment and
as the tests we have give more uniform results and more accurate indi-
CatIons of the real st~rength and qilality of the piece itself.
In fixing the
factor d., the designer must depc%nd on his judgment, guided by the general
rules laid down.
Table of Factors of Safety.
The following table may assist in a proper choice of the factor of safety
$ s,;;$;ethe value of the four fdctors for various materials and conditions
CLASS OF SERVICE OR MATBRI.~LS.
Boilers.. Boilers..................
Piston a Piston and connecting rods For double-
acting engmes acting engines .......
.... ..
Pistc
........
.. ........
................
Pistop and connecting rod for single-acting
engmes..., ...............................
Shaft carrying bandwheel. fly-wheel, op
an armature
%
.................................
Lathe spindles
Mill shafting.
..
Steel work in I
.......... .:.
Steel work in buddmgs
Steel TvorJc in I Steel work in bridges.
Steel
.......................................................................................
Steel work for small work
cast ii-on Cast iron wheel rims
...................
S:eei whe S:eei wheel rims.
..........................
........................ .
MATERIALS. MATERIALS.
cast iron and other ma-&--- Cast iron and other castings.. ..___ ._,
Wrought iron or mi Wrought iron or mild steel.
Oil temper-J ~ Oil tempered or nickel steel..
Hardened steel.,
.::
Hardened steel.. I..
Bronze and brass. roiled or f< Bronze and brass. rolled or forged.
-Factor----
u, be d F
2 1 1 2114-3 41~ 6
1 /z-2 3 2 II/? 131/z18
I /z-2 2 2 I/2 9 -12
I 12-2 i 3 I I 112 3 2 2 22 11/2 63j4- 9
;:
; !
I 2
I 21/x 5
;
; f ,y2
2:
114 a.
Minimum Values.
; 1 3
1 I!? I
i ?I,2
2 I l/z
I I 12
I I 2 l/a
2 I I IV2 3
THE IMECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CORK.
Cork possesses qualit~ies which distinguish it from all other solid or
liquid bpdies. namely. its pow:?! of altering its volume in a very marked
degree m consequence of chan~r of Dressure.
of an aggregation of minute air-vesxls.
It consists, piactically
having thin, water-t.ight and
Y.erY stron.g walls, and hence, if compressed, the resistance to compr&ion
rises in a manner more like the resistance of gases th
an elastic solif 1
ProDort.ion to tne dist.xnr
u sucn as a spring.
an the resistance of
In a spring the pressure increases in
-..-e to which the spring is compressed, but with
ure increaspg ill. a much more rapid mamler: that is. in-
gasis the p&s
versely as the volume wmcl~ t.he gas is made to occupy.
But from the
Permeability of cork to air, it is evident that if subjerted to pressure in
one direction only, it will gradually part withits occluded air by effusion
that is, by its passage through the porous walls of the cells in which it ii
cpntained. The G!RQ,
---- ,--~ous Part of ctirli constitutes 53y0. of its bulk. Its
15s,n?t on& a. ve.ry cqnsiderahle range. hut it 1s very persistent.
in bottlinz t,he corks exaand the
Thus ~iri
0 .
the oetcer Klna of corlis used
Dstant they escape from the bottles. This expznsion may amount to
an increase of volume of 75%. even after the corks have been kept in a
*tate of compression in the bottles for ten years.
$mhot Waters th
If the cork be steeDed
0
~..... . ..e volume continues to increase till it attains nearly tliree
--.a::! that which it occuDied in t,he neck nf t.he hnt.t.lp
~. ..-.._ __ -.._ --.-.
deformation or ~1
When cork is subjectkd to pressure a certain amount of permanent
permanent set takes place very quicklv. This prop-
ertY is common to all solid elastic substances when strained beyond their
e1astic limits hut with cork the limits are comparatively low.
Besides
the permaneit. set there is a certain amount of sluggish elasticity - that
,!s. cork on being ieleased from pressure springs back a certain amount
:gt once, but the complete recovery takes an appreciable time,
,.hV,~
zzs.u.....~~
:he material may no lonj&be $ccuka-ke
356
STRENGTH Oi MATERIALS.
Cork which had been compressed and releasec! in water many thousand
times had not changed its molecular structure m t1fe least, and had Con.
tinued perfectly serviceable.
Cork which has been &rpt under a pressure
of three atmospheres for many weeks~ appears to have shrunk to from
80 ,?k to 85 y. of its original VOlUme. -
Vun Nostrunds Engg ilfUg., 1886,
xxxv. 307.
VTlT.C.kNIZED INDU-RUBIZER.
price appears to t. ..~~
only be obtained by ut,lhzinz
to the utmost the quallt~; cnac
exhibits of talcinK ,,p a large bulk of added mnt.ters.-EEng !7. lS9i.
Lieutenant L. Vladomiroff. a Russian naval officer, has fecently caryied
out a Series of tests at the St. Petersburg Tech.mcal Institute, with. v@
to estaulishing
rules for estimating the quahty of yulcamzed mdla-
rubber. The followng, in brief! are the ConClU$Ons arrlv+ a,t, reCOL!se
being llatl to physical properties. since chemical .analy~w did nqt jilve
any reliable result: 1. India-rubber should not give the l?ast Sign of
superficial cracking when bent to an angle of 1SO degrees aftef five hours
of exposure in a closed air-batl!
to a temperature of 12a C. The
test-pieces should be 2.4 inchrs thick.
2. Rubber that does no! cor!tam
more than half its weight of metallic oxides should strf$+l t( hve time3
its lengbh without breaking.
3. Rubber free from all torelgn matter,
except the sulphur used in vulcanizing it, should stretch to at le&$ seve!I
times its length without rupture,
4. The extension measured IrUme$-
ately after rupture should not exceed l- .r
0~ of the originul lengt!l. with
given dimensions.
5. suppleness may be determined by measunng the
percentage of ash formed in incinerat,lon.
This may form the basis for
decidi? between different grades of rubber for certain purposes. 6. VIII-
canize;i%rubber should not harden under cold. These ,rules have beea
adopted for the Russian navy. - Iron dge. June 15, 1893.
Singuhr Action of India. Rubber under Tenswn. - IL. H. T1lursto.a.
Am. Mach. Mar. 17,
lyys gives a rli;~~ranl showing the stretch at dif-
frrpnt load4 of a oiece of pirtially vulcanizrtl rubber.
The results tram-
iii&mi~~t~figuresBare:
Load. lbs.. 30 50 80 120 150 200 320 430
Stretch per in. of
length, in.. 0.5 1. 2.2 4 5 6 7 7.5
Stretch per 10 lbs. in-
crease of lozzd . . 0.17 0.25 0.4 0.45 0.33 0.20 0.08 0.64
TTn to ,Lbout 307 of the breaking load the rubber behaves like a soft
-netal inshowing yxn increasing rate of stret.ch with increase of load,
ihen the mte of stretch becomes constant for a while and later decreases
steadily Until before rllpture it is less than one-ten411 ol the maXimU?;
Even wllen stretched almost to rupture it rtStOreJ itself very nearly
its original dimensions on remo+ng the load, and gra$;a;$ r$ger!._s
part of the loss of form at t,hat instant opservable.

no other substance shows this curious relation of stretch t,o loa
Rubber Goods Analysis. Randolph Boiling. (Iron +ge, J an;yELI_
The loading of rubber goods used in manufactunng eSta
with zinc oxide, lead sulphate. calcium sulphate. etc., and tl
ment of the so-called rubber substitutes
mixed with good rubber c:
close inspection of the works chemist in order tr -,r+nr~inu +&lo 2,
the samples and materials received.
The following methoU ot anatyJL~
recommended:
Thin strips of the rubher must he cut into small bits about the iizeiii
No. 7 shot. A hnlf gram is heated in a _
00 C.C. flask wit.h red fm&,,
nitric acid on the hot plate until all organic matter has beendecomp
and the total sulphur is determined by precipitation as barit!m SulPhate
The difference between the total and combined sulphur gives the c:
cent that has been used for vulcanizstion.
Free sulphur indicates elt.
that improper methods were used in vulcanizing or that an exce
sse
,,,
,.a
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some of
ALUMINUM - liTS PROPERTIES AND USES.
357
*as employed. Following is a scheme for the
,rticles:.
per cent of, substitutes \
analysis of India-rubber a
1. Extrztion with a,
lndia-rubber. istty O:- -
free sulphur. B. R,,.,,,.
2. Extraction with pyrfd
bodies. sulphur in above. 9.
3. Extraction wit.11 a1coholic Axt
cetone: p. solut~ion: Resinous constituents of
US. uunera1 Oils, resin oils, solid hydrocarbons, resins
onirll.n
Tar, pitch, bituminous
---- .,:.:ash: E. Extract: Chlorosulphitle sub-
stitufes, .+ll,hide SL~bStitlltes. osldlzed (blown) oils, sulphur in substitutes,
clllorme Ln substitutes.
F. Residue.
4. ~xtpc&ioll with Ilitro-napllthalene: G. Extract. India-rubber su1
phur in ,lndla-rubber, ch1orine in india-rribber, the iota1 of the jbove
three estimated by,loss. H. Residue.
I 6. EXtractlo? with boiling w?ter: I. Extract: Starch (farina) dextrine
h. Rrsjdue: Mmeral matter, iree carbon, fibrous materials, &1phur id
fnorganrc compounds.
6. Separate estimations: Total sulphur, chlorine in rubber.
has slmllilr Phy$al properties to tltise of iron and copper.
i<[ti&s *giiGt
able and ductile tha.n Iron. .and less malleable and more ductile than
copper. It a@ys with these metals in all proportions
It has nea.rly
the same SPeclhc gravity as copper, and is slightly he&vier than iron.
It melts at a temperature qf.about 2900 to
of carbo,- I- -~ ~I 1.1 32CO,F. A small percentage
II !! mec?,!!lc n+xel lowers its melting-pomt erceptibly
is harder tnan eltll ler Iron or canner: is mametic~ RI,, rvill nit lNilip
-.A-..-*
.._.. ._-
temper. !t has a grayish-chite-Polar, talcrsU&~&& -&h and &?b~
rolled easlty into thin plates or drawn into wire.
affected by atmospheric action, or by salt water.
Pt is ;nappr,;ciably
Commercial n&kel is
from 98 to 99,per cent pure. The impurities are iron copper silicon
sulphur. arsemc, mgbo!l. and (in some nickel) a kerne1 of I&P,I!~&
aside. .YL -;-- ---_--
snort.
Lc IS not mmcl!It to cast, anI acts like some iron in hemg coid-
C+st bars are likely to be porous or spongy, but, after hammer-
1ng or ro11lm are compact and tough.
The aver !,I : results of several tests are as follows: Castings tensile
strength, S<.,OOO lbs. per sq. in,., elongation, 12%; wrought nick;1 T. S.
96,000, El., 14%; wrought nickel, annealed, T. S. 95,000, El.: 23%:
hard roh:d. T. S., 7S.000. El., 10%. (See also page 413.)
Ni,ckel readily takes up cnrbon, and the porous nature of the metal 1s
undoubtedly due to occluded gases.
m._*^I.. ~~~
According to Dr. Wedding, nickel
K>-~~~,?~~$ of carbon, which may exist either as amor-
_ ~~~ ~~_ ..-- .- -...
Dr. Fleitriiilnn. of Germany, discovered that a small qun,ntity of pure
magnesium would free nickel from occluded
and give. a metal
capable of beinF: drawn or rolled perfectly free rom blow-holes to such
f-
aa extent that the metal may be rolled into thin sheets 3 feet iln width.
Aluminum or manganese ,may be used equally as wel!as a ourifvine
agent; but eif
harder. Nick
adds the qualib
Lner,, u useo m. excess, serves to make the nickel v&y m&i
el ~111 alloy with most of the useful metals, and generally
,ies of hardness, toughness, and ductility.
-4LU3HXUM -ITS PROPERTIES dAG USES.
-.
(BY Alfred E. Hunt. Prest of the Pittsburgh Reduction Co.1
The spc
bars of large sI
xific gravity of pure aluminum in, a cast state is 2.58 in rolled
Pression ~~nrl,=r
ection it is 2.6: in very thin sheets subjected to high corn.
~. _._--.
tic-m bulk of
chIlled rolls, it is as much as 2.7. Taking the weight of a
cast aluminum as 1 wrought iron is 2.90 times heavier; struc-
6ura1 steel, 2.95 times; copper 3.iio ordinary high brass 3.45
Most wood
ruitable for use in structures has at;out one third the whight bf aluminum,
,?hich weighs 0.09? lb. to the cubic inch.
&b
PUre aluminum ys practically not acted upon by boi!ing water or steam
cure under 600 F.
r one oxide or hydrogen sulphide does not act upon it at any tempera:
It is not acted Upon by most organic secretions.
? &drochlorlc acid is the best solvent for aluminum and stronm solutions
C alkalies readitydissolve it. Ammonia has aslight sol&t action
centrsted sulphuric acid dissolves aluminum upon heating witi
ut1on of sulphurous acid gas. Dilute sulphuric acid acts but slo~vly on
; he m- i teki al may no l ongi i r b~' %CCUEi te .
STRENGTW OF MATERIALS.
the metn,L though the presence of any chlorides in the Solution allows rapid
Ii,, Nit.rir: n.rir!. either concentrated Or C
.__ .__ _.__,_.
decon;postL.-... _,____ _~._~... ..~
lilute. has very little
action upon the metal,
ii,nd sulphur nas no action unless the metal 1s at a
wd hea.t. Sea-water has very little effect on aluminum. Strips of the
..---. --- ~~~~.~~ ~~~~
lrsn 1 /lOOO inch
m&l placed on the sides of aivooden ship corroded less tl
a.fter six months exuosure to sea-water, corroding less than copper sheets
platinum, iron, very soft steel, and copper. Sheets Of aluminurti~hiive&a
rolled dolvri t,o a tllickness of O.OOO5 ineli, .and beaten Into leaf nearly as
le at a temperature or between
;;;i;r,,,~d~.~ij~~~,E., and at this temperature it can Se drawn down betweea
TOIIS with nearlv as IIIUCI~ drsught upon it as with heated steel. It has also
By the Mannesmann process
alumirmm tubes have been made in Germany.
Uuminum stands very high in the series as an electro-positive metal, and
co&ct with other metals should be avoided, as it would establish a gal-
v anic couple.
The electrical cond:ictivity of aluminum is only. surpassed by pure
copper silver and gold. With silver taken at 100 tne electrical conduc-
tivit~v bf aluminum is 54.20; that of gold on the same scale IS 78: zinc is
29.9O: iron is only 16, and platinum 10.60. Pure aluminum has no polar-
ity and the metal in the market is absolutely non-magnetic.
&und castitrgs can be made of aluminum in either dry or green sand
moulds, or in metal chills. It must not be heated much beyond its
melting-point, and must be poured with care. owing to the,ready.absorp-
tion of occluded gases and air.
The shrinkage in cooling 1s Ii,64 mch per
foot or a little more than ordinary brass. It should be melted in plumbago
cruc;bIes and the metal becomes molten at a temperature Of 121.5 F.
The co&cient of linear expansion. as tested on S/s-inch round sluminqr
rods. is O.Oo0O2295 per degree centigrade betKeen the freezing-and boihns
point of water. The mean specific heat of a!uminum is higher tbsn that of
ally other mrt,al. excepting only magnesium and the aikali metals.
Ircm
z&o to the melting-point it is 0.2185: water being t,aken as 1. awl the latent
heat of fusi,;n at 2S.5 heat kinits. The coefficient of thermal COrldUCtlVlt~
<)f ~n;nnc:alwI aluminum is 37.96: of annealed aluminum, 38.37. As a
con~lilctor ,~,i !leat alumniurn ranks fourth, being exceeded only by silver.
lminunl. under tension, and section for section. is about as strong as
~3.~1 iron. ~!le tensilestren,=t,h of aluminum is increased by cold rolllngpr
coil! f,.);-ins. and tlrere are jllogs which add considerably to the tensile
~:iri::!;,tll xitiiout incrensitrg the specific gravity to over 3 or 3,25.
TIN; strength of conlmercinl aluminum is given in the following table aq
the result of ma:iy wsts:
Form
Castings. . .
Sllwt .
wire. .
Bars
The elastic limit oer souare inch under compression in cylinders. Tit ~.-.r4l
rlasticitvofcast aluminum is sbc
must be given t.0 allow
castings is about 12,00O, am
length twice the diameter; is 3500. The ultimate strength per Sou?re i
under compression in cyhnders of same form is 12.000.
ut 1 I 000.000.
Tbe mooulu$
It is rat,her an open m
in its ~t,&ture. and for cylinders to stand pressure an increase in thick$
for t.his porosity. Its maximum shearing stressurt
1 in forgings about 16,000, or about that of p
copper.
Pure aluminum is too soft and lacking in tensile strengt,h a,nd rigidity f::
many purposes. Valuable alloys are now being made which seem tfo$s
great p:omise for the future.
They are alloys containing from 2% ~_,
or X?;; of copper. manganese. iron, and nickel.
Plates n.nd bars of these alloys have a tensile strength of fro
WWIING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
ALUMfNUM - ITS PROPERTIES AND USES.
XI)
5O,OOO pounds Per square inCl1, an eiast.ic limit of 55% to 60% of the
.e strength. an elongation of 20% in 2 inches, and a
red .qc~o.l 01 ayes of 23 tic.
I his metal 1s especiallx capable of withstanding the punishnient and
dljt,ortio;i to which structural material is ordinarilv subjected. Some
alurnmum alloys have as much resilience and spring asthe hardest of hard-
,,r:,~,C,, hlx~.%
--.
Their specific gravity is about 280 to 2.55, where pure aluminum has a
Ln,qitic rrrnvitv of 2.72~
111 cu~irlbs, nl(~lT Of bhe hLr~ellillg ekmellts are necessary in order to give
-:-;
ness and rtgidity, together with the strength and due-
1Llity of the metal: the fav0rit.e alloy material being zinc. iron manganese
and coPPer.
aluminum
Tin added to the alloy reduces the shrinkage, and alloys oi
and tin can be made wh:ch have less shrinkage than cast iron
The tensile strength of hardened aluminum-alloy castings 1s from 2O,OOO
to 25,000 poundsper square inch.
Alloys Of ,alumlnum and copper form two series, both valuable. The
first 1s a~U~l~L1~ bronze. COllt~iIliIlg from 5% to 11 l/S% of aluminums and
the second IS copper-hardened aluminum, containing from 27, to 1.5;~ of
copper. Alumqm-bronze 1s a very dense, line-grained, and strong alloy
having good ducjthty as compared with tensile strength. The 10% bronze
In forged bars will give 100,000 lbs. tensile strength per square inch with
60.00:) lhs. elastic limit per square inch, and lo% elongation in 8 inches
Tte 5% to 71/s% bronze has a specific gravity of 8 to 8.30,as compared rvith
7.31 for the 10% t.0 11 t/S% bronze, a tensile strenpt,h of 70 OOo to 80 oOO
Ibs.. an elastic limit of 40,000 lbs. per square inch, and anelongat,ion of
301, in 8 inches.
Aluminum is used by steel manufacturers to prevent the retention of
the occl,uded gases In the steel. and thereby produce a solid ingot.
The
proportions of the dose range from i/s !h. to several pounds of aluminum
per ton of st,eel. Alriminum is also used in giving extra fluidity to steel
used !n castings, making them Sharper and sounder.
Added to cast iron
alummum causes the iron to be softer, free from shrinkage, and lessens the
tendency to chill.
With the exception of lead and mercury, aluminum unites with all
percentage of silver whitens and hardens the metal, and gives ica~$$
metals. though it unites with antimony with great difficulty.
strength: and this alloy is especially applicable to the manufacture of fme
Instruments and apparatus. The following allovs have been found
recently to be useful in the arts: Nickel-aluminum,composed of 20 parts
alckel to 80 of aluminum: rosine, made of 40 parts nickel 10 parts silver
30 parts aluminum, and 20 parts tin, for jemellers work: mettaline made
Of 35 parts cobalt, 25 parts allrminrlm. 10 parts iron and 30 parts chopper
The alriminum-hoclrbouze metal. shown at the Paris Exposition of lSS9
ha.9 a specific gravity of 2.9 to 2.96, and can be cast in very solid shapes, ai
lt has very little shrinkage.
From analvsis the following composi. ion is
deduced: Aluminum, 85.74%: tin 12.94?~ ; silicon 1.327,. iron none.
fhe metal can be readily elect&nllv welded h& sold&rig is still not
: *atlSfactory. The high heat conductivity of th; alumjnum withdraws the
lreat of the molten solder so rapidly that it freezes
auf9clentlv.
before it can ilow
A German solder said to give good results is made of SOY
tin to 20% zinc using a flux composed of 80 parts stearic acid IO part:
chloride of zinc. and 10 parts of chloride of tin.
h also b
Pure tin fusing h. 250 C..
lhee
een used as a solder. The use of chloride of silver as a flux has
n Patented, and used with ordinary soft solder has given some SucceSs.
*Pure nickel soldering-bit should be used, as it does net discolor aluminum
! ? FoPPer bits do.
, --Tension teSts. Dlam O 128 in. 14 tests. E.L.
. S. 25,500 to 26.900 lbs. per so. in.: el. 0.30 to 1.02%
area 75.0 to 83.4%. Mod. of el. 8800,000 to
ar., l;ii, lS99.
-Torsion tests. 10 samples. 0.257 in. diam. Appar-
ress, Ihs. Per so. in. 15,900 to 18.300 lbs. per so. in.
in. diam. Apparent outside fiber stress. 15,400 to
0.459 in. diam.
in.
Apparent outside fiber stress, 20.700
The average number of turns per inch for the
ectively, 1.58 to 3.65; 1.20 to 2.64; 0.87 to 1.06.
..-
;he material may no longer be bxurate
ALLOYS.
ALLOYS.
ALI,()yS OF CoPlER AND TIN.
(Extract from Report of U. S. 1
--
10.
10.
n.09
:::::
22.11
90.27
88.41
87.15
%:E
:::2
72.89
69.84
6t1.50
2::;:
56.70
44.52,
:;:R
15.08
Il.49
a.57
z.72
-7l~/;4oool-
12,76011\:000
i :dO 24.580 10,000
5:;; 32f I%300
. .
7.80 28.540.19.000
9.58 26,860 15,750\
II.59 .__ .
12.73 29,430 20,000
17.34 . . . . . .
18.84 32,980 . . .
22.25 .._
23.24 22,010 22,010
s$$j $585 $585
. . . . . .
32.10 ___
34.47 2,201 2.201
43.17 1,455 I.455
55.28 3.010 3,010
65.80 3,371 3.371
76.29 6.775 6,775
I
84.62 _.. .
88.47 6,380 3.500;
91.39 6,450 3,500
96.31 4,780 2,750
100. I 3.5051 . I
. .
Z:
0.
0.
0.
0.
0:
0.
0.
0.
0.
8
i
?
i
i
I :
,
>
3
1
0
i7
i2
il
-
st Board.*)
-.
$
33,232
38,659
43,731
ix:!
g:;;:,
53,715
:z
91512
1'9.;;;
9;477
3:::
4'776
5:384
I$;;;
'$<"of
6-921
3:7401 I6
-
i3
10
i:
. . .
;:
. . .
JO
78,000 iki
. . .
I6
35.800, 'ij
\9,600/ 17
.
4.1
6l
12.2
35.:
6.5001 'ii
10.100/ 2'
,.
3.4
. . .
1.5
..a
. . .
I
'< .
;
.
t;
132
g;
-
* The tests of the alloys of COP
fir nnd bin and of copper and zinc. th
result~s of which are published in t
ii e R,eport of the U. S.
Board nPPGlntB
to test 1r0n ?&eel and other Metals, Vols. I and II, 1879 and 1+1+ We:
made by tht k&thbr under &rection of Prof. R. H. Thurston. cbslrm?n
the Committee on Ailoys.
See preface to the report of the Commltt*
In Vol. I.
Xos. ia and 2 were full of blow-holes.
Tests Nos. 1 and la sho\v,the varit
.
-_- -I.. + a.rvtn
conditions of casting. In
Fimhd a.nd broke under the strain, but all the others t>u@ ~. .-1 ._ 1^
:jon I ll cast copper cl; y -I -
rue crusrnng tests Nos.
12 to xl, mcluslv
. :ed and flatt!FP
-._._.._ _..-
out. In these c
ases the c;:lshing st~rengtn 1s ralcen LU be that Fi
c~usetl a decrease of 10% in the 1engt.n.
Tilie test-pieces were ,2 ln.sio,
;ind W8 in. diameter, The torsional tests were made i!l Thurston s t0r
machine. on pieces Sjs in. dkmeter and I, in.
:ong between heads.
ys. - The specific gra$
ctested in turnings fro?
zjL1 tne alloys cont?ining less
,_ ,,,h$
Specific Gravity of the Cower-tin,$llg
of copper. as found in these tests, is 8.bi4 I
ingot. and reduced to 39.1 F.). The +!loy
cont&ed 62.42 copper, 37.48 tin, and
WARNING: This is a- 2910 edition. SOme i
ALLOYS OF COPPER AND TIN.
361
37vo tip varied irregularly ii? ?p. gr. between 8.65 and 8.93, the density
dependmg not on the composltlon, but on the porosity ofthe casting.
it
is prol!ab!e that the xtual SP. gr. Of all these alloys containing less than
37;5\ tin 1s about 5.95. and any smaller figure indicates porosity in the
specunen.
From 37% to 100% tin. the sp. gr. decreases regularly from the marl-
nlu~r~ of Y.Q.56 to that of pure tin, 7.293.
Note on the Strength of the Copper-tin Alloys.
The hars Containing from 2% LO 2470 tin, inclusive, have considerable
strength, .and all, the rest are, p+tically worthless for purposes in which
st,rengtll 1s required. The d!viding line between the strorlg and brittle
@lays is precisely that at Much, the color yhanges from golden yellotv to
sty-white, VIZ., at a composltlon contammg between 24% and 307~ pf
.:----
It appears that the tensile and compressive strengths of these alloys are
in np way related to,each other, that the torsional strength is closely pro-
portIona to the tensile strength, and that the transverse strength mav de-
pend in some degree upon,the compressive strength, but it is much inore
ne?rly related to the tensile strength. The modulus of rupture as ob-
timed by the transv,erse bests, is, in general, a figure bet,ween ihose of
tensde and, compressive strengths per square inch, but there are a few
exceptions ln which it is larger than either.
The strengths of the allos at the copper end of the series increase
rapidly with the addition o tJ. tm Ml about 4% of tin is reached
transverse strength continues regulilrly to increase to the maxim& Ttlji
E i
he al10 contsuling about 17J1% of tin is reached, while the tensiieand
owona strengths also increase, but irregularly, to the same point.
L
This
rregularity 1s probably due to porositv of the metal, and might possibly
e remoyed by ?ny means which would make the castings more compact
The maximum 1s reached at the alloy containing 52.70 copper, 17.34 tin:
the transverse ,strength. however, being very much greater at rhis point
.han tt,: tens?le or torsional strength.
From the ooint of maximum
strength the figures drop rapidly to the alloys contairiing about 27.5yG of
tin. and then more slowly to 37.5%. at which point the minimum (or
nearly t~he minimum) strength. by all three methods of test, is reached.
The alloys of minimum strength are found from 37.5% tin to 52.5% tin.
The absolute minimum is probably about 45% of tin.
From 52.5% of tin to atiout 77.5% tin there is a rather slow and irregu-
lar increase in st:engtb. From 77.5% tin to the end of the series, or all
tl!. the strengths slowly and somewhz1.t irregularly decrease.
^.
~~ I& results of these test.s do not seem to corroborate the theory given
3 some writers, that peculiar properties are possessed by the a11oys
-s.
,?~~C~$ are compounded of simple multiples of their atomic weights 0;
: chewal equivalents, and that these properties are lost as the com-
,$Wsitions -.
bary more or less from this definite constitution.
It does
i: WPear that a certain percentage composition gives a maximum strength
<;land another certain percentage a minimum but neither of these com-
:$: w$lons is represented by simple multin:es & the atomic weiehts.
n
the most brittle allow it was fV:f,Id
the lathe to a smooth surfx?.
impossible to turn the test-
uld
i!O. 13 to NO. 17 (26.85 to 34.47
not he cu(, with a tool at all. Chips would fiy off in advance
tool and beneath it. leaving a rough surface: or the tool Would
mes. apparently, crush o@ portions of the metal, grinding It to
. Beyond NO/; tin the hardness decreased so that the bars ql!d
~.~~.. .~. _,__ ,..__ _-l__~-~~,.L_,~~
the material may no longer be bxrate
ALLOYS.
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN AND ZINC.
metal nest the bore of the fun from 8.321 to 8.875, and the tenacity
from 27,238 to 41.471 POllIldS~ per square inch.
The latter. by a similar
process, obtalned the foilowing figures for tenacity:
Pounds per sq. in.
Bronze with 10% tin.. . . . . . . . . . . .
Bronze with 8% tin.. . . . . . . . . . .
7ZO.53
Bronze with 6% tin.. . , . . . . . . . .
73,958
77,636
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TN, AND ZISc.
ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. (U. S. Test Board.)
I
Toni
Crush- 25
Sf
. .
. . . 1;:
. . . 166
. . . 169
42,000 165
. . . 168
. . . i64
. . . 143
. . . 176
. 202
75,000 194
,., 227
78vooo '2"2':
i17,400 172
. 176
121,000~ 155
. . . 88
. . .
. . . ::
. . .
52.152 2;
. . .
s":
22,000 37
No.
SC. --.
-/- - (----I-
I-
-,
22.45
23.08!
;;:;3'J!
3G.O6/
g::;i
38.651
41.101
27.240
32.600
32,670 I
35,630
:z%
30'510
2&!20
37,800
%E
;;:g
46'400
30:9901
26,050/
"2 ; ;;I
3'727
1;774
6.414
9,000.
;~~~;I
5:4ooj
20. 0
%
29.5
St::
3420::
54.4
44.c
53.5
54.5
100
i6.i
31.4
2Y,i97 i
21,193
Sk
35.5 25,3741
35.8
;;
38.5 22,325/ 25.394 .,
29.2 24 4681
20.7 26:930
::
37.7 l&,459
31.7 43.216
1:
20.7 30.968 "
iO.1 63.304 "
(Report of U. S. Test Board, Vol. II, 1881.)
0.4 35.026 0.31
;:; 26.162 7,539) 0.46 0.12
-
I
Transverse
Strength.
Tensile
Strength per
scware inch.
Analysis,
Original Mixture.
7
Sn.
-
5
I.06
1;
12::
I5
1:
I5
10
'2'
7.5
1:
20
7.5
'!
7.5
1:
20
Y
2:
5
1:
20
2:
5
1;
ZI
21.2:
?'
'i .
A.
2.34
17.6
;:Ef:
1.29
0.86
.
II.6
1.57
0.55
I .oo
0.72
::::
I.13
0.59
5:
0.48
"0:::
0.31
0.25
2:
1.06
!i:::
1.21
0.15
. . .
. .
2.15
4.87
i::;
.
3.13
;; ver:
9.43
::.Z
0.66
Zn.
-
5
IO
IO
z.5
:.5
1;
lZ.5
4:
17.5
I5
'Z
20
17.5
25
22.5
20
1:
g.5
32.5
$
15
E.5
35
:5"
22
21.2,
44.5
B.
30,740
33,000
:%i
;$g
33:aoo
32,300
31,950
30,760
:4%
34:960
2~00:
;;:g
p;
;$"4;;
26:300
27.800
12,900
45,850
:sl%
;$;g
2;:;;;
2:665
45,000
52.900
38,330
21.240
12,400
67,600
efore t
1.300
691960
22
I.61
69,045 1.09
42,618 3.88
67,117 2.45
3%
;;:;;;
Y:!
0.71
621607
2.91
1.39
58,345 0.73
51,109
40,235 "0:;;
5 1,839
;;+;;
C$i
4t3:836
1.37
0.36
;;,;;9" 0.18
l5:126 ~:20~
58,343 2.91
55,976
46,875 Fi;;
:T%z
f;:;;:
"0%
I(932
%i
0.05
fJ%Z
2.34
46:076
1.46
0.28
24,699 0.13
18,248
95,623 ~:~~
3y;;
72:308
::A:
3.05
30.174 0.22
20.250 0.14
20.814 0. I I
F
Et
2.79
0.92
0.68
::i':
%i .
2;
1.33
1.25
I.54
3.78
KZ
0.40
i::;
;:;;
0.61
0.19
52.28
%22!
58.12/
66.231
E3
Variation in Qtr?ngth of Gll.n.-bronze , and xrans of Improving
the Strength. - Tire tigures obtained for alloys of from i.8% to 12.7%
tin. riz.. from 26,;560 to 29.430 pounds, are much less than are usuallY
given as the strenk?.h of gx:-metal. Bronze guns are usually cast under
the prrssllre nf a head of metal. which tends to increase the strengt,h and
dectity. mf: strc81fsb of the i~pper part of 2 gun casting, or smkmf
head. :S not greate: than t!lat of the small bars which have been t&e
in t,hc::r erpeiments~ Tix follox;ing is ~a? exJrac+ from. the rep?p-$
?xfs.;r,r Wnde conce;ninp the strenah ar :d density of gun-orcnze !~nou,.
z&treme variati:;n Of six samplps from dinere?lt parts of the same
gon (a ;(l-po~wl~r howtzer): Specific gravity. 8.487 to 8.835: tena@Y,
2O,i28 to 52.11). Extreme varintioil of all the zam les tested: SPe~lfic
gravity. ?.lii)S to 5.850: ?ensclt:.. 23.108 to 51.531. Extreme variation of
all the sai,:.p!es from the gun heads: Specific gravity, 8.308 to 8.756;
tenacity. 2X.529 to 35.584.
Shier Wade says: The genera! results on the quaiity of brdnze as it ls
found in ~lms ark &ost!y of a negati-ze chsiactx. They expose defects
in densit,y and stren&h.- dereiop the l&rogeneous testxe Of the metal
in dilferent parts of the same zlln. apd star; the lxeguiarity and on
certaintv of vf1atit:l which a&ted the casting of all guns. although maae
from si:klar inate;iais. twated it1 like manner.
Navv ordnance bronze containing 0 parts coppe.
- and 1 part t,in, tested
at ;Vashin-ton, D.C.. in 1875-6.
9
h ~.wx? Z. varia-.km in tensile stre&h I.._ ..- .-
from 29.8.00 to 51.400 lbs. per square in:l;.-ilIr~~cghtion from 3% w
58%. and in specific gravity fron 18.39 t,o 8.85.
That. a grrak improvement may be made in :hi: y Iy u-I
J~r-it-- and t,enaCik{
of gun-hronle hg compression has been shown by the e!;pximentS
,
Mr. S. B. Dean in Boston, Mass. in 1869. and oy those of Genera
Uchatil;s in Austria ins 1873. The former inc:?sec the derisity Of the.
MARNING: This is a 1310 eiiition, Some c
The transverse tests were made in bars 1 in. squat+. 22,in. between
supports. The tensile tests were made on bars O.iQS In.,dIam. turned
from the two halves of the transverse-test bar, one half beln6 marked A
i , er; , f ol i nrl . Some ancient EKyfitlan loois c9ntained X8 copper,, 12 tin.
Strength of the Copgwr-zinr Alloys. -~. Tlx: alloys cont:uning less
than l.jLyO of zi!lc hy original mixture were eenerally defectiw. The
hnrq wre full of blok-holes. and the metal showed siens of oxidation.
To insur c goocl castings it appears that copper-zinc alloys should con-
tain more than 15
No. X indusive. It3.9S to 30.06% zinc the hars show a From No. 2 to 1.-. - -~..~~~ -~ ;, ~-~~
remarkable similarity in all thex properties. Tliep have all nearly the
same strength and ductility.. the latter decreasing sli&ly as zinc
increases, and are nearly a,like ~1 color and appearance. Between Nos. S
and 10 30.06 and 3G.36c0 zinc, the st,rength by all methods of test
rapidlvincreases. Between No. 10 and No. 15, 36.X and 50.1495 zinc
there is another eronn. distinrruished bc hich strength and diminished
ducti1it.y. l%e jiloy of maGimum teksik; transvkrse and torsional
streng:th contains about 4176 of zinc.
The allovs containing less than 55$$ of zinc are all yellow metals.
Beyond .55y0 the color changes to white. and the allov becomes wei~li and
brittle. Bet\\-een 7076 and p!ure zinc the color is biidsh gray, the brit-
tleness decreases and the strength increases. but not to such a degree as
to malie them useful for constrtictive purposes.
DifYerenre between Composition by 3lixture and by AnaIysk. -
There is in every case a smaller percentage of zinc in the ay-erage analy-
sis than in the oiiginal mixture, and a larger percentage of ~oppei. The
loss of zinc is variable, but in general averages from 1 to 7%.
Liquation OP Separation of the Xetals. - In several of the bars a
csr,;idsx~~le amount of li
7
lrat.ion took place. analysis showing a differ-
ence in compu$tinn of t le two ends of the har. In SINA cases the
change in composition G?S gradual from one end of the ijar to *l~,e other,
the upper end in general cc,;:!zininr: the higher percentage of copper.
A notable instance was bar No. 12.. iq the above table. turnings from the
upper end containing 40.36~0 of zinc, and from the lower end 4S.52%.
Spreilic Gravity. L The specific gmvity fc!!ows a definite law, vary-
ing with the composition. and decreasing with the addition of iinc.
From the plotted curve of specific gravities the following mean vdue3
are taken:
Per cent zinc. . 0 8:; S!iO 30 40 50 60 TO so 90 100
Specific gravity. . S.SO 5.40 5.36 8.20 8.00 7.iZ? i.40 7.2G7.14
Grnphic Representation of the Law of Variation of Strength of
Copper-Tin-Zinc .%llops. - In an equilateral triangle ?.he sum of the
perpendicular distances from any point within it to the three sides 19
eoual to the altitude. Such a trianele can therefore he used to sho\V
g&phi&ally the percentage composition of any compound of three parts.
such as a triple alloy. Let one side represent IJ copper. a second 0 @ns
and the third 0 zinc. the vertex cppoite each of these sides representmg
100 of each element respectively-. On points in a triangle of wood rep-
resenting different alloys tested, wires were erected of lengths ProPor-
tional to the tensile strengths. and the triangle then built up with plaster
t,o the heifiht of the mires. The surface thus formed has a characteristic
topography re resenting the variations of strength with variations of
composition. 9r he cut shows the surface thus made. The vertical
section to the left represent,s the law of tensile strength of bhe copper-tin
allors. the one to the right that of tin-zinc alloys. and the ace at the
reai that of the cooper-zinc alloys. The high point represents the
st.roncest possible alloys of the three met,als. Its composition is co per
5.5, zinc 43 t,in 3 and its strewth ahout 70,000 11~s. The bigh ridge r$
P
this point to th: point of maximum height of the sect,ion on the left.
the line of the strongest ailovs. represented by the formula zinc + (3 X tm)~
= 55.
.411 alloys lying to the rearof the rldee. containing more cdDPV
less tjn oi zinc are alloys of greater ductility than those on the hne
.WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. ~-S
ALLOYS.
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN AND ZINC.
365
masimnm Strellgt.l!. and are the valuable commercial alloys: those in
front on the declixW toward t,he central valley are brittle, and those in
thevalley are both brittle and wenli. P&SSing from the.valley toward the
section at the right the alloys lose their brittleness and become soft, the
ma?;imum sofbnes~ beili,g at tin= 100, but they remain weak, as is shown
by t,lle low elrrvatlon of the s+xe.
struct,etl t,y Prof. Thurston m
This model was planned and con-
lSi7. (See Tra.ns. A. s. c. E., 1881.
Heport of the, U. S. Boat-u appoInted to test Iron, St.eel, etc.. vol. ii,
\~;tsl~in~ton, IYSI, and Thurstons Malerzuk of E,zgineeri,lg, vol. iii.)
Frc. 79.
The best all~oy obtained in Thurstons research for the U. S. Testina
Board has the composition. copper 55, tin o..i,, zinc 44.5. The tensiie
strength in a cast bar was ,6S.900 lbs. per sq. In.. two specimens giving
the same result: the eloneation was 47 to 51 Der cent in 5 inches.
Thurstons formula for cobper-tin-zinc alloys of maximum strength
(71.a~. rl. S. C. B., 1SSl) is z + 3 t = 55, in which z is the percentage of
zinc and t that of tm. ~110~s proportioned according to this form;;;
should have a strength of about 40,000 lbs. per scl. in. + .5OOz.
formula fails with alloys containing less than 1 per cent of tin.
The following would be the percentage composition of a number ,of
alloys made acrordlng to this formula, and their corresponding ten?&
strength in casti
: . f Ti n,
: ~, ,
I
Zinc. (
., 1
he rjlate?ia
nzs:
Tensile
2opper. St,rength,
lbs. per
sq. *Il.
Tin.
47 66,000
;7 64.500 63,000
if 60,000 61.500
59 :?g
may no longer be kcurate
366 ALLOYS. ALLOPS OF COPPER, TIN, AND ZINC. 367
Composition of Various Grades of Rolled Brass, Etc.
These alloy:;. while possessing maximum tensile strength, would in
general be too hard for easy working b machine tools. Another series
made on the formula z + 4t = 50 woul ll have greater ductilit
9,
together
with considerable strength, as follows, the strength being ca culated as
before, tensile strength in Ibs. per sq. in. = 40.000 f 5002.
Zinc.
38.5
40
;; 113
2
33 113
20 112
TradeName. copper
Common high brass.. . .
y&o~v metal.. . .
zh.5
c:,rtrdge brass.. . _. _. _.
L~,V brass.. . . . . ss6023
;l?;krkass . . . . .
n ._....._...............,__. 2
Spring brass. .; . . 662!3
18 per cent German sdver.. _. 61 I2
Tin. Lead. Nickel.
. . . . . .
.
. .
. . . .
. . . 1% . . .
. . . 11/2to2 . .
'% ". ii' . . . .
Tensile
Zinc. Copper. ~~,~*,F~*
sq. in.
Tensilr
Tin.
strer1gt11.
Zinc. Copper. Ibs, per
sq. in.
71
:;
ii?
86
53 63,000
2:
61.000
59,000
62 57,000
65 55,000
68 53,000
The above table was furnished by the superintendent of a mill in Connec-
ticut in 189-2. He says: While each mill has its own proportions for various
mixtures. depending upon the purposes for which the product is intended,
the figures given are about the average standard. Thus, between cartridge
brass with 33113 per cent zinc ?nd commpn high brass with 38% pef, cent
;Fa;st,l;ere are ?p-y numb:! of d$erent mlEt,vres kpown gewfally as
or spec~hcally as spmrung brass,
hqh
drawmg brass, etc., wherem
the amount of zinc is dependent upon the amount of scrap used in the
mixture. the degree ol working to which the metal is to be subjected, etc.
Useful Alloys of Copper, Tin, and Zinc.
(Selected from numerous sources.)
Composition of Alloys In Every-day Use in Brass Foundries.
(8merican Machinist.)
-
!inc
lbgs
0
8
I
I
40
5:
-
--
Tin. Lead
--
lbs. ' lbs.
8 . . . .
4
. 112
4 4
3
IV2 1
2112
8 phos. t,in
10 I' I'
:op-
,er.
iix-
87
I6
I6
64
32
20
16
60
92
90
Tin. Zinc.
Admiralty metni.
Bell metal.
Brass (yellow!. .
Bush metal.
Gun metd..
steam metal..
Hard gun metal..
Muntz metal.. .
Phosphor bronze.
I .
Brazing metal
II
solcler..
For parts of engines on
board naval \-ew&.
Bells for ships and factories.
For plumbers, ship and house
brass work.
For bearing bushes for shait-
U. S. Navy Dept. journal boxes
and guide-gibs. ................ I=
Tobin bronze .......................
Nava! brass. ........................
. Composition. U. S. Navy. ..........
114 parts.
3.4pycellj.
19.48 ,( ,(
!S
2
,a .a
I parts.
I .3 per cept
2.5
a 1
II I
2
Il.7
parts.
per cent.
2 slightly malleable.
ing. ing.
For mmms and other hvdrsu- For pomps and other hydrsu-
lit purposes. licpurl;&es.
Castings subjected to steam Castings subjected to steam
pressure. messure.
For heavy benrings. F&heavy benrings.
Metal from which bolts and Metal from which bolts and
nuts are forged. valve spin- nuts are forged. valve spin-
dles, etc. dles, etc.
For va!ves. pumps and gen- For va!ves. pumps and gen-
Brass bearings (J. Rose). ..........
C$n metal. ...........................
..........................
6. 6
..........................
*a .a
..........................
8 .
..........................
Tough brass for engines. ...........
Brq?ze for rod-boxes (Lafond). ....
R.9 b
pieces subject to shock.
r,~~e ...................... part
................. .per cent
BFpnze for pump casings (Lafq?d).
*.
1: eccentric straps.
shrill whiJtles. ..........
.
low-toned whistles ......
Art bronze, dull red fract.ure. ......
Gold bronze.
Bearing metal
..
..............................
..............
.L
6. a,
......................
..
......................
.1
*n *II
......................
..
......................
.,
.... ( , ...................... , (
era1 work.
For cog and worm wheel%
bushes, axle bearings, slide
valves. et.c.
Flanges $or copper pipes.
Solder for the above flanges.

. . 2.0 ant;imony.
'i... 2.0
Admiralty >Ietat, for surface condmser tubes where sea mater is used
for cooling. Cu. 70: Zn. 29: Sn, 1. Power, June 1. 1909.
Gurlevs 15ronz.e. - 16 parts copper, 1 tin. 1 zinc. l/2 lead. used .by
W & L. -E. Gurley of Troy for the framework of their engineers transts.
Tensile strength -11.114 Ibs. per sq. in.. elongation 27% in 1 inch, sp. gr.
8.694. (W. J. Keep, Trans. A. I . M. E., 1890.)
4.6 2.8 lead.
3
8 112
. .
2
r_
ill2 l/2 lend.
91/-j 7 lead.
29'12 3% ieod. ii&English b
......................
Km5 of A.D. 1504 .........
&curate
bMRNING:This pi& a 1~910 edition.
S&e o the material may noIor@r
-
ALLOYS.
6 Steam-metal.~ Alloys of copper and zinc are unsuitable for steam
valves and other like pur
high temperatures, and
oses, since their strength is greiltly, reduced at
t R ey appear to undergo a detenora,tlon by con.
tlnued heating. Alloys of copper with from 10 to 12% of tin, when cast
without oxidation are good stea.m metals, and a favorite alloy is what 1s
known as government mxttire. SS Cu. 10 3% 2 Zn. It has a tensile
strength of about 33.000 lbs. per sq. in., when cold. and about :W,600 lbs.
when heated to 407 F.. corresponding to steam of 250 lhs. pressure.
Tohin Bronze. - This alloy ii prilctically a sterro or delta metal wit11
the addition of a small amount of lead, which tends to render copper
softer and more ductile. (F. L. Garrison, J. F. I.. 189i.)
The following analyses of Tobin bronze were made by Dr. Chas. B.
Dudley:
Copper ...................................... 59.00
7' ,,,lC ......................................... 38.40
T ,n ..........................................
Iron. ....................................... ;:1:
Le3d ......................................... 0.31
Dr. Dudley write,-. We tested the test hars and found 7g.500 tensile
strength with 40112%: elongation in No inches. and 15% in eight inches.
This high tensile strength can only he obtained when the metal is manip-
li!nted. Such hizh results could hardlv be esnected with cast metal. I..
The original Tobin bronze in lS75,as rlesfribtid hy Thurston,, Trans.
A_. S. C. E.; lS81. had copper 5S.22, tin 2.36. zinc 39.48. As cast n had a
tenacity of c6.GO0 lbs. per sq. in., and as rolled 79,000 lbs.; cold rolled it
gave 104.000 lbs.
A circular of Ansonis Brass 8: Copper Co. gives the following: -The
tensile strength of six Tobin bronze one-inch rolmd rolled rods, turned
down to a diameter of s/s of an inch, tested by Fairbanks, averaged 79,600
11)s. per sq. in.. and the elastic limit obtained on three specimens aver-
aged 54.2$7 Ibs. per so. in.
At a cherry-red heat Tobin bronze can be forged and stamped ils
readily as steel. Bolts and nuts can be forged from it, either by hand
or by machinery. Its great tensile strength, and resistance to the COT~O-
sioe action of sea-water. render it a most suitable metal for condenser
plates, steam-launch shafting. ship sheat,hing and fastenings, nails, hull
plates for steam yachts, torpedo and life boats, and ship deck fittings.
The Navy Department haps specified it,s use for certain purposes in the
machinery of the new cruisers. fts specific gravity is S.07i. The
weight of a cubic inch is 0.291 lb.
Special Alloys. (Engineering, March 24. 1593.)
JQ~NESE ALLOYS for art work:
GILBERTs ALLOY for cera-per&la process, for casting in plaster-of
paris.
.~
Copper 91..4 Tin 5.7 Lead 2.9
' WARNI NG: Thi s is a 1910 editio
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, AND LEAD,
369
COPPER-ZINC-IRON ALLOYS.
(F. L. Garrison, J our. Frank. Inst., *June and July, 1891.)
Delta Metal. - This alloy. which was formerly known as sterro-metat,
1s composed of about 60 copper, from 34 to 44 zinc. 2 to 4 iron, and 1 to 2
tin.
The prcll1iarit.v of all these alloys is the cont(-nt of iron, which uppars
to have the property of increasing their strength to an unr~st~l degree,
fn making delta metal the iron is previously alloyed with zinc in known
and definite proportions. When ordinary wrought-iron is intrcduced
into molten zinc, the latter readily dissolves or absorbs the former, and
\irill take it up to the extent of about 5% or more.
iron allo!: thus obtained to the recllrisite amollnt of
By adding the zinc-
copper, it is possi-
ble to introduce any rletinite quantity of iron up to 5y0 into the copper
alloy. Garrison gives the following as the range of composition of
copper-zinc-iron. and copper-zinc-tin-iron alloys:
I.
Per cent.
Iron. . . . . 0.1 to 5
copper . . . 50 to 65
Zinc . . . . . . .49.9 to 30
II.
Per cent.
Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 to 5
Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.pc. . . . . . . . . . . . 7:: ::
oonrr . . . . . . . . . . c __
The advantages claimed for delta metal are great strength and tough-
ness. It protlllces sound castings of close grain. It can he rolled and
forged hot, and can stand a certain amount of drawing and hammering
when cold. It takes a high polish, and when exposed to the atmosphere
tarnishes less than brass.
When cast in sand delta metal has a tensile strength of about 45,000
pounds per square inch. and about 10% elongation: when rnllerl. te!+
6:!e streneth of GO.Oti(i to 7,5.000 oounds Der souare inch. elongation
from 9% & 17y0 on bars 1.12s inchin diamgter arid 1 inch irea. I
Wallace gives the ultimate tensile strength 33.600 to 51,520 pounds
per square inch, with from 10% to 30y0 elongation.
Delta metal can be forged, stamper! and rolled hot. It must be forged
at a dark cherry-red heat, and care taken to avoid striking when at a
black heat.
According to Lloyds Proving House tests. made at Cardiff. December
20, lSS7, a half-inch delta metal-rolled bar pave a tensile strength of
88.400 pounds per square inch, with an elongation of 30% in three
Inches.
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, AND LEAD.
G. H. Clsmer. in Casfings. July, 1908, describes some experiments on
the use of lead in cooper alloys. h copper and lead alloy does not make
what would be calieti -good &stings: 69 the introduction of tin a more
homogeneous prodrlct is secured. By the addition of nickel it was found
that more than 15yb of lead could be used, while maintaining tin at S to
~:!6%. and also that the tin could be dispensed with. A good alloy for
: hearings was then~rriade without nickel,-containing Cu 651 Sn 5, Pb 30.
This alloy is largely sold under the name of lastic bronze. If the
matrix ol tin and copper were so proportione 9 that the tin remained
:;;bloW 9% then more than 20% of lead could be added with SatisfactorY
~,~$ts. As the tin is decreased more lead may be added. (See Bear-
370
ALLOYS.
taining different p,ercenta,ges of lead.
The following iS a condensed
statement of the chief results:
Cu. 60; zn, 30: pb, 10. Difficult + btain a homogeneous alloy.
Cracked hsdly on rolling.
Cu 60: zn, 35: Pb. 3. Good cutti!..; q i .zs but cracked on rolling.
cu 60: zl,. 37.5: pb, 2.5. Cutting IL. #ties excellent, but could
on1~ be hot-rolled or foraed with dlfiiculty.
C 60: zu.~:w,7.i; Pb, 1.25.
Cutting q:.ialities inferor to those of
the ailoy contsming 2.5% of lead.
b!.lt superior to those Of pure brass.
c,, 60. zn, 40. perfectly homo.geneous. Rolls easily at a cherry
red geat and cracks but slightly m cqld rolhng. Chips long and tena-
ciorls. n&essit,ating a slow speed in cuttmg.
Tensile tests of these al!.oys gave the folloninz results:
P R.. .
-
-
60.0
40.0
None
c A II
---
16 60 107
46 51 I
7
00.0
37.5
2.5
92%
-
65%
60.0
30.0
5.0 10.0
--
-
-.
-
61%
I
30%
* Thousands of pounds. C. CastirK;
A. annesled sheet; H. hard
rolled sheet; P. R., possible reduction in rolling.
~ha I,:* nf tin even ln small amounts. hardens and increases t@ ten-
r\f I;,*,, mhirh ic: drtrimental to free turnlnr. Mr.
_, -.. . .._.._ -_- ~~~~~
P+, l..i to 2.5~~. For cartridge:bra?s sheet. anythu
1 increases the liability of craclcmg m drawmg.
PHOSPHOR-BROSZE AND OTHER SPECIAL BRONZES.
Phosphor-bronze. - In the year lS6S. Jlonteriore & IiuniXl of,,Liege.
Belgium. found by adding small proportions of phosphorus or
phos-
phoret of tin or copper to copper that the oxides of that metal. nearly
al:vaps present as an Impurity.
more or !ess. were deoxidized and the
copper much improved in strength and ductiliry. the grain of the .fra@
ture became finer the color brighter, and a greater fluidit.y was attamed.
Three SalnDkS of DhOSDhor-brGX% tested by Kirkaldy gave: -~ _
Elastic limit, lbs.
e
er sq. in. . 23,500 24.700 16,100
Tensile strength, 1 s. per sq. in. . 52.625
Elongaiion. per cent. . . . . . . . . . . 8.10
41go
%i?
The strength of phosphor-bronze varies like that of ordinary bronze
according to-the percentages of copper, tin, zinc, lead, etc., in the all?y.
Phosphor-bronze Rod. -Torsion tests of 20 samples, ?/a 1. dlam;
Apparent outside fiber stress, 77.5aO t.o 86.700 Ibs.
er sq. m.; averag.
nllmher of turns oer inch of length. 0.76 to 1.50. -
8ech. Quar.. Vol. XI I *
___...~~.~ ~~ -
Sept., 1899.
Penn R R Co s Specifications for Phosphor-bronze (1902)*7
The m&l desired is a homogeneous alloy of copper, 79.70; tin. 10.06;
lead 9.50. phosphorus, 0.80. Lots will not. be accepted if samples
not showtin between 9 and 11%:
lead between s and 11%; phoz
phorus bet&en 0.7 and 1%; nor if the hetal contains a sum tot$a.
other sbbstances than copper, tin, lead. and phoSphorus in greater q
~,I
tity shan 0.50 per cent. (See also p. 381.)
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. SOme 0
ALUMINUhI ALLOYS.
371
Deqxidieed Brjmzc. - This alloy resembles phosphor bronze some-
what m cqmpOslt.1011 and also delta metal, in containing zinc: and i~ron.
The foIlOWing anlllYSiS gives its averageCOmpOsition: Cu, 82.67; Sn, 12.40;
zll, 3.23: Pb. 2.14; Fe, 0.10; Ag, 0.07; P. 0.005.
Comparison of C$WJ ~ Silicon-bronze, and Phosphor-bronze
. (Engineering. Nov. 23. 158:j.)
Description of Wire. 1 Tensile St.renpth. /
Relative Conductivity.
Pure copper 39,827 lbs. per sq. in.
Silicon bro;ae (telegraph). . 41,696 (
(telephone). ., 108,080 ;: 1. 6 *I
phosphor bronze (telephone) . 102,390
34 6
26
Silicon Bronze. (Aluminum World, May, 1897.)
The most useful of the silicon bronzes are the 3% (9i% copper. 37,
silicon) and the 5% (95% copper. 5% silicon), although the hardness
and strength of the ,alloy can be increased or decreased at will by
increasing, or decreasing silicon.
A 3% silicon bronze has a tensile
strength, in ? casting, of about 55,000 lbs. per sq. in., and from 5O%b to
1x7~elongation. The 5% bronze has a tensile strength of about 75,000
lbs. and about 8% elongation.
p.eT makes a brittle all.oy.
More than 5y0 or 5 l/z% of silicon in cop-
In using silicon, either as a Hux or for making
~licon bronze, the rich alloy of silicon and copper which is now on the
market should be used. It. should be free from iron and other metals if
the best results are to be obtained.
In copper or bronze mixtures.
Ferro-silicon is not suitable for use
Copper and Vanadium,Alloys. The Vanadium Sales Co. of Amehca
reports (1908) that the addition of vanadium to copper has given a tensile
strength of 83,000 Ibs. per sq. in.; with an elongation of over 60%.
ALLOYS FOR CASTING UNDER PRESSURE IN METAL
MOLDS. E. L. Lake, Am. Mach., Feb. 13, 1908.
No.
1
:
4
Tin.
14.75
1;
30.8
Comer. 1 kz: / Zinc. ! Lead. 1 ,$&$, 1 Iron
I I 1 I
:.25
6.25 ;;:;5 . . . . . . .
2 0.3 . .
10.6 73.6 . . . . 0.2
20.4 46.2 .._..._.. .._.._,. ..I..
Nos. I and 2 suitable for ordinary work, such as could be performed by
average brass castings. No. 3 and 4 are harder.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS.
( The useful allois of aluminum so far found have been chiefiy in two
noups, the one of aluminum with not more than 35% of other metals and
the other of metals containing not over 15% of aluminum. in the onecase
the metals impart hardness and other useful qualities tothe aluminum
,md in the other the aluminum gives useful qualities to the metal witi
i h&h it isalloved.
372 ALLOYS.
The tenacity of castings of A No. 2 grade metal varies betwecr! 75,000
and 90.000 lbs. to the square inch, n-iih from 4% t,o 14% elongation.
Increasing the proportion of alliminum in bronze beyond 11%
dtlces a brittle alloy: therefore nothing higher than the X NO. 1, w11cb
p-
cont~ains 11 yO. is made.
The B, C, 0, and E grades. containing 7 l/z%,, 5%~~ 2WX7. and I l/47* of
alurrrinurn. respectively, decrease in tenacity in the order named. that
of the frmer being almilt 65,001) polintl~. while the, latter 1s 25,069
po:irirls. \Vllile tlierc is a,l~ a proportionate decrease tu traIlsverse and
tursionnl stren&!th$ ellsbic limit. and resistallce to colll~presslon as the
prrcentagc of alumm~m is lowered and that of copper.ralsed, the duct&
ity on the other hand increases in :,he same proportion. The specific
gravity of the A 3. 1 grxle is 7.56.
Bt,liBrs., Newcastle, gave the specific gravity of the aluminum bronzes
as flloW:
31;. S.691: 4;;, 8.621; 570, S.369; 10%. 7.6x7.
The Thermit Pmcess,. -When finely divided aluplinum is mixed
wit;, a metallic side and ignit,ed the aluminum burns 1~1th great rapidity
alld intense heat. the chemical reaction being Al t Fe203 = AI~OR + Fe,
The heat thus generated may be used t, f&se or weld iron and other metals,
See the Thcrmit Process, under Welding of Steel. page 463.
Tests of Aluminum Bronzes.
(John H. J. Dagger, British Association, lSS9.)
-
Per cent
of
Pluminum.
Tensile Strength.
I Elonga-
Specific
Tone per Pounds: per
I
tion,
per cent.
Gravity.
square inch. square inch.
, , !
I I . . _. . . _. . _ . , . . . 40 to 45 89,600 to tOO,SOO 8 7.23
10 ~. . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . 33 ** l o 73,920 89.600
71~'?.~.~............ 25 30 56.000 67,200 i i
7.69
8. 00
, - > i z c . 15 (6 18 33,600 40,320 a.37
2x: . 13 15 29.120 33,600
zz
8.69
1 li4~. II 13 24,640 29,120 55
Both physical and chemical tests made of samples cut from various
sections of ~iz%. 5%. 71/z%. or 1070 aluminized copper castings tend.to
prove that the aluminum unites jtself with each particle of copper 1~1th
uniform proprtion in each case, so that we have a product that is free
from liquation and highly homogeneous. (R. C. Cole, I ron Age, Jan. 16,
1890.)
Casting. -The melt~ing point of aluminum bronze varies slightly with
the amount of aluminum contained. the higher grades melbing at a
somewhat iower temperature than the lower grades. The A No. 1 grades
melt at aborit 1700 F.. a little higher than ordinary bronze or brass.
Uurninum bronze shrinks more than ordinary brass. As the metal
siiditi*,s rapidly it is necessary to our it quickly and t, make the
feeders amply large, so that there WI be no freezing in them before .P
t.he casting is properly fed. Baked-sand m,lds are preferable to green
sand, except for small castings. and when fine skin coiors are desired In
the rastinrs. (Thos. D. West. Zmns. A. S. ilf. I S., lSS6. vol. viii.)
All grades of aluminum bronze can be rolled, swedged. spun, or drawn
cid except A 1 and A 2. They can all be worked at a bripht red heat.
In rollinr. swedging. or spinnfng cold. it should be annealed very often8
and at a brighter red heat than is llsed for annealing brass. . . .
Seamless Tubes. -Leonard Waldo, Trrrns. 1. S. 31. E... ~01. XvIu*
descrihrs t.he manufacture of aluminum bronze seamless t~ubmg. Ma*J
dit?icult,irs wpre met in all stages of the process. A cold drawn bar. 1.4
ins. outside diameter. 0.05 in. thick, showed a yield oint of (3.700, and.
tensile ntxength of 96 009 tbs. per sq. in. with an e ongat,ion P of 4.95 In
10 in.: heated to bright red and plunged in water, the Y. P. reduced $
24,200 and the T. S. to 47.600 Ibs. per sq. in., and the elongation ln
ins. increased to 64.9%.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Somi of
ALUMINUX ALLOYS.
373
Brazing. - Aluminum bronze will braze as well an any other metal
using one- .uarter brass sulder (zinc 500, copper 500) and three-quart&
borss, or t . rtter. three-quart,ers cryolite.
Slderjn!& - To solder aluminum brouze with ordinary soft (pe\\;ter)
30~~~ of zinc am;tkarn.
,klttminlml Brass. (E. H. Cowlt~s. Trans. .4. 1. JI. E.. vol. xviii.) -
C,j\vIes alunlin~un brass is made l!y fusing: toKetl!er equal weights of A 1
alcminum bronze. copper, and zmc.
thoroughly melt.ed and mixed.
The cpprr and bronze are first
and the zinc is finally added. The
iuateria.1 is left in the furnace until small test-bars are taken from it and
broken. When these bars show a tensile strength of 80,000 pounds or
over. with 2 or 3 per cent duct,ility. the metal is ready to be poured.
Tests of this brass. on small bars, have at times shown as high as 100.000
pounds tensile strenxt,h.
The screw of the United States mmboat Petrel is cast from this brass
mixed with a trifle less zinc in order to increase its ductility.
,Tests of Aluminum Brass.
(Cowles E. S. & Al. Co.)
IS%;\ ~r~~leBronze
l77o Zinc.. _. _. .
68% Copner........
1 part, A 13n,nze
I
I part Zinc..
I part Copper..
1 part A Bmnze :.
I
I part, Zinc. _.
IpartCopper...... I
-
u
0
0.465
0.465
0.460
Area,
iq. in.
0.1698
0.1698
-
s
I
--
Teusile
txngth
lx. per
sq. in.
41.225
70,327
72,246
Jlastic
Limit,
ihi. per
$4. in.
17,668
,,....
;10nga
f,,,.
,er ct.
41112
2112
2112
-
The first brass on the above list is an extremely tough metal with lw
elastic limit. made ourooselv so as to unset easily. The other. which
1s called Al~~minum b&s Nii. 2. is very tiard. -
.!~e have not in this country or in EnSland any official sta$;;g abrye
which to iridce of the uhvsical-characteristics of cast metals. T
.tw conrlliio;is that are jbsolutely necessary to be known before we can
make a fair comparison of different materials: namely, whether the
casting was made-in drr or Preen sand or in a chi
bttachi?d to n larger casting oYr cast by itself.
11, and whether it was
It has also been found that
cull-castinws give higher results than sand-castings. and that bars cast
by tbetise&es purposely for testing almost invariably run higher than
test-l)ars att.ached to castings. ^_~..
It is also a fact that bars cut out from
+mgs are ,-eneralls weaker than bars cast alone. (IL H. Cowtes.)
caution is to nrport~d stremh 4 AI~OVS. - The same variation
in strength which has been form2 in tests df gun-metal (cPPer and
-i ,~~, tin) noted above. must be expected in tests of aluminum bronze and In
Z 2.: !% of all allovs. Thev are kxceedinelv sub.iect to var!?* .ion in density
in grain, caused b$ differences inUtiethdd of moulding and c?sti?g.
T;ature of pouring, size and shape of casting. depth of MI~W
etc.
le material may no longer be accurate
ALLOYS.
Aluminum Hsrdened by Addition Of COPPer.
Tests of roll,*d sheets 0.01 inch hhick. (7% Engineer, Jan. 2, 189I.)
Tensile Strength
Ca%I%d. Determined.
lbs. per
sq. in.
Tests of .Iluminum Alloys.
(Engineer Harris, U. S. N.. Trans. d. I. X. E.. vol. xviii.)
Copper
91.5OS
88.50
<I.50
90.00
63.00
63.00
91,50
93.00
88.50
92.00
6.50$
9.33
6.50
9.00
3.33
3.33
tl::i
9 33
6.50
-7
1.7J%
1.66 ..,..,.
1.75
I .oo
0.33 33.33:
::::
33.33
.
0.50 .._.
1.66 .._.
0.50
Tensile Elastic
Limit,
per nq. Ibs. per
sq. in.
:::7 2%
18.000
27,000
0.25 67'600
. . . . 72:%30
24,000
. . ;yg
'63;g
0.25 ;p;
;;:gz
0.50 69:930
19:ooo
33,000
46,530 17,000
2:; 307:i
I3
2.40 "::2
2'4 2
15.1 6.2 2:'
1.33 3.30
7.8 19.19
For comparison with the above 6 tests of Navy Yard Bronze,
Cu 88, Sn 10, Zn ?, are given in which the T. S. ranges from 18,000 to
24.590. E. L. from 10,000 to 13.OG0, El. 2.5 to 5.8$0, Red. 4.7 to 10.89.
Alloys of Aluminum, Silicon and Iron.
M. and E. Bernard have succeeded in obtaining through electrolysis,
by t~reating directly and without previous purificat~ion, the aluminum
earths (red and white bausites), the following:
Alloys such as ferro-aluminum, ferro-silicon-aluminum and silicon-
aluminum,, where the proportion of silicon may exceed 10yO* which ars
employed in the metallurgy of iron for refining steel and cast-iron.
Also silicon-a!uminum. where the proportion of silicon does not exceed
10% which may be employed in mechanical constructions in a rolled or
hammered condition, in place of steel, on account of their great resist-
ance, especially where the lightness of the piece in construction COnSti-
tutes one of the main conditions of success.
The following analyses are given:
I. ,Alloys applied to the metallurgy of iron, the refining of steel and
c$stlFn: No. 1. Al. 70y0,: Fe, 25%: Si, 5%. No. 2. Al. 70; Fe. 26;
No. 3. Al, 70; Fe. 15: Si. 15. No. 4. Al, 70: Fe, 10: St., 20.
go. j.iAl, 70; Fe, 10: Si, 10; Mn. 10. No. 6. Al, 70; Fe, trace: St, 26;
Rlri. I.
2. Mechanica! alloys: .No. 1. Al, 92; Si. 6.75: Fe, 1.25. No. 2.
Al. 90; Si. 9.25: Fe. 6.75. No. 3. Al 90: Si. 10: Fe, trace. The best
results were with alloys where the proportion of iron was very loo, and
the Proportion of siliccn in the neighborhood of 10%. Above that Pro-
portion the alloy becomes crrstalline and can no longer be employed.
The density of the alloys of silicon is approximately the same as that of
aluminum. - La Melallurgie, 1892.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
ALUMINUM ALLOTS.
375
Aluminur;;-witk-Niehe~, German Silver or Titanium. -J .. W.
Richards, J OUT. Frank. Inst., 1895 says that an addition of 5% of nickel
or German silver or 2~~ of titanium to aluminum increases the tensile
strength to 20,006-30,000 lbs. per sq. in. in castings and to ~0.000-50.000
h. in sheet. For purposes :vhere the requirements are fine color.
strength, hardness and springiness the German-silver alloy is recom-
Dhmled
Aluminum-Antimony .~loys. - Dr. C. R. Alder Wright describes
some aluminum-antimony ~IIOYS in a communication read before the
*ecletY of Chemical Industry. The results of his researches do not d!s-
close the existence of a conimerciallv useful alloy of these tmo metals*
and have greater scientific than practical interest.
A remarkable point
is that the alloy with the chemical composition Al Sb has a bigher me1!-
ing-Point than either aluminum or antimony alone. and that when a1umt-
anm is added to
; -;;$-y~Y, (4500
ure antimony the melting-point goes UP from that Of
2) to a certain temperature rather above that of si1ver
%r&& and Cast iron -Aluminum alloys readily with east
1 h up to 14 to 157 Ai but {he metal decreases in strength as tbe A*
) :h increased. Ni~t&es with greater percentages Of Al are Wnu!?!.
k*d have practically no coherence. - !Iruns. A. I . M. E.. ~01. XVl11.*
4 8. M. E vol. xix
her A&minum .~lloys. - ~1 75.7, Cu 3. Zn 20. Mn I.3 is an
nt casting metal having a tensile strength of .over 35.600 ibs.
in., and a sp. gr,slightly above 3. It has very httle ductility.
~-~~._.. ..~. ~.. ~._~..~_.,_.~
le material may no longer be accurate
ALLOPS.
AI 96.5, Cu 2, and chiomium 1.5 is a little heavier than we aluml.
num and has a tensile strength of 26,300 ibs. per sq. in. - 1.
vol. xix.
8. M E.,
Aluminum and Magnesium. - Magnaliulp. - hn allpy containing
90 to 9s7~ of aluminum, the balance bemg mamly magneswm, has beea
patented under the trade name of magnalium. Its specific gravity 1s
only 2.5; it is whiter, harder and stronger than ahminm, and can be
for:etl, r~!l~l, tlrxrvt~. machined and filed. It takes a high polish and
re.+s ovulation better than any other liaht metals or alloys. The
tenslle strength of cast magnalium, class S, is reported at 18.400 to
L,1,.300 lbs. per sq. in., with a reduction of area of 3.:.i%,: hard rolled
plates, class z. ,L 52 W0 111s. per sq. in., with 3.7 7~ retluctlon: amwaled
pkrtes. U,LOO 11~. per sq. in.. 1;.8% redllction. blade by the Magna.
lium Syndicate of l3erlin.
aluminum. - (Mrwh!/,
The price is said to be about twice that of
J &g. 190s.)
Prof. Carpenter (-1. S. M. E.. vol. xix) found that additions of Ma
in<:reased tlw strength of 41 up to 10yO Mn.
brittle alloys.
Larger additions made
Resistance OP .4luminwn Alloys to Corrosion. -J. W. Richards
JOI!).. Fmnk In&.. 1S9.5, gives the followiug table showing the relative
reslsiance to corrosion of aluminllm (99% pure) and alloys of aluminum
with different metals, when immersed in the liquids named.
The
hyllrr~ are Iwsrs per day iu milligrams per square centimeter of surface:
-
$ayyg Strong
SOIU-
.ketic
,~ti$n.~, ,$F$:,
--
0,1 0.4
0.05 0.6
0. I3 0.75
0.06 0.20
0.04 I ?.I5
3per cent copper _. _. 0.0
3 per cent Germm silver 0.01
3 per cent nickel _. 580.3 180.0 83.0 0.04
2 wr cent tit.anium 73.4 4.3 18.6
99 per cent aluminum
0.0
34.6 5.8 9.6 0.01
.4luminum .4lloys used in .4utomobiie Construction (.tm. Mach..
Aug. 2. l!IO;.)
(1) Al 2. Zn 1 T.S.
(2) AI
35.000; 3.1
92, cu: 8:
Sp. gr.
(3) Al S3. Zn. 1.5, Cu. 2,
T.S. 1X.000; S%. gr. 3.8.4
T.Y. 23.0M): sp. gi-. 3.1
Ni, trace
(1) Unsatisfactory on account of failurrs under rrpentrd vibration.
(2) GenertLlly Ilserl. Resists vibwtions well. (3) Uwl to some extent.
?J;illy motor-car makers decline to use it because of uncertainty of its
behavior under vibration.
ALLOYS OF MANGAXESE AND COPPER.
Varioas Manganese Alloys. - E. II. Cowles, in Trans. A. I . M. E.
vol. xviii. P. 49.5. states that as the result, of numerous experiments oa
mixtures of the several metals, copper: zinc, tin, lead, aluminum, iron,
and manganese. a,nd the metalloid skcon, and experiments upon the
same in ascertaimng tensile strength, ductility. color, etc., the most
important determinations appear to be ahout as follotvs:
1. That pure metallic manganese exerts a bleaching effect upon copper
more radica,l in its action even than nickel. In other &ords. it \Yas
found that 191/z% of manganese present in copper produces as white a
color in ,the resulting alloy as 25yc of nickPI would do, this being the
amount of each required to remove the last trace of red.
2. That upwards of 20% or 257, of manganese may be added to COP-
per without reducing its ductility, although doubling its tensile strength
and changing its color.
3. Th$ tianganese. copper, and zinc when mebed
together and .
poured into molds behave very much like the most yeasty G
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some-of 1
ALLOYS OF MANGANESE -AND COPPER. 377
silver, producing an ingot which is a mass of blow-holes, and which
swells up above the mold before cooling.
d. That the alloy of manganese and copper by itself is very easily
&jized.
5. That the addition of 1.25% of aluminum to a manganese-copper
alloy converts it from one of tl!e rraost.reiractofy of metals in the castin,g
ro~e;s into a metal of superior castmg quahties. and the non-corrodl-
Eilit\-of wlkh is in many instmxes greater than that of either German
;;;~ I&lic4 iiivrr.
A *ilver-brouzc alloy cspccially designed for rods. sbefks, and wire
has the followmg composition: bin., 1s: Al, 1.211: Si. U.5; Zn, 13: and Cu.
6i.j~~. It has a terwle strength ot at!out. :ii,,OOO Ibs. on small bars, and
~~~0 elongation. It has been rolled mto thm plate and drawn into wire
6.09s inch in tliamet~er. A test of the electixal cor!ductlwt.g of this
nlre (of size No. 3) show its resistswe t.o be 41.44 times that of pure
c0pw.
This is far lower conductivity than that of German silver.
~~an~anrse Rronze. (F. L. Garrison. 3ow. F. I ., 1891.) -This
alloy has been used extensively for casting propeller-blades. Tests of
sOme mule by U. H. Cralnp & Co., of Philadelrka. gave an average
elastic limit of 30.000 lbs. per sq. in., tensile strenyth of about 60,000 lbs.
per sq. in. with an elong:$on, of 8 ;0 n to 1O7o in sand castings. When
rolled, the E. L. is about UJ.OCO lbs. per sq. in., tensile strength 95,000 to
iO&OOll ll)s. per sq. in., with an elongation of lZ% to 15%.
Compwssion t.ests made at TJnited Stat,es Navy Department from tl>e
metal in the pouring-:latc of propeller-hub of U. S. Y. hlnme gave in
two tests a crushin, sr stress of 126.450 and 135.i50 lb. per SC& in. The
.cpeciInens were 1 itich high by 0.7 X 0.7 inch in cross-sectlon = O..@
square inch. Both specimens ga,ve \yay b . shearing, on a plane malang
i an augly cif nearly 45O with the dlrectlon o stress.
A test on a specimen 1 X 1 x 1 inch was made from a piece Of the
same pollring-gat,e. Under stress of 150.000 pounds it was flattened to
O.i2 inch high by about 1 l/4 X
: 114 inches, but without rupture or any
sign of distress.
Unc of t,be grwt objections to the use of msngarlese bronze. or iq fact
any alloy except iron or steel, for the propellers of iron ships 1s on
accowit of ttte jislvanic action set up between the propeller and the
stern-posts. This rlifticutty has in great meastue been overcome by
putting strips of rolled zinc around
the propeller apertures in the stern-
frames.
The following analysis of Parsons mang+ese lw.?nT:, NO. F ,w?s made
from a chip from the propcllrr of 1lr. W
CU. YY.6-&: ZII. 1.57, Sn, 3.70: Fe, 0.72; Pb, OJO: P, trace.
It will be observed there is no manganese present and the amount of
zinc is very sriml:.
E. H. Cbrvles Trans. d. J . 31. E.. vol. xviii, says: Manganese. b;onze,
so called is in kality a manganese brass, for zinc instead of tm IS the
chief elehent addrd to the copper.
Mr. P. M. Parsons, the
?
roprietor of
this brand of met,al, has claimed for it a tensile strength o from 24 to
28 tons per sq,In. in small bars when cast. in sand.
E. S. Snerrv. Anl. Mach., Feb. 1, 1906, gives the following analyses of
manganese bronze:
-
cu.
$1.. ..,..,._._............ ;y;
;:
2.
3.. 60:1X
4 .,.. . . . . . . . . . ~. 56.00
e fiaterial may no longer be accurate
added melted and stirred, then the aluminum iS added. melted an,j
stirred then the rest of the copper is added, and finally the ,zmc.
The
only fdnction of the manganese is to act as a earner t? the Iron, which
is difficult to alloy v&h copper ivithout such carrier.
netded to rive a hi& elastic limit.
The iron h
Green.sand castmgs of No. 4 frew
queztly give result< as high as the. follqwin 6: T. S., 70,000; E. L
30 OUIJ !bs. per sq. in.; elongaeion m 6 ms., lS%; reduction (
^^ !._
)f area:
Lo , i
Magnetic ~!loys of Non-J Lagnctic Metals. (W. IV@. April 15
1905; Elcctrot.-Zeit. Mar. 2, 1905.) - Dr. Heiiuler 11% &covered
alloys of manganese, aluminum, and copper are strong!y magnetic.
thai
The
beut results have been obt.ained when the Mn and A! are in the proportions
of their respect.ive atomic weights. 55 and 27.1.
Ilescribed (1) Mn. 26.8; -41. 13.2: Cu, 60.
Two such rt1.0~~ are
(7) Mn, 20.1: A!. 9.9: CU, 70
\xith 15% Pb added. The first was too brittle to be workable. Th{
seconti was machined without difficulty. These a!loys have as yet no
comm-rcial importance, as they are far inferior magnetically (at most
1 to 4) to iron.
GERXAN-SILVER AND OTHER NICKEL ALLOYS.
German Silver. -The composition of German silver is a very un.
certain tldnx and depends !arge!y on the honesty of the manufacturer
and the pricq the purchaser !s wlhng to pay. It is composed of copper,
;;z !a$ t~$;& 3 ,;;;r~$,,~;;mmrt~;~. The best, vaneties contam
0 to 30T0 of zmc. the remamder
being coGper.- &e more expensive ni.i,txl silver contains from 250/, to
33C0 of nickel a,nd from 73y0 to 66% of iopper. The nickel is used as a
whitening element: it also strengthens thz alloy and renders it harder
and more non-corrodible than the brass made wthout it, of CO per and
zinc. Of ail troublesome alloys to handle in the foundry or ro! mg-mill, I?
German silver is the worst. It is unmanaq?able and refractory at every
sttlp in its transition from the crude elenients ini,o rods, sheets, or wire.
(E. H. Cowles, 7Yans. A. I. M. E.. xviii. p. 49-1.)
The following list of copper-nickel a!!oys is irom various source: 3:
/ Copper. ( Nickel. 1 Tin.
GeTan silxer.. .
. . . . . . . . . .
.I .I
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
,* . .
......................
Nickel ......................
Chinese packfong. ..................
tutenag ....................
Genpn sil\;er
(cheaper). ...............................
II
(resembles silver) .
51.6 25.6 22.6
50.2 14.3 3.1
51.1 :3.a 3.2
52 to 55 13 to 25 .._.__
75 to 66
40.4
253;0633
tj
3
: . .
8 3 . . . . . . .
Zinc.
:I::
20 to 30
. .
z : ; pa;f:!
II
:.5 6L
3.5 I*
Xckel-coDDer Alloys. --iF. L. Sperry. A. I . hf. 3.. 1895.)
Berlin. _.
French. tableware.. _.
Mnillechort.. .
Christotle _.
Austrian t,ableware. _.
English. Sheffield.
American, castings.. .

bearings.
(1
one-cent coin
Nickel coins _.
52 to 63
50
65.4
50
50 to 60
15.7 t.o 60
52.5
2
75
22 to 6 26to31 .._.
18.7 to 20 31.3 to 30
16.8 13.4 3.4
50
25 t,o 20 25 to20
31 .6 to I5 25.4 to 17 0 to 2.6
17.7 26.8
25 12 ~..T..... ::::.::::: :
25 .._ .._.... :
_.......
. . . . . . . .
O&j:i
_.._....
.,,.... .
. . . . . . . .
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
ALLOTS OF BISMUTH.
379
th
A refined copper-nickel alloy contqining SOTo wpper and 497, nickel,
nitl~ very sma!! ZMI?OU~tS of iron, sIlKon and carbon, is produced direct
from Bessem,er matte m the Sudbury (Canada) Nickel Works. German-
silver manuiscture.rs purchase a ready-m?de alloy. Much melt+ at a
!,,, heat and requires only the addition ot zmc. mstead of buvlnc the
&ke! an(i_ copper Separajeiy. Tl iis alloy. 50-Xl as it is iailed~ is
a!rnost irldlstlpgulsllable from pure nickei. Its Cost is less than nj&ej:
its me!tin$-polllt n!uch lowr. It can be cast solid in any form <!esirec!,
i;;Y a silvery-whit,e surf+ce unyi!a:lwl t,Y ai,r or moi,sture. For bull&
,&n<Ts now used m various Brltlsh and Contmental nfies. a special alloy
of 80?~ copper and 20% nickel is made.
>Ionel J Ietal. - An alloy of about 72.7, Nj, 1.5 Fe. 26.5 Cu. made from
the Canadian copper-nickel ores. is described m the M$nZ Wordier, Oct. JO,
1968. It has many valuable properties xvhen rolled Into sheets, ma!img
it especially suitable for rooting. It is ductile and Hexible. is easily
soldered, has a high resistance to corrosion. and a re!atire!Y small expan-
sion 51
in cast,
nd contraction under temperature c.hanges. The tensile strength
ings is from 70,000 to 80,000 lbs. per sq. in., ant! in rolled sheets as
hirrh 2,s 108.000 lbs.
c;:&tant& is an alloy containing about 607c copper and 4070 nickel,
which is much used for resistance rvire in electrical instruments. Its
electrical resistance is about, twenty-eight ho thirty times that of copper.
and it possesses a very low temperature coefficient, - approximately
.00003. This same material is also much used to form one eiement of
base-metal thermo-couples.
ALLOYS OF BISXUTH.
By adding a small amount of bismuth to lead the latter may be
hardened and toughrnxl. An alloy consisting of three parts of lead
and two of bismuth has ten times the hardness and twent.y times the
tenacity of lead. The alloys of bismuth with both t,in and lead y;
extremely fusible, and take fiue impressions of casts and molds.
allov of one part Bi. two parts Sn. and one part Pb is used by pwter-
workers as a soft soldrr. and by soap-makers for molds. An alloy of five
parts Bi. two parts Sn, and three parts Pb welts at 199O F., and is
somewhat llsed for stereotyping, and for metallic writing-pencils. Thorpe
gives the following proportions for t.he better-known fusible metals:
Name of Alloy.
I I
,f&, Lead.
Newtons, . . .
Roses . . . ::
Dhrcets.. 50
DArcetswithmercury
::
&%~&::::::::::::: 50
Cuthries Eutectic . 56
31.25
28.10
2::
25.00
;::;9
Csd-
Tin. mium.
hler- Melting-
cm-y. point.
la:75 . . . . . .
24.10 ._......
;g: F.
25.00 . .._ 2010 ,
;;:k; . . .._... 250.0 1130 I*
12.50 .._... 1490
12.78 IO.40 1490 +
21. IO 14.03 Very imv.~
The action of heat upon some of. these alloys is remarkable. Thus.
Llpowitzs alloy which solidifies
first, as it coois from this
at 149 F., contracts very rapidly at
4s the cooling goes on the contrac-
tion becomes slower and sK$k until the temperature falls to 101.3O
F. From this point the a!!op &pn,,ds as it, cools, until the temPerat$re
fa!!S to about 770 F., after which it again contracts, So that at 32 F.
~ a bar of the alloy has the same lenpth as at 115 F.
Allovs of bismuth have been ;Ised for making fusible plugs for bol!efs.
: :, but it is found that they are altered by the continued action of heat.
that one cannot rely upon them bo melt at the pper temperature.
re Bnnca tin is used by the U. S. Government for usible Plugs.
le material may non longer be ac&%fe
380 ALLOYS.
IWSKBLE ALLOT?.
(From various sources. Many oi the Zgures are probably ver;
inaccurate.)
Sir Isaac Xe:tons. !)isniut.h 5, lead 3. t,in 2, melts at.. . . 212O p,
Roses, bismuth 2, ledd 1, tin 1. melts at . . . . . ZOO 61
Woods, cadmium 1. bknuth 4, lei~d 2. tin 1. melts at . 165 s+
Gutkfies,~ cadrmum 13.29, bismuth 47.3s. lead 19.36. tin 19.97.
melts at . . .
Lead 1, tin l-. bisn nuth 1, cadmium 1, melts at
Lead ~1, rin J, bismutn S. melts at
.......................
Lead 1, tin 3, bisl
...........................
muth 5. melts at
Lex1 1. tin 1. bisl
...........................
Tin 1, Sismt _
muth 5, melts at
1tn 1. melts at
...........................
Lead 2. tin 3. melts at
................................
Tin 2. bisml
............................
ItI1 ::I.
334 to
Lead 1. tin
i, meltsat.. ......................
2,. me Its at
Tin 8. bismc
.............................
ith 1, melts at
.-. 346 to
Lead 2, tin 1
.................................
Lead 1, tin
1. melts at.. . . . . . . . . ..........
1, melts at . . _. .
440 to
Lead 1. tin :
..........
3. melts at. _. . . . .
370 to
Tin 3, bismuth 1.
........... .
melts at. . . . .
3% to
Lead 1, bismuth :
........
1. me!ts at. . . .
.........
Lead 1. rin 1. bismut~!l
..........
4, melts at. .
.........
Lead 5. bin 3. bismuth
. . ..........
S. melts at.. .
.........
Tin 3, bismuth 5 melts at. . . . . . .
.......... .........
. .......... .........
155 1
208
212 *
240
286
367 6
336 I*
360 *
392
475
400 (6
383
REARIXG-BETAL KLLOTS.
(C. B. Dudley, Jour. F. I., Feb. and !Jarch, 1892.)
Alloys are used as bearings in place of wrought iron cast iron 01
steel, partly because wear and friction are believed to be more r&d
when two meOak of the same kind work togrt~h?r, pnltly because thr
soft met+ ;Lre more easily worked and got~ into proper shipe, and +rtlJ
hecause It IS desirable to us? a soft metal which will take the weal
rather than a hard metal, which will wear ?;!e journal more rapidly.
A eood oearing-metal must have five characteristics: (lj It must br
strong enough to carry the load wiihout distortion.
Pressures on car.
JOurnaiS are frequently as hi&as 350 to -100 !h,. per square inch.
12) A good bearing-metal should not heat readily.
twin bearing, made of seven parts copper
The old copper.
to one part t,in, is more apt tc
heat thsn some other ailoys. In genera:
the harder th
research seems to show thal
bearing-metal, the more Iii& it is ~to heat.
(3) Good bearing-metal should work rrell in the foundry. OxidatiGr
whde meltmg causes spongy castings.
u,se of powdered charcoal while melting.
It can be revented by a liberd
The a&ion of lo/ to 2% ol
zinc or a ?$a11 amount Of phosahorus greatly aids in the priduction of
sound castmgs.
bronze.
This is a piincipal element of value in phosphop
(3) Good bearing-metals should show small friction. It is true that
friction is almost wholly a question of the lubricant
of the bearing has certjinly some influence.
used; but the metd
(5) Other things being equal. the best bearing-metal is that which
wears slowest.
The principal constituents of bearing-metal allovs are copper, tin,
lead, zinc. antimony, iron, and aluminum.
The f&owing table .@ves
the constituents of mod of the prominent bearing-metals as analyzed a!
the Pennsylvania Railroad laboratory at .4ltoona.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some 0
BEARING-METAL ALLOYS.
Analyses of baring-metal Alloys.
Metal.
&nleli:r metal
Anti-friction metal
\vllite Illet:ll..
l~ar~i,ix~~ !ir!@
.........................................................
S&&x! nl,tl-irl~tlorl..
Graphite beartag-metal.
Antimonial lead..
~~rhy; bronze
~~rn,st, bronze..
Delta metd ....................................
* glagnolia metal .........
A*nericno anti-friction
metal ...................
Tobin bronze .............
G~ney bronze . . . . . . .
Damascus bronze. . . . . .
manganese bronze.. . .
Ajax metal.. . . . . . . .
Anti-friction metal.. . . .
Rarrington bronze.. . , .
Car-box metal.. . . . . . .
Hard lend. . . . . .
Phosphor-bronze..
Ex. R. met:d. ._ _.
-imi- 4.25
I .60 98.13
~....._
.3;oi. 1y.g
14.38
,......,
75.47 9.72
77.83 9.60
92.39 2.37
trace
. . . . .
59.N)
I
2.16
:z:: /
9.20
90.5;
10.60
9.53
81.24 IO.96
. . . .
55.73 0.97
,...... I......,,
79.17 10.22
76.80 8.00
Lead. Zinc.
14.75- 10.20
87.92
84.87 ..ej:;j.
I.15 _
67.73 .
80.69 .__.._.,
14.57
12.40 tr3ce
5.10
83.55 trace
78.44
I
0.98
II.31 38.10
15.06
I
.
12.52 _.....,
. . .
7.27 . ._.
88.32 .~~;bi.
84.33 trace
94.40
9.61 ...,.,
15,oo I ,~
.4nti.
nony
. . . . . .
. .
12.08
l5.lO
16 73
18.83
. . .
. . . .
16.45
19.60
..~..
. . . . .
. . .._
. . . . . .
. . .
11.93
14.38
6.03
0.65
0. II
C.68
0.61
(7)
. ...(8)
constituents:
No graphite.
Possible trace of carbon.
(5) No manganese.
Trace of phosphorus.
(6) Phosphorus or arsenic, 0.37.
Possible trace of bismuth.
(7) Phosphorus, 0.94,
(8) Phosphorus, 0.20.
H. C. Torrey says this analysis is erroneous and that Magnolia
metal alwavs cont.aitis tin.
As an esjmple of the inffuence of minute changes in an alloy the Har-
rlngtqn bronze, which consists of a minute proportion of ironin a cop-
oer-zinc s!lov. showed after rolline a tensile streneth of 75.000 lb. and
ti% elongat& m 2 inches.
In experimenting on this sub ect on the Pennsylvania Railroad, a
certain number tif t,ie bearings were made of a standard bearing-metal.
and the same number were made of the metal to be tested. These
bearings were placed on opposite ends of the same axle, one side of the
car havine the standard bearinzs. the other the experimental. Before
I_- ,.I_ _.._ -_- . . . . o-
: tifficient-time :hey were again welghe,d. .~-- --~- -TiThe stakdard~bearing-metal
,~ USed is the S bearina-metal of the Phosphor-Bronze Smelting Co.
It contains about 79.70% copper, 9.50% lead, 10% tin, and 0.80% phos-
phorus. A large number of experiments have shown th?,t the 10s~. of
:,: weight of a hearine of this metal is 1 lb. to each 18.000 to 25.000 miles
: _ traveled Besides the measurement of wear, obseivations were made
i.1 on the-frequency of hot boxes with the different metals.
:; The results of the tests for wear, so far as given, are condensed into
$rp following table:
Composition.
Rate
t 41 MO+>
Tint Lead. Phos. Arsezc. W:efar.
ler-tin. . . 87.50 12.500 P:I .? : : : :
100
wrimnnt ~~~~...~ . . . . ..____........... . . . . .
~&enic-bronze . . . . _ . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
~araenic-bronze
&.20 10.00
P$@c-bronze : : : : : : : :
79.20 10.00 ;i.oi, :: :: %E 115
79.70 10.00 9.50 . . . . 0.80
o,f.
ifi brcnze. . . 77.00 10.50 12.50 . . . * . . . .
!Jz
e, second exper _... ~~~. ,iment .._.___........ -.... . . . . . . . . . . . .
fB! ,. ., . . . . . . . . 1 . 77.00 8~nn
%:i
_ 15.00 . . . . . . . .
ie material may no 1onJer be accurate
352 ALLOYS.
The old copper&n alloy of 7 to 1 has repeatedly proved its inferiority
to t.he ohosohor-bronze metal. Manv more of the connrr-t.in hmr+.,,.
heqted ihanof the phosphor-bronze. The showng of these tests was gi
satisfactory that phosphor-bronze was adopted as the standard bearing.
metilt ot the Pennsylvania R.H... and was used for a lone time.
Clre experiments; however w&e continued.
~r~~,~xicallv takes the nlace of uhosuhorus in a mnnrr-t,in niinr nnd +L-~
It was found that L.,,,,,~
tion $0 lead is increased to correspon~l wtb the standard, rhe du&$$
incwases as well. In view of these results the 1i bronze n-as tried in
v&i& neither c!wsuhorus nor arsenic were used. and in v:hirh t~he I&A
was increased abode the proportion in the slandard p!iosphor-bronze,
The result was that the metal wore 7.30%
bronze.
slower than t~he phosphor-
N.J trouble from heating was experienced with the K bronze
more than with t.he standard. Dr. Dudley continues:
At about this time: we began to find evidences that wear of bearing-
metal alloys varie 1 n accordance %ith the following law: That allno
whirh 1- .__-._ JTU: the greatest power of distortion without~ rupbure (resilience)
will best resist w?ar
accordance with t~his
9% Pxrts copper 0 1
law,
It was now attempted to design an alloy ii
taking first the Proportions of coooer and tin.
oc in was settled oti 6v esneriment as itie stand&~
although some evidep-e since that time tends io show that 12 or possi-
bly 15 parts copper to 1 of tiu might hare been better. The influence of
lead on this cop,Per-tin allov seems to be much the same as a still further
diminution of tm. Hcwever, the tendency of the metal to \+eld under
pressure increases as the amount of tin is diminished, and ihe amount
of the lead ixreased. so a limit is set to the use of lead. A certain
amount of tin is also necessary to keep the lead alloyed with ?he copper.
Besrinrs were cast of the metal noted in the table as allov By and it
wore 13.5% slower than t.he st,andard phosphor-bronze. This metal is
now the standarc bearing-metal of the -Pennsrlrania Railroad. being
slightly changed in comoosition io al!ow the use of nhosohor-bronze
scrap.~ The formula addpted is: Copper, 10% Ibs.: &&$$~&b%&&
60 Ibs.: tin. 9s/4 lbs.: lead, 251/d Ibs. By using ordinarv care in the
foundry. keeping the metal well covered with charcoal during the melt-
Ing. no trouble is found in casting good bearings with this metal. Ine
copper and the phosphor-bronze can be put in the pot before putting it
in the melting-hole.
taken from t.he fire.
The tin and lead should be added after the pot is
It,ig not known whether the use of a little zinc, or possib:y some other
commntttion. might not tive sti!l bett,er results. For the present. how-
ever. this alloy is considered to fulfill tbe various conditions required for
good bearine-metai bett~er than anv other allov. The nhosnhor-bronze
had an ulti~tiate tensiie strength oi 30.000 :b:. with 6y0 elongjtion.
wherc5.s t!x alloy 9 had r?4:000 lb. T. S. and 11% elongation.
-.Bea.?ng Metal Practice. 1907. (G. Fl. Ciamer. ?r& A. Sy T. hf.. vii,
icusses the history of bearing metal oractice since the date of 302. dii
Dr. Dud!eys aprr quoted above.
ished and lea 8.
If was found that tin could be dimin-
mceased far beyond the figures formerly used, and a satis-
factory bearing metal was made with 655/i copper, 57, tin and 30% lead.
This alloy is larg4y sold under the name of plastic bronze. It has a
compresswe strenedh of about 15,000 lbs. per sc1. in.. and is found to
onPratt ~_.__._ without distortion in the bearines bf the heaviest locomotives?
not Only for driving brasses, but also for-rod brasses and bushings. and
for bearinKS of cars of 100,000 Ibs. capacity, the heaviest cars nom in
service. Specifications of different railroads cover bearing alloys with
tin frqm 8 to 10% and lead from 10 to 15%.
gusnUts- of bearings made from scrap,
There is aiso used a vast
These contain copper, 65 to 75%.
tin. 2 to S70. lead, IO to 18%. zinc. 5 to 20%. and thev wxtitute from.
5~ 0 to 7.5 per cent of the car &&rings now in rig&.
-metals, see Alloys cotitaining Antimony, below.) d
' WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition.
SGrne o'
2LLOYS CONTAINING ANTIMONY.
383
ALLOYS CONTAISIXG AKTIMONY.
~~nrous ANALYSES OF BABBITT METAL AND OTHER ALLOYS CONTAIN-
Tin. opper
-
c
-
;intimony Zinc.
I I
Lead. Bi.wluth.
. .
. ..81.9
6
. . . . . . . . .._ 81.0
1.
. . . . . . . . . . . ..io.5
as
. 22
I?
Babbitt . ., . . . ..45.5
Plate pewter . . . . . ..89.3
\Vhite metal. .._. 85
1
I .a
$2
1.0
.
2
(0
1.5
I.8
5
5parti
8.9 perct.
8 par:s
7.4per ct.
IO. 1
i6. 2
16
!5.5
52
13
7.1
IO
2.9 ._....._.~
I 9 ..,.......
I .
6 ,.......
40.0
.._. 1.8
8earinqs onGer. Incomotires.
- -
* It is miserl as follows: lwelre p;~its of copper are first melted and
then 36 parts of tin are added: 24 parts of antimony are put in, and
then 36 parts of t,in. the temperature being iowered a,s soon as the
copper is melted in order not to oxidize the tin and antimony. the stir-
fxe of the balh being protected from contact with the air. The alloy
thus ma,de is subsequently remelted in the proportion of 50 part~s of
alloy to 100 tin. (:oshua Rose.)
Whitcwnetal Alloys. --The foiiowinq alloys are used as lining metals
by the Eastern Railroad of France (lS90):
NUI llbW. Lead. Antimony. Tin. Copper.
I.. ................. 65 25 10
2 ...................
7:
II.12 8i.33 5.55
3. .................. 20
4 ................... 430 e I; i
No 1 is used for lining cross-bead slides, rod-brasses and axle-bear-
inns: No. 2 for lining as!e-bearings and connecting-rod brasses of heavy
engines; No. 3 for lining eccentric sbraps and for bronze slide-valves;
and No. 4 for metallic rod-packing.
Some of the best-known ~white-metal alloys are the following fCircu1ar
of Hoveler & Dieckhaus. London. 1893):
I .
::
:;,. 5:
~: 6.
Parsans. ......
Richards. ......
Babbitts,.
Fent.ons..
......
French Navy.
......
German Navy.
......
......
Tin.
Anti-
mony.
Lead. Copper.
5
4 I/2
; 112
7
7%
the material may no l onger be accurate
ALLOYS.
for imbrovinr: ibs hardness; hut In, no case must it esceed that margin
<as this would reduce the Plastlclty of the compound and ma!ie li
brittle.
Hardest.tin-lead alloy: 6 tin, 4 lead.
tin, 18 snlloln:ly, 8 copp?r.
Hardest of all tin alloys (7) : 74
Alloy for tirin open-work, ornamental castings: Lea(! 2, antimony 1,
Xhii.e met,ai for Pat,terns:
hrlrss s. tin l!).
Lead 10, bisu1ut.h 6. antimony 2, common
Bnhhitt Metals. (C. K. Tompkins, Necha?lical Xe?.cs. Jan., 1891.)
The practice of linjng jonrnal-boxes with a metal that is sufficiently
fusible to be me!tetl ln :L common ladle is not always so much for the
purpose of securlil,g anti-friction properties as for the convenience and
cheapness ot formu a Perfect bearing in line nith the shaft without
the necessisy of boring them. Boxes that are bored, no matter hoa
accurate, require great care in fitting and attaching them to the frame
or other Parts of a machine.
It. is non good. practice. howeyer. to u:e the shaft for the !mrPose of
ca,st~mr: the branngs. especially If the shaft be steel, for the reason that
the hot m&al 1s apt to ;prifig it: the better Plan is to use a mandrel
01 the ,sanw size or a tr?ne iargrr for this purpose. For slow-running
journais. where the load 15 ,fodrrate, almost any metal that, may be
cnniTiiii3li.l~~ m$ted ,znd wul r.un free will answer the Purpose.
For
wear@ proper?les, alth a n1otrtrat.e speed. there is probably nothing
supenor to purr zmc,
&riI-&
but when not combined wit.h some ot,her metal it
so much in cooling tha.t it cannot be heln tirmly in the recess
and soon works 1oOse: and it lacks those a,nti-friction properties whict;
are necessary in order t.o stand high speed:
For line-sha,fting:. and all work where the speed is not over 300 or 406
r. p. m.. an alloy of 8 par:5 zinc and 2 parts block-tin will not oniv wear
longer than any composition of this class. but will surcessfullv desist a
beav~- load. The tin counteracts the shrinkage. so that the metal, if not
overheated. will firmly adhere to the box until it is worn out. But thJs
mixture does not. Pos5e.z sufficient anti-friction properties to warrant its
use in fast-running jotlrnals.
AmonK all the soft metals in use there are none that possess greater
anti-frlcticn properties than PIIre lead: but lead alone is impracticable.
for it is so soft that. it csnnot be retained ia the recess. But when by
a?y Procejs lead czn bz sutlicientl?- hardentd to be retained in the taxes
wtthorit materiltlly ;~ljurinp it,s anti-fr~iction properties, there is no metal
that will wear longer in light fnst~-running journals. With most bf the
best. and most popular anti-friction metjls in use and sold under the
name of the Babbitt metal, the basis is lead.
Lead and antimony have the property of combining with each other
in all ;:npnrtions wit.hout impairinp the anti-frirtiori properties of either.
The antiqonv hardens the lead, and when mixed in the proportion of 80
pacts lea< bv weight with 20 parts antimony. no other known comPo-
21tlon of metals possesses greater ant,i-friction or wearing prooerties,.or
will st.and a higher speed without heat or abrasion. It runs free in Its
me;!+:3 state. has no shrinkage. and is better adapted to light high-
speeg machinery than any other known met,al. Care, however. should be
mamfested in using it. and it should never be heated beyond a temper-
ature that will scorch a dry pine stick.
Nany different compositions are sold undtyr the name of Babbitt
metal. Some are aood. hut more are worthless: while but very little
genuine Bahhit.t metal is sold that is made strlctlv according to the
orl$nal formula. Most of the meta,ls sold under that name are the
refuse of type-foundries and other smelting-works, melted and%& @to
gz;$. ingots with special brands, and sold under the name of Babbitt
It is difficult at the present time to determine the exact formulas.
used by the original Babbitt. the inventor of the recessed box. as a nu
ber of different formulas are given for that composition. Tin, COP
' WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
nnd,antilnOtly were the ingredients, and Irom the best sources of infor-
lllatlon the ongmal proporllons were as follows:
50 parts tin.. . . . . . . . . . . . . = 89.3%
Another writer gives:
S2.3%
2 parts copper.. ~. . . . . . . . . -. = 3.6% 8.37,
4 parts antunony.. . . . . . . . . = 7.1% 8.3%
The coppfxr \vas first melted, and the sntimony added first and then
about hen or !ifteen pou!;ds of tin, the whole kept at a dull-red heat and
collst,antiy stIrred mltll the metals were thorough!; incorporated, after
which the balance of the tin was added, and alter being thoroughly
stirred again it was t,hen cast into ingots. When the copper is thoroughly
melted. and before the antimony is added, a handful of powdered char-
,.,,n.l should be throlvn into the crucible to form a HLX. in order to exclude
i&-air and prevent the antimony from vaporizing; oiherwise much of it
will escape in the form of a vapor and consequently be wasted. This
nletal. when carefully prepared, is probably one of the best metals in use
for lining hoses that are subjected to a heavy weight and wear; but for
light fast-running journals the copper renders it more susceptible to
friction. and it is more liable to heat than the metal cornnosed of lead and
antm;ony in the proportions just given.
SOLDEXS.
Commx~ solders, equal parts tin and lead: fine solder, 2 tin to 1 lead
heap solder, 2 lead, 1 tin.
Fusing-point of tin-lead slioys (many figures probably inaccurate),
SOLDERS.
T,iF : t,? le:d 25. .... .55S F.
IO......54 1
II
1 5......511
..
1 . L( 3......48 2
I,
1 I ** 2 .... ..44 i
0,
1 & I......37 0
1112 t,o lead I ..... .334O F.
1......34 0
I......35 6
d. II (1
1......37 8
.. 6 (_ .L
1......38 1
The melting point of the tin-lead alloys decreases almost proportionate!
to the increase of tin, from 619OF,, the melting point of pure lead, to 356 73
when the alloy contatns 68% of tun?and then increases t,o 448OF., the melt-
ing point of pure tin. Alloys on e:ther side of the 6807 mixture begin to
aoften materially at 356OF. because at that temperature the eutectic alloy
melts and oermits the whole allov to soften. (Dr. J. A. Mathews.)
Commori pewter contains 4 lejd to 1 tin. .
The relative hardness of the various tin and lead solders has been
determined by Brinells method. The results are as follows:
_ each. It is the eutectic alloy
:. ul the mixtures. - MechanG
:: Gold solder: 14 parts gold, . _..
.:;golq: 25 parts gold, 25 silver, 12~ bias
s;2 8llver solder: Yellow brass 70 parts
2 145 Parts, brass (3 coppet. 1 zinc) 73 zinc 4.
2:
,g~, German-silver solder: Co,pper 38,
;,g;+ Novels solders for alummum:
zinc 54. nickel 8.
. %Tin
~, Hardness 16$6 1520
68
1z4 l&l0 13q;5
100
14.58 4.14
: . The hardest. so1de.r is the one composed of 2 parts of tin and 1 part of
I, or the one with the lowest melting Point Of
cd World.
A si1vc.r. 4 copper. Gold solder for 14-carat
is 1 zinc.
iins 7, tin 111/z. Another: Silver
I@0 parts, lead 5;
melts at 536 to 572 F.
zinc 5:
a*
536 to 612
copper 10 to 15:
c.
662 to 842
nicliel 10 to 15;
a*
662 to 842
It is
uminum bronze: Tin, 900 parts. CoPPer 100, bis-
claimed that this solder is also suitable for joining
m to copper, brass, zinc, iron, or nickel.
. . j . _- . _. . ~. i . , - ~. I ~_~
;he material may no l onger be accurate
- -
STRENGTH OF ROPES.
3s7
The Stevedore:ropk used hY the,C. W. Hunt Company is made by lubrf-
eating the fibres wlt!t plbmbago. mIxed with sufiicient tillow to hold it ln
position. This lubncates the yarns of the.rope. an.d prevents internal
ct. hng and wear. After run!uilg a shcrt time the exterior of the rope
gets compressed and coated with the lu,brlcant.
In manufacturbnj rope,
being twisted 1.n a
the flhres are first spun into a yarn, this varn
erection called right ham: . From 20 to 80 of these
yarns..~ep.$nd~ng oc tl!? sle of tli?, pee. %rc .then put together and
ROPES AND CABLES.
ROPES AND CABLES.
STRENGTH OF EDPES.
(A. 5. Newell & Co., Birkenhead. Kleins Translation of Weisbach,
vol. iii. part 1
Iron.
i,&ted m rile opposlre curc~r~~on, Or -.leIt nand. into a strand. Th
ree Of
ihese strands, $r a 3-:trand,. 0: iO$r fbC a a-strand rope, are then twisted
together. t,he, twist ,+ng, aFa!n in t,ne : rght band. direction. When the
strand 1s tWS~e~,.lt un&wlsrs each 01 tne threads. and when the three
Kemp.
-7
I7
,r
-i-
strands are twlsteo together into rope, .it lmt,wists the strands, but again
twls?,s up the threads.
roper form.
It is t$s opposite Lwlst that keeps the rope in its
P
Wilen 1,weight AS hung on ihr end of a rope, the tendency
s for the rope to untwist. and become longer. In untwisting the rope. it
lVoilld twist the threads UD. and the weinht wl!l revolve until t.hP .<trlin nf
Girth.
Inches.
We&h t
Per
arhom.
?ounds.
--
2
4
5
7
9
IO
12
I4
16
1.3
:6"
30
Girth.
Inches.
Weight
per
Tathorn.
Pounds.
I
I ?/z
! T,s
1314
2
2 Is
2 la
2sia
3 i4
3 :3[8
3 112
3 314
a
9
IO
I2
&y-~.++-t
,, \. a ag s!~~zc:-s juit~eqiiais the scrtin of the threads being twisted
Ughter. In malimg a rope it is impossible to n,ake these strains exact,ly
bala,,ce each other. It. is this fact that makes it ilecessary to take out the
tarns i.n ~a new rope, that is,, Untwist it when ;+, iS put at work. The
proper twist that should be put In the threads has bten ascertained approx-
lmately by c---^----^
The am301 _ qt of work that t&T rope !vi!l do varies greatly. Ii deEends
23/d
3Y4
4 /2
5 V2
6
6 l/z
7
7 112
8
.31/z
9 112
. IO
II
12
not only on the qll?litY Of the fibre and the method. of laying up the-rope,
but also on t@, l@,of weathe! ,when ,the rope 1s~ !~sed, the blocks or
sheaves over wmc-e 1E IS fq ana tne sLram 11 proportmn to the strain nut
upon the rope. lhe principal wear comes In practice from defective 01
badly set sheave!, from e?cess oi lqad ?d esposure to storms.
me loam rut upon rne ro
tables. for the most economic:. P
e snoulo not exceeci those given in the
wear. The inchcations of excessive load
will be the twist coming out of the rope, or one of the strands slipping orIt.
of its proper position,
the first day or two,
A certain amount of tw%t comes out in using it
but
the same.
after that the rope should remain substantially
If it does not. the load is too areat for the durahilitv of t.hA
rope. If the rope wenrson the outside, &nd ~&good on the inside, it
r,hzws that it, has been chafed in running over the pillleys or sheaves. If
the blocks are verv small. it will increase the slidine of the strands a~nd
threads. and resuli iti a niork rapid internal &ear. Rope made for hoist-
Ing and for rope transmission is usually made with four strands, as expe-
Ptence has shown this to be the most serviceable.
The strength and weight of Stevedore rope is estimated as follows:
Breaking strength in pounds =
Weight in pounds per foot,
720 (circumference in InchEs) 2;
= 0.032 (circumference in inch&) 2. .
Flat Ropes. (Weisbach.)
Length Surflcient to Cause the Xaxlmum Working Stress.
(Weisbach.)
Steel.
I I
Iron. Iron.
Hempen ropn, dry and untarred
Hempenrope:.wetortarred . . . . :I:::::::::: .._..__. 1976
. . . . .2855 f.e$.
Wire rope.. . . . . . . . . . . .
Open-link Chain . . . . : : 1: : : : 1: : : : 1: : 1: : 1: 136il
4590 1:
Studchain.......................................1660 *
Somet.imes. when the depths are very great. ropes are given
matejy the form of a body of uniform strength. by making them o
ate pieces, whose diameters diminish towards t.he lower end.
that by this means the tensions in the fibres caused bg the ropes owa
wvelght can be considerably diminished:
Rope for Hoisting or Transmission. i+Ianila Rope. (C. W. Hunt
Company. New York.) - Rope used for hoisfipg or for transmission of
power IS sqbjected to a very severe test. Ordinary rope chafes and grinds
to powder In the center. while the exterior, may look as though it was little
worn.
In bending a rope over a sheave, the strands and the varns of the
stranos slide a small distance upon each other, causing f&ion,
the roue internally.
and wear
tJj%NING: Thi s is a 1910edition. some of
d
t:
5
/2X I2
314 x 3/s
x3/4
114 x 3/a
'i2' 310
Lbs. In. Lbs.
--
20 33/4x 1Qs 22
2.3 4 xw!l 25
27 41/4x3/4 28
2 IO 25 4%X3/4 32
2 II 32 4%x3/4 34
2 I2 36
may no 1 ong& be e materi
The Technical Fords relating to Cordage most frequently heard
ix-e:
X.&N. -- Fibres twisted together.
T;inEAo. -Two or more small yarns twisted together.
STXW. -The same as a thread but a little larger garns.
STlMND. 7 Two or more large learns twisted together.
?o~~., - $everal thresds~ tw@ted together.
- several strands twIsted toaet,her.
SHROUD- LiID. --A rop~e of four str&s.
CABLE. --Three hawsers twisted together.
Ynnxs are laid up left-handed into strands.
STRAXX are IaId up right-handed into rope.
HAWSERS are laid up left-handed into a cable.
A rope is:
L.%ID by twisting strands together in making the rope.
SPLICED by joiniw to another rope by interweaving the strands
WHIPPED. - By winding a string around the end to prevent unt&ting.
SERVED. - When covered by winding a yarn continuously and tightly
around it.
PARCELED. -By wrapping with canvas.
SEIZED. - When two part.s are bound together by a yarn. thread or
st.rino - _ . . . J
PAYED. -When painted, tarred or greased to resist wet.
linm. -To pull on a rope.
TACT. - Drawn t.ight or strained.
Snlicincr of Rooes. - The snlice in a transmission rone is not onlv the-
weakest pZrt of ttie rope but isthe first part to fail when tl@ i&-e-i&&
out. If the rope is larger at the splice, the projecting part WI I wear on 7
the pulleys and the roue fail from the cuttine off of the strands. The fol-
solving diiections are given foT splicing a &rand rope.
The engravings show each succesxve operation in splicing a 13/J-inch
manila rose. Each enaravhx was made from a fu!l-size snecimen.
Tie a tiece of twine, 9 ana 10. around the rope to be spliced. about
5 feet from each end. The-
ttvinr
. . -z!ay the strands of each end back to the
. . . . . . -.
Eutt the ropes together and twist each corresponding pair of srrands
looseiy. to keep them from being tangled, a,8 shown in Fig. 80.
The 5Txine 10 is now cut. and the strand 8 rm!aid and strand 7 carefully
laid in its place for a distance of four and a half feet from the junction.
The strand 6 is next unlaid about one and a half,feet and strand 5 laid
in its place.
Then ends of the cores are now cm. off so they just meet,
Unlay~s!rand I four and a half fret. laving strand 2 in its place.
Unlay strand 3 one and a half feet la$ing in strand 1.
Cut ail the s:rands off to a lengt or about twenty inches for convenience
in maniputation.
The rope now assumes the fo-m shown in Fig. Sl with the meeting
point.s of the st.rands three feet a.>art.
Each pair of ,strands is successiv ?ly subjected to the following operation:
From the
turns; split l?
omt of meet.ing of the strands X and 7, unlay each one three
0th the strand 8 and t.he strand 7 in haives as far back as
they are now unlaid and whip the end of each half strand with a squall
piece of twine.
The half of the strand 7 is now laid in three turns and the half of 8 also
laid in three turns. The half strands now meet and are tied in a simple
knot. 11, Fig. 82. making the rope at this point its original size.
The rope is now opened with a marlin sp.ke and t~he half strand of 7
worked around the half strand of 8 by passin, the end of the half strand.7
5
through the rope, as shown in the engravmg. drawn taut, and agun
worked around tius half strand until it reaches the half strand 13 tha,t was
not laid in. This half strand 13 is now split, and the half strand 7 drawn
throuxh the opening thus made, and then tucked under the two adjacent
strands, as shown in Fig. 83. The other half of the strand 8 is noa
wound around the other half strand 7 in the same manner. After each
pair of strands has been treated in this manner, the ends are cut off at 1.Z
leaving them about four inches long. After a few days wear they e
' WARNi NG: ~This is a 19lOedition~
S6iie of .
STRENGTH OF ROPES.
.
Fro. 81.
SPLICING OF Ro~E:~.
.
i_~ pi._ ._,~,.,-, ._._ .,, ~,_~~
e rilaterr al mi j no lon~erbe accurate
ROPES AND CABLES.
STRENGTH OF ROPES.
331
draw into the bod of the rooe <r wear off. so that the localitv of the --
splice can scarcely % e detected-.
Cargo Eoi~Ntin (C. W, Hunt Company.) -The amount of coal that
can be hoisted wit .R a rope varies greatly. Under the ordinary conditions
of use a rope hoists from 5000 to 8000 tons. Where the circumstances are
more favorable, the nmoimts run 0p frequently to 12,000 or 1.5.000 tons,
ocrasionallx: to 20.000 and in one case Z2.400 tons t,o a sinele~fall.
VVhrn a !mistii$rope is first put in use, it is likely from-the strain pm,
upon it to twist up when the bloc!; is loosened from the load. This occurs
in the first day or two only. The rope should then be taken down and
the turns taken out of the rope,. When put up again t!:e rope snou!d
gJve no further trouble until worn out.
It is neces.sarv that the rone should be much larger than is needed to
bear the strain from the load:
Practical experience for many years has substantially settled the most
economical size of rope to be used which is given in the table below.
Hoisting ropes are not sp!iced. as it is diiiicult to make a splice that will
nor pu!l out while running c,ver t,he sheaves, and the increased wear to be
obtained in this way is very small.
Coal is usuallv hoisted with what is commonlv called a double xhin:
that is, with a running block that is attached tothe tub which reduces the
str-ain on the rope to approximately one-half the weight of the load
hoist.ed.
Hoisting rope is ordered by circumference, transmission rope by
diameter.
FVorking Loads for ~IauJla Rope (C. W. Hunt, Trans. 9. S. ,lf. E.,
xxiii, 125.)
Diameter
of Rope.
Inches.
T
7,100
9,900
11,000
13,400
15.800
18.800
21.800
i
-.
Working Load in Pounds.
I
Minimum Dirmete- of
Sheaves in Inches.
--
Rapid. &chum. Slow. Rapid. Medium. Slow.
--_ -.-
200 490 loo0 40
250
300
380
450
530
620
In this table the work required of the rope is. for convenience, divJded
into three classes - .rapid, medium, and slow, these terms being
used in the fo!loning sense: S!ow -
sp:ed from 50 to 100 feet per minute.
Derrick. crane and quarry work;
Medium - Wharf and cargo,
holstmg 1.50 to 300 feet per minute.
minute.
Rapid - 490 to 800 feet per
The ultima&, stren-gth given in t,he table io naterially affected by the
age ano conu1t1on of a rope in active service. and also it is said to Lie
weaker when it is wet. Trautwine states that a few months of exposed
work %:eakens rope 2G to 50 per cent. The uhimate st,rength of a new
rope given in the table is the result of tests of full sized specimens of
manila rope. purchased in the open market,. and made by three inde-
pendent rope walks.
The proper diameter of pulley-block sheaves for different classes of
work gJven in the table is
the case.
a compromise of the various faotors affecting
An increase in the diameter of sheave wi!l materially increase
the life of a rope. The advantage, however, is gained by increased
difficuity of installation, a clumsiness. in handling, and an increase Jn
first cost. The best size is one that considers the advantages and the
drawbacks as they are found in practical use, and makes a fair balance
between the conflicting elements of the problem.
Records covering many years have been kept by varJous coal dea!ers,
of the diameter and cost of their rope per ton of coal hoisted from ves-
sels. using sheaves of from 12 to 16 inciies in diameter. These records
show conclusively that, in hoisting a bucket that produces 900 pounds
stress upon the rope, a l+inch diameter rope is too small and a 13/r
inch rope is too large for economy. The Pennsylvania Railroad Cornpan!
uses It/s-inch rope,. * -tinning over 14inch diameter sheaves for hoisting
freight on lighters in New York harbor, and handle on a single part of
the rope loads up to 3,000 pounds as a maximum.
handled on a [i-part tackle.
Greater weights are
Life of Hoisting and Transmission Rope. A rope 1 t/l-in. diam. usu-
ally hoist,s from a vessel from 7000 to JO.000 tons of coal, running with a
working stress of S50 to 950 lbs. over three sheaves, one 12 in., and t~wO
16-m. diam. ;n hoisting 10.000 tuns it makes 20.00,3 trips. bending Jn
that tim.e from a straight line to the curve of the sheave ll'f).lJOO times,
when it IS worn out. A 1000 ft. transmission in a tin-plate mill, with Ii/.,
in. rope, sheaves 5 ft., I7 ft., arid 36 ft. apart, center to center runs 5OOj
ft. per minute making 13,900 bends per hour, or more bendsin 9 hours
than the hoisting rope made in its entire life, yet the life of a transmission
rope is measured in years, not hours. This enormous difference in the
life of ropes of the same size and quality is wholly gained by reducing the
stresses on the rope and increasing the diameter of the sheaves.
Efficiency of Knots as a percentage of the full strength of the rope
and the factor of safety when used with the stresses given in the 5t.h ~01:
umn of the table of working loads.
KIna of Knot.
Eye splice over an iron thimble.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effy.
Shortsplceintherope.............................::: Et
Timber hitch, round turn,,half-hitch. . . . . . 65
Bow!ine slip knot., clove hitch.. . . . . . . . . .
Sqiiare knot, weavers knot sheet bend ~ . . . . . . . .
60
50
Flemish loop, overhand knot. .. . . . 45
Full strength of dry rope, average of four tests . . : .~ 100
EffJ ciencg,ofRopeTacklcs. Robert Grimshawin 1593 tested a 3:/d-im.
3-strand ordmary dry manila rope on a cat and fish t,ackle with a
6fold purchase. The sheaves were 8-in. diam.. the three upper ones hav-
ing roller bearings and the three lower ones solid bushings.
were as below:
The results
Net load on tackle, weight raised, Ibs.. . 600 800
Theoretical force required to raise the weight 100
1200
Actual force required.. . . . . . . . . .
1;;; .3 !$.7 200
158
Percentage above the .theoretical.. . . . . . . .
2S8
58 48 45.8 44
Weight and Strength of Manila Rope. Spencer i\filler (Engg Netcs,
Dec. 6, 189ti) gives a table of brealiing strength of manila rope, which he
considers more reliable than the strength computed. by Mr. Hunts formula:
Breaking strengbh=720 X (circumference in inches).2
IS: Breaking weight lbs. = circumference
Mr. Millers formula
* X a coefficient which varies
from 990 for l/s to 700 for 2 diameter rope, as below:
Circumference
Coefficient......
1 t/s 2
900 845 211s 870 2314 790
3 3 5 5
780 765 t/z 3314 766 4114 745 735725 4111 712 t/a 7060
--
ROPES AND CABLES.
ya,riet,i&s of Knots. - A great number of knots have been devised of
wtz;h a tew only are $lustrated, but those selected are the most frequently
In the cut, gig. 84, thev are shown open, or before bemg drawn
taut, in order to show the postion of the parts.
The names usually
given to them arc:
A. Bight of a rope.
B. Simple or Overhand knot.
C. Figire 8 knot.
D. Double knot..
Flemish loop.
Chain knot with toggle.
Half-hitch.
Timber-hitch.
El. Boat knot.
F. Bowline, tirst step.
G. Bowline. second step.
H. Bowline completed.
I. Squsre or reef knot.
.J. Sheet bend or weavers knot.
Ii. Sheet bend with a toggle.
ti Carrick bend.
Stevedore knot completed.
Stevedore knot commenced. N.
0. Slip knot.
Clove-1utcn.
Rolling-hitch.
Timber-hitch and half-hitch.
Blackwall-hitch.
Fishermans bend.
Round turn and half-hitch
Wrll knot commenced.
Will1 knot completed.
Wail knot crown connnenced.
Wall knot crown completed,
STRENGTR OF ROPES.
393
To Splice a Wire Rope.,- The tools required will be a small marline
sprke, mpptng cutters, anti either clamps or a smali hemp-rope sling with
&tch to ,wrap around and untwist the rope.
sible il @I be found convenient.
If a bench-vise is azces-
In spllclng rope, a certain length iS used up in malting the splice. An
allowance @f not less than 16 feet for Q-inch rope, and proportionately
longer for.iarger sizes, must be added to the length of an endless rope in
ordering.
Having measured! carefully. the length the rope should be after splicing
SINI marked the ,potnt,s ;11 and M, Fig. 8.5, unlay the strands from tacl;
el,d L and 8 to Al and M and cut off the center at M and JIM a:m then.
(1). Interlock t,he six unlajd strands of each end alternately anu draw
them together so that the points M and X meet, as in Fig. 86.
(2). zinlay a strand from one end, and following the unlav closeiv lay
into the seam pr groove it opens. the st.rand opposite it belonging to the
other end of tne rope, umil within a length equal to three or four times
the length of one lay of the rope. and cut the other strand to about the
same length from the point of meeting as at A Fig. 87.
(3). Unlay the adJacent strand in th.e opposite direction. and following
the unlay CbSelY. lay in, its place.the corresponding opposite strand, cut-
ting the ends as described before at B, Fig. 87.
There are now four strands laid in place terminating at A and B, with
the eight remaining at MM, as in Fig. 87.
It will be well after laying ca?h pair of strands to tie them temporarily
at the points A and B.
Fro. 85.
FI G. 86. FIG. 87,
FIG. 88. S~LICISG WIRE ROPE. FIG. 89.
Pursuk the same course with the remaining four pairs of opposite
: strands, stopping each pair abolut eight or ten turns of the rope short of
the
:: wp
recedtng pair, and cutting the ends as before.
e now ha.ve a.11 t.he ct.m.nriS laid in their proper places with their re-
spective ends oassinn each othe
:( All methods of rope-splicing
!r, as in Fig. 88.
::~EOflsists in the met.hnri or L..--:
are identirai to this point: their variety
ffl;;c:limg the ends. The one given below is the
;:: me most~ generally pract.,,.
3,
;;,
b Clamp the rope either in a vise at a point to the left oE A, Fig. 88. and
i
a hand-clamp applied near d,.open up the rope by untwisting suffi-
T?;: e ently to cut theaore at A. and seizing it with the nippers let an assis-
i,:.: tant draw it out slowly you following it clqsely crowding ihe strand in
$2&S
~&pus ii
Iace until it is all &id in. Cut +,- ----- rvhk thn ntrsnrl nnrln nnrl
the end back into its place. Remove L,= cLryIIxi,~ ulilU LC~ ~11~ IU~C:
~close together around it. Draw out the core in the opposite direction
and lay the other strand in th- ---L-- -= IL? rn\no in thn rnm~ morrno-
&Peat the operation at the five remanung polllb3
hghtly at the points where the ends pass each otheFG rTh I;r %?
Tath small wooden mallets, and the splice is complete as shown in Fig. 89
If a clamp and vise are nc _ . . A-.- -^-- -I:-,-- e-2 -k--L
ramden levers may he riced i:n IIIII.\lSil. YSl nT,ur ,, yLI~ IYr.
~SfXcedas a vt: wul oe nearly as
0th everywhere.
a,,~ LliD L.&&G L!FLy &Jr;
cannot
After running a few days, the sphce, If well
be found except by close esam,itiation.
ahov.z mI~~~~~.)~-~ L--- .~ ~. hrr *ho lnorlino s.fi.xn rn.,..-
materi al may no 101- 1
i A
SPRINGS.
SPRINGS.
Definitions.-.1 spiral spring is one which is vound around,a fixed
point or center. and continually receding fC@m it, hhe a watch SPnng. A
helical spring is one which is wound around an arbor, and at the same time
advancing like the thread of a screw.
made of nat bars. plates, or leaves,
.%n elliptical or laminated spring Iz
of regularly varying lengths, super.
posed one upon the other.
Laminated Steel Springs.-Clark (Rules., Tables and Data) gives
the fol!owing from his work on Rniiu;a?l Afachznery, 1855:
A _ 1.66 D.
bt3n
bt%z
s = 11.3LL
n = 1. 66 L3.
AbP
A = elasticity. o: deflection, in sixteenths of an inch per ton of load;
s = working strength, or load, in tons (2240 lbs.);
L = span, when loaded in inches:
b = breadth of plates. in inches, taken as Uniform;
t = thickness of plates, in sixteenths of an inch;
n = number of plates.
NOTE. - I. The span and the elasticity are those due to the spring
when weighted.
2. When extra thick back and short plates are used. they must be
replaced by an equivalent number of plates of the ruling thickness. prior
to the employment of the Rrst two formulae. This is found by multiply-
ing the number of extra thick plates by the cube of their thickness, and
dividing by the cube of the ruling thickness. Conversely, the number
of plates of the ruling thickness given by the third formula. required to
be deducted and replaced by a given number of extra L.li_k plates, are
found by the same calculation.
3. It is assumed that the plates are simiiarly and regularly foimed.
and that they are of uniform breadth, and but shghtly taper at the ends.
Reulenuss Constructor gives for semi-elliptic springs:
p = Snbh2
61
and
f= 6Pl3.
Enbh3
S = max. direct fiber-strain in plate;
n = number of plates in spring;
b = width of plates:
h = thickness of plates:
I = one-half length of spring:
P = load on one end of spring;
f = deflection of end of spring:
E = modulus of direct elasticity
The above formula for deflection can be relied upon where all the plates
of t.he spring are regularly shortened: but in semi-elliptic springs. a3
used, there are generally several plates extendin,. t.he fuil length of the
spring. and the proportion of these long plates t,o ihe v;hole number IS
usual!y about one-fourth.
5. 5 P23
In such cases/ = Fnbh3. (G. R. Henderson.
,
Trans. A. S. M.*E., vol. xvi.)
In order to compare the formulae of Reuleaux and Clark we may make
the following substitutions in the latter: s in tons = ~+ in Ibs. + 1120;
AS = 16f; L = 2 1; t = 16 h; then
As = lSf-
1.66 X 8 E3 x P
4096 X 1120 X nbh3
whence f = 5 5oT;,33,
9 - . \,
which corresponds with Reuleau$s formula for deflection if in the latter
we take E = 33,162,800.
Also
P
s=.=o =
256 nbhz
11.3 x 21
whence p = 12.68; nbh,
which corresponds with Reuleauxs formula for working load when S in
the latter is taken at 76,126.
Some of the 1
SPRINGS.
395
The value of E is usually taken at 30,000.000 and S at 83,000, in which
case Reuleauxs formulae become
13.033 nbh
IP= l
P13
and f = --,--~
0,000,000?aL~~
G. R. Henderson, in Trans. A. 5. .\ I . E.. vol. xvii. gives a series of
tables for use in designing both elliptical and helical springs.
Helical Steel Springs.
NOTATION. Let d = diam. of wire or rod of which the spring is made.
D = outside diameter of coil. inches.
R = mean radius of coil, = l/z (D - d).
n = number of coils.
P = load applied to the spring, lbs.
G = modulus of torsional elasticitv.
5 = stress on extreme fiber callseii by load P.
F = extension or Compression of one coil. in.. for load p.
Fn= total extension or compression, for load P.
tV = safe carrying capacity of spring, lbs.
F=64PR3. x Sd3
-is-
Fn = 64PR3n.
Gd -
w = 0.1963 Sd3
= --.
R .16R
Values of G according to different authorities range from 10,000,000 to
14,ooo.ooo.
The safe working value commonly taken for S = 60.000 lbs. per sq. in.
Taking G at 12,000,OOO and S at 60,000 the above fornuke become
F=
PR3
187,500 d
W = 11,781 $- If P = w, then F = 0.06285 %.
For s
0.59 an a
uare steel the values founti for F and W are to be multiplied by
1.2 respectively, d being the side of the square.
The stress in a helical spring is almost wholly one of torsion. For
method of deriving the formulre for springs from torsional formuire see
paper by J. W. Cluud, buns. A. S. Af. E.. vol. li3. Mr. Cloud takes
S = 80,000 and G = 12.600.000.
Taking from the Pennsylvania Railroad Specificat,ions (1891) the
cap+city when closed, WI. of tne follon-ine springs, and the total com-
pression when closed H - h, in which H = height when free and h
when closed, and assuming n = h + d. we have the following comparl-
Son of the specified values of capacity and compression with those ob-
tained from the formul=.
s .
No. I d, in.
I
-- _-
-
D D-d WI
I --
i i !
2100
8100
10000
16000
W
255
1178
1988
5890
6788
8946
-
-
--
H h
--
i ;
7
y/2
;I 4
5 314
431s 3 va
Fn. n
-
3. 20
: : I ;
2.76
::EG
- -
The value of Fn in the table is calculated from the formula with P= W;
c~
Wilson Hartnell (Pm. I nst. M. E., 1882, p. 426). says: The size of a
spiral spring may be calculated from the formula on pake 304 of Rank-
* lnez Useful Rules and Tables.
gut
but the experierce with Salters springs
hasshown that the safe limit ;f stress is more than twice as great as there
namely 60,000 to 70;OO0 Ibs. per square inch of section with z/s-jnch
and about 50,600 with I/z-inch wire. Hence the work that can be
by springs of wire is four or five times as great az RanklEe al@%
_.~~.~_,,._,, ~. ,-
:erial. may no longer be accurate~
1
396 SPRINGS.
For s&inch wire and under, .
Masimum load in lbs. = -
12,000 X (diam. of $re;
Mean radius of sprmgs
Weight in !bs. to deflect spring I in. =
150,000 X (diam.)d
Number of coils X @ad.)
The work in foot-;lounds that can be stored up in a spiral spring would
Lift, it :1bore: 50 ft,~
ARN
in a few rough! experiments made xl-i1 h Salters springs the co&icient of
rigidity was notice? to be l%GfJo.olJ~ to 13,700.1~00 v.ith l/a-inch wire;
11.000.000 for W32 Inch; and 10,600,OOO to 10,900,OOil for s/s-inch wire.
Helical Sprin.qs. .- J. Brgtrup. in the rt?tzerzcczn Blach,inist of Aug.
?8,,lS92. gives f<~;rmulas for the deHection and carrying capacity of helical
springs of round a:;d souare st.eel. as foiiow:
SrP -
1v = 0.3917 Dyd )
F = &.P (D - y
Lw
B for round steel.
Sd3
w=o.471 D-(d
F=471P(D--d)3
. I
Ed
for square steel.
Iv = carrying capacity in pounds.
S = greatest shearing stress per square inch of material,
d = diameter of steel.
D = outside diameter of coil,
F = d&?ction of one coil.
E = torsional modulus of elasticity,
P = load in pounds.
From these formulas the f&on-ir
Begtrup.
z table has been calculated by Mr.
A spring being made of nn rhtstic material, and of such shape
as t.o allow a great amount of deflection,, will not be at%cted by sudden
shocks or blows to the same extent as a rigid body. and a factor of safety
very much less than for rigid constructions may be used.
HOW TO USE THE TABLE.
When designing a spritlg for continuous work. as a car spring us& a
greater factor of safet.y than in t.he table: for intermittent work&, as in
a steam-enmne governor or safety valve: use tigures given in table; for
square steel multiply iine Iv +y 1.2 and hne F by 0.59.
Example l.- How much will a spring of 3/s round ?teel and 3 outside
d!ameter carry with safrt:?? In the line headed D we find 3, and right
underneath 473, which is rhe weight it wil: carrv with safety. How many
coils must this spring hare so as to deHect 3 &th a load of 400 pounds?
Assuming a modulus of eiasticity of 12 millions we find in the line headed
F the figure0.0610; this is deflection of one coil for a load of 100 pounds:
therefore 0.061 X 4 = 0.244 is deflection of one coil for 600 pounds load.
and 3 + 0.244 7 131/z IS t.he number of coils wanted. This spring will
therefore be 4V4" long when closed, counting working coils~ only. and
stretch to~73/4
Example Z.--A spring 3ll4 outside diameter of 7/1s* steel is wound close:
how much can it be extended without esceedine the limit of sa.f,=t.v? We
find maximum safe load for this spring to bi 701 ~~&j~-&;;h-~,&ction of
one cm1 for 100 poundsl!)ad 0.0405 inches: therefore 7.02'~ o.o4nR =0.284
$h~,reatest adrmr isible opening between coils. We may thus, dthout
g the load, ascertain whether a spring is overloaded or not
..___
Carryhw Capacity and &e&on of Helical Springs of
Round Steel.
- d!.%mete: Of siei;i.
id load in pounds - tensile stress not exceeding 60 000 pounds
D=outside diameter of coil. WI- safe work-
square inch. F = deflec;on by a load of 100 pounds df one coil
modulus of elasticity Df 12 millions,
will be about twice thesafeload.
The ultimate carrying CL
(The original table gives three
_, . _, _
ING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the rc
SPRINGS.
397
of F,,corrcsponding respectively to a modulus of elasticity of 10 13 and
14 nullions., To find va!ues of F for IO million modulus increasd the fig-
,,res here ~lven by one-sixth; for 14 mill;un subtract one-kisth.)
d
in.
. Obi
.IZ(
.!lu
%3
VII
VU
I2
Qhe
5/s
Wl,
Y4
D' 02; 0.:; 0.7; 1.00 1.25
?I-
1' 0. 02360. 3075 1. 228 X0: 3 6. 2: 4
D w 0.E7 1.25 1.50 I.75 2.00 2.25
F 0.0176
0.;; 1.;; 0.::39 2.50
0.0804 0.2191 I.$2 2.::6 3.1:7 4.:34
g, 0.;7& '.O$$ LB8 I.;;, I.;; 2.25 2.5C 2.75
F 0.0118
2.;;
0.0;50 0.07780.1460 0.24570.3828.0.;6632'0.;28rl,;:7
D 1.25
w 368
I.:;, I.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75
245 210 I84
3.00 3.25
F 0.0171 0.0333 0.0576 0.09140.1365 0.;9":40.:::5 O.&O.~~;
k '.5o605 1.75 500 2.00 426 2.25 371 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
F 0.0117 0.020710.0336 0.0508(0.;:;2 0.::2 0.::7 O.:;:, O.:%
?I 2.W5 "3, 2.E9 2X3 3.00 473 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00
F 0.0145 0.0222 0.0323 0.0452 0.0610 O.% 0.%9 0.:;:7 0.:::6
D 2.00 2.25 W 1263 1089 Z.;;, 2.;Z3 3.0;~ 3.;i2 3,z4 3.;$ 4:M).
F 0.0069 0.0108 0.0160 0.0225 0.0306 0.0405 0.0529 0.0661 O.%
2.i5 D 2.00 2.50
W
2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
1963 1683
3.75 4.00
1472 1309 II78
F
1071
0.0036 0.0057 0.0085 0.0121 0.0167 O.O222C.%8 0.%6 0.:::7
Ii 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 W 3.50 3.75 4.00 2163 4.25 1916 1720 1560 ' 1427 4.50
F
1315 1220 II37 1065
0.0048 0.0070 0.0096 0.0129 0.0169 0.0216 0.0271 0.0334 0.0406
D 2.50 2.75 3.00 W 3.25 3.50 3068 3.75 4.00 4.23 2707 2422 4.50 2191 2OOi
F
1841 1704 1587 I484
0.0029 0.0042 0.0058 0.0079,0.0104 O.Oi33 0.0168 0.0208 0.0254
D 3.00 3.25 3.50 W 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 3311 2988 2723 4.75 5.00
F
2500
2311 2151 2009
0.0037 0.00500.0066
1885 1776
0.0086 0.0108 0.0135
I
0.0165 0.0200 0.0239
D 3.00 3.25 3.50
W
3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00
4418 3976 36!5
F
3313
0.00240.0033
3058 2840 2651
0.0044 0.0057 0.0072 0.0096 0.0111 0%5 0%2
3 3.50 3.75
iV
4.00 4.25
4.50 4.75
!
6013 5490 5051 5.00 5.25 4676 4354 4073 3826 3607 5.50 ' P 0.0018 0.0024 3413
0.0030 0.0038 0.0047 0.0058 0.0070 0.0083 0.0098
)
v
3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25
9425 8560 4.50 4.75 5.00
!
5.50 ' F 7854 7250 6732 6283 5890 51544 25 0.0010 5236
0.00140.0018 0.0023 0.00280.0035 0.0043 0.0051 0.0061
'I
-
3.
I.
3.
' 0.
3.
; 0.
4.
) 0.
4.
0.
4.
O.,
5.1
0.1
5.1
I:
0.1
5i:
0.1
5;
0.1
5:
0.f
y
0.t
-
50
II3
585'
:;9
2831
:I,
196:
50
486
l22(
50
736
0682
K5
0582
!5
0366
50
591
3333
50
;;6
iE
3509
21
2367
cm
432
1728
Gil
654
0972
it:
GO5
26
0177
z4
0111
e. Am. *vach. Dec. 20, 1906, UsingBegtrups formulae. com-
e for spring,? made from wire of Roeblings or Washburn and
s, Nos. 28 to 000. .It is here given somewhat abridged.
;;esponding to a torsIona modulus of elastlclty of 12,OOO$JOO.
:z,z . . . . . -.-,-~. .~ . . .._ .i _ . .._...I. .~...~ ~..^_*.-L; __,__
zerial . may no l onger be accurate.
1
.,
;,,
- 4
398 SPRINGS.
x-ii
0.016"
imT.20 0.25
W 0.524 0.41
F 6.32 13.02
D 0.25 0.312
W 1.18 0.92
F 2.73 6.31
f.3125 0.375 0.4375 0.500 0.5625 0.62.
0.31
IO.2
0.27 0.20 0.175 0.11
47.0 0:3 115 166 230
;:;;5 0.4375 0.45 0.500 0.56 0.5625 .O.jO 0.625 0.45 0.75
11.35 18.57 28.2 40.8 56.9
0.3:
97.5
No.22
0.028'
No.20
0.035"
No.18
0.047"
D 0.25 0.312
\t? 2.35 1.84
F 1.19 2.50
D 0.25 0.312
%' 4.7 3.64
F 0.451 0.952
D 0.25 0.312
'N 12.05 9;2
F 0.1158 0.294
0.375 0.4375 0.50 0.5625
1.49
0.625 0.75
4.53
1.26 I.095 0.96 0.865
7.42 11.40 16.5 23.1
0.71
40.8
0.375 0.4375~0.50 0.5625
2.97
0.625 0.75
2.5 2.18 1.92
1.75 2.90 4.47 6.51
1.72 1.4;
9.14 16.:
0.375 0.4375 0.50
74.5
0.625 0.75 0.87:
6.57 5.40
0.488 0.824 1.320
4.23 3.48 2.95
1.870 3.96 7.85
No.14
0.08N
No.12
0.105"
D 0 625 0.75
\v ' 52.5 42.25
F 0.069 0.148
No. 8
0.162"
No. 7
0. IiT"
PTx6
0.192"
0.625 0.75 0.875
22.2 18.1 15.2
1.00 1.125 1.25
0.342 13.15 11.6 0.572 0.82 10.3!
1.27 I.86 2.60
0.875 35.4 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 30.4 2 38 2.00
0.262 19.5 0.395 16.6 14.4
0.830 1.49 2.45 3.74
Is;5 1.50 42.5 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
0.276 0.512 O.:!6 l.:'i5 I.;:0 2.::0
lj;O 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75
0.199
55.5 48.8 43.5
0.?54 0.597 I.:; 0.880 1.26
19;0 1.75 83.5 2.":: 2.25 2.50 2.75
0.156 0.265 0.416 0.:;3 0%; I.::
1.75
107
$2m5 2.2s
0.185 0284 O.:iO
r&;
D
No. 4
0.225
F 0.081 0.135
; '.,'Xo 1.25
F O.&o 0%:
"w '.pPg 1.25 122
F 0.9382 0.0821
g I.;;0 1.50
I28
F 0.0512 0.108
; Kg5 1.75 131
F 0.08200.139
No.2
0.263"
No. I
0.283"
; $5; 1.75 290
E 0.02640.045.
% '%I 2.0a 310
F 0.0328 0.05%
g l.Eo 2.O0
F 0.0308 O.%
I
$2 2.g
0.218 0.321
2.00 2.25
150 132
c.147 0.220
"i: 2.25 215
I.0730 0.109
2.2; 2.50
.0778 oTZ2
2.50 '2.75 3.00
88.5 80
0.412 0.6175 0.;:
2.50-.2.,7' 3.;
118
0.303 0.412 0.652
2.50 2.17'5 3.00
192 156
0.154 0.214 0.274
2.75 3$15 3.25
215
0.155 0.208 0.z
$;' LS; 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
280
.0548 0.0788 0.109 o.2;5409 o.% 0.2::
3.25
1.::
3iit5
0.715
3.25
O.Fl
3.50
165
0.344
0.75 0.8z
0.13 C.!I
402 695
0.875 1.00
0.61 0.53
~6.0 99.5
0 875 1.00
I xl 1.05
6.4 4O.ti
1.00 1.125
2.85 2.27
2.60 13.5
1.50 1.75
8.52 7.25
5.48 7.57
2.25 2.50
12.7 11.4
5.45 7.34
=ig5 3.00
1.58 4.2::
I.00 3.25
ZE 2.z
I.00 3.25 ,
:5: IT22
1.25 3.50
i5.5 50
.38 1.74
i.50 4.0
J1.5 53.5
1.34 2.2-I
10 find deflection of one c
WARNI NG: This is a 19?0 edition. Some of the
SPRINGS TO RESIST TORSIONAL FORCE.
399
ELLIPTICAL SPRINGS, SIZES, AND PROOF TESTS.
Pennsylvatia Railroad Specifications, 1896.
Class.
E 13, Dozble.
E14, . .._

E IS, Quac+ple
E 16,
E 17. Double.
E 18. Single t _.
E 2 Double.
E21; * ::::
;g, I .~..
1
E 24: * ::::
03 I
2
ZG
Plates,
No. Size. In
CL2
Ins. high. Ibs.
-2
(a) (b)
SW
-
Ins. Ibs.
(a)
:
5,500
:
8,000
8,000
0
2,350
. . .
. . . . .
:
6,000
:
10,Ol O
12,200
: 3%
I l/4 I~,:750
1114 9,500
--
i
;.9
;a
I
-T
2
. .
.
. . .
. . .
. .
. . .
"..
ii
2
. .
.
2
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
L'
(a) Between bands: (b) over all: a.p.t. a:lxiliary plates to thing.
:,
* Between bottom of eye ?,nd top of le$f.
t Semi-el1iptici.i.
&j;
Tracings are furnished for each class of spring.
SPRINGS TO RESIST TORSIONAL FOBCE.
(Reuleauxs Cw&wfor.)
spiral or helical spring P = { y;
nd helical spring, . . P = $$ $:
@and bar, in torsion.. . . P = p6 2:
atbar,intorsion.......p =s
bZh2 3PR21 b2+ nr
3R diy+ h2
: fs:R&xG- *
b3h3
rce applied at end of radius or lever-arrr, R: 4 = angular motion
radius R; S = permissible maximum Ptress, = 4/5of permissible
flexwe: E = modulus of elasticity i,n tension: G = torsional
= 2!5 E; 1 = developed length of spiral, or length of bar; d 9
of unre; b = breadth of Bat bar; h := thickness,
re Elastic Resktasce to Torsion, p. 311.
~~~-~,-.,,~,- _..--
laterial~ may no l onger be accurate
400
SPRINGS.
HELICA
(Selected
.L SPRINGS-SIZES AND CAPACITIES.
from Specifications of Penna. R. R. Co.; 1899.)
E 451/a
IJ426
3 201/3
45X$
25 l/4
32531i2
j 180
99112
488
! :923ja
I 96
I 755/a
! ';;",$I6
?4
!
1535/a
I
15112
81 I!?
59
7611
4651
2731.
2271,
47
2811,
2;:;:
D3ii
903/,
?53/i/q
~25/1
ml/?
7291,
a5116
2131~
;; l/2
)3
14 7/s
'7314
,73/4
13X/?
'9314
:31/z
:z 5r'a
6 314
0 31s
I i/a
;:I
04
23h
: 7!5
2718
5
4 V?
l /4
37/a
)3/4
)l!z
13/4
i I 2
'?lS
s/a
112
;p
8 8
8114
I8
7.5/l,
5314
107/a
16
971!,
IOVa
81/?
121/ 4
8Q
&
8
8 l / J 2
f Va
0 i / g
3 314
41,'8
5118
918
R l/4
9
7%
91/a
:1/v
831;
8l/4
4s/,
6 314
7 318
5 / a
i l l a
6 Il./;
7 3/a
5 3i4
5 3/ a
; 316
k,,
8%
7 I 2
3 s/a
3 ==/I
j 112
6%
5314
:
5 l /2
j 314
5518
j 314
636
; I16
6 13111
7 l / 4
151/z
6 3/8
53/16
8 518
8 713
6 114
j 5,a
8 7la
7 f . 2
8 illa
6 13 15
8
16 15114 IO
5%
73/a
5
6I3116
6
I8 14
2
52:,
53/a 33;s
9318
I(
1 :I
<
3;
I f
; ;
I7
:;
:i
::
361
451
17'
601
46:
601
501
45i
74(
4M
~I071
;;i
50(
81:
73:
14 4
47! a
87116
6 l/E
3 314
8
43/l ,
5 , 3312 8 i/16 :v4
7112
,
63/a
1
L
I 1
-
. _
-
* The subscnpt I means the outside coil of a concentric grou
sht er : 2 and 3 are inner coils. _ ~~.
~, ~~.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
RIVETED JOINTS.
401
Wilfred Lewis (Engs. Club Phila., 1887)
ot phosphor-bronze dire 0.12 in.
diameter, ll/? in. diameter from.center to center, making 52 coils.
Such a sprmg of Steel. accordmg to the practice of the P. R. R., might
be used for 40 Ibs.
set. With a l@d of
A load ?f 30 Ibs. gradually applied gave a permanent
21 lb?. m 30 hours the spring lengthened from 20~1s
inches to 21 l /8 mhes, and ln 200 hours to 21 I !4 inches.
that 21 Ibs. was too great for durability.
It was concluded
For a given load the extension
of t,he bronze spring was just double the extension of a similar steel
spring, that 1s. for the same extension the steel spring is twice as strong.
Chromium-Vanadium Spring Steel. (Pm. Inst. iv. E., 190-1. pp
1263, 1305.) -A spring steel containing C, 0.44: Si.,O.17:3: Xn, 0.837; Cr,
1.044: Ve. 0.188 was made into a spriqg with dimensions as follows: length
unstretched 9.6 in., mean diam. of coils (D) 5.22: No. of coils (?a) 4: diam.
of wire, (d) 0.561. It was tempered m the usmi \iay.
lt showed signs of permanent set at about 1900 lbs.
When stretched
Compared wirith two
springs of ordinary steels the following formulae are obtained:
Load at which Permanent Set begins. Extension for a load W.
Chrome-Vanadium Spring. . .56,300 d/D 14~. nnD2 + i ,468.OOO d:
West Rrornwich Sprmg. _ . . .28,400 ds/D
Turton & Platt Surinc:. . . . . . . 44.200 (/3/D
WnZY + 1,57.5,000 d4
WTLD3 + 1,331,~00 d4
Test of a Vanadii.n~steel .SpAng. (Circular of the American Vana-
dium Co., 1908). - Comp,rative tests of an ordinary carbon-steel loco-
motive flat spring and of a vanadium-steel spring, made by the American
Locomotive Co., showed the following: The vanadium spring, on 36-in.
centers tested to Y+,OOO ibs.. reached its e1asti.c limit at 85,000 Ibs., or
234.000 tbs. per sq. m. fiber stress! and a permanent set of 0.18 in. The
test was repeated three times without change in the detlection. The
carbon spring wa,s tested to 89,280 tbs. and reached an eiastic iimit at
65,000 lbs., or 180,000 tbs. fiber stress, with a permanent set of 1.12 in.
On repeating the test it took an additional set of 0.25 in.. and on the next
test several bf the plates failed.
RIVETED JOINTS.
l Fairhsirns Experiments. - The earliest published experiments on
rlveted joints are contained in the memoir by Sir W. Fairbairn in the
Transactions of the RoYal Society. Making certain empirical allow-
ances, he adopted the following ratios as expressing the relative strength
of riveted joints: Sold plate........................... 100
Double-riveted joint.. . . . . . . . . . . 70
_^
Single-riveted iOin Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . so
These celebrated ratios appear to rest on a very unsatisfactory analysis
of the experiments on which they were based.
Loss of Strength in Punched Plates. (Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881.)-
A,report by Mr. W. Parker and Mr. John, made in 1878 to Lloyds Com-
nuttee, on the effect of punching and drilling, showed that thin steel
plates lost comparatively little from punc+ing. but that in thick
P
lates
the loss was vefv considerable. The followmg taole
Plates punched ind~ not annealec -- ---efl:
* gives the resu ts for
Thickn-ss of elates. . . . , .
L 1~Ciall--.
114 3/s 314
Lossoitenacity,percent..:::::::::::::: 8 18 .?2 33
When T/s-in. punched holes were reamed out to Ills in. diameter. the loss
of tenacity disappeared, and the plates carried as high a stress as drilled
Plates. Annealing also restores to punched plates their original tenacity.
The Report of the Research Committee of the Institution of Xechanical
Enpineers, on Riveted Joints (1881). and records of investigations bY Prof.
A. B. W. Kennedy (1881. 1882,
and 1885), summarize the existing in-
i, formatton regarding the comparative effects of punching and drilling
upon iron and steel plates. An examination of the voluminous tables
,I Bven in Professor Unwins Report, of the experiments made on iron and
_ steel plates. leads to the general conclusion that. while thin plates. even
I, of steel, do not super very much from punching. yet in those of V2inch
,j,., thickness and upwards the loss of tenaci.tY due to punchmg ranges from
8 .,lO%
steel.
to 23% in iron plates, and from 11% to 33% in the case of mild
In drilled plates there is no appreciable loss of strength. Ii 1s
402 RIVETED JOINTS.
possible to remove the bad effects of punching by subsequent reaming or
annealing. The mtrodsxtion of a practicable method of drilling the
plating of ships and .other structures, after it has been bent and Shaped
1s a matter of great importance, In the modern Enghsh practwe (1x873
of the construction of steamYbollers wth steel plates punchmg is.almoSt
entirely abohshed, and all rivet--holes are dnlled after the plates have
been bent to the desired form.
Strength of Perforated Plates.
lSs6, p. 1.55.) -Tests were made to
(P. D. Bennett, Engg, Feb. 12
determine the relative effect pro:
duced upon tensile strength of a fat bar of iron or steel: 1. By a s/+inch
hole dr1lled.t.o the required size: 2. By a hole punched 1/s inch smaller
and then dr1hed to the size of the first hole: and, 3. By a hole punched in
the bar to the size of the drilled hole. The relative results in strength
per square inch of original area were as follows:
,r-, ..f
.,..pe, orated bar..
Perforated by drilling..
Perforated by punchmg and drilling
P&orated by punching only.. _. _.
1.
I
2.
I
yox& I Iron.
1.000
1%
I.012
I.008
0.795 0.894
-1
Steel. ISteel.
1.000 I.000
1.068
1.059 %
0.935 0.927
In tests 2 an? 4 the holes were filled with rivets driven by hydraulic
pressure. The mcrease of strength per square inch caused by drilling is
a pheno;nenon of similar nature to that of the increased strength of a
grooved bar over that of a straight bar of sectional area equal to the
smaiiesi section of the grooved bar. Mr. Bennetts tests on an iron bar
O.&l in. diameter, 10 in. long, and ~> similar bar turned to 0.54 in. diam-
et.er at one point only. showed that the relative strength of the latter to
the former wa,s 1.323 to 1.000.
Comparative Efficiency of Riveting done by DifPerent Metilods.
The Report,s of Professors Cnwin and Kennedy to the Institution of
Mechamcai Engineers (Proc. 1881, 1582, a,nd 1855) tend to establish the
four following points:
h-;
1. That the shearing resistance of rivets is not highest in joints riveted
----- -c tL-^ --eatest pressure:
imate strength~pf joints is not affected to an appre-
J LIcG:LLII> I Lilt: 6,
2. That the ulti
ciable extent by the mone 01 nretlng: and, therefore.
3. That, -Jery great pressure upon the nrets in riveting is not the in-
dispensable requirement that it has been sometunes supposed to be:
4. That the most serious defect of hand-riveted as comnarcd with
machine-riveted work consists ir 1 the fact that in hand-riveted ioints
visible slip commences at a comparatively small load, tl1us giving such
lo1nt.s a low value as regards tightness, and possible also rendering them
liable. t,o failure under sudden strains aft~er slip has once commenced.
The follo+g figures of mean results give a comparative view of hand
and hydraulic riveting, as regards their ultimate strengths in joints, and
the periods at wl1ich in both cases visible slin commenced.
--
Total breaking load. Ton?.
f Hand.. ..........
i Rydrauli.
66.01 82.16 149.2 193.6
...
....... 85.75 82.70 145.5 183.1
Load at which visible slip be.Tan
J Hand.. .......... 21.7 25.0
( Hydraulic ....... 47.5 53.7
N:; ;Y;
1 I I I I
Some of the Conclusions of th;o~zynittee of Research on Riveted
-.
(PTOC. I nst. M. E.: April, 1855.)
Ihe conclusions refer to :!,ints made in soft steel plate nith steel rivetsi
the holes dnlled, and the plates in-tl1eir natural stat,e (unannealed).
The rivet or shearing area has been assumed to be that of the holes not
the area of the rivets themselves. The strength of the metal in the joint
has been compared with that of strips cut from the same plates.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
,-.-
Some of
RIVETED JOINTS. 403
The metal between the rivet-holes has a considerablv ereater tensile
resistance per square inch than tt1e &perforated meial. This excess
te11acity amounted to niore t.han 20y0, both i11 s/s-inch and slrinch plat,es,
,rhen the pitch of the rivet was about 1.9 diameters. I11 ott1er cases s/s-inch
plate gave an $scess of 15% at fracture with a pit,ch of 2 diameters, of
i6y0 n-1t,l1 a pitch of 3.6 diameters, and of 6.6YG, with a pitch of 3.9
fiij;;;lfe;~tt?;~.; aiid 3/a-lnctl plate gave 7.87; excess wit~l1 a. pitch of 2.5
In single-riveted joints it may be taken that :111o11t 32 tons per square
lach is the shearing resistance of rivet steel. xt1en the pressure on the
rivets does 110,t exceed about 40 tons per square i11ch. in double-riveted
joit;&. Tvith rivets of about s/+ch diameter. most of the experiments
g;?ve about 2-I tons pe- square inch as the shearing resistance, out the
joints in one series went at 2 t~ons. [Tons of 22.:~ Ibs.]
The ratio of shearing resisnmce to tenacity is not constant, but dimin-
ishes very nmrkedly and not very irregularly as the teuacity mcreases.
The size of the rivet heads and ends plays a most important part in the
s:rength of t.he joirus -- at any rate in the case of single-riveted joints.
An increa,;e of about one-t~hird in the weight of the riret,s (all this increase,
of course, going to the heads and ends) wa; found to add about S1/ayO to
the resistance of the joint: the plates remaining unbroken at t.he full
shearing resistance of -22 t~ons per square inch, instead of tearing at a
shearing stress of only a little over 20 tons. The additio:lal strength is
orobably due to the prevention of the distortion of the nlates bv the
&at tensile stress in the rivets.
The intensity of bearing pressure on t,he rivet exercises. with joints
proportio11ed in the ordinary way. a very important influence on their
strength. So long as it does not exceed 40 tons per square inch (meas-
wed on the project,ed area of the rivets). it does not seen~j to affect their
strengt.11: but pressures of 50 to 5.5 tons per square inch seem to cause
IL _:___.&^ 1,.
&,,e IIVCL~ bu shear in most cases at ., -tresses va.r:.ing from 16 to 1S tons
per square inch. For ordi:lary joints. wl1ich are to be made equally
strong in plate and in rivets, t,he bearing pressure should therefore rob-
ably not exceed 42 or 43 tons per square inch. For double-riveTed utt- R
joints perhaps, as v:ill be not,eil Ia%, a higher pressure may be ailowed,

z. as the shearing stress ma,y probably not be more than 16 or 18 tons per
square inch when the plate t.ears.
A margin (or net distance from outside of holes to edge of plate) equal
to the diameter of tt1e drilled hole has been found sufficient in all cases
hitherto t,rled.
To attain the maximum streneth of a ioint.. t,he breadt,h of Ian must be
such as to prevent it from breaking zigzag.~~it~has been found that the
net metal measured zigzag should be froin 30% to 35% in excess of that
measured straight across; in order to insure a straight fracture. This
Corresponds t,o a diagonal pitch of s/3 p + d/3, if p be the straight pitch
and d the diameter of the rivet-hole.
Visible slip or give occurs always in a riveted joint at a point ver
much below its breaking load, and by no means proportional t.o that loa 2 .
A collation of the results obtained in measuring bhe slip indicates that it
depends upon then number and size of the rivets in the joint, rather than
upon anything else; and that it is tolerably constant for a given size of
, rivet in a given type of joint. The loads per rivet at which a joint will
commence to slip visibly are approdmately as follows: ,~
,
4Z.~~. <
.$
1, .Bameter of Rivet.
;!;~--
Type of Joint. Riret~icg.
1: ,
,$p
1
.;g 3/4 inch Hand
g:;,:
314 *
Single-riveted
Double-riveted Hand
314 Doubte-riveted
: inch Single-rivet,ed
p;ine
.
Double-riveted Hand
I
1
Double-riveted Machine
Slippin#L~d per
2.5 tons
.O,d.;, tons
3.2 tons
4.3 tons
8 to 10 tons
4G4 RIVETED J OINTS. RIVETED J OINTS.
405
To fin,1the probshle load st which ajoint of nny breadth will Commence
to slip, mUltiply the number of rivets in the given breadth by the proper
fiellre taketl from the last column of the table above. The aljove figures
a;i not eivrn as exact: but thev reoresent the results of the e ,xperiments.
T!,e esperin1ent.s point to si&pl& ruies for the proportioning of joints of
masimi;nr strenzth. Assuming that a bearing pressure of 43 tons Der
ln ,doUhi,r-riveted hu+joints it is impossible to tlrvetop the fu!!
shearltlg resistance of the Jomt without getting excessive bearing pressure.
becsusr: the shexmg area is doubled withocit increasing the a,rra on which
ttle pressure acts. Considering only the plate resistance and the bearing
pressure, and ta!$ing this latter as 45 tons per square iwh, the best pitch
,vo~~ttl be about 4 times the diumetrr 01 t!!e hoI?. \Ve may probably say
with some certainty that a pressure of from 45 to 50 ton per s.c!llare inch on
tp.e rivets yi!l ,:a,!se &.arinz to t-x-,
iflcll.
ARC phm at from i 6 ir, !~h Low per square
\Vortting out tlw equations as Iwftrrt:. I)llt aiio\virw (:s~s.s str~~llxtll
of only 5% on account of the large pitch, \ve tint1 that the lxo:;ortionj of
double-riveted butt-joints of mssimum strength, under given aonditions,
are those of the following table:
Double-riveted Butt-joints.
sq,,are incit m:l,G~be atlo\~ed on-the rivet. and tlr;t the excess tenacity of
t!ic$ piat? is lo.:; of its original strength. t,!le following tabie elves the
ralr~es of the ratios of diameter !f of !m!c to i:iickiie~~ 1 of plate id i t),
and of pitch p to diameter of hole (2, i d) in joints of maximum StFeagth
in 3/8-iUchplate.
For Sin&-riveted Plates.
Ori~innt Tenacity of / Shenrinrr Resistance
Plate. of Rivets. Bearing Pres-
sure. Tons pe,
sq. In.
Ratio I Ratio
Original Ten- Shearing Re-
acity of Pta;te. sisttnce of
To1s Yf sq. n
Ratio.
Plate Area
Rivet Area
Ratio.
dtt
Ratio.
p+d
d
t
:E
d Tons per Lbs. per Tons per/ L!~)s. per
Sq. In. Sq. In. sq. In. 1 zq. In.
2.48
2.48
2.28
2.28
2.30
2.40
El
E
0.713
0.690
1.80 3.85
i:;: El:
1.70 4.27
::i 4.20 4.42
30
::
28
/
(
/
I
This table show that, the fliameter of the hole shotild be 21/s times the
thickness of the p!at,e. and t.he piwh of the rivet.s 23/s times the diameter
of the hole. Also. it makes t!le mean plate area 71% of the rivet area.
If a smaller rivet Ix used than that here specified. the joint wit! not be of
uniiorm. and therefore not of maximum, strewth; but with any other
size of rzvet the best reslilt wilt be got by use of the pitch obtained from the
simple formula p = a&/l + d. where, as before, d is the diameter of the
Prxticatty, therefore, it may be said that we get a double-riveted butt-
jpint of masimum strength hy making the diamefer of hole about 1.S
times the thickiws of the Dtnte. and making the Ditch 4.1 times the
diameter of t.he hoIt?. -
The proportions just given belong to .joint,s ot maximum strength.
But in a boiler the one part of the joint, tile plate. is much more affected
by time than the other part, the rivets. It !s therefore not unreasonable
to estimate the percentage by which the iplates might be weakened by
corrosion. etc.. before the boi!er would be untib for use at its moper
hole.
The value of the constant a in this equation is as follows:
For 30-ton plate and Z-ton rivets, a = 0.524
. . 28 . . 22 . . II *. 0.5.58

.c ;; 1:
11 24 * 0.570
I 34 '( ai ** .- 0.606
steam-pressure; and to add correspondingly to the ptat,e area.
z~ .~
Probably
the best thing to do in this case is to proportion tlie joint,. not for the
actual thickness of plate, but for a nominal thicklwss less than the actual
~by the assumed percentage. In this case the joint will be approximately
one of uniform strength by the time it has reached its final ivorkable
condition; up to which time the joint as a whole will not really have been
Weakened, the corrosion only gradually bringing the strength of the plates
down to that of rivets.
n
Or, in the mean, the pitch p = 0.56 $ + d. Witch too small rivets this
gives Ditches often considerably smaller in proportion than 2318 times the
diameter.
For donhle-riveted lap-joints a similar calculation to that givea
above, butt with a somewhat smaller allowance for excess tenacity,, on
accounts of the large dist,ance between t,he rivet-holes, shows that for Joints
of maximum. strength the ratio of diameter to thickness shou!d remaln
precise!~ as in single-riveted joints: white the ratio of pitch to diameter
of hole should be 3.64 for 30-ton plates and 22 or 24 ton rivets, and 3.82
for 2s.t-- yates :?$t!, !~he same e*..rets.
Htre. .=t!l! more than in the former case. its is likely that the pres:riiLV
size of riv,? may often be inconveniently large. In this w.se the diameter
of rivet shol:ld be taken as large as possthte; and the st.rongest joint for
a @-Ten t!licttness of p!at,e and diameter of hole can then be obtained by
using the pitch given by the equation p =ad?/l + d. where the values of
the constant a for different strenet~hs of plates and rivet,s may be taken
as follows. for any thickness of plate from s/s to s/d-inch:
F,yr ;G&-tn plate ayd $-ty? r!YFts
}p - 1.16?+ d;
Efficirnries of J oints.
The average results of experiments by the committee gave: For double-
dveted lap-.joints in s&inch plat.es. efficiencies ranging from 67.1% to
81.2%. For double-riveted butt-joints (in doubie shear) 61.4% to 71.3%.
These low results were probably due to the use of very soft steel in the
nvets. Far +nla~ri.dnA {apmjoints of
-..o.c . . . CYC
Paded from 54.5% to 60.8%.
T.Q~;O~S ,<iill~rlsions the efidcncics
The shearing resistance of steel did not in-
Crease nearly so fa,st. as its tensile resistance. With very soft steel. for
Instance, pf only 26 tons tenacity, the shearing resistance was about 80%
.~ Of the tensile resistance, whereas with very hard steel of 52 tons tenacity
: the shearing resistance was only somewhere about 65% of the tensile
; resistance.
.ProPOrtions of Pitch and Overlap of Plates to Diameter of Rivet-
Hole and Thickness of Plate.
(Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy, PTOC. Inst. M. E., April, 1885.)
30 * a, 22 - . p=1.06;+&
t = thickness of plate:
d = diameter of rivet (actual) in parallel hole;
p = pitch of rivets, center to center.
s = space between lines of rivets;
I = overlap of plate.
28
MARNING: Thi s
.
24
-ii a 1910
L
P=
editi Some of the material.may no longer be accurate
RIVETED JOINTS. 407 406 RIVETED JOINTS.
The pitch is as wide as is allowable without impairing the tightness of
the joint under steam.
For smgle-riveted lap-joints in the circular seams of boilers which have
double-riveted longitudinal lap-joints.
(1) Lloyds Rules. (2) Liverpool Rules. (3) English Dock-yards.
(4) French Ventas. (5) Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insur-
ance Co., d.ouble-riveted lap-joints.
(7) F. E. Cardullo.
(6) Ditto, tripleriveted butt-joints.
(i/la less than diam. of hole.)
Calculated Efnciencies - Steel Plates and Steel Rivets. - The
feiion-ing table has been caicuiated bY the author on the assumptions that
the ercess st,rength of the perforated plate is 1070, and that the shearing
strength .of the rivets per square inch is four-fifths of the tensile strength
,,f the plate (or, if no allowance is made tar excess strength of the perfo-
rdted plate that. the shearing strength is 72.7;0 qf the tensile strength).
If t = thickness of plat.e, d = dia,meter of rivet-hole, p = pitch, and 2 =
tensile strength per square inch, then for single-riveted plates
d.=t X2.25,:p=dx2.25~~tX5(nesrly):Z=tX6.
For double-nveted lap-joints:
d = 2.25t; p = St; s = 4.51; 1 = 10.5t.
-
Single-riveted Joints. Double-riveted Joints.
d P 1
t Id I p I s 12
3/1%
114
511%
318
711%
112
9th
711% 1511% I is 311%
Q/l% I 114 IV? l/4
%a 1 %I16 1718 5/l%
13/l% I 718 2114 318
I 2s/, 711%
118 3 la
1114 3 318 B/l,
-
71s 2
1311%
Ill2
2314
1314
3313
4
2
2114
2%
;z
5%
(p - d)t X 1.102 = i d?X $ T. whence p=O.571 $ + d.
For double-riveted lap-joints, p = 1.142 7 + d.
The coefficients 0.571 and 1.142 agree closely with the averages pi those
given in the report of the committee of the Institution of Mechamcai En-
gineers quoted on page 404. ante.
- -
,,
2
2
G
--
in.
Vl%
3/M
/a
114
VIII
511%
%a
3/s
318
3la
711%
11%
711%
711%
Pitch.
-- -
Efficiency. Pitch. Efficiency.
--
in.
7/l%
II2
I/2
911%
911%
5,8
Ii%
5/8
314
1/B
5f8
3!4
7/8
I
in.
314
7/8
1
1118
314
718
I
1I18
1114
314
7/8
I
1I/8
1l/4
-
With these proportions and good workmanship there need be no fear of
leakage of steam through the riveted joint.
The net diagonal area, or area of plate, along a zigzag line of fracture
should not he less than 30% in excess of the net are& straight across the
joint, and 35% is better.
i\lr,, Theodore Cooper (R. R. Garclle,~ Aug. 22. 1890)~, referring to Prof.
Kennedys statement quoted above, gives as a suHictentlY approsimate
rule for the proper pitch between the rows in staggered riveting, o.ntL-half
of the pitch of the rivets in a row plus one-quarter the diameter of a
rivet-hole.
. .
Test of Double-riveted Lap and Butt J oints.
(Proc. Inst. M. E., Oct.ober, 1888.)
Steel plates of 25 to 26 tons per square inch T. S.. steel rivets of 24.6
tons shearing strength per sauare inch.
in. in.
1.020 I.60
I.261 2.02
I.071 I.64
1.285 2.001
1.137 1.71:
1.339 2.05:
I.551 2.4li
I.218 I.811
1.607 2.46:
2.041 3.20(
I.136 1.64:
1.484 2.21;
1.869 2 86
2.305 3.611
5%
60.5
53.3
56.2
50.5
53.3
55.7
$3
5' I
2:'
L
53.5
56.6
797
75.3
69.6
72.0
67.1
69.5
71.5
65.5
69.5
72.7
62.0
66.2
69.4
72.3
6%
66.6
:i:II
60.3
64.0
67.0
69.5
71.5
57.0
61.5
2;
69.5
in.
2.03
5%
4.01
I.89
2.42
3.03
:::;
1.77
;:i:
:::i
56.2
43.2
47.0
E
2;
2;
50.7
53.3
__
.
Kind of Joint.
Thipcfjr of Diameter of
Rivet-holes.
318
3/8
314
3!4
314
314
Lap ................
Butt ...............
Lap. ...............
Lap ................
Butt ...............
Butt ................
Lap ................
Lap ................
E=dii ...............
3.62 3.93 :i:;
2.82 68.0
3.41 4.00. ::::
2 63.0 76.1
3:;; 70.2
76.!
Apparent Shearing Resistance of Rivet Iron and Steel.
(Proc. Inst. M. E., 1879, Engme&ng, Feb. 20, 1880.)
: The true shearing resistance of the rivets cannot be ascertained from
., experiments on riveted joints (1) because the uniform distribution of the
~ ioad to all the rivets cannot be insured; (2) because of the friction of the
): P
iates, which has the effect of increasing the a parent resistance to shear-
ag In an element uncertain in amount. Pro E ably in the case of singie-
:~ riveted joints the shearing resistance is not much affected by the frmtion.
Fairbairns es,oeriment~s show that a rivet is 6t/?% weaker in a Wed
:, .b.ii in a punched hoie. By rounding the edge of the rivet-hole. the
ii: apparent shearing resistance is increased 12%. Messrs. Greig and EYtb s
experiments indicate a greater resistance of the rivets in punched holes
apparent shearing resistance is less for double than far single
is probably due to unequal distribution of the We% Oil the tw9-
..~.,.,_:
Dlameter of Rivets for Different Thicknesses of Plates.
- -
v2 s/l% / 518 lllil%l 3/4 13hai 713 115/1%1
-
314
1311%
314
1
a 1910 edition. Some of
318
- -
5/8
5/B
518
:jJ
314
v2
518
3/4
314
5i8
15/l%
718
9ha
Thickness 5,re
of Plate.
I
DiWl. (I). .I 5/8
Diam. (2). 5/%
Diam. (3).. I/2
Diam. (4).. .__...
is th
.
,,~, ,,, ,~,:,~ ,i,~,i ,,
408
RIVETED JOINTS.
The shearing resistance of a bar, when sheared in @rCUmStanCoTsh;hii;
prevent friction, is usually less than the tenacity 01 the bar.
.
lnwinn results show the decrease:
Barkort, iron. . . . Teriazity, ;6$ Shea$ng, 16.5
Ratio, 0.62 .I
Lavalley. iron. .
,2reig aii(, E>-$t,, iiOii, 22.2 :9::
.I
;:;;
Greig and Eyth. steel
8.8 1: 22.; *I 0.77
1,1 \vijlllers researcllrs (in 1870) the shearin
to be four-hftlls of tlk tenacity.
g strength of iron n-as found
Later resexches ,oi Bauschlnger co,,-
hrm this result genem!,!y., but they show that for !ron the ratio of the
shearing resistanc-
o and tenacity Lleprncls on tbe direction of the stress
relatively to the tlirection Of rolling. The above ratio is valid onlv if the
shear ia in a plane perpendicular to the direction of rolling, and if the
tension is applied parallel to the direction of rolling. If the plane of shear
is parallel to the breadth of the bar. the resistance is only half as great
as in a plane perpendicular to the hbers.
THE STRENGTH OF EIVETED J OIATS.
Joint of Maximum Efficiency. - (F. E. Cardullo.) If a riveted joint
is made wit.h suthcient lap. and a proper distance between the rows of
rivets, it will break in one of the three following ways:
i. By tearing the plate along a line, through the Outer row of rivets.
2. By shearing the rivets.
3. By crllshing the plate or the rivets.
Let 1 = the thickness of the main plates.
d = the diameter of the rivet-holes.
f = the tensile strength of the plate in pounds per sq. in.
s = the shearing strength of the rivets in pounds per sq. in. when
in single shear.
n = the distance between the centers of rivets of the outer row
(see Figs.90 and 91) =the pitch in single and double lap riveting=twice
Fro. SO. Fro. 91.
TRIPLE RIIFTINC. QUADRUPLE RIYEI.IN~.
the pit,ch of the inner rows in triple butt strap riveting, in which sl$
nste rivets in the outer row are omitted, = four times the pitch in
ruple butt strap riveting. in which the outer roxv has one-fourth 0 the t -
number of rivets of the two inner rows.
sq. in.
c = the crushing strength of the rivets or plates in pounds Per
n = the n:mber of rivets in each group in single shear. (A gK$tP
is the number of rive& on one side of a joint corresponding to the dt*
tanre ,p: = ? rivet in single riveting, 2 in double riveting, 5 in triple
butt strap riveting. and 11 in quadruple butt strap rivebing.)
nz = the mimber of nvets m each eronn in do.....- ~~hln shear.
s = the shearing strength of rivets in double shear, in pounds per
sq. in.. the rivet section being counted once.
T = the strength of the plate at the weakest section. = ff (P - f)*
rnxl
S = the strength of the rivets against shearing, = 0.7854s (m+
-.-- I.
C = the strength of the rivets or the plates against crushing, .~-:
dlc (72 + ml.
WARNING:~.Thi~s-~ is-a 1910 edition.
THE STRENGTH OF RIVETED JOINTS.
409
In order that the joint shall have the greatest strength possll;le the
tearing. shearing, and crushing strength must al! be equal. In order t,o
make It so,
1. Substitute the known numerical valnes, equate the expressions for
sl;e&ng~ ,+l,:l crus!llng strength, and ilnd t!le va!ue of (1. taking it to the
The eilieiency of a riveted joint, in tearing, shearing and crushing, is
eqtial to ttie t,earing. shearing or crushing strength, divided by the quan-
t1t.v ftp. or t.be strength of the solid plate.
The eibciency in tearing is also equal to (p - d) + p.
The maximum possible efficiency for a well-designed joint is
E=
m +n
m +n +(f-t-c)
Empirics.1 forml@a for the diameter of the rivet-hole when the crush-
lng strength is unknown. Assnming that c = 1.4 f, and s = 1.75 S, we have.
by equating C and S, and substit,uting,
d = I.7821 f(n + m,
S(fL + 1.75 rn) .
Margin. The distance from the center of any rivet-hole to the edge of
the plate should be not less than ? t/stl. The distance between txvo sdja-
cent rivet centers should be not less than 2d. It is better to increase
each of these dimensions by r/s in.
The distance between the rows of rivets should be such that the net
section of plate material along any broken diagonal through the rivet-
holes should be not less than 30 per cent greater than t,he plate section
along the outer line of rivets.
The thickness of the inner cover strap of a butt joint should be 3/4 of
the thickness of the main plate or more. The thickness of the outer strap
shonld be 5/s of the thickness of the main plate or more.
Steam Tightness. It is of great importance in boiler riveting that
the joint be steam tight. It is therefore necessary that the pitch of the
nvets nearest to the talked edge be limited to a certain function of the
thickness of the plate. The Board of Trade rule for steam tightness is
p =a f isi8 in.
where p = the maximum allowable pitch in inches.
! = the thickness of main lare in inches.
C = a constant from the fo lowmg table. P
No. of Rivets per Group..
Lap Joints.. _. _. C= I!31 2T62 3% 4414
5
Double-strapped Joints.. C= 1.75 3.50 4.63 5.52 b:bO
The pitch should not exceed ten inches under any circumstances.
~ When the joint has been designed for strength, it should be checked hy
(he above formula. Should the pitch for strength exceed the pitch for
:I ateam tightness, take the latter, substitute it in the formula
i
ft (p -d)=0.7S54d2 (ns+ms),
,.
ml solve for d.
Tf +hn .rol~~n A* 2 C- obtain& is r,ot ilie diaineter 01 some
__ .._ . ..YI I I L1
z,,*tandard size rivet, take the nest larger i/is in.
Calculatiou of Triple-riveted Butt and ?jtra,p J oints. - Formulre:
= 0.:7854@ (ns + ms). C=dfc (m + n) (notation on
ng page), ft = 1, m = 4.
i = 55,000; 8 = 0. 8/ , = 44, 000; 8 = l.i5S = 77,000, C = 1.4 f
A
410 RIVETED J OINTS.
For maximum strength, T = S = C; dividing by 55,OOOt, (P- d) z
5.027tP = 7d.t: whence d = 1.39251; p = 86.
Thickness of plate, t=s/rs 343 7h.l 12 g/1-3 v0
Diam. rivet hole,
d=1.3925t..... 0.4353 0.5222 0.6092 0.6962 0.7833 0.8703
Pi;h=ofSout.er row,
T=55,OOtit ($--hj
3.4S16 4.1776 4.5736 5.5696 6.2664 6.9624
52,360 75,390 102,610 134,020 169.630 209,4'20
S= 2?6,46Odz . . . 52.330 75,360 102,570 133.970 169,560 209,330
C= 385.000 dt . . 52.350 75,390 102,620 134,030 169,630 209,420
Caicuiat~ions by logarithms, to nearest 10 pounds.
Efficiency of ail joi!rts (p - d)+p = 87.5 per cent.
Maximum efficiency by Cardullos formula, 11 + , y f,e =
5
5 + l/i.4
= 87.5 per cent.
Diameter of rivet-hole, next largest 16th. 7/1e 9/s j/8 3/a *3/15 7/g
For the same thickness of plat~es the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection
and Insurance Co. gives the following proportions:
Thickness, t, Vl6 3/s 'i/m l/z %a s!a
Diam. rivet-hole. d. 3/4 13/M 15/16 1 t/la 1 v1e
Pitch of outer row, p. SV4 6 l/2 W4 71112 7314 7314
Using the same values for f. s. s and c. we obtain:
T = _. _. _. 94.530 1?7.300 139,S60 li8.750 207.8.50 229,880
S = ._._.__. ..155,400 168,400 194.300 207,300 220.200 220.?00
c= . . 90.030 117,300 157,900 192,500 230,000 255,500
Strength of solid
plate, fnt-=. . .107,360 134,060 162,420 206,250 239,770 266,400
Efficiency T. S or L
C. lowest + fpt,
per cent 83.9 87.5 86.1 86.7 86.7 82.0
The s/m in. plate fai!s by crushing, the s/s by she-ring, the others by
tearing.
Calculation o! Quadruple Riveting. - In this case there are 11 rivets
in the group. If the upper strap plate contains all the rivets except the
outer roe. then n = 1, m = 10. Using the same values for I, s, s and
e as above, we have ns + ms = 814,000; T = 5-5,OOOt (p - d); S =
639.315d2, C = 84i.OOOdt.
For maximum strength. t (p - d) = 11.624d: = 15.4dt; whence d =
1.32485 t, $1 = 16.4d. Efficiency (p - d) +p = 93.9 per cent. Check by
Cardullos formula
n*m 11
n + m + f/c = 11 + F!l,
= 93.9 per cent.
British Board of Trade and L:o ds Rules for Riveted J oints.-
Bonrd of Trade. -Tensile strength o 7. rivet bars between 26 and 30 tona
el. in 10 not less than 2570. and contr. of area not less than 50%.
The shearing resistance of the rivet steel to be t.aken at 23 tons Per
square inch. 5 to be used for the factor of safety independently of any
audition to this factor for the piating. Rivets in double shear to have
only 1.75 times the single section taken in the calculation instead of 2.
The diameter must not be less than the thickness of the
late. and ths
pitch never greater than 81/s. The thickness of doub e butt-straps P
(each) not to be less than s/s the thickness of the plate; single butt-straps
not less than s/s.
Distance from center of rivet to edge of hole = diameter of rivet X l/s*
_ Dist.ance between rows of rivets
= 2 X diam. of rivet or = [(diam. X 4) + 11 + 2. if chain, and
d\/[(pitch X 11) + (diam. x 4)l x (pitch + diam. x 4) if sigzag.
10
Diagonal pitch = (pitch X 6 + diam. X 4) + 10.
Ll oyds. - T. S. of rivet bars. 26 to 30 tons: el. not less than
The material must stand bendmg to a curve, the inner radius
MRNING: This is a 1910 edition. So@ of t
act greater than 11/z times the thickness of the plate, after having been
aoiformly heated to a low cherry-red, and quenched in water at 82O F.
Rivets in double shear to have only 1.75 times the single section taken
ia the calculation instead of 2. The shearing strength of rivet steel to
he taken at 85% of the T. S. of the material of shell plates. In any case
where the Strength of the longitudinal joint is satisfactorily shown
experiment to be greater than given by the formula, the actual
b
may be taken in the calculation.
strengt E
THE STRENGTH OF RIVETED JOINTS
411
proportions of Riveted J oints. (Hartford S. B. Insp. and Ins. CO.)
Single-riveted Girth Serums of Boilers.
Thickness.
Oiam. rivet-hole. 314 WlO
Pitch %a
lVl6 3!4
wla u/8
w1e 13/M I
21/3 2318 vi8
Wl6 1 Vlfi I
Center t0 edge.. t i8 II/32 1 7/32 i1/8 1 13/S:!
27/16 z3/8
i 7131 11/2 1%2 2112 lg/32 2% 1 l/2
Double-riveted Lan J oints.
Thickness of plate.. ._ ./ l/4 i 5/16 1 3/8 1 ?'/,a / 112
Diam. rivet-hole.. . . . . . . _. _. _. . . .
Pitch.
314 13/16 '5/13/ 1 1 v1e
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._.__....
Dist. bet. rows. . . . . _. _.
2718 z7/8 3 114 3 l/4
Dist. inner row to edge., . .
1 WlS
A?!
;;g 2311~ :::
Efficiency.. _. _. . . .~. ._.
113132
0.72 0.70
;::y
0.70
~wl2
0.68
Triple-riteted Lup J oints.
-7
5/16 3/8
I
Th k 10 ness.. . . . v4
Dim. rivet-hole. ._
. Pitch
1Vlfl
Diet, Mel: ~~w. . 3
9 . . .
her row to edge..
2
Efficiency. _
I%2
0.77
_-
-
3:4
3 l/8
wtl
1l/8
0.76
13/m
3 i/4
:;g
0.75
.-
-
Triple-riveted Butl-strap J oints.
-
r~Thickness . :. . 3/8 7/m 112 v1a
: ._ ._
hti. rivet-hoie.. .
I
. . . . . .
&ch. inner rows.. _. _~
15/M 1 1 %a
s3/8 3 314 3 7/s
::;;
;/8 2 "18
ke to nearest row..
3311%
Jiciency y. . .
113/32 1v2 1%I2
06 86.6 85.4
I
-
he distance to the edge of the plate is from the center of rivet-holes.
material
-. . ..-.. c, ~-3~ __,_ __,
? rnaj~ t-b loncj&3e accurate
7/m I!2
3;9
I
2112
;$lE
113132 II/2
0.75 0.75
5/8
--
1 hJ
j7/8
z5/8
3 3/m
I%2
84 (7)
IRON AND STEEL.
- RKETED JOINTS.
Pressure Required to Drirc Hot Rivets.---. D. Wood & ~0%
Philadelphia, give the followi:lg table (1SQi):
POWER TO DMVE R~vms HOT.
- -
--
-
-
1
--
-_
Size.
Girder-
work.
I-
-
Girder-
work.
t%R.
45
;t
-_
-
__
-
1 tons.
9
::
2
The above is based on the i-iTet passing through only two thicknesses of
plate wh~h together exce,ed t!w dmmeter of the rivet but little, if any.
As the plate t&ckness lnciwscs the power required increases .approxl.
matelyin proportlOn to the %~i:rro root of theincrease of thickness
Thus
ii the total thickness of plare is four times the diameter of the hvet, W;
should require twice the power riven above in order to thoroughly fill the
rivet-holes and do good wor:k. Double the thickness of plate would
increase t~he necessary power ahwlt 4OL;7.
It takes about four or five
to drive them hot..
:imcs as much power to drive rivets cold aa
Thus, a marhine that will drive s//a-in. rivets hot will
usually drive s/s -in. rivets cold (steel). Baldwin Locomotive Works
drive l/2 -in. soft-iron rivets coid with 15 tons.
Rivetint: Pressure Reqnirpd for Bridge and Boiler Work.
(Wilfred Lewis. Enaneeh- Club gf Philadelphia, Nov., 1593.)
.of s/s-inch riwts n-we subiected to pressures between 10,000 A number
and 60.000 Ibs. At 10.000 lb?. the riv& swellerland filled the hole~with-
out formine a head.. At 10.000 Ibs. the head mas formed and the ph@
were sliziitlv nini+
- ..-... Ml. At :VJ.tWO Ibs. the rivet was well set. At 40.0(10
e metal in the elate snrr\>lzndin~ t.he ti=rPt, hpza~n to stretch. and the lbs. th
StretchfW became m&e and more apparent a.5 the~$&;r~~$s increased
to s~.oOG and 60.000 Ibs. From these eanwimpnt,s ihe conclusion might
ge drawn that the prerwre rPfl,lired-fo;-~id-rivetinp was about 300,OOQ
JUS. per squa re inch of rivet sw!ion. 1n hot rivetine. until recendly there
was never anv call for a pressure exceeding &j.ooo ihi.. but now prwures
E high a: ~$.OOO ibs. are not uncommon. and even 300.000 Ibs. have beea
QARNING: This is a 19
,onger be accurate
$
414
IRON AND STEEL.
CAST IRON.
The Manufacture of Cast Iron. .y Pig ir0.nisthe na~me,g+nc~to the
crude form of iron as it is produced in the DlaSE Iurn2LCe. ,~IL.IS IUrhaCe
is a tall shaft, lined with fire brick, often as large as 100 ft. lugh a@ 20 ft.
in diameter at it: widest part, called the bosh. The furnace 1s kept
ti~i-r( ..i+h .,lturnltO ln~.PV. & fllpl (coke. anthracite or charcoal). while 1
,,UC 111111 ~Iy~IL~Lyy ..>, _-I -. . ...- \-~----, .~~~~~~~
melting temperslture 15 mnmtalned at
the b&tom by a strdtig b&t.
The iron ore as i:t, travels down the furnace is decarbonlzed by the carbon
mono.xide gas produced by the incomp1.et.e combustion of the fuel, and as
it travels farther. int,o a zone of higher temperature. it ,absorbs carbon
and silicon. Th!: phosphorus originally in the ore rem.alns In the iron.
The sulphur present in the ore and in the fuel m?y g0 into comh!nation
with the lime in the slag. or into the iron, dependmg on the constltutioa
of the slag and on t~he temperature.
The silica and alumina in the ore
unite with the lime to form a fusible slag, which rests on the melted iron
in t,lle hrart.11. The iron is tanned from the furnace several times a day.
while in large fukices the slapis usually run elf cOnti1lUOllS~g.
Grading of P,ig Iron. - Pig iron is approximately graded according
to its fracture, the number of grades varying in different dlstncts. In
Eastern Pennsylvania the principal grades recognized are kno?n as No.
1 and 2 foundry, gray forge or No. 3. mottled or No. 4. and wlute or No.
5. Intermediate grades are sometimes made, as No. 2 X. between No. 1
and Nn~ 7. and snecial names are even to irons more highly silicized than
No. 1. as No. 1 X. silver-gray. and soft. Charcoal foundry pig iron is
graded by numbers 1 to 5, but the quality is very different. from the
corresponding numbers in anthracite and coke pig. Southern coke pig
iron is graded into ten or more grades. Grading by fracture is a fairlj-
;gyfy&yg
method of grading irons made from uniform ore mixtures
Ilt I$ unreliable as a means of determining qua~litv of irons
.I
prod;% indigerent sections or from different ores. Grading by chemi-
cal analysis, in the iatter case, is the only sat.isfactory method. The
followinv analyses of the five st.andard grades of northern foundry and
mi!l pig%ons are given by .I. $1. Hartman (Bull. 1. & S. A., Feb., 1892):
I ran ....................
Grnphitic carbon .......
Combined carbon .......
Silicon ..................
Phosphorus .............
Eulphur.. ...............
Mangnnese .............
No. 1. No. 2.
92.37 92.31
ES 2.99 0.37
::z 2.52 1.08
E 2%
No.3. No.4.
94.66 94.48
2.50 2.02
1.52 1.98
i:;: i:::
t,race
0.34 i::;
CHARACTERISTICS OF THESE IROXS~
-
._
-
-
I
.-
-
No.4B.
94.08
2.02
1.43
i:E
2;
.
NG. i. Gray. - A large dark. open-grain iron, softest of all the num-
bers and used exclusively in t.he foundry. Tensile strength low. Elastic
limit low. Fracture rough. lurns soft and tough.
No. 2. Gray. - A mixed large and small dark grain. harder than No.
1 iron and used exclusivelv in the foundry.
limit higher than No. I.
TenslIe str?ngth and elastic
practure less rough than No. 1. Turns harder,
iess tough, and more brittle than No. 1.
No. 3. Gray. - Small. grap. close grain, harder than No. 2 iron. Us@
either in the rolling-mill or foundry. Tensile strength and elastic hInIt
higher than No. 3. Turns ha,rd. less tough, and more brittle than No. 2.
No. 4. Mottled: - White background, dotted closely with small black
spots of graphitic carbon: little or no grain.
rolling-mill.
Used exclusively i;$.$
Tensile strength and elastic limit lower than NO. 3.
with diff.cuitv: less tough and more brittle than No. 3. The
in the B pigirog replaces part of the combined carbon, makjng the
harder and closing the grain. nOtwithstanding the lower combmed car
_~..._,_
MJRNING: This is a 1940 edition. SOme of
CAST IRON.
NO. 5. JV+. -Smooth, white fracture, no grain, used exclusively in
the ro!ling null. Ten%!.e stren.gth ?.nd elastic limit much lower than No. 4.
Too hard to t?rI! and more brittle than No. 4.
Southern Dig Irons are graded as follows, beginning with the highest in
sllic.on: Nos. I and 2 silvery, Nos. I and 2 soft, all containing over 37
of slhcon; Nos. I, 2, and 3 f$mtlry, respectively about 2.75%. 2.57, anG
2y0 silicon; No. 1 nul~l, or
mottled: white.
foundry forge; No. 2 mill, or gray forge;
. ..~
Chemistry of Cast Iron. - Abbreviations~ TC: +.ntnl r.arhnn. on
graphitic carbon; CC, comb/ned carbon.
Numerous researches have by;;
alade and many Papers written. especially between the vears 180.: lnrl
Igos, on the relatic
---- --- lllu
tlon of cast iron.
m of the phrsical uronerties to the chpmipsl cnnr+i+..
Much remains to be iearned on~i~l,.,,bj,~~:;.b;~~~
following is a brief summary of prevailing opinions.
CARBO~..T Carbon exists in three states in cast iron: 1 Combined
he property of makinz iron white and hn,rdT 7 C.ranhi- carbon, which has t
tic carbon or graphite.-which is not alloykd with the iron, but e.&sts & it
as a separate bod~y. Smce it may be removed from the fractured surfa.re
nf nie iron h
Y a brush; 3. a third form. called bv Ledehllr t~mneri~~ ___._ -,
b
into which combined carbon mav be changed by pro-
The relative percentages in which GC and Cc! ~R.V
ron differ with the r~at,e of coolina fmm t,he liX;i
state, so that .in a large casting, cooled slowty] ~nka~iy-aii--t~-C*-~;;
be GC, while in a small casting from the same ladle cooled quickly
,,;;y4p. nearly all CC. The total C in cast iron usually is betwee;
c
COMBINED CARBON. - CC increases hardness, britt!.eness and shrink-
age. Up to about 1% it increases strength, then decreases it. The
presence of S tends to increase the CC in a casting, while Si tends to
change CC to GC.
GRAPHIT-E. - GC in a casting causes softness and weakness when
aboye 3%: softness and strength when added to irons low in GC and over
1% m CC. . It increases with the size of t.he casting. with slow cooling,
or rather with holchng a long time in the mold at a high temperature.
SILICON. - Si acts as a softener by counteractine the hardeninr: effect
of S, and by changing CC into GC. changes white iron to gray, increases
fluidity and lessens shrinkage. When added to hard brittle iron, high in
CC, it ma,y increase strength by removing hard brittleness, but when it
reduces the CC to 1% and less it weakens the iron. Ahnxw X.5 no 4X it.
,changes the fracture-to silvery gray, and the iron biG-&s-&iiile &
weak. The softening effect of Si is modified by S and Mn.
~ULPHUR. - S causes the C to take the form-of CC~ increases hardness
bnttleness, and shrinkage, and also has a weakening effect of its own:
Above about 0.1% it makes iron very weak and brittle. When Si is
below 1%. even 0.06 S makes the iron dangerously brittle.
.~
IMANGANESE. - Mn in small amount less than 0.5%. counteracts the
hardening influence of S; in larger ambunts it changes GC into CC and
acts as a hardener. Above 27, it. makes the iron very hard.
:blnes with iron in almost all proportions.
Mn corn-
the allov is called spieeeleisen
,brge, bright crystallize faces.
from
When it is from 10 to 30%
the Germaz word f Aor mirror, and has
Above 50% it is known as ferro-man-
~: mne8e. Mn has the property of increasing the solubility of iron for
arborl; ordinary pig iron containing rarely over 4.2% C while spiege!-
;$.etmay have 5%. and ferro-msnsanese as hirh as 6%. Cast iron with
:v/ Mn is used iti-making chilled iolls in which a hiid chill is desired.
: When softness is required in castings, bn over 0.4T0 has to be avoided.
.~ldn lilcreases shrinkage. It also decreases the magnetism of iron.
imth 25% Mn loses all its magnetism.
Iron
,,i;?stlngs
It therefore has to be avoided in
for dynamo fields and other pieces of electrical machinery.
SPHORUS. - P increases fluidity-, and is therefore valuable for thin
ornamental castings in which strength is not needed. It increases
ness and decreases shrinkage. Below 0.7% it
ecrease strength, but above 1% it is a weakener.
does not appear to
PER. - Cu is found in pig irons made from ores containing Cu.
t closes t.he grain of cast iron, but does not appreciably
e rhaterial~ may no l onger be accurate
416
IRON AND STEEL.
~~~~~~~~ - Al from 0.2 to 1.0% (added to the la+e in the form O!
a FeAl alloy)increases the softness and strength of white Iron; added tc,
gray iron it softens and weakens it.
TITANIUM. - An addition of 2 to 37, of a TiFe al1o.y containing 10%
Ti caused an increase of 20 to 30% in strength of cast iron. A. J. Ross;,
A.I .X.E., xxxiii, 194. Ti reacts with any 0 or N present.in the metal
and thus purifies it, and does not remain in the metal. After enough
Ti for deosidation has been added, further additions have no effect.
It. Uoldenke. d.l.J1.E., sxsv, 153.
V.<N-YDIU>~. - Va to the extent of 0.15% added to the ladle inthe form
of a ground FeVa ailoy greatly increases the strength of Cast Iron. It
acts as a deoxidizer and also by alloymg.
OXIDE OF IRON, - The cause of the difference in strength of charcoal
a;,d coke irons of ide;ltical composition is believed by .Dr. Moldenke
(.;~.I..u.E:, sxxi,, 9%) to be the degree of osldatlon to wtnch they have
heen subjected m making or remelting. Since Mn., Tl. and Va all act as
deoxidizers. it should be possible .by additions to the ladle of alloys of
FeMn. FeVa, or FeTi, to make the two irons of equal strength.
Temper Carbon. The main part of the C in white cast iron is the carbide
Fe&. This breaks down under annealing to what Ledebur calls temper
carbon. and in annealing in oxides, as in mal;ing malleable Iron. It IS
oxidized io CO. The C remaining in the casting at the end of the process
is nearly all GC, since the latter is very slowIy oxidized.
Influence of Various Elements on Cast Iron. - W. Y. Anderson,
Casti?lgs, Sept., ISOS, gives the following:
Fluidity, increased by Si, P, G.C. Reduced by S! C.C.
Shrinkage, increased by ;&M~II,C.C. Reduced hy S!, p, .G.C.
Strength, Increased by Reduced by 5~. b, P. G.C.
Hardness, increased by S, iIn,d.C. Reduced oy Si, G.C.
Chill, increased by S, Mn. C.C. Reduced by SI, P, G.C.
?LIieroscopic Constituents.
Ferrile. iron free frr .n carbon.
(See also JIetallopraplly~ under Steel.)
It is found in mild steel m small amounts
in gray cast iron, and in malleable cast iron.
Cemenliie. Fe&. Fe with 6.67% C. Harder than hardened st@.
Hardness U OI! the mineralogical scale. Found in high C steel, and in
\vhite and mottled pig.
Pe~rIi:e, a compound made up of alternate lamime of ferrite and cemen-
tite. in the ratio of 7 ferrite to 1 cemencite, and containing therefore.
0.$:1: C. ,o Found in iron and steel cooled very slowly from 6 hi h temper-
ature. In steel of 0.83 C it composes the entire mass. Steo s lower or i
hielier than 0.53 C contain uearlite mixed with ferrite or with cementite
respectively.
:lfurtensite. the hardening componcrit of steel. Found in iron and
steel quenched above the recalescence point, and in tempered steel. lt
forms the entire structure of 0.83 Csteel quenched.
Analvses of Cast Iron. (Notes of the table on page gt7.)
,ldenke. Pittsbt?. Fdrvmens Assn.. 1898: 1 to 5. uiF: 1 to7. - R. h~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~_. ~~~I _ ~. irons:
6, white iron cast in chills; 7. gray iron cast in salid froirl the same ladle.
The temperatures were taken with a Le Chatelier pyrometer. For
comparison. steel, 1.18 C, melted at 2450 F.: siliro-splegel, 12.30 SL
16.98 >In, at 2190; ferro-silicon. 12.01 8i, 2.17 CC, at 2040; ferro-
tungsten, 39.02 W, at 2280: ferro-manganese, 81.4 Mn, at 2255; ferro-
chrome. 62.7 Cr. at 2400: ditto. 5.4 Cr.. at 21SO.
8. ciay foundry Swedish pig, very strong. 9. Pig to be used in nnr
tures of Eray pin and scrap, for castings requiring a hard close gra&
marhinirig ti, a fine surface; and resisting weak. 8 to 15, from paper DY
F. >;f. Thomas, Castings. July, 1908.
16. Specification by J. E. Johnston. Jr., Am. Mach.. Oct. 15. 1903.
The results were excellent. Si might have been 0.75 t.o 1.25 if S had
been kept below 0.035.
17 to 22. C.~ R. Henderson, Trans. A.,S.M.E.,,vol. xx. The chili is to
be measured in a test bar 2 X 2 X 24in.; the chill iene being so Placed
as to form part of one side of the mold. The actua P depth of white lro
will be measured.
2ARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
(Al:
carbol
SC
9
IO
II
I2
I3
14
15
16
I7
It
::
22
23
:;
29
" 35
,' 36
-. 37
:i 36
-
1. 1
--
::
3.
::
i:
3,
3,
3
.,
j:
::
6:
3.
;:
3.
Ibre.
n.)
-
. 1
I
--
,7:
2
,:t
,45
.30
2
.40
.40
.8?
.E
,33
,I7
34
:5
. .
CAST IRON.
Analyses of Cast Iron.
viations, T,C, total carbon: GC, graphitic carbon: CC, combined
GC
X
2.60
3.47
3.43
0.13
2.99
2.80
.25-2.1
3.40
3.20
3.2-3.1
3.0-3.;
2.8-3.1
2.5-2.1
2.7-3.1
2.6-3.
2.5-3.1
2.3-2.:
2.0-2.i
%Y
3.23
3.52
2 8-3.:
2.3-2..
2.4-2.t
3.08
2.72
5:'
3.0
. .
-
_-
5 (
1 I
I I
5 I
.,
::;:
I.28
:::3
4.26
I.46
0.50
D,6-0.1
tlxce
0.20
.I-O.li
0.4AI.J
3.4-0.f
0.6-0.1
0.5-0.1
0.6-l (
0.&0.~
D.P-4.t
E!.;
0.43.
E
3.5-0.;
E:I
1.25
0.45
K'
0.55
.
iilicon
-
. E
--
Man-
:nnese
-
r
--
Phos-
rhorus
0.38 0.13
0.69 0.44
1.52 0.49
2.01 0.49
2.40 0.90
0.65 0.44
0.67 0.41
2.00 0.60
0.20
0.53
0.46
II:iZi
0.25
0.26
0.08
D.8-1.: 2 0.4-o., 80, .15-o.
2.90 0.50 1.65
2.60
2.5-2.e
0.50 1.58
1.3-l.!
2-2.3 l-l.3
1.2-i.,
,p to
1.0
1p to
I.0
0.6-O.
I .0-I.:
).l4.l
0.5-O. 1.44.:
1.2-1.; 0.41. 1.4-Q.:
;:gj:i
1.31.:
EZ:
0.5-i.'
1 .o- .!
;:$I:;
1.67
1.3-0.1
1.3xl.1
1.3a.z
).3-O.,
1.34l.d
1.34.
0.095
1.45
2.04
1.3-l.!
0.39
0.39
0.34,'
0.405 C.042
0.578 0.044
1.5-O.f .06-.I1
::;r$
0.73
1.99 0.39
I.89
0.7
2.75
3.10
0.39
0.4
5%
5 tt
t'
5
.75-l.!
2-25
1.2-I.!
1.5-2
1.2-2.1
o 0.6
0 0.7
0.5-0.8
0.5-0.m
0 0.7 3 ts
).6*).1
'i!iY
0.65
E0
EZ
> 0.22
> 0.7
.35-0.6
.35-o.f
> 0.7~
tc
t2
80,
tc
Sul-
phur.
0.038
0.031
0.035
0.034
0.032
0.038
0.039
0.03
bleitb at 204W'F.
Melts at 21560.F.
Melts %t Z211F.
Melts at 224P F.
Melts at22800F.
Melts at 2000 F.
. . . . .
0104
0.04
.03-.o
.06-.O
.M-.O
.08-.I
D .06
05-.o
.05-.o
03ms:
1
::5 4
035 ('
0.032
.06-.I(
%iig
0.13
EIi
0.014
. . . . . .
3 0.04
3 0.15
0 0.09
0 0.08
0 0.08
coal pig.
kor engineevlin-
ders- -
English. high P.
No. I.
En&?,, high P.
For thin orna-
mental work.
For medium size
castings.
Heavy machin-
ery castings.
Cylinders and
hydraulic work.
For hydraulic
cylinders.
For car m heels.
For car xheels.
Charcoal pig. l/4
in. chill.
Ditto l/z in. chill.
Ditto 3/4 in. chill.
Ditto I in. chill.
Series A. Am.
Fdmens Assn.
Series B. ditto.
Series C. ditto.
For locomotive
cylinders.
Semi-steel.
Semi-steel.
A strong ear
Thee!, Cii, 0.63.
Automobile cvl-
inders. -
Ditto.
Good car wheel.
Scotch irons.
Am. Scotch
Ohio irons.
Pig for malIe-
able castings.
Brake-shoes.
Hard iron for
heavy work.
Medium iron for
general work.
Soft iron castgs
-.L
- ~.,,~ _L .-... ~...~~ ,.., - ,_ ,,~
material.may no longer be accurate
418 IRON AND STEEL.
23 to 25. Series of bars tested by a committee of the association
See results of tests on page 419. Series A, soft Bessemer mixture; B
dynamo-frame iron; C. light machinery iron.
taken from the l-in. square dry sand bars.
Samples for analysis we$
26.
1906.
SpeclEcations by a committee of the Am. RY. Mast. Mechs. Assir,
T.S., 25,000; transverse test, 3000 lb. on 1 r/4-in. round bar, 12 ln:
betweensuooocts: deHect,ion. 0.1 in. minimum: shrinkaee. l/n in. ml,.
27. soft
* s&i&,&l : >
. ~~.. __.- ~.
S. harder do. They approach air-furna,ce iron
In most respects, and excel it in strength: test bars 2 X 1 X 24 in. of the
low ti semi-steel showing
7ile in. deHection. M. B. Smith, Eng. Digest. Xug., 1908.
2500 to 3000 lb. tmnsverse stren2gh,Jwi.t;
Hartman. Bull. I. & S. Assr. v , Feb., lS92. The chill was very hard, ii4 in
deep at root of flcnge. l/zin. deep on tread. 30.31. Strong and shock:
. resisting. T.S., 38,000. Castin.gs. June, 1908. 3.2. Corn. of A.S.T.M.
190.5, Proc., v. 65. Successful wheels varying quite considerably fro6
these figures may be made. 33. 34. C. A. Meissner, Iron dge. 1890.
Average of several. 33. R. Moldenke. A.S.&f.E., 1908. 36-39. J. W,_
Keep. A.S.X.E.. ;907.
A Chilling Zrnn is ant which when cooled slowlv has a gray fracture
but when cast in a maid one side of which is a thick mass of cast-iron
tailed a chill, the fractured surface shows white iron for some depth o$
the side that was rapidly cooled by the chill. See Table Nos. 19-22.
Specifications for SCastings, recommended by a committee of the
A.S.T.Jl., 1908. S in grag iron castings, light, not over 0.0s: medium
not over 0.10: heavy. not: over 0.12. A light castling is one naving nd
section over 112 in. thick. a heavy casting one having no section less than
2 in. thick, and a medium
light or heavy.
cast.ing one r.ot included in the classification of
The transverse strength of the arbitration bar shall not
be under 2500 lb. for light, 2900 lb. for medium, and 3300 lb. for heavy
castings; in no case shall the detlection be under 0.10 in. When a ten-
sile test is specified t!iis shall run not less than 15,000 !b. per sq. in. for
light,. 21.000 lb. for medium, and 24,000 lb. for heavy castings.
The arbitration bar is 1 t/4 in. diam.. 15 in. long, cast in a thoroughly
dried and cold sand mold.
12 in. apart.
The transverse test is made with supports
The moduli of rupture corresponding to the figurer for
transverse strength are respectively 39115, 45373. and 51632, being the
product of the figures given and the constant 15.646. the factor for R/P
for a IGin. round bar 12 in. between supports.* The standa,rd form of
tensile test piece is 0.8 in. diam., 1 in. Ion,: between shoulders, with a
fillet 7/32in. radius, and ends 1 in. long, 11/4 in. diam., cut with standard
thread, t,o fit the holders of the testing machine.
Specifications hy .J. W. Iieep. A.S.M.E.. 1907,
{;s.iJ-39. page 417.
See Table, of A~nalyses,
Transverse test, 1 xl x12-m. bar. hard iron castmgs.
I, 2400 to 2600 lb.; tensile test of same bar 22,000 to 25,000 lb.
No. 3% medium, transverse, 2200 to 2400: tensile. 20.000 to 23,000.
NO. 39, soft, transverse, 2000 to 2200; tensile, 18.000 to 20,000.
Standard Specifleations for Foundry Pig Icon.
(American Foundrymens Association, May, 1906.)
ArrAnrsrs. -It is recommended that foundry pig be bought by analysis.
S.<~~IPLING. - Each carload or its equivalent shall be considered as a
unit,. One pig of machine-cast, or one-half pig of sand-cast, iron shall be
taken to every four tons in the car, and shall be so chosen from differ@
parts of the car as to represent as nearly as possible the average qualltY
of the iron. Drillings shall be taken so as to fairly represent the comPos!-
tion of the pig as cast. An equal quantity of the drlllings from each Pig
shall be thoroughly mixed to make up the sample for analysis.
PZRCENTAGE OF ELEMENTS.-when the elements are specified thefl-
lowing percentages and variat,ions shall be used. Opposite each percent-
age of the different elements a syllable has been affixed so that buy+*
by combining these syllables, can form a code word to be used in
telegraphing.
* Formula, 1/4Pl=RI J c; see page 283. I=l/arro; c=l/ed; d=I*/41n.:
2=12 in.
,g
WARNING: This is a i f 310 edition. Some of 1
CA$T IRON.
419
SILICON s ULPHUR TOTALCARBON MANGANESE
----
PHOSPHORuS
f$ Cede
(mar.) Code
0.04 Sa
(min.) Code
3.00 Ca
1.00 La
1.50 Le
gogj6 2
2.00 Ii
y&3 c&
0.07 so
Lo
3:60 Co
2.50
Lu Eki; P
3.80
3.00
cu
0.10 s.; Y
Percentages of any element specified one-half way between the above
shall be designated by the additionof the letter 2 to the next lower symbol,
thus Lex means 1,.75 Si.
Allowed variation: Sl. 0.25; P, 0.20:. Mn, 0.20. The percentage6 of p
and Zln may be used as maximum or mmhmum figures when so sprc:Hed.
Example: -Le-sa-1%me represents 1.51) Si, 0.04 S, 0.60 P. O.&J JIn.
BASE OR QUOTING Pmcz- For market quotations an iron of 2.00 Si
(with variation 0.25 either way) and S 0.05 (max.) shall be taken as the
~rss;., ,,Tke,foll ping table may br filled out. and become a part. of a con-
aad unde; 0.05 S.
or -:&e, represents the pnce agreed upon for a p:g of 2.00 Si
C is a constant differential to be determined at
the time the contract is made.
Sill-r
phur 3.25
---Silicon
3.00 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.00
1.75 1.50
7
11.04 B+6C B+5C B+4C B+3C B+2C B+C B
1.25 1.00
0.05 B+5C B+4C B+3C B+2C B+lC B
B-1C B-2C B-3C
0.06 B+SC B+3C B+ZC B+lC B
B-1C B-2C B-3C B-4C
0.07 B-b3C B+C B+lC B
B-IC B-2C B-3C B-4C B-5C
0.0s B+2C Bt 1C B
B-IC B-2C B-3C B-4C B-5C B-6C
2: BB+= B
B-1C B-Z B-3C B--4C B-5C B-6C B-7C
B-1C B-2C B-3C B-4C B-5C B-6C B-7CB-SC
B-1C B-2C B-3C B-.lC B-5C B-6C B-7C BTSC B-92
Specifications for Metal for Cast-ironPipe.-Proc. A.S.T.M. 1905
A.I .M.E.. XXXV. 166. Specimen bars 2 in. wide x 1 in. thick x.24 in:
between supports. loaded in the center. ior pipes 12 in. or less in diam
shall support 1900 lb. and show a detiection of not less than 0.30 in
before breaking. For pipes larger than 12 in. 2000 lb. and 0.32 in:
The corresponding moduli of rupture are respeciivelv 34 200 and 36 000
lb. Four grades of pig are specified: No. 1, Si, 2.75, S C.035. No 9
Si, a.+: S, 0.045. No. 3, Si, 1.75: S, 0.055. No. 4. S;. i.25: S 0.065. i
variation of 10% of the Si either way, and of 0.01 in the Sabove the
standard, is allowed.
Tensile Tests of Cast-icon Bars.
(American Foundrymens Association, 1899.)
1x1
13,900
12%
13:aoo
I>;$
15'100
18'400
16:OOO
18,500
16,000
17.100
16,100
15,500
14,800
16.800
.5X!.!
12,100
12,900
12,300
x2
15:000
3;~:
$g
12:200
14,100
13,400
13.400
12.500
14.200
Square Bars.
no
?x2
10.600
I$;$
12:100
11,500
11,tum
11,100
12,100
11.100
11,700
11.300
9.800
11,300
11.000
10.900
ll.4lm
-
dl Roml
0.56 1.13
16,000 13,800
!4,300
13,800
13,700
. . . .
16,500
13,6@0
15,900
. ..__
16,700
19,000
16.200
._.._.. 16,900
17,800 15.900
..__._ 17,400
16.400 15,900
.,~,. $E
15'800 15'700
It:300 15:200
16.400
Bars.
1.69 2.15
12.000 11,000
13,500 12,200
11,700 10,500
13,200 10,600
13.100 11,400
15,400 12,5M)
be accurate
,,,,, ~, ~, ,,,, ,,~,, ,,,,,
~,~ ,,,: ,:
420 IRON AND STEEL.
Transverse Tests of Cast-Iron Bars. Moduh~s of Rupture.
Size *. .
Diamt.....
(A) r. cl. c. .
* r.cl.m..,
(B) s. g. c..
( s. g. ix.
( s. (1. c.
** s. cl. m.

,, +. g. c. .
T. g. m.
( T 11. c.
** T. (1. m.
CC,.% (7. c..
9. $7. m.
( s. 11. e. .
( s. d. m.
r. g. c.
** 7. g. m.
* 7. d. e. .
T. d. tn.
$J. (ljs) s. .
7.
;: (0 s.
T.....
::cpq
Genl av.
Equiv. load.
-
.O -5x0.5 1x1
0.56 1.13
31,100 33,400
. 27,800
44.400 39.100
37.4oo
35,500 38.300
30.200
36,400 46,200
40,000
37,800 49,000
39.100
51,800 39.200
62 HI0
..I....
1 iii'j'dd
55:700
53.000 50.400
47,900
39,900 36,200
37,iLJ 43,600
49,900 39,100
57.900 50.600
43.800 43,100
43,300 41,600
46.!00 42,400
320 2356
.5x1.
1.69
:32:
39:500
2:::
36;200
41.200
44,800
44,300
3;,800
-$;;;
3a:cioo
38,900
39,000
49.200
44,000
51.300
37.500
42,000
37,900
45.900
41,000
40,700
40,800
7650
--
* Size of square bars as cast, in. t Diam. of round bars as cast, in.
2x2
2.15
31,700
3;::
341700
32,900
33,300
41,400
38,800
39,200
37.700
37,900
37.000
35.100
35,400
44,500
42,900
40,200
38.000
33,700
39,300
36,300
41.400
38,800
36.500
-
.5x2.! 5
2.02
g.E
3r:900
35.900
31,900
35,200
41,300
37,100
40,700
33,900
32,200
33,700
31,200
33,500
41,400
41,500
39,500
38,900
33.700
38,200
32,600
40.400
36,800
35,600
36,200
31,424
i
-
3x3 3
3.38
26,600
28,6oo
29.700
33,500
30,200
30,900
36.300
32,900
31,800
32.800
3E.100
33,300
29.300
32,700
41,200
36.500
37.800
36,300
31,100
33,400
31.600
37,900
33,900
32.700
33.400
50,IM
-
E.
i
23,400
:i%
30:100
20,300
28,100
34.800
32,700
35,300
y;
32:300
29,300
29,100
35,000
34.100
35.200
32.200
28,700
33,700
30,500
34,100
32,200
31,300
31.700
75.516
-
::;
22.600
22.900
27.600
27, loo
25.900
:rg
3i'300
31:100
32,300
106,311
Compression Tests of Cast-iron Barsi.
1.5x3.1
9~350
.~~
10,770
8::
!3'160
15'970
15'200
13:560
If.880
17,100
16,510
16.080
4x4
9 too
10,340
9,950
9~570
NOTES ON THE TABLES OF TESTS. -The machined bars were cut to
the next size sinalter than the size they were cast.
were 12 in. long between supports.
The transverse bars
(A), (B). (C), three qualities of iron:
for ana!yse.s see page 417: T, round bars; s. square bars; ri cast in dry sand:
9. cast in green sand: c. bar tested as cast; ~2. bar machined to size. The
general average (next to last line of the first table) is the average of the six
lines precedm
load that wou d k
The equivalent load (last line) is the calculated total
break a square bar whose modulus of rupture is that
of the general average.
-. ^ .~
tlOMPREsSI0N ~xwrs. -me figures given are the cruslting strengths, In
pounds., of 3 in. cubes cut from the bars. Multi ly by 4 to obtain Ibs.
Per sq. In. (1) Cube cut from the middle of the ear. (Q) first + in. from
edge; (3) second ) in. from edge; (4) third tin from.&d&.
Some Tests of Cast iron. (G. Lanza, Zmns. A.S.M.E., x. 187.)-
The chemical analyses were as follo\:.s: Gun iron: TC 3.51. GC. 2.80;
8, 0.138; I, 0.155: Si. 1.140. Common iron: 3 0.173- $ 0 413. Si 1.89.
The test specimens were 26 in. long: those tested with iheskii on'being
very ue3rly 1 in. square, and tha3e test.ed tvith the skin removed being .
cast nearly 1 l/4 in. square, and afterwards planed down to 1 in.
WARNING: This is a 1910 editidn,~~-~-some of t
.CAST IRON.
Strength. Limit.
Tensile Elastic! Mad$us
Elzsti&ty
tinplaned common. .20,200 to 23,000 T$ .4~.=22.066 6,500 13 194,233
planed common. .20,300 to 20,800
Unplaned gun. . .27,000 to 28,775 1
= 30.~20 5.833 11:943,953
planed gun. .29,500 to 31,Oi)o $6
=?s.l75 11,000 16,130,300
=3O,S(JO S.500 15,93',SS3
TlIef?l;lstic,lirllit is npt clearly cieflned in cast, iron, the e!ongatjons lnrreils-
ing i;lster LLI:LII ,tllc II1crea.s~ of t Ile loalls frorri the ljc*~lnnin:r of tile rrst,
The rrlOdUhS ol elasticity 1s therefore sariable, decresslng-as the loads
increase.
The Strength OR Cast Iron depends on many other things besides
its chermcal composition.
Among them are the size and shape of the
cast!ng. the temperature at wllich the metal is poured, and the rapidit op
cooling. .Internal Stresses are apt to be induced hv rapid cooling, and
slow ,COOhng tends ,to cause segregation of the chemical constituentr and
opemng of the grain of tlle metal, making it weak. The author recom-
mends th$ in maying experiments on the strength of cast iron bars of
several chfferent sizes, such as l/2. 1. 11/z. and ? in. square (or round)
should be taken., and the resu!i,s compared. Tests of bars of one sj&
only do not furmsh a satisfactory criterion of the quality of the iron of
whxh they are made. Trans. A.T.M.E., xxvi. 1017.
Theory of the Relation of Strength to Chemical Constitution -
J. E. Johnston, .Jr. (dm. Mach.. April 5 and 12, 1900), and H. al. Home
(Trans. A.I.M.E.. 1901) have presented a theorv to explain t.he variation
in strength of, cast iron with t!;e variation incomhined carbon
It is
that cast iron IS steel of CC ranging from 0 to 4yo. with particles ofgraph-
lte, winch have c.3 strength, enmeshed with it. The strength of the cast
iron therefore 1s that of the stel:l or graphiteless iron containing the same
f ,
ercentage of CC. weakened in so!ne proportion to the percentage of GC
hc tenslIe strength of steel ranges approximately from 40,000 lb. pe;
sq. in. with 0 9 to 125,.0001b. with 1.20 C. With hizher Ckt rapidlv becomes
weak ?nd brittle. White cast iron with 3yo CC is about 30.000 T.S.
and with 4% about 15,000. The amount of weakening due toGC is not
known. but by making a few assumptions me may construct a table of
hypothetical strengths of different compositions, with which results of
actual tests may be compared. Suppose the strengt,h of the steel-xvhite
cast-iron series is as given below for different percentages of CC that
6.25% GC entirely destroys the strength, and that the weakeningeffect
of other percentages is proportional to the ratio of the square root of that
Percent.are to the square root of 6.25, that the TC. in two irons is respec-
tively 37, and 4%. then we have the following:
Per cent CC.. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.S 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.5 -
&eel. TX.... 40 fi0 80 100 110 120 125 110 60 40 3o %2 1;
Cast iron, 4y0
TC . . 8 Cast iron, . . 13.2 19.2 26 31.2 37 4X.5 40.5
'%......,15.4 3%
26 20.7 18 15.5 18
19.9 25.5 38'42.9 52.1 5s 56.1 36 28.7 30 . . . . . .
The Egures for strengths are in thousands of pounds per sq. in. The
Ule is calculated as follows: Take 0.6 CC: with 4% TC. this leaves
2 4 GC, and with 3% TC, 2.4 GC. The sq. root of 3.4 is 1.9,and of 2.4 is
1.55. The ratio of these to 46.25 is respectirelv 74 and 62%? which
flnbtracted from 100 leave 26 and 35% as the perbentage of strengtt;:
Ahe 0.6 C steel remaining after the effect of t.he GC is deducted.
table indicates that strength is increased as total C is diminished, and this
: agrees with general experience.
~ Relation of Strength to Size of Bar as Cast. -If it is desired that a
i
*at bar shall fairly represent a casiing made from the same iron then
the dimensions of the bar as cast should correspoid to the dimensibns of
.I_ ,the casting. so as to have
,? volnme that the casticg has.
about the same ratio of cooling surface to
If the test bar is to represent the strength
$: 0: a Plate it should be cui from the plate itself if possible or else cut
8~ from a cyljudrical shell made of considerible diameter and bf a thickness
:yl to that of the casting. If the best is for distinguishing the quality
i o the iron, then at least two test bars sho&i be cast. one say l/z or 518 in.
nd one say z or 21/z in. diameter, in order to she\; the effect of rapid
slow cooling.
c,,.
! t7iatetii al, mai no loncjer be accurate
IRON AND STEEL. cAST IRON,
Al-, 1904 the author made some tests of four bars of semi-steel adver.
tised to have 3, strength of over 30.000 lb. per sq. in. The bars were cast
l/z, 1. 2. and 3 in. diam.. and turned to 0.46. 0.69. 1.6. and 1% in. resoec- I
The fact tha& :vith the l-in., bar the strength is nearly independent of
SE, ~;l,o!~~,~l,!~t It IS the worst we of bar to use to distinguish the quality
I LLk.5 LLICZLIUII. II LiP ~0 bars were used, say l/z-in. and %-in., the drop in
strength would be i
single bar could be.
t better Index to the quality than the test of any
tiYel$. The results of transverse and tensile tests were:
T.S. per sq. in.. . t Iron. -W. J. Keep (.4. S. M. E. xvi.. 1082) gives a
._.!.. .a ~.
shrinkage depends on silicon and on the
increase.
decreasing as the silicon and the section
The follo~vifi~~~~~~ri;es are obt;tine(l by inspection of the curves:
Shrinkage of Cas
series of curves showmg wat
cross-section of the rast,inp. ( The l/z-in. piece was so hard that it could not be turned in a lathe and
had to Ix ground.
Intluence qf Len,oth of Bar upon the Moduius of Rupture.-
(R. Xoldenke. Jour. Am. Foundqmmzs Assn., Sept., 1599.) Seven
set,s. each of five Z-in. square bars. made of a heavy machinery mixture. 1 Size of Sauare Bars. 1 1 ?.. * -
! Bars.
and cast on end. were broken transverseiv. the distance betiveen sun: I -J I I :I-
mze of ~x~unre
ports rangina froin 6 to 16 ins.
Dist. I et. supports, ins.. . .
The;vera& results were:
Xo~lir .IS of ruoture. . 4O$OO 39.000 35!:00 37fiOO 36%0 34!!Oo
Tk.c l&in. Ijar in six out of seven cases give a lower result than& ~_
1%i,~. It sppezs that the ordimary formulas used in calculating the
cross breaking strength of beams are not only incorrect for cast iron, on
account of the chemical dilferences in the iron itself when in tliffewnt
cross sections, but that with the cross sections ident&-the ~dis&&e
between the supports must be speciatlv urovided for bv suitable con-
results, the doubling of the distance bet&en ~supp&t~s means a drop m
the modulus of rupture in the same sized bar of nearly 10 per cent.
1.00 0.178 0.158 0.129 0.112 0.102 2.50 0.142 0.121 0.091 0.072 0.060
1.50
, .!$ I ..-
,145 ,116 ,099 .088 3.00 ,130 ,109 ,078 .058 .046
_ ^^ I 104 ,086 .074 3.50 .I18 .097 ,065 ,045 .032
I I
stants in whatever formulae mav be dev&dned. As seen from the above
Z., ,134, .I>>, .I
Streneth in Relation to Silicon and Cms+swtion.- In castinzs
one ha!f&cb square in section tbe strength increases as silicon increases
from 1.00 to 3.50: in castings 1in. square in section the strength is practi-
eallyindependent of silicon, while in larger castings the strength decreases
1111. ,,,cf nmi.y. ll1.z LLIcbolll~ t,, > ,,,,,,~L~~
a chermca analysis of silicon.
Ii) ,,LLLLLCLLII,, r-,,u,,ir,c,il, b
It tells whether more or less silicon is
needed to bring the quality of the casting to an accepted standard of
ewellenre.
1s smcon Increases.
The following table shows values taken from Mr. Keeps curves of the
approximate transverse stren@h of cast bars of different sizes reduced to
the equivalent strength of a V-in. x l&in. bar.
-..--..~~~; ~.
A shrmkage of l/s
According to the tab
in relation to the siz
2 in., 1.1 Si: 3 and 1
in. per ft. is commonly allowed hy patt~ern makers.
#le. this shrinkage will he obtained by varying the Si
e of the bar as follows: l/z in., 3.25 Si; 1 in., 2.4 Si;
less than 1.0 Si.
~Goansion of Cast Iron in Cooline. (T. Turner.
I .I I
Shrinkage and -
S.ize of Squnre Cast Bars. Size of Square Cast Bars.
Proc. I. & S. I.. 1906
-it immediately after I
I
Section. lb. 1 1 Section;Ih.
.)LSome irons show the phenomenon of erpzanding
,ounng, and then contracting. Four irons were
tested, analyzing as follows: (1) Washed white iron, CC 2.73: Si,
0.01: P. 0.01: $ln and S. traces. (2) Gray hematite, CC, 2.53: CC. 0.86;
Si .? d:. Mn 0 55. p, 0.04; S, 0.03. (3) Northampton, GC, 2.60; CC,
30: P, 1.25; S,O.O3. (4) Cast iron, GC. 2.iR; CC,
~43: P, 0.96; S, 0.07. No. 1 was statlonarg for 5 sec-
onds after pouring. shrunk 125 sec., stationary 10 sec., then shrunk till
ed 15 sec., shrunk 20 sec. to original size. continued
snrmmng YL sec. longer, stationary 10 sec.,, expanded 30 see:, then shrunk
till cold. No. 3 expanded irregularly wth three espanslons and tn-o
shrinkages, until 125 sec. after pouring the total expansion was 0.019 in.
in 12 in., then shrunk till cold.
hr..,- +:,1 ,.^,A
No. 4 expanded 0.08 in. in 50 sec.. then
1. 00 290 260 232 222 220 2.50 392 278 184
1.50 324 272 228 212 208 3.00 426 276 172
2.00 358 278 220 202 196 I 3.50 446 264 192 168 I60
l_kage.Stm!ns Relieved by Uniform Cooling. (F. Schumann,
I-Mr. Jackson in 1873 cast a Aywheel I\-ith a very
large rim jnd extreti
tL.. ^_--
lely small straight arms. Cast in the ordinary way,
L--l.- ^I&,..
CLVZ UIUS OTOK~: ~ll,uer at the rim or at the hub. Then the same pattern
Was molded so that large chunks of iron were cast between t.he arms. a
thickness of sand separating them. Cast in this way, all the arms re-
mained unbroken.
Deformation of Castings from Unequal Shrinkage. - W. SChu-
f?nn. A. S. &I. E.. vol. xvii,) 4 p+m cast in a s& mold mill mam:
rain its alignment, aft.er cooling in t,he mom, provldeo all Parts amma
Its center of gravity of cross section COOI at the same rate as to time and
temperature. Defor .
1~~ ~A:-- --> IL:- I-
due chiefly ,: o unequ;
&.--Fodifying r;~llses
tl rooliw.
that effect contraction are: Imperfect alloying .of
bw or more nmerent irons having ditferent rates of contraction: vana-
tions in the thickness of $and forming the mold: unequal dissipatiqn. of
beat, the upper surface dissipating the greater a,mount of heat: Posltlon
and form of cores, whii:h tend bo resist the action of contraction. also
the difference in conducting power between moist sand and dry-baked
cores; differences in the degree of moisture of the sand; unequal exPos-
ih,,~~ *
~~_~.~ ._,, ~..__..~d~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some of the material.may no longer be accurate
Fig. 92 shows the relat
and to Si, according to
;lon of the strength to the size of the cast-iron
the fiaures in the above table. Comuarine
Z-in. bars with the &in. bars, we find
Sil per cent. . . . 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
I-in. weaker than l/yin., per cent. 20 30 35 ~46 53 57
, . &?a
424 IRON AND STEEL.
ure by t,he removai of the sand while yet in the act of contractin
Ranges. ribs. or gussets that project from the side of the prism, of su 4:
cient area t? cagse the sand to act as a buttress. and thus prevent the
natural lon@tuchnal adjusCme,nt due to contraction: in light castings of
sufficient. length the unyielchng sand between the flanges, etc., may
cause rupture.
Irregular Distribution of Silicon in Pig Iron.- J. W. Thomas
(Iron Age. Nov. 12, 1891) finds in an$yzing samples taken from every
other bed of a cast of pi:: iron that the &con varies considerable. the irnn
comina first from the fuinace havinfz zenerallv the hizhest nercriliaee 1
one s&es of tests the silicon decre&&!i from 2.040 to 1.713 from the fi<;{
bed to the eleventh. In another case the third bed had 1.260 Si. the
seventh l.ilS, and the eleventh 1.101. He also tinds that the sii&
varies iu each pig, being higher at the
E
oint than at the butt.
his figures are: Point of pig, 2.328 Si;
Some of
1.834: bubt of same, l.iS7.
utt of same, 2.157: point of pig,
1Vhite Iron Converted into Gray by Heating. (A. E. Outerbridge~~-
Jr.. Proc. dm. Sony. for lesting MMatls, 1902. p. 229.) -When white chilled
Iron contsinmg a considerable amount of Si and low in W is heated to
about i850 F. from 31/z to 10 hours the CC is changed into C. which
differs materially from graphite, and a metal is formed which has prop-
erties midway between those of steel and cast iron. The soecific ~ra.vitv
is raised froni 7.2 to about 7.8: the fracture is of finer nrxin rh2.n Gmi&s
gray iron: and the metal~is &$ble of being forged, hardened, and taking
a sharp cutling edge. so that It may be used for axes, hatchets. r?tc~ It.
differs-from nialleable cast iron, sitice the latter has its carbon remove;i
by oxidation. while the converted cast iron retains its original total
carbon, although in z changed form. The tensile strenrrth of the new
metal is high. 40.000 to 50.000 lb. per sq. in., with v&y small elongation.
The pecuha: change from white to gray iron does not take place if Si
is low. The analysis of the original castings should be about TC 3.4 to
3.8: Si. 0.9 to 1.2: Mn. 0.35 to 0.20: S. 0.0.5 t,o O-O41 P. 0~04 tn II& The
following shows the change effeciedby th&-h%t %&i&$:-
-- -._-.
Before annealing, GC, 0.72: CC, 2.60; Si, O.il; Mn, 0.11; S. 0.045: P, 0.04
Aft,er anneaiing, GC, 2.75; CC, 0.82; Si, 0.73; Mn. 0.11; S, 0.040; P. 0.04
The GC after annealing is, however, not ordinarv graphite, but an
allot,ropic form, evidently identical with what Ledebiir calls tempering
graphite carbon.
Change of Combined to Graphitic Ca,rbon by Pirating.-(H. M.
Howe, Trans. A. I. 171. E.. 1908. p. 483.) On heatingwhite cast iron todif-
ferent temperatures for some hours, the carbon changes from the com-
bined t.o the gmnbitic state to a decree which increases in epnrr2.l with _.. _ _..__ -_ .._._
the temperature-and with the silicon-conbe~~.~~-With.Oj Si. a little
v
phiteformed at 18323 F.: with0.13 Si, at 1652 F.; with 2.12 Si, graphite
ormed at a moderate rate at 1112. and with 3.15 Si, it formed rapidly
at 1112O F. In iron free from Si. with 4.271 comb. C. and 0.255 graphitic,
none of the C..w;qs changed to graphite on long heating to from 1680 to
2040F.. but m Iron with 0. 75 Sl the graphite, originally 0.935%. rose
to l.69yo on heabing to 17Si 0. and to 2.795,67 on heating to 205i F. On
fhe other hand. when carbon enters iron, as in the cementation process
in makmg bl$tey-steel. it appears chiefly as cementiti (combined carbon).
Also on heating Iron containing graphite to high temperatures and cooling
aquxklg, some of the graphite is changed to cementite.
iNobility of iXol~cules of Cast Iron. (A. E. Outerbridge, Jr..
d.l..ll.E.. xxvi, 176: xxxv. 223.) -Within limits, cast iron is materially
$Fengthened by being subjected to reoeated shocks or blowg~ Six bars
1 in. sq., 15 in. long, subjected for abo<t 4 ho&s t&~inc&&&blows in a
tumbling barrei, were 10 to 15yu stronger than compaction bars not
thus treated. SIX bars were struck 1000 blows on one end only with a
hand hammer, and they showed a like gain in strength.
,preater in hard mixtures,
The increase @
I or strong iron. than in soft mistures. or weak
Iron; greater in l-in. bars than in i/Fin.; and somewhat great& in 2-in.
than m l-m. bars. Bars were. treated in a machine by dropping a I+lb.
weight on the middle of a l-in. bar. supports 12 in..apar%; Six bars
\JARNING: This is d.l910 edition.
So%-of t
*CAST IRON.
were first broken by having the weight fall a sufficient distance to break
tllrm at the first blow, then six companion bars were subjected to from
10 to 50 blows of the same weight falling one-half the former distance
and then the weight was allowed to fall from the height at. which the firs;
bars broke. Not one of the bars broke at the first blow; and from 2 to
lo, and in one case 15 b,lows from the extreme height were required to
break them. Mr. Outerbridge believes that every casting when first
~natlr is unrler a condition of strain. due to the difference in the rate of
cooling at the su,rface and near the center, and that it is pract.icable to
relieve these strains by repeatedly tapping the casting, allo!ving the parti-
cles to resrranqe themselves and assume a new condition of molecular
equilibrium, The results, first reported in 1896. were corroborated by
other espenmenters. A report in Jour. Frank. Inst.. lS9S. gave tests of
82 bars, in which the maximum gain in strength compared wuith untreated
bars was 4G70. and the maximum increase in deHection was 41 yo.
In his second paper, 1904, Mr. Outerbridge describes another series of
tests which showed that l-in. sq. bars 15 in. long subjected to repeated
heating and cooling grew longer and thicker with each successive oper-
ation. One bar heated about an hour each day to about 1450 F. in a
gas furnace for 27 times increased its length 1 u/is in. and its cross-section
l/s in. Soft ironexpands more rapidly than ilard iron. White iron does
not espsnd sufficiently to cover the original shrinkage. Wrought iron and
steel bars similarly treated in a closed tube all contracted slightly, the
average contraction after 60 heatings being 1/s in. per foot. The strength
and detiection of the cast-iron bars was greatly decreased by the treatment,
1250 as compared with 2150 lb., and 0.1 in. deflection as compared with
0.15 in. The specific gravity of the expanded bars was 5.49 to 6.01, as
compared with 7.13 for the untreated bars.
Grate-bars of boiler furnaces grow longer in use. as do also .cast-iron
pipes in ovens for heating air.
Castings from Blast Furnace Xetal. Castings are frequently made
from iron run directly from the blast furnace, or from a ladle filled with
furnace metal. Such metal, if high in Si. is more apt to throw out kish
or loose particles of graphite than cupola metal. With the same percen-
tage of Si. it is softer than cupola metal. which is due to two causes: 1,
lower S; 2. higher temperature. T. D. West, A.I .M.E., xxxv, 211,
reports an example of furnace metsi containing Si. 0.51; S, 0.045; Mn.
0.75: p, 0.094; which was easily planed, whereas If.it had been cupola
metal It would have been qldte hard. J. E. Johnson, Jr., ibid.l p. 213.
says that furnace metal with 9.0.03, and Si. 0. 7, makes good castmgs. not
too hard to be machined. Should the metal contain over 0.9 si. diffi-
culty is experienced in preventing holes and soft places in the castings.
caused by the deposition of kish or graphite during or aft.er pouring.
The best way to prevent this is to pour the iron very hot when making
castings of small or moderate size.
Effect of Cupola Meltin
27 car-wheels were analyze
(G. R. genderson, A.S.M.E., sx. 621.) -
P remains
3,
m t~he pig and also after remeltmg. The
disanoears.
constant, as does Si when under lIo. Some of the Mn alwa.ys
The total C remains the same. but the GC and CC vary in
n, per cent. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04
lost in remelting, per cent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
O.;O oi423 my
material.may no long& be accurate -
an &?atic manner. The metal charged inio the cupola should contain
more GC. Si and Mn than are desired in the castings. Fairbairn (Manu-
facture o/ Iron, 18653 found that remelting up to 12 times increased the
strength and the deflection, but after 1S remeltings the strength was only
% and the deHection l / 3 of the original. The increase of strength n the
first remeltings was probably due to the change of GC into CC, and the
subsequent weakening to the increase of S absorbed from the fuel.
Hard Castings from Soft Pi
F
(B., F. Fackenthal, Jr., A.I .M.E..
XxXv, 993.) -Samples from a car oad of pig gave Si, 2.61: S. 0.023. Cast-
ings from the same iron wave 9.33 and 2.26 Si. and 0.26 and 0.25 S. or
12 times the S in the orig&l p$: probably due to fuel too high in S, but
more probably to the use of too little fuel in remelting.
The loss of Si in remelting. and the consequent hardening. is affected
by the amoimt of Mn, as shown below:
IRON AND STEEL.
Difficult Drilling due to Low Mn. -H. Souther. A.S.T.M.. v, 219
reports a case where thin castings drilled easily while thick parts on thi
same castings rapIdly dulled 112 and Q-in. drills.
tion was noimal except Mn; Si
The chemical constitu-
, 2.5; P. 0.7; S about 0.08; C,
When the >ln was raised to 0.5 the trouble diSaDDeared.
3.5; &In, 0.16.
Addition of Ferro-silicon in the Ladle. (A: E. Outerbridge P-oc
.I .S. T.M.. vi. %:%.) --Half a pound of Fe& containing 50% Si. add&i ;, ;
thick, prevented the chilling of the surface & <he~~&ti&~~and enabled
fhe pulleys to be turned more rapidly. Analysis showed that the actual
merease of the Si in the casting was less than the calculated increase
Tests of t~he metal treated with FeSi as compared w+th untreated metai
showed a gain in strength of from 2 to 26%. and a gain in deHection of 2
to 3%. ,The reason nss!gned for the increase of strength with increase of
softness IS that cupola IrOn contains a smal! amo,unt of iron oxide. which
WF.;S with the Si added m the ladle, formmg &O?. which goes mto the
g
Experiments with Titanium added to cast iron in the ladle are
feported by R. hZolden,ke. Proc. Am. Fdrymens Assn.. 1908. Two
xons were used: gray, with 2.58 S-L. 0.042 S. 0.54 P, 0.74 Mn. and white
with 0.85 Si, 0.07 S,, 0.42 P. 0.6 >fn. Two Fe Ti alloys with 10 $$ Ti
were used. one contaming no C. and the other 5% C.
lower melting point. The results were as below:
The latter has the
Ori&& iron .._.__ .I 9 tests 1720-2260 av. 2020
PlusO.OjTi...... 4 tests 2750-3140 I. 3100
PlusO.10 7i 3 tests 2880-3150 * 3030
PluSO.Oj'~iamlC 6 tests/ 2850-3230 3070
PlusO.!OiisnclC 6 tests 2850-3150 2990
PlusO.l5TinntlC
I I
4 tests 3030-3270 3190
.kvernze of t.reateci iron., 3070
Increase over original. 52%
Modulus of rupture, treated iron, _. .48.030
8 tests
II tests
.
9 tests
10 tests
IO tests
White Iron. Lbg.
1920-2110 av. 2050
2210-2660 " 2400
. . . . . . . . .._____.._.
2230-2720 " 2420
2320-2460 * 2400
2280-2620 " 2520
2430
IF%
38,020
The test pars were 11/4 in. diam. 12 in. between supports. The im-
provement 1s as marked whether 0.05, 0.10. or 0.15% n is used, which
mduxtes that if sufficient Ti is used for deoridation of the iron, any
additional Ti is practically wa,sted.
Ti lessens the chilling action, yet whatever chill remains shows much
harder iron, Test pieces made with iron which chilled 11,/z in. deep
gave but 1 In. chill when the iron was treated in ihe ladle. The original
iron crushed at 173,000 lbs. per sq. in. and stood 445 in Brinels test
for hardness, soft steel running about 105. The treated piece ran
29S.000 lb% per sq. in. and showed a hardness of 557. Testing the soft
metal below the chilled portion for hardness gave 332 for the original
and 322 for the treated piece.
Additions of Vanadium and Manganese. - R. Moldenke, Am.
Fdrymens Assn., 1908. Am,. Much., Feb. 20. 08. Er erlment.s were
made by adding to me!ted cast lro- i
I. .n the ladle a grToiin
vanadium. containing 14.67 Va. 6.36 C. and 0.18 Si.
if alloy of feriq-
In other expen-
ments ferro-manganese (50% Xn) was added. together lvlth the vana-
dium. Four kinds of iron were used: burnt gray iron (gratebars, stove
iron. etc.). burnt white iron. gray machinery iron (Sl 2.79 S 0.065,
P. 0.068. Mn. 0.54) and remelted car wheels (white twb sa; 1;s anal-
yzed: Si, 0.60 ar,d 0.53 S 0.19. 0.138; P, 0.3&, 0,374; &n
0.44). The follo&ng areavkrag&sults:
' WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
CAST IRO-N.
427
Gray Machinery Iron..
Added Per cent.
vn. &In.
1
i : ! 0. 0 0.50
2:: 0.50
X 0.50
0.15 ."da;S.'
Average treated
-
1
-5
-.
3reaking
St~rength,
Ibs.
. . .._.....
2224
Deflec-
:ion, In.
0.105
::I:
0.100
E;:
0.100
-
I
_.
_.
-.
Mod. of rupture.. . . . 35,800
Remelted Car Wheels.
4dded Per cent. Breaking
Strizgth
Va. i Mn.
0.0 0.0 1470
0.50 2790
;:I; .~:56.. 3020 2970
0.10 2800
2; 0.50 .,.,_,,. 3030 2950
0.15 0.50 3920
48,020
Moduli of rupture of bar.. . . . . .:. .28,400
Fiber stress of pipe, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18,300 xz
Lab
,
2$E
rilaterial may- no lorig~kr be accurate the
-
_.
-
Deflec-
tion, In.
0.050
0.070
0.060
0.090
0.055
E-2
0.095
The bars were 1 l/4 in. diam. 12 in. between supports.
The burnt gray iron was increased in breaking strength from 1310 to
2220 lbs. by the addition of 0.03 % Va, and the burnt white iron from
1440 to 1910 lbs. by the addition of 0.05 Va and 0.50 Mn.
Strength of Cast-Iron Beams. -C. H. Benjamin, Machy, May,
1906. Numerous tests were made of beams of different sections, mclud-
lng hollow rectangles and cylinders, I and T-shapes, etc. All the sec-
tions were made approximately the same area, about 4.+ sq. in., and all
were tested by transverse loading, with supports 18 m. apart. The
results. when reduced by the ordinary formula for stress on the extreme
fiber, 5 = Mu/T, showed an extraordinary variation. some of the values
being as follows: Square bar,. _ 3.300: Round bar, 25.000. Hollow round,
3.4 in. outside and 2.5 in. Inside diam.. 26.450. and 35,800. Hollow
ellipse, 3 in. wide. 3.9 in, high, 0.9 in. thick, 36.000. I-beam. 4 in. high,
web 0.44 in. bhick, 17,700. The hollow cylindrical and ellipricnl sec-
tions are much stronger than the solid sections. This is due to the
thinner metal the greater surface of hard skin, and freedom from
shrinkage St&ins. Professor Benjamins conclusions from these tests
are:
II) The rnmmonlv accented formulas for the strenath and stiffness
of &a&%-n;;t~%~$y well to cored and dribbed sections-of cast iron.
(2) Neither the strength nor the stiffness of a section increases in pro-
portion to the increase rn the section modulus or the moment of inert~ia,.
(3) The best way to determine these qualities for a cast-iron beam 1s
bv exDeriment with the particular section desired and not by reasoning
from any other section. -
Bursting Strength of Cast,-Iron Cylinders. - C. H. Benjamin,
.A. S. M. E., XI X, 597; Mach!/, Nov., 1905. Four cylinders, 20 In. 1Ong.
10 l/e in. int. diam., 3/4 in. thick, with flanged ends and bolted covers,
burst at 1350 1400, i350, and 1200 Ibs. per sq. in. hydraulic pressure,
the corresponbing iiber stress, from the formula S = pd/2 t, being 9040.
10.200. 9735 and 9080. Pieces cut from the shell had an average tensile
fJ&&li~f~l~,OOO lbs. per sq. in., and a modulus of rupture in trans-
~V~VSP S;ltren~th nf Cast-iron Water-Dine. (Technoloas Qum-
verse te
each half- of pibe as a beam fixed at the ends, ranging from 12,800 lbs. to
25,300 lbs. per sq, in.
Bars 2 in. wide cut from the pipes gave mod!di of rupture r?nting from
28.400 to 51,400 Ibs. per sq. in. Four of the test.% bars and PlPes :
51,400
26,300
-
IRON AND STEEL.
.These figures show a great variation in the strength of hoth bars and
pipes. and also that the strength of the bar does not bear any definite
relation to the strength of the pipe.
Bursting Strength
The Crane Compan
tests ,of tees and Jq
of Flanged Fittings. --Power. Feb. 4, 191)~
Chicago, published in the Valve lVorltZ records &
.e s. standard and extra heavy, which show that the
bursting strength of such fittings is far less than 1s given by the Standard
formulaz for thick c\?inders.
followins empirical i;orrnlda:
As a reslllt of the tests they give the
ti = TS/D. in \x%ich U = bllrsting pi-es-
sures, Ibs. per sq. in.. 2 = thickness of metal. D = inside diam.
S = 6.5% of the tensile strength of the metal for pipes up to 12 in. d$G,:
fcr larxer sizes use 6070. The pipes were made of ferro-steel 0;
3R.OOQ Ihs. T. S., an!-1 7f cast iron of 22,000 lbs. as tested in bars.
The
followme are the prmcipal results of tests of extra heavy tees and ells
compared with results of calculation by the Crane Companys formula:
Insi<le Diam. 6
Thickness. 3!4
B. Ferro-sterl.. 2733
cakuinted....... 2680
B. Cant iron. 1687
cnlctll~ted....... 1790
E!!s. ferro steel.. _. 3266
cast-iron. 2275
Soeciflr Gravitv and .f
8 IO 12
13/ : 6 15/ 16 1
,225O ) 2160 2033
2180 2010 1870
1350 1306 1380
1450 1340 1190
2725 2350 2133
1625 1541 1275
14 16 18 20
I l/s
24
In/l6 1 V4 IQs 1112
-----
1825 1700 1450 1275 1300
1075 1250 .._... . . . .,,_..
itrength. (Major Wade, lS56.)
;r. 7.087, T. S. 20.14% Another lot: least Sp.
Third-class guns: Sp. C
Cr. 7.163. T. S. 22.4OZ.
Second-class guns: Sp. Gr. 7.154. T. S. 24.i67. Another lot: mean
Sp. Gr. 7.302. T. S. 27.232.
First-c!ass guns:
SP. Gr. 7.204, T. S 2S,SO5. Another lot: greatest
sp. Gr. 7.40. I.. s. 31,027.
Str.enz!h of Charcoal Pig Iron. -.-- Pia iron made from Salisburv
ores. m furnaces at Wassaic and Millerton. N. Y.. has sho\vn over 40 OOb
!bs. T. 5. per square inch, one sample giving 42.LSl Ibs.
.\liurkirk, jfd.
Iron testpd at the Washington Navy Yard showed: averaTe for No. 2
iron. 21.601 Ihs.: No. 3. 23,959 Ibs.; No. 4, 41,329 tbs.; jverage den-
s1t.v of No. 4. 7.336 (J. C. I. W.: v. p. 44).
N?s. 3 and 4 charcoal pig iron from Chapinville Conn. showed a
tenale. strength per square inch of from 34.761 lbs. to41 SS2Ibs.
Char-
coal we iron from Shelby, Ala. (tests made in ;lugust iS91) &owed a
strengt,h,of 34,SO0 lbs. for No. 3: No. 4. 39.675 Ibs.: ho. 5. i6.450 Ibs.;
and a mlsture of equal parts of I
I. R- So A I
Ibs. (p&I. qos. 2, 3, 4. and 5, 41.470
J ariatiou of Density and Tenacity of Gun-Irons. - An increase of
densitv inrariablv follntvv; the r:lni
~*.--.--- .-_ --.- --v- d cooling of cast iron, and as a general
rule the tenacity 1s Increased by the same means.
ally mcreases quit,e .uniformly -with the den
The tenacity gener-
to some given
IRten2~ritv~
sity, until the lat,ter -ascends
by a diminish1
olnt; atter which an increased density is accompanied
The turnint ~~~p$<6?~ensity at which the best qualities of gun-iron
at,tain their maxmum tenacity appears to be about 7.30
At this point
of density. or near It, whether in proof-bars or gun-heads: the tenacity is,
pre%+ . _ .
.*s me nenslty of !ron 1s increased its liquidity when melted is dimin-
ished. T!:is causes It to congeal quicklv. and to form cnvitits in the
lnt$rjor of the casting. (Pamphlet of Btiilders Iron Foundry 1893.)
&ml+eel is a trade name given by some founders to castings made
from pig Iron melted m the cupola. \:ith additions of from 20 to 30 per
cent of steel scrap.
In :he ladle.
Ferfo-manganese is also added either in the cupola or
The addition of the steel dilutes the Si of the pig iron and
changes SOnE of the C from GC to CC, hot the TC is unchanged foi an
reduction made by the steel is balanced by absorption of C fromthe fue . 9
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
.he
MALLtiABLE CAST IRON.
Semi-steel therefore is nothing more than a strong cast iron, low in 81
and containing some Un. and the name given it 1s a rmsnomer.
iMixture of Cust Iron -with Steel. - Car wheels are sometimes made
from a mixture of charcoal iron, anthracite iron, and Bessemer steel.
The following shows the tensile strength of a number of tests of wheel
mixtures. the average tensile strength of the charcoal iron used being
i$ioOO 1bS. (Jour. C.-I. IV., iii, p. 1%):
lbs. uer so. in.
steel .-. .
steel . .
steel and 61/4yo anthrac+te . .
steel and 71/z% anthracite .
steel, 21/z% wrot iron, and 61/4$0 anth.
steel, 5yo wrot iron, and 1OSb anth... .
Cast Iron Partially Bessemerized. - Car wheels made of partially
Bessemerized iron (blown in n Bessemer converter for 3% minutes),
rhiliurl in n. chill test mold over an inch deep, just as a test of cold blast I.L ..-- _._ - -.
fnr ~n~r whwk wnllld rhill~ Car wheels made of this blown
irnn have run 250.000 miles. ___.. ~~~~ (J our. C. I . ;V.. vi, p, 77.)
RSSI r&t, lmn: -On October 15. 1891. the --._- -__...
: ca,st-iron fly-wheel of a
la$?&ir of Cor!iss engines belongingto the Amoskeag Mfg. Co., of Man-
chester. N.H.. esnloded from centrifugsl force.
The fly-wheel w+s 30
_...~~~
feet diimeter and110 inches face, with one set Of 12
I arms, and weighed
116 000 Ibs. After the accident, the rim castings, as well as the ends of
thearms. were found to be full of flaws, caused chiefl
n.nd shri~kine of the metal. Soecimens of the me1
r
by the drawing
;a were tested for
ten~ii:-stre;l~ihT-and varied from 15,000 Ibs. per s are inch in sound
oieces to 1000 lbs. in spongy ones.
None of tl>ese a aws showed on the
lefore they were erected
briffsce, and a rigid esamiiiition of the parts b
failed to give any cause to suspect their true nature.
Esperiment,s were
carried on for some time after the accident in the Amoskeag Companys
fmlnrlrv in attemotina to duplicax the flaws, but with no success in
~~~~6&~~~g~th~~ bid&s of these castings.
Permanent Expansion of Cast Iron by Heating. (Value World.
Sept., 1908.) -Cast iron subjected t,o continued. tempera$res of approx-
imately 500 to 600 took a permanent espanslon and chd not return to
its c&ins1 volume when cooled.
As steam is being superheated quite commonly to temperatures above
575. this fact is of great interest inasmuch as it,modifies our ldeas,aQout
the proper material to be used in the construction of valves anp tittmgs
for service under high temperatures.
A permanent volumetnc expan-
sion is followed by a loss of strength, the loss in cast iron being fully 40
per cent in four years.
Crane Co. made an attempt to determine whether east steel was affected
in the same manner as cast iron.
Three flanges were taken, one of cast
iron one of ferrozteel, and the third of cast steel. Thesf! flanges were
ex &ed for a total period of 130 hours to tempera,tures rangmg as follows:
e. - ess than 300, 1s hours: 500 to 700. 97 hours: 710 to 800. 12 hours;
over SOOO 3 hours. Average temp., 583.
The outside diameter in each case was 12% in. and the bore 6%~ in.
The results were: Cast-steel flange, ,no change.
Cast-iron flange,
outside diam. increased 0.019 in., inside &am. increased O.QO7 in.
Ferro-
steel flange, outside diam. increased 0.033 in., inside &am. Increased 0.017
in.
If the permanent expansion of cast iron stopped a% the.figures given
ahove it would not be a serious matter: but all evidence pomts toward a
steady increase as time goes on, as was shown by one of Crane a.s
14-in valves which originally was 221/2 in. face to face, and lnCrz;rut
%s hi. in le&th in four years under an average temperature of
cnno
3 .
MALLEABLE CAST IEON.*
There are four great classes of work for whose requirements malleable
_ cast iron (commonly called malleable iron in America) 1s esPeclallY
;~ * References. - R. Moldenke.
cass. Man.. 1907. and Iron Trade
Retie;- lgOi.: E. C. Wheeler. Iron Age. Nov. 9, 1899; C. H. Gale. In&sl.
world April 13, 1908; W. H. Hattieid. ibid. G,. A. Akerlund. Iron Tr*
,~Reu., kug. 23, 1906; C. H. Day, Am. Mach.. April 5, 1906.
material rn$~no~ longer be accurate
TRON AND STEEL.
adapted. These are agricultural implements. raiiwav suonlies. ca.~ti~~,
and harness castings and pipe fittings.
are innumerable other unclassified uses.
BesIdes these m&~~&bse~ih~r~
The malleable casting is seldom
over 175lbs. in wei$lt. or 3 ft. in length. or 3/4in. in thickness. The
grear, majority of even the heavier castingsdo noi exceed IO Ibsl-. -r
oper!:; made. maiieabie cast iron shouid ilave a. tensile nt.rentr, When p:
- - --~----- I,.I..~L,I
of 42.000 to 48;OOO !bs. per sq. in.. with an elongation of 5% m 2 in
Bars 1 in. square and on sl1pport.s 12 in. aunrt sho111d show a transve&
strength of 2501 I to 35OO 11~s:;wit.11 a delieciion of at least 117 ins ~~~--. U*YV
Whi!e the strenxt~ll of malleable iron should he as stat
-.-ed, much of it
will fall as low as X.00(! tbs. per sq. in., and this will still be good for such
work as pipe fittings. hardware castings and the like.
even t
On the other ha.orl
i3.000 lbs. per sq. in. has been reached. with a load of .iOOO Iha-<2
~~ _.--.. -..- -__. J . . __ I _._D.. yc.lu,,D
strength is essential must it be replaced by that material.
The process of making malleable iron may be summarized as follo\vs:
The proprr cast irons are melted in either the crucible. the air fumnre
the open-heart,11
sand r
furnace or the cupola. The metal w&n cast int$?rA
nolds must chill white or not more t,hn.n ilIst. n. lit,tle mnttld
_ l&r
I ._I__ ...- .--. After
removing the sand from the hard ~asti~rg~~h&-are packed in iron scale
or other maWr?als containing iron oxide, and subjected to a red heai
(12.50 to 1350 F.) for over 60 h0ur.s~
ThPv 2~ t,h,n cooled slowly~
clesned from scale; chipped or ground, and strai&ter
a deflect,ion of 2r/z,in. in the trans!-erse test. This high strength is not
deslrsble. as the sottness of the casting is sacrificed, and its resist,ance to
contmued shock is lessened.
TV
For the reoeated stresses of severe nervio-
IL.
When hard. or just from the sand, the composibion of the iron should
be about as follo:vs: Si. from 0.35 up to 1.00. depending upon the t.hick-
ness and the purpose the casting is to be used for; P not over 0.225 hln
not over 0.20. :i not over 0.05. The total carbon can be from 2.75 upliard
4.15 being about the highest, that can be carried.
the stron~r t.hg
The 10~~ the mrhnn
trouble in the anneal, the black-heartstructure may not apoear.an&Yt&
castings remain weak. A cas
tint? 1 in. thick would necessitxe silirnn at
0.35, and the use of chills in the mold in addition to pettlre$on-Ghite.
For a casting l/z in. thick. Si abollt ~6 iq the nrnk.r limit nv~~n+ ..rh-m
great strength is desired,. when it can be drop&$$ib^d:~~: cp;b;;e;jrt$j
there is danger of getting heavilv-mottled if nor grav irnn from the sand
molds, and this material. when &mralr~t t,he lonB+ime 7
white castings. would be ruined.
lquired for the
For verr thin cast&g,, % can run up to
1 .OO and still leave the metal white in fract.ure.
Pig Iron for ~Taiieahle Castings. -The specifications run as follows:
P.
Si. 0.75. 1.00 1.25, 1.50, 1.75 7
, -.OO%. as required; Xn, :.ot over 0.60;
not over 0.225; S. not over 0.n.i~
-Works making heavy castings almost esclusiveiv specifv Si to include
0.4 5 up to 1.50%. Kxkers of very light work take 1.25 to 2.0070.
The ;Ileiting Fumare. - %lleable iron is melted in the reverbera-
t.ory furnace. the open:hearth furnace and the cupola: the reverberatory
being the most estenslvely used. about 85 per cent of the entire output
of t.he Unlted Stat,es being melted by t,his process.
the standard furnace was one of 5 t.bns capacitv.
Prior to about 1885.
have furnaces of 2.5 and 30 tons capacitv
At present (19081 we
though furnaces of from 10 to
15 tons are the most popular and give more unilorm results than those
of lamer ca0acit.v
The-adoDlio< of the open-hearth furnace for malleable iron dates
back to about 1893. It is used largely in the Pittsburg district.
CuPoia melted Iron does not possess the tensile strength nor ductility
of Iron melted 111 the reverberatory or open-hearth furnace due partly to
the hlgller carbon and sulphur caused by the metal bein* in contact
WI?!1 the fue!.
This feat-me is rather an advantage than Gtherwise. as
most of the product of cupola melt.ed iron consists of pipe fittings. cast-
lngs that are not subjected to any great stress or shock.
The castings
are threaded, and a strong, t.ough malleable iron does not cut a clean,
smooth thread. but rather will rough up under the cutting tool.
In. the.reverberatory and open-hearth furnaces the metal mag be partly
desllmonlsed,at will, by an oxidizing flame or by additions of scrap or
other low-sIllcon material. Manganese is also oxidized in the furniW3.i
WARNING: This. is a 1910 edition. Some of
-
k
;
MALLEABLE CAST IRON. 431
The composition of good castings in American practice is: Si, from 0.45
to l.oO~o: Wn. up to O,.30%: P, Up to 0.2%% S, up to 0.07i; total
carbon in the hard cast,mg, above 3.75%.
in special cases, especially for very small castings, the silicon maY go
up as big11 as I.%~~:, while for very heavy work It may, drop down to
0.35~~ wItI1 very good ,results. In the case of charcoal Iron this figure
gives the strongest castmgs. With coke irons. however. especially xhen
sleel scrap additions are t.he rule. 0.45,should be the lower hmlt, and 0.O.j
is tile best, silicon for all-arorlnd medium and 11tavy \~orl<. such as rnil-
road castings.
in America,n pmctice phosphorus is requi,red.not to e?ceed 02?5C,,
and is preferred lower. In European practice It is required as low as
O,lO~&?,, but castings have been made successfully- wlth P as high as
0.40%.
The heat treatment of me~,ta)~;~;get+ncelting has ,an import,ant bearing
EXCPSSIW temoeratures oro-
,,non its tensile strength, -____D____.., ___. _.. ~~~~~
mainlY through the genera-
;;;dtk the chances of burning. Iron is burnt
tion in melting furnaces of higher temperatures than those preyailing
during the initial casting at blast furnaces and an excess of air in the
fls~me. The choicest irons may thus turn out poor material.
,hrinlrnrre nt the Casting. -The shrinkage of the hard casting is
not. nr rlnl~hlr that, of ~mv Iron. In annealing about
_..
s ..__-_._- - _- --
about l/-4 ill. to the f ___, -_ -_--_. ..-. -. _. I
i&f of~tbis is recovered. and hence the : net resu!t is the same as in ordi-
..-._ . .~~~~
nary foundry pattern practice.
The eifect. of this great shrinkage is 2
cause shrinkage cracks or sponginess in the interior of the casting.
soon as the liquid metal sets against the surface of the ,motd and t,he
source of n~rnnlv is cut off. the contraction of the metal In the interior
Is-&uses the particles to be torn apart and to form minute
=F~rv +a=+. hnr 2.1~1 for t,h:ir matter everv casting
as it coo
cracks or cavities. _._.~~~ ~~ - ._._, I.,, -__, _.._ .~.~~. ~~~
rn!l.~ he r~arded as a shell of fairly continuous m eta1 with an interior of
~iilphtU&~$s ofseparation a,t, rietit anrrles to the surface. This charac-
t,eristic of malleable iron forms the basis of many a mysterious failure.
(Moltlenke.)
Packin- for Annealing. -After the castings have been chipped and
sorted the; are packed in iron annealing pots, holding about 800 pounds
of iron together with a packing composed of iron ore, hammer and
rolling mill scale, turnings, borings, etc. The turnings.. etc., were form-
erly treated with a solution of satsmmoninc or mnriatic acid to form a
heavy coating of oxide, but such trentment is nom consldered unnec-
essary. Blast furnace slag coke, sand, and tire elaY have also been used
for packin*. The changesin chemical composition of the castings when
annealed it? slag and in coke are given as follo!vs by C. H. Gale:
1 Jln. 1 C.C. ) (3.6. Si. S. P.
-I-! I
Hard iron. 0:::
0.043
E:iZ ii:;:
2.54 Trace
Annealed in slag., 0.049
I .65
Annealed in coke. _. _. 0.61 0.065 0.150 0.21 2'2;: 2.00
,,
e material may no l onger be accurate
IRON AND STEEL.
As to,>he distribution of carbon in an annealed casting, Dr. Moldenke
%?$ and gather the chips for ac
Take a Hat piece of malleable and plane off the skin. sav l/la in
0.19% perhaps even less.
nearer 0.607.
Cut in afiother l/is in. and t& tbijiCn;iUbJ
C will ramze Prom sn.v 1 7n tr
Now go down successively by.sixteenths and the t.,+,T
3 3.65% and will then remain constxnt ,Z+?
the ce~~t&*iy re;Lcl;<$,5c -.
The malleable casting is for practic&p;;;&$
a poor steel casting with a lot of graplure. not agstallized, berween the
crJ>Jals or groups of crystals of the steel.
The hex iu the ,annealing process must be maintained for from tlvo to
four days, dePendlI!g upon the thickness of sections of the castings and
Jhe co?lJractness wltb which the castings or annealing hoses are placed
In the ftlrnare. An annealinE temnerature 1350 to 1filW F:ah iq,,sft;;
used. b,ut it. is pot essentia!,-as tlie &%ding can K&&Z~iisi ~_
will be lonzer than ttlat at the hieher t&r -..-.
perature. I%&$$%&~~he anneal is no uncommon featlire, and, gci:
erul!y sprakin,g, lt 1s t~he result of carelessness. The most carefully pre--
pared metal trom melting furnaces can here be turned into worthless
castrngs by some slight inattention of detail. The highest temperature
for annealmg should be registered in eacli foundry. and kept there by the
daily a@ frequent
;oszi btearly. cant
use off a thermometer constructed for that sole nll~-
inued heat insures soft castings. while unequal {e-&,-
;ureS dcst,roY al! chances for successful work, although the initial
, ..
nt quality. metal was or tne most exceItc!
After annealing, the cast ings are cleaned bv tumblers or the aanrl
blast: they a:e carefully examined for cracks or other defects a<;-+
sprung o!it of shape are hammered oriorced by hydraulic POW& to the
correct shape. Such parts as are produced in ereat: auantiti-es are nlnrpd
111 a drop l.zmmer and one or two blows will i&Ire a izorrect form.
They
may be dro?-fqrged or even welded when the iron has been made for that
purpose. CA-tmrs are sometimes dipped int,o asplutlt,utn diluted with
brnzine to give them a better finish.
?Ialleable castings must never be straightened hot, especially when
thick. In the case of very thin castings there is some latitude. as the
material is so /- Zecarbonized that it is nearer ;I steel than e&G&p mat-
leable cast iron. In heating portions of castings that were badly warped
it seems that the amorphous carbon in them was combined aeain. and
while the bslsn
Jjarts beCam white and brittle, as in the orieinal h&d casting. Hence
the advice to stmighten the rastiws cold, preferably with a dron ham-
mer arid suitable dies, or : itill better in the hJ;draulic press.
Proc. .4. S. T. M.. vii. 24. &.!
(R. Jfoldenke.
Physical Cbararteristirs. - The characteristic that rives malleable
Iron Its greatest value as compared wit,11 prar iron is its ability to resist
shocks.. XCallesb~hty in a ligtlt casting l/q in. thick and less means a
soft, pliable condition and the ability to withstand considerable distor-
tion wit.hout fracture, while in the heavv
means the abi!it
sections. 117 in. and over. it
y to resist shocks without~bendin:~ or breai&*
For general purposes it is not altogether d&-able to ha?e a metal
verc h&h in tensile strength. but rather one which has a high transverse
Peciallr a Food deflection. It is not nlmnvs t.hnt. 2. ct.ronC strinxtli. and es~
- I.. ..~._
and at the same time soft~msterial can be produced in a f&z& operat-
ing ?n the lighter grades of castings.
The purchazr, t.herefore. unless he
reqmres very stiff material, should rather look upon the deHection of
the metal coupled with the weight it t.ook to do this bending before
failure, than for a high tensile st.rin~th
The ducti1it.y nf t.hp rn~ll~
- I__.....
which cannot sc
-- _..- . ..-..eable casting permits the driving of rivets.
) rentlilv be done with ern,r rnrt. iron. n~nrf fnr rert,ain. __. ..~~
P+i of cars, like the-journal boxes. malle&ie &i$*ir&y-rn, be con-
sidered snprcme,, leaving cast iron and se!ni+teel far behind.
It was formeny the general belief that the strength of malleable iron
was largely in the white skin alwavs found on this material but it has
been demonstrated that t.he removal of the skin does not nro;ortionatelY
lessen the streng :bh of the castinp.
Test Bars. - The rectangular shape is used for test bars in preference
to the round section, because the latter is more apt to have serious crack8
In the center. due to shrinkage. especially if the diameter is large. A
round sectIon, unless in very light hardware, is to be avoided. as the,&
WARNI NG: This is a 1916 edition. Some of
the
MALLEABLE CAST IRON.
shrinka~ge crack in the center may have an outlet to the skin, and cause
failure in service.
It is customary to provide for two sizes of test bars, the heavy and
the light. Thus the l-in. squbre bar represents work l/2 an inch thick
a,ld over, and a 1 X1/2-in. secticii bar cares for the lighter castings.
g&h are 14 inches long.
tile end of each heat.
Tbey should be cast at the beginning and at
Design of JIalleable Castings. -As white cast iron shrinks a great
.++:il more than Prav iron. and as the sections of mnllrable rastinzz are
i;&G than th& of siniilar castings of gray iron, fractures are~very
~()nml011. It is therefore the designers aim to distribute the met,al so
as to meet these conditions. In long pieces the stiffening ribs shorild
este:ld lengthways so as to produce as little resist,ance as orsible to the
,-ontraction of the metal at the time of solidification. ff this be not
possible, the molder provides a crush core whose interior is filled with
crushed coke. When the metal solidifies in the flask the core is crushed
hy the casting and thus prevents shrinkage cracks. At other times a
certain corner or juncture of ribs in the castmg will be found cracked.
In order to prevent this a small piece of cast iron (chill) is embedded in
the sand at this critical Point, and the metal will cool here more quickly
than elsewhere. and thus fortify this
some other part of the casting will &
oint, although it may happen that
e found fracturedinstead. and in
many cases the locations and the shape of strengthening ribs in the
casting must be altered until a casting is procured free from shrinkage
rmcks. In desirnine of malleable cast-iron details the followin:: rules
(1) Endeavpr to keep the metal in different parts of the casting at. a
uniform thickness. In a small casting, o$. say, 10 Ibs. weight, l/4-nn.
m&al is about the practical thickness, /la m. for a casting of la to Zl
Ibs.~ and 3/g to l/2 in. for castings of 40 lbs. and over, (2) Endeavor to
avotd sharp junctions of ribs or parts, and if the casting 1s long, say 24
inches or more, the ends should be made of such shape as to other as
little resistance as possible to the contraction of metal when cooling in
the mold.
Specifications for Malleable Iron. -
The tensile strength of malle-
able iron varies with the thickness of the metal, the lighter sections hav-
ing a greater strengt.h per square inch than the heavier sections. An
l?n,ct.Prn m,ilmad d4ennt.w the tensile strenetb desired as follows: Sec-
:---- ---
tions 3/a In. thickor-~~ss-sllorlld ha& a tensile strength of not less than
40,UOO Ibs. per sq. in.: 2/s to 3/4 in. thick, not less than 35.000: and over
3/4 in., not less than 36.000 11)s. per sq. in.
Test bars 5/8 and i/s in. diam.
were made in the same mold and Poured from the same ladle, and an-
nealed toget,her. The average tensile strength of five pairs of bars so
treated, representing five heats, was, G-in. bars., 45,095.; /e-in. bars.
31.316 lb8. Per sq. in. Average elongation in 6 In.: s/s-in. bars 5.3%;
G-in. bars 4.2%. -
A ver
9 cast stee
high tensile strength can be obtained approaching tha~l,~~
but at the expense of the malleability of the p;.oduct.
able test bars have been made with a tensile strength of between 60,000
and 70,000 Ibs. pe; sq. in., but the ductility and ability to resist shocks
Of these bars was not equal to that of bars breaking at 40,000 to 45,000
-. .
Y~$8$r$l~~.~timiralty specification is 1s tons (40.3?0 lbs.) Per square
inch. a minimum elong?tion of 41/2 ,O
4 in three inches and a bending angle
of a.t least go0 over a 1-m. radius, the bar being 1 X 2/a in. in section. .
,The s<eclHcations of the Anierican Society for Testing Jlaterials
le following:
Cupola iron is not recommended for heavy or important ca$ings.
Castings for~which physical requirements are spec,lfied shall not Con-
tain over 0.06 sulphur or over 0.225 phosphorus.
The Standard Test Bar is 1 in. square and 14 in. long, cast without
:. chills n.nrt teft. rwrfectlv free in the mold. Thre :e bars shall be cast in one
-..- _-__
,i!. mold heavy &&ii&ring sound bars. Whe:e the full heat goes into
,;;$
cast&es which are subject to specification, one mold shall be.poured
^ .
&~ two &n&&$fter~ tapping into ibe first ladle, and another mOlcl rron.
j$ the last iron of the heat.
The tensile strength of a standard test bar shall not be less than 40,000
Ibs. per sq. in. The elongation in 2 in. shall not l?e less than 2*/Z%.
434 IRON AND STEEL.
WROUGHT IRON. 435
The rectangular sections were approximately 1/4X 3/4 in. The star
sections were square crosses, 1 inch wide, with arms about l/4 In. thick.
Tests of Rectangular Cast Bars, made by a committee ?f the alas-
ter Car-builders Assn. in 1891. ami 1892. gave the followmg resuits
(selected to show range of variatlon):
The transverse strength of a standard test bar on supports 12 inches
apart shall not be less than 3000 lbs.. deflection being at least l/z in.
Improvement in Quality of Castings. (sloldenke.) -The history
of improvement in the malleable casting is admirably reflected in the
test records of any works that has them. Going back to the early 90s
the average tensile strength of malleable cast iron was about 35,000 Ibs:
Per sq. in., with an elongation of about 2Y0 in 2 in. The transverse
strength was perhaps 2800 lbs., with a deflection of l/z in. Toward the
close of the 90s a fair a:erage of the cast.ings then made would run
about 4-1.000 lbs. per sq. in, wi:h an elongation of 5% in 2 in., and the
transverse strength. about 3500 itis., wvlth a deHertion of l/z inch.
average figures were greatly exceede-l
These
u III establishments where special
attention was given to the niceties of the process. The tensile strength
here would run 52,000 lbs. per sq. in. regularly, with 7% elongation ln
2 in., and the transverse strength, 5000 and over, with 11/z in. deHection.
Further Progress Desirable. (Moldenke.) -We do not know at
the present time why cupola malleables require an annealing heat sev-
era1 hundred degrees higher than air or open-hearth furnace iron.
The-
underlying princip!es of the oxidation of the bath, which is a frequent
cause of defective iron, is practically unknown to the majority of those
engaged in this industry. Heats are frequently made that will not
Pour nor annesl properly, but the causes are still being sought. To
p,roduce castings from successive heats, so that with the same composi-
tlon they \$l have the same physical strength regardless of how they
are tested, IS a problem partially solved for steel. but not yet approached
for malleable cast iron.
Sufficient progress in the study of iron with the microscope has been
made to warrant the belief that in the not distant future we may be
able to distingmsh the constituents of the material by means of etching
Mth various chemicals. When the sulphides ani phosphides of iron,
or. the mangar!ese-sulphur compounds, can be seen directly under the
rmcroscope, it is probable that a met,hod may be found by which the
dangerous ingredients may be so scattered or arranged that they will
do t.hP Imvt. hn,rm
Xlnstic
Ihit.
lbs. pe,
sq.in.
Elastic FlonS,
Limit, d
Ibs. pe1
in 8 in..
sq. in.
70.
w
0.25x 1.52 34,700
1.52x1.54 28,200
::;
I.1
'1::
; 0.29x2.78 28.160
1~5
0.39x2.82 $,;;;
0.53x2.76
1.5 0.8 x2.76 25:120
1.5 1.03x2.82 20.720
Tests of Square .Rars, l/z, in. and 1 in., by tension,. compression and
traoyyrse stress, by M. H. Miner and F. E. Blake (Railway Age, Jan. 25.
T&ION. Six Q-in. and six l-in. round bars, also two l-in. bars
turned to remove the skin, from each of four makers. Average results:
T. S.. Q-in. bars, 37.470-42,950, av. 40,960; E. L., 16,500-21.100. av.
19,176.
T. S., I-in.bars, 35,750-40,530, av. 38,300; E. L., l&860-19.900, av.
.- .1
?%le strength, turned bars. av. 35,090. Elastic limit,. a~. 15.660.
Elong. in 8 in., Q-in. bars, 4.75$l,; l-ih. bars, 4.32%; turned bars.
3.73%
kod;lus of elnsticity. l/z-in. bars. 22.259.000; l-in. bars, 21.677.OFO.
CO.\ IPRESSIOS. 16 short blocks, 2 in. long, 1 in. and l/z ic. square
respectively.
S long columns, 15 in. long, 1 in. sq., and 7.5 in. long, 112 in. sq. respec-
tively.
Averages of blocks from each of four makers:
Short blocks, Q-in. sq., 93,000 to 114,500 lbs. per sq. in. Mean.
101.900 lbs. per sq. in.
Short blocks, 1 in. sq., 137,600 to 16.5,300 tbs. per sq. in. hlean.
152,800 Ibs. per sq. in.
Ratio of final to original length, l/2 in., 61.7%; 1 in.. 52.6%. A small
part of the shortening was due to sliding on the 45 plane Of fracture..
Long columns: l/z in. X 7.5 in. Mean, 29.400 lbs. per sq. in.: 1 in.
X 15 in., 27,500 lbs. per sq. in. Ratio of final to original length, l/2 in..
98.5y0; 1 in., 98.8%. The long columns did not rupture, but reached
the maximum stress after bending int,o a permanent curve.
TRANSVERSE TESTS. Maximum fiber stress, mean of 8 teStS,Lle/n2;i$ti
bars, 34.163 lbs. per sq. in.
between su
l-in. bars, 3ti,125 lbs. Per sq. In.
:The Q-in. %
ports, 20 in. The bars did not break, but failed by bending.
ars could be bent nearly double.
-_ . . .__., .___ .__.
The high sulphur in European malleable accounts to some extent for
the compprative!y low strength when contrasted with our product,
Their castmgs being all very light,, so long as they bend and twist p:op-
erly, the purpose is served. and hence until heavier castings become the
rule in$entl of, the exception,. white heart and steely-looking fmc-
tures \~dl remam the characteristic feature of European work.
Strength of Malleable Cast Iron.
Bars caz: by Buhl Xatleable Co., Detroit,, Mich.
Day. Am. &fuch., April 5, 1906.
Reported bv Chas. H.
time.
The castings were all made ai the same
The figures here given are the maximum and minimuni results
from three bars of each section.
TENSILE I cc r TES
Section.
-
! I
; il
-
<long.
o8in.
4
rG.
-
I
_
?!?a
?k.
PRESS
L:gth,
1Il.
.Area,
sq. ifi.
Zomp.
Sk..
15. per
sq. in.
Final
Area,
3q. in.
---
L%:
2:::
0.263
0.254
I.051
1.040
0.436
0.457
--
0.901
0.886
0.221
::%
::i;:
I.066
;:2
5.87
6.21
7.70
13.00
4.70
3.72
4.10
;::9"
3.87
4.20
4.80
31,700
33,240
32,600
34,600
33,200
31,870
29,650
30.450
32,200
30,400
43,000
43,400
41,130
44,700
36,700
ja, loo
38,460
37.860
31,200z
37,600
34,600
37,200
4.76
3.98
::ii
2.20
3.00
3.30
2.94
1.50
3.80
::::
I3
I5
7.5
3::
7.5
E
::
WROUGHT IRON.
The Manufacture of Wmught. Iron. - When iron ore, which is an
oxide of iron Fez03 or Fe&+, cont.aining silica, phospeorus. sulphur.
etc. as imp&ties is heated to a yellow heat in contact with charcoal or
oth& fuel the oxigen of the ore-combines with the carbon of the fuel.
Part of th; iron combines with silica to form a fusible cinder or $a&. and
the remainder of the iron agglutinates into a pasty mass which 1s inter-
mingled with the cinder. Depending upon the time and the. temP?a-
ture of the operation, and on the kind a.nd quality of the 1mPuntles
Present in the ore and the fuel. more or less of the sulphur and Phos-
, Phortis may remain in the iron or map pass into the slag:. a small amo.unt
~ of Carbon may also be absorbed bp the iron. By squeezing. hammering.
or rolling the lump of iron while it is highly heated, the cmder may be * Broke in flaw.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
! rilkberial
~~.-1.., -. .,~._
may no loncjk t% accurate Some of I
IRON AND STEXE.
.nearly all expelled from it, but generally enough remains to give a bar
after being rolled. copled and broKerI across, the appearance of a fibrous
structure. The quality of the fimshed bar depends upon the extent to
whlc:h the chemical impurities and the intermingled slag have been
removed from the iron.
The process above described is known as the direct process. It is
now but little use?! having been repl.aced ,by, the indirect process known
as puddling or bolllug. In this pr?c;ess pig Iron winch has been melted
in a reverberatory furnace is des~hcomzed and decarbonizetl by the
oxygen derived from iron ore or iron scale in the bottom ol the furnace
and fro n the ~0xidizin.g flame of the furnace. The temperature being to;
low to tna,intain the Lron. when low m carbon, in a melted condition, it
gradually comes to nature by the formation of pasty particles in the
bath, which adhere to each other, until at length all the iron is derarbon.
ized and becomt?s of a pasty condition, and the lumps so formed when
gathered together make the puddle-ball which is consolidated into a
bloom by the ,squeezer and t,hen rolled into muck-bar. By cutting
the muck-bar into short lengths and making a pile, of them, heating
the pile to a welding heat and rerolling, a bar is made which is freer
from cinder, ar,d more homogeneous than the original bar, and it may
be further refined by another piling and rerolling,; The quality of
the iron depends on the quality of the pig-iron, on the extent of the
decarbonization. on the extent of dephosphorization which has been
effected in the furnace, on the greater or less contami.nation of the iron
by sulphur derived from the fuel. and on the amocmt of work done on
the pi& to free the iron from slag.
irregular. and hard or stee!y.
Iron insufficiently decarbonized is
is soft and of low tensile,strength.
Iron thoroughly freed from impurities
lsihaoql; ,~o break when ,being forged.
Iron high in sulphur is hot-short,
Iron high in phosphorus is cold-
, of low ductlhty when cold, and breaking with an apparently
crystalline fracture.
See papers on Manufacture and Characteristics of Wrought Iron, by
J. P. Roe. Tmns. A. I. IM. E., xxsiii, p. 551: xxxvi, pp. 203, 807.
Influrnee of Chemical Composition on the Propc:-tics of Wrought
Iron. (Bea rdslee on Wrought Iron and Chain Cables.
W. Kent.
Abridgment by
Wiley & Sons, 1879.) - A series of 2000 l.ests of specimens
from 14 brands of wrought iron, most of them of high repute. was made
i;,n&,7 hv Capt. L. A. Beardslee, U.S.N.. of the Umted States Testmg
Forty-two chemical analyses were made of these irons, w?:h 8.
view to r!etermine wha~t influence the chemical composition had upon the
strength, ductility, and welding power. From the report of these tests
by A. L. Halley the following figures are taken:
Brand.
Average
Chemical Composition.
Tensile
--
Xrength
S. P. Si. * C. Mo. Slag.
I-
L 66,598 trace
0.080
0.105 EE ::i% i : %
P 54,363
~E?i ::I%
0.033
E% Y: %
B 52,764 0.008 0.156 0% 0.017
J 51,754
10.003
\ 0.005 %
0.027 trace
0.051 0.053
: : ; ; i
0 51.134
{ 0%
0.065 0.045
I . 168
0.073 Ei: 0.974
C 50,765 0.997 0.154 o:E 0.021 . . . . . . .
Where two analyses are given, they are the extremes of two o
analyses of the brand. Whereone is given, it is the only analysis.
L should be classed as a puddled steel.
WARNING: This is a 1916 edition. Some of the
WROUGHT IRON.
437
ORDER OF @JALITIES GRADED FROX No. 1 TO No.
BCXtd.
I
Tensile
Strength.
The reduction of area varied from 54.2 to 25.9 ner cent. and the elonea-
tion from 29.9 to 8.3 per cent.
-~w-
Brand 0. the purest iron of the series, ranked So. 18 ir t,ensile strength,
but was one of the most ductile; brand B, quite impure, was below the
average both in strength and ductility, but was the best in welding
power: P, also quite impure, was one of the best in every respect. except
welding, sihile L. the highest in strength, was not the most pure, it had
the least ductility, and its welding power was most imperfect. The
evidence of the influence of chemical composition upon quality, there-
fore. is suite contradictorv and confusing. The irons differina remark-
ably in their mechanicalproperties, it ivas follntl that a milch more
marked influence upon their qualities was caused by different treatment
in rolling thaw by differences in composition.
In regard to slag Mr. Hoiley says: It appears that the smallest and
most worked iron often 1~~s the most slag. It is hence reasonable to
conclude that an iron may he dirty and yet t.horoughly condtnsed.
In his summary 0; What is lea,rned from chemiral analysis, he says:
So far, it may appear that lit.tle of use to the makers or users of wrought
iron has been learned. The character of steel can be surely pred-
icated on the analyses of the materials: that of wrought iron is altered by
subtle and unobserved carlses.
Influcncr oi RAurtion in Rolling from Pile to Rar on the
Strength of Wrought Iron. -The tensile strength of the irons used
in Beardslees tests rnnged from 46,000 to 62.700 lbs. per sq. in., brand
L, which was really a steel, not being considered. Some specimens of L
gave figures as high as 70,000 Ibs. The amount of reduction of sectional
area in rolling the bars has a notable influence on the strength and elastic
limit; the greater the reduction from pile to bar, the higher the strength.
The followinr are a few figures from tests of one of the brands:
Philadelphia, 1891.) - 1. All wrougtlt Iron must De tougn, auctue.
fibrous. and of uniform quality for each class, straight, smooth, free from
Cinder-oockets. flaws. bilckleg. blisters. and injurious cracks aionn the
edges and must haie a woikmanlike finish.- No specific process or
Provision of manufacture will be demanded, provided the material fulfills
the requirements of these specifications.
2. The tensile strength, limit of elasticity, and ductility shail be deter-
.Inined from a standard test-piece not less than l/4 inch thick, CUt from
the full-sized bar and planed or turned parallel. The area of truss-
section shall not be less than l/z square inch. The elongation shall be
measured after brea,king on an original length of 8 inches.
.: 3. The tests shall show not less than t~he following results:
in s in
-For bar iron in tension.. . . T. S. = 50,000; E.&F. = 26,000: E.,F., if@
For shape iron in tension.. .
For plates under 36 in. wide
= 48.000; = 26,000:
= 48,000: = 26,000: 12?z
plates.over 36 in. wide. = 4i&ooo; = 25,000; La 10%
material may no longer be accurate
435 IRON AND STEEL.
4,. When full-sized tension members are lested to prove the strength of
their connectrons, a reduction m their ultimate strength of (500 X width
of bar) pounds per square inch will be allowed.
5. All iron shall bend, cold, 180 degrees around a curve whose diameter
is twice the thickness of piece for bar iron.. and three times the thickne~.
for omtes and shaoes.
:
6: Iron which is to be worked hot in the manufacture must be Capable
of bending sharply to a right angle at a working heat without sign of
fnr*,,r~
7. Specirneos of t.ensile iron upon being nicked on one side and bent
I
mr7. 0Fv !?Y XETA1.S AT V-%Rlt)cS TEJ IPER.\T~R~~s. . I.,~..%.,.* . _-_..~-~~ - .II. . . .
shall show a fracture nearly all ilbrous.
The British Xdmiralt:
8. AlI. rivet iron must be tough and soft, and be capable of bending
loss of strength and due
cold until the sides are in close contact without sign of fracture on the
raised to high temperat
convex side of the curve.
metal suffer a gradual b
Penna. R. R. Co.s Soeciflcations for Xerchant-bar Iron (1904).-
a certam temperature.
,.-_ _J~ln_
+ _ /.+r,,j_-,
METALS AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES.
439
. .
sjth an elastic l!mlt Of not less than ha,lf the strength given by this formula
and an elongation Of 15% for bars a/s inch and less in thickness and oi
125% for bars of greater thickness.
,.,ycitirations for mates will annlv~
For webs of beams and channels,
:$-rivet iron must be tough and soft, and pieces of the full diameter of
the rivet must be capable of bending cold. until the sides are in close con-
tact, without sign Of fracture on the convex side of the curve.
One bar wjll be selected-for test from each 100 bars in a pile.
All the iron of one size in t.be shipment will be rejected if the average
t~ensile strength of the specimens tested full size as rolled falls below
47,000 lbs. or exceeds 53,$60 tbs. per so,. in., or if a single specimen falls
below 45~.000 tbs. per sq. in.; or when the test specimen has been reduced
bv machining if the average tensile strength exceeds 53,000 or falls below
46.0011. or if a single specimen falls below 44,900 lhs. per sq: in.
All t.he iron of one size in the shipment will be rejected if the average
elongation in 8 in. falls below the followine limits: Flats and rounds
tested as rolled, r/s in. and over, -0 ,0 9 7 ; less than r/a in., 165%.
duced by machir.ng 16y0.
Flatsan;
I asd Bemii)~; nests. -When necessarv to make nickine and
lilLrly uy C_ U ( a,
Wrought iron Increases
tility up to 300, whet
-.L,... it io r+i,, I,~- -hn.
rounw re
NiCkill!
~~~~ i. ~~~--
bending t,ests. the iron &ill be nicked lightly on one side and then broken
by holding.qne end in a vise, or steam hammer. and breaking the iron bv
successive
I
: blo\!s. It must when thus broken show a generally ilbroiis wyy Lu0 :
structure, not more than 257; crystalline, and must be free from admis-
I
Tens& Qtlrx~~rta u
, ture of steel.
James E, Ho\va~rdu +PC+
Stay-bolt Iron. (Penna. R. R. Co.s soecifications. 1902).-Samo!e
strength of st
_: -:-..- i _
bars must siiow a tensile streneth of rmt less than 4S,9nO lbs: per~sq~yin.
and an elongation of not less than 25Y in 8 in. One piece from each lot
will be threaded in dies with a sharp V thread, 12 ho 1 in. and firmly
screwed through two holders having a clear space between them of 5 in.
One holder will be rigidly secured to the bed of a suitable machine and the
other vibrated at right angles to t,he a:;is over a sonre of l/d in. or r/s in.
each side of t~he center line.
.I
UULll Jb,Cll(jLill al, llLLl .
vibrations before breakage.
AcceptsLIlt: iron shoilld stand- ZSOO double
I
of al!. the steel decreac
Mr.. Vauclain. of the Baldwin Locomotive n-orks. at. a meeting of the
decrease per
nn- -.. ^_ :-.
American ilailmny Master Mechanics .\ssocintion, in lS92, savs! Many
advocate. the softest iron in tli> market as the best for stav-bolts. He
believed in an iron as hard as was consist,ent with headin- t,he bolt nicely.
The higher the tensile strength of the iron. the more $brations it mill
strand. for it is not so easily st.rsined heyond t~he vield-point. The Ba!dwin
specifications for stay-bolt iron call for a tensile strength of 50.000 to
52.000 lbs. per square inch, .the upper figure being preferred, and the
lower being insisted unon as the minimum
(Kw7g ~Vcws, March 26, lS92.) - All iron to be used ifi the tensile meti-
bers of open trusses. laterals, pins and bolts, except Platte iron over
8 inches wide. and shaped iron, must show by the standard test-pieces
a tensile strength in tbs. per square inch of:
52 ooo _ 7000 X area of original har in sq. in.
cucumference of original bar in inches
y, made a series of experiments to ascertain vv iat
tihty takes place in gun-metal compositions vv d
en
ures. It ,=as found that all the varieties of gun
ut not,sermus loss of strength and ductility up to
at which, wlthm a few degrees, a great change
raaes pta~e, LL~C o&Ieaeth falls to about one-half the original, and the
ductility is WhOi& gone. At temperatures above this point, up to 5060 F.
there is little, if any. further loss of strength; the temperature at vvhich
this great change and loss of strength takes place, although uniform in
the speci.mens cast frpm the same pot, varies about 100 in the same
^n-nncltlnn ast at ulfferent temperatures, or with some varying condi-
cLvLIJ ,,, tiLIG &undry process. The temperature at which the change took
ko.
lace in No. 1 series was ascertained to be about 3iO, and in that of
Z..,,:.
at a little over 250.
s.7, tr. cnno
Rolled Munts metal and copper are satis-
n,d may be used as securing-bo1t.s nith safety.
in strength up to 500. but loses slightly in duc-
e an increase begins and continues up to 590~.
wIIe:le 1y ID DLl.ll ICJ~ L~LVL~ at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere.
The strength of Landore steel is not affected by temperature up to SOOO,
h1.t ito dl,*+ilty is reduced more than one-half. (Iron, Oct. 6, 1877.)
..^--- -f Iron and Steel at High Temperatures. -
.-.- - __ s (Iron Age, April 10, 1890) show that the tensile
eel diminishes as the temperature increases from 0 until a
Llllllllllulll LB ceached between 200 and 300 F., the total decrease being
about 4900 lbs. per square inch in the softer steels, and from 6000 to
8000 lbs. in steels of over 80.000 lbs. tensile strength. From this minl-
mum point the strength increases up to a temperature of 400 to 650 F..
the maximum being reached earlier in the harder steels, the increase
amounting to from 10,000 to 20,000 lbs. per square inch above the mini-
-.- -+----&,- ^& *--- ?OO to 300. From this maximum, the strength
,-. ,--.---es steadily at a rate approximating 10,000 lbs.
100 increase of temperature. A strength of 20,000 tbs.
G;L Jq(ualr; Il,ch is still shown bv 0.10 C. steel at about lOO0 F.. and by
6.60 to 1.00 C. steel at about 1600 F.
The strength of wrought iron increases with tempfrature from 0 up
to a maximum at from 400 to 600 F., t.he increase being from 8000 to
10,000 Ibs. per squa,re inch, and then decreases st.eadilg tiii a strength of
only 6000 Ibs. per square inch is shown at 1500 F.
Cast iron appears to maintain its strength, with a tendency to in-
crease, until 900 is reached, beyond which temperature the strength
--> . . . .
inishes. Under the highest temperat.ures, 1500 to 1600 F.,
.I..IIIe;LVUJ G.Iacks on the cylindrical surface of the specimen were devel-
Wed prior to rupture. It is remarkable that cast iron, so much inferior
in strength to the steels at at.mospheric temperature: under the highest
~~~~eratures has nearly the same strength.the hign-temper steels then
with an elastic limit not less than half the strength given by this formula.
..A ,. nl^--^ I:^- ^L. Orn 1~- r
Strength of Iron and Steel Boiler-plate
(Chas. Huston, Jour. F. I., 1877.)
at High Temperatures.
mu ati cwi~galiio~l 01 zuyo m,h In.
Plate iron 8 Tao 24 inches wide, T. 8. 48.OOn, E. L. 26,000 ibs. per sq. in..
elcng. 12y0.
Per sq. in.
Plates oyer 24 inches wide. T. S. 46.000 E. L. 26,000 lbs.
48 in.. .5y0.
Plates 24 to 36 in. wide, elong. 167c; 36, to 48 in., 8%; Over
All shaped iron. flanges of beams and channels and other iron not
herembefore specified, must show a T. S. in lbs. persq. in. of:
7600 X area of original ba,r
50,000 -
circumference of origin:Z
@,RNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the mherial
AYERAGE OF THREE TESTY OF EACH.
.te. tensile strength. lbs..
contr. of area %. ................
5.!$66
stzel, tensile strength, lbs.
contr. %. ....... ...........
544;OO
:l, tensile strength, lhs
contr. %. ...... ....................
6430600
wrought Iron and Steel a,t High
1881, p. 24P.) - Kollmanns expenmenl
_.__. ~..ji.~;i__~.. .~ _~._.,.
may no longer be accu
ts
I_~
r
5750 9250
632;SO 65$43
6630883 64;;50
6gi&66 682;OO
Late
ratures.
:rhausen
440 IRON AND STEEL.
included tests of the tensile strength of iron and steel at temperatures
rauging between TO0 and ZMJ " F. Three kiwis of metal were tested,
viz.. fibrous iron of 52.464 11,s. T. 8.. 3S.280 Ihs. E. L., aud 17.57,
e1ong. ; Hl? ;raiiled iron of 56,882 Ibs. T. S.. 30,113 lbs. E. L., and 207,
el ong. ; snd Bwsemer steel of Y4,S26 lbs. T. Y.. 55,OD Ibs. 1% L., and
14.5y0 e&g. The mean ultimate tensile streugth of each material
expressed in per cent of that at ordinary atmospheric temperature is
l*iven iu the followiu:: table, the fifth column of \vhich exhibits, for pur-
&,ses of comparison. t,hr resu!ts of experiments by a (committee of the
Frankliu Institute in the veilrs lS32-36.
,L
200
: 2
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
12w
1400
1600
i 800
2000
Fibrous
Iron, 70.
100.0
100.0
%:oO
95. 5
92. 5
88. 5
81. 5
67. 5
44. 5
26. 0
20. 0
18. 0
' ?Z
; : i
-
.-
-
Fine-gramed
Iron, %.
100.0
100.5
100.0
1OO.b
100 .o
98. 5
95. 5
90. 0
77. 5
51. 5
36. 0
30. 5
: t: :
5: :
5. 0
Bessemer
Steel, %.
100~0
100 l o
100. 0
100. 0
100. 0
98. 5
92. 0
68. 0
%
31. 0
26. 5
22. 0
15. 0
10.0
7.5
5. 0
Fmnk!in In-
statute, yO.
96. 0
102. 0
105. 0
106. 0
106. 0
104. 0
; ' 2: :
75. 5
53. 5
36. 0
. . . . . _. . . _. . __.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . _
. . . .
. . _. . . _
Effect of Cold on the Stren&h of Iron and Sterl. - The following
conclusions were arrived at by Mr. Styffe in lS65:
(I) The absolute strength of iron and steel is not diminished by cold,
even at the lowest tempersture which ever occurs in Sweden.
(2) Neither in steel nor in iron is the extensibility less in severe cold
than at the ordinary temperature.
(3) The limit of elasticity in botch steel and iron lies higher in severe
cold.
(4) The modulus of elasticit~y in bot,h steel and iron is increased on
reduction of temperature. and diminished on elevation of temperature;
but that these variations.never exceed 0.057,.for a change of 1.Y F.
W. H. Barlow (Proc. Znsf. C. E.) made experiments on bars of wrought
iron, cast iron, malleable cast iron. Bessemer steel, and tool steel. The
bars were tested with tensde and transverse strains, ant1 also by im-
p;: one-half of them at a temperature ut 56 F., and the other half at
0
The results of the experiments were sutimsrized as follows:
1. When bars of wrought iron or steel were submitted to a tensile
strain nod broken, their strength n-as not affected by swere cold (5 F.),
but their ductility war increased about 17, in iron and 3% in steel.
2. Wh?n bars of cast iron were submitted to a transverse strain at .a
10~ temperature. their strength was diminished about 3% and their
Hesibilitv about 16?$.
3. When bars of wroufiht iron, malleable cast iron, steel. and ordinarY
cast iron were subjert,ed to impact at 50 F.;the force required to break
the% anl their flexibility. were reduced as follows:
R,eduction of Reduction of
Force of Im- FlexihilitY.
,
pact. %. %*
DURABILITY OF IRON, CORROSION, ETC.
441
The espcrienco of railways in Russia, Canada, and other countries
lvhere the winter is severe, is that the brwltajies of rails and tires are far
more numerous in the cold weather than in the summer. On this
account a softer class of steel is employed in Russia for rails than is usual
in more temperate climates.
The evidence extant in relation to this matter leaves no doubt that the
~~~pnbility of wrought iron or steel to resist impact is reduced by cold. On
the orher hand, its static strength is not impaired by low temperat!lrcs.
Inrrrasrd Strength of Stcvl at wry Low Tcmprraturr. -Steel of
;~.:i~lO lb. T. S. zn~l :jl,SOO lb. rla.Gtic limit when trstt!cl a1 76 F. Care
97,600 T. S. a,nd SO.000 E. L. when tested at the ternpersture of liquid
air. - Wat~ertown Arsenal Tests. Eng. KFC.. July 21. 1906.
Prof. R. C. Carpenter (Proc. A. .%. A. S. lS97) found that the strwgth
of won&t iron at - 70 F. was 20,% greater than at 70 F.
Effect of 1,ow Trtnperxturcs on Strrngth of Railroad Axles.
(Thos. Andrew, Proc. Inst. C. E.. 1801.) - Xsles 6 ft. 6 in. long be-
tween centers of journals, total length 7 ft. 31/z? in., diameter at middle
41,!2 in., at wheel-sets .51/s in., journals 33/4X 7 in.. were tested by impact
at temperatures of 0 and 100eF. Between the blows each axle was
half t.urned over, and was also replaced for 15 minutes in the water-bath.
The mean force of concussion resulting from each impact was ascer-
wined as follows:
Let h = height of free fall in feet, w = weight of test ball, hw - N =
energy, or work in foot-tons, z = extent of denections between bearings
then F (mesn force) = IV/x = hw!x .
The results of these experiments show t.hat whereas at 0 F. a tot~al
average mean force of 179 tons was sufficient td cause the breaking of the
isles. at 100 F. a total average mean force of 4% tons was required.
In other words. the resistauce to concusjiou of the axles at 0 F. was only
about 42"s of what it was at 100 F.
The average total drHection at Co F. was 6.4s in., as a?ztinst 13.06 in.
with the axles at lOOa F. under the conditions stated: this represents an
ultimate reduct,ion of Hesibility. under the test of impact, of about 57%
for the cold axles at 0 F., compared with the warm axles at 100 F.
ESIA.VSION OF IROS Ah-D STEEL BY HEAT.
James E. Howard engitieer in charge of the U. S. tesl;ng-machine at
Watertown. Mass., iives the following results of tests made on bars 35
Inches long (Zrmt Age. April 10, 1X90):
Co&i. of
c. Mn, si Expansion
.
. perF.eee F.
--- ---
W rought iron . 0. 0000067302 Steel.. ..,.... 0.570.93 .07O.CCCOO63891
Steel.,_______ 0.090.11 . .0000067561
. 20 . 45 . 0000066259
1: . . . . . 71 . 58 . 08 . 0000064716
. . . . . . 81 . 56 . I 7 . 0000062167

. . 31 . 57. . . . 0000065149 " . . . . . . _. _ . 89 . 57 . I 9 . 0000062335
I
. 37 . 70 . 0000066597 " . . . . __. . . . 97 . 80 . 28 . C000061700
. I
. . 5l . 5a . 02 . 0000066202 Cast ( gun'
iron.
I
, , I . , . . 1. . . l . 0000059261
DURABILITY OF IRON, CORROSION, ETC.
Crystallization of Iron by Fatigqe. -Wrought iron of the. best
qualitv is very toujih, aud breaks, on hem:: pulled
bent &fter ni&hw. with a fibrous fracture.
in a testing machme ?r
Cold-short iron, however, !s
more t,~~ittle,n~~ii;reaks square across the fibers with a fracture ivhich is
commonly ca,lled crgstailine alt,hollph no real crystals are present.
Iron
which hris heen repeatedly overst,rained. and especially iron subjected
:to repeated vibrations and shocks, also hecomes brit.tle. and breaks with
;, an apparently crystalline fracture.
@hocks. p. 262.
See Resistance of Metals to Repezted
.,~ - ..^_
? material may no longer be k&rate
IRON AND STEEL.
Walter H,. Finley (Am. Much.. April 27, 1905) relates a case of fail.
ures of 11/s-m. wrought-iron coupling pins on a tram of l-ton mine cars
apparently due to crystallization. After two
years hard service, 2
ins were broken after d
several hitchings were la1 on an anvil and the pin
broken by a single blow from a sledge. Pieces of the broken pins were
then heated to a bright red,. and, after coolingslowly. were again put
under the hammer, which falled entirely to break them. After cutting
with a cleaver, the pins were broken, and the fracture showed a complete
restoration of the fibrous struct!ire. This annetlling process was then
apphed to the whole supply of Intcldngs. Piles of twent.,y-fve or thirty
were covered by a hot wood fire, which was allowed to die down and ge
out, learing the hitchings in a bed of ashes to .cool off slowly. By
repeating this every six months the danger from brittle pins was entirely
avoided.
Durabilitv of Cast Iron. - Frederick Graff. in an article on the
Philadelphia water-supply,,says that the first cast-iron pipe used there
was laid in 1S20. These pipes were made of charcoal iron, ?nd were in
constant use for %3 years.
filled with tubercles.
They were uncoated,, and the inside was well
In salt water good cast iron. even uncoated, will
last for a century at lelrst: but it often becomes soft enough to be cut by
a knife. a,s is shown in iron cannon taken up ~from the bottom of harbors
after long submersion.
in sea water.
Close-grained, hard white metal lasts the longest
(Engg :Vews, April 23. lS87. and March 26, 1892.)
Tests of Iron after Forty Years Service. - A square link 12 inches
broad, 1 inch thick and about 12 feet long was ta!<en from the KieR
bridge. then 40 years old; and tested in comparison with a similar link
which had been preserved in the stock-house since the bridge was built.
The following is the record of a mean of four longitudinal test-pieces,
1 X 1% X S inches. taken from each link (St& und Eisen., 15OOj:
Old Link... . . . . . . ..T..F., 21.5 tons:
New Link . . . . . 22.2 I-
E.&v ;L; tozs; ?!3.&4.$5%
Durability of Iron in Bridges. (G. Llndenthal, Engg! May 2, 1581,
p. 139.) -The Old ~lonongahela suspension bridge in Pittsburg, built
in 1845. was taken down in lSS2. The wires of the cables were freoiientlv
strained to half of their ultimate strength, yet on testing them after 37
years use they showed a tensile strength of from 72,700 to 100.000 lbs.
per so. in. The elastic limit was from 67.100 to 75,600 lbs. per so in.
Reduction at point of fracture, 35y0 to 757. Their diameter was 0.13in.
A new ordinary telegraph wire of same gauge tested for comparison
showed: T. Y., of 100.000 lbs.: E. L.. Sl.550 lbs.: reduct.ion. 57%. Iron
rods used a,.s stays or suspenders showed: T. S.. i3.770 to 49,7Zr-lbs. E.
L., 26.380 to 29.200. Mr. Lindenbhal draws these conclusions:
The above tests indicate that i.on highlv strained for a lone number
of years, but sti!l vibration,
will
within the elastic iimit.anb exposed to slight
not det.eriorate in quality.
That if subjected to only one kind of strain it will not
texture, even if strained beyond its elastic limit, for
ehangwit;
stretch and behave much as in
many years.
That iron
a testing-machine during a long test.
will change its texture only
severe s?mining, as in bending in different
when exposed to alternate
directions. If the bending is
slight but very rapid, as in violent vibrations
Paris
the effect is the same.
Durability of Iron in Concrete. -In a sewer of reinforced con-
crete .lO Tears old was removed and in :>, nerfect state
of prese%tion. Ins excavating for the fo,indations of the new General
Post Office in London some old Roman brickwork had to be removed,
and the hoop-iron bonds were still perfectly bright and good. (Engg.
AUK. 16. 1907, p. 227.)
Corrosion of Iron Bolts. - On bridges over the Thames in London.
bolts exposed to the action of the atmosphere and rain-water were estea
away in 25 .years from a diamet.er of 7/s in. to l/z in., and from 5/a in. dlam;
eter to /la Inch.
Wire ropes exposed to drip in colliery shafts are very liable to corrosion.
Corrosive dgcnts in the Atmospl~ere. -The experiments of .F.
Grace Calvert (Chemical Vems, March 3. 1871) show that carbonic acid.
in the presence of moisture, is the agent. which determines the oxidation
of iron in the atmosphere. He subjected perfcctlv cleaned blades Of ir0n.d
DURABILITY OF IRON, CORROSION, ETC.
443
and steel to the action Of different gases iOr a period of four months, with
results as follows:
Dry oxygen, dry carbonic acid. a mixture of both gases, dry and damp
oxygen and ammoma: no osldation.
Damp oxygen: m three experi-
ments one blade only was slightly oxidized.
Damp carbonic acid: slight appearance of a white precipitate upon the
iron, iound to be carbonate of iron.
oxidation very rapid.
Damp carbonic acid and oxygen:
oxidized rapidly.
Iron immersed in water containing carbonic acid
Iron immersed in distilled water deprived of its gases by boiling rusted
the iron in spots that were found to contain impurities.
Sulphurops acid (the product of the combustion of the sulphur in coal)
ls an esceedmgly active corrosive agent, especially when the exposed iron
is coated with soot. This accounts for the rapid corrosion of iron ln
railway bridges exposed to the smoke from locomotives. (See?tccount of
esperiments by the author on action of sulphurous acid in Jour. Frank.
I&.. June, lS75, p. 437.) An analysis of sooty iron rust from a railway
bridge showed the presence of sulphurous. sulphuric, and carbonic acids,
chlorine, and ammonia. Bloxam states that ammonia is formed from
the nitrogen of the air during the process of rusting.
Galvanic Action iS a mostactive agent of corrosion. It takes place
when two metals, one electro-negative to the other, are placed in contact
and exposed to dampness.
Corrosion in Steam-boilers. - Internal corrosion may be due either
to the use of water containing free acid, or water containing sulphate
or chloride of magnesium! which decompose when heated,, liberating the
acid, or to water c,ontainmg air or carbonic acid in solution. External
corrosion rarely takes place when a boiler is kept hot, but when cold it
is apt to corrod* rapidly in those portions where it adjoins the brick-
work or where it may be covered by dust or ashes, or wherere.r damp-
ness may lodge.
Corrosion. p. 897.)
(See Impurities of Water, p. 691. and Incrustation and
Corrosion of Iron and Steel. - Experiments made at the Riverside
Iron Works, Wheeling, W. Vs., on the comparative liability to rust of
iron and soft Bessemer steel: A piece of iron plate and a similar piece of
steel. both clean and bright. were nlaced in a misture of vellow loam and
sand; with which had been thoroughly incorporated some carbonate of
soda, nitrate of soda: ammonium chloride, and chloride of magnesium.
The earth as prepared was kept moist. At the end of 33 days the pieces
of metal were taken out. cleaned, and weighed, when the iron was found
to have lost 0.Q4~0 of its weight and the st,eel 0.72,Z0. The pieces were
replaced and after 28 days weighed again,. when the iron was found to
have lost 2.06% of its original weight and the steel 1.79%.
26. 1sn1 j
(Engg, June
--. -----.,
Internal Corrosion of Iron and Steel Pi es by Warm Water.
(T. N. Thomson. Proc. -4. S. H. V. E.. 1908.! -T nee short oieces of iron P
and three of steel pi.pes. 2 in. diarn..~were connected together by nipples
and made part of a pipe line conveving water at a temperature varying
from 160 to 212~ F. In one year 9lQz Ibs. of wrought iron lost 203/4 oz..
and 913/sr lbs. of steel 247/s oz. The pipes were sawed in two lengthwise.
and the deepest pittings were measured by a micrometer. Assuming that
the oittine would have continued at a uniform rate the wrought-irou oipes
would haTe been corroded through in from 686 to 789 days,and t.hesteel
pipes from 760 to 850 days, the average being 742 days for non and 797
oavs for steel. Two samoles each of ealvanized iron and steel oioe were
also inclu-ded in thepipe iine. and the& calculated life was: iron 770 and
1163 days: steel 619 and 1163 days. Of numerous samples of corroded
PlPe received from heatine ensineers ten had siven out within four vears
of service, and of these six were steel and four were iron.
To ascertain whether Pipe is made of Wrou=ht Iron or Steel, Cut
Og a short niece of the oioe and susoend it in a solutyon of 9 Darts of water.
3 of sulphurlc acidi~andl of hvdrorhloric acid in a porcelain or glass dish
ln such a way that the end wilt not touch the bottom of the dish. After
2 to 3 hours immersion remove the nine and wash off the acid. If the
:;~p
lPe is steel- the-end will present a hrlght, solid, ~unbroken surface. while
f made of iron it will show faint ridges or rings, like the year rings in a
:,tree. showing the different layers of iron and streaks of cinder. In order
Qhat the scratches made by the cutting-off tool may not be mistaken for
IRON AND STEEL.
the cinder marks. file the end of the pipe straight across or grind on ap
emery wheel until the marks of the cuttmg-otf tool have disappeared
before putting it in the acid.
Relative Corrosion of Wrought Iron and Steel. (H. M. Halve
Prpe,. A. S. T. X., 1906.) -On one hand we. have the very generai
opuuon that steel corrodes verg much faster than wrought iron, an opinio,,
held so witlefy and so strongly tliat it cannot be igllOred. (h the other
hand we have the results of direct experiments by a great many observer3
iu different countriw nntl. under widrl- tlifferiur: conditiotls: anri t l &
results tend to slww tllat there is no very
corrosion of steel and wrought iron.
great difference between the
Under certain conditions steel seem8
to rust a little fast~er than wrought iron, and under others wrought iron
seems to rust a little raster than steel. Taking the test,s in unconfined
sea water ,as a whole wrought iron does const.ant1.v a little better than
steel, and Its advnnbape seems to be still greater in the case of boiling sea
waler. In the few tests in alkaline water wrought iron Seems to have the
advantage over Steel, whereas in acidulated water steel seems to rust more
slowly than wrought iron.
Steel which in the first few months may rust faster than wrought iron
may, on greatly prolonging the esperiment~s, or pushing them to destruc-
tion, actually rust more slowly, and vice cersn.
Carelessly made steel, cont.sining blowholes, may rust faster than
wrought iron, yet carefully made steel, free from blowholes. may rust
more slowly. Any difference between t AC? two may be due not to the
jnherent and intrinsic nature of the materlat. but to defects to which it
IS subject if carelessly made. Care in manufacture, and special steps to
lessen the tendency to rust, might well make steel less corrodible than
wr@u,oht iron, even if st.eel carelessly made should really prove more
corrodible than wron!zht. i r on
For extensive discussions on this subject see Tran,s. A. I. M. E., 1905,
and Proc. A. S. T. M.. 1906.
Corrosion of Fen& Wire. (A. S. Cushman. Farmers Gulletin No.
239, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905.1 -A large number of lctterswere
rrcei\Ted from all over the country in response to official inquiry, and
a11 pointed in the same directien. As far as human testimony is capable
of establishing a fact, there need be not the slightest question that modern
steel does not Serve the purpose aS well as the older metal manufactured
twenty or more years ago.
Electrolytic Theory, and Prevention of Corrosion. (A. 8. Cush-
man. Builetin Ko. 30. U. S. Deot. of ..%zrirlllt.:]re~ 0lfiw nf P1111lir Rnnrls
190;.
I_ - . . . . . _.. * ._-_.,,
The Corrosion of Iron.) --Tlle~~~~~ious-~i;;d~.ofmerchantsble iron
and steel differ, within wide limits. in their resistance, not only to the
ordinary processes of oxidation known as rustling, but also in othkr corro-
sive inlluences. Different specimens of one and the same kind of iron or
steel will show great variabilit
ditions of use and service.
y in resistnnce to corrosion under tbe con-
The causes of this variability are numerous
and complex, and the subject is not near!c so well understood at the
present time as it should be. All investieaiors are aereed that iron can-
?ot rust in air.or oxygen unless water is present, and on the other hand
It cannot rust m water w:less oxygen is present.
From the standpoint of the modern t.heorv of solutions all react!ons
which take place in the wet way are attended-with certain &adjustments
of the electrical states of the reacting ions.
Tine electrolvtic theory of
rtisting assumes that before iron can nyidize in the wet njy it, must first
oass hit0 solution as 2. frrrnl3e ion
Dr. Cushman then gives an account of his experiments which he con-
siders demonstrate that iron goes into solution
concentration in pure water,
up to a certain maximum
with,
WARNING: This is a- - l $UOedition. Some of t he
DURABILITY OF IRON, CORROSION, ETC. 445
e,amined under the microscope appear to be,untouched. If, horneve!.
the polished strips are immersed m water it 41 l?e found that rusting 1s
lulllbit.ed. An ordmary untreated polished specunen of steel wll show
r,,stint: in a few minutes when immersed in the ordinary distilled water of
;i;i~l:&oratorv. Chromated soerimens will stand immersion for varl
ig;g&s of time before rust jppears.
.ing
In some case5 it is a matter of
llours. in others of days or even weeks before the inhibiting effect is over-
COlfltZ.
lt wwld follow from the electrolytic theory that in order to hare thr
I~izilest resistsuce to corrosion a metal should either be as free as possible
i;;;lm certain impurities, such as manganese, or should be so homogenc-
o,ls as not to retain localized positive and negative nodes for a long tune
without change. Under the iirst condition iron would seem to have the
sdvnntage over steel, but under the second much would depend upon
,.<,w pyercised in manufacture. whatever orocess was used. CY._ ___-.--_-- -.. ~~;~~~~..~~~~ ~~~ ~,
There are two lmes of advance by which we nmy hoDe to me_et the
dlfliculties attendant upon rapid corrosion. One is by the manufwture
A+ h0tt.w me(:al. and the other is bv the use of inhibitors and orotective
covenngs. --V-e ---~~&hough it is true that laboratory tests are irequrnt.ly
unsuccessful in imitating the conditions in service, it nevertheless appears
thn,t chromic acid and its salts should under certain circumstances come ..l .~.-------- ---~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~
late use to inblblt extremely rapid corrosion by electrolysis.
Chrome Paints.--. B. Heckel (Jour. F. I., Eng. Dig., Sept.. 190s)
quotes a letter from Mr. Cushman as follows: ivIy, qhservatlon that
chromic acid and certain oFits compounds act as inhlbltlves has led to
manv exoerlments by other workers along the same line. I haye fo!md
t,hn.t,tJlc? chrome comtiounds on the market vary ve ry much in their action.
some of them sl row%p as strong inhibitors, ivbile others go to the op-
oosite extreme and stimulate corrosion. Referring only to the labeled
in t.he nrrler rit,rrlr
nnmes of the nirments. I find among the good ones. j ._- __- ----_ ____ ~-.
___... -- .- .~~~ .~~I
Zinc chromate, American vermilion,. chrome yellow orange, chrome
vellow dd. AmonF: the bad ones, also in the order given, I find: Chrome
,hP wnrst. of n.ll is
medium. chrome preen. chrome red. Much t
H&kel sueeests the following f0
of raw-linseed oil 1 increasing the
all carbon oizments. exceoting uure gr:
pounds e&y oxldliable io Sulpiiuric~ac~--~~iensipread-out as in ,a.paint
film. The second is the probability of.pariation in the composltlon ?f
basic lead chromate or American vermilion
Because of these facts,. It
1s necessary before. selecting any particulir pigment for. its. lnhibit;ve
quality. to ascertain that it is free from acids or acid-formmg Impu~~tles.
WE the substitution of PruG
As a result of his exneriments he recommer
sian blue for the lamp-black in Jlr. Heckels formula, and lays d,own as a
safe rule in the formulation of inhibitive paints, a careful avoidance of
all potential stimulators of the hydrogen ions and consewentlY of any
Substance which might develop acid; preference being given to ChrOm?te
Pigments which are to some extent soluble in water, and to pther PIE:-
ments which in undergoing change tend to develop an.alkalme rathar
than an acid reaction Calcium sulphate, for example, In any form (:Ls
a constituent of Venetian red, for example), he deems dangerous to uSe
because of the Dosslbility of its developin.g~acjd.
3ariurf! sul@ate, on
the other hand he regards as practically safe, because 01 15s Well-KnOWn
mica1 stability.
material
I _, _-I ._-. ~~_l ._
may no lon$Fbe accurate
IRON AND STEEL.
Corrosion caused by Stray Electric Currents. CW. W. Churchill
science. Sept. 28, 1906). -Surface condensers in electnc lighting and
other plants were abandoned on account of electrolytic corrosion.
The
voltage of the rails in the freight yard of the Long Island railroad at the
peak of the load was 9 volts above ,the potential of the river, decreasing
to 2 volts or !ess at light loads. Tbls caused a destruction of water Pipes
and other things in the railroad yards. Experiments with various metal
plates immersed in samples of East River water showed that it gave a
more violent action t~han ordinary. sea water. It was further observed
that there was a local ealvanic action going on. and t,hat the amount of
stray currents had .something to dq with t.he polarization of the surfaces
making the galvamc actlon esceechngly violent and destroying thin cop:
per tubes at a very rapid rate. There was a violent local action between
the zinc and the copper of the brass tubes which were in contact with the
elect~qlyte, and +is increased in the reaction as it progressed in stagnant
conditrons. py Interposing a counter elecbromot,ive force against the
galvamc couple c-turh should exceed in pressure the voltage of the couple
the actIons of the electrolytic corrosion ceased. When unconnected, o;
electncally separated, plates were placed in the electrolyte. if they were
of composite construction and had sharp projections into the fluid. raised
by cuttmg and prymg up with a knife, t~hey would have these projections
promptly destroyed, and if an electric battery having a pressure exceed.
mg that of the couple In the East River wat~er was caused to act to pro.
duce a counter current, and having a pressure exceeding that of the
ga!vanic coupie (0.42 volt). the capacity of this electrolvte to drive ofI
atoms of the mechanically combined metals in the alloys-used was over-
come and corrosion was arrested.
It, therefore. bee-ame desirable not only to carefully provide the bal-
ancing quantzty OX current to equal the stray traction currents arising
from t~he ground returns of railway and other service, but to add to this
the necessary voltage through a cathode placed in the circulating water
m such a way as to pnng to bear electrolytic action which <vould pre-
vent the galvanic act~lon d;le to this current cominq into contact with
alloys of mech,amcally combined metals such as t,he brass tubes (60%
copper, 40% zmc).
In order to accomplish these two things, it was first necessary to so
Install thz condensers as to prevent undue amounts of stray currents
Aowi,ng through the?, thus tending to reduce the amoltnt of power
requlrerl t,o prevent Injurious action of these currents and otherwise to
neut.ralize them. This was lone by insulating the joints in the piping
a,nd from ground connections, and even lining the large water connec-
?lons mith.glass melted on to the surface.
To furmsh electromotive force, a 3-1i.W. motor generator was pro-
vided. By means of a system of wirino DJ with ammeters and voltmeters,
an? a connectlon to an outlying anode m the condensing supply intake
at Its harbor end, this generator was planned to provide current to neu-
tralize the stray currents in the condenser structure to any extent that
they had passed the in?*Jiated joints in the supports and connections as
well a,s through the columns of water in the pipe connections and then
to adlust the additional voltage needed to. counteract and pievent the
gatvamc actlon. All connections were made in a manner to insure a
uniform voltage of the various partn of the condenser to prevent local
actIon. each connection being so maoe and provided with such measuring
mstrumrnts 55. to Insure ready adjustment to effect this.
n-as deslgned In accordance with the above statements
The apparatus
Its operation
has extended over fourteen months (to date 1906) and kith the excep-
ti0 of about ten tubes which have become iitted, the results have been
satlsfactofy.. The efficiency of the apparatus amply justifies the ex-
pense of Its installation. while its operation is not expensive and the
plant described will be followed by other protecting plants of the same
character.
Electrolytic Corrosion due to Overstrain. (C. F. Burgess EL Rev..
Sept. :9,, 1908.) -- Uild steel bars overstrained In their middie portion
were,subJected to corrosion by suspension in dilute hydrochloric arid
solutions, and others by making them the anode in neuiral solutions of
a.mmonlum chloride and causing current to flow under low current den-
sap. In all cases a marked difference was noted in the rate at
strained PO1 tlons corroded as compared with the unstrained.
which the
UARNING: This is a~' 1910 edition. Sc%6 of 1
PRESERVATIVE COATINGS.
Differences Of potential of from five to nine millivolts were noted
between two electrodes, one of which constituted the strained portion
and one the unstrained.
The more rapid electrolytic corrosion of the strained portion appears
to be due to the fact that the strained meta, is electropositive to the
unstrained, the current finding the easier path through the surface of
the electropositive metal. That the strained metal is the more electro-
positive is also shown by a liberat,ion of hydrogen bubbles on the un-
strained portion.
PRESERVATIVE COATISGS.
The following notes have been furnished to the authorby Prof. A. H.
Sabin. (Revised, 1908.)
Cement. - Iron-work is often bedded in concre?e: if free from cracks
and voids it is an efficient protection. The metal should be cleaned and
then washed with neat cement before embedding.
Asphaltum. -This is applied either by dipping (as water-pipe) or
by pouring it on (as bridge floors). The asphalt should be slightly elastic
when cold, with a high melting-point, not softening much at 100 F..
auolied at 300 to 400: the surface must be~dry and should be hot; the
r&ine should be of considerable thickness.
Paint. - CJmposed of a vehicle or binder, usually linseed oil or some
inferior substitute, or varnish (enamel paints); and a pigment, which is a
more or less inert solid in the form of a powder, either mixed or ground
together. Nearly all paint contains paint drier or japan, which is a lead
or (and) manganese compound soluble in oil, and acts as a carrier of
oxygen: as little should be used as possible. Boiled oil contains drier;
no additional drier is needed. None should be used with varnish paints,
nor with ready-mixed paints in general.
The principal
white zinc (osl e), red lead (peroxide), oxides of iron, .B
igments are white lead (carbonate or oxp-sul hate) and
h q&ated and
anhydrous. graphite, lampblack, bone blacl;. chrome ye1 om. chrome
green, ultramarine and Prussian blue, and various tinting colors. White
lead has the greatest body or opacity of white pigments; three coats of it
equal five of white zinc: zinc is more brilliant and permanent, but it is
liable to peel, and it is customary to mix the two. These are the sta;;zyd
white paints for all uses, and the basis of ail light-colored paints.
drous iron oxides are brown and purplish brown, hydrated oxides arc
yellowish red to reddish yellow, with more or less brown: most iron
oxides are mixtures of both sorts, and often contain a little manganese
and much clay. They are cheap, and are ,jerviceable aints on wood and
are often used on iron, but for the latter use are fa hng mto disrepute. P. .
Graphite used for painting iron contains from 10 to 90% foreign matter,
usually silicates. It is very opaque, hence has great covering power and
may be appli.ed in a very thin coat, which is to be avoided. The best
graphite paints give very good results. There are many grades of lamp-
black; the cheaper sorts contain oily matter and are especially hard to
dry; all lampblack is slow to dry in oil. In a less degree this is true of all
paints containing carbon, including grappite. Lampblack is used with
advantage with red leadi it is also an Ingredient of many carbon
alnts the base of which 1s either bone black or artificial graphite.
p 1.
Red
ead dries by uniting chemically with the oil 30 form a cement: it is heavy
an:1 makes an expensive paint, and is often highly adulterated. Pure red
lead has long had a high reputation as a paint for iron and steel. and is
still used extensively, especially as a first coat: but of late years some Of
the new piints and varnish-like preparations have displaced it to a con-
siderable extent even, on the most important work.
Varnishes. -These are made by melting fossil resin, to which is then
added from half its weight to three times its weight of refined linseed oil.
and the compound is thinned with turpentine: they usually contain a
little drier. They are chiefly used on wood, being .more durable and
more brilliant than oil, and are often used over paint to Preserve it.
Asphalturn is sometimes substitut.ed in part or IF whole for the fossil
resm, and in this way are made black va.rnishes wluch have been used on
iron and steel with good resuits.
Asphaltum and substances hke It have
_., .._._. ~. __ ~.~ ..~:~. ..~ ,...._..,,.. ~..~..~ .
! material may no longer be accurate
. .
445 IRON AND STEEL.
also been simoly dissolved in solvents. as benzlne or carbon disulnhido
and used for ihe same purpose.
.~ ----~,
All these preservative coatings are supposed to form impervious films
keeping out air and moisture; but in fact all are somewhat porous. Cl;
this account it is necessary to have a Elm of appreciable thckness, best
formed by successve coats, so that the pores of one will be closed b
nest. The pigment is used to give an agreeable color. to help fil 9
the
the
pores of the oil film, io make the paint harder, SO that It will resist abra.
sion. and to make a thicker film. In varnishes these resu1t.s are sought to
be attained by the resin which is dissolved in the oil. There is no sort of
agreement among practical men as to which coating is best for any par-
ticular case: this is probably because so much depends on the preparat,ion
of the surface and the care with which the coating is applied, aud also
because the conditions of exposure vary so greatly.
Xethods of bpplication.~- From tne surface of the metal mud and
dirt must be first removed, then an:; rusty spots must be cleaned thor-
oughiy; loose scsie may be remoT?ed with wire brushes, but thick and
closely adherent rust must be removed with steel scrapers, or with hammer
and chisel if necessary. The sand-blast is used largely and increasingly
to clean before painting. and is the best method known. Pickling is
usually done with 10yO sulphuric acid: the solution is made more active
by heating. All traces of acid must, be removed by washing. and the
metal must be immedia,tely dried and painted. Less than two coats of
paint should never be used. and three or four are better.
ing of metal is the most important.
The first paint-
Paint is always thin on angles and
edges,. also on bolt and rivet heads; after the first full coat apply a partial
or striping coat, covering the angles and edges for a,t least an inch back
from the edge, also all bolt and rivet heads.
second full coat.
After this is dry apply the
At. least a week should elapse between coats.
Cast-iron water pipes are usually coated by dipping in a hot mixture of
coal-tar and coal-tar pitch; riveted steel pipes by dipping in hot asphalt
or by a japan enamel which is baked on at about 400 F. Ships bot.toms
are coated with a varnish paint to prevent rusting, over which is a similar
paint containing a poison. as mercury chloride, or a coooer compound,
br else for this~second coat a greasy copper Boap is abblied hoi; this
prevent.s the accumulation of marine growths. Galvanized iron and tir.
surfaces should be thorough!y cleaned with benzine and scrubbed before
painting. When new they are partly covered with grease and chemicals
used in coating the plates, and these must be removed or the paint will
not adhere.
Quantity of Paint for a Given Surface. - One gallon of paint will
corer 250 to 400 sq. ft. as a first coat, depending on the character of the
surface, and from 350 to 500 sq. ft. as a second coat.
Qualities of Paints. - The Kxilroad and Engilseering J ournal. ~01s.
liv. and Iv., 1890 and 1891. lx6 8. series of articles on paint as applied to
uxx~den structures, its chemical nature, application adulteration, etc., by
Dr. C. B. Dudley, chemist, and F. N. Pease, as&ant chemist, of the
Penna. R. R. They give the results of a long series of experiments on
paints as applied to railway ourooses.
Inoxydaiion Processes, ~(C&.rlbuted by Alfred Sang, Plttsburg.
Pa.. 1908.) -The black oxide of iron (FeaO,) as a continuous coatipg
affords excellent protect~ion against corrosion. ,Lavoisier (1781) noted Its
artificial production and its stable aualities Faradav (1858) observed
the protective properties of the coating formed by t,hk &$iofi of steam
in superheating tubes.
of highly heated air.
Berthier discovered its formation by the action
.-
Bower-Barff Process. - Dr. BarEs method was to heat articles to oe
coated to about 1800 F. and inject steam heated to 1000 F. into the
muffle. George and A. S. Bower used air instead of steam then carbon
monoxide (prodticer gas) to reduce the red oxide. in the combined
process. the articles are heated to 1600 F. in I
heated steam is injected for 20 min.. then produce ~,
the treatment can be repeated to increase the depth of oxidation.
LesJ
heat is required for wrought than for cast iron or steel. By a later
!mProvement. steam heated above the temperature of the articles Was
Injected during the last 1 to 2 hours.
as the Wells Process,
Ry a further improvement known
the work is Enished in one operat,ion, the ?t,?*
B ci0skd retort: wer-
:r pas for 15 to 25 P:l
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
PRESERVATIVE COATINGS.
snd producer-gas being inject& toqethcr.
creased in si,ze by the treatment.
Articles are slightly in-
The surface is gray, changing to
black when olled: it will chip off if too thin; it will take paint or enamel
and m,ay.be Polished, but cannot be either bent or machined: the coating
itself IS Incorrodible and resists sea-water, mine-water and acid fnms.
the strength of the metal is slightly reduced. The process is ext,enl
eivelv used for small hardware. (See F. S. Barff. Jour. I. & .Y. Inst., 1Yii
p. :i56: A. S. Rower, T,nns. A. I. _,
Itml. (.. E. lS83, p. 255;
II E. 1X%?. p. 329: B. H. Thwaite. froc:
George W. Xlaynard, Iruns. *-l. .S. AlfM. 15. iv,
351.)
Gesper P~OCCSS. -Dr. George W. Gesners process is in commercial
operation smce 189l?. The coatin g retort is kept at 1201J0 F. for 20
mulutes after chargtng:. !hen steam. partialI\, decorngosed bv passin-
through a red-hot pl[+. IS allowed to act atintervals durin$ 35 min.?
finally, a small qllantlty of naphtha, or other hydrocarbon, is intro:
duced and allowed to act for 15 min.
heat has fallen to SOO F.
The work is withdrawn when the
The articles are n,either increased in size nor
dlstorte?; the loss of strength and reduction of elongation are only slight.
Large Pieces can be treated.
h-m Age, 1890, p. 544.)
(See J our. I. & S. Znsl., 1890 (ii), p. 850;
Hydraesfer Process. - An impiovement of the Gesner process at-
ented by J. J:
the coaLil!q
Bradley and in commercial operation. As its name impedes.
1s thought to be an alloy of hydrogen, copper and iron.
The sulpll;des and
face of the metal i
hosphides are claimed to be burned out of the sur-
y the action of hydroxen at a high temperature.
&ins additional rust-proof qualities.
work is thiLt of genuine Bower Barffing.
The appearance of the finished
Russia and PIanished Iron. -Russia iron is made by cementation
and slight oxidation. VI. Dewee!: Wood (U. S. Pat. No. 252 166 of
1882) treated planished sheets w,ith hydrocarbon vapors or &s and
suoerheated steam vrithln an air-tight and heat,ed chamber. .~~_ ~~~~~~~~~~~ _..~
Niter Process. - An ol? process improved by Col. 9. R. Buffington in
1@4. The articles are stirred abr@ in a mixture of fused potassium
nnrate (saltpeter) and manganese 6oside, then suspended in t,he vapors
and finally dipped and washed inky-bodrng water.
r .
essential.
Pure chemicals are
Used for small arms and&pieces which cannot stand the high
heat of other processes. (Tran~s. A. ?. M. E.. vol. vi, p. 62s.)
., Electric Process.-A. de Merit .ns .I! connected polished articles as
anodes in a bath of warm dIstilled $ater and used a current as weak as
would be conducted. A black film&of oxide was formed; too stronm a
current produced rust. It being es&ntial that hydrogen be occludec?in
the surface of the metal, it was tot&d necessary, as a rule. to connect
the articles as cathodes for a short @ne previous to inosidation.
80~. I nlle. ties Ekd~.. 1836, p. 230.) L
(Bull.
~ +uminum Coatings. - .4luminurn can be deposited electrically, the
main difficulties being the high voltage required and the readiness of the
coating to redissolve. The metal-work of the tower of City Hal!, Phila-.
delphia. was coated by the Tacony Iron & Metal Co.. Tacony, Pa., with
14 oz. per sq. ft. of copper on which was deposited 21/z oz. of an alloy of
tl% and aluminum. The Reeves MIg. Co:. Canal Dover, Ohio, makes
aluminum-coated conductor pipes. etc., said to be as durable as copper
End as rust-proof as aluminum.
hi-metallic
The Aluminum Co. of America makes
tubing composed of aluminum and other metal tubes
@ted one -inside the other and drawn downy toget,her to the required
!~.- Galvanizing is a method of coating articles, usually of iron or steel.
;%h zinc. Gn!vanlzed iron resists ordinary corroding agencies, the
s,nsc becoming covered with a film of zinc carbonate,. which protects the
<metal from further chemical action. The coating 1s. however, quickly
*destroyed by mine-water. tunnel gases, sea water and conditions that
@mmonly exist in tropical countries. If the work is badly done and the
ng does not adhere properly, and if any acid from the pickle or any
ide from the flux remains on the iron, corrosion takes place und&
zinc coating. (See M. P. Wood: Trans. A. S. M. E. xvi. 350. Alfred
: Tran~s. Am. Foundrymens Assoc.. 19Oi. Iron Age. May 23d and
1907, and Pk.Eng. Sot. of 15' . Penna.. Nov.. 1907.)
e Penna. R. R. Specifications for galvanized sheets for car roofs
~_ .- .---
may no be accurate i
IRON AND STEEL,
(1907) prescribe that the black sheets before galvanizing should weigh
16 oz. ner so. ft.. the galvanized sheet 18 oz. Sheets wlli not be accepted
if 2. chPmira1 det&mination shows less than 1 .5 oz. of zinc per sq. ft. _ ____...._... -. ~~
-- Hot Galvanizing~ - The articles to be galvanized are first cleaned bv
pickling and then d&ped in a solution of hitiochloric acid and immersea
in a bath of molten zinc at a temperature of from 800 t0 ?OOO 6 .; when
they have reached the temperature of the bat& they are wIthdrawn and
the coating is set in water: sal-ammoniac 1s used on the pot as a Hux,
ei ther alone or as an emulsion with glycerine or some other tatty medium. .,...
Wire. . bands and similar articles are drawn~ continuously t&ough !he
bath. and may be passed through asbestos wipers to remove tne surplus
metal. in this case It is advisable to use a very soft spelter free from Iron.
If wl;e is treated slowly and passer; through charcoal dust instead of
winers the nroduct is knbwn as - double-nalv ,anized. Tin can be added ~_~~~ ~~~~I~~~~~
to the bath to help~bring out the spangles, but it gives a less durable
coatinz. Aluminum is added as a Zn-Al alloy. with about 20% Al, to
nuously, and except in the give flkidity. Sheets are galvanized conti
case of so-called flux sheets, are put through iolls as they emerge
from the bath, to squeeze off the excess of zinc and improve the adherence.
Test for Galvanized Wire. -Sir W. Preece devised the followin
standard test for the British Post Office: dip for one minute in a saturat e8
neutral soiution of sulphate of copper, wash and wipe:to pass, the
materia! must stand 3 dips.
The American standard test is as follows: prepare a neutral solution of
sulphate of copper of sp. gr. 1.185, dip for one minute, !vash and wipe dry;
the wire must stand 4 dies without a permanent coatmg of copper show-
ing on any part of the wire.
Galvanizing by Cementation; Sherardiaing.-The alloying,of metals
at temperatures below their melting points has been kn0w.n ?+ce 1820
or earlier. Berry (1838) invented a process of depositing zmc. m wh!ch
the objects to be coated were placed in a closed retort and covered ~:th
a mixture of charcoal and powder of zinc: the retort was heated to,cherry-
red for a longer or shorter period, according to the bulk of the article and
tn t.hr desired thickness of the coating. 5c.mas gave iron art,icles a slight
&&&~f&per by dipping them in-a solution 6f sulphate of copper and
then heated them in a closed retort with osi.le of zinc and charcoal dust.
Sheet steel cowbells are coated with brass by placing t,hem iu a mixtufe
of finely divided brass and charcoal dust and heating t.hem to redness in
an air-tight crucible.
S. Cowper-Coless process. known as Sherardizing. patented in 1902.
consists in packing the objects which are to be coated in zinc dust Or
pulverized zinc to which zinc oxide with a small percentage of charcoal
dust is added, and heating in a closed retort to a temperature below the
melting point of zinc. A large proportion. of sand can be used to reduce
the amount of zinc dust carried in the retort, to prevent caking and Bye
a brighter finish; motion of the retort is in most cases necessary to obtam
an even coating. The operation lasts from 30 minutes to several hours.
depending on the size of the drum. Tempered steel is not affected bY
the process, but surfaces are hardened, there being a zinc-iron al1o.Y
formed to a depth varying with the time of treatment. This.process 1s
suit.able for small work, giving a superior quality of zinc coatmg.
(See
Cowper-Coles, Preservation and Ornamentation of Iron and Steel Sur-
faces. Tran,s. 5%~. Engrs. 1905. p. 183: Sherardizing. Iron. Agf:
1904. p. 12. Alfred Sang, Theory and Practice of Sherardlzlng.
El. Cha. and Metall. I nd.. May, 1907.)
Lead Coating. - Lead is a good protection for iron and steel Pro-
vided it is perfectly gas-tight. Electrically deposited lead doe: n$
bond well and the coating is porous. Sheets having a light coating
lead, produced by dipping in the molten metal, are known as terne
plates: they have no lasting qualities. Lead-lined wrought pipe. fittmgs
and valves are trade for conveying acids and other corroding liquids.
.
I
'WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of '
STEEL.
STEEL.
lo\\-rr in carbou, and from wrought iron, which is weld&dirom a pasty
mitss, by being free from intermingled slag. Blister steel is a highly
carbonized wrought iron, made by the cementation process, which
consists in keeninr wroueht-iron bars at a red heat fhr some da.vs in
&tact with clisr~oal. Not over 2 of C is usclallv absorbeamd*-Ts .o
surface of the iron is covered with small blisters. suodosedlv due to the
(See Classification of Iron and Steel (See Classification of Iron and Steel
alloy of iron. cast from a tluid mass of iron. cast from a tluid mass:
is not malleable. bv beine mu& is not malleable, by being much
lo\\-rr m carbou, and from wrought iron, which is welded from a pasty
mitss, by being free from intermingled slag. Blister steel is a highly
carbonized wrought iron, made by the cementation process, which
consists in keeping wrought-iron bars at a red best far some days in
contact with charcoal. Not over 2y0 of C is usually absorbed. The
surface of the iron is covered with small blisters, supposedly due to the
act.ion of carbon on slag. Other wrought steels were formerly made by
direct processes from iron ore, and by the puddling process from wrought
iron, but these steels are now replaced by cast steels. Blister steel is,
however, still used as a raw material in the manufacture of crucible st.eel.
Case-hardening is a process of surface cementation.
act.ion of carbon on slag. Other wrought steels .weieformerlY made by
direct processes from iron ore, and by the puddling process from wrought
iron, but these steels are now replaced by cast steels. Blister steel is,
however, still used as a raw material in the manufacture of crucible st.eel.
Case-hardening is a process of surface cementation.
Crucible Steel is commonly made in ~6s or crucibles holding about
80 DOUndS of metal. The raw material tiav he steel scmo: blister steel
bari; wrought iron with ~charcoa!; cast iron with wrought iron or with
iron ore: or any mixture that ~11 produce a metal having the desired
chemical constitution. Manganese in some form is usuaily added to
prevent oxidation of the iron. Some silicon is usuaily absorbed from the
crucible, and carbon also if the crucible is made of graphite and clay.
The crucible being covered, the steel is not affected by the oxygen or
sulphur in the flame. The quality of crucible steel depends on the free-
dom from objectionable elements, such as phosphorus, in the mixture,
on the comolete removal of oxide.slap and blowholes bv dead-meltina
Crucible Steel is commonly made in :)I:LS or crucibles holding about
80 pounds of metal. The raw material may be steel scrap: blister steel
bars: wrought iron with charcoa!; cast iron with wrought iron or with
iron ore: or any mixture that ~11 produce a metal having the desired
chemical constitution. Manganese in some form is usuaily added to
prevent oxidation of the iron. Some silicon is usuaily absorbed from the
crucible, and carbon also if the crucible is made of graphite and clay.
The crucible being covered, the steel is not affected by the oxygen or
sulphur in the flame. The quality of crucible steel depends on the free-
dom from objectionable elements, such as phosphorus, in the mixture,
on the complete removal of oxide,slag and blowholes by dead-melting
or killing before pouring, and on the kind and quantity of different
elements which are added in the mixture, or after melting, to give par-
ticular aualities to the steel. such as carbon. manrranese. chromium.
or killing before pouring, and on the kind and qujntity of differ&
elements which are added in the mixture, or after melting, to give par-
ticular aualities to the steel. such as carbon. manrranese. chromium.
tungsten- and vanadium.
-
Bessemer Steel is made by blowing air through a bath of melted pig
iror&. The oxygen of the air tirst burns away the silicon, then the carbon,
and before the carbon is entirely burned away, begins to burn the iron.
Spiegeleisen or ferro-mamganese is then added to deoxidize the metal
and to give it the amount of carbon desired in the finished steel. In the
ordinary or acid Bessemer process the lining of the cor,verter is a
silicious material. which has no effect on
phorus in the pig iron remains in the stee P
hosphorus, and all the phos-
In the basic or ,Thomas
and Gilchrist process the lining is of magnesian limestone, and limestone
additions are made to the bath, so as to keep the slag basic. and the phos-
phorus enters the slag. BY this nrocess ores that were formerly unsuited
io the manufacture <f steei have-been made available.
0
stee
en-hearth Steel. - Any mixture that may be used for making
P. In a crucible mav also be melted on the open hearth of a Siemens
regenerat.ive furnace, jnd may be desiliconlzed %nd decarbonized by the
action of the flame and by additions of iron ore, deoxidized by the addi-
tion of spiegeleisen or ferro-manganese, and recarbonlzed by the sape
additions or by pig iron. In the most common form of the process pig
iron and scrap steel are melted together on the hearth, and aftyn :k;
manganese has been added to the bath it is tapped into the ladle.
Talbot pro&s a large bath of melted material is kept in the furnace.
melted
fs adde
ig iron, taken from a blast furnace, is added to it, and lron ore
d? whmh contributes its iron to the melted metal while its oxygen
decarbonizes the pig iron. When the decarbonization has proceeded .far
enough, ferro-manganese. is added to destroy iron oxide, and a Portion
of the metal is tapped out, leaving the remainder to receive anoth;;
charge of pig iron, and thus the process is continued indefimtely.
the Duplex Process melted cast iron is desiliconlzed in .a Bessemer con-
Ferter. and then run into an open hearth, where the steel-makmg opera-
tlon is finished.
The open-hearth process, like the Bessemer, may be .either acid or
basic, according to the character of the lining. The ba,slc process IS a
dephosphorizing one. and is the one most generally availab e. as It cay
.use pig irons that are either low or high in phosphorus,
Relation between the Chemical Composition and Physical
Character of Steel.
W. R. Webster (Trans. A. I . M. E.. ~01s: ssi and xxii; ,l89:3-4) tives re-
sults of several hundred analyses and tensile tests of basic Bessemer steel
plates, and from a study of them draws conclusions as to the relation of
chemica~l composition to strength, the chief of which are condensed as
The indic;lt~ionj are that ii pure iron, ivit,hwlt carbon. plwsp:wrus. man-
gznese. si!icon, or sulphur. if it could be obtainqd, would hare a t,ensile
strength of 34,,,7.50 Ibs. per sq. in.. if tested in n s/&m. plate. !Vith tills ass
Zase. a tn%e IS constructed by adding the fo!lo;ving hardening effects, as
shown br increase of tensile strength. for the several elements named.
Carbon, a con$ant effect of ;fJJ 11)s. ~for e?yh 0.01%.
Sulphur.
., . .
0.01 lo.
~Phosphorus, the effect is higher in high-carbon than in low-carbon steels.
w;,,it;on hun-
w ,o . 9 IO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Each 0.01 sO P has
an effectof Ibs.. 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1500 1500
Manganese, t!re effect decreases as the per cents of manganese increases.
&In beir per I .g .t: .20
cent. .%
22: .30
.z
3. .,, .$5 .50 .55
.15 .20 .30 .40 .45 .5ll .% .2
St.renxth incr.
for 0.01%. 240 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 lOOlbs.
Total increase
from0 Xn.. .3600 4SOO 5900 69GO 7800 8600 9300 9900 10,400 11,400
Silicon is so low in this steel that its hardening effect has not been con-
sidered.
With the above additions for carbon and phosphorus the following table
has been constructed (ahridged from the oriwimal by Mr. Webster). To
the Figures given the addition2 for sulphur and manganese should be made
as above.
Estimated Ultimate Strengths of Basic Bessemer-steel Plates.
For Carbon. 0.06 t,o 0.24: Phosphorus. .OO to .lO: Manganese and Sulphur.
.OO in all cases.
Carbon. ICI.05 / .06 1 .I0 1 .I2 ) .I4
/~/~. -
/ .I6 / .I8 / 20 / .22 1 .2:-
/~,~~-....--.- -
Phos
. .
.02
.03
.03
.cs
.06
.07
.08
.09
.I0
C.GOl P.=
In all roiled steel the quality depends on the size of the bloom or ingot
from which it is rolled. the work put on it, and the temperature at whch
it is finished, as well as the chemical composition.
The above table is based on test.s of plates slg
inches wide.; for other plates Mr. Webster giv&
for thickness and width. They are made necess
t,hicknrss and width on the finishing temnerati
Steel is frequently spoiled by being fi&hed at to
WARNING: This is a 19:O edition: Some of t
3/s 5110
c +3000
0 1500 + iocc +5000
I
I
* And over. (1) Ekes :p to ;iin. \tide. (2) Oier 70 ;n. nid:.
Comparing the actual result of tests of 40s plates with
results, Mr. Webster found the variation to range as below.
the calculated
Within Ibs. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 -
Percent...%.4 55.1 74.7 89.9 94.9
The last figure would indicate that if specifications were drawn calling
for steel plates not to vary more than 5000 Ibs. T. S. from a specified
figure (equal to a total range of 10,000 Ibs.), there would be a probability
of the rejection of 5% of the blooms rolled, even if the whole lot was made
from steel of identical chemical analysis.
Cam
erties o f
bells Formulae. (H. H. Camphell. The Manufacture and Prop-
Iron and Steel, p. 387.) -
~ Acid steel, 40,000 + 1000 C + 1000 P + x&in = Ultimate strength.
Basic steel, 41,500 + 770 C + 1000 P -I- yMn = Ultimate strength.
The values of xhfn and yMn are given by Mr. Cam
but theg may be found from the formulae xMn = 8 C h
bell in a table,
n - 320 C and
yI$;a;;ve90 Mn + 4 CMn - 2700 - 120 C, or. combining the formulae
IJ!t. strength. abc;i$~l, 40,000 + 680 C + 1000 P + 8 C&In.
38,800 + 650 C + 1000 P + 90 Mn + 4 CMn
In these formuh? the unit of each chemical element is 0.01%.
Examples. Required the tensile strength of two steels containing
respectively C. 0.10. P, 0.10, Nn. 0.30, and C. 0.20. P, 0.10, Xn, 0.65.
Answers, by Webster, 59,650 and 77,laO; by Campbell. 57,700 and 72,850.
Low Tenstle Strength of Very Pure Steel. - Swedish nail-rod
open-hearth steel, tested by the a lhor in 1881, showed a tensile strength of
only 42,591 Ibs. per sq. in. A If iece of American nail-rod steel showed
45,021 Ibs. per sq. in. Both steels contained about 0.10 C and 0.015 P,
and were very low in S, Mn, and Si.
23 3/3 in. sectlon.
The pieces tested were bars about
R. A. Hadfield (Jour. Iron and Steel I nst., 1894) gives the strength of
very pure Swedish iron, remelted and tested as cast, 45,024 lbs. per sq.
in.; remelted and forged, 47,040 lbs. The analvsis of the cast bar was:
c, 0.08; Si. 0.04: S, 0.02; P, 0.02; Mn, 0.01; Fe, 99.82.
Effect of Oxygen upon Stren tb
s
of Steel. - A. Lantz. of the
Peine works. Germany, in a letter to ,lr. Webster, says that oxygen plays
an important rale -such that, given a like content of C, P. and Mn. a
blow with greater oxygen content gives a greater hardness and less ductility
than a blow with less ox gen content. The method used for determin-
lag oxygen is that of Pro{ Ledebur given in Stahl und Eisen May 1892
.p
193 The variation in 0 may make a difference in strength of nearli
/Zton per sq. in. (Jour. I. and S. I., 1894.)
Electric Conductivit of Steel. -Louis Csmpredon reports in Le
Genie Civil pnor to lS95Yth2 results of experiments on the eiectric resist-
\ . ante of stee wres of differeti composition, ranging from 0.09 to 0.14 C:
:~f~.zl to 0.54 Mn; Si, S. and P low. The figures show that the purer and
mfter the steel the better is its eiectric conductivity, and, furthermore, that
,?anganese is the element which most influences the conductivity. The
;r@nlts may be expressed by the formula R = 5.2 + 6.2.~ f 0.3; in which
R = relative resistance, copper being taken as I. and S = the sum of the
@centages of C, P, S, Si, and Mn. The conciusions are confirmed by
., . A. Capp. in 1903, Trans. A. I. M. E.. vol. xxxiv, who made forty-five
g=Periments on steel of a wide range of composit.ion. His results may be
by the formula R = 5.5 + 4s f 1. High manganese increases
ante at an increasing rate. Mr. Capp proposes the following
on for steel to make a satisfactory third rail. having a resistance
s that of copper: C. 0.15: Mn, 0.30; P. 0.06; S, 0.06; Si, 0.05;
esefigures to beexceeded. ~
~_~ __-,.. ____~_ ~_~ ..,.- . ..-.- ~---.-~.-.--..---
may no longer be accurate
454 STEEL.
Range of Variation in Strength of Bessemer and Open-Hearth
Steels.
The Carnegie Steel Co. in lS8S published a list of 1057 tests of Bessemer
and open-hearth steel, from which the following figures are selected: : .
EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT ON STZEL.
455
Emcct of Cold Rollin
elastic limit and the
f%- Cold rolling of iron and steel increases the
u timate strenut.h a.od rilerro~~~= +hn A..:,:I:,..
c- LI I I b
&ior Wades experiments pii bars rolled and polished cold by Lathyi
process showed an average increase of load required to give a slight per-
manent set as follows: Transverse. 162% I tnrsinn lRo~%~ onmn--~--i....
~~~~. ---,, --_---.., --1. ~L11)1,rJ>,,,*
16tl;6 on short columns 11/s in. long. and 64y0 on columns 8 in. long
tewon. 95%. The hardness, as measured by the weight required to
produce equal indentations, was increased 50:;: and it was found t+t
tina ll:l.rdness \vas as great in the center of the bars as else\vliere.
W. Fairbairns experiments showed an increase in ultimate ten$
strength of 50%, and a reduct on in the elongation in 10 in. from 3 in.
or 20% to 9.79 in or 7 o%
Elastic Limit.
Elongation
per cent
io 8 Inches.
(aj Bess. structural. IOf
jb; Bk: s 0 e n 1,. :
(Ffj o.s.%Llox..
:
f
(e) 0. Y. bridge.. si
Ultimate
Strength.
Hight. Lowest
--
-
%ght. .L
.-
33.00
30.25
34.30
36.00
30.00
-
owest.
23.75
23.15
26.25
lt;:;4
I
_-
-
Hight. Lowest
-I
--HarVdcning of Soft Steel. -A. E. Hunt (Trans. A. I. M. E., 1~~3, vol.
xii) YayS that soft steel, no matter how low in carbon, will harden to a cer-
tam extent upon being heated red-hot and plunged into water, and that it
hardens more when plunged into brine and less when quenched in oil
A heat Of open-hearth steel of 0.15,y0 C and 0.2970 Mn gave the folldw-
ing results upon test-pieces from the same 1/d in. thick mate.
_ _
I
,
I
-
71,300 61,450
73,540 65,200
63,450 56,130
62.790 50,350
69,940 63,970
Unhardened. T,,S. t:,;(l;
Hnrdened in water..
Hardened in brine..
El. in,8in. 37q0
Hardened in oil. _.
s4:ooo I
Red. of Srea 627

REQU~EHENTY OF SPECIFICATIONS.
(a) E. L., 35.00!!: T. S.. 62.000 to 70.000; elong., 22% in 8 in.
(b) E. L.. 40.000; T. S., 67.000 to 75.000.
j,cJ ;. &, ZJO.000; T. S.. So.000 to o4.$i$O,: elqng.. 20% in 8 in.
n0.000 to 62,000: elong.. 26 ,.b m 4 m.
-(e) T: S:: 6-4.000 to 70.000: clone.. 20% in 8 in.
,-
be
The greatly increased tenacity after hardening indicates that there must
a considerable molecular change in the steel thus hardened, and that
if such a hardenmg should be created locally in a steel plate, there must
be very dangerous internal strains caused thereby.
Comparntjve Tests of Full-sized Eye-bars and Small Samples.
(G. G,. S. Morison. A. S. C. E., 1893.) - 17 full-sized ege-hers. of the steel
used in the Memphis bridge, sections 10 in. wide x 1 to 2Q.g in. thick, and
sample bars from the same melts. Average results:
Eye-bars: E. I,.. 32,350; T. S.. 63,330: El. in full length, 13.iy0; Red.
of area. 36.3%.
&ding Tests of Steel. (pencoyd Iron Works.) -Steel below 0.10 C
should be capable of doubling Hat without fracture. after being chilled
from a red heat in cold water. Steel of 0.15 C will occasionally submit
to the same treatment, but will usually bend around a curve whose radius
is e
the 9
us1 to the thickness of the specimen; about 90% of specimens stand
atier bending test without fracture. As the steel becomes harder its
ability to endure this bending test becomes more except,lonal, and when
the carbon becomes 0.20 little over 25yG.of specimens wili stand the last-
described bending test. Steel having about 0.40~~ C will usually harden
snthciently to cut soft iron and maintain an edge.
Small bars:~E. L., 49.650; T. S., 71,640; El. in 8 ins., 26.2y0; Red.
of area, 46.i4r0.
Effect of Annealiqg on Rolled Bars.
Steel, p. 275.) -
(Camphell. Mfr. of Iron and
Ultimam
Strength.
Elong. in
8 in., %.
Else.
Ratio
:rs
Au-
. nealed
--
40,300 31.823
42.606 35,120
49,000 37,685
51.108 40,505
40,400 30,393
42,441 31,576
45,090 34,000
49,691 39,403
EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT AND OF WORK ON STEEL.
I.om Strength Due to InsutHcient Work. (A. E. Hunt,. !ZronS.
-4. I. M. E., 1886.) -Soft steel ingots, made in the ordinary way for
boiler plates, have only from 10,000 to 20.000 lbs. tensile strength per sq.
in,, an elongation of only about 10ni in S in.,
less than 207
and a reduction of area of
.o Such ingots, proper!y heated and rolled down from 10 in.
to t/s in. thickness, will give from 55,000 to 65,000 lbs. tensile strength, an
elongat,ion in 8 in. of from 237, to 337,. and a reduction of areA of from
55% to.70yQb_ Any work stopping short of the above reduction in thick-
,ile tests.
nzz. - The strength and
ness ordinarily yields intermediate resulls in tens
EfPect of Finishing Temperature in Rolli,
ductilitv of steel deoend to a hieh decree uoon2iineness of main. and
Nat-
UKLL
Ail-
maled
Nat-
ural.
Nab Sn-
ural. nealed
--
60.8
62.2
61.1
53.7
61.8
60.9
59.3
54.4
62.7
;:::
56.5
60.5
60.0
52.1
51.4
68.8
68.5
69.5
66.7
69.5
2:
65.5
29.7 28.8
28.0 20.6
E 23.4 23.0
:::1 3'.1 30.4
25.6 26.5
24.7 26.3
50.8
60.2
57.5
58.4
59.1
57.4
:i:;
--
The bars were rolled from 4X J-in. billets of open-hearth steel.
figures are avera es of from 2 to 12 tests of each heat.
The
dull yellow heat!
In annealing the
bars were heate m a muffle and withdrawn when they had reached a
this ma>, be obtained by having the tempera~tre~of~the~steel ratherlow,
say at a dull red heat. 1300 to l-100 F.. during the finishing stage Of
roilinr. In the manufacture of steel rails a~ meat imnrovement in aiialitY
has been obtained by finishing at a low temperature. An indication of
the finishing temperature is the amount of shrinkage by cooling after
le&vine the rolls. The Ihila. h Readine Railwav Co.s soecification for
. rails (1902) says,
- ~~~ ~~~~ my ~~~;~~~
The temperature of the ingotor bloom shall be si@
that with rapid rolling and without ho1din.g before or in the finishing
passes or subsequently. and without artificml cooling after leaving the
least pass, the distance between the hot saws shall not exceed 30 fi. 6 1% Recalescence of Steel. - If we heat a bar of copper by a flame
of constant strength, and note carefullv the interval of time occupied in
Passing from each degree to the next higher degree, we find that these in-
tervals increase regularly, i.e., that the bar heats more and more slowly.
as its temperature approaches that of the flame. If we substitute a bar of
steel for one of copper, we fmd that these intervals increase regularly UP
ha;!0 a certain point, when the rise of temperature is suddenly and in most
for a 30-ft. rail.
Fining the Grain by Annealing. -Steel which is coarse-grained
on accoiint of !eavlng the rolls at too high a temperature may be ma.de
fine-erained and have its ductility greatly increased without lowering its
tensile strength by reheating to a cherry-red and cooling at once in Illr.
(See paper on Steel Rails, by Robert Job, Trans. A. 1. M. E., 1902.)d
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t! he
cases greatly retarded or even completely arrested. After this the regular
rise of temperature is resumed, though other like retardations may recur
as the temperature ,rlses farther. So if we cpol a bar of steel slowly tbe
fall of temperature IS greatly retarded when It reaches a certain point in
dull redness. If khe steel contains much carbon, and if certaic iavorino
conditions ,be msllntamed. the temperature, after descending regulaTlyb
suddenly rises spontaneously very abruptly, remains stationary a whiii
and then redescends.
CCWX.
This spontaneous reheating is known as recales-
These retardations indicate that some change which absorbs or evolves
heat occurs within the metal. A retardation while the temperature is
rising points to a change which absorbs heat; a retardation dunng cooling
pmnts to some change which evolves heat. (Henry 11. Howe, on Heat
Treatment of Steel,
Critical Point.
Trans. A. I . M. E.. vol. xxii.)
(Cam
U..iO C be allowed to coo P
bell. p. 287.) -If a piece of steel containing; over
slowly from a high t.emperature the coohng at
first proceeds ?t a uniformly retarded rate, but when about 700C. is
reached there IS an interruption of this reglilarity.
In some cases the
fate of coohng may be very slow! in other cases the bar mav not decrease
m t.emperature at all, while in still other cases the bar ma>: actually grow
hotter for a moment. When this critical point
as before until it reaches the tern
is passed, the bar cools,
In metal!ographg such a critics
erature of the atmosphere.
the particular pne Just described is nown as Ar.
by the letter A. and
In heating a piece of
steel an ppposlte phenomenon is observed, t,here being an absorption of
heat by internal molecular action, with a consequent retardation in the
nse of temperature, and this point, which is some 30 C. higher than Ar,
is callrrf Ar.
In soft steqls. below 0.30 C, three critical points are fonnd in cooling a
bar f!om a Jwh temperature, called Ar3, Ar?. Ar,, .4r, being the lowest
and ln nesting the bar there are also three points, Ac, AC?, Ac3, the first
named being the lowest. At each of the points thereis a change in the
micro-structure of the steel.
Metallography.-This~is aname given to astudvof themicro-structure
of metals. The, steel metallogrsphist designates ihe different. structures
that, are, found n? a polished and etched section by tire names austenite
martensite. pearhte. cementit.e, ferrite, troostite, and sorhite.
Austenite
is produced by quenching steel of over 1.10 C in ice water from above
13.50 C. Marten+e 1s produced by quenching t~his steel from tempera-
tures het\yeen 10~0 C. and .4r,.. It is also found together with cementite
or ferri!e in car,bon steels below 1.30 C
It is the constituent which confers har 9
uenched at anv point above Ar,.
ness on steel. In steels cooled
slo~~~ly t.o below Arl the structure is composed entirely of ferrite or
cntueiy of pearhte. or of pearlite mixed with ferrite or cementite. Feirite
1s iron free frpm carbon and forms almost the whole of a low-carbon steel
while cementite IS considered to be a compound of iron and carbon Fe&
the C Of, this form being known as cement carbon.
Pearlite is ah intii
mate ,rmxture of definite proportions of ferrite and cementite corre-
sponding to a pure stell of about O.SO C, which, unhardened cor&ists of
pearlitc alone. Steels lower in C contain pearlite with ferrite, and steels
higher in C cpntsin pearlite and cementite.
Troostite is a structure found
whe? st,eel 1s. quenched while cooling through the critical range and
Forbite when It is,quenched at the end of the critical range.
Quenching
In I?ad or reheatmg quenched steel to a purple tint may also produce
sorbite. (Campbell, p. 296.)
Effect Of Work Op the Structure o! Soft and Medium Steel. - Steel
as usually cast,.coohng slowly. forms in crystals or grains.
Rolling tends
to break UP thls,gram. but immediately after the cessat.ion of work the
formation of grams .begins and continues until the metal has cooled to
the lo,wer crltrcal point. Hence the lower the temperature to which the
steel 1s worked. the more broken up the structure will he but on the
other hand If the rolling be continued below the critical poiht the effect
of cold work will be shown and strains will La set up which wii make the
piece unfit for use without annealing.
Effect of Heat Treatment. - In heating steel through the lowesi
cntical Polct, the crystalline structure is obliterated, the,metal assuming the
finest condition nf which it is capable.
increases with the temperature.
Above this point the size of grain
EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT ON STEEL. 457
Effect 01
vi, 213.) -
1.72, (4) 1.
to the ten
furnace, aI
-
(I) T.S...
E L. . .
El. in2in.
( 2) T. S...
E, L.. . .
El. in 2 in.
( 3) T. S...
E, L.. . .
El.inZin.
( 4) T. S..
E L.. .
El. in 2 in.
(5j T. S...
E. L.. .
El. in 2 in.
( 6) T.S...
E. L..
El. in 2 in.
Ieatin on Crucible Steel. (W. Campbell. Pm. A. S. T. 11..
is stee s. containing carbon as follows: (1) 2.04, (2) 1.94. (3) f
., (5) 1.04, and (6) 0.70, were heated in a small gas furnace
xatures aven in the table and allowed to cool slowly in the
were then tested, with results as below.
95200
49350
6. 0
91800
49800
9. 5
95rnl O
45200
7. 5
96350
48500
7. 5
111500
468043
10. 5
90500
39700
16. 5
4. 5
97000
41750
6. 5
92350
43100
6. 0
94400
51400
3. 5
' %i
11. 0
89500
57350
18. 0
57400
56000
I . 0
61350
47000
2. 0
65300
50600
2. 0
69800
3. 0
112600
"Yi
9Otl OO
58500
16. 0
The critical points A.r, and Act were determined, and the six steels gave
practically identical results; thus Arl ranged frofn 696 to 708, averaging
704O C.. and Acl ranged from 730 to 737. averagm 733O C.
The temperatures at which~the finest-grained an Fi a very coarse-grAined
fracture were found are as follows:
Mr. Campbells paper gives a list of fourteen papers by diRerent authori;
ties on the micro-structure and the heat treatment of steel.
Burning, Overheating, and Restoring Steel. (G. B. Waterhouse,
A. S T. M. vi 247.)-Burnt metal is defined as coarsely crystalline and
, , nohAi nd, : ht!i tt~l c=i rnn np steel . i n conseauenw of excesi ve heati ng.
I
F.kbGUU.LI*LJ Y...v
often with some layersof &i&&f iron. It cannot be effectively restored
hr r h0n.t trea.t.ment or mechanical work. Overheated metal is coarsely
,;J...,,;,iil,,f~~~~-pVpcI.~i~p hentine. but with no inter-crvstalline soaces.
.,LJYLLL. .I.II .~I.. - .._-... ~-, ~~~
It can be restored by heat treatment or meCtla~-.
ical work, Seven iots of
ni~lrd &WI ha.rs onntn~ininp 3.8% Ni. and C as in the tab!e. were heated
0. 51
0. 63
0. 79
0. 97
1. 24
1. 48
Lo. . -
ULLU.7 s,.~~YY...IY -..
_ _..- . ~_~~~~
Hl sated to.. . . . .
WOOal . ^^^
T.S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
El %in2in . . . . . . . . . . . .
;;T
+. s... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
El. To in 2 in.
.S ,..,,... 1::::::::
E:
. . f&
y. in 2 in.. . . 16. 51 20
' ~~. s. ~. . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13519'
El. % ) m 21n. . . . . . . . . . . . 14. '
T. S . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . l 5f C
I F!l~ ol in2in . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. 5
-r:s . . . . . .
I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ' 67'
El. in 2in.. . . . . . . . . .
9; ; :
-
13COb 1200~ l 2OW
71320 71487 74989
7. 0 10. 5 25. 0
79600 81487
15. 5
80795
5. 0 22. 5
85200 96040 89042
2. 0 10. 0 21. q
66z 102g w;
46f $, 114107 5~5 103476 18. 0
35480 89045 74592
1. 9 17. 5 24. 0
I - - - - . ~. , . ~. . - ~ ___. _ _
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the fiateriai may no longer be accuratei
-A---'
STEEL.
a. Heated to 1000 C., which took 1 hr. 25 min.. held there 25 min. and
cooled in air. b. The time required to heat to the temperatures named
was respective!y 1 h. 10 m., 1 h. 45 m., 2 h. 35 m., and 2 h. 35 m.
The
bars were kept at the desired temperature for au hour and then cooled
sIowIy in place. c. Reheated to 706 C. d. Reheated to 775 C.
In the steels below 1% C heating to 1200 is accompanied by an increase
in ultimate strength and a drop in ductility. Heating above 1200 pro-
duces a very coarse crystallization and a great loss in strength and
ductility. Reheating the overheated bars to 7OW does not materiallv
affect their structure, but rehe,ating to 775 restores the structure nearljr
to that found before overheatmg, and completely restoreS the ductility.
Similar results are found with carbor steel.
Working Steel at a Blue Heat. - Not only are wrought iron and
steel much mqre brittle at a blue heat (i.e., the heat that would produce an
oxide coating ranging from !ight straw to blue on bright steel, 43~ to
6OW F.j. but while they are probably not seriously aifect.ed by simple
exposilre to blueness, even if prolonged, yet if they be worked in this range
of temperature they remain estremely brittle after cooling, and may
indeed be more brittle than when at blueness; this last point, however,
is not certain. (Howe, Mdallurgy of Sled, p. 534.)
Tests by Prof. lirohn, for the German State Railways. show that work-
ing at blue heat has a decided influence on all materials tested, the injury
done being greater on wrought iron and harder steel than on the softer
steel. The fact thst wrought iron is injured by working at a blue heat
ivas repotted by Stromeyer. (Engimering :Vews. Jan. 9, lS92.)
A practice among boiler-makers for guarding against failures due to
working at a blue heat consists in the eessation of work as soon as a plate
which had been red-hot becomes so cool that t.he mark produced by
rubbing a hammer-handle or other piece of wood will not glow.
A plate
which IS not hot enough to produce this effect, yet too hot to be touched
by the hand, is most probably blue hot., and should uuder no circumstances
be hammered or bent. (C. E. Stromeyer, Proc. Inst. C. E., 1886.)
Oil-tempering and Annealing of Steel Forgings. -H. F. J. Porter
says (1897) that all steel forgings above 0.170 carbon sbou!d be annealed,
to relieve them of forging and annealing strains. and that the process
of annealing reduces the elastic limit to 47T; of the ultimate strength.
Oil-tempering should only be practiced on thin sections, and large forgings
should be hollow for the purpose. This process raises the elastic limit
above SOG of the ultimate tensile strength, and in some alloys of steel,
notably nickel stee!, ~=liI
Beat Treatment
. . ..I bring it up !o 60!& of the ultimat,e.
of Armor Plates. (Hadfield Process. Iron ir.
Re?.. Dec. 7, 1905.) -A cast armor plate of nickel-chromium steel is
heated to from 950 C. to llO0 C.. t.hen cooled, preferably in air, then
rehear=d to about 700 and cooled slowly, preferably in the furnace in
v&icll the heating was
P
reviouslv effected. again heated to about 700
and a!lowefi to cool slow y to 6406 C.. whereupon it is suddenly cooletibl;
SPraWng with water or by an air blast, but preferabl in water.
then reheated fo about 600 and again s?:ddenly cooed
quenching in water.
f , preferably by
Steel treated as described is suitab e for armor
plates and other articles, including parts of safes. Satisfactory results
have been obtamed by thus treating cast 6in. armor plates containing
about 0.H to 0.4 C, 0.25 Mn, 1.8 Cr. and 3.3 Ni cast in a sand mold.
Such a 6-in. plate attacked by armor-piercing projectiles of 4.7-in. and
6-in. calibers. stood over 15,000 foot-tons of energy without showing a
crack. Also a 4-in. plate t~reated as described and having a carboni;red
Or cer;nented face has withstood the attack of a 5.7~in. armor-piercing shell.
Brlttieness Due to Long-continued Heating. If low-carbon steel.
(say under 0.15%) is held for a very long time at temperatures between
500 and 750 C. (930 and 13809 F;), the crystals become enormous and
the Steel loses a large
In fact days.
art of its strength and ductiiity. It takes a long time,
to-pro l? uce this effect to any alarming degree, so that it 1s
not hable to occur during manufactureor mechanical
steel is sometimes placed in positions where it m
treatment, but
example, in the case of the tie-rods of furnaces, s
so that the danger should be borne in mind by all
steel. A wrought-iron chain that supported one si
hearth ladle, which was heated many times to a temp
finally reached a condition of coarse cry*tallization,
--11--~-~- . ..- ~..~.~ I.~~. ..~_~
'AF?NING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
TREATMENT OF STRUCTURAL STEEL.
to bear the strain upon it. This phenomenon of coarse crystaliization in
low-carbon steel is known as Steads Brittleness, after J. E. Stead, who
has explained it,s cause. The effect seems to begin at a temperature of
about 500 C. and proceeds more rapidly with an increase In temperature
until we reach 750 C. The damage may be repaired completely by beat-
ing the steel to a tempemture between 8OU and 900 C. The remedy is
the same as that for coarse crystallization, due to overheating. and all
steel which is olaced in oositions where it is liable to reach these tempera-
tures frequentis should be restored at. intervals of a week ot a month, or
as often as may be necessary. (Stoughton.)
Influence of Annealing upon Magnetic Capacity.
Prof. D. E. Hughes (Engg, Feb. &,1884. p. 13Oj has invented a Mag-
netic Balance, for testing the condition of iron and steel, which consists
chiefly of a delicate magnetic needle suspended over a graduated circular
index. and a magnet coil for magnetizmg ttle bar to be t.ested. He finds
that the following, laws hoid with every variety pf Iron and steel:
1. The magnetic capacity is directly proportional to the softness, or
molecular freedom.
2. The resistance to a feeble external magnetizing force is directly as
t&hardness, or molecular rigidity.
The magnetic balance shows that annealin
uent molecular freedom. %ut it entirely frees it f1om
not only produces scftness
in iron and conse
all st,rilins nrevious v Introduced bv drawine or hammerim!. 1 Thus a bar
2 &n-;ii&in~ &r-Limrnered has a peculiar structure, say- a fibrous one,
which gives a greater mechanical strength in one direction t.han another.
This bar if thoroughly annealed at high temperatures, becomes homo-
geneous in all directions, and has no longer even traces of its previous
stWains. nrovided that there has been no actual separation into a.distinct
series if-fibers.
TREATXENT OF STRUCTURAL STEEL.
(James Christie, Trans. -4. S. C. E., 1893.)
Eflect oi Punching and Shearin,. * - The physical effects of punching
a.nrf shearing as denoted by tensile test are for iron or steel:
tv: elevation of tensile strength at elastic limit:
- . .._ ~~~~~~ I
Reduction of ductili.,
reduction of ultimate tensile 3 strength.
Tn verv thin material the ! disturbance described is less than in thick;
in-&, a degree of thinness 1s reached where this disturbance practl- -..
call ,y ceases. On the contrary, as thickness is increased the mjury becomes
more evid
,~?.~desrrihed do not invariablv ensue: for unknown reasons there The effr-.- - _____ --- ~~~
are sometimes marked deviations fromwhat seems to be a general result.
By thoroughly annealing sneared or punche? stee!s the ductility is to a
large ext.ent. rest,ored and the exaEcerated elastic hnut reduced. the change
kxtfipd hv +,IW t~mnrra.tlr&~of reheatine and the method of coolink.
being rnb., . .._- yJ -.._ -____ r--l __-__ _. ..~~~~~_~ ~,.. ~~~~~~
It is probable that the best results com@ned wjth least expenditure can
be obtamed by punrhine all holes where vital strams are not transferred by
; - ; zi rGi i i ne fnrimnnrt.ant ioints where strains on riveted
the rivets, and by ._-__ _-__ _-_ -___r_ -: -~~~..- ~~~~
joints are vital, or wherever perforation map reduce sections to a mini-
mum. The reaming should be sufficient to thoroughly remove the mate-
rial disturbed by punchilig; to accomplish this it is best to enlarge punched
holes at l&ast 1/a m. diamet.er with the reamer.
Riveting. - It is the current T rartice to perforate holes G/la in. larger
than the rivet diameter. For work t,o he reamed it is also a usual reqmre-
ment to punch the holes fro1 1X -,o .. -,I -..:.
the holes being reamed to the proper SK!
"_ . . "__. . " - . . . ~~. . ~. ~ ~~
n 11~ tn w.~ i ; , 1,ess than the finished diameter.
:e after the various parts are
assembled.
It is also excellent practice to remove the sharp corner ?t both ends of
,. the reamed holes, so that a fillet will be formed at the junction of the body
: and head of the finished rivets.
The rivets of either iron or mild steel should be heated to a bright red or
ellow heat and subjected to a pressure of not less than 50 tons Per square
I &ch of sectional area
For rivets of ordiiary length this pressure has been found sufficient to
completely fill the hole. If, however, the holes and the rivets are excep-
460 460 STEEL.
t&ally long, a greater pressure and a slower movement of the closing too1 t&ally long, a greater pressure and a slower movement of the closing too1
than is used for shorter rivets has been found advantageous. than is used for shorter rivets has been found advantageous.
Welding. - No welding should be allowed on any steel that enters into Wel di ng. - No welding should be allowed on any steel that enters into
structures. lSee page 463.1 structures. [See page 463.1
Upsetting. - Enlarged ends on tension hars for screw-threads, eye- Upsetting; - Eniarged knds on tension hars for screw-threads, eye-
bars, etc., are formed by upsetting the material. bars, etc., are formed by upsetting the material. With proper treatment With proper treatment
and a sufficient increment of enlarged sectional area over the bodv of and a sufficient increment of enlarged sectional area over the body of
the bar the result is entirely satisfactory. the bar the result is entirely satisfadtory. The u The u
be performed so that the properly heated be performed so that the properly heated 7. 7.
setting process should setting process should
meta meta
without folding or lapping. without folding or lapping.
1s compelled to How 1s compelled to How
Annealing. - Annealing. - The object of annealing structural steel is for the pur- The object of annealing structural steel is for the pur-
E E
ose of securing homogeneity of structure that is supposed to be impaired ose of securing homogeneity of structure that is supposed to be impaired
y unequal he;lting. y unequal he;lting.
certain orocesses. certain processes.
or by the manipulation necessarily attendant on or by the manipulation necessarily attendant on
The obiects to be annealed should he heated t hmt w h. The objects to be annealed should be heated through-
out to j uniform temperaiure and uniformly cooled. out to a uniform temperature and uniformly cooled.
The physicd effects of annealing. as indicated by tensile tests, depend The physical effects of annealing. as indicated by tensile tests, depend
on the trade of steel. or the amount of hardeninz elements associated w i t .h on the grade of steel, or the amount of hardening elements associated with
it; also on the temperature to which the steel is iaised. and the method it; alsobn the temperature to which the steel is ~iaised,;t~~~the-methoh
or rate of cooling the heated m2terial. or rate of cooling the heated m2terial.
The Dhvsical effects of annealin The physical effects of annealin
tensile test, are reported tensile *test. are reported
g z medium-made steel. as indirat,ed hv medium-grade steel, as indicated by
ver ver
claiming directly 0pposit.e claiming directly 0pposit.e 9 9
diirerently bf~ differelltobservers.-so~~ ditferently by different observers, some
resu resu ts from others. ts from others.
attendant conditions are considered, attendant conditions are considered,
It is evident. when all the It is evident, when all the
both in kind 2nd decree. both in kind 2nd decree.
th2t the obtained results must vary th2t the obtained results must vary
The temperatures employed will vary from 1000 to 1500 F. In
some cases the heated steel is wit~hdrawn at full temperature from the
furnace and allowed to cool in the atmosphere; in others the mass is
removed from t.he furnace. but covered under 2 muffle. to lessen the free
radistion: or, ?g2in, the charge is rct2incd iu the furnace. and the whole
mass cool~ed with the furnsce, and more slowly than by either of the other
methods.
The best general results from annealin g will prohahly he obtsined by
introducing the msteri21 into a uniformlr hated oven ih which the tern-
pemture is noi.so high 2s to cause a possibilitv of cracking by sudden and
unequal chanjimg of temperatire. then gmd&y mising the temperature
of the material unbit it is uniformly about lZK1 F.. then withdrawing the
materiai after the temperature is somewhat reduced and cooling under
shelber of a mutlle sufficiently to prevent too free and unequal cooling on
the one hand or excessively slow coolinK on the other.
C. C. Mehrtens. Trans. -4. S. C. E., 159X says: Annealing is of advnn-
tage to all steel 2hore 6-l.000 lhs. strength per square inch. but it is ques-
tionable whether it is necessarri in softer steels.
heating cause trouble in subsequent strairhttnill-g.
The distortions due to
especially of thin plates.
In a general way all unannealed mild steel Ior a strength of 56,000 to
64,OGO lbs. may be worked in the sitme ~27 as wrought iron. Rough
treatment or working at a blue heat must. however, he prohibited. Shear-
ing is to be avoided, except to pre 2re rough plates.. which should after:
wards be smoothed hy machine too s or tiles before using. P Drifting is also
to be avcsded. becsuse the edge+ of the holes 2re thereby strained beyond
the yield-point. Reaming drilled holes is not necessary. particularly
yhen sharp drills are used and neat work is done. A slight
smking of the edges of drilled holes is 211 that is necessary.
counter-
Working the
material while heated should be avoided as far 2s possible, and the
engmeer should bear this in mind when designing structures.
cranlilT
Upsetting.
matena
and bending ought to be avoided, but when necessary the
should be annealed after completion.
The riveting of a mild-steel rivet should be finished 2s quickly as pOS-
sible. before it cools to the dangerous heat.
is the best.
For this reason machine work
There is a specisl advantage in machine work from the fact
that the pressure c2n be retained upon the rivet until it has cooled sum-
clently to prevent elongation and the consequent loosening of the rivet.
18$yh&yj ~~nD$U!~ of pteel Plates. (Proc. inst. X. E.. .4~.
nwm s report the results of the greater number
of the experiments made on iron and steel plates lead to the general COll-
cluslon that while thin p&es, even of steel. do not suffer very much fro?
Punching, yet in those of 1/z m. thickness 2nd upwards the loss of tenacity
due to punching ranges from
33% in the case of mild steel.
10% to 23% iniron plates and from 11
,__.~~~__.~~.~--~~ ._... ..~...~ .~~-__-
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
c
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON STEEL. 46 1
~IISCELLANEOUS XOTES ON STEEL.
May Carbon bc Burned Out of Steel ? - Experiments made at the
Laboratory of the Penna. nailroad Co. (Specifications for S
with the steel of spiral springs. show that the place from wh~e ,F:
rings, 1888)
the borings
2re taken for umulysis has a. very important intluence on the amount of
~ilrI)Il fOlllld. If-the wml,e is a piece of t.he round b2r, and the borings
ii;? taken from the end of this piece, the carljon is always higher than if the
h~,rin&zs are taken from the side of the piKe. It is commufl to find 2
difference of 0.10;; between the center aud side of Lhe bar, and in some
cases the dicference is as high as O.L3%. Apparently during the process
of reducing tl;e metal from the ingots to the round bar, with successive
hestings, the carbon in the outside of the b2r is burned out.
I%Pect of Nicking a Steel Bar. -The slntement is sometimes made
th2t. owing to the homogeneity of steel. a bar with a surface crack or nick
in one of its edges is liable to fsll by the gradunl spreading of the nick, and
thus bresk under 2 very much smsller load than a sound bar. With iron
it is contended this does not occur, 2s this met,al has a fibrous st.ructure.
Sir Benjamin Baker has, bowever, shown that this theory, at least so far
as static21 stress is concerned, is opposed to the fa.cts. as he purposely
made nicks in specimens of the mild steel used at the Forth Bridge, but
found that the tensile strength of the whole was thus reduced by only
about one ton per square inch of section. In an experiment by the Union
Bridge Company a full-sizeti steel counter-bar, with a screw-turned
buckle connection, w&s tested under a heavy stntical stress, and at the
same t~ime a weight weighing 1040 lbs. was allowed to drop on it from
various height,s. The ba,r was first broken by ordinary stat,ical strain.
and showed a breaking stress of 66,800 lbs. per square inch. The longer
of the broken parts was then placed in the machine and put under the
followings loads whilst a weight, as already mentioned, was dropped on It
from va?ious hkights at a distance of five feet from the sleeve-nut of the
turn-buckle, as shown below:
Stress in pounds per sq. in.. "pti;;O 5":O;y "p,;O;' 63,000 65.060
ft. in. ft. in.
Heightoffall,...__..,___.,.._._ 21 26 30 40 50
The weight was then shifted so 2s to fell directly on the sleeve-nut, and
the test proceeded as foilows:
Stress on specimen in tbs. per square inch..
Height of fall, feet.. _. _. _. _.
65250
65ij350 Too
It will he seen that under t,his trk! the bar carried more than when
originally tested st$irnlly. showing,thrtt the nicking qf the bar by screw-
h#wtd not appreciably weakened its power of reslstmg shocks.-EEngg
Spcciflc Gravity of Soft Steel. (W. Kent. Trans. A. I. M. E.. xiv,
585.) - Five specimens of boiler-plate of C 0.14. P 0.03 gave 2n average
sp. gr. of 7.932, maximum variation O.OO& The pieces were first planed
to remove 211 possible scale indentations, then filed smoot.h, then cleaned
in dilute sulphuric acid, and then boiled in distilled water, Co remove all
traces of tir from the surface.
The figures of specific gravity thus obtained bv careful experiment on
s bright.,smooth pieces of steel 2re. however, too h&h for use in determining
the weights of rolled plates for commercial purposes. The actual average
thickness of these plates is always a little less than is shown by Fhe callper?.
on account of the oxide of iron on the surface, and because the surface IS
not perfectly smooth and regular. A number of experiments on com-
mercisl plates, and comparison of other authorities, led to the figure
7.854 2s the average specific gravity of open-hearth holler-plate steel.
This figure is easily remembered as being the same figure with change of
Position of the decimal point (.7854) which espresses the relation of.the
j:j
area of a circle to that of its circumscribed square. Taking the weight
of a cubic foot of water at 62O F. as 62.36 lbs. (average of several authon-
;:,,
ties), this figure gives 489.775 lbs. 2s the weight of a cubic foot of steel.
5:; or the even figure, 490 lbs.. may bc taken as a convenient figure, and
_,: accurate within the limits of the error of observation.
A common method of approximating the weight of iron plates ls.to co?-
.; sider them to weigh 40 lbs. per square foot one inch thick. Takm this
462
STEEL,
tveight .andadding 9
-% .clves almost exactlg the weight of steel boiler.,
plate given xbove.(40 X 12 X 1.02 = 489.6 Ibs. per cubic foot)
Oceas~~nal .Fallrlrcs of Hess~r~er Steel. -G. H. Clapp and 4
E. Hunt. In thew qpper on The inspection of ?ilaterials of Construction;< .
the Umted,Stat- (Tr~ns. A. I. M. E.. vol. xix), say: Numerous instanres
could be cited to show the unreliability of Bessemer steel for structural
purposes. One pf ,the most marked, however, was the following: A
12-i. I-beam wlghlng 30 Ibs. to the foot, 20 feet long. on being unloaded
from a car broke in t,wo about 6 feet from one end.
The analyses and tensile tests made do not show any cause for the failure
The cold and quench bendmg tests of both the original 3/4-i. round test:
views. and of pieces. cut frop the finished material gave satisfactory re-
suits; the cold-bendmg tests closing down on themselves without sign of
fracture.
Numerous other,cases of angles and plates that were so hard in places as
to break off short 111 ptinching. or, what was worse. to break the punches
have come undq.our observation, and although makers of Bessemer steei
Claim that this 1s Just as hkely to occur in open-hearth as in Bessemer steel
we have as Yet.never seen an instance of failure of this kind in open
hearth steel hav!ng a composition such as C 0.25%, Mn 0.70% P 0.08~ 1
J. I?. .Nailes. In a paper read before the Chemical Section of the Britilh
Agsoclatlon for the Advancement of Science, in speaking of mysterious
failures of steel. states that investigation shows that these failures occur
In steel of one class, viz.. soft steel made by the Bessemer process.
Sewqation.in ?teel Ingots.
7
(4. Pourcel. Trans. .A I. M E., 1893.)
H. 11. Howe, In ins Metallurgy of Steel, gives a r&t& of observations
wth the results of numerous analyses, bearing upon the phenomena oi
segregation.
A test-piece t,aken 31 inches from the head of an innot 7.5 feet in lengt,h
gave by analYw very different results from those cf a test-piece taken
30 inches from the bot~tom.
Top
Bottom
........................................
....................
C. ) AIn. 1 Si. 1 S. 1 P.
0.92 0.535
0.37
0.043 0.161
0.498
0.261
0.006 0.025 0.096
Segregation,is less marked in ingots of estra-soft mrtzl car;t in cast.-iron
mo!ds of considerable thickness.
It is. however. still import,mt and es-
plains the dilference often shown by the results of tests on &e&s taken
from different portions of a plate.
Two samples, taken from the sound
part of a flat ingot. one on the outside and the other in the center;7.9
Inches from the upper edge. gave:
I
C. S. P. Mn.
Center
Esterio;::::::::::................. 0.14 0.053 0.072 0.576
. . . . . . . . . . ..__.__. 0.11 0.036 0.027 0.610
I i
I I
~fanganeSe iS the element most uniformly disseminated in hard or soft
steel.
For cannon of large caliber. if we reject, in addition to the part cast in
sand and called the masselotte (sinking-head! one-third of the upper part
of the Ingot. we can obtam a tube practicallyliomogeneous ln composition
because the central
)bith.estra-soft P
art is naturu.llY removed by the boring of the tube:
Stee s, dest.ined for ship- or boll&-plates tle solntion for
closelY.desefwng its name of extra-soft metal
PmctldY PcrfeCt homogeneity lies in the obtaining
bf *a metal more
The Wurlous consequences of segregation n&t be suppressed by redu-
cing, as far as possible. the elements subect to llquation.
Se
$
w43n in Steel Plates. (C. L.&ton proc A g. T n.f
A P ate 370 X 76 X j&, in. was rolled from a16 X i&in. ingot;
WARNIIJG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t he
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON STEEL.
463
2~00 Ibs.. the ladle test of which showed 0.18 C.
Test pieces from the
plate gave the following:
Top of Ingot:
Tensile Strength., . 56,::: 67.$;8 6;;; 66.9;3 5%4$
Carbon . . . . . .
Bottom of Ingot:
Tensile Strength.. . . 55,;; 57d7Ti 58.400 5%::: 56.900
Carbon. . . . . .
1 Oil6
0.14
2 4 5
Columns 1 and 5. edge of plate: 3. middle. 2 and 4. half way between
mid&e and edge.
Other tests of low-carbon steel yhowed .a,lower degree of segregation.
A plate from an ingot of 0.23 C gave nnmmum 0.18 C T. 6.. 64,580:
maximum 0.38 C. T. S., 70,340.
One from an ingot of 0.26 C gave
maximum 0.20 C, T. S.. 59,600: maximufn 0.50 C! T. S.. 75,600.
(See
also paper on this subject by H. M. Home m vol. v~ p. 75.)
Endurance of Steel under Repeated Alternate Stresses. (J, E.
Howard, A. ,S. T .M., 19Oi, p. 2.52.) -Small bars were rapidly rotated In a
machine while, being subjected to a transverse stram.
Two steels gave
results as follows: (1) 0.5*5 C. T. S.. 111,200; E. I,.. 59,000; Elong., 12%;
Red. of area, 33.5%. (2) 0.82 C; T. S.. 142,000; E. L.. 64,000; Elong..
7C0; Red. of area, 11.8%.
I I I
464 ~ ~ STEEL.
and then pl+ced in position. The fractured section iS then heated by a
qiow-tqrch Inserted m the riser of the mold.
A conical sheet iron cru-
cable. hned with mag,nesla tar, is then inserted in the riser, and thermlt
(the mi?ture of alummum and oxide of iron) poured into it.
!b_ ..
An ignition
owder IS plsced,on top of the.thermit, and lighted with a storm match.
hO,rmut.ure beKtns to burl! with great agitation; when this ceases the
crucible 1s tapped, and whW+hot fused iron or steel runs into the mold
and thoro~ighl~ flises 1vit.h the pilfc:es to be joined.
Oxy-acetylene Weldin:: and Cutting
Welding. -
of 21etals. - Autogenous
By means of acetylene pas and oxygen. stored in tanks
under pressure, and a properly constructed nozzle or torch in which the
two gases are unIted and tired, an intense temperature said to be 6000 F.
is generated, and it m&y be used to weld or fuse together iron, steel alum11
num. brass, copper. or other metals.
Ttle process of uniting metals by heat
without using either Hus or compression is called autogenous welding.
The oxy-acetylene torch may also be used for cutting metals such as
steel plates, be>ms and I&rge forgivgs, and for repairing flaws 0; defects
or tilling cavltles -by meltlug a stnp of metal and flowing it into place
The apparatus. with instruction in its use, is furnished by the Davis:
Bournonv~lle Co., Jersey City. N. J.
Electric Welding. -
Hydraulic
For description see Electrical Engineering.
?qramg. T- !n the production of heavy forgings from
cast ingots of rruld steel it IS essential that the mass of metal shouid he
operate? on as equally as possible throughout its entire thickness.
When
emplovmg a steam-h.ammer for this purpose it has been found that tile es-
ternal surface of the ingot absorbs a large proportion of the sudden impact
of the blOw.,and !hut a~compsrativel!~ small effect on:y is produced on the
Centrat POrtlOlls of the Ingot. owing to the resist.ance offered by the inertia
of the ma?s to the rapid motion of the failing hammer -a disadvantage
that 1s entlrely,overcome by the slo~v, though powerful. cotipression of the
hydrauhc forpmg-Press. which appears destined to supersede
hammer for the production of massive steel forgings.
the steam-
Fluid-compressed Steel hy %e Whitworth Process * (Proc.
Inst. ,li. E., hlay, 18%. p. 167.) - In this syst.em a graduallyincreasing
P~p2s+lr~ UP to 6 or S tons per square inch is applied to the fluid inoot and
Rztlnn half an hour or less after the applicatiou of the pressure theocoiumn
of fluid Jteel is shortened 1 l/z inr:hes per foot or one-eighth of its length. the
prewxe is the,n kept on for several hours. the result being that the metal
IS comPressed into a perfectly solid and homogeneous material, free from
blow-holes.
In large gul
the c
n-ring ingots during cooling tht carbon is driven to the center
:~enter eo[!,taining 0.8 carbon and the outer ring 0.3
bored O!lt u
The center ii
ntu a test shows that the inside of the ring contains the same
percentage of carbon as the outside.
Fluid-compressed steel is made by the Bethlehem Steel Co. for gun and
other heave foreirlrs.
Putting suffi&nt Pressure upon the outside of the inpnt, when t.h wn,ltq
are solid hIIt. t.1~ int.prin7 i.
ripe.
a &ill liquid wlli ~p~e&t-t?~~ ~~&~$~~ ofa
in Whitworths system the ingot is raised and comoressed lmeth-
wise aaainst a solid
~~-~ ram situated above it. durinc and &,wI~ after snlidifi-
ra,tionr In H:,.rmptu mnthr\ ~t
- I ..lrl..VY the ingot is forced~up\~;zr;i;it~~ring soiidifi-
cation into its tapered mold.
sltles. In Lilienbercs n
This causes a large radial oressure on its
- - .,lethod the ingots are stripped and then run on
their cars between a solid and movable wall.
pressed against one side of the ingots.
The movable wall is then
and Steel.)
(Stoughtons Metaliurgy of Iron
For othecmethods of compressing ingots see paper by A. J. Capron in
Jour. I. & A. I.. 1906, Iron Tr. hlev.. &Iay 24, 1906.
STEEL C.ISTmG
3.
(E. S. Cramp, Proc. Engg Congress, Dept. of sfarine Engg, Chicago, 1893.)
In 1391 American steel-founders had Successfully produced a consider-
able variety of heavy and difficult castings. of which the following a;e the
most noteworthy- specimens:
Bed-plates UP to .34.000 Ibs.: stern-posts UI , to 54 000 Ibs stems up to
21.000 lbs.: h.ydrauhc cylinders up to 11 000 Ibs: shift-struts up to 32,000
1bs.i hawe-PlPes up to 7500 lbs.; stern-dipes up io 8000 Ibs.
I STEEL CASTINGS. 465
The percenta e of success in these classes of casti!lgs since 1890 has
ranged from 65 0 m the more difficult forms to 90% m the simpjer ones: 9.
the tensile strength has beeo from 62,000 to 78,000 lbs.. elongation from
15% to 25%.
The first steel castings of which anything is generally known mere
crossing-frogs made for the Philadelphia & Reading R. R. in July, l&67. by
t,l:e William Butcher Steel Works, now the Midvale Steel Co. Ttx molds
xrre made of a mixture of ground fire-brick, black-lead crucible-pots
ground tine, and fire-clay. and waslled with a black-lead wash.
The srr~l
was melted in crucibles, and was about as hard as tool steel. T!]e surface
of these castings was very smooth, but the interior w+ very much honey-
combed. This was before the days when the use of slhcon was knonn for
solidifying steel. The sponeness, which \has almost, umversal. :%-as a great
obstacle to their general a,doption.
The nest step was to leave the ground pots out of the molding mixture
and to wish the mold with finely ground.hre-brick. This was a.great~ im-
provement, especially in very heavy castmgs:, but this mx&xc: still clung so
strongly to the castmg that only comparatively slmp!e shapes could be
made with certainty. A mold made of such a mixture became almost as
hard as fire-brick, and was such an obstacle to the propezr shrinkage of
castings that, wheo at all complicated in shape, they had so great a
tendencv to crack as to make their successful manufacture almost impos-
sible. $y this time the use of silicon had peen chscovered. aod the only
obstacle m the way of making good castmgs was ,a suitable. mol$ng
mixture. This was ultimately found in mixtures havmg the various l;mds
of silica sand as the principal constituent.
One of the most fertile sources of defects in castings is a bad design.
Very intricate shapes can be cast successfully if they are so deslgned i; to
cool uniformly. Mr. Cramp says while he is not yet prepar?d to state t,hat
anything that can be cast successfully in iron cap be cr+t m steel; mdlc,a-
tio~ns seem to point that way in all cases where It 1s posmhle to put on smt-
able sinking-heads for feeding the cast+g.
H. L. Gantt (Trans. A. S. 1M. E.. xu. 710) says: Steel castings not only
shrink much more than iron ones,, but with less regularity.
The amount of
shrinkage varies with the composition and the heat of the metal: t,he hotter
the metal the greater the shrinkage: and, as we get smpother castmgs from.
hot metal, it is better to make allowance for large shrinkage and ppur the
metal as hot BS possible. AIIOW 3/m or l/4 in. per ft. in length for shrml;ag$:
and l/4 in. for finish on machined surfaces, except such as are casl
Cope surfaces which are to be machined should, in large or hard castiunP$s,
have an allowance of from 3/3 to l/z in. for finish, as a large mass of metal
slowly rising in a mold is apt to become crust.y on the surfac,e. and S!lch a
crust is sure to be full of imperfections.
on Small, Soft CaStingS l/g In. On
draw side and l/h in. on cope side will be sufficient. No core should have
1essthan 1/4 in. finish on a side and very large Ones should have .as much as
l/z in on a side. Blow-holes can be entirely prevented !I? castings bY the
addiiion of manganese and silicon in sufficient. quantltles,: but Coth of
these cause brittleness and it is the object of the consc+Ws steel-
maker to put no more manganese and silicon in his steel than 1s Just sufi-
cient to make it solid. The best results arc. arrived at when all Portlous of
the castings are of a uniform thickness, or very nearly so..
The following table wilt illustrate the effect of anneahng on tensile
strength ahd elongat.ion of steel castings:
-
-
Tensile Strength.
Elongation.
Carbon.
Unannealed. Annealed. Unannealed. Annealed.
The proper annealirig. of large castings takes nearly a week.
The proper steel for roll pinions, hammkr dies, etc.. seems to be that;;;;
taining about 0.60% of carbon.
Such castings, properly annealed,
worn weU and seldom broken.
h&
Miscellaneous gearing should Contain
. . . ..__..-_^ __i-:.--.t,
_-_.~..~,..-,._--
! material may no l onger be accurate: ,
STEEL.
carbon O..ZOlr, 40 0.60%. gears larger in diameter being softest. General
machinery castings should, as a rule, contain less than 0.40% of carbon
those exposed to great shocks containing as low as 0.20% of carbon. Such
castings-will givea tensile strength of from 69,000 to gO.000 Ibs. per &:
in. and at least 15% extension in 2 in. MachmerY and hull castings for
war-vessels for the United State s Navy, as well is carriages for naval
guns. contaul rrom u.xJ:,~ co u.;lO% of carbon.
For description of methods of manufacture of steel castings by the Besse-
mer, open-hearth, and crucibl,e processes, see paper by P. G. Safom, Trans.
A. I. 31. E., xiv. 118.
CRUCIBLE STEEL.
Srlwtinn of Grades hy the Eye, and ERect of Heat Treatment.
(J. 1:. I,anrley. .4mer. Chenzist, Nov., 1876. ) - In the early days of steel
makmg the grades were determined by inspection of the fractured surfaces
of the cast ingots. The method of selection is described as follows:
The steel when thoroughly fluid is poured into cast-iron molds, and
when cold the top of the ingot is broken off. exposing a freshly fractured
surface. The appearance presented is that of confused groups of crystals
all appearing t.o have started from the outside and to have met m thi
center; this ge?eral form is common to all ingots of whatever composition
but to the t:ralned,eye, and only to one long and critically exercised, i
minute but mdqscrl,bable difference is perceived between &ring samples
of steel, and this dltference is now known to be owing almdst wholly to
var!ations in the amount of combined carbon, as the following table will
show. Twelve sampl:s selected by the eye alone, and analyses of drillings
taken rhrect from the Ingot before it had been heated or hammered, gave
results as below:
F Nos. O.& .4290 .5?9
LMf.
.6:9 .8!1
of C
.8:1 ~3767
0.158 .& ,039 1.k .120 .I52 ,040 .026 .004 :684 a:5 l.%i .05b ,053 lb79 :021
The C is seen to increase in quantity in the order of the numbers.
The
other elements, with the exception of rota1 iron, bear no relation to the
number on thr samples. The mean diffeience of Cis O.Oil.
d steels the discrlminat,ion is less perfect.
ppearance of the fracture by \\hich the above trvelve selections
ivere m?dt can only be seenin the cold ilwot before any operation, except
the onplnal one of casting, has been performed upon it.
As :oon as it is
hal!lmered. the structure changes, so that all tmce of the primitive con-
ditiqn appe.+rs to be lost. .
xne spec~hc gravity of steel isinfluenced not only by its chemical analy-
sis but by the heat to which it is subjected.
The sp. gr. of the ingots in the ahove list ranged from 7.S55 for NO. 1
down to 7SO3 for No. 12. Rolling into hars prodllced a very slight dif-
ference. - 0.005 in Nos. 5 and 6 and +0.020 in No. 12. hut overheating
reduced the sp. gr. of the bar 0.023 in No. 3 to 0.135 in No. 12, the sp. gr. of
the burnt sample of No. 12 being onlv 7.690.
ElTeet of Heat on the Grain oi Steel. (W. $letcalf -Jeans on
Fteel. ,p. 642.) - A simple experiment will show the alterailon produced
in a
steel
high-ca?bon steel by
ix rri
different methods of bardenine. If a. har of such
WARNING: This is a 1910 edi.tion. Some of
CRUCIBLE STEEL.
which is so much prized b experienced steel users. The first pieces also.
which have been too muc 1 hardened, will probably be cracked; those at f
the other end will not be hardened through. Hence if it he desired to
make the steel hard and strong, the temperature used must be high
enough to harden the metal through, but not s$licient to open the grain.
Heating Tool Steel. (Crescent Steel Co...Plttshurg, Pa.) -There are
three distinct stages or times of heating: First. for forgmg; second, for
hardening; third, for tempering.
The first requisite for a good heat for forging is a clean fire and plenty of
fuel, so that jets of ILot air will not strike the corners of the piece: nest.
the fire should be regular. and give a good uniform heat to the whole part
to be forged. It should be keen enough to heat the piece as rapidly.as
may be, and allow it to be thoroughly heated through, without bemg
so tlerce as to overheat the corners.
St,eel should not be left in the fire any longer than is necessary to heat it
clear t@ugh, as soaking, in fire is very injurious: and, on the other
;;;&lt 1s necessary that It should be hot through, to prevent surface
By observing these precautions a piece of steel may always be-heated
safely. up to even a bright yellow heat, when there is much forging to be
done on it.
The best and most economical of welding fluxes is clean, crude borax.
which should be first thoroughly melted and then ground to fine powder.
After the steel is properly heated, it should be forged to shape as quickly
a,s possible; and just as the red heat is leaving the parts intended,for cuttmg
edges, these parts should be refined by rapid, light blows, contmued until
the red disappears.
For the second stage of heating, for hardening, great care should be used:
first,, to protect the cutting edges and working parts from he&tin:: more
rapidly than the body of the piece.: next, that the whole part t0.b: hardened
be heated uniformly through, wxthout any part btcommg VK~IJI~ hotter
than the other. A uniform heat, as low as will give the required hardness,
is t.he best for hardening.
For every variation of heat which is great enough to,be seen t,here will
result a, variation in rrain, which may be seen by breakmg the piece; and
for every such variation in temperature there is a verY good chan.ce fqr a
crack to he seen. Manv a rostly tool is ruined by inattention to thts point.
The effect of too hiEli heat is to open the grain: to make the steel coafse.
The efect of an irregular heat is to c&use irregular grsin, irregular strains,
and cracks.
As soon as the piece is properly heated for hardening, it should be
oromotlv and thoroughly quenched in plenty of the cooling medium.,water.
brine: oi oil. as the <asi niay be.
all-over~~~;erynecessilry to good ar ^
To h&den a larrre oiece safely a I
let sare worK.
ickly and uniformly
,unning stream should be used.
Mu& tIneven h&&ng is caked by the use of too L...-.. --_..-.
IL- +hp thid F~WP nf hpa.t,inc. to temoer. the first imoortant reaui!
, ma. l l twttl c
site is
agiin ~~~fo~~~~?& ~&~~-istirn~:~ the inore slowly-a piece is brought
down to itc: ternn~r. the better and safer is the operation.
I--,,
,~~~<i,~~i&i~ a.re to he made it is a wise orecaution to try
When e:
Sillitll
nieces of t&U~~&~~~>;iifferent ieG<&&,t&res; so as-to find out how low a
h&t wilt pive the necessary hardness. ..-- . .._. __. - - The lowes
steel. [This is l_l_ __ _-_-_.. ____ -~
t heat is then best fo~r$y
+VW nf mrhnn st,ed but not of hleh soeed alloy stel
Aen.tinc in a Lead Bath. - A good metho 01 heating steel-to a : - ~- - - . . " . ~
Il.. -_-. ___ mf nrm t.emperatuie is by means of a bath of le; _.
sd kept at a red heat bY
a pas furna ce. See Heat Treatment by the Taylor-White
Process, under
,Machine Shop.
(E%%n%
Steel in Melted Salts by Electric Current. -L. M. Cohn
Aug. 1906 Illach~. Dee
1906) describes a furnaTe pat-
ented by Gebr. I&ting,Berlin, in whirh steel ma,y be h,eated uniformly
to any desired temperature up to 1300 C. (2372 F.) without danger of
^_.1.11~~1__
al~~lrlg.
The furnace consists mainly of a cast-iron box., lined inside with fire-
second lining of fire-bricks, !ined agam with asb+os, and
the crucible made of one piece of Freproof material. Twp
lead into the crucible, through wluch alternatmg current IS
t sent. The crucible is filled with metal salts.
For temperature3 above
STEEL;
lI?OQ C- pui chloride of barinm is used, the melting-point of which is
at, about 950 c. (
of barium and ch
1742 F.): for lower temperatures a mixtur.: of chloride
-,~- - 1_^_,. . .
DIV- t:., ~1z;58 F.J.
lorlde of potassium. 2 to 1, is used, melting at about
Any other suitable salts may be used. A special
ree!.:iatmg transformer serves to regulate the current, and thus also the
~&mperature.
,~in,A test-was Fade witha furnace, the bath of which N~S 61/z x 0~ x 7
used.
A ,+Qenori, alternatm!: current of 190-volt primary tension \l-as
ilns tension had to be reflllced to from 50 to 55 volts I,\- t,lle
regulating transformer for starting the furnace, and lowered la& 01:.
The hcatin:: lasted about half an hour. For temperatures from 750 to
1300 C.. the secondary tension amounted to from 13 to 18 volts. The
CO~lSUUlPt~lOtl of energy WaS as follows: 580 C., 5.4 Kw.; 1140 C., 8.5 Ii,.;
13ow c.. 13.25 Kw.
A mlliing cutter % in. diameter, 1 l/4 in. bore, 1 in. thick, was heat.ed in
62 scco~ds to 13,OO C.
long.
A bItslung of trol steel 23/4 in. diam., 33/a in,
3/s in. bore, was heated in 243 seconds to 850 C.
Heating to Forge. (Crescent Steel Co.) -The trouble in t~he force
fire is usually uneven I!eat, and not too high heat. Suppose the piece to
be forped has been pnt 1nt.o a veyy hot fire, and forced as quickly as possible
to a tnghyellqw heat, so,that It IS almost up to the scintillating point. If
this I?? done, 1n a,few mlputes the outside will be quite soft and in a nice
condttlon for f.orgmg, while the middle parts will not be more than red-hot.
No\\; let t!le p!ece be placed under the hammer and forged and the qoft
out~lde wl,ll yield so much more readily than the hard inside that the
outer partn&s WU be torn asunder, while the inside will remsit; sound.
SL!ppose the cilse to be reversed and the inside to be much hotter than the
out.slde:, that IS. that the inside shall be in a state of semi-fusion while the
outside IS hard and tirm. Now let the piece be for-cd, and the ontsidc will
be all sound and the whole piece will appear perfectly good until it is
croppe!d. and then It is found to be hollow inside.
In rither case. if the piece had been heated soft all throu-h. or if it
been only rtd-hot ail throligh. it would have forged perf&l$ sound.
had
In some cases a high heat is more desirable to save heavv labor hut in
every case ,where a fine steel is to be used for cutting purpoies it Gust be
borne m rr@ that dery heavy forging refines the bars as they slowly cool
an? If the srmth heats such refined bars until they are soft he raises the
cram. makes them coarse. and he cannot pet themfine agair; unless he has
a very heavy steam-hammer at command and knows how to use it well.
AnneaIing. ,(Crescent Steel Co.) - Annealing or softening is accom-
I:lished by !lea.ting steel.to a red heat and then cooling it very slo-,vly,
to prevent It from getting hard again.
The lngher thedegree of heat. the more will steel be softened, until the
limit of soft,ness 1s reached, wheil the steel is melted
It does not follow that the higher a piece of steel isheated the softer it
will be when cooled,.no matter how slowly it may be cooled. this is proved
by the fact that an ingot is always harder than a rolled or hammered bar
made frnm it.
Therefore there is nothing gained by heating a piece of steel hotter than
a good. bright. cherry-red: on the contrary. a higher heat has several dis-
advantages: First. If carried too far, it may leave the steel actually
harder than a good red heat wol;ld leave it. Second. If a scale is raised
on the steel. this sca!e will be harsh, granular oxide of iron and w& spoil
the tools used to cut It. Third. A high scaling heat conti&ed for a little
time changes the structure of the steel, makes it brittle, liable to crack in
hardenmg. and impossible to refine.
m..m.~-~~. . .-
10 anneal ?nY piece 01 steel. heat it red-hot; heat it uniformly and heat it
through, takmg care not to let the et .
las ancf corners get too hot.
AS SOOn aS it iS hot. take it Ollt of the fire. the sooner the better and cool
it as slowly as possible. A good rule for heating is to heat it ats0 low a
red that when the piece is cold it will still show the blue gloss of the oxide
that w?s put there by the hammer or the rolls.
.Steel annealed in this way will cut verv soft: it will harden very hard,
wthout cracking: and when temnemd .
p-.-u
refined, and will hold a keen, strong edge.
:t will be very strong, nicely
Tempering. - Tempering steel is the act of ti+ing it, after it has been
shaped, the hardness necessary for the work it h:s to do.
This is done by
CRUCIBLE STEEL. 469
first hardening the pi:??, generai)y ?,good deal harder than
~I ~~~~~ >~~~~, m.cl._:
is nece%arv.
and then toughening It oy SLOW neaUng ano graoual solLening until it is
just right f-- .-.^-I- 1 w ur n.
-# -*--I -mm~rlv t.emnererl should alwavs he finer in rrrain than A piece 01 abcc! k--:.-., _ ___ r__-- -.;.~~~~ ~~~ ~~I
the bar from why It 1s made. If it 1s necessary, in order to.-make the
piece as, hard as i* reouired. to heat it so hot that after being hardened the
gmn will be as CU:~.-~ -__ -_ __..._.. ---&; as nr mn,rser than the grain in the oriiinal bar, then
t,he steel itself is of too low Carbon fc jr the desired \vorli.
_~~
If a great degree of hardne$ is is n... - _.__.... _ .~. ..- -..-- ~~~ ~~~.~ nt, rlesirrrl~ as in t,he mse nf taos and
most tools of comnlicated * ___.-.
rorm, and it is found that at a moderate heat. the
tools are too ha? ^.nd a.re liable to crack. the smith should first use a lower
heat in order to sil I-% +hb-%& alr~advmade. and then notifv the steel- .,- ~~r~--~-~~-; ---. -- ----- -- -1
^. ^_ .^ --^..^^ * ^ _^^.._..^-^^ ^F +h-
*-- -I*-i-+i--m of various methods of tempering steel, see Tempering rL u~~LAlpbllo
of Metals, by J oshua Rose, in App. Cyc. %fech:, ~01.~ ii
**Wrinkles and Recipes, from the Scientific Bmerzcan.
II; g&$6$ ;,g;
works Mr. P-m &.res a color scale. 1ithofXaphed in colors, by which the
following is; a I~JL U- ____ .--.- ~~~ ~~~~~~ f-~~~e~f~ the tools in their ordsr bn the color scale. t.oeether
with the approximate color and the temperature at which the-color
a.?nears on briehtened steel when heated in the air:
ScFdra$r;.for brass; tier!/ pale yellow, Hand-plpne irons.
Twist-drills.
Steel-engraving tools.
Flat drills for brass.
Slight turning tools.
Wood-boring cutters.
Hammer fa.ces.
Drifts.
Planer tools for steel.
Coopers tools.
VA-i-- cutters; light purple, 530 F.
%nEy;iand surrrical instruments.
Planer toolsfor iron.
Paper-cutters.
Wood-engraving tools.
Cold ch
Bone-cuttmg tools.
Axes: d
?+l,illing-cutters: straw yellow, 460 F. $$eJt,
1
isels foi-steel.
CD% purple, 550 F.
ire-drawing dies.
goring-cutteis.
Leather-cutting dies.
Screw-cutting dies.
,isels for cast iron.
,r bone and ivory.
i.
-chisels.
saws IC
Needles
Firmer-
TV- -1. -.
Inserted sawlteeth.
Taps.
Rock-drills.
~%?i;:
Chasers.
Punchps and dies.
~enl~;;s~.
Ha?f-round bits.
wr~w-c
Springs
Planing and molding cutters.
Ston+cllttinlr tools; brown yellow.
SaWSi4: _.
aws.
g-chisels.
lisels for wrought iron.
ivioiding and pianing cutters to be
filed.
Circular saws for metal.
O--A... Qivers.
i.
jr wood.
trl; blue. 570 F.
:jooo F.
rule blue. 610.
Gouges.
Blue tinged with green, 630.
11~s nf Cr ur i hl e Steel.of Different Cprhons.
(Metcalf on Steel.) -
nd for battermg tools.
tools of dull-edge.
0.50 to 0.60 C, for not WORK a
0.60 t,o 0.70 C, ditto, and for 1
0.70 to.0.80 C. battering tools
:, cold-sets. and some forms of reamers and
0.80 to 0.90 C, _-- r$-%s, hand-chisels, drills, taps. reamers and dies.
0.90 to 1.00 C. chisels, drills, dies, axes, knives. etc.
1.00 to 1.10 C. axes, hatchet,s. knives, large lathe-tools. and many kinds
of dies and drills if care be used in tempering them.
1.10 to 1.50 C, lathe-tools. graving tools, scribers, scrapers. httle
drills.
and mnnv similar uuruoses.
The best all-aror!zd tool steel is ;ound between 0.90 and 1.10 C: steel _ - -_
that can be adapted safeiy and successfully to more uses thati any
other.
Eighk$eed Tool Steel.
&ht brands
(A. L. Valentine, Am. Mach. JuI{~.~$~~.&
of high-speed steel were analyzed with t e
~~.-l_.- .-.a.-.-.. -... mime._-- --,.-d^ .
le material may no longer be accura,te,
i
STEEL.
0.70
0.25
0.75
0.49
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.66
-.
-
14.91
17.27
14.83
17.60
13.00
17.81
19.03
Cr. Si. MO. P. S.
:i:t 0.090 ,_.
0.036
-.
I
0.013
EJ:
0.01
:::I;
0.015
0.008
Trace
0.01
0.007
Ei
w, Wolfram, symbol for tungsten.
Where blanks appear in the table, the steel was not analyzed for these
ingredienbs.
JIany different brands of high-speed steel are heing made.
have been marketed are almost worthless.
Some that
From some of these &eels a
tool cran he made from one end of a bar that is easily for,ned. machined
and hardened, while the other end of the bar would resist. almost any
cuttmg tool and would invariably crack in hardening.
the same make also giire very different results.
Different bars of
These faults are some-
times caused by non-uniform annealing in the steels which are sent out as
thoroughI? annealed. and in many cases they are caused by the use of
ImptIre ingredients. A good hiKh-speed steel will stand a temperarure
as high as lZNO F.. or over double that of carbon steel. without losing its
ha,rdness. and experience has proven that the higher the temperature is
raised over the wlute-heat point, the higher a t.empersture caused by
friction t~he tool will withstand. before losing its intense hardness. The
birher t~he percentage of carbon is, the more brittle dnd hard to work the
steel will be. especially t,o forge. The steel which has given t~he best all-
around resu1t.s has contained about 0.10 C. The analrsis of this same
Gee! showed nearly 3?& of chromium. The higher the percentage of
tungsten in the steel, the better has been its cutting qualities. (See Best
High-Speed Tool Steel, and description of the Taylor-White process of
heat treatment. under The Machine-Shop.
MAXG:iSESE, SICKEL, AXD OTHER .kLLOT STEELS.
3Iaoganese Steel. (H. M. Howe, Trans. d. S. M E., vol. xii.) -
Manganese steel his an alloy of iron and milncanese+ ;ncidentall;~, an<
probabiy unavouiablv. containing a consirlrrablc proportion of carbon.
The e&t of small proportions of manpanrse on the hardness, strength,
and rluctdlty of iron is probably slight. The point at which manganese
begins to have a predominant effect is not known; it may be somewhere
abozxt 2..5To.
>iannanese steel is very free from blow-holes: it welds with great diffi-
ct!lt?: i,ts toug)ness is increased by qri::nc:hing from a yellow heat; its elec-
Troy resistance 1s enormous. and very constant with changing temperature;
It 1s lorv m thermal conductivity. Its remarkable combination of great
har?ness. which cpnnot be materially lessened by annealing, and great
tensile strength, with astonishing toughness a,nd ductility, at once creates
and limits its usefulness.
The hardness of manganese steel seems to be of an anomalous kind.
The alloy is hard, but under some conditions not, rigid. It is very hard in
Its rpsistance to abrasion: it is not alwavs hard in its resist.anro t,i, imnact.
Jlan%mese steel forges readily at a yeilow
heat it crllmbles under the hammer,
he~t,,tho;ghat-~-bhght~~.hite
deformation, i.e., it is harder when hot,
But, it offers greater resistance to
than carbon steel.
The most Important single use for manganese steel is for t.he pins which
hold t~he buckets of elevator dredges. Here ahrnsion chieHy is to be
r?sisted. Another important use is for the links of common chain-
elevators. As a material for stamn-shoes~ fn ~,~ . .-. .-r horse-shoes, for the kxckl*
of an automatic car-coupler. it has not
hfanpanese steel has been regularly ado
Pul~~erlzer. Some manganese-steel
the blades of thecycione
to have run over
300.000 miles each without turning, oti a New England railroad.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
ALLOY STEELS.
Manganese Skel and its Uses.
1907.) - When more than 2% and
(E. F. Lake, A?n. Mach.. JfaJy 16
less than 6% of Mn is added, wlvith 6
less than 0.5%, it makes steel very brittle, so that it can be owdered
under a hand hammer. From 6% Mn up, this brittleness gra 8
appears until 12% is reached,
ually dis-
when the former strength returns and
reaches its maximum at 15%. After this, a decrease in toughness. but
not in transverse strength, ijkes place until 2046 is reached, after \\.hich
a rapid decrease in slrenqth again takes place.
Steel !vith from 12 to 15::4 Sin and less than 0.5C/b ef C is very hard and
cannot be machined or drilled in the ordinary way i yet it is so tough that
it can be twisted and bent into peculiar shapes without breaking. It is
malleable enough to be used for rivets that are to be headed cold.
This hardness, toughness and malleability make manganese steel t,he
most durable metal known, in its ability to resist wear, for such parts
as the teeth on steam-shovel dippers, where they will outwear abont three
teeth made of the best tool steel: for plow points on road-building work;
for frogs, switches and crossings in railroad construction; for flut~ed or
toothed crushing rolls used on ore. coal and stone crushers: for screen
shells to screen these crushings: gears, sprockets. link belts, etc., when
used in the vicinity of ore, stone and coal crushers or other places where
they are subjected to the hard, grinding wear of the gritty particles of
dust with which they are usually covered.
The higher the percentage of C in the steel, the less percentage of Hn
will he required to produce brittleness. Si. however, neutralizes the
injurious t~endencies of Mn, and in Europe the Si-Jln alloy is used for
automobile springs and gears. This steel is not high in &In and can be
rolled, while the peculiar properties given to steel by the addit,ion of from
- 12 to i5y0 of mangsnese make such steel impossible to roll: therefore all
parts made of this steel have to be cast, after which it can be forged and
rendered tougher by quenching from a white heat.
One of its peculiarities is that it is softened by rapid cooling and can be
restored to its former hardness by heating to a bright red.
It is more difficult to mold in the foundry t.han the ordinary cast steel,
as it must be poured at a very high temperature, and in cooling it shrinks
nearly twice as much. The shrinkage allowed for patterns t.o he cast of
the ordinary cast steel is 3/lain. per foot, and for manganese-steel CaStlngS
5/lfj in. per foot.
This enormous shrinkage makes.it impossible to cast in any intricate or
delicate shapes, and a;: it is too hard to machine or drill successfully, all
holes must be cored in the casting. If a close fit is desired in these
they must be ground out wit,h an emery wheel. These properties limit
its use to a iarge extent.
The composition that seems to give the best results is:
Mn. from 12 to 15%: C, not over 0.5%: P, not over 0.04y0; S, not over
0.0470.
Manganese-steel castings should be annealed in order to remove any
internal strains which ma. be caused by its high shrinkage an< the fact
that the outer surface coo s so much qmcker than the core. wluch leaves 1
the center of the casting strained. This can be done by heating to ,150O
F. and uenching in water, after which it can be hardened by heatmg to
8 900 an allowed to cool slowly.
Manganese-steel castings, when tested in a ?/s-inch round bar. should
472 STEEL.
is a true hardener 01 iron even in the absence of carbon.
The addition of
1% or. 2% of chromium to s,carbqn steel will make a metal which.gets
excessively hard. Hitherto Its prmci al employment has been in the
Production of chilled shot and shell. g owerful molecular stresses result
during cooling, and the shells frequently break spontaneously months after
thev are made.
&u&te~ Steel - YtIuslwt Steel. (J. B. Nau. Iron Age. Feb. 11 1899.)
- B,> incorpor?ting simultaneously carbon and tungsten in iron. it-is
poj%hle to obtam a m!lch harder steel than with carbon alone without
dal!ger of an estraordmary britt!eness in the cold metal or an increased
dithculty in the working of the heated metal.
When a special gr ade of hardness is reauired. it is frenllentlr the F~IQ~~~
to use a high tungsten steel, known in England as special steel, A s eci-
men from Sheffield, used for chdsels, contained 9.3% of tunesten. 0.7 nt
silver, and 0.6% of carbo
p/
n. This steel, though used with aai&ta&lKiii
untempered state to turn ehllled rolls, was not brittle; nevertheless it was
hard enough to scratch glass.
A sample of Mushets special steel contained 8.3% of tllnest.en a~nrl
1.73% of manpanese.
According tdanalyses made by the Due de Luynes of ten specimens of
the celei+ted Onental damasked steel, eight contained tungsten two
of them m nota.ble quantities (0.518% to lyo), while in all of thesam-
pies analyzed nickel was discovered ranging from traces to nearly 47.
Stein & Schwartz. of Philadelphia, in a circular sav: It is st.at.prf t.hzt
tungsten steel i
~~ .- _.-._ ._-
; suitable for the manufacture af steel ma.PnetE pin,-,= it Tn ~~~ ~~ -..__ .--- O.__l, Y... _. .~-
tains its magnetism longer t.han ordinary steel. Cast steel to which
tungsten has been added needs a higher temperature for tempering than
ordinary steel, and should be hardened only betweenyeilow.red.and white
Chisels made of tungsten steel should be drewn between cherry-red and
blue, and stand well on iron and steel. Temnerine is best done in II.
mixture of 5 parts (
and then the
$ yellow rosin, 3 parts of tjr, anld 5 parts of tallow
article IS once more heated and then tempered as usual ii
water of about 15OC.
Aiuminum Steel. -R. A. Hadfield (Trann. A~ I M F laon\ CQT,~. ~.. ~~. -. -.-. -., , YJ.
Aluminum appears to be of service as an addition to baths of molten iron or
steel unduly saturr.ted with oxides. and these in orooerlv re~ulaterl st,epl
manufacture should not often occur.
to be similar to that of silicon.
SDeakinrr &riallG~ it.a r,+la s~nnelrG _ --~ . ..-.- y, -- _-.- --rr--.3
The staiement that aluminum lowers the
melting-point Of iron seems to have no foundation in fact. If any increase
of he@ or Huidlty takes place by the addition of small amoums of alumi-
num, It may be due to evolution of heat from oxidation of the aluminum,
as the caiorific value of this metal is very hi& -in fan+
silicon. According to F
-.. IucY_ hieher than
eqan!s 7900 cal.: silicon to SiOz is ~stated as 7800.
The action of aluminum may be classed alone with that of silicon.
sulphur. phosphorus , arsenic, and cooner. as eivineno increa.se nf hn.rrlness
to iron, in contradistinction to car&-n. manlsanese,~chromium-~~~~~~r
and nickel. Its special advantage seems to be that it combihes initseii
the advantages of both side
tainil
ilicon and manganese; but so long as alloys con-
I,Y these metalT.are so cheap and aluminum dear, its extensive use
,~ . .
seems narnlg prooaoie.
J. E. Stead. in discussion of Mr. Hadfields paper, said: Every one of our
trials has lndiratec! that aluminum can kill the most fiery steel, providing,
of course. that It IS added in sufficient quantitv to combine nlth all the
oxygen which the steel contains.
dead. and will
The metai will then he shsolutelv
Pour like dead-melted silicon ste& Tf t.he-&llminl~m is
added as metallic aluminum,, and not as a corn
J
!s made Just before the steel is cast, 0.1% is amp
In the steel.
P
ound, and if the addition
e toobtain perfect solidjty
Nickel Steel. -
steel, as shown
The remarkable tensile strength and ductility of nickel
by the test-bars and the behavior of nickel-steel armor-
Plate under shot tests. are witness of the valuable qualities conferred upon
steel bv the addition of a few per cent of nickel
Ni&eI steel has shnwn itaplftn h+nms%sd 0~ A.." "-"""~~--.-..,l..^L*n
.,. .,"SllG tz.xlxxxllll~cY YPL"LY"..z
Properties; these are. resistance to cracking, high elastic limit,
Freneltv. Resistance to cracking, a property to which the
and homo-
$llitv has been given. is shown more remarkably as the pe
Increases. Bars of 27% nickel illustrate this property.
___ -_l-~~~.--,~. ~~- ~._..~~, .--~~-- ---~--~, - ,,.. ---
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. SOme of .
If ALLOY STEELS.
473
bar was nicked i/iin. deep and bent double on itself without further fract~ure
than the. splintering off, as it were, of the nicked portion. Sudden failure
?r rupture 0: this steel would beimpossible; it seems to possess the toLlgh-
ness of rawlude with the strength of steel. With this percentage of nickel
the steel is practica!ly non-corrodible and non-magnetic. The resistance
to cracking shown by the lower percentages of nickel is best illustrated in
the many trials of mckel-steel armor.
In such places (shafts, axles. etc.) where failure is the result of the fatigue
of t~he metal this higher elastic limit of nickel steel will tend t,o prplong iu-
definitely the life of the piece, and at the same time, through its superior
toughness, offer greater resistance to the sudden strai-.s of shock.
Howe states that the hardness of nickel steel depentl, on the proportion
of nickel and carbon jointly, nickel up to a certain percentage increasing
the hardness. beyond this lessening it. Thus while steel with ?yO of nickel
and 0.90% of carbon cannot be machined, with less than 5y0 mckel it can
be worked cold readily, provided the proportion of carbon be low. -4s the
pro.
P
ortion of nickel rises higher, cold-working becomes less easy. It forges
eaS* v whether it contain much or little
Tlie presence of manganese in nit kc
appears that without the aid of ma ne
conditions of treatment would not bc 3 !
Properties of Nickel Steel. - D. I
1899, gives a paper of 79 pages, en til
experiment and opinion, includmg : a
Some extracts from this paper&e hers
Commercially pure nickel, contai
ej
m
nick&
:l steel is most important. as it.
:anese in proper proportions the
successful.
1. Browne, in Proc. A. I. M. E.,,
tied Nickel Steel: a synopsis of
bibliography containing 50 titles.
civen.
,ng 98.13 Ni, 1.15 Co. 0.43 Fe,
physical properties: 0.08 Si, 0.11 Mn, showed the followin 6
-
1 L. p.*
-
E. L.
Cast bars .................. 5,119
Raw ....................... 9,243
nealed. ................. 17,064
.........................
I
I
* Limit of Proportionality.
12.557 40.669 23.989.140 18.2
21,045 72.522 29.506.500 43.9
18,059 72,806
71,860
26,870,800 48.6
16,921 ..___.______ 45.0
t MC 11~1s of Elasticity.
ANNEALEDCA~TBARSOFNICKELSTEEL v?rrrxC 0.15 to0.20. (Hadfield.)
-The proportion of &i ,used-in soft steels for armor and for engine-
forgings is from 3 to 3.5I. With 0.25 C this reduces an E. I,. and T. S.
equal to open-hearth steel of 0.45 C without N?. with a ductility equal to
that of the lower-carbon steel.
NICKEL STEEL, 3.25 Nr, AND SIDLE STEEL FORGINGS COMPARED.
(Bethlehem Steel Co.)
C. 1 Ni.!T.,.S.~!E L.(?$I !.?I$,!! C: ! Ni. jT.S.IE.L.1 ?$!:I /-?g;
0.20 0 55ooa 28OOll 34 E t::"o ::: 85000 46000 26 55
i:: i 85000 75ooo 37ocnl 43000 30 25
ii
0.40 3.5 110000 95000 60000 72000 22 I8 z
0.50 0 95000 4NJOO 21 0.50 3.5 125000 85000 13 32
. . . eFm.
As corn ared with simple steels of tne same tensue strengtn. a a-/,
nickel stee wdl have from 10 Tao 20% higher E. L. and from 20 to 30% P
greater elongation, while as compared with simple steels of the sarpe
carbon the nickel steel up to 5% Ni, will have about 40% greater tensde
Strength with
Cholat and 2
ractically the same elongation and reduction of area.
armet found with 0.30 C and 15% Ni a T. S. of 213.400 lbs. . _^^ ^^
PSi Sq. iii.; i&in Oil-knipeied B T. $3. OE 377,290 SMlli an E;. id. 01 lOO,SUO.
Riley states that steel of 25% Ni and 0;27 C gave a T. S. of 102,600
and elong. 29%, while steel of 25% Ni gave 94.300 T. S. and 40% elOW.
els high in Ni are entirely different in physical propertles from low-
kel steels.
-~*.l..l- ,,~~~ - -.
~
a
I ALLOY STEELS.
EFFETT OF Nr ON HARDNESS,.--GUI barrels with 4.5% Ni and 0.30 Care
sott. iwd very ductile: T. S. 80.000. elong. 25%. red. of area 45%.
wit.h 5% Ni and 1% C tu
Rolls
rned easier than sim& steel of I 5% C if a. rt.~
~~~ ~- - I -. -_ - -___.
contabis less than 6% Ni the inHuence of tile C presents on the hardness
produced by water quenching is strongly marked.
Above ~37~ Ni the effect
of the C seems to be masked by the Ni; steel with 187o Ni is as hard and
elastic with 0.30 as with 0.75 C. If steel with 187o Ni and 0.60 C be heated
and plunged in wter it will be perceptibly softened. and if the Ni is
raised to 2.5n, 1
co:
this softenine is very noticeaUe.
HPRES~ION TESTS OF LOW-CARBON NIC~L STEEIS. (Hadfield.)
I / I I I
Thr onmn.riQnn. Rmw IS;S: Hard steel, 1239; Soft steel, 107s.
i. Nickel 1252. Ordinary commercial niCke[
~r%e~<~~'~~o',i, haye ko@icients about the same as carbon
w 540.
var is a nickel-iron alloy, which is characterized by an extraor@niqrll.y
low coefficient of expansion at ordinary temperstures. The snalysls IS
about as follows: -carbon, 0.18: nickel, 355%; manganese, 0.4,2! - the
other elements being low. Guillallme gjves the mean coefficient Of
expansion for an alloy corltainiw :35.6% mckel as (OX7 + O.tiO1l~oO~~
between tern eratures O C. and to C. where t does not exceed
This materia P. 1s used in measuring instruments and for +nKiar+ Of
length, chronometers, etc. Its expansion as compared wvlth-ordmary
steel is about as 1:ll.j: with brass, as 1:17.2: with gl,ass. as 1 : S.J.
AllOSS
either richer or poorer in nickel show much great~r.expansion. and bhe
alloy containing 47.~7~ nickel, known as Platmlte, has the same
coefficient of expansion as platinum and glass.
See also page 540.
Copper Steels.- Pierre Breuil (Joto-. I. and S. Z.,.l?O7) gives ?n accou@
of experiments on four series of copper steels contammg respectively 0.13,
0.40, 0.65 and 1% of C with Cu in each rangmg from 0 to 34%.
An ab-
ctract of i;is principal conclusions is as follows:
Copper steel does not yield a metal capable of being roiled in practice,
if Cu exceeds 4%.
When in the incot state copper hardens steel in proportion as there 1s
0.13 &i&e1 C;dxm......... 6.95 0.14 0.19 0.16 0.17 0.16
E. L., tons :5
Shortening* . ..I49
2;.92
0.16 0.23
238.62 4i.81
0.19 0.16
d.65 ,:.51 )&39;;..#
0.14
47
il.64
41 37
;;,5l
33
gi.07
3 1 I 3
16 4:
* Shortening by loo-ton load, 7*.
SPECTFIC C+vITTP. -The sp. gr. of low-carbon nickel steels containing
up to 13% N1 1s about, the same as that of carbon steel, from 7.56 to 7.90.
from 19 to ?9% Ni it 1s from 7.91 to 5.08: one sample of wire of ?g7 Nl
however. being reported at S.4.
has a SD. pr. o! 8.12.
A 44% Ni steel, according to G&la~~me:
less C present.
Copper steels as rolled appear to be stronger in proport,ion a,s they con-
t,nin more CI;. This difference is the more manifest in proportion as the

C is lower.
Annealing leaves the steels with the same characteristics. but greatly
reduces the differences observed in the case of the untreated steels.
Quenching restores the differences encountered in the case of the steels
exposure I
changed to osid
:tically non-corrodible.
ewmnce wire. :7.Jy0 $Yi. was very slightly rusted after a years
:n a wet cellar: Iron wire under t.he same conditions was entirely
e. W1t.h the ordinary nickel steels, 3 to 3.57, Ni, corrosion
mole step14 is slightly less man In s!~~~,.- -_-____.
E~~cr.ruc.4~ RESISTANCE. - A11 nickel steels have a high electrical resist-
ance which does ct. se?!, tp vary much ~with the percentage of Ni.
The as cast.
Conner steels eaual nickel st.eels in tensile +ngJh and
wolild be less
&+,i~Ft&n the latter, They are no more britfle than IIlCkl SW& Con-
taining equivalent percentagers_p_ff__Tl.
The steel containing 0.16% C and
4% Cti is-remarkable in this
r~s1s~ailC~ Wres. ~-'I~IcO." Superior; and Climax, containing from 25
to 30% ~1. have about 4s tunes. wh?le German silver has about 1s times
the resistance of copper.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES. -According to Guillaume all nirkel steels below
25.iL70 ,Ni can be, at the s,%me temperature, either magnetic or non-
magnetic. according
to their PrMOllS heat-treatment, jnd they show
$~ifferel!t properties at asc$ntling and at descending temperature&
The
steels, 3 to S? NI. possess a magnetic permeability greater than
m~~~ht irnn
low-nrciceh
that of WI
Nickel :
prese
span vllU~~~.
Some l:ses n
St~eel for Bridges. --J. A. L. Waddell. Trams. A. S. C. F. 1908
rkL2Aajnkngth an argument in favor of the use of nickel steel & long:
If N/cke_lSteel. (F. L. Sperry, A. I. M. E.. xxv. 51.) -The
Brooklsn was made of hollow-fnreed~
-,Y -~~ ~~
The presence of copper ;,,y..b.I ..-
annroximating them . to classes contsmmg
--ww-&h& percentages o! C.
%ile hardenine the steel t! ~!e presence of Cu does not render it bnttle.
It confers upon.it a very fair degree of elasticity, while leavmg the elon-
eatlon good. thus conducing to the production of a most valuable metal.
I Cuttihe tests were carried on with steels containing C about 1% and
(?I, n%, Tsr,. and 3% rzspectlvely. The presence of Cu in no &vise a,ltered
propeller shaft 01 tne U. S. cruiser
pil-teqered mckelsteel. 17in. outside, 11 <n. inside diam
m., weight per foot. 449 lbs.
length 3gitq-ii
Test bars cut from the tube gave T. S., 90,350
h,;W%F 61.27,.
to 94,245: E. L., 5i,s:Kt,o 60.770: El. in 3 in.. 25.5 to 2&O%,,: R.ed nf:+;y,
)lid shaft of the same elastic strengthL?&$,ik-
$ an E. L..of% of that of the nickel steel, would be 18.9 in. diam.:LG
a--~~~ .-_^.
would nave welgneil wu 1
The rotating field of tl
bs. per foot.
le 5000 H.P. electric eeneratnn of the Niamra.
Falls Powef C,o. is inclosed in a rine of forged iiickel-steel-o;is~~~~~~~~
139% in.: mslde. 130 in.; width. 5Os/4 in.:
at the rate of ne?rly two miles per minut,e.
weight, 28,840 ibs. It travels
Nickel steel ,Rilre. with 27.7% Ni and 0.10 C used for torpedo defense
netting. 0.116~1. cham., :aveaT.S.of 198,700; El. in 2in.,6.25y0;Red.
of wea. 16.5%.
tl,~~~~~t~n~propert~~s. _
The presence of Cu was found t(: increasf, Jhe electrical resistance.
and a well-defined maximum was shown~ rolnrldlll!Z ivlth 2% CU in 0.15 C.
with 1.7% in 0.35y0 C. and with 0.5% L- ..-
\
31 in 0.7 to 1% caibon steels.
.pril. 1906.) -M. Leon Guillet
when used jointly.
Nick&l~Vanaditim Steels. (@g. Ma&.)
has investigated the ini-
In steels containing 0.20 C and from ,2 Ao 12% of yj,
and t,he elastic limit are bl
finence of Nl anfl va
~-. t.he t,ensile strength
3th materlauy mcreaseo by the addition-of
small percentages of Va. In no case should the Va exceed !%, the best
results being secured by the use of 0.7 to l,?%.
.4 steel contrtmw 0.20 C.
27 of Ni and 0.7% Va showed a tensile strength of 91,000 lbs.. an
ela&ic llmit of 70 000 lbs., and an elongation of 23.5%.
With 1% Va,
theT. S. increasedto 119 500 lbs.. and the E. L. t.o 91.000 lb?., the elong.
falling t0 22%. A ni&el steel of 0.20% C and 12% Nl gave. F*:lth
0.7 Va a T. S. of over 200,000 lbs. and an E. L. of ;72.000 Ibs. per sq. 1n.v
the e&g. being 6y0, while with 1% Va the T. a. roSe,to 220.000 lbs.
and the E. L. to 176,000 lbs.. the elongation remammg unchanged.
When the Va is increased above 1 ,0
m the tensile streugth falls off. and the
material begins to show evidence of br-----
~ILcLeLlcJs.
Similar effects are produced for stc
els of the higher carbon, but in a
lesser degree.
When the nickel-vanad:um Steels are subjected to a. tempering Process
the beneficial effects of the Va are still further emphaslzcd.
The temper-
ing experiments of M. Guillet were conducted
by heatmg the sty1 to a
temperature of 550~ C., and cooling in water at
20~ c. The T, b. and
*.~-- ~_-,-~~.~-_~ ,, ~.~.--.m.s--a%u.~
B-,
e niaterral may no longer be accuratei~
Material.
Wrought iron ..............
MildVasteel..:.... .......
Old plate. .................
Mild sbeel.. ................
Mild steel ..................
Forging steel ..............
Forging steel ..............
Va case hardening .........
Cr-Ni steel. ................
Steel casting ..............
Va steel casting ...........
Cr-Va casting ..............
Ni forging steel ............
Ni forging steel ............
Cr-Va forging. .............
Spring steel ................
Cr-va 8 ring
Cr-Ni-& steel. ............................
Ni-Va steel. ................
Cr-Ni-Va steel .............
Cr-Ni steel .................
Spring steel.. .. _. .........
Cr-Va spring ..............
Cr-Va forging. ............
Ni-Va steel.. ..............
Cr-Ni-Va steel. ............
Cr-Va spring ..............
Cr-Ni ste$ .................
Heat
Treat,
lent.
R.
it:
6: T.
t. T.
A:
A.
2:
A.
$: T,
0. T
$3
0. I.
T.
C.
-
0. 05
0. 11
i : : :
0. 18
0. 26
: : : :
: : : i
I l : : r:
0. 21
0. 21
t: :
E
Z: Z
@. 37
I . 00
E
0. 24
Ei
0. 36
Approximate Analysis.
Rln. 1 Cr. 1 Ni ( V.
Z&tic Limits. 30,ooO to 6O.m
0. 05
0. 31
0. 42
0. 40
0.40
0.28
0.28
0.25
Z: E
ES:
. . .
. . .
. . . .
. . . .
Ei
,.....
,.....
0. 75
...............
. . . . . . . . 0. 19
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...............
........ 0.12
1.70 .......
...............
........ 0.07t
........ 0.16
ZXastic Limits, 60,000 to IOO,oM
0.30 ,....... ,,..,.,
0.77 1.22 ..,._... 0.:9
0.50 I.00 .,.._... 0.16
Elasti
Limit
(E.)
32, 020
32, 120
58, 160
3%
43' 010
52, 230
44' 790
56' 520
34: 690
2, : :
49,450
54,400
70,840
60650
7o:c30
61,950
77,310
55,990
81,370
:i%
92:900
42.5 53.8 583 1004
44.0 60. I IIll 2143
25.5 53.4 612 1901
35.0 62.6 871
33.0 64.0 777
2152 ,
2258
34.0 63.4 1415 3850
26.0 65.3 1175 4008
45.0 69.0 1958 6051
32.0 68.5 978 3787
28.0 44.9 269 419
25.5 44.9 850 1671
16.0 20.5 656 704
g. y$
61' 920
63' 800
67: 520
69. 140
79, 260
95, 150
86, 080
3%
92:9OO
25,000
00,6Oil
96,880
99,700
29,100
02,100
30.0
25.0
2;
26.0
28.5
25.0
21.0
22.0
62.5 746 285 I
65.3 664 3345
57.3 1 uO8 5706
15.2 1260 1227.
61 .i 1406 5858
68.5 597 2402
64.0 798 4040
49.6 983 4659
63.6 702 3855
101.030 86,300 9.5 16.1 561 912
195,3oa :08,500 10.0 36.3 480 3403
l41,6W i51.750 16.0 56.2 717 5705
129,900 34,600 18.0 64.8 626 5270
152,300 59,900 17.0 58.9 487 4369
183,400 ~87,600 !4.0 50.6 634 5ti83
134,500 50.300 15.5 53.5 579 4166
lknsih
trgth
&liiy.
3XRXA
+ 106
NOT=. -Static tests made on samples 112 in. rliam. X 2 in. long. Dynamic tests made on t,he Landgraf-l\ ernat,ing
impact Inschine (old form). The quality figure is the product of: E&tic limit, repr?s,enting useful strength ; reauctzon of area.
representdng static ductility; dywunic figure, representing fatigue-resiuzrng pro:%& -dwded by l,aoO.OOO = E x R x A + 106.
Heat treatment, R., raw; A., annealed. 0. T.. oil tempered; T. tempers& Nos. 9. 17, 18,20. 21. 26. 27. 28 were crucible steels,
theothers open-hearth.
Comparative Effects of Cr and Va.
I~nsl. M. E., 1904.
Ssrtkey and J. K&t Smith, Proc.
Cr. Va. T.S.* EL,.* 9;: Rer1.A. Cr. :a. 1. S.* E.L.* $-jIR,d,.$.
---
~---
0.5 34.0 22.9
1.0 38.2 25.0 30 33;) 60.67~
1.0
0.15 48.6
,
_.... 57.3
0.1 34.8 28.5 31
1.0 0.15 t52.6
ji, 3:;.; 56.6
..~ 60.0 l;-o+.f5
2254.0
55.5
0.15 36.5 30.4 26 59.0
;;:; 49.4 18.5 46.3
0.25 39.3 34.1 24 59.0 C-if, 132.2
16.0 35. 60.0
,
17.7 34. 52.6
* Tons, of 2240 !bs.. per sq. in.
are crucible.
t Open-hearth steels. all the others
st.eels.
The last two steels in the table are o&mry carbon
Effect of, Heat Treatment on Cr-Va Steel.
(H. R. Sankey and
J. Kent Stnlth. Pror. !nst. M. E.. 1904. p. 1235.)-Various kinds of
heat treat,ment were given to several Cr-Va steels, the results of which
are recornetl at length.
results obtained.
The following is selected as a sample of the
0.17 , gave:
Steel with C, 029i; Yi, 0.0%; ,1ln. 0.29; Cr, 1.07; Va,
Tens. Yield El. in Red.
Str. Point. 2 in. Area,
A is rolled.................
Annealed 1/z hr. at 800 C:: : : :
Soaked 12 hours at c?OO C..
Wa:er quenched at 800 C.. .
Oil quenched at 800 C.
Oil quenched at 800, rehente
3500..........
..,.
:.
cl t.0
I I
* Too hard to machine.
-
IIIl-
p:tct
-
3.1
15.6
II.2
I.2
2.4
9.0
3TO
-
.__
Alter-
na-
tions.
--
1916
2237
174
296
1314
*
The imPact tests were ~made on a machine described in ~;lnnn +x~nt ~)r:
.?.,,.. I... -.
IYJv.3. P. WI.
--- I.J J, Y-y. IY,
'The test-piece was 3/4 in. broad, notched so that 0 137 in. in
depth remained to be broken through.
enerr.y absorbed.
The figures represent ft..-lbs. of
The piece was broken in one blow.
The alternations-
Of-StreSS tests vere made on Prof. Brnolds machine described in The
b;n!Jiyer, Sept. 2. 1904, p. 227. The pieces were 3/3ih. sqrlare one end
Was gripped 111 the machine and the free end. 4 in. loner wn hdfnrrvn~rrl~
and backwards sbou,
S/4 in. _- nnnl. -:_I- -.
l-63
t 710 times a minute, the mo$%o~ & kKGe;;d t?%i
vll C-L I: a!ut: of the center line.
its b!x~ torsion ofthe same stee! were made.
e,
resu!ts were:
The test-piece was 6 in.
I
Shearing Stress.
I
4s rcJlIerl.
Annealed 112 irriiBd& C..; 1 : : : : 1: : 1: : 1: 1 : : 381528 45 700 99900
90;272
' WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
No. of
Twists.
he
I ALLOY STEELS.
Heat-treatment of Alloy Steels. (E. F. Lake. Am. Much.. Aug. 1.
1907.) - In working the high-grade alloy steels it 1s. ve,ry important that
they be properly heat treated, as poor wnrkmansh1.p in this regard will
produce working parts that are no better than ordmary steel, although
the stock used be the highest grade procurable. By im
P
roperly h,eat-
treating them it is possible to make these high-grade stee s more bnttle
ttrsn ordinary carbon steels.
The theory of heat treatment rests upon the influence of t.he !aLe of
cooling on ckrtain moirr:ilar changes in structure occ?rring at dlderent
temperatures. These changes are of two classes. CrltlCal and progres-
sive; the former occur periodically between certam nari?w temperature
limits, while the latter proceed gradually with ,the rise in tefnperature.
each change producing alteriltions in the physlcai Ch~raCtenStlcS. By
controlling the rate of cooling, these changes can be gven 2 permanent
set. and the characteristics can thus be made different from those in the
Z&i in it&~ xGGna1 state.
The results obtained are influenced by certain factors: 1. The.ofiginal
chemical and physical properties of the metal; 2. The ,composltion pf
the gases and other substances which come 1n contact with the metal In
heating and cooling. 3. The time in which the temperature IS rased.
between certain degrees. 4. The highest tempera.ture attained. 5. The
length of time the metal is maintained at the iughest temperature.
6. The time consumed in allowing the temperature to fall to atmos-
pheric.
The highest temperature that it is safe to submit a steel to for p;;;
treating is governed by the chemical composition of the steel.
Pure carbon steel shouid be raised to about. 1300 F., while some of the
-750. The alloy steels
If annealing,. hardening.
ii h?T been Installed to
high-grade alloy steels may safely be riLised to 1
must be handled very carefully In the processes a
and tempering: for this reason special appafatu
aid in oerformine these operations with detinite resulx%
The baths forquenchin~g are composed of a large variety of materials.
Some of the more common@ used are as follows. being arrapged accorg-
ing to their intensity on O.ST,GJ, carbon steel: Mercury: water with sUlphUrlC
acid added: nitrate of potassium: sal ammoniac: common salt; Sarbonate
of lime: carbonate of magnesia: pur< : water: w@er contalnlng soap.
sugar, dextrlne or alcohol: sweet milk; various Oils:
beef suet; tallow:
wax.
With many of these alloy steels a dual quenching givesthe be+ results.
that is the metal is quenched to a certain temperature m one oath and
then ihmersed in the second one until completely cooled, Or It may
be cooled in the air after being quenched in the first bath.
For this a
lead bath. heated to the proper temperature, is sometimes used iOr the
first / quenching.
With the exception of the oils and some of the greases, the quenchi.ng
.+&=rt~ inrr~a,ces R,E t.he temperature of the bath lowers.
Sperm and hn-
at all temperatures between 32 and 250. act about
-..I . ..-.--1-1 -I -
seed oils, however,
the same as di! stilled water at 160.
The more c(
coal, charrpd
earth. T..- ,,.vIv .
in some of these K.~.~.~-.- v
xnmon materia,c used for annealing are powdered char-
bone charred I&ther. fire clay, magnesia or refractory
~P~o.-P to be annealed is usually packed in a cast-Iron box
:o+orial. nr combinations of them, the whole heated
to the proper temperature and then set aside, with the cover left on. to
cool. gradually to t,he atmospheric temperature.
For certain grades of
steel these materials give good results: but for all kinds of steels and for
all grades of annealing, the slow-cooling furnace no doubt gives.
the.
best satisfaction, as the temperature can he easily raised to the right
point, kept there as long asT;,rs.rv
a.nrl then reeulated to cool dowe -.- . ~I
as slowly as is .desired. L g-i&ace is the easiest to handle and
regulate..
A high-grade alloy steel should be annlaled after every process in m.an-
ufacturing which tends to throw it out of its equilibrium. such as forging.
rolling and rough machining. so as to return it to its natural State.of
repose. It should also be annealed before quenchmg. case-hardemng
or carbonizing.
The wide range of strength given to some of the alloy steels bg heat
treatment is shown by the table below. The composition of the alloy
was: Ni 2.43; Cr. 0.42; Si. 0.26; C. 0. 23; Mn, 0.43; P, 0.025: Y. 0.022.
Tensile St.ren& .
E.L..............
195. 500 172. 00X1 / 156. 500 141, 000 109, 5@j
Elong., c& in 2 in.
15Of tO 4y0 / 125,~ IO~O 7y1j
VARIOUS SPECIFICATIOI\S FOR STEEL.
Structural Steel. 1 There has been a change during the ten years from
1880, t,o 1690. in the opmions of engineers, as to the requiremenbs in specl-
ficatlons,for structural steel. in the direction of a preference for metal of
low Jenslle strength and great ductility.
The following s ecifications for
tenslon members at dif?erent dates are given by A. E.
Clapp. Trans. A. I. Ill. E., xix, 9%:
#unt and G. H.
LSi9. 1SSl. 1882. lSS.5.
Elastjc limit.. 50,000 40 @ 45,000 40.000 40,000
1867. 1888.
Elonsbtion m 8 in. 1270
Tens& strength SO.000 70 @;K%&OOO 7;~02 y;,cO ,i!$Foo 68 &;$;&O
Reduct,ion of area 20%
0
307, 45% 424 422 45d
F. H. Lewis (Ir.~@qe. Nov. 3. 1892) says: Regarding.steel to be used
under thesame conchtlons as wrqught iron. that is, to be punched without
reatmng. there seems to be a decided opimon (and a growing one) among
engineers. that lt is not safe to use steel in this way, when the uItimate
temde strengte IS above 65,000 Ibs.
The reason for this is not so much
because there 1s any Farlied change in the material of this grade but
because all steel. especmlly Bessemer steel, has a tendency to srgr, ga,iions
of carbon and phosphorus, producing places in the metal which are harder
than they normally should be. As lone a.s th(
:: -_
~~ flu -- . ..e percentages of carbon and
hoqphorus are kept low, the effect of these segregations is inconsiderable.
ut nhen these percentages are increased, the esistence of these hard
spot,s ln the metal becomes more marked an<
to t,,e troatrnel,t to rrrhinL . ..-..-L. I--- !
I it is therefore less adapted
There is a wide cc
WLIM.~~ WLOUG+ KM IS subjected.
msensusof ownion that at an ultimate of 64.000 to
-&-
65,000 lbs. the percentages or caroon ant
! phosuhorus reach a point where
the steel has a tendency to crack?vhen sutijected to rough tr
A grade of steel. therefore.
eatment.
62,000 Ibs.. or in some ca,
rur+g-i~. u&mate strength d
om 54,000 to
ses to 04,000 Ibs., is nom generally considered a
g?- -=-. . ..UI..Y. . ,,.a c, >i-OrN=P m5ltori~l Fnr +l-i- ,rl,s.9 nf work
.--.- -. __..,
A. E. Hunt, Trans. A. I.
M: E:. lS9?, says: Why should the tests for steel
be SO much more rigid than ror Iron desti
ned for the same DurDose? Some
o! the reasons are as follows: Experience shows that the afce$table quali-
tX!s of one melt of steel offer no absolute guarantee that :he next melt to it,
even though made of the same st.ock nnll be
eauallv satisfactorv.
It is now almost u,nlversally recognized that ioft steel if p-operlv made
and of good quaMY, 1s for many purposes a safe and satisiactiry substitute
for wroueht Iron, bei~--
. .._^.._ 1-1 :---
rv1uyllh 1rou.
.ng caP?ole ot.standing the same shop-tieatment as
But, Ihe ConxWtlon 1s equally general that poor steel or an,
unsuitable grade of steel is a very dangerous subs&ute for wrought iron
m- ,.A^- 1L_^ ---.. ~~~.:
For this reason it is a,dv
strains.
isable to make more ri,-id requirements in select-
a? range between the brittleness of glass and a duc-
wroueht iron
fur marenal Which m
tility greater than that or
Specifications for Stm
_/_.~. ..-__.
1905.)-
Steel shall be mane oy cne open-hf
ca: and physical properties shall conform
I$~$ .Steei for Rridges. (Proc. A. S. T. M..
?arth process. The cheti-
to the following limits:
-_-__lll.~_
~, ~. ~. __ - - c _ I
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
th
VARIOUS SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL. @I
Elements Considered. Structural St,eel
Phosphorus. I Basir.. ,
hhs. ; .4Grl.. .
Sulplrur, kLs. . . . . . . .
Tensile st,rength, Ibs.
per sq. in . . . . _.
Elong.: Min. 70 in 8 in.
Elong.: Xin. y0 in 2 in.
Fracture..
cold bend without
Rivet Steel.
Dg1;foedt
1.5&.000
tens. str.
..,__..._.......
Silky
1800 flatt
_-
-I-
iteel Castings.
Silkyo8r fine
granular
90. d=3t -
* The following modifica,tions will be alloyed in the requirement~s for
elongnt,ion for structural steel: .~L .,.., ~.c ..,..
--- -1-Y.
For each l/16 inch in t.hickness below
5:le Inch, a dedllctm 5:le inch a dedllction of 21/a will be allowed from the specined percefl,t-
For each l/a ir F& each l/a inch in thickness above 3/q inch, a deductcon of 1 will
$%*owed from tile Z&owed from tile specified percentage.
t Plates, shapes al t Plates shapes and bars less than 1 in. thick shall bend as called for.
Full-sized inaterinl for eye-bars and other steel L in. thick and over, tested Fll/l-sized material f~
as rollerI, shall bend cold 180 around a pin of a diameter twire the t!lick-
ness of the bar. without fracture on the out.+e of bend.
When reqmred
by the inspector, angles 3;4 in. and less in thickness shall open flat.. and
an&s l/z in. and less in thickness shall bend shut, cold, under blolvs of
a hammer, without sign of fracture.
$ Rivet steel when nicked and bent around a bar of the same @am-
eter as the rivet _ 1, shall give a gradual break and a fine, srlky, uniform
fracture.
If the ultimate strength varies more than 4000 tbs. from that desired.
a retest ma be made at the discretion of the inspector, 011 the same
gauge, whlc .K , to be a&eptable, shall be within tiOO0 Ibs. of the desxed
strength.
Chemical determinations of C, P, S,,snd RIn shall be made from, .a
test ingot taken at the time of the pourm,
v of each melt of steel. Check
analyses shall be made from finished material, if call@ for ,bs the pllr-
chaser, in which case an excess of 26% above the reqmred hmlts will be
allowed.
Specimens for tensile and bending tests for plates. shapes and bars
shall be made by cutting c,oupons from the fimshecr product. whxh shall
have bot.h faces tolled and both edges milled with edges parallel for at
mav be turned 3/4 in. diam. for a length of at. leayt
k??, ,ii:i k$a:&?$ endi. &vet rods shall be tested as rolled. SPecl-
mens shall be cut from the Wished relied or forged bar in such manneT
that the center of the specimen shall be 1 in. from the surface of ,the bar.
The specimen for tensile test shall be turned with a uniform sectlon 2 1;.
long, with enlarged ends. The specimen for bending test shall be 1 X /Z
In. In section.
. J 3peeiil&tions for Steel for the Manhattan Bridge. (EW. N&m.
- .-,>e \
AUP. 3, IYD.,-
M.&TERI,LL FOR CABLES. SUSPENDERS a& 11.4~~ ROPES. @Jon-
hearth steel. (The wire for serving the cables shall be made of NprwaY
iron of approved quality.) The ladle tests of the steel shall COntaln not
more than: C 0.85; hln, 0.55; Si, 0.20: P, 0.04; S, 0.04: Cu. 0.02%:
The wire shnli 1~s~ an ultimate stren~ th of not less thati ?1;7.000 lb?.
per sq. in. before galvanizing, and an e ongation o.f not less than 2% In i
12 in.. The bright wire shall be capable of bendIns cold arouvd a rod
lQ times its own diam. without sign of fractufe.
The cable w~,re bef;;:
galvanizing shall be 0.192 i.n. f 0.003 in. in &am.: after galvamzlng.
wire sid have an ultimate strength of not less than 200,003 lbs. Per sP+
:~of gross~section. .____, -~I., ~~...~, .,___., ~._~,. -~_.,~ ~.~ ~- -... ~,- ~~_
;e material may no longer be accurate
482 .
STEEL.
C!.&RBON STEEL. The ladle tests as usually taken shall contain not
more than: P. 0.04; S, 0.04; Mn, 0.60; si, 0.10%. The ladle tests of
the carbon rivet steel shall contam not more than: P, 0.035; S, 0.03.
nivet steel shall be used for all bolts and threaded rods.
NICKEL STEEL. The ladle test shall contain not less than 3.25 Ni.
and not more than: P. 0.04; S. 0.04; Mn, 0.60; Si, 0.10;. nickel rivet steel
not more than: P. 0.035: S, 0.03%.
Nickel st~eel for mates and shapes in the finished material must shot?:
T. S., 5.5.000 bo 9S&lO lb?. per so. in,: E. L., 55.090 lbs. min.: elong. in
8 his., min., = 1,6~)0.000 f T. s.: mm. red. of area, 4070.
~oecimens cut from the finished material shall show the following
physical properties:
Material.
I
T. Y., Ibss.. per so.
I
Min.E.L.,
lbs. per
sq. in.
Shapes and universal mill
plates... _.. .___. ._. _. 60,000 to 68,000
Eye-bars, pins and roliers. 64,000 to 72.069
Sheared p!stes .__. .~_. _. _, _. 60.000 to 66.000
Rivet rods.. 50,000 to 56,690
High-carbon steel for
trusses. _. 85,000 to 95.000
-
Min.
Elong..
ye in &in
ili
1.500,060
ultimate
;i
35
Nickel rivet st,eel: T. 5.. 70,000 to SO,OOO; E. L.. min., 45.000; clone..
min., 1.600.000 t T. S.. Y0 in S ins.
STEEL C.~STI.UCS. The ladle test of steel for castings shall contain
not more than: P. 0.03: S, 0.05; Mn. 0.80: Si, 0.357,. Test-pieces taken
from co~cpnns on the annealed castings shall show T. S., 65.000: E. L.?
35.000: elong. 20% in S ins. They shall bend without cracking around a
rod three times the thickness of the test-piece.
SpeciAcation.5 for Steel. (PrOC. -4. S. T. M., 1905.1
Steel Forgings
Kind of Tensile E&t.
Steel. Strength, Limit.
Solid or hollow forgings, no dism.
or thickness of section to exceed
E: :%i
10 in.
c..4. 89:ooo
N. A. 80,000
Solid or hollow forgings, diaih.
not to exceed 20 in. or thrcknm
75000
of section 15 in.
~.~. i30,OOO
Solid forgings, over 20 in.. C. A. 70,000
Solid forgings... N. A. 80,000
Solid or hollow forgings, diam. or C 0
thickness not, over 3 in.
Solid rectangular sections,
new not over 6 in.,,or i%l% 1:;
with walls not over 6 m. thick. L
zi
Solid rect. se&ions. thickness not
over IO in.. or hollow with walls
C o.
80,000
not over IO in. thick.
N:O. 85,ooo
Locomotive forgings . . 80,000.
29,000*
37,500*
zi$z
xi
I
35,000
;;~~~~
65:OOO
50,000
60,000
45,000
55,aOa
40,000
* The yield point, instead of the elastic limit is specified for soft steel
and carbon steel not annealed. It is determined by the drop of the
beam or halt in the gauge of the testing machine. The elastic limit.
specified :or all other steels, is determined by an extensometer. and 2s
defined as that point v.here the proportionality changes.
The standard
test specimen is iis in. turned diam. with a gauged len
___~ .,_.___-_,__ ~~~_ ~;I ,; .- .._ ~~-~~~.~ -~---- ~---.-_
WARNING: This 1s a 1910 EditiOfl. SOme 01
VARIOUS SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL.
483
Kind of steel: S., soft or low carbon. C., carbon steel not anneed
C.. A., carbon steel, annealed. C. 0.. carbon steel oil tempered.
mckel steel, annealed. N.. 0.. nickel steel, oh tempered
N. A *
test:: A specimen 1 X r/s in. shall bend cold 180 without
Bending
fracture on
outside of bent portion, as follows: (a) around a diam. of r/s in.: (o)
ffro;;:o,,%,,fm. of 1 in.; (c) around a diam. of r/z in.; (d) no bt,idiug
Chemkal composition: P and S not to exceed 0.10 in low-carbon i;tee.
0.06 in carbon steel not annealed. 6.64 in ctLrbon or nickel steel oil-ted'
pered or annealed, 0.95 in locomotive forgings.
111 locomotive forgings.
Mn not to exceed 0.60
,Ni 3 to 45% in nickel steel.
Specifications for Steel Ship Material.
1900. pmt. A. 5. 2. &I., 1906, p. li.5.) -
(Amer. Bureau of Shipping,
-
For Hull Construction. Tens. Strength.
I I
E. I,.
El. in
8 in., yyO.
Plates, angles and shapes.. _.
Castings.. . . . . . . . _.
58,000 to 60,000
Forgings.. . . .
60.000 to 75,O"O
l/z T. S. 22*, 1st
,..__...._
55.000 to 65.~0 :. _. _. :;
, I
* In plates IS lbs. per sq. ft. and over. t In places under 18 Ibs.
FOR MARINE BOILERS: Open-hearth steel; Shell: P and S, each not oer
0.04',&. Fire-box, not over 0.035%. Tensile Strength: Rive: zteel.
45,000 to 55,000; Fire-box, 5P,OCc! to 62,000; Shell, 55 000 tc ::;.*WO
Braces and stays, 55,000 to 65,OOu; Tubes and all other stee!. ;..609 td
62,000 lbs. per so. iu.
Elongation i.? 8 in.: Rivet steel, 287,; Plates s/g in. and :;i:::er, 30~~;
319to 31.4 in ~~7 3/4in. and over. 25%. . . -- ,.
I Cow BEND& A&D QUENCHING T&rs Rivet steel z.:.i a!1 steel of
52,000 to 6~2,000 lbs. T. S., iiz in. thick andunder mu- i~:r,:d 1SO flat on
itself without fracture on outside of bent portion: over i/q in. thick,
around a, mandrel 11/z times the thickness of cb;: ib: .~.diece.
180
For hull
cOnstruction a specimen must stand bending on ii ,-.?Y.~:- cf half its thick-
ness, without fracture on the convex side, ei! ):. C CZJ~:: or after being
heated to cherry-red and ~1:. i ched in water a:
,,.. j :fi,-
High-stren& Steel for ~+:~i:;buildIL1<. jZ;qy, %:x 2 1907 p. 137.)-
The average tensile streugt,, JE he :irdterin; selected for the Lusitania
was SZ,4RZ lbs. ,>?r s in for noru,ii high-tensile steel. and 81 984 Ibs.
for the same ~-!:.~.ale,~, as compared >~.it!i 6s,:i04 lbs. for ordin&y mild 3
steel. The racy :. \;a
puni:ii:ments, I,~c,(:fi: :_
~:i,i++,ed to tun tests as well as to other severe
*,j::: csplosion of heavy charges of dynamite
against the plates, i cud in every instauce the results were satisfactory.
It wvas not deemed prudent to adopt the high-ten&e steel for the rivets,
a point upon which there seems some diiference of opinion.
Penna. R. R;. Specifications for Steel.
j 2 1 i j C. ( ML ( Si. j P. j S. / Cu.
Plates for steel cars.. _. _. I
Bar t
Steel
%i i:;:
0.40 0.50
0.45 0.60
0.45 0.50
0.18 0.40
0. 18 0. 40
0.05 0.04- 0.03- .,....
0.15- 0.03- 0.03- 0.03-
0.05 0.05- 0.04- . . . . . .
- 0.05- 0.03- 0.04- _.;...
0.05 0.03- 0.02- 0.03-
- 0.05- 0.04- 0.03- 0.03-
- o.oz- 0.03- 0.02- 0.03-
wing steel .............
for axles ................
Steel for crank ains _. _.
Bil1et.s or blooms forforging
Boiler-shell sheets..
Fire-box sheets.. _. _.
STEEL.
The, minus sign sfter a figure meanq *M I+=..
..-
the mmus sign represeut the cornposit,,.. \ .i nn c & ~~~:
~hn fio..rno -rl*h-*.a
as.r LeuLw I b,, ULI
Steel castings.
15%.
Desired T. S., 70 0110 11
Will be rejected if ~. S. is below 60
3s. per sq. in.; elong. in 2 in.
,000. or elom. bel dw 12%. or ii
the CaStl Ugs shop bloW-holes or shrinkagecracks on tiachining

Noms. ! I ) Tensi l e strength, 52, 000 I bs. per sq. in.: elong.in 8 ins.
= 1.5OO.000 + T. S. (2) Axles are also subjected tos drop test similar
to that of the A. S. T. AI. specifications.
cnr,t:lin C
.ksles will be reiectedif the\,
,\- .:G
Sheets will bc re~iected if. the
not be rejeyted for high T.
-._- -----3. _.
S.i? ii ihe elongation IS less t~~~~.. _ . . .._
T. S..*if a smde seam or cavit,y more than l/d in. long is shown ineith*Ar
one OL tbe three fractL,ues obtai ned in the test for homogeneity describe;1
bel ow, or if on analysis C is fo:m-l below 0.15 or over 0.95 P &er 0.035,
Mn over 0.45. Si Over 0.X. S over 0.045, or Cu over O.Gj +.
homogeneitg Test for Fire-box Steel. - This t ,est . i g mmiann nn~l nf thn
broken tensile-test sbecirnens. a,~ fni!nrvs. ~~~- ---- -- ------ --- -*I- I *
,A portion of the t&t-piece &i~k~d~&h a c
chme. tfansversely about a sixteenth of an inch de&-in .thr&?nl:ix;
ahout 2 in. apart. The first groove shou!d be made on o;e side 9 it
the.squaree.nd of the piece: tile second, 2 in. from it on the op$&it
2 ins from the last. and on the onnnsite ni rb f rntn i t
1: from
anal the third
e side;
i&-piece is ~fisn put in a ~52,
. The
&iith the first groove about l/4 in. above
the jaws, care bring taken to hold it firmly. The projecting end of the
test-giece IS then broken off bv means ni i hammer 2. qumber of light
piece is DrGken at the other two y-Qoves in the same way.
groove. The
The object
of thjs: treatment is to open and -ender visible 60 the eye any seams due
to failure to weld up,.or to foreign inter
to . .. .
es;
^..^
gas DtiDDWS lli tile ingot.
posed matter or cavities due
&mined. a PI
After ruoture. oue side .!k each f ra; : t. l l re i s
ac3ni
e
seam or cavit
- I..-.. ..
Dr.. Chas. $:
&&%ii &gie
more than l/4in. i&giGeiti$; of the three frdctures
Dudle:-, chemist of tile I?. IL. R. I 2rnn.r. A I M fi? i892). - _ . _ .- I ,
rcferrinq to tests of crank-pins. says: In testid,~~~~&~nt &in-or
piece from one side of the pin shoWed 88 OO!) Ibs. strer
gat:on. and the piece from the oonosite side showed 1~
--..y ,..,,..,,.lt. the
I ~~~~- -- ,- ~~~..
and 14O& elongobion.
- -36.000 Ibs. strength
Each pie& Was jbove the specified strength and
ductility. but the lack of uniformity between the tr:o sides of the pin Was
so marked that it was finally determined not to put the Lot of 50 pins in
use. To puard against trouble of this sort, i n f l l t~vi re. the soecificatioos
--- -..-- 1..- .- . . . . . ~.LII 111
the two specimens shall lwt be more than 3000 Ibs.
~ltimate~strength of
Szeeifleations for Steel Rails.
I?. S. and Canada.
(Ado
In effect Jan. 1, 190i
ted
.)-
by the manufacturers of the
Bessemer rails:
,;pzr yard, lbs. 50 to 60 61 to 70
a eon, %. .Q.35-0.G 0.35-0.45 07.:&y; O:gy3 09:&f!:
Manganese. 7; . ..l).70-1.00 o.iO-1.00 0.75-I.05 O.8b-1.10 0.84-1.14
Pllusaho~us nut over O.lO%,: silicon not over 0.~70~
Rrop Test: A
Piece of ral. 4 to 6 ft. ton%, selected from each blot? igplaced head up-
Wards on : UPPortS 3 ft. apart. The anvil weighs jt least 20000 I bs.
and the tup. or falling weight, 2000 I bs.
the drop is as, follows:
The rail should not break when
Height of drop, feet.. . . . . . . . .
Weight per yard. lbs.. . . . . . . . . . 71 4; 80
81 i, go
91 ;o, 100
.If any rail breaks when subjected to the drop test two addit.ionsl tests
Wlii be made of other rails from the same bloW of &eel, and if cjthef
,-___ ^_..~. _~ ~~~ ___. _-.... --...-~. .~ -,-~ ~~~--~ ~--I
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition. SOme of
VARIOUS SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL. 485
these latter tests fail, all the rails of the bloW which they represent will
be rejected: but if both of these additional test-pieces meet the require-
ments; all the rails of the bl ow which they represent will be accepted.
ShrinkiLge: The number of pwsti+ and the speed of the roll train shall
be so regulat~ed that for sections 7.5 Ibs. per yard and heavier tne temper-
ature on ieaving the roils will not exceed that which requires a shrinkage
alloWance at the hot sawsnf 6%i indlrs for a .?%ft. 75-h. rail. with 1111
increase of l/la in. for each increase of 5 lbs. in the Weight of the secticn.
Open-hearth rails; chemical specitications:
Weight per lb%. 50 to 61 81 to 70 71 to SO 81 to 93 93 to 109
Carbon, %,
yard,
. 0.46-0.59 0.46-0.59 0.52:0.65 0.59-0.72 0.62-0.75
Manganese. 0.60 to 0.90; Phosphorus, not over 0.94; Silicon. not over
0.20. Drop Tests: 50 to 60-lb., 15 ft.; 61 to 70-lb., 16 ft.; heavier sec-
tions same as Bessemer.
Specifications for Steel Asles. (qror. A. S. T. M.. 1905 p. 56.) -
Car and tender truck
........................ 0.06 ....... ...... .....
Driving and engine truck. C. S.* ............ 0.06 80.000 M.000 20%
.i5;;.
Drivingand engine truck,N.S.t ........... 0.04 80,ooO 50,WO 25% 45%
* Carbon steel.
Nickel steel, 3 to 4% Xi.
Each not to exceed. Mn in carbon steel not over 0.60 %.
Drop Tests. -One drop test to be made from each melt, The axle
rests on supports 3 ft. apart, thf: tup weighs lc+O Ibs.. the anvd sup,port,ed
on springs, 17,500 Ibs.; the radius of the strlkmg face of the tupIy 5$
The avlc is tu:ned over after I.he first, third and fifth blows.
stand the number of blows named below without rupture and without
esceediug, as the result of the first blow, the deflection aven.
Diam. alvIe at center, in ..........
Number of bl.ows ................
Height of drop. ft.. ..............
Deflection. in ....................
I ,I I t 4 I I
.
Speciflcatlons for Tires.
A S T. M., 1901.) - Physical require-
ments of test-piece l/a in. &am.
&.. .
ires for passenger engines: T. S., 100,000;
El. in 2 in., 12%. Tires for freight engines and car wheels: T. S., 110,000;
El., 10%. Tires for switching engines: T. S., 120,000; El.. 8%.
Drop Test. - If a drop test is @ailed for, a selected tire shall be placed
vertically under the drop on a foundation at least 10 tons in weight and
subjected to successive blows from a tup weig$ng 2?40 l bs. , falhng from
increasing heights until the required deflection IS obtamed. vnthout break-
ing or cracking. The minimum deflection. must
e ua! D* f (46p -I-
2 D). D being internal diameter and T thickness o tire at Center of
s
trei d.
Splice-bars.
( A. S. T. M., 1901.) - Tensile strength of ? sp$$T;;
cut from the head of the bar. 54,000 to 64.000 lbs.: yield Pmnt.
. .
I bs. Elongation in 8 in., ,not less than 2s per cqnt. A.test specimen
cut from the head of the bar shall bend ,180 flat.on itself url t! OUt f ractUre
on the outside of the bent port,ion.
If preferred. the benchng test may
be made on an unpunched splice-bar, which shall be first flattened and
then bent. One tensile test and one bending test to be made from each
-blow or melt of steel.
~.~~ .~.~~. be.~iccurixG
. .
436 STEEL.
S ecfflcations for Steel Used In Automobile ConstructIon.
CE. %. Lake, Am. Mach., March 14, 1907.) -
C. Mn. cr. Ni P. S. T. S. E. L.
- ----
(1) 0.40-0.55 0.40- 0. 80+ i . 50+ 0. 04-
( 2) 0. 20- 0. 35 0. 40- o. so+ 1. 50+ 0. 04-
( 3) 0. 25 0. 40 1. 50 3. 50 0. 015
( 4) 0. 25- 0. 35 0. 60 1. 50+ 0. 03
. . . . . . 0. 065-
0. 05-
5 0. 03-
30. 0 0. 04-
I
90000+
' . 04- 18OoM) +
0. 04- , ; g$=
0. 025 120000
_ ; ; ; ; - rl gi
0. 06- 75cOO+
0. 03- I . . , . __. . .
0. 06- __. . . _. . .
65000 +
I 4woo+
65000+
100000 +
105OOa
60000+
70000+
: aEz
.
31. in
2 in.
-
1st
a+
20+
12f
i t+
f 2
25+
2
35+a
: z
Eb
50+n
50+b
45f C
4o+c
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
The plus sign means or over: the minus sign or less.
a. fully annealed: b, heat-treated, that is oil-quenched and partly
annealed: c, as rolled.
(1) 45% carbon chrome-nickel steel, for gears of high-grade cars.
When annealed this steel can be machined with a high-speed tool at the
rate of 35 ft. per min., with a l/la-in. feed and a s/is-in. cut. It is annealed
at 1400 F. 4 or 5 hour?. and cool ed slowly. In Iwt-treating it is heated
to 15OOO. quenched in 011 or witter and drawn at 500 F.
(2) 2.5% carbon chrome-nickel steel, for shafts, axles,. pivots, etc.
This st,eel may be machined at the same rate as (1). and It forges more
easily.
(3) A foreign steel used for forgings that hare to withstand severe
alt.ernating shocks, such as differential shafts, transmission parts, universal
joints, axles. etc.
(4) Nickel steel. used instead of (1) in medium and low-priced cars.
(5) Gun-barrel steel, used extensively for riHe barrels, also in low-
priced wtornobiles, for shafts,, axles, etc. It is used as it comes from
the maker. without heat-treatmg.
(6) Xachine steel. Used for parts that do not require any special
strength.
(7) Spring st,eel used in automobiles.
(8) Nickel steel for valves. Used for its heat-resisting qualities in
valves of internal-combustion engines.
Cnrhonid~fy or Case-hardming. - Some makers carbonize the surface
of gears made from steel (1) aboG. They are packed in cast-iron boxes
with a mixture of bone and powdered charcoal and heated four houcs
at nearly the melting-point of the boxes, then cooled slowly in the boxes.
They are then taken out, heated to 1400 F. for four hours to break up the
coarse grain produced by the carbonizing temperature. After this the
work is heat-treated as above described.
The machine steel (6) case-hardens well by the use of this process.
Speciflrations for Steel Castings.
Open-hearth, Bessemer, or crucible.
(Proc. A. S. T. M., 1905, p. 53.)-
Castings to be annealed unless
otherwise specified. Ordinary castings, in which no physical require-
ments are specified, shall contain not over 0.04 C and not over 0.08 P.
Castings subject to physical test shall contain not wer 0.05 P and not
over 0.05 S. The minimum requirements are:
Hard castings. ...................
Me~lium castings
Soft czstilips
.................
.....................
T. S.
85. 000
70. 000
60, 000
FORCE, STATICAL MOMENT, EQUILIBRIUM, ETC.
487
For small or unimportant castings a test to destruction may be sub
stituted. Three samples are selected from each melt or bl ow, annealed
in the same furnace charge, and shall show the material to be ductile
and free from injurious defects, and suitable for the purpose intended.
Large castings are to be suspended and hammered all over.
flaws. defects nor weakness shall appear after such treatment.
No cracks,
A spect-
men 1 X l/z in. shall bend cold around a diam. of 1 in. withollt fracture
on outside of bent portion, through an angle of 170 for soft and 90 for
medium castings.
Specificabions for steel castings issued by the U. S. Navy Department.
1889 (abridged): Steel for castings must be made by either the open-
hearth or the crlwible orocess. and must not show more than 0.06% of
phosphorus. All castirigs must be annealed, unless otherwise directed.
The tensile strength of st,eel castings shall be at least 60,000 II%., with an
elongation of at least 15% in 8 in. for all cast~ings for moving parts of
machinery, and at least 10% in 8 in. for other castings. Bars 1 in. sq.
shall be capable of bending cold, without fracture, through an angle of
90. over a radius not greater than 1% in. All castings must be sound,
free from iniurious rouehness. sooneiness. Dittinp. shrinkage. or other
cracks. cavities, etc.
Pennsylvania Railroad specifications, JS88: Steel castings should have a
tensile strength of 70,000 lbs. per sq. m. and an elongation of 15% in
section originally 3 in. long. Steel castings will not be accepted if tensde
strength falls below 69,000 !bs., nor if the elongat,ion is less than 12%, nor
if castings have blow-holes and shrinkage cracks. Castings weighing 80
Ihs. or more must have cast with them a strip to be used as a test-piece.
The dimensions of this strip must be 3/4in. sq. by 12 in. long.
MECHANICS.
FORCE, STATICAL NO;IIENT, EQUILIBRTUnl, ETC.
MECHANICS is the science that treats of the action of force upon bodies.
Statics is the mechanics of bodies at rest relatively to the earths surface.
Dynamics is the mechanics of bodies in motion. Hydrostatics and hydro-
rl vnn. mi rc 2.r~ t,he nwrha.nir:s of liouids. and Pneumatics the mechanics
of %%s otlherpases:---These are treated in other chapters.
There are four elementary quantities considered in Mechanics: JfUtlt?r.
Force, Space. Time.
3lIatter. - Any substance or material that can be weighed or,measured.
It exists in three forms: solid. liquid, and gaseous. A defimte portion
of matter is called a body.
The Quantity of Natter in a body may be det,err$ned, either by
measuring its bulk or by wei,ghing it, but as the bulk v;qr!es ~ltll temper-
ature, with porosity, with size, shape and method of plhng Its partlcl$s.
etc.. weighing is generally the more accurate method of deterrmmng Its
quantity. -
Weight. Xass. -The word weight is commonly used in two
senses: 1. As the measure of quantity of matter In a body, as deter-
mined by weighing it in an even balance scale or on a lever or platform
n. nd t, hl l s comrtarine i ts ouanti ty with that of certain pieces of metal
.he material may no longer be accurate
$88 MECHANIC% - *
I
determined by the first method of weighing given above, by 32.2. the
value of 9. the acceleration due to gravity, at London, expressed by
the formula IV = W/g. This value is merely the arithmetical ratio of
the weight in pounds to the acceleration in feet per second per second.
and it has no unit. 3.. As a measure of the qUantity of matter. exactly
synonymous with the first meaning of the worrl weight, iven above.
In this sense the word is used in many books on physics an 3 theoretical
mechanics, but it is not so used by engineers. The statement in such
books that the endneers unit of mass is 32.2 Ibs. is an error. There is
no such unit. Whenever the term mzs is rrpresented by J1 in enei-
neering calcldations it is equivalent to W/g, in which IV is the quantity
of matter in pounds,. and g = 32.2.
A Force is anything that tends t,o change the state of a body with
respect to rest or motion. If a body is at rest, anything that tends to
put it in motion is a force; if a body 1s ia mot~ion, anything that tends to
change either its direction or its rate of mo!ion is a force.
A force should always mean the pull. pressure. rue, attraction (or repul-
sion) of one body upon another, and always implies the existence of a
simultaneous equal and opposite force exerted by that other body on the
first hody, i.e., the rerrclion. In no case should we fall anything a force
unless we can conceive of it as capable of measurement by a spring
balance, and are able to say from what other body it comes. (I. P.
c%1wc11.)
Forces may be divided into two classes, extraneous and molecular:
extraneous forces act on bodies from without; molecular forces are exerted
between the neighboring particIes of bodies.
E.ztruneous forres are of two kinds, pressures and moving forces: pres-
sures simply tend to produce motion: moving forces actually produce
motion. Thus, if aravity act on a fixed body, it creates pressure; if on a
free body, it produces motion.
Molecular fr,:res are of two kinds, att.rart,ive and repellent: attractive
forces tend to bind the particles of a body together: repellent forres tend
to thrust them asunder. Both kinds of molecular forces are continu-
ally exerted between the molecules of bodies, and on the predominance of
one or the other depends the physical state of a body, as solid, liquid, or
gaseous.
The Vnit of Force used in engineering, by English writers. is t,he
f
ound avoirdupois. For some scientific purposes, as in electro-dynamics,
orces are sometimes espressed in absolute units. The absolute unit of
force is that force which acting on a unit of mass during a unit of time pro-
duces a unit of velocity. In the French C. G. S.. or centimeter-pram-
second system. it is the force which acting on the mass whose weight is one
gram at Paris will produce in one second a velocity of one centimeter per
second. This unit is called a dyne = l/gsl gram at Paris.
An attem
so-called a E
t has been made by some writers on physics to introduce the
solute system wei hts
define the absolute unit
into English and measures, and to
of force as that orce which acting on the f
mass whose wei
velocity of one f
ht is one pound at London will in one second produce a
oot
poundal.
per second. and they have given this unit the name
The use of this unit onlg makes confusion for students.
and it is to be hoped that it will soon be abandoned in high-school text-
books. Professor Perry in his Calculus for Engineers, p. 26. says.
One might a,s well talk Choctaw in the shops as to speak about . . . SO
man, pound& of force and so many foot-pocndals of work. *
Inertia is t,hat property of a body hv Virtue of which it tends to con-
tinue in the state of rest or motion in &ich it may be placed, until acted
on by some force.
Newtons Lams of Dlotion. - 1st Law. If a body be at rest.,it ~111
remain at rest: or if in motion, it will move uniformly in a straight hne till
acted on by some force.
* Professor Perry himself. however, makes a slip on the same page in
saying: Force in pounds is the space-rate at which work in foot-pound8
is done: it is also the time-rate at which momentum is produced or de-
stroyed. the gets ihis idea, no doubt, from the equati ons F f s IIIV,
F = M V/T. F = l/3 M V2 i S. Force is not these things: it is merely
nUmeic& equivalent. when certain units are chosen. tothese last two
Sd~te%~~of momentum:
We might as well say, since T = MV/F. that time is the
_. _~4_1~1_~~~~~ __, , - - - - - - - - - - - ~- - - - . - . -
'WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
he
FORCE, STATICAL MOMENT, EQUILIBRIUM, ETC.
489
2d Law. If a borly be acted on by several forces. it will obey each as
thoL!gh the others did not exist. and this whether the body be at rest or in
I~lotloll.
3d +aw. If a force act to change the state of a body with respect to rest
or motion. the body will offer a resistance equal and directlv o~nased m the
force.
x---
- ICYCI.,,.
e renrf=smtd
Or. to every action there is opposed-an equal and o~nns~t.~ r~ls,~i-~
Grkphic Representation of a Eorcr. - Forces may
geometrically by straight lines. proportional to the forces.
-_. -___.._
A force is
given when we know its intensity, its point of application, anti the direr-
tiou i!l which it acts. When a force is represented by a iine. the Irngtll of
the #ie represents its intensit ; one extremity represents t~he point of
apphc$ioni and an arrow-hea Y at the other extremity shows the direc-
tion of the lorce.
Composition of Forces is the operation of finding a single force whose
effect,ls the same as that of two or more given forces.
force IS called the resuitant of the given for&s.
The required
Resolution o! Forces is the operation of finding two or more forces
whose combined effect is equivalent to that of a given
for$r are called components of the given force.
force. The required
- :
e resultant of t\\.o forces annlied at a ooint~ and wtine in the same di-
rectlon, is equal to the sum of the for&&s~ ~~Iftwof;;;cesa;;t-in o@%?e
directions, their resultant is equal to their difference, and it acts In the
direction of the greater.
If any number of forces he ap lied at a poin,t, some in one direction and
others m a contrary direction, f. t ielr resultant is equal to the sum of those
that act in one direction. diminished bv the sum of those that act in the
opposite direction; or, the resultant is equal to the algebraic sum of the
components.
Parall+Go ram of Forces. - If two forces acting on a point be rep-
resented In irectlon and intensit by adjacent sides of a parallelogram, 8
the! resultant will be represente J
whuzh asses through the point,
by that diagonal of the parallelogram
and 0 8.
Thus Otz, Fig. 93, is the resultant of OQ
R
FIG. 93.
7.
3
1
A
2
4
lYzz?f- .
r
5
2
3
4 3
FIG. 94.
Polvgon of Forces. - If several forces are applied at a point and act
in a sibgle plane. their resultant is found as follows:
Through the point draw a line representing the first force; through the
extremity of tlus draw a line representing the second force: and so on,
throoghout the system,: finally. draw a line from t.he starting-point to the
extremity of the last line drawn. and this will be the resultant required.
Suppose the body A, Fig. 94, to be urged in the directions Al, AL. A3.
A4, and A5 by forces which are to each other as the lengths of those lines.
Suppose these forces to act successive1 and the body to first move from A
to 1: the second force A2 then acts an CT findmg the body at 1 would take it
to 2; the third force would then carry It to 3, the fourth to 4, and the fifth
to 5. The line AS represents in magnitude and direction the resultant of
all the forces considered. If there had been an additional force, AT. in -
the ,eroup. the body would be returned bv that force to its original position,
supposing the forces to act successively, but if they had acted simul-
taneously the body would never have moved at all: the tendencies to
motion balancing each other.
It follows, therefore, that if the several forces which tend to move a
body can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
closed polygon taken in order, the body will remain at rest: br!t If the
.;:
forces are represented by the sides of an open polygon, the body wdl UlOV6 ! ~:; 1
MECHANICS. FORCE, STATICAL MOMENT, EQUILIURIUM, ETC. 491
and the direction will be representeai by the straight iine which closes the
nolveon.
T&isted Polygon. -
The rule of the polygon of forces holds true even
when the forces are not in one plane.
In this case the lines Al, l-2, 2-3
etc.. form a @isted polygon, that is. one whose sides are not in one plane:
Paralleloplpedon of Forces. - If three forces acting on a point be
represented by three edges of a parallelopipedon which meet in a common
point. thetr resultant ~111 be represented by the diagonal of the parallelo-
pipedon that passes t.hrough t.heir common point.
Thus OR. Fm. 95. is the resultant of OQ. OS and OP.
0-U is the result-
ant of OP and OQ, and OR is the resultant of OJf and OS.
Fm. 96.
~Iommt of a Force. -The moment of a force (sometimes called
statma moment). w!th respect to a point, is the product of the force by
tr
.-
le perpendicular distance from the point to the direction of the force.
:lhe fixed point is called the center of moments: the perpendicular distance
1s the lever-arm of the force: and the moment itself measures the tendency
of the force to,produce rotation about the center of moments
If the force is e:c?ressed in pounds and the distance in feet the moment
is expressed in foot-pounds.
It is necessary to observe the distinction be-
tween foor-pounds of statical momi,.
(SW Wnr!.- 1
^t and foot-pounds of work or energy.
In the bent lever: Fig. 96 (from Trautwine), if the weinhts n and m
represent forces, their moments about the point f are respe>tivelv n X of
ano m X/C. If instead of the weight m a pulling force to balance the
weight )E 1s apphed in the direction bs. or b!: or btl. s. v, and d being the
amounts of these forces,
if & jh.
their respective moments are s X ft. u X fb.
If tt
the m
If the forces acting on the lever are in equilibrium it remains at rest and
the moments on each side of f are equal, that is, n X of = m X fc. ok s X
ft. or 1, X fb. or d X hf.
The moment of the resultant of an.. n..-L-- -=
. . BLLII~~~e~ or rorces acting together in
the same Plane is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces
taken separately.
Statical 310mentz
Stability. -The statical moment of a body is
the product of its we!ght by the distance of its line of gravity from some
assumed line of rotation. The line of gravity is a vertical line drawn from
Its center of gravity through the bodv.
The stability of a body is that
resistance which, its weight alone enables it to oppose against forces tend-
rng to overturn lt or to slide it along its foundation,
To be safe,against turning on an edge the moment of the forces tending
to qverturn It, taken with reference to that edge must be less than the
statical moment.
,When a body rests on an inclined plane the line of
gravity, being vertical, falls toward the lower edge of the body and the
condltlon of Its not bemg overturned by its own weight is that the line of
gravity must fall within this edge,
In the case of an inclined tower
restme on a plane the same cond!tion holds -the line of gravity must
fall wlthm the base.
The condltlon of stability against sliding along
horizontal plane is that the horizontal component of the force
exerte
tendin:: to cause It to slide shall be less than the product of the weight
w~@NI~(G: This is a 1910 edition.
%m
the body into the coefficient of friction between the, base of the body and
its supporting plane. This coefficient of frlctlpn IS the tangent of the
angle of repose or the maximum angle at which the supporflng plane
might be raisedfrom the horizontal before the body would begm to slide.
(S& Friction.)
The Stability of a Dam against overturning about its lower edge
is calculated by comparing its statical moment referred to that edge with
the resultant pressure of the water against its upper side.
The hor!zontal
pressure on a square foot at the bottom of the dam is equal,to the lvelght. of
a column of water of one square foot in section, and of a height equal to the
distance of the bottom below water-level; or. if If 1s the height, the pressure
at the bottom per square foot = ,62..& X H lbs.
At the water-level the
pressure 1s zero, and it increases umformly to the bottom, SO that the sum
of the pressures on a vertical strip one foot m breadth may be represented
by the area of a triangle whose base is 62.4 X U and whose altltude,is If,
or 62.4 N2 + 2. The center of gravity of a triangle being Vsof its altitude,
the resultant of all the horizontal pressures may be taken as equivalent
to the sum of the pressures acting at l/s H, and the moment of! the sum of
the pressures is therefore 62.4 X 11a + 6.
Par&e1 Forces. -If two forces are parailel and act in the same direc-
tion their resultant is parallel to both, and lies between. them. and the
intensity of the resultant is equal to the sum of the intensities of the two
forces. Thus in Fig 96 the resultant of the forces n and m ilctS vertically
downward at
t
andis equal to n + m.
If t,\vo para lel forces act at the extremities of a straight line and in the
same direction, the resultant divides the line joimng the Pomts of aPPh-
Fro. 98.
called
I%<
a couple.
,..A tendency of a couple is to produce rota-
1J
i.-.n.
l ha measure of this tendency, called the
Fro. 99.
the couple, is the product of one of the forces by the distance
he two
,WWJL hn.s no single resultant. no single force can.balance i ~--,:^^
t&Y,., YllY
moment oj
between t L
Since a
c,,,,nlp To~~~~entilhero~~~~~~ of a body acted on by acouple tne ,PitV$
-. =.~
ALIW 1.1
1 $x.of two other forces is required, forming a secono eoup~
I?,& 99 P and Q forming a couple mav be balanced by it second couple
form;.. od by R and 8. The point of application of either R or S may be a
fixed pi vot or axis.
mt of the couple PQ = P (c + o + a) = moment of RS = Rb. Moms
.41so. P +R=Q+S.
The fc 3rces R and S need not be parallel to P and
but if not, then their
compno
8,
-.-ents parallel to PQ are to be taken instead o
the forces themselves.
matei may no l onger De accura- ce!
Equilibri.um of Forces. - -4 s
solid body will be In equilibrimn w
stem
K
of forces apptied at points of a
en they have no tendency to produce
motion. either of trauslation or nf mt n.t i nn
The conditions of e~$iifi&k &e: 1. The algebraic sum of the compo-
nents of the forces In the direction of any three rectangular axeS mus!, be
separately equal to 0.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces,
three rectangular axes, must be separately equal to o.
with respect t.o any
If the forces lie !n a plane: 1. The aleehraic sum of the components of
the forces. In the direction of any two rectangular axes, must be separately
rfillnl tn 0
-~1--- .._ -.
z. The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces, with revpect to any
point in the, plane, must be equal to 0.
If a hodv IS restrained by a fized aXis. as in case of a pulley or wheel and
axle. the forces will be in equilibrium when the algebraic Sdrn of the mo-
ments of the forces with respect to the axis is equal to 0.
CEXTER OF GRAVITX.
The cen.ter of gray&y of a body, or of a system of bodies iigidly connected
to@@. IS that Point aboclt which, if suspended, all t.he parts will be in
equilibrium, t.hat is, there will be no tendencv to rotation.
It is the point
through whicli passes the resoltant of the effbrts of gravitation on each of
the ete.mellt.ary partIcks of a body; In bodies of eqlial heaviness through-
out. t.he center of gravity is tire center of magnitude.
(The rrnter of mngnitri ,rle Of a figure iS a noint such that i f t .h~ f i n~t r ~ he
divided into equal part.s the distnhce of tlie center of magnii;~~~oiti;~
whole figure from anv eiven n1n.r
r.-.le is the mean of the distances of the
centers of,magnitude of the several equal parts from that plaue.)
I[~a bo,rl~- be suspended at its center of gravity, it will be in equilibrium
poslt~ons. If it be.suspended at a point out of its cent,er of gravity, it
osition such that its center of gravity is vertically
susnenston.
in all :
will swin.g in+ a p,
bPRp.th !ts pomt of
c.
theifigure by any point near 1t.s edge, and mark on it then directiok of a
find the center of gravity of any piank figure mechanically suspend
plumb-ljne hung from that point: then susnend it from some other ooint.
and agam I
~~-r_----.--
nark the direction of the nllwnh-hne m lilie manner.
rent,ei of gravity of the surface wit
Th& thd
two marks of the plumb-line.
11 be at the point of intersection of the
The Center of Gravity of Regular Figures, whether plane or solid
is the same as their geometrical center: for instance. a st r a.i ght :
l i ne
pa:auelogram, regular polygon, circle, circular ring; $&j;-:yiinde;:
sphere, spheroid, middle frustums of spheroid, etc.
of a @z@e: 0~ a line drawn from r.ny ansle to the middle of the op-
posite sl<e. at a d!stance of one-third of the hne from the side; or at the
lutersectlon of such lines drawn from any two angles.
Of u tfal)ezzum. OT trapezoid: Draw a diagonal. dividine it into t.wo tri-
angles. Dratv. a line joir
dlngonal. I
--._.. .._ other
^C -_-LA-. D their centers
ling their centers of Kfvi& ~- ~- ----- Di n.w t h-a.
nalting two other triangles, and a me Jomini.
Th.3 intorr-,.+c-.. ^E
the two lines Js the center of gravity
Of n sector of n circle: On the rrqdius tyhich
the center, e being the c
bisects the arc, 2 cr + 3 2 from
~,noru, T the radius, and 1 the arc
O/a semicircle:-On the middle radius. 0.4244 T from the center.
Of a rlUod?+ant: On the middle radius, 0.6002 r from the center
Of u segment of a circle: 8 c 12 a from the center
c = chord a = area.
Of d p~~~bo~ic surface: In the,aXis. 3/5of its length from the ;erteu
Of 0 semwarabola (surface): 31.5 length of the axis from the verte&and
--I of t.he semi-base from the axing J /e
Of a cone or py&mid: 1 :6@~$s, l/4 of its len@h from the base.
_
of a paraboloid: In the axis. ~13 OS its lene
:th from the vertex.
Of @ Cl/li?Nfer, or TegUlUr @sm: In the middle poi nt of t he a& .
Of ofrtkst~?~ of u cOne 07 p/m&d. Let ca = length of a line drawn from
the vertex of the cone when complete to the center of gravity of the base
and a t.hat Dortion of it hetmwn t,he vertex and the top of the frustum:
its base r $ -
3 a3~ -
,f the frustum from center of gravity oi
4(a* + ad + agaj
then distanck of center of gravity o
_~-~&$&
~__~ ___-. ._...~~ --.~~.~ -~~ .,.- I_-~-----
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some Of
MOMENT OF INERTIA.
For two bodies fixed one at each end of a straight bar, the common
center of gravit; is in the bar, at that point which divides the distance
ravity in. the loverse raJtio pf,;;
ing directions:
between tjreir respective centers of g:
weights. In this solution the weight of the ha: IS neglectecl.
be <aken as a third body, and allowed for as ln the fOllO\~
~@ut it
For more than two bodies connected in one system: Fmd~ t.he common
renter of gravity of two of them: and find the common center ,;f t!lese two
jointly with a tllird body, and so on to the last bod,y of the WNP.
Aftother t&h&. by the principle of 1noment.i;: To hnd the center of
gr;tvjty of 3 system of jjocjie~;. or a hotly con&tinsr of several parts. whose
several centers are known.
If the bodies are in a plane, refer their several
centers to two rectangular coOrdinate axes.
Multiply each weight by its
distance from one of the ares. add the products, and divide the sum by the
sum of t,he weights: the rcsldt is, the distance of the center of gravity from
that axis. Do the same with regard to the other aXIs. If t,he boches are
not in a plane refer them to three planes at right angles to each other, and
determine the mean distance of the sum of the weights from each of the
three planes.
MOMENT OF INERTIA
The moment of inertia of the weight of a body wit! re+peCt to an aXiS 1s
the algebraic sum of the
each elementary particle
roducts obtained by .multlPiylng the wei.ght $
the square of its distance from t.iJe 5x1s.
the moment of inertia Kit
to any asis = I. th$ weight of anv
element 0~ the body = w, and its distance from the axis = r. we have
2 (7.w ).
hn mnmon+. of inertia varies, in the same body, according to the
on of the asis. It is the least possible when the axis passes through
anter of gravitv. To find the momeut of inertia of a body. refr!rrc$
yjven axis diride the body into small parts of JYgular f i Wr C.
Bl r l t t l -
;e weightof each part by t.he square of the,dlstance of its CCntei Of
~77 f r om the asis. The sum of the prodltcts 1s the moment of Inertia.
of the moment of inertia thlls obtained will be more nearly
ller and more numerous the parts into which the body 19
ply t,l
gravi, . . _
The vallie
rxaet. the sma
divided.
MO:LIENTS OF INERTIA OF REGULAR SOLIDS. - Rod, or bar. of uniform
thickness, with respect to an axis perpendicular to the length of the rod,
I.=lV (5 ,+ia), . . . . . . (1)
w = weight of rod, 21 = length. d = distance of center of gravity from
axis.
Thin circular plate, axis in its
own plane,
) I=W (; +dZ), . . . . . . 2)
r = radius of plate.
Circular plate, axis perpendicular to 1 I= ~1, ($ + do 1 . . . . . (3)
the plate,
Circular ring, aXis perpendicular to
its own pla,ne,
r and r are the esterior and
Cylinder. aXis perpendicular
axis of the cyti.iider.
r = radius of b:2se. 2t = length of the cylinder.
By making d = O i n any 0: t he above formul& we find the moment of
inertia for a p:irallel axis through the center of gravity.
The moment of inertia, 9~ numerically equals the weight of a bpdy
which if concentrated at the distance unity from the axls Of rotation.
would re uire the same work to produce a given increase of avgular
:
velocity t IU the actual body. requires. 9
It bears the safe relat,lon to
angular arcelerstion which weight does to linear acceleration (Ranklne).
The term moment of inertia is also used in regard to areas, a? the cross-
s&ions of beams under str$n.
In this case f = HaTi;; ;;2;f$;;ngg
elementary area, and r i t s &stance from the center.
of $lateriail;, p. 279.)~ Some writers call Zmrs-9wr
? i g the momcot Of
inertia.
CENTER AND RADIUS OF GYRATION.
495
the radius of vvcatlon is the least, possible when the axis p?.sSeS t.hcou@
the center of gc&ty.
This minimum radius is called the pclnclpal iadm,S
of gyration.
If we denote it by k and any other radius of g,ycatlqn by k ,
we barve for the five caSe~ given under the head of moment Oi lnectla above
the following vitlues:
(1) Rolle;+$s perpen. to . - Z \h- +/;; k= +&ii
(2) Circular plate, axis in
its plane,
494
.
MECEANICS.
CRXTERS OF OSCILLATION AND OF PERCUSSION.
ntec of Qscillatiog. - If a body oscillate abo& a filred horiznntn.1 Fe:
aXIS, nor PaSsIn? through its center of-gcavit
$awn from the center of gravity per
there is a point in the line
1s the same as It.would be if the
to the &XIS whose motion
collected at that point
and allowed to vlbcate as a pendulum about the fixed axis.
tailed the center of oscillation.
This point is
-.
.rhe Rad.ius of Oscillation, or distance of the center of oscillation
from the Pomt of suspension = the square of the radius of gyration + rlis-
tance of the center of gravity from the point of sl!spension or axis.
centers of +cdla,t~on and suspension ace convertible.
The
If a .$cal&ht hne, or uniform thin bar or cylinder be suspended at one
end, osclllatmg about it as an axis, the renter of o&illation is at 2/3 the
length of the cod from the asis.
If the point of suspeMon is at l/3 the
length.fcom the end.. the center of oscillation is also at 2/3 the lendh from
the am, that is, it 1s at the other end.
be performed in the Same ti-me. If
In both cases the oscillation will
center of gravity. the lenetk
the point of suspension is at t.h&
! of the eqmvalent simple pendulum is infinite,
: UI vlbcation is infinite,
and therefore tli& timc--Lz
FTC a sphere susper
motion from the center 01 r,j
lde.d,.b~ a cord. r = radius. h = distance of asis of
ne sphere, h = distance of center of oscillation
(4) Circular cmg. axis pec-
pen. to plane.
jk= (~;k:j/k+&
txrr id E
(5) Cylinder, axis
pen. to length,
Per-)k= d$+!Z:v= $/:i-%idz.
Principal Radii of Gyration and Scjuaces Of Radii Of Gyration.
(For radii of ggcation of sections of columns. See page 281.)
Square of R.
Surface or Solid.
Rnd. of Gyration. of Gyration.
%h2
l / 12 hZ
axis at end.. _.
mid-length.. .
Rect.r
p~~~l~eioudip~~:.i~ng:th I, bese b. aviE ac c I
,C I +
one cud, 2.t mid-breadth... .
Hollow square tube:
out. side h, inner h axis mid-length.
-:,I- = h avie mid-length,
I I
(h* i$~=)~: 12
LL:_
.T h2 h+3b
l+b
~I1,u-,~LI~~,I ,,.. . -.
Thin circ. plate: rad.r, diam. h..ax..diam.
t l/z I 41
Flat eirc. ring: diams. h, h, ~X>S dlam..
114 z/h2 -t h2
lh
. _
,I;., ,_^
Solid circular &ndec length 1. am -a~
ametec at mid-lengfn.. :
~irmhr elate: s&d ~whe:
,. of .uniio;m
{ 0.209 VI f J?
any length.
I\
0.7071 T -.-_-.-~ _
thickness. or cylinder of
cefercedtoaxisnfcyl . . . . . . . . . . . . ..:...I
Hollow cicc. cylinder, or .flat cmg:
0. 7071 Ai F- ?
z length ~,,r, out,er and Inner cadn.
AsiS. 1. ionp/ltudinnl axis: 2. &am. at
,2891/1z+ 3 (%~+,i)
from center of the sphere. Z = radius of oscillation = h + h = h + i z.
If the sPlltzce vibrate about an axis tangent to its surface, h = r, and
1 =r+Qr. If!L=ll)r,Z=lOr+-L.
IXngths of the Cadills of oscillation% a few regular plane figures or thin
plate% s?rsPended l!v t.he vertex or uppermost point.
1st. 1% hen the vlbcations ace flatwise, or perpendicular to the plane of
the fiqure:
In an isosceles triangle the radius of oscillation is equal to 3/4 of the
height of the triunele.
In a ?iccle. j/S of the diameter.
In a Parabola. j/7 of t.he height.
2d. When the vibrat.ions ace edqewisrt or in the plane of the figure:
In a elc&! the radius of oscillation is 3;4 of the diameter.
In a rectangle suspended by one anale. 2/3 of the diagonal.
111 a Pacahola, suspended by the vect.ex. S/7 of the height plus 113 of
t,he oacameter~
Iri a Parabola. suspended by the middle of the base, J/7 of the height plus
V2 the Parameter.
Center of P&&,ssjon. m The center of
ing about a fixed asls 15 the point at which. 1
2
eccussion of a body oscillat-
a blow is struck by the body
the Percussive actlon IS the same as if the whole mass of the body wei;
z;ic;a;tynyd at the point.
This point is identical with the celitec of
mi,l&Gth.: . . 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..I
.iAeter...: . . . \ 0.289+YX%
1
Same: very thin, aris its d
6
radius r; axis,. longitudinal &XIS
r
Ciccymf. of cil;ple, a~15 iltg;F?.
0.70:1 r
Sphere. radius r, axis its diam.. .
0.6325 r
Spheroid: -equatorial cadms T. ct
I
CESTER AXD RADIUS OF ~xRATION.
The Center of ~rotion. with reference to an axis is a point at which if
the.entlce weight of a body be concentrated, its*mdment of inertia tillce-
m+n unchanged: or, 111 a revolving body. the point in which the whole
wPl@t of the body Fas be conceived to be concentrated as if a pound of
Platu!um were substituted for a pound of revolving feat6ecs the angular
velocW and the accumulated work remaining the same.
this Point from the asis is the radius of gyration.
T6e distance of
If W = the weight of a
body. I = Pu@ = its moment of inertia, and k~ = its radius of gyration,
?volvrrle ) ,
0.6325~ I
~polar axis a.
Paraboloid: r
Ellipsokl: sem
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..J
-cad. of base. rev. 0 am.
0.5773r
i-axes a, 6, e; CevolVlngon 0.4472 d/b=2
axisZf2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......:....
I
Spherical shell: radii R, r, cevo~vw on 0.6325Js
its &am.. . . . . . .: . . . . . .
~pc~i.y~~ thin. pad? 7.. . .:.,;.::
215 T2
The moment of inertia= the weight x thesq:acKf the radius of gyration
To find the radius of gyration divide the body into a considerable
umber of equal small pacts, -- t.he more numerous the more neaily exact
1s the result. - then take the mean of all the stluaces of the distances of the
Parts from the axis of revolution. and find the square coot of the mean
Square.
and .estcact b he square coot.
Or. If the moment of inertia is known divide it by the weight
For radius of gyration of an area. as a ccoss-
seCtIon of a beam. divide the moment of inertia of the area by the area
and extract the square coot.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some of the
e
THE PENDULTJ BI.
sPended from a fixed axis about which it oscillates
by tne force of gravity is Called a Compound pendulum. The ideal body
concentrated at the center of oscillation, sUspended from the center of s,:s-
pension, by a strmg without weight, is called a simple pendj~lzr~~~.
Tlih
equivalent simple pendulum ha,r; the szame weight as the given horiL. and
also t~he same moment of Inertia, referred to an axis passing t-:elug:i, the
point of s!!spension, and It or-illittes: in the same timf!.
The time of vibration of a pendrilum varies~direct1.y as the sqrlare root
. . . . . I : .._.^_,.^ I.. ^.
of the length, LL~~~~ n,vei~seiY as
.I~~
cne sqmire root or theacr,
gravity a; the given Iatitrulr and elevation ii
eleriition due to
If 7 = the time of vibration 1 = Ie
tbove the earths ;:i :faee.
rlgtb of the simple prndl::m, Q =
acceleration = 32.16: 2 = rr
I ;
; / sl ;
41
smce x is constant, Tm -.
location 4 is constant and 2 OD dr
4Q
At a given
If Z be constant, then for any location
T (0 A.
,
do
If T be constant, QT = al; I m g; g = 2. From this eq,lution
the force of gravity at any place may be de:ermined if the length of the
simple prnd~inm,. vibrating seconds, at that place is knoivn,
At New
York thiS length 1~ 391017 inches = 3.2585 ft., rvhence g = 32.16 ft.
London the length is 39.1393 inches.
.4t
At the equator 39.6132 or 39.9168
inches. acconlinq to different authorities.
Time of vibration of a pendu!mn of a given length at New York
t being in seconds and Z in inches.
time of vibrajion, 1 7 t x 39.lUl7 inches,
Length of a pendulum having a given
The time 01 vibration of a pendidurn mav be varied bv the addition of a
weight at. a point above the center of s&pension,, whi& counteracts the
lower weight. and lengthens the period of vibration..
height of the upper iveight the time is varied.
By varying the
To nnd the vzeight of,the upper hob of a cornpoUnd pendulum vibratinm
SWonds. when the weight of the lower bob and
wetghts from the point of suspension are given:
the tiistan~es of thz
u1 = ,v (9.1 X D) - D.
(3Y.l x d) + d
-
f7 = the weight of the lower bob. W; = t.he wei pht d t hn l .nnnr Z-S.. ~. . ..- ..,. _._.. uL .._ up&,=-L Vi
U =.tne dlS&nCe Of Lhe lower,bob and& = the distance of the upper bob
from the point of suspension, :n inches.
Thus. bv mea.ns of a sex
:ond bob. shorr penduiums may be constructed to
~lo~iy as laneer nendulums~ vibrate as:
By increasing w or d unti: tl
thtt_t~ime of vim: ltion
~~~ -he lower weight is entirely counterbalanced,
may be made infinite,
at
LOnt(ai 1endUlUr.n. - A ,weight sUspended by a cord and revoiring
a uniform. speed in the circumference of a circular horizontal plane
whose radms Is r. the dlsqance of the plane below the point of suspension be-
ing IL., 1s held in eq@bFiUm by three forces -the t~ension in the cord the
centrifugal .force. whnch tends to increase the radius r and the forfe of
-_^
gravity acting downward.
ff V= the velocity in feet per second of the
center of gravity of t.he weight. as it describes thecircurnference Q = 3q.16
snd r and .h are taken in feet, the time in seconds of performing-one
revolution *s
t=
2 277
-= 2*
TE
21
9; h- f$= C,.&6t?.
If 1 = 1 second. h = 0.8146 foot = 9.775 inches
The Principle of the,conical pendulum is Used
:oYkxnor for steam-engtnes,. (See Governors.)
in the ordtnarg #y-ball
VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, FALLING BODIES. 497
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.
A body revolving in a cnrved path of rildius = R in feet exerts a force.
calico centrifugal force, P, Upon the arm or cord which restrains It from
moving in a straight line, or Hying off at a tangent.
If IY = weight of
the body in pounds. .V = number of revolutions per minute, 1) = linear
velocity of the center of gravity of the body, in feclt. per second, Q = 3:?.16.
tt Vl
ll+nLH.V
3600 g
T5R.V OO07410 lVR,,: .,,&-
===. ;
If n = i:,;mber of revolntions per second, F = 1.2X6 WRnT.
!For centrifugal force in HY-wheels, see Fly-wheels.)
VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, F.~I.I,ISG BODIES.
Velocity is t,he rate of motion, or the speed of a body at an;y instant,.
Ifs = space in feet passed ol;er in t qeconds. and ZI = velocity in feet Per
second, if t!,e velocity is uniform,
.
s
v=i ; s=vt; z, .
If the velocity varies uniformly, the mean velocity ~,,,=t/z(ri + ~2). in which
r, is the velocity at the beginning and We the veiocitg at the end of the time 1.
s=l/z(vI +?$t. . . . . * . . , (1)
If :), = 0. then s = l/s v2t. r2 = 2 s/t.
If the velocity varies, but no t Uniformly, 2r for an exceedingly short
interval of time = s/t. or in c%kulus II = dsldt.
4pcrlention is the change in velocity which takes place in a Unl~;f
time u& of acceleration = a = 1 foot per second in one second.
uniformiy varying velocity, the acceleration is a constant quantrtY, and
. .
If the bcdy start from rest, 2)r = 0; then if r,=menn velocity
u2
V2
vu,= $; v2=2vm; a= -. vs=aZ; v?-at=O; t=;.
t
Ccmbining (I) and (2). we have
s E v;L - v,z
ata
at?
:a
; .s=v,t+-: s=v?t--Tj-.
2
d
If v, = 0. s= 112 vet.
Retarded Motion. - If the body s&t with a velocity v, and Come to
rest, 21~ = 0: then s=l/sr,t.
In any case, if the change in velocity is 1).
s2t; s=;a,: s= ;p
I
For a body starting from or ending at rest. we have the equations
;
Falling Bodies. - In the case of falling bodies the acceleratiofl _due
to uravity at 40~ latitude is 32.16 feet per second in one-second. 8,
Tll& if v = velocity acquired at the end of t seconds. or hnal veiocJtY.
and h = height or space m feet passed over In the same ttme,
2h
2)s gl i 32,16tcds = 8.02 4 - T :
h St2
n n
sT =16.08t2=
vt
=L!L =--
29
64.32 .2 -
498 MECHANICS.
-.
se?
t t3
CL=
z 4 2h
es-.
32.16 - = 4.01 (I 21
u -space fallen tdroigh in the Tth second = g (I - l/z).
From the above formula for falling bodies we obtain the following:
During the first second the body starting from a state of rest (resistance
of the air neglected) falls g + 2 = 16.08 feet; the acquired velocity is g :=
32.16 it. per sec.; the distance fallen in two seconds is h = $ = 16.0$ x 4
= 64.32 ft.: and the acquired velocity is 2, = gt = 64.32 ft. The acceler-
ation, or increase of velocity in each second, is constant, and is 32.16 ft.
ovr second. Solving the eauations for different times. we find for
Seconlls.t..................................~ .. 1 2 3 4 5 - 6
;\ccelemtion. 0.. ....................... 32.16 X 1 1 1
v&city acquired at end of time. 2) 32.16 X 1 23: : :
Zeight of fzli in each second, u
32 16
....... T x 135 7 9 11
Ti,tal height of fall, h
32.16
.................... 2 x 1 4 9 16 25 36
Value of g. - The value of 9 increases with the latitude, and decreases
r:-i:!1 thr elevation. At the latitude of Philadelphia, 40. its value is 32.16.
.kt thr .WL-Icwl, Everett gives g = 32.173 - .082 cos 2 lat. - .000003
!irieht in teet. At Paris. lat. 4s 50 N.. o = 980.87 cm. = 32.181 ft.
\;ziuta uf d?g, calcul&ed by an equation given by C. Y. Pierce are
gi:i-n in n mble in Smiths Hydraulics. from which we take the follokng:
100 200 300 400 500 60
8.0112 S.011S S.0137 5.0165 8.0199 5.0235 8~0269
\.K:lue of 3 32.090 32. 094 32. 105 32. 132 32. 160 32.1S9 32. 216
-
The ;xlii? (?I d/.g decreases abollt .0004 for every 1OOO~feet increase in
rir~:;lrion libow the sea-level.
For itil orrliniL~~alculations for the United States. g is generally t,aken
at32. 16. and 42s at 8.02. In England g = 32.2. fig 2 8.025. Practi-
cal limiting valurs of g for the United State:- according to Pierce, are:
Latitilde 49 at sea-level.. g = 32.1S6
2 10.000 feet above the sea.. g = 32. oso
Fiz. 100 rrpresents graphically t,he velocity. space. et,c.. of a body falling
for <ix seconds. The vertical line at the left is the time in seconds. the
horizonta! lines represent the acquirea
velocities at t,he end of each second =
32.16t. The area of the small triangle
at, the top represents the height fallen
through in the first second = 1&g= 16 OS
feet, and each of the other triangles is au
equal space. The number of triangles
between each pair of horizonta,i lines rep-
resent? the height of fa!l in each second.
and the number of trianeles between any
horizontal line and the top is the total
heieht fallen durine thetimr. The figures
under h, u and ?J adJoining the cut are to
hemultlplied by 16.08toobtain t~heactual
velocities and heights for thegiven times
Angular and Linear Velocity of a
Turning: Body. - Let r = radius of a
turning hods in feet, n = number of revo-
lutions per minute, 2)= linear vei0rit.v of
a point on the circumference in feet per
second, and 60~ = velocity in feet per
minute.
1 1.21
4 3 4 2
9~ 5 6 3"
16 7 8 4"
25 9 10 5/
36 11 1 . 6.
F
! RTrl
v = 2nTn
60;
6Ov=2
iG. 100.
:
th
_-._ ..~ ,..., .~, ,,.,.- -~,,&&&!
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of i
h zc, ut
PARALLELOGRAM OF VELOCITIES. 499
Angular velocity is a term used to denote the angle through which any
radius of a body turns in a second, or the rate at which an) point in it
having a radius equal to unity is moving, expressed in feet per second.
The unit of angular velocity is the angle which at a distance = radius
from the center is subtended by an arc equal to the radius. This unit
angle = F degrees = X.3. 2aX 57. 3' =~360", or the circumference.
If -4 = angular velocity, 21 = .4r, .4 = F = s: . The unit a&e y is
called a TUdiUn.
Height Corresponding to a Given Acquired Velocity.
Ii::
20. 1
21. 3
22. 4
2:
26. 1
27. 4
28. 7
30. 1
31. 4
ii::
35. t
37. 1
38. !
40.
42. t
43. :
45. :
>I
2 .z
2
.-t 4
3
3: > 2
---
feet
Eeet. per feet.
sec.
47. 0 76 09. 8
48. 8 77 92. 2
50. 5 94. 6
52. 3 :t
54. 1 G:!Z
56. 0
! E5 57. 9 .
59. 8
61. 7 :: 100;::
63. 7 85 112. 3
65. 7
67. 7 E II::!
69. 8
71. 9 ii Ei:;
74. 0
76. 2 z: 1z
78. 4
80. 6 zz 1:::;
if:? z; 1%
87. 5 96 143. 3
eet.
I2
155
152
171
188
$f;
2; ;
304
350
476
622
1399
%
5597
7618
9952
12, 593
15, 547
Para,llelogram of Velocities. -
The principle of the composition
and rr+sohftion of forces may also be applied to velocities or to distances
moved in given intervals of time. Referring
tn vied ~1.1. naee 489. if a body at 0 has a A 1
2 3 B
r alone would ,-,W \ \ \
>
velocities are uniform, the rest
uniform and the line OR will
line: but if either velocity is s
be a straight
, varying one.
,n. _b. ^... l ho
the line will be a curve.
resultant velocities also tbe
by a body acted on bytwo for
velocity over the intervals 1. 2.
by an accelerated motion over th
MECHANICS.
FORCE OF ACCELERATION. 501
.
Falling Rodies: Velocity Aequirccl by a Body Palling a Given
Height.
the end of the respective itftervals the hod
and the me&n velocity during each
will be found at Cr. C?, Cs. C,
interva s IS represented by the dlstances 7.
between these points. Such a curved path is traversed by a shot. the
impelling force from the gun giving it a uniform velocity in the drrection
the gun is aimed, and gravity giving it an accelerated velocity downward.
The pat h of n pr oj ect i l e i s a par abol a. The distance it will t.ravel is
greatest when its initial direction is at an angle 45 above the horizontal.
Mass -Force of .Areelcration. - The mws, of n I mt l y. m = w/ g. is a
constant quantity. If y = C!m acceleratiotr due to gravit.y, aud w =
weight, then the mass m = c ; w= mg. If the weight w is taken to be the
9.
resultant of the force of gravrtyon the particles of a body. such as may
be measured by a spring balance, or by the extension or detiection of a
rod of metal loaded with the given weight. then t.he weight varies accor d-
ing to the variation in the force of grarvity at different places, and the value
of g is that at the place where the body is weighed; but if u is the weight
as weighed on a platform scale, then g=32.2, the English value. In either
case m = w/g is a constant.
Force has been defined as that. which causes, or tends to cause, or to
destroy, motion. It may also be defined as the cause of acceleration:
and the unit of force, the pound, as the force required to produce an
acceleration of 32.2 ft. per second per second in a pouml of free mass.
Force equals the product of the mass by the arcelrration. or / = ma.
Also, if u = the velocity acquired in the time t,ft = mv:f = mv i t; the
acceleration being uniform.
The force required to produce an acceleration of g (that is, 32.16 ft. per
sec. in one second) is; = mg = F g = w, or the weight of the body. Also.
i.
.ZL
4
s
-
fee
1.se
::
a.,
Z:
i;:
9. :
9. ,
9. ,
9. '
9. 1
9. :
; : i
?. ?
9. t
I O. 1
I O. I
I ; : ;
10. 5
1O. f
I O. 1
I I . 1
I . 4
1. 7
1. 9
2. 2
2. 4
2. 6
2. 0
3. 2
3. 4
: : ;
4. 1
4. 3
4. 5
4. 8
5. 0
5. 2
5. 4
5. 6
5. 0
5. 0
5. 4
; : 2"
1. 6
-
>
z
2
Y
i
-
fee
>.s<
:Z
, : T
I . 2
I . 3
! : i
i : :
I . 8
1. 9
i i : !
2. 2
2. 2
2. 3
2. 4
Z
2. 61
2. 6
2. 7.
: : ;
2. 8'
3. 04
3. 1
; I ; :
3. 4
5. 51
1. X
l . bf
l . 7f
1. 8:
193
1. 01
1. 0s
i . I 7
I . 25
1. 32
I . 39
z. 47
' . 54
, . 6l
, . 68
. 74
. a1
: Z
fee
0.3
00::
0.4
0.4
0.4
Z:
0.:
0.4
0. 4
0. 5
; : g
0. 5
0. 5
0. 5
i i : :
0. 5
0. 5'
0. 61
0. 6,
0. 6.
D. 6'
b. 6;
: : : I
1. 7:
: : : I
) . &?I
; : t
ki f
) . N
t . 92
1. 94
I . 96
I . 98
: E
. 04
: i i
. I 0
. I 2
. I 4
. I 6
I 8
-
i
.z
-0
s
-
fee
,.se
Ii:
18.
19~
19.
19.
20.
20.
20.
Z: '
21.
2, . ,
22.
22. ,
22. 1
23. 1
g; j
23.;
14.
14. :
z4. t
24. :
! 5. ;
! 5.
! 6. (
! b. t
! 7. 2
! 7. f
! 8.
! 8. 5
! 9. 5
i 0. c
i O. 5
i l . 1
2:
2. 6
3. 1
3. 6
4. 0
4. 5
: : :
2: :
6. 3
: : &
9. 1
-
.$
:
z
*
-
fee
1st
38.
38.
: z:
! I
42.
43.
43.
2:
2
47.
Z:
49.
: : :
51:
: : : I
53. :
53. i
i 4:
$5. 1
55. 1
i 6.
56. 1
$7. :
i 7. 1
i s. 2
i 9. f
i 9. f
i 0. C
Z: f
11. t
12. I
12. ;
3. 1
3. i
14. 2
~: : :
2: :
2
7. 6 b
-
O.OG
0. 01
0. 01
" 0%
%Z
0. 04
0. 04
o. n5
0. 05
0. 06
E
0. 07
" 0%
0. 09
0. 09
0. 10
0. 10
; : ; ; i
O. I ZI
O. I zi
0. 131
0. 14
0. 15
0. 16
0. 17
0. I 8
: : : o"
0. 21
0. 22
0. 23
0. 24
0. 25
i : : ;
0. 28
E
0. 31
: : : i
: : : ;
: : : ;
0. 38
fee
>.sl?
5.0
5. 0
: : ; ;
5. 21
5. 3:
2: :
: : : 1
5. 6
; : ; j
5. 71
5. 8
: : : i
6. M
6. 0!
6. 11
b. l f
6. 21
g: $
6. 5;
6. 61
6. 71
6. 81
6. 90
6.99
::z
r.3;
7: 44
7. 53
7. 61
7. 69
I . 78
' . 86
1. 94
1: : :
I . I 8
I . 26
; . 34
i . 41
' . 49
' . 57
. 64
. 72
-
feel
I .2
1. 2
I . 2
1. 2
1. 2
1. 3
I . 3
I . 3
1: : :
I . 4
I . 4.
1. 4,
: . 41
1. 41
I . 5l
l : : i
I . 51
1. 51
I . 6(
I . 61
1. 7(
I . 71
I . %
1. 9(
f:,
::3
2. 4
2. 5
t : ;
2. 8
2. 9
Cl
s. 2
1. 3
i s
1. 5
1. 6
I . 7
i . 8
I . 9
I .
. 2
. 4
: :
-
fee:
5,
6:
. '
7: '
. .
:
_(
2
_*
: ;
9: '
. ;
: ;
, 0: [
i 5
. 5
12.
. 5
13.
. 5
! 4.
. 5
15.
16; ;
17.
. 5
18.
9: 5
! Or :
! I
, in which r2 is the velocity at the end, and z)* the
w (vz - Vli
velocity at the beginning of the time t, and / = mg = 7
211
t
=%;
/- U
w
- -; or, the force required to give any acceleration to a body is to the
weigt?t of the body as that acceleration is to the acceleration produced by
gravity. (The weight tin is the we/ght where g is measured.)
EXU%PLE. - Tension in a cord hfting a weight. A weight of 100 Ibs. is
lifted vertically by a cord a distance of 80 feet in 4 seconds, the velocity
uniformly increasmg from 0 to the end of the time. What tension must
be maintained in the cord7 Mean velocity = rrn =20 ft.. per sec.; final
velocity = 21e= 2 zm = 40; acceleration a = T = F = 10. Force f =
ma = wa = = x 10 = 31.1 Ibs. This is the force required to pro-
duce tt?e acc%%ion only. to it must be added the force required to lift
the weight without acceleration. or 100 ibs., mailing a tots: of 131.1 Ibs.
The Resistance to Accel mzt i on is the same as the force required to pro-
w (vz - vd.
duce the acceleration = - t
Formulae for Acceter~ted Motion - For cases of uniformlv acceI-
erated motion other than those of faliing bodies, we have the formuhe
already given, f = : a, = y v. If the body starts from rest, v1 =O.
VI = V, andf = g 2 ; fgt = UN.
ot
We also have s = z. Transforming and
substituting for g its value 32.16, we obta.in
WV2
' = 64. 32s
vJ* w = WV 32.16it = 64x?f a
32. 16 t 16. 05 t " v l j 2 '
16. 08 / P
w
= $; v= 5. 02
. -
' WARNI NG: This is a 1910 eciition. some
t
For any change in velocity, f= w
y-y).
(See also Work of Acceleration. under Work.)
Jlati(m on ln+ned Planes. - The velocity acquired by a body
descemim6 an mcl!ned plane by the force of gravity (friction neglected) is
eqtlal to,that acquired by a body falling free!y from the height of the plane.
The times of descent down different inchned planes of the same height
vary as tllr lenrrb of the planes.
The rules for uniformly accelerated motion applv to inclined planes.
If n is the an6le of the plane with the horizontal, sin a = the ratio of the
height to the length = f. and the constant acc,eleratin6 force isgsin a.
The final veiocity at the end of t seconds is 2 = gt sin a.
passed over in t seconds is 2 = l//z gt sin a.
The distance
The time of descent is
.-
FCNDAXENTAL EQUATIOXS IS DPNAMICS.
(1 j FS = 1/z .UV? = WH.
(21 FT = 211 V.
Force into space eouals energy, or work.
Force into time equals mom&turn.
(31 F = M?z&f V/ T. Force equals mass into acceleration.
(4) V = 42 gH. Falling bodies.
The sign = here means
of each element.ar!,
numerically equivalent to, the proper units
quantity being chosen,
M = mass = IV/g: IV = weight in pounds, g = 32.2. F = force in
pounds. exerted on a mass free to move S = space, or histance in feet,
thro%h +ch F is exerted: T = time in seconds; H = height in feet
through w-tnch a body falls, or in eq. (1) is lifted: d = acceleration in feet
per second per second. = V/ T; V = velocitr in feet. per second acquired at
the end of the time T. bhe space 8: or the hei6ht of fail H.
BY these fpllr equations and thex aigebraic transformations practically
all problems m dynamics (except those relating to impact) ma)- be solved.
XOMESTLM, VI.!+VIVA.
Mom.cntum. in many books erroneousI?- defined as the quantity of
motion In a body. is the product of the mass by the velocity at any instant.
Since the moving force = product of mass by acceleration, f = ma;
and if the ve1ocit.y acquired in t seconds = z. or a = pS f = q: ff =
m~v: that is. t.he roduct of a constant force into the t&e in whi:h it acts
equals numerical Y bhe momentums f
Since ft = mv. if t = 1 second nv = f. whence momentum might be de-
fined as numencal1.v equivalent t.o the number of pounds cf force that will
stop a moving body in 1 second or the number of pounds of force which
actin. durinr: 1 second will ,ive it the liven veloritr.
Vis-viva. or living force..is a term used br ea:li- &titers on Mechanics
to denot~e the energy stored in a mDvin6 body.
some defined it as the
product of the mass into the square of the velocity, maJ. =E ~2: others as
one-half of this quantity, or l/z m+, or the same as what is now known as
energ-. The term is now obsolete; its place being t&ken by the word
energs-.
FVark i s the overcomin6 of resistance through a certain distance.
It is
.mea%ren by the product of the resistance into the space through which it
1s overcome. It is also measured by t.he ororlurt of the moving force into
the distance through which the force a&s in overcoming the resistance.
Thus in lifting a body from the earth against the attraction of gravity,
This is a
WORK, ENERGY, POWER.
the resistanceis the weight of the body, and the product of this Weight
into the height the body is lifted is the work done.
The Unit of Work, in British measures, is the fwl-pound. or the
amount of work done m overcoming a pressure or weight equal to one
pound through one foot of space.
bThe work performed I~. )v a oiston in drivinr a fluid before it. or bv a fluid
in driving a piston before it: may be espre;sed in either of the ftillowing
ways:
ResistiLnce X distance traversed
= intensity of pressure X area X distance traversed;
= intensity of pressure Xvolume traversed.
Bgintensityof pressureis meant pressureper unit of area, as lbs. persq.in.
The work uerformed in lifting a body is the product of the weight ot the
body into ttie height through which its center of gravit g is.lifted.
11 R. ma~r hi ne 1i f t .n t .he c ent er s of gravity of several odles at once t 0
7~. the nihol~ nlla.nt.itv of work nerformed
in sb doing is the sum of the several products of the
but that quantity can also be computed by multiplying the sum oi a!1 ti!e
weights into the height through which their common center of gra~lty 1s
lifted. (Kankine.) -
Power is the rate at which work is done, and is expressed by the.quo-
tient of the work divided by the time in which it is done. or by umts of
work per second, per minute. etc., as foot,-pounds per second.
The most
common unit of power is the hor se- power , established by James Watt as
the power of a strong London draught-horse to do w0r.k durmg a Shor t
interval, and used by him to measure the power of tus steam-enguM.
Thi s Itnit is :%nOO foot-oounds Der minute = 550 foot-pounds per second
Expressions for Ferce, Work, Power, etc.
The fundamental conceptions in DJ insmics are:
Mass, Force, Time, Sna,m-. renresc ~!nted br the letters &I. F. T. 8.
Mass = weight i- g.
-Ff T.l % & eht , of a. b~%lv IS determined bv a soring
balance standardized at ~o~d&~~t?~ii~ vary with the latitude: aa< t.he
value of g to be taken i n order to find the mass is that of the latitude
where the weighing is _..-.
r t ~,@ If the weight is determined by a balance
or by a
x
latform scale, as is tug
iomary in engineering amd in co,nmerce.
the Lon on value of g, = 32.2, is to be-taken.
Velocity = space divided by _.....,
i time. V = S + T. if V be uniform.
V = 2S + Tif V be uniformly accelerated.
Work=force multiplied by space=FS- l/2 XV2 = FVT ( V uniform).
Power = rate of work = work divided by time = FS i 1 = P c
product of force into uniform velocity = FV.
Power exerted for a certain time reduces work; PT = FS = FY7 .
EfPor(. is a fcrce which acts on a g . odv m the direction of its m3t l On.
R~istance is thah which is opposed to an acting force.
It is equal
--.-~ in
ami opposite to the force.
Horse-power Hours: an expression for work measurrd as the product
of a poser into the t,lmc during which ?t act,& = PT. &XWt i meS I t
is tile summation of a variable power for a @ren time, or ,the aVer age Power
. . . . . . ..~ I:m..
mulUpuea oy rne rxne.
Energy, or stored work,
is :he capacity for performing work.
It is
measured by the samp *x& a-s work, that is, in foot-po@s.
It may pe
either potentin!. as m the case of a body of water stored ?n,a reseryolr,
capah!- Ui doing work by means of a water-wheel, or ac:UQL, sometimes
<:iLlled kin,etic, which is the energy of a moving body.
Pqtential en.e!gY 1s
measured by the product of the weight of the stored body mto the dlstan?e
throumh which it is capable o
f acting, or by the product of the pressure It
exe&into the distance through which that pressure is capable Of act!n6.
i)otent~ial energy may also exist as stored heat, or as stored chermcal
energy, as in fuel gunpowder, etc., or as electrical energy, the measure of
these energies being the amount cf work that they are c.apa>l$ of Perform-
ing. Actual energy of a moving body is the work w!uch zt IS capable of

performing against a retarding resistance before b?ng brought to rest,
anti is equal t.o the work which must be done upon it to bnn6 It from a
state of rest ts.Its.pctual~.velpcity,.~~L _-_.-_..__ ,_._ ,.,~,,
haterial may no longer be accwate
L
MECPANICS.
The measur e of actual energy is the
into the heigl!t from which it must fal 5)
roduct of the weight of the body
to acquireits actual velocity. If
v = the velocity IP feet-per second, according to the principle of falling
bodies, 11. the height diue to the velocity, = 2
; and if w = the weight, the
eneigy = V2 m+ f WV? + 2g =tuh. Since en&~y is the capacity forperiorm-
mg work. tile umts of work and energy are equivalent. or FY =I / ? m~. *=wh.
Energ>- exerted = work done.
The actual erlrrSy of a rot~ating body whose angular velocit~v is A and
n
moment of inertia Tu.+ = I is c
g
that is, the product of the moment of
inertia into the height due to the velocity, A. of a point whose distance
from t,lle xi.9 Of rOtatiOniS unity: or it is equal to !.$ , in which w 1s the
w&ht of the !)ody and Y is the velocitg of the cen$ of gyration.
FVork of .Acceleration. -- The work done in giving accelernt,ion to a
body is.equai to the product of the force
d.
xoducing the acceleration or of
the r~s5anie to acceleration. into the lstance moved in-a givrntime.
This force, x aIre& stated, equals product of the milss iato the accelera-
tion, or/ = n2a = Cu !Z$!! .
0
If the distance traversed in the time t = s.
+.NTLE. - $a< kork is required to move a body weighing 100 Ibs.
!lonxl!t:Llly ? distance of 80 ft. in 4 seconds, the velocity uniformly
!ncrenimg, frrction neglected?
ieean velocity V
m= 20 ft. per second; final velocity =ti = 2 pm = 40 ;
initi.11 veiocity z11 = 0; acceleration, 40
a = v, = - = 10. f or ce =
2
u!
4
7 a= :s X 10 = 31.1 lb%; distance 80 ft.; work = fs = 31.1 x SO =
b
2sS8 foot-pounds.
The energy stored in the body moving at the final velocity, of 40 ft.
jer second is
I , ? ma2 = i ! ! u2 = 00- X 402
. ,
?g 2 x 32. 16
= 2488 foot-pounds,
w!;ich equals the work of acceleration,
If a body of the weight. FV falls from a height H, the work of acceleration
same F.Geh+.
is sim lv JJff, or the same as the work required to raise the body to the
!lork of .Acyelerated Rotation. - Let A = angular velocity of a
soh? b?dr fotatmg about 8n axis, that is. the velocity of a particle whose
radius 1s umty. Then the velocity of a article whose radius is rls v = ~7.
If the angular velocity is accelerated ro-
P 111 A, i AZ, the increase of the
Yel0Clt.V of the Partick is 2% - 111 =f (Al - AZ), and the work of ~celerat-
mg it IS
; x
v2= - v12
2 = $ -42 ; A12,
!n which w is the weight. of the particle
4 is measured in radians.
The work of acceleration of the whole body is
The term %I@ is the moment of inertia of the body.
Force of the Blow 9
?t a Steam %mmer or Either Falling
FI!j::Etf,; --;-$iT guestion is ntt.en ask&: 08
With what force does a falling
ik cased upon a mlsconceptlon or ignorance of.~Jnd~mental m&han~~~
The questton cannot be answered directly and it
_,___ _~, .~__~ _~ ~~_~-. -.-. -~,---.~.--. ,.- __~, ._.~. ._.~ ~.~
\h~~g~IyG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
I&lPACT.
laws. The energy, or capacity of doing work, of a body raised to a given
height and let fall cannot be expressed in po!mds. simp!y, but only in fopt-
pounds. which is the product of the weight mto the height through w@ch
It falls, or the product of its weight i S4.32 into the square of tjle vetocIty,
in feet per second, which it acquires after falling through the given he@.
If P = weight of the body, M its mass, D the acceleration due to gravity,
,+i the height off II, and 2) the velocity at the end of the fall, the energy 1n
the body just b 3f ore striki!!g is bS = l/z ,\~~a~= 7Yzy f 2 g = IVnn + G&3?.
which is the general etluutxm of energy of a movl!lg body. -Just as t.l!e
energy of the body is a product of a force into a distance, so the work It
does when it strikes is not the manifestation of a force, w&h can be es-
pressed simply in pounds, but it is the overcommg of a resistance thror!gh
a certain distance, which is expressed as the product of the average fes!st-
ante into the distance through which it is exerted.
100 lbs. falls 10 ft.. its energy is 1000 foot-pounds.
If a hamm$ weighmg
Before b~mg,brought
to rest it must do 1000 foot-pounds of work against one,or more resistances.
These are of various kinds, such as that due t() motion Imparted to bhe
body struck, penetration against friction, or a@UnSt resistance t,o,shearing
or other deformation, and crushing and heating ,of both the fal!lng body
and the body struck. The distance through whxh these reslstrng for$S
act 1s generally lndetertiinate. and therefore the arerage qf the r,esastlng
forces, which themselves generally vary with the &stance, 1s also mdeter-
minate.
lrnpact of Bodies. --
If two inelastic bodies collide, they will move on
together as one mass, with a common velocity.
The momentum of the
combined mass is equal to the sum of the momenta of .the two bodies
before impact. If m, and mr are the masses of the two. bodies and 2)1 and uz
their respective velocities before impact,, and 2) their common velocity
after impact, (ml + m&J = mlal + m2u2.
If the bodies move in opposite directions. VU= m:,.t~~~OV, or tube velocity
of +,wo inelastic bodies after impact is equal to tKl &ebraic sum of their __ .~
momenta before impact, d: ivided by the.sum of their masses.
f equal momenta impinge directly upon one an-
-other from opposit,e direl.lons they will be brought to rest.
If two inelastic bod!esr;:
Ilnpact of Inelastic Bodies Causes a Logs of Eperg
and this.loss
is e
by 7
ual to the sum of the energies due to the velocltles ost and gamed
I
t ie bodies, respectively.
112 m& + l/z m& - 112 (m, + mz) @ = 112 mr ( 2) ~ - WY + Vz 222 ( 2 2 - YF;
in which V, - 21 is the velocity lost by ml and v - vz the velocity gained
by rnz. EXAMP&. - Let nz, = 10, mz 7 8, 21, = 12, 82 = 15.
If the bodies collide they will come to rest, for ?J=
10 X 12-8 Xl5 = o,
10 + 8
The energy loss 1s
l~~lo x 144+ lldsx 225 - ~18~ o=% lo (12 i OY+ l/28(15- @ =
1620 ft.-lbs.
what becomes of the energy lqst? Ani.. It 1s us?! doiflg i!!te~!n
al work
. . -.~..;~ ~~
on the bo&es themselves, changing their shape a@ neatlng znem.
For i mper f ect l y el ast i c bOdieS.
let e = the elastxity, that Is. the ratio
which the force of resbiiution, or the internal force tending to restore the
shape of a I--d
hndv rt.fter it has been ComPrc _...~
%sed, bears to the force of com-
pression; and let ml and rnz be +e masses..
VJ, and 2)? their veloclt,l!ee befnre
Impact, and Q, d their velocltles after impact; then
506 MECHANICS.
If the bodies are perfectly ehastic, their relative velocities before and
after impact are the silme. That is, VI - v? = vz - VI.
In the impact of bodies, the sum of their momenta after impact is the
same as the sum of their momenta before impact.
For demonstration of these and other laws of impact, see Smiths ale-
chanics: also, Weisbachs Mechanics.
Energy of Recoil of Guns. (E?lgg, Jan. 25, 1884. p. i2.) -
Let TV = the weight of the gun and carriage;
T/ = the maximum velocity of recoil;
w = the weight of the projectile:
v - the muzzle velocity of the projectile.
Then. since the momentum of the gun and carriage is equal to the
momentum of the projectile (because both are acted on bv cq11a1 force
the pressure of the gases in the gun, for equal time). we hate 111 V = WV:
or V = m t W
Taking the c&k of a lo-inch gun firing a 400~lb. projectile with a muzzle
vetoMy of 2000 feet per second, the weight of the gun and carriage being
2% tons = SO,000 lbs.. we find the velocity of recoil =
v = 2000x 400
50,000
= 16 feet per second.
Now the energy of a body in motion is WV2 + 2g.
Therefore the energy of recoil =
50,000 X 162
2X 32.2
= 198.800 foot-pounds.
The energy of zhe projectile is
400x 2000?
2x 32.2
= 24.844.000 Fqot-pounds.
Conservation of Energy. - No form of energy can ever ho nm-
duced except by the expenditure of some other form, nor annihil
cept by being reproduced in another form.
%d;;-
energy in the universe, like the sum total
Consequent1.v the sum ~~~~ ~.. , total of
the same: (Y. Newcomb.)
of matter, must always remain
Energy can never be destroyed or lost,. it can
be transformed. can be transferred from one body to another but no
matter what transformations are undergona, when the total effe&s of the
exertion of a given amount of energy are summed up the result will be
exactly equal to the amount originallv expended from the source.
law is called the Conservation of Enefgg. (Cotterill and Slade.)
This
A heavy bod.y sustained at an elevated position has potential energy.
Whe? It falls. Just before it reaches the earths surface it has actual or
kinetic energy. dlle to its velocity.
When it strikes, it may penetrate the
earth a certain distance or may be crushed.
In either case friction results
by which the energy is converted into heat, whiCh is gradually radiat,ed
Into the earth or into the atmosphere, or both.
Mechanical energy and
heat are mutuajly convertible. Electric energy is also convertible into
&at or mechamcal energy, and either kind of energy may be converted
into the other.
Sources of Energy. - The Principal sources of energy on the earths
surface are the muscular energy of men and animals, the energy of the
wind, of flowing water, and of fuel. These sources derive their energy
from the rays of ,the sun.
grows and wood IS formed.
Under the influence of the suns rays vegetation
The wood may be used as fueT under a steam-
boiler, Its carbon being burned to carbon dioxide. Three-tenths of its heat
energy escapes in tee chimney and by radiation, and seven-tenths appears
.-.. L ,.,._....._. .~~. ,._ nc nntnn+al pn~rzv m the steam. In the steam-engine, of this seven-tenths
Six Parts ,ar,e dissipated in neaiiny the .-
-ozdeming water and are wasted
the remammg one-tenth of the original heat energ:- zf the wood is con:
verted into mechanical work in the steam-engine, &hi& may be used to
d.eve machinery. This work is finails hy friction of various kinds or pos-
slb!v after transformation into elect& currents transformed i&o heat
which 1s radiated into the atmosphere, increasingits temrterature.
Thus
ANIMAL POWER.
-.,__I-- _l~-_-mle
-WARNING: ~This is a 1910 edition. Some of the
ail the potential heat energy of the wood is, after various tra?sformations.
converted into heat, which, mingliilg with the store of heat In the atmos-
ghere, apqarent,ly, is lost. But the carbon dioxide generated by the com-
ustlon of the \\ootl IS, again, under the influence of the suns rays.
absorbed br vezetation. and more wood may thus be formed having poten-
tial energy &quzi to the briginal.
Perpetunl Notion. -- The law of the eonservstion of energy, than
which no law of mechanics is more firmly estal>lishetl. is an absolute bnrrier
to all schemes for ob ainiug by mechanical means \vhat is called perpetual
motion, or a math 6 1e which will do an amount of work gfeatrr than the
eqllivalent of the energy, whether of heat, ?f chemical cbmbmatlon, of elec-
tricity, or mechanical energy, that is put into It.
Such a result )vo$d be
the creation of an additional store of energy in the universe, wvhmh IS not
possible by any human agency.
The Efficiency af a Machine is a fraction expressing the ratio of
the useful work to the whole work performed, which is equal to the energy
expended. The limit to the efficiency of a machine is unity, denqtmg the
efficiency of a perfect machine in which no work is lost.
The dXfferen?e
between the energy expended and the useful.work done, or the loss,.~s
usually expended either in overcoming friction or in doing work on bodies
surrounding the machine from which no useful work is r?ceived.
Thus .
in an engine propelling a vessel part of the energy exerted m the qylinder
does the useful work of giving motion to the vessel, and the remamder 1s
snent in overcoming the friction of the machinery and in making currents
&eddies in the suirounding water.
A common and useful definition of efficiency is output divided by
input.
\$ork of a Man against Known Resistances. (RBnkine.)
Kind of Exertion.
1%.
I. Raising his own weight up
stair or la.dder.. _. 143
2. Hauling up weights with rope.
and lowering the rope un-
loaded
3. Lifting weights by hand.. .,
i
4. Carrymg weights up-stnlrs
and returning unloaded. 143
5. Shoveling up eart.h t,o a
height of 5 ft. 3 in.. _. . 6
6. Wheeling earth in barrow up
slope of I in 12. l/2 honz.
veloc. 0.9 ft. per sec., and re-
turning unloaded. . . 132
7. Pushing or pulling hortzon-
tally (capstan or oar). .
26.5
12.5
8. Turning a crank or winch..
18.0
20.0
9. Working pump.. . . . . .
13.2
10. Hammering. . . . . 13
P
t. per
sec.
0.5
i:::
0.13
1.3
0.075
2.0
2;
'Z
?
8
6
6
6
10
10
8
ii
2Tdrn
8?
RV,
t.-lbs
3r 5%
71.5
::.2
18.5
7.8
9.9
;:.5
2:;
33
?
RVT.
: t . - l i p.
er day.
2,059,200
648.000
522,720
399,600
280,800
356,400
1,526.400
1,296.900
EXPLANATION. - R, resistance:
v effective velocity = distance
through which R is overcome + total time occupied, mcludmg the time
of moving unloaded, if any: T, time of working, 1n seconds Per day;
T + 31300, same time, in hqurs per day: RV, ef f eCt We power, in foot-
pounds per second: R VT, dally work. -^.-.LI.. .,.~~, ~_
material may no loti@F~%Faccurate
508 MECHANICS.
Performance of a Man in Transporting Loads Horizontally.
ANIMAL POWER.
EXPLANATI ON. - R, resistance, in Ibs.; V, velocity, in feet per second;
T" + 3600. hour s wor k pr r day; kI ' , wor ' c per second: RI ' T. wor l d per
day.
The average power of a dralight~-horse, as given in line 2 of the above
table. b&g 432 foot-pollnds per second. is +32/ m= 0.X5 of the con:
ventional vahtr assigned by Watt to the ordinary unit of the rate ot
~orli of prime movers. It is the mean of several results of experiments.
awl IIU~ be consitleretl tile average of ordinary performance under furor-
able circumstances.
(Rsnkine.)
LVT.
Ibs. con-
veyed
I foot.
II%
V.
t.-set,
Kind of Exertion.
f
II.
12.
' 3.
1; :
Walking unloaded. tmns-
ortic- his own w&&t. 1
M$eelin: iOo,d L in Xwhld.
140
barrow, return unloaded
Ditto in I-wh. barrow, ditto..
224
37
16.
Traveling wirh burden..
Carr ing burden, returGing
90
Y un onded.. . . . . . . . . 140
Carrying burden, for 30see-
252
onds only.. . . . . . . . . . . .
' 26
0
-
_.
-
25, 200, OOO
' 3. 428, 060
7. 920. 000
5, 670, OOO
5, 032, 800
.
*
Performance of a Horse in Transporting Loads Horizontall;.
(Rankim?.)
'0
Ii
7
6
700
373
220
225
233
' 47j 1. 2
0
Kind of Exertion. L. L' . T. V. ) T. 1 LV.
5. Walking with cart, always 5. Walking with cart, always
loaden.................... loaden.................... ' 500 ' 500
6. Trotting. ditto.. . . . . . . . . 6. Trotting. ditto.. . . . . . . . . 750 750
7. Walking with cart. going 7. Walking with cart. going
loaded, returning empty; loaded, returning empty;
V,~mean velocit,y.. _. _. _. V,~mean velocit,y.. _. _. _.
8. Carrying burden, walkin%. 8. Carrying burden, walkin%.
1;: 1;:
3. Dit,to. trotting... 3. Dit,to. trotting... 80 80
' 94, 400. 000
87, 480, 000
' 08. 000. 000
34. 992, OOO
32, 659, 200
3000
972
1296
ExpL.G+ATIoN. - &, load; V, effective velocity, computed as before.
y. time Of working, III seconds per day; T" + 3600, same time in hour;
Per day: LK transport per second, In Ibs. conveyed one foot; LVT,
daily transport.
In the f&t iine only of each of the two tables above is
the man taken into account in computing the work done.
the weight of
Clark says that the average net
daily work of an ordinarv laborer
EXPLANATION - L load in Ibs.; V, velocity in feet per second : T work-
ing ilours ,er da>. L i, trsnsport per second ; L VT, transport per day.
This ta t le hasrefeience to conveyance on common roads only, and ,
those evidentlv in bad order as respects the resistance to tractIon upon
at <pump, a winch, or a ciarie may
be taken at 3300 foot-pounds per
minute, or one-tenth of a. horse-
_ ^.
I
POWer. IOr Y hOUrs a day; but for
shorter periods from four to five
times this rate may be exerted.
them.
Horse-Gin. - In this machine a horse works less ndvant~ageollsly
than in drawing a carriage along a straight track. In ?rder that the b$st
possible res+ts msy be realized with a horse-gm. the dmmeter of the cLr-
;;$,r track m wtuch t.he horse walks should not be less than abollt forty
Oxen, Mules, Asses. -Authorities differ considerably as,to tl!e po\ver
of these animals. The following may he taken as an approxtmntlve com-
parison between them and dmnght-horses (Rankine):
Ore - Load. the same as that of average draught-horse; best velocity
.Mr. Glynn says ihat a man inay
exert a force of 25 Ibs. at the
handle of a crane for short periods:
but that for continuous work a
force of 15 Ibs. is all that should
be assumed. moving through 220
feet oer minute. and work, two-thirds of horse.
MI&. - Load, one-half of that of average draught-horse; best velocity,
the same as horse; work, one-half.
Ass. - Load, one-quarter that of average draught-horse: best velocity,
r
Man-wheel.--Fig.102 isa sketch
of a very efficient man-power hoist-
ing-machine which the author saw
in Berne. Switzerland. in 1889.
The face of the wheel was wide
walk abreast. so that nine men could work in it
FIG. 102. the same; work, one-quarter.
Redaction of ~mu&t of Horses hy J ncreasc of Grade qf Roads.
(En,gineering &co@, Prize Essays on Roads, 1892.) --Experiments on
Enclish roads by Gayffier & Parnell:
Calling load that can be drawn on a level 100:
enough for three men
at one time.
to
Work of a Horse against a Known Resistance.
(Rankine.)
Kind of Exertion.
1 R. 1 V. 1 3g! RV. 1 RVT. ,
On a rise of. . .
A horse can draw only
1 in 100.1 ig150. 1 in 40.1 i;jO. 1 in 26. I i;;O. 1 I: 10.
90
72 54 , . 5
The Resistance of Carriagrson Roads is (according to @n. Morin)
given approximately by the following cmpiricsl formula:
c
R = 7 [ a +h ( 21 - 3. 28) 1.
I I
4471/ z 6, 44' , 000
I. Canterinp and trotting, draw-
ing a hght railway carriage
(thoroughbred). . . . . .
2. Horse drawing cart. or boat.
walking (draught-horse)
3. Horse drawing a gin or mill,
walking.....................
4. Ditto. trotting... . . ..___..._.
In this formula R = total resistance; i = radius of wheel in inches:
W = gross load: u = velurity in feet per second; while,e$.;$obo,aSrge
constants whose values are: For good broken-stone road,
. .
b = 0.094 to 0.026: for paved road?, a = 0.n. h.= 0.0684.
Rank&e states that -on gravel the resistance IS about double, and on
sand five tjmes, tile resistance on good broken-stone roads.
432 ' 2, 44' , 600
300 04%~
429 6, 950, W
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
510 MECHANICS.
ELJ XMENTS OF lWACHINES.
The object of a machine is usually to transform the work or mechanical
energy exerted at the point where themachine receives its motion into
work at the point where the final resistance
is overcome. The specific result may be to
change the cliaracter or direction of mo-
tion, as from circular to rectilinear. or zice
wrsu. to change the velocity. or to overcome
a great resistance by the application of a
moderate force. In all cases the total energy
exerted equals t,he total work done, t.he latter
incliiding the overcoming of all the frictional
resistances of t,he machine as well as the use-
ful work performed. No increase of power
nn be obtained from any machine, since this
-is impossible according to the law of conser-
vationof energy. In a frictionless machine the
product of the force exerted at the driving-
point into the velocity of the driving-point
or the dist.ance it moves in a given inter&
of time, equals the product of the resistance
into the distance through which the resist-
ance is overcome in the same time.
The most simple machines, or elementary
machines, are reducible to three classes, viz.,
the Lever. the Cord. and the Inclined Plane.
The first class includes every machine con-
sisting of a solid body capable of revolving
oii;?n axis. as the Wheel and Axle.
. .
me secom class mcludes every machine in
which force is transmitted by means of Rexi-
ble threads, ropes. etc.. as the Pulley.
The third class includes everv machine in
A+-
s
A C
w
Fia. l(J5. ,
which a hard surface inEli~~ed-to-the-dl;lic:
tion of moaion is introduced. as the Wedee.and the Screw.
.1 Lever is an inflexible rod capable ofl motion about a fixed point,
called a fulcrum.
curved.
The rod may be straight or bent at any angle, or
It is generally regArded, at first, as without weight. but its weight may
I)(> comidered as another force applied in a vertical direction at its center
nf v7:1 I i i t I.
The arms of a lever are the portions of it intercepted between the force,
P. and flilcrum. C. and between the weight or !oa.d. ll!. and fiilcrum.
Levers are divided into three kinds or orders. according to the relat~ive
positions of the applied force, load, and fulcrum.
In a lever of the tirst order, the fulcrum lies between the points at which
the force and load art. (Fig. 103 )
In a lever of the se
fulcrum and the point
corid order, the load acts at a point between the
In a iever of the thir
of action of the force. (Fig. 104.)
~1 order. the noint of a&on of the force is between
that of the load and the fu!criim. IFig. 105.)
In all cases of levers the relation bet.ween the force exerted or the pull.
P. and t,he load lifted. or resistance overcome, W. is expressed br the
equat,ion P X BC = W X BC, in which AC is the lever-arm Of p, and
BC,: is the lever-arm of lP, or moment of the force = the moment of the
resistance. (See Moment.)
In cases in which the direction of the force (or of the resistance) is not
at right angles to the arm of the lever on which it acts. the lever-arm
is the length of a perpendicular-from the fulcrum to the line of direction
of the force (or of the resistance).
..~ . lF : P : : AC : SC. or. the ratio of
i force is the inverse ratio of their lever-arms. tne re+t;lstance to the appliec
Also. if iwis the velocity of TV, and Vp is the velocity of P. FV : P : : Vpi
VW. and P X Vp = W i c VW.
If Sp is the distance through which the a
the distanre the load is lifted or through
acts, and SW is
come. IV : P : :
ich the resist.ance is over-
Sp : SW : W x SW = P x~Sp, or the load into the dis-
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Fro. 103.
ELEMENTS OF MACHINES.
tance it is lifted equals the force into the distance through which it is
exerted.
These equations are general for all classes of machines as well as for
levers, it being understood that friction, which in actual machines iu-
creases the resistance, is not at present considered.
The Bent Lever. - In the bent lever (see Fig. 96, p. 490). the !ever-
arm of the weight m is cf instead of bJ . The lever is m equilibrium when
n X of = m X c[, but it IS to be observed that the action of a bent lever
may be very different from t.hat of a straight lever. In the latter, so
long as the force and the resistance act in lines parallel to each other, the
rat.igof the lever-arms remains constant, although the lever itself changes
its inclination with the horizontal. In the bent lever, however, this
ratio changes: thus, in the cut, if the arm C?f is depressed to a horizontal
direction, the distance cf lengthens while the horizontal projection of
a/ shortens, the latter becoming zero when the direction of af becomes
vertical. As the arm uf approaches the vertical, the weight m which
may be lifted with a given force s is very great,, but the distance throiigh
which it may be lifted is very small. In all cases the ratio of the weight
m to the weight ?z is the inverse ratio of the horizontal projection of their
respective lever-arms.
The Moving Strut (Fig. 106) is similar to the bent lever,, except that
one of the arms is missing, and that the force and the resistance to be
overcome act at the same end of the
single arm. The resistance in the
caseshown in the cut is not the load -I
by, but its resistance
moved, R, which may
that due to its friction-
zontal plane, or some other oppos-
ing force. When the angle between
the strut and the horizontal plane
changes, the ratio of the resistance
to the applied force char
the angle becomes vei
moderate force will (
very great resistance, Y
to become infinite as tt
iges. When 7
ry small, a
overcome a
4
vhich tends Frc. 106.
ie angle ap-
proaches zero. If a =.--- ~~~~_ ~,
cos a = 0.99619, sin a = 0.08716, R :
The stone-.crusher (Fig. 107) shows
the angle. P X cos a =R X sin a. If a = 5 degrees,
= 11.44 P.
a practical example of the use of
two moving struts. -
The Toggle-joint is an elbow or knee-joint consisting of two bars so
connected that they may be brought into a straight, l!me and.made to
produce great endwise pressure when a force is apphed to bring them
into this position. It is a case of two moving struts placed end to end,
the moving force being applied at their point of junction, in a direction
at right angles to the direction of the resistance. the other end of one of
the struts resting against a fixed abutment, and that of the other agamst
the body to be moved. If a=the angle each strut makes with thestraight
line joining the points about which their outer ends rotate.the ratio of
the resistance to the applied force is R : P : : cos, a : 2 sm4: 2, R sl v U
=. P cqs a. The ratio varies when the angle varies, becoming infinite
when the angle Decomes zero.
The toe&-ioint is used where great resistances 3te to be oveicbme
through very small distances, as in-&one-crushers (Fig. 108).
The I.nclined Plane, as a mechanical element, 1s supposed peifK$y
hard and smooth, .unless friction be considered.
a beavv body by Its reaction.
It assists, III sustammg
This reaction, however. bemg normal to
the o&e. &not entirely counteract the weight of the body,~mhich acts --- .~
vertically downward. Some other force must
therefore be made to act upon the body. in order
that it may be sustninsd.
if rile sustaining force act parallel to t.he planc
(Fig. 109). tbe force is to the weight as the height
of tile phme is to its length, measured on the
incline.
If the force act parallel to the base of the
plane. the force is to the weight as the height is
to the base.
FIG. 109.
If the force act at any ot.bei angle. let i = the
angle of the plane with the horizon, and e= the
WI&? of the direction of the armlied force with the angle of the plane.
F?fV : sin i : cos e: P X case-= IV sin i.
P.ol&ms of the inclined plane may be solved by the parallelogram of
forces thus:
Let the weight IV he kept at rest on the incline by the force P, acting
iit the line bP, parallel to the plane. Draw the vertical line 6n to repre-
sent tile wcieht; also bb perpendicular to the plane, and complete the
parallrlo~rati bc. Then the vertical wright ba is the resultant of hb. the
me&sn;e of support given by the plane to the weight. and bc. the force of
gravity tending to drsw the weight down the plane. The force ieqmred
tc maint,;rin tile weight in equilibrium is represented by this force bc.
Tl~us t,he force x~tl the weight are in the ratio of be to ha. Since the
triangle of forces ahc is similar to the triangle of the,ir$ine ABC. the
latter may he substituted for the former in determlmng the ielatlve
magnitude of the forces, and
P : 1V : : be : ab : : BC : AB.
The Wrdgc is a pair of inclined planes united by their bases. Ir! the
application of pressure to the head or blitt end of the wedEe. to (;iluse It t,o
pe!let,rate a, resisting body, t.he applied forre is to tlie iesistance a:* the
thlc!ci;ers of tile werlze is t,o its Irnpth. Let t be t,lle thickness, 1 t.hr hrth.
IV the resistance. and P the applied force or pressure on. t.he head of the
wedge. Then, friction neglected. P: 1V : : t : I ; P = q; I V = q.
rna>.-?h;rt t,he height of the pl;ine is pnrail~l to the axis oft.iie cylinder. If
t& screw is formed upon the infernal surface of a hollow cyliudei, it is
usuxily called a nut. When force is applied to raise a weight or overcome
a resistance by means of a screw and nut. eit.her the screw or the mlt may
be fixed, the other being movable. The force is generally applied ;[:
enrl of a wrench or lever-arm. or at the circumference of a wheel. _..~. ~. ~~
r&ills of the wheel or lever-arm. and I, = pitch
of the screw, or distance between threads, that.
brierht of theinclined ulane for one revo-
mny be eitlier an in-
clined plane wrapped
FIG. 110.
around acylinder in such I
;hr;{a;;?; ;t&$f;t& FIG. 111.
cylinder, such as the ordinary lifting-cam, u?ed in stamp-mills (Fig. llO),
EUMENTS OF MACHINES.
or it may be an inclined
parallel to its base (Fig. 1 r
lare curved e$gew:se. and rotating in a plane
1). The ielatlon of the weight to the applied
force is calculated in the same manner as in ttle case of the screw.
Pul!eys or Blocks. 7 P = force applied. or pull; i+V = load lifted
or res&ance. In the simple pulley A (J?lg. 112) the
f
oint p on th;
pulhng rope descends the same amount that the load is Ifted, therefore
P= IV. In B and C the point P moves twice as far as the load is lifted
therefore W=2 P. In 5 and C there is one movable block, and twd
plies of the rope engage with it.
movable block, each with two
In D there are three sheaves in the
plies engaged. or six in all. Six plies of
t!!e rope are therefore shortened by the .%&me amount that the load is
. kited, and the point P moveS six times as far as the load, consequently
.
A, s. C. D.
FIG. 112.
TV=6 P. In general. the ratio of W to P is enual to the number of nliw
of the rooe that are shortened. and also is e&al-to the number nf nl i mi hz
engage the lower block. If the Iower block has 2 sheaves and the upper
3. the end of therope is fastened to a hook in the top of the lower block
and then there are 6 plies shortened instead of 6, and I V- 5 P.
If v=
veiocity of I V, and v = velocity of P, then in all cases VW - VP, That ever
the number of sheaves or their airaugement. If the hauling rope, at the
pulling end, passes tiist around a sheave in the upper or stationary
It makes no difference in what direction the rope is led
block,
from this block to the point at which the DUU on the /==\!I
rooe is auolied: but if it first Dasses around tile movable //
hl&k, it-i8 necessary that the pull be exerted in a~dir&-
tion parallel to the line of action of the resistance, or a
line joining the centers of the two blocks. in order to
obtain the maximum effect. If the rope pulls on the
lower block at an angle, the block will he pulled out of
t,he line drawn between the load and the uuner block.
and the effective puil will be less than the actual pull
on the rope in the ratio of the cosine of the angle the
Dulling rope makes with the vertical. or line of action of
the ie%ist<nce, to unity.
Differential Pulley. (Fig. 113.) -Two pulleys, B
and C. of different radii, rotate as one piece about a
fixed asis, A. An endless chain, BDECLKH, passes
over both pulleys. The rims of the pulle s are shaped
se as to hold the chain and prevent it rom slippmg. P
One of the bights or loops in which the chain hangs, DE.
passes under and supports the running block F. The
other loop or bight, HKL, hangs freely, and is called tbe
hauling part. It is evident that the velocity of the hard-
ing part 1s equal to that of the pitch-circleof the pulley B.
In order that the velocity-ratio may be exactly
uniform, the radius of the sheave F should be an exact
mean between the radii of B and C.
Fro. 113.
Consider that the,point B of the cord BD moves through an arc whose
Jength = AB, during the same time the point C or the cord CE Wi I l
,_~ ,,,.,, _~~~, ,..___^.,_ ;~~ .,, .., _,.. I__rl~ ..-
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some of the ma$?fi]~k$fno longer be accurate
514 MECHANICS.
move downward a distance = AC. The length of the bight or loop
SDEC will be shortened. by AL3 - AC. which will cause the pulley F to
be raised half of this amount. If P = the pulling force on the cord HK,
and IV the weight lifted at F, then P X AB = W X 1/ z ( AB - AC) .
To calculate the length of chain required for a differential pulley. take
the following sum: Iialf the circumference of A + half the circumference
of B + half the circumference of F + twice the greatest distance Of F
from .~l f the least length of loop HKL. The last quantity is fixed
according to convenience.
The Differential Windlass (Fig. 114) is identical in principle with the
dbferential pulley, the diference m construction being that m the dif-
ferential windlass the running block hangs in the
bight of a rope whose two parts are wound round,
and have t~heir ends respectrvely made fast to two
barrels of different radii, which rotate as one piece
about the axis A. The differential windlass is
!ittle used in practice, because of the great length
of rope which it requires.
The Differential Screw (Fig. 115) is a com-
pound screw of different pitches, in which the
thr;;ds wind the same way. NI and A? ar; t$
:T~O nuts:
longer-pit:he$
thread; &%. the
shorter-pitched
thread: in the figure
FIG. 115.
both these threads
are left-handed. At
FIG. 114.
each turn of the screw the nut 1%~ advances relatively to ;Vl through a
distance equal Tao the difference of the pitches. The use of the diRrrent.ial
screw is to combine the slowness of advance due to a fine pitch with
the strength of thread which can be obtained by means of a coarse
pitch only.
A Wheel and Axle, or Windlass, resembles two pulleys on one axis.
having dinerent diameters. If a weight be lift.ed by means of a rope
wound over the axle, the force being applied at the rim of the wheel,
the action is like that of a lever of which the shorter ar mi s equal to the
radius of the axle plus half the thickness of the rope, and the longer
arm is equal to the radius of the wheel. A wheel ilnri axle is therefore
sometimes classed as a perpetual lever. If P = the applird force, D =
diameter of the wheel. lY=t,he weight lifted, and d the diameter of the
axle+ the diameter of the rope, PD = 1iVd.
Toothed-wheel Gearing is a combination of two or more wheels and
axles (Fig. 116). If a series of wheels and pinions gear into each other,
a? in the cut, friction neglected, the weight lifted, or resistance over-
come, i,s to the forc,e applied inversely as the distances through which
they act in a given time. If R. RI, RZ be the radii of the successive wheels,
measured to the pitch-line of the teeth, and r. T,, r2 the radii of the cor-
responding pinions, P the applied force, and tv the weight lifted, P X
R X RI X Rz = 1V X T X ~1. X h. or the applied force 1s to the weight
as the product of the radii of the
the wneels; ,or. as the product o B
inions 1s to the product of the radii of
the numbers ernressing~ the teeth in
~;ch&mon IS to the product of the numbers expressmg the teeth m each
Endless Screw, or Worm-gear. (Fig. 117.) -This gear is com-
moniy used to convert motion at high speed into motion at very slow
speed. When the handle P describes a complete circumference! the pitch-
line of the cog-wheel moyes through a distance equal to the pitch of the
screw. and the weight Ilr is lifted a distance equal to the pitchtof the screw
multiplied by the ratio of the diameter of the axle to the diameter of the
itch circle of the wheel.
j? -:_
The ratio of the applied force to the weight
ifted is mversely as their velocities. friction not being considered;. but the
_.
STRESSES IN FRAMED STRUCTURES.
515
and also of the teeth on the cog-wheel, d = diameter of the a&e, and
D = diameter of the pitch-line of the cog-wheel, v = 9: x v;
V= 2) X td f 6.283 S- D. Pv = WV + friction.
FIG. 116. FIG. 116. FIG. 117. FIG. 117.
STRESSES IN FRAMED BTRUCTURES. STRESSES IN FRAMED BTRUCTURES.
Framed structures in general consist of one or more triangles. for the Framed structures in general consist of one or more triangles. for the
reason that the triangle is the one polygon&l form whose shape cannot be reason that the triangle is the one polygon&l form whose shape cannot be
changed without distorting one of its sides. changed without distorting one of its sides. Problems in stresses of Problems in stresses of
simple framed structures may generally be solved either by the applica- simple framed structures may aenersllv be solved either bv the auolica-
tiori of the triangle, parallelldgr%m, or polygon of forces, by the principle tion of the triangle, parallellogram, or polygon of forces, by the principle
of the lever, or by the method of moments. of the lever, or by the method of moments. We shxll give a few ex- We shxll give a few ex-
amples, referring the student to the works of Burr. Dubois. Johnson. and amples, referring the student to the works of Burr, Dubois, Johnson, and
others for more elaborate treatment of the subject, others for more-elaborate treatment of the subject:
P. A Simple Crane. P. A Simple Crane. (Figs. 118 and 119.)--A is a fisec mast, B a (Figs. 118 and 119.)--A is a fisec mast, B a
brace or boom, T a tie, and P the load. brace or boom, T a tie, and P the load. Reqmred the strains in B and T. Reqmred the strains in B and T.
The weight P. considered as acting at the end of the boom, is held in The weight P. considered as acting at the end of the boom, is held in
equilibrium by three forces: first, gravity acting downwards: second, the equilibrium by three forces: first, gravity acting downwards: second, the
tension in T: and third, the thrust of I?. tension in T: and third, the thrust of I?. Let the length of the line p Let the length of the line p
represent t.he magnitude of the downward force exerted by the load, and represent t.he magnitude of the downward force exerted by the load, and
draw a paralleiogram with sides bt parallel, respectively, to B and T. draw a paralleiogram with sides bt parallel, respectively, to B and T.
such that p is the diagonal of the parallelogram. such that p is the diagonal of the
components drawn to the same sea e as p, p being the resultant. components drawn to the same scale as p, 5 being the resultant. P
arallelogram. Then b and t are the Then b and t ar;;;;
~Then ~-
if the length p represents the load, t is the tension in the tie, and b is the if the length p represents the load, t is the tension in the tie, and b is the
compression in the brace. compression in the brace.
Or, more simply, T. 6. and that portion of the mast included between Or, more simply, T. 6. and that portion of the mast included between
them or A may represent a triangle of forces, and the forces are propor- them or A may represent a triangle of forces, and the forces are propor-
tional to the length of the sides of the triangle; that is, if the height of the tional to the length of the sides of the triangle; that is, if the height of the
-
Frc L 118. FIG. 119. FIG. 120
r ncxon m tne worm-gear 1s usually very great, amountmg sometrmes to
three or four times the useful work done.
triangle A = the load, then B = the compression in the brace, and !I =
t.he tension in the tie; or if P = the load m pounds, the tenslon in T =
-19 x 5 I and the compression in B = P X $Y Also, if a = the angle
the inclined member makes with the mast, the other member being
If u = the distance through which the force P acts in a given time, say
I second, and V = distance the weight W is lifted in the same time, r=
radius of the crank cr wheel through which P acts, t 7 pitch of the screw.
.I
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Sorne~ok-%& materi al may no l onger be accxate
516 MECHANICS.
horizontal, and @ie triangle being right-angled, then the length of the
inclined member = height of the triangle X secant a. ahcl the stram in the
inclined member = P secant a. Also. the strain in the borizontai
mrmher = P tnn a
The solution by the triangle or parallelogram of forces, and the : -;a-
tions Tension in T=P X T/ A , amd Compression in L- :-= P X B/ A . +n j : J ; e
even If bhe irianrle is not rieht-aneled. as in Fir. 126: but tb :,ii!;~;i~ .
- ---:-
.~~_ I
metrical relations above given do not hold, except iii the case of a rkrrt-
angled triangle. It is evident tltat as 9 decreases. the str:,riu in botL 2
and B increases, tending t.o become infinite as ,4 npproachr;; mu. If
the tie T is not attached to the mast, but is exteuded to the ground, a1
shown in the dotted line. the tension m it remains the same.
2. A Guyed Crane or Derrick. (Fig. 121.) -The strain in B i,s. as
before, P x D/d. 4 being that portion of the vertical included between
B and T, wherevei T ma: be attached to a. If, however. the tie T is
attached to B beneath its ~xtremit.y. there may be in addition a bending
strain in B due to a tendency to turn about tile point of attachment of T
as a fulcrum.
The strain in T may be caiculakd by the principle of moments. The
moment of P is PC. that is, its weight X its perpendicular dbtance from
the point of rotation of B on ihe mast. The moment of the strain on T
is the prcduct of the straia imo the peroendicular distance from the line
,--ii ____ I__-__--_ h
e .,. i
I
/ I
.
- P
*/1 yi A b/d
J
\\ I
!
,.!
hJ
1. \\
,i
-A---.($ .-----
,pI
_- _-----..- e- --L--q.
.C.
of i!s direc.ion to :,hr same pint of rotation of B. or, Tu . The strain in
T therefore = PC t d. As d decreases, the strain on T increases, t~eritling
tc, infinity as d approacht- zero.
The strain on the guy-rope is also calculated by the method of moments.
The moment of the load about the bottom of the mast 0 is! as before. PI:.
If the guy is horizontal, the strain in it is Fand it.s moment is Ff. and F =
PC i f . If it is inclined t.he moment is the strain G X the oernendicuix
distank of the line of its direction from 0, or Gg, and G *PC*+ g.
The suy-rooe having t!re least strain is the horizontal one F. and the
strain iii -G = the strain in F x tile secant of the angle between F a~1
G. As G is made more nearly vertical g decreases, and the strain increases,
becoming inEnite when B - 0.
3. Shear-poles with Guys.
(Fig. 122.) -First assume that
the two masts act as one placed
at BD. and the two guys as
--- rr+ D Calculate the strain
AB as in Fig. 120.
kf the strain in BD
f&y gu;)~
find the strain in each mast (or
I ~~1
I lr,,,,
I I I / I I L
Fro. 122. ;~
I& Diagonal Braces and
a Tie-roe!. (Fig. 123.) -Sup-
---- *I-- braces are used to
-I_ - . _.I... ~ ,.-1.1-.- YY.CI ..
12 PX C-4 + AB.
AD=112 PXAD
This is true only if CB and BD
y the secant of half
the angle the two masts (or
rurs) malie with each other to
CD each = PI >
on the tie AE (
FD+ CF. Thr
is equally divided oetween t*lie
abmments and supported by them
directly. The two arts PI and Pz
only are considere to affect the 3
members of the truss. Strain in
the vertical ties BE and CP each
equals PI or-Pa. Strain on AB and
: CD t CF. Strain
x EFor ED- PI X
,ust on BC = tension
For stability to resist heavy unequal loads the
have diagonai braces from B to F and from C to
y-post truss should
WARNING: This is a- 1916 edition.
L,.., 11
Some of the material may no l onger be accurate
STRFS~ES IN FRAMED STHUCTUBES.
are of equal length, in which case t/2 of P is supported by each abutment
, snd Li. If Ihey arc unequal in length (Fig. 124). then, by the principle
of tlrc lever, find the reactions of the abutments Izi and Rz. If P i s the
load applied at tl- point B on the lever CD. the fulcrum being D,
t h~~RI xC~=P~. BDar t dR?xCD=PxBC; Rl =P~BD+~~~
121 = P x BC + CD.
Wher H = BL)> iZl = lip. The strain on CO and BD is the same,
whether ine b~.acts are of eqml length or not, and is equal to r/a P x
1/ 2CD + AB.
FE. 123. FIG. 124.
Xf ths braces support a uniform load, as a pair of rafters. the strains
caused by SW:?, a load are equivalent to that caused by one-half of the
!oaci :.:*$ied at the renter. The horizontal thrust of the braces against
?ach other at the a.?es equals the tensile strain in the tie.
King-post Truws or Ikridge. (Fig. 125.) - If the load is distributed
over the whole lnrth of the truss. the effect is the same as if half the
load were placed at the center, the otber
half being carried by the abutments. Let
P = one-half the load on t.he truss, then
tension in the vertical tie AB = P. Com-
pression in each of the inclined braces
= l/z P X AD f AB. Tension in the tie
CD = 112 P x BD + AB. Horleontai
thrust of inclined brace AD at ED= the
I tension in the tie. If W = t.Jle t.ote.1 ._- --.--
FIG. 125. load on one t r uss uniformly distributed,
1 = its length and d = its depth, then
the tension on the horieontal tie = WI + 8 d.
Inverted King-post Trnss. (Fig. 126.) - If P=a load applied at b.
or one-half of a uniformlv distributed load, then compression on AR = P
fthe floor-beam CD not beine considered D
~o-hjvejlly~resis~ance to a&pht bend-
ing). Tension on AC or AD = 112 P
x AD + AR. Compression on CD =
l/TP,RT,aAR --I, \71
&;?e&ost Truss. (Fig. 127.) - If
ni f nr ml v iorl.ded. and the aueen-nests UL._..._._._ I I _..- ~~~
divide the %a$$ into three equal bays
the load mav he considered to be divided
i n
\ II /
Y-
l.?. 1%x
ainder
-.lto three equal parts, two parts of
X1. AA.
which. Pi and P2, are concentrated at ~the panel joints and the,remi
518 MECHANICS.
Inverted Queen-post Truss. (Fig. 128.; - Compression on EB and
Jic each = PI or P,. Compression on AB or BC or CD = Pr , X AB +BB.
Tension on AI 3 or FD = Pl X Ah f
EB. Tession on EF=compression
on BC. For stability. to resist
unequal loads, ties r~hould be run
from C to E and from B to 8.
Burr Truss of Five Panels.
(Fig. 129.) -- Four-fifthsof the load
may be taken as r,oncentrated a>t the
E F noitits E. K. L and F. the other fifth
FIG. 125.
&i@-stipp&&d directly by the two
abutments. For the strains in B.4
and CD the truss may be considered as a queen-post truss. with the lcads
PI. PZ concentrated at E, and the loads Pa Pq concentrated at F. Then
compressive strain on dR = (PI + Pz) X AB i BE. The strain on
CD is the same if the !oads and panel lengths are equ.al. The tensile
0
P?
FIG. 129.
strain on BE or CF = PI + Pz. That portion of the truss between E
and F may be considered aa a smaller queen-pact truss, supporting the
loads Pz. Pa at K and L. The strain on KG or HF = Pz X EG f ( SK.
The diagonals CL ,and K,H receive no strain :!nless t~he truss is unequally
lprJ,edi The vertnxls c~k and HL each receive a tenslle stram equal to
? . _ . . "_
For the strain in the horizontal members: BG and CH receive a thrust
eql!al to the horizontal component of the thrlist in .4B or CD. = (i? + PT)
X tan angle A,BE, or (PI + Pz) >: AE + LiE. GtI receives this thrust,
and also, in addltlon. a thrust equal to the horizontal component of the
thrust in EC or HF. or. in ail. (PI +~ P? + P3) x dE + SE.
The tension in AE or FD equals the thrlJst in BG or HC, and the ten-
sion i n EK. KL, and LF equals the thrust i n GH.
Pratt orWhipple Truss. (Fig. 130.) - Tn this t,russ the diagonals are
ties, and the vertirais are struts or columns.
Cnl ml at i on by t he met hod of di st r ~i but i on of st r ai ns: .Con ider first the
Innrl P,. The t maa hn.vi nv du ha,v~ nr na.npln~ 5/a of the oad Is trans- s
mltted f.o the &$&ii ii: & -i$ io-ih&&iim&%b, on the principle
of the lever. As the five-sixths must be transmitted through J-4 and
AH. write on these members the figure 5. The one-sixth is transmitted
successively through JC, CK, KD, DL. etc., passing aitern??:ely through
a tie a~nd a strut.
the figure 1.
Write on these members, up to the strut GO inclusive.
21s to GO.
Then consider the load P?, of which 4/s goes to AH and
Write on KB, 0. 7, S,l, and AH the figure 4. and on i(D.
DL. LE. etc., the figure 2. The load PO transmits 3/n in each airect,ion:
write 3 on each of the members throw.,.. ..__ ___ _.__I .,_ __-_ =--- ~.
on For all the loads, when the figures on the sever al members will appear
as on the cut. Adding them up, we have the following totals:
TensionondiagonalsI i5 o 1o
AJ BH BK C; 5 cst DK DJ I EL E; Fan F~ ~5
3 3 a
,
I
,I
i
t
STRESSES IN FRAMED STRUCTURES.
519
figure in the lower line is to be multiplied by QP to obtain the corn-
pression. The diagonals HB and FO receive no strain.
It is common to build this truss with a diagonal strut at IIB instead
of the post HA and the diagonal AJ ; in which case s/s of the load p is
carried through JB and the strut BH. which latter then receives a strain
= 15113 P X secant of HBJ .
.
A B C D E F G
P, P2 P3
Fro. 130.
The strains in. the upper and lower horizontal members or chords in-
crease from the ends to the center, as shown in the case of the Burr
truss. AB receives a t.hrust equal to the horizontal component of the
tension in AJ , or 15/sPX ban AJ B. BC receives the same thrust. +
the horizontal compor,ent of the tension in BK, and so on. The tension
in t.hc lower chord of each panel is the same as the thrust in,the upper
chord of the saae panel. (For calculation of the chord strams by the
method of moments, see below.),
The ma$fufn thrust or tensIon is at the center of the chords and is
equal to EV m which W is the tota!. load supported by the truss, L is
the Ien&%nd D the dep Ith. This is the formula for. EULXi UI UXI I stress in
the chords of a truss of ar 1y form whatever.
The above calculation _- _ _-_- -.. _..- ~~~~ ~~~.~ i g !~rl.s~d on the assumution that all the loads
PI. P2 etc., are equal. If they are unequal, the value of each has t o be
taken >nt,o acrnnnt. in dictributine the strains. Thus t,he tension in AJ .
with unequ:
a~-i i ~i i e~i n~t ,~n.d & f 6eing 15 X l/a P secant 6 would be set 0
I..--- --
x (5/s PI + 4/e Fx~t t 3 PS + 216.
p4 + l / 8Ps) . Each panel load. PI , etc..
includes its fraction of the weigt It of the truss.
General Formula ior StraL- __ __-_. ~~~... .
ns i n Tl i asnnal s and Verticals. - Let
n = total number of panels, z = nwnber of any ~ertxal considered from
the nearest end, counting the end as 1, r = rolhng load for each panel,
P = total load for each panel.
Strain on verticals =
[In-2)+(lt--2)2-(r-l)+(~.L-l)*1 P+Tw--1)+(Z-w~
2n 2n
For a uniformly distribut,ed load, leave out the last term,
rr (9 - : i + (I - I)21 + 2 n.
6 x- ~ - I I -
Strain on principai diagonals ( AJ , GN, etc.) = strai,n on v,erticals
X~scant C, that is secant of the angle the diagonal makes vvlth the
ver~ux.
Strain on the counterbraces ( BH, . C J . FO, et c. ) : The str$; $; titi
counterbracein the first panel is 0, If the load is uniform. 9
lC2 lf2f3
3d, 4th. etc., it is P secant 0X :V ~9 n , etc., P being the total
Each of the figures in the first line is ro be multiplied by l/e P X secant
0: an& ~. HBJ >or l / / a P x AJ i AH, to obta,in the tension, and each
~.
, . ._
load in one panel.
Strain in the Chords - Nethod of ?Eoments. -Let the truss be
uniformly loaded, t~he total load acting 011 It = IV. Weight supported at
each end or reaction of the abutment = W/2.
Weight dn a unit of length = W/ L.
Length of the truss= L.
Horizontal distance from thenearest
abutment to the point (say M in Fig. 130) in the chord qrhere the stram
is to be determined = 2. Horizontal strain at that point (tension on the
lowers chord, compression in the upper) = H. Depth of the truss = ,D-
BY the. method sf moments we take the difference of t.hn mnm~nt~ a~hnllt
the point 151, of the reaction of th? abutment and of the load between
M and. the abutments, and equate that diKerence w3t.h the moment of
the r%stanCC, or of the straiu in the ho&or&xl chord. wnsidered with
reference to a uoint in the onnnsitn chord, about which the t,russ would
turn if the first-chord were &&r$&~M,
The moment of the reaction of the ahut,ment is Wr/2. The moment of
the load from t~he abutment to M is (W/Lx) X the distance of its cwtcr of
gravity from N, which is x/2, oib yment = Wxz f 2 L.
stress in the chord = IZD = G
.\Iorncnt of th,:
li.r?
- SL whence EI =
If 5 = 0 or t, H = 0. If z = L/2, H = Eig which is the horizontal
strain at tile middle of the chords, as before given.
FIG. 131.
The Howe Truss. (Fig. 131.) - In the How truss the diagonals are
struts. and the verticals are ties. The calculation of strains may be made
in the same method as described above for bhe Pratt truss.
The Warren Girder. (Fig. 132.) - In the Warren girder or trianpu-
lar tfuss, there are p vertical struts. and the diagona!s mav transmit either
tenslon or comqres$lon.. The strains in the diagonal3 mavbe cnlcutated by
the method of dlstnbutmn of strains as in the cDse of the iectangular truss.
FIG. 132.
On the princ@le of the lever. the load PI being l/it of the-length of the
span from the bne of the nearest support a. transmits S/lo of its weight to
a and Qqto 9. Write 9 on the right hand of the strut la. to represent the
comprewon. and 1 on the right hand of lb. 2c, 3d, etc., to represent com-
P
ression, and oq the left hand of b2, c3, etc., to represent tension.
oad Pz transmits 7110 of its weight to a and 3/10 to g.
The
Write 7 on each
member from 2 to a, and 3 on each member from 2 to g placing the figures
representing compression on the right hand of the &ember, and those
representing tension on the left. Proceed in the same manner with all
the loads, then sum UP the figures on each side of each diagonal and
w&e the difference of each sni bewath, and on the side of the g;eater
sum. to stow whether the diKerence represents tension or compression
The resUlts are as follows: Compression, In, 25. 2b 15. 3c 5.3d. 5. 4e 15:
5g, 25. Tension, lb, 15; 2c. 5; 4d, 5; 3e, 15. &a& 0; thes;! figouies fs to
STRESSES IN FRAMED STRUCTURES. 521
be multiplied by l/lo of one of the loads as PI, and by the secant of lhe
a..-,, &.,r .:,,:onals make with a vertical !ine.
in the horizontal chords may be determined by the n.ethod
,f rectangular trusses.
by Method of Moments. -- The calcu!ation of
.u . . . yL.c method of statical moments consists in taking
II bltiwsectiwl of thestructure at a point where there are not more than
three memlwrs (strl1t.s. brace:<, ci chords).
To find the strain in cibher one of t.lwse members take the moment about
the i,Aersection of the other two as an axis of rotation. The sum of the
moments of these members must be 0 if the structure is in equilibrium.
Bllt the moments of the two members that pass throwh the pain: of ref-
erenw or a:& are both 0, hence one equation COimiIlin:: me unknown
quantity cau be found for each cross-sectixi.
A
FIG. 133.
In the twcc cl:r!w~ in Fig. 133 xi:- a cross-section at ts, and determine
the strain in the tinee members tiut by it, :iz., CE. EC, alid DF. Let
X = force exerted in direction CE, Y = force zserted in direct,ion DE,
Z = force exerted in direction FD.
For X take its moment about the intersection of Y and Z at D = Xz.
For Y take its moment @out the $tersecfion of. +?- an+ T-at, A-= yz.
I ~~ .~~~~ ~. :or Z take its moment noout tne mtersectlon or n arm Y at fi-
= -
Let z = 15, 5 = lS.6, ?/ = 38.4. AD = 50, CU 7 20 ft. Let PI, Pi:
Pa, P.$ be equal loads, as sho wn, and 31/z P.th-e reaction-of !,I?$ ab-utpent,p.
The sum of all the moments mlten aDout u or A or r; wiu oe u wnen rnc
structure is s,t rest. Then - Xx + 3.5PX 50 - P3 X 12.5 - Pz X 25
- P. Y 27 ~5 = 0.
%e+w&& a!e for moments in the dif&etiop of the b;ln$s pf ? wat_ch or
clock&e&d - signs for the reverse dii%XiOn or antl-CIOCGWISe. iSlnCe
P = PI = P2 = Pa. - lS.6 X f 175 P - 75 P = 0; - 18.6 X = - 100 P;
X = 100 P+ 18.6 = 5.376 P.
- Yy + Pa x 37.5
76 P 2 - a
,A .
- zz + 3.5 f
93.75 j
In the same
+ Pz X 25 i Px X 12.5 = 0; 38.4 Y = 75 .;
Y =
.x3.* = 1.953 P.
X 37.5 - PI X 25 -PpzX12.5-PpaXO=o; 15z=
P; 2 = 6.25 P.
manner the forces exerted in the other members have been
YS: EG = 6.73 P-G3 = 8.07 P; JA = 9.42 P; JH = 1.35P;
- -- _ __ _
found as follow
GF = 1.59 P; AH = 3.75 Y; Hr = 7.50 Y.
~The Fink RooMruss. (Fig. 134.) - An analysis by Prof. P. H.
bilbrick (Van N., Mag., .4ug., 1880) gives the following results:
W = total load on roof:
N= No. of panels on both rafters:
W/N= P = load at each joint b, d, f. etc.;
V= reaction at A = l/z IV = l/z NP =
AD= S: liC = L: CD = D:
tl. TV. t3= tension on De. eg. g.4. respective:9
ct. c2, ca, c+= compression n Cb, bd, df, and fA. _ _.._ ~~~~.,.~ ,..~~~ ~.,~ .
4 Ir
522 -
MECHANICS.
strains in
1 rr3c -
r: (, ~^
b- 2PS -* D:
=B=3PS +Ll:
3. g.t -3 4=?,2 PS + D:
4. A/ = c, =1h PL + D:
5. ,d: = c =VzPLI D-PDI L:
4. do = cd =VzPL/D-?pD/L:
*a
8
Fm. 134.
I. 2X4X2
2
-18
7:xX:xX; -24 tp;
-28 (
/ I X4X2.236=31.3
g 51.3-12X0.447 -25.W ty.
4.
5. 31.3 - 4 x 0.447 -29.52 **
lgd. ~~~:~~- ::
3.58
:::
:z;
Cl8
.
*a
8. 31.3-8X O-447-27.72 *a
8X2 r,; * .a
,
the cmshin~ and the tensile strenstn m
the material emfhyed. I t is appks 1s t%Zf
mnte+l. For C - T. 0 - srr,,.
P
~&,,,pr c.
For C = 0.4 # C,%el:o?;i?:; 4
= .
= 0.8 7 (Soft Steel). (I = 531/(. For C = R T !costironj.
PYROYETKY. 523
= 5,~ deg. Centiwade
- C,rdea. Fahrenheit
mxcurial Thermometer. 3hxcurial Thermometer. (Rankine. S. E.. p. 234.) -The rate ai (Rankine. S. E.. p. 234.) -The rate ai
expmsion of mercury wltb Rae of tempererature Inczenses u the temperr~turs expansion of mercury wltb Rae of tempererature Inczenses u the temperature
bem,,,ea higher; horn which It follows. that il a thermometer showlog he beeomea t&her; fmm whlcb it follows. that il a thermometer showlog he
di,stat,an at mercury aimply were made to lsne with a dr thermomerr ditstatkm at mercury aimply were made to .gree with an dr thermomerr
at 32. end 21 T, the mercurial hermomeer would show lower tem!xruo,.?s at 32. end 21 T. the mercurial hermomeer would show lower tem!xruo,.?s
than he c.,r thermometer between hose standard points. and tdsber M1- than he c.,r thermometer between hose standard points. and t&ber em-
paatuma beyond them. paatutea beyond them.
For exam9,e. areordtn% to Rwwi. when the air thermometer 7.arked For example. areord,w to Rwwi. when the air thermometer 7.arked
3W C. ( = 881. F.,. be meretin, thermometer would mark 362.W C. 3500 C. ( - 881. F.,. be meretin, thermometer would mark 362.16 C.
- 883 8P F.), theerror of tba,.tter beiqq in cxecss 12.1V C. (= 21.SQ - 883 8P F.), theerror of tba,.tter beiqq in cxecss 12.1V C. (= 21.SQ
8.,. 8.,.
Aeual mcrcud,, thermmeters indicate Intervals of temf~ratu~e pm- ~eua, mcrcud,, therm.meters indicate Intervals of temwratu~e pm-
ponionri to the diRerencs between the expanbion of mercy~p and that of ponionri to the diRerenes between the expanbion of mercyrp and that Of
PYBOMETBT.
Prlneipks Umd In var1ou. pCrom=~*J.
-_--
WARci Ndi This- is a 1910 edition.
-- ., - - .._.
Some of the materi i i "&i no l ori g~~~; e - %%%i %
1 . _ . ; 1.
C. F.
TEWERATURES, CENTIGRADE AXD FAHRENIIEIT.
+/ F. 1C.I F. 1C.i F. IC.IF. !+.IC.iF.-
-4o/- 40.
- 331/ - 38.
- 38 ~- 36.
1: ; 1: ; :
- 35 - 31.
- 341- 29.
- 33; - 27.
- 321- 25
- 311- 23.
- 3Oj - 222.
- 291- 20.
- 28: - 16.
- 2% 16.
- 261- 14.
- 25i - 13.
- 24: - I i .
- I $! 6. ;
- 131
- 12! 1: : :
21 2,
- ' 44. 6
4 40. 4
9j 48. 2
I O 50.
1: . 2: :
I 3 55. 4
12 E: '
l b' 60. 8
17 62. 6
' 8, 64. 4
I 91 ; ; : 2
20
21 69.6
:: 2::
24 75. 2
251 77.
GIARNING: This is.Tl9iO edition.
.~..-..A ~,__. .,~..-Y~i,/
Some of
OF. ) c. 1 ..F,..F. 1 c.
-.-
19 - 7. 2
20 - 6.7
21 - 6. 1
: : 1 : . "
24 - 4: 4
25. - 3. 9
--.
26 - - 3. 3
27 - 2. 8
28 - Z. ?
: i - ' . 7 i - ! . I
31 - 0. 6
32 0,
: : +Yi
35 I . 7
E i : ;
38 3. 3
39 3. 9
i
% ; : 4
42 5. 6
43 6. 1
44 6. 7
: z : 5
47 8. 3
48 8. 9
49 9. 4
53 I O.
51 I O. 6
52 11. 1
33 11. 7
54 12. 2
55 12. 8
56 13. 3
57 13. 9
58 14. 4
59 15.
60 15. 6
61 l b. 1
62 l b. 7
63 17.2
64 17.8
65 18. 3
66 18. 9
z i i : "
69 20.6
70 21. 1
71 21. 7
72 22. 2
73 22. 8
74 23. 3
75 23. 9
: ; 2: "
: ; : i :
; y ; q;
02 2718
83 28. 3
84 28. 9
Ei i i : "
i f 3 %
Gi : ; : :
91 32. 8
~, . - .
--
92 33. 3
93 33. 9
94 34. 4
95 35.
96 35. 6
97 36. 1
98 36. 7
99 37. 2
100 37. 8
l Ol , 38. 3
102 38. 9
103 39. 4
104 40.
I 05 40. 6
I 06 41. 1
107 41. 7
108 42. 2
109 42. 8
11043. 3
111 43. 9
11; 2"
I I 4 4516
I I 5 46. 1
I I 6 46. 7
117. 47. 2
11: 25
I E 2: :
12: 20.
1; : 6' : :
125 51. 7
I 26 52. 2
127. 52. 8
l 2f i ' ' ?3. ?
129 53. 9
130 54. 4
131 55.
1 ; f g2. t
134 5617
135 57. 2
136 57.8
137 53. 3
136 58. 9
1% ~~: "
I 41 60.6
142 61. 1
143 61. 7
1: ; 2: : :
146 63.3
I ai :i:
149 65.
i 50 65.6
151 66. 1
I 52 66.7
153 67.2
1;; g;
156 6019
I 57 69.4
.
I-
158 70.
i 59 7o. t
l b0 71. 1
161 71. 7
162 72. 2
163 72. 5
164 73. 3
165' 73. 9
I 65 74. 4
167 75.
168 i 5. 6
169 76. 1
170 76. 7
17' : : : : i
I 73 78. 3
; : 2 : : : I
I 76 80.
177 80.6
178 81. 1
179 81. 7
180 82. 2
E: : ; : i
183 83. 9
1: ; I %: "
106 85. 6
187 86. 1
l e. 3 06. 7
I 89 87. 2
190 07. 8
191 88. 3
192' 88. 9
193 89. 4
194 90.
% ; : : :
E. i ; : : ;
199 92. 8
200 93. 3
zoo: 9" t :
203 95:
I $! E: ?
: : ! : ES
: z ; i : ;
2 2:
212 100.
213 100.6
214 101. 1
Lz! ! 101. 7
216 102. 2
217 102. 8
218 103. 3
% I : E
221 105:
222 105.6
223 106. 1
-.-~
C. 1 F. 1 C:. ; F. 1 C.
-----
106. 7 290 143. 3 360 182. 2
107. 2 291 143. 9 370 187. 8
107. 8 292 144. 4 380 193. 3
108. : 293 145. 390 198. 9
108. 9 294 145.6 400 204.4
109. 4 295 146. 1 410 210.
110. 296 146. 7 420 215. 6
' 10. 6 297 147. 2 430 221. 1
I I ' . ' 298 147. 8 445 226. 7
1 I l . 7 2991148. 3 450 232. 2
: ' 2. : 300 148. 9 460 237. 8
112. 8 301 149. 4 470 243. 3
313 156. 1 590 310.
332 166. 7 780 415. 6
the materi al may no l onger De accura- ce
.
5% HEAT.
b
,
2. Contraction of clay, zc :n the rid Wedgwood pyrometer, at one tll,le
used by potters. This mstrument was very inaccurat,z, as tilt conLracti.)ll
of clay varied with its nature
3. Expansion Of air, as iu the air-thermometer, Wiborghs pyrometer,
Uehling and Steinbarts pyrometer, etc.
4. Pressure Of vapO,rS, as in Some form.3 cf Bristols recording pyrometer
_ 5: Relative espansLon of~two metals or other suhstanres. asin RMX~-~~S
BnIk!,cy:s and otiter metallic pyrometers, consistine oft j c$@-f&$-d;
t.uhe!nc;lde of an IfoiL tube. or vzce versa, Iritl; the difference of expansion
m:~~!llplled, by gearlog and indicated on a dial.
6. Specific heat of solids, as in the copper-ball and platinum-ball
pyrometers.
- 7. Uelting-points of metals, altoys. or other substances, as in approxi-
mate determination of temperature hv melting n&en nf rinr IPSA P+P
or as in SeKers fire-clav ovrometer.
Y r----- _- --..-, ._--, _l.(
8. Time-req::ired to ii&t a weighed ouai~:ity of water inclosed in a
vessel. as in one form of water pyrometer.
9. Increase ln temperature of a stream of water or other liquid
flow-
ing at a given rate through a tube inserted into the heated chamber.
10. Changes m the electric resistance of platinum or other metal, as
in the Siemerx pyrometer.
11.. Measurement of an electric current prodnced by henting the
junctloixof two metals, as in the Le Chatelier pyrometer.
n of hot air or gas flowing from a
-- -he temperature of the mixture by
eter, as in Hoh-ons hoi-blast 0vrornptPr~
1% Dilution by cold air of a strean
heated chamber and determi:lal.inn nf t.1
a mercury thermom
13. Pol:.riz:
C_^_ L..&.I
rttio;l and refraction by prisms and plates of light radiated
~I~U:U uraceu surfaces, as in Mestir and Nouels pyrometric telescope or
opt~ical pyrqmeter. an,d Wanners pyrometer.
14. ,Heatmg th? Lament of an electric lamp to t.; same color as that
of an mcandesce?t body. so that when the latt,er IS observed through a
telescope c*ntainmg the lamp the filament becomes invisible as in Hol-
born. and Kurlbaums and Morses optical pyrometers.
fhe
reql!u-ed to heat the filament is a measure of the temperature.
current
1~. The rad,iation pyrometer.
The radiation from an incandescent
surface 1s received in a telescope containing a thermo-couple and the
elecxx current generated therein is measured, as in Z&ys radiation
pyrometer.
-(See, Optical Pyrometry by C. W. W. Waidner and G. E. Burgess.
BulletIn No. 2. Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and
Labor: also E&a. Mar. I 1 Un7 j
Platinum or.Co per54 Pyrometer. - A -. c-rghed piece c;f plat~inum
copper. or !ron IS a lowed to remain in the furnaci- or heated chamber tili P
It has attamed t,he temperature of its surroundings.
It is then suddenly
taken out and dropped into a vessel containl,ng water of a known weigtit
and t~emperature. The water is stirred rapidly and its maximum tem-
perature taken. Let IV = weight of the water, VJ the weight of the ball
t = the original and T the final heat of the water, and S the specific heat or
the metal; then the temperature c f fire may be found from the formula
3=
W(T--t)+T,
ws
The mean specific heat of platinum between 32O and 446g F is 0 07333 o-
% that of water, and it increases with the temperature agout b.bO0305
for each 100 F. For a fuller descri
A. S. M. E.. vi, 702. Compare also
xviii. 735.
R
tion, by J. C. Hoadley, see Trans.
enry M. Howe, Trans. A. I. M. B.,
For accuracy corrections are required for variations in the specific heat
of the water and of the metal at different temperatures, for loss of heat by
radiation from the metal during the transfer from the furnace to the water
and frqm the apparatus during the heating of the water; also for the heat:
absorbmg capacity of the vessel containing the water.
Fire-clay or fire-brick may be used instead of the metal ball.
Le. Chateliers Thermo-elect-% Pyrometer - For a very full
descnptlon, see paper by Joseph Struthers Schobl of Mines Quarterly
Vol. xn. 1891: also, paper read by Prof. Roberts-Austen before the Iroi
and Steel Institute, May 7, 1891. -
Y
PYROMETRY. 527
36 Tinciple upon wii&i th is pyrometer is constructed is the measure-
ment oi a current of &ectricitg pr Jduced by heating 5 coupIe cornysea of
two wires, one platinum and the other platinum with 10% rhodium -
the current produced being :neasured hy a galvanometer.
The composition of the gas which surrounds the couple has no infl-uence
on the indications.
When tempemtures above 2500 F. are to be studied, the wires
have an isolating support and must be of good tengtt!. SO that all
of a fuinace can be reached. Tile wires txre supported m an Iron tl
inch interior diameter and held in place by a cylinder of refractor:
having two holes bored through, in which the wires are placed.
shortness of time (five secondsj allows the temaerature to he tskeu
8
out deteriorating the tube.
Tests made by this pyrometer in measuring furnace temperatures under
a great variety of condititins show that the rzadmgs of thl: sc~ale uncorr,ected
are aiwnys within 45 F. of the correct tern
P
erature, and m the majority
of industrial measurements this in sLmcient y accurate.
Graduation of Le Chateliers Pyrometer. - W. C. Roberts-Aus:en
in his Researches on the Properttes of Alloys, P?oc. Inst. M. E., 1882,
says: The electromotive force produced by heatrng the thermo-Junction
to any given temperature is measured by the movement of the spot of hght
on the scale graduated in miilimeters.
The scale is calibrated b
the thermo-junction to temperatures which have been careful y
f
heatmg
deter-
mined by the aid of the air-thermometer. a,nd plottmg the curve from
the data so obtained. Many fusion and boiling-points have been estab-
lished by corzurrent eiidence of various kicds, and are now generally
accepted. T ne following table contains certain of these:
D;f; F. Leg. C.
945
s1;
IOO Water boils.
D;fi3F. Deg. 2.
Silver Felts.
326 Lead melts. 1859
p9
355 Mercury boils.
1015 Pot;F;;um sulphate
I
&Y
415 Zinc melts..
:g;
1045 Goid &I@.
$2; Sulphur bolls. - 1157
665
Alummum melts. 2732
1229 Selenium boils. 3227
The Temperatures Developed jn Industrial Furna,ces. - M. Le
Chatelier states that by means of his pyrometer he ?as dIscovered that
the temperatures which occur in melt,ing steel and m othe; mdustval
operations have been hitherto overestImated. He finds tn,e mellms
heat of white cast iron 1135O (2075 F.). and that of gray cast Iron 12200
(2228 F.). Mild steel melts at 1475O (268i F.), and hard steel.at 1410
(257OO F.) The furnace for hard porcelain at t,he e?d of bhe baking has .a
heat of lj?O (2498 F.j. The heat of a normal lncandescento lamp 1s
1500 (3272O F.), but it may be pushed to heyond
2100~ (38i2 F&,E.,
Prof. Roberts-Austen (Recent Advances in Pyrometry. Trans. A.I.
Qicago Meeting 1893) gives an excellent description of modern,forms of
pyrometers.
Tl;e followmg are some of his temperature determmatlons.
TEN-TON OPEN-HE.IRTH FURN.%CE, WOOLWKH ARSENAL.
c$$jgze. %I?
Temperature of steel. 0.3% carbon. pouring into ladle. :!iz
ZYY3
Steel. 0.3% carbon. pouring into large mold..
Reheating furnace, intenor. . .. : .
Cupola furnace, No. 2 cust iron, pouring mto ladle. .
1~~~
:%
2912 I
The following determinations have been effected by M. Le Chateuer
BESEJEMER pnoc~ss. SIX-TON CONVERTER.
. . , , , . ~~. . ~.
WARNING: This is a 1916 &!ition, Some~bf the mat&%l may no
l oi - i ger be accurate:
PYROMETRY.
Rackonitz shale clay consists of 99.?7y0 clny substanc,+ and 0. ~301
s?pd. The melting-point of a zone depends on the rat~io of ail:rr,ink ii
slhca,and the amount, of fiuxe? contained. The following table shows the
chemical for,mul=. nurtures and melting-points of Seger cones from I to
38. The temperatures corresponding to the melting-points of cones
21 to 26 are attamed in the iron and steel industries.
serve to pet.ermine the refractoriness of clays.
Cones 26'co 36
OPF.N-KEARTR FURNACE (Semi-mild Steel).
A. Fuel gas near gas generator.. . . . . .
Deg. C. Deg. F.
B. Fuel gas entering into
. .
bottom of regen&i& ctiamber
;ol? 1%&j
L.
C. Fuel gas issuing from regenerator chamber.. . . . . : : 1200 2192
.~lr issuing from regenerat,or chsmber.. . .
Zhmney gases. Furnace in per ft;t condition. . . .
1000 1832
Enzofehemeltingofpigcharge.: . . ..__.._..._..._.. 1:: ~~~~2~~s
Completion of conversion.. . 1500 2732
Molten stee!. In the iadie - Commencement of castings. l.iSD 9876
!
End of casring. _. .:..~. 1490 -714
In ihe molds. . 1520 2768
Y
For cry mild (soft) steel the tem&&&esa& i&i&d$~OO C.
BLAST-FURI\'ACF: (Gray-Rezsemer Fig).
!jxnii~g in face of tuyrre. . . . ;.
71 olten metal - Comm~rcmenc of fusion. _. . _ . . 1 : 1
1930 3596
1400 &ji'O
End. or prior to tappi,.lg.. . . , . . . . . ~. 1570 &
HOFPJIA:~ Em-BRICK KILN.
BurMng temperatures.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190 ~012
R. :Xoldenke (The F@un,dr?/. Nov., 1S98) determined with a I,e Chatelier
PYronMer the meltinK-ooint Of 42 ~amplrs of pig iron of different era.rles~
i
/
y.-~._I.
The range was from ?O>O F. for pig containing 3.98% combined carbon
.to 2250 for pig containing 0.13 combined carbon and 3.43c, graphite.
The results of the whole series may-he expressed within 31$ F. bv t,he
formula Temp. =2300 - 711 x (--
Hobsnns Hnt - hl
-.
Clrtmicnl Composition. Mi xt ur e.
/ Meifing-
Pornt.
-i__
T
i
-2
s
-
35
: :
: :
35
: :
35
: 5'
: :
35
: :
: :
: :
35
35
35
35
: :
35
. .
. . .
. . . .
i
= 3
$2
0. 3
0. 4
0. 45
0. 5
0. 5
E-
: : t
! : i
1: :
I . 8
2. 1
2. 4
: : :
3. 5
3. 9
4. 4
$2
6. 0
6. 6
7. 2
20. 0
I . 0
1: :
; : i
1 . a
I . 0
1. 0
d
8
-
II50
1170
%
I230
1250
I270
1290
1310
1330
1350
1370
1390
1410
! 430
1450
t z
1510
1530
! 550
1570
1590
1610
1630
1650
%
1710
1730
1750
1770
I E
1830
1850
6. 0
3. 0
4.a
.
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.
.
,
.*.,
SY
4 83. 55
4 03. 55
4 83. 55
4 83. 55
5 83. 55
8 83. 5
9 83. 5,
10 03. 5
12 83. 5:
16" i x
15 03. 5:
21
24
I 83. 51
A73. 51
27 03. 51
31 83. 5!
35 03. 51
39 R3. 5!
44 03. 51
49 e3. 5:
54 83. 51
60 83. 51
66 03. 5!
72 83. 5:
200 83. 51
' i : : : :
6 . . _.
5 . . I
4 . . . .
3 . _. ' .
C' ' . " '
7,
:
:
:
:
5
5
5
5
i
5
i
i
5
i
5
i
. ,
&'
t ckc Ra
ttlit
&nit.
. . 2102
t 2. 95 2138
19. 43 2174
; ; : x ; ; g
38. 85 2282
51. 80 23! . a
64. 75 2354
77. 70 2390
90. 65 2426
116. 55 2462
142. 45 2498
168. 35 2534
194. 25 2570
233. 10 2604
271. 95 2642
31O. a 2678
362. 60 2714
414. 40 2750
466. 20 27%
53Li . 951 28?2
595. 70 2855
660. 45 2894
738. 15 2930
815. 85 2966
893. 55' 3002
1551. 13 3038
129. 50 3074
129. 5 3110
129. 5 3146
129. 5 3182
129. 5 3218
129. 5 3254
129. 5 3290
. . _. _. 3326
, . . _, _ 3362
% of combined carbon.
three hoilov arms a
and induces a current of atmosT
The two currents mi in the PIlam
in which the +
eter. The openings,iu the ar ms a:
bl ast t o t he a
^- ~
as& Pyro.neter consists c;! a brass chamber havine
nd a handle. The hot blast enters one of the arm:
bherie air to flow into the second arm.
$er and flow out through the third arm
temper. tllre of t.he mixture is taken by a n:-rcurg thermom:
re adJusted so that the proportion of hot
.cmospneric air rt-lliains the same.
~11 Air-ovrometer. (E. Tr?tz. Trans. A.I.&f.E.. issz.) -
m-co%~?ent of air. as determined b\
Id Rc,rrnault; bases his construction oil
The Wi hnr _ . - - - -
The inventor using thE espansic
Gay-Lusssq Duion, Rudberg,, an
the foIlowIng theory: If an atr-volume, V, inclosed in a porcelain globe
and tonne-ted through a capillarv pi
the temperature 2 ( whi ch i n t o be ( P
e with the outside air, be heated to
et er mi nec . ~...... _- 1) anu thereupon the con-
?ectinn be d@continued, and the-c? be then forced into the globe coutai!!-
of kno\vn temperature t. \vhir,h \I~:IV mg Y another voiume of air V
_ . I y
PreyiousIp. under atmosphric pressure II. the additional pressure h,. due
to tne addltlon of the air-volume V to the air-volume V, can be measured
by a manometer. But this pressure is of course a function of the tem-
perature 2. Before the introduction of V
we have the two separate
ai r - voi umes. V at th? tempe:ature 2. and G at the temperature t both
under the atmosphenc pressure H. After the forcing in of V in&, the
g!obe. wz have. on the contrary, only the volume V of the temperatl:e
Z1 but under the pressure H + h.
Seger Cones. (Catalog, Stowe-Fuller Co., 1907.) - Seger cones were
de+oped In Germany by Dr. Herman A. Seger. They comprise a series
of triangular pyr am: ds about 3 in. high and j/s in. wide at the base each a
trifle less fusible than the next. Wlen the series is placed in a iurnace
whose temperature is gradually raised, one cone after another will bend
?s !~ts temperature of plasticity is reached.
The temperature at which
It bends SO far that its apex touches the surface supporting it determines
a Point on Segers scale. Seger used as his standard, Zetttitz kaolin
and Rackomtz shale clay of the following analyses:
I
-
I h. J . , J une' ~, IJYUJ- MeSUn? ana NOUel'S telescope gves an,.L.....----Y-
determination of the temperature of incandescent bodies, and IS therefore
.
AI._ -z--A-> A- ~~ .~~~
are to be
maae. ana at snort Intervals, than Segers.
.rne nc&te Gelesco,e, carried
i n the pocket or hung from the neck, can be used by foreman or heater
at any moment.
It is based on the fact that it plate of quartz. cut at right angles to the
axis, rotates the plane of polarization of polarized light to a degree near1
. . . . . . .P .L. I..--.&. -T +,hP waves; an
d:
inversely proporrlonnl to tne square or but: ~lfllr~ll ~1
further, on the fact that while a body at dull redness I
_. . _
nerely emits r ed
Zettlite kaol i n. _.
I I
4. 87
%ckoni t z cl ay. . 52. 50
?8. 56
45. 22
light, as the tempern.ture rises, the orange, yello;:.. green, and blue waves
successively appe+b..
If. ow, such D :,*?te of quartz i,- nlaced between two Nicol prisms at
right. angles. a ;~ of monochromatic light which
po!arizer. a;ld is watched through the second, or f
asses the firsc,.cr
grusned as It was befre interposing the quartz.
ana yzer, is not extm-
Part of the light. passes
the analyzer, and, to again extinguish it, we must turn one of the Nicols a
certain angle. depending on the length of the waves of light, and hence on
t,he temperature of t,he incandescent. object which emit~s this light. Hence
the angle ihrough \vhich Eve must turn t ne analyzer t. estingcush the light
is a measure of the temperature of the 0bjecG observed.
The Uehling and Stein.hart Pyrometer. (For illustrated descrip-
ticn see E~zgir~r&i?r/, Avg. 24, 1594.) - The action of the pyrometer is
b:+srtl on a principle which invoives the Ism of the flow of gas through
mmute apertures in the fol!o+ng manner: If a closed tube or chamber be
supplied \vit.h a minute ioiet and a minute outlet aperture, ar:d air be
caused by a constant suction to flow in through one and out through the
ot.hrr of these apertures. t.he tension in the chamber between the apertures
wil: vary with the difference o
outHo,.ving sir.
f temperature between the inflowing and
If the inflowing air be made to vary with the tem-
peratrrre to be measured, and the outflowing air be kept. at a certain coc-
stirni iemperatufe, then the tension in the space or chamber between the
two +perturrs w111 be an exact measure of the temperature of the inHow-
Ing a~. and hence of the tt?mperature to be meas\!red.
In operation it is necessary that the air be sucked into it through the
first mmute aperture at the temperature to be measured, through the
second aperture at a lower but constant temperature, and that the suc-
!i.on be of a constant tension. The first aperture is therefore located
In the end of a platinum tube in the bulb of a porcelain tube over which
the hot blast sweeps, or inserted into the pibe or chamber containing
the gas whose temperature is to be ascertained.
The second aperture is located in a coupling. surrounded by boiling
water. anu the suct~in is obt,ainc.d by an aspirator and regulated by a
column of \yatef of constnnL height.
The tension in the chamber between the apertures is indicated by a
mnnomet,er.
The Air-thermometer. (Prof. R.
1393.) - .$r is a perfect thermometric
C. Carpenter, Engg News, Jan. 5.
substance. and if a given mass of
air be cor.side,-ed. the product of its pressure and volume divided by its
n~l>solute temperature is in every case constact. If the volume f air
reii;ail? constant, the temperat,ure :vil; vary xwith the pressure; if the
pret,sure remain cr&ant. the tempera.ture r&l! vary with the vlu;ne. As
the former condition is more easily attained, air-thsrmometers are usually
cnstructed,of constant volume, m which case the absolute temperature
will vary with the pressure.
If we denote pressures bv p and p. and the correspdnding absolute
temperatures by 2 and !I, we should have
The absolute temperature T is to be considereiin every case 460 higher
than the thermometer-reading expressed in Fahrenheit degrees. Frcm
the form of the above equation, if the Gressure p ccrresponding to a
knom,n absolute temperat~ure 2 be knowc, 2 can be found.
T/p :c a
The quotient
COnstant which iiiay be used in aii determinations with the
rnstrument. The pressure on the instrument can be exnrpssed in inchw
of mercury, and is eyidently the atmospheric pressure i, as shown by a
barometer, plus or minus an additional amount h shown by a manometer
attached to the air-thermometer. That is, in general, p A 6 f h.
The temperature of 3?O F. is liised as the point of melting ice, in which
case T = 46r: + 32 = 492O F. This te mperature can be nroduced bv sur-
rounding the bulb in melting ice and leaving it several mix&es, so thjt the
te.mpersture of, the confined air shall acquire that of the surroundinq ice.
\\ hen the air IS at that temperature. note the reading of the attjched
manometer k, and that of a barometer: the sum will be the value of n
c !orresponding to the absolute temperature of 49~ F. The constant gf
the instrument, K = 492 i- p, once obttined, can be used in a?1 future
determinations.
PYRONETRY.
Eli
can E
h Temperatures judged by Color, - The temperature of a body
e approximately judged b.
Poulllet in 1836 const,rucceu a t;:!, e. T
the eaperienced eye unaided.
which has been geueraily quoted !\
the text-bqoks, giving the colors and their corresponding temperature
out whch IS now r:pl&ed by the tables of H. X. Howe and of hlaunsei
White and F. W. Taylor (Trans. A. S. M. E., lS99:, which are 3ven
below.
FIome.
Lowest red vi+
ible in dark..
Lowest red vis-

ible in day-
light.. _. _..
Duil red..
Full cherry
Lightred......
Full yellow...
Light yellow.
JYhite. . . . . .
oc.
470
= F. White nnd Taylor. C. OF,
878
Dark blood-red, black-
red
Dark red, blood-red. iow
990
475
550 to 625
700
850
7c% 'Ooo
:150
. .
556
635
red. .
Dark cherry-red.. ;. _.
Medium cherry-reu.
Cherry. ful! red. :
Light cherry, light retl*.
Orange, free scaling heat
Lirrht ran ,w .
2
899
941
996
1079
1205
Y&o. ;-.
Light yellow..
White.. .
1050
1175
1250
:375
12::
1725
1825
1975
2200
530 HEAT.
* Heat at which scale forms and adheres o~r. iron and steel, i.e., does
.not fall away from the piece when allowed to cool in air.
Skilled observers may vary 300 E. or more in their estimation of
+atlv$!ly 10;: temperatures by color. and beyond ZOO0 F. it is practically
impossible to make estimations with any certainty whatever.
No. 2. Bureau of Standards. 1905.)
(Bulletin
III confirmation of the abve
booklet published by the Halcom E _
ardgraph we have tile following. in a
Steel Co., 1908.
C. OF. Colors.
400 752
474
Red, visible in thednrk.
525
885 Red, visible in the twilight.
975 Red, visible in the
lishht.
dsy-
581 1077
1
g 1292 j$
1472 U"
900 1652 Chelr>r-rea.
R$,i>ible in the sun-
.:k red.
kii cherry-red.
oc.
1000
Ii00
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
Colors.
Bright cherry-red.
Orange-red.
Orange-yellow.
Yellow-ahite.
White welding heat.
Brillignt white.
Dyz:n;: wh~tc (bluish
Different substances heated to the same temperature give out the
same color tints. Objects which emit the sa,me tint acd intensitv of light
cannot be distinguished from e&ch other. no matter how diffeient their
texture, surface, or shape may be. When the ten*perature at all parts of
a furnace at a low yellow heat is the same, di&:ent objects inside the
furnace (firebrick, sand, platinum, iron; become absolutely invisible.
(H. M. Ho,Fe.)
A bright bar of iron, slowly heated in contact with ~?r. assun?es the fol-
iowing tinis at annexed temoeratures (Claudel):
Cent. - Fahrt I Cent. T E ahr.
YellOW at.. . 225 437 288
Orange at. . . . . .
Indigo at.. . . . .
243 47,i Blue at.. . . . . . . 293 i%
Redat...; . . . . . 265
;g
Green at.. . . . . . 332 630
violet at. . . . . . 277 Oxide-gray. . . 400 752
The Ralcomb Steel Co. (190s) gives the following heats and temper
colors of steel:
Cent. F&r. Colors. Cent.. Fahr. Colors.
WI.1 430 Very pale yellow. 265.6 510 Spotted red-brown.
226.7 446
232.2 450
Li htyellow.
237.8 460
Pa 7 e straw-yellow.
243.3 470
Straw-yeilow.
248.9 480
Deep straw-yellow. 287.8 550 Dark urple.
293.3 560 Full blue
254.4 490
Dark yellow.
Yellow-brown. 298.9 570 Dark blue.
260.0 500 Brown-yellow. 315.6 600 Very dark blue.
HEAT OF COMBUSTION.
,533
BOELING-POINTS AT
Ether. s&ilphuric. _.
Car bor l bisllinhide.
Am;imnia . .
Chloroform.
Bromine . . .
Wood spint . .
r\wl1r,l .
Benzinc:.
JVVatcr _.
Average sea-water.
The boiling-points of liquids increase as t~he iressure increases.
14.7 Ibs. per
100 F.
. 11s
. . 140
. . 14u
. . 145
. 1 ;iO
1X
176
212
213.
ATXOSPHERIC PRESSURE
square inch.
Silturated brine __ . _.
Nitric acid. .
Oil of turpentine.. . .
Aniline . . . . . . . . . .
h-Japht~halin?. . . . . . . . . .
Phosphorus . . .
Sulphur. .
Sulph.iric acu~.
Linsee, oi!. . . .
Alereur~ . . . .
mechanicai energy .bcing mutually convertible
Joules experiments
1843-X). gave the figure 772. rvhich is know!:) as .Joules eclgilva!el,t:
hhe recent experiments by Prof. Rowland (P~oc. :?n, Acad. A,qs n,-d
Sciences, 1880; see also Woods Thermodynamics) gi .c: ~ .rner figure;, atid
the most probable avemge is now considered to be ~8:~
1 heat-unit is equivalent to 775 ft.-lbs. of energy.
0. 0012552 heat - uni t .
1 ft.-lb. = 1177s =
1 horse-power = 33. CNJ O ft.-lbs. per minute =
2545 heat-lrnits per hour = 42.~416 + per mirTll!e = 0.X60.1 per serond.
1 lb. carbon bmwrt to CO7 = 14.600 hr:lt-r:r,its. 1 lb. C per H.P. per
hour = L.?L.Z +- l..j,600 = 17.43:; eflicierlr,:..
2?6O F.
248
315
g;
5. k
433
530
@'
"
NELTIXG-POISTS OF VARIOUS S<!BSTANCES.
Heat of Combustion of Various Substances in Oxygen.
-
Hydrogen to liquid water at, O0 C.
I
to stesnlat IOO~C. __,
Carbon (wood charcoal) to car-
bonic arid, COz; ordinary tem-
pera tures
Ca+on, diamond to CO2. _.
.
black ~liamond to COz..
graphite to CO?. _. _.
Carbon to carbonic oxide, CO,
Carbonic oxide to CC? pez unit of
co.
60 to CO2 per Lnit of C-21/3x2403
Marsh-gzs.Methane. CH,,towat,er
and CO?.. . .
Heat-unit:;.
The following figures are given by Clark (on the auth0rit.y of Poui!%,
Cla~del, and Wilson), except those marked *, which are given by Prof.
Roberts-Austen, and those marked 7, which are given by Dr. 6. A. Harker.
These latter are probabi:; the most reliable figures.
Snlphurous acid.. . - 14SF. Cadmium.. 44Y F.
Carbonic acid. - 10x Bismuth.. . :. 504 to 507
Mer!,r;ry. _. -39, _ 3St
Bromine. _.
Lead............... 618*,620t
i 9.5 Zinc.. . . . . 779*. 786t
Favre and Silbermitnn.
Andrews.
Thornsei!.
Favre and Si!hermann.
.I I.
34. 462 62. 032
33. 808 60. 854
34, 342 61, 816
20, 732 51. 717
( ' $: f pg
A359
7: 861
i d' p
14: l W
7; 901 ( +I ?: '
'
1
2. 4731 2, 403 +; ;
2, 431 2, 385 4, 376 4. 193
5, 607 10, 093
I 13. 120 13, 108 13, 063 23. 616 23, 594 23. 513
I 1! . 85t ' 11, 942 11. 957 21, 344 21, 496 21, 523
! I O. ! 02 ! r ( , ! E4
1 9, 915 17, 047
Antlrcws.
?erthe!ot..
Turprxtine.
Hyponi.tric acid.. . . . ::
Antimony _.._. . . . . . 1150, il69f
Aluminum . . . _, . _. :157*. 1214t
:ce.. . . 32
Nitro-glycerine . .
Tndow.
;;
Phostihorus _ . . . 1 II
Maenesium.. _ 1200
NaCI. common salt. i
Cnld cm. Full red&%?
Bronze. 1692
Aceti..c acid.. . 1 i 3
Stearine . . 109 to I0
Soermaceti. _. 120
Cast iron, white.. 1922, 2075t
<,
gray 201~2 to 2iY6, 222s
Steel.. 2372 to 2532*
.
hard . 2570*; mild. 2687
iYrought iron 2i32 to 2912, 2737*
Pa!!nd:um-. ,. . .
2732*
Platinum . ._ 3227*. 3110t
Andrews.
Thomsen.
Favrc and Silbermann.
Thornsen.
Andrews.
FaKre and Silbefplann.
hiarqaric acid . _. 131 to 140
Potassium _ . . _. . 136 to 144
Was . . . l-1? to 154
Olefin~nt. gas. Ethylene, CzH+, to
water and CO?.
Stearic acid 1.5s
Sodium.. . . 194 to 208
Iodine. . . 225
Sulphur. _. . 239
Alloy. 11/z tin; 1 lead 33-I: 367t
Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4ai 4m
hdrews.
Thornsen.
11
Favre and Silbermann.
Cobalt and manganese, fusible in highest heat of i forge. Tmgst~en
and chromium, not fusible in forge, but soften and agglozrierate. Plati-
num s,nd iridium, f-sible only before the oxybpdrogen biowpipe, or in an
electrical furnace. For melting-point of fusible alloys see Alloys. For
boiling and freezing points of air and other gases see p. 580.
In calculations of the heating value of mised fuels the va!ue for carbon
is common1.y taken at 14,600 B.T.U., and that of hydrogen at 6?.000.
Taking the heating value of C burned to CO? at 14,000, and that OT C to
CO at 4450, the ditference, 10.150 B.T.U.. is the heat lost bv the imperfect
combustion of ezzh lb. of C burned to CO instead of to CO?. ii the CO
formed by this imperfect combustion is afterwards burned to COz t.he lost
heat is rpgn.inerl
QUANTITATIVE MEASURE3IEI:T OF HEAT.
Unit of Heat. -The British thermal unit, or heat unit (B.T.U.). is the
q2antity of heat req..:--
,,,x,d to raise the temperature of i ib. of pure water
from 6z to 63 F. (Peabody), or /ISO of the heat required to raise the
temperat~ure of 1 !bl of water from 32 to 212O F. (U,.---
Steam, p. 840).
wlna and Gavis, see
The French thermalunit, or calorie, is the quantity of beat. required to
raise the temperati;ie of 1 ;i----- _ xVh.urll of pure water from 15O to 16O C.
1 French ca!orle = 3.968 Brit:sh thermal units; 1 B.T.U. = 0.252
calorie. The pound calorie
it is the
is sometimes used by English writers;
water lo%.
uantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of
1 lb. calorie = B/s B.T.U. = 0.4536 calorie. The heat of
combustion of carbon, to COa, is said to be SOS0 calories. This figure is
used either for French calories or for pound calories, as it is the number of
pounds of water that can be raised lo C. by the complete combustion of
1 lb. of carbon, or the number of kilograms of wster that can be raised
1 C. by the combustion of 1 kilo. of carbon: assuming in each case that
In burning 1 pound-of hydrogen with 3 pounds of oxygen to form 9
pounds of water, the units of heat evolved are 62,000; but if the resulting
product is not cooled to the initinl tempe;ati;;e of
heat is rendered latent in the steam.
the gases, part of the
The total heat of 1 lb. of steam at
212 F. is 1150.0 heat-units above that of mater.at 32. and 9 x 1150 =
10,350 heat-umts, which deducted from 62.000 gives 51.650 as the heat
evolved b,v the combustion of 1 lb. of hydrogen and 8 Ibs. of oxygen at
32 F. to form steam at 212O F.
Some writers subtract from the total heating value of hydrogen only
the latent heat of the 9 lbs. of steam, or 9 x 969.7 = 8727 B.T.U., leaving
as the low heating valise 53.273 B.T.U.
all the beat generated is transferred to the water. - \
The .)Iwhanical Equivalent of Heat is the number of .foot-pounds
of mechanical energy equivalent to one British thermal unit, heat and
The use of heating values of hvdrogen burned to steam, in compu-
tations relating to combustion of fuel. is inconvenient, since it necessi-
tates a statement of the conditions upon which the figures are based.; and
it is, moreover, misleading, if not inaccurate, since hydrogen in fuel IS not
often burned In pure oxygen, but in air; the temperature of the gases
before burning is not of&n the assumed standard temperature, and the
products of combustion are not often discharged at 212O. In steam-
_ ..,^ I_.l.x_ i,..~..
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accuraw
534 HEAT.
SPECIFIC HEAT.
boiler pra&:a the chimnsg gases are us:lally discharged above 300: but
if economizers are used. and t.he water supplied to them is cold, the gases
may be cool ed to below 212. in which case the steam in the gases is con-
densed and its latent heat of evaporation is utilized: If there is any need
at all of using figures of the avai!able heating value of hydrogen, or its
heating value when burned to steam, * the fact that the gas is burned in
air and not in pure oxygen shouid be taken into consideration.
resulting figures Ivill then be much low~;_;~ those above,nven, and tx@
wiii vary with &&rent conchtions. 1 ,
^^ ~
Steam Boder Economy,
p. z3.i
Suppose that 1 lb. of H is burned in tivice the quantity of air required
for complete combustion, or 2 X (8 0 + 26.56 N) = 69.12 ibs. aii
Eupplizd at 62 F.. a..J that. the products of combustion escape at 562 F.
The heat lost in the products of combustion will be
9 Ibs. water heated from:62O to 212. . . .
Latent heat of 9 Ibs. HrO at 212. 5 X 969.7..
1352 B.T.U.
Superheated stesm. 9lbs. X (562O -. 212) X 0.48(sp. ht.)
8727 I
Nitrogen, 2Y ;S X (562 - 62) X 0.2438. . .
1512 1:
Excess air. 34.56 X (562O
. .
-62) X0.2375 . . . . . . . . ..__
g;

. . .
Total..................................... 18,933
which subtrsct.ed from 62,000 tives 43,067 B.T.U. as the net available
h-sting value under the conditicns named.
Heating Value of Compound or Mixed Fuels. - The heating value
of a Solid compmmd or mixed fuel is the sum of ibs elementary constituents,
and 1s culcuiated as follows by Dulongs formula:
B.T.U.- l&[ 14,600 C + 62,000 @Z - ;) + 4500 S] ;
in which C. H, 0, and S are respectively the percentages of t~he se,verul
elements. The term H - l/s 0 is called t e available or disposable
hydrogen. or that which is not combine cl. with oryEen in the flltil. For
all the common varieties of coal. cannel coal and co& Iignites errpntpd
the formula is accurate wit.hin the limits of error of chemical analyses and
r al or i met r i r r i et , er mi nx. t . i r . n~c
Heat Absorbed br Decolnoosition. - Bv the decomnosi t , i nn
SPECIFIC HEAT.
*~
Thermal Capacity. -The thermal capacity of a bodv between two
temperatures 70 and T: is the quantity of heat required t; raise the tem-
perature from TO to 21. The ratio of the heat required to raise the temper-
a:urF of ? certain weight of a given s:lbstance one degree to that reqrured
fo raise tne temperature of the same weight of water from 62 to 63 F.
1s. commonly called the specific heat of the substance. Some writhers
object to the term as being in inaccurate use of the words specific
and heat.
canaritv~
A more correct name would be coefficient. of thermal
&&ination of Specific Heat ---Method by dftitute.-The body
whose specific heat is to be determined-is raised to a known temperat&
and IS then immersed in a mass of liquid,of which the weight, specifii
^~. _, . . . . _ . . . - - . . ~. . %~ I .~ .__--- L..~ :~. .~~.,~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some o, f the materi a
heat. and temp,:rature are known. When bot h the body and the liq!lid
have attained ihz same temperature. this is csreful!y ascertained.
Nmv the quantity of heat !ost by the bodr is the same as the quantity of
heat abstirbed by t he liauid.
Let c, w, and 1 be
p;ay ^_A 2 . ..I ^-
the specific heat, weight, and temperature of the hot
, ~PLS~ c , w~u, alld t of the liauid. Let 2 be t he t el , zer at r : r e t he rnix-
yu.I assumes.
.~ ~~--
Then, by the definition of specific heat, c X w X (t - 2) = heat-units
lost by the hot botlp. and c % 7~ X (I - I) = heat-units gained by the
cold liquid. If t,here is no heat lost by radiation or conduction, these
must be equal, and
cw it - T) = cw (T-P) or c =
dw (T - t).
w,(t - Tl
. EZecln:ccal Mefhotl. This method is believed to be more accurate in
many.cases tuan th,e method by mi,uture. It consists in measuring the
quantity of current in watts required to heat a unit weight of a substance
one degree in one minute, ant: translating the result into heat-ur.its.
1 Watt ==0.0569 B.T.U. per minute.
Specific EIeats of Various Substances.
The saecific heats of substances. as eiven bv different authorities show
considefable lack of agreement, especrally inthe case of gases.
The fol!owing tables -give the intan specific heats of the substances
named according to Regnault. (From RBntgens Thermodynamics, p.
134.) These specific heats are average values, taken at temperatures
whuzh usuqlly come under observation in technical application. The
actual spec1fi.c heats of all substances, in. the solid or liqlud state, increase
s10wly a,s the body expands or as the temperature rise& It is probable
that the specific heat of a body when liquid is greater than when solid.
For mazy bodies this has been verified by experiment.
. .4ntililony ......
CoDDer .........
Gol d. . . . . . . . . . .
W&.ght Iron
C!ast iron ....
...............
Lead. ...... 1 ...
Plat.inum .......
Silver ..........
Tin ............
SOLIDS. SOLIDS.
. 0.0505 . z:IL;gf I Steel (soft). . . . Steel (soft). . . .
. 0.0951 Steel (hard). . . .
. o.o-~ . 0.0324 Zinc.. . . . . . .
. 0.1135 Brass . . . . . . . . . .
. 0.1937 . 0.1937
I
Ice Ice.. . . . . . . .............
. 0.1298 . 0.1298 Sulphur Sulphur.. . . . . . . ........
. 0.0314 . 0.0314 I Charcoal Charcoal . . . . . . . .......
. 0.0 . 0.0324 Alumina.. . .
. 0.0 . ;: ;;;; Phosphorus. . .
. o.ouu I
,....
. . . .
. . .
. . .
.
. .
.
. . .
,.....
. . . . .
. .
. .
. . .
.
. . . .
0.1165
O.lli5
E%Z
0.5040
;: !mo
0.1970
O.!F7
L IQUIDS.
Water .................... 1.0000 Mercury ................. 0.0333
Lead (me!@ed). ........... 0.0402 Al cohol (absuiute). ....... 0.7000
Sulphur ............. 0.2340 Fuse1 oil ................. 0.5640
Bismuth ............... 0.0305 Benzine .................. 0.4500
Tin ............. 0.0637 Ether ................... 0.5034
Sulphuric acid ............ 0.3350
:ygen. ...............
rdrogen ...............
trogen ................
pe$ztted steam*. . . .
aci d. . . . . . . . . . . .
?fiant ga, s ( CHd . . . . . . .
rbonic oxide. .I. . . . , . .
nmonia.. . . . . . . . . . . .
her. ..................
:ohol. ................
etic acid ..............
loroform ................
GASES.
Constant Pressure.
....... 0 23751
....... 0.21751
....... 3.40900
.......
.......
; : N&o
....... 0.217
....... 0.404
........ 0. 2.
119
....... 0.50!-~
....... 0. 4797
....... 0.4: 534
.--
....... 0.412o
....... 0.1567
Constant Volume.
:: Ei::
2.41226
:: E
Ei
p;s
0.3411
0.3200
* see Superheated Steam, page 838.
SPECIFIC HEAT.
In addition to the above, the following are given by other authorities.
(Selected from various sources.)
MET.~L.s.
SpeciAc Meat of Salt Solution. (Schuller.)
Per cent salt in soliition~
Specific heat.. . . . . . . I . . 0.9ioti o.shl t3.8%6 o.;?io o.s&
Platinum, 32 to 441%~ F.. .
(increased .000305 for,each
Cadmium. . . , .
Brass.. . . . . .
copper, 320 to 2120 F.. .
. 3Y t o . 57? F. . .
Ziiu:, 3? t o L' l " OF. .
.a
Wrought,>ron (Petit & Dulong).
32t.o 2120.. 0.1098
I
320t o 392" . . 0.115
.A
3v" t o 57' >0. . 0. 1*15
I .
3?t o 66?. . O.l%Ki
Iron at high temperatures.
(Pionchon, Cum#% Ri%dus, 1887.)
1382 to 1832 F.. . 0.213
1749 to 1843O F.. 0.218
1922 to 2192O F.. 0.199
0. 0333
oygl
0. 093;
0. 094
0. 1013
0. 0927 j
0. 10; 5
0. 1056
SpeeiAc Meat uf bir.-B~egnault gives for the mean value ;it constant
pressure
Betiveen - 3;; $ and + IO C ....................
.,
00 p: GS
100~~
0.23771
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I S
2G0C
0. 23741
L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o. zK51 Nickel.. . .
Aluminum, O F. to melting-
point (A. F:. Hunt). . 0.21% I
. Hanssen uses O.lG86 for the specific heat of air at constant volume
The value of this constant has never been fount1 to any degree of accura~;
by direct experiment. Prof. Wood gives 0.2X5 i 1.4Oti = 0.1689. The
rAti0 of t,he specific heat of a fixed gas at constant pressure to t.he sp. ht.
at constant volume is ,given as foilows by different, writers (Engg, July 12,
lYY9): Regnault, 1.3953; MO11 and Beck, 1.4OS5; Szathmari, 1.407; J.
Mwfarlane Gray, 1.4. The first three are obtained from the velocity of
sound in air. The fourth is derived from theory. Prof. Wood says:
The value of the ralio for air, as found in the days of La Pkme. was 1.41,
and we have0237i + 1.41 = 0.16S6, the wlue used by Clausius, Hanssen
and many others. But this ratio is not definitely knrnvn. Rankine in
his later writ.ings used 1.408, and Tait in a recent work gives 1.404. $il$l;
some experiments give less than 1.4, and others more t,han 1.41.
Wood uses 1.406.
.
Dr.-I&. P. Cberhoffer, in Zeit. des.Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure (Eng.
Digest, Sept., 1908). describes some experiments on the specific heat of
nearly pure iron. ,The following mean specific heats were obtained:
Temp. F. 500 600 so0 1000 1200 1300
Sp. Ht. 0. 1228 0. 1266 0. 1324 0. 1355 0. 1462 0. 1601
;;q; F. 0.169S 15ao 0. 1682 1800 0. 1667 2100 0. 1662 2400 0. 1666 2700
Yhe specific he&t increases steadily between 500 and 1200 F. Then it
increases rapidly to 1400, after which it remains nea?y constant.
OTHER SOLIDS.
Brickwork and masonry,about
LLrble .... .... .............
Chs!k ......................
Quicklime. .................
Mamesian limestone .........
Silica ......................
Corundum .................
stows generally ..... .o. 2 to
0.20
0.210
:: ? 27
0.217
0.191
;I At8
-I
Coal ............ 0.20
Coke ...................
Graphite ...............
Sulphate of lime ........
Magneqla
Soda ................................
Quartz. ...............
River sand .............
Specific Heat o! Gases. - Experiments ny Mallard and Le Chatelier
indicate a contiuuous increase in the specific heat at constant volume of
steam, CO,, and even of the perfect gases, with rise of temperature. The
variation is inappreciable at 100 C., but ~ncrewes rspidly at the high tem-
peratures of the gas-engine cyli&er.
Engines.)
(Robinsons Gas and Petroleum
WOODS.
Pine (turpentinej........... 0.467 Oak..................... 0.570
Fir........................ 0.650 Pear.................... 0.5011
I
Thermal Capacity and Specific Heat of Gases. (From Damours
Industrial Furnsces.)-The suecifie heat of a gas at any temperature is
the first derivative of the funct;bn esuressinrr the thermirl catiacitv. It
is not possible to derive from the speciiic heatof a gas at a $<en~ten~perl
attire, or even from the mean specific heat between 0 and 100 C., the
thermal capa.city at a temperature above lOGo C. The specific heam of
gases under constant pressure between 0 and 100 C.. given b
are not sufficient to calculate the auantity of heat absorbed t
Regnault,
.v a gas in
LIQCIDS.
Alcohol, density O.i93. 0.611
Sulphuric acid, density 1.87. 0.335
Olive oil.. 0.310
Bensine.. 0.393
. . ,,
1.30. 0.661 Turpentine, density O.YiZ. 0.472
Hydrochloric acid.. . . . . . 0.600 Bromine. . i ,111 heating or radiated in cooling, hence all calculations based- onthese
figures are subject to a more or less grave error.
from absolute 0 p- _ o
The thermal ca acities of a molecular volume (22.32 liters) of gases
373 C.) to a temoerature 2 (= 273 + t) mav be At Constant At Constant
Pressure.
Sulphurous acid.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1553
Light carbureted hydrogen, marsh gas (CH,) 0.5929
Blast-furnace gases.. . . ~. . . . . 0.2277
Volume.
0.1246
9.4683
_. . . .
expressed by the formula Q = 0.001 ai + O.OOO.OGl hT?. in which e is a
.constant, 3.5, for all gases. and h has the following values for d&rent
gases: 01, Nz, HZ, CO, 0.6; 11~0 vapor, 2.9; COz, 3.7; CHI, 6.0.
,j
I
Specific Heat of Water. (Peabodys Steam Tables, from Barnes and
Regnault.)
Sp. Ht. 4C.
I
__-
-
_-
-
-i
OF. Sp.Ht. C.
-
-
-_
- -
OF. F
_-
sp. Ht . C.
~-
1. 00150 120
1. 00275 140
1. 00415 160
1. 00557 180
1. 00705 200
I . 00855 220
1. 01010 _
- -
F. Sp. Ht.
SPECIFIC HEATS OF GASES PER KILOGRAX.
I ::::I:
i . Oi esn
1. 03475
1. 04100
1. 04760
Under constant
Pressure.
0. 150+ 38xi r ; - at . - ~
0.171+ 42xlot
2. 400+600xi O- +t
0. 335+324x10- V
0. 150+168x10- ~t
0. 491+748xl O- 3t
,
Gases.
Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . .
Nitrogen and Carbon Monoxide.
Hydrogen. . . . . . _ . . . . .
water vapor. . . . I.. . .
Carbon Dioxide.. . .
Methane. . . . . . . . . . ,
--
1;:
II3
I 22
I 31
I 40
149
I 58
I 67
i i i
I 94
E:
0. 213+ 38xi O- Bt
0. 243+ 42; : I O" t
3, 400+600x IO-t
0. 447+324X IO?
O. ! 93+168Xl O- +t
0,608+748x10-et
0. 99735 70
0. 99735 75
0. 90760 80
0. 99800 85
! : ZZ 2
1. 09040 l oo
I . 034 35
1. 00530 40
1. 00730 45
1. 00030 50
0. 99895 55
0. 99806 60
0. 99759 65
538 .HEAT.
EXPANSION BY HEAT. 539
Lineal Expansion of Solids at Ordinary Temperatures.
(Mostly British Board of Trade; from Clark.)
THERMAL CAPACITIES OF GASES PER KILOOI& IN CEXTIORADE DEGREES.
GW%.
Under Constant
Pressure.
Und+;,wC;z.tant
I /
Oxvgen.. . . . . . .
Nitrogen and Carbcn Monoxide. _.
I$$~ -~~-~~ rown ............................
er Vapor.
._- n
.......................
lode ........................
... I mh Gas. .............
o. zi 3t + 19xl O- at ? 0. 150t - i 19x10- - st z
0. 243t + 21x l o- et ? 0. 243 t + 2l xl O- " t J
3. 4OOt i - 300X 10- 6t ? 2. 400t +300x10- " t "
0. 447t +l 62~I O- - st ~' 0. 335t +162xI O- ~t '
0. 193t + 84xI O- - 6t ? 0. 150t + &I xI O- Gt '
0. 608t +374xl U- - st Z 0. 491 t +374xl O- et 2
For For
Expan- Accord-
lo Fahr. 1 Cent. fiz$
ing to
I I
I I I
Alumi num (cast). ...................... 0.c
Antimony (tryst.). ..................... O.(
Brws, cast .............................. O.~ooOo!
_Draq plate ............................ O.(
THERXAL CAPACI TI ES OF GASES PER KI LOGRAMS.
_-
I
Temperatures.
02 i 2, co 1
--
!-
HZ Hz0 co2
70:
1400
2150
2900
3700
4550
5350
6250
7100
8050
%
10900
11900
12950
10:
203
326
%
770
943
I I 30
1330
I : ~?'
1751
1985
2241
2520
2799
CH,
-
4i . l 1311. 6
91. 0 303. 0
145. 0 499. 0
. 208. 0 726. 0
277. 0 982. 0
354. 0 1269. 0
435. 0 1584. 0
523. 0 1931. 0
618. 0 2307. 0
728. 0 2712. 0
840. 0 314&o
950. 0 361i . 0
1070. 0 4109. 0
1200. 0 4635. 0
1355. 0 5190. 0
Degrees Centigrade.
200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
600. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ml . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1000
1200
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
r600.
1800.
.....................
2000
.....................
......................
2200.
%400
.....................
2600
......................
2800
......................
......................
3000. ........ *. ...........
Bl-idi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._...._... 0.01
Brick (fire)............................. 0
Bronze (Copper, 17; Tin, 21/z; Zinc, I). 0
Bismuth.. _. __ _. _. _. _. _. . _. 0.t
Cement,. Portland (mixed). awe. 0
--
47. 3
88. 0
134. 0
181. 0
2:
334. 0
391. 0
444. 0
503. 0
558. 0
610. 0
681. 0
735. 0
810. 0
0
50
I L70
I 54
207
264
325
383
445
: " 7;
63
7015
777
850
921
Concretk: cement-&ortar iid pebbles. 1 0.00~10:
Copper ................................. 0.1
Ebonite ................................. 0.0
Glass, English flint ..................... 0.1
Glass. thermometer .................... O.o(
Glass .. hard ............................. 0.f
Gramte, gray. dry.. .................... O.o(
Granite. red. dry.. .................... O.o(
Golc& pure .............................. 0.l
Iridium. pure ........................... 0.M
Iron, wrought ..........
Iron! cast..
............................................ K;
Lend .................................... O.ooc
Magnesium ...... ..
Marbies, various ( pn
........................ (. . ....... I.......... I........ 1
...............
.
................. 0.0
Masonry, brik(:~m:::::::::::::::::: 0:~
Mercury (cubic expansion). ............
Nickel ..................................
i:C
-ewter ................................ .,
. . . . . .
,-,
&tinum. 85 %. Iridium, I 5 % . . . . . . . . . . I
Porcelain*...............................
Quarts. parallel to maj. axis, O to 4O^ C.
Quartz. perpend. tomaj. axis, O to40C.
Sil n vOO10790. 00001943 0. 001943 0. 001908
l OOOO5770. 000010380. 001038 _____. . .
00006360~000011440. 0011440. 001079
,ver, pure ............................. v.v
Slate.:. ................................. 0.c
Steel, csst .............................. 0.0
Steel. tempered ........................ O.OO
Stone (sandstone), dry.. ............... 0.1
Stone (sandstone), Rauville ............
Tin.....................................0 .O
Wedgwood ware. ..................... 0.O
Wood, pine .............................
Zinc ....... .. ...........................
;:OU
Zinc. 8. Tin. 1.......................... 0.C
E:SPANSION BY HEAT.
I n the centiErade scale the coefficient of esoansion of air per degree is
0. 003665 = J/273: that is. the pressure being^ constant, the volume of a
perf,ect gas Increases l/273 of its volume at 0 C. for every increase in
temperature of 1 C. In Fahrenheit units it increases l/491.2= 0.003620
d its volume at 33 F. for every increase of lo F.
Expansion of Gases by Heat from 32 to 31?O F. (Regnault.)
--
Increase in Volume,
Pressure Constant.
Volume at 32O Fahr.
= 1.0, for
Increase in Pressure,
Volume Constant.
Pressure at 32O
Fahr.= I .O, for
-_
100C.
I
10 F.
I
.
__
100 C. lo F.
Hydrogeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Atmospheric air.. . . . . . , . .
0. 3661 0. 002034
Nitrogen..
0.3670 0. 002039
. . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ____
Carbon monoxide.. . .
0. 3670 0. 002039
Carbon dioxide.. . . . . . . .
O .3669 0. 002038
Sulphur dioxide. . . . . . . ..._. 1:
0. 3710 0. 002061
0.3903 O. M) 2168
0. 3667 ' 0. 002037
0. 3665 0. 002036
: : ?E
0. 0@203' .
0. 002037
0. 3688
0.3845 GE
- > I
If the volume is kept constant, the pressure varies $rectly as the abso-
lute temperature.
Invar (ske next page), 0.000,000.374 to 0.000,000.44 for lo C.
Cubical expansion, or expansion of volukne = linear expansion X 3.
Ex pansi on of Steel at High Temperatures. (Chargy and Grenet,
Comptes Rendus, 1903.) - Coefficients of expansion (for 1 C.) of annealed
carbon and nickel steels at temperatures at which there is no transforma-
.,.~~ ..,,. .,.. .~. ~,.. --..--. ~~,
WARNING: This is a 1910 .kditioh. Some ~-0-f
E
tion of the steel. The results seem to show that iron and carbide of iron
have appreciably the same coefficient of expansion.
[See also p. 474.1
Composition
of Steels.
Coeficients of Expansion
from
__I
0. 35~0. 040: 05i 0. 010 II.5
0. 6410. 120. 14~0. 009 12.1
0. 93/ O. l O0. 05! 0. ~5 11. 6
1. 23; 0. 100. 08' 0 005 11. 9
r . 5010. 040. w! 0: OI OI l . 5
, 3. 50/ 0. 030. 07' 0. 005 11.2
2000 to 501
14. 3: <: 10
14.5
14. 1
14.9
I:;
14.2
T
I
-I-
Co&s. between
P~500" t o 650
7 ;;:; x lo--G
16. 5
16. 0
16. 5
24. 5x10- "
u::
27. 5
33. 8
2::
I 18. 0 16. 5
=====--..---- =
Nickel Steels.
I
Mean Coefficients of Expansion from
I_--
-7
880~ G 9500
8000 8.5 9500
720 & 9500
6 L
I I ,
(1 L
8
000 to 2000
18.0x 10-e
21.5
14. 0
2. 5
I:.;
2: s
I8
14.;
-7
OOQ to 4000
18. 7x10- d
19. 0
19.5
I I . 75
1k.6
1;:;
; ; f ; 5
13. 0
! 40 to 6OW
E" 10- - l i
19.0
:;:z
21.5
It:::
21 .o
20. 5
18. 75
t&w to 9000
23.0x 104
2::;
TO. 7
20. 3
22. 3
13. 3
18. 3
35. 0
2::
Znvar. an al!ojr of.iron with 36 per cent of nickel, has a smalier coem-
cient of expansmn with the ordinary
to;??
atmospheric changes of tern
any other metal or alloy known.
erature
This allov is sold under t le name
Invar. and 1s used for scientific instrume&s
P
steel tape-measures fqr accurate survey work etc.
ards found Its co+lent of expansion to &ye from O.OOO 000 ~74 to
~.600,600,44 for 1, C.. or abput I/?8 of that of steel.
m the fnost Precise geodetic work a tape of invar may
FOF all surhevgexcept
correctIon for temperature.
be
(Bng. Sews. Aug. 13. 1908.)
used without
Pla+ite, an a by of IrOn with 43 per cent of nickel has the same
coeficlent of exPan%on and contraction at atmospheric temperatures as
has glass.
It can. therefore, be used for the manufacture of armored
glass. that is. F @ate Of glass into which a network of steel wire has been
rolled. ,and wluch 1s used for fire-proofing, etc.
It can also be used instead
of Platinum for the electric connections passing through the glass
the base of incandescent electric lights.
lugs in
Steel.)
(Stoughtons Metal urgy of P
in &ClaSS Klark).
Ewansion Of Lhukb from 32 to 212 F - Apparent clpansion
Water
Volume at ~213~. volume at 320heing 1.
watersji;~~~~~\;;iii;sjit
Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ :
E,
Alcohol.. .
l.Ok
Nitric acid . _*.
Olive and linseed oiis: : : 1: 1: :
1.11
1.11
Turpentine and ether.. .\.
. . . . . . . . . . .._.._.
Hydrochloric and sulphuric
f:oF
acids . ,. . . . . . . . , .
For water at various temperatures see Water.
1. 06
For ati at various temperatures, sek Air.
ABSOLUTE TiDlPERATURE - ABSOLUTE ZERO.
The absolute zero of a.gas is a theoretical consequence of the law of
expansion by he?t, assummg that it, is possible to continue the cooling of
a Perfect gas Until Its volume is diminished to nothing.
._--.--~-~
LATENT HEATS OF FTJSION.
541
If tl!e volume of a perfect gas increases %73 of its volume at O 6. for
every increase of temperature of lo C.. and decreases ?273 of its volume
for every decrease of temperature of 1 C., the+ at -273O C. tte volume
$ t4yl,;ya
8.
mary gas would be redl!ced t,o,nothmg. TQLS point -273~ c.,
below the meltmg-pomt 01 Ice on the air-thermometer or
492.66 F. ,below on a perfect gas-thermometer = -459.2O F. (or
-460.66). 1s called the absolute zero; and absolute temperatures are
temperatu,res measured, on either the Fahrenheit or Centigrade sca[r
from tlus zero. The freezing-point, 32 F., corredpondu to 491.20 1;:
absolute. If pa be the pressure and *a the volume of a gas at the tem-
perature of 32 F. = 491.Y on the abgoiute scale = 20, and p the pressure.
and 2) the volume of the same quantity of gas at any other absolute tern-
perature T, then
PV T
Go = 350
_ t+ 459.2; e = PO%
491.2 T To
The value of povo + To for air is 53.37, and pv = 53.37T, calculated as
tallows by Prof. Wood:
A cubic foot of dry air at 32 F. at the sea-level weighs 0.050725 lb.
The volume of one pound is v,, =
1
. 080728
= 12. 387 cubic feet. The
pressure per square foot. is 2116.2 Ibs.
POVII 2116. 2X 12. 387 26214
-=
TO 491.13
= - = 53. 37.
491;13
The figure 491.13 is the number of degrees that the absolute zero is below
the melting-point of ice, by the air-thermomete:. On the absolute scale,
whose divisions would be indicated by a perfect gas-thermometer. the
calculated value approximately is 492.66, which would make $RJ = 53.21 I.
Prof. Thomson considers that - 273.1 C., = - 459.4 F,. is the most
probable value of the absolute zero. See Heat in Enc~. Bnl.
LATENT HE-4TS OF FUSION AND EVAPORATION.
Latent Heat means a quantity of heat which has dlsappcared. having
been employed to produce some change other than elevation of ternpt!ra-
ture. By exactly reversing that change,
the quantity of heat which
has disappeared is reproduced.
Maxwell defines it as the quantity of
heat which must be communicated to a body in a given state in order to
convert it into iqnother state without changing its temperature.
Latent Heat of %&on. -
When a body passes from the solid to the
liquid state, its temperature remains stationary, ?r nearly stationary, at
a certain meiting-point d\?ring the whole operatmn of meltmg: and In
order to make that operation go on, a quantity of heat must be transfelred
to the substance melted, being a cert.ain amount for each unit ?f weight
of the substance. This quantity is called the latent heat of fusion.
When a body passes from the liquid to the solid state, its tem?efature
remains stationary or nearly staionary during the whole operation of
freezing; a quantity of heat equal to the latent heat of fusion is prodllced
in t,he body and rejected into the atmosphere or other sufrounding bodies.
The foliowing are exsmp@, in Bri.tish, thermal units per pound, ,as
gpgerrin Lnndolt and Bornstem s Php-zkalasche-Chemasche Tabellen (Berhn,
Substances.
Latent Heat
of Fusion.
Silver ... : ........ 37.93
Beeswax
Parafine
.......................... ii: l$
Spermaceti . 66. .?6
Phosphorus ....... 9.06 .
Sulphur.. ......... 16.86
Prof. Wood considers 144 heat-units as the most reliable value for the
latent heat of fusion of ice. Person gives 142.65.
1
542 HEAT.
Latent Heat of Evaporation. -L When a body passes from the
sohd ,or hqu!d to the gaseous state. its temperature during the operation
remams stat:onary at a certain boiling-point, depending on the pressure of
the vapor produced; and in order tc I make lhe evanoratioti zo on. a
quantity of hest must be transferred to the substance evaporate>- whose
amount for each unit of weigh+ IIU Of the substance evaporated de&nds on
tne temperature. That heat doe,
stance, but disappt
s not raise the temperature of-the sub-
?ars in c&using it to assume the gaseous state, and it is
called t.he latent ht tat of evanornt~ion.
When a body passes from the gaseous state to the liquid or solid state
its temperature remains stationary, during that operation, at the boiling:
point corresponding to the pressure of the vapor: a quantity of heat
equal to the latent heat of evaporation at that temperature is produced
m the body; and m order that the operation of condensation may go on
;hat,heat must be transferred from the body condensed to some othei
--%e following are examples of the latent heat of evaporation in British
thermal u+s. of one pound of certain substances, when the pressure of
the vapor IS one atmosphere of 14.7 Ibs. on the square inc:l:
I
I
Substance.
Boiling-point under- Latent Heat in
Water.. . . . . . . .
one atm. Fahr. British units.
Alcohol . . . .._......._. :.::
212.0
172.2
965.7 (Regnnult).
Ether. . .
Bisuiphide of carbon...... 1: :
95.0
~33; : g (And.rews) .
114.8 156.0 *
The latent heat of evaporation of water at a series of boi!ingipoints ex-
tending from a few degrees below its freezing-point up to about 375
_
.
degrees Fahrenheit has been determined experimentally by M. Repnautt.
The results of those experiments are represented approximately by the
formula, in British thermal units per pound.
t nearly = 1091.7 - 0.7 (t - 32) = 96.5.7 - 0.7 (t - 212O):
Henning (-*.nn. der Fh?,sik. 1905) gives for t from O to 100 C.
For 1 kg., I = 94.210 (365 --to C.) 0.51249.
..
For 1 ib., 1=141.124 (689-tF.) 0.31249.
The last formula gives for the latent heat at 212O F.. 969.7 B.T.U.
The Total Heat of Evaporation is the sum of the heat which dis-
appears in evaporating one pound of a given substance at a eiven tern-
perature (or latent heat of evaporation) and of the heat required-to raise its
temperature. before evaporation. from some fixed temperature up to the
temperst.ure of evaporation.
sensible heat.
The latter part of the total heat is called the
, ,
1-y the case of water. the experiments of 11. Regnault show that the
tot,,. heat of stea,m from the temperature of melt,;ng ice increases at a
unlform rate as the temperature of evaporation rises.
the formula In British thermal units per pound:
The following is
h = 1091.7 + 0.305 (t - 32O).
H. N. l%vis (Trans. A. 5. M. E 1908) gives, in British units,
h=1150 + 0.3745 (I-212)-0.000550 (tL21212.
For the total heat. istent heat. etc.,.of steam at different pressures see
table of the Properties of Saturated Steam. For tables of total Geat
latent heat. aud ,other properties of steams of et.her alcohol acetone
cl?loroform. ch!onde of carbon, and bisulphide of carGon see kijntgens
Toermodynamlcs {Duboiss translation). For ammonij and sulphu; .
dioxide. see. Wood s Thermodynamics: also, tables under Refrigerating
Machinery, m this book.
EVAPORATION AND DRYING.
In evaporation. the formation of vapor takes place oti the surface. in
boiling, wit!lln the liquid: the former is 14 slow. the latter a quick, me&od
of rraporqtlon.
if we brmg an qpen vessel with water under the receiver of an air-
and exhaust the air,the water in the vessel will commence to boil
8
ump
an If we
keep ~13 the vacuum t he water will actually boil near its freezing-point.
Th*y formatlon of steam iri this case is due to the beat which the water
takes out of the surroundiugs.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
I,-. ,.-
Some of the
EVAPORATION AND DRYING. 543
Steam formed under pressure has the same temperature as the liquid in
which it was formed, provided the steam is kept under the same pressure.
By properly cooling the risin,- steam from boiling water, as m the mul-
tiple-effect evaporating systems, we can regulate the pressure so that tbe
wat r boils at low temperatures
li!v aporation of Wat er in Reservoirs. - Experiments at the Xount
Hooe Iteservoir, Rochester, N. I*., in 1891, gave the following results:
July. Aug. Sept. Oct.
M+z?n temper$ure ?f air in shade.. . . ., _. . 70.5 70.3 68.7 53.3
water in reservoir. 68.2
humidity of air, per cents.. . . . 67.0
Evaporation in inches during month.. . . . 5.59
Rainfall in inches during month.. . . . . . 3.44
Evaporation of Water from Open Channels. (Flynns Irrigation
Canals and Flow of Water.) -Experiments from 1881 to lSS5,in Tulare
County, California, showed an evaporation from a pan in the river equal
to an average depth of l/g in. per day throughout the year.
When the pan was in the air the average eVapOratiOn WnS less than S/16
in. per day. The average for the month of August was l/3 in. per day.
and for March and April Qz in. per day.
Experiments in Coloradq show
that evauoration ranges from 0.098 to 0.16 in. per day during the lrrrga-
ting se&n.
In Northern Italy the eva,poration was from l/lz to l/s inch Per da{.
yhile in the south, under the influence of hot winds, it was from %I to 15
inch per day. inch per day.
In the hot se-..-... _.. In the hot season in Northern India.,witb a decidedly hot wind blqw-
ing, the average evapc ing, the average evaporation was f/2 mch per day.
The evaporation
incrr---- increases with the temperature of the water. ..riiL the temoerature of t
m
Evaporation by the Multiple System. - A multiple effect is a series
of evaporating vessels each having a steam chamber, so connec,ted that
the.heat of the steam or vapor produced in the first vessel, heats the
second, the vapor or steam produced in t,he second,heats the third, and so
The vapor from the last vessel is cor,densed m a condenser,
Three
?&sets are generally used. in which case the apparatus is called a Triple
Effect. In evaporating ina triple effect the vacuum is graduated so that
the liquid is bolled at a constant and low tempeqature.
A series distilling apparatus of high efficiency 1s described by y. F. M.
Goss in Trans. A. S. Jf. E., 1903.
It has seven chambers in seqes, and
is designed to distill 5OC ga,llons of water per hour with an efficiency of
approximately 60 lbs. of water per pound of coal.
Tests of Yaryan six-effect machines have shown as high as 44 lbs. of
water evaporated er pound of fuel consumed.-MMaehg. Apnl, 1905.
A description of a arge distilling apparatus, using thfee 1?5-H_.F. b;&ss P
and a Lillie triple effect, wit.b record of tests, IS gven m ting.
,
Mar. 29, 1900, and in Jour. Am, Socy of Navul Engzneers, Feb., 1900,
Resistance to Boiling. -.BFine.
(Rankine.) - The pres$n,ce
liquid of a substance dissolved m it (as salt in water) re@s ebulhtlon.
1~~;
raises the temperature ate which the liquid boils, under a aven Pressure: but
unless t he dissolved substance enters into the composition of the vapor.
the relation between the temperature and pressure of saturation of the
vapor remains unchanged. A resistance +.o ebullition 1s also offered bY a
vessel of a material which attracts the liq:!id (as when water bolls In a
glass vessel) and the boiling take place by htarts.
To av@.tbe el?rors
which cause: of this kind produce m the measurement of polhng-Polnts.
it is advisable to place the thermometer.
not in the liqmd, but In the
which showq the true boiling-point. freed from tbe dlsturblng
%%bf the attiactibe nature of the vessel.
Tbe boiling-point of saturated
b&e under one atmosphere is 226 F.. and that of weaker brine Is ingher
~than the boiling-point of pure water by 1.2 F.: for each %Z of salt tb?
the water contains. Average sea-water contams %z: and the bnne In
marine boilers is not suffered to contain more than from 2/~ to 3/32.
Methods of Evaporation Employed in the Manufacture of Salt.
(F. E. Engelhardt. Chemist Onondaga Salt Springs: Repprt for 1889.1 -
1. Solar heat -solar evaporation.
2. DirecY fire, apphed to the beat-
inn surface of the vessels containing brine-kettle and pan methods.
3 -The. steam-graiper .~Y~~~rl~r=stram-~~.~-~~~~-~~~~~~~! etc.
4. vse
~. Y. ,,,. :,he.- . ..-._.- --
material may no longer be accurate
~*
.
544 HEAT.
of steam and a reduction of the atmospheric pressure ova the boiling
brine - vacuiil system.
When a saturitted salt solution boils, it is immaterial whether it is done
under ordinary atmospheric ressure at 228O F., or tinder four atmospheres
with a temperature of 320 IF or m a vacuum under l/lo atmosphere, the
~~~,lt fill ~LWR.VC he 5 fine-g&& salt.
~vyxIL . . . . . U....JL --
The fuel ConsLlmDt ,ion iu stated to be as follows: BY the kettle method.
40 to 4.5 bu. of salt-evaporated per ton of fuel, anbhrjcite dust burned oti
perforated grates: evaporation, 5..53 Ibs. of water per pound of coal. By
the pan method, 70 to i5 bu. per ton of fuel. Bv vacuum pans, single
effect. X6 bu. per ton of anthracite dust (2000 lbs.). With a double
effect nearly double that amount can be produced.
Solubility of Common SLlt in Pure Water. (Andrea?.)
Temp. of brine, FT.. . . . . . . . . . . .
IOU parts water dissolve parts.. 35t26R 3.t069 3E3 322 3%!6 7Elo
100 pxts brine contain salt _. . . 26. 27 26. 3" 26. 49 26. 64 27. 04 i 7. 54
According to Poggial, 100 parts of mater dissolve at 229.66O F.. 40.35
part.s of salt, or in per cent of brine, 28.749. Gay-Lussac found that at
220. 72 F. . 100 parts of pure mater would dissolve 40.35 parts of salt, in
per cent of brine, 25.764 parts.
The solubility of salt at 229 F. is only 2.57, greater than at 32. Hence
we cannot, as in the case of alum, separate the salt from tbz water by
allowing a suturated solution at the boilinz-point to cool to a lower
temperature.
-_
Strength of Salt Brines. - The following table is condensed from
one given in U. S. Minerai Resources for lSS8, on the authority of Dr.
Engelhardt.
Relations between Salinometer Strength, Specific Gravity, Solid
Contents, etc., of Brines of Different Strengths.
I I
0. 26 I . 002 0. 261
0. 52 I . 003 0. 531
1. 04 I . 007 l . o6l
1. 56 1. 010 1. 591
2. 08 1. 014 2. 12l
2. 64 1. 017 2. 651
3. 12 1. 021 3. 1&
3. 64 1. 025 3. 7l t
4. 16 1. 028 4. 24
4. 68 1. 032 4. 771
5. 20 1. 035 5. 3M
7. 80 1. 054 7. 951
10. 40 1. 073 10. 6ol
13. 00 1. 093 13. 251
15. 60 1. 114 15. w
18. 20 1. 136 18. 551
20. 80 1. 158 21. 2M
23. 40 l . 18~23. 851
26. CEt i . 2Oj l 26. ji3
i : ; 5
c. ; , 73
25
j , 0
c z3-
22
L- 3
a 2
de z- 6
. I
z; &
* Z
cp
5. : ;
. y. n, - - 5
p
2*:
c; 0.
- -
a. 347 0. 02:
6. 356 0. 04
8. 389 0. 06
8. 414 0. 13
8. 447 0. 17
8. 472 0. 22
8. 506 0. 27'
a. 539 0. 31'
8. 564 0. 36
a. 597 0. 41
8. 622 0. 45
8. 781 0. 69~
0. 939 0. 94
%uo& 1: ; ;
9. 464 1. 75
9. 647 2. 04:
9. 8471 2. 34;
iir.iZjPl i.ti~
is a 1
-7
110 edition. S me of
3. 513
1, 752
. g! . ;
430: 9
i i i : : ;
242. 2
- 2! 0. 8
186. 3
176. . ! ?
108. I
70. 71
61.10
49. 36
40. 98
34. 69
z: :
5. 569
I . 141
2. 295
X5
5. 833
7. 038
t 22
10. 73
%i
25. 41
i i : : :
K?i
67. 11
77~26
her s quarefoot.- . . . . . . - .,......: . . . . . . . 3.SS 2.6 2.;
cuite discharged.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.123 i.6 6.,;6 i.5 .97
Average working hours required per charge . 12. .
4.
Equivalent average evaporation pet hour
per square foot~of r&s surface, assum-
Ing 0.35 sq. ft. per ga ton capacity. . 7
-.4 1.6 1.39 1.3 0.97
F&&t working hours required per charge . 5.5
5.5 3.5 2.75 2.
Eauiv~lent nverwe evanoration uer hour ~. _~ _ _ -- _ _-
ret Z.18 1.9
the
EVAPORATION ANT; DRYING. 545
Sol ubi l i t y of Sulphate of Lime i n Pur e Wat er . War k f i k ~
Temperatllre F. Qe~rws.. 32 6. 4. 5 59. 6 1" " : i 105. 8 127. 4 186. 5 212
Parts water to dlssoivc
I part gypsum 30s 370 375 417 452
Part~s wiLter Lo dissolve 1
part anhydrous CaSO., 4Gti 468 474 58 572
In salt hrinc sulpl~ati: of !irne is much morel ~~~illl)le than in pure water.
In the evapombion of s-!t brine t!le ac cum:~l;rtiw~ of .wlphate of lime t,ends
to atop the operation, and it must be removal from the pans -to avoid
waste of ft=&
The avi:r:we st,renrth of brirle in the New Y61rl; salt districts in J YS9 was
69.2 tleqrt:es of the sa!inometer.
Concentration of Sugar ?inlutinns.* (From Heatiflg and Con-
centratinp Liquids oy Steam, by .John G. WIIQI~~: The Ellgz?%%?r..June 13.
1890.) - In the early staqes of the procw. when the lit uor
\
is of low
density. the evaporative duty will be high, :xy two to t lree (British)
gallous per square foot of heating surface n-il,l! 10 Ibs. steam pressurt.
bitt, will gradually fall to a.n almost nominal :~r!*nunt as the fins. stage 1s
approschtrd. As a gei:erally safe basis for dw~zning~ Mr. Hudson takes
an evaporation of one gallon per hour for ew!; square toot of gross heating
surface, with steam of the pressure of ahoilt III 11)s.
As examples of the evaporat.ive duty of a v:wuum
the earlier stages uf concentration, during wtd1.h al P
an when performing
the heatw surface
can be employed. he gives the following:
COI L V~crrox P:w. - 43/ 4 in. copper coil?;. 5?? square feet.of surface;
steam in coils. 15 Ihs.; tcmperatllre in pan, 1.11 to 14s: density of feed,
2.5 BaurnB. and concentrated to 31 Baumti.
First !lriat. - Ev&poration at the rate ol 3100 r;LlbllS pt?~hOllr = 3.8
pnllons ner snuare foot: transmission. 376 unils lw degree of dllfcrence nf ..-- _-
Scwntl Trial. - EvaDota~iOn at the rate of 1503 Eallons Per hour =
2.5 ~alions per square foot; transmission, 265 units per ?egree.
As regards the total time need:-d to work J, :L ctwrCe 01 InasJeCllf~e frcm
iiquor of a given density, the following ti+wrrs;. obtained by. plottmg .the
nwilts from a larce number of pans, form :\ guide tu practical \yorking.
Tile pans were all of the cDi1 type, some witI1 ILIIII some without Jackets,
the gross heating surface prolxtbty averwin:?. and not greatly differing
from, 0.25 square foot per gallon capacity, :wl the steam pressure 10 l.bs.
per square inch. Both plantation and rehniuG wns are Included. makmg
liR.PlnllQ mTrll=. nf <IIOII~V. .-...,..., D-l- _- -_ ..--_.
Density of feed [clefis. Baum@.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 15O 2e 2.5 303
Evaporation required per ga.llon masse-
The qllantity of heating steam needed is pr:rrtlrallS the same in vacuu?
as in open pans. The advantages proper bo Ilw vacuum system are .pn-
marily the reduced temperature of boilin,&?, antI incidentally the posslblhty
of using heating steam of low pressure.
In a solution of sugar in mater. each pound of war adds to the volume
of the water to tne extent of 0.061 ga!lon at a low density to 0.0638 gallon
at high de!lsities.
A Method of Evapora,tina by Exhaust Steam is desc;ibed, b,y
Albert Stearrs in Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. viii. A p&n 17 6 X 11 X 1 6 t
* For other sugar data, see Bagasse as Fuel, under Fuel.
f mater i ai , may no l ongerbe accurate
HEAT.
~&&mted 13.1 gdlons per hour from c&-- ;~ -~ -~,
,e;w \vacer. conclensmg omy BDOb
one-half of the Steam Supplied by a pIa+ s!lde-valve
engine of 14 X 32
cyliuder, making 65 revs. per mm.. CLlttlk~ o@
about two-thirds stroke,
with Steam at 55 lbs. boiler preSssure.
It.was found that keeping the pan-room warm and lettil?gonly sufficient
or in to carry the vapor up out of a ventilator adds to its efticienT$. as
ihe ;~v.~r;lge temperature of the water in the pan waS only about 165 F.
Esneriments were made with coi!s of
ipe in a small pan, first lvith no
a,-itator then w-ith one having straight
ii lades, and lastly with troughed
b&&es; th.e evaporative results being about the proportions of one, two,
Drying in :~acuum.--A.n
~+anc& in ./acuum is described
&grS., 1830. The three essential re
nomical process of
2. Quick drying at a
The rerrnvn.l of the nloisture can be effected in either of two ways: either
by.~~~w-~~~poraiii 6r~b?y~quick evaporation - that is, bq~ boiling.
SZfiw Eva,~~ntion. - The princi
E.
al idea carried into practice in machjnes
act.ing by slow evaporation is to rmg the wet substa,nce repeatedly into
contact with the inner surfaces of the apparatus. which are heated b
stenml whi!e at t,!le Same time a current of hot air iS a!sO
the subntances for carrying off the moisture. This metho?~~$%%%!
heat because the hot-air current has to dove at a cpnsiderable speed in
or.& to Shorten the drying process as much as
great quantity of heated air pa,SSes through an
carrier of moisture hot air cannot in practice be charged
saturation: and it. is in fa,ct considered a sdtisfactory result if even, th!s
proport.ion be atta~ined. A great amount of heat is here produced mh!ch 1s
not, used: while. with scarcely half the cost for fuel, a much quicker
removal of the kater is obtained by heating it to the boiling-poin,t.
&zLicli Zhzporntion bj/ Boiling. -This does not take place untd the
water is brQueht IID to the boiling-point and kept there, namely, 21.2 F.,
rmd~r a.t,mnsnhprir nressure. The-vanor genefated then escapes freely. -..-. - _..._. r .._. ~~. r~~~~~~-~~
Liquids are easily evaporated in this $ay, because by their mofio,! conse-
quent on boiling the heat is continuously conveyed from the heatmg sur-
fa.ces t.hrrl!leh t,he liouid. but it is different with solid substances. and
manym.~r~~diRtulties have to be overcome, because convection of the
heat ceaSes entirely in solids. The substance remains motionless, +t?,d
consequent.ly a much greater quant.ity of heat is required than with
liquids for obtaining the same results,
Eaapornfion in Vacuum. - All the foregoing disadvantages arq. avoided
!f the boiling-point of water is lowered, that is, if the evaporation IS carned
out under vacuum.
This plan has been successfully applied in Mr. Passburgs vacuum drying
apparatus, which is designed to evaporate large quantities of water COn-
tained in solid substances.
The drying apparatus consists of a to horizontal cylinder, surmounted
by a charging vessel at one end, and a B ottom horizontal cylinder with a
discharging vessel beneath it at the same end. l$t~h~~~n;~
i,ncased in steam-jackets heated by exhaust steam.
works a revotving cast-iron screw with hollow blades, which is a so heat.ed P
by exhaust steam. The bottom cylinder contains a revolving drum of
tubes. consisting of one large central tube surrounded by 24 smaller ones,
all fixed in tube-plates at both ends: this drum is-heated by live steam
direct from the boiler. The substance to be dried is fed into the charg-
ing vessel through two manholes, and is carried aiong the top cylinder
by the screw creeper to the back end, where it drops through a valve
into the bottom cylinder. in which it is lifted by blades attached to the
drum and travels forward in the reverse direction: from the front end of
the bottom cylinder it falls into a discharging vessel through another
~,~~~--,- -,-. .~.-~.~-~ ..,~~~ ___._ _- ,.~ __ ,~, ,,,_~
WARNI NG: ThfS i s a 1910 edi ti on. . - $i $e ~L( $
EVAPORATION AND DRYING.
valve, having !>y this time become dried. The vapor arising during the
process is cllrrletl otf by an air-pump, through a dome and air-valve on
the top of the upper cylinda, and also through a throttle-valve on
the top of the lower cylinder; both of these valves are supplied with
strainers. - _ _ -. . _
AS soon as the discharging vessel is filled with dried material t,ho ~n.1~~
connecting it with the bottom rvlindw in shllt. n.nrl +.h~ rtrinrl A
. -__- ._ . . .
-..- ..- CL..~_Y -..arge taken
out witho<;t impairinr the vsc;uminthe~~~~jratus.
vessel requires replenishinz.
When the charging
the intermediate vaive between t.he two cyiin-
. wet niate-
rial: the V&uUt?I still remans unimpslred &-i-hi b$&&%:#nder and has
to be reStored only in the top cylinder after the chartine vessel has been
closed arain.
In this vacuum the boiling-point of the mater contained in the wet mate-
rial is brought down as low as 110 F. The difference between this t.eti-
perature~and that of the heating surfaces is n.mnlv allfficipnt~ fnr nhtncninr ~~,~ ~~~~~ -..- .- -...r.~ ----_-_-.. I _-. -- -...- .h
good results from the employment of exhaust steam for heating all the
surfaces except the revolving drum of tubes. The water contained in
the solid substance to be dried evaporates as soon as the latter is heated
to about 110 F:, and as long as there is any moisture to be removed the
soiid substance is not heated above this temperature.
Wet grains from a brewery or distillerv. containix frnm 75% to 78% of
water. liave bv this drvine nioress heen &invert.+~I from a. w
bran& i& a valuable food-stuff.
- ..orthless incum-
The water is removed by evaporation
only, no previous mechanical messinz beine resorted to.
..~~ _ .~_ ._ _..___ -.--. _ _..-- -.- -,... ~.vJ U.
In each of these the t@ &nder IS 20 ft. 4 in. long and 2 ft. 8 in. diam
and the .screw working inside it makes 7 revs. per min.: the botto$
cyiinder 1s 19 ft. 2 in. long and 5 ft. 4 in. diam.. and the drum of the tubes
inside it makes 5 revs. per min. The dryins surfaces of the two cylinders
amount together to a total area of about 1000 sq.
IS he&ted by exhaust steam direct from the boiler.
ft., of which about 40T0
There is only one air-
pump, which is made large enough for three machines: it is ho&
zontal. and has only one air-cylinder, which is double-acting, 1;3/4 in.
diam. and 173/4in. stroke; and it is driven at about 45 revs. per min.
As the result of about eight months experience. the two machines
have been drying the wet grains from about 500 cwt. of malt per day of
24 hours.
Roughly speaking, 3 cwt. of malt gave 4 cwt. of ,wet grains, and the
latter yield 1 cwt. of dried grains: 500 cwt. of malt will therefore yield
about 670 cwt. of met grains, or 335 cwt. per machin. The q\!antitp of
water to be evaporated from the wet grains is from 75.s to 78% of their
toolti;zght, or, say, about 512 cwt. altogether, bemg 256 cwt. per
Driers and Drying.
(Contributed by W. B. Rhggles, 1909.)
Materials of different physical and chemical properties require different
types of drying apparatus.
nals into groups, as below,
It is therefore necessary to classify mate-
andi design different machines for each
group.
Group A: Materials which may be heated to a high temperature and
are not injured by being in contact with products of combustion. These
Include cement rock, sand, gravel, granulated slag, clay, marl, chalk, ore,
graphite, asbestos. ph0sphat.e rock,. slacked lime, etc.
The most simple machine for drymg these materials is a single revolving
shell with lifting flights on the inside. the shell resting on bearing wheels
and having a furnace at one end and a stack or fan at the other. The
advantage of this style of machine is its low cost of installation and the
small number of parts. The disadvantages are great cost of repairs and
excessive fuel consumption, due to radiation and high temperature of the
stack gases. If the material is fed from the stack and towards the furnace
end, the shell near the furnace gets red-hot, causing excessive radiation and
frequent repairs. Should t!ie feed be reversed the exhaust temperature
materi al may no l onger. be accurate
:
:z
-
i
548
HEAT.
must be kept above 212 F.. or recondensation wilt take place, wetting tbe
material.
In order to economize fuel the shell is sometimes supported at the
ends and brickwork is erected, around the shell, the hot gases passing
under the she!! and back through it. A!t!mcigti this method is more
eco,lomical in the use of fuel, the cost of installation and the cost of
repairs are greater.
Group B: Jiateriais such as wilt not he injured by the products of com-
bustion but cannot be raised to a high temperature on account of drivi::!:
o!f witer of crystaiiizsiion., breaking up chemical combinations, or on
account of danger from igmtion. Included in these are gypsum, fluor-
sp;lr. iron pyrites, coat, coke, !ignite. sawdust, lenther scraps, ,cork chips,
tobacco stems, fish scraps. tankace, peat, etc. Some of these materials
may be dried in a single-shell drier and scnne in a bricked-in machine,
bzL none of them in a satisfactpry way on account of the difficu!t.y ot
re$at!ng the temperature and, m some cases, the danger of explosion.of
Group C: Materials which are not injured by a high temperature but
which cannot be allowed to come into contact with products of combu%-
tion. These are kaolin, ocher and other pigments! fullers earth, wblch Is
to be used in tittering vegetabie or anima! oils. whiting and similar earthy
materials, a Lsrge proportion of which wou!d be lost as dust in direct-h+
drying. These may be dried by passing through a single-shell drier
incased in brickwork and allowine heat to come into contact with the
she!! only. but this is an uneconorKica1 machine to operate, due to the
hiKh temnerature of the escltping gases.
Group-D: Organic mate&Is w::ich are used for food eit,he& by man or
the tower animals. such as grain which has been wet, cotton seed, starch
feed, corn germs, brewers grains, and breakfast foods, which must be
dried after cooking. These. of course, cannot be brought into contact
wit.11 furnace gases and must be kept at a tow temperature. For t.!lese
materials a drier using either esh&ust or live stesrn is the only practical
one. This is generally a revo!ving shell in wllich arp arranged steiLm
pioes. Care should he exercised in selecting a steam drier which has
perfect and automatic drainage of the pipes. The condensed steam
always amounts to more than the water evaporated from the material.
t
Group E: Materials which are composed wholly or contain a large pro-
ortion of solubie salt,s, such as nitrate of sods. nitmte of potash, Car-
E onates of soda or uotush. chlorates of soda or ootash. etc. These in
drying form a hard scale &hich adheres to the shell. and a rotary drier
cannot be profitably used on account of frequent stops for cleaning. The
only practical machine for suc:h materials is a semicircuiar cast-iron
trough having a shaft through the center carrying, paddles that con-
stantly stir up Ihe material and feed it through ibe drier. This machine
has brick side watts and a,n exterior furnace; the heat from the furnace
pnssiug under the shell and back through the drying material or out
through a stack or fan w!thout assing through the materini. as may be
desired. Should the material a so require a low temperature, the same P
type of drier can be used by substituting steam-jacketed steel sections
instead of cast iron.
The efficiency of a drier is the ratio of the theoretical heat required to
do the drying to the tot.al heat supplied. The greatest loss is the heat
carried out by t,he exhaust or waste gases: this may be as great as 40%
of the total heat from the fuel, or with a pro erly designed drier may be
as small as SrO. The radiation from the she I or walls may be as high as P
25% or as low as 4y0. The heat carried away by the dned material may
amount under conditions of careless operation to as much as 25% or may
be as low as nothing.
EVAPORATION AND DRYING. 549
42%: and, while a poorly designed one may have an equal eficiency,.its
capacit,y may Fe not more than one-half o$ a good drier of equal stze.
;;+Odner descrlhed for group E vnll,not give an effificlenr;r -f more than
Performance of Different Types of Driers.
(W. B. Rug gle
Type of drier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _
Material.........................
:rloisture, initia:, per cent. . . . . . . .
Moisture, final. per cent. _. . , . . . .
Calorific value of fuel. B.T.U.. . .
Fuel consumed per hour. tbs.. . . .
Water evaporated per hour, Ibs..
Water evap. per pound fuel, Ibs..
Material dried per hour, Ibs.. .
Fuel per t,on dried materi.sl, tbs.
Heat lost in exhaust air, per cent
Heat lost by radiation, etc., per
centl.. . . . .
Heat use- to evaporate water,
per cent..
Heat used to raise temoerature of
material, per cent .. :. ..........
Tota! efficmncy, per cent ........
Coal.
to.2
229:
213.6
924.2
4.3
8300
53.3
42.8
- --<
z-
aI.= I
5,:;-=-
a,.?:
F&a
,: Z.!
i<l
:eme
3lUnl
61.
46.
3200
667
4957
764.
17.
38.
12.
52.
I
1
4
3
4
5
,O
,I
,I
.-
= G
.sg
mz
5 gj
,.!+
Lime.
stone.
3.6
0.5
3180
1%
2.3
1406
22.2
38.2
15.6
24.4
21.8
46.2
7
1:
01
1:
-
?itrate
i soda.
7.2
0.3
1600
3:;
4.0
$581
Z:!
12.4
45.5
P
PERFORMANCE OF A STEAM DRIER.
initial 39.S%, final 0.22%. ~Dried
per hour, 548 lb!. Steaq
per pound steam,
212. Steam pF+-
sure, 98 Ibs. gauge.
Total heat to evaporate 645 lbs. water at 5s into steam,
548 x (154.2 + 969.7) = 615,597 B.T.U.
Heat supplied by 793 lbs. steam condensed to water at 212.
793 x (1158.2 - 150.3) = 799,265 B.T.U.
Heat used to evaporate water,
(615,597 + 799.265) = 77.1%.
Heat used to raise temp. of material,
(831 X 154 X 0.492) = 62,963 = 7.9%.
A roperly designed drier of the direct-heat type for either group A
or..Jsg
wltt pave an efficiency of from 75% to 85%; a bric!ied-in return-
draught single-shell drier, from 60% to 70%: and a single-shell straight-
draught dryer, from 45% to 55%. A properly designed indirect-heat
drier for group C will give an efficiency of 50% to 60%. and a poorly
designed one may not give more than 30%; The best designed steam
drier for group D: in which the losses. In the bmler producing the
steam must be considered, will not Often give an efficiency of &Lure than Loss by radiation . . . 100 - (77.1 + 7.9) =8;op0.
Total efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-_... _w~_l: r
W.-d --.__ ,__. .~. ;I -~
'
WARNI NG: Thi s i s a 1910 edition.
Some of the materi al may no l on@r. be accurate
Tyw.
RADIATION OF HEAT.
Humiditr Table.
551
550 HEAT.
. .,
WATER EVAPORATED AND HEAT REQUIRED FOR DRYING.
31 = percentage of NOisture in material to be dried.
Q = lbs. water evaporated per ton (2000 lbs.) of dry material,
H = British thermal units required. for drying, per ton of dry material.
. 003761
. 004243!
. 005046:
. 0062671
. 007569:
. 009116:
. 010939
. 013081
Pi 5597
. 018545
. 021998
$26026
. 030718
. 036174
. 042116
. 049973
. 058613
. 068662
. 080402
. 094147
. I ! 022
. . 12927
. I 5150
: EG
. 24534
. 29553
. 35286
. 42756
. 52285
. 64942
. I 32430
I : %: 5
1. 2680
Vapor
rension.
Milli-
1eters OJ
~&3%XlrY
12. 462
12. 549
12. 695
12. 843
I ; : %
E?
13. 693
I : : %
14. 301
14. 539
; ; : a?;
15. 3: 6
15. 711
16. 084
16. 499
16. 965
I ; : : ;
i s. aoo
19. 609
E; ;
23. 045
%?J
29. 454
2%
44. 918
; ! : ?; ;
3l . i 28
62. 054
Sntd
Mix.
._--
a
20. 2
40. 8
61. 9
83. 3
105. 3
127. 7
150 5
173. 9
197. 8
222. 2
247. 2
272.7
298. 9
Q
i t::
I : 636
2. 000
2, 444
3, 000
3. 714
- 4, 667
6, 000
8, 000
11, 333
18, 000
38, 000
32
35
i t
: z
50
65
: t
i t
90
1; ;
105
I I 0
I I 5
120
I 25
=E
I40
145
: : i
160
! 65
170
175
E
190
195
200
205
210
4. 569
Xi
E- 2
10. 980
13. 138
~Ei
22. 008
: Z; S
; : : : i i
40. 679
56. 534
%Y
87~010
99. 024
114. 437
130. 702
148. 885
I EZ
216. 983
244. 803
275. 592
309. 593
347. 015
388. 121
433. 194
482. 668
536. 744
595. 771
660. 116
730. 267
. 2391
. 2393
. 2398
. 24J l 3
. 2409
. 2416
. 2425
. 2435
$2;
. 2470
: E
. 2545
. 2575
: Z?
: Z
. 2820
. 2896
. 2987
3093
13219
. 3371
. 3553
. 3776
. 4054
. 4405
. 4856
. 5450
. 6288
. 7519
. 9494
1. 3147
: : Ei
. 079420
. 078641
. 077867
. 077109
. 076363
. 075635
. 074921
. 074218
: : : : i : :
: EZ
. 070894
. 070264
. 069647
. 069040
. 068443
. 067857
. 067380
. 066713
. 066156
. 065601
. 065154
. 064539
. 064016
. 063502
. 062997
. 062500
%E
. 061053
: EE
. 080556 12. 308
. 080085 12. 464
. 079181 12. 590
. 078348 12. 718
. 077511 12. 842
. 076685 12. 960
. 075865 13. 095
. 075039 13. 222
. 074219 13. 348
. 073471 13. 474
. 072644 13. 600
. 071744 13. 726
. 070894 13. 852
. 070051 13. 9i 9
. 069179 14. 106
. 068288 14. 232
. 067383 14. 358
. 066447 14. 484
. 065477 14. 611
. 064480 14. 736
. 063449 14. 863
. c62374 14. 909
. 061255 15. 116
. 060104 15. 242
. 058865 15. 368
. 057570 15. 494
. 056218 15. 621
. 054795 15. 748
. 053305 ! 5. &?74
. 051708 16. 000
. 050035 16. 126
. 048265 16. 253
. 046391 16. 379
. 044405 16. 505
. 042308 . 16. 631
. 040075 16. 758
. 037323 16. 884
Q
325. 6
352. 9
381. 0
409. 6
439. 0
469. 1
500. 0
531. 6
564. 1
597. 4
631. 6
666. 7
857. 0
H
85, 624
108, 696
130, 424
156. 296
180. 936
206, 024
%G
284: 536
311. 064
339.a64
360, 424
397, 768
424, 884
<. 58. 248
409, 720
; ; y;
580' 392
623' 000
658: 392
694. 792
; ; gg
. 309: 704
1, 022, Ma
Formulae: Q = l~ooO-~l; H = 1120 Q+ 63.000.
The value of II is found on the assumption that the moisture is heated
;rom 62O to 2;2O and evaporated at that temperature, and that the
specific heat of :;he material is 0.21. [2OOO X (2:2 - 621 X 0.211 = 63,uUO.
Calenlations for Design of Drying 2%pparatus. - A most efficient
system of drying of moist materials consists ma continuous circulation of a
volume of warm dry air over or through the moist material,lthen passing
the air charged with moisture over the cold surfaces of condenser coils to
remove the moisture, then heating the same air by steam-heating coils
or other means, and again passing it over the material. In the de:jign of
apparatus to work on this system it is necessary to know the amount
of moist.ure to be removed in a given time, and to calculate the volume of
air that ~111 carry that moisture at the temperature at which it lesves the
mscerial, making allowance for the fact that the moist, warm air on leaving
the material mav not be fully saturated, and fur the fact that the cooled
air is nearly or fully saturated at the temperature at which it leaves the
cooling coils. A paper by Wm. 111. Grosvenor. read before the Am: Inst.
of Chemical Engineers (Heating and Ventilating Nag., May, 1909) con-
t;l.ins a humidity table and a humidity chart which great.ly facilitate
the calculations required.. The table is given in a condensed form below.
It is based o, the following data: Density of air + 0.04Y0 CO? =
1 +- o:(:~,6172~~~mp, C, (in Kg. per cu. m.). Density of water vapor
=0.621S6 X density of air. Density at partial pressure f density at 760
m.m. =partial pressure + 560 m.m.
sp. ht. of air = 0.2373.
Specific heat of water vapor = 0.475;
Kg. per cu. meter x 0.062428 = lbs. per cu. ft.
The results given in the table agree within 1/4r0 with the figures of the
U. S. Weather Bureau. (Compare also the tables of H. M. Prevost
Murphy, given under Air. page 586.) The term humid heat in
the heading of the table IS aefined as the B.T.U. required to raise
lo F. pne pound or air plus t.he vapor it may carry when saturated at
the given temperature and pressure: and humid volume is the
volume of one pound of air when saturated at the given temperature
and pressfire.
RADWTION OF HEAT.
Radiation of heat takes ; ._.. _ ~~~ nlace between bodies at all distances anart. and _
follows the laws for the radiation of light.
The heat rays proceed in straight lines, and the intensity of t.he rays
radiated from any one source varies inversely as the square of their
distance from the source.
This statement has been erroneously interpreted by some writers. who
have assumed from it that a boiler placed two feet,apove a fire would re-
ce;;;,hy radiation only one-fourth as much.heat as lf It were only ofie foot
In the case of bmler furnaces the side walls reflect those ravs that
are ;&eived at an angle - following the law of optics, that the angle oi
incidence is equal to thk angle of reflection, -with the result that the
intensitv of heat two feet above the fire is practically the same as at one
foot above, instead of only one-fourth as much.
The rate at which a hotter body radiates heat, and a colder ,body
absorbs heat, depends upon the state of the surfaces of the boches as
well as on their temperatures.
The rate of radiation and of absorption
are increased by darkness and roughness of the s!lrfaces of the bodies.
and dimimshed by smoothness and polish. For this reason the covenng
_ ~~..~~ .-,, .., ~,.- .,__ ~._ _. .-,; . .~.~ ~..~ ~_~...~ _ _. _, ,,,~ _._ _~ _,.. pi
WARNI NG: Thi s i s a 1910 edition. Some of the materi al may no l onger. be accurate
of steam pipes and boilers should be smooth and of a light color: uncovered
pipes and steam-cglinder covers should be polished.
The quantity of heat radiated by a body is also a measure of its heat-
absorbing power under the same ctrcumstsnces. When a polished body
is struck by a my et heat, it absorbs part of the heat and reHects the rest.
The reHc-iing po\h;er of + body is therefore the complement of its absorb-
inp power. which latter IS the same as its r&dinting power.
The relative :adiat~ing and reflecting power of diIierent bodies has been
determined by experiment, as sll0~11 in the table bel ow, bL: t as f ar as
quantities of heat are concerned, says Prof. Trombridge (Jo!msons
Cyciopzdia. art. Heat), it is doubtful whether anything further than the
said relative determinations can. in the present state of our knowledge,
be depended upon, the actual or absolute quantiries for different tem-
peratures being still ll::certain,
relative radiabing powers.
The authorities do not even agree on the
and copper t,he tigure 12.
Thus, Leslie gives for tin plate, gold, si!ver.
which differs considerably from the figures in
the table below, given by Clark, stated to be on the authority of Leslie,
De La Provostaye and Desains. and Melloni.
Re!ative Radiating and Reflect,il : Power of IX&rent Substances.
Lampblaek.. . . .
water. . . . .
Carbonate of lead. .
Writins-paper..
Ax~H.:;t~,~~~!e: :
Ice. . . . . .
Gum 13~. .
Silver-leaf on ,rrlas~,
Ca5t iron, bright pal
ished.. .
Mercury, about,.
Wrought iron, pal.
ished. . . . . . .
Zinc. polished.. . ._ 19
Stee!. polishecl.. 17
Ilatmurn, polished. 24
Platinum in sheet
Tin . . . . . . . . 1:
Brass. cast, dead
pohshed. _. . . 1 I
Brass, bright pol-
ished.. . . . 7
Copper, varnished.
Copper, hammered.
1;
Cold. plated.. 5
Gold on polished
steel.. 3
Silver. polished
bright.. . . ._ .._.
I
3
Experiments of Dr: A. M. Mayer give the following: The reiatire radis-
tions from a cube of cast iron, having faces rough, as from the foundry,
gland,, drawfiled, and polished, and from the same surfaces oiled, are as
elow (Prof Thurston. in Trans. A. 5. M. E., vol. xvi):
Rough. Planed. Drawfi!ed. Polished.
Surface oiled.. . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Surface dry.. . . . . . . . . .
45
100 !i; ;?I 18
I,t here appears that the.oiling of smoothly
cyhnder-heads of steam-engmes, more than dou 1
olished castings, &s of
les the loss of heat by
radiation, while it does not seri ousl y affect rough castings.
Black Rody Radiation. Stefan and Roltzmans Law.
March r. 1907.) -,Kirchhoff defined a black body as one that would %%x
ail rarhatiqns falhng on it, and would neither reflect nor transmit any.
The radiation from such a body is a function of the temperature alone,
WARNI NG: Thi ; i s a 1910 edi ti on. Some of
-
CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION OF HEAT. 553
and is identical with the radiation inside an inclosure all parts of wi:ich
have the same temuer&ure. BY heitting the walls of an inclosure ,a~$
uniformly as possibl%, and observing tl& Tadiation~ t.hrough a very small
opening, a practical realizstioh oi a bl ack body is obtained. Stefan aud
Bolternans law is: The energ
to the fourth power of the
radiated by a black body is proportional
a i: solute temperature, or E: = K (24 - To),
where g = total energy radiated by the body at T to the body at TO, and
K is aconstant. The toi.al radiation from othtifr than black bodi es i ncreases
more rapidly than the fourth power of the absolute temperature, so that
as the temperature is raised the radiation of all bodies approaches that of
the bi ack body. A confirmnlion of the Stefan and Boltzman law is given
in the results of experiments by Lummer and Iiurlbaum, as bel ow ( 2 0 -
290 degrees C., abs. in all cases).
T= 492. 654. 795. 1108.
109.9 109 .o
I& 1761.
T,~To4\%~~~~i~~~ ;t? ?;b 3;:;4 IL; $j9 :ff6j
CONDUCTION AND CONVECTIOS OF HEAT.
Conduction is the transfer of heat between two bodies or parts of a
body which touch each other. Internal conduction takes place between
the parts of one continuous body, , and external conduction through the
surface of contact of a pair ~of distmct bodies.
The rate at which conduction, whether internal or external, goes on.
being proportional to the are& of the section or surface through which it
takes place, may be expressed in thermal units per square foot of area per
hour.
Internal Conduction vahes with the heat conductivit~~, which depends
upon the nature OE. the substance, and is directly proportional to the
difference between the temprratures of the two faces of a layer, and i n-
versely as its thickness. The reciprocal of the conductivity is called the
intemal thermal resistance of the substance. If T represents this resist-
ance, z the thickness of the layer in inches, T and T the temperatures
on the two faces, and Q the quanti;y ~$hermal units transmitted per
hour per square foot of area, Q = Tz (Rsnkine.)
P&let gives the following vsllses of r:
~;;,e~latinum, silver.. . . . 0 :0016 Lead.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 .OOQd
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0018
$&......-,...........
Marble.................. 0.0716
0.0043 Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1500
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0045
Rel ati ve Heat-couduc
Metals. *C.&J. tW;$,.
Silver.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
Gold.. . . . . . . . . . . 981 532
Gold,with 1 y0 of silver. 840 . .
Copper, rolled.. . . . . 845 736
Copper, cast.. . . . . . . . 811 . . .
Mercury. . :. . . . . . . . . 677 . . .
Mer~~y,wlth1.25%of
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 . . .
#;yinum.. . . . . . . . , 665 . . .
caj;t vertically. . . . . 628 : . .
;;~;~rlzontally.. . 608 ~. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 . . .
* Calvert & Johnson.
ine Power of Metals.
Metals.
Cadmium.....
yrought iron.
;$L,. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
Platinum.. . . .
Sodium.. . . . . .
pe;~tdron......
. . . . . . . . .
*C.&J .
1,. . . 577
-..-.* ,E . . . . .
. . . . . 397
. . . . . 350
1:::: %
. . . . 287
Antimony:
cast horizontally.. 215
cast vertically.. . . 1:;
Bismuth.. . . . . . . . .
tW.&F.
. . .
119
145
116
84
. . .
. . .
85
. . .
. . .
18
t Weidemann & Franz.
INFLUENCE OFA NON-METALLICSUBSTANCEIN CO~I+~NMWJNoN~E
cObUCr1NC POWER OF A METAL
Influence of carbon bn iron:
Cast copp,er.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
Wrought iron.. . . ..! . . . . . . . 436
Steel . . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . El
Cop,?er aith 1 rO of arsemc: . . . 570
with 0.5% of arsemc. 669
Cast iron * ._~, ,*th (l.,,z5% of arsenic. ,771
h& materi ~i i ; l $ ~ ho l on&. be accurate
CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION OF HEAT. 555 554 HEAT.
The Rate of External Conduction through the bounding Surface
between a ss!id body sncl a fluid is approximately proportional to the
difference of temperature, when that. is small: but when that difference is
considerable, the rate of conduction increases faster than the simplerat of
that difference. (Rsnkine.)
If r as before is the coellirient of interna thermal resistance, e and e
the c&ficient of external resistance of the two surfaces, 2 the thickness Of
the pla~i,e, and T and ? the temperatures of the twoTfl$$s in contact
with the two surfaces, the rate of conduction is g = L + L, -~ rz Accord-
1
ins: to PBelet, e+ e= A ,1 + B (T, _ 7,), 3 in which the constants A and
B have the following values:
B for polished metallic surfaces.. . , . . . :-. . . . . . 0.0028
B for rough metallic surfaces and for non-metahlc surfaces . 0.0037
A for pohshed metals,, about. . . . . . 0.90
A for glassy and varmshed surfaces. . . . .~, . . . . . . . 1.34
4 for dllli metallic surfaces.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.58
-4 forlsr~~pblack....................................... 1.78
When a metal plate has a liquid at each side of it, it appears from experi-
ments by P&let that B = 0.058. A = 8.8.
The result,s of experiments on the evaporative power of boilers agree
verv well cith the following approximate formula for the thermal resist.-
a&e of boiler plates and tubes:
which gives for the rate of conduction, per square foot of surface per hour,
Q _ (TT-T)2.
This formula is proposed by Rankinzas a rough approsimntion. near
enough to the truth for its purpose. The value of a iles between 160 and
200. Experiments on modern boilers usually give higher values.
Convection, or carrying of heat, means the transfer and diffusion of the
heat in a Huid mass by means of the motion of the particles of that mass.
The condnction..properly so called, of best through a stagnant fass of
Hnid is very slow in liquids, and lmost. if not wholly, mappreclablein
gases. It is only by the continual circulation and misture of the particlp
of the Huid that uniformit
mass or heat transferred %
of temperature can be maintained m the Huld
etween the Huid mass and a solid body.
The free circulation of each of the fluids which touch the side of a solid
plate is a necessary condition of the correctness of Rankines formulae for
t!ie conduction of heat through that plate; and !,n these formulz,it !s
implied that. the circulation of each of the Huids by currents and eddles 1s
such as to prevent anyconsiderable difference of temperature between the
Hmd parti:les in contact with one side of the solid plate and those at con-
COEFFICIENTS OF HEAT CONDUCTION AT DIFFERENT 'b.EPERATUREsFoR
Vnnrous INYUL~TING~D~,~TERIALS.
(B.T.U. per hour = Area of surface in square feet X coefficient + thick-
ness in inches.)
Materinls.
572
F.
.
. . . .
I.961
. . . . .
,.....
,.....
. . .
1.548
. . . . . .
,.....
._....
_
I - I -
07 0.443
03
Ground cork ._ . . . . . . 0.250 9.3
Sheeps wool* . 0.266 F- 0.4..
Silk w c ..,jte........................ 0.306 0.411 1
Sil k. tufted . .._.____.___..._.... 0.314 0.4
.10~379
,iS 1::::
IO.476 I~.~
10.
2:
9.:3
5.06
11.86
.
.
3.629
. . . .
0.854
. . . . .
Ll3.42
IO.
21.85
.,I 12.49
comr; os~~~~, i i douk: , : : : : : : : : : : : : 1: ti : 484 / 0: 6i j l 6: 61
Iii
D..
eselguhrstone&.. _.. . . . . . 0.516 /O.f
;,it mF..a.%* ,n %a n* aw I7 \
22.47
35.96
:t!::
- .- _ .,..
Pu&~ &i n k ~; &l ( 1. 612 at
112 F.) .._........_.,.__...._._.. .__... . . . . . . . .
Portland cement, neat (6.287 at
95F.)........................... -.....
128,5
* Tufted, oil
apparatus.
t J&g
and containing foreign matter.
roscopic;
Gsed in y;mi;s
a.ch~4:na kiead--.L- --_I ^
measurements made in moist zones.
hopped straw, mixed with a binder and made
&,I lllllll., IYI tippncarion to steam
,beiEph,;Tnzpdped in canvas and pamte x
ipes in successive layers,, the whole
. $ Iiieselguhr, m!xed with a binder
. vm---- ---^..- and hygroscoplc. $5 Ingredients of (X; mixed
11 1 part cement, 9 parts porous blast-furnace
I. .Y I . . - . _ - - , .cry ps i
with water and compacted.
slag, by volume. _.
siderable distances from it.
When heat is to be transferred by convection from one fluid to another.
through 8.n intervening layer oi metal, the motions of the two fluid masses
should, if possible, be in opposite directions, in order that the hottest par-
t~icles of each Huid may be in communication with the hottest particles of
the other, and that the minimum diflzrence of temperature bet.ween the
Heat Resist&e, the Reciprocal of Heat Conductivity. (W.
Kent, Trans. A. S. M. E., xxiv, 278.)-Tht: resistance to the passage Of
heat through a plate consists of three separate resistances: viz., the
resistances of the two surfaces and the resistahce of the body of the late.
which latter is proportional to the thickness of the plate. g It is pro able
al so that the resistance of the surface differs with the nature of the body
or medium with which it is in contact.
A complete set of experim~ents on the heat-resisting power of heat-
insulating substances should include an investigation into the difference
in surface resistance when a surface is in contact with air and when It is
in contact with another solid body. Suppose we find that the total reslst-
ante of a certain non-conductor may be represented by the figure 1.0, and
that similar ieces all give the same ligure. Two pieces in contact grve 16.
One piece ofphalf the thickness of the others gives 8. What is the reslst-
ante of the surface exposed to the air in either piece, of the surfaceD%
contact with another surface, and of the interior of the body itself?
the. resistance ofthe material itself, of the regular thickness. be reR-
resented by A. that of the surface exposed to the air by a, and that of the
,, surface in cohtact with another surface by c.
accur ai xi
adjacent particles of the two Huids may be the greatest possible.
Thus. in the surface condensation of steam, by passing it through metal
tubes immersed in a current of cold water or air, the cooling fluid should
be made to move in the opposite direction to the condensing steam.
Coetlicients of Heat Conduction of Different Materials. W.
Nllsselt. Zcit des VW. Deut. In . June 1908.
Eng. Digest Aug. 19OS.) -
The material; were inclosed %&wee; two concentric metal vessels, the
fnner of which contained an electric heating device.
It ~LS found that the materials tested all followed Fouriers hW, the
quantlty Of heat transmitted being directly proportional to the extent Of
surface, the duration of flow and the temperature difference between the
inner and outer surfaces: and inversely proportional to the thickness cf
the mass Of material. It was aIso found that the coefficient of conduction
Increased as the temperature increased. The table gives the British
eqtlivalei%tg .oI the a~~j%@c@f&ients obtain&,
' WARNI NG: Thi s i s a"i l ' To- wedi ti on. si c& of
&&..,.,..
the
CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION OF HEAT.
557
556 HEAT.
We then have for the three cases,
A+2a-10
These three equations comain three unknown quantities. Solving the
equations we hnd A = 4, a = 3, and c = 1. Suppose that another
experiment be made with the two pieces separated by an air space. and
that the total resistance is then 22. If the resistance of the air space be
reprrsentctl by s we have the two eqrmt,ions: Resistance of one niece.
A + 2 n = 10: resistance of two pieces and air space, 2 A + 4 a + s = 22.
from which we find s = 2. Having these results we can easily estimate
what will be the resistance t.o heat transfer of any number of layers of the
material. whether in contact or seoarated bv air soaces.
.
The writer has computed the -figures for heat resistance of several
insuiating substances from the figures of conducting power given in a table
uublished by John E. Starr, in Ice and Z<efrigeration, Nov., 1991. Mr.
S:arrs figures are given in terms of the B.T.U. transmitted per sq. ft. of
surface per day per degree of difference of temperatures of the air adjacent
to each surface. The writers figures,, those in the last column of the table
given herewith. are calculated by dividing Mr. Starrs figures by 24. to
obtain the hourly rate, and then taking their reciprocals. They may be
called coeflicient~s of heat resistance and defined as ihe reciprocals of
the B.T.U. per sq. ft. per hour per degree of difference of temperature.
HEAT CONDUCTING .m\r, RESISTING VAIXES OF DIFFERENT INSULATINGI
MATERIALS.
t
Insulating Material.
1. s/s-in. oak b&d. 1 in. lampblack. 7/8-h. pins
board (ordinary family refrigerator).
2. i/g-in. board. I in. pitch, T/s-in. board.. .
3. ?/s-in. bc:rrd. 2 in. pitch, i/s-in. board. _.
4. 7/s-m. board. paper, I in. mineral wool, paper
7/B-in. board.. 1. .:
5. 7/s-in. board, paper. 21/s in. mineral wool
paper. 718-h. board . _. _. _.
6. 7/8-h. board. paper, 21/e in. calcined pumice
7/s-in. board.. . . . .
7. Same as above, when wet
8. 7/8-h board. paper, 3 in. sheet cork. 7/n-h
Saard. ~. . . .I.. :. . :. :.-. .
9. Two7/s-in. boards, paper, solid, no air spact
paper. two I/s-in. boards. . . .
IO. Two i/s-in. boards. paper, 1 in. air space,
paper, two 7/s.&. boards.. . . . . . . . _,
II. Two 7/8-k. b.ssrds. paper, I in. hair felt,
paper, 51%~ 7/B-ln. boards.
12. Two 7/s-m. boards. paper, 8 in. mill shav-
13.
ings, paper, two 7/s-in. boards.. . . . .
il.
The same, shghtly moist . . . . :. ;. :. . _. . .
The same. damp . . . . . . _.
15. Two 7/s-m. boards, paper, 3 in. air. 4 in.
16.
sheet cork, paper, two 7/s-m. boards.. . .
Same, with 5 m. sheet cork... . . . . . . . . . . . .
17. Same, with 4 in. granulated cork.. . . . . _. . .
18. Same, with 1 in. sheet cork... . . . . . . . . .
19. Four double 7/s-m. boards (8 boards). wit1
29.
paper between. three 8-m. air spaces
Eour7/8-in. boards, with three quilts of l/pi]
hair between, papers separatmg boards..
21. 7/s-in. board 6 in. patented silicated straw
board. finished inside with thin cement.
Conductance,
B.T.U. per
sq. ft. per
Day per De-
gree of Differ-
ence of Tem-
perature.
5. 1
4. 09
4. 25
4. 6
3. 62
3. 38
3. 90
2. 10
4. 28
3. 71
3. 32
2. 70 '
2. 52
oefficient
i
of Heat
s&stance.
C.
4. 21
4. 91 ;
5. 65
5. 22
6. 63
Z
11. 43
5. 61
6. 47
17. 78
13. 33
i l . 43
:
20.00
26. 67
' %
8. 89
9. 52
9. 68
I
Analyzing some of the results given in the last column of the table, me
observe that, comparing Nos. 2 and 8, 1 in. added thickness of Dltcb
increased the coefficient 0.74; comparing Nos. 4 and 5, 1% 1..
.wool increased the coefficient 1.11. If we assume that tlP In
wn&in No. 4 was equal in heat resistance t.o the addlt.lo..-~-
n .5 nr,~,
^^i..^^, .,.li+r, .,.%A =,,,. I+mp+ +,,i= fi-,,, 5 ?p~
of mineral
,I ~ . ... of mineral
nal 1~ in. added
.._.
in NV. -, 1_ _._ I ,tx,pLuu U,!lb,, u,,u YIUL 1...1 I--._. -.--1
we get 4.11
as the resistant0 nf twn ?Ia-ln hoa.rrls anal two sheets of paper. This
^ Daner give nearly
-- .,. * ...- ~,____. -_-_-_ -..-
would indicatLe that one 7/n-in. board and one sheet ot _;;.~
twice as much resistance a% 1 in. of mineral wool. In like I..-..--~~~
number of deductions may be drawn f rom the thl c. and some of, them
will he rather questionable, such as the comparison of No. 15 and ,>o. 16,
shoxinn that 1 in. additional sheet cork increased the resistance pwen b-y
four shgets 6.67 reciprocal Iinits, or one-third the total resistance of NO. 12.
This result is estraordinsry, and indicates that there must have been
considerable differences of conc!itions during the t!yo tests.
For comparison with the coefficients of heat resistance comprued from
or Starrs resnts we may take the reciprocals of the figures given by
Mr: Alfred R. 'Wnlff es t.lw result of German experiments on the heat
transmitted t~.irbugh v%ious building materials, as below:
K = B.T.U. t~ransmitted per hour per sq. ft. of surface, per degree F.
difference of temperature.
C = coelHcient of heat resistance = reciprocal of K.
The irregularity of the differences of C computed from the. oridnal
values of K. for each increase of 4 inches in thicknws of the brick wall3
indicates a ditfcrence in the conditions of the e~sperlments.
The average
difference of C for each 4 inches of thickness is about 0.80., . Using this
average tlitference to even lip the figures we Hnd t,he vahle Of C IS expressed
by the approsi ul ate f orrnutn C = 0. 70 + 0. 20 t. In which t IS the thlcklless
in inches. The revised values of C, computed by this formula. and the
corresponding n-vised values of 9. arc as followS:
Thi tyvl / 4 / 8 / 12 1 16 j 20 j 24 ) 28 1 32 1 36 1 40
C. . . . . . . . . . . 1. 50 ( ' 2. 30 3. 10 3. 90 I 5. 50 6. 30
K revi sed. 0. 6671 0. 435 0. 323 0. 256
4. 70 0. 2131
0. 182 0. 159
; : 7! ! ; & ; : : y5
K: ori$nal. 0.68
0, 013/
0.46 0.32 0.26 0.23 ! 0.20 0.174 0.15 0.129 0.115
Difference.. 0. 025 0. 003 0. 004 0. 017i O. OtR 0. 015 0. 009 0. 002 0. 0
I 1
( I 4
The following additional values of C are computed from Mr. Wolffs
figures for K:
K c
Woode~n beam co.nstruction,
planked over or
ceiled :
-:
As Hoorutg., ...................
As ceiling ............ ...... .....
Fireproof construction, floored over:
As flooring
.....................
As ceiling
......................
Single window
....................
Single skylight. ....... :.
Double window
..........
...................
gz;;:,e skyhght
...
...........................................
6%
0. 97
0. 89
: : i Z
2. 42
It should be noted that the coefficient of resistance thus defined will be
approximately a constant quantity for a given substance under.cert?in
fixed conditions only when the difference of temperature of the ai r On I ts
t&o sides is small -say less than 100 F. When the range to,,,tt$e
nzrature is great experiments on heat. transmission Indicate
quantity of beat transmitted varies, not directly as the drfference of tem-
perature, but as the square of that difference.
In tms case a coefficrent
55s HEAT.
of resistance with a different definition may be found - viz.,, that obtained
from the formula. (L= (1 -- t) + 9. in which a is the coefflclent, T- t the
range of temperature, and q the quantity of he& transmitted, in British
thermal units per square foot per hour.
Steam-pipe Coverings.
Experiments by Prof. Ordw~, Truns. d. S. X. E., vi, 168; also Circular No.
27 of Boston 1Ifrs. JIutual Fire Ins. Co.. 1890.
Substance I inch thick. Heat
applied, 3 IO F.
;:
::
2:
2
1::
Il.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
;::
3: .
3::
Loose wool ....................
Lice-geese feathers. .............
Carded cottml Lmo1. ............
Hair it& ......................
Loose lumpbluck. ..............
Compressed iampblack ..........
Cork charcoal .................
White-pine charcoal. . . . . .
:I nfhracite-coirl powder. . . . _ . . . .
Loose c:rlcined maanesia. . .
Compressed calcin&l magnesia.
Light carbol&e of magnesia..
Compressed carb. of m&gnesia..
Loose fr~tssll-meal.
Crowried fossi!-menI .
Fund chalk (Paris white). .
ry plaster of Pans. . . .
F me ajhestos.. . .
Air alone.. . . . .
Sanu........................
Best slag-wool . . . .
Pa.per. . .
Blotting-paper wound tight
Asbestos paper wound tight..
Cork strips hound on.. . . .
Straw rcpe wound spirally. . . . .
Loime rice chnf.
Paste of fossil-meal with hair.
Paste of fossil-meitl with asbestos
Loose bituminous-coal ashes.
Loose anthracite-coal ashes..
Paste of clay and vegetable fiber
1
.
Po,t;l;rof
heated
I O;rGrpel
throuih
I sq. ft.
8.1
9. 6
1E
9. 8
YE
13. 9
725::
2:;
E:!
15. 7
20. 6
39. 9
49. 0
48. 0
E:
14.
21.
21. 7
12
1:::
22.
i::
30. 9
British
Wermal
Jn:ts pe:
q. ft. pfz
minute.
I .35
!:E
1. 72
1. 63
1. 77
1. 98
2:;;
2. 07
;:A;
2. 57
?:6422
5:;;
8. 17
8. 00
10. 35
2::
::i;
C43
3. 12
5:;
i:::
5. 15
solid Jlat.
er in I sq
t., I inch
thick.
944
950
980
815
944
756
947
881
494 - 977
715
440
i::
888
747
632
919
;
,000
471
.
. . .
. . .
. .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
,...
,...
,...
It wili be observed that several of the incombustible materials are
nearly as efficient as WOOL, cotton, and feathers,.with which they may be
CpmPared in the preceding table. The materials which mav be con-
slo? contact with pipes or boilers are printed in Roman tyne.
sidered wholly free from the danger of being carbonized or ~gnit$ho~~
which are more or less liabie to he carbonized are arinted in italics.
rnl~
COtiDUCTTON AND CONVECTION OF HEAT. 559
0 .
Experiments on still air gave results which differ little from those Of
Nos. 3, 4, and 6. The bulli of matter in the best non-conduct~ors 1s
relatively too small to have any specific effect except, to trap,the mr and
keep it stagnant. These subst+ces keep the air stdl by virtue of the
roughness of their fibers or partmles. The asbestos, No. 18, had smooth
fibers. Asbestos~ with exceedingly fine fiber made a somewhat bett;;
showing, but asbestos is really one of the poorest non-conduc!ors.
may be used advantageously to hold together other mcombustlble sub-
stances, but the less of it the better. A magnesia, coverin=, made of
carbonate of magnesia with a small percentage of good asbestos fiber
and containing 0.25 of solid ma,tt~f. transmitted 2.5 B.T.r. per sqhlare
f_ozf: ReL @nute, and one contammg 0.396 of sohd matter transrmtted
Any suitable substance which is used to prevent the esca.pe of steam
heat should not be lesv than one inch thick.
Any covering sho\;ld be kept perfectly dry, for not only is water a good
carrier of heat, but it h&s been found that still water conducts heat about
eight times as rapidly as still air.
Tests of Commercial Coverings were made by Mr. Geo. M. Frill
and reported in Trans. A. 5. M. E.. xvi, 827. A length of 60 feet of S-Inch
steam-pipe was used in the tests, and the heat loss was determmed by the
condensation. The steam pressure was from 109 to 117 lhs. gauge, and
the temperature of the air from. 58 to 810 F. The difference between the
t_e_Terature of steam and 51r ranged from 263O to ?S6, averagmg
The following are the Grincipal results:
Kind of Covering.
Bare pipe . .
Magnesia.
Rock wool., ._.
Mineral wool. ._.
Fire-felt _.
Manville sect,ional.. .
Manv. sect and hair-fe
Manville wool-cement.,
Champion mineral WOO
Hair-felt..
Riley cement. . .
Fossil-meal . .
it
i:
.
I
ue results Nos. 1 to 20 inclusive were from kxperiments with the
YanlJ~ls non-conductors each used in a mass one inch thick placed On a
flat SurfOm of iron ke t heated by steam to 310 F. T& substances
Nos. 21 to 32 were trie
2 as coverings for two-inch steam-pipe. the results
hel[!g reduced to the sa,me terms as the others for conveniehce of corn-
Panson. ,
-L=u---- ~.-~._--.,l~ ____. -. ..~
~._~_~_~
~j " r l ARNI NG: Thi s i s a 1910 edi ti on.
~. . __, ~~. . . - - . - . , . , . . _. , . . _, . / . . - . , . . . ~~. . ~~. . _~~, , _
, f
S&e of . " %i $i $i ki al
may no l onger. be accurate
Tests of Pipe Covering& by an ElectricaI.Me$hod. W G. Stett,
POWW 1902.) -A length of about 200 ft. of 2-m. pipe was heated t? a
knovv; temperature by an electrical cqrrent.
The pipe a? covered with
dieerent materials, and the heat rad!ated b
mined by measuring the current reqmred t?
z
each coqerlng was deter-
eep the. PIP% at. a constant
temperature.
A brief description of the various cOvenn3 Is @Ven hel OW.
Solid sectional covering, ll/: in. thick, of granulated cork
moy$id2nnder pressure and then baked at a temperature of 50WF.;
J/s in. asbestos paper next t,o pipe,
NO. 3. @oud l-in, moldea sectWnal? 85% carbonate of f.~p&.
-~
!
HEAT.
CONDUCTION AXD CONVECTION OF HE;,.
, 561
No. 4. Solid l-in. sectional, granulated cork mold.ed under pressure
and baked at 500 F.; l/e in. asbestos next to pipe.
No. 5. Solid l-in. molded sectional, 85% carbonate of magnesia; out-
side of sections covered with canvas pasted on.
No. 6. Laminated l-in. sectional, nine layers of asbestos paper with
granulatedcork between; outside of sections covered with canvas, l/s in.
asbestos paper next to pipe.
No. 7. Solid l-in. molded sectional, of SSyO carboilute of magnesia:
outside of sections covered with light canvas.
Y
No. S. Laminated l-in. sectional. seven layers of asbestos paper
indented with I/d-in. square indentations,, which serve bo keep &he asbeslos
layers from coming in close contact nlth one another; l/s in. asbestos
paper nrrt to pipe.
No. 9. Laminated l-in. seciional, 64 lagers of asbest s paper, in v.+lich
were embedded small pieces of sponge: outside covered Iri th canvas.
No. 10. Laminated 1 l/-in. sectional, 12 lain layers of asbestos paper
with corrugated layers between., formlng ongltudmal air cells; I/g in. P
asbestos paper next to pipe; sect.?ons wjred on.
No. 11. Laminated l-in. sectional, 8 layers of asbestos paper with
corrriaated lsvers between. forming small air ducts radially around the
cove&g.
No. 12. Lsminated 11/4-in. sectional, 6 layers of asbestos piper
with corrugated layers; outside of sections covered with two layers of
canvas.
No. 15. Remanit,, composed of 2 layers wound in reverse direction
with ropes of carbonized silk. Inner layer ZQ in. wide and l/z in. thick;
outer layer 2 in. wide and 314 in. thick, over which was wound a network
of fine wire; 1s in. asbestos neat to pipe. Made in Germxly.
No. 16. 31/t-in. covering, S5% carbonate of magnesia, l/z-in. blocks
about 3 in. wide and IS in. long nest to pipe and wired on; over these
blocks were Dlared solid Z-in. molded sectional coverinrr.
No. 17. -+-in. covering S.5Y0 magnesia. Put on-in a Z-in. molded
section wired oii; next to thepipe and over this a +-in. layer of magnesia
plaster.
No. IS. 2 Q-in. covering, SST0 carbonate of magnesia. Put on in two
solid l-in. molded sections with l/z-in. layer of magnesia plaster between;
two l-in. coverings wired on and placed so as to break joints.
No. 19. Z-in. covering, of 85% carbonate of magnesia. put on in two
l-in. Ial-ers so 5s to break joints.
No. 20. Solid Z-in. molded se&ional. 857, magnesia.
No. 21. Solid Z-in. molded sectional, S570 magnesia.
Two samples covered with the same thickness of similar material give
different results; for F .smple. Nos. 3 and 5, and also Nos. 20 and 21.
The cause of tlus dierence was found to be in the care with which the
joints between section .. were made. -4 comparison between. Nos. 18 and
20. having the same ti,.:>! ihi:kness. but one applied in a solid Z-in. sect,ion.
and the other in two l-in. sections, proved the desirability of breaking
joints.
An. attempt was made to determine the law governing the effect of
increasing the thickness of the insulating material, and for all the 8%5%
magnesia coverings the efficiencv varied directly as the square root of the
thickness, but the other mate&Is tested did not follow this simple iaw
Closely. each one involving a different constant.
To .d$ermine which covering is the mcst economical the following
quantltles must be considered: (1) Investment in covering. (3) Cost
Of coal required to supplv lost heat. (3) Five per cent, interest on
capital invested in boilers jnd stokers rendered idle through having to
EEsg$ncost heat. (4) Guaranteed life of covering. (5) Thickness of
-ELECTRICAL TEST OF STEAM-PIPE COVERINGS.
Covering.
Solid cork .............................
85 YO magnesia .........................
Solid cork.- .,.
85% magnesrs ...................................................
Laminated asbestos cork.. ............
85% magnesia. ........................
tlsbest.os air cell mdent] .............
Asbestos sponge I elted, ...............
Asbestos air cell [long]. ...............
* Asbestos& [radial].
Asbestbs sir cell
\
long].
..............................
Remanit~ [silk wrapped ...........
85 7 o magnesia, 2 sectional and l/2
block ................................
85 70 magnesia, 2 sectional and l/2
plaster .. :.: .........................
85% magnesia. two I sectional ..... 1,
85% magnesia, two 1 sectional ......
85% magnesia. 2 sectional ...........
85% magnesia. 2 sectionai ...........
Bare pipe [from outside tests]. .......
4v.3.
hick-
nes.
1.6.7
I.l6
I..20
1.19
1.48
1.12
1.26
1.24
E
1:::
2.71
::;Zl
$2
2.20
. . . . . .
1.672
2.008
%
2.123
%i
%
2.601
2.612
I .452
L.T.U.
er sq.
t. per
.r. per
De-.
)ifF. of
Cemp.
i::::
0.427
0.444
;,:g
Z:4?
?
0.57;
0.564
0.586
0.502
0.289
-6.294
0.305
EE
2.708
Per
cent
Heat
hved
by
:over-
ing.
87.1
84.5
84.2
%
63.2
63.1
8F.3
:i::
76.4
00.8
89.4
Transmission of Heat, through Solid Plates, fromWater to Water.
(Clark, S. E.) -M. P&let found, from experiments made with plates of
wrought iroc. cast iron, copper, lead, zinc, and tin,, that when the fluid
in contact with the surface of the plate was not circulated by artificial
means, the rate of conduction was the same for different metals and for
plates of the same metal of different thicknesses. But when the water
was thorourrh!v circulated over the surfaces. nnd when these rnxe nwfmtlv
clean, the guintity of transmitted heat && inversely proportional to the
thickness, and directly as the difference in temperature of the two faces
of the plate. When the metal surface became dull. the rnte of trans-
mission-of heat through all the metals was very~nert~~~~thes~~le.--
It follows. says Clark, that the absorption of heat through metal plates
is more active whilst evaporation is in progress - when the circulation of
&heJvater is ~more active - than while the water is being heated up to the
boiling-point.
Transmission from Steam to Water. -M. P&lets principle is
supported by the results of experiments made in 1867 by Mr. Isherwood on
the conductivity of different metals, Cylindrical pots, 10 inches in
diameter, 211/d inches deep inside, and l/g inch, 114 inch, and 3/s Inch
thick, turned and bored, were formed of pure copper, brass (60 copper
and 40 zific), rolled wrought iron, and remelted cast iron. They were
immersed in a steam bath. which was varied from 220 to 320 F. Water
.i
The coverings Nos. 2 to 15 were finished on the outside with resin paper
and S-ounce canvas: the others had
tiOns. and an Saz. canvas finish.
canvas pasted on outside of the set- -
The following is a condensed statement
of the results with the temperature of the pipe corresponding to 160 lb.
dteam pressure.
., ,
_.~.. .._L ., A_ ^. .~
. ~,. ~.
-~~~ .~.
1910 editicn.
Some of ~. j $e materi al may
no l onc@~ be accurate
at 21Y was supplied to the pots, which were kept tilled. It wvits ascer-
tained that the rate of evaporation was in the direct ratio of the difference
of the temperatures inside tind outside of the pots: that is, that the rate
of evaporation per degree of difference of temperatures was the same for
all temperatures: and that the rate of evaporation was exactly the same
for different thicknesses of the metal. The respective rates of conductiv-
ity of the several metals were as follows, expressed in weight of water
evaporated from and at 212 F. per square foot of the interior surface of
the pots per degree of difference of temperature pet hour, together with
the equivalent quantities of heat-units:
CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION OF HEAT. 563
*I
The following is a condensed statement of the results.
HEAT TRANSMITTED &n SQUARE FOOT OP COOLING SURFACE, PER HOUR,
PER DEGREE OP DIFFERENCE OF TEXPERATURE. (British Thermal Units.)
562
Water at 212O. Heat-units. Ratio.
Copper .................... 1. 1. 00
Brass.
0. 87
...................
0 :tf; I!
i%::
Wrought iron
. 58
.............
Cast iron
. 49 .................
:g; :
: c: ;
Tempernt.un
of Contlens-
ing water.
l-in. Iron Pipe
Steam inside.
60 Ihs. Gauge
Pressure.
265
269
272
277
281
299
313
1 l/z-in. Pipe:
Steam inside,
10 Ibs.
Pressure.
I l/z-in. Pipe;
Iteam out&h
IO Ibs.
Pressure.
200
i42
267
271
270
I l/z-in: Pipe;
Ste~~,i,~de.
Pressure.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2;
276
306
349
419
Whit,ham Steam Engine Design, p. 283. also Trans.A. S. M. E.. ix,
4% in usink these data in deriving a formula for surface condensers, tails
tGe;e figures those of perfect conductivity, and multlpl.ies them by a
coefficient C which he takes at 0.323, to obtain the effictency of cpn-
denser surf&in ordinary use, i.e., coated with saline and greasy deposits.
Transmission of Heat from Steam toWater through Coils of Iron
Pipe. - H. G. C. Kopp and F. J. hl eystre (Steven+ !ndacator. Jan., 1894)
give an account of some experiments on transmlsslon of heatlthrough
coils of Dine. They collate the results of earlier experiments as follows,
for comljaiison: -
-
f
e
Steam con-
densed per
square foot
per degree
difference of
temperature
per hour.
,&?at trans-
mitted per
quare foot
per degree
lifference 0:
emperatun
per hour.
The results indicate that the heat transmitted per degree of difference of
temperature in general increases as the temperature of the condensing
wa,tw ir :inrravxw!
The amount transmitted is mu& Iarger with the st.eam on the outside of
the coil than with the steam-~ .~~~~~ LL15 LVII.
part by the fact t.hat the condensing water ~vhen*i~~~~heco:;iii;;lwsb
the surfilce of conduction very rapidly, and is more efficient for cooling
than when contained in a tank outside of the coil.
Remarks.
This result is in accordance with that found by Mr. Thomas Craddock.
which indicated that the rate of cooling bv transmission of !.eat through
metallic surfaces was almost wholly dependent on the rate of circulation of
the cooling medium over t,he surface tn he cooled. . _ _ I _ _ - _ _ -
Transmission of Heat, in Condenser Tubes. (Engg. Dec. 10. .1875.
p. 449.) - In 1874 B. C., Nichol made experiments for determining the
rate at which heat was transmitted through a condenser tube. The
results went to show that the am01
,n+ nf hnst tranrmitta, thrn,,vh th.o
wn.lls nf t.he t.:lhn TWP mt.im;
ULAY I LLUY Yap.- ...-.-.. I.-
.~ -.._ -_ _.._ _--_ r__ --.....&ed degree of mean chfference of temperature
increased considerably with this difference. For eXampIe:
- -
- .
.$
*G
+zg
- ._
I . 292
I . 268
0. 981
I . 20
1. 26
0. 24
0.22
-
974
1120
12ao
215
208
loo
)
i
--
. 2
-
230
207
210
82
Laurens
1.
Havrez
Perkins.
. .
Copper coils,
2 Copper coil
Copper coil.
Iron coil..
.I a*
Ir,~n type..
,, .a ..
.
&t-iron boil1
Estimated mean difference of Vertical Tube. Horizontal,Tube.
temperature between inside acd p
outside of tube, degrec;s Fahr.. 128 151.9 152.9 111.6 146.2 150.4
Heat-units transmitted per hour
per square foot of surface per
degree of mean diff. of temp.. . . 422 531 561 610 737 823
From the above it would appear that the efficiency of iron surfaces is
less than that of copper coils, plate surfaces being far inferior.
In all experiments made up to the present time, it appears that the
temperature of the condensing water was allowed to rise, a mran between
the :nitial and final temperatures being accepted as the effective tempera-
ture. But as water becomes warmer it circulates more rapidly. thereby
causin the water surrounding the coil to become agitated and replaced
by coo er i water, which allows more heat to be transmitted.
AFain, in accepting the mean temperature as that of tpe condensing
medium the assumption is made that the rate of condensation is In dxect
proportibn to the temperature of the condensing water.
In order to correct and avoid any error arising from these a?sumPtions
and aooroximations. eXoeriments Rere undertaken. in which all the con&
These resu1t.s seem .to throw doubt, upon hlr. Isherwoods stat.$ment that
the rate of evaporation per degree of chfference of temperature 1s the same
for all temoeratures.
Mr. Thoinas Craddoclc found that water was enormously more efficient
than air for theabstraction of heat through metallic surfacesin the process
of cooling. He proved that the rate of cooling by transmission of heat
through metallic surfaces depends upon the rate of circulation of the cool-
ing medium over the: surface to be cooled. A tube filled with hot water,
moved by rapid rotation at the rate of 59 ft. per second, through air, lost as
much heat in one minute as it did in still air m 12 minutes. In water, at a
velocity of 3 ft. per second. as much heat was abstracted in half a mm&F
as was abstracted in one minute when it was at rest in the wat,er.
Craddock concluded,. further, that the circulation of the coohng fluid
became of greater importance as the difference of temperature on the
two sides of the plate became less. (Clark, R. T. D., P. ?Sl.)
G. A. Orrok (PMJM. Aug. 11. 1908) gives a diagram sholvlng the relation
of the B.T.U. trans&tted per hour per sq. ft. of surface Per degree Of
difference of temperature to the velocity of the water in the condenser
tubes, in feet per second, as obtained by different expenmenters.
imate figures taken jrom the several curves are given below.
AppIUX-
L
tions i;er& constant during each test.
The pressure was maintained uniform throughout the co+, and Pro-
vision was made for the free outflow of the condensed steam, In order to
obtain at all times the fuil efficiency of the condensing surface. The con-
densing water was continually stirred to secure uniformity of tempera+re.
which was regulated by means of a steam-pipe $cd s Cold-mater pipe
entering to: &nk in which the coil w89 p&e+ _
. ~4.
t h
WARNI NG: Thi s i s a 1910 edi ti on. Sot- k of ~. i
____-..
. e materi al may no l onger. be accurate
CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION OF HEAT.
565
v
Authority.
I . stanton. .
2. stanton. . .
3. Nichols. _.
4. Nichols .
5. Hepburn..
6. I - I eoburn. .
7. R&w.. .
8. Weightnn.
9. Al l en. . . . . . .
1. water flowing down.
ter Heaters. (W. R. Billings.
tperiments show that the rate of
l&in. vert. copper. _. _. ...... 400' 4651 520 550
/?+l. vert,. copper.. ...... 470 5251 560 585
~&II. vert. brass.. . ...... 370 4051 435 460 470
3/4-m. how,. brass. _. . 530. 560 585
I I/&. horiz. copper.
I
250 590
I i/a-in. hr riz. corrugatw 360
/ . . . . I
615 , 650
: : : : : : >: / : . :
I l/+-in. horiz. corrugated 460
/s-m. plnm tubes.. . . _. ...... 3801
+.+-in. horizontal.. ...... 2251
No. 1. water flowing up. Nos. 2 and?
Transmission of Heat in Feed-wal
The .\ational hhgineer, June, 1907.) -EE,
transmission of heat through metal surfaces from steam to water Increases
rapidly with the increased rate of flow of the water. Mr. Billings there-
fore recommends the use of small tubes in heaters in which the water is
inside of the tlihes. fk says: A high velocity through the tubes causes
friction between t.he water and the walls of the t.uhes; this friction is not
the same as the friction between the particles of water themselves. and it
tends to break up the column of water and bring fresh and cooler particles
against t.he hot walls of the tubes.
The following results were obtained in tests:
1 l/q-in. smooth tubes { ; 1 1;;,
111 137 . .
57' ) 670
1Q-ix. corrugated tubes ,., _ 3Ti (I
34 43
4- 14 465 7: ;
? = veiocity of the water.. ft. per min. U = B.T.U. transmit,ted pel
sq. ft. per hour per degree difference of temperattlre. (See Condensers.)
In calculations of heat transmission in heaters it is customary t.o t.alie
as the mean diflerence of temperature the difference between the t.em-
perature of the steam and the arithmet~ical mean of the initial xld tinal
temperst.rtres of the water: til;ls if S = steam temperatiire. I = initial
and F = tinal temperatcxe of the water, and D = mean dilference, t!len
D = S - :bz (I + F). Mr. Billings shows that thic is incorrect, ilnd on
the mmi r~p: i cn that the rate of transmission t~hrollgn any portion of the
surface is directly proportional to the differewe he finds the true mean
F-I
to be D = hvp. log [(S - I) + (S - P)] .
(This formula was derived by
Cecil P. Poole in 1899,. Power, Dec., 1906.)
The following table is calculated from the formula:
DEGREES OF DIFFEREXCE BETWEEN STEAM TEMPERATURE AND ACTUAL
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF WATER.
Tubes.
T
I
Velocity of Water. Feet per
Second.
0. 5 1 I / 2 / 3 j 4 1 5 / 6
B.T.U. persq:ft. perbr. per
deg. cliff.
Initia!
Temperature
of water.
40
56~. . . . . . . . . . ,
g; : .
. . . . . _. . . .
90
-
. _
Vacuum Heaters Between Engine and Condenser.
26Vac. Temp. 126O F.
I
24" Vae. Temp. 141 F.
Final Temp. of Water. Final Temp. of Water.
105 1 110 / 115 / 120 1 105 1 I 10 1 115 / 1. 20 1 125 1 130
-__-----.-____-
44. 1 ~41. 6 36. 9 30. 1 62. 9 60. 2 55. 3 50. 9 46.1 40.6
42. 8 38. 4 33. 6 27. 6
I
59. 2 56. 6 51. 0 47. 7 43. 2 37. 9
39. 3 35. 3 30. 7 25. 0 53. 5 52. 1 48. 4 44. 4 40. 1 35. 0
35. 6 31. 9 27. 6 22. 4 I 51. 6 48. 2 45. 0 41. 0 36. 9 32. 2
31. 8 20. 3 24. 5 19. 6 47. 6 44. 2 41. 2 37. 5 33. 6 29. 2
/
(
WARNI NG: Thi s i s a 1910 edi ti on. Some of i
; h
Init,ial Temp.
of Water.
40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60 ................
70 ................
00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The errnr in using the arithmetic mean for the value of D is not .impor-
tant if F is very much lower than S, but if it is within loo of S then the
errx may he a large we. With S = 212, I = 40, F = 110. the arith-
metic mean difference is 137, and the value by the locsrithmic formula
131. an error of less than SiX1,: hut if Y is 204. the arithmetic mesn is 90.
and the value by the formula 53.5.
It slmul~l be observed, however, that tile formulais based on an assump-
tion that is prolxrhly greatly in error for lligh temperature diRerences.
i.e., that the transmission of heat is directly proport~ional to the tem-
perature rlil~erence. It may be more nearly proportional to the square
of the clifferenre, as stated hy Rankine. This seems to be indicated by
the results of heating water by stesm. coils, given below.
Hmti n~ \Vatcr by Stram Coils. - A cutslogue of the American
Radiator Co. (100s) gives a chart showing the pounds of stesm condensed
per hour per sq. ft. of iron, brass and copper pipe surface. for different
mean or average tlifferenws of tcmpt~rature between the steam and the
water. Taking the iatent heat of the steam at 966 B.T.U. per lb.. the fol-
lowing figures are derived from the table..
Mean
T$P.
1;:
150
200
_ .
Lb. Steam Condensed Lb. Steam Condcnwxl
per Hour per Sq. Ft.
I I
B.T.U. per,Sq.
per Hour per Sq. Ft. Ft. per Hour
of Pipe. per Deg. Diff. per Deg. Diff.
I
21 Brass. iCopper Iron. / Brass. /Copper I;,on.IBrasr! Cop.
The chart is said to be plotted from a large number of tests with pipes
placed vertically in a tank of water, about 20 ~per cent being deducted
from the actual results as a margin of safety.
W. R. Bi!.lings (En@. IZec., Feb., IYOS) gives asthe results of one set of
experiments wth a closed feed-water heater:
Mean temp. diff.. deg. F.. . . . . : 5
B.T.U. per sq. ft. per hr. per deg. diff. 67 769 8: 1:: 1% 1%
. e' mat er i al hays ~no l onger . be accur at e
Ktrat Transmission through Cast-iron Plates Pickled in Nitric
Acid. -. Experiments hy R. C. Carpenter (Trans. A. 3. M. E.. xii, 179)
show a marked change in the conduct.ing power of the plates (from
steam to water), due to prolonged treatment with dilute nitric acid.
CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION OF HEAT, 569
There is apparently an error in the last, line of the table, for the heat.
gained by the water could not be grea,ter than that lost by the air.
eac?ss lost by the air ma
The a
larity. It appears that or velocities of wrater between 2.2 and 5.3 ft. per P
be due to radiation. hgtt it shows a great irregu-
min. the value of U increases with the velocity, but for higher veIdcities
the value of (i is very irreglllar, and the cause of the irregularity is not
568 HEAT.
in four successive operatlorm, by machining to 0.125 in.
tested in four thickr.+:sses.
Another, B, was
thicknesses.
The othe; plates were tested in one or two
Gch plate was found to have a law of trans,.dssinn of its
own.
.^
For p&e A the value of Q is represented close1
a = +u + 20 t, in which t is the thickness in inches.
%he formula a =
by the formula
40 f 20 t f l ! 3 covers the whole ran& of the exoerimrnta~ The n. hnb ^ ._- ._-.-
range of ~vatues is 38.6 to 71.3, which-are veri io~;v-wiIli-compared with
vzzlues oi a computed fr9m t.he restdt~s of boiier tests, which are usually
from ZOO to 400, tl:e low Vahl es obtained by Blechynden no doubt being
due to the excentionallv favorahle cnnrlitior.:
with those of boiler test&.
3 of his tests as compared
a 200, bllt va1-
Rankine says the value of u. lies between 160
..,j btlo\\; 200 are rarely found in tests of modern types
31 ,toilers. (See Steam-Boilers.1
explained.
Chas. L. Hubbard (The Engineer, Chicnao. May 18. 19llL) mode some
t&s by blowi,!:: air throllgh a tight T.\-ootlen box which contaitle(i a nest
of 30 1 lb?-in. tm tubes. of a total surf~e of about 20 sq. ft.. through
which cold water flowed. The resu1t.s were as follows:
.,.... ~~. ~--
may no l onger. be accurate
Cu. ft. of air per minute.. .
Velocity over cooling surface..
Initial temperature of air.. _.
Drop in temperature..
Average temp. of mater. _. . .._.
Average temp. of air.. . . . . .
Difference. . . . . . .
B.T.U. per hour per sq. ft. per degree
difference.. . .
Cooling 61 ;iir. - H.~F.~~I%nson (-Am. Mach., Aug. 31 1905) der: es
the followrii,q formula for transmission of heat from air towater throu
copper tubes,
%
h
It,is assumed that the rate of transmission at any point of
the surface IS directly proportional to the difference of temperature
between the air and water.
Let A = zooling surface, sq. ft.: K = lb. of air per hour: S, = specific
heat of air; TR, = temp. of hot inlet air; T,,_ =temp. of cooled outlet air:
d = actual average diff. of temp. bet&e?the air-and the water. U =.
B,T.U, a.bsorbed by the water per degree of diff. of temp. per sq. it. per
hour. I+ = lb. of water per hour; T~l = temp. of inlet water; T,, =
temp. of outl?t waier. Then
.-
Transmission of Heat t.hrough Plates and Tubes from Steam or
Hot Water to Mr. - The transfer of heat from steam or water through
a plate or tube into the surrounding air is a complex operation, in which
the internal and external condl1ctivit.y of the metal, the radiating power
of the surface, and the convection of heat in the surrounding air.. are,all
concerned Sinre the qllantity of heat, r&elisted from a surface varies with,
the condition of the surface and with the surroundings. according to laws
not yet determined, and since the heat carried away Ijy convection varies
with the rate of the llow of the air over the surface, it is evident that no
general law can be laid down for the tota qnantjty of he&t emitted.
The following is condensed from an article on Loss of Heat from
Steampipes. in The Locomotizpe, Sept. and Oct.. 1892.
A hot steam-pipe is radiating heat constantry of into space, but at the
same time it is cooling also by convection. Erperimentat data on which
to base calculations of the heat, radiated and otherwise lost by steam-pipes
are neither mtmerolis nor satisfactory.
In Boxs Practical Treatise on Heat a number of results are given for
t,he amount of heat radiated by different substsnc:ss when the temperatur;
of the air is lo Fahr. lower than the temperature of the radiating body.
portion of this table is given below. It is szid to be based on P&lets
experiments.
AdC = KS, CT,, _ T,,); A = KS, (T,, - T,) + dU.
d = KT,, - T,,) - U,,z - T,,)] +Ic,R
[CT,, - T,,) + (T% - T,,).
T,, = (S,K f W) (T,, _ T,,) f TE1.
The more cooling w?te., used, tile lower is the temperature T,?,.
Also
the less 1. is. the is - ri hecomes and the less surface is needed. About
10 is tl:. :..,.gest valti; V/K thst it is economical to se, as there is a
saving 01 iess t&n q.59 ,~n increasing it from 10 to 15.
When desirabte
to save water It $1 be >dvisable to make IV/K = 5. Values of u
obtained by ( ypen!nent,\mth a Wainwright cooler made with corrugated
copper tubes are given In the following; table. K and FV are in lb. per
minute, B,, = B.T.U. from air per nun.. B.,= B.T.U. from water per
min.. Vw = velocity of water, ft. per min.
,
3392
3695
4171
4105
4357
4552
4! 28
5443
4477
5556
6244
T
(II
--
76. 3
64. 3
63. 3
54. 0
46. 3
63. 6
43. 5
61. 7
46. 0
57. 5
58. 0
--_
T
202
169. 0
! 46. 4
149. 2
125. 9
106. 2
120. 2
94. 7
114. 0
79. 1
95. 2
95. 1
-
--
-
-
HEAT UNITS RADIATED PER Homx, mm SQUARE FOOT OF SWWACE~
FOR lo FA!IRENKEIT EXCESS IN TEMPERATURE.
-
T
=J:
K
125. 2
tz2. a
126. 3
122. 1
124. 6
124. 4
117. 3
133. 6
135. 5
130. 0
133. 8
m
28. 50
36. 73
i %i
2: ; :
79. 84
92. 72
114. 80
125. 70
145. 90
4303
4452
4819
4511
4976
5051
4753
5649
5484
5612
597?
K j -..
224. 0
: E
234. 6
214~2
242. 9
223. 0
239. 3
246. 0
I
-I-
i
-
VUJ
2. 20
: : ; ;
: : 3;
5. 65
6. : :
7. 15
8. 86
9. 70
I l . 26
Copper, polished ..........
Tin, polished .............
Zinc and brass, polished.
Tinned iron, pohshed.
......
Sheet iron, poiished .......
Sheet lead ...............
Sheet iion, ordinary ......
0. 0327
E%
0. 0858
0. 0920
EJ % . I
Glass....................
Cast iron, new., , . . . . .
Common steam-pipe, In-
ferred . .
Cast and sheet iron, rusted.
Wood, building stone, and
brick. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.5948
0. 6480
0. 6400
0. 6868
0. 7358
50. 0
45. 8
45. 7
43. 8
43. 0
52. 6
43. 0
55 3
40. 1
- ._
-
6. 75
2;
8. 81
10. 55
8. 41
i i . 32
I O. 01
7. 86
When the temperature of the air is about 50 or 60 Fjhr.. and the r&at-
ing body is not more than about30O hotter than the air, we maY c?lClate
the radiation of a given surface by assuming the amoUnt Of @at Dven 08
bY it, in a given time to be proportional to the diference zn temperature
between the radiating body and the air.
This is Newtons law of coolmg.
But when the difference in temperature is areat, Newtons law does not
hold good: the radiation is no lonqer proportional to the difference In tern--
perature, but must be calcuta.ted by a complex formula estabhshed experl-
mentally by Dulong and Fetit. Box has computed a table from this
9138
10. 57
-
Sixteen other tests were rqade besides those given above, and their
plotted .~rt?F-yits~al! c?me within the field covered by those in the table.
,..~ ,,,_ ~~~._-- ._ .,.. ~__~
WARNI W Thi s i s a 191C edi ti on. Some of
THERMODYNAMICS.
formula, which greatly facilitates its application. and which is given
below:
The loss of heat by convection is nearly proportional to the difference
in temperature between the ho\ body and the air, but the experiments of
Dulong and P&let show that this is n,ot esactly true, and we may here also
resort to a tabl e of factors for correcting the results obtained by silmple
proportion.
: F
-
FACZTORS
-~
Difference
in Temp.
between HOI
BO$fp
OR RED~ 10ti TO Dr JL, 3NGS LAW OF COXVEl
REDUCTION TO D~LONGS LAG OF RADIATION.
1 Temperature of the Air on the Fahrenheit Scale.
F.kcrons FOR
Differences in Tem-
perature betweeo
Radiating Body
and the Air.
Deg. IFSahrq
:4
Factor.
0.94
I.11
I::;
I:::
1%
1.58
ieo F.
36O
540
Difference
in Temp.
etween Ho,d
Bo&and
Factor.
Difference
in Temp.
etween Ho
By&and
Fsctor.
-
-
*
_-
180 F.
198O
216'=
234'
252O
;;:
306:
324O
!:Z
1.68
1.72
1::;
E
1.85
3,:L" F.
3%'
370Q
396O
4140
432'=
4500
4680
. . . . . . . . . .
t 1
--
. .
- I_
Exnxp~n IN THE USE OF THE TABLES. - Required the total loss of heat
by both radiation and convection, per foot of iength of a steam-pipe 211/s
in. external diameter, steam pressure 60 Ibs.. temperature of the air in the
zi
108
1::
144
162
E
216
%
270
288
306
2;
360
378
396
414
432
room 6S Fahr.
Temperate? corresponding to 60 Ibs. equals 307; temperature dif-
ference = 30; - 6S = 239.
Area of one foot length of steam-pipe = 211/32 X 3.1416 i 12 = 5
0.614 sq. ft.
Heat radiated ner hour per square foot per degree of difference, from
table. 0.64.
Radiation loss er hour by Newtons law = 239 X 0.614 ft. X 0.64 =
93.9 heat units. !i -- ame reduced to conform with Dulongs law of radiation:
factor from t, abl e for temoersture difference of 239 and temperature of The loss of heat by convection appears to be independent of the nature
of the surface. that is, it is the same for iron. stone, wood. and other
materials. It is different for bodies of different shkpe, however. and it
varies with the position of the body. Thus a vertical steam-pipe nili not
lose so much heat by convection as a horizontai one will: for the air
heated at the lower par t of the vertical pipe will r!se along.the surface cf
the pipe, protecting it to some extent from the chilling action of the sur-
rounding cooler air. For a similar reason the shape of a body has an
important influence on the result, those bodies losing most heat whose
forms are such as to allow the c 001 air free access to every part of their
surface. The following table from Box gives the number of heat units
that horizontal cylinders or pipes lose by convection per s are foot of
fference in temperature B etween the surface per hour,. for one degree di
pipe and the air.
..~__. __-.._ ._~.~ ;~~
ai r 68 = 1. 93. 93. 9 X 1193 = 131.2 hea,t units, total loss bj radiation.
Convection loss per square foot per hour from a 211/m-inch pipe. by
interpolation from tabl e, 2 = 0. 728, 3 ==0. 626, . 2%2 = 0. 6Q3.
Area, 0.614 X 0.693 X 239 = 101.7 b,eat umts. Same reduced to
conform with Duiongs law of convection: 101.7 X 1.73 (from table) =
175.9 heat units per hour. Total loss by radiation and convection =
181.2 + 175.9 = 357.1 heat uni ts per hour. Loss per degree of difference
of kmnerature ner linear foot of pipe per hour = 357.1 -:- 239 = 1.494
It is not claimed says The &xomotive. that the results obtained by this
method of calculation are strictly accurate. The experimental data are
not sufficient to allow us to compute the heat-loss from steam-pipes with
any great degree of refinement: yet it is helieved that the results obtained
as indicated above will be sufficiently near the truth for most purposes.
An experiment by Prof. Ordway, in a nipe 21i/3? in. diam. under the above
conditions (Trans. A S M. E., v. 73): showed a condensation of steam of
181 grams per hour which .is equivalent to a loss of heat of 353.7 heat
units ner hour. or Athin half of one per cent of that given by the above
HE.~T UNITS LOST BY CONVECTION FROM HORIZONTAL PIPES, PER SQUARE
Exbernal
Diameter
of Pipe
i n Inches.
FOOT OF SURFACE PER HOUR, FOR A TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE OF lo FAHR
-
External
Heat
External
D;;y;tEr
Units
Diamet.er
g
of Pi
in Inc es.
Lost.
in In: E
e
es.
Heat
Units
Lost.
. .
0. 455
0, 447
i : ; :
. . . . . . .
calculition
The quantity of heat given off by steam and hot-water-radiators in
ordinarv practice of heating buildings bv direct radiation vanes f rpm 1. 25
to about 3.25 heat units per hour per square foot per degree of difference
of temperature. (See Heating and Ventilation.)
Thermodynamics, t,he science of heat considered as a form of energy.
is useful in advanced studies of the theory of skam. gas. and air endnes,
refrigerating machines. compressed air. etc. The method of t.reatment
adopted by the standard writers is severely mathqmatical, InVolpng
constant applicat,ion of the calculus
The student wrll find the subIect
:
? material may nolonger.be accurate
. __- _- . _- . _- - - ~ . ~- ~ _- . - . . , .
WARNING: ~This is a 1910 edition.
Some of t
572 . HEAT.
thorou hly treated in the works by Rontgen (Duboiss translation), Wood,
Peaboc Y, and Zeuner. f
First Law of ~he?.?orlynalnics. -- Heat and mechanical energy are
mutually convertible m the ratio of about 778 foot-pouncls for the Brit.ish
thermal unit. (Wood.)
Second Law of Qmrmodgnnmics. - The second law has bY different
writers been stated m a variety of ways, and apparently with ideas so
diverse ;j.s uot to cover a common principl?.
It is: impossi!,le for a self-acting machme.
(Wood, Therm., p. BY.)
agency, to convert heat from oue
unaided by an;- estertltll
(Clausius.)
oody to another at a higher temperature.
If all the heat absorbed be at one temperature, and that rejected he at
one lower trtnperatrtre, theu will the heat which 1s transmuted int,o work
be to the e:ltire Ilest absorbed in the same ratio as the difference between
the absolute temperature of the source and refrigerator is to the absolute
temperature of the source. In other words, the second law is an espression
for the efficiency of the erfect elementary engine.
The egpression &k.!& = T1 - I?
(Wood.)
1
Ql TL
may be called the symbolical or
algebraic enunciation of the second law, -the law which limits the
efficiency of heat engines, and which does not depend on the r.ature of the
workiug medium employed. (Trowbridge.) &I and Tt = quantity and
absolute temperature of the heat received; Q? and TZ = quantity and
absolute temperature of the heat rejected.
TI - Tr
The expression T, represents the efficiency of a perfect heat
engine which receives all its heat at the absolute temperature T,, and
rejects heat at the temperature Tz. converting into work the difference
between the quanbit.y received and rejected.
E~nmt.s. - What is the eficiency of a
recelVes heat at 3% F. (the bemperature o
Perfect heat engine which
steam of 206 Ibs. gauge
pressure) and rejects heat at 100 F. (temperature of a condenser, pressure
1 lb. above Vacuum)?
355 + 459. - (100 + 459.2)
388 + 459.2
= 34%. nearly.
In the ac;~nl engine this rfliriency can never be attained, for the difference
between the quant.iJy of heat received into the cYlin~lrr and that rejected
1nt.o t~l!e condenser 1s not ali converted into work, much of it being lost by
radiatlou, leakage. etc. 111 the steam engine the phenomenon of cylinder
comlensation also trnds to reduce t.he etfic:ienrv
The Carnot Cycle.--Let one pound of gas of a pressure p,, volume u,
and albsolute temperature TI he euclosed iu an ideal cylinder, haviug non-
I
P
conducting walls but the bottom a perfect con-
A
ductor. and having a moving non-conducting
. frictiooless Piston. I,et the oressure n.nd vn1111np
of t.he gas tie represented 1);~ tllepoint-;lonii;e
pv or Pressure-volume dist;ram, Fig. 136. nnd
let it pass through four operations, as follows:
1. ApplY heat at a tern
bottom of the cylinder an R
erature of TI to the
let the gas expand
doing work aezunst the piston at the constant
tempe:ature TI, or isothermall;. to T)+?),. or B.
. _._. ~~
FIQ. 1.76.
2. KemoVe the source of heatand
. . COndUCtinK cover on the hntt.nm nnrl
. . . . _.._ 1.. -..., - . . . .
FxPano adlabatiCallY. or without tr&misslon of heat, to p3v3, v1 u, ll,,:,r
Its temperature is beinK reduced tn T.,
3. APPiY to the bottom of the cylinder a cold body or refriverator of
the temperaturg Tz. and let the gas be compressed by the pist& isotlier-
mallY to the Point D. or ~4tja. rejecting heat into the cold body
4. Remove the cold body. restore the non-conducting bottom and
Compress the gas adiabatically to A. or the original
ture is being raised to the orleinal TI. The poin
r
*z)l while its tem$era-
Don the isothermal
line CD is chosen so that an adijbatic line passing through it will also pass
through tl. and so that v~/v, = ~ti/m.
The area aABCc represents the work done by the gas on the piston;.
~__ . - . - , . . . _- . . - - . ~~ ~~ . - . _- __ _- . _, _. . , .
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of 1
THERMQDYNAMICS. 573
the area CDAac the negative work, or the work done by the piston on the
gas; the difference. ABCD. is the net work.
la. The area a.Mh represent~s the work done during isothermal espan-
siou. Lt is equal in foot-pounds to &I = plvl logp (212/u,), where pl = the
initial absolute pressure in lbs. per sq. ft. and 2)*= the initial volume in
cubic fret. It is also equal to t,he quantity of heat supplied to the gas.=
UI = HTI log, (.til/?~~). 12 is a constant for a given gas, = 53.35 for air.
2a. The area bBCc is the work done during adiabatic expansion, = Jt?
y being the ratio of Uhe specific heat at constant
pressltre to the specific heat at constant volume. For air y = 1.406.
The loss of intrinsic energy = Kv(T1 - Tz) ft..-lbs. K,= spvcitir heat
at constant volume X 775.
3a. CDdc is the work of isothermal compression. = rvS = pm log,
(m/v,) = heat rejected = UZ = RZZ log, (vs/vd).
4a. IMad is the work of adiabatic compression
which is the same as v2 and therefore, being negative, chancels it, and the
net work ABCD= IV! - W3. The gain of intrinsic energy is K, (T, - T?).
Comparing la and 3a, we have plm = p?m; p3m = prvr: m/m = m/m =r.
WI = pm, logg r = RTI log, r; 1Vs = pcvr log, T = RZz log, T.
Entro Y.-In the pz or press~lre-volume diagram. energy exerted-or
expende 8. 1s represented hy an area the lines of which show the changes
of the values of p and 2r. In the Carnot cYcle these changes are shown
bY curved lines. If a given quantity of heat Q is added to a substance
at a constant
needed. viz.: Entropy is length on a diagram the area of which represents
a quantity of heat, and the height at ang point reyesen,ts absolute tempera-
ture. The value of the increase of entropy 1s given m the language of
calculus. E = m, which may be interpreted thus: increase of entropy
b
-_.
.e
,J T2 J.
between the temueratures !7: and heouals tha arlmmatifin of all the
-&&I% arisingby dividing each small
R
8
uat%tyor^iii< aided by
t e absolute temperature at which it is a ded.
It is evident that If
the several small quantities of heat added are equal, while the values of
T constantly increase, the quotients are not equal, but are ,constantly
decreasing. The diagram, called the temperature-entropy diagram, or
the 0+, theta-phi, diagram, is one in which the abscissas. or horizontal
distances. reDresent entropy, znd Vertical distances absolute t.emperatuJe.
The ho&on&l distances~ are measured fro
Im an arbit.rary vertical lme
representinpentropy at 3Z0 F.. and values of entropy are &en as Values
beyond that point, while the temperatures are measured above $l&oFsE
Horizontal lines are icothermals. vertical lines achabatlcs.
!I%&, of entropy in thermodynamic studies is due to the fact that in
manvcases it slm<llfies calculations apd makes it possible to use alge-
br& or gr&phical jnetbods instead Qf
the more di@icult methods of the
.
calculus.
material may no longer.be accurate
574
HEAT.
The Carnot Cycle in the Temperature-Entropy iHa. ram. - i.k B
pound of gas having a temperature Ti and entropy E be su Jetted to the %.
four onerations described above. (1) TI bemg
T
I
constafit, heat (area aABe, Fig. 137) is.added and
the entropy increases from A to B: isothermal
exuansion. (2) No heat is transferred. as heat,
A T B bait the tem$%Aure is reduced from -TI to T2:
entropy constant; adiabatic expansion. (3) Heat
is rejected at the constant temperature T?, tne
area CcuD being subtracted: entropy decreases
from C to D: isotherma! comnression. (4) En-
tropy constant. temperature iricreases from D to
A. or from T? to TI; no heat trancferred as heat:
adiabatic compres%on. The area aX3; itipre-
sents the total heat added durin.g the cycle, the
area cCDa the heat rejected: the difference, or the
the heat utilized or con\\prted into
lir. nf ,hio O.-P* +n *!?a ,nhn,#3 n.rwl
[ o l a
FIG. 137.
area ABCD. is
work. The rxUIU . yLllD yLIIu Y I._ . . ...- --_I
aABc is the efficiency: it is the, same as the rat.io (Tl- Tz) + TI. It
appears from ihis diagram that the efficiency may be increased by in-
creasing T, or by decreasing Tz; a!so that since 72 cannot be !owered by
anv self-acting engine below the temperature of the surroun$lmg atmos-
phkre. say 460+ 62 F.= 522O F.. it is not possible even m a perfect
entine t.o obtain an efficiency of 50 per cent unless the temperature of
th& source of heat is above 1000 F. It is shown also by this diagram
ghest possible efficiency of a heat engI?e
working between any $ven temperatures h and T?. and th?t the a+ms-
sion and rejection of heat each at a constant temperature @ves a lugher
In or rejection at any variable temperatures
that the Carnot cvcle zives the hi
efficienev than the admissio
within the range TI - T?.
The Beversed Carnot Cycle--Refrigeration.-Let a pound Of Cool
gas whose temperature and entropy are represented by the state-
point D on the diagram (1) receive heat at a constant temperature Tz
(the temperature of a refrigerating room) until its entrppy 1s C: (2) then
let it be compressed adiabatically (no heat transmlsaon. CB) to a high
temperature T,; (3) then let it reject heat into the atmosphere at t!!ls
temperature TI (isothermal compression): (4) then let it expand atha-
batically. doing work. as through a throttled expansion cock, or by
ushing a piston, it will then cool to a temperature Much may be far
E. elow that of the atmosphere and be used to absorb heat from the
atmosphere. (See Refrigeration.)
Principal Equations of a Perfect Gas.-Nota,tion: P = pressure in
\yi #-er s:. ft. V = volume in cu. ft. PoVO. pressure and volume at
T absolute temoerature = t F. + 459.4. C,. specific heat at
constant pressure. C,. specific heat at constant volamz. Kp=Cp X 778;
K, = C, X 778; specific heats taken in foot-pounds of energy. R, a
constant, = K, - K,,. y = C,/C,,. T = r$io of isothermal expansion
or compressioG = P?iP, or VJrV2.
1
For air: C, = 0.2375; Cc. = 0.1689; K, = 184.8; K, = 131.4;
R = 53.35; y =c1.406.
Bol~les Law, PV = constant when T is constant. PIV~ = PzVP.
For 1 lb. air PoVa = 2116.2 X 12.387 = 26,224 ft.-lbs.
Charless Law, PIVI/TI = PzVZ/TZ: PIVI = PoVs X T!/To: TO = 32
+ 459.4 = 491.4: PIV, for air = 26,224 i 491.4 = 53.35.
General Equation. PV = RT. R is a coustant which is different for
diCerent gases.
Internal or In.trinsic Energy K, (TI - To) = R (TI- ToI i (Y - 1)
=P,V1 f (y -
lute zero. For
1) = amount of heat in a body, measured above abso-
air at 32O F., K,, (TI - To) = 131.4 X 491.4 = 64,570
ft.-lbs. When air is expanded orcompressed isothermally, PV = con-
stant. and the internal energy remains constant, the work done in expan-
sign = the heat added, and the work done in compression = the heat
_reJeccea. -~~- . . . ,__ .._ .,__ ~._~,.
- .-_..-... ~----~~~
' WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. $&ie
i f
THERJ~~DYNAuIcS.
575
T r,,..,. A,,-. ^ L. 1 _1.....~1.
,, VI N UV,GV VII ILU~+ULLK~ Zxpansi on, no transmission of heat, from P, VI to
PZV? = PlVl ;I - (n/v;)y-; + (y - 11, = (Pl VI - P?VZ) + (y - 1)
1 =I+. (u - 1). * = PI Vl 1 - (.P?/Pl) y
Work of Adiabatic Compression from PIVI to PZVZ (PI here being the
higher pressure) = PI VI (( VI/ V?) y- - 1) + (y - 1) = (P2 1: - PI I-,) i y - 1
=P1V1 I(P?/P,)%j 2 (y-l). A
Loss of Intrinsic Energy in adiabatic expansion, or gain in compression
= k,(Tt - Tz), h being the hi&her temperature.
!Vork of Isothermal Expansion, temperature constant, = heat expended
= P~Vlloge Vz/VI= PIVllog,r= RTlogcr.
Work of Isothermal Compression from PI to PZ = PIVI loge Pl/Ps
= RT log, t= hea! discharged.
Relation between Pressure, Volume and Temperature:
Tz = T, ($)y = T I (+j-, PI VIY = P2 vzy.
For air. y = 1,406; Y - 1 = 0.406; l/y = 0.711; l/iv -.l) = 2.463:
y/(y- 1) =3.463; (y - 1)/y = 0.259.
DlOerential Equations of a Perfect Gas. Q = quantity of heat.
entropy.
+ =
dQ-C,dT+ (Cp-C,) ;dV. d+=C,$+ (Cp-CJd+*
dQ = CpdT + (C, - Cp) ; dY.
dT diJ*
d+=CpT+(C,-C&F.
dQ=Cv $dP+Cp~;dV. d+=C, ++Cp$$.
~-~l=c,.!og,~+(cp-c,)log,~~~
Q1-+I=cPlog,~+(c,-cp)log, 2
.#I2 ,T. $I= c, log, 2 + cp loge 2 .
Work of Isothermal Expansion, TV= PI VI .
$
v2 dV
- =P1V1 log
V2
- *
VI
V e Vl
Heat supplied during isothermal expansion,
Q == (Cp - Cv) Tl
s
v2 dV
Vl
F =(C,-C,, 21 log, ;-
Heat added = workdone= ARTI log, VZ/VI== APIVI loge VZ/VI: (-4~
l/778).
Work of adiabatic expansion,
~.
the
.~__ ._.-- ,., .~
may no'
~~{l - ( ; y- ] .
accurate
.vA HEAT.
-. -
Constr~~eti~~~ of theCurve .iFV = C.
(Am. .iiach., j+e 2i. i966;j -
Referring to Fig. 138. on a system of rectangular cocrdmates YGX lag
off OB = pr and BA= VI.
r
.Draw OJ, extended, at
1 anv convenient an& a.
ia; 15~. with OX, and OC
at an angle /J with OY. B
is found from the equa,tion
I I
I, !\Is r
1arallel to YO. Thernter-
section of CE and HE is
the second pointF;tmti;
curve, or p2z~
draw Jrllr at 45c to FIJI
and draw the vertical
J~HIR. Draw DK at 45
:; gp and .KR parallel
R IS the thud
.
poin( bn the curve, and
so on.
Fro. 138.
Conversely. if we have
a curve for which we wish
to derive an exponent, we can, by working backward, locate the lines
OC and OJ, measure the angles a and 8, and solve for n.
The smaller the angle o is taken the more closely the points of the curve
may be located. If a = B the curve is the isothermal curve, pv = con-
stant. If a = 15O and B = 21 39 the curve is the adiabatic for au.
n = 1.41. (See Index Of the Curve of an Air Diarrram. D. 611).
Temoerature-Entroov 1 Diagram of Water and .$&am; ~- The line
OA. Fig. 139,ls the ori&in from wbieh entropy is measured on horizontal
lines, and the lure Ogis the line of zero
temperature, absolute. The diagram
H
represents the changes in the state
of one pound of water due to the
PP Abs. T
addition or subtraction, of heat or to 392,852 ,
4 D
---/I A- E
chauges in temperature. Any point on
the diagram is called a state point.
A is the state of 1 lb. of water at
32 F. or 492 abs.. B the state at
212. and C at ~392 F.. correspond-
ing to about 226 Ibs. absolute Ures-
sure. At 212 F. the area OA&J is
the heat added, and Ob is the increase
of entroov. At 392 F.. bBcCis the
further -addition of heat, and the
entropy, measured from GA, is 02.
The two quantities added are neariy
the same, but the second increase
of entropy is the smaller, since the
mean temperature at which it is
added is hieher. If 0 = the auantitv
of heat added~i and- Tr a& Tz are
respectivelv the lower and t.he
FIG. 139.. .
higher tern-peratures, the additiorr of
entropy,
= 0.3093.
rp, is approximately Q + i/z (Tz+ Tr) = I80 + f/z (672 C 492)
More accurately it is
these expressions it is assumed t=
loge (Tr/Tr) = 0.3119. In both of
t at the specific heat of water=1 at all
temperatures,, which is not strictly true. Accurate values of the entropy
of water, takm into account the variation in specific heat, will be found
In Peabodys team Tables. 8
Let the 1 lb. of water at the state B have heat added to it at the con-
,.,.,. ,.,_.,. .~~~ --~ ~. _ ~,
MARNING: This is a l91c) edition. Some of t
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES.
577
stam temperature of 212 F. until it is evaporated. The quantity bf
heat addedw~ll be the latent heat of evaporation at 212~ (see Steam
Iable) or i, = 969.7~ B.T.U.. and it will be represented on the diagram by
the rectangle bBFf. Dividing by T2 = 672, the absolute temperature,
grves +Z - 41 = 1.443 = BP.
entro
p.
Adding $1 = 0.312 grves +Z = 1.755, the
y of 1 lb. steam at 212 F. measured from water at 37O F.
In rke manner if we ta, ke L = 835 for stearr+ at 852 abs., & - 4, =
0.980 = CE. and 91, = entrcpy of water at 8~2 = 0.55S, the Sum tir=
1.538 = Oe on the dragram.
I? is the state golnt of ,dry saturated steam at 852o abs. and F the
state point at 6i2 . The lure EFG is the line of saturated steam and the
line ABC the water line. The line CE represems the increase of entropy
in the evaporation of water at 852 abs. If entropy CU only is addec:,
or cC!Dtl of heat, then a part of the water ~vlll remain unevaporated
viz.: the fraction DE/CE of 1 lb. The state point D thus represents wet
steam haviug a dryness fraction of CD/DE.
If ,steam having a state point E is expanded adiaha,tically to 672O
abs. its state point is then er. having the same entropy as at 8. a total
heat less by the amount represented by the area RCEe, and a dryness heat less by the s,mi
fraction Be/t fraction Be/BF.
must bt
If it i s expanded while rema,ining mturated. heat
must be a.dded equal to eeFf. and the entropy increases by cf.
If he; If heat IS added to the steam at E., the temperature and the entropy
both increase.~ the line Bti representing the superheating, -and- the--a&a both mcrease.~ the line Bti representrng the superheating, and the area
EII, down to the line~Gg,~is the heat added. EII, down to the line Gg,,is the heat added.
the steam is expend1
If from the state noint tf If from the state oint tf
the.steam is expended adiabatically. the state point follows the me FJ
unthit cuts t
7.
untll,rt cuts the line EFGs. when the steam is dry saturated, and if it
crosses this line the steam becomes .vet.
If the state point followsQ horizontal line to the left. it represents
condensat.ion at a constant temperature, the amount of heat relected
being shown by the area under the horizontal line. If heat is rejected
at a decreasing temperature, corres onding with the decreasing pressure
at release m a steam engine, or con B ensatron in a cylinder at a decreasing
pressure, the state point follows a curved line to the left, as shown in
the dotted curvtd line on the diagram.
In practical calculations with the entropy-temperature diagram it is
necessary to have at hand tables or cnarts of entropy, total heat, etc..
such as are grven in Peabodys Steam Tables. Rippers Steam Engine,
and other works. The diagram is of especial service in the study of
steam turbines, and an excellent chart for this purpose will be found in
Moyers Steam Turbine. It gives for all pressures of steam from 0.5
to 300 lbs. absolute, and for different degrees of dryness up to 3CO of
superheating, the total heat contents, in B.T.U. per pound, the entropy,
and the velocity of steam through nozzles.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES.
(Additiona! matter onthis subJect will be found under Heat, Air, clas
and Steam.)
When a mass of gas is inclosed in a vessel it exerts a pressure against. the
walls. This pressure is uniform on every square inch of the surface of the
vessel; also, at any point in tire fluid mass the pressure is the same in every
direction
In smal1 vessels containing gases the increase of pressure due to weight
may be neglected, since all gases are very light; but where liquids a,re
concerned, the increase in pressures due to their weight must always be
taken into account.
Expansion of Gases, 3Ta~rlottes Law, - The volume of a gasdimin-
ishes in the same ratio as the nressure unon it is increased. if the tem-
perature is unchanged,
This lam is by experrment found tobe very nearly true for aI1 gases, and
is known as Boyles or Mariottes law.
If p = pressure at a volume V, and pi = pressure at a VOiUme]Vr, prur *
Pv; PI = ?L p. pv = a constant
e ___. 3.
..,;
,.,___. ~-.- ..-- ._ 1 .~ ,__--,.., I.L-,_~-=aw..II _._
? nEiteria1 may nolonger.be accurate
578
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES.
The constant, C, varies with the temperature, everything else remaining
the same.
%ir corn ressed by a pressure of seventy-five atmospheres,has a volume
abbut 2y0 ess than that computed from Boyles law, but this IS the greatest P
divergence bhst is found below 160 atmospheres pressure.
Law of Cha~rles. -- The volume of a perfect pas at a constant pressure
is proportional to its absolut~e temperature.
If v0 be the volume of a gas
at 32 F., and ?JI the volume at any other temperature, TV. then
211 = 90
(
tL+ 459.2
491.2
), vi= (1+$$)v3,
or VI = [l + 0.002036 ([I - 32?1 IJo.
if the pressure also change from PO to PI,
The Densities of the elementary gases are simply proportional to their
atomic weights. The density of a compound gas, Keferred !o hydl;ope,n
as 1, is one-half its molecular weight; thus the relative density of CO, 1s
/: (12 + 32) = 22.
Avo.gadros Law. - Equal volumes of all gases. under the same con-
ditionsof temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molec$es.
To find the weight of a gas in pounds per cubicfoot at 32 F.. multiply
half the molecular weight of the gas by 0.00559.
Thus-1 cu. ft. marsh-
gas, CH.1,
5 l/z (12 + 4) x 0. 00359 = 0. 0447 l b.
When a certain volume of hydrogen combines with one-half its VoiUme Of
oxygen there is produced an amount of water vapor which ~11 OCCUPY the
same volume as that. which was occupied by the hydrogen gas when at the
szxne temnerature and pressure.
Satura,tion Point of Vapors.. - -4 vapor Lbat is not near
the satum-
tion point behaves like a gas under changes o: temperature and pressure:
hrl t, if it is sufficientlv compressed or cooled, it reaches a pomt where It
: as a gas. but
sn-
begins to condense: it then no longer obeys the sari!!! laws
its pressure cannot be increased by diminishing the size of the vessel co
taining;t, but remains constant, except when the temperature IS changed.
The only gas that can prevent a liquid evaporating seems to be Its own
vapor.
Daltons Law of Gaseous Pressures. - Every portion of Z mass of
gas inclosed in a vessel contributes to the pressure against the sides of the
vessel the same amount that it would have esert,ed by itself had no other
I%iutures of Vapors and Gases. - The pressure exerted apain$ the
interior of a vessel by a @ven quantity of a perfect gas inclpsed m it 1s the
sum of the pressures which any number of parts into whlce such qr!an-
tit,y might be divided would exert separately, if each were mclosed In .a
wise1 of the same bulk alone, at the same temperature. Although tlus
Inw is not. exact~ly true for any actual gas, it is very nearly true for many.
Thus if 0.050728 lb. of air at 32 F.. being inclosed in a vessel of one cubic
foot capacity;. exerts a pressure of one atmosphere, or 14.7 pgunds. on each
square in.ch of the interior of the vessel, zhen will each addItIona 0.050728
lb. of air which is inclosed, at 3, vO, in the same vessel, produce very nearly
an additional atmosphere of pressure.
mixtures of eases of dlfferent kitids.
The same la~m is applicable to
For exi amole. 0.12344 lb. of carbonic-
gas been present.
i
PHYSICAL PROPERTIZS OF GASES. .
579
.
of air, at 212. be inclosed in a vessel of one cubic foot; it will exert a
pressure of
x2+ 459.2
32i- 459.2 ,
- = 1.366 atmospheres. .
?t 0.03797 lb. of steam, at 2120. be inclosed in a vessel of one cuhir
i, . ..ill ^__^... .- -~~
spheres. It is a common but erroneous prxtice, in elementary
-- yhysics, to describe t&s law as constituting a difference beti veen
mixed and homogeneous gases: ivhereas it is obvious that for mixed and
homogeneous gases the law of pressure is exactly the same viz. that the
pressure of the whole of a gaseous mass is the sum of the iress&es of ai1
its parts. This IS one of the laws of mixture of gases and vapors.
A second law is that the presence of a foreign gaseous substance in con-
tact Rlth tile Surface 0f.a solid or liquid does not affect the density of the
vapor: of that sold or liquid unless there is a tendency to chemical corn
binatlqn betwee! the two substances, in which case the density of the
~$0 I_s_shghtly- increased. (Rankine, S. E., D. 239.)
11 U.?Sl lb. of air,=1 CU. ft. at 212 and atmosphkric pressure is con-
tained in a vessel of 1 cu. ft. capacity, and water at 212O is.intioduced
heat at 212O being furrushed by a steam jacket, the pressure wilt rise td
two atmospheres.
If air is present in a condenser along with wate; vapor the pressure is
t+t due to the temperature of the vapor plus that due tothe quantity of
air present.
Flow of Gases. - By the principle of the conservation ofknergy it
may bc shown that the velocity with which a gas under pressure &ill
escape into a vacuum is inversely proportional to ..
densitv: tha.+ is.
^___. --- ~~~I. . tile square root of its
b I>. u.Vi;W ~vUlCU,IS Sixteen times as heavy as hydrogen
would, under exactly the same circumstances, escape through an openin;
only one fourth as fast as the lztter gas.
Absorption of G?se~ by Liquids. - Many gases are readily absol?ed
by wat,er.
degree.
Other, II
Water will. 9
mds also possess this power in a Dreater or iess
or esa.mple, absorb its own volume 00 carbonic-acid
gas. 430 times Its VOiUme of ammonia, 21/3 times its volume of chlorine,
and only about Vzo of its volume of oxygen.
The weight of gas that is absorb-- h
portional to 4he pressure.
cU -y a given volume of liquid is pro-
But as the vol ume of a mass of gas is less as
tile pressure 1s greater, the volume which a given amount of liquid can
absorb at a certain temperature will be constant, whatever the pressure.
Water, for. example. can absorb its own volume of carbonic-acid gas at
?tmo>pherlc pressure: it will also dissolve its own volume if the pressure
1s twice as great, but in that case ;he gas will
sequently twice the weight, of gas is djssolved.
be twice as dense, and con-
The following table &es some phvsical constants of the principal Eases
that have been liquefied. The critical temperature i s that at whicti the
rties of a liquid and its vapor are indistinguishable, and above which
ot be liquefied by corn
the vapor at, the critica P
ression. The critical pressure is
temperature.
2 material mgy no'longer.be accurate
580
AIR.
581
foot is W = I$$:,,,
where B = height of the barometer, T= tem-
perature Fahr.. ani 1.3253 = weight in Ibs. of 459.2 cu. ft. of air at IY F
and one inch barometric pressure.
Air expands l/491.2 of its volume ai
32 F. for every increase of I F.. and its #volume varies inversely as the
pressure.
The Air-manometer consists of a lorig. vertical @ass tube, closed at
the upper end, open at the louver end. cont,nini?g air. provided with a
scale, and irnmersc~d. along \vith a thermometer. 111 a tyansparent !iquicl.
such as water or oil, contained in a strong cylinder of glass, which com-
municates with the vessel in which the pressure is to be ascertained.
scale shows the volume occunied bv the air in the t! l be.
The
-
--
.
.
:riti-
cdl
>res-
we in
,tmo-
,heres
Density of
Liquid :Lt
Tet;T\ernture

I
I i
I I
A
CO
N?
Hz
Let Q be that volume, at ihe te&perature of 32 Fahrenheit and mean
pressure of the atmosphere, ~0: let zu be the volume of the air kt the tern-- L.
perature t, and under the absolute pressure to be measured pl; then
689
266
9R. f
88
50
- 115. 2
- 182
- 185. '
- 219. 1
- 220
- 231
- 389
200
115
75
51. 7
54. 9
50. 8
50. 6
35. 5
39
35
20
212 ' 32 I at 39OF.
- 27 - I 07 0. 6364st3" F.
- 121 - 113. 8 . . . . . _. . . . _. . . . .
- 1122 - 69 0. 83at32O F.
- 150 - 272 . . . . . . . . . _. . . . .
- 263. 4 - 302. 4 ( a, $$: F.
t
- 294. 5 . . __. . . . {, , ~~; ~~, , 1
- 304. 6 - 309. 3
- 310 - 340. 6 . . . . ~. . . . . . . . . . . .
- 312. 6 . {3t: j j ; ) : ? F, l
- 318 -353.2 (at~j;;c?F ]
-405
I
I.., . . . . . . . . . . .
water. . .
Ammonia..
Acetylene. . . .
Carbon Dioxide..
Ethylene . . .
Methane. . . . .
Oxygen.
Argon.. . . . .
Carbon Monoside
Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nitrogen.. .
Hydrogen.
p= (t + 459.20) povo<
49~1.20 21,
Pressure of the Atmosphere at Different Altitudes.
At the sea level the pressure of the air is 14.7 pounds per square inch: at
l/4 of. a mile above the sea level it is 11.02 pounds; at l/z mile. 13.33; at
3/4 mile,. 12.66: at 1 mi~le, 12.02; at I l/4 mile, 11.42; at 1 I/:! mile.~lO.S8; and
at 2 miles, 9.80 pounds per square inch. For a rough approslmation we
may assume that the pressure decreases l/z pound per square inch for
every 1000 feet of ascent.
_ .
It is calculated that at a height of about 31/z miles above the sea level
the weight. of a cubic foot of air is only one-half what it i s at the surface of
the earth, at seven miles only one-fourth, at fourteen miles onlv one-
sixteenth, at twenty-one miles only one sixty-fourth. and at a hecght df
over forty-live miles it becomes so attenuated as to have no appreciable
weight.
The pressure of the atmosphere increases with the depth of shaft,s, equal
to about one ii;& rise in the barometer for each 900 feet increase in depth:
this may be taken as a rough-and-ready rule for ascertaining the depth of
shafts.
Pressure of the Athosphere per Square Inch and per Square Foot
at Various Readings of t.heB&mneter.
RULE. - Barometer in inches X 0.4908 = pressures per square inch:
pressure per sq!lare inch X 144 = pressure per sq:iare foot.
AIR.
Properties of Air. - Air is a mechanical mixture of the gases oxygen
and nitrogen., with about 17 by v&lime of argon. Atmospheric air of
ordinary punty contains about 0.04% of carbon dioxide. The com-
position ol air is variously given as follows:
I
By Volume.
I
By Weight.
0 / Ar 1 N 1 0 1 Ar .--
Pressure Pressure
per Sq. In. per Sq. Ft.
I
Barometer.
Pressure
per yir. In
Press!We IBarometer
per Sq. Ft.,
I
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : I : ; : ' 09
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : E"
23.7 . 77 . . . . . . . . .
20. 91 . . . o: sj j . . 76. 85
20. 941
Z"
E. 15 . . i : i j ; . . .
21. 0. 94 E: P' 1 I . 3
__
-
a Ibs.
I::;:
13.18
14. 11
14. 23
14. 35
14. 47
I%: 29. 75 II?.
1995 30. 00
2013
2031
' 2049
* pJ
2% 31. 00
(1) Values formerly given in works on physics. (2) Average results
of several determinations, Hempels Gas Analysis. ( 3) Sir Wm. Ramsay,
Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 330:
Jour. F. I.. Jan., 1898.
(4) A. Leduc. Comptes Rendus, 1896.
Leduc paves for the density of oxygen relatively
to air 1.10523; for nitrogen 0.9671: for argon, 1.376.
The weight of pure air at 32 F. and a barometric
P
ressure of 29.92
inches of mercury, or 14.6963 Ibs. per sq. in.. or 2116.3 bs. per sq. ft.. .is
P.080728 lb. per cubic foot. Volume of I lb. = 12.387 cu. ft. At any
other temperature and barometric pressure its weight in Ibs. per cubi c'
* Decitiats omitted.
For lower pressures see tabl e of the Properties of Steam.
,~~sr,--.-.-...~.,~~l~~-.~--,
2 material may nolonger,be accurate
dWARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
S~~-~6r .i
582 AIR.
Barometric Readings corresponding with Different
Altitudes, in French and English Measures.
-
Alt.i-
I
tilde.
Ei
- --
-
iltitude
Lltitude.
I
Re2ng
Barom- :
Al t~i-
Re$ing
tude. Barom-
eter. eter.
meters
0
1;:
234
342
453
564
670
793
909
1027
mm.
762
760
E
730
720
710
700
690
680
670
feed..
68. 9
416. 7
767. 7
1122. 1
1486. 2
1850. 4
2224. 5
2599. 7
2962. I
3369. 5
./I
-
inches.
30.
29. 92
29. 52
29. 13
28. 74
28. 35
:::;:
E
26. 38
neters 1147 %?
1269 650
1393 640
1519 1647 %
1777 610
1909 600
2043 590
2180 580
2318 570
2460 560
i
-
-
feet.
3763. 2
4163. 3
4568. 3
4983. 1
5403. 2
5830. 2
6243.
6702. 9
E::
8071.
I
AIR.
553
-
--
-
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
21. 71
22. 17
22. 64
23. 11
ZZ
24. 58
25. 08
E
26. t4
27. 18
-I___
8. 4- l
7, 932
7, 381
6, 843
6, 304
5, 764
5, 225
4, 697
4, 169
3, 642
3, 115
2, 589
208
!Ej
209. 5
210
210. 5
211
211. 5
212
212. 5
213
--
/
16. 79 ! 15271
17. 16 14' 649
17. 54 14' 075
17. 93 13' 498
18. 32 12' 934
18. 72 12' 367
19. 13 11' 799
19. 54 11' 243
19. 96
20. 39
I O: 685
% I ; ; ; ;
9: 031
l 84O
I 89
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
27. 73 2. 063
28. 00
28. 29
1, 809
28. 56
1, 539
28. 85
1, 290
29. 15
1. 025
754
4
29. 42
29. 71
512
255
;;:a$ S.L.- 0
- 26 I
30. 59 - 511
. ..__.. I_.
CORRECTIONS FOR TEXPERATURE.
Boiling Poinr of water.-ITemperature in degrees F.. barometer in
in. of mercury.
Mean temp. F.inshade. 0 I O" 203 30 40 Multiply by . 933 / . 954 j . 973 - 1
.996
j
I . 016
1 50' 1
1. 036 1. 058
60' 1 iO ) 80 1 90 / lOO=
1. 07Q, 1. 10&! . 121' 1 , 142
.,
~~oisturo, in the Atmosphere. - Atmo,qpheric air almays contains a
small Wmtlty of carbonic acid (see Ventilation). and a varving huantity
9f ditv nf th86ir.,t nnrr *is-n aqueous vapor or moisture. The relative humi L-.J vI >.I Y.. ,Y LL,,J~ L~llllC
Is the percentage of moisiure contained in it as compared with the amount
It is capable of holding at the same temperature.
The degree of saturation or rela:.ve humidity of the air is determined
by the use of the dry and wet bulb thermometer
The degree of satura-
tion fqr a number of chfferent readings of the th&mometer is given in the
followmg table, condensed
Weather Bureau:
from the Hygrometric Tables of the U. S.
1i1.1 .O i .I 1 .2 j .3 / .4 / .5 ) .6 ) .7 / .8 ) .9 .
I
_:---
28 I 29
/
208. 7 /
1 l-l-- I
208. 9 209. 11
1
209. 2 209. 4 209. 5 209. 7 2i0.5 210.6 210.9 211. 1 211: 3
30 212 I 212 3
210.8 j
212 4 212 6 212 8 212 9
2l l : 4
213 I
/ ! ! ! ; ; ; ! ; ; / ; ; ": ! i
Levelin* ho the Barometer and by Boiling Water.
(Trautwine.)
-
Manv cTrc,imstances combine to render the results of this kind of
lrrelinti~ unreliable Ivhere great accuracy is required. It is difficult to
Difference between the Dry and Wet Thermometers. Dee. F. read off from an aneroid ythe kind of ~baromeier usually emplogpd for
encgneerinr purposes) to within from ttvo to five or six feet, dependq on
its size. The moisture or dryness of the air affects the results; also wmds.
the vicinity of mount.ains. and the daily atmospheric tides, ivhlch cause
incessant and irregular fluctuations i,n the barometer.
R barometer
hanging quietly ina room lvill often varl 7 l / 4 of an inch cvit,hin a few
hours. correspondine to a difference of elevation of nearly 100 feet. NO
formula can possibly be devised that shall embrace these sources of
error.
To Find the Difference in Altitude of Two Places. - Take from the
table the altitudes 0pposit.e t.o the two boiling temperatures, or tq the two
barometer readings. Subtract the one opposite the lower reachng from
that opposite the upper reading. The remainder will be the required
height. as a rough approximat,ion. To correct this, add together the
t\vo thermometer readinKs. and divide the sum by 2. for their mean.
From table of corrections for temperature, take out the number under
this mean.
number.
Multiply the approximst~e height just foun.d by this
At ino F rare u:a.t~r xvill hoi1 at lo less of temnerature for an averape of
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I I 12. 13 I 4 I 5 I 6 I 7 I 8 1912021! 22, 23 2426; 2: ; O
11/ / / 11l l ~/ / / l l 1! 1/ 1i ~~. ~l i ~l
Relative Humidity, Saturation being 100. (Parameter = 30 ins.)
~97969594939302011 2
I I
) 2 83 75 68 60 52 45 37 29a23 I 5 7 0
~38780146761554943~3832272116l l 5 0
~48983787368635853484339343026~2117t3 9. 5/ 1
?590868177726864595551484440361332925221911512 9 6
&191 87 83 79 75
___ ..____ ~~... _~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~~
about 550 fc,. i of elevation above sea level. up to a height of I/? a mile.
At the heizht of 1 mile. lo of boilinp temnerature will correspond iu about
560 feet of elevation. In the table the inean of the temperatures at the
two stations is assumed to be 3 2 F., at which no correction for temperature
iS necessary in using the table.
nl oi ! ; tvre in .4ir at Different Pressures and Temperatures. (II. M.
hevost Murphy, Enq. News, June I@ 1908.) - 1. The maximum amount
of moisture that pure air can con&in depends only on its temperature
:..
and pressure, and has an unvarying value for each condition.
-..
.-- -.e-.-~~~-~~~~m. ~_yLuyILI_e---.
! material may nolonger,be accurate
584
AIR.
2. The higher the temoerature of the air. the greater is the amount
of moisture tha It it&n edntain.
I
3. The high{ ?r the pressure of the air, the smaller is the amount of
moisture that it can contain.
I
I
* Who a.ir i. . . ..___ -__ is comnressed. the rise of temperature due to the co?-
pression in all cases found in practice, far more than offsets the opposite
.=.ffert, nfthe rise of nressure on the moisture-carrying capacity of the air. I
@~&r~is-de@&ed, t,hercfore. by compressed air a> it-passes frbm the corn--
prossor to the variolts portions of Dhe system.
SIII-WN? that a certain amount of atmosaheric air enters a comuressor
a&hat~ii &%ains all the moisture possiblk at the existing outside tem-
oerature and oressure. As this air is compressed its moisture-carrying
capacity rapidly increase!, conse
the air and passes with It into t B
uentlr all the moisture is retained by
e mam or @age reservoir.
Now If
t.?is air is permitted to pass from the reservoir mto the various
vs Of
the system before being cooled to the outside temperature, it w1 ! carry
more moisture than it is capable of holding when the temperature
finally drops to the normal point, and this excess quantity will be de-
nosited. hecause. the nressure beinrt hizh. the air cannot hold as much
&&~~%&itdid at tlie same tempeiatureand only atmospheric pressure. ~
In order to reduce the moisture to a minimum, it is desirahle t,o cool
the air to the outside temoerature before it leaves the reservoir. thereby I
causing it to deposit all of its excess moisture, which may be easily removed
by drain cocks.
Although compressed air may be properly dried before leaving t,he
main reservoirs, some moisture may be temporarily deposited when the
air is subsequently expanded to lower pressures, as its moisture-carry-
ing capacity is usually affected more b the drop in temperature, result-
ing from the expansion, than by the J rop m pressure, but when the air *
again attains the outside temperature, the moisture thus deposited will
he re-absorbe,d if it is freelv exnosed to the comnressed air.
In order to determine what percentage of mo&ure pure air can contain
at various pressures and tern eratures, to ascertain how low the rela-
R tive humidity of the atmosp ere must be in order that no water will be
deposited in any part of a compressed-air system and also to find to what
temperature air drawn from a saturated at ,osphere must be cooled in
order to cause the deoosition of moisture to commence. the folIowinE
formulaz and tables are used, based on Daltons I&w of gaskous pressures;
which may be stated as follows:
The total pressure exerted against the interior of a vessel by a given
qrmntity of a mixed gas enclosed in it is the sum of the pressures. which
each of the component gases, or vapors, would exert separately if It were
enclosed alone m a vessel of the same bulk, at the same temperature.
[The derivation of the formulae is given at length in the original paper.]
Formulaa f or the Weight, i n Lbs., of 1 Cu. Ft. of Dry Air, of 1Cu.
Ft. of Saturated Steam or Water Vapor and the Xaximum
of Water Vapor that 1 Lb. of Pure Air Can Carry at Any Plz2:
and TemDer at ur e. (Cooxrlpht. 1908. bv H. M. Prevost Murphy.)
The values K and K deinkgl;en in thk tgble for various temper&urea.
t. in Fahrenheit degrees, the formula are:
Weight of 1 cu. ft.
satul.ied steam = 1.325271 KH.
459. 2f t
II = elastic force or tension of water vapor or saturated steam, in in. of
mercury corresponding to the temperature t (Fahr.) = 2.036 X (gauge pres-
sure + atmospheric pressure, in pounds per square inch).
K = the ra.tio of the weight of a volume of sattirated steam to an equal
volume of pure dry air at the same temperature and pressure,
= 0.6113 + OE.
Values of K and H corresponding to the various temperatures t are
given in the table below. .
Weight of 1 cu. ft. pure dry air =
1.325271 M
=
2.698192 P .
459., + t
M= absolute pressure i n i nch' of me&y.
459.2 + t
P = absolute pressure in pounds per square inch.
AIR. 555
W= maximum weight, in lbs.. of water vapor, that 1 lb. of pure air
can contain. when the temperature of the mixture is t. and the total, or
observed, absolute pressure in pounds per square inch is P.
NOTE. - The,results obtained by the use of any of the above formulae
agree exactly \$h the average data for air and steam weights as given
by the most rehable authorities and careful experiments, for all pressnres
and tempyratures: the value of K being correct for all temperatures up
to the crltlcal steam temperature of 899 F.
VALUES OF K AND IT CORRESPONDI NG TO TEMPERATURES t BOOM
' - 30' TO 434O F.
- 30 . 6082 . 0099
- 28 . 6084 . Ol l i
- 26 . 6086 . 0123
- 24 . 6088 . 0137
- 22 . 6090 . 0152
- 20 . 6092 . 0168
- 18 . 6094 . 0186
- 16 . 6096 . 0206
- 14 . 6098 . 0227
- 12 . 6100 . 0250
- I O . 6102 . 0275
- 8 . 6104 . 0303
- 6 . 6107 . 0332
- 4 . 6109 . 0365
- 2 . 6l l l . 0400
0 . 6113 . 0439
2 . 6115 . 048l
4 . 6117 . Q526
6 . 6120 . 0576
8 . 6122 . 0630
I O. 6124 . 0690
12 . 6126 . 0754
14 , 612s . 0824
I 6 . 613l . OCOO
18 . 6133 . 0983
20 . 6135 . I 074
22 . 6137 . I 172
24 . 6140 . I 279
26 . 6142 . I 396
28 . 6144 . I 523
30 . 6147 . I 661
32 . 6149 . I 811
34 . 615l . I 960
36 . 6154 . 2120
38 . 6156 . 2292
40 . 6158 . 2476
42 . 6161 . 2673
44 . 6163 . 2883
46 . 6166
48
. 3109
. 6168
50 . 6170
. 3350
52
. 3608
. 6173
54
. 3883
. 6175
56
. 4176
, 617s
58
. 4490
. 6180
60
. 4824
. 6183
62
. 5180
. 6185 . 5559
158 . 63239. 177
160 . 6326 9. 620
162 . 6330 10. 10
I 64 . 6333 10. 59
166 . 6336 I I . 10
I 68 . 6340 11. 63
170 . 6343 12. 18
172 . 6346 12. 75
174 . 6350 13. 34
176 . 6353 13. 96
178 . 6357 14. 60
I 80 . 6360 15. 27
I 82 . 6364 15. 97
184 . 6367 16. 68
I 86 . 637l 17. 43
188 . 6374 18. 20
190 . 6377 19. 00
192
I 94
. 638l 19. 83)
. 6385 20. 69
196 . 6389 21. 58
I 98 . 6393 22. 50
200 . 6396 23. 46
202 . 640024. 44
204 . 6404 25. 47
206 . 6407 26. 53
208 . 64l l 27. 62
210 . 6415 28. 75
212 . 6419 29. 92
214 . 6423 31. 14
216 . 6426 32. 38
218 . 6430 33. 67
220 . 643435. 01
272 . 643836. 38
224 . 6442 37. 00
226 . 644639. 27
228 . 6451 40, . 70
230 . 6455 42. 34
232 . 645843. 95
234 . 646345, 6i
236 . 646747. 32
238 . 6471 49. 08
240 . 64?5 50. 09
242 . 6479 52. 77
244 . 64%4 54. 69
246 . 6488 56. 67
248 . 649258. 71
250 . 649660. 81
a~a>o- yi - . ~~, ~~.
-.-.- _I_~~ .~_
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
_--,-v-m -r-e.-._
Some of the material may nolonger.be accurate
Applications of the Formula3 and Tabies.
EXAMPLE I. -How low must the relative humidity be, when the
atmospheric pressure is I4:7 lb. per s
in and the outside temperature
is 60. in order that no moisture may
8;.
e deposited in any part of a com-
pressed air system carrying a constant gauge pressure of 90 lb. per sq. in.7
Am. -The maximum amount of moisture that.1 lb. of pure air Can
contain at 90 lb. gauge, =
104.7 lb. (absolute pressure) and 60 F., IS
IV=
KH 0.6153 X 0.5150
2.036P-H= 2. 036X104. 7- 0.5180
= 0.001506lb.
The maximum weight of moisture that 1 lb. of air can contain at 60
F. and 14.7 lb. (absolute pressure) iS
0. 6153X0. 5180
-
' " ( at 14' 7) = 2. 036X14. 7 - 0.5180
= O. OI OS9: b.
In order that no moisture may be deposited, the relative humidity
must not be above
( 0. 001506 + 0. 01089) X100 = 13. 83%.
Weights in Pounds, of Pure Dry Air, Water Vapor and Saturated
Nixtures of Air and Water Vapor at Various Temperatures, at
Atmospheric Pressure, 29.921 In. of BIerwry or 14.6963
Lb. Per Sq. In. Also the Elastic Force or Pressure
UP the Air and Vapor Present in Saturated
Mixtures.
(Copyright, 1908, by H. M. Prevost Murphy.)
-l----
0 10.08635
12 0. 08415
22 0. 08240
32 0. 08072
42 0. 07911
52 Cl . 07756
62 0. 07608
72 0. 07464
81 0. 07327
92 0. 07194
102 0. 07065
112. 0. 0694;
122 0. 0682;
132 0. 0670;
142 0. 06591
152 0. 0648;
162 0. 06381
172 0 0628;
182 0. 0618
192 0. 0608'
202 0. 0599;
232 0. @590;
19
' 0
l o
8
! 1
7
! i
13
i 7
Saturated Mixtures of Air and WakrVnpor. .
0. 000077
0. 000130
o. OOO198
0. 000300
$E; t: :
0. 000874
0. 0012~3
0. 001661
0. 002247
0. 002999
: : EE
0. 006689
0. 008562
0. 0: 0854
0. 013636
X%Fl
0. 025746
ywl m&
I
I~I^II1ll~----~ ~~,-_~
-~ r-~-~ --
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of ~5
0. 086226
0. 083943
0. 082083
0. 080239
O. 078411
0. 076563
0. 074667
0. 072690
0. 070595
0. 068331
0. 065850
0. 063085
0. 059970
0. 056425
0. 052363
0. 047686
0. 042293
0. 036055
0. 028845
0. 020545
y3l ; ~d) o8o;
i
0. 086303
El i %
0. 080539
0. 073846
0. 077184
0. 075541
0. 073903
0. 072256
0. 070578
", : z%
0. 065145
", : 2%
0. 05854a
0. 055929
0. 053042
Cl~Z
0. 002413
0. 003744
oO: %E
0. 011709
0. 016691
0. 023526
"o: tE
0. 062806
0. 086285
0. 118548
0.163508
,:;EG
0. 471146
EY1:
2. 85507
Infinite.
he
AIR. 537 *
NOTE. -Air is said to be saturated with water vapor whci it contains
the maximum amount possible at the existing tctnperature and pressure.
EXAMPLE 2. - When compressing air into a reservoir carrying a cou-
stant gauge pressure of 75 lb.. from a saturated at,mospliere of 1.4.7 lb.
abs. press. and 70 F., to what temperature must the air be cooled after
compression in order to cause the deposit,ion of moisture to commence?
Ans. -First find the maximum weisht of moisture contained in
1 Jb. of pure air at 14.7 lb. mrssure and 70 F.
KH - 0.6196 X 9.7:;:12
w = ijIo36 1J _ N = ----- ~- - - = 0. 01536l b.
2. OAR X 14. 7 - O. i 332
The temperature to which the air must bc cooled ib order to cause
the deposition of moisture may be found by placing this value of 3.61556
together with P-equal to 75 + 14.7 in the e:,uation thlis:
0.01556 =
KH KH
=__-
2. 036 X 89. 7- H 182. 63 - H
or H = -2x%--~ and the temperature which satistles this equa,tion
0. 01556 + K'
is found by aid of the table [bg- trial and error] to be ~rpprorimately
129 F.
ELMPLE 3. -When Ohe outside tempcrxturc is 52 F:. and the
pressure of the atmosphere is 14.6963 lb. per sq. in.. tile rolalive humid-
ity being lOO*%, how many cu. ft. of Lee air nluqt. be compressed
and delivered into a reservoir at 100 lb. pn!nre in ortlci to cause 1 lb. of
water to be deposited when the air is cooled to X2 F.?
dns. - Weight of moist.ure mixed with 1 11,. of air at S? F., and
atmospheric pressure = 0.023526 lb. For 100 lb. gauge pressure,
KH 0. 6211 X 1. 092
" = 2. 036 P - H = ?@d6 X 111. 69W - LO%?2
= 0.002918 lb.
Weight of moist,ure de osited by each lb. ol compressed air z= O.O?:i.326
- 0.002918 = 0.0206OS 1 E Each cu. ft. of the moist atnlospl~ere con-
tams 6.070595 lb. of pure air. therefore the number of cu. ft. that must
be delivered to cause 1 lb. of water to be deposited is
.
o. o&gs x t. o; 0608 =6s7.37 cu. f t.
EXABIPLE 4. -Under the same conditions as st,ated in Example 3,
what is the loss in volumetric efficiency of the plant when the excess
moisture is properly trapped in the main reservoirs?
Ans. - Before compression, each pound of air is mixed with 0.923526
lb. of water vapor and the weight of 1 cu. ft. of t,he mixtureis 0.072256 lb.,
consequently thevolume of the mixture is
,
1. 0235?6 + 0. 072256 = 14. 165 CU. ft.
For 100 l h. ga:ge pressure and 82 F. as shown in Example 3. 1 lb.
of air can hold 0.00291S lb. of water in suspension, having deposited
0. 020608 l b. in the reservoir. The weight of 1 cu. ft. of water vapor at
82 is 0.001661 lb., c,onsequently by Daltons law the volume of the mis-
ture of 1 lb. of air and 0.092918 lb. of water vapor at 100 1b:gauge Press-
ure is t,he same as that of the vanor or saturated steam alone: that is,
0. 002915 i d. 001661 = 1. 757 cu. ft.
By Mariottes law, the volume of the 1.757 cu. ft. of mixed gas at
1146963 lb. abso1ut.e when expanded to atmospheric pressure will be
(114.6963 + 14.6963) X 11757 = 13.712 CU. f t. ;
consequently the decrease of volume, that is, the loss of volumetric
efficiency, is
I4.lG5 - 13.712 = 0.453 cu. ft., or (0.453 f 14.165)X IO0 = 3.2%.
This example shows that particularly in warm, moist climates, there
fs a very appreciable l oss in the efficiency of compressors. due to the
condensation of water vanor.
8Peei f l c Heat of Air at-constant Volume and at Constant
- Volume of 1 lb. of air at 32O F. and pressure of 14..7 Ibs.
Pres&e.
12.387 CU. ft. = a column 1 sq. ft. area x 12.387 ft. high.
er sq. In. =
Ptaising ten;-
--... m-L..--alyIm
material may no longer ,be accur%%
588 AIR.
perature La F. expands it l/492, or to 12.4122 ft. high -a rise of 0.02522
foot.
Work done = 2116 lbs. per sq. ft. X .02522 = 53.37 foot-pounds, or
53.37 + 775 = 0.0686 heat units.
The s
E
ecitic heat of air at constant pressure, zcordin
ut this includes the work of expansion. or0.0636 i,
to Regnault. is
0.2375; eat units; hence
the specific lieat at constant volume = 0.2375 - 0.0686 = 0.1689.
Ratio of specific heat. at constant pressure to speriiic heat at constant
vrlume = O.z!375 + V.16S9 = 1.406. (See Specific Heat., p. 534.)
F!ow at Air through Orifices. - The theoretical velocity in feet per
second oflow of any fluid, liquid, or gas through an orifice is 2) =1/G
=S.O2 d/k, in which h = the head or height of the fluid in feet required
to produce t.he pressure of the Ruid at the level of the orifice. (For gases
the formula holds good only for small differences of pressure on the two
sides of the orifice.) The quantity of flow in cubic feet per second is equal
to tilt product of this velocity by the area of the orifice, in square feet,
multiplied by a coefficient of. flow, which takes into account the con-
traction of the vein or flowing stream, the friction of the orifice, etc.
For air Rowing through an orifice or short tube. from a reservoir of the
pressure p, into a reservoir of the nressure pz. W?isbach gives the following
values for the coefficient of flow, obtained from his experiments.
FLOW OF AIR THROUGH AN ORIFiCE.
Coefficient c in formula v = e 4%.
Diam. 1 cm. = 0.394 in.:
Ratio ?f pressures. 1.03 1.09 1.43 1.65 1.89
CoefMent
2.15
.55i
.
599 .692 .724
Disrn. 3.11 rm. = 0.843 in.:
.7.5-I: .7SS
Rnt,io of pressures. 1.05 1 .nn. 1.36 2.01
CoeKicient . . ..5s ..?I73 .6;4
:&
.723 :;;:
FLOW OF AIR THROUGH A SHOW TUHE.
Diam. 1 rm.. = 0.394 in., ienpth 3 cm. = l.iSi in.
Ratioofpressurespl+-n:... 1;O.i 1.10 I.30 . . ..:. . . . .
CoefEcient . . . . . . ,730 ,771 .sno .
Diam. 1.414 cm. = 0.557 in., l~ength 4.242 cm. = 1.670 ip.:
. . . . . . .
Ratio of pressures. . . . . . .
CoeRicient . , . . . . . .
U3 1.69 ;... . . .:_. . . . .
.822 . . .
Diam. 1 cm. = 0.394 in., length 1.6 cm. = 0.630 in.
Ratio of pressures. . . . . . . _
?&ce&l;ndeii
1.24 1.35 1.59 1.s.5 2.14
Coefficient............... .9i9 .9S6 .965 .971 .97S ::::.
Clark (Ruies, Tables, and Data, 891) gives, for the velocity of fliow
of air through an orifice due Tao sma I dlferenc?s of pressure, 7.
;7 = c / t
or, simpliEed,
V = 352 C (1 + .00203 (t -32)) ; ;
in which V = velocity in feet per second; 2 B = 64.4: h = height of the
column of water in inches. measuring the difference of pressure; t = the
temperature Fahr.: and n = barometric oressure in inches of mercury.
773.2 is the volume of air it 32 under a pressure of 29.92 inches of mercuiy
when that of an equal weight of water 1s taken as 1.
For 6Y F., the form_ula becomes Y = 363 C G, and if P
inc-$es. 1 = 66.35 c i/h.
= 29.92
FLOW OF AIR THROUGH ORIFICES. 589
R. J. Durley, Trans. A. 5. M. E.. xsvii. 193, gives the following:
The consideration oft the adiabatic How of a perfect gas through a
frictionless orifice leads to the equation
W = weight of gas discharged per second in pounds.
A = area of cross section of jet in square feet.
P1 = pressure inside orifice in pounds per square foot.
PZ = pressure outside orifice.
VI = specific volume of gas inside orifice in cu., ft. per lb. -
y = ratio;$,;ke;pecific heat at constant pressure.to that at constant .
For air. where y = 1.404. we have for a circular orifice of diameter d
inches, the initial temperature of the air being 60 Fahr. (or 521 abs.).
w = 0.000491 d2Pl&y.*5 - (gy* . . . . (2)
In practice the flow is not frictionless, nor is it perfectly adiabatic, and
the amount of heat entering or leaving the gas is not known. Hence the
;;~~;;lc;;;ariy.~~~~~~~~~-~ to ~t?i~efou~&i~o% the formulas by introducing weight actually discharged is to be found from the formulas by iptroducmg
a coefficient of discharge (generally less than unity) depenchng 09 the 2. mrfficirnt. of discharee (eenerallv less than unity) depending 09 the
condit,ions of the experiment and on the construction of the particular -Y..U.C.Y.W .
form of orif form of orifice employed.
If \vp PP If we neglect the changes of densitpand temperature occbrring as the
air passes through the orifice, we may obtairi a simpler though approxl- air pz
mate rormma *or cne I~~BL cuscmarga: mate formula for the ideal discharge:
W = O.O1369d\$. . . . . . . (3)
in which tl = diam. in inches, i = difference of pressures measured in
inches of water, P = mean absolute ressure in ibs. per sq. ft., and T =
absclute temperature on the Fahren elt scale = degrees F. + 461. R. In
the usual case, in which the discharge takes place into the atmosphere,
P is approximately 2118 pounds per square foot and
I
W = 0.6299 df
i
T . . . . . . . (4)
To obtain the actual discharge the values found by the formula ar,e to be
multiplied by an experimental coefficient C, values of which are @ven in
the ta ,ble below.
to a messure of about 20 ins. of water (or 0.722 lbs. pg s.q. in.) above
thz%mos&&ic pressure the results of foimuhe (2) and (4) agree very
closely. At higher differ&Ices of pressure divergence becomes noticeable.
Thev hold eood only for orifices of the particular. form .elPe;y5;t;t
with--&d bored in plates of the same thicktiess. viz.: iron Plates
. .
A.-> -.I
*mcit.
Ine coetticient of efaux 6, according to Weisbach, is:
For cq:oidal mouthpiece, of form of the contracted vein
%lth pressures of from 0.23 to 1.1 atmospheres.. . . 6 = 0.97 to 0.99.
Circular orifices in thin plates.. . . .
c = 0.56 to 0.79,
ShortCylindricalmouthpieces...........::::::::~~:: C=O.SltoO.S4
The.same rounded at the inner end
c = 0.92 to 0.93
,~~~~~~ngmouth~ieces....::::::::::::::::: C * 090 to099
,.~ ~. -. .,---__ -,... --I-. I,~~~.~-~-.. ~.~
~~WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition.
iiLlhcxm.swsw--- .,.._ ~... _-^I*-- -... -Ln__
a .,.
1
Some of the material may no' l ongerbe accuraTi 5
,[
?
' 8
. ~ #i A
The experiments and curves plotted from them indicate that: -
(1) The coefficient for small orifices increases as the he+d incre.=es, but
at a lesser rate the larger the orifices, till for the 2-in. o&ice lt>s almost
constant. For orifices larger than a ins. it decreases as the head increase%
and at a greater rate the larger the orifice.
(2) The coefficient decieaszs as the diameter of the orifice increases. and
at a greater rate the higher the head.
.~ (3) The coefficient does not changeappreciably -with temperature
(between 40 and 100~ F.).
(4) The coefficient (at heads under 6 ins.) is not appre$ablfg affected
by the size of the box in which the orifice is placed if the ratlo 0
the areas
~,~~~~,.~~.,;,,,..~f the box and orifice is at least 20 : 1.
590
AIR.
Mms DXSCI~RGEIN PO~NDSPERSQUARE FOOTOFORIFICE PER SECOND
AY FOUND FROM EXPERI-MENTS.
Zinch Head
Discharge
per Sq. Ft.
3-inch Head
Discharge
per Sq. Ft.
0.3125 3. 060
;:;gj
3. 012
I.jOj : : o": i
2.002 2. 983
2.502 3. 041
3. 001 3. 078
3.49i 3. 051
J . OQ2 3. 046
4. 506 3. 075
4. 336
4. 297
4. 341
4. 257
4. 286
4. 303
4. 297
4. 258
4. 325
4. 3#3
5. 395
5. 242
5. 348
: : i G
5. 224
: : : ; ;
5. 264
5. 502
6. 188
%:
6: 07l
6. 107
5. 991
6. 033
ET
6. 260
Dismetei
of Orifice,
f-inch
Inches.
7
I
Head.
/-
Zinch
Head.
3-inch
Head.
4-inch 5-inch
Head. Head.
0. 603
E- I
0. 601
0~600
O~i 90
0. 599
0. 599
0. 598
0. 598
0. 606
0. 605
0. 603
0. 601
0. 600
0. 599
0. 598
0. 597
0. 597
0. 596
0. 610
Ei ;
0. 602
0. 600
0. 599
0. 597
0. 596
0. 505
0. 594
0. 613
0. 610
0. 606
0. 603
0 6on
0. 598
0. 596
0. 595
0. 594
0. 593
!
!
-
0. 616
0. 613
0. 607 "
0. 603
0. 600
0. 598
i Zf l
0. 593
0. 592
CORRECTED ACTUAL Drsc~nac~ IN POCXDS PER SECOYD AT 60" F. AND
14.7 LB. BAROJ~I-RIC PRESSURE FOR C~CUL..IR ORIFXES IN
.
PLATE 0. 057 IN. THICK.
Diameter of Orifice in Inches.
FLO>V OF AIR IN PIPES.
Flow of Air in Pipes.
-Hawksky (Proc. Inst. C. l?.,zxiii, 55) states
that his formula for flow of water fin pipes, V = 48
J
HD
7, may also be
employed for Bow of air. In this case H = height n feet of a colufnn of
air required tr, produce the pressure causing the flow, or the loss (!t head
for a given flow; 2, = velocity in feet per second, D = diameter 111 feet,
L = :ength in feet.
of water. h. the air beiW taken at
atmospheric pressure =~: 0.01 pl lb.
If d = diameter in inches. D = &, and
a-
the formula becomes u= 114.5 \
/
y ,
in which h-inches of water column.
J Lv
d=diameter in inches, and L=length in feet; h= ,,fyid ; d= --. 1311Oh .
The quantity in cubic feet per second S
The horse-power required to drive air through ,a pipe is the Volume Q in
cubic feet per second multiplied by the pressure m POUndS per square foot
and divided by 550.
Pressure in pounds per square foot = P - Inches
of water column X 6.196, whence horse-po\ver =
H,P =Q?= Qh - QJL .
* 550 m- 41. 3 dj
Volume of Air Transmitted In Cubic Feet per Minute iu
Pipes of Various Diaxiwters.
Formula Q =
0.7854
,44
d% X 60.
Actual Diameter of Pipe in Inches.
12 1' 16 1 20 1 24
4 ; \ 6 \ 8 I!-
-l-&---I-
-l-l-l-
5.2
10. 4;
15. 7
20. 9
26. 2
31. 4
36. 6
c9
2:
i i
105
I i :
I "; "7
$7. 12 83. 77 130. 9 188. 5
?4. 25 167. 5 261. 8 377. 0
% 670 586 1047 916 1319 1508
2: 754 838 1170 1309 1696 1885
565 1005 1571 2262
707 1256 I 963 2827 848 1508 2356 3393
942 1675 2618 3770
131 2010 3141 4524
, 178 2094 3272 4712
1319 2346 3665 5278
1414 2513 3927 5655
I 10. 327 1. 31 2. 91
2 0. 655 2. 62 5. 8
; wp 3. 93 8. 6'
5. 24 11. 7;
5 1. 64 6. 54 14. 7
6 1. 96 7. 05 17. 7
7 2. 29 9. 1620. 6
8 2. 62- 10. 5 23. 5
9 2. 95 11. 7826. 5
10 3. 27 13. 1 29. 4
12 3. 93 15. 7 35. 3
15 4. 91 19. 6 44. 2
I I I 5. 89 23. 5 53
20 6. 54 26. 2 59
24 7. 85 31. 4 71
25 8. 18 32. 7 73
28 9. 16 36. 6 82
30 9. 8 39. 3 BE
8. 18 11. 78 20. 94 32. 73
16. 36 23. 56 41. 89 65. 45
24. 5 35. 3 62. 8 98. 2
32. 7 47. 1 83. 8 1; ;
41. 0 59. 0 104
49. 1 70. 7 125 196
229
262
2
393
491
589
I*-w,. .~, ~.~YY-.--yL-;r--.,.-
e material may no' l ongerbe accurate
A
th
592 AIR.
In Hawksleys formula and its derivatives the numerical coefficients are
constunt., It is scarcely possible, however. that they can be accurate
except wrt.hm a limited range of conditions, In the case of water it is
found that the coerticient of friction, on which the loss of head depends,
varies $11 the length and diameter of the pipe, and with the velocity, as
well as wLh the condition of the interior surface.
In the case of air and
other gases we have. in addition, the decrease in density and consequent
incr~ze in volume mi d In Velocity due to the progressive loss of head-from
one rnd of the pipe Tao the other.
Clark st:tte Lllat according to the experiments of DAubuisson and those
of a ~Sardimail .connni~sion on the resistance of air through long conduits
or pipes, the dimmution of pressure is very nearly directly as the length,
and a% the square of the velocity and inversely as the diameter.
re.&;tsnce is not varied by the density.
The
If these statements are correct, then the formulae h = s and h = $$
and th$ir derivatives are correct in form, and they may be used when the
numerical coefficients c and c are obtained by esperlment.
If we take the forms of the above formube as correct, and let C be a
variable coetfirient, depending upon the length, diameter. and condition
of surface of the pope, and possibly also upon the velocity. the tempera-
ture and the density. LO be determined by future experiments. then for
k = head in inches of mater. d = diameter in inches, L = length in feet
w = velocity in feet per second, and & = quantity in cubic feet per
second:
-
h=Lo.
C?d
d=
33653 Q2L
C?h ;
k = 33653 Q?L.
C?d"
For difference or loss of pressure p in pounds per square inch,
k i 17.71 p:
6 = 5. 264 4; ;
. .
(For other form& for flow of air, see Mine Ventilation.)
Loss of Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch. - B. F. Sturtevant
Company uses the following formulas:
.
L s
PI =25000d; v =
25OC; dpl; d = Lv?
25000 pl ;
in yhich PI = loss of pressure iu ounces per square inch, 2) = velocity of
air JR feet per second. and L = length of pipe in feet.
pounds per square inch, these formulae reduce to
If p is taken in
p = 0.00000~~ Lf.
d
v = 632. 5
dx.,
L
d = 0.0000025 L@
P .
These are deduced from the common formula (Weishachs), p=fl-%
d2g
in which 1=6.0001608. They correspond to the formulae given above
+en C is taken at 120.15, Hawksleys formula for the same notation
mriJ?gll-4.6. Using the notation given in the formulae for compressed
air, where ! is taken in cu. ft. per minute, Sturtevants formula gives a
due of C = 57. 1, Hawksleys 54.4. The fi
a+uTkie 3 density of air of 0.761 lb. per cu. Ft
ure 60 is commonly used,
The following table is condensed from one &ren in thecatalogue of
BL F. Sturtetvant Company.
_I__-. ,~-- ~,.-- ~~.
p#NING: T,his is a 1910 edition. SOme Of
LOSS OF PRESSURE I N PI PES 100 FT. LONG, * I N &J NCES PER SQ. I N.
Diameter of Pipe in Inches.
-
5
!
6 ( 7 ( 8 1 9 ( I O ( I I ( 12
600 0. 400 0. 200
1200 l . 6OO 0. 800
1800 3. 600 I . 800
2400 6. 400
3000 10. 0
: : $"
3600 14. 4 7. 2
4200 . . _. . . 9. 8
4800 . . . . 12. 8
6000 20.
t 14 i l 6 j
600 , 029
I ; : : : : : ;
2400
36001
- 457
I . 029
4200 1. 400
4800 1. 829
6000 2. 857
0. 133 0. 100
0. 533 0. 40( !
1. 200 0. 901
2. 133 1. 6OC
; : 3833 2. 5 3. 6
6. 553 4. 9
8. 533 6. 4
13. 333 10. 0
I I
, 026 , 022 . 02(
. I 00 , 089 . 08(
. 225 , 200 . 400 , 356 3; ;
. 900 , 800 . 72(
, 225 1. 089 , 981
. 600 1. 422 1. 28l
, 500 2. 222 Loot
* For any other lengt
O.OBC
2:
I . 281
2. 0
: : t:
; : a
-
, 011
. 07:
, 168
. 29
. 65!
' . 89
1. 16,
I . 811
-
I
-
t
:
j
:
s
the lo:
0. 067
0. 267
E?
1.667
2. 4
: : : : :
6. 667
0. 0571
0. 229
: : ; I :
1. 429
Z"
3. 657
5. 714
24 I 29 I
, 017 , 014
, 067 , 057
. I 56 . I 29
, 267 . 239
, 600 . 514
. 817 . 700
1. 067 , 914
1. 667 1. 429
32 i 40 j 44
, 012 , 011
, 050 , 044
. I 12 . too
, 200 . I 78
. 450 , 400
. 612 , 544
. soo , 711
I . 250 I . 111 I
,010
:%I
. I 64
, 360
Ml '
I . m
. 009 , 008
. 036 , 033
, 082 . 075
, 145 . I 33
. 327 . 300
. 445! , 408
. 5821 . 533
. 909j , 833
ss is proportional to the length.
Effect of Bends In Pipes. (Norwalk Iron Works Co.)
. RadI;fs qrp~l~w. in diameter
P
5 3 2 1' 12 1114 1 314 ' 12
.Equiva ent lengths of straight
pipe, diams. 7. 85 8. 24 0. 03 10. 36 12. 72 17. 51 35. 09 121. 2
Friction OC Air in Passing through Valves and Elbows. W. L.
Saunders, Corn
length in feet o P
rcssed Air, Dec.,, 1902. -The following ,figures give the
straight pipe which will cause a reduction in pressure equal
to that caused by globe valves, elbows, and tees in difierent diameters of
pipe.
Globe Va P ves . . .
Diam. of ipe, in.. 1 1 l /2 2 2112 3 3% 4 5 6 7 8 10
2 4 7 10 El :: y3 ;g ;i $;: 53 76
El bows and Tees 2 3 5 3 35 47
Compressed-air Transm&n (Frank Richards, Am. Mach., March
8, 1894.) -The volume of free dr transmitted may be assumed to be
directly as the number of atmospheres to which the air is compressed.
Thus, if the air transmitted be at i.5 pounds gauge-pressure, or SIX ?tmos-
pheres, the volume of free air will be six times the amount given In the
table (page -591). It is generally considered that for econommal trans-
mission the velocity in main pipes should not exceed 20 feet per second.
In the smaller distributing nines the velocity should be decidedly less
than this.
- _ _
The loss of power in the trnnsmisswn of compressed air in general 1s not
a serious one, or at all to be compared with the losses of power lnthe opera-
tlpn of compression and in the re-expansion or final aPPllcation of the
al L.
The formulas for l oss bv friction are all unsatisfactory. The statements
okobserved facts in tllis line are in a more or less chaotic state. and self-
evidently unreliable.
A statement of the friction of ah flowing through a pipe involves at least
all the following factors: Unit of time, volume of air. pressure of air, diam-
____ _-Lm.Ib_.. _- _,.-.. -LyI,.,--._. .-.
dongerbe accurate
AIR.
eter of pipe, length of pipe, and the difference or
the pipe or the head required to maintam the
factors c&n be allowed its indenendent and absolute value. but is subject to
modifications in defert ____ I- __I __-___ - _.__
,lPP to I t.~v a.ranrlxtt~s.. The flow of air being assumed -... ..~ ~~~
to be uniform at the entrance to the pipe, the volume and iioiv are not
uniform a.ft.er thnt~ The air is constantlv losing some of its pressure and
i*c .rr
. . . . - ____ _..-.. -... ~~~~ ~~
..~ 1 plume is constantly increasing. The velocity of flow is therefore also
somewhat accelerated continually. This also modiiies the use of the
lewth of t,he pipe as a conshant factor.
Then, besides the Huctiiating values of these factors. there is the condi-
tion of ?h<e pipe itself. The actual diameter of the pipe, especially m the
smaiier sizes.. is different from the nominal diameter. The pipe may be
straight. or it may be crooked and have numerous el bows.
Formula? for Flow of Compressed Air in Pipes. -The formulae on
pages 591 and 592 are for air ator near atmospheiic pressure. For com-
ressed air the density has to be taken into account.
.P
A common formula
or the flow of air, gas, or steam in pipes is
in which Q = volume in cubic feet per-minute. p = difference of pressure
in 11,~. per sq. in. callsing the flow. d=diameter of pipe in in., L=length
of pipe in ft., w = density of the entering gas or steam in lbs. per cu. ft..
and c = a coefficient found by experiment. Mr. F. A. Halsey in calculat-
ing a table for the Rand Drill Co.s Catalogue takes the value of c at 58,
basing it upon the experiments made by order of the Italian government
preliminary to boring the Mt. Cenis tunnel. These experiments were made
with pipes of 32Sl feet in length and of approximately 4, 8, and I4 in.
diameter. The volumes of compressed air passed ranged between 16.64
and 1200 cu. ft. per minute. The value of c is quite constant throughout
the range and shows little disposition to change with the varying diameter
of the pipe. It is of course robable, savs Mr. Halsey, that e woul d be
smaller if determined for smal P er sizes of pipe, but to offset that the actual
sizes of small commercial pipe are considerably larger than the nominal
sizes, and as these calculations are commonly made for the nominal
diameters it is probable that in those small sizes the loss would really be
less than shown by the table. The formula is of course strictly applicable
to fluids which do not change their density, but within the change of
den&v admissibie in the transmission of air for power purposes it is prob-
abie that the errors introduced by this change are less than those due to
errors of observation in the present state, of knowledge of the subject.
Mr. Halsevs table is condensed below.
-
Cubi c f eet of free air compressed to a gauge-pressure of 69 lbs.
and passing through the pipe each minute.
50 1 100 1 200 1 400 / 800 1 1000 / 1500 1 2000 / 3000 1 4ooQ / 5000
Loss of nressure in lbs. oer square inch for each 1000 ft. of
sirsight pipe,
n C" 1 I ?
.,-I L.Iri
6. 4
3. 27
1. 08
0. 43
0. 10
.
. .
. . .
I .oo
0. 24
0. 08
.
. .
;::t
0. 42
0. 14
. .
. . . .
9. 6
3. 91
0. 93
0. 30
0. 12
. . . .
-
7. 10
1. 68
0. 35
0. 22
0. 10
-
10. 7
2. 59
0. 84
0. 34
0. 16
.
AIR.
595
To apply the formula given above to air of different pressures it may be
given other forms. as follows:
Let Q = the volume in cubic feet per minute of tile compressed air: Q, -
the volume before compression, or free air,, both being taken at mean
atmospheric temperature of 62 F.: wi = weight per cubic foot of (3, =
0.0761 lb.; T = atmospheres, or ratio of absolute pressures, = (gauge-
pressure -l- 14.7) + 14.7; w = weight per cu. ft
.pressure. m Ills. per xl, in., cn:lsing the ilow:
of Q: p = difference of
, / = dism. of pipe m rn.;
L = length of pipein ft.; c = experimental constant. Then
Q - c 4%: &I - rQ; w = t- w1 - 0. 0761r; .
p = 0. 0761 s = O- . 0761%; .
The val ue of c according to the Mt. Cenis experiments is about 58 for
pipds 4,, 8. and 14 in. di;Lmetcr. 3751 ft. long.
In the St. Gothard esperi-
ments It ranged from 62.3 to 73.2 (see table below) for pipes 5.91 and 7.87
In. diameter, 1713 and 15.092 ft. long. Values derived froln Darcys
formula for Row of water in pipes, ranging from 45.3 for 1 in. diameter to
63. 3 for 24 in,, are given under Flow of Steam, p. 845.
For approsi-
mate calculations the value 60 may be used for all pipes of 4 in. diameter
and upwards. Using c = 60, the above formuhe become
Q = 217. 5
&I = 217. . 5
l I , rl ' , .
v L;
d = 0. 1161 -;
p =
Loss of Pressure in Compressed Air Pipe-main, at St. Gothard
Tunnel. (E. Stockalper.)
Observed Pressures.~.
3
5. 863 . 00482 1. 776 , . . . . . 4; 13 __. . . . . . . . . . .
1. 483 15. 58 3. 84 3. 65 2. 793 5. 0 67. 6
1. 483 29. 34 3. 65 - 3. 54
j 1. 617 3. 0 62. 8
./The length of the pipe 7.87 in. in diamet,er was 15,992 ft.; and of the
smaller pipe 1712.6 ft. The mean temperature of the air in the large Pipe
was 70F. and in the small pipe SO F.
2 materi al may no. l ckgi &- . be accurai %
596
AIR.
AIR. 597
thus, one 4- i nch pi pe will deliver the same volume as four 2-inch pipes.
With the same, head. however. the velocity is less in the smaller pipe, and
the volume dehvered varies about as the square root of the fifth power
(1.e:. as the 2.5 power).
basis.
The following table has been calculated on this
The figures opposite the intersection of any two sizes is the num-
ber of the smaller-sized pipes required to equal one of the larger.
one &inch pipe is equal to 5.7 two-inch pipes.
Thus
difference of pressure at the two ends of the pipe is smali, and the density
of t,hr air, therefore. nearly constant. For long pipes with considerable
difference of pressure the density decreases and the velocity increases
during the How from One end of the pipe t? the other. Church (Me&. of
&gg, p. 790) develops a formuls for How m long pipes under the assump-
tions of uniform decrease oi density and of ccmstxlt temperature. the
10s~ of heat by adiab:tt,ic expansion bein,
heat ,~rner;lted by fricticfn.
in gredt part made up by the
Usin% t,he same notation as above Churchs
4 fl E *A formuis is l!~[p,? - p?] = 2 2 gd A2 w, , fbeing the coefficient of friction,
n the area of the pipe in square inches, and w the density of air at the
entrance. The value of/is !;iven at 0.001 to 0.005.
J. E. Johnson, Jr. (+?a. MGC~., July 27, 1SQQ) gives Churchs formula
in a simpler form as follows: p,- - p,? = KQ2L f da. in which p, and
p2 are thr initial and final pressures in lbs. per sq. in., Q the volume of
free air (that is the volume reduced to atmospheric pressure) in cubic
feer per minute, d the diameter of the pipe in inches, L the length in feet.
and K a nurncncal coefficient, which from the 1lt. Cenis and St. Gothard
esperimen:s has a value of about 0.0006. E. A. Ris. in a
Compression and Transmission of Illuminating Gas.
aper on the
rea B before the
Patitiic Coa.it Gas .4ssn. 1905. savs he uses Johnsons formula, with a
coetficienr, of 0.0005. which he coniiders more nearlv correct than O.0006.
I.,
I:
::
::,
3. '
4. ,
5.
8' : ,
9. '
15. '
19. 1
32. 1
43 . I
55. '
-
1
I : :
I _'
2. ,
3":
3.
; : I
: :
%. ,
0. '
: : '
14. 8
' 6. ,
; ! : ,
I %. .
-
9. 9 7.
2. 5 9.
5. 6 I I .
9. 0 14.
9. 2 62.
1% 8%.
54 I I 5
-_
T-
I 6
- .-
$i l I
i i -
2 3 4 5 6 7'
- - - - - - - _-
2 5. 7 I
3 15. 6 2. 8 I : '
4 32. 0 5. 7 2. 1 ?
5 55. 9 9. 9 3. 6 1. 7! I
6 88. 2 15. 6 5. 7 2. 81 1. 6 I
7 130 22. 9 8. 3 4. 1 2. 3 1. 5 I
8 181
9 243
32. 0/ 11. 7 5. 7 3. 2 2. 1 1. 4
7. 6 4. 3 2. 8 1. 9
I O 316 55. 9 13. 0, 15. 6 20. 3 9. 9: 5. 7 3. 6 2. 4
I : 401 70. 925. 7 12. 5: 7. 2 4. 6 3. 1
~12 499 88. 232. 015. 6 0. 9 5. 7 3. 0
13 609 10% 39. 1 19. 0 10. 9 7. 1 4. 7
14 733 130 47. 0: 2. 9~13. 1 8. 3 5. 7
15 871 I 54 55. 927. 2115. 6 9. 9 6. 7
16 . . , , I 81 65. 732. 0 I%.? II.7 7.9
24 . . . . 499 I %1 88. 250. 532. 0i 21. 8' 1~
26 . . __ 609 221 10%~61. 739. 1126. 6 I '
2% 733 266 130
30 . _. . 871 316 154
36 . . _ _. . _ 499 243
For gas the velocity varies inversely as the squark root of the density.
a!xI for ~3s of a density G, relntive to air as 1, Ris gives the formula
pl? - p-2 = 0.0005 1/i? 2 Q?L/dj.
Xeasirremeut of the Velocity of Air in Pipes by an Anemometer.
- T&s were made by B. Donkin. Jr. (In.& Cib*l Engrs.. lS92), to com-
pare t,he veiociby of air in pipes from S in. to 21 in. dia&n.. as shown bv an
anemometer 2314 in. diam. with the true velocity as measured by the iimc
of tfwxnt of a ,zaM~older holdins 16Z cubic fcvt. A table of the results
xvith di;;cilGon is given in EfLyy :leux. Dec. 22. 1SQZ. In pipes from Sin.
t,o 70 in. diam. with air velocities of from l-10 to 6QO feet per minute ahe.
anemometer showed errors varmint: from l&3, fast to lO,Z slow. With
a ?&inch pipe and a velocity cif 73 ft.. per miiiute. t.he an&ornetcr gave
from i-l to 53 feet, or from 1.3.6 to 3Q.6?& slow. The practical conclusion
d:zxn from these exoeriments is that anemometers for the measurement
of veiosiiiez of air iii pipes of t~hese diameters should be used with great
cai i i i on. The percentage of error is not constant. and varies considerably
with the diameter of the pipes and the speeds of air. The use of a baffle
consisting of 2 perforated plate, which tended to equalize the velocity in
the center and ct the sides in some cases diminished the error.
WIND.
\
Force of the wind. - Smeaton in 1759 published a t?.ble of the
velocity and pressure of wind, as follows:
The imoossibilitvof measurine the true auantitvof air br ananemometer
held statibnary in&e porilion ls shown b? t~he f&loxving hglires, given by
Wm. Da&i (Proc. ZM. ill. E., 1575). df the velocities of air found a.t
df!Yierent points in t~he cross-sections of t.wo different airways in a mine.
ELOCITY AND FORCE OF Wzm, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.
Force of Wind.
tion of Gie
Force of Wind.
GIFFERENCES OF ANEMOMETER RENXXGS IN AXRWvaYS.

a ft. square. a ft. square.
1 1712 1795 1 1859 / 1329 1 1 1712 1795 1 1859 / 1329 1
__- __- -__ -__
1622 j 1685 I 1782 ' 1091 , 1622 j 1685 I 1782 ' 1091 ,
I I - , - - , - ~- ~-
I I
1477 1 1344 1524 1049 1477 1 1344 1524 1049
- - ' - -
- i -
1262 / 1356 / 1262 / 1356 1 1293 / 1333
- I -
I I
1293 , 1333-
I I
Average 1469. Average 1469. -
5 x %ft.
Hardlyperceptible.
\ Just perceptible.
20 29. 34 1. 96%
Ge& pleasant
5: 87' 0. 079
7. 33 0. 123
0. 8 0. 177
10. 25 0. 241 I
I I . 75 0. 315
13. 2 0. 490
14. 67 0. 492
17. 6 0. 70% *
20. 5 0. 964
22. 00 1. 107
- * , C . I -
*Very high storm.
1
I
5%
._ ._.
80. 7 .-.__ 14. 9
60 88. 00 17. 71
Pleasant, briskg : al e 65 95. 3 20. 85
102. 5 24. 1
1 Greatstorm.
110. 0027. 7
I -L3 I I
ou 117. 3631. 49 1
Hurricane.
100 146. 6749. 2. ] ' : F; yhurri -
Average 1132.
EgnaIization of Pipes.- It is frequently desired to know what number
of PIlIes of a given size are equal in carrving capacity to one pi
&xer size. At the same velocity cf Ho6 the volume delivered 1
e of a
y two
~~,~X?!z.@-Merent s&s .i~qlc~p,~rtional~.,tq._the squares of their diameters;
,~~~~~NI~~G~
~.. ___,....
This is a 1910 edition.
Some of 1
L
da1 may no don& .be accurate
The pressures per square foot in the above table correspond to the
formula P = 0.005 V*. in which V is the velocity in miles per .hour.
Engg Xeu~s. Feb. 9: 1893, says that the formula was never well estabhshe:i
and has floated~ clueHy on Smeatons name and for lack of a petter.
was put forward only for surfaces for use in windmill practice. The
trend of modern evidence is that it is approximately correct only for such
surfaces, and that for large, solid bodies it often gives greatly too large
results. Observations by others are thus compared with Smeatona
formula:
Old Smeaton formula. ..... : ................. P = 0.005 Vz
@ determined p*y Prof. Martm. ................ P = 0.004 V*
Whipple and Dmes .......... P = 0.0029 Vz
. ,A! 60 miles ner hour these formulas tive for the pressure per square foot,
10. 14.:$. and 10.44 1bs.i.respectively, the pressuretiaryinp by all of them as
the square of the velocity. Lleut. Crosbys esperiments (Engq. June 13,
1890). claiming to prove that P = jV instead of P = jV*, are chscfedlted.
Experiments by 31. Eiffel on plates let fall from the Eiffel tower In ParIS
gave coefficients of 112ranging from 0.0027 for small plates to 0.0032, for
nlates 10 so. ft. area. For elates larger than 10 sq. ft. the coefficient
&&&ed &%siant at 0.0032.-- Engq,-Xay 8. 1908.
A. R. Wolff (The Windmill as a Prime Jlover, p. 9) gives as the theo-
retical nressure ner so. ft. of surface. P=dQv:g, in which d = density of
0.018743 (p +P):
lair in pounds per cu. ft. = --1
p being the barometric pres-
sure der square foot at any lev&, and temperature of 32 F.. t any
absolute temperature, Q = volume of air carried along per square foot in
one second. v=velocitg of the wind in feet per second, g=32.!6. Since
Q = v cu. ft. per sec., P= dvig. ;I;Iultiplying this by a coeficlent 0:93
found by espe:iment, and substituting the above value of d. he obtmng
, and when p-2116.5 lb. per sq. ft ,or average
36.8929
atmospheric pressure at the sea-level, P = t x 33.,6 , an eg-
- --0.018743
I I ?
pression in which the pressure is shown to vary with the temperature:
and he gives a table showing the relation between velocity and pfessure
for temperatures from 0 to 100 F.. and velocities from 1 to 80 nules per
.
hour. For a temperattIre of 45 F. the pressures agree with those m
Smeatons table, for O F. they are about 10 per ten: greater, and for 100.
10 per cent less.
Prof. H. Allen Hazen, Engg Net&s, July 5, 1890. says that experiments
with whirli%* arms, by exposing plates to direct wind, and on locomotives
with velocities running up to 40 miles per hour, have invariably shqwn the
resistance to vary with V?. The coefficient of Vr has been found m some
experiments witch very short whirling arms and low velocities to vary with
the perimeter of the plate, but this entirely disappears with longer arr$
or straight line motion and tine only quertion now to be determmed IS
the vallue of the coefficient. Perhaps some of the best experiments for
determining this value were tried in France in 1886 by carrying pat
boards on trains. The resu1t.i~~ formula in this case was, for 44.5 miles
per hour, p = 0.00535 SVZ.
Prof. Kernot. of Me:baurne (Eng. Rec., Feb. 20. 1894), states that
experiments at the Forth Bridge showed that the average pressure on Sur-
faces as large as railway carriages, houses, or bridges never exceeded two-
thirds of that upon smali surfaces of one or two square feet, and also that
an inertia effect, which is frequently overlooked. may cause Some forms
of anemometer to give false results enormously exceeding the correct
indication.
2 to 15
Experiments made by Prof. Kemot at speeds varying from
miles per hour agreed with the earlier authorities. The pressure
upon one side of a cube, or of a block proportioned like an ordinary
carriage, was found to be 0.9 of that upon a thin plate of the same area.
The same result was obtained for a square tower. A square pyramid,
whose height was three times its base. ex erlenced 0.8 of the pressure
upon d thin plate equal to one of its sides, gut if an angle was turned, to
.
ition. ---- Some of
WINDMILLS. 599
,~,~
_cI---- .._-
the material may no. longer.be accurate
the wind the pressure was increased by fully 20%. A bridge consisting
of two plate-girders connected by a deck at the top was found to expe-
rience 0.9 of the pressure on a thin plate equal in size to one girder, when
the distance between the girders was equal to their depth, and this was
increased by one-fifth when the distance betwee! the girders was double
the depth. A lattice-work in which the area of the openings was 55% of
the whole area experienced a pressure of SO!% of that upon a plate of the
same area. The pressure upon cylinders and cones was proved to be equal
to half that upon the diametral planes. and that upon an octagonal pnsm
to be 2O;;u greater than upon the circumscribing cylinder. A sphere was
subject to a pressure of 0.36 of that upon a thin circular plate of equal
diameter. A hemispherical cup gave the same result as the sphere; when
its concavity was turned to the wind the pressure was I.15 of that on a
Hat plate of equal diameter. When a plane surface parallel to the direc-
tion of the wind was brought nearly into contact with a cylinder or sphere.
the pressure on the latter bodies was augmented by about 207,. owmg to
the lateral escape of the air being checked. Thus it is possible fqr the
security of a tower or chimney to be impaired by the erection of a buildmg
nearly touching it on one side.
Pressures ofWind Registered in Storms. -. Mr. Frlzeil has examined
the published records of Greenwich Observatory from 1849 to ?S69. and
reports that the highest pressure of .wind he Hnds recorded is 41 Ib. per
sq. ft., and there are numerous instances in which it was between 3(! and
40 lb. per sq. ft. Prof. Henry says that on Mount Washington, N. H,. a
velocity of 150 miles per hour has been observed, and at New York C1t.y
60 miles an hour, and that the highest winds observed in 1870 were of 72
and 63 miles per hour, respectively. Lieut. Dunwoody, U. S. A.. says,
in substance, that the New England coast is exposed to storms which
produce a pressure of 50 lb. per sq. ft. - Eng. .\ews, Aug. 20, 1880.
wIND3nLJs.
Power and Efficiency of Windmills. - Rankine. S. E.. p. 215, gives
the following: Let Q = volume of air which acts on the sail, or part of a
sail in cubic feet per second, 2) = velocity of the wind m feet per second,
s = sectional area of the cylinder. or annular cylinder of whid. through
which the sail, or part of the sail, sweeps in one revolution, c = a coeffi-
cient to be found by experience; then Q = cus. Rankine, from experl-
mental data given by Smeaton, and taking e to include an allowance for
friction gives for a wheel with four sails, prcportioned in the best manner,
c = 0.7h. Let A = weather angle of the sail at any &stance from the
axis, i.e., the angle the portion of the sail considered makes with its plane
of revolution, This angle gradually diminishes from the inner end of the
sail to the tip: u = the velocity of the same portion of the salt. and E =
the efficiency. The efficiency is the ratio of the useful work performed to
the whole energy of the stream of wind acting on the surface s of the wheel,
which energy is Dsv3 + 2 g, D being the weight of a cubrc foot of mr.
Rankines formula for efficiency is
l j =R
Dsv312 a
= e { t sin 2 A - $i (1 - cos211fj) -f },
in which c = 0.75 and jis a coefficient of friction found from Smeatons
data = 0.016. Rankine gives the following from Smeatons data:
A = weather-angle. . . . . . = 7 130 190
V + 2, = ratio of speed of greatest
efficiency, for a given
weather-angle, to that
. .
.ofthewind . . . . . . . . . . =2.63 1.86 1.41
E = efficiencv. . . . : = 0.24 0.29 0.31
Ranklne gives the fillowlng as the best values for the angle of weather
at different distances from the axis:
Distanceinsixths of tot?. radius i 2 3 4 5 :,,
Weather arigle... . . ., . _. . . _. lS 19O 18 16O 12%
,
But
anglez
Wolff (p. 125) shows that Smeaton did not t,$rm these the best
1. but simply says they answer as well as any. possibly any that
WINDMILES.
Capacity of the Windmill.
-
were in e&tence in his time. WolR says that they cannot in the nature
of things be the most desirable angles. Mathematical considerations,
he say-, conclusively show that the angle of impulse depends on the
relative velocity of each point of the sail and the wind. the angle growing
larger as the ratio becomes greater. Smeatons angles do not fulfll this
condit.ion. W&T deveiops a theoretical formula for the best an& of
weather, and from it cnlculat,es a table of the best angles for different
relaeive velocities of the blades and the wind, \vhich dlffrr widely from
thwe giveu IJ:; Rankiw
A. R. Wolff, in an articie in the American Engineer, gives the follomlng
(see also his treatise on Windmills):
Gallons of Water raised per Minute
to an Elevation of
Let c = veiocity of wind in feet per second:
n = number of revolutions of the windmiil per minute:
bO. lil. bz. b., be the breadth of the sail or biade at distances In. II. Ir
6. 162
19. 179
33. 941
45. 139
64. 600
97. 682
24. 4%
12. 381 ?
-
re mai
3. 016
9. 563
17. 952
22. 569
: ; : : g
63. 756
06. 964
15. 304 11.246 7.807 4.998
19.542 16.150 9.771 8.075
32. 513 24. 421 17. 485 12. 211
E
0.21
0:::
0. 61
0. 78
1.34
de in regular sizes, as high as silty feet diameter
of wheel; Wt. hne elrperience with-the larger class~of mills is too limited to
enable the presenta!,ion of precise data as to their oerformance
If t.he wind can be relied upon in ewzeptionai localities to average a
higher vri3::ity for eight hours a day than that stated in the above table,
the performawe or horse-power of the mill will be increased, and can be
obtained by multiplying t.lre figures in the table by the ratio of the cube
of the higher average velocity of wind to the cube of the velocity above
ts, &d E. respectively. from the asis of the shaft: . - -
& = distance from nsis of &aft to beginning of sail or blade proper.
1 = distance from asis of shaft to extremity of sail proper:
vs. ~1, 19, us, vz = the velocity of the sail in feet per second at dls-
ta,nces ZC, 21. L. 23. 1. respectively, from the asis of the shaft,;
a,, al. 02, a::, aI = the angles of impulse for maximum effect at dis-
tances I,. II. 12, 13. I, respective1 7
,i*
from the axis of the shaft;
a = the angle of impulse when the sal s or blocks arc plane surfaces
so that there is but one ung:le to be considered;
X = number of sails or blades of wlndmiil;
K = 0.93;
d = density of wind (weight of a cubic foot of air at average tem-
perature and barometric pressure where mill is erected);
@ = weight of iviud-wheel in pounds;
I = coetficient of f;iction of shaft and bearings:
i) = diameter of bearing of windmi!l in feet.
The effective hors+power of a wivindmi 11 with plane sails will eq,ual
-.
The effective horse-power of a windmill of shape of sail for maslmum
effect equals
recorded.
t-Le also gives the iollowing table showing the economy of the windmill.
All the items of expense. including both interest and repairs, are reduced
*
to the hour by dividing tUle costs per annum by 365 x X = 2920; the
Interest. etc., for the twenty-four hcurs being charged to the eight hours of
actual work. By multi lying the figures in the 5th columu by 584, the
firs: cost of the windmd , m dollars, is obtained.
f . .
of the Windmill.
--
Expenseof Aotual Useful Power
Develoued. in Cents.. oer I-Iour.
-
I
I
-.
0. 25
: : : i
0. 75
1. 15
%
2. 05
The mean i-atue of quantities in brsckets is to be found according to
Simpsons rule. Dividing 1 into 7 parts. finding the angles and breadths
eorrespondini; IO these divi&or:s by substituting them in quantities within
brackets will be found satisfactory. Comparison of these form&+ with
the only fair@ reliable experiments in wlndmii!s (Coulombs) showed a
close agreement of resuits.
Ap9ro:iimar.e formulae of simpler form for windmills of present con-
strucmm can be based upon t,!w shove. substituting actual average values
for n. c. d. and e. hut since improvement in the present angies is possible.
ft is better to give the form&e in their general and accurate form
Wolf? gives the~followinp table. based on the practice of an .&heriran
manufacturer. Since its preparation, be says. over 1500 windmills have
been soId on it.s guwanty (1SSS). and in all Eases the resu!ts obtained did
not vary suf&iently from those resented to cause any complaint. The
- actual fesuhs obtarned are in c oSe agreement wltb those obtained by P
theoretical analysis of the impulse of wind upon windmill blades.
it:;
0. 21
KY
0.61
0. 79
1.34
15.0
5. 6
: : ' s
2;
3. 2
the t materi al may no l onger' be accurate
,,,
,,
602
AI R.
byr+ysyo. I$-$;; d;l~~r~~~~~~,~~~~~h-~ f<g&;: -&+&y ,, stock ,.
wheel, B and C, imnmved wheels. Each wheel was tested with a dyna-
mometer placed 1
constant, load at th~~p~~tbii~Q?&~ -khe%&%$ ofthe tfid in each
test was 8.45 piIpF. ner hoiir = 12.4 ft. oer second. The number of turns
per minute wu,. AI. YV.Y. , -, --.-.-, - , - -. - - .
0.1.$2; B, O.li6: C, 0.261. The work of wheel c&-6?.&-%. lb. per
min. = 0.020 HP. Assuming that the poner increases as the square
of the diameter and as the cube of the velocity! a wheel of t~he qual;.y of
C 1211~ ft. diam., with a wind velocity of 15 mrles er hour, would be re-
quired ior P HP.: but wheel C had an exceptional Y hrgh.efficrency, and P
such a hieh deliver:; would not likely be obtained in nractme.
Prof. 0. P. Hood (Am. Jfach.. April 22. 181
r$%~;;s of expenments by E. C. Murphy
7 .
__ _-. __J7) quodes the following
; the mills were tested by pumping
Wind, miles per hour.. . . . . . . . . . . . 8 12. 16. 20. 25.
Strokes per min., Mill No. 1, 8-ft. wheel . . 10.2 19.3 25.3 28.1
32;
Strokes per min., Mill No. 2. 8-ft. wheel 8 2;:; ;$$ %:8 i;:g
Strokes per min., Mill No. 3. 12-ft. wheel . .
ii
Strokes per min., Mill No. 4, 12-ft. wheel . . 6.i li.9 14.7 16. . .
&fill No. 3 was loaded nearly 90% heavier than mill No. 4.
. . . ^ . . .._
In a Z-mile wind, seven 12-ft. mills developea. respectively. u.:s,y,
0.291. 0.309, 0.6. 0.247, 0.219, and 0.184 H.P.: and five 8-ft. mills. 0.04.3.
6.099. 0.059. 0.099, and 0.905 H.P. These effects include the effects of
pumps of unknown and variable efficiency. The variations.are largely
due to the variable reiation of the fixed load on the mill to the most
favorable load which that mill might carry at each wind velocrty. With
each mill the efficiency is a maximum only for a certain load and a certain
velocity. and for different loads and velocities the efficiency vanes greatly.
The useful work of mill No. 3 was equal to 0.6 H.P. in a 2%mile wind,
and its efficiencv was 5.8%. Tn a 16-mile wind the efficiency rose to 12.1 /o.
and in a 12-m& wind it fell to 10.970. The rule of the power developed,
varying as the cube of the velocity, is far from true for a single wheel,
fitted wit.h a single non-adjustable ump. and can only be true when the :.
work of :he numo ner stroke is a t!. justed by varying the stroke of the
pump, or by &her-means. for each change of velocity.
R. M. Dyer (The Iowa Engineer, July, 1906: also .lfaeh.!/. Aug...lSOi)
cives a brief review of the history of windmill+ and quotes experuments
bv T. 0. Perry, E. C. Murphy, Prof. F. H. King. and the Aermotor Co.
&fir. Perry-s experiments are reported in pamphlet No. 20 of the Water
SupplY and Irrigation Papers of the U. S. Geologlrai Survey. Mr. Murphy.s
in pamphlets Nos. 41 and 42 of the same Papers..and Prof. Ki,ngs.~ln
Bulletin No. 82 of the Agricultural Experiment Statron of the Umverslty
of Wisconsin. The Azrmotor Co.s experiments are described in catalogues
of that company. Some of Mr. Dyers conclusions are as follows:
Experiments showed that 7/s of the zonc of interruption could be covered
withsails: that the gain in powerin from 3/4 to7/sof the surface was so small
that the use of the additional material was not justifiable; that the, sail
su:face should extend only two-thirds the distance from the outer diam-
eter two the center: that a wheel running behind the carrying mast 1s not
nearly as efficient as one running in front of the mast: that there should
be the least possible obstruction behind the wheel: that to be efficrent
the velocitg of the travel of the vertical circumference of the wheel
should be from 1 to lV4 times the velocity of the wind, hence the
necessitg of back gearing to reduce the pump speed to 40 strokes ~per
minute as a maximum, which is the limit of safety at which ordinary
pumps can be operated.
I ho!d that no manufacturer will be able to produce a marketable
motor which will absorb and deliver, when acted upon by an elastic Huid,
like air. in which it is entirely surrounded arid submerged, more than
35% of the kinetic energy of the impinging current.
-. ~. ~. .
Theoretical demonstrations show that the kinetic energy of the alr.
impinging on the intercepted area of a wheel. varies as the cube of the,
wind velocity; consequently, t!ie power of windmills of the same type :
Some
.
WINDMILLS. 603
varies theoretically as the square of the diameter, and as the cube of the
wind velocity: but as a wheel is designed to give its best efficiency in low
winds, say 10 to 15 miles per hour, we cannot ex ect that the same
angle of sail would obtain the same percentage of e fi!.
considerably higher velocity.
crency in winds of
The ordinary-wheel works most efficiently under wind velocities of from
10 to 12 miles per hour: such wheels will rive reasonable efficiency in from
5- to g-mile winds, while. if the wind blows more than 12 miles per hour,
there will be power to spare.
being nearly always pre
Cur wheel must work in light winds, such
intervals.
sent. wnile the hither velocities onlr occur at
Xills built for grinding purposes, or geared mih<,~~?iil develop
power almost approaching to the cube of the wind ve1ocit.y. wrthin reason-
able limits, as their speec
revolutions per mim
1 neeo not be kept down to a certain number of
rte, as in the case of the pumping mill.
Should this theoretic comntron hold, the following table., showing the
amount of power for different sizes of mills at different wmd velocities,
would apply: Figures show Horse Power.
the material may no l onger- be
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 640
Size. mile. mile. mile. mile. mile. mile. mile. mile.
8ft . .._......... 0.011 0.088 0.297 0.704 1.375 2.176 . . . . . t....
12ft............. 0.925 0.20 0.675 1.6 3.125 5.4 8.57 12.8
16ft............. 0.045 0.36 1.215 2.88 5.52 9.75 15.3 21.04
These figures have been proven by laboratory tests at velocities ranging
from 10 to 25 miles per hour and more practically by the Murphy tests on
mills actually in use, which show very close relatron at the wind velocitres
at which the mills are best adapted.
The Murphy figures are as follows:
Size of n il. 10 mile. 15 mile. 20 mile.
12 ft. 0.21 H.P.
16 ft. 0.29 E H.P. * ::ogi: H*P*
For bigher wind velocities the Murphy values fall much under the
theoretical values, but the range of velocities over whmh his expenments
extend does not justify any change in the general law except inasmuch
as common sense teaches us that theoretic condit.ions can rarely be
attained in actual practice.
In view of the fact that a windmill does not work as efficiently in high
winds as in winds under 90 miles per hour my experience would lead me
to believe that the follow&rg figures (H.P.) would be the probable exten-
sion of the Murphy tests:
Size of mill.
-
:; ft:
2.5 4
4. 6 :
A 20-ft. mill would deliver approximately 50% greater than a 16-ft.
The foregoing table must be translated with reasonable allOwaceS for
conditions under which wind wheels must work and ~whlch cannot well
be avoided, e.g: Pumping mills must be made to regulate off .at a cer$rn
maximum speed to prevent damage to the attached pumprng devices.
The regulating point is usually between 20- and 25-mile wrnd veloc1tm.s.
so that no matter bow much higher the wind velocity may be the power
:bbsorbed and delivered by the wheel will be no greater than that rndmated
at the regulating noint.
Electr& storage and lighting from the ower of a wzndmill has been
tested on a large scale for several years by 8
Ohio.
harles F. Brush, at Cleveland.
In 1887 he erected on the grounds of his dwelling a wmdmrll 56 ft.
tn diameter, that operates with ordinary wind a dynamo at 500 revolutlo~
Per minute, with an output of 12,000 watts - 16 electric hqrserpower -
charging a storage system that gives a constant lighting capacrty of 106
16 to 20 candle-power lamps. The current from the dynamo is auto-
60- l
AIR.
maticaitv regulated to commence charging at 330 revolutions and 70 volts.
and cutiing the circuit. at 75 volts. Thus, by its 24 hours work, the
fjtornge system of 408 cells in 12 parallel series, each cell having a capuclty
of 100 ampere-hours. is~kept in constant readiness for all the requrrements
ing fitted up with 350 incandescent lamps.
ab&rt 100 being in use each evening. The plant runs at a mere nomingl
expense for oil. repairs. and attention -(For a fuller description of, this
1 Necti. Mass.. see Lleut.
COMPRESSED AIR.
rating of Air hy Compression. - Kimball. in his treat~ise on Physi-
cal Proprrr,irs of Gases, says: When air is compressed, all the work which
is dor;r iii the compression is converred into heat, and shows it.self in the
rise in iemprrsturi of the compressed gas. In practice many devices are
employed 1.0 t:zrrY off the heat as fast as it is developed, and keep the tey-
perature down. But it is not possible in any wag to totally remove this
difficulty. But. it may be obj ected, if all the world done in compression is
converted into heat. and if this heat is got rid of as soon as ossible. then
the work ma,y be virtually thrown awsy. and the compresse cr. aw can have
no more enewi than it bad before comnression. It is true that the com-
press -d gas i&s no more energy t~han ibe gas bad before compression, if
I& temperature is no higher, but the advantage of the compression lies in
brin$w its energy into more available form.
The tot.a! energy of the compressed and uncompressed gas is the same
at the same temperature. but the available energy is much greater in the
fnrmrr _I . . _..
W&n the c,ompresscd air is used in driving a rock-drill. or any other
piece of macl~inrry. it rives IID energy equal in amount to the work it does,
and its temnerature is accordin& xreattr reduced.
Cauws or I,oss of Energy in-vie of-Compressed Air. !Zahner, on
Transmission of Power bY Compressed Air.) - 1. The compression of
ah- ;Iv.avs &voloos heat. and as the comnressed air alwavs cools down to
the temTperntxe hf the .surrounding atmosphere befor< it is used. the
mechanical cquivatmt of this dissipated heat is work lost.
2. The hetit of compression increases the volume of the a and hence
it is nece~%~y t,o carry the air to a higher pressure in the ompressor in 3,
order that we may finally have a given volume of air at a given pressure.
and a! the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. The work spent
in effeciine this excess of pressure is worli lost.
3. Friction of t,he air in t,he pipes, leakage, dead spaces, the resistance
offered by the valves. insufficiency of valve-area, inferior workmanship.
and sio:-enlj- atbendance, are all more or less serious causes of l oss of
nOtc:Pr r_.._-.
The first cause of loss of work. namely. the heat developed by compres-
sion, is ent,irely unavoidable. The whole of the mechanical energy which
the comnresuor-o&ton snends won the air is converted into heat. This
heat is dissipatea by conductionand radiation and its mechanical equiva-
lent is work 10%. The compressed air, having again reached thermal
erlitilibriwm with the surroundine atmosobere. esoands and does work in
vk~rie of its intrinsic energy. - - -
The intrinsic enerEv of a fluid is the energY which it is capable of esert-
ine against a piston in changing from a given state as to temperature and
volume to a total orivaticn of beat and indefinite rsoansion.
-4diahatfr and isothermal Compresston. - Airmay be compressed
either ndi~haticall~. in which all the heat resultin- from compression is
retail in the air corn
as rapidih as produce 2
ressed. or isotherncally, in w&h the heat is removed
, by means of some form of refrigerator.
COMPRESSI;D AIR. 605
Volumes, DLean Pressures per Stroke, Temperatures, etc., :n the
Operation of Air-compression from 1 Atmosphere and 60 Fahr.
(F. Richards. Am. MI&L, March 30, 1893.)
it 2 I 3
3 1. 204 . 830!
4 1. 272 . 786
5 1. 34 , 746:
I O1. 68 , 595;
1512. 02 , 495
2012. 36 . 423
25 2. 7 . 370:
30 3. 04 . 328'
35 3. 381 . 295:
40 3. 721 , 268:
45 4. 061 , 246
504. 401 227.
55~4. 741 . 2l O'
6Oj 5. 081 , 196;
65 5. 422 .184,
. 70 5. 762 . I 73
75, 6. 102 , 163'
I
.95
.91
, 876
. a4
. 81
. 69
. 646
. 543
, 494
. 4531
. 42
, 393
. 37
. 35
. 33l
, 314
, 301
. 288
, 276
I
_
_
3
4
-
0
.96 . ; 75 ! Y
1. 87 1. 91 80. 4
2. 72 2. 8 ' 88. 9
3. 53 3. 67 98
4. 3 4. 5 106
7. 62 0. 27 145
10. 33 I I . 51 178
12. 62 14. 4 207
14. 59 17. 01 234
16. 34 19. 4 1252
17. 9221. 6 281
19. 32 23. 66 302
20. 57 25. 59 1321
21. 69 27. 39 339
22. 7629. 11 357
23. 7830. 75 375
389
405
420
i i %
$I ; : l 2&
100 7: 80
105 8. 14
I i i ! : Z
120 9. 16
I 25 9. 50
130 9. 84
135 I O. 18
K 1%
I 50 I I . 20
160 I I . 88
I 70 12. 56
I f 30 13. 24
I 90 13. 93
200 14. 61
_I
;
:
:
:
:
:
3
4
4
I
i
-ITI
~--
3 5 / 6 / 7
-.- __-,-
. I 552 . 266 27. 38 36. 64 432
. I 474 . 2566 28. 16 37. 94 447
. I 404 , 248 28. 89 39. 18 459
. I 34 . 24 29. 57 40. 4 472
. I 281 . 2324 30. 21 41. 6 485
. ! 226. 2254 30. 81 42. 78 496
. I 178 . 2189 31.39 43.91 507
. I 133 . 2129 31. 96 44. 98 518
. I 091 . 2073 32. 54 46. 04 529
. I 052 . 2020 33. 07 47. 06 540
. I 015 . I 969 33. 57 48. 1 550
. 0981 . I 922 34. 05 49. 1 560
, 095 . I 878 34. 57 50. 02 570
. 0921 . I 837 35. 09 51. 580
. 0892 . I 796 35. 48 51. 89 589
. OMl . I 722 36. 29 53. 65 607
. 0796 . l b57 37. 2 55. 39 624
. 0755 . I 595 37. 96 57. 01 640
. 07i 8 , 154 38. 6U 58. 57 657
. 0685 , 149 , 1 39. 42, 60. 14 672
Column 3 gives the volume of air after compression to the given pressure
and after it is cwled to its initial temperature. After compression air
loses its heat very rapidly. and this column may be taken to represent the
volume of air after compression available for the purpose for vhich,the
air has been compressed.
Column i gives the volume of air more nearly as the compressor has. to
deal with it.
corn
P
resdon.
In any compressor the air will lose some of its heat dunng
The slower the compressor runs the cooler the air and the
sma ler the volume.
Column 5 gives the mean effective resistance to be overcome by the ai!-
cylinder piston in the stroke of compression, supposing the air to remam
Constantly at its initial temperature. Of course it will not so remam. put
this column is the ideal to be l<ept in view in economical air-COmPreSslOn.
^ . . . -1-
Lolumn 6 gives the mean effective resistance to be OverComa oY we Pl s-
ton. supposing that there is no cooling of the air. The aCtlla1 mean eflec-
tive pressure will be somewhat less than as given in this column: but for
computing the actual power required for operat,ing air-ComPressor CYhn-
d$%$tie figures in this column may be ta,ken and a Certain Percentage
say 10 per cent - and the result will represent very CloselY the
gower &uired by the compressor.
en being for compression from one atmosPh&o
correct for computations in compound com-
other. initial pressure.
- .._~~. ~___---,+.e- -...-uyn __,_
2 material may no longer-be accurate
-
606 AIR.
hss due to Excess of Prcssuie baused by Heating in the Com-
pression-cylinder. -- If the air during compression were kept at a con-
stallt temperature, the compression-curve of an indicator-diagram taken
from the cylinder wouid be an isothermal curve, and would follow the l aw
of Ijoyle and Mariotte. pv = a constant, or plzl = p,z,,. or pi = p, 2, PLDO
being the pressure and volume at the beginning of compression. ?nd
,;,c, the pressure and volume at the em!, or at any intermediate pomt.
Sr;c zs the air is heated during compressmn the pressure imxeases faster
than the volume decreases. causing the work req:dred for any given pre--
sdre Tao be increased. If none of the heat \yere abstracted by radiat~ion or
by injection of water, the curve of fl;~?~ dmgram would be an adiabatic
curve, with the equation pl = p0
(;)
Cooling the air during com-
p;ession. or compressing it in two cylinders, called compounding, and
cooling the a,ir as it passes from one cylinder to the other, reduces the
exponent of rhis equation, and reduces the quanrity of i-;ork necessary to
effect a given compression.
describing
F. T. Game (Am. Xarh.. Oct. 29, 1892).
the operations of the Popp air-compressors in Pans. says:
The greatest saving reaiized in compressing in a single cylinder was 33 per
cent of that theoretically os:iible. In cards taken from the 2000 H.P.
compound compressor at (s 1~1 De La Gare. Paris, the saving realized is
55 per cent, of tl;e theoretical amount. Of this amount only 8 per cent is
due to eoolinq during compression. so that the increase of economy in the
compound compressor is mainiy due to cooiing the air between the two
srages of compression. rl compression-curve with exponent 1.25 is the
best, result t~hst was obtained for compression in a single cylinder and
coo!ing with a very fine spray. The curve with exponent 1.15 is that
which must be realized in a sing!e cylinder to equal t.he present economy
of the compound compressor at Quai De La Gare.
Horse-power required to eom- 1
press and deliver One Cubic Foot
of Free Air per minute t,o 5 given
pressure with no cooling of the sir
during the comoression; also the
horse power reqiired. slrpposing the
air to be maintained at constant
tempemture during the compression.
G3tp Air not Air constant
pressure. cooled. 5 0.0196 teT,pyzture.
1: 0.0361 0.0628 0.0333 0.0551
z EE 0.0713
O.W3
2: 0. I195
0.1599 %Z
0.1036 0.0946
2 0.1120
2 i: 181;
ET
O:l3l8
Tire horse-power given above is the theoretical power. no allowance
being made for friction of the compressor or other losses, which may
amount to 10 per cent or more.
KP. required to compress and
deliver One Cubic Foot of Com-
pressed Air per minute at a given
pressure (the air being measured at
the atmospheric temperature) with
no cooling of the air during the
compression: also supposing the air
to be maintained at cons&t tem-
pemrureduring thecompression.
Formulae for Adiabatic Compression or Expansion of Air (or
Other Sensiblg Perfeet Gas).
iet air at an absolute temperature TI . absolube pressure PI, and volume
~1 he compressed to an absolute pressure pl and corresponding volume l)r
and absolute temperatnre 22: or let compressed air of an initial pressure,
voiume. and temperature p?, u?, and Yz be expsilded Tao p,, ~1, and TI. there
lag no transmission of heat from or into the air during the operation.
liy_~__
-
~~~~~ : Thi s i s a 1910 e Some of
.COMPRESSED AIR. * 607
Then the following equations express the relations between pressure,
volume, and temperature (see works on Thermodynamics):
2 _ (E)T; E = (!J.l;
2 = (Ty; 2 = ($y
z = p,-;
g = (CJ.
The exuonents are derived from the ratio c, f c,, = k of the specific
;T;;; of gir at constant .ressure and cons&t v;ume. Taking k =
1 f li = 0.711. f - 1 = 0.406; 1 + (k - 1) = 2.463; k +
(k --I) = 3.463; (k - i) f k = 0.339.
Work of Adiabatic Compression of Sir. - If air is compressed in a
cylinder without clearance from a volume ~1 and pressure PI to a smaller
volume 21~ and higher pressure p?, work equal t,o plvj is done by the external
air OS the piston while the air is drawn indo the cylinder. Work is then
done by t.he piston on the sir. first, in compressing it to the pressu.re PZ
and volume ~2. and thzn in expelling the volume ~1 from t!le cyh?der
,ww&=;,,:.he fryyegy. If the compression is adiabatic, p,v: = pa: =
The work of compression of a given quantity of air is
The work of expuision is p?2):! = &~,
(p2)o-a.
E
The tot.ai work is the sum of the work of compression and expulsion less
the work doue on the piston during admission, and it equals
The mean effective pressure during the stroke is
Pi and p? are absolute pressures above a vacuum in atmospheres or in
pounds per square inch or per square foot.
EXAWLE. - Required the work done in compressing 1 cubic foot, Of
+r per second from 1 to 6 atmospheres, including the work of espulslon
from the cylinder.
Pz % p, = 6: 60-2 - 1 = 0.681: 3.463 X 0.651 = 2,358 atmospheres
X 14.7 = 34.66 lb. per sq. in. mean effective pressure, X 144 = 4091 lb.
Per sq. ft., X 1 ft. stroke= 4991 ft.-lb., + 550 ft.-lb. per second= 9.08 H.P.
If R = ratio of pressures = p? + pi, and if V, = I cubic foot, the work
done in compressing I cubic foot from pl to p? is, in foot-pdunds,
?i -~
L being taken in lb. per sq. ft. For compression at the sea l.evel PI may
e taken at 14 Ibs. per sq. in. = 2016 lb. per sq. ft., as there 1s some loss
-8 -
of ressure due to friction of valves and passages.
orse power required to compress and deliver 100 cubic feet of free a.ir
Per minute = 1.511 pl (Ro.2 - 1); PI being the pressure of the free sir In
S^.~~~ . .
y-as per sq. in., absolute.
EXAWLE.
= 6.
To compress 100 cu. ft. from 1 to 6 atmospheres. P,=1.47:
1.511 x 14.7 x 0.6Sl = 15.13 II.P.
_L_~ <,~A ~I .,-,~.~- -22 .;LA~~,LOL-reP
e mate?[ ~i ?%%y no l onger Abe accurate
COMPRESSED AIR.
609
60s -
AIR.
Indicator-cards from comprwsors in good condition and under prorking-
speeds usually follow the adiabatic line closely.
A low curye mdhcates
piston teakage. Such cooling as there may be from the cyhnder-Jacket
and the re-expansion of the air in clearance-spaces tends to reduce the
mean effecrive pressure, while the
camel-backs in the expulsion-!ine,
due to resistance to opening of the discharge-valve, tend to increase It.
Work of one stroke of a compressor, with adiabatw compression, m foot-
Mean Effective Prc
(F. A. H:
.I
I.E,iPibyf.;
11:itial.
R.
/
RO.S, R.
I .25
1.50
I.75
;:55
5.
2:
3.75
44.25
4.5
R = finu
M.E.P. =
tompolr
indors. (.
cylinder =
I
4.75 I .5io
:.25 1.59-l
1.617
5.5 1.639
5.75 1.660
6 1.681
6.25 I.701
6.5 1.720
6.75
5:;5
I::::
1.775
1.793
8 1.827
=I
.nc
E
I.176
1.223
1.265
I.304
I.341
1. 375
1. 407
1. 438
S%
1. 521
1. 546
3. 24
6. 04
8. 51
10. 8
12. 8
14. 7
16. 4
18. I
19. 6
21. I
22. 5
2:;
26. 4
27. 5
28. 7
29. 8
30. 8
2::
:::;
35. 6
?6. 5
:i:i
39. 9
pounds.
TV = 3. 463 PITI (R.-l - 1).
in which PI - i&in1 absolute pressure in lb. per sq. ft. and Vt = volume
traversed by piston in cubic feet.
The work done during adiabatic compression (or expansion) of 1 pound
of air from a volume cl and piW3lE ?;I
to another voiiinle 1)~ and pressu:e
p? is equal to the mechanical equivalent of the heating (or cooling:).
!f
t, is the higher and t? the lower temperature. Fahr.. the, work done IS
c,J (tl - t) foot-pounds. e, being the specific heat of ar at constant
volume = 0.16S9. and J = 778. cJ = 131.4.
The work during compression also equals
i initial ab$ Golute press
mean effwtive pressure
i Compression, with
n. Maw., March 10 an
I, in high-pressure cyli
e.
!. per sq. in.. base11 on 14 lb. initial.
lr Cooled betwern the Two Cyl-
31. ISOY.) - Work in low-pressure
ler Ip2. Total work
I F1 + I t s = 3. 46 PI V,[ r l ~% + Rl .29~ ,.I --n.29 - 1,
71 = ratio of p-ressures in 1. p. cyl., r2 = ratio in h.p. cyl., R = r+.
rx = fz = 4R. the sum ~, + IV? is a minimum. Hcnre for j givenytt$
ratio Of pressures,, R, the work Of compression, \vill be least Ivllen the ratios
of the pressures In each of the two cylinders are eqtral.
The equation may be simplitizd, when yr = z/E, to the fotlo\ving:
WI + Ii2 = 6. 92 PIV, [R.*j - I].
R, being the value of pv f absolute temperature for 1 pound of air =
53. 37.
The work during expansion is
1 Dividing by V1 gives the mean effecbive pressure- reduced to the IOK-
I prwsure cyhnder M.E.P. = 6.92 PI [R-IJj - I].
1
In the apove equation the compression in each cvlinder is supposed to
be adlaQatw, but the intercooler is supposed
01 me aw t of the aw to that at which compression began.
to re&ce the temperature
Horse-pc Ho;se-payer required to compress adiabatically 100 cu. ft of free air
pw minute in tw Pw mmute m two +ages with intercooline. and with equal r$tio of com-
~~~miogl$l~~~
P.
rewon in .eaeh cyhnder. = 3.022 P1 (R *is- 1): PI being the pressure iii
bs. Per sq. In.. absolute, of the free air, and R the t.otal ratio of compressionl
E~UPLE. Emw&. To To compress 100 cu. ft. per min. from
p = 14. 7; R = 6; 3.02~ x 14. 7 x p = 14. 7; R = 6; 3.022~ 14. 7 x 0.2964 = 13. 17 H.P.
1 to 6 atmospheres.
in which plrt are the initial and pztti the final pressures and volume?.
Compressed-air Engines, Adiabatic Expansion. - Let, the Initial
pressure and volume taken into the cylinder be p1 lb. per sq. ft.,and yl
cubic feet: let expansion take place to pz and % according to the adlabatlc
law p~v:~- = p?zG.al; then at. the end of the stroke let the pressure drop
to t!ie back-pressure p,. at which Ihe air is exhausted.
Assuming no
clearance, the work done by one pound of air during admission, measuredS
above vacuum, is pivl. the work during expansion is 2.463 p,vl
(g)-j *
- .
and the negative or back pressure work is -N?.
The total
.Y J
work is ~Q + 2.163 $i~~ [l - @9] -
p3w, and themean effective pres-
sure is the total work divided by wz.
If the air is expanded down to t~he back-pr.essure pi the total work is
;rd in Two Sta
.pemture to ti
. Wach.. Xar. ; .
&an Effective Pressures of kir CI
Ing the Intercooler to Reckcr
Compression Began.
i
(F. A. Hal
I
7-
R. %;h.
14 Ibs.
Initial.
ay Com-
pound-
ing,%.
1at
31,
,s, assum-
: at which
lS98.)
UltiFate
bi;on:m
pound-
ina%.
11. 5
12. 3
E
13. 7
14. 3
Ki
:;::
38. 3
::g
43. 5
45. 0
46. 4
-m-A-iii_,_
- be accurate
or, in terms of the final pressure and volu
%%F
14 Ibs.
Init~ial.
1. 263
1. 2@0
1. 296
I::;:
I .336
and the mean effective pressure is
15. 8
16. 2
16. 6
i::;
18.4
19.0
19.4 *
25. 4
ii::
30. 1
31. 5
32. 8
:;:i
i
-
The actual work i s reduced bv clearance. When this is considered, the
product of the initial pressweb by the clearance volume is to be sub-
tracted from the total work calculated from the initial volume 211, includW
.&saqc_e, .~~[Sw-p. 931, under Steam-engine.)
EN 1 NG : Th i s i s a
610
AIR.
AIR COMPRESSION AT ALTITUDES.
611
The mean effective pressure for compression only is always lower than
the mean effective pressure for the whole work.
To tind the Index of the Curve of an Air-diagram. If P1 V, be
pressrne and vohune at one point on !I? curve, and P V the pressure and
j? = final J initial absolute pressure.
M.E.P. = mean effective pressure, lb. per sq. in., based on 14 lb. absolute
Initial pressure reduced to the low-pressure cylinder.
TabIe for Adiabatic Compression or Expansion of -4ir.
(Proc. Inst. M.E., Jan., 1881. p. 123.)
volume at another point, then y =
PL (;). iti which I is the index to be
,tbsolute Pressure. 1 Absolute Temperature. 1 Volume.
M~ean and Terminal Pressures of Compressed .4ir used Expansively
for Gauge Pressures from 60 to 100 lb.
(Frank Richards, Am. Mach., April 13, 1893.)
. Initial Pressure.
Ratio of
Greater
to Less.
(Expan
sion.)
3 1 60 1 70 / 60 t 60 1 loo
1.2
1.4
1. 6
1. 8
; : i
; : :
2. 8
: : t
: : i
3. 8
4. 0
4. 2
4. 4
4. 6
4. 8
5. 0
6. 0
7. 0
8. 0
9. 0
i a. 0
0. 833
i : E
0.556
a. 500
0. 454
0. 41?
0. 385
i : : : :
0. 312
: : i E
0. 263
0. 250
E
a. 217
0. 208
Xf
a. 143
a. 125
0. 111
O. l oo
E 0. 879
1. 396 E
1: : : : E: ' :
Ei 0. 571
1. 971 i i %:
; : g 0: 4881 0. 458
2. 284 0. 438
: : Zi EAT
% 0. 388
a. 374
; : ; ti 0. 361
2. 955 Ei
: : E i : : : ;
; : 27 0. 251 0. 280
4. 377 0. 228
4. X O. i i Q
5. 129 0. 195
. 23
. 3a
35
. tQ
. 45
. 50
. f d
a
. $I
. 75
. 80
* . &I
23. 6 110. 66
28. 9 113. 77
32. 13 0.96
33. 66 2. 33
35. 85 3. 85
37. 93 5. 64
41. 75 10. 71
43. 14 13. 26
50. 75 21. 53
51. 92 23. 69
53. 67 27. 94
54. 93 30. 39
56. 52, 35. 01
57. 79 39. 78
59. 15 47. 14
59. 46 49. 65
28. 74j I MU
34. 75 a. 6
38. 41 3. 09
4O. 15 4. 38
42. 63 6. 36
4499 8. 39
49. 31 12. 61
53. 16 17.
59. 51 25. 4
60. 84 28. 85
62. 83 33. 03
64. 25 36. 44
66. 05 41. 68
67. 3 47. 08
69. 03 55. 43
69. 30 58. 27
I 9 I I I
Pressures in italics are absolute: all others are gauge pressures.
AIR COBIPRESSIOX AT ALTITUDES.
BEean Ef?ective Pressures for the Compression Part only of the
Stroke when Compressing and Delivering Air from One -44tmos-
phere to given Gauge-pressure in a Single Cylinder. (F. Richards,
Am. Mach.. Dec. 14. 1893.)
(Ingersoll-Rand Co. Copyright, 1906, by F. M. Hitchcock.)
, Multipliers to Determine the Volume of Free .4ir which. when
Compressed. W?Zquivalent in EtYect to a Givep Volume of Free
Air at Sea Levd.
Alti-
Barometric
Pressure. I
Gauge Pressure (Pounds).
1 Adiabatic
jCompre&on.
-I
We. I
I
Feet.
E- Z
26.76 13. 16
; z:
1. a97
1. 132
23: tVJ I I : ! : 1. 168.
I I . 73
22. 97 11. 30
22. 11
EG
21. 29
10. 87 1. 287
1
10. 46
20. 49 10. 07
1:::: Ki
Ii:;: 14. 3 15. 05
17. m 13. 76
18. 74 - 16. 43
19. 54 17. 09
20. 5 17. 7
21. 22 18. 3
22. 0 18. 87
22. 77 19. 4
23. 43 I 19. 02
0.44 a. 43
! : 2 E"
I . 84 1. 84
2. 26 2. 22
4. 26 4. 14
: : 2 Z7
9. 05
I O. 39 E
11. 59 10. 72
12. 8 1: . 7
the material may no longer-be accurate
AIR COMPRESSION AT ALTITUDES.
Rome-oower Developed in Compressing One Cubic Foot of Free Air
at v:lrinus Al ti tui l es from AtmosphGric to Various Pressures.
InitS Temoerature of the Air in Each Cv&ider Taken a.s 60 F.; Jacket
?-H.P: rotary engine 105Q cu. ft. of cold air, or 847 clr. ft. of air, heated
to about 122 F.
The efficiency of this type of rotary motors, with air heated to lQQ0 F.,
._^.. . . . . . . . I.^ ^... ~I ~. .,._I *
Tests of a small Riedinger rotary engine, used for driving sewing-
mnchrnes and indicating abolrt 0.1 H.P.. shoned an air-consrlmptiotl of
1377 Cl,. ft. per H.P. per hour when the initial pressrlre of t,he air was
.%i lb. per sq. 111. mltl its tempernt.!lre .5-I F.. nnrl !fSY CII. ft. \vhen the air
uxs Ile?t,eti to :13S0 F:. its prt::surtr beirig 72
lb. \VYtlr a l/d-H.P. variable-
Simple Compression. Two Stage Compression.
I ,:
Gauxe Pressure
(PWdS). I
Gnuge Pressure (Pounds).
$ H.P. per hour for initial pressures oi 54 to S5 lb. per sq. in. with the
au heatted from 336.to~3SS F~.. and 114S cu. ft. with cold air, 46 F.. and
an 1mt151 pressure of 72 lb. The
pheric pressure.
vol~~mes of air wcrre all taken at atmos-
I
60 / 80 j 100 60 / 80 / I O0 i I 25 / 1%
2093 T I rla so made With an old single-cylinder SO-horse-newer Fn, rrot st~n, m-
engine. indicating 72 H.P., gave a consumption of air per brake H.P. as
low as 465 cu. ft. per hour.
and of exhaust 95O F.
The temperature of admission was 320 F..
0. 1772 / 0. 1921
^ ._^_ ^ .^_^ Prof. Elliott gives the following as tvnicul results of effiriencv for
various systems of compressors and air-m&m:
0. 1662 1 0. 1797
_ . . ^_ ^ .__^
-Simple compressor and simple motor. elhciencv. -39.1%
Camp-nm,l conpressor and yimnle motor. (
I 0. 1442 0. 1592 1 0. 1717 86 . .
- . . . compound motor, eflGikncy1 30: 7
lrrple compressor and triple motor,
. .
LT. 3
E-\-;xPT.x~- Reouired the volume of free air which when compressed
to 161) it,. gauge at 9.000 ft. altittrde wili be equivalent to l.OO~f cu. .ft. The eficienc.v is the ratio of the I.H.P. in the mot,or cvl i nrl prs to the
of free air at sea level: also the power developed in compressing this
vt,lilme td 100 lb. gauge in two stage compression at this altitude.
From rirst table the muitiplier is 1.356. Equivalent free air = 1,000 X
1.356 = 1.3.56 cu. ft.
From second :able, power developed in compressing 1 c~ rA
-P I-~.~. -z-
I,. Id. 1 ,rt!e iur
isO.:4;:: H.P.; 1,356 X 0.1473 = lQ9.73 HP.
The Popp Compressed-air System in Paris. - A most extensive
sysr,e:n of ~list~ributmn of power by means of compressed air is th:it. of
~1. ~,,:,n. in Paris. One of the central stations is laid out for 2
I.H.P. in the steax-cylinders of the compressor. The pressrw assllmed
is 6 at.mosplreres absohlte. and the losses are equal to those found in Paris
over a distance of 4 miles.
4. mm
n. see E~i gi nrer-
3. April 10. and
J.---3 A----:-
Summmary of l3Ticienries of Compressed-air Transmission at Paris.
between thr Central Station at St. Fargcnu and a IO-horse-pow&
~~otor Workin:: with Pressure Reclucccl to 41/z Atmospheres.
Lwr;~+prtw-er. For a very complete derxiption of the syter
iriy. Feb. 1.5, June 7. 21, and 2% IYSQ. and March 13 and 21
Sf;ty 1 I bQl. Also Pm-. I nst. Sf. E., July. ISSQ. A conwnseu oescrip-
.: . ..13. L_^ c ^..I, 1 i.. ,r ^,,,..... \I,.,, I... :^,- _ ,q
(The figures below correspond to mean results of two experiments cold and
two heated.)
One indicated horse-power at central station gives 0.545 I.H.P. in com-
, and corresponds Tao the compression of 3-1-S cu. ft. of air ner bntl r
LIU!i \illi i,c ~U,U 11, _I1151L .1Ic;Ct*l1:13111, iJ. li.
t- ti l i zati onof Compresseg Air. in Small 3Iotor.5. - In the earliest
was recognized that no good rl
~... _- -..---_I _1:_^^* :-.- .I_^ _^I ,.-.
stages of the Popp system in Paris it
COW be obtained if the air ~,vere ailoweu to expanu WKCL inw we ~WLW ;
not oniy did the formation of ice due to the expansion of the air rapidly
accum?lI-te and choke tire exhaust. bm the percentage of useful work
obtained. comoared witb that put into the air at the central station, was
~wrrr atmospneric pressure to 6 atmospheres absoi ute.
6.S45 I.H.P. in compressors delivers as much air as mill do 0. 52 I.H.P.
m-i--
. in afllabstic expansion after it has fallen to the normal temoeratrrre of the
The fall of pressure in mains between central station an:1 Paris (say
kilometres! reduces the possibility of work from 0.52 to 0.,1 I.H.P.
5

The further fall of pressure through the reducing valve to -~I/:! atmos-
ph;zc;absolute) reduces the possibility of work from 0.51 to 0.50.
actual I.H.P. of the motor from 0.50 to 0.39.
lplete expansion. wire-drawinr.~ and other such causes reduce the
BY heating the air before its enters the motor to about 32V F.. the _.. ._--~
ac!ual 1.H.P. at the motor is, however. increased to 0.54. The ratio of
gatn by heating the airis thwPf nrP n ri d + n: w = 1 I i s
In this-process additi&l n n,. . .
..__ l_-__, _.__ - - - _ . - -.
heat is supplied hg t,he combustion of about
?:%!o:~of coke oer L.H.P. oer !ronr. and if this Iw taken into account. the
!ng With cold air the work so&t in driving the motor itself reduces
~~~~~d=~ai;~i:~~~~ ,$$t in driving the motor itself
able horse-oower from 0.54 t.o 0.44.
fi summarv of the efficiencies is as follows:
Pm,,: ^__... --c
tency of redwing valve 0.56 + 0.51 = 0.98.
combined efficirncy.of t~he mains and reducing valve between 5 and
mospherts is thus 0.9s x O.QY = 0.96. If the reduction had been
am engines 0.545.
~mpressors 0.X + 0.545 .= 0.61.
ansmission through mains 0.51 f 0.52 = 0.98.
of the material m&y no longer-be accurate
614
AIR. AIR COMIRZSSION AT ALTITUDES. 615
to 4 31;~ or 3 atmospheres, the corresponding etfciencies would have
beenO.93: 0.89. and 0.85 respectively.
Indicated efficiency of motor 0.39 + 0.50 = 0.78.
Indicated efficiency of whole process with cold air 0.39. Apparent
indicated efficiency of whole process with heated air 0.54.
Real indicated efficiency of whole process with heated air 0.47.
Mechanical efiiciency of motor, cold, 0.67.
Mechanical efficiency of motor, hot, 0.81.
Ingersoll-Sergeant Standard Air Compressors.-Continueil.
-
._
._
_.
-.
_
-,
d
Diam. of Cyl.. In.
G
, : i
gj
, : :
30
'80
ioo
ioo
175
175
175
175
I s
: i
! 20
183
i 85
G
150
180
120
183
585
- i i
125
I 35
172
315
429
-iii
1R
I I 7
315
429
-
steam. .) Air.
Class and Type.
Ingersoll-Sergeant Standard Air Compressors.
(Ingersoll-Rand Co., 1908.)
IO lOl/~....,
12 l 2l / 4 . . __
I 4 141/ 4 , , . . .
I 6 . _. . 16114 . . _. .
I 8 I S' , 4
20 2Ol / 4
22 221, 4/ . . . . .
- -
Diam. of Cyl., In.
Steam. I Air. .
2
2
CT
.c
i;
.----
I. I
160 177 50- 100
155 285 50- 100
i 120 381 ~50- 100
I 120 498 i 50- 100
---
I O . . _. l O1/ 4 . I 2
12 . _. . l 21, 4 . I 4
14 . . . . , 141, 4 I 8
I 6 . . . . 1l 61/ 4 . . _. I 8
I 8 _. __ 18' , 4 . 24
20 . . . . , 20' , 4 . . __ 24
22 . . . . / 221/ . . . . _ 24
24 . . . . j 241/ 4 _. . __ 30
- - - - -
I 2 . 71, ~12114 I 2
14 91/ q l 41/ 4 I 4
16 . . _. I O' / 4 l 6l / 4 I 8
18 . . 12: / 4 l 81/ 4 18
20 . ___ 131, ~20114 24
22 . . . . ' 14q4 2211~ 24
24 _. __ l 51; 4 2411, 24
26 . . _. 161i 4 26114 30
2% 35
: ; I : f j
a- 1 00
86. - 131
106- 161
; ; : 7; "4;
4r- 45
60- 66
89- 97
113- 124
.-
I I 3
200
1 : z
2:
520
710
- -
I 45
2;
435
640
640~
, 640
I ' 90! 1606 : 90- 1l Oi 258- 284 1 950
G- l *
Duplgu$xIWf
Steam Driven. Class and Type.
_----
I O . , __ l OI / l 6' , 4
I 2 I l l / 4 181/ q
I 4 141/ q22114
I 6 l 51, ' 4 251/ j
I 8 . 17114 28' 14
20 , . . . 181: 4' 3Ol , q
22 _. . . 2Ol / 4 321/ d
22 22114 34114
67- 75
97- 108
140- 157
182- 204
245- 274
314
360
361
160 444
155 638
120 925
120 1205
100 1622
1: ;::i
100 2390
80- 100
80- 100
8rbl OO
80- 100
"z?
100
80
G-2t
Duplex Steam.
Compound Air.
A- l *
Straight Line
!Stezm Driven.
-_-__-_
6 , . . . 6
8 . 8114 . . .
I O , . . . l OV4 .
I 2 . . 12114 __. .
I 4 . . . . 14114
I 6 I 6114 , . __
- - - -
6. . . . 7 I O
8 I . . . . 91/ 4, 141,
I O , __. . l Ol , 4( l 61, .
I 2 _. . _ l 21/ 4' l 8l / .
I 4 , , __ 141/ 4! 221, .
/ I
I 6 161/ 4i 251/ .
- - - , -
---
150 58 50- 100 71/ ~- l l I / ~
150 140 55- 100 20- 28
150 272 60- 100 40- 54
150 472 60- WI / 70- 94
I 40 6EO 65- 100 106- 136
135 986 17&100! 160- 197
I f - l *
Duplex Steam,
Duplex Air.
.4-2*
Straight Line
Steam Driven
Compound Air.
- ---
150 81 80- l 00, l 21, ~- 141, ~
150 215 80- I OOi 33- 37
150 348 80- 100 53- 59
15' ) 526 80- 100 80- 90
, l W 841 80- 100 129- 144
135 1205 80- 100, 182- 204
_- - -
H-2$
Duplex Steam.
Compound Air.
B.* Straight line, belt driven. Sameas A-l in sizes up to 161/ 4 X ISin
C. Dllplex Corliss Steam, Duplex air.
Designed to suit condi-
C-2, Compound Corliss St.eam.Compound air.t
I
tions not made to stand-
ard sizes.
J - l *
Duplex
Belt Driven.
. 6
. 8114 . . .
101/ 4 . . . .
. 121/d
I 4114 . .
. l 61/ 4
- - - __-
J-2s
Duplex Compound
Belt Driven.
, I O
97l , 4 14' 1
I Ol , , l 61/
l 2l / 4 181,
l 41, 4 2211
. . . . ' . . . . l 61/ 4 2511
-
--- --
150 81 SO- 100 12- 14
150 215 80- 100 31- 35
150 348 80- 100
150 526 XI - 100 : : z
I 40 841 So- I Oi l 121- 138
135 1205 BO- I O0 176- 198
-
* Built in intermediate sizes for lower pressures.
t For sea level; also built with larger low pressure cylinders for alti-
tudes of 5,000 and 10,000 ft.
:. For sea level; also built in the 4 la&t sizes with larger low PreBure
CYhders for altitudes of 5,000 and 10,000 ft..
--
352
568
763
994
1338
1674
444
638
925
1205
1622
1857
2130
' 60- 100
60- 100
65- 100
70- 100
/ ; Ei
w) - 100
80- 100
8cl OO
80- I OQ
B&100
NJ - ! 00
80
50- 67 , 240
81- 108 ! 400
113- 146 ~625
235- 263 j l O50
269- 300 ' I 050
309 I I 050
- - +__l - . -
D- l * . :
Duplex and Half
Dupies
Belt Driven. 1:
IL
D-2; ::
Duplex Compound!.
Belt Driven.
E.* Straight line, belt driven: same sizes as F-l.
F' *
Strsi ght Line
Steam Driven. Many other styles of compressors are also built.
follovJinP
Among them are the
Rand-Corliss, compound condensing steam, comppnnd air: capacities.
760 to 7670 cu. ft. of free air per min.: steam cylinders. 10 and 18 to 18 and
52 in.; air cylinders. 11 1l.j and 18 to 33 and 52 in.; stroke 30 to 48 in.;
-:.,a: .&H.P., from 114 to 1166.
* Built~ in intermediate sizes for lower pressures.
t Most economical form of compressor. $ For sea level: also built with
larger low pressure cylinders for altitudes of 5,000 and 10,000 ft.
%is is a 1910 edition. Some-~
may no l onger accurate
AIR.
COMPRESSED AIR.
Then tables above are for fair condilions in ordinary hard rock. In
oft material. where the dril!inrr time is short more drills can be rlzn xvit,ll
.> vivfatl cnmnrpssnr than when working, in hard material.
;;,,;;i;,~m~~-;~.~~,
In tunnrl
:oyress can be made If the drills are run at hizh air
pr~r~re, and It, is advisable to have an ~SCW of compressor cajkrit:f
of about ci/o. No Llowance has been made in the tables for friction
,)r pipe line losses.
f4tr:rm Erqnirrd to Compress 100 Cu. %t. oF Fret Air. (0. s.
Sl , al , tz, potoer. Feb. 4. 100s. ) - The follo!rin:: t;lMes show the number of
pom~is of steam reqriired to compress 100 cil. ft. of free air to ditferent
gauge pressures, by means of st,eam engines riyins from l:! to 40 lbs. of
steam per I.H.P. per horlr, Tlir figures assume adiabatic compreGon
intercoolin
>tr::kht line. steam driven: capnciti*s. A:! to 6.30 cu. ft. of free air per
mix: ste.tm ~,ylinrlers. 6 to 12 in.; air cylinders, 6j to 19 in; strolie, S to
ltiiil.; I.H.P.,S.~~O~~.
Cubic bet @f .Qr Rerluircd to Run Rock Drills at Various pressures
in the air cylinders, with :: to atmospheric temperature in the
case of two-stage compression, and 9U% mechanical etficitncy of the
and Altitudes. compressor.
(Ingersoll-Rand Co., 190s.)
TABLE I. - CCL3IC FEET OF FREE AIR !n3QZ;IRE TO RUN SE DRILL.
#
g ; /
--~
Size and Cylinder Diameter of Drill.
STEA\I CONSUMPTIOS OF AIR C,?>;L 7 !~~ssons-sIscL~-ST~~c~ C~renE.ssIox.
I Steam ner I.H.P. Hour. Lb.
Air.
"s I T; 24 26 28 1 30 32 ; 36 , 40
2. 923. 41 3. 90!
3. 223. 76 4. 30
3. 5014. 08 4. 67
3. 72 4. 344. 96
3. 96 4. 61 5. 29
4. 184. 87 5. 58
4. 385. 11 5. 85
2. 04 2. 26 2. 49 2. 72 2. 941
2. 76 3. 06 3. 37 3. 68 3. 981
3. 39 3. 77 4. 15 4. 52 4. 901
3. 93 4. 36 4. 80 5. 25 5. 681
4. 38 4. 80 5. 36 5. 85 6. 32/
4. 83 5. 36 5. 90 6. 45 6. 971
5. 25 5. 04 6. 42 7. 00 7. 59,
5. 58 6. 20 6. 82 7. 45 8. 05:
5. 95 6. 60 7. 25 7. 92 8. 33
6. 26 6. 96 7. 66 8. 36 9. 051
6. 57 7. 30 8. 04 8. 76 9. 5Oi 10. 20 10. 95~11. 66~13. 13~
I I
4. 54
6. 12
7. 50
t- z
10. 70
i l . 61
1: : : ;
13. 90
14. 55
-
TWO-ST~LGE COMPRESSION.
.- ,.,, I! I,
f i ' i . ! I . 8 ' 2. 7 13. 4 / 4. 1 14. 8 15. 4 16. 0 16. 5 / 7. 1 1 9. j
1ooe / 03 ! . a5 2. 7Si ' -
3. 7 4. 2214. 94. 5. %6. 18~6. 69i 7. 3 ) 9. 71
2' 030 I . 07 i . 92: 2. s9; 3. 64' 4. 39~5. 14~5. 78' 6. 4216. 95! 7. 6O; f O. 1;
3000 Ll O~1. 58: 2. 9i ~3. 74 4. 51' 5. 2&5. 94: 6. 6 ' 7. 15; 7. 8l i , O. 4!
j f ml i . 17! 2 10~3. 16! 3. 9Ef 4. 8 15. 62' 6. 32~7. 0217. 611 8. 3l l l i . i ;
8i %l I . 26i 2. 2i ' 3. 40: 4. 28 i . i 7: 6. 05' 6. 8 17. 56i 8. 19; 8. 95' 1[ , 9:
1OWO 132: 2. 38 3. j 6j 4. 49 5. 41' 6. 34' 7. 13~792/ 8. j &9. 37' 12. 5
f j oo! l I . - t3; 2. 5i ' 3. 86j 4. 86 5. S6: 6. 86' 7. i Zi 8. 58j 9. 3 j i O. i j , l 3. 5t
: , 1 i i I
130 6. 38 7. 03 7. 66 8. 30' 8. 921 9. 57! 10. 20 11. 48I i 2. 72
140 6. 60 7. 26 7. 92 8. 60 9. 23 9. 90f i 0. 56 11. 88! 13. 15
150 6. 81 7. 50 6. 74 8. 861 9. 55 10. 20' 10; 90 1226113. 60
Compressed-air Table for Pumping Phnts-
(Ingersoll-Rind Co., 190s.)
The following table SIIOWS the pressure and volume of air re
1
Idred for
FnY sjze pump for pumping by compressed air.
Reasqca@Je a lowances
1 in r\ino
E\;.:vPI.E. - Reqllired the smoltnt of free a~ir to operate thirty 5-inch
H.
s% 111.
drills at 11.000 ft~. alt,itclde. using air at a xau~e pressure of SO ib. per
From Table I. w find that one Z-inch H drill operatine at SO lb.
P:tilpe prr33lrc requires 190 cu. ft. of free air per minute
From Table
Ir. the factor for 30 drills at S.000 feet altitude is 19 9-190 X 19.9 =
3; SI = the d - 1.
which miiSt 1~
W acement of a compressor under aver& conditions, to
me ad&d nine line Ins~
To find the amount of air and pressure reqilired to Pump a given quan-
titY of water a given height. find the ratio of diameters between water
and
fi
air cylinders, and ml,ltiply thenumber of gallons of water by the
o
f
ure found in the column for the required lift.
cubic feet of free nir.
The result is the number
The pressure required on the PdmP ~111 be found
directly above in the same column. .For example: The ratio between
CYkders bei ng 2 to 1, required to pump 100 @llOIlS, height of lift 250
::$wa- i .
,
61s AIR.
feet. We find under 250 feet at ratio 2 to 1 the figure* 2.11: 2.11 X 100 -
211 wbic feet of free air.
ewl at the pump piston.
The pressure required is %.38 pounds deliv-
COMPRESSED .4IR.
PING-EN0
--
ActLid
Horse-
power.
Stroke,
Rerolu-
tions per
Inches. Minute.
DOURLE-CYLINDER Ho
I
N0rIlXd
Horse-
power.
E.
Weight
Liftecl.
Single
Rope.
1, 000
1, 650
2, 500
' , $I I ;
s: ooo
10, 000
, . . . . .
IS1
-
.-
-
--
.-
-
_
Cubic Ft.
of Free .Gr
Required.
Di;im. of
C&3
:
7 I4
8114
81/z
10
12%
14
__-
R;ltio of
Di:rxnrter
1 Tao I
1 l!? to 1
I q, to 1
2 t. 0 I
2: ; , i " 1
2: ' ? to 1
I P erpendiculsr Height, in Feet, to which the Water
is to be Pumped.
250 ~ 300 ! 400
_I-/--
i i . 8
1- f : :
24. 2
33. 6
: : . L:
89. 2
125.
A 113. 75 27. 5 141. 25 55. 0 ! 68. 25! 82. 5 ~96. 25\ , 10. 0
B IO.21 0.451 0.60 0.75! 0.89/ I.041 1.2Oi 1.34
A 12. 22; 18. 33! 24. 4430. 33! 36. 66~42. 76j 48. 88
B .._._ 0.65, 0.80 0.95! 1.09i 1.24/ 1.39: 1.53
A . . __. . . . . . ! 13. 75. 19. 8 122. 8 i 27. 5 132. 1 136. 66
B .__.. ..__.I 0.94 1. 14! 1. 24i I . 301 1. 541 1. 69
. I I . . . . . . _. _. I . . . . _ 13. 75: 17. 19! 20. 63' 24. 06~27. 5
B i ._._. / .._._ I.231 1.37! 1.52: I.661 1.81
A ' . . . . . . _. . . I , . . _. __. . . 13. 75' 16. 5 ' 19. 25/ 22. 0
B ! . . ... __... 1. 53 I . 681 1. 83' 1. 97
B ~ / . . . . . _._.. _..__
A I . . . . . . . ~ . . . __. . 13. 2 , 15. 4 17. 6
I.791 1.981 2.06
j . . ...! . . . . . . . . .
161. 1i 73. 32i 97. 61
1. 83' 2. 12: 2. 71
145. 83 55. 0 173. 3:
1. 99: 2. 391 2. 81
34. 3841. 25i 55. 0
2. 11; 2. 40: 2. 9;
27. 5 - 33. 0 ' 44. 0
2. 26: 2. 561 3. 11
22. 0 : 26. 4 135. 2
2. 341 2. 62 3. 14
Practical Xesults with C;ompressed Air. - Compressed-air S!lstem
al theChapin, Mines, Iron Mountui?l, Mich. -These mint% are three miles
from t,he fails which supply the power.
There are four turbines at the
,falls. one of 1000 horse-power and three of 900 horse-power each. The
pressure is 60 pounds at bO Fahr. Each turbine runs a pax pf compress-
or:. The pipe to the mines is 24 ins. dismeter. The power 1s apalled at
the mines to Corliss engines, running pumps. hoists, etc., and dxect to
rock-drills.
A test made in 18S8 gave 1430.27 H.P. at the compressors, and 390.17
H.P. as the sum of tlx horse-power of the engines at the min$s.
fore only 27% of the power generated was recovered at the mmes.
There-
Thm
inclbdes the loss due to leakage and the loss of energy in heat, but not the
friction in the engines or compressors. (F. A. POCOC~. Tran~. A. I. ill. E.,
A = air-pressure at pilmp. B = cubic feet of free air per gallon of water.
C>>mpressed-air Table for Hoisting-engines.
(Ingersoll-Rand Co., 1908.)
The following table gives an approximate idea of the volume of free alI
reqi:iri:d or operating hoisting-engines. the air being delivered to the
~;IIKIN j, 60 Ibs. gauge. There are so many variable conditions to the
opwrrion of hoisting-engines in common use that accurate comput,ations
can only be offered when fixed dat.a are riven.
Tn the table the endne is .~~ ~~~- ---
assumrd to actually run but one-half of the time for hoisting, while the
cnmpres.qor runs continuously.
If the engine runs less than one-half the
rime, the volume of air required wili be proportionately less and z-ice
w7.w. The tab!e is computed for masimum loads, which also <n practice
may vary widely. From the intermittent character of the work of a
hoisrinz-entine the parts are able t,o resume their normal temperature
bemeen the hoists, and there is litrle probability of freezing up the
exhaust-passages.
1890.)
W. L. Saunders (Jour. F. I., 1892) says:
Thereis not aproperly designed
compressed-air installation in operation to-day that loses qver sio. by
transmission alone,. The question is altogethe? one of t+e Size
of pipe:
and if the pipe is lzzrge enough, the friction loss 1s a small item.
The loss of power in common practice, where compressed
air is used
to drive machinery in mines and tunnels, ?s about 70%: In the best prac-
t& with the best sw-compressors. and wlthout rehentmg. the loss 1s about
These losses may be reduced to a pomt as low as 20% bv;ombin-
ingothe best systems of reheat,inc with the best air-compressors.
Gain due to Htcbcatiny. -
Prof. Kennedy ss, s compressed-air trans-
mission system is now being carried on, on a
Y arge commercial scale.
in such a fashion that a small motor four miles away from the central
station can indicate in round numbers 10 horse-power, for 20. horse-
F-0yJ.e at the station itself, allowing for the value of the coke used In heat-
.
Ing Lne air.
The limit to successful reheating lies in the fact that air-engines can-
not work to advantwe at temperatures over 350:
The efficiency of the common system of reheatmg is sh
wn by the re-
sults obtained with the Popp system in Paris.
Air is a x mitted to the
reheater at about 83. and passes to the engine at about 315. thus belr$
increased in volume about 42%.
The air. used in Paris is ~about 11 ,cub!c
feet of free air per minute per horse-power. The ordinary practice In
America with cold air is from 15 to 25 cubic feet per minute.Per horse-
Power. When the Paris engines were worked without reheatmg the air
consumption was increa,sed to about 15 cubic feet per hqrse-pqwer per
minute. The amount of fuel consumed during reheating 1s trlA;ng.
Effect of Tern emtore of Intake upon the Discharge of a Corn--
r
~CSSOP..-- Air sto& be drawn from outside the engine-room. and
rom as cool a place as possible.
The gain in efficiency amounts to one
Per cent for ever five degrees that the air is taken in lower than the
temperature of thk engine-room.
The inlet conduit should have an area
at least 507 of the area of the air-piston. and should be made of wood*
brick. or other non-conductor of heat.
Discharve of a compressor having an i&ake capacity of 1OOOcubic feet
Per minutz and volumes of the discharge reduced to c bit feet at atmos-
pheric p&we and at temperature ot 62 degrees
Fah r . enhed:
re of Intake, F. . 00
0 750 800 900 1000 110
barged, cubic ft. 1135 1% I!%0 975 966 949
932 91s
- __I - - . . , , ~, ~. ~. , _. ___- . _, _. _. . _, ~_I n, - ~ _, _. . _,
2 materi al may no longer be accura-t,e
Volunx of Free Air Required for Operating Hoisting-engines, the
Air Compressed to 60 Pounds Gauge Pressure.
,
SI SGLE- CTLI NDER HorsTIsG-EscrsE.
4
Z$
Cubic Ft.
Single
of Free Air
Rope.
Required.
NorIn3l Actual
Horse- Horse-
POWW. p0TWr.
E
160
125
125
i i 0
110
1,:: 75
1. 500 1E
2, 000
; g;
151
170
6: OOO
i 2
a 1910 edi ti on. Some of '
3 5. 9
6"
6. 3
9. 9
2
12. 1
16. 8
~%
18. 9
26. 2
Stroke.
Inches.
620 AIR.
Compressed-Lir Not~ors with a &turn-Air Circuit. - In the ordinary
use of motors, such as rock-drills, the a~. after dwng Its work in the motor,
is allo,ved to escspe into the atmosphere. In some systems, however.
notably in the elrctzic air-drill, the air eshnusted from the cylmder of the
motor is re:u:ncd to the air compressor. A marked increase in economy
is &igletl to irave been effected in this way (Cuss. Xuq., 1907).
Intercoolers for Air Compressors~ - H. V. Halght (rlnz. Mach.,
A,,-. 31). 1906). 111 multi-stage air compressors, +e-etficiency is greater
r,bc more nt:arly t,he temperature of the air leavmg the intercooler ap-
p~ac!i~s that oi the: air cxtcring it. The difference of these temperatures
for $\WJ temperatures of the c:liering water and air is diminished by in-
creasing the surfwe of the intzcooler and thereby decreasing the ratio
of the q:lnntit>- of air cooled to the area of cooling surface. Numerous
tests of inwrcoolers with different ratios of quantity of air to area of sur-
face, on bviw @ot.ted, approximate to a straight-line diagram, from which
the foilolwing ligures are taken:
Gil. ft. of free air per min. per sq. ft. of air cooling Surface 5 10 15
DifT. of temp. F. between water entering and air Ieavmg 12.50 250 37.50.
Centrifucyal Air Compressors. - !Eug. SCWS, Nov. 19. 1908.) The
General Electric Co. has ;)laced on the market a line of centrifugal air
compressors with pressure ratings from 0.75 to 4.0 Lbs. per s in. and
capncit,ies from 750 to 2s,OOO cu. ft. of free air per minute. % he com-
pressor consists essentially of a rotating impeller surrounded by a suit-
able casing with an illtakc opening at the center and a discharge oper;ing
at the circumference. It is simiiar to the centrifug:-1 pump, the efficiency
depi:-niii!xg largely upou t,he design of the impeller and. casing.
The compressors are driven by Curti;l~~;pm,~ turbmes or,,bp electric
motors esprcislly de:icned for them. hqmrrel-cage mduction
mmois, since the speed cunnot be varied, care mwt be taken to specify
a pressure sur&iently hi& to cover rhe operating requirements, because
at constant speed the pressure cannot be varied wirhout altering the
desixn of the impelier. For foundry cupo!a service dirwt-current motors
can be compoiind wound so as to automatically increase the speed should
the vol;tme of air delivered decrease. thus increasing the pressure of the
air and prevexing undue reduction of fiow of air through the cupola
when it chokes up. Further adjllst.ments of pressure CD,. be made by
chanrinp the speed of the motor by means of the field rheostat.
R.P.M.
3;53
3450
3450
34%
2s:
1725
3450
3450
3450
3410
;g;
I725
3450
3450
Samdard Con-
ditions.
3450 I
-__
Ltxs.
ier sq.
In.
i,
i.0
1.0
i.0
I.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
::2
::::
3.25
3.25
3.25
cu. Ft.
:er Min.
800
1, 600
3,200
4,500
7,200
10.200
25,GGO
750
1;6OG
2,500
4,200
6.200
15,000
28,000
2 ,?50
2.400
3,800
9,WG
9,wo
18,000
18,QGo
ltrifurral dir Comoressors (1
Jinimum Speed
Conditions.
Lbs.
er sq.
Cu. Ft.
In.
,er Xin.
0.75 1,100
0.75 2.100
0.75 4,100
2:;
5,9GO
8,EOO
0.75 12.OOG
0.75 3 I ,occ
1.5 I,000
1.5 2,iGG
I::
3,300
I.5 i?z
1.5 19:ooo
1. 5 36,000
2.5 1,800
2.5
i::
;:;g;
II:500
2.5 11 _ooo
::;
23.000
23.5GG
Iaximum Speed
Conditions.
Lbs.
ter Sq.
In.
1.25
)$
I.25
;:;:
1.25
E
2.50
2::
2.50
2.50
I.%
2,600
3,800
6.000
8.700
21,000
500
i,200
I.900
3,300
5.000
I1 .ooo
24,000
900
ING: This is a 1910 edition.
Cu. Ft.
)er Min.
Pipe
Xam-
eter
nches.
Multi-stage compressors have been built of the following sizes.
Cu. ft.; free air per min. Pressures. Rated speed.
From a curve of the load characteristics of a compressor rated at 1.7
lbs. pressure and 7X! cu. ft. per min. the followirlg tigures are derived.
The actual efficiency is not given:
Delivery, cu. ft. per min.* . 0 200 400 600 700 500 900 1000
Discharge pressure, Ibs. Per sq. in. 1.64 1.75 lS2 1.81 1.80 1.72 l.GO 1.46
Etfy. per cent of masimum __. 0 49 77 95 99 100 99 96
* Reduced to atmospheric pressure and 60 F.
As in the case of centrifugal pumps, the pressure depends on the
eripheral velocity of the impeller.
f! , ;
The volume of free air delivered is
muted however, by the capacity of the driver, and hence must be re-
duced proportionately to the increase in pressure, otherwise the driver
might become overloaded.
The pqwer required to drive centrifugal compressors varies approsi- The pqwer required to drive centrifugal compressors varies approsi-
mately w!tb tl!e volume of air delivered when operating at a constant mately w!tb tl!e volume of air delivered when operating at a constant
speed. This gives He.xibility and economy !o the centrifugal type where speed. This gives He.xibility and economy !o the centrifugal type where
variable loads are ret uired, satisfactory efficiency being obtained between variable loads are ret uired, satisfactory efficiency being obtained between
the limits of 255% an the limits of 255% an a a 125c/o of the rated load. 125c/o of the rated load.
When the compressor is operated as an eshauster against atmospheric When the compressor is operated as an eshauster against atmospheric
g ) . g ) .
res,ure the r:lted pressure P in lbs. per square inch must be multiplied res,ure the r:lted pressure P in lbs. per square inch must be multiplied
y 14.7 And then divided by 14.7 + P. y 14.7 And then divided by 14.7 + P. The result represents the vacuum The result represents the vacuum
obtained in Ibs. per square inch below atmosphere. obtained in Ibs. per square inch below atmosphere.
High-Pressure Centrifugal Fans. - (A. Ra.teau! Engq., Aug. 16. 1907.) High-Pressure Centrifugal Fans. - (A. Ra.teau! Engq., Aug. 16. 1907.)
1~ 1~ 1900, a single wheel fan driven by a steam turbine at LO,ZOO revs. per 1900, a single wheel fan driven by a steam turbine at LO,ZOO revs. per
min. g?ve an air pressure of S1/4 lbs. per sq. in.; an output of 26.7 cu. ft. min. g?ve an air pressure of S1/4 lbs. per sq. in.; an output of 26.7 cu. ft.
free sir per second; useful work in H.P. adiabatic compression, 45.5: free air per second; useful work in H.P. adiabatic compression, 45.5:
theoretical work in H.P. of st.eam-How. 162; etficiency of the set, fan and theoretical work in H.P. of st.eam-How. 162; etficiency of the set, fan and
turbine, 2Yc/o. turbine, 2Yc/o. An efficiency of 30.7yo An efficiency of 30.7yo was obtained with an output of was obtained with an output of
23 cu. ft. per sec. and 132 theoretical H.P. of steam. 23 cu. ft. per sec. and 132 theoretical H.P. of steam.
obtained wth a fan is -all things obtained wth a fan is -all things bein bein
The pressure The pressure
g g equal -proportional to the equal -proportional to the
speciQc weight of the gas which flows through it; therefore, if. instead of speciQc weight of the gas which flows through it; therefore, if. instead of
ai! at atmospheric pressure. air, the pressure of which has already been ai! at atmospheric pressure. air, the pressure of which has already been
raiswl,. or a gas of higher density., such as carbonic acid, be used, com- raiswl,. or a gas of higher density., such as carbonic acid, be used, com-
paratively higher pressures still will be obtained. or the engine can run at paratively higher pressures still will be obtained. or the engine can run at
IoWer SDeeds for t&e same increase Of nressure.
~?f?luliiple Wheel Fnns. -The appa&us having a single mpeller gives
satisfaction only when the duty and speed are sufficiently high. The
speed is limited bv the resistance of the metal of which the imneller is
made, and also bythe speed of the motor driving the fan. But by con-
necting several fans in series. a$ is done with high-lift centrifugal pumps,
It 1. possible to obtain as hi& a nressm-e as maYbe desired.
Turbo-Compressor, Be&&e Mines, 1906.~- This machine compresses air
to s and 7 atmospheres by utilizing tile exhaust steam from t.he xinding-
e!Wnex It consists of four sets of multi-cellclar fans through which the
air How in succession. They are fitted on two parallel shafts, and each
shaft is driven by a low-pressure turbine. A high-pressure turbine is
also mounted on one of the shafts. but supplies no work in ordinary times.
An automatic device divides the load equally between the two shafts.
Betrveen the two compressors are fitted refrigerators, in which cold water
is made to circulate by the action of a small centrifugal Pump keyed at
the end .of the shaft. In tests at a speed sf 5000 r.p.m. the volLme of
a*r drawn per second ~vas 31.7 CU. ft. and the discharge prkssure 119.5 lb.
p .L. er W 17 absolute. These condirions of work& correspond to an effect-
ve work in isothermal compression of 252 .H.P. The efficiency of the
compressor has been as high as 70%. The results of two tests of the
comPressor are given below. In the fi:t test the air discharged, reduced
~tO atmospheric pressure, was 26 CU. ft. per sec.; in the second test it was
46 cy. ft. I
10 to 7.3 Ibs
8 Ibs:
1.500
to I5 3,750
r.p.m.
25 to 35 lbs. 3,450
r.p.m.
r.p.m.
HIGH-1
A
HYDRAULIC AIR COMPRESSION.
The water used was measured by a weir,, and the compressed air by air
meters. The tabl e on p. 623 shows the prmripal results:
Test 1 when the tl owwas about 3800 cu. ft. per min., showed a decided
advan,taie by the use of 30 s/d-in. extra air inlet pipes. Test 5 shows,
when the flow of water is about 4200 cu. ft. per rmn.. that the economy
is highest when only 15 extrs air tubes are employed. Tests 8 and 9 shokv.
wbeu the Bow is about 4600 cu. ft. per min., that there is no advantage m
incretlsinfi the air-inlet area. Tests 10 and 11 qhorv that a HOW of WOO
or more ku. f t. of water i s i n exce~ i 0 f the capacity of the plant. These
foflr tests may be summarized as follows:
The tests show: (1) That the most economit rate of .flow of water with
(**l.lr installation is about 4300 cu. ft. per rnln. (2) TlY+ tlus
,&nchas shown an efliciency of 70.7 7. under such a Aow. Whlc,b IS ex-
cehent for a first installat;on.
(3) That thecompressed air cont3ms only
from 30 to ~0% as much moisture as does the atmosohere. (4) That the
air is compressed at the
tomnP~l+,,r~ nf the w.l.+,er
y.L.yy.y..~ -- -..- ..-__..
Using an old Corliss
en~me Imthout any changes in the valve gear
as a motor there was C
,ernvererl 81 H.P. This would reoresent a total
efic:.~.-,... ^C . . . ..-. r ..?.nn
the
engi
xi
"_-._._ - _- ~-~~. ~~
:Ie,LcY UI WUln ,,,,vered from the falling water of !il.Y%.
When
compressed air was preheated to -
*'6i" F. befor; being used in the
ine III H.P. was recovered. using 115 lbs. ccke per hour, which would
al about 23 H.P. The efficiency of work recovered from the falbcg
er and the fuel burned would be. therefore, about 61 l/a%. On thebasts
rof, Riedlers experiments. which require only about 425 CU. ft. Of a!r
1, rr n .._.. h,%,,* nrh~n nrohea.tprl t.o :1nW IT a.nd nsed in a llot-air
of I
per D.I1.r. p,r;l LIuL,,, ,...-.. L1 .-.. 1 ---- _- -__ -
jacketed cylinder, the total efficiency secured
SiV~%.
FIRST TEST.
Stages. 1st.
Abs. uressure at inlet. Ibs. per so. in. . . . 15.18
2d.
23. 37
%E8
67. 8
205.
122.
137.2
60. 5
4th.
60. 44
140626060
66.
215. 6
105. 8
%
Abs. ~essure nE discharge -. . . .: . . . .
Speck revs. per min.
24.10
Temp&at,lre of air at i&i&: ;i@.ti: : : :
4660
57.2
Trmnerst,ure of air at discharre. dee. F. 171.
Adialxatic rise in temp.. deg. F. . 106.
Actuai rise in temperature, den. F. . . . 113.8
EfEciency, per celit . . . . . ~. . . T. . . . . . . . 60.5
SECOND TEST.
stages. 1st.
Ab$. pressure at inlet, lbs. per sq. in. . . . 15.18
Abs. pressure at di+arge . . . 23. 5 2
Sperd. revs. per mm. . . . . . . 5000
Temp. of air at inlet. deg. F. . . . 55.
Temp. of air at discharge. deg. F. . . . 160.7
Aaiabsric rise in temp.. deg. F.. . . 102.2
EfEciency. per cent . . . . . : . . . 62.3
2d.
21.31
y&2
69. 8
208.4
131.
66. 6
3d.
37. 33
65. 12
4540
64. 4
208. 4
123. 8
58. 7
4th.
65. 12
9498iF
68. 5
199.6
100. 4
48. 6
The G~itehoffnunpsliiitte C( ). in Germany have in course of construc-
tioo several centrifueal blo\ving-macllinej- to be driven by an electric
motor. and up to 2000 H.P. Several machines are now being designed
for Bessemer converters., some of which will develop up to 4000 H.P.
The multicellular centnfugnl compressors are identical in every point
with centrifugal pumps. In the new machines cooling water ij: intro-
duced in&e the diaphragms. which are built hollow for this purpose,
and also in.<ide the diEuser vanes. By this means it is hoped to reduce
prnpqriionaiiy the beating of the air: thus approaching isothermal com-
pression much more nearly than is done in the case of reciprocating
Te
5058
18. 75
79.1
1165
53. 3
' 3. 4
63. 3
64. 2
66
4. 34
.
63
30
Flow of water, cu. ft. per min.. . 3772 / 36% ) 4O66
Available head in ft . . . . , . . . 20.54 20.06 20.35
Grosswater, H.P _....._._..__.._ 146.3 136.9 156.2
Cu. ft. air. at atmos. press., per
minute . . . . . . . . .._... _. _. 664 901 967
Pressure of air at eomp., lbs... 51.9 53.7 53.2
Effective work in compressing,
H.P . . .._....._.....__.__....... 83.3 80.2 94.3
Efficiency of corn ressor, %. . 56.8
7.
64.4 60.3
Temo. of externa a~. deg. F.. 68.3
57. 7 1 66. 4
4.292 4408 4700
;;:;I 19.93 165. 8 171. 4 19.31
1148 i i 291 I I 03
53. 3 53. 7 52.9
I l . 74 107 106. 8
70. 7 64. 5 62. 2
65. 2 59.7 65
Test of a ydraulic
- 4. 5. M. E.. xxii. 599.)
Air Compressor. - (W. 0. Webber, Trans.
The compressor embodies the principles of
the old tr??mpe used in connectioil with the Catalan forges some centuries
aeo. moriilicri according to principles first described by J. P, Frizell. in
Jsr~i. F. 1.. &pi.. 1880. and Improved by Charles H T&or. of Montreal.
(Patent July 23. lS9.7.) It consists principally of a d-own-How passage
ha:<ns an enlarged chamber at the bottom and an enlarged tank at
the top. ..4 series of small air pipe _ :s oro.iect into the mouth of the water
inlet and the large chamber at the upper end of the vertically descending
psssa.:e, so as to cnuse a number ot small jets of air to be entrained I)p !he
wa,t.ir .%- fhP Inwe r end of the aooaratus. deflector ok&es in connetitio.1
Temp. of water and camp. ai r,
deg. F . . . . . . . . .._...............
Ratio of water to air. volumes...
664,37 6::b 6$
Moisture in external air. p. C. of
saturation. . . . . . . . . . . . .
61 77. 5 71
Moisture in camp. air. p. 0. of
saturation. . .; :.
51. 5 44 38. 5
66. 5 67 66. 5
3. 74 4. 04 4. 2
60 90 60. 5
35 29 31. 2
Tests 1 4 and 7 were made witn tne onanal itlr inlets: 2. 5. 8 and 10
with the i&s increased bp !53/4-in. pipes, and 3. 6, 9 and 1! with the
inlets increased by 303/d-in. pipes.
Tests 2, 6:Q and ll.sre onutted here.
They gave respectively 55.5, 61.3, 62. and 5a.4% efficiency.
Three other hydraulic air-compressor plants are mentioned ln Mr.
Webbers paper, some of the principal data opwhich are aven below:
Petti%?
N;;;vich,
%?: g,
Head of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 ft.
1kj+ ft,.
. $q-
Gauge pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,: t:S.
$i :P
85 lb$.
Diam. of shaft . . .
Diam. of compressor $pk.: : : : : 18 ft.
13 ft: 3 ft.
Depth below tailrace . . _ 64 ft.
y.gt. . .
Horse-power . . . . .
200
.
with a qr&duaily enlar$nS section-if the loiver end of-the down-Row pipe
are use< to decreuse the ve:orit,y of the air and water. and cause a partial
separatron to take place. The deflector plates .chsnge the direction of
the dew of the water and are intended to facilitate the escape of the air.
the xater then passing out at the bot,:on
: of the enl ar, - ed chamber into an
a.sceiviing shaft. maintainin: upon the air a pressure due to the height of
the xxaier In the uplake. the compressed zur being led on from the top
of the enlargei chamber by means of a pipe.
:he cnmox5sor plant are:
The general dimensions of
Supql$ penst&k.~$O ins. diam.: supply tank at top. 8 ft. diam. x 10 ft.
. .
;ubesi. 34 Z-in. oioes: down tube.
nq: air inlets (feeding numerous small 1
44 in% dinm.: down tube. at Lower end, 60 ii&. d&ml, ferigth of taper in
dnwn tube, 20 ft.: air chamberin lower end of shaft. 16 ft. diam.: total
depth of sltaft helow normal
bed and fall. about 22 f t. : air nrscnaree mne~
[eve1 of bead water, about I.50 ft.: normal
. . ,
7 ins. diam.
)eratine the-printing depart-
^ ^
It is as& to supply power to entin& fZ$
menL of the Dominion Cottoo Xi%. Ma~op, r. y.. Canaoa.
.Thcre ivere three series of tests. viz.: (1) Three tests at different rates
()I iioiv oi water, the compressor hei ne as originally constnlcted.
tests at di.?erent rates of flow
(2) Four
of water. the comoressor inlet tubes.for air
befx increased by 30 s/d-in. pipes. (3) Fo!lr t.@ts. at different rat& .6?
f$;gf water, the compressor inlet tubes for ar bemgmcreased by 153/ 4- m.
In the Case-de Range plant there is no shaft. as the apparatus 1s co*-
strncted age.<;. the vertl& walls of a .canyon. The diameter of the UP-
3 4 ft. gin.
~.~w~--~.~~-~~--~ .~
? material
m.._-I-__-_. . -*.. . __
may no longer be accurate
AIR.
A description of the NOrNiCh plant is given by J. Herhert Shedd in a
paper read before the New England Water Works ;;ssn.. 1905 (Compressed
Air, April. 1906). The shaft. 24 ft. diam.. is enlarged at the bottom into
a chamber52 ft. diam., from which leads an air reservoir 100 ft. long. 18 ft.
wide and 1.5 LO 20 ft. high. Suspended in the shaft 1s a downtlow pipe
14 ft.,diam. connected at the top with a head tank, and at t.he bottom with
the air-ch;tmber, from which a 16-in. mai.n conveys the air four miles to
,Uorwich, where i: is used in engines in several esta.!,lishrnrnt-;
lncwm;rticr I%~staI Transmission. - A papc!r hy A. ~alkena,l
(Eagr.s Clubof Philadelphia, April. lS941, entitled the First Irnitetl States
Pnemn3tic Postal tiysteni., gives a tiescription of the system used in
London and Paris. and that recently introducell in Philadelphia between
the main post-office and a substation. In London the tubes ~.TP !?l/ n,nrl
D-inch !r:t;l pipes !ai<l in Cast.-iron oipr for protection. The carriers
use31 in ?iii;-inch tribes are hut 1 l/4 iliches diameter, the remaining space
bein: taken up bp paciting. Carriers are despatched singly. First,
VamIum alone was used: later. vacuum and compressed air. The tubes
used in the Continenral cit,ies in Europe are wrought iron, the Paris tubes
beii1.z 2~2 inches diameter. There the rarriets ate despatcbed in trains
of sil\: t,o ten. propelled by a piston.
adopt~?d is fisinches. the t.uhrs being of cast iron bored to size.
iengt.hs of tile outgoin
In Phiiatlelphia the size of t;;;
r: and retlirn tubes are 2928 feet each.
at t,fre main station is
The pressure
7 lb.. at the substation 5 Ih~~ n,nrl a,t. t.he end r>f thp
return pine atmospheric pressure.
IS X 24 iii.
The compressor has two air-cylinders
Each carrier holds about 200 lett,ers. but 100 to 150 are
t+!n as an avera:e. Eicht. carriers may be despatched in a ~in&~
mrin: a dtiiverv of S,S.Oiiii to 72,OOl, letters per hour.
in :ransmiiGonis abotct 57 secrnds.
The time requited
Pneumatic postal t.ransmlssion tubes were laid in 1898 bv the Batcheller
Pneumatic Tnlre Co. between t~he general post-offices in-New York and
Eiook!j-ii. crosiir .!: the East River on the Brooklyn bridge. The tubes
are cast iron. E2-it. lengths. bored to Sl/s in. diameter. The joints are
bells. talked wltb lead and yarn.
in each direction.
There are two tubes, one operating
Borh lines are operate:1 bv air-oressure above the
at:niisnheric pressure. One tllbe is operated by-an aii-compress& in the
?;VX York otfice and the other by one located in the Brooklyn office.
The carriers are 24 in. long. in the form of a cvlinder 7in. diameter.
and are made of steel. wii h fibrous hearing-rings which fit the tube.
Each
car;ier M! contain about 600 ordinary letters, and they are despatched
aI. in!ervals of 10 seconds in each direction,, the time of transit between
Etie dir0 otfices bei?
ftOrR .XJ to 35
, L:
miles
:~Q minutes, the carriers travelling at a speed of
oer hour.
One of the air-compressors is of the duplex type and has two steam-
cylinders 10 Y 20 in. and two air-cylinders 24 x 20 in., delivcrlng
I.570 cil. ft. of free air rier minute. at 7.5 r.p.m. The poweris about 50 H P
Two other d!inle:c air-compressors have steam-cylinders 14 X 18 in:
and ai:-cyiindler~~261/4 4 1S in. They are designed for 80 to 90 r.p.m.
and to tomnrei to 20 Ih T)PT sn~ ins
Another &lb16 line of pneumat.ic tubes has been laid between the
gin OfFxCC ? and Postal Stai.un H. Lexington Ave. and 44th St. in New
York Cite. Thiv line is about 31/z miles in length. There a;e three
intermediate st,ations. The carriers can be so adjusted when they are
Put, !nti, t~he tube that they will traverse the line and be discharged auto-
matIraI1.y from the tube at the station for which thev are intended.
tube.? a,re of t.he same size as those of the Brooklyn iine and are o
The
erated
in a similar manner. The initial air-pressure isabout l-3 to 15 b
the Brooklvn line it ic rrhmst. 7 Ih
P. On
Til~re is also a t,uhe svstem between the New Pork Post-office and the
Prod!ree E\-chance. For a verv comoletp descript,ion of the system and
its ma-hinery see The Pneutiatic Dcspatrh Tohe System, by B. C.
B@hellpr. J. B. Lionincott Go.. PhiladelDhia. 1897.
The Wrkarski drimprrss:d;air Tramwcrlv at Verne Swit~wland.
(Ev* :VP?PS. .4prll 20. 1893.) -The ?Zekarski svstem das bee; intro-
dlwerf ;!~ Berne. Switz&and, on a line about tmomiles lone with grades
of 0.5% to 3.7, and s.zor,.
s;lyrbeated wat.er at 331Y F.
The air is heated by passi& it through
It thw beromes saturated with steam
wblcb subssouentlo partly condens:es. its latent heat being absorbed bi
the expanding air. The pressure in the car reservoirs is 440 lb. per sq. in,
.-,,
a 1910 edition.
OPERATION OF PUMPS BY COMPRESSED AIR.
625
The engine is constructed like an ordinary steam tramway locomotive,
and dri,ves twq coupled axles. the wheel-base being 5.2 ft. It has a pair
of outsIde honzontal cylinders, 5.1 x 8.6 in.: four coupled wheels, 27.5
in. diameter. The total weight of the car including compressed air is
7.25 tons. +nd with 30 passengers, including the driver and conductor,
abollt 9.5 tons.
The authorized speed is about 7 miles per hour. Taking the resistance
dlie to the grooved tails ant1 to curves uutlcr unfsvorsble conditions at
30 II). per ton of car wriillt, the engine has to orercomc on ill? ~t,+p~~t,
grade, 5.5. a total resistance of about O.ti3 ton, aud has to develop 25
H.P. 4t the ma~irnu-n authorized working pressure in cylinders of 176
lb. Pete sq. in. the motors can develop a tractive force of 0.64 ton. This
mali,num is. cherefotc. just suficient to take the car up
while on the flatter sections of the line the working
the 5.2% grade,
exceed 73 to 147 It). per scl. in.
pressure c!oes not
Sand has to be frequent y used to Increase
the adhesion on the I?:0 to 5% grades.
Between the two car frames are suspended ten horizontal compressed-
air storage-cylinders, varying in length according to the available space,
but of uniform inside diameter of 17.7 in., composed of riveted 0.X-h
sheet iron, and tested up to 588 lb. per sq. in., and havin? a collective
capacity of 64.25 cu. ft., and two further small storage-cylinders of
5.3 cu. ft. capacity each, a total capacity for the 12 storage-cylinders
PI
er car of 75 cu. ft., divided iuto two groups, the working and the reserve
attery. of 49 cu. ft. and 26 cu. ft. capacity respectively.
From the results of six official trips. the pressure and the mean con-
sumption of air during a double trip per motor car are as follows:
Pressureof sir in storage-cylinders at starting, 440 lb. per sq. in.: at elid
of up-trip, 176 lb., reserve, 260 lb.; at end of down-trip. 103 lb.. reserve.
176 lb. Consumption of air during up-t.rip. 92 !b., during down-t,rip,
31 lb. The working experience of 1891 showed that the air consumption
per motor car for a double tri
and per car mile fro-n 28 to 42 1 e
was from 103 to 154 ib.. mean 123 lb.,
., mean 35 lb.
Thedisadvantages of this system consist in thee~tremelydelicateadjust-
ment of the different parts of the system, in the comparatively small
supply of air carried by one motor car. which necessitates the car rrturn-
in:: to the depot fo:- refilling after a run of only four miles or 40 minutes,
although on the Nogent and Paris lines the cars, which are. moreover,
larger, and carry outside passengers on t.he top. rim seven miles. and the
loading pressure is 547 lb. per sq. in. as against only 440 lb. at Berne.
For description of the Xekarski system as used at Nantes, France, see
Paper by Prof. D. S. Jacobus. Trans. A. S. M. E.. xix. 553.
American Experiments on Compressed .Iir for Street Railways.
- Experiments have been made in Washington. D. C.. and in New York
City on the use of compressed air for street-railway traction. T.le air.
was corn
valve an x
ressed to 2000 lb. per sq. in. and passed throuzh a teuuclng-
a heater before being admitted to the en&e.
since been abandoned.
The system has
For an extended discussion of the relative merits
of compressed air and electric traction, with an account of a test of ~a
four-stage compressor giving a pressure of 2500 !b. per sq. in.. see E&g
New Oct. 7 and Nov. 4 1897. A summarized statement oi the probable
efficiency of Compressed-Air traction is given as follows: Efficiency of corn--
prp%%iOn to 2000 lb. per sq. in. 65%: By mire-drawing to 100 lbs. 57.5%
- oftheavailableenergy of the air will he lost. leaving 65 X 0.425 = 27.625%
as the net efficiency of the air. This may be doubled by heating. makmg
55.25%, and if thk motor has an efficiency of SO% the net efficiency of
tractlon by compressed air will he 55.25 x &SO = 44.2%. For a descrlp-
tion of the Hardie compressed-air locomotiw, designed for street- rai l NaY
work. see Engg .Vezus June 24 1897. For use of compressed air ln mine
ha.%e.see Enqg N&S. Feb. io 1898.
()Peration oi Nine Pumps bi Compressed Air. - The advantages
Of corn
Of con s
ressed air over steam for the operation of mine pumps are: Absence
ensation and radiation losses m pipe lines: high efficiency of corn--
of disposal of exhaust; absfn:! of danger
disadvantage is that, at a given lmtlai Pressure
nder full of air develops leSS Ower than, steam.
ump should be designed for t ie use Of air. w!th P
proper proportions of air and water ends. wth
which the pump is to operate. Wm. Cox (Corn&
,~_______~ .._ ~..,MS . ..., .,,,., .*
material may no longer .be accurate
.
Air Msg., Feb., 1599) states the relations of simple or single-cglinder
pumps to be A/W = r/s h/p. where -4 = area of air cylinder, sq. in., FV
area oi water cylinder, s( zn., h = head, ft., and p = air pressure, lb.
Er sq. in. hlr. Cos gives t ie volume V.of free air in cu. ft. per minute f
;; ;;erate a direct-actin,, I single-cylinder pump, working without cut otI.
V = 0.093 lVz hG/P.
Where if? = volume of 1 cu. ft. of free air corresponding to 1 cu. ft. of
free air at prr<sure P. I; = gdI01is of water to be raised per minute. P =
receiver-gauge pressure of air to be used, and h = head in feet under
which pump works. This formula is bred on a piston speed of 100 ft.
per minute and 1.5; has been added to the volume of air to cover losses.
The useftii work done iii a pump using air at full pressure is greater at
low pressures tlrnn at highz and the emciency is increased. Hig!i pressures
are not 30 economi ,xl for simple pumps as low pressures. As high-pressure
air is required for drills, etc., and as the air for pumps is drawn from the
same main. the air must, either be wire-drawn into t.he pumps, or a reducing
valve be inserted between the pump and main.
low effiriency in the pump.
Wire-drawing causes a
If a reducing valve is used, the increase of
volume will be accompanied with a drop in temperature. so that the full
value of tile increa.Le is not realized. Part of the lost heat may be regained
bs friction. and from external sources. The efiiriencv of the svstem mav
Sk increased by the use of undergroimd receivers for the expanded sir
before it passes to the pump. If the receiver be of ample size. the air
will regain nearly its normal temperature. the entrained moisture will be
deposited and freezing troubles avoided. By compounding the pumps,
the efikiencv msy be increased to about 5 per cent.
ranges from: to 16 per cent.
In simple pumps it
For much further information on this sub-
ject , see Peeks Compressed-Air Plant for Xines. 1908.
Centrifugal Fans. - The ordinary centrifugal fan consists of a number
of blades hsed to arms re.volving at high speed. The width of the blade
is paraM to t~he shaft. The experiments of W. Buckle (Proc. I nst. M. E.,
1.8+7: are oft~en quoted as still standard. Mr. Buckles conclusions. how-
ever. do not agree with t,hose of modern esperiment~ers, nor do the propor-
tions of fans as determined by him Irave any similsriiy to those of modern
fans. Hi.5 results are presented here merely for purposes of reference and
comparison. The experiments were mude on fans of the paddle-wheel
tvpe. and have no bearing on the more modern multivane fans of t,he
+occo tvoe. L
~From his~e$zriments Xr. Buckle deduced the following proportions for
a fan: 1. The widt~h of the vanes should be one-fourth the diameter:
2. The diameter of the inlet opening in the sides rf the fan chest should
be one-half the diameter of the fan: 3. The length of the vanes should be
one-fourth the diameter of the fan. These rules do not agree with those
adopted by modern manufacturers, nor do the rules adopted by different
manufacturers agree among themselves. An examination of 18 commer-
cial sizes of fans, of the ordinary steel-plate type, built by two prominent
manufacturers. A and B. shows the following proportions based on the
diameter of the fan wheel. D, in inches:
Dinn: ink: 10. 666D / 0. 618D 10.636D
Widthof blade: IO.435D j 0.380D 10.39SD I I
0.495D 0.43OD i 0.476D 1 0.5D
, 0.366D, 0.333D / 0.356D I 0.25D
~~~~~1~~: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
nc-.r)
FANS AND BLOWERS. 0251
given diameter, more power will be consumed in delivering a given volume
of air with a small inlet than with a larger one.
In the ordinary fan the number of vanes varies from 4 to S. whi!e with
multivane fans it is 60 or more. The numher of vanes has a direct relation
to the size of the inlet. This is made as large as possible for the reason
given shove. Any increase in the diameter of the inlet necessarily de-
creases t.he depth of the blade, thus diminishing the rapacity and pressure.
To overcome this detcrease, the number of blatles is increased Jo the iimit
placed by construc!ion:rl cunsidemtions. .\ properly proportioned fan is
one in which a balance is obtamed between these two features of maxi-
mum inlet and masimlim number of blades. Ceneralty spea,hmg. in, a
purely centrifugal fan. increased pressure is obtained with the increase in
depth of the blade.
working on the air.
This appears to be due to the greater area of blade
A smaller wheel, with, a greater number of blades,
aggregating a larger blade area, gives a higher pressure than a larger
wheel with less total blade area.
In some cases two fans mounted on one shaft may be more useful than
a single wide one, as in such an arrangement twice the area of inlet opemng
is obtained. as compared with a single wide fan. Such an arrangement
may he adopted where occasioxmlly half the full quantity of air is required.
as one of the fans may be put out of gear and thus save power.
Rules ior Fan Desim. - It is impossible to give any general rules
or formuhe covering the proportions of parts of fans and blowers.
There
are no !ess than 14 variables involved in the constriiction and operation of
fans, a slight change in any one producin, v wide variations in the perform-
ance. The design of a new fan by manufacturers is largely a, matter of
trial and error, based on experiments. until a compromise with all the
variabtes is obtained which most nearly conforms to the given conditions.
Pressure Due to Velocity of the Fan Blades. -The pressure of the
air due to the velocity of the fan blades may be determined by t.he formula
H = $, deduced from the law of falling bodies, in which H is the head
or height of a homogeneous column of air one-inch sqi!are whose weight. is
equal to the pressure per square inch of the air leaving the fan, 2~ 1s the
veiociiv of the air leaving the fan in feet per second, and a the accelerat.ion
due togravity. The pressure of the air is increased by mcreasine the
number of revoiutions per minute of the fan. Wolff in his The Wind-
mill as a Prime Mover, p. 17, argues that it is an error to take N = s2
+ 2 g. the formula according to him being IT = ?J* + g. See also Trow-
bridge (Trans. A. S. iii. B.. vii., 536). This law is analogous to that of
the pressure of a fluid jet strikin.g a plane surfuce perpen.dicularly and
escaping at right angles to its original path. this pressure being twice that
due the height calculated from the formuto. h = v* f 2g. (See Hawkstey.
Proc. I nst. 01. E.. 18~~) Later authorities and manufacturers. however,
base all their cal&tations on the former formula.
Buckle says: I From the experiments it appears that t.he velocity of the
tips of the fan is equal to nine-tenths of the velocit,y a body would acquire
in fatting the height of a homogeneous column of air equlcatent to the
deilsitv. D. Ii. Clark (R. T. & D.. p. 924). paraphrasing B?!ckle. pPPar-
entlv.$ays: It further appears that the pressure generated at thf, circum-
ference is one-ninth greater than that which is due to the actual ClrCUmfer-
ential velocity of the fan. The two statements, however, are not in
. n -9
harmony, for if 21 = 9,gx.\/3, H =o Q,t9,= I.%t~~aand.~ot y&.
If we take the ressure as that eq&% z l%?ad or col;&I Of %r of twke
the height due tie velocity as stated by Trowhridge. the paradoxical
statements of Buckle and Ciark L which would indicate that the actual
Pressure is greater than the theoretical - are explained. and the formula
becomes H = 9.617 g and u = I.273 dg% = 9.9 e, in which If is
f
FANS AND I~LO\VJ%I~Y.
629
,~~e~l-i;:~~p;~~scll
: 1~1 ou the fan. and, therefore, the pressure c+no.
by a formula, unless it Includes some term which IS an
espre+on in WW: w:ly of t1:e lotrd upon the fa.n. The actual pressl:rc
&.i)i,,~ ,,i,,,:, I:!,. cl,:li<11 of !,ot!1 \\-heel and housmg, upon !!W !~I+!: IfL
~ 1, I Ib .~ I
.~ns ,,l<f. (ii)Clii Iilc io:in 1.6 cik bi;ldc5 Wit11 a curved blade rumun:: Wtll
t,he concave si<lv forward it is po55ible to obt,ain a much h&her pressure
tiian if tile bl;~I~~ is ru!m!n:; wkh the convex sole forward.
This can only
be &o~~;I1 I,y it%s:. nl?rl ,::#!I be fig=!!rt-tl ollt by blade-v,elocibv diagrams.
ft sl~~&l 1~ nott*:l. ho\\-rvrr,.that while the fan 1~1th a blade,concsyed
in the ~firccriun of rotation ha:: the highest efficiency. all ot.her thm?+s be!W
eqrfal. ~11~ noise of operation is increased.
A blade convex in the dlrectlon
of rotltl,iork riins more
f
uietly. and in most situations it is necessary to
sacritkr etlkicncv in on er to obtain rpdet operation.
Tn convert. thk head fi expressed in feet to pressure in lb. per sq. in.
multipi? it b\- the weipht of a cubic foot of air at the pressure ami @peril-
tureof t,he ?ir e>:prllerl from the fan (about 0.08 ib. usually) snd c,livlde by
I.&$. Sl;~ltiply this by 16 to obtain pressltre in ounces per sq. l,n..or by
2.035 to obtain inchrsof mercury, or by 27.71 to obt.sin pressure ln inches
of water colrtinn. Taking 0.0~ as tht: weight of 1 cu. ft. of a.lr. and
.-
tixperiments witli Ulow&s. (Henry I. Snell. Zmns. A. S. ~1. E., ix.
51.) - The following tables give velocities of air di.~char$n,o through an
aperture of any size under the given pressures int.o the atmosphere.
The
~volnme discharged can be obrainerl by multi Ivint: the area of dischnrEe
opening by the velocity. and this product I)y t P, w cocHicirnt of contraction:
0.G.5 for a thin plate :md 0.93 when the oyiti~ is a conical t!thr with a ron-
;;;B,Tnce of about 3.5 degrees, 3s debermmed by the experiments of Weis-
* v = 3. 9 4 gI 1.
p ib. per sq. in. = 0. 00001066a~; 2, = 310 &ncarly;
pi ourwes per sq. in. = O.OOOliOG 2?; 1) = 80 4%
pzincbes of mercury = 0.00002169 c~; v = 220 dP?
pa inches of water = 0. 00029. 54 ~2; v = 60 &%
.- - .-.-
lhc tab& arc calculated for a barometric pressure of 14.W lb&
23.5 oz.). and for a temperature nf 50 F&r.. from the formula T; = 42 yfi.
Allownnces h~~vr been made for t.he effect of t,hr compression of the air,
but nom. for the heat.inK effect due to the compression.
At a temperature of 50 tlrerees. a cubic: foot of air nriahs 0.0;s lb., and
calling g = 3zZ.1602, the above formula ma!: be reduced to in nr1;icb u = velocity of tips of bla(le$ in feet per SecO~ltf.
TestinK the above formula by one of B~tckle s expenm?nt2; with a, vane
14 inchvs long, xve have p = O. OOWJ l i J G6 , o? = 9. 56 oz. The espenment I ' , = 60 ~31.5S12 X (233 + P) X P,
relociry in feet per minute, P = pressure above atmosphere.
re shown by jiauee, in oz. per squar:, inch.
Pressure
per sq. in.,
in.of water.
gave 9. 4 oz.
Testin< it by the experiment of H. I. Sneli. given below.. in w!lirh the
cjrcirrnfrrenrial speerj ~~3s abollt 150 ft. per second. we obt~uln 3.+ 0IIIICes.
while the esprriment gave from 2.38 to 3.50 ouuces, accordin:: to the
amoiini oi opening for disctiarge. _
Taking the formula ?) = SO d/p,. we have for different pressures in
oun((:j pc.r sqllare inch t.he following velocit,ies of the tips of the blades 1
feet per secorlif :
pi = ounces per square inch. 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
z = feet per second.. . 113 139 160 179 196 212 226 253 277 299
A rule in A up. Cyc. Me&.. article Blowers. gives the following veloci-
ties of circumierence for different densities of blast in ounces: 3,170; 4. 1SO;
.j 19.5: 6, 205: i. 215.
The same article iives the Following tables, the first of which shows that
the deEsit>: of !Aast i.i not constant for a given velocity, but depends on the
rst~ia of area of nozzle to area of blades:
Velocitv of circumference, feet per second.. . 150 150 150 170 200 200 22
.<rea oi nozzle +- area of blades.. . . .
Iknsity of blast. oz. per square inch. . . . . _
; 1 li? l/4 1,2 12 l;i
2 3 4 4
el oci t~y due
0 Pressure,
t,. per min.
CW2-
npondinz Velocity due
Pressure. to Pressure.
a. per sq. 1 ft. per min.
in.
dorre-
Pressure spondin::
per sq. in., Pressure.
in.of water. oz. per sq.
in.
3118. 38
3416. 64
3690. 62
3946. 17
4362. 62
4836. 06
: E: ; :
0. 01817 696. 78
E% 1393. 75 987. 66
O. l u902 1707. 00
0. 14536 1971. 30
0. 18170 2204. 16
: : ; ; Fl ~~ 2414. 70 2788. 74
0. 36310
0. 43608
7/ g O. 508i O
1 0. 58140
1 114 0. 7267
I l l 2 0. 8721
1314 . I . 0174
12 1. 1628
Qa.c.mn OF AIR OF A GIVEN DENSI TY DELI VERED BY A FAN.
T0t:li area of nozzles in eqna,re feet~ X velocity in feet per minute corre-
s~ondi:1g to den?;it,v (,see tablej = air delivered in cubic feet per minute,
&..ciiargi,lng freely into the atmosphere (approximate). See p. 6-1.
Density. Velocity, ! Density,
feet per / ounce:
Velocity. Density. Velocity,
olince? feg per ounceg feet per
per sq. tn. minute. j per 9. rn. mmute. 1 per sq. m. minute. :
- I
I I . 00 * 17, 534
b12. M) 18. 350
K?J 19, 138
19, 901
15. ou 20. 641
16. 00 21, 360
2, 582 2. 25
3, 658
7. 787 5. 50
1%
8%
: : : ; 8. 213
8. 618
2:
51792
3. 00
9, 739 9. 006 : : ti
%
3. 50 14' 374
6, 349 4. 00 10. 421 8. 00 14' 861
6, 861 9. 00 15' 795'
7, 338
i % 11. 065
11. 676 10. 00 16: 684
-
1 2 l l , UM 15. ~
12. 250
I 9
10
: , : i
i
13. 200
i : .
15. 8OO i j
16, 500
14. 150 17, 300
This is a 1910
.._. -.. ~.,~ .
edition. Some
._.. ,._,_,___ L__ .~.d..~_ ____~
longer .be accurate
i,i_;~.
the material may no
FANS AND BLOWERS.
630 AIR.
Experiments on a Fan with Constant Dischar e-o enln
Varying Speed. - The first four columns are given y
others are calculated by the author.
% i&. sn,4,:::
-
.-
-
%
)g
0
.c g&
E
2
E
&
0. 50
0. 88
1. 38
: : :
: : : ! I
5. 95
-
c
.-
-
--
1336 0. 25
17. 37
2245 E
: : : : 2. 20 3. 45
i t: 02 5. ' o 8. 00
4674 I l . 40
60. 2
80. 3
100. 4
120. 4
140. 5
160. 6
180. 6
200. 7
85. 1
85. 6
85. 4
85. 1
84. 0
82. 4
82. 4
05. 6
0. 182
i %Z
1. 479
2. 283
3. 803
5. 462
7. 506
-
-
-
Pressure in ounces Velocity in feet
per square inch. Per minute.
- -
::EJ I%:
0.08 1462. 20
0. 09
I
1550. 70
0. 10 1635. 00
-
Pressure in
ounces per
square inch.
Velocily in feet
per minute.
516. 90
722. 64
895. 26
1033. 86
1155. 90
Experiments on a Fan with Varying Discharge-opening.
Eevolutions nearly constant.
. .
0. 337
0. 496
0. 66
0. 709
"0: : ; "
0. 635
0. 646
0. 536
Mr. Snell has not found any practical difference between the mechanicai
efficiencies of blowers with curved blades and those with straight radial
ones. From these esperiments, says Mr. Snell, it appears that we may
expect to receive back 6.5% to 757, of the power expended, and no more.
The great amount of power often used to run a fan is not due to the f?n
itself, but to the method of selecting, erecting, and piping it. (Forppm-
ions Ln the relative merits of fans and positive rotary bl owers, see dl scus-
sion of Xr. Snells naner. Trans. A. S. M. E.. ix. 66. etc.)
0
2
1353
1894
%
2752
3002
3972
?:E
1:;:
2.55
3. 10
: : : ;
3. 80
4. 80
1480 10
1471 1485 i t
1485 36
1463 44
1048
353 1048
520 1048
694 1048
742 1048
774 790 K:
775 1222
E 1222 1544
Comparative klkikcy of Fans and Positive Blowers. (H. Y.
Howe. Traps. A. I. M. E., x. 483.) - Experiments with fans and positive
(Bakei) blowers working eat moderately low pressures. under 20 ounces.
show that they work more efficiently at a given pressure when dehvenng
large volumes (i.e. when working nearly u
P
to their maximum capacity)
than when delivehng comparatively sma I volumes. Therefore, byhen
great variations in the qllantity and
Ii
resSure of blast required are hable
to arise, the highest efficiency would e obtained by having a nu?ber of
blowers, alwaYs driving them up to their full capacity, and regulating the
amount of blast by altering the number of blowers at work, instead of
having one or two very large blowers and regulating the amount of blast
by the speed of the blowers.
There appears to be little difference between the efficiency of fans and
of Baker blowers when each works under favorable conditions as regards
quantitg of work, and when each is in good order. .
For a given speed of fan, any diminution in the size of the blast-orifice
_ decreases the consumption of power and at the same t,ime raises the pres-
sure of the blast; but it increases the consumpt.ion of power per umt of
orifice for a given pressure of blast. When the.orifice has been reduced to
the normal size for any given fan, further diminishing it causes but shght
elevation of the blast pressure; and, when the orifice beCOmeS ComPara-
tlvelv small further chminishing it causes no sensible elevation Of the
blast press&e. which remains practically constant, even when the orifice 1s
The fan wheel was 23 in. diam.. 651s in. wide at its periphery. and had
an rnlet 121/z in. diam. on either side. which was partially obstructed bY
the pulleys. which were .iQ/ls in. diam.
area of -1.%Gl sq. in.
It had eight blades,, each of an
The discharge of air was through a comcai tin tube
~i:ik sides tapered at an angle of 31;~ degrees. The actual area of opening
was 7?$ greater than given in the tables, to compensate for the vella con-
trada
In the last experiment, 89.5 sq. in. represent~s the actual area of the
rnotith.of the blower less a deduction for a narrow strip of wood placed
across It for the purpose of holding the pressure-gauge. In calculating the
volume of ~?ir discharged in the last experiment the val ue of vena contracta
1s taken at D.80.
Ey )eriments were undertaken for the purpose of showing the results
obtzuned h:+* running the same fan at different speeds with the discharge-
oPpnine the same throughout the series. The discharge-pipe was a conical
tiibe Y% in. inside diam. at the end, having an area of 56.74 sq. in., which
1s 3% larglt~ than 53 sq. in.: therefore 53 sq. in., equal to 0.368 square feet,
is called the area of discharge, as that is the practical area by which the
volume of air is computed.,
entirely closed
hIany of the failures of fans have been due to too low speed. to too small
Pulleys, to improper fastening of belts, or to the belts being too nearly ver-
tical: in brief, to bad mechanical arrangement, rather than to inherent
defects in the principles of the machine.
If several fans are used, lt is probabl essential to high efficiency to Pro-
vide a separate blast pipe for each (at east If ghe fans are of.dlfferent Slse P
). while any number of positive blowers may deliver into the same
hout lowenng their efficiency. I
~_-._-.~.~...~ ~~-_-.,-,.. ,I~ ..~
2 material may no longer .be accurate
632 AIR.
Capacity of Fans nnd ~lnwers.~ The followin,n tables supplied (1909)
by ttir American Blower Co.. Detroit, show the capWities of exhaust fans
am1 volume and pressure blowers. The tables are al! based on curves
established by esperiment. The pressures, volumes and horse-powers
were a!1 actually measured with the apparatus working against maintained
resiscnncvs formed by restrictions equivalent to those found in actual prac-
t,ice. and which experience shows ~11 produce the best results.
Speed, Cnpncity zmd Horse-power of Steel Nate Exhaust Fans.
(American Biower Co., Type E, 190%)
I
--
oi
1
' 51
91
' 5
i 7
, Oi I
14' 1
Speed, Capacity and Horse-power of Volume Blowers.
(American Blower Co., Type V, 1909.)
2
656
1122
1675
2385
3160
4110
5175
I
I
-
NOTE: This table also app:ies to Type V. cast-iron exhaust fans.
~~.~__~~~,~..-_I_~. ._.,_.
~~~~~~~~~: This is a 1910 edition. some of
FANS AND BLOWERS.
633
Steel Pressure Blowers iur Cupolas (Average Application).
(American Blower Co., i909.)
3j 191/ ?i 17/ 8 5. 11 73/ 40. 327 3j 191/ ?i 17/ 8 5. 11 73/ 40. 327
-----__
2' 113 5. 76 8314 0.417t
------
7 32 33/ g 8. 39 121/ 20. 852
I
I
I-
._
._
I.
.-
._
L-.-..---.-...---.
837 37/ g 9. 70 14 1. 069
- - - - - - _
9 42 43/ g 10. 98 16 1. 396
- - _- - - . .
I O47 471, 12. 30 171/ ? 1. 67
- - - - - - - . - .
I t 52
531, 13. 6 191/ 42. 02
- - - . - - - - - .
1257
I
57/a 14.92 21 2. 405
_.
.
I
_
_-
_-
_.
__
_.
_
_.
-.
-.
I.
r.
-
3. 46' 5. 19 j 6. 92; 8. 65
- - _ - - -
I . 242 1. 86 2. 48' 3. 10
I I
---
1675 2050 2362 2645
0. 82 1. 47 2. 261 3. 16
--- -,------~/L-
1162 1422 1640 1835 2010 2175 232@ 2460
1040 ; 250 14421 l 6i 2 1760 1915 2040 2166
1. 30 2. 33 3. 58: 5. 00 6. 57 8. 34 10. 10/ 12. 10
----__--- ----
1055 1290 1490 1665 1825 1975 2105 2233
1262 1520 1750 1960 2135 2375 24751 2630
1. 57 2. 83 4. 341 6. 08 7. 96 I O. 10 12. 25! 14. 12
-- ---__ ---__
889 1087 1255 1405 1535 1660 I 7751 1880
I 705 2055 2366 2650 2890
2. 12, 3. 83 5. 86 8. 23 10. 78
314O 33501 3555
13. 66~14. 60~19. 83
-- I-l--l -I-- ,---,-
769
2140 I
940
2575 I 2970 '
1085 1212 1328 1446' i 533 1625
2. 66 4. 79 7. 361
3325 I
10. 3
3620 i
13. 5
3940 I K?OOI 4460
17. 15 20. : 024. 90
---l---H---- 679 830 958. 1072 1172 1270 1355 1435
2800; 3370 38801 4340 4730 5150 5500 5825
3. 481 6. 27 9. 63i t3. 46 17. 65 22. 40 27. 25 32. 50
-______ - --
I -
606 742 855 956 1048 1133 12101 l 2tO
3350 4025 4640 5200 3660 56160 6570' 6970
- - ~- - -
5. 03 9. 06 13. 9 19. 5
- - - - -
I -.
FANS AND BLOWERS. 635
634 AIR.
Steel Pressure Blowers for Cupolas (Average Application).-
Continued.
may be those delivered with an unrestricted inlet and outlet. As this
condition is not a praclical one, the volume delivered in an installation
is much smaller than that given in the tables. The underestimating of
horse-power required may be due to the fact that the volumes given in
tables are for operation against a practical resistance, and in an installa-
tion it might be, that the resistance was low, consequently the volume
and also the horse-power required would be greater.
14 / 15 16
__, - -
24. 22] 25. 95 27. 66
- - -
8. 69 9. 30 9. 92
- - -
. . . . . .
. . .
. . . . . .
- - -
3955 39. 35 412C
1700 1762 182C
14. 75 16. 4 18. 05
- - -
3420 3535 365C
2175 2250 2325
18. 9 20. 9 23. 1
- - -
3075 3180 32%
2700 2800 2881
23. 45 26. 05 28. 6t
- - -
2790 2805 298(
3260 33951 3501:
28. 50 31. 55 34. :
- - -
2345 2430 2511
4430, 4590 4; ;
38. 5 42. 7
- - -
2030 2100 2171
5560 5760 ' Z 48. 30 53. 55
- - -
8700 9010 9301
75. 6 83. 9 92. 2,
i 1447
- _c
1498 I 54
10520 10890 1122
91. 5 101. 2111. 3
- , - -
1318 1563 141
12520 12960 1338
109 120. 5 132. 7
-
- j oz. I O I I I 2 I 3
17. 28; 19. 02 20. 75 22. 5
Capacity of Sturtevant High-Pressure Blowers (1908).
- -
-
nside dia.
of inlet
.nd outlet,
inches.
Lpprox.
weight.
,ounds.*
Capacity in cubic feet
per minute, l/z lb. pres-
sure.
Xevolutions per
1
F
I
-
I
.-
200 to 1000
375to 800
370to 800
244 to 600
300to 500
380to 525
1 to 5
5to
i : : : 130 : :
130to 225
225 to 325
! H.P. - - - - I I . 40 13. 16 14. 96 16. '
2280 2395 2500 260:
H.P. 14.13 16.33 18.6 21.0
325 to 560 350 to 565
560 to 1,030 300to 475
1, 030 to I . 540 290 to 415
I . 540 to 2, 300 zeoto 410
2, 30oti , 3, 300 265 to 375
3. 300 to 4, 700
4. 700 to 6.000
6. 000 to 8. 500
8. 500 to I l . 300
11. 3oo to 15, 500
250to 350
% : : : : :
190to 250
190 to 260
2355 2470 2580 268
--__-
3750 3930 4110 427
23.25 26.80 30.6 34.
---- * Of blower for l/z lb. pressure.
Pedormance of a No. 7 Steel Pressure Blower under VarYtug
Conditions o! Outlet.
Per cent of
Rated Ca-
pacity..... 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Per cent of
Rated H.P. 28 42 57 72 88 loo 118 130 144 159 173 187 202
Total pres-
sure, OZ. . . . 10.211.411.912.011.9 11.410.910.3 9.7 9.1 8.5 7.9 7.2
Static pres-
sure. oz . .10.2 11.2 11.611.4 11.0 10.2 9.2 8.0 6.6 5.0 3.5 1.9 0.3
--
my, per
t .*.... 0 26 40 50 56 60 62 61 59 56 52 48 45
l!nicl~
ten
- j - - - - i - : - _( - i
l - l - l - l - -
The above figures are taken from a plotted curve of the results o!
a test by the Buffalo Forge CO. in 1905. A letter describing the test
si%t-=l .
-yhk object eras to determine the variation of pressure. Power and
efaciency obtained at a constant speed with capacities varymg from Zero
ascharge to free delivery. A series of capacity conditions we+ secured
by restricting the outlet of the blower by a series of converang cone?,
ao arranged as to make the convergence in each case very
slight, and of
sufficient length to avoid any notrceable inequality in velocities at the
ascharge orifice c nstant
bk.
The fan was operated as nearly at
The &!ocitv of the air at the point of dischar 1
speed as
e was~measurei
Andy the averagetaken, although
&Ps! a Pitot tube and draft gauge of usui l construction. Readings~ wer
~$~~z.~ver-several points of the outlet
__J___.p-...%Ix..- .,-~--._ ._
le material may no longer - be accurate .
Caution in Regard to Use of Fan and Blower Tables. -Many en-
gineers report that som? manufacturers tables overrate the capacity $
their fans and underestizmte the horse-power required to drive them.
some cases the complahas may be due to restricted air outlets, long and
crooked pipes. slipping of belts, too small engines, etc. It may also be
due to the fact that the volumes are st,ated without being accompanied
by information as to the maintained resistance, and the volumes
.~~,
;WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
.,
Speed, Car
T!IC figures given represent dynamic pressures in oz. per sq. in.
static pressure, deduct ZS.S%; for velocity pressure. deduct 71.25
For
the varfaf,ion under nearly all conditions. was scarcCQ perceptible. A
coetficient of g;1& was assumed for the discharge onhce.
IIw pressure
~.. .~,... - . . . . . . i..,. .riTro,, I,,, t~tw Pit,ot, t,l~& and draft+ yauge at
540
3, 960
. 76
I . 220
2. 640
1. 73
2. 170 *
1. 9so
3~05
- 1. - - - - : - -
Y: l , , l l l , . ~ I e vrlncitv and static arrssure.
6
- -
3. 390
1, 580
4. 8
4, 8&O
1, 320
6. 9
6, 620.
1, 130
9~4
LZ
8, 680
990
12. 2
I 1, 000
880
15. 5
13, 550
790
19. 1
i 9. 500
660
27. 5
26, 600
566
37. 5
34. 700
495
48. 8
t4. 000
440
62.
54. 200
396
76. 5
65, 700
360
92. 6
78, COO
330
110.
91.600
305
129.
06, 400
203
150.
22. 000
264
172.
27
Dimensions of Sirocco Fans.
(.%mericsn Blon-er Co., 1909.)
. 12:
, 341
.6il
.95
1. 37
I . 87
%
3 83
5. 50
7. 47
9. 79
12. 3
15. 2
18. 4
z2. 2
-
36
-
42
I
I
!
/
./i
8
!
I
j ]
i !
8
-
. 12
. 2
. 92
1. 40
1. 87
2. 40
: : i ;
5. 58
7. 47
9. 05
12. 3
15. 3
18. 3
22. 3
26"
. I 1
. 25
. 44
. 69
. oo
. 34
1
2
. 78
4
:
2
. l I
I ?
. oo
. I I
I 3 . 4l
16 ' LOO
12 6 , 6- S 226
I j j l ; ' v ' 641 353
' - 18 9 509
; : I F! ' " ; 64; ~64: 64i 693 904
27 , ; I . : ? hi ! I I 44
30 i i ' - ! 6f i I 413
35 I A 164i 2036
42 21 ! 64! 2770
48 24 ' 64! 3617
54 27 164 4578
60 I O ; 64! 5652
66 33 i 64: 6839
72 36 i 64; 8144
1
Slroccg, or Xuttivane Fans.-Th?re has recent.lp (1909) come into Use
a fan of radically ditfewnt proportions and characteristics from the ordl-
nary centriiupalfan. This fan is composed of a great nr;mber of shallow
vanes. ranting from 45 to 64, set close toget!ler around ttie periphery of
the fan v.&eI. Over a large rxge of sizes. 6-4 vanes appear to give the
G: This is a jgja~~<dit-&.
best resuita.
The vanes measured radially, have a depth il.6 the fan
diameter. A&xll~~, theyare much longer than those of the ordinary fan.
being 3/ j the fan diameter.
The fan occupies about l/z the space, and 1s
about 2:~ the weight of t.he ordinary fan.
The vanes are concaved m the
direction of rotation and the outer.edge is set forward of the inner edge.
:he c:r.tnedismceter as the inner edge of the bl ades.
Tile inlet ar65 is of t..- __-_.. ~.~~~
~stj;dlv the inlet is on one side of the fan only,
and is unobstructed. the
v.he~1 Gng orrrh~ui~ from a Ix:arinv at thq opposite end.
A peculi,arity
if Ellis type of fan is tllar thr: air leaves It at a 4ocity about 50 per
cent in eSCeSs of the ijt?Kipll~~i:ll WWPll Of thf2 lJhdS.
The velocity of
the air through the inkt is I+~--,~.-.....~
_..__l_... . ~. .~~~
area. The power consumption is relatively low. This type of fan wa.s
inT;rnted by S. C. Davidson of Belfast.
Irelsnd. and is linown as the
~:irocm fan. It is made under that name in this courltry hy the
American Blo~r Co., to which the author in indebted for the preceding
mechaxi-
The sturiev: -- .
has been develc,-.-
made v.?th spoon-sh
ciaimed for this con~t.ruction .I ..- -.
along the length of the blade. The folio
irk and hk+power required by the fan.
Iotor, 76.Gi,:.
ant xuttivane Fan. A modification of the Sirocco fan
t nr r i bv the B. F. Sturtevant Co.. in which the blades are
abed serrations along their length. The advantage
ic thnt the air is discharged more evenly
n+ng table shows the sizes, caps<:-
Sizes, Capacities and Horse-power of J lultivane Fans.
(B. F. Sturtevant Co.. 1909.
Height
of Fan
C: i si ng
inches
Resistance, li? In.
-r-
voi.
1. 800
2, 600
3, 550
4. 620
7, 220
10. 400
14, OOl l
23. 500
35, 000
48. ~800
65. 000
LP. J I
695
580
500
435
350
290
250
190
160
135
115
.I 1 H.P.
0.45
0.65
0. 90
1. 15
I . 8
: : t
5. 8
8. 8
12. 0
16. 0
-
* Full housing.
Resistance. I In. / Resistance. I I/? Ill.
VOI .
z%
5' 000
6: 500
I O2cl o
14: x0
20. 000
33. 300
49. 703
69. 000
92, 000
-
I
. -
985
820
700
615
490
410
350
z
190
I @3
f.ld Vol. ! R.P.11.
1 j
--
/
H.P.
Bot,tom horizontal discharge.
-
2. 3
' 4: ;
6. 0
9. 3
13s: :
30. 0
2: :
85. 0
The above table gives the volumes and horse-po\vers of Stu,rtevant
multivane fans operating against a continuousI:; maintained reststance.
bandlinn air at 653 F. The table is compiled for single-Inlet fans. but
wi;en U&J svith double inlet the volumes wili be considerablv increased
I2nn%,+ 1 i-),?C.\ qnrf +hu nnwrr will also lx ereat,er (about 2&35$,). It \IyyuI .., _,, ,,<;,, Y,I.s .. ,11---- ..--- --. ~.- ..- _~~~~~~~ ,
is oossible to handle an7 of the volume! 5 given against any stated pressure
wiih quite an appre&ble savii-g in poker as compared with the table
hor:e-Dower by using a larger fan, and by so doing obtaining lower velocl: _ -
~~A~~~~~: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
ties through the fan. It is also possible to handle any stated volume
against any pressure given in the table with a considerably smaller fan
but when this is done i; requires an increase in trorse-powkr~ducto -ti< but when this is done i; requires an increase in horse-power due to th;
greater velocity, which is increased in proportion to the decrease in size greater velocity, which is increased in proportion to the decrease in size
and to the lower mechanical and to the lower mechanical efficiency of an overloaded fan.
By mnin-
tained resistance is meant a static pressure existing in the air after it tained resistance is meant a static p&sure existing iti the air-after it
leaves the fan olltlct, if the fan is applictl to a blowing system. Iravps the fan olltlct, if the fan is applictl to a Mowing system.
sllction system. ma--~~---
1Vlth the With the
sllctmn system. maint:Gnf!d rr+st:m?o is the static sllct,ion rrist,in: iu the
duct jlcst olltkle the Ian ~nict. duct jlcst olltkle the fan inlet. If I;II: fan ii; so pl:lce<l in the system that If I;($: fan ii; so pl:lce<l in the system that
there is resistance to the HOW of air on both inlrt and outlet. the kaintained there is resistance to the How of air on both inlrt and outlet, the kaintained
reiistance against +-. I-~ resistance against which the fan operaks is the sum of the st,atic suction
existing in the air just netore enteiing the ink and the static pressure in. existing in the air just before entering the ink and the static pressure in.
the air just outside the fan olltlet. the air just outsi!le the fan olltlet.
systems a maintain -~ --.-.-
In ordinary dra\\ -throuxh heatiue In orrliuary dra\\-through heatiug
systems a malntalued suction is encountered in the fan inlet due to the
resistance of the heater, and the main:::,inetl pressllre is created in the fan r&tance of the heater, and the main:::,inetl pressllre is created in the fan
outlet due to the piphI:: system. outlet, due 40 the piphI:: system.
tests in whic:h the ^-------
The volumes given are computed from The volumes given are computed from
tests m wluc:h the ?verage velocity over rectanguk or circular pipes is
.~ _~- ~~
taken as 91% of t. ~ -velocity (not velocity head) which is read at the taken as Sly0 of t,. ~ -Jelocity (ncit velocity head) which is read at the
center of.the pipe b> toeans of the Pisot : rl be. center of.the pipe b> toeans of the Pisot : rl be. This method of computing This method of computing
velocity 1s conservative, especially for pipes having large sectional area. velocity 1s conservative, especially for pipes having large sectional area.
FANS AND BLOWERS.
639
High-Pressure Centrifugal FWW. (Seepage 620.)
Methods ot Testing Fans.
(Compiled by B. F.Sturtevant Co., 1909.)
Various methods are used in testinr centrifugal fans! some of which.
being crude. credit fans with performances somewhat different from the
true performance. Some of the formuk used in determining the per-
formances of a fan are given below:
h, = Velocity head, in. of water: ht= Total or Impact head, in. of
water: h, = Static head, in. of water; Q = Cu. ft. per min.: z= Velocity,
ft. per min.; w = Density of air. lb. per cu. ft.: d = Area of outlet pipe.
Sq. ft.; A.H.P,. = Air horse-power crediting the fan with the energy due
to static pressure only: A.H.P t. = Air horse-power. crediting the fsn with
both the enerky due to static pressure and the kinetic energy in the dis-
charge; B.H.P. = Brake horse-power.
K
Q = 1097 ; XA.
A.H.P,. = QX h,X0.0001573; A.H.PI. = QX htX0.0001575.
hfechanical Efficiency =A.H.P.sB.H.P.
Volumetric Effiy= Volume per Revo!ution+Cubical Contents of wheel,
-A&lemometpr
Placed in a draft, w
_I. Method. Anemometers are subject to considerable error
leY are verv delicate and must be handled with care. Should they be
~~~~~. ~.~here the velocity is much over 1000 ft. per min. they
t:e aPJ to be damaged by bendingthe blades.
I ,.
The methods of calibrating
cnese instruments a
J, b.l.4 6LVC DLLAr b.110111~~ 11 CIIL, ..,.-JL C..U6
the instrument be in the same condition as when calibrated.
1s frequently calibrated, tbr i;;&rilrnunt
Unless it
tion Curve. ivhich is
mnT, nn+ hr trnta tn i t . ralihra-
Y,,Cr L L,,JLCL~LLlllj CL. -I. YLLLL.~~,~.~-v-~
*s seldom adapted to taking readings at th,e fan outkt or within pipes as
the velocity In most case:
Ther -
or pnn,t c +hu ~i mi t nt i nnr nf t ~ha i ndr t nmdnt
dty rejdings are udbt&ed ;ihe to iK6-ike;tra oft%
It. i( hich results in the fan being crekted with a volume greater
L-
ut: t4e volume.
_iii_,.*~ ,..-._ .~ ^______~.~ .._ --..T-
2 material may no lor-kjer-be accurate --
640 AiR.
~~otcr-Gnu~c Rcndinqs at End of Tapmxr? Cone.
In this method
cones are placed on the fan outlet, or on the end of a short outlet pipe:
Th: rearhgs at the erid of the cone vary widely. due to the large number
9 vsriabLe eddies. The pressure rexting at the end of the cone 1s~ a total
of two components, static pressure and velocity pressure.
CTrltess the
static pressure 1s deducted lronl the total pressure the true velocity pressure
is not obtaine:l.
~; r- i i cqht I ~wmt wi t/ t Sli~iin!qDIMV. T!iii mt.thorl con+ts of the fan dl+
char~in:: it,s air into a closed room wl105e cittlet is a sliding door.
In this
method, t.he reaihngs senerally take into account not only the volumetric
performance but also the StatlC pressure in the room, against which the
fan rlehrers air. All tests by this method rnllst be corrected for leakage of
air from t,he room. the leakage factor being much larger t ha,n would be sup-
posed. A varntble coeificient of orifice is encountered, since at no t,vvo
o-itionr
k-~~.
of the siidirm door is either the area or shape of orifice ?he same.
ea!hngs t.aken at the door, by anemometers, are subject to t.he errors of
these instr~nnwus. If water-gauge readings are taken at the door, the
results are in error if it is assumed that all pressure at t,he door is velocity
pressure. Stat,ir: ren~linrs shotttd be made at each station and deducted
from t&? total ohserve: pressure in order to get the retocitv heart. Even
then it is diliic:uit to get a t~rue static reading at the door,-as the stream
lines are not all perpendicular to the plane of the orifice.
Pitot Tuhc in Cmtcr o/ Discharge Pipe.
This method requires a dis-
charge pipe of t~he same si7.r. as the wtttrt~ of the fan,
In the center of
t.!tis pipe and at such a distance from the fan olttlet that edflies are prac-
tical!:- eliminated. i7 pt:wed a Pirot t.ulre. The discharrx pipe is of such
length be~onrl ttie t.:t:w t,hat xhen restricted at its end. the stream lines in
the vicimtv of the ttihc arc not materinllr affected,
Bv this method ilie
static and tot~al prewtrw are obwrved with considerahie accuracv.
velocity pressure is rl~termine~l by subtractin
The
the total pressure.
g the static presstire from
By appl\-ing a proper coemcient to the readings at
the center :he average i-&city over t,!ie fttll discharge area is ohtuined.
It is possible to make a more complete t.est by placing, several Pit~ot t,abes
in the rliscll~u~e pipe at different poinm in a cross-sectto::. t.bcrebv o!nain-
I!?$ an average. 1311: it is folind that by taking readings at a tlist,anre of
e&lit or ten diameters from the fan otttlrt verv good restt!ts are obtained
wth one tube placell in the center of t,he section of the pipe. whose read-
ings are correcwl hg a proper coelmient.
For merlit~m-*se pipes it is
fouml that a coelhcient of 0.91 applied to the velocity read at the renter
of the discharge pipe gives good a,nrl conservative results.
itits give 0.87 as t,he value of this coefficient.
[Other aut.!10r-
Illiiminating Gas.]
See Pitot Tube, under
Experiments xit,lt the tapered cone method and the Pit,ot lube in the
cemer of pipe method shorn that the former credits a fan with greater
volnme than the latter, and a!so show that there is a variable relation
bet~ween t,hese two methods as regards the volume of air eredit,ed to the
fan when it is handling a certain voiume of air.
The difference in volumes
cre:lileri the fan becomes greater as the .size of t.he discharge pipe increases.
In tesbs on two fans of ttitferent 5izcs. but, of symmetrical design, the Pitot
tube in the center of t,he pipe will record symmetrical results under given
conditions. while vviih t,hc tapered cone the results obtained wit,11 the
larger fan and larger discharge pipe are beyond those which would have
been expected from the symmetrv of the fan.
From the above formrrtz the air horse-power is a function of two vari-
ahles. voiltme and pressure. Opinions
stnilri be credited t,o the fan.
vary as to the pressure which
It is claimed that the fan should be
credited v.itt? the difference between the static pressure in the medium
from which the fan is drawing air and the static pressure in the discharge
Plw. It is also claimed t~hat the fan should also be credited with t,he
kinetic energy in the air in the discharge pipe or with the difference be-
tween the static pressure in the medium from which the fan is drawing air
and :he total or impact pressure in the discharge pipe. Efficiencies de-
termmed by crediting the fan with the former pressure may be called
stat% efficiencies. and those determined bv crediting the fan with the
latter pressure may be called impact efficiencies.
The work of compression is negligible, as these methods have t.o do with
air under low pre~silrC. When readings are taken on the suci,ion si
i WARNING: T~his is a 1910 edition.
Some' ~of
t
FANS AND BLOWERS.
the fan, for the pwpose of determining static efficiency. the fan is often
erroneously credtted with a pressure equal to the dtfference betvveen the
medium into which the fan is discharging and the negattve static pressure
ln the pipe leading to the fan inlet., wheress it shou!d be credtted only xit.11
the difference between the static pressure m the discharging medium and
the impact pressure in the inlet pipe. The static suction has a greater
negative value than the impact pressure at the same point. which is the
re4111t~ of t,he reduct,ion of nrcwtre cnuse~l 1)~ the air entrrinrr the system
cl,anging from rest. or zr,ro~vetocit,y, to a :ir!it,e vclwity v:hictt it lint at the
noint of measurement. If t,he object is to detkrmine the impact ctfkiency
where readings are taken at the suction 3llo of t,he fan. the pressure wit,h
vvhich the fan should be credited is the diffrrrnce hetwwn the impact mad-
lng at the fan discharge and the impact rending obtained in the inlet pipe.
This total pressure with \vhich the fan is crrriit.erl nay also he cypressed as
the difference between the static pressure in tile discharx p!pe and the
static suction in the inlet pipe, plus t.he inctwse of the wlor,ity pressure
in the outlet pipe over the oelocit,y pressure in the inlet pine.
From the above methods it is seen that vol:imetric and mechanical
efficiencies of wide variety are obtained. antt that where a test is of any
importance it is essent,int t~llnt it he made on the most correct lutes. Using
I~ Punt. t, l l he in the renter .,f the oine throueh which air How. affords the
best means of getting the trite prbssures a!; a whole and their separate
components, and, consequently, is most accurate ;n determunng the
Fro. 140
volume flowing. Fig. 140 stiows diagrammat tally the method of test Y..V I I_
whereth~~~~tI1~~~suSed in the L~.~.~. . .._ -_ I-..-. o- r.r.. where the Pitot tube is used in the cent.er of the discharge ptpe.
It also
~~
show how readings could be taken by the cone method at the. end of a show how readings could be taken by the cone method at the. end of. a
discharge pipe, discharge pipe. The details of the Plt.nt. t. l l hr in what is considered tta The details of the Pttot tube in what is considered tta
best form are also shown. best form are also shown. The impa,, vI yvI... rh.--~.a..-- -- -- -~~~~ The impact or total pressure is obtained at the
end of the horizontal tube nearest the fan, and read by a water gauge end of the horizontal tube nearest the fan, and read by a water gauge
connected to the vertical tube communicating with this Point. connected to the vertical tube communicating with this Point,
The The
static pressure is obtained at the slots in the s static pressure is obtained at the slots in the side of the outerhortsontal
i ri e nf t,he outer horizontal
tube which communicates with the second vert tube which communicates with the second vertical tube, to which a water
gauge may gauge may be connected. be connected.
_,_. _ ~_ i
le material may no longer , be accur&e
642
AIR.
FANS AND ELOWERS.
643
an air-pressure of !?1/2 in. of water column, the mechanical efficiencv, or the
horse-powr of t.be air delivered divided by the power reqmred to drive the
fan. rmged from :jZ%
to 47L?, under different condirions. but w!th slow
speeds it was much less, in some cases being under 20%.
Mr. Walker in
esperimrnt,s on disk fans found efficiencies ranging all the way from 7.4%
to .HC>;. t,he size of the fans and the speed being co, stant. but the shape and
male OS the blades varyin:.
Ii is evident that t,l, :re is a wide margin for
imj~rosemrnts in the forms of fans and blower:.
dnd a wide field for experi-
ment 10 determine the conditions that xvi11 give maximum elficiency.
Pipe Lines for. Fans and Blowers. -- In installing fans and blowers
careful consideration should be giveu to the pipe line conducting the air
from the fan or hlowr. +IldS stld tllrns in the pipe, even of lonw radii
will caus.e co+lershle drop m pressure, and in straight pipe the f&on oi
ttw nmvll~~ :nr IS R. SOI~WP of considerable 10~s~
The friction increases with
the length 0f the pipe and is inverseiy as the diameter.
square of the wl mtJ - .
It also varies as the
111 l ong. r>ms ?f pipe. the increased cost of a large;
pipe can often be compensateu by the decreased cost of !he motor end
pwver for pperatinn the Mower.
The ad\+nhty of using a iarge pipe for conveyinp the air is shown by
the foliowng table which gives the size of pipe which should be used for
pressure losses not exceeding one-fourth and one-half ounce per square
inch, for various lengths of pipe.
.
(B. F. St~urtevant Co.)
Diameters of Blast Pipes.
(B. F. Sturtevant Co., 1OOs.)
.5 Length of Pipe in Feet.
zl? 2 20 1 40 1 60 / 80 j 100 1 120 1 1.40
Dirmeter of Pipe with Drop of
-
. I 2
) Z
-
. i
1:
12
: :
1:
15
I ;
i 7
I i
I i
! 8
20
20
! I
! I
! I
2
! 2
! 2
! 3
! 3
! 3
! 4
22
22
22
w
L3
x3
! 4
! 5
! 5
! 6
! 6
! 6
! 7
! 7
!i
6: I . 828 12. 69
ii-
,;
=:a i l . OSO, 4. 0641 28~36
;;a2 2. 376: 2~59?, 6. 0481 6. 315!
2. 506 6. 5i I /
42. 00 43. 66
45. 63
i . 02: : 6. 518 47. 34
l ; j i 3. 2j o: 7. 0551 49. 00
i
0. 00043~0. 034
0. 00122. 0. 068
0. 00225~0. 102
0. 00336~0. 136
0. 00483~0. 170
0. 00635 0. 204
0. 00800~0. 23E
0. 00978~0. 27i
0. 01166' 0. 30~
0. 01366 0. 341
0. 01575 0. 375
0. 017940. 40~
0. 02022 0. 441
0. 02260 0. 47;
r) . O2i O5: 0. 511
7. 2841 50. 59
7. 507; 52. 13
7. 7221 53. 63
7. 9321 55. 08
8. 136; 56. 50
8. 33. U
8. 528/
57. 88
59. 22
8. 7181 60. 54
8. 903; 61. 83
9. 084! 63. 09
9. 262: 64~32
9. 4351
9. 606!
65. 52
66. 71
9. 7731 67. 87
9. 936 69~01
O. l OOi 70. 14
( 3) I ( 4)
500 6
I E 1:
2: ooo I I
2, 500 I 2
: *g: I :
4: OOO I ?
4, 500 I 5
5. 000 I 5
5. 500 I 6
6, 000 I 7
6, 500 I 7
: : Fci I i
8, 000 I 8
3; : 1;
9: 500 20
10, 000 20
xi g
14: OOO23
14. 500 23
15, oM) 24
l
I
I
I
I
I
I


1
;
(5) (61
(,) j (2) / (ij / (4)
the xi-en mess&es throueh an oiific&. without allowance for the work of
compres&n or for frictioti or other l&es of the fan. These losses may
amrri:nt to SCt$$, or more of the given horse-power.
Thi- c!ian~e in density which results from a change in pressure has been
taken into account in the calculations of the table. The volume of air at
.a Siren vrlot:i~v discharged through an orifice depends upon its shape, and
is aiw:-s iess ihan that measured bv its full area. For a liven erecti@
arp,2 th?: volume is proportional to ti re velocity. The pow& req&ed to
mow air through an orifice is measured by tbe product of the velocity and
the torai resisting pressure.
cube of the veln<!ity.
This power for a given orifice varies as the
velocity.
For a given volume it varies as the square of the
In the movement of air by means of a fan t.here are unavoidable
re+nnces ivhich, in proportion to their amount, increase the actual power
conslderably above the amount here given.
644 AIR.
The minimum radius of each turn should be equal to the diameter of the
)I
i3%, .
For each turn thus made add three feet tn lengt,h, when ustng this
If the turns are of less radius, the length a.dded should be increased
proportionately.
The above table has been constructed on the follov.ing basis: A loss of,
say, 1;s oz. pressure was allowed as a standard for the transmission of a
given quantity of air through a given length of pipe of any diameter. The
increased IO:S due to increasing the length of pipe &as compensated for by
increaki:: the diameter ~ulticientlg to keep the los.< still at l/c oz. Thus.
if X&O cu. ft. of air is to be tle!ivered per minute through IuU~ft. of pipe
with a loss of not more than l/z oz.. a 14-k. pipe mill be required. If it is
necessary to increase the length of pipe to 140 ft., a pipe 15 in. diameter
wili he required if the 10~s in pressure is not to exceed t!s oz. In deciding
the size of pipe the loss in pressure in the pipe must be added to the pres-
sure to be maintained at the fau or hlo\ver, if the tabulated efficiency of
the latter is to be secured at the delivery end of the pipe.
Centrifuyai Ventilators for Mines.-Of different appliances for ven-
tilating mines various forms of centrifugal machines having proved their
efficiency ha,ve now almost compkely replaced 311 others. .\Iost if not a!1
of the machines in use in this country are of bhis class, being either open-
perip!ierv fans. or closed. with chiymey and spiral casing. of a more or less
modifkti GIuibai type. The theorv of such machines has been demonstrated
by Sir. Daniel >lurgue in Theo&s and Practices of Centrifugal Ventilating
>Iachinrs, translated by A. I,. Stevenson. and is discussed in a paper by R.
Van A. Norris. Trcms. A. I. X. E.. xx. 637. From this paper the following
formuhe are taken:
Let LI = area in sq. ft. of an orifice in a thin plate, of such area that its
resistance to t!ie passage of a given quantity of air equals the
resistance of the mine;
o = orifice in a thin plate of such area that its resistance to the @as-
sage of a given quantity of air equals that of the machine;
Q = quantity of ai,r passing in cubic feet per minute:
V = velocity:,, of air passing throllgh n in feet per secomi;
V0 = cclo~ci:v of air pas.sing through o in feet per second;
h = head in feet air-column to produce velocity V;
ho - head in feet air-column to produce velocity IJo.
. Q = 0. 65al ' : V = d/ : ! yh Q = 0. 65( 1 d%;
a=
( 2
-
0. 65 v2gh
= equivalent orifice of mine:
or, reducine to water-gauge in inches and quantity in thousands of cubic
feet per minute,
= tii,,,$,,~ y =
eqmr alent orifice of machine.
.
The theoretical depression which can be produced by any centrifugal
ventilator is double that due to its tangential speed. The formula
H,I -!I
2g 29
in which T is the tangential speed. P the ve1ocit.v of exit of the air from the
space between the blades, and H the depression measured in feet of air-
column. is an expression for the theoretical depression which can be pro-
duced by an uncovered ventilator: this reaches a maximum n-hen the air
leaves t~he blades whhout speed: that is. I/ = 0. and Ii = T? + 2 g. (
Rence the theoretical depresston which can be produced by any uncov- j
ered ventilator is equal to the height due to its tangential speed, and one- !
~~~~~~~~: This is a 1910 edition. Some. - of
MINE-VENTILATING F.kNS. 645
half that which can be produced by a covered ventilator with expanding
chimney. Practical considerations in the design of the fan wheel and
casing will probably cause the actual results obtained with fans to vary
considersbly from these formulze.
So long as the condition of the mine remains constant:
(1) The volume produced hy any ventilator varies directly as the speed
of rot.ation.
(2) The depression pro~l~~ced 1)~ any veutilat~or varies as t,he square of
the speed of rotation.
(3) For the s&me tangential speed with decreased resistance the quantity
of air increases and the depression diminishes.
The following table shrnvs a few results, selected from Jlr. Norriss paper,
giving the ran% of efficiency which map be expected under different cir-
cumstances. Details of these and other fans, with diagrams of ihe results,
are given in the paper.
Experiments on Nine-Ventilating Fnns.
- l Z
6973
7727
6282
8167
3702
5208
3140
5495
: : i ;
5278
7540
: : 2
785
1570
1962
2355
2747
3140
3925
4710
5495
6280
-_
3040
3040
3040
3040
1520
1520
1520
1520
cl an
1522
I : : :
: z
3%
3022
3022
3022
3022
3022
3022
3022
3022
3022
7
7
:
:
:
. .
-
4290
5393
5002
5100
3007
3366
1610
1593
1580
2507
5356
5451
5676
1767
2398
2774
3680
3637
: : z
3425
3567
3381
3686
3718
3540
7
1. 80
2. 50
3. 20
3. 60
1. 40
: : t
2. 15
0. 87
2. 55
0. 50
1 . oo
2. 15
: : i :
2. 80
0. 10
: : ; i
0. 40
i : : :
Ki
1. 80
2. 25
67.13/m-
, 32. 70' 155. 43
75. 171209. 64
! 23. 56 295. 21
41. 67 97. 99
86. 63 194. 95
I I . 27 16. 76
27. 86 48. 54
6. 80 13. 82
55. 35 67. 44
11. 60 28. 55
32. 42 45. 98
101. 50 120. 64
70. 30 102. 79
06. 89 129. 07
92. 50 150. 08
0. 45 1. 30
1. 80 3. 70
2. 90 6. 10
4. 6C 9. 70
7. 40 15. 00
12. 30 24. 90
18. 80 38. 80
36. 90 66. 40
57. 70 107. 10
78. 80 152. 60
44. 6 22
67. 83
57. 38
49. 2 32
E:
70. 50 83
84. 10/
68. 40 26. 9
67. 30 38. 3
61. 70 46. 3
: z.
4s:
47. 52
40.
: ; :
Type of fanl [ WidtD. fNo.in!etS
double ................
only left hand running
............. ............
?e materi al may no l ongerbe accurate
Diam.
Sets.
8 ft. loo in. 0
88 10
II 6
a
,, ,,,,i
646 . AIR.
DISK FANS.
An&nmination of the detailed results of each test, in \fr. Norriss table
shows a mass of cont.ratlictions from which it is esceehingly difficult to
draw any saGsfactory conclusions. The following. he states. appear to be
more or less warranted by some of the tigures:
1. I~f;tue?+~ o/the Ccmr!ition of the Airwa!!s on the Fun,. - Mines with
varying equivalent, orifices +ve air per 100 ft,. speed of tip of fan. within
hinit.; as foiloivs, the quantity depending on t,he resistance of the mine:
KYrxier 20 Iloot 1700 : 1300
20 to30
30 to 40 ,
to
r200 I >00 to
1600 I I 600
2500 : 2100
40 f o 50 2300to 3500 2700
50 to60 2700 to 4800 / 3500
60to 70
70 to 80
80 to 90
90 to 100
100 to 1 I 4
Cu. ft. air
per 100 ft,.
speed of fan.
3300 to 5100
4000 to 4700
3000 to 5600
. . . . . . . . . .
52OOto 6200
i
-
-
Average.
i%
4800
5700
The influence of ihe mine on thz efficiencr of the fan does not seem to be
ver: cIe+r. Eight fans, with equivalent, oiifices over 50 square feet, give
ettiLie:n~reS over 70;; four. with smaller equivalent mine-orifices give
about the Same figures: while. on the contrary: six fans. with equi;alent
oritit ,ds of over 50 square fret. give lower efficlrncies. as do ten fans. all
rfr;lcix from mines 1yvlth small equivalent orifices. It would seem that
un the ~hoie, large slrways tend to assist some:vhat in attaining higli
rtFi-i,n,, _. . . _ _ . ,_ _.
2. I~@ue~e of theDiameter of theFan. -This Seems to be practicallv nil
the only advantage of !arce fans being in their greater width and t,he.fowe;
spre, i reqs, i i recj of the enri n~c
3. Itgiuclve oft
t!w eficiency of t,he nlach~ne~ htn the
more air. However. increas
he IV+ of" Farz. - This appears to be Small as regatds
: --- -._-
wider fans are, as a rule. eshauSt,ing
:UXZ tbe widt.h of the fan of a given diameter
c;t:l.~ an increase in the velocity of the air through the wheel inlet and
this incr%iied veloclt?- will become at a certain point a serious Loss and
:viii stecrease the mechanir:al etliciencv.
. r. ~ -, _ -. 1
+. f,tfl,uence,?l +xpe c{ filaffes. - Yhis appears. within reasonable limits
is fans with ties of blades curved forwvard: to De practi~~&ly ni!. lhU.5. .q
tj!rp? ians.%It,h flat blades. and one with blafies curved back to a tanKent
v:iiil ihe elrcurnference, aii gijv, very high eficiencies - over 70 Der cent.
A prominent manufacturer cl:
e#i&nrv
Urns. however. that his tests show-a higher
-,vith vanes curved forward as compared with straight or back-
wxrdl:: GUI 3~1 vanes.
5. in$uencr of the Sliape of the Spiral Casing. -This appears to be
con;i::erabie. The shapes of Spiral caTin< in use fali into two classes
the first presentinz a,larze spiral. be$nnin: at or near the point of cut-off:
anli the Second a circular casine reaching around three..quarters of the
circumference of the ian. rviih a short Spiral reach& to the ecos&
chimnev.
Fans.hsvi;i: the first form of casing appear to give in almost every case
hi-h elficiencles.
Fans that hare a Spiral belondng to the first, class. but verv much con-
trac:tei A1 ,ire only medium efficiencies. It seems probable that the proper
S!?;ipe of spiral cssinr: would be one of such form that the air between each
pair of hi&es Could constantly and freely discharge into the space between
tiil- fan and casing. the whole bein: swept along to the evade chimney.
TG wouI(! require a spiral betinning near the point of cut-off. enlarging by
ixt~funilv lncreasinp increments. to allow for the slowinp of the air caused
!y: ii-: fric~,tion aesinsi the caShI:. and reacbinp the chimney with an area
Sllcch Shat the aii could make its exit with its then existing Bpeed - some-
;vhxt It-?; than the prrinhery-speed of the fan.
6. I?zfuenre offhe Shi~tter. -The shutter certainlc apprarsto be an ad-
vaotazs. as by it the exit area can be regulated to suii the varring quantity
of air ~lven by the fan. and in this way re-entries can be preirented. It is
not uncommon to find Shutterless fans. into the chimneys of which hits of
paper may be dropped. which are drawn into the fan. make the circuit. and
are arraln thrown out.
provided with shutters.
This peculiarity~ has not been noticed with fans
7. In uence of tho Speed at which a Fan is Run. - It is noticeable t.hat,
most o f the fans giving high etficiency were running at a rather high
periphery velocity.
feet per minute.
The best speed Seems to be between 5000 and 6000
The fans appear to reach a maximum efficiency at some-
where about the speed given, and t,o decrease rapidly in efficiency when
this maximum point is passed. The same manufacturer mentioned in
note 4 states that the efficiency is not affected by the tip speed, providing
that the corupariSon is always made at the same point i:l the etficiency
curve.
T.3 ,li<.,,ccin ,,f \lr
w,\riiS oaoer. Mr. A. H. ;jtorrs savs: From t,ll@i cu-
bit feet per revolut!on and ixbical contents of fan-b!ades. as givenin
the table, we find thn,t. the ericlosed fans empty themselves from one-half to ~.,..- .~,~ _.
twice per revoiu,,,... .,.... _ , Inn rxr)~tl~~ !he oDen fans aKemntietl from one and three-
quarters to nearly t.hree times: this for fans of both types, on mines covering
thi Same range of equivalent orifices. One open fan, on a very large
orifice, was emptied nesrly four times, while a closed fan. on a still
larger oritice, only shows one and one-half times.
cubic feet per 100 ft
For the open fans the
mot,ion is greater, in Droportion to the fan
width and equi=>lnn
in,o this-apparel
_. . . .
. -.-..t orifice, than for the enclosed-type. Notlvithst,and-
ntly free discharge of the open fans, they show very low
el
,.- . . . . . . y-. .._ .yJ . . ,~~
the conditions of the mine are made favorable. a 16-ft. diam. fan*, 4 ft. 6 in.
wide. at 130 revolutions, passed 360,000 cu. ft. per min., and another, of
same diameter, hllt clilrlltllr wider and with laxer int,a.ke circleS. Dassed
500. 000 cu. ft., t,,, -h. ,,_
T. D. Jones says: The ethclency reported in some cz&SeS by Mr. Norris is
larger than I have ever he-n able to determine bv experiment. -. --_, 11~ own
experiments. recprrtorl ,,,,I in the Pennsylvania 1Iine inspe?tors Reportd from
18i5 to 1881, die 1 not show more than SO% to 6Z1~1,.
DISK F.ANS.
Effleieney of Disli Fans. - Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy (Industries. Jan.
17, 1890) mad+? a series of tests on two disk fans, 2 and 3 ft. diameter,
kno%yn ,as the Verity Silent Air-propeller. The principal results and
. . nlr\n.
conclusions are connenseo orlv,. .
In each case the efficiency of the fan, that is, the qusnt.ity of air delivered
per effective horse-Dower. mcreases very rapidly as the speed diminishes.
! economical than hirrher ones. On the so that lower sneeds are tiucn more
_
other hand, as-the quantity of illr delivered ~per revolriiion is very nearly
constant, the actual useful work done by the fan increases almost directly
with its speed. Comparing the large and small fans with about the
same air delivery, the former (running at a much lower speed. of course)
1s much the more economical.
. .
Comparing the two fans running at the
same speed, however. the smaller I
The delivprv nf a, i r WP revolution
-an is very much t.he more economical.
of fan is very nearly directly propor- - -- --- r__ _l.
tional to the area of the fans diameter.
The air delivered per minute bv the 3-ft. fan is nearly 12.5 R cubic feet
(R being the number of revolu&ns made by the fan per minute). For
the 2-ft. fan the quantity is 5.7R cubic feet. For either of these or any
other similar fans of which the area is A Square feet, the deliverl will be
about 1.8 AR cubic feet. Of course any change in the pitch of the blades
nWht entirely change these figures.
The net H.P. taken up is not far from proportional to the square of the
number of revolutions above 100 per minute.
net H.P. is (R-100),
Thus for the 3;;.-f;;ot,e
nr\n n,>,>
while for the 2-ft. fan the net H. P is l~ooo,ooo
The denorn~~~&~ of these two fractions are very nearly pr&rtiona:
inversely to the square of the fan areas or the fourth Power of the fan
diameters The net H.P. required to drive a fan of diameter D feet or
area A sqbare feet; at a speed of R revolutions per minute. win therefore
D (R - lOO)*
be aPProximately 17 ooo ooo or
A (R - 1OOY
10.400.00~
I
The 2-ft. fan was noiselef;s at all speeds.
,+VP to over 450 revolutions per minute.
The 3-ft. fan was also noiseless
.~__.
.
-~,-~* .~,
I
.,,. *~ .~~
I material may no longer . be' ach' rate
648 AIR. POSITIVE ROTARY BLOWERS. 649
the height equivalent to the water-pressure, rather than the actual veloc-
ity of the air.
This record of experiments made \vith the disk fan shows that this kind
of fanis not +dapted for use where there is any material resistance to the
flow of the air. In the centrifugal fan the po\vrr used is nearly propor-
tioned to the amount of air moved under a given head, while in this fan
the power rrr]uired for the same number of revolutions of the fan increases
~rry materially \vith the resistance. not!vithstnndinE the qunntitv of air
moved is at the same time consillcrably rc:duct:d.
tion of the third anil fourth series of tests,, it
Iu fact from rtw.inspec-
would appear that the power
required is very nearly the same for a given pressure, whether more or
less air be in motion. It would seem that the main advantage, if any,
of the disk ian over t,tie centrifugal fan for slight resist,ances consi.~rs in the
fact that the delivery is the full area of the disk. while with centrifugal
fans intended to move the same quantity of air the opening is much
smaller.
It will be seen by columns S and 9 of the table that the power used in-
creased much more rapidly than the cube of the velocity, as in centrifugal
fans. The different experiments do not agree with each other. but a
general average may be assumed as about the cube root of the eleventh
Propeller. 1
zft. din!n. )
Propeller,
3 ft. dinni.
7501 6761 5771 5761 459 3i3
0. 42! 0. 3Zi
4. 1831 3, 830; 0. 2271 3. 4101
1. 021 0. 575 0. 324
7. 4001 5, 800( 4, 470
Spwi of fan, revolutions per minute.
Net 1-I.P. to drive fan nnd Mt.. . .
C~iiiic feet cd xir per minute..
Ilr:~n vricicirs of air in j-Et. tiue. feet
per !:1*11,i!e .*
Mean velw3rv of air in Bue. same
.j
hrneier zRf:m.. _. ..
CU. ft. of nirpermin.prreffectiveH.F
Xorion given to air per rev. of fan. ft.
Cubic feer oi nir per rev. of fan _.
,
Experiments made with a Blackman Disk Fan, 4 ft~. diam. by Geo.
A. Suter, to determine the volumes of air delivered under various con-
ditions, ami the power required; with calculations of efitiency and ratio
of increase of power to increase of velocity. by C. 1~. Babcock.
A. . S. M. I <. . l - i i . . 5- l ; ) :
(Trans.
-.
-.
1. 95 ,
1. 74 I
I . 4CI i
1. 81 1,
-:.
3. 06
.I
1 1
4. 96
: /
3. 72

1. 682
. 9553
1. 062
, 935s
. .
. 7110
. 6063
5205
. 4802
. 3939
. 3046
. 3319
. 3027
.
. 2631
. 21i 38
. 2202
. . _. .
power.
Capacit of Disk Fans. (C. L. Hubbard 7he Meto/ Ilorkcr Sept. 5
1908.) -{he rated capacities given in rataiogues are for fans &volvi&
!n free air - that is. mounted in an oneninx without bcinn connected with
ducts or subject to other frictiona! r&istaiice.
._
The following data, based upon tests, apply to fans working against a
resistance equivalent to that of a shallow heater of open pa:tern. and
connecting with ducts of medium length through which the air flows at a
velocity not greater than 600 or SO0 ft. per mimIbe. Under these con-
ditions a rood type of fan will prop4 the air in a direction parallel to the
shaft, a distance equal to about 0.7 of its diameter at each revolution.
From this we have the equation Q = 0.7 D X I2 X A. in which Q = cu.
ft. of sif discharged per mim1t.e; D = diam. of fax. in ft.: IZ = revs. per
min.: A = area of fan, in sq. ft.
basis.
The following table is calculated on ttus
25. 793 ~ 0. 65 j . . . . . . .
32. 5i 5 1 2. 29
. $i : ; j b: 41 929 i - i :
\ . _. . ___
For ser&
1: : : : : : :
!.
I.
20. 372 ~ 0. 76 / . . _. . . _. ~. . . , . . . . I . _. . . . .
I
j
I .25i 1 1.262
1.186 ~ 1.257
1.144 1 1.139
1.749 1 1.851
-/-
Diam. of fan. in.
24 30 36 42 48 54 60 72 84 96
Cu. it per rE.
1. 55 4. 40 S. 59 14. 8 23. 6 35. 2 50. 1 68. 7 113. 7 l ES. 6 ' 781. 5
3.523
I.843
1.677
it.140
!_
-j-
-i
/ 3$0
453
535
627
::El
1.676
8.513
Revolutions per min. for velocit~y of air through fanzr6 10$;bft. per mi_n.
9.52 714 571 476 406 357 317 - 20-I 189
--
i /
1 0.28 0.47 j 1.265 j _...... 1.304
&i5 ! 1.242
520 : I&h49 S.46
For, series
~ 0.87 j 1.068 ;:iti
I........ / I i . 676 1. 704
=; 8. 390 1 i 1. 31
l O. Oi l I
i
437
0. 26 / __. _. . . . / . _. . . . . , -
3. 27 j 0. 45 I i . 324 1. 199
514 i : l . i j i / 6. 00
Fori
j 0.i5 ! I.181 1 i.IOJ
seri es i . . . . . . . . : I . 563 1. 329 /
::t:;
I .394
7.554
3.93
2.25
3.63
3.24
I The velocity of the air through the fan is proportional to the number
Of revolutions. For the conditions stated the H.P. required per 1000 cu.
ft. of air moved will be about 0.16 when the velocity t~hrough the fan is
1000 ft. per min.. 0.14 for a velocity of SO0 ft.., and 0.1s for 1700 ft. For
a fan moving in free air the required speed for moving a given volume of
air will be about 0.6 of the number of revolutions given above and the
H.P. about 0.3 of that required when moving against the resistauce stated.
-/ y
I
I
L
!
-i-
3.142
I.437
4.5so
6.31
2;
POSlTIVl3 ROTARY BLOWERS.
;Ln:ici-e 01 the ErPerimen!s. - First Series: Drawing air through 30 ft.
of %-in. diam. pipe on inlet, side of the fan.
Srcow! .icrirs: Foxing air through 30 ft. of 45-in. diam. pipe on outlet
side of the fan
Rotary Blowers, Centrifugal Fms, and Piston Blowers. (Cata-
f%U of the Conncrsville Blower Co.) -In ordinary work the advantage
of a positive blower over a fan be&tins at about. S~oz. pressure. and the
effkienc:!: of the positive t&)wr increases from S oz. as the pressure goes
up to a point where the ordinary cent,rifugal fan fails entirely. The
hl$hest. elficiency of rotary blowers is when they are working against
pressures ranging between 1 and 8 Ibs.
Fans. when run at constant speed. cannot be made to handle a constant
v?hlme of fiuid when the TI~PS,SIIT~ is variable: and they cannot give a high
Third &rirrs: Drawing air through 30 ft,. of .%&in. pipe on inlet side of
!!a: Can -.~ :i:c i;i p; biinc fikirri~i~d ht- a ~iiapbmzrn oi cheese-cloth.
Foi;rti: .&ries: Forvine air throrrzh -iO fi. of %-in. pipe on outlet side
of fm - the pipe being obstructed by a diaphragm of cheese-cloth.
.\lr. Babcock says concerning these experimenrs: The first four esperi-
mwt.s are ~virlmily the sui)jrct of some error. becai:se the efficiency is
swh as t,n prow on an averace ihat the fan was a source of power suficlent
to overcome all losses and hrip drive the entine besides. The second
series ir less qw~t~ionablri. but ctiit the effirlentiy in the first two experi-
ments 1s larger than might be expected. In t~he third and fourth series
the re:;ktmce of the cheese-sloth in the pipe redrwes the efficiency largely.
a,s would be expected. In this case the vatue has been calculated fr
~~~~~~~~~~ Tl ai s~~ is a
Some
etficiency except for low and uniform pressures. -
0
When a fan bloiver is used to furnish blast for a cupola it is driven at a
constant speed and the amount of air discharged by it Varies according
to the resistanck met with in the cupola. With a positive blower running
at a constant speed however there is a constant volume of air forced
hktto the cupolu, rega;dless of changing resistance.
&&>
I
he material rriay no longer .be accurate
AIR. STEAM-JET BLOWER AND EXHAUSTER. 651
For smith sres: an ordinary fire requires about 60 cu. ft. per min.
For oil furnaces: an ordinary furnace burns about 2 gallons of oil per
hour and 1800 cu. ft. of air should be provided for each gsllon o: oil. For
dach 100 cu. ft. of air discharged per minute at 16 oz. pressure, l/z H.P.
should be provided.
Sizes oi small blowers. 153 285
Revs. per min.. ,800 to 1500 500 to 900
576 cy. in. per rev.
Dlam. of outlet, in.. 2 I/* _ 2 l/.> 3oo 2
A rotarv biower of the two-impeller type is not an economical com-
pressor, b&zause the* impellers are wwking against the, full pressure at .a11
times whiie in an idea1 blowing engine thr theoretwai mean eliectlve
rew;l*l on the piston. when discharging air at 15 Ibs. pressure, IS I.112 Ibs.
g L- .-:
or hrgb pre>hure,. on account of the increase of leakage and the mcrewe
__
of prwer required because it does not compress gradual l y. the rotary
blowr must dve ivay to the piston type of machme. Commerwdly, the
I. .a fan 1s t,he cheapest hi first cost, and if prop& applied may be
used economical1.v for prewxes up to 8 oz.
2 .k rotarv bf&ver costs more than a fa .n. but much less than a blowing
enFine: is more economical than either between S oz. and S lbs. pressure,
awl can be nrraneed to give a constant pressure or a constant volume.
;?~ Piston machines cost much more than ro tary blowers, but should
be ;&ii for ~oruinuous duty for pressures above 8 l b%. and may be econom-
ical if they are oroperlr constructed and not run at too high a piston speed.
The h&w-n&ei reouired to ooerate rotary blower: i is proportional to
the volume and pressure of sir- discbarred: In making estimates for
newer it is safe to assume that for each 1000 cu. ft. of free aw discharged,
cu. i t. per rev. . .
Rev. per min..
Di,am. of pipe open-
mg.. 4 6 8
cu. ft. per rev.. .
Rev. per min.. 1;; ,Zl 2
Diam. pipe opening, 20 24 24
24 I 33
130 120
2; ; 3E
80
36 : :
e. and the
difference
hine under
16 no me-
, would be
I
i,
ull
There is no gradual compressing of air in a, rotary mactl
unbalanced areas of the impellers are working against the f
of pressure at all times. The possible efficiency of such a rn, ac
ordimlry temperafure and conditions of atmosphere, assur nil
chanical friction, leakage, nor radiation of heat of compressit on
as follows:
21 ine pountl pressure. .5 H.P. should be provided.
Tcbit of :L notary I~wer. (Conner&& Blower Co.) -The test was
magle in l?l<it on two 39 x 8.l in. blowers coupled direct to two 12 and 24 X
36 iii. comnound Corliss entines. The results given below are for the
i 0 I 0.051
En&. .xiryresjure.ibs I.H.P. .._.. U.761 52.83i,OO.9,~,32.67,,76.1,,w2::02536:8728:::6 / j / i I
0.5 1.0 I.5 2.
Dispiaceme?r. cu.irq.. /19.30/ 119, 212i
E~ciencv~..........i.....i....../ ,
18. 7271 18, 508: J 6, 344' 18. 200! 18. 028 17. 966 17. 863
68. 5 j 79 / 84 1 35. 6 / 86 86 85. 9
Gauge pres. lb.. . 1 15
Efficiency % .._. 97.5 9g.5 9i.3 9?.7 9: ki.7 76. 7
The proper application of rotary positive machines when operating in
air or gas under differences of pressures from S oz. to 5 lb?. is where,con-
stant quantities of fluid are required to be delivered against a varl ab! e
resistance. or where a constant pressure is required and the volume 1s
variable. These are the rets1;irement.s of gas works. pneumatic-tube
transmission (both the vacuwl and pressure systems), foundry cupolas,
smelting furnaces. knobbling fires. sand blast. burning of fuel oil. cpn-
veying granular substances, the operation of many kinds o,f metalluwcal
furnaces, etc. -J. T. Wilkm, Trans. d. 5. M. E., Vol. XXIV.
, : I I I I
In ca!cula:ix the eflirienc? the theoreticzzl horse-po\ver was taken as
t!w powr required to wmgrrss adiabatically and to disclr;lrge the net
a.ii?<>:dpLt of air at the different pressures and at the same altitude. The
tt:s,t m:: made up to 3.5 lbs. only. Esrimated efficiencies for higher
prc+:lr~-; from an extension of the plotted curve are: 6 lbs. 81%, 8 lbs.
875. 1 ibs. 75.3~.
cu. f t.
The theoretical discharge of the blower was 19,250
CAPhCITY OF ROTARY BLOWVERS FCR CLZ OLAS.
7--
-
I I 8
rons Suitable
Per for cup&
lOUI-. in. diam.
STEAM-JET BLOWER ASU ESHAKSTER.
A blower and exhauster is made by L. Schut,te & Co., Philadelphia, on
the principle of the steam-jet ejector. The ftiiiowing is a table of capa-
clttes:
Suitahlr
:or cup&
in. diam.*
t 10 to 20
1 24 to 27
1 28to 32
/ 32 to38
1
a
1 32to4- 0 36 to 45
z 42to 54
t 48 to 60
St066
1 60 to 72
1 66~1. 34
72 to 90
1.5
3. 3
6
10
13
17
24
33
200
400
I75
335
185
275
200
250
150
I 90
175
i 150
i 205
250
i 166
! f g
I
1
; g
210
T-
IF
T
Quantity of
Air per hr.
in
cilbic feet.
Diameter of
ipes in inches.
Diameter of
ipes in inches
Quantity of
$a: Air per hr.
0 in
cubic feet.
--
WOi I.000
0
2, 000
I
4, 000
: 12, 000 6, 000
4 24, 000 18, 000
- .
Si ze
No.
steam
T
Air. steam. Air.
f
-,-
-
84 to 96
Two
cupolas
60 to 66 .
The admissible vacuum and counter-pressure. for wlucn tne&PParatus
1s Constructed, 1s up to 2. m.wF:wt.ion of 20 inches of mercuw. ;md a - _- ._.- -_.-.. .~
Connter-pressure up to on e-sixth of the steam-PreSSuref _ _ . __
The table of capacities is based on a steam-pressuie of anout 60 lb%.
,~,L and a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Of I hnl tt. R Ihn. With an increase of steam-
* Inside diam. The capacity in tons per hour is based On 30,000 CU. ft.
of air per ton of iron melted.
HEATING AND VENTILATION. 653 AIR.
The calculations of power, capacity, etc., of, blowing-engines ar? the
same as those for air-compressors.
They are built wthout any provwon
for cooling the arr dunng comprewon.
About 400 feet per,mmute 1s the
suai-piston-speed for recent forms of engines, b$ with posltlve aw-va!ves,
wtlich have been introduced to some extent. t,his speed may be Increased.
The efficiency of the engine, that 1s. the ratlo of the I.H.P. of the ax-
cylinder to that of the steam-cyli@er.
is usually taken at 90 per cent, the
,losses by friction, leakage, etc., bemg taken at 10 per cent.
Qother steam-jet blower is used for boiler-firing, ventilation and
sfn$ar purposes where a low counter-pressure or rarefaction me& the
re~~:uremexts.
Ihe v?h~nles aS given in the following table of capacities are under the
supPositlon of a steam-pressure of 45 Ibs. and a counter-pressure of, say,
2 Inches of water:
-
250.000
500,000
1.~.Q@-J
2.000,000
I I
-
HEATING AND VENTILATION.
Ventilation.
(A. R. Woiff, Slevqs Indicator. April, lS90.) -The
Popular impression t,hat the impure air falls to the bottom of, a cro\$ed
room is erroneous.
There is a constant mmghnp of the fresh a!radmltted
with the impure air due to the law of djffr$on.of gases, t? dlperence of
temperature, etc. The Process of yentllatlon LS one of d!lutlon of the
impure air by the fresh, and a room LS properly ventilated 1 the oplmon
of the ;lygienists when the dilution is such that, the carbomc acid In the
air does not exceed from 6 to S pxtd
(. by volume m 10,000.. Pure country
air contains about 4 parts CO2 m 10,000, and badly-ventilated quarters
as high as SO parts.
4n ortiinary man exhales 0.6 of a cubic foot of CO1 per, hour.
New
y&l; gas gives out 0.75 of a cubic feet of CO1 for each cubic foot of gas
burnt. in ordinwy lamp gives out 1 CU. f t. O~n~o~r~i ~, r~~Ol i ~h~
ordinary candle gives out 0.3 cu. ft. per 110~.
equals in vitintinc: effect about 5% men,
an ordinary lamp 1% men, and
an ordinary candle I/? man.
To determine the quantity of air to be supplied t.o the inma+ Of an un-
lighted room, to dilute the air to a dewed standard of Punt)-. we Can
establish eouations as follows:
~T,he~Steam-jet as a Mrans for Vezktilation. - Between lSl0 and
was ,einployed to a considerable extent for ventilating
~@gli~h~ c$li,ef:es, and 111 IS52 a COmlrritke of the House of Commons
It ivas.the. most pt?werful and at the same time the cheapest
In2 ventJl+Jon. 14 mmes: btr~. experiments made shortly after-
~arrfs proved that this oplmon was erroneous. and that furnace ventila-
,i,\ ,.,~r I.~.;.r ,h.. I.lC I.
expensive. an.1 in consequence the jet was soon
It method of ventilation.
For an : l cCol l ti ~of thrse cxprrimrnts see Colliery PJnginem, J+l).. I@JO.
T!it, / .,rt. tiOwlY2r. iS SO!m!tilneS adrautageously used as a substitllte for
ini:ance. in t!;e case of a fan st~andin
e for r$Pairs, or after an explosion.
whrn ihe iiimace may not be kept goiti
been recdered useless.
D, or in the case of the fan having
BLOWISG-ESGIXEs.
Corliss Horizontal Cross-compound Condensing Blowing-engines.
(Philadelphia Engineering Works.)
Let v = cubic feet of fresh air to be supplied per hour:
r = cubic feet of CO? in tach 10,000 cu. ft. of the ente+% air:
R = cubic feet of CO: which each 10,000 cu..ft. of the iLlr In the room
may contain for proper health condltlons;
n = number of persons in the room;
0.6 = cubic feet of CO? exhaled by one man per hour.
Then g +0.6 )b equals cubic feet of CO? communicated to the room
during o&hour.
This value divided by II and multiplied by lO.OOq gives the proportion
of CO, in 10 000 parts of the air in the room, and tMs should equal R, the
Standard of purity desired. Therefore
-
/
1.1 %ir pel
min.
30.400
45,600
30,400
45.604
30.4m
45.606
g:E
39:6m
2E
15'680
23:500
15,680
23.500
1,572
2,280
1,290
2.060
I.340
1.980
1.152
IJOZ
938
1.386
780
i . 175
i2
44
42
32
40
38
36
34
28
505,000 605,000
475,000 550,000
355,000 436,000
445,000 545,000
425,000 491,ooO
415,000 450,000
340.000 430,000
270, 000 300, 000
R=
6000n
,orv=G*
II~epLacera~~anunil~o,u--vuuv,u , . -, ---~
quantity of air to be supplied per person IS 3OpO cubuz feet
If the original air in the room is of the punty of externa ax+ and the
P hour.
cubic contents of the room is e ual to 100 cu. ft. per inmate, only 3000 -
100 = %nn ~1,~ ft. of fresh air &om without will have to be supplied the 1~ -0 n,? :-
;~;o&l ,r to keep the air within the standard purity Of 6 Parts 0. UW W
oniy 36~
If the cubic contents of the room equals 200 cu. ft. Per Inmate.
Jo - 900 = 2800 W. ft. ~11 have to be supplied the first hour to
keep thf ! air &thin the standard purity, and SO on.
Again if we only desire to maintain a standard of Pu@ty
of carbohc acid in 19,000, the equation gives as the requ!rd
Per hour I Vertical engines are built of the same dimensions as above except that
the stroke is 48 in. instead of 60. and theg are run at a high& number of
revoiutrons to give the same piston-speed and the same I.H.P.
6: Thi s is a 1910 edition. Some 6
A
HEATING AND VENTILATION.
655
654 HEkNC AND VENTILATION.
----nes reliance for the production of the current in @is, vent-
(1utib a ,,,u,,.A solely on the diRerenca of temperst)lre of the air ;n&
---rn and that of the external atmosphere; SOmetlI~eS ? Steam
I.
:ed within the Hue near its bottom to heat the a:r within the duct;
0lac
iometimes steam pipes (riser? and requrns) run up the duct perforx+g
the same functions: or steam Jets l\jthm the Hue, or exhaust fans, drwen
by steam or electric power, act directly as elha~!sters; SOmetlmeS the
heatlllg of the air in the Rue 1s aCCOmphStle~l by $a?-Jets.
The draft of such a duct is caused by, the dlfierence of wight of the
heated air in the dUCt, and of a COlUmIl Ot eqllak hClm
.-ht and cross-secr~onal
area of the external sir.
r.rt d =
density or neioht in pounds, of a cubic foot of the external ai:.
:nsit<r, or &ght in pounds, of a cubic foot of the heated air
Cubic feet of air containing 4 parts of carbonicacid in 10,000 necessary
per person per hour t,o keep the air in room at the composition of
:: 2o 5
parts of- CO2in 10,000.
3iS cubic feet.
If the o:ig@l sir in the room is of purity of esternal atmosphere (4
of ca+omc X,ld In ~O.OOO).~the amount of air to be supplied the first
B
arts
our
for gly! C~l~yC spgrs. p$r lnnlnte. to have liven st,annardr: of purity noi
inz table:
Proportion of Carbonic Acid in 10.000 Parts of the Air, not to
be Exceeded at End of Hour.
L-<he duct. -
--,-
with111
Let II - :---
h (d - d,),=t..- y-.---.
air is forced lnt,o and out C
h _ vtirt~i,cal heioht in feet, of the vent-duct.
!,a ~&;l~;e in pounds per square foot. with wt!!ch the
If the vent-duct.
_ _____ ~~~
sSure expresseli in height of a column of air of density within
6 j 7 1 8 / 9 } to / 15 1 20
Cubic Feet of Ai
r. 1
10. 000
of Composition 4 Parts of Carbonic Acid in
. t, o be Suppl i ed the First Hour.
I-dl) e-d.
z;iij -Z-;b;olute temperature of
per&we of the air in the vent-duct.
external air, and tk = absolute Eem-
then the pressure=h (TV - t). 7 .
The theoretical velocity,
in feet ;:er second, with which the ax would
travel through the vent-duct under !.hiS Pressure 1s
- 7
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
1%
I 200
I l OO
1000
500
None
.
-
-
-
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
None
1100
1000
900
E
600
500
%
200
None
900
E
600
500
2:
200
100
445
345
245
145
45
275
7:
None
None
. .
None
. . .
,/1
.
. . . . . . <
:/:
.
. .
- -
It is exceptional tha,t systematic ventilation supplies tle 3000 cubic
feet )per inm.?te per hour, which adequate health considerations demand.
For .ar:e audlt,onums 1~ which thecubic spaceperindivitiualisgreat andin
which the atmosphrre IS thoroughly fresh before the rooms ire o&pied I
and the OCCUpaUCl; IS of two or three hours duration the syst,ematic air:
?up~I:; may be reduced. and 2000 to 2.500 cubic feet per inmate per hour
1.9 a sarisfactorv allo~r~nc~
n ,-n,,&,~~~a.hlv less than this. on account o? 1OSS
The actuak vewuty ny yG syLtl . u- . - _- d, . . .
due to friction. This tnctlon wdl vary wth tile form and CrOSS-SeCtiOnti
area of the vent-duct
an(
1 it- mnnpctions. and with the degree of smqo~+
ness of its interior surfa.ce.
: ~l~~-s~~~c~co~;nt, as lvell as to preve.nt. ieaiiage
VL. ULi
of air through crevices 111 the wall,
tin lining of vent-Huesis d&Fable. --> IL..
The loss by friction may be estimated at approsimatelq SW%. mu w- =
act=& velocity of the air as it flows through the vent-duct 1S
I-----z7 ! ff, -0
+, / 2gh
If v = velocity of air in vent-duct.
in feet per minute, and the epternal
air be at 390 Fahr. since the absolute temper:ture on Fahreahelt scale
equals th&nomet& temperature plus 450.4.
In hospitals ivhere. on account of unhealthy excretions of various kinds
i,tw air-+ilution must be largest, an air-supply of from4000 to 6000 cu&
feet Per Inmate per hour should be provided,-and this is actually secured
Ifi some hospital:.
.4 report. dated March 12. lSS& bv a commission
pof$ted 50 esamme t.he pubhc schools of the District of Columbia says
ap-
I!1 each ciass-room not less than 15 square feet of Hoor-space shouldbe
allotted to each pup&
In each class-room the window-%&e should not
be 1~s than one-f?urth bhe floor-space. and the dis&e of desk most
remote fro!n the window should not be more than one and a half times the
heiKbt of tile top of the window from the Hoar.
room should never exceed 14 feet.
The heinht of the class-
The prorisions for vektilation should
be jgch as to provide for each person in a class-room not. less than 30 cubic
f:et of fresh air per minute f1800 per hour) which amount must be intro-
Gucfd +I thoroughly distributed without creating unpleasant draughts
o, ~a~mg an? two parts of the room to differ in temperature more than
2. Fahr.. or the rnaxlmum temperature to exceed 70 Fahr [The provi-
SKNB of 3!0 cu. ft. pr minute for each personin a class-roomis now (1909)
reclr~ired ?P lam in several statcfs.1
..-/
. from which has been computed the following table:
Quantit,y of Air, in Cubic Feet,
Discharged per Minute through 8
Ventilating Duct,
of which the Cross-SectjOna! ArcgO FazrT)y
Square Foot (the External Temperature of &r being 3~
I &cess of Ttxqmraturs of Air in )Tent-duct above
that of External 4~1r.
500
I I
1000 1500
-
_-
-
~0" 25O 30=
I
- - -
153 171 188
188 210
217 242
EZ
%
271 297
297
206 320
: i :
306
325
' 3: ;
; cz
342 303 415
150
-l-l-
242 342 419
297 419
: i ; l %
: i
663
i : ; 593 726
; ; E g
541 760 937
I O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~
f J : - ; : . : . . . . . ' . ' . . . !
. . . . . . . . . . .
30. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
35. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !
~; : : . : : - : - : : : : I
so. . . : . . : . : . . . . . . . . .
of ?nlet. A)u!d not exceed 2. feet per second, which means larger sizes of
! Mi tile air enters at or nearihe floor, it is desirable that the velocity
r~~-it>~: openm~s and flues tnan are usuallv obtainable, and much higher
The wloilty of current into vent-flues can safeiv be as high as 6 or eve;
vrkXltir.S,.of inlet than two feet per second are the rule in practice
10 feet per second, wIthout being disagreeably perceptible
The entrance of fresh air into a room is coinctdent with or dependent
on. rhe WnoVai of an equal amount of air from the room. The
ordina
means of removal is the vertical vent-duct, rising to the top of the
buil z
-
?
e materi al may no l onger , be accurate
WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of .
ltfultiplying the figures in preceding table by 60 gives the cubic feet
of atr pischarged per hour
hnon-mg the cross-secttona P
er square foot of cross-section of vent-duct,
area of vent-ducts we can tind the total dis.
charge: or for a destred air-removal, we CU proportion the cross-sectional
area of vent-ducts required.
Heating and Ventilating of Large Buildings. (.I. R. Wolff, Jour
Franf;. I!tsf., 1S93.) -The transmission of heat from the interior t the
+enor of a room or building, through the walls, ceilings, windows, etc.,
1s ealcul:ate~d as fo!liiws:
S = amount of transmitting surface in square feet:
t = temperature F. in.side. to = temperitt~ure outside;
zfiicient representing. for various ma.t.erinl.: rnmnncinn h~~ilrl K = a c&t
~~~~._.. ..- -.-.--_ I --... ~ -..... * II..-
ings. the 107s by trans!&Si& per square foot of surface in British
thermal umts per hour, for each degree of difference crf tempera-
tur
Q =
e on t.he two sides of the materiai;
totat heat transmission= SK (t- to).
Tbia quantity of beat is also the amount that must be conveyed to the
room ut 0rder.t make good the loss by transmission, but it does not
c$mer the addittonal heat to be conveyed on account of the change of
au for Purposes of ventilation.
659.)
(See Wolffs coetlicients below, page
These coem,cients,are to be increased respectively as follows: 10% when
the exposure is a northerly one, and winds are to be counted on as impor-
tant facmrs: 10% when the building is heated during the daytime only
and the location of the building is not an exposed one: 30% when the
building is heated during the daytime only, and the location of the build-
!nr: is exposed; 50% when the building is heated during the winter months
mtermittently, with long intervals (say days or weeks) of non-beating.
The value of t:he radiating-surface is about as follows: Ordinary bronzed
cast-iron radiatmg-surfaces. in American radiators (of Bundv or similar
type). located in rooms, .give out about 350 h-at-units per hour for each
scpre foot of surface. with ordinary steam-pressure, sav 3 to 5 Ibs,
sq_jn., and about 0.6 this amount with ordinary hot-water heatine.
Per
Non-painted radiating-surfaces, of the ordinary indirect~
(Climax or Pin surfaces), give out about 400 heat-units per hour for zi!z
square foot of heatmg-surface, with ordinary steam-pressure say 3 to
5 hr.;. per sq. in.: and about 0.6 this amount with ordinaryhot-water
beating.
A Person gives out about.400 heat-units per hour: an ordinary gis-
burner. about. 4SOO heat-units per hour: an incandescent electrtc (li
candie-pow- -rj hght. about 1600 heat-units per hour.
The following example is given by Mr. Wolff to show the application of
the formula and coeficients:
Lecture-room 40 X 60 ft., 20 ft. high, 48000 cubic feet to be heated
to 69 F.: exposures as follows: North wall, 60 X 20 ft. withfour windows
each I* X ~8 feet, outside temperature 0 F. Room beyond west wall and
room overhead heated, to 69. except a double skylight in ceiling 14 x 24
ft.. exposed to the outside temperature of 0.
%lil at 36.
St~ore-room beyond east
to 59.
Door 6 X 12 ft. in wall.
Two doom. 6 X 12, in wall.
Corridor beyond south wail heated
If we assume t ~ha
Cellar below. temperature 36.
daytile i\~~eu urroccupiea, so as to be at t
Persons arrive, there wiil be requit
and hrcmzetl direct 1
~~~~- .._ _.. At t~h.e Jecture-room must be heated to 69O F. in the
_,.~ ___I_^.. ..-.
:his temperature when first
.ed, ventilation not being considered,
ow-pressure steam-radiators being the heating media,
auout 113,.5.50 + 250 = 455 sq. ft. of radiating-surface.
lf we assume that t,here are 160 persons in the lecture-room and we
Prvi(Ilp~SoO cubic feet of fresh air ner person Per hour we wiil supply
160 X .JOO = 400.000 cubic feet of air per hour (i.e., over eight changes
C! Ontents of rom per hoitr).
To heat this air from 0 F. to 69 F. wlll req.rire 400 000 X 0.01785 X,
69.~ 499 660 thermal units per hour (0.01785 being the product of the
petgbt f a cubic foot.. 0.676, by the specific heat of air 0 38).
Accord-
tJKly there must be provided 492,660 + 400 = 1232 bq:-ft. of indirect
~~AR~~~~: This is a 1910 edition. Some of?
HEATING AND VENTILATION.
surface, to heat the air required fo,r ventilation, in, zero weather.
room were to be warmed entirely indirect1
If the
to room (including the heat to be conveye
cr*
that IS, by the au supphed
to cover loss by transmisston
through walls, etc.), there would have to be conveyed to the fresh-air
supply 492,660 + 118,143 .= 611,103 beat-umts. This would imp$ the
provision of an amount of mdtrect heatmg-surface qf the
Climax type
of 611.103 + 400 = 1.527 sq. ft., and the fresh air eutermg the room
would have to be at a tempemture of about ~6 F., viz..
6Y +
llS.413
400,060 0.01785
or 69 + 17 = 8G F.
x
The above calculations do not, however. take into account that 160
persons in the lecture-room give o,ut 160 X flj0 = 6+.000 thermal units
per hour; and thut, say, 50 electric lights give out 0 X 1600 = SO.OOtl
thermal units nrr hurl- or, say, 50 gaslights,, 50 X 4800 = 240,000
thermal units t-b- .
. . . ~~1 _z~- ~~~ -II ~-a- -2
would diminish considerably the amount of heat req,ulreu.
Yracttcauy.
it appears that the heat generated by_t,he_prese,nce ot 169 People,-+jj~
beat-units, an.. yJ
heat-units, more than covers the amount Of llrat tranSmItted t.hrOUgh
walls. etc. Moreover that if the 50 gaslights give out 240,000 thermal
units per hour, the air supPlied for ventilatton must enter cpnstderably
below 69O Fshr.. or t!l$ r!qn ?\!I1 b,e hFateci,to a-n LI!II~~~I$~ htgh temper-
ature. Ii _..._,
--A ?40.000
thermal unlts
t l(ll) 000 cubic feet I tresn air per nour are suppueu. auu :
Per hour generated by the gas must be abstracted, it means
.a,, nnn
.nust, under these conditions, enter
&tl,,,I
.._-_ -..- -__
400,000 X 0.01785 =
about 34O less than 86O, or at about 5S Fahr.
Furthermore, the addi-
tional vitiation due to gaslighting would necessitate a ,much larger su
of fresh air than when the vitiat~ion of the atmosphere my the people
P
ply
a one
is considered one gaslight vitiating the air as much as five me,n..
The following table shows the calculation of heat transmlsslon ( Some
figures changed from the original):
-
Outeidemall.. .................... 36
Four windows (single). ...........
6,;2$;4;
Inside wall (store-room) .......... 36
D oar ..............................
4;;z- 7.2
852
4i;z- 72
72 I, ,
Inside wall (corridor) ............. 24
918 : (
Door. ..............................
72 5 360
Inside wall (corridor).
302
............ 36 lz;g- 72
302. i
D00r
72 5 366
..............................
Roof.
10.080
..............................
Double
Floor
skylights..
1,;: ;;
If.760
..................
j;;;;-336
I I
..............................
62x42 2,604 4 IO.416
86,454
Supplementary allowance. north outside xvall. 10%. . . . . . . .
938
Supplementary ai ~~wanc e. north outside windows, 16% . . . . . .
3.716
91.110
Exposed location and intermittent day or night use. 39%. ..v
27,333
- .-
Total thermal units .,..... _. _.
. . I . . . . . . . . ..I <%,443
-
! mater% may no longer .be accurate
658 HEATING AND VENTILATION.
STANDARD VALUES FOR USE IN CALCULATION OF HEATING
AND VENTILATING PROBLEMS.
Heating Value of Coal.
the Com-
bustible,
per cent.
Anthracite _...
Semi-anthrxite.
Semi-bituminous
Bit. eastern __._ __
Bit. western...
Lignite. _. _.
/ 3 t o 7. 5
i 7. 5 co 12. 5
l l Z. 5 t o 25
1 25to40
/ cEes
Acerage Heating Value of Air-Dried Co&--Anthracite, 12,600: semi-
3nthracit.e. 12,950; semi-bituminous. 14.450: bituminous eastern, 13,250;
bituminous western. 10.400: lignite, 9.700.
Eastern bit,uminous coal is that of the Appalachian coal field extending
from Pennsylvania and Ohio to Alabama. West.ern bituminous coal
is that of the great co&i fields west of Ohio.
Steam Boiler Eficiency. - The maximum efficiency obtainable with
anthracit~e in low-pressure steam boilers. water heaters or hot-air furnaCes
is about 80 per cent. when the t,hickness of t~he coal bed and the draft
are such as to cause enough air to be supplied to effect complete combus-
tion of the carbon to CO?. With coals high in volatile matter the max-
imum efficient) is probably not over 70 per cents. Very much lower
efficiencies than these figures are obtained when the air supply is either
deficient or greailS in excess. or when the furnace is not adapted to burn
the volatile malter in bhe coal. D. T. Randall in tests made in 1908 for
the U.S. Geological Survev. with house-heating boilers, obtained effi-
ciencies ranging from 0.6 xi-ith coke, 0.61 with anthracite, and 0.55 with
semi-bituminous, down to 0.39 with Illinois coal.
.-tmilabZeHeating Value of theCoal. - Using the figures given above as
the average heat.ing value of coal stored in a drv cellar. we have the follow-
ing as the probable muzimum values in British Thermal Units, of the
heat available for furnishing steam or heating water or air, for the several
efficiencies stated:
Anthracite.
Effy.....O.@I
B.T.U. 10,080
For average values in practice, about 10 per cent may be deducted from
these figures. (It is possible that an efficlencv higher than SOsl, may be
obtained with anthracite in some forms of aii-heating furnaces In which
t.he escaping chimney gases are cooled, by contact with the co!d air inlet
pipes. to comparatively low temperatures.)
The value 10,000 B.T.U. is usually taken as the figure to be used in
calculation for design of heating and ventilating apparatus. For coals
wth lower available heating values proper reductions must be made,
ji
.a
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some 6f 1
HEATIXG AND VENTILATING PROBLEMS. 659
Heat Transmission through Walls, Windows, etc., in B.T.U. pkr
sq. ft. per Hour per Degree of Difference of Temperature.
--~
Thick-
ness, Wolff
In.
1;
.
0. 33
! Z 0. 27
i i
0. 23
0. 20
- -
-
-.
-
BRICK WALLS.
Ii3us5
0.48
0. 34
0. 26
0. 22
-
;. /,
-.
-
25
zi
: :
36
40
45
_
-
0. 16 .
0. 13 k%
0. 145 . . _. . . _ 0: 140
0. 13 0. 12 0. 128
0.11 0. 116
*The average figure for briclc walls was obtained by plotring the
reciprocals of Wolffs and Hausss figures and drawing a straight line
between them, representing the average heat resist&nces. and then taking
the reciprocals of the resistances for different thicknesses. The resist-
ance corresponds to the straight line formula R = 0.12 + 0.16.5 1. where
t = thickness in inches. (Hausss figures are from a paper by Chas.
F. Hauss. of hntwerp, Belgium, in Irans. A. S. H. V. E., 1904.)
SOLID S.~DSTONE WALLS. (Hauss.)
Thickness, in.. 12 40
B. T. U. . . . . . . . . 0. 45 O! & 0% 0?2 0?9 Of : 6 0% 0. 22 0% 0%
For limestone walls, add 10 per cent.
GLASS SURFKES
Vau!t light. ._ _. _.
Single window. .
Double window..
Single skylight..
Double skylight.
DOORS.
Door. ., . . . . . . .
2. pine . . . . . . .
In. pme. .._ _. .
PARTITIONS.
Solid plaster,
1314 to 2 l/4 in .
21/2t031/4in...
Fireproof . . . . _ . . . . . . .
ain. pine board.. . _ .
-
I
:I
-
Wolff.
B.T.U. i
f:ii
Y:ii
0. 50
0. 40
0.28
2::
I
--
Hauss.
3.T.U. I
I FLOORS. I
0.46
1. 06
0. 48
oists with double
floor.
tion, planked over.
struction, planked
over. . .
brick arch.. .
I
phalt.. . .
Arch with air space.
Stones laid on-earth.
0.60
0.48
I
tk1LINCX.l.
. . Joists with sin&
. . . floor . . . . . .
with air space
./-
i
1
1
.
?
-
Wolff.
B.T.L-,
0.10
0. 31
0. 124
0. 083
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . .
,
/I
.! I
./-
I
-
2 material t-ky~ no Iong~Gb be accurate
0. 07
. .
Go
0. 16
: : E
0. 08
0. 10
0. 14
660
HEATING A?ID WEKT'LATION.
~i:~~~~znces for I:.rposures. - l!olff adds 25% fcr north and west ex.
pos,tres, Is<,% for eilst. and ;y; for so$h exprfsurer;, a!so 10% additional
fo; reheating. an11 IO:; to the transruwion through floor and ceilings.
The allo~nce for rrheating hfr. Wollf explains as fol:ows in a letter io
the at~t.hor. Mar. 10. 191i5. The allowance is made On the basis that t,he
apparatus will no: be run continuously; in other words. tha: it will not be
run at all. or or11.~ lightly. overnight. The rooms will cool off below the
reqlliwri twipwatwc of ;I;.
r:irmii;~e an u!!en:bi;c~
md t o l x h! e Tao heat up quickly in the
of lo:; is made 10 the t~rausmi*siun figures to meet
this rgn<ii:iti:1. H:ltls.; make.; allowances as follows: 5v0 for rooms with
~rnusii;Il espowrc: IO: 0 w::ere exposures are norrh, east. northeast,
nor;hwest and wst. ?l j 3' %where the height of ceilixg is more than 13 ft.;
62/s;;; where i; is more than 1.5 ft.: 107, where it is more t.han 18 ft. For
rooms hentecl dail:;. but where heatmg is interrupted at night. add
2 = 0.003 [(.V - 1) IF,] +- z.
Fcr rooms not heated dailg; add B = lo.1 IV (S - Z)] + Z.
In iilese formulas II, = B.T.U. transmit.ted per hour by exposed sur-
faces: W = total B.T.U. necessary, including that for ventilation or
chsr.ges of air: .V = time from cwsation of heating :o time of starting
firt: again. hours; 2 = time necessary :.fter fire is started until required
room temperature is reached, hours.
Mlowanrr for Exposxre and for Lcakngc. - In calculations of the
quantify 01 h+ reql;ired by ordinary residcuccs, the formula total heat
= (TI - To) (2 + G t $) is commonly used. TI = temp. of room,
Ta = outside t~emp.. W = exposed wall surface less window surface,
G = giss surface, C = cubic tontents of room, n = number of charc$es
cf nii per hour. The factor n is usually assumed arbitrarily or guessxl
at: some writers t,nke its valiic nt 1, ot.hrrs 1 for the rooms, :! for the halls,
ct~c.: ot~hers object iu the use 0: C as a fact~or, saving that the allowance for
exposrire and leakwe should be made proportional to the exposed wall
and giws surface since it is on these surfaces that the leakaRe occurs,
and omitting the term nc/.% they mldtiply the remainder of the ex-
pression by a factor for exposure. c = 1.1 to 1.3, depending on the direc-
tion of the exposure. To show what different results may be obtained
hy the use of the t:\-o methods. the folloxing table is calculated, apply-
lne both to six rooms of widely differing sizes.
north and east, are exposed.
Two sides of each room,
T, = io; 7-0 = 0; G = l/a (IV + G).
I
; 5 ; 10x10x10
B : lOx2OxlO
c i 20x20x12
3 I 20X40X14
E i 40x40x15
F 1 40x8( 1x16
!
1. 0001 20x
2. OOoi 30x
4, 800; 4ux
11. 200' 60x
14. OOOi 80x
i1.2OOji2Ox
I O= 200 j 40 J 5 )
I O= 300 : 60 / 62/ 3/
l 2= 480 ! 96 , I 0
l 4= 840 ; I 68 : X71/ 31
i 5=l 200 / 240 120
16=1920 j 384 / 262/ 3j
5, 600
8, 400
13. 440
23, 520
33. 6W
54. 464
1. 250
2, 500
1, 120 1, 680
1, 680 2, 520
6, 000 2. 688 4. 032
4. 000 4 704 7, 056
0. 0001 6: 720 10. 080
4. 000! 10. 992 16. 338
I I
We figurf in the column headed H = 70 (IV/4 + G) represent the
lxat transmltted through the walls. those in the column 70 C/56 are the
!kesr. rel;uired for one change of air per hour: 0.2 H is the heat correspond-
log to an allowance of 20Yc for exposure and leakage. and 0.3 H corre-
sponds to an allowance of 30%. For the small rooms A and B the
difference between 70 C/56 and 0.2 Ii or 0.3 N is not of great importance.
but it becomes verv important in t,he largest rooms: in room F the differ-
e?ce between 70 C/56 and 0.2 N is nearly equal to the total hea.t trans-
mltted through the walls, indicating that the use of the cubic contents
as a, factor in ca!culations of large rooms is likely to lead to great errors.
Ttus fs due to the fact that
different sizes of rooms.
the ratio C + (IV + G) varies greatly with
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition-. -S&&of
Wltll force11 venlil;ltion, the quantity of heat needed depends cbie!?y
upon the number of pcrsous to be yovi de~ for. Assuming %00 cu. f t .
pry Iwllr per persou. heated from 0 to . 70 , and 1. 2 ;tntl 4 persons per
100 sq. ft. of floor surface, the he& reqlurrtl for the air 1s ins follow:
H(s;ltlnm by Hot-air Furnaces. - .I simple formuls for C~hxhti,Ilr: the
t.,,t,al ILea;-in British Thermal Units rcrluiretl for he&tin:: and veutllatlng
Tile formuia is derived as follows: The heat. tmnsmit~ted throilgh 1 sq. rt.
of slneie ,@ss window is ;tpproximntely 1 B.T.U. per hol!r per d!.nrp? cf
ditfcreuce of tthnlperature, and that through 1 sq. ft,. of 16-in. bnck wall
a,bout Il.35 B.T.U. (For more accurnt.e calculat.ions fig!.rw taken from
tile t:ll)lr:s (11. 6.59) sholllll Iw Ils?d.) The spwific Iwat of a,ir is taken at
O.~:CJ and the weight of 1 cu. ft. air at 70 F. a! 0.075. lb. per cu. ft.
The I;rod,wt of these liqures is O.Ol;S.j, and its rec~lprocal 1s .?A.
For il, diferencc I, - To = TO, 0.017S3 X 70 = 1.2~W5, we may,
t! xeforc, write the formu!ii
- 1 z,.. -
Total +Lt = , Ob( G+ %) I -I- 1.25 .I
z.z heat conducted through walls + heat exhausted in
vcut,iMion.
A :r +hil n~~l,io F-O+ nf nir (measured at, 70) supplied to and nxhnusted
from the huihlins.
This formula neglects the hcst conducted through
the roof for v;ilich a proper adilitic? should lx made.
There \re two mct,ho& of heaiinq bp hot-air furnaces: one in which
~11 the a& for both heatin, - :ind ventllarion is t&en from outdoors and
exhausted from the huil~liw.
3.1~1 the other in which ouly the air for
ventilation is t,aken Yom o~illrioors.
and 2riditional air is recirculated
throuoh the furnaGc :rul,? the build!?, ii:-?!f. The first met:hLd is, an
exee%nnly wasteful one in cold weather.
By the second it 1s poss;hle
to heat z building v,-lth no greater espendlitire of tuel tbnn is reqmred
for steam or hot-water hea!ine.
ES.WPLE. -- Required the amount of heat and the quantity of air to be
circulated by the two methods mnmed for a building WI UCI I 1: ~ G = 400.
m =:: 2400 C = 16,000, fi = 2, T?~ = 70. Tn = 0. T2, the temperatuze
at rvhlcb the air leaves the furnace. bring taken for three.cases ,as 100 e
120. and 140. akssulne c. the coeficient for esposure. .mc!u@lg heat
lost through roof. = 1.2. When only enough air for VeIltlhtlOn 1s take!
into and exhausted f r nmt , l x lxlildinx. the fOrinUh giVeS
70 X 1.2 (509 + 40
___.._ ..- -~~
0) + 1.25 X 32,&O = 115.600 B.T.U. = 75,600 for
wheat + 40,000 fbr ventilarion.
Supnose all the air reqldred for heating is taken from outdoors at 0 F.*
and ali exhausted at 70, the quantity, A, then, instead of bemg 33.000
cu. ft., has to be calculated as folio!\-s:
Total heat = c c+E (Ii- To) + A X 0.01785 X (TI - TO)
( 4)
=0. 0; 785 ;i(Tz - TO).
Heat supplied by furnace = heat for conduction + heat for ventilation
From which we find A =c( C+; ) ( TI -
T, ) + 0. 01785 ( Tz- TI )
= 75. 600 t 0. 01785 ( 7' 2 - 70' ) .
FztE;v;lueof 1:. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . Tz=IOO
. . . . .._.....................
Heat lo&, by exhausting this air at 70. .
141.117
;<yo: ,g!.$
176.396
105:882 75 630
Adding 75,600 loss by walls gives total. . 251,996 181.482 I&r30
s above 115,600 actualiy required
r heating and ventilating, To . . . . . . . . 118.0
57. 0 31. 7
.
he material tizzy no long&be accura-i?e
HEATING !3S HOl~-AIR Pi KNACES. 663
Volume of Air at DiGerent Temperatures.
662 HE.kTING AND VENTILATION.
iErttish Thermal TJnits Absorbed in Heatin
cp ;;, cooling it. -- (Thz air is measured at 70 %
1 Cu. Ft. of Air, or giver
.)
sure.) 1.
-
(A:mosplWic
_~---
, ( --
-
T, - T? =
100 20 30 40 50 56 60 70 SO 90 10) 101 I0 126 130 141
0.18 0.26 0.54 0.71 0.69 1. 1.07 1.25 1.43 1.61 1.7s 1.96 2.14 2.25 2.32 2.:
31. Ft.
n I lb.
--
13.845
14. 096
1ZZ:
i 4. %48
! 5. 100
15. 351
Jompar-
ativ4
iolume.
--
ahr
leg.
-
160
I TO
I %0
190
200
210
212
-- . -
15. 603
15. 854
16. 106
16. 357
16. 608
l 6. 860
16. 910
- - _-
IC
7
-/ -
I
C
7
-
F
1
-
I
Falli. Cu. Ft,.
Deg. in 1 lb.
-;--
Area in Square Inches >f Pipe required tn Deliver 100 Cu. Ft. 0
Afr per Minute, at Different Velocities. -The air is measured at thl
temperature of the air in the pipe.
Velocity per second. _. 2 3 4 7 8 9 . I (
Ar ea. sq. i n. . . . ; . _ . ~~. ~. . . _ 120 30 130 4' : 4: 34. 3 30 26. 7 2<
The quantity of ;?ir required ior ventilation or heating should bc
figured at a st andar d temperature, say 70 F.. but wl.-:n warmer air is
to be delivered into the room through pipes, the area of the pipes should
be calculated on the basis of the temperature of the warm air, anti not or
that of the room.
~XAMF- LE. - A room requires to be supplied with 1000 cu. ft. per min.
Ft 70 F. for ventilation, but the air is also used for he;ting and is delivered
mtn the room at 120 F. Required, the area of the delivery pipe, if thi
velocity of the heated air in the pipe is ; ft. per second.
From the table of volumes, given on the nest pare, 1000 cu. ft. at 70~
- 109p cu. ft..at 12q. From the above table of areas, at 6 ft. velocity
40 sq. III. area IS reqmred for 100 cu. ft~., therefore 109-i cu. ft. will require
10.94 X 40 = 437.6 sq. in. or about 3 sq. ft.
0. 367 90
: : Z I
I O0
I I 0
t 3: ; " 9; : ; ; a- $
t . ooo 1411
I . 019 I 50
0
2
t:::::
12. 586
g / l ?E
! 3. 342
80 / 13. 593
sizes of Air Pipes Used in Furnace Heating. (W. G. Srow. Eng.
News. April 12. 1900.)
-
Length of Room, 7 t.
z$; -- I O / 12 1 I 4 j I 6 / 1% / 20 - - - - j 2' . ( 24 / 26 / 20 ) 30
Di amr : t er of Pipe. Ins.
-/-
a.... a,7
I O. . . . 8. 7
12. . . . . . . . .
14. . . . . . .
l 6. . . .
18. .
20.
-
I :
-i
1 , I i I 8
T!le Erst figure :i :h column shows the size of pipe for the first ::opr
and the second H 4%
le size for the second Hoor. Temperature at reg:s-
ter, 140; room, io Itside O. Rooms 8 to 16 ft. in width assumed to
be 9 ft. high: 16 t4 ft. width, lo ft. high. When first-floor pipes are
. longer than 15 f t. 3ne size larger than that stated. For t~hird floor.
use one size smaller tnan for second f l oor ,
For rooms with three expo-
sures, increa,se the area of pipe in propottmn to the exposure.
The t al de was calculated on the following basis:
The loss of heat is calculated by first reducing the. total exposure to
equiva,lent glass surface. This is done by adding to t.he actual glass
surface one-quart,er tb? area of esposed wood and plaster or bnck walls
and %I the area of t jr or ceiling.
Ten per cent is added where the
ure is severe. The window area assumed is 20% Of the enWe e:;-
-7
-. -.
I I I I I I
............... .............
I O, 8 I O, 9. . . . . . , . . . . _ . . , . . . , . . . . . I O, 8 I O, 9
I O, 9 I I , 9 I I , 9
I b
. . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I O, 9 I I , 9 I I , 9 12. 10 . . . . 12. 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 9 I I 9 12, I O 12. 10 13. 10 13. I O . . _. 11 9 I I 9 12, I O 12. 10 13. 10 13. I O
/ /
. . . . . .
I I ' 9 12' I O I 2 I O 13, I O 13. I O 13, I I 13. II I I ' 9 12' I O I 2 I O 13, I O 13. I O 13, I I 13. II
12 10 1210 13: I I 13. ! I 13, I I 14, I 2 12 10 12 10 13: II 13. !I 13, II 14, I2
, . : _. _ 13: I I 13, I I 13. I I 14, I 2 14. I 2
14, I 2
, . : _. _ 13: I I 13, I I 13. I I 14, I 2 14. I 2 14, I 2
I
14, I2
14, I 2
3;
9: 8
.
-
3:
lo: a
I O, 8
. . I .
Carrsing Capacity of Air Pipes.
-
n eat
kre tl
9; 0
> 20
use (
T
!
-
-
Velocity, Feet per Second.
5 j 6 0
!
Area.
so. it.
Km,
I Cu. Ft .P
32. 7
47. 1
64~2
83.8
106.
131.
15%.
188.
221.
E:
167.
240.
40. 9
56. 9
80. 2
105.
133.
164.
198.
236.
27.
: : i :
208.
300.
49. 1
70. 7
96. 2
E:
196.
2:
332.
385.
; ; i :
360.
_I-
-
19. 63
28. 27
38. 4%
50. 27
63. 62
78. 54
95. 03
113. 1
132. 7
153. 9
I ; ! : '
144.
. I 364
. i 963
. 2673
. 349l
: Z
. 6600
. 7%54
. 9218
i : %
: : 694
24. 6
35. 3
48. 1
69. 8
NJ . 0
98. 2
119.
141.
166.
192.
221.
125.
! %O.
-
-
57. 3
82. 4
112.
%:
229.
%
34%
515.
292.
421. .
65. 5
94. 2
12%.
168.
; A; :
317.
377.
442.
%:
: ; i :
Bnsure of the room.
, Multiply the equivalent of g
the total loss of heat by transm
Assumine the te~~~-=tro n
:lass surfzce by 85. The product wi!l be
ussion per hour.
,f the entering air to be 140 and thz:t of
?~~~r%e~oinz at aoprosimately the latter tempera- the room to beg ?@, ____ ..~~ ~.
ture will carry away one-half tlie h%at bidught in. The other hair. CCnm-
sPonding to the dron in temoerature from 140 tom !OP 1s lost .bY trsns-
mission. Iv... i t , h mt t . ai do t , nm&~. t , ~we zer o. each cubic fool
; of a:r at I.40
brings into the roO;r;-~.~-~ej,--,,it, -s&e one-half of this, or 1.1 heat
units, can be utilized to offset the loss by transmission, to ascertaIn the
volumeof air per hour at 1400 required to heat a piven room. divide the
loss of heat by transmission by 1.1.
This result divided by 60 gives,the
nUmber of cubic feet per minute
tab e maximum
!!focities of 280 and 400 ft. w
In calculating the
.ePOI,E~~ fnr nines leadim? to k he first land
and Aoors respectively. The size of the smaller pi+s was based.on
er velocities, according to their si ze, t o allow for their greater IfslSt-
L
The figures in the table give the carrying qapacitv of pipes in CU. ft.
of mr at the temperature of the air flowing in Ghe pipes
'TO reduce the
figures to cu. ft. at a standard temperature (such as 7@ F.)
the ratio of the volume per cu. ft. of the air in the pipe to that CG the
of the standard temperature, as in the followine table:
dfzs of temperature.
2 mater1 al may no l on~er~1Se. ~accurate
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Sonic .bf 1
the
664 HZATING Ah:? VENTILA.CTI::<.
Furnace-Rrating
April 8. 1905.)
wit11 Foi,ced Air Supply. (The Metal Worker,
-Tests were made of a Kelsey furnace with the air supply
furnished by a -IS-in. Sturt,evant disk fan driven Jy a 5 H.P. electric
motor. A connection wits made frown the air intake. between the fan and
the furnai!e. to the ash pit so that tile rate of combustion could be regu-
lared inc!ependrntly of the chimney-draft condition. The furnace had
4.91 sq. ft.. <If grate surface and 235 sq. ft. of hratins surface. The volume
c 6 air *sas il~tcrmiiw~l 1~ ankmonwter readiws a,, L~L noints in a cross-
Av. temp. of the cold air.
Per cent humidity of the,coltl air. .
Av. ~wnc. of the waim air.. .
Air .Ieiicered to heater, cu. ft,. per hour. .
B.T.T.:. ;:bso;beil i,y $1~ dry ni; pe; hour
B.T.U. ahsorbed bv the vapor per hoair .
Awe. no. of pounds of coal burned per hour
B.T.U. &<ven by the coal per hour .
Per cent efficiency of the furnace. . .
Grate Surlace and Rate of Burning Coaf.
In Steam boilers for power plants, which are constantly attended by
firemt~1, wal is generally burned at between 10 and .<I: Ibs. per so. ft.
of Lji;t(~e prr hour. In small boilers. hcuse he&em and furnaces. which
even ii: the coldest wveztlter are supp!ied with fresh coal only once in
several ilows., it is necessary to burn the coal at. very much slower rates.
Ta!<in: a cilblc foot of coal as weighin
and 1 q. ft. of grat.e aze:r,
g 60 11,s.. in a bed 12 inches deep,
it would be one-half buined away in Z/z hours
r_t a r;tu of burning of 4 ibs. per sq. ft. of grate per hour.
4 ik. is commonly t&en in designing
This figure,
boiirri and furnaces.
grate suriace for house-heating
Z:ing this figure we have the following as the
rated capacity of different areas of gate surface.
Rated Capacity of Furnaces and Boiiecs for Fiouse Heating.
T-
I
q.in.isq.ft.! lbs.
113.li
20l . I j 153. 91
.78ji 3. 142
I I : 3961 069' 4. 276 5. 585
254. 51 I . 767 7. 069
314. 2: 2. 1821 8. 720
38O. l i 2. 640 I O. 560
452. 4; 3. 142; 12. 566
530. 9/ 3. 687: 14. 748
6l i . Bi 4. 2761 17. 104
706. 9: 4. 9091 19. 636
804. 2: 5. 585: 22. 340
907. 9; 6. 305i 25. 220
017. 9i 7. 0691 28. 276
apaeity
B.T.U.
Per
HOW.
3Yko
42: 760
$8;
87' 2@0
105: 600
125. 660
147, 480
171, 040
196; 360
223. 400
252. 200
282. 760
l-
/
- - -
(b) Cc)
32.5 1. 320
443 1. 797
5i . 8 2, 347
73. 2 2, 970
90. 4 3, 667
109. 4 4. 437
130. 1 5. 280
152. 7 6. 197
177. 1 7. 187
203. 3 8. 260
231. 3 9, 367
261. 2 10, 597
292. 8 11. 681
R5l O
23: 970
xi i
49: 920
59, 190
70, 430 _
82. 670 1
95, 870
Figures in column (b) = (a) + 96.i.7.
Figures in column (c) = (a) + (100 X 0.136;.
Fignws in rohlmn (d) = CC) X 13.34.
Latent heat of steam at 212 = 96.5.7 B.T.C. [nen steam tables give
970.41.
Specific heat of air = 0.235.
Note that the figures in t.he iast three coltimns are all based on the rate
of combustion of 4 I bs. of coal per sq.
as the stsndard for house !leating.
ft. of grate per hour, which is Men
For heating school houses and other .~
Ixrge buildings where thz furnace is fed with coal more frequent
_~
~~A~NIN~: This is a 1910 edition, Some of t
STE.%hf-HEATING. C65
much higher actual cnpazity may bc obtained from tl!e grate surface
named. A cnnlniittel! of thr, Am. Sot. M. and V. ?~: : ~gr s. ~1 1909 says:
The grate surface to be provided depends ,on the rate of combustion,
and this in turn depends on the attendance and draft, and on the size of
the boilrr. Small boilers are usually adaptctrl for intermitteut att,ent,ion
antI ;I slow rate of combustion. The larger the boiler. the mote attention
is given to it, and t.he more heatin g sllrfacc is provided per square foot
of grate. Thr follo!ving rates of romhustion arc common for internally
fire11 heath~g boilers:
sq. ft. of grate 4 t; 8 10 to 1s 20 to 30
L~S. coal per sq. ft.. grate per hr. not over 6 10
Capacity of 1 sq. ft. and of 100 sq. in. of Gr:Ltc Surface, for Steam,
HIot-mater, cr Furnace Heatinz&
(Based on burning 4 i hs. of coal per sq. ft. of prnte per hour and 10,000
B.T.U. available heating value of 1 lb. of coal.)
1 so. ft,. 100 so. ins.
grste jquals
40,000
41.25
156.5
261.4
22,420
grate :q;7?
27, 75l i '
28.61
108.7
lbs. of steam evap. from and at 212O per hr.
sq. ft. of steam fadiating surface. = B.T.U.
+ 25.5,6*.
181.5 so. ft. of hot-water radiating surface=
15,570.
_ B.T.U. +153 t,
cu. ft. of air (measured at 70@ F.) per hour
heated lOOn.
I hs. of coal oer hour.
B.T.U. per hour.
*Steam temperature 212. room temperature iOo, radiator coefficient.
tha,t is tne B.T.U. transmit.ted per sq. ft~. of surface per hour per degree of
difference of t.emperat,urc, 1.8.
t Water temperatiire 160. room temperature 70. radiator Co-
efficient 1.7.
For any other rate of combustion than 4 lbs.. multiply the figuresin tha
table by that rate and divide by 4.
STEAM-HEATIXC.
The Rating of House-heating Boilers.
(We Kent. Trans. -4. S. H. V. E.. 1909.) \ _..~...
The rating of a steam-boiler for house-heating &y be-based up?n ?ne
or more of several data: 1. scluare feet ol : grate-surface; 2. square tee! 01
heating-surface. 3
?I S~I I ~~PD f -d Af
coal-burriing capacity: 4. st,eam-malting CaPaClty :
~t P-l m-r .l ,r l i :,.t ~i ne-~l l r f ar ~. i nc l l l c j i ne mai ns. t hat it will
sil~~l~~~-I~~St~bl~~~~~~ suci;a~~ting-thefollowinglconSlderjtions Shouid
be- iak~ m int.0 account:
1 P
tine sq. ft. of w&iron radiator surface will give off about 350 B.T.U.
k' hour under ordinary conditions of temperature of steam 212. and
beti ;;;&;;;s"o~ ;&; I _
)ransmit about 10.000 B.T.U. to
temperature of room 70.
r, 9~ nn~lnrl nf V.VWI anthracite or semi-bituminous coal under the
DD~V. in a boiler properly proportioned, wll
the boiler.
3. In order to obtain this ecol--.-.-- -. ..-. ~~
should be driven at a rate not greatiy exceeding 2 ibs.
from and at 2*20 per sq. ft. of heating-surface per
tos heat transmission of 2 X 970 .= 1940, or. Say,
B.T.U. per hollr ner so: ft. of he:--- ^..-*^^^
mmi r a. 1 result from the coal the boilers
of water evaporated
hour. corresponding
approximately 2000
4.
re
A SatlSf&torv boiler or IIaxzLUI..I. IVL
of&YIing of onlv 3 to 5 DoundS Of Coal Per Sq. ftl o!
uire coal to be feil oftener thL.. _.... ~~~ r
i c ,r ,g-su~Law .
C* .mnc .a f nr house-heating +ould not
,,n oncci In 8 hours; this rewres a rate
, grate per hour.
IS not conveni,ent to
5. For-commeicial and constructive ?es.sons, it !- -~~
*itablish a fixed ratlo of heating- to grate-surface for
The grate-Surface iS limited by the available area in
laced. but on a given grate more heating-surface ma
of boiler than in another and in boilers Of qne
r may be b,dlt higher than another, thus obtaimng a: greater amount
a.:--~ -
666 HEATING AND VENTILATION.
STEAM-HEATIicG. 667
TESTING C.IST-IRON HOUSE-HEATINQ BOILEM.
The testing of the evaporating powe. W and the economy of sma!i-sized
boilers is more difficult than the testing of 1,arge steam-boilers for the
reason that the small quantity of coal burned in a~day makes it impossible
to procure a uniform condition of the coal on the grate throughout the
test. and large errors are apt to be made in the calculation on account of
the dil%rence of coy:dition at the bekgr,ning and end of a test. The
follo!vintr is suggested as a method of test which will avoid these errors.
(n) &asure the grat.e-surface and weigh out an amount of coal eqsai
to 30, 40. or 50 lbs. per sq. ft. of grate, accord& t,o the type A, B, or C,
or the ratio of heating- to grate-surface.
(a) Disconnect the steam-pipe, so that the steam may be wasted at
a:mospheri,: pressure. Fil! the boiler with cold water to a marked level,
and take the weight of this water and its temperature.
(c) Start a brisk fire with plenty of wood, so as to cause then coal, to
ignite rapidly;: feed the coal as needed, and gradually increase the thtck-
ness of the bed of co&i as it burns brightly on top, getting the fire-pot full
as the last of the coal is tired. Then burn away all the coal until it ceases
to make steam, when the test may be considered as at an end.
(tf) Record the temper&ture of the gases of combustion in the flue every
6. The rate of burning coal and the ratio of hi?at,ing- to grate-surface
both being variable, the coal-burning rate and the ratio m&y be so related
to each other as to establish ccndit,ion 3. viz., a raze of evaporation of
2 lbs. of water from and at 212 per sq. ft. of heating-surface per ~hour.
These gt?eral considerations lead to the following calculations:
! ib. of co& 10.000 B.T.U. utilized in the boiler, will supply 10,000 c
2%~ = 40 sq. ft. radiating-surface, and will require 10.000 + 2000=
5 sq. ft~. boiler heatinr-surface. 1 sq. ft. of boiler-surface will supply
2000 + 250 or 40 + 5 = 5 sq. ft. radiating-surface.
Low / Medi- 1
Boiler. i v;m.
High Boiler.
--i--.
3 !
30,000 ! 46.10~
I5 j
j
n1 fI
-
5!h. con! per hour.
50.000 B.T.C. per hour.
25 ~q. it. heating-surf.
200 5q.f:. radiatmg-ser.
C.
1 sq. ft. of grate should hnrn.. ,
I sq. it. of grate shquicl develop.
i sq. ft. of grate wili require.. _.
! w;. it,. of grate will supnly.
.Type of boiler, depending on
ratio heztinr- + grate-surface.
TABLE OF RAZINGS. half-llour.
(e) Periodically, as leeded, feed cold water, which has been weighed,
to bring the water le.. el to the original mark. Record the time and the
weight.
G
2
g;
i52
1 $
SC
-
320
300
350
400
500
600
700
800
Total water fed to the boiler, .including original cold
water, pounds X (212 - onginal cold-water tem-
perature) = . . . . B.T.U.
Water apparently evaporated, pounds X 970 = . . . B.T.U. 81 16Oj 32
,-,-
A I...: I / I5
A
4
Z...; 2: 30
;...: 3 i 45
.i 4..i 41 60
h
B
5.~./ 5: 75
.4...i 4 i 80
B 5...; 53 100
B 6.../ 6i I20
B 7...; 7 i I40
Add correction for increased bulk of hot water:
Original water. pounds X
(62.3 - 593)
62.3
x 970 = . . . . . _. B.T.U.
Total........................................ B.T.U.
Divide by 970 to obtain equivalent water evaporation from and at
212 F.
Divide by the number of pounds of coal to obtain equivalent water per
-
The table is based on the utilization in the boiler of 10,000 B.T.U. Per
pound of good coal. For poorer coal t.he same figures will hold good
except the pounds coal burner per hour, which should be increased in
the ratio of t.he B.-.U. of the good to that rf the poor coal. Thus for
coal from which 8009 B.T.U. cap be ut,ilized the coal burned per hour
will he 25 per cent greater.
For comparison with the above table the following figures aie taken
and calculated from the catalogue of a prominent maker of cast-iron
boilers:
pound of coal,
The last result may be considerably less than 10 pounds on account of
imperfect combustion at the beginning of tile test, excessive air-SUPPly
when the coal bed is thin in the latter half of the test, and loss by radiation,
_.__ __l-_l
Of the same si7n 2
fed and of te... -~
fey comparisonrw
but t,he r&l,ct.i -&ill be fairly comparable with results from other boilers
l,uI ,nd run under the same conditions. The records of water
tmnerature of cases should be ulotted. with time as the base.
ith other tests.
c House-heatine Boilers. - -4 committee qf the .&m, Proportions OL
Sot. Heating and Ventilating Ensneers. reporting in 1909 on tnft metnon
ofratinc: small house-heating boilers, shows the follOWiving ratink% In square
feet of radiating surface suonlied by certain boilers of nearly the same
R
tadiat
3g-sur
face.
-
_.~_
21.5 100
19.1 128
24.5 143
23.8 183
31.3 179
28.6 225
per hour +
T
I;
:!I
-
-.
Height,. G
1 Grate.
I
2
1::
2iO
420
R
i
B.T.U.
,er Hou
=Rx250
52,500
g/JfJ;
375:OOO
300,000
825.000
nominal caps&i, as given iti makers catalogues.
Boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. B. C. D. E. F.
~~edcapa&tY~.......,............ 800 800 775 750 750 750
%uare inches of grate.. . . . . . . . . . . 616 740 648 5%
Ratio of grate to 100 sq. ft of capacity 77 92.5 83.6 70.4
ii0 st4i
.
~%imated rate of combustion.. . . . . . 5.1 4.2 4.65 5.63 4.4 4.5
res in the last line are lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of grate surlface Per
are based on the assumptions of 10.000 B.T.U. uP&ed Der
and 270 B.T.U. transmitted by each sq. ft. of radiating SW-
ur.
he mate?- i i i ' i %f no longer &accurate
210
600
High.: .! ! 6.7
j ! 14.7
4.7
6.i
::;
::9
1667 I 167
2.5
3.2
1456 3.6
1923 4.6
1476 4.5
1;964t 5.6
.-
* r;quals B.T.V 0.000 G.
WARNING: This is a ~1910 edition. Some of
668
HEATING AND VENTILATION.
The qnestisn of heatin: surface in a boiler seems to be an unknown
guantit,y, aud inquiry amon& the manufacturers does not produce much
mtormatmn on the subject.
Following is the list of sizes and ratings of the Manhattan sectional
styam boilci~. The figures for sq. ft. of grate surface and for the ratio of
hea!ins to grate surface iappros.) have bYen computed from the sizes
eiven 1n the catalogL!r (1909).
!
1000 ~24~301 5
1250 / 24x36/ 6
1500 124x431 7. i 6
1750 3. 33
2000 / 24x5Oj 124x571 9. 5
I
-I
10
6i
iI
9!
I ? '
I 2
; : /
2250
2200
: : : :
2: :
4700
5200
5700
6200
36x641 16 424
36x711 17. 5 466
' 36X781 19. 5 503
36x841 21 550
36x90; 22. 5 592
I
.i appears from this list that there are three sets of proportions, corre-
sponding to the three widths of grate surface. The average ratto of
heating to grate surface in the three sets is respectively 25.0. 20.7, and
3.52%: the rated sq. ft. of radiating surface per sq. ft. of grate.is 185, 2O8,
and 259 and tne sq. ft. of radiating surfxe per sq. ft~. of boiler heatmg
surface is 7.4. 10.1, and 3.8. Taking 10,000 B.T.U. utilized per Lb. of
coal, and 250 B.T.U. e-mitt.ed per sq. ft. of radiating surface per hour,
the rat? of combustion reouired to WDDL-. the radiating surface is respec-
tiveiy 4.67, 5.22. and 6,4d Ibs. per sq: ft: of grate perhour
Coefficient of Heat Transmission in Direct Radiation. -The value
of K. or the B.T.U. transmitted per sq. ft. of radiating surface per ilOW
per dr:ree of ditference of temperature between the st~eilm (or hot water)
and the air in the room, is commonly taken at 1-S in steam heating,
witi1 a temperature digerence of about 1X2, and 1.6 in hot-water heat-
ing. xit!l 3 temperature digerence aver&ng 80. Its vaiue as found by
test varies with the conditions; thus the total heat transmitted is not
directly proportional to t.!le temperature difference, but increases at a
faster rate; single pipes exposed on all sides transmit more heat than
pipes in a group: low radiators more than high.ones; radiators exposed
to currents of cool air more tha,n those in relatively quiet air; radiators
with a free circulation of steam throughout more than those that are
partly filled with water or air, etc. The total rauge of the value of II,
for ordinaF conditions of practice, is probably between 1.5 and 2.0 for
steam-heating with a temperature difference of 1400, averaging 1% and
brtween 1.2 and 1.7. averaging 1.6, for hot-water heating, with a tern--
perature difference of So?&. - -
C. F. Hauss. Trans. d. S. H. I . E., 1904, gives as a basis for talc@-
tion, for a room heated to 70 with steam at 11/s lbs. gauge pressure
(temperature difference 146O F.) 1 sq. ft. of single column radiator gives
of 3s:: S.T.U. per hcur; 2-coiumn. 975: .%coi~umn. 250: I-column, 225.
Value of H in Cast-iron Direct Radiatcrs. (J. Ii. Allen, Tram;!
d. S. H V. 2%. 190%) Ts = tern% of steam: T,= temD. of room. ~~(,
130
1.76
%i
2. ; 4
2. 075
1;o
::88:;
220
2. 185
2. 260
160
1.895
l%z
2. 265
2. 36
". ~_. ~~- ~ . - . , ~, - _, , _. . _ . . ~~~~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of 1
STEAM-HEr\ TING. 669
R.T.U. Transmitted per Hour per Sq. Ft. of Heating Surface tn
indirect Badiators. (W. S. %lvlunroe, Eng. Rec.. NOV. 18. lS99.i
Cu. ft. of air per bout per sq. ft. of surface.
100 ZOO 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
B.T.U. ner hour oer so. ft. of heating sorface.
B.T.U. per hr. per sq. ft. per deg. diff. of temp.*
5. 5 6. 3 6. 9
Temperature difference between steam and en,oring air, (a) 150:
(b) 215:
* Between steam and enteriug air.
Short Rules for Computing Radiating-Surfaces. -In the early day;
of steam-heat.ing, when little was known about British Thermal Lnit,s,
it, was customar.y to estimate the amount of radiating-surface bv dtvldtng ___ _....,..~~. ~~ ~~
the cubic contents of the room to be nest::d by a certain factoisupposed
to be derived from experience. Two of these rules are as follows:
One square foot of surface will heat from 40 to 100 cu. ft. of space to
75O in - loo latitudes. This range is intended to meet condttions of
exposed or corner rooms of buildings. and those 1eSS SO,.
as intermediate
ones of a l$txl;. As a. general PIIIP 1 sn~ ft,. of surface ~111 heat 70 cu. ft.
of eir in outer or front-rooms and 100 cu. ft. in inner rqoms.
In large
stores in cities, with buildings on each side. 1 to 100 1s ample. The
following are approximate proportions,:
One sqtiare foot radiating-surface will heat:
In DP <xllings, In Hal!, Stores. In Churches,
Schoolrooms. Lofts, Factories, Large Audito-
Offices, etc. et~c. riums. etc.
By direct radiation.. . . 60 to 80 ft. 75 to 100 it. 150 to 200 ft.
By indirect radiation.. 40 t o 50 ft. 50 to ;Oft. 100 to 140 ft.
Isolated buildings,. exposed to prevailing ,north or west winds should
Fd~,a generous adc.ttion made to the heattng-surface 011 then exposed
I,q. ft. of boiler-surface -vi11 supplv from 7 to 10 sq. ft. of.radiating-
surface depending upon the size of boiler and the t?ffiC@CY of its Surface.
as !r;eli as that of the radiating-surface. Small boners for house use
should be much larger proportionately than large plants.
Each horse-
E
wer of boiler will supply from
940 to 360 ft..0f 1-m. steam-pipe, or
to 130 sq. ft. of radrating-surface.
Under ordinary condit.ions 1
horse-power wlvill heat, approximately..in -
Brick dwellings, in blocks, as in cities. .
Brick stores, in blocks, .... ... ... 1 ..............
15.000 t,o ~~.~~~ cu:.ft
10.000
&ick dwellings, exposed all round. ........ 10,OOO I5:OOO
Brick mills, shops, factories, etc T.$$ 1: :~$$
1:
............
Wooden dwellings. exposed.
.,
Foundries and wooden sho
..............
Exhibition bmldrngs, large y mass. etc P
s. ............. ,:I
......
$&j 1: :~$$~
, ,-
Such rules of thumb as they are called, are generally supplanted by
the modern *heat-unitl methods.
Carrying Capacity of pipes in Low-Pressure Sieam Featin
QnL Trans. A 8 H v. B. 1907.) -The following table 1s base
f.ol%
ed drop of I pound pressure per 1000 feet. not because that is
p which should always be used -in fact the writer b&eves that
nstzllatlons a far greater drop is permisable - but because It
is upon which the flow for any other drop may be calculated,
.~.~_,__.. ,. .._~~, ~~..~, ~,~ ,._ .,~
l onger . be accurate
670 ..iEhTING ANL, VENTILATION,
I
e I
STEAM-:iEATING. 671
merely by multipIying the figures in the tables by the square rcot of th
asslgned drop. The fOimula from which the tables are cakul at ed ib th
well known one, W = c *jWKQky. p) ,
111 which W = weil:ht of stean
in Ibs. per minute: 20 = \veight of steam in pounds per cubic foot. a
the entennp xessure, p,: E the pressure at the end of the pipe; d th,
actual di m1 lameter of standard wrought-iron pipe in in&es. and L the lengtl
,.., .^
HI from Dvrcrs esDeriments on finv
Proportioning Pipes to Raliating Surface.
FIGUIUZS IJSED I S C.~LCUIATION OF RADIATING SURFACE.
in ieec. ;l~ne coemcients e are deriv
of water In pipes. and are believed to be as a&rate is any that havl
been derived from the very few recorded esperiment~s on steam.
P =y Pressure by gauge, ibs. per sq. in.
0. 0.3 1.3 2.3 3.3 4.3 5.3 6.3 8.3 10.3
L = latent brat of evaporation, B.T.V. per lb.*
913.5.7 965.0 962.6 960.4 TSS.3 956.3 954.4 Q52.6 949.1 945.8
Ternperatllre.Fahrenheit, T1.
212. 213. 216.3 219.4 222.4 225.2 227.9 230.5 235.4 240.0
Tt = 2: - 70, difference of temperature.
142. 143. 146.3 149.4 152.4 155. 2 157.9 160.5 165.4 170.0
Ht = T1 X 1.8 = heat transmission per sq. ft. radiating surface, B.T.U.
per hour.
255.6 257.4 263.3 268.9 274.3 279., 3 284.2 288.9 297.7 306.0
HI + L = steam condensed per sq. ft. radiating surface, lbs. per hour.
0.2647 0.267 0.274 0.280 0.2S6 0.292 0.298 0.303 0.314 0.324
Reciprocal of above = radiatinghsu$ice per lb. of steam condensed Per
3.78 3.75 3. 65 3. 57 3. 50 3. 42 3. 36 3. 30 3. 18 3. 09
FLOW OF STEAM AT Low PREYSURES IS POLXD, PER HOGR FOR A UXI.
FORZI DROP AT THE RATE QF OSE POUND PER 1000 FEET
LEXGTH OF STRAI GHT PIPE.
Steam Pressures, by Gauge, at Entrance of Pipe.
The Ias? three lines of figures are based on the empirical constant l..S
for the ax xage British thermal units transmitted per square foot Of ra@-
ating surface per hour per deqr w of difference of temperat,!lre?. The
tigure is approximately correct for severa! forms of bcitl cast-Iron, radia-
tbx&nd pipe coils, not over 30 inches high and not over two pipes in
Nornina:
Diam.
P&.
0.3 1 1.3 1 2.3 ( 8.3 / 4.3 1 5.3 1 6.3 / 8,: / i0.j
Flow of Steam, Pounds per Hour.
Ii2 .
,3/ : : : : : :
ill, .._
II/2 ~._...
2. . . . . . . . .
21: . ? I _
3~. . . . . . . .
3y, _. . .
4. . . . . . . . .
41i _ .2
J.........
6.........
7.
a. . . . . . . . .
9~........
W.....,.
12. . . . . . . .
RAIXATING SLXWACE SUFFUED BY DIFFERENT SIZES OF PIPE.
On basis of steam in pipe at 3..3 and 10.3
!bs. gauge pressure, tempera-
ture of room 70. heat transmitted per square foot radiating SdrfaCe 257.4
and 306 British thermal unites per hour, and drop of pressure in ptpe at
the rate of 115. per 1000 feet length; = pounds of steam per nour m the
table on the preceding page, 1st column. X 3.75, and last CoLcmn. X 3.09.
- -
_
I I
Size of
?ipe.
In.
Radiating
Ss,f F;
Size of
Pipe,
.I
:/ j
.
.
:
./II
-
-
0.3 lb. 0.3ib. 10.3 lb.
I-
I I
In.
10.3 lb. In. 0.3 lb. 10. 3 lb.
769
1, 357 !
7. 541
1,986
2-7~5 t
3,686 10
4, 919 12
7. 901
I f . 535
16. 040
21, 451
g$l j B
I 2
- -
734
1*z
2: 630
Fo! any other drop of pressure per 1000 feet length, multiply the fig-
ur es In thF: t abl e by the square root of that drop.
In all Cases the judgment of the engineer must be used in the assump-
tion of t.he drop to be allowed.
For small distributing pipes it will gen-
era@ be desirable to assume a drop of not more than one pound per
1000 feet to insure t.hat each single radiator shall alwavs have an ample
SuPPly for the worst conditions, and in that case the siie of piping given
In the table up to two inches may be used: but for main pipes supplying
totals of more than 500 square feet, greater drops may be
allqwed,
For reater drops than 1 lb. per 1000 ft. length of Pipe. multiply the
f$UreS %y the square root of the drop.
The latest steam tables (1909) give somewhat higher figure& but the
pze is unimportant here.
he material may no lon@r~.6&~ bwYke WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
A
67~ EIGATING AND VENTILATION.
Sizes of Steam Pipes in Heating Plant,s. --L. W. Stanton.. in HentZng
crnti verrtilutircg .iilag.. April. 1908. gives tables fGi proport.iomng pipes to
radia,ting surface, from which the following table is condensed:
/

I
Sup- j
RadintinC Surface Sq. Ft. /Returns./ Drips. Connections.
),I? :
Pipe.; i
1ns. / -4
_-
!
-,-
B c
1 /
; 1;4 / ii
w$ 125
250
, ?I
3 i i i
31/ z/ I , M) O
4 / I . 600
41/ z j 1, 9r w
5 2, 300
6 4, 100
f ?
6, 500
9 / I s: %
14 j : : : : : : :
1; 1.
/ .
36
1; :
280
; i i
1, 320
1, 920
2, 760
3, 720
%z
12: sci l
17, t w
%E
54' oocI
76: ooo
1::
240
i %! l
1, 509
2, 200
3, ZOU
4. 650
6. 200
l O. l MO
15, ooQ
21. 600
30. 000
39. oQo
62. 000
92, 000
130, 000
;I /a 1112 11/J I 21j? 2
I I , 4
I2 2 1114 i 114 3
1 ' I 2
1114 3' 13 . . _, . ,
2i / , 2112 1112 llj: 4
1114 41/ 3 . . . . . . .
. I
. . _. , ,
Supply mains and risers
are of t~he same size.
A. For single-pipe steam-heating system 0 to 5 lb. pressure. AI,
riser connections. A?. radiator connections.
B. Two-pipe system 0 to 5 lb. pressure; BI, CI. radiator cowections,
suppiy: B?. C?. radiator connections, return.
C, D. Two-
P
ipe system 2 and 5 Ibs. respectivelv. mains and risers not
rver 100 ft. ength. For other lengths, multiply the given radiating
surface by factors, as below:
Lencth. ft.. . 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Factor...... 0.71 0.5s 0.5 0.45 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.32
?I:. Stanton says: Tt:?oretically both supply and return mains could
be mxh smaller, but in practice it has been found that while smaller
pipes can be used if a job is properly and carefully figured and propor.
tioned and inst.alled, for !vork as ordinarilg installed it is far safer to use
the sizes that have been tried and proven. By using the sizes given a
job will circulate t~hroughout with 1 lb. steam pressure at the boiler.
Resistance of Fittings. -Where the pipe supplying theradiation con-
tains a large number of fittings, or other conditions make such a refine-
ment necessary. it is advisable to add to the actual distance of the radl%
tion from the source of supply a dist.ance equivalent to the resistance
offered br the fittings, and by the entrance to the radiator, the value Of
which. elipressed in feet of pipe of the same diameter as the fitting, Wlu
be found in the accompanYing table. Power, Dec., 1907.
FEET OF PIPE TO BE ADDED FOX EACH FIITING.
2 21/ z 3 3l I : !
STEAM--HEATING. 673
Overhead Steam-pipes. (A. R. Wolff, Stevens ZnrEcafor, 1887.) -
When the overhead system of steam-heating is employed, in which sys-
tem direct radiating-pipes, usually 1114 in. in dia?.. are placed in rows
overhead, suspended upon horizonta! racks, the pipes running horizon-
tally, and side by side, around the whole interior of the building, frol:l L
to 3 ft. from the malls, and from 2 to 4 ft. from the ceiling, the amount
of 1 t;+in. pipe required. accordmg to Xr. C. J. H. Koodhury, for heat.ln{;
nlllls (for tvhich use t:Gs system is deserveG!y much in vogue), is about
1 ft. ir: len:tl; for every 90 c u. ft. of space. Of course a great rznre of
difierence exists. due to the special character of the operat,ing machmerg
jn the mill, both in respect to the amount of air circulated by the ma-
chinery. and also the aid to warmicg the room by the friction of the
,journals.
Removal of Air from Ra,diator+ Vacuum Sys,terqs.,- In order
that a steam radiator may work at Its highest capacity It 1,s necess;nry
that it be neither water-bound nor air-bound. Proper drsmage must
therefore be pro,vided. and also means for continrlously. or frequently,
removing air from the system. sllch as automatic air-valws. on each
radiator. an air-pump or an nw-ejector on a chamoer o- r?r.-!.ver Into
.:Jhlch the returns are carried, or separate air-pipes cor~neci~ng eacn
radiator with a vacuum chamber. When a vacuLlm i95:i:m is wed,
especially with a high vacuum, much lower ternperaturz : ii&n i:sua: r.;aY
be used m the radiators, which is Z:L advantage in : wdemte weatter.
Steam-consumption in Car-heating.
C., M. & ST. PAUL RAILWAY TESTS. (Engincfring. June 27, 1890, p. 764.)
Outside Temperature. Inside Temperature.
Water of Condensation
per Car per Hour.
70 t bs.
85
100
Heating a Greenhouse by Steam. -Wm. J. Baldwin answers a
question in the American Machdnist as below: With five pounds steam-
P
ressura, how many square feet or inches of heatinr-surface 1s flecessary
o heat 100 square feet of ,glsss on the roof. ends, and sides ot a green-
house in order to maintain a night heat of 55O bo IX, while the thermpm-
eter outside ranges at from l? to 20 below zero: also, what holler-
surface is necessary? :qhich is the best for the purpose to use - 2 pipe
._ --.-...- o ~,.
-- CAfi.7 w1.z VGLJ I,,*.
The pipes m a greenhbuse should. be
in front of the benches, with everg chance for a good clrculatlon
~,,~._~_ ~._,~,._
an-~~lose~~~,,,,~~~~~-;;6ieydo; GGute per sq. ft. of glass as many
degrees as the internal temperature of the house exceeds that Ff the air
outside. Between + 6% and -20 there will be a difference ot 85O. or.
say. one cubic foot of air cooied 1275 F. for each sq. ft. of glass for the
most extreme condition mentioned. Multiply this by the number of
square feet of glass and by 60. and we have the number of cubic feet of
air cooled lo per hour within the building or house. Divide the number
thus found by 48, and it gives the units of heat required, approsimately.
Divide again by 953, and it will give the number of pounds of steam that
temperature of five pounds
perature in an hour to mam-
e of pipe will condense from
rding as the coils are exposed
._ .-.- ._._ v~Tn,~~ of 11~ lb. may be t&en. _. ---~-
. cr , , , , , c 3 sq. ft. of pipe surf&e per lb. of steam
%lon the heating-surface of the boder to have
1 mdiating-surface. if you wish to keep steam
n the grate to burn not more than SIX pounds
hn,,r Wi t , 11 ver v sl ow combustion. such
e grate might be proportlpned
It is cheaper to make ~011s of
e t o be gained bY using 2 Pipe
HEATING AND VENTIL.4TION.
of air. Header coils are better than return-beild ooils for this
piirpose.
\ f r Rnl dwi n n ri!le mav be given the following form: Let H = heat- _. _. _ - - . - . . __ - . ~~- ~
unite transferred ; - hour, -p z temperature inside the green!muse, t =
temperature outside, S = sq. ft. of glass surface: then li = 1.~ 3 (T - t)
Y ti ! l + 35 = 1 ~S7.5 S CT - t). Mr. Wolffs coelhcient K for single sky.
).
ttrr. - W. 31. JI~CK~Y. OX the
er Plumbers
_.__ . . . . .._ _l.. _ _~ ~~~ _
hssociat,ion. N. 1.. lSS9, says: I find that while greenhouses were for.
merlv heated by t-inch and :I;-inch cast-iron pipe, on account of the large
hod? of wnt*?r \vhirh thev conmined, and the supposition that they gave
briier satisfaction and a- mom even temperature, llorists of long experl-
ence who have tried -1inch a,nd 3-inch cast-iron pipe, and also ~2-inch
:vrought,-:ron nipe for a number of years in heating their greenhouses
by hot water. and who have also tried steam-heat, tell me,thnt they get
better sat.isfaction, Greater economy. and are abler to maintam a more
even temperature with 2-inch wrought-iron pipe and hot water than by
WI:; o:her sy-st~cm they have used. They attribut.e this result principally
to the pact that tl,is size pipe contains less water and on t.his account the
heat r;&n be raised and lowered ouieker than by any other arrangement
of pipes, and a more uniform temperature maintained thar. by steam 01
any ot!rer system.
HOT-WATER KE.kTIXG.
The followinz notes are from the catalomle of the Nason >ffg. CO.:
There are two distinct forms or moditiications of hot-water apparatus,
dependine upon the temperature of the water.
In t,he tirst or ooen-t~nnk svstem rhe wa!er is never above 212 terngem-
ture, and rarelvnbor*e -,Oi. This method a,lwa.vs gives satisfaction
xhere t~he .si:ri&e is sufiicientlv iberal. hnt, in making it so ils cwt. i4
con+iembiv greater than that for-a steam-heating apparatus.
in f,ilr srrnnd method sometimes called (erroneouslr) high-Dressure -__ ___ .._.. - ~~~~~.. _~~~
hot-*..-aier !ie;rting. or the closed-system appa:atus. the tank i< closed.
Ii it is Drorirled \\-it!1 a safety-valve set at 10 lhs. it is practically as safe
as the open-tank sysbem. -
Lam of Velocity of Flow. -The motive power of the circulation in 8
hot-water aooaratus is the difference between the specific gravities, Of
the n-ater inthe axending, and the descending pipes. This effecp
pressure is very small. and is equal to &out one grain for each foot la
height for each degree difference between the pipes: thus. with a height
of 12 in up pipe, and a difference between the temperatures of the
up and down pipes of S. the ditrerence in their specific gravities is equal
to S.16 grains ~O.lJOi166 lb.) on each square inch of the section of return-
nines and the velocitv of the circulation is DroDortioned t,o these differ- _~i ., ;~~ ~~
entes in temperature end height.
_ -
&in Row-pines from t,he heater, from which branches may be takes.
are to be preferred Tao the practice of taking off nearly as many pipes from
the heater as there are radiators to supply.
It is not necessary that the main tlow and return pipes should equal la
caparity t.hat of all their branches. The hott.est waber will seek the
highest. level. while gravity will cause an even distribution of the heat&
water if the surface is properlv proportioned.
It is good nractice to reduce-the size of the vertical mains as they ascend,
sav at the r&of one size for each floor.
4s wi?h cteam so with hot water the pipes must be unconfined to allea
for esDan$on of the oiues c0nsea;er.t on having their temperatures 1
creased.
An expansion tank is required to keep the apparatus filled with water*
wbJch latter expands l/e4 of it,s bulk on being heated from 40 to 2124
an1 the cistern must have capacitv to hold cert~ainly this increased ba
it is recommended t.hst the supply cistern be placed on level with Or
above the highest pipes of the apparatus, in order to receive the air wi$
collects in the mains and radiators, and capable of holding at least l/s*,..
the water in the entire apparatus.
drra~ngemrnt of BIains for Hot-water Heating. (W. M.
Lect.ure before Master Plumbers Sssoc.. N. Y.. 1859). -There
different systems of mains in general use. either of which, if
WARNING: This is a 1910 ~&Jitioh. Sohe of
HOT-WATEB HEATING.
575
placed. will give good satisfaction. One is the taking of a single fnr~e-
nsin from the heater to suDDlv all the radiators on t.be ~~YCI~~I i
with a corresponding return maul of tne same size.
s.
lng of a number of Z-inch w
The other is the ta,k-
same
rought-iron mains from the heater, with-the
number of return mains of the same size, branching off t.o the several
radiators or coi!s with 11/d-inch or l-inch pipe. according ro t.he size of
the radiator or coil. .4 ?-inch main will supply three 1 r/4-inch or four
l-inch branches. and these branchr:: shn~~lrl be t:>,i:en f rnm ~,IIP tnn c.* +k-
horizontal main \vitli a nipp!
it is found necessary to retard the flow of water I.0 the nenr radiator. for
the muDose of assistine the circulation i n the f n~r mr~i ntnr. i ,
ihe brmich is taken from t!)e side of the horizontal main.
-. .n this case
The flow and
retllrn mains are usually run side br side. susnenrlec! from the basement
ceiling. and should have a eradual &ent~ #mmt.be hen~tor .~ ,_
of at least 1 inch in 10 feet..
~~~ _.__ .___ __ to the radiators
?-inch mains are used, t
It is customary. and an advantaee where
a branch is taken off.
o reduce the size of themain at every point where
The-single or large main system is best adapted f,x large buildings: but
there is a limit as to si2.e of
.--I. ,. :~- -1~
main which it is not wise to go beyond -
eenemny o-mtn. exceDt In srxcial cases.
The proper area ofcold-air pipe necessary for 100 square feet of indi-
rect radiation in hot-Water IleUiIlg is 75 square ir~ches, \\hile the hot-air
pipe shouid have at least 100 square inches of area. There should be a
damper in the gild-air pipe for the purpose of controlling the amount of
air admitted to the radiator, depending on the sev:rity of the weather.
Sizes of Pipe for Hot-water Heatin-. - A theoretical calculation of
the required size oi pipe in hot-water he%.ing mat be made in the follow-
Having given the amount of heat.in B.T.U t.o he emitted @g manner.
OY a radiator per minute, assume the temperature< of the nater entering
and leaving. say 160 and I.&O?
in temnern,ratr
Dividing t,he B.?U. bv the ditferenck
-,-.-.--es gives t,he numher of pounds of water to be circulated
his divided bv the weight of water ner rl l bi r f ont. P~VPQ the n~rmhd and t ,~,~~~ ~~ ~~~_~.. r.._ .-I__ __I_ o -.-- I.._ .l...I.UI1
of cubic feet per minute. T!ie motive force to move this water, per
square inch of the area of the riser. is the difference in wdeht ner xu-. $4.
of water at the two temperatures, divided by 144. and nn$iplFed L
the height of the riser, or for TI = 160 and T? = 140, (61 3i - 6i;.9Sj
+ 144 = 0.00271 lb. per sq. in. for each foot of the riser
Di tiding 144
by 61.3i gives 2.34. the ft. head of wat.er mrrrnnndi m? to ! ii,) ne7 C
in., and OyOO271 x 2.34 = 0.0066 ft. he&d, or;flii;e-~~~risi0itrni~i;:
20 x n~nnw,=c
- 3.132 ft. head. which is the motive force to move the waler
over the whole length of the circuit. overcnminF t.hp frirt.inn nf fh~ Ticor
the return pipe, the radiator and its connections.
If the circuit has a
r @l st ance equal to that of a 50-ft. pipe then 50 + 0.132 = 3S0 is the
mtlo of length of pipe to the head, which ratio is to be taken with the
number of cubic feet to be circulated and by means of formula for flow
of water, such as Darcrs. or hydrauiic tables the diameter of pipe re-
quired to convey the gi-veu quantity of water with this ratio of len*th of
1
iPe to head is found.
Y the fart t. h:
This t.edious calculation is made more comD&ated
~--- . ..&t estima.tes have to be made of the frictional resisiance of
xdiator and its connections. elbows. valves~ etr~~ so t.bat in nmrtirn
)-sub-jeci-i &&$tee of the .4m. Sot. Heating and Ventilating
? ron,.rtnrl i-. 1ngg as follows:
of a certain temperature required per hour by
non may be determined by the following formula:
\
RxX
20 X 6O.S X 60
= cu. ft. of water per minute.
; X = B.T.U. given off per hour by 1 sq.
and 230 for indirect) with water at 170 .
lure in degrees between the water entering
it: 60,s is the weight of a cubic foot of
educe the result from hours to minutes
s. as used by seven prominent engineersin
uare feet of radiation, are given below:
~.~~~ .~., ._~.~..
le material may no longerbe accurate
HOT-W;\TER HEATING.
677
676
HEATING AND VENTILATION.
v-pipe open-tank system, 100 ft. mains. 5-m. pipe = 26.6 ft. per min.
i-pipe open-tank system, 100 ft. mauls, 6-m. ,pipe. = 18.4 ft. per mm,
overhead open-tank system, 100 ft. nnuns,, 4-m. pope = 41.8 ft. per min.
obver*read open-tank system, 100 ft. marns, &in. pipe = 72.1 ft. per
c,LPhCITY OF >hIXS 100 FT. LOSO.
Expressed in the number of square feeet~ of &t-water radmFil$g sur-
face tl~ev will supply, the radiators being placeo in rooms at IV x ., and
111~ anlount Of radiation is found Oy dividing the total heat by the
emission of he&t by Illdirect radiators per square toot per hour per degree
difference m temperature. This varies Will1 the velocity, ils shown below:
Velocity, ft. per min... 174 246 300 342 , 175 400 42s 450 474 492
B.T.U.. . . . .1.70 2.00 2.22 2.38 2.52 2.60 2.67 2.72 2.76 2.80
The difference brtwrm 170 degrees (aversqe tempercLtl:rz of tile water
in the radiator) and 55 dq:rees (average ttwperatllre of the.air in the
radiator) being 115, the wussion a
ence or 2:M B.T.U.
L Z-10 It. pc!r min. i.5 L. pw degree differ-
Ordinarily the amolmt of indirect radiation required is computed by
addmg a percentage to the amount of direct rsdiation [computed by.t!ie
usual rules]. and an addition of 30:; has been folmii sufficient in many
cases; but in buildings whpre a standard of ventilation is to be maintained,
the formula, mentioned seems more likely to give satisfactory results.
Free area between the sections of radiation to allow passage of the re-
quired volume of air at the assumed velocity must be maint.ain?d. The
cold-air supply duct, on account of less frictional resistance, ma or@-
narily have 80% of thd area between the radiator sections
The %ot-air
flues may safely be proportioned for the following air veloiities per min-
ute:First floor, 200 feet; second floor, 300 feet; tlurd floor. 400 feet.
PIP?: SIZES FOR HOT-WATER HEATISG.
20~dr op assumed,
-
Diameter of
T$yiy (
Pipes. In*. open Tami
. O pen Tank
- - _ . -
1 t / r . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
I l / z . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 ::
2. . . ~. . . . . . . . . . . 121
21~2
190
. . . . . . . . . . . .
! : . . . . . . . . / 320 . . . . . .
J ' ! ? . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A
i
474
. . I
; , g
_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
i ' 7oi
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3: 500
-
-
(
-I-
I
/(
,/
/
I
-
30
335 i >
667 ' .
1, 060
1, 800
2. 600
3. 350
6, 200
9, 800
13, 900
19, 500
127
181
: : 1:
916
1, 334
~~
5: 600
7, 200
9. 900
I :,
;
-
!OO difference in temperature between flow and return water.
ard, The Engineer July I, 1602.)
~~1~~~1% 2 1 2% / 3 / 3% I 4 1 5 1 6 ) 7
Square Feet of Direct Radiating Surface.
-
30
.
. .
1001
751
200
150
50 125
. . 100
75
1, 200 . . . __. , . . . . . .
850 1. 400 . _. ___ _. _. . .
-
: : : I : : : : :
.!
350
250
200
175
150
125
. . .
. . .
550
400
300
275
250
225
200
i i 5
150
- -
850
600
450
Ei
32. 5
300
250
225
I
The 6wures are for direct rac!iation except the i&St column WhiC!l tS for
indirect,a12 in. above boiler.
CAPACITY OF RISER%
Ed in :he number of sq. ft. of dire-t hot-xvater radiating sur-
far?&$%il.l supply. the radiators beiug placed in rooms at 70 F., and
20" dr op' assumed. The figures in the last column ar e f or t he cl osed- t ank
over l i ead syst em the others are for the open-tank system.
I I I 1 Drop
- Square Feet, of Indirect. Radiation.
Diameter
of Riser. I I Ist Floor. Zd Floor. j 3d Floor.
] 4t,, Floor. IRisers. pot
c%m?dnln
Square Feet of Direct Radiating Surface.
Inches. 1
1 ...............
1
1 l/4
. . ,
........... ..I
" , J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . I
21/ 2. ~. . . . . . . . . . .
3
/
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j
............... I.. ....
::: :::::: ::::::I::::::
.....................
............... ......
...... , ............
165
185
210
240
( g5 550 850 . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . ) . . . . . . . . .
I I
All horizontal branches from mains to risers or from risers to radiators,
more than 10 ft. long (unless within 15 ft. of the boiler), should be I*
cr eased one size over that indicated for risers in the above table.
For indirect radiation, the amount of surface may be computed 89
to supply any given amount of hot-water
on (I) The square feet of radiation: (2) its
&) the differencein temperature qf the water
pes; (4) the length of the pipe connecting the
of a pipe the number of bends and valves must
is customary to consider an elbow as equivalent
ength and a return bend to I20 diameters.
aboutthe same as an elbow.
A
he Determination of the Sizes Of Pipe for Hot
. Gelsecke, is printed in Domestic Engineering,
:0110:vs:
Temperature of the air entering the room. 110 = T.
Average temperature of the atr passmg through the radiator. 55.
Temperature of the air leaving the room, 70: = t.
:j
Velocity of the air pasting through the radmtor, 240 ft. Per min.
Cubic feet of air to be conveyed per hour, = C = (H X 55) + (T - f) -
H = exposure loss in B.T.U. per hour.
Heat necessary to raise this air to the entering temperature fro?
._~ _,. ~2.,, TX c + 55 = H.
.~-
!@RNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t he I material may no l onger .be accurate
6-23
HEATING AND VENTILATION. THE BLOWER SYSTEM OF HEATING. 679
Sizes of Flow and Ret ur n Pipes Approximately Proportioned to
55urfnce of Direct Radiators for Gravity Hot-Water Heating.
(G. W. Stanton, Heck & Ventg. Msg., April, 1908.)
!
Mains. Branches of Mains.
~-.-
! Square Feet of Radiating Surface.
1
650
850
1, 050
1, 350
2. 900
3, 900
5, 000
6, 300
7, 900
3, 500
17 I I 4l ul
. . . . . . .
. _. . . . . . . .
135
220
3%
460
675
850
i %
( 700
3, 600
4. 000
6; 200
7, 700
9, eOo
l l , W5
14.000
-
-
- -
1: :
I t30
29n
400
620
K&l
1. 050
1, 325
iz
150
E
: : i
970
I . 250
1, 560
- -
Note.- The heights of the sever&i
flcois are tskeii as:
Irt~. 10 t o 15 ft.: 2d. 15 t.o 25 ft.
3d. 25 to 35 ft.; 4t,h. 35 to 45 ft.
-cheating by IInt Water, with Forced Circulation. -The principal
deiect of grsx?ty hot-water systems. that the motive force is only the
ditfprence in weight of two columns of water of different temperatures, IS
overcome by giving the water a forced circulation, eit.her by means of a
pump or by a steam ejector. For large installations a pump gives facili-
ties for forcing the hot wat6.T to any distarze required. The design of
such a system is chiefly a prc31em in hydraulics. After determining the
quantity of heat to be given out by each radiator, a certain drop IU
temperature is assumed, and from that the volume of water required bg
each radiator is calculated. The piping system then has to be designed
so that it wiil carry the proper supply of water to each radiator without
short-circuit,inE. and wit.h a minimum total cost for power to force the
water, for loss-by radiation, and for interest, etc., on-cost of plant. NO
short rules or formulae have Zen ei;ablishrd for designing a forced hot-
water svstem. and each case has to be studied as an original problem t0
be solved by application of the laws of heat transmission and hydraulics.
Forced systems using steam ejectors have come into use to some extent
in Europe in small installations, and some of them are descr%%d i:: the
Transactions of the Amer. Socy of Heating and Ventilating &ginel>rs.
A system of distributing~ heat and power to customers by means of hot
water pumped from a central station was adopted by the Boston Heating
Co. in 188R. It was not commercially successful. A description of the
plant is given by A. V. Abbott in Trans. A. I . M. E.. 1888.
THE BLOWEB SYSTEX OF BEATING.
The svstem provides for the use of a fan or blower which takes its SUP
ply of flesh air from the outside of the building to be heated, forces It
over steam coiis. located either centrally or divided up into a number of
independent groups, and then into the several ducts or flues leading to the
various rooms. The movement of the warmed air is positive, and the
delivery of the air to the various points of supply is certain and entirely
independent of at.mospheric conditions.
Aovantages and Disadvantages of the Plenum System.
W. I ?. Bar r et t , Brit. I nst. H. & V. Engrs., 1905.)-Advantages: (1)
MARNING: This is a 1910 editions.
Some-of t
evenness of temperature pmduh,ed: (2) the ventilation of the building
is concurrent with its warming; (3) the air can be drawn from sources
free from contamination and Cant be f i l t er ed from suspended impurities.
warmed and br ought to the proper hygromerric state before its intro-
duction to the different rooms or wards: (4) the tiegree of temperature
and of ventilation can be easiiy cont r ol l ed in any part of the building,
and (5) the removal of ugly pipes running through the rooms has a great
archit,ectural and est,het.ic advantage.
Disadranta.g:(?s: (1) The most obvious is that no wintlo\vs can be
opened nor doors left open: double doors \iith an air lock bet\veen must
also be provided if the doors are frequently opened and closed; (2) the
mechanical arrangements are elaborate and the system requires to be
used with intelligent care; (3) the whole elaborate system needs to be
set going even if only one or two rooms in a large building require to
be wsrmed. as often happens in the winter vacation of a collece: (4) the
tea.porary failure of the system, through t,he breakdown of the engines
or other cause, throws the whole system into confusion, and if, as in the
Royai Victoria Hospital, the windows are not made to open, imminent
danger results: (5) then, also, in the ease of hospital wards ar,d asylums
it is possible tkst the outlet ducts may become coated with disease germs,
and un!ess periodicallv cleansed. a back current through a h.igh wind or
temporary failure of the system may bring a cloud of these disease germs
back into~ the wards.
Heat Radiated from Coils in the Blower Svstem. -The committee
on Fan-blast Heating, of ti:e A. S. H. V. F., ini?O9, gives the following
formula for amliunt of heat radiated from hot-blast coils with different
velocities of air passing through the heater: E=B.T.G. per sq. ft. of sllr-
face per hour per degree of difference betisn the average temperattIre of
the air and the steam temperature,, = -J/4, in which T= velocity of the
air throllgh the free area of the cm1 in feet per second. A plotted curve
of 20 tests of different hea.ters shows that the formula represents the aver-
age results, but individuai tests show a wide va,riat,ion from the average,
thus: For velocity 1000 ft. per min., average 9 B.T.U., range 7.5 to 11;
1600 ft. per min., average 10.4, range 9.5 to 12.
The committee also gives the following formula for the rise in tem-
perature of each two-row section of a coil:
CT,-T,;X HX E
R= .- -~
A X Y,, X W X 60 X 0.2377 '
In which R = degrees F. rise for each two-row section: T, = tem-
perature of steam: T,=temperature of air; H = square feet of sur-
face in two-row section: E = B.T.U. per degree difference between air
and steam; E = d/4$, in which Vs = air velocity in ft. per sec.:
j A = atea through heater in sq. ft.: V m = ve!ocit.y of air in ft. per min.:
w = weight of 1 cu. ft. of air, ibs.
The value of R is computed for each two-row section in a coil. and the
results added. From a set of curves plotted from the formula the follow-
ing figures are taken.
Steam, Nibs. V = 1206.. . . .
Steam, 60 lbs V* = 1 800. . 1. .
Steam, 5 lbs V", = 1'200.. .
, : ~ haq 5 Ibs: Vm = 1:800...:..
Number of Rows.
4 1 8 1 12 1 16 1 20 ! 24 ' 28
Temperature Rise, Degrees.
~18 f or the ri se i q te
hot-blast heater is gi
mperature of air in passing throueh the
ven by E. F. Child in The Metal W,orke?.
5 1907, m foqws: R= KDZrn:< -6 w in Which R= rise in
~~_..
! material may no longer .b& accurate
,~, ~, ,,,,,
6S0 HEATING AND VENTILATION.
temperature of the air: K = a constant depending on the kind of heat-
ing surface; D = an av.er:bge of the summation of temperature differ-
ences between the air and the steam = (TI- To) i log, [( TS - To) +
(2. - TI)]: 2 = number of sq. ft. of hearing surface per sq. ft. of clear
area per unit depth of heater. m = a power applicable to Z-and depend-
ing on the type of heating surface:
heater: V = velocity of t.he ai1 at
.V = number of units in depth of
70 F. in ft. per min. through t he cl ear
area: n = a root applicable to 1 and depcndin< o:, csperiment.
For practical purpcses and within the range of present knowledge on
the subject the formula may be written B = 0.85 DZ.V i VT, and-from
this formula wivith TS = 227 and To = 0. with different val ues of 21. the
temperature of the air leaving the coils, a set of curves is plotted, from
which t,he figures in the follo~vlng table arc t~aken.
Sq. ft. of heating surface f sq. ft. free area through heater.
Velocity,
Ft. per Mi n.
20 ( 30 1 40 1 50 ( 60 / 70 1 80 ) 90 ( 100 ) I20
c Rise in Temuerature. Decrrees F.
500 . . . ..___. 1 43 63 5
BX.......... 38 55
itlO@ ._ _. . 36
IZOO.......... 34
zooo. . . . . 29
5 1 ij ; 1 !!I q Ii iii kJ 11
I I
Burt S. Harrison (rft_a. and V&g. Mag., Oct. and Nov., 1907) gives the
fellon-ingformula. R =L CF - -AL
\3/t7\a
~-cJ S,;V+ 0.2-1
in which r=temp. of steam
in coils. t=temp. of air entering coils, V=velocitr of air throu+ coils in
ft.. per sec.. A-v= no. of rows of l-in. pipe in depth of heater. ?%arts are
mren by means of which heaters may be designed for any set of con-
di t i ons.
Tests of Cast-iron Heaters for Hot-blast Work. - An extensive
SW+ of test,s of the Amer. Radiator Cos
** Vento cast-iron heater is
described by Theo. Weinshank in Trans. A: S. HI . V. I ?., 1908.
were made under the supervision of Prof. J. H. Kin&y.
The tests
results are aven below.
The principal
TESTS OF A VENTO CAST-IRON HEATER.
Number of sections heater is
_ deep.
j Sumber of sections heater is
I deep.
Vel 0ci t . y.
5/6jlj2/3/4/5/6
,
iHeat units transmitted per
saizre foot of hestine surface
temperat,ure of air fo,
ent velocities of air.
T;;;;I :h p d Per our er egree &ff&ence
r differ-
between the temperature of
the steam and the mean tern-
I Denture of the nir.
~~A~~~~~: This is a 1910 edition.
SomeF
TEE BLOWER SYSTEM OF HEATING.
681
TESTS OF A VENTO CABT-IRON HEATER. - Continued
-
Velocity,
Final temperature, z. of air
when entering heater at 0 F.
ft. per mm. Temperature of steam in
Friction 10s.~ in inches of water
heater. 227O.
due to the sections.
1600.....
I%:::::
1300..
IZOO.....
Iloo.....
IOOO.....
900.....
aoo..... ,...
26.5 51.Oi
28.1 52.4
29.5 53.8
31.1 55.0
32.4 56.4
34.0 57.7
35.6 59.1
36.9 60.1
30.5 61.6
Formulae. --s = no. of sections: V = velocity, ft. per min.. air measured
at. 70: k = rise of temp. per degree difference; t = final temperature.
/ = friction loss i;Eio;f water. t = 454 k + (E + k). k = s (0.167 -
;z;;i;;;$ry). f=(O.Ss + 0.2) (V/4000)*. Values of k and
e I
Factory Heating by the Fan System.
In factories where the space provided per operative is large, n-arm air
is recirculated, sufficient air for ventilation being provided by leakage
through the walls and windows. The air is commonly heated by steam
coils furnished with exhaust steam from the factory engine. When the
engine is not running, or when it does not supply enough exhaust steam
for the purpose, steam from the boilers is admitted to the coils through
a. reducing valve. The following proportions are commonly used in de-
ragrung. Coils, pipes l-in., set Zl/s in. centers: free area th-rough coils.
40% of cross area. Velocity of air through free area, 1200 to lSO0 ft.
Per min.: number of soils in series 8 to 20: circumferential speed of fan.
4000 to 6000 ft. per min.: temperature of air leaving coils, 120 to 160
P.: @ocity of air at outlet of coil stack, 3000 to 4000 ft. per min.: veloc-
$;g. branch pipes, 2000 to 2800 ft., the lower velocities in the longest
?n ~factorles in which mechanical ventilation as well as heating is re-
1
mred, outlet flues at proper points must be provided, to avoid the neces-
t
eitier by exhaust fans orby steam coils in the f l ues.
of opening windows and the outflow of air in them may be assisted
Cooling Air for Ventilation.
e material tidy no lon@r . be accurate,
PERFORMANCE OF HE;ITING GUAR.4NTEE.
683
Capacities of Fans or Blowars for Hot-blast or Plenum Beating --
682 HEATING AND VENTILATION.
and the B.T.U. abstracted in cooling the remaining vapor from 82 to
7Y is 0.0167 X (1095.6 - 1091.2) = 0.073 B.T.U. The sum
B.T.N.. is more than three times that required to cool the dry
7.251
82O to 72O. Espressing these principles in formulae we have:
air from
Let 21 = origical and 2~ the final temperature of the air.
a = vapor in 1 ib. saturated air at 21; b = do. at 22.
H = r&rive humiditv of the air at TI; h = desired do. at Tz.
C = total kat. in B.I.U.. in 1 lb. vapor a: TI ; u = do. at Tz,
w = total heat in water at Tz.
Then total brat abstracted in cooling air from TI to T? = (aH - bh) x
(Lr - u~f i bh-(L - .u) + 0.2373 (TI - Tz). or aHC - bhu - (aH -
,:~w f 0.23ia (TI - T-Z), or aR (V - 7uj - bh (u - w) + 0.2375 (TI -
*
E?C+PLE. - Fequired the amount of heat to be abstracted per hour
in coohng the air for an audience chamber containing 1000 persons
1.500 cu. ft. (measured at 70 F.), being supplied per person per hour
the temperature of the air before cool i ng being 82.
ity SO!&. and after cooling 72. with humidity 7070.
with reintive humid:
i
I
1055
I %
I sr Ot
%
399f
50. 25
632:
7561
1000 x 1500 = 1,500,OOO cu. ft., at 0.075 lb. per cu. ft.
= 112,500 lbs.
Forllb.aH(Cr--)-bh(u--)+0.2375(Tt-TT?).
0. 0235 X 03 X (1095.6 - 40) - 0.0167 0.7 X X -
+ 2.375 = 9.932 B.T.U.
(1091.2 40)
112,500 X 9.932 = 1.061.100 B.T.U.
Taking 142 B.T.U. as the latent heat of melting ice. this amount is
equivairnt 10 t,he heat that would melt 7472 Ibs. of ice per hour.
See also paper bx W. W. Macon. Trans. A. S. H. V. E.. 1909. and
cooling of the Sew York Stock Exchange, Eng. Rec.. April, 1905, and
Air-
J i ei al Worker, Aug. 5, 1905.
The
Capacities ot Fans or Blowers for Hot-Blast or Plenum Heat.ing.
(Computed by F. Ii. Stili. American Blower CD.. Detroit, Mich.)
Temnerature of fresh air, 0: of air from coils, 120; of steam, 227;
Pressure of I
Periphera.
24: deoth of rb~~.V%&&&, _. II
steam. 5 Ibs.
1 vel nri tv of fan-tips 4000 ft.: number of pipes deep in coil,
,P- ~~r~i\.of coils approximately twice free area.
,s and Heated Chimneys for Ventila-
,ZS. ;1. S. M. E. vii. 531. gives a theoretical
kelkive Efflciencg of Fan
tion. - W. I?. Trowbridge, ?rczi~ .~.
solution of the relative amounts of heat espended to remove a @ven
volume of imnnre air bv a fan and by a chimney.
Assuming the total
kliciency of a fan to be only l/~s.,which is made up of aI? efficiency of %I
for the engine s/lo for the fan Itself, and s/lo for efficiency as regards
friction the fah requires an expenditure of heat to dnve It of only.% of
the amAunt that would be required to produce the same Vent.l!atlOn by
:a chimnev loo ft. high.
For a chimney 500 ft. high the fan !%?I1 be 7.6
times mote efficient.-
The following figures are given by Atkinson (Coil. EQ7r., lSe9j: shcw-
ing the minimum depth at which a furnace would be equa! to a ventlia+g-
machine assuming that the sources of loss are the,same In each.case. .Z.e.,
that theloss of fuel in a furnace from the cooling In t.he upcast 1s eq?!va-
lent to the poy.wr expended in overcoming the friction 111 the msCnln%
and also assuming tGat the ventilating-machine utilizes 60 per cent of the
en&e-power. The coal consumption of the engine per I.H.P. 1s taken
at 6 lbs. per hour.
Average temperature in upcast . . lOOa F. 150" F. 200= F.
Minimum depth for equal economy..
960 yards. 1040 yards. 1130 yards.
PERFORMAWE OF HEATING GUARANTEE.
Reatlno a Building to yjO F. Inside when the Outst.de Tempera-
are is z&o. - It is customary in some contracts for: heatmg to guaran-
tee that the apparatus will heat the interior of the bclldlng to 70 in zero
weather. As it mav not be practicable to obtain Zero weather for the
Purpose of a test it may be difficult to prove the Perfoipnnc$ of the
guarantee unless in equi val ent test may be made whep the o.itslde tem-
ture is above zero heat,ing the building to a tigher temperature
0. The follow& method was proposed by the author (sng. Rec.*
,s.-w,~-~,.~~h
a
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition~i
2 material may no longer.be accurate Some of
HEATING AND VENTIL.4TION.
Aug. 11. IYU) for determining to what temperature the rooms shou
be heakd for various temperatures of the autside atmosphere and of t:
steam or hot water in the radiators.
Let S = sq. ft. of surface of the steam or hot-water radiator;
IV = sq. ft. of surface of exposed wal!s. windows etc..
ZS = temp. of the steam or hot water, Z,= temp.
of inside
building or room, To = temp. of witside of b~~ilding or roar
(1 = llwt-units transmitted per sq. ft,. of slirfac:e of radiator p
hour per degree of difference of temperature.
o = average heat-units transmitted per sq. ft. of &ills per ho1
per degree of difference of temperature, including allo\
ante for ventilation.
It is assumed .that Within the range of temperatures considered Nev
ton s law of ~oolln; holds good. viz., that it is proportional to the dlife
ence 01 temperature between the two sides of the radiating-surface.
Then oS(T, - Zi) = bli (Zi - To). Let 3 = C; then
Ts + CT,
Ts - T,=C (Ta- To): Tl= 1+ c Ts - 71
= T2 - To
If TI = 50, and To = 0. C =
T~v - 70
711 .
Let TS = 1.W
1600 lS60 000 212
Then (7 = 1
2200 2500 300
I.256 1.X1 1.83 2.029 2.143 2.571 3.28
and from the formula Tz= (T,+ CTO) + (1 + c) we find the insld
temperatures corresponding t,o +h- I.
should be prorlucrd by an P nrrn~
~51~ oven values
-rrYcatus caps
of T,i and T, whicl
70 in zero weather.
Me of heating the building t,
For To= -20 - 10 0 10 20 30
4no fi
For Ts = I .&O0F. 6n
Inside Temperatures T,.
6.5
-- -
-
160 jG.7
1sn
G.3
70
70 57.8 ;&i
70
:z.;
200 57.0 76.1 94.:
212
;;I?
56.6 63.; 7: 76.5 96. I
220 56.4 250 63.2 76.7 83.4 i0 90.1 5.5.6
300 62.5
76.5
54.7
62.4
;o z 2::
90.5 Et
91.6 98.;
I 85.3 w I) Inn,;
J. Ii. .M$n (Trmw. .A. S. H. V. E., 1905) develops a complex formula
for the UP+? temPerature which takes into consideratlonthe fact thal
the roeffkient of transmission
creases with the temperature.
of the mdiator is not constant but in.
radiat~or he fmds for T,, =
-20
Rith T,=z?~ and a two-column
- 10
cast-irnn
Tl= 55
0 10
64 70
20 30 40
For all values of To between
77.5 83 90 97
degree of those computed by the authors method.
- IO and 40 these figures are within one
ELECTRICAL HEATING.
dynamn sven by a steam-engine, electric heating will prove very ex-
~eaiinlg.by E!c&icity. - If the electric currents are generated by 8
radiation about !JO% of the heat-units stipplied to it.
pentsive. smce the steam-engine wastes in the exhaust-steam and by
In direct steam-
hearing, nit11 a good boiler and properly covered supply-pipes we can
u!illse about 60% of the tot~al heat value of the fuel.
One pound of coal,
about I:LOO(J x 6.66 = 7800 heat-units.
with a heating value of 13.000 heat-units, would supply to the radiators
coal burned per hour.
have a first-class condensing-engine developing I H.P for e;ery 2 ibs of
In elect,ric heating suppose we
This would be equivalent to i,gso.ooO ft.-lbs.
__.._.~~._ ,..,. ._,..,
blARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some-of
MINE-VENTILATION.
778 = 9545 heat-units, or 1272 heat-units for 1 lb. of coal.
The friction
of the &gine and of the dynamo anTI the loss hy electric leakage and
by heat ,radlution from the conductinb
* wires might reduce the heat-
units delIvered as electric current to the electric rsdi;ltor. and there con-
verted into heat. to SOG/, of this, or only 636 heat-un!ts. or less than one
twelfth of that delivered to the steam-radiators in direct steam-heating.
Electric heating,
therefore, will prove uneconommal unless the e,@trm
curre,,t 1s derived from water or ,wind power wluch would otherwse be
,custed. (&x Electric:il Engineering.)
. I . z- I- T-..,l,.rnr,., A ~~=~~.~es. -In ventilating a mine or
JQictlon 01 n2r 111 I~IIuFI~A,,~-~~~ - ..- _-_-
other underground passage the
resistance to be overcome is, accor$ig
lo most writers on the subJect, proportional to the extent of the .tri,-
tional surface exposed; that IS,
to the product lo of the length of the g&m.-
..:* XT hv its oerimeter, to Phe density of the air in circu!atlon, to the
s ali; ;L13& lo a coefficient I;. whose numer-
.1.,:1:1,, ,,l,,L tdthe nature of the sides of the gangvray and
-.-----~ -
$iirregularlties of Its course.
The formula for the loss of head, neglecting the variation in density as
.3nimnortant. is p = I;s,
m which p = loss of pressure in pounds per
y .-.-. r.~.~
square foot, s = squareufeet of rubbing-surface ex
velocity of the air in feet per minute, a the area o
P
osed to the air. r the
the passage ln square
feet and k the coefficient of frlCtiOn.
W. Fairley, in Colliery Engineer.
act: and Nov. 1893. gives the following formuhe for all the quantities
involved using the same notation as the aboye, with these addttions:
ji = horse-power of vemilstion; 1 = length of a!r-channel : 0 = perimeter
of ah-channel q =, quantity of air circulatlnr in cubic feet per I nl UUt e;
n = units of \Gorl<, in foot-pounds, applied to circuhtte the air; w = water-
gauge in inches.
Then,
-
1. a+";+-"~~-k@!&;+
u
5.2 *to
2.
-qp=----.
h = 33,000 33,000 33,000
u 5.2 w
3. k=g2=,,=svt,a= &-$i 0
4 l==g,
0 !%VZO
. s pa
5. O=i =& f i
ksv2 u
6. p=y=i=
5.5 w =
7. pa = ksv2=
ksv2q
lo. u = qp = vpa = 7 =
ks,j3 = 5.2qw = 33,OOOh.
A
WA';'ER.
6%
motive Column or the Head of Air Due to Differences of Tem-
perature, etc.
(Fairley.)
Let M = motive column in feet:
T = temperature of upcast;
/ = weight of one cubic foot of.the flO%ing air;
t = temperature of downcast;
D = depth of downcast.
Then
T-i
Ai= DTX50r
To find diameter of a round airway to pass the same amount of air as a
the lenoth and power remalnlng the Same:
sq$~~~a$<ameter zf round airway, B = are& of squar e airway; 0=
perimeter of square airxay. Then Da=
If two fans are employed to ventilate a.mine, ,each of which,mhen
worked separately produces a cert$n quantity. wluch may be mdlcsted
by A and B, then the quantity of a,r that \nll pass when the two fans are
worked together will tie q + B3.
(For mine-ventilating fans, see
page 644.)
WATER.
Expansion of Water.
- The following teb!e gives. the. relztive vol-
umes of water at different temperatures, compared with Its volume at
4 C. accordipg to Iiopp. as corrected by Porter.
Zent . IFahr.1 Volume. (Cent. IF Cent. Fahr.1 Volume.
--I
ahr. Vol ume.
-
I
6S6 HEATING AND V~JTILATIQN.
J3 v2=I=4P=!!E!$
ks ks ks
P ksv=
14. W=57==5.3
To find the quantity of air with a given horse-power and efficiency (e)
of enein;ir
rl = h x 33.000 x e .
I >
r
The value of k, the coefficient of friction, as stated, varies according to
the nabure of the sides of the gangway.
Widely divergent values have
been given by different authorities (see Colliery Engineer. Nov., lS93) the
most generally accepted one until recently being probably thst of j. J.
Atkinson, .0000000217. which is the pressure per square fdot in decimals
of ;I pound for each squa!e foot of rubbing-surface and a velocity of one
foot per mmute.
Coa!-mines.
Ur. Falrley. m his Theory and Practice of Ventilating
. aves a value less than half of Atkinsons or .00000001; and
recent esperlment,s by D. Blurgue show t,hat even this value is high under
most , condit,ions. Murrues results are given in his paper on Experl-
mental Investigations in tfle Loss of Head of Air-currents in Under-
grou~?~ Fc-prliings, T~zns..-4. I. M. E., lS93..voI. xxiii. 63.
His coefficients
are @ven In the following table, as determmed in twelve experiments:
Coefficient of Loss of
Head bv Friction.
French. ~ BI
i.cmO? nnn nt
. * n&h.
Rock.
Stralgnt, normal sectlon. _ . . _ _ . _--_-_ . y,\I 30.00486
gangways.
Straight, normal section.. . . . _ .
St~ralght. large sectIon.. . . _ _
.00094 .000.000.00497
I Straight. normal section.
. nni n4 . nnnnnnnns4g
/ : , . - - - - - - - - - . - - . - - - - -
Brick-lined
~Straliht. normal section. . . .
nnt w
..,45
nnn nnn nnk
Stritl$ht. normal section. .
. 00030 . 000. 000, 00158
nnnx nnn nnn nm 9~
gangmys. 1 &j Gj i
_ now6
: i j ~~: ~~~: ~&$j
I Straipht. normal section.
. nnnnnnnnvql
~nnl w ..I_ nnn nnr , on*&
. U,V,U
arched
small section.. _
.00144 .000.000,007~~
. 00235 . 000. 000. 01257
40 39. 10
1; 41 50 I
I 5 59
: i $
30 86 ,The French coefficients which are given by Murgue represent the hei vht
:er-gauze in millimeters for each SO&W m~t.pr nf r~lhhino
^V . ..^a
and a veiority of one meter per second.
-_ -IYu...d-surface
%o convert them to the British
measure of pounds per square Foote for each square foot of rubbing-surface
and a veiocity of one foot per minute they have been multiplied by the
f+ctor of conversion, .00000525X
For a velocitv of 1000 feet per minute,
s!nce the loss of hea,a varies as G. move the decimal point in the coefficients
SIX places t.o the right.
zEquiyalent Orifice. -The head absorbed by the working-chambers
01 a mine cannot be computed a primi, because the openings cross-
passages. lxegular-shaped gob-piles, and dally changes in the size and
shape of the chambers present much too complicated a network for accu-
xzte analysis.
2CY.C A-
In order to overcome this difficult,v M!lrelle proposed in
L
Weight of 1 cue f t . at 39.1 F. = 62.4245 ID. i 1.04332 = 59.833.
weight-of 1 cu. ft. & %2F.
Weight of Water at Different Temperatures. -The Tvekht. of
water at maximum density, 39.1.
1s generally taken at the, figure oven
by Ranklne, 62.425 Ibs. per cubi c foot..
Some authqrlties @v,e. as.l.ow as
cz.379. The figure 62.5 commonly given is approslmate. lne mghest
authoritative figure is 62.425.
At 62 F. the figures range from 62.291 to
62.360. The figure 62.355 is generally accepted as the most accurate.
At 320 F figures given by different writers range from 62.379 t0 62.418.
Hamilton Smith, Jr. (from Rosetti) gives 62.416.
. . . ~~~.
Weight of Water at Tempel&Ures above 200 F. (LanaoLt ana
Y.--L^:..,^ Tnhlno ronr. \
* . .
he met.hod of euui ual ent ot i f i cn~Thi s mPt . hnd kxi , i
l7l.L !
-_-- ___ -..- y --... ,-.s iti
iW F?r the mine to-be co&i&~ the
stibstitut-
e uivalent
2.
thin-lipped orifice.
req+-mrr_xe same height of head for the lsrhsree nf a. , equal volume
Lbs.
Lbs!
z lkg. ;P; Dp.
I I
Ft: . Ft..
-- --
53. 0 480 49. 7 550
52. 6 490 49. 2 560
52. 2 500 48. 7 570
51. 7 510 48. 1 580
Lbs.
~~
Ft:
45. 6
44. 9
44. 1
43. 3
: : : i
or illr.
-c- - -_.
The area of this orifice is obtained when tha ha-
charge are known, by means of the following formula:. I
Let Q = -..-
_-
- -----1
)I,,~ntit,i of a.ir in tlnousands of cubic feet per minrlta.
w = Inches of water-~auee:
..- ..%-d and the dis-
!. as eiven bv Fairlev:
50. 2 540 46. 3
A = area in square feet of erruivalent orifice.
Then
A=Y=
,$f :* Q= A ;; ; w=O.1369 x(;).
* &rgue av: A= 3, and Norris A = oy. se; page 644, ,,&.;~!i
w .
WARNING: This is a-~1910 &iition.
Some-of
I I I
@ -
LA. , I , , , . _- 1
e ma-&al may no lonser.be-accurate *
Weight of Water per Cubic Foot, from 32 to 212F.. and heat.
units per pound. reckoned above 3Y F.: The figures for wei
in following t abl e. made by interpolating the table given by
ht of water
6 lark as cal-
culated from Rankinrs formula, with corrections for apparent errors, was
I)
ublished bv t he aut hor in 1884. Tran,s. A. S. M. E.. vi. 90.
or heat uniis are from Xarks and Daviss Steam Tables. 1909.
The figures
61. 681 90. 90 168
61. 67 91. 90 169
61. 65 92. 90 170
61. 63q 93. 90 171
61. 61' 94. 89 172
61. 60 95. 89 173
61. 58 96. 89 174
61. 56 97. 89 I 75
61. 541 98. 89 176
61. 521 99. 88 177
61. 51 100. 88 178
61. 49! 101 88 179
61. 471102; 88 180
61. 451103. 88 I 81
61. 43: 104. 87 182
61. 41/ 105. 87 183
61. 39/ 106. 87 184
61. 37' 107. 87 185
61. 361108 87 186
61. 34! 109: 87 187
61. 321110. 87 I 88
61. 30~111. 87 189
61. 2Ri l 12. 86 190
61. 26j l l 3. 86 I 91
61. 24~114. 86 I 92
61. 22i l l 5. 86 193
61. 20/ 116. 86 194
61. 18' 117. 86 195
6l . ! 6/ 118. 86 i 96
61. 14/ 119. 86 197
6l . l Z, i 20. 86 198
61. 101121. E% 199
61. 08~122. 86 200
6l . Ob~I 23. 86 201
61. 04~124. 86 202
61. 02, 125. 86 203
61. 00 126. 86 204
60. 98 127. 86 205
60. 96 128. 86 206
60. 94 129. 86 207
60. 92. 130. %6 208
60. 9Ol l 31. 86 209
60. 87! I 32. 86 2! 0
60. 85' 133. 86 211
60. 83 134. 86 212
60. 81 135. 86
60. 79 136. 86
60. 77 137. 87
60. 75 138. 87
60. 73/ 139. 87
60. 70 140. 87
60. 68 141. 87
60. 66 142. 87
60. 64 143. 87
60. 62 144. 88
60. 591145. 68
60. 57 146. 88
60. 55 147. 88
60. 53 148. 88
60. 50 149. 89
60. 48150. 89
60. 46 151. 89
60. 44 152. 89
60. 41' 153. 89
60. 39 154. 90
60. 37 155. 90
FL. 34 156. 90
60. 32 157. 91
h0. 291158. 91
60. 271159. 91
60. 25 160. 91
60.22 161. 92
60. 20 162. 92
60. I 7 163. 92
60. 15 164. 93
50. 12 165. 93
50. 10 166. 94
50.07 167.94
50. 05 168. 94
50. 02 169. 95
50. 00 170. 95
59. 97 171. 96
59. 95 172. 95
59. 92 173. 97
59. 89 174. 97
%; i ; ; E; ~
59. 79 178. 99
59. 76 180. 00
It of water which differ in the
above, as follows:
WATER.
Comparison oi Aaads of Wate;zt%et with Pressures in Various
.
Ooe,foot of w;tter at 39.1,Fahr. = 62.425 lbs. on the square foot:
= 0.4335 Ibs. on the square Inch;
1. .I
(* = 0.0293 atmosphere:
0 6. 6%
= 0.88% inch of mercury at. 30:
II 6, 6. I fret of air at 3Y and
= 773.3 1 atmo;pheric pressure;
fin0 ah nn t. h, =WIHWP foot. at 39.1 Fahr . -.. .._ .__ .._.. .--., ~~~
nie ii;: on the square inch at 39.1 Fahr
! in. of mercury
One lb. of water on the square ioch ?t 62 E
One ounce of water on the square mch at
0.0160~2 foot of mater:
2.307 feet of water;
33.9 feet of water:
1.133 feet of water:
0.001293 feet of water:
1.026 foot of pure water;
62. : 3. %lbs. per sq. foot;
0.43302 lb. per sq. inch:
0.036085 l b. per sq. inch;
2.3094 feet of water.
1.732 inches of water.
Pressure III Pounds er Square Inch for Different Heads o! Water.
At 62 F. 1 foot heat = 0. 433 l b. per square inch, 0.433 X 144 = 62.352
___ --
Ibs. per cubic-foot.
kad in Feet of Water, Corresponding to Pressures in Pounds per
_ Square Inch.
1 lb. per square inch = 2.30947 feet head, 1 atmosphere = 14.7 lbs.
per sq. inch = 33.94 ft. head.
0
i i
30
40
50
60
70
E
he material tidy ho longer.be accurate'
WATER. THE IMPURITIES OF WATER.
P~~ESI I W or Wat er due to its Weight. y The pressure of stilly w+r:
in pounds per square inch against the sides of an
of any shape whatever is due solely to the
. . g(y?: ~&yghy$+~f;
level surface of the water above the point at which the pressure is con-
12 lb. per square inch for every foot of head,
d (at 6P F.).
gdered. and is equal to 0.433C
or 62.355 tbs. per square foot for every foot of hea
The pressure per square inch is equal in all diiections, downwards.
upwards. or sideways. and is independent of t~he shape or Size ot the
&ntaining vessel.
The pressure against a vertical surface, as ? retaining+all, at any
point is in direct ratio to the head above that pomt, IncreasIng from 0 at
the level surface to a maximum at the bottom. The total pressure
a=:,inst a vertical strip of a units breadth increases as the 8x3. of a
riuht-an&d triangle whose perpendicular represents the height of the
st?io and whose base represents the pressure on a unit of surface at the
botiom: that is. it increases as the square of the depth. The. sum of all
the horizontal pressures is represented by the area of the tnangle. and
the resultant of this sum is equal to this sum exerted at a point one t.hird
of the height from the bott.om. (The center of gravity of the area of a
triangle is one third of its height.)
The horizontal pressure is the same if the surface is inclined instead
of vertical.
(For an elaboration of these principles see Trautwinels PoFo,t-:z;$
or the chapter on Hydrostatics in any work on PhySlCS.
retaininq-walls, etc.. see Trautwine.)
The amount of oressure on the interior walls of a pipe has no appreci-
able ef;ect upon the amount Of flow.
R,,~xx~.-~. -When a bodv is immersed in a liauid. wh tether it float or
-----z r---a -
sink. it LS buoyed up by a force equal to tame wei& of the bulk of the
liquid displaced by t.he body. The weight ,f a floating body is equal t o
the weight of the bulk of the liquid ti.at it displaces. The upward
f the liquid may be regarded as exerted at the
displaced water, which is called the r+$r -of
pressure or buoyancy 0:
center of gravity of the
nr~wm= or of huovancv. .i vertical line drawn through it ir
gil;iii buoy~ncyb*r~of~iiotation.
In a floating body at rest a line joining
PF nf hnnr-nnryisvert.ical. and is called
,,~Ct: caiises ihe il.US a:
the cent~er of grjvitg and the centL. -_ ---., I__.
the axis of equilibrium. When an ext.ernai
equilibrium to lean. if a vertical line be drawn upward from the center
of bnoyancy to this axis. the point. where it cut s t , he axis 1s called the
7l~etfrrenier. If the metacenter is above the renter of eravity the distance
beisveen them is called the metacentric height, and the body is t.hen sai d
t,o be in stable eonilibrium. tending Tao return to its original position
when the external -force is removed.
Boiling-point. - Water boils at 21Y F. (lOOa C.) at mean atmos-
Dheric pressure at the sea-level. 14.696 lba. per square inch. The tem-
jerature at which water boils at any glren pressure is the same as !he
temperature of saturated steam at the same pressure. For bmhng-pomt
of water at other pressure than 14.696 lbs. per square inch, see table Of
the Properties of Saturated Steam.
Tlte Boiling-point of $Vater may be Raised. -When water 1s
entir&v freed of air, which may be accomplished by freezing or bmhng.
the coheion of its atoms is greatly increased. so that it,s temperature
may be raised over 50 above the ordinary boiling-point before ebulht.on
take? place. It was found by ljara,day that when such air-freed water
did boll the rupture fi:f the hqm< was. ljke an explosion.
:s s::r:ounded by a . ..m of OL.
Wh;: ,v$.
its hoihng temperature may
considerably above its normal standa.rd. This has been applied as a
theoretical explanation in the instance of boiler explosions.
The freezing-point also may be lowered, if the water is perfectly quiet,
to -loo C.. or lS Fahrenheit below the normal freezing-point. (Hamilton
Smith. Jr.. on Hydraulics, p. 13.)
Freezing-point. - Water freezes at 32 F. at the ordinary atmpp
pheric pressure, and ice melts at the same temperature. In the melting
of I pound of ice into water at 32 F. about 142 heat-units are absorbed,
or become latent; and in freezing 1 lb. of water into ice a like quantity
of heat is given out bo the surroundin: medium.
Sea-water freezes at 27 F. The ice is fresh. (Trautwine.)
WARNING: This is a
1910 edition.
Jre and Snow. (From Clark.) - 1 cubic font of ice at 3? F. weighs
57.5! Ibs.: 1 pound of ice at 32 F. has a volume of 0.0174 cu. ft.=30.067
c u. m.
Relative volume of ice to water .at 32 F., 1.0855, the expansion in
passlng into the solid state being 8.55%. Specific gravity of ice = 0.922,
water aG 62 F. being i.
At h&h pre$sures the melting-point of ice is lower than 32 F.. bei ng at
the rate of O.OLRY F. for each additionnl atmosphere of pressure.
The .-pecific heat of ice is 0.X+. bhat, of water beim! 1.
1 cubic foot of fresh snow, according to humidity of at~mosphere:
5 tbs. to 12 lbs. 1 cubic foot of snow moistened and compacted by
rain: 15 lbs. to 50 lbs. (Trautwine.)
8peciflc Heat of Water. (From Davis and Xarkss Steam Tables.)
DFS.
SW 2
SP.
Ht. HI.
* ::
$
60
70
E
100
110
T
)eg. Sp.
F. Ht,.
220 . I . 007
230 1. 009
240 1. 012
250 l . Ol j
260 1. 018
27G 1. 021
280 I . 023
290 1. 026
300 1. 029
310 1. 032
Deg. Fg D; . g. SP.
F. Ht.
320 1. 035 420 1. 072
330 I . 038 430 1. 077
340 I . 041 440 1. 082
350 1. 045 450 1. 086
360 1. 048 46G I . 091
370 1. 052 470 1. 096
380 1. 056 480 I . 101
390 1. 060 490 I . 106
400 1. 064 500 I . 112
410 1. 068 510 ! . I 17
Fs. sp- . Ht.
520 1. 123
530 1. 128
2 %
56J l 1. 146
570 I . 152
: : %
600 1. 172
These figures are based on the mean value of the heat unit, t hat is.
Gso of the heat needed to raise 1 lb. of water from 32 tb 212.
Compressibi!i?y of Water. -Water is very slightly compressible.
Its compressibility is from 0.000040 to 0.000051 for one atmospllefe.
decreasing with increase of temperature. For each foot of pressure dx+
tilled water will be diminished in volume 0.0000015 to 3.0000013. Water
is so incompressible that even at a depth of a mile a cnbic foot of water
will weigh only about half a pound more than at the surface.
THE INPURITJES OF WATER.
(A. E. Hunt and G. H, Cla.pp, Trans. A. I . M. E.. xvii. 338.)
Commercial analyses aremade to determine concerning a given water:
(1) it,s applicabilit? for making steam: (2) its hardness, or the facility
with which it will form a lather necessary for washing; or (3) Its
adaptation to other manufacturing purposes.
At the Buffalo meeting of the Chemical Sect,ion of the A. A. A. S. lt
was decided t.o re ort all water analyses in parts per thousand, hnndred-
thousand and m&ion
TO convert grains per imperial (British) gallon into parts per 100.000,
dhkie by 0.7. To convert parts per 100,000 into grains pe.r U. S. gallon.
multiply by 0.5835. To convert grains per U. S. gallon into Parts Per
rnillion multiply by 17.14.
most common commercial analysis of water is made to determine
ss Water containing more th;qn 5 parts.Per
of
for making steam.
free sulphuric or nitric acid is liable to cause seI?ous cOr:osmn.
metal of the boiler itself, but of the pipes, cyhnders, pistons.
h which the steam comes in contact.
he total residue in water used for making steam causes the interior
s of boilers to become coated, and often produces a dangerous hard
;- ~-,
may no lonjer . be accwatl b'
THE fMPURITIEY OF WATER. 693
Analyses of Boiler-scale. (Chandler.)
WATER.
scale. which p:events the cooling action of the water from protecting
the metal against burning.
Lime and magnesia bicarbonates in water lose their excess of carbonic acid
on hoiling. and often, especially when the water c~ontains suiphuric acid
produce. wi.h the other solid residues constantly being formed by th;
evaporation. a very hard and insoluble scale. A larger amount than 100
psrrs per 100.000 of total so!id residue will ordinarily cause troublesone
scale. and sholdrl condemn the water for use in steam-boilers, unless a
bet,ter supply caunot be olnained.
The following is a tabulated form of the causes of trouble with water
for steam purposes, and the proposed remedies, given by Proi. L. hi.
Ziorton.
CAUSES OF INCRUSTATION.
Hag-
iesia.
jilica.
Per-
xxide
of
rrrm.
Car -
rater. boofate
i Lime.
9. 19
18. 95
31. 17
2. 61
2. 84
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
0. 65
I . 76
Z!
: : : +
2. 07
0. 65
2. 92
8. 24
,.....
0. 92
%
0. 36
1. Deposition of suspended matter.
3. Deposition of deposed salts from concentration.
3. Deposition of carbonates of lime and magnesia by boiling OR
carbonic acid. which holds them in Solution.
4. Deposition of sulphates of !ime. because sulphate of lime is bu:
slightly; sol ubl e in cold water, less sol ubl e in hot water. insoluble above
2701 I ?.
Aoalyscs in parts per 100,000 of Water giVin?Z Bad Results in
Steam-boilers. (A. E. Hunt.)
5. i&position of magnesia, because magnesium salts decompose at high
temperature.
6. Deposition of lime soap, iron soap, etc., formed by saponification of
grease.
MEANS FOR PREVENTING INCRUSTATION.
1. Filtration.
2. Blowing off.
3. Cse of internal collecting apparatus or devices for directing tt?
circuta.tion.
4. Heating feed-water.
-
ti
2
$.
.s
8
2
-
3(
2
I I
.
.
-
64
!
t
.
.
.
-
-
b
1
3
zi
i;
m
2
0
E
v
-
.
13::
. . . .
. . .
. . . .
. . .
-
-.
i9
I8
*
.5. Chemical or other treatment of water in boiler.
6. Introduction of zinc into boiler.
7. Chemical treatment of water outside of boiler.
--
col- . a mme water. . . . . . II0 25
Salt-well. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1;; -5;
130 21
a4 6

. . . . . so 70 j
. __.
Alleg&y R., near Oii-works.
32 82
30 50
TABULAR VIEW.
Troublesome Substance. Trouble.
Sediment. mud. clay, etc.
Readily soluble sa~lts.
Incrqation, J
1
Bicarbonates of lime,
iron.
magnesia
-1 *
Sulpha~e of lime.
.
Chlorii and suiphate of mag- Corrosion,
I
nesium.
Carbonate of soda in large
I
amoun,s.
Acid <in mine waters).
1 g:it,;.
Dissolved carbonic acid and ]
oxygen.
Corrosion.
magnesia, etc.
Sddltion of carb. soda,
barium hydrate, etc.
Addition of carbonate Of
soda. etc.
Bddition of barium chls-
Grease from condensed water).
Organic matter (sewage).
r i de. et c.
Alkali.
Feed milk of lime to the
boiler. to form a thin is-
terual coating.
~!_
Many substances have been added with the idea of causing chemical
action which will prevent boiler-scale. As a general rule, these -do more
.,. harm than good for a boiler is one of the worst possible-places In which
to carry on chemical reaction, where it ne&ly always causes more or less
mrrosion of the metal and is liable to cause dangerous eXPloslons..
In cases where water containing large amounts of total sohd fes@ue is
a heavy
cids or a kalles, not having sufficient wax ln It-t0 CauSs P
etroleum oil, free from tar or walr, w.hrch 1s not
nd which has a vaporizing-point at nearlv 500
subs in preventing boiler-scale.
over the boiler linings, protecting them largely. from the
in the water and greasing the sediment which IS formed.
preventing the formation of scale and keeping the solid residue
oration of the water in such a plastic suspended condit?on
easi:y ejected from the boiler by the process of blpwlng
water 1s not blown off sufficiently. often. this Sediment
**putty that all1 neosssitate cleamng the boilers. AW
d water should be blown off every twelve hours.
.
,.- -._-.-. ~4 _~.~-~ .__,.,.., ~,. .-...., .,.~__ _,,,.,,. _~
! material may no longer . be accurate
.&
_ .The mineral matters causing the most t r onhl wome hni l er - scal es f l
hicarbonateS and sulphates of lime and magnesia oxi des of iron a@
alumina. and Siiica. The analyses of some of the most
common r od,
trouolesome bailer-scales are given in the following table:
- ,,.. _-~ -.., 2 .,,, ~,. -.,--. __~ ~.I_. ~.. .~.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Someof t' he
694 WATER.
Har dness or w at er . - The hardness of water, or its opposite quality
indicated by the ease with which it wil! form a lather with soap, depend;
almost altoget+her upon the presence of compounds of lime and magnesia,
almost all soaps consist,. chemically. of oleate. stearate. and palmitste of
an alkaline base, usually s3da and potash. The more lime and magnesia
in a sample of water. the more soap a given volume of the water will
decompose, so as to give insoluble oleate. palmitate. and stearate of
lime and maznesla. and corr.seqllcntly the more soap must be added in
order t~hat t$e necessary qnan!it,y of soap may remain in sol ut i on t o
form the @h?r. The relative hardness of samples of water is generally
expressed m terms of the number of standard soap-measures consumed
by a ga!!on of water in yielding a permacent lather.
In Great Britain the standard soap-measure is the quantity required to
precipita:e one gram of carbonate of lime: in the E. Y. it is the quantity
renuired Tao precioitate one millizramme.
if a w&r charged with a bicarbonate of lime, magnesia, c.
is boiled. it will. on the excess o f
iron
the carbonic acid being expelled
deposit a considerable qciantity of the lime, magnesia, or iron, and con:
sequencly the water will be softer. The hardness of the water after
this depo$t of lime, after long boiling, is called the permanenl hardness
and the difference between it and the total hardness is called lemporan~
hardness.
Lime salts in c-ater react immediately on soap-solutions.
tle olmte. palmitate. or stezrate of lime at once.
precipitating
Magnesia salt~s, on the
contrary. require some considerable time for reaction.
They are, how-
ever, more powerful hardeners: one equivalent of macnwis salts con-
summg as much soap as one and one-half equivalents of lime.
The Presence of soda and potash salts softens rat.her than hardens
!vat~er. Each grain of carbonate of lime per gallon of water causes an
Ixreased expenditure for soap of about 2 ounces per 100 gallons of Lvvitter.
(Engg Sews. Jan. 31. 18S5.)
Low degrees of hardness ((iown to 200 parts of calcium carbonate
(CsCQa) per million) are usually det,ermined by means of a standard
solution of s%p. To .50 C.C. of the water is added alcoholic soap solu-
tion ,from a .buret,te. shaking well after each addition, until a lather is
oht amed whi ch covers t,he entire surface of the liquid when the bottle is
laid on its side and which lasts five minutes. From the numt)er of cc.
of soap solution used. the hardness of the water mav be calculated by
the use of Clarks table, given below. in parts of CaC& per million.
-
C.C. Soap PiS.
Sol. CaCOa.
C.C. Soap Pts. 1c.c. Soap
cac03. / Sol.
Pts.
Sol.
CaCO3.
cc. Soap Pts.
Sol. CaCOa.
I I
/
0. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 4. 0 . . . . . . . . . . .
1. 0:
. . . 46 S. O. . . . . . . . . . . l O 3 lIZ.O............164
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5. 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 0 ~. O. : . . . . . . . . . I I P ' 13. 0. . . . . . . . . . . . 180
?. 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 ; 6. 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 , 10. 0. . . . . . . . . . . 13 3 14. 0. . . . . . . . . . . . 19 6
j - o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 ' 7. 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 . 11. 0: . . . . . . . . . . 14 8 15. 0. . . . . . . . . . . . 212
For waters which are harder than 200 parts per million. a solution of
soap ten times as stlong may be used, the end or determining point
bein
reached when sufficient soap has been added to deaden the harsh soun 8
p.roduced on shaking the bottle containing the water. - A. H. Gill, En-
gme-Room Chemistry.
Purifyixx Feed-mater for Stemkboiiers.
(SeL also Incrustatioa
and Corrosion~ no ~7 j - When the water used for steam-hniters eon-
tains a, large amount of sraik-forming material it is &&iiy Ldi$&&le t0
Punfy It before allowing it to~enter the boiler rather than to attempt the
prevention of scale by the
introdtlction of chemicals into the boiler.
Carbonates of lime and magnesia may be removed to a considerable~
extent by sim
heater or, still t!
le heating of the water in
an exhaust-steam feed-water
etter, by a live-steam heater.
hffg. co.. Springfield, 0.)
(See circular of the Hopp@
When the water is very bad it is best treat&
WARNI NG: This is a 1910 Edition.
Some- of . the
PURIFYING WATER
with chemicals - lime,, soda-ash, Taustic soda, etc. - in tanks,.the pre-
cipitates being separated by ,settl!ng or filtering. For ,a descnptlon of
several systems of w&ter punficatlon see a series of articles on the sub-
ject by Albert A. Cary m Eng 9 Mug., 1897.
Mr. H. E. Smith. cbcmist of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry.
co., in a letter to the aiiihor. June. 1902.
writes as follows concerning
the chemical action of sod&ash on the U ccale-forming substances in boiler
..
fo,low*
the Cal
lime and mapnesia: Anv means which will expel or absorb~ttlls CarbOnlC
nrid I\... _-_-_ .__ r
:i% ,;;6~<i,P nret4iGt.at.ion of the carbonates. Oae of th ,ese means
cd;1-w& acts on cartmnates of lime and mazncsia in boiler water in the
ing manner: -The carbonates are held in solution, by means of
.bonic acid gas also present which probab!y fornts l?x%r.bonayes Of
isoda ash (carbonaiebfsoda). &ch absorbs the gas with ti!e forma-
tion of bicarbocate of :soda. This method. would not be prsctlcable .fqr
softening cold water. but it serves in a b@er.. T;le (
tated in this manner arc in flocculent conthtlon instead or serm-crysK+me
as \%hen thrown down by heat. In practice it is desxabie and sufficient
to precipitate only a portion of the lime and magnesia in flocculent
condition. As to equations, the following represent what occurs: -
Cn (HCOJ) + Na&Oa = CaCOx + 2 NaHCOz.
Mg (HCOa) + Na?COs = MgCO3 + 2 NaHC03.
(free) CO2 + Ns&Os + Hz0 = 2 NaHC03.
Chemical equivalents: - IO6 pounds qf pure carbonate of soda -
equal to about 109 pounds of commercial 5S degree soda-ash --are
chemically equivalent to - i.e.,
react exactly wth -the follo!!?ng
lsreights of the substances named: Calcium sulphate. 136 l.bs.; mapneslum
sulphate, 120 lbs.: ciLlcium carbonate,
100 lb-.; mapneSlum carbonate,
84 lbs: calcium chloride, 111 !bs.; magnesium chloride, 95 lbs.
Such numbers are simply the molecular weights of the substances
reduced to a common basis with regard to the valence of the component
atoms.
Important work in thi.s line should not be undertaken by an amateur.
Recipes have a certai:l field of usefulness, but wll not coyer the !vhole
subject. In water puritication. as in a problem of mecl+ucal engineer-
ing methods and apparatus must be adapted to the condltlons presented.
Noi only roust the character of the r&w water be considered but also the
Conditions of purification and use.
Water-softening Apparatus. ..(From- t@ Reeort~pf~theommit,tee ^I lx,....
;~7\--~&&~ Three and four hours is nec-
,.-.,..-~--~J.
Water taken from running streams
in tinter should have at least four hours time.
At least three feet, of
the bottom of each settling tank should be reserved for the accumulation
on Water Service, of the Axr
Rn,ilmn,v b:nzp ana ivmtlubeuwwz w 1 *J
Assn.. Eng. Rec., April 20, lhUO ,:
essarv for reaction and prrrinit,atlon
of the precipitates.
The proper capacities for kettling tanks, measured above. the -sPa:e
reserved for sludge, can be determined as follows: p = CaPaClty p s?fu-
ener in gallons per hour; b = hours required for reactlon and Preclpltatlon;
F = number of settling t&s (newr.lesc +.l~n t,wol: z = number of
t &a lurs reauired. to fill the port ion of settnng YYLIt
U = n&her of hours reclllired to transfer treatf
%~i~~b&&~& sludge portion;
id mater from one settling
tank tti~tfi~-s~&$g~~ta&* (y should never be greater than 2).
Where one pump ahernates between f---
~-L.2-I -,.++,i..-
t mks, zx = I I . Settling capacity in each tank= 2 uz = uw ~. w
For p!ants where the quantity of water supplied to the softener ?nd the
Capacity of the plant are equal the settling capacity of each tank 1s equal
to ax. The number of hours iequired to fill all the settling tanks should
equal the number of hours required to fill, precipitate and empty One
~~,, .~~nk, as expressed by the following equation; CZ = x -t b + Y*
:,
U = z, az = ab f (c - 2).
2, (u: = ub f (c - 1.5).
,
2
A
696 WATER.
A,n article on The Present Status of Water Softening, by G. C.
Whlpple, !n J&S. &fag.. Mar.. 1907. illustrates several different forms of
water-punfymg apparatus. A classification of degrees of hardness car-
respo$d!ng to parts of carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia
per mllhon parts of water is aven as follows: Very soft, 0 to 10 parts.
soft, 10 to ZO: slightly hard, 2.5 to 50; hard, 50 to 100: very hard,
200; esc,esslv$y hard. 200 to 500: minera; water, 500 or more.
100 td
The
ssme article gives the following figures shommg the quantity of chemicals
re
ml bon Of the substances mentioned it is necessnry to add the stated q.
mred for the various constituents of hard water. For each pa.rt per
number of pounds per million gallons of lime and soha.
For Each Part per @lion of
ree CO?. ....................
ree acid (calculated as H&d;j: : : : : 1: 1: : 1: 1: : : 1: : : 1
.Ikalinity ............
1ncrw snts
... ......... . . . . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .
Magnesum
.........................................
......................................... .
Pounds er Million
Galfons.
Lime. Soda.
-
% kl3
4. 67
0.00 i.85
19. 48 0
The above figures do not take into account any impurities in the
chemiqsls. These have to be considered in actual operation.
An Illustrated descnption of a water-purifying plant on the Chicago
8 Northwestern Q. by G. M. Davidson IS found in %g. Xeews April 2
1903. Two
or 70.000 P
reclpltation tanks are used, each 30 ft. diam.. 16 ft. high
ga ions each. As some water is lefty with the sludge in thi
bottom after.each emptying:, their net capacity is abxt 60 000 gallons
each. The time required for filling, precipitatinn settling and trans-
fernnr:.the clear water to supply tanks is 12 hour;: Once a month the
sludge :S removed. and it is found to make a good whitewash.
soda-ash, in predetermined
Lime and
are used as precipitants. T %
uantity, us found by analysis of the water
e following table shows the effect of treat:
ment of well water at Council Bluffs. Iowan.
I
Before 1 Aftei
Treatment./Treatment.
, gni ns per gallon ._.._....._. ~_..
~f,;y_a,~eyagnes~a.. . . . .
Total solid matter,
Carbonates o^
E$!phates of f~t~it: 3xi.u ~~lagnesm.. .,. . . . .; . .
I ~ca and oxldes of Iron and alummum.. . .
Tntn, ;..,,....a+:..- n-1:,2..
". ". .
AlhI
. . . &"' "~C . A. & r+". . UJ
,I chlorides ..
Alkah 3 xlphates
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......................
Total non-mcrustu Igsoiids..
Pounds scale-formi
.......... :I:::::
ing matter in 1098 gals ......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.......
........
.......
.......
53.67
25. 57
19. 55
I . 76
45. 88
1. 21
::::
6. 69
. .._.......
Ei
I . 27
G:G
0. 51
The minimum amount of scaling matter which will justify treatment
cannot be stated in terms of analysis alone. but should be stated in tern
of pounds incrusting matter held in solution in a days supply
IS
Beside 25
the scale-forming solids, nearly all water contains more or less free car-
bonic acid. Sulphuric acid is also found, particularly in streams adjacent
tq coal mines. Serious trouble from corrosion wil! result from a small
amount of this acid. In treating waters, the acids can be neutralized,
and the incrusting matter can be reduced to at least 6 grains per gallon la
most cases.
:;
; )
-._-l-~l..-_i-~~--. .._ : ~~.,
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Sokk of i
HYDRAULICS, 607
QUANTITY OF Pnm REAQENTS REQUIRED TO REMOVE ONE POUND OF
INCRUSTINQ OR CORROSIVE MATTER FROM THE WATER.
Incrusting or Corrosive
Substance Held in
Solution.
Sulphuric acid.
Free ca.rbonic acid. .
calc&un carbonate.
c&~um sulplmte.
Calcium chloride. .
Calcium nitrate..
Magnesium carbonate..
Magnesium sulphate. .
Magnesium chloride.
Magnesium nitrate.. .
Calcium carbonate. .
Magnesium carbonate..
Maw&urn aulphate.
*C&&m sulphate.
Amount of R,eagent. (Pure.)
Foaming Mat-,
ter Increased.
0.57 lb. lim .: plus I .08 Ibs. soda ash I .45 lhs.
1. 27l bs. ! 1r ne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N0ne
0. 56 lb. lime.. . . . . None
0.78 lb. soda ash . . . . . . . . . . . . I . 04 Ibs.
0. 96 lb. soda ash. . . .
0. 65 lb. soda ash. . ! ::: I&
1. 33 l bs. lime None .
0.47 lb. lime plus 0.88 lb. soda ash. I. 18 lbs.
0.59 lb. lime plus I. I I Ibs. soda ash
0.38 lb. lime pius 0.72 lb. soda ash. I::: E:
I .71 Ihs. barium hydrate. . . . . .
4.05 Ibs. barium hydrate. . . . . . Kz:
I .42 lbs. barium hydrate. . . . ., None
I .26 lbs. barium hydrate.. . . NOTlt?
* .Pn precipitating the calcium sulphate. there would also be
tated 0.74 lb. of calcium carbonate or 0.31 lb. of magnesium F:
recipi-
car onate.
the 1.26 Ibs. of barium hydrate performing the work of 0.41 lb. of lime
and O.iS lb. of soda-ash, or for reacting on either magnesium or calcium
sulphate. 1 lb. of barium hydrate performs the work of 0.33 lb. of lime
plus 0.62 lb: of soda-ash, and the lime treatment can be correspondingly
ieduced.
Barium hydrate has no advantage over lime as .t reagent to precipitate
the carbonates of lime and magnesia and should not be considered except
in connection with the treating of water containing calcium sulphate.
HYDRAULI CS - FLOW OF WATER.
Formulae for Discharge of Water through Orifices and Weirs. -
For rectangular or circular orifices, with the head measured from center
Of the orifice to the surface of the still water in the feeding reservoir:
-
Q=CdZgHXa. . #. . . . I . . (1)
For weirs with no allowance for increased head due to velocity of
approach:
-
!. . . . . . . . . . ( 2)
For rectangular and circil& or other sh&ped vert.ical or inclined orifices:
formula based on the proposition that each successive horizontal layer of
Water passing through the orifice has a velocity due to its respective
head:
~-
For rectangular vertGNL
& =,.2,n
irsL
--,*42gH X Lh. . . . . . . . . . . (4)
ater discharged in cubic feet per second; C =,ap-
for formulas (1) and (2): c = correct coefficient
cientd L and C are given below.
fin~ I = hmd in feet measured from center of
11%. 1, YUGI ,
1 measured from bottom of
----..-ed fromtop of orifice: h = H, corrected for
Y-* = a
_ H + 1.33 Va2/2 g for weirs with no end con-
--., YLIU x1 + 1.4 Vaa/2g for weirs with end contraction; a= area in
3 feet: L-length in feet.
_, ,,,
...u,,-.e.~.I ~~. .-.,.., ,,._. -_ ,~.~~ ,.____ I-~ .&
may no longer .be accurate'
69s HYDRAULICS.
HYDRAULIC FORMUL33. 699
F!ow of Water from Orifices. - The theoretical velocity of water
flowing from an orifice is the same as the velocity of a falling bqdg Which
has fallen from a height equal to the head of water, = 42 gH. The
actual velocity at the smaller section of the cen~u contracto is substan.
tlally the samethe theoretical, hut tt!e velocity at the plane of the
orifice is C 42 0lZ. in which the coefficient C has the nearly constant
value of 0.62. The smallest diameter of the renn eontmctn. is therefor?
about 0.79 of that of t.he orifice. If C be the approximate coefficient
= 9.62. and e the correct coefficient, the radio C/c varies with different
Fatlos of the head to the diameter of the vertical orifice, or to I I /D.
&on Smith, Jr., gives the following:
Ham.
H/D=0.5 0.575
C, c =0. 3604 0. 9S- l 9 O. &S 0. : 99365 O. &O 0%&i 0. 59997 : :
For vertical rectangular orifices of ratio of head to width W:
ForH/lO = 0.5 -0.6 0.8
. .
C/C = .942S .965i .9S23 .9:90 .9k3 .9;?4 .9&S .9&P, .99%6 ~!J!~oQ
For H + D or H f IV over 5. C = e, practically.
For great. heads, 312 ft. to 336 ft.. witch converpiru: mouthpieces c
has a value of about one. and for small circular orifices in thin plat&,
with full contraction. c = about 0.60.
Mr. Smith as the result of the collation of many experimental data of
others as wel ! as his own, gi ves tabl es of the value of c for vertical orifices,
with full contraction, with a free dischxge into the air. with the inner
face of the plate, in which the orifice is pierced. plane, and with sharp
mner corners, so that the escaping vein only touches these inner edges.
These t.abfes are abridged below.
form&e !3j and (4) above.
The coefficient e is to he used in the
For form&e (1) and (2) use the coefficient
C found from the values of the ratios C/c above.
.
Values of Coefikient c for Vertical Oriflees with
Full Contraction,
Shar
Smith, Jr.)
and Free Discharge into Air. OH%%
&
2 I
Square Orifices. Length of the Side of the Square, in feet.
. .
. 645
. 6361
. 622/
. 616i
. 611!
f ; ) D. ( ?) i . 593 . 593
. 643!
. 636/
. 62E
. 616,
. 6121
. 608j
. 604i
. 598!
- 1- 1
. 6371 . 628i
. 630/ . 623;
. 622 . 618\
. 6121 . 6091
,609; .607i
. 606i . 605!
. 603l . 602!
. 5981 . 5981
-
. 621
. 617
. 613
: i Z:
. 604
. 602
. 590
T6T6i
. 613j
: gJ
. 6051
. m4
. 602,
2
-.-.-I
. 611/
. 610/
. 668/
. 606!
. 605i , 603
Circular Orifices. Diameters, infeet.
, 630:
. 6231
. 6141
, 595
. 592,
. 05
. 637
. 624
. 617
, 610
, 605
, 604
. 601
. 598,
. ; ; ; I
A- ! .
. . . . .
. 598 , 596 _. . . .
. 601 . 600 . 5pJ
. 604 . 603 .MM
. 603 . 602 , 602
mRATrLIC FORJ ITJ LE. -FLOW OF WATER IN OPEX AND
CLOSED CH~ELS.
~lo\v of Water in Pipes, -The quantity of water disc,harged
r-nllnh 2. ni ,
P
e depends on the head. that is, the vertxal distance
PV.4 C,,p~-^-
-E ^,i,, ..,I.,,. ;:. +,,* ,.,):,!),p
,,,,I.. - r-
,et~wen the .,--1 a.cc I 3LLLI .,.YCI I.. ..-.
. . . . _ .___ _ .r at the entrance
and of the pi!;e%tl the level of tl!e center of thtr discharjie pnd. of t.he
$pe. also upon the length of the pipe. upon t,lle character ot Its interior
jUrf&e as to smoothness, and upon thr number and sharpness, of the
bends. but it is independent Of the pOsl!iOn Of the pipe, aS h@rlZOntal.
nr inciined upwards 0 Afi.r.nlrr*rrlc
instean of being an actual distance between levels, may be
ressure as by a pump. in which case the head is calculated
1~ &t&p rorrPsnonrIinz to t.he oressure. 1 lb. per sq. In.
vs$le head,
caused hy, P:
3s a vertica
- J ROQ f t~1 _ _.-_ ___ xxi, or l-ft~&&=~6~$33 lb. peisq. in.
The total head operating to &ase flow is divided into three parts:
1, The velocit?/-head,, which is tl!e height through w!;ctl a bOqY mwt
;;~~~cuo to a,cqulre the ,veloclty with \yhlch the \v ~;;ions Into the
$2 + 2 9, ln wtuch v 1s the velocity in ft. per sec.
2g = 61. 32;
0 the ct&~-heod, that required to overcome the resisance to entrance
ii the pipe.
with sharp-edged entrance the
ent.rv-he:.d = about 11s the
plocity-head; with s?orA- -^..-.4,4 C.+FQPCX rrnr +~##,a v-tncas~~e;~~u;y~ JL,, ,,lUCiY ~.lYYLLII ...- -.*--.,, ..~
oreciable; 3. the ftictzon
r-/lead. due to the fricti0r.d reastanc
within the pipe.
In ordinary cases of pipes of considerable lengtl the sum of the entry
and velocity heads required scarcely exceeds 1, foot. In the case qf
long pipes @ith low heads the sum of t.he veloclt,y and entry heads 1s
geczrally so small that it may he neglected.
General Formula for Flow of Water in Pipes or Conduits.
Mean velocity in ft. per sec. = C
d/mean hydraulic radius X slope
--
Do. for pipes running full = C
(ldiyeter x s,ope,
In which cis a coefficient determined by experiment. (See pages foilowing.)
The mean hydraulic radius =
area of wet cross-section
wet perimeter
In pipes running full. or esactly ha+
Ir full, and in semicircular open
channels running full it is equal to l/4 diameter.
The slope = the head (or pressure expressed as a head. in keet)
length of pipe measured in a straight line from end to end. i
In open channels the slope is the actual slope Of the.surface. OF its
fall per unit of length. or the sine of the angle of the slope wltb the horizon.
Chezys Formula:
o = e d/; z/i = c 1/G: 7 = mean hgdrauii
,:,wdiUs s = slope = head + length, 2) = velocity in feet per second.
dime&ions in feet.
Quantity of water Discharged. - If Q = dikarge in cubic feet
per secpnd and a = area of channel, Q = ov = oc rs.
a d\/p is approximately proportional to the discharge.
It is .3 maxi-
.mum at 36~0 of the circumference corresponding to IV0 of the diameter.
,:,.,,md the flow of a conduit 101~ full is about 5 per cent greater than that Of
f;gi:.%e Completely filled
h~ Values of the Coefficient E.
(Chiefly condensed from P. J..Flynn
Flow of Water.) _ Alhost all the old hydraulic fOrmul= for findmg the
! mater
HYDRAULIC FORMULIE.
TO1
values of 6 for Circular Pipes, Sewers, and Conduits of Different
Diameters.
r = mean hydraulic depth =
area
perimeter =
l/4 diam. for circular pipes
running full or exactly half full.
mean velocity in open and cl osed channels have constant CoeEcieq
and are tbeiefore correct for only a small range of channels.
often been found to give incorrect results with disastrous effects.
They $a~
gui l l et, and Kutter thorourhlv investicaterl the American, French. ani
other experiments. and the;irgave as the result of their labors the fo;&z
now generally k?own as Jwtters formula.
condltlons rtktmg the ilow of water.
There are so many varying
that all hydraulic formuhe are
only approximations to the correct result.
When the surface-slope mmsnrrmrnt is goof!, Kut rers formula tvill
give results seldom rsc,errling 71/?56 error. provided the rugosity coetfi.
clent of the formula is known for the site.
For small open channels
Darcys and Bazins formIda+ and for cast-iron pipes Darcys formula,
are generally accepted as being approximately correct.
Feet.
1::;:
1.54'
1. 56'
1. 58'
1.601
1%
1%
1. 696
I . 714
1: ; ; ;
I %
1. 803
1. 820
1%
1. 904
1. 936
1. 968
2.
2~031
2. 06'
2. 09'
2. 121
ZE
-
in
-
-
4;
Feet.
am.,
. i n.
am.,
i n.
4;
Feet.
I . 707
: : : :
. 750
: %
. 790
: %
. a29
: K
.866
. 878
. 890
, 901
. 913
: E
, 946
, 957
. 968
, 979
, 990
I .
' I : %
1. 031
I . 041
1. 051
Di
ft
_-
(
,
Diam.. dr
ft. in. in Feet.
i n
. -
9 9
0
0 3
00;
I
I 3
I 1 6
I I 9
1: 3
1; t
13
13 3
! ' j b
1: : 6
1: I 5
1; 6
17 6
I !
20
I . 061
I : ~~
1.089
1. 099
1. 109
1%
1. 137
I %
I %
I.181
1.190
I . 199
1 : ; : z
1. 225
k%
1. 299
1: : i i
290
. 323
I
. 354
:
, 382
408
. 433
, 456
. 479
. 500
. 520
: : ti
: : ; :
: %
: Ei
. 677
. 692
Table giving Fall in Feet per Nile, the Distance on Slope corre.
sponding to a Fall of 1 Ft., and &o tile Values of S and XS
for Use in the Formula ./ = C vT.9.
a =. If + L = sine of angle of slope = fall of water-surface (H), 1s
any &stance (Lj. divided by that distance.
Fsll il
Feet
per 3f
21120
' 7600
' 3200
10560
! E
6560
: ; i i
4224
3520
3017
2640
2347
: ; 2
1760
1625.
1508
' 408
1; :
$3
g. 6
z. 6
2i . t
Z'
330
Slnpe
I Foo
i n
1:
6
7
t
I O
I I
I I
i :
! :
I !
' 8
I I ' 0
I i I
t. ooao47:
0000561
. 000075!
. ' I 0018939
. 0020833
I ?030303
Sine of
Slope.
a.
1. 003219;
. 003409
. 003598!
. 003787!
. 004166;
. 0045451
. 004924:
. 005303C
. 0056811
. 0066661
. 007575E
. 0083333
. 0090909
. Ol O
. Ol l 3636
. 0125
. 0133333
. 0131515
. 0166667
: : : 8' 8' 8
: E7""
. 0303030
: : ?6667
, ( 1625
, ! 833333
I 25
' 666667
. 00870>
. 019463
. 02282?
.@25751
. 026650
. 027524
. 041286
. 043519
. 045643
. 047673
. 04962
. 055048
0.25
- 30
. 40
. : o
%;
. 9m
I
1. 25
1. 5
1. 75
i : r
2. 75
z. 25
3. 5
3. 75
:
Li
9"
10
1:
1:
I :
31o. t
293. :
277. 5
264
zi
203. 1
188. f
I 76
I 50
132
120
I I 0
100
i t
75
66
i i
i t
i i
24
E
l o"
z
:
0 mygz
. 059988
2: 2
. 067419
. 070' 73
. 072822
. 075378
. 081650
. 087039
. 091287
. 095346
: 1066
: Ei
: EI "'
. ' 34839
. I 41421
. I 50756
. I 58114
. I 74077
. m4124
. 223607
. 25
. 2843675
: Kf
.4Oi248
:F72'4
___ ..., ~.- __.,. __.. ,~,. _ .~,^,~~ ~_ .,...
~A~~I~G: This is a 1910 edition. Some of 1
Kutters Formula for measures in feet iS
v=
I
1.811
0.00281
y +41.6+ s
xG*
I+ (41.6 +
I
.
a
m which v = mean velocity in feet per second; r= - =hydrauhc mean
depth in feet _ area of cross-section in square fee: pieded !y wetted
perimeter in lineal feet; s = fall of water-surfitce (h) in any &stance (1)
11
divided by that distance, = t ,=
sine of slope; n = the coefficient of
rugosity depending on the nature of the lining or surface Pf the channel.
If we let the first term of the right-hand side of the equation eqa1 C* we
have Chezys formula. V=C 4/,9-c X 4 X 4
_ ,
Values of 1~tn Hutters Formula. - The accuracy of hntter s for-
&&i.m~adepen&in a great r&asure,on the proper SekCtlOn ?fthecoefiClent
b
HYDRAULIC FORMULE
703
Values of c in Formula a = c X 6 X 4/1 for Netal Pipes and
Moderately Smooth Conduits Generally.
, ,,,~ ,, ,,, 1 : ~
702 HYDRAULICS.
of roughness n. Experience is required in order to give the ri ht
this coeffic+nt, and to thls.end great assistance can be obtaine
value tc
this selectmn. by consultmg and corn
If
ex
P
enments on tjle flow of water alrea c?
aring
in rnakh,
the results obtAined fro;
y made in different channels.
n .sorn$ cases It would be well to provide for the contingency of fut,ur
detenoratlon of channel, by select+:: a high value of n. as, for instanci
where a dense growth of weeds IS hkely to occur in smzll channels and
also where channels are h+iy not to be kept in a &ate of good repair
The followmg-table. gi:l\-mg the value of n, for different mater&s i-
com@ed frqm kutter, Jackson, and Hering. and this value of n appb;
also m each Instance to the surfaces of other materials equally rough.
1 , 3r great
C=
152. 7
I : : : ;
13
163
165. 8
168
169. 9
171. 6
Ry KU~ERS FORXULA. (S = .OO:
-
n=. Ol l n=. Ol Z n=. 013
I
Diameter.
--
I
_-
er,
-
.--
Diameter.
_----
C=
127. 9
i : ; : ;
134. 5
I : ! : :
140. 4
142. 1
144. 4
146
C=
%
144. 1
y! : ;
152
1: : : :
157. 7
cz cm c= ft,.
47. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61. 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i i : 5. ". i 915.
105. 7 94. 6 85. 3 1:
: 16. l 104. 3 94. 4
111. 3 101.1 ii
120.8
146.4
145~4
149. 4
VALUE OF n IN KU~~ERS FORMULA FOR DIFFERENT CHANNELS
n = ,009, well-planed timber, in perfect order and alignment; otherwise,
perhaps .Ol woul d be suitable.
n = .OlO, plaster in pure cement: planed timber: glazed, coated
or
ena.meled stoneware and iron pipes; glazed surfaces of every sort in
perrect order.
n = .Qll. plaster in cement with one-third sand. in good condition.
also for Iron, cement, and terra-cotta pipes, well joineh, and in best order:
n = .012, unplaned timber, when perfectly continuous on the inside;
flumes.
. .
the diamet,er.
.t of discharge,
within these
\ of 1 in 2640
even up to a
little. This is
- Fqr cirrular pipes the hydraulic mean neptn r equals l/4,
According to butters formula the val ue of c. the coefficl
is the same for all slopes greater than 1 in 1000; that
li,mits c is constant.
We further find that up to a SIC
the value of c is. for all practical. purposes, constant, aI
slope cf ! in SO00 the difference In the value of c 1s ver
exemplified in the following:
I-
Value of c for Different Values of
V r and din Kutters Formula,
with 18= .013.
n = .013. asblar and well-laid brickwork: ordinarv metal. earthen and
stoneware oioe in eonrl mnrlitinn Lx,>+ n.\+ n . . . . ..,.: -^-. -2s A.--~
-.., Ys.l llv~ AZG.V. CCIIICLLL, ilnu vxra-cotta
pipe not well. jointed nor in perfect order
imperfect or Inferior condition: and
gene&l y the materials mentioned P
laster and planed wood ih
with n = .OlO, when in imperfect orinferior condition.
n = .015, second class or rough-faced brIckwork. well-dressed stone.
wprk: . foul and shghtly tuberculated iron: cement ahd terra-cotta pipes
with Imperfect jomts and in bad order: and canvas lining on wooden
frames.
n. = : .Oli, @-ickwork, ashlar, and stoneware in an inferior condition.
tuierculated Iron pipes; rubble in cement or plaster in good order. !ind
gravel, we11 rammed. V/3 to 3/3 inch diameter. and, generallv the matkrials
mentioned nrlth n = ,013 when in bad orde; and condition
n = .02p, rubble in cement in an inferior condit.ion. coarse rubble
rough set 1x1 a normal condition: coarse rubble set dry. rbined brickwork
and maspnry; coarse gravel well rammed. from 1 to i1/s inch diameter,
canals Rlth beds and banks of very firm. regular gravel carefully trimmed
and ra?med in defective places; rough rubble with beh partially covered
ynt.il Silt and mud: rectangular wooden troughs with bzttens on the
ms2de two Inches apart; trimmed earth in nerfect order
4
- -
/
0. 6 93. 6 91. 5 90. 4 88. 4 83. 3
: 1: 6. 5 142. 6 115. 2 142. 8 Ki 113. 2 143. 1 109. 7 143. 8
pi
_.._ . , . . , , . . i ty of the values of the coei?icient of Icutters formula for
es of less than 6 in. diameter is considered doubtful.
6
(See note under
f.8 le on page 704.)
Values of c for Earthen Channels, by H@ers Formula, for Use
in Formula a = c \/ra.
I
Coefficient of Roughness,
12= .9225. I
Coefficient of Roughness.
, r=. 035.
n = .0225, canals in earth above the average in order and regimen.
?z = ,025. can.als a,nd rivers in earth of tolerably uniform cross-section;
slope and directIon. in moderately good order and regimen. and free from
stones and weeds.
n = .0275, canals and rivers in earth bel ow the average in order and
reamen.
;.= .030. CahalSs:!~i rivers in earth in rather bad order and regimen.
haime stones and weeds occasionally, and obstruct.ed by detritus.
R = .935. suitable for rivers and canals with earthen beds in bad order
and re@men, and having stones and weeds in meat nlmntitiea
I-
2 in feet.
-
4 i nf eet. I
- -
1. 8
- _-
Hz. 3
i t:
80. 3
i i : :
i i : :
80. 2
80. 2
-
0. 4
-
_-
-
1. 8 2. 5
2. 5 , 4. 0
- -
ez. 2 $9
89. 3 100. 2
89. 5 100. 6
89. 8 101. 4
90. 1 102. 2
90. 7 103. 7
91. 5 106. 0
92. 3 107. 9
93. 9 112. 2
94. 8 115. 0
$t
51:b
51. 6
K
51: 6
51 .b
:1:;
19c. 7
19. 6
19. 4
19. 1
1"8?
%
16. 2
15. 6
: z
36: 9
36. 4
Z
: ; : ;
-
35c. 7
35. 5
: : : :
34.
33.
31. 6
30. 5
28. 5
27. 4
6;.5
62. 3
62. 1
61. 7
%
%
: t: :
n = .05, torrents encumbered with detritus.
_~ ~~~. ~______ .---.
-- Itteis formula has the advantage of beine easilv adn.nt.erl tn n. chance
in the surrace or the pipe exp..
- _...~ ?
the value of n.
nsed to the fioiv of %a$$,c &f a-change. 1s
For cast-iron pipes it is usual to use 1~ = .013 to provide
for the future deterioration of the smface.
Reducing Kutters formula to the form v = c x 4; x ~/b and
% the coefficient of roughness in the formula =.oil .Oi> aAd
takin
d 013. as
s = .OOl. we have the following values of the coe&ie$ c ofdj
diameters of cond_uit.
kV?NING: This is ~a ~. ~1910 editi~$i
.be accurati ?
,,~, ,,, ,,,,,
704 HYDRAULICS.
Dar&s Formula for clean irou pipes under pressure is
v=
0. 00007726 : 50. 00y1621
112
Darcys form$a. as given by J. B. Francis, C. E.. for old cast-iron pipe,
lineo with depostt and under pressure, is
' =
144 @s 112
0. 00082 (12dfl > .
in which d = diameter iu ieet.
For Pipes Less than 5 inches in Diamet~er, coefficients (c) in the
formula i = c 4r.s. from the formula of Darcy, Kutter, and Fanning.
Diam. Darcy,
in for Clear
inches. Pipes.
Ku,?
n=. Ol l
9=. 001
: ; : I
42. 6
2: : ;
55. 4
-
r;
f
--
-
......... 1 314
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . i I , ,
80. 4 3
. . . . . . . . .
al - l . 5'
Dsray,
or Clear
Pipes.
2::
96. 1
90. 5
101. 7
103. 8
- -
KY:er*
n=. Ol l
9=. 001
58. 8
61. 5
%I
77. 4
82. 9
-
:
.-
-
Fanning,
or Clean
Iron
Pipes.
92. 5
94. 5
.
96. 6
103. 4
Mr. Flynn. in givlna the above table. says that the facts show that the
coefficients diminish from a diameter of 5 inches to1 smaller diameters
and It, 1s a safer plan to adopt coefficients varying with the diameter than
a conszant coefficient. No opinion is advanced as to what coefficients
should be used with Kutters formula for small diameters.
VELOCIfP OF WATER Ih OPEN CBANNELS.
Errisati+m Car++-- The minimum mean veiocitv reouired to ore-
vent tne aeposlt of six or the growth of aquatic pla~ntsntsi~~~inNo;t~~~n
India. taken at 1 l/z feet per second. It is stated that in America a higher
velocity IS reqmred fcr this purpose, and it varies from 2 to 3 1/v feet per
second. The manmum allowable velocitv will vary with the i;ature of
the so11 of the bed. A sandy bed wlI1 be disturbed * AL mm- ~ --.
3 feet per second. Good loam with not too much sand will bear 2 velocity
of 4 feet per second. The Cavour Canal in Italy, over a gravel
velocity of about 5 ner second.
bed, has a
(Flvnna Trtipat,ion Canals.)
Mean Surface and Bottom VelociLies:-zxcccording to the formula
of Bazin,
v = vlmx - 225. 4 6: v= q- i - 10. 37 - 6.
: . V& = v - 10. 87 6, in which 1) = mean velocity in feet uer second.
%2X= maximum surface velocity in feet per second, &,= bottom velocity
in IeeE per second, 7 in feet Per second. 7 = hydraulic mean depth in feet =area of cross-section
ln square feet diviaea my wetted perimeter in feet. s = sine of slooe. ln sqcare feet divided by wetted perimeter in feet s = sine of slope.
The least velocity, or The least velocity. or that of the particles in co&act with the bed. lg
almost i
almost as much less than the mean velorlty as the greatest velocity ,
m,mt^-
greater than the mean
Rankin,e states thatin ordinary cases the velociti& may be taken @
bearing to each other nearlv the pro
axrentS they are nearly as2. 3. an
B
ortions of 3.4, and 5.
4.
-In very Slow,.
~-_I --.... ..,. ~. ~,. ~-..-.-~ ~--
UARNING: This is a 1910 editiK--~'-~'~-~~'--
Some of t he
VELOCITY OF WATER IN OPEN CHANNELS. 705
Safe lInttom and Mean Velocities. - Ganguillet & Kutter give the
lollowing table of safe bottom and mean velocity in channels, calculated
horn the formula 2) = Q,+ 10.87 d/rs: e
-
Material of Channel.
Sjfe Bott,otn Velocity
q,, in feet per second
i
Soft brown earth ............
Soft loam ....................
Sand .........................
Gravel .......................
Pebbles ......................
Broken stone, flint ..........
Conglomerate, soft slate ....
Stratified rock. ..............
Hard rock. ..................
Mean Velocity v, in
feet per second.
E:
1. 312
2. 625
: : E
6. 564
8. 204
13. 127
Ganquillet & Kutter state that they aie unable for want of observations
tojudge how far these figures are trustworrny. They consider them to be
rather disproportionately small than too large, and therefore recommend
lhem more confidently..
Water flowing at a lugh velocity and carrying large quantities of silt is
very destructive to channels, even when constructed of the best masonry.
Resistance of Soils to Ernsion by Water. -,-IV. A. BUM. Eng: I I
News, Feb. 8, 189;f. gives a diagram showing the resistance of various smls
to erosion by flowmg water.
Experiments show that a velocity greater than 1.1 feet per second will
erode sand, while pure clay will stand a velocity of 7.35 feet per second.
The greater the proportion of clay carried by any soil, the higher t.he per-
missible velocity. Mr. Burr states that experiments have shown that the
line describing the power of soils to resist erosion is parabolic.
From bls
dlagrzm the following figures are selected as representing different classes
of soils:
Pure sand resists erosion by flow of. ...... 1 .l
Sandy soil. 15% clay.. ................. .1.2
Sandy loam, 40yb clay ................. .1.8
Loamy soil, 65% clay .................. .3.0
Clay loam, 85% clay. .................. .4.8
h.gricultural clay, 95% clay. ............ .6.2
- ^_
feet,per secznd.
s of one and a half tons.
fragments of 100 tons.
be confounded with Its
in the one case is weight.
square: the former as the
g material, the resistance
power of removing mate-
1 material may tie l onger . be accurate
of not less than %/a feet per second, and in sewers of larger dime&am
in no case should the velocity be less than 2 feet per second.
The specific gravity of the materials has a marked effect upon the
mean velocities necessary to nlove them. T. E. Blackwell found that
c~~ of a sp. gr,. of 1.26 was moved by a current of from 1.25 to. 1.50 ft
per second, whtle stones of a sp. gr. of
2.5 to 2.75 ft. &v:r second.
2.32 to 3.00 required a velocity oi
Cbsilly gives the following formula for finding the velocity required to
move rounded stones or shingle:
ZI = 5.67 G.
in which v = velocity of water in feet per second, a = average diameter
in feet of the body to he moved, g = its specific gravity.
Geo. Y. Wisner. Engg News. Jan. 10, 1895. doubts the general accuracy
of statements made by many authorities concerning the rate of Row of
a current and the size of particles which different velocities will move.
He savs:
Thi scouring action of any river, for any given rate of current,, must
be an inverse function of the depth. The fact that some engineer has
f o. und that a given velocity of current on some stream of unknown depth
w;~l! move sand or gravel has no bearing whatever on what mav be ex-
pected of currents of the s3.m~ vP!ocity in streams of greater depihs.
channels 3 t,o .?i f t. ~dw. n : a~me- n
In
-y .a . ..-w.s velocity of 3 to 5 ft. per second may
prodt!ce rapid scouring, white in-depths of 18 ft. and upwards current
~el cmtl es of 6 to 8 ft. ner semnrl nftprl have no effect whatever on the
channel bed.
Grade of Sewers. - The following empirical formula is given in Bau-
meisters Cleaning arid Sewerage of Cities for the minimum grade
for a sewer of clear diameter equal to d in&es. and either circular or
oval in section:
Minimum grade, in per cent, = 5 ~~,,
As the lowest limit of grades which can be flushed, 0.1 to 0.2 per cent
may be assumed for sewers which are sometimes dry, while 0.3 oer cent
is al!owahle for the truuk sewers in large cities.
dry as rarely as possible.
The sewers should run
FLOW OF WATER - EXPERINE?+iiS AND TABLES.
The Flow of Water through New Ca+iron Pipe was measured by
S. Bent. Russell. of the St. Louis, &lo.. Water-wor!is. The pipe was 12
lnc~e.~ m dmmeter. 1631 feet long, and taid on a uniform grade from
ena to end. Under an average total head of 3.36 feet the Bow was
43.200 ci:bic feet in seven hours: under an averace head of 3.37 feet t3e
flo::- was the same: under sn
zvcrraee total bead of 3.41 feet the iiow
was 46.700 cubic feet in 8 hours and 35 minutes. Making allowance for
loss of nead due to entrance and two curves, it was found that the value..
of c in the formula 2) = c VG was from 88 to 93.
14. 1594.;
(Engg Record, April
Flow of Water in a W-inch Pipe 75,000 Feet Long. - A Com-
Pptison Of esperimentai data with calculations by different form&? iS
Qven by .Chss. B. Brush, Trans. A. S. C. E.. 1888. The pipe experi-
mented %?th was that supplying the city of Hoboken, N. J.
RESULT OBTAIXIED BYTHE HACEENSACK WATER Co., FROM 1882-1887.
IN PCMPING THROUGH A 20-IX.C.UT-IROS MAIN 75,000 FEET LONG.
Pre=ure in Ibs. per sq. in. at ,;,pingT;;tion:
c
Total&ectiv%ead iA:et:
120
--
Dischzge in $S. gallz:s in %%our~,~~= 100bf2
2,8-s 3:566
a Tb2~7~;ica13&%harg%$Darcys for$%
3.904
Ac?)aOlovei&~~4in 2.24 n%$n 2.36 f&:fr second: 3,699 3.915
2.52 2.68 2.76
125 130
123 135
4,116 4,255
4.102 4,?97
2.92 3.00 ;,~:
pi
FLOW OF WATER.
Flow o! Water in Circular Pipes, Sewers, etc., Flowing Full.
Based on Kutters Formula, with n = .013.
Discharge in cubic feet per second.
Diam-
eter.
Slope, or Hend Divided by Length of Pipe.
9:
aft.
8
9
1: 6in
9 8. 6 I
10 (1
For U. S. gallons multiply the figures in the table by 7.4505.
For a given diameter the quantity of flow varies as the squdre root el
the sine of the Slope. From this princi
those given iu the table may be foun If
le the flow for other slopes than
. Thus, what is the flow for a
P
ipe S feet diameter. slope 1 in 1251 From the table take & = 207.3
or slope 1 in 2000. The given slope 1in 125 is to 1in 2000 as 16 to 1
and the square root of this ratio is 4 to 1.
is 207.3 X 1 = 829.2 cu. ft.
Therefore the flow required
Circular Pipes, Conduits, etc., Flowing Full.
Values of the factor ac 6 in the formula & = ac GX 4S: come.
spending to different values of the coefficient of roughness. n.
hinters formula.) ,
(Based os
Diam.
ft. in.
i 6
: b
:b
:b
I3
ii 6
12
I t 6
13
13 6
14
14 6
15
16
6.90
.?I 25
22
141. 2
214. 1
307.6
421. 9
559. b
722. 4
911. 8
1128. 9
1374. 3
1652. I
1962.8
2682. 1
3543
4557. 8
5731. 5
7G75. 2
8595. 1
i G2?6
12196
14298
16404
19118
21858
24823
z;
35156
%
47751
52491
i z3
74191
EZ
15769
32133
6.06
18. 34
41. 48
76.34
;;i:;t
::%i
500. 78
647. I 8
817. 50
1013. 1
1234 4
1484. 2
1764. 3
2413. 3
: X
5176. 3
E%
93: 3. 3
11044
12954
15049
17338
19834
22534
25444
%Z
: zi
t%
: Et
%; o'
91711
105570
I 20570
Value of oc 4:
-
n=. 012.
5. 3801
l b. 708
37. 149
68. 44
112. 79
171. 65
247. 33
340. 10
452. 03
584. 90
739. 59
913. 41
i tl a. 6
1345. 9
1600. 9
2193
2903. 6
3742. 7
4313. 9
5825. 9
3087
85Gi . 8
10063
i t832
13731
1E
20612
23285
26179
29254
: z: ;
z; ;
43969
52302
bi W%
32594
E; :
110905
2659
3429
4322
2G
7. 314
9272
10889
12bb3
14593
16709
18996
21464
; : ; i :
El ?
~~; :
44327.
4a413
57343
67140
77932
a9759
102559
n=. 017.
3. 329
10. 50
2:
32. 99
I I I . 8
lb4
273. 9
299: 3.
: E
613. 9
750. 8
906
; "4: ; : :
1977
; g;
4010
2%
6995. 3
f %- '
11061
I 2638
I %
18395
20584
z293a
15451
m17
I %
%;
i l bb9
jOOb7
59301
19259
FLOW OF WATER IN PIPES. 709
Flow of Water in Circular Pipes, Conduits, etc., Flowing under
Pressure.
Based on Darcys formulae far the how of water through cast-iron
With corn
flip_rs(j oi3
arlson of results obtained b Kutters formula, with
. . (Con B ensed from Flynn on Water. H ower.)
.-
. Values of si and also the vul ues of th_ factors c d/~ a$1 QC -dr for use
1; the formula? (3 = or: w = c dr X 4s. and (2 = cc d/r X 4s.
(1 = dlscliarge in cubic fret per second, c = areiL in square feet, 2, =
&wity in feet per second, I = mean hydraulic depth, i/a diam. for
slpes running full. 5 = sine of slope.
For values of
Size of Pipe.
zl-diam.
in
ft. in.
1114
I /2
13/4
2
2112
3
12
14
i :
1 10
: 2
2 4
: I !
: 2
: 6'
3 8
$ 10
i 3
: t
: 3
1 t
6 6
7
a
.-
--
=areai n
SqXXe
feet.
--
--
For
:locity,
&
. OW?7 5. 251
. 00136 6.702
fwlm; 11. 61 9. 309
. 00852
: i %i 2:
. 02182 1%
: Z2! 2: : ;
. 0873 29. 37
. I 36 33. 54
. I 96
.267 2: ; ;
. 349 43. 75
. 442 . 545 i t: :
.bbO
, 785 :24:i!l
1. 000
I : %
FJ ; : ; ;
%i "7: : : :
: : 2;
: ; : ' 8:
4. 276 "8: : :
4. 909 5. 585 i i : : ' :
6.305
::%
;;::
99. 93
0.726
9. 621 1%
I X 103. 6 110. 2
1%: 11: : :
1: : ; ; : 119. 6
19.635 1%
2% 129. 3
25. 967 1: : : :
: I X; 1: : : f
38. 485 149. 6
FLOW OF WATER IN PIPES.
711
.
710 HYDRAULICS.
Flow of water in Clrcul$i~~x?;erom 3/ s Inch to 12 Inches
.
-
I
Cleanp;e;t;iron
I
Old Cast-iron Pipes
Lined with Deposit.
Value of
a.cCb
Kutier<
Fowrefa.
n=. Ol f
7814
9272
10889
12663
14597
16709
18996
%:
26; 8l
30041
: : E'
4043;
44322
48413
52753
57343
%' I 2
72409
77932
a9759
102559
Size of Pipe.
B&?d on : Darcy' s formula for clean Cwt- i ron, pipes. & =I Oc 66.
Value_ Dia.
I I
Slope, or Head Divided by Length of Pipe.
ofacdr. in, IinIO~Iin20~lin4O~1inb0/Ii~80~Iin100(1in150IIin200
dad&n.
in
ft. in.
a-area
in
square
feet.
44. 179
: Et
63. 617
: : : %
86. 590
95. 033
103. 869
113. 098
122. 719
132. 733
I : : : Xi
165. I 30
176. 715
188. 692
2Ol . ObZ
; 3
$2: : :
283. 529
314. 159
--
154. 9
1E
R!
179. 1
l &3. 6
1%
196. 3
E: :
208. 3
212. 2
216.0
219. 6
223. 3
226. 9
230. 4
Z; : ;
240. 7
247. 4
253. 8
For
relocity>
4-
c f.
104. 11
107. 61
I I I
11; : :
120. 4
123. 4
126.3
129. 3
132
134. 8
1%:
142. 7
145. 2
E
E"
1: ; : :
1: : : :
170. 7
For
3isc?=eu ac r.
4601. 9
E%
7267.3
8320. 6
9460. 9
10690
12010
1$E;
E
%!
%!
28335
E:
; z: z
41199
47186
53633
c_-
-1 - -! --
Quanitityin cubic feet per second.
. 00403 318
00127 . OWYO/ . 00064 . 00052
. oM) 45 . ooo l o . 00033 . 00028
. 00914 112
: a0289 . 00204 . 00145 . 00118 . OOl O2 . 0009l
. OC@75 .OI Mb5
. 00903 . W638 . 0045l . 00369 . 00319 . 00286
. 02003 . 01416 . Ol OOl . 00818 . 00708 . 00633
: i %: : E%
. I 1659 I L/ 4
03687 .02607 .01843 . 01505 . 01303 . Ol l bb . 00952 . 00824
. I 9115 II/? - 06044 . 04274 . 03022 . 02468 : ; ; g; . 01912 . Ol 561
. 01352
: 09140 . 06470 . 04575 . 03736
. 74786 2112
13077 . 09247 . 06539 . 05339 &WJ ; ' :
: E%
123647 . I 6722 . I 1824 .09655
.07479 . Obl Ob . 05288
1. 2089 3
. 38225 . 27031 . I 9113 . I 5607 . I 3515 . I 2089 390%; ; 4808u"
. 81042 . 57309 . 40521 . 33088 . 28654 .25630
7. 30b8 ;
1. 4422 I . 0198 . 72109 $33; : $' I ; ; ; A; ; ; ; : ; ; ?A . ; 3; ;
2. 3104 I .6338 1.1552
10. 852 3. 4314 2. 4265 1. 7157 1. 4110 1. 2132 1. 0852 . 88607 :76734
15. 270 8
4. 8284 3. 4143 7. 4141 1. 9713 1. 7072 1. 5270 1. 24b8 1. 0797
20.652 9 6. 5302 4.6176 ,.2651 2.6662 2.3089 2. 0652 1. 6862 1. 4603
26. 952 10 8. 5222 6. 0265 4.2611 3.4795 3. 0132 2.6952 2.2006 1. 9058
34. 428 I I 10. 886 7. 6981 5. 4431 4. 4447 3. 8491
3. 4428 2. 8110 2. 4344
42. 918 12 13. 571 9. 5965 6. 7853 5. 5407 4. 7982 4. 2918 3. 5043 3. 0347
0. 1 ) 0. 08165/ 0. 07071
val ue- Di n.
of ds. in.
l i n250 1in3001in3501in400 tin450 Iin Iin Iin
. 00403 18
---
~~~; ; 112
314
.06334 I
. I 1659 I V4
. I 9115 11/Q
. 28936 l 3j ;
.41357 2
.74786 21:~
1. 2089 3
Z% z
7. 3068 6
1; : El i
20.652 9
26. 952 I O
34. 428 I I
42. 918 12
- - - -
Valueof&= .06324 .05774 .05345 .05
. 04711 . 04472 . 04264 .'I4082
7 6
8
8 6
; 6
10
I O 6
I I
6841 .b
8043
9364. 7
Et!
I %!
17855
19966
?E:iii
:%
:El
38807
42125
45621
49273
53082
57074
61249
: ; : : :
Flow of Water in Pipes from s/s Inch to 1Z Inches Diameter for a
Gni f orm Teksi ty oi 1S? Ft. PCZi Xin.
u. s.
Gal I OnS
per Min.
65. 28
~~: ~ c
199. 92
261. 12
330. 48
408. 00
493. 68
587. 52
Cu. Ft.
per Min.
8. 73
13. 6
19. 6
26.7
::;
2::
78. 5
Area
Sq. Ft.
. 0873
. I 36
2: ;
. 349
. 442
. 545
: %
. wo77
~ : g; ; ;
I
0. 077
i t: ; :
. 00545 0. 545
. 00852 0. 852
. 0127 1. 227
. Ol b70 1. 670
E2 2. 182 3. 41
0491 4. 91
. 57
1. 02
%i
6. 38
9. 18
i t: :
25. 50
36. 72
Short Formuk. E. Sherman Gould.
shows that Darcys formulae for cast-iron il
lowing sppro.ximate forms, in which h is OS:
P
grade line in feet per 1000, d in ft., 2) in ft. p
Eng. News, Sept. 6. 1900.
: may be reduced to the fol-
If head or drop of hydraulic
sec., Q in cu. ft. per sec.
30
er For U. S. gals. per sec.,
multiply the figures in the table by.. . .
7. 4805
I 6.
0 *a 11
min.,
6
. . . 48. 83
. . I I 4
hour, 1: 1:
. . . 26929.8
6. 1. I
24 hrs.,
$6 . . .646315.
8 in. to 48 in. diam. I Rough, &2=hds: 2, =i 1. 27 <h.
Smooth, Qz=2h&; 1) = 1.80 G
3 to 6 in. diam. I Rough, Q2=0.785 hds; v = 1.13 6.
Smooth, Qz=1,57 hd5; 0 = 1.60 +$.
::.
For any other slope .the flow is proportional to the s
uarc root.of the
Slope; thus, flow in slope of 1 in 100 1s double that In s oPe of 1 In 400.
P
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Soik?-df~the material may no l onger , De accurate
-~
s
--
3
:
I
-_
3
:
:
-
8
3
,
-
II
-
I!
7
--
2i:838S:%>
-7
-
I
-
I
--
-
)_
I
;
--
I
-
,
-
I
4
-
I
c
P
m
-
s
-
c
:
u
-
A
b
h
Flow of Water Throug:h Nozzles in Cubic Feet per Second.
(Joshua H.endy Iron.works.)
H = head in feet at the nozzle.
p spress~~,re due t,o tuxd 11x per sq. in. V = theoretical velocity. ft. pei sec.
Diam.Nanzle,In.I I 111/~( 2 I~~/LI 1 3 131/z 1 4 14% 1 3l6 / j 1 8 1 9. / 10 / 1 / .^
( , , , ,
I I
r+7v
7 1,~
Flow of Water Through Nozzles In CubicFect per Second.
roi
(Joshua, IIendy Iron Works.)
H = hem1 in feet at the nozzle. P -prc:ssure clw t,o h~i~d lbs. per SC,. in. V = theoreticrl velocity, f~. lwi SC
3
Pi
2
Diam.Nozale.In.~ I /il/zl 2 /,,I,3 I3lhI 4 )41/l/ 516 1 i / 8 1 9 1 IO / ii / I2 -
-.~,- --
w. .0980;22i 0.392 0.611 0.880 I . 197 1. 565 2. 040 2. 445 3. 519 4. 810 6. 26 7. 92 9. 78 12. 83 14. 08
su
. 1380. 3120. 553 0. 864 1. 245 1. 694 2. 213 2. 875 3. 459 4, 978 6. 778 8. 85 i l . 20 13. 83 16. 74 19. 92.
- 1950. 441 0. 784 1. 222 I . 760 2. 395 3. 130 4. 066 4. 885 7. 039 9. 585 12. 52 15. 84 19. 56 23. 67 28. 16
: 241 0. 5400. 957 1. 497 2. 156 2. 933 3. 834 4. 980 5. 990 8. 621 i i . 739 15. 33 19. 40 23. 95 28. 99 34. 49
3
. 2760. 624 I . 105 1. 729 2. 490 3. 388 4. 427 5. 751 6. 918 9. 956 13. 557 17. 71 22. 41 27. 66 33. 48 39. 84
. 3110. 697 1, 236 1. 933 2. 784 3. 788 4. 950 6. 429 7. 73511. 13215. 158 19. 80 25. 05 30. 93 37. 43 44. 54~
e .
, 341 0. 7641. 354 2. 118 3. 050 4. 149 5. 423 7. 044 8. 437 12. 194 16. 604 21. 69 27. 44 33. 88 41. 00 48. 79
. 369 0. 825 1. 464 2. 288 3. 294 4. 482 5. 857 7. 609 9. 152 13. 171 17. 935 23. 42 29. 64 36. 60 44. 29 52. 70
. 3940. 882 1. 564 2. 445 3. 521 4. 791 6. 262 8. 134 9. 703 14. 080 19. 173 25. 04 31. 69 39. 12 47. 34 56. 37
2
. 4180. 936 1. 659 2. 594 3. 735 5. 082 6. 641 8. 627 10. 377 14. 934 20. 346 26. 56 33. 61 41. 49 50. 21 59. 75
l oo 43. 31 50. , 441 0. 986 1. 748 2. 734 3. 937 5. 377 7. 001 9. 094 10. 940 15. 743 21. 437 28. 00 35. 43 43. 74 52. 93 62. 99
120 51. 97 87. . 489 I . 080 I . 866 2. 996 4. 314 5. 870 7. 671 9. 965 I l . 986 17. 25023. 490 30. 68 30. 83 47. 93 58. 00 69. 02
ET , 520 I . 167 2. 069 3. 235 4. 659 6. 349 8. 28) 10. 760 12. 942 18. 626 25, 364 33 13 41. 92 51. 75 62. 63 74. 53
, 557 1. 2482. 212 3. 459 4. 981 6. 776 8. 856 11. 504 13. 837 19. 91427. 117 35' 42 44. 82 55. 33 66. 96 79. 68
g: . ' . 588 1. 323 2. 345 3. 668 5. 282 7. 187 9. 392 12. 200 14. 675 21. 11928. ~753 37. 56 47. 53 58. 68 71. 01 84. 50
. 62l 1. 3942. 472 3: 867 5. 568 7. 575 9. 900 12. 860 15. 469 22. 26230. 314 39. 59 50. 10 61. 85 74. 85 89. 07
- 5 , 698 1. 5602. 764 4. 323 6. 225 8. 470 11. 069 14. 379 17. 295 24. 857 33~893 44. 27 56. 02 69. 16 83. 69 99. 59
300 130. 20 138. , 761 1. 7093. 028 4. 736 6. 820 9. 270 12. 126 15. 752 18. 099 27. 26837. 130 40. 49 61. 37 75. 76 91. 68 109. 10
350 151. 90 150. , 825 1. 845 3. 271 5. 116 7. 366 10. 022 13. 098 17. 01420. 465 29. 452 40. 105 52. 38 66. 29 81. 83 99. 03 117. 84.
. g
. 883 1. 973 3. 497 5. 469 7. 875 I O. 714 14. 002 18. 189 21. 87831. 486 42. 874 56. 00 70. 86 87. 48 105. 86 125. 98
, 935 2. 092 3. 709 5. 801 8. 352 I l . 364 14. 851 19. 391 23. 20433. 39445. 263 59. 39 75. 16 92. 78 112. 23 133. 61
. 9862. 2063. 909 6. 115 8. 805 I l . 979 15. 655 20. 336 24. 46035. 202 47. 934 62. 60 79. 23 97. 81 118. 36 140. 85
gr
. 0892. 4164. 282 6. 690 9. 645 I f . 122 17. 14922. 27626. 79438. 561 52. 508 68. 50 86. 79 107. 14 129. 65 154. 18
21
167 2. 6104. 626 7. 235 I O. 418 14. 173 18. 523 24. 061 28. 941 41. 650 56. 715 74. 07 93. 74 115. 92 140. 04 166. 63
: 2492. 7904. 945 9. 735 i i . 137 15. 152 19. w) 325. 72330. 94044. 52860. 634 79. 19 100. 22 123. 72 149. 71 178. 16
3: , 323 2. 959 5. 245 8. 204 i l . 813 16. 07220. 80429. 28432. 81749. 22964. 312 83. 99 106. 30 131. 22 158. 80 189. 79
% .
. 3943. 119 5. 529 8. 648 12. 452 16. 94122. 141 28. 75934. 59249. 783 69. 709 88. 54112. 04 138. 32 167. 38 199. 19
rD
. 5293. 4196. 056 9. 473 13. 640 18. 55724. 260 31. 503 39. 093 54. 534 74. 258 96. 98 122. 74 151. 52 183. 35 218. 19
. 6503. 691 6. 542 I O: 223 14. 73420. 04626. 19834. 031 40. 933 58. 90980. 216 104. 76 132. 58 163. 67 19R. 07235. 70
, 964 3. 9466. 993 10. 939 15. 751 21. 42929. 907 36. 37043. 757 62. 973 05, 749 i i i . 99 141. 73 174. 96 211. 73 251. 96
. 8724. 185 7. 418 11. 503 16. 707 22. 93029. 706 38. 589 46. 41466. 79690. 956 118. 79 150. 34 185. 59 224. 58269. 26
. 993 4. 411 7. 81812. 229 17. 60923. 957 31. 31040. 670 48. 919 70. 40295. 867 125. 21 158. 45 195. 61 236. 71 281. 68
,~,~ ,, :, ~,,, ,~,
714 HYDRAULICS.
LOSS OF HEAD.
The loss of head due to friction when water, steam, air. or gas of any
kind flows through a straight tube is represented by the formula
41 ul
h=fT rg; whence v=
J
64.4 hd
- -
4f 1 *
in which t = the length and d = the diameter of the tube, both in feet.
r = y?locZty in feet
experiment. dt Accor
er second, and fis a coefficient to be determined by
ng to Wersbach. f = 0.00644. in which case
a- .-
which is one of the older formula for Bow of water (Downings).
Prof
Un:vm says that the value of I is pssibly too small for tubes of small
bore. and he would put f =0.006 to 0.01 for -I-inch tubes, and f = 0.0084
to 0.012 for 2-inch tubes. Another formula by Weisbach is
h = (0..0144 +
Rankine gives
/=0.005 (1 +kd) f
F:om the general equation for velocity of flow of water v = c +& 4;
=for round pipes c
JJ
d ii
4
i.wehavevZ=e2 i : andh=
4 179 .
x, rn which
c is the. coefficient c of Darcys, Bazins.. Iiutters. or ot.her formula
as founm by expenment. Since this coefficient varies wit41 the condition
of the inner surface of the tube. as well as with the velocity it is to be
expect,ed that values of the loss of head given by different writers will,
vary as much as those of ouantitv nf flnrv
I __ __-...
The relation of the value off; in Cheay~mula V = c 6 to t.he
value of the coefficient of friction I is I) = d/2 n/f
- .0040 .0045 --. 0050 - /= .0335
135.5 127.8
.d&5
c =
.0060 .0065
f= .OOiO .0075 f&G f&i
c = 95.8 92.6 89.7 84.5
I?% 103.5 9&Z
.011 80.2 76.5 73.2
c= 60 70
f = .018 ,013 .%O .::8 .%4 .%3 .04045 130 iI:: .;%3 .o5002a
Equations derived from the formube. (Unwln.)
Velocity,ft.persec.. . .
Diameter, ft.. . . . .._. .
r= 4.012~&/(llj= 1.273&r&$= C-X x&.,
d= O.O622ivl/h = 1.128 dQ;r.
Quantity. cu. ft. per sec. Q= 3.149 dhm.
Head, ft.. . . . . . . h = O.l008~92l/ds.
Roujh preliminary calculations may be made by the following approx-
imatelormulz They are least accilrate for small pipes. s=slope, =h/l.
New and clean pipes.
v = 56 d&.
Old and intiruited pipes.
Q = 44 dd5.s.
v = 40 dds.
Q = 31.4 4dTs.
d=OW5QZ/S
.11
d *
d = 0.252qQ2/s.
Flow of Water in Riveted Steel Pipes. - The laps and rivets tend
to decrease the earrying capacity of the pipe
Forml!las for Calculating the Flow of Water in
See paper on New
W. E. Foss. Jour. Assoc. Eng. Sot., xiii 295
I%pes and Channels by
Also Clemens Hers~hels
book on . 115 Experiments on the Car&g Capacity
Metal Conduits, John Wiley& Sons, 1897.
of Large Riveted
_ , . . - - - _ ~. _. . , . . ~~. - . ~~- ~. ~ . , ~~ . , ~, . . , , ~.
r WARNI NG: T, hi s is a 1910 edition. Some of
LOSS OF HEAD. 715
Values of the Coetkient of Friction. Unwins Hydraulics gives
allaes nf f~hased on Dar&s exoerlments. as fo Ilows: Clean and smoath
Incrusted pipes, I =O.Ol (1 + i/rsd). In
nwm examined all the more carefully made experiments on flow
in lpes, including those of, Darcy.
7.
classif ing
qua ity and condition of their surfaces, an 2
them according to the
showing the relation of the
value ,of f to both diameter and velocity. The results agree fairly closely
with the fOllowillg values, f = a (i + 6/d).
-~
Kind of pipe. Values of a for velocities in ft. per second. lk?s
/ I I I
, -- r.
l-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 I 0.37
Drawn wrought iron . . .00375 .00322 .00297 .00275 I 0.20
Asphalted cast iron. .00492 .00455
:
E% .00415 . .
Clean cast iron .00382
1; 0.28
0.26 . .00405 .00395
Incrusted cast iron at all velocities a = 0 00855
From the experiments of Clemens Herschel, 1892-6, on clean steel
riveted pipes, Unwin derives the following values off for different velocl-
ties.
Ft.persec . . . . . . . . 1
48-in. pipe, av. of 2. .0066 .00357
5
42-in. pipe, av. of 2. .0067
:iE:
36-in. pipe. . . . . . . .0087 .0071 :KG .0053 .0047 .0042
Unwln attributes the anomalies in this table to errors of observation.
In comparing the results with those on cast-iron pipes. the roughness of
the rivet heads and joints must be considered, and.the resistance can
onlv be determined by direct experiment on nveted pipes.
fwo ortions of the 48-in. main were tested after being four years in
rise. an R the coefficients derived from them differ remarkably.
---. -~~-
Ft. per sec.. . . . . . I
.0;72
6
Upper part. . . . . .
Lower part. . . . . .
99l~~
.0060 :%%
Marx, Wing, and Hopkins in 1897 and 1899 made gaugings on a 6-ft.
* main part of which was of riveted steel and part of wood staves.
A. ,S: C. E., xl, 471, and xliv, 34.)
From these tests Unwon deri%?t%
following values of /.
Ft. oer sec. 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 5.5
.Steel pipe:
1897.../ = .0053 .__.. . . . . .
1899.. .f = .0097 6;:; :oo;; :&; :$;; :;$;o .0058 .0058
Wood staves:
1897...1= .0064 .0048 . . . . . . . . . .
1899.. .f = .0048
9;;:
.0045 . . . . .0043 .0043 .0043
Freemans experiments on fire hose pipes (irans. A. S. C. E., ~5. 363)
give the following values off.
Velocity, ft. per sec.. . . . . .
4
Unline canvas.. . . . . . .
Rough rubber-lined cotton.. . . . .
6;;:
6 * :gg :$$ :$$
9CK$
Smooth rubber-lined cotton.. . . .0060 .0058 .0055 .0,)48 .6045
The Resistance ,at the Inlet of a Pipe is e
ante of a straight pipe whose length 1s lo = (1 f
7
Ual to the f$~~~$$~$~;
o) d +- 4 f..
(A) ~for end of pipe flush with reservoir wall. 0.5; (B) pipe entering wall.
straight edges, 0.56; (C) pipe entering wall. sharp edges, 1.30; (D) bell-
mouthed inlet, 3.02 to 0.05.
f=o.;$ A,.;;
Valuesso:;/d are for
C. 78
D. 115
1
38
39 58
he material may ho ~loticjer , be accurati i
716 ~ I-IYDR.4ULICS.
LOSS OF HEAD.
717 *
pressure-gauge attached to the pipe near the wheel.
Readings of gauge
should be taken while the water is howing from the no@%
To reduce heads in feet to pressure in pounds multlply by 0.433.
TO
reduce pounds pressure to feet multiply by 2. 309.
Cox' s FormukL -
Weisbachs formula for loss of head caused by the
friction of water in pipes is as follows:
Multiplying these figures by d gives the lenrth of straight pipe to be
added to the actual length to allow for the inlet resistance.
lenTths of.pipe the relative value of this length is so small that it !$a:::
ncg ected r in practical calculations. - (Unwin.)
Loss of Head in Pipe by Friction
. -Loss of head by friction in
each iu.0 fe$t in length of riveted pipe when discharging the following
qua!lttties o,,water er mmute (Pelton Water-wheel Co.).
C = ,vk~l~y 111 eet per second; h 7 ioss of bead in feet; (3 = dls- P
char+ m cubic feet per minute. Friction-bead =
(
0.0144 -t - yy) a&&
where I, = length of ipe m feet:,
V = velocitv o F the water m feet per second;
d = disme<er of pipe in inches.
William Cox (Amer. .Mnch.,
Dec. 26, 1693) gives a simpler formula
which gives almost identical reSUltS:
L4lnf5V-2
H- friction-head in feet = 2 - 12Oo
. . . 1 (1)
_.~
Hd 4vtt 5V- 2
----i&j~. . . . . . . .
(2)
L
4V*+ 5v - 2
s Re gives a table by means of which the vahie of 1200
is at
once obtained when V is known, and vice Uefsa.
Inside Diameter of Pipe in Inches.
j 7 / 8 / 9
10 I I I I I 2
1 I
.-
v
h j-Q_] h j Q
--; i--s-~-_
2.0 6.338! 32.4 0.2961 41.9
3. 0 0. 698i 4l . l i 0. 611: 62. 8
4, O I . 1751 64. 11 1. 027: 83. 7
5. 0 1. 76 1 I i &Z! I . 54 : 105
6. 0) 2. 46 / 96. 21 2. 15 1 I 25
7. 0' 3. 26 j l l Z. O/ 2. 85 I 146
14 in. [ 13 I n.
I
- /
v, ; J , j Q
!
-/
_._
/
I
/
15 in. I 16 in.
,
I 8 in. 20 in.
O. ! 69i 128
. 349: 192
3; ; ; ; f
I . 2291 385
1. 63 449
h Q
--
VALUEeOF 4v+5v- 2.
1200
h Q
--
Z. Oi 0. 183, 110
3~0 . 3i 5 166
4. Oi . 632 221
5~0, . 949 276
6. 01 1. 325, 332
7. 0 1~75 387
0. 1581 147 / 0. 147
. 325i
I 67
221 '
/ i
. 306
, 548' 294 . 513/
251
' 335
. 8221 368 419
1.
1. 52. 1 I a/ ? 513 1/
I .0761 . . 77Oj 502
1. 43 j 5%
1" 0. 0 1 0. 1 1 0. 2 1 0. 3 1 0. 4 1 0. 5 1 0. 6 1 0. 7 1 O. 8
, ______e- - - - - -
-
V
- _-
I
1
22i n. 1 24 in. 26 i n.
! I
28 in. 36in. 1 36in.
Q
2. 0
3. 0 i
0. 108/ 316 ho98
. 222 4i 5 : . 204
4. 01 . 3i 3' 633 ; . 342
6. 0! 5. 01
. 56l i 792 j , 513
7. 01 . 782i 950 1. 040~1109 j . 9j 3 . 717
377
565
754
942
i i 31
1319
h QjhjQjh Q
--- ;-- /-- ,__
i
__
-
048
I 273
1697
2121
2545
284. 5
I . 091 i 442
1315 188 1 I 885 663
. 474 j l l o6
. 662 / I 327
, 879 11548
589
883
1178
1472
1767
2061
This table is based on Cox-
J reconstruction of Weisbachs formula
usme t,he denominator 1000 instead of 1200, to be on the safe side allow:
inrr 20 ;L for the loss of head due to the laps and rivet-heads in the pipe.
EXAMPLE. -Given 200 ft. head and 600 ft. of II-inch pipe carrying
119 cubic feet of water per minute. To find effective head: In right-
band column. under ll-inch pipe. fmd 119 cubic ft.. opposite this will
be found the lostir friction in 100 ft. of length for this amount of water
wb!ch is 6.444.
which is 6, and we have 2.68 ft.. which is the loss of head.
Multiply this by the number of hundred feet of pipe
the effective head is 200 - 2.66 = 197.34.
Thereford
EXPLANATION
only upon
, -The loss of head by friction in a pipe depends not
through it.
diameter and length, but upon the quantity of water passed
The head or pressure is what would be indicated by b
The use of the formula and table is illustrated as .fO~OWS:
Given .a pipe 5 inches diameter and 1000 feet long, with 49 feet head,
what will the discharge be?
If the velocity V is known in feet per second, the discharge 1s 0.32725 @V
cubic foot per minute.
/
ttG material may no lotiger ,be accurate
By equation 2 we have
4 V2+ 5v- 2 l i d
1200
=
49 x 5
7 = -=
1000
0.245:
whence, by table, V = real velocitv = 8 feet
The dischsrfie in cubic feet per minute, i
er second
.P V is velocity in feet per
SeCOnd 3Ud d dlmeter in inches. is 0.32725 d*v[;, whence. discharge
= l J . 3 X. SX 25 X S = 65.45 cubic feet per minute.
The yelocity due the head, if there were no friction is 8.025 477
= 56.1(5 feet per second, and the discharge at that velocity would be
0.32725 X 25 X 56.175 = 460 cubic feet per minute.
Su,PPose it. is required to deliver t!iis amount. 460 cubic feet at a
veioclt~s of 2 feet. per second, what diameter of pipe of the same length
and under. the same head will be required and what will be the loss of
bead by friction?
d=diameter=
d F X 23q7.,5 = 4, x iz2725 = 4% =26.5 inches.
- -
Having now the diameter, the velocity and the discharge the friction-
head is calculated by equation 1 and useof the table; thus,
H=_L4Vz+5V- 2
1000
d 1200
= 2xX 0. 02=
g5 = 0. 75 foot,
-
thus leaving 40 - o.--
producing purposes.
IJ = say 48 feet effect,ive head applicable to power-
Problems of the loss of head may be solved rapidly by mears of Coxs
Pipe Computer. a mechanical device on
for sale by Iieuffel & Esser, New York.
the principle of theslide-rule,
Exponential Formu~.
%Villiarns and Hazens Tables. - From
ChezYs formulaLpL~~cc~r~. it would appear that the velocitv varies 9~
the Q.l_lrn r-^. . ~. -..-_ __ 1.X- .~~uu=,~u~L vi UK uean. or Gnat the head varies as the scuare of the
veiocityv: t.US 1s not true. however, for c is not. a const.ant bui a variable
dependinz on bo?h r a,nrl .Q
of the best records of experiments i.....
wn7-n and Williams, as a result of a stud<
1
*ori nlot+ino hem on logarithmic ruled __
r ...C 1
xrper. found an esuonential fnrmrzll II=++cI? 4.;
..-- _.__...Y.LI (j-c, --
C is PracticallY independent of the diame~
.: j4. in which the coefficient
wit!1 the condi:ion of the surface.
ter and the slone. and varies not,: ~~~.._ _.._.
In order to equalize the~numerical
value of c to that of the c in the Chezy formula. at a slope of 0.001 they
added the factor O.GOl-oM to the formula, so that the working formula
of Hazen and Williams is
.
Approximate val ues given for c are:
140 for the very best cast-iron pipe, laid straight and when new.
130 for good. new cast-iron Pipe, VerY smooth: good masonry aqueducts;
small hrass pipes.*
120 for cast-iron pipe 5 Years oid; riveted steel pipe new
110 for Cast-Iron Pipe 10 Years old: steel pipe 10 years old; brick sewers.
100 for cast-iron pipe 17 years old, roueh.
iiij for cast-iron pipe 26 Years old, ro~rgh
80 for cast-iron pipe 37 years old, very rough.
Computations of the exponential form:rla are shade by logarithms or by
* 130 maY also be used for straight lead, tin and drawn copper pipes
the Hazen-Williams hydraulic slide rule. On logarithmic ruled paper
values of 21 for different values of c. r and s may be plotted in straight
i;g, /See Hydraulic Tables, by Williams and Hazen, John .Wiley &
LOSS OF HEAD.
Friction Loss in Clean Cast-Iron Pipe.
Compiled from Westons I Friction of Water in Pipes as
computed from
formulas of Henry L)arcy.
Pounds loss per 1.000
feet in pipe of given diameter.
(Small lower
figures give VeiocitY in Fc
St per Second.)
I
Diameter of Pipe in Inches.
( 5 / 6 ( 8 1 10 1 12 ; 14 [ 16 / 20 \ 24 \ 30
u. S.Gals per -
>lin. and ( CU.
Ft. per Sec.)
I
3
-
-
* 1,250 . .
(2.79) ....
1. 500 . . . .
i 3i s
( i . 90,
: : : :
. . .
2, 000
( 4. 46) . . .
,. . . . . .
. . . . .
~. _ : : : : : : 160. 0 37. 0 12. 0 4. 70 2. 14 1. 100. 350. i 40. 05
::I::::li::....}~23.0 113.
0 3.2 5.7 4.li 3.2 2.0 1.420.01
-_
&-.-i- __A-
---
-~~
2. 500
( 5. 57)
-
Diary. of / . . . . . . ._._.. 58.0 18.9 7.39 j:zf ::F~:~ ~:~~:~~
1. 10.0.10.2 7.1
3. 000
PipeinIn.,. .
26.0 10.00 4.181 2.40 0. 79 0. 32O. l O
( 6. W 36
48i : : : : : : - : : : ::jj12.0 8.5 6.2543 3.1 2.lOi.40
4, 000 - -
_. , , , , 8. 554. 30 1 m0. 560. 18
, . . . . .
(8.91, . . . .
6,000
0.11
,_... . . .._. / ._._._ . . . . . . . . !1./8~340.4
I 0.03 ,.,.._. ._.... . . . . .
(11..14)
11.6 / ,,,89! .._. / .._... I.... :... . . . . ..(..~~!D.~ iti.- I
--
/-/---A---+-
6 nnn 1 ::;6\ K&::;\ :::::: i::::~~i::::::l~:::i::,~:~~.~~~:~~~
20 / 6. 4
6. 4 4. 0
; : ;
82 25. 0 ,O.O
13.0 8.2 0.0
26.0, 16.3 11.0
-,-__
0.23 0.05 ..,.._ ,_._._
2~2 1.2 ..,.._ ,.,...
,:;9 0.07 .._._, . . ..__
1.4 ,_,_.. ._,...
9,000
0.37 0,09 ..,.,. _,_._.
(20.05)
2.3 1.6 _._... _.._..
0.45
3.1
tllb,..,., ,_....
Op25 0. 53901556 0776
----
--
These l osses are f or new, cl ean, straagnc. mr- coated. Cd- i ron Papee.
For
pipes that have been in service a number of Years the losses
will be larger 07 account of corrosion and.incrustatton. and
10 ye?rs 1.3
the losses tn the tables should be mulhphed under average
2.
Conditions by the factors opposite: but they must be wed ti
::
::i
2 O
with much discretion. for Some r
: -s corrode popes much ,5 .,
3: 4
more raoidlv than others.
$t-iron pipes which are not
The ia& figures may he used for wrout
bject to a frequent change of water.
_~--__L.-_-
the material may ho ~longer ,be
.~ ~-x~ ~_~~
accuratij
Approximate Hydraulic Formulae.
Boston. Mass.)
(The Lombard Governor Co.,
Head (H) in feet.
feet.
Pressure (P) in Ibs, per sq. in. Diameter (D) in
Area (A) in sq. ft. Quantity (Q) In cubic ft. per second.
(T) in seconds.
Time
Spouting velocity = 8.02 dg.
Time (!f,) to acquire spouting velocity in a vertical pipe. or (T,) in a
pipe on an angle (0) from horizontal:
!F~ = 8.02 dri + 32.17,
Tz= 8.02 dg + 32.17 sin 8.
Head (H) or pressu.re (P) which will vent any quantity (Q) through a
round mfice of any dlameter (D) or area (A):
H- Q? -t 14.1 D.= Q? +- 23.75 42; P= (32 i- 3-1.1 D,= Q? + 55.3 A.
Quantity (Q) discharged through a round orifice of any diameter (D) or
area f-4) under any aressure (P) or under any head (H):
Q = d\/P X 55.3 X A2
=4/P X 34.1 X D:
= d/H X 23.75 X A2 =.\/I I x 14.71 x Da.
Diameter (D) or area (A) of a round orifice to vent any quantity (Q)
under any head (H) or under any pressure (P):
D=dQt3.544/77 =2/&+5.8 +: A=Qs4.89dz =Q+7,35d/p7
Time (T) of emptying a vessel of any area (-3 through an orifice of any
a:ea (a) anywhere in its side: T = 0.416 -4 t/H + a.
Time (T) of lowering a water level from (H) Tao (h) in a tan& of area -4
through an orifice of any area (a) in its side.
2=0.416.4(4\/11 -dz) +o,
Kinetic energy (K) ?r foot-pounds in water in a round pipe of any
diameter (D) when.movmg at velocity (v): K = 0.76 X D? X L X v.
Area (a) of an or&e to empty a tank of any area (d) in any time (T)
from any bead (H).: a = T h 0.409 A dif.
Area (al of an or&e to iower water in a tan& of area
to (h) in time (T): a = T + 0.409 x A x (d/H - 46.
(d) from head (H)
CopPOUn~ Pipes and Pipes with Branches. (Un\vin )
head In a mam consisting of different diameters.
(1) Consta&dis~~~rg~f
Total lossof head H 7 h,, + ht + ht = o.lOOYjQ? (I,/@ + /2,dzj + h/dJs).
(2) Constant velocity In the main, the &charge dimir:ishiug from set-
tion to section.. H = 0.0551 fuh&dQl+ L2/~~2 + &,~.L/Q~). Equip-
alent main Of Umform diamet~er. Length of equivalent main
Loss of head in a mai? of uniform diameter in which the dis&arwe ++
CfeaseS u@XmiY along Its length. such as a main Iv&h numerous b;an .:,
PIyes ,umrormly spaced and delivering equal quantities. h = 0.03;;
fQ lidi Q being the quantity entering the pipe.
The loss of head is just
on+urd of the loss In a plpe carrying the uniform quantity Q through-
out its length.
Loss of head in a pipe that receives
detfvers Qz Cu. ft. at z ft. from the m et, having dlstnbuted QZ & ft.
. 7 Cu. ft..Per sec..at the inlet and
uniformly in that distance, hz= 0.1008 f.z (Q, + o.jj q~)id~.
Delivery by two or more mains. in parallel.
Total di scharge=~, +Q
+Qa=3.149 dhTf (=+6%+ddx). Diameterofaneqldvalent
main to discharge ihe same total quantity. (1 =(x/F +ddy+++?/s.
(British! per day.
Low Pipe Lines.-(l) Vyrnwy to Liverpool, 68 miles. 40 million gals
Three lines of cast-iron pipe 49 to 39ln. diam.
0;;
of the 42-in bnes after being laid 12 years, with a-hydraulic gfidient of
LOSS OF HEAD. 721
4.5 ft. wr mi
.le. discharged 15 million gallons per day; velocity. 2.892 ft.
~!?%.+c.cI C+PPI nine linn~ Newark. N. J.. 21 miles lone. 48
c _ _ _.
$0 in. steel PiDe
+r sec. f .=~ (
(2 East Je,,,
in. d t am.,
50 &Li~~~~.Y3Ly~G ;i;i: i&i&~ &i+ii ~6 ft. ner MCI.
(3) Perth to Coolgariie. & Vestern pustrali;t, 35! rmie%j
with lock-bar joints. Eight pumpmg statlons m the hne. Two feits
showed delivery of 5 and 5.6 milhon gals. per day; hydraulic gradlent.
2.25 and 2.8 ft. per mile; velocity, 1.889 and -.
9 115 ft. per sec.: f= 0.00480
- nnoc , ".""kO".
hr Panroving Heavy Oils. (Eng. liec.. May 23. 19OS.)-
I. tirir~s ia R twavv. viscous fiuid. Atttmnts
__... -
t?;~sc&kference, these grooves tiaking
of length.
Fittinrs -The data eiven
_____.. -__. -~~
diflercmt. s?nnothness as made
On&eighth bend, 5 ft.
Effect of Bends and Curves In Pipes. - Wei$chs ;le for bends:
Loss of head in feet = p.131+1.847 (;)I X ~4 X 1~0, in which r
= internal radius of pipe m feet, R = radius of curvature of aris of pipe,
IJ = veioeitv in feet Der second, and a = the central angle, or angle sub-
terlded by terlded by ihe bend.-
Harnilto.. -... Hamilton Smith Jr in his work on Hydraulics, says: The experimental
tata at hand al- --. tata at hand are d&ely insufficient to permit a slLtisfaCtory analysis Of
his cluit,r comolical ids quite complicated subject: in fact, about, the only erpenments Of
,tlue are those made by Bossut and Dubuat wth small PlpeS.
CU Curves. - If the pipe has easy curves, say with ra$ius ,not less thy 5
diamc diameters of t@ pipe, the flow will not be matecally &m!mshed. PronGed
sled
the tc..- _. ~~~~ the tops of all curves are kept. below the hydrauhc grade-lane and prol?slon
sion
3e made for esca 3e made for esca e of air fiom the tops of all curves. e of air from the tops of all curves.
Williams. Williams Hub Hub t t
(Trautwne.) (xrautwne.)
el) ell and Fenkei (Trans. A. S. C. E., n.nrl Yenkf!l I Tra7a.s. A. S. C. E.. 1901) 1901) conclude from conclude from
an extensive se& an ertensiie series of experiments that curves of short radms. down to
about 21/s diameters offer less resistance to the Iiow of water tban.do
those of longer radix&. and that earlier theories and practices FegardJng
Curve resistance are incorrect. For a 90 curve in 30 in. cast-u+on InPe.
6 ft. radius they found the loss of head 15.7% greater than that of a
straight pip;? of equal length; with 10 ft. radius, 17.3% greater; with 25 ft.
radius, 52.7 % greater; and with 60 ft. radius, 90.2% greater.
Hydraulic Grade-line; - In a straight tube of uniform diameter
throughout running full and discharging freely into the air, the .h+auhc
grade-line ii a straight line drawn from the discharge end Tao a Point lmme-
diately over the entry end of the pipe and at a depth below the surface
equal to the entry and velocity heads.
(Trautwine.)
In a
. ibe hv&aulic ma&-line.
ipe leadin froms reservoir, no part of its length should be above
ir
FIRE-STREAMS.
723
hvtlrant ranging from 036 lb. for 200 gals. per min. flowing to 2.31 Ibs.
722 HYDRAULICS.
Air-bound Pipes. - A pi
uence of sir, bemg entrappec
e is said to be .air-bound when, in cause.
il
P at the high points of vertical curves in the
ne. water ~11 not How out of the pipe, although the supply is higher than
the outlet. . The remedy is to
through whxh the air may be If
rovide cocks or valves at the high points
matic by means of a float.
Ischarged. The valve may be made auto:
fbr 600 gals. ~-
The following notes are taken from the pamphlet referred to. The
discharge as stated in Elliss tab!es and in their numerous copies in trade
catalogues is from 1.5 to 20% in error.
In the best rubber-lined hose?, Zl/+n. diam.. the loss of head due to
friction for a discharge of 340 gallons per minute, is 14.1 Ibs. per 109 ft.
length: in inferior r~~bber-lined tnill hose,
25.5 lbs., and in mlhned linen
hose, 33. 2 l bs.
Less than a 1 l/s-in. smooth-nozzle stream with 40 Ibs. pressure at the
base of the play pipe, discharging about 240 gsls. per mm., cannot be
called a first-class stream for a factory fire. 80 lbs.
er sq. 111. IS con-
sidered the best hydrant pressure for m
<*enera use: 1011 P hs. should not be
exceeded, except for very high buildings. or lengths Of hose over 300 ft.
Water-hammer. - Prof. I. P.-Church gives the following formula for
tl?e prpssure +veloped by the instantaneous closing of a valve in a water
p,pr:
P = ~LCY/!J ,
in which p is pressure in lbs. per sq. in., 2, velocity in inches per second
C velocity of pressure wave in inches per second, and g = 386.4 ins. The
value of C is dgfX,t/y (tEl + 2 rE). in which I& = modulus of elasticitr.
30.~00.000 for steel. E = bulk modulus of water = 300.000 lbs. per sq. in
Ft ~0 F. y = O. U3604 = lbs. of water in 1 cu. in., t = thickness of pipe:
+., and .r = internal radius of pipe, ins.
Example. a 16-in. steel pipe
wtb l/rin. walls. and-y = 60 ins. per second, gives a velocity of the pres-
sure wave C = 4+.?So ms. per second and a pressure per sq. in. of 2478
Ibs. If the elast+y of the pipe is not consIdered. the formula reduces
to p = .5.29 t, wluch in the example glven gives a pressure of 317.4 lbs.
per sq. m.
Rydrant P;~~swes Required with Different Sizrs and Lengths of
-. (J. R. Freeman, Trans. A. S. C. b., 18891)
3/J-inch smooth nozzle.
Hydrant Pressure with Different Lengths of
IIose to Maintain Pressure at Base of Play Pipe.
:2
i;
::
114
130
146
I 63
-
22
: ;
1: ;
130
152
173
195
216
. . .
, . . .
Vertical J ets. (Molesworth.) -If = head of water, h = height of
jet, (1 = diameter of jet, K = coefficient, varying with ratio of diameter
of jet to head: then h60; Klf.
If .; 1 d x 300 1000 1500
0.96 0.9
1800 2soo 3500
0. 85
4500
0. 8 0. 7 0. 6 O. . i 0. 25
Water Delivered through Meters. (Thomson Meter Go.) -The
best modern practice iimits the velocity in water-pipes to 10 lineal feet
per second. Assume this as a basis of delivery. and we find, for the sev-
eral ~zes of pipes usually metered; t~he following approximate results:
Nommai diameter of pipe in inches:
Quantit~?ieliv$d ir?&bic f!&et pe?&inutz due ?o said4velocitt:
0. 46 1. 25' 1. 85 3. 28 7. 36 13: l 29. 5 52. 4 117.9
Vert.! Hor. / i 150 ft.ilOOL i
13 I 3
: i 2
i t' 53 66 55 69 E
i i ; "2
a3
rzl t
101 106 1: : I20
I 13 I I 9 124 135
126 132 138 150 Prices Charged for Water in DilTcrent~Cit.ies. (National Meter Co.)
Average mlmmum ptice for lW10 gallons in 163 places. . 9.4 cents.
. .4verage marlmum price for 1000 gal l ons in 163 places.. . . 28
Extremes. 21/z cents to.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..lOO *
-
21
i s
49
i :
66
70
: c
7/s-inch sml 00
T----
7--
II
5
;7
69
t
103
I I 4
16
: i
64
t"b
112
128
144
160
FIRE-STREAMS.
Fire-Stream Tables. -The table on t.he following
f!om one contained in the pamphlet of Fire-Stream
Ta g
age is condensed
les of the Asso-
mated Factory Mutual Fire Ins. Cos. based on the experiments of John R.
Freeman, Trans. d. S. C. E., vol. &i. 1889.
The pressure in t.he first column is that indicater by a gauge attached
at the base of the play pipe and set level with the e1.d of the nozzle.
The
verticai and hprizontal distances. in 2d and 3d cok are those of effective
@e-streams xxlth moderate wind. The maximum I:&, of a fair stream
IS about !O% greater for a verticai Zream: 12% Lor a horizontal stream.
In St111 air much greater distances are rea,p!-.ed by the extreme drops
The pressures @ven are for the best quautv of rubber-lined hose smootd
+de. The hose friction varies greatly in adifferent kinds of hose accord-
mg to. smoothness of inside surface,
and pressures as much as 50%
greater are required for the same delivery in long lengths of inferior
rubber-lined or linen hose. The pressures at the hvdrant are those while
the stream is tio:ving, a,nd are those required with smooth nozzles.
nozzles require great.er pressures.
Ring
With the same pressures at the base
of the play pipe, the discharge of as/d-in. smooth nozzle is ths same as that
Of a ;/s-in. ring nozzle; of a I/s-in. smooth nozzle, the same as that of a
l-in. rine ~I-WZIP
l-inch smoot.h RO:
-
::
2:
61
67
72
2
03
2
49
66
82
17;
I 31
147
164
::
F3;
Ill
134
156
178
%
26
: t
105
131
I 57
183
209
236
I8 20
; ; , _ 41
i s 2
I O2
I I 0 122
1: ; 142
I 62
165 I 83
I 83 . , 203
93 I 2
132 23
i i f , 2
208 57
228 69
246 80
% I:;
295 I 115
The figures for hydrant pressure in the body of the table are derived
by adding to the nozzle or play-pipe pressure the friction loss in the
hose, and also the friction loss of a Chapman &way independent
gate1
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some 01 F the material may no longer .be accurate .
FIRE-STREAMS. 724 HYDRAULICS..
Pump Inspection Table.
Discharge of nozzles attached to 50 ft. of z?Q-in. best quality rubber-
lined hose. inside smooth. (J. R. Freeman.)
Rydmnt Pressures Required with IWf$rcnt Sizes and Lengths o!
Hose. - Cotllinued.
IIvdrnnt, Pressure
_,*
with DiGrent, Lengths of
Haze to Mountain Pressure at Base of Play Pipe.
51
72
I : :
I I 3
1: :
144
I 52
I 61
193
: E
387
: ; t
i %
579
610
-
I I 8
I 67
205
E:
: G
: : z
374
1 I4
-- -
I O1
143
I 75
: ; :
i i :
: : :
319
!- -
163
232
283
327
366
400
432
g
107
151
184
213
2
201
301
319
337
I FZ
150
I 73
194
213
230
246
261
275
2
118
136
152
167
180
192
2
Friction Loss in Rubher-Lined Cotton Hose with Smoothest Lining.
ior.
_- -
1 22
38
:t
66
: :
ai
85
59
no ft.
1
OOit. 00 ft.
.I3
-,-
L
aoft,.
i;
;:
118
I 41
165
I 65
212
236
45
I .
-
iooft , . I 6
- -
.
-
. . .
-
I
tOOft
30
z
I . 20
150
: :
239
.I
_
-
. . . .
. . . .
SOOft
I O00
ft.
-
::
128
I 71
213
256
. .
.
. .
- -
I i 1
152
203
254
. . .
. . .
. , . .
. . . .
. . . .
- -
.
-
-
-
T
.
.
. .
-
-
1; ;
I 82
243
. . .
. .
.
-
I Z
259
. . .
.
.
.
. .
.
-
20
21
I : :
122
143
163
I 83
204
::
:i;
181
218
254
. . .
. . .
. . . .
lOi
-
:h nozzle.
~nllons per Minut,e Flowing.
100 /20~~300/400(500~660/700~800~1000
Friction Loss, Pounds per 100 f t. Length.
6. 836 27. 3 61. 5 109 I 71
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. 170 20. 7 46. 5 82. 7 129 I 89
. . . . .
3. 790 15. 2 34. 1 60. 6 94. 7 136
186 . . . _. _. . . .
2. 895
2. 240
I I . 6 26. 1 46. 3 72. 4104 138 1; ; . . . . .
9. 0' 20. 2 35. 8 56. 0 80. 6 110
224
I . 748 7. 0 15. 7 28. 0 43. 7 62. 9 85. 7 i i 2
175
1. 391 5. 6 12. 5 22. 3 34. 8 50. 1 68. 2 89. 0 I 39
1. 097 4. 4 9. 9 17. 6 27. 4 39. 5 53. 8 70. 2 1; ;
0. 900 3. 6 8. 1 14. 4 22. 5 32. 4 44. 1 57. 6
0. 416 I . 7 3. 7 6. 7 10. 4 15. 0 20. 4 26. 6 41. 6
0. 214 0. 9 1. 9 3. 4 5. 4 7. 7 10. 5 13. 7 21. 4
-
-
I O / I 9
; ; /
40:
; ;
67
50 j 77
60 85
70: 91
80; 95
90 i 99
100 i I O1
148 I 4
:; ii
1: : I 24 95
:; i:.
108 I 44 I 23 164
130 I 53 204
156 186
: z
245
1. 32 217 252 _. _. .
208 248 . . _. . . . . __
i i f I : : : : : : , : : : : : : , : : : : : :
;bs.
0. 17
Z
2. 7
46: :
8. 2
10. 7
13. 6
16. 7
I G-inch smooth nozzle.
I 9
: i
i i
116
135
154
I 73
193
-
27
53
80
I O?
134
160
I . 37
2! 4
240
.
-
.--
i i ; i i I I 3 56 143 71
125 I 47 169 214
-
.N.
I
-
34
1: :
I 37
I 71
205
239
. . . .
. . .
. . .
-
The above table is computed on the basis of 14 lbs. Per JO0 ft. lengt$
of 21/--in. bow with so gals. per min. Rowing. as found lo, Freeman s
tests jssuming that the loss varies as the square of the
UantltY. and.for
B
diffe;ent diameters and the same quantity inversely as t
e 5th Power of
the diameter.
Rated Capacities of &eam Fire-en&es, which 1sperhaps ol?ethird
f
reater than their ordinary rate of work at fires, are substantldly m
allows:
z!: sizes
;S& gE!s. per*fnin.. or
iw,oOo gals. per 24J ours.
900 -:; 1:
1. 008. 000 ; ; , ,
1st
1.296,OOO
1 ext., 1,100
1,584,OOO .
~-~-~-. .
,e material, may. \b i dncj i i r . be accu&&
. I / . . I . . . . .
726 HYDRAULI CS.
THE SIPHON.
isused tq co?vey a hqmd ,from a higher to a lower level. over an in&,
The Siphon is a bent.tube of unequal branches, open at both ends and
diate pol?t-ngher. t.han either.
plan2 aiiu p;yngea Into two. ho&es of liqiud whose upper surfaces are at
.Its parallpl l mnches kir?q in a vf.fllc$
wthout, each branch pf the ~IIIK xhen a rent or .s.mnIi oqenlnr is ma:
different 1ete.s. the fluid wl! stand at the same !evel both within a ,,
a,t tile bend:. I[ th? illr be wthdrawn from the siphon :h&,oh thi; ve,te
t,le water r\lll we In the hranc,h~:s by the atmospheric pressure without
and when the two columns !uute and the vent is closed the liquid wlli
of the slPhOr1 1s beiO!v the surface of the liquid in the reservoir.
flow frqm the. upper reservoir as lone as the end of theshorter branch
ieve, might be as great as 33 feet.
If, t~he water was free from air the height of the bend above the Su&,lg
If -1 = are3 of Cross-Section of the tube in square feet H = the dlff _
liquid in POUndS per culxc foot, then ADH measures the lntensltr of th
ewe In level between tl!e two reservoirs in feet, D thk density of t:e
fyr which causes the movement of the fiuid, and V = d2gi;= 8,9:,
the loss of. head for entry and fwtiOn. as in othrr cases of Holv of liquids
x H is the theoretical velocity..in feet per second, which is reducer1 by
throurb plPeS.
33 feet. hoxever. the ve1ocit.y of the water in the shorter-l& is ll&ltei
In bhe case of the difference of level beinn mreater +ha?
to t~hat due to.a hw$t of 33 feet, or that due to the differe&e bet&een
the atmoSPh%zC Pressure at the entrance and the vacuum at the bend,
&onr: Siphons. - Prof. J oseph Torrey in the Amer. J fachinist, *de-
scri bes a long siphon which was a partial failure.
The length of th? pipe was li92 feet.
and rose at one pomt 9 feet above the initial level.
The pipe was 3 inches diameter
30 feet below t.he init,ial !Fvel.
The final level &
NO automatic air valve was provided.
from the,p?nd and nearest the Dond.
The highest point in the siphon was about onc,$ird the total distance
At t!
whose iwxon w-as to fill the cipe when necessarl-.
Us pO:nL a pmmp was placed
flow for abot!t tw? hours and then cease. owing to accumulation of air ln
This .siphon r;ould
the pipe.
Thetheoretica: discharge from such a sized pipe wiih the specified head
%hen !n f!dl operation it discharged .&31/v gallons per minure.
IS 3~11~ gallons per minute.
Siphon on the \Tater-supply of >Iount Vrrnon, s x
lift of 22.i2 feet and a 4-O
Sews. JIav 4. 15493.) - A !2-inch siphon,. 925 feet !on* n~irt; a &ahiE{iz
by the New York C$Y su&rbFn Dater Co.
_J change !n alignment. xvas-i)ut in use in 1892
chamber at the aphon :s 12 inches by 16 feet I&
croSseS a Supply.maIn., wluch IS tapped to charrre the siphon.
At its summit the siphon
The air-
cock at the top of the chamber provide an outlet foythe collected ar. A $&inch tap and
It iva: found that t~he siphon with air-chamber as described n-ou;d run
unt;l 12a cubic feet of ax had gathered, and that this took place only
Gal* 5S soon wth a l-i-foot lift as with the full lift. of 22.12 feet. The
sl?hon wll operate about 2 ilours without being recharged but more
water can be gotten over b,v charting even six hours.
r!-mning 23 houfs out of 21. with only one mai in attendance.
siphon a? dexnbed above I$
It ck he kept
is
With the
that the ischarge of the
01 the syhon to recharge It.
necessary to close the valves at each end
siphon
It has been found by weir measurements
Practically the same as through a straight pipe.
before air accumulates at the summit is
SW., 1900.
A successful siphon is $escrihed by R. S. Haie in Jo~(T Assoc. Eng
A 240. g%lv~mzed pipe had been used and it I;ad been net:
to keep the siphon in operation.
essarg to open a waste-Dlpe and thus secure a &tinuous flom in order
small air leaks in the joints.
The trouble seemed to be due to very
I-in. lead pipe. the siphon was entirelv suceessfu . The malrimum rise
When the 2-in. iron yipe was replaced by a
359 ft. Eeiow the level, and the length .jOO ft.
of the lPe above the level of the pond was 12 ft., the discharge about
MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING WATER.
727 \
c
MEASUREXENT OF FLOWING WATER.
D*^nr\mn*op~ - If a vertical or oblique tube be inserted into a pipe
thn w~~+.PT will rise in the former, a-- *lr^
contaimng water under press,ure, yL:= ..--- ..--. .~-~
L11U b,lG
vertical height to which it
rtses wll be the head producing the pressure
tt?rhed.
at the point where t,he tube Is-a
Such 5 tube IS called~ ;I plezom-
,w
eter ,. ->r ,._. i,,rl
-_.__-_ ~~,
, L,Lc3aLILi measure.
:I the water III the piezometer falls belt..
its proper lrl:el It -SllO\~i tll:lt
the pre;wre in the main pipe has been
reduced by an obstruction between the piezorneter and the reservw.
If
the water rises above its proper leyel.
it indicates that the pressure there
has been lncressed by an ohstructmn beyond t,he
If we im.roine a pipe full of water to he provide
giezometer.
with a numper of pie-
tl:en a line joining. the tops of the columns of water in them ia
Zigreement within 3%
It a
%
pears from experiments made bv W. M. Whi te, descri bed f n &
Rf%L,el
efore the Loulsiana Engg SocY..
isol, by Williams, Hubbell and
(~rans. A. S. C. E.,
igol), and by W. B. Gregory (Trans. S.
n ,.wl?\ *h-t i t.hn formula for the Pitot tube. V = c 42 gH. 1x1 ** I LmL^^-I I ..
-:----
i,~,,;~~~~;li right angies with the direction 01 we CUII~I~
1 thedqtatir nressure is correctly measured.
The total preSSUr0
> nv+onrlwl nla.ne surface at right ant@ *a
$&ux!d by ? jet striking aI, =.\UII.U--
z.7 I
It and escapmg parallel to the plate.
e&& t&ice the product of the
a;ea of the jet into the pressure calculat,ed from the head due the Veloc-
ity
and for this case H = 2 >( P/2 g instead of V2/2 9: but as found ln
W&es experiments the maSlmum pressure at a P$;ie;ne\ys I&$,
exactly opposite the jet corresponds to h = V*/: fi,, center of a falling
vjith four different shapes of nozzles placed unde.
stream of water showed that the pressure produced was capable of sus-
tainlng a column of water almost
exactly equal to the height of the
source of the falling mater.
Tests by J A. Knesche (I ndust. Engg. Nov.. 1909). in which a ?t.ot
tube was inse;ted ln a z&in. w*+~ti~ nine. cave C=ahout 0.77 for veloC%tles
of 2.5 to 8 it. p?r sec., and sn
&rrXi& for lower velocit,ies.
He holds
that the coefficient of a tl;be -__-_.~
shwld be determined by experiment oerore
its readings can be considered accurate.
naxirnum and lIean Velocities in Pipes. -Williams, Hubbell and
Finkel (TAILS. A. s. c. E..lgol).found a ratloot 0.84 between the mea*
.w in &xed circular conduita.
and the maximum velocities of water flOW
-10 --- ----
itk. Nhprphv observations o
under normal conditions, at ordinary veloC~=~:.
,f
velocity taken at the center under such condlt:ons.
k%Kaproperly rated
pitot tube may be r&d 0~ in pive PeSUliS wlthm 3% of %?rreCtness,
-__..
he material may \no ~lktcj& .b~--~&%%l%
725 HYDR.%ULICS.
The Vcn+ri Xetcr inventedby Clemens Herschel and describedln
a pamphlet issued Qy the Builders Iron Foundrv of Piovidence R.I. ia
named from Ve+m. who first tailed attention, iti1796. to the relition &e-
tween the velo$les and pressures of fluids when flowing through converg.
ing, and diverpmg tubes. It consists of two parts - the tube through
which the water flows, and the recorder, which registers the q&ntity of
water that p?Fes through the tube.
The tubetakes the shape of two trun.
cated cones Jomed in their smallest diameters by a short throat-piece.
.4t
the up-.st,rmm end and at the throat there are pressure-chambers, at
winch polpts the pressures are taken.
Tire actIon of th? tube is based on that property which causes the small
section of a gent,lYerpandmgfrustum of a cone to receive without material
resultant loss of head, a,s much water at the smallest diameter as is dis-
charged at the lame end, and on that further property which causes the
pressure of the water flowing through the threat to be less by virtue of its
greater vel?city, than the pressure at the up-stream end df t~he tube each
Pressure beln,Y a4 the same time a function of the velocity at that poi<t and
of the hvdrostatx pressure which would obtain were the water motionless
within the uioe.
Tne reCOid&iS connected with the tube by preeallro-ninon . ..hhh L-A I-
it from the chambers surrounding the up-strn--
tube. It may be placed in nnv~rnnlrnniYn+ n
meter. It is oner~~t*d I,* I &
,; _-.. . ti..sL.ly position within~i~&i6~i&$ $ ii;:
-- -_-----.- IJ _ . . . Ight and clockwork. Thedifference of pres-
sure or head at the entrance and at the throat of the meter is balanced in
the recorder bv the differem-e nf level in two columns of mercury in
. ..e other. The inner carries a float the
position Of m~$&h-;~ ~;$~~t~~~of the nlrslntitv Of water flowing t&ug:h
-. . U.ALl rLLd time of contact between
ters by which the successive readings
the.tu!:e. By its &e and fail the finnt =z;tz;kd
an mteTratinx drum and the coun
are re~lst ewd.
There is no limit to the sizes of the meters nor the
that may be measured. Meters with 24-inch, 36-inch,
%
uantity of water
2O-foot tubes can be readilv made.
S-inch, and even
3feasurement by Venturi Tubes. ITram. -4. S. C I7. Nov 1887
and lap.. ?Y%.) - Xr. fierschel recommends theuseof a*V&,uri &be in:
serted,.in the force-mam of the pumping engine, for determining the
qua+? of water discharged.
Such a tube applied to a 24-inch main has
a total length of about 20 feet.
At a distance of 4 feet from the end
nearest tht: engine the inside diameter of the tube is contracted to a throat
having a dmmeter of about 8 inches.
A pressure-gauge is attached to each
of two,cha.mbers. theonesurroundingandcommunicnting with the entrance
or ma111 pipe. the other with the throat.
According to experiments made
upon two tzbes of this kind. one 4 in. in diameter at the throat and 1 in
atthe entrance, and the other about 36 in. in diameter at the throa,t %nd
? Iret at its entrance. the quantity of water which passes through the tube
is very nearis the theoretical discharge through an opening hating an area
equal to Lhat of the throat, and a velocity which is that due to the difference
in head shown by the two gauges.
Mr. Herschel states that. the coetftcient
for t!%e two nldely-varying sizes of tubes and for a wide range of velocity
throu$h the pipe, was found to be within two per cent either way of 93m
In other words, the quantity of water flowing through the tube p& seco;lod
j3 express+ within two per cent by tbe formula W= 0.9s x A x d/z,
In :r-hl$h -4 IS thc.area of the throat of the tube, h the head in feet corre-
spondmg to the &Rerence in the pressure of
that found at the throat, and a = 32.16.
the water enter&g the &be and
3ieasurer?,mt of Dtschaige of Pumping-engines by means of
Nozzles. (!runs. A. S. Bf. 4.. xii. 575.) -The measurement of water
by computation from its discharge through orifices, or through the nozzles
of tire-hose. furmshes a peans of determining the quantity of water de-
liver& by a ?umpinK+ngme which can be applied without much difficulty
John K Freeman. lrans. A. S. c. E.. NOV., 1889 describes a series of ex:
WimentS covermg a !yide range of pressures a&d &es and the results
showed that the co$lctent of discharge for a smooth n&zle of ordinary
good form was wltlun one-half of one per cent, either way of 0 g-7. the
dfameter of the nozzle being accurately calipered, and the &s&es 6eing
determined by means of an accurate gauge attached to a suitable piezom-
eter at the base of the play-pipe.
. , . . - __
%RNfNG: This is a 1910 edition. - Soti e 0
MEASUREMENT OF FLOWfNG WATER.
729
In order to use this method for detetmining the qtiancit$ of &ter dls-
charged by a piimping-engine, it would be necessary to provide a Pressure-
box to which the water would be conducted. and attach t~~~;r&~g t;
ma<v nozzles as would be required to carry off the -water.
hlr. Freemans estimate, four. 1 l/J-inch nozzles, thus connected,.wvfth a
pressure of 80 lbs, per squ?re Inch.
would discharge the full capacity of a
two-and-a-half-mllhon en@?.
He also suggests the. use of a, portable
a paratrls with a single opemng for discharge. ,cons+mp essentially of a
&nese !lozzle, so-called, the water being carned to It by three or more
li1u3 of Me-hose.
To insure reliability for these RK!aSUremeRt~S, it is neC~Sa$;t$dt~;
shut-off valve in the force-main. or the several shut-off VdVeS.
tight, so that all the water discharged by the engme may pass through the
nozzies.
Flow through Rectangular Orifices.
(Approximate. See P. 698.)
cu~tc FEET OF WATER DISCHARGED PER MINUTE THROUGH AX ORIFICE
ONE Isat SQUARE, UXDER ANY HEAD OF WATER FROM 3 TO 72 ISCHE5.
For any other orifice. multiply by its area in square inches.
Formula, Q =0.624 dp X a.
QS cu. ft. per min.; a = area in sq. in.
2.20
2.20
I 2
2.51
2.58
2:;:
2.78
2.84
3.ps 53
44::; :;
I
4.09 56
4.12 57
4.18 58
::"2 ZJ
I
4.30 61
4.34 62
4.39 63
::z "6:
4.52 66
4.55 67
::i; %
44% ?I
4.74 72
1:::
4.05
4.89
4.92
4.91
:::i
::ii
?Ieasuremcnt of an Open Stream by Velocity and cross-section,; ,t
Measure ,the depth of the water at from 6 to 12 PolRtS iLCrOSS tJv2 Stre?r*.
by the number of measurements made: t.his nil1 be the average deptl! of
equal distances between.
Add all the depths in feet together and &lde
the stream which muitiplied by its width Will pve Its area o! cros+swtlon.
Multiply t& by the velocity of the stream 1. feet per nnnute. and the
result will be the discharge in cubic feet per mmute Of the StreaIIL
The velocity of the stream can be found by layipg off IO0 feet of t.he bank
and throwing a float, into the middle, noting the time taken In Passlng.o?er
the 100 ft. Do this a number of times and take the average; tlE$jr;&
ing this distance by the time gives the veloclty.at the surface.
of the stream flows faster than the bottom or sid.es -4_;t?$r~~@e~$$n~~~
-being about 83~ of the surface velocity at the nnddle
measure a &,ta,&e of 1% feet for the float and reckon it as 100.
. .
the ?naterial may \o lonc&r .t&%%k?te
.Mlners Inch Measurements.
(Pelton Water Wheel Co.)
The cut, Fig. 141,shows the form of measuring-box ordinarily used and
the followtng table gives the.discharge in cubic feet per minute of a miners
inch of. water, as measured under the various heads and different lengths
and heights of apertures used in California.
FIG. 141.
Le:P
op::ini
Inches.
I : : : ;
I .361
I .363
1.364
I : : : ;
Ei
1.366
1%
: : : : :
I .368
I.368
1.368
1. 368
openings 2 Inches High.
cu. ft.
I . 473
1. 480
1%
: : Z. Z
1. 489
1: %
1. 490
1: %
I . 491
1. 491
1~2~
1: 493
1%
1. 493
1. 494
Openings 4 Inches High.
--
cu. ft.
I . 320
I .336
I.344
I . 349
1%
I . 356
I .357
1. 359
I . 359
1%
i . 361
I . 362
1.363
I .364
%
1.366
ZZ
!
NOTE. -The apertures from which the above measurements were ob-
tamed were through material 1 t/4 inches t.hick and the lower edge 2 in
above the bottom of the measuring-box, thus $iving full contraction.
---.141-(1_-~,--_
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Sotk of
MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING WATER.
731
#low of Water Over Weirs.
Wei r Dan! Measurement; ,&$$n;
Water Wheel Co.) - Place a board or plank in the stream,
the sketch at some pomt where a pond ~111 form, above.
The length of
the notch ln the dam should be from.t!vo to four times its depth for small
quantities and longer for large quantities.
The edges of the notch should
be beveledtoward the intake side, as shown.
The overfall below the notch
should not be less than twice !ts depih.
Francis says a fall below the
Crest eqm&l to one-half the head I Ssuf f i cl eut, but there must be a free access
of air under the sheet.
FIG. 143.
In the pond about 6 ft. above the dam.
drive a stake, and then obstruct
the water u&l it rises precisely to the bottom of the notch and mark the
stake at this level
Then complete the dam so as to Cause all the water to
flow through the notch, and, after time for the water to settle. .mark the
stake again for this new level.
If preferred the stake can be driven with
its top precisely level with the bottom of the, notch and the depth of the
water be measured with a rule after the water is flowing free, but the marks
are preferable in most CSCS.
The stake can then be withdrawn: and the
distance between the marks is the theoretical depth Of flow corresponding
to the quantltks in the weir table on the follomng Page.
Franciss Formula? for Weirs.
AslPZ%sqJ r
As rn;ztfihd by
W&s rn$thboth end COntraC-
. ] Q =3.33 lh12
~;m%p~~;~..+++~)
3.29 (1 + t) hsir
Q = 3.33 (1 --p.l,h) $12 3J 9 Zhst2
Weirs with full COntraCtiOn -
Q = 3.33 (z-o.2 it)h3/2 3.29 (1 - ;) hSt2.~
The greatest variation of the Francis formuhe fr0.m the values of c given
by Smith amounts to 3,1/1%.
The modified Frances formula, sWs,Smlth.
.
,e GiteriaI, may o Ionger .6e-i.Ecurate
pc.!lI give resuks SufficientlY exact, when great accuracy is not required,
wIthin the limit.9 nf h frnr-n o i f+ +n 2 ft., 1 being not less than :s h
-------- -- .-, __... V. .. I
Q 7 discharge in cubic feet Per second, 2 T length of weir in feet h
ef&Ive head In feet, measured from the level of the crest to the le&l 09
at111 water above t .hP w & r
If Q = discharge in cubic feet, per minute, and 1 and h are taken iu
!nches. the first of theabove formuke reduces to Q = 0.4 lh 3/z.
From this
formula the fol!oning table IS. calculated. The values are sufficiently
accurate. for ordirl?rY compu@tlons of water-power for weirs withollt end
contraqtlon,.that IS. for a weir the full width of the channel of approach
For weirs w1t.h full end contraction multiply the values taken from thd
table bY the length of the weir crest in inches less 0.2 times the head in
inches, to obtain the discharge.
Weir Table.
Gmw CUBI C FEET OF WATERPER MI NUTE THAT WXLL FLOW OVER d WEIR
ONE INCH WIDE AND FROM l/g TO 207/S INCHES DEEP.
y-
--
1
I
!
-
For other widths multiply by the width in inches.
I:
--
c cu. ft.
1:
1.13
2.07
3. ?0
4. 47
: : 2
9. 05
I O. 80
12. 64
14. 59
16. 62
18. 74
2;
Z: E
30. 54
33. 12
35. 77
-
--
t
I
-- -
--
I
1/2 in. i
-7
l/8 in. 114 in. 318 i n. 5/a in.
I
314 in.
-_ -_
al. ft.
.Ol
.47
1.23
7. 21
3. 35
4. 64
i %
9. 26
I I . 02
I %
16. 88
19. 01
21. 23
E: Z
28. 34
: 30: 2
36. 11
cu. ft.
. 05
1: : :
2. 34
' 4: ; :
; : 2
9. 47
I I . 25
1: : : ;
17. 15
19. 29
21. 51
23. 82
26. 20
25. 65
31. I 8
33. 78
36. 45
I
cu. f t.
: G
I .46
2. 40
34: :
6. 44
8.0,
9. 69
I I . 48
1: : : f i
17. 41
19. 56
: i : r":
26. 50
28. 97
: : : : :
36. 78
cu. ft.
. I 4
. 73
1. 58
2. 6,
3. 81
5. 15
6. 62
8. 21
9. 91
11. 71
13. 60
; : : 2;
19. 84
22. 08
%i
29. 28
31. 82
K.
-_
,
,
c..ff9
.a2
1.70
2. 76
: : ; :
I i : : ;
10. 13
E
15. 85
17. 94
20. 11
%07
27. 11
29. 59
32. 15
34. 77
37. 46
cu. ft.
. 26
. 92
1. 82
2:
: : ; t
8. 63
10. 35
12. 17
E
18. 21
?i : ; ;
25. 00
2: :
32. 47
: : : ;
L
-_
,
-.i
7l.g in.
cu. ft.
. 32
; : t:
3. 05
4. 30
: : i ;
8. 83
I ! : : :
1: : : 6'
18. 47
20. 67
22. 94
f : : : !
30. 22
; : : i
38. 15
When the velocity pf the approaching water is less
second. the result pbtamed by the table is fairly accurate
than 11s foot per
.When the vel-
oc:tv of approach 1s greater than l/z foot per second, a coriection should be
apphed. see page 698.
Smith. Jf., or of Basin should be used.
For more accurate computations, the coefficients of flow of Hamilton
In Smiths Hydraulics wfll be found
made by many different authont+, together with a discussion of their
a Collection of results Of expenmr+, on orifices and weirs of varfoils shapes
lies. a?d,Church s Mechanics of Engineering )
=vrral formulre., (See alsO Trautwmes Pocket Book. Unwins Hydra-
Oct.. 16% translated by Marichal and Trautwine Proe. Engrs Club oi
Razln s Experiments. - M. Basin (.4&ales des Pants et Chau&es
Pbila.. .!a?.. 1890) made an extensive series of exp&nents wftba sharp-
cr@Xtd weir without lateral contraction, the air being admitted freely be
hi.nd the.falling sheet. and found values of m varying from 0.47 to 0 69
height of the crest above the bottom of the channel from 0.;; toi.46 ft.,
mth vanations of the length of the weir from 19~14 to 7311 1: of ihd
I____.- ~~--~-. .._~~_,~_?. .,~~,
HARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
*
MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING W\\TER.
733
and of the head from. 1.97 to 23.62 in.
From these experinients he deduces
the following formula:
Q = [ 0. 425+ O. ?l , ( &) +H 42n.
in which P is the height in feet of the crest of the weir above the bottom of
the channel of approach. L the length of the wvelr. II the head, both In,feet.
arld Q the discharge in cu. ft.
F
er sec. This formula. says X. Ba::m. 1s
entirely practical where errors o 2% to 3% are admissible.
The following
table is condensed from M. Bazins pilper:
VALUESOFTHECOEFFICIENT~INTRE FORMUL&& - mLI I m. FOR A
SH.~P-CK+STED WEIR WITHOUT LATERAL COSTRACTION: THE AIR
RP.INO ADMITTED FREELY BEHIND THE FALLINQ SHEET.
Height of Crest of Weir Above Bed of Channel.
Head. H.
Feet...0,66 o.-^l . .I . l.l . n-Ii
Inches 7.87 11.
-
Ft. In.
0.164 1.97
0. 230 2. 76
0. 295 3. 54
0. 394 4. 72
0. 525 6. 30
0. 656 7. 07
0. 787 9. 45
0. 919 11. 02
I . 050 12. 60
I .181 14.17.
I .312 15.75
1. 444 17. 32
1. 575 18. 90
1. 706 20. 471.
1. 837 22. 05i .
1. 969123. 621.
0. 457
"0%
~: ~
0. 496
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 483 0. 4
. 0. 490. 4
. . . . . . . . . . . 0. 4940. 411
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
: : : : : ; : y&:
n
:::::::::::/:::::(K
0749 0749
0. 441 0. 440
0. 436 0. 436
0. 433 0. 432
0. 431 0. 429
0. 431 0. 428
0. 432 0. 428
0. 433 0. 429
0. 436 0. 430
0. 438 0. 432
0. 440 0. 433
0. 442 0. 435
0. 444 0. 436
0. 446 0. 438
0. 448 0. 439
0. 451 0. 441
p comparison of the results of this formula with those of experiments,
saYi 11. Basin justifies us in believing that. except In the unu.sual case 0f.a
very low weir(wbich should always be avmded). the precedmg table ~111
give the coefficient m in all cases within 1%; provKled. however. that tht
arrangements of the standard weir are exactly reprodliced.
It is esPeclall1
importals that the admission of the air behmd the falhng sheet ee perfect1
assured. If this condition is not comptied with. m m?Y vary pi+un.muc
i
wider limits.
The type adopted gives the !e>..st possible vanatlon in the
coefficient.
The Cip oleti, or Trap&oidal Weir. - Cippoleti found that. by uz.kt
a trapesolc!al weir with the sides inclined 1 honzontal to 4 vertical.
end contraction the discharge is equal to that of a rectangular weir
without end co&action (thst is with the width of the weir equal to the
width of the channel) and is represented by the simple formula Q = 3.367
I J 13/2. A. D. Flinn and C. W. D. .Dyer (Tmns. S. S. C. E.. 18%). in
experiments with a trapezoidal wKelr.
with values of L fro? 3 to 9 ft.
and of H from 0.44 to 1.40 ft., found the
value of the cqefficlent to aver-
age 3 331 the water being meesured by a rectangular weir and the results
being co&puted by Franciss formula, and 3.354 when Smith s .formula
was used.
They conclude that Cippolet,is fprmUla when aPPbed to a
properly constructed trapezoidal w~:Lr ~111 give the discharge wtb an
error due to combined inaccuracies, not greater than 1%.
_
.A,..
le material, may ' no longer .be accurate
WATER-POWER.
Pcmer. of a Fall of Water -
P
EtRcieney. - Thz gross power of a fall
f w&er 1s the product of the weight of water discharzed in a unit of time
nto the total head. r.e., the di,tferencc of vertical el&tion of the upper
surface of the water at the pmnts where the fall in question begins and
ends. The ter? head
used in connection with water-wheels is the
differen:e in height from the surface of the water in the wheel-pit to the
surface m the pen-stock when the wheel is running.
If Q = cubic feet of water discharged per second D = weight of a cubic
foot of water = 62.36 ibs. at 60 F., H = tot.al heid in feet; then
DQH = gross power in foot-pounds per second,
and D&H + 550 = 0.113.k QH = gross horse-power.
If Q is taken in cubic feet per minute, H.P. = ~~3Xo~~.36 = .0OI89&~
A water-wheel or motor of nnv ~-inrl pnnnn+ .r+;t:rn +L _ . ..L-*- ^* I.~ . . -.... .._..- .- . . . . vy ycLLIGc ~IIC WLIUL~ 01 rne neaa
H. since there are losses of head at both the entrance to and the esit from
the wheel.
Its pa
There are atso losses of enrr~r due to friction of the water in
xf lo --- ,?veloped by the
ssape through the wheel. The-&ig+ *,._ ,,,~~~, Ut
wheel to the gross power of tbe fall is the efficlencv of the XV:
efficiency. net horse-power = 0.00142 QH = 2:.
._- . . heel.- For-757;
IUtj
A head of water can be made use.of in one or other of the following ways,
viz.:
Ft. By.its weight. as In the water-balance and in t.he overshot-wheel.
. BS Its Pressure. as In turbines and in the hydraulic engine, hydraulic
;. crane. etc.
BJ- its imp&e. as in the undershot-wheel. and in the Pelton wheel.
lation of the above.
HOrSe-POWer Of a Running Stream. --The gross hcrse-power is
H.;?. = QI f X 62.36 i 550 = 0.1134 QH
CUJK feet Per second actually impinginghn the Hoat or bucket. a.nd t =
in which Q is the discharpe in
2
tlwm3ml hexi due to the veIocity of the stream = .!!- =
._, -..- .-
v=
- v in which
TV is the ekKitS in feet Per second.
2q 64.4
H.P. = 0.00189 QH.
If Q be taken in cubic feet per mintIts,
Thiis. if the tioats of an itnrlerchnt-n:hnal A;---~ by a current alone hc
~~ --- lr .--. -..-...I~FI u11*c,
~.... -2 5
feet x I foot. and the velocity of stream = 210 ft. per minute or 31, ft
Per sec.. of +ich the theoretIca head is 0.19 ft., Q =5 sq. ft.
x iI0 = I&j
cu. ft. w~,~nute: H.P. .= 1050 x 0.19 x 0.00189 = 0.377 H.P-
TFe n~,ee~ :votild reahze oniy about 0.4 of this power on &count of
@iCtlOn and slip. or 0.15I H.P..
07 n,hnlt On2 H:p. persquare foot of
tloat. which is equivalent t6%3-$& f~,f~o;;~-;
Current JIofors. -A current motor c
power of a runmngstream if it could take all rne velocil
so that it !vould leave the floats or buckets witch no velocity at ali: or iti
other warns. It would require the backing up of the wnole
iolur&of the
stream until the actual head was equivalent to the theoretic
the velocity of the stream.
al bead due to
As but a small fraction of the belocity of the
stream can be taken up by a current motor, its efficiency is very small
Current motors may be used to obtain small amotmtsof power from largd
streams. but for large powers they are not practicable.
Rernoui1W.s Theorem.-Energy of Water Flowing in a Tube. -
The -head due to the velocity isx:
the head due to the pressure is t ; the
head due to actual height above ?h% datum plane is h feet. The tot; head
is thesum of these = gg + h + 6. in feet, in which v = velocity in feet per
second,l = pressurein Ibs. per sq. ft., w =~ weight of I cu. ft. of water
-i
_.. __.*.
ould only utilize the whole
. . .
iy out of the water.
.~--. ~~...~ ~_._ _~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Sotie of
WATER-PO WEH.
f ~_
62.36 Ibs. If p = pressure in lbs. per sq. in., ; - 2.309 p.
If a constant
quantity of water is flowing through a tube rn a giv+ time.,the velocity
varymg at different point,s on acco+ of changes ln the diameter+ the
energy remains constant (loss by fnctlon escepted) and the sum.0. the
three heads is constant, the pressure he?d mcreasmF,as the v,$,clty de-
tpsasp, and vice-versa.
This principle IS known as
Bernomlh s Theo-
Ieyi hydraulic transmission the velocity and the height above datum are
usually small compared with the pressure-head.
The w!>rk trr,enerzy of a
given quantity of water Under .pressure = its
vplume Jn cutnc feet X Its
pressure in lbs. per s
and p = pressure in 9
ft.: or II Q = quantity In cubic feet per second,
bs. per square Inch, 1V = 144 pQ, and the H.P.
--
-2 1s = 0.2618 pQ.
vsfint,ency of a Long Conduit. - A. L. +dams and, R. C.
tiemrrlelr (c,(y y rvr~~. Slav 4, 1893) show by mathematical analysis ;hat
the conditions for securing-the mavirnum amount of power tbronghp song
conduit of fixed diameter, without regard to
the economy of water. 1s that
the draught from the pipe Fhnlllrt he a~wh that the friCtiOnd loss In the pipe -_-_ __.. ..~~.
ml1 be equal. to one-thirc .~
i $tj;e entire static head.
Mill-Pker. - A m
.ill-power is a unit used to rate a water-power
for the purpose of rent+!
r it. The value of the unit is different m different
localities. The -
rouowln; are examples (from Emerson):
Holltoke. J fas-.
S. - Each mill-power at the respective falls is declared to
he the right durinn 16 hours ir
L a day to rlraw 38 cu. ft. of water per second
eat the upper fall when the head there is -
90 feet. or a quantity proportionate
to the height at the falls. This is equal to 86.2 horse-po\er as a masimum.
~~~~~~~ ,lfoss. - The right to draw during 15 bnllrs In the dav SO much
water as shall give a power equal to 22
when the fall there is 59 feet., Eclln.1 c
..--.- .~~ ~.~~
i cu.-ft. a second at thegreat fall.
.o 85 H.P. maximum.
le ngnt to%w during 16 hours in a day so much
;er equal to 30 cu. ft. per second when the head 1s
D qasimum.
Lawrence. Mass. - Tt
water as shall give a Pan
25 feet. Equal to 85 H., . ~1
Minneauolis. Minn. - 30 t
:u. ft. of water per second.with head of 22 feet.
Equal to 74.8 H.P.
de.. hr U* - nitride 725 bv the number of feet Of Iall TinU? A.
J fanchcdtcv, *. . . . .
and the quotient will bethe&%b~rof cubic feet per second itj that Tall.
For 20 feet fall this eqilals 38.1 cu. ft., equa! to 86.4 H.P., maxImum.
--M$ ower equivalent to the power mven by 6 CU. ft.
pe~$~~~~~~~en the fafis 20 feet.
F.olml to 13.6 H.P.. maximum.
ii &$t-& draw 81/z cu. ft. of water per
,orse-g\F.
Maximum rental $700 Per
b%ve, is that clue theorerically. to.the
Passaic. .V.J. - Mill-
f
ower: T
sec. fail of 22 feet, equa to 21.2 h
vea; for each mill-power = $3.?.0(
* -The horse-poweimasimum abo,. . ,~-
weight of water and the heigllt of the fall. assuming the water-wheel to
have perfect efficiency.
It should be multiplied by the effjrlency of the
wheel, say 75% for good turbines, to obtam the H.P. delivered by the
le material may i o lck&~.be accurate
The coal consumption per H.P. per hour for a compbund engine is taken
at 1 J/4 Ihs. per hour, wben no steam is taken from the receiver for heating
purposes. The gross consumption when 25% is taken from the receiver18
about 2.06 ibs.
75% of the steam,is used as in a compound engine at
25% of the steam IS used as in a high-pressure engine at 3100 lbs. =
1 75 Ibs. = 1 31 lbs
175 lb.
The runniw expenses ~$7 H.-P. per years are as follows:
) PR I ha ,.,...a ..^_ Le..-
2.06 I bs.
-.,- a~-. ~-1 P-X wur = 21.115 Ips. for lOL/4 hours or one day -
6NX.42 lbs..for 305 days, which, at $3.00 per long ton =
htendance of hollers. one man @ $2.00
and one man @ $1.25 =
Attendance of engine. one man @ $3.51j.
5:;;
Oil. waste. and supplies,
The cost of such a steam-plan1
tfn N_ev.Eng!and and vicinity of 500
2.::
O
H. P. is about $65 per H. r.
Xaltlng the fixed expense> as 4%
$$,e?en,l,ne. 5% on boilers. and 2% on other portions, repairs at
14. mereSt at 5%. taxes at l&/27* on sf4 cost.
L/2% on exposed portion. the total
and insurance at
121/2%, or $65 x 0.12112 =
average per cent is about
^ _-
8.13
Gross Cost Of Power and low-pressure stea@ per H. P. Gee
Comparing this with water-power Mr. Main savs! .4t Lawrence the
cost of dam and canals was about &50.000. or $85 per H. P
The cost
Per H. P. of wheel-Plant from canal to river is about $45 per H: P. of
Plan!. or about 36.5 Per H. P. nse~i. the additional $20 being caused by
due to rise 2nd fall of river.
makLng the Plant large enough to compensa,te for Ructuation of power
1s then ?b:ut 5130 Per H. P. Placiilg the depreciation on the whole
The total cost per H. P. of developed plant
Plant at 1 r. repairs at 1%. interest at 5%. taxes and insurance at 1%,
or a total of 9%. gives:
Fixed expenses per H. P. $1.30 x .09 = $11.70
Runnin6 expenses per H. P. (Estimated)
2.00
* $13.70
To this has to be added the amount of steam required for heating
purposes. sau1 to be about 25% of the total amount used but in winter
months the consumption is at least 371/z%.
have a boiler plant of :about 37 l/q% of the size of the one conside;ed with
It is therefoie necessary to
the steam-plant. costmg about &Ox 0.375 = $7.50 per H. P of total
polt-er used.
the total plant Per vear:
The expense of running this boiler-plant is, per H. p. of
Fix-d exwksl21/2% on 87.50
Coal
......................
.. ......
80.94
Labor ... ;.
..............................................
3.26
................................
1.23
Total.
--
..............
........................
$5.43
Making a t_otal Cost Per Year for water-
plant S131r0 + $5.43 = $19.13 which
B
ower with the audliary boiler
educted
of S26./00 per year.
from S2i.80 makes a diffmecp in favor of Water-power of $2.67, or for 10,000 H. P. a sating
It is fair t.o say, says Mr. Main I
that the value of this constant
SaWG: Or If 6% is a fair interest to receive on money thus Invested the
Payer Is a pum of money which whe& put at interest will produce the
vy w$ld be S26.700 i 0.06 = $445,000:*
wa,er-power:
1, r. 1 aLn m$es the following general statements as to the value or a
steam-plant.
nothine if its vanatlon 1s great, unless it is to be supplemented by a
The .valu.e of an undeveloped variable power is nsually
the ?ouble-plant is, less than the cost of steam-power under tbe same
It is of value then only when the cost per horse-power for
rePresented in the same manner as the value of i permanent pow& has
co=htions as mentloned for a permanent power and its value E-n be
been represented.
- - a . . - - _- . - . ~ ____ ~~- - , - - _, ~ _____, _ , . , , __ , . . . ~~_~~, ~. . . ~.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
TURBINE WHEELS.
737
..mI_- __^ ,.... ..# n ,l-=aloped power is as follows: If the power can be
run cneaper ~llill, JLc~,,,, the valw is that of the power. plus the cost of
plan4. less depreciation.
If it cannot be run a> clreqplg as,steam. con-
%dennr: its cost, etc., the value of the ,power,ltself Is nptt~lll@C:, but the
vrl,le of the plant is such as could be ~~~(1 for It new, Which would brrng
the total cost of running down to the cost of steam-power. less deprecia-
tifw.
\Ir, Sa~~!~el Webber. Iron Age, Feb. and +rch, 1893, writes a series pf
ariic1t.s sl:onin,-
cr the ,le~&)I)lnent of XmerKan turbine wheels. and incl-
d~lltally criticlses the statemellts of
Ur. Xaiu and others who have
,,,ade dontpafisons of costs of steam
and of water-powef unfavorable to
the latter. He says:
They bsve bitsed their rstculatlons on the, cost
of stemu, on largt: compo!mtl entines of 1000 or more H. P. and. !20
pounds pressure of steam 111 their boilers.
and by careful lo-hcllr , trials
succeeded in figuring darn steam to a cost of ab?ut 520 per H. P.. @or-
ing the well-kuoivn fact that its average cost In prart!cal use. except
near the coal mines. is from 340 to $30.
1n many mstan$es dams,
canals and modern turbines can be all completed fur a Cost 01 SlQO Per
H. p; and the interest on that. and the cost of attendance and 011. ~111
briilgwater-po\\er up to about $10 or 312 per annum; and With a man
competent to attend the dynamo in att..ndance, it can probably be
safely estimated at not over $15 per H. P.
WATER-WHEELS.
LI ._.,.._ _ . . . . . . . ~~~I
wheels.
~l,~iers~,~,r ancl DPLW~ ,&;ii i<;e
vcrs low etbcleucy. ?nd are
now no lonjicr bllilt.
The 0w-stwt wheel wkn made of large dlsmeter
(wheels ns big11 iw 72
ft. di:mv.$w have been made) and
pro )erly dcncned
have given etlicienrigs of over 80%.
but they have been a most. entlretY \
suppl;rnted by turbines, on account of their cumbersomeness, hlgb Cost.
leakage. and inabllit.y to work in back water.
Tilrbines are generallv classified accordln,
cr to the direction in which the
water flows through th;m. as fo!lows:
Tangential flow: Barkers mill.
Parallel Row: Jonval. Ra.dial OUJ-
ward How: Fourneyron.
Radial inward flow: Thompson vortex: Francis.
Inward and downward HOW: Central ,discharge scroll wheels and earher
American type of wtlrels; Swain turhl!le.
Inward, downward. and out-
ward flow: The American type of turbine.
TURBIAC WHEELS.
Proportions of Turbines. -
Prof. De Volson Wood djscusses at
length the theory of turbines in his paper on Hydraul,ic ReactIon Uotors.
Trans A. ,S M. E. xiv. 266. His pnncipal deductIons which have an
imme&te b&ing upon pract.ice are condensed in the following:
*
.
Notation.
Q = volume of water passing through the wheel per second,
hl -
head in +,he supply chamber above the entrance to the buckets.
h.. = hea.(j i.. tha tnil-rlo~ 2. hove the exit from the buckets,
L 1, UC Iy.. .--- 1-1. - --~
in nn.;sinc throueh the buckets. z1 = fall i.. r --... j,
H = hl + Z, - h2. the ef f e& i V e head,
~1 = coefficient of resistance along the guides,
err = coefficient. nf resistance along the buckets,
fl = radius of the i ,nitial rim,
R = radius of the terminal nq,-
V = velocity of the water issumg from supply chamber.
VI = initial velocity of the watbr in the bucket in reference to the bucket.
~12 = terminal velocity in the bucket,
o = angular velocity~of the wheet!
a = terminal angte between the gmde and initial rim. T .CAB. Fig. 143,
yb = anale between the initial element of bucket and lmt!al rim = EAD.
7~ = GFI, the angle between the terminal rim and terrmnal element of
Ibe bucket,
a = eb, Fig. 144 =I the arc subtending one gate opening.
~.~~~ .~ .._... -_ _--....
?e rnateritil mayno lotigkr.be accurate
ai = the arc subtending one bucket at entrance.
larger than a.)
(In practice a~ la
a2 = gh. the arc subtending one bucket at exit,
K = bf. normal section of passage, it being assumed that the passaga
and buckets are very narrow.
k~ = bd, initial normal section of bucket,
k2 = si. terminal normal section,
~I = velocity of initial rim.
~2 = velocity of terminai rim,
@ = HP{. angle between the terminal rim and actual direction of
the water at exit,
Y = depth of K, II. of aI. and ~2 of Kz. then
K = Ya sin a; KI = ~~alsinyl: KZ = y~a~sinvz.
FIG. 143.
FIG. 144.
Three simple systems are recognized, 71 < r? called outward Row.
71 > r?. called :cnard flow; PI = rs. called paratiel flow. The first and
second may be combmed v&h the third, making a mixed system
P&Z of Y: .!the quitting angle). -The efficiency is increased as y*
decreases, and IS greatest for y2 = 0.
Hence, theoretically the terminal
element of the bucket should be tangent to the quitting rim for best
efficiency.
This, howeve!. fqr the discharge of a finite quantity of
water. wouid reqmre an infimte depth of bucket. In practice there-
for?. this an@e must have a finite value. The larger the dladeter of
the terrmnai rim the smaller may be this angle for a given depth of wheel
and even quantity of water discharged.
In practice it is from lOa to 20
In a wheel in which all the elements except ye are fixpd the velocity oi
the wheel for best. effect must increase as the quitting angie of the bucket
decrea~cea
Values Of of ~1 must be less than 180 but the be& relation cannot
be dettmxned by analvsis. Howevec,~&ce the water should be de-
netted from its course G much as p&ble from its entering to its leavii~g
the wheel. .the angle o for this reason should be as small as practicable. *
In practice. (I cannot be zero, and @made from 2010 30 _
The value r, = 1.4 r2 makes thl
? width of the crown for internal flow
Vz for outward Bow, being approximately
about the same as for rl = n
0.3 of the external radius.
--I_~ __~._~_~_.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. S6t-k of
TURBINE WHEELS. 739
Values of 111and pi. -The frictional resistances depend upon the con-
struction of the wheel a8 to smoothness of the surfaces, sharpness of the
angles, regularity of the curved parts. and also upon the s eed it is run
These values cannot. be definitely assigned beforehand, gut Wdsbacd
gives for good conchtlons pi = ,IZ = 0.05 to 0.10.
They are not necessarily equal, and pl may be from 0.05 to 0.075, and p*
from 0.06 to 0.10 or even larger.
Values of ye must be less than 180 -- (x.
To be on the safe side, y1 may be 20 or 30 degrees less than 180~ - 2 a,
giving
y1 - 1800 - 2 a - 25 (say) = 155 - 2 O.
Then if a = 30. yl = 9.5. Some desi ners make ~1 90: others more,
anti &II others less. than that amount. &eisbach SI Iggests that it be less;
so that the bucket. will be shorter and fnction less. This reasoning a
to be correct for the inHow wheel. but not. for the outflow wheel. P
pears
u the
Tremont turbines, described in the Lowell Hydraulic Experiments. this
angle is 90. the angle LL 20. and ~2 loo, whichdproportions insured a posi-
tive pressure in the wheel. Fourneyron made yl = 90. and a from 30 to
!rP which va111es made the initial Dressure in the wheel near zero.
~&~vm o
d
Bucket. -.&e form of the bucket cannot be determined analyti-
rom the imttal and termmal dIrectIons and the volume of the
$& flowing through the wheel, the area ofthe normal sections may be
found.
The normal section of the buckets will be: K = $; kl= 2: kz= $
The depths of those sections will be:
Y= & Yl = al x;,,; y2= kz
a2 sin ye
The changes of curvature and section must be g:adual. and the general
form regular, so that eddies and whirls shall not be formed.
For the same
reason the wheel must be run with the correct velocity to secure the best
effect. In practice the buckets are made of two or three arcs of circles,
mutually tangential.
The Value of W. - So far as analysis indicates, the wheel may run at any
speed: but ln order that the stream shall flow smoothly from the su
chamber into the bucket, the velocity V should be prol)erly regulate
x
ply
.
If it = .u2 = 0.10. r? + rl = 1.40, (1 = 2P, yl = 9V: ~2 = 12., the
velocity of the initial rim for outward flow will be for rnazmrn efficiency
0.614 of the velocity due to the head, or wrld.614 42 gH_
The velocity due to the head would be 42 gll = 1.414 /8H.
For an inflow wheel for the case iu w@&rf = 2 rz*, and the other
dimensions as given above, WT~ = 0.682 42 gH.
The highest efficiency of the Tremont turbine, found experimentally,
was 0.79375. and the corresponding velocity, 0.62645 of that due to the
head, and for all velocities above and below this value the efficiency was
less.
In the Tremont wheel 0=20 instead of 25. and y? = lO0 instead of 12O.
These would make the theoretical efficiency and velocity of the wheel some-
what greater. Ex erlment showed that the velocity might be consider-
ablv lamer or smal er P than this amount without mr?h diminution of the
It was found that if the velocity of the initial (or interldr) rim was not,
less than 44% nor more than 75 % of that due to the fall, the efficient
was
This wheel was allowed to run freely without any
i? rake
rim was observed to
gH, which is not far frpm the
say, when the gate.ls fu.ll
9
wheel is moving wit 1
aoout niEu 1t.s mammum velocay.
Number of Buckets. - Successful wheels have been made in which the
distance between the buckets was as small as 0.75 of an inch, and others as
much as 2.75,inches. Turbines at the Ceutennlal Ex osition had buckets
from 4% inches to 9 inches from center to center.
pf too large they will
Qot work properly. Neither should they be too deep. Horizontal parti-
he mat&d may ' no lot@% Ibe accurate
TURBINE WHEELS.
740 ; WATER-POWiR. .
tions are sometimes introduced. These secure more efficient working in
case the gates are only partly opened. The form and number of buckets
for commercial purposes are chietiy the result of esperience.
Ratio o/I&a&i. - Theory does not limit the dimensions of the wheel.
pmctice.
Ia
for outward Row. rt + rl is from 1.25 to 1.50:
for inward How, r2 f fl is from 0.66 to 0.50.
It appears that the inflow-wheel hasahiCher cfikienrp than the outward-
How whee!. The intlow-wheel also runs somewhat slower for best effect.
The centnfugal force in the outward-iiow wheel tends to force the water
outward faster than it would otherwise flow: while in the inw&id-liow
wheel it has the contrary effect, acting as it does in opposit,i.on to the
velocity in the bhlckets.
It also appears that the efficiency of the outv:ard-flow wheel increases
sli@tly as. the width of the crown is less and the veto&y for masimuln
efhcieocy IS stower: while for the inflow-wheel the efficiency slightly in-
creases for increased width of crown, and the velocity of the outer rim at
the same time also increases.
!
II
i t
I I
$ -
I I
.bc
Efl___..- il. Eficiency. -The exact value or the efliciency for a particular wheel
must be found uy espenmenr. must be found by experiment.
It seems bsrdly It seems bsrdly
P . P .
ossible for the effective effitiencjr to equal, much less ossible for the effective effitiencjr to equal, much less
exceed. S6Y0, and a I chums cf 90 or more per cent for these motors should exceed. S6Y0, and a I chums cf 90 or more per cent for these motors should
be discarded as improbable. be discarded as improbable.
extremely good. estremelv eood.
A turbine yielding from 75~ to WC,% is A turbine yielding from 752 to WC,% is
Experiments with higher efliciencies have been reported. Exoerimentn with hizhPr eHic:irnrGes t,vave been reported.
The celebrated Tremont turbine gave 791/4C0 without the ditfuser.
which might bsve added sGme ~7~. which might bsve added sdrhe .)-?:I
-. _ _ _ . _ , ._____ Jut the ditfuser.
reported as yielding 0.75 to 0.9(
A Jonval turbine (parallel flow) was A Jonval turbine (parallel flow) was
Feportrd as yielding 0.75 to 0.90. but Morin suggested corrections reducing
it to 0.i rt to 0.63 to 0.71.
which t
Weisbsch gives the results of many experiments. in
which the efficiency ranged from 50% to SayO.
give E = 0.60 to 0.65. give E = 0.60 to 0.65.
Numerous experiments
The effirienci. considerine onlv the eherrv im- The efficiency. considering only the energy im-
parted to the wheel. will esceed by several per cent the efficiency of the
whe@,.for the latter will include the friction of the support and leakage at
the jomt between the sluice and wheei. which are not included in the
former: also as a plant the resistances and losses in the supply-chamber
are to be still further deducted.
The C~WXM. - The crowns may be plane anmdsr disks. dr conical, or
curved. If the partitions forming the buckets be so thin that they may be
discarded,
crpwns.
tile hxw of radial How will be determined by the form of the
If the crowns be plane. the radial How (or radial component)
will diminish. for the outward-flow wheel. as the distance from the axis
increases - the buckets being full - for the angular spa.ce will be greater.
Prof. Wood deduces from the formula! in his paper the tables on the
next page.
It appears from these tables: 1. That the terminal angle O, has
frequently been made too large in practice for the best etticienci.
2. That the terminal angle. =, of the guide should be for the inflow less
. than 10 kx the wheels here considered, but when the initial angle of the
bucket IS 90. and the terminal angle of the guide is j 2s. the gain of
efficiency is not 2!q0 greater than when the latter is 25.
3. That the inibial an&e of the bucket should exceed 90 for best elect
for out flow-wheels.
4. That with the initial angle between 60 and 120 for best effect on
intiow wheels the efficiency varies srarcrlv 1 cO.
5. In the out~flow-wheel, column (9) shbws that for the outflow for best
efleet the direction of the quitting water in reference to the earth should be
nearly radial (from 76 to 97). but for theinflow wheel the water Is thrown
forward in quitting. This shows that the velocity of the rim should some-
pvhat exceed the relative final velocity backward in the bucket, as shown
XI columns (4) and (5).
6. In these tables the velocities given are in terms of a. and the
coefficients of this expression will be the part of the head which would
produce that velocity if the water issued freely. There is only one case,
@umn 65). where the coefficient exceeds unity and the excess is so small
It may be discarded: and it may be said that in a properly proportioned
turbine with the conditions here~given none of the velocities will equal
that due to the head in the supply-chamber when running at best effect.
-
s&&g
c-
longer
a- - - - - - - ~- - . __ - , - __- , , -
~~R~~~~G: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
.ht
O;utward-flow Turhlne.
Parallel Crowns.
_
?
-
.
I 1
g Initial Effi- Velocity
Velocity
w Angle. ciency. Outer Rim.
Inner Rjm.
3 y
E r l l u' r l w' =dl / l / yr w
a, ,
cc
ri 2 3
.
s
4
60
E; ' 900
0. 804 0, 972d/ 2gH 0. 601' ~LH
0. 820 %874~/ 2 0. 6192/ &@
1200 0. 839 0, 798d2gH 0. 56542~H
150~ 6. 921 0. 709 d2gH 0. 501 d2gH
-
T-
!.dgle of
Guide.
a
u
-
I
_ -
_-
I
-
-
c -.
-..
-
--
-
_
-
Dlrtc-
tien pf
q$;:yz
e
9
Heutl
Equivdent
of Energy
in quitting
Water.
w2
G
IO
Velpdty of
E~?$;{;m
.,
Charf!ber*
Relst,ive
Velocity of
Entrance.
Vl
Rel+ive
Veh&tty of
tz
6 7 II
1. 048~2~
0. 931 2/ 2&l
0. 84342_g_H
0. 707 d2~H
0. 356d@
0. 27442&I
0. 595 42j . g
0. 206 42~H
@. 67642_g_N
0. 416 d2pH
0. 749 2/ 2&
0. 886~2~H
310 17'
230 56'
19O 5'
130 31'
- -
760 0. 051 H 0. 67
79O 0. 039 H 0. 76
820 0. 031 H 0. 04
990 0. 022 H 1. 00
Inward-flow Turbine.
p1 = p, = 0. 10. y, =120. Parallel Crowns. klvl = kzvz = I;: V = Q = 1.
-
Velocity Velocity
Outer Rim. Inner Kim.
TlW TZW
V E
0. 920
0. 920
0. 919
0. 918
13 VI
0. 476d2zl
0. 470 d/ z&l J
0. 089 <d
0. 456 t / 2&1!
0. 069 di zxt I
0. 429 doH
o . 077 d! _r r L!
o. n6dzpH
0. 672dcH
0. 691 "wf
0. 709 d2di
0. 743 dzgu
7O ( Y IlO* 0.010 H 1. 48
50 28' 1060 0.010 II 1. 50
40 46' 1055 0. 010 I I 1. 55
3O 08' 1070 0. 009 M 1. 65
7. The inflpw turbine presents the best conditions for construction for
producing a nveneffect. the only apparent disadvantage being an incr&ed
first cost due to an Increased depth, or an?ncreased diameter for producing
a given amount of wor k. The I;trger efficiency should, however, more than
neutralize the increased first cost.
Tests of Turbines. - Emerson says that in testing turbines It is a
rare thin:: to hnd two of t.he same size which can be made to do their best
at the same speed. The best speed of one of the leading wheels Is in-
vzrlably xide from the tabled rate. It was found that a 54-in T.P~F~;
wheel under 12 ft. head gave much better results at 78 revolutions per
minute than at 90.
Overshot wheels have been known to give 757, efficiency. but the
nveras:e performance is not over 60%.
A air average for a good turbine wheel may be taken at 757,.
In tests
of IS wheels made at the Philadelphia Water-works in IS59 and 1860, one
wheel gave less than 50% efficiency, two between 50% and 60%. six
betxxetn 60; and 70%, seven between 71% and 77%. two 82%. and one
87.7770. (Emerson.)
Tests of Turbine Wheels at the Centennial Exhibition, 1876
(From a paper by R. H. Thurston on The Systematic Testing of Turbln;
Wheels in the United States, Trans. A. S. &f. E., viii. 359.) - In lS76 the
Judg!s at the International Exhibition conducted a series of trials of
turlxnrs. >lany of the wheels offered for tests were found to be more oi
less defective in fitting and workmanship. The following is a statement
of the results of all turbines entered which gave an efficiency of over 75?&.
Seven other wheels were tested, giving results between 65y0 and 75%.
R I 1% on ...........................
.Nstio IL% ........................
Geyd
Tbs.
in 1 smgle! ..................
T:Gt. ......................
G0ldie 9 >lcCulloueh. . . . _: I
Rodney I iulylt MaciLCo .._._..._ II
Tyler Wb heel. 1 ....................
Geyelin iduple !I, ................
Knowlton & Do1 an ..............
E. T. Cope s: - : xms. ............
Barber 9 Harris... _. ._ __ __. . _. .I
York Manufacturing Co .I
W. F. Sfossei ^ ^ r&co . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81. 21 . . _. _ 71. 01 55. 901. . . . . .
68. M) ' 51. 03
_. . . _. . . . .
78. 70 71. 66 __. . __ . . _ _. . . . .
79. 59 ___. __ 81. 24
77. 57 . . . . __I . . . . . .
79. 921 67. 23 69. 59 . _. _. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77. 43 74. 25 . . . __ ~. . . . . 62. 75 ____. _ ___. . .
76. 94 . I _. . _ 69. 92 _. ____ . ___. _
76. 16 73. 33
_. ___. . _. ___
. . ____ . __. _. 70. 07
75. 701. . . . . . 67. 08
71. 74 _. _, _,
67. 57 62. 06
75. 15 I 74. 89 71. 90
__. __. . _. . . .
I 70. 52/ . . . . . . 66. 041. . . . . .
68 M! 51 m
77. - - ' /
77. 43 74. ;
76. 94 . I _. . _ (
The limits of error of the tests, says Prof. Thurston. were very uncertain:
they are undoubtedly considerable as comnared with the later work done
m the permanent flume at Holyoke - po&ib!y as much as 4% or 5%.
Experiments with draught-tubes. or suction-tubes which were
actuaily .diffusers in their effect. so far as Prof. Thurstoh has analyzed
them. mdtcate the loss by fnction which should be anticipated in such
cases. this loss decreasmg as the tube increased in size, and increasing as
Its diameter approached that of the wheel - the minimum diameter tried.
It was sometimes found very difficult to free the tube from air completely,
and next to im ossible, during the interval. to control the speed with the
brake. Severa P . trials were often necessary before the power due to the full
head could,+ obtained. The loss of power by gearing and by beltin
variable alth the proportions and arrangement of the pears and
was
pu leys, i
length of belt. etc., but averaged not far from 307, for angle pair of bevel-
-..-- --.---.- __..,
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
TURBINE WHEELS. 743
,
gears. uncut and dry., but smooth for such gearing. -and put .lO% for ,the
game gears, well lubncated. after they had been a short time In operation.
The amount of power transnutted was. however, small. and these figures
are probably much higher than those representmg orchnary pra,ctlce.
Introducing a second pair -spur-gears - the be+ figures were but httle
changed, although the difference between the case m which the larger gear
was the driver, and the case in which the small wheel was the driver, .was
erceivable. and was in favor of the former arrangement.
R.
A single stra@t
elt cave a loxi of but 2?& or 3%, a crossed helt 6% to S%., when transrmt-
tins 14 horse-pdwer with maximum tightness and trsnsmltting power. A
ouarter turn wasted about 1O70 as a magimum, and a quarter twist
atht 5%.
Dimensions of Turbines. - For dimensions, power. etc., of standard
makes of turbines consult the catalogues pf d$ernnt manufacturers.
The wheels of different makers vary greatly ln their proportions for any
given capacity.
Raw---, tinq and Efficiency of Turbines. - The following notes and tables
are conde nsed from a pamphlet entitled Turbine Water-wheel Tests
and Powe :r Tables. by R. E. Horton. Water-supply and Irrigation
Paper No. ~-~. -~ ~~ ISO. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906.
Theory does nnt indicate t _ __l_ _.._.._~ he numbers of guides or buckets most desir-
.able. If, holy ,-.-., .._ ~ ___ ___ __..,
juror thpv X~P t,oo few. the stream will not nronerlv follow ..-~ -~
the Row lines Indicated by theory. If the buckets are tad sniall-and too
nuf;eiy;u=~ the surface-fnctlon factor will be large. __.._.~ ~~~~
;6<,%n~rv to make the number of guide chutes greater thaq th !e
Y~-..--.~
YUCRIYU. ;;Ll,;;,,f h.loLs-o+c
so that any object passing through the chutes ~111 be
.____.. Aass through the buckets also.
..I
witi;most forms of gates t~he size of the jet is decreased as the gate is
closed the bucket area remaining unchanged, so that the wheel operates
most,l; hv reaction at 1~11 eate and by irnnlllne t
th
ii;; ,&GiScGsLy. - . . - - - . - -
maximum efficiencv for a 36.
a mte 1% closed. Hence the speed oi~%a;i
Pd The ra,t.io peripheral velocity i- Velocity dc
-inch Hercules turbine is given below:
;o an increasing exient as
mum efficiency varies as
le head for
Proportional gate opening . Full 0. 806 0. 647 0. 489 0. 379
Maximum efficiency.. .85.6 87.1 86. 3 80 73. 1
PeriDh. vel. -c vel. due head. 0.677 0. 648 0. 641 0. 603 0. 585
he material may no longer.be accurate
,,,, ,,,, ~,, ,,,,,,,,, ,,,,
744 WATER-POWER.
I
In pract,ice the theoretical power is multi lied by an efic:lcnW, factor E
to obtain the net Dower available on the tur me Shaft ily hamnmab~e by %
dynamometiical t&t.
i%nufacturerS rating tables are usually based on cliicicn(:ieS of about
601,. Jn selecting turbines from a makers list thl: ratf:d c:lficiencY may
be obt3med h.y the following formula:
E = tabled efficiency. H.P. x tabled horse-pow;; arld (2 = tabled
nn ^_^ , , I
Exjm&s of each size of a number of the leatiilir: t,y[l* of tllr@es
ha\? been t.eSCcd in the Holvoke flume. For Sllr,j l,url)lrlW the? rirtmg
tables have usu;illy been prepared directly from thg: 1~1s.
Let Jf. R. and Q denote. respectiveiy, the H.P.. r.f,.rrl.. :rnd tlischarge
in cu. ft. per min. of a turbine, aS expressed in th,. I.;rtd<x ftlr :UV head
H in feet. The subscrints 1~and 16 added si rrni f v 1, 111' wwr. W~*1, and
discftarw for the parlklar heads 1 and 16 ft., I
Let P, Y. and F denote coefficients of pot.-..
which represent, resnectivelv; the HP.. r.o.~n.. art;i.;il;;.ll:l;cc! ill (II. It:
per sec. tinder a head of 1 ft. ~ *
The Speed of :L turbine or the number of rev. per mlu. IWI! lh@, ~llWt~:We
are ProPortiofla~ to the Square root of the head. q*t,,! fI.1. vari43 with
lead and discharge, and iS consr+clrrcntly WW~rtf(ma~
, f the hend
the ProduCL of the I:
to the three-hztlves power c
Given the values of . l f . I
quantities for any other heau n are:
_ _ . . _ . . _ -. .
Z.,a.nd Q from the tab& ftrr any IlWd ff, these
-I fi : M,, : : H3/? : h3/? ; RI 1 : R,, : : H% : hh ; q,, : ,,I ,, : : fip: : h1,i2.
If Fl and h are t,aken at 16 ft. and 1 ft., respectiv~4,v, tl w WI UW Of the
c0efiicient.s P. X. and P are:
f = M,,/I f3/2 = M16/64 = 0.0151~:: . 1/ m
X = R,,/HI J = R&4 = 0.25 Rln
F = Q,a/60 HfZ= Q,6/240 = OSIWI 1; (.J w.
P. N. and F. when derived for a @ven wheel erl : rl uI s* 1~1~I NW' . *l j c! t! d,
and discharge to be calculated without the aid &f tllsv ltrl~l~:% itllll for anY
head H. by meanS of the following formulas:
M = MlH3&& = PH3/2
R=Rad/H/HI =Nd/ji
Q = QI d/H/HI - 60 F +.
Since at a head of 1 ft, and 3f1, RI, and QI eqltlLI I. S. and fM F.
respectirely, Hx3/z and d/H, each equals I. Ca]cld:ltlorls IuWlviW ff3
may be fa&itated by the lose of the appended ~:llG ol IllrcV-h:dves
po:ve:S. Rating tabies for sizes other than those I,*stc*tl ar( computed
usually on the following basis:
1. The efficiency and coefficients of gate and buchlt tll~chiW3 for the
Sizes tested are assumed to apply to the other sizes also.
2. The discharge for additional sizes is computed 111 prollortiou to the
measured area of the vent or discharge orifices.
Having these data, together with the efficiency, th<* talA~$ of diWharge
and horse-power can be prepared. The peripheral :I rt~*d ~~orr~Slc~lllll~~g
to maximum efficiency determined from tests of on,* s w 111 tllrbtll~ may
be assumed to apply to the other sizes also.
\
Fronl 111121 d:~tuul tlw revo-
lutions per minute can be computed, the number of ~WIIIIIII~W rlNred
t!, give a constant peripheral speed being inversely proporllona1 to the
diameter of t.he turbine.
In Point of discharge. the writers observation h;lr \IWII I hat. the rating
tables are usually fairly accurate. In the matter of otllclc!uCY thcro art
undoubtedly much larger discrepancies. :>
&
TURBINE WHEELS. 745
ThBm OF H3f 2 FOR CALCULATI NG HORSE-POWER OF TURBINES.
7J
0.0 0. 2 0. 4 0. 6 0. 8 $2
x
- - - w- -
96. 23 97. 61 ! ?' ?. CO 100. 39 101.
103. 19 104. 60 106. 02 107. 41 108.
117. 58 119. 05 120. 53 122. 01 I 23
125. 00 126. 50 128. 01 129. 53 131
i
,
1
!
, I
,
,
I
0.0 0. 2 0. 4 0. 6 0. 8
e- - - v-
64. 21 366. 36 368. 50 370. 66s372. 82
, 74. 93 377. 14 379. 31 381. 48: 383. 66
' 85. 85 388. 03 390. 22 392. 4! 1394. 61
t96. 81 399. 02
107. 89~410. 11
401. 23 403. 45 405. 67
412. 35 4i 4. 58 416. 82
119. 07 421. 31 423. 56 425. 81 428. 07
MO. 34 432. 60 434. 87 437. 15 439. 43
141. 71 441. 00 446. 29 448. 58 450. 88
153. 09 455. 49 457. 80 460. 12 462. 43
VA. 75 467. 08 469. 41 471. 75 474. 08
176. 42 478. 77 481. 12 483. 47 485. 82
188. 19 490. 55 492. 92 495. 29 497. 67
i KJ O. 04 502. 43 504. 82 507. 20 509. 60
i l 2. 00 514. 4C
i Z4. 04/ 526. 46
516. 80 519. 22 521. 63
528. 89 531. 31 533. 75
36. 18 538. 62 541. 07 543. 51 545. 96
$48. 42 550. 87 553. 33 555. 80 558. 27
SO. 74 563. 22 565. 70 568. 18 570. 66
i 73. 16 575. 65 578. 14 580. 65 583. 15
585. 66 588. 17 590. 68 593. 20 595. 73
598. 25 600. 7) 603. 32 605. 85- 608. 39
510. 93 613. 43 616. 04 618. 59 621. 15
523. 71 626. 27 628. 84 631. 81 ~633. 99
636.57 639. 151641. 74 644. 33 646. 92
649. 52 652. 11 654. 72 657. 33 659. 94
662. 55 665. 171667. 79 670. 41 673. 04
675.67 678.2Oi680.74 683.58 686.23
688. 87 691. 52/ 694. I 8 696. 84 699. 50
702. 16 704. 83 707. 50 710. 18 712. 85
715. 54 718. 22 720. 92 723. 60 726. 30
729. 00 731. 70 734. 40 737. 11 739. 82
742. 54 745. 26 747. 98 750. 70 753. 43
756. 16 750. 90 761. 63 764. 38 767. 12
769. 87 772. 62 775. 37 778. 13 780. 89
703. 66 786. 42 789. 20 791. 97 794. 75
797. 53 800. 31 803. 10 805. 89 Ma. 68
811. 43 814. 27 817. 08 819. 88 822. 70
825. 51 820. 32 831. 15 833. 971836. 79
039. 62 842. 45 845. 29 848. 13 850. 96
853. 81 856. 66 859. 51 862. 37 865. 22
868. 08 870. 94 873. 81 876. 68 879. 55
882. 43 8~5. 30. 800. 19 891. 07 893. 96
896. 86 899. 75 902. 65 905. 55 908. 45
911. 36 914. 27 917. 18 920. 10 923. 02
925. 94 928. 87 931. 79 934. 73 937. 66
940. 60 943. 54 946. 48 949. 43 952. 38
955. 33 958. 29 961. 25 964. 21 967. 17
970. 14 973. 11 976. 09 979. 07 902. 05
985. 03 988. 02 QQl . Ol . Q94. 00 996. 99
1088. 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TURBINE WHEELS.
747
1 . Ratfug Table for Turbines.
LEFFEL STANDARD (NEW TYPE). PIVOT GATE. [lSOO list.]
I
I
Mnnufacturers Rating for
a Head of 16 Ft.
I
Coefficients.
The discharge of turbines is nearly always expressed incubic feet per
minute. The vent in square inches is also used by mlllwnghts and
-mn~~,+~era although to a decreasing extent. The vent of a turbine &U.**uru.-.-,
i~ the area of ar 1 orifice which would, under any given he&d, theoretically
&&arge the same quantity of water that is vented or
assed through a
turbine under that same head when the wheel IS so loa
x ed as to be run-
H.P.
(=M).
I O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . /
I l l / z . . . . . . . . . . .
13v4 . . . . . . . . . . .
15x: 4
171/ ?
. . . . . . . . . . .
20. .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
261/ z . . . . . . .
30%. . . . . . . : : : :
35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48~.
56
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
61. . . . . . . . . : : : : :
66~.
- . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. 70
4. 9
6. 5
a. 4
11. 00
14. 9
19. 4
: ; : 6' :
44. 3
58. 2
67. 75
84. 1
142
168
202
247
I4 . . . . . . . ...____ :
&FFEL ISlPR0VED SA:
20~ .
23. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51.7
26 . . . . . . . _. . . __
68. 3
30 . . . . __. . ___. 1%'
35~. . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
-
--
Cu. Ft.
per min
(=&I.
Revs.
Per mil
(=R).
POWW
(=P).
Dis-
charge
(=F).
:E
:::::
1. 897
2. 510
3. 344
2: ; :
7. 635
10. 033
Zi
14. 428
i i : ; ; i l
12. 623
133. 8
115. 8
' $8" .
76. 5
67
58. 2
50. 5
z. 2
33. 5
2:
&
: i
&ig at maximum efficiency.
If V = vent in sq. in., Q = dischargein cu. ft. per min. under a head H.
F-discharge in cu. ft. per sec. under a head of 1 foot, then Q=eO V/144
u' z = 3. 344 Vdi?. and V = 0.3Q/d/Ii: also V= li.04 F and F=
d.6%?- v.
The vent of a turbine should not be confused with the area of the out-
let orifice of the buckets. The actual discharge through a ,turmne is
commonly from 40 to 60% of the theoretical discharge of an orifice whose
area equals the combined cross-sectional areas of the outlet ports meas-
ured in the narrowest section.
The high-pressure turbine is a recent design (1903). and is tabled for
heads of 70 to 675 feet.
2: :
267
343
455
%
1, 043
1: : ; :
ci 4E
3; 475
5, 858
6, 950
8. 340
10, 222
b. 058
. 076
: 130!
: E
, 303
. 393
: 2;
. 908
1. 058
1. 312
2. 215
2. 621
3. 151
3. 853
-_
2,111
2, 792
3. 569
VICTOR HIGH PRESSURE
.TE
-
EE
1. 362
1. 810
2. 465
3. 229
4. 087
5. 054
6. 318
7. 753
9. 313
I
I
84 11. 045 I
TCRBINE. CYLINDER GATE.
I for 100 Ft.Hesd.
. 11897 and 1Sc
1
a.a03-
11. 643
14. 883
19. 812
f E
2; ; ;
69. 030
84. 618
! 01. 786
120. 538
IO I
Rat~ing9
,ists.]
-
81. 3
70. 8
2:
2: :
36. 3
32. 5
I
29. 0
26. 3
24. 0
22. 0
1ist.l r1903
14
16
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
18 . . . . . . . . . . .
; ; .
: : :
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
- - .............. ..............
24 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30. 30. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 36
39 39
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42 42
45 45
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48 48
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I I
:;:
66
12
128
151
173
191
E
: : ;
426
g{
i 90
i I
%
199
I
247
332
g
850
1, 001
z:
I : 512
1, 805
2. 005
2, 277
%! l
3: 063
3E
3. 907
4: 100
4, 505
4, 910
5. 290
;;:
510
459
417
: : z
: 2
278
255
i i
191
1:
I 61
153
! ?J
I 33
127
-
I
I :Z
. 733
. 903
I : : : ;
1. 668
1. 912
I ?!?
o:~~~
. 066
. 082
. I 06
: 1' : ;
. I 73
! 9:
228
. 272
. 303
. 343
: Z
: %
. 544
. 590
A; ,
. 742
. 799
3; : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
%; '
57~. . . . . . . . . . . 18. 0
60 : : . . . . . . . . ____
63. . . . . . ~. . . .
167: ;
72. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69. . . . . . . . . . . : : : I
I
2:
66 . . . . . ' . .
. . . _. .
i ; 13. 3 13. 9
G- 46) 12. 7
- - - ____ . , . _
says: -
~.
ml... *^,I :^,.~nror i. n form of power-house Ioundation COnStr~~ctio~j~
.r..*oh ,t wua+.er. which would otheyl mi$T $~i&;t~l vu~lr
se wasre
acting pn <he &bin&is increased, and the output
rm quantity, in spite of the back-water
over the dam, the faY
of power is kept at its mafiml
@ich always accompanies an abundance of river flow passing down the
nw?r __.--.
The results sho.w that fall-increrrsers add about ION to the annual
outpUt of power with no appreelable increase in operatingex
For,half the days of the year the fall-increasers are shut
B
enses
own decause
there 1s not enough, or only enough, water to supply the plain turbines:
but for the Ither half of the Year the f&II-increasers krep the output of
Power PmctIcallY constant. and at the ftdl output, where this power
OutPllt wol$l fall to half the full output or less if the fall-increasers had
not heen bmlt.
. Au iDustrated description of the fall-increaser with results of tests is
No. Si3,43.5 and Eng. ~Ve?fls, June 11,190S.
fil~ll_ln the H~mwct Engg Journal June, 190s. See also U. S. pat. .
TXVGENTIAL OR IMPULSE WATER-WHEELS.
The Pelton Water-wheel
20. IS92) thus OUthUeS the pnnclples upon which this water-w<eel 1;
. 7 fi!r. Ross E. Browne (Engg LVeews Feb
constructed:
._
The function of a water-wheel. operated by a jet of water escaping
pfter SatChIng the Jet. mUst bnng it to rest before discharging it, withoui
Useful W+. In prder to UtlliZe this enereg fully the wheel-b&ket
from a nozzle. IS to convert the energy of the jet due to its velocity Into
mducmg turbulence or agitation of the particles.
the lo+ of a PortIon of the energy.
This cannot be fully effected, and unavoidable difficulties necessitate
First.,fn sharp or annular dIversion of the jet in entering or ir its course
The principal losses occur as follows:
throu,h. the buck+. causmg Impact, or the conversion ofa po&on of the
energ into heat Instead of useful work. Second in the so-called frfc-
of the buckets. causme also the conversion of a
tlonai re%tance offered to the mot~ion of the water by the wetted surface
heaj instead of IlSefu! work.
P
onion of the energy into
$;;;s the bucket. representing energy which has not been converted intn
Third. in the ve oclty of the water as it
Hence, in seeking F high efficiency: 1. The bucket-surface at the en
tht;ucket. should be curved in near+ n m.,
trance ~111 be aPDroxlmately parallel to the relative course of the jet, and
?ner~ as to avoid sham a.nnlrllr
%on ?f the st.ream.
--- -.-- I * If, for example, a jet -ti---
~. i -...-I.
angle and 1s sharply deflected. a portlon of the water is back& the
qL~~~~~ a surface at an
loss by Impact and otherwise.
smoothness of the stream IS disturbed, and there results consideiable
the total wetted surface of the
3. The path of the jet in the bucket sholdd be short. in other words
bucket
tio_n $1 be~~proportional to thin
should be small, ai the loss by f&
the wheel oenoherv a< ~nmnntihl~ . . ..A& IL- mm
3. .rhe discharge end of the bucket should be as nearle tangential to
fO~~O~ws: ad &at
I -- --...F-u=l-= \%1~1 .bue clearance of the bucket which
water should be avoIded.
differences 01 ve!oaty in the parts of the escaping
In order to bring the water to rest at the dis-
of the bucket should be one half the vnln,-i+y of the j&t:
charge end of the bucket, it is shown, mathematically that the veloci[y
A bucke
---- ..CI,,
les .
t, such as shoxvn in Fig. 145, .-ill
:s Uea@ or turbulent water at the point
This dead water is nuhs~nr~~ntl.. t&--..- =-~
, .ulll c.ause the heaping of more or
mdlcated by dark shading.
velociti-. and represents a-laree Incc nf energy.
wedge in tl
~- -----.,---*J UUUWLI lrom the wheel with considerable
mu- .LY 1
this ioss.
ie Pelton bucket (see Fig. 14
The introduction of the
6) is an efficient means of avoiding
FIG. 145.
FIG. 146.
FIG. 147.
struction to each of these requirements. [In wheels as now made (I909j
A wbeef of the form of the Pelton (Fig. 147) conforms cIo&Iy in con /
4
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
TANGENTIAL OR IMiULSE WATER-WHEELS.
749
~....__
------~. -iown in this bucket are eliminat~eci.
See catalogues
Whf+iel Co.. Joshua Hendy Iron Works, and Abner
&iiie Co., all of San Francisco.]
Considerations in the Choice of a Tangential Wheel
(Joshua
U,.WI; lrnn Works.) -The horse-power that can be deve!opFd Py, a~tVl-
ye%;;;% wheel does cot depend up% the
size of the wheel mt souxu upon
t/,e bed and volume 01 utter arazl?hle.
The numher of revolutions per
minute that a wheel makes (runrung Under normal conditions! depends
s,rl,.lv upon two factors, viz., its diameter and the head of water.
Tile choice of the diameter of a xheel is not therefor: controlled by, the
nnwp~ required but b.y the s
i;Gj;d.- -ifa-wheel has-no
loa a
eed required when \vorl;lng under a glvep
and is not governed, it will s eed up until
t.he nerinhery is revolvi
ng at approximately the same
ve oclty as the P
$&iing v&city of the jet, but as soon as the whTe1 commences t;;e;
velop power by driving machinery, etc., its rylo~lty will drop. .
properly designed wheel the rclocitg of the nm n hneai f?et per nnnute.
at full load, ~vill he frnm JS t.o 50% of the spoutmg velocity of the Jet.
The dir---
ntemhafts of
I,rrCti.x of pullev wheels on wheel shaft and CoUl
I7 Ehntlkl he so brooortioned that the water wheel shall r!ln at
he table.
--T[<& width area and currature of buckets are desi,gned to meet.condi-
tions of volume of tlow under dren heads. The higher the penpheral
velocltg of the wheel the greater the volume of water that the buckets
plan hsndle. and conskquently the same standard wheel can handle more .__..~.~ .
k%er. the high ler the h&d.
_^^1^ ,. ,*,.fi.,-~lt.r he adapted one size larger or one size
Fariation of speed or volume Of flqw
~IM,~ uralgnrd for a eiven horse-po!ver can oe
[within reasonable limits) with very.httle IOSS Of
bse in the volume to be used reqmres a .l?rger
--.- $ maintaining the same speed condltlons,
ic tn be adhered to, then a special wheel
- h*a?kets or with two or more nOzZkS.
e adopted.
difiriencv. but an increa ...._ .~~~.
bucket. If. for the purpose 1
the same diameter of wheel I0 Iy
must be h&lilt with either very !argt. uI.L
or else a double or mult,ipl,e.umt must b
It is advised to subdi
I ~~_ _._^.
vloe Large s&rrarns between two, three ?r more
- ,----+n- f-odom from breakdown arid 1s often
m*l+inle runner units are easier t0
slug:lC lUIICIC:l units. When two or more
ion on one runner, the increased ,volume to
ttveen the different nozzles. which are so
:-A^ :-..:..,.,, ,. ~iffor~n+. hllrketr; at differ-
runners. as this insures ti F,LC*L=~ EL\---.
cheapest in the end. Sinxle-n~~!~r$2 F.1L_--
govern than multiple-no?zle.,
nozzles are used in combmat]
; he rlr%lt lvith is divided be
arral~ged that their respective ,J~:LJ ~ry~rr Y~L u.L.------
--_..-.-
ent parts of the periphery.
Three-nozzle and five-nozzle wheels have
many disadvantages. when
overning is ro
5
nttired. and should only be
-Y-----. -~~
adopted for handling a very
arge volume c
If water when other designs
cani iot be used.
~~~ .-._ ^_ --..n ..ro+.,r nn,V,=r~ MR available at
Combined Heads. - wnen two UI uruay yutib. =.-..--- --: :
the same site but under different head?, It 1s possible to utlllze them bY
mount,inp whkels of different diameters m
arallel, or, w-he? the difference
of he&d i&d volume is verv great. it
wou d even be nn~bie to arrange P
for a turbine for the low head and a tangential wheel .--
xlt.hnueh. in the latter case, it would probably be best
tL
___..__ o...
,, &- ,,,achinery through themedium of
independently and connect .^ I,.^ -
. . . ~> .____ &^..,.L.+-, T,
oelts ana COULLCC:~~LI~I~~U.
-I~ either case, separate pipe lines must be
employed.
Rererd& Wheels. -In the case of reversible wheels desired for use
with h&sts cableways, etc. two wheels of proper dimenslorls and the
same.ty<e kay be mounted p
arallel on the same shaft, one qf the wheels
having the buckets and nozz es
arranged to run in the OPPoslte &rectlon
to the other Suitable valves levers and pipe connections can be arranged
to cut the water off one.whedl and turn It on to the other.
Horizonfat Wheels. - For .electric generating stations. when it is .de-
direct-connected equipments are used, tangential wheels may be mounted
sired to place the wheels be109 the floor of the generators. where vertlca
horizontally with vertical shafts and step bean&s.
Notes on Hydraulic power installations. (Joshua I-W-h IrOn
.Works.)- AVXtUres of screens must be slightly smaller than the diameter
of the small&t nozzle used.
.he material may no longer .be accurate
750 WATER-P6WER.
When not in use. keep, the pipe full by closing the valve at the lower
end. There IS less liabrhty for trouble from expansion and contraction
with a full pipe line.
Equip the pipe line with air valves, approximately one for every 30 ft.
of head.
When opefatinr under high heads, when no other precaution has been
taken to avord water ram dining the process of governing, it is advisable
to install rcllef mlv-es between the lower end of the pipe line and the
gates or controllers.
When operating under even moderately high heads, if no safety device
or by-pass has been Installed. and a plain valve is to be used sliding .
gates and butterHy valves should not be employed, but only screw gates
as the former would be too rapid in their action and might set up a
dangeroils water ram.
The size of the nozzle that must be used on a wheel for maximum
efficrency must be such as will just keep the pipe line full. If water
ovenlows. put on a larger nozzle.
If the pipe remains partly empty put
on a smaller nozzle. as otherwise the effective head is reduced, withcon-
stderable loss of efficiencv.
The nozzles may be pcaced.either above or below the wheel, depending
on the directron of rotation required.
Control of Tangential water-wheels. -The methods of regulating
:angenrral water-wheels may be classified under five heads:
1. Permanently or semi-permanently altering the area of efIiux of the
no;zles. w?th water economy and without loss of efficiency.
-. Reducing the volume of flow without altering the area of efliux.
with water economy but with loss of efficiency.
3. Variable alteration of the area of efflux without loss of efficiency
and with water economv.
,4. Dellection of the jet, SO that only a portion of its energy is trans-
mrtted to the wheel, wlthout water economv.
5. Combined regulation of 3 and 4. producing an effect whereby the
energy of bhe jet IS reduced rapidly wlthout water ram and the area of
emus reduced slowly to effect water economy, or by a combination of 3
with some form of bv-na%s~
-Of the five methods of control enumerated above the
firs.t cann.ot beg done automatically: the other four. however SX~P QB&~~.
trove to either hand regulation or Automatic regulation~~by -mea& ;i,Tr
crnors. t;he function of the governor being merelv to automatically bring
IntO actlon the particular controlling device with which the wheel has
been equipped. There are two leading types of governors the hydraulic
and the mechanical.
In the first, the mechanism of the water-wheel
regulator is actuated by a hvdraulically operated piston the motive
power being.taken from a small branch pi
e from the main water supply
or from an md,ependent .mgh-pressure or -pumpi.ng system the position
7
UI cue prscon In the c hnder and consequent relative position of the
controlling: mechamsm i;- elng dependent upon the amount of fluid under
pressure admitted to the cylinder at either end.
This is controlled by a
main valve. operated by a verv sensitive relay valve wvhich, in turn, is
directly controiled by the centrifugal balls of the eovernor~
The second type, or mechanically operated governor consists of a
device for, automatmally controlling and directing the iransmission of
the reqmsrte amount of energy taken from the wheel shaft to operate
the water-regulatmg mechamsm. The Lombard governor ii a represen-
tative of the first type. and the Lombard-Replogle governor of the
second.
The closg regulation that can be obtained with the latter is remarkable
Any size wvlll go into operation and make connection at so slight a devia:
tion as one-tenth of one
.P
er cent from normal, and in i&tallatlons which
have been made they wrl. not permit of a departure of more than five to

emht Per cent tern oranlv
full load to practrca ly no load. P
where there is an instantaneous~ drop from
When there is sufficient fly-wheel effect
i
the deviat1p will not be over two per cent.
The adoption of fly wheel; )
greatly facrhtates many problems of governing.
.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
TANQENTIAL OR IMPULSE WATER-WHEEL.
751
/52
WATER-POWER.
Tangential Water-Wheel Table.-Continued.
-
. . . . . . . . . . 98. 93 175. 68
The above tables are compiled on the fottowfng kufs.
The head ch) is the net effective head at the noz;ie.
must be made for all losses in the pipe line.
proper allowanee
.
The vemcrty of emus (V) is the approximate spoutizveloclty of the
j$t$ feet Per minute as it issues from the nozzle = x//2 r,A X 99
1 = 481. 2
The dfischzrge in cubic feet
the cross-s%t!on .area of noZZ e openhg in Sq. ft., no &wance being P
made for frrctron m the nozzle.
er minute = Q _ F X 0 where 0 equals 1
:A
__,_.,~---- ---
_,~..___ ,,.. .~._,_~,,.~_~.~ ,-- -,.~ .,.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. SOme of
TANGE?*TIAL OR IMPULSE WATER,-WHEEL.
753
The weight of a cubic foot of water is taken at 39.2 Fahr. = 62.425 lbs.
The theoretical horse-power T (1! X 6,. -
.I5 x h + 33.0!)0 = 0~09189 Qh,
The horse-power in the tables is based on 85% mectl anl ca~ef f i ci ency for
the wheels.
The diameter is the effective diameter at the line Of the nozzle center,
where the jet impinges on the center of the bucket.
The number of revoll;tions is based on a perrpl~eral speed for the ef&
tive diameter. of half the VdOCi,ty Of effllll Oi tile J:t, a$ eUllaiS I +
.
where c = the circumference (m feet) of the elnxtrre ~hameter.
Sl& \vhe&, up to %-in. diam., are conml0l~ly Cirlletl m0torS.
.Amount of Water Required to Develop a Given Horse-POlver, with
a Given Available Effective Head.
10 1 20 1 30 1 40 1 50 j 40 ( 70 ( a0 1 90 ) 109
Flow in Cubic Feet of Water per Minute Required to
Develop Power.
50. . . . . . . . .
60 . . . . . . . . .
70 . . . . . . . . .
. a0 . . . . . . . . .
90 . . . . . . . . .
100. . . . . . . . .
110 . . . . . . . . .
120 . . . . . . . . .
130 . . . . . . . . .
140 . . . . . . . . .
I 50 . . . . . . . . .
140. . . . . . . . .
I 70 . . . . . . . .
, I 80
/ 190
200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
210 . . . . . . . .
220 . . . . . . . .
230. . . . . . . .
240 . . . . . . . .
250 . . . . . . . .
260. . ; . . . . .
270 . . . . . . . .
280 . . . . . . . .
290 . . . . . . . .
300 . . . . . . . .
310 . . . . . . . .
. 320 . . . . . . .
330 . . . . . . .
340 . . . . . . .
350 . . . . . . .
360 . . . . . . .
370 . . . . . . .
380 . . . . . . .
390 . . . . . . .
400. . . . . . .
T--
251
: ;
/ I 5
I I 4
I ' 2
1 I I
?I
: 5
a
1:
$9
i ti
73
: ;
62
: ' 7
54
: ;
2
45
43
2
40
38
37
36
35
: i
. : :
Efftciency of the Dobli
polished in the interior, wi
a conical regulating needle
opening to regu1at.e the St2
A jet flowing from the n
6;
5;
7
6
5
5
- 4
1
6
I 6
ri
6
2
6- 4
63
1000
a30
709
622
i ti
467
415
385
355
: : t
293
; i I i
%
%
20;
19'
1' 8.
17;
17,
i $
~ i i
' I !
!
1:
1:
1;
0
6
I
i 5
i l
a
7
L
; -No
ith cl
whi
;e of
.ozzlc
;
2
I22
:$
178
I 43
I I 6
z
$45
: c
295
283
270
258
248
%
%
' %
194
1: ;
I 78
172
168
12J
156
zzle. - The no!zzle tip is of brass, highly
oncave curves near the end. It eontalns
ich is set at any desired distance from the
the opening and the diameter of the jet.
: has a clear, glassy appearance. Tests
-
e mate+iI31
~--. ~.--... . ~._~
may no lon&>e accurate
754 WATER-POWER.
by H. C: Crowell and G. C. D. Lenth, at Mass. Inst. of Tech.. 1903. gave
efficiencres under constant head from 96.4 to 99.3% for different settings
of the needle, the coefficlen of velocity being from 0.982 to 0.997.
E
The
efficrency of a jet is equal o the ratio of the velocity head in the jet to
the total head at the entrance to the nozzle, and equal to the square of
the coefficient of velocrty. - BuUetin of the Abner Doble Co.. No. 6. 1964
Tests of a U-in. Doble Laboratory iUotor (Bulletin No. I?, 1908
Abner Doble Co.).-The tests were made by students at the University
of )lrssourr. The available head was 46 ft. The needle valve mnr.
opened t,wo, four. six and eight turns in the four series of tests, and wii{
each opemng different loads were applied by a Prony brake.
The results
were recorded and plotted in curves showing the relation of speed, load
and efficiency. and from these curves the following approximate figures
are taken:
Speed, Revolutions ner Minute.
Water-power Plants Operating under High Pressures. -The fol-
lowing notes are contributed by the Pelton Water Wheel Co.:
The,Consolidated Virginia & Col. Mining Co., Virginia, Nev., has a 3-ft
steel-disk Pelton wheel operating under 2100 ft. fall, equal to 911 lbs:
i?
er sq. in. It runs at a peripheral velocity of 10,804 ft. per minute and
as a capacity of over ?.OO H.P. The rigidity with which water under
such a high pressure as this leaves the nozzle is shown in the fact that it
IS impossrble to cut the stream with an axe, however heavy the blow.
as it will rebound just as it would from a steel rod travelling at a high
rate of soeed.
The London Hydraulic Power Co. has a large number of Pelton wheels
from 12 to 18 in. diameter running under pressure of about 1000 Ibs. per
sq. in. from a system of pressure-mains. The 18-in. wheels weighing
30 I bs. have a capacity of over 20 H.P.
chinerv~?
(See Blaines Hydraulic Ma-
The Mannesmann Cycle Tube Works, North Adams, Mass., are using
four Pelton wheels. having a fl
600 lbs. per sq. I n. These w eels are hrect-connected to the rolls K
-wheel rim, under a pump pressure of
through which the ingots are passed for drawing out seamless tubing.
The Alaska Gold Mining Co., DI
oualass Island. Alaska. has a 2%ft.
Pelton wheel on the shaft of a Riedler-duplex compressor. It~is used as
a fly-wheel as well. weighing 25.000 lbs.. and develops 500 H.P. at 75
revolutions. A valve co
stops the wheel al
pnected to the pressure-chamber starts and
air-wrdvor
utomatrcally. thus maintaining the pressure in the
--. _I-..I..
At Pachuca in Mexico five Pelton wheels having a capacity of 600
HP. each under 800 ft. head are driving an electric transmission plant.
These wheels weigh less than 500 lbs. each, showing over a horse-power
Per pound of metal.
Fdrmulae for Calculating the Power
the Pelton (F. K. Blue). -HP=horse
per cu. ft.: E = efficiency of turbine: p
Pyr minute: h = feet effective head: d
pounds per square inch effective head: e
nozzle, which may be ordinarily taken at
of Jet Water-wheels, such Bs
-power delivered: 8-62.36 lbs.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
THE PQWER OF OCEAN WAVES.
755
HP= c$& =. 00180Eqh=. O0436E~~=. OO~96Bcdz~/ h3=. 0174E~d*1/ 5; r.
HP HP
q=529.2xh= 229x=
2.62 cd2 d?i= 3.99 cd* /p.
.
THE POWER OF OCEAN WAVES.
Albert W. Stahl, U. S. N. (Trans. A. S. M. E.. xiii. 438). @Ves the fOI-
r;;;gn formulae and table, based upon a theoretical drscussron of wave
The iota1 energy
long and one foot
cessive crests, and
the trough,.is E I 8 LH2
The time required for each wave to travel through a distance equal to
i ts own length is P =
seconds, and the number of waves passing
any given point in one minute is N = p
Hence the total
energy of an indefinite series of such waves, expressed in horse-power Per
foot of breadth, is
ExN
__- = 0.0329 FS (1 - 4.935 TJ
33. 000
By substitutlng.various values for H i &, within the limits of such
yal ues actual l y occurring in nature, we obtain the followmg table of
I
TOTAL ENERGY ok DEEP-SEA WAVES IN TERMS OF HORSE-POWER PER
FOOT OF BREADTH..
Ratio of I
Length of Waves in Feet..
Length to
H$$&yf i 25 1 50 1 75 1 ~100
I I I l-
50 0% 0.23 1. 31
ii
it;; 0: 42
0. 36 0. 64
%
2. 05 1. 77
: : 2. 83 1. 44 6: ; ; 14. 31 i i : : ;
10 0. 98 5. 53 15. 24 31. 29
5 3. 30 18. 68 51. 48 105. 68
150 ZOO 300
.I I
::t; 11. 59 7. 43 20. 46 31. 95
10. 02 20. 57 56. 70
45. 98 120. 70
291. 20 597. 78 1647. 31
I
42. 01
65. 38
116. 38
260. 08
457. 89
l OOl . 25
3381. 60
The figures are correct for trochoidal deep-sea waves only. but they
give a close approxlmati:on for any nearly regular series of waves in deep
water and a fair approximatfon for waves in shil6ow water.
The question of the practical utilization of the energy which edsts ln
:: Ocean waves dlvldes itself into several parts:
1. The various motions of the Waters which may be utilized for Power
ne mater~ial may no longer ,be &%.?&e
2. The wave-Fotor proper. That is. the portion of the apparatus ii
direct contact wlth,the water, and, receiving and transmitting the energ
thereof: together with the mechamsm for transmitting this energ:y to tli
machmerv for utilizine the same.
3. Re~~li;~tingcievi~~,for .obtai,ning a uniform motion from the 1rregU
lar and more or less spasmochc action of the waves, as well as for adjustIn)
the apparatus to the state of the tide and condit,ion of the sea
4. Storage, arrangements for insuring a continuous and unifdrm outpu
c)f ;,ower cllln!!g a cn!m. or whc+ the wares are comparatively small.
Thr: motio!rs that ma r
i . \ver t i c ai r i se al l d fal i
be Utrbzetl for power purposes are the following
Of particles at and near the surface. 2. Hori
conto Tao-znd-fro motion of particles at and. near the surface.
,111: xlope of srnface of wave.
4.,Iml
3. ~Varv
in&$rm of breakers.
?etUS of waves rolling LID their h&%
5. Motion of distorted verticals: -Lli-of i&G
e ::
except t&e last one mentioned. ipaVe at various times beer
ropo~ed to be ututzed for power purposes; and the last is proposed t,
e ~srd in apparatrls described by Mr. St.ahi.
.T!le motion of distorted verticals is thus defined: A set of Dzrticlps
onanally m t,he. same vert.ical strair -.
:ht line when the water i.6 at. ~&hi
~~ -- ---1
does not remam>n a vertical line dixins the passage of the wave. SO that
t+ line ConneCtmg a S.et of such particles. while vertical and stiaight ir
St111 water, becomes dist,orted, as well as
A( ,,. . ..-.. ^ :r- ..---- . .
displaced, during. the nassap
Y;,~;;;~;,K~LLs upper parson movmg farther and more r&dly iGi-&
~?IJJaln~~~llUStra@o~S of several wave-motors designed
uson as to their Dractirabilitv ia sq
Sir. &0tls paper c
Upon various princi~ra.
follows:
ms conCil
PossiQl . none of the fethods described in tliis paper may &z
P;ore commercla 1Y srxcessful: indeed the problem mav not be susceptible 1.
oL a financially successful solution.
far as I have Yet been able to
My own investifat.ions. howrx PT PP
wave-power can and will be util
carry them, incline nie to ttie~~b&f~~h~~
Continuous Utilizatio
lzed on a paying basis.
n of .Tid?l Power. (P. Decnur. Pror~ IVS~
~~-. -....-.
r. E. ~S%J.) - 1~ connection with the trsining-walls to be cdnstructed in
the e$UarY of the Seine. it is proposed to construct large basins b-- means
of.++ the Power available from the
ntrhzen. The met.hcd propose<
rise and fall cif the tihe goldd he
bank rising apove hi
The upper l)asln woul s
h water, within which tlrrhines wourd be p&d:
hem communication with the sea dmina the hieher
one-tnxd of the tidal range. risine. an
,.. .~ .a the lower basin durin% t& lower
one-t,tnrn of the tidal r&nge, &iii@.
level in the UPper basin would never fall
If H be the range in feet the
below Z/s II measltred fro6 low
The available head varies between 0.53 If and 0.~0 H the mean
water. and the level m the lower basin would never rise above l/sH.
value
being ?!sfzi: If S square feet be the area of the low& basin and
the
abore condltlons are fulfilled. a quantity 1/3sfi CU. ft. of wate; is aeliv-
ered through the tmhmes in the space of 01/q hours.
The mean flow is
therefore. ,% t 99.900 cu. ft. per sec., and the mean fall being 2;3H:
fhe available gross horse-power IS about l/mSEIz where S is measure
m acres. Thi: might be increased by about one:thlrd if a variation of
level in the basms amounting to l/v H were permitted.
But to reach this
end the number of turbines would have to be doubled the mean head
being reduced to l/z H. and it would be more difficuit td transmit a con-
stant Power from the.tyrbines.
model desIgned to Utlhze a large flow with a moderate diameter.
The turbine proposed is of an improved
h%: been designed to produce 300 her,
One
se-power, with a minimum hpn,ri of
?nternal diameter.
J 1~. *s In. .at a speed of 15 revolutic$~per minute, the va~e~~h&&$-i~ it-
mg shdces.
The speed would be maintained constant by regul&
1^11_,~_ ,-.~---- .,,.. -
ItlARNING: This is a 1910 ed~i%%~---~~$ome of
PUMPS AND .PUMPING ENGINES.
757
PUMPS AND PUMPING ENGINES.
Theoretical Capacity of a Pump. - Let., (3=ofCuy;1,$p T,lin;$
6 = U. S. gals. per mm. = 7.4805 Q,: d = &am.
1 _ stroke ln in&es; N = number of smgle strokes per min.
Ca~,~~city in cu. ft. per min.
CapacitY in u. S. gals. per min. c = s i -23i . . . . . . = 0.0034 Ndl:
capacity in gals. per hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 024 NflL
DW;~;a;;;~er z,t ]
7
d = 46.9 & =
If 21 = piston speed in feet per min., d = 13.54
If the piston speed is 100 feet per min.:
Nl = 1200, and d = 1. 354 dc = 0. 495 6;
G = 4. 08 d? per min.
The actual capacity will be from 60% to 95% of the theoretical, accord-
lng to the tightness of the piston, Val ves. suction-plPe. etc.
Theoretical Horse-power Required to Raise Wat.er to a Given.
Height. - Horse-power =
Volume in cu. ft. per min. x pressure per sq. ft.
33, 000
= Weight ~3h;~ol~t of lift.
cu ft per min.; G =
r,&,,uTe 1; lbi per sq. ft.. p =
gals. per min.; IV = wt: in lhs,:
P=
pressure in lbs. per sq. in.: H = helgh\,of
Ef t i n f t. : J Y = 62. 355 6 . I = 144 p, p = 0. 433 H, H = 2.3094 p, L =
_..
7. 4505 Q :
& p
&H x 144 x 0.433 QH
HF. = go00 =
33, 000 = 529. 23
= =
1. 0104 GH
4000
HP.=$$=
Q x 62. 355 X 2. 3094 P =
33, 000
2;
- - , - - -
XT, . - +ho m,p+llal hnmp,now ?r reouired an SllC
&P _ Gp
29.17 - -1714.3.
; x., ,lr uII- .--_ I_~r_~~ ~; ~.
the friction. Islips, etc., of engme, Pump. valve:
Depth of Suction.
- Theoretically a perff
from a height of nearly 34 feet: or qhe height
vaCuum (14.7 lbs. X 2.309 = 33.93 feet): bt
cannot be obtained on account of valve-leak
water and the vapor of the water itself, the
less ttian 30 feet.
When the water is warm th
lifted by slction decreases, on account Of the
111 pumping hot water, therefore, the
The fnllowine table show!
Dr different temperatures. le:
1
I I
1
Temp.
Fahr.
102. 1
126. 3
1%
162: 3
: . . 170. 1
: , . 176. 9
xvance must be made for
3, and passages.
:ct pump will draw water
corresponding to a perfect
It since a perfect vacuum
:age, air contained in the
actual height is generally
,e height to which it can be
: increased pressure of the
: water must Row into the
j the theoretical maximum
akage not considered:
.bsolutt
ressurc
i vapor
bs. per
sq. in.
--
.-..--~~.--.L.. .~..~_~~..
?e material may no longer .be accurate
vacuum
in
nches of
l WXl W.
Max.
)e$h
sue
tion.
feet.
--
PUMPS AND PUMPING ENGINES.
9 Th
wmi
-
Deane Sin
ng clear liqrn 5
: l e
58
-
I
Boiler-toed or PI
tt a pressure not ex
,
Cap&t
per min
at Give1
Speed.
Y
1
-_
ssye Pump. -Sui t abl e
edmg 150 Ibs.
. I
Sizes of Pipes.
Proportioning the Steam-cylinder OP a Direct-acting Pump. -
Let
A = area of steam-cylinder: a = area of pump-cylinder;
D p diameter of steam-cylinder; cl = diameter of pump-cylinder:
P - steam-pressure, lbs. per sq. in.: p = resistance per sq. in. on pumps;
H = head = 2.309 p; p = 0.433 II;
E = efficiency of the pump =
work done in pump-cylinder
work done by the steam-cylinder*
A=ap.a=EAP;D=;
i?F EAP
EP P
-.p=+-T.
P
A
-=sp=
n
o4;;H; I I =2.309EP;. If E= 75%. H = 1.732P$.
E is common!y taken at 0.7 to OS for ordinary direct-acting pumps.
For the highest class of pumping-engines it may amount to 0.9. The
steam-pressure P is the mean effective pressure, accordmg to the iqdi-
cater-diagram: the water-pressure p is the mean. total pressure actmg
on the pump plunger or piston, including the suction, as could be sbo,wn
by an Indicator-diagram of the water-cyhnder. The pressure pn rhe
pump-piston is frequently much greater than that due to the helght,of
ithe lift, on account of the friction of the valves and passages, which
(increases rapidly with velocity of flow.
S eed of Water through Pipes and Pump-pass;Lges. - The speed
of t le water is commonly from 100 to 200 feet per mmute. P
If 200 feet
per minute is exceeded, the loss from friction may be conslderahle.
gallons per minute
The diameter of pipe required is 4.95.\lvelocity in feet per min~*
For a velocity of 200 .feet per minute, diam. =0.35 X dgallons Per min.
?&es of Direct-acting Pumps. -The tables on pages 758 and 760
are selected from catalogues of manufacturers. as representlng the two
common types of direct-acti
dudes. Both tyDes are made b
pump, viz., the single-cyIinder and the
y most of the leading manUfaCtUrer%
:1/z h/4 :
4 2% 5
2112 5
4314 3 5
29% 7
33 12
33%
7 lr
33 12
71,
34
7 1,
43 12
8 4
4312
9 11
$L?
911
12
,
,
(
,
The Deane Single Tank or Light-service 1
will all stand a constant working pressureof 75 lbx~
1
Sizes.
I
i
I -
1
>
-.
k
Capacity
per min.
I
at Given
Speed.
13
15 1,
t51,
i 8
17
16
I7
:1,
881,
il,
i
i
i
5
i
?
i
i
l/2
314 I
314 I
3/4 ;
;
:
:
1
I~
1:
.__- - .,., 4
3 edition; Some of
- ,-
Efficiency of Small Direct-act~ing JPumps. - Chas. E. Emery. in
Reports of Judges of Pliiladelphia Extilntlon, lS?S, Group XX., S+E:
Experiments made with steam-pumps at the Amencan InstltUte Ex~
-
,tion of 1867 showed that average-sized steam-pumps do not, on the aver-
age utilize more than 50 per cent of the indicated power in the. steam-
Cylinders the remainder being absorbed in the friction of the engme, but
more pa&ularly in the passage of the water through the Pump. It
may be safely stated that ordinary steam-pumps rarely r.e$lulre.less than
120 pounds of steam per hour for each horse-Power utihzed In ;y;$$
water e ulvalent to. a duty of only 15,000,000 foot-pounds
~POunds o coal. With larger steam-pumps. 9
Proportioned for the work to be done, the
B
1
artlCu!arl~ewmh~~e~~~~ ;r
UtY ~111
:-$%ING: Tl
5 is a 15
the
PTJMPS AND HUMPING ENGINES.
The Worthington Duplex Pump.
yamber 01 Strokes Requlrcd to Attain a Piston Speed irom 50 to
125 Feet per Ninute for Pumps Having Strokes
from 3 to 18 Inches in Length.
STANDARD SI ZES FOR
ORDI NARY SERVI CE.
Length of Stroke in Inches.
I :
1 2,
I : :
3:
: :
: :
: :
: :
6. ,
6. :
5.
7. .
I I . ,
I I . 8
-
3 1 4 ) 5 1 6 ) 7 ) 8 ) I O 1 12 ( I 5 1 18
Number of Strokes per Minute.
5
5
2
!
;
--
4 I O
f ; ;
i I O
0 to 250
: t: : g
0 to I 50
i : : i : :
: z: I %
; : z 1; ;
5 to 125
j to 125,
i to 125
i to 125
i to I 25
i to 125
i to 125
i to 125
1 to 125
to 125
to 125
to 125
to I 25
to 125
to 125
to 125
to I 25
Tao I 25
to 100
to 100
to 100
to 100 i
I
75
-
d
.a
4
r
2
f2
1;:
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
2:
%
-
-- --
/:
3/r
I4
1 !4
162
12
;
t1,2
f::;
i .i
t
I
! l/2,
1 1
:
1
1
1
I2
3
e
. . . .
. . . .
Speed of Piston..- A piston speed of IOG feet
high a speed of rotation,
assumed as correct m practrce: b.Ut for short-stro
R
er minute is commonly
reqmrin
For long-stroke pumps, 2 feet am upward this speed may be comzer:
i
e pumps this gfves too
too frequent a reversal of the valves
ably exceeded, if valves and passages are of ample area.
Piston Speed of Pumping-engines. - (John Birkinbine. Trans. A. 1.
&f E. v 459 ) - In dealing with such a ponderous and unymlding sub-
stan~easwater there are many difhculties to overcome in making a Pump
work with a himh piston speed. The attainment of moderately mgh speed
is however ea%ly accompllshed.
Well-proportioned pumping-engmes or
large capacity provided with ample water-ways and properly constructed
valves are o&rated successfully against heavy pressUres at a speed of
250 ft: per mmute. without thug.
concussion, or injury to the appara-
tus am there is no doubt that the speed can be still further Increased.
gpe& of Wat,er through Valves. - If areas through valves and
water passages are snficient to give a veloctty of 250 ft. per mm. or lyoso
they are ample.
The water should be carefully guided and not
abruptly deflected. (F. W. Dean, Eng. Naos, .4ug. 10. 1893.)
Boiler-feed Pump.% -
Practice has shown that 100 ft. of piston speed
per minute is the limrt if excessive wear and tear is to be avoided.
The velocity of w.at& through the suction-pipe must not exceed
200 ft.
per minute, else the resistance of the suction IS too great.
The approximate size of suction-pipe,
where the length does not exceed
23 ft. and there are not more than two elbo~s,.ma
be found as follows:
7/m of the diameter of the cylinder multrphed
%y 1/1t~1 of the prst0.n
speed in feet.
For duplex pumps of small size, a pipe One size larger 1s
usually employed.
The velocity of flonr in the drscharge- Ipe should not
esceed 500 ft. per minute. The volume of discharge an
alength of PiI;
vary so greatly in different installations that yhere the water is to
forced more than 50 ft. the size of discharge-prpe should be calculated
for the particular conditions.
allowing no greater velocity.than 590 ft.
per minute.
The size of discharge-pipe is calculated in smgle-cyhnder
!
umps from 250 to 400 ft. per minute.
Greater velocity is permuted tn
he larger pipes.
In determming the proper size of pump for a steam-boiler. allowance
must be made for a supply.of water sufficient for the maximum CaPacltY
of the boiler when over drtven. with an additional allowance for feeding
water beyond this madmUm capacity when the water level in.the boiler
becomes low. The average run of horizontal tUhular boilers wrtl evapor-
ate from 2 to 3 lbs. O: water per sq. ft. of heatmg-surface Per hour, but .
JIARNING:
,.-_____. -.~~-._~~~
T, hi s i s c 1910 edi ti on. Some of 1
A
~ PUMPS ~ AtiD l+JMl=ING ENGINES.
WARNING: This is a 1giO edit~~~~--~~$orne of
PUMPS AND PUMPING ENGINES.
Finance of Pumping Engine Economy.-A crjtical discussjon ?f
the results obtained by the Nordberg and other lngh-duty .engmes 1s
printed iq E,tg. iVCzus, Sept. 27.
question In most cases 1s not l!ow
1:: It is shown thst the practical
r&t fuel economy can be reached,
but how econormcal an engme lt ~1.1 pay to install, taking into consid-
eration interest, depreciation, repairs. cost of labor and of fuel, etc.
The following table is mvet$ showing that with low cost of fuel an,d~
labor it does not pay to put m a very high duty engine.
Accuracy IS
,,ot claimed for the figures: they are given only to show the methud
of computation that sho:lld be used, and to show the intluence of liifterrnt
factors on the final result.
T.LRUL.~R STATEMENT OF TOTAL ANNUAL COST OF PiiXPiNG KITB AN
800-H.P. ESGINE. AS INFLUENCED RY V?LRYING DUTY OF EXCISE,
V.~YIXG PRICE OF FUEL. AND VARYING TIXE OF OPERATIOS.
Fi rst cost:
Engi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
&pi ne, per H.P
Bollem, econommers ....................
Engine and boilers. ........
I nt. and depreci ati on:
On engi ne. at 670 . . . . . . . . . . .
Boilers, 8%. ..................
Tot& ...................
Labor per annum.. .
Fuel cost:
4. OOOhrs. ner yr.:
. . . . . . . ..,
$3,9Operton.;....
4. 00 per ton. . .
5 . OOper ton. . .
6. 000 brs. Der VT.:
~$3,00pe;ton....
4. 00 perton. . . .
5 . oo Der ton. . .
Total an&al cost:
4, 000 hrs. per yr.:
Coal . $3 per ton. .
4oerton. . .
.........
.........
.........
..........
..........
..........
.........
5perton. ............
6, OOOl ws. per yr.
Cosl , $3perton. . . . . . . . . . . .
4per ton . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 per ton. . . . . . . . . . . .
50.
24. 000
30. 00
: : : zi
1. 440
2. 160
3, 600
6, 022
17, 280
23, 040
28, mO
26, 902
32. 662
38, 422
35, 522
44, 182
52, 022
Duty per mi ! l i on B.T.U.
100.
! %z
13, 500
61, 500
120.
56, 000
85. 00
11, 250
79, 250
- _- -
150.
51 18, 000
147. 50
9, 000
127, 000
2, 880
1, 080
3, 960
6, 022
8, 640
11, 520
14, 400
18. 622
21, 502
24. 382
4. 080
900
4, 980
7, 655
10, 800
14. 400
18, 600
19, 835
22, 235
25, 035
23, 435
27, 035
51,235
7, ; ; ;
7, 800
9, 307
%
9: 600
2%
26: 707
2%
31: 507 i
180.
$148. 000
185. 00
7, 500
155, 500
9;;
9, 480
10. 220
4, eOO
68: i E
7. 200
9. 600
12, 000
%El
27: 700
26. 900
Cost of Electric Current for Pumping 1000 Gallons, per Minute
ZOO ft. H&h. (Theoretical H.P. with 100% effictenCY=
100,000 t 3958.9 = 25.259 H.P.)
Assume co& of current = 1 cent per K.W. hour delivered to the motor:
efficiency of motor = 90%; mechanical $iciency.of tnplex pumps =
80%; of centrifugal pumps = 72%; combmed eficlency. tnplex Pumps,
727,: centrifugal, 64.8%.
1 K.W. = 1.34 electrical H.P. on lnre.
Triplex, 1.34 X O.r-
-3 = 0.9648 pump H.P.; X 33,000= 31,538 ft.-lbs.
per min
CentGfueal. 1.34 X 0.645 = 0.86352 pump H.P.; X 33.000 = 23,654
:KiOO ft. hioh = $3.400 ft.-lbs. per min.
133. 400 + 31: 838 = 26. 1763 K.W. .X 8760 hours Per Year
i2293.04.
, l . 833, 100 + 28, 655 = 29. 0540 I i . W. X 8760 hours Per Year
i 2547. 76.
n4xi nnn. r - a ?~: ~ i I x 0.72=$lfi50.00. For any Other7effi-
Riciency. For any other cost per h.W.
,.+
For 100% .z,,,~.,c,!..,~, v--V.,.-.
ciencv. divide $16.50.00 by the el
,-in cents, multiply by that tr~ab.
e materi al may no l ong&r be accurate
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS.
764 PUMPS &tiD PUMiING ENGINP,S.
or PI I I T
High b:
( 3)
; ; ; ; 56
101. 83
100.
95. 04
zi o
71. 28
z52
kl
30.
28. 51
punlp, at the times of these writers. seemed pracdcally s$tled. but it
was found later that the pump did not follow. thr sheoretxal laws de-
bved, snd the subject. IS sti l l open for investlgatmn.
The thcoretxal
Cead developed by the Impeller can be gtated for th,r condition of Impend-
ing deliverg, but as soon as flow begms the ordm+ry theory does not
See,n to apply. Experiment shows that the main ilrficulty to be ?ver-
come in order to secure high efficiency Wl tb the C?ztnfUgsl pump 1s.1~
nro\ridiv rnrn~ means of transforming the portmn ,Jr the energy wiucll . . e - . , . . . y - - - : - - - - - ~ - ~
E&ts in the kmetm form.
at the out!& of the im:.ilrr. to the pressure
for,ll, or of reducing the lpss of l~e~d ln the p~llllp : :SiIX t!, 3. mln~fum.
0 rl di vr*rv IS .I.2 L -
The theoretical head for impendm,
.-_.. __~ -- winle e:rnrnment
shows tllat the mnvi mi l m actual h
mit.
. ..-_-. __ .-.. ---~~
ead approaches 1s 2 # as a li
.mPnc.oC 030h nn~mtl of water disrhz-zed will DOSS~SS the
AS the flow cou L,L.CLILCL ---.. (; ..- .~
kryaf<n PnPIYJV
,lL.lS .,.--.?3.l
712~ 2 o in addltlon to its pressur? energy. -To secure
-,, r.~n;onr.xr ,Amp i;ans must be found of uiilizir< this liinetic energy.
&L .Glcr.rJ . ..I
-tPV nF mhi rl nnd surroundinc :irf imneller. and this
The use of a free voIcu... -. . . ..--. r -.._. _..~.. ..~~
surrounded by a suitable spiral discharge chambec is pract?cally accepted
s.s one means of utilizing the energy of the veloar7 he+d.
Guide vanes
surrounding the im
B
eller also provide a means of rt~gmg velocity head
to pressure head,
ut the comparative advantage !>I these two means
cannot be stated until more esperimental data are cstatned.
The catslogue of the Alberger. Pump Co., 190s. ccntamsthe following:
it ~2.9 not llntil the vear 1901 that the centrifu@pump was sbo!vn tq
I10
5.
kping 1
Y Steal
DO Gal
Pump:
0.42090
0. 50004
Ei %Z
0.63125
0. 67344
: : EZ
1. 00008
1. 26270
1 : 2%
2. 00016
2. 10450
f
,ns per Minute
I O.
i l . 88
14.
14. 25
15.
16.
17. 82
20~
2X76
30.
35~64
40
47. 52
50.
3
w
90%
170. 2
150.
127. 87
125.
118. 6
I I I . 375
l oo.
89. 1
75.
59. 4
50.
44. 5
37. 5
35. 64
0
00% EB
198.
166667
141. 433
l 38. @9
132.
123. 75
Yi i
833: 333
g: 556
49. 5
41. 667
39. 6
b
0. 5846
0. 6945
: : E
0. 8769
E2:
1. 1692
I . 3890
I . 7330
2. 0835
: : : : 2
2. 9230
-
%!;
6$:$
$2
821. 31
I %: : ~
1382. 67
1642. 62
1843. 56
2l 9O. i S
Y?
C;) Lb ste?m per I.H.P. per hour.
(-1 DUtY mllliou ft.-lbs. per 1000 ibs. steam b. 100% effy. c 90%.
(3) DutY Per 100 Ibs. coal. 90% effr.. S lbs.steam per lb.coa;.
ti) Lbs. coal per min. for 1000 gals:. 100 ft. high.
(a) Tons. 2000 lbs. in 24 hours.
(6) lhs per year. 365 days.
( 7) Cost of fuel per year at $3.00 per ton.
Famrs for calculation: b = 1960 + a: c = b x 0.9. d = c k 0.8.
e = 3. 334 + 100 ( I : f = e x 0. 71: g = f x 365. h = 9 x 3:
column hY the ratio of that cost to 53.60.
For any other cost of coal per ton multi&y the figures, in the last
- ..II ---- ----~~ -~~
bt
. nr\thinp mnre or lessthan a water turbine reverse-i. and when desi gned
,I. L... e .:--.
on similar hnes
mnE mna,hl P of dealine with heat& as great. and with .._ -II ,--.-
-- --~~-~:--
smciencies as good, as could be obtamed with t,he :arbihes themselves.
Since +hiq rla.t.e erext orozress has been made m ?eth the theory a.n~d
design,
eonditl
, . . . u _11
until nonrii% &i& possible to build a puc1? for any reasonable
ens and to accurately estimate the efficierc? and other charac-
Q tn ha eunect,ed during actual o
;o t ie shaft of s centrifugal pump by P
eration.
-i%i~mltt~rl %n the water br x-ems of a series of
the prime mover is y .U..Y.....III __ _... .~ ~~~
radial vanes mounted together to form a single .rzznber called the im-
peller, and revolved by the shaft.
The water is 1~; to the. Inner ends of
the impeller vanes, which gently pick it up and xvi12 a rapidly accelerat-
ing motinn m.nne it to flow rathallv between them 32 chat ~upon reachi&
the o\rur. -.I--...----. ___ __ _..~
3 the vdoclty
and pressure acquired, has absorced &ll the poni? t.ransm$ted to the
pnmn aha.f t . The oroblem to he solved in im~prlis design 1s to obtatn
t1
ic-xm loss in shock and
*
---.- So
fricrion ~~nc~the~nergy of the water on leavinE ihe pump is require!1 to
be mnsi l v i n t, he form of pressure. the next prphli? 1s to transform Into
D.L.YIYLI ..~
city on le+v~~~g the
~OQY~I~P the kinetic energvof the water due to its rzio
-1 flxrthnrmnre to accomplish this with t?+ l east possible loss.
,ion in impeller design is t* pro ortions of the
snp~ nnri the water passages, and to
roperlY
=n r r f i mt ,& at e mathematical ormulce is z%essar ln addltlon P
slve t~is~proble~ .an
:e of the nrsctical side of the. qi;+t$rJ
t is p?yble
i mpel l er an& . - . Y. . l _ . . . . -
The next considerat
v -..- I -..-
extensive u.,- . -...
to a wi de knowledo
Cost of Pumping 1000 Gallons per IUinute 100 ft. High by
Gas Eneines.
h. of m11 per brake H.P. hour. coal costing %3.00 per ton of 2006 Ibs.
ASsUme 3 2% engine supplied by a&it&rite gas producer using 1.5
Efiici~?ncy of trip!es pump Son,. of centrifuanl pump 73m.
~~,a$sti~~ mm. 100 ft. high = S33.400 ft.-lbs. be;;&. + 33.ObO
= .,-
~~ __._.
Fuel $$ Per brake H.P. hour 1.5 11,s. x 300 cents .+ 000 i O.i2-
cent X SroO hours per Year= 819.71 per H.P. x 2j.2.i-t.i=-~497.766fo:
100% eficiencv.
For 80% effb., S622.21: f
9 72% effy.. S691.34: or the same as the cost
with p steam pumping enCnne of 95.000.000 foot-pounds dutY per 100
tbs. of coal.
Cost of Fuel for Electric Current.
Based on 10 lbs. steam per I.H.P. hour, 8 Ibs. steam per lb. coal, 0;
1.2.5 Ibs. Coal per I.H.P. per hour.
Eficieucv of entine 0:90. of generator 0.90 combined effv. O.Sl.
(Electric line loss not. included.)
1. H. P. = 0. ~46 K. W. . O. i 46 X-031 = 0.6456 K.W. on w& for 10 ]bs.
stra,m.
Re+mcd = 16.5492 Ibs. steam per K.W. hour. 8 lbs steam
Per lb. coal = 2.06865 lbs. coal, at $3.00 Peru ton of 2,000 Ibs. =0.3103
rents per K.W. hour.
Lbs. steam per I.H.P. hr. -
12 14 I 6
Fuel cost, cents per K.W. hr. -
18 2i 30
40
0. 3724 0. 4344 0. 4965 r) 55S5
0. 6206 0. 9309 1.2412
+.n nhtain tha ca.mP results js to canacitv and h .- V-II-.- .._ -_..._ .._~~~..
esd wttn pracacaug an
infinite number of different shapes,^eacli of which %ives a &&rent e.m-
cienrv 5~s ~41 as other varied characteristics. Tlx ctange from ve+tY
t,n~n&i% i a n.rcomnlished bv slowing down the sp+eo
of the water in aq
ann;li~;-~~~~si~~-~~~cekxtendjng from the imp&i? to the ?Ohlte Casing
itself and SO desirrned that there is the least loss from ed&es 0: shock.
It i s ~,=PPSPII.~+ that this chance shall take Pl ac e g
mdually and umfor@Y,
_..__ ...~~ .~~~
ii <&~~&~ei;lost of the vel&ty would beconsum& in pfodUCing eddIes.
,With a proper d&q of the di f f t x i nn wmre and r & k I t I S posst bl e !o
transform practical$? thr
.. -_ ..--_-._ Ir_.... ~~~~;
3 whole of the veloctty uno pressure so that the
loss from this source may be 1 rery small.
It is necessary also to furni-.. I -...---... -~~_. ~.
sh I I . nni f nrm suPPl r of water to aI1 pa+of
the i nl et nr sllrtinn onenine of the impeller, for i;niess 811 the impeller
inner edges, they
Id this. would
~--.-Y .-.,_..- I.._
cannot deliver on 1
seriody interi.. _
cesstul operation of
van*- r~~oi-1~ t he same ~qriantity of water at tMr
-.. equal quantity at their outer -x$-s, ar
Fere aqth the ContinuitY of the flea or water and the sue,
-Theory of Centrffu.xal Pumps. -Bulletin No. 173 of the Univ. of
nisconsin. 1907. contams an investigation bg C B. Stewart of a 6-in,
cent?!ugal POLYP which gave a maximum efficienev llnder the best
theoQ of M. Combe. 1840. which has heen followed by Weisbach Rtn
condt?ons of load. of onIs 32%. together with a disc&on of the general
kine. and Unwin.
Mr. Stewart says that the theory of the centhfu&
the pump.
Design of a Puur&age Turbine Pump. -Cc. W. Clifford. iu tf-i
Ma&., Oct. 17, 1907, describes the design of a four-stage Pum
capacity of 2300 gallons per minute = 5.124 cu. ft. Per sec.
Folyowing
e material may no i&@+ be accurate
-- .I_-. --. -.~.~- .,..,. ._., ,I_ ,~.__
WARNING: This is a
th
766 PUMPS AND PUMPING ENGINES.
is an abstract of the method adopted. The total head was 1000 it
Three sets of four&a
668 ft., the discharge o f
e pumps were used at elevations Of 18, 332 and
the first being the suction of the second. and so on
The speed of the motor shaft is 850 r.p.m. This gives. for the diameter
of the impeller. d = 12 X 60 X 75.05 +- 850 P = 20.24 in.
ence C = 63.6 in; h = head for eachimpeller, in ft.
Circumfer.
V = peripheral speed = 1.015 42 gh = 75.05 ft. per sec., 1.015 being
an assumed coefficient.
formula V, = V -
The velocity V is divided into two parts by the
V?: VZ = 2gh c 2 V; whence Vs.= 38.65 ft. per set
This is the tangential component of the actual velocity of the water as it
leaves the vane of the impeller. The radial component, or the radial
velocity, was taken approximately at 8 ft. per sec.: 8 -5 38.65 = tang. of
ll 42. the calculated angle between the vane and a tangent at the
periphery. Taking this at 12O gives tang. 12O X 38.65 = 8.215 ft. per sec.
= radial velocity V. The outflow area at the impeller then is 5.124 X
144 + (8.215 X 0.85) = 105 s in.: the 0.85 is an allowance for contrac.
tion of area in the impeller. 3 he thickness of the vane measured on the
periphery .is approsimately 13/4 in.; taking this into account the width
of the impeller vfas made 17/sin. [IO5 i (63.6 - 6 X ls/4) = 1.98 in.].
The vanes were then plotted as shown in Fig. 148. keeping the distance
between them.nearly constant and of uniform section.
to increase the velocity as gradualy as possible.
Care was taken
The suct,ion velocity was 9.37 ft.
10 in. This was increased to 11 t: per sec. at the opening of the im- P
er sec., the diam. of the opening being
peller. from which, after deducting the area of the shaft, the diameter, d,
of the impeller inlet was found.
used to reduce the shock.
Three long and three short vanes were
The diffusive vanes, Fig. 149. were then designed, the object being to
change the direction of the water to a radial one, and to reduce the
velocity gradually to 2 ft. per sec. at the discharge through the ports.
Fig. 150 shows a cross-section of the pum . The pumps were thor-
oughly tested, and the following figures are enved from a mean curve If-
of the results:
Gals. per min..500 IOC$ 15fll 2007; 2200 24vll 2500 3000 35;:
Efhcienev. % 30 79 76 61
Reiatlon o! the Peripheral Speed to thkkzadi -For Eons&t speed
the discharge of a centrifugal pump for any lift varies with the square
root of the difference between the actual lift and the hydrostatic head
created by the pump without discharge. If any centrifugal pump con-
nected to a sour c e of supply and to a discharge pipe of considerahle
height is put in revolution. it will be found that it is necessary to main-
tain a certain
discharge, an B
eripheral runner speed to hold the water 1 ft. high without
that for any other height the requisite speed will be very
nearly as the square of the velocity for 1 ft.
Experiments prove that the peripheral speed in ft. per min. neces-
sary to lift water to a given i&eight withJane of different form> is approk
Imately as follows: a, 481 dh: b, 554 d/h; c, 610 d/h: d. 780 dh. e 394 d/h.
(1 is a straight radial vane. b is a st.raight vane bent backward. cisa curved
vane, its extremity making an angle of 27O with a tangent to the impeller, .
d Is a curved vane with an angle of
dlrectlon so that outer end is radial.
IS, e is a vane curved in the rever6e
Applying the above formula. speed ft. per min. = coeff. X dc to the
design of Mr. Clifford. gives 60 X 75.05 = C X t/s, whence C = 488.
The vane angle was 12. It is evident that the value of C depends on
other things than the shape or angle of the vanes. such as smoothness of
the vanes and other surfaces. shape and area of the diffusion vanes, and
resistance due to eddies in the pump passages.
The coemcient varies with the sha
dtfferent speeds are necessary to ho1 B
e of the vanes: this means that
water to the same heights with
these different forms of vanes, and for any constant speed or lift there
must be a form of vane more suitable than any other. It would seem at
first glance that the runner which creates a given hydrostatic head with
the least peripheral velocity must be the most efficient. but practicallY
it is qpparent from tests that the curvature of the vanes can be designed
to suit the speed and lift without materially lowering the efficiency.
(L. A. Hicks, Eng. News. Aug. 9. 1900.)
_-lll-,.--.__ _~.~_I_-,~ ..,- _,~~.. .~.,
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS.
767
Fm. 148.
FIG. 149.
Fro. 150.
;he-matefial
~.,...
may no longer be accurate
768 PUMPS AND PUMPING ENGINES.
A CombinatJon Single-stage and Two-stage Pump, for 10~1 and
hlgh heads, designed by Bateau, is described by J. B. Sperry in Power
Juiy 13. 1909. It has two runners, one carried on the main driving:
shaft. and the other o.n a hollow shaft, driven from the main shaft by
clutch. It has two &charge pipes. &her one of which may be closeda
When the hollow.shaft 1s uncoupled, one runner on1
pump is then a smgle-stage Pump for low heads.
is used, and th;
cou
W K
ere L?
ied.
en the shafts are
the water passes through both runners, and may then be deliv.
against a high head.
Tests of De Lava1 Centrifugal Pumps. -The tables given below con-
tain a condensed record of tests of three De Lava1 pumps made by Prof.
$F;,D;nton and the author 1~ April, 1904. Two of the pumps were
. P motor.
De Lava1 steam turbmes. and the other one b
n
an
f
electric
the two&ape pump the small wheel was coup ed direct to
the high-speed shaft of the turbine, running at about 20 500 r.p.m. and
the large wheel was coupled to the low-speed shaft, whichis driven b$ the
first through gears of a ratio of 1 to 10. The water delivery and the
duty were computed from weir measurements, Franciss formula being
used. and this was checked by calibration of the weir at different heads
by a tank, the error of the formula for the weir used being less than 17
Pltot tube measurements of the water delivered through a nozzle we&
also made.
One inch below the center of the nozzle was located one end of a tiiln
half-in-h brass tube, tapered so as to make an orifice of 3/ winch diameter
The other end of this tube was connected to a vertical gla& tube fastened
to the wall of the testing room.. graduated in inches over a height of about
30 ft. The stream of water Issuing from the nozzle impinged upon the
orifice of the brass tube. and thereby maintained a height of water in
the glass tube. This height afforded a Pitot Tube Basis of measure-
ment of the quantity of water flowing, the reliability of which was tested
by the Row as determined from the weir.
The Pitot tube Rave the
same result as the weir from the formula Q, = C x Area of Nozzle x
42% with a val ue of C varving only between 0.953 and 0.977 for the
large nozzle, and between 0.942 and 0.960 for the s&l nozzle.
ONTRIFUGAL PUXP, RATED AT 1700 GALS.
10 FT. HEAD.
-
TEST OF STEAM TURBINE Cz
I PE !IN I., I(
- -
7
-
T
steam
Press. at
2
the Gover.
i g
nor Vail-e, 2
No. of
3
t%j
Test.
/
I .
$3
8
I
zz
+z
!z
$6
2
/
a
*
,
- _- - t I --- .-
1: 190 190 I ti
! 51/
:
47. 7 25. 45 37. 43 22. 93 I
I
3 Ei I 88 ) ; ; : I 150. 1
! 51/ :
! 5 2:
24. 42
:
50. 44 34. 93
24. 06
! 51/ . 58. 9
61. 50 44. 54 1
24. 21 61. 86 44. 53 i I
: I 88
51/.
143. : :
57. 7 24. 33
!51/: 54. 8
61. 47 43. 59 I
I 88 I 61
24. 53 60.00 40. 72 ! I
6X 189. 5
47. 3
170
! 53/ 1
!
24. 5
a/ :
54. 47 31. 80 1 I
24. 9
169. :
. . . . . Shut-off T. I
. . . .
169 3:
. . 45. 15 43. 85
. . . . .
169. :
.
3.
45. 12 43. 82
. . . . . . 44. 62 42. 93 i I
- . I
* The brake H.P. and
-
formula derived from P-
t Non-condensing.
I . 971
I ; 951
I%
pi
I:OOl
. .
1. 82t
1, 75:
I . 625
!a
2
%
%
tl
B
i5
r
-
I.481
I:%
I%
1%
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
-
)Y a
he steam per B.H.P.. hour were calculate<
IIY brake tests of the turbine.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS.
769
TEST~~,~I;ENCTBIC MOTOR CENTRIFUOALPU.MP.
DIAM.OF &wp WEEEL
. RATED AT 1200 GALS. PER MIN.-45 FT. HEAD.
2000 REVS. PER MIN.
-
-
ff
-
--
:
-
28. F:
:6: I:
53. 2'
58. 11
58. 7
68. 3
3&, ;
C4Ej 2
%G I
-7 z
g 7.g ;
eb
f.
--
1, 417' 0. 680
1, 403: 0. 714
I . 2951 0. 728
1, 268! 0. 706t
I . 1331 0. 750
1, 124; 0. 733t
986: 0. 742
978' 0. 720t
7791 0.665t
790 0. 683
17. 94 15. 07 2. 006 3. 158
17. 80 14. 94 1, 996 3. ! 26
19. 14 16. 22 1, 996 2. 385
20. 24. 17. 27 2, 005 2. 826
20. 39 17. 41 2, 000 2. 525
21. 30 18. 28 2, 005 ;:;%I;
20. 71 17. 71 2. 003
21. 30 18. 28 1, 997 f:;;;
20. 41 i 7. 43 2, 007
20. 11 17. 14 2, 003 1. 760
I i . 30 8. 74 2,040 Shut-o!
-
242.
242.
242
242
2:
241.
239.
%
248
I ......
2 . . . . . .
3 . . . . . .
2::::::
6 . . . . . .
7 . . . . . .
t::::::
I O. . . . . .
I I . . . . . .
* Brake H.P. calculated from a formula derived from a brake test of
the motor.
t Tests marked t were made with the pump suction throttled 30 as to
make the suction equal to about 22 ft. of water column.
In the other
tests the suction was from 5.6 to 10.9 ft.
TEST op STEAM TURBI ?J E TWO- STA& CENTRI FUGAL Pump. RATED AT
250 GAIS. PER 111~. 700 FT.HEAD. LARGE PUMP WHEEL.
2050 R.P.H.; SMALL WHEEL, 20.500 R.P.M.
--__-_p
--
120. 7 28. 1 25. 25 341 2, 1040. 830
18. 631106. 2
138. 3 27. 5 24. 4 , . _. 2P20. 799
162. 3 27. 05 25. 5 385 2. 0740. 790
; 73: ; g. 2 25. 5 316 2, 0560. 775
25. 3 326 2. 0270. 750
I 82 25. 3 25. 25 325 20010. 731
I 82 24. 9 25. 35 , . _, 1f 9620. 697
i z. 3 gi . 5 26. 3 331 2. 0140. 664
25. 3 3331 2. 0120. 558
104 29 26. 5 325 2, 0290. 54
. __, I . . . .
28. 73 68. 9
32. 9 60. 2
36. 00 54. 9
41. 55 47. 7
. .
47. 43 41. 77
47. 67 41. 5
48. 88 40. 50 ,
, 770 ~~~uMPt3 AND PUMPING ENGINES.
A Test o! a Lea-Deogan Two-Stage Pump, by Prof. J. E. Denton
is reported m +g. Rec.. Sept. 20. 1906.
The pump had a 10-tn. suctio{
and $scharge hne. and impellers 24 in. diam., each with 8 blades.
The
following table shows the principal results, as taken from plotted curves
of the tests.
steeds.
The Pump was designed to glve equal efficiency at different
&al. per min.
400 800 1200 1600 Efficiencv.
2000 2400 2800 3000 3200 3GI 3600 3800
75 77 77 70 . . . . 75 . . . . . . . . . . . .
600 35 50
77
62 77. 6 68 77; ; ; 7J
71 74
.
76
. . .
i3 76
Head.
54
;;Cg r.p,m. 6;
126
;; ;5 51 47 42 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
600 127 125 1% 1: s 1: : 1: ; 63 58
104 101
$
,
. . si . 5 j
The following results
efficiencv:
were obtained under conditions of maximum
40;-r.p;m.
600
;; I ; 70 effy. 2296 gals. per min. 43. i ft. ** a Ifft 2794
77.97 a*
3235
* * ,;;:i a1
.
A Ai@-Duty Centriiugal Pump.-A ~~.OOO.OOO gal. centti.eal pump
at the Deer Island sewaoe mimninrr station, Boston, Bass.. was tested
_- . . . r____
in lS96 and showed a di;iv of ~: i ~~7 1
-_~ 1- ._,VV,, 176 ft.-lbs.. based on coal fired to
the boilers. - (Allis-Chalmers Co.. Bulletin Non inn? 1
Rotary Pumps.-Pumps with two parallel geared shafi_; carrying
vanes or impellers which mesh with each other, and other forms of posi-
tive driven apparptus. in which the water is pushed at a modeace ve!oc-
it,y, inst~ead of bemg rotated at a high velocity as in centrifmmi pumps
are. known as. rotary pumps. They have an advantage over reciprol
catrng pumps m bemg valveless. and over centrifugal pumps in working
unoer variable heads. T!ley are usually not economical but when care-
fully designed wxth the impellers of the correct cycloidal
those used in positive rotary blowers, they give a
+ia e like
ef f %f =nrv
moderate y high
P*.
Tests of Centrifusai and Rotary Pumps. (W. B. Gre-Try @uU
IS:!, 1,. S. Dept. of Agrieuhure, 1907.)-These pumps are u-i for irri:
gation and drainage in Louisiana.
A few records of small pumps. giving
very low effiCit.l:ieS, are omitted. Oil was used as fuel in ihe boilers,
extent in the pump of the New Orleans dminage station No. ;
the last column). which was driven by a gas-engine.
figures in
I.H.P.. _. _.
pump I...: /a.f
Ib.g/b,g]b,gl,gIb,gla.gld,g
31. 6 I f . 4
152. 9 30. 5
547. 9 46. 2
657. 7 90. 6
s:
83. 3 51 . O
75. 4
50. 1 82. 4
9. 61 , __.
I f I , I I I I I
a. Tandem compound condensing Corliss: b. Simple condeting Cor-
li.ss:. c. simp!e non-cpndensing Corliss: d Triple-expansion condensing
verncal: e, 1 hree-cyhnder vertical gas-en&e, with gas-produrrr. 0.85 lb:
coal PT I.H.F. per hour; /. Rotary pump: g. Cycloidal rotarr.
The relatively low duty per milhon B.T.C is due to the 16~ efficiency
of the boi!ers. The test whose figures are ,&ven in the next ro the last
column is reported by Prof. Gregory in rrans. A. 8. M. E., to r01. xxviii.
- - - - - . , . . ~~,
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
DUTY TRULS OF PUJIPING-ENGISES.
A committee of the A. 8. $f. E. (Trans., sii.,,~~~p~ff,~~8~l~~o~
standard method of conductmg dut trmls.
duty of foot-pounds of workr 100 15s. of coal used, th- ^^--i+*n- rr^~--
.r. cu,uur~s~ .zLLI.-
mend a new unit, foot-pour! s of work per mllhon heal
;-units furmsixd by
the boiler The variations in quantity of coal make th
e old standard unfit
as a YUi ) , i ) v: . . ""= - - - - - - - - .
- - _j - . ~~~~~~
lbs. of coal in cases where eachpound of coalimparts 10.000 heat-ur$s 40
AI . . . wotm i n the hoi h. or where the evapo@l o! l I s l-O-.000 +008.7 = 1l J .355
i ernr,orativr r;ault
_ I. ~.- .~-: L;...-i
,s ~~LLUIJ YU.,~~U .V-- -_- D---.- ~~
nous coal used in horizontal return tubular boilers, and, in many cases,
from the best grades of anthracite coal.
The committee also recommends that the work done be determin$ by
plunger displacement, after making a test for leakage. mstead oi by
measurement of flow by weirs or other a
paratus. but.advises the use of
such apparatus when practicable for o tnuung add!tional data. The
g ,
foilowing extracts are taken from the report.
When important tes:s are
to be made the complete report should be consulted.
The necessary data having been obtamed. the duty of, an englne. and
,,+her nfxsntities relating to its performance, may be computed by the use
------;
~~iKefollowing formill%:
1. Duty = -
Foot-pounds of work done
Total number of heat-units consumed
x 1.000,000
A(Php+.s)XLXi~
=
H
X 1,000,000 (foot-pounds).
__
-..!XE x 100 (per cent).
2. Percentage of leakage= A X L X N
8. Capacity = number 2; gallons of water discharged in 24 hours
= A X L X N X 7.4805 X 24 _
DX 144
A X LX , 1. 24675 ( gauoms) .
4. Percentage of total frictions,
I.H.P. - -
D X 60 X 33.000
=
x 100
q1 - A(P*p+s)XLXN XlOO(percent):
AS x M.E.P. X L, X NS 1
or in the usual case where the length-of the stroke,and number of strokes
ofthe plunger are the same as that of the steam-piston. this last formula
becomes:
Percentage of total frictions= 1-
A ( * p+s)
As X M.E.P.
1
x 100 (per cent.)
In these formuhe the letters refer to the following quantit~ies:
.4 = Areas in souare inches, of pump plunger or piston, corrected for
area of piston rod or rods:
p = Pressure. in pounds per square inch, indicated by the gauge on the
force hairi; *
* B T Sederholm chief engineer of Fraser & Chalmers, in a letter to
the author Feb 90 1900 shows that the sum P k p + s mw lead ~0
erroneous iesults &iess the two gauges are placed below the ieveb of the
water in the discharge and suction air chambers respectively. and the
connecting pipes to the gauges run so the),
I will always be full qf water.
bers runnhrg the connecting pipes so they will be full of mr on&:. and to
He prefers to connect these gauges to the air spaces of the two sir cham- b
add to the sum ofthe indications of the two gauzes t&. . @trereUCe I n mat ?
Ieve! of the. two chambers,
\IPS AND PUMPING ENGINES.
D = Pressure. irl
the .~ac~:~&mds per square inch, rorresponding~ to indication of
sUctlor171~11f1-~auge on suction-main (or pressure-gauge, if the
?%auEe. 11: (: IS under a head). The indication of the vacuum-
dividing 1 aches of mercury, may be converted into pounds by
c = Pressure, 11: 0~ 2.035:
tween tit; ,&nds pkr square inch, corresponding to distance be-
pre.wm J Anlers of the two gauges. The computation for this
l)y tht: vi,, :~l:ule by mnltiplyihg the distance. espressed in feet
pump-:. :I of c!ne rlibic foot of water at t.he temperature of the
L = r\\.rag. ;.
1111 (hvnhng the product. by 144;
JV = Tott$;um:,..~ FL 0f stroke of pump-plunger, in feet:
As = Ares of St<,:;
cjf smgle strokes of*pump-plunger made during the
rod. !I.,: .(,ylinder, in square inrhes. corrected for area of piston-
0ne cyllr:*:i!antity ds X M.E.P., in an engine having: more than
re~l)~x%i*~~- 1 is the sum of the various qnantities relating to the
L, = Average left,. !.Iinders:
,V,$=Total numl,~.l .! of stroke of steam-piston, in feet;
M.E.P. = AVCRLK: *r single strokes of steam-piston during trial;
:O:rn:s:irf:d :ili!an effective pressure, in pounds per square inch
c~lirvler:
1-H-P. = Inclicxt<.,i
1m the indicator-diagrams taken from the stesm:
c = Tot+ numl,a ,c*rse-power developed hy the steam-cylinder;
PlunKer 111.: of cubic feet of water which leaked by the pump-
age test (
D = Duration 01 !.
:lr: the trial, estimated from the results of the leak-
ii = Total nunil. i:tI in hours.
weirht of ,.r
he&i
of heat-units (B.T.U.) consumed by engiine =
main
Of sl.,;:tt(r supplied to Boiler by main feed-pump X total
total
feelI- .LIII of boiler pressure reckoned from temperature of
of iu
heat :*:.rt(?r + weight of water supplied by jacket-pump X
(:kc:t- ;II steam of boiler-pressure reckoned from temperat.t~r*
of sil..:!.tar + weight of anv other mater suoplied x
h:?l q~:n reckoned from i& temoerature ofsuoolv.
: total
The
wfncn tllc. $1 the steam is corrected for ihe moisture oi stiperheat
added to I il.,-:tin mav contain. No s,llnw..nce ic; made for water
- from any source ex-
thi: WITH lii!lr or some accessory of the engine.
Ueductcd.
&at added to
v the use of a flue-httater at the boiler is not to be
a .+KLm rq.1. ~ll0uld heat be abstracted from the flue by me&ns of
~n~!?e.,tl~~: !:tler connected with the intermediate receiver of the
lust be included in the total quantity supplied
type whii
~~~$~J~~;~. iul?lp..y The leaksge of an inside plunger (the only
t!le test qlrll gut: c.\-i,rt:srmg) 1s most satisfac
temporan@ b0lte1l lilider-head removed.
toril?; determined hv makinK
A widi Koard or plank may b7!
hold back tilt: watrI LI rhe lower part of the end of the cylinder so as to
trmpomry he%! ,t II: in the manner of a dam. and an opening mide in the
ml.. -I~~-~-~- :
11~ IJ~IUII~~!T !s 1~101:l:s provided for the reception of- an overflow-pipe.
this p0&0n Is no! 1i1.c.l at some intermediate point in the stroke (or if,
from the force mah,~lr:lcticable. at the end of the st.roke). and the waier
ex%pes throl!eh tlrt is admitted at full pressure behind It.
The leakage
me*nred. !he tl,:rl overflow-pipe. and it is collected in barrels and
vaolls pcs!trons.
I n 1 he 024I nf :I
t should be made, if possible, with the plunger in
-._ . . _ --.. - . I
cyiingrr-he&c!. it miplimp so planned that it is difficult to remove the
opemngs w!nch art: \- be desirable to take the leakage from one of the
the head lxmg allo;; I!r?vided for. the inspection of the suction-valve%
r. :^ . . I &I~
k 1.7 i l S~L,I I LCx J c :r i \i w tG iemam in place.
natIon for su+ leak; there is a F
bractical absence of valve IeakaPe~ Fkami- _. ___-..~~
be due to dlsordcrc..:ce should be made, and if it &curs and it is found t0
piun.ger test. . Leak.*1 va!ves. it &ou!d be remedied defore making the
Passing down Into ttllce of the discnarge valves will be shown hy water
Pressure. Lepkagt <ie empty cylinder at either end when they are under
ante of water which of the suction-valve
If Valve leakage I ww3-s t hor n
?s will be shown by the disappear-, -,i,
- --- _..-....
2 found which cannot be remedied the quantity of 3
i.
--.-~-__._
'YEARNING:
_-.~~.---. .-~.~~._-__i_~-~_
This is a 1910 edition. Some of
DUTY TRIALS OF PUMPING-ENGINES. 773
water thus lost should also be teste?. One method is to measure the
amount of wilter required to maintmn a certain pressure in the pump
cylinder when this is introduced through a pipe temporanly erected, no
w&ter being allowed to enter through the discharge valves ot the pump.
Table of Data and Results. - In order that uniformity may be se-
cured, it is suggested that the data and results. worked out ip accordance
with the standard method, be tabulated in the manner indicated in the
following scheme:
DUTY TRIAL OF ENGINE.
DI 3nmRI O.vS.
1. Number of steam-cylinders.
...........................
2. Diameter of steam-cylinders. .........................
3. Diameter of piston-rods of.steam-cylinders ..............
4. Nominal stroke of steam-pistons .......................
5. Number of water-nluneers
............................
ins.
ins.
ft~.
__ ~~
8. Diameter of p!un<ers .-. . . ...... ..___........... ins.
z. Diameter of ptston-rods of w:l.tf!r ,-.-.-cylinders. ............. ins.
0.
lTn.An.>, ctmt-n nf l,lnncar~
I.,..AIIY. .,..,,.~ .,& r:.,nu ..,.. :.
. . . . . ft.
9. Net area of steam-pistons.. . . . . . . . _ . . . . sq. ins.
10. Net area of,plnngers.. ; .,. ., . sq. Ins.
11. Average length of stroke of steam-pistons during tria!. . . . ft.
12. Average length of stroke of plungers during trial. . . . . ft.
(Give also complete description of plant.)
TEMPERATURES.
13. Temperature of witer in pum -we!l. .%. . . . . . [legs.
14. Temp. of water supplied to
?I. oder by main feed-pump degs.
15. Temp. of water supplied to boiler from other sources degs.
FEED-W.4TF.R.
16. Weight of water supplied to boiler by main feed-pump. lhs.
17. Weight of water supplied to boiler from other sources Ibs.
18. Total weight of feed-water supplied from all sources . lbs
PRESSURES.
19. Boiler pressure indicated hv e:
20. Pressure indicated by gau
21. Vacuum indicated l>,y gauge on snc
22. Pressure correspondmu to vacuum
23. Verbical distance between the cent
24. Pressure equivalent to distance be1
,mge.. . . . . . . . . . .
& on force main.. . . . . Ibs.
:tion main.. ._ ins.
given in preceding line Ibs.
ers of the two gauges.. ins.
tween the two gauges.. lbs.
28.
) 29.
MI I \I I Sc ELLANEOUa DATA.
Duration of trial.. . . . . Duration of trial.. . .
. . . . . .
Total number of single strok, Total number of single strokes duringtriji .. : : :.
. . . :. .
Percentage of moisture in I Percentage of moisture in steam supplied to engine, or
number of degrees of yupe number of degrees of Yuperheating .
Total leakaPe of oumn during Total leakage of pump during trial, det%%eg ir& %dits
of lcaa&gc: Lt%ti . . . ofleakagetest.......................z............
Mean effective pressure, n Mean effective pressure, measured from diagrams taken
from steam-cylinders. . . . from steam-cylinders. .,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
hrs.
% or deg.
ibs.
M.E.P.
PRI NCI PAL RESULTS.
i.30. Duty .............................................
ft.-lbs.
31. Percentage of leakage ........................... .. ... %
32. Capacity .. .. .....
33. Percentage of totcl friction.
........................................................... @is.
ADDI TI ONAL RESULTS
34. Number of double strokes of Steam-piston per .minute . . . .
.i~ !5. Indicated horse-power developed by the various steam-
,i , cylinders.....-i...........................-......
I.H.P.
ig 36.
hi. 3i
Feed-water consumed by the plant per hour... . . . . . . . . lbs.
I. Feed-water consumed by the plant per inchcated horse-
power per hour, corrected for moisture in steam. .::z.. lb.
__lj--..-
he
A
38. Heat uni ts' consumed per
1
x
y&P. per hour
39. Heat units consumed per 1.L.r. per minute
. . . . . . . . . . . .
.... ...... ..
40. bteam rccpunted for by indicator at cut-off and release in
the v?nous $eam-cylinders
.. . .. . ..
... ........ .....
41. PrOpOrtIOn WhlCh Steam accounted for by indicator bears
to the feed-water consumption
... .. .
42. Number of double strokes of pum per minute.
.a7 llean effective pressure, measure
dD
......................
from pump diagra& :
I@icated horse-power exerted in pump-cylinders
Work done (or duty) pe: loo 1,s. of coal
..... ................
(.?so. if po%ihle, fu!l measurement of the diagrams, embracing pres.
sure> at the initial pomt.. cut-off, release, and compression. also bxek
prcisure. and the proportions of the stroke completed at the various
points noted.)
SAUPLE DI AGRAM TAGEN FROM PUMP-CYLI SDERS.
These are not ,necessary to the main object, but it is desirable to give
them.
D.4T.t AND RESUKTLTS OF BOI LER TR.W.
.(In accordance. with the scheme recommended by the Boiler-test Corn.
mlttee of the Soaety.)
Notable High-duts Pumping Engine Rmnn-~=
Duteoftest.............
(I? (3)
Locality.. . . . . . . . . . : : : : WilAfZod,
l&l 1900 1, "s , xl CI
Pa. Lc$ Chest-
St. Boston, B;;ztn,
I
St.
. nut Hdl Pond
Lyy,is
Capacity. mil. gal.,.24 hrs
6 15 30
Stroke, In... ._. _. .
km. Of St=m c~hhm. in. .19.5, 29.49.534. 62.9230,;$?7 22,;!:5.62 34, E2.94
No. snd dinm. of plungers..
57.5x42 x42
Piston speed, ft. per min.. .
Total head, It... _. .._. .
( 2) ' 4& ( 3) 29; $ ( 3) , 4; ( 3) 3; ; ( 3) 337g
4
Steam pressure.. .
504 292
E
126 1: ET
2
Indicated Horse-power......
Friction 07
801 tz
. , 0. . .
%ch;niwl effcienc
6. 95
Dry stream per I.H. #-
%. .
37:
93. 05
3% 2. 21
. hr. _.
96. 64 ' 9; : ; ;
10. 68
96. 53
B.T.U. per I.H.P. per min..
12. 26, I I . 4
Duty, B.T.U. basis.. 162.9*,$$
10. 34
97. 73
1x 12:;
196
I l . 69 . . . . . . .
Duty per I@90 I bs. steam . .
156. 8
203 202. 8
156. 59 158. 85
Thermal efficiency, 7*...
22. 81
179. 45 178. 49
21. 00, 21. 63
* With reheaters.
/ I I
.t Without reheaters.
(4) Lo.
( 1 , ( 2) . From h7. - ~- %f %. Sept. 27. 1900. ( 3) Do Aug. 23 1900
Nov 3. 1901. (5) Allis-Chalmers Co., Bulletin No. 1606. Thi
Wildwood engme has pouble-acting plungers.
The coal consumption of the Chestnut Hill en+e was 1.062 Ibs. per
I H.P. per hour. the lowest figure on record at thzt dat.e~ ion1
The -Nordberg Pumpin
May 4. 1899. Aug. 23. 190 5
%ngine at Wildw&&P;t: z-i&
News,
feature of this engine is the Method used in heating the feed-water.
Tram. A. S. M. E., 1899. The *pecudTi;;
enrine is quadruple expansion, with four cy-.
linders and three receivers.
There are five feed-water heaters in series a b c d e The water 19
taken from the hot-well and passed in s&c&sibn t&o;gh a which is
Peated by the exhaust steam on its passage to the condenser. b receives
Its heat from the fourth cylinder, and c, d and e respectiveI+ from the
. - . I _- _ . . . - . ~_. ~. ~~. . ,
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
VACUUM PUMPS,
third. second and first receivers.
An approach is made to the requirement
ef the Carnot thermodynam!c
cycle, i.e.. that heat entering the system
shoulti be entered at the bgl?est temperature;, in tin? case the water
receives the heat from the receivers ?t gradually increasmg temperatures.
7% yoygeratures of the Tter leagng the several heaters. were, ,on the
, 136O. 193O, 260 , and 311 F.
The economypbta,lned with this
en&e was the highest on record at the date (1900) VLZ., 162,948,8Z+ ft.
lbs. per million B.T.U., and it has not yet been exceeded (1909).
The Pulsometer. -
In the pulsometer the water is rai:e$ by suctio,n
into the pump-chamber by the condensation of steam wltlun It, and IS
then forced into the delivery-pipe by the pressure of a new quantity of
& eam on t he sur f ac e nf t ~he w n.t er
Two chambers are used whch work
alternately, one rais& ., ,..l- .._ _.___ _.
Test of a Pulsometc- A +o-+nC =n*air
, ". ". . _ . . - __. .
mm ~~rhilo thr, other is discharging.
G,~. - zl Lz*y,y Y p--U ometer is described by De Volson
I v- - - - . . ~~
r&+l ifi ~~ofis. A. S. M. E., xm. It had a 3%inch SuCtiOn-pipe, stood
40 in. .high. and weir shed 695 Ibs.
The ptcmm- ni ne wan L lllrll 111 YII.l.-l.
.^I ? innh in rl i *mder.
,Y1l... r_r_ ..-- -
A thrott,le was placed about
2 feet from the pump, and pressure gauges placed on both sides of the
throttle and a mercury well and thermometer placed,beyond the throttle.
The wirk drawing due to throttling caused SuperheS.tlng.
The pounds of steam used were computed from the increase of the
temperature of the water in pasang through the Pump.
Pounds of steam X loss of heat = lbs. of water sucked in X increase Of
tetip.
The loss of heat in a pound of steam is the,!otaI hezat ill a pound Of
saturated steam as found !rom steam tabl es
for the aven pressure.
plus the heat of superheatmg,
minus the temperature of the discharged
water: or
Pounds of steam =
lbs. water X increase of temp..
H - 0.4s t - T
The results for the four tests are given in-the following
table:
Strokes per minute.. .,.
Steam pressure in Pipe before
g:gp per minut,e.. .,.
th,,ttT$?ff. .p. .!?. h,:f?-. throttling..
I
. . ...........~. . .
Steam pressure after throttllnf:. Steam pressure after throttling..
~t,exm temo. after throttling, OF.. Steam temp. after throttling, OF..
St&% superheating. F . . Steam superheating, F . .
I
Steam used,lbs ._............. . . . . Steam used, lbs ._.. . . . . . . . . .
Water pumped, Ibs. . .,. Water pumped, Ibs. . .,.
Water temp. befcre entering pump Water temp. befcre entering pump
Water tern erature. rise of.. Water tern erature. rise of..
Water heazby gauge on lift. ft... Water heazby gauge on lift. ft...
Water head by gauge on suction.. Water head by gauge on suction..
Water head by gauge. total (H) . Water head by gauge, total (H) .
Water head by measure, total (h) Water head by measure, total (h)
Co&. of friction of plant. h/H Coeffi. of friction of plant. h/H
Efficiency of pulsometer.. . .,. Efficiency of pulso&eter.. . .,.
.-ERy of plant exclusive of holler .-ERy of plant exclusive of holler
z z Effy of plant, if that of boiler be 9.7 Effy of plant, if that of boiler be 9.7
Duty, if I lb. evaporates 10 lbs. Duty, if I lb. evaporates IO lbs.
water............................
Data and Results.
I
I
71 .
114
2": ;
1617
3. F
4. 47
29. 90
12. 26
Z: ?
0. 777
0. 012
i : E
2
60
110
2; ;
3. 4
931
I $, ; 62
5. 5
54. 05
12. 26
66. 31
57. 80
"0%
Ekl i
3
57
127
43. 8
309. 0
17. 4
1518
22~25
7. 49
54. 05
19. 67
E2
0. 911
Ei : :
0. 008
11. 059, 011
4
>64
' "2: : :
270. 1
1. 4
1019. 9
' %. "2' 5'
4. 55
$2
49. 57
41. 60
0. 839
El : :
0.0081
12,036,300
Of the two tests having the highest li,ft (54.05 ft.). that was more
efficient which had the smaller Suction (12.26 ft.), ,and this was also the
most efficient of the four tests. ,But. on the othdKhand..the $t$Efi k;;
tests laving the same lift (29.9.ft.). that was the mor2 efficient
the reater suction (19.67). so that no law in this regard was estaplished.
ri The-pressures used, 19, 30, 43.8. 26.1,
follow the order of magmtude @f
~, ._ _.~,~.~ .~~ .__.. --.-~~.~~,~ ~._
e material may no longer be accurate
The Injector when used as a pump has a very low efficiency.
Injectors, under Steam-boilers.)
(See
PU.IIPl?tG BF CONPRESSED AIR -THE AIR-LIFT PUMP.
Air-lift Pump. - The air-lift pump consists of a vertical water-pipe
with its lower end submerged in a well, and a smaller pipe delivering air
into rt at the bottom. The rising column in the pipe consists of air
miagled with water. the air being in bubbles of various srses. and is there-
fore lighter than a column of water of the same height; conse
water ln the pipe is raised above the level of the surroun
uently the
This method of raising water was
2. lng water.
of Freiberg. and was mentioned 1
roposed as early as li97, bv Loescher:
y Collon in lectures in Paiis in 1876.
but rt~s first practical application probably was by Werner Siemens in
Berlin ,in IS%. Dr. J. G. Pohle experfment~ed on the principle in Cali-
fornm in 1886. and U. S. patents on apparatus involving it were granted
to Pohle a,nd Hill in the same year. A
lift.
B
aper describing tests of the air-
nica P
ump made by Randall, Browne an Behr was read before the Tech-
Socrety of the Pacific Coast in Feb., 1890;
The diameter of the pump-column was 3 in., of the air-pipe 0.9 in., and
of the air-discharge nozzle z/s in.
length of 35 ft. plus
The air-pipe had four sharp bends and a
The water was
th of submersron.
in diameter). The e
a closed pipe-well (55 ft. deep and 10 in.
cieney of the pump was based on the least work
theoret~ically required to compress the air and deliver it to the receiver.
If the efficiency of the compressor be taken at 70%. the effidiency of ths
pump and compressor together would be 70% of the efficiency found for
the pump alone .3
l__----..~. .~. -, -_- _-~~--.I~~-.- ~---_.__
I WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some c
PUMPING BY COMPRESSED AIR.
For a gfven submersion (h) and lift (II), the rabio of the two being kept
within reasonable limits, (H) being not much grearer than (h). the effi-
ciency was greatest when the pressure in the receiver did not greatly
exceed the head due to the submersion. The smaller the ratio H + h,
the higher was the efficiency.
The pump, as erected. showed the following efficiencies:
For II f h = 0.5 1.0 1 .5 2.0
Eiiiciency = 50% 40y& 30$6 25%
The fact that there are absolutely no moving part.s makes the pump
especially fitted for handling dirty or gritty water.,sewage. mane water,
and acid or alkali solutions in chemical or metallurfncal works.
In Newark, ii. J.. pumps of this type are at work having a tota! capacity
of 1,000.090 galions daily, lifting water from three S-in. artesran. wells.
The Newark Chemical Works use an air-lift pump to raise.su1phurr.c acrd
of 1.72 gravity. The Colorado Central Consolidated Mining Co.. ln one
of its mints at Georgetown, Cola., lifts water ln one case 250 ft., using a
series of lifts.
For a full account of the theory of the pump, and details of the tests
above referred to. see Engg News, June 8, 1893.
Air-Lifts for Deep Oil-Wells are described by E. M. Ivens, in, Trans.
A. S. M. E. 1909, p. 341. The following are some results obtamed 111 wells
in Evangeline. La.:
Cu. ft. free air per minute, displacement of
compressor. ..............................
Cu. ft. oil pumped per mmute .. :. ...........
Air pressure at well, lbs. per sq. ln . . .... : . ..
Pumoing head. from oil level while pumpmg. ft.
Submergence, from oil level to air entrance, ft.
Submergence + total ft. of vertical pipe, %. ....
Pumping efficiency, %. ....................
650
$
1155
358
23.6
9.3,
536
6.54
252
917
583
10393
_. _.~__I_--- -.......__ _ _ -
the k&&i~aimay no longer be accurate
, ::PUMPS AND PUMPING ENGINES.
THE EYDRauLIC RAM-
EfRcl,cncY. - The h
dr?ulic ram is used where a considerable flow
to a height exceechng that of the fall.
water +h a modefate all IS avadable, to raise a small portion of that 6
P
f
Eytelwem as the re.Wts of his experiments (from Rankine):
The following are rules given tz
is lifted to the height h above the pond, and Q - p runs to Gaste atth*
&et Q be the whole supply of water in cubic feet per second of which
depth ZZ below the pond; L. the length of the supply-pipe, from the po$
to the waste-clack; D. its diameter in feet; then
D=d/(l .a3); L=H+hf$XZfeet;
Efficie&y, oh =1.12-0.2
(Q -WZ
h
or
H . when 17 does not exceed 20;
1 + (1 f h/10 H) neariy, when h/H does not exceed 12.
DAubuisson gives r(:ZT)
gives:
Clark, using five sixths of the values given ~by DAubuissons formula,
Ratio of lift to fall.
Efficiency per cent. 74 6r) 52 44 37 31 25
8 10 12 14 16 ;9 fi 22 24 26
the same for high ratios of hft. but for low ratios there is considerable
Tne efficiency as ca!cuiate< by the two formuhe given above9 ls :ear$
difference. For example:~
Let Q = 100,. H 2 10. Ii + h =
Efficiency, D Aubuissons formula, y0 2800
40 100
q=effy. XQH+(H +h)=
::
200
44 14
Efficiency by Rankines formula, o/* 64ttz,s 65.9 414:: 1:::
the energy Put Into the machine is that of the wholt: column of water
DAubuissons, formula is that of the machine itself on the basis that
raised through the whole height above the ram. H + h; while Ranklnes
Q, falling through the height h and that the energy delivered is that of i
only that of the. water that runs to wast.e and that the work done is
eficienc> 1s that of the whole plant, assuming that the energy put ln is
lift@? the wantlty
the supply pond.
6,.
not from the level of the ram but only from that of
the usual definition of efficiency.
4ubuAssons formula is the one in harmony with
It also is appiicable (as Rankines is
not) to the case of a ram which uses the quantity Q from one source of
suPPlY to Pump water of different quality from a source at the level of
the ram.
5. F. Rarxa. is contained m Bulletin No. 205 of the University of W&on-
An extensive ma4hematical investigation of* the hydraulic ram by
sin: 190% together >vith results of tests of a Rife hydraulic engine
whch appear to venfY the theory.
drive pipe.
It was found both by theorv and &
exPen!ent that the efficiency bears a relation to the ve&itsy ln the
trough& aPProxlmate) are taken: Length of 2-in. drive pipe, 85.4. ft.;
Frqm plotted diagrams of the results the following 6gu.a
supply h?ad. 8.2 ft.
Max. v& in drive pipe, ft. per sec.. . . 1.5
Pumping head, ft. . . .
2.6
Effiele;iy ;im$hinef s?
.
12.3 60
23.2 60
60 45 33 18 :
43.5 55
65 53 40 20 0
63.1 . . .
The author of the paper concludes that the comparison of ex
and theor.y has demonstrated the practicability of the logical
erlment
a hydrauhc ram for any given working conditions. 8.
eslgn of
An interesting histprical account, with illustrations of the develo
me?t o! the hydrauhc ram. with a description of Pehrsalls
en5ne. 1s 5.ve? bY J. Richards in Jour. Assn. Ergp So&&ties Jan f-
[;G6a descnptlon of the Rife hydraulic engine see EW. ~,&s,
hydraul c
1898
D;&. 31,
;ht
HYDRhULfC-PRESSURE J!R.4NSMISSION.
778
The Co&bla Steel Co., Portland, Ore.. furnished the author in J!!lY.
1938 records of tests of four hydraulic,rams, from wblch the follo\\lng
ls cohdensed, the eficiency. by D Aubulsson s formula, beipg .calculsted
from the data glven.
L = length in ft. and 4 = dmm., In ms. of the
drive pipe, l and d, length and dismeter of the $scParge pipe.
Size of Ram.
Ins.
3...................
41/~................
6 .__..._...........
6..~,~~,,.,.........
I
! i i 1
. * Q and q are ln gallons per min., except the last line, which is in cu.
ft
t Eleven.rams discharge into one lo-in. jointed wood pipe.
pei sec.
-z-- . ..^- n v I+
The l$s
a.4 in tile &charge pipe, 2.7 ft.
with less than 5 cu. ft,. enter-
of head In +,Qe orlve plpc: wil= v.# a~., g=u 1.. 1..
another test 1 CU. ft.
er sec. was dehvered n
ing the drive plPe.
8 aklng 5 cu. ft: gives 76
A descri tlon an& record of test Of the,Fost
.6yo ,efficiency.
in ,yng*g .ftxm
;er impact, engine is given
Om rrnnnPPt.Pd inm one S-in.
411~. 3, 1905. Two emones --- ---;,-e-i--til-of ti,e tests
*Using the same notation as before,
de1iverY 5~~~~ nre 2,R follows: Q, gal, per min., 55LZ~57.9,g,, ;Z$: ?,2?;
of the two e,
H, 357; ?I
isson)
four tests of a ran. ~~L..=,y-~-- ; ..~
1s. . ~1 ue
supply-pipe used was ll/z Inches In @met&. about 56 feet 101X. with 3
elbows. Es-h -.,n LV*S msrie with a different st~roke for the waste-valve. ._.--.
the supply il~u uq
??>y.$i;e;y head being constant: the object.
-of t!~e experl-
mmt, was to find t
hat stroke of clack-valve which WOUk~ glVe the
: highest
Length of stroke, per een,t
Number of strokes per mlnute
.............
Supply head, feet of water
Delivery head. feet of water
.................
:.
Total water pump?d, Pounds
..
Tot,al water supp led. pounds ;.
...
Efi&ney. per cent
................
T& highest efficiency realized WBS
elled 33% of it.s full stroke, the full
lXYDRACIX!-PRESSURE TRANSMISSIOX.
2
5.65
19.75
297.5
1455.5
71.4
I
-valve trav-
Water under high pressure (700 to - .
9000 Ibs. per sq- in. $11 upwiards)
affords a satisfactory method of transnntting power t? ? &stance. esPe-
cially for the movement of heavy loads at small VelOCltleS. :Ls by cranes
The system consists usually of one or mpy pumps .ca-
ya&$z[$$Fioping the required pressur?; accu+ators, whim are
cylinders with heavily-weIghted plun&zrs passing through stuffin
vez;;;A
iti the upper end. by li
ich a uantity of water may be accumulate
it- at the
pressure to which tb &nger s welgbted; the distributing-PIPesi and the
91 .
presses crane3 or other machinery to be operated.
The karllesiimportant use of hY+aulic pressure
robably was ln the
Brzmah hvciraulic p~e?s, patented In 1796..
Sir, \RT. G. Armstrong In
1&6 was one of the pioneers in the adaptation of the bydraullc system
to cranes. The use of the accumulator by Armstrong led to tht: extended
use of hydraulic machinery.
Recent developments and aPybc$lons of
the system are largely due to R.alph Twe$dell. of London, aua f&p b
Whltworth.
Sir Henry Bessemer, in his patent of May 13,
, 30.
_..~ --..w(-.-.~~...
2 materi al may no l onger be accurate
mt of Energy of the Water under pressure stored
,
Its, p+sbure 1. poun+ per square foot.
Fhe a~cumula.tor. measured m foot-pounds, is its volume in cubic feet i
9 t le Wantlty flowng In CUblc feet per Second and p the pressure in pOundi
Udnt:tY ~tead~Iy.fioymg 1s.H.P. = 144 pQ/.%O =0.261s pQ, in which Q
The horse-power of a given
per square Inch.
fl~ll~l~vs (Ft. G. Elaine. Engy, Jlay 22 anrl June j ~s)I).
The loss of energy due to velocity of fiow in the pipe is calculatetl as
-%cCOrdtng to Darcy. ev?rY pound of water lose< A.&i/dtimes its kinetic
feet in Length and D feet diameter, where A is a variable ,-o&ient.
enew., or enew due to its velocity. in Dassing along a straight pipe L
Clean cast-iron pipes it may he taken as h=O.OO
J (
1 +
~~~
ameter in i nches = cl .
12D)p or for di-
d _ lJ2 1 2 ~~-
5 6
8
~=.0l~.0l.0076.003667.004625.006.00583.00~71.00563.00~56.0055 o&, 10
The loss Of energy per minute is 60 x 62.36 Q x u L2, and the
horse-power wasted in the pipe is w = 0.6363hL(H.P~3 ?
varies wit.h the diameter as ahove.
pZJD5 * In which h
per square inch.
Inches are:
Values of 0.6363h
P = pressure at entrance in pounds
for different diameters of pipe in
d = 112
.00y954 .01ou6t76 .0":77 .00:24 .00&S .00$82 .00:7l .0"3763 .CJO&J
.00333 .003.50 .0&j
hydraulic plunrcr or ram is usually taken at 97
Efficiency of ~mIraulic Apparatus. -The useful effect of a direct
KIvHl as the efficienCy of a ram with Chain-and-&&g multiplying gear
Properly proportioned and well lubricated:
The following is
$; 20~;or of?i $;&I ,,071 l$,t&l l;T;&l 14&l 16 to 1
0.50
With Iare! sheaves. small steel pins, and wire rope for multipl+ne
20 to 1.
gear the eficlency has been found as high as 667, for a multiplicat,& o7
Henry Adams rives the following formula for effective preSsur0 in
CraneS and hOI.&: p =. aCcUmldatOr pressure in pounds per Square t&h.
m = ratio of.mu1tiPlYlne Power: E = effective
pressure
square Koch, Including all allowances for friction;
in pounds pei
E= P 10.84-0.02 m).
flictlon Of hydraulic Jacks from 31/4 to 135/s-inch diameter fitted with
J..E. 'hit (-WJ'~, +ne 15. 1888) describes some experiments on the
cuppee leather packings.
aTdIng to the conditmn of the leather. the distribution of iho load oi..
t le mm. etc.
The friction loss varied from 5.69 to 18.87
With hemp
of. from 11;4.~ to 3.4%. the load being central a;d from 15.0~ to 7 699 8
The friction increased considerably with eccentric loads.
acking a plunger, 14inch diameter showed a friction loss
with eccenbr,c load, the percentage of loss de&easing in both &ses &t$
Increase of load.
folto\blng, for Cast-iron cylinders, for a pressure of iOO0 lbs. per sq. in.:
Thlehess of Hydraulic Cylinders. - Sir W. G Armstrong gives the
Dlam. of cylinder, inches -
Thickness,?nches L
6 8 IO
12 16 20
0.632 1.146 1.552 1.8;s 2.2"~
24
2.578 3.19 3.69 4.11
which t = thickness and
These figures correspond nearly to the formula t I 0 175 d + 0 48 1I;
For any other pressure mu!ti~iy by the rztlo of that pressure to I000
at 24 Inches it disappears.
eter. but for 20 inches diameter the addition 0.46 is reduced to 0 I9 and
II = diamtter In inches up t& 10.inChadi&m-
For fOUIUJlie for thick cylinders see p$ge 316.
HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE TRANSMISSION.
781
sqzz;; jgr: should. not be used for presyf$s ,yceeding 2000 lbs. Per
For l,i#er pressures steel cnstn%s or forge? steel should
be used.
gor workitw IWPSSWW of 7.50 11)s. per square I+ tje test
;% ii,T&rsnll;Lre inch. and for 1500 Ibs. tne LeSL
eSg,re should he LUU I-I. r-- ; .,..-
$e&ure should not be less than 3000 1bS. .- 1 ,n...-
snped ,f Hoisting by Hydraulic Pressure. - The maximlull LLIIV*~- E,~~~. _...- ,,,,,.,.,., 1. Cnr ,,,efnrm #y.;,ps
loo feet per send. -. ~--.. nt_- - r;yperiments on water at 1600
> H, , ~l . , i n"- r n; , . , . l , i nr r a*Tl . ZO- - speed of Water wwCmgu rlp.ea<; int;;.
lb3 pressure per square ,l,ci, Ro\V!ll,
Y, L~~~*+-..o ..---r----; -i i ,,
in& diameter, through a l/z-inch pipe contracted at one POLnt GO /4-1nCn,
rlw ni ne. and 4;,0 feet at the
gave a velocity of 114 feet per second l
rPdl,ced section. Through a Q-inch PlPf- *L--,Y:- _-
-I;( feet.,per~SeCond ln the pipe and %i-f&t at t.he
~..Z L,_^__ * A.rtmnt;nn +,,,, @,#+, $&it the velpcity was Z
reduced section.
In a l/3-lncn pipe w~liuouli CULLCI~~~~~.-
..U .______I
was 3% feet per second.
WA; manv of the above noL$s the author is indebted to Mr. John Platt,
CoG&ting engineer, of New 10x
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Hydraulic Presses in Iron-yorky are descrihed,.by
R nl Dael& of Gernlany, in Trans. A. I i l l . h.. l,s92. Tht: fOllO\\lnk
distiict arrlln;ementS used in different systems of high-PrcSsllrC hydrau-
lic work are discussed and illustrated:
1 SteamVpump wit.ll fly-wheel ant! arcurpulator.
2: Steam-primp \v~ithOut fly-whcrl and \V!th acCUmUl:LtOr.
3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ witllo,,t fly-wheel an!! wt~hout acClll~~lda~Or. _
I;I these three &Stems the valve-mOt,lon of the \~orl;lng press 1s oper-
at d in the hi&-pressure COllUn~,
This is avoided ln the followK:
% gingle-acting stywn-intenslher withollt aCcUlnU1atOr.
F; Stea.m-ourno mth Hy-wheel,
without wcumul~tor and with pipe-
-. _------~ - -
circuit.
6~ Steam-pump with fly-wheel.
without accumulator and without
-. ~;
pipe-circuit
Vphp rlisl,rlvantappS of aCCumulators
are thus stated: The weighted
_..^ -I :- ..,-..t Cases as accumulators. cause
.* ,rYn t ak0 nl n~r e i n t he move- pl ;~~e~wS.i ci ~~formerl ~ seyu LLL ~~~~~~
violent shocks in the pipe-llne when Chax,,c, VW..- w.--- ---, ..~~
ment of the ,vater so that in many places. in order to avoid bursting
,se th& pipes are made exclusively of forged and bored steel.
d ioneS Of the metallic valves are cut ,by the water (at high
n sucll Cases only the most careful maintenance can prevent
from this cau
The seats a?
speed), and 1
ereat losses c If power.
-- ksrdraulic power in London. - The general. principle ln;,olve? is
4no ,.,l+~PF in+,O mains laid in the streets, from wtnch Serllce-WPes
~~_..,_ ,:a ,.,. t hmo- r vl i dpr motors when
mtor.; ~MXWT is reouired. In SO
me Cases a Small Pelton wheel has peen
i~,i &$&g under a pressure of
over 700 lbs. on the square Inch.
. 3.12 ,.c.n0\
Over55 miles pf hydrauhc
mains are at present la,lu ~I~Jz,.
The reaepvolr oI oo,yc:I consists of capacious accumulators. loaded to
A&. . , . - - __. . ~~. _
800 lbs. per sq. in.
The engine-house Contains Six Sets
of triple-expansion. pumping en-
gines.
Each pump will deliver 300 g?llons of water per mwte.
The water delivered from the ,m+ pumps PassTaret; ;;;o;F;fm&
The rams are 20 inches In diameter. and
lators They are each loaded with 110 touS Of Slag. contained in a wrought-
fF:k cylindrical box suspended from a cross-head on the top of the ram.
one of the s,ccumulators is loaded a little more heavily than the other.
SO that they rise and fall succeqively; Y*
+lle more heavily loaded actuates a
stop-valve on the main steam-WPe.
The mains in the &blic streets are so constructed a$ laid as to be Per-
f ect l y trustworthy and free from leakage. Every PlPe and valve used
9500 11~s. per sq. in. before being placed
throughout the systeniis tested tO -
on the ground and again tested to a.reduced pressure In the trenches t.O
insure the perfect tightness of the Jmnts.
The jointmg matenal used IS
gut;a-percha.
The average rate obt&ned .by the company is about 3 shillin6s p
thous?nd 6?lons. The pnnclpal use of the power is for intermitte$
passenger elevators,~cranes. presses, warehouse hoists, etc
work m ca\es where cbrect pressure can be employed, as, for instance,
4n lq+ant use of the hydraulic power is its a
estnqushmg of fire by meifns of Greatheads injector
R
plication
ydrant.
to the
use of these hydrants a continuous fire-en6ine is available, BY the
Hy~J ranlic Riveting-machines. - Hydraulic rivetinp was introduced
in lQl,land b.s .\lr,. Il.. H. rweddell.
1%X +rt;rble nvetmg-machines were introduced in 1872
Fixed riveters were tirst used about
The nvetlng of the large steel plate3 in the Forth Bridge was done b
small p0rfahle rnactunes workmg with a pressure of 1000 lbs
Inch. In excqmonal cases 3 tons per inch were used.
per s ua$
May;. lSS9,)
(P&.l nst
.A. .,
$ .Q
A: aP,phcati?n of hydraulic pressure invented by Andrew Higginson
of Llcerpool. dispenses with the necessity of accumulators
0f a three-thfpw pump driven by shafting or worked bk steam and It consist;
depends P~r+lly upon the work accumulated in a heavy fly-wheel.
The wva:er In !ts passage from the pumps and back to them is in con.
stant clrculatlon at a very feeble pressure, requiring a minimum of
Power t0 Pre.%?rve the tube of water ready for action at the desired
~~~o$o~;e Pumps. and.1~ thrown upon the piston of the tool to be set
moment, \\hen by the use of a tap the current is stopped from going
The water 1s now confined, and the driving-belt or steam
entine. su.pplemented by the momentum of the heavy fly-wheel 1;
&mPl0Yed.m closmg up the rivet,, or bending or forgin the object dub-
Jected to Its operation.
Hydraulic Forging-press.
hrdraullc f0rmm?press, see a paper by R. H. Tweddell rn P~OC. I nst.
For 3: very .comPlete illustrated account of the development 0f the
C. E.. vol. cxvii. 1893-4.
.
In the Allen forginp-p
pf the press are in diri,,
ress the force-pump and the Iar.ge or main cylinder
mtermediate valves of
-Ifs? b~+=barlr curnmumcal
em-tion. There are no
an.v kind. nor hasp the~~pump any clack-va.lves~
^__,i_>._ mu . . -
but it SlmPlY forces its ~;y&l~luer IUU or water direct into ihe cylinder oi
the Press. and receives the same water,as it were. back aeai
stroke. Thus. when both c ..
hIi. the large ram of the pr& rises ana *a
strolie of the pump. keeping up a conti:
Of course. traveiinp the shorter die---
fhe press cylinder. (J ournal h-0
Illustrated article in Afodern \fec
A ZOOO-ton foqing-press er&te
deseri!l+ in Eng. and M. J OW
~. .~,-.n on the return
rnnqers an(! the pipe connecting them are
Ils simultaneously with each
nuoUs,oscillatin6 motion, the ram
*tiiLIIce. owm6 to the lar6er capacity oi
n and Steel Ins!itute. 1891. See also
hanism. page 668.)
d at the Couillet forges in Belgium is
Np,v. .?5. 1893. The press is composed
d the comoressor. The porn-
essentla!ly Of tw0 parts - the press Itseu an,
- .-- ----_ PreSs0r 1s formed Of a Vertical steam-cylinder and a hydraulic cylinder
draufic plst~0n discharges the water inJo the press proper.
The pistqn-rod ?f the former forms the piston of the latter. The hyl
tion is made by a cylindrical bala
The dint.tihu-
re+ed.the steam-piston falls autolllabrc:a,,y unaer tnt
nceo valve: as s?xi as the pressure is
.-^.:^^ll.. .~~~ .
Durme Its descent the steam passes to the othe
rehe$ the c.vlinder. and finally escapes
: action of 5ravit.y.
f--m
r face of the Piston to
mhen, steam enters under the pisto
I.^ . .
LIVLLX cut: upper end.
n of the qqmpressor-cylinder the
_._- Z~. Piston rises.. and its rod forces the wager Into the press proper
Pressure thus exerted on the piston of the latter is transmitted thr&rr?fhz
cross-head to the forging which is upon tbt
head two small sinplc-actinp +
bejuz.connecterl to the cross-h
n a.,- ^..I:-.l^-~
------OS- -
: anvil. To raise the cross-
Lyti~~~~-~~~~~~ue~s are used, their piston-rods
cad: Steam acts only on the pistons of these
A-:--:~~ - cymlers from below.
stmrf On top 0! the
P
The BuLmsslon or steam to the cylinders--which
$rects the motmns o
resS frame, iS regulate? by the same leve; which
the compressor
The- *
1s sufficient for all the ordinary purpoies of f
A Speed of 30 blows per minute has b
the abbe System. having two cornpreSS iluu @vlrg a m,
Of 6000 tons, has been erected in the Krupp works: at
mqvement giren to the dies
leen kZEi%&
. .._-a -. . A dpuble press on
axlmum pressure -:
; Essen.
;~,:)g
- ~- 111 - - . _- . - .
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of thl
HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE TRANSMISSION.
FIvdraulic Engjne driving an Air~~$~r~$~ &Em& TF$g$t;
;~{h~~~g&~ lA8f$tence.
Its falling weight amounts
!r;ln +,,* and the foundation belonging to it cOnSiStS Of ? block Of cast
--____ -. --
i tons~. The stroke is 16 feet 43/4 inches; the diameter oiottz
diameter of piston-rod 133/a Inches:
,i,,,f~t,,ee,t,~~e;16~~et 4 inches.
The pow&Jo wprk the$rnon$;;
as well as the two cianes of 100 and 150 tons reaPectlv?lY.
auriliary appliances belon!#
+a it in furnished by four itlr-corqpressqrs
couplec~ t~~~~.h~r snd dnvelt Il..-u-d
essed tog733 .gOhk?
F$$tY&$KGf X&2 water-pressure_en~ts~, T;;!:l;,a;;
bronze lining, have a 133/4-F
pressure of water on the ~1
Inch.
The compressors are
~7Bl dnr h stroke. Each of tne Iour U:Y~&LLU=LD . ~I- 1^ _I^,:rrc
ncn oore.
ILIC: JLLYR II *. ,= ----~~~~.
ston amounting to 264.6 ppunds per square
pored OUt t0 31~ inches mameter. and have
em.._ --.,:..,a A-- requires a power equal. t0
=~ -,~ -___._ -.~
The compress00 air Is ucllvdred i.nt0 huge reservoirs.
3x h~o~$~~~~*pressure is kept up by means of a smtab!e water-Column.
-,rgtng Plant at Bethlehem, Pa., is described in a
. . *~_. L,_^c,-intv nf hTn.v:ll Enaneers
ZZ!$Z~ iyrzz bG;l;;hiniG-$nTJ pumps of 15,000
d by four open-hearth steel furnaces of
he water cyl~jkler~ of the intenslner.
YALIYUU=IW ..- -- ~~~~
j allows the plunger to descend and rest on the
--.:-,. fif the lever slow or fast as th? 0Pera~~~~
. orOl mn~rlb f,o reduce the fqrgtn
into t
the balance cylinder!
forging. To and fro I!IV~IVLL~ Y
desires up to 120 a mnulte. thtt& UI- . ..--- .-,
,g. IIIC
smalle; 0r single frame, type has only one balance cylinder. fn!medlatelY
above ihe press cylindef.
The Davy press is made m the Lmted States
by the united Engineenng & Foundrl cn
Pittsburzh.
Some References on Hydraulic ~~~~~~~~~---~ress~re-en~nes,,,
ti.
structor;
Hydraulic Motqrs; Turbmes. and
Bodmer, London,
1889: RobInso? S,,
H draulic Power and Hydraulic
Machinery.
* London. 1888:,Colyer s
H &aulic Steam, and Hand-Power
Lifting and Pressing MachmerY.
Lon
B
See also EngineennP
07~$585; 36~. hlay zz and June
(London) Aug. 1. 1884. P. 99; March 13$5. Feb..1;,y8g3, p. 170.
5, 1891, &I . 612. 665; Feb. 19,1892, P.
I
.
e material
,~~--_-., ,~, -~_
rt6y~ no l&@r be accurate
The imperfect combustion of carbon, making carbon monoside, Pro-
,ceS 1~s than one-third of the, heat which is yielded by the complete
,mbustion makiug carbon dioslue.
Thetotalheat of combustion of any compou!ld of hydrogen and carbon
nearly the sum of the qusntities of heat wtnch the constltuents,\\Iould
.oduce separately by their combustion.
(Marsh-gas ,s 5n exceptl,o,n.)
in computing the total heAt of combustion of compou!ldV? co,+un,ng
en as well as
$$rvec~: ~~llc[l
h .drogen and carbon, .thE follow,ng Pnnciple 1s to be
hyc rogell and oqgen eslst, 111 :I compound,in the proper 5
roportion to form, water (that 1s. b,S
weight one Part ot hytlrog:e,, to.
ght of ,oxygen)
these constituents have no effect pn the total he&t o{
If ilydroge,, evists in a greater proportion. Ot!ly the surplus
~~~!j!~$$?& above thnt which is required by the oxygen IS to be taken
*to fLcCOU1lt.
~~~~ following is a general formula, (Dulougs) for the total heat of com-
ustion of any compound of carbon. hydrogen, and oxygen:
Let c H and 0 be the fractions of one pound of the compound. \Wh
onsists redpectively of carbon,, hydrogen, and

the remamder
,gng nitrogen, ash, and other ImpuntIes.
Let %?$~~ile total heat, of
ombustio[l of o,le pamd of the compound in Brltlsb thermal umts.
Then
k = 11,600 C + 62,000 (H - %O!.
~nul
rom a & number of arudyses of,gases fropl locomotive hollers. to show P
scs of ~~~~~~ot Combustion. -The following .arc, selected
,he r3uge of composition under dIRerent circumstances (P. H. DudleY,
rj wts. A. I . I \ {. E., iv. 200):
Theow of CO
mbustion of so!!4 Fuci
ne~m,in.>t r\e ^*.---. I I . *- _ <From Rankine. Snm.=wh.+
oelng mixed withy r
, ma,maiue.d at the temperature of ien,-
....~.~:~~~.. -
-ii-
.
81
82.5
81
-
.-
-
80.5
2
02.6
76.8
81.5
rest.
- _-
:.
3
--
13.8
\ I-
2.5 2.5
11.5 __.... 6
8.5 . . . . . . 8
2.3 __.... 17.2
in analyses on the Clevelaud and Pittsb\~r$;J~a$, , pcrv lStance
nu.. the urn&e wzs the blackest. ttlerf
wl..x YLLI I...-.-- ..--
: was [oullll LLre greiltest percent-
age of unconsumed oxygen in the .produ$t.
~\UW~IW t.hat something __..~~
rc -%i;o,t the Combustion
besitles the mere presellce of oxygen 1s :eq[[[re(J y: be-
of the ~m[nti,r carbon of fuels.
(What JS needed 1s .tl-~
lorough misture of
:ombust,on cha;inber.)
eU. yellow, or white
; y; y; ---sp yy. ,,!ore slowvly its combustion
by radiation. as into the
Ld me Combustion is not completed,
unburned.
actually forming wat~er. or erin[.irlY in
.: . . . . . . _
imnlv inert,
!~rrl~ [ree or in combination with, other constituents.
the ox~&~Xi~~& volatile gases in a not (
ature o the fire is meant the temperature of the products of combustion
Temperature of the Fire. (Rankine. S. E., P. 283.) -BY temper-
at the instant that the combustion is Complete. Tl?e elevation of that
temperature above the temperature at wluch 4he ?r and the fuel arc
supplied to the furnace msy be computed by dlvld[ng the total heat.of
combustion of one lb. of fuel by the
weight and by the mean sPeclfic
heat of the whole products of combustion, and of the air employed for
their dilution under constant pressure.
Water -The fobwing formula is developed [n the author s
Temperature of the Fire.
the Fuel Con@iuing HydToqu aud
Steam-
boiler kconomv
on the a?sumptions that al! the
water exist in ihe combustion chamber as superheated
b$:i,,t Fgtig
perature bf the fire and ihat the specific heat of the gases is a .const.an!V
0 ,777. The Iasi assumption is probably \argelY [n error, flnce It 1
&v<nown that the specific heat of. gases increases .wlth the tempera-
(See page 537.)
The formula will give approximate result% how-
k%i and ls sufficiently accurate when reiative figures only are desred.
tit c H I), and w represent respectlvety the percentages of carbon.
c hydrogeh, &ygen, and water In a fuel, and f the pounds of dry gas.per
~~. --mhust[o[[.
,vhiCh $x&S iU Coal and iS detrimental, 3s tending
a?* form the Jsb left after Complete comhusrion 0; the fueI and alsO the
(6) cjttjw ~kmd Compo[[ncls of various kinds which are alsO inert
choke the grate.
chnker or glaSX mater,aI produced by fusion of the ash, ih;hicb tends to
Chemical React,ion.
1
Lpbesr.lby Lbs.N. T;.y
Fuel =3.32 o
I
4.320.
-.
c fn CO?
c I,, 1.x>
c+zo=c,&
C+O=co
-zjr-----
co IO CO?
co + 0 = coq
I3 ::i:
;:;; 1 k52
6.76
5%
H to H?O CH, to (0~ i 2 Ii f 0 = H&
4:450
CH, + 40
8
4li I.96
26.56
2.47
34.56 3.47
35.56
IO.150
and If?<> (
=Ccl+2HBj
62,000
s to50:
S+20=sn,
- /
;
?2 !I;;
For heat of corn bustion
, a..- , v
Of RUiOUS fuels see Heat, page 533.
..~ .._. _,- e...,. ._
.e material tidy no ion& be accurate
- . . . _, - _____ , _- _. , . _. . - . , _ . ~~- - _, . . ~. , _- . - . - ~, . . .~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
pound of fuel, = CO*+ N + eicess air, then the theoretical elevation ol
the temperature of the fire above the temperature of the atmosphere
T=616C+2200H-3270-44W
ft 0.02 W + 0.18 H
EX.+PLE. - Re
ing moist woo( of t 8
uired the maximum temperature obtainable by burn
e composition C, 38: H. 5; 0, 32; ash, 1. moisture 94:
t~he dry gas bemg 15 lbs. per pound of wood, and thetemp;?rature of $
atmo.spltrrc 6Y.
T~616XR8+~e~oxs-32;X:~2-44X4
15 + 0.02 x 24 +
0.18 x.5
= 1403. add 62O = 14650.
CJ ASSIFICATIOS OF SOLID FUELS.
Gruner classifies solid fuels as follows (Engg and &fg J our., July, 1874).
-
Name of Fuel.
Ratio g
Proportion of Coke or
O+N*
Charcoal yielded by
or-. the Dry Pure Fuel.
Pure cellulose.. .
1: .
Wood (cellulose and encasing matter). .
0.2a @ 0.30
Peat and fossil fuel . _. _.
Lignite. orb
Bituminous coals _. ~.
Anthracite _. _. _. _. _.
~~~~ .._.._..._, i
* The nitrogen rarely exceeds 1 per cent of the weight of the fuel.
Progressive Change from Wood to Graphite.
(J. S. Newberry in Johnsons Cyclopedia.)
a
0
3
Carbon.. .._ 49. I
Hydrogen . . 6.3
Oxygen.. . . . ..__ 44.6
T
. _
._
Classiflcatlon of Coals.
1:.
;.z
u
14. 53 1. 42 If.11
0. 27 0. 14 0.13
0. 65 0. 65 0.00
- - ---
15. 45 2. 21 13. 24
- -
It iS CpnVenient t0 ChSSify the Several varieties of coal according to
*be relatjve PercEntages of carbon and volatile matter contained in their
com.bustlble portIon as determined by
lng 1s the classification given III the aut
! i
roximate analysis
The follow-
ors "Steam- boj l e; Economyl ' :
.,,
A
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. some Of t
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID FUELS.
CLASSIFICATION OF COALS.
Fixed
H$+j$g
Carbon.
$oJ$ik
e . per lb. of
otTby-
Combustible Se_m,ii$it.
Anthracite . . . . . . . . . . 97 to 5
Semi-anthracite.. . 92.5 to 87.5
i . . . . . . . . . . . 87. 5 to 75
b2. 5 3 to 1. 5 14600 to 148@0/ 7. 5 to 12. 5 14700 to l 55ooi zi
Semi-bituminouc 12. 5 to 25 15500 to 16060 100
Bituminous. Eastern. __. ._. 75 to 60 25 to 40 14866 to I5500
@ur$nous. Western 65 to 50 35, , ptp5; o 13500 to 14800 ; :
. ~C" 1
I I tnnn tn t15nn 77
uznrte. . . ,I unuer xv I L. _. __ ,. ._-- _ .-_- / . .
The anthracites. with some unimoortant exs-cptions., are ,confined to
three small fields in eastern Penns>lvanls. The semi-antnracltes are
found in a few small areas in the westefp part of the anthracite field.
The semi-bituminous coals are found on &ne ea, stern border of the great
Appalachian coal field, extending from nOrth central Pennsylvania across
the southern boundary of Virginia into Tennessee a distance of over 300
~~~,.~,I ,:~--L-L ~~~3 nail- ~~~~_
miles. They include- the ccals of Clearnem. tiamuna, ana aomerser,
counties, Pennsylvania, and the Cumberland. Md.. the Pocabontas. Va.,
and the New River, W. Va., coals.
It is a peculiarity of t,he semi-bituminous coals that their combustible
portion is of remarkably uniform composition, the volatile matter usually
ranging between 18 and 22% of. the combustible, and approaching in its
analvsis marsh gas. CH,. with very little oxygen. They are usually low
-I--;n moisture, ash, and sulphur, and rank among the best steaming t&L> 1
coals ins the world.
Tbl e eastern bituminous coals occupy the remainder of t~he Appala-
chian coal field, from Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio to Alabama. They
are higher in volatile matter. ranging from 25 to over 40%. the higher
figures in the western portion of the field. The volatile matter is of
&wer heating value, being higher in oxygen. The western bituminous
coals are found in most of the states west of Ohio. They are higher in
volatile matter and in oxygen and moisture than the bituminous coals
of the Appalachian field, and usually &ive off a denser smoke when
burned in ordinary furnaces.
The U. S. Geological Survey classifies coals into six groups, as follows:
(1) anthracite: (2) semi-anthracite: (3) semi-bituminous; (4) bitu-
4. or black liqdte: and (6) lignite. &ho&: (5)~ sub-bituminoui. -- ~.~~~~~~ tic
Classes 5 and 6 are described as follows:
Sub-bituminous coal is commonly known as lignite, lignitic coal,
black lignite, brown coal. etc. It is generally black and shining,
closely resembling bituminous coal. but it weathers more rapidly ;t;
exposure and lacks the prismatic structure of bituminous coaL
calorlfic value is generally less than that of bituminous coal. The local-
ities in which this sub-bituminous coal is found include Mont,ana, Idaho,
Washindon. Orepon. California, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico,
and Texas -
Lignite is commonly known as ligl)ite, brown lignite, or browr:
coal. It usually has a woody structure and is distincbly brown in color,
even on a fresh fracture. It carries a higher ercentage of moisture than
any other class of coals, its mine samples s R . owing from 30 to 40% of
moisture. The localities in which lignite is found are chiefly North
Dakota. South Dakota. Texas. Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and
six classes are
CO.\~POsITION OF ILLUYTRATIVB COAIS -- CAR-LOAD SAMPI,ES.
Proltimate A~nalysis of &r-dried Samole.
. . . . . . . . .._..
---
Lo-5 on air-drying 3.40
1.10 1.10 4.20 Undet. 11.30 23.56
Ultimate Arm&is -- -
-
Ipro$en......... 2.63
-. Y.._U Y 2 U.
--
Carbon...........76.S6 7;:g Si;;i 7;:;; 7;::: 7:::: 6::;:
Os:.qIl........... 2.2i
Nitrogen.. . . . 0.S2
Sulphur.......... 0.78
1.z 1.0s
y; 10.47
1.50
Ash . . . . . . . .._.... 16.64 l&i
0.57
1f.i;; 16.52
0.90
4.66
0.82
9.1s
0:SO
1.30
6.33 3.35 l:$:
----&
Results Calculated to an Ash and Moisture Free Basis.
Volatile comb.. . . . 8.91 14.82
19.83 32.34 39.30 47.05 45 31
Fixed Carbon. . . . . .91.09 85.18 80.15 67.66 60.70 52.9.5 54:6g
--
Ultimltte Analysis.
.-.. -_l --.-..~u IY1LIAUI_n.
Air-dried, Coil!. 12,472 13.406 15j90 13 951 12 ,jlO 11 690 10 288
Combustible .15,2S6 15,496 16.037
15:511 14:446 13:235 12:SXQ
Caking and
~~~.~--
Xon-cakin (: Coals. - Bituminous coals are sometimes
classified .as caking and non-caking cosis. according to their behavior
when s!rbJected to the process of coking.
e?t fu.51011 or softening .v+n heated, so that the fragments coalesce and
The former undergo an incipi-
vle!d a compact co,ke. while the lat,ter (also called free-burning) preserve
their form. ProduClnK a coke which is only serviceable when made from
laye piecf*s of pod. the smaller pieces being incoherent.
The reason of
t.hi:; dlfferrl>ce IS not clearly understooc:, as non-caking coals are often of
sunl~tlr Uitlmate chemical composit~ion to caking coals
Some coals
which cannot be made into coke in a bee-hive oven areeasily coked in
gas-heated ovens.
Cannel Coals are coals that are higher in hydrogen than ordinary
Coals. They are valuable as enrichers in gas-maklng.
some utt,irnate analyses:
The following are
c. 11: O+N. S. Ash.
----
Boghe+ Scotiand.. .
Alberttte. nova Scotia
. 63.10 6.91 7.25 0.96 i 19.7;
Tasmanite, Tasmania..
62.67
.,
79.34 / 10.41 9.14 j 8.19 j ./:::::: 4.93 5:jz
-. _ .
-
.
I
-
Combustible.
C. H. O+N.
---
79.61 11.24 9.15
82.67 9.14 6.19
83.60 10.99 5.21
found In the central part of Rhode Island and in Eastern Massachusetts
nllo.act l~lsnd Gnphitic Anthracite. -A pecutiar variety of coal is
i[t resembles !loth graphit~e and anthracite coal and has about the follow-
In,0 composltlon (A,. E. Hunt, Trans. A. I. Ai. E xvii 678. GrapMtic
It burns with extreme difficulty.
carbon. 75%; volatde matter. 2.60%; silica, 15.06yo; ph&pho&s, ,045s.
,~~~~z~
1
- ,-_- -_,__ , ~, . ~
WARNING: This is a 19f bx%i <cmm. Some of 1 the
ANALYSIS AND HEATING VALUE OF COALS. 789
ANALYSIS AXD HEATING VALUE OF COALS.
fl,tnl is cornnosed of four different thinrrs. which mav be senarated bv
pr~~~~l,te;l;si~s~ysis. -viz.: fixed carbon, G&tile hydrbcarbori, ash an&
nmlsture. In making a proximate analysis of a weighed qtutntity, such
~~,>rilm of coal, the moisture is first drivel; off by heatihg it to about
~.iil F. then the volatile matter is driven oR by heating It in a c!osed
crllcilllt: to a red Ilrat, then the carbon. 1s bur+ed out ?t the ~em:uuin::
coke at a~white heut, \vith suflicient au supphed, until nothmg is left
but the ash.
The fixed carbon has a constant heating value of about I+,600 B.T.U.
per lb. The value of the vo!atile hydrocilrbon depends on Its composi-
tlon, and th&t depends chiefly on the district in which the co+ is mined.
It may be as high as 21,000 B.T.U. per lb.. or about the hectmg value of
marsh gas, in the best semi-bituminous coals. which conbaln very small
ercentages of osygen, or as low as 12,000 B.T.U. per lb.. as in those
p Y.
rom borne of the western states, which are high in oxygen.
The ash has
no heating value, and the moisture has in effect less than. none, for its
evaporation and the superheating of the steam made from It to the tem-
perature of the chimney gases, absorb some of the heat generated by the
combustion of the fixed carbon and volatile mat,ter.
The analysis of a coal may be reported in three different forms, as per-
centages of-the moist coal. of the dry coal or of t.he combustible, as m the
following table. By combustible
is always meant the sum of the
Bsed carbon and volat,ile matter, the moisture and ash being excluded,
By some writers it is called co&l dry and free from ash and by others
pure coal.
Moisture ................................. .
1:
I___ ........ I ..........
V&tile matter.. ........................
33.33 37.50
Fixed carbon ............................
I
5!,
55.56 62.50
.* .*
Ash......................................
I
I
The alllnhllr. commonlv reoorted with a proximate analysis. is deter-
mined &Z%&~.~~~l~ it& p&m+. ana!ysts part pf it escapes wi$ the
volatile matter and the rest o
If it iS found In the ash as SUlpnlue 0: Iron.
The &lphur should be given separately in the report of the analysis.
The relation of the volatile matter and of the fixed carbon m the Com-
bustible oortion of the coal enables us to judge the class to which the
-bituminous, bituminous.
,ter in the
.^ --
coal belongs, as anthracite, semi-anthracite, semi.
or lignite. Coals containmg less than 7.5 per cent volatile mat
combustible, would be classed as anthracite, between 7.5 and I+J per
cent. as semi-anthracite. between 12.5 and 25 per cent as semi-bitummous.
b
s lig-
&%~&l~-o;i~gr%e~~- inihe classificatioli of the U. S. Geological Suf-
vev the nub-bituminous coals and &mites are distinguished by their
SGl-... -..- . ______ _..-.. -
,%&-&I rnlnr m.&r t,hnn bv anaivsis.
The figures in the second column, representing the percentages in the
dry coal, are useful in comparing different lots of coal of one class. and
they are better for this purpose than the figures in the first,cOlUmn, for
the moisture is a variable constituent, depending to a large extent on the
Weather to which the coal has been subjected since it was -r@ned, on the
analvzed.
-...--..- -* _..
and on the ex
amnlln+ nf moisture in the atmosphere eat the time when it is.
:tent to which it may have accidentally. been dned d
uring
the process of sampling.
The heating value of a coal depends on its percentage of total Combus-
tible matter and on the heating value per pound of that combustible.
The I tter differs in different districts and bears a relation .to the Per-
centa;- Qf volatile matter, -It is highest in the semi-bltunnnous coals,
being nearly constant at about 16,750 B.T.U. per pound.
It is between
14,500 and 15,000 B.T.U. in anthracite.,and ranges from 15,500 down to
13.030 in the bituminous coals, decreasing usually as we go We&ward
and as t,h,e volat!le. matter contains an increilsiug percentage of oxygen:
In some hg!ntes it IS as,low as 10,000.
111. reporting the heatmg value of a coal, the B.T.U. per pound of corn..
bustlble shodld always be stated, for convenient comparison with other
reports.
Proximate Analyses and Heating Values of American Coals.
Thq. accompar@g table of proximate analyses and heating values of
Amencar? coals IS condensed from one compiled by the author for the
lS9Y editlou of the Babcock & WiicoxCo.s book, Steam.
The analyses
are ~zelected from various sources, and in general are averages of many
safnles. The heating values per pound of combustible are either ob-
tamed from direct calorimetric det,erminations or calculated from ulti-
mare ana!vses, except those marked (?) which are eslimated from the
heattng v&es of coals of similar composition.
T.*BLE OF HE.~TIXG VALVE OF COALJ.
Anthracite.
Northern Coal Field,
E:mt Middle Field
WestMi ddl e Field...
Southern Coal Field.
Semi-anthracite.
Loyalsock Field.
Bemice Basin .
SemChituminous.
c:eartie1r1 co., Pa..
Cambri c Co. . Pa.....
Somerset, Co.. Pa.. _.
Cumberland. Md.
Pocnhontas, Va..
Ne= River, W. Va..
Bituminous.
Connellsville. Pa.
Youghiogheny, Pa..
Jefferson Co.. Pa..
Brier Hill, Ohio... _.
Vanderpool. KY
Muhienherg Co.. KY.
Scott, Co., Ten..
Jefferson CO.. ~18..
Big Muddy. Ill.. _.
Mt,. Olive. Ill..
Strestor. Ill.. . .__,
Mi snouri . . . . . . . . . . . , .
--
3. 42 4. 3{
3. 7i j 3. Of
; : ; I ; : ;
1. 30 6. N
3. 651 9. X
) . 76122. 52
) . 94/ 19. 20
1. 58! 16. 42
l . Oqi 7. 3( 1
1. 00! 21. w
1. s5; 17. 88
I . 26130. ! 2
1. 0336. 50
I . 21 32. 53
I . 80 34. 60
1. 0034. 10
1. 33 33. 65
~I 2635. 76
. 55 34. 44
' . 5030. 70
. 0035. 65
1. 0033. 30
8. 4437. 57
--
-p--j-/-
1. 27 8. ; 0. 731 13160
6. 40 6. ; 0. 58 13420
5. 00114900
1. 59 1O. f
3. 41! 14900
0. 50 12840
3. 81 8. 1
4. 36; 14900
0. 64 1322A 4. 85/ 149~)
I I
1. 34 6. ;
3. 69 5. 3
15. 42
15. 42
i : : : ;
1%
1. 82 3. 9 0. 91 14950
1. 12 7. 0
24. 60, 15700
1. 70 14450
I . 51 8. 6
22. 71~15700
1. 87 14200
f . 12/ 7. 7
20. 37! 15800
14440
1. 391 3. 0
0. 74,
1. 64 3. 3
0. 58 '
19. 79i 15800
1507oi
D- 27 15220 I
22. 50~157Oi l
18. 95i 15800
t: : : : - :
0. 78 14050' 34. 03 / 15300
I . 99 412
0. 81 14450
1. 00
38. 73 15000
14370
i . 30 4. 3
35. 47 152CO
13010
I $ : : ;
38. 20 14300
12770 38. 50 14400
; : 14 8. 0
1. 57 13060 38. 86
1. 80 13700
14400( ?
I . 77 2. 6 1. 42 13770
34. 17 15100( ?
i . 80 8. 0
37. 63 i &$00( : , ,
; 2: I : : :
12420 36. 30 14700
10490 47. 00 13800
' I 94 8. 0
10580
12230
45. Oql 43M)
43. 94' 14300( ?
2: :
16. 36
E: Z
16. 36
3
1: : i i
14. 91
14. 91
: : : : ;
15. 22
I : :
14. 80
- -
The heating values per pound of combustible given in the table except
those marked (?) are probably within 3LT of the average actual beating
values of the cor.,bustible portion of the coals of the several districts
When the percentage of moisture and ash in any given lot of coal is knowd
--,..-___ -2 -.-- -.~~. .- .-. -- _-.--___~-. ,..
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
ANALYSIS AND HEATING VALUE OF COALS. 791
the heating value per pound of coal may be found approximately by
multiplying the heating value per pound of combustible of the average
coal of the district by the difference between lOO% and the sum of the
percentages of moisttire and aqh.
in 1890 the author deduced from Mahlers tests on European coals
the following table of the approximate heating value of coals of different
composition.
APPROXIJL~TE HEATING VALUES OF COALS.
-
E
ii
2l
72
14. 580
ECp&$tl t
Evapora-
tion from
and at 212
per lb.
C;!$$F-
i::4
i:;;
16. 21
16. 40
16. 21
-
2
I
f
_-
-
The experiments of Lord andHaas on American coals (Tyans. A. I . M. E..
1697) practically confirm these figures for all coals in which the percent-
R~PP of iixed carbon is 60%
and over nf t,he mmhllstihle. but for coals
.n 60% fixed carbon or more than i
in the combustible. they are liable to an error in either direction of about
&o. It appears from these-&&&ents that the coal of one seam in a
given district has the same heating value per pqund of combustible
within one or two per cent. [true only of some districts] but coals of the
W~P nrnvimate analvsls. and containing over 40yo volatile matter. but
-~&d*~~diff&nt disiricis, may vary 6 or 8% in heating VdU~.
The coals containing from 72 tn R7 ner cent. of fixed carbon In the com-
bustible halve nmctic&v the same-he\& value. r_..~.~~~~~~,.
Lord and Ha&., I ___- __ -_--..-~~~~~-
This is c~ee,,maeddbo$
I& tcrata nf Porshontas coal.- A study of these
Mahlers indicates that the heating value of all the semi-bituminous COdS,
75 to S7 5% fired carbon. is within 1% % of 15.750 B.T.U. per pound.
The h&$&-~&e of any coal may also be calculated KOL~ ,I~J UN
L--d I&^ ..wma&
,__I^.
analysis. with a probable error not exceeding 2%. by Dulong s formuKa:
Heating value per lb. = 146 C + 620 (H - z) + 40 S.
in which C, H, and 0 are respectively the percentages of carbon; hydro-
gen and oxygen. Its approximate accuracy is proved by both M.ahler:s
and Lord and Haass experiments, and any deviation of the calonmetnc
determinationof any coals (cannel coals and lignite! excepted) more than
2% from that calculated by the formula, is more l!kely to
P
roceed from
an error in either the calorimetric test or the analys& than rom an error
in the formula.
Tests of the U. S. Geological Survey, i!W4-1906. -Coals were
selected at the mines in different parts of the country for the PurpOs$ Of
testing their relative value in developing power through a steam baler
and engine and through a gas produce: and gas engme.
The full account
of these tests will be found in BulletIns 261, 290 and 323. and Profes-
sional Paper 48, of the U. S. Geolo@cal Survey. The following table
shows approximately the range of heat?ng values
er pound of combus-
tible as determined by the Mahler calonmeter. an
if the range Of percent-
agesof fixed carbon in the combustible (total of fixed carbon and volatile
matter) in the coals from the several states.
The extreme figures 10 200
and 15.950,farly represent the whole range of heating values of the c&n.
bustible of the coalsof the United States, but the fi gures for each state
do ,not nearly cover the range of values in that state. and in some cases
as +Jndiana and illinms. the fi gures are much lower than the averag$
heatmg values of the Eoals of the states.
!
Fixed C. To.
I
B.T.U. per lb.
Pmna. anthmcite .......................
West Va. semi-bituminous
Arkansas, semj-bituminous
..............
Penna; bttumm?ua
...................................................... West \a. bitummous
Eastern Kent?mky .
western Kentucky..::::::::::::::::::::
Alabama.
IiCLS3S.
................................
.................................
Otd3tmms .............
Missouri
....................
I,,iois~,~ ..::::::. .......................
Iow3.............::::::::::~:::::::::::::: i
Indiana ..................................
New Mexico .........................
\Vpoming............................::::
Montan3..
Colorado
.......................... i ....
.................................
North Dakota
Tern3
...........................
....................................
a9
00 to76.5
g4 F???
67. 5 to 55
55 t%0. 5
61. 5 to 59
g : : ; ; . 5
50. 5 to 47
59 to 47. 5
57 ti - F3. 5
50. 5 to 47
4s t%. ; ~5
46
48. 5 to 42.5
44. 5 to 34
--
14, 900
15. 950 to 15, 650
i 5, 25; 5too5. 500
5, 5q05 t&i 5, 000
14, 400 to 13, 700
14. 800 to 14. 200
14. 600 to 14. 100
i 4, 600 to 13. 100
14, 300 to 12. 600
13. 700 to 12. 400
13, 6W3t30~2, 700
12. 500 to 12. 300
. i 3. 30p2tpodo, 9cHI
11 5aO
i o, 2ooi o 11, 404
i o. 900 to 11, 900
I
Average Results of Lord and Haass Tests. - ( Steam Boiler
Economy, p. 104.)
Name of Coal.
C. H. 0. N. S.
Pocahontas,V~..)a4.8?/4.20) 2.64~0.850.59i 5.69
Thacker. W.Vn. j78.65~5.00 6.0111.41 l.28/ 6.27
Pittsburg. Pa .._. 1?5.24/5.01
Mi ddl e Kittan-
inn. Pa.. ~. .1?5.i9i4.9i
Upp-rFreeport, j
Pa. and 0. . . ! 72. 65 4. 82
&honin~. 0.. _. 71.13:4.56
Jackson Lo.. 0.. 70.72j4.45
Hi $. ?J . . : . 68. 0314. 97
74. 84
2: :
54. 69
41. 90 14755
40. 72 14728
40. 41 14141
49. 64 41. 84 14640
19. 82 15766
38. 62 15237
40. 61 14963
i
39. 91 1480
".. " " '
* Per Ib. of combustible, by the Jfahler calorimeter. The average
figures calculated from the ultimate analyses agreed within 0.57 except
ln \)e mse of the Jackson Co. coal in which the calorimetric &ult was
1.6 2~ higher than that computed from the analysis.
Sizes of Anthracite Coal. -When anthracite is mined it is crushed
in a breaker.
and
which are named as 0110~s:
Lump.
P
assed over screens separating it into different sizes,
asses over bars set 3% to 5 in. apart: steamboat over 31/z in.
and out o screen; broken, through 3l[zin..over 2314 in: egg 23/d to 2 in P
stove. 2 to 1% in.: chestnut. Is/s to 314 in.; pea s/4 to i/z in:; buckwheai:
% to 3/8 in.; rice. 3/ e to 3/1e in.; culm, through $1~ in.
_----.-~.-,.__-L.,
WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition.
When coal is screened into sizes for shipment the purity of the different
sizes as regards ash varies greatly.
Samples from one mine gave ;esults
Name of Coal.
ANALYSIS AND HEATING VALUX OF COA.LS.
793
%k::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Chestnut ............................
Pea. .................................
Buckwheat. .........................
Screened.
1
Anal yses.
rhrough
Inches.
OVlS Fi xed
I nches. Carbon. Ash.
1: : : 80. 49 03. 67 I O. 5. 66 I?
0. 75 0. 50
%Z El
0. 25 76. 92 16. 62
Space Occupied by AnthraciteCoal.
(J. C. I. W.. vol. iii.)-Thecubic
contents of 2240 lbs. of hard Lehigh coal is a little over 36 feet: an aver-
age Schuylkill white-ash, 37 to 38 feet; Shamokin, 38 to 39 feet; Lorberry.
nearly 41:
Accordinp to measurements made with Wilkesbarre anthracite coal
from the Wyoming Valley, it requires 32.2 cu. ft. of lump. 33.9 CII. ft.
broken 34.5 cu. ft. egg:. 34.5 cu. ft. of stove, 3.5.7 cu. ft. of chestnut. and
36.7 cu. ft. of
2S.S cu ft. of ump. 30.3 cu. ft. of broken, 30.8 cu. ft. of egg, 31.1 cu. ft. P
ea. to make one ton cf coal of 2240 Ibs.; while It requires
of stove. 31.0 cu. ft. of chestnut, and 32.S cu. ft. of pea, to make one ton
of 2000 ibs.
Bemice Basin, Pa., Coals.
Bernice Basin Sullivan
and Lyconiing Cos.;
Wp; Volil!IiiC. Fig;d5F $s!!., Sut.h~;.
1%
to lo- -
rangeof 8... _. . .._
89.39 , P34
to
This coal is on the dividing-line bzi%en the anthracites and lse%-
anthracites, and is similar to the coat of the Lykens Valley district.
More recent analyses (Trans. A. I . M. E., xiv. 721) give:
Water. Vol,.,.&C. Fix;;.;rb. ts,;, Su$$r.
Working seam.. . . 0.65
60 ft. bel ow seam. . 3. 67 15. 42 7 1 . 34 5. 97 0. 59
The first is a semi-anthracite, the second a semi-bituminous.
Cnnnnllrville Coal and Coke.
(Truns. A. I. M. E.. xiii. 332.) -The
m~~-fi&l i n the snllthwestern Dart of PennSyIvanf
-y .___ -,-~ . .
Connells~~lle _--. _____, ___ ____ ___... ~~..~.~ ~~
i a, is a
strip about 3 miles wide and 60 miles In lengih. The mine ivorkings are
confined t.n the Fittshurrrh seam. which here has it.s best develqpme_nt %s ,- _- ____ --.: ___.-
and its quality best adapted to coke-making.
It generally affords
:et of coal.
to size,
from 7 to S fc
The follo\\$ ing analyses by T. T. Morreii show about its range of com-
position:
Herold Mine.
Kintz&ne..::::
Mo,i;k,re. V;;,fqt. Fixed C. Ash. Suh&;. P,p$js.
0.79 431.Qi .
l y9& 9; ;
2 1. 32 . 0. 02
In comparing the composition of coals &ross the Appalachian field,
in the western section of Pennsylvania, it will be noted that the Con-
, nellsville variety occupies a peculiar position betwee? the rather dry
semi-bituminous coals eastward of it and the fat bitummous coals flank-
ink? it on the west. .
Beneath ;he Connellsvllle or Pittsburgh coal-bed occur9 ,an interval of
.
from 400 to 600 feet of barren measures.
1 separating it tram the lower
Productive coal-measures of Western Pennsylvania.
The followmg tables
show the great similarity in momposition in the coals of these uPPer and
lower coal-measures in the same geographical belt or basn.
;he-iateriai
~~. , ~~~, _ . , . , , , . , , . _^. __ ~~. . - - c. ~_
may n6 l onger be accurate
ANALYSIS AND HEATING. VALUE OF COALS. 795
surcs In a
--
Fixed Garb.
baiyses from the Upper Coal-me
Localities. Moisture. Vol. Mat.
89. 06
74. 28
LZi
61. 34
54. 44
mres in a
Fixed Carb.
89. 06
73. 34
61. 84
74. 46
62. 22
52. 03
e&ward Order.
Ash. Sulphur.
--
5. 81 0. 30
;:2 0. 71 1. 24
7. 24 1. 09
::2 0.86 0. 64
restward Order.
Ash. Sulphur.
5. 81 0. 30
2;; 1. 02
::2 ?:E 4. 92
5. 14 3. 66
Analyses of Southern Coals - Continued.
-~
a:
-
_
Fixed C. Ash.
SUI -
phur.
Moisture.
Vol.
Mat.
TEXAS.
Eagle Mine.. :. . . . . 30. 64
Sab,ip3s Fi$d. Ve;n I::: : :, : 2C. 04
1. 37 16. 42
.L 6.
:; III......
E
29. 35
a. *.
IV.. . . . 21. 6
3. 45
15. 52
22. 35
31. 38
33. 50
37. 66
Anthracite . . . . . . . .
Cumberland, Md..
Sslisbury,, Pa.. __.._
Cormells\-dle, Pa.. _. .
Greensburg. Pa.. . . . .
Irwins, Pa... . . . . .
68. 18 13. 02
50. 18 19. 63
45. 75 29. 1
Indiana Coals. (J. S. Alexander, Trans. A,. I. -)I. E.,. iv. 100:) -The
typical block coal of the Brazil (Indianil) dis,trict differs in chemical com-
position but little from the coking coals of $+estern Pennsylvama. The
physical diiference. however. is quite marked: the latter has a cuboid
structure made up of bituminous particles lymg against each ether. so
that under the action of heat fusion throughout the mass readily takes
place, while block coal is formed of alternate layers of rich biturmnous
matter and a charcoal-like substance, which is not only very slow, of
combustion. but so retards the transmission ol heat that .agglu~mation
is prevented, and the coal burns away iayer by layer, retaining its form
until consumed.
An ultimate analysis of blcck coal from Sand Creek by E. T. Cos gave:
C, 72.9-1; H, 4.50: 0. 11.77; N, 1.79; ahh. 4.50: moisture. 4.50.
Analyses of other Indiana coals are given below.
Caki ng Coal s.
Moisture. v0 / Fixed C.
Mat.
--
Parke Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii::;
45. 50 45. 50
Sullivan Co.. . . . . . . . . . 45. 25 5! . 60
Clay co.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. 00 39. 70 47. 30
Spencer Co.. . . _. . . . . . . . , . 3. 50 45. 00 46.00
Bl ock Coal s.
Lower Coal-m*
toisture. Vol. Mat
Analyses from tl te
-
Localities.
Anthracite . . . ~.
Broad Top. _.
Bennington..
Johnstown. .
Blairsville.
Armstrong Co..
1. 35 3. 45
Y:Z 27. 23 18. 18
I . 18 16. 54
0. 92 24. 36
0. 95 38. 20
Analyses of Southern Coals.
Moisture. :a\. ?ixed C. Ash.
SUI-
phur.
--
54. 80
63. 50
1. 73
8. 25
Pulaski Co., 3 analyses.
range . . . . . . .
Muhlenbera Co., 4 malyses,
range ..jl to
Fyz;; jt$~~~~ y.:,3,7, ;I. i f yhn
Kentucky Cannel Cozls. 5 / from
analyses, range.. . . .._ _j t to
TENSESSEE.
Scott Co., rartge of several $. I { frlr
Roane Co.. Rockwood.. . 1
Hamilt~on Co., Melville. I
Marion Co.. Etna. . i
Sewanee Co.. Tracy City. .
Eellv Co.. Whiteside.. . . . ,
I . 26 35. 15
I .?!2 Jo) 4.j
3. 60 30. 60
;:g ;;:g
I . 60 41. 00
__. _ 40. 20
. . 66. 30
60. 85
52.48
58. 80
53. 70
67. 60
50. 37
?. 80 eok~
1. 70 cokq
I . 23
5. 52
i%
7%
8. d
4. 80
0. 701 32. 33
1. 83 41. 29
1. 75 26. 62
2.74.
0. 9441
26.50
l . ba/
23. 72
29. 30
I . 301 21. 80
ihomra.
Dade Co.. _. . . . . . . . _. . . . . . I.20 23. 05
4b. bl
61. 66
60. 11
67. 08
63. 94
61. 00
74. 20
16. 94
I . 11
I I . 52
3. 68
l l . 4a
7. 80
2. 70
60. 50
3.01 I 42.76
9.12 26.11
1.59 38.33
2. 00 32. 90
1. 78 30. &l
15. 16
ALABAXA.
Warren Field:
Jefferson Co.. Birmingh~zm
Jefferson Co.. B!ack Creek. :::t
54. 64
53. 08
66. 58
3. 37
z
0. 91
I . 19
.
. .
0.84
;I?;
1. ; 3
0:::
--
:3ut 30 * This field covers about 120 square miles in Virginia,
and ;
square miles in Eent,ucky.
t Volatile matter including moisture.
Z Single analyses from Morgan. Rhea, Anderscn, and Roane counties
fall withhi this range.
.-,,,,.- -. ~~.--.~~- _,_. - ,: ..~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
Clay co. :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Martin Co... . . . . . . _. . . . . 82::: :::Yi ::::t
EaviessCo................... 5. 50 36. 00 53. 50
Illinois Coals.
The Illinois coals are generally high. in, moisture.
volatile matter, ash and sulphur, and the volatile matter IS high In oxygen:
~oIII~~u;%I~~ the coals are low in heat;vg Tn~L .,;, ;vz range of quahty is value
The Ri p M,idd-* n-0 whwh has a hl g@
m .I.u.T &..,. -.----y bO. 1 U.. .,-.)
. _-___ _--
n as a%ezG coal in the St. LOUIS market, has about 36% OS
natter in the combustible, while a coal from Staunton, Macou-
tested by the author in 1883 (Trans. A. S. M. E., v. 266) had
boiler test with this coal gave only 6.19 Ibs. of yater evapo-
m and at ~12~ per lb. of combustible, in the same boiler that had
,8 lbs. with Jackson.,O.. nut.
i W. Parr, in Bulletm No. 3 of the Ill. State Geol. Survey, 1906,
he analyses and calorimetric tests of 150 Illinois coals.
The. two
he lowest and the highest value ner pound of combustible have
reputatio
volatile r
&c0s~
rate% fro;
pi $;oo,q.2
7 reports t,
having tl
the folio! ting analysis:
Air-dried Coal.
Pure Coal.
iMoist. Ash.
1
i volt
%e
S. Vol.
Fi;sd BTii.
--
;:Ei i:E I 40. 75 33. 32 44. 33 52. 10 2.00 l . l B 39,02 47. 90 52. 10 69998 1 12. 162 14,830
-- _
Lowest.
i,,, Highest
Al
from 1ZYc to 570.
Western Arkansas and Oklahoma. (formerly Indian Territory).
(H. 11. Chance. Trans. -4. I. M. E.. 1890.) -The western Arkansas coals
are dry semi-bituminous or semi-antliracitic coals. mostly non-coking,
or with quite feeble coking properties. ranging from 147 to 165% in
volatile mat,ter, the highest percentage yet found, according to Mr. Wins-
lows Arkansas report, being 17.655.
In the Mitchell basm. about 10 miles west from the Arkansas line, the
coal shows 19% volatile matter: the Xay!,erry coal, about 8 miles farther
wes:,, contains 37,; and the Bryan Mine coal, about the same distance
west. sho\vs 26T0. About 30 miles farther WC St., the coal shows from
3Sz, to 41 i/2Y0 volatile matter. which is
coals of the JlcAlester and Lehigh districts.
also about the percentage in
Western Ligaiics. -The ultimate analyses of some Iignites from
Utah. Wyoming. Oregon and Alaska are reported by 11. W. Raymond in
Trms. 1. I. M. E.. vol. ii. 1573. The range of the analyses is as follo\vs:
C. .5.5.79 to 69.84: H. 3.26 to 5.0s: 0. 954 to Zl.SZ: N. 0. 42 to l.Q3. S.
0.63 to 3.97: moisture, 3.05 to 16.5l; ash. 1.6s to Q.Z8. The he&g
value in B.T.U. per lb. combustiole, calculated by Dulongs formula,
ranges from 10.030 t.0 13,970.
dnatyses of Foreign Coals. (Selected from D. L. Barness paper on
-4merican Locomot.ive Practice. Tmn,s. A. S. CI. R.. ISRX~\
--
Great. Britain:
South-W&s.. 8.5 88.3
South-W&z.. 6.2 92.3
Lancashire, Eng. 17.2 80. I
Derbyshire, ** 17.7 79.9
Durham. * 15.05 86.8
Staffordshire. M.4 78.6
Scotlondt ___.__.. 17.1 63.1
Scotlancl~ :....... 17.5 60.1
SOhiilil~lCllC3:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.93 70.55
--
South .4mericn:
:::
p---I-
Chili. Chiroqui. 124.1 24.35 I 38.98 62.25 36.91
Patagonia. . . . 2.7 Brazil 40.5 57.9 1::;
_._.___.....
7:: Csnada: .NovnScot,ia 26.8 60.7 _._._ 1 .o Cape 26.9 67.6 1;:;
_.
1;:: Austraha. Freton. 15.8 64.3 IO.0 Lignite . . . . . . . ..__
7.52
Sydney, N. S.W. 14.98 82.39 2.04
Borneo ~26.5 70.3 14.2 . .._._.__
Tasmania . . . . . . .._..I 6.16 63.4 30.45
* Semi-bit. coking coal.
t Boghead cannel gcis coal.
t Yerni:bit. steam-coal.
t
I
- - . - - __- - . , , , ___~.
- . ~_ - _. - - - - . ~~- ~. . ~. .
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
&~+!I-+ qf ~ct_qu.,.pI. fj., coal, in Trans. A. I . M. E., xiv. 560. is:
VOL.. zY.w; CarDOn, 56.98; ash, 13.39
1: and one of Sydney, Cape Breton,
coal is: vol., 34.07; carbon. 61.43: &I
SaglpliW Coal for A~~jlysis.- ?$:5kmball Trans A I M. E
xii. 317,.saYs: The unsuitable sampling of a coal-ykam, 0; the improp;;
preparation of the sample in the laboratory, often gives rise to errors in
determinations of the ash so wide in range as to vitiate the analysis for
a11 practicrl purposes: every other sil _ ncrle determination. exceutint? mois-
ture, showing its relatiye part of the error. The deteiminaiionsof sul-
$ur and ash are especially hable to error,
elated in the nl*+oe
as they are intimately asso-
, Y..uYIY.
Wm. ForE,.... ..- .-- r-r-- -.. ~... ~~~~~~~~~-. .~~~~~~ ~~ --.--~~ ~~~ :vth. in his mmer on The Heating Value of Western Coals
(Engg News. Jan. 17, 1895). says: This trouble m getting a fairly average
samnle of anthracite coal has comuelled the Readine R. R. Co., m getting
RELATIVE. VALUE OF STEAM COALS.
its sgmples, to take as much as 300 Ibs. for one sample. driwn-direct
from the chutes, as it stands ready for shipment.
The directions for collecting samples of coal for analysis at the C.. B.
& Q. laboratory are as follows: -
Two sam les should be taken, one marked average. the other
select. 8 ach sample should contain about 10 lb%, made up of lumps
about the size of an nranee taken from different Darts of the dumu or
car. and so selected tl Iat they shall represent as nearly as possible, first,
the average lot; second,. th e best coal.
An example of the &ffe ~~~ rence between an average and a select
sample, taken frc
coal-
zun Mr. Forsyths paper, is the following of an Illinois
Average.. . . , . . .
Moisture. Voi..M&t. Fixe;5v;;bon. Ash.
1.36 35.54
Select.. _ . . . . . _ . .I.90 34.70 48.23 15.17
The theoretical eva orative ower of the former was 9.13 lbs. of water
from and at 212 per b. of coa , P P and that of the latter 11.44 lbs.
RELATIVE VALF OF STEAM COAIS.
The heating value of a coal may be determined, with more or .less
approximation to accuracy,, by three different .methods.
1st. by chem:ti;l analysis; 2d: by combustion m a coal calorimeter;
3d, hrr actual :rial in b steam-boder.
The accu&acy of the first two methods depends on the precision of the
method of analysis or calorimetry adopted, and upon the care and skill
of the operator. The results of the third method are subject to numer-
ous sources of variation and error, and may be taken as approximately
true only for the particular conditions under which the test is mace.
Analysis and calonmetry give with consIderable accuracy the heating
value which may be obtained under the conditions of
tion and complete absorption of the heat produced. A g
erfect corn&+
oiler test @ves
the actual result under conditions of more or less imperfect combustion,
and of numerous and variable wastes. It may give the Nghest practical
beating value, if the conditions of grate-bars, draft, extent of beating
surface method of firing etc., are the best possible for the particular
coal t&ted, and it may g&e results far beneath the highest if these con-
ditions are adverse or unsuitable to the coal.
In a paper entitled Proposed Apparatus for Determining the Heating
Power of &Terent Coals (Tram. A. I . M. E., xiv. 727) the author de-
scribed and illustrated an apparatus designed to test fuel on a large
scale. avoiding the errors of a steam-boiler test. It.COnSSts Of a fire-
brick furnace enclosed in a water casing, and two c
B
hndncal shells con-
ttinlnp a great number of tubes, which are surroun, ed b.Y coohng wag;
and through which the gases of combustion pass While bemg cooled,
steam is generated in the apparatus, but water is passed through It and
allowed to escape at a temperature below 200 F. The. product. of the
weight of the water passed through the a paratus b Its Increase In tem-
perature is the measure of the heatinsva ue Of the Uel. P P
A study of M. Mahlers calorimetnc tests shows that the maxlm!lm
difference between the results of these tests and the.calculated heatmg
Power bv Dulongs law in any single case is only a h.ttle over 3%. and
the results of 31 tests show that Dulongs formula glvw an average of
,-.
e mat&al
d.~.-
i i i i y no I on@ be accurate
- A
only 47 therm&l ~~I& less thank the calorimetric tests, the average total
heating vaiue being over 14.000 B.T.U., a difference of less than 0.4%.*
The close agreement of the results of calorimetric tests when properly
conducted, and of the heating power calculated from the ultimate chemi-
,-XI analvsis. indicates that either the chemical or the calorimetric method
may be accepted as correct enough for all practical purposes for deter-
mining the total heating power of coal. The results obtained by either
method may be taken as a standard by which the results of a holler test
are to be compared, and the difference between the total heating power
and rhe result. of the boiler test is a measure of the inettlciency of the
boiler under the conditions of any particular test.
The hratine value that can be obtained in boiler nractice from any
givencoal-;tkpends-uoon the efficiency of the boiler; and this largely
uoo2 the ditficultc of thoroughly burning the volatile combustible matter
iii tlie boiler furnice.
With the best anthracite coal, in which the combustible portion is.
say, 9;y0 fixed carbon and 3y0 volatile matter, the highest result that
can be espect~ed in a boiler-test with all conditions favorable is 12.2 lbs.
of water evaporated from and at 212 per lb. of combustible, which is
7gcT0 of 15.47 lbs., the theoretical heating-power. With the best semi-
bituminous co&. such as Cumberland and Pocahontas. in which the
fixed carbon is 80% of the total combustible, 12.5 Ibs., or 76% of the
theoretical 16.4 lbs., may be obtained. For Pittsburgh coal, With a
Axed carbon ratio of 6S70, 11 Ibs.. or 697, of the theoretical 16.03 lbs., is
aborzt the best nrscticallv obtainable with the best boilers when hand-
tired, xvith ordinary fur&es. (The author has obtained 78% with an
a.utomatic stoker set in a Dutch oven furnace.) With some good
Ohio coals. with a fixed csrbon ratio of 60%. 10 Ibs.. or 66% of the the-
oretical 13.28 Ibs., has been obtained, under favorable conditions: with a
fire-brick arch over the furnace. With coals mined west of Oho. with
lower carbon ratios. the boiler efficiencv is not sot to be as high as 60%
unless a special furnace. adapted to thecoal,is used.
From these figures a table of piobable maSlmum boiler-test results with
ordinarv furnaces from coals of different fixed carbon ratios may be
constru;cted as follows:
Fixed carbon ratio. . . . . . _ 97 SO 58 50 54 50
Evap. from and at 212O per lb. col?b;stible, maxsum;; boil?,-$ests:
12. 5 7. 0
Boiler &i ci enc~, per cent. , . 80 76
Loss, chimney. radiation. imnerfect combust.ion. ,tc:
66 60 55
20 24 31 34 40 45
The difference between the loss of 2O%iiith anthracite and the greater
losses with the other coals is chiefly due to imoerfect combustion of the
bituminous coals. the more highly irolatile coals sending up the chimney
the greater quantity of smoke and unburned hydrocarbon gases. It is a
measure of the inefficiency of the boiler furnace and of the inefficiency of
heating-surface caused bj- the deposition of soot, the latter being pfl-
marily caused by the imperfection of the ordinary furnace and its unset.-
ability to the proper burning of bituminous coal. If in a boiler-test
nith an ordiqary furnace loper resuits are obtaIned. than those m the
ab&ve table, It is an tndxatlon Of unfavorable condltlons, such as bad
g. wrong proportIons of boder. defective draft, a rate of drivjng
beyond the capacity of the furnace. or beyond the capacity of the boiler
to absorb the heat produced in the furnace. It is quite ossible, however.
with automatic stokers and fire-brick combustion cham Tl ers to obtain an
efficiency of 70% with the highly volatile western coals.
* Sfahler gives Duloogs formula with Berthelots figure for the heat-
ing valce of carbon, in British thermal units.
Heating Power = 14. 550 C + 62. 025
The formula commonly used in the United States is I486OO C + 6 009
(H - l/g 0) + 4050 S. For a description of the Mahler calorlmetegand
its method of operation see the authors Steam Boiler Economy. Prof.
S. W. Parr. of the University of Illinois, has put a calorimeter on the
market which gives results practically equal to those .obtained With
Mahlers instrument. i ,;* ;
--w-~ ~,~,~~.____ .~.
WARNING: This is a
RELATIVE VALU% OF STEAM COALS.
7%
Purchase of Coal unaer Specifications. - It is &tomary for large
users of,coal to purchase It under specifications of its analysis or heating
value with a penalty attached for failure to meet the specifications
followmg standards for a specification were given by the author*lnTiE
Steam Boiler Economy, 1901:
Anthraci te and Semi -anthraci te.
-The standard is a coal containing
570 yolatlle matter, not over 2% moisture, and not over 10% ash
prenuum of 1% on the price will be given for each per cent of voiatlk
matter, above a% up to and including l.;C,,, and a reduction of 2~7 on
the pnce will be made for each 1%
rtanrlard~
of moisture and ash abox- & the
Sew-bztz;.n$nous and Bi tumi nous. - The standard is a semi-bituminous
coal COn+lnlng not over 20% vols.tile matter. 2% moisture 6p0 ash.
A reduction of 1% in the price will be made fw: each 1% of volatile mat-
term excess of 25%, and of 2
of the standard.
% for each 1% of ash and moisture in excess
For western coals in which the volatile mat.ter differs greatl y in i ts
percentage of oxyg.en, the above specification based on proximate analy-
~1s may not be sufficiently accurate. and it is well to introduce either the
heating value as determined b{ a caionmeter or the percentage of oxygen.
The author has pfoposed the ollowmg for Iilinois coal:
The standard is.one containing 14,500 B.T.U. per lb. of pure coal
(coal free from mmsture and ash), not over 6% moisture and 10% ash
in an air-dried sample. For lower heating value per lb. of pure coal the
price shall be reduced proportionately, and for every I% increase in ash
or moisture above the specified figures, 2% on the price shall be deducted
Several, departments of the U. S. government now purchase coal undei
speclficatlons. See
339, U. S. Geologlca P
aper on the subject by D. T. Randall, Bulletin No.
Survey, 1908.
(Tests
Evaporative P 0
with Babcock & Wi:
Name of Coal.
1. Welsh..: . . . . .
2. Anthracite scrs 115,
Semi-bit. 4/5.
3. Pittsbgh fine slack
*' 3d Pool lump
4. Castle Shannon, nr.
Pittsbgh. s/s nut,
5/ s l ump.
! ; 111. run of mine I.
Ind. block . . . . . . . . .
$. Jackson. 0.. nut.. .
Staunton, Ill. nut..
!; Renton screedings..
I, Wellington scrgs..
Black Diam. scrgs . .
1: Seattle screenings..
Wellington lump.. .
1: Cafzlifi lufpp.. . . . .:.
........
uth Paine lump
att~le lump ..... .I:
of Bituminous Coals.
le material may no lor
.er,
T
b
91
D
s. Trans. A. S. M. E.. i c
I
I
. . 1. 41
. 2. 95 i:.
9. 632. 1 4. 11 3 4: s
7. 725. 1 2. 27 9 6. 1
; : ; ; ; . 5 2. 95
2. 93 i E
9. 3 36. 4 3. 11
3. 431. 3 2. 91
; ; ; i
3. 020. 2 3. 52
1. 7 26. 7 3. 69 ; I X
9. 1 25. 6 3. 35 2 11. 8
3. 920. 9 3. 53 5 10. 4
9. 534. 1 3. 57 3 8. 4
- - . . ,
ler be accurate
Place r: Test: 1. London, England; 2. Peactialti. R. . 1~: 2~~i n~h~~+: .
4. Pitt- ,;;ztl: 5. ClihPo: 6.
..- .;.. --._.
SrlrinPfirl
--.~-., -. --_--- . . . . uL,.
for prevectinf th<r;.%-&~dn of heat from the coal directly to the i;ol&?
IVeatherJ nc of ,?::: :~ (I. P. Kimball. Tram. A. 1. M. E.. viii. 2nd 1 L
The eff& ci : i :., :~&heiing of coal,. while someiimes.~ni;lc~~a~i;~ 1;
weight, 1s to dmi;msh the carbon and disposable hydrogen and to increase
the oxygen and mdisnosable hvdroeen. Hence a redllrt.ion in the F~L
. ; __ . .._ __-- _ -. _ __ _ _
tion and mecha,nical IsIntegration of the mass,
da-
%%&~~&&~~~ of
heat, loss of cokmg power, and spontaneous ignition.
;le only appreciable results of the weathering of anthracite are con.
fir.ti to the o.xidation of its accessory pyrites. In coking coals, however,
weather& reduces and finally destroys the coking power.
Richters found that at a temoerature of 1.5X0 to 14W l hhr three coal s
%oDearR
lost in fourteen. days an average of 3.6% of calorlfic p&i. it : . .~ ~___
from the expenments of Richter3 and Reder that when there is no rise
of temperature of coal
twelve months. :t B
iled in heaps and exposed to the air for nine to
un ergoes no sensible change, but when the coal
becomes heated it suffers loss of C and H by. oxidation and increases in
we:ght by the fixation of oxygen.
Tmm. A. I . M. E.. i v. 55.)
(See alsopaper by X. i?. Rothwell,
_ Experiments by% W. Parr and N. D. Hamilton (Bu!l. No
Lmvy of III. El:gg Experiment Starion. 1907) on samples oi iio$
100 Ibs. each, show that no appreciable change takes place in coa! sub-
merged in wster. Their conclusions are:
(a) Submerged caal does not lose appreciably in heat value.
(b) Outdoor exposure resuits in a loss of heating val ue varying from
2 to 10. per cent.
.(c) Dry storage has no advantzse over storage iiT the open except
x\xth )ugh sulphur coals, where the disintegrating effect of sulphur in the
process of oxidation fscilitates the escape or oxidation of the hydrocar-
bons.
cd) In most cases the losses in storage appear to he practically com-
plete at the end of five months.
the loss is inappreciable.
From the seventh to the rdnth month
This paper contains also a historical review of the literature on weather-
iTyti;;z rrq;,,s~m;~~neo:!s combustion,,with a summary of the opinions of
.____ -- -._ ,..-- ___--.
Later experiments on storing carload lots of Illinois coals (W. F. Wheeler,
Trans. A. I. :lf. E., 1908) contirm the above conclusions, except that
4 per cent seems to be amply sufficient to cover the losses sustained by
Illin3ig coals under regular storage-conditions, the larger losses indi-
cated In the former series being probably due to the small size of the
samples exposed. In these latter tests, the losses sustalned bv the sub-
-merged coal, though small in amount, are only slightly less ihan those
m$cated for the exposed coal. Screenings and 3-i. nut coal from three
mm$s were.stored outdoors, under cover and under water. The average
loss In heatmg value at the end of one week was 0.8%. at the end of two
months 1.3%. and at the end of six months i 2.0%. Pillar coal exoosed
underground from 22 to 27 years showed less than 3% loss in heating
value as compared with fresh face coal from the same mines.
An extreme case of weathering was found in coal taken from near an
outcrop that had been covered with soil and forest. The coal in this
case had become so changed as to ap
analysis shows a correspcnding P
the outcrop coal. as cornpar&
resemb ante.
ear nea+k like l i gni te. and the
? dry coal analysis of
crop, is as follows:
1 with fresh face coal 300 ft. from the out-
Ash.
Outcrop. . . . . . . .16.86
Fresh coal.. . . . _ . .16.25
Vcdb fnz;t.
F%3Y8Y
40.72
Sulpg.
43.03 3.91
The moisture in the outcrop coal was 29.81% and in the fresh coal
13.86%. The heatmg value of the ash-, water- and sulphur-free coal
from the outcrop was 11,164 B.T.U. and that of the fresh coal 14,618
B.T.U.
. .Y
IWARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t ;he
COKE. 801
Pressed Fuel. .(E. F. Loiseau. Trans. ,A. I. M. E.. viii. 314.) -
Pressed fuel has been matic: from anthracite dust by mixing ,the dust with
ten per cent of its bulk of dry pitch, Which is prepared by separating from
tar at a temperature of 572 F. the voh%ile matter it contains. The
mixture is kept heated by steam to 212. at which temperature the pitch
acqmres its cementing properties, and is pa.ssed between two rollers, oc.
the periphery of ivhich are milled out a series of semi-oval cavit,ies. The
lumps of the mixture, about the size of an egg, drop out under the
rollers on an endless belt which carries t~hem to a screen iu eieht minutes,
which.time is sufncient to cool the lumps, and they are then ready for
delivery.
The enterprise of making the pressed fuel above described was not
commercially successful, on account of the low price of other coal.
France, however. 6riauettes
In
are reeularly made of coal-dust (bitu-
nunous acd semi-bitutinous1.
Experiments with briquets for use in locomotives have been made
by the Penna. R. R. Co.. with favorable results, which were reported at
the conventionof the Am. Ry. Yast. Mechs. Assn. f&g. Nelcs, July 2,
1908). A rate of evaporation as high as 19 lbs. per sq. ft. of heating
surface per hour was reached.
and of briquets was as follows:
The comparative ecouomy of raw coal
Evap. per sq. ft. heat. surf. per hr., Ibs 8 10 12 l-1 16
Evap. from and at Lloydeli coal...
21Yper lb. of fuel )Briquetted coal. 1::: 1::: ;:7 i:$ g:!
The fuel consumed per draw-bar horse-power with the locomotive
running at 37.8 miles oer hour and c. cut-o:7 of 25Y0 was: with raw coal,
4.45 lbs.: with round briquets, 3.65 lbs.
Experiments on different binders for briquets are discussed by J. E.
Mills In Bulletin No. 343 of the U. S. Geological Yur\rey. 190s.
The exneriments show that. in general, w-here it ~ca? be ,obiained. the
cheapest binder will be the heivy residuum from petroleum, often known
to the trade as asphalt. Four per cent of this binder hemp sufficient,
its cost ranges from 45 to 60 cts. per ton of briquets produced. This
binder is available in California, Texas, and adjacent trrritorx,.
Second in order of importance comes water-gas .~~~ I tar ni tch. Five to
sir per cent usually proving sufficient, the cost of thi&t,inder ranges
from 50 to 60 cts. per ton of brinuets. 4s water-ras pitch is also derived
lcinrr retions. from petroleum, it-will be availible in cil-proal~--~ ~,~,
Third in order is coal-tar pitch. This binder is very widely available.
From 6.5 to 5% will usually be required, and the cost ranges from 65 to
90 cts. per ton of briquets.
Other substances are also mentioned which may possibly be used for
binders, such as asphalts and tars derived from wood distillation: pitch
made from producer-gas tsar: and magnesia. Starch and the waste sul-
phite liquor from paper mills may also be, used, but the brlquets made
with them are not waterproof.
Briquetting tests made at the St. Louis exhibit~ion. 1904, wlvith descrlp-
tions of the machines used are re orted in Bulletin No. 261 of t.he U. S.
+ so paper on Coal Briquetting in the P
D .nnr
Geological Survey, 1905. See
U. S.. by E. W. Parker, Trans. A. I . M. n.. I YU(.
COKE.
Coke is the solid material left after evaporating the volatile ingredl-
-ents of coal. either by means of partial combiistion in furnaces called
coke ovens, or by distillation in the retorts of gas-works. ~.~
Coke made in ovens is preferred to gas coke as fuel. It is of a dark
gray color, with slightly metallir I**=+-- oorous. brittle. and hard. a IU.,YIII( _
The pro ortion of coke yleldec, -1 hrr a given w&ght of coal is very differ-
ent for d&rent kinds of.coal ran& g from 0.9 to 0.35.
Being of a porous teriureit -nnA
the atmosphere, and sometime
.-&ly attracts and retains water from
s. if it is kept without proper shelter,
-ZmI- -2 -_:_A___^
from 0.15 to 0.20 of its gross weight consIs6s OI n~o~sj~u~ti.
! material may no longer be accurate
.
802
. ,
FUEL.
i-
the Ruhr disl;ict: 65% to 70% of coke, 4% to 4.5% of tar, acd 1% to
1.25% of sulphate of ammonia in the ;?per Silesia region, and 68% to
72 70 of coke, 4% to 4.3& of ta.r and 1.8% to 1.9% of su!phate of
ammonia in the Saar distpct. A group of 60 Hoffman ovens, therefore,
yields annualiy the fOll!X~nIg:
Analyses of Coke.
(From report of John. R. Procter. Kentucky Geological Survey.)
Where bIade.
Dist,rict.
Conne!lsville, Pa. (Aye:?ge r$ i sazr!pies) 9.74
Chat~tanooga. Tenn.
0.810
.
Birmingham, Ala. 4
16.34 . I .595
Pocahontas, Va.
. 87.~3
" " 3 '* . .
New Ri ver, TV. Va.
92.53
i p:;; I 1.195
8
0.599
. . . 92. 36
Big Stone Gap, Ky.
7.21
* 7 . . . . 93.23
0.562
5.69 , 0.749
R&r. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51,300
Uppe; Si l esi a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48000
$aar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40, 500
, 2400 492
I I I
Experiments in Coking. CONNELLWI LLE REGI ON.
(John Fulton, Amer. Mfr.. Feb. lo. 1893.)
--
-hich works hotter
the retort evens respectively is
given as follows in a pamphlet of the Solvay Process Co.: Connellsv~lle
coal: beehive, 66%. retort. 73%: Pocahontaa: beeluvc, 62%. retort, 83%:
Alabama: beehive, 6070, ret?& 74%. (See articie In n-l zneral I ndUStW,
Ih.
12.420
1 I . 090
9.120
9.020
- 7
ai
g
1
d
-
lh.
99
90
:4'
-
-r
-2 12 j Per cent of Yield.
--
j/
)I
I j
-
60.53 63.6:
59.33 62.5;
59.41 62.3!
59.131 63.N
_-
; :
I :
-
lb. lb.
7.518 7,903 00.80 3.10
6,580 6,939 60.81 3.24
5,418 5.690 00.84 2.98
5,334 5,683, 00.82 3.87
vol. viii. 1900.)
References: F. W. Luerman, Verein Deutscher Eisenhuettenleute 1891.
Iron Age March 31. 1892; Amer. &lfr., Apri l 28. 1893. An excellent
series of jrticles on the manufacture of coke, by JoQn Fulton. of Johns-
town. Pa.. is nublished in the Colliery Engwxer. beginmng m January,
1893.
Since the above was written, great progress in the introductionof coke
ovens \!jtb bylpro_duct.a~t-?rllmpnt.s has been made i n the Umttd States,
cially by tne semer-aolvay Co., Syracuse, N. Y.
See paper on The
elonment of the Modern By-product Coke-oven, by C. G. Atwater.
Theze results show, in a general average* that Connel!sville coal care-
fully coked in a modern beehive oven will yield 66.17% of marketable
coke6 2.30% of small coke or breeze. and 0.52% of ash.
_e t~otal average loss ;n volatile matter exp&ed from the coal in coking
amounts to .30.7i%.
1s. -A. I . i % 1. E.. 1902.
eneration
-S EI-- l m- mnrtO srPd a.ndGases of Coke-ovens.
L Ur;m..L ..V... --_-- _-- .~__.~~~~
kine Ramsey, Amer. Mfr., l %g?.%, 1894.) - The gases from ? num-
&, f adjoining ovens of the hwhi ve tvDe are led into a long honzontal - . . _.
flue a,,d +h.-.nn- tn ., ,-nmh, .u?tionich&b& under a battery of boilers.
Tw; plar
LI I I TI Lb. 2U u . - . . . . A
tts are in satisfactory operation at Tracy City, Tenn., and two
at Pratt Mines, Al a.
L- 1 - c a- , . . , , _
A Bus&~ vx ww.z.n.
The wei vht nf
AL.- ..--e..- 1-
a bushel of coal in Indiana.is 70
lbs.: in Penna.. 76 I bs. ; in Ala., Cola..
Ga., Ill.. Ohio, Term.. and W. Va.,
The beehive cok&~oven is 12 feet in diameter and
of dome. It is used in making 48 and 72 hour coke.
7 feet high at crown
of beehive oven is rectangular I n shape.]
[lhe Belgian type
In making these tests the coal was weighed as it was charged into the
oven: the resuifmt marketable coke, small coke or breeze and ashes
. ..-. -I- > ~I
ie oven.
Im coals that are high in ash and
.dvisable to crush and wash the coal before cnkine i t. ~A
9%
al Wcishing. k In making coke fra
sulphur. it is a
~~~~ _- - . - . __ __.
coal-washing Dl ant at Brookwood. Ala.. ha.n a ranari t. v nf 5f l +. nnc n- 7 hn&
The averagi; percentage of a& -ii-i&&>1 du&g-zen d~v~~?u&-*&~
from 14Y0 to 21Yc,. in th
le washed coal from 4.8% to S.li
coke from 6.1% to 10.5%.
,_ .~ -.~ %, and in the
of ash was 60.9y0.
During three months the average reduction
(Eng.~and Mi ni ng Jour.. March 25. 1893.)
it is 80 lbs.
A Bushel of Coke is almost uniformly 40 lbs., but in exceptional
cases. when the coal is over--
lirrht 29 ~6 a.nrl RR Ihn~ arp regarded as 3 _1 .--. -;- ~~I
bush&l in others from 42 & &?i$s?$&&<&as the weight Of a. bushel;
in t. hi n cs. se the coke woul d be quite heavy.
r\e PUS I - S P. Sadlers Handbook of
rrom Ehnti ne over 50 chemical
Products of the Distillatioti V1yVu-.
Industrial Organic Chemistry gives a dlag.,... -..- .1 -.. - ..--I.. ~.
nrndurt~ that are derived from dist,illation.of coal.
The flrsb den-,atives
From the gas-bquor ?re
An expenment on washing Missouri No.~ 3 slack coal is described in
Bulletin No. 3 of the Engineering Experiment Station of Iowa State Col-
leg*. 1905. The raw coal analyzed: moisture, 14.37: ash, 28.39; sulphur,
4.30: and the washed coal. moisture, 23.90. ash, 7.59; sulphur, 2.89.
Nearly ~257~ of the coal was lost in the oDerat,&.
Recovers of Bv-oroduets in
Coke
r ~~~~-~----
Manufacture. - In Germany
!n made in the recoverv of bv-ornducts.
- e---~~--- -
considerabie progress has ber
- r----m--~
The Hoffman-Otto oven has been most largely used, its principal feature
being t.hat it is connected with regenerators.
In 1884 40 ovens on this
system were running, and in IS92 the number had increased to 1209.
A Hoffman-Otto oven in Westphalia takes a charge of Sl /4 tons of dry
coal and converts it into coke in 48 hours. The product of an oven
annually is 1025 tons in the Ruhr district, 1170 tons in Silesia and 960
tons in the Saar district.
The yield from dry coal i s 75% t; 77% of
coke, 2.5% to 3% of tar, and 1.1% to 1.2% of sulphate of ammonia in
&&e;ll -;;m~~~-~~~~~sulphate.. chloride and carbonate of ammoma.
-The-: coal>al is split up into oils lighter than water or crude naphtha.
oils heavier than water -otherwise dead oil or tar, CommonlY. called
creosote. - and pitch.
chemical roducts.
Frpm the two former are derived a Varl etY of
From t R e coal-tar there comes an almost endless chain-of known corn--
binations The greatest indus:ry based upon their use IS the manufac-
ture of &es and the enormous extent to which this has grown can be
judied frbmthe fact that t.here are over 600 ditrerent Coal-% colors In
use and many more which as yet are too expenstve for tins PurPqse.
Ma;ly medicinal preparations come from tl.e series, pitch for, paving
-_--.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of 1
purposes. and chemicals for the photographer, t,he rubber manufacturers
and tanners, as well as for preserving timher and cloths.
rhe corn
f
ositmn ..)f the hydrocarbons in a soft r:~al is uncertain and
o-rite camp ex: but the ultimate analysis of the a.:zrage coal shows that
ir ~pproaches quite nearlY to the composition of CH, (marsh-gas).
Ernwelt, Truns. A. I . M. E., XXI 625.)
(W. H.
;Vood, when newly felled. contains a
varie? very much indifferent kinds and in
roportion of moisture which
tween 30% and 50%, and
( lfferent specimens, ran&g be- P
kx?ng on an average about 40%: After S or
I I months ordinary dryin in the air the proportion of momture is from
0 to 25fz. This degreeot dryness, or almost perfect dryness if required
&n be produced by a few days drying in an eve? supplied with air si
about 240 F. Wht:: coal or coke is used as the fuel for that oven, 1 Ib.
oi fuel suffices to expel about 3 Ibs.of moisture from the wood. This is the
.esult of experiments on a large scale by Mr. .I. R. Napier. If air-dried
wood were used as fuel f>r the oven. from 2 to 2V2 Ibs. of wood would urob-
.- .- ably be required to produce the same effect. ably be required to produce the same effect.
The specific gravity of different kinds of wood ranges from 0.3 to 1.2. The specific gravity of different kinds of wood ranges from 0.3 to 1.2.
Perfectly dry wood contains about 50% of carbon, the remainder con- Perfectly dry wood contains about 50% of carbon, the remainder con-
sistinzr almost entirelv of oxvcen and hvdroeen in the nronortions which sisting almost entirely of oxygen and hydrogen in the proqortions which
fcrm water, fcrm ivater The coniferous family contain a small The coniferous iamily contain a small
tine, which is a hydrocarbon. The proportion tine, which is a hydrocarbon.
I % to 5%. I % to 5%.
The proportion of ax??%$oodf $?!z
The t&al heat of combulsiioti of all kinds of wood, when dry, The total heat of combustion of all kinds of wood, when dry,
is almost exactly the same, and is that due to the 507, of carbon. is almost exactly the same, and is that due to the 507, of carbon.
The above is from Rankine: but accordine to the table hv S. Pi Sharn- The above is from Rankine: but according to the table by S. P. Sharp-
less in Jour. C. I . IV., iv. 36. the ash varies from 0.0370 to l.20C0 in less in Jour. C. I . IV:, iv. 36. tll~~&~i~Gt&~~frorn 0.0370 to l.20C0 in
American woods. and the fuel value. instead of being the same for all American woods, and the fuel value. instead of being the same for all
woods. ranzes from 3667 (for white oak) to 5546 calories lfor ior.r-leaf woods, ranges from 3667 (for white oak) to 5546 calpries (for iong-leaf
pme) = 6600 to 9883 British thermal units for dry wood, the fuel value pme) = 6660 to 9883 British thermal u&s for dry wbod.~ th&f&&&
of 0.50 lb. carbon being 7272 B. T. U. of 0.50 lb. carbon being 7272 B. T. U.
Heating Value of Wood. -The following table is given in several Heating Value of Wood. -The following table is given in several
b*ioks of b*ioks of reference reference , :.uthority and qual i ty of coal referred to not stated. , :.uthority and qual i ty of coal referred to not stated.
The weight of one cord of different woods (thoroughly air-dried) is The weight of one cord of different woods (thoroughly air-dried) is
about as follows: about as follows:
lhs. tbs.
Hickory or hard maple.. . 4500 equ?l to ;fX& c?pl.
White oak. . . . . 3850
Beech, red and black oak. .3250
{Otbef? give ;$Xl:]
Poplar. chestnut, and elm 2350
The ;*?erage pine. . . . . . . 2000 925.)
Referring to the figures in the last column, it is said:
to
~From the above it is safe to assume that Y/4 Ibs. of dry wood are equal
1 lb. average quality of soft coal add that the full value of the same
weight of different woods is ve _ 7 .?eark the same 7 that is. ? pound of
hickory is worib no more for me tnsn a pound of pme. assurnmg both to
be dry. It is important that the wood be dry,. as each 10% of water or
moisture in wood will detract about 12% from its value as fuel.
Taking an average wood of the analysis C 51%. H 6.5%. 0 42.0s.. ash
0.5%. perfectly dry, its fuel value per pound, according to Dulongs
formula, V = [14.600 C+ 62,00O(H - ~:)I, is 8221 British thermal
units. If the wood, as ordinarily dried in sir, contains 25% of moisture,
then the heating value of a polmd of such wood is three quarters of
8221 = 6165 heat-units, less the heat required to heat and evaporate the
l/4 I!,. of water from the atmospheric temperature, and to heat !he steam
made from this water to the temperature of the chimney gases, say
150 heat-units per pound to heat the water to 21Y. Sic) units to evap-
orate it at that tern
of the steam to 4tl
t
erature, and 100 heat-units to raise the tern
E
erature
F.. or 1220 in all = 305 for l/4 lb., which su tructed
from the 6165. leal~es 5860~heat-units as the net fuel vailie of the wood
per pound, or about ~4 that of a pound of carbon.
WARNING: Thi s is a 1910 edition. Some of i
CHAX:OAL. &xi
Composition of Wood.
(Analysis of Woods, by N. Eugene Cbevandier.)
~,.__
WOO&. / Carbon. 1 HztLy- 1 Oxygen. INitrogen./
-_
A&.
Beech _..__,..._____..,_., ( 49.36% 1
56.20 49.64
0;% 1
O& .._._............... ..,_._......_.._.___ /
iy:f;% y:;;% ;:;$Z
6.20 41.62 1.15
1
0.81
Poplar. . . . . . . . . 49.37 6.21 4i 60 0~96 1.86
Willow.. . _. . . . . . 49.96 5.96 1 39.56 0.96
Average . . . . . . . . . . ..._...! 49.70% / 6.06% j-41.300, /
, 3.37
1.05% j I.sO%
---_
The following table, prepared by M. Yiolette. shows the p?oportion of
water excelled from wood at gradually increa,cing tempera!,ures:
Temperature.
257O Fahr ..........................
302Fnhr ..........................
347O Fnhr ..........................
192O Fahr ..........................
437O Fahr ..........................
vTnterExpelled from 100 Parts of Wood.
9ak.
---
Ash. / Elm. j~Walnut.-
15.26
17.93
32.13
35.80
44.31
14.78 15.32 15.55
16.19 17.02 17.43
$:$f
36.94? 21 .oo
33.38
33.36
I
40.56 ;;:g
I
-.-
The wood operated upon had been kept in store during two year?.
When wood which has been strongly dried by meiins of artificial heat !S
left exposed to the atmosphere, it reabsorbs about as much water as lt
contains io its air-dried state.
A cord ojt~~ood = 4 x 4 x 8 = I2S CU. ft. About 56% solid wood and
44% interstitia,l spaces. (Marcus Bull. Phila.. 1829. J. C. I. R.. vol. 1..
p. 293.)
B. E. Fernow gives the er cent. of solid wood in a cord as determined
officiall,y in Prussia (J. C. f. W., vol. iii. p. 20):
Timber cords, 74.070/o = 80 cu. ft. per cord;
Firewood co-eds (over 6 diam.). 69.44% = 75 Cu. ft. per cord:
Billet cords (over 3 diam.),, 55.55% = 60 cu. ft. per cord;
Brush woods less than 3 &am., 18.52%; Roots, 37.00%. ..
CHARCOAL.
Charcoal is mais by evaporating the volatile constituents of mpod and
,,--;, either by a partial combustion of a conical heap of the matenal to be
chilrred covered with a layer of earth, or by the combustion of a-separate
partioncf fuel in a furnace, in which are placed retorts coutsiniag the
material tc be charged.
According to Peclet, 100 parts by weight of wood when charred ic~a
hea. vi &i f rom 17 to 22 Darts by weight of charcoa!. and when cnarfefl ln
.a retort from 28 to 30 parts. - -
This has reference to the ordinary ?oudition of the wood us$f$h;h;i-
coal-makin7 in which 25 parts in 1LO consist of moisture.
mainiug 76Oparts the cs,rhon amounts to one half, or 371/z% of the gross
( weight of the wood.
Hence it appears that on an average neaflY half or
the carbon in the wood is lost during the partial combustion ln a heap.
and about one quarter dtirinp the distillation in a retort.
,To char100 parts by weight of wood m a retort, 121/z parts of wood
roust be burned in the furnace.
Eence in this process theprbole expendi-
ture of wood to prodcce from 28 to 30 parts of charcoal 1s II~Yz Parts;
~.~ ~. : .~ ,..~ .._. ,..~,.~...~~________~.~ ..__
3 material may no longer be accurate
so .that if the weight of ch,arcoat obtained is compared with the whole.
weight of wood expended, IX amount 1s from 25% to 277*; and the pro-
p0mm lost is on analerage~ 11 r/r + 371/z = 0.3. neariv.
Accordixg 10 P:
wreight of, ash.
ecl et, good. wood charcoal contains aborl? 0.0; of its
The proportion of ash in peat charcoal is very variable
and is estimated on an avemge at about 0.18. (Rankine.)
Much I nf o~~a~~o~~co~~CerNng charcoal may be found in the Journal of
the Charcoai-Iion Workers Assn., ~01s. i. to vi.
,T,. s.,.,... _.1_--
From this source Ihe
M. Saussure. operating with blocks of line boxwood charcoal, freshly
burnt. found that by simply placilig sich blocks in contact with certain
gases they absorbed them in the following proportion:
Volumes. Volumes.
Ammonia.. . . . . . . . . 90.00 Carbonic <oxide. . . . . . . 9.42
IIydrochloric-acid gas. . . . 85.50 Oxyger:, . . . . . . . . . 9.25
Sulphurous acid. . . . . . 65 .OO Nitr,>;en . 6.59
Sulphuretted hydrogen. . . . 55 .OO Carburetted hydrogen.. 5.00
Nitrous oxide (laughing-gas) 40.00 Hydrogen.............. 1.7.5
Carbonic acid. . . . . . 35.00
It is this enormous absorptive power that renders of so much value a
comparatively slight. sprinklmg of charcoal over dead an!mal matter, as a
preventive of the escape of odors arising from decomposit:on.
In a box or case ccltaining one cubic foot of charcoal may be stored
without mechanicai compression a littic over nine cubtc feet o! oxygen,
representing a mechanical pressure of one hundred and twenty-six pounds
to the square inch. From the store thus preserved the oxygen can be
drawn by a small hand-pump.
--__- ---..-. _.
. el doer co:d depends largely upon whether the cord is
a mu coru 01 12s cu. ii. or not.
In-a four months test of a kiln at Goodrich, Tenn., Dr. H. M. Pierce
fomd results as follows: Dimensions of kiln - insider diameter of base-
23 ft. 8 in.: diam. at spring of arch
of arch. 5 ft.: capacity, 30 cords.
, 26 ft. 8 in.: height of walls, S ft.; rise
Highest yield of charcoal per cord of
wocd (measured) 59.27 bushels, lowest 50.1-i bushels, average 53.65
bushels.
No. of charges 12. length of each turn or period from one charging to
another 11 days. (J. C. I. IF., vol. vi.. p. 26.)
Composition of Charcoa 11Produced at Various Temperatures.
-
. (
.-
Nitro-
hygen. ge11~3c.; il Ash.
--
$2; 0%
20. 97 0. 63
21. 96
18. 44 i ti :
I : : : ;
I . 61
I . 54
I
-
47. 5 1
: ; : ti
24. 61
f %
15. 30
(1 By M. Violette.)
!
-
150 Cent. 302 Fahr.
g
392
402
350
432
g
I O23 1873
-
r
:&e wood experimented on was that of bl k alder, or alder buck- .tc
thorn, whicu furnishes a ;:harcoal suitable for unpowder. It :vas pre- g
viously dried at 150 deg. C. = 302 deg. F.
Results from Different Methods of Charcoal-making.
Y-
-
i
c
i .!
:
:f
2
r
Coaling U&hods. Character of Wood Used.
Odel~tjernas experiment4
Xzthierrs retorts, frrel ex-
eluded .
Mathieu.3 retorts, fuel in-
e!uded . . . . . . . . . .
Swedish ovens, av. results
Bircbdriedat~ZfOF ..__._ _.._ 35.9 .
Air dry. av. good yel- 77.0 26.3 63.4
low pine weighing
abt.2slbs.percu.ft. ,65.624.2 54.2
1~G~; , $~y f i r md pi ne* 1 81 . O27. 7 66. 7
MISCELLANEOUS SOLID FUELS.
Dust Fuel -Dust Explosions. -Dust when mixedlin air &rns with
such extreme rapidity as-in some cases to cause explosions.
r;xpiosions
of flour-mills have been attributed to ignition of the dust in confined
passages. Experiments in England in 1876 on the effect of coal-dust m
n dlrst,v nassaee the flame frixn a
carrvne flame-in mines showed that in ~~--I-~~~-
blown-out shot may travel 50 yards.
Pr~f~F?A.rAbel (TTLMS. A. I . M. E.,
xii;. 260) says that coal-dust in mines much promotes and extends
explosions, and that it may readily be brou
3
ht. into operation as a fiercely
burning agent which will carry ilame rapi ly as far as its mixture with
air extends, and will operate as an explosive agent though the medium
of a very small proportion of fire-damp in the air of the mme.
The ex-
plosive violence of the combustion of dust is !argely due to the mstan-
taneous heating and consequent expansion of the arr.
(See also paper on
Coal Dust as an Explosive Agent,
by Dr. R. W. Raymond, Trans. A. 1.
2. E.. 1894.) Experiments made in Germany in 1893 show that Pul-
verized fuel may be burned without smoke, and with high econ.omY.
The fuel instead of being introduced into the fire-box in the ordinary
manner, is first reduced. tj a powder by pulverizers of any COnStrUCtl OU.
In the &ace of the ordinarv boiler fire-b ox there is a combustion chamber.
in the f&m of a closed furnace lined with fire-l-nick and provided with an
air-injector The nozzle throws a constant stream of fuel into the char?-
her scattermg it throughout the whole space of the fire-box. mhen this
powder is once ignited -and it. is very readily done.by first rai?mg the
lining to a high temperature by an o
cr
en fire, the comoustlon continues 1.n
an intense and regular manner un er the action of the current of arr
&
Which carries it in. (Mfis. Record, April, 1893.)
Swedish ovens. av. results
Swedish meilen eseep
tionai. . . . . . . . . . .
Swedish meiiers.av. results
American kilns, av. results
American meiiers. av. re-
auit.....~................
Ibs. per cu. ft.
Av. god yellow pine
weighing abt. 25 Ibs.
per cu. ft.
Consumption qf Chareoa: in Blast-furnaces per Toa of Pig Iron;
average consumption according to census of 1880, 1.14 tons charcoal per
ton cf pig. The consumption at the best furnaces is much below this
average. AS low as 0.853 ton. is recoroed of the Morgan furnace; Bay
furnace:0.%3; Elk Ra~pids. 0.884. (1892.)
Absorption of Water and of Gases by Charcoal.-Svedlik:s in hi:
hand-book for charcoal-burners, prepared for the Swedish Government,
sass: Fresh charcoal, also reheated charcoal, contains scarcely any water.
but wheu cool it absorb.5 it verv rapidly. so that, after twenty-four hours.
rt may contain 4% to 8% of water. After the lapse of a few weeks the
fi
moisture of charcoal may not increase
mated at 19% to 15%. or an average 0
p~tibfp.t~~mi~~~ lga.zi
12 0.
Piece of charcoal ought, then. to contain about 84 parts carbon, 12 parts
water, 3 parts ash. and 1 part hydrogen. ,:
----
L
MISCELLANE:OIJS SOLID FUELS.
Rex~rds of tests Jvlth the Wegener,powdercd-coal apparatus. which js
* ,:; ilQO!l) in use m Germacy. are gven in &g, ;Veu~s. Sept. 16 lgQ;m
An $ustrated descriptlop is even m tluz authors .titeam Boiier Economy
p la.,. Coal-dust fuel 1s now extensively used m the United states Ii
rdtr.ry ki!ns for, burninr Portland cement.
Clark (S. E., vol. I, p. 62) gives the mean compositio:l of wheat and
bar!ey straw as C, 36; W. 5: 0. 38: N. 0.50: Ash.4.75: waber, 15.75, the two
straws varying. less than 1%. The heating value of straw of tlus ccl?-
posit,on, according tc Dulongs formu@.
and deducting the ht?;rt lost in
evaporating the water, is 5155 heat uruts. Clark erroneously gtves It as
814-l heal LmitS.
~hgasse as Fuel III Sugar MIanuYacture. - Bagasse is the name
-1vm tc refuse sugar-cane. after the juice has been extracted.,
Prof. L. .4.
ist.~l~rl. in a paper read before the Loaisinn~ suear Chenusts hssocia-
tiorl, in lSg2,, says: With t~opicul cane contalnlllg 12.5% ~sooliy ttbre, 3
juice contaimng 16.13% sohds.
and 8X.Si~o water, bagasse of, say, SST!;
snti 72% mill extraction would have the following percentage composl-
~.
tion:
Powgered fuel was iised in the Crom ton rotarv puddlin--urnace at
Wocl~~~ch Arseo$, England, in 1873. &UK I. 6 s. I. :. ?+? p. 91,)
Numero\;s expenments on the use of powdered fuel f&* steag boiler
were,made 1n the C. b. between lSQ5 and 1QO5, but they were r.q: con:
mercially succes filly
Peat 01 P Turf, as usualiv dried in the air. contains from 9.i to znm -,
- I .-_-.V ,c L
wat.er, wi%ich must be allbwed for in est.itia$g its heat of comousrion.
This water hsvmg been evaporated, the analysis of X. Reenault ziirs in
130 parSs of perfpr.tlv rlr~ r -,-. :-
Ash 5%. In some examples of peat t,lie qriintit~y -oyiih is sea&:
amountinz to 7% and sometimes t.n 11 %
66~~ !,qasse: Woody Fibre, 37: t~lomb~~stible Sa;!ts, 1%. Water, 53.
72% bagasse: 45; 46.
i;s?,r;:;:l~ iiX.uY ,,r, J ..-. _ _ . ..--_. I .~ , ~~~
otiler rnmhlrt,ihle mstters an average of 42.1%, and ihat lZQc6 units
of hew . . . --- -:--y
b&gasse 1s c,;si;~~~fpeneraltlng 2QjT8%4
SF, %
heat-units per 100 1bY. aS against
Ed.% WI). or a difference of 47.366 units in favor of the. 72%baEasse.
thnt of
Assuming the temperatbie of the waste gases to be 450 k.. _..... ~~
the surrounding atmosphere and water in ,the bngasse at 86O F., and the
quantity of air necessarv for the combustmn of one pound O! carpon at
i4 Ibs. the lost heat willbe as foiiows: In the wnste gases, heatmg ~lr from
86O t,o450C F., and in vaporizing the moisture, etc., the 66% bagasse
will require 112,546 heat units, ar,d 116.150 for the 72% baeasse.
Subtracting these quantities from the above, we find that the 66%
bnga.sse will produce 1X5.288 available heat-umts per 1.00 1~s.. or nearly
24% less than the 72% bagassti, which $:lves --
~9,!)50 umts. AccordI. ly.
one ton of cane of 2000 lbs. at 66% null estr?ction lvill produce 6SO
F 1)s.
bagasse. equ&L to 1,25Q,Q58 available heat-umts. while the same mpe at
72% extraction will produce 560 Ibs. bagassr. equal to 1.282.680,Umts.
16
A-similar calculation for the case of Louisiana cane contammg 10%
woody tihre and 16% total solids in rhe juice, assuming 75% null ex-
traction shbws
L^,.+ . ..G.
that bac,asse from one ton of cane contmns 1.573.956
r&m ..rhi,.h &il d%< ha.,,e t.0 he &y~,,ckyl,
condiuons ne
be given it in I
the !nas. The
jaxwust as Exe:. - lhe heating power of sawdust iS naturall;- the
_.. ,--.ld as that of the wood from which it is derir-irl Gut if
eli t,o get wet It is more like spent tan (which see below). The
,eesssry Ior burnmg sawdust are tirat plenty of room should
the furnsce. and sufficient air supplied on the surfare of
: same applies to shavings, refuse !umber etc.
.Sawdusr
is frequently burned in saw-mills. etc., by being blown into the furnace
bc a fan-blast.
L,!zLl.-uLLILJ, Lllll 1 LZl\.. uI( &-I
..-._ __ . ...~~~~~
This would make such hagasse worth on an average nearly 92 lbs.
coal per ton of cane ground.
Under fairly good conditions. 1 lb. Coat
will evaporate 71/z lbs. water. while the best boiler plants evaporate.10
Ihs. Therefore the bagass?. fro?
1 tnn nf ~3.w at. 75% mill extractson
should eVapora,te frnrn AX9
from such can, ..-..... .
50 lbs. of water.
I___^ :
IUS. to gig tbs. of water. Tiie j@ce e+acted
L&K,;i;i &er these conditions contain 121
xrotor ~~fid@rl d~~rine the process of manufac
:LqOe c~~~~~~~,:~to~t~~,~~,~~e-~~~~.ii;e-~total water .hnd~s~e~ui\;~,~~~~ ..__n .__, .~. ---- .~~
. illip~ ~~mwcmt.d in this case. the commercial m
~~~~&f$ irFv $w~~ew;;;e~$im of the &gina~ mi!l juice, or. say, 225 lbs.
Sal& ml11 ju& 1506 lb;. &s 10%. equals 1650 Ibs. lipuor handled: and
1650 ibs. minus 225 lb&, equals 1425 Ibs.. the quantltY of water to be
evapora&d during the process of manufacture. To effect. a 7Yzlb. eyaP-
oration requires 190 Ibs. of coal, and 1421!2 Ibs. for 4 I!-lb. evaPoratl?n.
To reduce 165n Ihq~ of iuice to SPruP of, say, ?7 +zE,$- re:frh:s
the evaoorath mz c.P 3n oi 1170 lbs. of water;leaving 480 tbs. Of -_l --r-
-..I;~~L,~I in the nnon s.ir~ it, will reoldre about 156 lbs. 1
work be jccoiLI
coal at 711~ lbs. ~~l??&&&~,:~and 117 at 10 I&. evaporation. _.___
With a daub.-.
IP .=.ff&&~i.tie fnnl reouired would be fror
n 59 to 78 lbs..
_.._ _-_- ~.
and with a triple effect-from 36 to 52 Ibs.
*To reduce the abode 480 lbs. of syrup to the COnSkW of commer-
cial masseculte means the further eva.ppr~ifin of 2.55 lbs. of water,
.----- __ --:
requiring the expenditure of 34 lbs.. COINS
11 at 71/s lbs. baler evaporatipn,
and 251/q lbs. with a IO-lb. evsporatlon.
Hen&; to manufacture on;;$
of cane &to sugar and molasses, it will .take from 145 to 190 lbs.
tional coal to do the work by the open evaporator PrOCes?: from ?5 to
113 Ihs with a double effect. and only 7 l/z Ibs. evaporation ?n .he hmlerii
t&e &ith 10 lbs.
boiler evaporation the bagasse alone 1s capable
furnishing S% L -FP hunt than 1s mtually required to do the work.
With
. . . ..__ .:--- _..-.. . . . -.~
triple-effect evapotatlon dependmp on
the excellence of the b$!er plant,
the 1425 lbs, of water to be evapc
:gt$ from the juice will reqmre between
.-.
.
~-.-
ie material inij~ no l&iijir be accGi3%
LIQUID FUEL.
62 and 86 ibs :,* coal. These v~mes silow that from 6 to 30 lbs. of coal
can be spar& ;om the value of the bagasse to run engines, grind cane, etc
It accordingly appears, says Prof. Becuel. that with the be&
boiler plants, those taking up all the available heat generated. bv usinp
this h&at ec&omically tIie 6agasse can be made to-supply ail the f<J
required by our suear-houses.
E. W. Kerr, in Bulletin No. 117 of the Louisiana Agricultural Experi.
mrnt St&Ion, Baton Rouge, La.. gives the results of a study of many
di!ferenr forms of bapasse furnaces. An equivalent evaporation of 21/4 Ibs.
of steam from and at 21Y was obtained from 1 lb. of wet bagasse of a
net calorific value of 3256 B.T.rJ. This net value is that calculated from
the analysis by Dulongs formula, minus the heat required to evaporate
the moisture and to heat the vaoor to the temoersture of the escaoinp
chimney ga:es. 59-t F. The approximate compo$ti& of bagasse oft Fi-3
estractlon IS gii.en as 51% free moisture, and 28% cf water combined
r$lth 31% of carbon in the fibre and sugar. For the best results the bagasse
should be burned at a high rate of combustion. at least 100 Ibs. per sq. ft.
of grate per hour. Not more than 1.5 lbs. of bagasse per sq: ft.of heating
surface per hour should be burned under ordinar
than 1.5 boiler horse-power should be provide
(iy
conditions, and not less
hours.
per ton of coal per 24
LIQUID FUEL.
Products e! the Distillation of Crude Petroleum:
Crude American petroleum of sp. gr. 0.800 may tz split up by fractional
distillation 2s follows ( Robinsons Gas and Petroleum Engines I):
I Temp. of
Distillatior
F&r.
Distillate.
i 130
113 10 1.49~
I-l0 to I%?
158 to 2-w
248
to
3470
3383 2nd
upB2vlJ. 1
4820
1.
-
t
Per-
cent-
Specific
1 F$l&i;g
ages.
Gravity. I
i Deg. F.
g;gg&e. ] . . ~. . . . . . . . .
Gasoline (petroleum spirit)
Benzine?, naphtha C.benzolene
I
Benzine, naphtha B. .
Benzine. naphtha A..
Polishing oils.
--I I
.nees.j.590 to .6251.. ..__. ._...
. . . . . ..__._
. . . .
Kerosene (lamp-oil).
Lubricating oil.. . . .1.. ~.
Pan&e wax. __. _.
Residue and Loss.. . _. . . . .
--
Lima P
very fluid,
The dist
_
gaw
Per
cent.
i
6
$2
roleum, produced at Lima,Ohio, is of a dark green color,
id marks 4RC Baum6 at 15 C. (sp. gr.. 0.792).
&t&n in fifty parts, each part representing 2% by volume,
jiilng res;-uits:
- - -
i
et;
a,r
ill:
*ne :o::c
sp. Per
Gr. cent.
03m; ;;
.685 22
:g: $6
.698 28
.700 30
.706 32
16
12
2
1.5 ,636 to .657 _....._.....
IO.
2.5 :% :: :% . ..I.
,_ . 2. .725 to ,737 32
50. ,802 to ,820 loo to 122
15. .850 to .915 230
1::
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_..._.__.._. . . . . . . . . . .
sp. Per
Gr. cent,
0:;;; ;3
:E E
.740 42
SP. Per
Gr. cent.
om; g
772 t;
$77; zft
sp.
Gr.
0.802
.806
.800
.742 44 .804
: % i i .800 66 : E
Per Sp. Per
ZZTUHNS.
16 per cent naphtha, 703 Baum6.
68 per cent burning oil.
6 per cent parafine oil.
10 per cent residuum.
The distillation started at 23O C.. this being due to the large amount of
naphtha present, and when 60% was reached, at a temperature of 310 CL
the hydrocarbons remaining in the retort were dissociated, then gases
%lRNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
Name.
--
- I
Pet~roleum ether
O B;5u~oto6-
.......................
Gasoline
80-78
...............................
Naphtha C 78-60 .............................
Napht~ha B
68-64 ............................
Naphtha A.
64-60 ...........................
Kerosene
56-32 ..............................
Gasoline is different from a simple substance with a fixed boiling point,
and therefore theoretical calculations on the best of cqmbustion,, air
necessary, and conditions for vaporizing or carbureting air are of little
value. (C. E. Lucke.)
Value of Petroleum as Fuel. - Thos. Urquhart. of Russia (Proc.
Znqt. ,+f. E., Jan., 1889). gives the following table of the theoretical ev+PO-
raiive power of petroleum in comparison with that of coal, as deterrmned
by Messrs. Favre and Silbermann:
Boilinz
,Point.
Specific
Gravity.
De;$tFy at
escaped, lighter distillat.es were ohtained. and, as usual in such cases, th,e
temperature decreased from 310 C. down gradually to ZOO0 C., until
75% of oil was obtained, and frcm this point the temperature remamed
constant until the end of the distillation. The&ore these hydrocarbons
in statu moriendi absorbed much heat. (J our. Am. Chem. Sot.)
There is not a good agreement between the character of the materials
designated gasoline. kerosene, etc., and the temperature of distillation
and densities employed in diRerent places. The following table shows
one set of values that is probably as good as any.
Fuel.
Specific
Theoret.
Gravity
Chem. Comp.
Heating E~P..
EiZ Wat,erper
Tgmysal lb. Fuel.
. fvJK. md
at 21??F.
Penna. heavy crude oil.. . 0.88; 84.9 13.7 I .4 20,736
Caucasian light crude oil.. 0.884 86.3 22.027 Z:Z
Caucasian heavy crude oil. 0.938 86.6 \i:g ::) 20.138 Petroleum refuse. . . . . 0.926 87. I I I .7 I .2 19,632 2;;
~$J8%t$$???:( 1.380 66-i 5.0 8.0 14.112 14.61
In experiments on Russian raiiwa -s with pe
1
tiOlCWll as fuel Xr.Urquhart
obtained an actual efficiency equa to 82% of the theoretical he?tmg-
value. The petroleum is fed to the furnace by means of aspray-InJector
driven by steam. An induced current of air is carried In around the
injector-nozzle and additional air is supplied at the bottom of the furnace.
Beaumont, Texas, oil analyzed as follows (Eng. News. Ja.n, 30, 19002):
C, 84.60; I-I. 10.90; S, 1.63; 0, 2.87. Sp. gr.. 0.92; flash Pmnt, !42 F;
burning pc,int 181 F: heating value per lb.,.by ?xygef @onmeter.
19 060 B.T.tJ . A test df a horizontal tubular holler with this 011. by J. E.
p&ton gav,e a?.etiiciency of 78.5%. As high as 82% has been reported
- ..-
ror Cnufortua cm.
Bakersfield, Cal., oil; Sp. gr. 16O Baume; Moisture, 1%: Stiphur, 6.6%.
B.T.U. per lb., 18,500.
Redondo, Cal., oil, six lots: Moisture, 1.82 to 2.70%; Sulphur. 2.17 to
2.60%; B.T.U. per lb., 17,717 to 17,966. Kilowatt-ho*Yrs generated Per
barrel (334 Ibs ) of oil in a 5000 K.W. plant, using water-tube b@ers, and
reciprocating kngines and generators havmg a corntuned efficyiyedof
90 2 to 94.75% (boiler economy and~steam-rate of engine not
20bO K W load 237 3. 3000 K.W., 256.7: 5000 K.W.. 253.4:
1 variab e
load, 24h&s, i43.8. @. R. Weymouth, Trans. A. s. M. E., 1908.)
:.
1.,.~
2 materi al ti ay~no i hyer~be accurate
c
I Ih. coal
= lbs. oil.
The folhk table Showing the relative values of petroteum and coal
~was gmn by the .~~uthorln Power, Sept., 1902.
a.mmed data: B.I.U. per lh. of oii ~o,OOU; sp. gr., 0.885; =7.37 lbs. per
gal.; I barrel = 41 gals.
It is based on the follorvjng
= 810 11,~~
I b:trrel oil
= IbY. CO&l.
I
1 ton coal
= barrels oil
I -
620
:z
3.23
3.55
477
3.87
443
4.19
413
4.52
4.84
1892 there Were R?Dorfd to the &tine& Club of P[ji[adelphia
_ ~~..I
Some comparatrve figures, from tests undertaken to ascertain the relative
V&e Of CO&l, petroleum, and gas.
Lbs. Water..from
I lb. anthracite coal evaporated.
ULlY Ok L.L.6 Jz.
1 ib. bituminous coal. . .
.._.............. 9.70
lIb.,fueioil,36~anity.~~~::~~~~~~~ :t::i
1 cuxcfoot gas, 20 c. P
...***.*.***- I 28
e........................ .
The gas used was that obtained in the distillation of oetrolem-0 hating
about the same fuel-va!ue as natural or coal-gas of equal candle power
of petroleum 1s more than 60% greater than that of coal. whereas theo-
Takmg theefficrency of bituminous coal as a basis the calor& energy
I4.500 heat-umts. and the other 21,000.
ret?ally, Petroleum exceeds coal only about 4~7~ - theone containing
the South Chi~ap;o Steel Works.
Crude fctmleum VS. Indiana Block Coal for Steam-raising at
(E. C. Potter Trans A I M. E
t:oPerate them; wrth fuel oil, 6 men were required, a Sa&g of 19 men at
Xv& 807.1 -- Wrth,coal, 14 tubular boilers 16 ft. x 5 ft req&ed25 me;
S- Per day, or.$38 per day.
-~__I_ _.--.__~-.--- ._-, -- .,.. .~. ..~_
: WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
ALCOHOL AS FUEL.
For one weeks work 27~ b; ,rels of oil were usc~;. against MS tons of
coal req11lred for the same work, sho\cit% .).-d
v q )a bitrr::l; of oil to be eqmva-
tent to 1 ton of coal,
Wi t !) oi l at 60 c er l t s per l :i ,r r el i $ coal at 82.15
~PP .t,nn the relative cost LF oil to coal is as N.93 t0 $L.l:j.
No evapora-
Petr0leunr as a NetnllL raical Fuel.
- C.. I i i . Fel ton (Trans. A: I .
\I jj xyil 809) reports a se-& of tnSls with oil as fuel in steel-heating
;L,,;l oi,en$eartll Steel-furnac, s. and rn raising, stemn, Wlttl results as
~~,li,,,vs. 1, IL, a run cf six weeks the consumptlo~i of 011, ,partly rehned
(tile p&tthe and some of t,hs napluiul
Iwing rerr~;red), 111 hrat:n$ I-I-
itlcll i*lgc):ots in Siemens furnaces was about 6i/,
9 gallons per ton of blooms.
2. I,, melting in a 3rw,on open-hearth furnace, 48 ~alt~ns of oil were used
per ton of ingots.
3. In a six weeks @al with LZma oil from 47,)O .54
gallons of oil were required per ton of ingots.
4. In a si? months trml
=*vitl~ 8iemens heatlncr-furnaces the consumPt,ion of Lima 011 WAS 6 gallons
per ton of ingots,
cnder the most favorab!e circumstances, chargme ho
lngOtS and rur~m*g full capacity.~ 4112 to 5 gallons per ton were requli;?
-
Iu raising steam in two lOO-H.P. tubular, boilers, the fe;dp;;;;;
&ing supplied at I6Oo F., the average evaporation was about 1
of water per pound of oil, the best l-
) hours work bemg 16 pounds.
In all of the trials the oil, was vaporized in the Arcl~;dPfioeda;;?e;. &i
apparatus for mixing the 011 and superheated steam.
mixture to a high temperature.
From 0.5 lb. to 0.7;) Ih. of pea-coa! Was
uSed per gallon of oil in the producer itself.
ALCOHOL AS FUEL.
. . . ~1 I^ ^ ^-..i., fir ntn,rr nu.~,hol mixed with a denaturant
Denaturea GLCOIIO~ LY in sieua~ vz CYLW- -----:;; ~~~~
itI or&r to nmke it unfit for be:verage or nledlclnal PllrposeS-
Under acts
of Congress of June 7. lDC,B and RZerch -.
3 lOOi, denetured alcohol pecame
exempt from intern-1 rcwmue taxstmtt,
when used m the industries.
~1,~ Governttwnt form&s for complete!y denatured alcohol are.
I To very lOO ,-al. of ethyl or grain alcohol (of not less thantI$$
pro&) t&e slmll be added 10 gal. of approved methyl or wood
and t/s gal.. of ,approved bemule.
(180% proof = 90% alcohol, 10%
rvater by volume.)
k. every 100 gal. of ethyl alcohol (of not less than ISO? $00~{
tl~zre shall be added 2 gal. of approved methyl alcohol an.d t/-
.
approved pyridin (a petroleum product hocnE
i? lK&?as denaturants must con-
Methyl alcohol benzine and pyndtiLGin!lp Deoartment.
form to specifications of t.he Internal
The alcohol which it is
law is ett,yl &lmhol CzHaO I. This material 1s seldom. P
reposed uv =.?~~:--I---- if ever,obtalned
nllrR .i+, helna generally diluted with water and co:itammg other alco-
f&?&n used .for engines.
~~~~~ A&~HOL AT 60 F. COkMlED WITH
&nithsonian Tables.)
I mar ,.-+. *,- I 1 Per cent Al-
1 Weirht..
The heat of combustion of ethyl alcohol, $% b. ,v$t$s.m~r~;;re$
mined by the calorimeter, is 11,900 B.T.U.
half that of gasoline (Lucke).
Favre and !$lbermann obtained, 12.913
B T U for absolute alcohol
The productsof complete
combustion, of alcohol are. Hz0 and 9%.
Under certain conditions, with an insuffiqent SuPPlY of air. acetic acid 1S
FUEL GAS.
2510
FUEL.
formed, which CRuscs rusting of the
may be prevented by addition to the a eohol
P
arts of an aicohol engine. This
of benzol or acetylene
lb.
With any good small stationary englne as small a consumption as O.-O
be expected under favorable conditions (Lucke)
of gasohne. or 1.16 lb. of alcohol per brake H.P. hour may reasonably
References. -
Aug.. ,l906.
H. Diederlchs. Intl. Nar6rc Z&*g. July 1906. &fMa h
C. E. Luke and 8. $1. Woodward, Farmers Bulletin &*
277. L. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1907. Eng. Rec., NOV. 2. 1907. T. L:
White, Ejfg. ilfap.. Sept., 1908.
one out of every four Ibs, of carbon with oxygen derived from water-
vapor. The thermic reactions in this operation a.e as follows:
Heat.-units.
4 . ..j. C burned td CO (3 Ibs. gasified with air and 1 lb. with
water) develop.. . . . . . . . . . .,.
17.600
1.5 lbs. of water (which furnish 1.33 lbs. ,nf oxygen to combme
wltb i lb. of carbon) absorb by dissoc+ron.. . . . . .:. 10,333
The gas, consisting of 9.333 lbs. CO, 0.16, lb. A, and 13.39 lbs. ti,
heated 690,
absorbs...........................,.....,....
3,745
Leaving for radia.t,ion and loss. . . . . . ,. . . . . . .
3,519
--
17,600
%'-*PoR PRESSL?(E OF SXCUR.~TIOX FOR Vanrous LIQUIDS, IN &fIL-
LIMETERS OF 3lERCURY.
rw*in in,
mu1tjpl.y by 0.01934: to convert into
. multiply by 0.0393i.j
(To convert into pounds
inches own,&&&
mh- =tPnm which 1s blown into a producer with the air is a!mOS~. all Con-
der;;e~;;~; ,&., __ __-~
tieI-divided water before e tntering tne. ruei, anu conse-
quently is consioered as water lu these calculations.
The 1.5 lbs. of w&ter liberates 9,167 lb. of hydrogenwhich iS deli.vered
to the gas, and yields,in combustion the same heat th,at lt absorbs In the
producer by dissOCiQt'fin
According to this calculation. therefore, 60%
y;;;nfimhldinn ig theoretically reCOW
of the heat Of prim=J
?red by the dis-
so lation of steam, and,G&if&li-the sensible heat of the gas be counted,
with radiation and other minor items, as iOSS,, yet the gas mUSt carry
4 x 14,500 - (3746 + 3519) = 50,733 heat-units. or S7% of the. calo-
rific energy of the carbon.
This estimate shows a loss in converslon,of
13~ without credjtirw t.be e&s with its sensible heat, or Clmrging It w?th
theObeat re uired
earn. or taking inio
accOunt the 7
ass d&*to~x$~&g some of the carbon to Cot. In good
producer-pra&.?e the propoctiou of COZ In the gas .repreSents. from 4%
_- ep l hr. 0 hllrnp~ to ~0, hilt the extra heat of tl,ts comoustmn should
nnor and there-
Fe t~.g~,i~~e~o~~~~~~~-t~~;iissociation of .more water-y
not represent as much loss as it would md!c
fore does
&:' As a con-
-..,.m.,
veyer of I;LLTL.~J.
thic 02s has the advantage of carrying 4.46. lb
s. less
..... a
nitr,
,gen ,,iLitll ,ouIy ,k present if the fourth pound o
~~. AL^^ . . . . . . . A h,
I coal pad been
~-,a .,nth n~ir. 2.d in practical working the use of steam reduces tne
gasiilr;u ,,LYa.. I I-- * ----. -~~ L
amount of chn
<lerlng m the producer.
Anthracite Gas.
- In anthracite coal
there is a volatne comuustioie
var.&t? in quamity from 1.5%
to over 77+ The amount of, energy
derive8 from the coai 1s shown in the following theoretical gastficatton
made with coa1 of assumed composition: Cal~oon. 85% : Vol. RC. 5%; ash.
20%: g0 I:~~ Onrr,nn n.ssumed to be burned to CO: 5 Ibs. carbon burned --. --._ -_-.~
to cot; t....-
6% fourths of the necessary oxygen
der.ved from air. and one
fourth from w ater.
-Products.------
Process.
C
80 lbs. C bur--.m
.ned toCC . . . . ..I..
:;~icgFy~.
Anal3;.y4 Vol.
5 Ibs. C bu---> -
157.64 2.2
1.0
:.aso-
line.
-
301
360
422
493
561
%
- -
--
-
--
-
Vn?oR TESSION OF ALCOHOL AND WATER.~AND DEGREE OF ~XFURATION
"F .41R WITH THESE V.4PORS.
I
Temp.
degs. F.
Vapor Tension, Inche
Mercury.
S-
!
1 Pound, of Air Contains in Saturated
Condition. in P&n&.
-
i
Alcohol
Vapor.
Water
Vapor.
_-
I
r
--
I
i
i
At 26.95 Inches.
1
At 26.05 In&es.
.I-
7-
Alcoho: Water
-7
vapor. Vapor.
Alcohol
vapor.
--
0.359
:2it__.
0.925
I.240
2.162
3.620
--
I
I
-
116.60 0.055
0.075
Z-i
::i:
0.627
_-
0.008
0.011
0.061
0.084
0.016
0.022
0.631
:: 1;;
0.063
c.135
El
1.602
-.
0.950
I.283
1.733
2.325
::iE
8.662
,A^ Ts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :.-
.--. from an are assocated
with N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
712.50
4064.17
9.4
53.6
100.0
7580.15
Energy in the aboT
lSE.66 lb
re as obtained from 100 lbs. anthr_a$te:
-.oo *is. fg .,. . . . . . . . . . .
;fI$.g;: heat,>mts.
3.75 H..... ' "':::::::. 232:500
Total energy in gas per lb. . . . . . .
Total.energy III 100 bs. of coal. . . 1,34G:500
Efficiency of the conversion. . . . . , . . . . . . .g6%.
The sum of CG and II exceeds the results obtained in Practice. The
sensible heat of the gas will probably aCc?unt
for this .dtscrepancy and.
theiefoore it is safe to assume the possrbnity oi
deRvenng at least g2%
ot the eiikrgy of the mthraclte.
FUEL GAS.
The following notes are extracted from a
The Energy of Fuel (Trans. A. I. M E $!a~&$ W. J. Taylor on
:
Carbon Gas. - In the old Siemens pro&
of primary combustion -that is, the burning or sono Jeer. pract:ically al! the heat
.- -I
*. 1 carbon to carbon monoxide,~or about 39% of the total carbon energy - was lost as little
the gas was dissipated in its passage from t- -~ *
or no steam was.used In the producer, and nearly all the sensible heat of
wmfh was usualiy placed at a considerable di ;~;~~flfP,qucer to the furnace,
with tbe air blown nno the producer, and by u&zing the sensible heat of
.Mqdern . practice. has improved on this pii?gy introducing steam
the gas in the combustion-furnace.
It ought to be I
?ossible to oxidize
~
- - .
- - - , ~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of 1
-., ~.
! material may no lor@k be accurate
Bitu@nous Gas. - A theoretical gasification of 100 Ibs of coal con.
the average o[ Pittsburgh co&l). 1s made in the following table
taining 33% of carbon and 32% qf v&&tile combustible (which is &;;z
assumed that $ Ibs. Of C are burned to CO and 5 Ibs. to COz; one fourth
of the 0 Is d.erlved from.steam and three fourths from air; the heat value
of the volatl!e cornbust+& is taken at 20,000 heat-units to the pound.
In computing
volumet~c proportions all the volatile. hydrocarbons
Escd as well as c?ndensmg, are classed as marsh-gas. since It is only bi
some such tentatlye, assumption that even an ;ioprosimate Idea of the
volumetnc composlt~on can be formed. The en&gy, however, is cslcu-
llrtetl from weig!lt:
Process.
Product?.---------,
50 lbs. C burned to CO. . . .
5 Ibs. C burned toC02... ._ . . . .
P21dsls Cubic Feet.
1580.7
Anali b.s Vol.
i
32 Ibs. vol. HC (distilled). .
lS.33 157.6
80 lbs. 0 xre required, of which 20
32.00 746.2 1322.
Ibs.. derived from HIP liber-
ate H . . . . _ . . :_
60 Ibs. 0. derived from air, a&.&&
2.5 475.0 8.3
sociated wit.h N . . . . . . . . . . . . 200.70
2709.4 47.8
--
3io. 19 566Y.9 iTiT
Energy i? 116.66 Ibs. CO . . . 504 554 heat-units.
3'2.00 Ibs. vol. XC. _. 640000 .L
2.50 lbs. H ,.....__.... 155;ooo
1,299.554 6
Energy in coal . . . . . 1,437,500
*&
Per cent of Lnergy delivered in gas.
Heat-units in 1 lb. of gas.. . . _ :.. ..:.....:..*:
3,:::
Water-gas. - Water-gas is made in an intermittent process by blow-
ing UP the fuel-b@ pf the producer to a high state of incandescknce (and
in some cases utlhzmg.the resulting gas, which is a lean producer-gas)
then shutting off t@ 31~ and forcing steam thmuxh the fu& which rliui
-_ .---.. -.~
suc+~s me yater mto its elements of oxygen and hydrogen, the former
combming with the carbon of the coal. and the latter being iiberated
This eas Can never play a very important part in the industrial
held
owing to the large loss of energy entailed in its production yet, there a&
places and special purposes where it is desirable even at & great excess
in cost Per umt of heat over producer-gas: for instance. in small high-
temperature furnaces, where much regeneration is impracticable or
where the
waste!L
blow-up gas can be used for otber purposes instead of bking
The~ieactions and energy required in the production of 1000 feet of
water-gas. composed, theoretically, of equal volumes of CO and H, are as
folloivs:
500 cubic feet of H weigh. . . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . .
500 cubic feet of CO weigh. _
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6351+.
36.89
Total weight of 1000 cubic feet. . . . . . _ . . . . . _
--
39.525 Ih:
Now. as CO is composed of 12 parts C to 16 df 0 the weight of C in
36.89 lbs. is.15.81 fbs. and of 0 21.08 Ibs.
When this oxygen is derived
from water It liberates. as above, 2.635 lbs. of hydrogen
The heat de-
YeloPed and absorbed in these reactions (roughly, ,as we will not take
Into account the energy required to elevate the coal from the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere to, say, 1800) is as follows:
Heat-units
2:635 lbs. H. absorb in dissociation from water 3.635 X 62,000 = 163 376
la.81 lbs. C burned to CO develops 15.81 x 440% _ _.
= 6'3'564
Excess of heat-absorption over heat-developmeht . . . ..I : : : : : =
93:806
If this excess could be made UD from C burnt to CO2 without loss by
diarlon. we would only have to burn an additional 4.83 Ibs. Cto sup
this beat, and we could then make 1000 feet of water-gas from 20.b4 1
5
ly
s.
WARNING: This is 3 1910 edition. Some of
.
FUEL GAS,
f carbon (equal 24 Ibs. of 85% coal).
This would be the perfection of
as-maklng. as the gas would contain really the fame energy s.s the Coal:
,li+ Instead we require in practice more than double this am+nt of coal
,$I do nctdeliver more than 50% of the energy. of,the fuel In the gas.
,ecauSe t,he supporting heat is obtai.ned m an Indirect way and wltb
mp&xt combustion. Besides this, It IS not often that the sum of CO
ntl H exceed 90%. the balance being CO2 and y.
But water-gas,should
;e made wit,b much less loss of energy by lmrmng the blo%y-up
(pro-
l,lcer) gas in brick regenerators, the stpred-llq heat of which car be
,eturned to the producer by the +r u@ In blo!\:mg-!lp.
The following table shows what may be~coiisiaerea average VOhmetriC
Inslyses, and the weight and energy of 1000 cubic feet. of the fOUr types
>f cases used for heating and illummatmg purposes:
.- -
co
............................. 0.50
8.
................................
CH ,
..............................
;+I:
C&I,. ............................. al31
co>.
..............................
N
................................. ;:2
0
................................. 0.34
Vapor
..............................
Poumln I r. 1000 cubm feet. .......
.is.6.
Heat-units in 1000 cubic feet ..... 1,100,000
-
(
.-
7:
-
:oa1-
gas.
6.0
2::
2
I.5
0.5
1.5
32.0
~5,ooo
-
v
--
-
45.0
45.0
2.0
;::
0.5
I.5
45.6
322,000
A
I
Producer-gas.
. . . . . .
2.5
-
i
_I
65.6
137.451
Natural Ga.s in Ohio and Indimm.
(Ez~. u?zd ,lf. ;r., April 21, 1894.)
Hydrogen.. . . . .
Marsh-gas. . . . . .
01efinnt gas.. ,
Carbon monoxide.
Carbon dioxide.. .
Oxygen. . . . .
Nitrogen.. .
Hydrogen sulpbide
1.86
93:11:
.73
a
.42
I
':E
1<0k0-
1%:
I.42
'":Z
.55
29
.30
2.80
.I?
Eitu.
27.0
2::
02:;
'Z
.
65.9
156.917
-
.-
-
Mar-
ion.
Ind.
1.20
3
:Z
-55
':ii
Natural f&~ 8~ a Fuel :OP Boilers. - J. M. Whitham (Tyo?s. A. .S-
M. E 1905) re om t,he results of several tests of water-tube hollers wltb
natursl gas.
Tge following is a condensed statement of the results :
Kind of Boiler.. . . . . . ~~~kVc~ical. Heine.
Cahall Vert.
-
Rated H.P. of boilers... . . .
H.P. developed . . . . . . . . .
)is
I;: % %%
2 :2
Temperature at chimney
Gas pressure at burners. OZ.
3 494 386 6.4
450 465 y8 7ta'"30
. . . . . . .
. . .
Cu. ft. of gas per .boller. .
34
H.P.-hour . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,Eoiler efficiency, Y0 . . . . .
;2:;
41.0* 46:~ "yt ;4":;t 42.3
. . . . . .
. . .
* Reduced to 4 oz. pressure and 62 F.
t Reduced to atmos. press. and 32O F.
818 FUEL.
Six t~ests by Daniel Ashworth on 2-flue horizontal boilers gave cu. ft. of
gas per boiler H.P. hour, 58.0; 59.7: 67.0; 63.0; 74.0: 47.0.
On the first. Cook baler test, the chimney gas, analyzed by the Orsat
apparatus, showed 7.8 C0~; 8.05 0; 0.0 CO; 84.15 N. This shows an
excessive air supply.
Whitetx?rsus Blue Flame. -Tests were made with the air supply throt-
tled at the burners. so as to produce a white flame, and also unthrottled,
producing a blue name with the following results:
Pxsure of gas at burners, oz. _.
Kind of flame. __
Boiler H.P.made per 250-H.P. boiler
Cu. ft. of gas (at 4oz. and 60 F.) per
H.P. hour.. ~. . . .
Chimney temperature.. . . . . . . 4;; 5:; 478 4 6 5E9
Average of 6 t.ests - White, 266 H.P., 43.6 cu. ft.: Blue, 237 H.P.
43.5 CU. ft.. showing that the economy is the same with each fame, bui
the capacity is greatest with the whiteflame.
conclusions from these tests are as follows:
Mr. Whithams principal
(1) There is but little advanta5e,possessed by one burner over another.
an~;da;ezz; economy IS made wltn a blue as with a wlnte or straw flame,
(3) Greater capacity may be made with a straw-white than with a blue
name.
(4) An efficiency as high as frcm 72 to 7.5per cent in the use of gas is
seldom obtained under the most expert coodltions..
(5) Fuel costs are the same under the best conditions with natural gas
at ?O cents per 1000 cu. ft. and semi-bituminous coal at $2.87 per ton of
7xn I ha --_l _-_.
(6) Considering the saving of labor with natural gas, as compared with
hand-firing of coal. in a plant of 1500 H.P.. and coa.1at 82 per ton of 2240
lbs., gas should sell for about 10 cents per 1000 cu. ft.
ANALYSES OF NATL'RAI. Gas,
Illuminants. ...................
Carbonic oxide .................
piyogen ......................
Lwnrsn gas ......................
Ethsne. .......................
Carbonic acid ..................
Osxen ........................
2%
0.30
y!c!;g
0.20
0.10
0. 50
0.15
0.25
%k
EE
1.6
1.8
0.3
7;:;
0.0
0.4
Nitiggen . .
B.T.U. per cu. ft. at 60 F. and
14.7 lbs. baron+ter.. . .
0.55 0.50 0.30 0.8
1030 1020 1026 1098
The first three analyses are of the gas from nine wells in Lewis Cob,
W. Va.: the last is from a mixture from fields in three states supplying
Plttsburg. Pa.. used in the tests of the Cook boiler.
Producer-gas from One Ton of Coal.
(W. H. Blauveit, Trans. A. I . M. E.. xviii, 614.)
Analysis by Vol. cafe, Cubic Feet.
I I
Equal to -
CO . . . . . . . . . . . .
If................
125.3 33213.84
9.2
1
CHa . . . ..__..._
121077. 76
24;;:;; I '"~;:;:,ll.+&j- 1400.7ibs.O.
3.1 c?H ,......,. ,..,,. 0.8 f%:E 174.66 174.66 CHI .
co! . . . .
77.76 77.76 1:
3.4 4463 52
N (by difference) i 58.2 76:404.% 1
519.02 141.54 I &H4. C +377.441bs.0.
5659.63 7350.17 t Air.
I-/:./ -I
loo.0 13@36.00 8945.8,
-.. -__I. ..., _._.~~
._ ~,-I
WARNING: This is a 1910 editibKi~~-~-Sorne of
FUEL GAS. 819
Calculated upon this basis, the 131,280 ft. of gas from the ton of coal
contained 20.311,162 B.T.U., or 156 B.T.U. per cubic ft.., or 2270 B. T.U.
per l b.
The composition of the coal from which this gas was made was as
follows: Water, 1.26%: volatile matter, 36.22%: fixed carbon. 57.9e%:
sulphur. 0.7070,: ash, 3.78%. One ton contains 1159.6 lbs. carbon and
724.4 lbs. voletde combustiblc,.the energy of whicl! is 31,303,200 B.T.U.
Hence. in the processes of gaelhcation and purilicatlon there was a loss of
3:.2;;i of the energy of the coal.
The composition of the hydr>sarbons in a soft coal is uncertaiu and
quite complex: but the ultimate analysis of the average coal shows that
it approaches quite nearly to the composititin of CH., (marsh-gas).
Mr. Blauvelt. emphasizes the following points as highly important in
soft-coal reducer-Gractice:
First. % hat a large percentage of the energy of the coal is lost when the
g& is made in theordinary low producer and cooled to t.hetemperature of
the air before being used. To prevent these sources of loss. t!le producer
should be placed so as to lose as little as possible of the sznslble heat. of
the gas and
fuel-bed
revent condensation of the hydrocarbon vapors. A high
shou d be carried, keeping the producer cool on top, t.hereby P
nrevent.ine +.hehreakine-,;;lvn of the hpdrocarbons and the deposit of ,,._. -.._ _..-
soot, as wli& k&$iingXhe cari?nic acid low.
Second. Thht a producer shoulri be blown with as much steam mixed
with the air as will maintain incandescence.
This reduces the,percentage
of nitrogen and increases the hydrogen. thereby greatly,enrlch,ng the gas.
The temperatllre of the producer is kept down, dimimshmr: the loss Of heat
by radlat.ion through the wa!!s. and in a largr measure prevent,lng chnkers.
The Combastion of Producer-gas. (H. H. Campbel l . Trans. A. 1.
M. E. xix 128.) -- The combustion of the components of onimary pro-
ducer-has &av he renresented by the following form&?: -
C?Hd +60-=~COP +2HzO: 28 +O=HzO:
CHI + 40 = CO, + 2HzO: co +o=coz.
AVERAGE .C~MPOSITION BY VOLUME OF PRODUCER-GAS: 4. MADE WITH
OPEN GRATEY, NO STEAM IN BLAST; B. OPEN GRATES. STEAM-JET IN
BLMT. 10 S.IMPLEY OF EACH.
cot.
Amin .__._,,._.. 3.6 0%
&HI. co. CH4. N.
Amax ._.._..... 5.6 0.4 E
20.0 5% 3.0 58.7
24.8 5.2 64.4
Aaverage . . . . . . . 4.84
B min _.......... 4.6 ii!:: oOS4
22.1 8::
B max. .._..... 6.0
Z4
;0.4 %i it;:
;::
3.3
!$:2
62.0
B average. . . . . .5.3 0.36 22.74 s.37 2.56 60.13
The coal used contained rarbon 82%. hydrogen 4.;~.
The followinrr are analyses of products of combustion:
Co?.- 0. co. CHI. H.
Minimum . . . . . . 15.2
::i %. t G-z
trace. 8::I
F;;;zg;rn.. . . . 17.2
2.0
. . . . . . . 16.3 0.8 0.4 0.1 0.2 E
Proportions of Gas Producers and Scrubbers. (F. C. Tryon. Power.
Dee I 1908 ) --Small inside diameter means excessive draft Jhfougl! the
fire. if a fi;e is forced, as will benecessary with too small an msxdedlam-
eter the results will be clinkers and blow-h&s 0; chimneys thrqugh the
fire bed, with excess CO* and weak gas: clinkers f\ lsed to the hmng. and
-burning out of grates. If sufficient steam is used to keep down the ex-
cessive heat, the resu!t is likely to be too much hydrogen in the gas, with
the attendant engine troubles.
The lining should ne:er be less than 9 in. thick even in the Smaller Sizes.
and a loo-H.P. or larger, producer should have at least 12in. of generator
lining The Ii&g n&t to the fire bed should be of the best quahty of
refractory material. A good lining consists of a course Of Soft ConJmqn
bricks put in edgewise nest to the steel shell of t.he gene?ator. laid in
Portland cement. then a good firebrick 6 in. thick laid mslde to fit the
circle the bricks being dipped as laid in a fine grouting of ground tirebnck.
t.
If Ge take 11/ 4l bs. of coal per H.P.-hour as a fair average and 10lbs. of
e mater?a~l
~~~..~ -~ __--_--~.. .,._
mtij-nb longer~be a&rate
.
FUEL.
c oal per hour per square foot of internal fuel-bed cross-sectioh, with g in
OJ refractory hnmg u to 100 H.P. and, at least 12 in. of lining on large;
SIZS, the-generator WI I ave good gas wlthout forcing timi without excess-
.y .
iv: beat. II! the zone of complete combustion. A 200-H.P. producer on
@Is hasps consumes 250 ,lbs. of coal at full load, and at 10 Ibs. per sq. ft
Internal area 25 sq. ft. wdl be necessary.
diameter will be 92 in.
With a 12-in. lining the Ol l t si &
Practice has shown that the depth of the fuel bed should never be leqs
tilan the iuside diameter nn to 6 Ct.: above this size the d~~nt.ll rn~, i;..
adjusted as experience indicates the best working results.
Assuming for
a boo-H.P. producer 18111. for the ashpit below the grate, 12 in. for the
thickness of the grate and the ashes to protect it, 68 in. depth of fuel bed
24 in. above the fuel to t~hegas outlet, the height will be 10 ft. 4in. to thd
top of the generator: above this the coal-feeding hopper, say 32 in. high,
IS mounted: this makes the height over all 13 ft.
The wet scrubb?r of a gas producer should be of ample size to cool the
gas to atmosphenc temperature and wash out most of the im urities
A good rule IS to make its diameter three-fourths that of the ins1 e &am:
.I?
eter of the generator and the height one and one-half times the height of
the generator shell. For a IOO-H.P. producer, 4 ft. inside diam., the wet
scrubber should be 3 ft. inside diam.. and if the generator +ell is 8 ft
6 in. high, the scrubber should be 12 ft. 9 in. high. When Ii
proper amount of balfling and scrubbing material (coke
d with the
used). the scrubber will have space for about 30 cu. ft. of gas.
commonly
A lOO-H.P.
gas engme uang 12.000 B.T.U. per H.P.-hour will use 160 cu. ft. of 1?5-
B.T.U. gas per. minute. The wet scrubber will therefore be emptied 51/ a
times eveiy minute, and would require about 8/ sgallons til water per
rnmute: If the di;tmeter of the scrubber were reduced one-third the vol-
umeof water necessary to cool and scrub the gas would have to be doubled.
Gas.rnl!st be cooled below 90 F. to enable it to give up the impurities it
carnes in suspenwon, and even lower than this to condense its moisture.
A separate dry pcrubber with two compartments should always be pro-
\ <ded and the PlDmg between the two scrubbers so arranccd thiLt the gas
can be turued into either part of the dry scrubher at will. The dry
scrai)ber should be equal in area to the inside of the generator, and the
L?pth of each part should be sufficient to accommodate at least 2 cu. ft.
of scrubbing material and give 1 cu. ft. of space next to the outlet. Oil-
soaked excelsior is a good scrubbing ma,terial and should be packed as
rl osel v a nmsi hb
Taking as the standard the dimensions above stated for the different
parts@, a producer-gas plant, a list of dimensions for different horse-power
capacltles would be about as in the follcwing table.
DIMENSIONS OF GM PRODUCERS AND SCRUBBERS.
H.P.
Inside
Diam
Producers.
:i%
Dian
-
1
1.
-.
-
Height
--
;. 1
--
Dry Scrubbers.
Diam
in.
Single.. 24
..do....
Double. ii
..do....
..do.... ii
::c::
..do:..
E
..do...: i!
..do.... 68
The inside diameter of the producers corresponds to the formula
H.P. = 6.25s.
- -.~,-~~_~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
G.4S PRODUCERS. 821
Gas Producer Pr;wtice. -The following notes on gas producers are
condensed from the catdogue of the Morgan Construction Co.,
The Morgan Continuous Gas Producer is made ln the followmg sizes:
Diam. inside of lining, ft
........................ 68 10 12
Area of gas-making surface, sq. ft. ...............
2-l-hour capacity with good coal, tons .............
4 5; ii.5 1::
Diam. of outlet, in.
.............................. 20 25 33 40
The b& coal to Ijuy for a proiluccr in any locaii(~* is t.hat Which by
amalysi? nr r:~.lorirnrtrr test shows the most he&t umt,s for a dollar. It
.. ..,,I v *
,eLL.,IJ Gays to buy gas coal u&i it can be had at a moderate cost over the
ordinary steam bituminous grade.
For very high temperature m@tmg
operations a fairly high percentage of volatile matter 1s necessary to gve a
luminous flame and intensify the radiation from the roof of the furnsce.
Freely burning gss coals are the most easily gasified, and the capacity of
the producer to handle these coals is twice as great as when a slaty, chrty
coal, high in ash and sulphur, is used.
It is usually best to use run-of-
mine coal, crushed at the mmeto pass a 4-in. rin.&
It never pays to use
slack coal for it cuts down.the capecity by chokmg the blast, which has
to be run it hich pressure to get through the fire, overheatmg the gas and
lowering the efficiency of the producer.
There is always a certain amount of COa formed, even in the best practice:
ln fact it is inevitable, and if ke t within proper limits does not Cmlstltlite
a net ioss of efficiency, especial y with very short gas pues. because the P
energy of the fuel so burned is represente(! in the senable heat or tem-
perature of the gas, and results in dehvenng a hot gas to the furnace.
~1-0he-+. rpslllt. i s n.t, shout 4c%, CO,. a gas temperature between llOOD and
i~~Op~~ j-;;z-ki>iiess than rO0ft: loiig.
The a;uount of steam required to blow a gas producer is from 33% to
40% of the weight of the fuel gasified.
If 30 lbs. of steam is called a
standard horse-power, wehave therefore to provide about 1H.P. of,ste?m
mr everv 80 lbs. of coal gasified per hour or for every ton of coal gaslficu in
In the original Sieniens air-blown producer about 70% of the whole gas
was inert and 30% combustible.
Then with the advent of steam-blpwn
producers the dilution was reduced to about SO%, with 407$ combustible.
Now under the s
distribution and
stec. of automatic feed, umformcondltlons, perfect
a d: Justment of the steam blast here presented, weare able
to reduce the nitrogen to 50% and sometimes less.
In the best practice the volumeof gas from the producer is now reduced
to about 60 cu. ft. per pound of coal, of which 30 cu. ft. are nltrogen.
These volumes are measured at 60 F.
The temperature of the gas leaving the iroducer under best modern
conditions is about 1200 F. It can be run cooler than this. but not much.
except at a sacrifice of both quantity and quality.
At this temperature.
thesensible heat carried by the gas is 1200 X 0.35 (average speclhc heat) =
420 B.T.U. per pound.
As one pound of good gas is about 16 cu. ft. and
carries about 16 X 180 = 2880 heat units at normal temperature, :weSee
that the sensible heat carried awav represents about one-seventh, or over
147 of the combustive energy, wvhich is much too large a percentage to lose
wh:never it can be utilized by using the gas at the temperature at whlcb
it is made.
le material ~rnaj~~.no longer be accurate
.
Flu&% - It is necessary to provide large flue capacity and to carr
full ;Irea right up to the furnace ports, which latter may be Slightly
the
to ave the gas a forward impetus.
reB Uced
flueshould not be 1% than l/ l6of the
Generally speaklng, the net area of a
p!oducers supplJlng ?t.
area of the gas-making surface in the
0.r it may he stated thus: -The carrying capa-
clty,of a hot gas flueIS eqmvalent to 200 lbs. of coal per hour per sq. ft. of
secuon.
&?ys of Enerp/ inp Gas Producer. -The total loss from all sources in the
canhrst~on of fuel m a ~3s producer under fairly good conditions, when
the gas 1s used cold or when its sensible heat is not utilized. ranges betwvppn
205; al i d 25%. which under very bad conditions mav be iricrea& t.n~K~?
The loss under favorab!e conditions, using the gag hot. is fedi<&j i; z;
low as lo%, which also mcludes the heat of the steam used in blowing
Test of a ~lfllor~an Producer. - The following is the record of a test rn&
in Chicago by
Kentucky
Robert W.
run-of-mine 01 rne rouo~yl
-@nt-& Co, The coal used was illii~&is--$$
-ng analysis: -
Fised carbon. 50.87: vol ati l e matter, 37.32: moisture. 5.08: ash I 1 19
sulphur). 6.73. .The average of all the gas analyses byvohimeisas foll&Gy
CO. 24.5; H, 17.8; CH, and CZH,. 6.8: total combustibles, 49.1%; Co11
3.7; 0. 0.4: N. 46.8; total non-combustibles, 50.9%.
Average dept,h of fuel aed, 3 ft. 4 in.
blower, 4.7 lbs. per sq. in.
Average pressure of steam on
combust.ible. 95.34%.
Analysis of ash: combustible. 4.66%: non-
100 = 0.3%
Percentage of fuel lost in the ash, 4.66 x 6.73 +
.
IIigh Temperature Rcq+red for Prodiietlon of CO.-In an ordinary
coal tire, with an excess of ar COz is produced, with a high temperature
When the thickness of the coal bed is increased so as to choke the air sup:
ply CO IS produced, with a decreased temperature. It appears however
that If the temperature is greatly lowered, CO, instead of CO will be pro:
duced notwithst.andmg the diminished itlr supply. Herr Ernst
(En
:iprll-l, 1593) holds that the oxidation of C begins at 752O F. and that
88
1s then forme? as the main product, wlth only a sniall aniount of CO*
whether the ar, beadmitted in large or in small quantities.
When thi
rate of combu+on IS increased and the temperature rises to 129Y F. the
chief product IS CO2even when the exhaust gases contain 20% by volume
of CO?, which is practically the maximum limit, proving that all the
pxygen has been consum.ed. Above 1297 F. the proportion of CO rapidly
increases until 18~X3~F. IS reached, when CO is exclusively produced
Experiments reported by J. Ii. Clement and H. A. Crlne in Bullet& No
393 of the U. S. G.+oioeical Survey, 1909, show that with the rate of 60;
of gas and the depth of fuel bed which obtain in a gas producer a temper-
ature of 1100 C. (2012 F.) or more is required for the formation of 90%
CO gas from CO, and charcoal, and 1300 (~2373~F.) for the same percen-
tage from CO? and coke, and from CO2and anthracite coal.
With a tem-
perature 100 C. (180 F.) lower than tilese the resultant gas will contain
about So% CO.. It follows that the temperature of the fuel bed of the gas
producer must Deat least 1300 C. inorder to yield the highest possible
perceqtage of CO.
TheXond Gas Producer is described by H. A. Humphrey in Proc. Zn.st
f- p on!. cxxis. 1897. .,...., The prod;ticei. which is combined with a by-prod:
uct recovery plant. uses cheap tntuminous fuel and recovers from It, 90
lbs.. of sulphate of ammonia per ton, and Yields a gas suitable for gas
engines and all classes of furnace work.
The producer is worked at a much
lower temperature than usual, due to the large quantity of su
steam Introduced mth the-ajr, amounting to more than twice t
erheated
of the fuel.
Ii e weight
The 6aS ContamIng the ammonia is passed through an absorb-
ing apparatus, and treated so that 7Om
IS recovered.
,C qf the origlnal nitrogen of the fuel
The result of a test showed that for every ton of fuel about
2.5 tons of steam and 3tons of air are blown through the grate the mixture
being at a temperature of about 480 F. The greater part Af this steam
Passes through the producer undecomposed. its heat being used in a.
regenerator to furnish fresh steam for the producer.
More than 0 5 ton
of steam 1s decomposed in passing through the hot fuel and nearly ,4j tons
of cas are produced from a ton of coal. equal to abo&. 160 000 cn ft at
or&nary atmospheric temperature.
of that of the original fuel.
The gas has a calorific bower df Si %
Mr. Humphrey gives the following table
showing the relative value of different gases.
,,:
WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of .
L
FUEZ GAS.
Hydrogen (H) ...................
8. 6 18. 73 20. 0 1 56. 9
Marsh gas (CH,)
22. 6
................
2;:;
C,H?, gases..................... nil 3
0. 31 . . . .
0. 314. O( ?) j 3. 0
Carbonic oxide (CO). ............
13.2 24.4 25.07 21.6
8. 7
Nitrowen (N) .................... 46.8 48.98 49.5
5. 8
Carb&c acid (COz) ............. 12.9
5;:;
6. 57 5. 0 3. 0
Total volume. .....
Total combustible gases.. .....................
100.0 100: : I : : ! 2 1: ; : : , l $: ;
46.3
I
Theoretical.
Air required for combustion.. 112.4 IOI .4 113.2 154.0 416.0
cf $6~$$; ; ts~. ". - ; , f ! ; y, ) 85. 9 74. 7 88. 9 115. 3 284. C
Do.,B:T.U.percu.ft . . . . . _,.._.. 154.6 134.5 160.0 207.5 511.2
Do., per litre, gram o C. units 1,374
1.195 1,432 1,645 4,54
$5
3. 1
i : !
108
98. 1
22. 0
. 67. 0
6. 0
3
0. 6
100. 0
95. 6
581. 1 806. 0
381. 1 495. 8
658. 892. 4
6.09
7. 932
NOTE. - Where the volume per cent does not add UP to 100 the slight
difference is due to the presence of oxygen.
The following is the analvsis of gas made in a Blond producer at the
works of the Solvay Process-Co. in Detroit. Mich. (.jflnerUl I~du$nJ. Vol.
viii 1900): ~0~. 14.1: 0, 0.3; N, 42.9; H. Z5.9iCH+ 1.1; CO. 12.~.
buitible, 42.7%.
Calories per htre. 1540. = ld3 B.T.U. Per cu. ft.
Corn-
Relative Efflcieneies of. Different Coals in Gas Prodnc~n;~~~
Engine Tests. -
The following is a condensed statement of tee
P
results obtained in the gas- reducer tests of the U. s. Geolo6Fa
Survey
at St. Louis in 1904.
(R.&F ernald, Trans. A. 6. J f. E.. 1903.1
I
B.t.u.
Pounds per elec-
trical H.P. hour
at switchboard.
Sample.
Ala..No. 2.. 14820 1.71 1.64
Colo.No.3... 13210 2. 14 1. 71
Ill.No.3 . . . . . 14560 1.93
Kan. No. 5. . . 15200 1. 69 1. 62
1. 91
1. 71
2. 25
2. 29
%
1: ;
1. 50
2. 07
:om-
bus-
tible.
1::;
1. 98
2. 05
1. 88
I : 2
, I . 17
1. 40
1. 60
The as W~ZT made in a Taylor pressure producer rated at 250 B.P.
Its
inside r&m was 7 ft. area of fuel bed 38.5 sq. ft., he?zht of casing 1.6ft.;
otatiye &i table; c&rifugal tar extractor.
The engme was a s-cyhnder
.
FUEL.
vertical Westinghouse, 19 in. diam..
23.5 B.H.P. . Comparing the results
22 in. stroke, 200 r.p.m., rated at
of the W. Va. No. 7 coal, the best
on the hst. with the North Dakota coal. the one which gave the poorest
results, the heat ~values per lb. combustrble of the coals are as 1 to 0.808.
reciprocal. 1 to 1.24: the lbs. combustible per E. H. P. hour as 1 to 1.75
and Ibs..coal as fired per E. H. P. hour as 1 to 2.88. The relative thermal
efficiencies of the engine with the two coals are as 2.05 to 1.17. or as 1 to
6.578. The analyses by volume of the dry gas obtained from the two
COliS was:
COz 0 CO H CH, N Total
N. Dak.. . combustible. . . . . . 10.16
w.
0.24
VA. .
15.82
11.16 3.74 58.88 40. 06 .
. . .
8. 69 0. 23
20. 90 14. 33 4. 85 51. 02 30. 72
The drYgas analysis shows the North Dakota gas to be by far the best.
its much lower result rn the engine test is due to the smaller quantity of
gas produced per ib. of coal, which was 22.7 cu. ft. per lb. of coal as fired
as compared with 70.6 cu. ft. for the W. Va. coal, measured at 62O F. and
14.7 lb. absolute pressure.
Use of Steam-in Producers and in Boiler-furnaces.
(R. W. Ray-
mond, !lmns. d. 1. .ci. E., xx, 635.1 - No possible use of steam can cause
a rain of heat. If steam beintroduced into a bed of incandescent carbon
it is decornoosed into hvdroe-en and oxveen
-- ---.a ----.
,tion of one nnlrnd of *tenm +fi h~rrlrfinrh- The heat-absorbed bJ the>educ ~. . _.__ _-__- _
1s mucn
oxygen 1
greater in amonnt than the heat genrerated by~~eu~i~~df?$
thus set free with carbon, forming either carbonic oxide or car-
bonic aci ?. Consequently, the effect of steam alone upon a bed of incan-
descent ruei 1 is to chill it.
nroq
In every water-gas apparatus, designed to
tree
zuce os; means of the decomposition of steam a fuel-gas relatively
by :
from mtrogen. the loss of heat in the producer must be compensated
somereheating device.
-T
lus,loss may be recovered if the hydrogen of the steam is subseouentlv
burnea, >o xorm steam again. Such a combustion of the hvdrogen is
contemplated,
that gas. Ass
rn the case.of fuel-gas, as secured in the subsequent use of
will cause neit
ummg the oxidation. of H to be complete, the use of steam
;her gain nor loss of heat, but a simple transference, the
by steam decomposit ion beine restored bv hvdrnpen FAN-
_ 1.. --.. .
mractice. it may be doubted whether this restoration is ever
t it 10nor+ni +I.-* ^- -----is of steam would defeat +,hn
heat absorbed
bustion. In p
comolete. Bu Y I 1.7bCilLLI,L LIY(I Ql, r;a~~:
reaciion altogether, and that 1~
which permits the r
;here must be a certain proportion of steam
a net loss in heat.
ealizaiion of rmportant advantages, without too great
The advantage to be secured (in boiler furnaces using small sizes of
anthracite) consists orincioallv in i . he transfer of heat from the lowpr
t
_ ._ _
side of the fire, where it 1s not wanted, to the upper side where it is.
wanted. The decomposition of the steam below cools the fuel and the
grate-bars, whereas a blast of air alone woul d produce, at that point
Intense combustron (forming at Erst CCt!, to thn inil+ of the grate, thd
fusion of part of the fuel. etti.
. . . . . ,L>
Gas. Analyses by Volume and by Weight. - To convert an analysis
of a mixed gas by volume into analysis by weight: Multiply the percentage
of each COnstI tuent gas by ?ts relative density, viz: CC, bv 11 0 by 8
CO and N each by 7, and divrde each product by the sum of the products:
Conversely, to convert analysis by weight into analysis by volume divide
the percentage by weight of each gas by its relative density, and divide
each quotient by the sum of the quotients.
Gas-luel, for Small Furnaces. - E. P. Reichhelm (Am. Mach Jan.
.lO. 18901~hscusses the use of gaseous fuel for forge fires, for drop-forging.
rn annealmg-ovens and furnaces for melting brass and copper for case-
hardening, muffle-furnaces, and kilns. Under ordinary conditions in
such furnaces he estimates that. the loss by draught. radiation andthe
heatlne of space not occupied by work is. with coal 80%. with petro-
leum 70%. and wrth gas above the grade of producer-gas 25~
r
He
ves the following table of comparative cost of fuels, as used 1nthese
urnaces:
--,-- - .~~ .--.;-- -.- _3__. -.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edltlon. Some of
ACETYLENE AND CALCTU~~ CARB:DE.
Kind of Gas.
Natural gas ............................
Coal-gas, 20candlepower ...............
Carburetted water-gas. ................
Gasolene gas. 20can&-power ........
Water-gas from coke. .................
Water-gas from bituminous co$. :. ..
1,000,0d0
675, 000
646. 000
E%z
377: ooo
750, 000 . .
f g, $~ WI ; ;
517: 500 . 90
%%
138 750
: Z
2291774 112' 500
20
. I 5 . 15
Water-gas ana producer-gas mired..
Producer-gas. . . . . . .
Naphtha-gas, fuel 21/ s gals. per 1000ft. .
Coal, $4 per ton, per I,OC6,000heatunits utilized.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crude petroleum, 3 cts. per gal., per 1,000.000heat-units... . . . . . .
. .
E
1. 73
1: : :
i : ; ;
. 65
Mr. Reichhelm gives the following figures from practice in melting
brass with coal and with naphtha converted into gas: 1800 lbs. of metal
require 1080 I bs. of coal, at 34.65 per ton, equal to 82.51. or, say. 15cents
per 100 Ibs. Mr. T.s report: 2560 Ibs. of metal require 47 gals. of naphtha,
at 6 cents per gal., equal to 62.82, or, say, 111/ 4cents per 100 lbs.
Blast-Furnace Gas. - The waste-gases from iron blast furnaces
were formerly utilized only for heating the blast in the hot-blast ovens ,and
,for raising steam for the blowing-engine pumps, hoists and other auxihary
apparatus. Since the introduction of gas engmes for blowing and other
purposes it has been found thst there is a great amount of surplus gas
available for other uses, so that a large power plant for furnurbmg eiectnc
current to outside consumers may easily be run by it. H. Freyn. m a
paper presented before the Western Society of Engineers (Eng. Rec.,
Jan. 13. 1906). makes an elaborate calculation for the design of such a
plant in connection with two blast furnaces of a capacity of 400~tons of
pig iron each per day. Some of his figures are as follows: The two fur-
naces would supply 4.350.000 cu. ft. of gas per hour, of 90 B.T.U. average
heat vaiue per cu. ft. The hot-hlast stoves would require 30% of this, or
1.305 000 cu. ft.; the gas-blowing engines 726,000 cu. ft.: pumps, hoists
and lighting machinery, 120,000 cu. ft.: gas-cleaning machinery, 120,000
cu. ft.: losses in piping. 48,000 cu. ft.: leaving available for outside uses, in
round numbers, 2,OOO.OOOcu. ft. per hour. At the rate of 100 cu. ft. of gas
per brake H.P. hour this would supply engines of 20,000 H.P.. but assum-
ing that on account of irregular working of the furnaces only half this
amount would be available for part of the time, a lO.OOO-H.P. plant could
be run with the surplus gas of the two furnaces. Taking into account .the
cost of the
labor, etc., t R
lant. figured at $61.60 per B.H.P., interest, depreciation,
e annual cost of producmg one B.H.P.. 24 hours a day, IS
817.88. no value being placed on the blast-furnace gas, and 1 K.W. hour
would cost 0.295 cent, which is far below the lowest figure ever reached
with a steam-engine power plant.
Blast-furnace gas is composed of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbqn
monoxide, the latter being the combustible constituent. An analysis
reported in Tram. A.I .M.E.. xvii, 50. is, by vol ume, CO- Z. 7. 08: CO. 27. 80;
?. 0. 10: N, . 65. 02. The relative proportions of CO2and CO vary con-
srderably wrth the conditions of the furnace.
ACETYLENE AND CALCJ IJ lM CARBIDE.
Acetylene, QH?, contains 12parts C and 1 part H. or 92.3% C. 7.7% H.
It is described as follows in a aper on Ca!cium Carbide and Acetylene by
J. B. Morehead (Am. Gas Llg t J our.. July 10. 1905): .R
Acetylene is a colorless and tasteless gas. When pure it has a sweet
: etheral odor hut in the commercial form it carries small percentages of
hosphoreted and sulphureted hydrogen which give it a pungent odor.
i: b
ne cu. ft. requires 11.91 cu. ft. of air for.its complete combustron. Its
specific gravity is 0.92, air being 1. It is the nearest annmn.rh t.0 VDE~~~,,.
carbon. and it possesses a higher candle power than any other kno%?iyc
stance, or 246 candles for 5c!l. ft.
and in varying nronorti(
It is soluble in its own volume of wa.t.0,
liquefies under
F._r ..-- 3ns in ether, alcohol, turpentine and acet&&--
a pressure of 700 lhs. ner so. i ns a. t. 7n I 7 -- .- -. l - ho , , , , . . ! !
necessary, for Jjquefaction varies dire& &h-$e temperature;~~o~~$e
w!uch is Its CrrtuzaJ temperature, beyond which it is impossible to Jiquefi
t~heoas at any prersure.
_~>\ !;I!? ca!~hun~~arbideis !)rought into contact with water. the r ;l .l r i t pm
~01)s Cllewtter 01!ts oxygen and forms lime and thus frees the hydrogen
wluch combmes with the carbon of the carbide to form acetylene.
four Jhs. of calcium carbide combine with 36 Ibs. of water and nrodllrr.
Sixty:
26 Ibs. of acetylene and 17 lb,
action is C-n. I OU A TT
Chemic
s. of pure. slacked lime.
z-----y
,avz T LLZEV ,= c...snz + Ca(OH)z.]
[The chexmcal re
,ally pufe calcmm carbide will yield at 70 F. and 30 in. mercury
Id of carbide. Commerciallv nure m. rhi &=i z 5.S3 cu. ft. acecr,ene ner noun
guaranteed to &Id 5& ftl%acetyJene per pound, and u$ia~~~~~x&&$~
guarant~eeby a few per cent.
The reaction between calcium carbide and
water. and the sr?bsen,uent ~!a&:- -
to considerable heat.
- . - & Of thSC&i i i m OxJde prodl l ced gi ve ri se
ci um carbide amolll
This heat from one uound of rhnmi rn. l l v WOO n- 1
?ts to sufficient to raise ihe tkmper~~-~~e-~4~l-i~s:~7
W3ter from 1L- I---~ , but: ~rerzm~to the boiling point.
There are two tvnesof *end
_. ~~. . . . ..zrat?rs. one m which a varying quantity of
water iS dropped on to the carbIde. the other in which the parh;& i-
to a large excess of water. Owi ne to +, I , * l nr n~ n-r \* * aroppeu m
lULLUrj 1s
.._ --.~- U...t,unt of heat
genemt~ed hy the reaction. and the~&sc~~~~~!~~y of the acetylene to heat,
the first. or dry type, IS confined to lamps and to small machines.
Acetylene contams 16S5 B.T.C. per cubic foot as compared with 1969
for natural gas and 600 for coal or wa.t.Pr ~SC
Lure Ctus ga:
At the present st.ate of
calcium wrhi de man-
electricity as supplied in our ciciiqs,
-_ ..--- ,..A, or with
sure for milway and other po
Acetylene may be stored under nr~~-
acetone apA .;.A C^.. &1.^^^-.
rtable lighting, and it may be absorbed in
Calcium
. UC,U LL bllt: billl?epurpose.
I carbIde was discovered on &Jay 4, 1592, at the nlant of t, hP
I _. - : - ~~- - - . - - -
WillsOn Aiuuunum I;O.. m Nortn Carolina.
-- ____
britt!e and varying ins color from almost black to h&ck rprl
It is a c&tal!inebody, hard
gra~lt~y is 2.26.
Tts specifii
wei& t. c?!or and
A c?ll?ic: foot of crushed carbide weighs 135 J&, u,,u ,$, a .Ir7; :-
~~~ If hrokeo n
most of its physical characteristics is about like granite.
ot, the fracture shows a haudsome, bluish purple iridescence and
the crj-sta!! s ares apt to he qui te l arze.
Calcium carbide. CaG. c&t,ains 6;-.5% Ca and 37.5~~ C.
i rk most acids and in ail n!kn:-
It is i nsnl l thl e
-~--.-lies, it is non-inflamriijble, infusible, non-
explosive. unaffec%ed by jars, concussions ( ~.
)f ~tlme. and, exceDt for the
property of gJving off acetylene when brought in contact with irater it is
an meti and s$bJe body. It is made by the reduction-in an electric arc
fu[na,Ceof a,mxtllre of EneJy pulverized and in
t!mate!y mixed calcium
oxide or qmc!i!ime and Carbon in the shape of coke;
CaG f COl]
13 ct caO=
The temperature is calculated to be fcom 5009 to So990 F.
The furnaces ?rnp;y]; fmAm~50to 35~~electri5E.P.
_n. t-?. n A..-. I. .
L&C L. a U&j.
each and produce about
S;n T)P~ t on St .
1LX oulpm 1s crusnis to diJierent sizes and it is sold for
t ~hr nmd-c . --- r__ _-I.I .__ ..._~.
The entire use for calcium carbide is for
[nobler. in lS62. obtzdned calcium carbide b
and zinc together with c+*-- *- _ ---- L:-L
Acetylene Cren~mtnl
_V~l~1~a ve:ry LI~L;LL temper:,ture.]
PS and Burners,-
,-. -1
&+ves classifies acetylene
:h water driDS or flows
genefators under four types: (1) .~nose m whit
do;Vly On.8 mass of carbide: (23 those in which water rises- ComJfig Jn
contact w$h a mass of carbIde: (3) these in which water rises coming in
contact x%lth successive Jayersof carbide: (4) those in which thk carbide is
dropped or
c!asses are 2
lunged into an excess of water. He shows that the first two
angerous: that somegenerators of the thi rd cl ass are good, but
thztt.those of the fourth are the best.
Of the various buyers used for acetyJene. those of the Naphey type are
among the most.satlsfactorg. Two tubes leading from the base of the
bwner are SO a$usted as to cause two jets of f l ame to i mpi nge upon each
other at s?me httle distance from the nozzles, and mutually to splay each
other out Into a fiat flame. The tips of the nozzles, usually of steatite. are
___ - . . I _~, _. . - . . ~- - . . ~- ~. - - - - _. - . ~~.
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
th
ACETYLENE AND CALCIUM CARDIDE.
527
formed on the principie of the Bunsen burner, insarin,g a t!>oro,ugh mixt:ure
of the acetylene with enough air to g!ve the hest ~llurmmat~on.
(H. C.
Biddle, Cal. Jour. Of lech.. lYO7.)
Acetylene gas is an endothermic compound.
In its formation heat is
absorbed, and there resides in the acetylene molecule tt!e power of spon-
taneously decomposing and liberating this heat !f it IS subJected to a
temperature or pressure beyond the capacity of 1t.s mlstahle nature ,to
mithstand. (Thos. L. White, Etlg. &fag., Sept.. 19OS.) Mr. Wh1Te
rPr.ommenl!s the use of acetylene for ctlrburetinp thealcohtii used in alcohol
tint.
Theoretically, 21/z volumes of oxygen are required for complete COm-
bustion of 1 volume of acetylene.
Practically, however, with the blow-
pipe the best welding results are ohtained with 1.7 volumes of OrXen to
1 volume of acetylene. The acetylene is, therefore, not completely burned
with the blowpipe, according to the reaction:
2 CIH~(4 vol.) + 5 02 (10 vol.) = 4 CO2-t 2 &O,
hut it is incomnletelv burned according to the reaction:
CzH; (2 vol.) + 02 (2 vol.) = 2C0 + Hz.
Aiding Orqgen for the Blowpipe. - The distinct.ive fenture which has
done the most to make the acetylene welding process of wltk commqrclal
value is the introduction of a means for producmg o\ rygen.
BY co@mng
a chemical product known as epunte,,
with water, Pure oxygen 1s easllY
obtained. Epuriteis composed of chlonde of lime, sulphate of copper and
su1phat.e of iron. The sulphate of copper is pulverized and mlx:d dry
with the chloride of lime.
In mal;ing oxvgen 50 Ibs. of this dry mixture
are dissolved in warm water. To this sol&on is added a SOl Ut ' OU Of
about 7 I bs. of sulphate of iron dissolved in one gallon of w.ater.
The oxygen-generating apparatus consists of two lead-hned ch,ambers
with a scrubber and settling chamber between.
One generator 1s filled
&+I- **rewarm water to which one chemi cal charge is added.
While thjs
sdi>;Gi is being stirred with an ag!tator a so!ution of iron SUbhate 1s
addec! which acts as a catalyzer.
.The reaction is:
6 FeGO,Aa + 7 CaOCIzAq + CuSO%Aq = 2 Fez3SOAAq f CuSOaAq
-^
+ Fe&In + 7 CaClz + 3 CaSO, + 7 0.
The oxymen liberated, passes through a scrubber and a water-sea!e,g trap
into a g&o&eter: from which it is compressed to 10 atmospheres. nlth an
air c,ompressor, into a pressure storage tank.
The Theorv and Practice of Oxy-Acetylene Welding is described in an
illustrated atticle by J. F. Springer in Indust. Engg., Oct., 1999.
IGNITION TEMPERATURE OF GASES.
Mayer and Midnch (Berichte der deutscher Gesellschaft, xxvi, 2241) .&e
the following:
y;gas, 2%: tt; C. :=f F.
Propank.
2 b,
CaHs. 547 1017
Acetylene, &Hi. 580
Promlene, &Ho. 504
19q
u
&.. -..-.-~
. e materi al mi y no Ic$-I$~ be accuratcj
.
_ ILLUMINATING-GAS.
~&ons (with due regarrl to their individual character) to the nature of
i&dilt;& mixed therewith.
Investigations of Percy F. Frankland show that mixtures of et)ylene
and hydrogen cease to have any luminous effect when the proportron ot
ethylene does not exceed 10% of the whole.
Mixtures o! ethylene and
carbouic oxide cease to have any luminous effect when the proportion of
the former does not exceed 20%. while all rmstures of ethylene and
marsh-gas have more or less .-......-.. I -----.-.
ture of 10r; ethylene and 90% marsh-gas hem,
equal to about IS candles,
nn~l that of one of !?Oy& et.hvlene and SO%, marsh-sas a110ut 25 candle<.
The illuminuting effect
PP t,hetreatises on gas by King. Richards.
1. i. p. 900.
burner, is by no means incon:
For further description, s.~. .~~
and Hughes; also Appletons Cyc. Mech., ~0,
Water-gas. - Water-
;
as is obtained by &-- ._..- .._.-... ..~~ _
of coal, coke or charcoa heated to redness or ,beyond. The .i+rn is
decomposed, its hydrogen being liberated and Its oxygen burmng the
carbon of the fuel, producing carbonic-owirlr. PXS.
The chemical reaction
is, C + Hz0 = CO C 2 H. or 2F + 2 A-1v
by as litting up of the CO?, makmg I
gas C 8
3 CO + 4 l+. 6~&ghtthe normal
+ 2 H 1s composed of C + 0 + H = 28 parts CO and 2 parts H.
.^ ,.- , .,
ILLUMINATING-GAS.
Coal-@S 1s mad? by distilling bituminous coal in retorts
The retort
is UsuallY a lOI% horizontal semi-cylindrlcsl or P shaped cbaAber holding
from 16O t0 300 Ibs. of COOLS. The retorrs are qet in benches.+ #-A-
). heated by one tire. which is LPIIPT:IIIV nf ~h- a
vs. , . pn. . - - .
led into a tised gas by passing tllrou~il~t~,~-~~~~~t~
II=yLc~~ -8l~lusb bo whiteness.
.s passes.out of the retort through an ascension-pipe into a
iong horizontat lxpe called the hydraulic main, where it deposits a par..
tlon of the tar It contams; thence it goes into a condenser a series of i&n
tubes surrc+nded by cold xyater, whereit is freed from concienaable vapors
a.7ammonm-water, then Into a washer, where it is exposed to jets oi
water. and Into a scrubber. a large chamber martially tilled with trays
made of wood or Iron. containing coke fragments of brick or paving-
stones. $ich are wet with a spray of watkr.
By the washer and scrubber
the qas IS freed from the last poition of tar and ammonia and from some
of the sulphur compounds.
The gas is then finally purified from sulphur
ComPuunds by passmg it through lime or oxide of iron
The gas is drawn
from ;he hqdrauhc main and forced through the washer, scrubber, etc.,
by an eshauster or gas pump.
The kind of coal used is generallv cakine bituminous but as usually
fhis coal.ls deficient III gases of highilluminating power, there is added to
I? a portlon of cannel coal or other enricher.
The following table, abridged from one in Johnsons Cyclopedia, shows
the anal&x. candle-power, etc., of some gas-coals and enrichers:
OF 93.33% CO and 6.67% H; b; GofGmfeft is composed of equal parts Of
Wnter-rm,s nmd~rrect as above described
$rbonic<side and hydiogen. .: ._ a,mII r_ -.----- -- -~.
has great heating-power, but no Illunnnating-power. It may. hpwever.
be used for lighting by causing it to heat to whiteness some sohd sub-
~atn~nce. as is done in the Welsbach incandescent l/ ght.
-~-~-llil;minatine-pns is made from water-gas by a(
3ding to it hydro-
._.. __ __._.________ o _-- ~_ ~~~~~~~
carbon gases or vapors, which are usually obtained from petroleum qr
some of its products. A history of the developmrnt of modern llluml-
nating water-gas processes. together with a descnpt!on of the I~O$ recent
forms of apparatus, is given by Alex. C. Humphreys. in a paper 0.n
W&r-
eas in the United States.
r~s,d hef ore the Mecl,unical Sectlon of the
------ -;-- ~~
;sociation for Ad~vancement of Science, in lSS9.
After desrrib-
earlier patents, he states that success in the manufacture of
may be said to date from 1574, when the process of T. S. C.
i introduced. All the later most successful processes are the
onenf Lowes, the essential features.of which were an apparatus
generator and superheater internally fired: the super-
nmnnrl:t.rv cnmbjlstion from the generator,
-
--
.
(
-
7. 07 _.
6. 00 10. 642 16. 6
5. 60 10. 528 18. 8
6. 70 10, 765 20. 4
7. OL- 9, 800 34. 9
3. 00 13. 200 42. 7
2. 00 15. 000 28. 7
-
e
<
.
-
Coke per
ton of 2240
lbs.
..V..-..CI.--..I --
consisting of a
heRt.er beinrr h&ted bv the .,- __..-- *a -- . . .._..
,. ..--_ I_ -_-._- -Lo .~. .~~~~~
lperheat~er being used, fin
the second part of t>e process, in the fixing or rendering Permanent.of the
hvdrocarbon eases: t;,e *aonnd na,rt
of t. he nrocess consisting m the
llvngh the generator fire. and the admission of oil or
me pLint between the fire of the generator and the
Gas-coals. etc.
- -
Ibs. t bush
-
2
:;
32
44
Pittsburgh. Pa.. _..___
Westmoreland. Pa.. _.
Sterling. 0. . _._
De~pard. W. Va.. _. .:
Darl i ngton. 0. . __. . . :
Petonia, W. Va.. _. .
Gnhamxte. WV. Va.. . .
--
2
i
: ;
i l . 9,
i 8. 0
16. 91
13. 31
f : Z
14. 51
I 544
1480
1540
1320
1380
1056
superb 5ater.
_ recess ;;ms nas two periods: first the blow, during
which air is blown through the bed coal in the gener$or. and the Par-
tially burned gaseous products are completely burned,m the superhe?ter.
@ying up a great portion of their beat to the fire-bnck wqrk~contmned
in tt, and then pass out to a chimney; second..the run dunng :vluch the
air blast is stopped the opening to the clumney closed. .and steam 1s
blown through the incandescent bed of fuel. The resulting water-gas
passing into the carburetting chamber in the base of the superheater 1s
there charged with hydrocarbon vapors. or spray (such as naphtha and
other distillates or crude oil), and passes through the superheaTer. where
the hydrocarbon vapors become converted into fixed illU@natlng gases.
From the superheater the combined gases are passed, as in the c;;li~,?~
process, through washers, scrubbers, etc., to the gas-holder.
case however there is no ammonia to be removed.
The specifii gravity of water-gas increases with the increase of the
heavy hydrocarbons which glse illuminating power. The follo?mg
figures. taken from different authorities, are oven by F. H. SWqn 1n.a
paper on Water-gas,
read before the Ohio Gas Light AsSoClatlon. In
The products of the dist.iIlation of 100 Ibs. of average gas-coal are about
as follows.
They
ture of distillation.
vary according to the quality of coal and the tempera-
Cor;e. 64 to 65 Ibs.; tar. 6.5 to 7.5 Ibs.; ammonia liquor 10 to 12 lbs.;
punhed gas, 15.to 12 lbs.; impurities and loss, 4.5% to 3.57.
The CornPosItIon of the gas by volume ranges about as follows: Hi-dro-
pen. 3S% to 48%: carbonic oxide, 2% to 14%; marsh-gas (Methane
CHdi. 43% to 31%; heavy hydrocarbons (CnH?n ethylene, propylene:
bemole vapor. etc.). 7.5% to 4.5%; nitrogen, i% to 37.
1~the, burt$ng of the gas the mtrogen is inert- the hi?drogen and car-
bonlc oslde @ve heat but no light.
The lumino&y of the flame is due to
the decomposition by heat of the heavy hvdrocarbons into lighter hydro-
car$n:s.and carbon. the latt,er being sebarated in a state of extreme
~Ubdrvislon.
BY the heat of the flame this separated carbon is heated to
intense whiteness. and the illuminating effect of the flame is due to the
light of incandescence of the particles of carbon.
The attainment of the highest degree of luminosity of the flame de-
pends UPon the Proper adjustment of the proportion of the heavy hydra-
1894:
Candle-power.. . 25.4 26.3 25.3 29.6 .30 to 31.9
19.5 20. 22.5 24.
Sp. gr. (&=I). . 571 .63Q . 589 . 60 to .67 .64 ,602 .70 .65 .65 co .71
e materid
., ,..~,~~.~~.,~ ..- ~-.-~ -- ._ ., ._.
titiy n&longer be accurate
L--
.ILLUMINATING-GAS.
831
ash and unconsumed coal removed 9.9 lbs., leaving total combustible
consumed 23. 5 lbs., which is taken to have a fuel-value of 14,500 B.T.U.
ner nound. or a total of 340. 750 heat-units.
Analyses of Water-gas and Coal-gas Compared.
on the Granger Water-gas, 1885:
The following analyses are taken from a report of Dr. Gideon E. kfoore
-
-.
Composition by Vol.
Weight Com-
I O! "
posi- Specific
t$h;.y Heat.
Composition by Weight.
Water-gas.
I Coal-
water-gas.
Cd-
H%.!
berg.
2~15
3. 01
i : ; z
1. 21
1. 33
a. 88
' d2
I o0. M)
D. 4580
. . . . . .
%i
5202. 9
. . . i . . .
Lake.
. 465842 . 09647 ! . 02088
I. 139968 23607 . 08720
2. 1868 . 45285 . I 1226
. 75854 . I 5710 . 09314
. I 991464 . 04i 24 . I 4041
. 078596 . 01627 . 00397
4. 0288924 I . 00000 . 45786
. 429065 : % . 02205
3: : Ei
. I 9958
. O688
. I 02175 . 0242 : %
4. 210601 1. 0O00 . 46l 78
2. 133066 . 2464 . 05342
. 2856096 . 0329
6. 2405224 . 7207 : YE
8. 6591980 l . OOM . 23645
1. 189123 . I 436 . 031075
1. 390130 . I 680 . 041647
5. 698210 . 6884 . I 67970
8. 277513 l.QOO0 . 240692
CO? +HzS. 3. 8
CsH*..... 14.6
co . . . . . . . . . 28.0
1. Carburetted Water-gas.. gy;: 1: 1: ; :
$1;
N . . . I . 0
wor-
tester,
2. 64 3. 85
0. 14 0. 30
0. 06
' Z
0. 01
' 0": :
1. 53
E: E
2. 63
i i %
37. 20 35. 88
100. 00 100. 00
,-
,
--
.I
t
,
I
.-
.-
.
.
-
-_
--
/
_-
7
.-
-
Vi trogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
+boni caci d . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0. 04402 0. 06175 0. 00365 0. 00753 0. 04559
0. 00114 O. OOOi B 0. 09992
0. 18759 0. 20454 0. 01569
0. 05389
. . . . . . . 0. 07077 . . . . . . . . 6. 11700 0. 03834
0. 46934 0. 07825
0. 17928
0. 37664
o. O4421
0. 19133 0. 187: l j
0. 04103 0. 41087
0. 06987
I.
i -
, 100. 0 ....
,en ...................
xnyrene ..................
nai l ~yl ene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J l evspor . . . . . . . . . . .
CarkxCe oxi de
Marsh-gas
. . . . . . . . . . . I
Hydrogen
.................
.................
II. Uncsrburettedgas~.....
. .
III. Blast products eseap-
ingfromsuperheater.
-.--
PO2..::... 9. 7
IV. Generator blast-gases.. B.1::. .:I:: is:!
I . wooo11. 0&0*.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
650. 1
597. 0
5311. 2
- -
22. 06
Density: Theory..
Practice
.........
................
B.T.U.from I tuft.:
Wa;Fer liquid.. ...........
vapor .............
688. 7
645. 6
,...... I........ I...... :.
....... ........ ........
.............. ........
...... ........ ........
......................
......................
......................
Flame-temperature, OF . . .
zerage candle-power. _ .
5281. 1
xi i -
. The heating-values (B.T.U.) of the gases are calculated from the analy-
srs OY weight. by using the multipliers given below (computed from
results of J. Thornsen). and multiplying the result by the weight of 1 cu.
ft.-of the gas ~a26Y F.. and atmospheric pressure
of complete combustion of the gases in air, without excess of air
me ffame-temperatures (theoretical) are calculated on the assumption
The candle-power was determlned by photometric tests using a pres-
sure of i/ r-m. water-column, a candle consumption of 120 grains of sper-
macetr Per hour. and a meter rate of 5 cu. ft. per hour the result being
corrected for a temperature at 62' F. and a barometric pressureof 30 in
It appears that the candle-power may be regulated at the pleasure of the
Person In charge of the.apparatus, the range of candle-power
20 to 29 candles, accoxhng to the manipulation employed.
bei ng f rom
The hea.+.-enerev absorbed bv the apparatus is 23.5 X 14,500 = 340.750
1is as follows: heatl-;$ti-h-A:*Its dispositiol
B the energy of the CO prod
ry the enerev absorbed in th<
uced ;
? decomposition of the steam:
i.%G &%&ce h&?tweeo the sensible heat of the escaping illuminating- ii i..-. ___^___ ____ ___~. ..~~ ~~~~
gas& and that of the entering oil;
E. the heat carried off by the esca
. ni ne hl sst nroducts;
----- r-
%+ the heat lost by radiation from ~l?e~hells;
G the heat carried away from the shells by convection.(air-currents);
g, the heat rendered latent in the gasificati
sn of the ou;
1, tt- ^^..:L,^I.,.+i tb,,, 0-h *cl ,,PO!
the tre
LC ~txOILci ,,.s** 1&I YYU YU.. ..- -._-1-
sumed coal recovered from
nerator.
The neat equattol ~mnis A=B+C+D+E+F+G+H+I : A
omparlson of the CO in Tables I and II show that $$ *
Calorifle Equivalents of Constituents of Illuminating-gas.
He$k$ts frm&.. lb.
Ethylene. . . .2?$$4 2%l$?tr8
PrOpyiene . .21:252:0 198342
Benzole vapor J8.954.0 17:847:0
Eqciepcy of a Water-gas Plant
. -The practical efficient of. an
illunuoatlng water-gas setting is discussed in a paper by A G. ($1
ow
(proc. Am. &~sfiu~t Assn.. 1890) from which the following is abrld?;
80
The results refer to 1000 cu. ft.of unpuritied carburetted gas reducedlo
F. The total anthracite charged per 1000 cu. ft. of gas W& 33.4 Ihs.. .i;
water at 75O
. ^
~~.- __
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of .
The heat rendered latent by the gasification of the oil was found by
taking the difference between all the heat fed into the carburetter and
su
u np
erheater and the total heat dissipated therefrom to he 19 841 heat
t% =>H.
X 1~00 X .25 (sp. ht.) = 3712 heat-units = 2
The sensible heat in the ash and unconsumed cozis 9.9 Ibs,
The-sum of -alI the items B + c7 + D + E + F + 0 + H + I -
327.295 heat-UNts, which subtracted from the heat-energy of the co;
bustible consumed. 340.750 heat-units, ieaves 13,455 heat-units, or 4 pe;
cent unaccounted for.
Of the total heat-energy of the coal consumed or 340 750 heat-units
th:energy wasted is the sum of items D, E, F & and i amounting $
13,,878 heat-units, or 39 per cent: the remaindkr. or 207 i372 heat-units
or 61.per cer.t. being utilized
machine is therefore 61 per c&t.
The efficiency of the app&atus as a heat
Five gallons. or 35 Ibs. of crude petroleum, were fed into the carburetter
per 1000 cu. ft. of gas made: deducting 5 iJs. of tar recovered lea,ves
JO Ibs. X 20,000 = 600.000 heat-units as the net heating-valueof the
prp!eu used.
Adding this to the heating-value of the coal 340 750
in the carbu+tt$ gas. as in the table below 764 050 heat-units or 81
T ti., gives 940.750 heat-urn& of which there is found as he&en&gy
Per. cent. wmch IS the commercial efficiency of tde apparatus i.k. the
of the coal and oil consumed,
ratlo of the energy contamed m the finished product to the t&t&l energy
The heating-power per M. cu. ft. of
the carburetted gas is
The heating-power per M. of the
uncarburetted gas is
~:fIbl~~~~~.11722;0x21222.0-=363200 ~~4;:h5:~~.07811-~Ox 4395 6=148991
C$ 1r0.0X.044620x24021.0=182210 N
co 2_8O.OX.078100X 4395.6= 5120 Ii 5;~~.005594X61~4:0- 178277
N .
3S$.~X.OO5594~61524.0-122620
.
1000.0
- . 327268
1000.0
-GGG
The candle-
used.
ower of the gas is 31, or 6.2 candle-power per gallon of oil
The :a culated specific gravity is .6355. air being I P
For descnptlon of the operation of a modern carbureited water-gas
aper by J. Stelfox, Engg, July 20, 1894. 0. 89
for a mater-gas Plant. -Mr. Sh&on taking 15
form requiring the most floor-s ace
iigures the
follows:
average floor-space required per 1000 cubic feet of aily capacity as
c?
Water-gas Plants of Capacity
in 24 hours of
Require an Area of Floor-space for each
100,000 cubic feet. . . _ .
1000 CU. ft. of about
2oo,ooo
g;,;g;
:: ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 squa:e fee!;
1
;: . _ : . . . . . . . . . . * . * * . . . . . - ;.j5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .
7tdlOmillioncudicfket:::::::::::::::::: l.2.5td15qq:ft
2to 25 sq. ;;.
of CaHs.
* The heating-value of the illuminants C,H,, is assumed lo Lquaith&
- . - __ _ - - . , ~- - ~, _
Wjj;NNNG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of tl
he
ILLUMINATING-GAS.
These figures include scrubbing and condensing rooms, but not boiler
and engine rooms. In coal-gas plants of the most modern and compact
forms one with 16 benches of 9 retorts each. with a capacity of 1.500.000
cubic feet per 24 hours, will require 4.8 sq. ft,. of space per 1000 cu. .ft.
of gas. and oue of 6 benches of 6retorts each, with 300,000 cu. ft. capacity
per 24 hours, will require 6 sq. ft. of space p$r 1000 CU. ft.
The storage-
room required for the gas-making materials 18: for coal-gas. 1 cubic foot
of room for every 232 cubic feet of gas made; for water-gas made from
coke I cubic foot of room for every 373 cu. ft. cf gas made: and for
watek-gas matle from anthracite, 1 cu. ft. of room for every 64.5cu. ft. of
gas m&e.
The rnmparison is still more in favor of water-gas if the case is con-
3. tvnt,=r-~n.a nla.nt added as an nuxihary to an existing coal-
requiring furfher space for storage of coke, part
~~~ir;?,;ii;~~,~r~~ for storage of coke prodaced an9 not at once
solo can be cut off, by reason of the water-gas lant CreatlW a COnStant
demand for more or less of the coke so produce
CP .
ivlr. Shelton gives a calcuhtion showitlp tha.t a water-e&s of 0.625 SD. gr.
w&L&i ~;<i(;i& gas-mains eight per cent i;ki?Gi ii Iliamet&r ,than the Hame
quantity coal-gas of 0.425 sp. gr. if the same pressure IS mamtamed at the
holder. The same quantity ma
be
eter if the pressure is increesecl.
carried in pipes of the ,samc dl+m-
m proportion to the specific gravity.
With the same pressure the increase of candle-power abot$ balances the
decrease of flow. With five feet of~coal-gas, giving, say, eighteen candle-
~rn~r: wit,h water-eas of 23 candle-
WWPT. I cubic foot eouals 3.6 candle-p
_ ._._._ _...~~ ~
gas r&~de-~~&l,i~~ oven-coke or gas-house cpke as wel! as from &n-
t~hrzwitp ma.1 A water-gas plant may be convemently run m~ronnectlon
II r_____, the surplus retort coke of the latter bemg used as
.eformer.
In coal-gas making it is impracticable to enrich the gas to over twenty
candle-power without causing too great a tendency to smoke, bvt water-
gas of as high as thirty cand!e-power is qmte common.
A mlsture of
coal-aas and water-gas of a higher C.P. than 20 can be adva:ltageously
distributed.
Fuel-value of Illuminating-gas. -E. G. Love (SchocI of Afines
011~ Januarv. 1892) describes F. W. Hartleys eal+@$r,fo: d:te:m:?:
per of eases. and eives result
<-g$g;;i&=.c po\i _~
,s obtamea I* tesm 01~1l.e
ctibureted wa ,ter-gas ms?Ie by the municipal branch of tt!e Consph-
dated Co. of New York. The tests were made from time to time dunng
t.he na,~t two ears. and the fizures F$ve the heat-units per cubic foot at
gflx ~_an~.ROrlnciles~pressure:715, 692, 725, 732. 691. 738, 735,. i03. 734,
730. 731, 727. Average, 721 3eat-units.
Similar tests of nustures.of
real- and water-gases made by other branches of the same Company ?Jlve
694. 715, 684, 692.~~27, 665. 69fj, and 686 heat-umts per foot. or .an . . .,
average of 694.7. The average 01 au r.nT?e ~! tests was 710.5 heat-umts.
and this we mav fairly take as
illuminating gasof Neiv York.
representing the calorific power of the
One thousand feet of this gas, costmg
$I.5 would therefore yield 710.500 heat-units. which would be equlv+
lenttb 568.400 heat-unit3 fr- m) c)n ,1 6Ppl.U.
The common coal-ga- r\ f Va . London, wit.h an illuminat,ing
17 candles, ha- ^-^I-*
TaOi lll$
a in ca,uiifi~ power of about 66s units per oot.
from 60 to 70 cents per thousand.
The product obtained by decomposing steam by incandescent carbon.
as effected in the Motay process, consists of about 40% of CO, and a
little over 50% of H.
This mixture would have a heating-power of about 300 units Per cupic
foot and if sold at 50 cents per 1000 cubic feet would furnish SOP.009umts
for $1 00 as compared with 568,400 units for $1.00 from illumlnatlng gas
at $1 i5 per 1000 cubic feet.
This illuminating-gas if sold at 51.13 Per
thou&d would therefore be a more economical heating agent than the
fuel-gas mentioned, at 50 cents per thousand, and be much more advan-
tageous than the latter in that one main,.service. and meter could be used
to furnish gas for botli lighting and heatmg.
A large number of fuel-gases tested by Mr. Love gave from 184 to 470
heat-units er foot, with an average of 309 units.
Taking t B e cost bf heat from illuminating-gas at the lowest SgUregiven
FLOW OF GAS IN PIPES. 835
BIaximum Supply of Gas through Pipes in cu. ft. per Hour,
Specific Gravity being taken at 0.45, calculated from the
Formula Q =1000 d/db + RZ. (Molesworth.)
equal to ccal at $40 p$r ton of 2000 lbs.. the coal having a ca onfic powei
by Xi. tive. viz.. 81.00 for 600,000 heat-units, it is a very expensive fuel
of only 12,000 heat-umts per pound, or about 33% of that of pure carbon:
600,000: (12.000 x 2000) :: $1 : $40.
FLOW OF GAS IN PIPES.
The rate of flow ?f gases of different densities, the diameter of pipes
reclulrcld, etc., are gven m Kings Treatise on Coal Gas, vol. ii, 374, as
:oiIo::-5:
If d = diame!er of pip? in inches,
Q = q;;;;ty of gas 1n cu. ft. pe*
Z = lengtti of pipe in yards
Ic = pressure in inches of witer,
s = specific gravity of gas, air
being 1.
Molesworth gives Q = 1000
42.
J . P. Gill, Am. Gas-light J our., 1894, gives Q = 1291
. i fish.
LENGTH OF PIPE = 10 YARDS.
Diameter of
Pipe in
Inches.
?ressure by the Water-gzzugein Inches.
2
73
149
260
411
843
-
0. 8
-
: :
2;
781
1232
2530
I
- -
0. 6 0. 7
- - - - - __
36
2: ;
422
737
1162
2385
I -
4;
2
823
1299
2667
-
l o: i ?2 26 29 34
I0 tz 1:; I:;
i :
I87 1::
211 258
: z 821
333 365
E 451 711 582 918 1006 638 1082 i i :
1192 1440 I 666 1886 2066 2231 v -.-
s(Z + d)
This formula is said to be based on experimentai data, and to make
allo:vance for obstructions by tar. water,and other bbdies tending to check
the Hnw of gas irouch the nine.
LENGTH OF PIPE = 100 YARDS. Kings formula trzinslateri into the form of the common formula for the
floty of compressed air or steam in pipes, Q = e d(p, - p9) t@/ w~, in
wlu:h Q = cu. ft. per min., p, - pz = difference in pressure in lbs. per
sq. m: w = density in lbs. per cu. ft., L = length in ft. d = diam. in ins.
!ZI~F~S -6.6 for the value of the coefficient c. which is near?y the same as thai
commonly used (60) In calculations of the flow of air in pipes.
For values
of E based on Darcys experiments on flow of water in pipes see Flow of
Steam.
Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches.
2. 5
42
I I 5
2
649
1333
2329
z
7542
-
0. 75 / 1. 0 1 1. 25 j 1. 5 / 2 3. ; ) 0. 2/ 0. 3/ 0. 4 / 0. 5
.%n experimenf madeby Mr. Clegg, in London, with a 4-in. pipe 6 miles
!one, pressure 3 In. Of war, specific gravity of gas 0.398, gave a discharge
into r!le atmosphere of 652 cu. ft. per hour, after a correct~ion of 33 cu. ft.
was mac!efor leakage.
SubsUtuting this value, 852 cu. ft., for Q in the formula Q -C
4Fii-Tz
wefind 5. the coefficlent~, = 997. which corresponds nearly with the formula,
given by Molesworth.
Km. Cos (Am. iMach., Mar. 20, 1902) gives the following formula for
flow of zas in lone nin0n
8 12' I 4
z ' 6: i i ;
i i
94 I 05
82 I I 6 I 43 165
130 184 225 260 i f i !
267 377 462 533 596
466 659 807 932 1042
735 1039 1270 1470 1643
1080 1528 1871 2161 2416
1508' 2133 2613 3017 3373
Q = 3ooo \ /j x (P:?- ~2)
=41. 3 J :
d5X( PZ- - W
.
-Q.= d&barge in Cu. ft. pkr hour at atmosoheric%ressnre!: rl = dia.m
01 pipe in ins.: p, = initial land pi = terminal*absoi&e aressure. lbi:
sq. in.: 1= length of pipe in feet, L = length in miles.
For p,z -
mas-. be substituted (P, + p2) (p, - p,). Tine specific gravity of
gas 1s assumed to be 0.65, air bemg 1. For fluids of any other sp.
--
5. muit ~1s the coefficients 3000 or 41.3 by 40.6.5/ s.
For air s = 1
coefficients become 3419and 33.3. J. E. Johnson .Jr.s for&la f or'
naee 5% . translated into the same notation as Mr. Coss, makes the c
~.A _,. _
.-.__.
Per
- P2
the
gr.,
qle
LENGTH OF PIPE = 1000 ?ARDS.
Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches.
0. 5 0. 75 1. 0 1. 5 2. 5 / ) ) 1 23 1
Services for Lao
-
Lamps.
Fht.;;Zl Require
Pipe-bore
2.
4~........... 2
3:s i n.
112 i n.
s/ si n.
3t4 in.
-
s. (Moiesworth.)
-
1
Require
Pipe-bore.
I i n.
I 114 i n.
1112 i n.
13/ 4i n.
15 . . . . . . . . . . . 130
20. .......... I 50
25 . . . . . . . . . . .
30 . . . . . . . . . . . z.
i
e material may no
(In cold climates no service less than 3/ 4in. should be used.)
_. --
WARNING: This is a th l onger be accurate
Diameter of
Pipe in
Inches.
LENQTH OF PIPE = 5000 YARDS.
Pressure by the Water-na
1.0 1.5
-
--
-
w
T
2.0
--
169
465
955
1667
2429
:::
7245
9428
14872
119
329
675
1179
1859
:i;:
5123
E
, 146
402
826
1443
2277
3347
4674
6274
8365
12830
_:-
:e in Inches.
--
2.5
_- -_
IS!,
520
1067
1863
2939
4321
i%
10541
16628
3.0 -
207
569
1168
2041
:E
6610
8873
J1r. .i. I;. Humphreys says his expenence goes to show that these tables
give too small a Ilow. but It is difficult to accuratelv check the tables, on
account of the extra friction introduced by rough cipipes. bends etc
be+. onerule IS to allow l/ 42of an inch pressure for each rights-anglebezs:
it here there is apt to, be troubl e f rom frost it is well to use no service
Gf less diameter than X/ J ln.. no matter how short it may be.
In extremely
col d CbmateS t, hl S ! S now Gften increased tG 1 in.. even fGr a single lamp
The best practice m the U. S. now condemns any service less than 314in.
STEAM.
fiche Tempe?t$re, .oi ,+am in contact with water depends upon
- .nerated. At the Grdi l mry atmospheric
pr+%ure ill.7 ibs. per sq. in.) its temperature is 212 F.
As the pressure
1s Increased. as by the steam being generated in a closed vessel, its tern--
perature. and that of the water in its presence. increases.
Saturated Steam Is Steam of the temperature due to its pressur? -
not superbeat~ed.
Superheated Steam iS steam heated to a temperature above that due
to its nressure.
Dry Steam is steam which contains no moisture. It may be either
saturated or superheated.
Ret Steam is steam containing intermingled moisture
spray.
Dre.v.lirP~
It has the same temperature as dry saturated steam df t%$,a~~
Watir i!ltroduced into the presence of superheated steam will flash into
vapor un ltll the temperalure of the steam is reduced to that due its pres-,
__.
sure. Water m the
a,s the steam. f
resence of saturated steam has the same temperature
Shou d co@ water be introduced, lowering the temperature
of the whole mass. some of the stqam wil:~be condensed, reducing the pre..+
sure and temperature of the remainder. until equilibrium is established.
TotllI Heat. of Saturated Steam (above 32O F.). - According to
Marks and Da%?s. the formula for tot.al heat of steam, based on researches
by Henning, >Inoblauch. Linde and Klebe, is H= 1150.3 + 0.3745 (tf
21Y)- 0.0003oO (t - 212). in which W is the tot,al heat in B.T.U. above
water at 32O F. and t is the temperature Fahrenheit.
Latent Heat of Steam. - The latent heat, or heat of vaporization is
obtamed by subtractmg from the total heat at any given temperature the
heat of the hqmd. Or total heat above 32 in ware; of the same temper-
ature.
The total heat in steam (above 32) includes three elements:
1st. The heat required to raise the temperature of the water to the tem-
perature of the steam.
2d. The heat required to evaporate the water at that temperature,
called internal latent heat.
3d. .The latent heat of volume. or the esternal work done by the steam
in mal;mg room for itself against the pressure of the superincumbent at-
mosDhere (or surrounding steam if inclosed ,in a vessel).
The sum of the last two elements is called the latent heat of steam:.
Heat required to Generate h lb. of Steam f rom water at 32 F.
Heat-units.
Sensible heat, to raise the water from 32O to 212O = . . . 180.0
Latent heat, 1, of the formation of steam at 212O=. . . .897.6
2, of expansionagainst the atmospheric
pressure, 2116.4 lbs. per sq. ft. X
26.79 cu. ft. =55,756 foot-pounds i
775 =...,..,,.,...................... 72.8
---
970.4
accented.
.C. -.xy-.>
_n- sec.2. fixed bv inter-
X,ll.z Il.C~
valueof g for the latil
Deg. F.
1Lbyyt. 1 ~~~~F.
Deg. F. 1Lba.gyq.
32 1 0.08&5 150 : 3.715 300 66.972
;ti 350 4oa 248.856 134.508
)lumeof satu-
rated steam are compuled by Clapyrons equation (IVM.~~Y and Daviss
Tables) which gives results remarkabl close to those found In the ex-
periments of Knoblauch, Linde and Iile -5. g
luation (1905).
E!! - 0.0833),.
I I I
Volume. of Saturated Steamy. - The val ues of.speciIic volumeof Sa. tU-
rated steam are compuled by Clapyrons equation (Marks and DlbVISS
Tables) which gives results remarkabl
periments of Knoblauch, Linde and Kleg
close to those found In the ex-
e.
Volume of Superheated Steam. - Lindes equation (1905).
in which p is in Ibs. per sq. ft., i, is in c,. ft.&d !I = f + 459.6 is, the
ahsolute temperature on the Fahrenheit scale, has been used in the com-
putation of Marks and D&viss tables.
STEAM.
su
The Speci@ Density of Gaseous Steam, that is, steam considerably
cu t.
erheated. IS 0.621, that o! a1r being 1.
That is to say. the weight of a
IC foot of gaseous steam IS about five-eighths of that of a cubic foot of
atr. of the same pressure and temperature.
The density or tveight of a cubic foot of gaseous steam is expressible by
the same form+ as that of air, except that the multiplier or coefficient is
less m proportion to the less specific density.
Thus,
D= 3.707471X.622= 1.6S+% p
Properties of Saturated Steam.
(Condensed from Marks and Daviss Steam Tables and Diagmms, 1909.
by permission of the publishers. Longmans. Green & Co.1
Total Heat
xbove32O F
tf 461
t + 461 .
in KhiCb D is the \ r-eight of 3cubic foot, p the total~pressure per squareinch
and t the temperature Fahrenheit. (Clarks Steam-engine )
R: $1. Prevost 1furphy (Enq. News, June 18. 1908) shows that the
speci f i c density IS not a constant. but varies with the temperature, and
that the correct value is 0.6113 + o:09z .
Properties of Superheated SE?< L See the table on page 843, con-
densed from Marks and Daviss tables.
Specific Heat of Superheated Steam.-Mean specific
temperature of saturation to various temperatures
: from the
at s
Englishand mebnc units.-Iinoblauchand Jakob (fromPe:
pressures
I
s Tables).
I
I
KL. per sq.
om.. .
Lbs. per sq,
I. .
Temp. sat..
OC.. __
1246 8
14228. 4 56.9 65.3 113
99 , 120 143 158 l b9
210 : 248 289 i 316 336
---j----
-i- -
I O 12 14
142. 2 170. 6 199.
179 187 194
350 368 381
- - -
, . . . . .
3he: at:
eve1:a1
LboC ly?
- -
l b 18 20
56.0 264.4
06 2l I
03 412
- -
1, 227. 1 32
200 2
392 4
- - -
. . . . .
.
. . . .
1%
. 537
.OOOO 2.1832
. Oi 62 2. 1394
,036, 2.0865
.Oj55 2.0356
.0745 I .9868
.0932 1. 9398
. , I 14 1. 8944
. I 295 1. 8505
. I 327 1. 0427
. I 749 1. 7431
. 2008 1. 6840
. 2198 1. 6416
, 238 I . 6084
. 2471 1. 5814
. 2579 1. 5582
I . 2673 1. 5380
8.2756 1. 5202
1. 2832 1. 5042
1. 2902 1. 4895
1. 2967 I .4760
!.3025 I .4639
I . 3081 1. 4523
3 0. 00030~
i
; : gg
I
m&0$
6.8 0.00157l
9.3 0. 00213
0.8 0.00285
3.0 0.00300
3.5 0.00576
8.5 0.00845
0.5
3.33 / 0. 01107 0. 01364
81. 89 0. 01616
,3.56 0. 01867
17.27 0. 02115
12.36 0. 02361
is.38 0.02606
15. 10 0. 02849
12.36 0.03090
10.03 0.03330
!8.02 0.03569 1 a
: 0
1 :
i (
! (
i (
i i
I
5 I
,
29. 99
: "8: 2
22: E
23. 81
21. 78
19. 74
1: : : ;
13. 63
l l . bO
; : : i
: : 2
I . 41
I bs.
"E
1: 3
; : :
: : :
6.3
i::
9.3
L 10.3
2::
5:
15. 3
1%
1: : :
$3
2: :
2: ;
26. 3
. . .
. . .
i .:$ji.j-:iji.t
.
. 552 ' . 570
. . .
I
. 530 1 541
.b35 .bb4
! , 522 1 : 529
, 572 , 585
! . 520 / .526 , 531
. 550 , 557
, 542 . 547
392
k%
: :
662
752
I
! I
i :
i
IJ . .~._.
structe
1
The Rationalization of Regnaults Experiments. on Steam -
\ fcFarbme Gray. Proc. Inst. -11. E.,, July. lSS9.) - The form&e ion
,d .by Regnault are strictly empn%cal, and \ verebased entirely on
Wnnents. Thes are Iherzfore not valid beyond the range of tem-
his es2:
peratures and pressures observe,,
3lr. Gray has made
ments but on f mwI ?~mpntni
a most elqborate calculation. based not on ex
-..--...-..I -1 principles of thermodynamics, from
eri-
whit F: he
deduces formuke for the pressure and total heat of steam and presents
tables calculated therefrom
xvhich shorn substantial agreement with
Regnaults figures. He gives the follo\ vine es:
talcuiated for ter:
: 12
113. 0
! 16. 3
! l 9. 4
! 22. 4
! 25. 2
! 28. 0
BO.6
B3. 1
z35. 5
L37. 8
140. 1
242. 2
244. 4 212.
246. 4 214.
248. 4 216.
255; ; . 218. 220.
%I i i : :
257.6 2%.
259. 3 227.
$a. :
264: 2
%
232.
265.8 234.
18O. C
18l . C
184. d
187. f
E: '
196. ;
198. 1
: : : : i
; i t:
?! I (
l . 3118 1. 4447
1. 3133 I . 4416
I . 3183 I . 4311
I . 3229 1. 4215
I . 3273 1. 4127
I . 3315 1. 4045
I . 3355 I .3965
I.3393 I .3687
3.3430 I . 3811
3. 3465 l e. 3739
0. 3499 1. 3670
D. 3532 I . 3604
0. 3564 1. 3542
0. 3594 1. 3483
0.3623 1. 3425
0.3652 I . 3367
0. 3680 1. 3311
0. 3707 1. 3257
0. 3733 1. 3205
0. 3759 1. 3155
0. 3784 1. 3107
0. 3808 I..3060
0. 3832 1. 3014
0. 3855 1. 29b9
0. 3877 1. 2925
0. 3899 1. 2082
0. 3920 1. 2841
0. 3941 1. 2800
lb.79 0.03732
l b. 27 0. 03800
14. 79 0. 04042
23. 38 0. 0427i
22. 16 0. 0451:
21. 07 0. 0474(
20. 08 0. 0498(
19. 18 0. 0521:
18. 37 0. 05441
17. 62 0.0567(
l b. 93 0. 0590:
16. 30 0. 0614
15. 72 0. 0636
15. 18 0.0659
14.67 0.0682
14.19 0.0705
13. 74 0. 0728
13. 32 0. 0751
12. 93 0. 0773
12. 57 0. 0795
12. 22 0. 0818
11. 89 0. 0841
11. 58 0. 0863
11. 29 0. 0886
11. 01 0. 090@
10. 74 0. 0931
10. 49 0. 0953
I O. ?5 0. 0976
I --.lmples of steam-pressures
nperatures bevond the range of R.egnaults experiments.
Temperature. 1
Temperature.
Fabr.
Pounds per
sq. in.
I
Pounds in
Fahr.
sq. in.
Eo 2
250
260 2%
280 536
300
320
572
- 608
These pressures are ;
whxh gives for 41.y c,
406. 9
E: : :
691 .b
940. 0
1261. 8
1661. 9
:her than t:
nly 4067. 1 I
340
360 2156. 2
3eo
400
415
2; : E
43oo: z
427 800. 6 5017. 1
5659.9
I
se obtained by Regnau,Its formula,
i. per square inch,
,-WARNING: This is a 1910 edition; Some of .
th
~,
STEAM.
Properties of Saturated Steam. (Conffnued.)
Prooerties of Saturated Steam. (Continued.)
-
1.
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Total Hetrt
above 32? F.
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2050
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1946
1921
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1872
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-,-- -,., ~_i ..,-.-..,. -
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of I
I%
195. :
2i tO. !
205. 3
210. 3
z: :
225. 3
230. 3
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60
80
- . -
Available Energy in Expanding Steam. - Rankine Cycle. (J. B
S~anwood. Pofcer. June 9. 1908.) -A simple formula for finding, with the
ard of the steam and entropy tables. the available energy per pound of
steam In B.T.U. when It IS expanded adiabatically from a higher to a
lower pressure is:
U = H - HI + T(Nr - N).
/
U = available B.T.U. in 1lb. of expanding steam; H and HI total heat
in 1 lb. steam at the two pressures: T = absolute temperature at the
lower pressure; N -
pressures.
NI, drfference of entropy of 1l b. of steam at the two
E=UPLE. -Required the availabte B.T.U. in 1 lb. steam expanded
from 100 Ibs. to 14.7 Ibs. absolute. H = 1180.3; HI = 1150. 4; T = 672;
N = 1. 602: NI = 1. 756. 35. 9 + 103. 5 = 138. 4.
&E&+J of fhe CUCk - Let the Steam be made from feed-water at
212. Heat required = 1186.3 - 180 = 1006.3; efficiency - 138.4 +
1006.3 = 0.1375.
Ranbine C;ele. -This efficiency is that of the Rankine cycle, which
assumes that the steam 1s expanded adiabatically to the lowest pressdre
and temperature, and that the feed-water from which the steam is made
IS Introduced into the system at the same low temperature
Cernot Cycle. -The Carnot ideal cycle, which assumes that all the
heat enenng the system enters at the highest temperature and in which
the efficiency is (TI - Ts) +- T!. k?I ves (327.8 - 212) i ( 337. 8 + 460) =
0.1470and theavarlable energyrnB.T.U.=0.1470~1006.3=~47.g B.T.U.
I O0
120
I 40
I 60
180
too
220
240
260
280
300
350
400
450
500
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. ! %me of the mater
-T
Properties of Superheated Steam.
(Condensed from Marks and Daviss Steam Tables and Diagrams.)
V
r specific volume in cu. ft. per lb., h = total heat, from water at
32O F. in B.T.U. per lb., n = entropy, from water at 32O.
, ' I
. -
12
2
2
3
11
3
3
I
Ii
Degrees of Superheat.
i
2
,z o 20 50 150 ) 2M) 1 250 / 300 1 400 1 500
FLOW OF STEAM.
Flow of Steam through a Nozzle. (From Clark on the Steam-
engne.) - The flow of steam of E greater pressure into an atmosphere of a
less pre.ssureIncreases as the difference of pressure is increased until the
esteml Pressure beco?es only 58% of Ihe absohd,e
The flow of steam Is n&her increased nor diminishe
R
ressure in ihe boiler.
ternal p.--sure below 5%
by the fall ofthe ex-
the rstent of a perfect vacuum.
c / a, or about 4:7 of the inside pressure. even to
In fiowin,u through a nozzle of the best
form. the stemn expands 40the external pressure, and to the volume oue to
this Pr%ure. so long as It is not less than 58y0 of t.heinternal pressure.
For an. external pressure of 58%. and for lower percentages, the ratio of
espwao; 1s 1 to-1.624,
vhen *team or vary!ng initial pressures is discharged into the atmos-
ph+re- the atmosphenc pressure being not more than 58c/ , of the initial
Pressure-the veloaty of outflow at constant density, that is, supposing the
initia,l density.t.0 be maintained. is given bv the formula V = 7.5953 Y&
v = +ocity In feet per second, as for stejm of the initial deisity- -
h = toe h+t in feet Of acolumn of steam of the.given initial pressure
the Q?!x!$ of wluch IS equal to the pressure on the unit of base.

The lowest!mtlal Pressure to which the formula applies when the steam
is d+$rZed Into the atmosphere at 14.7 Ibs. per sq. in., is (14.7 X 100/ 58)
= zL.3~Ibs. per sq. iq.
tram the contents of the table below it appears that the velocity of out-
flow int.0t%eatmosphere -f m*
1<,a .atieam above 2.5ios. per sq. in, absolute pres-
s!!-; !nt-.ea_F@s :-ey,~r!.-.ir!ii zn,h +,,a w-^-I..-- ----
weKht to be moved. !ncrease with the pressure.
o:-..~J ....: YZ.b pL=~~~~c, ucciluse tne aensity, and the
sec. ma?. for nPprOxllnate calculations. be
An average of 900 ft. per
taken for ,the velocity of out-
.!?I:: 3; for coniIan.c density, that is. taking the volume of the steam at the
11ut1::1roiiirlle.
bincb. pare 1065.
&or a fuller discussion of this. subject see Steam Tur-
ouqow of Steam into the Atmosphere. -External pressure ner
square Inch. 141 Ibs. absolute.
Ratio of expansion in nozzle, l.624. -
.
I
_.
-
--
Ibis. H.P.
22.81 45.6
26.84 53.7
35.18 70.4
440-5 88.1
52.59 105.2
61.07 l&z.1
65.30 130.6
Ibs. feet
p.eee.
1: 895 898
iI 5 902
135
z !i
215 919
-I
feet
,per sec.
1454
z2
1472
l%
1493
ibs.
77.94
ii:::
115.61
132.21
140.46
181.5R
I I
R?e?u*s Formula. - A. Rateau. in 1895-6, ma& experiments with
conler,lnZ nozzles O.!l, 0.59 and 6.95 in. diam.. on steam of pressures from
1.4 to 170Ibs. per sq. m.
In his paper read at the Intl. Eng g Congress at
cable \ rhen the final prerjsure. absolute. is less than 587 of l heimtlal
Chow (Eng. Ret.. Oct. 16. 1901) he gives the following fo;muIa appli-
p = a@ute pressure. lbs. per sq. in.
Pounds per hour per sq. m. area of orifice = 3.6 P (16.3,- 0.96 log pj:
Naaplers Approximate &zIe. -Flow in
pounds
8olute Pressure X area in square inches + 70.
per s&ond = ab
This rule gives results
I .---
i -.. ----A
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
FLOtV ,OF STEAM.
845
w~ic,n closely correspond with those in the above table, and with results
computed by Rateaus formula, as shown below.
Abs. press., lbs.
per sq. in . . . . . . . . a37 40 60 75 199 135 165. 216
Dg$;&l:ff: 22.31 35.18 52.59 65.30 86.34 115.61 140.46 181.58
By Rstea;s for-
mula . 22.76 3.j.43 52.49 65.2.; 86.28 115.47 l-10.28 151.39
By Napiers rule 21.74 34.29 51.43 64.29 8.5.71 115.71 1.11.U IS&79
Flov, of steam in Pipes. - A formula ,formerly used for velocity pf
flow Of stesm in pipes is t,k same as ~o\ \ -nlngs for the ROW of water m
rmont,h rL<t-iron pipes, viz., V= 50
1/HD/L in wnich T= velocitvin feet
.. ~rl n = diameter of pipe in feet, H = height in
ho nr~~un~ro nf the steam at the entrance.
., . . . ., - - ._ . --
per second, L = lengtn anb -
feet of a column of steam, of t
?,,,,r~b;~~jjtoii;e;tifference of~pressures~at the
which would produce a Pr -.
two ends of the pipe. (Fo
Briggs on
Warming Buildings _P?i,.i
Tf 0 = cl,l~ ~ :-
r derivation of the coefficient 50. see 1

.nrity 111.,,~ef~?
Proc. hst. C. E., 1882.)
:et, the formula recf
er minute, d =diameter in inches, L and
uces to
,-
- D
Q~4.7233 $5. H=0.044SQ$, d=0.5374@-
These formula are applicable to air and other pas+ as :%{?I! as steam.
The,. are not ils accurate as later formula: (see below) rn wh@ the coeffi,;
cients \ -sry with the diameter of the InPe.
G. H. Babcock, m Steam,
gives t.heformula
W=87 ~/ zj
W=weight of steam flowing, in lbs. per minute, w=denslty in Ibs. per
cu ft. of the steam at the entrance to the pipe, p!=prcss,ure In Ibs. Per Sq.
in.at the entrance p2=pressure at theesit, d=dlam. !n Inches. L=len@h
in feet, This form;la is apparently derived from Unwlns fOrrllli~~ for flO\ X
of~fluids in Enc~. &it., vol. xii, pp. 508, 516.
Putting the formula m
t,he form W SC dw @,--PC) @/ L, in which c will vary with t~hediam-
_..- ~~
eter of the pip?. we have,
For diameter, Inches.. .
Valueof c. .._. . . . ..,..
46% 5;1 5:s 643 6:s
9
i3.7 7193
one of the most wlde1.v accepted formuhe for flow of waber is Da&s.
---- -- --zl,L
HD .
v=c \ /r4*
In which c has values ranging from 65 for a %-inch pipe
up to 111.5 for 24-inch.
Using Darcys coefficients. and modifying his
formula to make it apply to steam, to the form
Q = c ,/ (pl;;2)@, or w= c +,(pl;P+?
,
.-..._ -- ;
For diameter, Inches . .
Y
Value of c . . . . .61.2 6;ls ,6>:1. 82f3
In the absence of direct er eriments these coefficients are probably aa
accurate as any that may be c?
enved from formulaefor flow of water. ,~
Loss of pressure in Ips. per sq. in. = pl- Pz=
Q%.fJ L _ FL
--7-c&$ czdO
For a compariscin of different formulae for flow of steam see a Paper
by .G. F.Cebhardt, in Pourer. .June, 19,07.
_ _
FLOW OF STEAM 847
DROP IN PRESSURE IN POUNDS PER SQ. IN., PER 1000 FT. LEXGTH.
Table of Flow. Of Steam in Pipes Of DiRerent Diameters and
pjtrrrent Drngs m. Pressure.
(E. C. Sickles. Trans. A. S. M. E xx
AWL) - The rap is calculated from the formula pi - p2=0.00ij131
(l+ y) 2 Or lt= 87.54 (jy*;3pi),$. pi and p2, initial and final
pressures. lbs. per so., in..
d = &am. in/ ins.. W = flow in pounds per
mmute. a>,=deusity ot Sk&m in lbs. per cu. ft., L = length of pipe in feet
Tile table 1s calcuiaterl on the basis of L = 1006 ft.
th.: drop is proportional to the length + 1600.
For any otiler lengtl;
Corresponding to Discharge in above Table.
Density * O.$$
Pressuret
oi $O Oi ; ; 3 "$5 Oi ; 6 Oi 3; 8 Oi $l
-- -- --- -
7. 76
6.69
5. 70
; : i ;
3. 57
3. 21
22: ; :
: z
I : 61
1. 4;
l . 2(
0. 9<
I I . 1 I 9. 39
9. 6Oi 8. 09
8. W 6. 90
6. 831 5. 76
5. 69 4. 80
5. 13 4. 32
4. 60 3. 88
4. 10 3. 46
3. 64 3. 07
3. 19 2. 69
2. 78 2. 34
2. 40 2. 02
2. 04 1. 72
1. 72 1. 45
1. 42 1. 20
8. 50
7. 33
34:
; : E
3: 51
3. 13
2. 78
2. 44
5. : :
1. : :
1. m
Line. 1 18. 10
2 15. 60
: 13. 3
I l . 1
i , 9. 25 a. 33
; : : : Zi
9 5. 91
I f 5. 19
12 %
2;
2. 31
2500 Ib,s. per min. of stream-of 156 Ibs. abs&te pressure.
PAPC i car:~Y
in tile hrst tab&
we find figures ahove 2.500lbs. per min. as follows: 2667, 13~in. pipe line
2: 2736. l-L-in. pipe. line 4; 2527. 1.5in. pipe, line 8; 2638.16-in. pipe line
I O: Z6_"Y. lx-in. pipe. line 14.
In the table on the next page under 150
Ibs., wefind the corresponding drops per 1600 ft. as foilows: line 2
9.601bs.;
hue 4, 6.S3 lbs.; line& 4.10 lbs.; line 10. 3.19 lbs.; line 14, 1.72ibs.
STEAM DISCHARGE IN POUNDS PER M.LINUTE.
Corresponding to Drop in Pressure in table tin the next page, for Pipe
Diameters in Inches in Top Line.
-
Lint
No.
-
24
I 22
- - . - I / -
14OOd I l l 88
13ooO, I 0392
I 2000 j 9593
! 1OOl : 8604
wQQ I 7992
9500 / 7705
9QOO1 7205
85Oi l / 6905
8QOO1 6506
7500 i 6106
XQO i 5707
6500 i 5307
boaJ 4908
55043 4508
5000 i 4108
- -
20
-
- .
~i
1
!
/
)
1
i
I
I 8 16 I 5 I 4
-
I
- -
E3
-
12
--
I I I O
-
--
-
8772
%
6891
6265
2%
5321,
5012
4695
4385
4069
5758
3443
3132
- -_
2871
2667
2461
2256
2051
1940
E
1640
1538
1435
1333
! 239
1128
1025
-
6678
6203
5724
5247
4770
4532
4293
4054
3816
3577
3339
3100
E
2385
-
4163
3a67
: zz
2;
2676
2527
Ei . z
E
1784
1635
1487
- _-
3481
3233
2983
2736
2486
z
%A;
1865
1740
1616
1492
1368
1243
I
- -
* Density in lbs. per cu. ft.
t Pressure, absol ute, l bs. per sq. in.
For Flow of Steam at low pressures, see Heating and Ventilation,
page 670.
Carrying Capacity of Extra Heavy Steam Pipes.
(Power Speciality Co.)
4923
4573
4220
E
3341
: E
2814
2638
2462
2286
5; : :
1758
2328
2165
1996
1830
1663
1580
1497
1414
1331
1248
. .
1164
1081
99s
915
832
%
1589
1456
1324
1258
1192
i A; ;
%
860
794
i i i
1443
1341
1237
l ! s
979
928
876
E
6' :
6i 9
567 , :
516
a?
,I@ Pounds l$$earn per
I 0. 71 1210 8721 618 362 6 25. 93 40800 31600 22600 13210
I l/4 1. 27 2000 1555 I I 05 646 34. 47 54600 42250 30000 17600
I 1' 2 1. 75 2750 2140 1525
2. 93 4610 3590 2550 1525 9
4. 20 6610 4150, 3660. 2140 I O
3 6. 56 10300 8050 5720 3450 I I
3~ 8. 85 13900 10820 7720 4520 12
*i l i z I I . 44 14. 18 22300 WXI O 14000 17350 l OOOi l I 2320 5850 14
5 18. 19 28610 222501 15800
STEAM DISCHMGE FOR PIPE DIAMETERS-IN INCKES, Continued.
- -
9
-
3%
-
1093
' Z
054
781
742
703
664
625
586
547
508
i i i
390
227 h3
2: : 2: :
178 97. 0
I 62 88. 2
154
12
%: f
75. 0
130 70. 6
122 66. 2
I I 3
105 2: :
97. 2, 52. 9
89. 11 48. 5
81. 0 44. 1
-.
1
,
/
-
- . .
71. 6
60. 6
65. 6
62. 7
59. 7
: i : :
50. 5
i i : ;
41. 6
38. 6
35. 6
2: :
-
3
T - -.
55. 9 ,
51. 9
I
47. 9
43. 9
39. 9
: : : :
33. 9
31. 9
pY$
$2
20. 0
- *
2
I V2
- -
18. 1 6. 81
16. 8 6. 52
15. 5 6. 24
14. 2 5. 95
12. 9 5. 67
1: : : : : :
10. 9 4. 72
10. 3 4. 43
9. 68 4. 15
9. 03 3. 86
% : : :
7. 10 3. 11
6. 45 2. 83
2. 52
2. 34
Xi
1. 80
1. 71
1. 62
1. 53
3
1. 26
I : 2
0. 99 .
0. 90
I
- .:i
1
-
I I ILI I I I I lI(
The pounds per hour in the above table are figured for the velocities
rdven below:
-- -
Steam superheated degrees F.. .
Velocltv. ft. per min. . . . . . . .
Flow of Steam in Long Pipes.
Lcdouxs Formula. -In tpe flow
of steam or other gases in long p!pes,
the volume and the velocity are
increased as the drop in pressure increases.
Taking this into aCCOU$ @
correct formula for flow would be an exponential one.
Ledoux grves
d = 0.699
WL
ppol~ pp
his notation being reduced to English meas-
ures. (Ann&s des Mines. 1892: Trans. A. e. M. E.;xx., 365; PouW, June.
1907.) See Johnsons formula for flow of wr, Page 596.
he material -k$j no longer be accu%%c WARNING: This is a 191&edition.
I~ ,_
Some of
Bes~stancq to Flow by Bends, Valves, etc. (From Briggs on
Warmmg Buddings, by Steam.) -The resistance at the entrance to s
tube when no. special bell-mouth is given consists of two parts. The
bead u* + 2gJs espende? in &+ving the velocity of Row: and the head
0.505 vz +2g ln overcommg the resistance of the mouth of the tube.
Hence the whole loss oJ bead at the entrance is 1.505 ~2+ 20.
This resist-
ance lsequal to the resistance of a straight tube of a length equal to about
60 times its (hameter.
The 105s at ~~11 sharp right-:mgled elbow is the same as in flowing
bhrou:h a length of straight tube equal to about 40 times its diameter,
For a globe steam stop-valve the resist.ance is taken to be 11/ z times that
of the right-anE!ed elbow.
Sizes-of St&am-pipes for Stationary En
ines:. - An old common
rule 1s that.steam-pipes supplying engines shou d
menn 1
i be of such size that the
reiocttg of steam in them does not esceed 6000 feet~per minute, in
order th?t th
velocity 1s f
loss of pressure due to friction may not be escessive.
The
Stroke.
cd culated 011 the assumption that thecylinder is filfed at each
In modern practice with large engines and high pressures this
rule nres unnecessanly large and costly pipes.
For such engined the
alloivablr drop m steam pressure should be assumed and the diameter
calculate? by means of the formulaegiven above.
+n art~+e m Power. N,ay, 1893. on proper area of suppi\ -pipes for
engmes @ves a table showmg the practice of leading builders _ To facili-
tate mnpan;on, all t.he entines have been rated in horse-iower at 40
pounds mean effective pressure.
sim-p!r engines,
The table contains aft the varieties of
from the slide-valve to the Corliss and it appears that
there is no zenera difference in the sizes of pipe usedin the different types.
The averages selected from this table are as follows:
DI.+\ LETERS oP CYLINDERS CORRESPOSDING TO VARIOUS SIZES OF STL.LM-
PIPES B.MED ox PISTON-SPEED OF ENGIXE OF 600 FT. PER MINUTE
ASD +LPW.~BLE XEAN VELOCITY OP STEAM IS PIPE OF 4&O 6000
ASO b000 FT. PER MIX.
FL.LL SWOKE.)
(STEAX ASSTJI~ED TO GE ADMITTED &RIN~
Diam. of inches . .
Vel. 4000. pipe. : . , Vel. 6000. .
Vet., 8000.
. , _
Horse-power, approx: ......:
Diam. of pipes. inches Vel. 4000. . 7
Vel. 8000. ::::::
Vd.6000 I......... 18.1 m:7 23%
22.1
2:08
25.3
if4
28.5 54.8
3:O
31.6 37:s
3;!6 3241
41 1 44.3
. . . Horse-power, approx . . . . 29.2 32.9 36.5 40.2 43.8 47:5 51 1 25.6 245
320 406 500 606 718 845 981
Formula. Area of pipe =
Area of cylinder X piston-speed
mean velocity of steam in pipe *
For piston-speed.of 600 ft. per min. and velocity in pipe of 4000 6000
and 8000 ft. per min.. area of pipe=respectively 0.15 0.10 and d.075 x
area of cshnder. Dlam. of pipe=respectively 0.3873 0:316? and 0.~739 X
2.i~~~. of cylinder.
_)
Reciprocals of these figures r&e 2.522, 3.162, and
pL~~.~. 511IVLUCII a ve~ocuy nod exceeding 40
The last line, approx. H.P. of
per min. in the pipe. UT:--
takine H.P. = 112(&am.
Sizes of Steam-pipe
for t,hesame sizes of cylinder.
practice the steam-pipes are generally not a.. large as in stationary practice
.tlai:L %xz?n-nines shol,
Seaton tives the fnllnwinr. rlllnr-
..-- -1..- . ..__ .._.
does n?t exceed 8000 ft.
dd be of such &e that the mean velocity of flow
-- yin.
The first line in the above table may be used for proportioning exhaust
T\ i-.. i,. .-.L:^L ^._.1- ~I.
00 ft. per minute is advisable.
engine. is based on the velocity of 6000 ft.
arli; the corresponding diameter oP piston, and
Of piston in inches).
?s for 3I;trine Engines. - In marine-eneine
In larze engines 1000 t;;>$
the steam-pipe miq
10,000 ft. for still Ia:
00 H.P.. cutting off at less than baIf stroke
r be designed for a mean velocity of gooo ft.. and,
rger engines.
-._.. - -_.
WARNI NG: Thi s is ci 1910 edition. Some 0'
FLOW OF STEAM. 849
In small engines and, engines cuttini
of less than 8000 ft. per minute is des
Taking 8100 ft. per min. as the met
per min., and D the diameter of the c
$IPafb;;tei than half stroke. a velocity
an vel&itv. S soeed of piston in feet
Diam. of mainsteam-pipe = d&S t 8100 =D l/ E + 90.
Stop and Throttle Va,Zves should have a greater area of passages than the
area of the main steam-pipe, on account @f the friction through the clr-
cuitous passages. The sllupr of the passages should be designed so ?s to
avoid abrupt changes of direction and of velocity of flow as far as possible.
,lrea of Steum Ports and Passages =
I
Area of piston X speed of piston in ft. per min. = (Diam.)* X speed .
RIKI 7639
Openin of $ort to Steam. - To avoid wire-drawing during
~&+s;uu
the area of opening to steam should be such that the mean velocity of
flow does not exceed 10.000 ft. per min.
To avoid excessive clearance
the width of port should be as short as possible, the n.ecessary area being
obtained by length (measured at right angles to the hne of travel of the
valve). In practice this length is usually 0.6 to 0.8 of the diameter of
the cylinder, but in long-stroke engines it may equal or even exceed the
diameter.
Exhawt Pamyes ad P$pe.% - The: area ahou!d be such that t,hemesr?
velocity of the steam should not exceed 6000 ft. p.er nun.+an$ the area
should be greater if the length of the exhaust-pipe 1s comparatively long.
The area of psssages from cylinders to., receivers should be such that the
velocity will not exceed 5000 ft.
The following table is computex
er mm.
on the basis of a mean ve!ocity of flow
of 8000 ft. per min. for the main steam-pipe, lO.OO!, for opemng to steam,
and 6000 for exhaust.
A = area of piston, D its cbameter.
STEAM AND EXHAUST OPENINGS.
Diam. qf
Steppe
0~. 194
0.224
E;:
E
0.335
0.353
Area of
;eam-pipe
+1.
Diam. of
Exhaust
+D.
0.223
0.258
0::::
0.341
0.365
0.387
0.400
Area of Opening
ExJhy,st to steam
c A.
_ - _.
Proportioning Stream-Pipes for Minimum Total FOSS by Karlia
tiolw
and Frict.ion.
- For a given size-qf pipe. and q!u%,nt!tlY,of st*a~m t.8
._ II_ ____ .? be
carried the lpss of pressure due to friction is CalCularea L
formuke oven
.-.~..-
xhnve or takm from tne raoies.
The work of friction, being converted
~~~I--. I- lflnence is usually
intinn +a& to
so smau tnat 1c may oe urr+ccbeu. ~~ilj ~UUY ~1*LFDV VJ a,
destroy the superheat and condense some of the steam IntO water.
For
well-covered steam-pipes this loss may be estimated at about 0.3 lb>Persq.
ft. of external surface of the nine per ha--- --- A----+ of difference of
temperature between that of -tiie it--,
atmosohere lsee Steam-&e Covering
A f;rz%i&&~robl&m inpower-platit aeslgn~1s 60 p+ _.-. -
pipe to carry a given quantity of steam with a mx~rnvrn total loss of.
available energy due to both kdiation and friction. eonsldenna Aso ne
money loss due to interest and depreciation on the X&W of the we
and covering as .erected. Each.>ease reqmrer rr DP
ComDutation. no formula yet hemp construF.te
An approltimate method of solution, tieglectlng
, R ,,Jarate anthme&ah
d; to fit the general rase.~
: the,slight gain of heat by
the steam from the work of friction. and assuming that the water con-
.,..-
densed by radiation of heat is removed hv 8 3enarat.n~a.nd lnct if ==t
lows: Calculate the amount of stea
- -- ------ -.*- ..-a, . u., ;01-
per minute.
~~%&red 6~ the en&e. in hounds
of pressure. in
From a steam pipe formulaor table find th> several drops
lbs. per sq. in., in pipes of different assumed diameters, for
the given.quant1r.v of steam and the given length of pipe. Compute from
a theoret,ical indicator diagram of steam expanding m the engine the loss
of avallaole work done by ,1lb. of steam, due to the several drops already
found and the corresponding fraction of I lb. of steam that will have to
be supplied to make up for this loss of work. State this loss as
lent to 50 many pounds of steam per 1000 lbs. of steam carried,
e uiva-
8
lace the loss m Ibs. of steam condensed by radiation in the pipes o$~
different diameters. per 1000 Ibs. carried. Add the two losses together
for each assumed size of pipe, and by inspection iind which pipe gives the
lowest total loss. The money loss due to cost and depreciation may also
be iigure.d approximately in the same unit of Ibs. of steam lost per 1000
tbs. carned. by taking the cost of the covered pipe, assuming a rate of
J nt er c sf 2nd depreciation. finding the annual toss in cents, then from the
calculated value of steam, which depends on the cost of fuel find the
equivalent quantity of steam which represents this money ioss and
the equivalent lbs. of steam per 1000 Ibs. carried. This is-to be added to
the sum of the losses due two friction and radiat.ion. and it will be found to
modify somewhat the conclusion as to the diameter of pipe and the drop
which corresponds to a minimum total loss.
Instead of.determining the ioss of available work per pound of steam
from theoretical indicator diagrams. it may be computed a
on the as:su.mptiqn. based on the known characteristics o P
proximately
the entine
that its efficiency IS a certain fraction of that of an engine working betGee<
the same hmlts of temperature on the ideal Carnot cycle, as shown in
the r,able below. and from the efficiency thus found, compared with the
efficiency at the given uutial pressure less the drop, the loss of work may
be catculated.
A~.QL.XBLE J~.UIXUX THER~IIAL EFFICIENCY OF STEAU E~P.~NDED
BETWEEN THE G~VEX PRESSURES AND 1 LB. ABSOLUTE. B.UED ON
THE CARSOT CYCLE. E = CT, - TI ) i TL
Initial Pressure
less than &xi-
mum.
lbs
.l
Maximum Initial Absolute Pressures.
ml / 125 1 150 / 175 / 200 / 225 j 250 j 275 1 300
Maximum Thermal Efficiency.
I 0. 314 0. 324 0. 333
. 313 . 323 , 332
I O. 341 0. 3413 0. 354 0. 360
, 340 - 347 , 354
. 204 - 299 . 312
. 359
. 322 . 331 / . 339 . 346 . 353
. 2&J 296 . 309
. 359
- 320 . 329 , 337 . 345
. 272 , 290
. 352
. 304
. 358
, 316 . 326 / . 335 . 342 , 349 , 356
\
-
This table shows that if the initial steam pressure is lowered from
100 lhs. to SO lbs.. the efficlenry of the Carnot cycle is reduced from
0.287 to 0.272. or over 5%. but if steam of 300 tbs. is lowered to 280 Ibs.
the efficiency is reduced only from 0.380 t,o 0.356 or 1.1%. Wltn hlgh-
pressure stream. therefore. much greater loss of pressure by friction of
steam pipes. valves and ports IS allowable than with steam of tow pressure.
Theoretically the loss of efficiency due to drop in pressure on account
of friction of pipes should be less than that indicated in the above table,
since the work of friction tends to su
most. if not all. of the superheating is ost bv radiation. P
erheat the steam, but practically
BY a method of calculation somewhat similar to that above outlined,
the following figures were found. in a certain case, of the cost per day of
the transmission of 50,000 Ibs. of steam per hour&distance of 1000 i&et.
with 100lbs. initial pressure.
--..-_____-__ ,,--,-- -. .--.-.~_,_--.. .-,,
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
STEAM PIPES.
Diameter of Pipe.
I I
6 in. 7 in.
I. Interest, etc., 12% per annum..
2. Conctensstion.. _.
3. Friction.. . . . . . .
Total per day.. . I- $2.76
/ s2.60
.
STEAX PIPES.
-
. _
._
-
8in. IO in.
mu; yf
0. 19 0: 06
- , __
$2. 73 j $3. 23
-
_
._
I
12 in.
%!
0. 02
53.88
Bursting-tests of Copper Steam-pipes. (From Report of Chief
Engineer Melville, U. S. N.. for 1592.) - Some tests were made at the
New York Navy Yard which show the unreliability of brazed seams in
copper pipes. Each pipe was 8 in. diameter inside and 3 ft. 1s/ s in. long.
Both ends were closed by rlbhed heads and the pipe was subject~ed to a
hot-water
Three of t R .
ressure. the temperature being maintained constant at 371 F.
e pipes were madeof No. 4sheet copper (Stubs gauge) and the
fourth was made of No. 3 sheet.
The following were the results, in lbs. per SQ. in., of bursting-oressure: - _
Pipe number.. .l - 2 3 4
Actual bursting-strength. . 835 785 950 1225 1245
Calculated 1336 1336 1569
Difference.. . . . , 501 551 ' E 619 ' :
1; ; ;
The tests of specimens cut from the ruptured ipes show the injurious
action of heat upon copper sheets: and that, whl e a white heut does not 7
change the character of-t.he metal. a heat of onlv slieht,lv erenter degree
causes it to lose the fibrous nature that it has acquired inrolling. and a
serious redur.tion in its tensile strength and duct.ility results.
A ~Failure of a Brazed Copper-Steam-pipe on the British steamer
Prodnno was investigated by Prof. J. 0. Arnold. He found that the
brazing was originally sound, but that it had deteriorated by oxidation
of the zinc in the brazing alloy by electrolysis, which was due to the
presence of fatty acids prodneed by decomposition of the oil used in the
engines. A full account of the investigation is given in The Engineer.
April 15, 1898.
Reinforcine Steam-oioes. (Eito.. Aue. 11. 1893.) - In the Italian
Navy copper pipes ahove8inI diam. jrk reinforced by wrapping them with
a close spiral of copper or Delta-metal wire. Two or three independent
spirals are used for safety in case one wire breaks.
tension of about 1117tons ner so. in.
They are wound at a
ilkterinls for Pi
Kellogg. Trans. A. 8
es and Valves for Superheated Steam. (J f. W.
Af, E.. 1907.) - The latest uractice is to do away
With fittings entirely on high-pressure steam lines arid put what are known
as ~nozzles on the piping itself. This is accomplished by welding
wrought-steel pipe on the side of another section, so as to accomplish
the same result as a.fitting. In this way rolled or cast steel flanges and a
Rockwood or welded joint can he used. This method has three distinct
advantages: 1. The quality of the metal used.
entire work.
2. The lightening of the
3. The doine awav with a meat manv joints.
As a general average, at-&t 50%~of the joints can be left. out; some-
times the proportion runs up as high as 70%.
Above 575 F. the limit of elasticity in cast iron is reached with a
Dressurn varvlne f rom 140 t. n 175 pounds. __ - . _. _ _ _ _ _ - Under such Londitions the
material is strained and does ns ot resume its formelr.r.;l~spe, eventually
showinn surface cracks which increase until the nioe .I .
It would seem that iron castings are unsuitahie for both fittings and
vatves to he used in any superheated steam work. The onl adaptable
metal seems to be cast steel. Tests by Bach on this metal s ti ow that at
572 F. the reduction in breaking strength amounts only to 1.1% and at
75P I 7 t n a.hn,,t 2% -- -.
ln
The e~~<o~&$erature on nikkel is similar to that on cast steel and
consequence this material is very suitable for use in connection With
,... ~__~_~~~ .,......,- -_.__
le fnatefi-il may &longer be accuTz% ,
852 ,STEAM.
highly superoeabed steam. Bach recommends that bronze alloys be
~;;~;F2.way with for use on steam hnes above a temperature of abollt
The old-fashioned screwed joint, no matter how well made, is not
suitable for superheated steam work.
In making up a joint, the face of ail flanges or pipe where a joint is made
shouid be Liven il line tool finish and a plane surface, and a gasket sllo~lld
be us.pd. The best resu!t,s have been obtained with a corrugated soft
S:vedi& steel Xasket with Smooth-on applied. and with the Mcl<im
pxsket~, mhlch is of copper or bsonze surrounding asbestos. On super-
heated steam lines a corrugated copper gasket will in time pit out in
some part of the Range nearly through the entire gasket.
SpecificaGons for pipes and fittings for superheated steam service were
published by Crane Co., Chicsqo. in the V&z World, 1907.
Riveted Steel Steam-pipes have been used for ldrh pressures. See
paper on .i Method of 5lanuracture of Large Steam-pipes, by Chas. H.
Manning:. Trans. d. S. &f. E., vol. xv.
Valves in Steam-pipes. - Should a globe-valve on a steam-pipe have
the s&am-pressure on top or underneath the valve is a disputed
Wit!ith the steam-pressure on top, the stuffing-box around the va ve-stem t
uestion.
cannot. be repacked without. shutting off steam from the whole line of.
pipe: on the other hand. if the steam-pressare is on the bottom of the
va!v? it, all has to be sustained by the screw-thread on the valve-stem,
and there is danzer of strinnine the thread.
A corrr.;pond& of the k;n&can Ma&i&t, lS92, says that it is a very
uncommon this< in the ordinary globe-valve to have the thread give out.
but by water-hammer and merciless screwine t.he seat will be-crushe,ri
down -quite frequ+!y. Therefore $th plan@ where on!y-b@ 6&i&%
:;;I he advises plaring the valve vnlth the b6,ikr-pressure underneath it.
plants where several boiicrs arc connected to one main steam-nine -.-
he would rever.se the position of the valve. then when one~of the valves
needs repacking the valve can be closed and the pressure in the boiler
xvhn<e ni r )<it controls can be reduced to atmosoherii: bv lifting the safetv-
%~~~-*he repac!;ing can then be done wiihout interfering with &
operation. of the other boilers of the niz.nt
He proposes also the following
--- r----v.
other rules for locatinc: valves: Place
valves with the st.ems horizontal to avoid the formation of& water-pocket.
Never put the junction-valve close to the boiler if the main pipe is above
the boiler, but put it on the ldghest point of the junction-nine. If the other
pl;Hl is foilowed, the pine fills with- mat.er wheriever this tioiler is stormed
and the others are rtintiing, and breakage of the pipe ma$~c%e~&i&~
results. Never let a junction-pipe run into the bot,tom of the main pipe.
but into the sid e or top. Always use an angle-valve where conve<ieht.
as there is more room in-them.
un!css a by- pass is used with it.
Never usea gjte valve under high pressure
Never open a blow-off valve on a boiler
clt;t!e and then shut it: it is sure t,o catch the sediment and ruin the
e; t.hrow it well ooen before closinz. Never use a elohe-valve on an
&%cator-pipe. For Gater, always usegate or angle valves or stop-cocks
to obtain a clear passage.
Lasbly. ns
Buy if possible valves with renewahle disks.
ever let a man go inside a- boiler to work. especially if he is to
hapmer pn ft. unless you break the joint between ihe boiler and the
va!ve ann pm a p!ate of steel between the flanges.
The Steam-Loop is a system of piping by which water of con-
d.enriation in steam-pipes is. automatical!y returned to the hoiler. In its
amplest form it consists of three pipes, which are called the riser. the
horizontal. and ?he drop-leg. Whl en the steam-loon is used for returning
tp the boiler the water of condensation and entraininent from the steam-
pipe through which the steam flows to the cylinder of an engine, the riser
IS generally attached to a separator: ?his riser empties at a suitable
hein!rt into the horizon
ird into the drop-Q.
?a!, and from thence the water of condensation is
which is connected to the boiler, into which the
water of condensation is fed as soon as the hvdrostat,ic pressure in the
drop-leg in connection with the steam-pressure in the pipes is sufficient to
overcome the boiler-pressure. The action of the device de
fo!!owlng principles: Differences of pressure may be baiance
column: vapors or liquids te!
r?
ends on the
by a water-
?d to flow to the noint of Idwe& nressure:
rate of tlqw depends on difference of pressure and amass: decrease-of static
pressure in a steam-pipe or chamber is proportiodal to rate of conden-
, - - . .
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
STEAM PIPES.
sation: in a steam-current water will be carried or swept along rapidly
by friction. (Illustrated in Modern Mechanism,
J. H. Blessing, Feb. 13. 1872, Dec. 28, lS8.7.) Mr. ii. 807.
Patented hy
Iessmg thus describes
the operation of the loop in Eng. Reuzew. Sept., 1907.
The heating system is so arranged that the water of condensation from
the radiators gravitates towards some low poilit and t,hence is led into the
top of a receiver. After this is done it is found that owing to friction
caused I,? the velocity of tile steam p;lssing t.hroiigh bhe tlilfercnt pipe:;
and condrnsation clue to rr-rliation, t.!lesteam pressure in the small drip
receiver is much less t.liar. that in the boiler. This difierence will deter-
mine the height. or the length of tlie loop, t.hat must be employed so that
the wat.er will gravitate through it into the boiler: that is to say. if there is
10 ll~ difference in oressure. the descendina leg of bheloon should extend _., .--. ~~. ~~~ .
about 30 feet above the wat&r-level in the &i&r. SinCe a 6olumn of water
2.3 ft. is eoual to 1 lb. pressure, and a difference in pressure of 10 lbs.
would require a column 33 ft. higll. If we make the loop 30 feet high
we shall have an additional length of 7 ft. with which to overcome fric-
tion. The water, after it reaches the top of the loop, composed of a
larger section of pi
R
e, will How into the boiler through the descending
leg with a velocity ue to the extra 7 ft. added to the d&charging leg.
Loss from an Uncovered Steam-pipe. (Bjorbng on Pumping-
engines.) - The amount of loss by condensation in a steam-pipe carried
rlnwn a deen mine-shaft has been ascertained bv actual .mactice at the
Clay Cross Colliery, near Chesterfield, where thereis a pipe il2 in. internal
diam.. 1100 ft. long. The loss of steam by condensation was ascertained
by direct measurement of the water deposited in a receiver. and wss found
to be equivalent to about 1lb. of coal per I.H.P. per hour for every 100 ft.
of steam-pipe: but there is no doubt that if the pipes had been In the up-
cast shaft. and we!! covered with a good non-conductine material. the loss
would ha&? been less. (For Steam-pipe Covrrin.gs, see 55x mtr .)
Condensation in an Underground Pipe Lme.
$. W: Christie,
Eng. Rec., 1904.j - A length of 300 ft. of 4-in. pipe, enclos$d in a box
of 11fq-in. pianks, 10 ins. square inside, and packed with mineral wool.
was laid in a trench, the upper end being 1ft. and the lower end 5 ft. be! ow
the surface. With SO 11~s. gauge pressure in the pipe the co.ndensatlon
was equivalent to 0.275 B.T.U. per minute
when the outside t.emperature was 31 F., an
pr sq: ft., of .plpe. surface
0.223 per nun \ h hen the
temperat.ure was 62 F.
Steam Receivers on Pi? Lines. (W. Andrew% Steam @gg. Dec.
10, 1902.) -In the four large power houses in New York C1t.y. with
Rn Onn tn 1f l n~Nl n H.P. each. the iarrest steam
an ult.imate rapacity of
msins are not over 20 ir;s~~nd~~m-- --.- -~~~~~ Some of the best plants have
ni nra whi ch rnn f rom the header to the eneine two sizes smaller TV! ian that
&$% ~f~&>~theV&%$e builders. These $pes before reaching the engine
are Carrie&into a steel receiver. F vhich acts also as ., separat.or. This
receiver has a cubical capacity 6f three times that of the high:pressure
criinder and is placed as close as possible to the cylinder. The ipe from
r of t. ho f l l l l si ze called for bv t R e engine
the receiver to-the cylinder i
builder. The objects of this arrangement are: First, to have a full ylpplY
of steam to the throttle: second, to provide a cushion near the engne,on
which the cut-off in the steam chest may be spent, thereby preventmg
vibrations from being transmitted through the piping system: and
third. to produce a steady and rapid flow of steam in one direction On!Y,
by having a small pipe leading into the receiver. The steam flows
rapidlv enough to make good the loss caused dunng the first quarter of
the stioke. Plants fitted up in this way are successfully runmng where
the droo in steam nressure is not greater than 4 lbs., although the engmes
are 50dft. away from the boilers.
Equation of Pi es.
For determining the numbe; of small sized
nines that are eaua
y. -
m carrgmg capacity to one of greater size the table
mmonly used. It is based onthe
$6en under Floui of -4ir page 597, is co:
equation N = GGiZ in which N is the number of smaller nines of
r.r.- .~
diameter dl equal in capactty to one pip
_.. _
e of diameter a. A more
accurate_~equation, based on Unwins formula fo
r Row of fluids, is N-
,da l/d1 + 3.6
- : (d and dl in i&h&>: For d= .2dl. the first formula gives
L d,dd+ 3.6.
N = 5.7, and the second N = 6.15, an unimportant difference, but for
d = 8d1. the iirst gives N = 181 and the second N = 214, a considerable
difference. (G. F. Gebhardt, Power, June, 1907).
ldcntiflcation of Power House.Piping by Different Colors. (1%.
H. Bryan, Trans. -4. S. M. E., 1908.) -In large power plants the multi-
plicity of pipe lines carrying different fluids causes confusion and may
lead to danger by an operator opening a wrong valve. It has therefore
hecome customary to paint the different lines of different colors. The
paper frives several tables showing color schemes that have been adopted
in different. plants. The following scheme, adopted at the New York
Edison Co.% Waterside Station, is selected as an esample.
Pipe Lines.
Steam. high pressure to engines, boiler
cross-avers, leaders and headers.. . .
At1other steam lines. . . _. _. _.
Steam. exhausts.. _. . . . . ,
Steam, drips including traps.. . _. . .
St,eam trap discharge.. . . .
Blow-offs. dries from water columns
and low-presiure drips.. . . .
Drains from crank pits. _. _.
Colds water to primary heaters and
jacket pumps. .Y .: .
Feed-water. pumps to boilers.. .
Hot,-water mains. primary heaters to
pumps, and cooling-water returns.. . .
.4ir 0ump discharge to hot, well . . . . .
Coo!ing water. pumps to engines. . .
Firelines................................
Cylinder oil. high pressure . . .
Cylinder oil. low pressure.. . _.
Engine oil. _. _. . .
Pneumatic system.. . . . . . . . . .
-
t
-
Colors of Pipe.
BkLCk
Buff
Orange
OEUlge
Green
Brass
kFtk
Black
Black
S1at.e Red
Dark Brown Blue *
Blue
Maroon
Red
Same
Green Red
Black
Black
Same
Black
Green
Red
Same
Bands, Cou-
plings, Valves,
etc.
THE STEAM-BOILER.
The Horse-power of a Steam-boiler. -The term horse-power has
two meanings in engineering: First. an absoluteunit or measure of therate
of toork. that is, of the work done m a certain definite period of t.ime. by
a source of enemy, as a steam-boiler, a waterfall. a current of air or water,
or by a prime mover, as a steam-engine. a water-wheel, or a wind-mill.
The value of this umt. whenever it can be expressed in foot-pounds of
enemy. as in the case of steam-engines, water-mheeis, and waterfalls, is
33.000 foot-pounds per minute. In the case of boilers, where the work
done. the conversion of water into steam, cannot be expressed in foot-
pounds of available energy, the usual value given to the term horse-power
1s the evaporation of 30 lbs. of water of a temperature of 100 F. into
steam at 7O !bs. pressure ahove the atmosphere. Both of these units are
arbitrary: the first. 33.000 foot-pounds per minute, first adopted b,y James
Watt. being considered equivalent t.o the power exerted by a good London
draught-horse. and the 30 lbs. of water evaporated per hour being con-
sidered LO he the steam requirement per indicated horse-power pi an
average engine.
The second detinit~ion of the term
of thesize, capacity. value, or ratin
horse-power is an approximate meusure
other source or conveyer of energy, i! .
of a boiler, engine, water-wheel, or
bought and sold, advertised, etc.
y which measure it may be described.
No definite value can be given to this
measure, which varies largely with local custom or individual opinion of
makers and users of machinery.
which can be arrived at in the term
The nearest approach to uniformitp
horse-power, used in this sense, IS
to say that a boiler, engine, water-wheel, or other machine, rate
____.._.~~~.__
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
STE.Q&-BOILER PROPORTIONS.
855
.
certain horse-power, should be capable of steadily developing that horse-
power for a long period of time under ordinary conditions of USR and
practkce. leaving to local custom, to the judgment of the buyer and seller
to written contracts of purchase and sale, or to legal decisions upon such
contracts, the inttirpretation of what is meant by the term ordinarv
~conditions of useand practice.
~~ .__~~-r. ~1~ ~..
(pin S. 4. 8. M.-E.. Vol. Vii, p. 226.)
rneLornmirree or JuoFes or tne l;entenmal Exhibition, 1876, in report-
ing the trials of competm
3O Ibs. of water evaporate 1.
boilers at that exhibition adopted the unit
into dry steam per hour from feed-water ai
100 F., and under a pressure of i0 Ibs. per sqcrre inch above the atmos-
phere. these conditions being considered by ti,em to renresent fairly
average practice.
The A. S. 11. ME: Committee on Boiler Tesls. 1884. a&pted the same
unit, and defined it,as equivalent to 34.5 lbs. evaporated per hour from a
feed-water, temperat.ure of 212O into steam at the same temperature.
The committee of 1899 adopted this definition. 34.5 lbs. per hour. from
+nd at 212, PUS the unit of commercial horse-power. Gsml: the figures
for total heat oi steam given in Marks and Daviss steam table (1909).
341,s lbs. from and at 212O,is equivalent to 33,479 B.T.U. per hour, or to
an evaporation of 30.018 lbs. from LOO feed-water tempetature into
steam at 50 lbs. pressure.
The Committee of 1899 says: A boifer rated at any stated capacity
should develop that capacity when using the best coal ordina,rlly sold in
the market where the boiler IS locate$when fired by an ordinary fireman.
without forcing the fire% whileexhibiting aood economy: and further. the
boiler should develon at least one-third. more than the stated canacitv
when using the same fuel and operated by the same fireman, the furl
draught being employed and thefires being crowded; the available draught
at the damuer. unless otherwise understood. beina not less than 1.~2inch
water column.
_
Unit of Evaporation. (Abbreviation, U. E.) - It is the custom to
reduce results of boiler-tests to the common standard of the equivalent
evaporation from and at the boilinp-point at. atmospheric pressure, or
from and at 212O F.
rnTmrated from and at
Thizoun,it of evaporation, or one pound of water
21.: , IS eauivalent to 970.4 British thermal
s. --I-B:T.U. = the mean .%uantity of heat required to raise 1 Ib. of
Wat er 1 I!. betweet i 32and 212
Measures for C lomparing the Duty of Boilers. - The measure of
the efficiency of a boiler is the number of DoimdS of water evaoorated ner
pound of combustible (coal less moisture and ash), the evapoiation b&rig
reduced to t~hestandard of from and at 212O.
The measure of the capacity of a. boiler is the amount of boiler horse-
ower developed a horse-power being defined as the evaporation 01341/ s
pbs. per hour fromand at 212O
The measure of relative mpidity of steaming of boilers ia the number of
pounds of water evaporated from and at 212O per hour per square foot
of water-beating surface.
The measure of relative rapidity of combustion of fuel in boiler-furnaces
tu;fh,ecrumber of pounds of coal burned per hour per square foot of grate-
STEAJ I-BOILER PROPORTIONS.
Proportions of Grate a:ld Heating Surface required for a given
Horse-power. -The term horse-power here means capacity to evap-
orate 34.5 Ibs. of water from and at 212 F.
Avera,ge proportions for m&mum economy for land boilers fired with
good anthracite coal:
Heatine surface ner horse-Dower. . . . . . . . 11.5 so. ft.
Grate surface per horse-power. . . . . . . . i .
Ratio of heating to grate surface . .
d from~and at 212 per sq. ft. H.S.
H.P. per hour.. . . .
s. per H.P. per hour.
Combustible burned ner so. ft. nrate tier hour.
. . . . .
.......
per hr.
.......
.......
.......
Coal with t/ s refuse, lbs. p&sq.-ft. grate per hour.. . . 10.8 1:
Water evapd from and at 212 per lb. combustible. 11.5
Water evapd from and at 212O per lb. coal (r/ s refuse) 9.6
ie iaterial

:WfE~ ,YJ ?E~AM-BOILER.
Heatiug-surface. - For maximum economy with any kind of fuel a
boiler should be proportioned so that at least one square foot. of heating-
surface should be given for every 3 Ibs. of water to be evaporated from
and at 212 F. per hour. Still more liberal proportions are re uired if a
portion of the heating-surface has its efficiency reduced by: 1. % endency
of the heated gases to short-circuit. that is, to select passages of least
resistance and flow through them with high velocity, to the neglect of
other passages.
tion.
2. Deposition of soot from smoky fuel. 3. Incrust&
if the heating-:-iurfaces are clesn, and the heated gases pass over
it uulformly. little if any increase in economy can be obtained by increasing
the heating-surface beyond the proportion of 1 sq. ft. to every 3 lbs. of
water to be evaporated. and with all conditions favorable but little
decrease of economy will take place if the pro ortion is-l sq. ft. to every
4 Ibs. evaporated; but in order to provide for 8. riving of the boiler beyond
its rated capacity. and for possible decrease of efficiency due to the causes
above named. it is better to adopt 1sq. ft. to 3 lbs. evaporation per hour
as the minimum standard proportion.
Where economy may be sacrified to capacity, as where fuel is very
cheap. it is customary to proport~ion the heating-surface much less Iiber-.
ally. The following table shows approximately the relative results that
may be expected with different rates of evaporation: wibh anthrxrit.e coal.
Lbs. waterev;pord;,o5mannqdat Wzpersq. ft. heating-sirfaceT hoti;
2 2.5 6 7
Sq. ft.
17.3 13.3 heating-sllrf~~3req~i.r~d 11.5 prp5-pwer: . . 4.9 4.3 3.8 3.5
Ratio of heabing to grate surface if i/ s sq. ft. of G.S. is required per R.P.:
52 41.4 34.5 29.4 25.8 20.4 17.4 13.7 12.9 11.4 10.5.
100Proba;$o
:
rel;t.ir eco;;my 90 85 80 75 70 65 60
450 Probaizo tem4~oratu;m80f cl&~ney6~~es.,~ogre~8;.: 855 922 990
The relative economy will vary not only with the amount of heuting-
surface per horse-power, hut with the efficiency of that hbating-surface as
regards its ca,pacity for transfer of heat from the heated gases to the water,
whicli will depend on its freedom from soot and incrustation, and upon the
circulation of the water and the heated gases.
With bituminous coal the efficiency will largely depend upon the
thoroughness with which the combustion is effected in the furnace.
The efficiency with any kind of fuel will greatly depend upon the amount
of air supplied to the furnace in excess of that required to support
bustion.
corn-,
With strong draught and thin fires this excess may be very
fe;;kwcausmg a serious loss of economy. This subject is further discussed
3Ieasurement of Heating-surface. - The usual rule is to ronslder
+s heating-surface all the surfaces that are surrounded by water on one
side and by flame or heated gases on~the other, using the external instead
of the internal diameter of tubes, for greater convenience in calculation,.
the extemal diameter of boiler-tubes usually being made in even inches or
half inches. This method. however, is inaccurate, for the true heating-
surface of a tube is the side exposed to the hot gases, the inner surface in a
fire-tube boiler and the outer surface in a water-tube boiler. The re-
sistance to the passage of heat from the hot gases on one side of a tube ore
plate to the water on the other consists almost entirelv of the resistance to
the passage of the beat from the,g,sses into themeta!.the resistance of the
metal itself and that of the wetted surface being practically nothing.
See paper bg C. W. Baker,. Trans. A. S. i t:. E.. vol . xix.
RULE for finding the heating-surface of vertical tubular boilers: Multiply
the cbcumference of the Ere-box (in inches) by its height ahove the grate:
multiply the combined circumference of all the tubes by their length, and
to these two products add the area of the lower tube-sheet;, from this sum
subtract the area of all the tubes. and divide by 144: the quotient is the
number of square feet of heat~ing-surface.
RULE for finding the heating-surface of hoeizonta,l tubular boilers: Take
the dimensions in inches. Multiply two-thirds of the circumference of the
shell by its length; multiply the sum of the circumferences of all the tubes
WARNING: Thi s is a 1910 edition; Some of -
STEAM-ROILER PROPORTIONS.
by their common length; to the sum of these products add two thirds Qf
the area of both tube-sheets: from this sum subtract twice the combined
area of all the tubes; divide the remainder by 144 to obtain the result in
, square feet.
RULE for finding the s
. the number of tubes bs
of heating-surface in tubes: Multiply
e diameter of a tube in inches, by its length ln
feet. and by 0.: .J\ ,. -
Horse-power, Duilders Rating. Heatin+-surface per Hcrse-
power. - It is a general practice amono (r builders to furnish about 10
sqmare feet of beating-surface per horse-power, but as the practice is not
uniform, bids and contracts should always speclfv the amount of heatlng-
surface to be furnished. Not less than one-t.,., -.,..-..
face should be furnished per horse-power with ordinary chimne~~draught.
not exceeding 0.3 in. of water column at the damper. for anthracite coal,
and f or nnnr ~r nr i ~t i ~c nf c nf t c val hi -h i n a.r h w i t h or di nar y f t l r nac es. .-. vy.,L .l..k..uU .I_ --- .,-^ ..--.. . . . .-..,
A
sma-~ ller ratio of mate surface mav he allowed ?ofhgcgradc soft coal and
for$oTs;l 1draught.
-
t-power of marine andLocomotive Boilers. - The term&e-
power is not generally used in connection with boilers in marine practice,
or with locomotives. The boilers are designed to suit the engines, and
are rated by extent of grate and heating-surface only.
Grate-surface. - The amount of grate-surface requlrai- per horse-
power, and the proper ratio of heating-surface to grate-surrace are ex-
tremely variable. depending chiefly upon the character of the coal and
upon the rate of draught. With good coal, low in ash, a
f!
proximately
equal results may be obtained wlth large grate-surface and ight draught
and with small gratedurface and strong draught, the total amount of coal
burned p,:& hour being the same in both cases. With good bituminous
coal, like r;ttsburgh, low in ash. the best results apparently are ohtained
with strong draught and high rates of combustion, provided the grate-
surfnces are cut down so that the total coal burned per hour is not too great
for the capacity of the heating-surface to absorb the heat reduced.
With coals high in ash, especially if the ash is easily fua -!I le. tending to
choke the grates. large gratesurface and a slow rate of combustion are
reouired. unless means. such as shaking grates, are provided to get rid of
the ash as fast as it is made.
-- _
The amount of grate-surface required per horse-power under various
conditions may be estimated from the following table:
G$CKJI and 10
19
Fair coal orboiler, ( V
17
Poor coal or boiler,
-
<
L
24 !j
Pounds of Coal burned per square
$!zo
foot of Grate per hour.
;k; 8 ~10~12~15)20~25~30~35~40
4 Sq. Fh. Grate per H.P.
----I , . I , , , ,, ,
I~
::z .43 .48 .35 .38 .28 .32 23 .25 .I7 .I9 .I4 .I5 .I3 .II .to .I1 .69 .I0
::31 .50 .54 .49 .43 .33 .36 .26 .29 .20 .22 .t6 .I7 :I3 .I4 .:I2 .I3 .II .I0
4.93 .62 .49 .41 .33 -24 .20 .17 ..14 .~I2
$5 .86 .63 .,72 ..69 .50 .5a .42 .48 .58 .34 .38 .46 .25 24 .35 .20 .23 ,213 .I9 .P .I7 2.2 .15 .I.7 .13 .I4 .I7
10. 1.25 1.09 .83 .67 .M .49 .33 29 2.5
In designing a boiler for a given set of conditions, the gratesurface
should be made as liberal as possible. say sufficient for a rate of combus-
tion of 10 lbs. per square footof grate.for anthracite, and 15,lbs. Per square
foot for bituminous coal, and in practice a portion of the grate-surface
may be bricked over if it is found that the draught, fuel, or other condt-
tions render it ad!isable.
858 THE STEAM-BOILER.
Proportiocs of Areas oi Flues and other Gas-passages. - Rul es
are usually gtven making the area of gas-passages bear a certain ratio to
the area of the r ate surface; - thus a common rule for horizontal tubular
boilers is to ma e the area over the bridge wall i/ r of the grate-surface,,
the Rue area t/ s. and the chimney area ?a
For average conditions with anthracite coal and moderate draught, say
a rate of combustion of 12Ibs. coal per square foot of grate per hour, and a
rat10 of heating to grate surface of 30 to 1, this rule is as good as any, but
it is evident that if the draught wereincreased so as to cause a rate of corn.
bustion of 24 Ibs.. requiring the grate-surface to be cut down to a ratio of
60 to 1, the areas of gas-passages should not be reduced in
The amount of coal burned per hour being the same under t R
roportion
e-changed
conditions. and there being no reason why the gases should travel at a
higher velocity, the actual areas of the passages should remain as before
but the ratio of the area to the grate-surface would in that case bi
doubled.
Mr. Barrus states that the highest efficiency with anthracite coal is
obtained when the tube area is r/ s to $0 of the grate-surface, and with
bituminous coal when it is i/ s to l/ r, for the conditions of medium rates of
combustion, such as 10to 12 Ibs. per square foot of grate per hour, and 13
square feet of heating-surface allowed to the horse-power.
The tube area should be made large enough not to choke the draught
and so lessen the capacit
to seiect the passages o P
of the boiler: if made too large the gases are apt
least resistance and escape from them at a high
velocity and high temperature.
This condition is very commonly found in horizont~al tubular boilers
where the gases go chiefly through the upper rows of tubes; sometimes
also in vertical tubular boilers, where the gases are apt to pass most rapidly
through the tubas nearest to the center. It mar to some extent be
remedied by placing retarders in those tubes in which the gases travel the
nuirkwt 1 -... _-_.
A&passages through Grate-bars. -The usual practice is, air-.
opening = 30% to 5070 of area of the
stoppage of the air-supply by clinker: % ,.
rate. the larger the better, to avoid
ut with coal free from clinker much
smailer air-space may be used without detriment.
Schemer, Trans. A. S. M. E.. vol. xv, p. 503.
See paper by F. A.
PERFORXAXCE OF BOILERS.
The performance of a steam-boiler comprises both its capacity for gener-
atmg steam and its economy of fuel. Capacity depends upon size, both of
grate-surface and of heating-surface. uoon the kind of coal burned. upon the
draught. and also upon ~:heeconomy. _ Economy of fuel depends upon the
corn
P
leteness with which the coal is burned in the furnace, on the proper
regu ation of the air-supply to the amount of coal burned, and upon the
;;;ro;.hness with which the boiler absorbs the heat generated in the
The absorption 01 heat de
face in relation to the amount of coal g
ends on the extent of heating-sur-
urned or of water evaporated upon
the arrangement of the gas-oassazes. and uoon the cleanness of the sur-
faces. The capacity of ?+boilers %ay in&&& with increase of economy
when this is due to more thorough combustion of the coal or to better regu-
lation of the air-supply. or it may increase at the expense of economy
when the increased capacity is due to overdriving. causing an increased
loss of heat in the chimney gases.
is therefore a complex one,
The relation of ca
de ending on many P
acity to economy
A formula expressing the P.
variab e conditions.
re anon between capacity, rate of driving, or
evaporation per square foot of heating-surface, to the economy, or evapo-
ration per pound of combustible is given on page 865.
Selecting the highest results obtained at different rates of driving with
anthracite coal in the Cent.ennial tests (see p. 867). and the highest results
with anthracite reported by Mr. Barrus in his book on Boiler Tests, the
author has plotted two curves showing the maximum results which may
be expected with anthracite coal,, the Erst under exceptional conditions
sueh as obtained in the Centennial tests. and the second under the best
conditions of ordinary practice. (Tmns~A. 3. M. E., xviii, 354.)~ From
these curves the following f i gures are obtained,
.--.--M--
WARNING: This is a 191c%%ion. Some of
PERFORMANdE OF BOILERS.
Los. water evaporated from and at 212O per Sq. ft. heating-surface per
hour:
1.6 1.7 2 2.6 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 6 7 8
Lbs. water evaporated from and at 212 per lb. combustible:
Centennial. 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.1 12.05 12 11.85 11.7 11.5 10.85 9.8 8.5
Barrus.. 11.4 11.5 11.55 11.6 11.6 11.5 11.2 10.9 10.6 9.9 9.2 8.5
Avg. Cent1 . . . . , . 12.0 11.6 11.2 108 10.4 10.0 9.6 8.8 8.0 7.2
The fieures in the last line are taken from a stmieht line drawn RS nearlv
as possible through the average of the plotting of hll the Centennial tests.
The poorest results are far below these figures. It is evident that no for-
mula can beconstructed that will express the relation of economy to rateof
driving as well as do the three lines of figures given above.
For semi-bituminous and bituminous coals the relation of economy to
the rate of driving no doubt follows the same general law t.hat it does with
anthracite. i.e.. that bevond a rate of evaooration of 3or 4 Ibs. ner so. ft. of
heating-surface per hour there is a decrease of economy, but-the figures
obtained in different tests will show a wider range between maximum and
average results on account of the fact that it is more difficult with \ bitumi-
nous than with anthracite coal to secure complete combustion .in the
furnace.
The amount of the decrease in economy due to driving at rates exceeding
4 Ibs. of water eva orated er square foot of heatin -surface per hour
differs greatly with ifferent oders, and with the same oiler It may differ 8 E. %.
with different settings and with different coal. The arrangement and size
of the eas-oassases seem to have an imnortant effect upon the relation of
economv to rateof driving.
A comparison of results obtained from different types of boilers leads to
the general conclusion that the economy with which different types of
boilers operate depends much more upon their proportions and the con-
ditions under which they work, than upon their type: and, moreover,
that when the proportions are correct, and when the conditions are favor-
able* the vari ous types of boilers give substantially the same. economic
result.
Conditions of Fuel Economy in Steam-boilers.- 1. That.the boiler
has sufficient heating surface to absorb from 75 to 80
generated by the fuel. 2. That this surface is so placet?
0 of all the heat
, and the gas pas-
sages so controlled by baffles, that the hot gases are forced to pass uni-
formly over the surface, not being short-circuited. 3. That the furnace is
of such a kind, and operated in such a manner, that the fuel is completeiy
burned in it, and that no unburned gases reach the heating surface offthe
boiler. 4. That the fuel is burned with the minimum supply of air re-
quired to insure corn
excessive quantity o P
lete combustion, thereby avoiding the carrying of an
heated air out of the chimney.
There are two indices of high economy. 1. High temperature, ap-
proaching 3000 F. in the furnace. combined with low temperature. below
600 F.. in the flue.
8% of free oxygen.
2. Analysis of the flue gases shovdng bet.ween 5 and
Unfortunate1 neither of these mdlces is available
to the ordinary fireman; hecannot
.&. .
above 2000, and he cannot know
stmgmsh by theeye any temperature
whether or not an excessive amount of
oxygen is passing through the fuel. The ordinary haphazard way of firing
therefore gives an average of about 10% lower ecrmomy than can be
obtained when the firing is controlled, as it is in many large plants, by re-
cording furnace pyrometers, or by continuous gas analysis, or~by.both.
Low COs in the flue gases may indicate either excessive air supply.m,the
furnace, or leaks of air into the setting, or deficient air supply $h the
presence of CO, and therefore imperfect combustion. The latter, If eXceS-
slve. is indicated by low furnace temperature. The analysis for CO2should
be made both of the as sam led just bevond the furnace and of the gas
sampled at the flue. 6. ..Fl imrus ed COsin the latter indicates air-leakage..
Less than 5% of free oxygen in the gases is usually accom anied filth
CO, and it therefore indicates imperfect combustion from
Xeficient air,
supply. More than 8% means excessive air supply and corresponding
waste of heat.
Air Leakage or inEltration of afr ,through the firebrick setting iS a
common cause of poor economy. Jt may be detected by ana!ysv as above
L.. .~~~.~ ~...-LIL_.~_ .
le material rfkj no longer be accurate
stated, and should be p.evented by stoppingal visible marks i n the hri ob
wo$,~and by %v+lgit with a coating imper
vious to-air_--- ___ ---- I..,l.._
Autopaphic C@~+?corders are used in many lar e boiler plants for
the contmuous recordmg of the percentage of carbon
When the uezcentaeeof C&i s het. wmn 17 nnf l 16 i t
8otidelnthega.es
i n; l i eatmmnd L
nace condliions, v&een~belGt; Y2th~i&&&J. --- -- --
---II-y e-vu .,-
Efliciency of a Steam-boiler. -The efficiency of a boiler is the
percentage of the totill heat generated by the combustion of the fuel
wluch is utilized in heating the water and in raising .steam. With anthra-
cite coal the heilting-value of the combustible portion is very nearly
14,SOO B.T.U. per lb., equal to an evaporation from and at 212 of l.&?,ou
i 970 = 15.26 lbs. of water. A boiler which when tested with anthra-
cite coal shows an evaporation of 12 Ibs. of water per lb: of combustible
has an etficiency of 12 + 15.26 = 78.6Y0. a figure which IS approximated
but scarcely ever quite reached, in the best practice. Kith bituminoud
coai it is necessary to have a determination of its heating-power made
by a coal calorimeter before the efficiency of the boiler using it can be
determined, but a close estimnte may be made from the chemical analysis
of the coal. (See Coal.)
The difference between the efficiency obtained bv test and loos;, is
th+sum of the numerous wastes of heat, the chief of which is the necessary
loss due to the temperature of the chimnev-gases. If wehave an analvsiv
and a calorimetric determination of the hejtc~tg-power of the coal (properly
sampled). and an average analysis of the chimney-gases, the amounts
of the several losses may be determined with approximate accuracy by
the method described below.
Data given:
1. AsaLYsrs OF TIIE COAI,.
Cumberland Semi-bituminous.
2. ~VALYSIS OF THE DI~Y &IHNEY-
GASES. BY WEIGHT.
Carbon. _ . _ . _ . _ . _ . 80.55
Hydrogen............:: 4.50
Oxrgen . . . _. . . . . . . . .
co2 = 13.8 = 3% 9ei9
N.
. .
Nitrogen . . . . .
2.70 co = 0.2 =0.09 0.11 . . . . . .
Moisture .._..._... 1:::: a::!:
g =~11.2= . . . . 11.20 . .
Ash
= 75. 0 = . . . . .._. 75.00
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a.25
-- - -- ---
--
100.0 3.80 21.20 75.00
100.00
Heating-vaine of the coal by Dulongs formula, 14.243 heat-units.
The gases being collected over water, the moisture in them is not deter-
mined.
3. Ash and refuse as determined bv boiler-test 10.25. or 2% more than
that found by at?i-lrsis, the difference representing carbon in the ashes
obtained in the boiler-test.
4. Temperature of externalatmosphere, 60 F.
5. Relative humidity of air. 6007
0.097 lb. of vapor in each lb. of air.
,0, corresponding (see air tables) to
6. Temperamre of chimney-gases, 560 F.
Calculated results:
The carbon in the chimney-gases being 3.5% of their weight, the total
weight of dry gases per lb. of carbon burned is 100 + 3.8 = 26.32 Ibs.
Since the carbon burned is SO.55 - 2 = 7Q.5S0JO of the weight of the coal,
the weight of the dry gases per lb. of coal is 26.32 X 78.55 i 100 = 20.67
lbs.
Each pound of ccal furrdshes to the dry chimney-gases 0.7855 lb. C;
0.0108 N. and 2.70 - F) +- 100 = 0.0214 lb. 0; ? total ~of 0.8177. say
0.82 lb. .Thls subtracted from 29.67 lbs. leaves 19.55 lbs. as the quantity
of dry mr (not including moisture) which enters the furnace per pound
of cqal, not counting the air required to burn the available hydrogen,
that IS. the hydrogen minus one-eighth of the osygen chemically combined
in the coal. Each Ib. of coal burned contained 0.045 lb. H, which requires.
0.045 X 3 = 0.36 lb. 0 for its combust,ion. Of this 0.027 lb. is furnished
hv t,hecoal itself, leaving 0.333 lb. to come from tiie air. The quantity
of mr needed to supply this oxygen (a:r contzlning 23%. b wei ht of
oxygen) 1s 0.333 .+0.23 = 1.45 lb., which added to the 19.85 bs. a ready
Y f
PERFORMANCE OF BOILERS.
found gives 21.30 lbs. as the quantity of dry air supplied to the furnace
per lb. qf coal burned.
The air carried in as vapor is 0.0071 lb. for each lb. of dry air, or 21.3 X
0.0071= 0.15 lb. for each lb. of coal. Each lb: of coal contained 6.020 lb.
of moisture, which was evaporated and cnrned into the chlmney..gases.
The 0.045 lb. of H per lb. of coal when burned formed 0.045 X 9 =
0.405 lb. of HzO.
From the analysis of the chimney-ga.s it appears that 0.09 + 3.80 =
2. 37% of the carbon in the coal was burned to CO instead of to CO?.
We now have the data for calculatin
follows, for each pound of coal burned:
g the various losses of heat, as
Heat- Per cent of
units. IIrat-value
of the Coal.
20.67 Ibs. dry gas x (560 - 60) X sp. heat 0.24 =
0.151b. vapor in airX(560 - 60) X sp. ht. 0.45 =
0.029 lb. moist. in coal heated from 60 to 21Y =
0.029 lh. evap. from and at 212: 0.029 x 966
0.0291b.steam (heated212t05600) x348x 0.48z
0.405 lb. Hz0 from H in coal X (152 + 966f
17.41
::o:
0.20
0.03
343 n .,P\ =
3.65
0.0237 &.<udrned to CO: loss by incomplete
combustion, 0.0237 x (14544- 4451) =
0.02 lb. coal lost in ashes: 0.02 X 14544 =
Radiation and unaccounted for, by difference =
1.68
:::i
4228.1 29.69
Utilized in making steam, equivalent evapora-
tion 10.37 Ibs. from and at 212 per lb. of coal = 10,014.g 70.31
---_
14.243.0 100.00
The heat lost by radiation from the boiler and furnace is not easily
determined directly, especially if the boiler is enclosed in brickwork. or is
protecoed by non-conducting covering. It is customary to estimate the
heat lost by radiation by difference. that is, to charge radiation with all
the heat lost which is not otherwise~accounted for.
One method of determining the loss by radiation is to block off a portion
of the grate-surface and build a small fire on the remainder, and drive this
tirewith just enough draught to kee
he@ lost by radiation without
up the steam-pressure and supply the
a lo\ \ mg any steam to be discharged, f
we@ling the coal consumed for this purpose during a test of several hours
...~,.________~ _
?iwtCial m$j t- i - l longer be accurate
*
by volume may be used directlf to l&d the weight of gas per pound of
carbon by the formula given be ow.
If 0. CO. COa and N represent the +ercentaga by volume of oxygen
carbonic oxide. carbonic acid, and nil,
combustion:
fogen, respectively, in the gases of
Lbs. of air required to lo,,
one pound of carbon
Ratio of total air to the theoretical -~,,luirement =
N-3.7820
L:; zi$ Per Pound }= {Lbzi EiFkfi;,,r pound ] ;~i beirnc;tkof carbon
Lbs. dry gas produced per pound of c;~l~.~,n = 11COz + 80 + 7 cc0 + N, =
3 (CO2 + CO)
RCkttiOIt Of Boiler Elflcieney tp Iho Rate ot Driving, Ai* Supply,
etc. -In the authors Steam BoJld~c ~~~~~~~ cp. 265) a formula is
developed showing the efficiency tlr&i,
rna,y be expected, when the corn-
bustion Of the Coal is complete, under &ffctrent con&tions, The formula is
EI Z K - tcj
~=K(l+RS/ W)
_ 970 UC?fl w
- -~- -.
K (K-t&) Y
K = heating vaiue Per lb. of combusLJ?,le. ho= actual evaporation from
and at 212O per 11 b. 01 cm. -=--nbustible: / ;, 1
970: t = el wati on Of the t:mP?ratuY.
,p - possible evaporation = K +
nf the ;vater in the boiler above
on arid increases \ vith the rc
u w Lver he efficiency.
snot 4uu wnen recoras af tests sho;i t. h ffi .
Its value is between
- -m.z-:^-..:,...
ug e clenrg. and above 400 for
_
a criterion Of P;iformance of a boiler when all the
other terms of the formula are knowJJ !!s the results of a test
position its value is
. By trans-
== 970(1+ RS/ W)
WARNING: This is a
3. An increase in the value of a from 200 to 400 with j = 20 is much
less detrImenta to efficiency than an increase in j from 20 to 30
In the diagram, Fig. 152, are plotted, together with the curve fbr j=20
a= 290, t-303. and. K = 15.750, marked R= 0.1, a straight line, R=O'
showmg the theoretIca maximum efficiency when there is no loss b;
PERFORMANCE OF BOILERS.
863
36
u
22
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 e
Lb. of Water Evaporated from and at 212 F. per sq. ft. of lleat.ing Smf~e per Hoti
Fro. 151.
I
6%
I I I I I I
2 3
Ltw. of Water Ev~pLed
5 6 8
from and at Lz~ F. per ~2
16 11 l3 13 14
ft. of Eesting 3urf.s.x per Hour
Fro. 152.
$; radiation, and the plottings of the results of two series of tests, one of a
P Thornycroft boiler, with W/ S from 1.24 to S.5, and the other of a Babcock
ilcox marine boiler with W/ S from 5.18 to 13.67, together with the
TESTS OF STEAM-BOILERS.
maximum Centennial tests. The calculated value of a in all these tests
except one ranged from 191 to 454. the highest values being those showing
the largest departure from the curve R = 0.1. The one exceptlo is the
Thornycroft test showing over 8670 efficiency: this gives a v$ue of a =
57, which indicates an error in the test, as such a low value IS far below
the lowest recorded in any other test.
TESTS OF STEAN-BOILERS.
Boiler-tests at t,heCentennial Exhihition, Philadelphia, 1876. -
(see &ports and .4wards Group XX, International Exhibition, Phila.,
1876; also. Clark on the Steam-engine, vol. i, page 253.) _~~-..
Competit,ive test,s were made of fourteen boilers, using good anthracite
coal. one boiler, the Galloway, being tested with bot.h anthracite and semi-
bituminous coal. Two tests were made with each boiler: one called the
capacit~y trial, to determine the economy and capacity at a rapid rate of
driving: and the other called the economy trial, to determine the economy
when driven at a rate supposed to be near that of maximum economy and
rated capacity. The following table gives the principal results obtained
in the economy trial. together with the capacity and economy figures of
the capacity trial for comparison.
Economy Tests.
Root. . . . . . . . 34.
Firmenich ____.____ 64.3 12.1
&we . .._..._..._.. 30.6 6.,
,mith... _. _. 45.8 I
labcock&Wilcox..37.71
8 I I . 3 1. 87i l l . 923 33:
2. 1 I I . 1 2. 42! 11. 906 41
0. 0~11. 0) 2. 43: 11. 822 291
. . . . . . 123. 7' 9. 6 11. 1~3. 63: 11. 583 30:
coal . j U. 71 7. 9 8. 8, 3. 20: 12. 125 32i
' - 61 8. 0 10. 3! 2. 32/ 11. 039' 421
8. 5' 2. 75110. 930 51:
>V. I I I L. , , 9. 5 3. 30! 10. 834 52,
Har; %. : : : : : : : : : : %: 3j l 2. 4~
Wiegand.. . . . .? - .. *
Anderson ____. 1_.,. 17.5 9.7!
Kelly . . . . .._...._ 20.9 IO.,
pyr. . . . . . . . . . . . . 33. 5 9. 311
l SP2 . . . . . 14. 0
Rogers&Black... . 19.0
Averages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 77i l l . l 23 __.
1- - / - - - 1- I - l - I -
E
2
z
.e
5
z
5
$
7,
.
. .
i :
2.
0:
0:
. .
: :
: :
-
1:
F.5
$1
i : .
i : :
p; ;
. .
-i-
42
SE
E8
0
i zi
.-
$ %i.
g ZK.
&
c
$7 Q~
*NZ
d;;;
6 3
--
I.P. lbs.
148. 6 10. 441
68. 4 I I . 064 ;
69. 3 I l . 163
125. 0 11. 925
186. 6 10. 330
133. 811. 216
125. 1 I l . 609
58. 7 9. ~745
108. 4 9. 889
162. 8 9. 145
132. 8 9. 568
99. 9 8. 397
198. 0 9. 974
. 67. 8 9. 865
67. 2 9. 429
l l O. 8110. 251
The comparison of the economy and capacity trials shows that an
average increase in capacity of 30 per cent was a.ttended by a decrease in
economy of 8 per cent. but the relation of economy to rate of driving
varied greatly in the different boilers.
capacity of 22
In the Kelly boiler an increase in
er cent was attended by a decrease in economy of over
?8 per cent. whi ethe Smith boiler with an increase of 2.5per cent in capac- .P
ItY showed a slight increase in economy.
One of the most important lessons gained from the abovk tests is thit
there is no necessary relation between the type of a boiler and economy.
..-.- ~~. .,.- ~-~ ~~~_,__~._~_~_~._. _
%%%ING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
Of the five boilers that gave the best results, t,he total range of variation
between the highest. ancl lowest of the five being only 2.3%. three were
water-tube boilers, one was a horizontal tubular boiler, and the fifth was
a combination.of the two type!:. ,, The next boiler on the !ist. the Gallo-
wa% was an Internally fired holler, all of the others bemg externally
Some High Rates of Evaporation. - Engg, May 9, 1884. p, 415.
Locomotive. Torpedo-boat.
Water evap. per sq. ft. H.S. per hour.. 12.57 13.73
Water evap. per l b. fuel from and at 212 8.22
8,g4 I$:$ l+.i$
Thermal units transfd per sq. ft.: of H.S.. 12.142 13,263 12,113 20,034
Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . ._. . 0.586 0.637 0. 542 0. 468
It is doubtful if these figures were corrected for priming.
Economy Effected by Heating the Air Su plied to Boiler-furnaces.
-An extensive series of experiments WBS ma II e by J. C. Hoadley (Trans.
A. S. iM. E., vi, 676) on a Warm-blast Apparatus, for utilizing the heat
of the waste gases in heating the air supplied t.0the furnace. The appara-
tus, as applied to an ordinary horizontal tubular boiler 60 in. diameter,
21 ft. long, wi.th 65 31/ 2-i. tubes, consisted of 240 2-in. tubes, 18 ft. long.
through which the hot gases passed while the air circulated around them.
The net saving of fuel effected by the warm blast was from 10.7% to 15.5%
of the fuel used with cold blast. The comparative temperatures averaged
as follows, in degrees F.:
Co;lc-$$t tia;b?,;;ast
Difference.
In heat of fire.. . . . . . 2493 2793 300
At bridge wall.. . 1340 1600 260
In smoke box . 373
Air admitted to furnace
3%
g: : 30:
Steam and water in boiler 300
Gases escaping to chimney.. .
External air . _ . . . . . . . . .
3:: 162 21' :
32 0
With anthracite coal the evaporation from and at 212 per lb. combus-
tible was, for the cold-blast. boiler, daYs 10.85 tbs., days and nights 10.51;
and for the warm-blast boiler, days 11.83, days and nights 11.03.
Maximum Boiler Efiicienry with. Cumberland Coal. - About 12.5
lbs. of water per lb. combustil~le f rnm a. nti 3.t 212 is about the hiehest
evaporation tiiiat can be obtakyz &I% tiib-best steam fuels in the U$ed
States such as Cumberland, Pocahontas, and Clearfield. In escpptlonal
cases i3 lbs. has been reached: and one test is on record (F. %. Dean,
En,gg Sews. Feb. 1. 1894) givmg 13.23 lbs. The boi!er was int.ernal&
fired of the Belpaire type. 82inches diameter, 31 feet long, with 160 3-inch
tubes 12112feet long. BeatinP-sllrfn.ce~ 199X souare feet: grate-surface.
45 square feet, reduced during the test to 30% square feet.. Doubl;::;;
ace with fire-brick arches and a long combuslion-chamber.
wate; heater in smoke-box. The following a,rethe principal results:
1st Test. 2d Test.
dry coal burned per sq. ft. of grate per hour, lbs.. 8.85
Water evap. per sq. ft.. of heating-surface per hour, Ibs. 1.63 So
Water evap. from and at 212~per lb. combustible, m-
eluding feed-water beater. . . . . 13.17
Water evaporated, excluding feed-water heater. . . . l.6t2
:;:g
Temperature of gases after leaving heater, P.. . . . .
469
.
BOILERS USING WASTE GASES.
Water-tube Roilers using Blast-furnace Gases. - D. S., Jacobus
(Trans. A. I. M. B.. xvii, 50) reports a test of a water-tube boder ust;f
blast-furnace gas as fuel. The heating-surface was 2535 Sq. ft..
developed 328 H.P., or 5.01 lbs. of water from and at 212 per W. ft. of
heating-surfam per hour. Some of the principal data obta!ned were 88
follows: Calorific value of 1lb.of the eras. 1413 B.T.U.. including the effect
of itsinitial temperature, which was 650 F. Am~ount of air used to burn
1 lb. of the gas = 0.9 lb. Chimney draught, 1113 in. of water.
gas inlet, 300 sq. in.: of air inlet; 100 sq. in.
Area of
Temperature of the chimney
gases. 775 F. Efficiency of the boiler calculated from the temperatures
ar&d analyses of the ases at exit and entrance, 6l/ o. The average analyses
wereas follows, hy f.f rocarbons being included in the nitrogen:
I
By Weight.
At Entrance, At Exit.
co*. .................
0 ................... O:Z
CO. .................. 26. 71
EiyCg;i.: ........... 62.48
c; "do . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 92
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. 45
Total C .............. 14. 37
7
.
I
._
-
By Volume.
At, Exit.
7. 08 18. 64
0. 10
27. 80 : : Zi
65. 02 76. 42
.............. ..............
............. ..............
.............. ..............
S&am-boilers Fired with Waste Gases from Pud@ing and Heat-
inpfurnaces. -The Iron dge, .4pril 6, 1893. contains a iCpOit of a
number of tests of steam-boilers utilizing the waste heat from puddhng
and heating-furnaces in ro!llng-mills.
The following principal data are
selected: in Nos. 1, 2, and 4 the boiler is a Babcock & Wilcox water-tube
boiler and in No. 3it is a plain cylinder boiler, 42 in. diam. and 26 ft. long.
No. 4boiler was connected with a heating-furnace, the others with puddhng
furnaces.
Water evap. per hour, Ibs. . _ . _ . . . . . . . , . .
Water evap. per sq. ft. H.S. per hr., lbs.. .
Water evap. per lb. coal from and at 212O .
Water eoap. per lb. comb. from and at 212
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.
1026 1196 143 1380
19.9 13.6 13.6 16.7
52 87. 2 10. 5 82. 8
3; s; 2159 I812 3955
5.9
. . . . 7. 20 . 4.
In No. 2. 1.38 lbs. of iron were puddled per lb. of coal.
In No. 3 1.14 lbs. of iron were puddled per lb. of coal.
No. 3shows that an insufficient amount of heating-surface was provided
for the amount of waste heat available.
BXX.ES FOR COhDUCTIXG BOILER-TESTS.
Codeof 1899.
(Reoorted by the Committee on Boiler Trials, Am. Sot. M. E.*)
I. Determine at the outset the specific ~object of the prcposed tria!.
whether it be to ascertain the capacity of the boiler, its ethci.ency as ,a
steam-generator, its efliciency and its defects under usurl working condl-
tions. the economv of some particular kind of fuel, or the effect of changes
of design proportion or operation) and prepare for the trial accordtngly.
II Examine thebo&, both outside and inside: ascertain the dimensions
of &es heat,ing surfaces, and all important parts: and make a fill1
record. describing the same, and illustrating special features by sketch=.
III. Notice the general condition of the boiler and its equipment, .and
record such facts in relation thereto as bear upon the obJects in view.
* The code is here slightly abridged. The complete- report of the
Commit.tee may be obtained in pamphlet form from the Secretary of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York,
WARNING: Thins is a 1910 edition. Some of
RULES FOR CONDUCTING BOILER-TESTS.
867
+LmH$heobj.ect~of the trial is to ascertain the maximum economy or caDac-
iry OI me oouer as a steam-generator,
should be put in first-class condition.
t.he boiler and all its appurtenailces
Clean the heating surface inside
and outside. remove clinkers from the grates and from the sides of the
furnace. Remove.all dust, soot, and
connections and flues.
ashes from the chambers. smoke-
Close air-leaks in the masonr and poorly fitted
cleamng-doors. See that the damper will open ~1 e and close tight..
Test for air-leaks bv firine a f ern shnodn nf
d
smoky fuel and immedia&lv
closing the damper. observing the escape of smoke throu+ the cm&es;
or by passing tile flame of a candle over cracks in the bric&,-ork.
,I?. Determke t!te chpr@y of the coal to be used. For tesrs of the
emclency or capacit
Coal should, If possl 3
of t.heboiler for comparison with other boilers the
as a standard.
le, be of some ki~nd which is commerciallv regarded
For New England and that portion of the cduntrv east
of the .4llegheny Mountains, good anthracite egg coal. containing not
over 10 per cent of ash, and semi-bituminous Clearfield (Pa.). Cumberland
(Md.). and Pocahontas (Va.) coals are thus regarded. West of the Alle-
gheny Mountains, Pocahontas (Va.) and New River (W. Va.) semi-bitu-
minous. and Youghiogheny o
as standards.*
lr Pittsburg bituminous coals are recognized
For.tests made to determine the performance of a boiler with a
artic-
ular kind of coal, such as may be specified in a contract for the sa e of a
P
boiler. the coal used should not be higher in ash and in moisture than that
specified, since increase in ash and moisture above a stated amount is
apt to cause a falling off of both capacity and economy in greater propor-
t:cn than the proportion of such increase.
V. Establish thecorrectness of all apparatus used in the test for weighing
and measuring. These are:
1. Scales for weighing coal, ashes, and water.
2. Tanks or water-meters for measuring water.
Water-meters as a
rule, should only be used as a check on other meas~,rements: Foraccu-
rate work the water should be weighed or measured in a tank.
3. Thermometers and pyrometers for taking temperatures of air. steam,
feed-water, waste gases, etc.
4. Pressure-gauges, draught-gauges, etc.
VI: See that the boiler is thorought)/ heated before the trial to its usual
working temperature. If the boiler is new and of a form
brick setting, it should be in regular use at least a week
so as to dry and heat the walls.
IF
rovided with a
efore the trial
If it has been laid off and become cold:
it should be worked before the trial until the walls are well heated.
VII. _ T&c hpilcr oo.d connections should be proved to be free from leaks . _
bef ore begi nni ng a test, and all water connections inchrding blow and
extra feed-pipes. should be discounected, stopped with blank flanges or
bled through special openings beyond the valves. extent the oarticular
pipe through which water is to
the test the blo
-If an injecto:
Pipe from the t
befed to the boiler during the trial: During
#w-off and feed pipes should remain exposed to view.
r is used. it should receive steam directly through a felted
boiler beine tested-t
I ------.a
If the water is metered after it passes the injector, its temperature
shou!d be taken at the point where it leaves the injector. If the quan-
tity IS determined before it goes to the injector, the temperature should
be determined on the suction side of the injector, and if no change at
R.
* These coals are selected because they are about the only coals which
assess the essentials of excellence of uality, adaptabhity to various
?nds of furnaces, grates, boilers, and met 81ods of firing, alM widedistribu-
tion and general accessibili@y in the markets.
t In feeding a boiler undergoing test with an injector taking steam from
another boiler, or from the main steam-pipe from several boilers. the evap-
orative results may be modified by a difference in the
from. such source compared with that supplied by the
uality of the steam
8. oiler being tested,
and In some cases the connection to the injector may act as a drip for the
main steam-pipe.
the same
If it is known that the steam from the main pipe is of
the test, t ii
ressure and
e steam may 7l c
ualit as that furnished by the boiler undergoing
e ta en from such main pipe.
L. ~. ~~,.~~..~ ..,,, ~~.
e material mtij~ r&longer be accurate
THE STEAM-BOILER.
temperature occurs other than that due to the injector, the temperature
thus determined is properly that of the feed-water. When the temper-
ntazw rhanees between then iniector and the boiler. as by the use of a ___-.._-- --..~~,~~
&%r or by rachatlon, the temperature at which ihe water enters and
leaves theinjector and thal at which it enters the boiler should all be taken.
In that case the weight to :~e lsed is that of the water lesving the injector,
computed from the heat :...;ts if not directly measured; and the tem-
perature. that of the water entering the boiler.
Let w = weight of water ttnteriug the injector:
1: = weight of steam ente,Ang the injector;
h,= heat-units per pound of water entering injector:
h?= heat-units per pound of steam entering injector;
h3= heat-units per pound of water leaving injector.
Then w + z = weight of water leaving injector;
hz - hl
== wU-
See that the steam-main is so arranged that water of condensation
cannot run back into the boiler.
VIII. Duration. of the Test. - For tests made to ascertain either the
maximum economy or the maximum cspaeity of a boiler, irrespective of
the particular class of service for which it is regularly used, the duration
should bc? at least ten hours of continuous running. If Fhe rate of com-
bustion exceeds 2.5 pounds of coal per square foot of grate-surface per
hour, it may be stopped when a total of 250 pounds of coal has been
burned per square Footeof grate.
IX. Starting and Stopping o Test. - The conditions of the boiler and
furnace io all respects should be, as nearly as possible, the same at the end
as at t~hebeginning of the test. The steam-pressure should be the
same rhe water-level the same: the fire upon the grates should be the
samein quantity and condition; and the walls. flues, etc., should be of
the same temperature. Two methods of obtiuning the desired equalits
of conditions of the fire may be used, viz., those which were called in the
Code of lSS5 the standard method and the alternate method, the
latter being employed where it is inconvenient to make use of the stand-
ard method.*
X. Standard Method of Starting and Stopping a Test. -Steam being
raised IO the working pressure, remove rapidly all the fire from the grate,
close the damper. clean the ash-pit, and as quickly as possible start a new
fire \ vith weighed wood and coal, noting the time and the water-level,
whilethe water is in a quiescent st.ate. just before lighting the fire.t
At the end of the test remove the whole fire, which has been burned lo?,
clean the grates and ash-pit, and note the water-level when the water IS
in a quiescent state, and record the time of hauling the fire. The water-
level should be as nearly as possible the same as at the beginning of the
test. If it is not the same, a correction should be made by computation,
and not by operating the pump after the test is completed.
XI. Alternate &f&hod of Starting and Stopping ~a Test. -The boiler
being thoroughly heated by a preliminary run. the fires are to be burned
low and well cleaned. Note the amount of coal left on the grate as nearly
as it can be estimated; note the pressure of steam and the water-level.
Note the time, and record it as the starting-time. Fresh coal which has
* The Committee concludes that it is best to retain the designations
standard and alternate. since they have become widely known and
established in the minds of engineers and in the reprints in the Code of
1585. 1Iany engineers prefer the alternate to the standard method
on account of its being less liable to error due to cooling of the boiler at the
beginning and end of-a test.
t The gauge-glass should not be blown out within an hour before the
water-level is taken at the beginning and end of a test, otherwise an
error in the reading of the water-level may be caused by a change in the
temperature and densitv of the water in the cipe leading from the bottom
of the gIass into the boiler.
~%ARNING: This is a 19~~~ition. Some of
RULES FOR CONDUCTING BOILER-TESTS.
869
been weighed should now be fired.
cleaned at once after starting.
The ash-pits should be thoroughly
Before the end of the test the fires should
be burned low, just as before the start, and the fires cleaned in such a
manner as to leave a hed of coal on the grates of the same depth, and in
the same condition, as at the start. When this stage is reached, note the
time and record it as the stopping-time. The water-level and steam-
pressures should previously be brought as nearly as possible to the same
psint as at the start. If the water-level is not the same as at the start, a
correction should be made by computation, and not by operating the
p&up after the test is complet,ed.
XII. Uniformity of Condition.8. - In all trials made to ascertain max-
imum economy or capacity the conditions should be maintained uni-
formly constant. .4rrangements should be made to dispose of the steam
so:p,,tft the rate of evaporation may be kept the same from beginning to
XIII. Keeping theRecords. -Take note of every event connected with
the progress of the trial, however unimpgrtant it may appear. Record
the time of every occurrence and the time of taking every weight and
every observation.
The coal should be weighed and delivered to the firemanin equal proppr-
tions, each sufficient for not more than one hours run, and a fresh
should not be delivered until the previous one has all been fire
uired
I.?
orph;
tima re
recorde2
to consume each portion should be noted, the time being
at the instant of firing the last of each portion. It is desirable
that at the same time the amount of water fed into the boiler should be
accurately noted and recorded, including the height of the water in the
boiler. and the average pressure of steam and temperature of feed during
the time. By thus recording the amount of water evaporated hv surces-
sive portions of coal, the test may be divided into seve:al periods it desired.
erature of the of the external air in the
is
of the temperature of the furnace when a furnace-pyrometer
used, also of the pressure of steam, and of the readings of the instru-
ments for determining t.hemoisture in the steam. -4 log should be kept
on properly prepared blanks containing columns for record of the various
observations.
XIV. Qualit!! of Steam. -The percentage of moisture in the steam
should be determined by the use of either a throttling or a separating
steam-calorimeter. The sampling-nozzle should be placed in the vertical
steam-pipe rising from the boiler. It should be made of Q-inch pipe,
and should extend across the diameter of the steam-pi e to within half
an inch of the opposite side, being closed at the end an L-Y perforated with
not less than twenty %-inch holes eauallv distributed along and around
its cylindrical surf&, hut noneof theie holes should be near& than l;ainch
to the inner side of the steam-pipe. The calorimeter and the pipe leading
to it should be well covered with feltinz. Whenever the indications of the
throttling or separating calorimeter shkw that the percentage of moisture
is irregular, or occasionally in excess of three per cent, the results shouId
be checked by a steam-separator placed in the steam-oioe as close to the
boiler as cotivenlent. with a calorimeter in the s&a&pipe just beyond
the outlet from the separator. The drip from the separator should be
caught and weighed, and the percentage of moisture computed therefrom
added to that shown by the calorimeter.
Superheating should he determined by means of a thermometer placed
in a mercury-well inserted in the steam-pipe. The degree o: superheating
should be taken as the dilference between the readinc of the thermometer
for superheated steam and the readings of the same thermometer for
saturated steam at the same pressure as determined by a special experl-
ment. and not by reference to steam-tables.
XV. Sampling the Coal and Determining its MoZsture. - As each
barrow-load or fresh portion of coal is taken from the coal-
sentative shovelful ix selected from it and placed in a barreP
ile. a repre-
or box In a
lace and kept until the end of the trial. The samples are thetimixed
ieces not exceeding one inch in diameter, and reduced
repeated quartering and crushing until a final sample
ppn- ~. ~~~. ~. ~~. ~. - . e~ . . _. . ~_~
ke material may no longer be accurate
weighing about five.pounds,is obtained, and the size of the larger pieces
is such that they ~111pass through a sieve with r/ r-inch meshes.
From
this sample two one-quart, air-tight glass preserving-jars, or other air-tight
vessels which will prevent the escape of moisture from the sample, are
to be promptly Elied., and these samples are to be kept for subse
determinations of moisture and of heating value and for chemical ana
4
uent
yses
Dunng the process of auarterlng. when the samole has been red!lred to
- .
about 100 nounds. a ouarter to a half of it m3.v he t.n.ken f nr nn nnnrr _-
mate deter&n&n of moisture- ----- -- ---_I
Ths may be %&?$*~a&?~??~
shallow iron pan. not over three inches deep, carefully weighing it, and
setting the pan in the hottest place that can be found on the brickwork
of the boiler-setting or flues, keeping it there for at least 12 hours and
then weighrng it. The determination of moisture thus made is believed
to be approximately accurate for anthracite and semi-bituminous coals
and also for Pittsburg or Youghlogheny coal; but it cannot be relied upon
for coals mined west of Pittsburg. or for other coaLs containing inherent
moisture. For these latter coals it is imnortant, that a more accurate
~hP rnmmittnn r-c.,. method be adopted. The method recommended by t.., -._... l.yIII .VI
all accurate tests, whatever the character of the coal, is described as
foilows:
Take one of the samnles contained in the e+lnsa ,in,rs ~a.nd cnhi ont i t tn n _~~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . -..- ---- _ ---- ~ ---, I___ ---*~ . yY .
thorough air-drying, by spreading it in a thin layer and exposing it for
several hours to the atmosphere of a warm room, weighing it before and
after, therebr determininrr the ouantitv of serfa,ce moisture it contains.
. _- __- _
Then crush the whole of it hv rr; r%rdt thrmwrh
adjusted so as to produce sor&h~t
- -- ----=-.
an ordinary coffee-mill
coarse grains (less than l/ ieinch)
thoroughly mix the crushed sample, select from it a portion of from 10 td
50 grams, tveigh it in a balance which will easily show a variation as small
as 1 part In 1000. and dry it in an air- or sand-bath at a temperature
between 240 and 280 degrees Fahr. for one hour.
Wri eh i t and rmmd ._ -..- _--___
the loss, then heat.and weigh it again repeatedly, at intervals of an hour
has been reached and the weight beeins or less. until the minimum weight :
to increase by oxidation of a portion of the coal.
Tinedifferen& bet\ qee%
the original and the minimum weight is taken as the moisture in the air-
dried coal. This moisture test should
samples. and the n
preferably be made on duplicate
%ults should agree Eithin 0.3 to 0.3 of one per cem
the mean of the two det~erminations heine tn,k~n m the rnrr~ri ~~~~nl t~
,ermined is the total moisture.- ~~.~~;. ..- -_--_- =_ -..---. J
XV I.
Y-I
Treatment of Ashes and Re use. - The ashes and refuse are to be
weighed in a dry state. If it is ound desirable to show the orlncioal
characteristics of the ash, a sa
tf
(mnle should be subjected to a nroximate
analysis and the actua,l amount- of incombustible material d&ermined.
~~u_elsborate trials a complete analysis of the ash and refuse should be
XVII. Calotific Tests and Analysis of Coal. - The quallt of the fuel
should be determined either by beat test or h-7analysis, or by
L 0th
The rational method of determlnlne the total heat of combustion is to
burn t.hesample of coal in an atmosphere of oxygen gas, the coal to be
sampled as directed in Art.icle XV of this code.
The chemical analysis of the co?,1should be made only by an expert
chemist. The total heat of combust.ion computed from the results of
the ultimate analysis may be ohtained by the use of Dulongs formula
(with constants modified by recent determinations), viz.,
14,600C+62,000(H-;)+4OOOS.
in which C. H. 0. and S refer to the proport.ions of carbon, hydrogen
oxygen. and sulphur respectively, as determined by the ultimate analysis.*
.It, is desirable that a proximate analysis should be made, thereby deter-
muung the relative proportions of volatile matter and fixed carbon.
These
the fueP
roportions furnish an indication of the leading characteristics of
, and serve to fix the class to which it belongs.
* Favre and Silbermann give 14.544 B.T.U. per pound carbon: Bertbe-
lot. 14.647 B.T.U. Favre and Silbermann give 62,032 B.T.U. per pound
hydrogen: Thomsen, 61,816 B.T.U.
; he
,,,
RULES FOR CONDUCTING BOILER-TESTS.
871
YVTTT Annl r, n a nf ?il.rra.oaaen. - The analvsls of the ilue-gasesis an
es&$& ;a[Gz&-Gethod of determining the relative Value of, different
methods of Wing or of different kinds of furnaces. In making these
analyses great care should be taken to procure average samples, smce the
composition is apt to vary at different points of the flue. The composition
is also apt to vary from minute to minute, and for this reason the drawings
of gas should l&st a considerable period of time. Where complete deter-
minations are desired. the analyses sho~dd 1 in&rusted tc. an-expert
chami <+, . -.--_.I_-
For approximate determinations. tile UrsaC or rne nernpel
apparat ;us may be used by the engineer.
For the continue
)us indication of the amount of carbonic acid present
in the hue-gases an instrument may be em.pl,qyed which shows the weight
of Cd2in the sample of gas psssing througn It.
XIX ,JmokeCbser&ions. - It is desirable to have a urifO1
.m system
of de&mining and recording the quantity of smoke produced where
bituminous coal is used.
The system commonly employed 1s to express
the degree of smokiness by means of percentages dependent upon the
judgment of the observer. The actual measurement Of a Sample of Soot
and smoke by some form of meter is to he preferred.
XX Miscellaneor~s. -In tests for purposes of scientific research, in
whichthe determination of all the variables ent~enng into the test 1s
desired, certain observations should be made which are in general unneces-
sary for ordinary tests.
As these determjnations are rarely undertaken,
it is not deemed advisable to give directions for making them.
XXI. Co.l&otions of E;tficiencl~. - Two methods ot defining and calcu-
lating the efficiency of a boiler are recommended.
They are:
1. Efficiency of the boiler=
Heat absorbed per-lb. combustible.
Calorific val ue of 1 lb. combustible
Heat absorbed per h. Coal
2. Efficiency of the boiler and grate= Ca,oriilc value of 1 lb. c,oal
The first of these is sometimes called the efficiency.based on combustl:
ble, and the second the efficiency based on coal.
The first is recommenaea
as a standard of comparison for all tests, and this is the one n-much is under-
stood to be referred to when the word efficiency alone is used without -_._- .~
ntanlifirat,inn The second. however. should be _..- ~_.~~~~, included in a report of a
$%%%her wit.b the first, whenever the object of t.hetest is to determine
the ktli~iency of the boiler and furnace together wit.h t~hegrate (or mechan-
ical stoker), or to compare different furnaces, grates, fuels. or methods of
firing.
The heat absorbed per pound of combustible (or per pound Coal) is to
be calculated by multiplying the equivalent evaporation from and at 212
degrees per pound combustible (or coal) by 965.7. .
XXII. The Heat Balnnce. - An approximate heat balance may. be
the fuel and.of the cbim-
i,ncluded in the report of a test when~analyses of
iev-eases have been made. It should be reported in the following form:
is&enext page.]
XXIII Report of theTrial. - The data and results should be re
orted
in the m&mer eiven in either one of the two following tables
[on y the P
_ __._.~.._.
She.. __..L. -- __-__.-
rt Form *I ;? t&e is eiven herel. omitting lines ~~
where the tests pave
not been made as elaborat&y as proi;ided for in such tables.
Additional
lines may be added for data relating to the specific object of the test.
The Short Form of Report, Table No. 2, is recommended for commercial
tests and as a convenient form of abridging the longer form for publication
when saving of space is desirable.
For elaborate trials it is recommended
that the full log of the trial be shown graphically, by means of a chart.
$r,
! material may ni i
.
-----~-.c --
l onger be accurate
1
- ~2
4. :
872 THE STEAM-BOILER
HEATBALANCE.OR DI~TIUBQT~O~~ OFTHE HEATING VALUE OFTHE Co&[-
BU0TIBLE.
Total Heat Value of 1 lb. of Cdmbustible.. . . . . . . . . . .B.T.U.
I
B.T.TJ
I-
l. Heat absorbed bY theboiler =evapontion from and at
212degrees per pound of sombustible x 965.7*. _ . . .
2. Loss due to moisture in coal =nor m-n+nC ~&-+.:-~
referred to combustible + 199x I(212- ti+&%?G
048(T - 21213(1=temperat~ureof air in the boiler-
room. T = that of the flu-gases) . . . . .
?. Loss due to moisture f+nned by the burning of hydro-
.
gen =per cent of hydrogen to combustible + 100x 9
x f(2I2 - t) + 966 + 0.48 CT - 212)1~ __ ..__. ._ ___I
4.
. -..- _I . . . . . . . . ..=,.rimney-gases
mound of combustible x 0.24 x
5.
6.
(1 -c,..................................................
1Loss $4 to incomplete combustion of carbon
-CO*+CO x
per cent C m combustible
loo
x 10.150 . . . . . .
I
Loss due to unconsumed hydrogen and hydrocarbon.4
to heat.ing the moisture in the air. to radiation and
unaccountecl for: (Some of these losses mav be &pa-
rat& ltemlzed d data are obtained from Ghieh they
,
may be calculated) _. _. . . . . _. . _. .
1
Totals.........................~:::::::::~~:~:~~~~~:~
i 100.00
* [The figure 96.5.7 (or 966) is taken from the old steam tables. If
Peabodys new table (1909) is used it should be changed to 969.i. or if
Marks & Da$ss table is used, to 970.4.1
t The weight of gas per pound of carbon burned may be calculat.ed
from the gas analyses as follows:
80+7(CO+N)
Dry gas per pound carbon =
11 CO?+
3 (COn + &j , in which
CO, 0,. and N are the percentages by volume of the several gases.
:.amDhng and
As the
,.
ana!.\ :ses of the gases in the nresent state of the a~rt. 2.r~
imole Co c?nmderable errors, the result of t,his calculation is usuallv only
an approsnmate one. The heat balance itself is also only appro<imate
for t.l?ls reason. as well as for the fact that it is not possible to deter
,x-nine
accurately the percenOageof unburned hydrogen or hydrocarbons il
flm?-eases
n the
The weight of dry gas per pound of combustible is found by multiplr-
ing the dry gas
combustible. an B ..
er pound of carbon by the percentage of carbon in the
dlvlding hv 100.
J CO? and CO are respeciive1.v the percentage by volume of carbonic
acid and carbonic oride in t~heHue-gases.
The quant,ity 10.150 = num-
ber of heat-units generated by burning to carbonic acid one pound of car-
bon eontamed in carbonic oxide.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
-
RULES FOR CONDUCTING BOILER-TESTS.
873
TABLE NO. 2.
DATA AND RESULTS OF EVAPORATIVE TEST.
Arranged in accordance with the Short Form advised by the Boiler Test
Committee of the A,merican Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Code of 1899.
Made by _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ..on................boiler.at..............
to determine.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kind of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iiindoffurnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Method of starting and st,opping the test ( standard
or alternate, Arts. X and XI. Codej
.................
Gratesurface ..............................................
Water-heating surface
Superheating surface
.....................................
......................................
TOTALpclANTlTIES.
.1. Dated trial ...........................................
2. Duration of trial.
......................................
3. Weight of coal as fired * ..
..............................
4. Percentage of moisture m co%1t
5. Total weight of dry coal consumed
...........................................
6. Total ash and refuse
... ...
.
... . .... ...
7. Percentage of ash and refusem dry cool
...........
8. Tot,al weight of water fed to the boiler $. .........
....................
.
9. Water actually evaporated, corrected for moisture
or superheat in steam
...............................
9~. Factor of evaporation 9....... ......
..... ....... ......
IO. Equivalent water evaporated mto dry steam fmm
and at 212degrees.11 (Item9 x Item9a.). ..........
HOURLY OUANTITUU.
1I. Dry coat consumed per hour.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Dry coal per square foot of grate surface per hqur..
13. Water evaporated per hour corrected for quahaY of
-
sq:ft.
6.
steam................................................~
14. Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212de-
,,
grees ~~_......_......,...,............................ :
15. Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212de-
grees per square foot of water-heating surface II..
,.
* Including equivalent of wood used in lighting the fire, ndt including
unburned coal withdrawn from furnace at times of cleaning and at end pf
test. One pound of wood is taken to he equal to 0.4 poundpf coal. or. 11%
case greater accuracy is desired. as having a heat, value equivalent to the
evaporation of 6 pounds of water from and at 212 degrees per pound.
(6 x.Q65.7 = 5794 B.T.U.) The term as fired means m Its actual
condltlon including moisture.
t This is the total moisture in the coal as found by drying it artificially.
as described in Art. XV of Code.
$ Corrected for inequillity of water-level and of steam-pressure at
betinning and end of test. __ _,
0 Factor of evaporation= &,
in which H and h are respectiveb
the total heat in steam of the average observed pressure, and in water of
the average observed, temperature of the feed.
11The symbol U.E., meaning @ts of evaporation. may be Con-
veniently substituted for the expression
Eqoivalent water ev?~or+d
into dry steam from and at 212 degrees,
*I its definition being even in a
foot-note,
TABLE NO. 2 - Crmtitl-iced.
DATA AND RESULTS OF EVAPORATIVE TEST.
, AVEFACE PiWSSURES. TEMPERATUP3& ETC.
16. Steam pressure by gauge.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17. Tempsmtwe of feed-water entering boiler.. . . . . .
18. Tempemture of escapmg gases from bmler . .
19. Force of dnugbt between damper and boiler.. .
20. Percentage of moisture in steam, or number of de.
grees of superheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HORSE-POWER.
21. Horse-power developed. (Item 14+341/ z.)*. . .
22. Builders rated horse-power.. . . _. . . .
23. Percentage of builders rated horse-power developed
ECONOMIC RESULTS.
24. W?ter apparently evaporated under actual col:di-
tlons per pound of coal as fired. (Item &Item 3.)
25. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212degrees pex
pound of coal as fired.11 (Item IO t Item 3.). .
26. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212degrees per
pound of dry coal.11 (Item 10f It~em 5.j.. . _.
27. Equiva!ent evaporation from and at 212degrees per
pound of combustible. [Item IO + (Item 5-
Item 6).1.. . _. . . . . . . . _. . .
(If Items 25. 26, and 27are not corrected for quality
of steam, the fact should be stated.)
28. Calorific value of the dry coal per pound.. . . . . . . . . . .
29. Calorific value of the combustible per pound.. . . . . . .
30. Efficiency of boiler (based on combusttble) t . . . . . . .
31. Efficiency of boiler, including grate (based on dry
eoal)................................................
COST OF EVbPORATION.
32. Cost of coal per ton of - Ibs. delivered in boiler-
room................................................
33. Cost of coal required for evaporating 1000pounds of
wafer from and at 212degrees. . . . . . .
bs.dpsq.in
.F
ns.of watt?
% or deg.
Ii;P.
per cent
Ibs.
.a
. .
B.T.U.
per cent
I
* Held to b.ethe equivalent of 30 lbs. of water evaporated from 100
degrees Fahr. into dry steam at 70 lbs. gauge-pressure.
t In all cases n-here the word combustible is used it means the
Foal xrithout moisture and ash, but including all other cckstituents.
1s the same as what is called in Europe coal dry and free from ash.
It
II See foot-note on the preceding page.
FACTORS OF EVAPORATION.
The figures in the table on the next four pages are calculated from the
formula F =(H - h) + 970.4, in which H 1s the total heat above 32O of
I. lb. of steam of the observed pressure. h the total heat above 3Z0of the
ele$ Fter. and 970.4 the heat of vaporization, or latent heat, of steam at
&n in Marks and Daviss steam tables.
The values of these total heats and of the !atent heat are those
The factors are given for every 3 of feed water temperature between
32" and 21?' . and for every 5or 10Ibs. steam pressure within the ordinary
wor.Jiing limits of pressure.
Intermediate values correct to the third
decimal place may easily be found by interpolation,
-._L__, ,---~_,----.__ _- ~, ~- . - - - ~, ~~ . . . . . . . . . - , . ~- ~~, ~~~- ~. _
WARNING: This is a 1910 Edition. Some of the
FACTORS OF EVAPOR.YrION 875
: Lb' / 15. 0. j 25: 10. 3 135. 20. 3 1 30. 3 45. 1
40. 3
165.
50. 3
/
60. 3 70. 3 80. 3 85. 3
55. 75. / 85. 1 95. 1100.
Feed
wvater.
212OF.
: I I :
203
tti
194
191
E- z
182
1: :
173
170
167
164
161
1: :
2
i i t
12
134
131
E
I 22
I I 9
I I 6
I I 3
I I 0
107
104
101
2
i ;
2
80
77
Factors of Evaporation.
maxerral may no l onger De accurate
876 THE STEAM-BOILER.
Gaugep
Ah. pre
FSd
water.
212" F.
209
206
203
%
194
191
1:
182
179
176
173
170
167
164
161
158
I 55
152
149
I 46
143
1:
134
I 31
1:
I 22
119
116
I I 3
I I 0
107
104
I O1
98
; ;
89
i !
:
: :
i i
2
: 3"
ZY
2
: ;
32
: s: l %i I l O: 95 3 / ~115: I 00 3 1 I 20. 105. 3 1. 125. 110. 3 / 130. 115. 3 1 135. 120. 3 / 140. 125. 3 1 145. 130. 3 i 150. 135. 3
/
14
155: ~
- -
Factors of Evaporation.
Ef
ii
1. 0504
35
66
1. 06: ;
z
1. 0721
2;
I . 0813
44
75
I . 0906
37
E
I . 1030
6!
LI Z
53
8- i
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:
I . 1308
39
d
i :
l . l 5E
; :
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47
1. 17; :
39
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32
ts
I . 1924
2
I . Ml 7
2
I . 2110
; i
' . 2203
34
I-,~,,-~_. -- -~.~ -.,.. -.~-~_ ..~ ~~~..~,..
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
L
th
water.
ii9 F.
206
203
%
%
I f i
I ; :
1: ;
170
167
164
I 61
1: :
152
149
I 2
140
137
134
131
I 28
125
122
119
I I 6
113
I I ;
104
I O1
98
95
92
i I
83
80
: : :
i i 4
: :
59
: ' ;
2
. 44
2
: : .
FACTORS OF EVAPOR.kTION.
877
Factors of Evaporation.
--
I
I
I
I
I . I
I . I
I .
I .
I .
I .
I
I
I
I
I
I
-
CaugcPr- . . " 2: ' ; : 200. 3
Abn. press
1220. 205. 3 i U5. 210. 3 I UO. 215. 3 / L) I . 1240. j
220. 3 225. 3
- - 3&d
z; : 3
i
23i . 3 Zi &. 3 245. 3 250. 3
1~ 1260. ! 265. . .
Factors of Evaporation.
-
wnter.
_- . -
2l . F F.
209
206
203
188
185
I 82
I 79
2
170 i
167
164
I 61
I 58
I 55
I 52
149
1' 3":
134 I
I 31
128
I 25 I
122
I I 9
I
STRENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS.
879
STRENGTH OF STEAM-BOII.ERS. VARIOUS RULES FOR
CONSTRUCTION.*
There is a great lack of uniformity in the rules prescribed by different
writers and by legislation governing the construction of steam-bcalers.
In the United States, boilers for merchant vessels must be constcucted
according to the rules and regulations prescri bed by the Board of super-
vising Inspectors of Steam Vessels: in the U. S. Nayy, accordu!g to rules
of the Navv Department. and in some cases according to specml acts of
Congress. *On land, in some plxes, as in Piuladelpbla, the construc-
tion of boilers is governed by local laws: but
generally~there are no la\ ys
upon the subject, and boilers are constructed according to the i+?a ?f
individual engineers and boiler-makers..
In Europe the construction IS
generally regulated by stringentinspectlon laws.. The rules of the U. S:
Supervising Inspectors of Steam-vessels, the Bntlsh Lloyds and Board 01
Trade the French Bureau Veritas, and the German Lloyd:s are ablY
revieied in a paper by Nelson Foley, M. Inst. NayaJ Architects, etc..
read at the Chicago Englneerlng Congress, 1893, D!vlslon Of Manne and
Naval Engineering. From this paper the followmg notes are taken,
chiefiy with reference to the U. S. and British rules:
(Ahbret<ations. -T. S., for tensile strength: el.. elongation: contr..
cotitr*ction of area.)
Hydraulic Tests. - Board of Trade, Lloyds, and Bureau. Veritas. -.
Twice the working Pressure.
U&et1 States SW&es. - One and a half times the working pressure.
Mr. Foley proposes that the proof pressure should be 11/ s times the
working Pressure + one atmosphere.
Established Nominal Factors of Safety. - Board p/ Trade. - 4.5 for
a boiler of moderate length and of the best constructlon and workman-
ship.
Lloyd,?. - Not very apparent, but appears to lie between 4 and 5..
United States Statutes. - Indefinite, becausa the strength 0f,the Joint
is not considered, except by the broad distinction between sngle and
double riveting.
Bureau Veritas: 4.4.
German ~lo&~: 5 to 4.65, according to the thickness Of the Plates.
Material f or Ri vet i ng.
- - f i n- A nf m. n& - Tmsi l e strencth of rivet
hnrs between 26 and 30 tons, el
&~l~i~.~~~less than 25%. and contr. of
area not less than 50%. (Tonsof 2240 tbs.)
LZoi~ds.-T. S.. 26 to 30 tons; el. not less than. 20% in S in,
The mate-
rial must stand bending to a curve, the inner radius of yhlch I S not greater
than II!+times the thickness of the plate. after having been UmformlY
heated to a low cherry-red, and quenched ~IJ water at 82 F.
Uni ted States Statutes. - No special provlsron.
Rules Connected with Riveting. - Board of Trade. --The shearing
resistance of the rivet steel to be taken at 23 tons per.sguare inch. 5 to
be used for the factor of safety independently of any addltlon to this factor
for the plating. Rivets in double shear to have only 1.75 t i mes the single
section taken in the calculation instead of 2. The diameter mUSt not b,
less t.han the t.hickness of the plate and the pitch never greater than St/ 2.
The thickness of double butt-straps (each) not, Fo be!ess thans/ s the thck-
ness of the
P
late: single
Distance rom c--.+-
Distance betwec
= 2X diam. oi ,LU . ~ L \ \ --.- -.,. _,
butt-straps not less tnan W-
r;L,,,G, tif rivet to edge of plate = diam. of rivet X 11/ 2.
3n rows of rivets
i riTrnt a? = r(dia.rn Y AI+ I] + 2, if chain, and
I+ diam. X 4) if agzag
=
4-h 2 11) + (diam. X 4)) X (pitcl
. 10
Diagonal pitch = (pitch X-6 + diam. X 4) i 10.
Lloyds, - Rivets In doubl e shear to have only 1.75 times the single
section taken in the calculation instead of 2.
The sheanng strength of
rivet steel to be taken at 85% of the T. S. of the ma@lal.of shell Plat?
In any case where the strength of the longitudinal Joint 1s saMfactonlY
* For specifications for steel for boilers, see p. 483.
For riveted joints,
see page 401.
_-.__.___ _I_ --.- ..~-- -_. ~..---~-~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
~..~_
Some of the-material may no lo&j& be a6%%6
shown by experiment to be greater t!lan given by the formula, the actual
strength may be taken in the calculation.
United States Statutes. - No rules.
6 equivalent to those of the British Boar
The rules in 1909 give formulas
of Trade and tables taken from
T. W. Traills Boilers, Marine and Land.]
Material for Cylindrical Shells SubJ & to Internal Pressure. -
Board of Trade. - T. S. between 27 and 32 tons. In the normal condition
el. not less than 18n0in 10in., but should be about 25%; if annealed, noi
less than 20$. Strips 2in. \ \ ?deshould stand bending until the sides are
parallel a! a distance from each other of not more tlran three times the
plates thickness.
Lloyds. - T. S. between the limits of 26 and 30 t.ons per square inch.
El. not less than 2070 in 8in. Test strips heated co a low cherrv-red and
plu!:rred into water at S2 F. must stand bending to a curve, the inner
rachus of which is not treater than 11/ 3times the plates thickness.
U. S. .jYututen. - Plates Y3in. thick and under shall show a rontr. of
not less than .iO?& ; when over Ii3in. and up to 3!4in., not less than 45Y0;
when over 3/ lin.. not less than 40$&.
Mr. Foleys comments: The Board of Trade rules seem to indicate a
steel of too hiuh T. S. when a lower and more ductile one can be got: the
lower tensile limit should be reduced, and the bending.test might with
advantage be made aft,er tempering. and made to a smaller radius.
Lloyds rule for quality seems more satisfactory, but the temper test is
not severe. The Unitd States Statures are not sufficiently stringent to
Insure an entirely sat~isfaetorv material.
Mr. Foley suggests a materiai which would meet the following: 25 tons
!ower hmit in tension: 25!% in 8in. minimum elongation; radius for bend-
Ing test after t,empering = the plates thickness.
Shell-plate Form&e. - Board of Trader P =
TXBXtXa.
D = diameter of boiler in inches:
DXF
P = working-pressure in lbs. per square inch;
t = t,hirkness in inches:
B = percentage of strength of joint compared to solid plate;
7 = tensile st~rength allowed for the material in lbs. per s
F = a factor of safety, being 4.5, with certain additions 8
uare inch:
method of construction.
epending on
Lbyds: *= CX (t--)X B
D
t = thickness of plate in sisteenths: B and D as before: C = a constant
depending on the kind of joint.
When longitudinal seams have double butt-straps, C = 20. When
long$udinal seams have double butt-straps of unequal width. only
covenng on one side the reduced section of plate at the outer line of rivet&
c = 19.5.
When the longitudinal seams are lap-jointed, C=18.5.
G. S. Statures. - Using same notation as for Board of Trade,
p=tX2XT
D x 6 for single-riveting: add 20% for double-riveting;
where 7is the lowest T.S. stamped on anv plate.
Mr. Foler criticises the rule of the K&ted States St.atutes as follows:
__ _- ___..-.
The ruleignorq the riveting, except that it distinguishes between single
,._-- -_ .Jeen single
and double. Ivmg the latter 20% advantage: the circl:mferential riveting
or class of seam is altogether ignored.
:mferential riveting
The rule takes no account of .kes no account of
workmanship or method adopted of constructing the joints.
%nts. The factor, The factor,
one sixth. Jimply covers the actual nominal factor of safety as well as
If safets as well as
the loss of strength at the joint, no matter what its percentage; we may
therefore dismiss it as unsatisfactory.
percentige: we may
Rules for Flat Plates. - Botird of Trade: P = t + )*.
P = working-pressure in fbs. per square%$;
S = surface supported in square inches;
t = thickness in sixteenths of an inch;
C 3 & constaut as per following table:
-I . ..- __.- --__
ti: sifiG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
STRENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS. 881
A
C = 125 for plates not exposed to heat or flame, the stays fitted with nuts
and washers, the latter at least three times the diameter of the
stay and 3i3the thickness of the plate:
C = 157.5 for the same condition, but the washers 3/ 3the pitch of stays
in diameter, and thickness not less than plate:
C = 200 for the same cqndition. but dpubiing pl+tes in place of washers,
t$;idth of wluch 1s 3,3 the pitch and thickness the same as the
C = 112.5 fo; the same condition, but the stays with nuts only;
C = 75 when exposed to irnvnct of heat or Hame and st,eam in contact
with the plates, and the stays fitted with nuts and washers three
times the diameter of the stay and 213the plates thirkuess;
C = 67.5 for the same condition, but stays fitted with nuts only:
C = 100 when exposed to heat or flame, and water in contact with the
plates, and stays screwed into the plates and fitted with nuts;
C = 66 for the same condition, but stays with riveted heads.
U. S. Statutes. -Using same notation as for Board of Trade.
P= w, where p= grealest pitch in inches, P and t as above;
C = 112 t?200 according to various specified conditions. [Rules of 1909.1
Certain experiments were carried out, by t,he Board of Trade which
showed that the resistance to bulging does not vary as the square of the
plates thickness. There seems also good reason to believe that it is not
inversely as the square of the greatest pitch. Bearing in mind, says Mr.
Foley, that mathematicians have signally failed to glvr us true theoretical
foundations for calculating the resistance of hotlies subject to the simplest
forms of stresses. we therefore cannot expect much from their assistance
in the matter of flat plates.
The Board of Trade rules for flat surfaces, being based on actual experi-
ment. are especially worthy of respect; sound judgment appears also $0
have been used in framing them.
Furnace Formulae. -Boaso OF TRADE. -Long Furnaces. -
P= fI , c;i D , but not where L is shorter than (11.5 t-l). at which
2
length-the i;ie for short furnaces comes into play.
P = working-pressure in pounds per square inch: t = thickness in
inches;
D = outside diameter in inches: L = length of furnace in feet up to IO ft..;
C = a constant, as per following table, for drilled holes:
C = 99,;\ ;tFdy welded or butt-jointed with single straps, double-
C = 88.000 forbutts with single straps, single-riveted:
C = 99.000 for butts with double straps. single-riveted.
Provided always that the pressure so found does not exceed that given
by the following formulie, which apply also to short furnaces:
p=cxt
7 for all the patent furnaces named;
P= gg (5- ;&l,?;) when with Adamson rings.
C= 8.800 for pIain furnaces:
C= 14,OOi) for FOX: minimum thickness 3/ 16in., greatest s/ sin.: Plain
part not to exceed 6 in. in length:
C= 13.500 for Morlson: minimum thickness 5/m in., greatest % in. ;
plain part not to exceed 6in. in length:
C= 14,000 for Purves-Brownc limits of thickness 7/ m in. and %/ s in..
plain part 9in. in length:
c- 8.800 for Adamson hngs; radius of Hangenext fire l%ln.
U. S. STATUTES. - Long Fur?pces. - Same not.ation.
p= 89.600 X P
-__, but L not to exceed 8 ft.
I .I n
[New rules are given in
*Au
1909: see page 884.1
L..~~ :
.~.
- ..- --. _
the material may no-~lo@j% be accurate
/
Mr. Foley comments on the rules for long furnaces as follows: The
Board of Trade general formula, where the length is a factor. has a very
limited range indeed, viz., 10 ft. as the extreme length, an$;3; tycknesses
- 12in.. as the short limit. Theorldnal formul&. P= m, IS that of
I ,\
Sir W. Fairbairn, and was, I believe, never intended by turn to apply to
short furnaces. On the very face of It. it is apparent. on the other hand,
that if it is true for moderately long furnaces. It cannot be so for very long
ones. Weare therefore: driven to the conclusion that any formula which
includes simple L as a factor must be founded on a wrong. basis.
With Mr. Traills form of the formula. namely, substltutmg (L + 1)
for L, the results appear sufficiently satisfactory for practical purposes,
and indeed, as far as can be judged, tally with the results obtained frpm
experiment as nearly zu could be expected. The experiments to wh~h
I refer were six in number, and of great variety of. length to diameter:~
the actual factors of safety ranged from 4.4 to 6.2, the mean being 4.7%
or practically 5. It seems to me, therefore, that, wltbln the limits pre-
scribed, the Board of Trade formula may be accepted as suitable for our
requirements.
>Iaterial for Stays. -The. qualities of material prescribed are aS
fol!ows:
Board of Trade. - The tensile strength to liebetween the limits of 27 and
32 tons per sq. in., and to have an elongation of not less than 20% in
10in. Steel dtass which have been welded or worked in the fire should
not beused. [Tons of 2740Ibs.1
Llu~tis. - 26 to 30 ton steel. with elongation not less than 20% in 8 in.
U. S. Stat?ttes. -The only condition is t~hat tne reduct.ion of area must
not be less than 40% if the test bar is over 3/4in. dia.meter.
Loads allowed on Stays. - Board of Zratle. - 9000 11)s. per square
inch is allowed on the net section, provided the tensilestrength ranges from
27 to 32 tons. &eel stays are not to be welded or worked in the fire.
Lloyd% - For screwed and other stays, not exceeding 1l/ z in. diameter
effective. 8000 lbs. per square inch is allowed; for stays above 1% in.,
9000 Ibs. No stays are to be welded.
U. 5. Statute.?. - Braces and stays shall not. be subjected to a greater
stress than 6000 lbs. per sq. in.
cases in the rules of 1909.1
[As high as 9000 lbs. is allowed in some
[Rankine, S. E.. p. 459, says: The iron of the stays ought not to be
exposed to a greater working tension than 3000 I bs. on the square inch,
in order to provide against their being weakened by corrosion. This
amounts to making the factor of safety for the working pressure about
20. It Js evident, however, that an allowance of the factor qf safety
g;.lrroslon may reasonably be decreased mth increase of diameter.
-4 discussion of various rules and formulae for sta bolts, braces and
Rat surfaces will be found in a paper by R. S. Hale, 5rims. A. S. M. E..
1904.
Girders. - Board of Trade. P =,wcqxp~~: L . P =working pressure
in lhs. per sq. in.: W = wldth of flame-box; L = length of girder: p =
pitch of bol ts: D = distance between girders from center to center: d =
depth of girder; t = thickness of sum of same; C = a constant = 6600 for
1 bolt, 9900 for 2 or 3 bolts, and 11.220 for 4 bolts. All dimensions in
inches.
Llo&s. -The same formula and constants, except that C = 11,000
for 4 or 5 bolts, 11.550 for 6 or 7, and 11.880 for 8 or more.
Li. S. Statutes. - IThe rules in 1909 are the same as Llovds.1
-
Tube-Plates. - Board of Trade. P = (D -~~D20ooo. D = least
horizontal distance between centers of tubesin inches: d = inside diameter
of ordinary tubes.: t = thickness of tube-p1at.e in inches: W = extreme
width of combustion-box in inches from front tube-plate to back of fire-
box. or dist~ancebetween combustion-box tube-plates when the boiler is
double-ended and the box common to both ends.
The crushing stress on tube-plates caused by the pressure on the flame-
box top is to be limited to 10,000 lbs. per square inch.
STRENGTH OF STEAEiI-BOILERS.
Material for Tubes. - Mr. Foley proposes the following: If iron, the
quality to be such as to give at least 22 tons per square inch as the mini-
mum tensile strength, with an elongation of not less than 15y0 in 8 ins.
If steel, the elongation to be not less than 26% in ins. for the material
before being rolled into strips: and after tempering, the test bar to
stand completely closing together. Provided the steel welds well, there
does not seem to be any object in provldiur tensile limits. The ends sb.ould
be annealed after manufacture, and stay-tube ends should be annealed
before screwing.
Holding-power of Boiler-tubes. (See also page 342.) - In Messrs.
Yarrows experiments on iron and steel tuhrs of 2in. to 214in. diameter
the Erst 5 tubes gave way on an average of 23.740 Ibs.. which would ap-
pear to be about 2/ s the u1timat.estrength of the tubes themselves. In al.1
these cases the hole throuch the tube-olnte \ vLLs parallel wibh a sham edee
to it, and a ferrule was dri?en into the-tube. .
. -
Tests of the next 5 t.ubes were made under the same conditions as the
first 5. with the exception that in this case the ferrule was omitted, the
tubes being simply expanded into the plates. The mean pull required
was 15,270 Ibs., or consIderably less than half the ultimate strength of the
tubes.
Efiect of heading thetubes, the holes through the plate being pa~rallel and
ferrules omitted. The mean of the first 3, which are tubes of the same
kind. gives 26,876 l bs. as their holding-power, under these condition$,;z
compared with 23,740 lbs. for the tubes fitted with ferrules only.
high figure is. however, mainly due to an exceptional case where the
holding-power is greater than the average strength of the tubes them-
selves.
It is disadvantageous to cone thz hole through the tube-plate unless its
sharp edge is removed, as the results are much worsethan those obtained
with parallel holes, the mean pull being but 16.031 Ibs., the experiments
being made with tubes expanded and ferruled hut not beaded over.
In experiments on tubes expanded into tapered holes. beaded over and
fitted with ferrules, the net result is that the holding-power is, for the
size experimented on, about 3/4of the tensile strength of the tube, the
mean pull being 28.797 Ibs. With tubes expandEd into tapered holes
and simply beaded over. better resulrs were obtained than Pnth ferrules:
in these cases, however. the sharp edge of the hole was rounded off, which
appears in general to have a good effect.
In one particular the experiments are incomplete, as it is impossible to
reproduce on a machine the racking the tubes get by the expansion of a
boiler as it is heated up and cooled down again, and it is quit.e possible,
therefore, that the fastening giving the best resuks on the test.ing-machine
may not prove so efficient in
N.B. - It should be notea
ractice.
that the experiments were all made under
the cold condition, so that reference should be made with caution; the
circumstances in practice being very different, especially when there is
scale on the tube-plates, or when the tube-plates are thick and subject
to intense heat.
Iron versus Steel Boiler-tubes. (Foley.) - Mr. Blechynden prefers
iron tubes to those of steel. but how far he would go in attributing the
leakv-tube defect to the use of steel tubes we are not aware. It antiears.
however, that the results of his~experlments would warrant him itigoing
a considerable distance in this direction. The test consisted of heating
and cooling two tubes, one of wrought iron and the other of steel. Both
tubes were 23/ 4in. in hameter and 0.16 in. thickness of metal. The tubes
were put in the same furnace, made red-hot, and then iiipped in water.
The length was gauged a a temperature of 46 F.
This operation was twice repeated, with results as follows:
Original length ............. .. ...........
Heated to 186O F.: increase ...............
Coefficient of expansion per degree F ........
Heated red-hot and dip
Second heating and
ed in water: decrease
coo ing, deciease. P .......
Third heating and cooling, decrease ........
Total contraction ..... .. .............
Iron.
55.495 in.
0.048 in.
,$kNING:.This is a 1910 edition.
.,. .~.-.,~,- ~.:-- ,.._ ~,,.~ ,,.._.. ~.~~~~ ~-~,~
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
,,,
,,,:, ,,,:, ~ ~,,
884 TME STEAM-BOILZR.
hfr. A. C. Kirk writes: That overheating of tube ends is the cause of the
leakage of the tubes in boilers is proved b the fact that. the ferrules at
present used by the Admiralty prevent it. if hese act b&f sl.uelc!mg the tube
ends from the action of the dame. and consequently r ucmg evaporatron,
and so allowing free access of the water Tao keep them cool.
Although many causes contribute. there seems no doubt that thick
tube-plates must bear a share of causing the mischief.
Rules for Construction of Boilers in Merchant Vessels in the
United Sta; .s.
(Extracts from General Rules and Rer !L: ,lns of the Board of Supervis.
ing Inspectors, St.eamhoat Inspection ~:/ - (as amended Jan., 1509).)
Tensile Strength of Plate. - From each plate as rolled there shall
be iaken two test ieces. one for tensile test and one for bending test.
The piece for tenst e test shall be taken from the side of the plate at .P
about one-third of its 1engOh from the top of the plate, and the piece for
bending test shall be taken transversely from the topof the plate near the
center.
Ml the pieces shall be prepared so that the skin shall not be removed,
the edges only planed or shaped.
In no case shall test pieces be prepareu b.v annealing or reduced in size
by hammering.
Tensile-test pieces shall be at least 16ins. in length, from la/ z to 31/ z
Ins. in width at the ends. which ends shall join by an easy fillet..a straight
part in t!le center of ab least 9 ins. in length and 11;~ins. in width, .
marked with light prick punch marks at distances 1 inch apart, spa&d
so as to give 8inches in length.
Only steel plat,es manufactured by what is known its the basic or acid
open-hearth
.P
recesses will be allowed to be used in the construction or
repairs of bo! ers for marine
?io plate made by the acl .s
urposes.
process shall contain more than 0.06;; of
phosphorus and 0.04% of sutphur. and no plate made by the basic process
shall contain more t,han 0.04% of phosphorus and 0.047q of sulphur.
For steel plates the sample must show, when tested, a tensile strength
not lower than 50.009 lhs. and not higher than Z5.000 Lbs. per sq. in. of
section. and no such p1at.eshall be stamped with a higher tensite strength
than 70,000 tbs.: Provided, however. that for sreel plates exceeding a
thickness of 9.3125 in. intended for use in externally fired boilers. the
sampie must show, when tested. a ttmsile strength not lower than 54,000
lhs. and not higher than 6?,000 lbs. per sq. in. of section, and no plat,e
exceeding a thickness of 0.3125 in. intended for use in externatlv fired
boilers shall be stamped with a higher tensile strength than 62,OoO lbs.
Such sample must also show an elongat.ion of at least 25% in a lengttl of
2 ins. for thickness up to 114 in.. inclusive: in a length of 4 ins. for over
1!4Tao :/ lein.. inclusive: in a length of 6 ins. for al! plates over 7: 10 ic.
sample must also show a reduction of stictional area as follows:
The
At lezt. 5G% for thickness up to 1.~in., inclusive: 45% for thickness
over l/ z to 3. h in.. inclusive. and 40Yc for thickness over s/ 4in.
Q~tenching and bending test. - Quenching and bending test pieces shall
be at least 12 ins. in length and from 1 to 31=:
IL rns. in width. The side
where sbenred or planed mllrt not be round?& but the edges mav have
I;be sharpness taken off with a fine file.
The test piece shall beheated
to a cherry red (as seen in a dark place) and then ptuneed into water at a
temperat.ure of about 82 F. Thus prepared, the sample shall be bent to a
curve. the inner radius of which is not grea,ter than 11,~times the thlck-
ne;!: of the sample. without cracks or flaws.
after bending.
The ends must be parallel
Cylindrical Shells. - The working steam D~PSRII~P al l owabl e nn
__ - ___.. --__ __.
cylifidrical shells of boilers ;onst,ructe& of plates inspected as required
by these rule?, when single nveted. shall not produce a strain to exceed
one-sisth of t.netensile strenpt.h of t,heiron or steel plates of which such
boilers are construcled: but where the longitudinal laps of the cvlindrlcal
lo.
arts of such boilers arc double riveted. and the rivet holeqfor such
llers have been fairly drilied, an addition of 20 per cent to the
pressure provided for smgle riveting will be allowed.
working
-.--l_~_--..---__
MARNING:,This is a 1910 edition.
Some
I
STRENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS.
The nressure for anv dimension of boilers must be ascertained by the
Multiply one-sixth of the lowest tensile strer,gth found stamped on the
nlates in the cvlindrlcal shell bv the thickness - exnressed in inches or
&%-of an Inch - and divideby the . radius or h:Jlf diameter - a!so
expressed in inches - and the result ,wlll be the
$quaFe inch of surface for smgle n,vetMg. to wluc add 297;. for dou .R
ressure allowable er
fl le
riveting:, when all the rivet boles 111t!:e shell of such bolter have been
* fairly drilled and no part, of such holes has been punched. The
presskireallowed shall be based on tl?e plate whose tensile strength mulbi-
plied %y its thickness gives the lowest product.
Cylindrical. Shells of Water-tuhe or Coil Boilers. -The working
pressure allowab;=. when SLIC!I sh$ls have a row or rows of pipes or tuhes
Inserted therein, s~sll be determ:ned by rhe formula:
P=(D-tE)XTXSi(nxR),
where P = working pressure allowable in p:umds: D = distance in inches
between the tube or pipe centers in a line from head to head: d= dia-
meter of hole in inches: T= thickness of plate in inches; S= one-sixth
of the tensile strength of the plate: R = radius of shell ininches.
Convex Heads. - Plates used a,s heads, when new and made to
practical1.v t.rue rirrles. shall he allowed a steam pressure in accordance
with the formula: P = T x S + R, where P = steam pressure allowa!$e
in lhs. er sq. in.; T=Ohirknessof plate inil!s.: S=one-si$h of the tens&!
strengt 1; R = one-half of the raduls to whlctl the head IS bumped. P
Add 207 when the head is double riveted to the shell and the holes
are fairly &led.
Bumped heads may contain S manhole opening flanged .inwardly.
when such flange is turned to a depth of three times the t.!uckness of
material in the head.
Concave Heads. - For concave heads the pressure allowable will be
G.6 times the pressure allowable for convex heads. .
Flat Heads. - Where flat heads do not exceed 20 ins. diameter they
mav be used without heing stayed, and the steam pressure allowable
shall be determined by t.he formula: P= C X Tz c A, where P= steam
pressure allowable in pounds: T = thickness of material in Fisteenths ,nf
an inch: A = one-half the area of head in inches: C =112 for pl ates T/ t13 In.
and under: C= 120 for plates over 7/ 1/ 1~ in. Provided, the flanges are made
to an inside radius of at least 1% inches.
Flat Surfaces. -The maximum stress allowable on fiat Plates sup-
ported by stays shal! he determined by the following formula:
All staved surfaces formed to a curve the radius of which 1s over 21 ins.
exceptin& surfaces otherwise prov!ded for, shall be deemed flat surface%
Working pressure = C X Te + P.
,
stiffened with tees or angle bars having a thickness of at least z/ 3 the
thickness of plate and ge th of webs at least l / 4 of the greatest pitch of
the stays, and substantial y nveted on the inside of the plates. and P .
having one nut inside, bearing on washers fitted to the edges of the
sta
that are at right angles to the plate.
weg
s
s
thickness of web and plate.
For 2 take 72% of the combined
No such flat, plates or surfaces shall be unsupported a greater distance
than 15 inches.
Stays. -The maximum stress in pounds allowable per square inch
of cross-sectional area for stays used in the construction of marine boilers
when they are accurately fitted and properly secured, shall be ascertained
by the following formula:
P= ii X C f a. whereP = worklng pressure in lbs. per sq. in.: -4 = least,
cross-sectional area of stay in inches; a = area of surface supported by one
stay. m inches: C = 9000 for tested steel stays exceeding 21/ z ins. diam.;
C = 8000 for t~ested steel stays 11/ 4 ins. and not exceeding 21/ 2ins. diam.,
when such stays are not forged or welded. The ends, however, may be
upset to a sufficient diameter to allow for the depth of the thread. The
diameter shall be taken at the bottom of the thread, provided it is the
least diameter of the stay. All such stays after being upset shall be
thoroughly annealed,. C = 8000 for a tested Huston or slmilar type of
brace, the cross-secnonal area o: which exceeds 5 sq. ins.; C = 7000 for
such tested braces whet rhecross-sectional area is not less than 1.227 and
not more than 5 s
from a solid piece o 8.
ins., provided such braces are pre
plate without welds: C=6000 for al P
ared at one heat
wise provided for.
stays not other-
Flues subjected to External Pressure only. - Plain lap-welded steel
flues 7 to 13 irs. diameter. D = outside dlam.. ins.: 2 = tnlckness. ins.:
P = working pressure. lbs. per sq. in.: F = factor of safety.
T = [(F X I) + 13861D
86670 .
This formula is applicable to lengths
zreat,er than six diameters of flue. to working pressures greater than 100
lbs. per s
Rivete2
. in., and to temperatures less than 650 F.
flues, made in sections riveted together, 6 to 9 ins. dlam.,
maximum length of sections 60 ins.; over 9 and not over 13 ins. diam..
maximum length 42 ins.: P = 8100 X T + D.
Riveted or lap-welded flues, over 13 and not over 28 ins. diam.. lengths
not to exceed 31/ z times the dlam.:
P = y [(18.75 X 2) - (L X 1.03)].
(L = length of Ruein inches; T = thickness in 16ths of an inch.)
Furnaces. -The tensile strendh of steel used in the construction of
corrugated or ribbed furnaces shall not exceed 67.000. and be not less
than 54.000 lbs.; and in all other furnaces the minimum tensile strength
shall not be less than 58,000, and the maximum not more than 67,000
lbs. The minimum elongation in 8 inches shall be 20%.
All corrugated furnaces having ~plain parts at the ends not exceeding
9 inches in length (except flues especially provided for), when new, and
maoe to practically true circles, shall be allowed a steam pressure in
accordance with the formula: P = C X T + D.
P = pressure in lbs. per sq. in.. T = thickness in inches, C = a con-
stant, as below.
Leeds suspetion bulb furnace . . _ _ . C = 17 000
Morison comrgated type.. . . . _ _ . . . .C = 15600
T not less than
Fox corrugated type.. . . . . . . . . . . .C = 14000
T not less than
5/ 16in.
Purves type, rib projections. . . . . . _ . C = 14000
T not less than
5116 in.
E:E
less than
5/ 16in.
Brown corrugated type.. . . . . . . . C = 14:960:
7116 in.
&
Type having sections 18ins. long. . . C = 10.000.
less tillan
T not less than
Vl6in.
7116 in.
Ljmiting dimensions from center to center of the corrugations or pro-
ject,inp ribs, and of t,heir depth. are given for each furnace.
Tubes. - Lap-melded tubes are allowed a working pressure of 225 lbs.
Per sq. In.. if of the thicknesses given below, provided they are deemed
safe by the inspee$~ors.
l ?na I V4 in.% dlam.. 0.072 in. thick: 1l/ 2ins., 0.083; 1314, 2 a; nd2114 i ns. ,
%Og3; z12, 2214and 3ins.. 0.109: 3V4, 31/2and 33/4ins., O.120; 4and 4~
U% o-134; 5ins., 0.148; 6ins., 0.165.
~~-,~-- ._- .-.-_~~I_- ._., / ._.. ~__
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of .
STRENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS. 887
Sate Working Pressute in C lindrical Shells. - The author desires I
to express hls condemnation of t rl e rule of the U. S. Statutes, as giving
too low a factor of safety. (Seealso criticism by Mr. Foley, page 880, ante.)
If PI, = bursting-pressure, t = thickness, T = tensile strength, e =
coefficient of strength of riveted joint, that is, ratio of strength of the
joint to that of the solid plate, d=diameter. Pb=2 tTctd, or If c be taken
for double-riveting at 0.7, then Pb=1.4tT+d.
1/ 6tT 0.4tT.
By the U. S. rule the allowable pressure Pa = -lx X 1.20= --J- .
whence PI, k 3.5Pu; that is, the factor of Safety iS Otlly 3.5, provided the
* tensile strength found stamped in tbe plate
is the real tensile strength
of the material.
Tile authors formula for safe working-pressure
boilers w&h longlrcdinal seams doubie-riveted, is I=
P = gauge-pressure in lhs. per sq. in.: t = thlrkness and d = diam. in
inches.
2tTc
This is derived from the formula P = frl,
t&lng e at 0.7 and f = 5
for steel of 50,000 lbs. T.S.. or 6 for 60,006--1bs. T.S.; the factor of safety
being increased in the ratio of the T.S., since with the higher T.S. th?re
is greater danger of cracking at the rivet-holes from the effect of,punchmg
and riveting and of expansion and contraction caused,by vanatlons of
temperature. For external shells of internally fired boilers, these shells
not being exposed to the fire, with rivet-holes ,drllled or reamed after
punching, a lower factor of safety and steel of a higher T.S. may be allow-
able.
If the T.S. is 60,000, a working pressure P = 16,000 t + d would give a
factor of safety of 5.25.
The following table gives safe working
&ures for different diameters
of shell and thicknesses of plate calculate
x from the authors formula.
Safe Working Pressures in Cylindrical Shells of Rollers, Tanks,
Pipes, etc., in Pounds per Square I&h.
Longitudinal seams double-riveted.
(Calculated from formula P = 14,000 X thickness + diameter.)
Diameter in Inches.
36. 5 29. 2
72. 9 58. 3
109. 4 87. 5
145. 8 116. 7
182. 3 145. 8
218. 7 175. 0
255. 2 204. 1
291. 7 233. 3
326.1 262.3
364. 6 291. 7
401. 0 320. 8
437. 5 350. 0
473. 9 379. 2
410. 4 408. 3
546. 9 437. 5
503. 3 466. 7
72. 9 69. 1
97. 2 92. 1
121. 5 115. 1
145. 8 138. 2
170. 1 161. 2
194. 4 184. 2
218. 8 2Oi.i
243. 1 230. 3
267. 4 253. 3
291. 7 276. 3
316. 0 299. 3
340. 3 322. 4
364. 6 345. 4
388. 9 368. 4
.
Safe Working Pressures InCylindricalShel~s - Continued.
8%.
.:g
Diameter in Inches.
: $; 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114
L1 1 1 / 1 1 1 1 1 j 1 1 120
___--
; / 16. 2: I 4 . 61dd 11. 2 10. 4i
__l - '
32. 4' 29. 2: 24. 5 24. 3. 22. 41 20. 8.
:
48. 61 43. 71 39. 81 36. 51 33. 71 31. 3
64. 81 58. 3' 53. 01 48. 6' 44. 9 41. 7
i
81. 0' 72~9' 66. 31 60. 8 56. 1 52. 1
97. 21 87. 51 79. 51 72. 9 67. 3 62. 5
7 113. 4! 102. l ~92. 8, 85. 1 78. 5 72. 9,
8 129. 6/ 116. 7~106. 1~97. 2 89. 7 83. 3
9 I 45. 8~l 31. 2/ 1i 9. 3/ 1~. 4. 101. 0 93. 8
10 162. 0/ 145. 81132. 6i l 21 51112. 3 104. 2
I I 178. 2i l M) . 41145. 8' 133. 7' 123. 4 l i 4. 6
12 194. 4/ 175. Oj l 59. 1i i 45. 8/ i 34. 6 125. 0
13 210. 7! 169. 6i 172. 4~l 58. 0i 145. 8 135. 4
14 226. 9i 204. 2' 185. 6i 170. 1 157. 1 145. 8
15 243. l bl 8. 7i i 98. 9i l 82. 3 168. 3 156. 3
I 6 259. 3~~33. 3~212. l ~i 94. 4 179. 5 166. 7
9.7/).ix.Ij-Tjjm
19. 4: 18. 2 17. 2 16. 2; 15. 41 14. 6
29. 2' 27. 3 25. 7i 24. 31 23. 0 21. 9
38. 9 35. 5 34. 3; 32. 41 30. 7 29. 2
48. 6. 45. 6 42. 9~ 40. 51 38. 4 36. 5
58. 3 54. 7 51. 5: 48. 61 46. 1 43. 8
68. 1 63. 8 60. 0: 56. 7 53. 7 51. 0
77. 8 72. 9 68. 61 64. 8 61. 4 58. 3
87. 5 82. 0 77. 21 72. 9 , 69. 1 65. 6
97. 2 91. 1 85. 81 81. 0 76. 8 72. 9
106. 9 W0. 3 94. 4; 89. 1 84. 4 80. 2
116. 7 109. 4 102. 9: 97. 2, 92. 1 87. 5
Flat Stayed Surfaces in Steam-boilers. -Clark. in his treatise on the
Steam-engi~e. also in his Pocket-book, gives the following formula: p=
407 ts + a, m whuzh p is the internal pressure in pounds per square inch
that wiI1strain the plates to their elastic limit, t is the thickness of the
plate in inches, d is the distance between two rows of stay-bolts in the
clear. and s is the tensile stress in the p!ate, in tons of 2240 Ibs.. per
square inch, at the elastic limit. Subst.ituting values of s for iron, steel,
and copper, 13, 14. and 8tons respec:ively. wehave the following:
FO~~I~~~FORULTIJI.ITEEI,~STIC STRENCTR OPFL~TST.~YEDSURFACEB.
Iron.
Pre*sure.. . . . . . . . . . . . . p=50004
d
Thicknessof plate..:.. I= pxd -
Pitch of bolts... _......
d =?Et
P
Steet.
, =5700;
pxd
-
t= 5700
d=z! ?! z
P
.-
-
-
Copper.
p=330n;
t=Pzd
3300
3300t
rJ =-
P
For Diameter of the Stay-bolts, Ctark gives d=O.O024
in which d = diameter of screwed bolt at bottom of thread, P = longltudi-
nal and P transverse pitch of stay-bolts between centers, p = inrernal
>rws!lre in ibs. per sq. in. that will strain the plate to its elastic limit, s =
ei&st,~c strengt,h of the stay-bolts, in ibs. per sq. in.
Taking s = 12, 14,
and 8 tons, respectively, for iron, steel. and copper, we have
For iron, d = 0.00069 m. or if P =.P. d = 0.00069 P t/ -.
For copper, d = 0.00084 $1 or if P = Ey. d = O:OOOs4P $I
For steel. d = 0.00064 PP or it P = P, d = 0 OOOe4P
In usina form&e for stays a large factor of safety should be taken to
allow for reduction of size by corrosion.
Thurstons Manual of Steam-
boilers. P. 144. recommends that, the factor be as large as 15 or 20.
Hartford Steam Boiler Imp. & Ins. Co. recommends not less than 10.
The
Stryngth of Stays. - A. F. Yarrow (Engr., March 20. 1891) gives the
fol1olvlng results of experiments to ascertain the strength of water-space
,8tays:
- - - - . - i - ~~. - - - - . . , , . - , . , . - - ~- - ___ ~. . . . ~ . - _~. . . . ,
, WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
IMPROVED METHODS OF FEEDING COAL. 889
Description.
I
Length
b;E:f
lIoll0~ stays screwed into
pkttesandhole espsnded( i:z:?:
&jiid stays screw31 into
plates and rlveted over.
( i;y;:
-
__
-
Diameter of Stay over
1Ulti-
!.ll recuis.
I sag:.
-- I-.--.-
lbs.
I in. (hole7i:s in. and Vl,;in.) 25,457
I in. (Me ~.IIJ in. nnd ii16 in.), 20,992
7:s in.
7i.3 in.
j g.;;;
I
The above are taken as a fair average of numerous tests.
Fusible plugs. - Fusible plugs should be put in that portion of the
heating-surfilce which first becomes exposed from la?k ot water. The
rules of the U. S. Supervising Inspectors specify Banca tm for the purpose.
Its melting-point is about 445 F. The rule says: E:very boiler. other than
boilers of the water-tube type, shall have bc least one fusible plug made
of a bronze casing filled with good Banca tin from end to end. Fusible
plugs, escept as otherwise provided for, sha!l have an external diameter
of not less than s/ 4in. pipe tap. and the Banca tm shall be at least l/ z tn.
in diameter at the smallest end and shall have a larger diameter at the
center or at the opposit~eend of the plug: smaller plup are al!owed for
pressures above 150 ibs.. also for upright hollers. Cyh,nder-boders with
flues shall have one plug inserted in one flue of each bo!ier: pnd alsp one
E
lug inserted in the shell of each boiler from the insde, lmmedlately
elow the fire line and not less than 4 ft. from the front end. Other shell
boilers shall have one plug inserted in the crown qf the back connection.
Upright tubular boilers shall have a fusible plug Inserted in ape of, the
tubes at a point at least 2in. below the lowest gauge-cock. but III boilers
having a cone top it shall be inserted in the Upper tube sheet. All tubes
ar%r.to be Inserted so that the small end of the tm shall be exposed to the
Steam-domes. - Steam-domes or drums were formerly almost uni-
versally used on horizontal boilers, but their use is now generally, dlscon-
tinued as they are considered a useless appendage to a&%n-lzoder, and
unless properly designed and constructed are an element of weakness.
Height of Furnace. - Recent pract.ice in the Suited States ma,kes
t.heheight of furnace much great.er than it was formerly. With large SlZes
of anthracite there is no serious objection to having the furnace as !oW as
IS in. measured from the surface of the grate to the nearest portion pf
the h<ating surface of the boiler. but with coal containing muCh volatl1e
matter and moisture a much greater distance is desirable.
volatile coals the distance may be as great as 5 ft. or even 10 ft.
With very
Ranlune
(S. E., p. 457) says: The clear height of the crown OF roof Of the furnace
above the grate-bars is seldom less than about 18.m:. and often Con-
siderably more. In the fire-boxes of locomotives it IS on an average
about 4 ft. The height of 18 in. is suitable where the crown of the fur-
nace is a brick arch. Where the crown of the furnace, on the ?ther hand.
forms part of the heating-surface of the boiler, a greater height 1sdeslrab1e
in every case in which it can be obtained: for the temperature of the
boiler-plates bein: much lower t.han that of the flame, tends to chwkAP,
combust~ion of th: inflammable gases which rise from the fuel,
general principle a high furnace is favorable to complete combustion.
IlWROVED METHODS OF FEEDING COAL.
Mechanical Stokers. (William R. Roney. TTUTLS. A. s. ?f. E.. vol.
xii.) - i llechanical stokers have been used in England to a lirmi;zee;te;t
since 1755. In that year one was patented by James Watt. . .
Clarks Treatise on the Steam-engine.)
After 1540 many stylesof mechanical stokers werepatented in England.
but nearly all werevariations and modifications of the twp forms of
stokers patented by John Jukes in lS41. and by E. Henderson ln 1843.
The Jukes stoker consisted of Lpngltudinal fire-bars, connected by Irnks.
so as to form an endless chain. The small coal was. dehvered fro? a
L!ypper on the front of fhe boiler, on to the grate, wbch slowly mowng
me materi a 1
sxl THE STEAM-BOILER.
from front to rear, gradually advanced the fuel into t.he furnace and dis-
charged the ash and clinker at the back.
The Henderson stoker consists primarily of two horizontal fans revolv-
ing on vertical spindles, which scatter the coal over the fire.
The first American stoker was the I\ lur hy stoker, brought out in 1878.
It consists of two coal magazines place8 m the side walls of the boiler
furnace. and extending back from the hoiler front 6 or 7 feet. In the
hnrtom nf these magazines are rectanxular iron boxes. which are moved
I toothed bar, arranged to be turned by a crank. The purpose
$ this bar is t.o grind the cl.inker coming in contact with it.
. Over this
-brick arch. v-snapea receptacle is sprung a fire
the fuel to he burned is dumoed into a In the Roney mechamcal stoker 1
!opper on the boiler front. Set in the lower part of the hd
pusher which, by a vibratory motion, gradually forces the fuer
per is %
over the
:P$ad-plate and on the grate. The grate-bars in their normal con-
dition form a series of stetis.
through an adjustable angle.
Each ha! is canable of a rockine motion
a rocker-bar.
All the grate-h&s are coupled together by
rocker-b:
-4 vari abl e back-and-forth mot,ion being given to the
%r. through a connecting-rod. the mate-bars rock in unison.
now forming a series of steps, and noti appiosimating to an incli&i
plane. with the grates partly overlapping, like shingles on a roof. When
t_hegrate-bars rock forward the fire nilI tend to work down in a bodv.
Uut before the coal ca,n move too far the bars rock back to the stem&
po,cition, checking the downward motion. The rocking mot& is slow
@ig [ram 7 to 10 strokes per minute, according to the kind of coal:
TNs alternate startine and Eheckinz motion is continuous. and finallv
lands the cinder and &h on the dum5ngigrat.e below. ~
The Hawley Down-draught Furnace. - A foot or more above the
ordinary grate the?reis carried a second crate CornDosed of a series of
water- tubes, opening at both ends into steel drums br headers, through
which water is circulated. The coal is fed on this upper grate, and as it
is partially consumed falls through it upon the lower grate. where the com-
bunion is completed in the ordinar manner.
coal on the upper grate is downwar J
The draught through the
through the coal and the grate. The
volatile gases are therefore carried down through the bed of coal. where
they are thorouahlv heated. and are burned in the soace beneath: where
they meet the e%ce& of hot hir drawn through the firi! on the lower grate.
In tests in Chicago, from 30 to G lbs. of coal were burned per sauare foot
of grate upon thi s system. with good economical results.
of t.he.Hawley Dow&draught Furnace Co., Chicago.)
(See cataloeue
The Chain Grate Stoker, made by Jukes in 1841. is now (1909) widely
used in the United States. It is made by the Babcock & WiIcox Co.
and others.
Under-feed Stokers. - Results similar to those that may be obtained
with downward draught are obtained by feeding the coal at the bottom
of ths ebed. pushing uDward the coal air&v on ihe bed which has had its
volatile matter digtilied from it. The vofaiiie matter of the freshly 6red
coal tben has to pass througb a body of ignited coke. where it meets a
supply of hot air. (See circular of The Underfeed Stoker Co., Chicago.)
The Taylor Gravity Stoker, made by the Amer. Ship Windlass CO..
Providence, R. I.. is a combination of an underfeed stoker containing two
hprizontal rows of pushers with an inclined or step grate through which
ar is blown by a fan.
SMOKE PREVENTION.
The following article was contributed by the author to a Re
Smoke -4batement.; presented by a Committee to the Syracuse C E
ort on
of Commerce, pubhshed by the Chamber in 1907.
amber
Smoke may be madein t,wo ways: (1) By direct distillation of
condensihle vapors from coal without burning: (2) By t
tarry
or splitting up oi hydrocarbou gases, the hydrogen
- . . ~ . , . - - . , _ - ~~__
: dARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
SMOKE PREVENTION. 891
carbon being left unburned as smoke or soot.
conjointly.
These causes usually act
The direct ~cause of smoke is that the gases distilled from the coal are
not completely burned in the furnace before coming in contact with the
surface of the boiler, which chills them bel ow the temperature of ignition.
The amount and quality of smoke discharged from a chimney may
vary all the way from a dense cloud of jet-black smoke, which may be
carried by a light wind for a distance of% mile or more before it is finally
dispersed into the atmosphere. to a thin cloud, which becomes invisible
a few feet from the chimney, Often the same chimney wili for a few
minutes immediately after finng give off a dense black cloud and then a
few minutes later the smoke will hnve entirely disappeared.
The quantity and density of smoke depend upon many variable causes.
Anthracite coal produces no smoke under any conditions of furnace. Semi-
bituminous. containing 12.5 to 25y0 of volatile matter in the combustible
part of the coal, will give off more or less smoke, depending on the ron-
ditions under which it is burned. and bituminous coal, containjng from
25 to 50% of volatile matter, wlii give off great
.8
uantities of smoke with
all of the usual old-style furnaces, even with skdl ul firing, and this smoke
can only be revented b the useof special devices, together with proper
methods of R 9 ring the fue and of admission of air.
Practically the whole theory of smoke product.ion and prevention may
be illustrated by the flame of an ordinary gas burner or gas stove.
When the gas is turned down very low every particle of gas. as it emerges
from the burner. is brought in contact with a sufficient supply of hot air to
effect its corn
P
lete and instantaneous combustion, with a pale blue or
almost invisib e flame.
appears.
Turn on the gas a little more and a white fl;~~;
The gas is imperfectly burned in the center of the flame.
titles of carbon have been separated which are heated to a whlte heat.
If a cold plate is brought in contact with the white flame, these carbon
particles are deposited as soot. Turn on the gas still higher. and it burns
with a dull, smokv flame, although it is surrounded with an unlimited
quantity of air. &ow, carry this smokyflame into a hot fire-brick or
porcelain chamber. where it is brought in contact with very hot air, and
it will be made smokeless by the complete burning of the particles,
We thus see: (1) That smoke may be prevented from forming lf each
particle of gas, as it is made by distillation from aoal, is imFedlately
mixed thoroughly with hot air, and (2) That even if smoke I S formed
by the absence of conditions for preventing it,, it may afterwards be
burned if it is thoroughly mixed with air at a sufficiently high temperature.
It is easy to burn smoke when it is made in small quantities, b!lt when
made in great volumes it is difficult to get the hot air mixed \ \ ?th It unless
special apparatus is used. In boiler firing the formation of smoke mUSt
be prevented as the conditions do not usually permit of its being burned.
The essentiai conditions for preventing smoke in boiier fires may be
enumerated as follows:
1. The gases must be distilled from the coal at a unifoTm.rate.
2. The gases, when distilled, must,be brought into lntlmate mixture
with sufficient hot air to burn them completely.
3. The mixing should be done in a fire-brick chamber.
4 The ga.eec: ahnul d not he allowed to touch the comparativ
.- ely cola
---- 1111 ___--_ - ..-. .~.~~
Sdaces of the boiler until they are complnt.dv burned. This means that
G6-<ns;$;;eto burn before they
ed in tge ordinary method
the gases shall have sufficierit space and ti
are allowed tn come in contact with the boiler
Every one of these four conditions is violat- ~~~
Of burnins coal under a steam boiler. (I) The coal is fired intermittently
and nften?n ln.reen&&ties at a time. %d the disti: _ ~;. ~~~~ ~,.
llation proceeds at SO
rapidarateii;gptknough mr cannot be Introduced into the furnace to burn
the eas. (2) The ufllnc of fresh coal on thy prat,ein itself chokes the 81r
SUPpiY (;7j The ioof. <f the furnace 1s $i &ii &% or tubes, of the
boiler instead of a fire-brick art?h as it should be, and the f urnace 1s Uot of
a sufficient size to allow the gases timeand space in which to be thoroughlJ
mixed wlth the air su ply.
In order to obtain t R e conditions for preventing smoke it is n.ecessarY:
(I) That the coal be delivered into the furnace in small ygy;;oa;g
time. (2) That the draught be sufficient to C?rrv enoug
furnace to burn the gases as fast as they are distdled. (3) That the air
_. ___~
material may no lon@Fi?e accurate
itself be thoroughly heated either by passing through a bed of white-hot
coke or by,passmg through channels in hot brickwork,.or by contact with
hot tire-brick surfaces. (4) T!iat the gas and the air be brought into
the most complete and i+rnate mixture, so th;rt each particle of carbon
of t.7; gas m,erts. before It escapes from the furna?e, its necessary supply
(5) Ihat the Hameproduced by the hurmng shall be completely
extingul*hed by the burning of every particle of the carbon into invisible
carbon dioxide. I
If a -bite Hame touches the surface of a boiler. it is apt to de
soot and to produce smoke.
osit
of incomplete combustion.
.4 white flame itself is the visible evl ence 2
The first remedy for smoke is to obtain anthracite coal.
If this is not
commrrciallv rac:icable then obtain if possible coal with the smallest
amount of Gogtile mat&. Coal of irom 15 to257, of volatile mjtter
makes much less smoke than coals coutaiuing higher percentages.
vufe a proper frrrnace for burning coal.
Pro-
Bny furnace is a proper furnace
which secures the conditions named in the preceding paragraphs. Next
~comprl the firemen to follow instructions concerning the method oi
firing.
.It is impossible with coal containing over 30yo of volatile matter and
wvlth ;I ivacer-tub-e boiler, with tubes set close to the grat~eand vertical
!zas ~a51ms. as In an anthrxcite setting, to prevent smoke even by the
le of setting for a water-tube boiler should
rbsolutely condemned. -A Du@ oven setting, or a longitudinal
nc. ,..i+h Gru~hrinl- I.CRI. . . . ..ll- .- L.:-y recommended as a smo~<e-
preventing furnace. but with such a furnace it is necessary to use con-
slderable skill in firing.
Mechani+ mixing-of the gases and the air by steam jets is sometimes
successful m preventinn smoke. but it is nnt a universal Drevent,ive.
especially when t~liecoar is very high in volatile matter, wheri the firing
is doneunskillfully. or when the boiler is being driven beyond its normal
capacity. It is essential to have sufficient drsllpl
--,-It Tao burn the coal prop-
erly and this draught may be ohtained eit,her from a chimney or a fan.
Therc.is no epeclal merit in forced draught.except that it enables a larger
quantrty of coal to he burned and the boiler to he driven harder in case
of emergency. and usua~lly the harder the boiler is driven, the more
difficult it is to suppress smoke.
Down-drauoht furnaces and mechanical stokers of manv different kinds
are swn=s~f ui l t-
a nd
. . .
msralled
used for smoke prevention, and when p~o~&i~~&s&ned
and handled skillfully, and usuallv at a rate nbt hevond
that for whirl! they are designed, prevent all smdke. If these appliinces
arp found rnx?ng smoke. it is always due either to overdriving or to un-
skdlful hanclhng. It is necessary, however. that the design of these
Stol;ers be smted to the cluality of the coal and the quantity to be burned
ana great care should be taken to provide a sufficient size of furnace witi
a fire-brick roof and means of introducing air to make them completely
successful.
Burning Illinois Coal without Smoke.
(L. P. Breckenridge,
Bulletin No. 15 of the Univ. of 111. Engg Experiment Station 1907.)
7 .4nr f!lel may be burned economically and without smoke if it is
mixed 1~1th the proper amount of air at a proper temperature.
boiler plant o_f theUniversity of Illi
The
_^^,~-- -
3J uo H-y.
nois consist,s of nine units aggregating
Over 700separate tests have been made. The following is a
condensed statement of the results in regard t.o smoke prevention.~
Boilers No% 1 and 2. Babcock & Wilcox. Chain-grate stoker Usual
vertlca1 hamIng.
canacitv.
Can be run without smoke at from 50 to 120% of rated
%NO. 2. Stirling boiler. Chain-grate stoker. Usual baffling and com-
bustion a~rches. Can be run without smoke at capacities of 50 to 140%.
No. 4. National water-tube.
Chain-grate stoker. Vertical baffling.
No smoke at capacities of 50 lo 120%.
smakrlecs except when cleaning fires.
With the Murphy furnace it was
No. 5~ Bahcork $ Wilcox. Roney stoker. Vertical baffling. Nearlv
smokeless (maximum No. 2on a chart in which 5 represents black smokej
u
a B
to 100% of rating. but cannot be run above lsOTo without objection-
fe smoke.
ING: This is a 1910 kd<ii-bb<-Some of t
;hc
SMOKE PRE;ENTION. 893
No. 6. Babcock & Wilcox.. Roney stoker. Horizontal tile-roof baf-
fling. Can be run without smoke at capacities of 50 to 100% of rating.
Nos. 7 and 8. Stirling, equipped with Stirling bar-grate stoker.
Usual
baffling and combustion arches. Can be run without smoke at 50 to
140% of rating.
No. 9. Heine boiler. Chain-grate stoker. Combustion arch. and tile-
roof furnace. Can be run without smoke at capacities of 50 to 140%.
It is almost impossible to make smoke with this setting under any con-
dition of operation. As much as 46 lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of grate surface
has heen burned without smoke.
Conditions of Smoke lrevention. - Bulletin NO. 373 of the U..S.
Geological Survey, 1909 (185 pages). contains a report of an extenstve
research hy D. T. Randall and J. T. Weeks on The Smokeless Combustlqn
of Coal ln Bolter Plants. A brief summary of the conclusions reached IS
as follows:
Smoke prevention is both possible and economical.
There are many
types of furnaces and stokers that are operated sm?keles,sly.
Stokers or furnaces must be.set so that comhust.lon null be complete
before the gases strike the heating surfaces of the boiler.
When partly
burned gases at a temperature of say
2500 F. strike the tubes of a
boiler at say 350 F., combustion may
be entirely arrested.
The most economical hand-fired plants are those that a
preach most
nearly to the continuous feed of the mechanical stoker.
3he fireman is
so variable a factor that the ultimate solution of the problem depends on
the mechanical stoker -in other words, the personal element must be
eliminated.
A well designed and operated furnace will burn many coals ,nithqut
smoke up to a certain number of pounds per hour, the rate var~mg +h
different coals. If more than this amount is burned. the efficiency q;ll!
decrease and smoke will he made, owing to the lack of furnace capacity
to supply air and mix gases.
High volatile matter in the coal gives low efficiency, and vice versa.
When the furnace was forced the efficiency decreased.
With a hand-fired furnace the best results were obtained when firing
was done most fre uently,
Small sizes of coa t
wlth the smal@t charge.
burned with less smoke than large sizes, but. developed
lower capacities.
Peat lignite and sub-bituminous coal burned readily in the tile-roofed
furnac; and d&eloped the rated capacity, with practically no smoke.
Coals which smoked badly gave efficiencies three to five per cent lower
than the coals burning with little smoke.
Rrinuets were found to be an excel!ent form for using slack coal in a
hand:6 red plant.
Tn t,
&.. ,.le average hand-fired furnace washed coal burns with lower effi-
ciency and makes more smoke than raw coal. Moreover. w.ashed coat
offers a means of running at high capacity, with good efficiency, in a
well-designed furnace.
Forced draught did not bum coal any more efiiciently, than natural
draught. It supplied enough air for high rates of combustion. but as the
capacity of the boiler increased, the efficiency decreased and the per-
centage of black smoke increased.
Fire-brick furnaces of sufficient length and a continu0u.s. or nearly
continuous supplv of coal and air to the fire make it possible to burn
most coalsefficieritlv and without smoke.
Coals containing a large percentage of tar and heavy hydrocarbons
are difficult to burn without smoke and require special furnaces and more
than ordinary care in firing.
.
.-.---_~
! material
.~~.__ID.-
may no longer be accur&g
THE, :STEAMBOILER.
FORCED COMBUSTION IN STEdJ I-BOILERS.
There arethree different modes of using the fun for promoting corn-
bustion: 1. blowing direct intv a closed ash-pit: 2. exhaustill: the gases
by the suctioo of the fan: 3. forcing air into an air-tigh: boiler-room
or stoke-hold.
advantages.
EPch of these three methods has its advantages and dis-
In the ose of the c!osec L ash-pit the blast-ptessure frequently forces
t!le gases of combustion from the j oi nt around the furnace doors in so
great a quantity as to affect both the &ciency of the boiler and the
health of the firemen.
The chief defect of the second plan is the great size of the fan required
to produce the necessary exhaustion, on account of the higher exit tem-
perature enlarging the volume of the waste gases.
The third method. that of forcing cold air by the fan into an air-tight
boiler-room - the closed stoke-hold system - though it overcame the
difficulties in working belon@ng to the t.wo forms first tried, has serious
defects of its own. as it cannot be worked, even with modern high-class
boiler-con.struction. much, if at all, above the power of a good chimney
draught. In most boilers. without damaging them. (J. Howden, Proc.
Engg Congress at Chicago, in lS93.)
In IS80 Mr. Howden designed an arrangement intended to overcome
the defects of bot,h the closed ash-pit and the closed stoke-hold systems.
An air-tight chamber is placed on the front end of the boiler and sur-
rounding the furnaces. This reservoir. which projects from 8 to 10
inches from the end of t.he boiler. receives the air under pressure, which
is passed by valves intro the ash-pits and over the fires in proportions
suited to the kind of fuel and the rate of combustion. The air used above
the fires is admitted to a space between the outer and inner furnace-
doors. the inner havinz perforations and an air-distributing box through
which the air passes under pressure. By means of tbe balance of pressure
above and bel ow the fires all tendency of the fire to blow out at the door
is removed.
A feature of the system is the combination of the heating of the air of
combustion by the \ \ ~aste PJSPS with the controlled and regulated admis-
sion of air to the furnaces. Tbis arrangement is etiected most conven-
iently by passing the hot fire-gases after they leave the boiler through
stacks of vertical t,ubrs enclosed in the uptake, their lower ends being
immediately above rhr smoke-box doors. Installations on Howdens
system have been arranzed for a rate of combustion to tive an average
of from 1s to 22 I H-P. per sauare foot of fire-grate with fire-bars from
5 to 5lk ft. in Ienrrth. It is believed that with suitable arrangement of
proportions even 30 I.H.P. per square foot can be obtained.
For an accounts of uses of exhaust-fans for increasing draught, see
paper by W. R. Roney. Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. xv.
FK-EL ECONO;)ZIZERS.
EcGn0mi zei . i : f or boiler piants are usually made of v&ticaf cast-iron
tubes contained in a l one rectangular chamber of brickwork. The feed-
.water enters the bank of tubes at one end. while the hot gases enter the
chamber at the other end and travel in the opposite direction to the
water. The tubes are made of cast iron because it is more non-corrosive
than wrought iron or steel when exposed to gases of combustion at low
temperatures. An automatic scraping device is usualiv provided for
the purnose of removing dust from the outer surface of the tubes.
The amount of sarinc of fuel that may be made by an economizer varies
greatly according to the conditions of operation. With a given quan-
tity of chimney gases to be passed through it, its economy will be greater
-- ~..--
NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
FUEL ECONOMIZERS. ~ 895
(1) the higher the temperature of these gases: (2) the lower the tem-
perature of the water fed into it: and (3) the greater the tmount of its
heating surface. Frpm (1) it is seen that an eyonomizer will sav,emore
fau;lii;nt;e;a;z a boiler that 1s overdnven than If ad,ded to one dnven at
From (2) it appears that less saving can be expected
from an econoniizer in a power plant in which the feed-water i.s heated by
exhaust steam from ausiiiary engines than when the feed-water entering
it is taken directly from the condenser hot-\ veii. The amount of heating
surface that sholtid be used in any given case depends not. only on the
saving of fuel that may be made, but also on the cost of coal. and on the
annual costs of maintenance, including interest, depreciation, etc.
The following table shows the theoretical results possibly attainable
from economizers under the conditions specified. It is assumed that the
coal has a heating value of 15,000 B.T.U. per lb. of combustible; that it
is completely burned in the furnace at a tempemture of 25UO F.; that
the boiler gives efficiencies ranging from 60 to is;, according to the rate
of driving; and that sufficient economizer surface is provided to reduce
the temperature of the gases in all cases to 300 F. Assuming the specific
heat of the gases to be constant, and neglecting the loss of heat by radi-
ation, the temperature of the gases le+ving the boiler and entering the
economizer is direct.ly proportional to (100 - % of boiler effinency), and
the combined efficiency of boiler and economizer is (2500 - 300) + 2500
= 88%. which corresponds to an evaporation of (15.000 i 970) X 0.85 =
13.605 Ibs. from and at 21Y per lb. of combustible: or assuming the feed-
water enters the economizer at 100c F. aud the boiler makes steam of
150 ibs. absolute
conditions. Divi 8
ressure. to an evaporation of 11.720 ibs. under these
~ng this tigllre into the number of heat units utilized
by the economizer per tb. of combustible gives the heat units added to
the water, from which, by reference to a steam table. the temperature
may be found. With these data we obtain the results given in the table
below.
,
Boiler Efficiency, %.
1 60 1 65 1 70 1 75
B.T.U. atsorbed by boiler per lb. combustible.. .
B.T.U. in chimney gases l eavi ng boiler. _. _. _. _.
Estimated temp. of gases ieavmg boiler. _.
Esti mnted temp. of gases leaving economizer..
B.T.U. saved by economizer.. _. _. _.
Efficiency gained by economizer. %
Equivalent, water evap. per lb. comb. in boiler..
B.T.U. saved by econ. equivalent to crap. of Ibs..
Temp. of water leavmg econonuzer.. .
Efficiency of the economizer. 70..
Amount of HeatinS Surface. -The Fuel Economizer Co. says:
We have found in practice that by allowing 4 sq. ft. of heating surface
per boiler H.P. (34Q tbs. evap. from and at 212 = 1 H.P.) weare able
to raise the feed-water 60 F. for every 100 reduction in the temperature.
the gases entering the economizer at 450 to 600.
With gases at 600
to iOOO we have allowed a heating surface of 4,1/ z to 5 sq. ft. per H.P..
and for every 100 reduction in temperature of the gases we have
obtained about 65 rise in temperature of the water; the feed-water
entering at 60 to 120. With 5000 sq. ft. of boiler-beating surface ( lain
cylinder boilers) developing 1000 H.P. we should recommend 5 s
y PI. of
economizer surface per boiler H.P. developed. or an economizer 0 about
500 tubes, and it should heat t, he feed-water about 300.
Heat Transmission in Economizers. (Carl S. Dow, Zndusf. ETJg.
April 1909.). - The rate of heat transmission (C) per sa. ft. Per hour Per
degr<e of difference between tbe average temperatures of the gases and
the water passing through th6 economizer varies with the mean tem-
Peratureof thegas about as follows: Gas, 600, C = 3.25; gas 600, C = 3;
gas 400, C = 2.75; gas 3ooO. C = 2.25.
.
e matexal
______ -, _ ~., ~_-P
may no longer be accur%
* 1
Calculation o? the Saviag made h an Economizer. - The usual
method of cslculating the saving of fuel % y an e.conomiser when the boiler
a:dt$e economizer aretested together as a uNt +s :y the formula (1111- h)
2- h), in which h is the total heat above 32 of 1lb. of water enter.
ine. HI the total heat of 1lb. of water leaving the economizer. and H. the
t&l heat above 330of 1lb. of steam at the boiler pressure.~- If-h = -100.
H, = 210. Ii? = 1290. then the saving according to the formula is (210 -
100) +1100 =I()%. This is correct if the savinr is defined as the ratio of
the.heat ahsorbed by the economizer tom the total heat absorbed by the
boiler and ecl~momizer together, but it is not correct if the savingis defined
as the saving of fuel made bv running the combined unit as corn&red with
running the-boilei alone making the-same quantity of steam From feed-
water at the low temperature, so as to cause the boiler to furnish HZ - h
heat uni:s ner ib. insmad of tlz - HI . In this case the boiler is called
on to do more work, and in doing it it may be overdrlven and work
with lower efficiency.
In a t.est made by F. G. Gasche, in Kansas City in 1597. using Missouri
coal analyzing moisture 7.5s: volatile matter, 36.69.; Exed carbon. 35.02;
ash. 13.69: sulphur, 5.12, he obtained an evaporation of 5.17 ibs. from
and at 212 per lb. of coal with the boiler alone. and when the boiler
and economizer were tested together the e,quivalent evaporation credited
to the boiler was 5.5.5. to the economizer 0.72. and to the combined unit
6.27. the saving by the combined unit as compared with the boiler alone
being (6.27 - 5.17) + 6.27 = 17.5%, while the saving of heat shown by
the economizer in the combined test is only (6.27 - 5.55) -L 6.27 =
i1.5?~. or as calculated by Mr. Gasche from the formula (Hi - h) +
(II: - h). (172.1 - 39.3) f (llS1.8 + 39.3) = 11.670.
The maximum saving of fuel which may be made hy the useof an econo-
mizer when attached to boilers that are working with reasonable economy
is about 15rvc. Take the case of a condensing engine using steam of 12:5
lhs. gauge pressure, and with a hot-well or feed-water temperature of
100 F. The economizer may be expected under the best conditions to
raise this temperature about 170. or to 270.
Ha = 1196.
Then h = 68. Ht = 239.
(HI - h) + (Hz - h) = 171 i 15.24%.
If the boilers are not working with fair economy on account of being
orerdnven. then the saving made by the addition of an economizer may
be much greater.
Test of a Large Economizer. (R. D. Tomlinson, Power. Feb.. 1904.)
-Two tests were made of one of the sixteen Green economizers at the
74th St. Station of the Rapid Transit Railway, New York City.
520-iI.P. B. & W. boilers were connected to the economizer.
Four
It had 512
tubes. 10 ft. long. 49/16 in. external diam.: total heating surface 6760 sq.
ft., or 3.2.5 sq. ft. per rated H.P. of the boilers.
econ.. 3 sq. in. per H.P.
Draught area through
The stack for each 16 boilers and four econo-
m.izers was 250 ft. high. 17 ft. internal diam. The first test was made
arth the boilers driven at 94Ye of rating, the second at 113%. The
results are gtven below, the figures of the second test being in parentheses.
Water entering econ. 96 (93.5): leaving 200 (263~3~): rise 104 (110.3).
Gases entenng econ. 54S (603O): leaving 295 (325); drop 253 (275).
Steam, gauge pressure, 166 (165).
temp. 1132 (1134).
Total B.T.U. per lb. from feed
Saving of wheat by economizer, %. 9.17 (9.73).
Reduction of draught in passing through econ., in. of water, 0.16 (0.23).
B.
Results from Seven Tests of Sturtevant Economizers (Catalogue of
F. Sturtevant Co.)
Plants
Tested.
hse.? En-
t.ering.
Deg. F.
Fater En-
tering.
Deg. F.
isi
ii
.~, .~~.~ ~..~~~ ..-
-WARNING: This is a 1916 edition. Some of t
INCRUSTATION AND CGRROSION.
THERXAL STORAGE,
In Druitt Halpins steam storage system (I ndustries and l& Mar 22
1895) he employs oniy~sufficient boilers to supply the mean dernand.and
storage tanks,sufEcient to supply the maximum de:mand.
not being SubJected to the Ere suffer hut little deterioration.
These latter
working continuous1
The boilers
P
at their most economical rate have their excess of
energy during light oad stored up in t~hewater of the tank. from which
it may be drawn at will during heavy load. He proposes that the boilers
and tanks shall work under a pressure of 265 Ibs. per square inch when
rat,,rn nf Uw.O l? a.nrl thll fullv chareed. which corresnonds to a tempe:
theengin& be worked at 130 lbs. per square-in&-& --- - -I-- yy
347O F.
ch correswnds to
The total available heat stored when the reserroirs are-charged
is that due to a range of 59. The falling in temperat~ureof 141/ d lbs of
water from 407O to 347 will yield 1 lb. of steam. To allow for radia-
tion of loss and imperfect working, this may be taken at 16Ibs. of water
per pound of steam. The steam consumption per effective H.P. may be
taken at 18tbs. per hour in condensing and 25 Ibs. per hour in non-con-
densing engines. The storape-room per effectiv
would.-therefore. be (16 X 1
e H.P. by this method
%jy%%.5-= 4.06 cu. ft. for condensing and
116 x.25)+ 62.5 = 6:4 cu. ft. for non-condeusin
\ -Gas storage. assuming that illuminating gas %e?%e?would require
about 20 cu. ft. of storage room per effective H.P. hour stored. and if
ordinarv fuel gas were stored it wou Id re
In water storage 317 cu.~ft. wou! 1
uire about four times this
capacity.
of 100 ft. to store one H.P. hour, so tt
be required at an elevation
lat of the three, methods of storing
energy the thermal method is by far the most economical or space.
In the steam storage method the boiler is completely Elied with water
and the storage tank nes.rlv so The two are in free communication bv
means of pipes, and a constant circuiation of water is maintained between
the two. but the steam for the engines is taken only from the top of the
storage tank through a reducing valve.
In the feed storage system, the excess ol energy during light load is
stored in the tank as before, but the boilers are not completely filled. In
this system the steam is taken exclusively from the boilers, the super-
heated water of the storage tanks being used during heavy load as feed-
water to the boilers.
A third method is a combination of these two, in the combined
feed and steam storage system the pressure in boder and storage tank is
equalized by connecting the steam spaces i,n both by.pipe. and the steam
for the engines is, therefore, taken from both.
in parallel.
In other words they work
INCBUSTATION &W CORROSION.
Incrustation or Scale. - Incrustation (as distinguished from mere
smi i m~n+. ~ rlae t.n rlirtv wn.t.er~ whirh, are easily blown out, or gathered uII .._. _ . ..I --- -1 _- ..----, --~..
up. by means of sediment-collectors) 1s due to the presence of salts in the
feed-water (carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia for the most
part),. which are precipitated when the water.is heated. and form hard
deDOstS ~~011 the boiler-plates. (See impu+es in Water, p. 691.. ante.)
Where the nuantitv of these salts m-not pei
gallon, say) scale
ry large (12 grams per
fb
reventives may be found effective. The chenncal
nreventives either rm with the rllts other salts soiuble in hot water: ,. I.._ --./
br precipitate them in the form of soft mud, which does not adhere to
the plates, and can be washed out from time to time. The selection of
the chemtcal must depend upon the composition of the water, and it
should be introduced regularly with the feed.
EXAMPLES. - Sulphate-of-lime scale prevented by carbonate of soda:
The sul hate of soda produced is soluble in water- and the carbon&e of
lime faig down in grains, does not adhere to the lates. and may there-
fore be blown out or gathered into sediment-co1 ectors. The chemical P
reaction is:
Sulplm$;f time +Carb~atteCofsoda=Su: ~*~~~soda+Car~~~oflime
R I
Where ihe quantity of salts is large scale preventives are not of much
use. Some other source of supply must be tought, or the.bad water
h..
material may ~no longer be accurate
*
THE STEAM-BOILER.
rifled
r.
before it is allowed to enter the boilers.
011er.s bv unsuitable water is enormous.
The damage done to
Pure cater may be obtained by collecting rain. or condensing steam by
means of surface condensers. The water t.hus obtained should be mixed
with a little bad water, or treated with a little alkali, as undiluted, pure
water corrodes iron; or, after each periodic cleaning, the bad water may
be used for a day or two to put a skin upon the plates.
Carbonate of lime and magnesia may be precipitated either by heating
the c-arer or by mixing mill; of lime (Porter-Cliirk process) with it, the
water beine then filtereil.
Corrosion may be produced by the use of pure water,, or by the presence
of acids in the water. caused perhaps in the engine-cybnder by the action
of high-pressure steam upon-the &ease, resulting in the production of
fatty acids. Acid water may be neutrahzed bv the addition of lime.
Amount of Sediment which ma collect in a lOO-H.P steam-boiler.
evaoorating 3000 Ibs. of water per x our. the water cont,aininr: different
amtiunts of-impurity in solution; providea that no water is blown off:
Grains
&ident~ ;; soli$;mpurit;les parts per 100 000: pe&U. SirlIon: 60 70 80 90 100
8.57 17.14 34.28 51.42 68.56 85.71 102.85 120 137.1 154.3 171.4
Sediment deposited in 1 hour, pounds:
0.257 0.31-I 1.028 1.542 2.056 2.571 3.085 3.6 4.11 4.63 5.14
In one dap of 10 hours. pounds:
2.5; 5.14 10.28 15.42 20.56 25.71 30.85 36.0 41.1 46.3 51.4
In one week of 6 days, pounds:
1.543 30.85 61.7 92.53 123.4 154.3 185.1 216.0 246.8 277.6 308.5
If a 101%H.P. boiler has 1200 sq. ft. heating-surface. one weeks running
without blowing off, with water containing 100 grains of solid matter per
eallon in solution. w-oiild make a scale nearly 0.02 In. thick, if evenly depos-
ited all over the heating-surface. assuming the scale to have a sp. gr. of
2.5 = I.56 Ibs. per cu. ft.; 0.02 X 1200 X 1.56 X lhz = 312 Ibs.
Boiler-scale Corn
Assn. in 1885 reporte 1
ounds. -The Bavarian St.eam-boiler Inspection
as follows:
Generally the unusual substances in water can be redained in soluble
form or precipitated as mud by adding caustic soda or lime. This is
especially desirable when the boilers have small interior spaces.
It is necessary to have a chemical analysis of t.he water in order to fully
determine t~he kind and quantity of the preparation to be used for the
abore purpose.
Al1 secret compounds for removing boiler-scale should be avoided.
(A list of 27 such compounds manufactured and sold by German firms is
then given which have been analyzed by the association.)
Such secret preparations are either nonsensical- or fraudulent, or
contain either one of the two substances recommended by the association
for removing scale, generally soda, which is colored to conceal its presence,
and sometimes adulterated with useless or even injurious matter.
These additions as well as giving the compounds some strange, fanciful
name. are meant simply to deceive the boiler owner and conceal from him
the fact that he is buying colored soda or similar substances, for which
he is paying an exorbitant price.
. Effect of Scale on Boiler Emcieney. -The following statement,
or a smilar one, has been published and republished for 40 years or more
by makers of boiler compounds, feed-water heaters and water-purl-
fying apparatus, but the author has not been able to trace it to its original
soewce:*
It has been estimated that scale l/50 of an inch thick requires the
burning of 5 per cent of additional fuel; scale l/35 of an inch thick
a. A committee of the Am. Ry. Mast. Mechs. Assn. in 1872 quoted
from a pa
Science ( 2
er by Dr. Jos. G. Rodgers before the Am. Assn. for Adv. of
ate not stated): It has been demonstrated [how and by
whom not st.ated] that a scale Vie in. thick requires the
15% more fuel.
ex enditure of
As the scale thickens the ratio increases;
is !/4 in. thick, 60% more is required.
ii t us when it
-..- ~ ~~~ -_~-~. - ~~_.-,._-~_j-_. .~~~~.~ ,~._ .,.. A
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of 1
- r
I
INCRUSTATION AND CORROSION.
requires 19 Per cent more fuel: t/lo of an inch of scale requires 15 per
Cent additmnal fuel; t/s of an inch, 30 per cent., and 114 of an inch, 66 per
cent.
The absurdity of the last statement may be shown by a simple calcu-
latlon. Suppose a clean boiler is giving 75% efficiency with a furnace
temper?tuFe of 2400 F. above the atmospheric temperature. Neglecting
the rachatlon and assuming a constant specific heat for the gases the
temperature of the chimney gases will be 600. A certain amou& of
fuel and air supply will furnish 100 Ibs. of gas.
scale 66% more fuel will make 66 lbs. m*re gas.
In the boiler with l/4 in.
As the extra fueldoes
no work in evaporating water. its heat must all go into the cl$mney
gas. We have then in the chimney gases
100 lbs. at 600 F.. product 60,COO
66 lbs. at 2400 F., product 158,400 218,400
which ( divided by 166 pives 1370 above atmosobere as the temperature
of the chimney gas, or more than enough to ma&the flue conneciion and
damper red hot. (u/fakers of boiler compounds, etc., please copy )
Another writer says: Scale of l/is inch thickness will reduce boiler
efficiency l/s. and the reduction of efficiency increases as the square of
the thickness of +hn onnln
This is still ma Ire absurd, for according to it if Vte in. scale redtices the
efficiency l/s. then Y1a in. will reduce it Vs. or to tjelow zero.
From a series of tests of locomotive tubes covered wi th different thick-
nesses of scale up to 1,s in. Prof. E. C. Schmidt (Bull. No. ii
Iii. Experiment Station, 1907) draws the following conclusions:
Univ. of
1. Considering scale of ordinary thickness. say varying up to i/s inch
the loss in heat transmission due to scale may vary in individual sas&
from insignificen
2. The loss increases somewhat with the thickness of t%scale.
t amounts to as much as 10 ok 12 per 5,
3. The mechanical structure of t.he scale is of as much or more lmpor-
tance than the thickness in producing this loss.
4. Chemical composition, except in so far as it affects the structure
of the scale, has no direct influence on its heat-transmitting qual i ti es.
In 1896 the author made a test of a water-tube boiler at Aurora. Ill.
which had a coating of scale about ?4 in. thick throughout its whole
heatmg surface, and obtained practically the same evaporation as in
another test, a fewdays later, after the boiler had been cleaned.
is
This
.
-t is known only one case, but the result is not unreasonable wnen i
that the scale was very soft and porous, and was easily removed from the
tunes ny scraping.
Prof. R. C. Carpenter (Am. Electrician, Aug.. 1900) says: PO far as I am
able to determine by eests. a lime scale. even of great thickness,, has no
ape
#preciable effect on the &?ici&ncv of $ boiler. g in a test whlcll was
conduc,ted by myself the results wkre practically as good when the boiler
was thickly covered with lime scale as when perfectly.clean.
EIIl
A in,2 rvations and exneriments have shown that anv scale porol I -. . _ _ - _ _ _
has little or no dktrlmental effect on economy of the boiler. There
is. I think, good
P
hilosophy for this statement: t& heating capaci ty i s
affected principal y b_ v the rnoiditv with which tne n# cated gases will
surrender heat., as the wate,r arid tLe meta. have capacit.ies for absorbing
heat more than a hundred times faster than the air will surrender heat.
A thin film of grease, being impermeable to water, keeps the latter
from contact wltb the metal and geneially produces disastrous results.
It is much more harmful than a very thick scale of carb0nat.e of lime.
,I~ef~w~~ and other Petroleum Oils: Foaming. - Iierosene has
bv L. F. Lvne nendad as a scale nreventive: See paper
.-
--.* ..,.,....
(Trans. A. S. M. E., ix. 247). * The A& M&h.; May 23. 189O,s@s:
Kerosene used in moderate quantities will not make the boiler foam:
it is recommended and used foi loosenina the scale ano ro
formation of scale.
~ ~,r preventing the
The presence of oii in combination with other im-
P
urities increases the tendency of many boilers to foam. as the oil with the
mpurltiea impedes t! ie frees escane bf steam from sot -- ~3 water surface.
Tttessgf common oil not only teitds to cause foaming,. but is dangerous
The grease appears to combrne ~ldh the impunties of the
water, an;t when the boiler is at rest this compound sinks to the plate+
__.---...
2 material may no longer be accurate
and clings to them in a loose, spongy mg, preVent@g. the Wat.er from
.-nmlnlr in contact wi th the plates, and thereby producing overbeatipg,
yKhmay lead to an explosion. Foaming may also be caused by forcmg
the fire or by ta!dng the steam from a point over the fufnaee, or where
the ebuilition is violent; the greasy and dirty state of new botlers 1s another
good cause for foaming. Kerosene should be used at first m small quan-
tities the effect carefully noted, and the quantity Increased If necessary
fnr n&inine the desired results.
^-R~-~--&l$enter (Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. xi) says: The boilers of the
State hrgicultural College at Lansing, Mich., were badly incrustea wit,h
a hard scale. It was fully 3/g in. thick in many places. The first apph-
cation of the oil was made while the boilers aerg: being but !jt,tle used.
by inserting a gallon of oil, filling with water, heatmg to the bo:!mg-polnt
and a!!owlng the water to. stand in the boiler two or three weeks befpre
removal. By this method fully one-half the sca!e was removed duflng
the warm season and before the boilers were needed for heavy firing. _..-
nil wscz thpn dried in small quantities when the boiler was in act*& The .. ..- _.____ ___-- -.. - .._. ~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~
use. For boilers 4 ft. in diam. and 12 ft. long the best results were
obtained by the use of 2 qts. for each boiler per week, an< for each holler
5 ft. in dlam. 3 qts. per week. Tire water used in the boilers has the fol-
lowing analysis: CaCOz, 2,606 part.s in a million: MgCOs, 78
27. nnrts: traces of sulohates and chlorides of potash an a
a$& Fe&OS
. Total
Petro!eu;;-OI;Bheavier~illan kerosene have been used with good re-
sults. Crude oil should never be used. The more volatile oils it contains
make exolosire gases. and its tarry constituents are apt to form a spongy
&movva! of Hard Scale. - When boilers are coated with a hard scale
diEcult to remove the addition of. l/4 lb. caustic soda per horse-poryer.
and steaming for so-me hours, according to the t~hickness of the scale, Just
before cleaning. will greatly facilitate that o eration, rendering the scale
soft and loose. TM? should te done, if posa -t le. when the boi!ers are not
otherwise in use. (Steo?ft.)
Corrosion in 3Iarine J%oilers. (Proc. I nst. M. E., Aug., 1884.) -
nmittee ou Boilers served ~to show that. t&e The ~lnvest,igations of the COK
internal corrosion of boilers is greatly due to the combined action of air
and sea-water nbeu under steam. and when not under steam to the com-
bined action of air and moist,ure upon the unprotected surfaces of the
metal. There are other deleterious influences at work, such as the corro-
sive action of fatty acids, the galvanic action of copper and.brass, and the
inequalities of temperature; these latter, however, are considered to be of
minor importance.
Of ihe several methods recommended for protecting the internal s.ur-
faces of boilers, the three found most effectual are: First, the formatlon
of a thin layer of bard scale. deposited by working the boiler with sea-
V&M- secorid. the coating of the surfaces with a thin wash of Portland
&KT& nnrti&tlnriv \vher>ver there are signs of decay: third, the use of
r----------s
~~&V~~bs Fuspended iu the water and steam spaces. -
AS to eeneial treatment for the ___ I
? preservat,ion of boilers when laid up
in the reserve, either of the two following methods iB adopted. First.
the boilers are dried as much as possible by airing-stoves. after whch
2 to 3 Cwt. of quicklime is placed on trays at the bottom of the boiler.and
on the tubes. The boiler is then closed and made as air-tight as possible,
Insobct!on is made every six months, when if fhe lime be found slackea
boilers are filled with sea or fresh water, ~~ _. It is renewed. Second, t.he
having added soda Do it in the propc>rbion of 1 lb. to
of water. Tbe sufficiency of the saturation can be t.este
a piece of clean new iron and lea\-ing it in the boiler for ten or twe!ye
hours: if it shows signs of ruStinK. more soda should be added. It 1s
essential that the boilers be entirely filled. to the complete exclusion of
air.
Minera! oil has for many years been exclusively used for internal
!ubrirat.ion of engines, with the view of avoiding the effects of fatty acid,
as this oil does not readily decompose and possesses no acid properties.
Of a!! the preservative methods adopted in the British service, the Use
of zinc properly distributed and fised has been found the most efTectua!
WARNING: This is a 1910 ebition~?%i%~
INCRUSTATION AND CORROSION.
In, saving the iron and steel surfaces from corrosion and also in neutral-
1~111.g by Its owu deterioration the hurtful inliuenresmet with in water as
ordmrlly supphed to eoilers. The ziucslabs now used in the navy
boilers ?re 12 in. long. 6 111s. wide. and l/z in. thick; this size being found
copvement for general application.
The amount of dnc used in new
bowlers at present is one slab of the above size for every 20 I.H.P or
about I sq. ft. of zinc surface to 2 sq. ft. of grate surface
found the most sultab!e.for the purpose.
Rolled zi& is
Especial care must be taken
to Insure peffect metallic contact between the slabs and the stays or
plates to wluch the I are attached.
positions that al.! t ?I
The slabs shoul d be placed in sueb
e surfaces in the boiler itre protected
Each slab
should be perlodlcally examined to see that its connection *remains per-
feet, and to renew any that may have decayed. this examlnatiou is
usually made at int.erva!s not exceeding three mon&s
Under ordinary
circmm.stances Of working i,hese zinc slabs may be expected to last in fit
condltlon from 60 to 90 days, immersed in hot sea-water; but in new
boilers they at first decay more rapidly.
The slabs are genera!ly secured
by means of iron Straps 2 in. X s/s in., and long enough to reach the
nearest stay, to which the strap is attached by screw-bolts.
To
order. 1:
romote the proper care of boilers when not, in use the fgllowing
as been Issued to the French Navy by the Government* On board
al! ships in the reserve, as well as those which are laid up, the ioilers will
be comp!ete!y filled with fresh water.
In the cas8 of large boilers with
large tubes there wl!! be added to the water a certain amount of milk of
lime. or a solution of soda. In the case of tubulous boilers with small
tubes mill< of lime or soda may be added, but the solubior, will not be
so strong as in the case of the larger tube, so as to avoid any danger of
contraetmg the effective area by deposit from the solution; but the
strength of the solut.ion will be just sufficient to neutmllze any acidity of
the wat,er. (Iron Aae. Nov. 2. 189.1~1
TJse of Zinc. - &c is often used in boilers to prevent the corroive
action of, water. on the met.a!. The action appears to be an elect&a!
one, the iron bemg one pole of the battery and the zinc being the other.
The hydrogen goes to the iron she!! and escapes as a gas into the steam.
The oxvEen eoes to the zinc.
On a~<o&t of this action it is generally believed that zinc sill always
prevent corrosion, and thjt it cannot be harmful to the boiler or tani;.
Some experiences go to disprove this belief, and in numerous cases zinc
11as not only been of no use. but has even been harmful. In one case a
tubular !oiler had been troubled with a deposit of scale consisting chief!y
of organic matter and lime, and zinc was tried as a preventive. The bene-
ficis! action of the zinc was so obvious that its continued use was advised
wit!1 frequent opening of the hoiler and clea,ning out of detached SC-;!:
until all the old scale sllould be removed and the boiler become cleal,.
Eig+ or ten months later the water-supply was changed it being now
ob.tamed from another stream suppsed to be free from l&e and to con-
tain only organic matter. Two or three months after its introduction
the tubes and shell were found to be coated with an obstinate adhesive
scale, corn
6:
osed
water use
of zinc oxide and the organic matter or sediment of the
The deposit had become so heavy in places as to cause
overheating and bulging of the plates over the fire. (The Locomotive.)
Effect of Deposit on the Fire-surface of Flues
external crust of a carbonaceous kind is often depoiite
ipankine.) - An
from t.he flame
and smoke of the furnaces in the flues and tubes and if a.llowed to accu-
mulate seriously impairs theeconomv of fuel.
time by means of scrapers and wirk brushes.
It is removed from time to
The accumulation of this
crust !s the probable cause of the fact that in some steamships the con-
sumptlon of coal per I.H.P. per hour goes on gradually increasrug until it
reaches one and a half times its origiua! amount, and sometimes more.
Dangerous Steam-boilers discovered by Inspection. - The Hart-
ford Steam-boiler Inspection and Insurance Co. reports that its inspec-
tors during 1908 examined 317.537 boilers, inspected 124.990 bcilers. both
Internally and externally, subjected 10,449 to hydrostatic pressure, and
fomd 572 unsafe for flurther use. The whole number of defects reported
was. 151.359. of which 15,578 were considered dangerous.
is mven below. (The Locomoti,ce, J an., 1909.)
A summary
~._,~ ~._~,. ,,_. - .~,_.__I.~~~
E-i;<^fnaterial may no longer~ be accurate
902 THE STEAMY-BOILER.
SUMMARY, BF DEFECTS, FOR TBE YEAR 1893.
Nature of Defects.
Whole. Dan-
No. eemus
Whole Dan-
Internal eroovine.. . . . . . 2649 2
Deposit of sediment,. . .I&879 1,242
xature of Defects. No. gerous.
Incrustation and scale.. .37.924 1.193
Defective tubes.. . . . . 8 026
Tubes too light.. . . . . 1636
2,136
-49 Leakage at joints. . . . . . . 4845
432
Internal &rrosi&. . .I31053
392
External corrosion.. . ~. 9.400
555 Water-gaugesdefective. 21411
698 Blow-offs defective.. . . . . 3,818
505
Deftive braces and stavs 1.993 5
Settings defective.. . . .t . 5;341
03 Deficiency of water.. . 391
1,125
642 Safety-valves overloaded 1,216
147
Furnaces out of shape.. . 6.981
Fractured nlates.. . . . 3. I I9
380 Safety-valves defective. 1.068
379
359
Burned nlams.. . . . 41605 440 1 Wi thnnt
482 PresstIre-gauges deftive 7, I20 531
Laminaied p1nt.e;. . . _. 666
Defective riveting . . . . . 3.395
3:
--
Defective heads..-. ....... I;565 223
Leakage around tubes. . .10.929 2, 103
I
Total.. .............. .l51,359 15,878
The above-named cpm
above, and also a c!asstfie 1.
any publishes annually a summary like the
hst of boiler-explosions, compiled chiefly from
newspaper reports, showmg that from 200 to 300 explosions take place in
the United St,ates every year, krlling from 200 to 300 persons, and injuring
from 300 to 400. The lists are not pretended t.o be complete, and may
mclude only a fract~ion of the actual number of esnlosinnn.
Thurston !Tram.. A. S. ill:E,-~ol.-viT;~~-~l;;~~the above title
presems calculations sho:ving the stored energy in the hot water and
steam of various boilers. Concerning the plain tubular boiler of the
form and drmensions adopted as a standard by the Hartford Steam-boiler
Insurance Co.. he says: It is 60 ins. in diameter containing 06 8-m
tubes, and 1s 15 ft. long. It has 8.50 sq. ft. of heaiing and 30 sq. ft. of
grate surfa,ce is rated at 60 H.P.; but is oftener driven up to
9500 lbs.. and contams nearly its own weight of water, but
of steam when under a nressure of 75 l hs WF any in.. which is
safe allowance. It St&s 52 OOn non f ~~tX~Zi
_- ---v-ru...d of energy of which
but 470 is i.n the steam: and this is enough to drive the boilerjust about
one mile mto the am, \nth an initial velocity of nearly 600 ft. per second.
SAFE&-VA&S.
Calculation of Weight, etc., for Lever Safety-valves.
Let W = weight of ball at end of lever: tu = weight of lever itself; I =
:<eight of valve and sprndle, all in pounds: L = distance between fulcrum
and center of ball: 1 = distance between fulcrum and center of valve.
g = distance between fulcrum and cent.er of gravity of lever all in inches:
A = area of valve. In sq. Ins.; P = pressure of steam, in lbs. per sq. in.:
at whmh valve will open.
Then PAXZ= TVXL +w Xg + VXZ;
n-hence P,= (IVL + wg + VZ) + AZ; W = (PAZ - wg - VZ) c L; L =
(PAZ - wg - VI) f m.
EXWPLE. - Diameter of valve. 4 ins.: distance from fulcrum to center
of hall. 36 ins.; to center of valve, 4 ins.: t,o center of gravity of lever
1.5!/? rns.; wergut of valve and spindle. 3 lbs.: weight of lever, 7 lbs: reI
qmred the weight, of ball to make the blowing-off pressure 80 lbs. per sq.
In.; area of 4-In. valve = 12.566 sq. ins. Then
~= PAZ- wg- Vl= 8OX12.566X4-7xlSt/2-3X4
L 36
= 108.4 Ibs.
By the rules of the U..S. Supervising Ins
use of lever safety-valves 1s prolubited on all
ertors of Steam Vessels the
after June 30, 1006.
E oilers built for steam vessels
WARNING: This' is a -1910 -edition. SOtIV~k?~
SAFETY-VALVES. 003 .
Rules for Area of Safety-valves.
(Rule of U. S. Supervising Inspectors of Stesm-vessels (as amended 1909).)
Disk Area
in sq. in.
U. S. Sunervisors. heatine-surface in sq. ft. i, 25 (old rule) . . . . . . . 48
English 1 oard of Trade, grate-surface in sq. ft. f 2. . . . . . . . . . . . LU
RIoleswor:.h, four-fifths of grate-surface in sq. ft. . . . . . . . . 33
ThurstJn, 4 times coal burned per hour X (gauge pressure + 10). . . 14.5
Thurston. 2.5 X heating-surface + gauge pressure + 10 . . .,. . . . . . . 27.8
water evaporated per hour . . . . . . . 21.6
S. Sunervlscs. 0.005 x rater evaporated per hr.. 18
Suppose that, other data remaining the same, the draught were in-
creased so as to burn 131/s 111s. coal per sq. ft. of grate per hour, and the
grate-surface cut down to 80 sq. ft. to correspond, making the coal burned
per hour 400 tbs.. and the water evaporat.ed 3600 lbs., the same as before;
then the English Board of Trade rule and Molesworths rule would fJ?ve
an area of disk of only 15 and 24 sq.ip., res ect,ively. shoning t,he absurdity
of making the area of cmte the basis or t * %e calculation of disk area.
Other-rules give for the a.rea of safery-va,lve of the same loo-horse-
power boiler result~s ranglnp all t.he way from 5.25 to 57.6 sq. ins.
~~ nf the disk of 6he valve as the All of the rules auoted rive the area (
thing to be ascertained, a nd it is this area which is supposed to bear
Borne direct ratio to the grate-surface, to the beating-surface, to the
e material may no longer be accurate
water evapomted. etc. It is difficult to see wh
sidered even approxlmatel K
this areah?s been con-
small lifts the area of actua. f
proportional to t ese quantltles, for wth
opemng bears a direct ratlo, not to the area
of disk, but to the circumference.
Thus for various diameters of valve:
Diameter,. ins ........
Area, s
9
. Ins ......... Oli85 3 ?4 7307 12457 19564 2227 387.45
Circum erence. ...... 3114
Circiim. X liftof 0.1in. ;.;l
s:zs 9:42 12:57 15:71 1;.;; ,;.CJJ
0.63 0.94 1.26 1.57
Rat,io to arca ......... 0.2 0.13 0.1 0.08 0:067 0.557
A correct rule for size of safet
diamet.er and the lift proportiona 7
-valves should make the product of the
to the weight of steam to he discharged.
A me.thod for calculating the size of safety-valve is glven in The Loco-
motive. July, lS92. based on the assumption that the actual o
should be sufficient t.o discharge all the steam generated by the mler. i.
ening
Naniers rule for flow of steam is taken. viz.. flow throuzh anerture of one
sq.in. in lhs. per second =~absolute~pies&ie i 70, or in Ibs. per hour =
51.43 X absolute pressure.
If t,he angle of t.he seat is 45. the area of opening in sq. in. = circuit-
.ference of the diskX the lift X 0.71, 0.71 being the cosine of 45O; or
diameter of disk X lift X 2.23.
Spring-loaded Safety Valves.
Spring-loaded safety valves to be used on U. S. merchant vessels must
conform to the rules prescribed by the Board of Supervising Inspectors.
and on vessels for the U. S. Navy to specifications made by the Bureau
of Steam Engineering:, U. S. N. Valves to be used on stationary boilers
must conform in many cases to the special laws made by various stat.es.
Feiv of these rules are on a lorical basis. in t.t.at thev take no account of
the lift of t,he va!ve. and it is uite clearthat the-raie of steam discharge
through a safety-valve depen x s upon the area of opening, which varies
with the circumference of the valve and the lift. Experiments made by
I,he Consolidat.ed Safetv Valve Co. showed that valves made by the differ-
em manufacturers and employing various combinations of sprints with
different~ tiesigns of valve lips and huddling chambers give widely different
lifts. Lifts at, popping point of different makes of safety-valves, at 200
tbs. pressure. are as follows:
4-i% FWiOnarS VahS. in., 0.031, 0.056. 0.064. 0.082. 0.094, 0.094, 0.137.
Ar. 0.079 in.
3%-in. locomotive VahS, in., 0.040,0.051,0.065, 0.072, 0.076. 0.140 ins.
A-i. 0.074 in.
United States Supen-ising I ns-pectors Rule (adopted in 1904). A =
0.%0;4 II-/P. A = are+ of safet,y valve in sq. in. per sq. ft. of grat.e
surface: W = lbs. of w&ter evaporated per sq. ft. of grate surface per
hour: P = boiler pressure, absolute, lbs. per sq. in. This rule assumes
a lift. of l/sz of the nominal diameter, and 75% of the flow calculated by
xapiers rule. This 75% corresponds nearly to the cosine of 45. or C.707.
~1I nss~chu.sctt.s Rule of 1909. A = 770 W/P, in which W = lbs. evapo-
rated per sq. ft. of grate per second: A and P as above. This is the
same as the U. 8. rule with a 3.2% larger constant.
Philmlelphia Rule. -A = 22.5 G + (P + 8.62). A = rota1 area of
vn!re or valves. sq. in.: G = grate a,rea. sq. ft..: P = boiler pressure
C~uee). This rule came from France in 186s. It was recommended
to the city of PMadelphia by a committee of the Franklin Institute,
ait.houeh t.he committee had not found the reasoning upon which the
rule had been based.
Ihilip G. Darline (Trans. A. S. M. E., 1909) commenting on the above
rult,s says: The principal defect of these rules is that bhec assume that
valves of t~he same nominal size have the same capacity.and they rate
them the same without distinction. in spite of the fact t,hat~ in a&u&l prac-
We some have but. one-third of t-he capacity of others. There . are other
defects, such as varying the assumed lift as the valve diameter, wblle in
SAFETY-VALVES;
905
reality with a given design the lifts are more nearly the same in the differ-
.
ent sizes, not varyin
f
nearly as rapid1
%
as the diameters.
than this, the actual ifts assumed for t
And further
e larger valves are nearly double
the actual average obtained in practice. The direct conclusiou is that
existing rules and stat,utes are not safe to follow. Some of these rules in
use were formulated before, and have not been modified since, spring
safety-valves were Invented, and at a time when 120 lbs. was considered
high pressure. None of these rul es take accomlt of the different lifts
which exist in the different makes of valves of the same nominal size, and
they thus rate exactly alike valves which actually iWy iri lift atid relieving
capacity over 300%. It would therefore seem the dut. 7
responsible for steam installation and operation to no 1
of all &ho are
onger leave the
determination of safety-valve size and selection to such statutes-as may
ha
F
pen to exist in.their territory, but to investigate for themselves.
ormulae for Spring-loaded Safety-Valves. i Let L = lift of valve
in.: D = diam. in.; E = discharge, lbs. per hour; K= abs. pressure;
A = area of opening; B = angle of seat with horizontal. By Irlapiers
formula E = AP X 3600 + 70 = 61.43 AP.
imately).
A =-rDL cos 0 (approx-
If 6 = 45, cos 0 = 0.707, whence E = 114.2 LDP.
ments with
Experi-
silv different valves, 3, 31/s and 4 in. stationary, and 11/z* 3
and 31/s in. lOCOmOtiVe, gave an-average flow equal t0 92.5% of that
calculated by the above formula. which is therefore modified by Mr.
Dsrling to the forms E = 105 LDP, and D = 0.0095 E i LP.
To obtain formulae for safety valves in terms ef the heat<ng&f%
of the boiler Mr. Darling takes for stationary boilers an average evapora-
tion of ~3 l/i Ibs;- per sq. ft. of heating-surface per hour. with an ~overload
capacity of 100%; for marine boilers, -water-tube or Scotch, ah overload
or maximum evaporation of 10 lbs. per sq. ft. of hea.ting-surface per hour.
If H = total boiler heating-surface in sq. ft., these assumptions give for
stationary boilers D = 0.968 H + LP.
D=O.O95H+LP . . . (3).
(2) and for marine boilers
For ldcdm&ive boilers the proper con-
start in the formula .waa deduced from numerous experiments to be
.0.055
For fiat vil$:s)the constants in the last four formuireare: (1) 0.0067;
(2) 0.065: (3) 0.090;~ (4) 0.052.
The following table is calculated from Napiers fotmula, on the assump-
tion of a lift of 0.1 in. and a 45 valve-seat.
in., the discharge is proportional to the lift.
For any other lift than 0.1
The figures should be multi-
piied by a coefficient expressing the relation of the discharge of actual
valves t,o the discharge through a pla,in round orifice (Napiers). In
the Consolidated SafetyValve Co.6 experlments the average value of this
coefficient was found to be 0.925.
STEAM DISCHARGED IN Lrcs. PER HOUR BY A Va~wz LIFTING 0.10 IN.
T
t
460
750
IO+
1330
1620
1910
2200
2500
2788
3070
3360
3650
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material
Valve diameters, inches.
690
1130
1560
iE
3300
3740
4180
E
5480
; _-
920
I500
-2080
2660
3250
3830
4400
%
,
I
6140
E
,
- -
1150
1880
;ti:
4060
4790
5500
6240
;z
&loo
9i 50
T
1380
2250
ilkt
4860
5740
6600
7ARn .__
8340
9200
OIOO
0960
1610
2630
3640
4660
5670
6700
7700
8730
9730
1%
12800
1848
2:
5320
6480
7650
8800
9970
I::;!
Eti
4680
6000
7300
8610
9900
11200
12500
I:::
16470
2%
t:ii
tmJo
I2460
13900
I5360
16800
,I8300
z
5720
7320
8920
10520
12100
13700
I5300
16900
18500
20100
may no l onger be accurate
6
4:::
k%i
973G
II470
13200
I4950
16700
18450
!02clo
moo
THE INJECTOR.
907
Unequal expansion ,of safety-valve parts under steam temperatures
tends to cause leakage, and as this temperature effect becomes more
serious in the large sires the manufacturers do not recommend the use
of valves larger than 41/s ins. If greater relieving capacitv be required
it is the best practtce to use duplex valves or additional single valves.
the steam. As the temperature of the supply or feed-water is higher, the
amount of water required for condensing purposes will be greater.
The table below gives the calculated value of the maximum ratio of
water to the steam, and the values obtained on actual trial, also the
highest admiszble temperature of the feed-water as shown by theory
and the hrghest actually found by trial with several injectors.
RELI EVI NG C.~~-CI~TJ;~ CONSOLID.<TE~ POP SAFETY Va~vrss, STATI ONARY
. . (Pounds of Steam per hour.)
Maximum Ratio Water
40 steam.
I
Maximum Temperature.
of Feed-Water. Gauge Pressures. (lbs. per sq. in.) .
Gauge,
pres-
p:Kis
Per
sq. tn.
Gauge-
pres-
sure.~
pounds
Pe.r
sq. 1n.
Tlmo~eti- Experimental .
Results.
Zalcula~ted
Actual Ex-
periment.
from
Theory.
H. P. M.
I I ---
4790
5910
6770
8150
9650,
3000
- 7
3890
4580
5580
6730
7970
36. 5
25. 6
20. 9
17. 87
K
1: : ;
12. 1
11. 5
. . . .
142O
E
120
114
109
105
99
30.9 . . . . . . . . L
22. 5 19. 9 21. 5
19. 0 17. 2 19. 0
15. 8 15. 0 15. 8(
13. 3 14. 0 13. 3
11. 2 11. 2 12. 6
12. 3 11. 7 12. 9
11. 4 11. 2 . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. 132"
1350 1200 1300 134
. . . . A. . 134
140 113 125 132
. . . . 131
. 115 123 130
141x . . _ 123 130
141"118 122 131 '
. . . . . .
1730
12
150
143
139
134
I 29
125
117
107
For an extended discussion on safety-valves, see Trans. A. S. M. E..
1909.
THE INJ ECTOR.
Equation of the Injector. ~~
Let S be the riumber of pounds of steam used.
IV the number of pounds of water lift~ed and forced into the boiler.
h the height in feet of a column of water, equivalent to the absolute
pressure in the boiler:
hothe height in feet the water is lifted to the injector;
fi the temperature of the water before it enters the injector;
tz the tern
I f the tota P
erature of the water after leaving the injector:
heat. above 32O F. in one pound of steam in the boiler,
in heat-units:.
-.. ..-.
L tune work in friction and the equivalent lost work due to radiation
and lost heat;
* Temperature of delivers above 212. Waste-valve closed
H. Hancock inspirator; P, Park injector; M, Metropolitan injector;
S, Sellers 1876 injector.
EiFicieney of the Injector. - Experiments at Cornell University,
described by Prof. R. C. Carpenter, in Gassiers Magnrin~e, Feb., 1892.
show that the injector, when considered merely as a pump. ha,s an exceed-
ingly low efficiency, the duty ranging from 161,000 to 2.752.000 under
different circumstances of steam and delivery pressure. Small direct-
acting pumps, such as are used for feeding boilers, show a duty of from
4 to 8 million ft.-lbs.. and t.he best numniucr-ermines from 100 to 1411 mil-
77s the mechanical equivalent of heat.
Then
lion. .When used for feeding water in& a boil&~ however; theinjector
has a thermal efficiency of 100%. less the trifling loss due to radiation.
s[II-((t?-320)]=m(t?-t,)+ F+Syke
An equivalent, formula,, neglect,ing WA3 -& I, as small, is
since all the heat rejected passes Into the water which is carried into the
boiler.
The loss of work in theinjector due to friction reappears a,s heat which
is carried int,o the boiler, and the heat which is converted into useful
work in the injector appears in the boiler as stored-up energy.
Although the injector thus has aperfect efficiencv as a boiler-feeder. it
is not the most economical means for feeding a boiler, since it can .draw
only cold or moderately warm water, while a pump can feed water which
has been heated by exhaust st.eam which would odherwise be wasted.
Performance of Injectors. --In Am. Mach., April 13, lS93. are a
number of letters from different manufacturers of injectors rf reply to the
questron: What is the best performance of the injector in rarsmg or
llftlng water to any height? Some of t,he replies are tabulnt.ed below.
W. Sellers & Co. - 25.51 lbs. water delivered to boiler per lb. of steam;
temperature of water, 64O; steam
Schaeffer & Budenberg - 1 P
ressure, 65 lbs.
9.8 lb. steam
ga . water delivered to boiler for 0.4 to
Injector will lift by suction water of
s=
144
1
1
*7i8 H-(&-320)
or s, W [ b- h) df 0. 1S51 p]
[ I I - ( b- W) ] d - 0. 1851p'
in which d = w-eight of 1 cu. ft. of water at temperature fr;.p = absolute
pressure of st,eam. lbs. per sq. in.
The rule for finding the proper sectional area for the narrowest part of
the nozzles is given as follows by Rankine, S. E.. p. 477:
Area in square inches=
cubic feet per hour gross feed-water
800 dpressure in atmospheres
Animport.ant condition which must he fulfilled in order that the irrjec-
tOr ~111 work is t.hat the supply of water must be sufficient to condense
140 F. 136= to 133O 122 to 118 1130 to 1070
If boiler pres. is 30 to 60 1)s. 60to Qq. l bs, ~~~90~to 1% l bs. 120 to 150 lbs.
material may no longer be accurate
!dARNING: This is a 1910 &ition.
If t.he water is not over 80 F., the injector
55 Ibs. higher than tlrat of the steam.
will force against a pressure
Hancock Il;spirator Co.:
Lift in fc%t.. _. . . . . . . . . . 22
Boiler preb~ure, absolute, lbs.. . . . 75.8 5% QE25 7?*
Temperature of sllct.ion.. . . . . . . 34.9O 35.4 47130 53:2
Trmp?rature of deliver>. . . . . _ 13.&O 117.49 173.70 131.10
Wat,er fed per lb. of steam. Ibs. . 11.02 13.67 8. 18 13. 3
The theory of the injector is discussed in Woods Peahod s and
Rontgens treat,ises on Thermodynamics.
of t,he Injector,
See also Thkory and %&tice
by Strickland 1,. Iineass, New York, 1910.
Boiler-fcrfiin~ Pumps. - Since the direct-acting pump, commonly
used for feedmfi oders. has a ver low efficiency, or less than one-tenth
ihat of a good enrii~. It is general y hett,er to use a pump driven b f
from the main enghie or driving shaft.. The mechanical work nee J
belt
ed to
feed a boiler may be eztimated as follows: If the combination of boiler
and enzine is such that half a cubic foot,, say 32 lbs. of water, is needed
per horse-po\yer, and the boiler-pressure IS 100 Ibs. per sq. in., then t.he
<York 01 feedmg the qumtity of mater is 100 lbs. X 144 sq. in. X l/z ft.-
lb. per hour = 120 ft.-Ibs. per min. = 12G/33.000 = .0036 H.P., or less
than ~/IO of l%.of the power esert,ed by the engine.
if a direct-act.ing
pump. +ch dtyc:rharpi-s its eshsust steam into the atmosphere, is used
for feerhn?z. and It ha,s only l/lo the efficiency of t.he main engine, then the
steam use1 by the pump will be equal to nearly 4% of t.hat generated by
the boikr.
The: lo\v rfirirncv of boiler-k&in= pumps. and of other small auxiliary
st.oarn-dnv~n mncinncry. is. hnwcvrr, of no importance if alI the exhaust
steam from t&se p;lmps is utilized in heating t.he feed-water
The foilnw!nr: table by Prof. D. S. Jacohus gives the relaiive efficiency
of steam and porver pumps and inject~or, with and without heater, as used
upo:l a, boiler wi!h 80 lbs, gauge-pressure. the gump having a duty of
lO.OOO.OOn ft.-ibs. per 100 tbs. of coal when no heater 1s used; t~he injector
heating the i\-at,er from 6n to 150* F.
Direct-actine pump feeding water at 60, without a heater. ; ; . =
injector feerijng water at. GO, without a heater. _. . . . . . _ _. . . _.
1 .OOO
$,h~g water through a heater in which it is heat,ed from
0.985
InJeCtOr 1
1.50 to i!Il-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..__
Direct-artinp pnmp~f&tii~~ ~&$r~l~~&gh a heater, in which lt 1s
heated from fiOJ to 200. .
Gearal pump.
. . . .
0.938
0.879
0. 868
rutI from the engine, feeding water through a heat.er
i:i which it is heated from 60 to 200. _. . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . _ . .
Gravity Bniler-feeders. - If a closed tank he placed above the level
nT the water 1~ a boiler and the tank be fltled or partly filled with wat.er
Ihen on shutt,zng off t.he supply t,o t.he tank, admitting stream from th;
!Iriiier to !he upll$r part of the tank, so as to e uaiize the &earn-pressure
in the ho&r and In t~he tank. and o ening a va ve m a pipe leading from
.p 1.
the tank lo the boiler, the wat.er v 1 run into the boiler.
An apparat.us
of this kind may be made :o work with pract,icallv perfect efficiencv as a
baiter-frrder. as an injector does, when the feed-supply 1s at ordinary
atmosphenc temperature, since after Ehe tank is empbled of water and the
rnl,ves in the pipes eonnerth 1:: it tsit~h t.he hoiler are closed t~he conden-
satloll of 1he strsm remaining in t.he tank will creat,ea vacuum which wl11
lift,,& fresh snpply of :valer into the tank. The only loss of energy In t,he
cye~t: of oprratlons is the radiation from the tank and pipes, which may
be~mnde very small by proper coverinz.
W,hen then feed-waiei sripply is hot , such as the return water from a
he3tlrlZ Tystem, the gravity apparatus may be made to work by hari;lg
two rcc1vir.s. one at a low level, which receives the returns or other
feed-supply, and the other at, a point above t,he boilers.
beinrr created in the upper tank_ steam-pressure is appled above the
A prtial vacuum
water in the lower tank by which it is elevat.ed into the upper. The
opera~tion of such a machine may be made automatic by suitable arrange-
ment of valves.
!WWING: This is a 1910 eciition. Some
&.,A
the ma
FEED-WATER HEATERS.
909
FEED-WATER HEATERS.
Percentage of Saving for Each Degree of Increase in Temperature
of Feed-water Heated by Waste Steam.
Initial
T~PP.
Feed.
steam Pressure in Boiler, Ibs. per sq. in.above Atmosphere.
Initial
0 1 20 1 44 1 60 1 80 1 100 ( 120 1 140 1 I60 j 180 12~~ 1 Temp.
32O
40
E
i i
90
l oo
110
120
130
(40
1;:
170
12
200
210
2:
240
250
An approximate rule for the conditions of ordinary pract.ice is that a
saving of 1% is made by each increase of 11 in t,he temperat.ure of the
feed-water. This corresnonds to 0.0909% oer deeree.
The calculation of saving is made as filiows: Boiler-pressure, 100 lbs.
gauge; t,otal heat in st,eam above 32O = llS5 B.T.U.
temperature GO, final temperature 209O F:
Feed-waPer, original
Increase in heat-units, 150.
Heat-units above 32 in feed-water of original temperature = 28. Heat-
units in steam above that in cold feed-water, 1185 - 28 = 1157. Saving
by the feed-water heater = 150/1157 = 12.96%. The same result is
obtained by the use of the table. Increase m t.emperature 150 X
tabular figure 0.086-L=12,96Y.. Let total heat of 1 lb. of steam a,t the
boiler-pressure = H: toDa1 beat of 1 lb. of feed-water before entering the
heater 3 ht. and after-passipg through the heater = hr; then the saving
IL2 - 111
made by the heater is ri _ hl.
Strains Caused hy Cold Feed-water. -A calculation is made in
The Loromotize of 1larch: 1893, of the ppssible str+s caused In the sec-
;;o,Fe;f the she!1 of a boder by coohng It by the mject.lon of cold feed-
.4ssumrng the plate to be cooled 200 F., and the coefficient of
expansion of steel to be 0.0000067 per degree. a strip 10 In. long lvvquld
cont.rnct 0.013 in.: if it, were free to contract. To resis:t this contractlon.
assuming that the st,rip ls firmly held at the ends and tha,t the modulus
of elasticltp is 29,OOO,ooO, tyould require a force of 37,700 lbs. per sq. 1.
Of course hhis amount of strain cannot actually take place. since the stnp
1s not firmlv held at t.he ends, but is allowed to contract to some extent
by the rln&ici*,y of the surrounding metal. But,. snrs The Lorpmo!ive.
we mav feel prettv confident that in the case considered a lon@tudinal
strain bf somewheie in the neighborhood of 8000 or 10.000 Ibs. per sq. in.
mav be produced by the feed-water striking directly upon the plates:
and this, in a,ddltion to the normal strain produced by t,he steam-pre!sure.
is quite enough to tax the girth-seams beyond their elastic hnut. If the
terial may no longer be accurate
THE STEAM-BOILER.
\
feed-pipe discharcrs anywhere near them. Hence it is not snrprising that
t hi.*, mirth-~aarns ~Iwclop leaks and cracks in 99 cases out of every 100 in
~vluch I.hr feed d~~harues tlirect.ly upon the f i re- sheets.
Capacity of Fred-water Heat,ers.
Felts.. lW5.J -- Closed feed-water heaters
(IV. it. Billings, E?ly. Xec..
are seldom provided with
s$;iltctem surface to raise the feed Lemperature to more than 200. The
rate of heats trnnsmi~.~ion may be measured by the number of British
thermal units which pass t.hrouph a square foot of tubular surface in one
hour for each degree of difference in temperature between~the water and
the steam. One set of experiments gave. results as below:
Difference between
iirlal t,enlperat,ures
of wter and
steam
21 . . . . . . .
. .
Transmitted in one
. . . .
;;B...
80 II .L
hour by eac,h sq. ft.
. . . . .
110 I
of surface for each
. . 1;: +(
1.50 d
degree of average
. . . 129. a
ls
dif-rence in iemper-
. . . 139 atures.
EWII nith the rat,e of transmission as low Bs 67 B.T.U. the mater was
srill 5 from the temperature of the st.enm. At what rate would the heat
&vi: bren tmnsmitl,ed if the water could have been brought to within
_ of t,he Wmpefnt.ure of the steam, or to 210 when the steam is at 212.?
Fo r co~nrncrcial purposes feed-waler heaters are given a H.P. rating
which allows abollt one-third of a square foot of surface per H.P. -a
hikr H.P. being 30 Ibs. of water per hour. If the figures given in the
tajjle above are accepted as subst~antially correct, a heater which is to
r+e 31100 ibs. of waler per hour from 60 to 207O, using exhaust. steam
a.; -112 as a healing medium, should have nearly S4 sq. ft. of heating
SurIace or nearly a square foot of surface per H.P. That feed-water
hest.ers do not carry this amount of heat.ing surface. is well known.
Calculation of ~urf~e of Heaters and Condensers. -(H. L. Hep-
burn, Z%Ker, Apnl. 1902.) Let IP = I bs. of water per hour: -4 = area of
sxrface in sq. ft.: TS = temperat.ure of the steam: Z = initial temnera-
tore of the J=ter; F = final temperature of the w&er. S = lbs. of steam
Per, hour; H = B.T.U. above 32 F. in 1 Ib. of ste&- N = B.T.-r:. in
1 11). of condensed steam; IT = R.T.U. transmit.t,ed pe; sq. ft. per hour
Per degree Of mean difference of temperat.ure between the steam and the
X&5.
Then
T.s- I
AC = ll lo& 39, for heaters.
H - N T.3 - Z
d u - S F _ z X lo& Ts _ F, for condensers.
The value of U varies widely according to the condition of the surface
$r:lle;ther clean or coated xith grease or scale, and also with t,he velociti
OI tw water ox-er the surfa,ces. Values of 300 to 350 have been obtained
i:i expr-riments with corrugated copper tubes, but ordinarv heaters give
much lo.xer wlues.
From the experiment.s of Loring and Emerr on the
r. 55. 5. DcKns. Nr. Hepburn finds U = 193. Using t,his valuehe finds
the number of square feet rjf heat,ing surface required per 1000 Ibs. of
fe(.l!-wafer per hour to be as follows. the temperature of the entering
user being 60 F.
Ste:~m Temperature. 2120.
F
--
194
194
i 98
i I 2
--
S F
i l . 11 15. 34
11. 73 16. 85
2. 38 115
12. 44 18. 93
3. 03 120
13. 20 22. 52
3. 76 125
14. 17 Infinite
; : : ; 133 130
n P_~>.
T
-
Steam25i n. Vacuum.
p = nnai temperature of feed-wat,er: S = sq. ft. of surface.
From this
table it is seen that if 30 ibs. of water per hour is taken to equal 1 H.P.
STEAM SEPARATORS. 911
and a feed-mater heater is made with l/s sq. ft. per H.P.. it may he cs-
petted to heat the feed-water from 60 to something less tha,n 194 or if
made with l/z sq. ft. per HP. it may heat the water to 20~ F.
For a further discussion of this subject, see Heat. pages 561 to 565.
Proportions of Open Type Feed-water Heaters. - C. L. Hubbard
(Practical Engineer, Jan. 1, 1909) gives the following:
Exhaust heaters should be proportioned according t,o the quality of
the water to be used, the size being increased with the amount of mud
or scale-producing properties which the water contains regardless of the
quantity of mater to be heated. The general proportions of an open
heater will depend somewhat upon the arrangement of the trays or pans,
but an approximation of the size of shell for a cylindrical heater is as
follows: A = H i ~6; L = H f aA; in which A = sectional area of shell
in sq. ft.; L = length of shell in linear ft.; N = total weight of water to
be heated per hour divided by the weight of steam used per horse-polrer
per hour by ihe engine; a = 2.15 for very niuddy water, 6.0 for slight!y
muddy wat,er, and 5.0 for clea,r water.
The pan F tray surface varies according to the quality of the water,
both as reg:::, ,ds the amount of mud and the scale-making ingredienbs.
The .wrface in square feet for each 1000 Ibs. of water heated per hour
may be taken as follows, for the vertical and horizontal types rcspect.ively:
Very bad water.. . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 and 9.1
Medium muddy water.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Clear and little scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
;;i ;.i
.
The space between the pans is made not less than 0.1 the width for
---+--wlnr and 0.25 the diameter for round Dans. Under ordinary
circumsta,nces it 1s not customary to use more ihan six pans in a tiei.
in n*aar to obtain a lam vel0cit.y over each pan. The size of the storage
1 .3cLbL..~- ~~~~~~~
25 t.o 0.4 of t~he
volume of the shell. depending on the @ality of the wa,ter; 0.33 is about
the average. In the case of vertical heaters, this varies from 0.4 to 0.6
-c +&A volume of the shell. Filters OCCUDF from 10 to 15% of the volume
-_ I.._,
1 the vertical.
Open versus Closed Feed-water Heaters. (W. E. Harrington, Sf.
z&qy. Jaw.. Ju!g 22, 1902,,,
i \ - There s!i!! etists s0g.e @ffPro?p= nf nnininn . . _._._L . -y -1.. I..
as to the relative desirab1ht.y of open or closed type of feed-Kater heate:.
t.he degree of nerfection which t.he ooen heater has at~t.ained has elinu-
-- --++linc chamber in the horizontal tvne Yaries from 0.
+hr. ---Iv use-of the onen heater.
Tile chief objection which at.tended
namelv. that the
objectionable features.
STEAM SEFARATORS.
If moist st.eam flowinp at, a high velocity in a pipe has its direction sud-
denlv changed t,he par&es of wat,er are by t~heir momentum proJected In
their: original ciirection against the bend in the pipe or Tvall of the chamber
in which the chance of direction takes place.
By making proper provi-
rinn fnr drawing off the aster thus separated
the steam may be dned to a
Y.Y.. .- .~~
greater or less extent..
For long st,eam-pipes a fa,rge drum should be provided near the engine
for trapping the water condensed in the pipe.
-4 drum 3 feet diameter.
I.5 feet high has ti ren rood resnlts in separating t~he water of condensa-
tion of a St&m- ni ne 10 inches diameter and SO0 feet lone.
EiRciencv of Steam Separators. --Prof. R. C. Carpenter,. in lfi91.
made a se& of tests of six st,eam separators, furnishin t.hem wth :team
containing different percentages of moisture, and test.mg the quahty of
c+nnm before ent.erinr and after pnssir.g the separator.
P,~ condensed
table of the principal ~results is given below.
This is a 1910 edition.
,,... a.--._ .~~i ,~ .,,
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
.
.
c
Test with Steam of about 107,
CJ Moisture.
Tests with Varying Moisture.
~$~a~r, Efficiency
Qualit,y of
after.
per cent.
Ytyorne be-
Conclusions from the tests were: l. That no relation existed between
the volume of the several separators and their efficiency. 2. No marked
decrease in pressure was shown by any of the separators, the most being
1.7 Ibs. in E. 3. Although changed direction, reduced velocity, and per-
haps centnfugal force are necessary for good separation, st.ill some means
must be provided to lead the water out of the current of the steam.
high efficiency obtained from B and A was largely due to this feature.
The
In
13 the interror surfaces are corrugated and thus catch the water thrown
out of the steam and readily lead it to the bottom. In A, as so on as the
water falls or is precipitated from the steam, it comes in contact with the
perforated diilphragm through which it runs into the space below, where
it is not subjected to the action of the steam.
Prof. Carpenter on a Stratton
Experiments made by
separator in 1894 showed that the
moisture m the steam leaving the separator was less than 1% when that
in the steam supplied ranged from 67f to 21%.
Experiments by Prof. G. F. Gebhardt (Power, May 11~: 1909) on sis
separators of different makes led to the following conclusions: (1) The
efficiency of separat.ion decreases as the velocity of the steam increases.
(2) The efficiency increases as the percentage of moisture in the enter-
!ng steam increases.
increase in velocity.
(3) The drop in pressure increases ra
f
idly with the
The six separators are described as fo lows:
U: 2-in. -ieiiid: no baiiles?; current reversed once.
V: 4-in. horizontal with single baffle plate of the Ruted type; current
reversed once.
W: 4-m. vertical wit,h two baffle plat,es of the smooth t,ype; current
reversed once.
X: 3-in. horizontal; several fluted baflie plates; no reversal of current.
Y: B-in. vertical; centrifugal type: current reversed once.
2: 3-m. horizontal: current reversed twice; steam impinges on horl-
zontai fluted baffle during reversal.
The efficiency is defined as the ratio of the wat.er removed from the
steam by t~he separator t.o the water injected into bhe dry steam for then
purpose of the, test. With steam at 100 Ibs. pressure conmining 10%
Kiter. t.he efficiencies, taken approximately from plot~ted curves, were as
follow:
:\t, 2600 ft. per min ........................
u v m x Y z
.%t 3000 ft. per min. ...................... . .
64 69 S6 85 79 66
37 45 SO 60 61 48
DETER~3~lSATION OF THE MOISTURR IN STEAM - STRAM
CALORI3lETERS.
In all boiler-bests it is important to ascertain the quality of the steam.
i.e.. lst, whether the steam is saturated
or contains the quantity of
heat due to the pressure according to standard experiments. or1 whether
the quartbity of heat is deficient, so that the steam is wet: ani :(dl whet~her
Throttling Calorimeter. - For percentages of moisture not erceed-
ing 3 per cent the throttling calorimeter is most usef;lmarhc$n;~~;~;
anti remarkablv accurate. fn this instrument the ste
the hrn,t. is in excess and the steam superheated:- ~-. --~~- -- ..----~-~~
The best method of
ascertaining the quality of the steam is undoubtedly that employed by a
committee which tested the boilers at the American Institut~e Exhibition
of lS71-2. of which Prof. Thurston was chairman. i.e., condensing all the
Water evaporat,ed by the boiler by means of a surface condenser, weighing
1t in a :&lnrh pipe is throttled bv an orifice r/is inch diam+;;;,s;;;$Gi
into a chamber which has an outlet to the atmosphere.
this chamber has its pressure reduced nearly ol?quite to the pressure of the
atmosphere. but the total heat in the steam before t.hrotthng causes then
steam in the chamber to he superheated more or less according to whether
the steam before throttling was drv or contained moisture. The Only
nd pressure of the
1
1
II observations reouired are those of ihe temperature a
Steam on each eiidfi Of the orifice.
WARNINE: This is a 1910.edition. Some of the material may no longer be accurate
DETERMINATION *OF. THE MOISTURE IN STEAM. 913
the condensing water and taking its temperature as it enters and as it
leaves the condenser: but this plau cannot always be adopted.
A substilute for this method is the barrel calorimeter, which with careful
operstion and, fairly accurate instruments may generally be relied on to
give results within two per cent of accuracy (that is, a sample of steam
which gives the apparent result of 2% of moisture may contain anywhere
between 0 and 4Y0). This calorimeter is described as follows: A,sample
of the steam is taken by inserting a perforated r/s-inch pipe into and
through the main pi
felted. to a barrel, ho
e near the boiler, and led by a hose, thoroughly
a platform scale and
referably 400 11)s. of water, which is set upon
to Row to waste. and
with a cock or vaive for allowing the water
propeller for stirring the water.
To operate the calorimeter the barrel is filled with water, the weight
and temperature ascertained, steam blown through the hose outside the
barrel until the pipe is thoroughly warmed. when the hose is suddenly
thrust into the water, and the propeller operated until the temperature
of the water is increased to the desired point, say about 110 usually.
The hose is then withdrawn quickly, the temperature noted, and the
wei~ght again taken.
An error of r/lo of a pound in weighing Lhe condensed steam; or an
error of l/e degree in the temperature, will cause an error of over 1% in
the calculated percentage of moisture. See 7ran.s. A. 8. M. ME.. vi, 293.
The calculstron of the percentage of moisture is made as below:
Q = quality of the steam, dry saturated steam being unity.~~.~~-~~. ~.-~ ~~-
H = t~otal heat of 1 lb. of steam at the observed pressure.
T = total heat of I lb. of water at the temperature of steam of the
observed oressure.
h = total heat 01 i jib; of condensing water, original. _
hi = total heat. of 1 lb. of condensing water, Anal.
W = weight of condensing water, corrected for water-equivalent of
the apparatus.
w = weight of the steam condensed.
. Percentage of moisture = 1 - Q.
If Q is greater than unity, the steam is superheated, and the degrees of
superheating = 2.0833 (H - T) (& - 1). ~.
Difficulty of Obtainin a Correct Sample. - Experlmentsiy Prof.
D. S. Jacobu;, (Trohi:. A. J Jf. I!J., xvi, 1017) show that it is practically
impossible to obtain a true average sample of the steam floning in a pipe.
For accurate determinations all the steam made bv Che boiler should be
passed through a separator, the water separated should be weighed and
a calorimeter test made of the st.eam just after it has passed the separator.
Coil Calorimeters. - Instead of-the open barrel in which the steam
is condensed~a coil acting as a surface-condenser may be used;~~ which is
s
laced in thebarrel, the water in coil and barrel being tieighed separately.
or a description of an apparatus of this kind designed by the author,
which he has found to give results with a probable error not exceeding
*/a per cent of moisture, see Trans. A. S. AI. E., vi., 294. This calorimeter
may be used continuously, if desired, instead of intermittently. In this
vater into and out of the barrel case a continuous flow of condensing x
mnst be est,ablished. and the temperature of inflow and
condensed st,eam read at short interva1s of time.
outflow and of the
The authors formula for reducing the observations of the throttling-
calorimeler is as follows (Experiments on Throttling Calorimeters, Am.
Mach.. Aug. 4, 1892): w = 100 X
I i-h-WT-0, in which w=
L
percentage of moisture in the steam: Ii = total heat, and L = latent heat
of steam in the main pipe; h = total heat due the pressure in the discharge
side of the calorimeter, = 1146.6 at atmospheric pressure; K= specific
heat of superheated s&&m: T= temperature of the throttled a,nd super-
heated steam in the calorimeter: t = temperature due to the pressure in
the calorimeter, = 212O at atmospheric pressure.
Taking K at 0.48 and the pressure in the discharge side of the calo-
rimeter as atmospheric pressure, the formula becomes .
w = 10o x H - 1146.6 - 0.48 (T - 212)
L
.
From this formula t~he following table is calculated:
MOISTURE IN STEAM- DETERMINATIONS BY THROTTLING CALORIMETER
Dif. p. deg.
Dif. p. deg.
Gauge-pressures.
5 1 I O 1 20 1 30 ( 40 1 50 1 60 1 70 1 75 1 80 1 85 1 90
Per Cent of Moisture in Steam.
2. 501
1. 971
2. 90 3. 24 3. 86 3. 99
2. 36 2. 71 3. 32
0. 921 1. 45'
3. 45 4. 13 3. 58
I . 83 1. 30 2. 17 1. 64 2. 77 2. 23 2. 90 2. 35 3. 03 2. 49
7 1. 10
^__ _ ^_
! . $?I ! . 8Cj 1. 94
,....I..... .>I
. 0. 00 0. 50
. . .
__ .!:?i k% U.3/ U.U/ I.Ul I.151 1.26 I.40
. . . 0. 03 0. 33 0. 47 0. 60' 0. 72 0. 85
. . . 0. 06' 0. 17 0. 31
- - - - - - - - -
, 0503 . I 3507 . 0515 . 0521~. 0~26~. 0531 . 0535 . 0539~. 0541i . 0542, . 0544 . 0546
- I - -
f I I t I I 1 I I I I
Gauge-pressures.
Per Cent of Mdisture in Steam. c
-1 I
2. 74 2. 971
2. 19 2.42i
1.64 I . 871
__ 0. 05 0. 21 0. 37 0. 52 0. 67 1. 34
. . , . . - . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 10 0. 76
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~~- - - -
O%! J . OS51 . 0554 . 0556 . 0559 . 056l . 0564 . 0566 . o568 . 0570 . 0572 . 0581
5. 68
5; :
3. 99
3. 43
2:
1. 74
1. 18
0. 61
CHIMNEYS.
which is simply a steam separator on a small scale An improved form
of this calorimeter is described hv Prof. Carpenter in Power. Feb.. 1893.
For fuller information on various kinds of calorimeters, see parjers by
.Prof. Peqbody, Prof. Csrpent,er, and Mr. Barrus in Tran.s. A. S. I I I . F.
~01s. x, XI, xii, 1889 to 1891: Appendix to RepoH of Corn. on Boiler Te&
:t. S. n:f. E., vol. vi, 1884; Circular of Schaeffer & Budenberg, N. Y.:
Calonmeters,, Throtthng and Separating.
Ldentificatlon of Drv Steam hv Appearance of a Jet. -Prof.
Denton (Iro?~. d. S. MI E.. vol. s) found that jets of steam show uni
rmstakable change Of a,ppearance to the eye when steam varies less than
1% from the condit.ion of saturation in the direction of either wetness
or of superheating.
If a jet of steam How from a boiler into the at.mosphere under circum-
stances such that very little loss of heat occurs through radiation, etc
and the jet be transparent close to t.he orifice. or be even a grayish-whit<
color, tQe steam may be assumed to be so nearly dry that no portable
condensing calorimeter will be capable of measuring the amount of water
in the steam. If the jet be strongly white, the amount of water may be
roughly judged UP to about 2%. but beyond this only a calorimeter can
determine the exact amount of moisture.
A common brass pet-cock may be used as an orifice but it should if
possible, be set into the steam-drum of the boiler and never be pla(eU
further away from t,he latter than 4 feet, and t.hen only when the inter-
mediate reservoir or pipe is well covered.
Usual Amount of 3I-7loistu.win Steam Escaping from a Roller.-
In the common forms of horizontal tubular land boilers and water-tube
boilers with ample horizontal drums, and suppiied wit.11 water free from
substances likely to cause foaming. the moisture in the steam does not
generally exceed 2% unless the boiler is overdriven or the water-level is
carried too high.
CHIMNEYS.
Fhlmneg Draught Theory. -The commonly accepted theory of
chimney draught. bnsed on Peclets and Rankines hypotheses (Rankfne,
S. IL). 1s discussed by Prof. De Volson Wood. Trans. A. 6. M. E., ~01. sii.
Peclet represented the law of draught by the formula
in which his the head, defined as such a height of hot gases as. if added
to the column of gases in the chimney, would produce the
same pressure at the furnace as a column of outside air, of
the same area of base, and a height equal to that qf the
chimney;.
u is the required velocity of gases in the chimney;
G a constant to represent t, be resistance to the passage of ,alr
through the coal:
2 the length of the flues and chimney:
m the mean hvdranlir dent.h or the area of a cross-section divided
by the perimeter;
f a constant depending upon the nature of the surfaces over
which the gases pass, whether smooth, or soot~y and rough.
Rankines formula (Steam Engine
values to the constants (so-called) in VP
258). derived by giving certain
eclets formula, is
h= Z( O.OSG7)
$( 0. 084 ) "- f = bg6~+
Separating Calorimeters. - For percentages of moisture beyond the
in Which H = the height of the chimney in feet:
range of the throttling calorimeter the seuarating calorimeter is US&
Q= 493O F.. absolute (temperature of melting ice):
TV= absolute temperature of the gases in the chimney;
Q= absolute temperature of the external aii.
.i
., ~..~.^,_~~,,l~_L,_ ~ .I, .,.., ,~~ ,.....,..._,,,... i_.i.-_~~~ ~...~-~.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accurate
\.
CHIMNEYS.
To find the maximum intensity of draught for any given chimn$y;t.he
heated column being 600 F., and the external air 60 ; multiply the height
above grate in feet by 0.0073, and the .product is the draught in inches
of water.
Prof. Wood derives from this a stil more complex formula which gives
the height of chimney re
P
uired for burning a given quantity of coal per
second, and from it he ca culates the following table, showing the height
of chimney required to bum respectively 24. 20. and 16 lbs. of coal per
square foot of grate per hour, for the several temperatures of the chimney
gases given.
Meight of Water Column Due to Unbalanced Pressure in Chimney
100 Peet High. (The Locomotia~. 1884.)
I
Chimney Gas. Coal persq.ft. of grate per hour, lbs.
Temperature of the External Air-Barometer, 14.7ibs. per sq. in.~
Out,side Air.
3.
Abs&te. %E
24 1 29.1 16
Height H. feet.
-
00
-
. 453
.488
:::i
. 584
, 611
. 637
:%
:::;
. 753
::;;
. 810
. 829
-
100
-
: : : ;
: %
: : ; : :
, 603
, 638
, 653
. 676
, 697
, 718
, 739
. 758
, 776
. 791
-
200
-
. 384
::::
:.Z
, 541
2.i
. 618
. 641
, 662
. 684
. 705
:%
. 760
-
. -
0
-
-
300
-
, 353
. 388
, 421
. 453
, 482
, 511
::E
. 588
. 611
2;:
:%
. 710
, 730
400
-
i . 321
. 355
. 388
:iE
:E
3:;
, 578
, 598
, 620
, 641
,660
, 678
. 697
-
-
, 263
:E
, 363
, 394
:::;
. 472
:%
, 541
. 563
, 584
. 603
. 620
, 639
-
100~
-
_-
0.
-
-
.-
0
-
-
--
a
-
560
-
1. 292
. 326
. 359
. 392
. 422
, 449
, 476
, 501
3%
, 570
, 591
. 612
. 632
. 649
, 669
700
-
I . 234
. 269
. 301
. 334
. 365
, 392
. 419
. 443
:E
::::
, 555
:E
. 610
-
1. 209
, 244
::it
:::;
. 394
. 419
:%
. 488
. 509
. 530
. 549
.566
, 566
900
-
I. 182
,217
:E
.313
::ZY
:Z
.446
.461
,482
.503
22
.559
.I57
.I92
-225
.257
::ti
3:;
:E
,436
.457
478
:%
,534
For an other height of chimney than 100 ft. the height of water column
is found % . y ample proportion, the height of water column being directly
proportioned to the h,eight of chimney.
The calculations have been made for a chimney 100 ft. high, with
various temperatures outside and inside of the flue. and on t.he supposition
that the temperature of the chimney is uniform from top to bottom.
This is the basis on which all calculations respecting t.he draught-power
of chimneys have been made by Rankine and other writers, but it is very
far from the truth in most ca,ses. The difference will be shown by com-
paring the reading of the draught-gauge with the table given. In one
case a chimney 122 ft. high showed a temperature at the base of 320.
and at the top of 230.
Box, in his Treatise on Heat, gives the following tabie:
DRAPGHT POWERS OF CHIMNEYS. ETC., WITNTKE ISTERNAL AIR AT 552O
AND THE %XERNAL AIR AT 62', AND WITH THE DAWPER KE~RLY
-
5200
absolute or
59O F.
::: Z:It 157.6 115.8
539 149.1 100.0
639 148.8 98.9
739 152.0
939 159.9. 1%::
I::; 286.5 168.8 III.0 132.2
48:i
it::
51.2
53.5
I I I I I
63.0
Rankines formula gives a maximum draught when r = 21/rs Q or
~522~ F,. when the out.side tempera_ture is 6OO.. Prof. Wood says: This
result is not a fixed value. but departures from theory in practice do not
affect the result largely. There is, then. in a properly constficted chimney
properly working, a temperature giving a maximum draught,*-and that
ternpcrat~ure is not far from the value 8dven by
soecial cases it mav be SO0 or 76O more or less.
Rankine, although in
~-~ All at.tempts to base a practical formula for chimneys upon the theoret-
ical formula of Peclct and Rankine have failed on account of the impos-
sibility of assigning correct values t,o the so-called constants G and 1.
(See Trans. -4. S. df. E.. xi. tIS4.)
Force or Intensity of Draught. -The force of the draught is equal
to t,he difference between the weight, of the column of hot gases inside of
the chimney and the weight of a column of the external air of the same
height. It, is measured by a draught-gauge, usually a U-tube partly
filled with wat.er. one leg connected bv a pipe to t.he interior of the flue.
and the other open to the external air.
If fi is t~lie densit.g of t,he air outside. d the densitv of the hot gas inside,
in 11)s. per cubic foot, h the beigbt of the chirnnev~in feet, and 0.102 the
factor for convert.ing pressure in lbs. per sq. ft. intoinches of water column,
then the formula for the force of draught expressed in inches of water is.
F = 0.192 h.(D - d):
The density varies with the a
PF
olute temperature (see Rankine).
d=OOOSi-~=O.0~~70,
7, -3
where 5 is the absolute temperature at 32 F.. = 193. TI the absolute
temperature of the chimney gases and 72 that of the external air. Sub-
stituting t~hese values t!ie formula for force of draught becomes
j
i
I
CLOSED.
- -
_ .
Therreiical Ve1ocit.y
in feet per second.
Theoretical Velocity
in feet per seaond.
-
--
T
Cold Air
Entering.
Ip,9p
. .
Cold Air
Entering.
5;:;
56.5
3;
74.3
80.0
Hot Air
at Exit.
.; ;-
17.8 -
25.3
::::
40.0
43.8
47.3
* hfuch confusion to students of the theory of chlmne.ys has resulted
from t~heir understanding the words maximum draucht to mean maxl-
mum intensity or pressure of draught, as measured by a draught-gauge.
It. here means maximum quantity or weight of gases passed up the
chimney. The maximum intensity is found only wit,b maximum tem-
perature. but. after the temperature reaches about 61?Z F. the density of
the gas decreases more rapidlv than its velocity increases, so that the
weight is a maximum about. 6$Z F., as shown by Rsnkine.~ - W. K.
UARNING.: .This is a 1910 edition.
.,, pi ,...,. ~-.-..
2~: ; , . y-
Some of the material. may no longer be accurate
IE::
113.0
124.0
138.6
149.6
160.0
Rate of Combust.lon Duo to Hei ht of Chimney. - Trowbridges
Heat. and Heat E~!glnes gives the ollowing figures fnr the heights of P
chlmney.for producmg certain rates of combustion per sq. ft. of grate.
They may be approslmately true for anthracite in moderate and large
sizes. but greater heights than are given in the table are needed to secure
the given rates of combustion with small sizes of anthracite, and for
bituminous coal smaller heights will suffice if the coal is reasonably free
,from ash - 5% or less.
Lbs. of
:oa1 per
%r%
7. 5_'
8. 5
9. 5
10. 5
11. 6
- -
Lbs. of
; Hfe$pt, Coal per
. p&y
. l
Lbs. of
$eei$t, Coal per
. Sq. Ft.of
Grate.
: i 16. 4 15. 8 198: :
16. 9 19. 5
17. 4 110 20. 0
18.0 ._...... . .._......
W. D. Ennis (Eng. Msg.. Nov., 1907). gives the following as the force
of draught required for burning Np. 1 buckwheat coal:
Draught.in.of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3
Lbs. coal per sq. ft. grate per hour.. . . . . _ .,. . . . . 10
0.45 0.7 1.0
15 W 25
Thurstons rule for rate of &mbustion effected bv a given height of
chimney (7runs. A. S. M. E., xi, 991) is: Subtract 1 ffom twice the square
root of the height. and the result is the mte of combustion in pounds per
S
xi . w
uare foot of grate per hour, for anthracite.
ch h 1s the height In feet.
Or rate = 2 fi - 1. in
This rule gives the following:
h = 50 60 70 80
90 100 110. 125 150 175 200
2 t/z-l =13.14 14.49 15.73 16.89 17.97 19 19.97 21.36 23.49 25.45 27.28
P
The resuit~s agree closely with Trowbrldges table given above. In
raelIce the high rates of combustion for high chimnevs &+ven by the
ormulaare not. generallyobtained, for the reason that wiih high chimneys
there are usual!y long horizontal flues, serving manv boilers and the
friction and the tnterference of currents-from t.he severzil boilers kre apt to
cause the mtenS:tY of draught in the branch flues leading to each boiler
to be Fuch. less than that at the base of the chimney.
The draught of
each bculer IS also usually restricted by a damper and by bends in the gas-
Passages. In a batter of several balers connect~ed to a chimnev 150 ft
high, the author foun a a draught of s/d-inch water-column at the boil&
near& the chimney, and only l/d-inch at the boiler farthe,st away
The
Erst boiler was wastmg fuel from too hieb temperature of the &nnev-
KIS~S. 900, havinr too large a gra,
beiler was workin below its rate
8 .
-surface for the draught, and the l&t
accGliiit of insuffirient draught.
capacity and with poor economy, on
69
The effect. of changing the length of the flue leading into a chimney
ft. hieb snd 2 ft. 9 in. square is given in the following table, from Box
on * Heat *:
I
I
fiengtn of riue in
feet.
Horse-power.
Lengt!e;{FIue in
Horse-power.
1; 107. 6 56. 1
i i i YE $Z 43. 3 51. 4
600 . 2: : ; : ;
The temperature of the gases in this chimney was assumed to be 552O F..
and that of the atmosnhere 62O.
-
WARNING: This is d 1910 edition.
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
SIZE OF CHIMNEYS. 919
High Chimneys not Necessary. - Chimneys above 150 ft. in height
are very costly, and their increased cost is rarely justified by increased effi-
ciency. In recent practice it h&s become somewhat common to build two
or more smaller chimneys instead of One large one. A notable example
is ,the Spreckels Sugar xefinery in Philadelphia, where three separate
clumne
d
s are used for one boiler-plant of 7500 H.P.
are sag
The three chimneys
to have cost several thousand dollars less than a single chimney
of their combined capacity werrld have cost.
been characterized by one writer as
Very tall chimneys have
monuments to the folly of their
bull Iders.
Mehts nf Chlmnev required for Different Fuels. -The minimum
++.h *ha fnel* wood reauirinr: the least. then eood
H--,-.- -- --_...--_
height necessar varies w _... .._ .yI
bituminous coa , and fine sizes of anthracite the greatest. 7 Italso varies
with the ,character of the boiler - the smaller and more circuitous the
gas-passages the higher :h t 1 p 9
a single boiler requiring
I& =quired; also with the number of boilers.
horizontal fJue. No general rull
C. L. Hubbard (Am; Electricia... .
less height than several that discharge into S;
e cat1 be given.
have been found. to give pnnd =~lnlts in DI
Droduce sufficient drauet
no Mar.. 1904) says: The following heights
ants of moderate size, and to
&~f~~e the lrioilers from 20 to 30 per cent
iLbove their rating:
-~_-~~
With free-binning bituminous,coal. 75 feet: wlth ant.hracite of medium
and la.rge size, 100 feet: with slow-burning bituminous coal, 120 feet; with
anthracite pea coal, 130 feet;. with anthracite buckwheat coal, 150 feet.
For plants of 700 or 800 horse-power and over, the chimney should not
be less than 150 feet high regardless of the kind of coal to be used.
a
SIZE OF CHIMNEYS.
The formula given below, and the table calculated therefrom for chlm-
neys up to 96 in. diameter and 200 ft. high, were first published by the
author in 1884 (Trans. A. S. M. E., vi, 81). They have met with much
approval since that date by engineers who have used them, and have been
fre uently published in boiler-makers catalogues and elsewhere. The
9 Eihe is now extended to cover chimneys up Tao 12 ft:diameter and 300 ft.
. The sizes corresT)+nd*nw tn the given commercial horse-Powers
are believed to be ample iG;ifiici, in @hich the d.raught areas through
the boiler-flues and connections are sufficient, say not less than 20%
greater than the area of the 0himnq-y. and in which the draught. between
the boilers and rhimnev
,..- - . . . . . . . I.-
is not checked by long horizont,al passages and
right-angled bends.
Note that the figures in the tnhle correspond to a coal eolzmmpt&n Of 5 h%
of coal per horse-power per hour. This liberal allowance is made to Cpver
the contingencies of poor coal being used, and of the boilers bemg dr!ven
beyond thelr rated capacity. In large
r
lants, with eco?om+l bollem
and engines, good fuel and other favorab e conditions. wblch ml1 reduce
the maximum rate of coal consumption a,t any one time to less than 5 lb?-
per H.P. per :,our. the figures in the table may be multiplied bY the ratlo
of 5 to the i,;aximnm expected coal consumption per B.P. P$r.hour.
Thus, wlv,th condit.ions which ma,ke the maximum coal ConScImPtlon only
2.5 Ibs. per hour. the rhimney 300 ft. high X 12 ft. diameter should be
sufficient for 6155 X 2 = 12,310 horse-power.
The formula is, based on
the following data:
_ >.. The draught power of the chimney varies as the square.root Of tbe
Might.
2. The retarding of the ascending gases by frict,lon may be considered
as equivalent to a dimlnutlon of the area of the chimney, or to ? hmng of
the chimney bv a layer of gas which has no velocity. The th!ckness. of
this lining is assumed to ha 9 *nnhr?g for all chlmnevs, or the dmnm~tron
of area equal to th- --A-
irip the overlapping Of
t@ corners of the Ii
r .,,,,neter x 2 inches (neglect
. ..._ ..ning). Let D = diameter In feet. A = area, and E =
effective area In square feet:
^.. n -
For square chimneys, E P Da - < = A~- 5 6.
. For round chimneys, E c i (13
8D
-~,=
>
~= A - 0.5~1 4,
For simpbfying CdIi!itiOiIS thb- COeffiCient of < niay be taken as 0.3
for both square and round chi&neys. and the formula becomes
E- A -L 0.64.
3. The power varies directly as this effective area E.
4. +A chimney should be proportioned so as to be capable of giving
sufficient draught to cause the boiler to develop much more than its rated
power, in case of emergencies, or to cause the combustion of 5 Ibs. of fuel
per rated horse-power of boiler per hour.
6. The power of the chimne varying directly as the effeztive area E
and as the square root of the Ieight, H. the formula for horse-power of f.
boijer fork a gfven size of chimney will take the form H.P. = CE ~~ in
which C is a constant, the average value of which, obtained by plotiing
the resu!ts obtained from numerous examples in practice, the author.
finds to be 3.33.
The formula for horse-power then is .
.H.P. = 3.33 E +?, or H.P. = 3.33 (-4 - 0.6 G) di?.
If the horse-power of boiler is given, to find the size of chimney, the
height being assumed,
?I? = 0.3 H.P. + d/H; = A - 0.3 6.
For round chimneys, diameter of chimney = diam. of E + 4.
For square chimneys, side of chimney = d/E + 4.
If effective area E is taken in square feet, the diameter in inches is d =
13.54yF + 4, and the side of a square chimney in inches is s =
l!?hz +4;
.If horse-power is given and area assumed, the height H =
(O.Iy.)~,
An appfosimate formula for chimneys above 1000 H.P. is h.P. =
2.5 dI d/H.
the table.
This gives the H.P. somewhat. greater than tbe figures in
In.pmpqrtioning chimne, s the height should first be assumed with due
consideration of the heights of surrounding buiidmgs or hills near to the
e .
reposed chimney, the length of horizontal flues, the character of coal to
e we?. etc.; then the diameter required for the assumed height and horse-
power rs calculated by the formula or taken from the table.
height can f6e
For Hei ht of Chimneys see pages 91s and 919. No formula for
1 grven nhlch will be satisfactory for different classes of coal
kinds and amounts oc ash. styles of grate-bars, etc. A formula in 1 ngeni-
em-s Taschenbuch. translated into English meitsures is h=0.916 R2+6 d
h= height m ft. R = Ibs. coal burned per sq. ft. of rate pe; hour d =
diam. in ft. This formula gives an insufficient heig It rcr small sikes of K .
anthracrte. and a heimht greater than is necessary ftir free-burning bitu-
nunous coal low in a&.
Th? Protection of Tali Chiy@ey-shafts from Lightning. -C
Xolyneus and J. M. Wood (In&s PWS, March 38, 1890) recommend for
tall chrmneys t~he use of a coronal orheavg band at, the top of the chimnev
with copper points 1 ft. in height at intervals of 2 ft. throughout then cirl
cumference. The points should be gilded to prevent oxidation The
m?st approved form of.conductor is a copper tape about 3/p in. by l/s in
tluck. weighing 6 ozs. per ft.
2*/d Ibs. per ft.
If iron is used it should weig!: not less than
There must be no insulation. and the copper tape shonld
be fastened to the cbimnev with holdfasts of the same material to pre-
vent voitaic 3CtlOn. An allOwance for expansion and cont.raction fihould
be made, say 1 in. in 40 ft. Slight bends in the ta,
answer the purpose. For an earth terminal a plate o
r
e not too abrupt.
3
metal at ieast 3 ft:
and r/is in. thick should be buried as deep as possible in a damp spot..~
re plate should be of the same metal as the conductor to which it
sl~ulrl he soldered.~ ~The best earth termina1 is water andwhen a deep
\veii. or other i.arge iiody of water is at hand, the eonductor should be
~T;~d$ddown Into it. _ Right-an&d bends in the conductor should be
. No bend in it should be over 3~.
!kRNING: This is ~a 1910 edit~ionc~ ~.Sorne of
\
the mate
-
I
I
-
.m
62
I
alekay no longer be accurate
Size of Chimneys far Steam-boilers.
Formula, H.P. = 3.33 (A - 0.6 .L/x> dg. (Assuming 1 H.P.~= 5 lhs. of coal burned per hour.)
,-
E~c?cve
E-A-
0.6 1/;3:
sq.ft.
.
Height, of Chimney.
Mft. Loft. 7oft. 80ft. 90ft. lOOft. Iloft. i25ft. 150ft.:175ft. 200ft.
I
--i-
I
Corn m
2
tercial Horse-power of Boiler.
-
A

--
.rea A I
3q. ft.
.::::
3. 14
, 3. 98
4. 91
5. 94
7. 07
8. 30
9. 62
12. 57
15. 90
19. 64
23. 76
28. 27
33. 18
38. 48
i x
56: 75
63. 62
70. 88
78. 54
95. 03
ii
62
83
107
133
163
196
231
311
, , . . . ,
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. , . * .
. . . . .
. e. . . ,
*. . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . ~.
. . . . .
. . 9.
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
.*..,
. . . .
. ./. .
. . . .
iiJ i
, 636
800
981
I I 81
1400
1637
1893
2167
E
3' 100
34%l
5026
- - -
. . . .
. . .
. * . .
.-..,
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
. . . . ,
. . . . ,
675
848
1040
, I 253
1485-
1736
2003
2298
2609
2939
3288
3657
4455
5331
- -
.-
0. 97
1. 47
i 4: E
3. 58
4. 48
5. 47
6. 57
7. 76
10. 44
13. 51
16. 98
20. 83
25. 08
29. 73
34. 76 ~:
40. 19
46. 01
52. 23
58. 83
65. 83
73. 22
89. 18
13. 10 106. 72
-7
-
7
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
* . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
I 201
144:i
1735
2005
2318
2654
3012
3393
379;
422:
514:
6155
I
27
3" : 41
58
: i 78
g2 1z I 15
141 i 52
. . . . . . I 83
. . . . . . 216
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . _, . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
*....
66
88
113
141
, I 73
208
245
330
427
536
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . I
. . . . .
. . . . .
. a. . .
. . . . *
. . . . .
. , . . .
. . . . .
. *. . ,
:
. , . . .
. . . .
. . . . .
* . . .
. . . .
I I 9
149
182
219
258
348
449
565
694
a35
. . . .
. . . .
e. . . ,
*. . .
. *. .
. . ' . .
I . . . .
, s. . *
I . . .
>. . . .
~. . . .
156
I 91
229
271
365
472
593
728
876
1038
1214
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . *
. , ' . .
. , . .
. *\ .
. . . .
e.m..
. . . . .
204
24' 5
289
389
503
632
776
934
1107
1294
1496
1712
1, 944
2' 390
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
, I . I . .
. ~. . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
..-..
. . . . .
. . . . .
268
316
; :
692
849
1023
1212
1418
1639
1876
2130
2399
2685
2986
3637
4352
-
-
:
:;
84
......
......
......
......
.......
......
......
......
......
......
.......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
. ..*.
. . . .
. . . .
. . . . .
-...,
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
342
460
, 595
748
918
1105
1310
1531
1770
2527
E
;g
4701
- -
. ,. . . .
.I.. .
. . . . .
. ,. . . .
. . . . .
.I.. . .
.:. . . .
.I.. . .
-....
. * . . .
.*. . .
894
ii;:
1565
1830
2216
2423
2750
3098
3466
3855
%96
5b18
i . -
I 6
19.
.
I
.
.
.
.
.
t .
.
.
.
,j
. .
. .
. .
* .
. .
. .
* .
. .
,I
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
-
22
24 ; " .
' 27 i
3Oi
321
35; :
38 : .
43 : ;
48:
54 :
59;
;o j
,
I
75 :
!
8
i
,
i
r
1
i
-.
101
107
I 17
I 28 1
J
-
For pounds of coal burned per hour for any given size of chimney, multiply the figures in t~he table by 5.
922
~,
,, ,
:, <CHIMNEYS. : ,
Some Tall Brick Chimneys ( 1895) :
I.
f :
4.
5.
6.
7.
a.
9.
10.
I I .
17. .
13.
Hallsbriickner Hiitte,
Saxony.. . 460
Townsends, Glasgow. 454
Tennants, Glasgow.. 435
Dobson & Barlow, Bol-
ton, Eng . . . . . . 3671/
Fall River Iron Co., Bos-
ton.........;...;....... 350
Clark Thread Co., New-
ark,.N.J ._.,_....__ ,.,.,
Blerrunac Hills, Lowell,
335,
hlass.................... 202' 9
Washington Mills, Law-
rence, hl ass. . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Amoskeag Mills, Man-
Chester. N. H.. . . _. 250
Narragansett E. L. Co.,
Providence, R. I ._._.,. 238
Lower Pacific Mills, Law-
rence. hl ss~. . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Passaic Print Works,
Passaic, N. J.. .~~. 200
Edison Station Brooklyn,
Two each.. ._ __, _. 150
15. 7'
. .
13' 6"
13' 2"
I I
I I
12
10
10
~14
e
9 . ,
5O"X 120'
Outside
Diameter
- -
--
Y
::.
40
' 3' I (
30
, 8' 6'
.
. .
. . . .
. . . .
. .
. .
.
-
oa
b
-
It5
21
14
, . . ,
.
.
.
act
7
,. .,
.
. . .
. . .
.
e
-
-*I
-
.
--
. . .
.
1
Ca~$~ovs the
Formula.
-
H. P.
13, 221 66, 105
.
9, 795 40, 975
8, 245 41. 225
5. 550 27, 790
5, 435 27, 175
5, 980 29. 900
3, 839 19, 195
3, 839 19, 195 . :
7, 515 37, 575
2, 240 11. 240
2, 771 13. 855
1, 541 7. 705 : . '
NOTES OS THE AXWE CHIMNEYS. - 1. This chimney is situated near
Freiberg. at an elevation of 219 ft. above that of t,he foundry works. so
that its total height above the sea will be 7113/d ft. The furnace-gases
are conveyed across river to the chimney on a bridge, through a-pipe
3037 ft. long. It IS built of brick, and cost about $40.000. - -Wfr. & BZrIr.
2. Owing to the fact that it was struck by lightning. and somewhat
damaged. as a precautionary measure a copper exter&n subsequently
was added to it, making its entire height 488 feet.
1. 2. 3, and 4 were built of these great heights to remove deleterious
gases from the neighborhood,, as 1
5. The structure rests on a soli
as for draught for boilers.
ranite foundat,ion, 5.5 x 30 feet, &d
16 feet deep. In it.s c,onst.ruction there were used 1,700.OOO bricks,
2000 tons of stone, 2000 barrels of mort.ar, 1060 loads of sand, 1000 barrels
of Portland cement. and the estimated cost is 4i46.000. It is arranged for
t\vo flues. 9 feet 6 inches bv 6 feet, connecting \~~t.h 40 boilers, which are
to be run in connection with four triple-expansion engines of 1350 horse-
power each.
6. It has a uniform batter of -2.85 ins. to every 10 ft,. Designed for
21 .boilers of 200 H.P. each. It is surmounted bv a cast-iron coping
nhlrh weighs six tons, and is composed of 32 sections bolted together
by inside Ranges so as to present
is 40 ft. square and 5 ft. deep.
a smooth exterior. The foundation
Two qualit.ies of brirk were used: the
outer portions were of the first quality North River, and the backing w
was of good quality New Jersey brick. Every twenty feet in vertical
m.easurement. an iron ring, 4 ins. tide and 3/4 to 1/s in. thick, placed edge-
E+se, was built into the walls about 8 ins. from the outer circle.
yhtmney starts from the base it is double.
AS the
The outer wall is 5 ft. 2 ins.
tn thickness, and inside of t.his is a second wall 20 ins. thick a,nd spaced
SIZE OF CHIMNEYS. 923
of? a.hout. 2n ins. from main wall. From the interior surface of the main
wall eight buttresses a.re carried, nearly touching this inner or main flue
wall in order to keep it in line should it tend to sag. The interior wall.
cta.rt.ing wi th the thickness described: is gradually reduced u -I-l---~ ..__._ -.:. ....~~~
ntil a height
of about 90 ft. is reacned. when it isdiminishedWto 8 inches. At 165 ft.
it PPR.RPS. and the rest of the chimney is without lining. The total~weight
~f-<~e-&imney and foundation is 5600 tons. It was completed in Sep-
i
--_ -.~~~~~
h-q 2. +.R,~w iF 9%. and above thi,s a circuIa,r D:
-- -I-~
~i~~~ TKe b&&ving a taper ~of 7%. the next 100
ft.of 4%, and the
remaining 1SO ft. to the cap 2%.
The chimnev wall varies from 66 in. at the base to lStl.8 in..at the top
by uniform decrements of 2in. per sectton, excepting at the sectton rmme-
dia.t.elv ahove the ton of the base, where the thickness decreases from 60 ln. .
78% ft. at the base.
~~-~~in, The outside diameters of the stark are
9 in. at the base of the cap; the inside diameters rang?
- ~: from 661/ 2 ft.
at the foundation line to 60 ft. at the top, The chimney is lined with 4-in
acid-proof brick, laid in sections carri ed on corbels from the main shell
A description of the merhods of design and
~
of erection of the Great
Falls chrmney is given in Eng. Rec., Nov. 25,190s.
Slabillty of Chimneys. -Chimneys must be designed to resist the
maximum force of the wind in the Irwa.litv in which thn.7 ~-0 hdl* l --., -.- . . . ..-..
general rule for diameter of base of brick chimneys, @s&K> ~~*~an~
years of practice rn England and the IJnited Si.n.t,es~ is to make the diam-
etet of the base one-tenth of the hpiGht-- ----- I Tf the 0 .-- ...__O._. -- ..... -himney is square or
rectangular, make the diameter of the inscribed circle of the base one-
tenth of the height. The batter or taper of a chimney should be
from l/m to l /4 inch to the foot on each side. The brickwork should be
one brick (8 or 9 inches) thlek for the first 25 feet from the top, increa,sing
r/s brick (4 or 41/3mches) for each 25 feet from the top downwards.
If
the msrde drameter exceeds 5 feet, the top length should be 11/s bricks;
and if under 3 feet, it may be r/z brick for ten feet.
(Brom The Lot:omotive, 1884 and 1886.) For chimneys of four feet in
dfameter and one hundred feethigh. and upwards, the best form is cir-
cular with a straight batter on the outside.
Chimneys of any considerable height are not built up of uniform
thickness from top to bottom, nor with a uniformly var
wall. but the wall, heaviest of course at the base, is ore
B
ing thickness of
of steps.
uced by a series
WllWC : practicable the load on a chimnev foundationshould nnt. e\rreerl
two tons per square foot in compact sand. gmvel, or loam
Where a
solid rock-bottom is available for foundat.ion. the load mav be ereatlv
increased. If the rock is slouine
I~ mm--
:. all unsound nortions sbouldhr remnvd
-- --.---.--*
and the face dressed to a series of horizontal &ens en t.hat there shall be
no tendencv to slide after the struct.ure ia finiuhd
All boiler-chimnrvs nf 3~
- -.- -.--.. _ _ -I _ .:..-..-.-.
r consrderable slse should consist nf n.dnllt.pr
stack 6tsuificientsirent~.~ give stability to the structure and an inner
stack or core independent of the outer one.
extended UP to a height of but 50 or 60
This core is bv manv enaineers
but the better 1
I feet from the basi ! of the chrnuneyy
practice is to run it up the whole height of the rhimney: It
may be stopped off, say. a couple of feet below the top, and the outer shell
contracted to the area of the core, but the better way is to run it up to
about 8 or 12 inches of the top and not contract the outer shell.
But
under no cir$mstances should the core at its upper end be built into or
connected ulth the outer stack. This has been done in several instances
by,bricklayers. and the result has been the expansion of the inner cork
whmh lifted the top of the outer stack squarely up and cracked the brick-
work.
\
SIZE OF CHIMNEYS. 925
8 to 10 tons Der sa. it,. although the strength of best Dressed brick will run
much hlghei. - -
James B. Francis, in a. report to the Lawrence Mfg. Co. in 1873 (Eng.
News, Aug. 28, 1880), concerning the probable effects of wind on that
comuanvs cbimnec as then constructed, says:
The stability of-the chimney to resists the force. of the wind depends
mainly on the weight of its outer shell, and the width of its base. id the width of its base.- The The
cohesion of the mortar may add considerably to its strength; but it is too cohescon of ~the moirtar may add considerably to its strength; but it is too
uncertain to be relied upon. uncertain to be relied upon. The inner shell will add a little to the The inner shell will add a little to the
stability, but it may be cracked by the heat, and its beneficial effect, if ,t. and its beneficial effect. if
any, is too uncertain to be taken mto account.
The effect of the joint action of the vertical pressure due to the weight
of the chimney, and the horizontal ressure due to the force of the wind is
to shift the center of pressure at t lt e base of the chimney. from the axis
toward one side, the extent of the shifting depending on the relative
magnitude of the two forces. If the center of pressure is hrought too near
the side of the cblmne it will crush the brickwork on that side, and the
chimney will fall. A ine drawn through the center of pressure, perpen- P*
diculsr to the direction of the wind. must leave an area of brickwork
between it and the sldeof the chimney, sufficient to support half the weight
of the chimney; the other half of the weight being supported by the brlck-
work on the wmdward side of the line.
Different experimenters on the strength of brickwork give very different
results. Kirkald found the weights which caused several kinds of
bricks, laid in hy x . rauhc hme mortar and in Roman and Port.land cements,
to far1 slightly, to vary from 19 to 69 tons (of 2900 lbs.) per sq. ft. If
we tal$e in this case 25 tons per sq. ft. as the werght that would cause it
to begm to fail, we shall not err greatly.
Rankine,. in a paper rlnted in the transactions of the Institution of
En.gineers. rn SCotland, or 1867-68. says: It had prevrously, been ascer- P
t.ained by observation of the success and failure of actual.chrmneys. and
especially of those which respectively stood and fell dunng the vtolent
storms of 1856, that, in order that a round chimney may be sufficiently
stable,its weight should besuch that apressureof wind, of about 55 lbs.per
sq. ft. of a plane surface, directly facing the wind, or 27% lbs. per sq. ft.
of the plane projection of a cylindrical surface, . . . shall not cause the
resultant pressure at any bed-joint to deviate from the axis of the
chimnev bv mote than one-quarter of the outside diameter at that
joint.
Steel Chimneys are largely used especially for tall chimneys of iron-
works frnm 150 t,n nnn feet in hehzht. The advantages clalmed are:
great& strength and safety; smaller space required: smaller cost, by
30 to 50 per cent, as compared with brick chimneys: avoidance of intiltra-
tion of air and mnseouent checkine of the draught. common in bri ck
G&e rGiindrlca1 in shtie..wlth a wide curved
bnlrling:d8wn bolts: No guys are used.
inrr Chimnevs. - John D. Adams
mately M = 0.7854 D*TS.
With steel. plate of 60,000 lbs. t.ensile strength, riveting of 0.6 efficien;Y, (
and a factor of safety of 4, we have S = 9000 pounds per sq. In., and the
safe moment of resistance = vnvn n2T ..- -.
The effect of the wind up-.. -
multiplied by one-half the diamc
MARNING: This is a 19lO~'edition~
~_. ~._. ,.,..;._.~,~,,~l,~lll__.
~
wind pressure at 50 lbs. per sq. ft., we get
.'
d&&this becomes approxi-
on I* cylinder is equal to the wind pressure
?t,ral plane, and takrng the maxrmum
Total wind pressure = 59 X Vrs D X 12 X %I 7 H = 25 DH/14.
,,.
t i .,,~- ~,,,
. ..~ .
Some of the material may no longer Be accura-ce
inch pounds, 25 DHjl4k i/TH x 12 = b.184 DH2.
Equating the bending and the resisting moment v$e have T = 0.0013
m/ 7) -- ,-.
With this formula the maximum thickness of plates was calculated for
different sizes of chimneys, as given in the table below.
In the above formula, no attention has been paid to the weight of the
steel in the stack above the bell oortion. which wieht has a tendency
to decrease the tension on the wind-ward side and increase the compressioh
on the leeward side of the stack. A column of steel 150 ft. high would
exert a pressure of approximately 500 Ibs. per sq. in.. which, with steel
of 60,000 Ibs. tensile strength, is less than 1% of the ultimate strength,
and may safely be neglected.
From the table it appears that a chimney 12 X 120 ft. requires, as far
as fracture by bending of a tubular section is concerned, a thickness of
but little over l/s in. In designing a stack of such extreme proport.ions
a,s 12 X 120 ft., there are other factors besides bonding to take into con-
sideration that ordinarily could be neglected. For instance. such a stack
should be provided with~stiffening angles, or else niade heavier, to guard
against lateral flattening; Ordinarily, however, the .strength of the
chimney determined as a tubular section will be the prime factor in deter-
mming the maximum thickness of plates.
THICKNESS OF BASE-RING PLATES OF SELF-SUPPORTING STEEL STACKS.
For normal wind pressure of 50 Ibs. per sq. ft. on half the diametral plane.
70 0. 152~. 133 , 106
80 0. 198 .I82 . I 39 ,116
90 0. 224 , 219 , 175 . I 46
100 0. 310 , 271 , 217 ,181
!!O 9.375 328 ,262 ,218
120 0. 446 , 390 , 312 , 260
130 0. 523 . 458 , 366 . 305
I40 0.607 .531 ,425 ,354
I50 0.696 ,609 .487 .406
I60 .._... ,693 ,555 ,462
170 . . . . , 626 , 521
180 .._... ,... , 702 , 505
190 .._... . . . . 652
200 . . . . .
210 . . . . .._.
220 . . . . . . . . ,...,,
230 . . . . ,._.,,
2Gl . . . . . . . . . . .
250 _... . . ..,..,
Diameter of St&k in feet.
-
- _
7
, 099
j;;
IiS7
. 223
, 262
, 303
3;:
, 447
, 501
. 559
, 620
. 682
.
. . . .
.
-
0
-_
. . . .
. . .
,111
:i35
. .
.I04
,195
, 228
, 265
, 305
, 346
391
: 439
:%
, 596
:%
I
8. 5 9
.---
. . . . . . . .
:E :i.z
, 183 . I 73
, 215 . 203
. 250 , 236
, 286 . 27l
, 326 . 308
, 368 , 340
, 413 , 390
, 460 , 434
, 510 ,481
, 562 , 531
, 617 , 582
, 674 , 637
, 734 . 693
, 752
-7
-
9. 5
. .
. .
.
.
, 138
. I 64
, 193
, 223
, 257
::2
. 370
. 4l I
:%
, 552
:%
, 713
-
7
IO
I31
,156
,183
,212
, 244
. 277
, 313
, 351
. 39l
, 433
, 478
. 524
, 573
:i:i:
,
- -
II
- --
. . . .
.
.I19
:12
,193
:;;t
. 285
. 319
::;i
::::
. 52l
:2:
12
.
.~...
. . .
\
. . . . .
. .
, 130
, 153
. I 80
. 203
,231
.26l
. 293
, 325
, 361
,398
. 437
, 477
. 520
. 564
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some 0-t tn erial may no l onger be accurate
The distance of the cent& of pressure above the top of the bell portion,
= 3/ 7 H; multiplied by the total yind pressure, gives us the bending mo-
ment due to the wind.
-
Founddion. - Neglecting the increase of wind area due to the flare
Ft the base of the chimney, which has but a very small turning effect,
If al1 dimensions be taken in feet, we have
Total wind pressure = 11% D X H X 50 = i5 DH; lever-arm = l/z H;
hence, turning moment ,= 12.5 DH?.
Let d = diameter and h = height of foundation.
For average con-
ditions h = 0.4 d, then volume of foundat,ion = 0.7854 d2h and for
conPrete at 150 Ibs. per cu. ft., weight of foundation = IY =0.7554 d*h
x 150 = 47: 121 d3.
The stabihty of the foundation or the tendency to resist overturning
fs equal to the weight of the founda.tion mult,iplied bv it.s radius or l/v TYd
~23.562 d. Applying a factor of safety of 2 112, iVhich is indicated by
SIZE OF CHIMNEYS. 927
curr&nt ptactice, gives safe stability = 9.425 da. Equating this to the
overturning moment we obtain d= 1.07 m, in which all dimensions
are in feet.
,
Anchor-bolts. -The holding pow& of the. bolts depends on three
factors: the number of bolts. the diameter of the bolt circle,, and the
diameter of the bolts. The number of bolts is largely conventlonal and
may beselected so as not to necessitate bolts of too largea diameter. The
diameter of the bolt circle is also more or less arbitrary. The bolts will
be stretched and therefore strained, in proportion to their distance from
the axis of turning, assuming, as we must, that the cast-iron ring at the
base of the chimney is rigid. The leverage at which any bolt acts is also
directly proportional to its distance from the axis of turning. Therefore,
since the el%ectiveness of any one bolt, as regards overturning, depends
upon the strain in that bolt, multiplied by its leverage, it is evident that
the effectiveness of any bolt varies as the square of its distance from the
axis of turning. If we la
and add all the squares o f
out, say, 12 or 24 bolts equidistant on a circle
these distances, we wlll find that.we may con-
sider the total as though the bolts were all placed at a +st?nce of 3/ g
the diameter of the bolt circle fro,? then a+ of, turning, w@h 1s the tan-
gent to the bolt circle.
Let b = diameter of bolt in, inches,~ n = number .of bolts, diameter
of bolt circle = 3/ 3d. Take safe working stress at 8000 pounds per sq.
inch. Then resistance to overturning = 0.7854 b X 8000 X Z/ 3 d X 3/ s X
N = 6283 bzNd/4. Equating this to the turning moment, 12.5 DH*,
-
dves b = 0.0257 H d/o/d for 12 bolts, 0.0222 if e for 18 bolts.
-
and 0.0182 N d/D/d for 24 bolts:
The Babcock & Wilcox Co.s book Steam illustrates a steel chimney
at the works of the Maryland Steel Co., S arrows Point, Md. ,It is
225 ft. in height above t,he base, with interna P brick lining 13 9. umform
inside diameter. The shell is 25 ft. diam. at the base; tapering m a curve
to 17 ft. 25 ft. above the base, thence taperin alniost imperceptibl
to
14 8 at the top. The upper 40 feet is of l/r-mch plat,es. the next P our
section,s of 40 ft. each are respectively Q/ 32, 5/ 15. %z. and 3/ g inch,
ReInforced Concrete Chimneys began extensively .to come into use
in the United States in 1901. Some hundreds of them are now (1909)~
in use. The fQl,lowing description of the method of construction of,these
chimneys is condensed from a circular of the Weber Chimney Co., C&ago;
The foundation is comparatively light and made of concrete, conslstmg
of 1 cement, 3 sand, and 5 gravel or macadam.
The steel rei;nforcement
consists of two networks usually made of T steel of small size.
The bars
for the lower network are placed diagonally and the bars for the second
network (about 4 to 6 ins. above,the first one) run parallel to.tbe odes.
The vertical bars, forming the reenforcement of the clumney lts$f, also
go down into the foundation and a number of these bars are bent in order
to secure an anchorage for the chimney.
The chimney shaft consists oftwo parts. the lower double shell and the
single shell a.hove, which are united at the offset.. The inside shell 1s
usually 4 ins; thick;~while the thlrkness~of the outer shell~depends on the
height and varies from 6 to 12 ins. The single she!1 is from 4 to 10 Ins.
thick. The height of the double shell depends upon the purpose Of the
chimney nat,ure and heat of the ga.ses, etc.
Betwekn the two shells in the lower part there is a circular air space 4
ins. in wldt.h. An expansion joint is provided where t,be t,wo shells umte.
The concrete above the ground level consists of one part Portland
cement and three parts of sand. No gravel or macadam is used.
The bending forces caused hy wind pressure are taken up by the vertlyal
st.eel rei;nforcement.. The resistance of the concrete itself against tension
is not considered in calculation.
The vertical T bars are from 1 X 1 X l/g to 1 l/z X 1 l/z >i l/z in., the weight
and number depending upon the dimensions of the chimney.
The bars
are from 113 to 30 ft. long and overlap not less than 24 ins:
They me
placed at regulnr intervn,ls of 18 ins. and encircled by steel pngs bent to
the desired cirde. The work of erection is done from the mmde of the
chimney: no outside scaffolding is needed.
The fo11owjpe is a list of some of the tallest concrete chimn&s that ha,ve
been built of tifeir respective diameters: Butte, Mont., 350 X 18 ft.; Seattle,
~_,,~ .,.. ,..,, ~,-.~~~ _.~ ~~,~..:.
THE STE.&f -ENGINE. 929
-_.- - -.
Wash., 278 X 17 ft.; Portland. Ore., 230 X 12 ft.: Lawrence, Mass.. 250 X
II ft.; Cincinnati, Ohio, 200 X IO ft.: Worcester, Mass., 220 X 9 ft.:
Atlanta, Ga.. 225 X 8 ft.: Chicago, 175 X 7 ft.; Rockville, Conn., 175 X
6 ft.; Seymour, Did., 150 X 5 ft.; Iola, Kans., 143 X 4 ft.; St. Louis, MO..
130 X 3 ft. 4 in.: Dayton, Ohio, 94 X 3 ft. .
THE STEAM-ENGINE.
Expansion of Steam. Isothermal and Adiabatic. - According to-
Mariottes law, the volume of a perfect gas, the temperature being kept
constant, vanes I nVerSel y as its pressure, or p= l/v; pv=aconstant. The
curve constructed from this formula is called the isothermal curve, or
curve of equal temperatures, and is a common or rect,an,gular hyperbola.
The expansion of ,&earn in an engine is not isothermal, since the temper-
ature decreases with increase of volume, but its expansion curve approxi-
mates the curve of pv = a constant. The relation of the pressure and
volume of saturated steam,, as deduced from Regnaults experiments, and
as given m steam tables, is approximately, according to Ranltine (S. E.,
.p. 403). for pressures not exceeding 120 Ibs., p cc l/vtfi, or p cc&or pv%=
pvi+w5 =a constant.
closer approxima,tidh.
Zeuner has found that the exponent 1.0646 gives a
When steam expands in a closed cylinder, as in an engine, according to
Rankine (S. E., p. 385), the approximate law of the expansion is p CC l/vs,
or p cc v-v* or pv*iu= a constant. The curve constructed from this
formula is called the adiof~fftic curve, or curve of no transmission of heat.
Peabody (Therm., P. 112) says: It is probable that t,his equation was
obtained by comparing the expansion lines on a large number of indicator- *
diagrams. . . . There does not appear to be any good reason for using an.
exponential equation in this connection,
steam-engine cylinder is far from being
and the action of a lagged
adiabatic For general pur-
poses the hyperbola is the best curve for comparisdn&lth the expansion
curve of an indicator-card. . . .
ii, 175. say:
Wolff and Demon, Trans. A. S. M. E.,
From a number of cards examined from a variety of st.ea,m-
engines in current use, we find that the actual expansion line vanes beti yeen
the lo/$ adiabatic curve and the Mariotte curve.
Prof. Thurston (Trans. A.S.41. E..ii. 203)says he doubtsif the exponent
ever becomes the same in any two engines, or even in the same engine
at different times of the day and under varying conditions of the day.
Expansion of Stwm -according to ,?lariottes Law and to the
Adiabatic Law. (Trans. A. S. I V.~E., :I , 156.) -Mariottes law pv-
pivi; values calculated from formula -? = 1 (1 + hyp log R), in whi&
R = vz + vr: pi = absoluteinitial pres&e. P, = absolute mean pressure,
vi = initial volume of steam in cylinder at pressure pi, r? = final volume
of steam at final pre_ssure. Adiabatic law: pvv = pmy; val ues cal cu-
Sizes of Foundations for Steel Chimneys.
(Selected from circular of Phila. Engineering Works.)
HALF-LINED CHIMNEYS.
Diameter, clear, feet.. . . 3
Height, feet.. . . . . . . . 100 .loO 120 l!O 1750 1950 EO
Least diam. foundation.. 159 lz4 204 2110 227, 238 248
Least depth foundation.. 6
Height, feet. . . . . . 125 2% 2j ;%i %I
Least diam. foundation.. . . . 185 238 298 336* 36
Least depth foundation . . . . . 10 10 12 12 14
Weight o! Sheebiron Smoke-stacks. per Foot.
(Porter Mfg. Co.)
18.33
E:2
23.33
g:;i
. .
-\
iVeigh t
lbs
She&-iron Chimneys. (Columbus Machine Co.)
-i-
13
-
Thick-
ness
Iron,
x3. w. G.
No. 16
:: g
" 16
" 16
" 16
a 15
Thick-
ness
Iron.
B. W. G
Len&
:himney
feet.
lated from formula YFy = 10 R-i -9 R-#.
Ratio of Mean
4p Initiai
are.
Adiab.
Ratio
if Ex. m I
an&r
R.
1 Pre:
L-
Mar.
--
I . ooo
- 976
. 931
. @a1
, 834
. 798
. 765
32
2%
. 666
. 654
. 642
: E
. . 61U
3. 7
::;
4.
4. 1
2
2
4. 6
i:;:
;:i
:::
5. 75 .
SSI
-
_-
0. 624
, 614
, 605
, 597
. 588
. 580
, 572
. 564
, 556
, 549
, 542
, 535
, 528
, 522
: : : ;
~- 4711 . ~
i
Ratio
,f Ex-
ansior
R.
2;s
!:75
::P
7. 75
g5
8. 75
9.
ES
9. 75
._
-r
-i
4
ln?SSl
Mar.
iatio of Mean
to Initial
Rst.io
of Ex-
pansior
R.
1.00
Ei
1. 75
::2
i:;
2. 6
?
3: 1
3. 2
3. 3
IP?.
Uinb,
:%
. 580
, 571
. 562
. 554
::3:
::ii
, 516
, 509
. 502
:%
, 464
~, 45f l
, 342
, 336
, 330
xcurate
sst
-
i
-_
-
4diab.
%
. 413
. 403
. 393
, 303
::2
. 357
. 349
. 342
::S
. 321
, 315
.g::
2
.
:E
. 937
. a91
. a47
. 813
. 781
. 766
: : B
. . 700
. 608
: %
, 654
. 644
~. 634
MARNING: This is g 1910 edition. Some of the materi al may
--
no l onger De
930 . ~+J!@ti ,STEA&ENGINE.
Mean Pressure of Expanded Stejm. - For calculations of Cngines
it is generally assumed- that steam expands according to Rlariottes law,
. tht: curve of the expansion line being a hyperbola. The mean pressure,
measured above vacuum, is then obtained from the formula
P m-P1 1+h~10gR9 or P,=Pt(l+hyplogR), ,
in which P, is the absolute mean pressure, m the absolute initial pressure
taken as uniform up to the point of cut-off, Pt the terminal pressur_e, and
R the ratio of expansion. If 1 = length of stroke to the cut-off, L = total
stroke.
p, :=
p,Z+ pd hyp log f
1 + hyp log R.
L
; andif R=fp Pnc=p,
R
Mca,nand Terminal Absolute Pressures. - Nariottes Lam. -The
values in the followiag table are based ou &fariottes lam, except those
in the last column, which give the mean pressure of superheated steam,
which, according to Rankine, exyrtnds in a cylinder according to the
1~ p =v-if. These latter values are calculated from the. formula
2 = 17-16 R-T%
. PI , R
R-h may be found by extracting the square root
of i four times. From the mean absolute pressures given deduct the mean
back pressure (absolute) to obtain the mean effective pressure.
.
-
%.-
::Ki
0. 045
0. 050
0. 055
0.062
0.066
0. 071
0. 075
%
0. 091
0. 100
0. 111
0. 125
0. 143
X:
0. 175
: : : ; ;
0. 250
0. 275
0. 300
0. 333
: : : : i
0. 440
0. 450
: : : ; i
0.600
0. 625
0. 650
, 0. 6! 5
I NG:
Initinl
PIE3SWE?.
2 f;Z
:: I%
0. 1860
0. 1998
0.2161
0. 2358
0. 2472
EEi
0. 2742
E%
0. 3303
EE
0. 4210
0. 4347
a. 4453
0. 4807
Ef Qi
0. 5965
: : %i
"0%
0. 7440
0. 7664
0. 8095
0. 8465
: : EZ
0. 9187
0. 9292
0. 9405 ~~~.
;
6.66
%
5.00
4. 44
4. 00
: : i :
3. 00
2. 86
2. 66
*2. 50
2. 22 -
E
. I . 66
1. 60
1%
WARN
-
fik:: Pi
Terminal
Pressure.
::;i
2::
4. 09
4. 00
3. 89
3. 77
3. 71
3. 64
3. 59
3.56
3. 48
3. 40
: : : :
: : t;
i : ; :
Thi s is a
Ratio of
Terminal
to Mean
Pressure.
E:
0. 235
0. 239
0. 244
E: :
0.265
EE
::;;i
0. 287
0. 294
0. 303
i : : : :
dJ %
0. 360
: : : : 3"
Zi
i t: ; :
0. 476
0. 488
Ratio of
Initial
t,o Mean
PreSSWe.
6.82
6.46
6. 11
5. 75
: : ; :
4. 63
3. 85
: : i : :
3. 44
3. 24
3. 03
2. 81
2%
2: ;
: : i ;
1: ; :
I : : :
1. 43
I . 39
1. 34
1. 31
i : !
0. 626 1114
0. 662 I . 10
0.680
zi
1::;
1. 06,
10 edition.
Ratio of
Y%i~P
>rySteam.
0. 136
..........
..........
..........
. . . . . . . . . . .
0. 186
..........
..........
..........
. . . . . . . . . . .
0. 254
.........
.........
. . . . . . . . . . .
cl . 314
. . . . . . . . . . .
0. 370
. . . . . . . . . . .
0. 417
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
0. 506
.,.........
0. 582
. . . . . . . . . . .
0. 648
,..........
0. 707
. . . . . . . . . . .
K%
; : g
0. 900
. . . . . . . . . . .
0. 926 : : : ,
, / l ei a&&
Some of
THE STEAM-ENGINE,
931
Ca!cuation Of fikm Effective Pressure, Clearance and Corn--
PressIon Considered. -In the above tables no account is taken of (
clearance, which in actual
steam-engines modifies the
ratio of expansion and the
mean pressure : nor of com-
pression and back-pressure,
which diminish the mean
effective pressure. In the
following calculation these
chm.ntS are Considered.
L = length of stroke, I =
length before cut-off, z =
length of corn
stfqke, c = c earance, pi = P
ression part of
:mt;al pressure, pb = back
pressure, ?% = pressure of
pb clearance. steam at end Gf
L
> compresslon. All pressures
FIG. 153.
are absolute, that is, measured
from a perfect vacuum.
Area of ABCD = p, ( I f e) ( 1 + hyp log
B = pb( L- - xx) ;
C=P~c(1+byplog~+)=~~(z+c)(l+hyplog~c+~
-):
D = (PI---P,) c-W-P6 (z+c).
Areaof A = ABCD- ( Bf C+ D>
=
L-l-c
PI ( 2 + c) ( 1 i - wp l og rc)
-[
Pb(L--s)+Pt(z+c)(l+hyPlog ~)+P,c-pi&-I-c)
1
=p&c).(l+hyplog~)
1
- PlC.
Mean effective pressure =
area of A
L -
.
ExAAIPLE.---Let L=l, 1=0.25, x=0.25, c=O.l, ~~-60 lbs., pb=2lbs.
Area A = 60 (0.25 + 0.1) (1 + hyp log g5)
0.35
(l-0.25) f0.35 hyp log o 1
Tl
-60 X 0.1.
= 21 (1 + 1.145) -2 to.75 + 35 X 1.2531-6
= 45.045 -2.377 -6=36.668=mean effective pressure.
The actual indicator-diagram generally shows a mean Pressure con-
siderably less than that due to the init,ial pressure and the rate of expan-
sion. The cnuses of loss of pressure are: 1. Friction in the.stoP-valves
and steam-pi es.
admission an R
2. Friction or wlre-dral\+ng of the sheam during
cut.-off. clue chi ef l y to defective valve-gear and contracted
steam-passages. 3. Liquefa&on during expansion. 4. Exhausting
before the en&e has comnleted its stroke.
dlosure of exhaust.
5. Compression due to early
6. Friction in the exhaust-ports, passages, and
,
932 THE STEAM-ENGINE.
Re-evaporation during expansion of the steam condensed during admis-
sion, and valve-lesliage after cut-off; tend to elevate the expansion line
of the diagram and increase the mean pressure.
If the theoretical mean pressure be calculated from the initial pressure
and the rate of expansion on the supposition that the expansion curve
follo\vs hlsriottes law, Vv = a constsnt, and the necessary corrqctions
are made for cleumnce and corn
practice may be fomld by P.
ression, the expected mean pressure in
multip ~lllg the calculated results by the factor
(commonly called the diagram factor) in the following table, according
to Scaton. .
Particulars of Engine. Factor.
Expansive engine, special valve-gear, or with a sepa-
rate cut-off valve, cylinder jacketed . . . . . 0.94
Expansive engine havmg large ports, etc., and good
ordinary va!ves, cyli-ders jacketed.. 0.9 to 0.92
Expansive engines with the ordinary valves and gear
as in general practice. and unjacketed. . 0.8 to 0.85
Corn ound en@nes, with expansion .yalve to h.p.
cy Inder; cyhnders jacketed, and with large ports, I!
etc........................................... 0.9to 9.92
Compound engines, with ordinary slide-valves, cylin-
ders incketed. and coed norts. et,c.. . . . . 0.8 to 0.85
Compoimd &&es as in genbral Fpctice in t,he
merchant service, with early cut-o m both cyhn-
ders. without jackets and espansion-valves.. . . . . 9.7 to 0.8
Fast-running engines of the type and design usually
fit,ted in war-ships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6 to 0.8,
If no correct,ion be made for clearamze and compression, and the engine
is in accordance with general modern ractice. the. theoretical mean
pressure may be multiplied by 0.96, and t R e product by the proper factor
in the table, to obtain the expected mean pressure.
Given the Initial Pressure and the Average Pressure, to Find the
Ilatio of Expansion and the Period of Admission.

P = init,inl absolute oressure in lbs. ner so. in.:
p = average total piessure during stroke in lb& per sq. in.:
L = length of stroke in inches:
I = ueriod of admission measured from beglnnlng of stroke:
c = &srance in inches;
L+c
R = actual ratio of expansion = x . . . . . . . . (1)
P = p (1 + 11yp log R) _
R
I
To End average pressure p, taking account of clearance,
7-J=
P (2+c) + P (I + c) hgp log I@ PC
L
, . . . . (2)
whence ~L+Pc=P(lfc) (l+hyplogR);
pL+Pc
k=PlogRS=pl.+Pc-l=.
;L+c
ztc -1. . . . (3)
Given a nnci P. to find R and 1. (bv trial and e ~~~~ error). -There being two
unk&lvri quunfiiies. R and 1. assume one of them, viz.. the period of
admission 2. substitute it in equation (3) and solve for R. Substitute this
L+c
value of R in the formula (I), or E = -ij- - c, obtained from formula
(I), and find 2. If the result is great;; thnn the assumed value of.1.
then the assumed value of the period of admission is too long; if less. the .
assumed value is too short. Assume a new value of l,.substitute it in
formula (3) as before. and cont.inue by this method of trial and error till
the required values of R and ~1 are obtatned.
WARNING:~~ This is ~a 1910 ebitiorl: Some 6f7
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 933
EXAMPLE. - P=70, p=42.78, L= 60 in., c = 3 in., to find 1. Assume
I - 21 in.
$L+c
hyplogR= I+c -1~
4gX60+3
21+ 3
-11X.653-11-0.653;
hyp log R = 0.653, whence R = 1.92.
l=L+c
- - c = +& -3=29.8.
R
which is greater than the assumed value, 21 inches.
Now assume 2 = 15 inches:
42. 78
TX6O+8
hyplogR =.
15+3
-1=1.204, whence R=3.5;
l=LfC --
R
E = 8 - 3 = l& 3 = 15 inches, the value assumed.
Therefore R = 3.5. and Z=15 inchas.
Period 01 Admission Required for a Given Actual Ratio of Expansion:
I -LfC
R
--c, in inches . . . . . . . ( 4)
In percentage of stroke, 1 =,loo + k learance - p. ct. clearance . (5)
Terminal &essure = zccc) = $ . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
Pressure at any other Point of the Expansion. -Let LX = length of
stroke up to the given point.
P(ZC c)
Pressure at the given point = LI -t- c . . . . . . . . . . (7)
Riecha~nical Energy of Steam Expanded Adiabatically to Various
Pressures. -The figures in the following table are taken from a chart
constructed by R. 112. Neilson in Power, Mar. 16, 1909. The pressures
are absolute, lbs per sq. in.
25 40 60 ' 80 100 120 140 170 200 I 250
Mechanical Energy, Thousands of Foot-Pounds per Lb. of Steam.
. -
I
~ICWUIWS for Comparing the Duty of Fn#nes. - Cnpacitv is meas-
ured in horse-powers. exnressed by the initials, H.P.: 1 H.P.-33,000
ft.-lbs. per minute, =550 ft.-lb% per second, = 1.980,OOO ft.-lbs. per hour.
1 ft.-lb. = a pressure of 1 lb. exerted through a space Of 1 ft.
Economv is measured, 1, in pounds of coal per horse-Pomer Per hour:
2. in pon& of steam per horse-
r -
ower per hpur. The second of these
measures is the more accurste ant sc%ent.(fic. smce the engine uses &am
and not coal, and it i,s irulependent of the economy of the bolter.
e materid may no longer be accurate
146
154. 5
163. 5
174. 5
188
E: :
260. 5
160
168. 5
r7. 5
186
199
216
244
270. 5
In gas-engine tests the common measure is the number of cubic feet
of gas (meaLswed at at,mospheric pressure) per horse-power, but as all gas
is not of the same quality, it is necessary for comparison of tests to give
the analysis ,of the gas. When the gas for one engine is made in one
gas-producer, then the number of pouhds of coal used in the producer per
hour per horse-power of the engine is a measure of economy. Since
different coals vary in heating value, a more accurate measure is the
number of heat ruuts required per horse-power per hour.
Economy, or dllty of an engine, is also measured in the number of foot-
pounds of work done per pound of fuel. As 1 horse-power is equal to
1.980.000 ft.-lb% of work in an hour, a duty of 1 lb. of coal per H.P. per
hour would be equal t.o l,QSO,OOO ft.-lbs. per lb. of fuel; 2 Ibs. per H.P.
per hour equals 990,000 ft.-lbs. per lb. of fuel, etc.
The duty of pumping-entines is expressed by the number of foot-
pounds of work done per 100 lbs. of coal, per 1000 lbs. of steam, or per
mi!l~on heat units.
When the guty of a pumping-engine is given, in ft.-lb% per 100 lbs. of
coal. tne eqrnvalent number of pounds of fuel consumed per horse-power
per hour 1s found by dividing 198 by the number of millions of foot-pounds
of duty. Thus a pumping-engine giving a duty of 99 millipns is equiva-
lent to lQS/99 = 2 lbs. of fuel per horse-power per hour.
Efficiency, Measured in Thermal Units per Minute. -The efficiency
of an en,nirz is sometimes expressed in terms of the number of thermal
units used by the engine per minute for ea.ch indicated horse-power, instead
of hy !he number of pounds of steam used per hour.
The best chargeable to an engine per pound of steam is the difference
between the total heut in a pound of steam at the boiler-pressure aud that
in a pound of the feed-wter entering the boiler.
densing enaines. suppose WC have a teuiperat.ure in the hot-well of 100
In the case of CT-,
correspondi?g to a vacuum of 25 in. of mercury: we may feed the wate;
lntq the holler at that temperature. In the case of a non-condensing
engme. by wing a portion of the exhaust steamin a good feed-water
!leat,er. at a pressure a trifle above the atmosphere (due to the resistance
of the exhaust. passages through the heater): we may obtain feed-water
at 21?. One pound of steam used by the engme then would be,equivalent
to thermcl units as follows:
.
Gauge pressure.. .50
Absolute .65
go 100 125 150
pressure. . 115 Total heat in steam above ,140 165 :io
200
32O: 215
1178.5 1184.4 1188.8 1192.2 1195.0 1197.3 1199.2.
Subtracting FS and 1SO heat-units, respect.ively. the heat above 32O in
feed-wat.er of 100 and 312 F., we have -
Heat given by boiler per pound of steam:
Feed at lOO..._. 1110.5 1116.4 1120.8 1124.2 1127.0 1129.3 1131 2
Feed at 212... 995.5 1004.4 1008.5 1012.2 1015.0 1017.3 101912
Thermal unit,s per minute used by a 1 engine & each pound of steam f
used per indicated horse-power per hour:
Feed at 100. . 15.51 15.61 18.65 lS.74 18.78 15.8 -
Feed at 91 I - . . . . 16.64 16.76 16.78 16.87 16.92 16.9i :,I,;
Es.wr~~. - A triple-expansion engine, condensing, with steam at
Ii5 lbs. ~;auge, and vacuum 2s in., uses 13 lbs. of water per I.H.P. per hour,
a,nd a hish-sperd non-condensin g el!gine,. with steam at 100 lbs. gauge,
uses 30 lbs. * How many thermal umts per minute does each consume?
ilns. - 13 X lSS2 = 244.7, nnd 30 X 16.78 = 503.4 thermal units
per minute.
A pe,fect, engine converting all the heat-energy of t,he steam into work
Would reqtnrr 33.000 ft.-lbs. + 775 = 42.4164 thermal units per minut,e
per intlicnt,ed horse-po\vcr.
This figure, 42.4164, therefore, divided by
the nmnbcr of t~hermal units per minute per I.H.P. consumed by an
CWiW. gives its etticicncy as compared wit.h an ideally perfect engine.
h the cxumpltrs abow. 42.41G-L divided by 244.3 and by 503.4 Gves
17.332 alld 8.-12?6 clliciency, respectively.
.,.-.&
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
. Ol 100. 0(
. 02 50. 00
. f J 3 33. 33
- . 04 25. 00
. 05 20. 00
. 06 16. 67
. 07 14. 28
. 08 12. 50
. 09 I I . 11
: I ' Ei
. I 2 a. 33
. I 4
. I 6 2
. 20 . 25 : : : Fi
. 30 3. 33
: G 2; :
. 60 . 70 _ 1: "4:
. 80 . 90 I : : :
1. 00 I . oo
SO. 5 34. 0 25. 75
53. 67 25. 50 20. 60
25. 25 20. 40 17. 16
20. 20 17. 00 14. 71
16. 83 14. 57 12. 87
14. 43 12. 75 11. 44
12. 62 i l . 33 10. 30
11. 22l 10. 2 9. 36
10. 10 9. 27 8. 58
9. 18 8. 50 7. 92,
8. 42 7. 84 7. 36
7. 78 7. 29 6. 86
6. 73 6. 37 6. 06
5. 94 5. 67 5. 42
4. 81 4. 64 4. 48
3. 88 3. 77 3. 68
3. 26 3. 19 3. 12
2. 46 2. 43 2. 40
1. 98 1. 96 1. 94
1. 66 1. 65 1. 64
1. 42 1. 42 1. 41
1. 25 1. 244 1. 24
I . I I 1. 109 1. 101
1. 00 1. 000 1. 001
i O. 8
7. 33
Xi :
1. 55
i : :
8. 67
Et
6. 93
6. 50
: : ; :
4. 33
: : E
2. 36
1%
1. 41
1 . Ti i
1 : ; : I
12. 00
i O. 80
9. 82
9. 00
8. 31
7. 7i
7. 20
2: : :
6. 00
: : : :
4. 91
4. 50
: : ;
Et
1. 86
I : ; :
' I : : :
I . oo
Xelative Efficiency of 1 lb. of St,eam with and without Clearance;
bp.ck nressure and compression not considered. -
Mean total pressure = p *
P(Z+c) +P(Z+c)hyplogR-PC>
1,
L&P = 1;L = 1OO;Z = 25; C = 7.
32 + 32 hyp log
107
B - 7
p=
=
32+32X1. 209 - 7=0637
100 100
. .
If the clearance be added to the stroke, so that clearance becomes zero,
the same quant~ity of steam being used, admission 2 being then = 1 + c =
32, and st,roke L + c = 107,
32 + 32 byp log g - 0
A
PI =
=
32 + 32 X 1.209 = o707
107 107
. .
That is, if the clearance be reduced to 0, the amount of the Clearance 7
being added to both the admission and the stroke, the. same Wrttnt1t.y
of steam mill do more work than when the clearance IS 7 ln the rat10
iO7:637, or 11% more.
naek Pressure Considered. - If back pressure=O.lO of P. this amount
has to be subtracted from I, and ~1 giving p = q.537, PI = 0.607, the
arnnce be&g greater
_^ work of a given quantity of- steamy used wit,hout cle:
than when clearance is 7 per cent in the radio of 607: 537. or 13% mmt-.
Effect of Compressinn. -
BY early closure of the exhaust,. so that a
portion of the exhaust-steam is compressed into the cle+nce:space,
much of the loss clue to clearance may be avoided.
If expansion 1s con-
tinued down to t.he back pressure, if the back pressure iS uniform Mough-
out the exhaust.stroke, and if compression beg& at such pomt thst the
_. ..~ .., ._, .~..~~ ~,.~
e material may no longer be accurate
ACTUAL ES?ANSIONS. 935
ACTUAL EXPANSIONS
With Different Clearances and Cut-offs.
Computed by A. F. Nagle.
I Per Cent of Clearance.
I 2 3
I I
_- -
! *
I
4 6
0. 9
9. 91
9. 08
E
7. 27
6. 81
6. 41
6. 06
: : 2
5. 19
"4: : :
: : : i
2. 80
: : i ;
1. 581
2: ;
I . 10
1. 00
t. 17
; : 2
7. 33
2: : ;
6. 11
: : : i
: : EJ
"4: Si
3. 67
' 2: : :
: : i t
1. 571
1. 375
%Ci
1. 000
CYLINDER CONDENSATION. 937
Theoretical Compared with Actual Water-consumption, Single-
cyltnder Automatic Cut-off Engines.
(From the. catalogue of the
Buckeye Engine Co.) -The following table lras been prepared on the
basis of the pressures that result in practice With a constant boiler-pressure
of 80 lbs. and different points of cut-off. with Buckeye engines and others
with similar clearance.
Fractions .are omitted, except in the percentage
column. as the degree of accuracy their use would seem to imply is not
remaining in the cylinder ~!s compressed to the initial
^.__, ^C.L. I~-~.
pressure at the CLN UI LIW oacK strolte, then the work of compression of the
exhaust-steam equals the work done during expansion by the clearance-
steam. The clearance-space being filled by the exhaust-steam thus com-
pressed, no new steam is required to fill the clearance-space for the next
forward strqke, and the work and
efficient
cylinder are Just the same as if there were no c
f
of the steam usedin the
lvhen, ,however, there is a drop in pressure from the final
earance and no compression
espansIon. or the terminal pressure, to t~he exhaust or bat
R
ressure of the
pressure (the
usualcase), the work of compression to the initial pressure is gregter than
the !vork done by the expansion of the clearance-steam so that a loss of
$l?Clepcy results. In, thus case a greater efficient
c& be attained by
lnclosmg for compresslon a less quantity of steam t Ian that needed to fill
P
the clearance-space with steam of the initial pressure
(See Clark
S. E.. D. 399, et serl.: also F. H. Ball, Trans. A. 6. M. E. xi; 1067 )
shown by Clark t~hat a somewhat
greater
It is
,I,@,,,? n,. rrnt I.,, _^.. . -- -* AI--
efficiency is thus &in&
attained or aimed at.
-
1
,
I
-
! !
1
_-
-
Assumed.
-
:z
.-
-
cut-off
Part of
Stroke.
Me&II
Wective
ressure.
lbs. pet
sq. in.
Total
.erminal
ressure
Ibs. per
sq. 1n.
:
.-
-
--
I
::
E5
21. 8
19
I t'
13. 6
3. 8
2:
625
Cyli~~~~~Con;~~,~a~~~~y have considerable effect Upon the best
PCWIt, of comP;eSSlOn, but it has not yet (1893) been, determined by
expenment. (ltans. A. S. Al. E., xiv, 1075.)
Cleamnce in Low- and High-speed.Fngine+
Mach.. Fept. 17, 1891.) -The const~
JH~arris Tabor. Am.
,ru~tmn .of the high-speed entine is
Such, With Its relatively Short Stroke, that the clearance inlIst be-much
kirger than in the. releasing-valve type. The short-stroke engine is
of necessity, an engme With large clearance, which is aggravated whe;
variable compression is a featurs.
Conversely, the engine with releasing-
valve gear is. from necessity, an engine of slow-rotative speed, where
great pqwcr is obt.ainabie from lonj~
feature In its construction
: StroKe, and small clearance is z
In one case t,he clearaye will vary from
8% to 12% of the pistpn-&placement, and in the other from 27 to 37
In the case of an engme with a clearance equaling 107 of th: plstoi:
dis@acem,+ the waste room becomes enormous when coOnsidered in con-
nectlon \blth an early cut-off. The system of compounding reduces the
waste due to clearance in proportion as t,he steam is expanded to a lower
pressure.
Tl!e farther expansion is carried through a train of cylinders
the greater wll be the reduction of waste due to clearance.
This is shown
from !he~ fact that the high-speed ep@nF. expanding steam mu& less than
the Corliss. will show a ar
pound than its rixrnl *ldfi*
eater gzun when changed from simple to com-
Cylinder-co]
. . . *I u.rxLr;i simllnr conditidns.
ndensation. - @ikin%! S.. E., p. 421. says: Conduction
r..-- LL. --~. I
of lle$t to ,and itur~r true ute6nl 01 tne cyunder, or to and from liquid water
conts,l?ed 111 t.hr cylinder,
has the effect of lowering the PresstIre at the
b@nnmg and raising it at t.he end of the stroke, the lowermg effect being
*n the WlIole greater than the raising effect.
In some Pxperirnents the
quantity 0.f steam wasted t.hrough alternate liquefaction and evaporation
In the Cylinder has
performed the work.
been found to be greater than the quantity which
t
%
6. 0
It will be seen that while the best indicated economy is when the cut-off
Is about at o I5 or 0.20 of the stroke, giving about 30 Ibs. M.E.P., and a
terminal 3 0; 4 Ibs. above atmosphere, when !ve come to add the per-
centages due to a constant amount of uninduzated loss, as per stxth
column the most economical point of cut-off is found to be about 0. 3$h$
the str;ke, giving 48 I+. M.E.P. and 30 Ibs. tefminal pressure.
showi_ng agr$T. substantially with modern cxpenence under automatic
cut-on regmaaon.
The la,st column shows that the actual amount of cylinder condensation
is nearly a constant qUantity. increasing only from 5. 8% of the cybnder
volume at 0.10 cut-off to 6.8% at 0.50 cut-oft.
Expcrlments on Cylinder-condensation. - Experiments by Major.
Tbos. English (Engg, Oct. 7, 1887. p. 386) with an engine 10 X !4.1..
jacketed in the sides but not on the ends. indicate that th? net Inltlal
condensation (or excess of condensation over re-evaporation) by th;
clearance surface varies directlv as the initial density of the sqeam,.
inversely as the square root of the number of revolutions per unit of time.
The mean results gave for the net initial condensation by.cle.arance-sp?ce~
per sq. ft. of surface at one rev. per second 6.06 thermal umts In the engIne
when run non-condensing and 5.75 llnits when condens!ng.
G R Bodmer (Engg March 4, 1892. p. 299) says: Wltluq the or$inra;
limits bf expansion desirable in one cylinder the ,expanslon ratlo
practically no influence on the amount of condensation per stroke, which
for simple engines can be expressed by the follo\ving f?r!nula for the
weight of water condensed [per minute, probably; the oriDna1 does not
Percentage of Loss by Cylinder-condensat
(From circular of the Ashcroft Mfg. Co. on the
taken at Cut-o&
abor Indicator. 1889. )
___t____
Per cent. of Feed-water due
to Cylinder-condensation.
where T denotes the mean admission temper-
ature f the mean exhaust temperature, S Clearance-Surface @Ware feet)1
N th& number of revolutions per second, L latent heat of steam at the
mean admission temperature, and C a constant for any given tYPe of
enpine.
Mr Bodmer found from esperimental data that for high-pressure ?on-
jacketed engines C = about 0.11. for condensing non-Jacketed engines
0.055 to 0 II for condensing jacketed engmes 0.085 to 0.053. The
figures for jacketed engines apply to those jacketed In the usual \vaY.
and not at the ends.
C varies for different enfines of the same class, but is Practlc?llY cob-
stant for any given engine. For simple
high-pressure non-Jacketed
engines it was found to range from 0.1 to 0.112.
Applying Mr. Bodmers formula to the case of S COrlisS non-jacketed
~~~t~rial .rnay ~nolongef be accurate
tj@
oe
Per cent of Feed-water no
%g;;&
counted for by the Indicnt,or.
_.3 i:
- -
47 I---
.-
-.
.-
34
. . . ..i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;.
2
i i
. . . . . . . . . . .
22
22
5
: :
: t
16
12 2
~. ~, . ~__I
WARNING: This is a 1310 edition. Some of t
i
non-cond,ensing englne, 4-ft. stroke, 24 in. diam., 60 revs. per min., initial
r!sy 90 lbs. gauge, exhaust pressure 2 lbs.. we have T - t = 112O,
, L = 880, J - 7 sq. ft.; and, taking C = 0.112 and TV= lbs.
Lvater condensed per minute,
w = 0.112X112X7
3 ., c,c>n = 0.09 lb. Der
minute, or 5.4 lbs. per hour.
I A 00
accordmg to the diagram is
If the steam used per I.H.P. *per hour
20 lbs.. the actual water consumption is
25.4 lbs., correspondlug to a cylinder condensation of 27%.
INDICATOR-DWGRAX OF A SINGLE-CYLINDER EkGINE.
Deflnltjons. -- The Atmospheric Line,, AB, is a line drawn by the
of the mdicator when the connections wrth the engine are closed
encil
an cf both
sides of the piston
.
are open to the
atmosphere.
The Vacuum Line.
OX, is a reference
line usually drawn
about 14.7 pounds
by scale below the
atmospheric line.
The Clearance
FIG. 154.
piston-displacement.
_ .w The Lineof Boiler-
-pressure. J K, is
drawnparailel to the
atmospheric tine. and rrt a distance from it by scale equal t.o the boiler-
.
prwwre shown by the gauge.
The dtfmission Lin~e. CD. shows the rise of pressure due to the admission
of steam to the cylinder by opening the steam-valve
The Steam Line, DE. is drawn when the steam-valve is open and steam
is being admitted to the cylinder.
The Point of Cubo1~, E. is the
stopped by the closing of the
f
oint where the admission of steam is
va ve. It is oft,en ditiicult to determine
the exact point at which the cut-off takes place
lt is usually located
where the outline of the diagram changes its curvature from donvex to
COPRl= ---. _-._.
The Expansion 1%rve, EF. shows the fall in pressure as the steam in the
cylinder expands , ioing work.
The Paid of I& fense. F. shows when t.he exhaust-valve opens.
The Erhaust .Line. FG,~,F
1
plifnn -,l.,... *I ... ^__L ~
epresents the than
v
in pressure that takes
,I,c t~~~~~~ C,ISC: c.xllausbvaIve opens.
The Back-pressure Line, GH. shows the pressure against which the
tnn onto Al.,.i.. i+n -*:tur,, stro,;e,
! CloszLre, fi, is the point whereThe exhaust-valve
It cannot be located definitely. as the change in pressure is at first
due to the gradual closing of the valve.
The ComoressiUa Curve, NC,, shows the rise in pressure due to the com-
pression of the steam remainmg in the cylinder after the exhaust-valve
h3S ctosec~.
The Mean I feight of theDiagram equals its area.divided by its length
The Mean. Effective Pressure is the mean net pressure ur&g the piston
forward == t,he mean height X t:he scale of the indicator-$&g.
To jlnd the Mean Afrectire Pressure from the Diagram - Divide the
length. LB, ink) a number, say 16, equal parts, setting off half a part at
L. half a part at R. an
nme other parts between. erect ordinates perpen-
dlcular to the atmosp ienc hne at the points ofdivision of LB cutting
g:.
the diwam; add together the lengths of these ordinat,es i&rcepted
WARNING: This ~ii ~a 1~910 sedition. -~
A&&:..,~~ ..a; .,. ~~. ~~ ,,,. ~.. ,..,.,. _.~, ~,~~ ~~~..,~.
Some of.-the material may no longer be accurate
between the upper and lower lines of the.diagran? apd divide by their
lhls gives the mean height, wmch multiplied by the scale of
%e?z?cator-spring gives the R1.E.P. Or find the area by a planimeter,
or other means (see &lensuration, p. 57). and divide by the length LB
to obtain the mean height.
The Initial i-ressure is themessure acting on the pistonat the bcginnlng
T/Le Terminal Pressure is the pressure,above the line of perfect vacuum
;;;;Fuld exist at the end of the stroke if the steam had not been released
. It is found bv contmumg the expansion-curve to the end of the
A b<iam of light is reflected bv
the oscillations
to that of the
pencil point of an ortliusry I~CIICBLOC.
lne diagram, therefore, is made
cont,inuously but varies ~\tth varying conditions in the cylinder.
A nlate-holder cnrrvine R.
the ground-glass
o - photographic dry plate can be substituted for
screen. and the diagram photographed, the exposure
required,vsrsing from half a second to three seconds.
By the ruse of
special draphf:~gms and springs the effects of low pressures and vacuums
can be magmhed. ant1 th::q the instrument can be made to show with
remarkable clcarncss the a( ion of the valves of a gas engine on the suction
and exhaust strokes.
The +a Continuc!us Recorder, for recording the steam consumption
of an engine, is descnhed by W. H. Booth in POUW, Aug. 31, 1909.
It
comprises a tank into which ilows the condensed steam from a condenser
a triangular notch through which the water flows from the tank and a
mechanical dovrre through which the variations in the I.&e1 of the water
111 the tank are translated into the motion of a penoil which motion is
made ProPortlOna,te to the quantity flowing, and is r&corded on paper
moved by clockwork.
INDICATED HQRSE-POWER OF ENGIAJS, SINGIZ-CFL-ER.
Indice~ted Horse-power, I.H.P. = $$O$,
in vvhic,h P = mean eff,rctive pre.;sure in lbs. per sq. in L = length of
S troke in feet; 0 = area uf piston in square inches.
For accuracy one
half of the sect~ror!al area of the piston-rod must be subtracted from the
area of fue piston If bhe rod passes t,hrough.or*e head, or the whole area of
the rod tf rt passes through !>oth heads; n = No. of single strokes per min.
- 2 X NO. of revolutions of a double-acting engine.
speed in feet per minute.
0. 0000238 PLd*n=0.0000238 PdW,
in which d = diam. of cyl. in inches.
7854 + 33 = 23. 8 exactly.)
(The figures 238 a,re exact since
If product of piston-speed x mean effec-
tive pressure = 42,017, t,hen the horse-power would equal the square of
the diameter in inches.
Handy Rule for Estimating the Horse-power of a Single-cylinder
Engine. -Square the diameter and divide by 2.
This is correct whenever
the product of the meiln effective pressure and tne piston-speed = l/s
of 42.017, or, ssy, 21,000. viz.. when M.E.P. = 30 and S = 700. when
M.E.P. = 35 and S = 600: when M.E.P. = 38.2 and S = 550. and when
M.E.P. = 42 and 3 = 506. inese rondilions correspond to those of
ordinary practme wrth both Corliss engines and shaft-governor high-speed
enmnes.
Given Horse-power, %ean Effective Pressure, end Piston-speed,
to find Size of Cylinder. -
Area. = 33.000 X 1.H.P
PLn .
Diameter= 205
I.H.P.
-.
PS
Brake Horse-power is t.lie factual horse-power of the engine as measured
at the fly-wheel by a frirtion-brake or dynamometer.
norsc-power minus the friction of the engine.
It is the indicated
Electric:,tl Horse-puwcr is the power in an electric current, usually
neasured 111 !tilownt~ts, translated into horse-pomer
1 H.P. = 33 000
t. 11)s. per mm.: 1 Ii.W.= 1.3405 H.P.; 1 H.P. =O.j& kilowatts: or
46 watts.
EXAWLE. - .% IOO-H.P. engine with a friction loss of 107 at rated
o:ld. drives a generabor wh se effi&encv is 90%. furnishing c&rent t,o a
mtor of SO::6 ~effv., throu ii r a hne whose loss is 57
3.lI.P. = 96; E.H:P. at generator 81, at end of line 76.9%.
I.H.P. = 100.
ry motor 69.26.
H.P. delivered
_
WARNING: This is ~a 1~910 edition. !311%7
\
INDICATED HGTZSE-POWER OP ENGINES.
941
Table for Roughly Approximating the Horse-power of-a Com-
pound Engine from the Diameter u! its Low-p~!$?re 61 lrnder. -
The indicated horse-power of an engine being Ei117, in which P =
-:
mean effective pressure per sq. in., s = piston-speed in
ft.,per, min., and
d = diam. of c;ilinder in inches: if s = 600,ft. per min.. whrch is approxr-
mately the speed of modern stationary en&Wes. and, P = 35,lbs.. nhi@ is
an approximately average figure for the R1.E.P. of srngle-cyhnder engums,
and of compound engines referred to the low-pressure cylinder, then
1.H.P. = l/e d2; hence the rough-and-ready ,rule fx horse-power grven
above: Square the diameter in inches and divide by 2,.
This applies to
triple and quadruple expansion engines as well as to smgle cylander and
compound.
For most economical loa.ding, the M.E.P. referred to the
low-.pcessure cvllnder of compound engines is usually .not greater t.han
that of slmpleengines: for the greater economy is obtamed by a greater
number of expansions of steam of higher pressures, and the greater the
number of expansions for a given initial pressure the lower the mean
effective pressure. The follo\vin,
n table gives approximately the figures
of mean total and effective pressures for the different types of engmes.
together with the factor by which the square of the .drameter 1s tfoorb;
multiplied to obt,ain t,he horse-porver at most econOlnlCa1 loadmg,
niston-sneed of 600 ft. per minute.
Type of Engine.
8in:&aCylinde~.i 100
Com?nu!:d.. ., . ..I
Qundrup!e __.__._ I
Triple . . . .
)g$
.L,
200 jo2:5
Condensing Engines.
BingleCylinder..
Quadruple.. I
1:
I
1;:
1 10
Corn ound.. .
hi &. _. . . . . 160 20.
:
200 25. I 8 I
31. 0
27. 6
6! 0 0. 443 , 390
30. 0 1:
429
31 . a
, 454
-
For any other piston-speed than 606 ft.~~per min., multiply the figures
i n t. l wl ast. col umn by the rat.i
--.-_I .^ rnn l *
0 of tne piston-speeu LV vvv ~ti.
~&&<L &er (%imtant of a given j3n
product 07 fts area of piston in square rnr ies, length of stroke lnIfaenet
F
ine for a Flxed Seeed =
and number of single strokes per minute divided by 33,OOU, O~cizjT6
catea nc
The.prodtrct of the mean effe,cti.ve pressure as found by the dra-
&a% and this constant is,the indl
rrse-power.
Horse-power Const:
.^ ,.* .Avnn ninmetnr of
Cdi nd~r. whatever the lengri
tot 01 any Engino UI _. DL.b--
-_ -._._ -. ..~~
1 of stroke, = area of piston + 33,000 = square
-y _______. 1
.of the diameter of piston in inches X 0.000023S.
A table of constants
derived from this f0
- lrmula is given on page 943.
The constant multiplied by t.he piston-speed in feet Per minute and
bv the M.E.P. gives the T.H.P.
bT~hle of Engine Cnnstants for Use in F!gllrlnp.Hprse-p?lveF. -
*H&se-polvmer const.ant I for cylinders from 1 mcll to 00 n@es In dram-
eter, advancing b< &lic: for one foot of pist.on-speed.per minute and one
Findt,he diameter of the cylinder ln the column at the
Dound of M.E.P. 1
.hlde. If the diameter contains no fraction the constant vvill be found in
the column headed Even Inches.
If the diameter is not 111 even Inches.
follow the ll~~e~l~orl~ont,ally~ to t.he column correspondmg to the requrred
frjction. The constants multiplied by the piston-speed and by the
:,_ ,, N.E.P. give the fiorse-power.
the material may no lon@6kkcurate
-
T:ix
Cyii
Engine Const~~~a&;, Constant X Piston Speed X M.E.P. = H.P,
-.--
+% / + 18 1
--
+ l/4 / + 318 / + la / + 5/o / + 3/4 / i. 7/s
: 0000628 0000729 . 0000837
. 0001640 ' 0001800 . 0001967
. 0003127 0003347 . COO3574
. 0005091 ' 0005l "i O. OOC: 656
. 0007530 : 0007869 . 00082' 5
.OOWA . 0008929 . 0009297, . 0009672 . 0010055 . 0010445 . 0010844 001' 249
. OOl l ~62 . 0012082 . OOi 2510 . 0@12944 . 0013387 . 0013837 . 0014295 : 0014759
. OCl 5' S2 . 0015711 . 0016198 . 0016693 . 0017195 . 0017705 . C! Ol 8222 . 0018746
. cOl 9278 0019817 . 0020363 . 0020916 . 0021479. 0022048 . 0022625 0023209
. ~~2~~0~: 0024398 . 0025004 . 0025618 - 0026239 . 002684, 7 . a027502 : OOBl 47
. CO2679t . 0029' 56 . 0030121 . 0030794 . 0031475 . 0032163 . 0032859 . 0033561
. OC34272 . CO3~. ~30 . 00357' 4 . 0036447 . 0037187 . 0837934 . 0038690 . 0039452
. 0040222~. CC+@99 . oC41783 . 0042576 . 0043J 751. 0044182 . 0034997 . 0045819
. CC46648i . O047484 . 0048328 . 0049181 . 0050039 . 0050906 , 005 ' 7~0 . 0052/ 6'
~oo5~550! ~~054434~. 0055349 . 0056241 . 0057179 . 0058105 . CO5sJ 39 . 005$; 79
. 0060928! . @J 6i 884 . 0062847 . 0063S: / . 0064795 . cO65780 . 0066774 . 0067774
. 0"68782/ . 0069797 . 00708d9 . cO71850 . 0072887 . 0073932 . CO74985 . 0076044
. oC77"2! . 0078' 87 . 0079248 . 0080360 . 0@81452 . 0082560 . 00@3672 . 0084791
. 00859~8~. 0087052 . 0088193 . 0069343 . 0090499 . 0091663 . a092835 . 0094013
. o0952C01. 0C96393 . 0097594 . 0098803 . Ol OOOl 9 . 0101243 . Ol f ' 2474 . 0103712
~Ol C495~~. Ol C621' . 0107472 . 0108739 . Ol l G915
~0"5' 92~. 0"6505 . Cl l 7825 . 0' 19152 . 0120487
. Ol i 2' 89 . 0113@86
. "' 25902i . o' 27274 . 0' 28654 . 013004C . 0131435
. 0123i 79 . 012*537
~0' 37C8~~. 0' 385' 9 . ol 39959 . 0141405 . 0142859
. 0134247 . 0135664
. 0145789 . 0147266
~"' 48750i . o~~024~ . 0' 51739 . 0153246 . 0154759 . 01562@0 . 0157E09 . 0159345
. "' 60888~. o142439 . 0' 63997 . 0165563 . 0167135 . 0168716 . Ol i C304 . 0! ?1899
a. 01735021. 0~~~"-
, J ~I L . 0' 76729 . Oi 7. 5355 . a179988 . 0181627 . Ol 83275' . Ol l ?4929
~C' 86592~. 0' ~8262~. 0' 89939 . 0191624 . 0193316 0195015 . 0' 96722 . 0198434
. "2o"' j 81. 020' 887 . 02C3634 . 0205368 . 0207119 : 020@879 . 0210645 . 0212418
. 02287' 8! . 0230566 . 0232422 . 0234285 ' 02; 6155 . 02&033 . 0' 39919 . 07418, ;
. 02i 4200 ml 5988 . 02' 7785 . 0219588 0271399 . 0273218 . 0225044 ~022687"
. 02437' 2j . O2456' 9 . 0247535 . 0249457 : 0251387 , . 0253325 . 0; 55269 . 0?57222
~0259' 82~. 026"49 . C263' 24 . 0265106 . 0247G95 . 0269092 . 0271097 0273109
- 0275' 281. 0277' 55 . 0279' 89 . 0281231 . 0283279 . 0285J 36 . 0287399 : 028947'
. C29' 55Oi . C293636 . 0295729 . 0297831 . 0299939 . 0302056 . 0304: 79 . 0306309
. 03C8448i . O3' 0594 . 03' 2747 . 0314908 . 0317075 . 0319251 . 0321434 . 0323624
J J 325822i . 0328027 . 033C239 . 0332460 . 0334687 . 0336922 . 0339165 . 0341415
. C343672! . 034593: . C348209 . 0350489 . 0352775 . 0355070 . 0357372 . 035968'
. 0366654 . 0368993 . 0371339 . 0373694 . 0376055 0378424
. 0385575 . 0387973 . 0390379 . 0392793 . 0395214 : 0397642
mm72 . 0407430 . 0409895 04' 2368 . 0414849 . 0417337
. 0424845 . 0427362 0429887 : 0432420 . a494959 . 0437507
. C445' 94 . 0447771 ' 0450355 . 0452947 . 0455547 . 0458154
. c466019 . 0468655 10471299 ; 0473951 . 0476609 . 0479276
. 0487320 . 04900!
J . 0492719 . 0495430 . 0498149 . 0500875
. 0509097 . 0511853 . 0514615 17386 . 0520164 . 0522949
. 053' 349 . 0534' 65 . 0536988 . 539818 . ( 542655 . 0545499
r
. I ?559835 . 05f j 2725 . 0565622 . 0568526
. 0583159 . 05P6109 . a569065 . 0592029
. 0606959 . 0609969 . 0612984 . 0616007
. 0632235 . 0634304 . 0637379 . a640462
. 0655987 . c659' 15 . "L62250 . C665392
. 06dl 215 0684402 . tj ; 87597 . 0690799
. 0705293 : 0710166 . 0713419 . 071668'
. 0733099 . 0736406 . 0739719 . C743039
. 0759755 . 0763120 . 0766494 . 0769874
. 0790312 . 0793745 . 0797] 85
. 0817980 . 0821472 . 0824971
. 0846' 23 0849675 085334
. 0874743 : 0878: 54/ ' 088' 973
WARNING: This is a 1310 edition. Some of
-
-5izi of
3ylindw.
inches.
I I
a
34
35
2
38
Speed of Piston in feet per 1Gilut.e.
WATER CONSUMPTION OF ENGINES. 945
%I line LM. The point M is the theoretical point of cut-off, and LM the
cut-& line. Fix upcil any number of points 1, 2, 3. etc., on the line JB,
and f:om these points draw diagowls to K. From theintersection of tbese
diagonals with LdJ draw horizontal lines, and from 1, 2, 3, et.c., vertical
lines. Where these lines meet will be points in the hyperbohc curve.
Theoretical Water-consumption calcdateti from the Indicator-
card. -The following method is given by Prof. Carpenter (Power,
Sept., 1893): p = mean effective pressure, I = lengtb CL stroke in feet,
a = area of piston in square inches, a + 144 = area In square feet, c.=
percentage of clearance to the stroke, b = percentage of stroke ate ,point
where water rate is to be computed, n = numper of strokes per m+Qte.
Gun = number per hour, w = weight of a rcbic foot of steam .hevlng a
pressure as shown by the diagram corresponding to that at the point n.hw?
water rate is required, w = that correspondmg to pressure at end of
compression.
Number of cubic feet per stroke-2 (bs) &.
Corr-porlding weight of steam per stroke in lbs. =-
?\oml.nlll~rforse-Homer.- The term nominal horse-poweroriglnated
111 tile tlll!fz ot Watt. and was used to eanr&e approximately t)le power
311 its diameler. estimatinr the mra.n n?e~~ll?e
of an engine iis cnlcuiated frt _~--- -- 1--r--11
in the cylinder at 7 Ibs. above the atmosphere.
It has long been &&[e~eytk:
Hory-pycr Consktnt~of a given Engine for Varying Speeds =
piston and kngth of stroke divided by 33 Oog
Itiplied by the mean effective pressure and by the numb& oi
single strokes per minute is the .ii&cated horse-power.
PO draw the %!earance-line on the Indicator-dlaqmm the ac-
. tual c!f+rance not being known. - The clesranc&line maj, be dbtained
approximately by drawing a straight line, cbad, across the compression
Volume of clearance= &.
:.
Weight of steam in clearance= $$&*
,,~$;~$$,,$j = lfG)z 1 $& = &[(bc)w-cu%
fr,T,ot;l&$&$;t;~;) = G[(b+c) w-cwj.
.,
The indicated horse-power is plan + 33.009.
Hence the Steal&Con-
sumption per hour per indicated horse-power. IS
.
,
Hm. 156.
Curve. first having drawn OX parallel to the atmospheric line and 14.7
lbs. belo\\.
Mf%slJr* frnm the distance ad. equal to cb and draw YO
_ . ~~~~- -- VI. rlr,rgr,
c+ajie of clearance.
d; then will TB divided by A AT be tbe per-
The clearance mav also be found from the expan-
slon-hne bv Coo~t~rlfir+in~ a rectangle efi1g. and dralving a diagonal ti
~. ..-- . . . . _ -., This tilt
PerDendicular to X0 we obbain a clearan
1 give the point 0, and by e&t&g-&
Ice-line 0 Y.
&th thw:; met.linii~ ?qr finding the cl
!esrance reouire that the exnan-
.; ~..,__ -... ~....
+rves be hyperbolas. Prof. Carpenter (P&w
S@., lY93~ says that with good diagrams the methods are usually verj
accuraiP, and give resulbs which check substantially.
The Buckeye Ewine CO.. however. savs that as the resu1t.s obtained are
seldom correct. b~lni sometimes too lit& but more frequentlg too much.
and ?s the indications from the two cm
ves seldom aeiee. the ooeratioti
has ,lw? WKtiCai V$Ue, though when a clearlv defirled ind apcarently
undwort (1 romPress!on Curve exists of sufficieiit estent to admit of the
applicltlo of tf..,, _ ---... I.
.K
,llj ~~wre;w lC may be relied on to give much more correct
.~~ _.._ espanslon curve.
To draw the Hyperbolic iwve on tire 111
cat~or-diagram. -Select
2 3 2 1 M
any poin
-~~
B fr,oT t,his
_,.-
;;,$ [(b +c) w -cw]
137.50
plan
~.-+(b+c) w-cd].
33,000
Changing the formula to a rule, we ho,ve: To find the water rate from
the inA:ogtor diagram at any point in t-,; stroke.
- in the nerrentage of the entire stroke which has been com-
I)~O nnint ilnrt~r consideration add the perct
RULE. - IV Y.&W r-.-
pleted by the piston at l.. a ,... -..- 7- . . .._ ;~~~
mtage
of clearance. hlultipl this result by <he we?ght of a cubic fooi ot s!eam.
having a pressure of t lat at the require? point. P Suptract from t&s the
product of percentage of clearance mult~phed by weight of a cubic foot
cf steam having a pressure equal to that at the end of t.lle compresslzn.
Multiply this result by 137.50 divided by the, mea.n effective pressure.
NOTE. -This method applies only to pmnt,s ln the eSpanslOn Curve
or between cut-off and release.
The beneficial effect of compression in reducing the lvater-COnSun!Ptio.n
of an engine is clearlv shown by the formula. If the ComPresaon 1s
carried to such a aint that it produces a pressure equal to that at the
point under cons1 B eration, the weight of steam per. cubic.foot is equal.
and w = w.
In this $z%zeJhe effect of clearance entirely disappears, and
I.
the formula becomes E (bw).
In case of no compres$on. w becomes zero. and the water-rate =
:e intersection of t,lw
FIG. 157.
K vacuum :
draw IL
pheric Iit
intersection of the diaaonal J-K and the hnriTn
aEdclearance lines. fro&i
parallel with the atmos-
le. From L. the point of
- ~- ~-~~- ---- .------KItal line IL, draw ,tlie verti-
* For compound or triple-expansion engines read: divided by zbe e
alent mean effective pressure, on the supposition that all work 1s
%z
in one cylinder.
I cl ARNI NG: fhis is a 1910 edition.+
some ' of t6 tetiial ~rnaj no long&? . be amrate
Prof. Danton :Trans. A. S. M. E.. xiv, 13133) gives the following table
of Lheoretica! ~vvater-c:onsumpt.ion for a perfect \iariotte expansion with
steam at 150 lbs. above atmosphere, and 2 Ibs. absolute back pressure:
The difference between the t.heoret.ical water-consumption found by the
formula and t,he actual consnmption as found I?g t,est represents water
not accounted for by the indicator,
age through ports, radiat~ion. etc.
due to cyhnde? condensation, lesk-
Leakage of Steam. - Lea,kage of steam, except in rare instances, has
so littls etfect upon the lines of the diagram that .it can scarcely be
detected. The only satisfactcry way to determine the tightness of an
engine is to take it when not in motion, apply a full boiler-pressure to
the valve. placed in a closed position. and to the piston as we!!, which
is blocked for the purpose at some poim ~rvay from the end of the stroke,
and see by the eye whether leakage occurs.
means for bringing into view steam which
The indicator-cocks provide
leaks through the stesm-
valves. and in most cases that. which leaks by the piston, and an opening
made iu the exhaust-pipe or observations at the atmospheric escape-
pipe, are g~~~lly sufficient to determine the fact with regard to the
exhaust-valves.
The steam accom?ted for-bv the indicator should be computed for both
the cut-off 3r.d the re!ease p&nts of ths diagram. If the expansion-line
departs much from the hyperbolic curve a very different result is shown
at one point from that shown at the other. In s:rch cases the extent of
the loss occasIoned by cylinder condersntion and len!;age is indicated in a
much more truthful manner at the cant-oft than at the release.
Indicator Circular.)
(TabOr
COZWOUFii EiYGIKES.
Compou~-td. Triple- and Qundrunle-~xpa,nsion Engines. - A CO=-
pound engline is one having two or more cylinders, and in which the steam
after doing work in tile first or high-pressure cylinder completes its
expansion in the o
rhe term 8 camp
ier cylinder tar cylinders,
und is commonly restncted. however, to engines in
which the exdansion takes place in two staees onlv - hieh and low
E. .,
ressure the terms triple-espnnsion and quadruplerexpansion engines
emg used when the expansion takes place respectively in three and
four slages. T1:e number of cylinders may be greatethan the number
of stages of esp?nsion, for construct,ive reasons; thus in the compound or
two-stage expansion engine the lcw-pressure st,age may be effect,ed in two
cylinders so as to obtain the advantages of nearly eq,ml sizes of cylindes
and of t,hree cran!~ at, angles of l%Y., In triple-expansion engiines there
are frequently two la\+--pressure cyhnders, One of them being placed
tandem with the high-pressllre. snd the other with the intermediate
cylinder. as in mill engines with t,wo cranlis at 90. In the triple-expan-
Slon en-ines of the ste:~mers Ca~?>pania and Lircnnia. with three cranks at
IX,,there are fire cvlinders. t.wo high, one intermediate. and two low.
the iugh-pressure cytiiltlers being tandem with the !ow.
Adrantascs Of Compounding. -The advantages secured by divid-
ing then expansion into two or more st.ages are twniold: 1. Reduction
of wast,es of steam by cylinder-condensation, clearance, and Iea,kage:
2. Dil~iding bhe prrss~~res on the cranks, shafts, et,c., in large engines so
as to avoid ercessive pressures and consequent friction. The dimi!!ished
Woolf 9 and Receiver Types of Compounds Engines.- The
compound steam-engine , consisting of twu cylinders, is reducible to two
forms. 1, in which the st,esm from the 11.p. cylinder is Lxhausted direct
into the 1.~. cylinder, as in the Woo!f engine: and T, jn which the s&am
from the h.p. cylinder is exhausted into iLn intermediate reservoir, whence
the steam is sunolied to. and exDanded in. the 1.~. cvlinder. as in the
receiver-engin&
_~I ,
If the steam be cut off i:: the firstcvl,inder before the end of the stroke
the tot~al ratio of expansion is the product of the two ratios of espansionf
that is, t.he.prodllct of the ratio of expansion in the first c
ratio of the volume of the second to that of t.he first. cylin B
!inder, into the
er.
Thus, let the areas of the first and second cylinders be as 1 to 3112, the
strokes being equal, and let the steam be cut off in the first at l/z strolte;
then
Expansion in t,he.lst cvlinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Expansion in the 2d cjrlinder.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 to 2
1 to 3%
----
Total or combined expansion, the product of the two ratios 1 to 7
Woolf Engine, withnut Clea~rance - Idea.1 Diagmms. -The
diagrams of messure of an ides! Woolf engine are shown in Fig. 158. as
thei would 6e described by the indicator,-according to the arrows. Ia
these diagrams x is t,!le atmospheric line, nm the vaciium linh, cd the
admission line. do the hrDerbo!ic curve of exnnnsion in the first cylinder,
and ah the &&utive &nansiondine of h&k Dressure for the-return-
stroke of the first pisto&--~tnd-ofpobitive pr&s& for the steam-stroke
1 of the second Diston.. At the ooint IL. at the end of the stroke of the
second piston, the steam is exhailsted inio the condenser, and the pressure
%%lls to the level of perfect vacuum, mn.
UARNI NG:
This is~ a ~,9,0 kditinlni So-&Ag i..> . ~, ,.
the material may no longer be accurate
COMPOUND ENGINES.
loss by cylinder-condensation is effected by decreasing ,t.!le range oi tern-
peraturc of the metal sL+l,:es of the cylinders, or the difference of tempera-
ture of the steam at aunussion and exiulust. When high-prrssure steam
IS admitted &to a single-cylinder engine a large portion is condensed by
the comparatively cold metal surfaces; at the end of the stroke and (luring
the exhaust the ma:er is re-evaporated, but the s&&mso formed escapes
into the atmosphere or into the condenser, doing no ~~+~or!<~ \vhi!e if it is
t~nken into a second cylinder, as in a compound ergine, it does work.
The steam lost in the first cylinder
work in the second cylirder.
by leakage and clearance also does
Also, ii there is a second cylinder, the
temperature of the steam exhausted from the first cylinder is higher than
if there is ohly on.e cylinder. and the metal surfaces therefore are not
cooled to the same degree. The difference in temperatures and in pres-
sures corresponding to the work of steam of 150 Iba. gauge-pressure ex-
panded 20 t.imes, in one, twos, and three cylinders, is shown in the
foiiowing tabie, oy iii. H. Weightman, Ani. Mach., July 28, 1892:
Diameter of cylinders, in.
Area ratios. .
Expansions. . .
Initial steam-pressures -
absolute - pounrls.
Mean pressures. pounds.
Mean efkctive pressures,
po.p&
. . . .._ . . . . .
Stenln temperat,ures into
CytnXlers.. . .
St -m temnerat~ures out
o. the cyhntlers..
Difference in temperature*
c-
Sinalr
cyt-
in&r.
60
20
165
32.96
26.96
$660
184.2=
181 .a
Compound
Cylinder%.
Triple-expansion
Cylinders.
I65
86. ,II
53.1:
366O
259.9O
106.1
~-
51 28
34.4t6 :.71
33 165
19.68 121.44
I5.60 60.64
259.9O 366O
I;;:? 293.5 72.5
46
2.70
2.71,
60.6
44.75
22.35
193.50
61
4.740
2.714
22.4
i6.49
!2.49
234.10
%
948 THE GIEhX-ENGINE.
~~. ~.__ ..-_ _. -_ ..
steam is al& t:le ~same, according to
both distributions.,
Receiver-cnrrim.
Y
;~nce - Ideal Uiagra,m
_ __~., without CICZ-
,s. - In the
&tons of the
s are connectrrl t,n rrln\rQ
g-It. 1.5s.-~vooLF ~~~~~~~ lrjEnL uhd receiver-engine the 1
INDICATOR-DIAGRAalS.
\ wO cylinder
same shr.ft.
at right angles to .each-biher &-yi:e
The receirer takes th.e steam exhausted from the first cylin-
der and supphcs it to the second, m which the steam is cut off and then
expanded to the end of the stroke. On the assumntion t.hat the initial
e in the first ~~~~~, _. - - _ , . __ l Yl .
ind of course equal to tlie pressure in the recel\-er, the volume cut off 1;
t.he second cylinder must be equsi to the volume of the first rvl i nder fnr
t,he second cylinder must admit as ml@ Steam at each strOi~e*~js-~~&~
c!csrged from the fiiSt cylinder.
In Fig. 159. cd is t,l!e line of ad+ssion and hg ihe exhaust-line for the
first cylinder; and dgIS + espanxon-curve and pq the atmosphefic line.
The diagram of the second cylinder, below gh, is chatacterized by the
absence of any specific period of athmssiou; the whole of the steam-fine
&?r? 0
ch being expansional, generated by the
esnansion of the init.in.1 hnd.7 nf rtan
uvru,m
cotitained~in i~~firstcyiln;i~r~nto the
60 lbs. second.
completed
When the return-stroke is
the whole of the steam
transferred from the first is shut int,o
the second cslinder. The finn.1 n~s-
second cylinder are the same as if the
whole Of the init,ial steam had been
admit~ted at once into t,hp.qePnnd cylin-

&I.- RECEIVER-ENGINE,
11 below t.he eshsusJ-line of the first ry!inder, between it and
---I~ ~1
liagrarn of the second cvlinder is
the 1ir.e of pf:r~rc~ vacuum, 01. the d
formed: ki, the second line of admission coincides with the e&&-line
hg of Che first cyliqder. showing in the ideal diagram no intermedizte
fall of pressure. and 2% ii the
the order in which the di;-----
111 t.he action nf th0
expnn.-ion-curve. The arrows indicate
IKLZL!~~~ are formed. -
rf~el.vFr-en@ne, the espans!ve working of the
iitkan;. t.houch clearly divloer lnro two COT---:
1 ocrtattve stages is as in the
{VcOlf entine, ecsrntinlly ron~~nltous from t.he pain*, of cut&f in the first
cTt!!der to the end of bhe &r&e of t,he second cylinder where it is
de 11 ;ered to the condenser: and the first and seconil~ dlagiams may be
PlWed t,oget,hrr and comhinrd to form a continuous diagram
For this
purpose takt? tllr second diagram its the b&s of the combineb diagram
nampl:<, hik!o, Fig. II%.
<+lV..l.
1110 period of admission, hi. is one-third of thi
L4^d,..e, and as the ratios of the cyiiilders a,:&as
1 to 3, hi is also the propor-
COMPOUND ENGINES. 949
tiona!l lengthof the first diagram as applied to thr second. Produce oh up-
~a.rtls. and set off oc eoual t,o the ! clal heirhl of the first diamam above the _._._~~, ~~. ~~~
vxuum-line: and, up& the shortcued basI ki, and the height Lc, Fomplete
the First diazram with the steam-liuc cd and the expansion line tli.
-~ It is show% by C!ark (S. E. p. 432 et SC~.) in a series of arilhmetical catcu-
t.,+inns t,h~,t. t.h@ recri VP~-W,L~III? is :MI rl:~.st,ic svskm of comno~~nti enrine. in
ishing LI- _..__. . - ..-:~- __ . . _ __.. -.,.-. -~~ ..~.
contrnry, it is of much unportsnce thn6 thaintermediate volume of space
between the first, and second cvlinders. WiliCh 1s the cause of an interme-
diate f
sup;;;;s~~g~~lil;l~~~~~~~~O-i~~~~~~~~am in passing through the engine,
by tooting and condensatiun, it is obvious that. whatever st,eam passes
through the first cylinder must also find its way through the s,econd
cylinder. By varying, therefore, in the receiver-engine, t~he penod of
admission in the second cgiinder, and t.hus also the v?lume of steam ad-
mit,t.ed for each strnlre t,lle st,ea.m will be measured lnlo It at a hzher
. . _
pressure and of a lr,, Uy..L, II. I~ - __.. .l- r---- ____ -~ ~~. -~
the pressure and density naturally adJUst!ng themselves t? the volume
that the steam fro!n t.hca recei.Jer 1s oermltted to OCCUPY In the second
cylinder. With a
receiver may be ma~~~~~iaiZi;e-~~~sure-oi-~~~ %?a&~ Ike exhausted
from the, first cyli$cr.
nn t.he cOnt,mrv. with a wider admission, the
,;,, fnll or drOyi to three-fourths or even one-
pressure In the receiver IT.,, -....
.nll nf the pressure of the exhaW t steam from the first cylinder.
a more complete discuss.... .-
ion Of the action of steam in the Woolf
GVPY twines. see Clark on the Steam-engine.) _, .
Conli)ined Diagrams of Compor~nd Engines,. -Ihe only TvaY z[
mnI.Gnl* a correct combined diagram irom Lhe Indicator-dmgrams
ihek<Ge&l cylinders
in a compound engine
is to set off all the
diagrams on the same
hOrizontai scale of VOl-
adding the
%%nces to the cyl-
inder capacities prop-
er. When this 1s
artended to, the SW-
cessive diagrams fall
cxnctlyinto theirright
places reiaiively toone
another. and would
compare proper& with
any theroreticsl ex-
pansion-curve, (Prof.
Thismethodofcom-
bining diagrams is
commonly adopted,
but there are objec-
tions to it.s accuracy,
t.itv of steam con- Fro. 161.
led in the first cYlir.der at the end Of the stroke is not caryied-forlvard SUIT
to tt1.e second, but a part of it is retained in the first cylinder for c?m-
P.
For a method of combining diagrams it? which compression
s taken account of. see discussions hv Thomas Mudd Andy +iers, In PrOc.
Inst. lf~ i? l?C?lL 19.57. p. 48 The risual method of combiniilg 1
diagrams
ank H. Ball as inaccurate and misleading (A:
m.
Hiach., April 12, 15.94: 1 imn,s. A. ,!; M. B.. xiv, 1405, nnd SV. 4?3).
Figure 161 shows a combined diagram of a WadrllPle-exPansiOn en@ne.
drawn according to the usual method, that is. the diagrams are first
reduced in length to relative sca!es that correspond with the relative
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Som&of ;ffkmaterial may no lonc$ b&accurate
piston-displacement of tlie three cylinders. Then the diagrams are
p+~i at such distances fmu the clea;ilnce-line of the proposed combined
dmgram as: to represent correctly the clearance in each cylinder.
.Proportions of Cylinders in Compound Engines. - Authorities
differ a:: to the proportions by volume of the high and loby Pressure
cylinders ZI and V.- Thus Gmshof gives V f 21 = 0.85 l/r; Hrabak.
0.90 d/r; Werner, 1/1-; and Rankine, dz, T being the ratio of expansion.
Busley makes the ratio dependent on the boiler-pressure thus:
Lbs.persq.in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 90 105 120
I f v........................ =3 4 4.5
5
(See Seatons &lam+, p. 95, etc., for analytical method: Sennett, p. 496,
etc.; Clarks Steam-engme, p. 445, etc.: Clarks Rules, Tables, Data, p. 849,
etc.)
Mr. J. McFarlane Gray st.ates that he iinds the mean effective pressure
in the compound engine reduced to the low-pressure cylinder to be approx-
imately the square root of 6 times the boiler-pressure.
Ratio of Cylinder Capacity in Compound Marine @nines. (Sea..
ton.) - The low-pressure cyhnder is the measure of the power of a com-
pound engine, for so long as theinitial steam-presszre and rateof expansion
are the same, it signifies very little, so far a.3 total power only is concerned,
whether the ratio between the low and high pressure cylinders is 3 or
4: but as t~lie power developed should be near1
the twos cylinders
there is a necessit
orde: to get a good an il
equally divided between
or exerclLing a
steady working engine,
considerable
in fixing on the ratio.
amount of didcretion
In choosing a particular ratio the objects are to divide the power evenly
and to avoid as much as possible drop and high initia,l strain. [Some
writers advocat~e drop in the high-pressure cylinder making it smailer
than is the usual practice and making the cylinder ratio as high as 6 or 7.1
If increased economy is to be obtained by increased boiler-pressures
?he rate of expansion should vary with the initial pressure, so that the
pressure at r,hirh the steam enters the condenser should remain constant.
In this case. wit.11 tile ratio of cylinders constant, the cut-off in the hlgh-
pressure cylinder will vary inversely as the initlsl pressure.
I&t R be the ratio of the cyiinders; r the rate of expansion; p, the
initial pressure: then cut-off in high-pressure cylinder = R + T; 1 varies
with pl, so that the terminal pressure p, is constant, and consequently
r = I,+ &; therefore. cut-off in higll-pressure cylinder = R j( p, + pl.
Ratios of Cylinders as Found in Narinc Practice. -The rate of
expansion may be taken at one-tenth of the boiler-pressure (or about one-
fwe!fth the absoll:te Pressuie). to work economic,ally at full speed, There-
C. when btie diameter 04 the low-pressure cylinder does not exceed
iOq inches. and the boiler-pressure 70 lbs., the ratio of the low-pressure
~le~hi@l-pressure cylinder s!!ould be 3.5: for a boiler-pressure of SO lbs..
^.~.. .~
, 4.5. If these moDor;ions are adhered
to 1
3.75: for Yu It%, 4.0: for 100 lbs.
to, there will be no need of an expansion-valve-to kither cylinder.---If,
haivev&. to avoid drop, the ratio be reduced, an expansion-valve
should be fitted t,o the high-pressure cylinder.
Where erol lonls of Steam is not of first imnnrt.a,nre hllt. rat.hm a. ln.ree _-_..__ - _l_o_
po?vrr. b!lP ratio of cylinder capaci& may with edvsnb,ge be decreased,
so that with a boiler-pressure of 100 Ibs. it mav b; 3.75 to 4.
In i~IlilPrn .._...--. _.
? *ratio is
engines there is no necessity todivide the G&k equally.
general& 4:
.-.
!)ut when the steam-pressure exceeds 90 lbs.
Th;
: cylinder. when the cranks are at an
intermediate
?r rvill do.
cylinder leading the
exceed half the boiler-pressure.
The pressure in the receiver
(Seaton.)
Receiver engine, w=aP 2 (1+ hyp log R) -C 1+
when there is no intermediate fall of Pressure.
. AiiL _...
I I I ARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of ,the material may no longer be accurate
COMPOUND ENGINES., 951
Formula for Calculating the Expansion and the Work of Steam
in Compound Engines.
(Condensed from Clark on the Steam-engine.)
a = area of the first cylinder in sqnare inches:
a = area of the second cylinder in squa,re inches:
r = ratio of the capacity of the second cylinder to that of the first;
H, = length of stroke in feet, supposed to be the same for bpth cyhnders:
1 = period of admission to the first cylinder in feet, excludmg clearance;
c 5 clearance at each end of the cylinders, in parts of the stroke, in ft.;
L = length of the stroke plus the clearance, in feet;
1 = period of admission plus the clearance, in feet;
s = length of a gl~ren part of th.e stroke of the second cylinder, in feet;
P = total init,ial pressure in the first cylinder. in lbs. per square mci.,
supposed to be uniform during admission;
P 5 total pressure at the end of the given part of the stroke s;
p = average total pressure for the whole strok?:
R = nominal ratio of expansion in the first cyhnder, or L + 2;
22 = actual ratio of expansion in the first cylinder, or L f 2;
RN = actual combined ratio of expansion, in the first and second &in-
ders together:
p. = ratio of the final pressure in the first cylinder to any intermediate
fall of pressure between the first aud second cylmders:
N = ratio of the volume of the intermediate space in the Woolf en@e.
reckoned up to, and including the clearance of. the second ,l$
ton, to the capacity of the first cyvlinder plus its cl,earance.
value of X is correctly expressed by the actual ratio of the
volumes as stated onthe assumption that, theintermediatespace
is a vacuum whelk it receives tbe exhaust-steam from the first
cylinder. In Point of fact, there is a residuum of unexhausted
steam in the intermediate space, at low pressure, and the value
of N is thereby practically reduced below the ratio here stated.
N=L-1.
n-1
VJ = whole net work in one stroke, in foot-pounds.
Ratio of expansion in the second cylinder:
In the Woolf engine.
(T $)+ N
l-t N-;
In the receiver-engine,
(n-l)r.
n
TOM actual ratio of expansion = product of the ratios of, the three
consecutive expansions, in the Erst cylinder, in the intermedlate space.
and in t.he second cylinder;
In the Woolf engine. R (r j$ + N);
In the receiver-engine, T $9 or rR.
1, - 1
Combined ratio of espansion behind the pistons= n rR=R.
Work done in the two cylinders for one stroke, witI: a given cut-off
and a given combined actual ratio of expansion:
Woolf englne, w=aP [2(1+ hyp logR) -Cl;
WM the is an int,ermediate fall, wher. the resyute falls to s14 2,s
% $ bhe final Pressure in 6114 1st Cylinder, the re uctlon of ivnric is O.2~jg:
1.0 ;i. 4.6% of,that whes there is no .?nl!.
-2 .
Total. work l~l.the two cylinders ot a receiver-engine, for one stroke
for any mtekrnedlnte fall 0; pressure,
fhyplogR
w = I. x 63
2.42 (V/4 hyp log M69) - .42 1 + 3 x 2
4 X 2.653>1
=421.55 ft.-lbs.
.
Caku!ation of Dinmeters of Cylinders of a compound Condensin
eW:ln(t ot ZOOO H.P. at a speed of 700 feet per minute, with 100 lbs. boiler!
DkS.SUi-Pi
100 lbs. gauge-
boil*: and
ressure = 115 absolute less drop of 5 lbs. between
(lyhll ,er = 110 Ibs. initial ibsolute pressure Assuming s
@rlnlnal Prf+we In 1.P. Cylinder = 6 lbs., the total expansion of steam
in both Cyhnders = 110 i 6 = Is.33
pr!+ure in 1.p. cylinder, 3 lbs. absolutk.
HYP log 18.33 q2.909. Back
1 he followng formuke are used in the calculation of each cylinder:
(1) Area of cylinder =
H.P. x 33.000
(2) ?.Iean effecti
M.E.P. X piston-speed
Pressure = mean total pressure - back pressure.
(3) Mean total pressure
= termmal
(4) Absolute initiai pressure = abso ute p+nl
P
ressure x (1 + hyp log R).
.?un:t.n~in~
-1~ II -1 FreSSiiie X ratio of
~~..;~~ . ._.,...
I lrst calyhte the area of the low-pressure cylinder I&S if all the \vor~i
were done ~1 that cyiindcr.
From (3).
Ibs.
mean total pressure = 6 X (1 + hyp log 18.33) = 23.454
From (?), men11 effeciivz Ikessure = 23.454 - 3 = 20.454 lbs.
From (1). area of cylinder =
2otio x 33,000
20.454 x 700
=4610sq.ins.=76.Gins.diam.
If half the wrk. or 1000 H.P.. is done in the 1.1). cylinder the M.E.P.
Ml be half t,hnt found above, or IO.?>-
LO.227 + 3 = 13.227 lbs.
-.-I h., and the mean total pressure
hron! (3). 1 + hpp log R = 13.227 + 6 = v.3045.
+-p 10$ R = 1.2o.a. whenre e in 1.p. cvl. z-3.335.
.Eroln (-I), 3.335 X 6 = 3,1J,01 la-.. t, 1
b ml la pressure ir. 1.p. cyl. and ter-
ntnn1 pressure in h.p. ryl.. nssllmin= no drop between c\-lilltl&.
110 + X3.01 = IS.33 + :I.:135 =>,497, R ill 11.~. cyi
From (3), mean total pres. in h.p. cyl. = 20.01 x (1 + hyp 10~ 5.49;)
= 54.11.
f%m (21, %I1 - 20.01 = 34.10. M.l!kP. in h.p. cyl.
From (I), area 01 h.p. cyl. = O 33*ooo
700 x 34.1
- = 1352 sq. ins. =42 ins. diam.
(pde:ratio = 4610 + 1382 = 3.336.
Ihe are?& Of t,he h.p. cylinder may be found more directly by dividing
he area of the 1.1,. cyi. by,the ratio of expansion in that c&nder.
h 3.335 = 13S2nn irw
4610
In.the above Z&?kion no account is taken of ckarance, of com-
~msm, of drop between cylinders. nor of area of r-on-rods.
It also
~WJIWS t,hat t,he dineram in each cylinder is the full theoretical diagram
Ith a horizontal s?mm-line and a hrprrbolic expansion line. with nd
~hpmce for m!!nding of the corners.
rlo make allowance ior these,
!t mean efiective pressure in each cylinder must be multiplied
b
I:Wmm factof. or the ratio of the area of an actual diagram of the c US
P
f w&w collsldcred. with bike given init,inl and terminal pressures to ;he
r? of the t~hcorcbic;~l diagram.
.(I to 0.94. as in the t,ahlr on p. 932.
Such diagram factors will ra&e from
F~,~(st ~f:ttios of ~~ylintlrrs. - The qnrst.ion what is the be+, ratio of
,@ 11s of the 1.~ cyhntlers of a compound engine is stili (1901) i disputed
The choice of eypansion ratio is jiorerned b~~t!le initial Pr~ssllre, and is
cenerall;- chosen so that the terminal press& in the 1.~. Cyhnder shall be
about 10 lbs. absolute.
Formulae for Proportioning Cylinder Srras of Tri~le-ExP;yA$
Eneines -The following formuk are l,ased on the -method
finding tl;e Cvhntler areas that would be required if an idea: hyperbolic <ia-
gram were obtainable from each cylinder. with no clearance. CompressIon.
wire-dr?wing drop bg free expansion in receivers, Or 1OSS b.y CSlilitle(r
condenhation assuming equal work to be done In each cybnfier,
then di*v;din< the areas th;ls found by a suitable diagram factor, such as
those given on page 932.
cspressing the ratio which the area of an artus
dilmrati obtained in practice from an engine of the tv
at& b&s to the ideal or t.heoretirnl diarmm.
e under cqnslder-
It wi 1 vary In dIRerent -r
ck&s of engine a~ld in difEere,nt cylinders of the Same engille, Usual
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition,
k%e oTthe material may no longer be accurate
TRIPLE-:-EXPANSION ENGINES.
953
Proportions of Cylinders. -
II. H. :luplee, Mrchnn~ic~, Nov.. lSS7,
gives the following method of prbportioning cyhnders of tnple-expansion
engines:
As in the ca,se of compound engines the dinm*ter of the,lov+pressl!re
cylinder is first determined, beiw mad
i: large enoilgh to, furmsh t,hc entire
poiver required at t,he mean prlissure due, .to t,:: imtial prejs:re and
expansion ratio given: and then this eylinderlh :.
; 0iii w;l: prcsss!rr cnouph
to perform one-t,hird of the wxl~, and the other r-yiin:ers are prow?tion@!
so as to divide the other two-thirds bet $ve?n t:?~?
Let US suppose that au initial pressur,, of i.,O lbs. is ilsed awi t,k?.i
900 H.P. is to be develc#p?d at a piston-s- e zd of SO0 ft. per min., and that
an espa.nsion ratio of 16 is to be reache
CT lvith an absolute back-pressure
of 2 Ibs.
The theere-iiCal M.E.P. with an absolute initial pressure Of 150 -I- 14.7 =
164.7 Ibs. initial at 16 expansions iS
P (1 + hyp log 1F) = 164,7 y 3.7726
16
.--iii-
= 38.S3,
less 2 lbs. hack pressure, = 38.83 - 2 = 36.63.
~n practice only about 0.7 of this pressure IS art;unlly attait?ed.,so that
36.~3 x 0.7 = 25.7~1 1~s. is the b1.E.P. upon wlncb the engine 1s to be
proportioned.
To obtain 900 H.P, lye must have 33,000 X 900 = 29,700,OOO foot-
pounds and this divided by the mc!:un pressure i25.78) and f+V the S
in feet isoo) will Kive IGO sq. in. as the area of the 1.~. cylinder,
ae:!$
%quivnlent to 43 in. dinm.
~~~~ as onp.t!lird of bhe work is to be done in the 1.p. cyJ!nder, the
h1.E.p. in it will be 25.7s + 3 = 8.59 11)s.
VP cl - ti nrl ~r i c rrm~mllv arranged to cut off
The cut-off in the hi!$-pressu
. -,I . . . .._.
at, 0.6 oe the stroke all,i so the ratio of t!!e ii:$.wioiilei.~I cylhder is-wuiii
to 16 ~0.6 = 9.6 and t,he h.p. cylinder will be T4-10 + 9.6 = !a 9.
in. area, or at)o,~ltl4 in. diameter, snd the %i.E.P. In the 11.~. Cylinder 1s
equal to 9.6 X 5.59 F = .lc I.,
If the int,ermediatc c,V,,rlurl .., ,L.lll.r .- . ..-. I.. I . .._ ._.~. -_~
~~~ ~;
its size would be determined by dividing the area of f.he 1.P. cylmder ,bY
the square root of the ratio between the low and the high; but In Pract,lce
t!lis is found to give n, rrsult too large to equalize t.lle Stresses, SO tb:lt
instead the arrd of the int. cylinder is found by diriding the area Of the
1.p. pist,on by 1 .l times t,hc Sqrla
PC rnnt nf the ratio of I.D. to h.p. cyhnder.
which in this case is l:liO + (i
,.- .-... __ .~~~ ~~~~~~
..I * = 422.5 sq. in., or alit,tle more
than 23 in. diam.
I
d
954
THE STE,AM-ENGINE.
values .ran,i?g frym 0,.6 to 0.0.. When any one of the three stages of
decs equals t.ne area found by the focmulw.
expansion tat(es PAace in two cyhndecs, the combined area of these cylin-
Nowrzo~.
T = !nlti?l pressure in the high-pressure cvlindec
pt = teCmlnrt1 pressure in the low-pcessucecylind&.
pt, = back pressure in the low-pressure cylinder.
PZ = term press. in h.p. cyl. and initial press. in intermediate cyl.
~2 = term. press. III mt. cyl. and initial press. in 1.~. cyl.
RI, Rz. Ra. ratio of exp in h.p. int. and 1.~. cyls.
R = totai ratio of exp. = RI X R2 X n3.
.
P = mean effec. press. of the combined ideal diagram, referred to the
1.p. CYI.
PI, h, PJ = M.E.P. in the h.1) iat. and 1.~. cyls.
HP = horse-power of the engine= PRAWN + 88 OOO.
.& = length of stroke in feet: N = number of si;gle strokes per ndn.
V = Gockdone ir. one cylinder per foot of stioke.
-41, -4*, -43, areas (,iq, ins.) of h.p. int. and 1.p cyls. (ideal).
rz = ratio of 82 t;A AI ; TZ = ratio of AB to Al.
FI, Fz. Fa, diagra~m factors of h.p. int. and 1 p. cyl.
UL az, a, areas (,&ctua.l) of h.p. int. aqd 1.0. cyl.
4
Formuk
(1) R = PI + Q.
.(2) p = Pf !1 + hyp 1Og.R) - p,,.
( 3) P3 = v3 P.
( 4) HYP &g & = (p3 - Pt+ pb) + pt.
( 5) RI RP = R + Rs; RI = Rz = a=
(6) PS = pt X Ra.
( 7) PZ = ~a X Rs.
(S) PI = PZ X RI .
,
(9) P? = 1)~(hyp log Rs) = P~RJ
(10) PI = PZ (hyp log 121) = PzRg:
i
11)
12)
Iv = 11,000 HP + LN.
13)
Al = 11 + PI ; AZ = 1Y + pz: Aa = J Y + p3.
T? = AZ + /it = PI + Pt = RI or R2. r3 = A3 + A1 = p1 + p
(14) ~2~ = Al + P,: a? = At + Fc; a3 = ;is + F3. 3.
From these formulae the figure
calculated:
8. m the following tables have been
'kmnmcnL MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURES, CYLINDER RATIOS, ETC.,
OF TRIPLE EXPANSION ENGINES.
lhck ~wxmre 3 lbs. Terminal pressure, 8 lbs. (absolute).
~__ -.- __
---
120 15
26. 66
1: 20 17. 5
8. 89
27. 90 9. 30 1. 712 1. 426
28. 97 9. 66
3. 197 3. 037
1. 790
13. 70 13. 01
3. 343
39. 51 43. 79 :
14. 32 : : : ; : 47. 86
15. 92 14. 45 43. 89 50. 89 4. 939 5. 472
14. 89 51. 77
$2 55. 54
17. 29 18. 55 44. 52 57. 76 6. 471 5. 980
3. 718
59. 16
19. 76 71. 16 6. 942
3. 826 16. 39
62. 72 22. 00 84. 12 7. 839
20. 90 I 77. 69 7. 397
,
TRIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES.
955
TREORETI CAL MEAX EFFECTI VF PRES~UMZS. CYLI .DER RATIUS, ETC.,
OF TIUPLE EXPANSIO.U ENGINES.
Back pressure. 3 ibs. Terminal pressure, 10 lbs. (absolute).
P. ( PB. 1 Rs.
31.85 10.62
33. 39 I I . 13
;:;.;
34. 73 11. 58 1. 580
35. 90 I I . 97 1. 643
36. 96
37: 9l 12. 64
38. h)
12. 32 I 1. 702
1. 757
12. 93 1~809
-
I
_ .
-
2. 890
3. 044
: : : 5
3, 428
3. 538
3. 642
P3.
-__
14. 36
15. 11
Ki
1%
18. 09
-
2. PZ. P. I 0.
I - - -,-
15. 24 44. 041 4. 148
16. 72 51. 20' 4. 600
18 29 58. 20 5. 027
19. 64 65. 09 5. 459
20. 97 71. 88 5. 834
22. 20 78. 54 6. 215
23. 38 85. 151 6. 587
expansion englnes:
Boiler-
I
Terminal Presquce, I Olbs.
I
(~~~~$, No. of Es- Cylinder Ratios,
No. of E;::- Cylinder Ratios,
. pnnslona. rueas. pansions. are3s.
-__-
iii 1:
I to2. 35t05. 53
I to2. 4l to 5. 81
r; : ' , ;
t to 2. 53t06. 42
1 to 2. 60to 6. 74
150 15 1 to2. 47 to6. 08 18314
I to 2. 66~ 7. 06
160 16 I to 2. 52to 6. 35 20 I to 2. 71to 7. 37
The ratio of the diameters is the square coot of the ratios of the areas.
and the ratio of the diameters of the first and third cyhnders IS the same
as the ratio of the areas of first and second.
Seaton in his Marine EIIgirM?CiIIg, s?Ys; when tbs PCeSSUCs of Steam
employed exceeds 115 lbs. absolute, It IS advisable to employ three
cylindkrs Chcougb each of which the steam eTpan$ls in turn. The catlo
of the lo;v-pressure to high-pressure cylinder In this system should be 5.
when the steam-pressure is 125 19s. absolute: when 135 lbs.. 5.4; when
145 lbs. 5.8. when 155 lbs., 6.2: when 165 lbs., 6.6.
The catlo of low-
pressure to i;ltecmedlate cyhndec should be about one-half @at between
low-pressure. and high-pressure. as given above.
That is, If the ratlo
of 1 p to h p. is 6 that of 1.~. to int. should be about 3, and consequentl)
thai df int: to h.6. about 2.
In practice the ratio of int. to h.p. 1s neaClY
3 25 so that the dlamet,ec of the int. cylinder is I..5 that, of the h.P.
The
&cGduction of the triple-compound en.gine has ad$tted pf shPs bemg
~pcopelled at hicrhec cat,es of speed than focmerlytibtalned wlth?ut exceed-
In- t,he consu&pt,ion of fuel of similar ships fitted.with orchnary corn--
po&d entines. in such casts the higher power to obt~m the speed has been
developei bv decrea,%inT the rate of expansion, the low ,Pcessuce. cYl!n-
dec bt+iuq oily 6 tim& &e capacity of the high-pressure, wit! a nockmg
pcessuceof li0 11~s. nbsotutt.
It (4 0~ a very general pcactlce ?o make
the diameter of the low-pressure cylinder equal to the sum of the bameters
of%he h.p. and int. cyiiadecs; hence:
Diameter of int. cylinder = 1.5 diameter of h.P. cyllndec;
Diameter of 1.1,. cylinder = -.
3 5 diameter of h.p. cyhnder.
,~,.,,.~ ~~ I.-_.- ..~~ ,-.~~ , ~~. ~. . , . , ~. ~. ~~ . ~
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition, Some of the material may no lbnger be accurate
Ratioi Ratios UL Cylinders for DifYercnt Cktsses of Engines. ~, I Proc. I nst
a. E., EC,,., llf. h., Feb., 1837, p. 36.)- As to the bes
triu1c
lOOI, P. Jo.,- AS co tne !?e.s y ratios for the cylinders in i
triple entine there ?eems to be great difference of opinion
lstituue, nowevef. 1s clue to
Considerable
iatitude, however, 1s due to the requirements of the ca& inasmuch as
it r.-ould no! be erpected tba It v-ould not be erpeated that the same ratio wvould be &table for an
eeonc eeonolniral land engine, where the space occupied and the weight were of
minor ~mponsnce. as in a war-~1~1 minor importsl?ce. as m a war-ship, where the conditions were reversed
In the land engine, for example. a In the land engme, for example, a theoretical terminal pressure of about
7 Ibs 7,lbs. abqve absolut,e vacuum would probably be aimed at which would
give a, rat!0 of capacity of high pressure to low pressure of ltq 81/z or 1 to
9: whl@ in a war-stip a terminal pressure would be required of 12 to 15
!bs. which would need a ratio of capacity of I. to 5. yet in both the&
lnst?nCeS the cylinders were correctly
requirements of the case.
It is
roportioned nnd suitable to the
any hard-and-fast rule.
obvious y unw; :e, therefore, to introduce P
~.__ - __ - - --
give a, rat!0 01 capaClty Of high pressure t0 lOlf pressure of itq 81/z or 1 to
9: whl@ in a war-stip a terminal pressure woul d be required of 12 to 15
!bs. which would need a ratio of capacity of I. to 5. yet in both the&
lnst?nCeS the cylinders were correctly
requirements of the case.
any hard-and-fast rule.
It is obvious y unw; :I P
roportioned &I suitable to the
and rat10 of 1.p. to int. is 2.75.
h.p. is 6.25: the ratio of int. to 1.1.~. is 2.26; In thi? case the ratio of 1.~. to
. TYPes of Yhree-sta e Ex
120 Ueg. 2. Two cranks wit{
cranks with 1st and 3d cylinders tandem
first. with cylinders arranged in the seqience high, intermediate, low.
Sequence or Cranks, -Mr. Wyliie (Proc. inst. M E 1867) favors
the sequence high, low, intermediate, while Mr. Uudd iav& ltigh inter-
mediate, low.
The former sequence, high, low. intermediate give an
approximately horizo!it?! exhaust-line, and thus minimizes the range of
tempsrature and the mitral l&d; the latter sequence high, intermediate,
Icy. mere&d the range and also tha load.
Mr. Morrison, in discussing the question of sequence of cranks pre-
sented il dillgram sh?wmg that with the cranks arranged in the sequence
high. low, mtermedmte, the mean compression into the receiver was
!9:/? Per Cent of the Stroke; with the sequence high, intermediate, low,
It was 57 Der cent.
In the f&er&se the compression was j ust what was required to keep
the re@lver-?ressure practically uniform; in the latter case the compression
camed a vanatlon In the receiver-pressure to the extent sometimes of
22Q l bs.
OUADRxPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES.
different qlladr\lple-espnllsloll engines: nearly all intended to be operated
H. H. SuPlee (Trans. A: S. M. E., x, 583) states that a stady of 14
at 3 Pressure of 180 Ibs. per sq. in., gave average cylinder ratios of 1 to 2,
to 3.73. to 7.70, or nearly in the proportions 1, 2 4 8
ff we t,a!te the KG0 Of ilreas Of any two adjoinikg dylinders a. the fourth
root of the number Of expansicIlS, the ratio of the 1st to the4th will be
the cllbe of the fourth root.
pressures and rates of expansion will be as follows:
On this ba& the rati os of areas f or di f f erent
e
11f i ur.
3. SINGLE CYLINDERS by SMALL SIZE, 8 or 9 IN. DIMI.. JACKETE;.
NON-C~YDE~:SING. - The best resu!ts are. obtaIned. at, a Cut-off of 0
per ceni \vith 75 lbs. maximum pressure In the cybnder: about 25 lbs.
of water per I H.P. per hour.
4. SI~IJLE &JNDEIW NOT STEAM-JACKETTGD, CONDENSING. -The best
result li irom a Corll&Wheelock engine 18 X 48 In.; cut-.off, 1?5%;
actual expansion rat~io. 6.95:
maximum absolute pressure In cylinder,
104 lbs steam per I.H.P. hour, 19.5slbs.
OFhe: engines. with lower
steam $essures gave a steam consumption a~ high as 26.7 lbs.
Peed&ter bousumption of Different, TY
es of EW@eS. -The
fo]lo~~ng iables are taken from the circclsr Of t le !&&Or f?ldZC&W (Ash-
P
croft Mfg. CO., 1889).
In the first of the two columns under Feed-water
required, in the tables for simple engmes, the figures are obtamed by
, ~. , , , . . , .
.~~~
WI RNI NG: This is a 1910 edition*
Some ifs
may no ltmger be accurate
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF STEAM-ENGINES. $57
Gauge-
pressures.
160
180
206
220
Absolute
Pressures.
-~
-
1, _-
I
-
175
195
215
235
Terminal
PresSUres.
Ratio of
I
Ratios of Areas
Expansion. of Cylinders.
-- __
1;:; I I : : 2. 05: 1. 95 : 3. 81: 4. 18: 7. 43 8. 55
21. 9 I : 2. 16: 4. 68: 10.12
It:: I I : : 2. 01 2. 10: : 4. 02: 4. 42: 9. 28 8. 07
29 I: I: 2. 06: 2. 22: 4. 94: 4. 23: 10. 98 8. 70
% t 1: 2. 28: : 2. 15: 4. 64: 5119: 11.81 9. 98
19. 6 1 : 2.10 : 4.43 : 9.31
23.5 I : 2.20 : 4.85 : 10.67
29. 4 1 : 2. 33: 5. 42: 12. 62
Seaton says: When the pressure of steam employed exceeds 190 l.bs.
absolute, four cylinders should he emnloved. with the steam expandmg
through each succesSivety; ?n- I._-,-----
rl rha rs.t.io Of l.p. to h.p. should be at least
7 5 and if economy of fuel 1s of pnme L..-..
*nnaideratlon it should be 8;. then
the ratio of first intermediate to h.p. should
be 1.3. that of second mter-
mediate to first int. 2. and that of i.p. to second iht.,2.2.,
In a paper read before the North East Coast Instltutlon of. Engineers
and Sllipbuilders 1890, William Russell CumImns advocates ti l e use qf 8
f nnar- cyl i nder en&ne with four crank.,
E as being more suitable for h!gh
& +hn.n the. t~hree-cuknder three-crank engine.
The cylinder ratlos.
i n ~nnnl i ni ti nl l oads i n each
speeL, ..-.. .._ _ .___ .I.
he claims, should be desIgned so as to obtak.. -., --.,...--.-. ..~~ ~~~
cylinder.
The ratios determined for the tnple engme are 1. 2.04, 6.54.
0-d for the quadruple. 1. 2.08, 4.46, lg.47. _a&
He advomt-es,long stroke,
high
piston-speed, 100 revolutions per mmute, and 250 lbs. holler-pressure,
unje ;cketed cylinders, and separate steam and exhaW Valve%
I
ECONOMICPERFORIIIAlriC.~ OF STEA3l[:ESGINES.
Economy of Expansive Working under Vmious Conditions. Single
Cylinder.
(Abridged from Clark on the Steam Engine.)
I&d~~~{~d~rL ~~~,;Sili~~~,-~y~cj;iindersnnd steam-pipes enveloped b, y the
hot eases in Dhe smoke-Qos.
Net boiler pressure 100 Ibs.; net ma,ximum
pressure in cylinders 80 lbs. per sq. in.
cx-+-ns nor ~e,,t.. 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80
X$,;Gi %X0 Ti
. .
I exnan-
aon.. . .
..: . . . . 3.91 3.31 2.57 2.53 2.26 1.86 1.59 1.39 1.23
Water per I.1
I.P. per
hour. lbs. . 18.5
19.4 20 21.2 22.2 24.5 27 30 33
. . . . , . .
2 SI~;GLE CYLINDERS WITH SUPERHEATED STEAK C_~NDENSING. -
Thgbest results obtained by Him, with a. cylinder 233/a X 6! In. and steam
supertleated 1500 F. expansion ratio 33/4 to 41/a, total maxmnlm pressure
in cylinder 63 to 69lbs., were 15.63 and 15.69 lbs. Of water Per I.H.P. Per
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF STEUI-ESGINES. 9%
The data upon which table No. 3 is calculated are not given, but the
feed-water consumption is somewhat lower than has yet. been reached
.(1894), the lowest steam consumption of a triple-expansion engine yet
recorded being 11.7 Ibs.
TABLE ~Yo. 2.
FEED-VATER CONSUMPTI+V FOR COMPOUND CONDESSIXC ENQINES.
computation from nearly perfect indicator diagrams with aliowance
for cylinder condensation according to the table on page936 but without
allowance for leakage, with back-pressure in the non-condensing table
taken at 16 Ibs. above zero, and in the condensing table at 3 11~s. above zero
1 he compression curve is supposed to he hyperbolic, and commences at
0.91 of the return-stroke, with a clearance of 3% of the piston-displace-
.ilP+ . ..1._.
Table,No. 2 gives the feed-water consumption
condensmg engines of the best class.
Cor jac.ketcd compound-
!s included in the quantities given.
The Fyater condensed in the jackets
The ratio of Areas of the two cylinders
is as 1 to 4 for 120 !bs. pressure: the clearance of each cvlinder is 3%
and the.cut-off in the two cylinders occurs at the same p&t of stroke
1 he initial pressure in the 1.p. cylinder is 1 lb. per sq. in. below the back:
pressure of the h.p. cylinder.
stroke 111 the 1.p. cyhnder is
The average back-pressure of the Nnole
4.5 Ibs. for 1O70 cut-off; 4.75 Ibs. for 20%
cm-on; and 5 lbs. for 30% cut-off. The steam accdunted for by the
indicator at cut-off in the h.p. cylinder (allowing a small amount for leak-
age) is 0.74 at 10% cut-off, 0.78 at 20%, and 0.3.2 at 30% cut-off
The
loss by condensation between the cylinders is such that the steam ac-
counted for at cut-off in tne ! o. cylinder, expressed in proportion of that
shlwn at relea.se in the h.p. cyiinder, is 0155 at 10% cut-off, 0.87 at 20%
cut-off, and 6.89 at 30% cut-off.
lean Effective Press.
Initial Pressure above
cut-off,
At.mosphere.
percent. -
H%cy.* I s. I
Feed-water
Required
er 1.H.cP.p~
Hour, lbs.
2.65
::z
::z:
9.74
7.ia 37.61
46.41
56.50
TABLE No. 1.
FEED-WATER CONSUMPTION, SIMP+E ENGINES.
NO&ONDENBINQ ENGINES.
CONDENSING ENGINES.
2.0;
7.4;
2.92
::;;
7.49
8.25
1.01
3.76
I.44
t::,"
Feed-water Re-
quired per I.H.P.
per Hour.
Feed-water Re-
qui red per I.H.P.
per Hour.
27.61
25.43
23.90
%Z
25.73
21.04
iE
25.68
24.57
23.77
23.27
26.29
25.38
24.66
2%
24.47
27.17
26.35
25.73
26.99 28.38
26.32 27.62
25.78 26.99
TA9LE No. 3.
FEED-WATERC~NSDRIPTIONBORTRIPLE-EXPANSIONCOSDENSINGENGINES. I
<
c
.-
I(
I5
20
30
44i
-
eed-water
lequired
er I.H.P.
m Hour,
lbs.
I
Initial Pressure above
L cut-off,
Atmosphere.
per
cent.
H.P.
Cyl., lb.
120
30 I 140
160
I
120
40 .1:
--
7-
G2~
37.8
i;::
30.0
45.8
51.3
39.8
it:!
1.3
2.6
3.8
Mean Effective Pressure.
2.
17.1
18.6
20.0
22.8
23.7
25.5
26.7
28.0
30.0
2::
55.0
:;::
70.0
60.5
70.5
82.5
;::
6. 0
i : !
10. 0
10.1
10.8
11.8
!9.7:
i3.4
i7.11
8.21
'::;
,:::
Ii.52
7.5;
4.3;
I .ot
Z
2.36
18.89
18.70
18.56
19.09
18.91
18.74
19.69
19.51
19.36
Sizes and Calculated Performinees of Verticgl lW!h-spe.ed
Engines, -
The following tables are taken from an old circular, descnb-
inr the engines made bv the Lake Erie Engineering works. Buffalo. F..y.
The engines are fair representatives of the type lar&v used for dnvmE:
drnnmos directly without belts.
The tables were calculated by E. F.
Williams. designer of the engines.
They are here somewhat abridged to
save space.
I rl ARNI NG: This is.a 1910 edition.
Some of
may -no longer be accurate
THEN STE.&-ENGINE.
ECONOMIC PER.PORiMANC% Oi? STEAM-ENGINES. 961
Simple Engines - Non-condensinr.
Compound Engines - Condensing - &earn-jacketed.
H.P. when
--
:$ L,,
3112 4
:
; "I 2
4112 6
6'
7
t
i I O
.---..--- 370 __--__--!_ 20 25 30
26 31 36 32
- - ,
318 27 32 39 37 43 t I 4 277 34 41 47 41 48 56 4 ;
246
41 49 60 52 62 71 63 74
53 64 7: 85
5' 9" 4111
67 81 93 66 80 96 82 96 I l l
61~~
222
: : 181 15. 3
84 I 00 I I 6
6' 8" 3
119 95 I I 5 144 I 38 173 120 144 166 I 02 I 46 I 20 172 I 38 198
8' 4" 7~ I I I 5
138
151 181
179 216 261 208 183 215 248 227 272 313 276 324 373
281 336 386 340 400- w
I O : ; 11' 8"
13' 4" '
342 409 470 414
34
487- 560 14' 2" 41 1
.-
370
318
277
246
222
I 85
I =%
I %
120
I I 2
93
80
: 1, 2 61/ z n/ 2 I 2 1311
0114 9 l 61k
911, i n?/ , I 9
. : : 1, 2 ; : I , / , 25 2216
:;
151/z 28t/:
Ml/, 331/
i ; 20 11~ 38
26
30 33 60
Mean e5. pres:
--
s., Ibs.. . . . I 20 ) 27, -_ I _
Ra~t.io of exoansion . . . . . I I3 l/7 I 16z) 70 1 I& 1 63,, 1 8l/r
Cyl . wnden$ati on, %: . . I I 8 ( , [ 20 i ' " 1 15 1 I 5 1 I 8 I I 8 1 l 2 t I 2 1 l 4 l 14
St. per I.H.P.hour.lbs. 17.3 16.6 16.6 15.2 17.0 16.4 16.3 15.8 17.5 17.0 16.8 16.0
Note. -The
nf.E.P., lb?. . . . 1 24 1 29 1 35 130.5136.51 42 1 37
1 I 1 I
Ratio of . -
exp. . 5 3
Term1 press.
(aborit).Ib+. . 17.9 20
Cd. condn.%.
22.3 22.4
26 26 Steam e9I.H.P. 26 24 27.629.833.336.8 24
hour.rbs .__...
21 I 21 I 21
32.9 30 27.4,31.~
nominal-power
rating of the FW
gines is at 80 Ibs.
fzauge pressure,
steam cut-off at
2129. Oi 27. 91 32 131. 41 30 1 1' 4stro1i e'
Compound Engines - Non-condensing -High-pressure Cylinder
and Receiver Jacketed.
/
-
H.F., cutting off H.F.. cutting off
at l / 4 Stroke
in h.p. Cylinder.
I
nt 1/ 3 Stroke
in h.p. Cylinder.
in h.p. Cylinder.
Cyls. CYIS.
3113: I . 41/ z: I .
80 90 I 30 I 50
I bs. I bs. I bs. I bs.
- - - _
44 55 64 79
56 70 81 101
83 104 I 21 I 59
109 136 I 58 I 96
156 195 226 281
192 241 279 346
250 325 374 464
346 433 502 623
446 558 647 803
572 715 829 1030
838 1048 1215~1508
10%1370 15Wl 973
- - - -
20 25 29 36
6314 9114
10110 I I I I
14 15. 5 14. 6 17. 8
Triple-expansion Engines, Non-condensing- Receiver only
JackrJted.
Horse-power
when cutting
05at42y0 of
Stroke in First
Cylinder.
-
t
Horse-power
when cutting
off at 500/c of
stroke in First
Cylinder.
I .
10
4
-
46
59
2
i 4
12
11
i 3
63
I : ,
i l I
- -
.
-
4
- 2
Horse-power
when cutting
of f at 67% of
stroke in First
Cyl i nder.
-----
8D/ w/ 130~150180~90l ; l ol i i
Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs./lbs. Ibs. Ibs. lb:
00 Ibs
64
1; ;
158
; ; t
374
502
' 647
029
1215
l W9
29
18Ol bs
: ;
E
195
241
321
=1: . i
715
1048
1370
25
20. 76
2. 59
30 Ibs 100 Ibs
95
I 20
179
%
414
555
?44
959
1230
l &I I
2556
-----
7 h +9 32 23
9 I 9 24 40 29
14 28 36 60 43
I . 3 37 47 70 57
26 53 68 112 81
' 2 65 84 139 100
43 88 I I 2 I 86 135
57 118 I 51 249 I &W
74 152 194 321 232
94 194 249 412 297
I 38 285 365 603 436
I 80 374 477 7. 39 570
-
3;
58
1; :
135
I 81
242
312
%
767
- -.
35 *
45 !
67 I
87 I i
125 I (
I 54 2(
206 2;
277 3f
: : : 2
670 t3- 6
877 I I 5
ZOOI bs.
108
137
%
: ; :
E
l o93
1401
2053
2685
ii
133
174
i i
554
714
915
1341
1754
32
207
El
: :
1%
1592
2082
I 2 I O
13% I 2
16112 14
I 9 16
38 32
34
; i 42
60 48
&an eff. pressure, Ibs..
Ratio of expansion . .
CYL condensat.ion. %.
Gr. pm. (abt.), Ibs..
L-m fmtn expanding
b&w atmosphere. 70
St. Per I.H.P. hour. lbs.
Mean eff. press,., ibs . . . . .
No. of expansions.. . . .
CYI. condensat.ion. %. _.
Steam p. I.H.F.p.hr., Ihs
Lbs. coal at,81b. evap., Ibs
HARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some
962 THE STEAM-ENGINE.
Triple-expansion Engines - Condensing - Steam;jacketed.
Diameter %
Cylinders, 5
inches.
.E:
ci
.!d
%lL a 2
rj b-4 i; ri;
- ---
43/ q; 7112 12
5112: 8112 l 31/ 2 1:
61/ 2~101/ 2 l 6l / 2 16"
71/ 2, 12 19
9 j 141/ 2 ; ; I / 2 I 8
I O i16 20
F8
28112 24
15 22 331' 2 : ; 241/ z 38
43 34
i i : : 52 42
231/ 2; 38 60 48
i
, 1 Horse- 1 Horse- Horse- 1 Horse-
Mean e5. press.. 111s.. 16 19 22 20 24 27
-------I-l--l-l-
No. of expansions.. 26. 8 20. 1
-
I
_.
I
!
._
! I
i I
-
57 72 84
73 92 107
811 97 110
I 04 123 140
108 137 159 I 54 I 83 208
I 41 I 80 208 201 239 272
203 257 299 289 343 390
250 317 368 356 423 481
335 426 494 477 568 645
450 571 663 640 761 865
560 736 854 825 981 1115
744 944 1095 1058 1258 1430
089 1383 1605 1551 I 844, 2096
424 I t308 2099 2028 2411/ 2740
-_
26( 1) 3138. 3 37 1441%
~; 13. 4 8. 9
Crl. conde~ntion, %, . I9
St. ,>. I.H.P. p.hr.. Ibs.. 14.7 13.9 13.3 14.3 13.9 13.~ ,4.3 13.6 13.0 15.7 14.9 I487
j /19~IP/I6/ 161 l6,,12~12~l2~8/8(
Coalat8lbs.evap.. lbs. 1.8 1.73 1.6611.78 1. 741. 65 . 78 1. 70 1. 62 1. 96 1. 86, 1. 72
The Willans Law. Total Steam Consumption at Different. Loads.
- hlr. Willsns found with his engine t,hat when the total steam consump-
?ion at diflerent loads was plotted as ordinates,,
the resnlt would he a st;aig!rt inc!ined
the loads being abscissas
!ine cuttmg the axis of ordinates at
some drstance above the ori@n of coordinates. this distance representing
the steam consumption due t,o cylinder condensation at zero load. This
statement applies generally to throttling engines, and is known as the
Willans law. It ztpplies also approximately to automatic cut-off engines
of the Corliss, and probably of other types, tip to the most economical
!d& In Hr. Barruss book there is a record of si% tests of a 16 x 42-in.
Corli:;s twin-cylinder non-condensing engine, which gave results as follows:
I.H.P... _. _. .
Feed-watcrper1.H.P. hour. $63 3%)$&z :?647 2%?<3 &?tp,* 2::iO &$I
Total feed-water per hour.. 2724 36~5 4595 5i 34 6250 7287 S861
* Interpolated from the plotted curve.
The first five figures in the last line plot in a strairrht 1it-n q..i,nrn --*an
tion is u 7 2122 + 16.55 H.P.. and a straight line ~I through the plo<id
position of the last two figures~hss the eq~uation y = 25.62 H.P. - 927.
These t.wo lines cross at 253 H P
~~~l~i4 is the most economical load, the
water rnt.e being 24.96 lbs. and the total
feed 6314 l hs. The figure 2122
represents the constanh loss due to cylinder condensation, which is just
ov_er one-third of the total feed-water a.t t.he most economical load.
111 Gee.. H. Barruss hook on Engine Tests there is a diagram of
condensation and leakagein tiehtor f ai rl v ti el l r si mnl e engi nes rl si l l g sat-
urated steam. The average curvedrawn through th&=~~~
shows the condensation and leakage to be ahout a:
percentarcs of cut-oif:
. .,-I \.?t,l observntions
s follows for different.
Cut. - of f . 70 of stroke = 1.. .
Condcns. and lea.kage.. % =& .: 60 i3 i5 zi
25 30 35 42
c = IX P + (100 - p) = . . . . 7.5 7.5 8 8Yi 7% 72 72 7.:
The iigurcs in the last line represent the condensation and leakawe as
a nercentnge of the volume of t.he strolie of the piston, that is, in the game
~,~ARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
ECONOMIC PEFFORRIANCE OF STEAM-ENGINES. 963
terms as the first line, instead of as a percentage of the total steam sup-
plied, in which terms the f i gures of the second line are euprcqed. They
indicate that the amount of cylinder condensation is nearly a constant
quantity for a given engine with a given steam pressure and speed, what-
ever may he the point of cut-off.
Economy of Engines under Varying Loads. (From Prof. W. C.
Unwins lecture before the Society of Arts, London, lS92.) - The general
result of numerous trials with largeengineswas that with a constant load an
indicated horse-power should he obtained with a consumption of 1 r/s lhs.
of coal per I.H.P. for a condensing engine, and 13/ q Ibs. for a non-conden-
sing engine, corresponding to about 13/ 4 Ibs. to zi/8 lbs. per effectiveH.P.
In electrrc-lighting stations the engines work under a very tluctuating
load, and the results are far more unfavorable. An excellent Willans
non-condensing engine, which on full-load trials worked with under
2 Ibs. per effective H.P. hour, in the ordinary daily working of the station
used 7 117. lbs. in 1856, which was reduced to 4.3 lbs. in 1800 and 3,s lbs. in
1591. Probably in very few cases were the engines at electric-light stations
working under a consumption of 41/s Ibs. per effective H.P. hour. In the
ca,se of small isolated motors working with a Huctuating load, still more
extravagant resulls were obtained.
At electric-lighting stations the load factor, viz.. the ratio of the average
load to the maximum, is extremly small, and the engines worked under
verv unfavorable conditions. whichlargelv accounted for the excessive
fuer consumption at these stations. -
In steam-engines the fuel consumption has generally been reckoned on
the indicated horse-power.. At full-power trials this was satisfactory
enough, as the internal frictton is then usual l y a small fraction of the total.
Experiment has, however, shown that the internal friction is nearly
constant, and hence, when the engine is lightly loaded, its mechanical
eficiency is greatly reduced. At full load small engines have a mechan-
ical eificiency of 0.5 to 0.85, and lsrge engines might reach at least 0.9,
but if the internal friction remained constant this efficiency would he
much reduced at low powers. Thus, if an engine working at 100 I.H.P.
had an efficiency of 0.85. then when the I.H.P. fell to 50 the effective H.P.
would he 35 H.P. and the efficiency only 0.7. Similarly, at 25 H.P. the
effective H.P. woald he 10 and the efficiency 0.4.
Experiments on a Corliss engine at Creusot gave the following rest&s:
Effective power at full load.. . 1 .O 0. 75 0. 50 0. 25 0. 125
Condensing, mechanical efficiency. . 0.82 0. TO 0.74 0.63 0.48
Non-condensmg, mechanical efficiency. 0. S6 0.83 0.7s 0.67 0.52
Steam Consumption of Engines of Various Sizes. - W. C. Unwln
(Gassiers Afagarine, lSO4) gives a table showing results of 49 tests Of
engines of different types. In non-condensing simple engines, the steam
Consumption ranged from 65 lb% per hour in a 5-horse-power engine to 22
Ibs. in a 134-H.P. Harris-Corliss engine. In non-condensing compound
engines, the only type tested was the Willans,~which rrfnged from 27 Ihs.
in a lo-H.P. slow-speed engine, 1 22 ft. per mrnute, with steam-pressure
of 84 Ibs., to 19.2 Ibs. in a 40-H.P, engine, 401 ft. per minute, !\-ibh steam-
pressure 165 lbs. A Willans triple-expansion non-condenstng engine.
39 H.P.. 172 lbs. pressure. and 400 ft. piston speed per minute, gav;,;
consumption of lS.5 lbs. In condensing engines, nine tests of sim!
engines gave results ranging only from 18.4 .to 22 lbs. In compound-
condensing engines over 100 H.P.. in 13 tests the range is from 13.9 to
20 lbs. Iii three triple-expansion en,gines the figures are 11.7, 1.2.2. and
12.45 lhs., the lowest being a Sulser engine of 360 H.P. In marme tom-
~ouud engines, the Fusiysma and Colchester. tested by Prof. kennedy.
gave steam consumpt,ion of 21.2 and 21.7 lbs.: and the Meteor and Tartar
triple-expansion engines gave 15.0 and.19.8 lhs.
~. Taking the most favorable results which can be regiqrded as n~tt~lxmc;~-
tional it-appesrs that in test trials, with constant and full load
Penditure of steam and coal is about as follows:
11~s. Per I.H.P. hour.
Per Effective H.P. hr.
Iiind of Engine. ,boal,,
Steam, Coal, Steam,
Non-condensing.. . . . . .l .80 16.5 2.00
%ndensing.. . . . . . . . . . I. 50 13. 5 1. 75 :%I
rg"' ~mat&ri al Mayo whom l &c~er be accurate
These may he regarded ,as minimum values, rarely surpassed by the
most efficient machinery, and only reached with very good machinrry in
the favorable conditions of a test trial.
Small Engines and Engines with Fluctuating Loads are usu:,lly
very waste.ful of fuel. The following figures, illustrating their low econ-
omy, are awn by Prof. Unwind, Cussiers Magazine, 1894. Small engines
in wc:kshops in Birmingham,, Eng.
~Probahle I.H.P. at full
load.. . . . . . ~. 12
Average I.H.P. dm!;,s
45 60 45 75 60 60
observation.. . . . . . _
Coal per I.H.P. per hour
2.96 7.37 8.2 8.6 23.64 19.03 20.08
during observation, Ibs. 36.0 21.25 22.61 18.13 11.68 9.53 8.50
It is largely to replace such engines as the above that power will be
distributed from central stations.
Tests at R.oya! Agricultural Societys show at ~Plymouth, Eng... Enpi-
neering. June 27, 1890.
Y;:
-- --
- -
; 12.12 78.1 d simple 3 7 6 compcund 1, I 4.8? 42.03 Ihs. 6.1 Ih.
simple 4112 .._ 7%
0.72
-. 11.77

---
89.9 7.64
Steam-eonwmptian of Engines at Various Speeds,
(Profs. Den-
ton and Ja+w, Iraxs. A. S. M. IT.. x. 722.) - 17 x 30 in. engine,
non-condensing, hxed cut-off, Meyer valve.
(From plotted diagrams.)
Revs. per min.. 8 i2
Vscut-off.
16 20
Ibs.. X4 35 32
/4 cut-off. tbs.. .
30 2;.: :: 2::7
39 34 31 29.5
2?:5 2;:~ ;s 2;;
hcut-off. Ibs.. 29 28.4 39 28 36 34 2?.5 33 32 27.1 30.8 26.3
29.8
25.6
29.2 28.8 28.7 . . .
SLF.am-consumption of same engine; fixed speed 60 revs.
Varylnz Cut-off compared with throttling-engme .ior same orse-pot&
and boiler-pressures:
rr minute
Cut-,off. fraction
of stioke . 0.1 Steam, 90 Ibs.. 0.15 0.2 0.25 29 27.5 27 0.5 27 27.2 0.3 2i.8 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8
Steam.60 Ibs.. 39 34.2 32.2 3t5 28.5 31.4 31.6 32.2 3i:i 31j:5 &j
Throttling-engine, 7/s cutlot?. for Corresponding horse-powers.
S&am. 90 tbs.. . 42 37
Steam,60ibs...
33.8 31.5 29.8
. . . 50.1 49 46.8 44.6 41 1:: 1:: 1:: 1::
Some of the principal conclusions from this series of tests are as follows:
1. There is a distinct gain in economy of steam as tlie speed increases
for l/z. l/s. and V4 cut-off at 90 lbs. pressure. The loss in economy for
about l/4 C!lt.-Off is at the rate of l/la Ib. of water per I.H.P. per hour for each
decrease 01 a revolution per minute from 86 to 26 revolutions, and at the
rate of 5/s lb. of water below 26 revolutions.
Also. at all speeds the l/1
cot-off is more economical than either the l/a or l/s ct&Off.
2. At 9.0 ibs. boiler-pressure and above 1/s cut-off, to produce a given
H.P. reqmres about 20% less steam than to cut off at 7/g stroke and rego-
late br the throttle.
3. For the same conditions with 60 Ibs. bdiler-pressure to obt.ain bY
throttling. the same mean effective pressure at 7/s cut-off t&t is obtained
by cutting off about 113, requires about 3O70 more steam thau for t.he
latter conclit,ion.
Capacity and Economy pi? Steam Fire Engines
(Eng. Xews.
fifar., 28. lS95.) - The tests were made by Dexter Brackeit for the Board
of Fwe Commissioners. Boston. Mass.
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF STEAM-ENGINES. 965
No. of
engine.
HARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
f...........
I...........
2 ...........
3 ...........
4 ... .......
5 ...........
; : : : : : : : : :
7 _.,.:. .....
8 ...........
9. .........
In ...........
10 .........
ii ..........
-
--
,.
-
. . . . .
86.0
i:i:t
174.0
225.0
. . .
229.0
-.-.
1.
/
-
-
- II.
.,
,
,
1
I
I
,_I_ --,-
Ibs.
2.26
Nos. 1 2 .3 and 4 Amoskeag engines; Nos. .5, 6, 7 and 8, ClapP &
Jones, Nbs.Q 10 11,Silsby. The engines all show an exceedingly high
rate bf comb&i&. and correspondingly low boiler efficiency and pump
duty.
Economy Tests of Nigh-speed Engines. (F. W. Dean and A. C.
Wood Jour. A. S. Al. E., June, 1908.) -Some of these engines had been In
servicb for a long time, and therefore their valves may not have been in
the best condition. The results may be taken as fairly representing the
eronomv of averace entrines of the type, under usual working conditions.
engine was
The en-gines wefe ali- non-condensing. The 16 X Is-in.
vertical. the others horizontal. They were all direct-connected to gen-
e:ators.
No.4 Et. I I
I 2 I 3 I 4
Size of engine, ins.. i.
Hours in sewwe.. . :5)(z;Q) %5O:ol:
l&XuY 1677914
,
Revs. permin. :. . i46 270
V&?s . I flat.
GenPmt,or. K.W.. 2-50
%
Steamper I.H.P.-hr. 37.2,t 36.2*~ %.t 35.8 31.7.t 32.0
37.5,* 36.7
Steam perK.W.-hr.. 6Q.2, 58.4 59.7 5?.1. 57.4 54.9, . 54.7
No. of Test. I 5 I
6
I
7
Size of engine, ins. .
Hours fin service..
;;x&8
Revs. per min.. . . . i20
Valves. . . . . . 1 piston
Generator, K.W.. 150
Steam per I.H.P.-hr.. 39.8,t 34.7,* 29.5f
Steam per K.\V.-hr... 61.8. 51.8, 43.4
,
* 3/4 load; + 112 load ; : 1 l/4 load ; $1 i/z load ; t,he ot,hers full load.
Some of the conrlusions of the authors from the results of these tests
are as follows:
The nerformnnces of bhe perfectly balanced flat valve engines are so
relativ& poor as to disqualify them, unless this type of valve can he made
with sotie mechanism bv v:hich mear will not increase leakage..
The four
Valve engines, which w&e built to be more economical than smgle-valve
.
dngines, have utterly failed in their object. The duplication of valves
Used in both four-valve engines simply increased the ODDortunitv for leak-
31 No. 5 in economy. The Bat valve
j Hatter load curve th+n the-piston valve engines:
., ,.
Compar-
-I, _..- . ..-. 3t economical res&s were
Oh?aiIiet! fro? engine Yo. 3, ;iihiili hiid a valve ivhich automatically takes
up ycear, and If it does not cut, must maintain it,se!f tight for long periods.
From the results we are justified in thir
gines mpid!,v deteriorate in economv.
Iking that most hi&-&ed en-
On the contrary, slowerrunning
Coriiss or gridiron va!ve engines imbrove in economy for some time and
then maintain the economv for
the speed is the cause of ti
mn.n
Us, and it
y years. It is difT@zult to see that
vd VP
must depend on the nature of the
.-. - .
Ttle steam. consumption of small single-valve high-speed engines non-
condensq, is not ofren less than 30 Ibs. per I.H.P. per hour. TKO IVater-
town ewmes, !O X 12 tested by J. W. Hill for the Philadelphia Dept. of
Public Works In 1904. cave respectively 30.67 and 29.70 Ibs. at full load
61. 8 and 63.9 I.H.P., il:yA~ $9 I
37. 63 and 36. 36 1.IY.P.
. --.37 and 39.54 lbs. at spprosimst,e!y half-load:
High Piston-speed in Engines. (Proc. Inst. M. E.. July, lS83
321.) -The torpedo boat is an excellent example of the advance to&r s
5.
high speeds. and shows what can be accomplished by studying light,ness
and strength in combination. In running at 221/z knots an liour, an engine
\yith cylinders of 16 in. stroke will make 480 revollltions per minute which
gives 1280 ft. per~minute for piston-speed; and it is remarked that kngines
runni
and t F at
at thsf. lyth rate work much more smoothly than at lower speeds,
the dlfhculty of lubricnt.ion diminishes as the speed increases.
A ITigl?-speed Corliss Engine. - A Corliss engine 20 X 42 in. has
been runmr!g a wire-rod mill at the Trenton Iron Co.S wdrks since 16?7 at
160 revoiu~lons or 1120 ft. pis!,on-speed per minute (Tmns. A. S. df. E. ii
72). A plston-speed of 1200 ft. per min. has been realized in locomotivd
practice.
The Limitation of Engine-speed.
(Chas. T. Porter, in a paper on the
Lin~itnficn of Fngine-speed. Trans. A. S. dl. E., xiv, 806.) - The practical
!irnltatlon b0 !ngh rotatlve Spew1 in stationary reciprocating steam-engines
1s not found m the danger pf heating or of excessive wear nor, as is gen-
erally heljeved. 111 the centnfugsl force of the fly-wheel, norin the tendency
t,o knoclim the centers. norin vibration.
He gives two objections to very
high speeds: First, that engines ought not to !,e run as fast as they can
be; second, the lqe amount. of waste room in the port, which is required
for proprr steam dlst,riLmtion.
In t.he important respect of economy of
steam. the high-speed engine has thus far proved a failure.
Large gain
nas looked for from high speed brcnuse the loss by condensation on a
given surface would be divided into a
espect~arion has not heen realized.
For t us unsatisfactory result ne have 4.
eater weight of steam, but this
to l,ay the blame ch!eHy on the excessive amount of waste room.
The
ordmary method of expressing the amount of waste room in the percentage
added b,y it to the total piston displacement, is a misleading one. It
should be espresw! as the percentage which it adds to the length of
steam admission.
For wmple. if the steam is cut off at 1/s of the stroke
8% added by the wasbe room to t~he total piston displacement means
4.0% adtled to the volume Of steam admitted. Engines of four five and
sIS feet stroke InaY PrOpFrly he Tun at from 700 to 800 ft. of pi&n travel
Per minute. but. for ordmary sizes, says Mr. Porter, 600 ft. per minute
should he t.he limib.
J(ritish HI,qh-speed Engines.
(John Davidson, Powrr. Feb. 9 1909.)
- l?~r follr~wlllg ligures sho\v the genqral practice of leading builders:
I.H.P. 50
Revs. per min.. 100 200 500 750 1000 1500 2000
Piston 600- 700 5X- 600
spce;i,;t. per
500
min. 650
350- 335 325 3. 50 200 160- 180
675 750
775 800 900 1000
Rapid strides have been made during the last fern years, despite the
:
The same t,able show the advs&ge of high initial pressure.
Thus
v&h a vacuum q7.02 ins. the efficiency is increased from 0.270 to 0.317.
or l7.4%, bv r&ing the initial absolute*pressure from 100 to 200 lbs.,and
with a vacuilm of 2s.5 ins. the efficiency is increased from 0.302 to 0.47.
or 14.9%. bc t.he same riseof pressure. In pra,ct,ice t.he efirlencles !?Ive*
in the table for t.he even pressures and temperatures cannot be reached
on account of lmperfertious of the steam-engine. and the fact that the
engine does not work on the ideal Carnot cycle. The relative advantages.
however are probabl y proport,!ona! to those indicated by the table. Pro-
vided t!& expansion is divided into two or more stages at Pressures above
__i
.--..~~.
WARNI ~I : ~~ Thi s is a 1910 edition.
Some o-fl ihe material may no longer-be accurate
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF STEAM-ENGINES. 967
Fraction of full
load . . . . . .._.. 0.1 0.2 0. 3 0. 4 0. 5 0. 6 0. 7 0. 8 0.9 1.0
Lbs. steam per
I.H.P. hour.. 12.7 11.85 11.4 11.1 10.9 10.5 10.75 10.75 10.8 11.0
Lbs. steam per
B.H.P. hour.. 16.0 14.8 13.7 12.9 12.4 12.05 11.85 11.8 11.8 11.8
Owing to the forced lubrication and throttle-governing,, the economical
performsnce at light loads is relatively much better than in slow-speed
engines. The piston valves render the ase of superheat pract.icahle.
At 200 superheat the saving in steam consumpt,ion of a triple-expansion
engine is 267a. [A curve of the relation of superheat to saving shows
that the percentage of saving is almost uniformly 1.4% for each additional
10 from 0 to 160 of superheat.j
The method of governing small high-speed engines is by means of a
plain centrifugal governor fixed to the crank silaft and actin directly
on a throttle. Several makers use a governor which at light loads acts
by throttling, and at hesvv loads by altering the espansion in the lligll-
f
reswre c.v!inder. The crank-shaft governor used in America h+s been
ound impract,icahle for high speeds, except perlnrps for small engmes.
Advantage of High Initial and Low Back Pressure. - The t!ieo-
retlcal advantage due to the use of low back pressures or liigh vacua13
shown by the following table, in which the efficiencies are those pf.t,he
Carnot cycle, E = (Tr - !f2) i T1. With 100 Ibs. absolute lmt!a!
pressure the effciency is increased from 0.270 to 0.353. or 39.7%. by rq-
Ing the vacuum from 27.02 to 29.56 ins. of mercury, and 1~1th 200 lhs.>t
Is increased from 0.317 to 0.394, or 24.3%, with the same change In
the vacuum.
-
Abs. Initial Pressure. 1100 I 125 I 150 I 175 I 200 I 225 I 250 I 275 I 300
T$~P. v~~~~~9 Lbs. per
xercury sq. In.
Carnot Efficiencies.
.
115 27. 02 . I . 47 0. 270 , 285 , 298 . 308 , 317 , 325 . 332 . 339 , 345
108 27. . 48 1. 20 0. 279 , 293 , 306 , 316 , 325 , 333 . 3. 41 , 347 . 353
100 28. 00 0. 95 0. 289 , 303 . 316 . 325 . 335 . 343 , 350 , 356 , 362
2 28. 50 29. 18 0. 70 0. 74 0. 302 0. 327 , 341 , 316 . 328 , 353 , 338 , 362 , 347 . 371 , 355 , 376 . 361 . 385 , 368 , 391 , 373 , 396
50 29. 56 0. 36 0. 353 , 366 . 377 . 306 , 394 , 402 , 408 . 414 . 4: 9
r
100 lbs. The p?ssibilit of obtaining ver high vacua is limited by he
temper?ture of tne COU( enslng water avzn able and
of the air pJIiIP.
Y . 7 b the imperfections
The use of high initial pressures is muted by the safe
working pressure of the boiler and engine.
Camparisoii Of iiic ~eonomy of Componnd and Single-cylinder
Corliss Condensfn
Times. (D. Y. Jaco%us, Trans., A. S. Af. E., xii, 943.)
Enpines, each expanding about SIxteen
The engines used in obtaining comparative results are located ta
Stations I and II of the Pawtucket Water Co.
The tests show that the compound engine is ahout 30% more economical
than the single-cylinder engine.
as follows: Single 2.0 X 48 ins:; compound 18 and 301/s X 30 ins
steam used
The dimensions of the two engines;;:
ii
er
,Both of t
I.H.P. hour was: single 20.35 Ibs.. compound 13.73 ibs.
e engines are steam-jacketed, practically on the hnrrels only
with steam at full boiler-pressure, viz., single 106.3 I!)s..compound 127.5lhs:
The @earn-pressure in the case of the compound engine is 127 lhs
?J.lbs. higher. than for the single engiine.
or
If the steam-pressure be raysed
Ems amount lfi the case of the single engine, and the indicr.tor-csrds be
increased accordingly, the consumption for the single-cylinder engine
would be ID.97 Igs. per hour per horse-power.
,Two-e~lln~cr vs. Three-cylinder Compound Engtne. - A Wheelock
tnple-expansion engine, built for the Merrick Thread Go., Holyoke Mass.
is constructed so that the intermediate cylinder may be cut out of td
circuit and the high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders run as a two-
cylinder compound, using the same conditions of initial steam-pressure
and load. The diameters of the cylinders are 12. 16, and 24u/s2 MS. the
stro9 of the first two being 36 ins. and that of the low-pressure cvlihder
48 ins. The results of il test reported by S. hf. Green and G. I. Rockwood
lrans. A. S. df. I<., vol. xiii, 647. are as follows: In Ibs. of dry steam used
per I.H.P.
and 12,iG 1
)er hour, 12 and 2413/a in. cylinders only used, two tests :3.06
lx., average 12.91.
and lZ.00 11,s.. average 12.79.
All three cylinders used, two tests 12.67
The difference is only l%, and would
indi,cate t.hsj. ?nore. than two cylinders are unnecessary in a compound
ename, but It 1: pomtf d out by Prof. Jacobus, that the conditions of the
test were esperlally favorable for the two-cylinder engine and not rela-
tively so favorable for t,he thsce cylinders.
The steam-p&sure waq 142
Ibs. and the number of expansions about 25.
(See also discussion on
the Rockwood type of engine, Trans. A. X. M. E., vol. xvi.)
+onwuy of a Compound Engine. (D. S. .Jaccbus Trans. A. S. J f E.
19O.t.) - A Rice & Sargent e@ne, 20 and 40 X 42 1;s.. was tested &it~li
stean about 140 lbs.. vacuum
27. 3 to 2S.S ins. or 0.52 to 1.16 Ibs. abso-
lute. r.p.m. 120 to 122, with resuliq as follows:
I.H.P.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Writer pw I.H.P. per hr.. ..
B.T.U. per I.H.P. per min. ,
The Lentz Compound Engine is described in The Engineer (London)
JIIIS 10. 1908. It 1s the latest development of the reriprocating enwind
with four double-seated poppet valves to each cylinder, each v;rlve@op-
eratfd I)% a separate eccemric mounted on a lav-shaft driven hv berel-
gearing frpm t!ie main, shaft. The throw of the high-pressure steam
eccentrics IS var!ed h
shaft hv the actlon 0 t
r shde-blocks which are caused to slide along t.he lay-
on t,he Iny-shaft..
a centrifngal inertia g@vernor, which is also mounted
No elastic packing is useo in the engine the piston-rod
stuliinc box bnny fitted with ground cast-iron rings, and ihe valve stems
!)eina provided With groqves and gromtd t,o fit long bushings to 6.0~1 in.
rwo tests of a Lentz engme built in England, 141/z and 2-1-314 ;y 27~ in.,
63ve rrsults as follows:
Saturabrd steam, 170 lbs, vacuum 26 in., I.H.P. 366, steam per 1.H.P
per hour 12.3 Ibs. Steam lr0 11~. supPrheatecf 150 F vat. 26 in. 1.H.P
366. ster~mper I.H.P. per hour. 10.4 lbs. Revs. per &in. in both cases
167. Pist.on speed 767 ft. per min.
QOfl, ft. p1.r mill., and up to 350 r.
Engines are built for speeds up td
lhe Lelltz
.m.
Works.
engine is built in t le Umted States by the Erie City Iron f
~E~ONDMI~ PERFORMANCE OF STEAM-E?~GINES. 969
Steam CoAumption of Sulzes Compound and Triple-expankm
k+zjnes with Superheated Steam.
The figures in the table below were furnishefl to the author (Aug., 1_90,2)
by Sulzer Bras., Winterthur. Switzerland.
They are the re3lit.r of cinclal
tests bv Prof. Schriiter of Munich, Prof. Webe: of Zurich. and other
enxneni engineers.
1500
$0
- - - i G
I &
s
, 950
, %o
400
t0
500
I O00
Go
T
-.
-,
-
-
-
Dimensions of
CylindWS,
Inches.
30. 5 and
49. 2 x 59. 1
24 nnd
40. 4 x 51. 2
26 and
42. 3 x 51. 2
do., non-condg
.--
17. 7 rrnd
30. 5 x 35. 4
26. 9 and
47. 2 X 66. 9
-
,-
.-
._
_-
_.
-
--
!
--
-
136
134
135
; 75
; , ,
1; :
132
136
135
135
127
_I
12:
128
356
428
402
357
356
: : ;
533
545
- - -
: : :
%
577
554
655
664
572
26. 4
26. 4
26. 6
- - -
i i
27. 6
$! 8
2712
y-
28. 3
. . . . .
- . - -
26. 4
26. 4
5
27. 1
481
750
z!
788
1l M)
_- - -
- -
%
9. 91*
9. 68*
788 i o. 70*
_I - . -
1::it
! 2. 42
__-
13. 00
13. 10
14. 10
I I : : ;
11. 88
TR,P,.E-EXPANSION ENGINES.
3000 34, 49, 61 x i i i - - a3.5
$/4 ;tz 1;:;
2908
26114 3040 11. 57
* With intermed1at.e superheating. Temperature of steam at ellt?UWe
to 1.~. cylinder, 307 tG 349 F.
Steam Consnmption of Different Types of Engines.
Tests of a Ridgway &valve non-condensing engine. 19 X 18 in.. at
200 r.p.m. and 100 lbs. pressure, are reported in YoZCjm, June. lQO@. as
follows:
Load.. . . I/q vz 314 Full IV4
Steam per I.H.P. honr. ._._...... 30.7
24. 4 23. 2 23. 8 25. 4
The best result obtained at 130 lbs. pressure was 21.6 lb!.. at 115 lhs.
pressure 22.6 lbs., and at $5 Ibs. pressure 24.3 Ibs. Maintamed eCOnoW
.,~&i&.$&&.~_~ ; ,, ,,,
UARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
in this type of e?gine is dependent upon reduction of unnecessary over-
travel, properly htt~ed valves. valves which.do not span a wide arc close
approach of the movement of the valves to that of a Corliss engink, and
good materials..
The pr,oba,ble steam consumption, of condensi,ng engines of different
types ?ltn dlf&reIlt pressures,of steam is given in a set of curves by
R. ,H. rhurston and L. L. Bnnsmade. Trims. A. S M E. 1897, from
Milch curves the following approximate figures are derided.
Steam pressure, absolute, lbs. per ~q. in,
Ideal Engine
400
300 250 200 150 100 75
(Itanliine
Quadruple Esp. cycle) 6.95
7.5 7.9 8.45 9.20 10.50 11.40
Wastes 207;
Tri$e Exp. 8.75
9.15 9.75 10.50 11.60 13.0 14.0
50
12.9
15.6
w asces 23 Lh Compound. 9.25 9.95 10.50 11.15 12.30 14.0 15.1 16.7
Wastes 33% girxlpie E((grF,c, 10.50 11.25 11.80 12,?0 13.90 15.6 169 . 1S . 9
Wastes 50% 14.6 15.00 15.80 16.80 18.40 20.4 22.7 25.2
The same authors give, the records of tests of a three-cylinder engine
at. Cornell U?lversit,y, cyhnders 9, 16 and 24 ins. 36-in. stroke first as a
trIPl$-ewanslon engme; ,second, with the intermkdiste cylindek omitted
ma!ang a cOmP?Lmd engine with a cylind?r ratio of 7 to 1. and third
omlt ng the third cylinder, making a co!.Ipound engine with a ratio oi
a ;i kb e over 3 to 1. Tl!e boiler pressu e in the first case was 119 I&

in the second 115. and m the third 117 Ibs.
Charts are given showin:
the St-pf. C~~IWIInPtlOII per I.H.P. and per B.H.P. at different loads,
frum wucn the following figures are take,,.
Indicated Horse-Power.. . . . . 40
60 80
100 110 120 130
Triple Esp.. . . . .
Steam consumption per I.H.P. per hour.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1
Camp. 7 to I...........
16.7 15.3 14.2 .13 7
. . . . . . !..19.6 18.2 17.0 16.3 16:
13.8 14.4
Comp. 3 to 1. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 19.7 18.4 18.1 18.5
15.8 15.8
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Triple Esp.. _. .
Steam consumption per B.H.P. hour.
Camp. 7 to 1.. . . . .
..30.5 23.0 19.6 17.1 16.2 16.2 16.7
. . . . . . . . . . . 26.2
Camp. 3 to l...... ._.
21.7 19.3
. . . . . . . . . 23.4 20.6 20.
18.7 18.5
20.
18.4 18 5
. . . . . . . . . .:.
The most economical performance was as#follows:
Triple C
Indicated Horse-Power. . . . I 1 7
:omp. 7 to 1 Comp. 3 to 1
Steam per I.H.P. hour.. . . . . . . . 1$6S
130.0 67 7
15.8
-. .,
18.03
Zomcwhat sooner, awl mucn more severely. LL
cntriue. Tile loss commences the, moment tne experwou uwz tlvaar;i
Iin; parallel to the atmosphenc line,
and at a distance above It rep
^___ A.. ^^__., +Ln &+,.+irrnn, ,<
A .rcst o,f 0 r;on- . 7-a
11 r. en!ike. at the 59th St. Sation of the Tnterbor&ph
Rapid TramIt CO.. New York. is reoorted in ~oq~;er, Feb. 1906.
double CROSS compound en,rrine.
It ii a
frlindy.
lit11 steam at 17.5 tbs.
with @oriTontnl h.p. a&l vertical 1.~.
It devcWd
~awze and vacuum 5.09 ins. 75 r.p.m.
t.76.j 1.H.P.. 5079 R.W. at s\vit,chboard. -FfiT*tionand elec-
trirnl losses 41i.3 1i.W.
ho!!r, 11.96 I!,s.
Dry steam per 1i.W. hour 17.34 tbs.: per I.H.P.
$ test of.a Fknin,g 4-v&e en&w. 15 and 40.5 in. di~m. ?7-in. strol-p
P~.lt~lpdrIVen COrhSS Valves. fly-wheel E(oVernor is &pO&Gd bTT B. T:
Mhl In TJX~S. -4. 5'. M. E.. 1903.
The followiner&uits rvere obtained.
The speed was nhove 150 r.p.m. and the vacuum 26 in,
Fmtion of full load a,bout, . . .
Horse-power .
z/s
..,...........
Steam per 1.H.P hour . . . . . . . . . . . . ?::22
32.5
7lIO
348.3
13.59
Ful$~d I .I
553.5
12.33 12.66 12.7 .,., :~:, ,_,
,,,
senting the mean effective pressure new
of the enhgne. When expansion falls
:o ClflS p!ul, LILIZ ,Wu-l,JJ
cylinder becomes an air-pump Over more Or less of Its Stroke, the ,9
to drive which must come from\the hlgk --^..^.. ^rilrlnr .,I-*0
the light loads common in many lndusrrles our lay-prcssul= ~yr~ur;~ LJ
thus a positive resistance for the greater poftlon of Its stroke.
A careful
qtudy of this problem revealed the ful?ctlons of .a fixed IntermedIate
clearance, always in communication 1~1th the high-pressufe cyhnder,
and having a volume bearing the same ratio to that of the high-pressure
cylinder that the high-pressure cylinder bears to the lqm-pressure.
Engines
laid down on these lines have fully confirmed the Judgment Of the de-
signers. The effect of this constant clearance is to sup,ply sufficient Steam
to the low-pressure cylinder under light loads to ho19 Its expansion Curve
up toatmosphere and at the same time leave a sufficient, clewance volume
in t.he high-pres&re. cylipdef to permit of governing the engine on its
compression under light loads.
I.~H:p.pef hour; friction 3.6%-f
Tests of two non-condensing Corliss engines by G. H. Barrus a:e re-
E
ort,ed in Power April 27 1909. The engines were bmlt. by Rlce Q
argent . One is a simple engine 22 X 30 and the other a tandem
compound 22 and 36 X 36 ins.
Both en&nes are jacketed in both
hearis and the compound engine has a reheat.ing receiver 1~1th 0.6 scl. ft.
of &,ss pipes per rated .H.P.-(~oO). The wnrantees ;,+~~T$~;l,$
ensine. not to exceed 19
* -r n -^- I.,.....
I&. of steam per .1.1*.1. prep uvu~. :v*L~L SY,I LLI.I.
St.&am pressure and 1 Ib. hack pressure m the exhaust, P!Pe. and the
simple engine not to exceed _
33 lbs. Tile friction load. enmne run with
the brushes off the generator and the field not, excited. \va~s not t.o exceed
41,~ H.P. in either engine.
The results were: compound engme, 99.2
r p m . 608.3 H.P.; 18.33 lhs. steam per I.H.P. Per hour: friction load
3k%& 600 H.P.: simple engine. 9;6; r$$n.; 306.2 1.H.P.; 20.98 Ibs. Per
. .
UARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accurate
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF STEAM-ENGINES. 971
Relative Economy of Compound Non-condensing Engines
untlor Variable Loads. -F. Al. Rites,, in a paper on the Sten!n lks-
tribution in a Form of Single-acting Engme (Zru?~. A. S. M. E., xm. 537).
discusses an engine designed to meet the following problem: Given an
extreme range of conditions as to load or steam-pressure, either or both,
to fluctuate together or apart, violently or with easy gradations, to
construct an engine whose economic&l performance should be as g?od as
though the engine were specially designed for a momentary condltlon -
the adjustment to be complete and automatic.
In the ordinary *ton-con-
densing compound engille with light loads the high$!ressure cyhnder, IS
frequently forced to supply all the power and in addltlon $ag along %;F
it the low-pressure piston, whose cylinder indicates negative work.
Rites shows the peculiar value of a receiver of predetermqled voluk
which acts as a clearance chamber for compression in th$ high-pressure
cylinder. The Westinghouse compound single-actmg engme 1s designed
upon this principle. The following results of tests of one of these engmes
rated at 175 H.P. for most economical load are given:
WATP_R EATER UNDER VARYING LOADS, ms. PER H.$. PER HOUR.
Horse-power 210 170 140 115 100 so 50
..............
Non-condensing..
........
.22.6 21.9 22.2 22.2 22.4 24.6 28.8
Condensing. .............. 18.4 18.1 18.2 18.2 18.3 18.3 20.4
Efilciency of Non-condensing Compound Engir.+ (\ V. Lee
Church Am. Mnch.. Nov. 19, 1891.) - The compound engme, non-cqn-
densin$ at its best performance will exhaust from the low-pWssUr$ cyhn-
der at j pressure 2 to 6 pounds above atmosphere.
Such an engme wll
be limited in its econom\ to a very short rsnge of pqwer, for the reaspn
that its valve-motion will not permit of any great increase beyond Its
rated power, and any material decrease below Its rpted power at once
brings the expansion curve in the low-pressure cyhnder below atm,os-
ohere. 111 other war+, decrease of load t.ells upon the compound engme
~~~~---- *?an upon the non-compound
sa
Ire-
A single-cylinder engine 12 X 12 ins:. made by the Buffalo Forge Co
was tested by Profs. Reeve and Allen. Bl. World, May 23, 1903. Sam;
of the results were:
1x2,. . .
16.36 37.20 56.00 69.00 74.10 81.4 89.3 125 9* 86 42t
water-rate 52.3 35.3 33.3 31.9 30.6 34.6 33.1 27:6 2715
* ,Steam Pressure 125 Ibs. gauge, all the other tests 80 lbs. t son-
densmg, other tests all non-condensing.
Effect of Water Contained in Steam on the EAlclency of the
Ste+m-engine.
(From a lecture by Walter C. Kerr before the Franklin
Institute. 1891.).-- btandard writers make little mkntion of the effect
of entramed morsture on the expansive properties of steam but by
common consent rather, than any demonstration they seem to abree that
moisture produces an 111 effect slmpty proportional to the perce;ltage
amount of Its presence.
of an engine 5%.
That is, 5% muistUre will i.ncrease the wate; rate
Experiments re
Trans. A. S. bf. I ?.
orted in IS?3 by R. C. Carpenter and L. S Marks
xy, m wluch water in varying quantity was intro:
du$ intq;he stear;-pipe, causing the quality of the steam to range from
99 /o to 5.! /o dry. showed that throughout the range of qualities used the
consumption of dry steam per indicated horse-power per hour remains
2 : :
ract~al!.v constant, and indicated that the water was an inert quantity,
olng neither good :,or harm.
Influence of Vacuum and Superheat on Steam Consumption
(~ng.
D&S& Jlar.. 1909.) -Herr Roginsky ( Die Turbine). discus& the
econonues effected by the use of sUperheat and high vacuums.
1 a r.ort.xi.r *:..I^ ------~ ~
.~CI L~U~I ,.,lrilr-espansron en*nc, workin; Under good average
J
>_u~I~I~~I~J~!S. t.hCre was fouud a saving of appros;mately 6% for each 10%
rncr,::lst! 111 Y:~~IIIII~ be) ontf 50%;.
rh(; Batll&TUmlirz formula for superheated steam is: p (v + a) = ET
in which ?I = steam pressure in kgs. per sq. meter 21 = cubic meters 1;
1 kg. of superheated Steam at pressure p, a = O:OO$-1, in = 46.7, and
T -= ilbsolute temperature in
u sIn$ this expression, il
deep f!
superhealine.
t $ f-o;lnd that, neglecting the fuel Used for
for ea$ 10L ti. or superneat at pressures ranging from
100 tc IA.5 11)s. per sq. In. there is an average increase of volume of 2.8:
The Fork done hv t.he expansion of superheated steam, as shonn bi:
dinErams
sarinz for each 10 o superheat is 2.1
. I= -BJVII~ A.!% less for IOn _
Of superheat.inp. so that the net
for each 10 F.).
9 - 1.6 = 1.247, appros. (0.665~
Rateails forFUla,for the steam consllmption (R) per H.P.-hr. of an
ideal stekim turbrne, III which the steam expands from pressure p, to pz, 1s
K = 0.85 (6.95 - 0.92 log p?)/(log p, - log PZ),
H beha in kiloerams anti pl and p2 i
@ml+ ! he following tabte is
Into Brltlsh Units.
calculat
& kgs. per sq. meter. From t,his
d,, the values being transformed
PI
Lbs. per
Lbs. strnm
Reduct~ion of Steam Consumption (%) by
using a Vacuum of
,,
eq. in.
at 50%
vacuum.
w% 70% 80% 90% 95%
12:;
Il.11
11.75
I28
I
::a
II.1
10. I 27.8 34.6
12.57 19.3 36.4
99.6
6.6
13.84 1:::
7. 6 14.4
20.5
22.
$1; 38.5
33.3 40.6
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF STEAM-ENGINES. 973
-
Decreases Steam Consumption
-
in Reciprocating
I
in Steam
Engines.
Turbines.
50% to 60%
50% to 70%
,50% to 00%
500/, Tao 90%
50% to 95%
5.0% - 6.2%
II .6%
12. 6%
,
;;:;g
20.0~~
30.1%
26. 0%
37.4%
I
In the last case (from 50% to 95%) the decrease in steam Consumption
1s 44% greater for a steam turbine than for a Feclprocatlng enane.
The following resu!ts of tests of a compound en&!? using superheated
;zXm3ai;sreported In Power. AK:, 1905. The cihnders 2; 2. ;$
The steam pressUSe wds about 117 Ibs. gauge.
. .
vacuum 2615 ins.
.
Test No.. . . . . . . .:. . . . 1
Indicated z1.P.. . . . . 481
462 343 144 3353 2588
Superheat of &earn
enterine h.u. cvl.. .a53 F.
242O 2210 2020 232p 2100
_.._-. I
B.T.U. suppiied- per
I.H.P. per mih.. 19S.2
201.7 197.6 192.1 194.0 194.0
B.T.U.. thcoretic,zlly
reqmred. Rcankme
cycle.. . .:. . . . 14;3&
142.5 130.2 12S.0 126.0 128.5
&:;Fa:?$$$+ g 21% 2%
0.66 0.67 0.65 0.66
. 21.46 22.07 21.86 21.86
Lbs.stedm per I.H.P.
hour.. . . . . ..m.. . . . 9.098 9.267 8.656 8.5S5 8.682 a.742
The practical Application of Superheated Steam is discussed in a
P
aper by 0. A. HLitchmspn in Tmns. A. S. hf. E., ISOl,
hI:LIlY d&rent
arms of superheater are illustrated.
Some resUlts of tests on a 3000-H.P.. four-cylil?der, vertical. triple-ex-
pansion SUlzgr engine, usin% steam from Schmidt mdependently fired
superheaters, are as follows.
(En& Rec., Oct. 13, 1900.)
-
Mod-
Tests Using Steam.
Highly Superheated. ~u~$
Saturated.
hea.ted
ressure in h.p. 0~1.
180.4 ,190.3
194.6 195.9
From the entropy diagratp it is seen that in expanding from presqures
fn eXceSS of 100 tbs. per sq. tn. down to 1.42 Ibs. absolute ap rosimitely
.l% mpre work is performed for every IO0F. of superlleat
#he e&t of
l:icreaalng the degree Of vacuum is summed up in the follo&lng table:
The sadng ,dUe to the use of highly superheated steam is (482-438) +
482=9.1%.
Tests of a 4000-1.1 p double-compound ,engin$ (Van den Kerchol;20;f
Brussels) with superheited steam are reported In Pou*r, Dec. ?g*
The cylinders are 341/4 and SO ins., stroke 5 ft.
Ratio of areas 2.97. The
following are the principal results. the first figures given being for thi&l;
load test, and the second (in parentheses) for the half-load test.
;
WARNING: This is a 1910 &ition.
comet of..~..$L$&-ferial may, ,no (/? .be,accurate
pressure at .drier. $36.5 ,lbs. (137.9). R.p.m. 84.3 (84.06) Tcmp of
steam e*?tenw enme 519O P. ( 408) , leaving 1.1). cyl 12i 50 (12i.5).
VWJUm~JJJ condenser ins. 27.5 (27). I.H.P. 3776 (2&g) steam per
I.H.P. hour, Ibs.. B.~z(D.&).
-.
rhe saving due to the use bf superheated steaJn is reported in numeroJJq
tests as be-ng $1 the way from less than 10% to more tti&n 4097
Thk
greater SavJJJf JS USUSlly found with entines that are the most. ln&;.clent
with saturate? steam, SUCh as single-cylinder engines with light loads, ln
w*lJiCh the CYlJJlder condensation is excessive.
R. ?. Bohn (@lg. Msg., May, 1007) states tha.t tests of Superheated
st$am Jn, locomotJ?es, by the Prussian R&way authorities in 1904 with
of 2.0. 10 and IS%, and a saving of coal of 2, 7 and 1297.
50 1 JO4 and 158 F. superheat, showed a saving of water reqp&vely
MJ-1 BO~~OJ~*~
heated steam.
wwr con&nks with a long list of references on the &bject of super-
A PaPer by J. R. Bibbins in Elec. Jour
March Igo6 gives
heatJUg Jn different types of englnes, including steam turbines.
a se!Jes pf C+rtS ShowJnK the savmg made by differe;t deg&. s of guper-
For description of the Foster superheater, see catalogue of the power
Specialty Co., New York.
The Wolf (French) semi-portable compound engine of 40 H.P. with
superheater an& reheater, the engine being mounted on the boiler, is
reported !?Y R. E. What, Pozuer, July, 1906 to have given a Steam
hour.
Consump)Jon aS low aS 9.9 I+. per I.H.P. hour,and 10 $8 lbS per B.H.P
cyhnder.
he$ed JUJtJaliY to 657 F., and reheated to 361 befoieentering the 1.p.
! h.e.steam P:eszure Jn the boiler wa,s 172.6 lb; an& was Super:
This is a remarkable record for a small enpine.~
A te;t.of a yce 8~ Sargent Cross-compound horizontal engine 16 and
28 X 4- ms., Nlth Superheated steam, is reported by D. 8. J~co~>~Js in
)
??WJS. A. 8. ill. E., 1; KI - l . Tt
ie Steam pressure at the throttle was 110 IhS.
F~Wf% t,llF swerht--m6 Was 3. 50 to 40U", and the vacumn 95 to 96 ins,
r.p.m. 1OL
In tL.ee tests with superhea.ted and one tvi$ sa&rated:
StWJll the rCSUltS were:
I.H.P. developr!ti .
. . . . 474. 5
W~~trrronslJJllptionprr 1:;i:p: j,,,, _,
420. 4 270. 8
Co,aJ cousumplion per I.H.P. hour. ._ .
9.76
a. 56
' 400. 7
9.70 13. R4
B. I .Ii. per min.*prr I.H.P. . . . . . _ ,26;::6 2&y7 20~.~~ 24A;fQ7
Temp. of steitm entering h.p. CVI .
Temp. ofst.eam leaving h.p. c+l
.
684
346
6357!:
6k? ..::..
Temp. of steam entering I.p. crl . _. :
Temp. of st.eam leaving Lp. cyi. . : :
1::
3i 36
2PS 262
141
WARNI NG: Th
-
ECONOMIC PERl+bR%fANCE OF STEAM-ENBINES. 9%
.I Reeeivei
from
Boiler 01
Receivrs
-~
No. I Cylinder ............
No. I Receiver ...........
No. 2 Cylinder ...........
No. 2 Receiver ......... .:
No. 3 Cylinder ...........
No. 3 Receiver ............
No. 4 Cylinder ...........
Preheater ...............
Deld to Condenzer
Dischgd from ............
194, 183
187. 348
174.872
165. 913
160, 083
-
I 3
J
-
leceived
from
ackets.
862
6, 624
2:::
I ' 150
5; l SS
940
.
.
. .
-
Colnv$-lDelirered Delivered
W0rk. Hezer. Ja:ieta.
--
7. 697 ..ii.idd .. ...i.d ...
10, 899
....................
.......... 12, 800 1, 150
11, 695
....................
940
.......... 5, 100
11. 600 9. 100 ..........
%E
..........
..........
...........
..........
..............................
I I
The principal results of the test are as follows: n 1
4
Cylinder. . . . . . . :. . . . : . . .. . .Is: 47 256;96 275;71 275,.56
I.H.P. developed In steam cyhnders . . . .
I.H.P. used in the cylind*p
~. .
220: 04 222. 12 226. 20 %\ $$4
Tot,alinditmt.d horse-l
Total hbaOc-r-
Total indicated LIyI_l--I
HorSe-pnwe renresel
macL.- . .
per cent of frilu.u... .
Mechanical efficiency _
p&&y st&% cylinders
..................... .I ..
~~>,x&&&&j in air cylinders
.............................
883. 2
hfi=P-pomer of ausilianes
11
.
o
......... .L
.............
_ _.._ _ _.=. .~ nting friction of the
....................... 95.5
,;*a .......................
X,
9.65%
.......................
.
..............
engine and compressor.
................ 90.35%
Effi&ncy.of Carnot cycle between the temperature Qf incoming
Steam andthat corresponding to pressu!e in the condenser.. .34.6
%
25. 05%
Actual heat efficiency attained by this engine . . . . . . . .73,6gy.
Relative efficiency compared with Cwn0.t CYCle . . . 88.2 %
Relative efficiency compared with R%nklne Cycle. . . . .,~,i~~g30,000
Duty, ft.-lbs. per million B.T.U. supphed. . . . . . . . . .
8
This engine establishes a new low record for the heat consumed Per tf?Jr
per 1.H.p being go/o lower than th?t used .by the WIldwood PumWg
engine red&ted in 1900.
(See Pumpmg Engmes.)
~~~ llse of =&eaters in the receivers of multiple-expansion engines lS
discussed by P.. H Thurston in TraTLS. A.
s M.fi:.,xsi. 893, Hesholvs that
.
such re&v&im&ove the econonly of an engine very lJttk @eSS theY
are also Superheaters; in which case miqrked
economy may oe effected
bY the reduction of cylinder condensation. The larger: the amlon~~io~~
cylinder condensation and the greater the losses. esterJ?r and
the gre;tt,er the effect of any glven amount af SUPerlJeatJUg.
The SJ?
statement will hold of the use of reheaters: the Jnore WMefUl the enWe
klthout them and the more effectively they superheat.
the ,larger the
gain by their use.
A r&eater should be given such area of heatmg surface
as will insure at least
moderate SUperheatiW
Influence of the Steam-jacket. -
Tests of numerous ensines v:.lth
and without steam-jackets show an exceeding diversity of reStJk, ran$ng
all the way from 307 Saving down to zero, or eve, Jn Some casessholbmg
T&opinions of engineers at tins date (1894) lb sllSzlgf
&d~v~~~~a$ot& results but there is a tendency towards a.general
that the jacket is not kS valllable an a,ppendage to aJ? !ngJne as was for-
merly supposed.
An edensive t4sun1& of facts and oPJmons ?n th$;tea;m-
jacket is given by Prof. Thurston in Trans. A. S. I I f. E., XV, 4b-.
w-2
. ,
,,~, ,~~ ~.~ ..,.,,.,~~~
is is a 1910 edition.
some of the m&@i~l may n&longer be accurate
-
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF STEAM-ENGINES. 077
also !?totts. A. $9. IM. B., xiv, 873 and 1340; xiii! 176; xii, 426 and I346
and Jour. F. I.. April. 1891, p. 276.
selected from these papers.
The following are a few statement$
The results of tests reported by the research committee on steam-jackets
appolnted by the British Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1886
;nc&ate an mcreased efficiency due to the use of the steam-j&&, of from
- 19,
5ennett asserts that .it ha% been abunda
are not only advisable hut absolutely :iecessary, in or
expansion may be efiiciently carried out am
of heat attaned
o over 30%. accordine to varvine~,ir,m~t-a,,s~----
,ntly proved that steam-jackets
de: that high rates of
1 the greatest possible economy
particular engine it appears that when running at its most economical
rate of 100 H.P., without jackets, very little saving is made by use of the
jackets. When running light the jacket 1nakes a considerable saving, but
when overloaded it is a detriment.
At the load whicl1 correspond; to the most economical rate. with no
s. or 100 HP.. the use of the iacket makes a saving of onlv steam in jacket:~. .~ ~. ~~~ ~~_ - ~.. __ ~.~.y ~. ~-
1%; but at a load of 60 H.P. the saving by 11se of the jacket is about
11%. and +ho *bane of the curve indicates that the relat.ive advantage of Y.&V Y
t.he ia,rket ,__- -__..._ would he still greater at lighter loads than 60 H.P.
-r-k- ~e=i p~onomy of the Piston Steam Eriaine at the .4dvent of the L&XV aNtiI .U
Steam Turbine is the subject of a paper by J. ME. Denton at the Inter-
national Congress of Arts and Sciences, St. LOWS, 1904. (Pourer, Oct.
9~ 1 on5 1 Prof. Denton says: -, &.,., - --
Ishsrwood finds the gain by its use. under the conditions of ordinary
practice. as a genera! average, to be about 20 % on small and 8% or 9% on
large ,engmes, varyrng through inteimediate values with intermediate
sizes, 1t being understood that the jacket has an effective circulation, and
that both heads and sides are jacketed.
IfofeSSOr Unwin considers that in all cases and on all cylinders the
jacket is useful; provided: of course, ordinary, not superheated steam is
used: but the advantages may diminish to an amount not worih the ln-
terest on extra rost~
During the last two years the following records have been established:
(1) With an 850-H.P. Rice & Sargent. compound Corliss engine, running
at 120 r.p.m., having a 4 to 1 cylinder rabi.0, clearances of 4% and 7%.
live jackets on cylinder heads and live steam in reheater, Prof. Jacobus
found for 600 H.P.of load, with 150 lbs. saturated steam, 28.6 ins. vacuum,
and 33 expansions, 12.1 Ibs. of water per I.H.P., with a cylinder-eonden-
sation loss of 22%. and a jacket consumption of 10.7% of the total steam
Professor Cotterill says: Experience shows that a steam-jacket is advan-
tageous, but the amount to be gained will vary according to circumstances
In many cases it may be that the advantage is small.
@eat caution is
necessary in drawing conclusions from any special set of experiments on
the influence of jacketing.
30 in 50 &.per
and f/s ii l.p. cylinder
was from 1% to 4%.
The sunerintenrlent. of 1 . ~~. ._.. __ the Holly Mfg. Co. (cornpour
says: In regard to the benefits derived from steam-jackeets on our Sieam-
cyhnders. I am s0mewhs.t nf a. ckeptic. ,From data~ taken on our own
1d pumping-ensines)
. . _ _ -..
ermines and tests made I pm vo+ +n 1
value in the steam-jacket
-;;. J C Y de ConViIlCed 1 that there is any practical
Professor Srhrooter from his work on the triple-expansion engines at
Augsburv -
DJ ad film the results of his tests of the jacket efficiency on a
small enplne qf the Suizer type in his own laboratory concludes: (1) The
value.of the jacket may varg within very wide limit~s or even become
negative.
jacket.
(2) The shor&r the cut-off the great,er the gain bv the 11~ of a
(3) Tbc use of 11igher pressure in the jacket than in the cylinder
produces an advantage.
The
high-Pressure cylinder mav he f
rester this difference the better.
eft
(4) The
other shiluld always be jaiketed.
unjacketed without great loss, but the
The test of the Laketon triple-expansion pumping-engine showed a gain
of 8.3% by the use of the jaeket.s. but Prof. Denton points out (Trans.
A. 8. Bf. E.. xiv. 1412) that all but 1.9% of the gain was ascribah!e to the
greater range of expansion used with the jackets.
T?st of a C~mpmmd Condensing Engine with nnil withollt J -tckets
qt. drffercnt Loads. (R. C. Carpenter, Trans. A. Si Icf. E. xiv 628.) -
L>llnders 9 and 16 In. X 14 in. stroke: 112 Ibs. boiler.pressure~ rat,ed
capar1ly 100 H.P.: 165 revs. per min.
Vacuum. 23 in. From theresults
of several tests curves are plotted, from which the following principal
figures are taken.
( 1f a.bout 32%.
v1,r)se facts show that the minimum water consumption of the compound- x L11
engin - -< L mwmt date. usine saturated steam. is not dependent I2 L I.LlG p-..~~- ~. ~~:
upon
any particular cylinder rat10 a~nndclearance nor upon any system of jacl$et-
ing. b*z+ +1-n+ the essential condition is the use of a rat10 of espanslon
tn nrevrail
?: ;z.zl:ove which the cvlinder-condensation loss is liable 01 BbGU. 0) .l~
., *__ -.-.-
over the inHuence 3 the la& of expansion. The conclusion appears
warrao+~~ *harefore. that if this ratio of expansion is secured with any
of the CULLLLC I :-~~-b-;^vlinder and clearance ratios. and with any ( existing system
of jackets and reheaters. or nitllout them, a.water consumpt.ion of 12.4 lhs.
per hn-an-no\~~nr is possible. and that a variation of 0.4 lb. below or above
this t
de. or unfnvornbl~. @c&et
* and (
&ieFm&y occur by the accidental favorab
:ylinder-wall espenses which are beyond the exact. control Of the
designer.
Compound Piston Engine Economy vs. tha.t of Steam Turbine. L- In order
to compare the economy of the piston engine wit.h t,hat of the &earn Gur-
,,eLI t,,n tr,t,r nr\no,,mntinn n
wne, we must ,- Y..r v.sIyc, IV..IUII ,,,Y.U..
tier brake horse-power. since no
indicat,or card is possible from the turbine: and furthermore. we m.ust use
the average water consumption for the range of loads to which engines are
subject in practice.
In all of the public turbine tests to date, with one exception the.omP11t
-n--*.--A tltrous!~ the electric Dower of a dvnamo whose effic1enW is
not given for the range of loadlngemployed, so that the average brake
horse-power is not known. This exception is the Dean and Main test of
a 600..H.P. \Vest.inghouse-Parsol1s turbine using saturated stream at 150 lbs.
Pressure. and a 28-in. vacuum.
We may compare the resuhs of this test
wirb that nf t,l1e 850-H.P. Rice & Ss,r~nt, and of the 250-H.P. Belman
iYKi& hv frlrt.ion fin these eneines
Indirated H.P... . .
~llhjackets.Ibs.. per . . i1;: . . .
Steun per I.H.P. 30 46 50 60 70 80 90 IO0 110 120 125
Without
Sahg by jackets, jacket, Ibs..
22.621.420.319.6 19 18.7 18.6
20.5
18.9 19.5 20.421.0
%..
. . . . . . 22 19.6
. , ,10.9 7.3
19.2 19.1 19.3 20.1 ,..,
.l.. 4.6 3.1 l.Oj-1.0-1.5 . .._
~~~PYdicnt&l load nli1s the Dower shown by ftic lSSy/o or l.,,CLI,-.- .._. - .~~~~. .~~ .~~.
with the engine unloaded.
The la.t{er showed 5% of the rated Dower in
the R. & Q --tine and 8% in the Belgfan
engine. The results are:
This tat1ie gives a clue to the great variation in the apparent snv[,lg d,,e
to the slei~1n-jaCket US reporled by different experimenters, wftl1 this
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
some of the material tiay no longer be accurate
Per cent of full load.. . , , . . . .
600-H.P. Turbine..
41 75 100 125 Avg. 85%
Lbs. Water ~per Brake H.P. Hour,
800-H.P. Camp. Ens&e.:: : : : :t;i
13.91 16.05
250 H.P. Belgmn Engine.. . . 15110 x
:%E
14.51
13:99 . E%
14.56
. r
14.64
These figures show practical equality in economy of the types of enpines.
The full report of the Van den Kerchove Belgian engine is given in pozcer,
June, 1903.
For large-sized units Prof. Denton compare: the Elberfeld test of a
Parsons tur!dne at the full load of 1500 electric H.P., allowing 5% for
attached air numo. 95% for venerator effirienrv wit,h thn
.._.. .._ 5400-H.P
Wes@ghouse cornpbund-engine at the Ne~~-~&~~dison station who&
fnc,tlon +t full load was foi!nd to be 4%. The turbine with 150 lb& steam
and 28 111s. vacuum required 13.08 Ibs. of saturated steam per B.H.P
hour, a gain of 4% over the 600-H.P. turbine. The engine with 18.5 lbs:
boiler pressure gave 12.5 lbs. per B.H.P. hour
with the possible influence of the diflermce in
Crediting the turbine
.&ZP a.nrl et~enm ~~PQCIITCI
the:e is $g:ain practical equality in economy between it and ti?~~$s~~
PnmnP _..~. .._.
3- rap e e.xpansion Pum.pin$ Engines. -.The triple-eFnnnci& nnoinn hne l-
.-=-... -... _
failed to suor~lant the comnound fnr el~rtrir liuht I _~-~~- .-- ---1 ---.. *.o_. ..nd mill sercice be-
cause the ga& ins fuel economy due to Its use was not sufficient to dver-
come its hlrher first cost. denreciation. etc. It is~ however, almost ufi-
Pr f. Ijeriton says:
v$ .
~~~ ~. .~..- . ..-_ _._ _I.01 I .--_ ,Jmping enpines.
Pum>in,- engines in the United States have been de-
ped m the triple-expansion fly-wheel tvnr to II. degree of economy
sunerior to that afiorded bv nnv rnmntrnnrl &Iii;,
electric engine and
foi saturated steam, super& to that Of the p$$i;g entines of anyothe;
country. This is because their slow nneed nPrmit.s of greater benefit
-..- __ll-l ..Y... . ..re-dr.Lwing and back
press&e. These causes, together with the greater subdivision of the range
of expansion. have resulted in records made between 1894 and 1900 of
11.22. 11.26 and 11.05 Ibs. of saturated steam per X.H.P., nit,h 175 lbs.
steam pressure and from 25 to 33 expansions, in the cases of the Leavitt
Snow and Alhs aumnine eneines~ resnprtively, the corresponding heat
r-U.U.u.~s of the jacket drainage, 204,
20s and-212 ther~al~~Illiis~~~~i.ji~P. minute; while later the Allis
with 85 lbs. steam fiessure. has lowered rho rprord to 10.33 lbs. o
P
ump
satul
Goin from Superhenti,!y. - In t,he Be!$an compound englnc above de-
scribed. with st,eam at 130 11,s.. vacuum 27.6 ins., the average consumption
d s:ltur~tt~~~~~ steam. between 45 and 12~59~ of load, was 12.45 lbs. per
I.H.P. hour. or 225.R.T~rJ I
.-. per I.H.P. mi nute Wit,h steam superheated
22-1 F. the average consumption for the samk l oads was 10. 09 l bs. per
I.H.F. hour. COmDuted to be eonivnlent. t.n 209 B.T.U. per H.P. minute,
~~~ ...~._ _... 3 _. steam superheated 307O and
th& load about 80% of rating il;~\~aier~onsunrption was 8.99 lbs per
I.H.P. hour. equivalent to IQ2 B.T.U. per H.P. minute.
with snturstedstesm requires
The sameload
heating of 13%.
221 B.T.U., showing a ga,in due to super-
The best performance reported for superheat~ed steam used in the tur-
bine IS that of Brown & Bar-eri Parsons Frankfort, 4000-H.P. machine,
which, with 183 Ibs. gauge pressure and 190 F. superheat, afforded 10.28
lbs. per B.H.P. hour, assumlne a generator efficiency of 0.95. Reckoning
fro!? thef?@ temperature of it.s vacuum of 2i.5 ins..the heat consumntion
1s 211 1S.T.U. per H.P. minute.
B.H,P. hour at bhe highest superheating of 307 F. is 220 B.T.U.
16;
turbine. therefore. probably holds t.he record for brake horse-power econ-
omT: over the piston engine for superheat.ed steam bv a margin of about
3%. although had the compound engine been of the same horse-power as
the t.urbine. so t,h:tt its friction loa~woulti be ontv 8% of its power instead
of bhe 13% here allowed. it would have excelled the turbine in brake
horsfa-powcr economy by a martin of about ~69~.
?heSuWw-dio&e Addendum. .-- If the expansion in piston engines
The shnft,s are hollow, with a 16-in. hole. escept the Edison \$ic.h has
10 in. The speed of all the engines is 75 r.p.m., or 750 ft.. per nun. The
crsnk pins of the Manha,ttan and Rapid Transit engines each are attached
to two connecting rods, side by side, hor. and vert.. each rod having a
bearing .Q in. long on the pin. The crank pins of the Edison engine are
16 in. diam. for the side-cranks, and 22 in. for the cent.er-crank.
,.~.;.,.~&&.,~&~. ,~. ~,,
,,~,
WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition.
5ome of the material may no longer be accur at 6
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF STEAhI-ENGINES. 979
could continue until the pressure of 1 pound was attained bcforc exhaust
occurred, considerable more work could be obtained from the steam.
This caunot be done, for two redsons: first, because the lo\\: cyli;lder would
have to be about five times greater in volume., winch IS commercially
impracticab!e; and. second, because the velocity of exit through the
largest exhaV.St ports possible is so great that tile frictional resistance of
the steam makes the back pressure from 1 to 3 pounds higher than the
condenser pressure in the best engines of ordinary piston speed.
All the work due to this extra expansion can be obtained by exliausting
the steam at 6 lbs. pressure against a nest of tubes containing sulphur
dioxide which is thereby boiled to a vapor at about 170 lbs. pressure.
Professor Jesse, of Berlin, has perfected this sulphur-dioxide Eystem
of improeement, and reliable tests have shown that if cooling wat,er of
65 is available, and to the extent of about twice the quantity usually em-
ployed for condo ising steam under 28 ins. of vacuum, a ,sulphur-dioxide
cylinder of about half the size of the high-pressure cyhnder of a com-
pound engtne will do sufficient work to improve the best econo:my of
such engines at least 1570. The steam turbine expands its steam to the
pressure of its exhaust chamber. and as unlifnited escape port~s can,be
provided from this chamber to a condenser, It follows that the turbme
can practically expand its steam to the pressure of the condenser. There-
fore a steam turbine attached to a piston engine to operate with thelntters
exhaust should effect the same saving as the sulphur-diodde cylinder.
Standard IXmensions of Direct-connected Generator Sets. From
a report by a committee of the A. S. M. E., 1901.
Cdpscity of unit, K.W.. . . 35 35 50 75 100 150 200
Revolutions per minute.. , ,, . 310 200 290 ?7.; 260 225 PO
Armature bore, center crank engines . 4 4112 oijl 6 7
Armature bore, side-crank engines.. . 41/z .51/z 61/z ;1/2 Slip 10 11
The dinm~ter of the engine shaft at the armature fit is 0.001 In. grratw
than the bore,. for bores up to and including 6 ins.. and 0.002 111. greater
for bores F~/z Ins. and larger.
IIimcmsGns of Some Parts of Large Engines in Elrctric Plants. -
The hleetricnl World. Sept. 27, 190~. gives a table of dimensions of the
enpines in t.he five large power stattons in New York City at t,hat date.
The following figures are selected from the table.
Nnmeofstntion....../ :A;,$,-. Ihfzkt-
Vert.
Type 0T engi ne. . . . . . . Cross-
D2E?
Camp.
2 vert.
cm.
I I
Rat,ed H.P. . . . 4500
Cylinders! all 60-in.
stroke, m.. .._ 46, 86
Piston rods. diam. in.. 9, I O
Crmk pins _. _. . . . 14 X 14
Wrist pins. __.. . . . . 14X I,4
Shaft length.. . 273f:.i;,~n
max. d&n..
bearings 34 X M)
8000
44, 88
18: 18
12x I 2
:. 25&ti;.in
34 x 60
Vert.
D20p$,
Ez-. .
2 vert.
Cyls.
Edison.
3 Cyl . Vert.
5200
43 12. z- 75 112
22, && I 4
35 ft.
293/ s i n.
26 X 60
1
2
3
4
5
B
Cylinders,
.-
44&82X6
52&90x6(
: each
42&70x54
each
44 &70X6(
TYW.
Cross-c
Tandem
Tandem
Double
Tandem
Double
Tandem
14l
151
. . . .
150
I 50
--
Fly-wheel.
Localion.
liain. wt.
--
ft. lbs.
24 15o. oOORepublic I.& E
I
co.. Youngs-
town, Ohio.
24 110, 000 Camegi eS. Co.
Dnnora, Pa.
25 250, 000 Carnegies.~~.
I Youngstown,
Ohio.
none Carnegie S. Co.,
s. Shnron, 1%
none
Crsie- S.
q2d pa.
Jones &
Laughlin
Steel co.,
$$~wiptxt,
Buildera.
Filer &
StOWdl.
Wiseon-
sin Eng.
CO.
Wm: Tod
Allis
Chal-
mers co.
Some details: Main bcarinss. No. 1. 25 X 431/v in: No. 3 30 X 52 in,.
NO. 3. 30 X 60 in. Shaft dinm. at wheel pit. NG. I 0 in-l vo. 3 36 in:
$lilk pinS..?rO. I, h.p. I4 X 14: l.p., 14X.23 in.! -No. i A 182 I8 in,
Cr~Shf?d. PUB, NO. 1, 12 X l-1; No. 2. 16 X 20 in. No. 4 is a reversing
eilhltle. !Vlth the I\f~~~l~c~ll gear.
valves below the cyhnders.
No. 5 is a, reversing ellgille Smith Piston
CounterbaI~neing. Engi n&. - Prof. Unwin gives the formul~a for
count,erbalancmg vertical ei!gines: Wl = TI? r/p, _ . . . . .
in whiCh It11 denotes the weight of the balance weight and p the rad:lus to (1)
its center OfjiravltY. 112 the weight of the crank-pin and half the \veight of
the connectmg-rod, and T the iengtb of the crank.
For horizontal engines:
J1 = z/3 (Tfa + m-3) r/p to 3/4 (II? + 113) r/p, . . . _ (2)
in which Tfa denotes the weight of lhe piston piston-rod, cross-head, and
the other half of the \veight of the connecting:rod.
The .4mf?$?n Mcxh~inist. commenting on these formulae Say,: For
horlzontal engm,es formula (2) is often used: formula (I) \vili &ve acoun-
terbalance too light foa vertical .engines.
We should use formula (2) for.
comr$ing the co$erpalance for both horizontal and vertical engines,
esce@lng locomOtlves. 111 which ,the counterbalance should be heavier.
For an acc.mnt of,esperim,ents on courlt,erba~ln!lcino InrKe engines \vith
a met~hod of recordmg vibrations, see ps.per by D? S. Jacobus, +rons.
A. s. -If. E., 1905.
v,eeenting Vi&rations of Engines. - Manv suggwtions have been
ma:lt for remedymg the vibradion and noise attendant on the working
*! the big engines which are emploved to run dvnamos.
A plan which has
aveIl great Satisfaction is to hiicl hair-felt ihto the found,ltions of hhe
enFl:lp. An ele$iC company has had a 9&hOrSe+O\ver en&e removed
from Its fmmdatlons. which were t,hen t~aken up to the depth of 4 feet.
lVzr,*f felt 5 inches thick was then placed an the fomtdlt,ions and rut
;E:r;t;,e;>ino;;oall sides, and on the to9 of this the brickwork x$as b;itt up. -
COMMERCIAL immonfY - Cosm or Powm. 981
sequently inn.ocent sf all f+ndation.
Iesiti an!1 satisfactonly,. while others
Some of these engines rs? noise-
produced more or less wbr?tlon and
ro correct the latter the el~gineers suspended foundations from
the bbttoms of the engines, so that, in looking at them from the lower
floors, they were literally hanging in the air. - Iton Age, Mar. 13. 1890.
COXIIJ IERCIAL ECORONII. -COSTS OF POWER.
61~ Cost of Meam Power i s an exceedingly variable quantity. The
principal items to be considered in estimat,ing total annua.1 cost are: load
fact.or ; hours run per year ;
P
ercentage of full load at different hours of
the day; cost and quality of uel; boiler efliciency and steam consumption
of engines at different loads; cost of water and other supplies: cost of
labor, first cost of plant, depreciat,ion, repairs, interest, insurance and taxes.
In tiguring depreciation not only should the probable life of thz several
parts of the plant. such as bu@ings, boilers, engines, condensers, ebc.. Fe
considered, but also the possilxhty of part of the plant,. or the whole of It,
depreciating rapidly in value on account of obsolescence of the machinery
or of changes in the conditions of the business.
When all of the heat in the exhaust steam from engines and pumps, in-
cluding water of condensation, is used for heating purposes the fuel cost of
steam-engine power may be practically nothlnb, 3. 7 ,,;iice the exhaust contaihs
all of the heat in the steam delivered to the engine except from 5 t.o 10
oer cent which is converted into work, and a trifling amount lost by
iadiat,ion.
Most Economic;~l Point of Cutaoff in Stexn-engines. (See ~5;;
by Wollf and Denton,. l%a?!s. A. S. 111. Is., vol. ii, p. 147-231; @so.
of Exnansion at Mazwnum Efficicnw. It. H. Thurston. vol. 11. p. 128.)
-i%~$bi& of the best ratio of exI%nsion is not one of tconorny of con-
sumption of fuel and economy of cost of boiler alone.
The q!wst.lon of m-
terest on cost of ew~ne. depreciation of value of endne, repairs of ewxe,
etc. enters as well. for as we increase the wtc of expansion. and, thus.
wit&n certain &its fixed by the ba,ck-pressure and condensatiorl of
steam decrease the amount of illel requireu and cost of boiler per nmt.of
work we have to increase the dimensions of the cylinder and the we
of th& en+ne, to attain the required power.
We thus increase the cost
of the en,$ne, etc., as we increase the rate of espansion,,\~hile at t!ie same
time we decrease the fuel consumption. the cost of boiler. etc.
So t!lat
there is in e;-ery engine some point, of cut-M, determinable by @culatMM
and graphical consrruction, which will secure the greatest efficiency for
a given expenditure of money, takin,
= into consideration the cost of fuel,
wages of engineer and firemen. interest o! cost. depreciation of value.
repairs to and insurance of b~,tler and engine. and 011, waste, et.c.. used
for enmine In case of freight-c.arryjl?g vessels,, the,.value of the room
occudzd dv fuel should 1
1 -2 S.~ .I
be considered in estlmntmg tne cost. 01 ~uw.
Type ofEngine to be used where Exhaust-steam is needed for
Heating. - In many factories more or less of the steam e;g;;;e;ii$;E
the entines is ut~ilized fc jr boiling, drying. heat.i!lg,. etc. _
exhaust-steam is so used the quest,ion of economical use ot,S+m 1.
I~- the
engine itself is eliminated, and the high-pre$ure.Slnlple enane 1s entl1
.ely
suitable. Where only part of
-1 II.^ ^____.. 4
the eshaust-steam IS use, auu 1.1le wwliity
so n&l wxr i r s n.t differrent times. the qllestion of adopting a .<mple. a
This moblem
__ _--- .._._._ ~~~~
condensing or a compound engine beconies more romples.
- ..~~ .
is treat-d & C I. Main in Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. S, p. 48.
He.shoivS
that the ratios of the volumes of the cylinders in compound engines should
vary acc&dim t,o the amount of efrhaust-steam that can be used for
__. _. ~~
___. ~_ - . ~~~
&&%& & the engine, an intermediate pressure for crabbitig,
and lo\!-
pressure for boiling, drying, etc.
If it did not make too in@1 COn?Ph-
cat,ion of parts in t.he engine the boiler-pressure mi&t be used In the high-
pressure cylinder, exhaust,&g into a receiver from which ste?m could be
fake for iunninr slnn~l entillCS an(
1 crabbing, the st.eam remwxng m the
receiver pwsinginto the intermedia,t.e cylinder and expa?ded there to
from 5 to*0 Ibs. above the atmosphere and exhausted into a second
receiver.
From this r ecei ver iq dm.wn the low-pressure st,earnTjxdfd:fot
k~~a~~~&ine Foundations Embedded in \ir _ in the sugnr
refilw of Claus Spreckeis. at Pbiladel~bia. Pa. tie &ines are d&fib:
Lited Pract,idlY all Over the bili!dings, a large proport,ion of them being
On upper floors.
Some are bol ted to iron beams or girders, and are con-
,,,.; drying. boiling.. warmi!x
~, passing into the condensing cjlinder.
.~~ ~. ..d&~..;?dLL&.,. ,,... .~,
NARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accurate

COMMERCIAL ECONOMY - COSTS OF POWER. 983
Estimated costsrn
Cost of Stcntqower. (Chas. T. Main, Trans. A. S. M E
x. 4S.)-
of 1060 H.P.
ew England in 1888, per horse-povver, basedon engines of the annual cost of power with different types of engine.
He figures
interest and depreciatien each at 5 %, insurance at 1%) and taxes at 1 r/z%
of the cost of the plant.
No cost of water is charged.
Compound Condens- Non+qn-
Engine.
2. Engine-house
1. Cost engine and piping, complete. . . . $~;.IJ;
. . . . . . . . . ..*.........
3. Engine foundations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7160
18 days of IOf/ timrs.
Cost of coal j,er 2240 lbs. $2 1 3 1 4 1 5
Cost of 1 I.H.P. per year. 365 days of 24 :~ours.
;:
g
36
38
62'
33
36
1; ;
: :
. 52
76
31
-
4. Total engine plant
. . . . . . . . . . 40. 00
3zO 29. 50 --
1. 32
%
=zI z=zz 1. 18
0: 371
0. 59 1. 475
0. 138 2%.
45. 139 3. 702 - -
__
Giple-expansion pumping,
20 revs . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Triple-expansion without
pumps, 50 revs . . . . . . . 27
Compound mill, best engine 29
Compound mill, average.. 39
Compound elec. light, av.. 122
Compound trolley..
Triple-expansion trolley.. .
4;
Conderrsing mill.. .
anon-cond., 50 to 200 H.P.. .
$
67
5. Depreciation, 4% on total cost
==z=
6. Repai rs, 2% on total cost
. . . . . . 1. 60
7. Interest. 5% on total cost 1.1 1: 1: : :
8. Taxation, 1.5% on 314 cost . ' . .
to:
9. Insurance on engine and house: : : : : :
0. 45
6.~65
10. Total of lines
5,
--
6, 7, a, 9..
. ., . 5. 015
11. Cost boilers, feed-pumps, etc.. . . . . .
13. Boiler-house. . .
9.33
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._
13. Chimneyand flues.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.92
6.11
?:oo::
7. 30 8. 00
Cost of Coal for Steam-power.
-The following table shows the
amount and the cost of coal per day and per year for various herse-powers.
from 1 to 1000 based on the assumption of 4 lbs. of coal being used per
hour per homeypower. It, is useful, among other things. m esttmatmq the
saving that may be made in fume1 by substituting more econommal boilers
and engines for those already in use.
Thus with coal at $3.00 per ton Of
2x10 lbs., a saving of $9000 per year in fuel may be made by replacing a
steam nlant of 1660 H.P.. requiring 4 Ibs. of coal per hour per horse-power,
14. Total boiler-plant. . * --
. . . . . . . 1.X.76
2TG
--
29. 00
15. Depreciation, 5% on total cost.. . . . z
16. $epairs. 3% on total cost
0. 367
17. Interest. 5% on total cost . : . . . 0.~1~
18. Taxation, 1.5% ou a/4 cost . .
19. Insurance, 0.52; on total cost: : : : : : :
0.9~1~
0.~19~
1.240 I ~. 450
0. 496 0. 5SO
1.240 1.450
0.x9 0. 326
0.124 0.145
20. Total of
lines
--
1.5 to 19. . . . . . . 2.509
21. Coal used I.H.P. per per hour, lbs. . . 1.75
With one requiring only 2 Ibs. --
3.379 3.951
- --
2. 50 3. 00
- -
22. Cost of coal per I.H.P.per dayof lr~r/.,
--
hours at 33.06 per ton of 22.m lbs. . . i
cts.
23. At.tendance of engine per day.
$$
5. 72
. gi
24. Attendance of boilers per day. . . : : :
oh0
:I$;
2;:
0. 35
25. Oil. waste, and supplies, per day. . . .
?
0.90
0. 22 0. 28
26. Total daily espense
......... ,z
27. Yearly running expense, 30s days, per -
T.&P .......
....... ... .. ... . ..
g. hi* pwly expense, lines lo, 20,
$16.570
CO~I Consumpt,ion. at 4 lbs.
per H.P. hour: 10 hours a
day; 300 days per Year.
S2per
Short
"El 2
Egl
Lbs. Long Tons.
Tons.
-..-
-
Cost in Cost in
Per Per
per per per Dollars. Dollars.
33y. Day. Year. Day. Yr.
--
-- .-
Day.! Yr. Day,! Yr
%l:;:
Ton.
Cost. in
Dollars.
--
7.09 2%
.-
$21. 837 $25. 595
29. 355 33. 248
lay.1 Yr.
-I-
YI I " i a .
. . . . . . . . .._.
20. Total y+ly expense per 1.H P for
24. 087
power lf 50% of exhaust-steam is
rlr*A Fr.- L^^:--
;:: 24
2.00 %
kg ;,2g
8. 00 2: 400
: : ?I i %f l
r0. 00 6: OOO
: X. 00 7. 200
: ; : $ $gg
i 6. 00 I O: 800
Kl . 00 12, 000
18. 00 14. 400
i 6. 00 16. 800
i 4. 00 19. 200
12. 00 21. 600
10. 00 24. 000
may no loncjer be accurate
3c
ILcarlng.. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. 624
14. 907 16. 863
7.916 7. 700
or lf Part of the Steam In a condensing engjne is diverted from the con
Fllen exhaust-steam pr a part of the receiver-steam is used for heating
denser. and used for other purposes than power the value of such stea,m
in erder to nrr!ve at the Cost properlv chargeable to power
should be deducted from the cost of the total amount of steam genernted
In hnes 99 and .jn are based on an assiimption made bv Mr.Maln of iosses The fi&res
all~xmce whi cl ! is probably too large.
of heat mollllt.in~ to 25% between t.he huller and the exhaust-pipe, an
me ~SO t~wo papers by Chbs. E. Emery on Cost of Steam Ponver 1
bfnr.. 1893.
Trans. A. S. X. .E., vol. sii, Nov., 1883, and Trans. A. I. E. E., ~01. ;,
Dew !I~Y (Trans. A. S. M. E.; 1894) gives the following estimates
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the mater%
~,,~ ,,,, ,,:,i :: ,:, , ,,
984 : +IE STEAM-ENGINE.
It is Usual to consider t!lst a factory working 10 hours a day requires
JO% hours Coil! c0nSlllnpt~on On account of the coal used in banking or
Instarting tli,e fires, It+ that there are 306 working da
s in the year.
these conditions multiply the costs given in the taupe by 1,Oil
nor
24 hours a day 365 daxs m the year, multi
9 q
rates of coal consumpt.lon than 4 IBM. per
ly them by 2 68
Foi otE!r
modified proportionately.
2 .P. hour, the fig&es are to be
Relative Cost oi Different Sizes of Steam-engines,
(From catalogue of the Buckeye Engine Co., Part III.)
Korse-power.. 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Cost perH.P.. 8 20 171/z !6 I5 Ml/: 131/z 13 i2s/4
II Ii//
Relative Commercial Economy of Best Modern Types of corn
Penn? ,and Triple-cspansion Engines.
AfUChZfll.~t, Dec. Ii, lS91.) - The
followin
(J . E. Denton A&-j&
g table and dedu&ions show
the relative commercial economy of the compound and triple types for
the best stationary,practice in steam plants of 500 indicated h0r5e-pOweF
Th? table is based on the tests of Prof. Schriiter of Munich if enpine;
blnlt at A~sbur~:, at!d those of Geo. H. Barrui on the b&t plants of
Amerie?, and of detailed estimates of cost obtained from several first-
class h11iders.
T~,P rn;;on. or Corliss engines
twm-compound-re-
b
ceioer condensing type ex-
Panding 16 times.
pressure 120 Ibs.
Bbiler
JXP motion. or Corliss entines
of the triple-espansion four-
cyhnder-receiver condensino
type, expanding 22 time:
Boiler pressure 150 ibs.
The figures in the first column represent the best recorded performance
(1801), and those 111 t,he second column the probable reliable performance.
The followin:: table shows the total annual cost of operation <vjth coal
at 84.00 per ton. t.he plant
for 2-I hours per day.
running 300 days in the year, for IO ilours and
Hours running per day
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
24 .
Expense for coal. Corn ound plant
p~sJ.p~
Per H.P.
Expense for coax.
Trip& plant
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Amu: saving [If triple plant infiii.,:::: : : 1: : 1: 1: : :
9.00
0.90
%;
2.60
Anod interest. at 57, 00 54.50.. _. . . . . . . . . .,
Annual depreckrlion at. 5% on $4.50. _. . .
.4nnunl extra cost of oil. I gallon per 24-h&&,
at M.50. or 15% of extra fuel cost,. .
. . . . . . . . .
Annual extra cost of repairs at 3% on $4.50 per 24
0.15 0.36
hours.. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
006 0,14
$0.67 -
$0.96
Amud snving per H.P.. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .r.
80.23 $1.64
!ncreaS$ cost Of triple-expansion $ant per hor.se-po\ver including
boilers. elllnmry, heat~rrs. foundations, piping and erection .
. . . . . . . . 84.50
T:l!dw 1~11~ tobnl cost of plants at $30.50 nnd 841 per horse-power re-
SPectlvely. the figures in the table imply tJlat for coal at $4 per ton a
YARNING: This is a 1910 edition. ~~~~ 0
COMMERCIAL ECONOMY - COSTS OP POWER.
985
t~rinlo rxnansion 500 1I.P. plant costs 8!!0,500. ant1 mves about 8114 per ~~~ ..__.A
Z;~in-i:i-ho~ri-service in aboclt z:j/4 i __.-.
powpr ~pan, ~:conomics. (H. G. Stolt, lr~ns. A. I. E. ET, 1906.) 7
lyle following ta\)le gives an analysis of the~heat.,loss+s found m a year s
operatiou of one of the most cliieient~ plan!s 111 esWxce.
AVERAOE BUSSES lx TUB CONYEUSION OF 1 IS. OP COAL IiYTO ELECIHICITY.
B.T.U. % B.T.U. %
1. B.T.U. per lb, of coal supplied .14,150
100.0
2. Loss in ashes. . . . .
340 2.4
3. Loss to stack . ._, . .
Loss in boiler radiation and air leakage
;,1;1 22.7
3.1
8.0
*.
5. Returned by feed-water heater.. . . .
441
fj. R,eturlled by ec?nomizer . . .
960 6.8
7. Loss in pipe radtatlon.
8. Delivered to circulat,or.
2%
0.2
1.6
g. Delivtred to feed pump .,.
10
11:
LOSS in ledcage and higl,q+ssure dnps
Delivered to small auslh&rWs . . . .
Heating,, ..... :. ,_., ................
Loss in en&ti,ine fnctlon
............
Electrical losses.
...................
Engine radiaLion losses.
............
Pucjected t* CondeRser
.............
To house auliliacies.
..............
--L-.------
Delivered to bus bar
1,452 10.3
the folIowinE notes concerning po\yer-plant economy are condensed _..- ~~
from Mr. Stotts paper.
B.T.U. per lb. of coal. The co@ i:
s boucht and paid for on the
ba~~~~f$~e B.T.U. found by ? bomb calonmeter. -
The chimnry loss 1s very large, due Tao admitting too muc!~ air
to the combustion chamber.
This loss can be reduced about half by the
llSe of a con recorder and proper management of the tire.
Item 4.
This loss is largrly,due W
;~~~;ttmrinn of air into the brick
setting, It can be savpd by IlaV!~~ :In :
;i~~~~~~;tsilekt-i;oncasing enclosing
a magnesia lining olltsltle of tne
iGi&\vork.
Item 5. All auxiliaries shoul?
1 be driven by steam, so that their exhaust
may be util@ed in the feed-wnt
er heater.
Item &
Ln all cilsc.) ,,,,c-,lj ,ie load factor exceeds 25% the investment
#I ^^~ .^. . ..l.?.., t,>
in economic :ers \vill tie justilied.
Item 7.
The pipes are covered xitb two layers of COVCrillg, each about
1.5 in. thick.
Item 10. The high-pressure drips can, be returned t,o the boiler. so
pr~ctic~[\y all the loss ~lnrlrr this headinr! is recoreral)!r.
iteIn 13. Recent tws of a 7500-H.P. reciprorn!~~ng en+nWeWsboxv :~
a m&anical eficienc,v of 93.65Y9,
or an engillo frictloll of 6.~5 ,o. The
entine is lubricated t)y t,he H~~slung system.
Item 16.
Th13 m;l~imuln theoretical ,etiiciency of an pnk+ne working
betweei; 175 lbs. qxuge and 25 ins. vacuum iS
.._..__~ ,.., ~~,.,
. . ~. , , . ~.
;he material may no longer be accur at e
densation, incomplete expansion, and radiation.
[Some of this difference
is due to the fact that the engine does not work on the carnot cycle in
which the heat 1s all received~ at the highest temperature and part Of ihi.q
loss might be saved by the Nordberg .feed-water heating system
may also be a shght loss from !eakage.
There
such an extent as to,insure dry steam
WX.1 Superheated steam to
at the point of cut-off in the low-
pressure cyhnder, might save 5 or 6%
rh-SprTsent type of power plant tiring recip-n--t-- _ .
IvL~ tug cngmes can be im-
P:O,Icy M elIkXenCy as fOllOwS: Reduction of
stack losses, 127. boiler
radmtm: and leakages 570; by superheating, 6%; resulting ln ,net in-
crease 0~ thermal efficiency of the entire plant of 4.14% and bringing the
total from 10.3 to 14.447%
The Steam Turbine. -The best results from the steam turbine up to
date show that its, econqmy on dry saturated st.eam is practically equal
to that of the reciprocat.mg engine, and that 200 superheat reduces it3
steam consumPtlon 13.5%. The shape of the economy curve is much
flatter [from 3300 to 8060 1i.W. the range of steam consumption 13 bet\Veen
I4.6.and 15.0 Ibs. per II.W.-hour], so that the all-day efficiency \vould be
considerably better than that of the reciprocating engine and the cost
would be about ,33% less for the combined steam motor and electric
generator.
<I&h-pressure Rec@ocating Engine with Low-pressure lurbine.- The
reclProcajlng engine!s more efficient than the turbine in the higher pres-
sures, ~lnle tl!e turbine can expand to lower pressures and utilize the gain
of full expansion. The combination of the two would therefore beg more
effici-nt than a turbine alone.
. The! Goa Rngfne.. - The best result up to date obtained from gas pro-
uu$ers and gas englncs IS about as follows: Loss in producerand auxiliaries
20/,: in jacket water. 19%; in exhaust gases 307~. in engine friction
6.5%{ in electric generator, 0.5%. Total loss& 769
electrm energy, 24%. Only one im
motor. that. IIS range of economical oad is practically limited to betiveen
P
Converted into
ortant ob.ie&on &n be raised to this
50% and full load. This lack of overload capacity is,prohahlV a fatal
defect for the ordinary railway
fhictuatlng load. unless protected
B
ower plant acting under a violently
y a large storage-battery.
At light loads the economy of gas and liquid fuel engines fell off even
more rapidly t.han in steam-engines.
The engine friction was lame and
nearly constant, and in some cases the combustion was also less perfect .
at lignt loads.
norking at nearly their full power by the use of storage-batteries.
At t.he Dresden Central Stat~ion the gas-entines were kept
reSUkS of some erperiment.s aie given below:
The
Brake-load.
P
er
ce;;;;.;ul
Gas-engine, cu. ft. Petroleum Eng. Petroleum En
of Gas per Brake
H.P. per hour.
Lbs. of Oil per
B.H.P. per hr.
Lbs. of Gll.pe?
B.H.P. ner hr.
100
_- - - - - .
. 5' 9"
22. 2
208
22 O. b8
2. 38 1. 44
"
:s l/3 40. 8
66. 3 4. 25
Es: 1: s2
3. 07
CO7d);:~flfiOn Of Gas &?gines and Turbintis. - A steam turbine ;nlt can
be designed to Lake care of lOO70 overload for a fern seconds
If a plant
\vere designed with 50% of its normal capacity in gas engines and 56n
in Steam t.urblnes, any flu+ations in load likely to arise in p~ractlce ,oul$
be taken care of.
BY utilimx the wa3t.e heat of the gas enine ln econ-
omi~ers and superheaters there can be saved approsirnal~elJ~37~0 of this
Vvas,:e heat.. to make st,eam for the turbines.
The average total thermal
em~ienW of SuCh a combmstion plant would be 24.597.
This combina-
tion offers the POSSlbility of producing t&e kilolvatt-hour0 for le33 than one-
hlf its present, cost.
The followinc t~:rble SLOWS t.he distribut~ion of estimated relative main
tenance and.oprration cost.3 of five different tvpe3 0f piant the total co3i
of current Wtll the reciprocabing engine plantbelng taken jt lOi).
CGM~~ERCIAL ECONOMY - COSTS OF POWER.
987
&INTENANCE.
I. Engine room mechan
icaL.. . . . . . . .
2. Boiler room or pro
ducer room.. :.
3. Coal- and ash-ban
dlinq apparatus..
4. Electrical apparatur
OPERATION.
5. Coal- and ash-liar
dling labor.. .
6. Removal of ashes..
7. Dock rental.. .
8. Boiler-room labor..
9. Boiler-roomoil.wast
etc. . . . .
10. Coal . . . . . , . .
I I . Water. . . . , . . .
12. Engine-room me-
chanical labor..
13. Lubrication.. .
14. Waste, et0 . . . . . . . . .
15. Eleotrloal labor.. . .
Relative cost of mnint
nan~e and operation
Relative investment
percent . . . . . . . . . :....
-
f
g
--
,-
,-
e,
.e-
in
-
lecip-
)catin::
ngines,
2. 57
4. 61
0. 58
1. 12
2. 26
I . 06
%.
0. 17
61. 30
7. 14
6. 71
1. 77
0. 30
2. 52
100. 00
St earn
urbine:
: T
_-
--
--
-
iecip-
)oafing
,ugmes
and
steam
lrbines
Gas-
hgine
?lant.
EI
E
Tu
.-
Gas
ngi nes
and
Iteam
Irbines.
--
0. 51
4. 30
0. 54
1. 12
1. 54
3. 52
2. 57
1. 15
1. 54
1. 95
0. 44
1. 12
0. 29
1. 12
0. 29
1. 12
2. 11
E
6. 68
1. 74
0. 80
0. 74
5. 46
1. 13
0. 53
0. 74
1. 79
1. 13
0. 53
03: ;
0. 17
7: : :
1. 35
0. 35
0. 30
2. 52
0. 17
46. 87
5. 46
2:
0. 30
2. 52
0. 17
26. 31
3. 57
0. 17
25. 77
2. 14
6. 71
1. 77
0. 30
2. 52
4. 03
1. 06 8
0. 30
2. 52
79. 64 75. 72 50. 67
- -
100. 00~
46. 32
--
--
-
100.00 82. 50 77. 00
91. 20
-
Storing Heat in Hot Water.
-(See also p. 897.) There is no Sat,iSf?c-
t,orv method for eo~iali~lne the load on the engines a.nd boilers in elwtnc-
light stations.
Sfirage-I&teries have been used, hut they are expensive
in first cost, repairs, and attention.
Mr. Halpin, of London.,propo3e3 to
store, heat during the day in specially constructed res,erVolrs. As the
water in the boilers is raised to -J
70 lbs. pre33ure, it is conducted to cyhn-
drical reservoir3 resembling English horizontal boilers. and stored there
for use when wanted.
In this .way .a corn aratively small boiler-plant
can be used for heat,ing the water to
250 bs. pressure all through the f
twenti~-four hours of i,he day,
a: ,d the stored water me$b;dr~a$~~$n~~
any time according to the magmtude of the demand. -
1
are to beworked bv the steam generated by the release of p:essure from
this water, and t,he-nllves are to be arranged in s?lcl? a X;ay t.lat the Steam
shall work at 130 lbs. pressure.
A reservoir 8 ft. in diameter and 80 ft.
long, cont,alning 84,000 lbs. of heat.ed water at 250 lb3. Pressure. would
supply 5250 lbs. of steam at 136 lbs. pre33lire.
As t,be steam con3.Ump-
tion of a condensing electric-light engine is about I8 lb3. Per hor3e-pV{i
hour 3uch a reservoir rould supply 286 effective horse-PoVVer hour3.
1878 in ~~~~~~ this met,hod of stonng steam was uSed.on a tram-w.
hr. erancq tile endneer designed a smokeless locomotive to York by
steam-power supplird b{ a reservoir containing 400 gallon3 of nater at
220 tbs. pressure.
The reservoir was charged \Vith Steam from a stationary
boiler at one end of t,he tramway.
\n instyllat,ion of the Bateau low-p~ressure turbine a$d reg$!??atr
3v&em <t the rolling mill of the Tnternat.ional Ba.rvester Lo.2 in .Lntcag*
ii tlescribed in Power. June, 1007.
The regenerator 13 a+$;;gdpyic,:l~;~f
II 113 ft. dltm. 8q ft. long, rontaining six !arge elliptical *
.o... .
with m&r 3/&n. holes through which exhaust stream from a reversing
blooming-mill engine enters the water contninetl in the shell
Stew! inlx leads from the shell to the turl.rir:e. A larg6
A series of t&s of the
c*.Ihnati*n Was made; giving rwu1t.s as follow: The 42 y 60 in. bionming
ml11 enfh? deVeiped 520 I.N.P. on the average \vit,ll a\vacer rrto of 64
lh. Per A.H.P. hour. It delivered its eulralist. &v&r;~yinr a little jbovp at-
mospherlc pressure, to the wgenerai.or, at an irrrglilar
to the varymg wart; of the rolling-mill engine.
iate corres*on;ling
The reieneratoz furni.ihed
steam to the turbine, which ill-follr differcflt testis developed 414 54-1
*f 47. 7. 3i . I . 3CJ . 7 alld X3.7Ibs. of steam PerB H P. horir at the turbine
727 and SfS brake 1I.P. at the twlbine shaft \vith a steam consumptiori

Hpd tll~.tl~rl)l~e been of sufficient capacity to usk all the eyhlust of thi
mt1.l o*Wne. Ia10 H.P. might have been delivered at the&tchboard
which added to the SXI of t.he mill endno wolrld &lke $330 H.p fo;
5%NM lk of steam, or a steam rate of 22.5 Ibs. per H.P. hour forthe
combination.
UTILIZING THE SUNS HEAT AS A SOURCE OF POWER.
RULES FOR CONDUCTING STEA~T-EXGI~ TESTS.
PIalIt. ir asc$rtained hg meas-
I.^ -.1-
lnting the t.ot,nl
ven; and any other
WARNI NG: ' 7hi.s is a 1910 edition. Some of t
RULES FOX CONDUCTING STEAX-ENGINE TESTS. 989
steam-driven mecl:anism or auxiliaries IleceSSary to thP Working of the
engine. It is obl@tprySvto thus charge t
ho onpine wivith the steam used
1.. .__- :._: ..,I ,I
, . - ~ _ . .._.. ..~
L.. _^^^,^n..n ,,_. I,~nO~,rl Ueberlll,,,,,,~ b,3e plmt economy, for the reiEson
,lefited or should be so benefited, b.y the heat
.- ---~-I& agreed that exhaust st,ea!TI from
,tlrough a feed-water heater, and the
._..... ~__.~
i&i thereby carried back to the boiler Sri,,, SlLVCd.
in that large class of steam engines whlrh are IWlUir~d to run at a cer-
tain limited and const;mt speed, there should be a consldefable reserve of
capacity beyond the rated Power.
It is our recomme;datl
~011 that when a
Steam engine is operating at its rated Power at a aven
pressure there
s&,&j be a s(dicient reserveto dinw a. drOD Of at least 15 -._- _ .-. _
per cent in the
gauge pressure without senslbll
e reduction in the working wee,
;d of the
entine!. and to allow an overload at
the stated pressure amountmg to at
Rux,m FOR CONDUCTING STEAM-ENGINE TESTS. CODE OF 190% -~
I. object of Test. - Ascertain at the outset the specific object of the test,
whether it be to determine the fulfillment of a COntraCt guarantee, to
ascertain the highest economy obtainable. to filld the worklng economy
alid defects under conditions as they exist,
to ascertain the ,performance
llnder special conditions. to determlne the effect of changes In the coodl-
tlons or to find the performance of the entlre holler and enwe Plant.
and $repare for the test accordingly.
II. CFWU~ Condition of the ~zant: -Examine 45: engine and .the
entire plant concerned in the test: note lt,s general COIl:i110~ aJld al1.y pjllnts
of design construction or operation which h4ar ,or~ t,he obwts In llem.
&fake a siecial esaminaiion of the valyes and pISo-.< for leakage by aPP!y-
ing the ivorking pressures with the engne at rest, and observe the quaatltY
of steam if any tilowing through per hour.
III rjim~~.&ns, etc. - Measure or check the dimensions of th$ CYlia-
ders &hen they we hot.
1f they are much worn, the average diameter
should be det.erminetl. Measure also the Cle?ranCe. If the clearance
c?nnot be measured difectly, it can be determmed aPProllmatelY from
tie working drawings of the cylinder.
IV. coal. - When the trial involves the complete Plant, embra$$
boilers a,s weI1 as engine detetmine the character@ coal to be llsed.
class name of the mine siw moisture, an,d qrrahty of the ~?a1 should be
stztid in the report
It is h&irable for pnrposes of CompanSOn, that, the
&al shorlld be of sdme recognized siandard quality for the locahty where
of the whole.
enc+ne s\lo:lld cont,intle a,t least one full da? of twenty-follr ho? whether
y-11~ commercial test, of a complete plant. embracing hoi? as weI1 as
th: en&ne is in motion during the entire time or not.
9 contlr?uous foal
test of a, boiler and engine should he of at least ten ho?s dllratlon, Or the
nelres+ nl l l kt , i pl e of the interval between times of &smW fires.
Feed-Waler Test of E&ae: The engine having been brought to the normal
~TII~. ~,ti,,~ and ~~~~~~~~ a, vkt. - (a) St~andwd Heat Test d
-.~ ..~ _~
-.- .
: material ~rnay- rk longe~r be accurate
The l!eJt to be d$erm,ined is that used br the e;ttire enrrine equipment
embrarln: the mam eyltnders and all auxiliary cylinders*& mecbanisni
latinr: Pump. and feed pumps. also the jacket and reheater whei these
concerned in the operadion of the engine, including the air ptimp circu-
are used.
The steam pressure and the quality of the steam are to be ta,ken at
some Pomt conve,nient.ly near the thrdttle valve
The quantity of steam
used hy the ralorimeter must be determined and properly allowed for
s. ~~fcmIwm?mt of Feed Water or Steam. Connlnlptioll of Fngille et;. -
The method of determining the st,eam consumption applicnble to ali plants
1s to measure all the feed water supplied to the boilers and deduct there
from the, pater discharged by separators and drips, &also the water and
steafn ~mch rsmpes on account of leakage of the boiler and its Gpe con-
nectlons and lpaknce of the st.eam main and branches connecting ihe boiler
and the entine.
In plant,s where the engine exhitusts into a surface con-
denser the steam consumption can he measured bv determining the quan-
tity of IWer discharged by the air pump corrected for any leal-lge of the
confiPn%. and addinr theret,o the stead qsed by jackets, reb&ers, and
aurlllaries as determined independently.
The rorrrctions or deductions to he made for leaka.ge above referred to
sl~~lld be aPPli~l only t.o the standard heat-nnit, t.est and tests for deter-
m)ninr RimPlY the steam or feed-wat.er consumpt,ion and not .to coal tests
ot romhined entine and boiler equipment.
In the iatter no corrections
should 1~ made except for leakage of valves connecting io olher engines
Dhllt Ilntlrr t,,esf.
am hoilm. or for steam used for purposes other than the operation of t,he
Losses of heat. dne t.o imerfections of the plant should
be cnriXd to fhe I~hnt. Zuld ontv Such losses as are concerned in the \vork-
In6 Of tile Wine alone shouJd be charged to the e!lgine,
WARNI NG: Thi s is a 1910 edition. Some of
RULES FOR CONDUCTING STEAM-ENGINE TESTS. 991
XI. Measurement of Steam used hy Aux~~~ar<es. -- J4 is highly desir$le
th$the quantity of s<eam used bY the au$liaries, and m many cases tnaz
used by each auxiliary, should he deterrmued eractly.,so that the net con-
sumption of the main engine cylinders may.be ascertained and a complete
analysis made of the entire work of the enW,e plant,.
XII. Cod Measurement. - The coal consumpt~lon should be deter-
mined for the entire time of the test.
If the engine runs but a part of the
time and during the remaining portion the fires are banked, t.he measure-
meLi of coal should include that used for b:?nlcmg.
XIII. I&&ted Horse-l?ower. - The indlc&ted horse-po!ver +;hould be
determined from the average mean effective pressure of $agrems taken
at intervals of twenty minutes, snd at more frequent Intervals !f the
nature of the test mskes this necessary,
for each end of each cyhnder.
With variable loads, such as those of engines driving gene,rators,for elec-
tric railroad Work, and of rubber-grinding and rolhng-null engnes. the
diagrams cannot be taken too often.
The most satisfactory driving rig for indicating seems t.o be some fo!m
of well-made pantograph, with driving cord of fine a!mealed wlreal;;d;;E
to the indicator. The reducing motion, whatever It may he,
connections t,o the indicstor, should be so perfect as to prpduce diagrams
of equal lengths Ivhen the same indicator is attached to either end of the
cylicder. and produce a proportionate reduction of the motion of the
piston at every point of the stroke, as proved by test.
The use of a t?ree-way cock and a single indicator conntct,ed, to the
t\vo ends of the C) render is not advised, except in cases v?here It IS l.mprac-
ticable to use an indicator close to each end.
If a three-\vay cock 1s used,
the error produced should be determmed ilnd allowed for.
XIV. Testing Indicator Springs.
-To make a perfectly satiSfaCtOrY
comparison of indicator springs with standards. tl?e calibmtlon shou!d,be
ma,de. if-this were practical, under the s?me concht~ons as those pertammg
totK& ordinary iise. ~
XV. Brake Horse-power. - This term applies to the polver delivered
from the flv~hoel shaft of the engine.
It is the polver absorbed by a fric-
tion brakeapplied to the rim of the Wheel. or t? the shaft.
.a form .of
brake is preferred that is self-adjusting to a certalll ester?>. SO that it ~11,
of itself tend to maintain a constant
resistance at the nm of the mheel.
One of ihe simplest brakes for comparatively small englues, \vhich may be
made to embody this principle, consists of a, cot.ton or hemp ,IoPe, or a
nuhber of ropes, encircling tne
nheel.
arranged \vith Wiphlng scales.
or other means for sho\ving the strain.
An ordinary band brake may also
be constructed so as to emhody the principle.
The nbeel should,be pro-
vided with interior llanges for holding ivater used for keeping the nm cool.
XVI. Qunlitrl of Steam. -L When ordinar?
7 snt.nrabed steam is used. its .
quality should be obtained by the use of a throt.tling calorimeter attached
to the-main steam pipe near the thrott,le valve.
When the Steam 1s super-
heated the mnount of superheating should be found by the use of a the?-
mom&r placed in a thermometer-Lvell filled \vith merrur?. ins:rted In
the pipe. The sampling ipe for the calorimeter should, 1: pos=ble,,.be
attached to a section of t le malt, Pipe having a vert.ical direction. x~lth f
the steam referlblv passing upward. and t,hr sampling no+ should be
made of a lalf-u&i pipe, having at least 20 %-in. holes In Its perforated P .
surface.
XVII. Speed. - There are several
reliable
metlmds of ascertaining
the speed, or t.he number of revolutions of y
he engine crank-shaft per
minute, The most, reliable mebhod is the my
0 of a continuous recordlpg
engine register or count.er taking the tot,al reading en+ time that tne
gene&l best data are recorded, and computing the re~!oh~t~ons par.muult,e
correspondinp to the difference in the readings of the Inst~rument.
When
the speed is ahove 250 revolnbions per minnt,e,
it 1s almost. lmpossihle t.0
make-a satisfactory count~ing of the revolutions without the use of some
form of mechanica, counter.
XVIII. ~cr~~dina the D&n. - Take note of every event co.nnected tvith
the progresgof t,he trial tvhether it seems at the t,lme.to be lmP.ortant or
unimportant..
Ixecord the time of every event, and time Of taking every
weight. and every observation.
Obs&ve the pressures. t,emperatures.
nvster heights, speeds, etc., every twenty or thirty mulutes when the con-
K$teri$l may no l &g& be accurate
i j ~
TEIE STEAM-ENGINE.
ditions are practically uniform, and at much more frequent intervals if
the condltrons vary.
XIX. ~JWormtiy of Conditions. - In & test, h&tine for n.n ohiwt. thn
d:tert$?&i 01 cne maximum economy obtainab&Yfrom an engine -0; ~-- .--- --*---
wncre !t 1s deslrrd. to ascertain with spe&J accuracy the effect of ire-
determlned con&tlons of operation, it is important that all the condi-
tions under w&h the engine is operated should be maintained uniformly
constant.
XX. hzlusis of Indicator Diagrams. 1 (a) Steam Accounted for by
the Indicator: The simplest method of computing the steam accounted
for by the Indicator is the use of the formula,
~hici,~ gives the weight in pounds Per indicated horse---~
In this formula the symbol M.E.P. refers to the meah e
power per nom.
In multiple-expansion engines, this is the combined mei:
active pressure.
Sure referred to the cylinder in question.
effective nres-
,.nmnlotoA e.+ e-:-r*
C is the
$3*? the expansion line of the
J
roportion of the stroke
lalram near t,he n&1121
u...)...rC aY ,w,111
cut-off or re!ease: II one Prop
ortlon of comnression: %nfi fi: t.he nrnnnrtir
-.
r.-1,u.u.3n
of CkaranC~; all of which are determined from the indi&&& diacram~
WC is the weight. of one cubic foot of steam ~.t
fnd-. 1Yh t hl
- the cut-off or release pressure.
e weight of one cubic foot of steam at the compression pressure:
these weights being, taken from steam tables.
I
++Jd the point !n the compression curve be at the same height as the
wit In the ex~anslon curve, then WC = W/h. and the formula becomes
113,750 + b1.E.P.) x (c - EI) x JVC,
in which (C -
cl) represents the distance.between the two points divided
by the length of the diagram.
When the load ar
Id afi other conditions are substantially uniform it is
unneccsssry to work u
the diagrams taken.
i.
the steam accounted for by the inilicator from a11
lve or more sample diagrams may be selected and
the ccmPuta!,ions based 0 the samples instead of on the whole.
(b) Sample In$cator I+agrams: In order that the report of a test may
?Rqrd complete lnformntlon regarding the conditions of the test, sample
Indicator diagrams should be selected from those taken and copies ap-
.pend,ed to the tables of results. In cases where the engJne is if the
muJtlPJe-expansion type these sample diagrams may also be arranged Jn
the form of a combined diagram.
cc) The Point of Cut-off: The term cut-off a,s applied to steam engJnes
alt:hoqgh somewhat indefirute, is usucJiy considered to be at an ear&
Pomt In t,he erroke than the beginning of the real expansion line.
That
the cut-off Point may .be defined in exact terms for commercial purposes
as used in sleam-engme specifications and contracts the Committee
recommends that, unJess.otherwJse specified, the comm&nZ cut-og, which
seems to be an appropriate expression for this term, be ascertained as
f?Jiows: Thro!lgh a point showJng the masimum pressure during admis-
slon. draw a 1In.e parallel to t,he atmospheric line.
Through t.he point on
t.he expansion l1n.e near the actual cut-off, referred to in Section XY (a)
draw a h$Perbohc curve.
The point where these two lines inter&t is
to be Ponsi.rJ~r~rJ the commercial cut-off point.
The Percentage is then
found b!: dividmg t,he length of the diagram measured to this point, by
the total length.of the diagram. and muhiplving the result by 100
The mmmerml n&@, as thus debermiried, is situated 8t anearlier
Point of t.he xt,roke than t, he actrml cut-off used in comput.in- the
.st.eam
arcountPd.for hv theii:dicxtor and referred to in Section X% (a).
cd! Rat10 of Expansion: The commercial ratio of expansion is t.he
fl!iotlrnt obbal?ed by dividing the votume correspondinp to the pict.on
dtsP,lncr~ent, Inrluf!lne rlearance. hy the vol ume of th; steam atkt,he
~WnnlPrclal cut-off. Including clearance.
In a multiple-expansion engine
the volumes are thoPe perraining to the low-pressure cylinder and high-
pressur~:.vlinder, respectively.
The ideal ratio of expansion is the quqt,ient obtained bv dividing
the vohnne of the piston displacement by the volume of the steam at the
.
~~,.,~
I~,
~,~.,,.- .&,-_I
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. home of - i
RULES FOR CONDUCTING STEAM-ENGINE TESTS. 9%
cut-off (the latter being deferred to the throttle-yalve pressure), !ess the
volume equivalent to that retained at cotnpresslon.
In a multiple-ex-
,or,Finn ml ni na t.lie volllmes to be used are those pertaining to the low-
~~~;is~~~;e <$&&&d high-pressure cylinder, fespectively.
(e! I>i:l.eram Factor: The diagram factor ?s the pr0po:tio.n borne by
the iu-.--. .._
rain
tn that of a d
pan-
ed on unuer assumeu conmno~+
Lot~d mem effective pressure measured fro,m the inmcatpr mag
., _..~~~
.iagram in which the various.opera@ns of adI!nsslon, $y;
-inn release and compression are CalTl
.11v..,
The ._-YV. _-_.
fartnr rprommended refers to an ideal diagram wI11ch
represents tne
ma.rimum oow er obtai nAl e from the steam accounted for h.
1.v the indicator
, 1 n nnint nf ~llt.-nff~ assuming first that the engine has no
> no Inraes t,hrnll~h wire-draN\inp t,he
di agrams $t tl , , I , y. A. V. V v. - ,
clearance. second, that there art
..- _-II-- __ __-,- o_. .-- -- ..I
?team du&ng either the admission or the release; $!d, that the e,xpanslon
:,~- - 2s a hyperbolic curve; and fourth, that the Imtral Pressure IS that of
lnilDr n,nri the hack oressure that of the +tn!ozphere~ for a non-con-
s Wi-& of the condenser for a condensing engine.
--.~-., ..~
ere is a considerable loss of pressure between the boiler
tbln ~nine aswhere steam is transmitted from a central @ant to a
i %:,,d,m~r~ +~IW ~W~SIITF. of the steam in the supPly main :hotdd
iaarams.
oe uw31 111 ~LU~.G VI uLIu UVL.-L I,.Iyya..- -:-,
_I_~ .._ - . .._ ,~
XXI. Standards of Economy and ~fitne?W. - The hourl,
Y consunrntion
of h&at determined by erilploying the actual. temperature of t!le- feed
water tb the boiler, as poi.nted nut in, Article IX of the Code, divided by
the indicated and. brake horse-power,
tlt~+ ic $1~ nlln-her of heat, un1t.s
consumed oer indiicsted and per bral$e.l,ulnr-r., II -. ,,.:. -.---, ---
. . ..., __ ____. ~~. .~~~
by the Commlt~tee. The consump
tion per how is chose6 rather than the 6onsun~ption per nnnut:,.so as!0
conform with the designation of time applied to t.he n-ore farmhar units
nf ena.1 &WI wat,er me&Irernent. whicl-
-1 have heretofore been !Ised.
The
-. -.,_ _ - _.._ ..~...
British standard where the temperature of the fee<! \vater 1s taken as
that correspondi& to the tempcrsturc of the back-presslIfe steam. allow-
ance bein& made for any drips from jackets or reheaters. 1s also included
in the tabl es.
It is useful in thiy connection to express the efficiency i?>ts more scien-
tific form, or what is called the thermal efficiency Tatlo.
The t,bermal
efficiency ratio is
the praportiott which the heat e
developed bears to the total amount of heat actual y consumrd, ss deter-
?
uivaient Of the Po\ver
mined by test.
The heat converted into work represented bY one horse-
power is 1,980,OOO foot-pounds per hour,
and this divided by ,778 eWs!s
2545 British thermal units.
Consequently, the thermal eficlency rat10
is expressed by the fract.ion
2545 + B.T.U. per H.P. per hour.
XXII Heat .4nnl&s. - For certain scientific invesii.gations, it 1s
useful td make a heat anaiysis of the diagram, to show the?ntercbanW.of
heat from steam to cylinder walls. etc., which 1s going 011 WItbin the Cohn-
der. This is uhnecessary for commercial tests.
XXIII. Temperature-EntroflU Diagram,. -
The study of the heat an+-
ysis is facilitated bv the use of the temperature-entropy $agram in ~hlch
aria; represent qliantities of heat, the coiirdin\ates being the absolute
temperaiure and entropy.
XXIV Ratio of Ec&om?/ 0f an. Engine to that of. a? Idcal Engine. -
The ideai engine recommended for obtaining this ratlo:s that whlcb as
adopted by the Committee appointed bv t.he Civil EnWeers. of Lonflon,
to consider and report a standard ther.mnnJ efficiencg for steam enmnes.
This enine is one which follows the Rankine cycle, where steam at a On-
stant p;essure 1s admitted into the cvlinder with no c1earancev and
f:
the point of cut-off 1s expanded adikhatically to the back pressure*
obtaininr the econ&ny of t.his enfine the feed water
1s assumed to be
ret,urned to the boiler it the eshaust temPerat,llre.
The rltio of the economy of an enfine t,o that of the i deal en~i ne i s
obt~ai neci t, y di vi di tl p t. l l e tmt ronsumpti m~ per indicated horse-Power per
mim1t.e orthe idea1 enr,yine hy that of the actual ensine.
-cur: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _ I,, the case Of t.est.s of combined engines and
boil& pl?~nts where t,he ftll1 dataoi the boiler Performance are to be deter-
mined ;efer&ce should be made to the dire,ct,ions given bv the Boder
Test Cimmittee of the Society, Code of lS99.
(See vol. XXI* p. 34.)
XXVI. Report of I&. - The data and results of the test should be
reported in the manner and in the order outlined in one of the following
tables. the first of wluch gives a summary of all the data and results as
apphed nqt only to the standard heat-&t test, but also to test!;: of com-
bined engine and boiler for determining all questi0r.s of perffxmance
whatever the class of service: the second refers to a short form m?f report
giylng the necessary data and results for the standard heat test; dnd the
thml to a short form of report for a feed-water test
It is recommended that any report be supplemenied by a chart ia which
the data of.the test are graphically presented.
[Of the three forms of
report mentIoned above, the second is given below.]
DATA AND RESULTS OF STANDARD HEAT TEST OF STEAM ENGINE.
ATranged according. to the Short Form advised by the Engine Test Com-
mlttee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Code of 1902.
1. blade by
onenginelocat.edat..::::::::::::
of.
.....................................
...... .
to determine
: :
..................................................
.................
............
2. Dateoftrlal...::::::::::::::::::-:::::!:::::
..................
3. Type and class of engine; also of condenser
.........................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Dimensions of main engine
(a) Diameter of cylinder
...........
(h) Stroke of piston.
....... .in.
..........
(c) Diameter of piston rod.
.ft
(d) Average clearance.
.... .in:
.. ...... p.c.
(e) Rat.io of volume of cylinder to
thigh-pressure cylinder .... ..
(n Horse-power constant for one
pound mean effective pressure
and one revolut.ion per minute
5. Dimensions and type of auxiliaries.
.* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..__..
1st Cyl. 2d Cyl. 3d Cyl.
..........................
........ ..... ........ .. ...
Total Quantities, Time, etc.
6. Duration of test.
7. Total wat,er fed to boilers from %&&&e bf &ppi$
8. To$,l water fed from auxiliary supplies:
hKs
ll, . . . . . . . . .
5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -..:I::::::::::::::::::::
1:
\L,. . . . . .
..I.............._
.a
9. Total water fed to boilers from all sources,. . II
IO. !Ioist.ure in st,eam or superheating near throttle... 1 : 1
11. F&or of correction for que,lity of st,enm.. . . .
p. c. or deg.
12. Total dry steam consumed for all purposes.. . . . . .
Ibs.
1.3. Water fed from ma,in source of supply.. . . .
14. Water fed from auxiliary supplies:
lbs.
p). . . . . . , . . .
*a
!LJJ.. . . . , . . . . . . . . . ,~ I
I -?.
(C)...............; ... ....
15. Tot,al water fed to 1~011~s per hour
.......
I U. r ot
..............................
IG. Total dry steam consumed per hour
. ~~ ---..-. . . . . . . . . . .........
17. Loss of steam and water per hour due t,o drips from 17. Loss of steam and water per hour due t,o dribif&
ma.in steam pipes and to lenkalre nf ..--A main steam pipes and to leakage of plant .
1% NV; 1% N+,dr.,v steam consumrd per hour by engineand aus:
lhanes. .I..CU
.................... .? .......
.........
RULES FOR CONDUCTING STEAM-ENGINE TESTS. 9%
Pressures and Temperatures (Corrected).
19. Pressure in steam pipe near throttle b;y gauge.. . . . lbs. p$ sq. in.
20. Barometric pressure of atmosphere In ins. of mercury
21. Pressure in receivers by gauge.. . . . . . . Ibs. ??,rsq. in.
22. Vacuum in condenser in inches of mercury.. . . . .
23. Pressure in jackets and reheaters by gauge.. . . . . . . Ibs. per sq. in.
24. Temperature of main supply of feed water.. . . . . . . .
deg. Fahr.
2.5. Temperature of auxiliary supplies of feed water:
(a) ...........................................
(b)............ ................................
(C)....~............................~..........
26. Ideal feed-water temperature correspondmg to pres-
sure of steam in the exhaust pipe, allowance b?ng
made for heat derived from jacket or reheater drips.
Data ReZati?W to Rent Measurement.
27. Heat units per pound of feed water. main supply.. .,.
28. Heat units per pound of feed water, auxiliary supphes:
(a)..................: .........................
(b)
...........................................
, , . ,
~, . . . . I . . a.
UARNIN&: Thi&-~is~ a 1910 klition. 5ome of t he material may no
(c) _..:... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._;. . . . . . . . . . . .
29. Heat umts consumed per hour, m~lp,supply : . . .
30. Heat units consumed per hour, auslhary supphes:
~~~~.:.:::................................
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
icj., ..............
. ...........................
31 Total neat units consumed per hour for all purp?ses.
32: Loss of heat per hour due to leakage of plant, drips,
etc ...........................................
33. Net heat units consumed per hour:
(a) By engine alone.,
..........................
(b) By auxiliaries
..............................
34. Heat rniits consumed per hour by engme alone, reck-
oned from temperature given in line 26. :.
.... ....
Indicator Dia.orams.
35. Commercial cut-off in per cent of srroke
.............
36. Initill pressure, !bs. er sq. in. above atmosphere
37. Bacli pressure at mic!-.
...
strobe, above or below atmos- .
phere, in 11~s. per sq. in.
... .... .....
35. Mean effective pressure in 11)s. per Fq. *n
..........................
39. Equivalent II1.E.P. in Ibs. per sq. 111.:
(a) Referred to first cvhn+?r .. .....................
(a) Referred to second cphnder
.....................
(c) Referred to third cylinder
.......................
40. Pressure above zero in lhs. per sq. In.:
$l,m~,:;~~-o.o,~. ....... ::., ......................................................
(c) Near beginnmg of coppresslon
... .......... ..
Percent,age of stroke at, points where pressures are
measured:
. frill Near cut-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-
(bj N&r release
....................................
(c) Near beginning of compression .:
... .....
41. Steam accounted for by indicator In (pounds Per
I.H P.per hour: (a) Near cut-off; (a) Near release.
42: Ratio of expansion: (a) Commercial; (b) Ideal
....... ......
Speed.
43. Revolutions per minute.. . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
twmer
I
[Separate
Columns
for each
Cylinder.1
rev.
44. Inclicated horse,power developed{ by main-engine cylinders$ p
cirst cylinder.. . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;. *
Secondcylinder.. .............................
Thirdcylinder.. ...............................
Total.
......................................
45. Brake horse-power developed by engme.
...........
longer be accur at e
Stundard E&-iency and other Results.*
46. H~~Ieat units, co.nsumed by engine and auxiliaries Per hour:
(u) per mdicated horse-power.. . . . . . .
(0) per brake horse-power. . . . . . ..I : : : : : : : :
47. Eqmvalent siandard coal in Ihs. per hour:
B.T;U.
(a) per indicated hors<,. .:wer.
(b) per brake horse-pi .v>r .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1q;.
. . . . . . .
48. Heat units consumed by main en$inel& h&r corre-
SpOndlng to ideal maximum temperature of feed
water given in line 26:
(a) per indicated horse-power.. . . . . . . . . _ . . . . .
@) per brake horse-power. . . . . . . . . . .
B.T;.TJ.
4Q. Dry steam consumed per indicated horse$dw& pdr hour:
(a) Main cylinders including jackets . . . . .
(b) Auxiliarycylinders . . . . . . . . . . ....... ...
1ps.
(c) Engine and susiliarles.. . . ., . . . .
. . . . . . .
50. Dry steam consumed per brake horse-powe; p& hb.u;:
I
(aj Main cy!inders Including jackets.. . . I
. .
(b) Auxiliary cylinders.. . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . : : : : :
Cc) Engine and aul;iliaries.. . . . . . . . . . .,
*I
51. Percentage of steam xsed by main-engine cylind&i
I
accounted for by indicator diagrams, near cut-off
of high-pressure cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
per cent.
Additional Data.
Add +ny additional Tlata bearing on the particular objects of the test
Or rel$tlng to, the sp&!al, class of service for which the en&ne is used
Also !$ve COPleS Of indicator diagrams nearest the mean, and the coirel
sponthng scales.
DIJ LENSIOKS OF PARTS OF EXGINES.
The freatment of,this subject hy the pleading authorities on the steam-
q.lw 1s very unsatisfactory, being a confused mass of rules and formulz
based partly upon theory and partly upon practice
The practice of
b+lers ShOw a~ esceedmg diversity of opinion as to correct
dimensions.
1 he treatment- @wn brlon is chieCiy the result of a study of the &or&
Of Rankine. beato!l. Unwn, Thurston, Marks, and Whitham and is
largely a ~ondensatipr? of a series of articles bv the author pub&led ln
the Awwcnn .If~~hzmst. In 18Q4. with manv aiterations aud much addi
tional mnbtrr.
In order t0 make a compaiison of many of the formu];
tfieY htlVe. heW IlPphed t? the assumed Cases of six engines of differrnt
sizes. and 111 some cases this comparison has led to the construction of new
formula.
[got& lQ?Q. Since the, first edition of this hook \v& published in
18Qa. no sa~lsfscforr treat,lse on this entire subject has appeared ;,,d
~heJf?for~ the matef 011 Pages 997 to lo!?0 11ns been lef in that re;:i$on
for the bth ,editlon. In practically its original shape.
T& notab!e papers
on the ?llbJeCt. however. have appeared: 1, Current Practice in Engin;
ProportIons. by Prof. John H. Bar-
>. 1397. and 2. Current Pract,ice in
Steam-ewi:ine Design. by Gle N. Trooien, iQO9. Bot,h of these are ab-
stracted on pn~rrs 1021 nnd lo?.]
. Cylindrr. (~~hit,h3ln.)--length of bore = stroke + breadth of piston-
nng - l/s to */? In.: length between heads = st.roke + thickness of p&ton
+,sum of ch?arnnees at both,ends; thickness of piston = breadth of ring +
t.hlcltnesS of flange on one side bo carry the ring + thickness of follotver-
plate.
Thicknrss of Clnnpe or follower.,
For cylinder of diameter
s/s to l/z in.
8 to 10 in.
31~ in.
36 in.
1 in.
60 to 100 in.
CIrarnnce of Piston.
(Seaton.) - The clearance ailowed vzries \vith
the size of the w+?f!~,e fr?F l/s t.0 3/81t1. for roughness of Fastings jud qs to
/8 irJ.,for each workmg JOlnt. Naval and other very fast-running en@nes
*. The hors+power refrrred to above items 46-50 is that of the mnCn
engllle, exclusive of auxiliaries.
WARNINk: ~This~ is a 1910 edition. Some of
DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES.
997
have a larger allcWUV2e. In a vertical direct-acting engine the parts
which wear so as Lo bring the piston nearer t)e bottom are three, viz.,
the shaft journals, the crank-pin brasses, and piston-rod gudgeon-brasses.
Thickness of Cylinder.
(Thurston.) -- For ei!gines of the older
types and under moderate steam-pressures, some bu!lders have tor many
years restricted the stress to about 2551) Ibs. Per sq. IL
t =aplD + b . . . . . . . . . (1)
17 a common proportinn; t, D, and 1, being t!lickncss, diqm.. ap$ con-
&ant added quantity varying from 0 to ?/z. all ln iI?ClleS: PI 1~ the +tlal un-
balanced steam-pressure 1~ wr sn. ln. In this exPres%on b 1s made
!!- iG &X4 &iinders. as. fdi- examnle. in large
lwenr for horizontal thau .-_ ..~.^.rl-,;.~,,~~_-. ~.
IL^^ ^_^ _^^.. :f--..,.L,4;,
engines 0.5 ln the one case ano u.2 In rne ocuer, we OLLC: IG:I(UIILL;~ I~UIIIIB
more wan LII~
1~ ~- I- 3 other. The constant a is from 0.0004 to O.OOOa; the first
value for verl.k.u. ;nol cylinders, or short strokes; the second for horizontal
entines. or for low r strokes.
~L--J -- nnrl Its Cnnnwtinns for Marine Engines.
n~ickness of Cy~ancw .I---
IRO~.+,O~~~ - D = the diam. pf t-4; F~~~~~er;n~inElles; p = load on the
:onstant multiplier, = thickness of
barrel + 0.25 in.
Thickness of metal of cylinder barrel or liner, not to be less than p X(4
+ 30,OO wheKof cast iron *
Thickness of cylinder-barrei =p X b & 5006 < 016 ii. : - :
: : I,, 5
.I I
Thickness of liner = 1.1 K J
Thickness of liner when of steel = p X $ ;~~~~) b.5in:
. =
--,ea,m-norts
Thickness of metal of SL _._... ,~ .,~ .~
Thickness of metal valve-box sides
= 0.65 x3.
Thick?ess of me;?1 of valye-box covers = 0.7
cyhn!lcr bo;tom = 1.1 z f if single thickzess.
= Cl A5 Y i i f douL& I.
4.
. .
. .
.I
. .
II
covers
= i:O j( ~; li sinfile
11 l 4 - 0.6 x f. ifdouble
;:
cylinder flange
4
cover-flange
.A
valve-box flange
(1
door-flange = 0.9 Xl.
a1
= 1.3 X !.
I.
face Ever pvrts
. = 1. o x f, wh;%;i-here is a false-
_-...
6 (1
falsq;face
= 0.8 X f, when cast iron.
. a .a = 0.6 x f, when steel or bronze.
whltbam gives the following from different authOriti&S:
VanBuren:~t=o.ooo~~ +0.151/D: . . . (5)
.
2
lt=0.03 Dp . . . . . . . . (6)
Tredgold: t= (D + 2.5) p+lQOO. . . . . . (7)
Weisbarh: t= 0.8+ O.OOO33pD . . . . . . (8)
Seaton: t= 0:5 + 0.0004 pD (9)
Haswell:
t 0 0004 pD+ l/3 (v&tiialj; : : : (10)
{
c- 0.0005 pD + l/s (horizontal) . . (11)
Whitbarn recommends (6) where provision is made for the. reboring.
and where ample strengt,h and rigidity are secured, for hpnzontal.or
vertical cylinders of large or small diameter; (9) for large cyhnders using
steam under 100 lbs. gauge-pressure. and
t = 0.003 D <p for small cylinders . . . . . (13)
The following table gives t,he calculat,ed thickness Cf cylinders of
10 30, and 50 in. diam., assumir~g p the maSlmum unbalanced
on ihe piston = 100 111s. Per Sq. In.
As the same engines +l
for calwlations of other dimensions, other Particulars concermng
them are here given for reference.
* Wheti made of ez:ceedingly good mnt.erial, at least. twice melted,
the thickness may be 0.8 of that given by Dhe above rules.
~6~ r$!&?ial tiay non longer be accurate
DW~NSIONS, ETC., OF ENGINES.
Engine, No..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._..
1 and 2. 3 and 4. 5 and 6. .
Indicated horse-power.. . . . .I.H P.
Dismof cyl., in . . . . ..,..,._.._......... :D
Stroke, feet . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L
Revs.permin . . . . . . . .._....._...... i . . . . +
Piston speed. ft. per min.. . . . .S
$rea of piston, sq. m.. . . . . . . .a
can effectwe pressure.. .M.E.P.
Max. total unbalanced pressure. . . .P
Max. total pressure per sq. in... . . . ,p
1250
4.50 8
9o iti 45
1963.5
1963?5Q
lb0
-0~ r;lli;i~~rs, ~ccoruing to tne first
eleven formuhe above quoted. ranges for engines ~1 and 2 from 0.33 to
1.13 ins., for 3 and 4 from 0.99 to 2.00 ins., and for 5 and 0 from 1.50 to
3.00 ins.
-..- -_
1.48 ins.: for 5 xnd f i - T?Fi ne
The averaces of the 11 are, for 1 and 2, 0.70 in.; for 3 and 4,
_- I, -.-- l...l.
The average Corresponds nrarlytc the formula t = 0.00037 D
A convement approximation is t = 0.0004 Dn + n 3 in
-t 0.4 n.
Diameters . . . . .*_
-_
. -.- *-.t whiciY gives 10,
Thicknesses. . . . _. . .: : : 0. :g
12:
9, - .n
50 60 in.
l?xO I?!0 2.30 2.70in.
The last formula corresponds to a ;e&ile strength of cast iron of lo 500
lb.,, with il factor of safety of 10 and an allowance of 0.3 in for reb&ng
Cylinder-beads. - Thurston says: Cylinder-heads ma; be given -a
thlCkness, at the edges and in the Ranges exceeding somewhat that of
the cy!lpier. An excess of not less thair 25~~ is usual
thinner,m t,he middle It mav be
Wh$re made, as is usual in large engine- of t\vo
dfsks ?lth nitermedtate radiating, connectine ribs or webs tllaisect,lon
\~h~~h IS Safe aPalllst sbeannw ic robably ample.
- .._-.-.. o .,,
designs of experienced builders, f;i
An examination of the
y Professor Thurston. save
t = DP + 3GOO +i/4inch,
. . . .
D being the diameter of that circle in which the thickness is taken.
(1)
Thurston also gives
Marks gives
t = 0.005 D dP+ 0.25.
t=0.003~; . . . . :::: _, g,
ln. is to make the thlc~neSS of the cylinder-heads 1 1j4 times that of illi
He also says a good ,pmctical rnle for pressures under 100 11~~s. per sq
0.00025 PD, we have
walls: and applying this fwtor to his formula for thickness of v;alls,or
t = 0.00035pD. . . . . . . . . (4)
Whitham quotes from Seaton~
t = (PD -e 500) -i-
2000. mbich is equal to~0.0005 pD + 0.25 inch
Seatons formula for cylinder bottoms, quoted above, is
(5) . . \-.
t = O.lf, in which f= 0.0002pD -+0.85 in., or t=O.00022 nD en 02
IPI\
=- -.-- * \I
diameter, wth maxmium unbalanced steam-pressure of 100 11~s. per so.
Aching the nbo,W fOrmIme to the engines of 10 30 and 50 inches
in.. we have
- .
For Cylinder IO-in, dinm.. 0.35 t,o 1.15 in.; for 30-in. dlam. 0.90 to
1.79 In.: for 50-in. diam., 1.50 t.o 2.75 in.
0.65. 1.35 and 2.10 in.
The averages are respect.ively
The average IS expressed by the formula t = 0 00070 Dp + 0 31 :,~ml,
stlffenlng Cast-Iron cylinder-rovers as a s&irce of danger
web-stiffened Cylinder-rovers. - Seaton objects to &bs for
the web 1s one of tension, and if there should he a The stmin on
niCl-or def&til ihe
outer edge of the web the sndden apptiCntion of strzil> is apt to ltart
a crack He recommends that, high-pressure cyli&rs over 24 in. and
MARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition.
'Some
DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES.
999
p. s = 0.014i4 D
b -0.0002 ~3
\i b. For the three engines we hb .e:
Diameter of cylinder, iIJches
..........
Diameter of bolt-circle, approx
.........
Gircumference of circle, approx.
nrinimum no. of bolts, circ. ,i- Oz
.............
Diam. of bolts, s=O .01414D \
lp . 3/*in. 1.00 1.29
i; . . . .
The diameter of bolt for the lo-inch cylinder is 0.54 in. by the formula,
but 31~ inch is as small as should be taken, on account or possible over-
strain bp the wrench in screwing up the nut.
Gile miston petails of Gonstruction of Ordinary Pistons. (Seaton.)
J et i be the diameter of the piston in inches, p the effeCtI\ e Pressure Per
,/are inch on it,, 2 a constant multiplierlfound as follows:
z=fDi50) X4/P+ 1.
- \-
The thickness of front of pi;)on near zhe $F
z
II (1
a4
hark
= O.l?
materi al
may
no l onger be accurate
---.-
.I
a.
= 0.23 x 1.
.I
5 il.22 x 5.
II
.I
packinpring
Junk;mg at edge
z ;.;; 2;.
.d .
.
.I II
inside packing-ring = z.$ $ E.
at bolt-holes
G
6
metal around piston e&e
095 xx:
breadth of packing-rine
2 o:~3 x 2.
depth of piston at renter.
_ 1.4 xx.
lap of junk-rim? on the pmton
e 0.45 x 2.
space between piston bodv and packinWing s i;!
diamet.er of jnnk-rine bolts
=
$ $ + 0.25in.
pit,& of jnnk-ring ho&s
10 diameters.
nrlmber of webs in the piston
thickness of webs ill the PlStOn
i f$l+&O~ -i- 12.
Mark :S SiVeS ,the aDPrOXimate rule: Thickness of piston-head = $12,
in whL
,h I - I,.....lL ^P -L--l-- -~~~a -
Whitham says: !n a honzontal en~lne the rings s11pp,
c - rysru VI ,wwll~, alla U= diameter of cylinders in inches.
lea% a part Of. It, under ordinary con.ditions.
art the piston. or at
The pressurd due to the
weight of the ptston upon an area equai to 0.7 the diameter of the cvlinder
5 breadth of ring-face, should never exceed 200 Lby. per sp. in.
g*va a form,,19 m..nh ..,A :- A=:^ ---~~~ ke also
0.15 X diamet ~~ -_ _ ;er of cylinder.
1-Y ZL*U~~LI u.xju L&L buls cOUm,fy: Hreadth bf ring-face L
For our engines we hE tvedismeter =. . . . . . . . . IO
30 sn 1
Marks, QZ; long stroke... . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thickness of piston-head.
3.31
.- 5.48 7.m
Marks, ;/ZD; short stroke... . . . . . . . . . . .
._-
Seaton, depth ad center = 1.4 r
3.94
6.51 8.32
.
Seaton, breadth of ring = c). 63 2.. * .
4.20
Whitham, breadth of ring = 0.15 d....::
::Ez
94%
15.40
6.93
4.50 7.50
Diameter of Piston Packing-rings. - These are generally tr1rned
beforf: they are cut. ?bout l/s inch diameter larger than the cylinder
fpr C) linderg up to 20 mches. dl ameter, ~ and then etiough ls cut oi1t of tl,ef
rings to spnng them to the hameter of the cylinder.
For larger cylinders
the rings are turned proportionately larger. Seaton recornlncnds an
excess of 1% of the diameter of the cylinder.
A theoretIca paper on Piston Packing. Rings of nloriern SteAn1 Enpines
by 0. C. Reymsnn will be found in Jour. Fra&. Inst. Aug. >8g7.
Cr OSS-SeCt i On of the Rings. -The thickness is cdmmonlv made
l/so of .the diam. ?f cyl.+ l/s mch, and the width = thickness + i/s inch
of unnorm th!ckness, and the minimum thickness = Z/s the maxim-.-n.
For a!! eccentrx nng the mean $lckness may be the same as for a rini
A circular 1ssr!ed by J. H. Dunbar, manufacturer of packirg:-;i:, Ts
Y~mIS$own, Ohlo. says: Unless otherwise ordered,. the tldc&eys bo{
ringS nlll be Fade equal to 0.03 X their di ameter.
been found to be satisfactory in practice.
It
This thicknesg has
admits
madeabout s/mm. to the foot larger than thecylinder,and has when new
of the ring being
to Prevent leakage :f the surface of the ring and cylinder 6re smodth
a tenslon of about two pounds per inch of circtimference wh& ly arnpli
As regards the wuith of rings, authorities scatter from very njrrow
to very !\lde, the latter being fullv te!z times the former.
Unwin ares N = o.oizl d + 0.0s.
For inst?nce
Whithams formula is TV= 9 .l5 d
In both form11lE w is the width of the ring in inches. and i the diymete;
of the cylinder in inches.
Unwins formula makes the width of j 20 in
rl?g w = 29X 0.014f0.08 =0.36in.,.while Whithams iszox o 15 =
3 in. for the same diameter of ring.
lliere is much less differencein the
Pract1cc of engine+uilders in this respect, but t,here is still room for a
standard xvi&h of nna. It is believed that for cylinders over 16 in. diam-
eter 314 in. is a popldar and practical width, and l/z in. for cylinders of
thct s&e and nnder.
E: It. ?+Gahey, ~llnchv., Feb., 190ti Fives the following tables for Qzeq
of Pl stoa rings for cylinders 6 to 21) in:, diameter.
A = (outside din&. oi
klSt t~hlCkneSs of eccent,ric ring: C = width of ring (axial); D = amohnt
rine -bore of cyhnder): B= thickness (radial) of equal section ring or
Cut Out Or lap; E 4 greabejt thickness of eccentric ring.
6 7 8
9 10 I I 12 13 I . 4 15
I
16 17
I
, 8
- - - - _
w- m-
- - I L- -
-_
A
B
C
D
19 20
- -
13/3? 3132
314 3h.3
we 13/M
vs2 I w2
The following are the values of F:
_ Nayal engives, direct-nc
return c
Merca&le ordinary strr$ie, uxrc:c;~c~x~~6
II
long
. . . . . . . . . . .
very. long
.I
4,
_..........
.I
medium stroke, oscillat,ing . . . . . .
. I
7 = f j o
~~~&j ~gl ; &j : $, &i &. . . . . _ . . . . .
P = so
. Az_^xl ^^+: . . . . . . . . . . .
F_ = 50
. r=ls
. F=45
. F=45
1l/l0 1I8 t 3h6 i l/g
)C *
_
,+
NOTE _ ~~~~ and very long,,as compared with the stroke us31 for
ii
the pow& of engine or size of cylinder.
--_ _~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of-?%? material may no longer be accurkte
-
EQUAL SECTION RINGS.
DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES,.
/
ECCENTRIC RINGS.
-
4 6 7 8 9 I O I I 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
8
- - - - - .
- _-
- -
I - - - -
c 5110 3/a 318 7/10 i/If3 l/2 112 J /l0%a 11l16 WG 314 314
D 351M 3910~ 2132 23132 25132 27132 i/a 1V113 1 1 l / l o I 113 13110 IV4
E 9/m 511s /a, 3/s 131221 i/l,) 15132 112 g/1G 5i8 11/1(1 11/10 3/4
1001
19 20
--
13132 13132
lyt32 %
13llO 13/m
: gt3? , llt32
13116 718
-I--lrl I I I I I I I I ,
Fit of Piston-rod into Piston. (Seaton.) -- T!le most convenient
and reliable pracfice is to turn the piston-rod end with a shoulder ?f ~/IO
inch for small engines and l/8 inch for large ones; make the tayer 3 la. tp
the foot until the se&on of the rod is three-fourths of that o. the hod>,
then turn the remaining part parall$:
the rod should then fit 1nt.o the
piston SO as to lmve l/g in. between 1t and
the shoulder for larGe plstom
and l/1s in for small. The shoulder prevents the rod from splltt~l,vg the
piston ani allows of the rod being turned true after long wear \~ltllOW~
encro&hing on the taper.
The piston is secured to the rod by a nut,
and the size of the rod should
be such that the strain on the sec.tition at the bottom of the thfead does
not exceed 5500 lbs. per sq. in. for iron, 7090 lbs. for steel.
1he depth
of this nut need not exceed the diameter which would be found by allow-
ing these strains.
The nut should be locked to prevent Its working loose.
Diameter of Piston-rods. - Unwin$Ves
I,\
a= bD 1/p, . . . . . . . . . \ I
in ,vhlch D ls the cylinder diameter in inches, p is the masim!m @al-
anced pressure in lbs. per sq. in., and the constant I> = 0.016, for iron.
and b = 0.0144 for steel.
Thurston, from, an examination of a con-
siderable number of rods in use, gives
+ go, nearly . . . . . . (2)
(I, in fee*
n II.nrt rl in inches). in which o = 10,000 and up!varo 1n cm2
various t*p=:.- 111 L..e....-s.. ---~
es or ordinary fast ,$n@es
on shoreare tiven. the lowest values.,while low-speed en5nes bemg
leSi!i-a!jy +n o,rridpnt f rom ShOCli o.re gven o=,l5.000. often.
,+l to the cross-head should
_ ,J ..,.e
(I in feet D and d in inches).
in which Q = 10,000 a1?d upward in,the
v;rioun tvpes of engines, the marine screw engines or ordinary fast ,$ng?s
oA &reare given. the lowest values., wlnle low-spe;de&?nes
bemg
lesslilble to zcc,ident from ShOdi a.re 5Ven fi= 15.000.
.CoAnections of the piston-rod to the piston and to the cross-head should
have a factor of safety of at least 8 or 10.
Marks sives
d 2 0.0179 D 2;. for iron: for st,eel
d =0.0105 Dl(G2 .
(3) . (3)
and d = 0.039.. _ and d = 0.03901 YE, for iron; for st,eet tl=O .03525 Y/D~~~P, .
LP, . (4) (4)
in which 1 is the l&$h in which 2 is the length of stroke.
of stroke.
all dimensions n! 11~cuca. 511 dimensions iq inches.
Deduce the Deduce the
dlamerer of pi~on-rod by (3), and if this diameter IS less than 1112 1. then dlamerer of pi~on-rod by (3), and if this diameter 1s less than 1112 1. then
use (4). use .(4).
Seaton gives: Diameter of piston-rod =
n:nmeter;f cylinder <. Diameterif cylinder <.
DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES
1003
In considering an expansive engine, P, the effective pressure should be;
taken as the absolute working
t~he boiler. safety-valve !s loade
cr
ressure, or 15 Ibs. above that to which
for the high-pressure piston should be taken as the absolute pressure
; for a compoundengine the value of P
less lo lbs.. or the same as the load on the safety-valve. for the medium:
pressure the load may be taken as that due to half the absolute boiler-
pressure; and. for the low-pressure cylinder the pressure to which the
escape-valve IS loaded +.I? Ibs., or the maximum absolute pressure
which can be got in the recerver, or about 25 Ibs.
It is an advantage to
make all the rods of a compound engine alike, a,nd this is now the rule.
Applying the above formulae to the engines of l,O, 30, and 50 in. diam.
eter. both short and long stroke, we have:
tllc maximum pressure exceeding 100 lbs. per sq. in.
When .the surfaces
are kept well lubricated this allowance may be exceeded.
Thurston says: The rubbing surfaces of gu+des are so proportiqncd that
if p be their relative velocity in feet per minute. ad I, be the llltenslty
of pressure on the guide in lb!. per sq. in., pV < 60,000 and P V > $O,OO$
The lower is the safer limrt; bud
+ for marine and statronary engmes rt
is allowable to take P = 60,000 i V.
According t0 Rankme, for loco-
44V800
motives, p = -9
where P is the pressure in lbs. per sq. in. and V the
velocity of rubbing in feet per minute.
This includes the sum of all
pressures forcing the two rubbmg Surfaces together.
Some British bmlders of portable engmes reStrl:t
t~he pressure between
;;;hguides and cross-beads to less than 40, cometlmes 35 lbs. per square
For a mean velocity of 600 feet per minute, Prof. Thurston;Iformulas
give P < IOO? P > 96.7; Rankines gives P = 72.2 lbs. per sq.
.
WlUtham grves,
P 0. 7854cPp1
A = area of slides in square inches = -= =
podnz-1 p,GGi
Diameter of Piston-rods.
I
Diameter of Cylinder, inches.. . .,.
-
.
.
. . .
.
.
(
-
IO 30 50
-- -
30
5. 011
4. 32
3. 12
.
5. 317
3. 70
3. 15 )
3. 34
5. 01
. . . ,
Gi -
96
8. 35
7. 20
. . . .
6. 35
8. 95
0. 54
. . . . .
7. 72
. . . . .
1. 11
KG-
Stroke, inches
.......................
T;nwin. iron. 0.0167 D Vz
............
- .
Unwi n, steel . 0. 0144D f l p. . . . . : . . . . .
Thurston i/z:+ g (L in feet).
12 24
1. 67 1. 67
I . . 44 1. 44
60
5. 01
4. 32
1
Thurston, samewith ,= 15.000., . . .
RIarlis,iron, 0. 0179D G. . . . . . . . . . . .
Marks, iron, 0.039Cl e/K..
&rl i s, steet. 0. 01050 ~J ; ; . . . . . . . . . . . .
Marks, steel. 0.03525 qm.. . _,
Peaton, naval engines, g 4,. .:..
48
a. 35
7. 20
5. 10
I
1,
11.
. I 3 Y. . .
. . 1. 40
. 79 . . . . _
. 35 1. 91
. 05) . , . . . . ,
1. 22 1. 73
1. 67 . _, . _.
Seaton, land engine; g G. .
Average of four for iron,
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
(.
.-
3. 88
5. 37
5. 13
. . . .
4. 72
. . .
. . . .
a. 95
6. 04
5. 25)
5. 46
8. 35
. . . . . 2. 22
- -
1. 49 1. 82
6. 67
-_
.(
;
-I-
-
5.26
.
Gi -
l
1
The @lres in Parentheses opposit,e IGarkss third formula would be re-
&ted SlncC they are kSS t~han r/s of the strolce and tire figures derived
his lrrst formula would be rejected for the engine of o,*-incll strol-e.
bY !!is fourth formula would be ta,ken instead. The figure I.79 opposite
An emPirKa1 formula w&h gives results appro:lmatlng tl~i above
averages is d = 0.0145 4DZp for short slroke and 0.013 d/o% for long
stroke engmes.
-. .-
-
2%.
._ .._.... c-.~
and alarks from 2.to 4.
Dimensions of the Connecting-rod. -. The
calculation of the diameter
of a connecting-rod on a theoretical baas,
considering it as a strut subJect
to both compressive and bending stres.ses, and also to stress due to Its
inertia, in high-speed engines, is qmte comphcated.
See Whitham,
Steam-engine Design,
f
. 217: Thurston. Manual of S. E., p. 100,
cal formulas are as fol ows:
Emgz
For circular.rods, largest at the mddle:
dlam. of cylinder, I = length of connectrng-rod in inches, P = maximum
steam-pressure, lbs. per sq. in. / r-
(I) Wl~tham, diam. at middle, d = 0.0272 y Dl P*
(2) w,tit,,mm, &ml. at necks, d =l.O to 1.1 X dram. of pist
n-rod.
(3) Sennett, diam. at middle, d = D 4+55.
(4) Sennett, diam.
at necks, d = D dp60.
(5) Marks, diam., d=O.d179 D
~Gmtm. is greater than t/24 length.
(6) Marks, diam., d =
0.02753 l/DI l/P, if diam. found by (5) 1s less
_ than l / 24 length.
z/;;LG+ C, D in inches,
L ln feet o = 0 I5 and C = 1,s inch for fast engines, a 7 0.03 and C = 3/ 4
(7) Thurston diam. at middle, d! = a
inch for moderate speed.
(8) aeaton says: The rod may be considered as a strut free at both
ends, &:: calculating its diameter accordrnf?lY,
*
diameter at middle = JR (1 + 4 or)
+ 43.5,
I .._ -: ,.,,
~~.~~ ~~~~~,~. ,,~ .,...,._
,..
i eri ai %$no loncjer be accur at e
spectl vel y, 1. 58. 2. 02, 4. 35, 5. 52, 7. 10, 9. 01.
.rne calcuiated resu1t.s for this formula, for the six engines, are, re-
rod 1s at Its maxImUm angle with the line of the piston-rod 1s found from
Piston,-rod C!lldes. -The thrust on the guide, whten the connecting-
the form+: 1 must = total load
of connrctrng rod = p tan 6.
on piston X tangent of maximum angle
half stroke of.piston + length of connecting-rod.
This awle. 0, is the arlgie whose sine =
Ratio of length of connecting-rod to stroke.. .
~hyimllln angle of connecting-rod with line of
2
21/z 3
prston-rod . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . I h0 29'
110 33 90 3&
I
,RNING: This is 3 19i O edition. Some of e- f 5
,~,
i oo4
THE STEAM-ENGINE. DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGISES.
1005
rvhere . R= the totat snarl nn ni n+nn D - . . l L: __, ! . . ,
connectin -rod Ends. -For, a connecting-rod end of the marine
type, where t, te end is secured \ylth tW0 bolts, eaCb ?olt s$U~,a1~2~$ T
port,ionerJ for a safe tensile strength equal to two-tlnrds
pull or thrust in the connectmg-rod.
The Cap is to be proportioned as a beam loaded with the maximum pull
of tile connecting-rod, and Supported at ,both ends. The calCu!atlon
qhould be made for ngidity as well as strength, a,lloniny a maximum
;ieAeCtion of %oo inch.
For a strap-and-key conneCtmg;rod end the strap
iS designed for tensile Strength, considering tlrat two-tblrds. of the pull on
the connecting-rod may come qn one arm.
At the pomt where the
metal is slotted for the key and gb, the straps must be thickened to make
t;he cross-section equal to that of the remalncler of the, strap.
Between
the end of the Strap and the slot the stmp 1s hable to fail m double shear,
and sufficient metal must be provided at the end to preyent such fa,ilUre.
The breadth of the key is generally one-fourth of t.he wdth Of the Strap,
and the length, parallel to the strap, should be +il that the CIOsS-SeCtlOn
vii11 have a Shearing Strength equal t.0 the tensile Stren@ Of the Section
of the strap.
The taper of the Lie>- is generallv about 513 Inc!l to the foot.
Ta,pered Connecting-rods: -
In modern liigh-speed engines It JS CUS-
tomary to make the connecting-rods.of
rectangular instead of circular
Section the sides being parallel, and the depth incrpSink! re&Wlarb from
the Cr&shead end to the crank-pin end, Accordmg to Grashof. the
bending action on the rod due to its inertia is greatest at s/l? the length
from the Crosshead end and, according t.o this th,eorY. th@ 1s the Po?nt
at v,rhich the section sh&dd be greatest. although ln PraCtlCe the SectIon
is made greatest at the crank-pin end.
professor Thurston furnishes the author with the following rule for
tapered connecting-rod .of rectangular section: Take the SectIon as Corn
puted by the formula (I,= 0.1
\/DL 4 + 3/4 for a circular sqzti on.
and for a rod q3 the sct,ual lengt,b, plaring the ComPUl~e<l SeCtloU at
z/s the leng,t,h from t,he small end, and carrying the taper StraKbt t@ough
this fived section to the large end.
Tllis lrings the colDpU!ed section at
the s;ree point and makes it heavier thsn the rod for ~l~~1l a tapered
maximum an@: of o-bii;;;^it-;ni;eYdo;ll,ectll~g-rod
Illwlpllea OY the secant of the
For wrought.lron and ml d steel a is taken at I/&,,.
the values of T ln Drao+.iw?:
?
The follo~,~inn are
N?yal ewjnes .- Direct-acting
Return connecting-rod
r = <toII.
I* (1
I . 2zt;f.n Collnectin&rod
T = 10 to l& 0
T = 8 to 9. mnr
Mercantile AULn
Mercantile
Direct-actjng, ordinary
Direct-actmg, long stroke , z :i.to 16.

Closely with good modern practice:
!9) T$ following empirical formula is given by Seaton as agreeing
Diameter of connecting-rod at middl- - */q G 4, 1 = length of rod
F-- -Ian
in inches, and K = 0.03 z/effective loac
The dim. at the ends may be 0.675 0~
Ion piston in pounds.
Seatons empirical formuIa when +.r9%n:,c
.I_^ %am. at the middle.
-.----- -.-..u.uted into terms of D and p
is the saye as the second one by Marks viz., d = 0,0,758 dn
Whitham s (1) is also practically the Same,
P.
rod = 2.5 X hgth of stroke, an T = 12 and 16, respectively, it reduces
(IO) Taking Seatons more cornzlex formula, with length of connecti&-
to: Diam. at. mi-'-"-
^ ^_^^ ,: -
stroke evgines. respectively.
-~- ---xwI: =, U.U2%?)4 v P and O.O3411~/p for Short and long
APPlYlng the above formufrts to the engines of our list, \ve have
Dia~meter of t
Diameter of Cylinder, inches _; . . .
Stroke, inches.. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Length of connedt,ing-rod 2.. . , . . . . .
13) d= i$G = O.OfSZDflp... . .i._.
TO1
-
I
sds.
30
-l-o
-
I
-
1
50
- -
12
30
-
24
60
I .82
-_ -
T
30
I
75
-
60
150
5.46
-
1.82
1
5.46
(5) d=O.O=DG . . . . . . . .._ ____,,
( 6) d=0. 02758t' z
.
-
48
120
9.09
8.95
.96
240
9.09
1.79 . .
!.I4
5.37
. .
7.00 ,
,....
1I.97
f i ,09 f
- - .-
6 z-
I
- -
. . .
( 7) cl=0.15 dD= i;,. _. . . .
,--
;
. .
., 2
2
-i
: . .
1.87
,.... i
!.67 1
1.03 2
T-ii- 2
- -
5.85 . . . .
I.11
9.51
( 7) d=J.0avDLt/;;+3/4... . . . . . . .
( 9) d=0.03~~.....
. . . . . . . . . .._....
(10) d=0.022946; O. O24l l f i . , , , . , ,
Average. . ..;_ .
. . . . . . . . . .._...._
,...
!. 54
!.67
I_ 14
. . . . .
I.29
I. 16
' . 26
I . .
5.65
7.97 II
i.41 I(
z7- ii
- -
I . 52
. .._.
9.75
1.29
1.68
---
1.26
L
-
l?r!Xr diameters for the long-stroke engine: formul;e 7 gfve ihe ja,rger
Form@ 5 and 6 (Marks), and also formula ICI (Sezton) give the
diameters for tl?e s!lort-stroke engines.
!lttle difference In diameter between
1s \\-ht !WTtlt be es
The average fimres show but
as a ,rolmW ~0~1 x :
long- and short-stroke engfnes. this
ected for while the connecting-rod considered Sfhplv
re,qmre an increase of diameter for ln increase df
the ConneCtlng-rod the greater the number of revolutions and conse-
enm. the lpad ~~m3inlnfi the Same. yet. in an engine penerilly the shorter
q$Wv the Prenter the strains due to inertia.
The intlue~ces tending
render the dmmeter to some extent fndependent of the 1engil~
to rncreaSe tl?e diameter therefore tend to &lance each ot1jer
and to
The
The dfamet.wS of rod
avmct- fi!WrS correspond nearly to the si mpl e for&z ,f = 0.0~1 .D 6
are. respectively 9
for t,he three diamet.ers of rn<ne bv thi<formuk
, -.?q. 6.30. and 10.50 in.
Since thetitotsl tiressure 0~ the
Piston p=O. 7554 D*P, the: formula is equiva,ient to d? = 0.0337 JP.
WARNING:~.This is a 1910 edition.
~. ,.~_,A&~. .._. ~~.
Come of the material .rk;y no iongerbe accurate
form isboi. required.
Taking t,he above formula. multiplYing L by 413. 3rd chanting it to Z
In inches, it, becomes d = l/m
\/z+ 31~ in. Taking a rectangular
section of the same area as the round
section whose diamet~er IS d.
and making tile depth of t,lle section h. - twice the thy%t, we have
0.7854 dz = nt = 2 t?, xxbence t = 0.627, d = 0.0209 x DZ 4~ +0.47 in..
:i
75
5:
120
::t
8. 11
5. 59
8. 39
12. 58
I I
I-;-
have
DGmeter of,oyIinder, inches.
St.roke,meheS
ii
........
.....................................................
Lengthof connecting-rod.. .........................
3 o
Thicl~~eqst=:0.02091/~~+0.47=.
Depth ai &o,ssheatl end. I .5 t =
..................................
i:!i
Depthntcronkend,21/4t ...........................
3.62
.
The thicknesses t, found by the formula t = 0 .Ofzo9 z/_DZ qP * o.47*
- xKree clow1v with t,he more simple formula t = O.Ol.I;, p + ityn; 2;
IhicknessPscalculatcd by tliis forRIUk being rCSPeCt,llelS &
. 1
inr$$; cnn,k-Dln _ -4 ,-rank-pin shonld he design@ (I) to avoid heat-
ing (2) ior strength. (3) for riliditY. The heatlngonoftlG ,$j&~~
d&&s otl ttle prrssnre on its rublnng surfa,Ce. nnd
of friction, ,which 1att,Cr varies greatly according to the effectiveness of
the lubrication. It al?0 depends upon the facility with which the heat
pfoduced may be carned away: thus it appears that locomotive crank-
runs may be prevented t.o sofe degree from overheating by the cool&
actloo of the air through wtnch they pass at a high speed.
Marks gives 2 = O.O000247fpND* = 1.038f (I.H.P.) i L .
Whitham gives 2 = 0.9075f. (1.H.P.) +- T,
(I)
I,
. . . \ ZJ
in which,2 = length of crank-pin journalin inches f = coefficient of frjc-
tion, WhlCh may be taken at 0.03 to 0.05 for pkrfect lubrication and
0.08 to 0.10 for imperfect; p = mean pressure in the cylinder in pdunds
strokes Per nnnute; I.H.P. =-Indicated horse-power. L = length of stroke
per square Inch; D = diameter of cylinder in inches: N = number of single
In feet. These formulae are Independent of the d&meter of the pin and
Marks states as a general law, within reasonable limits as to preisure
and speed of rubbing, the longer a bearing is made, for a given pressure
and number Of revolutl.ons, the cooler it will work. and its diameter has
no $%t upon Its heatl?g. Both of the above fbrmula3 are deduced
emplncally from dimensions of
crank- Iins
Mark: says t!lat abmlt one-fourth the
1
of existing marine engjnes.
ength required for crank-pins of
ProWller engmes ?Vl l l serre for the pins of side-wfiel engines and one
t$nth for locomoWe engmes. making the formula for locomo&e crank-
Pms 2 = 0.00000247 fpND*, or if p = 150, f = 0.06, and N = 600, 1 =
0.01302.
Whitham recommends for pressure per square inch of projected area
for. naval enmnes 500 n;;n;ldA fp_r._?!rchant engines 400 pounds, fo;
$e.am,engine, never exceed
paddle-wheel engines SOO
Thurston says the pres&esho;iz$ the
SO0 or 600 pounds per square inch fdr wroug&onpins or about t\yic&
that figure for steel.
Inches,
He gives the formula for length oi a steel pin, in
1 -
= PR + 600,000, . . . . . . . . (3)
in *hich P and R are the mean total load on the pin in pounds and the
number of,.revolutions per minute
taken as 500.000.
For locomotives th.e~ divisoi may be
Where iron isused this figure.S:
300.000 and 250,030 for the t\vo cases taken
hould be reduce3 to
yell made and well lubricated. may always be hepended
Pins so proporti&ed if
upon to run cdol.
If not well formed. PerfeCtlY cylindrical, well finished and kept well oiled
no crsnk-pm can be relied upon.
or white-metal bearings are used.
It is assumed abdve that good bronz;
O! the journals may ,he determined with a fair a
Thurston also say% The size of crank-pins required to prevent heatinK
ather of the formule given below:
-egree of precision bjr
Z = p+? + 20) + 44,SOO d (Rankine 1865) -
1 = PV i- 60,000 d (Thurstob, 1862;; . .
,I\
Z = PN - 350.000 (Van Buren, 1866). . . 1 : : ii;
The first two formulE give what are considered by their autilors fair
worinng Pr?Portlons, ?nd the last gives minimum
(V = velocity of rubbmq surface in feet per minute.)
length for iron pins.
Formula.(I) 1:s obtamed by observing locomotive practice in which
preat liab+ty eSl$s of annoyance by dust, and great risk dccurs from
maccesslblhty $lle running,
naval screw-ynglnes. The first formula is therefore not well suited for
and (2) by observation of crank-pins of
manne pract,lce.
,.8te?l Can us$ly be worked at nearly double the pressure admissible
%lth Iron rcinmng at similar speed.
Since the l?nKth of t,he crank-pin will be directly as the power expended
uPon It and inversely as the pressure, we may take it as
Z = a (1.H.P.) -c AL, . . .
.
fn which (I is a constant, and L the strokk pi piston in feet
. . . (7)
of the constant, as obtained by hIr. Skeel, are jbout a,s foll&vs: a _ 0 04
The values
erallY used: a = 0.05 where water is seldnm used; a = 0.06 where Water
where water can be constantly used: a = 0.045 where *water is not g&-
fs never needed. Univin gives
Z = a (1.H.P.) + r, . . l . . . . (6)
_~
DIMENSIONS ,OF PARTS OF ,ENGINES.
1007
In which r = crank radius in inches,
a = 0.3 to a = 0.4 for iron and for
marine engines and a 5 0. 066 to a = 0.1 for the case of the best Steel
and for locomdtive work,, where it is often necessary to shorten up OUt-
side pins as much as possible.
J. B Stanwood (Engg June l?, 1891), in a table of dimensions of
parts oi American Corliss knglnes from 10 to 30 inches diameter of cylin-
der, gives sizes of crank-pins which approximate CiOSely t.0 the formuh
-Z=0,275D+O,jin.; d=O.25D. . . . .
(9)
50 inches diameter, long and short stroke, by the several formul~s~~h~
By cjlculating lengths of iron crank-pins for the engines 10. 30. and
given it is found that there is a great difference In the results,
one f&mula in certain cases gives a length three times as great as another.
~~~ (4) (5) and (6) give lengths much greater than the others. .hlarks
(1) Wh&haIil (2) Thurston (7). Z = 0.06 I.H.P. + L, and UnWn (8).
z ,
-+ T give results which agree more closely.
T~~4&~&,ed lengths of iron crank-pins for the several cases by
form&e (I), (2), (7), and (8) are as follows:
Length of Crank-pins.
Diameter of cylinder.. . . .
f&&e. .,. . .
Rev(,lutions per mlnute I..
Horse-power .
Maximum pressure..
&an preWl*e per cent of
Mean pressure.. .:.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Length of crank-Pm:
(1) Whitham, ~~0.9075~ .05I.H.P.+L 2.18 1 .O9 t:l: 44::; I::$ 8:::
( 2) Marks.
Z=l . O38 x.O~I.II.P.+L f:;; ;:50 ,o,Do 5,40 ,8,75 9,38
( 7\ Thurston,l=9.96I.H.P.tL...,... 3,33 , 67 ,2,0 6,0 20,83 1o,42
(8j Unwin,
1~0. 4 I.H.P.+-7.. . . . . .
.
Z=O. 3I . H. P. ~r. . . . . . . . 2. 50 1. 25 9. 0
4. 5 15. 62
7. 81
(8) Unwin, --
~~-...-------
Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. 72 1. 36 9. 86 4. 93 17. 12 8. 56
(8) Unwin,best steel. Z=O.l I.H.P.+r. 3.83
I I I
0. 42 3. 0 \ 1. 5
( 3) T,l~rs~o~,st~el,z=P~~~600,000... 1.37 3. 69 4. 95 , 2>47
The calcu1ated lengths for the long-stroke enfiines are too, l,?~;,p,,~~-
vent excessive pressures.
See Pressures on the Crank-pl,ns.
~~~~ Strength of the Crank-pin is determined substantlallv as is Wt
of the crank.
In overhung cranks the load is usually assumed as carned,
a,+, it,S extremity, and, equating its moment with that, of the regstance
-- --- ~.
of the pin,
in \vhich d = diameter of pin in inches; P = I I I aSi ~Um l oad on the
iSton t = the maximum allowable stress on a square inch of the metal.
&or irAn it, mav be taken at 9000 1bS.
For steel the diameters found by
this formula m&v be reduced 10%.
(Thurston.)
Unwin gives the same formula In another form, viz.:
d=
the last form to be used when the ratio of length $0 diameter is assumed.
For wrought iron, 1 = 6000 to 9000 lbs. per Sq. 1n.s
~,
1/5.11t- 0. 0238 to 0.0194.
Whitham givei d = 0.0827 (/i% = 2.1058 91 X I.H.P. + LR for
strength, and d = 0.0405 q~P? for rigidity, and recommends that the
diameter .be calculated by both forinulre, and the largest result t$ken.
The tirst is the same as Unwins formula, :vith t taken at 9000 lbs. per sq.
m. The second is based upon an arbitrary assumption of a deflection of
l / 300 m. at the center of pressure (one-third of the length from the free
end;.
~~arlts, calculating the diameter for rigidity, rives ,
d = 0.066 m = 0.045 $(H.P.)l~ ~A- J,N;
P = maxim,nm steam-pressure in pounds per square inch D = diameter
of cyhnder 111 inches, IJ = length of stroke in feet, N - &mb&r of single
strokes per minute. He says there is no need of an investigation of the
strength of a crank-pin, as the condition of rigidity gives a great excess
of strengt,h.
Markss formula is based upon the assumption that the whole load
may be coyentrated at the outer end, and cause a deflection of 0.01 in.
at that pomt.
alike.
It is serviceable, he says. for steel and for wrought iron
Using the average l engths of the crank-pins already found, we have
the folloming for our six engines:
~iamcter of Crank-pins.
D l i trryete~y of cyhnder
SrroKe. It..
.................... JO
...............
Length of crnn1,
.
c-gin.
..............
.................. .*. ~ 2
a-
Unwin, d =
J
1
1.1 Pl
-
t
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
2. 29
hrks, d = i . O663*.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 39
-
I
-
30 50 50
4: 3 17f 12 8. k
7. 34 5. 82 12. , 40 9. 84
4. 44 3. 78 12. 41 7. 39
Pressurr? on the Crbk-pins. - If we take the mean pressure tipon
the crank-pin = 11~~11 pressure on piston, neglecting the effect of the
varying angle of the connecting-rod, we have the following. uslng~ the
average lengths already found, and the diameters according to Unwin
sod Marks:
c~llgme*No...... ,...................... I - 2 3 4 5 6
- - e- . - - - I _- - __
%meter of cylinder. inches.. . .
SIrdie. reet... _.
10 10 30 30 50 50
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mean Pressure on Pl , pounds. . . .
Projected area of pin, Unwin.. .
3. 2b9 3 229 2%2 22 ; 32 58 ; 05 58 to5
6. 23 i . 36 f i . 4 ti . 7 21 2. 3 6. 2
Pr . hi d LWeaOf Pi I ! , hkWk. s . . . . . . . . . . 3. 76
p 2 I~~SU~C per square :nch. Unwin.. . .
18. 6 212. 5 63. 3
Pressure per squnre inch, Marks.. . .
530
, I j b, ; ; $5
873 2; 845 360 1, ; ; : ; : :
I
diameter of crank-Dins Five quite low pressures T)~P ~~~~~~~ iY *
The result,s show that the application of the formulz for length and
jert$ area for ti!e &&trokti high-spdetl engines of the larger sizes but
r-- .Iv..-.w ..lcn of pro-
too hlch pressures for all the other engines.
a!ter calculating the dim<
It is therpfnre Pvident that
Iv de formula
ITIWll the rrsults should be modified, if ne&&~~-~~*&g the pressure
Per srluare i nch d,own t,o a reasonable figure.
In (n&r to brmg the pressures down to 500 pounds per sqi&e inch
we divide t.he Ineal pressures hy 500 t,o obtain the projected area 0;
rmlnct of length by riiarneter.
2. 4, and 6, thr revi: .
nl i I l i i l I E 2 = I . l i d f nr PU&S Nos: 1,
-. - .- --. .
sed tabl e for the sixengines is as foil
ems:
_, ~~. ~ . . ~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. dome of
DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES.
1009
Engine No,.,
Length of crank-pin,. Inches . . 3.115
................
Diamet~er of crank-pm ....... 2.10~ 2.10 7.34 5.58 12.40 8. 87
Crosshead-pin or Wrist-pin. - \Vhithsm says t!!e te;tring suu&K;
for the wrist-pin is found by the formula for crank-pm, design.
says the diameter at the middle must, of course, be srifirlent IO, withstand
the bending action, and generally from this cause ample surface !s prpvlded
for good working; but in any case the area, calculated by multlplgmg the
diameter of the journal by it,s length, should be such that the
does not exceed 1200 .lbs. per sa. in., taking the maximum loa
$r,T$slg
p%&n as the total pressure bn, it.-
For small engines with the gudgeon shrunk into the jaws of .the cbn-
netting-rod. and working in brasses fitted into a recess in the pi,ston-rod
end and secured by a wrought-iron cap and two bolts, Seaton gives:
Diameter of gudgeon = 1.25 X diam. cf piston-rod,
Lemrth of eudceon = 1.4 X diam. of piston-rod.
If the pressure on the section, as ca~rdated by multipi>iing length by
diameter exceeds 1200 11x. per sq. in., this length should be ixreased.
J. B. &tanwood in his * Ready Reference book, , gives for length of
. crosshead-pin 0.25 to 0.3 diam. of piston, and dmm. = 0.18 to 0.2
diam. of piston. Since he gives for diam: of piston-rod 0.14 to 0.!7
diam. of piston, his dimensions for diameter and length of crosshead-pm
are about 1.25 and 1.8 diam. of pi,Qt.on-rod respectively. Taking t. l l e
maximum allowable pressure at 1200 Ibs. per sq. in. and x@Wg the
len@h of the crosshead-&n= 4/3 of its diameter, we have d= UP + 40, E-
&+ 30 in which .P= maximum total load on piston in Ibs.. d = dinm.
and 2 = lenath of nin in inches. .
For the engines of our example we have:
Diameter of piston inches.. . . . . . . .
50
Masimum load on piston, Ibs., . . .
7E4 136.350
Diameter of crosshead-pit?, inches.. . .
2. 22
Length of crosshead-pi!?, inches. . . .
2. 96 5. 86 : : : 079
Stanwoods rule gives diameter, ins.. .. 1.8 to 2
5. 4 to 6 9. 0 to 10
Stanwoods rule gives length, inches. . . 2.5 to 3
7. 5 to 9 12. 5 to 15
Stanwoods largest dimensions give
pressure per sq. in., lbs.. . . . . . . . . . . 1309 1329 1309
Which pressures are greater than the maximum allowed by Seaton.
The Cran~-arm. - The crank-arm is to be treated as a leyer, SO t,hat
if ais the thicknessin adirection parailel to the shaft-aSis and. ? 1tS oreadth
at a section *, inches from the crank-pin center, then, bendHX moment
Af at that section = px, P being the thrust of the connecting-rod, and
f the safe strain Per square inch, .-
If a crank-arm were constructed so that h varied as d/x (as give~n. by
the above rule) it would be of such a curved form as t,o be inconyelnent
to manufacture and consequentlv it is customary in practlfe to hnd. the
maximum valu;! of b and draw &gent lines to the curve at the
these lines are eeneralls. for the same reason, tangential to the
gJll$
the crank-arm <t the &a&.
The shearin strain is the same throughout the cmnk-arm: and, con-
sequently is l&e compared with the bending strain close to the Crank-
in and io;t is not sufEcient to provide t
4 ;
JIPW nnlv f or bendine strain*. ,,.L._ -...,. .-- -~~
he section at t.his point should lx Y:v?~ *I.*
,_ illlL,. ..&. in addition to~what 1s given
bv the calculation from the bending moment., t,here is an extra square
irich for everv 8000 lbs. of thrust on the connecting-rod @eat,on).
The lengt.ti of the boss h into which the shaft is fitted 1s from 0.75 to
1.0 of the d&meter of the shaft D, and its thickness e mUSt be calculated
from the twist,ing strain PL. (L = length of crank.)
For different values of length of boss h, the following values of thick-
ness of boss e are even by Seaton:
When
h=
D then e = 0. X D: if st,rel, 0.3.
f&z
019 D tlwl e = 0.38 D: if steel, 0.32.
0.8 0: thene = 0.40 D: if st.eet, 0.33.
h= 0.7D,thenc =0.41L1;ifsteel,O.34.
al
may no' longer be accur at e
DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES. 1011 1010 THE STEAM-ENGINE.
The crank-eye or boss into whichthe pin is fitted should bear the same
relation to the pin that the boss does to the shaf,.
The diameter of the shaft-end onto which the crank is fitted should be
1 1 X diameter of sha.ft.~
If a constant force P were applied to tbe crank-pin tangentially to its
pat& the work done per minute would be
P X LX 2 n i 12 X A! = 33,000 X I.H.P.,
in which L = length of crank in inches, and R = revs. per min., and the
mean twisting moment T = I.H.P. + R X 63,025. Therefore
d = y5.1 T +- S = q321,427 I.H.P. + I1S.
This may take the form
d = ,yI.H.P. X G. or d = a ?/I.H.P. + R,
Thurston says: The empirical proportions adopted by builders will
commonly be found to fall well within the calculated safe margin.
These
proportions are, from the practice 01 successful designers, about as follows:
For the wrought-iron crank, the hub is l.75 to 1.S times the least
diameter of that part of the shaft Carrying full !oad; the eye is ?.O to 2.25
the diameter of the inserted portion of the pin, and their depths are,
for the hub, 1.0 to I.2 the diameter of shaft, and for the eve, 1.25 to 1.5
the diameter of pin. The web is made 0.7 to 0.75 the width of adjacent
hub or eye, and is given a depth of 0.5 to 0.6 that of adjacent hub or
eye.
For the cast-iron crank the hub and eye are a little larger, ranging in
diameter respectively from 1.8 to 2 and from 2 to 2.2 times the diameters
of shaft and pin. lhe flanges are made at either end of near!y the full
depth of hub or eye.
disuse.
Cast iron has, however, fallen very generally into
The crank-shaft is usually enlarged at the seat of the crank to about
1.1 its diameter at the journal. The size should be nicely adjusted to
allow for the sluinkage or forcing on of the crank.
A difference of diam-
eter of 0.2% will usually suffice; and a common rule of practice gives an
allowance of hut one-half of this. or 0.1%
in which F and a are factors &hat depend onthe strength of the material
and on the factor of safety. Taking S at 45,000 pounds per square inch
for wrought iron, and at 60,000 for steel, we have, for simple twisting by
a uniform tangential force,
Factor of safety = 5
Iron . . . . . F = 35.7 46.3 587.1 q!t!4 a=53.3 365 3% t.015
Steel . . . . F= 26.8 35.1 42.8 53.5 a=3.0 3.18 3.5 3.77
Unwin. taking for safe working strength of wrought iron 9000 lbs.,
steel 13,500 lbs., and cast iron 4500 Ibs., gives a = 3.294 for wrought
iron, 2.877 for steel, and 4.15 for cast iron.
of wrought iron, gives q = 4.15 or more.
Thurston. for crank-axles
Seaton says: For wrought iron, f, the safe strain per square inch., should
not exceed 9000 Ibs., and when the shafts are more than 10 inches diameter.
8000 lbs. Steel, when made from the ingot and of good materials, \vill
admit of a stress of 12,000 lbs. for small shafts, and 10,000 Ibs. for those
above 10 inches diameter.
The ditference in the al1owanco between Large and small shafts is to com-
pensate for the defective material observable in the heart of large sbaft-
ing. owing to the hammerine failhg to affect it.
The formula d = a.qI.II.P. i- R assumes the tangential force to be
uniform and that it is the onl y acting force. For engines. in which the
tangential force varies with the angle between the crank and the connect-
ing-rod, and with the variation in stesm-pressure in the cylindc: and also
is influenced by the inertia of the reciprocating
the shaft may be subjected to bending as we1 P
arm. and in wnich also
as torsion, the factor
0 must be increased. to provide for the maximum tangential force and
The formulae given by different writersfor crank-arms practically agree
since they all consider the crank as a be&m loaded at one end and fixed
at the other. The relation of breadth to thickness may vary according
to the taste of the designer.
are as follows:
Calculated dimensions for our sis engines
Dim lsions of Crank-arms: 1e1
I
- -
Diam. of cylinder, ins..
Stroke S, ins.. . . _. _.
Max. pressure on pin ,
(appror.). lbs . .
Dism. crank-oin d.. . . .
Dia. shaft, a $I%, D
(a = 4.69.5.09 and 5.22)...
Length of boss, 0.8 D.
Thickness of boss, 0.4 D..
Dinm. of boss. I .8 D
Lenfqtli crank-pin eye,. 0.8
Thickness of crank-pm eyt
0.4d..................,..
Max. mom. 7 at distance
VzS-l/zD from center of
pin, inch-lbs .
Thickness of crank-arm a :
0.75D . .._..._._.....,.,.
Great,& breadth,
b=~6T+9000n
Min. morn. To at. distance
d from ten ter of pin = Pd
Least breadth
1;
7054
2.10
- -
2
7054
2.10
30 30
30 60
70,686 70,686
7.34 5.58
2.74 3.46 7.70 9.70 12.55 15.82
2.77 6.16 7.76
1.39 3.08 3.88
6.23 13.86 17.46
1.76 5.07 4.46
0.88 2.94 2.23
10.04
5.02
i:Z
4.46,
37,14
2.05
3.48
16,491
2.32
91
3 I
I 3. 479,322
9.41
12.65
6.32
28.47
7.10
3.55
. . . . . .
871,671
11.87
%I,661 I 7i 68,149 848.439
2.60 5.75 7.28
4.55 9.54 13.0
16,492 1 5i28,835 394,428
2.06 7.81 6.01
-
15.7
2, 434,740
13.13
-
I 7,
1.
-
21 .o
741,625
9.89
The Shaft. -Twisting Resistance. - From the general
urnida
for bending. -
Seaton gives t~he following table showing the relation between the
maximum and mean twisting moments of engines working under various
conditions, the momentum of the moving parts being neglected, which is
allowable:
i6
I
-
Description of Engine.
nk.
Twist
Divided
by
Mean
Twist.
Homerit.
Steam Cut-06
at
Single-crank expan,sive:. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
6
(
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I
,,
.._.,_...............
Two-c$inder expansive, crank: at 90. . . .
6.
. . .
., I
.
. 6 L
.
,....
II a. <I
1. . II
, .
9. I I.
. . . .
Three-cylinder compound, cranks 120.
Threeeylindercompound,l.p.cranksop-
posite one another, and h.p. midway 1
0::
0::
i:::
0.4
, 0.5
0.6
;:s
1.p. 0.5, i.p.0.t
II .
for torsion, we have: T = fGd3S = 0.19635 dJS. whence d =
in Wilch T = torsional moment ii: inch-pounds, d = diamet.er in inches,
and 5 = the shearing resistance of the material in pounds per square
inch.
: .I
_. ~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
*Some of 6% $8!$al tiay~~n-o longer be accur at e
_ 2i - ; : - b ~
Compound engines, cranks at right angles:
.
Boiler pressure 70 lbs., rate of expansion 6 to 7. F = 70 a = 4.12
Boiler pressure 80 I&., rate of expansion 7 to 8. F = 72' a = 4.16:
Boiler pressure 90 Ibs., r&e of expansion 8. to 9, F = 75: a = 4.22.
Triple compound. three cranks at 120 derrrees:
Boiler p&sure150 Ibs., rate of expansion 10 to 12 F = 62 a = 3 06.
Boiler pressure 160 Ibs.. r&e of expansion 11 to 13: F = 64'a I 4:
Boiler pressure 170 lbs., rate of expansiolr 12 to 15, F = 67: a = 4.06.
Expansive engines, cranks at right angles, and the rate of expansion 5,
bo@-pressure 60 lbs., F = 99, a = 4.48.
~mgle-crank compound engmes, pressure 80 Ibs., F = 96 a = 4.58
For the el!gines we are considering it will be a very liberal&Ilo~vancefor
rat!0 of maslmum to mean twisting moment if we take it as equal to the
ratlo pf the maximum to the mean
then, In the formula for diameter of t le shaft will be multiplied by the whd
P
ressure on the piston.
The factor.a
root of thib ratio, or (1% = 1.34,
1 41
for the 10, 30. an<:
(:/E= 1.45. and i/g = 1.49
.i (., -<
1 &-ii.-engines, re~peY&~elv
Taking a = 3.5 which
corresponds to a shearing strength of 60,000 ands fuctor of safety df 8 for
steel, or to 45.000 and a factor of 6 for iron
z we have for the new coeffi-
1ouo\vs:
cient al in the formula d, = a, q1.H.P. + IL, ____ .-.,
$.:2 from which we obtain the diameters of shafts of
in thP ~~1~s 4.69, 5.08, and
the$x engines as
Endne No
...................
I&m. of ryl..
1
..........
Horse-power, 1.H.P : 1: 1: :
10 1;
3 4 5 6
Revs. per m1n., n..
4%
Diam. of shaft d =.
............ . .. .. 2:: 1;:
............. 2.74 3.46 7:::
These diameters are calculated for twisting only.
When t,he shaft is
also SubJected to bending strain ihe calculation must be modified as
below:
Hc+st:mce to, &riding. - The strength of a circula,r-section shaft
to resist pending IS one-half of that to resist, twisting.
If B is t,he bending
moment 1n Inch-lbs., and d the diameter of the shaft in inches,
B = FzXf;andd =
f is the safe strain per square inch of t,he mltorial nf n.hinh +l~n -L-C a-
composed. and its value may be taken as give]
.(I.Y\..WI 1 ..!L~ l,,,G u,,a,,l, 1s
n above for twstmg (Seaton).
Equiwlcnt Twisting Moment. - Whrr
..A a shaft is subject to both
twvjsting and bending simultaneously, the combi
ined stmin on any section
of it may be measured by calculating what is calm- . _
Iled the msi?:alent tzristing
monw?t: that is, the two strains are so combined as to
twisti?z swain only of the same maanit,ude and the size of
be trent.ed as a
accordmgly. Rankine gave the following solution of the c
Shaft calculated
ofthe two strains.
combined action
If 7 = the twisting moment,. and B = the bending moment on~a section
of a sha.ft. then the equivnlent twist,inp moment T, = I; + -2
Senton says: Crank-sh:ift,s arc subject-always to t\viqtino bending r&d
shearln~ StrcunS: the latter are so small coliiparetl v;itk i,Le former that
thev are usually neglected directly, but allolved for indirectly by means
of t,he factor f.
Tl!e tw0 Drjncipnl st,r$ns vary t,hroughout the revolrltlon and the
maxlnll!m cqulvaknt. t.wsting moment can onlv be obtained iccurately
.bS a SWIcs of Glkxriatlons of bending and t,u.ist,lnk moments taken at fixed
Intrrvy!s. qnd from them constructing a curve of strainq.
C?wiewr: the engines of our examples to have ove&ng cranks the
mawnum bcndmg moment reStdting from the thrust of the conneciing-
* DfMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES. 1013
rod on the crank-pin will take place wlien the engine is passing its centeg
(neglecting the effect of the inertia of the reciprocating p+s). and it wll
be the product of the totalpressure on the pist,on by the &stance between
two parallel lines passing through the centers of the crank-pin and of the
shaft bearing, at right angles to their axes; which distance is equal to
1/z length of crank-pin bearing + 1engt.h of hub + l/z length of shaft- *
bearing + any clearnnre t.hat may be allowed between the crank and the
two bearings. For our six engines we may take this distance as eq11al
to 112 length of crank-pin + thickness of crank-arm+ 1.5 x the. diam-
eter of the shaft as already found by the calculallon for twisting. The
calculation of diameter% theu as below:
Engine No. I
Diam. of cyl., in . . . . 10
Horse-power . . . . . 50
Revs. per min.. 250
Max. press. on pis,P 7.854
Leverage,* L in... 6.32
Bd.mo.PL=Bin.-lb 49,637
Twist. mom. T __. 47,124
Equiv. twist morn.
T,=B+~B~+Tz
(approx.). . . 118,000
-- .
:i
125
7,054
7.94
62,361
94,248
3
4::
130
3.;;
I s569.222
I ,060,290
4
30
450
y;
1.837.836
2,120.580
4,647,WO
-.-
5
12::
19$iv~
7.225.600
4,712.400
i5@0,000
6
1w;
%,295.788
9.424.800
~0,850,OOO
* Leverage = distance between centers of crank-pin and shaft bearing
= %1 + 2.25d.
Having already found the diameters, on the assumption tilat th? shafts
mere subjected to a twisting moment 1 on1
for resisting combined bending and twisting ,y multiplying the diameters
f7
we may find the @ameter
already found by the cube roots of the ratio 11 + T. or
1.40 1.27 1.46 1.34 1.64
1.36
Giving corrected diameters dl = 3.81 4.39 11.35 12.99 20.55 21.52
I?v plott.in: these results, using the diameters of the cylindersfcr abSCiS-
sas jnd diameters of the shafts for ordinates, we find that for t.he ~0nl.F
stroke en&es the results lie almost in a straight line expressed by the
formula diameter of shaft = 0.43 X diameter of cylinder; for the short-
stroke e&ines the line is slightly curved, but does not diverge,far from a
straight line whose equation is, diameter of shaft = 0.4 diameter of
cylinder using these two formulas, the diameters of the shafts wll be
4.0 4.3 12.0 12.9, 20.0, 21.5.
J B St&wood in Engtn~eering, J une 12. 1891,
qves dimensions .of
sh&s bf Corllss &nines in American practice for cy tnders ,lO to 30 In.
diamkter The diafneters rs~nge from 41Ynj to 141%. following preClselY
the equaiion diameter of !,h;:ft =
l/2 dia.meter of cylinder - 1/1e Inch..
Flv-mheei Shafts. - Thus far we have considered the shaft as resist-
ing the force of torsion and the bending moment produced by the Pressure
on the crank-pin.
In the case of fly-wheel engines the shxft on the
opposite side of the bearing from the crank-pin has to be desuzned 1~1th
referenceto the bending moment csused by the weieht of the fly-\vl!eel.
the wVel*ht of the shaft itself and the strai,n of Ehe belt. For eW3n(:s
in which there is an outboard bearing the weight. of fly-wheel and slyaft
being supported by two bearings.
th; point of t,he shaft a! rnhlch the
bending moment is a maximum may he tzdren as the Pmnt F1;ir$z
between t.he two bearings or at the middle of the fly-Tvheel hub.
amount of the moment is the product of the meight supported. by one of
the bearings into the distance from the center of that bearmg to the
middle point of the shaft. The shaft is thus to be treated as a beam
Supported at the ends and loaded in the middie.
In the.case of an,oper-
hung fly-wheel. the shaft having only one bearing, the Pmnt.of maslmum
moment should be t,aken as the middle of the bennng. and Its amount F
very ne&y the prpduct of halfthe weight of the fly-wheel and the shast
I . ~_
MARNING: This is a~1910 edition.
6ome of the material may no longer be accurate
: ;i,
, x
into the distance of the middle of its hub from the middle of the bear-
ing. The bcndmg moment should be calculated and combined with the
twisting. moment as above shown, to obrain the equivalent twisting
moment, and the diameter necessary at the point of maximum moment
, calculated therefrom.
In the case of our six engines we assume that the weights of the fly-
wheels, together urltb the shaft, are double the weight of flv-wheel rim
obtained from the formula W= 785,400 ?
m (given under Fly-wheels) ;
that the shaft is supported by an outboard bearing the distance between
--- ---.---S; the distance between
the,two beanngs being 21/z. 5, and 10 feet for the l&in.. 3Oin. and 5O-in
engmes. respectively. engines, respectively.
--- - .-et for the lo-in.. 30in.. and 50-in.
The diameters of the fly-wheel The diameters of the fly-wheels are taken sdcd
that, their rim velocity will be a,little 1e;ss tha;6000 pt per :Finute. that, their rim velocity will be allittle 1eF than36000 pt per cpnute.
Enmne No.. ._. Engme No.. . . . . . . . .
Diam. of cyl.. inches.. . .
R
Diam. of By-wheel. ft.. . . Diam. of By-wheel, ft.. . .
Revs. per min.. . . .
7: ; 7%
10 30 30 30 ti ci
250
; ?a 14? 29
l5 %
60 5: 5i j
125 2
21 42 42
^_
i%
. ~
Kslf wt. Ay:wheel and
45 45
- ___ - . _-
shaft, Ibs.. . . . . . . . . .
Lever arm for m&h&~
268 536 5, 968 11, 936 26, 384 52, 768
moment, in. . . . . .
Maximum bending
15 15
30 30 60 mo- 60
ment, in.-lbs.. . . . . 4020 8040 179,040 355,080 1,583,070 3,166.140
As these are very much less than the bending moments calculated from
the pressures on the crank-pin, the diameters already. found are sufficient
for the diameter of the shaft at the fly-wheel hub.
In the case 0.f engineS 1vit.h heavy band fly-wheels and with i OJ J g f l y-
wheel shafts It IS ofthe utmost importance to calculate the diameter of
the shaft with reference to the bending moment due to the weight of the
fly-wheel and the shaft.
B. II. Coffey (Power, October, 1592) gives the formu!a for-combined
bendinK and twisting resistance, 21 = 0.196 ClJS, in which T1 = B +
d&+1- T 1
)eing the maximum, not the mean twi$ting moment. and
fin+i eIn&ricl~l Working values for 0 196 S as beloiv. He savs: Four
pomts should, be considered in determining this value. First tlie nature
of the matenat: second. the manner of applying thetoads with shock
or other!vise: third, ,lhe ratio of the bending moment to the torsional
moment - the bendmg moment in a revolving shaft produces reversed
stmins in the matefial, which tend to ruptnre it: fourth, the size of the
section. !n,$ for, Inch, large sections are weaker than small ones. He
puts t.he dl\ldlna hne between large and small se&ions at IO in. diameter,
and gives t~he followmg safe values of S X 0.196 for steel, wrought iron,
and cast iron, for these conditions.
VALUE OF 8 X 0.196.
Ratio.
I
Heavy Shafts
with Shock.
Light Shafts
with Shock.
Heavy Shafts
No Shock.
Bto T. Steel
IL.
3 to I oorl e$a. . . . . . 1045
3to5orLw
I to Iorlrss . . . . . .
941
B vwter than T..
355
784
- - -
\ Vd t. I
Iron
-- -
880
785
715
655
- - -
440 1566 1320 660
393 1410 1179 569
358 1281 1074
328 1176
537
984 492
Jast
h-on.
-
880
785
715
655
Mr. Coffey @es as an example of improper dimensions the &-mhthcl
shaft of a 1500 H.P. engine at Willimantic, Conn., which broke &le the
engme was running at 425 H.P.
The shaft was 17 ft. 5 in. long between
WARNING: This is a 1910 editions dome of
DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES. 1015
centers of bearings,,15 in. diam. for 8 ,ft. in the middle, and 15 in. diam.
for the remainder, including the beanngs. It broke at the base of the
fillet connecting the two large diameters, or 561/z in. from the cen(er of
the bearing. He calculates the mean torsiom&l moment to be 446!654
inch-pounds, and the maximum at twice the mean; and the tot?1 we!ght
on one bearing at &7,,530 tbs., which, m$tiphed by ,56 l/z m.. gives
4.945.445 in.-lb% bendmg moment at the hllet. Applymg the formula
T1 = B +Z/Bz + 12. gives for equivalent t,wisting moment 9,971,045 in.-
lbs. Substituting this value in the formula 11 = 0.196Su3 gives for S
the shearing strain 15,070 lbs. per sq. in., or if the metal had a shearing
strength of 45,000 lb%, a factor of safety of only 3. Mr. Coffey considers
that 6000 Ibs. is all that should be allowed for S under these circum-
stances. This would give d = 20.35 in. If we take from Mr. Cof f ey s
ta ui e a value of 0.196 S = llqO,~we obtain d3 = 9000 nearly, or d = 20.5
in. instead of 15 in.. the actu?J rli:l,mp+.er -. --. . .._ _.
Length of Shaft;bearings. - There is as great a difference of opinion
among writers, and as great a variation in practice concerning !ength of
journal-bearings, as there is concerning. crank-pins. The length of a
journal being determined from considerations of Its heating. the.observa-
tions concerning heating of crank-pins apply also to shaft-beanngs, and
the formuke for length of crank-pins to avoid heating may also be used,
using for the total load upon the .bearing the resultant of a!1 the pressures
brought upon it, by the pressure on the crank, by the weight of the fly-
wheel and by the pull of the belt. After determining this pressure, how-
~VPP &JP nulst, resort to emoirlcal values for the so-called constants of the _.__) .._ .__-__ .._.~., .~
formulae, really variables.-which depend $n the po\yer of the. bearlug
to carrv awav beat. and upon tl :ie quantity of heat generatea, wn!cn
i&&~ependk on tlie pressure. on the number of square feet. ?f rubbing
surface passed over in a minute, and upon the coefficient of frlctron. This
ble quantity, ranging from 0.01 or less
id iubricoted by a
coefficieiit is an exceedingly vgria
with perfectly polished journals, hsvfng end-pl?y, al
Dad or oil-bath. to 0.10 or more~witj! ordin?ry oil-c!lp @!Iri$$ion:
.
- For shafts resisting torsion only, Marks gives for le!lgtn of nesnng 1 =
O .OOOO247fpNiY. in which f is the coefficient. of fnctlon. p the mean
pressure in pounds per square inch on the piston, A the number of
single strokes per minute, and D the diameter of the piston,
For shafts
under the mmhi ned stress due to Dressure on the crank-pin, weight of
f l y- wheel . . , - YY. , . . n _. - - l . . l - - . . . . . . - . . . - . ~ ~
t.r. weieht. S = stress due steam pressure on piston.nd Hl & the _- ..D . . . . ~.
resultant force: for horizontal eniines, IZ, = z/Q?+ .Sy, for vertical
engines Bl = Q + S, when the pressure on the crank 1s in the same
direction as the pressure of the shaft on its bearings, and .~I = Q - S
when the steam pressure tends to lift the shaft from its beanngs.
Using
emniricnl values ~for the work of frict,ion per scluare inch of projected area.
talcen from dimensions of crank-pins in marine vessels
he finds the
formula for length of shaft-journals 2 = 0.0000325 fRll+,. and recom-
mends that to cover the defec :ts of workmanship. neglect of mling. and the
introducrion of dust. f be taken at 0.16 or even greater.
He says that
500 lbs. per sq. in. of projected area may be allowed for st.eel or wrqught-
iron shaft.s in brass bearings with good results if a less pressure 1s pot
attainable without inconvenience.
Marks says that the use of empirical
rules that do not t~nk.-p a,rcnnnt of the number of turns per minute~has
resulted in bearing~-mucl;-too-iong-for &&v-speed engines and too short
for high-speed engines.
Whitham gives the same formula, with the coeffirient~ O,.OOOO2575.
Thurston savs that the maximum allowable mean intenslby yf,rF$ure
60 ilO0 d or by Ihdines, I = P (V + 20) + 44,500 d. 111 which P.is t&
may he, for ail cases comput~ed by his formula for jcn!rm$
m&n total p&sure in pounds, V the velocity of rubbing surface 111 feet
per minute and d the diameter of the shaft in inches.
It must be borne
in mind hesavs that the friction work on the main bearing next the crank
is the &m of&at due the action of the pist.on on the pin and that due
that portion of the weight of wheel and shaft and of ~11 of the belt alucb
is carried there. The outboard bearing
carries pract,ical!y only the
latter t,wo parts of the total.
The crank-shaft journals will be made
longer on one side, and perhaps shorter on the other. than, that of,the
crank-Din. in DroDortion to the work fsliing ,upO~JJ each, i.e., to tneir ,i_l_,_,.,.-
tktekiai may no longer be accurate
DIMICNSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES. 1017
for each journal given above, we obtain the pressure per square inch upoIl
the bearing, as fotlows:
Engine No.. . . _. _: .
1016 THE: STEAK&-ENGINE.
respective products of mean total pressure, speed of rubbing stirfaces. and
coeflicients of frict.ion.
Unwln says: Journals running at 150 revolutions per minute are often
only one diameter long.
Fan shafts running 150 revolutions per minute
have ~om-!~ai~ Six or eight diameters long.
The ordinary empirical mode
of prOpO~tlOnl~1~ the length of journals is to make the length Proportional
t? the (hameter, and to make the ratio of length to diameter increase
wth the speed. For wrought-iron journals:
Revxpermin. T 50 100 150 200 250 500 1000 Z/d= 0.004 Rfi.
Length f dism. = 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 3.0 5.0.
Cast-iron journals may have lid
of the above values,
- @/lo, and steel journals 2 id = 1 Vd,
Unkvin nipes the following. calcldated from the formula I- 0.4 H.P. -L r
in. wh?ch r 1s the crank radius in inches, and H.P. the horse-power trans:
nutted to the crank-pin.
THEORETICAL JOURNAL LENGTH IN INCHES.
Press. Per sq. in., shortest journal . . 259
Longest journal.. .
112
Average journal.. . . . .
175
Journal of iength = diam.. .
I I , ! , ,
Many of the formulae give for the long-stroke engines a lengtl! of journal
less than the diameter, but such short journals are rarely used 111 pract!ce.
The last line in the above t.abie has been calcul&ted on the suppositmn
t,hat the journsls of the long-stroke engiues are made of a length equa.1
to the diiimeter.
In the dimensions of Corliss engines given by J. B. Stan\vood (Eng..
June 12 1891). the lengths of the journzls for engines of dlafn. of cyl.
10 to 20 in. are the same as the diam. of the cylinder, and a llttl!? more
than twice the diam. of the journal.
For engines above 20 in. &am. of
cyl. the ratio of length to diam. is decreased so that an engin$ of 30 in.
diam. has a jourwl 26 in. long.
its diameter being 14lV1t3 m. These
lengths of jourmdl are greater tlran those given by any of the formulze
ab&e quoted.
There thus appears to be a hopeless coniusion in t,lle variOUS formula?
for length of shaft journals, bum this is no more than is to be especfed
from the variation ln thr! coelticient of friction, and in the he;it-condoctlng
power of journals in actual use,
the coellicient varying from 0.10 (or
even 0.16 as given by Marks) down to 0.01, accord!u,
(7 to the condition
of the bw&g sllrfaccs and the etliciency of lubncation.
Thurslons
- __
Load on
Journal in
pounds.
Revolut,ions of Journal Per R:inute.
. . .
. . .
------+
i:
16.
20.
40.
formula, E = Y n,\ n,>,> .I
; redwes to the form 2 = 0.000004363 PR, in which
P = mean toyii?% on journal, and R = revolutions per minute.
This
1s of the same form as Markss and Whithams formuhr, in which, lf /, the
co&Went of friction, bc taken at 0.10 the coefIirients of PR we, resw-
tivel\i 0.0000065 and 0.00000515.
Yaking the mean of thess three
form&, we have 2 = 0.0000053 PR, if f = 0.10 or 2 = O.OOOOa3 !-plc
for anv other value ( If f. The author believes this io be as safe a formula
as ani for leugtii of journals. with the limitation that. if it brings a result
of length of journai less tllan t~he diameter, then the length should be
made equal to the diameter.
Whenever withf = 0.10 it gives a !en.gth
which is lnconvenlent or inwossible of construction on account of hmlted
1~ r:~lue of t,he coefficient
space then provision shoukcbe made to reduce t.., ..~
of fri&ion below 0.10 by means of forced luhricatlon, end pla,y. etc.. and
to carry awa.; Ihe heat as bv water-cooled journal-boxes.
The value of
P &mild be-taken as the resultanf of the mean pressure on the crsnk.
and the load brought on the bearing by the weight of the shaft. fiY-hd -,
etc., as calculated by the formula already given, viz., RI = xOz f p for
horizontal en&es, and RI = Q + 3 for vertical engines. iv,?9 ,~it~l the
For our <is engines the formula Z = 0.0000053 PR c
limitat.ion for the long-stroke engines that the lengt,h sh~dl ;iot be less
than the diameter, the following: h
Applying these different formuke to our six
engines, we have:
EngineNo.. . . . . . _. _.
I 2
--
gtmn. cyl..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..__.._.._
10 10
or.%-power.. . .
Revs. permin . . ..:.:::::::::::::::::
2::
50
&lean Pressure on crank-pin = S.. .
Half wt. of fly-wheel and shaft. = (2..
Resultant pressure on bearing
3 299 .:!9!
288
4jGG=R,. 3.310 3331
l&m. of shnft journal.. . . . . . . . . :.
Length of shaft. journal:
3.84 4:39
Mmks.
\Vhithnm,
Thurston.
Rml i i ne.
Unn- i n.
Unwin,
Entine No.. . . . . . . . 1
~neth of inllrnal.. . . . 4.39 4.%9 16343 .12tW
30: so

21.52
Awrwze.. . . . . . .
--
f I.
4.92 2.99
-.
-----
17.05 IO.00 29.54 19.22
I I
Wed are+. that is. by the prorluct of the diameter jnd -fength of the
If we divide the mean resllltnnt pressure on the betring .by the pro-
ww ~sw the greatest and smallest lengths out of.tl,e Seven lengths ~-.I;-
~~JARNING: This is a ~1910 edition. &me of t
twisting moment, TI = Bf dL32t- IQ, in which Ti is the equivalent
twisting moment, B the bending moment, and I the twisting moment.
This value of Ti is to be used in the formula diameter = $5.1 T/S.
The
bending moment is taken as the maximum load on piston multiplied by
one-fourth of the length of the crank-shalt between middle points of the
3, if the center is midwav between the bearinrc
be much less than the twitinq
t, the resulting diameter vi-ill
but little greater than ii-~i~~~h~~~suppositio,~ is used
be
For the for-
ward Journal, whi+ is subjected to bending moment only. diameter of
.- _
shaft = vlO.2 B/S, in which B is the maximum bending moment and
S the safe&earing strength of the metal per square inch -
Fqr our six engines, assuming them to be center-crank engines and
consnlenng the crank-shaft to be a beam supported at the end; and
loaded in the middie, and assuming lengths between centers of shaft
bearings as given below.~ we have:
Engine No.. .: . 1
--
Length of shaft,
assumed, in.. L..
Max. press. on
cmnk-pin. P.
Max. bendina mo-
ment, B = 1/4PL
Twisi,ing mom,., 1
Equiv. twist. mom.
B+~P+T...
Dinm. of after jour.
d=
3 5.1;
\/ Eiii...
Diam.offorw.jour.,
dl=
20
7, 054
39- 21
47. 12
101, 00
3. 68
-7
- -
0
4
0
-
--_..- -
2
- - - -.
24
7. 85 4
49. 63 7
94. 24 8
156. 00 0
4. 60
3. 99
-
3 I 4 I 5 I 6
48 60 76 96
70, 686 70, 686 196, 350 196, 350
848, 232
1. 060. 290 I
1. 060. 290
2, 120, 580 I 3, 729, 750 4. 712, 400 4, 712. 400 9, 424, 800
2, 208, OOO 3, 430, OOO' 9, 740. OOO' 15, 240, OOO
I I . 15 13. 00 18. 25 21. 20
10. 28 I I . 16 16. 82 18. 18
The lengt,hs of the journals would be calculated in the same manner as
ln the Case oi overhung cranks, by the formula 2 = 0.00Ct053 fm, in
whi~ch P is the resultant of the mean pressure due to pressure of steam on
fhe pist.ou, and the load of the fly-wheei, shaft etc
on each of the two
orann% Unless the pressures are equally divldzd between the t.wo
benti&, the ca~lculated lengths of the two will be different. but it is
usually crist~omary to make them bot.h of the same length, andin no case
to makethe length less than the diameter.
The diameters also are usunllv
mode alike for the two journals, using the largest diameter found by
cairulntion.
-.
xne crnnl i-pin fpr a center crank.should be of the same length as for
an overhung crank. since tlie 1enrrt.h ir r
of !lentin RRI~IP, si *, and not of strength.
..o_.. -- .leterminrd from considerations
The diameter also will usually he the
nce.it. is made great enough to make the pressure per square inch
on t.he i,rojel -~-~~ ct,ed arca (product of length by diameter) stn&l enough Tao
nllow of free
luhncnt~ion, and the diameter so calculated will be greater
r r t l for strcngt.h.
(r:lnli-sll;;
power of the
ift yitl! Two Cranks ronplccl n,t 90. -If the whole
engum 1s transmitted through the after journal of the after
DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF .ENGINES.
1019
1. _,.^a-& I!.~ nroa+nct .twistlng moment is equal to 1.414 times the
9 <Ilie to the pressure on one of the crank-pins.
r moment produced by the steam-pressure
;I the maximum twist,ing moment on the
.Aa nn t,he tine-slrsft produced. when each
cranli-sucub, ~8tt; ~~~~~~~~~~~
maximum twlstlng mome!LU,UL
If T = the maximum tuistlnF
on one of the pistons, then 1
after part of the crank-slrsft, +-
-._ .__ __..: _.~~~~~ _
crank makes an angle of 45O with the center hne,of the engine; is 1.4.14 T.
Substituting this ValUe in the
formula for diameter to resist simple
torsi ---
,I _ ,V~
,on, viz.. u _ y v.-
T + S, we lrsve d = 45.1 X 1.41.4 1 f S, or
-
a-1 o-9 ,/T/S. i n which T ls the maximum twisting moment pro-
w - I.VII1 - ,-, -~~ ~~~~~~
duced hy one of the pistons, d = diameter in inches, and S = safe
working shearing str0npf.h of the material.
For the forward journal Of
the a,f+.er crank. and ..- y.yI.
iional
~&&h~i~%$ due to the prtaaULY vI .,UI.w..
a~nrl for the forward journal of the forward -._- ---
.-.-"".- __ -,..
tl,n aftor journal~of the forward crank, the ton
I~c..-o nf ~t~a.m on the forward piston only.
crank if none of the power
inrsionjl moment is zero, and
nt onlv.
of the en~gine is transmitted through it., the t-.--.
its diameter is to be calculated for bending momel
For Combined Torsion and Flexnre. - L~L I - UII..I-.-O ---~
e n. L hmwtinrr moment
on either journal of the forward crank due to maximum pressure on
forward piston & = bending moment on either journal ofthe after Frank
due to maximum pressure on after piston, TI = maximum tw?St!ng
moment on after journal of forward crank a.nd TI = maximum tvvlstlng
moment on after journal of after crar
rk, due to pressure on the after
piston.
Then equivalent twisting moment on after journal of forward crank =
~~ + d/B,? + TI?.
,
-12.
On forward journal of after crank = Bz + VB9 t 1
On after journal of after crank = B? + z/B?2 + (TI + 19.
These values of equivalent twisting moment are to be
formula for diameter of journals tl = q5.1 T/S. For the forward
1 used in the
journal of the forward crank-shaft d = qiO.2 BI 1s.
It is cnstomary to make the two journals of the forward crank of one
rlin.met,er~ vi z. . that calculat,ed for the after jo!lrnal, .,.,.D AL.. _.._ + r\r+
-Fey-a Ti~&eZ~yllnder~ Engine with cra+s at r-y;, Iut: s~~~L~Jy
t,wlstinr moment on&e after _... ,,,
part of the shaft, If the maximum pressures
on the three pistons are equal, is equa,l to twice the maximum pressure on
any one piston and it takes place when two of the cranks make angles
of 30 with the center line. t,he third crank being at right a$les to-it.
(For demonstration, see Whithams Steam-enrine D&m P. 2o-.)
For combined torsion and flex!ne the same method as above given for
-or t , h, =! f i r st two cranks:~ and for. the
m~nsmitted
two crank engines is adont.ed fL.. __.. ~~~
third or Tfter crank, if all the Dower of the three Cylinders lsti
throngh .it. we have the equivalent twlstingl mom -
journal = & .l- 1/R3? + (Ti + T2)2, and on the after journal = R3,+
-.
s/R32 + (Ti + T? + T#, RP and !?a being respectively the bending and
twisting moments due to thepressure on the third piston.
Crank4mft.s for Triple-expansion Marine Engines* according to
an article in The Engz&er April 25 1890 should be made larger ihan the
formulre would call for ln order tb pro&de for the &resses due to the
rncinv of the propellerin a sea-way, which can scarcely. be celculaied.
A lizd of unwritten law has sprung up for fixing the size of a Crank-
shaft according t,o which tile dlamet.er of the shaft is made about 0.45 I>*
where D ls t,he diameter ofthe high-pressure cplinder.
This is for sohd
shaft,s. When the speeds are hish.
as ln war-ships, and t~he stroke short*
the formula becomes 0.4 D. even for hollow s1
The Valve-stem or Vdve
t0 move the valve wuir.r the most unfavc
hafts.
+.od. - rnp valve-rod should be designed
,rahle conditions. which are when
the stem a&bv thrusting 1s a long rolnmn. when t,he valve ls unbalanced
(a balanced vT1ve mzy be&me unhzlancerl hy t,he joint leaking) and when
It is imperfectly tub&-t,ed
The i&l on the vnlve is the prod@ of;::
area rntnto t,he gre,at,est mrbilanced pressure upon it Per sqnare Inch.
the coefficient of friction may he as hi gh as 20%.
The Pr odl t Ct O~. $~
Coefficient and the load is the force necessary to move the Valve.
may
no 1 onger be
equals the maxi&m thrust,& the valve-rod. From this force the diam-
eter of the valve-rod may be calculated by the usual formula for
columns. An empirical formula given by Seaton is: Diam. of rod = d =
d&p/l+, in which 2 = length, and b = breadth of valve in inches.
p = maximum absolute pressure on then valve in lbs. per Aq. in., and
F a coefficient whose valties are, for iron: long rod 10,000, short 12,000;
for steei: long roll 12,000, short lp,.500.
Whitham gives the short emplncal rule: Diam. of valve-rod 2 113
diam. of cvl. = l/n diam. of r&ton-m&
Size ofvSlot-l&k. ($ieatbtij - Let D be the diam. of the valve-rod
D=4bp + 12,000;
then Diameter of block-nin when overhune =n
li I
-. secured at both ends
eccentr+-rod pins
=0.75X D.
suspe&Jjsion-rod pins
=0.7 X D.
= 0.55 X D.
1
pin when overhung = 0.75 X D.
Breadth of link
Length of block
= 0.8 to 0.9 X D.
Thickness of bars of link at, middle
= 1.8 to 1.6X D.
=0.7X D.
If a single suspension rod of round section, its diameter = 0.7 X D.
If two Suspension rods of round section, their diameter = 0.55 X D.
Size of Double-har Links. -~ When the distance between cent,ers of
eccentric pins = G to S times throw of eccentrics (throw = eccentricity =
half-travel of valve at full gear) D as before:
Depth of bars
Thickness of bars
= 1.25 x D + 314in.
Length of sliding-block
= 0.5 X D + 1/4in.
= 2.5 to 3 X D.
Dia!Feter of eccentric-rod pins = 0.8 X D + l/4 in.
center of sliding-block = 1 .3 X D.
When the distance.between eccentric-rod pins= 5 to 51/z times throw
of eccentrics:
Depth of bars
Thickness of bars
= 1.25xD+ Vzin.
Length of slining-block
= 0.5 X D + l/sin.
= 2.5 to 3 X D.
Diameter of eccentric-rod pins =. 0.75 X D.
Diameter of eccentric bolts (top end) at bottom of thread = 0.42 X-D
when of iron, and 0.38 x D when of steel.
The I%cmtrlc. - Dinm. of eccentric-sheave = 2.4 X throw of eccen-
tric + 1.2 X diam. of shaft. D as before
Breadth of the sheave at the shaft. . . .
Breadth of the sheaveat. the strap. . . .
= 1.15 X D + 0.05 in.
= D + 0.0 in.
Thickness of metal aroUnd the shaft. . = 0.7 X D + 0: 5 in.
Thickness of metal at circiimferenre. . .
Breadthofkey . . . . . . . . . . . .._.........
= 0.G X D + 0.4 in.
Thicknessofkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;~.
=0.7 X D+0.5in.
=0.25XD+0.5in.
Diameterof boltsconnectingpartsofst&p = 0.6 X D+ 0.1 in.
Tnrcs~~ss OF ECCENTRIC-STRAP.
When of bronze or malleable ca.st iron:
Thickness of eccentric-strap atth&~i%&li&~:. .
Thickness of eccentric-strap at the sides. . .
= 0.4 X D + 0.6 in.
When of wrought iron or cast steel:
= 0 3 X D + 0.5 in.
Thickness of eccentric-&rap at the middle.. . . = 0.4 X D + 0.5 in
Thickness of eccentric-strap at t.he sides. = 0.27 X D + 0 4 ih
The Eccentric-rod. -The diamet.er of t.he eccentric-rod in t,he body
and at the ercent,ric end may be ralcr~latert in the same way as that of the
connecting-rod. the length being taken from center of strip to center of
Pin. Diameter at the link end = 0.8.D + 0~2 in.
This is for wrought iron: no reduction in size should be made for steel.
Eccentric-rods are often made of rrctnngg&rr section.
Rc~r r si ns+r em shout d I I I ! FO designed ks to have more tha,n sufficient
+t*enSth to withstand the strain of both the valves and their gear at. the
DIMENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES. 1021
same time under the most unfavorable circumstances: it will then have
the stitfness requisite for good working.
Assuming the work done in reversing t~he link-mot.ion. lll. to be onl,y
that due to overcoming the friction of the valves thern~~lves through t.hru
whole travel, then, if 3 be the travel OC valves in i:!ches, for a compound
z,, b,, and ~1 being length. breadth, and maximum steam-pressure on
valve of the second cylinder; and for an expansive engine
To provide for the friction of link-motion. eccentrics, and other gear,
and for abnormal coliiiitions oi the same, take the work at one and a half
times the above amount.
To find the strain at any
divide the work so found e
art of the gear having motion when reversil1.g.
y the space moved through by t.hst part m
feet; the quotient is the strain in pounds; and the size may be Could from
the ordinary rules of construction for any of the parts of the gear. (Sea-
ton.)
Current Practice in Engine Proportions, 1897. (Compare pages 996
to 1020.) - A paper with this title by Prof. Job? H, Barr, 111 %ra,ns.
A. 8. ,\;l.fi., xviii, 737~ tives t he results of an esammatlon of the ProPor-
tions of paits of a
__ __. o.- ~..~~~~~ c~
different hl l i l dr r s. I%~-&U%&-biassed as low speed (L. S.)~are Corli& _ -- _.-..-.
. Innn-stroke &gines&ually making not more than 100 or 125 revs.
hose classed as high speed (H. S.) have a stroke generally of
meters and a speed of 200 to 300 revs. per min.
The results
formllln~s nf rational form with empirical cosfflcients,
(dimensions in inches):
U: D = diam. of piston in
or other
per min.
.+.,
1 to 1 l/2 dial..-.-.
are expressed in _Y . . . . ..I I- -- -.
and are here abridged as follows
Thickness nf Shell, L: S. only. - t = CD +
in.: B = 0.3 111.: C varies from 0.04 to 0.06, mean - 0.0.5.
Flanges and Culiinder-hsads.- 1 to i 5 x thickness of shell,~ mean 1.2.
C&L-.
ii 1 s/g in.
..--__ __ _.,_ -._. -.1 .1..._.1 ._I., ..- -. . .
diam. Least number, 8, for IO in. diam. Avera@ number = 0.7 D.
Average diam. = D/40 + 11.1 i n
Ports aad Pipes. - a i = &&- of por t ( or pi pe) i n sq. in.: A = area.qf
niston. sn. in.: V = mean nisron-soped ft. ner min.: n = -4 V/C, i!l \vl-Y
e =~ tieai~ veiocity of steam through t,he Port or pipe in ft neP rni-
Ports, H. S. (same ports for steam a= fnr erl>n,llrt,l
6500. mean 5500. For n-A:----. -:n+--
_
. . &.,.
I-. ye 4500 to
__...._.... ,I. -
Iu,Iw,y IjB~bV8,-speecj of 600 ft. per min. a =
nean 0.11. KA: K = 0.09 to 0.13, n
Stem2-Ports. L. s. - c = 5000 to 9000. mean 6SOO: I< = 0.03 to 0. lo*
mean 0.69.
E.rhwst-ports, L. S. - c=4000 to 7000, mean 5500; ~=o.lO toO.125,
mean 0.11.
Steam-pipes, H. S. - C = 5800 to 7000 mean 6500.
Tf d = dam. Qf
PlPe and D = diam. of J&ton. d = 0.29 fi to 0.32 n. mean Q130 D. ^ ..c n.
~Steam-aipes. L. S. - & 4 5i)bO to 3000,~mean 6000: d = 0.27 to J.;>o u;
mean 0.32 D.
Exhnust-pipes H S. -C = 2500 to 5500, mesn 4400: d = 0.33 to
0.50 D, mean 0:37D
E.7Ymu.st-pbnen L. fj. -c = 2800 to 4700, mean 3SOO: d = 0. 35 t o
0.4.5 D, mean 0: 40 D
Face of Pistons. --F = face= D = din.met,er. F = CD. H. S.: c =
O.~nto0.60.mean() 46. L.s:c =0.25t~on.45.mean0.32.
Piston-ss. - d L dlam. of iod: D = dlam. of Piston: L = stroke. in.:
d= C ~DL. H S.: C= 0.12 to 0.175, menn 0.145. L. S.: C=O.*O to
O,.l.?. mean 0.11:
~onncct~~Jq-rods, - H. fi (eenerallv 6 cranks lone. rect,anmllar sertlon):
7~ = breadth:. h = height of sect i on:
r,i = length of connecting-rod:
D = cfiam of pi st on: h = Cd/ nT, , : ( : = 0. 045 t 0 0. 07. mean O. O( i 7:
k = J\b: l? = 2.2 t,o 4; mean 2.7,
T,. fi. (generallr 5 cranks long, cir-
cular sections only): C = 0.082 to 0.105, mean 0.092.
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
,Sorrie of ho longer be accurate
Cwss-her@ &lides. - Maximum pressure in Ibs. per sq in. of shoe due
to the Vertical CompOnent of the force on the connecting-rod.
10.5 to 38, mean 27. L. S.: 29 to 58, mean 40.
d. S.:
Cross-head Pins. 7 2 = length: d = diam.; projected area = a E df =
$A; A = area of Dlston; 1 = Kd.
- lto2,mean1.25.
1%. 5.: C = 0.06 to 0.11, mean 0.08.
1.5, mean 1.3.
L.S.:C = 0.054to0.10,mean0.07;K = ltd
Crank-pin. -, H.P. = horse-power of engine: L = length of stfoke.
I.= length of PM; 1 = C X H.P./L+ B; d = diam. of pin. A= area ot
piston; dl = KA. H.S.: C = 0.13 to 0.46, mean 0.30,B = 2.5 in:
K=0.17to0.44,mean0.24. L.S.:C=0.4to0.8,niean0.6;~=
2 in.; K = 0.065 to 0.115, mean 0.09.
Crank--shalt IMain Journal. -d= C 3H.P.i N; d= diam.; Z=length;
N = revs. per min.: projected area = MA; A = area of piston
C = 6.5 to S.5, mean 7.3: Z=Kd; K=2 to 3, mean 2.2; ,%f = O?i$i
0.70,mean0.46. L.S.:C=6to8,mean6.8; K=1.7to2.l,mean
1.9; Jf = 0.46 to 0.61, mean 0.56.
Piston-speed. - H. S.: 530 to 660, mean 600; L. S.: 500 to 850, mean
600.
Weight ol heciprocating Parts (piston, piston-rod cross-head, and one-
half of connecting-rod). - W = CD2 + LN2. D = dijm
L = length of stroke, in.: N = revs. per min.
k. S. only: h
of piston.
to 2.300,000, meam 1,860.OOO.
= 1,200,ood
Belt-surface per I.H.P. - S=C X H.P. + B; S=product of width of
be!t in feet by velocity of belt in ft. per min
28: B=lSOO.
H. S.: C=21 to 40. mean
L. S.; S=CX H.P., C=30 to42, mean-35.
Flwhel (H. S. only). - Weight of rim in Ibs.: IV = C x H.P +
D?W; DI = diam. of wheel iri in.; C = 65 X lQ!J to 2 X 10 mean =
12 X 10IL. or 1,200.000,000,000.
Weight of Engine per I.H.P. in Ibs includinn fly-wheel. - IV =
C X H.P. H. S.: C= 100 to 135, meadll5. I,. s.: C = 135 to 240,
mean 175.
Cur~e$,Pwctice in Steam-engine Design, 1909.
(Ole N. Trooien
BM. Cnzv:!r of Wis.. No. 252: Am. Mach., April 22. 1909.) - Practice ii
proportlomng staz!dard steam-en&e parts has settled down to certain
defimte values, wlnrh have by long usage been found to give sa,tisfactory
results. These values can readily be expressed in formulas showing the
rel+tlon between the more important factors enteriug the problem of
dt?SI,ofl.
.These formu+ ma9 be considered as p&Iv rational and partly em
Plrl.Cal: ratl.onal in the sense that the variablesenter in the same manner
?s In a stnrt analysis.,and empirical in the sense that the conpt,ants
instead of being
oht,a!ned from assumed working strength bear&
Prrssures. etc.. are denred from actual practice and includeelements
Whose vahles are not SCCIlrately known but which have been found safe
and economirnl
The fo!lowing symbols of notation are used in the formula,s given:
D = dlamet.er of piston.
A - area of piston
L = length of stroke
p = unit steam pressure. t,aken as 125 Ibs.-per iq. in. above exhaust ai
a standnrtl pressure. H.P. = rated horse-power
N = revs. per min.
C ?nd I\. constants. and d=dinm. and Z=length df unit under consider-
atlo?. Ali dimensions in inches.
I~fle rommercial Point, of cut,-off is taken at l/4 of the stroke.
high-speed engines. L. S., tom-speed, or long-stroke entines.
H. S..
l 0.28. C -0.054
(0.65 D for Corliss.) Diam.
Mean vallle of C = 0.32 ,~. ,,:
WARNING: Thi& is 2 1910 edition. kome -of-%
DI>lENSIONS OF PARTS OF ENGINES. 1023
for H. S. (0.26 for Corliss). Thickness of shell = thickness of cylinder
wall X 0.6 (0.7 ior Corliss).
Piston Speeds. - H. S., 605 ft. per min. (min. 320: max., 920): Corliss,
592 ft. per min. (min., 400; ma:x., SOO).
Cross-head. - Area of shoes m sq. ins. = 0.53 A (min., 0.37; max.,
0.72)
cm,,:qn-h.e& Pin. - Diameter = 0.25 D (min., 0.17: max, 0.28).
LeKgii; for H. S. = diam. X 1.25 (min., 1; max., 1.5); for ~orliss =
dia,m. X 1.43 (min., 1; max., 1.9). -_-.~~~.
Connecting-r&s. i Breadth for H. S. =O. 073 d= (min., 0.55; max.,
0.094).
Height =breadth X225 (min.,
1.85; m&x., 3). For L. S., diam.
of circular rod =0.092 d&U (min., 0.081; .max., 0.104). L, = length
nnn+nr tn renter of bearings. _ .- ,
LG~&k-pin. - Dmm. for H. S. center-crank en@eS = 0.4 U (mtn.,
0.28; max., 0.526).
Diam. for side-crank Corhss = s.27 D (mm.,
0.21; max.,
0.32). Length for H. S. = diam. X 0.81 (min., q.66;
1 25). Length for Corliss = diam. X 1.14 (min., 1; max., 1.3).
m~~~i~Journa~~ of CTan~!r-nhaft~ - For H. 8. center-crank engmes, diam.
= 6.6
a~.p./,V (min.,i.k--&ax,, 8.2). For COdiSS, diameter = 5.2
[~(H.PI/-V)-O.~I (min., 6.
4; max., 8).
+. in nnl~ndln for H. S. UD to 175 H.P.
Fly-wheels. -Total weigh. -_-
I ~oo,ooo,ooo.ooO
C=,ii
H.P. /D12N3,
~;&~ D1 = diam. df wheel in ins.
2,800,000,000,000). For larper H. S.
engiidks,
660 000.000,000; max..
weight = (CX I1.P JJ
.2X\:3) + 1000. where C=720.000.000.000
weight = (c x H.p. /D12N3) - ~~~i;e;ye~~~~~ij~cibo.ooo,~oo (min.,625.-
(mjn., 330,000,000,000; ma,.,
000 000 000; max. 1,330,000,000,000), and K-4000 (mm.. 2,800; max.,
6OOi)). Diam. in ins. = 4.4 X length Ot stroke.
Belt Surface per I.H.P. -
Square feet of belt surface
for H. S. = H.P. X 26.5 (min., 10: max., $$). For
P
er.minute, (S)
orhss englues.
-1 ihri rinti iitib nnn~. I- For Corliss &&es.
s = 1000 + (21 x H.P.) (min., 18.2. ma\y
Velocity of Wheel Rim. - For H. L.
70). for Corliss, 68 ft. per sec. (min., 40; max., 68).
tit-eight of R&cipro&ing Parts (Pist~oll + plStOll rod + crosshead +. t/Z
connecting-rod). - Weight in
11~ Iv = (IP/LW) x 2.000,OOO (mm.,
,3J7p,O90; max., 3,400,00 ,
, . ...-... . . . .
3. 70 ft. ner sec. (min., 48; max.,
.._ _.__ .~
0). Balance a&gilt opposite crank-pin =
1:
i
I THE STEAM-ENGINE.
i
of surface are determined by several conditions: 1. Speed of movement
2. Charxter of material
4. Constancy of pressure in one direction.
3. Permissible wear of journals or bearings:
of oressure.
5. Alternation of the direction
a
iakiug the product of pressure per sq. in. of surface in lbs., and speed
:pt in ft. per min., we obtain a quantity, which we can term
?rmisslble foot-pounds per minute for each sq. in. of wearins surface.
.~ .-
This lxonuct vanes in good pmctice under various contlitiflni; ti&
50,000 to 500.0l JO ft.-lbs. per min. For instance, good practice in later
yC%ars, has larfiely increased the are& of crosshead sliae surf&es. For
crossheads havmg maximum speed of lUO0 feet per minute, the pressure
per inch of tvearing surface should not esceed 50 pounds, giving 50 000
ft.-lb% per mm.; whereas crank-pins of the requisite grade of steel <\-ith
good litung metal in the boxes and eflicient lubrica.tion will ehdure
200.000 ft.-lbs. per min. satisiactorily, and more than double this when
speeds are very h&h and the pressure intrrmitt.ent.
On main shafts
with pressures constant in one direction, it is advisable not to exceed
50.000 ft.-lbs. per min. for heavily loaded shafts at low velocity.
may be,increased to lUO.000 for lighter loads and higher velocities.
This
It
can be mferred, therefore, that tbe product of speed and pressure cannot
be u!ed. in any comprehensive way. as a rational basis for proportioning
weanng surfaces..
speed is increased,
The pressure per unit of surface must be reduced as the
but not in a constant ratio.
A good esample of
Journals severely tested are the recent llO,OOO-pound freight cars which
bear a pfessure of 400 lbs. per sq: in. of journal bearing, and at a speed
of ten Inlies per hour make about OO,(lOO foot-pounds per minute.
CaIcui~+tg the L)inmmions of Bearings, CF. E. Card&o, .lialhy
Feb., lYU( .) - The durability of the lutricatlng film is affected in greai
measure by the ch;dracter of the loAd that the bearing carries.
When the
!oad is unvarying 1n amount and direction, as in the case of a shaft carry-
Ing a heavy bandwheel, the fihn is easily ruptured.
In those cases where
the pressure, is variable in amount and direction, as in railway journals
and crank-pms, the Iilrn is much more durable.
When the journal only
rotates through a small arc, as with the wrist-pin of a steam-engine the
cjrcumstances are most favorable. It has been found that when all &her
C1rcum?;tancrs are exactly similar, a car journal will stand about twice
the unit Pressure that a fly-wheel journal will. A crank-pin since the
load compl+ly reverses Fvery revolut.ion. will stand t,hree t&s :ind a
;v;;t-pin ~11 stand four Wnes the unit pressure that the Hy-wheel \ournal
TI le amount of pressure that, commercial oils wiil endure at 105~ speecfs
wit.hout brt~aklng dowl varies from 500 to 1000 lbs. per sq. in. wllere the
load is steady. It is not safe, however, to load a bearin:: to ihis extent,
Smce It 1s OIli?: under fsvorable circumstances that the film will stand this
pressure wi+out rupturing. On this account, journal bearings should
not be required to stand more than two-thirds of this pressure at slow
speeds, and. the pressure should be reduced when the speed illcreases
TlJe, approximate unit pressure which a bearing will endure wlthoui
seizjng 1s P &. Pk + (D-V + K) (1). p = allowable pressure in lbs. per
sq. m..of ProJccted area, D = diam. of the ~bearing in ins. N = revs
per nun.. and P and K depend upon the kin? of oil. manne; of lubrica:
tiom et.c
P is the maximum safe unit pressure for the given circumstancrs. at a
very, slow speed. In ordinary cases, it,s value is 200 fol
r collar thrust
bearln!zs. 400 for shaft bearings, SO0 for car journals, 1200
and 1000 for wrist-pins.
rnr ,-ronL--nine
In exceptional circurnstall~es,.tl;~~~~~~~~
FaY be incrcascd by as much as 5O.s. but onlv when the workmn,nship
is of t,ilc btst~, t,he care the most sklMu1. the tyearing rcadllv accessible
anti t~ile oil of t.lle best qunlit,v. and umlsually viscous.
In thk great: unit;
of the SIlb\~a~l power plant, in New York, the value of p for the cmnk-
nins is Y1111)
- The fnGF& K depends upon the method of oiling the r;lpidity of cool-
ing. and the rare which the journal is likely to aei,
the .followinp values:
Ordinars~
class (:Lre. drop-feed llll~rirotmn
work.
It will have about
drop-feed Iuhric~at,ion, 300; tirst-
oilinK.
1000: force-feed hlbrication or rin=
1200 to 15110: cstrcmr Ii&t. for perfect Iubricat:ion 21111 air-cooled
beariugs, 2000. The value 2000 is seldom used, except in locomotive
r,lARNING:- This~. is a 1910 edition. &Some of 1
DIMENSIONS OF PAIZ.18 OF ENGINES.
1025
work where the rapid c/rc@ion of the air cools the journals.
Higher
~> z.. .t.- - ..^ -c . ..^L_... ,.^^I __I L.~,r:,I,rr.
values than this mny only ne useu 1.. -.._ --I.- -_
..-l_ _- _.__ _____.. _-.
In case the bearing is some form of a sliding shoe,
the quantity 240 V
should be substituted for the quantity DN.
V being the velocity of rubbing
in feet per second.. There are a, few casts
where a unit pressure sufficient
to break down the oil film is allowabie, such as the Dms of punching and
shearing machines, pivots of swing bridges, etc.
In general, the diameter of a shaft or pin is fixed from considerations of
strength or stiffness. Having obtained the proper diameter, we must
next make the bearing long enough so that the unit pressure sha,ll not
exceed the required value. This length may be found by means of the
.equiLtion:
L = (W i PK)X(N+KIm. . . . . . (2)
where L is the length of the bearing in ins., 1V the load upon it in Ibs.,
and P, K. A, and D are &s before.
A bearing may give poor sat~isfsction because it is too lqng, ps well as
because it ls too short. Almost every bearing is in the condltlon of a
loaded beam, and therefore it has some -^..n+-
: Ulzl~;lrLLLL.
Shafts and cr-7 -;Y must not be I *,,n-,,LL
---.--*- a.t xnv noint.
nade so Ion:: that they will allow
the lpnrl tn Pn ,-- ~- --.. ce,IL,~LLc -_ _~~ c~-
A eood rule for the l-e?Gth IS to
make tillG .ILLLLq +lrr. -+CQ of length to diameter about equal to
.
IsVN.
-.
ln*S
quantity nm~ ! ,e diminished by from 10 to 2070 in the case of cfank-pins
ana mcrcxseu in the ssme proport,ion in the case of shaft beanngs. but
it. is not wise to depart too far from it.
In the case of an engiue making
100 r.p.m. the bearings would be by tbis rule from 1 l/4 to 1 l/z diams. in
length. I;i the case of a motor running at 1000 r.p.m.. the beanngs
would be about 4 diams. long.
The diameter of a shaft or pin must be such that it will bc strong and
stiff enough to do its work properly.
In order to design it for strength
a.nrl st.iffness. it is first necessary to know its length.
This may be assumed
teKt&clyf&n~~the equation
L=?O TV fi+PK. . . . . . . . (3)
The diameter ma
the strength of s lafts or pins given in the different works on machIne r
then be found by any of the standard equations !or
design. [See The Strength of the Crank-pin, page 1007.1 The,length IS
then recomputed from formula No. 2. taking this new value If It does
not differ materially from the one first assumed.
If it does, and espe-
cially if it is fxeatcr than the assumed length,, take the mean value of the
assumed and computed lengths. and try again.
EXAMPLE. -WC will take the case of the crank-pin of an engine with a
20-i;. cvlinrier, running at !% r.p.m., and having a maximum unbalanced
steam pressure of 100 lbs. per sq. ill.
The total steam load on the piston
is 31,400 potmds. P is taken at 1200, and K as 1000.
We will therefore
.I_.
obt,ain for our trial lengtu:
~~(20 x 31,400 x dG)+(l200 x1,000)=4.7, or say 43/4 ins.
In order that the deflection of t.he pin shall note be sufficient to destroy
the lubricat.ing film we have
0=0.09 *cyWL3,
which limits the deflection to 0.003 in.
This gives D = 3.85 ,or say 37/8
ins. With this diameter, formula No. 2 gives L = 8.9. sz1.Y 9 Ins.
The mean of this value and the one obtained before 1s abput 7st;.
Substituting this in t.he equation for the diameter, we get 5l/4 Ins.
-
stituting this new diameter in equation No. 2 we have .L= 7.05. SaY
7 ins.
Probably most Eood designers would prefer to take abput, !la!f an inch
OR the lcnfith of this pin, and add it t,o the diameter, mal+g It as/4 X6/:
inches, and this will bring the ratio of the length to the diameter nearer
to % d/N.
EnKim+frames or Bed-plates.-No deiinite rules for the design
of enrim+frames have been given by authors of works on the steam-
en&e. The proportiolis are left to the designer who uses rule of
thumb or copies from existing engines.
1~. A. Halsey (Am. 3fach..
~&kri~al may n' o longer be accurate
/
d
1026 THE STEAM-ENGINE.
Feb. 14, 1895
I.
has made a comparison of proportions of the frames of
horizontal Cor ISS engines of several builders. The method of comparison
is to compute from the measurements the number of square inches in the
smallest cross-section of the frame, that is, immediately behind the
pillow block, also to compute the total maximum pressure upon the piston,
am! to divide the latter qusntity by the former. The result gives the
number of pounds pressure upon the piston allowed for each square inch
of metal m the frame. He finds that the number of Ibs. per sq. in. of
smallest section of frame ranges from 217 for a 10 X 30 in. engine up to
575. for a 28 X 48 in. A 30 X 60 in. engine shows 350 Ibs., and a 32-in.
engme !vhich has been running for many years shows 667 Ibs. Generally
the strams increase with the size of the engine, and more cross-section of
me&l is allowed with relatively long strokes than with short ones.
From the above Mr. Halsey formulates the general rule that in engines
of moderate speed, and having strokes up to 1 l/z times the diameter of the
cylipder, the load per square inch of smallest sect,ion should be for a lo-in.
engme 300 Ibs., which f i gur e should be increased for larger bores up to 500
Ibs. for a 30-in. cylinder of the same relative stroke. For high speeds or
for longer strokes the load per square inch should be reduced.
FLY-WHEELS.
The funct~ion of a fly-wheel is to store Up and to restore the periodical
fluctuations of energy given to or taken from an engine or machine, and
thus to keep appros;~stely constant the velocity of rotation. Rankine
calls the quantity & the coefficient of fluctuation of speed or of un-
steadiness, in whit; s is the mean actual energy, and AE the excess
of energy received or qf work performed, above the mean, during a
given interval. The ratlo of the
AE to the whole energy eserte 2.
eriodical excess or deficiency of energy
m one period or revolution General
h!orin found to be from l/6 to l/4 for single-cylinder engines using espan-
slon: the shorter the cut-off the higher the value.
For a pair of engines
with crar!ks coupled at 90 the value of the ratio is abollt l/4. and for
thrge engmes with cranks at 120, l/12 of its value for single-cvlitider
engmes. .For tools working at intervals, such as punching, slottifig and
plate-cutting maChineS, coining-presses, etc., AE is nearly equal tb the
whole work performed at each operation.
A fly-wheel reduces the coefficient
AE
- to a certain fixed amount,, b&g
2 Eo
about l/32 for ordinary machinery, and l/go or l/so for machinery for fine
purposes.
If, 1~ be the reciprocal of the intended value of the coefficient of fluc-
tuatlon of speed, AE the fluctuation of energy, Z the momen&;;n&tia
of the fly-wheel alone, and a~ its mean angular velocity, I = T As
the rim of a fly-wheel is usually heavy in comparison with %e arms
I may be taken to equal I!@, in which IV = weight of rim in pounds, and
m@E
r the radius of the wheel; then W = n..T2
mgAE .
= 7, If v be the velocity
of the rim in feet per second.
-.,. Y
in s,team-engines is from three to five times the 1engt.h of the crank
The usual mean radius of the fly-wi+e;;
onhnary values of the product ntg. the unit of time being the secdnd
between lOOO,and 2000 feet. (Abridged from Rankine, S. E. p. 69:)
lie
,T*hurston aves for engines with automatic va,lve-gear TV = 25~,000
-$$$. in which -4 = area of piston in squa,re inches, S = stroke j;i feet,
7J .= mea? ste;qm-pressure in 11~s. per sq. in., R = revolutions per minute
D = Ollt~slde dmmeter of wheel in feet,. Thurston also &4ves for ordinari
forms of non-condensing engine with a ratio of expansion between 3 and
-,-
5, TV L 72, .
in,which a ranges from lO.OOO,OOO to 15.000,000, aveI?lginp
FLY-WHEELS. 1027
doubled, or 24,OOO.OOO. Presumably, if the charge is fired every other
revolution, a s5ould be again doubled.
Ramtine (Useful Rules and Tables. p. 247) gives W = 475,000
ASP
7Z-77,
in which V is the variation of speed per cent of the mean speed.
Ghu;f$ions first rule above given corresponds with this if we take V = 1.9.
Hartnell (Proc. Inst. M. ti., 18S2, 427) says: The value of V, or the
varh&ion permissible in portable engines, should not exceed 3% with an
ordinary load, and 4% when heavily loaded.
nary purposes, V = al/2 t 0 3%.
In.fixed engines, for ordi-
For good govermng or special purposes,
such as cotton-spinning, the varistion,should not exceed 1 l/2 to ~27~.
F. M. Rites (Trans. A.-&,$fcvE, XIV, 100) develops a new formula for
weight of rim, viz., W =
L x 1.n.r.
RI)
,.and weight of rim per horse-power
= 2, in which C varies from lO,O~O,OOO,OOO to 20,000,000,000; also
1 1
us$g?he latter value of C. he obtains for the energy of the fly-wheel
IV (3.14)2 D2R2
- =64. 4
= C X H.P. (3.14)* DR = 850,000 H.P.. F,y-
2 3600 RD X 64. 4 X 3600 R
wheel energy per H.P. = 850,000 i R.
The limit of variation of speed with such a weight of wheel from excess
of power per fraction of revolution is less than 0.0023.
The val ue of the constant C given by Mr. Rites was derived from
ractice of the Westinghouse single-acting engines used for electric-
ighting. For double-acting engines in ordinary service a value of C =
5,OOO.OOO.OOO would probably be ample.
From these formulae it appears tbnt the weight of the fly-wheel for a
given horse-power should vary inversely with the cube of the . r eVOht i OnS
and the square of the diameter.
J. B. Stanwood (E,igg, June 12, 1891) says:
Whenever 480 feet is the
lowest piston-speed probable for an entine of a certain size, the fly-wheel
weight for that speed approximates closely to the formula
-iV = 700,000 d% i D?Rz.
W = weight in ounds, d = diameter .of cylinder in inches, s = stroke
in Inches, D = lameter of wheel in feet, R = revolutions per minute, if
corresponding to 480 feet piston-speed.
In a Ready Reference Book published by Mr. Stanwood, Cincinn.atl,
1892, he gives the same formula, with coefficient~s as follolx:s: For slide-
valve engines, ordinary duty, 350,000: same. electric lighimg, 76q.000;
for aut.omatic high-speed engines. 1.o00.000; for Corliss ewnes. ordmw
dutv 700.000. electric lighting 1.000.000.
Thurstons formula above given, W= oAS + R*Dt with (L = 12.000.600~
when reduced to terms of d and s in inches. becomes V = 785,400 ds +
RPDZ.
If we reduce it to terms of -. ,. hor se- namer . we h&W 1 L.H.P. - 2 ASPR +
33,000. In which P = mean effective pressure. Taking this. at 40 1bs.s
we obtain TV = 5,000,000.0f11-1 I.H.P. + R3D2. If mean ef f eCt l Ve Pressure
= 30 lbs.. then IV = 6.666.000.000 I.H.P. + R3D?.
Emil Tiieiss (Am. .Mnch 8ept. 7 and 14, 1893) gives the following
values of d. the coefficient Af steadiness. which is the reciprocal of vhat
Ra;lkine calls t! he coefficient of fluctuatibn:
For engines operating -
12.000.000. Fdr gas-engines, in which the rltnrce is fi;ed lviti, everv
revolution, the Americar~ JIucl:i~fi.st gives t,lds -latter formula, with &
WARNING: This~ is a~ 1910 edition.
Ha?ITeriny and crushing machinery.. . . i z ,,i to 3O
Pumoing and shearing machinery.. .
-
Wenvine and psper-making machinery . . . i z $
MiIiin? machinery . . d = 5. to loo
Spinninrmachinnrg . . . . .._..._........ ........
Ordinary drivine-engines (mounted on bed-plate),
belt transmission ,................... .......
cl = 35
Gear-wheel transmission.. . . d = :tT ~ p.-
Mi.Theisss formula for weight of fly-wheel in pounds is v=iX;;&- . *
where (1 is the coefficient of steadiness. V the mean r el ?ci t Y of t @ f l y-
,,~~,,~~ yheel, rim in feet per second, n the number of re!olutlons per mmute*
,~ ..,
.,~ ,~~., ..~
may
no l onger be accurate
i = a coefficient obtained by graphical solution, the values of which for
{,,,e$ conditions are given in the following table. In the li:es under
p means
pression:
compression to initial pressure, and 0 no com-
VALEES OF i. SIXGLE-CYLINDER NON-COXDENSISG I%-GIsEs.
.Piston-
cut-off, 116. cut-off, l/g. cut-off, l/3.
ipeed, ft.:
wmin./Copmp.I o IC0g1p.l 0 jC~zp./ o Ic~;p./ o
/
I I
I - I
] / I -
200
400
272, 690 218. 5801 242, 010' 209, 170
179, 460 220. 760 201, 920
193 340 182 840
600 240. 810 187. 430 194. 670 145, 400 208, 200 188. 510 168, 590 170, 040
136, 460 135, 260/ . . . . . . . . 165, 210
174: 630 167: 860
800 158, 200 ..,..,.. ._,_._._ 108, 690 162, 070 146, 610
._...... .__...._ .._..__.
/ I I I
SISGLE~CYLINDER CONDENSING ENGINES.
;i-.- cut-off, I/g. cut-off, lo.
---
200 265, 560 176. 560 234. 160 173 660 204 210 167 140 189 6001161 830' 172 690 156 990
400 194, 550 117. 870 174, 380 118: 350 1641720 133: 080 1741630 151' 680' . . . ~. . . . . . ~. . .
600 148, 780 140, 090 . . . . . . . . . . ___, . _. . __. . I . . . : . . . 1 i . . _. . . .
Piston-
cut-off, I/& cut-off, l/4. cut-off, 1/Q. cut-off. l/2.
speed. ft.
__~-
permin. Camp. o
P
I
Comp. o
P
Camp. o
P
Camp. o
P
Piston-
cut-off. /a. Cut-off, l/4. Cut-off, l/3. Cut-off. 12.
speed. ft.
permin. COFP. 0 COFP. 0 - COrP. 0 camp. o
P
--
I
-- __-
As a mean value of i for t,hese engines we may use 33, Sl O.
Wright of Fl y- wl wrl s for Altem:lting-current, Units.
Am. Bltirk.,,July 10. 1902.) -
(J. Begtrup
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. #Some
FLS-WHEELS.
in which W= weight of rim of Hy-wheel in pounds, ZI = mean diameter
of rim in feet., 1Vl -2 weight of armature in pounds, DI= mean diameter
of armature In feet, II = rated horse-power of engine, U = a factor of
steadiness, N = number of revolutious per miuute V = maximum
instantaneous displacement iu degrees, uot to exceed 5 degrees divided
by the number of poles on the generator, according to the rule of the
General Electric Company.
For simple horizontal Yngines. length of connecting-rod = 5 cranks,
U = 90; (ditto. no accounl. beiug taken of angularity of connecting-rod,
U = 64); cross-compound horizontal engines, connecting-rod = 5 cranks,
U = 51; ditto, vertical engines, heavy reciprocating parts, unbalanced,
U = 78: vertical compound engines, cranks 1SO degrees apart, recipro-
cating parts balanced, U = 60.
The small periodical variation in velocitv (not angular displacement)
can be determined from the following fornii&:
F = 387. 700, 000 HZ
N3 (TVD + W1Lw
in which N = rated horse-power, Z = a factor of steadiness. .A! I re,ys.
ner min.. D = mean diameter of Hv-wheel rim in feet, W= weignt of ny-
&heel riin in pounds, 31 = mean Lhi&&&x of armature or field in feet,
?Vv1 = wei&t of armature. F = variation in per cent ofmean speed.
or hor i zont al For sininle enrcines and tandem comnouixls. z = Otis; f
cross-compbunds;~Z = S. 5; for vertical cross-compounds. he@Ki~I
rotating parbs. Z = 12.5: for vertical comnou+s. cranks opposite,
weirhts balanced. Z = 14. F renrrsents h&e the entl
betiGeen extremes - not variation from mean speed.
.re variation
It generally varied
from 0.25% of mean sneed to 0.75% -eevidentlv a,~n@i@ble .q!rant.ity.
A mathematical trtiatment of this subject \vilt ne fauna In a paper
by J. L. Astrom. in Trans. A. S. M. E., 1901.
Cent.rlfugal Force in Fly-wheels. - Let IV = weight of rim in
pounds: R = mean radius of rim in feet; r = revolutions per minute,
D = 32.16; TV = velocity of rim in feet prr second = 2~Hr c 60.
7 n-a
lV@
Centrifugal force of whole rim = F = - =
4 TvaKr
3600 y
=0.000341 WRr*.
The result.ant. acting at right angles t!! diamrtrr of half of this force
tends to disrupt one half of the wheel from the othe; half. and is resisted
by the section of the rim at each end of the diameter. The resultant of
n
half the radial forces taken at rieht angles to the diameter is 1 + l/2 - z - -
Of the sum of these forces: hence the total force F is to he divided by
2 X 2 X 1.570s = 6. 2832 Tao obtain the tensile strain on the cross-section
of the rim, or, r,obnl strsin on the cross-sect,ion = S = 0.00005427 lVRrP.
The weight 111 of a rim of cast iron 1 inch square in sertion is 2nR X
3.125 = 19.635 R pounds. whence strain per square inch of sectional
urea of rim = St = 0.0010656 KY = 0.0002664 DW = 0.0000270 Vs.
In which D = diameter of wheel in feet. and V is velocity of rim in feet
per minute. 81 = 0.0972 ~2, if 2) is taken in feet ner second.
For wrought iron:
i
S, = 0. 0011366 RW = 0.000!?54!? D*r = 0.0000288 V*.
For steel:
s1 = 0.0011593 RW = 0.0002901 D2r - 0.0000294 YE.
For wood:
The SDerilk rravi.
$1 = O.OOOOSSSR*r2 = 0.0000222DW =iO.O0000225 V1.
ty of the wood being taken at 0.6 = 37.5 Ibs. per CU. ft...
of cast iron.
,eallired the strain ner square inch in the
1
or 16 the Gi ght (
E~AMPIX. - R rim of a cast-
iron wheel 30 ft,. dinmeter. 60 revoluiions per minute.
-4ns~er. - 152 X 602 X O.OOlOG.56 = 563. 1 lhs.
.Required t,he st,rain per sqrlare inch in a cast-iron rrheel-rim running a
mile a minllbe. Answer. - 0.000027 X 5%0? = 752. i lbs.
I
Tn cast-iron Hp-wheel rims. on account of their t.hickness. there IS
d-
IImCUlt,v in sertirinE soundness. and a. t,ensile st,~~e ---ngth of 10,000 lbs.
; per sq. in. is as much as can be assumed ,\!lith safety.
~inr a factor of
of the material may no longer be accurate
1030 Tl$E~ STEAM-ENGINE.
safety of 10 gives a maximum allowable strain in the rlm of 1000 lbs.
per sq. in., which corresponds to a rim velocity of 6055 ft. per minute.
For shy given material, as cast iron, the strength to resist centrifugal
-force depends only~on the velocity of the rim. and not upon its bulk or
weight.
Chas. E. Emery (Cuss. Xay., 1892) says: It does not appear that fl -
wheels of customary constructIon should he unsafe at the comparative .v f
low speeds now in common use if proper materials are used in con-
struction.
either the
The cause of rupture of Hy-wheels that have failed is usually
* running away of the engine. such as m&v he caused bv
the breaking or slaEkness -of a governor-beit, or incorrect design or d&.
fictive materials of the f l v- wheel
Chas. T. Porter (Trans. A. S. M. E: . xiv, SOS) states that no c&se of the
bursting of a fly-wheel with a solid nm in a high-speed engine is known.
He attributes the burstin= b of wheels built in segments to insufficient
strength of the flanges and bolts by which thesegments are held together.
[The author, ,however. since the above was written, saw a solid rim Hy-
wheel of a high-speed engine which had burst, the cause being a large
shrinlcage hole at the junction between one of the arms and the rim.
wheel was about 6 ft. diam.
The
accident.] (See also Thurston,
Fortunately no one was injured by the
na,L,i Cl Xl
Manual of the Steam-engine, Part II.
Ifiarneters of Fly-wheels for Various Speeds. -If 6000 feet per
minute be the maximum velocity of rim a,llowable, then 6000 = nRD,
in which R = revoldtions per minute, and D = diameter of wheel in feet.
whence D = 6000 + aR = 1910 + ti.
W. H. Boehm, Supt. of the Fly-wheel Dept. of the Fideiity and Casu-
alty Co. (Eng. News. Oct. 2. 1902). sass: For a given material there is a
defluile speed at which disruption will occur, regardless of the amount
of material used. This mathematical truth is expressed by the formula:
-
V = l . SdS/ W,
in whict! V is the velocity of the rim of the wheel in feet per second at
which dIsruption will occur, I V the weight of a cubic inch of the material
used. and S,the tensile strength of 1 square inch of the material.
in.
For cast-Iron wheels made in one piece, assuming 20,000 lbs. per sq.
as the strength of small test bars, and 10,000 lbs. per sq. in. in large
castings. and applying a facbor of safet.y of 10. I7 = 1.6 ~1000/0.26 =
100 ft. per second for the safe speed. For cast st~eel of 60,000 lbs. per
sq. in., Ir = 1.6 46000 + 0.25 = 233 ft. per second
made in one piece. If the wheel is made in hal;es.
This is for wheels
or sections, the
elRcirn(y of the rim joint must be taken into consideration. For belt
!\-l~crls with flanged and bolted rim joints located between the arms the
Jomts nver?ge only one-Hft,h the strength of the rim, and no such joint
can be flcslgned havmg a st,rength greater than one-fourth the st,renpth
of t,he nm. If the rim is thick enough to allow the joint to be reinforced
by steel links shrunk on, as in heavy balance wheels, one-t,hird the
strc:rirt.h of the rim may be secured in the joint: but.this construction can
not. hi: al~l~lietl to belt wheels having thin rims.
For I+1 maple. having a bensile strength of 10,500 lbs. per sq. in.
and w&nng 0.0383 lb. per cu. in., we have, using a factor of safety oi
20. and remembering that the strength is reduced one-half becausethe
~herl is bllilt up qf segments, V=1.6 d/262.5 + O.OZ83 = 154 ft. per
srrond. The stress In a wheel varies as the square of the speed, and t,he
fa;,a;;;,o,f safety on speed is the square root of the factor of safety on
I . . . _ ., .
Nr. IWhm gives the following t,ahle of safe revolutions per minute
of cast,-iron wheels of different diameters,
The flange joint is taken at
0.2.7 of t.hF strength of a wheel with no joint, the pad joint, that is a \vheel
ma11~~ 111 SIS segments, with bolted flanges or pads on the arms, = 0.50,
and the link joint = 0.60 of the strength of a solid rim.
FLY-WHEELS. 1031
SAFE REVOLUTIONS PEI~ MINUTE OF CAST-IRON FLY-WHEELS.
-
Di am
i n
Ft.
No plange
joint. joint.
.,~~~,, ~, _ ~_-~ _,., .~.. ,.~.
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition. *Some of the material may no lot-&k be accurate
R.P.M t.P.M R.P.M. R
Z
637
2
318
273
239
212
191
174
159
147
136
I 28
955
478
318
%
759
; : t
106
96
87
80
73
68
64
2::
450
' 2: :
225
193
l b9
150
: ' 2:
113
104
96
90
Link -
joint.
I
-
Pad
joint.
.-
Earn
~~pzYl. &
-I-
--
-
.
_
-
No
joint.
R.P.M
120
I I 2
106
100
; :
2
80
: " 4
2
66
64
F
_-
n
_-
-
lange
ioint.
l.P.M.
60
; $
48
. Fi
42.
; $
35
34
: :
Pad Link
ioint. joint.
l.P.M. R.P.M.
3. whi ch i s
i n t he usual sense, of 9. (iY/,. ,1UCI.. IYU. I I, lil4.)
Strains in the Rims of Fly-band Wheels Produced hy Centrif-
ugal Forcc-
Mr. Stanwol
(James B. Stanwood, Tr ans. -A.-S. M. E.. xiv, 251-j-
od n%tio~<s one case of a fly-band wheel where the periphery
_-I ^I whool in ,xT,OP ,T,n,, r+ nnr miniltn
velocity on a 1.1 It. t) In.
In band-saw mills the i;i% bufti;e ,,isb;;e;~.i;;is;;ccessf,illy over
wheels S and 9 ft. in diameter, at a periphery velocity of 9000 to 10,000 ft.
per minute. These wheels ar e of cast iron throughout., of heavy thick-
ness, with a large number of arms.
In shingle-machines and chipping-machines where cast-iron disks
~. from 2 to 5 ft. in diameter are employed, with knives inserted radially,
the speed is frequenbly 10,000 t.o 11,000 ft. per minute at the periphery.
If the rim of a Hy-wheel alone be considered, the tensile strain in pounds
per square inch of the rlm section is 2 = W/IO nearly, in which 1 =
velocity in feet per second; but this strain is modified by the resist.ance
of the arms whic,lr revent the uniform circumferential expansion of the
rim, and hiduce a \
discusses th
endlng as well.as a tensile strtin. ..Mr. Stan!\,qod
e st.rains in ba,nd-wheels sue to transverse Dencimg of a Sectlon
Of the rim betjveen a pal
-v nf lrmE
A & w....U.
When the arms are fe w in number, and of large cross-section, the rim
,nprl tmnsversely to a greater degree than with a greater mm!- Ml be?trsl..-- _____-. _,
her of lighter arms.
0" s rim velociries
To illustrate the necessary rlm thicknesses for ViEa
table is given, base ,a
ldley diameters, number of arms, et.c., the following
upon the formula
,x7 . .
t = 0.475d + AT2
(
+--)*
in which t= thickness of rim in inches, d= diameter of pulley in inches,
N = number of arms, V = velocity of rim in feet per second, and F= the
greatest strain iii pounds per s
The value of F is taken at
uare inch to which any fiber is subJected.
P 6000 bs. per sq. in.
T& table is fifiured for a margin of safety on speed of apprositnately
equivalent to a,~~rfi,f,!~ stress developed, or factor of safety
LI..-- 3 -2 ,n,\,, \
TIIICKNCSS OF Rrnis IN SOLID WHEELS.
_.-
Dixneter of
Pulley in ,
Velocity of Velocity of
inches.
Rim in feet per Rim in feet per No. r%&ms.
second. minute.
Ti~~{~~ In
If the limit. of rim velocitv for all wheels be assumed to be 85 ft. per
second, equal to 1 mile per minute, F = 6000 lbs., the formula becomes
When wheels are made in halves or in sections, the bending strain may
be such as to make t greater than that given above. Thus, when the
joint comes half way between the arms, the bending action is similar t,o
a beam supported simply at the ends, uniformly loaded, and t is 507,
greater. Then the formula becomes t = 0.712 d+-1\.2(g2 - A), or for a
\I-
fixed maximum rim velocity of 88 ft. per second and F = %O lbr. t=
1.05 d + N2. In segmental wheels it is preferable to have the j&n&
opposite the arms. Wheels in halves, if very t,hin rims are to be em-
niosed. should have double arms a,lonq t.1~~ l i ne nf sonnm,t i nn
- lit,teiition should~ be given to the proportions~oTfarfie-~~~ei,ing and
lizhtenif!g pulleys. The thickness of rim for a 4Y-in wheel (shown in
talk) 1~1th a rim velocity of 85 ft. per second, is ly/le;n. hlany wrecks
t!ave been caused by the failure of receiving PI t,ighteninp Imlle~s whose
nms have been too thin. Flv-wheels ralrl!>;:ted for a given coeficient
of steadiness are freollentlv lil;ilt,e,r thnn +h~
is true especially
1 . . . ..__.. ___.___ . ..... ..-
of large wheels.
minimum safe weight. This
A rough guide t,o the minimum weight
of wheels can be deduced from ollr formlll.~, The arms, hub. lugs, et~c.,
IF h re
=...._ ___ ._ _.... .... ~~ ..le entire weight of the wheel.
sldcrer P
resents the face of a wheel in inches the weight of the rim (con-
as a simple annular ring) nil1 be ~1 = 6.82 U~?J lbs. If t he limit
of speed is 88 ft. per second, t.hen for solid whrxels t = 0.7 d +- I\,.
sectiGl!;d wheels (joint between arms) t = 1.05 d + x2.
For
for sohd wheels. w = 0.57 Gh + A? in nrmn&.
Weioht of rim
\ Veight of rTrn in sec-
Total wright of
,,.,. _ = 0,813 d2b + W. in Dounds.
_ ._ _
fi?. in Pounds. For segment.nl whe& with joint, between-arms, W =
1.0.5 rf?b + Art to 1.3 c[?(j + A-2, in nnnnAa
Cl %i s suhi wt .
is furt,her discusse$&~~. Stnn!vood, in vol. xv, and by
n Ir x3\
>. 111. fi.,!
rofessor Torrey (nrn. illach.,
es the following formula for arms of elliptical cross-
-Iron wheels:
11: = load in pounds acting on one arm: s = strain on belt. in pounds
Pc;r Inch of width, taken at 56 for single and 112 for double belts: 2, =
\\-dth Of Mt in inches; n = number of arms. L = length of arm in feet;
7) = breadt,h of arm at huh: d.= drnth of aim at. hub. both in in&es:
n- = St> + It; l! = IPL f 30 d?. Tlie breadth of the arm is its least
d~melldon = minor axis of the ellipse. and the depth the major Rxis.
1 his formula is bnsed on a factor of safetv of IO.
In using the ft
Iatc 111
ormula, first a,ssume some depth for t,he arm, and calcu-
I? required brendt.h t.o go nit.h it,. If it gives too round an arm.
ilb.xumt the t1ept.h a little greater. and repeat the cnlculat~ion.
trial will almost always give a good sertion.
A second
The size of bhe arms a,t the hlth having been cnlrulnt,ed t.hrv may he
some\~hat reduced at the rim end. The actual arnolmt dam& be cal-
culated, as there are too many Irnknown quantities.
Hawever, the depth
T!le wheel was test.ed at 78 revs. per min., being a surface speed of
nearl y 7200 feet per minute.
Wooden Fly-wheel of the TVillimnntic Linen Co. (Illustrated in
Pomer, i\larch, 1893.) - R~im 28 ft. diam., 110 in. face. The rim is
carried upon three sets of arms, one under the center of each belt, with
12 arms iJl each set.
i
The material of t he rim is ordinary whit.ewood. 7/s in. in thickness, cut
i l l to segment,s not exceeding 4 feet in leng:th, and either 5 or 8 inches in
1' YARNI NG: This is a 1910 sedition.
-_.__.__ ..~i
*Some of the material may no longer be accurate
FLY-WHEELS. 1033
a.nd breadth can be reduced about one-third at the rim without danger,
and this will give a well-shaped arm.
Pu!leys are often cast in halves. and bolted. togetl!er. When-this is
,;rs the greatest care should be taken ,to prov+ sufhclent metal tn the
This is apt to be the very wea.:~zt point In such pulleys. The
com&ned area of the bolts at each joint should be about 2Y/lOO the
cross-section of the pulley at that poiut. (Torrey.)
Unwin gives d=O. 6337 q/D/n for single belts;
d=O. 79SqBDJn for double belts;
D being the diameter of the pulley, and B thk breadth of the rim both in
inches. These formulae are based on an elliptical section of arm in which
b = 0.4 d or d = 2.5 b on a width of belt = 4/5 the width of the pulley
rim a maximum driving force ;mnsmitted by the belt of 56 lbs. per inch
of &dth for a single belt and 112 lbs. for a double belt. and a safe working
stress of cast iron of 2250 lbs. per square inch.
If in Torreys formula we make IJ = 0.4 d. it reduces to
EXMPLE. - Given a pulley 10 feet diameter: 8 arms. each 4 feet long:
face, 36 inches wide: belt. 30 inches: required the breadth and depth of the
arm at the huh. According to Unwin,
d=0.6:337 qJBD/n =0,633q33GX 12O/S=5.16 for single belt, b=2.06;
d-O.795 qBD/n=0,79S q36X 120/8=6.50 for double belt, b=2.60.
According to Torrey, if we take the formula b = IVL + 30 dr and
assutne d = 5 and 6.5 inches, respectively, for single and double belts.
we obtain b = 1.08 and 1.33, respectively, or practically only one-half
of the breadth according to Unwin, and, since transverse strength is pro-
portional t.o breadth, an arm only one-half as strong.
Torreys formula is said to he hased on a factor of safety of 10, but this
factor can be only apparent and not real. since the assumption that the
strain on each arm is equal to the strain on the belt divided by the num-
ber of arms, is, to say t.he least. inaccurate. It would be more nearly
correct to say t,hat the st.rain of the belt, is divided among half the number
of arms. Unwin makes t.he same assumption in developing his formula,
but says it is only in a rough sense true, and that a large factor of safety
must be allowed. He t,herefore takes the low figure of 22.50 lbs. per square
inch for the safe working strength of cast iron. Unwin says that bls
equations agree well with practice.
A Wooden-rim Flv-wbrel, built in 1891 for a pair of Corliss en&es
at the 9moskeag blfg. Cu.8 mill, Ivlanchester. N.H., is described by
C. F1. RIanning in Trnns. A. S. M. E.. xiii. 618. It is 30 ft. d&m. and
108 in. face.
a.41 pl ank
The rim is 12 inches thick. and is built up of 44 courses of
, 2. 3, and 4 inches thick, reduced about l/2 inch in dressing:.
set edgewise, so as to break joint,s, and glued and bolted together. There
are two hubs and two sets of arms, 12 in each. all of cast iron. The wei+is 3
are as follows:
Weight (cillculated) of ash rim. .................
Weight of 24 arms (foundry 45.020)
y33; Ibs.
..
.............
Weight of 2 hllbs (foundry 35.030). .............
Counter-weight,? in 6 arms .....................
31:k6,, :;
Total, excluding bolts and screws. .......... 104,2621t
THE SLIDE-VALVE.
Definitions. - !hauel = total distance moved by the valve
ThrO70 Of the ~WentriC = WCentriCity of the eccentric = dlstan>e from
the center of the shaft to the center of the eccentric disk = l/z the travel
nf t . he vnl v~ __ .__ ._.._.
outer or steam eclge
edge of the p-L _.L.~. . . .
Inside Ean.
.&up of the valv!. also called outside lap or steam-lap = distance the
of the valve extends bevond or laps over the steam
UIL wren tne valve IS in it.n mnt~ral nnrition ~~ .~~ __- --.- _--_
valve pxtends
or exhaust-Zap = distance the innei?i&y;&ust edge of the
beyond or laps over the exhaust edge of the port when the
valve 1s in its, central position.
or even negative. in which
The inside 1a.p is sometimes made zero
latt.er ease t.he distance betweensthe edge of
the valve and the edge of the port is sometimes called exhaust clearance,
or inside clearance.
Lead of [!I! W&X = the distance the steam-port is opened when the
engin e is on its center and the piston is at the beginning of the stroke.
Lead-a@ = the angle bet,ween the position of the crank when the
~~~.1--~ 1 ~~!
valre ueglns T o be opened and its position when the piston is at the
beginning -* +I.
The val
vI +e stroke.
ye IS said to
piston begms its st.rolie.
have lead when the steam-port opens before the
If the piston begins its stroke before the admis-
slon of steam begins. t,hernlve is said to have negative lead.and its amount
1s the !ap of the edge of the valve over the edge of thi: port at the instant
\vhen the Diston stroke betiina~
LaP-I@k = the aligle through which the eccentric must be rotated to
Cause the steam edge to travel from its central position the distance of
thealap.. _ _ ~.
Angfctnr clcl~~n~ce of the eccentric = lap-angle + lead-angle.
Li near adwmce = Ian + lead.
Effect of Lap, Led, etc., upon thr Steam Distribtltion - Given
crank posltion for admission,
valve-t.rav$ 2 s/4 in., lap s/.4 in., lead IIts in., exhaust-lap l/s in:, requ:;!
cut-off,, release and compression
grea!.est port-opening. (Halsey on Shde-valve Gears.) Draw a circle
of dmmet~er Ilr = t,ra.rel of valve.
and nh = lead, erect
Prom 0 the center set off On = l,ap
perpendiculars Oe. ac, bd; then ec is the lap-anele
and ed the lead-angle. measured as arcs. Set off & = ctf
aW!e; then Og is the posit~lon of the crank for steam admission
t,he l&d-
F-et + rtl from h to i: bhen Oi is the crank-angle for cut,-off in;l II;: 7;
1s the fraction of stroke completed at cut-off: Set ofp d(= exhaust-,
THE SLIDE-VALVE. 1035
lap and draw Zm; em is the exhaust-lap angle. Set off hn = ec + cd - em,
and On is the position of crank a,t release.
Set off fp = ec + cd + em,
and Op is the position of crank for compression, f o + fh is the fraction
of stroke completed at release, and hq f hf is the fraction of the return
stroke c,ompleted when compression begins; Oh. the tl!row of the eccentnc.
minus Oa the lap, equals ah the maximum port-opemng.
is edition.
FIG. 162.
.If a valve has neit,her lap nor lead, the line joining the center of the
eccentric disk and the center of the shaft being at right angl,es to the line
of the crank, the en.glne would follow fu!l stroke,, admisaon of steam
be:$$ng at the beginning of the stroke and endmg at the end of the
Adding lap to the valve~en&bles us to cut off steam before the end of
the stroke. The eccentric being advanced on the shaft an amqunt equal
to the lap-angle enables steam to be admitted at t,he begnmng of the
stroke as before lap was added, and advancing it a further ?rno,unt e-qua1
to thelead-angle causes steam to be admitt.ed before the bemnmng 01 the
stroke
Ha&g given lap to the valve, and having advanced the eccentric
on the shaft from its central posltlon at right angles to the crank.
through th% angular advance = lap-angle + lead-angle. tlJe four events:.
admission cut-off release or exhaust-openlng.and compression or exhaust-
closure t&e plack as follows: Admissiop, when the crank lacks the lead-
angle df having reached the center: cut-off, when the crank lWl;s t?o
lap-angles and one lead-angle of having reached t~lie center.
DU~~lg
the admission of st.eam the crank turns through a semlclrcle less t\Wze
the lap-angle. The greatest port-opening is equal to half t.he travel Of the
valve less t.he lap. Therefore for a given port-openiW the travel of the
Val ve must be increased if the lap is increased. When exhaust-lap.ls
added to the valve it delays the opening ofthe eshaust and hasteps its
Closing by an angle of rotation eqtial~ to the exhaust-!ap aI+Xle. wh$l? I S
the angle through which the eccentric rotates from Ita middle posltlon
no accurate
A
whi!e the exhaust edge of the valve uncovers its lap.
R.clease then
t ak es Place when the crank lacks One lap-angle and one lead-angle minus
one exhaust-lap angle of havmg reached the center, and compression when
t~he crank lacks lap-angle + lead-angle + exhaust-lap angle of having
reached the center.
Th e above di%&ioll of the relative position of ihe crank, piston, ana
n-- &I-. 2t
valve 1or tne ~1: Rerent
netting-ro? -c i P
oints
I vI &inite engt,h.
of the stroke is accurate only with a con-
For 5ctL ial connecting-rods the angular position of the rod causes a
* distqrtion 01 rne
2;; y the forwa
position of the valve, causing the events to take place too
1 ,
,rd stroke and too early in the return.
The correction of
listortion may be accomplished to ::ome extent by settin* the calve
so as to give equal lyad on both forwel~u and return stroke a& by alter-
ing tpe exhaust-lap on one end so as to equalize the rel&se and com-
press:??. F. A. Haisey! in his Slide-valve Gear s, describes a method of
equahzmg the cut-oft without at the same time affecting the equality of
the @ad. In desigmng slide-,valves the effect of angularity of the con-
nectmg-rod should be studied on the drawing-board, and preferably by
the use of a mod&
Sweets Valve-diagram. .-To find outside and inside lap of valve
for different cut-0% land compressions (see IFig. 163): Draw a circ!e
\yhose diameter equals travel of valve.
Draw diameter 8.4 and con-
tmue to A, so that the lengbh AA1 bears the same ratio to XA as the
A' i ?l '
' --I -
----_
FIG. 163. - Sweets Valve Diagram.
lcneth of connecting-rod does to lefigth of engine-crank. Draw small
ci r ck li !vith a radius equal to lead.
rlB = cut-elf in-parts of t,he stroke.
Lay off AC so that ratio of .4c t.o
Erect perpendicular CD. Draw
D-L t~angent to h ; draw XS perpendicular to DL; XS is then outside lap
ot valve.
To Bnd~relense and compression: If there is no inside lap drax\v FE
through X parallel to DL.
and compression.
F and E will be position of crankfor release
If there is an inside lap, draw a circle about X in
xhidh radius XY equals inside lap.
Draw HG tangent to this circle knd
Par:$el to L)L: then >I and G are crank positions.fdr release and for com-
pres~mn. Draw tI,.V and MG, then AN is piston position $t release and
-4.l,r piston posit.lon at compression, AB being considered stroke of
enmne.
TO malie compression alike on each stroke it is necessary to increase
thf? jllS!dc tap on crank end of valve, and to decrea,se by the kame amount
bhe rmde Inp on back end of valve.
To determine this amount through
df with a radius MM =: AA, draw arc Alp, from P draw p+ p&pen-
dicukw to An, then TM :is dhe amount to be added to inside lap on crank
end. and to be deducted from inside lap on back end of valve, inside inp
bring SY.
For the Bil!~ram Vnlr-.?Xn;r~nz, see Halsey on Slide-valve Gezrs
I%~ Zeyncr Vaive-dhgram IS given i-ii most of the works bn the
st~~U*-fmg~ne, nnd in tr%~tises on valve-Keers, as Zeuners Peabodvs and
%wders. The following paraeraphs show how the Zeun& valve-&&am
n,aY be emqlo.red as a convenient meails (1) for finding the lap lead
etc., of a &de-valve Whcll the points of admission, cut-off, and ieleasi
the position of t,he cr:mk-pin when admission of steam betins, the $rec-
tion of motion of the Crank being shown by the arrow; C. t.he Posltlo~ of
the crank-pin at cut-off; nnd L, its position at release.
F:om these Points
draw perpendiculars BJI, CW, and LV, to the line A,A ,: 31, iv, and V
will then represent the positions of the piston at admlsslon. cut-off. and
release respectively, the admission taking place. as shol\-n, before the
piston reaches the end of the stroke in the dl;ectlon G-l.,and release
taking place before the end of the stroke in the dlrectlon,O;l .
Bisect the arc BC at, D, and draw the diameter DOD .
On DO draw
the circle DHOGB. &led the %alce circle.
Draw OB, cubting t,he valve
circle at G. and OC, cutting it at Ii.
Then OG = OH is the lnp of the
valve me&red on the scale in wi~:ich GA is the half-t.rarel Of t.he valve.
!JithGG as radius draw the arc GF,l, called the .StCo~~c~W ctrck or, for
. . .-
!dARNING: .This-~ is a 1910 edition.
~,. ~~-~~i!,~.,snor~,~tl*e lap nye. ,~; ., ,,,~ ,.
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
THE SLIDE-V-4LVE.
1037
are given; and (2) for obtaining the points of admission, cut-off, reiease,
and compression, etc., when the Lravel, the laps. aud the l ead of,the valve
58~0 rivelt. In workinK out t!iese two problems, the connectmg-rod is
_.- _- ..~.
supposed to be of intir~%~c length.
~etcminution of the Lap,, Lcntl. etc.,
of a Slide-valve or Cioen Steam
~istriltutiolt. - Given the points of admission, cut-off,
an d release to find
the point of compression, t,ht . . . ,, 1 1 the lead, the exhaust lap, the angular
advance, and the port-openin-s a~ different fractions of the stroke.
Draw a straight line AA, Fig. It>-,
A to represent on any scat+? the travel
of the valve, and on it draw a circle, with the center ,G, to represent the
path of the center of the eccentnc.
The line and the czrcle \vM also repre-
sent on a different scale the length %
stroke of the piston and the path
of the crank-pin. On the circle, which is called the cr mk cycle, mark B,
FIG.. 16l.-Zeuners Valve Diagram.
.
THE STEAM-ENGINE. THE SLIDE-VALVE.
Mark the point E. at which 1
dis
~~. the valve CirCk cuts the line OA. The
tance FErepreseiits the lead of the valve. and ~13 = d k i. +hr. -.--
i naum port-openang.
~, -..- --
valve circle and tne crank cirr.ln m* -:.--- I~
A perpendicular drawn from. OA. at-j$ ~il[~u~~~~
angled triangle drawn in the
SLUG.~,L u. smx tne wangle D~.T3 is a rglg-
Erect the perpe -~
semmlrcle DEGO.
anc ,nv i^ .L^ T^
ndicular FJ, then angle DOJ = AOR is the lead-on&
0.
I ., V~L 1s MIC: ~@-a~@, OK being a perpendicular to AA drawn from
DOK. is the sum of the lap and lead a,nrr~es
+,,s+ io +t.n I,-^...-~~
~~- ---_--I, ..Y llil, LIC urtyurur
$$W DY Which the eccelltriE must be set beyond yOO ahead of the
pypy..l:...~ ~.
Set 0ff.KY =.A/); then Y - I~
rn nroblems similar to the second problem, the a.ctual dimensions of
1 the lead the exhaust Lap, and the valve travel are all linown.
L&i a& laid down on the same scale on &he iin& AA, representing the
valve travel; and the maximum port-opemng IS found by the solut!on of
the problem to .be AF.
measured on the Same scale; or the maximum
port-opening = r/S valve travel minus the lap.
Also in tllis problem
4.4 represents the known length of stroke on a .certain scale, and the
points of admission, cut-off,
release, and compression, in fractions of $he
stroke, are represented by the ratios whicl~ AM. AZ, AV, and A P.
_I.
To find t.
?: we posmon of the center of the
:IUZC wnen tile crank iS in the position GA
he Poi nt of compression, set off DP = D/L; then pis the
,Tw?.-nnn poinl cf i on
Draw OP%YZ. On .
OL at R and OP at S.
la~~f$$e, R T,
Witn UK as a

respectively, besr to AA.
Port-opening. -
The area of port-opening is usually made such that
the velocity of the steam in passing through it shpuld not exceed 6060 Ct.
oer min. The :atio of port area to piston area will vary with the piston-
J radius draw the arc of
. ------0
S: OR = OS is t.lte-&hmnt Inn
the erhaust-
of the Cr
intercept
Thus, on cne.raaius vu,
about to
~. -.-- --.-IYI L-p.
art-oPent?rV at any part of the stroke, or corresponding po+t.ion
ank, is represented by the radial distances as EF DlF and JX
,$ betw,een-the lap and the valve circles dn radiidrawn from 0:
the Port-opening is zero when steam admission CS
,nemn; on the radius OA, when the crank is on the dead center
yqg 1s bfi, or equal to the lead of the valve. nri tt,a rari:.*m nn
.

mld\!;aY .oetween tile point of admission and the point of cut-ofi the
oPe,mmI 1s a masllnUnl DW = AF = BG;
again whei-j steam has just been cut oe.
011 the radius 0~ it iszero
111 like WUmx the exhaust bpen,ing is represented by the radial dis-
tances MerFepted between the exhaust-lap circle RICTS aml the valve
circle. GRD S. On the radius Oh it is zero when release be&em: on ~)n
It is Tn, a maximum; and on Opit iS rero a ~, ..- --
Determination of t he St eat , , XAJ . . . / - . . .
win wher, compre<sion begins.
the valve travel, the lap, the
Y -LOW LVILLWI~~, etc., for a Given Yalre. - Giver1
: lead, and bhe exhaust lap to find the masi-
mum port-opemng, th- --.
cut-off, release, and coi..,,,,
e angular advance, and the pdints of admission,
nn==ssion.
This problem is the revers
e of the preceding.
Draw AOAI to renrPsen+,
the valve travel on a cert,ain Scale, v neing the middle poillt and O;;ii;IS
he On the yme SC3le Set off OF = the lap FI$ = the lead: anCl OR =
the exhaust lap. AF then will be the ma.r
perpendiculars OK and ED. DO,-- . .
,amum port-opening. Draw the
F 1s tne angular ndcaance.
Draw the diameter DOD, and on DO aild
circles.
DU draw the two valve
From 9, the.center, with a radius OF the lap draw the arc of
the steam-lap crrcle cut.ting the valve circle in G and If
draw OB, an? through If draw OC; B then is the poinfof o~~,,l~u+o,l
Through G
and G the Pesnf of clct-oi$. With OK, the exhaust lip aS a ridius ~(ir?w
t.he arc Of t,he exhauSt-lap circle, RTS, cutting the ;,i,r, circ:e in R a,,d
15. Through R draw OL and through 8 draw OP.
of relea.;e and P the poi+ of cont , pr est i on.
Then I, Cs the loint
Draw the perpendiculars
BJf. cdl. LV, and Pi. to find M, N V and P, t.he-respective positions
on the st,roke or the nict~n . ..I.-- -J...!~
ipeed as follows:
For speed of piston,
I
100 ZOO 300 ii0 500 600 -700 800 900 1000 1200
ft. per min.
Port aje;a=xpston ~0.017 .033 .05 .067 .OS3 .l JO7 .133 .15 .167 2
For a velocity of 6000 ft. per min.,
port area=sq. of diam. of cy1.X piston speed + 7639.
The length of the port-opening may be equal to or something less than
rhe dfameter of the cylinder, and the widtll = area Of port-opemng + .__ -,--~~~~~~
its length.
The bridge between steam and exhaust ports should be wide enough
to prevenb a leak of Steam into the exhaust due to Over t r aVel Of the
valve.
The width of exhaust~port_ = width of steam port + t/z trilvel of valve
+ inside lap - width of briclge.
(From Peabodys Valve-gears.) -The lead, or the amount
thkte$ valve is open when the engine is on a dead point. varies, wltll,tlle
type and sise of the engine, from a very small amount,, or even.nothmg.
up to 3/sof an inch or more.
Stationary-engines runmng at slow speed
may have from l/w to l/lo lllcb lead.
The etIect of compression is to nil
the waste space at the end of the cylinder with steam: Col!Sequently,
en+nes havmg much compression need less lead. I~ocOmotlV+e~~~~n~s
hairing the valves controlled b
J
the ordinary form of Stephenson hnk-
motion may have a small
lea
when running slowly and with a .iong
cut-off but when at speed with a short cat-off the lead is at least r/4 inch;
and lo&omotives that have valve-gear which gives constant lead corn--
monlv have l/4 inch lead.
with the line of dead
The lead-angle istt~a~~~~yttE~~~~om~l~
points at admission.
Inside Lead - Weisbach (~01. ii, p. -
096) says: Experiment Shows
tilt the earlie; opening of the exhaust ports is especi.aliy of advantage.
a&~ in the ijest engines the lead of the valve upon the side of the eahaust.
or the inside lead is l/ag to ~15: i.e., the slide-valve at. the lowest or highest
position of the piston has made an opening whose height iS r/!%to l/is of
the whole throw of the slide-valve.
The outside lead of the slide-valve
or the.lead on the steam side, on the other hand, is much smaller, and rS
often only i/rse of the whole throw of the valve.
EEe& of Changing Outside Lap, Inside Lap, Travel and.
Angular Idvance. (Thurston.)
I
I
her
O.L.
2
IF
Incr
A.A,
Admission.
\ Expansion. 1 Exhaust.
Compression.
!
f
is lst~er.
0ceur.s earlier.
ceases sooner
continue3 longer
is unchanged
unchanged
b,yj,,s 3s before.
coZti*ues longer
occrs \at$r.
(-eases ed1er
begins sooner,
benins later,
begins later.
continues longer
ceases sooner
eenses later
beuins earlier, begins sooner.
begins earlier.
p&d unaltered per. the same per. unchanged
begins at
same point
begins sooner,
co~tin~;e~ longer
begins inter.
ends sooner
begins earlier,
per. the same
- -- ..V p.,rl
: pla:e..
WMZLI uurnassaon, cut-on, release, a-nd com-
pression take
PIYZctical .4pplication of ZetLnf
means Of t,he Zeuner di
rclniw fiimen:~
dimension the
mnsimum
Olllt: I WLl,CII 1s
TS Diagram. -In problems solved by
agram,,tlre results obtained on the drawings are
sz~~~~_o~,t,lz~S of the several .dimensions to a given
known, Such as the valve travel
P_D,f~~opel~illg, Or the length of stroke.
t,tle
In protxlom- c.i-i~~- tr.
above, the known dimencinnn
the first p~~omem given -.-111a oIIIIIu* L
lcnsth of stroke, the maximum
~.. ..-...-.. u..,L..I are usuallv the
from (!;la,of the dimensions of
ort oPenlng. AF which is calctil?ted
at)lc \(l(mtY of Steam through the port.
cy mder, the piston Speed ar;,d the aliow- Y -
The length of ihe stroke being
represented on a certam scale by AA, the poims of admission, cut-off.
rivcly by A.lf kN AVand
rflease. and corn ression in fractions of the stro-
sion of the ma&im(im pi- -~~
-IF. therefore the actual
mea~sllrrd respectivelv b
or, in ot,her wc-A- iL-
lie. are measured respeci
A.P O!l the same scale.
The actual dimen-
r-r-oPemng IS rrpresentcd on a different. scale bv
1 chmwto~~s of the lap, lead, and eshalisi I?P are
! OF, FE, and OR on the same Scale ?s AF.
ulus, tine, lap, lead, and exhaust lap are respectiv&y the
* and $$
1 each multiplied by the maximum port-opening.
may no longer be accurate
Zeuner giws the following relations (Weisbach-Dubois, vol. ii, p. 307):
If S = travei of valve, p = maximum par: opening:
-.
L = steam-lap, 2 = exhaust-lap;
rZ = ratio of steam-lap to half travel =
j j - &. L=~XS;
r = ratio of exhaust-lap to half travel =
If a q angle BOC between positions of crank at admission and at
cut-off,~and B = angle LOP between positions of crank at release and at
compression, then R = l/z
s,n (150-a)
sin1,2 a ;T=%
sin (lSO -j3)
sin l/z> .
. Ol
. 02
. 03
. 04
. 05~
I O
: : i
. 25
. 30
. 35
. 40
. 45
. 50
. 55
. 60
. 65
. i O
. ?5
. 80
. a5
. 90
. 95
. 96
. 97
. 98
. 9 )
1. 00
Crank-angles for Connecting-rods of Difterent Lengths.
FORWARD AND RETURN STROKES.
Ratio of Length of Connect,ing-rod to Length of Stroke.
2 2
112 3
3112 4 5
!
Inti-
nite
-
For.
For. Ret. For. Ret. For. Ret. For. Ret. For. Ret. For. Ret. or
-----
-v-e Ret.
----
l o. 3 13. 2 10. 5 12. 8 14. 6, 18. 7 14. 9 10. 6 12. 6
18. 1 15. 1 17. 8
10. 7 12. 4 10. 8 12. 3 10. 9 12. 1 11. 5,
20. 71 17. 9 26. 5 22. 9 21. 1 18. 2 25. 7 22. 2 18. 5 21. 8
15. 2 17. 5 15. 3 17. 4 15. 5
23.2 29.6 23.6 21. 4 25. 2
18. 7 21. 5 18. 8 21. 3 19. 0 21. 0 17. 1 19. ~ 16. 3
28.7 24.0
; ; . ' 41. 9 51. 5 33. 8 41. 9 46. 8 34. 3 28.2 40. 1
21. 6 24. 9 21. 8 74. 6 22. 0 24. 3 23. 1
50. 2 42. 4 49. 3
24.2 27.8 39. 6 34. 9 24.4 27.5 39. 2 24.7 35. 2 38. 7 27.2 25.8 36. 9
48. 9 58. 2 49. 6
55. 4 65 4 57. 3
48. 7 43. 2 48. 3 43. 6 47. 7 45. 6
6i . j ' i i : i r 56. 1
56. 6 50. 4 56. 2 50. 9 55. 5 53. 1.
63. 7 57. 0 63. 3 57. 6 62. 6 60. 0
67. 3 78. 3 62. 2 70. 3~63. 3 69 8 63 9 69. 1 66. 4
73. 0 84. 3 68. 1 76. 6 69. 2 76: i 69: : ' 15 3 72 5
78. 6 90. 1 73. 9
82.8 97.2 84.3 79. 6
82. 6 75. 0 82. 0 75. 7 i i : 31 78: 5
95.7
8~3.5 102.8 89.9 85.2
88. 4 80. 7 87. 9 81. 4 87. 1 84. 3
101.4 94. 2 108. 3 95. 7 90.9 100.4
94. 1 86. 4 93. 6 87. 1 92. 9 90. ~
107. 0 00. 2 113. 9, l ol . 7 96. 7 106. 1
91.6 99.8 92.1 99.3 92.9 98.6 95.7
06. 5 ~~9. 7~l oa. o 112. 7 102. 7 I I I . 9
118. 5
13. 1 125. 7~114. 6 109. 0 117. 8
105. 5 98. 0 105. 0 98. 7' 104. 3 I 101. 5
103. 9 110. 8 104. 7 110. 1 107. 5
124. 6 115. 6 123. 9
110. 2 116. 7 110. 9 116. ; ' 13. 6
116. 7 1B. a 117. 4 129. 9 123. 8 129. 6 122. 4
124. 5
i 2O. o
137. 1 131. 7 136. 8 129. 1 126. 9
145. 4 140. 8 132. 3 136. 4 134. ~
145. 1 141. 3 155. 8 152. 5 144. 8 143. 1
155. 6 152. 8 158. 4 155. 4 155. 3 154. 2
158. 7 155. 7 161. 3 158. 7 161. ; 158. 0 156.9
169. 3 167. 7 164. 5 ; 63, 7
164. 8 162. 6 159. 0 {6l . o' 6O, l
164. 7 162. 9
169. 2
L.-
I 80 180 167. 9 169. 1 t sd 168. 5
180 180 180
. .
Ratio of kl P and of Port-oprnlnp to Valve-travel -Tl~e table
On P: 1y 1041. civinp the ra!ir
-$
t0 port-opening, is abed I)
I IJX IRP to. travei of valve and iatio o* travel
bed from One given by Buel in Weisbach-bubois,
THE S%IDE-VALVE . . 1041
~61. ii. It is calculated from the above formulae. Intermediate values
may be found by the IorlF!llae, or nrv ,:+h sufficient accuracy by interpolation
from the figures in the t abl e. By t he t abl e on page 1040 the crank-ang!e
may be found, that is, the angle between its position when the engine IS
on the center and its position at cut-off, release. or comprt-won, when
these are known in fractions of the stroke. To illustrate the tiee of the
tables the lollowing example is given by Buel: width of port = 2.2 in.;
\vidth of port-opemng = width of port + 0.3 in.; overtrawl = 2.5 in.;
length of connecting-rod = 21/z times stroke; cut-off = 0.75 of stroke;
release = 0.95 of stroke; lead-angle, 10. From the first table we find
crank-angle = 114 .G; add lead-angle, making 124.6. From the second
table, for angle between admission and cut-off, 125, we. have ra?o,of
travel to port-opening = 3 .72, or for 124.6 = 3.74, which. multiphed
by port-opening 2.5, gives 9.45 in. travel. The rat10 of lap to travel,
by t he t abl e, i s 0 . 23+ or 9 . 45 X 0 . 2: 324 = 2. 2 il;. l?p. tar exhaust-
lap, we have for release at 0.95, crank-angle = la1 .J: add, lead-angle
loo = 161 .3O. From the second table, by interpolation. ratlo of Isp to
travel = O.OSll., and O.OSll X 9.45 = 0.77 ix the exhaust-lap.
Lap-angle = t/z(lSOo - lead-angle - crank-angle at Ctit-Off);
:= 1/2(1S0 - 10 - 114.6) = 27.7.
Angular advance slap-angle + lead-angle = 27.7 + lo=37 .P.
Exhaust lap-angle = crank.jangle at release +lap-angle + lead-angle - 180
5 151.3+27.7-+10-11800=90.
Crank-angle at com-
pression measured
= 1 SO - lap-rtogle - lead-angle - exhaust lap-angle
on return stroke
=lSO -27.7- lo-g= 133.3O: corresponding, by
tab!e, to a piston position of 0 .Sl of the return stroke; Or
Crank-angle at compression = lSO-
(angle at release ~- angle at cut-ofl)
f lead-angle
- 180 - (151 ,3-114.6)+10= 133.3.
The positions determined ahove for cut-off and release are for the
forward stroke of the piston.
On the return stroke the cut-off will lake
place at the same snple. 114 .R.
corresponding by table to 66.6% of the
return stroke instead of 757,. By a slight adjtfstment of the angular
advance and ibe length of the eccentric-rod the cut-off can be equalJe:d.
The width of the bridge should be at least 2.5 + 0.25 - 2.2 = 0.55 lu.
Lau and Travel of Valve.
300
35
40
45
2:
60
65
58. 70 43. 22 i i
33117 26. 27
: : : : :
$
110
14. 93 115
12. 77 120
I I . 06
9. 68 1: ;
8. 55 . . . . . . . . .
i 1
c
_-
0.
, .
-
i
i
; &
i
$$
:
75; :
3
%&
syd.
; &Y
j ai 2%
23
$s
. &!
i YJ
- -
. 3686 7. 61
. 3536 6. 83
,337a 6.1;
. 3214 5. 6(
. 3044 5. 11
. 2868 4. 6!
. 2687 4. 3:
. 2500 4. 01
. 2309 3. 7:
. 2113 3. 4
__. . . .
LA.daad. ^,..., ~..
WARNING:. This is a 1910 edition.
Some of the material may~b longer 66~~ ahrate
i
2
;i
56
2
gz
-
. I 913
. I 710
. I 504
. 1294
: : : : i
. o653
. 0436
: E
2. 86
: : : ;
c; ;
i : 19
2. 09
2. 00
THE SLIDE--VALVE.
1043
periods of Admission, or P0int.s of Cut-off, for given Travels and
Laps of Slide-valves.
Constant lead, %I.
Relative JIotions of Crosshead and Crank. - L= le::qth of cdn-
ncctinl:-rod, It = length of crar.c, 8 = angle of crank with ce It * !ine of
enbinr, D = displacement of crosshead from the beginning of ;.J stroke,
V = velocity of crank-pin, VI = velocity of piston.
FOI : R=l, D=ver sin@& (I,- d/Lz-sinze),
Lap.
7/8
1
--
. .
. .
., .
. . . . .I...
. . . .
13 . . . . .
27
. '
-
I 12
.
. . . . .
. . . .
. . . . .
,.....
. . . . .
,.....
,.....
,.....
. . .
. . . . .
9
: ;
; ;
: :
i t
69
-.-
I8
- -
-
-
-
7--
1318
-
.-
-
3/4 I
-!-
.
.
8..
.
.
.
-
I
_-
:
From these formulae Mr. A. F. Nagle computes the following-
PISTON DISPLACEMENT AI\ID PISTON VELOCITY FOR EACfI 10 0; &fOTrOX
OF CR.WK.
Length of crank = 1.
Length of connecting-rod = 5.
PiGon velocity VI for vel. of crank-pin = 1.
.
. . .
. . . .
.
.
.
. .
.
.
::
;
45
49
: :
i !
67
:t
i2
-
.
.
. .
.
.
:z
g
42
2
i P
65
67
73
70
.
. .
~....
. .
. . . . .
. .
.
. . . . .
.
. . . .
. . . . .
. .
9
i i
: :
40
47
54
i i ;
68
74
-
.-
.
-
. . . .
-
. .
-
J
I-
Displacement. Velocity.
Aif11
\;;$ Back. Crn!
Velocity.
0. 018
0. 072
0. 159
0. 276
0. 416
-
0. 012
EL?
0. 192
0. 298
.
-
g$. I-Back.
--
,$$, Back.
I
---
---
0. 207 , . , . _. 60
0. 406 . . , . . . 70
0. 587 , . _. . . 800
0. 742 . . . . _ 84' =
0. 865 . . . . . 90
0. 576 0. 424
0. 747
0. 924 i : : ; ; :
1 . of J o . o: s~s.
i . i oi
0. 954 0. 77s
1. 005 0. 875
1. 019 0. 950
1. 011 . . . __.
1. 000 I 1. 000
I
PERIODS OF ADMISSION, OR CUT-OFF, FOR VARIOUS LAPS
AXD TRAVELS OF SLIDE-VALVES.
The two folio!\-ing tagles are from Clark on the Steam-engine
In the
first table are @qen the periods of admission corresponding to travels of
valve of from 12 111. to. 2 in.. and laps of from 2 in. to s/g in. with l/4 in
and 1/s 111. of lead.
With greater leads than those tabulated, the steam
would b.2 cut off earlier than as shown in the table.
The infh~~e Of ,Z kid Of s/lo in. for travek Of from IS/s in. to 6 in
pnd laps of from 112 in. to I ljz in.,
as calculated for in the second tabld
1s exhibited by comparison of t,he periods of admission in the table f;
t!le samt: lap and travel.
The greater lead shortens the period of ad&-
slon, anU increases the range for expansive working.
Piston-vqlve -The piston-vaive is a modified form of the slide-
valve, Thi l.,n lead. etc.. PIP mlr+.t,ed in the same manner as for the
amount, of port-opemng
Periods of Admission, or Points of Cut-off, for Given Trpvels and
Laps of Slide-valves.
Periods of Admission, or Points of Cut-off for the
follomiog Laps of Valves in inches:
-
-
1
2
( TI o
s":
: i
: 5
I 4
. .
, . . . .
- -
( 3/4 IV:
--
8 2
;.i ii
8
I I
2
: : 51
17
. . . . . : i
.
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
_.__ I
mn+;n +nm--- .._^ ^+ . omv aner
~~~~&e has been set as accurslely as possible yhen col d. the lead and
.,...,eraLurc, TIC.. ULlY CU.. -1 ------- ;~ I
lap fir the forward and return strokes being e.~uallzed..indlcat~r dlaeram.s
should be taken and the len@h of the eccentnc-rod adjusted. If necessarJ 9
to correct slight irregularities.
FFn D,, 3 m--s-- -- qs Center. - Place the engine in a position
,I,,. :I- Y,lr t,,.qToI1 ,1,,, ,,il\G ,,sarly completed its outwrd stroke. and
opposi t , e some point on t.he crosshead.
$,,ch as a corner. make a mark
Ilnnn thca mj i -' - *-ni*rr+ the em of the pulley or crank-disk place a
1 it on t,he pulley.
Then t.urn t,he enQ;lne Over
%d iq q,fiain in t,he same position on its inlvard
L .&AL IIc m!lch below the cent.er as lt was
. - -_ I-,.LA~ make
j l
U"""~ 1" .,,..lre. Y', ;;t, l,,C ,,,WL1b"' I.. *,1-
-._..~ .
a second marl; on the Dullev nm.
Divide the distance between the m,arkS
IL
b-
in twn ad r----l-
._.. .&-._._f;.b~.,~~.~
tk., ~~21~ point. Turn the engine until the pOlnt!r
t, and it will then be on its center. TO avold
~. ~~~, ~.. ~.~ ..-..,. ~... ~, -,~ ._,..
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accuke
I,c-~LcI~~~s, LLI~: err~ne snomu oe turnea a little
he brouglit u to it, so that tl
brass that it
$ oes when the first cwo marxs are ma~rl~
$~f~~r J!j;tt may arise ,fr?m the Iqose!!ess of crank-pin and wrist-pin
above the center and then
he crank-pin will press against the same
*--~~ .
takes place earlv in the strnk~
Link-motion. - Link-motions, of which tha .Qtonhon=nn l:nl- :- II-^
mosy. commonly used, are designed for two pm-p0
motipn of the engme, and second,, for
I_~LU. LLIO~! IUL iaversulg me
varying the travel of the valve.
varying the pmnt of cut-off by
The Stephenson link-motion is a corn-
binstio; Of two eccent+s, called forward and bs,ck eccentrics with a link
ronn+lng the extrenntles of the eccentric-rods ; so that by varving the
p>sition Of th,e link the valve-rod may be put in direct Connection with
Hther eccentnc, or may be @ven a movement tiontrolled jn part by one
?nd in part by the other eccentric.
When the link is moved by the revers-
log tever !nto a position such that the block to which the valve-rod is
attached 1s at either end of the link, the valve receives its maximum
travel, and when the link is in mid-gear the t.m
tvel is the least and cut-off
In ihe ordin&
lead
em-----y shifting-link with open rods, that is, not crossed t.he
of the valve increases as t.he link is moved from full to mid-gear that
is. as the period of steam admission is shortened.
The variation oi lead
is equalized for the front and back st,rokes by curving the link to the radius
of the eccentric-rods concavely to the axles.
the lead decreases as the link is moved from full to mid-gear.
With crossed eccentric-r;d;
vslv+motlon with stat,ionary link the lead is constant.
see Clarks Steam-entiinr -701 ii n 39 1
(For illustration
The linear advance of each eccentric is equal to that of the valve in full
gear. that is. to lap + lead of the valve, when the eccentric-rods are
attached to the link in surh position as to muse the half-travel of the
va!If$ to equal the rccrntric*itr of t,hrs rrrcntrir.
The angle betweco the ~two cccent~ric ~r&lii.~thnt is, between lines drawn
from the center of the ecrenrric disks to the center of the shaft, equals
180 less twice the angular advance.
RueI, in Appletons Cyclopedia of Merhanics. vol. ii, p. 3113, disc&es
the St~p~emon link as fo!lows: ( The Stephenson link does not give a
perfectly correct dist,rlhution of steam: the lead varies for different points
of Cut-off. The period of admission and the heginning of exhaust are not
alike for both ends of bhe cylinder, and the forward motion varies from
the backward.
J?he correctness of the distribution of steam bv St,eDhensons link-
m.ofion dPpends upon conditions which. as much is the circumstances
XuH rwmit. mzht to he fulfilled. namely: I. The link should be curl-ed
in !he arc of a circle whose radius is enunl to the leneth of the eccenfric-
rod. 2. The eccentric-rods ought t,o tie long: t,he loi$er they are in pro-
nortion to the eccentrlcit~p the more symmetrical will the travel of the
l:alre he on hoth sides of the renter of mot,ion. 3. The link oueht t.o he
shnrt.. Each of it,s points describes a &&e in a~ vertical plarik. xho%
ordinates prow 1nrEer t.he fart,hrr t,he considered point is from the center
of the link: and w t.he horizontal motion nnlr is t.ransmitted to the valve.
vertical oscillation will cause irre~ularlt~i&.
to he long.
4. The link-hanger ought
The loneer it is the nearer will be the arc in which the liok
sninzs t,o a straieht line. and t,hus the less its vert,ical oscillation. If t,he
link is Fusvended in it,s center. the curves that are described hv points
equidistant on hot,h sides from t,he center are not a,lil;e. and hen& results
the variation het.mecn the forward and haclimard gears. If t,he link is
srlsnended at it.s lower end, it,s lower half ~$1 have less vertical oscillation
and t,he upper half more. 5. The center from which the link-hxwer
.*ninzs changes 1t.s nosit.ion as bhe link is low~erl or mised~ atid also
caww irresularlties. To rrdnce t.hem -tomth6 ~&?&le& &%&it the arm
of the lift,ing-shaft should he made as long as the eccentric-rod, and
the rent,er of the lifting-shaft sholdd be placed at the height corre-
rpc)nding to the cent,ral position of the center on which the link-hanger
RWlll~S.
For obtaining the dime%.-..-
lengthof the v.Ivc R t.he breadth.
+.-,a D ^ E,,*r\r
All t,hese conditions can never he f!dfilled in practice and the variat.ions
in !I!r.lead and the period of admission ran he some&at. regulat.ed in an
artihcial way, but for one pea,r only. This is accomplished bv Firing
different, lead to the two ercmt,rics, which difference will he smhller the
longer the eccentric-rods are and the shorter the link, and by suspending
eccentrics.
innP of the linl; ininchtis: Let, Z denote the
__._,- _...~~
p the absolute steam-presSUreper N. In.,
allll 1L a ,LLGtiyI of Computation used as below; then R = 0 .Ol 1/L XB X P
Breadthofthelink ,__....__............... .... z g$A;t
~hi-lrnncorpnft,llebar...~ _.._........... . . . . . . = RX2.5
p-block.. . . . . . = (R x o,7)
*..*..i,. ,.-.A An&. ~........
I Iu~nll~.YY 1, , I
Length of slidin,
Diameter of ecce,lr~l~-~~* ,ji.,p . . .
-t V4in.
= (RX 0.6)-+~/4in.
Diameter of suspension-rod pm.. . . . . . . = (R x 0, S) + 44 in.
Diameter of suspension-rod pin when overhung.. = R x 1,4
Dizlneter of ,,l,,&-p/m .x.hn.r nxrrhl,nlr~ .
~~ __ _, .
.,~.
,, ~-*~l:. _
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer~be accurate
THE STEPHENSON LINK-MOTION.
1045
the link not exactly on its center line but at a certain distance from it,
giving what is called the oRset.
For application of the Zeuner diagram to link-motiou, sqe Holmes- on
the Steam-engine, p. 2%).
See also Clarks I<ailway hlachlnery (18;>5),
Clarks Steam-engine.
Zeuners sod Auchinclosss Treatises on Shde-
valve Gears and Halseys Locomotive Link &lolicin.
(See page 1005.)
The follo&ng rules are given by the A?ncticu~?~ Machi%ist for layi?g ol!t
a link for an upright slide-valve entine.
By the term rudius of hnk 1s
meant the radius of the link-arc, ab, Fig. 16.5, drawn through the center
of the slot; this radius is generally made equal to the distance from the
Fig. 165.
center of shaft to Center of the link-block pin P when the latter stands
midway of its travel. The distance between the CenterS Of the eccentric-
rod pins e, e:! should not be less than _ _
3 I/? times. and, when space ~11
permit, three times the throw of the eccentnc.
BY, the, t~hrow we mean
twice the eccentricity of the ~rrf?llt~rlC.
The slot hnk 1s generally SUS-
pended from the end next to Vm.V .-_ ..-... -__.
e hnk-
Tlds Ivili give comparatively a small am&u!t of s!ip to t~he
link-bloC1; \vhen the link is in forward gear: hut this slip 1\:111 pe Increased
arc prolonged.
when the link is in backward gear.
This increase of shp Is, 1lO~V~~oerf,
considered of little importance, because marine entines. as a rule.
but very little in the backward gear.
IThen it. is necessary that the
mot,lon &ll be as efficient in backward gear as in forward gear, then t!e
linksho& be suspended from a point midwav brt.ween t,he two eccentnc-
rod pins; in IT--~*~~~
ra,,rr;,,n n~~t;r~ +,his noilit is generally lorated 011 th
linkcarc; for L., . .._ _ ___. .~~~~
a small amount towards the
THE STEAM-ENGINE.
The length,of t,he link, that is, the distance from a to b measured oi a
stralght~ hne Jolnmg the lends ?f the link-arc in the slot,should be such
as co allow cm? rP+.PP nf t.tl
. ..e link-block pin P to be placed in a line with
the eccentric-rod$G, Gaving sufficient room for the slip of the block
Another type of iin& frequently used in marine engines is the double-ba;
link, and this type 1s again divided into two classe.~: one class embraces
I-^^^ li..l.
end between the bars, as shown at B (with the!
. . .. uy .iie valve-spindle
se links the tvn.~d nf thn ~~ ~~~~ -- ---- .-,l. I 11ti
~vafve is less than the throw of the eccentric); the other class embraces
those links, shown at C, for which the eccentric-rods are made with fork-
ends, so as to connect to studs on the outside of the bars allowing the
block to slide to the end of the link, so tha,t the centers of the eccentric-
rod ends and the block-pin are in line when in full gear making the travel
of the valve equal to the t.hrow of the eccentric.
The dimensions of these
links when the distance between the eccentric-rod pins is 21/z to 2s/4 t~imes
the throw of eccentrics can be found as follows:
Depth Of bars.
Thickness of bars
..................................... = (R x 1.25) + l/zin:
Diameter of center of sliding-block.
..................
= (R,X 0.5 )+lJdin.
= R X 1.3
When the distance between the eccentric-rod pins is equal to 3 or 4
times the throw of the eccentrics. then
Depth of bars.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
= (R X 1.25) + 3/4 in.
ThIcknessof bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ::::I: = (RX 0.5 ) +l/dirl.
A!1 Jhe other dimensions may be fcunc h-7 &I-
I LIJ bcie first ta,ble. These are
emmr=a1 ruies, and the results mav have to he slightly changed to suit
ITlVen contIitionQ T,, mnrir,n n.,.>nr.n +l.,. ..^?.^-.-z. -~ 1
, - _, 1. -._ . . . . lllcl L,.~,,,C:0
classes of hnks have adiustable I~IT~KWW
~iuc CCCCIIL~IC-roe en08 *or all
Trl locomotives the slot-link is
-IIyl~s have case-hardened bushes
adjustable brasses in the ends of
pn~=Jlv SUSDended hv one nf thg
~~. - _ --.,-. _.
usually employed, and in these the pin-h-i:
driven into the pm-holes, and have no
the eccpntric-r?ds. The link in I? is go..-.,
-.-- -- . . . .
ercentnc-rod ~lns: and the link in C is suspended by one of the pins in
the end pf thf: link, or by one of
t.he eccenrric-rod pins.
LoComotlve Link Motion. p. 1095.)
(See note on
Tbe M:alschaert Valve-gear.
Fig. 166. -This gear. which was
invented m Belgium. has for many years been used on locomot,ives in
Europe. and It has now (,l909) come largely into use in the United States
The retur? crank Q, which takes the place of an eccentric throug1; the
rod B OSMates the link on the fixed pin F.
The block Dis raised and
Fro. 166.- The Walschaert Valve-gear.
lowered in the link by t.he reversing rod I ~operating t,hrough the bell-
X:lnk levers H, Ii and the supporting rod G.
When t,he bldck is in its
lO\WSt position bhe radius rod (i has a motion corrqondinu in directinn
to that of the rod B; when the block is at its upper positim? U mores<&
an .oPpoiltF direct.ion to B.
The valve-rod E is moved bv the combined
aCtIon of c a,nd a lever 2 whose lower end is connected through the rod S
to the crosshead R. Constant iead is secured by this gsar.
*
4
GOVERNORS.
GOVERNORS.
pendulum or Fly-ball Governor. -- The inclination pf the arms O! a
revolving pendulum to a vertical axis is such tha! the height of the point
of suspension h above tal plane in hch t,he center of fmw
of the balls revolves (as
weight of the rods to be small compared
with the weight of the
the radius T of the cxcle described
by the centers of the bit
a;;;
h weight sl,
_=
=zL=
I centrifugal force w+ v2
gr
which ratio is independent of the weight of the balls, i being the VelOCltY
of the centers of the balls in feet per second.
If 2 = number of revolutions of the balls in 1 second, 2) = 2 VT = or.
in which a = the ahgular velocity, or 2 rT, and
h-g= 9
0 146 feet = 2 in&es
- v2
z2, or h=---jr 17 '
0 - 32.16. If N = revs. per minute, h = 35,190 + s2.
For revolutions per minute. . .
The height in inches will be . . .
239 I+% 1i%3 9 .:!5 ht6
Number of turns per minute required t.o Cause the arms t.0 t$<e a gives
angle with the vertical asis:
Let 1 = length of the arm in Inches from
the center of suspension to the center of gyration, and a the reqmred _...
angle; then
N=
___ = 187.6
1
J-
-= 187.6
2..
1 cos a
h
The simple governor is not isochronous; that. i!, it does not revolve
at a uniform speed in all positions, the speed chan:mg as the angle of tve
TO remedy this defect loaded gOver~lors. sl!Ch 0s Porter S.
~r~~,~e~ng~~om the beills of a common governor whose collective weight
is A let there be hung iv a pair of links of lengths es?+ to the ptjndul~m
arms a load 13 capable of sliding on the spindle, having Its center 01 grallty
in the axis of rotation.
;Then the centrifugal force is that due to d alone.
and the effect of gravity is that due to A + 2 B: CollSWue~ltlY the a1t-
tude for a given speed is increased in the ratio c.4 + 2 B).:-A: as com-
pared with that, of a simple revolving pendulum. and a @t.en absolute
variation in alt,itude produces a smaller proportionate vanatlon In speed
than in the common governor.
(Rankine. S. E.. p. 551.)
of suspension to the center of gravitv of the ball. and let the length Of the
For the weighted governor let Z= the length Of the arm from the point
su&$ldi&-link I, = the length of the portion of the arm from tbe pOlnt
ofsuqpension of the arm to the point of atlacilmen~ pf the @;: G = the
weight of one b~,11 Q = half the weight of the shdlng
wvelght , It = the
height of the po,~er;lor from the point of suspension to the plane Of revolu-
9 no. 7 being the number of
tion of the balls, a = the angular doCitY = -
revolutions per second : then a =
in feet, or h =
35190
-4
N2
lutions per minute.
1 MARNING: This is a 1910 edition: Soi& of
,~,,,;.,-, ,,~ .~,
i
may no long&be accurate
,:,~ :.
d
1048 THE STEAM-ENGINE.
J. H. Barr gives h = ,> W, in which B is the combined
:s for Shaft-governors. (Wilson Hart&l
R? \ - T1.n rrnr:
for shaft-governors mav b6
GOVERNORS.
2, and l2 = the leverages, i.e., the perpendicular distances fromthe
center of the weight-pm to a line in the direction of the cevtnf-
ugal force drawn thr?ugh the center of gravity of the weights
or.balls at radii 11 and IS;
ml and m2 = the corresponding leverages of the springs;
ct and C2 = the centrifugal forces, for 100 revolutmns per minute,
at radii t-1 and rz:
pt and p2 = the corresponding pressures on the spring:
IIt 1s convenient to calculale these and note them down for refer-
S = mean sDe
2
Pap:
of revolutlo
P, - P3 = D
pressur
v 5 t.tw
Caek%.)Cr = maxlmum and minimum centrifugal forces;
:ed (revolutions per minute);
;I and 5% & the maximum and minimum number of revolutions
minute;
Id p.4 T the pressures on the spring at the limiting numhe;
ns (St and ~5%);
zz the difference of the maximum and minimum
es on the springs:
percentage of variation from the mean speed, or the
-:-;
sensltlveness;
t i the travel of the spring;
u = the initial extension of the spring;
1) = the stiffness~in pounds per inch;
w s the maximum extension = u + t.
The mean speed and sensitiveness dcsircd are supposed to be liven.
Then
sv
s1=s-100:
&=S + g;;
C1=0.28 x r1 X W;
Cz=O,28X r2X It;
P1=C1 x gl:
&=cix~z:
P3=P1 x (gay:
Pl==P2 x (go
)
*:
D P3 PI
~5-,UE-.W=-g~
t 2)
It 1s usual to give the spring-maker the values of Pa and Of ? or W.
To en-ure proper space being provided, the dimensions of the spn?P shy:&
be cakulated by the formke for strength and extenslpn of springs,
t.he ieast length of the spring as compressed be determmed.
The governor-power =
With a straight centripetal line, the governor-Power
_ q.ax (r*).
For a prellminarv det,erminat,ion of the governor-power it may be taken
as equal to tl~s in h11 cases, alt,hough it is evident t.hat with a curved ten-
tripetal line it will be slightly less.
The difference D mwt be. constant for
the same sp.lIg, however great or little its initia! compression. Let the
spril;g be scr; wed up until its minimum pressurq 1s PA.
Then to find the
speed Pa c PS 4- D,
The speed at which the ioiernor would be isochronous would be
I-
D
loo P*--PI +-
&lp&e the pressure on the spring wibh a speed of 100 revolutions. at
the maxikum and minimum radii, ww -
%jo lbs. and 100 ibs., respecIively.
CONDENSERS, AIR-PUMPS, ETC.
1051
P,XJNDS OF CUKXJLATING WATER PER POUND OF STEAX CONDENSED.
then the pressure of the spring to suit a variati?n from 95 to 105 revolu-
tlons will be 100 X ($o)*=QO .2 and 200 X ($$)=220.5
That is, the
fnCrcaSe of resistance from the minimum to the maamum radius must be
220- 90=130 I bs.
The extreme speeds due to such a spring, screwed up to different
pressures, are shown in the following table:
Injection Water Temperature, Deg. I?.
-
-
45
-
G-
-
-
60
-
ii-
-
i s. 3 t
i 7. 5
65
-
a5
-i-
--
29. 0
i 5. 7
I I . a
15. 5
20. 5
25. 4
30. 0
36. 2
! 9. 2
15. 0
$3. 8
$3. 9
2; : ;
I
28. 0
21. 5
%
26. 9
: i l : t
36. 3
45. 7
61. 8
27. 0
26. 0
%
20: :
I ?
16:i
19. 5
" 2: : :
1E
19: e I
- -
36. 2
t : : i
26. 5
j O. !
37. 1
-
Ejector Condensers. -
For ejector or injector condensers (Bull!leYs,
Sr hl l t t e' s. et c. ) t he calculations f0
r njln,nt,it,v of condensing-water 1s the
-_.._.
same as for jet condensers.
The Barometric Condenser consists of a vertiTa1 cylindrical chamber
mounted on top of a discharge pipe whose length 1s 34 ft. above the.level
of the hot mel!.
The exhaust steam and tk!e condensmg water meet in the
upper chamber, the water being delivered m such a mariner,,,, f0 expose
a large surface to the steam.
The external atmosphere ma!nta!ns a ,col-
umn of water in the tube, as a column of mercury is mamt~med. m a
barometer, and no air pump 1s needed.
The Bulkley condenser 1s the
original form of the type.
in vmn- --A--*- @-r-r n cm~ll n,ir nnlmu d,raws
~~I~ ._ Ac,. __, !-
Revolutions per minute, balls shut
Pressure on springs, balls shut.. . . :I: 1:: : :::: 1: 1: :
80 90 95 100 110 120
Increase of pregsure when balls opkn fully.. ;.
64 81 90 100 121 144
Pressure on sprmas, balls open fully.. . . . . .
130 130 130 130 130 130
Revplut~ons per minute, balls open fully . . _. .
194 211 220 230 251 274
T~mation, per cent of mean speed.. . . . . .
98 102 10; 107 112 117
10 6 3 I - I
The speed at ,%,hich the governor would become isochronous is 114.
Any sprtng ~11 give the right variation at some speed: hence in experi-
menting uxttl a gpvernor the correct spring may be found from any wrong
one by a rerY simple calculation.
Thus, if a governor with & spring
whose stilfness is 50 Ibs. per inch acts best when the engine runs at 95, 90
being its proper speed, then 50 X
( 95)
90 * =45 Ibs. is the stiffness of spring
reauired.
may be screwed up until the governor begins to
io d&mine the speed at which the governor .?;tlc;tustb$st, the spring
and then be
slackened until it is as sensitive as is compatible with steadiness.
COXDENSERS, AIR-PUMPS, CIRCULATING-PU3llS. ETC.
The Jet. Condenser. - Li practice the temperatcjre in the hot-well
vanes from 110 to 120, and occasionally as much as 130 is maintained.
Tofind the quantity of injection-water per pound of steam to becondensed:
Let 71 = tempe,rature of steam at the exhaust pressure. T = temper-
ature of the coohng-water; 72 = temperature of the wateraftir condensa-
tion. or of the hot-well; Q = pounds of the cooling-water per lb. of steam
condensed; then
Q=
1114+0. 3T1- T*
Tz-T,, * chamber.
lyle surface Condenser - Cool/ng Surface. 7 In pr?ctice.,with the
compound engine, brass condenser-tu!)es, 18 13.V .G., t@ck, 13 lbs. of
steal,, per <q. ft per hour, with the coolmg-water at an lmtlal tempemture
of (joo isco~ls~dered very fair work when the teinperatUre Of the fee+
water is to be maintained at 120.
It has been found that the Surface 111
the condenser may
be half the h--A:..- -..Fnn ..t !m,,l ,,~ al l l Luy
,,f +ha hniier~ and under
1 . ..- I -.. --, --~
Some clrcumstance~
.r .
s considerabl, less 1
than this. In general practice 0
le
r,.I,r\...in holds PO Id
,n+slmo nf ccm.ws+,pr is about, GOD:
when the temper
LuYlY & .,-.. ..___- .~
,,,,l.rrC) ..-eX1 _.
Terminal pres.. lbs., abs. .
30 20 -
12% 10
Sq. ft. per I.H.P.. . . .
3 2. 50 2% 2. 00 l . SO
1.860 1 Y50
creased by 00% and for ships which occasionally xxlt the tropics 10%
~~~ ships whose station is in the tropics the allo!v?nce shoul? be in-
incr&e will givk satisfactory results.
If a ship is constantly .employed
in cold climat,es 10% less suffices.
(Senton Marine Englneenng.)
II~I.IAL~~ ,C2toam-pn57f~ n&Pp
n %W s.l& 2mm.s. A.S. M. E., 1X, 431)
,I. Y. ---, ----
Another formula is: Q = IVH, .
7 m which W is the weight of steam ron-
densed., the units of he,at &en up by 1 lb. of steam in condensing and
R t,he nse 111 temperature of the cooling-water.
to Jet and to surface condensers.
This is applicable both
*-yu.antttY of Cooling-mater. -The quantity depends chiefly upon
1~3 ~ni+l :,?mperature, which in Atlantic practice may vary from 400 ln
the water of temperate zone to SO0 in subtropical seas
To raise t~he
temperature t? 100 in the condenser will require three times as many
thermal units in the former case as in the latter and therefore only one
third as mrlrh cooling-water will be required in the former case as in the
latter.. It is usual to provide pumping power sufficient to supply 40 times
the !v%ht, of steam for general t,mders. and as much as 50 times for shi
Statlorlqd 111 sllbtrOpiCal seas, when the entines are compound.
If t 1e P
s
wrukUlr!:: pump 1s double-acting, its capacity may be l/53 in the former
and l/g2 111 the latt.er case of the capacity of the tow-pressure cylinder.
Erat.nn b
. . .-__--... ~
TVL _
Rives the folloming: S=_,,,. -, 7
in which s = condensing-surface in
;,I ft.. ~~ = temperatur~*I$Xr, & steam of the pressure indi:ated by the
vzcuuh-gauge. t = mean temperature of the cxculatmg nater, or the
a;itllmeticzl dean of the initial snd final temperat,uresz L- T latent heat
of s%tm&d steam at temperature 71.: Lz = perfect conductlvlty of 1 sq.
ft. Af the metal used for the condensing-surface for a ra;nge of ! F. (yr
550 B,T.u per hour for brass, according to Isherwood s exPenments,L
c = frsctioil denoting
the efficiency of the condensing-surface; IV 7
The following table, condensed from one given bv W. ~7 Terrv in polcer
Nov. 30. 1QQQ. shows the amount of circulatink wate; req&red unde;
dtfferent conditions of vacuum, temperature of water enterinK the con-
denser. and drop. [rhe dropis the difference between the temperature
~of steam do to a .glven vacuum and the temperature of the water leaving
the condenser.
. onger
potmds of steam c
Emery, on U.S.S.
zondensed per b&r.
From experiments bv Loring and
. Dal$c is found to .be 0.323, and ck = 180; making
2
the equation S = I80 (T,-t).
Whithap recommends this formula for desigtiing engines having inde
pen!lcnt clrculntlng-pumps.
ewwe the value of S should be increased about loo/.
When the pump is worked by the main
r:lkiW TI at 135 F., and L = 1020, cor;espond!n~;~o~; in. va;;:?,
and t for summer temperatures at 75O, we have: S= L.
Much higher results than those
modern forms of condensers.
The P
IS0 (135-75)=X
uoted by,Whitham are obtained from
iterature on the subject of condensers
frqnl. 19pq to 1909 has been quite voluminous and much difference of
olJlmon a$ to rules of proportioning condensers fs shown.
Cw:fffclent of Heat Tranferenee in Condensers
of Berlin. (Prof. E. Josse
Condensed from an abstract in Power Fkb -2 1909
Tr?~lsmission, of Heat from Steam to Water pag& 561 td 663 )
See also
id
1 he coeficlent u, the number of heat units transferred per Iiourthrough
s. ~
ft. of metallic condenser wall when the temperature of the steam 1s
lagher than that of the wat~er, can be deduced from the formulas
1 IV = l/Al + d;L i l/A?,
the rcslstance to transmlsslon from metal to water znd C~/L the resi~lanc~
ln wl;ct l/A, is the resl$+ce to transmission from steam to metal I /A
colldm-er tubes (1 m.m. or 0.0393 in.).
to traMmlss1on of heat through the metal, d beinithe usual thickness of
f is fairly @l known and may be given as 18 430 for brass, 6,iOi)o for
For this thickness the v?l;e of
t,opPer., I18210.for iron, 5i40 for zinc. 11,050 forti; and 3660 for lluml-
*mm. +e middle term d/L would have the,value of 1/i&&0 and be of
compnrat~vely little importance.
The term l/A? is ti
1~ most important and has been investimztcd with
tube and the annular jacket
me aid of two CO~WX~trlC tllbeS, water being sent both thrm&the inner
greatly. Ser gives the aI.pr&imate formill:>.
The values of various esperimenters differ
A - 2 = 51, r,
wy,e v is the velocjty of water through the tubes in ft. per set
velotitY.ls f?r more IlnpOrt~llt thl the material of the condense; tubes This
of the steam, about which, or. rather, the term
and then thickness, an:1 also of greater consequence than the veloritr
l/A,,
aureement., Prof. Jesse adopts the figure 3960.
there is even l&
4?mn ha lb IWilrelwe, but the whole term does not count fdr much,
The velocity of the
For Water fbillg at the rate of 1 .64 ft. per sec. Jesses formula would be:
and U = 44.5;
l/U = I/3900 + lilS,430 + l/653 = l/445,
tube th+Iess be doubled U would hardlv be affecied
If AI !~,e~%reased to twice it,s value 17 would rise onlv to 475 lnd 1f the
hqwevrr. In the rate of {iO\V of water from 1.84 to 5 feet per second w&i
.4riinrre29e
reuse li to 625.
the baffle strlPs orretarders into his condenser tube- in order to break thg
Plan 1s to W@f!IXte-the flow of the circcdating water andby introd&-
As an Increase of the steam flow is undesirable the be-t
32 feet, per SeCOnd from 614 to 922.
\vk;$r rurrents up IntO vort~lces, Josse raised the val$ of U at a ve1ocit.y of
temperature.
Opinions differ concerning the increase of U with greater differences of
According. to some the heat transferred should incre?so
portionally to the square of t~he t.emperature differences.
proPortiol1atel.v to the difference: according to Weiss and otl.Frs pro-
gatlons were conducted by placin
JOSSeciriveSti-
ftllrr.ion of the difterence, t!ien the rise of the temperature i;l I,t1e codI-
of th!: condenser tubes. 1: the heat .transferred increases 1s b line%;
g therm0 couples in different portions
Ina vater ~hOll!d follow nn exponent.ial law and it wtS found to be so
Curves showmg the relation of the ex!er!i of s rf-& to
of steam and water s11ow an agreement witi, thtfoymula tbe tempera&es
ts - te
Surface = s = E loge -,
t&-t
CONDENSERS, AIR-PUMPS, ETC.
where tsis the saturation temperature and &the temperature of the cooling-
water at entrance, t being the disclrarge temperature.
Air Leakage - Air passes into the condenser with the exhaust steam,
the tempeyatute of the air being that of the steam: the pressure of t!le
mixture will be the sum of the partial steam pressure and of the partla1
ir pressure. The air must be withdrawn by the air-pump.
If the with-
3
d irawal takes place at the temperature correspondmg to the condenser
pressure the partial steam pressure would ,be equal to the condenser
f
tiressure and the pump would have to deal w1t.h an enormous &ir volume.
The air iemperature should, therefore, be lowered, at the spot where the
air is withdrawn, below the saturation temperature of the condenser
pressure.
In steam turbines it is more easy to keep air out than in reciprocating
engines. Experiments with a 300-kw. Parsons turtXne show that not more
than 1;~ lb. of air was delivered per hour when 6600 Ibs.of steam was used
tenance 01 high vacua.
The l%wer Used tnr Condensing Apprstns axles
fl
16
1 l/? to 5% of the indicated power of the main engme. deI?el
efficiency of the apparatus, on the degree of vac11uln obtzun
ec
perature of the cooling-water, the load on the entitle. etc.
J
(Power Feb. 1965) gives the records of test of a 300-kw. PIan
t:
the foliowin; figures are taken.
Cooling-wqter ?er 1b,pf s\
et
lt2i0ym 27.3 to 27.8 ins. Temp. COOhng-nater id.
HI
I 6 0 L I
Indicated H.P... _.
151 220
X, of total power used.. 4.69
3.51
% foraircylinder. . . .._. 1.63 1.36 I.27 :::I, ;:g
%forwaterpump... .._ 3.07 2.14 I.95
1.89
rom about
iillg on t.he
1, the tem-
R. Bibbins
fgnyl;i$
ot-well 102
-
457
it:
1.85
-
589
;:;t:
1.52
V?cuum ins of iwercury, and Absolute Pressm=s- ---Tile vacuum
I$ &own I$ a r ;l er c ur y column 1s not a direct meaPure of Pressure. but
b& of thedlfterence between the atmospheric pressure. and the absol!te
pressurein t,he vacuum chamber.
(<itIce the atmosphznc prqssure vanes
wit,h the dt,ltude and also with atmospheric conditions. It 1s n@XssarS
when accl$acy 1s desired to give the reading of the barometer as wel1 as
,.
CONDENSERS, AIR-PUMPS, ETC.
1055
B \V.G. The smaller the tubes, the larger is the surface which can bc got
ii a certain space. (Seaton.)
In the merchant service the almost universal practice is to circulate
the wa+.er throueh the tubes.
.he veiocitv of flow through the tubes should not be
less than 400 nor more than TOO ft. per m@.
Bimetallic Condenser Tubes. (F. k. Davis. EWJ. News. Seut. 2,
;;O;.;incCondenser t ubes are usually ...--- -_ _ _.-__ __.._ --~-~~ ~~~~
. When this alloy 1s found to be short-lived, due to the presence
of &rosive snbstonces in the cooling-water, recqurse IS Fad to bronze
tubing of admiralty mixture (87% copper, 8% tm,. 5% zmc) or to pure
onnner~ Sometimes also the tubes for further protection are tnmed on the
VOLUME OF 1 LB. OF Ak WITH ACCOMPANYING VAPOR.
Vacuum. ios. of Mercury, and lbs. absclute.
i . ; ;
I : 59
68 71 1. 71 I . 79 ! 05 i I 3 1. 30 147' 0. 81
75 1. 60 124 1. 22
I . 11
15810. 73
233' 0. 57 336 0. 42 450
263 0. 49
204/ 0. 48 17810. 62
393 0. 34 566
1. 45 81 1. 46 137 0. 97
; . 26 90 I . 27 1630. 78
420 315 0. 24 0. 38 832 520 0. 09 0. 2; 857
( dj
. . OI 103 f . 02
2600. 29
2030. 53
700 0. 05
( c) , , . ,
. 69 1250. 70 3900. 042
. 27
3040. 21
1700. 28 770 ( a) . . _
(6) __._ . . __
. . __ . _, : . . _ : : : : . . , , . . : :
. , _. . , _. . . __. . . , . . . , .
P f Partial pressure of air, lbs per sq. in.
air nlth accompanying vapor cu. ft.
V = volume of i 1bx
(c) about 4000; (d) over 2000.
(a) over 1000; (b) nearly 5000;
500 0. 17
60 0. 25
701 0. 35
80" 0. 50
90' 0. 69
100~ . 0. 94
110' 1. 26
120" 1. 68
PI v
1. 32 592
I
, . 24 800
. I 311536 '
,I-
29i n. .
0. 4912.
$%embr ii both sides.
A condenser tube should not split, should be comparat~i~vely free frbm
localized corrosion or pit t?oles, and should not become bnttle under the
combined action of steam and cooling-water.
A bimetallic tube composed of a copper envelope over an aluminum
lining (or vice versa\ is unlikely to split, owing to its bemg,composed of
two layers of metal. It is slow to corrode wit.11 the ahmnnum surface
exposed to the cooling-water. and there 1s no Y-,..Y-..-O
I . . . . . _~
becoming brittle. Aluminum, being electro-posltlve to Copper. protects
it from corrosion in somewhat the same way that even norous zalvamnng
protects iron.
No corrosion of the copper will take p.--- _..__. .~..
num has been entirely eaten away for a considerable chstance aroun,d the
perforation thus lea$ing a sound tube for a much longer time than IS the
mse when &ass or copper is use? -*a
Thn ,,.,,a1 nrnnnr+,j()ns of meta,
are 0.022 in. thickness of coppc
total of 0.065 in.. or No. 16 SW1
Tube-plates are usually rnau= vI w,-.~=.
-- ..-- I_ -..: .~ ~, _
should he from 1 .l to 1 .5 times the diameter of tubes In thxkness.
depending on the method of packing.
When the packings go Completely
through the plates, the la,tter thlCknesS.
but when only partly through.
t.he former, is suficient.
Hence, for s/d-in. tubes the plates are I I SU~)~
7,s to 1 in. thick with glands and tape-packinga n.nd I t0 1 l/4 1nS. tluck
with wooden ferrules.
The tube-plates should y1 __.. ___ .- ~~~~
XP-EPPIIP~WI t,&-their seat-
ings bv brass studs and nuts.
or brass screw-bolts; in fact there must be
no wrought iron of any kind iliside a con+nsPr
- . ..-- _. When the tube-plates ..~
are of large area it is advissbie to stay t
hem by brass rods, to prevent _
them from collapsing.
Spacing of Tubes, etc. -The holes for ferrules, glands, or in+-
rubber are usually l/d inch larger in diameter than the.tubes;,hut v33.l
abso1ute1y necessary the wood ferrules may he only s/sz!nch thick.
.
~1~~ pitch of tubes when packed with wood ferrules 1s usually l/4 lncb
more than the diameter of the ferrule-hole.
Fqr example. the tl+bFs are
generally arranged zigzag, and the number which may be fitted into a
rnlla.pp $not of elate is as follows:
TEUPERATUHES AND PRESSURES OF SATURATED AIR.
vacuum. Ins.
Proportions of Air and St,esm by Weight.
with Barom. -
at 30 in. S3-,t,u,ila;l4ed Air. 0.25.
I
Ai r 0. 5 1 4: " n ' I X 1
Steam, 1. Ste& L. , ulicillll. I. 1
2
79. 5OF.
101. 5
i i
I I 5
E. 5 z. 4
67. 5 64. 5
110
08. 8 85. 3
126
105. 6
%, 2 I %5
101. 7 98. 6
25 I 34
I I I . 5 108. 3
24
119. 2 116. 2
I , G P 111 7
-
From this table it is seen that a temperature of 1260 F corresponds to
a 24-i,n. vncur!m 1.f the steam in the condenser has 7.57 of its \v.eight of
air mingle? \Wh It. and to a 26-in. vacuum if it is fregfrom q1r.
One CUblC foot. of air measured at 60 F. and atmospl,er(c pressure
hf x vmf s 10 CU. ft. at 27 in. and 30 cu. ft. at 29 in va&um at t,he &m
tf~~~peratUre: 10 .g CU. ft. at 105 and 27 in.: 30.5 ~11. ft. at 713~ F. ?,I
29 ifI. The same cu. ft. of air saturated with water vapor at 700 F hnd
29 In. brromes 124.3 CU. ft., or 44.9 cu. ft. at 105O and 27 in va&um.
The t~emprmt~ures 105 and 70 are a,hout 10% below the te&perat~ures
of snt,llruted steam at 27 in. and 29 i ns r espect i vel y.
Condc~n
., -i solid-drawn brass tubes ?nd
tWiet1 bot,h bS hydraulic pressure and steam.
They are usm~llv mnhk of
a W~~Positiou of 68% of best selected copper and 327 of best Sile:i?n
sprlkr.
The Admiralty, however. alwavs specify the tubes to be myde
of 70% of kt selected copper and to h<ve 1% of tin in the composition,
aor1 test the tubes to a pressure of 300 lhs. per sq. in.
(SPat.on.)
I%? diameter of the condenser tubes varies from 1/2 in in smlll con-
~f~W~rS. when they are very short. to 1 in. in very larwe cbnden& qnd
l?W tlihes. In the mercant~ilc marine the tnhes are-as z rnle i/.jin
di:lm. externally, and 18 B.W.G. thick (0 .049 inch). in> 16 b,\V.G
(0 .W5). under some exceptional circumstances.
In thd $rit,lsh Nlvr the
tlltleS Up ah. as a rilk. s/4 in. dinm.. and 18 to 19 B.W.G. ti&d on
t!oth $dW: Whell the COndl~tlwr iu k>mss t.lw tl{&s are not reqtiired to be
t
i llavc tubes s/g in. diam.,, and 19
of
ID. . . .
I I
110
1 1 5/32
1 V16 1 Vltl
z: I 106
1 v3 I I / 32 116
99
WARNI NG: Thi s i s a 1910 edi ti on:
the maxerl al l onger De accurate
persture of the sea is &, and that of the (jet) condenser is
120
the volume of &he cooling-water and q the volume of the condense
3
being
in cubic feet, and n the number of strokes per minute,
water
.;{he volume of the siugle-acting pump = 2.74 (Q + q) c n.
1 he volume of the double-acting pump = 4 (Q + q) + n.
W. H. Booth, in his rreatise on Condensing Plant, says the volume
to he generated by an air-pump bucket should not be l ess than 0 75
cu. ft. per pound of steam deal t with by the condensing plant.
bfr R. iV
AlIe! has made tests with as little air-pump capacity as 0.5 cu ft and
he gives 0.6 cu. ft. as a minbmum. An Edwards pump with thrke 14-In
barrels, 12 in. stroke, single-acting. I59 r.P.+, 1s rated at 45 000 l bs of
stearn per hour from a surface candenser, WhlCh 1s eqUiV&nt to 0 3~6~~.
ft. per pound of feed-water.
In the Edwards pump. the b?se of the
pistqn afe conical m shape.
F
ump and the bottom of the
lhe water rom the condenser fl017~ bY
gravltY loto the space below. the Piston. which descending projects It
through pqrts mto the space ln the j>afrel above the
jiston
tl~l;cendmg stroke of the piston It IS discharged t nougd
!
whence on
the outlet
at mu& higher speeds than older forms of pump.
T,here are no bucket or foot- valves, and the pump may be run
?Vheeler Condenser and Engineerlng.Co
h)
( See Catnl ogue of the
The Arc,a thrqugh Valve-seats an past the valves should not be
!ess than ill admit the full quantity of water for condensation at a veloc-
Ity not escqedmg 400 ft.
excess yf thil: (Scaton.)
per minute.
In Practice the area is generally in
. ^
Area Durougn foot-valves
Area through head-val ves
= 02X S + 1000 square inches
= D2 X SW+ 800 square inches:
Diameter of discharge-pipe = D x z/S + 35 inches
D = diam. of air-pump In inches, S = its speed in it. per mln
James Tribe (A.m. MUCK.. Oct. 8. 1891) gives the following rule forair
pumps used Jvlth Jet.-condensers: Volume of single-acting a,lr-pump driven
by main engme?volume of low-
b\ 3 ..!I and divided bY the num
ressure
e
cylinder in cubic feet multiplied
of exhaust steam Of the given density.
er of cubic feet contained il; one pound
For a double-acting air-pump the
same ru. l y will apply, but the volume of steam for each stroke of the
pump ~111, be but one-half., Should the pump be driven independent117
of the engme. then the relative speed
cpndenser = volume of air-pump X 4.
must be considered. Volume of j&
air-pump in cubic inches + 520.
Area of injection valve = vol. of
The Work done by an Air-pump, per stroke is-a maximum the-
oret!cally, !vhen, the vncuu~ is between 21 and 22ins. of mereurv.
. Q-
sllmln~ adlabatlc com&resslon, the mean effective presstIre pe< st,roke
isP = 3.46p, [(E) -I] 1 where P =absolute pressure of the vacuum
and Pz the twmi$, or atmospheric, pressure, = 14.7 lbs. per sq in.
The
horse-power required to compress and deliver I cu. ft. of air pe; minute
me3511 [red at the lower.pressure, is. neglecting friction. P x I44 + 37 000

The
SeDt.
follo!vmg table IS calculated from these formulae (R. R. Pratt,&&,
7. 1909).
Vnc. i
Ins. 0
nk-
cury.
Abs.
Press.
Ins. of
nk-
tory.
--
30.00 2.86
15.00 4.05
10.00 4.83
7.50 5.40
EI I z;
4.28 6123
3.75 6. 33
3.33 6 37
3.00 6.36
Theo-
retic.
H.P.
R%
0. 0211
0.0235
EZ
0.0271
EE
0.0277
-
Theo-
retic.
H.P.
--
2.50 6.21 0.0271
2. 14 5. 89
lb
0.0256
l&t
0.0236
ii
0.0212
0.0184
iii
0.0153
El 1.97 1.03 0.96 0.49 ( n 0.0042
0021
CONDENSERS, AIR-PUMPS, ETC. 1057
Circulatin
% cubic feet, n t
-pump. - Let Q be the quantity of cooling-water in
e number of strokes per minute, and S the length of stroke
in feet.
Capacity of circulating-pump = Q f n cubic feet.
Diameter of circulsting-pump = 13.55 d/Q ins inches.
The clear area tlirourh the valve-seats and DaSt,th:~ valves should be
silch that the mean velijcity of Aow does not. eliceeu 4.50 feet per minute.
The flow through the pipes should not exceed 500 ft. per min. in small
pipes and 600 in large pipes. (Seaton.)
For Centrifugul Circulating-pumps, the velocity of Row in the inlet and
outlet pipes should not exceed 400 ft. per min.
wheel is fro1
The diameter of t!le fan-
. .
n 21/s to 3 times the diani. of the pipe, aua tne speea at its
periphery 450 to 500 f t. per min.
The Leblanc Cone denser (made by the Westinghouse Machine Co.)
accomplishes the separate renioval of tiat< ?r and air by mean? of a pair of
relatively small turbine-type rotors on a common shaft in a single casing,
which is integral with nor attached directly to the l?wFr.portIon of the
condensing chamber. The condensing ~11~~~~
.._..
timber itseu 1s out uttle more
than an enlargement of the exhaust pipe.
The injection water is pro-
jected downwards through a spray nozzle, and the c?rnhine$ @jestion
water and condensed steam flow downw~~- ird to a cyp*ugal oiscnarge
pump under a head of 2 or 3 ft., which insures the tilling of.the pur?p.
The space abdve the water level in the condeusiog c+m@r 1s occup@
bv water vapor plus the air which enteres
&h the exhaust steam, and this space co
d Lvith the mjecrion water ana
mmunicates with the air-pump
through a relatively smnil pipe.
The air-pump differs from pumps of the ejector t,ype in that the vanes
in t,raversing the discharge nozzle at high speed constitute a series of
pistons, each one of which forces ahead of it a small pocket of au, the
high velocity of which effectually prevent,s its return to the co!ldenser.
A small quantity of water is supplied to t,he suction side of thr air-pump
t.o assist in the performance of its functions. The power required for the
DUITIDS is said to approximate 2 to 3 per cent of the power generated by
i he hain ,engine.
Feed-pumps for Marine Engines.
- With sllrface-condcrlsing
engines the amount of water to be fed by the pump is the amount. COW
densed from the main engine plus what may be needed to supply auxdiary
engines and to sup
t,o t,he surface-con 2
ly leakage and waste. Since an accident may happen
enser, requiring the use of jet-condensation. the pumps
of engines fitted with surface-condensers must be suffkziently large to,do
dut.v under such circumstances. With jet-condensers and boilers usmg
snltn-ater the dense salt wnt,er in the boiler must be blown off at intervals
to keep the density so low that deposits of salt nil1 not be formed.
water contains about 1/a of its weight of solid matter in solution.
S$;;
boiler of a surface-condensing engine may be worked wi th safety +en
the quantitg of salt is four times that in sea,-mater.
If Q = net quantity
of feed-mater required in a given time to ma.ke up for what 1s used as
steam, n = number of times the saltness of the water in t,he boiler is to
that of sea-mater, then the gross feed-waber=nQ+,(n- 1).
In order to,be
capable of filling the boiler rapidly each feed-pump is made of a caPa?tY
equal to twice t.he gross feed-water. Two feed-pumps should be supphed.
SO that one may be kept in reserve to be used while the other is out of
repair. If Qbe the quantity of net feed-water in cubic feet,. I th? length
of st,roke of feed-pump in fedt , and ?t Bhe number of strokes per minute.
Diameter of each feed-pump plunger in inches = l550 Q +nl.
If 11 be the net feed-water in pounds,
Dinmet.er of each feed-pump plunger in inches = d8.9 11 . ^-
An Evaporative Surface Condenser b)@t. at the ?
tural College is described bv Jam
-rllL.
Trginia Agricul-
es H. Fit,ts (?mns. fl.A~I. Al. E., siv,.6!)0).
It consists of two re&,ankular end chambers connected hy a. senes of
horizontal rows of tllbes, each row of tllbes immersed in a pan of water.
Thro~~zh t,he Snares bet ween t,he surf: 1ce of the water in each pan and !l
bott,oli; of thepan above air is drawn by means of an exhaust.-fa!l.
,:,
the f%p of one of the end chsmbers is an inlet for steam, and a honzontal
may no loncjer~ be accurate
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
diaphragm about midway causes the steam to travcrso the upper half
of the tubes and back throueh the lower. -411outlet at the bottom leads
to ~the air-pump. The passage of air over the water surfaces removes
the vapor as it rises and thus hastens evaporation. The heat necess?ry
to produce evaporation is obtained from the steam in the tubes, causmg
the steam to condense. It was d.esigned t,o condense SO0 lbs. steam per
hour and give a vacuum of 22 in.,
of 20 lbs. absolute.
with a terminal pressure in the cylinder
Results of tests show that the cooling-water reqmr;:
is practically equal in amount to the steam used by the engine.
since the consumption of steam is reduced by the applicat,ion of a con-
denser. its use will actuallv reduce the tot,al auantitr of water reaulred.
-vTiii Continuous: Use ok Condensing-w&r is-described in-a series
of articles in Power. Au%-Dec.. 1892. It finds its application in situations
where water for cotidetiiing purposes is expensive or dificult to obtain.
The different me:hods described include cooling pans on the roof:
fountains and other sprav pipes in ponds. fine spra,y discharged at an
clewtiou above a pond; &ickling the water discharged from the hot-well
owr parallel ~:.ITOW metal tanks contained in a large wooden structure,
while a fan blo%l er drives a current. of air against the films of water falling
from the tanks. etc. These methods are suitable for sfnsll.~po~~ers~. but
for Large powers they are cumbersome and require too much space; and _
are pmct.ically supplanted by cooling taxers.
The Increase of PoMwr that may be obtained by adding a condenser
giving a vacuum of 26 inches of mercury to a non-condensing engine may
Y
by Vacuum
Fig. 166..
be a.pproximated by considering it to be equivalent to a net gain of 12 lbs.
mean eflective pressure per sq. in. of piston area. If -4 = area of piston
CONDENSERS, AIR-PUMPS, ETC.
in sq. ins., $9 = piston speed in ft. per min., then 12 A.9 + 33,000 =
AS + 2750 = H.P. made available by the vacuum.
If the vacuum =
13.2 Ibs. per sq. in. = 27.q in. of mercury, then H.P. = ~8 + 25(JO.
l%C .toZWW ol steam fpr a glVen horse-power will be, represented approsl-
mst.ely by the ShOrtemng Of the cut-otf when the engine is run \vith the
condenser. Clearsnce should be included in the calculation. To the
mean effective pressure non-condensing,, with a given actual cut-off
clearance considered, add 3 Ibs. to obtain the approximate meau totoi
pressure, condensing. From tables of expansion of steam find xvl]at
actual cut-off will @ve this mean dots1 pressure. The diEerence between
this and the original actual cut-off, divided by the latter and by 100, \vill
give the percenwge of saving.
The diagram on page 1055 (from catalogue of H. R. Worthington) she\\-s
the percentage of power that may be gained by att~aching a condenser
to a non-condensing engine, assuming that the vacuum is 12 lbs. per sq.
in, The diagram also shows the mean pressure in the cylinder for a given
imtial pressure and cut-off, clearance and compression not considered.
The pressures givep in the diagram are absolute pressures above a
V.l,Pllllrn.
To hnd the mean effect,ive pressure produced in an engine cylinder with
90 lbs. gauge (= 105 lbs. absolute) pressure, cut-off at l/4 stroke: find
105 in the left-hand or initial-pressure column, follolv the horizontal line
to the right until it intersects the oblique line thatcorresponds t.o the l/4
cut-off. and read the mean total Dresswe from the row of fllrures directlv
nbove i.he point of intersection, &lich in this case is 63~lbs.- From~~t&
subrract the mean absolute back pressure (say 3 lbs. for a condensing
engine and 15 Ibs. for a non-condensing engine exhausting into t,he
atmosphere) t,o obtain the mean effective pressure, which in this case, for
a non-condensing engine. gives 48 Ibs. To find the gain of power by the
use of a condenser wit,h this entine. read on the loner scale the lieures
that correspond in posit~ion to 48 Ibi. in the upper row. in this cas& 23y0.
As the diagram does not take into consideration clearance or compression,
the results are only approximate.
Advantage of High Vacuum in Reciprocating Engines. (R. D.
Tomlinson,. Powr, Feb. 23, 1909.) - Among the transatlantic liners,
the best shuns with reciorocatinrr enrrinrs are czrvine from 26 to 2S and
more inches-of vacuum. Wheret,hcreslilts are lobkea into. the enzincers
are reqldred to keep the vacuum system tight and carry all the vacuum
they c&n get. and while it is true that. greater benefits csn be derived
from high vacua in a steam turbine than in a rrciprornting engine. it is
also true t,hat, where primary heaters are not used. the hisher the vacuum
carried the greater is the justifiable economv which can be obtained from
the plant. -
The Interborough Ra,pid Transit Corn
the mot,or-driven air-lnlmp and
any, New Sork City, changed
for a bnrometrlc type of
condenser and increasetl t.he vacuum on each of the WOO-H.P. Allis-
Chalmers horizoMn1 vertical engines at, the 74th Strept sta,iion from
26 to 25 ins., thereby increasing t,he power on each of the eight. units
l approsimat~elp 27.5 H.P., and the economy of the station was increnszd
nearly in the same ratio. This change was made about seven years ago.
and the plant is still operating with 25 ins. of vacuum. measured rrith
mercury columns connected to the exhaust pipe at a point just below the
exhaust nozzle of the Ion-pressure cylinders.
A careful w-t made on t.he 59th St.reet station showed a decrease in
steam consur,*-ion of 87, when the vacuum was raised from 25 to 2s ins.
These englnc; drive 5000-km. generators.
The Choice of a Condenser. - Condensers may be divided into two
general classes:
First. - Jet condensers, including barometric condensers. sfphon
condensers, ejector condensers,
w1t.h the steam to be condensed.
etc., in which the cooling-water mwles -
Second. - Surface cohdensers, in.mhirh the cooling-water is separated
from the st,enm, t.he cooling-water circnlating on one side of this surface
and the st:emn coming: into contact with the other.
In the irt.-rondenser t,he stea,m, as soori as condensed. becomes mired
with the i.oolinr-water, and if the latter should be unsuit,able for boiler
,,,;, feed because of scale-forming impurities, acids, salt, etc., the pure dist~illed
.,,!~,
ue-&..~~_.,. .;~,, ,~~.,,_~ .
be accurate
water represented by the condensed st,eam is wasted, and. if it were
necessary to pur~hase other water for holler-feedlng, t$s might .rePresent
a considerable waste of money.
on the other hand, If the coohng-water
is suitable for boiler-feeding, or if a fresh SUPPIY of good water is easlb
obtainable. the jet-condenser, because of its SimphcltY and !ow Cost, is
Unexcelled:
Surface condensers are recommended where the cooling-water is tm-
fibted for boiler-feed and where no suitable and cheap supply of pure
boiler-feed is available.
Where a natural supply of cooling-water, as from,a well, spring, lake or
river, is not avaiiable, a water-cooling tower can be Installed and the same
cooling-water used over and over agaln.
(IVheeler Condenser anJ Eng.
A. \
G.,
Owing to their great cost as compared with jet-condense!% surface
condensers should not be Used except where absolutely necessary. I.e..
where lack of feed-water for the boiler warrants the extra cost. of Course
there are cases such as at sea, where sUrface condensers are indispensabie.
on land, sb;itahle feed-water can always be obtained at some expense,
and that cost capitalized makes it a simple arithmetical problem to
determine the extra. investment permissible ill order ts be able to retUr.n
condensed steam as feed-water to the boiler. Unfortunateiy there 1s
another point which greatly complicates the matter, and one wvl!zch makes
it impossible to give exact figcures, viz., t.he corrosion and.detenoratlon ot
the condenser tUbea t,hemselves, the enact cause af which 1s not often
understood. With clean, fresh water. free from acid, the tubes of a ton-
denser last indefinitely. but where the cooling-water contains sulphur,
as in drainage from coal mines: or sea-water contaminated by sewage.
such as harbor water. the detenoration is esceedinglg rwd.
A better vacuum may possib1.v be obtained from a surface condenser
where t,here is plenty of cooling-water easily handled. The better vaC+m
is due to the fact that the air-pUmp will have much less air to handle Inas-
much as the air carried in srlspension by the cooling-water.does not.have
to be estracted as in bbe case of jet-condensers. Water 1n open, nverfi
the ocean etc., is said t.o carry in srlspension 6% bv volume of air.
may be .&id t,hat except for leakages, which shordd not exist. the air-
pump will have no work to do at all inasmllch as the wat,er wvlll have no
opportUnit~.v to become aerated. On the other hand, if the cooling-water
is limited, these advantages are offset bv the fact that a srlrfsce rondens~r
cannot heat the cooling-wat.er so near to t.he temperature of the exhaust
st,eam as can a jet-condenser. (F. Hodgkinson. El. Jo?cr., Aug., 1909.)
A barometric condenser used in cbnnection wit.h a 15.000-k.w. steanl-
engine-turbine unit at the 59th St. stat.ion of the Rapid Transit Co.. Ne!v
York. contains approximately ~~,.oI?o sq. ft. of cooling surfare arranged 111
the doUble two-pass system of wat,er circrdation. wit,h a SO-in. centrifugal
circulat~inp pUmp hnvir1.s a maximUm capacity of 30.000 ga,l. per hqur.
The d!p vacmlm p\mlp Is of the single-stnee type, 12- and 29-m. X 24-m.,
with Corliss valves on the air cvlinder. The condensing plant is capable
of maint,aining a varmlm n.it,hinl .l in. of the baromet.er when conthlSlng
150.000 lb. of steam per horlr when sUpplied with circulating water at 50 F. *
--(H. C. St,ot.t. Jozrr. A.S.M.E.. Mar. . 1910.)
Coolinm Towers are usually made in t.he shape of lnrge cylinders of
sheet stee?. filled with nnrro\< boards or 1nt.h arranged in geometrical
forms or hollow t,ile. or wire network, so arranged that while the wabe:.
whichis sprayed over t,hem at the top, t.rickles down through the s aces It
is met by a,n ascending air column. The air is furnished either .\ disk t:
fans at the bottom or is drawn in by natural draught. In the latter c3se
the tower is made vcrvhigh. say 60 to 100 ft., so as to act like a chimney.
When used in connection with steam condensers, the water produced bY
the conriensahion of the eshmlst steam i s sUfficient to compensate for the
evaporation in t,he tower. and none need be supplied to the system. There
is. on Dhe contrary. a slight, overflow. which carries with It the oil from
the entine cylinders. and tends to clean the system of oil that would
obherwise nc&imulnt.e in t,he hot.-well.
The cooling of wnt.Pr in a pond. spray. or tower goes on in three ways.-
first,. hy mdint.ion, which is practicnllv nerligibie; second, by conduction
or ahsorption of heat, hy the air. whi& may vary from one-fift,h to OW-
t,hird of t,he entirc effect: and, last,ly, by evaporation. The latt,er is t,he
WARNING: This is a 1910 editions
CONDENSERS, AIR-PUMPS, ETC.
~,
al may no l onger bi ? accuri te
chief effect. Under certain conditions the wat~er in a cooling tower can
actual1 be cooled below the temperature of the atmosphere, as water is
cooled i: y exposing it in porous vessels to the winds of hot and dry climates.
The evaporation of 1 lb. of water absorbs about 1000 heat units. The
rapidity of evaporation is determined, first, by the temperature of the
water, and, second, by the vapor tension in the air ir? immediate contact
with the water. In ordinary air the vapor present is generally in a con-
dition corresponding to superheated steam, that is, the air is not saturated.
If saturated air be brought into contact with colder water, the cooling
of the vapor will cause some of it to be precipitated out of the air; on the
other hand, if saturated air be brought into contact with warmer water,
some of the latter will pass into the form of vapor. This is what occurs in
!he cooling tower! so that the latter is in ;
of climatic cond:tionn;
large measUre independent
for even if the air be saturated, tbo rise in tem-
perature of the atmospheric air from contact with the hdt water in the
cooling tower will greatly increase the water-carrying eapacit,y of the air,
ena,bling a large amount of heat to be absorbed through the evaporation
of the water. The two things to be sought after in cooling-tower design
are, therefore, first, to present a large surface of water to the air, and,
second, to provide for bringing constantly into contact with thissurface
the largest possible volume of new air at the least. possib!e expenditure of
energy. (Wheeler Condenser and Engineering Co.)
The great advant,age of the cooling tower lies in the fact that large
surfaces of water can be presented to the air while tbe latter is kept in
rapid motion.
Tests ot a Cooling Tower and Condenser are reported by J. H. Vail
in Zruns. A. S. M. E ., 1898. The tower was of theBarnardtype, with two
chambers, each 12 ft. 3 in. X IS ft. X 29 ft. 6 in. high, contmning gal-
vanized-wire mats.
bers. The rated
Four fans sup lied a strong draught to the two cham-
ca
water needed to con( ense l?,FjOO lbs. of steam, from 132 to SO0 F., when P
acitY of eat 1 section was to cool the circulating P
the atmosphere does not exceed 7.5 F. nor the humidity S570.
lowing is a record of some observations.
The fol-
Date, 1898.
Jan.
31.
Temperature atmosphere.. 30
Temp. condenser discharge. . . I IO
Temp. mater from tower. 65
Heilt extracted by tower.. _. 45O
;
Lpeed of f.sns. r.p.m..
acuum. inches. . 2%)
-
_
I
2
-
The quar;tity of steam condensed or of water circulated is not st,at,ed.
but in the two tests on Auto. 2 the H.P. develoned was 900 I.H.P. in +I>*
... :-
first and 400 in the second.ihe engine being a tkndem componnd. Corhss
type, 20 and 36 X 42 in., 120 r.p.m.
J:R. Bibbins (Tran~. A.S.M.E., 1909) gives a,large amount, of tnforva-
:F2ery the constrUct.lon and performa,nce of different styles 01 coohng
He suggests a type of combined fan a,nd natural draft toner
suit,ed to most efficient. runninrr on neak as well as light loads.
Evaporators and Distillers are-used with marine en&!ines for the pur-
pose of nroriding fresh water for the boilers or for drinking purposes.
Iieirb Evnpo&or t0nsist.s of a small horizontal boiler. contrived so as
to be easily taken to pieces and cleaned. The water in it is evaporated by
the steam from the main boilers pa%sinE throrlgh a set of tubes placed in
its bot.tom. The steam Kenerabed in t.his boiler is admit.ted to the low-
PresstIre valve-chest, so that t,here is no loss of energy, and the water Con-
densed in it is returned to the main boilers.
In Ilcirs ~ced-hent~ the feed-water before entering the boiler is heated
Up very nearly to boiling-point by means of the waste water and steam
from the low-pressure valve-chest of a compound engine.
!mzzles, st,rii;es a second row of moving buckets and again leaves them
with zero velocity. This process is repeated until the steam is com-
ROTARH STEAM-ENGINES - ST,EAN TURBINES.
Rotary Stcan-engines, other than steam turbines, have been invented
hv t.he thousands. but not one has attained a commercial success. BS regards
~e<onomy-offste& ---For all ordinary uses the possible advantages,such
as saving of space, to be gained by a rotary engine are overbalanced by
its waste of steam. Rotary engines are in use, however, for special pur-
poses, such as steam fire-engines and _steam feeds for sawmills, in which
Steam economy is not a matter of importance.
Impulse and Eeaction Turbines.- A steam turbine of the simplest
form is a wheel similar to a water wheel, which is moved by a jet of steam
impinging at high velocity on its blades. Such a wheel was designed
.hy Branca, an Italian, in 1629. The De Lava1 steam turbine, which is
similar in many respects to a Pelton water wheel, is of this class. It is
known as an impulse turbine. In a book written by Hero, of Alexan-
dria. about 150 D.c.. there is shown a revolving hollow metal ball. into
which steamy enters through a trunnlon from a boiler beneath; and
escapes tangentially from the outer rim through two arms which are
bent backwards, so that the steam by its reaction causes the ball t.o
rotate in an opposite direction to that of the escaping jets. This wheel
is the prot,otype of a reaction turbine. In most modern steam turbines
both t.he impulse and reaction principles are used, jets of steam striking
blades or buckets inserted in the rim of a wheel, so as to give it a forward
impulse, and escaping from it in a reverse direction so as to react upon
it. The name imnulse wheel. however. is now aenerallv given to wheels
like the De LavaI; in which the pressure on the two sidisof a wheel con-
taining the blades is the same, and the name reaction wheel to one in
which the steam decreases in pressure in passing through the blades.
The Parsons turbine is of this class.
The De Lava1 Turbine. - The distinguishing features of this t.ubine
are the diverging nozzles, in which the steam expands down to the at-
mospheric pressure in non-condensing, and to the vacuum pressure in
condensing wheels; a single forged steel disk carrying the blades on it.s
periphery: a slender, flexible shaft on which the wheel is mounted and
which rot.ates about its center of gravity: and a set of reducing gears,
usually 10 to 1 reduction, t.o change the very high speed of the turbine
to a moderate speed for driving machinery. Following are the sizes
and speeds of some De Lava1 turbines:
Horse-power.. . . . . . . . . . . .
Revolutions per minute . . .
Dinm. to cemer of blades, ins.
The number and size of nozzles vary with the size of the turbine.
The nozzles are provided with valves..so that for light lo,ads some of
;;;idn ma,p be closed, and a relatively high efficiency is obtained at light
s. The taner of the nozzles differs for condensing and non-condens-
ing turbines. -Some turbines are provided with two sets of nozzles, one
for condensing and the other for non-condensing operation.
The Zollry or Ratcnu Turbine. - The Zolley or Rsteau turbines
are developments of the De Lava1 and consist of a number of De Lava1
elemrrns in series, each succeeding element utilizing the exhaust steam
from t,he preceding. The st.eam is partly expanded in the first row of
nozzles. strikes t,he first row of buckets and leaves them with pract.ical!y
zero velochv. It is then further exnanded through the second row of
pletely espanded.~
~Iechnnicsl Thw~ry of the Steam Turbine. - In the impulse turbine
of the De. Lava1 type, with a single disk containing blades at its rim
steam at high pressure enters the smaller end or throat of a taper&
nozzle, and, as tt passes through the nozzle, is expanded adiabatically
down to the pressure in the casing of the turbine, that. is to the pressure
of the atmosphere, in a non-condensin g turbine, or to the pressure of
the vacuum, if the turbine is connected to a condenser. The steam
thus expanded has its volume and its velocity enormously increased,
its pressure energy being converted into energy of velocity.
It then
strikes tangentially the concave surfaces of the curved blades and t.hus
d,rives t.h? wheel forward. In passing through the blades it has its direc-
tion reversed. and the reaction of the escaping jet also helps to drive the
wheel forward. If it were possible for the direction of the jet. to be com-
pletely reversed, or through an arc of 180, and the velocity of the blade
In the direction of the entering jet wa,s one-half the velocity of the jet,
theu all the kinetic energ
9
due to the velocity of the jet would be ccn-
verted into work on the b ade. and the velocity of the jet with reference
to the earth would be zero. This complete reversal, however, is impos-
slble, since room has to beallowed between the blades for the passage of
the st,eam. and the blades, therefore, are curved through an arc consid-
erably less than 180~ and the jet on leaving the c-heel still has some
kinetic energy, whicl; is lost. The velocity of the entering steam jet
also is so great that it is not practicable to give the wheel rim a velocit
equal to one-half that of the jet, since that would be berond a safe spee B
The speed of the wheel being less than half that of the entering jet also
causes t,he iet to leave the wheel with some of its energy unutilized.
The mechanical efficiency of the wheel, neglecting radiation, friction. and
other imernnl losses, is espressed by the fraction (Er - E?) f El. in
which El is the kinetic energy of the sterun jet impinging on the wheel
and A? that of the steam-as it leaves the blades.
I .,_,_ ~,,;s
!4ARNING: This is a 1910 editioni~ Some of the material may no longer be accuraw
The Parsons Turbine. - In the Parsons, or reaction type of turbine,
there are a large number of rows of blades, mounted on a rotor or revolv-
ing drum. Between each pair of rows t.here is a row of staticnary blades
attached to the casing, which take t,he place of nozzles. A set of st,a-
tioirdry blades and the following set of moving blades constit,ute what is
known as a stage. The steam expands and loses pressure in both sets.
The speed of rotation, the peripheral speed of the blades and the velocity
of t.he steam through t,he blades are very much lolver than in the De Laval
t,nrbine. The rotor, or drum, on which the moving blades are carried,
is usmilly made in three sections of different diameters, the smallest. at
the high-pressure end, where steam is admitted, and the largest at the
In multiple-stage impulse turbines, the high veloritv of the wheel is
reduced by causing the steam to pass through two or more rows of
blades, which rows are sepilrated by a row of stationarv curved blades
which direct the steam from the outlet of one row to ihe inlet of the
next. The passages through all the blades, both movable and secondarv.
are parallel, or non-expandin<? ~, SO tlrat the steam does not change iis
.,~ ,,
ROTARY STEAM-ENCINHS - STEAB: TURBINES.
1063
exhaust, end.
In each section the radial length of the blades and also
their ~1dth inCreaSe from One end t0 the other to corresponti with the
Increased volume of steam.
The Parsons turbine is built in the Bnited
States by the Westinghouse Nachine Co. and by the Allis-Chalmers Co.
Phe.~%estmr.rhouse Double-tiow Turbine.-For sizes above 5000 I( w
a turbine is bmlt in which the impulse and reaction tvpez are combined
It has a Set of non-expanding nozzles, an impuise whed with two velocity
stages (that ls two wheels wit!1 a set of stationary non-expanding blades
between). ,one mtermzdiate sect.ion and two low-pressure sections with
Parsons plading. After steam has passed .through the impulse wheel
a,nd the intermedrate section it is divided into two parts one going to
the right and the other to the left hand low-pressure se&ion
an exhaust pipe at each end. In this turbine, the end thrustw~~?ehaf~
to be balanced in reaction turbines of the usual t.ype. is almost entirely
avorded. Other advantages are the reduction in size and weight due to
higher permissible speed: blades and casing are not exposed to high
tem.peratures: reduction of size of exhaust pipes and of length of shaft;
avoidance of large balance pistons.
The Curtis Turbine, made by the General Electric Company, is an
impulse wheel of several stages.
Steam is expanded in nozzles and
enters a set of~three or more blades, at least one of which is stationary.
The blades are all non-expanding, and the pressure is practically the same
on both sides ,of any row of blades. In smaller sizes of turbines only
one set of stationary and movable bl&des is used, but in large sizesthere
are from two to five sets, each forming a pressure stage, separated by
diaphragms containing additional sets of nozzles.
The smaller sizes have
horizontal shafts, but the larger ones have vertical shafts supported on a
step beanng supplied with oil or water under a pressure suflicient to
support the whole weight of the shaft and its attached rotating disks.
Curtis turbmes are made in sizes from 15 1i.W. at 3600 to 4000 revs. per
minute up to 9900 1i.W. at 750 revs. per minute.
e
re,ssure in passing through them. The wheel with two rows of movable
lades running at half the velocity of a single-stage turbine, or one with
three rows at one-third the velocity, causes the sitme total reduction,in
velocity as the single-stage wheel; and a greater reduciion in the vel;r;z
of the wheel can be obtained by increasing the number of rows.
therefore, possible by having a sufficient number of rows of blades, 0;
velocity stages, to run a wheel at comparatively slow speed and yet
have the steam escape from the last set of blades at a lower absolute
ve!ocity than is possible with a single-stage turbine. In the reaction
turbine the reduction of the pressure and its conversion into kinetic
energy, or energy of velocity, t,akes place in the blades,, which are made
of such shape as to allow the steam to expand while passmg through them.
The stationary blades also allow of esDansion
in volume, thus taking the place of nbzzles.
In all turbines,. whether of the impulse,
reaction, or combinntion tyne. the object is
to take in steam at high pr&tire and io dis-
charge it into the atmosphere, or into the
condenser, at the lowest pressure and largest
volume possible, and with the lowest pos-
sible absolute velocity, or velocity with ref-
erence to the ea.rth, consistent with getting
the steam away from the whee!, and to do
this with the least loss of energy m the wheel
due to friction of the steam throuph t,he
passages, to shock due to incorrect shape. or
position of t,he blades, to windage or fric-
tional resistance of the steam in contact
with the rotating wheel, or other causes.
The minimizing of these several losses is x
pr?blfv of ext,reme di@ulty which is being
soiven uy costly experiments.
Hest Theory of the Steam Turbine. -
The steam turbine may also be considered
as a heat engine. the dbject of wliich is to
take a pound of steam containing a certain
auantity of heat. 11,. trnnsform as great a
Dart of this heat .as possible into work, and
discharge the remaining part, IJz, into the condenser. The thermal efi-
ciency of the operation is (HI -- HZ) + fJ,, aPi1 the theoretical limit of
this efficiency is (Tl - !Zs) + Tz, in which Tl is the init,ial and I? t.he final
absolute temperature.
Referrina to temperature entropy diagram, Fig. 167, the t.otal heat
a.bove 32 F. of 1 lb. of steam at Ihe temperature
the area 0;ICDC and ils entropy is +.
I; is represented by
Expanding adiabatically to fz
part of its heat energy is converted into work, represented by the area
BCDF, while GdBFG represents the heat discharged into the condenser.
The total heat of 1 lb. of dry sa,turated steam at Tz is greater than this by
the area EEGH. the fract.ion FE + BE representmg moist.ure in t,he 1 lb.
of wet steam discharged. If tl, = heat units in 1 lb. of dry steam at
the sbnie-point D, ,znd H? = heat units in 1 lb. of dry steam at the st,ate-
point E, at the t,emperature !f~, then the energy converted into work =
BCDP = 11, - If! + (& - 4,) Tz. This quantit.y is called the avail-
able energy E,, of 1 lb. of steam between the temperatures Tl and 7:.
If the steam is in,itially wet, as represented by the stat,e-point. ti and
ent.ropy &, then the work done in adiabatic expansion is BCtI fB,
which is equal t,o E, = If I - Hz + (& - 41) Tz -(I $, - +:J (Tl - Td.
The quantity & - +.c = (L/T,) (1 - z), in which L = latent heat of
evaporation at t~he temperature TX, and z = the moisture in 1 lb. of
st,eam. The values of II,. II?. &, +, etc.,
ma4 be t~aken from stream tables or d~aerams.
for different temperatures,
if the steam is il!itiallv sunerheateti-to the temnerature rl,. as reme-
?ept,cd by the st,ate-point j, t,he entropy being $3. then the total heat, at
3 Is HI + C (T, - rl;), in which C is t.he mean specific heat of super-
heated st,eam between T, and .Ts The increase of entropy above $1
1910 edition.
ROTARY STEAM-ENGINES ---TEAM TURBINES. 1065
is $3 - $1 = Clog, (T,/T,). The energy converted into work is E,-
I I , - Hz +~(42 - $1) Tz + P/z (T, + T,) - Tzl ($3 - #d.
Velocity of Steam in Nozzles. - Having obtained the total available
energy in steam expanding adiabatically between two temperatures, as
shown above, the maximum possible How into a vacuum is obtamed
from the cmnmon formula, Energy. in foot-pounds, = l/z TV/g X V2. in
which Ii is the weight (in this case 1 lb.). V is the velocity in feet per
second, and g = 32.2. As the energy E, is in heat units, it is multi-
plied by 775 to convert it into foot-pounds, and we have
V =4778 X 2 QE, = 223.8 %.
This is the theoretically maximum possible velocity. It cannot be
obtained in a short nozzle or orifice, but is approximated in the long
expanding r\ozzles used in turbines. In the throat or narrow section of
an orifice, the velocity and the weight of steam flowing per second may
be found by Napiers or Rateaus formula, see page 847. or from Gras-
hofs formula as given by Moyer, P = AoP1Q, + 60, or A0 = 60 F i
PJ +, in which A,, is the area of the smallest sectlor! of the nozzle,
sq. in., F is the flow of steam (ini~tially dry saturated) m l.bs. per sec.,
and P 1s the absolute pressure, Ibs. per sq. in. This formula IS apphcable
in all cases where the final pressure Pt does not exceed 58% of the initial
pressure. For wet steam the formula becomes F = A,P1097+ 60 42,
A,= 60 F dT-+ P,w97, in which az is the dryness quality of the inflow-
in; steam, 1 - x being the moisture.
For superheated steam F = A,P@;(l + 0.00065 D)i 60; A,=60F+
P,o.9: (1 -I- 0.00065 D). D being the superheat in degrees F.
Whkn the final p&sure Pi is greiter than 0.58 Pa, a coefficient is to
be applied to F in the above formula?, the value of which is most con-
venlent,ly tnken from a curve given by Ratcau. The values of this co-
efficient, c, for different ratios of PJ P2, are approximately as follows:
Pz+ P1 = 0.58 o.GO 0.62 0.64 O.G6 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.7s
PC1 b.80
0.995
0.8
0.985 0.975 0 965
088
0.955 0.945 0.93 0.91 0.88 0.85
Pz +
;= 0.7;
0.84 0.86
0:675
0 90
0:625
0.92 0.94 0.90 0.98 1.00
0.82 0.76 0.72 0.57 0.51 0.42 0.30 0.00
The quality of steam after adiabatic expansion, ~2, is found from the
formula x2 = &L,/Tx + 81 - 02) TdLz, W
in which O1 and 02 are the entropies of the liquid, L, and L? the Jatent
heats of evaporation, and s1 and Q the dryness qualit.y, at the lmti?l
and fimai conditions respectively. Curves of steam quahty are plotted in
an entronv-total heat chart given in Moyers Steam Turbines and
also in nijrks and Daviss Steam Table !s and Diagrams.
The area of the smallest section or throat of the nozzle being found,
the area of any section beyond the throat is inversely proportional to the
velocity and directly proportional to the specilic volume and to the
dryness, or AI /A,=, V,/V1 x vh,, X xdr,. in which -4 is in the area in
sq. ins., V the velocity in ft. per sec., v the volume of 1 lb. gf steam in
cu. ft., and z the dryness fraction, the subscript 0 refernng to the
smallest section and the subscript ~1 to any other section. The rat,lo
At/A.. for the lilrzest cross section of a 1
~mnerlv d~siened nozzle is nearly
propdttlomal to Yhe ratio of the initial~tb-ii,e-~;1~~i~pressure. MogKr
gives it.as .4,/A = 0.172 1&/,/p:! + 0.70, and for P,lPz greater than 25,
.%/A, = 0.17~ (p1/Pz)9 c 0.70.
In practice expanding nozzles are usually made so that an aria! SW-
tiOn shows t.heinner walls in straight lines. The t~ranSverSe Sectton is
usuallv either a circle oT a souilre with rou .nded corners. The diver-
gence of the ivills~ is about 6 dizgrees from the axis for the non-condens-
ing and as much as 12 degrees for condensing turbines for low vacuums.
Mover Eives nn emoiricnl formula, for the leng
:th between t.he throat and
Y
the mouth, L = 415 -4 inches.
The De Lava1 turbine uses a much
longer nozzle for mechanical reasons.
The entrance to the nozzle above
the throat should be well rounded.
The elficiency of a well-made nOz2.k
with smooth surfaces as measured by the velocity is about 96 to 970/o,
Corresponding to an energy etficiency of 92 t0 94%.
may no longer be accurate
speed of the glades.-- If V, E peripheral velocity of the blade,
V, = n.bsolute ve1ocit.y of the steam entering the blades and N t.he noizle
angle. or angle of the nozr!e to. t!:e p!nne of the wheel, then (in impulse
turbines with equal entrance and exit an,g!es of the blade with the plant
of the wheel) for maximum theoretical ethciency of the blade, vb = I/2 JJ1
cos cr. The nozzle angle is usually about W. co:: LY = 0.940, and the
efficiency of a single row of blades is (0.94 - vb/ V,) 4 Vb/ V,.
For V, = 3000 ft. per sec., the efficiency for different blade speeds is
about as follow:
V'b= 200 400 600 SO0 1000 1300 1400 1600 lS00 2000
Efficiency % 23 44 60 72 81 S7 89 87 SO 71
The highest, efficiency is obtained when Vb = about l/z VZ.
It is
difficuit. for mechanical reasons, to use speeds much greater than 500 ft..
per sec., therefore the highest efficiencies are often sacrificed in commer-
cial machines.
ft. Per sec.
The blade speeds used in practice vary from 500 to 1200
For an impulse wheel with mo,l;b~n one ro\v;nqfT,moving
blades in a single pressure stage, efficiency = -+coscT-2). ., v,
Referring to Fig. I&S, if VI is the absolute direction and velocity of the
entering jet, Vb the direction and velocity of the blade, the resultant,
V,. is the velocity and direction of the jet rela.
tively to the blade, and the edge ;f,t~;,.blade
is made tangent to this direction.
z, the
resultant of lib and V, at the other edge of the
blade, is the absolute velocity and direct.ion of
the steam escaping from the wheel. If 3 is the
angle between V,and 1;b. the maximum energy
is abstracted from the steam when the angle
between V, and Vb = 90 - l/z 8. and the et-ii-
ciency is cos fi + co9 I/z a.
Fordet,ails of design of blades. and of tltrbincs
in general, see ZGoyer. Foster, l?~omas. St 0dofa
Fm. 16s.
and other works on Steam Turbines. also Pra-
bodys Thrrlnodynarrlit:s. Calculations of
sr:~ws. nozzles. etc., are much facilit,at.cd by the use of Peabodys Steam
r;llll~s and .\I arks and Daviss Steam Tables and L)iagrams.
Comwtrisctn of Commercial Impulse and Reaction Turbines.
I.\IPUIrsE.
1. Fwv stages.
RILUXIOX.
(Moyer.)
2. l:sp;msiorl in nozzles.
3. Lorw drop in pressure in a
stage.
4. Initial steam velocities 1000 to
f4000 ft. per sec.
5. Blade velocities 400 t,o 1200 ft,.
per sec.
6. Bvst elliriency nhen t,he hlnde
vel0cit.y is nearly half t.he ini-
tial velocity of steam.
1. hiany stages.
2. No nozzles.
3. Small drop in pressure in a
st~age.
4. All steam velocities low, 300 to
600 ft. per sec.
5. Blade velocities 150 t,o 400 ft.
per sec.
6. Best efficiency when the blade
velocitzy is nenrlv equal to
the inrhest velo&t,v of t,he
steam.-
Loss drw to Wincl:.~e (or friction of a turbine wheel rotating in steam).
- .\loyer gives for the fricIion of a plain disk without blades, F,,., and of
one row of blades $vithout the disk, Fl,, in horse-poxer:
FW== 0.0s tP (U/lOO)~~~ w f (1 + O.OOO65 D)2,
P/B - 0. 3 tl !l.(l~/lOO)? W+ (1 + 0.00065 D)?.
,
in which d = di;~m. of disk t.0 inner edge of &de in feet. u = perinhernl
velocity of disk. in ft. per .iec.: w = t1rn.sit.y of dry sat;,ratetl st&m at
tlle Pressure s~lrroutldin
h(at in dwrees F.
g the disk, in Ills. per cl,. ft,. and D = .wprr-
bla.ies.
The sum of F,,. amI F/, is the friction OC t.he (Ii.<!; and
For moist. swam the term 1 + O.OOO65 D 1s lo he omittctl, and
WARNING: ~This is a 1910 edition,, Some of the I
ROTARY STEAM-ENGINES - STEABf TURIJINES. 1067
Per cent mois-
I....?> in ctna,,, Q
t
R R lfl ,q ,fi on i)A
CL-- ..___.._ -_. _ ..~~ .-- -:--
At high rotative speeds the rotation loss of a non-condensing turbme
wit,h wheels revolving in steam at atmospheric pressure is quite large,
-.._-__ _- ___... - .~
Tel;;? i&s decreases rapidly \<ith increasing vacuum.
: the total output.
In a turbine. \yith
more than one staEe wart of the friction loss of rotation is converteo into
heat which in the iiez& stage is converted into kinetic energy, thus partly
sating for the loss.
m
--_--_ency of the aLachine. - The maximum posgible~ thermodvnamic
fici~n~v nf a. st,ea.m t,llrbine. as of anv other steam e
compem
5% f ri
et
ngine, is expressed
b;~<~;at~~ &~ci~~h&~+$iiljble energji between two temperatures bears
t.i, t,he total heat. measured above absolute zero, pf t,he s&am at the _ _..- .~~~
hi&Iv t.PmllPra.t.llfe.. In the temuerat,ure-entropy din gram l!ig. 167 it is
~~~~~~entejy;i~~~~atio of the a&, RCDl;,to CjSCqG. Of this avail-
a,h~e CT~~EV. from 50 to 75 and possibly 80 Per cent 1s obtainable at the
,ith steam engines,
t$ne nignesc Il,ecuiLL*icil LlliU b,,r,l,LuL .ayd.
. . . . ..--..-- u1,iy Wllrl,
large sizes and the most esPenslve designs. The several losses )vhich
tend to reduce the efficiency of turbines below the theoretlcal maxmum
are. 1 residual velocity, or the kinetic energy due t? the velocity of the
steim escaping from the turbine; 2. friction and Imperfecl: expansu?n
in the nozzles, 3, windage, or friction due to rotation of the wheel m
steam. 4 friction of the steam traveling through the blades: 5, shocks,
impa& eddies, etc., due to imperfect shape or roughness of blades: 6.
leakage &round the ends of the blades or through clearance spaces; 7, shaft
_. . --.I:..,~:^._ >I.- ,,._ r\F oil +,,neo fns@.r amn,,nt,< a- ..b.,...h
rnctlon: *,, ~~UL*LIUII. 1,lC Dull. I WI1 L.LI .vIcv -.f .--._ - L b-II*
O.crn *.F *kc. o.rai,nhlx =<%Iy
,..I-, I,, y in the largest and best designs and to 50%
,or designs.
m....,.:..?.~ - ronznmnt,:-- -* ^-I-
\vnen a test 01 swam ~.~LsuLL~~,~~~ 1a LLIYiur ullyII -.. --..-....a> barying
from the standard the results should be corrected m order to compare
them \vit,h other t&s. Moyer gives the following example of applwg
correct.ions to a pair 3.
L I--A- .,.-A~ ir, ton7 tr\ rnrln~r~ thorn hnt,h +- ^ steam
I LesLs LLIUG 1,. lil, , U .cyc..b ..; _... --.. L a
~PPQQ,,TP of 179 lbs. z rauee. 35.5 ins. vacuum, and ~100 F. superheat ,,-----_- -- -. - .~~~.. - -
750%K. W.
Westing-
house-
Parsons.
Average steam pressure.. . . . . .
Average vacuum. ins.. referred
to 30-in. barometer.. . . .
Average superheat, deg. F.,:
Averageload on generator.I\.lV.
Stexn cons., lbs. Per I<.\V.-hr..
Net correction. per cent. . .
Corr. at,. cons., lbs.per I<.W.-hr.
0
: ' f ::l:
,.........
,..,......
+13. 67
,.........
For the 75OO-1i.W. turbine, t,he following CorrectlOllS gIren UY the ITIanU-
facturer were used: pressure, 0.1% for each P~imd: vacuum. 2.8%.for
each inch. superheat 7% for e:tch 1~00 F. For the OOOO-1i.w. turDlne,
t,he follo&no. corrections were used: superheat, 8% for 100 F.: vacuum,
8% for eachinch.
The results as corrected show that the two turbine: !vould eve Practl-
tally the same economy if tested under uniform contitlons.
The results
~,,,
8% i a~1 may no longer be ackkate
are eWi vaI ent reSDeCti vel y to 9. 55 and 9. 72 Ihs. per I.H.P.-hour, assume
lng 97% generator effic,iency and 91% mechanical efficiency of a steam
T.ht: proper correction for moisture in a steam trmhine test is st,ated to
be a little more than twice the percentage of moisture. There is a large
increase in the disk and blade rotation losses when wet steam is used.
The gain in economy per inch of vacuum at different vacuums is given
as folloW in Xeell. Engr., Feb. 24, 1906.
Inches of Vacuum. 28 27 26 25
Curtis. per cent gain per inch of vacuum.. 5.1
Parsons. per cent, gain per inch of vacuum 2
4. 6 4. 2
~Vestinshouse-Parsons, per cent gain per
5. 0 3. 5 3. 0
inch of vzicuum.. . . . . . . .
Theoretical per cent gain per inch of vat..
3. 14
5.2 E5
2. 95 2. 87
3. 7 3. 0
- - -
The following results of tests of turbines of different makes are selected
froni a series of tables in Moyers Steam Turbines.
871 166
1024 164
204
120
207
133
! : :
147
140
110
1. 24
125
:
; :
I ;
-7
i
ui
2.0
d-
b-
.- -
20. 5
2: ;
29. 4
29. 4
29. 5
29. 3
28. 9
28. 3
27. 5
26. 6
0
27. 7
27. 6
g. 0"
145
145
140
153
149
149
148
147
126
151
147
145
152
144
198
197
199
28. 0
28. 0
27. 2
28. 2
27. 8
26. 5
0. 8
i : s"
27. 5
2;
2612
26. 2
27. 4
27. 4
27. 2
15. 99
! g, "
; 4: 15
13. 28
14. 32
24. 94
22. 10
24. 36
X:
15. 29
2: ;
15. 62
14. 35
13. 94
-
C.. Curtis: P.. Parsons: W.-P., Westinghouse-?a,rsons. R. Rateau.
D.. De LaW. Note that the figures of steam consumption ih the fir&
half of the tableare in lhs. per K.W.-hour; in second half, inlbs. per Brake
H.P.-hour.
A test, qf a Westinghouse double-flow turhine at the Williamsburg
pour station. Brooklyn N. P., gave t,he following results (E,ng. SrLcs
Dec. 3O.lOOQ): Speed. 750 r.p.m.: Steam pressure at throttle 903.4 tbs.!
Superheat. SO.1 F.; Va,cl!um, 28.6 ins.: Load, 13,384 1i.W .Stenm pe;
Ii.Jv.-hour. 14.4 lbs.: Efficiency of generator QS%. W&age, 2.0yo;
E~lrlivalcnt B.H.P., 18,620: Steam per B.H.P.-h6ur, ld.3 tbs.
The I m~rsf Stcum Turbine, 1909.
(.&kg. News, Dec. 30.) --A
~Wir+ouse combination double-flow turhine is about to be tested
lvhicb 1s capable of developing 22,OOO H.P. with 1.75 lbs. steam pressure
and 2s ins. xLcLmm, and it, is estimated that the steam consumption will
be about, 10 tbs. per B.H.P.-hour.
The principal dimensions a,re: length
over all. 10 ft~. S ins.: height., 3 ft~.: widbh, Q ft weight, 110,000 lbs.; weight
per H.P. developed, 5 tbs.: speed, MOO r.p.ml
The foIlow1ng figures. hg the General Electric Co.. show the percentage
over the output of a condensin,
$7 reciprocntlng engine that may be made
by installing a low-pressure turbine between the engine and the Con-
denser, the vacuum being 25% ins.
Inches vacuum at admission
valve.. . 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Percent of work gained . . 26.1 26.5 26.8 26 3 25.3 23.6 2O
It ?ppelrs that: a we&designed rec,iprocating compound engine work-
in* dzwn lo about atmospheric pressure is a more efficient. ma&me than
a %ILrbine v;ith the s&me terminal pressure, and that betxeen t,he atmos-
phere and the rxndenser preswre the turbine is far more economical:
therkfore a comhlnation of an engine and a turbine tan be.deslgned
which will ive higher economy that% either an engine or a turbme work-
ing thror:gl; the whole range of pressure.
1:
-__ .. ,.
HARNING: This is a 1910 edition., Some of the material may mo longer be accurate
,. I
ROTARY STEAM-ENGI~~TES - STEAM TURBINES. 1069
Steain donsumption of Smell Steam Turbines. - Small turbines.
from 5 to 200 ~H.P., are extensively used for. purposes where high speed of
rotatlbn is not an objection, such as for driving electric generat.ors, cen-
trifugal fanq etc., and where economy of fuel is not as important as
sav~ing of space, cdnvenlence of bperation, etc. The steam consump-
tion of these turbines varies as greatly as does t~hat of small high-speed
steam-engines, according to the design, speed, etc. A paper by Gee. A.
Orrok in Trans. A. S. M. E., 1009, discusses the details of several makes
of machities. From a curve presented by R. H. Rice in discussion of
this paper the following figures are taken showing the steam consumption
in Ibs. per B.H.P.-hour of different ma,kes of impulse turbines.
Type. 1 :t$T/ Terry. 1 Bliss. 4 Bliss. 1 Kerr. 1 Curtis. 1 Curtis.
Rated HZ.. . . :... 20 50 100 2O$ 1.50 50 200
it 49 59 i i 52 z 32 30
61 46 :i 2 58 44 2l 39 ' 39 ,: ; :
Dry steam, 150 lbs. pressure: atmospheric exhaust.
Mr. Orrok shows that the steam consumption of t.hese turbinei largely
depends on their peripheral speed. From a set of curves plotted with
speed as the base it appears that the steam consumpti6n per B.H.P.-hour
ranges about as follows:
Peripheral speed, ft:
*,-SC,,, .nnn,
per min.. . . . . . . . D,UVU lU,UU3 15,000 20,000 ~25,000
Steam per B.JI.P.-hour 45 to 70 3S to60 31 to 52 20 to 45 20 t0 40
Low-Pressure Stram Turbines.-Trlrl)iiles designed to utilize the ex-
haust steam from rrriproratin g engines are ns~d to some estent. For
steam at or helow atmosphrric pressure the turbine has a great advan-
tage over reciprocating engines in its ability to expand the stea,m do\vn
to the vacuum pressure. while areciprocatingcondensing engine generally
does not expand below 5 or 10 11)s. absollLte pressure. In order to eS-
pnnd t.0 lower pressures the low-pressure cylinder would have to be
inordinatelv large, and t,hrrefore cost&.
and t,he increased loss from
cylinder c&densation and radiation ~oultl more than counterbakmce
the gain due to grent.er expansion.
Mr. Parsons (Prop. I~I.s~. Xnv. Arch., IQOS) gives the .follolvin~ f@res
showing that t,he theoretical economy of the comhinntlon of a rewro-
csting engine and an esbaclst st.eam tLlrbilw is about. t.he SRUle Whether
the turbine receives its st.esm at atmospheric pressure or at 7 tbs. abso-
lute, the initial steam pressure in the engine being 200 lbs. ahsolLLt,e and
the vacuum 2s ins.
Back pressure of engtnes, tbs. ahs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:
Initial pressure, turbine, lhs. abs. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:i
:q 7
I 2
Theoret.ical B.T.U.
in engine.. . . . . . . 178 218
utilized per lb. of steam
in turbine. . . . . .
ET 142 100
torat.. . 320
320 31s
5. 2 11. 6 8. 7 6.1 4. 5
"zi g 228. g 227r49 28. 0
114
25. 0 30. 4 38. 6 54. 8
Tests of a lOOO-K.W. low-pressure double-flow Westinghouse turbine
are reported to have given results as follows.
from a curve.)
(Approximate figures,
Load, Brake Pressure at ~k.P.. inlet. lbs: 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1500 2000
~IibS . . . . . . . . . . . l...~.
4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7. 2 8. 3
9. 4 11. 0 13. 5
2i1/, in vat. 75 47.5
62 42 ; ; : ! $
30 28
27
26. 5 24. 5
25. 5 24. 5 22. 5
The total steam consumption per hour followed the Willans law
being d$ectlv proportional to the power after addine a constant fo;
t,)$ad. %I%.: for 2r&in. vacuum the total Sk&m cons&ption per hour
H.P. (appros.).
12.000 lbs. + 18 X H.P., and for 2S-in. vacuum, 9000 Ibs. + is x
The &!uamnt.ee? stenm consumption of a 7000-1i.W. Ral:eau-Smoot
1OK-Pressure tllrbme generator is given in a curve bv R C. Smoot (pourer
.J,une 22. 190?). from which the following figures afe t&en.
The admis:
slon Pressure is taken at 16 lbs. absolute and the vacuum 2SQ ins.
K.W. output.. . . 1500
Steam prr I<.W.-hr.. lb..
Over-all efficiency, %.. . ig
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
37 $2", , " 2gh, " 27. 6 ! 16. 2 25. 7
47 . A; PI P
70
- V U
-The performance of a combined plant o;several reciprocsting QOOO-
h.W. engines and a 7000-1i.W. low-pressure turbine is estimaied a; fol-
low, the engines expanding the steam from 215 Tao 16 Ibs. ab,solute 2nd
the turhmes from 16 Ibs. to 0.75 lb., the vacuum being 2S.,j ins $;-ith
the barometer a,t 30 ins. (
Theoretical steam per I<.W.-hour lbs . . . . . . .
~n$ne. TLI;~~.
bteam per Ii.\V.-hr. at switchboird. lbs . . ..~..~.~..~.
Combined elf!ciency of engine and dynamo, per cent..
27.7
26. 6
Sfy3; $I$ ~~~.-hOur for combined plant = 1 i (11-Z + l/2:76) =
The co!ibil:ed eficiency is 66%. represent.in* ihe ratio of the energy
at, t.he swt.chbonrd to the available energy of tge st,eam delivered to the
enme u1.d wnnnded down t,o the condenser pressure, after alloivlng for
all losses in rnmne. t.urbine, and dvnnmo.
Vw li/lIe difference is ma,de inthe plant. efficiency if the intermediate
Prwsure 1s taken anywhere from 3 or 4 lbs. below atmosphere to 15 or
20 lbs. above.
11. B. qarroll (Gen.. Elec. Rev., 1909) gives an estimate of the steam
consunlptlon of a combined rmit of a lOOO-1i.W. engine and a low-pres-
Sl!re turl,ine. The engine, non-condensing, will develop 1000 H.P.
Wth 31.1NNl 11)s. of st.enrn *rr holn-.
Allowing 8% for moisture in thg
e+llst, 29:M! Il<s. of dry steam will be available for the t,urbine Iyhlch
at, 3 lbs. per h.11: .-hour will develop 893 Ii.\V., maliing a total &put of
1SX K.\v. for 32.000 lbs. steam, or 16.9 lbs. per R.W -hour.
The enryine
alow as a condensing engine wit! develop 1320 1c.W. ai 34.9 1bs. per I+
hour. The combined unit therefore develops 573 I<.$ Gr 43.57 mo;;
than, the condensing
engine using the same amount of steam0 The
coudensinn
maUmum Capacity of the engine. non-condensinw is 1265 I<.\+., and
b, 1.170 ll.W., and of t.he combined u&t 2600 I<.lV.
WARNING: This is a 1910 editian.. Some of t
,
INTERNAG-COhfBUSTION ENGINES.
1071
Tests of a 15,000 1i.W. Stc;Lln_Enfrine-Turbine Enit are repofted
by H. G. Stott and R. J. S. PigOtt 111 .J ow. A.S.M.E.. 31,ar., 1910.
Ihe
Steam-engme is one of the 7500 1r.W. Manhattan t,ype engmr;i at the 59t~h
St. stat,ion of the Rapid lrwsit @., New York. with two 42-111. horizon@1
h,p. and two 86-in. verticill 1.~. cyhnders, and the tu,rbl,ne, also 7500 I\.!\ .,
is of the vertical three-stage impulse type.
The pnnc@ results afe sum-
marlzed as follows: An increa!e of lOOr;, i;; the maslmum capaatg and
1467~ in the economical CaPaClty.Of
the plant; a savmg of about 55% of
the condensed stea,m for return to the boilers [it was previously wasted];
an average improvement in economy of 13% over the best high-pressure
turbine results, and of 2.5% (between 7500 and 15,000 K.Wv:) over the re-
sults obtained by the engine alone; a,n average. therval efficlevcy between
6500 and 15,500 K.W. of 20.6%. [This effiC!ency 1S not quite eqUal to
that reached by triple-espnnsion pumping ewmes.
See page 774. 1
Reduction Gea,r for Stenm Turbines.-Double Spiral red+iOn gears,
usually of a ratio of 1 to IO, are used with the ?eLaval turbine to obtain
a velocity of rotat,ion suitghle for dynamos, ce@r?fugal pumps. et,c.
G. .y.
bfelvll]e and J. H. McAlpine have desiigned a similar,gear. wth the Pinion
carried in a float,lng frame supported at a single point between the bear-
ings to equalize the strain on the gear
teeth, for reducing the spee.d if
large horl.?,ont.al turbines to suitable speeds for marine Propellers.
600~) H.P. gear with reduction frqm 1500 to 300 r.
6
.m. has been tested,
giyog etficlency,of 98.57, (Eng 9, Sept. 17; Eng. 1 ms, Oct. 21 and Dec.
. .
NAIWTHA ENGINES. -HOT-AIR ENim=S.
~a htha. engines are in use to some extent in small y?chts and
Iaunc les. P The naphtha is vaporized in a boiler, and the vapor 1s used ex-
pansively in the endne cylinder, as steam is used: it is tl?en condensed and
returned to the boiler.
A portion of the naphtha vapor IS used for fuel I!n-
der the boiler.
,iccording to the circular of the bllildcrs. the Gas Engine
and Power Co. of New York, a 2-H.P. engiue reqllires from 3 to 4 clllartS.Of
rl n. &Xl? e&w from A tn R nl~nrts~ The chief
naphtha per hour, an.. - - . . . .
_ _ - ,,___...__ -
advantages of the naphtha-enjime aiid boiler for lau!lcheS are the SaVik
of weight and the quickness of operation. A . 9-H.P. engine n-eighs 200 Ibs.,
a 4-1-1.~. 300 lbs. It takes only about two minutes to get under head!vay.
(Modern Mechanism, p. 2iO.)
Rot-& (or Caloric) Engines.-Hot-air el!gines are use to some
extent but their bllllc is enormous compared Wth thr efftCtl6:e Po\rer.
For ali account of the largest hot-air engine ever built (a total falhlre),SSe
Churchs Life of Ericsson.
For theoretical investigation. se+ R:rnkln s
Steam-fnoine and Roentgens Thermodynamics.
For description of con-
struc~io~l~ see .kppletons CVC. of $kcbanics and Xiodern.~lecha~~lsm, and
Babcock & SIlbstitlltes for bteam. Trans. A. s. fir. E:, m. P. 693.
Test of a Hot-air Engine (Robinson).-A .vertKal double-c?iKder
(Caloric Engine Co.s) 12
llomind H.P. engine gave 20.19 I.H.P. 111 the
worl&g cvlinder and 11.38 I.H.P. in t,he,p!mw, Icaring 8.81 I@. 1.II.P.:
while the kffective brake H.P. was 5.9, glvl%
n a mechanical eHKlen;lyea;f
677. Consumption of coke, 3.7 lbs. per brake H.P. Per hour.
pre&ure on pistons 15.37 lbs. per square inch,
and in pumps la.9 lbs.. the
area of working cylinders being twice that Of the PUmPs.
The pot air
supplied was about, 1160 F. and that rejected at end of stroke about
890 F.
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES.
References -For theory of the internal-combcstion en$ne, Se-e PaPTr
by Du=ald Cl&l; l+oc. I&. c. E., 18~2, vol. Isis; and \.an Nvtrand s
Sciencg Series, Go. 62.
See also Woods Thermod~namlcs. btapdar$
works on g&s-en.gines are
* A Text-book on Gas, Air, and Oil Engu!rs.
by Bryan Donbin;
' J &e Ga, s and Oil Engine, by qugald,,~~~,~~~,,::e
3 by Carpenter sltd Diedenrhs;
~e~;n~pmbustwn Entines,.$
rt7
bv c. E. L12c1ie: Gas and Petroleum Engl:$&b~\i lpeb$-
SO<:Theftfodern Gas Engine and the Ga.s Producer.
. 1 . .
For practical operation of gas and oil engmes, S~$,~~,h$.G$, ~~,${~~~~,
by F. R. Jones, and The Gas Engine IIalldbool~,
.,~
f material may~no long& be accurate
For dcscriptions,of large gas-engines using blast furnace gas see papers
m Proc. I ron and +teel I n$.. 1906, and Tmns. A. I . ill. E., 1906.
papers on gas-engmes are m Trans. A.S.x.E., 1905 to 1909.
Many
An Internal_cgmbustion, Engine is an engine in which cofflbustible
gas, vapor, or 011 IS, hllrned 111 a cylinder, generaCing a high temperature
and high pressure in the gases of combustion, which expand behind a
piston, driving it forward.
(Rotary gas-engines or gas turbines, are still,
1910, in the experimental stage,)
Four-c~ele and Two-cycle Gas-Engines.-In the ordinary type of
single-cylinder gas-engie (for example the Ot~to) known as a. fnllr-cvrb
engme. one ignit.ion of ga
~~._ _. _.__
twn revolutions of the Ry-wheel, br every two double strox&:?heiiL
lowing sequence of operations takes place durine four .zonse!cutivn nt,rokes:
(a) inspiration of a mixture of aas~and air du?inp an entire ~~F.AF
--- -..I--- .,...,--I: (b)
compression d,lring thepecond (%urn) stroke; (c) ignition at or ear the
dead-point, anqi expansion guring the third stroke: (d1 exnulsion nf the
+rned gas during the fm
lrth (returtt) stroke. Rea~nde RnrA~~ in --._- -- _~_..ll -1. 1862
bud down the ~a\\ that there are four conditions necessary to realize the
best results from the elastiz force of gas: (1) The cvlinders shollld have
the greatest capacity wit
.i; the smallest circtimferGt,ial .qnrfa00. (9
-.., ,-) the
speed should e as ~iigh as possible; (3) the cut-off shou!.d be as early as
possib!e: (4) the jmtlnl pressure should be as high as possible
(Stnctly spea,kmg four.-cycle should be called four-stroke-cycle, but the
term four-cycle is generally used in the trade.)
The two gre,at sources of wa,ste in gas-engines are: I. The high tempera-
ture of the reJeCted products of combustion; 2, Loss of heat through the
cylinder walls to the water-jacket.
As the temperature of the water-
Jacket is increased tr1.e efficiency of the engine becomes higher
1%. 169 is an induzator (diagram of a four-cycle gas-engink. AB the
lower line, shows the adnussion of the mixture. at a pressure sli&tly
D eelow the atmosphere on account of the re-
astance of the irllet valve, HC is the com-
r;;;ion into the clearance space, ignition
\ g place at C and ~combustion with
increase of presstIre continuing from C to D
The gradual termination of the combustioti
!s shown-, by the rounded corner at D.
DE
1s the expansion line. EF the line nf nressure
~~~~~.__ -. I -,,-.. ( -.. I _ 1 the
line-of expulsion of the burned gases the
pressure being sliahtlv above t.hr acmns-
In a !xo-cycle. $ngle-acting engine an explosion takes nlace lvith PIWV
~woIuI~oI~. or with each forward stroke of -the piston.
I~~~~.. .._.._ ____,
Referring to the
dingrnln Fig. 169 and be&ming at E, when the exhaust port be-ins to
Open to aUo\v t~he burned gases~ to escape, the pressure drons ranidlE to F
Before tile rnd f t,ll ..,L
3 mist
.-....,ung
.ure of gas ?nd air from areseryoir in which ii& &$-Gompressed.
This mixture being under pressure assists in drivinz the burpd earn
out through Ihe exhaust p
early i t,he retlirn stroke. and during the ~eti$&~-of~~~& ~~~bi;~ijrc;
the mixlure, \vhlch may include some of the burned ens. is com&ssed and
the iznilion t nkes nlare rl t.
C. as in the four-cl-rle enhn&.
IIt One form of the !WO-cycle engine oni$ compressed air is admitted
While the eshauSt port IS open. the fuel gas being admitbed under pressure
after the exhaust port is closed.
the bl
BY this means a ereat,er nmportion of
as ,e
xed gases are swept out of thE cylinder.
;rn\-enzin~.
This operation is known
T!wur~ti&~l kre~sures and TemperaturesinGas-Engines.-Referring
to Irig. lo!?, let J?, be the ahsolute presslire at B, the end of the suction
stroke, P, the pressure at C. the end of the compression stroke; P, the
n~nsirnun~ pressure at D. when bhe gases of combustion are at their
h&hrst temperature; P, the pressure at I<. when the exhaust valve begins
to open. For the hypot,hetical case of a cylinder with walls incapable of
absorbing or conduct.m: heat, and of perfect and instantaneous combustion
-
,,,
,INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 1073
or explosion of the fuel, al? ideal diagram might be constructed whi,ch
~vould have the following characteristics.
In a four-cycle engine recelv-
ig a charge of air and gas at atmospheric pressure and temperature,
the pressure at B, or P,, would be 14.7 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute, and the
temperature say 6Y F., or 522O a,bsolute. The pressure at C. or P,. would
depend on the ratio VI t V2, V, being the original volume of the mixture
in the cylinder before compression. or tbe pisto displncement plus the
volume of the clearance space, and Vz the volume after compression, or
the clearance volume, and its value would be P, = P, f Vl/Vt2)n. The
absolute temperature at the end of compression would be T, .= 522 X
(Vl/v2P-1* or it may be found from the formula P,Vs+ T, = P,Vc+ TO
the subscripts s and c referring respectively to conditions at the beginning
and ed of compression. The compression would be adiabatic, ad$kE
value of the exponent n would be about the value for air, or 1.406. -
work done in compressing the mixture would he calculated by the formula
for compressed air (se; page 607). The theoretical rise Of tempera-
ture at the end of the explosion, T,, above the temperature at the end of
the compression T, may be found from the formula (T, - T,) C, = Bs~
in which H is the amount of lIeat in British thermal units generated .by
the combustion of the fuel in 1 lb. of the mixture, and C, the mean sPeclfic
heat, at constant volume, of the gases of combustion between the tem-
peratures T,and T,. Having obtained the temperature, the correspond-
n
-
inr oressure P, may be found from the formula P, = P, X (TJ TJ n-1.
In like marine; the- pressure and temperature at-the end of axPansion+
P- and lb. and the work done during expansion, may be calculated by
c I
the formula for adiabatic expansion of air.
The ideai diagram of the adiabatic compression of air, instatltpneous
heating, and adiabatic expansion, dilfers greatly from the actual diagram
of a gas-engine, and the pressures, temperatures, and amou,nt of work
done are different from those obtained by the method described above.
In the first place the mixture at the beginning of the conliJreSS\on stroke
is usually below atmospheric pressure on account of the resistance of
the inlet valve. in a four-cycle engln;, but may be above atmospheric
pressure in a two-cycle eng&te, in which the mixture is delivered from a
receiver under pressure. Then the temperature is much higher .than
that of the atmosphere since lt is heated by the walls of the cWder
as it enters. The compression is not adiabatic, since heat is recelred
from the walls during the first part of the stroke. If the cleara!ice space
is small and the pressure and temperature at the end of rompresslon there-
fo;e high, the gas may give up some heat to the walls during the. lather
part of tbe stroke. The explosion is not instantaneous, and dun% Its
continuance heat is absorbed by the cylinder walls, and therefore WIther
the temperature nor the pressure found by calculation will be actually
reached. Poole states that the r&e in tern erature produced by corn-
bustion is from 0.4 to 0.7 of what it would T: . e n1t.h mstantaneous cym-
bustion and no heat loss to the cylinder walls. Finallv the exPan~lon
is not adiabatic as the gases of combustion at least duting the first part.
Of the expand&! st.roke, are giving up heat to the cylinder.
Calculation of the Power of Gas-Engines.-If bhe mean effective I~?-
sure in a gas-engine cvlinder be obtnined from an indicator &am~m. Its
power is found bv theusual formula for steam-engines, H.P. = .PLAs+
33 000 in which P is the mean effective pressure in lbs. per, sq. In.. L *l$
IeIigthof st.roke in feet, A the wea of the piston in square Inches, and
the number of explosion strokes per minute.
For purposes of desinn however the mean, effectire Pressure. either
has to be aqaumed fro1: d knowledke of that found in other eWnes Of
the Same tFpe and working under the same conditions as those of.the
de&n or it mav he caicu~ated from the ideal air &gram and m@fied
by the, use of a coefficient or diagram factor depending on the kmd. Of
fuel used and the compression pressure. Lucke &yes tile folloWg
~,, ~~, ,~ 1074, ,, ,, ,,,~;,y:~!,y,,, ::,~; j ,,,,,,, ,:, ,y~,~ ,,
,:INTERNAtCoMBUSTION ENGINES.
factors for four-cycle engines by which the mean effective pressure
Of a theoreticsi air diagram is to be multiplied to obtain the.actual h1.E.P.
for the several conditions named.
INTERNAGCOMBUSTION ENGINES. 1075
ABSOLUTE PRESSURES pm SQUARE INCHAT RELEASE.
Corresponding to Explosion Pressures commonly omained.
NATE: -The expansion ratios in the left-hand column are based On
the volume behind the piston when the exhaust valve begins to open.
Kind of Fuel and Method of Use.
Compres-
sion.
Gauge
Pressure.
r.
I
--
Kerosene, when previously vaporized . . . . . . . .
l.JD.
Kerosene. injected on a hot bulb. mav be as low asp
45- 75
I
Factor.
er Cent. me= I .29. n, =1. 32.
IF2
270
2:
32. 3
; i : ;
17. 3
:h
-
-
1eofP
300 $30 360
Gasoline, ~usetl in carburetor rec&ri~g e %cuum~~:: : :
Gasoline with but little initial vacuum.. . . . . . . .
m-- .I.. IT
1: :Qbiiiu:: :
Coal gas. .Y .
Blast-furnacegas . .._...... . . . . . :::::::lfffffflf~:t..l
30- 40
: ; g
56- 40
%3i 5
52- 40
Natural gas. . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 90- 140 1
Factors for two-cycle ermines are about. 6.X those fnr fnnr--Tirlo D
~.~ __ _..__- -__ ____ -J -.- .ngines.
Pressures and $emperatures at end of Compression and at Re-
lease. -The follommg tables. greatly condensed from vwv fllll tables
given t
. . . .-mpera-
tures that may be realized in practice under different conditions.
Poole
says that t,he value of 11, the esnonent in the formula. for mmnrecsion,
ra PPQ
I: Value of
240 270 300
1:
330 360
80. 0 87. 2
55. 2 60. 2
41. 4 45. 1
32. 7 35. 7
; "2: : %
240
-
-
-
- -
58. 2 65. 4 72. 7
40.1 45.2 50.2
30. 1 . 33. 9 37. 6
23. 8 26. 8 29. 7
19. 5 21. 9 24. 4
16. 4 18. 5 20. 5
: i : :
3
18. 4
15. 4
I I
70. 4
48. 1
35. 8
28. 2
$2;
-
-
77. 4
52. 9
39. 4
' 2: : ;
21. 2
-
AUSOLCTE TEMPERATURES AT RELEASE.
Corresponding to Explosion Temperatures commonly obtained.
n, =l . 32.
Value of T,
1800 2100 2400 2700 3000
-
%
43. 0
323:
23. 1
-
E
Ob
2 z
g.2
- _
3. 00
4. 00
%i
7. 00
8. 00
-
I.
! _
3. 00
4. 00
2l :
7. 00
8. 00
n, =l . 29.
__..o_I
a., .UILU .uu*i
commonly obtained are from i.28 to 1.35. The tables for compression
pressures and temperatures are based on n = 1.3 and 1.4, on compres-
sion ratros or V,,/Vg from 3 to 8, on absolute pressures in the cylinder
before compressron from 13 to 16 11,s.. and on a,bsolute temperatures
before cqmpresslon of 620 to 730~ (160 to 320s F.).
The release pres-
sures arm temperatures are based on values of n of 1.29 and 1.32 ahso-
lute pressures at the end of the explosion from 240 to 360 lbs. per kq. in.
and absolute temperatures at the end of the explosion of 1800 to 30000 F:
Value of T,
1800 2100 2400 2700 3000
1478 1 1689 1900 211;
134. 3 i I 340 I i 33 1925
I 255 ; 1434 1613 1792
1184 ' 1353 1522 1691
1127 1 t288 1449 1610
, 1079 / 1234 1388 1542
1309 1527 1745 1963 2182
1204 1405 1606 1806 2007
I 129 1317 1505 I 693 1881
1070 1249 1427 1606 1784
1024 1194 1365 1536 1706
985 1149 1313 1477 1641
COMPRESSION PRESWJRES.
A
I.5
SC,
n = 1. 34.
$. $?~
3 ti Fs=13! 13. 5 j I 4 1 15 1 16
n = 1. 3.
>s=151 13.5 1 14 / 15 / I6
oftnc Combustion. - According to
; nnmhnnctinn mat he ns hieh as
3. 00
4. 00 2: :
5. 00 112. 3
6. 00 143.4
7. 00 176. 3
8. 00 210.9
61. 0 65. 4
89. 7 96. '
121. 0 129. 6
154. 5 165. 5
189. 9 203. 5
227. 1 243. 4
AVERAGE PRESSURE RISE IN LBS. PER SQ.IS.PRODUCED BT
7-
I
COMBUSTION.
a-
I 0 *.
I
TuREs.
2
i$
m
c
i?
I ~8 g
_-- -
195 160
208 179
221 190
234 202:
E; :
213
224 -..
5. 0
2
: : t
6. 0
a=l . 3.
-
T
660" 7000
-
_
n=l . 34.
-
7400
- __
- -
6600
-
959
1057
1141
1214
1279
1338
780
7000 740' 780
918
1000
%
1183
1232
973 1029
1061 .I122
I I 34 1199
I t98 1267
1255 1327
1306 1381
-
-
Ts=
T
620
-
- -
6. 00 1061
7. 00 Ill2
8. 00 I t57
I E
E:
1398
1456
901
993
1%
1201
1257
- _-
1017
i ; : :
1287
1: : ; :
1075 1133
1186 1250
1279 1348
1361 1434
1434 1512
1501 1582
4.0 4>. 2 EJ
4. 4
c. 6 1; ;
4. 8 185
5. 0 195
- -
- - 6. 0 225
6. 2 23- l ; ; ;
: : i J 243 252 : : :
261
2i o
-
* Per cubic foot measured at 30 F.
The following figures are given by Poole as a rough approximate
guide to the mean effective pressures in lbs. per sq. iu. obtamd wth
,i.;_
:
,...... :.A*: . .,. .~ .~.,~~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.. Some of the mat&al may no longer be accurate
different fUels and, @fer&t cb,til&sSion press&& in a fbtir-cycle engine
In a t\ro-Wcle engine the :mean effective pressure of the pump diagrak
should he subtracted. The delivery pressure is usually from 4 to 8 lbs
Per sq. In. above the atmosphefe, and the corresponding mean effective
Pressure of the pump about 3.5 to 7.
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENCIN
The figures factor C ire the values of C in the eqnation B.H.P =
c X LY, in which I) = diam. of cylinder in ins. For twin-cylinder double-
a,ct,ing engines. multiply the B.H.P. and the value of C by 0.95: for twin-
tandem double-acting engines, multiply by 2; for two-cylinder single-
acting, or for single-cylinder double-acting engines, divide by 2; for
single-acting single-r$inders, divide by 4. The figures for B.H.P. corfe-
spend to mean effective pressures of about 66. 6% and 70 Ibs. per sq. m.
for 20. 40, and 50 in. cyhnders respectively if we assume 0.85 c.s the me-
chanical efficiency, or the ratio B.H.P. f I.H.P.
Engine Constants for Gas Engines. - The following constants for
figuring the brake H.P. of gas engmes are given in Power, Dec. 7, 1909.
They refer to four-stroke cycle single-cylinder engines, sincle acting: for
double-acting engines multqly by 2. Producer gas, 0.030056. Illumi-
nating gas, 0.000065. Natural gas, 0.00007. Constant x diam.2 x stroke
in ins. X revs. per min.=probable B.H.P. A deduction should be inade
for the space occupied by the piston rods, about. 5% for small engines up
to 10% for very large engines.
Rated Capacit~y of Automobile En!&es.-The standard formula for
the American Licensed Automobile Manufact.urers Association (called
the 8. L. A. nl. formula) for approximate rating of gasoline engines
used in automobiles is Brake H.P. = Diam.? X No. of cylinders + 2.5.
It is based on an assumed piston speed of 1000 ft. per min. The follo\ving
ratings are derived from the formula:
SUCTION A~TRRAC~TE PRODIJ~ER Gas
PROIL\BI.E MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE.
__
3.
-.I.
b~0i-m PRODUCER GAS.
Engin{
H.P.
Compression Pressure,
abs. lbs. per sq. in. engine
H.P.
Compression Pressure. *
IO
;i
100
250
500
--
NATURAL AND ILLUMINATING GASES.
ComDression Pressure.
Compression Pressures.
100 I I 5 130
- - - -
- - - - - __
90 100
1: ;
I O5
105 110
IiEROSEllE L%R.~Y.
GASOLINE VAPOR.
Compression Pressures.
Compression Pressures.
Borerins . . . . . . . . 2v2 3 3% 4 4%
12;
511- 1
140
6
Bore, mm.. . . 64 103 114 154
HP.. 1 cylinder. . . 2 12
3:66 i?J
6. 4 8.1 10 12.1 14.4
g.l?:, Zj cyli$ers.. . 5
Hi ' . : 6 " : : : : i
14. 4 7. 2 19.6 9.s 25.6 12.8 32.4 16.2 40 20 48. 4 24. 2 "S. 8 57. 6
21. 6 29. 4 3Y. 4 45. 6 60 72. 6 S6. 4
Approximntc Esti mntc of the Horse-pow3 of a Gas Engine. -
From the formula I.H.P. = PLAN + ;3:3.000. in wh/ch I= mc1an elfc$tive
pressu,re in lhs. per sq. in., L = length of stroke in it,., rl = area of pl$[on
1n sq. Ins.. N=No. of esplosion strokes per min., we have I.B.P.=IJtl?$+
42,017. in whic~rd=diam. of pist~on. and S= piston speed in ft. per n!m..
for an engine in which there are two explosion strokes in each revolntlon,
as in a 4-cycle double-acting, 2-cylinder engine, or a 2-cycle. 2-cylinder.
single-acting engine. If the mechanical efficiency is taken at OS-l. then
the brake horse power B.H.P. = Pd% f 50,000. Under average cop-
dit,ions the product of P and 6 is in the neighborhood of 50,000. and 111
tbat case B.H.P. = (12.
Generally, B.H.P.=C X d?, in which C is a coefficient having values as
below:
Piston speed. ft. per minute.
M.E.P.
Ibs. per
500 600 700 800 900 1000
sq. m.
-
Value of C for two explosions per revolution.
.
_^ ---ii CA , n Ln I fi 7n , n an , n on , I
-
I
- -
-
-
-
. . .
. . .
.
. .
-
Sizes of Larae, Gas Enfiines. - From a table of sizes of the Nurnberg
WS engnw. as bulk by the Allis-Chalmers Co., the following figu;es are
bnken. These figures relate to two-cylinder tandem double-actlngenanes.
::
.I V. .,
0. 84 0. 96
i i 0. 90
1: : I : ; :
1. 12 1. 28 1. 44 1. 60
12: I % 1. 00
110 1. 10 j ' I : ; ; ! : $"4 1: 76 1. 98 "2%
These values of C apply to 4-cylinders, 4-cycle,
single-acting, to 2-CYl.,
2-cv&?. sin&e-actinE. and to I-rvl ?-cwle double-actine.
For singele
~d~~i~ei~~f-for single cylinders, 4-cycle,
rhvide by 2.
ighter disdillates of petroleum. such
nrlnr~to twnnera,t,~~res. and a Faso-
I
/
J r&. , , .
: ~,
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.. Some of the materi~al may no longer be accurat6
double-acting, or 2-cycle. single acting.
Oil and O;tsoline Engine?. - The 1
as gasoline, are easily vnponzed at m-.,,....- ~~...~-------- ~~~~..
line cngivle differs from a gas-engine only in havmg an at,ormzer attached;
for spraying a fine jet of the lr
marl inin t,he air-admission aipe. Kit,h
kerosene and other heavier dis
$$y%$;&w&de oils, it is liecessary to
Diam. evl.. ins.. . .
Stroke crl.. ins
16 20
. . . . .
Revs. per min...
24
24 ii 2
150
it
30
. . . Piston speed. ft. per 150 125
it 3:
125 125
ii
115
lg 2
115 115 100
mi n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
+ted B.H.P . . . . . .
600 600
I,wtorof C . . . . . . . . .
260 320 370 625 690
0.8
405 625
0.8 0.84
490 625
0.84
545 690 639 6QO
0.85 749 0.95
:
0.;;
;:
0.93 O.Q4 0.96
,.
INTERNA,WOMBUSTION ENGINES.
provide some metl~o~l of atomizing and vaporizing the oil at a high tern.
perature, such as IflJecting it into .a hot vaporizing chamber at the end
of the cyhnder, or Into a chamber heated by the exhaust ga,ses.
In the
?lerjel oil entine the oi! is ignited by the heat of the highly compressed
au *n the cylinder.
T,he Diesel Oil Engine.-The distinguishing features of the Diesel
enSme are: It compresses air only, to a predetermined
the firing point of the fuel.
tern
This fuel is blown as a clou
erature above
air from a separate small compressor) into the c
a) of vapor (by
sion has been completed, ignites
linder when compres-
spontaneous y without explosion 9
solely by reason of the heat of the air generated by the compression
and burns steadily with no essential rise in pressure
The tempera&
of gases, developed and rejected, is much lower thanwith engines of the
esplosive type.
ucts.
The enpne uses crude oil and residual petroleum prod-
Guar?ntees of fuel consumption are made as low as 8 gallons of
011 (not heavier than 19O Baum6) for each 100 brake H.P. hour at any
load bet,ween half and full rated load.
Amencan Diesel engines are built for stationary purposes in sizes of
120, 170, and 225 H.P. in three cylinders. and in double units (si:-
cylinders) of 240, 340 and 450 H.P. See catnlogue of the America;
Diesel Engine Co:, St. Louis, 1909.
3Iuch larger SW% have been built in Europe where they are also
built for marine purposes, including submarines ii the French and other
navies. For Jhe theory of the Diesel engine see a lecture by Rudolph
Dicsel. I n Lelt. des Ver Dcutscher I ng.. 1897. trans. in Progrescive Age
Dec. 1 and 15, 1S97. and paper by E. D. l\feier in J our. F&k. I mt.:
Oct. 1sos.
The DC La Vernne Oil Engine is described in Eng. NCWS Jan. 13 1910.
It is a four-cycle, engine. After the charge of air is comp&sed toabout
On0 lbs. Per sq..m...the charge of oil is injected. by a jet of air at about
6$ lb% Per Sq. 111.. IntO a Vaporizing bulb at the end of the cvlinder.
Illtim of the oil is caused by the high temperature in this bulb.
Ifi-
Aver?we
rWi1t.s of tests of an engine developing 12s H.P. showed an oil con&i)-
tion Per B.H.P. hour of 0.405 lb. with Solar fuel oil, and 0.4S4 lb. with
C:tlifornia crude oil.
Alcohol .Engines. -Bulletin No. 392 of the U.S. Geol. Survev (1909,)
on ~ompansons of Casolene and Alcohol Tests in Internal Colnbustion
Ennnes. by R. RI. Strong,
The low
contains the following conclusions:
heat value of completely denatured alcohol \vill average
IO.500 B.T.U. per lb., or 71,900 B.T.U. per galloR
The low heat value
of 0.71 to 0.73 sp. gr. gasolene will average 19,200 B.T.U. per lb., or
115,SOO B.T.U. ner callnn~
- ~. . ._
.A gasok% :n&e having a compression
\\-!se as rvell su!ted to the economical use of
B
ressure of 70 lbs. but other-
enatured alcohol as gnsolene
~111. when uwng alcohol, deliver about 10% great,Jr maximum powe;
than when usinp LI~.X&XW
When
~~~~~~_ o ..-- _-._-.
the fuels for which they are designed are used to an equal advan-
Iaye, the maslmum.B.H.P. of an alcohol engine having a compression
pressure of IS0 Ibs. IS about 30% greater than that of a gasolene engine
of the same size a,nd speed having a compression pressure of 50 lhs.
h~cOh0~ di,luted with water in any proportion from denatured alcohol
which coutams about 10% tvater. to mist,ures cbntaining about as mu&
water a> tlcnnbured alcohol, can be used in gasolene and alcohol engines if
the en:mes are properly equipped and adjusted.
When uSed in an engine having constant compression the amount of
pure alcohol required for any given load increases ani the maximum
aWlable horse-power of the engine decreases with diminllt,lon in the
prrcentnge of
~ivrtme and S
rtre alcohol in the diluted alcohol supplied.
The rate of
SO, , .
ecrease. rrspcctlvely. however, is sflch that. the use of . _
11 <ol!ol irlstetd of 90& has but little elyect upon the performance,
SO t ht If SO 2, alcohol can be had for 15% less cost than 90 7 zlcohol lnd
could be sold without tax when denatured, it would be mor%kconomical
to use t~hc SO% a~lcoIlol.
I.znition. ~-The !lot-tube method of.ignit,ing the compressed mixture
of Ws and air in the cylinder is practically obsolete and electric systems
are used insbead.
Of these the
spark systems are in common use
make-and-break and the jump-
.
In the former two insulated contact
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some~~.~.~
/
/
/
1
!
I
i.
&
thl
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES.
1079
.ppieces are located in the end of the cylinder, and through them an el,ectric
Current Imsses While they are m COlltWt. A spark-coil is included 111 the
circuit, and when the circuit is suddenly broken at the proper time f?r
lonltlon, by mechanism operated from the valve-gear shaft, a spark 1s
&de a.t the contacts. which ignites the gas. Iu the jump-spark I
system two insulated terminals separated about 0.03 in. apart are tocated
ln the cylinder, and the seconda,ry or high-tension current (
,-nil I-IIIIRPS a. snarli t.0 iunio across the snace betmeen t!
)f an inuuction
hem when the
~l,.. -1---- - -:... .
circuit of the pnmary current is closed by mechanism operated by,the
engine. In some oil engines the mixture of air and oil vapor is igmted
automatically by the temperjture generated by compression of the vapof,
ylinder, called the vaporizer, which 1s
y the repeated ignitions.
in a chatibei at the end oft the c,
not water-jacketed and therefore is kept hot by
Refore starting the engine the vaporizer is heated by a Buns
en burner
* Bv lower heat,ing value
is meant the vnlue computed
after sub-
tract& the latent heat of evaporation of H lbs. of water per pound of
hydrogen contained in the gas.
See page 533.
,,,
1080 ,INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES.
tion 30 in advance of the dead center, while the effic
:iency with ignition
~~~ --^- at the center was +9$&, and wit.h ignition 55O in advance I.J.;~Y/.
O+er things being equal, the hotter the walls of the cylinder the les:
heat 1s transferred mto them from the hot gases, and therefore the h&hex
the tff+ncy.
pre-ignition, and hi@ compression is a cause of high effici::ncy
COG1 wails; llowever, allow of higher compression v;itFoi;
walls also rend to gve the engine greater capacit.y, since with hdt walls
*he fuel mixture expands more on entering the cylinder, reducing the
weight of charge admitted in the suction stroke.
JJ.cat Loss.es in the Gas Engine
!.---The difference between the thermal
Rati o
c: L
pres-
sion.
2.67
2.6:
4.32
4.32
IS7
247
187
247
lorts a test in which
of t,he heat losses
;5:: 7.11 18.5
69.3 ::i; K.04
65.2 7.49 i6:8 * 184
17thH.P. C10sSky (Ot.to) engine
t&ted in EnPland in IQ90 u+ing
Producer fz:RS. gave a consnmpt,ion of O.SS lh. coal &r I.H.P. Lo;;, or a
thermal efficiency of en:+nr and prodncrr combined of 01.34
ElpPriments on a Tayior gas producer using antlk&~coal and a
TESTS OP GAS AND OIL ENGINES.
1081
:ngine shelved a eonsumptioli of 0.97 lb. carbon per
ent,c.r and Diedenshs on Inkmal ComhGstion Engines
tl,&west recor;ik$ coal consumption per I3.y.P. hour is 0.71 l,!., !v:i:!l
a ~~~~~~ engine and a suction, gas ,produce_r, usmg Welsh anthracllc ,cOal.
other tests show fig~~rcs rangmg from 0.14 lb.
to 1.9.5, the l;st, with a
lvesiinghouse @+H.P. engine and a Taylor producer using Colorado
~~-IJW FOI& CYXXIUCTINC; TESTS OF GAS AND OIL
F~~:I~~S". CODE OF 1902. "
(From the report ,if t>he committee of the A. S. MI. E. or! Engine Tests.)
ionly a brief abst.ract is here PlVC,ll.
The items. 1, Objects of tllc Tests:
2, Geie;al Conditions ,of the l?ngme; 3,.
Dimensions: 5. Calibration. of
pesyqYlments, are prxtIca!ly the same as m the report on Steam EWne
13. F~~c[. - Decide upon the gas or oil to be used, and if the tfia1.l:
to be mxde for maximum efficiency, the fuel should be the best :f ?tb
class &t can rea,dily be obtained, or one that, shows t,he lughest ca.onfic
* not-?ir engines are not inclided in t.his code, t,licse in the market
:~ ,..
being of homparatively small size. and seldom tested.
producer, the same methods apply for determining the consumption as
are useo in steam-boiler tests. :
If the fuel used be gas, the only practic:tl method of measurement. is
the use of a meter through which the g:,s is passed.
bnd pressure of the gas should be measured, and
the
The temperature
quantity o: gas
hould be determlced by reference to r,he calibration of the meter, taking
nto sceount the temperature and n-essire of the gas.
,If, tiie fuel 1s 011, this can be drawu from a tank which is filled to the
ongmal ieve a! the end of the t,est, the amount, of oil required for so
doing bang weIghed; or, for a small engine, the oil may be drawn from a
cshbrsted vertical pipe.
IX. Measw: ement of Heat - Uni t s Coi~~mtZ by the Engine. -The num-
ber of heat-umts used is found by multiplying the number of pounds of
coal or 011 or the cubic feet of gas consumed, by the total heat of combus-
tion.of the fuel as determined by a calorimeter test
In determining the
total heat of,combustion no deduction is made forthe latent heat of the
water vapor In the products of combustion.
It is scmetimes desirable, also, to ha\~,e a complete chemical analysis
of the 011 or gSs. The total hert of combustion may be computed if
desired. from the results of the P .alysis, and should agree wel! with ihe
calorimeter values.
X. Ne~m~ement of J acket Water. - The jacket water mny be meas-
ured by passmg it. through a water meter or allowing it to flow from a
ne~snrl,ng tank before entering the jacket, or by coI!ccting it in tanks
m Its dlsc!large.
XI. ,lwI icchd Horse-pozoer. - The di?ections given for tletermini!lw
he indlcaled hors+power for steam engines apply in all respect,s to inter-
tal combustion engines.
XII., &fllx Horse-power. - The determination of the brake horsc-
power 1s the snmn for internal combust,ion as for steam engines
$111. speed. --The same directions npply to internal cdmbustion
enLInes as to steam encines for the determination of spe::d.
In a;l.engine wliich is governed by varying the number of esplcsions
or ~~o~klw cycles, a record should be kept of the number of espi,.>sious
Per nJlnute: or lf the en&!jne is rr!nninji at nearly maximum load, by
counting ibe number of times the governor causes a miss in ihe ex-
plosions.
XIV. Rccorcling the Data. - The ~PPRSIIP,=S,
rearli:-
temoeratures. meter
or 31: mlmit,es when the condit~ions are practiczllv 6fiiforl
frequent intervals if t.hey are variable.
m. and at, more
menswments shuultl be tnken !vit-
Observ&ons of ihe e-ns or nil
11 special ca:e at the exnirati& nf &il
jlOUr. SO ~3s to divide the t,est into liou?ly periods, and revej;itllrllnirorm-
1tY. or otherwe, of the conditions and results as t,he test goes forward.
XV. Ut l i f oTmd?i of Conditions. - When the object of the te<t, is to
deterTine tli~,.m~~i~~!n~,eco!?orp~, al! the, conditions relating< to the
opeva.,m ,.e
dut...,
XV
sllolllti
itll,lCS
lw the t.nal.
.:L~~~~\ BJL ,L-LK eug:lue snout oe maintained as constant as-possible
I. IildicUtor Diagmms. - Sa,m le diagrams nearest to the mean
I be selected from t,hcse taken
of the resu1t.s.
0. urmg the trial and appended to the
If there are separate compression or feed cylinders
the indicator diafxams from these should be taken and the power deducted
from that of tllbn . . . .._ ,n,n Pr-li..Ao*
STII. wzl,&wdS r/f x;;;;;;;;, (
iion of hmc, divided by the ilidic
an* Eflcienc?/. - The hourly consump-
sbnndartl expression of bngine ecoc
sted or the brake hcrse-powr, is t.he
In making comparisons bet
ioms recommended.
ewines and that, fn
wqen tl?e standard for int~ernal combu+on
sten,m engin
~~.~~. .-r steam enjilnes, lt must be borne in mind thai the
tile in
K! St.andar:! dOeS.Dot cover the losses due to combustion. nhile
rernal ComhIstiOll en,i:le st,andard. in cases where a crude fuel
Such as oil is burned~in i
+ nlinder, d.?es cover these losess.
. .The thermal efficiency ra110 ner tw
,,~. ..-.-leated horse-power or per brake
IlOlSC-Polwr for inbernni cor:l!::istion engines is expressed by the fraction
2545 i B.T.U. per H.P. per hour,,
XVTTT. I f ed 13nZnn~ce. - POC pxposes oi scientific research a heat
bd~We ShOUhi be drawn wl!irh shows the manner in which the total
.,I ~..~ ,,..,, ~,. ~.,
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Sol Ee
TESTS OF GAS AND OIL ENGINES.
1083
;leat of comblIst,ion is espezled in the vwious processes concerned in,
the working of the txine.
It :aay be divided into three parts: first,
the jleat which is con:~erted into the i .~dlcatr?tI qr :~)rske work,: second, the
heat reected in the cooling water Jt
ct.
the jack;et%; and third. the heat
reje~te In the exhaust gases, together with that lost through incomplete
combustion and radiation.
--To determ;mn tl ,,.r .he first item, ttx number of foot-pounds Of work per-*
formed by> s:
ky, one pound or one cubic foot of the Iue!, divldcd by i?S,
dives the nul
nber of heat-units desired. The second item is determined
&, measuring the amount of coolmg wat,er passed through the jackets,
eqldvalent to one pound or one cubic f!>ot of fuel .consumed, and multl-
plvlng this quantity by the dlff,erepce in the sepslb!e heat of t,he water
leaviug the jacket and that entermg.
The thxd stem PS obtamed,by
subtracting the sumof the first two ltems from the total heat Supplied.
The third item can be subdivided bv corrm~tine the heat rejected 111 :;h,;
exhaust. gases as a separa.-
lvxine the f;$i
-- ---- ~-ii
to o~lantlty] The data for this computal,
are found by anal., _...- ..-
and the exhaust ga,ses, or by measurmg
the quantity of air admitted to the cylinder in addition to that of the gas
or 01:.
XIX. &port of Test. -The data and results of a test should be re-
ported in the manner outlined in one of the fOllo!vmg table% the firS;lpdf
which gtves a complete summary when all the data are determmed,
.
the secondis a shorter form of report in which some of the nnnor Items
are omitted. [The short form is given below.1
DATA AND RESULTS OF STAKDARD HEAT TEST OF GAS OR OIL ENGINE.
Arranged according to the Sl?ort Form advi?ed by t,heeEngi;fOdze;$
C!!~2mittee. American Society of Mechanical EWne .rs.
1. Madeby .....................
of..
.............................
onenglnelccatedat.. .......................................
todetermine
................................................
........................................................... ..........
2.Dateoftrial........:. ........................................
3. Type and class of engine
............................
...........
......
.
................................................
4. I&i of fuel used.
.............................................
(al Soerific gra.vity
............................
deg Fahr.
,,
{bj Binmlngjoint ;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(c) Flashing point.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Dimensions of en@ne:
1st cyt.

2d Cyl.
(a) C!~SS of cylinder (working or for com-
pressing the charge) .... ... ... ....
(b) Single or double.act~lng ...... .......
(e)Bgflinder dimensions:
.....
....................... .y
-,roke.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..+ st
ninm&.er n*,on rod, . . . . . . . . . . . .- .In.
Y. l . . . . , ". da
(d) Average?%pression space, or clear-
n,nre.. in ner cent.. . . . . . . . . . . . . ._.. .~. .~~ _
(
0) Yorse-power cmlstant for one ., L
10. M.E.P.
and, one revolution per mmute. . . . .
YOCU yuu~nurrrja.
6. Durat,iocoftest.. ...............................
7. Ga.soroilconst~med .............................
cu.~~~r,bs,
8. Coolin? grater supplied to jacket.s
.... ....
..........
:
9. Calori& value of fuel by catorimetef test, deternuned
calorimeter..
.......
B.T.U.
by..
. ..... ... ... .. . .
....
Presswes and Te?npernt?ires.
10 Presslrre at meter (for gzis enpine) in inche? of water.. .
ins.
11: Baromrtrir pressure of at,mosphere:
II
(n) Readingofharometer ,................. . . . .
a*
,,
(0) Reading corrected to 32 degs. Fahr . . . . . .
ri b
12. Teinperature of cooling water:
(a) Inlet.....................................
(b) Outlet.. . . . ;.
deg. rsr,r.
. . . . . . . _.
13. Temperature of gas %t meter (forgas engine). . . . . .
14. Temperat,ure of atmosphere:
(u) Dry bulb thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .
(b) Wet bulb thermometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _
(c) Degree of bun--. UU,b,~
~I
15. Temperature of eshausc
.......
..................
gases .....................
Data Relating to I -lent Afeaswenznt.
16. Heat units consumed per hot!r (pmmds of oi! 0~ cubic
feet 0f gas per !:o:ir multipiied by the total heat of
comhurtion)
. . . . . . . . . . . .
17. Heat rejected in cooling water&&;.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.E.U.
Speed, etc.
18. Rcrolutions per minute. . . . . . . . . . . . I
19. Average number of explGons per minute.. , . . . . . . .
rev.
Tn.&h&r Diagrams.
20. Pressure in lhs. per sq. in. above atmosphere:
(a) are -:--
~&Lx~ml~m pressure. , . . . . . . . _
1st Cy!. 2d Cyl.
(b) Pressure jt~ist hefore ignition.. . . . . .
Cd Pressure at end of expansion. , . . . . .I:
Cd) Eshallst pressure.
(e) Mean effective press&: 1: 1: 1: Y : ; 1: 1:
2i. Indicated horse-Dower:
POWC?.
r.,..l.:lcl.. . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.xmnd cvhnder.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . . . . . . .
m-r.3
1 Ol,iLI. . . . . . .
22. Brake horse-po.;ver. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.a
23. Frict,ion horse-power hn frl$o$ hi$$&&: : : , : 1: .
24. Percent.age of indicat :a:: horse-power lost in f&ion::
a,
per cent.
Stnnrlnrd E,~@irienc~~, and Otker Reantlts.
25. Heat 1mit.s ronn!!med by the enpine per tlollr:
(01 Per indic,.:ted horse-power . . . . . _ . . . . .
(b) Per b::l~!.:e horse-pon,er . . . 1.
B.T.U.
/I
26. Po~ndy 0f oii or ruhic feet of ga,s consumed per I;&:
(0) P;r indicnt,ed horse-power.
(b) P-r brake horse,.power. . .:I : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Ibs. or.Fu. ft.
Additional Data.
.4dt ~1~: additional data hearing on the iartirulnr objects of the test
or $iatlnr to the special class of service for which the en&e is to be
usea. AIs? give Copies of indicator diagrams nearest the mean, &d the
zorrespondmg scales.
LOCOMOTIVES.
Rc~fstnnee of Trains. - Rrai.vtancc ~7~ to ~pcnl. - Vario:ls formulm
and tables for the resistance of t,rains at different speeds on a strainht
!r~l tmrk have been given by diflerent writers.
lolion-inr:
Among these are Fhe
BY D: L. Barnes (vng. MQS.), June, 1894:
Speed. m&s per hc.:ir .
.50 60 70
Resl-tame, pounds per gross. ton.... .I2 12.4 13.5 15 17
BY Lngineering .Vews. March 8. 1894:
8o Q %
_
R,esistance in iix. per ton of 2000 lhs. = I/, 2) + 4.
Spcrd 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
40 45 50 60 70 SO 90 100
Resist.mce.31/4 4.5 5314 7 8114 9.5 10314 12 1311~ 14.5 17 19.5 22 24.5 27
This iormula seems to be more generally ?rcepted than the others.
It gives results too small, however, helow IO nules an hour.
the resistance is about 1~7 lbs. per ton, dro ) i ping
At ;tartmg.
to 4 or 5 lbs. at 5 &es
an hour.
By Baldwin Locomotive Works:
Resistance in lbs. per ton of 2000 Ihs. = 3 + 2) + 6.
Speed,. . . . 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 49 45 50 55 6O 70 80 90 100
Resistance.3.8 4.7 5.5 6.3 7.2 8 8.8 9.7 10.5 11.3 12.2 13 14.7 16.3 18 19.7
Thr resistance dlue to speed varies with, f,lle con?ition of the track, the
nuntier of cars in a t.rain, and other condltlo
l?nr t.ab!es showinr: :hat. the resi
ns.
stance varies wit.h !!!e area exposed to
the &&tance and friction of the air per top of loads. see Dashiell. Tran:.
A. ,Y. 111. E.. vol. xiii.
P. H. Dudley (Bul etm Intenlationa! Ry. Congress, 1900, p. 173+) P 371.
shows that the condition of the track 1s an important factor of tia!:i
resistance wl>irh 11n.s not hithert,o been taken account of.
Thv ie.<,ic.r-
jnce of heav, ..&.ls.> -.. ..-_.._. _ . -.-..
only about 31/z Ibs. per ton on smooth SO-lb. 5%in. rai!s.
ThL ?-i+i.st-
anee of an SO-car freight train. 60.030 lbs. per car, as given by indicator
cards at. spetids between 15 and 2.5 miles T)er hour. 1s renresented b.v the
form&la R = 1 + l/g V. in whil.. _
.h R = r&i&ance in 16s. per ton and
V = miles per hour. These values are-; nuch below the average and
should not be used in estimating the hauling p?
lwer needed.
New Forrnutc;e JOT Resistance. - The Amer. .;
Locomdtire Co. (Bulletin
No. IOOI Feb. 1910) states that the fi,gures obWned from the oldformu!%
for train resis{,ance are much too high for modern loaded freight cars
of 40 tb 50 tolls capacity, and in some innt.d.nces t& low for verv hght
or empty cars, The best data availa.,.- I___ ._ __-_ ___~. .--~~~~
from about 2.5 t,0 3 lbs. per ton (of 2000 lbs.) for 72-t~on cars (including
Wright of hpt.v clir) bo 6 to S lb,s. for 20-ton cars.
From spc~is between
5 to 10 and 3Oto 35 miles an hour, the resist;~nce Of freight C%!S is prac-
tically constant. The re@stnnce of the enWe
and iender is fl,gured
,f t,he following factors: iz) Engine frict.lon 5
t on drivers;. (bi Head air resist-
sepafately, and is composed 0. _ ___ . . . .
22.2 Ibs. per ton, or l..! 1% of J he Wp.@
ante 1 cross-sectio
-.. . .._.. ~.. .~, ~~.,
nal area (talten a~ 120 sq. ft.) X O.UO- V2. V being
the speed in milts per hour.
(c) Resistance dlie t.o weight on en$,me
trucks and trailing wheels. and to the tender, the same per ton as Lnat
due to the cars,
(ri) Grade .resistance, 7.20 l!~s. per ton for each Per
I.?~ . . . ..^..l I-,.r.n
cent of grade. (e) Curye resistance,
wnicn vanes wnu LIII; wwax-~~r
_ . .
of the locomot.ive, and IS t.a
ken as O.-L + cu IDS. per ton. 111 ~111~1 u 1~
the degree of the curve and c a COllstallt \vh
ose wn!ue is,
For wneel-base, ft. 5 6 7 !_ _9_ J?- j:?, :
15 16 20
Value of c . . . . 0.380 .4
15 .dRft lx5 ..5?0 .tis .tiO ,730 .755 ,905
The sum of these resistances is yy u1 _ .*.,.. *_.. _ __.__ . .__ ___ ~.
the locomotive to obtai
~11 the available tractive force for overcomh1.g t,he
resist&e of the cars. (See Tractive Force, below.) The masim!lm
tractive force is taken fqlow speeds at 85% Of that due to the Lo$er
eds over 250 ft. per min. this is to be mult.lphed
5~ a speed factor to obtain the actual force.
Speed fact,ors and percent-
aies of maximum horse-power correspondmg to different piston ;lz;$s
are zive:: be!ow.
5 = piston speed, ft. per min., F = speed
P =-% of maximum H.P.
s . . . . . . . .25O 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
;::::w:::. .60.4 1.00 69.1 .954 77.2 .9C8 83.7 .863 ~.817 89.0 93.5 .?72 96.S ,727 95.7 ,680 99.7 .Z36
700 T50
.592 loll .;$
5,......... 800 s50 500 950 1000 1100 1200 1300 .307 .2bJ li$O
it::::::. 0.517 100 ,487 100 .460 :oa .435 zco ,412 100 .372 99 97.S96.S 337 95.7
1500 ,261 I$00 .-Al
94.7 93.5
The resisbance of freight cars, accordin, 0 to experiments on
the Penna.
Ton? per c&r.. . . . . . . 10 20 25 30 ~ot~il;~: GO
R.R.. varies with the weight in tons per car
70 72
Resistance, 11~s. per tqn 3.44 13.10 7.84 6.62 5.78 4.66 3.94
3.06 3.00
1086 Lt?COb:dTIVES.
From plotted cwves of resistances of trains of empty and loaded cars
the followmg figures are d:rtved. R = resistance in Ibs. per ton.
wt. loaded, cons.. . . . .
Wt. empby: tons. . . . . .
Per cent ot loaded wt.. : : : : : :
R loaded . . . . . . . . . . . , .
Rempty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wt. loaded, tons.. . . .
wt. empty, tolls. . .
Per cent of loaded wt.: : :
li ioaded . . . . . _. . . . j. i
R empty . . . . . . . .
The resistance of passenger cars is derived from the formula R = 5.4 +
6.002(V - 15)2+ 100 + (V + 2)3.
m lbs. per ton (2006 Ibs.)
V in miles per hour R = resistance
H.P. = horse-power per ton.
v= R = . . . . ,. . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . : . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 5.589 5% 5% ., 52:6
-
H.P. = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.079 .147 .2117 .291
52:O
.374
53:5 6;O
.469 ,523
v =....
R = . . . .::::::::.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~6.~~
H.P.= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...709
Resi Stwm of ~mzt~i C RaiTwau Cars and Trains. - mr J Davis TV.
(Street Ry: Jour., Dec.
the following formahe:
3, 1904), gives as a result of nnmerons &per&&s
(A) For !ight open platform street cars, 8 tons to 20 tons; maximum
speed, 30 mrles per hour; cross-section, 85 sq. ft.
R = 6+0.11~?+~
I1 + 0.1 (n - l)].
(B) For standard interurban electric cars.
speed, 60 m.p.h.; cross section, 100 sq. ft.
25 tons to 40 tons; maximum,
R=5+0.13V+0.3V/T[P+O.!.(n-l)].
(C) For heavy interurban electric cars
or siexn passenger coaches,
40 tons to 50 tons: masimum speed, 75 m.p.h.; cross+ection, 116 sq. ft.
R = 4 + 0.13 V + 0.33 W/T [I + 0.1 (11 - l)].
(D) F,or heavy freight trains, cars weighin- 45 tons loaded; maximum
speed, 3.~ m.p.h.; average cross-section, 110 s?~. ft.
R = 3.5 f 0.13 V+ 0.385 W/T [l + 0.1 (n - l)].
R = resistance in lbs. per ton of 2060 Ibs. V= speetl in mil-s per hour
.T = weight of tram rn t~uns. II = number of cars in train includingl+d!-
Ing motor cm-. The cross-serBon includes the space bounled by the wheels
between the top of rails and the body.
.R@$storrcc drlc to Grnrle. - The resistance due to a grade of 1 ft. per
;!le=w per ton pf 2000 lbs.. 2000 x l/5250 = 0.3788 !h. Pep +nn or if
0.%X8 G.
res?stanCe 111 lbs. per ton due to grade and G = ft. pe; n;iieRB =
20
If the mde is expressed as a percentwe of the length, the resista.nce is
tbs. per ton for each per cent of grad<
Resisfmre he to Cnrres. 7 Mr. 6. 8. Henderson in his book entitled
Locomotrve Opermion
11~ Per ton of 2oOo lbs. per degree of the curve
mves the resistance due to curvature at 0.7
(For definition of
de:r+ of a rmlrond curve see p. 55.) For locomotives tins factor is
swnet,rmes dcubted. making the resistance in Ibs
and 1.4 c for !oromotiven~ c being the number of
3
er ton A 0.7 c for cars
egrees
The Baldwn Locomot,rve Works take the approximate resistance due
to. Kub decree Or curvature as that due to a straight grade of 1 t/s ft. per
mile. This corresponds t,o R, = 0.5682 c.
The Amer. Locomotive Co. takes 0.8 lb. per ton per degree of curvy-
ture for the resist.ance of cars on curves.
LOCOMOTIVES.
For mine cars, with shcrt wheel-bases and vSneels loose on the axles.
erpcrimcnts quoted by the Baldwin Locor:lotive Works. 1904, lead to the
formula, Resistance due to curvature, in pounds,= 0.20 x wheel-base X
weight of loaded car:; in pounds. i radius of curve in feet.
l<esistance clue to Acceleration,. ---This may be calculated by the ordi-
nary formula (?*,e :,sqe 504), or reduced to common railroad units, and
including tire ,-ot;.iive energy of wheels and arms, ,iMch increases the
effect of t.hc cveit;ht of the cs.rs by an equivalent of about 57. we have
P-70 $ =gF 6 +,
v22 - v,2
s , where P= the accelerat,ing force in
pounds per ton, V = the velocity in miles p,er hour. S = the disrance
in fset, and t = the time rn seconds rn whmh the ,a!:celeratron takes
place. VI and I i? = the smaller and greater velocities, respectrvely,
in miles per hour, for a change or speed.
Total Redstance. - The total resrstance in lbs. per ton of 2000 Ibs. due
to sneed. to grade. to curves, and to acceleration 1s t.he sum of the resist-
laboratorv:
Let d G: diameter of cylinder: S = stroke of piston: D = diameter of
drivers. al! in inches. Then the imernal friction= 3.8 d%I D, in pounds
at the circumference of the drivers.
Concerning the effect of increasing speed on tractive force, Mr. Hender-
son snrs (1906):
From a numuer of tests and informat.ion from various roads .and au:
thorit.ies it seems as if, for ordinary simple engines, t~he coefficrent 0.8
in the eauation Actual tractive force=
0,s P&s
,,
could be modified in ac-
"
cordnnce ,rvith the speed in order to obtain the actual Qactive force at
various speeds about as follows:
Revs. per min. =
so 100 120
CoeCTlcient =O.% 0.;: 0.:: 0.70 0.61 0.53 O!% Ofi:
EfRcicncg of the Mechanism of n Locom~ot~ive. - Frank C.WWner
(Pi-OC. A. A 4. s 1906 p. 140) gives an account of some dynamometer
tests whl~hlndic&e that in ordinary freighr.service the po\Yer used to
drive thelocomotive and tender and to overcome the frlctlon of the
mechanism is from 10% to 35% of the total power developed in the steam-
crliuder: In one test the weight of the locomotive and t,ender was 16%
of the total weight of the tr&. while t,he power consumed 111 the loco-
motive and tender ws,s from 30% to 33% of the indicated horse-po!ver.
Adhesion. - T!re limit of the hauling cap,acit.y of a locomotrve 1s the
adhesion due to the weight on the driving wheels. Holmes gtves fhe
adhesion in English practice, as equal to 0.15 of the load on the drrvtng
wheels iri ordinary dry weather but onlv 0.67 in damp weather or when
the rails are greasy.
In American practice it is generally taken as from
l/d to l/e of the load on the drivers.
! material may no l onger be accurate
Trxctire Forcr: of s Locomotive. - Sin,gle
Let F = indicated tractive force in Ibs.
Expansion.
p = average effective pressure in cylinder in lbs. per sq. in.
S = stroke of piston in inches.
d -= diameter of cylinders in inches.
D = diameter of diiving-wheels in inches. Then
F=gw= <z- s.
4 nD D
The average effective pressure can. be obtained from an indicator-
diagram, cr by calcuiation. when the initial pressure and ratio of esoari-
sion are known. t.opetber with the other properties of the valve-moiion.
The subjoined ieb:e from Auc:iincioss gives thz proportion of mean
effective pressure to boiit;.oressure above atmosphere for various pro-
portions df cut-r.ff.
0. 1 0. 15 0 333 =
, 125 = ' j g
I / 3
. 2
. I 5
, 375 = 3/ g
. 24
. I 75 . 20 : : 5
: : 5 = y, . 32 = ' 12
. ? : i 5
: z5
M.E.P.
(Boiler-
Stroke.
pres.~= 1).
cut-off at -
": Z5= 1' 2
0. 625 = S/ g
. 57 : F6 = 2h
. 62
. 67 : g5 = 3t4
. 72 . 875 = 7/ g
I
_-
-
M. E. P.
(Boiler-
,res. = I).
--
0. 79
. a
. a
. 09
. 93
. 98
Thrse values were deduced from esperiment.s with an English locomo-
t.lve by Xr. Gooch. As diagrams vary so much from different cituses.
this table Cil only fai*ly represent practical cases. It is evident. that
the +-off must be such that the boiler will be capable of supplying
eufficlent steam at the given speed.
We can. however, allow for wire drawing t,o the steam chest and drop In
pressure due t.o expansion. a;ld internal friction by writing the formIda:
Ac,lual Tractive Force= 8 y , d, S, and D being as before and P
representing boiler pressure in~lbs. per sq. in.
Cotnpo~c~tl Loron;oti~:es. - The Baldwin Locomotive Works rive the fol-
lowing formuke for compound engines of the Vauclain four-cylinder type:
T = cs X z/3 P + C=s X 114 P .
D D
T= tractive force in Ibs. v= dia,m. of high-pressure cylinder in Ins.
c= diam. of low-pressure cylinder in ins.
S= stroke of piston in ins.
P= bolter-press,ure in lbs.
D = diam. of driving-wheels In ins.
For .a two-cylinder or cross-compound engine it is only necessary to con-
sfder the high-pressure cylinder, allowing a sufficient. decrease 111 boiler
pressure to compensate for the necessary back-pressure. The formula is
eeds of from 5 to 10 miles an hour or
used, and t.he
the boiler limits the cut-off which caA be
force is rapidly reduced as the speed
increases. For a full discussion of this, see page 375 of Hendersons
Locomot.ive @peration.
The Sizr of Locotnotire Cylinders is usually taken to be such that
the enrine will j ust overcome the adhesion of its wheels to the rails under
fnvorahle circumstances.
Thr adhesion is taken by a committee of the Am. Ry. Master Mechan-
ics .Usn. as 0.25 of the weight, on the drivers for passenger enPines 0.24
for fr,rirht,, and 0.2? for swit.chine engines: and the mean effective pres-
sure 111 the cylinder, when exerting the masimum tractive force, is taken
at 0.85 of the boiler-pressure.
Let w = \Veight on drivers iti Ibs.; P = tiaecixe force in I &. ~= eaji
0.25 1v; PI = boiler-pressn,re in 11)s. tier sq, in.: p = mean &ectlve
pre.. ll,re, = 0.85 pl: d = dmm. Of cyhnder, S = length of stroke, atid
I;r = iam. of driving-wheels, all in iuches. Then
rp = 4 p _ 4 Cl ?PS _ 4 cl 2 x 0. 85 p1s
D D .
-
Whence d=0.5
Von Borriess ru!e for the dismeter of the low-piessurk cylinder df a
coyponn? locomotive IS dT = 2ZD f 7~1~. in which d+ diameter of l.p,
cyhnqer 111 inches; D = diameter of diiving-wheel in inches: p a m@ai
effective pressure per. sq. in.,
!r = stroke of plston ln
after deducting interr,al machine friction.
to 0.16 of the adhesioh.
inches; 2 = tractive force required, usually 0.14
The val!ie ,nf 7~ depends on the relative volume of the two cylindeh,
and from Indicator experiments may be taken as follows:
class of ~~~~~~ Ratioo~;~z,4&nde~ 11 i,n percent of p for Boiler-nres-
Boiler-pressure. sure of 176 lbs.
Large-tender engs. 1 : 2 or I : 2.05
Tank-engines. .._ . 1 : 2 or 1 : 2.2
42
40 --
Horse-power of a. Loconiotitie. -. For each cylinder the horse-power
is H.P. = pLaN i- 33,000. in which p = mean ef f ecti ve pressure L =
stroke in feet, a = area of cylinder = l/d ;sd2, N = number of single
strokes per minute, LN = piston ?peed, ft. per min. Let Al = sl>eed of
tram in miles per hour, S = length of stroke in inches, and D = tiiam-
eter of driving-wheel in inches. Then LN = M x 88 x 2S i ,D.
Whence for the two cylinders the horse-power is
2xpX~J 4nd2X176SYAf ptPSdf
-
nD x 33, 000
=- .
1 375 D
REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE YOR VARIOIX DUMETERS OF WBEEI,~
AND SPEEDS.
Miles per Hour.
Diamet~er -
of Wheel.
I
I O 20
- - - -
50 in. 134
56 in. 2; 120
60 i n. 112
62 in.
::
108
66 in. ii 102
68 in.
72 in.
;;
78 in. :;
80 in. 42 2I
84 in. 80
win. 75
-
_-
-
30
: i z
280
271
259
247
2:
2! 0
200
186
3
%
336
325
306
296
279'
2:
2
70
470
420
33%
357
: z
301
294
z
80
538
: i i
433
%
373
344
336
320
299
The Size nt Lobomotire Boi!ers. (Forneys Catechism of the LOCO!
motive.) -They should be proportioned to the amount of adhesive
weight and to the speed at which t,he locomotive is intended tO work.
Thus a locotiot.ive with a great deal of n:eight on t,he drivin@vheeIs
could ~1~11 a heavier lo&d, would hav? a greater cylinder capscity than
ohe w;ith little,adhesive weight, would consume more steam. and there;
fore should have a larger boiler.
The weight and dimensions of locomotive boilers are lti nearly all
cases determined by the limit,s of weight and space t.0 which they ar@
neclessarilv confined. It may be stated generally that 1Cithin the.% limits
a hotnotice boiler cannot be made too large. In other words; boilers for
1090 LOCONOTXVES.
locomotives should always be made as large as is possible under the
CJonditiOnS that determine the weight and dimensions of the locomotives.
. . (See also Holmes on the Steam-engine. pp. 3il to 377 and 3S3 to 3S9,
and the Report of the Am.. Ry. Al. 31. Assn. for 1395, pp. 218 to 232.)
Holmes gives the followmg from English practice:
Evaporation, 9 to 12 lbs. of water from al:d at 212O.
Ordinary rat6 of combustion, 65 Ibs. per sq. ft. of grate per hour.
Ratio of grate to heating surface, 1 : 00 to 90.
Heating surface per lb. of coal burnt per hour. 0.9 to 1.5 sq. ft.
Mr. Henderson states the approximate heating surface needed per
indisat.ed horse-power as follons:
Compound Locomotives, . .~. . . . . 2 square feet.
Simple Locomotives (cut-off l/2 stroke or less) . .~. . 2% square feet.
Simple Locomotives (cut-off 112 to S/4 stroke). . . 22/3 square feet.
Simple Lo.zomotives (full stroke) . . . . 3 square feet.
For the rnt.io of heating surface to grate area the Master Me&anics
Assn Committee of 1902 advised as belo\v:
-,
I
Passenger.
I
Freight.
-
Fd.
- ~_- - -
Simple.
/
COl TI -
pound.
Simple.
!
Free burning bituminous.. . . . _. . . . 65 tc. 90 75 :.o 95 70 to 85
Average bituminous.. . . . 50 to 65 60 to 75 45 to 70
Slow t,&ning bituminous. . . _. . 40 to 50 35 to 60 35 to 45
BituminoLis slack and free burning..
antbmc1t.e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 tc 40 3P to35 30 to 35
Low grade bituminous,. lignite and
slow burning anthracite.. . .] 28 to 35 24to 30 25 to30 ; 30to40
zl :: ::
45 to 50
40 to 45
com-
poqnd.
LOCOMOTIVES.
Grate-snrfae? Smoke-stacks, and Exh,zunt-nozzles for bcomo-
motkves. - A. h. blitchelt. Supt. oi Motive Power of the Erie R. R., says
(lS9:J) that some, roads use the same size of stack, 13~ 1,~. dlam. at
throat, for all engmes up Lo 20 in. diam. of cylinder.
The area of the orifices In the exhsuct-nozzles depends on the quantity
and quahtY of the coal burnt. size of cyiintler, con::rruction of stick
and,the condition of the outer atmosphere.
to give i-U& ,for compuding the exact
It is therefore impor~bl~
diameter of the orifices
All that
can be done 1s to giv,e a rule by which an approsimate diameter can be
found. The exact ,chameter can only be found br trial. Our experi-
ence leads US to beheve that the area of each orificein a double euhauct-
nozzle should be equal to l/4311 part of the grate-surface, and foe sin&e
nozzles 1/m of the grate-surface These ratios have been riser1 in finding
t!le dlametcrs of the nozzles given in the following table.
sizes are often used for either bard or soft coal-burners.
The same
[These sizes are
small a4 tl!e present day (1909) as locomotives hare enormously in-
creased in size.]
Grate-area Grate-area
For Anthra- for Bit,umin
site Coal, in
sq. in.
ow Coal, in
sq. in.
Diameter
of Stacks
in inches.
--
Double
Nozzlee.
-
(
- . .
-
Single
NOZZkS.
-
Diam. of
hifices, in
inches.
Dinm. of
Mites, i
inches.
Much important information regarding stacks and eshaust nozzles is
embodied in the tests at Purdue Universitv reported ?o the Master
I+Iechanics A&n. in I.596 and in the testsieported in the Am&can
%7incer in 1902 and 1903.
Yirc-brick Arches in Locnmotixye Fire-bores. - A commit.tee of
the Am. Ry. Master Mechanics Assn. in lS90 reported stnmgly in favor
of the *use of brick arches in locomotive fire-boxes. Tiler say: It is the
Wmimous opinion of all who use bituminous coal and brick arch. that
it is most- efficient in consuminrr the various eases comnosine: black
smoke, and by impeding and delaying their pas&ge thr&,h thg tubes,
and mizzling and stlbjecting theti to the beat of bhe furnace greatly
1Qssens tlie volume ejected, and intensifies combustion. and d&s not in
the least cheek but rather augments draught with the consequent saving
of fuel and increased st,eaminK capacity &t might be expected from
$;;~t,results. This in particulfir when tised in counetioll nitl~ extensio!l
..,.~ I,,
may no be accurate
Arches non. (1909) are not quite so much in favor, largely on account
of ,t,he difticulty and delay caused to workmen when fues nlriZt be calked,
as OCCU,S frequently in bad water dlstr1ct.S. and Some Of tbelr ,fOrmer
advocate are now omitting them altogether.
Econo,,ry of Hjg:ll Pressures. - Tests of ,a S+enectady locomotive
with cylinc erS 16 x 24 ins., at the Purdue ~nlverslty ~OCOmOtlVe tl?stlpg
plant, gave -esults as folloms: (Eng. Digest, Nar., 1909; Boil. NO. 26. Umv.
of Ill. Espt. Station).
Boiler pressure, lbs. per sq. in. 120
Steam per 1 H.P. hour, !bs.
140 160 1SO 200 220 2F
Coal ocr 1 H.P. hour, lbs.
29q.l 27.7 26.6 26. 25.5 25.1 24..1
3.77 3.59 3.50 3.43 3.37 3.31
In the same series of t,ests the economy of the boiler at different rates of
driving and different pressures was determined, the results leading to the
formula E = 11 ,305 - 0.221 I<, in which E = lbs. evaporated from and
at 212 per lb. of Youghiogheny coal, and H the equivalent evaporiatlon
per sq. ft. of heating surface per hour, with an average error for any
pressure which does not exceed 2.1%.
Leading American Types of Locomotive for Freight and
Passenger Service.
1. The eight-wheel or American passenger type, having four coupled
drlvlng-,vheels and a four-wheeled t,ruck in front.
2. The ten-wheel type, for mixed traffic, having six coupled drivers
and a leading four-wheel truck.
3. The Mogul freight type, having sis coupled driving-n-heel.; and
a pony or two-wheel truck in front.
4. The Consolidation type, for heavy freight service, having t .ght
coupled driving-wheels and a pony truck in front.
Besides these there is a great variety of t.ypes for special conditiors of
service, as four-wheel and six-wheel s~vitching-ellgines, without tru .kF:
the Forney type used on elevated railroads, with four cotipbd whk ?I,
under the engine and a four-%heelec! rear truck carrying the water-l;&
and f!!el: locomotives for locai and suburban service with four cod lei
driving-wheels, with a two-wheel truck front and rear, or a two-w !A eel
truck front and a four-wheel truck rear, etc. Decapod engines for
heavy freight service have ten coupled drivingwheels and a two-wheel
truck in front.
Chssitiration of Locomotives (Penna. R. R. Co:, 1900). - Class A.
two pairs of drivers and no truck. Class B, three pairs of drivers ano no
truck. Class C, four pairs of drivers and no truck. Class D, two pairs Of
drivers and four-wheel t.ruck. Class E, two pairs of drivers, four-wheel
truck, and t,railing wheels. Class F three pairs of driving-nheels and
two-wheel t.ruck. Class G, three pairs of drivers and four-wheel truck.
C&s H, four pairs of drivers and two-wheel truck. Class A is co-
manly called a four-Wheeler; B, a six-wheeler; D. an *erghJ:
wheeler. or American tvne: E, Atlantic type; F, l\logul .
G, ten-wheeler; H, Consolidation.
Modern CZn.ssification. - The cmsses shown above, lettered A. B. c.
etc., are commonly represented respectively by the symbols .O-4+:
0-6-0 O-S-O 4-4-0. 4-4-3. 2-6-O: 4 -6-O: 2-8-O: the first figure bemg
the mimber of wheels in t,he truck, the second the driving-wheels, snd the
third the trailers. Othertvnesare the Pacific. 4-6-2; thePrairie, 2-6-2:
LOCOMQTIVES.
1093
and the. Santa Fe. a-10-2.
JWines on the Mallet system with t~q
1OCOmotlve engilleS under one boiler, are classified O-8-8-0, 2-6-6-2, elc.
Formula3 for Curves. (Baldnm Locomotive Works.)
Approltinlate Formula for Radius.
R = 0.7646 W f 2 P.
Approximate Formula. for Sving.
WT + 2 I i = S.
R = radius of min., curve in feet.
P .- Pl~c~a~r~y+yheels m
ilr~ =z rigid ~heel..l~a~e in feet.
_ ,~~.? .._. i -,__-_,
~U~Gnced ~a&%. - Mr. Philip Wallis, in 1686, when Engineer of Tests
for the 2.. 13. &z Q. R. It.. reported that
-:hile 6 HP. was required to
work unbaknced valves at 40 miles per hour! for the balanced valves
2.2~H.P. only was necessars.
[Later tests were
Unbalanced valves
reported by the bfa,ster hfechanics rjmmittee in 1896
t
wwed from s/.r to 21/s per cent of i,he 1~H.P for
near mot&on, balanced valves from 1/s to l/s as much, and pi.ston valves
about r/s or l/e. Generally in balanced valves, the area of balance =
area of eshaust port + area of two bridges + area of one steam port ]
Ened of &je$ On Ave.yge C!~li/itls~-~~~esn~~~e. - Assume tha,t a locomo-
tive has a train 111 motion, the reverse lever is placed in the running
ntt$ and the track is level: by what is the ma~irnrlm speed limireo:
T1.b resistance or the train. and the load izlcrease, and tile power of the
locomotive decreases wvlt,h increasing speed tili the resistance and power
arc equal. when the speed beco;nes uniform.
Tbc, power of the engine
depends on t,l?e average pressure in the cylinders. Even ti!o&j the
cut-oh and boiler-pressure remain the same this pressure decreases as
the speed rncrees; because of the higher piston-speed and more rapid
valve-tra.vel the steam has a shoi ter time inwhicb to enter the cylinders
at the higher speed. The following table, from indicator-cards taken
from a locomotive at varying speeds, shows the decrease of
pressure with increasing speed:
averaga
Miles hour.. . . .
Speed, per revolutions.
. . . . . . .
06 . .
Average pressure per ,q.i;;.:
2;; 2@ 321
Actual, .
Calculated : : : . . .
f
. * . .
*
51.5 .,.. 44.0 47.3 43.0 41.3 42.5 37.3 36.3 . ~ . .
46.5 46.5 44.7 43.8 41.6 39.5 3j.g
The average pressure cal&ted was figured on the assumption that
the mean effective pressure would decrease in the same ratio that the
speed increased. The main difference lies in the higher steam-line at
the lower. speeds, and consequent higher ,expansion-line. showing that
more steam entered the cylinder.
The back pressure and compression-
lines agree quite closely for all the cards, though they are slightly better
for the slower speeds. That the difference is not greater may safely be
attributed to the large eshaust~-ports, passages, and exhaust tip which
1s 5 in. diameter. These are matters of great importance for highspeeds.
Boiler-pressure. - Assumin g that the train resistance increases as the
speed after. &bout 20 miles an hour is reached that an average of 50 lbs.
per.sq. 111. 1s the greatest~ that can be realizedin the cylinders of a given
engine at 40 miles an hour . and that this pressure furmshes just suflicient
Power to keep the train at this speed, it follows that. to increase the
speed to 60 miles, the mea.n effective pressure must heincreased in the
(ime proportion. To incrcsse the capaciry for speed of any locomotive
.its power must he increased, and at least hy as much as the speed is to
be increased. One way to accomplish this is to increase the boiler-
NARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accurate
LOCOMOTIVES.
That this is genera!:y reslized, is shomn by the increase.in yyre. .
oiler pressure In the last ten yeilrs.
For twenty-three single-espansmn
locomotives described in the rl~lwsy journals this year the stesm-pres-
sures are as follows: 3, 160 lbs.; 4, 165 lb%; 2, 170 lbs.; 13 1SO Ibs.;
1, 190 lb:;.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - Au lncredsed average cylinder-pressure may a?% be
nhtninurl hv inrrcmclin t,lle valve-travel without raising t
buu...L.u .,J _..- _ ---_.. D ..--
.he boiler-
re,sure and better resul:s will-be obtained by increasing both. The
L&7 t,\a~vel eives a h&her steam-Dressure iu the cylinders, a later
eshsL.,. ;ct-nnwi nY;. iD,t,& r\-ilallst-closure. and a larger exhaust- _....~~~~~~ opening .-
all neces~~~~~~~r-~~~i~ speeds and economy. I-believe that a 20-m.
pprt and @/~-in. (or even 7-in.) travel could be successfu!ly used for
high-speed engines, and that frequently b
%
so doing the cyhnders could
b& economic:ally reduced and the counter-. slance hgl-rtened. Or, better
still the diameter of the drivers increased, securing lighter counterbal-
an& and better steam-distribution.
Size of Dri vers. - Economy will increase with increasing diameter of
drivers, provided the work at average speed does not necessitate a cut,off
lrmxr t,ililn one fourth the stroke. The Diston-speed of a locomot!ve
i$t%%?-in. drivers at 55 miles per hour is the sanie as that of one lvith
ii&in. drivers at 61 miles per hour.
Stwn.-m-ts. - The len @h of steam-ports ranges from 15 in. to 23 in.,
ano IT:IS mn~iriw~.t~le intlilence ou the Dower. sDeed. and economy of tile
-..- .. .-._-_-__- ..__
locomotive.
-----------:
In cards from smlilar efiginestlie s&am-line of the card
from the enzine with 23in. Darts is considerably nearer boiler-pressure
orts. That the
i~&YeZ&&-line isdur: to the gre&r length of st&m+ort there is little
room for doubt. Thr. 23.in. Dort Droduced 531 H.P. in an lR%ln.
rvlindw nt, a. cost of 23.5 11,s. of water Der I.H.P. uer h our. The 171/h
-.. --..--- .--
in. port 424 HP., at the rate of 22.9 ;bs: of water. iii a 19-in. cylinder.
Al hi J-alxs. - Tilere is considerable difference of opinion as to the
ndvant,aw. of the All~tn oorted-valve.
--.-----o- --
(See Ew. Xews. July 6. 1593.)
A Renort. on t.he a~lv%tnge of A!!,eri vz,!ves-was mide by the hlester
&lechu,nics Commit.1 ;ee of 1896.
Speed of Railwa. TV Trains. - In 1834 the average speed of trains on
the Liverpool and Rlsnchest,er Railway was 20 miles an- hour; in 183s it
was 25 miles an hour. But hv 1840 there were engines on the Great
Western Railrvav caDable of r&nin,- 50 miles an hour with a train and
SO rnilrs an !lourwithout. (Trans. A. S. dl. E., vol., xiii. 363.)
The limitat,ion to the increase of speed of heavy locoI?otlves, b-ems at
present to be t,le difl~culty of counterbalancing the rectprocatmg parts.
;t~ee ~~nlxxl;~~ed vert~lcal comoonent of the reClD.rocatmg Darts causes
_ .. -__.-. .. ____ _-_. . ~~~
Uhe;l,*~w sDeed is high, it is of considerable~ magui<ude. and its
chance in direction is so &id that the result.ing effect uDon the rail is
not inappropnately called a hammer blow. -Heavy r&s have been
kinked, and bridges have been shaken to their fall under the action of
henrilv balanced drivers revolving at high speeds. The means by
wiiichthe evil is to be overcome has not yet been made clear. See
wow b,r W. F. &I. Goss, Trans. 8.. S. ill. E.. vol. xvi. .
Bluch can be accomtilished. however. bv carefully designing and
proportioning the count&-balalice in the ivheels and by using ligh& bu:
stromg, reciprocating parbs. Pages 41- i 4 of Locomotive Operation.
gives complete rules nod results.
Balanced compound locomotives, with 4 cylinders, the adjacent pis-
tons an:! crossheads being connected lSO apart have also done much
to wduce the distlxbance of the moving part.%
IZnine Ilo. 999 of the New York Central Railroad ran a mile in 32
seconds equal io 112 miles per hour, May 11, 1593.
circum. of driving-wheels in in. X no. of rev. per min. X 66
63,360
= diam., of driving-wheels in in. X no. of xv. per min. X.003
(approximate, giving result s/lo of 1 per cent too gee&t).
Prrformanre of a High-speed Locomotive. - The I3aldwin tom-
pound locomotive No. 1027. on the Phil&. & Atlantic City Ry., in Is97
made a record as follows:
Some of tt
Locomotive Link Motion. - Mr. F. A. II&& in
motive Link hlotion,
&s work on Loco- -
1YOi. shows that the locai~on of the eccentric-rod
pins bac!c of the link-arc and the angular vibrations of the eccentric-
rods introduce two errors in the motion which are corrected by the
angular vibration of the connecting-rod and by locating the saddle-stud
back of the :ii:k-arc. He holds that it is probable that the opinions of
the crit,ics of t!lc locomotive link mot,ion are mistaken ones, and that it
comes little short of all that can be desired for a locomotive valve motion.
TlJe increase of lead from full to mid gear and the heavy compression at
mid gear are bot.h advantages and not defects. The cylinder problem of
a locomotive is entireiy different from that of a ststionarv engme. With
the lat~ter the problem is to determine the size of the cylhider and the dis-
tribut.ion of steam to drive economically a given load at a given speed.
With locomotives the cylinder is made of a size which will start the
heaviest train which the adhesions of the locomotive will permit, and the
problem then is to ut,ihze that cylinder to the best adwntage at a greatly
Increased speed, but under a greatly reduced mean effective pressure.
.Negative lead at full gear 1la.s been used.in the recent practice of some
rallrosds. The advantages claimed are an increase in t~he ower of t.he
engine at full gear, since positive lead offers resista,nce to t le motion of P
tl?e piston;. easier riding; reduced frequency of hot bearings: and a
shght gain m fuel economy. Mr. Halsey gives the practice as to lead on
several roads as follows, s lowing great diversity:
I
Full Gear
Forward, in.
I
gdllGgP
a , .
Li e
he pot;. 114 neg.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
l/33 POS
114 neg.
. . . . . .
Chicago Great Western.. . . .
.__ ., g/ &j neg.
Chicago 6: Northwestern
0
. 3/16 neg.
j . . . . . . . .......
materi al may no l onger be
--
-
114 pas.
. . . . . . . . . . . .._.
abt 3h
Vl 6 DOS.
3/16 to Vi e
l /4 pos.
1096 LOC!O?~OTIYES.
DIMENSIQNS OF SOME LAIIXGE AMERICAN
LOCO~IOTIVES, 1893 AXD 1904.
Of the four locomotives described iri the tat& an the nest Page the first
two \Vt!ie eshihited at the Chicago Exposition il; 18% The dimensions
are from Enginiw~ng News, June, 1893. The lirst. or Decapod engine,
h&s ten-cbl~pled driving-wheels. It is one of the heaviest aild most Power-
f ul en, gi nes bui l t Up to that date for freight service. The second is a sir&
pie engine, of the standard American S-wheel type, 4 driving-wheels, and
a J-wheel truck in front. This engine held the worlds record for speed
In 1883 for short dist.ances. having run a mile in 32 seconds.
The other two engines formed part of the exhibit of the Baldwir? LOCO-
motive Works at lhe St. Louis Esposition in 1904. The Santa Fe type
engine has five paifs of driving-wheels. and a two-wheeled truck at. t,he front
and at the i ear. It is equipped with Vauclain tandem compound cylinders.
Dimensions of Some American Locomotives.
(Baldwin Loco. Wks.. 1004-S.)
- -.
2: i!;
200 60
200 62
ml 76
200 68
% z
210 70
223 i8
200 84
~--
-
194. 6
2
37.2
33
49.5
2
58.5
68.4
-
-
Tubes.
-.
--
( Heating Driving qreight,, tbs.
Surface. wheels
-3
-. -
Total
Dr?ers Engine
- - r,y,. - - -
97 2 117 41 586
160 2 IO 6
136 I::
073
:;: ; II I6 7 I 2279 1733
29.3 214 I3 IO
306 214 I4 6 :g 5:;;
273 214 IS 10 190 3015
318 214 I9 195 3543
303 .?,I4 21 I90 3772
463 214 I9
,401 2.1/i 21 ii! 2::
44,420 52,720
72,150 84,650
63.680 124,420
I 12,000 !59.000
164,000 179.500
166,0001 i86.000
101,420, 193.769
144_600 209.210
151.290 230.940
394,150/ 237,600 267,ROO 425.900
I I
, * ! I
Typeand cplindei size: 1 H~gul. 13x 18: 2. !dogul. 1GX 20; 3, America?.
15 x24; 4. LO-wheel balanced compound, 16 X26 and 26 X2S; 5. Cons$-
dation. 22 X25: 0, Consolidat.ion, 23 and 35~ 32: 7, Atlantic. 1.5 and 23 X
20; Y. Prairie, 1 and 29 x 2s: g. I%cifi,c, 22 ;q 2s; 10, DecaPod. 19 and
32 X 32: II, Afallet, t%vO each 26 and 40 X 30.
s
:
1
.*
lead. 1.p . . .
Boiler.- Type.
Diam. barrel inside.
Thickness of plates
Height from rail t
. . . . . . . . .
6 in.
11~ in.
518 */
St,raight.
6 ft. 212 in.
314 in.
Tlw MAAM CornpoUnd Locomutiw. -
The Mallet articulated iOCO-
motito conststs principally of two sets of erigines flesibly connected, under
one boiler:, the rear, whicli is a high-pressure engine of two cylinders.
Rsed ti:id !Vlth the boiler and receiving the shennl direct from t,he dome.
The ftotrt or low-pressure engine also provided with t\vo cyhnders, 1s
capatlle of ltit.eta.1 movement to adjust itself to the Cilrvatilre of the road
on hhe same general principie as a radial truck. The high-pressure engine
e?shawts i.nto a receiver fiexil)ly connecting the cylinders of the two sets
of ewinesl from which the lo,i;-pressure engine receives its steam SuPPly
and is es,lrsusted from the latter throu=h a flexible pipe t.0 t,he stack.
Each cylinder has its fndepcqdent Valve and Eear connected to a.nd
opcmtrd with a common reversing rigging.
By this means the tractive
PO\\-er ran be douljled over that of the ortlinarv engine for a tiven %?Kht
of rail \!?th a suhstantia1 saving in fuel.
A. s. M. E., 1QOQ.)
(See Gaper by C. J. blellin. !fr(ms*
This t,ype of locomotive is adapted to a wider mwe of service than Per-
center line.. _. _._
Lengt,h of smoke-bos.
Working pressure . . .
Firebox.- type..
Length inside. . . .
Width . . . .
Depth at front...
Thiqbness side plates..
.a
back plate .
crown-sheet.

~~~ I
tube sheet..
urare-area..
Stay-bolts, I l/sin... . p
h&F?- iron .
I
=ILcn. ...............
$+mi.outside .......
uclglll .
Hating-surface:
Tubes. exterior..
Fire-box.. _._ _. _
Iip~~-- IBLL~Ui
S&k
ust-nozzle. diam
f 3. @?.
la0 Ibs.
wootten
l(Y I I g/lo
8 ft.. 2113 in.
II
1 6
Vi6 in.
al St
3' 8 (
I ,
89.& ft.
bitch, 4$+ in
354
234 in.
2 66
I I ft. II in.
haps MU ot.her design. It was originally intended for mhrro\v-wuw rods
of light, corlst,ruct,ion, neressitatinp sharp curves and st,eep grades. in c.o.m-
hination wit.h light tails. The characteristics of this design are flesiblhty
ar.d uniform distrlbut.ion of weight combined mit.h the use of t,wo Separate
entines which would not. slip at the same time, and t,he total weight carried
on lhe aivers, giving great tractive power. The first engine of this class_A
2,208.8 ft.
234.3 46
.I
, smolst diam..
height from
5 in.
I ft. 6 in.
I5 ft.61/2 in
MARNING: is a 1910 edition.
rail to top. .:
material may no longer
LARGE AMERICAN LOCOMOTI~ES
.I
tender-
Wp+pbaae:
r,vm
Tq$ engine.. .
tender..
1
eng. and tender.
Wt. in working-ordra
On drivers. ~.
On truck-wheels.. .
,lgne~ tq$d.
. . .
Eng. and tend., londec
cx!~~$Y.. . . .
1.p. (2). _C.. .
Piston-rod, diam..
Connect,ing-rod. Igt,h.
St,esm-ports.. .
Eshaust-ports..
Vajyes. wt. lap, l,.p.
out,. lap. 1.p.
6.
in. lap, h.p ,. .
.I
in. Isp, I.D. .
a+
max. travel
.I
lead, hop. . .
II
- __
Baldwin.
rT. Y., I;. E.
L&x w. II.. R.
Dccapod
Freight..
-
50 in.
30 *a
9 XlOin.
5 X10
4%X 9I
16 ft. IO in.
27 3
I6 0
53 4 (6
I;;,;;; Ibs.
I.
192:500 6
117.500 I
3lQ,OOO 6
16x28 in.
27X20 *
4 in.
Y Si/lff
28i/?Y2 in *I .
ZSl~X0 a
7/g in.
58 *
. . . . . . . . . . .
-
86 in.
40 s1
3 X 1212 in
9./4x 10 *
IlsX a 4.
19X24 in.
,...........,
33/ a in.
Sft. ll/zin.
ll/~XlS in.
234x18
II in.
. . . . . . . . .
l/IQ in.
. . . . . . . . .
512 in.
. . . . . . . .
wagon top
4 ft. 9 in.
916 in.
kf,4. 11,1/z in.
I
190 lbs.
Buchanan
9ft.63/si!?.
3 a* 47/g
6 114
a0 in.
%I3 I
3/ 8 1:
30.:;c&ft.
260 .
. . . . . . .
2 in.
12 ft. 0 in.
1,697 sq. ft.
233 ?
313 in.
I ft. 31/q in.
I4 ft. IO in.
-
be accura
Bal dwi n.
Santa Fe
rYPe
2-I O-2
Freight.
57 in.
!9 14 k 40
iI X12
61?X IO
7 2X 12 *
i9ft. 9 in.
I5 11
i6ft. 0 in.
34,580 Ibs.
52, 660
287. 240 *
. . . . . . .
450,000
, 9X32 in.
i2X32
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
!9 3/4x 15/g
and 13,
!934x 6:141
i/e in.
34 **
wg. 14 in.
leg. 38
6 in.
0 I
8 *
Kngon to
7834 in.
i/s ,Q lj/lev
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
225 Ibs.
. . . . . . . .
108 in.
78 (6
Sol/4 in.
7814 I
38 *I
38 Aa
38 I4
%3 I
58~53%. ft.
C
zq4 111.
20 ft.
4,;; sq. ft
a1
. . . . . . . . .
_.........
3
T
1
. -
,
.
L
B$l;~.
Typk 4-6-2
?nssenger.
77 in.
33 12 8: 45
IOX I2 i.1.
6x10
8X IL I *
13 ft. 4 in.
33 *a 4 8
. . . . . .._...
62 034
xi
222:520
. . . . . . . . . . .
357,000
$$,;t in.
I.
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
307gX I 2
30;/@.2 3
. .
neg. Qo
.
6 in.
333 in.
..:
syoyp
1110 in.
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
6 6 i n.
I I
68 +*
64 *
d?,,. ft.
245
:.
;;I$.
2,;y9 sq.*ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
,.,v;
1098 LOCOMOTIVES.
was bnilt about 1557. and in 1909 there were approsimately 500 running in
I<urope. They are now extensively in use in the United Stat.es for the
hcdviest service. The largest iocomotive yet built is described in Eng.
~Vcws, April 29, 1909. It was built by the l3aldwin Lwomotive Works
for use on the heavy grades of the Southern Pacific R.R. The principa:
dimzsions are as follows: Cylmders. 26 and 40 X 30 ins.: valves, balanced
piston; boiler (steel): diameisr. 34 ins.; thi.ckness, 13/1s au> K/s2 ins.; rrork-
ing pressure, 30 Ibs. per sq. in.; fuel, oil; lire-ti!bes, 401, 21/ 4 ins. dia. X
21 ft.; firebox: length, 1% ins., width, 781/z ins., depth, front, 751/z ins.,
depth, back, 701/z ins.; Iwater spaces. 5 ins.; grate area, 6~3.4 sq. ft.;
feeti-!vater heater: length, 63 iris., tubes, 401. 21/4 ins. dia.: heating sur-
face: iirebos, 232 sq. ft., fire.-tubes, 4941 sq. ft., feed-water heater tubes,
1220 jq. ft.: smokebos superheater, 655 sq. ft.: wileels: driving (26).
57 ins. 0. dia., main journals, 11 X 12 ins., other journals, 10 X 12 ins.;
truck (4), 30 i/z ins. dia., journa,ls, 6 X 10 ins.: tender (8),.331/z ins. dia.,
journals, 6 X 11 i,cs.: wheelbase: driving. 39 ft. 4 ins., rimd, 15 ft.., total
engine. 5G ft. 7 ins., total ensine and tender, 83 ft. 6 ins.: length over all.
93 ft. Glizins.: weight: on dnvers, 394,150 Ibs.. on front truck, 14,500 lbs.,
on back truck, 17,250 lbs.. total engine 425,900 ibs.. tot?! engice and
,t$$e; ~~96:GOO Ibs.; tender: water tack capy., 9000 gals., oli tank capy.,
3 0
Indicated IV&ter Conwmption of Single and Compound Loeo-
moti,ve Engines at Varying Speeds.
C. H. Quereau. Engv Nears, March 8, 1894.
Tn~c-cyiinder Compound.
-__-
S tied,
Revo!utions. P,I es per 7
1 Water per
hour.
T.H;P;per
100 to 150 21 to31 18. 33 Ibs.
I50 to 200 18. 9 Ibs.
200 t<, 2% :I t: ;I. 19. 7 Ibs.
250 to 275 51 to 56 1 21. 4 lbs.
I
Single-expansicn.
Revolu-
tions.
151 31 21. 70
::; 2; 20. 52 20. 91
307 2: 20. 23
321 20. 01
It appears that the compound engine is the more eronomicnl at low
speeds. the eco:lom.v tlecreasin< as t~he speed increases. and that the
single en-ine increastis in economv with increase of weed Gt!lin ortlinarv
limits, becoming more economical than the compoutid at speeds of more
t~h;ln 50 tnilP.2 nor hnllr ___..._ _.. .._.__ ,___ .._ . . .
The C.. 13. & Q. two-cyliuder compound, which wa,s about 307C less
erot;onncnl than simple c@nes of the same class when tested in passenger
serv!ce. has since been shown to be 15% more economical in freight
serwe than t,he best single..espansion engine, and 29% more economical
than the average record of 40 simple engines of the same class on t,he
came division
The water rat.e is also affect,ed by the cut-off: the following table gives
what we should cowider wr.!r good results in practice, though better
(i.e. loner results) have occnslonally been obtained.
1 on,: 1
(G. R. Henderson,
_ . ..._.,
Cut.-off per cent of stroke . . 10 30 40
1,b.s. water per I.H.P. hour -simple 26 iii 29
Lbs. water per I.H.P. hour-compound E 1;
Cut,-off per cent of stroke. . 60
1.1~. wtcr per I.H.P. hour - simple.. 24
Lbs. water per I H.P. hour -compound
2760 k!
90 100
181/z 191/z 20 Jz %,? ;:
Indirn.tor-trsts of a, r,oromofivr at High Speed. (L:ocom ofit-e
I?ngg. June., lS9:j.j - Cards were taken by Mr. Angus Sinclair on the
locomotive drawing the Empire State Express.
TtG is a 1910 edition. Some
LOCOMOTIVES.
.I099
RESULTS OF INDICATOR-DIAGRAMS,
Card No. Revs. peft@r I.H.P. Card No. Revs. I.H.P.
;
r;g
37.1 304
I90
60.8
;+;
iti
: 2:
551 . 9
256
300
250 891 304
;
260
::
960 2
;t?:;
295 9s3 i:i 71.9 1.026
The locomotives was of the eight-wheel
Locomotive Works, with 19 X 34 in.
built by the Schenecta,...~
large. boiler and fire-box.
78-m. drivers, and a
Details of important dim:nsions are as fol-
lows: .Heating-surface of fire-box, 150.8 sq. ft.: of tubes. 1670.7 ~q. ft.;
of bciley, 1821.5 -q. f;. Grate area,
8 ft.; wdth, 3 ft,. 47/s in.
27.3 sq. ft. Fire-box: length,
Tubes, 268; outside diameter, 2 in. Ports:
steam, 18 X 1 l/4 In.; eshauSt , , 1s X 23/q in. Valve-travel, 51/z in. Out-
side lap. 1 in.; inside lap. l/64 in.
truck-axle! 6 X 10 in.
Journals: driving-axle, 81/z x 10 l/z in.;
The tram consisted of .four coaches, weighing, with estimated load,
340,000 Ibs. The locomotive and tender weighed in working order 200,000
lbs., fiaking the total weight of the train about 270 tons. During the
time that the engine was first lifting the train into speed diagram No. 1
was taken. it shows a mean cylinder-pressure of 59 lb::. Accordi:,; to
this, the power exerted on the rails to move the tr,:in is 6553 lbs., or 24
Ibs. per ton. The speed is 37 miies a.n hour. When a speed of nearly
60 miles an hour wits reached the average cylinder-pressure is 40.7 lbs.,
representing a total traction force of 4520 lbs..
tions for internal friction.
wit,hout making deduc-
If we deduct lOTo for friction. it leaves 15 lbs.
per ton to keep the train going at the speed named. Cards 6. 7, and 8
represent the work of keeping the train running i0 miles an hour.
were taken three miles apart, when the speed was a!mo& uniform.
They
The
average cylinder-pressure for the three cards is 47.6 11,s. Deducting
10% again for friction, this leaves 17.6 lbs. per toR as the power exerted
in keeping the trair. up to a velocity of 70 miles. Throughout the trip
7 Ibs. of water were evaporatedper lb. of coal. The work of pulling
the train from. New York to Albany was done on a coal constn~ tion of
about 31/g l!x. per H.P. per hour. (P was at
the rate of 1120 H.P.
The highest power recorde
Locomotfve-testin
versftv. (W. F. M. %
Apparatus at the liaboratory of Purdue Uni-
OS% Trans. A. S. M. .K., vol. siv, 826.) -The
locom&ive is mounted with its ddvers upon supporting,wheels which
are carried by shafts turning in fixed bearings. thus allowng the engine
to be run wt,hout cha,nging its position as a whole. Load is supplied by
four friction-brakes fitted to the supporting shaf!s and offering resistance
to the turning of the supporting wheels. Traction is measured by a
dynamometer attached to the draw-bar. The boiler is fired in the
usual* v:ay. and an exhaust-blower abore the endine. but not in piqe I
connection with it, carries off all that may be given out. at the stack.
.4 Standard Metkod of Conducting Locomotice-tests is @i\-en in a report by
a Committee of the A. S. M. E. in vol. xiv of the Transactions. page 1312.
Locomotive Tests of the Penna. R. R. Co. - Ei,oiiF locomotives were
tested in the dynamometer testing plant. built by the P. R. R. Co. at the
St. Louis Eshibit~ion in 1903. Among the principal resu!ts obtained and
conclusions derived are the following:
Coal per2sOq. ft. grate ~0 hour,llbs.
100
Equiv. evap. i:r sq. ft. H. S. per hour
120
3-5 S- 7. 5 7- 10 5. 2- 12 10.4-14 11.4-15.3
1.5
6. 2- 7. 7
Ckd per dr, ft. H. $&per hw;
Equiv. e&p. per lb. dry coal
1.2, 1.4 1.6
10-11.3 9-10.5 8.2-9.7 7:7-9.1 7.1-5.5 6.644
Equiv. evap. per sq. ft. H. S. py hour
Equiv. ev:p. per lb. Bdiy coal
10 12 14
9.7-12.1 5.8-11.3 7.8-10.5 &-9.6 5.3-5.5 5.5-S
the material may no l onger be accurate
The coal used in ttl&@ tests MS it @M-bit .uft&iXis, containing 16.25 %
volatile combustible. 7.00% ash and 0.90% , moisture.
The maximum boiler ca.$aclty fanged frbm 81/z to more than 16 lbs.
of water evapnrjted per hour per sq. ft. 6f heating surface. Little or no
advantage w&s found in the use of Serve~or ribbed tlibes.
The boiler efficiei:cy decreases as the rate of power developed increases.
Furnace losses due to excess air are no greater with large grates properly
fired than with sm&ller ones. The boilers Mh small grates were inferior
in capaclt,v to those with large grates.
No speiial advantage iS derived. fiom lafge fire-box heating surface; the
,tut-u$zating surface is effectwe UI absorbmg heat snot taken up by the
__-- --__.
ENGINE PERFORMANCC.
1iaximum IMP., four freight locomotives, 1041, 1050, io95, 1258
Maximum I.H.P., fou? passenger locomotives, 816, 945, 1622, 1641
Kind of Lodotiotive.
1
simple
I@
reight .
hfinimum mater per I&P. hour. . . . . . . . . . .
Water per 1.X.P. hr. at maximum load . . . %:
Water per I.H.P. hr. at max. consumption. . . 20. 95
-
_.
com-
Com-
pollnd
I%$& Fey-
;z:Ci
18.86
21. 39
25. 31 24. 41
The stenm consumption of sim le loconiotivcs operating at all sperds
and cut-offs commonly empioyec f on the road falls between the limits
of 23.4 and 2S.X lbs. per I.H.P. hour: comptrund locomotives b,rtwcn
lS.6 and 27 Ibs.: and with supetheatimz the minimum steam consumption
was reduced Tao 16.5 lbs. of superheated steam.
Comparing a simple and a compound locomotive. the simple en*ne
used 40% more stcam than the c~jmnciund at 40 revs. oer min., 2iSE more
at SO revs., and onlv 7% more at 160 revs. per min. -
The frictional re&st.ance of the engines showed an extreme rarlntion
ranglnp from 6 to 3;3% of t~he ihdicated horse-po\ver. The friction?;
losses increased rapidly at Speeds in excess of 160 revs. per min.
appears that t.he mil,tter of mnchiw frict,ion is closely related to that Of
lubrication. With oil lubrication a stress at the draw-bar of approsi-
mstelv 300 lbs. is required to overcome the friction of each Coupled axle,
whilewith grease the required force is from SO0 to 1100 lbs.
The lowst figures for dry coal consumed per dynamometer H.P. hour
vfere approximately as follows:
Rers. her min. . . . . . 40 80 160 240
Compound freight engine,
{ pcxcl 2. 10 2. 25 3. 25 . . . . *
500 so0 so0 . . . .
Compound passenger englne, D ~H.~.
I?. con1
,;,. ,$$ $&
3. 0
1000
A complere report of the St. Louis locomotive test.s is contained in a
book of X.4 pages and over SO0 illustrations. published by the Penna. RR.
Co.. Phila:lelphia, 1906. See also pa.mphlet on Locomotive Tests, pub-
lished by Amer. Locomotive Co., New York, 1906, and Trans. A. S. 711. E..
xsrii, 610.
TVeights and Prices of Locomotives, 1885 and 1905.
(Baldwin Loco. Wks.)
ZI,\merie3n. _. 80.857 $6,695 S 0828 GlAmerican.. :. . 102 000 $9,410 $.092
Z :3Jogui.. 72,800 6.662 .0912 0 Atlantic.. . . . . 187:200 15.750
~~~ whee~. 85.000
Consolidation 92,400 2.583 1.888
. 0892 Pacific.. . . . . . . 227,000 15,830
:z(&
.0854 Ten wheel.. ~. 156.000 13,690 .088
Consolidation . 192. 460 14, 500 . 075
. . . I
LOCOMOTIVES. 1101
The price per pouncl is figured from the weight of the engine in working
order. without the tender.
Depreciation of Locomotives.-(Baldwin Loco. Wks.)-It is suggested
that for the first five years the full second-hand value of the locomotive
(75% of first cost) be taken; for the second five years 85% of this value;
for the third five years, 70%; after 15 years, 50% of thesecond-hand value:
and after 20 years, and as long as the engine remains in use, 23% of the
ti nt CCSt,.
Tractive Force of Locomotives, 1893 and 1905.
(Baldwin Loco. Wks.)
American, single-es. 75,210 17.270 Atlantic, camp. . . . 101,420 22,180
American, come A . . . 83,860 12.900 htlant.ic. single-es.. 103,600 23,800
American, sin&-es.. 64, 560 15. 550 Ixcilic. single-ex. . . 141.290 29.910
Amcriwn. romp . . 78, 480 14, 050
Ten-wheel 93, 850 16, 480
Pacific: sin,&es. . . 114,390 25.610
type, corn. htlallt~c,slrlgle-es... 80, 930 21, 740
--- ---
Average.. . . . . . . . . 15,250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,648
_--
Freight, 1893.. Freight, 1905.
cnsnlirln:-- ^^-- 8x1 6~ 21, 190 Sante Fe t,ype, camp. 234. 58OL
I , , 23. 310 Consol., Zcy:. camp..
* 2m I, nin r?^..,., -:..,?,^~,%..
i~idsni ~
~, , l ; ; i , ai , ~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~Z
2, 740
1bhOOOi 40,200
Mogul. single-es.. . ~ 9, , , =i u r. , . , , , ZI L_,
Decnpod, compound 172,000
i I
. >. , , j $, rc P. . . .
35,580 Consol.. sin!&-ex.. .
Consol.. single-es.. .
( Average. . . . . . . . . . . . . 133q.......: . . . . T . . . . . . . . . I........ psr
CTTaste of I?neI in Locomotives. - In American pract,ice economy
of fuel is necessarily sacrificed to obtain
greater economy due to. heilvy
train-loads. D. L. Barnes. in Ew. lllcrg., Jane, 1SQ.l.. gives a chagram
howing ihe r&iuction of, elliciencg of boilers d,
tustiof, G
ue to lugh rates of crm-
om which the following figures are taken:
Lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of grate per hour. . . 12 40 80 1:; 1:; 2::
Per cent, etiiciencv of boiler. . . . . . . . . . . . 80 i5 67
ha$ed, so that (c) the tender and its load are materially reduced in
w$!ght. ($) It b%S. increased the possibilities of sneed far bevond 60
m$es per hour, without unduly st&nlng the moti&, fran&, axles, or
axle-boxes of the engine. (e) It has inrie:t..wd th
full sneed. or. in other words. ha,n inrt
-- . ..e haulage-power at
.eased the continuous, H.P. derel-
opetl,- per given wei&t of eyig&T ~~~ boiler-
increased Lhe startinS-power. (g) It has
(I) In some classes has
valve friction per H.P. developed.
materially lessened the slide-
(3.) It. has wnu&.ed or distributed
the. turning force on the crank-pin, over ad longer portion of its path
ml:irh. of c?urse, tends to lengthen the repair life of the engine. (i) II;
1 le two-,cylmder tgpe It has decreased the oil consumption, and has even
done so m the Woolf four-cylinder engine. (j) Its smootner and steadier
draught on the fire is favorable to the combustion~ of all kinds of soft
coal; ,and the spar!is thrown being smaller and
less in number. it lessens
the risk to .property from destruction by fire. (k) These idvantages
and ecqnomles are gainer without. having to improve .the man handlinr
the enape. less being left to his discretion (or careler
:s indifference) than
In the slpp!e engine. (I) Valve-motion, of every lc
lcomotive type, can
be II+ II! Its best ?vorking and most effective posi
elast!clty m locomotive design is permitted: ASP If ds
tion.~ (?n) A wider
he dispensed withy qr -articulated engir
Dendent truck
~. ._ _-. -_ -Asired. side-rods can
les of 100 tons weight. with intle-
s. useu for sharp curves on mountain service, as sug&red
UUIIKL uu Brunner.
f 27 compound locomotives in use on t,he Phila. and Readi:icr Rail-
r;ad (in lS92), 12are in use on heavy mountain grades and are ti&i:wed
to be the eqtuvalent of 22 X 24 in. simple consolidations; 1~ are ins&e-
!vhat lighter service and correspond to 20 X 24 in. cc
~1 fast passenger service. The mc
xwc!itlations; 5 are
)lltbly coal record shon~j:
Class of Ellbrtle. No,
Mountain locomotives.. 1
Heavyfreightservice..::::::::::::::: IO
Fast passenger.
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(Report of Com. A. R. %I. M. Assn. 1892.) For a description of the
varlpus tSPes of CompOuntl locomoti\~e, with discussion of their re!ative
merits, see paper by A. Van Borries, of Gwnany. the Development of
the Compound Locomotive, T,n,l.s. ., 1. 4Y. ~11. E.. lS98, vol. xiv, p. 1172.
AS a rule CO~~OIII~(~S coTt consitlerahlg more for rep:lirs, and require
a better class of enjimeers ami machinists to obt,ain satisfactory results.
(Henderson.)
-
LOCOXIOTIYES.
W. E. Dalbys book on the Balancing of Engines (Longmans,
I$% & Co., 19@2) cont,rins a very full discussion of this subject.
See
also IIendersons Lccomotive Operation (The Railwa!l Age. 1904).
Narrow-gange R:~ilwnys in >&mfacturing \yorks. -- ii tramway
of I8 inches gauge, several miles m length, 1s in t~he works of the Lan-
cashire and Yor!<&!lir,: Railway. Curves of 13 feet radius are used.
The loeomotiws used have the following dimensions (p~,,w. I?&. ilf. E.
July, 18S.S): The cylinders are 5 in. in diameter with e in. stroke, and
2 ft. 31/4 in. centre to centre. Wheels 161/4 in. diameter, the wheel-base
2 ft. 9 in.; the frame 7 ft. 41/4 in. long,. and th,e extreme width of the
engine 3 feet: Boiler, of steel, 2 ft. 3 m. outside dlam. and.2 ft. long
bet;!ec!l tube-plates, cont,aining 55 tubes of 13/s in. outside (ham.: fire-
box, of iron and cylindrical, 2 ft. 3 in. long and 17 in. inside diam. Heat-
ing-surface 10.42 sq. ft. in the fire-bolt- and 36.12 in the tubes, total 46.54
sq:ft.: grate-area, 1.78 sq. ft.: capacity of tank. 26% gallons: workmg-
ressure. 170 lbs. per sq. in. tracBive poser. say, 1412 lhs.. or 9.22 lbs. per
P. b of effective presslne per sq. in., on the piston. \Veight, empty, 2.80
tons; full and in working order, 3.19 tons.
For descript,ion of a spst.em of narrow-gauge railtvag-s for manufac-
tories, see circular of the C. TV. Hunt Co., New York.
Li ght I~ocomotives. - For dimensions of light locomotives used for
mining, etc., and foi much valuable information concerning them, see
cat,alogue of Hn. Ii. Porter Co., Plt.tsburgh.
Petroleum-burning: Locomotives. (From Clarks Steam-engine.) -
The combustion of pet.roleum refuse in locomotives has bee!1 succe?s-
full17 practised by Mr. Th&. Iirquhart. on the Grnzi and Tsaritsm Rail-
na<. Sout,hea,st Russia. Since November, 1884, the whole stock of 143
locomotives under his superintendence has been tired with petroleum
refuse. The oil is inject.ed from a nozzle through a tubular op?ung ln
the back of the fire-box, by meilns of a jet of steam, \vit,h an Induced
current of air.
.4 I~ridtworl; cavity or regenerative or accumulatire combustjon-
chamber is formed in t,he fire-box, int,o which the combined current
breaks as spray against the rugged brickwork slope. In this arrange-
ment the brickwork is maintained at a white heat. :?nd combustfop iS
complete and smokeless. The form, m.ass, and dimen.5ion.s of the bnck-
work are t,he most important, elements m such a Co~ibi,natlon.
Compressed air was tried instead of steam for nwctlon, but no appre-
ciable rerlucticn in consumption of fuel was noticed.
The heating-power of pet,roleum reftlse is given as 19.832 hea,t-units,
eq~liralrnt to the evaporation of 20.53 11)s. of water from and at. 217 F.,
or to 17.1 lbs. at Sl/z at,mospheres. or 125 11,s.
sure. The highest evaporatire di1t.y was 14
f
er sq. m.. etfect,lre pres-
bs. of water under 8%
atmospheres per lb. of the fuel, or nearly 82% efficiency.
There is no probability of any ertenrire use of petroleum as fuel for
locomotives in t.he Unit&d Stat& on account of the unlimited SUPP~ Of
coal and the comparatively limjt~ed supply of petroleum.
Texas and
Ca.lifornia oils are nom (1902) used in locomotires of the Southern Pacific
Rnihwy and the Sant.a FG System.
Self-propplIed Railway Cars. -The use of singlerailWay Cars Con-
taining a steam or gasolene motor has become quite common In Europe.
For a description of different systems see a paper on European RallmaY
Motor Cars by B. D. Gray in Tran.s A. 5. M. E., 1907.
Firrless Locomotive. -The principle of the Francq 1oCOmo~iJe 1s
that it depends for the supply of steam on its spontaneous generation
from a bodr of heated water in a reservoir. As steam is generated and
drawn off the pre.csure falls: but by providin, c
= z suticiently large vo!umo
Of water hent.ed to a high tempernt,ure, at a pressure CorrespOndmglY
high. a margin of surphls pressure may be secured. and means maY.thus
be provided for supplyin, ~7 The required quantity of steam for the trip.
The fireless locomotive designed for the service of the 1IetroPohtan
Ra,il\vav of Paris has a cylindrical reservoir having segmental ends.
about. d ft. 7 in. in diametef 261/t ft. in length. with n c:lp%Citp Of nh?llt
620 cllbic feet. Four-fifths of the capacity 1s occupied hy water. .TvhlCh
is heated by the aid of a powerful jet of steam supplied frpm stationary
boilers. The water is heated unt.il eqldlibrium is estabhslwd b*t,lv+?cn
the boilers and the reservoir. The temperature is raised t.o about 390 b..,
Corresponding to 225 lbs. per sq. in.
The steam from the reservoir 19
1104 LOCOMOTIVES
nassed through a.reducins-valve. bv which the steam is reduced to the
required pressure. It is then Pa&d ~~through a tubular superheater
situated within the receiver at the uPPer Part. and thence through the
ordinsrv remilator to the cvlinders. The eshaust-steam is exnsnded tn
a low Press&e, in order to obviate noise of escape. In certain cases the
exhaust-steam is condensed in closed vessels, which are on1.v in Dart
filled with water.
- e
The locomotive has ten \?heels, on a base 24 ft long, of which six are
coupled. 41/s ft. in diameter. The extreme wheels are on radial axles.
The cplind,ers are 231/s in. in diamet.er, with a stroke of 231/s in.
The encmr meighs:i m working order. 53 tons, of which 35 tons are on
the coupled wheels. The speed varies from 15 miles to 25 miles per hour.
The trains :veigh about 140 tons.
Comnressrd-air Loromntivna. - A locomotive con-
ing wheels. with two
See account oftheMklcilrs~c;;m~~es~~d~air lo&motives. page 624 ante.
DIJIENSIOSS AND TRMYIWE POWER OF FOUR CGUPL&D COMPRESSED-AIR
L0c0M0T1V~s HAVING Two STORAGE TANIiS.
Class... . . . . . . . . . 4-4-c
Dinm. of drivers..
Cylinders, inches.. . 52~2!,0
SXl 4
Wheel base.. . .::
62xq!O 2xq!2
26"
4 0
g,x,!,4
4' 3" 4' 6"
' ~~?"
U3$J6
Approx. weight, lbs.. IC$I!)
5' 3" 5' 5" 5' 6"
^_ ^^^
Inside dia. of tanks..
gy 1po LI. 27,000 37,000 .ti &I
Aggr=qlte tnnli vol.,
32' 34" 380 4i.v
.I;;: $,h;::: : 1: : : 4p7:
100 130 170
v
App.
. .
width over
4' 10 5' 0
280 320
5' 4f l
5?y,,
6' 0" 6J 4"
tanks.. . . . . . . . . 4 10
.bp. width over cyl- Gauge
5 2
5' 6 5' 100
6, 3"
inders . . . . . . . . . +24
huge Gauge
+ 0"
7p 4"
APP. length over
- 1. 26" +27*
huge
+28"
GFToq,e ";;p chuae
+3P
bumpers.. _. . . .
f ;Full stroke.. ,.._
lz o 14' 0 15' on
1350
18 0
1785
2w 0" 20 6"
? 34 Stroke cut-off
2915 47ior
1290 1700
4820 7200 9140
us
7 !? St rake cut-off
2780 3900
940
%
4580
::
2% 1!4Stroke cut,-off
2025
510 1100 t;:
E!i
8705
6340
2710 3440
- -
Draw-bar pull on any grade= tractive Power-
X \$ght of engine.
( . 0075+ % of grade)
U orkin Pressure in cylinders 140 lbs.: ta,nk storage pressure 800 lbs.
Other sises of engines are 51/s X 10 in.. 6X12 in
and g Xliln. Q&in
dim. of drivers; 9 X14 in., 26-in. drivers, and. 10 ~1.4 in.. 23-i;. dh;ers.,:.-
UARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
4-x 4-8-c
---
-i
-
-
4-10-C
-
4-12-C 4-16-C c!ac
-
COMPRESSED-AIR LOCONOTIVES. 1105
CUBIC FEET OF AIR, AT DIFFERENT STORAGE PRESSURES. REQUIRED TO
HAUL ONE Tax ONE MILE .4T HALF STIZOICE CUT-OFF, WITH 20, 30
AND 40 LBS. FRICTIONAL RESISTMWE PER TON. (Baldwin Loco. Wks.)
St or age pr essur e 600 700 800 . . . . . . 600 700 8
Cylinder working
pressure.. . . 130 135 140 . . . . . . I 30 135 1 . . . . . 130 135 140
Grade. R V!V;V; V V
I I
-------
Level.. .
112 %...
l%.....
zyzo. . . . .
$k:::
5g . . . . .
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
. . . 20. 0
. 31. 2
. . . 42. 4
. . . 64. 8
_.. 87. 2
. . . 109. 6
. . . 132. 0
1. 160. 99 0. 87 30. 0
1.81 1. 56 1. 36 41. 2
2. 472. 12 1.85 52. 4
3. 703. 242. 03 74. 8
5. 084. 35 3. 81 97. 2
6. 395. 484. 79 119. 6
7. 696. 605. 77 142. 0
2. 33/ 1. 99) . 74
2. 9&2. 56: 2. 23
3. 64: 3. 1112. 73
4. 94i 4. 24' 3. 70
I
6. 25/ 5. 35: 4. 69
7. 566. 47; 5. 67
8. 06 7. 60' 6. 64
I I
R=resistance Per ton of 2249 tbs. in pounds. V=cubic feet of air.
d?r Locomot&s with Commwnd Ckders and Atmosvheric Interheaters
are built by H. I<. Porter Co. Theair enters the high-pressure cylinder
at. 250 lbs. gauge ressure and is expanded down to 50 Ibs.., overcoming
resistance. while t ie temnerature droos about 140 F. P Thus loss of heat
is practically all restored in the atmospheric interheater, which is a
cyhndrical reservoir filled with brass tubes located in, the passage-way
from the hi&- to the low-pressure cylinder. The air enters the low-
pressure cylmder at 50 lbs. gauge and a temperature wlthm 10 or 20 of
that of the surrounding atmosphere. The exhaust is used to induce a
draurrht of atmosoheric air through the tubes of t.he interheater. This
combination permits of expanding the air from 250 lbs. down to atmos-
phere without unmanageable refrigeration.
The followinc calculation shows the relative economy of a single-cylinder
locomotive using air at 150 Ibs. and of a CGmpGUnd using airat 250 lbs.
in the high-pressure and 50 lbs. in the low-pressure cylinder, non-espan-
sive wor!cing being assumed in both cases.
11.2 cu. ft. of free air at 150 lbs. eauee and atmoscheric temnerature
would fill a cyiinder of 1 cu. ft. caPa&yT and in moving a pistonof 1 sq.
ft. area one foot would develop 144 X 150 = 21,600 ft. Ibs. of energy.
11.2 cu. ft. of free air at 250 lbs. gauge if used ui a cylinder 0.623 sq. ft.
area and 1 ft. stroke would develop O.&J3 X 144 X 250 = 22,425 ft. 11~s.
If expanded in two cylinders with a ratio of 4 to 1 the energy developed
would be 0.623 X 144 x 200 plus 4 X 0.623 X 144 X 50 = 35,880 ft. !bs,, ?f
the,heat is restored between the two cylinders. Gain by compoundmg
with interheating. over simole cylinders with 150 lbs. initial pressure.
35. 850 + 21. 600- - A 1. 66.
These results are about the best that can be oblained with either
SimPle or CornPound locomotives. as any improvement due Co expansive
working just about balances the iosses due to* clearance and initial refrig-
eratiOl1. The Work done per cubic foot of free air in the two SYStWlS W
with simple cylinders, 21 600 + 11.2 = 1840 ft. lbs.: with compound
cylinders and atmos heric interheater 35 880 + 11.2 = 3205 ft. lbs.
The above calcu~tions have been practicallv confirmed by .actual
tests, which show 1960 ft. lbs. of work per cubic foot of free air.with the
simple locomotive and 3000 ft. lbs. with the compound. the gain due tc
expansive working and the losses due to internal friction bemg some-
What greater in the compound than in the simple machine.
In the operation Gf campressed-air locomotives the air compressor is
generally delivering compressed air at a pressure fluctuatmg between
800 and 1090 lbs. per sq. m. into the storage reservoir. and it requires an
average of about 12,000 ft. lbs.
deliver it at these pressures.
per cubic foot Gf free air to compress and
The efficiency Gf t.he tKG SYStemS then 1s:
1900 i- 12000 = 16% for the simnle lGCOlnOtiVe, and 3999 + 12909 i
,,/ 25% for the compound with atmospheric interheater.
e...
,atefial ~tiay no longer be accurate
SHAFTING.
(See also TORSIONAL STRENGTH; also SH.%~TS OF STEAM ENGINES.)
For shafts subjected to torsion only, let d = diam. of the shaft in ins.
P = a force in lbs. applied on a lever arm al a distance = a ins. fro4
the axis, S= shearing resistance at the outer fiber, in Ibs. per sq. in., then
x&s @Is
Pa= 16 = ski = 0.1936 @S;
If R = revolut~iocs per minute, then the horse-power transmitted =
HP = pa2nR nd%s x 2 ;rR RSd
. .
33, 000 x 12 = 16 X 33, 000 X 12 =3- ;
d=
\;/32l,OOOH.P. = ;/,,,I.,..
In practice, empirical values are given to S and to the coefficients
K = 5.,l/S and C = 321,000/S, according to the factor of safety assumed
depewhng on the material. on whether the shaft is subjected to steady
ffuctustmg, bending, or reversed strains, on the distance between bear:
~ngs, etc. Kimball and Barr (Machine Design) state that the following
factors qf safety are indicated by successful practice: For head shafts
15: for line shafts carrying pulleys, 10; for small short shafts counter:
shafts, etc., i. For steel shafting the sllow&ble stress, S for the above
factors Would be about 4000, 6000 and 8590 Ibs. respe&ively, whence
for head shafts cc= ;/SF ; for line shafts d= py: ; for short
shafts d =
3s H.P.
R
Jones & Laughlin Steel Co.~gives the following for steel shafts:
For simply transmitting power
and short countershafts, besr-
ings not more than 6 ft. apart
As second movers, or line shafts,
bearings S ft. apart.
As prime movers or head shafts
carrying main driving puliey
or gear, well supported by
bearings.
Turned. Co:d-rolled.
H.P. = d3R + 50 H.P = d3R + 40
H.P. : d3R + 90 H.P. = d3R +. 70
H.P. = d3R + 125 H.P. = d3R + 100
Jones & Laughlins give the following notes: Receiving and trsnsmit-
ting pulleys should always be placed as close to bearings as possible,
and it is good practice to frame short headers between the main tie:
beams of,a mill so as to support the main rece&rs, carried by the head
shafts, wth a bearing close to each side as is contemplated in t.he for-
mulz But if it is prtfexed, or necessary, for the shaft to span the full
widt,h of t.he bay
br plnced away from
wthout intermediate bearings. or for the puliev Tao
the besrings t.on-a,rds or at the middle of the bay,
Plw w.e of the shaft must be largely increased to securethe stigness
necessary to support the load without undue deflection.
Diameter $s+ft D to carry load at center of bays from 2 to 12 ft.
SHAFTING. 1107
ppwer of head shafts, (Jones & Laughlin Steel Co.) Values of c1 for
different diameters d are as follows:
I to i 31.3
I WJ J i 13/4
113/w & I 7/s
iWl6 to w&3
23116 & z1/4
z/l6 t0 z7/16
21/ z to 2%
2qlS 6: 23th
15 213/ 1 3
16 2719 tc 3
17 31/ g to 3114
18 3319
25 315/ 10 & 4
; ; $6
30 47/ 10 h- 41/ 9
31 v/ 4
33 413/ 19
34 5
36 5 l / a
37 5q4 6: 53: s
40 5%
41 5q9
44 53! 4
g ; 7/ a
: ; I : : z
Should the load be applied near one end of the span or bay instead of
at the center, multiply the fourth power of the diamet,er of the shaft
required to carry the load at the center of the span or bay by the prod-
uct of the two parts of the shaft when the load is near one end, and
divide this product by the product of the t%o parts of the shaft when
the load is carried at the center. The fourth root of t,his quotient will
be the diameter required.
The shaft in a line which carries a receiving-pulley, or which carries a
transmitting-pulley to drive snother line, should always be considered a
head-shaft. and should be of the size given by the rules for shafts carryying
main pullejrs or gears.
The greatest admissible distance between bearings of shafts subject to
no transversestrain except from their own weight is for cold-rolled shafts,
L = .?/330.608 x D. ari d for turned shafts. L = </319,5S6 X D?. D =
diam.and i = length of shaft, in inches. These iorm& are based 011
an allowilble deHection at the center of l/so in. per foot of length, weight
of steel 490 Ibs. per cu. ft., and modlJllls of elasticit,r = 29.000,000 for
turwd and 30.001),000 for cold-rolled shafting. {In deri+g bhcsr formula?
the weight of the shaft has been taken as a concentrated Inst,?sd of a dis-
tributed load, giving addit.ional safet,y.]
liimhall and Barr say Lhat the lateral deflection of a shaft should not
exceed 0.01 in. per IOU ft. of length, to insure proper contact at t,he bear-
ings. For ordinary small shafting they give tile follo~~-inp as the allo\!--
able distance between the hangers: .L = 7 qd?, for shaft. without pulleys;
L = 5 q$, for shaft carrying pulleys. (2, in ft., d in ins.)
Deflection of Shafting. (Pencoyd Iron Works.) - For co@inuous
line-shafting it is considered good practice to Limit t.he d.eflectlon to a
maximum of 1/1oe of an inch per foot of length. The weight of bare shaft-
ing in pounds = 2.6 d2L =. W, or when as fully loaded wit11 pulleys as 1s
customary in practice, and allowing 40 lbs. per inch of width for the
vertical pull of the belts, experience shows the load in pounds to be abwt
I3 d2L = Iv. Taking the modulus of transverse elasticity at 26,000.009
lbs., we derive from authoritative formulae the folloMlg:
L = q/873 d?, d = m, for bare shafting:
L = 7175 d2, d = dL3/175, for shafting carrying pulleys. etc.:
L being the maximum distance in feet between bezings for continuous
shafting subjected to bending stress alone. d = diam. in inches.
The torsional stress 1s inversely pro ortional t,o the reioclty of rota-
tion. while the bending stress mill not. g e reduced in the Same ratlo. It
iS therefore impossible to write a formula covering t,lie 1vllole.problem
and sufficient,ly simple for practical xpplicnt.ion. but the follo\Wlg rules
are correct within the range of vcloc:t.ies usual in pmct,ice.
For continuous shafting SO proportioned as to dellect not more than
span. D = \/id. in which d is the diameter derived from the formula
for head shafts. CI = length of bay in inches and cI = distance in inches~
between centers of bearings in accordancewitb the formula for horse*
.,,.. .,,,, .-~
VARNI NG: Thi s i s a ' 1910 edi ti on. Some of the mat&i i ~ Mary no l ongkr be accUrat6
WAFTING. 1109 I
1108
SHAFTING.
I
I/,~,,, of an inch per foot of length, allowance bemg made for the weaken-
ing effect of key-seats,
,.-
d = +O H.P. + n, L = ad720 d?, for bare shafts; .
d = v70 H.P. ,+ B. I, = v140 I+, for shafts carrying pulleys, etc.
(1 = diam. in inches, L = length in feet, R = revs. per min.
The foliowing are given by J. B. Francis as the greatest admissible dis-
tances between the bearings of continuous steel s!ntfts subject to no trans-
verse strain except from their own weight, as would be the case were the
power given off from the shaft equal on all sides, and at an equal distance
from the hanger-bearings.
Diam. of shaft, in. . . .
29 ii.2 2040 25.6 259 2fq.I 2f.2
9
Dist. bet. beanngs, ft. 26. 2
These conditions, however, do not usually obtain in the transmission of
power bv belts and pulleys, and the varyin, circumstances of each case
render it impracticable to give any rule which would be of value for
univ :rsal application.
F:~r example, the theoretical requirements would demand that the
bearings be ~nearer together on those sections of shafting where most
po\-:;-;r is delivered from the shaft,, while considerations as to the location
and desired contiguity of the driven machines may render it impracti-
cable to separate the driving-pidleys by the intervention of a hanger at
the theoretically required location. (Joshua Rose.)
Horse-Power Transmitted br Cold-rolled Steel Shafting &t Different
~pcrcls as Prima Movers or lIc!nci Shafts Carrying Waiu Driving
Pulley or Gcw, well Supported by Dcarings.
FormttI a H. P. =rPl l + 100.
The horse-power is directly proportio!ml to the number of revolutions
per minute.
SPEED OS Sfht-tm~c. - Machine shops.. . . . . . . . . . 120 to 240
Wood-working. . . . . 250 to 300
Cotton and woollen mills.. 300 to 400
Flange Coupiings. -The bolts should be designed so that their
combined resistance to a torsional moment around tile axis of the shaft
is at least as grest as the torsional strength of the shait itself; and the
bolts should be accurately litted so as to dist.rihute the load evenly
among them. Let D = diam. of the shaft, d = diam. of the bolts,
r=radius of bolt circle, in inches, n=number of bolts, S=allowable shear-
ing stress per sq. in,, then ?rd3S+16==1/4 xdW, whence d= 0.5 *Ds/(nr).
I(imball and Barr give n=3 +D/2, but t.his number may be modified for
convehience in spacing, etc.
Effect of .Coid Rolling. -Experiments by Prof. R. H. Thurston in
1902 on hot-rolled and cold-rolled steel bars (Catalogue of Jones &
Laughlin Steel Co.) showed that the cold-rolled steel in tension had its
&stic limit increa,sed 15 to 97%; tensile strength increased 20 to 4570:
ductility decreased 40 to 697c. In transverse t.ests the resistance in-
creased 11 to 3070 at the elastic limit and 13 to 69% at the yield point.
In torsion the resistance at the yield point increased 31 to 64%. and at
the point of fracture it decreased 4 to lo%. The angle of torsion at
the elastic limit increased 59 to 103%. while the ultimate angle de-
creased 19 to 28%. Bars t~urned from 19/4 in. diam. to various sizes
down to 0.35 in. showed that the change in quality produced by cold
rolling extended to the center of the bar. The maximum strength of
the cold-rolled bar of full size was S 2.200 Ibs. per sq. in.. and that of the
slnallcst I,:; i 7:;.000 II,.% In the hot-rolled steel bars the maxirnlun
strength of ~, full-sized bar was W~;Quu ibs. and that of the smallest bar
I
5Y. 601) l bs. per aq. in.
Hollow Shafts. - Let d be the diamrtcr of a solid shaft, and d,de t,he
external and internal diameters of a t~ollow shaft of t!le same material.
I
Revolutions per minute. Revolutions per minute.
Then the shafts will be of equal torsion : strength w!len (13 =
tfr - Liz.
rl.
Diam 100 200 300
Z
t: :
10. 7
I l . 9
13. 1
14. 5
16. 0
17. 6
19. 2
i i :
25
: 9'
: :
as
44
200
-
2:
2; '
2:
i i :
i o"
I L!
105
1: ;
128
147
I S !
175
I 82
214
250
300
: i
2
1: :
I I 5
I 22
12. 3
136
I 43
150
I 58
174
I 83
I 92
221
230
263
273
322
375
-
400
-
95
I O1
I 08
122
129
137
1: :
171
180
190
200
211
233
244
; : I ;
307
350
365
429
500
-
-
-
500
1l Y
127
135
152
162
172
192
203
: : :
i t7
i i ; '
305
320
: i :
438
E
625
-
A IO-inch hollow shaft with internal diameter of 4 inches wi!l weigh 16%
less than a solid lu-inch shaft, but its strength will be only 2.56% less.
If the hole were increased to 5 inches diameter the n-eight would be
25Y0 less than that of thesolid shaft, and the strength 6.25% less.
Table for Laying Out Shafting. -The table on the opposite page
(from the Ste~?ns Indicator. A~til. lS92) is used br \Vnl. Sellers & Co. t,O
Xam. 100
~__
27' 8 24
F5' 16 25
3l ' 8 : :
3314 ; ;
37i a
31. 5' 16 61
4 64
Wia
41' 4 :;
47/ M
41' 2 ! Y
23' 4
107
125
-,-
I
I
I
i
I
I
I
I
I
1;
-
1I2
1J/16
1qf J
1 /la
314
1 VlG
I78
1 Y1a
2
2llO
2 Is
WIG
2 I4
2 VI6
23/ s
27i1G
2 ' i : !
29, 1,
2as
2l l i 1l j
2X/4
23
3. 4
: : ;
4. 0
5. 4
5. 9
6. 6
7. 3
8
9. 6
10. 5
I I . 4
12. 4
1: : ;
15. 6
16. . 8
I S. 1
i9.4
! I
! ?
-
I O. 1
11. 4
12. 8
14. 4
16. 1
17. 8
19. 7
i i
26
: :
34
2
: :
: i
2
67
facilitate the Iaving out of shifting.
The wood-cuts at the head of this table show the position of the hangers
and position of cou
tions from a centra P
lings, either for the case of exteniion in both direc-
hesd-shaft or extension in one direction from that
head-shaft.
Sizes oi Collars for Shafting. Wm. Sellers & Co., .-int. Mach. Ja,n. 28,
1897. A D, diam. of collar; T, thickness; d, diam. of set screw; 2. length.
All in inches. 1
LOOSE COLLARS.
ShaftD T d 1 Shaft D T d 1 Yh:lftl D
-- -- -~- _---;y.
7113 %I 214 333 1 3/lG % vs 4
I3 13!llJ
13/1,j 716 Qj 212 33/4 114 /S 16 4/? i67ito
1% 7l t s 5116 2% 4 I s/is S/s ll/uj 5 ; 61S' l o
7' 10
q2
7' 16 3 41/ 2 17' 16 5' 8 13/ l 8 5% i i ' / 3
. o/ uj 31' 4 47: a , l vs 314 131113 6
s/ e 9/fi 3 12 l53/lG! 134 3/4 WIG I
-
t d 1
---
171834 I
17/s 3/4 1
I i / s 3 4 1
s
314 1
,314 I
For H.P. transmitted by turned steel shafts, as prim F&T COLL.US.
mliltiply the figures by 0.5.
ne movers. etc..
*
For shafts, as second movers or line shafts, 1 Shaft D
bearings S ft. apart, muhipiy by
Shaft D I T Shaft D
----- ---
For simply t.ransmitting power. short counter-
I. .
Coy-r;lled T;r;fd
I "2 2 g/ , 0 3' 13 45' 8
- *
shafts, etc., bearings not over 8 ft. apart, multi-
1314
"2 212 3114
z14 I2
PRY by 2 2. 50
2 25' , " 2 Z314 3~ig 4
=I4 3 vu3 314 414
HARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the ma- cerl al may no l onger De accura- ce
SECOND SHAFT
SECOND SHAFT
..-..--
Fig.3
Table for Laying Out Shnft,ing
b-37--
tength of
DJ :ollnred
End for
- Fast
2 Ml., ins.
o ; 16%
+)& 173/4
ioininal
Size of
d Shaft.
iominal
Size of
3t. Shaft,
ins.
1112
13/ 4
2
2114
2112
23/q
3
3114
y/a
y2
2 12
6 1/2
7
7 112
8
Distance from Center of Bearing to End of Shaft for Coupling. See B, Figs. 1,2, and 3.
4 bi
gc
2
-i-
131/ z I 4 l 41/21
141/ z 15
151/ z I 6
161/ x I 7
lf3/2
I
I 4 . /
l ; 1f 2i ' 5 l51/ ;
15/ 2,16
161/ z 17
171/ x I8
l Sl / ~19
-
l-l
USE OF TADLE. - hook for size of first shift in left-hanci column, 6
under the head of Size of first shaft, and in the top line of table, marked
7
Size of second shaft, find the size ofthe shaft to be coupled to it. The
intersection gives the length 1; ;
8
this added to the length A, or distance 9
froul centm to center of bearing. and in cases similar to Kc. 2,. to the ,o
length C. gives the length of the first shaft, thus: as in Kg. 1, H +if+l=
length ; Fig. 2, C + cl + ii = length. t
, ,
17
--.
151/ z
i ?
I 6
*/ 2
Make hearirqs at equal dis. ,4
' 7
l / 2118
tances frow each othrr,when pmc-
ticnble. am1 alwvs ixtt two bear-. I 6
i ngs oi the fir&, \vhicll is the1
collared shaft. See I;@.. 1 anti 0.
Double
Cone-vise
Coupling.
1, 3/ s
129/ 16
,31/z
141/z
17318
173/8
19 /!f j
19;/1f j
PULLEYS.
.
L
PULLEYS.
n = number of arms. D = diameter of pu ley S = thickness of belt
Proportions Of Pullep. (See also Elf-wheels, page 1031.) -- I.et
t = th~CklleSS of rim at edge, 1 = thickness ii1middle, U = width of rim
4 = width qf belt, h = breadth of arm at hub. hl = breadth of arlll &
rnn, c.= thickness Of arm s.t hub. et = thickness of arm at rim, c =
amount of crowning; dimensions in inclles.
Unwin.
B=widthofrim . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . .s/s(s+O.4)
Reuleaux.
t = thickness at edge of rim. . . . Q .7 s + O ,005 D
T = thickness at middle of rim. . . 2t+c
( $iI;:~;;$)
. . . . . . . . . .
h = breadth of arm at hub.. .
For double
hl = breadth of arm at rim.. . . . :.
e = thickness of arm at hub. . . . .
et = thickness of arm at rim. . . . .
n = number of arms, for a single set
0.8h
0.5 h
0.5 hl
l/2(5 +&)
M= thickness of metal in hub.. . .
\ arm pulleys.
c = crowning of pulley. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
I/24B
h to 314h
. . . . . .
.--The number of arms is really arbitrary, and may be altered if necessary,
(Unwin.)
Pulleys with two or three sets of arms may be considered as two or three
separate pulleys combined in one. except that the proportions of the arms
should be 0.8 or 0.7 that of single-arm pulleys. (Reuleaus.)
EXAMPLE. - Dimensions of a pulley 60 in. diam., 16 iu. face, for double
belt 112 in. thick.
$,&xi by n h hl
. . . . . 9 3.79 2.53 lf52 1f~fO.L lT97 It.7 FSO.Si
Reuleaus . . , . . 4 5.0 4.0 2.5 2.0 1.25 16 5
The fpllo+g~ proportions are given in an articlein the ~rner.
~fnchinist
aurn0rtt.v not stated:
h=0.0625D+0.5in.,h1-0.04D~0.312~in..e=0.02~D+0.2
in.. el = O..O16 D + 0.125 in.
These give for the above
1 .i in.
,d,:...:_l.
et = 1 .OQ in.
example: h = 4.25 in.. hl = 2.71 in., e =
The section of the arms in all cases its taken as
~~~e~~llowjng solution for breadth of arm is proposed bv the author
.r ,I-
--- -mh of nidth of.? single belt, that~thr
whole Straln iS taken in equal prOpOrtiOns on one-half Of thearms, and bhnt
the arm is a beam loaded at one end and fixed at t,he other. We have
the formula for a beam of ellipt.ical section fP = 0.99W RbG el. in which
P = the load. ZZ = t,he modulus of rupt~ure of the cast iron b = breadth
d = de
a modu P
th. and 2 = leneth of the beam, and f = factor of safetr. Assume!
us of rupture of 36,000 lbs., a factor of safety of 10. and an addi-
tionn) n~llnwnnrc. r~. .~- *. * -. . . . . - ..
for.sarecy tn rakmg L = 112 cne alameter or tne pulley
mAi..n AF ,I... I...%.
~.__ - .._..-.. __
, instead of r/s D less tne
Take d = h, the bre&!~~~f~d~,;at the hub, and b = e = 0.4 h
the thickness. IYe then have fP = 10 x e = 900 f =
3635xO.4h
WhenceIt =
3 900 RD
J
- .-
112D
3/KIl
3.535 11
1 = 0.633
\
/ y, which is practically the same as
the value reached by Unwin from a different set of assumptions.
.
g,
t&i&L., ,, _~_ _~~ ._ ~,. .,.. ., ,~,,~~., ,,, ,.,. ~. .,._ .__,. _ ,,.,. _;~; ,,., _,,.~,,,
2 material may no l onger be accurate
to
Convexityof PulIe~s. - Authorities differ. Morln gives a rise equal
l/lo cf the face; Molesworth, l/24; others from l/g to ljgG. Scott A,
Smith says tge crown should not be over l/s inch for a 24~inch face,
Pulleys for shlftlng belts should be straight, that is, without crowning.
CONE OR STi3P PULLEYS.
To find the diameters.for the several steps of a pair of cone-pulleys:
1. Crossed Belts. -Let D and d be the diameters of two pufieys
connected by a cros,sed belt, L = the distance between their centers
. and p = the angle either half of the belt niakes with a line joining thi
centers of the pulleys: then total length of belt = (D+d) z + (D + d) $0
-!
+ 2 L cos p. p = angle.whose sine is s.
T@e length of the belt is constant when D + d is constant. that is in a
pair of step-pulleys the belt tension will be uniform when the sum Af the
diameters of each opposite pair of steps is constant
Crossed b&s are
seldom used for cone-pulleys, on account of the f&ion between the
rubbing parts of the belt.
To design a pair of tapering speed-cones, so that the belt may fit
equally tight i.n all positions: When the belt is crossed, use a pair of equal
and similar cones tapering op
2. Open Belts, - When t
osite
! I
wa.ys.
e belt is uncrossed, use a pair of equal
and slylar conoids tapering opposite ways, and bulging in the middle
according to ihe following formula: Let Z., denote the distance betweeli
the ases of the conoids; li: the radius of the larger end of each. r the radius
of the smaller end; then the radius in the middle, rO, is found iis follows:
Tg_ R +, T + CR - r)*
2 .6.2SL
(Rankine.)
If Da = the diameter of.equaI steps of a pair of cone-pulleys, D and
d = the diameters of. Uile,gpl opposite steps, and L = distance between
7.
If DO = the diameter of.equaI steps of a pair of cone-pulleys, D and
d = the diameters of uile ual opposite steps, and L = distance between
the axes, Do = D+ + (B - d)L.
If a series of differencet%f5F3;163i of the steps, R
for each pair of steps !?Q = TV -
(R - T)Z
- rl be assumed, then
6.%L
and the radii of each may
be conlputed from their galf sum and hzlf diRerence, as follows:
of the stens~ R - rl be assumed, then
le radii of each may
trence, 5s follows:
R=R+r+R--r R-I-T R-T
__ 2,; r=-----).
2 2 ~.
A. J. Frith (Trans. A. S. M. X., x, 295) shows the following application
of Ranklnes method: If we had a set of Cones to design the extreme
diameters of Which. including thickness of belt were 40 in; and 10 ins.
and the ratlo desired 4, 3, 2, and 1, we would make a tabie as follows:
L being 100 ins.:
D 1 d
Trid Diana.
50
:i
z.5
50 ::.333
The above formu& are npprosimabe, and they do not give satlsfactorv
results when the difference of diameters of opposite steps is large and
$h!?n the axes Of the pul!eys are near together, giving a large belt-angle.
110 more accurate solutions of the problem. one by a graphical met,hod
and another by a trigonomet.rical method derived from lt are given bv C:
A. Snl!th (7~~s. A. S.,dI. E.. S, 269). These were copidd ln earlier edi-
+S 01this POdiet-book. but are now replaced by the more recent graphl-
CJI sohiw by Burrnester, given below, and by al6;ebraic formula deduced
If tile~r%tio & % r1 is given, let iz/r, = c: TZ = CT,.
We then have a+ crl = 1/R2- (a + r#, which reduces to
(l+ ~2) r12 + 2 a (I+ c) T, = 1.25 L* - 2 a2, a quadratic equation, in
Which a = 0.79057 L - Q, Substituting the val ue of a we have
(l+C~)r,~+(1.53114L -2Tg) (lCC)?.l =3.16=3Lr,- 2ru2,
in which L ri and c ire given and TV is, to be found.
Let L =lOO c == 4 Q = 12.8~3 as m 11 r. Fritbs example. page 1112.
Th~n 17@+ lOar,,=12,500--761.62, from which r, =5.001. r?=20.004-
If c = 3,r, = 6.304, r2 = 18.912. If e = 2, r1 = 8.496, r? = 16.992.
Checking the results by the appr0simat.e formula for kngth of belt.
Page 1125, viz, Length = 2 L i- s (rl + T?) + (~2- r,)? f d, :vz hve
fore = 1. 200+ 80.79+ 0
= 250.79
2, 200 + 80.07 + 0.72 = 280.i9
3, ZOO+ 79.22 + 1.59 = 280.31
4. 200 + 75.56 + 2.25 = 2SO.81
WARNING: This is a 1916~ &i.tion..
,A,~ The masimum difference being only 1 Part in 14,000.
.L~-..~.,,~:., ~,~ ,, ,.~,, ..~. _,
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
CONE OR STEP PULLEYS 11x3
from it by the author,wkrlch give results far more accurate than are required
11~ all cases 0.X of the thickness of the belt should be subtracted from the
calculilted aiameter to obtain the actual diameter of the. pulley.
This
&ould be done because the belt drawn tight around the pulleys is not the
same length as a tape-line measure around them. -(C. A. Smith.)
Burrnesters 3Iethod, Dr. R. Burrnester, in his Lehrbuch der
lgnematik (illuc/~i?K??/s 12eferet~c ;~&es, No. 14, 190s). gives a graphi-
cal solution of the cone-pulley problem, which while not theoretically
exact is much more accurate than pract,lce requires.
From A on a horizontal line Aq, Fig. 170, draw a 4.5 line. AC.
Lay off
AS on AC equal, on any convement scaie, the larger the better, to the
distance between centers of the
shafts, and from S draw ST per-
pendicular to AC. Make SK =
12 AS, and with radius AK draw
an arc of a circle, XY. From a
convenient point D on AC draw
a vertical lknc FDE, and make
DE equal the given radius of a
step on one cone. and Ep equal
the given radius of the corre-
sponding ste
Draw FG an x
on the other cone.
EH parallel t,o AC.
From the point G on the arc drop
a vert,ical line cutting EIf in H.
Through Ii draw a horizontal
line MO, touching AC at M.
Then if horizontal distsnces are
measured from M. as 11fu, fitI{.
MP. to equal the radii of the
pulleys or steps on one cone, the
corresponding vertical distances
ab, HG and PN will be the ratlil
A
of the corresponding steps on the
Pro. 170.
other cone.
If t,lle radii of the two steps of any pair are to bear a certain ratio, as
ab + Ma from 111 draw a line at an angle with MO nho+e iangent eq,uals
that ratid and from the point where it cut,s the arc. as b, drop a vertical,
ba. Ma &d bn will be the radii required.
Using Burrnesters diagram the author has devised an algebraic solutton
of t.he problem (Indust. Eng., June, 1910) which leads to the followmg
eauations:
Let L= dist.ance between the centers, 7 AS on the diagram.
r0 = ra,i;s,f the steps of equal diameter on the two cones, = illP
-a 1..
r,, r2 = Ma, ah, radii of any pair of steps.
a = co-ordinates of M, referred t.o A. = 0.79057 L - ~0.
If T, is triven. r? - 41.25 L2- (0.79057 L - Tg+ TI)? - O.i9057 L + To.
J. T. Clark Undust. Eng., Aug., 1910) givesthe followingsolution:
Usmg th3 same notation as above,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~..
r=(r2--r,)~sL?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(3)
The quadratic equation (1) gives the value of r1 wit.11 an approximation
to accuracy sufficient for all practical purposes.
If greater accuracy is for
any reason desired it may be obtained by (2) and (3). using in (3) the values
of r, and ra, = cr,, already found from (1).
sult will be correct to the seventh figure.
Taking z = 3.1415927, the re-
- of t!e driving shaft,
S eeds of Shaft with Cone Pulleys. -If S = speed (revs. per min.)
.
SI. sz, ST, s,=speeds of the driven shaft,
D1, D?, 03, D,=diameters of the pulleys on the driving cone,
dl, dz, d3, da-diams. of corresponding pulleys on the driven cone,
SD1=sldl; SD? =szdl, *etc.
s1/5= Da/d1 = r~; s,/S = D,/d,, = r,~.
The,speed, of the driving shaft. being constant, the several speeds of
the driven shaft are pro
f
ortional to the ratio of the diameter of the
drivmg pulley to that of t ie driven, or to D/d.
!$peeds. II,I Geametrical Progression. - If it is desired that the speed
ratios shall increase by a constant percent,age. or in geometrical progres-
,
sion. then r&l = ra/ra = rn/rn-, = c, a constant.
, -
,hA\IPLE.
If the speed ratio of the driven shaft at its lowest speed
to the,driving shaft be 0.76923, and at its highest speed 2.197 the speed;
being m geometrmal progression, what is the constant multipiier lfn=5+
Log 2.197 = 0.341830
Log 0.76923 = l.SS6056
-L-_
0.455774
Divide by n- I,= 4, 0.113943 = log of 1.39.
lf Dv& = 1. then Dz/dl = 1 f 1.3 = 0.769; D3d3= 1.30; D,,d,=
1.69; Ds/dj = 2.19:.
WARNING: Thi s i sOa 1910 edition. Some
BELTING. 1115
BELTING.
Tbeorv of Belts and Ihnds. - .4 pulley is driven by a belt by means
of the friction between the surfaces i.n contact. Let TI be the tension on
the driving side of the belt, 12 the tension on the 100% side: then S,,= 71
- T1, is the total friction between the band and the pulley, wluch 1s
equal to the tractive or driving force. Let f = the coefficient of friction,
A the ratio of the leneth of the arc of contact to the length of the radius.
L zth<-angle of the %c of contact in degrees, e = the base of the Nape:
rlan logarithms= 2.71525, m= the modulus of the common loganthms =
0.434295. The following formula? are derived by calculus (Rankmes
klachy and Xillwork, p. 351; Carpenters Erper. Engg, p. 173):
TI
-z-z
T1
&e, T2=%;
efe
Tl- T2= T1 - z = TI (1 - e-fe).
efe
Tl _ T2 = T1 (1 - e-fe) = T1(1 - 10-fen') - TI (I- l~oo7*/a)
, T_1= loo.cm3ja ; T1 = T2 x l~~~~*fa;T~ = T1 -
TZ
lo0.Wi5SfU
~1 the arc of contact between the band and the Pulley expressed in
of the surfaces,-and even on the weather.
The following table shows the values of the coefficient 2.7255 f, by
which n is multiplied in the last equation, corresponding to different
values of f; also the corresponding values of various ratios among the
forces. when the arc of contact is half a circumference:
0.25 0.42
0.68 1.15 223
Let 0 = v and n = l/s, then
TI + Tz = 1.603
5.821
T1 +p2 : 25sz &;;
ES
1:34
X 1.21
0.56 0.71
In ordinary practice it is usual to assume Tz = S; TI = 2 S; 21 CT2 +
2 8 = 1.5. This corresponds to f = 0.22 nearly.
For a wire rope on cast iron f may be taken as 0.15 nearlr: and if t,he
groove of the pulley is bottomed with gutta-percha, 0.25. (Rankme.)
Centrifugal Tension of Belts. - When a belt or band runs at a. high
velocity, centrifugal force produces a tension in addition to.tha,t e+stmg
when the belt 1s at rest or moving at a low velocity. Tlus Centnfugal
tension diminishes the effective driving force.
Rankine says: If an endless band, of any figure whatsoever. runs tic;
giVel1 speed t.he centrifugal force produces a uniform tension at
cross-section of the band equal to the weight of a piece of the band whose
length is twice the height from which a heavy body must fall in order
to acquire the velocity of the band. (See Cooper on Belting, P. 101.)
If T, = centrifugal tension:
f= velocitgin feet per second;
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2:
lV= weight of a olece of the belt 1 ft. long and 1 Sq. In. sectional
area. - *
Leather weighing 56 lbs. per cubic foot gives IV = 56 + 144 = 0.3SS.
T, = jV~y2 + g sa 0.388 I2 + 32.2 = 0 .OlOt-.
1 .
.a1 may no l onger De accurate
.
BESTING. 1117
Belting Practice. Handy Formulae for Belting. - Since in the
practical application of the above formuhe the value of the coefficient of
friction must be assumed. its actual value varying within wide limits
(15l, to,l;Jj%)! and since the values of 71 and TZ also are fixed arbi-
Wanly, It 1s customary in practice to substitute for these theoretical
form&e more sunpie empirical formula and rules, some of which are
given below.
Let d=diam. of pulley in inches; rrd =circumference;
V=velocitj of belt in ft. per second; v=vei. in ft. per mj-mte;
cr=a,r.gle of the arc of contact:
L=length of arc of contact in feet = rda + (12x 360).
F=tractive force per square itichof sectional area of b&t;
u=width in inches: t = thickness;
S=tractive force per inch of width = F + t;
r.p.m.=;dvs. per minute; r.p.s. = revs. per second = r.p.m. + 60.
V=r;,Xr.p.s.=Fixr*=
0.004363 d X r.p.m.=
d X r.p.m

ml
2,,9 , 2;
M .d
V= ~2 X r.p.m.; = 0.2618 d X r.p.m.
Horse-power, H.P. =gO = z = wf,$m.
L.
If F = working tension per square inch = 275 Ibs., anJ t = 7/a inch,
S = 60 Ibs. nearly, then
H.P.=$=O.m Vw=o.o0047~~dx~.p.~.=
wd X r.p.m.
2101 .
(1)
If F = 180 Ibs. per square inch, and t = l/s inch, S = 30 lbs., then
H.P.= Go= 0 .@55 VW--Q .000238 wd X r.p.m. =+
wd xr.p.m.
4202
- (2)
If t!le worliing strain is 60 Ibs. per inch of width. a belt 1 inch wide
trav,elmg .550 ft. per minute will transmit 1 horse-power.~ If the workirig
stram,is 30 Ibs. per inch of width. a belt 1 inch wide traveling Ii00 ft..
per mmube will transmit 1 horse-power. Numerous rules tire given by
different writers on belting which vary between these extremes.
A rule
commonly used is: 1 inch wide trgveling 1000 ft. per min. = I.H.P.
H.P. E
wd x r p.m.
go ~0.06 Vw=O .000262 Wd X r.p.m.= - 38;o .
(3)
This corresponds to p working strain of 33 Ibs. per inch of width
hlrqny wnters give as safe practice for sil,gle belts in good condition a
worlimg t,ension of 45 Ibs. per inch of width. This tives
I
H.P.= $= 0.0818 Vzu=O .000357 wd X r.p.m. =
wd ;8;;.m. i (4j
,Fqr double belts of average thickness, some writers say that the t,rans-
mWmg efficiency is to that of single belts as 10 to 7, which would give
H.P. of double belts= $$ =0.1169 Vw=O.00051 zu@xr.p.m.=?l?-d ~g~~.m.
(5)
Other authorit,ies. however, make the transmit.ting power of double belts
twice thab of smgle belts, on the as&mpt.ion bhat the thickness of a double
belt is tMce t.hat of a single belt.
Rules for horse-power of belts are somet,in.es based on the number of
square feet of surface of the belt
Sq. ft. per min. = wu + 12.
which pass over the pulley in a minute
form give:
The above formuls? transljted into thii
H.P. = 61 *
l H.P: = 43 * (double belt).
The above form@? are all based on the supposition that the arc ofcon-
tact is L80.
proportional
For other arcs, the transmitting power is apprdajmately
to the rat,to of the degrees of arc to 180.
home rules base tlzf;orse-power on the lengtIb;f the,,,? of contact in
feet. Since .L = 12x 380 andH.P.=~o=Wox12Xr.p.m.x&
we obtais
. SW
oy substMtlon H.P. = 16500 - X LX r.p.m., and tpe five for-
mulie then take the following form for the severs1 values of S:
H.P. =
H.p. (double belt) =L ~,!;p.m(6).
None of the handy formuhe take into consideration the centrifugal
tension of belts At high velocities. When the ~veiocity is over3000 ft.
P
er minute the effect of this tension becomes appreciable: and it should
,e taken account bf, as in Mr. Nagles formula, which is given below.
Horse-power of a Leather Belt One Inch wjde.
Formula: H.P. = CVtw (AS- 0 .OP2 V*) G 550.
Wale.)
Forf = 0.40, a = 180. C = 0.715, w = 1.
Laced Belts, S = 275. Riveted Belts, $ = 40~
$1
c w
Thickness in inches = t. Thickness in inches = t.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t teri~al .iay no~ longer beg accurate
The H.P. becomes a m%mum The R.P. becomes 2 maximum at
st87.4lft.perseq = 5245ft.p.min. 105.4ft. per sec. = 6324ft. permin.
In the above table the angle of subtension, a, is taken at 180.
H.;.= &w( - O& ):
c = 1 - 10-0.rn758fa; t= thickness in iwhes:
o = degrees of beltcontact;
f = coefficient of friction:
v= velocity in feet per second;
8= stress upon belt per square inch.
w = width in inches;
VALUES OSC= l- IO-O.OO?iiSfa. (NAGLE.)
I
f= coefficient
Degrees of cont.act = a.
of friction.
0. 15 0. 210 : : ; 0. 2300. 2500. 2700. 2880. 3070. 325 , 325 , 270 . 354 , 295 , 381 , 319 , 407 , 342 , 364 , 386 , 408
. 30 , 432 , 457 . 480
0. 3420. 3590. 3760 , 428 , 448 , 467 : 503 408
, 376 , 408 . 438 , 467
, 494 . 520 , 544
, 503 . 524' . 544 . 582
. 35 . 423 , 457 , 489 , 520
, 548 , 575 , 600
, 567 , 590 , 610 , 649
. 40 , 467
. 45
. 502 , 536 , 567 , 597 , 624 , 646 , 667 . 705
, 507 . 54J , 579 , 610 , 624 , 649'
. 640 , 667 . 617 , 652 . 684 , 692
. 673 , 695 , 715 , 753
. 55 , 578
. 60 . 713 , 739 , 763
. 715 . 737 , 757 , 792
. 610 , 649 . 684 . ; I 5
1. 00 , 744 , 769. . 792
. 785 , 805 , 822 853
, 792 , 825 , 853 . 877
. 897 . 913 , 927
~. 813 , 832 , 848 1877
. 937 , 947 , 956 . 969
I I I I I I
I I
The following table gives a comparison of the formula, already given
for the case of a belt one inch wide, with arc of contact 180.
I O
2
40
50
60
70
9":
100
II0
120
Horse-power Of a Belt One Inch widb, Arc of Contact 1800.
COJIPARISON OF DIFFERENT Font
-
c;
27
xE
. 1
0
72
arm.
I.P. =
W?J
iziii
Term.
3.P. =
WV
iti%
31 ?6rm.
= 1 H.P. =
wz)
E3
Nagles Eorm.
7/32-h single
belt.
Rivtd
600
1200
I 800
2400
3000
3600
4200
4800
5400
6000
6600
7200
-
--
-
1;:
150
200
250
300
350
400
%
550
600
-
:
--
I
--
1. 09
2. 18
3. 27
X4
6. 55
7. 63
8. 73
9. 82
10. 91
-
:I II
-
0. 55
1. 09
1. 64
2. 18
2. 73
3. 27
3. 82
Z
5. 45
0. 60
1. 20
I . 60
2. 40
3. 00
3. 60
4. 20
2%
6. 00
-- - - --
Ei
2;
4. 09
4. 91
5. 73
6. 55
7. 37
8. 18
-
Laced 1
-_
1. 17
2. 34
3. 51
4. 68
: : o"i
a. 19
9. 36
10. 53
I I . 70
::::
2. 25
2. 90
3. 48
3. 95
4. 29
: : : ;
4. 41
4. 05
3. 49
I . 14
2. 24
3. 31
4. 33
5. 26
2%
: : E
7. 96
: : ; :
-
.,
.
I I
- -
.
.
- -
Wid, th of Belt, for a Given Horse-power, -The width of belt
reqmred for any given horse-power ma,v be obt.alned by transposing the
fornlulzz for horse-power so as to give the value of to.
Thus:
From formula (1). w=
550 H.P. = 9.17 D.P.= 2101 H.P. = 275H.P.
__
tl X r.p.m. L Xr.p.ml.
From formula (2). w=
llO:H.P.= 18.;3 H.P. 4202 H.P.
530 H.P.
= d x r.p.m = L xr.p.m.
From formula (3). tu =
10002H P . _ 16 O7H.P. 3820 H.P
- ._ 500H.P.. _
7. 70 Iz;.P.
V d X r.p.m. L X r.p.m.
From formula (4), to= 360 H.P. ,
&I P
= l2 .2tH.P.= ZSOO H.P.
d X r.p.tn.
8.5GH.P. lQOOH.P.- &:;pPm
From formula (5),*1~1=-: = -_= __
1! I
--, (1 X r.p.m. - L Xr.p.m.
* For double belts,
BELTING. 1119
,
Many authorities use formula (1) for double belts and formula (2) or
(3) for single belts.
To Jbtain the width by Nagles formula, w=
,550 H.P.
CVt(S-O.o12 VZ) Or
dividethe given horse-power by the figure in the table corresponding to
the,given thickness of belt and velocity in feet per second.
1 ke formzda to be used ln. ~?E!I pnrticular case is largely a matter of judg-
ment. A single belt proportioned according to formula (l), if tightly
stretched, and if the surface is in good condition, will transmit the horse-
power calculated by the formula, but one so proportioned is objectionable,
first, because it re
slip, and require f equent 9
uires so great an illitial tension that it is apt to stretch,
restretching and relating; and second, because
this tension will cause an undue pressure on the pulley-shaft, and therefore
an undue loss of power by friction. To avoid these difficulties, formula
(2). (3). or (4). or Mr. Nagles table, should be used; the latter especially
in cases in which the velocity exceeds 4000 ft. per min.
The following are from the notes of the late Samuel Webber.
Mach. May 11, 1909.)
(Am.
Good oak-tanned- leather from the back of the hide weighs almost
exactly one avoirdupois ounce for each one-hundredth of an inch in thck-
ness, in a piece of leather one foot square, so that
Lbs. Approx.
pebcr. Thmk-
Actual Vel. per Safe &rain
Thick- Inch for
ness. ness. I H.P.
p$&h
--
Single belt.. . . . . . . . . . . . I6 oz. 0.16 in. 625 ft.
Light double.. . . . . . ~ . . . 24 I
l/s in.
114
; : ; ; : :
417 +*
;;:; llz%
Medium.. , . . . . . . , . . . . 28 I 5110 "
; ; ; : :
92. 5
Standard.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 113 1;
0.33 ( 109 a
3-ply. . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 I Q/IO 0.45 222 aa 148
The rule for ve1ocit.y per inch width for 1 H.P. is:
Multiply the denominator of the fract.ion expressing t,ha thickness of
the belt in inches by 100, and divide it by the numerator:
Good, well-calendered rubher belting made with 30-ounce duck and
new (i. e.. not reclaimed vulcanized) rubber will be as follow:
Nomenclature #g[~$~s~~
Safe Working
Strain for I Inch
Width.
Velo;~;lp~iPInch for
. .
_ ,__ 2
0.35 *I I O5
314 . a I I
; : ; : : 125 145 218 264 .I I. 6 6, 6. .
The thickness of rubber belt does not necessaril
but the weight of duck does, and with 30-ounce B
govern the strength.
uck. the safe working
strains are as above.
Belt Factors. W. W. Bird (hour. Worcester PoZ!/t. Inst., Jan. 1910.)
-The factors given in the table below, for use in the formula H.P..=
VW + P.,in \vhich F is an empirical factor, are based on the foho?mg
a>sumptlons: A bel t of single thickness will stand a stress on the tight
srde. T,, of 60 lbs. per inch of width, a double belt 105 I bs. , and a
triple belt 150 ibs. and have a ,fairlp long life requiring only occasional
taking up: the ra&o of t.ensions T/T2 should not exceed 2 on Smak
2 5 on medium and 3 on large pulleys: the creep (t,ravel of the belt.
relative to the surface of the puky due t,o the elast,icity of the belt
and not to slip) should not escccd 1% -this requires that the differ-
ence in tenslo& Ti ^I$ should ,not be greater than 46 Ibs. per iricti of
width for single, 70 for double and 100 for triple belts.
p~lleydidm, U;dgz 8 to Over Under 14 PO Over
~ 36in. 3ft. 14in: 60~1. 5ft.
-----
Be~c~~ck- Sin&. S&. Sgle. Dbl. Dbl. Dbl.
--__--~
Factor.. . 470
Tt - I=; . 89
3
60 60 105 105 105
-
.
-
These factors are for an arc of contact of 180.
are to be multiplied by the figures given below.
rriple. Tiiple.lTriple.
---.e
440
$4
ci :2
!:P !*
150 150 150
PO? &her arcs they
Arc.,. _. . . . 220 210 ZOO: 190 170 160 150 140 120 120
Multiply by... 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.07.1.04 1.07 I.11 1.16 1.21 1.27
Taylors Rules for Bcltinp. 7 F: W..-Taylor .(T~$M. A. S. Jf. E..
xv, 204) describes a nine
4
ears experltient cm beltin
giving results of tests of 2 belts running night and 3
m a n&chine shop,
ay. Some of these
belts were run on cone pulleys and others bti shiftitig, or fastkahd-loose.
pulleys. The average net working load on the shiftlug belts was only
0. 4 of that of the cone belts..
The sblft,ing belts varied in dimensions from 39 ft. 7 in. long, 3.5 in.
wide, 0.25 in. lhick. to 51 ft. 5 in. long, 6.5 in. wide, 0.37 in. thick. The
cone belts varied in dimensions from 24 ft. 7 in. long. 2 in. wide, 0.25 in.
thick, to 31 it. 10 in. long, 4 in. wide, 0 .37 in. thick.
Belt-clamps were used having soring-balahc& between the two pairs
of clamps. so that the exact tehsion to which the belt was subjected was
accuratel~y weighed when the belt was first put on. and each time it was
tightened.
The tension under which each belt was spliced was.carefully figured so
as to place it under an initial strain -while the belt was at rest immedi-
ately after tightening-of 71 lbrs. per inch of width of double belts. This
is equivalent, in the case of
Oak tanned tind frilled b&s, tcT 192 lb:. p$ s,q. i&y. sec$on;
Semi-raw-hide belts,
Oak tanned, riot fulled belts, ;; .22; li II ,, (,
i
Raw-hide belts
to 284 I I I 4i I
From the nine vears exoeriment Mr. Tavlor draws a number of con-
cllJsions,, someof i&i& ar&glv& in an abrid&d fo$n below.
In using belting so as to obtain the greatest economy and the most
satisfactoiy results, the following rules should be observed:
I
Oak Tan
and Fullea 13ei75 ant
Leather Belts.
ed
I
~ ~~__
Other Types
of Leather
~1 n..
d
it,.
A double belt, having an arc of con& of
Rs&r7i$
Moo, will give an effective ull on the face
of a pulley per inch of midt 1 of belt of.. . P 35 lbs. 30 tbs.
Or, a different form of same rule:
The number of sq. ft. of double belt passing
around a pulley per minute required to
tr:mmnit one horse-power in.. . .,. . .
Or: The number of lineal feet of dduble,
80 eq. ft.. 90 liq. ft.
belting I in. wide passing around a pulltiy
per mi+e required to transmit one horse-
power IS. . . . . . , . . . 950ft. i 100 ft.
Or: A double belt. 6 in. wide, runnin;: 4000 to
5000 ft. per min., will transmit,.. 30 H .P. 25 H.P.
The t.erms init,isl iension. effective
by Mr. Taylor: When pulleys upon which ii
~11, etc. are thus erplalned
elts are tightened are at rest,
,~~
.,...-
WARNING: Thi&is a 1910 edition. Some Of t
BELTING.
1121
botQ strand? of the bei! (thy upper a:>? lower), are,,unde; the.same +ress
~;;~lt. of width. By tensor!, imllal tenston,, or ten,slou ahlle at
, we mean the stress per m. of width, or sq. in. of sectmn,
one of the strands of the belt is tightened, when at rest.
to which
Alter the belts
are in motion and tral;SI~ittillg power, the stress on the slack side or
r;trand, of the belt becomes iess, while that on the tight side - or the ;ide
which does the pulling - becomes greater than when tlx belt was at rest,
By the term total load we mean the total stress per in. of wld.th, or
sq. in. of se_ction, on the tight side of belt while in motion.
The difference ,between the stress on the tight side of the belt and its
slack side, While111motion, repreSeIltS the effective force or pull which is
transmitted from one Pulley to another.
net working load, or effective pull,
By the terms working load 1
we mean the difierence in the
tecsion of the tight and slack sides of the belt per in. of width or sq. in.
section, while in motion, or the net effective force: that is transmitted from
one pulley to another per in. of width or sq. in. of section.
The discovery of MeSSFs. Lewis and Bancroft (Trans. A. s. nf. E
vii, 749) that the sum of the tension on both sides of the belt does noi
rema.in constant, upsets all previous theoretical belting formule.
The belt speed for maximum economy should be from 4000 to 4500 ft.
per minute.
The best distance from center to center of shafts is from 20 to 25 ii.
Idler pulleys work most satisfactorily when located on the slack side
of the belt about one-quarter way from the driving-pulle:?.
Belts are more durable and work more satisfactorily mLde narrow and
thick, rather than wide and thin.
It is safe and~advisable to use: a double belt on a pulley 12 in. diameter
or larger; a triple belt oh a pulley 20 in. diameter or larger; a quadruple
belt on a pulley 30 in. diameter OF larger.
As belts increase in width they should also be made thicker.
Theends of the belt should be fastened together by splicing and cement-
ing, instead of lacing, wiring, or using hooks or clamps of any kind.
A V-splice should be used on triple and quadruple belts and when
idlers are used. Stepped splice, coated with rubber ar.d r\;Icanized in
place, is best for rubber belt,s.
For double belting the rule works well of making the splice for all helts
up to 10 in. wide, 10 in. long: from 10 in. to 18 in. wide the splice should
be the same width as the belt,
required for double belting.
18 in. being the greatest length of splice
Belts should be cleaned and greased every five to six mont.hs.
Double leather belts wiil last well when re
2
eatedly tightened under
a strain (when at rest) of 71 lbs. per in. of xvv1 th, or 240 lbs. per sq. in.
section. They will not maintain this tension for any length of time,
however.
Belt-clamps having s
P.
ring-balances between the two pairs of cla,mps
should be used for weig ung the tension of the belt accurat,ely each time
it is tightened.
The stretch, durability, cost of maintenance, etc., of belts proportioned
(A) according to the ordlnarp rules of a tot,al load of 111 lbs. per inch of
width, corresponding to an effective pull of 65 Ibs. per inch of width, and
(B) according to a more economical rule of a total load of 51 Ibs., corre-
sponding to an effective pull of 26 Ibs. per inch of width, are found to be
lls frlllnwQ.
When it is impracticable to accurately weigh the tension of a belt in
tightening it, it is safe to shorten a double belt one-half inch for every
J.0 ft. of length for (A) and one inch for every 10 ft. for (B), if it requires
tightening.
Double leather belts, when treat.ed wit,h great care and run night and
da.v at moderat,e speed, shou:d last for 7 vears (-4) 18 vears (B).
The cost of all labor and mat.erials used In t,he mainteiia,hce and repairs
of double belts, added to the cost of renewals as t,hey give out, thro!@ *
term of years, will amount on an average per year to 37% of the orxmal
cost of the belts (A): 14% or less (B).
In fipuring the t.otal expense of belting, a,nd the manufacturing cost
ehar:eahleto this account; hy far t.he lxgest item is the t.ime lost on the
machines while hehs are hrirx relnced and repaired.
The total stretch of leather belting exceeds 6% of the otiginal length.
--*- --.-----
lheir entne St
--I%~nt,rewh &&g ~thecd, six~months of the life of belts is 36% of
,retch (A); 15% 13).
bp~t, Will stretch .o .47% of its length before rewirinfi to be
A double t-. .~.~~
tichtened (A); 0 .Sl% (B).
aThe most important, consideration in making, u,p tables ?nd rules For the
use and care of belting is how to secure the rmnllllum Of 1nterrUPtlonS to
manufacture from this source.
The average double belt (A), when running night and day in? m?ch$e-
shop will cause at least 26 interruptions tC ~mnL.aYtu
*f n Te dcnng I! !;fe,
or jinterruptlons per year, but w1t.h (B) interruptions to manufacture
will not average oftYI,Pr fnr MCI? belt than one ln sixteen months.
i~~~;^rt,&d has showed themselves to .beSuperior ie
The oak-tanned L..- .I..--
all respects ex,cept the coeffici&t bf frictiqn to either the oat+tanneu
not fulled the Semi-raw-hide, or raw-hide with tanned face.
Belts oi any width can be successfully, shifted backward and forward
on tight and loose pulleys. Belts runmng between 5000 and SO00 it.
T)P~ min. and drivlru .XIM~ HOPE are now being daily slufted on tight and
: width of belt either of wbicb can be pressed onto the flat SUrfaCe Of the
belt on its siack side close to the driven pulley, the axIs Of the roller
making an angle of 750 with tbe center hnr, 01 the belt.
Remarks on Mr. Taylors Rules.
(W. Icent, !&a?ZS. 4. S. 111. E., X.vv,
242 )-The most notable feature m Mr.
Taylors paper IS. the great dlf-
ferehce between his rules for proper proportioning pf belts and those
given by earlier writers.
A very commonly used rule IS, one horse-power
may be transmitted by a single belt 1 in. wide funmng 2. St. per mi+, sub-
stituting for r vnrious vulues, according to the Ideas ok dllterent enl?neers,
ranzi u~ usual l y f rom . i : TI I to I l l N1. . . . -I- .- -..--
ml~s.nic of the old school is apt to swear by the f @J F
_....- I
The ptactlc& mL-..-.-- __ _.... .~
600 as being thoroughly reliable, while the modern engineer !S InOreaPJ
to use the figure 1000.
bfr. Taylor, however, instead of usmg a. hgure
from 550 to 1100 for a single belt, uses 950 to 1100 for double belts.
1f
we assume that a double belt is t\tiice as strong, or will c?rry twice as much
power as a single belt,, then bye uses a figure at 1,east twKe as large as that
USed lh modern nra.rt.lc,?. and would make the cost of belting for a given .-... c_- __._., _~~~.
shop twice as large as if the belting were proportioned accordi@
: to the
most liberal of tlie customary rules.
This great difference is to some extent explained by the fact that the
problem hich Xr. Taylor mldertakes to solve is quite a different one
from that which is solved by the ordinary rules with their variat,lons.
ThS
problem of the latter generally is,
I How wide a belt must be used, or h&y;
narrow n. heIt. mav he used. bo transmit a given horse-pO\yer?
.
- II horse-
rayLYI y p ._I._.. . .-. .-- ..--- -
ower may be transmitted with the minimum cost for belt repairs. the
Ponk
wst llfp to the belt. and thesmallest loss and inconvenience fromStop- . . ,__ . . . . .- ..~~ ~.
! t,he machine while the~belt is being tightened or repairedl pini
The difference between the old practical mechanics rule of a l-in.-
wide single belt, GO0 ft per min., transmits one horse-power, and the rule
commonly used by en&eers in which 1000 is subst,ituted for 600. is due
to the beiief of the er&neers: not that a horse-power could not be trans.
mitted by the belt proportioned by t,he olper Pu!e, but that such.a pro.
porfion involved undue strain from overttghtemng to prevent sllppmg*
which $rain entailed too much Journal fn,ctlon, neceswtated frequent
tightemng, ai: d decreased t.he length of the hfe of the belt.
Jlr. raylors rule substitut.ing 1100 ft. per min. and doubling t~h! be!.
IS a further step. and a, long one, in the same direction.
Whether It, will
be taken in any case by engineers will depend upon whether t,her aPPre.
ciate the estent of the losses due to slippage of belts slackened by Use
under overstrain and t,he loss of time in tightening and repninng belts,
to such a degreen tin induce them to allow the first cost oi t.he belts to
he doubled in
.. -- _. _... ~;~~~
order to avold these losses.
It should be noted t,hlnt, Mr. Taylors experiments were made on racJIT
narrow beltq usrti for trausmitting power from shafting to macblnrry*
and his con&sions may not be applicatile to heavy and wide belts, Such
as engine lly.wheel belts.
WARNING: This is a Some of
--
MISCELLANEOUS, NOTES ON BELTING.
1123
Carl G. Barth has made an extensive study of theivork oiearlier:writeri
Barths Studies on Belting.. (Trans. A. s df E lggg )-kl
on th: Sub$ct of belting! and has derived several new formulz and dia
gramb ShO~lng the rebtmll of the several variables that enter into the
belt problem.
belts may easily be made.
He has also devised a slide rule by which calculations of
pen& on the velocity of the belt, and may be expressed
He finds that the coefficient of friction de
b
f, = o&54 A - 140 +(500 9 V), in which A is the-sum of t
t
the forn-.-*a
e tcnsiol;&
tne &.ht slde,ang one-halt the tenslon on the slack side of the belt, and
V is the veloaQ In feet per minute.
Tahing BIr. IaylorS data aS a Starting point, afr Barth has adopted
the rule, aS a baslS for u.Se of belts on belt-driven machines that f. the
dnvmg belt Of a maChme the minimum initial te&~n &St be iuch
that when the belt is doing the maximum
cum of the. te%szon an the tight side of the b
2t
lollnt Of work intended the
and one-half the teae& in
pert QXe@; and that for a belt driving a countershaft or an other belt
the slack s&e will equal 240 10s. per square inch of rrous.eeetiolt for 0~
lnconv~~ent @ get at for retlghtening or more readGy
dimenaons, t&s sun! will equal 160 lbs.
ma B e of liberll
Ful:ther, the maximum initijl
tenslon. that Is, the llmia! tensipn under which a belt is to be put up in
to the nUmmum, must te such that the sum defined above is 390 lbS
the first place, and to which It is to be retightened as often as it drops
for a machine belt. and 240 Ibs. for a countkz-Shaft belt or a belr Siml:
larly arcumstanced.
From a Set of curves plotted by Mr. Barth from his formula the foll:3w
Ing tablesare derived.
fn the above rule, and on an arc of contact = 1800
The figures are based upon the conditions namei
Belts on Machines.
= 240 Ibs.
Tension. in tight side + Q-tension ii1 slack side
ft.
Initial Velocity, tension, der min.. .
Differen.ce, to - . i, . . .
Centrifugal tensio; b :
500 1000
121
2000
120
3000
121
4000 6000
143+
3
13 Yr
*
e,.
1;;
5;;;
152
86
117
124
Tension on side
10s
tight t,
97 so
210
55 25
Tension on slack side t2
211 207 19s 187 173
SUm of pull, t, TV:
Effective - 57
tensions tl + tZ l!o
6
153
H.P. per so. in. of sec.
270
15::
265
136:
269
1s: Zo
274 2sz
ii
294 307
tioli . . . .
~. _.-
. H.P. per in. . . . . .
width,
& . 2. 27 4. 79 9. 33 12. 61 13.S 12.12 7. 09
in. thick..
. . . . . . . . . 0. 71 1. 50 2. 8, 3. 95 4. 32 3. 71 2. 22
Belts driving countershafts, t, + l/z h = 160 lbs.
Velocity of belt, ft. per min
Initial tension. to. . . . . . . . :*. : 1
Tension on tight side tr . . . . . . . :
Tension on Slack side: tz. . . . . .
Effective pull tl - t.. . . . . . . . .
Sum of tensidns. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H.P. per sq. in. of section
H.P. per in. width, ~/XI in.
lTIISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON BELTIXG.
TYPO .
pormulsz are useful for proportioning belts and pulleys but they fur.
nish n? yeans of estimating how much power a particul$r belt may be
tranSnXtting at any given time, any more than the size of the engine is a
measure of the load it-is actually drawiru
horse is a, measure of the load on the wag;?:
or the known strength of a
The oniy reli?hle means of
deternmung the power actually transmitted is sm~e form of dynamometer.
(See Trans. A. 5. 111. E., vol. xii, p. 707 )
If we increase the thickness, the pow& transmitted ou-ht to increase
in Proportion: .and for double belts we should lrive half tbe>idth required
for a Single belt under the same conditions
moderate velocitirs of belt it is pi - ni mbl e tiiat this holds good
With large puIleysi;n;f
Small pulleys. howevar, when a double belt is gsed~~tl~ere~ is not s&h per-
acWate
1124
BELTING.
feet contact between the pulley-face and the belt, due to the rigidity of
the latter and more work is necessary to bend the belt-fibers than \Ihen a
t.hinner ahd more pliable belt is used. The ce!?t,ri+ga!~force tendmg to
--- for
ihrow the belt frotil the pulley also increases W,tn tne tmclmess, a+
these reasons the width of a double belt reqmred to transnut a given
horse-oower when used with small pulleys is generally ,assumed not less .._.~~ .
th:,l, seven-tenths the width of a single 1
;$&&I% L)$namometers and M&surement, pf PO\. --. ,,
F W. Taylor,%owever. finds that greai phablhty 1s objectionable, cud
favdrs thick beltseven for small pulleys. Tne power ponsumed m bending
the belt around the pulley he considers ,inappreclabl,e. Accorc,ing to
Hankines formula for centrifugal tension, this tension 1s proport!onal to
the sectional area of the belt. and hence it does not increase with !ncrease
of thickness when the width is decreased in the same proportion, the
sectional area remaining constant.
Scott 4 Smith (Trans. A. 8. M. E., x, 765) says: The bestbelts aremade
from ali oak-tanned leather, and curned with the use of cod 0!1 and
-tallow, all to be of superior quality.
Such belts have continued m use
thirty t,o forty years when used as simple driving-belts, driving a proper
amount. of power, and having had suitable care.
The flesh side should
not be run to the Pulley-face, for the reason that the wear from Contact
\vith the pulley should come on the grain side, as th?t surface of the belt
is muc,h weaker in its tensile strength tlran the flesh side; als!, as the gra1.n
is hard it is more enduring for the wear of attrition!; f@er, If the grain 1s
actua!ly worn off, then the belt may not suffer In Its integnty from a
ready tendency of the hard gra,in side to crack.
The most intimate contact, af a belt with a pluiley comes, first, in the
5moothnrss of a pulley-face, including freedom from ridges and hollows
i& by turning-tools; second, in the smoothness of the surface and ev$n-
ness in the texture or body of a belt:,third, in having thecrownof thednv-
ing and receiving pulleys exactly ahlie, -
as nearly so as is practicable
in a commercial sense; fourth. in havmg the cro:vn of pulleys not over
l/s in. for a %-in. face, that is to say, that the pulley is not to be over
l/t in. larger in diameter in its center; fifth, in havmg the crown otl!er
than two planes meeting at the center; sixth, the use pf any materm
on or iu a belt, in addition to those necessarily used 1n tl!e currying
Process, to keep them pliable or increase their tractlve quahty. shou1.d
wholly depend upon the exigencies arising in the use of belts; non-use !S
safer than over-use; seventh, with reference to the lacing of belts, It
seems to be a good prsctice to cut the ends to a convex shape, by usmg a
former, so that there may be a nearly uniform stress on the Iscmg through
the center as cornPared wit.11 the edges.
For a belt 10 ins. wide, the center
IISR m oval pmch.
f the belt.
Lacing of Belts. - In punching a belt for lacing, -_._,_.. .
the longer diameter of the punch being parallel with the sldep 0
punch two rows of holes in each end, placed zigzag. In a 3-m. belt Were
should be four holes in each end -two in eitch row.
In a &in. belt,
seven holes - four in the row nearest the end. A lO-in. belt should have
nine holes. The edge of the holes should not come nearer than 3/4 1%
from the sides, nor i/s in. from the ends of the belt. The second row
should be at least 12/4 ins. from the end.
On wide belts these distances
should be even a little greater.
B~$U to IW= in the center of the belt and take care to keeps the e?ds
c.~.-nn+f~r ir cmg
..i-li&l &itb i&both sides with equal tightness.
The la
Gi;b;ii;i not be crossed on the side of the belt that rmls nest the pulley.
In taking up b&s, observe the same rules as in putring on new ones.
Setting B Belt. en Quarter-twist. - A belt must run squarelY 011 t0
the pulley. To connect with a belt two horizontal shafts st right singles
with each ot.her, say an engine-shaft near the floor with a line attached.to
the ceiling, will reqhire a quarter-turn. First, ascertain the central Pomt
on the face of each pullev at the extremity of the horizontal diameter
where the belt will leave the pulley, and then set that point on the driven
pulley plumb over the corresponding point on the driyer. This will cause
the belt t,o run squarely on t,o each pulley. and it w!ll leave it on angle
Krmter or iess. according to the size of the pulleys and their distance from
each ot,her.
In quarter-twist belts, in order that the belt may remain on the pulleys,
IvIISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON BELTISG.
1125
the central plane on each pulley must pass through the point of delivery
$,;;F~ other pulley. This arrangement does not admit of reversed
To find the Length of Belt required for two given Pulleys. -
When the 1,ength cannot be measured directly by a tape-line, the follolv-
lng apProst,m+te rule may be used: Add the diameter of the two pulleys
together, civlde the sum by 2, and multiply the quotient by 31/4 and
add the product to twice tl .ke distance between the centers of the s!\afts.
(See accurate formula below.)
To And the Angle of the Arc of Contact of a Belt. - Divide the
difference between the radii of the two pulleys in inches by the distance
between tllelr centers, also in inches, and in a table of natural sines find
;pglrf;omOst nearly correspondmg with the quotient. Multiply this
>
and add the product to HO0 for the angle of contact wiith the
larger pul?iY, or SUbtraCt it from 180 for the smaller pulley.
-
Or, let R = radius of larger pulley, T = radius of smaller;
L = distance between centers of the pulleys;
a = angle whose sine is (R - r) + L.
Arc of contact with smaller pulley = 180 - 2 a.
Arc of contact with larger pulley
= 180 + 2 a.
To And the Leqth of Belt in Contact with the Pulley. - For the
larger pul l ey. multiply the angle a. found as above, by 0.0349 to the
product add 3 .l+lS, and multiply the sum by the radius of th$ pulley.
Or length of belt m contact wi th the pulley
= radius X (rr + 0.0349 a) = radius % ~(1 + a/90).
For the smaller pulley, length=redius x (r-0.0349 a)
= radius X ~(1 - a) -190.
The above rules refer to Open Belts.
of an open belt is,
The accurate formula for length
Length = ~rR(t + a/90) + ~(1 -a/90) i- 2 Z, eos 0.
\ = n (r + 0.0349 a) + r (11-O .0349 a) -I- 2 L cos a,
in which R = radius of larger puiley, P = radius of smaller pulley
L = distance between centers of pulleys, and a = anglewhose
sine is
(R-r)sL;cosa=di~-(R-r)2+L.
An approtimate formula is
Lengt,h = 2 L + z (R + T) + (R - r)z/L
For L = 4, R = 2, r = 1, this formula gives length = 17.6748, the
acCUrate formula giving 17.6761
For Crossed Belts the formula is
Length of belt = rr R(1 +,9/90) + nr (1 -I- ,9/90) + 2 L cos B
= (RfT) X(n+o.o349BI+2LcosB.
In which B =n&le whose sine is (R
+T)+L:cosf9 =
. I
. To And the Length of Belt when Closely Rolled - The sum of the
diameter of the roll, and of the eve in inches
x the &mber of turns made
by the belt and by 1309, = len$th of the b&t in feet
To find the Approxi mate I Vei ght of Belts. --~Iultiplv the length
o! belt. in feet. by the width in inches, and divide the prod&t by 13 f or
smgle and 8 for double belt.
Relations nf tile sls a, nn,, Cnnarle n, Thi.rlns. snrl n:.-a Xh.ll,.cs
,- .1.... .-. -.. . ..L6 .I.,. -11 .CL 1 ...zJ a.
-The drivina pulley is calledii~%ver. D, and the drir
driven, d.
Wthe number of t,eeth in gears is used instea
a@
? plillev the
of diameter
in these Cnl Cl I l n~i ~~s, *l l mh~r nf teeth mtd b ~~11~~ti htPA ~r~hnr~v~~
diameter. OCCLI I
-.-...-- _ -- _.. ...I.Y - -I.-r. .I.. IrY ..IIbLG...
driven.
s. R = revs. per min. of driver, I = revs. per min. of
D=dr+RR: -
Dlam. of iriver = diam. of driven X revs. of driven + revs, of driver.
d = DR i T:
Diam. of driven = diam. of driver x revs. of driver + revs. of driven.
!
R=driD;
Revs. of driver = revs, of driven X diam. of driven + diam. of driver.
. r=Di z+dd;
Revs. of driven = revs. of driver X dinm. of driver f diam. of driven.
~~11s of Tight Delts. (Jones and Ltlughlins.) - Clamps with power-
ful screws are often used to put on belts with extreme tightness, and with
mst injurious strain upon tne leather. They should be very Judiciously
used far hnrizonta! belts, which should be ,zllowed su.%cient slackness
to move with a loose undulating vibration on the returning side, as a test
that they have no more strsin imposed than is necessary simply to trans-
mit the power.
On this subject a New England cotton-mill engineer of large experience
says: I believe that three-quarters of the trouble experienced in broken
pulleys, hot boxes, etc., can be traced to the fault of tight belts. The
enrmus and useless pressure thus put upon pulleys .must in time break
them, if they are made in any reasonable proportions, besides wearing
out the whole outfit, and causing heating and consequent destruction of
the bearings. Below are some figures showing the iqwer It takes,.in
avemge modern mills with first-class shafting, to nve the shaftmg
alone:
-
I
:
4
. .
Whole
Shafting Alone.
-r
4%* . . Horse-
power.
199
472
i: 190
Per cent
of whole
25. 6
Mill
No.
759
235
670
677
r
Shafting Alone.
Horse- Per cent
power. of whole.
172. 6
04.8 fi::
EC9 z;l:i
These mav be taken as a fair showing of the power that is required in
many of oui best mills to drive shafting. It is unreasonable to think that
all t,hat power is consumed by a legitimate amount of friction of bearings
and belts. I know of no cause for such a loss of power but tight belts.
these,, when there are hundreds or thousands in a mill, easily multiply
the friction on the be&rings. and would account for the figures.
SRg of IWts. Distance between Pulleys.- In the Location of shafts
~that are to be connected with each other by belts, care should be taken
to secure a proper distance one from t,ha other. This distance should be
such as to allow of a gentle sag to the belt when in motion.
A general rule may be stated thus: Where narrow belts are to be run
over small pulleys 15 feet is a good average, the belt having a sag of
1 l/q to 2 inches
.I I
Ior larger belts, working n larger pul!eys, a distance of 20 to 25 feet
does well. with a sar of 2% to 4 inches.
For main belts w&kin- on very large pullevs, the distance should be 25
to 30 feet. the belts working well with a sag df 4 to 5 inches.
If to great a distance is attemnted. the belt will have an unsteady
fiappillx tiotiou. which will dest,r$~ bOtll~the belt atid machinery. -
.~rmnwmrnt of Belts and Pullevs. - If Dossible to avoid it. con-
nected shafts should never be placed one dire&y over the otber,as in
Such case the belt must be kept very tight to do the work. For this
purpose belts shquld he carefully selected of well-stretched leather.
It is desirable that the r.ngle of the belt with the floor shoul d not esreed
45. It is a,lso desirable to locate the shaftine and machinerr so that
belts should run off from each shaft in onnosite directions. as tl& nrmnee-
ment. will rrlieve the bearings from thefriction that w&lA~resnlt \&en
this hc,lt,s all pi111 one way on the shaft.
111 arrnncinp t.hP belts leading from the main lint of shnftine to the
counters, those pulling in nu opposite direction should be placed as near
IrlARNING: This is a
,,,~,bS,.~
1910~ edition. Some of '
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON BELTING.
1127
each other aspracticable, while those pulling in the same direction should
be separated.
positions of the
This can often be accomplished by changing the relative
pulleys on the counters.
fnction on the journals may be avoided.
By this procedure much of the
If possible, machinery should be so placed that the direction of the belt
motion shall be,fr?m the top f the driving to the top of the driven pulley,
when the sag wdl Increase the arc of contact.
The pulley shoul? be a little wider than the belt required for the work.
The mot.lon of driving should run with and not against the laps of the
l.,,,+.S
;%htenine or cuide pulleys should be applied to the slack side of belts
an&i&r t~liGsm~ller pulley.
Jones and Laughlin% in their Useful Information, say: The diameter of
the ulleys should be 11s large as can be admitted, provided they will not
pro B uce a speed of more than 4750 feet of belt mt.ion per minute.
They also say: It is better to gear a mill with small pulleYs and run
them at a high v@ocity,~than with large pulleys
4 mil! th
and to run them slower.
IUS geared costs less and has a mtich neater appearance than with
large neavy pulleys.
Rl.~ Arthur Achard (Proc. Zn~st. M. E., Jan., 1881, p. 62) says: When the
belt. is wide a partial vacuum is formed between the belt. and the pulley
at a high velocity. The pressure is then great,er thar, that computed from
the tensions in the he!t, znd lhe resistance to slipping is greater.
has the advantage of permitting a gie:
This
civen belt. and of diminishing the strah
ater power to be transmitted by a
1 on the shaftinrr.
- On the other hand, sme %ters claim that the hcit &traps air between
itself and the pulley, which tends to diminish the friction, a.nd reduce
t,he tractive force. On this theory some manufacturers perforate the
belt with numerous holes to let the air escape.
Care of Belts. - Leather belts should be well protected against water,
loose steam, and all other moisture, with which they should not come in
contAct. But where such conditions prevail faiily good results are
oblained by using a special dressing prepared for the purpose of water-
6
roofng leather, though a positive water-proofing material has Plot yet
een discovered.
Belts made of coarse,. loose-Rhered leat,her will do better service in dry
and warm places, but If dam or moist condit,ions exist then the very
finest and frmest leather shou d be used. f
Do not allow oil to drip upon the belts.
(Fayorweat.her 8: Ladew.)
It dest,rrs t~he life of the leather.
Leat,her belting cannot safely stand above llO0 bf beat.
Strength of Delting. -The uhimate tensile strength of belting does
not generally enter as a factor in calculations of power transmission.
The strength of the solid Ieat,her in belts is from 2000 to 5000 lbs. per
square inch.: at the lacings, even if well put together. only about 1000 to
1500. If nveted. the joint should have half the strength of the solid
belt. The wvorking strain on the driving side is generally t,aken at not
qver one-third of the strength of the lacing, or from one-eighth to one-
sixteenth of the strength of the solid belt. Dr. Hortig found that the
tension in pract,ice varied from 30 to 532 11)s. per sq. in., avernring 273 lbs.
I.
Adhesion Independent of Diameter. (Schultz Behing CO.)-
The adhesion of the belt to the pulley is the same -- Ihe arc or number
of. degrees of contact aggregate tension or meieht being the same -
nlthout reference to &dth of belt or diameter of pulley.
2. A belt will slip fust as readily on a pulley four feet in diameter as lt
will on a pulley two feet in diameter, provided the conditions f the faces
f the pulleys,~ the arc of cont,act, the t.ension. and the number f feet
the belt travels per mim1t.e are t.he same in both ca?es.
3. To bt.ain a greater amount of pompr from belts the plllle~s may be
covered with leat.her: this will allow the belts t.o run very slack and give
25% more durability.
Endless Belts. 2 If the helts are to he endless. they should he Put on
and drawn t.orether by belt clamps made for the purpose. If the belt
1s made endIe& at the helt fnct.rv it should never be run on t the Pulleys.
lest the irregular strain ,cprinihe belt. I,ift out one shrift, place the
belt on the pulleys, and force t,hc shaft back int, p~acr.
Belt Data. -
30 feet diameter,
A fly-whe&at the Amoskeag Mfg. CO., ?&nCheSter, N.H..
110 inches face, running 61 revs. per min., carried tWo
e material may no longer be accurate
~~~~~__ 1
heavy double-leather belts 40 &hes wide each, and one 24 inches wide.
The engine indicated 1950 HIP.. of which robably 1850 H.P. was tians-
mitted by t.he belts. The belts were cons, 2 ered to be heavily loaded, but
not overtaxed. (30 X 3.14X 104X 61) i 1850 = 323 ft. per min. for
1 H.P. per inch of ~width.
Samuel Webber (Am. Mach., Feb. 22, lS94) reports a case of a belt 30
ins. wide, 3/g in. thick, running for six years at a velocity of 3900 ft. per
min., on to a pulley 5 ft. diameter, and transmitting 556 H.P. This gives
a velocity of 210 Ct.. per min. for 1 H.P. per iu. of width. By Mr. Naglps
table of riveted belts this belt would be designed for 332 H.P. By Mr.
Taylors rule it would be used to transmit only 123 H.P.
The above may be taken as examples of what a belt may be made to
do. but they should not be used as precedents indesigning,. It is not
stated how much power was lost by the journal friction due to ovei-
tightening of these belts.
Belt Dressings. -We advise that no belt dressing should be used
except when the belt becomes dry and husky, and in such instances we
recommend the use of a dressing. Where this 1s not used beef tallow at
blood-warm temperature should be applied and then dried in either by
artificial heat or the sun. The addition of beeswax to the tallow will be
of some service if the belts are used in wet or dam
x
places. Our expe-
rience convinces us that resin should never be use on leather belting.
(Fayerweather & Ladew.)
Belts should not be soaked in water before oiling, and penetrating a.1~
should but seldom be used, except
dry and husky from ne,glect.
occasionally when a belt gets very
have neat%foot oil apphed.
It may then be moistened a little, and
Frequent applications of such oils to a new
belt render t.he leather soft and Habby, thus causing it to stretch, and
making it liable to ~LI I I Out of line. A comnosition of tallbw and Oil, with
a little resin or beeswax, is better to use. Prepared castor-oil dressing is
good, and may be applied with a brush or rag while the belt is running.
(Alexander Bras.)
Some forms of. belt dressing, the compositions of which have not been
r. ,..
ublihhed, appear to have the property of increasing the coefficient of
nction between t.he belt and the pulley, enabling a given power to be
transmitted with a lower belt tension than wit.h undressed belts. C. W.
Evans (Power, Dec., 1005), gives a diagram, plotted from tests, which
shows that three of these compositions gave increased transmission for
a given tension, ranging from about lOTo for 90 lbs. tension per inctl of
width to 100% mcrease with 20 lbs. tension.
Cement for Cloth or Leather. (Molesworth.) - 16 parts gutta-
percha. 4 india-rubber, 2 pitch, 1 shellac; I
together and well mixed.
9 linseed-oil, cut small, melted
Rubber Belting:. -The advantages claimed for rubber belting are
1
eifect
eat
uniformity in width and thickness; it will endure a great degree of
and cold wIthout injury: it is also specially adapted for use in damp
OF wet places, or where exposed to the action of steam; it is very durable.
and has great tensile strength, and when adjusted for service it has the
most perfect hold on the pulleys, hence is less liable to slip than leather.
Ne~:er use aniauzl oil or grease 01~ rubber belts, as it will greatly injure and
soon drsbrop them.
Rllbber b&s will be improved, and their durability increased, by
put~ting on with a painters brusl~, and letting it dry, a composition made
of equal parts of red lead, black lead, French yellow,, and litharge. mixed
with boiled linseed-oil and ,japan enough to make It dry quickly. The
effect of this will be to produce a finely polished surface. If. from dust
or other muse. t.he belt should slip, it should be lightly moist.ened on the
side next t,he pulley with boiled linseed-oil.
turers~b
(From circulars of manufac-
The best conditions are lar,oti pulleys and high speeds, low tension and
reduced width of belt. 4000 ft. per min. is not an excessive speed on
prover sized pulleys.
H.P. of a -L-ply iul~l~ei belt = (length of arc of contact on smaller pulleY
in ft,. X widt,h of belt in ins. X revs. per min.) i 325. For a !&ply belt
mu1tiplv.b.v: 1 Us. for a 6-plv by 12/s. for a 7-111~ by 2, for an S-ply by 2113.
When the proper wrizht of duck is 11sec1 a 3- or i-ply rubber belt is equal
to a single lent,herbelt a~nd a 5- or &ply rubber to a double leather belt.
ROLLER CHAIN AND SPROCKET DRIVES.
1129
When th.e arc of contact is 180, H.P. of a 4-ply belt = wjdth in ins. X
velocity m ft. per min. + 650. (Boston Belting Co.)
Steel Belts. - The Eloessei-Iiiaftband-Gesellschaft, of Berlin has
.jntroduced a steel belt for heavy power transmission at high sbeeds
(dm. Mach.. Dec. 24, 190s). It is a thin flat band of tempered steel.
The ends are soldered and then clamped by a special device consisting of
two steel plates, tapered to thin edges, which are curved to the radius
of the smallest pulley to be used, and joined together by small screws
which pass through holes in the ends of the belt. It is stated that the
slip of these belts is less than 0.1%; they are about one-fifth the width
of a le@her belt for the same power, and they are run at a speed of 10,000 ft.
per mlcute pi upwards. The following figures give a comparison of a
rope dnve w!th SIX. ropes 1.9 ins. diam., a leather belt 9.6 im. wide and a
steel belt 4 ins wide, for tiansmltting 100 H.P. on pulley 3 ft. diam.,
30 ft. apart at 200 i.p.m.
Rope
Drive.
Weight of pulley. lbs ......................
Weight of rope or belt, lbs..
Total cost of drive
.............
I
2:
......................
Power lost, per cent of 100 H.P ..........
I
$6335
13
Lg$er Steel Belt.
I
-
ROLLER CIIAIN AND SPROCKET DRIVES.
The following is abstracted from an article by A. E. blichel. in Ma&y,
minimized.
Roller chain has been known to stand up at a speed of 2,000 ft. per min.,
an,d transmit 25 H..P. at 1,250 ft. per min.; but speeds of 1.000 ft. per
mm. and under give better satisfaction. Block chain k adapted to
slower speeds, say iO0 ft. per min. and under, and is estensirely used on
bicycles, small motor cars and machine tools.
not tixed quantities, it is advisable to keep the speec high. and chain
Where sr$ and pull are
Pull Iqw, yet it should be borne in mind that high speeds are more de-
structive t,o chains of large than to those of small pitch.
The following table of tensile strengths, based on tests of Diamond
chains taken from stock, may be considered a fair standard:
ROLLER CHAIN.
. .
%%k$iib; 1%O l&O 430 6.0100Q;;(e, I;$0 IQ*%0 25:000
Block chain. .:. . . .*. iinch. 1.200 to 2,500: 1l/z inch, 5,O;O.
The safe working load of a &in is dependent on the amount of rivet
hearing surface, and varies from 11.5 to 1140 of the tensile stren?h accord-
Ing to the speed, size of sprockets, and other condit.ions pm&n; to each
Case. The tenuencv now is to use the widest possible chain in order to
secure masimum &et bearing surface t,hus insurinw
from friction.
mlnlmum wear
Manufacturers. are making heavier chai& than heretofore
for the same duty. As short pitch is always desirable, special double and
even triple width chains are now made to conform to the iecluirements
when a heavy single width chain of greater pitch is not practical. A
double chain has twice the rivet bearing surface and half again as much
tensile stiengt,h as the similar single one.
The length of chilin for a given drive may be found by the fOlIOwing
formula:
~._~ ,.: i
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accurate
1130
BELTING.
All dimensions in inches.
D = Distance bet~ween centers Of Shafts.
A = Distance between limiting points of c0UWt. It = Pitch radms of
large sprocket.
T = Pitch radius of small sprocket. N = Number of
teeth of large sprocket. n = Number of teeth of small SprOCket. & =
Pitch of chain and sprockets. (1SO + 2 ct) = ilngle of contact on large
sprocket. (180 - 2 cr) = angle of contact on small sprocket. (Y = angle
whose sine is (R - r)lD. A = D CoS a.
Length of chain required:
L= 1so+2a
360
NP+180-2~
360
nP+2Dcosff.
For block chain, the total length specified in ordering should be in
multiples of the pitch. For Toiler chain, the length should be in multiples
of twice the Ditch. as a union of the ends can be effected only with an out-
side and an inside~ link.
Wherever possible, the distance between centers of shafts should permit
of adjustment in order to regulate the sag of the chain. A chain should
be adjusted, in proportion to its length, to show slack when running, care
being t.aken to have it neither too tight nor too loose, as either condition
is destructive. If a fixed center distance must be used! and results in.
too much sag. the looseness should be taken up by an idler. and nhen
there is any considerable tension on the slack side, this idler must be
a sprocket. \Vhere an idler is not practical, another combinat.ion of
sprockets giving approximately the same speed ratio may be tried, :.., :
in this manner a combination giving the Droner sag ma.v alwars be -- -- --
obt~ained.
In automobile drives, too much sag or too great a distance between
shafts causes the chain to whip up and down -- a condition detrimental
to smooth running and very destructive to the chain. In this class of
work a cent,er tlist,ance of over 4 ft. has been used, but greater efiiciencg
and loneer life are secured from the chain on shorter lengths. say 3 ft. and
. -
untler.
Sprocket Wheels. Pro erly proportioneii and machined sprockets are
essential to successful c liun gearing. P. The important dimensions of a
sprocket are the pitch diametPr and the bottom and outside diameters.
For block chain these are obtained as follows:
N = No. of teeth. b = Diameter of round part of chain block. B =
Cent,er t,o crtnter of holes in chain block. A = Center to center of holes
in side links. n= lSO/.V. Tan ,9= sin (Y f (B/A + cos a).
Pitch diameter = .4/Sin p.
Bottom diam.=pitch diam. - b. O~llside diam. =pitch diam. + 6.
For rniler chain: N = Number of teebh. P = Pitch of chain. D =
Diameter of roller. (r= lSO/N. Pitch diameter = P/sin N.
Bott~orn riiam. = pitch diam. - I>.
For sprorkebs of i7 t,eeth and over, outside diam = pitch diam. + D.
The out,side diameters of small sprockets are cut down so that the teeth
will clear the roller Perfectly at high speeds.
Outside diam. = pitch diam. + D - E.
Values of E.
Pitch.
et0 I2
Teet,h.
13 to 16
Teeth.
1/2in. to3/4in.. ................................. 0.062 in. 0. 031 in.
I in.toZins ...................................... 0. 125 in. 0.062in.
ROLLER CHAIN AND SpROCKET DRIVES. 1131
results. Fewer may oe used, but cause undue elonga,tion in the chain,
wear the sprockets and consume to? much power. Eight-tooth sprockets
rin almost every roller chain apphed to the?, and ten and eleven teeth
*To tit,ted onlv for medium and slow speeds with other conditions unusu- -._ _..~
aily favorablit.
Sprocket teeth seldom break from insufficient strength, but the tooth
must be properly shaped. A chain wdl not run we:l unless the sprockets
have sidewise clearance and teeth narrowed at the ends by curves begin-
ning at the pitch line.
Calling W the width of the chain between the links,
Ji = 11~ W = width of tooth at top, B = uniform width below pitch line.
B = w- l/34 in. when W = l/4 in. or less,
w - 11s~ in. when W = s/t6 to 5/s in. Inclusive.
z w- 11~~ in. when W = 3/4 in. or over.
Tf t.he anrocket is flanged the chain must seat itself DrORerIy without the
sldy &~~&&~~~into contact with the flange. - - -
The principal cause of trouble within the chain is elongation. It is
the result of stretch of material or natural wear of nvets and the!r bearh!gs.
To guard against the former, chain maker: use spe,clal materials of lug!1
tensile strength, but a chain subjected to Jars and .loltS Pey?nd ths lumt
of elasticity of the material may be put in worse condltlon m an Instant
than in months of natural wear. If for any reason a link elongates
unduly it shoul d be replaced at once, as one elongated link will even.tually
ruin the entire chain. Such elongation frequently results from all the
load being thrown on at once.
To minimize nutural weax, chains should be well greased inside and
out protected fron mud and heavy grit, cleaned often and replaced to
rllnin the same direction and same side up. A new chsin should never __._ -.. ..~~~
be apphed to a much-worn sprocket.
Import.ance of pitch line clearances: In a sprocket with no clearances
a new chain fits perfectly, but after natural wear t,he pitch of c&in and
sprocket become unlike. The chain is then elongated and chmbs. the
teeth, which act as wedges, producing enormous stram, and It qUlC@Y
wrecks itself. With the same chain on a driven sprocket, cut with
clearances, all rollers seat against their teeth. After long and useful life.
the working roller shifts to the top, and the other rollers still seat v&h
the same ease as when new. Theoretically. all the rollers share the load.
This never occurs in pract.ice, for infinitesimal wear wit.hin the Chain
causes one, and only one, roller to bear perfectly seated agsmst the
working Iace of the sprocket tootli at any one time. Clearance alone on
the driver will not provide for elongat.ion. To operate propefly the
pitch of the driver must be lengthened, which is done by increasmg the
itch
P
diameter by an amount dependent upon the clearance allowed.
or theoretical reasoning, on this subi ect see Roller Chain Gear, a
treatise on English practice. by Hans Renold.
When the ioad reverses, each sprocket becomes alternat,ely driver and
driven. This happens in a tnotor car during positive and negative accel-
eration, or in ascending or descending a hill. In this event, the above
construction is not applicable, for a driven sprocket of longer pitch than
the chain will stretch It. No perfect method of equalizing the pitch of a
roller chain and its sprockets under reversible load and at all periods ?f
chain elongation has been found. This fault is eliminated in the -silent
type of chsm: hence it runs smooth at a very much greater speed than
roller chain will stand.
In practice there are compllratively few roll& chain drives with chain
pull always in the same direction, So manufacturers generally Cut the
driver sprockets for these with normal pitch diameter, same as the
driven. Recent experiments have proven that t,he ditficult.ies a?e greatly
lessened by cutting bot,h driver and driven with liberal pit,ch ll!lC Cle?r-
awe. Accordinelv. chain makers now advise t.he following Pitch hne
clearance for sta?&rd rollers:
Clear&&, Pitch in I2 1132 314 ha 1 I/4 3116 11/2 7132 13/4 118
2
in., 3132 5/32
clearance.
. . Cutters may be obtained from Brown & Sharpe Mfg. CO. with this
Sprocket diameters should be very accurate, particularly t.hr base
diameter, which shonld not vary more t,han 0.002 in. from the calculated,
vniues. Sprorket,s should be gauged t, o discover thick teeth and inncpumte
diameters. A, poor chai n map 0perat.e on a good sprocket, btlt a b
sprocket will ruin a good chain. Sprockets of 12 tcr 60 teeth gi,;e be
.,~,
MARNING: This is a 1910 editibn.
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
BELTING.
Beltwq versus Chain Drtves. - Chains are suitable for positive
transmissions of ,very heavy powers at slow speed.. Thev are properly
used for conveying ashes, sand,, chemicals and liqmds which would car-
rode or destroy belting. Chains of this kiud are generally made of
malleable iron. For conveyers for clean substances, flour, wheat and
other grains, belts are preferable, and in the best installations leather is
preferred to cotton or rubber, being more durable.~ Transmission
chains have to be carefully made. If the chain is to run smoothly, noise-
lessly, and without considerable friction,
must be mathematically correct,
botb the link
;- LL.,. L-:-t __.^. _.-A I..I --~.--~ ~I
s and the sbiockets
This perfection of design is found only
111 ~1e mg11rst. anu oest makes 01 steel chain.
Deteriomtlon of chains starts in with the beginning of service. Even
!n sucn light an0 nes1ble duty as bicycle transmission, a chain is sub-
jected to,sudden severe strains, which either stretch the chain or distort
the bearing surfaces. Either mishap is fatal to smooth frictionless
runn111g. If the transmission is positive, as from motor or shaft to a
machine tool, sudden variations in strain become sledge-hammer blows.
and, the cham must either break or the parts yield.
arlsmg from the stretching of the chain, self-adjus
To avoid the evils
sting forms of teeth have
been invented, of which the Renold silent-chain gear is one of the best.
The,makers of the Morse rocker chain also an excellent chain recom-
mend it for use under the following conditions:
ing for the pro
(l) Where room is lack-
P
er sized pulley&for belts. (2) Where the centers between
shafts are too s iort for belts.
(4) Where there ls
(3) Where a positive speed ratio is desired
moisture, heat or dust that would prevent a belt
;zvk;fg properly. (5) Where a maxlmum power per inch of width is
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARING. 1133
GEARING.
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEABIXG.
pitch, Pitch-circle, etc. - If ,two cylinders with parallel axes are
pressed together and one of them 1s rotated on 1ts asls, it will dnve the
other by means of the friction between the surfaces. The cylinders may
be considered as a pair of spur-wheels wlttl an lnhnite number of very small
teeth. If actual teeth are formed upon the cylinders. making alternate
elevations and depressions in tlie cylindrical surfaces, t~he distance between
the axes remaining the same, we have a pair of gear-wheels which will
drive one another by pressure upon the faces of the,teet,h, 1f the teeth are
properly shaped. In making the, teeth the cylmdncal surface may
entirely disappear, but the position 1t occupied may still be cons1,dered as
a cylindrical surface, which is called the pitch-surface, and 1ts trace
on the end of the wheel, or on a plane cutting the wheel at right angles to
its axis. is called the pitch-circle or pitch-line. The diameter of
this circle is called the pitch-diameter, and the distance from the face
of one tooth to the corresponding face of the next tooth on the same
wheel. measured on an arc of the pitch-circle, is called the pitch of the
tooth; or the circular pitch.
If two wheels having teeth of the same pitch are geared together so
that their pitch-circles touch, it is a property of the pitch-circles that
their diameters are proportional to the number of teeth in the wheels,
and vice versa; thus, if one wheel is twice the diameter (measured on the
pitch-circle) of the other, it has twice a,s many t,eeth.
If the teeth qre
properly shaped the linear velocities of the two wheels are equal, and t.he
angular velocities, or speeds of romtion, are i11versely proport~mnal t,o the
number of teetl1 and to the diameter. Tl1us the wheel that has twice as
many teeth as the other .will rqolve
just half as many t.imes 111 a minute.
The pitch, or distance meas-
ured on an arc of the pitch-circle
from the face of one tooth to tlie
face of the next, consists of two
Darts - the thickness of the
tooth and the space between it
and the next tooth. The space is
larger than the thickness by a small
amount called the backlash,
which is allowed for imperfections
of workmanship. In tinely cut
gears t.he bac!klash may be almost
nothing.
The length c,f a t.oot.11 in the
direction .of the radius of the wheel
is called the depth,
1 and t,hls is divided into two parts: First, the
addendum,:* the height of the tooth above t,he pitch hne; second, the
dedendum,
the depth below the pitch-line, which 1s an amount equal to
the addendum of the mating gear.
The depth of the space 1s usually
given a little clearance
** to allow for inaccuracies of workmanship,
especinllv in cast gears.
Referring to ~~ ITI, pI, pl are the pitch-lines. 01 the addendum-line,
rI the root,-line or dedendum-line, cl the clearance-lme. and 5 the back-
&& The addendum and dedendum are usually made equal $0 each
No of teeOh
3.1416
Diametral pitch =
dlam. of pitch-circle in inches = drcular pitch
diam.
Some writers use the term diametral pitch to mean No of teeth =
circular pitch
3.1416
but the first, definition is the more common and the more
WARNING: Thiq is a 19lOedition.
dLk,&2L~&:..~~;.~. ~,~_,~~ ..~ ~, .~,~ ., ,~... ~.,.~~,~.., ,..,_ I,.~ ~..~~ . . .~~ ,.. ~.
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARING.
Proportions of Teeth. Circular Pitch = 1.
I I I I
conveni e1l t, A wl?eel of 12 in. diam. at the pitch-circle, with 48 teeth is
4%~ = 4 dlametrai pitch, or simply 4 pitch.
The circular pitch of ihe
same wheel 1s 12 X 3.1416 + 48 = 0.7554, or 3.1416 + 4= 0.7554 in.
Relation of Diamctral to Circular Pitch.
1 I . 1 2. 1 3. . I 4. 5. 6.
--
0.30 0.30
.40 a.35
.70 .65
.475 .485
:iP :Z!
.70 .b5
lo.*
Is P
.;m&
2.157+P
D.157sP
1.51 iP to
1.57 +P
1.57 ePto
1. 63 i P
.O to .Ob+P
Dism
trn1
Pitch
I
l ' l 2
: v4
2112
; 3: 4
3l/z
5
6
7
3
I O
-
!-
(
--
-
Zircular
Pitch.
:ircul:
Pitch
Diame-
tra1
Pitch.
--
0.33
,.....
.bb
.75
. . . . . .
.45
.55
. I 0
.45
---.
0:x$ 0:;;
.60 .73
.70 .80
2;
.07
.47
.55 .53
.I 0 .Ob
.47
Dinme-
tra1
Pitch.
3. 351
: : i : ;
4.189
i!:Z
5.585
EZ:
a. 378
I X
l b. 755
25.133
50.266
Depth of tooth above pitch-line. _. _, 0.35
Depth of tooth below pitch-line.,
\Vorking depth of tooth.. . _. _. _. _. _.
.;I:
Total depth of tooth.. i . . . . _. :75
Clearance at root. . . . . . . . . .
Thickness of tooth.. . . . . . . .
:i;
Width of space.. . . . . . . .54
Backlash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .09
Thickness of rim.. . .
I
I . 571
1.396
1.257
I.142
1. 047
, 898
, 785
628
,524
.449
.393
.349
, 314
O:~B;i
.224
I96
. I 75
, 157
: I E
, 121
: i Af
. 09a
. 087
: g
2
1.047
k::
%3
I s
f . i 76
' 3/ M
I . 795 314
1. 933 Vlll
2. 094 518
z::
s/10
112
3. 142 l / 8
' / l a
I 7. ) a. 1 . 9.
0.30. 0. 318
,369
.637
,687
. 04to . 05
. 48 to .5 (
lxptn OI 5., ... .-., . -r .-..
line..
D,,t;,of tooth below pitch-
... .............. ............
.:.
.........
0.25 to 0.33
.35to :42
Working depth of tooth ................
Total depth of tooth. ..... .b to .75
Clearance at root ........................
. 35+. oaf l
.65+ .08
. .
. 4a- . 03f l Thickness of tooth.. . . 1 . 48 to .485 1
Since circ. pitch = dgr.z :;::6, dlam. = clrc. Pitch X No. of teeth
: ?~l l l A
Widt,h of space.. . . . . . . . . . .
Backlash. . . . . . . . . . . .
/ .52 to .5l5/ s&;,:: / :::,;;)
.04 to .03
* In terms of diametral pitch.
-.___-
whic!l always brjngs.oL!t the diameter as a number with an inconvenient
frWtl~~!l if the pitch Is 111 even inches or simple fractions of an lncll
the ~tI~~ll~~t~~Ll-Pl~Ci1 system this inconvenience is avoided
By
may lx lli eve11 Inches Or convenient fractions, and the
The diabeter
bumber of teeth
1s UsuW an even multiple of the number of inches in the diameter.
AUTHORITIES. - 1. Sir Wm. Fairbairn. 2, 3. Clark. R. T. D.: used
by engineers in good practice. 4. Molesworth. 5, 6. Coleman Sellers:
5 fnr P$t, 6 for cut wheels. 7, 8. Unwin. 9, 10. Leading American .. . . . .
manufacturers of cut gears.
The Chordal Pitch (erroneously called true pit.ch by some authorsi
is the length of a straight line or chord drawn from center to center of t~\vo
adjacent teeth. The t,erm is now but litt,le used, except in conneCtion
with chain and sprocket gearing.
1 En0
Diameter of Pitch-line of Wheels from 10 to 100 Teeth of 1 tn.
Circular Pitch.
2:
E
-
: 4
2E
24
2
32
33
3- l
35
: ;
: 9"
40
8.276
%I:
?.23!
9. 549
9.868
IO. I 86
10, 504
K' , :
I l . 459
11. 777
122%
12. 732
6.
..C
n
13. 051
1: : : 8";
: 4. 006
14. 324
14.642
14.961
15.279
K
l b. 234
l b. 552
l b. 870
1: : : : ;
, . . . . . .
Zi:
18. 462
18. 781
19. 099
19. 417
19. 735
20. 054
EX; :
21. 008
21. 327
21. 645
21. 963
22. 282
. . . . . .
3. 183
3. 501
3. 820
a I X~Q
. . . _I
4. 456
i : E
5. 411
Zl
6. 366
%
7. 321
7. 639
7. 958
-
3
B
. I
I
z
t
:
,
I
I
,
/
f .
.$5
a
.:::i;;
i 8. 011
28. 329
28. 648
f 9' : %&
: ; : , "t:
30. 2. ?9
X: :
31. 194
31. 512
31. 831
. . .
Chordal pitch=diam. of pitch-circle X sine of hT,,r ~,e~t,,.
Chordal
..-._. ..I..
pitch of a wheel of 10 in. pibch diameter and 10 teeth. 10 X sin 1s T
3 .0902 in. Ci rcul ar nitcb of same wheel = 3 .1416.
Chordal pitch, is
used with chain or spiocket. wheels. t.o,conPorm to the pitch of the COWL
Gears with Short Teeth. -There is a tendency in recent Years to
depart widely from the proportions of teeth given in the above and to
use much short.er teeth, especially for heavy machinery.
C. W. Hunt
gives addendum a,nd dedendum each = 0.25. and the clearance 0.05 of
the circular pitch, making the total depth of toot,h 0.55 of t.he cirn!lar
pitch. The face of the tooth is involute in form, and the angle of a$on
Is 141/z, C. H. Logue uses a 20 involute with the follo\Wl,S proportions:
Addendum 0.25P = 0. X%4 +P: dedendum 0.30 P = 0.9424 ;, 5;
clearance O.MP = 0.157P: whole
circular iitch, P = diametral pitch.
depth O.ZP = 1.72X + P.
See papers by R. E. Flanders and
Norman Lit&field in Trans. A. S. M- E.. 1908.
John Walker (Am. Mnch. RIa,r. 11. 1697) says: For special Purposes of
slow-running gearing with &eat toot.11 stress I should prefer a 1engt.h of
tooth of 0.4 of the pit,ch, but for general work a len:rh of 0.6 of the pitch.
In 1895 Mr. Walker made two pairs of cut steel gears for the C!l<ago
cable railway with G-in. circular pitch, length = 0.4 pitch.
The.Pllllolls
had 42 t,eeth and the gears 62, eac,h 2O-in. face. The two pai? were
set side by side on t:heir shafts, so as to St&,
mpr t,lle teeth, makmg the
total face40 ins. The gears brausmit.trd 1~500 H.P. at 60 r,P.m. rePlac-
ing cast-iron gears of 71~2 in. pitch which had broken in servw?.
For diameter of wheels of a,n,v other pitch than I in., mult.iply the fic-ures
in the table by the pit.ch. Given the diameter and the pitrh to fins the
number of teeth. Divide t,lie diameter bv the pitch look in t,he table
under diameter for the figure nearest
of teeth Ml be found opposit,e.
to the. quotient, and the number
Formula? for Determining the Dimensions of Small Gears,
(Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)
P = diametral pitch, or the number of teeth to one inch of diameter of
pitch-circle:
L^.. ^C -
Itch-circle .......................
mmeter........................
ir of teeth.
......
................ . .......... I \$f&Z.!
vworlq .......................................
-
itch-circle .......................
These
wheels run
together.
Ck=
b=
t=
S=
D =
f=
D f
T=
p =
distance between the centers of the two wheels;
number of t.eetb in both wheels.
thickness of tooth or cutter on iitch-circle;
adaendum;
working de
amount ad ti
th of tooth:
clearance;
ed to depth of tooth for rounding the corners and for
4 ;$ole depth of tooth; _~
circula; pitch, or the distance from the center of one tooth to the
center of the next measured on the pitch-circle.
Formulae for a single wheel:
p=N+z
-; D = $$; D= ; ~2.7; s+ ;.g ~183 p,;
D
- N=PD-3; D D
N=PD;
S=x=N+2
D ~-92; f+;
*+f=# ++=0.3~85P.
D = D +$; t =y=~hp~.
Formulae for a pair of wheels:
b=ZaP;
PD V
n= -.
v *
L)=)aw+2)
b
PDJ I . v- d=2a(n+2)
b ;
NV
b
a= 5-F
D+ d
a=2;
bV
n= ---; DL?$!@
v-f-v
,jT= fv
G-v
Width Of Teeth. - The width of the faces of teeth is generally made
from ,2 to 3 times the clrcuiar Pitch. t.hat is from 6.28 to 9.42 divided by
the dlametral pitch. There is no standard rule for width,
The following sizes are given in a stock list of cut gears in IfGrants
Gears:
$merraI pitch.. 3 4 6 8
Eace, inches.. . 3 and 4 2/2 lsf4and 2 11/4and 1112 3/qJzd 1 I/2i,d 51,
The Walker Company gives:
-.~~ .
Thickness of rim bl w root = Depth of toot,h.
Rules for Calculating the S eed of Gears and Pulleys. -The
relations of the size and speed of B.
same as those of belt pulleys.
nving and driven gear-wheels are the
In calculating for gears, mutiply or
divide by the diameter of the pitch-circle or by the number of teeth. ?s
may be required.
diameter in inches.
In calculating for pulleys, multiply or divide by their
If D = diam. of driving wheel, d = diam of driven. R = revoutons
Per minute of driver, T = revs. per min. of dhven. RD = rd;
wear pitch, in.. 112
Face, in.. . . . . . 111~
MARNING: This
R-rd+ D:T=RD+~:D=@+R:~=DR+~.
If N = No. of teeth of driver and n = No. of teeth of driven, NR = W;
it = nr + R; n=NRsr; R = I % i N: r= RN i n.
To find the number of revolutions of the last wheel at the end of a
train of spur-wheels all of which arein a line and mesh int,o one another.
when the revolutio& of the first, wheel and the number of teefh or the
TOCpTHED-WHEEL GEARING.
The following proportions of gear-wheels are recommended by Prof.
Coleman Sellers. (Stevens Indicator, April, 1893.)
Proportions of Gear-wheels.
Diametra
Pitch.
I
5
4
3
23fd
2 v2
2
1 h
I
cpa
P
9.%*
0.31416
Q3
0.3927
0.4477
l/2
0.5236
%tl
0%32
0.%4
;/I3
iTi
ii47
5 I . 2 664
1318
I ! %8
' i I 4
2i "1:
; i h
3.:46
3x/4
W2
jutside of
itch-line.
P x 0.3.
0. 075
. 079
. 094
. I ' 3
. I ' 8
. I 34
. I 5
: G
. I 88
. ' a5
. 225
: E
: : I 4
. 338
. 343
. 375
. 377
: S'
. 47'
. 525
2; ;
. 75
G2'
: %
1. 05
T; nside of Pitch-line
poor cast
or cut
#eveIs 01
or cast
Spurs.
P x 0. 4.
:12
, 126
3;
. I 79
. 20
: %
. 25
. 25'
$4
&9
. 457
303
. 55
: : 28
. 7
i i 38
2' :
1. 2
1; ; "
1: 4
0.388
$2
. I 31
: 1: :
: %
. I 97
, 219
. 22
2; :
3'
. 364
: 34g4
: "4' 4"
, 401
2'
. 613
5;
: %
?or Cast For cut
ipurs or levels or
Bevels.
a x 0. 525,
spurs.
P x0. 51.
Width of Space.
0. 131
: I : :
. I 97
: %
: ; ; :
. 295
2"
. 394
: %
3'
: i 9'
. 656
. 66
, 722
: ; 2
. 919
1: $
I . 181
I . 313
1: %
I : %
I . 838
:E
.I6
.I91
.2
:z
, 267
3: ;
. 32
. 303
. 40'
3; "
. 534
: %
, 638
, 641
. 701
, 765
, 801
t893
I . oz
%i
1. 275
1%'
Cl ; :
1. 785
diameter of the first and last arc given: Multiply the revolutions of the
Erst wheel by its number of teeth or its diameter, and divide the product
by the number of teeth or the diameter of the fast wheel.
To find the number of teeth in each wheel for a train of spur-wheels
each tP ,have a given velocity: Multiply the number of revolutions oi
the dnvmg-wheel by its number of teeth, and divide the product by the
number of revolutions each wheel is to make.
To find the number of revolutions of the last wheel in a train of wheeis
and plmons, when the revolutions of the first or driver, a,nd the diameter
the teeth, or the circumference of all the drivers and pillions are given!
Multiply the diameter, the circumference, or the number of teeth of ali
the driving-wheels together, and this continued product by the number
of revolutions of the first wheel, and divide this product by the contin-
ued product of the diameter, the circumference. or the number of teeth
of all the dnven wheels, and the quotient will be the number of revolutions
of the last wheel.
EX.UIPLE. - 1. A train of wheels consists of four wheels each 12 in
diameter of pitch-circle,, and three pistons 4, 4, and 3 in. diameter.
large wheels are the dnvers, and the first makes 36 revs. per min.
The
qlured the speed of the last wheel.
Re-
36X 12x 12x 12
4X4X3
= 1296 r.p.m.
2. What is the spead of the first large wheel if the pinions are the
drivers, the 3-m. pinion being the first driver and making 36 revs. per min.?
36X3X4X4
12x 12 x 12 = 1 r.p.m. AI LS.,
/
3Iilling Cktters for Interchangeable Gears. -The Pratt &
Whitney Co. makes a series of cutters for cutting epicycloidal teeth
The nu!nber of cutters to cut from a pinion of 12 teeth to a rack is 24 fo;
each pitch, coarser than 10. The Brown & Sbarpe Mfg. Co. makes a
smiilar series. anti also a series for involute teeth, in which eigbt cutters
are made for each pitch, as follows:
i
No.. . . . . . .
Will
2.
cut from.. 1315 3.
55
;; zi 6. L 8.
. . 3.5
to Rack 134 17 54 34 25 20 1D E
FORMS OF THE TEETH.
In o!?er that the teeth of wheels and pinions ma,\ run toeether smoothiv
anct wlt,h a constant relat,ive velocity, it is necessary thii their xvorking
faces shall be formed of certain curves called odontoids.
property of these curves is that wh
The essential
en two teeth are in contact the com-
mou vormal !.o the tooth curves at their point of cont,act must pass tltrougb
the plbcb-pomt. or point of contact of the two pitch-circles.
curves are in common use -. the cv
Two such
cloid a.nd the~involute.
_,lf!!$ ~<Y,cloldal Tqoth. - Tn Fie. 172 let PL and pl be the pitch-
: c% and-ac are two eoual eenerat,ine-circles.
whose rnau should be taken as notgreater tha$one-half of the radius
of the smaller pitch-circle. If the circle gc be rolled to the left on the
Iarzer Pitch-circle. PL. the point 0 will describe an epicycloid 0 efgh. I f
tl:p other.eeneratlna-circle f?C be rolled to the rioht on PL, the point 0
~111 desrnbe a bypocyrloid Onhcrl. These .tmo c&es. which RIP tn,naent
at 0. form the t.wr, ns
..-rts of a tooth curve for a rear mhose pit.ch-circle is
PL. The llDDf?r~DtWt Oh is called t.he face and the lower nart Of! i: called
tl!e flank., If t,lle same circles he rolled on the other pit,ch-circle pZ t.hev
n?ll descnbe the curve for
n-lth the tooth on PL.
a tooth of the gear pl, which will work prdgerljr
The r~cloida~l curves may be drawn without 3rtuaIlp rolilne the gen-
eratln:-rlKlP. 3s follows: On the line PZ,, from 0 qt.ep off and m?rk eoual
distan@s. as 1. 2. 3. 4, etc. From 1. 2, 3 etc. xrnm radial iin& toward
the center of PL and from 6, 7, 8, etc., diaw isdial &es from the sime
In the cycloidal system. in order that a set, of wheels of different diam-
eters but equal pitches shall all correctly work together, it is necessary
that the generating-circle used for the teerh of all the wheels shall be
the same, and it should have a diameter not greater t.han half the diam-
eter of the pitch-line of the smallest Rheel of the set,. The c,ustomary
standard size of the generating-circle of the cycloidal system is one ha,ving
a diameter equal to the radius of t.be pitch-circle of a wheel having ,I2
beeth. (Some eear-makers adopt 15 t,eeth.) This circle gives a r&al
flank to the t.eetb of a wheel havin,o 12 teeth. A pinion of 10 or even a
smaller number of teeth can he made hut in t~hnt. case the flanks WlIl be
undercut, and the loath will not he as bt,ronr as a toot~li with radial flanks.
If in any case the describing circle he half the size of the pitch-circle, the
flanks will be radial: if it be less. they will spread out, toward the root Pf
the t,oot.b. piving a stronger form: but, If great.er. the flanks will Curve In
toward each other, whereby t.he tecrh become weaker and difficult to
--.
NG: This is a 1910~ edition. Some of
11: some cases cycloidal teeth for a pair of gears are made Kith 4he
generating-circle of each gear having a radius eclunl to,haIf t,he ra&ns
of its pitch-circle. In this case each of the gears will have radial flanks.,
&iidAk&L ..,,,_ :.:~, ,,, _, ,~ ,,,_, ,. .~, ,,,,..,, ~, ~.~ ._,_ ~~~
the material may no longer be accurate
FORMS OF THE TEETH. 1139
cent&r, but beyond. PL. With the radius of the generating-circle,, and
\vltb ceuters successively placed on these radial lines. draw a,rcs of circles
tangent to PL at 1, 2, 3, 6, 7. S, etc. With the dividers set to oue of the
equal divisions, as 01, step off on the genemting circle gr the points a. b,
c d, then take successively tile chordal distances (la, Ob, Oc, Od,
add lay them off on the several arcs 6e, 71. 8g, 9h, and la, Zb, 3c, 4d;
througll the points efsh and abed draw the tooth curves.
F;a. 172.
1..
The curves for the mating tooth on the other wheel may be found in
like manner by drawing arcs of the generating-circle tangent at equldistant
points on t,he pit,ch-circle pl.
Tbe tooth curve of the face Ok is limited by the addendum-line r or rl.
and that of the flank OII by the root curve IZ or RI. R and t represent
the root and addendum curves for a large number of small teeth, and Rg
the like curves for a small number of large teeth. The form or appearance
of the tooth therefore varies according to the number of teeth, while the
pitch-circle and the generating-circle may remain t,he same.
tne wneeis are
x...* ,a:ll^_^-. -
This method makes. a smooth working gear, but a disadvantage is that
not interchangeable with other wheels of the same pitch
uuc UWXW~ numbers of teeth.
The rack in the cycloidal system is equivalent to a wheel with an
1. The Ditch is eoual to the rirori1a.r nitrh of r~hn rnnnlte numner of teeM
mating ,gear. Both faces and ftanks arecj,cloids-for-~~~~y~~~ii~~~ ti;:
generatmg-circle of the mating gear-wheel on each side of the straight
pitch-hne of the rack.
Another method of drawing the cycloidal curves is shown in Fig 173.
It is known as the method of tangent arcs. The generating-circles as
before, are drawn with equal radii, ,the length of the radius being less
thn,n half the ratius of pl, the smaller pitch-circle. Equal divisions 1, 2,
3. 4. etc., are marked off on the pitch-circles and divisions of the same
lei!gth stepped off on one of the generating-circles, as 0, a b e.
From the
points 1, 2. 3, 4.5 on the linenO, wit.h radii successively equal to the chord
distances 0% Ob. Oc, Od. Oe. draw the five small arcs F
A line drawn
through I.he o!iter edges of these small arcs, tangent to them all will be
the hyi~o~yc!oidal curve for the flank of a tooth below the pitch-line pt.
From the Points 1, 2. 3. etc., on the line 02. nit.h radii as before draw the
small ~KS G. A line tangent to these arcs will be the epicvcldid for the
fax of the same tooth for whit the flank curve has already been drawn
111 the same way. from Centers on the line PO and OL vvlth the same
radii. the tangent arcs II and 6 mav be drawn, ;vhich will give the tooth
for the gear whose pitch-circle is Pi.
If the generating-circle had a radius just one-half of the radius of pE
the hypoeyrloid F would be a straight line, and the flank of the tooth
wor~ld hav;e heen radial.
The Involute Tooth. - In drawing theinvolute-tooth curve Fig. 174 *
the angle of obliquity, or the angle which a common tangent to {he teet,h:
When t!lW are ill Collt~nrt. at, the pitch-point makes wltli q line joining
the renters of the wheels. is first arbitrarily d$termined.
Iils ciistomary
to take lt at 159, The pit.rh-lines pl and PI , being drawn in &nt?ct at 0
the llneof obliqmty AI 3 is drswn through 0 normal to a commoitangeni
FORMS OF THE TEETH. 1141
to the tooth curves, or at the given angle of ohliqrlity to a common tan-
gent to the pitch-crrcles. In the cut the angle is 20. From the centers
or the aitch-circles draw circles e alld tl tangent to the line AU. These
X%,X& >,re called base-lines or base-circles. irom which the involutes r ~._.__ --- ----~-- ~-~~~~
and X are drawn. By laying 08 convenient dist.ancrs, I). 1, 2. 3, which
should each be less than r/lo of the diameter of tile base-circle. smail arcs
can be drawn wlt~h successively increasing radii, which will form the
involute. The involute extends from the points 11 and K down to their
Fir,. 174
respective base-circles, where a tangent to the involute becomes a radius
of the circle, and the remainders of the tooth curves, as G and N. are
radial straight lines.
In the involute system the customary standard form of tooth is one
having an angle of obliquity of 15 (Brown and Shnrpe use 141/z), an
addendum of ahout one-third the circular pitchand a clearance of,abWJ:
one-eighth of the addendum. In this system the smallest gear 01 a J~V
has 13 teeth, this being the smallest number of teeth that wvlll gear together
when made with this angle of obliquity. In gears with less than 30 teeth
the points of the teeth mast be slightly rounded over to avoid interference
(see Grants Teeth of Gears). ~11 involute teeth of the same pitch and
with the same angle of ohliqr1it.y work smoothly together. The rack.to
gear wit.h an involute-toothed wheel has sbmight faces on its teeth, whmh
make an angle with the middle line of the tooth equal to the angle Of
ob1iquit.y. or in the standard form the faces are inclined at an angle of
30 with each other.
To &UU the t&h of a ruclc which is to gear with an involute vvlieel (Fig.
175). - Let AU be the pitch-line of the rack and AI = I I = the,pil:ch.
Through the pitch-point I draw EF at the given angle of obhqmty.
Draw AE and fF perpendicular to EF. Through E and F draw lines
EGG and FE1 parallel to the pitch-line. EGG will be the addendum-
line and ffF the flank-line. From I draw IK perpendicular to AD equal
to the greatest addendum in the set of wheels of the gluen pitch and
obliquity pins an allowance for clearance equal to l/s of the addendum.
Through K, parallel to AB, draw the cleamnce-line. The fronts of. the
teeth are planes perpendicmar to EF, and the backs are planes Inchned
at the same angle to AL? ln the contrary direction. The oiiter half.of the
Working face AE may be slightly curved.
Mr. Grant makes it a circular
W/k?NING: Thisis'a 1910~ editibn. 'Some of may no longer be accurate
arc drawn from a center on the pitch-line with a radius = 2.1
cuvided by the dism&rsl pitch, or 0.67 in. X circular pitch.
inches
To Draw an AR& of 15O without using a Pmtraactor. - From C on the
line AC, with radius AC, draw arr arc AB. and from A. with tie same
B
-?+-d-
D
E
--+QL/ \
the axes of a pair of gears may be
A-G. 11: iI:back ash is t heref i
al!ered to a considerable extent
l~lt!?out interferiyg with their ac-
-- in like manner, and the angle
FCA Ml1 be 15O.
.A PrpPertY of involute-toothed
the distance between
Frr.. 176.
yari&ble at will, and maY be ad-
lusted by moving the wheels farther
may thus br ^.12..-1.~, .
from or nearer to each other, and
jamming of
: a%~us~n so as to ne no greater than is necessary to prevent
the teeth.
T,he relatirc merits Of cycloidal and involute-shi4ped teeth are a
FubJect of dispute, but there is an increasing tendency to adopt the
Involute tooth for all purposes.
Clark (R. T. ?., p. 734) says: Involute teeth have the disadvantage of
being too much Inclined to the radial line, by which an undue pressure is
exerted on the bearings.
Un??n (,Elem+3,of nfaChine Design, 8th ed
P. 26.5) says. The obliquity
of actIon IS ordulanly alleged as a serious ocection to involute Jvheels.
Its importance has perhaps been overrated
Georae B. Grant (Am. Mac&., Dec. 26, i&35) says:
1. The work done by th
than the same work for an5
e Iriction of an inirol3e tooth is always less
7 Tjn.aih,n nn:n..^l^:AT.l 1--11.
rY.*Jl- ~pzLJClal bOL11.
2. With respect to work done by friction, a change of the base from a
gear of 12 teeth to one of 15 teeth makes an improvement for the epicycloid
of less than one-half of one Per cent.
3. For tht
: I&tooth system the involute has an adva,ntage of 11/5 per
cent, and for +,,n 1 K +rrn+h ^*.^A..- -- - 3 _ -.
.4.
w..-.Au-uu~~k~ SJ~LCIII an aovantage or q/4per cent.
That a msslmum Improvement of about one per cent can be accom
Phshed by the adoption of any possible non-interchangeable radial flank
tooth in Preference to the 12-tooth interchangeilble svstem
5. That for gears of very few teeth the involute t
- _ _ __. .
taee.
Ias a decided advan-
6.. That the common opinion among millwrights and the me~i~anical
pnbhc ln general in favor of the epicycloid is a prejudice that is founded
on long-contmued custom, and not on an intimate knowledge of the
proyertles of that curve.
I f i!fre! Lewis (Proc. Engrs. Club of Phila.. vol. x 1893) SZLVS a strong
re:Ktlon.in favor, of the involute system is in progress and he believes
~~;r:,,,s~n involute tooth of 221/z obliquity will finally &pplant all other
AP
P actna
rox!;nation by Circular A&
. -Having found the form of the
toorh-curve on the drawing-board, circular arcs may be found by
trial +ich will give a,pproximations lo the true curves and these mTv be
used In compiet,ing the drjwing ilnd the pattern of thepezr-wh&ls. The
root of the curve is connect.ed to the clearance bv a fillet tvhich should
@.as 1arKe as Posstble t.0 give increased strengthto the tboth, provided
It 1s not large enough to cause inferference
hfoleswortb gives the following method of construction by circular
arcs!
From the radial line at the edge of the tooth on the pitch-line
lav off the
line HK at an angle of 75 with t,he radia,l line. on this line*~~ill be the
centers of the root AB and the point EF.
centers are shown in thick lines,
Th; lines struck from these
Circles drawn through centers thus
FORMS OF THE TEETH. 1143
found will give the lines in which tl!e remaining centers will be. The
radius DA for striking the, r??t dB 1s t!ie pltcb + the thickness of the
too&,. The radius CE for strikmg the point of the tooth EF = the pitch.
~, ~.~~ ,,.,., :&sLGLL- . ..i. ~_ . ,~., ~...~ ..,, ,,.,. ~.,,_,. ~,. ,,~, ,~,. ,....,_, ~~,._.~ ..~ .~_,~ ~.._....__,.......
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accurate
;:
,,
1144 ,~,,, , ,I~,,, ,
GEARING. ,:
FORMS OF THE TEETH.
developed arcs on the normal cones, so as to make them coincide with
the pitch-circles, and trace the teeth on the. comcal surfaces.
For formulae mid instructions for deslgmng bevel-gears, and for m+
othcr valuable information qn the st!bJect qf g!z,armg,. see Pract~al
Treatise on Gearing, ?Pd gorm$as m Gearing, pubhshed by Brown
EZ,~~~I~~,f~f~~~~~;~~~,~,~~~h of Gears,
by George 8. Grant, Lexington,
--.,..llt. Rankines alachinerv and I\llllwork.
~&mms Constru - -- .
als~ article on Gear&, vJ . .. ATI
Annular and Differential Gearing.
(S: -W: Baleh. Ant. Mach..
Aug. 2&1893.) - Ininternal gears the 6um of the diameters of the describ-
ing circles for faces and f*n-* -hould not exceed the difference m the
pitch diameters of the 1xrti~~k ~LLLI- _.- .~~. ;~~ ;~~ _-
equal to tlus dtfference or It may be less;
If It 15 equal, the faces of- the
teeth of each wheel ~111 c
ririo +I,ra faceS as well as the flanks of the teeth of
thy other wheel. T-- a_
illr. beeth will therefore make cont,act with each other
Yt~~+~&nts at the same time.
..--.*c *n- interchangeable grars are formed with de-
- -:&ch diameter of the smallest gear of the
srrihine circles of about 5/g tlie pub-.. .__.... ~-..~ ~~~_~
Sf,L~U. -- --~~~
-.----een the pitch-circles of the pinion
and internal gear the number of teetn m the internal gear should exceed
t,le num,ro in the rz--:--- --- 1 -- mores if the teeth are of the customary
To find the diameter of a worm-wheel at the throat numb-- -* 4--11- - .
pitch of the worm being given: Add 2 to the Uumder
nf i
G "I Lee11 anrJ
~.. __ Leeth, multiply
the sum by 0.3183, and
by the pitch of the worm
in inches.
To find the number of
teeth. diameter at t~hroat
acid pitch of worm being
g,iven: Divide 3.1416
t~/;~;; the dtnmeter by the
and subtract 2
from the cmotient.
Frc: 179.
Tn Fig.- 179 all is the
diam. of the pitch-circle
cd is the dism. at thi
throat.
EXAMPLE. - Pitch of
nrorm VJ in.. number of teeth 70; required the diam. at the throat,
C2)X0.3183X0.25=5.73in.
(79
For efficiency of worm gears see nn.ee
For design of worm gearing see Kimball and Barrs hfachlne Design.
propor ___.._ .~~
, , c, l l . . . - t) 111, 11 uy 1s I . : - , - - . ~~
' t, i nns and cmvsture used in mterchangeable gearing.
x in #%irnble. and the teet.h may be modified Very often a less differenct .., IIL_
l* several ways to make tlUS POSSlble.
The tooth curves
be?$$$oyed. These w
resulting from smaller describing circles may
rrir-o +~eth which are more rounding and nar- LI, e,sr L.+
rower at their tops. and
second.
tllerefore not as desirable as the regular forms.
The tips of tne W~:LLI 1.~ -I. may be rounded until they clear.
This
i<, a cut-and-try method which ai,
11s at modlIving the teeth to such out-
I:,,M 2,s smaller describing circles would give.- -
F--O- .
The Biqdley ?Vol?n. 7 In the Hindley worm-gear the Ivorm in-
stead 01 being cyh~!dnca.l m outline, is of an hour-gl&s shape the I;ltch
Fiirof the yarn? being a curved line corresponding to the Pitchllne of the
. It ia clalmetl that there is surface contact Wetween the faces of
tQe teeth of lhe worm and gear, inst.ead of only line contact as in the c5se
0~ the .ordlnary worm gear, but this is denied by some jvrlters,
discuSsIon of the Ilindley worm see Anl j$la& April 1 189- For
NW/L!/., Dec. k9OY.
lb Hindley gear is made by the All&$$
ElevatOr CO., Philadelphia.
lll_.~l. .~_--- ~~
-~-..~:s may be omitted and one, only
Used which may be equal to the cmiercnce betn:cen the pitch-circles.
T)>iswil1 Dermit the meshing of gfs f l i f f pri nc 1jv s1x t,eeth.
It will UN-
. . . =~ ~~
&irVnrove inexpedient to put wheels m inside gears that differ by much
;jhan 12 teeth.
_ __.,. ~.:~~- diametral pitch and st.sndnrd tooth forms are determined
on--the dlanieter to which the int.c;;;;: gear-blank is to be bored 1s calm-
lat,ed by subtracting 2 from the number of teeth. and dividing the re-
mainder bv the diametral pitch.
The tooth outlines are the match of a spur-gear of the same pumber
of teeth and dlnme,tral pitch, so that the spur-gear xii1 fit the internal
gear as a punch fits its die, e?ce+ t.hzt. the t,eeth of each should fail to
b&top in t,he t.ont
tenth
Tcrth of Ihvel-ml~eels.
The tretll of a be++-wheel Fave acting Surfaces of the conical 1-ind<?en-
(Rankines Machinery and fi1ill~vorl*.) --
erated bY t!le m+Jl? pf ~3 !lne tr?VerSing the apes of the coni&l Glfcll-
surface! MUle a POmi rl~! It 1s carned round the traces of the teeth upon
a sPhenca1 surfa,ce descn!,ed about that
a
The 0Pera:ionS of drawmg the traces oft Ie teet,h of bevel-wheels exactly,
f
exy.
whether by mvol;ltes or by rolling Curves are in every respect analoxoUs
to those for drawmg the traces of the teeth o-
f spur-wheels: escent th;lt i n . . . . _._
the Case of bevel-wheels .all those operat,ions are to be Performkd on the
s$a<e of a Sphere described about the apex, instead of on a plane, Sub-
stltutli;g poleS for centers and great circles for straight lines.
In considrmtion of the practic;
large xhe~;l~. of obtainir- -- ^.^--
upon it wlleo obt.ninrrl 1
21 difficulty, especially in the case of
1.~ ill1 axMate spherical surface. and of dmlving
:he follom-
, proposed
0 irig ?pprosimate ~I&$&
m?xi;x~llg by Tredgold, is generally
I< . .._._ _... ..~.~~ ~~~
_.__ ___ .n S
iiigthickness 0 F
aces or me other by the customary clearance of one-
t,he t,oot.h.
Internal gearing lS Part.lcularly valuable when employed in different.i?l
action, This is a mechanical movement in Which One of the Wheels 1s
mounted on a> crank so that it,s center can move in a circle ab.,out the center
of the other wheel.
Means are ,added to t.he device which restril1.n the
wheel on the crank from turning over and confine it to t,he revolution of
the_crank, _ ._
The ratio ot tne numoer 01 ~zee:.. . .
* ~~ -= A--. h in t,he revolving wheel compared xlth
P~CDn+~ the rnt,in lwtnem t,he revolv-
the difference bc,tv\:een the two ~11 reP..-.~..- .._ _ ..,. __ I: .~~
ing wheel and t,hr+ crank-sbafl by which the o!ller is carned.
The advan-
tage in accomplishing the change of speed 1~1th such an nr?ngement. as
compared with ordinary spar-gearing. lies in the almost &lre absence of
frict.ion and consequent ~?a.r of the teeth.
I3ut for the ]imitat,lon that the difference between the wheels m?st not
be too small. the possible raPi of speed might 1~~ inprpnspd almost lndefi-
nitely, and one pair of difierent,ial gears made to ,.., ...- . . . . . .-- .,- --
train of wheels. If the problem is properlr worked out wlth bevel-gears
~h~~~!imitatio,~-may hc
,I., Fut ..i>li, nnrl e\-t,prnnl and Mernal
.~~ .~
LLet 0. Fig. 150 be thecommon
apex of, the pi:&cones. OBI OBZ
of a pan of bevel-wheels. O& OC
the axes of t~hose cones: OZthei;
line of contact. Perne&licular to
OZ draw AZ.4. cuttilig dhe axes in S
.-l. rl; make the outer rims of th?
Patt,erns and of the wheels porbions
of the cones :lBI, ABI , of which
the nnrron- zones occupied by t.he
tert.h fill be sufficiently near for
practical purp uses. to a spherical
surface described about 0. As the
coneS ABI . d.BZ cut the pibch-
hones ate right angles in the outer pitch-cl
the normal COWS.
F;o. X30.
r&s ZB, I B, they mav be called .
dr:l\v on a ifat Wrface circular arcs, ZD, ZZY with the radii AZ A I, t~hose
To find t,he traces of t,ne teeth upon tlie norm?l coaes,
m's Will bC tilt? tk!w~Opmc:lltS Of arcs Of the fiitch-circles IB, I+ when the
Wh:ll surfaces .,lI<?, ABI are spread out F
t WI II for the developed arcs as for
lat. Describe the t.rnces of
a pair of spur-wheels, then wrap the
WARN
.,~ ._
ING: This is a 1910 edition.
: romptete,, .l..y . ..~..~.. ,
. . .._......
uvvel-gear? ,nennp oy but a single tooth if 6% be, made to mesh Per-
fectly witlieach other.
Differential bev&g?ars have been used with ndrnotape in mowing-
machines. A deScript.ion of t.hcir const,rurtion and operation is given by
Mr. Balch ln the article from which the allore est,rscts are taken.
may
no longer be accurate
-
EFFICIENCY OF GEARING.
EIWICIENCY OF GEARING.
~,ffl&ncg of \Vorm Gearing. -
worm $wL,ring a-: jL,mea,ns of tpf&
mittinm payer has generally been lOOl<~d upon wltll suSp!clon. Its efhclency
bejng ~o,wlered necess@y low and 1ts ilk Siyft.
IV hen properly pro-
ortLoned, however, It 1s both durable and rr+onably efficient.
Mr. F.
pA H&&y discusses the SUbJeCt 1X1 .&.
kfUchi?lzSt, Jan., 13 and
20, 13Q8.
& quotes two formulas for the efficiency of worm gearing:
pJ=
approx.,:. ;3)
in which F = efficiency: o! = angle of thread,
being angle between thread
and a line perpendicular to the axls Of the worm; f = cOr-ffificlezlt Of frlctlon.
Fq. (1) apphes to the worm thread OI~~Y,
while (2) applies to the worm
and step combined, on the assumption that the mean frlctlon radzf the
two is equal. Eq. (1) gives a maximum for E when tan a = dl +I* - f
(3)ande .(z)amaximumwhentan$ = 42+4f?,- 2f. . . . (4)
b&g 0 05 forqglves (Y m (3)=43 34 and m (4)=52 49.
on plotting e
?
u&ions (I) and. (2) the curves show the striking influence
of the pitch-ang e upon the emclency,
and since the lost work 1s expended
ln friction and wear, ,it is plam why worms of low angle should be short-
lived and those of high angle long-hved.
The followmg table IS taken
from Mr. Halseys plott& curves:
RELATION BETWEEN THREAD-~c&&$EED AND EF?WIEN~ OF WORM
Angle of Thread.
Velocity of
PiE,e,lh;,
minute.
l-
5 1 IO 1 * 20 ) 30 1 40 1 45
Effic ncy. :ie
-r
An ~XtsnSiye SerieS.Of experiments on the efliciency of gearing chiefly
worm +l smral gearing, IS described by Wilfred Lewis in Tr& A 8
M. h.. vu! 273. The average results are shown in a diagram,
the followmg approxnnate average figures are taken:
from w&h
EFFICIPINCY GF SPUR, SPIRAL, AND Womz GEARING.
-
-_
Vel0cit.y at pitch-line in feet per min.
Gearing. Pit,&.
100
0.98
2;
.90
.a7
.a2
.765
.70
-
--
2-12
0.90
.81 :i:
.75 .815
.67 .75
.61 .70
.51 ,615
.43 .53
.34 .43
-_
-
40
:E
.945
.92
:E
:%
f$+r p+qn.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i5,.
PIC" Pyn..............
, , , , . . . . . . . . . .
(, (d . . . . . . . . . . . :.. :z
SpiLal pinjpn & &$m: :: : : io
.I II II .....-.
. . . . . . 3
:Z
.a9
.a45
2
.72
.60
-
The explments showed the advantage of spur-gearing over all other
kinds in 0th durability and efficiency
The variation from the mean
results rarely exceeded ,5% in either direction, so long as no cutting
occurred, but the varmtmn became much greater and very irregular as
soon as cuttmg began. The loss of power varies with the speed the
pressure,. the temperature, and the condition of the surfaces
The esbess-
Iye frxtlon of worm and spiral gearing is largely due to theend thrust on
the collars of the shaft.
bearings for the collars.
Tills may be considerably reduced by roller-
When two worms with opposite spirals run in two spiral worm-gears
that also work with eacl? other, and the pressure on one &ar 1s opposite
that on tl.!e other, there 1s no thrust on the shaft.
Even with il+t loads
a worm w?ll begin to heat and cut if run at too high a speed the@limlt for
safe working being a velocity of the rubbing surfaces of 600 to 300 ft
Per mmute. the former beimr preferable where the geari@ has to work
contmuousl,v.
The wheel .teetll will keep cool, a,s they form pl rt of a.
casting having a large radlatmg surface: but the worm itself 1s ko sma,li
that its heat,is dissipated slowly.
Whenever the heat generated increases
faster than It can be conducted and radiated away the crlttine of the
worm may be expected to begin.
A low efficiency fors worm-ge& means
heat and may cause the rapid destruction of the worm
more than the loss of Power. since the power which is lost reappears as
Unnln (Elements of i%Chine Design, p. 294) savs. The efficiency is
greater the less the radius of the worm. Ceneraliv the radius of the
worm = I .5 to 3 times the pitch of the thread of the ivorm or the circular
pitch of the worm-wheel. For a one-threaded worm the efficiency is
m&/$to l/4: for a twothreaded worm, 4/7 to 2/5, for a. three-tl~readed
1 -13 to l/2. SlnCe SO much work is wasted in friction lt is not sur-
prising that tile wear is escessive.
The fOlIowing table gives the calcu
lat$ e~~mmes Of ~yOrfR-Whee~S Of 1, 2. 3, and 4 thread7 and rqtios 0;
mzhus of wmn to pitch of teeth of from I to 6, assuming'& coe&+nt of
frichon of 0.15:
3
3
:o
1:
200
I
The experhnents of Mr. Wilfred Lewis on worms show a very S@iSfac-
tory corres,ondence with the theory.
Mr.Halser glires a co lectlon of
data compkising 16 worms domg heavy dut5
1 and having pitch+mgles
ran
i
ing between 4O30' and 45.
which show that everY worm havmg an
tng e above 120 30 was successful in regard to durnbhty,,and every, worm
idow Q was unsuccessful, the overlapping region bemg oC$Pz$e$
worms some of which were successful and some unsuccessful.
cases worms of one pitch-angle had been replaced by worms of a d&rent
angle an l&ease in the angle leading in every case to better results and a
decrease to poorer resul ts.
He concludes with the folio!~ma table from
experiments by Mr. James Christie, of the Pencoyd Iron Works. and.glves
dat.a connecting the load upon the teeth with the pztch-bne VslocltY of
the worm.
LIYITING SPEEDS AND PREWURES OF WORM GEARING.
Single-thread
I I
%22 %%-
Worm I Pitch,
Worm 2 Worm21"
27d PitchDiam.
Pitch. 2$ Pitch. 41
Pitch Dism. Pitch Dism.
No. of
Threads.
Radius of Worm + Pitch.
I
4
0.28 0.25 0.20
4
:E
c
:ki
1314 2
---
:
3
0.44 0.40
.62 .57
::: :;;
0:;; 0.33
.50
.63 .6o
.70 .67
i
Limiting pressure, pounds.. .
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Effkleney of Automobile Gears. (G. E. Quick, Uorseless Age, Feb. 12
1908.)--A set of, slide gears was tested by an electric-driven absorptioi
~dynamometer. The following approximate results are taken from B
series of plotted curves:
Horse-power input . . . . . . ~. . . . . .
r.p.m
Direct driven, third speed.. . . . . 800
Direct driven, third~speed.. . . . . I 500
Second speed. ratio I .76 to 1 . . 800
Second speed, ratio 1.76 to I . . 1,500
First speed, ratio 3.36 to I 800
First speed, ratio 3.36 to I * I 500
Reverse speed, rat~ic 4.32 t,gI:: 1 800
Reverse speed, ratio 4.32 to I.. I 500
Worm-gear axle. ratio 6.83 to I..
\vorm-gear axle, ratio 6.83 t.o I ._
400
Wormgear axle, ratio 6.83 to I ., I ,%
-
. -
--
-
2 1 4 1 6 j 8 1 IO 1 14 1 18
Efficiency, per cent.
,
Two bevel-wheel axles were tested, one a floating type ratio 15 to 32
14W involute: the other a solid wheel and axle type, ratlo 13 to 54 20;
involute. Both gave efficiencies of 95 to 9G % at 800 to 1500 r&m.
and 10 to 26 ?.I., with laxer efficiencies at lower power and at lowe;
speed.
bearings.
The friction losses include those of the journals and thrust ball
The worm was O-threaded, lead. 4.09 in.:
gear had 41 t,eeth: pitch diam., 10.2 in.
pitch diam., 2.08 in.: the
steel and the pear of l~llospllor-l)rotlze.
The worm was of hardened
Worm g:LVe somewhat lower etliciencies.
A test of a steel gear and steel
In both tests the heating was
excessive both in the gea,rs and in the thrust bearings, the balls in which
were ~/ I Oin. diam.
STRENGTH OF GEAR-TEETH.
The strength of gear-teeth and the horse-power that may be transmitted
by them deoend uoon so mnny variable and uncertain i nct, nra t. hat. i t. i u I~ ~~~~ __ . . . _.
not surprising that the formulas and rules given by di&&t~~;\:r&;~
show a Mde variation.
In
July. 1579) found that there
lS59 John H. Cooper (Jozcr. Franl;. Irut..
were then in exist&lce about 48 mdl - pntnh- ~. _- ..--- -1--1
lished rules for horse-power and working strength, differing from each
other 111 extreme cases ahout 50070.
In IS66 Prof. Wm. Harkness
(PrOc. .J. -i.,d.,S., lSSO), from an examination of the bibliography of the
subject, begmnmg in 1796, found that according to the constams and
form&e +ed by various authors there were differences of 15 to 1 in the
!!o\ver \vhlch could be transmitted by a given pair of geared wheels
ihe vnnous elements which enter into the constrtntion of a formula to
represent the workinrr st.reneth n,-
.._ -f a toothed wheel are the following:
1. The strengt.h of the metal,
ra~~nble,qllantity.
2.
usuallv cast iron, which is an extremelv
The shape of the tooth, and especially the relation
of 11s tluckness at the root or point of least strength to the pitch and to
t,he leWh. 3. The point at which the load is taken to be applied
scc~irl l,y some al l t. hors to be at the pitch-line, by others at the extremh.
t,ml. along the whole face. and by still others at a singIe outer corner.
4.
hy a sinfile tooth ,or whether it is divided between two teeth
The consideration of whether the total load is at anv time r;cei;e$
r.nilWWe of rrl0rlty in causing a tendency to break the teet,h by shock.
0. The factor of safety assumed to cover all the uncertainties of the
other elements of the problem.
Prof. R:irkneSs. as a result of his investigation found that all the
formldsz on the subject might be expressed in one oi three forms, vie.:
STRENGTH OF GEAR-TEETH. 1149
From an examination of precedents he proposed the following formula
for cast-iron wheels:
H p = 0.910 VPJ
. .
1/l + 0.65 v
coond that the teeth of chronometer and watch movements were
su~j~~y yy stresses four times as great as those which any engineer would
dare to use in like proportion upon cast-iron wheels of large size.
It appears that all of the earlier rules for the strength of teeth
neglected
the consideration of the variations in their form:. the breakmg strength, as
said by Mr. Cooper, being based upon the thickness of the teeth at the
pitch-line or circle, as if the thickness at the root of the tooth were the
same I* all cases as it is at the pitch-hne.
Wilfred Lewis (Proc. Engrs Club. Phila., Jan., 1893; Am. Nach.,
June 22, 1893) seems to l! Lve been the first to use the form of the tooth
in the construction of a working formula and table.
He assumes that
in well-constructed machinery the load can be more properly taken as
well distributed across the tooth than as concentrated In one corner, but
that it cannot be safely taken as concentrated at a maximum distance
from the root less than the extreme end of the tooth.
He assumes that
the whole load is taken upon one tooth,
and considers the tooth as a
beam loaded at one end, and from a senes of drawings of teeth of the
involute cycloidal, and radial flank systems. determmes the pomt. of
meakest cross-section of each, and the ratto of the thmkness at that section
to the pitch. He thereby obtains the general formula,
IV =spfiJ;
No. of
Teeth.
in whtcli JV is the load transmitted by the teeth, in pounds: s is the safe
working stress of the material, taken at 8000 lbs. for cast iron, when the
working speed is 100 ft. or less per mlmlte: p = pitch: f = face. in
inches. 1/ = a factor depending on the form of the tooth, IvllOse Vahle fO1
different cases is given in the following table:
Factor for Strength, V. i-
Factorfor Strength, Y.
r,volute
!OO Oh-
iquity.
::;I?
. 088
. 092
. 094
. 096
. 098
:IE
. 104
. I 06
.I08
nvolute
l 5Oand
ycloidnl
%
. 072
. 075
, 077
:%
. 087
. a90
. 092
. 094
. 097
:E
, 054
. 055
$56
, 057
. 058
:Z
. 06l
:%
l$
ii
2
,X
150
300
Rack.
rvolute
!O Ob-
iquity.
0.111
.I14
.llS
. I 22
. I 26
.I30
. I 34
. I 38
:I$
, 150
. I 54
nrolute
15~and
ycloidsl
Radial
Flank9.
:%
. 066
. 067
.068
. 069
:E
:i::
. 074
. 075
Speed of Teeth in
ft. per minute.
f,,,o 200 300 600 900 1204 1800 2400
---
----
Cast iron.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel.. . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
The values of sin the above table are given b
the absence of sufficient data upon which to
%
Mr. Lewis tent;ltivelg. In
ase more deWe va ues*
but they have been found to give satisf&ctory results 111 Practrce.
Horse-Power = CVpf, or CVp*, or Ct~ofi
- _.
in nhich C is a coefficient, J = velocity of pitch-line in feet per second,
n = pitch in inches,
and f = fart of too*th in inches.
: ,,,, ,.~,, ,,.,, ,~,~ ,~,_ ,,~
IrJARNING: This is a 191O.editioti. Some of the material may no loncjk- be accurate
hfr. Lewis gives the following example to illustrate the use of the tables.
Let it be required to find the :vorkin~ strenzth of a l%toothed ninion ni
l-inch pitch, 2 l/z-inch !ac
3.1 the wheel we have 71 = 0 ,134 and W=26x6~
:e, driving a-wheel Cf Wteeth at 100 feet or less
lte, and let the teeth be of the 20-degree involute
.x the formula. W = spf~ we have for a cast-iron
plmon s = 8000,12( =2.5. and u = 0.078; and multiply-
mg these values together, we have W = 1560 Dounds. For
The cast-iron &ion is~
_ ,Junds.
I therefore. the measure of ~~~. __
strength: but if a steel pinion be substituted we have
s=20.000 Andy iv= 3900 pounds, in which combination
the wheel is
\. i
the weaker, and it therefore beco.mes the
measure of streneth.
For bevel-whe& ~nlr. Lewis gives the following, refer-
ring to Fig. 181: D= large diameter of bevel; d= small
diameter of bevel: p=pitch at large diameter. n=actual
)f teeth: f=faceof bevel; N=formative number
FIG. 181.
number c
of teeth = n X secant a, or the number correspondin=
to radius R: II = factor depending upon shape of teeth and formativ:
number A; W = working load on teeth.
71 = SPff/ 3 ,t,,_,,; or. more simply, W=spjll+,
-
which gives almost identicil results when d is not less than z/3 D, as is the
case in good practice.
In Am. ilicfch.. -June 22, 1893, Mr. Lewis gives the following formulae
for the working strength of the three systems of gearing, which agree
very closely with those obtained by use of the table:
For involute, 20 obliquity,
For involute 15, and cycloidal, m = spf (0.124 -
For radial Rank system, w = spf (0.075 - y>:
in which the factor within the parenthesis corresponds to ?, in the general
formula. For the horse-power transmitted, Mr. Lewiss general formula
11 = spf,/u =
33.000 H.P.
-Vf?iV
2)
I may take the form H.P. = -. in which
33.000
2) = velocity in feet per minute: or since 1) = &I X r.p.m. + 12 =
0.261s d X r.p.m., in which d = diameter in inches,
H.P.= & =
spfu X d X r.p.m.
126.050
= 0.000007933 dspffu X r.p.m.
.
It must be borne in mind, h&ever. thab in the case of machines which
consume power intermit.tenily. such is punching and shearing machine consume power intermit.tent.ly. such as punching and shearing machines.
the gearing.should be designed with reference to the maximum load Jr;: tht?, gearing should be designed with reference to the maximum load JV
which can Wuch can be brought upon the teeth at any time, and not upon thi
ave,rage .horse-power ave,rage .horse-power transmitted.
Comparison of 1 Comparison of the Markness and Lewis Formulas. -Take ai
average ca averaCe case in which the safe working strength of the material, s = 6000.
1) = 200 ft. per min., and 11 = 0 .lOO,the v&e in Mr. Lewiss table fo;%i 1) = 200 ft. per min., and 11 = 0.100, the value in Mr. Lewiss table for an
jnvolute t,oot,h of 15 obliquity, or a cycloidal tooth, the number of teeth jnvolute t,oot,h of 15 obliquity, or a cycloidal tooth, the number of teeth
111the Wheel being 27. 111 the wheel being 27.
. H,p = wfw
.33,ooo=
6000 pfvx 0.100
PfV
33,000 = z = 1.091 PfV,
if 1. is taken in feet per second.
Prof. Hnrkness gives H.P. =
0.910 Vpf
.
dl + 0.65 V
If the V in the denominator
be taken 3t 200 + 60 = 31/z ft. per sec.. H.P. = 0 ,571 pfV, or about
52% of the results givvrn bv ?.Ir. Lewiss formula.
TlCs is probably as
Close an nrreement as can he expected, sinre Prof Hnrkness ii&WC1 his
formlll:t from an invest,ixat.ion of ancient precede& and rule-of-thumb
practi(:e, largely with eomnmn cast gears, while Mr. Lewiss formule was
STRENGTH OF GEAR-TEETH. 1151
derived from considerations of modern practice with machine-molded
an
.d cut gears.
&lr. Lewis takes into consideration the reduction iq wo$ing strength
of a tooth due to increase in velocltg by the figures in lus ta. bl e of the
values of the safe working stress s i,or different speeds. Prof. earkness
rives express@ Do the same reduction by means of the denommator of
his formula, ,2/l + 0.65 V. The decrease in. strength as computed by
this formula 1s somewhat less than that given In Air. Lewiss table, and as
the figures given in the table are not based on accurate,data, a mean
ietween the values given by the formula and the table 1s probably es
near to the true value as may be obtained from our
The following table give8 the values for dIfferen!, B
resent knowledge.
spee s accordmg to i?lr.
Lelviss table and Prof. Harknesss formula, takmg for a basm a workmg
c+.rFIs.s s. for cast-iron 8000, a,nd for steel 20,000 Ibs. at speeds of 100 ft.
v = speed of teeth, ft. per min.. 100
V = speed of teeth, ft. per sec.. 1 z/s 3113
-__ --__
Safe stress 8, cast iron, Lewis 8000 6000 4800 4000 30001 2400 2000 1700
Relative do.. .q + 8000. . . I 0.75 0.6 0.5 0.375'0.3 0.25 0.2125
1+ 2/i + 0.65 V................ .6930 .5621 .4850 .3650 .3050 .2672 .2208 .I 924
Relative val. e + 0.693.. . I 0.811 0.7000.5260.439'0.3850.3180.277
s1= 8000 x (c f 0.693)........... 8000 6488 5600 4208 351213080 2544 2216
Mean of 8 and 8,. cast- i ron = s2. 8000 6200 5200 4100 3300 2700 2300 2000
Mean of .s and s,, for steel = 83.. 20000 15500 13000 10300 8100 6SO0 5700 4900
Safe stress for st,eel. Lewis. 20000 15000 12000 10000 7500 6000 5000 4300
aterlal may no longer be accurate
Xn Am. ~Wach., Jan. 30, 1902, Ur. Lewis says that 8,000 Ibs. was given
as safe for cast-iron teeth, either cut or east. and that 20, 000 l bs. was
intended for any steel suitable for gearing whether cast or forged.
These were the unit stresses for static loads.
The iron should be of good quality capable of sustaining about a ton
on a test bar 1 in. square between supports 12 in, apart, and the stFe1
should be solid and of good quality. The value gven for steel was In-
t,ended to include the lower grades, but when the quality is known to be
high correspondingly higher values may be assigned.
Cnmnnrinz the two formula? for the case of s = SOOO, corresponding to
a s&XTi6dft. per min., me have
Harkness: H.P. = 1 c 1/l + 0.65 V X 0.91OVpf = 1.053 Pf,
Lewis: H.P. = go = %{g =
woo 2510% ??f!/ _ 24 .24 */v,
in which 1~ varies according to the shape and number of the teeth.
For radial-flank gear with 12 teeth
7, = O.O.SZ: 24.24 pfg = l.ZSOl?l:
For 20inv., 19 teeth, or 15Oinv.. -
97 teeth i = 0.100: 24.2-i pf?/ = 2.424Pfi
For 20 involute, 300 teeth
y = 0.150;?.~2~pfu - 3.636Pf.
,,, ,, ,~,, ,, ,,
1152. GEARING.
7
per inch of pitch and ger inch breadth of face. This is equivalent to
1Y = 80 pf, or only 40 /o of that gxven by the English rule.
F. A. Halsey (Clarks Pocket-Book) gives a table calculated from the
formula H.P. = pfd X r.p.m. t 850.
Jones & Laughlins gi;e H.P. = pfd X r.p.m. + 560.
These form&e transformed give W = 128 pf and W = 218 pj, respec.
,,,ral.r
ijg&n, on the assumption thatthe load acts on the corners of the
teeth, derives a formula D = K z/W. in which K is a coefficient derived
from &sting wheels,,its values being: for slowly moving gearing not sub-
ject to much vibration or shock K = 0.04; in ordinary mill-gearing,
running at greater speed and subject to considerable vibration, R = 0.05;
and in wheels subjected to excessive vibration and shock, and in mortise
gearing, K = 0 .OG.
2 n. these values of
Reduced to the form W = Cpf, assuming thatf =
K give W = 262 nf. 200 nf. and 139 af. resnectively.
SS- -lfnwin also give the Following, based-&n tllejssumptiolidh~~the~pn
sure is distributed along the edge of the tooth: p=Kl dz G, whc-- ?I%
K~ = about 0.0707 for iron wheels and 0.0848 for mortise wheels when
the breadth of face is not less than twice the pitch. For the case of f =
2 p and the given values of Kl this reduces to W = 200 pf and W = 139 p/.
respect.ivelv.
Go?, in his Treatise on Mill Gearing, gives HP. = 12 pzf G c 1000
in which n = number of revolutions per minute. This formula differs
from the more modern formulae in making the H.P. vary as p*f, instead
of as pf, and in this respect ith no dout,t incorrect.
Making the H.P. vary as d/dn or as d/v, instead of directly as v makes
the velocity a. factor of the working strength as in the l&rkn&s and
Lewis formula?. the relative strength varying as l/d;, which for different
velocities is as follows:
Spret* Of e;;;;,i;;rt per) 100 200 300 600 900 1200 1800 2400
Relative strengih= 1 0.707 0.574 0.408 0.333 0.289 0.236 0.20
sho\ving a somewhat more rapid reduction than is given by Mr Lewis.
For the purpose of comparing different formula:
be reduced to either of the following forms:
they mayin general
3. = Cpfu, H.P. = C,pfd x r.p.m., 1v = cpf,
in which p; 7 pitch. f = face, d = diameter, all in inches: 2) = velocity
n! feet per rnmute, r.p.m. revolutions per minute, and C, C1 and c coeffi-
clents. The formuhe for transformation are as folloms:
H.P. = WV + 33,000 = ?V X d X r.p.m. i 126,050;
C, = 0.261s C; c = 33,000 C; C = 3.82 Cl, = &; c = 126,050 Cl.
In the Lewis formula C varies with the form of the tooth and with the
speed. and is equal to S?J c 33,000, in which 1~ and s are the values taken
from t,he table. and e = ST,.
In the Harkness formula C varies with the speed and is equal to
^_^
YI
xl + O.G.5 v
(lbeing in feet per second), = 0.01517 + 1/I + 0.011 %.
In t.he Box formula C varies with the pitch and also with the velocity;
and equals I 2 p vdx r.p.m.= 0.09345-2L. c = 33000 c = 77411.
1000 u
.
h/Z ./:
For 11 2 100 ft. per min. C=77.4 p: forv= 600 ft. per min
In the other formule considered C, C,. and c are const,anti
c = ;cS p.
Reducing
the several formulae to the form IY = cpf, we have the following:
UARNI NG: Thi s is a 1910..edition. Some of 5
STRENGTH OF GEAR-TF,ETB. ii53
Safe working pressure per inch pitch and per inch of face, or value of
c in formula 1V = cpf:
u = ft. per min. 100
Lenis: Weak form of tooth, radial Asnk, 12 teeth c = 416
Medium tooth, inv. 15O,or cycloid, 27 teeth .e =
!%i
800
Strong form of t.ooth, inv. 20, 300 teeth. .c = 1200
400
600
Harkness: Average tooth.. . . . . . .e = 34i 184
Box: Tooth of 1 inch pitch.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..c = 77.4 31.6
gnu: Tooth of 3 inches Ditch.. . . . . . . .c = 232 Qfi
The Gleason Works gives for ft. per min.
working stress in pounds = p.f. X
25; lOO0 1500 2000-;500
400 340 290 240
These are for cut gears, 18 teeth or more, rigidly supported, for average
steady loads. Hammering loads, as in rolling mills and saw mills, require
heavier gears.
C. W. Hunt, Trans. A.S.M.E., 190% gives a table of working loads of
cut cast gears with a strong shoot form of tooth, which is practically
equivalent to W- 700 pf.
Various, in which c is independent of form a,nd speed: Old English
rule, c = 200; Grant. c = 350; Nystrom, e = 80; Halsey, c = 128; Jones
& Laughlins. c = 218; Unwin, c = ,G 3 2, 200, or 139, according to sneed.
shock, and vibration.
- -
The value given by Nystrom and those given by Box for teeth of small
pitch are so much smaller than those given by the other authorities that
they may be rejected as havingan entirely unnecessary surplus of strength.
The values given by Mr. Lewis seem to rest on the most logical basis, the
form of the teeth as well as the velocity bring considered: and since they
are said to have proven satisfactory 111 an extended machine practice,
they may be considered reliable for gears that are so WI! made that
the pressure bears along the face of the teeth inst,r:rd of upon the corners.
For rough ordinary work the old Eualish rule II = 200 p.f is probably
ns good as any, except that the figure 200 may be too high for weak forms
of tooth and for high speeds.
The formula II= 200 pfis equivalent to H.P. =?$ff X r.p.m.+630= pfu
1165 or, H.P. =0.0015X73 pfd X r.p.m. = 0.006063 pffr.
Rnm-hide Pinions. - Pinions of raw-hide are in common use ior
gearing shaft,s driven by electric motors to other shafts which carry
machine-cut cast-iron or st.eel gears.. in order to reduce x-ihration, noise
and wear. A formula for the maslmum horse-power to be transmit,ted
by such gears. given by the New Process Raw-HItIe Co., Frmcuse, N. Y.,
is H.P. = pitrh diam. X cirr. pitch X face X r.p.m. + $50, or pfd X
r.p.m. + 850. This is about 3/ 4 of the H.P. for cast-iron teeth b the old
English rule. The formula is to be used only lvhen the circu ar pitch 1
does not exceed 1.65 ins.
Composite gears also are made, consisting of alternate sheets of raw-
hide or fibre and steel or bronze, so that a high degree of strength is
combined with the smoot.h-running quality of the fibre.
RIaxinium Speed of Ge,zring. - A. Towler, Et@!/. April 19, 1889.
P. 388, gives the maximum speeds at which it was ossible under favor-
able conditions to run toothed gearing safely as fol OW, m ft. per min.: P
Ordin::-) cast-iron wheels, 1800: Helical, 2400; Mortise. 2400: OTdmary
Cast- St& wheels, 2600; Helical, 3000: special Cast-iron IIlXhlne-Cut
wheels. 3000.
Prof. Coleman Sellers (Stezzens I ndicator, April, 1892) recommends that
Rearing he not run over 1200 ft. per minute, to avoid great noise. The
\Valker Compni;:; Cleveland, Ohio, sav that 2200 ft. per min.. for iron
gears and 3000 ft: for mood and iron imortise gears) are excessive. and
should be avoided if possible. The Cortiss engine at. the Philadelphia
Exhibition (1876) had a fly-wheel 30 ft. in diameter running 35 r.P.m.
Peared into a pinion 12 ft. dism. The speed of the pitch-line Was 3300 ft.
per min.
A Hea,vy i\Iacbine!-cut Spur-gear wa,s made in ISOl by the Walker
Company, Clevelnnd. Ohio, for a diamond mine in South Africa, Mth
dimensions as follows: Number of teeth, 102: pit~ch diameler. 30 ft.
G.66 ins.: fare. 30 ins.: pitch, 6 ins.: bore, 27 ins.; diameter of hub. 9 ft.
2 ins.; weight. of hub, 15 tons; and total weight of gear, 6Gs!r tons. The
,.,,
~~
.
, :
GEARING.
q
rim was made in 12 segments, the joints of the segments being fastened
wi t. h two ho1t. s each. The sookes were bolted to the middle of the se=- ___._ _- . . . -.~. ._ ~~
&& and to the hub with four bolts in each end.
II
Frictional Gearing. - In frictional gearing the wheels are toothless,
and one wheel drives the other by. means of the friction between the two
surfaces which are pressed together. They may be used where the power
to be transmitted is not very grelit; when the speed is so high that toothed
wheels would be noisy; when the shafts require to be frequently put into
and out of gear or to have their relative direction of motion reversed;
or when it is desired to change the velocity-ratio while the machinery
is in motion, as in the case of disk friction-wheels for changing the feed
in machine tools.
Let P = the normal pressure in pounds at t.he line of contact by xvhich
t.wn wheels rl,re nrensed t~oeether. 2 = taneenlial resistance of the drirens
wheel at the line of contact, f = the coefficient of friction, V the rrloc-
ity of the pitch-surface in feet per second, and H.P. = horse-uower: then
2 may be equal to or less than fP; H.P. = TV + 550. Tlie value of f
for metal on metal may be taken at 0 .I5 two 0.20: for wood on met&
0.2.5 to 0.30; and for wood on compressed paper, 0.20. The tangential
driving force T mav he as hizh as 80 I hs. ner inch width of face of the
driving surface. bu
the journal-bearings.
In frictional grooved gearing circumferential wedge-shaped grooves are
cut in the faces of two wheels in contact. If P = the force pressing the
wheels together, and N = the normal presslire on all the grooves, P = N
(sin a + fcos o). in which 2 n = the inclina,tion of the sides of the grooves,
and the maximum tangential available force T = fN. The, inclination
c&he sides of the grooves to a plane at right angles to the aSis IS usually
Frlctlonal Grooved GearinS. -A set of friction-gears for brans-
mitting 150 H.P. is on a steam-dredge drscribed in Pmx. I nst. .I [. E..
July, 1888. Two grooved pinions of Min. tliam.. with 9 grooves of 1Qin.
pitch and angle of 40 cut on their face, are geared into two wheels of
1271/z in. diam. similarly arooved. The wheels can be t!irown in and out
of gear by levers operating eccentric bushes on t,hr large wheel-shaft.
The circumferential speed of the wheels is about 500 ft. per min. Allow-
ing for engine friction. if half the power is trnnsmit.tetl through each set
of gears the Migential force at the rims is about 3960 11~s.. requiring. if
the awle is 40 and the coefficient of friction 0.18, a pressure of 7524 lbs.
between the wheels and pinion to prevent sllpping.
The wear of the wheels proving excessive, the gears mere replaced by
spur-gear M~eels and brake-wheels with steel brake-bands, which arrange-
ment has proven more dllrable t.han the grooved wheels. Mr. Daniel
Adamson st,ates that if the frictional wheels had been run at a higher
speed t.he resuhs woldd have been better, and says they shoulcl run at
least 30 ft. per second.
Power Tmnsmittrd bv Frictlcrh Drives. (W. F. BI. Goss, Trans.
A. S. 111. E.. 1907.)--A friction drive consists of a fibrous or somewhat
yielding driving wheel working in rolling cont,act. with a metallic drll-en
~yheel. Such a drive may cons&t of a pair of plain cylinder wheels
mounted upon parallel shafts, or a pair of beveled wheels. or of any
other arrangement which mill serve in the transmission of motion by
roUin,o contact.
Driving wheels of each oi the materials named in the table belo$T were
tested in PeriPller;ll Contact with driving wheel s of iron. aluminum and
type metal. All the wheels were I6 in. diam.: t.he face of the driring
wheels Was 13/q in.. and that. of the driven wheels l/z in. Records mere
made of the Pressure of rontart, of t,he coefficient of friction developed.
and of the percentage of slip resulding from t~he development of t~he said
toc~ficient of frict~ion. Currw were plot,twl showing the relation of the
coeficient ilnd the slip for presslxes of I50 and 400 lhs. per inch wid$
of face in contact.
was maintained Constant, at 2%
Another series of t.ests was made in which ;ke;t-T
and the pressures were varied.
of th,e combinations it was foimd that Ivith const.ant slip the coefficient
of frxtion diminishrd very slixhtlp as the pressure of contact was in-
CrCwd. so t,bnt, it map be considered practically constant for all pres-
StlrCs between 150 and 400 lbs. per sq. in.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of tl
- -
STRENGTH OF GEAR-TEETH.
Thecrl!shing .stre,t!gt,h of each m~sterinl under the conditio?s of tlte
_ .^_I :...Iz~.-. ~-~..1~
test was cfetermined by running each cwu~~mw~on wnn mcreawng loads
until a load was found under which the wheel failed before I.1,000 reyo-
lnt,ions had heen made. The results showed the failure of the several
fiber wheels under loads per inch of width as follows: Straw fiber
750 lbs.; leather fiber, 1~,200 lbs.: tarred fiber, 1,200 lhs.: l eather, 750 l bs;
sulphite fiber, 700 Ibs. One-fifth of these pres$ures is ta,ken as a safd
w>rki nz load. The coef f i ci mt,
of f ri cti on ap- ~. . ^ L. . ~: _- - ~~ .
..-_... ~~~, ~~~~~. ~~~~ ~..~~...~ ._
value when the slip between driver and driven wneel 1s z~,~/,. me safe
working horse-power of the drive is calculated on the basis of 60% the
Coeflicient developed at a pressure of 150 lbs. per inch of width, a re-
duct,ion of 40% being made to cover possible decrease of the coefficient
in actual service snd to cover also loss due to friction of the journals.
From these data the,followmg table 1s construct$ showing the H.P.
that Fag be. traps!mtted by driving wheels o= I we several materials
named when in frictional contact with Iron, aluminum and type metal.
The formula for horse-power is H.P. = tz X P~~n~,~6f = KdWN, in
-- yyyy
which d = di?m. in inches, TV=width of face in inches, P = safe work-
ing pressure m Ibs. per in. of width. A = revs. per mm., f = coefficient
of frlcrlon. 0.,6 a factor for the decrease of the coefficient In service and
for the loss In journal friction, K a coefficient including P, f and the
numerical constants.
COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION -*ND HOWE-POWER OF FRICTION DRIVES.
I
On iron.
I f
Straw fiber. . . 0.255
Leather fiber. 0.309
Tarred fiber. . 0.150
Sulphite fiber.. . . 0.330
Lenther. . . . 0.135
On aluminum.
k
0,00033
0.00057
0.00035
0.00035
0.00026
On type metal.
/ k
0.186
;:;g
EZ:5
0.00031
0.309 0.0003l
0.246 0.00029
Horse-power = K x dlVN.
Friction Clutches. - Much valuable information on different forms of
friction clutches is given in a paper by Henry Soutber in Trans. A. S. M.
E.. 1908. and in the discussion on the paper. All friction clutches cont~ain
two surfaces that rub on exh other when the clutch is thrown into gear,
and until the friction bCt.ween them is increased, by the pressure with
Which they are forced together, to such an estent that the surfaces bind
and enable one surface to drive the other. The surfaces may be meral
on metal, metal on wood. Cork, leather or other substance. leather on
leather .or other substance, etc. The surfaces may be disks, at right
angles to the shaft, blocks sliding on the outer or inner surface, or both,
of a pulley rim, or two cones, internal and est,ernsl one fitting in the
$her, or a bitnd or ribbon around a pulley. The driving force which is
Just sufficient to Cause one pnrt of the clutch to drive the other is the
Pfoduct, of the tot,al pressure, exerted at rieht angles to the direction of
shding. and the coetficient of friction. The latter is an exceedingly
variable quantity. depending on the nature and condition of the sliding
surfaces and on their lubrication. The surfaces must ha,re SUffiCiellt
afea so that the pressure per square inch on that area will not be suffi-
Clent to cause undue heating 2nd wear. The total pressure on the Parts
of the mechanism that forces bhe surfaces together also must not Cause
untiue wear of these parts.
For cone cluwhes. Iteulenux states that the angle of the cone should
not be less than 10~. in order that the parts may not become wedged
together.~ He gives the coefficient of ca,st iron on cast iron, for such
clutclil?s. at 0.15
For clutches &tb maple blocl& on cast iron i\Ir Sout.her gives a coeffi-
cient of 0.37. and for a speed of iof) r.p.m. he glv;s the following table of
capacity of such clutches, made by the Dodge Rlfg. Co.
HOl%-
power.
Block
Area.
j Diamat
Block, Ins,
25 :zsd 32 141 1:
zi 208 280 21. 5 27. 5
Circumferen-
Total
Total Pres-
tial Pull at
Block Center. Pressure.
sure,per
sq. m.
Lbs.
1,960 5. 300 44 .
; ; ; ;
"7~~: ~
4*. 5
4: 500 1z:ooo
37. 5
43.5
Prof. I. N. Hollis has found the coefficient of cork on cast iron to be
33 to 0.37. or about double that of cast iron on cast iron or on from O.,
bronze. A set ofcork blo&s outlasted a set of maple blocks in the ratio
of five to one. Prof. C. M. Allen has found the torque for cork inserts
to be nearly double that of a leather-faced clutch for a given dimension.
Disk clutches for automobiles a,re made with frictional surfaces of
leather, bronze. or copper against iron or steel. The Cadillac Motor Car
Co. give the fOllOWing:
area of do
RIean radius of leather frictional SUrfaCe 4j/ls ins;
36+ s . ins.: axial pressure 1000 to 1200 Ibs.; H.P. capacity
at 400 r.p.& 5172 8.P: at 1400 r.p.m 10 H.P.
C. H. Schlesinger (horselesk Age. &t . 2. 1007) gives the following
,i/
!
formula for the ordinarv cone clutch:
G.P. = PfrR + (33,000 sin. 0,
in which P = assumed nressure of eneatin~ s~rin!z in lbs.. f = coeff. of
friction. which in ordinjry practice is aboiit b.X; T = nicjn radius om
the cone, ins.: R=r,p.m. of the motor: II = angle of the cone with the
axis. Mr. Souther says the value of f = 0.25 is nrobablv near enoueh
for a properly lubriclited lesbher-iron -clutch. - -
The Hele-Shaw clutch, with V-shaped rings st.ruck up in the surfaces
of disks, is described in Proc. Inst. dl. E.. 1903. A clutch of this form
18 ins. diam. between the Vs transmitted 1000 H.P. at 700 or 800 r.p.m.
Coil Friction Clutches. (e. L. Nachman. Am. Jiuch., April 1, 1909.)
- Friction clutches are now in use which will transmit 1000. and even
more. horse-power. A type of clut,ch which is satisfsctory for the t.rans-
mission of large powers is the coil friction clutch. It consists of a steel
coil v.ound on a chilled cast-iron drum. 4t each end of the coil a head
is formed. The head at one end is att,ached to the pulley or shaft that is
to be set in motion, while that at the orher end of the coil serves as a
point of applicai,ion of a force which pulls on the coil to wind it on the
drum, thus gripping it firmly.
The friction of the coil on the drllm is the same as that of a rope or
belt on a pulley. That is, the relation of the tensions at the two ends of
the coil may be found from the equation P/Q=t+ where P=pull at fixed
end of coil: Q-pull at free end of coil: e= base of nat,ltral logarithms=
2.71s: it = coeflicient of fricbion between coils and drum: and a= Angle
subtended by coil in radian measure.=G.2S.7 for each turn of cl~tiil.
Values of P/Q for different numbers of turns are as follows, assuming
JY = 0.05 for steel on cast iron, lubricated:
No. of t,urns 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pj ' Q= 1. 37 1. 57 2. 57 3. 51 4. Sl 6. 58 8. 60 12. 33
If D = diam. of drum in ins., N = revs., per min., then H.P. =&.VPc
(17 x 33,000) = 0.00000793 DA-P.
.
HOISTING AND CONVEYING.
1157
HalSTING AND CONVEYING.
Sfrength of Rcpes and Chains. -For the weight and strength of rope
for nmstmg see notes and tables on pages 356 to 391.
chains see page 251.
For strength of
Working Strength of Blocks.
(Boston and Lockport Block Co., 1908.)
. REGULAR BLOCKS WITH LOOSE HOOKS-LO.4DS IN POUNDS.
- ~~
Size. Inches. 5 6
- -
Rope diameter, inches.. . . . . . . . .
2 single blocks.. . . .
9/1s 314
150
2 double blocks.. . . . . _. 250 iii
2 triple blocks.. . . . . . . . . . . . 400 650
LOADS IN TONS.
WIDE hIOXlT3E WITH
LOOSE HOOKS.
Size. inches . . . . . . . . 8 IO 12 14 I6
Rope, dinm., in... I
2 single blocks.. . la
y/4 1 .p p ; ;I!
2 doub!e blocks. I 8
2 triple blocks. : i Ii
2 fourfold blocks .. . . !!. .
8 1 I O 1
-- -__
iI8 2doo 700 1 k% : oR
1200 4000 8000 12000
1900 6000 12000 I 9000
EXTRA HEAYY WI TA
SHACKLES.
. . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . .
25
30 : 9 2 i i
40 45 55 70
WORKING LOADS FOR A PAIR OF WIRE-ROPE BLOCKS.-TONS.
LOOSE Hooks. SHACKLES.
I I
Chain Blocks. -Referrin
of a chain block is governe 3
to the table on the nest page. the speed
by the pull re uired on t.he hand chain
and the distance the hand chain must trave to lift. t.he load the re- 9
wired distance. The speeds are given for short lifts with men ac-
customed to the work; for continuous easy lifting two-t.hirds of these
speeds are attainable. The triplex block iifts rapidly, and the speed
increases for light loads because the length of hand chain to be overhauled
1s small. This fact also enables the operator to lower the load very
quickly with the triplex block. The 1% to 2o-ton triples blocks are
Provided with two separate hand wheels, thus permit~ting two men to
hoist simultaneously, thereby securing double speed. In the trlPle%
block the power is transmitteil to the hoisting-chain wheel by means of *
train of spur gearing operated by tile ha&Id chaiu. Iti t.be dupkx: bbck
,;;t :
k:.:.
!*JARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no lon@r be accurate
1 la58 HOISTING AND CONVEYING.
Chain Block Hoisting Speeds.
(Yale I% Towne Mfg. Co., 1908.)
Hoisting Speeds. Feet per JIinute
Attainable and No. of Men re-
quired for Ho&Zing Full Loads
without Pullingover 60 Lb.
DuPlex. ;;;$;
---
I.1 2. 2 3. 3
0.8 1. 6 2. 4
0. 6 1. 2 1.8
-
* On each of the two hand-chains.
t The number of men is based on each man puiling not over SO lb.
One man pulling 160 lb. or less, as giveu in the first two columns, can lift
the full capacity of any Triplex or Duplex Block.
the Power is transmitted through a worm wheel and screw. In the dif-
ferential block the power is applied by pulling on the slack part of the
load chain and the force is, multiplied by means of a differential sheave.
~~a~~&X3~) The relative efiiciency.and durability of the three types
IDi%:- / Duplex. 1 Triplex.
Rrlntive efficiency... . . . . . . . .
I~elnti\edursbility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..::I
Relative cost. _.. . . . __: . . . . . . .
Etflrirncy of Hoisting Tackle. - (S. L. Wonson, Eng. Aeu,c. June
11. 1903.
I l/4to 2-in. Mmila rope.
Forts of line.
I::.~tiooilo~dtopull._.._...
EHicienc~. per
--A
cent ,...
-
s/a-in. Wire rope.
Parts of line. 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 101 11 I 121 13
R:ltiolo~~dto pull.......... 2. 733. 474. 11 4. 70~5. 205. 686. 086. 466. 787108~~~
Etficiency. per cent ,.._. __. 91 87 I 82 78 1 74 71 68 65 62 59 I 56
/-/_I_/Jl_/-i--i-/
MARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
HOISTING AND CONVEYING.
1159
Proporti+S of$oo&s. - The following formula? are given by Henry
R. Towne. in his T rea+e on Cranes, as a result of an extensive experi-
mental and mathematxal investiga-
tion. They a
ties from 250 P
ply to hooks of capaci-
b. to 20,000 lb. Each
size of hook is made from some com-
mercial size of round iron. The basisin
eachcase is, therefore, the size of iron of
which the hook is to be made. indicuted \
hv A in the diagram. The dimension D .
c&itrarily assumed. The other di-
mensions, as given b.v the formuhe. are
those which, while preserving a prbper
bearing-face on the interior of the hook
for the ropes or. ch?ins which may be
passed through it. give the greatest re-
slstance to spreading and to ultimate
rupture, which the amount of material
in the original bar admits of. The
symbol A is used to indicate t.he nom-
inal caPacit.v of the hooli in tons of
2000 16. The fort
mine the lines of th
hooks of the several
nuke which deter-
e @her parts of the
sizes are as follows.
the measurements being all expressed
in inches:
FIG. 182.
D = 0.5 A -I - 1. 25 : G = 0. 75 D ; II = 1.0s d: L = 1.05 A;
E=0.61A+1.60;0=0.363A+0.66; I =1.33A:dl=0.50:t;
F=0.33A+0.85; Q=O.6.&A +1.60: .I =1.2Oll: A\ =O.S5B -0.16;
K = 1.13 A; U = O.S66 A.
The dimensions A are necrssarilr based ~lpon the ordinary merchant
sizes of round iron.
the following:
The sizes whidh it has been found best to select are
Capacity of hook:
l/S 114 I2 1 1x/ 2 2 3456 8 10 tons.
Dimension A:
51s w3 314 1al 1114 13/s 1314 2 2114 2112 2718 3114 in.
Experiment has shown that hooks made according to tlie above formu-
lae will give ma
except with a ii
first by opening of the jaw, which. however, will not occur
oad much in escess of the nominal capacity of the hook.
This yielding of the hook when overloaded becomes a source of safety, as
it constitutes a signal of danger which cannot easily be overlooked, and
which must proceed to a considerable length before rupture will occur
and the load be dropped.
Iron versus Steel Hooks. - F. A. Waldron, for over fift.een years con-
nected with the manufacturing of hooks, in the works of the Yale & Towne
Mfg. Co.. after careful observationof hooks made of different materials and
in different forms, sags that the onlv proper material from which hooks
can be made and be perfectly reliable is a high-.rrade puddled iron.
While a st.eel hook, properly made, may stand from 25 t,o 50% greater
load than a wrought-iron hook, it does not fo!low that the steel hook is
better and more reliable than the iron hook.
Iron hooks, made in accordance with the Tomne formula, having serious
surface defects, have been test.ed t,o destruction, and none of them. in
spite of these defects, have broken at, less than 3Q times the working load.
while several st~eel hooks broke at the working load. without a moments
1varni w. ( TTw. A. Sl 4f . 23. . 1903. ) .
Heat7 Crane Honks.- A. E. Holcomb. vice-pres. of the Earth afovi?g
nfachinerv Co., contributes the following (190s). Seven years agq, wb~lc
engaged in the design of a loo-ton crane. I made a studv of the vanations
in strength with the different sectional forms for hooks in most common
use. As a result certain ralues which gave the best results were sub-
stituted in Gordons formula and a formula was t,hereby obt.ained which
was ~onci for hooks of any size desired. provided the proper allowable fihrr
stress per square inch was made use of when designing. From this
may no l onger be accurate
formula the entilosed table was made Up and was published in the American
Machinist of Oct. 31. 1901. Since that time hundreds of hooks of cast
or hammered steel have been designed and made according to my formula,
and not one of them. so far as I know. has ever failed.
The Industrial Wbrks, Bay City, Michigan, manufacturers of heavy
cranes, in December, 1904, made the follo?ing test under actual working
conditions:
A hook was made of hammered steel haririg an elastic limit or yield
point at approximately 36,000 lbs. per sq. in. fiber stress and having the
following important dimensions: (=755/s in.;~r=4l/a in.: D=207/1e in.
When the applied load reached 150,009 lbs. t.he book strai
until the opening at the mouth of the hook was 3% in. 7
htened out
arger than
formerlv. and the distance from center of action line of load to center of
gravity-df section was found to have decreased l/z in., at which point the
hook held the load. Upon increasing the load still further, the hook
opened still more. From the dimensions of the hook as originally formed
we find from the formula or table that the fiber stress with a load of
150,000 Ibs. was 37,900 lbs. er sq. in., or in excess of the yield point,
whereas makin~g use of the lmensions obtained from the hook when it Lv
held we find that the fiber stress oer sauare inch was reduced to 35.9iOlbs.l
or under the vield ooint.
_ _
The designer must use his own judgment as to the selection ofi proper
allowable fiber stress. being governed therein by the nature of the material
to be used and the
Under average cone Y.
robability of the hook being overloaded a,t some t.ime.
ltlons I have made use of the following values for (I):
I
Values of (f) in pounds for a load of -
, M) o to 5 ( 300 to l 5, OOO 3O. OOO 60. 000 100 000
3; ; f y i 5. 000
to.
30, 000 6do"OO l o&o0
I ds.
Ibs.
lbs. k. lbs.
and up.
Cast iron.. . . _. _. . . _. .2.000 2, 500 . . . . _. . . . . _. . . . . .
Steel casting.. . _. 6,000 8, 000 10, 000 11, 250 12, 500 . . __. . .
Hammered steel. _. _. 12.000 16. 000 20, 000 22. 500 25, 000 27. 500
Mr. Holcombs formula and his table in condensed form are given
hel nm:
DIRECTIONS. - P and f being known, assume + to suit the requiremetit,s
for which the hook is to be designed. Divide P by
in the column headed by t.he required T. d
and find t,he quot,ient
At, the SI e of the Table, in the
same row, will be found the necessary depth of section, d.
Notntim. -P = load. S = area of section. R? = square of t,he radius
of gyrat,ion. f = allowable fiber stress in Ibs. per sq. in., 20,000 Ibs. for
hammered steel. For orher letters see Fig. 153.
MARNING: This is a
P S
-zz
f -
1 + IlO?ll
General formula.
R
--
T
S,b+c
2Xd. . . . . . (1)
R? =
d*(bz + 4 bc + 19) .
18(bz+ 2bc+c) -
(21
.p
n=y$x$ . . . . 13)
1J f J = bsX; ) +r.
(
. . ( 4)
Assuming b = 0.66d; c = 0.22d.
.Y- _ we have:
P d3
-=-
f 7.44d+12.393r=K
( 5)
; I I = 0. 5 d.
D = 2r+ 1.5d.
a
_-
a
I
I
I
I
. . I
/
I
)
1
)
I
I
-
HOISTING AND CONVEYING. 1161
Values of IL
1. : ; :
I/ illl II
0. ; ; ; 02; f 0. 240 0. 203 0. 176 0. 155i . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . .
- 329 - 275 . 239 . 212! . . . . . . / . . . . . . . . .
. .
: 8%1 : % : %3i . 420 : , kO . 316 , 778 , 697 . 632 . 532 , 464 , 404 . 2811. . . . . . ; . . . . . . __. __. I . . . . _. . . . .
944 , 852 . 776 , 659 , 572 , 506
. 3q. . . . . . 1. . . . . .
, 454: 0. 411, . . . . . . _. . . , _
1: 143 1. 039 , 953 . 8Ol , 700 . 621 . 559 . 508. . . . . . . . . . __. . . .
1. 342 1. 226 I . 129 . 957 , 841 , 750 , 677 . 617' . . . . . . . . __
1. 558 1. 429 I . 321 1. 148 , 998 . 893 , 808 . 738 . _. _. . . . _.
1. 790 1. 649 1. 530 1. 336 I . 187 1. 067 , 953' . 8731 0. M . . ,
LO38 1. 886 1. 754 1. 544 1. 373 1. 239 I . 129 1. 038: 0. 943 . . ,
Z. 304 2. 138 1. 995 I . 760 1. 575 1. 426
1. 586 2: 408 2. 253 1. 996 I . 793 1. 627
I . 321 I . 2141 I . 124
I . 490 I . 3741 1. 275
l . 884 2, 694 2. 527 2. 248 2. 072 1. 043 I . 691 . 1. 563i 1. 453
t. 214 3. 008 2. 828 2. 525 2. 281 2. 081 1. 913 1. 770: 1. 647 . . ,
5. 532 3. 315 3. 124 2. 801 2. 538 2. 321 2. 140 1. 983: 1. 849 I
3. 651 4. 003 3. 447 3, 787
3. 101 2. 818 2. 583 2. 385 2. 2151 2. 067 I
: : I : : . 3. 418 3. 115 2. 861 2
4. 757 4. 516
4. I C' l 3. 754 3. 463
2. 646, 2. 46! : 2. 300
3. 213 2. 998, 2. 809
, . __. 5. 578
5. 311 4, 848 4, 459 4. 128 3. 8421 3. 5941 3. 377
2
3
5. 227 4. 855
_, . _, . . . . . .
6. 173 5. 661 4. 533 4. 2521 4. l W3 3
. , . _.
. , , . . , 7. 102 6. 540
7. 4851
6. 061 5. 648 5. 287 4. 970, 4. 689 4
. , . . .
8. 096 6. 960 6. 504 6. 104 5. 750 5. 436 4
5
. . . . . . .
9. 158
8. 4961
7, 924 7, 424 6. 984 6. 593 6. 243
^ - - ' f , %; ? 8. 409 7, 928 7. 4981 7. 113 6
I I 01, ; I I Ah71 R "A ,
.............
.............
.............
.............
..... ........
..... ........
: . ........
....................... 2s.u:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24. 8Grl u
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26. 63
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28. 52y. u
, 628 __. . . .
, 825 , . . . . .
. 035 , , . . . .
, 496 2. 246
, 012 2. 719
, 584 3. 244
, 213 3. 825
, 900 4. 460
, 645 5. 152
, 450 5. 901
, 816 6. 708
, 241 7. 573
, 228 8. 498
. 448 9. 402
, 558 10. 697
. 73011. 802
, 965 12. 967
, 263 14. 195
, 624 15. 484
, x049 16. 835
8. 536 18. 248
, 088 19. 724
: . 70421. 262
For values of K and T intermediaty to those given in the table aPProx-
lrmzt;.;;lues of d may be found by Interpolation.
Thus, for K = 3.700.
Tabular values, r = 23 3. 0 I& for 2.75
d = 6. 50 K = 3.462 3. 213
3. 33s
d = 7.00 K = 4.125 3. s42 3. 9s5
Whence: d= 5.5+ {
@?! ?f - 3. 338! ) x ( 7. 0 - 0. 5) = 0. 78.
( 3. 980 - 3. 338)
In like manner,if d and T are given the value of K and the corresponding
safe load ma,y be found.
Strength of Hooks and Shackles.
(Boston and Lockport Block Co..
1908.) - Tesbs made at the Watertown arsenal on the srrengtll of hooks
and shackles showed that they failed at the loads given in the table below.
In service thev should be subjected to only 50% 0
f the figures in t,he t?!+.
Crdinarilv th& hook of a block gives way first, and where heavy welgms
are to be handled shackles are superior to hooks and should be used
wherever possible.
may no be accurate
1162
HPISTING ,AND CONVEYINd.
HOISTING AND CONVEYING.
fs and Shackles.
ine strength at S4.000 Ih.. it should. theoretically. sustain itself until
It. But takinc the y2sOOO feet long before breaking from its own.wrigl:
us& factor of safety oi 7, then the safe worQng length of such a-rope
would be only 6000 ft. .If a weight of 3 tons 1s now +ng. to .the rope,
wl~ch is eqmvalent to that of a cage of moderate capacity wth I ts , l oaded
cars, the maximum length at which such a rope could be used, with the
f:,.rtor of safety of 7, is 3000 ft., or
Strength of Ha
.-
SI - I acI cLEs.
. . . .
. .
. . . .
! 0. 700
18, I O0
i l , 9rJ O
i 2, 900
7 ' 5, 200
HOOKS.*
HOOKS.*
3/ 8 17. 310
' / z 20, 940
. va 23. 670
314 27, 420
718 36, 120
38J OO
SHACKLES.
-
-
. . .
.
.
I
~ f
E
ei%
25' 900
16; 804
52, 700
j 6. 600
10, 400
- 2 rf ~6000 = 84, 000 f 7; : . 2 = 3000 feet.
This limit mav be greatly increased by using special steel rope ofhigher
strength, by u&g asma!@ fa$or of .saiety, a&d I?y @g taper ropes.
Description of
Fracture.
Description of
Fracture. isee paper by H. A. Wheeler, T?a?tS. A. I . 111. .!G., x1x. 107.)
Large Hoisting Records. - At a colliery in North Delrbyshire during
the first week in June, ,lS90. 6309 tons were raised from a depth of ?iO!
yards, the time of wmdmg being from 7 a.m. to 3.39 P.m.
At two other Derbyshire pits, li0 and 140 yards m depth, the speed o,
winding and changing has been brought to such
erfection t.hat tubs are
drawn and changed three times in one minute.
(hvc Inst. ili. E. 1890.)
At the Nottingham Colliery near Wilkesbarre. Pa., ih Oct.! lS91: 70,152
+MP were shinned in 24.15 davs. the average hoist ner day bemg 1318 mine
......I..........
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .._. .._.
<ye of shackle.
eye of shackle.
<ye of shackle.
iheared shackle
$$f shackle.
Eye of shackle.
Eye of shackle.
Eye of shackle.
Sheared shackle
E:&f shackle.
SI$kkc, at neck
Eye of shackle.
-.,- I_ _ _..~rr. ~~~ ;~
cars. The depth of hoist was4iO feet, andall coal came from one ope+ng.
The engines were fast motion, 22 X 45 inches, conica! drums 4 feet 1 inch
long, 7 feet diameter at small end and 9 feet at large end.
(Engg Aeurs,
Nov., 1891.)
The Most Powerful Hoisting Engines ever built. are said to be two
32 X 72 duplex double-drum units built in 1906 for the Boston and
Montana Co., at Butte, Mont. Each is designed to lift a dead load,
unbalanced, of 17 tons out of a 3.500-ft. vertical shaft,, at the rate of
2,500 ft. Per minute. Each hoist has two drums, 12 ft. dlamcter and 5 ft.
6 ins. face mounted on t,he same shaft and driven by 1%ft. dia,meter llat-
disk rev&ihlt fric%ion clutches.
Pneumatic Hoi st i ng. (H. A. Wheeler, Ira,ns, ..I. I. 11. E.. six. ,lO,7.)
- A pneumatic hoist was irtstnllrd in IS76 at Eplnac. France, consMIng
of two continuous air-tight iron cylinders estendinz+! from the hottom to
the top of the shaft. Within the cylinder moved a piston from which was
hung the cage. It was operated by exhaust,ing the air from above t!~e
pist,on. the lower side being open to the atmosphere. Its lose \vts dls-
conbinurd on account of the failure of the mine.
Mr. Wheeler glres a
desrrint.ion of the svstem. but criticises it as not being equal on t,he whole
L
* All the hooks failed by straightening the nook.
Horscqower Required to Raise a Load at a Given, Speed, - H.P. =
Gross weight in lb.
33. 000
X speed in ft. per min. To this add 25% to 50% for
friction, c :ontingencies, etc.
cage. FOP% etc.
The gross weight includes the weight of
In a Shaft wit,h two cages balancing each 0t,her 11~:r thP
net l oad + wei ght of on- - . . - - : - . . ~a * i .
To ,tind the load which
of cylinder
a t7im wir of engims will start. - Let d = area
ln square inches. or t,ot,al area of both cvlinders. if thppp nre ~~, -. ___
two; 9 = mean etfective pressure in cylinder in lb. P&&l:i-&-$ -zst;Gci
pi +lnd~r.. inches: C = circumference of hni ql
~~~~.- __ ..-.-ting-drum, inches. L =
load lifted bY hoisting-rope. lb.: F; = friction, expressed as a dimihution
of the load. Then L = A , 2S - F.
~& G& i i l i g I i ? ~& d r opei
Pneumatic hoisting-cylinders usin, n compressed air have been used at
blast-furnaces, the weighted p&on counterbalancing the \veight, of the
cage. and the two being connected by a wire rope passing over a PullW-
sheave above the top of t,he cylinder.
In the more modern furnaces
steam-engine or electric hoists are generally used.
El ec t r i c Mine-Hoists. - An important
$?per on this subject,. by
D. B. Rushmore and Ii. A. Paulr. will be foun . m Trotrs. 9. I. M. E.. 19lg.
Co~mterbalancinp of Winding-engines.
(H. K. Hughes, Columbia
Coil. Qly.) - Engines running unbalanced are subject t,o en0rmous
variations in the load: for let n7 = weight of cage and empty tubs. SaY
6270 lb.: G = weight of coal, say 4480 lb.; f = weight. of holstinF: rope.
say 6000 lb.: 1* = weight of counterbalance rope hangmg down Plt. SaY
6000 lb. The weight to be lifted will be:
If weight of rone is unbalanced.
If weight of rope is balanced.

An exomPle in coU?/ Engr.. July,
24 x 40. drum 12 ft. diarn.,
1S91. is a pail of hoisting-engines
average steam-pressure in cvlinder =
59. 5 l b. ; , A = 904, . 8: , P = 59. 5: S = 40; C = 452. 4. Tl i eoret' i c31 l oad
not ollo\Un$ for frlC$lOn. A X P X 2 S c C = 9589 I b The act;lal load
that could Just be hfted 011 t.rial was 7958 lb., maltin& friction 10~~ F =
l6ql lb.. or 20 + Per cent of the actual load lifted, o,r i6Z/3L?& of tl;i theo-
retical lomi~
The above rule takes no account nf the roo;r+n..nn il..rl I.. : ..-_ .:- -L
the load. but for all ordino,rl~ PQ=,,~
.~.l'O"Ull~.C "UC L." l,C~l,iL "I
lyLyi<;v%?h the acceleration of speed of
the cage 1s moderate. it is covered by the allowance for frict.ion et,c.
The
re:lStklllW due to lnert.la is eonnl t,n the force requi red to gi ve ti l e l oad the
r. as shown in Mwhnnim, equal t.o the
velocity acquired in a given time, o:
product of t.he mass by t.he acceleration, or R = WV .
-;I 1r
At be&r&g of fift:
TV + c + T - 1V or 10,450 lb.
At middle of lift:
W + c f g - (IV + i) or 4480 lb.
L which R =
QY ~~~~~--- --
resist,ancT in lb. due to inerbia: W = weight of load in lb: V = maximum
~~elocitr In ft. Per second; T = time in seconds takeito acquire the
velocity II: g = 32.16,
,Effrct of Slack Rope upon Strain .
m Hoisting. - A seriec of tests
with a dT-namometer are published by the Trenton Iron Co
which show
that a dangerous extra strain may be caused bv a few inchesbf slick rope
In one case the cage and full tubs weighed 11,~OO lb.: t,he strain ;vhen the
:;t.,E; !ifM gently was 11.525 lb.: with 3 in. of slack chain it was
with 6 in. slack 25.750 lb., and with 9 in. sl.~l- 7 950 iii.
&it (if Depth for Hoisting. - Taking t.he wei&t~~ z cost-steel
holstmg-roPe of U/g in. diameter at 2 lb,. Per running foot, ini its break:
At end of lift:
W + c - (11 + r) or minus 1520 lb. IV +c +T- (IV cd
That counterbalancing materially affect,s t.he size of winding-engines fs
shown bv a formula given by Mr. Robert Wilson, which is based 0n.the
fact thai the greatest. work a winding-engine has t,o do is to get a @v.en
mass into a certain velocity uniformly accelerated from rest. and.t,o r?se
a load the distance Passed over durin,
- the time t,his velocity IS bemg
obtained.
al may anger be accurate ING: This is a 1910,edition.
,~;:,,_ ,~, ~,~ : ,, ,,,
1164 ~, ,~1, HOISTING AND CONVEYING.
Let l+ = the *eight to be set in motion: one cage,. coal, number of empty
tubs on cage, one winding rope from pit head-gear to bottom,
and-one rope from banking level to bottom.
u = greatest velocity attained, uniformly accelerated from rest;
g = gravity = 32.2;
I = time m seconds during which + is obtained;
Z, = unbalanced load on engine:
R = ratio of diameter of drum and crank circles;
F = average pressure of steam in cylinders;
N = number of cylinders:
S = space Passed over bi crank-pin during time t.
C = 2/s. constant to reduce angular s
the distance passed through
i
ace passed thiough by crank to
y the piston during the time t.
A = area of one cylinder, without margin for friction.
Tothis ai
addition for friction, etc., of engine is to be made, varying
from 10 to 30% of A.
1st. Where load is balanced,
2d. Where load is unbalanced:
The fpr!ml? is the same, with the addition of another term to allow for
the rarlatlon In the lengths of the ascending and descending ropes.
this caSe
In
hl = reduced length of rope in t attached to ascending cage.
11~ = mc,reased len&h of rope ifi t attached to descending cake;
2~ = weight of rope Per foot in pounds.
Then
A-[(~)+j(L~)--hrla:hz7r~]R
PNSC
Applring the above formula when designing new engines Mr. Wilson
found that 30 In. diameter of cylinders would produce equal iesults when
balanced. to those of the 36-in. cylinder in use the latt,er being unbalhnced.
CounterbaJancmg may be employed in thefollowing methods:
(01 ioper2n.rl IZope. - At the initial stage t~he tapering rope enables us
to ~1~1 from greater depths than is possible with ropes of uniform Section.
The thickness of Such a rope at any point Should only be such as to safely
bear the toad on it. at t,hat. point.
With ta ering ropes we oht,ain a smaller difference between the initial
and fins1 oSd. but the difference is still considerable and for perfect r
eWdlmtion Of,t.lle toad ye must re!s on someother reso&e
The theory
of taper ropes IS t? obt.?ln a rope of uniform strength thin&r at the rage
end where the weight 1s least, and thicker at the d;um end where it is
et??:2 t net o _ . . ., . . .
. (h) The C~~??krp,oi,w S~)afcmconsists Of a. heavy chain rr:nrl:inn v*- nnrl
oown a s+nnl~
--.-I.-
drum
Pit.. the motion being obtained by means or a ~1
Placed. On t,he :ame axis as the winding drum.
It isiS arTL115:rl
that t,he Chan, h,llgs in full length down the staple pit at the co~&n~n
ment of the wmdlng; in the center of the run the whole of the ~11~~1
1 rests
on the bottom of the nit. and. fina,llo~ n,t t~hannd d +kO . ..i~i-- *I.---
~. . ...-..* . ._ ..- -..\. vI yllG ~y11LL11L1L9 bLLc cG-iter-
P++e has been rewoimd upon the small drum, and is in the same con-
dltlon as it, was n,t the mmm~n~.,-nn+
~~. --- _.._ -._._ . . . . -Llrl,L,,~,I*.
tlst<) ~O~~d~d-WW~O?l Sl/Sk?V&. - A Dla,ll fnrmmly much employed n-85 t.0
~~~~ ..;. o . . .
chain: the rope aciilaling this wagon being connected In the same manner
- .1..X11 y rl.L.llne in place ofthik heavy
as the nl~ove to a suhsidiarv drum.
at tt
Tile i*=+ine was constructed steep
le conrmencemrnt. the inrlinn,tinn ~~~~~~~~~
~. ;~.. . ..--....- _._..
b.uy.Ldl~ dectrea,Sing to nothing.
At !he beginning of a wind the wagon was at t.be t.op of the incline and
dunne 5 nort~i
t.nwn .._ at the n&t of
.~. ..~~---on of the run gradually passed down ,& Gill ---- ----_
L=CL~% no Putt was exerted on the engine - the wagon bythis time being
at the bobtom.,
against the en
In the latter Part of the wind the resistance wa% all
n up the inciine.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some
CRANES.
and this resistance increased fr?rr:
I n$Jing-at the meet of cages to its
greatest quantity at the conclusion Of t!ie illIs
(d) !lW Endless-rope S~sfcm~ls preferable to all others, if there is suffi-
cient sump room and the shaft 1s free from t,ube.:.
c cross ttmbers, and other
impediments.
It consise in nlncinri beneath the cazes a tail roPe. similar I _.. r__~~~~~Y
in diameter to the windi]
ng rol,e. and, after conveyillg this dognthe pit,
it 1s attached beneath! thr : other cage.
p) Flat R(pm cv.ll?,n,o ,-., _.._ a, on.ReeZs. - This means of winding allows of a
I+irr,l fnr +~lw rndirls of t,hr: coilof aseendinc rune continues to
certain equaliz;,,Y.., .y. .._ _.~.__-_ . . __.- - ;~
increase, while t,hat.of the descendmg.one contmues, todiminlsh.
Conse-
quently, as the rcslstance cecreases ,m the ascendmg load the leverage
Increases, and as the uower m~~eaS~s I t,he other. the leverage dummshes.
The VarlaLtion in the levers&e
-&~%&% quaiytity, and i< equal to the
ttli&ness of the rope wtlere lt is WOLiild C
m the drum.
my the above means a remarkable us.--
niformitv in the load may be ob-
tained the only objection being the ?se of flatr+JS, which weigli heavier
and olily last about two-thirds the time of rollfir nll*Q
I.... _ _.._I.
(f), Con,id Lhms. - Reslllt,s a.nalorrous
to the preceding may be
:ncniIi-~~~~~~~nnirat drumk which may either
obtalned by using round ropg, --a=a,..o -.: . -...,.-. ~. ~.~~~~.,
be Smooth, ,wit.h the succesSlve rolls lymg side by side. or they pay be
provided wlt,h a. snir-l~t PwwwP.
The obiection to these forms IS, that
perfect equahzatlor. ,., .. yyy.I...--. __.. ____ .~~.. :~~ ~~~
are very steep, and consequently there is gredt risk of the rope slipping;
to obviate this scroll drums were proposed. They are, however, very
~~~-.....:.,-. ,,ithn lo+pm] <li<nlnp@mpnt, of the \<sinding role from the
width.
(8) The ~oeppe S?~stena of lVindiw7.
- An iron ptitley wit,h a single cir-
cular groove takes the place of the ordinary tlrlim.
Ttle winding rope
paSqes from one cage, over its head-gear plllt4.y. round tJlp drllnl, and, after
a&i&e over the other hr=nrl-rrmr nnlbc 1% c~ot~nw1r:d nlt,~h the second Cage.
F -. !- .
same manner as a driving-belt on an orfh!lary P!llleg.
,162 wlnthn:: rope t.hr!s e.,,,A,c I\ ., . .,.,,. . ..-.. .... ,.. ..I . . . . . . There in a balance
rnnp beneath the cages, n!l&nr ro~~i ~d a nutler m t,he sump: the arrange-
i$$I;t-%y~ be likened t6 &&&Tess rope, the t!\ro cages bein&~simply points
of attachment.
CRASES.
CIxssificatlon of cranes. (Henry R. Towne, Trans. A. S. 111. E.. iv.
258. Revised in Iloisti,~.rl, published br The Jlale & Towne;l;&,z;iL a
A HoiQ 1s a machine for raiSing and tOWdIg \Wlght~.
hoist wlih the added capacity of moving the loa,d in a horlzont,at or lateral
direction.
r+s,nps n.re divided into two rlasscs. as t,o t,heir motions, yiz.. ~otor1~ ?nd
DIIDS. as to their sollrce of motive power. VIZ.:
mi ua~l power.
,n by power derived from tine shafting.
~IuZ~C, or Pnezmmtic. - When drlren pY, an engine
otor ~tra&&-t%&e crane, and operated by sbeam, electnclty, water,
P t~ra.&mitted to t.he crane from a fixed Source of supPl Y.
&ue. _ When the crane is provided with it,s own
boiler Or Other
gLi<or of Dower, and is self-propelling: uslially being capable of both gem
rotary and r&linear n
Rotary and Rectiline;
notions.
zr Cranb are thus subdivided:
(1) Sl,!ing-crones. - Having rotation, buL no trolley motion.
(2) Jib-cranes. - Having rqtatlo?.
and a troliey t,ravelmg qn the jib,
(3) cozumfl-cran~s. - Identical wlt,h t,he jib-cranes. but rotaQng around
a fixed column (which usua,lly supports a floor abovy).
(4) Pi&zr-crones. - Having rot.at,ion only; the, pillar or column being
Supported entirely from the formdatio,n.
(5) pillar J ib&Ctnes, - Ideqtical wth t,he last, escept in having a jib
and trolley motion.
(6) Der?$&-annes. - Ident.icat wit.h jib-cmnes. except that the head Of
~the mast 1s held in position by guy-rods, instead of by attachment to a
roof or ceiling.
.,, ~~.. ~,,, .~ ~, ,
the material may no l onger be accwate
I
,~ ,.,,
,:, ,,:
1~166 :,;:::;:~~~,,, ~HOISTING AND CONVtiYING. CRANES.
axle friction, to cover. friction qf the gearing.
In sele$ing motors, the
.,lost important conslderatron 1s tll? ma.smium startmg Jpfque which
ihe mOtor can exert. With nltef~atmg-current motors, t!lls 1s less than
,vlth direct-current motors, requlrmg a, larger motor, partlc.ldarly on the
bridge and trolley motions wht.ch require the gTeatest startjng torque.
Walter G. Stephan says (Irott 1rWe hczj., Jan. 7. lQO?i that the bridge
glrde,rs should be made of t,w: plates lsttlced,, or box gnders. their depth
vsrcmg from l/lo to l/20 0l tile span,
lhe Important feature of crane
girder design is ample Strengtb,~lld StlffneSS,
both vertical!? and later?lly.
Especia.1 attention should be ~I V!?I I to the transverse s~trenL,~;e;~;x;d~.g
due to sudden stopping or startl!% of heavy l oads
the end trucks should have a ratlo to the crane span of 1 to 6, although
for long spans this ratio must necessanly be reduced to 1 ,to 8. . Quick-
traveiing cranes should have as long a wheel base as possible, Smce the
tendency to twist increases with the speed.
Where seT.eral wheels are
necessary at each end to support the crane, equalizing means should be
(7) NuZkin.g-cranes. - Consisting of a pillar or jib-crane mounted on
wheels and arranged to travel longitudinally upon one or more rails.
(8) Locomotive-cra?~s. - Consisting of a pillar-crane mounted on a
truck, and provlded,with a steam-engine capable of propelling and rotating
the crane, and of hcxstlng and lowering the load.
RECT~LI&~~ CRANES.
(9) Bridae-cranes. - Hsvine a fixed bridge snannine n,n nn~ninr, lnrl n
&r&y moiing across the brid%e.
.--.. ~ -.- -~---..~, _.IV v
(lp) Tram-nones. - Consisting of a truck, or short bridge, traveling
longltudmally on overhead rails,, and without trolley motion.
(1 I) Traveling-crunes. - Consistmg of a bridge moving longitudinally
on overhead tracks, and a trolley moving transversely on the bridge.
(12) Gantries. 7 Consisting, of ?n overhead bridge, carried at each end
by a t.restle t,ravehng on ion~~tudmal .tracks on the ground, and having
a t$ey movmg transversely on the bridge.
used.
A recent development in cranes is the four- or six-Girder crane for han-
dling ladles of molten metal in steel works. The mam trolley runs 0. the
outer girders with the hoist ropes depending between the outer and mner
girders. Thb auxiliary trolley runs on the inner g!~ders. thus being able
to pass between the main ropes, and tilt the ladle m &her chrectlon.
ments and c&sistirig of a bridge pivoted %t one end to a central pier or
post. a,nd supported at the other end on a circular track: urovided with a
trolley moving transversely on the bridge.
_ ~~~ ~~---- -
For descriptions of these several. forms of cranes see Townes Treatise
on Cramx
Skesses in Cranes. - See Stresses in Framed Structures, p. 515. ante.
Position of the Inclined Br,7ce in a J ib-crane. - The most econom-
ical arrangement is that in whlrh the inclined brace hltersect,s the jib at
a distance from the mn,st equa,l to four-fifths the effective radius of the
crane. (Hoisting.)
.lJXectrle Oyci-head Traveling Craties. (From data sunnlied bv
Dimensions and Wheel Loads of Electric Traveling Cranes.
Based on SO-f&. span and 25-ft. lift: wire rope hoist.
(Alliance Machine Co., 190%)
-
A111511Ce Rlac!hinc! Co., Alliance. 0:. and Paw~ill~ & IlartliScllfe$r, Id-
maukee.) --Electric overheari trawling crames usually have 3 motors for
hoisting, traversing lhn hoist t.rollev on the bridge and for moyinmthe
bridxe. respectively. lhc usual ran& of motor sizes is as follows: fioist
15- 50 H.P.: trolley. 3-15 H.P.; bridge. 15-50 H.P
The speeds at xvhicii
the various motions are made range as follows. thk fiaurcs beine feet uer
minute: Hoist,
Capncit,y.
To~~$
_
-
These speerls are varied in the same cai&{t,v- offs&& t&-&it e<& &tl
tlcular Installation. ~. In genrral. t,lie sneer1 of ihe hridrre in feet ner minute
should not exre
cow
avewx ursmnce oetwecn cranes + loti.
good speed.
Usuailv 300 ft. pei min. is a
For small cranes in special cases t,he speeds may be increased
but for cranes of over 50 tons capacity the &eed SIIOUICI he below 300 fb:
per nun. unless the hllilrT
liw is made e~neciallv st,ronz t,o st,and t,be strains
inCi&mt bo starting and stonninr h~aiiy crjnes @ired for high speeds.
Cranes of over 15 to,ns Tapacity usunll~~ have an allsiliary hoist of l!s the
rnpac1t.v of the m;
Im hoist. and IwIaIlv onerntrtl bv the same motor.
diameter of the drums and shea& sholl~d be not I~SS than 30 tiz!E
Wlre rope 1s now almost exrlusivelv r&d f&r h&ist~in~~ with cranes
the dmmeter of
Cranes ace equip
the!loisting rone. :
ind sh011ld have a factor of safet,r of 5.
lifted
* Has 8 track wheels on bridge.
Standard cranes are built in intermediate six& varxlng by 5 tons. uP
to 40 tons.
wed with sutoinat~ic load brakes to s&ta,in the load {Then
and to regulate t.he speed when lowering, it being necessary for the
A^ J..:-~~~ I,
Le load down.
hoist. LV unve 5~
The voltage r
Standard Hoisting and Traveling Speeds of Electric Cranes.
(Pawllng & Harnischfeger, 190s.)
-- I
Capacity, Hoisting Bridge Travel Cnpncit? Speed Aul.
Tonzb(y Speechi:!. per Speedtiiit. Per Au~O~~~t*
Ilois$fiEt. per
low standard for crane srrvice is 2?f1 vnli at. ,t,he rrane
motor. although 110 vo1t.n for sma~ll cranes iq not obje&Kible.
Voltages
of ooo-600 are inadvisa,hle. esnerinlly in folindries and steel works. where
dust and met,a,II
ic oxides covf$ man-v nart,s of thn rr~ncr a.nd necessitate 1:
2;:;5
300- 450 . . . . . . . _. , _. . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . .
300- 450
3 30- 75
, ? 50- 1251
fr,eqllent cleaning to avoid grounds. ~~~-~- ~~~ -~-- ~~~~~~~
On account of t,he danger from the
hlcher rolta~es. the operators are ant to neglect this part of t.heir work.
POWW Rrnui rpd to Brivr Cmnrs (Morgnn Enzineering CO..
:~lllanc~. 0.. 1QOQ.l - The now~ reqrrirpd to drive the different parts of
cranes 1s determined by allowine a certain friction percentage over t,he
PFver reqrlirrd to more the desd lon,d. On hoist, mot.ions 331/3% is
arlowcrt for friction of the moving pnrt,s. thus Fivinp a mot.or of l/3 greater
CapaMy than if friction were ne&xted. For bridge and trolley motions.
a Journal i&%ion of the track wheel asles of IOcl, of t.he total meieht of
the crane and load is a~llomed. There is then added an allowance of $3 l/3%
of the horse-power required to drive the cran,c and load plus the track wheel
25 10- 40 250- 350 I l O ~I gl f
40 9- 30 250- 350 I I i 25-60 I
50 6- 30 200- 300 I 5 ; z@ I
1; :
; I : : ; ; ; I ; : :
1;
20- 50
25 ; : I : ;
150 5- 15 200- 250 25
Trolley travel speed from loo-150 ft. per min. in all cases.
iS a, editikm. may no
c
,,~, ,,,, :,;~,~, ,,~~ ,,,,,; ,,,,,, :,,:,*:,:, ,,::;,:,y ,,, ~,~, : ~::
,._
11653 <: ,HOISTING AND CONVEYING,
125'
I20
100
i11
:I!
Notable Crane Installation
IS. ,(1909.)
iO-200(100-I5017 0
50-200 75-100
iO,200 100-1507 6
10-250.100-150 5 5,
IO-250 100-150 5 lOl/:
IO-150 80-100 8 6
I
.-
* Four-girder ladle crane.
..--_-
t On each trolley
t Divided equallY between 2 motors for seriesl*arallel control.
I. ?awling & Harnisrhieger: 3. Alliance Mach. Co. 3. Morgan En-
Plneerlw co.: 4. Midvale Steel Co., Phila 5. Homeqtkad Steel Works
~Illnhd, Pa.: 6. Indiana Steel Co., GarvJnd: 7 &egon Rx. & vav:
Co., Portht~d. Ore.; S. El Paso & S. \V. k;. EI k&o Tex.. g. C. & b. I.
R!.,,hnvik. Ui.: 10. 3rl Ave. Ry.. N. k: City: Ii United Rgs. co.,
B:~ltmore: 12. Carnegie Steel CO., Youngstolrn Ollio:
A 15O-top I/llar-crane was erected in 1g93 on Finn&ton Qusv
Gl~%o~~.
ft. h,~.
1he JIl? is formed Of two steel tubes each 39 in. diam. and &j
The IWIIUS of sweep for heavy lifts is 65 Jt.
The jib and its load
are counterbalanced by a balance-box weighbed 1~1th 100 tons of iron and
steel punchings.
In a test a lRO-ton load was lifted at the rate of 4 ft. per
rmnute., and a complete revolution
Engg Aem. Julv 2n. 1 SW
made with this load in 5 minutes.
Co1~~l~res~ecl-iti~Tr:~vrling-cr~nes.-C0mpressed-~lrover~~ead~rarel
iW-~lWteS have been bIdIt 1,~ the Lnne g Budlev &o of Cinc-innati:
Tk arc of 20 tons nominai kpacity, each about $0 ft. <Pan and 400 ft.
leWh of trawl. and are 01 the triple-motor type, a Pair of iirnple revercing-
ewmes btllx used for each of the neressnrv operations the p.dr of ellcines
@! the bridrre and, the Pair for the trollev iravrl being 6ach 5linch bo;e by
I-Inch stroke. While the pair for hoistinfg is 7-inch bore bv 9-inell stroke.
The air-Pre,ssure when rrquired is somrw\-hat over 100 p&Ids.
The nir-
be+:: rtFul:1ted by the resistance of :he >ir in a receiver.
crnprWOr is allo~d io rlln continuollslv xvitlrout, a governor the <peed
rece!ver is plied on each t,raveler. whose object is to
of ar near the e@Qes
Ai, auxiliary
rovide a supplr
hose ronnrction.
for immediate demands and
int ependent of rlir P
Wpe .of cr?ne are: simplicity:
bolne of the advantages said to be possessed by this
lhoJe reqmrcd for a particular motion wvhen that motion isin u.32: no
absence of all moving parts es&pting
~l:~l~.-er from fire. leakage, electric shocks or freezing. ease of &pair.
~af~~lAe SI~~ds nnd reversal \vithout gearlng; almost &tire absellce oi
1101W: amI mod rmte costs.
(luW-WzIneS. 7 An illustrated description of several varieties of eta-
tionary and travehng cranes, with results of experiments is given i;l a
A. b. c. lz IWR
PaP$r on QlW-rra1les 111 the Port of, Hamburg by Chas. Nehls, Trans.
Transmission. page 779. n~~te.
Accumulators, etc. - See Hydraulic Pressure
Ic1wfric frlsus Il?xirnulir Cr:rncxci for Docks - A paper br 1. L.
Raven, in T~UW :I. A; XII. E., 1904, describes some tests oi cap&y and
WARNING: This is a 191b dilion.
. ..&.
Some of t
CRANES.
eff&!ncy of electric and hydraulic power plants for do+ p,nrposes at nfid-
dlesbrough. Eng.
In loadhlg two cargoes of rads, welghmg respectively
1210 and l-- 335 tons, the first was done with a hydraulic crane, in 7 hou,rs,
wit,, 3584 Ibs. ~of .coal burned in the power station, and the second m$h
an electric crane m 5 l/.1 hours, with 2912 Ibs. of coal. The total cost m-
eluding labor, per 100 tons. was 327 pence with the hydrauhc and 245
pence for the electric crqne. a ssving by the latter of 2.5 %.
I,o:tdlng and Unloncl,rng aI@ Storage ,1Iachinery for coal. ore, et,c.,
ls described by G. E. Tltcornb 1n Trans. A. S: M. E., 1908.
The paper
illustrates automat& ore unloaders for unloadmg ore fro? the hold of a
vessel and loading It ,cmtP cars,
and car-dmnping machmery, by which
a 5O-ton car of coal 1s hfted, turned over and its contents~dlscharged
through a chute iato a vessel.
Methods of storage of coal and of re-
loading it on cars are also described.
power Required for Traveling-Cranes and Hoists. - Clrich Peters.
in ;Cfu&/. Nov. 1907. develops a series of formrllie for the P,o\ver e-
yulred to hoist and to move trolleys on cranes. The followmg IS a brief
abstract. Resistance to be overcome in moving a trolley or cra!le-
!!?%%els o\ axles. P1 = inertia of trolley and lo&d.
P = rolling friction of trolley wheels I)2 =p j;lu;x$ of;i;;ez
resistances = p, + pz + p3 _ (T +L) (q + A) in which T = weight
of trolley, L = load, f, = coeff. of \olli& frictilir&out 0.002. (0.001 to
0.003 for cast iron on steel) : fiz = coeff. of journal friction. = 0.1 for start-
ing and 0.01 for rutlninp, assuming a load on brasses pf lpO0 to 3000 lb.
per sq. in.: If2 is more a,pt to be 0.05 unless the lubrlcatlon 1s perfect.
See
Friction ;~ntf Lubrication. \V. I<,] d = diam. of journal; D = $-m.,of
wheels. 2) = trolley speed in ft. per min.: t = time in secopds in whxh
the tr;llev under full load is required to come to the ipasirnum speed.
Horse-poiver = sum of the resistances X speed! ft. per mm. + 33.000.
Force required for hoisting and lowering:
I$ = actual hoisting force,
Fa = theoretical force or pull. I, = load, 2) = speed in ft. Per min.. of
the rope or c,hain. c = hoisting speed of the load L, c/v = traWmlssl~L1
ratio of the hoist. c = efficiency = Fo/Fh.
The actual work to raise
the load per minute = Fhv = Le = Fav pi e.
The efficiency e is the
product of the efficiencies of all the several parts of the hoiSthlg me@-
anism, such as sheaves, windlass, gearing, etc.
hfethods of caleulatmg
these efficiencies, with examples, are given at length in the original Paper
--..
%rks
.._ .,-O_ -..-
of the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co.8
Ning results:
id 109 350 pounds; weight of average lift, 785
liours: 15 minutes; current on magnet, 1 hour
and high speed of handling are essential.
? material may no longer be accuratx
lli0 ,: HOISTING AND CONVEYING.
IELIHERAGE. 1171
COMMERCIAL RESULTS WITR A 5%INCII, ,5,000 POL%D .\IAGNET.
(Electric Controller & Mfg. Co., 190s.)
SIZES MD CAPXITIE~ OF THE ELEWRIC CONTROLLER & MFG. Co.8
TYPE S-A LIIWING MAGNETS. (1909).
Lifts in ,m?chioe cast pig
Iron.
Size. Diam. Weight.
Average
current at
220 volts. Ma$um
A;yg!ftpe
-
2LkJ
3:200
4,800
6,600
-
Lb.
1,405
2,180 3.087
4,509
Lb.
750
;.go
2:600
T
::
60
55
132
168
3;
:i
8
4
Hoist
speed,
ft. per
min.
3ridge
speed.
Ft. per
min. /
--
.- __
-
~-
s1ZF.S 4XD CAPACITIES OF LIFT. ENG MAGNETS (CUTLER-HANAIER). 1908,
Current,
Required
at220 volts,
amperes.
sy
---
IO
:I!
-.
Head room
required,
ft.
-
800
5,000
20,000
100-300
500~1,000
1.000-2,000
15&4
30-35
. . . . . . .._._...
6
-
-
* 1. hfachine cast pig handled from st,ock pile t,o char:ing hoses. 2.
p,,,11 hen&s ditto. 3. Sand casd pig unloaded fron! c3r to st?ck pile.
4. &3led tin and wire unlo;~ded from. car to slork pllr. 5. 13olltsr plate
scr:lp 1mtltlled from ?;t,oc*k pill: t,o rllitrfiui+! ImSc~S.~
6, IQirmers sump. tom-
prising knot,tt!rs and 1,111 t,lbrs from t lm~slun, L
1, .1n11 binding: nxtchincx :ioot ions
of e,ltter bars from mowers, Im)l,can sleel tc&h from 1I:ty r3kes. pl0W po~inls.
etc., from stock pile to charging bosrs.
7. Sm311 risers from steel trast.m~s,
handled from StOCli pile to charging bosrs.
Y. Lnrninatrd plates frT)rn
nrm3tures and transformers, mixed si7.?s, from st.ork pile to ch3WnP
bores. 9. Cnsr iron sewer pipe. 3 feet dlamet~rr.
weighinz 2.OOO pounds
each. lift.ed from cars to flat boat.
E3~h pipe h3d to he blorked nnd
lashed to prevent wn,shing overhonrd.
10. Pensrlroni:~ Rnilroad Enst
River tunnel section castings, convex on one side, ?OnCRve On other,
nriqhing 4,000 pounds each. Handled from local flont, to bnrpe for ship-
ment. 11. Stee!l plate l/&nch X 10 inches X 6 feet~ 0 inches handled
from car t,o noat. 12. Steel rails, 40 pounds per ~3rd. 25 feet long.
Hnndlrd from car to lighter, about S rails per hft.
The above results of tests relais to the Electric COntrp11er 6r blfg.
Co.s No. 2 Ivpe *I S magnet, 52 in. diameter and weighmg 5200 lbs.
and are the ,iverage of a large number of tests tnade 3t. \-arlgus Plants
between the years 1905 and 190s.
This type of magnet is bemg super-
seded by the No. 4 Type S-A magnet which is 43 in. diameter, weighs
3200 lbs. and gives substantially the same average hft.
*This c,apacity can be obtsinea only under the most favorable con-
ditions, wltb complete magnetic contact between the magnet and the
piece to be lifted.
TIE cnpncity of a lifting magnet in service depends on many other
factor3 t,hnn the design of the magnet.
of the material handled.
Most important is the character
Much more can be handled at a shlgle, lift
with material like billets, ingots, etc., thdn with scrap, wire

etc. The speed of the crane, from which the magnet is suspen ed and
8 rol*
the distance it must transuort the material are also irnnort,n,nt, fnt9& +.n
be cc@dered in calcula@ig the capacity of a given magnet under given
conditions. The followmg results have been selected from a great num-
ber of t,ests of the Electric Controller and MfZ Co.s No. 2 Tvnr S nln~~t9
in commercial service, and represent what is proljablv nverage practice.
It should be borne in mind that the average lift is deteimined from 3 lnrge
~~~crnbrr of lifts. including lifts made from a full car of, say,
\\ln!rr the magnetic condit,ions are very favornble, and also the
pi? iron
-I,,;,) 9;
lifl:i \!hl?re the car is nearly empty, and mngnet,ic condit.ions unfnrornble;
the ningnet can reach only a few pigs at one time on the lea,n lifts, \vith a
consequent heavy decrease in the size of the load. The aver:lge lift is
therrfore less than the maximum lift iu handling a given lot of material.
When operated from an ordinarv electric overhead t.mvelinr rr3n~ a
magnet of the type used in thesetrials will handle
~~~~~il ----~-- --
from 20 to 30 tons
per hour of the scrap used by open-hea.rth furnaces. If opernPed from
3. speciai fast crane, the amount may be somewhat incrensed.
lifts in powds for various materials are as follows:
Average
)
TELPHERAGE.
SkuI1~ cmcker balls up to 20,000; in&t (or if ground man places
m3znet. two), each, 6,000: biilet slabs. 900-6.000.
The nbove weights
stnrked evenly.
depend on dimensions and whether in pile or
llnchine cnst pig iron, 1,250:. sand cast pip iron, 1,150.
These sre values obt.ained m unloading .railway cars, including lean
!
lifts in cleaning un. I
Telpherage is a name given to 3 system of transporting materials 1n
which the.load is suspended from a trolley or Small Wurk rllJlnln?Z 0 a
cable or overhead rail, and in which the propelling force IS ot$amcd
from an electric mot,or carried on the trolley. The trolley, with .lts
motor. is cnlled a t,elpher. A historical and illustmted descr@on
of bhe svst.em is given in a paper by C. 31. Clark, in Trans. A. I. B. E.9
1902. .q series of circulars of the United Trlphernge CO.. New YoTk.
show numerous i1lustrntions of the system in Jperntion for, handhng
diRerent classes of materials. Telph&sge is esperinlly applicable for
moving pnck3ges in warehouses. on whayfs, etc.
The moving mach.m-
erv~ cons&s of the telpher or the conve!W@ power. !viih, 3ccomPanY~ng
trkilers. the portable electric hoist, or the vertical elerarmg power. and
the cairiers containing the load.
Among the accessories are brakzs,
W~chine cast pig iron, 1!350; sand cast. pig iron, 1,200.
The above are average lifts from stockpile.
Hwvg melting stock (billets, crop ends of billets, rails or st,ruct,ural
sl13prs. 1,250: boiler p13t.e scrap, 1,100; farmers scrap (harvesting
m;Whincrp p3rt,s. plow points, etc.), 900: small risers from steel c:tstlnps,
1 .!iO)O: tine wire scrap, scrap tubing not over 3 ft,. long, loose even or
hlnlnotion scmp, 500;
ers scrap, 400-600.
,btnid1ed scrap, 1,200; inisccllaucous junk de&
switches and controlling devices of many kinds.
,,.,_ & j & y;LL ,,., ~..~,~ ,~ -,
~,.~ ,,~~ ..,_ .,~ .~,.
rrlARNING~:This is a~ 1910 edition. Some of the material may no ltinge~r be accurate
4-n automatic line is controlled by termhlal and intermediate switches
Much are operated by the.men who do t.he loading and unloading, no
additional labor being required.
boy to accompany the telpher.
A non-automatic line necessitates a
The adrisabilitv of using the non-
automaric rather than the automatic line is usually determined by tine
distance between stations.
COAL-HANDLING MACHINERT.
The following notes and tables are suPplied by the Link-Belt Co.
In large boiler-houses coal is usually -delivered from hopper-cars into
a track-hopper, about 10 feet wide and 12 to 16 feet long.
under the track-hopper feeds tl
A feeder set.
reduces it to a size suitab
Ihe coal at a regular rate to a crusher, ,whi;ci;
le for stokers.
After crushin
bins. Overhea If
the coal is elevated or conveyed to overheadstorage.
storage is preferred for several reasons:
1. To avoid expensive wheeling of coal in case of a breakdown of the
coal-handling machinerv.
?. To avoid runningthe coal-handling machinery continuously.
6. Coal kept under cover indoors will not freeze in minter and clog the
supply-spouts to the boilers.
._. ..- _..__.
4. It, i: often cheaper to store overhead than to use valuable ground-
Space adjacent to the boiler-hnlls:P
S. AS diStinguished fro
to build St,eel bins and SII:
Weight of 0
m vsult or outside hopper storage, it is cheaper
pports than masonry pits.
ve~l~~e;r~l~l~i~s.,- @eel i?i!is of a
r .
proximately wctangular
!SC LI.SlVC of sllnnorts. ahout
cross7swtion. say II! x 10 rwt. WI1 wcigli. c
one-slrth as much as tllc contained coal. Larger bins i\?th &lopir&
bott~oms. may wei,Oh one-?iallth as much as the contaiied coal. Bag
bottom bins of the Berquist tp e will weigh about one-t
the contained coal, not incluc ~ng posts, ,I!
wclfth as much a2
includine nnst~3~
, and about one-ninth as much,
Supply-pipes from I3ins. - The supplr-Pipes from overhead bins to
the bo@er-room floor, or to the stoker-hoPtiers, should not be less than 12
!nches m diameter. They should be fitbed at the top wit,h a flsn~ed cast-
IW and a cut,-off gate, to permit removal of the pipe when the b&erS are
to be cleaned or reDaired.
Types of CoalbElcva,tors. - Coal elevators consist of buc1iet.s of
varmus Shapes at,tached to one or more $fm!s of fink-beltinp or chain. or
to rubbrr belting. The blxkets mav
at in
eitner be attached continuously or
terrals. The vnriows tvnrs are:is fnllntvc.
Cmii~~u~m buclxt clct~~tors consist uSualIs of one strand 0f rhnin nnrl
~\YO S
P
rock&wheels
Each nlcket.
with buckets attached continuollslr to t,he chain
after passinx the head wheel arts as a chllte t,o direct the
fJ:w from the nest bucket,.
hllles Of coal.
This type of elevator will handle the Iarrer
It ru!ls at slow speeds. usually from 90 t,o 175 feet per m?n-
Mr. and has a maxImum rapacit.y of about 120 t.ons per hour
CentrifI@ disclLorge eleontors consist usuallv of a single st,ra;ld of chain
!v:ith the buckets attached thereto at interva,l&
t!le smaller sizes of coal in small quantities.
They are used to handle
Thcv run at high speeds,
usuall? 34 to 40 revolutions of the head wheel pei minute. and have a
capacity up t.0 40 tons per hour.
Perfect ~lisrharge eleentors consist of two strands of chain with buckers
at intervals between them.
A pair of idlers set under the head wheels
rause the buckets t,o be completely inverted, and to make a clean delirerv
Into bhe chutes at the elevator head. This t,vpe of elevator is useful in
handling mnberinl which tentls to cling to t.he bllckets.
SPreds. u~unlly less thnn 150 feet per minute.
It runs at slow
the size of the hurliPt,s~
The capacity depends on
Cornpined Elemtors and Conveyors are of the following types.
Grot~tu discharge ele~mtors. consisbing of t~wo strands of &ah;, midh
sPaced 1 -Shaped buckets fast.ened between them.
. ..L_^~.h . . * . Aft.er passing the head
lo any wslred point.
-~ghts and convey the coal in a trough
This is the cheapest type of combined elevator and
conwsor. and IS economical of power.
A machine carrring 100 tons of
Coal Per hour, in bucket~s 20 inches wide, 10 inches deep, alid 24 inches long,
~_ .,,,.~.&&&
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of tl
COAL-HANDLING AIhCHlNERY.
---,A R fpe+. a,a.rt,. rcnuires 5 H.P. whenloaded and 1 V2H.F. x-hen empty
and l/n H.2. for each foot. of vertical lift.
~~~~~~11i~~f~~~~ftlorizonta! run.
~i,$d bucliel-carriers consist of twost.rands of chain xlth a special
bur~la ritiidlv fastened between them. The bueket.S overlap and are so
czi $??-they will carry coal around three sides of a rectangle.
The
n.701 83 carried to any desired point and is discharged by completely
%~$ing~the bucket dver a turn-wheel.
-.-?&-carrWs consist of two strands of long pitch Steel chain to
:a&ed in a nivnta,l manner. laree malleable iron or steel
*dtl,nt~ t,
,)uc,<eQi y ar,,,r,~r .I. &~G&&ZliI;ss &G&ose tqgether or overlap. ,.
Cverlappmg buckets reqmre special devices for changmg the lap at the
corner turns.
Carriers 111 which the buckets do not overlap should be
fitted with auxiliary pans or buckets. arranged in su$ a manner as to
catch the spill which falls, between the hps at the loadmg pomt. and so
ql,aped as to return the spill to the buckets,at the corner turns.
Pwoted
&cl;&carriers mill carry coal around four stdes of a rectangle, the buckets
being dumped on the horizontal run by strikmg a cam smtably placed.
Buckets for these carriers are usually of
2 ft. pitch, and range In wdth
from 18 in. to 45 in. They run at low speeds, usually not over 50 ft. per
minute 40 ft. per minute being most usual.
At the latter speed, the
capacities when handling coal vary from 40 tons per hour for t,he 1S in.
nrldth to 130 tons for the 45 in. width.
On account of the supenor con-
struction of these carriers and tl?e slow speed at mhwh they run, they are
economical of power and duraole.
The rollers mounted on the chain
joints are usual y 6 In. dmmeter, but for severe duty S-in. rolJers are pften
IlaNl. It is 11sm1 to make these hollow to carry a quantltg of 011 for _.__-.
internal lubrication.
coal ihnycbyors. - Con1 con<%yors arc of four general tyI@ viz.,
sciaper or llight, bucket. screw, and belt conveyors.,
T/~C flight conve!,or consists of a trou!$ of any desired cross-section an?
a single or double Strand of chain carryln,
mately the same shape as the trollgh.
* scrapers or fliehti of a,ppr?xl;
The llizhts push the C
on* ancao 01
+hnm in the +.m,lrrh to a.nv desired Dolnt. where it 1s dischar,
Pd t.h-ollcll
oneninzs in the bottomtthc~trou~ll.
c-- -------use
~llwl>le 1,lnk hook-joint chains
~:$5~~~hort, low-c*pacity. conveyors, ml,..,,... .
hains. steel link chains,
-.- Y.IC... For lwavwr sewIce, malleable pm-Jomt c - - - -- -
or monobar. are r--r...-U-.
rmari rd ~nr t,hr heaviest service. two strands
of steel
- 1. -... .~~~~
link rhn,in. usuallr with rollers, are used.
suspended flight, and
--%$%%beyois are of rhre& types: plain scrsper,
roller flight.
In the plain scraper conveyor. the flight is suspended from the chain
and drags along t.he bott.om of the trough.
Xt is of low firSt cost cm1 1s
useful where noise of operation is not opJecti?nable.
It, has a marlmum
~~~._ .I_^ _ ^:&I..>
canacitr of about 30 tons ; per hour, anu reqmres more power III~LL ~LII~;A
of-the &her two tvnes of flight conveyors.
$218
chain. The fliWs
pen&d flight con?x!/or.si,xse one or two strands of
are attached to cross-bars having wearing-shoes at each end.
These mear-
in--slmes slide on angle-iron tracks on each side of the conveyor trough.
Tl?efllmhts do not. touch the trough at any point. T!lis t>-pe of coVeyor
is use$ where quietness of operat~ion is a COnSiderat~l?n.
It, iS of higher
first cost than the plain scraper conveyor, but rew!lres one-fourth less
power for opmxtion. It is economical up to a ca.Paclty of about SO tons
per hour.
The roller flight conw!,or is Similar to the suspended flight. except th?&
the wearing-shoes are replaced by rollers.
It, is highest, in first cost of
the fllpbt conveyors but has the atlva,ntnges of low porV\-er Co~~umPf
(one&lf that of thekcraper), low stress in c&tin, lolIP hfe Of Clunn. trot
and flights, and noiseless operation. I.
~. -_..-.i-
CaPncity of about 120 t.or- -nr ~~***
;i?l&y 3f~&xlmately the horse-poxer at the head
Wheel required3o operate flight conveyors:
The iollowin~ formula
H,p, = (ATL + .?l Tts) + 1000.
T = tons of coal per hour. L = length of conveyor in feet~, center to
center. 1~ = weight of chair; flights, and shoes (1~ot.h runs) in pounds:
s= sbeed in feet Per minute: A and B constants depending on angle of
incline from horizoutsl. See esample below.
! material may no longer be accurtite
COAL-HANDLING MACHINERY. 1175
I
A
--
0. 343
I I S"
0: 44
0. 47
For suspended
of the values givl
flight conveyors take B as 0.8. and for roller flights as 0.6,
en m the tab&. _
EXAMPLE. -Required the H.P. for a monobar conreyo[ 200 ft. center
to center carrying 100 tons of coal per hour, up .a IOn inchne at a speed
of 1uU feet per mm$e. Conveyor has No. 81Y &am and 8 X 19 suspended
flights, slmced 18 Inches apart.
H.P. =
0.5 X 100 X 200 + 0.00s (400 X 5.7 + 267 X 15.55) X 100 = 15,15.
1000
The following table shows the conveying capacities of various sizes of
6iuht.s at 100 feet per minute in tons, of 2000 lb., per hour.
The values
a;e tr3e for continuous feed only.
Horizontal Conveyors.
Inclined Conveyors.
Tons.
10. 5
1: :
184
225
264
-
24".
Tons.
::.
IC
I2
Si ze of
Flight.
Pounds
Coal per
Flight.
2
115
147
179
210
Flight Flight
Eyg%Fy E;$Q- Weis% of Chain in Pqunds per Foot.
I
LINK-BELTING.
I-
M~;~~BAR.
I
12
22
3. 1
4. 6
4. 9
5. 6
6. 3
8. 1
8. 9
40 54 72
l I - - -
Pitch of Flights, Inches
Chain .
-7
-i-
- No.*
24 36 12 I 8 24 36
2.3 2. 26 2. 2
- - - - - .
::i Z
2. 5
612 3. 9 . 3. 6 3. 5
2.6
618 . . , . . 3. 0 . , . _ 2. 8 :
4. 4 4. 3 4. 2
818 5. 7 . , . . 5. 5
4. 7
5. 2 Z
4. 1
824 4. 9
4. 7
lOI8 11.5 l0.i
6. 0
7. 7 : : i . : : :
1024 9.6 .._,_,
1224
,..... . .,.,,.
. . 2. 7
5. 3
_, . .
8. 4
1236
14. 7 , . , .
8. 2 7. 9 1424
II.8
- - i i : 4 _.
. m-
nobar tile first one or two figures in the nun
dinmetcr of the chain in eighths of an inch.
! the pitch in inches.
4. 7 . .
.
4. 6
10. 4 , . .
9. 07 (
14. 04 .
8. 8
13. 8
. . . . . . . .
19. 7
I I . 34
19. 4
I I
Tons.
69. 75 1 TzS.
Tons.
46. 5
97 5
......... 130 . . . -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172. 5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; zi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
-
Chai
No.
78
s!
to3
108
II0
114
122
124
_
de;o:
-
n
llwr of the chain
The last two fig-
mo,
the
1otc
Bucket Conveyors. -
Rigid bucket-carriers are used to cpnvey ,large
quantities of coal over a considerable distance when t&e IS no inter-
mediate point of discharge. These conveyors are made wtb two strands
of steel roller chain.
They are built to carry as much as 10 t,ons of coal
$2 r minute.
Screw Conveyors. -
Screw conveyors consist of a helical steel flig!it.
either in one piece or in sections, mounted on a pipe or shaft, and runmng
in a steel or wooden trough.
These conveyors are made from 4 to 18
inches in diameter, and in sections S to 1,
9 feet 1on.g. The speed ranges
from 20 to 60 revolutions per minute and the rapacity from 10 to 30 tons
of coal per hour. It is not advisable to use this type of conreSor,for coal,
as it will only handle the smaller sizes and the Higbts are very easily dam-
aged by any foreign substance of unusual size or shape.
Belt Conveyors. -
Rubber and cotton bel t conveyors arf: used .for
handling coal, ore, sand, gravel etc., in all $zes.
They comLnne a IWll
carrying capacity with low power consumptJon.
Iii some cases the belt. is Hat, the matenal being fed to the belt at its
center in a narrow stream.
111 the majority of cases. ho\vever. the belt
is troughed bv means of idler pullevs set at an angle from the hOrizont,al
and placed at intervals along the length of the belt.
Rubber belts are
often made more Hesible for deep troughing by remorlng some,Of the
layers of cotton from the belt and substituting therefor m eStK% ttllChW~
ROLLER CIIAINS.
.
Nr.
Pitch of Flights, Inches.
I
Pitch of
Incl1
No.
- 720
730
025
A..
12 18 24 36
I I I : - - - 9. 5 7. 3 6. 9 6. 2 - - - - - - 2 5. 7
1130 10. 5 ; : t
of rubber.
Belt conveyors may be used for elevating mat,eriais Up t0 ~bOllt 23
i&line. On greater inclines the material slides back on the l+,and Wills.
With many substances it is im ortant to feed t.he belt steadily If the con-
veyor stands at or near the imltlng angle.
p . .
If the How is int,errupted
the materia: may slide back on the belt.
Belt conveyors are run at any speed from 200 to SO0 feet Per minute,
and are made in widths varying from 12 inches tc 60 inches.
we ght of Flights wifh Wear
Size, Inche3. Steel. Malleable Iron
C-shoes and Bolts.
Suspended Flights.
1n
-
.I- Size.
Weight. Lb.
4x10
; : : zi
Capacity of Belt Conrcyors in Tons of Coal per Hour. __- ::; 4. 3
4. 1
; : :
; : :
z. 9'
8. 1
IO. I
912
II.0
12. 6
14:;
15. 2 %
12. 37
15. 55
: ; : : :
33. 17
34. 97
Width Velocity, Feet per \Vklth
B%
Minute.
IW. 350 400
I&,
Velocity, Feet per Zlinute.
300 ins.
301 35G 400 1 450
500
-------
-;- -
\i :;
20
1;:
it2
162
:::1:
21:
8X20
8x24
10x24
IrlARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
..,. ~,., ..,. 1
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
WIRE-ROPE HAULAGE.
Constants for Form&e Above. Fqr paterials other than coal. the figures in the above table should be
mulrlphed by the coefficients given in the table below:
-
_-
_ 1
--
-
2 3
H.P. Ro
luirerl for
kwll Mov,
able or
Fixed
Tripper.
112
12
4
I
C for Mate-
rial Weigh-
ing from 25
Lb. to 75 Lb.
per Cu. Ft.
Material.
Ashes (damp). _.
Cemer1t. . .
Chv
Coke. : : : :
.-~
Materinl. Coefficient.
- Earti i . . : , .
Sand.. I::
Stone (crushed)...... 2. 0
_
: for Mate-
rial Wei+
ing from-75
,b. to 125 Lb,
per cu. Ft.
dinimum
l?ilitpf
Ifelt Conveyor Construction. (C. Ii. Baldwin, Trans. A. S. M. E
190%) - The troughing idlers should .be spaced as foliows, dependin;
on the welght of the material carried: \
Belt width 12- 16 in. lS-22 in.
Spacing, ft.
24- 30 in.
41/ 2- 5
32- 36 in.
4- 4113 31/ z- 4 3- 3' 12
0. 234
0. 226
~: %
0. 205
i : I ; ;
"0: I i :
: : 1: :
0. 161
0. 157
0. 147
0. 143
Xi
"03;
0. 131
: : 1; ;
X
0.114
O. l l 2
The stress in the belt sllould not exceed IS to 20 lb. per inch of width
per p!y nlth rubber belts.
m which 28 oz. duck is used.
This may be increased about 20% with belts
Where the power required is small the stiff-
ness of the belt fires the number of plies.
ij: as follows:
The minimum number of plies
Belt width, in.
12-14 16-20 \Iinimum plies 22- 28 30- 36 3
4 5 6
Pulleys qf small diameter should be avoided on heavy belts, or the con-
stant bcndlnc of tile belt under heavy stress will causethe friction to lose
its hold and destr?y the belt. In manv cases it is advisable to cover the
driving 1~111l~y wth a rubber lagging to increase the tractive power
parti<lllarly in dusty places. The minimum size of driving pulleys to bd
used IS sI10w in the table below.
;pced are known the stress in the b
Stress =
H.P. X 33,000 ,
sx B
From this the number of plies can be found, using 20 lb. per ply per
inch of width as a masimum for r!!bber heks.
Relative Wearing Power of Conveyor Bclts. (T. A. Bennett.
Tmtts. A. S. At. E., l!)OK) - DitTorent materials used in the construction
of conveyors were subjected to the uniform action of a salld blast for 45
minutes,and the relative abrasive resisting rlualities were found to be as
follows, taking the volume of rubber belt worn away as 1.0:
_ -
Rubber belt. ................ 1 .O Woven ct,ton belt, high grade 6.5
Rolled steel bar .............. 1.5 St,itched duck, high grade ..... S.0
Cast, iron. ................... 3.5 Woven cotton belt. low grade, 0.0 t,o
Bnlat,a belt. including gum cover 5 .O
15. 0
Smnllcst Diameter of Driving Pulleus for Relt Conveyors.
-
-
Diameter
of Pulley.
--
In.
16- 18
16-18
29- J - 24
20- 24
20- 24
Wb:h,of Di$;i:yr of
9;.
In.
24 ::I;;
: i
24- 30
24- 30
30 30- M
Wi$t/.of Dia+nizvr of
e u _
-
j;
In.
30- 36
36 : ooz
. . . ~. . . . . . . . . . . . _. _. . _.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- . ,
A S!/m.posiu~rn on IIoistin,g and Con~vwhg was present,ed at the Detroit
meeting of the A. S. ht. E. 1006 (Trnns.. vol. ?tx(x.). in papers bp G. E.
T&comb. S. B. Peck, C. I<. Baldwin. C. J Tomlinson and E. J. Haddock.
Among the subjects discussed are the loading and unloading of ,carg
steamers: car unloaders; sforing of ore and coal: cont,inuous convesmg. of
merchandise; conveying in a Portland cement plant, and suspension
cableways.
WIRE-ROPE HAULAGE.
Ryrse-power to Drive Relt Conveyors.
CC. I<. Baldwin Trms.
d. A. .)I. E.. 1008.) ~The power required to drive a belt co&eyor de>
prnds 11 a great VarletY of conditions,, as the spacing of idlers. type of
drive. thickness of belt, etc.
In figunng the power required the belt
shouid ml1 110 fast~er thsn is necessary t,o carry the desired lohd.
If it
shtllri be necessary to increase the speed, the load should be increased
in proportion al,tl the power figured accordingly.
k or Ievrl conveyors
Methods for transporting coal and other products by mea?sf wire rope,
though varying from each other in detail. may be grouped ~1 five classes:
T. The Self-acting or Gravity Inclined Plane.
IT. The Simple Engine-plane.
III. The Tai!-rope System.
IV. The Endless-rope System.
V. The Cable Tramway.
The folIowine brief description of these systems is abridged from a
pamphlet. on Wire-rope tiaulnpe, hg Wm. Hildenbmnd. C.E.. pubhshed
by John A. Roeblines Sons Co.. Trenton, N. .J.
1. The Self-acting lnebwd Plane. -The mot,ioe power for the
self-act,ing inclined pl?ne is gmvitv:
consequently this mode of transport-
ink coal finds appllcatlon only in places where the coal is conveyed from a
higher to a lower point and whrre the plane has sufficient, grade for the
, .lOaded descending cars to raise the empty cars to an upper level.
,,,,,
H.P. = CX TX L + 1000.
For inclined conveyors
H.P. = (C x TX L + 1000) + (T x II c 1000).
C = power constant from table below: T = load tons per hour, L =
length of conveyor. center to center, ft.: II = vrrtiEal heinht mst,e=ial is
lift?tf. ft.; 8 = hdt speed. ft,. per minute: B = widt,h of be& in.
For e+ mova,ble or fixed tripper add horse-power in rolrt& S of table.
Add LO,C to +orse-power for each convevor under :iO ft.. lonx.
hrs+pwer tor each conveyor betweeli 50 ft. and 100 ft long.
Ad dTf,Oe?jotr
mnl:r above do not include gear friction, should the cobveyor be gear-
driven.
:
WARNI NG: This iS a 1910 edition.
1178 HOISTING AND CONVEYING.
At the head of the plane there is a drum, which is generally constructed
of wood, having a diameter of seven to ten feet.
to al@ me! and cars tb pass under it.
It is placed high enough
Loaded cars coming from the pit
are either smgjy or in sets of two or three switched on the track of the
plane, and, thex speed in descending is regulated by a brake on the drum
Supportmg rollers, to prevent the rope dragging on the ground, are
generally of wood. o to 6 in,, in diameter and 18 to 24 in. long. with
S;h to i/g in. iron a,sles. The distance betlveen the rollers varies from 15 to
30 ft., steeper planes requiring less rollers than those with easr era&~
Considering only the reductionbf friction and what is best for the preserva.
tion,of rope, a general rule may be given to use rollers of the greatest
powble diameter, and to place them as close as economy will permit.
The smallest angle of inclination at which a plane can be made self.
actmg + be when the motive and resisting forces balance each other
The motive force? are the weights of the loaded car and of the descending
rope. ,The reslstmg forces consist.of the weight of the em
ascending rope, of the rolling and axle friction of the cars, an
ty car and
friction of the supporting rollers.
CF of the axle
The frict.ion of the drum. stiffnes;n nf
rope. and resistance of air may be neglected.
~~~~~I -.- -__ __
A general rule cannot be
given. because a change in the length of the plane or in the weight of the
cars changes the proportion of the forces; alsb, because the coefficient of
friction, depending on the condition of the road, construction of the cars,
etc.. 1s a very uncertain factor.
For,working a plane with a S/s-in. st,eel rope and lowering from one to
four pit cars weighing empty 1400 lb. and loaded 4000 lb., the riee in 100 ft.
neccwayy to make the plane self-acting will be from about 5 to 10 ft.
decreasmg as the number of cars increase, and increasing as the !ength of
olane increa.sw _~~~~.. . . . . . . ..-.. _.
A grawty inclined plane should be slightly concave, steeper at. the top
than at the bott,om. The maximum deflection of the curve should be at
an inchnatlon of 45 degrees. and diminish for smaller as well as for steeper
f nrl i nnti nncz _.._.... - . . . . I.
II. The Simple Enqinc-plane. -The name Engine-plane is given
to a olane on which a Inwl in rxiwT1 nr Inwared by means of a Slnple aire .~~. - . . .._ ._ -.,-.--._ -. *-..-.
ropeand stabionary steam-engine.
It is a cheni, and simple m&jhod of
conveying coal underrronnd. and therefore is a.nnlied wherever circum-
stanc& Dermit it. 1Jndrr ordinn,rv mnrl i ti nnr' e: --..._ ___ -..- ;uch as prevail in the
Pennsyl\:ania mine re$%,-j &%%twenty-five to thirty loaded cars will
desrynd \ vi t, h
grac
_ .._, .._.. reasonable velocity, a straight plane 5060 ft. long on a
le of 1 x/4 ft. in 100. while it would appear that 21/4 ft.. in 100 is neces-
sary for the same number of empty cars.
For roads longer than 5000 ft.
or contnunng Sharp curves, the grade should be correspondingI\- larger.
III. The Tail-rope System. -Of all methods for conve&g coal
unc+ground by wire rope, the tail-rope system has found the mbst appli-
cation. It can be applied under almost anv condition
strair:lt, or curved, level or undrdatin~. in dne
The road may be
brnnrhes.
contin&us line or with side
In fxneral principle a WI-rope plane is t,he sa,me as an en&e-
plane worked in both directions with two ropes. One rope, called the
mnin rope, serves for drawing the set of full cars wdward: the ot.her.
called the tail-rope, 1s necessary to ta,ke back the emp!,y set, which on
a level or undulating road cannot return by gravibp.
The two drums may
be loca,ted at the opposite endu of the road, and driven by scparat.e engines.
but more frerluently t,liey are on the same sha,ft at one end of t,he plane.
In the first case each rope moul(! require the length of the plane. but, m the
second case t.he t,ail rope must he t.wice as long, being led from the drum
around a sheave at t.he other end of t,he plane and back again to its starting-
p,omt. When t,he main rope draw a set of full cars out., the tail-rope drum
rC!llS loose On tile shaft,, :uld t.tlP rope, bring attached t,o the rear car. un-
winds itself steadily. Going in, t~he reverse takes place.
Each drum lS
provided.with a brake to check the speed of the train on a downgradeand
Preyent it,s overrunuing the forwvard rope.
As a rule. the tnil rope is
Stmmed.less than t~lie main rope. hut in cases of heavy grades dipping out-
Iyard It 1s possible t.hnd the strain in the former mav become as large, or
even larger, than in the latt.er, and in the selectionof the sizes reference
Sho@d be had to this circumstance.
IV. The Ihrlless-rope System. -The principal features of this
system are as follows:
1. The rope, as t& name indicates, is endless. 2. &lotion is given to
-
WIRE-ROPE HAULAGE.
.,~- -nnD by a single wheel or drum, and friction is obtained either by a
no IW nn<Pinrl t.11~ row several times around the wheel. 3. The
try I,- -
-wheel .~ .,l... D ---- - -
$%, m,lat c; l&$ constantly t,&ii~ir ilIe tension to ,be produced by artificial
hwl or nn extra tension
nginfi over. a
n,c**ril.
__ __ -...- .~~.
{,.heel on a carriage and @nnecting it with a !\:eight ha,
Pulley, or attachmg It to a hxed post by a screw wh~h occa+mauy can ue
shortened.
4. The cars are attached to the rope by a grtp or clut,ch,
,,.,dch can take hold at any place and let g? agam. StarrIng and stoppmg
t,he train at will, without stoppm, or the enjime or the mouon of the rope.
5 on a Single-track road the rope works forward and bac,kwafd, but on a
,&hln track it, is possible tb run it always 111 the same dIrectlo.., .._ _-..
,n the fn,,
i&-&&g on one track and t.he empty cars on the otner.
This method of conveying coal, as a r$e,, ,haF not fou,?d as general an in- erred ~~~ !- _.~ __ _ ..~
troduction as the tail-rope s@,em,,prOUaD,ly Because 1~s emcacy 1s fwc sv
---*rent and the opposing chfficultles requwe greater mechanic?1 skll!~ and
,,,U,e complicated appliances.
Its aevantages are, first. that It reqmres
one-third less rope than the tail-rope sysleln.
This advantage, hoqevqr,
is partlallv counterbalanced by the wcumst,ance that the extra tension !n
the rooe iequires a heavier size to move t.he,saple load than wYpen a n?ai,n
and tjil rope are used. The second and prmclpal adpantage IS that. :t 1s
possible to start and.Stop trains at will without signally.? to the engmeer.
Cn the other hand, it is more difficult to work curves wth the endless SW-
tern,, snd Still more so to work different branches, and the constant st.retch
of the rope under tension or its elongation under changes of temperature
tvL.,r180n+,l~7 P~ISPS the roDe to sliu 0x1 the wlleel, in Spite of every attention,
,~LI(I~.C...-.,
causing del~-~.~~tilettj,sporta;tion snd injury to the rope.
Stress in Hoisting-ropes on Inclined Planes.
(Tienton Iron Co., 1006.)
__ __. __
28O49' 1003 Ei
:I 1%
52O 26' 1620
540 28' 1663
56O 19' 1699
; ; ; CJ J 1730
60 57' I : ; !
62O 15' 1804
63O 27' 1022
The ,tbove table is based on an allowance of 40 lb. per ton for rolling
friction but aA additional allowance must be made for stress due to the
weight bf the rope proportional to the length of the plane.
A factor of
Safety of 5 to 7 should be taken.
In hoisting the Slack-rope should be t.akcn up gently before beginning
the lift btherwise a severe extra strain \vill be brought 011 the rope.
V. kw-rope Tr;tmmaYS. - Tll,e methods of c,onve?ing productS.ou
a Nspended rope tramway find eoperm
: qpplica,tion m places, where nune
is located on one side of a :i.ver or dwp ravine and t,he loadmg Statlon on
the other. A n&e rope suspended bet,ween tile t.!vo Stations forms.%
track on which mat,erlal in properly constructed carriages or buggies
iS transported. It saves the consiruct,ion of a bridge or trestlework and 1s
PrWtical for a distance of 2000 feet without an intern1ediat.e SuPPort,
There are two distinct classes of rope tram\vays:
For det?iled descriptions of the several systems of wire-rope transporta.
tion, see circulars of John A. Roeblings Sons Co., The Trenton Iron Co.
A. Leschen Q Sons Rope Co. See also paper on Two-rope Haulage By;
terns, by R. Van A. Norris, Trans. A. 8. ill. E., xii. 626
in the Bleichert @stem of wire-rope tramways, in which the track rope
is stationary, loads up to 2000 lb. are carried at a speed of 3 to 4 miles per
hour: While the average spans on a level are from 150 to 200 ft., in cr;zB;
mg avers, ravil?es, 4tc., spans up to 1500 ft. are frequently adopted.
tramway on this system at Bingham, Utah. the total length of the line is
12.700 ft. with a fa,ll of 1120 ft.
35 tons per hour.
The line operates by gravity and carries
The cost of conveying on this carrier is 73/4 cents per
ton of 2000 lb. for labor .and repairs, without any apparent deterioration
In the condition of track cables and traMon rope.
The Aerial W&?-rope ;%am.wc&U of A. Leschen & Sons Co. is of the
double-rope type, in which the buckets travel upon stationarr track
.cables and are propelled by an f:ndless traction rope.
attached to the traction ro
The buckets are
e
the. desired tonnage. The
by means of clips - spaced according to
easily removable.
f loltl on the rope is positive but the clip is
The bucket is held in its normal
by two malleable iron latches -one on each sx e. .?
osition in the frame
A tripping bar
engages t,hese lat~ches at the unloading terminal when the bucket dis-
charges its mat.eriaL This operation is automatic anti takes place while
the ,carriers are morin,g. At the loading terminal, the bucket. is auto-
matwily returned to its normal position and latched. Special carriers
are provldetl, for the accommotlatmn of anv class of material. At each
o.f the terminal stat,ions is a IO-ft. sheave ivheel around which the trot-
tlon rope passes, these wheels being provided with steel grids for the
Control of the traction rope. When the loaded carriers travel down
grade and the difference m elevation is sufficient, this tramway jvlli
operat,e by t.he force due to gravit,y, otherwise the power is applied to
the sheaves through bevel gearing. Numerous modifications of the
system are in use to suit different conditions.
An Aerial Tramway 21.5 miles long, with an elevation of t.he loading
end above t,he discharging end of 11 .,iOO ft.. built bv A Bleichert. & Co.
for t!ie,,governmt~nt of the Argentine Republic, comlect& the mines of
La bleJlrnna with the bowl of Chilecit,o. is described bv Wm. Hewitt in
Intlrtst. Eng., AII~. 15, 1909. Some of the inclina~tion$ are as much as
45 deg.. t,here are some spans nearlv 3000 ft. long, and there is a tunnel
nearly 500 ft. long. The line is divided into eight sections each with
an i.ndepentlent traction rope. The gravity of the descending loaded
,carrers is sufficient to make the line self-operating when it is once set
m motion, but in order t.o ensure full control, and to provide for carrving
four tons upward while the descending carriers are empty, four stham
engines are iiwalled, one for each two sections. The carriers hold 10 cu.
ft., or about 1100 Ibs. of ore. The speed is 500 ft. per minute, and t.he
interval bet.ween carriers 45 seconds.
as high as 11,000 lbs. in some sections.
The stress in t.he traction rope is
General Formulae for Estima.tin g the Deflection of a Wire Cable
Corresponding to a Given Tension.
(Trenton Iron Co., 1906.)
vet s = distance between supports or span A.B; na and IZ = arms int,o
whlrh .the span is dividctl by a vertical through the required point. of
deflectIon I. m representing tile arm corresponding to the lhilded side:
Y = horizont;ql .distance from lo&d to point of support corresponding 1vit.h
111; w = 1v.t. of rope per ft.: g = load: t = tension; 1). = required deflection
at any point 2; all meilsurcs being in fret and pounds.
WIRE-ROPE HAULAGE.
8
4 S---------------;---------~
___-------
n
Y
FIG. 184.
For deflection due to rope alone,
h = s at r, or s at center of spa*.
For deflection due to load alone,
h = 2 at z, or $ at center of span.
If y = 11~ s, h = Ft at 2, or Ft at center of span.
If y = m, h = Flat x, or $ at center of span.
For total deflection,
,L = wmns f 2my ws=+ 4gy
2ts
at I, or
St
at center of span.
If y=llz s, h = WnlliT gn at 2, or ws2 s, at center of span.
If 21 = m, 11= -
wmns + 2 gmn at z or 1u.s~+ 2gs at centrr of spa
2ts- St
If the tension is required for a given deHection, transpose t and k In
above formulae.
Suspension Cableways or Cable Hoist-conveyors.
(Trenton Iron Co.)
In quarrving. rock-cutting, stripping, piling, dam-building, and, rpany
other oper&ions where it is necessary to hoist and convey large individual
loads economically, it frequently happens that the application of a system
of derricks is impracticable, by reason of the limited area of their effi-
ciency and the room which they occupy.
To meet such conditions cable
hoist-conveyors are adopted, as thev ca,n be operated in clear spans up to
1500 ft.. and in lifting individual loads up to 15 tons. TWO types are
made - one in which the hoisting aud conveying are done by separate
running ropes, and the other applicable only to inc&es in ,wtuch;k;
carriage descends by gravity, and but one running rope IS required.
moving of the carnage in the former is effected by means of an endless
rope, and these are commonly known as endless-rope hoist-co!;veyors
to distinguish them from the latter, which are termed inchned
hoist-
conveyors.
-I -= -e endless-rope hoist-con\-eyors COIISiStS
~~~ h-frnmeq nr mnsts~ as mnv be most
of a main cable passing over towers, ._~~. .-...-., --
. ..--._. .~.~~..
Convenient. and anchored firmly to the ground at each end. the requisite
tension in The cable being maintained by a turnbuckle at oni anchorage.
Upon this cable travels the carriage, which is moved back and forth
over the line bv means of the endless ro me.
f
The hoisting.is done.by a
separate rope, both ropes being operated ,y an engine spe~ally der1gne.d
for the purpose, which may be located at either end of the hne. ;Lnd 1s
construct.ed in such a way that the hoisting-rope is coiled UP or Pal< out
automatically as the carriage is moved in and out. Loads may be.p@ed
UP or dischaiged at anv point along the Iine.
Where sufficient niclinat!on
cant be obtained in the main cable for the carriage tn descend bv graWty. ,_ _- ....~~~
and the loading and unloading are done at fixed PO
be dispensed with.
ints, the endless rope call
The carriage, which is similW. . . .
n- in construction to the
carriage used in the endless-rope cableways, is arrestec
i in its descent by a
terial no longer be accurate
stop-block, which may be clarpn~rl tn the main nm~~~- m~ -__. .>-_z-.= . ~
the SDed Of the. rlParPnrlinv 01
F.-l V !.C ..lU.LL CUllj UIb utry ut!s,recl pomt
enei~e-(lr,,-~ ---- ---,---1..-..e -. rrlage belllg Under control of a brake on thg
A Zlou(Jfe-suspension CablezuaU, carrying loads of 15 tons, erected near .~
>Vil\iamsport, Pa.. by the Trenton Iron Co.,& described by E. G. Spilsbury
111 1 runs., A. 1. M. ti., xx. 766.
hanna River.
The span 1s 733 ft.. crossing the SiusquG
Two steel cables, each 2 in. diam., are used. On~these
cables runs a Carrlaze sllnnnrted on four wheels and moved by an endless
_. -..- &ad cor!s~sts of a cage carrying a railroad-car
loaded with lumber, the latter weighmg about 12 tons. The power is
furnished bv a 50-H-P. enelnp 2nd the trip across the river is made in
T=Sdain,TV=T+S, andRaT-&;
from which we obtain Tv = e
%lla + 1
$Il~- 1 n,
in which e =, 2.71525, the base of the Naperian system of logarithms.
The following are some of the values off:
Wire-rope on a grooved iron drum.. .
Dry. Wet. Greasy.
Wire-rope on wood-filled sheaves
-
0.070
Wire-rope on rubber and leather filling
::g:
O.;b5
;:y,
lJ.4;)0 L :: :;g
The importance of keeping the rope dry is evident from these figures.
The values of the coefficient <
no+ 1
$V- 1
I corresponding to the above values
of/. for one up to sis half-laps of the rope on the driving-drum or sheaves,
are as follows:
/
0. 070
0. 085
0.120
0.140
%
!::Z
0. 495
T
-_
1
;::2
5. 345
4. 623
3. 833
3. 212
2. 831
1. 795
1. 538
-
- _
-
n = Number of I-!zlf-!nps on Driving-wheel.
2
-
4. 623
3. 833
2. 777
2. 418
f : %
1. 592
I. 176
1. 093
_-
-
3
3. 141
2. 629
1. 953
1. 729
I . 505
1.336
1. 245
1. 047
I . 019
4
%
1. 570
Zl i i
1. 165
I.110
1. 013
t . 004
-
_-
-
5
--
-
6
I . 729
I . j OJ ;
1.23il
l.l%l
1.085;
I.013
1.024
1.001
. . . . .
r,lARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some
TRANSI\IISSION OF POWER BY WIRE ROPE. 1183
When the rope is at rest the. tension is ,distributed equa!ly on the two
lines of the rope, but \+en runmng there @I be a dlfferencem the t@ons
of the taut and slack hnes equal to the res+ance, and the values of 1 and s
mav be readily computed. from the foregomg formulae.
The increase in tension in the endless ro,pe, compared with the main rope
of the ta,il-rope system, where the stress m the rope 1s equal to the resist-
rnce. is about as follows:
7L= 123456
increase in tension in endless rope,
compared with direct stress 70.. .
40 9 2113 v/ 3 115 GO
These figures are useful in determining ,tl!e size of rope.
For instance,
if the rope makes two half-laps on the dnvmg drum, the strength of the
rope sheuld be 9% greater than a mam rope in the tml-rope syste.11.
&per Ropes of Uniform Tensile Strepgtl!. - The true fcxm of cope
is not a regular taper but follows a logsnthmlc curve, the arth raplgly
increasing toward the upper end.
Mr. Chas. D. West gives the followmg
formula, based on a breaking strain of 80,000 lb. per sq. in. of the rap?.
core included, and a factor of safety of 10: log G = Fe-650 + log g. in
which F = length in fathoms, and G and g the girth in inches at any t\yo
sections F fathoms apart. The girth 9 is first calculated for a safe strain
of 8000 lb. per sq. in., and then G is obtained by the formula.
For a
mathematical investigation see The Engineer, April, 1880, p. 267.
TRANSMISSION OF POWER EY
WIRE ROPE.
The following notes have been furnished to the author by Mr. Wm.
Hewitt Vice-President of the Trenton Iron Co.
(See also circulars of the
Trento; Iron Co. and of the John A. Roeblings Sons Co., Trenton, N. J;;
* Transmission of Power by Wire Ropes,
by A. W. Stahl, Van Nostrand s
Science Series, No. 28: and Reulesuxs Constructor.)
The load stress or working tension should not exceed the difference
between the safe stress and the bending stress as determined by the table
on page 11S5.
The approximate strenpth of iron-wire rope composed of wires hav-
ing a tensile strength of 75,000 to 96.000 lbs. per sq. in. is half that of
cast-steel rope composed of wires of a bensile st.ren#h of .150.000 to
190,000 Ibs. per sq. in. Extra strong steel wires have a tensile strength
of 190,000 to 225,000 and plow-steel wires 225,000 to 275,000 Ibs. Per
sq. in.
The 19-wire rope is more flexible than the 7-wire. and, for the Same
load stress may be run around smaller sheaves. but it 1s not as well
adapted to withstand abrasion or surface wear.
The workin* tension may be greater, therefore, as the bending stress
iS le.%. but s&e the tension in the slack portion of the rope CanllOt be
less than a certain proportion of the tension in the taut portion, to av+d
slipping, a ratio exists bet~ween the diameter of Shr aW @ t he ' VeS
composing the rope corresponding t.o a mnrim~lm safe workmg ten~:lon.
This ratio depends upon the number of laps that the rope makes about
the sheaves, and the kind of filling iI1 t.he rims or the character of the
maeal upon which the rope tracks-
For orrlinarv purpose? the maximum safe stress should be about On!-
third the ultiniate and ior shafts and elevarors about one-fourth the ultl-
mat,e. In estim&ng the stress due to the load for shafts and
el+?nto?s
allowance SIIOIII~ be made for the additional stress due t.0 acceleration In
starting. For short inclined planes not used for -passengers a factor of
safety as 10~ as 9 J/? ls sometimes used and for derricks. in which
large
sllea+es cannot bz &d. and 101~ life bf. the,rope is not expected. the
factor of safety may be as low as 2.
aterial may no long&~b~e accurate
&~s&fIS,f@~~~ 6ti %bW@k BY WIRE ROPE.
,:~,,~
The Seak wire rope IS ,&de of six strands of 19 wires laid 9 arou$ i;
around l., the intermediate layer being sinaller than the others.
in.termechate in flexibility between the I-wire and the ordinary lQ-wire
rope.
Approximate Breaking Strength oi Steel-Wiie Ropes.
6 strands of 19 wires each.
-I
6 strands of 7 wires each.
- -I
I
Approximate breaking
stress, ibs.
I
Appr0ximat.e breaking
stress. Ibs.
- Ii
-
-_
-
-
Cast
steel.
-
Extra
strong
steel.
Plow
steel.
Cast
steel.
Extra
strong
steel.
.-
312, 000
248, 000
3%' ~
i 44: ooo
1%: :
a4: ooo
3%
3a: aoo
27. 200
3%
i 3: 6OO
i O, OOO
__
:%%
224: OOO
i 94, ooo
i 6a, ooo
I ; "S%
9a: ooo
78, 000
60. 000
%Z
25: 4+l O
: %i
11: 500
! %i
- . - . L- - -l
416, 000
330, 000
1
L
I%%
$QCQ
84' 000
64) J cm
48. 000
42, OW
34. 000
28, 000
F%
i 2: 700
. .
-
. ,
.
71s 1. 20
31~ 0. 89
: ' / I 6 0. 75
518 0. 62
vi e 0. 50
' 12 0. 39
7118 0. 30
318 0. 22
5110 0. 15
0132 0. 121
, . . .
i
LL
i58,OQQ
136, OQO
' ; yg
$; ' I
42: 000
36, 800
%z
19' 400
15: ooo
11, 160
7, 760
6, 440
. . . , . .
. . .
-
_-
-L
. .
. . . . . . . ,
. .
. . .
, .
, .
TRANSMISSION OP POWER BY WIRE: ROPE.
1185
Bcnciing Stresses, S-wire Rope.
Dinm.hend. 24 j 36 j 48 j 60 / ' 72 j 84 j 96 j 108 1120) 132
_-
A-
Diami,y
Q/3?
VlF
3/a
7/M
I3
%a
vs
IlR,
=I4
7;s
I
1 v3
1 i4
1 va
i I2
a26 553 412 277
1, 120 750 563 z:
1, 609 1, 078 a10 649 : - ?I
2, 774 1, 859 I . 398 I . 120 934
4,385 2,982 2.217
6, 200 4, 161 3. 131
1.777
9, 072 4, 589
2. 510
1,482
3, 679
2, 095
6. 095 3, 071
. . . . . a.547 6,438 5,164 4.310
. . . . . 10. 922 8. 230
14, 202
6, 603 5, 513
. . . . . 10. 706
. . . . . 22, 592 17, 045
8, 591 7, 174
25, 476
13. 685 11, 431
. . . 20, 464
. . . . . 36, 289 29. 165
17, 100
24, 416
. . . . 40, 020
. . . . . . . . .
y; '
. . . . . . . . 571835
1 8 I I I I ,
Bending Stresses, 19-wire Rope.
Dism.Rent1.l 12 ( 24 1 36 1 46 ( 60 ( 72 64 ( 96 / 108 1 120
-;-
I-
1441
2721
67. 7761
96,943!
133.386
I
i 26! I i 2 I O1
238: 212 191
25. 410 22, 625 20, 390
31. 969 28, 470 25, 661
4O. 590 36. 152 32, 589
49. 438 44, 039 39, 701
59, 470 52, 989 47, 777
85. 103 75, 840. 60. 396
117, 137 104, 417~94, 189
The sheaves (Fig. 185) are usually pf cast iron. and are made a,s light
Ilc .rn..rih,,, ,...^i^l^&.. S.2I. ,.
:ength. Various materials
.~ ,.*.. . . - ~.
have been used for mung me oottom of the
groove. such a? tarred o&urn. jute xarn.
:Wl wood. Indla-r$$er. and,l+&. The
ever. in ordii~sry transmlsSions consists of
segments of leather a,nd blocks of India-
fubber soaked in tar and packed alternnt.ely
!n the groove. Where ,theworking tension
:s, Try great. howe~~er,,,~t~he wood- filling. ,is
e preferred. as m tne case or tong-als-
6
6
u
!,,
G&e transmiss%ons where the rope makes
4
several laps about the sheaves,.and is run
at a comparativelx7 slow sueed.
7
1%
!
The BendingJStrcss is determined by
the formula
--
FI G. 1s5.
Rome-Power Transmitted. - The general formula for the amount
of Polver capable of being transmitted is as follows:
H.P. = [cG - 0. 000006 ( zu + gx + @] I ' ;
in Jvhich d = diameter of the rope in inches, 2) = relocitv of t.he rope h
feet per se,cond. 10 = weight of the rope q, = weight, bf the terminal
sheaves and shafts, @ = weight of the inierrnedinte sheaves and shafts
(all in Ibs.). and c = a constant depending on t.he material of the rope,
thc filling in the. groove% of the sheaves. and the number of laps about
the sheaves or drums, a single lap meaning a half-lap at. each end. The
Values of c for one up to six laps for steel rope are given in the following
table:
k= 2. 06 ( E d) + c
k =~be~~dins stress in lbs.: E = modulus of elasticity = 0s 500 000:
n .= qkmga2 area of wires, sq. ins.; R = radius of bend; d h dl&. of
Wres, ms.
For I-wire rope d=l/Q diam. of rope; C = 9.37.
19-wire a
d=l/,s * ; C = 15.45.
t.heSenlecabled=q1~ ; C = 12.36.
From this formula the tables below have been calcula.ted.
is a 1910 edition. Some
TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY WIRE ROPE.
1187
worse-power Transmitted by a Steel Rope on Wood-filled Sheaves.
I
Number of laps about sheaves or drums.
Diameter
of Rope.
In.
7Tel0cit.y of Rope in Fee ?t
-
per Seconcl.
70 j 80 90
I i
100
-.----.---
- -
10 20
I
-_
-
60
-
. . .
. . . .
_-
2
2
II5
147
179
217
I
. . . .
:j:
. . . .
. . . .
- -
:;? :: :
73 80
1;
109 I Ti
144 159
167 I84 203
203 225 247
245 . . . . _ . . . . . _
. .
. . . . .
. . . . . .
I I I I I I
-
The values of c for iron rope are one half the above.
When more than three laps are made, the character of the surface in
cont,act is immaterial as far as slippage is concerned.
From the above formula we have the generat rule, that the a&&
horse-power capuljle of being tra,wnittzd by unu wire rope upprorimatet~
equals e times the
lionths the entire
the diunteter of the rope is imhes, less sz.2tnil-
the rope, 61feet per
(111the moving 1)&s, multiplied DJJ the speed of
Instead of grooved drums or a number of sheaves, about which t.he
iope makes two or more laps, it is sometimes found more desirable,
especially where spilce is limited, to use grip-pulleys. The rim is fitted
with a continuous series of steel ja\vs, which bite the rope in contract by
reasm of the pressure of the same against them, but as soon as relieved
of this pressure they open readily. offering no resistance to the egress of
.
-
I
The horse-power that fnUY be tmnsmitted by iron ropes is one-half of the
above,
This t.able gives the amount of horse-power transmitted by wire ropes
under masimum safe wOrkmg tensions. In using wood-lined sheaves
therefore, it is well to make some allowance for the stretching of td
rope, and to advoCate,sqlu~wbat heavier equip1nent.s than the above table
would give: that is, If It 1s desired to transmit 0 horse-power, for in-
stance, to put in a plant @at WOdd transmit 25 to 30 horse-power, avoid-
ing the necessity Of h:tVln g to take up a comparatively small amount of
stretch. On rubber and leather filling, however. the amount of power
capable of being transmitted is 40 per cent greater than for wood, so that
this filling is generally used, and in this case no allowance need be made
for strelkh. as such #eaves will likely transmit the power given by the
table, under all possible dellections of the rope.
Under ordinary conditions, ropes of seven wires to the strand, laid
about a hemp core, are best adapt,ed to the transmksion of power, but
conditions often occur where 12- or 19-wire rope is to be preferred, as
stated below, under Limits of Span.
Deflections of the Rope. - The tension of the rope is measured by
the amount of sag or deHection at the center of the span. and t.he denec-
tion corresponding to the maximum safe workhlg tension is determined
by the following formulae, in which 6 represents the span in feet:
D$. of stjll, rope at center, in feet. .h
Steel R,ope. Iron Rope.
= .00004 St h = .OOOOSS?
1
$&y 1; ;; . .h, = .000025 9
. . ,162
h, = .00005 s*
<L
I , = .OOOOSi5S? hr = .OOOli 5S?
the ropE.
_
In the ordinary or flying
makes a single lap about sheaves
transmission of power. where the rope
lined \\-ith rubher and leather or wood,
the ratio between the diameter of the sheaves anti the wires of the rope,
corrrspontling to a maximum safe working tension, is: For i-wire rope,
steel. T9.6; iron, 160.5. For l%wirerope. steel, 59.3: iron, 120. For 19-
wire rope, steel, 47.2; iron, 95.5.
Diameters of IUinimucn Sheaves in Inches, Corresponding to a
Maximum Safe Working Tension.
-
Iron.
-.-
IZWire
Diameter
of Rope,
In.
Steel.
7-Wire. 12-Wire,
T
I 9-n-ice I9-Wire.
1
I
/4
5/16
318 7116 3;
I?
9/M z
5/s 50
l/l6
314 :a
71s 70
1 80
Limits of Span. - On spans of less than sixty f eet, it is impossible to
S.Dl_ice the rope to such a degree of nicety as to &re esacrlr the reauired
nellection. and as the roue- is further subiect to a renahI amonk of,
stretch, iti becomes necessjrv in such cases t6 applr mrchnni& nienns
for producing the proper t&ion in order to avo<d frequent splicing
Jvhlch is very objectionable: but care should alwa~ be esercked in us&
such tightening devices that they do
hands., of overstraining the rope.
not become the means. in u+illed
The rope also ls more senWive to
every urezularitv in the sheaves and the fluctuations in the amount of
power trakmit~t&l, and is apt to sway to such an extent berond the
narroiv lirnik of the required deflections as Tao cnuse a ierking+ motion. .._I~. .
:&uming the sheaves to be of equal diameter, and of the sizes in the
abuse t3ble, the horse-7loloer thut mu!, be trOnsmitted bj/ u steel rope m0l;ing
n single lap 0)) wood-/itled sheaves is given in the table on the next page.
The transmission of greater horse-nowers than 250 is impmct~cable
I\-ith tilled sheaves, as the tension woukl be so great that the ~~~ing,~vou~d
quirkly cut out, and the adhesion on a metallic surface would be mWfi-
cim where the rope makes but a single lap In this case it becomes
ncWs.qnry to use the Reuleaux method, in w&k t.he rope is given more
than one Iap, as referred to below, under the caption Long-distance
Transmissions.
ynW1 is very injurious For this reason on very short $CU~S it ls found
deslrable to lose a consklersbly heavier rope th:in that actually rewired
to transmit the polver or in other Ivords. instead of a ;-wire rope Car-
resPonrling to the conditions of maximum tension. it is better to use a .*
l.Y-Wre ro~$e of t~he same size wires. and to run this under a tension con-
sldernhlv btilow the masimum. in this way are obt,ained t hr advantages cf
%ekd weight and less stretch without having to use larger sheaves,
;&W$e the wear will ue greater in $roportion to the iucrezed surface.
WARNING:~~This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accurate
In determining the maximum limit of span, the contour of the ground
and the available height of the terminal sheaves must be taken into con.
sideration. It is customary to transmit the power through the lower
portion of the rope, as in this case the greatest dellection in this portion
occurs when the rolje is at rest. When running, the lower portion rises
v obstructions to be avoided and the upper portion sinks, thus emsblin,
which otherwise would have to be removed, or make it necessary to e,rect
very high towers. The maximum limit of span in this case is determined
by the masimuin deflection that may be given to the upper pqrtlon of
the rope when running, which for sheaves of 10 ft. dlaineter IS about
600 feet.
Much greater spsns than this, however. are practicable where the con-
tour of the ground is such that the upper portion of the rope m,ay be t,he
driver, and there is nothing to interfere with the proper deftectlon of the
under portion!. Some very long transmissions of power have been
etfected in this wa.y without an intervening support, one at Lockport.
N.Y., hsving a clear spsn of 1700 feet.
Long-distance Transmissions. - When the distance exceeds t!le
limit for a clear span, intermediate supporting sheaves are used. with
plain grooves (not filled), the spacing and size of w!iicAi wjll be governed
by the contour of the ground and the special rondMons Involved. The
size of these sheaves will depend on the angle of the hen?. gauged by Ihe
tangents to the curves of the rope at the points of inflectIon. If the cur-
vature due to this snfile and the working tension, regardless of the size of
the sheaves, as determined by the tnbLe on the next page. is less than
thst of the minimu1n shfnve (see table p. IlSG), the intermediate sheaves
should not bc smaller than such minimum sheave, b1.it if the curvature is
greater. smaller intermediate sheaves may be used.
In very long transmissions of power, requiring nl1merous intermediate
supports. it. is found impruct&al~le to run the rope at the high speeds
The rope therefore is run under maintained in flyins transmissions.
a higher workhlg tension, made practirable by wrspping it several times
ahout grooved terminal drums. with a lap about a sheiLve on a take-up or
count.er-weighted carriage, which preserves a constant tensionin the slack
portion.
Inclined Transmissions. - When the terminal sheaves nre not On
the ~UXE elevation, the tension at the upper sheave will be greater thnp
that at the tower, but this diRerence is so slight, in most cases. ihat It
may be ignored. The span to be considered is the horizontal dlstanye
betwc>en t.he sheaves, and t.hc principles governing the limits of span 1~111
hold good in this case, so that for very sterp inclinations it beron!es
n~c~~~sarv t,o resort t,o t ight,cluing tlevires for maintaining t,he rrquislte
trrGon in tlltr rope. The lhniting &se of inclined trantimissions occurs
nt~u one wheel is directly ahove the other. The rope in this case pro-
du~rs no tension wtrat,ercr on the lower wheel, while tire upper is sub-
ject only to the weight of the rope, which is usually so ins,ipniticnnt that
it may he neglected altogether, and on vertical transmissmns. therefore,
mechanical tension is an +bsohite necrssit.y.
I<c~ncling Curvature of \Vire Ropes. -The curvstllre d:le to any
bend in a wire rope is dependent on the tension, and is not alw,a;lys the
same ;I$ the sheave in contact, but may be grester, which explams hOW
it is that large ropes are frequent,ly run arolmd comparatively small
shraves without detriment., since it is possible to place these so close that
the brnding angle on ri:ch will be such that the resulting curvature \vill
n3t overstrain the wires. This curvature may be ascertained from the
formnla and table on t.he next page, which give the theoretical radii of
curvature in inches for various sizes of ropes and dilfcrrnt angles for one
fecund trnsiou in the rope. Dividing these figures by the actual tension
1n pounds. gives the radius of curvature assumed by the rope in cases
where this csceeds the c11rvature of the sheave. The rigidity of the rope
or internal friction of the wires and core has not been taken into nccom~t
in these figures but the etfect of this is i%ipnilicant, and it is on the safe
side to ignore it. Dy t,he angle of bcntl is meant the angle be$;:f:
ttle t~ullg:ents to the c11rves of t.lie rope at the poi11ts of intiertion.
tho rope is strnigllt the augle is ISlY. For angies IC$SS than 160 the
radius of curvaIurc in 1lwst cases will be less than that corresponding t*
the 9iLfe working tension, anti the proper size of sheave t,o use in such
ROPE--DRIVING.
cases will be governed by the table headed
Diameters of ,?Iinimum
on p3ge
;v;;ves Correspondmg to a Maximum Safe Workmg Tension
Radius of Curvature of Wire Ropes in Inches for l-lb. Tension.
I?orrnula: R = EB% + 5.25 t cos l/z 8: in which R = radius of curvature.
E = moduius of elasticity= 28,500,OOO; d= diameter of wires; n = no:
of wires; E = angle of bend; t = working stress (Ibs. and ins.).
Divide by stress in pounds to obtain radius in inches.
-
-7
- -
Diam.
&e.
160 165 1700 173 1740 176O 176
--
I
5, 623
14, 753
8, 421
22. 095
10, 949 14, 593
26, 731 : : *z
43, 762
f x; :
45. 412 54. 417 108 767
106, 841
217, 500
225: 012 : %$i ;
175, 182
280, 607 560 872
700, 193
427, 689 s54: ass
t, l 21. 574
1, 709, 459
95, 541
86, 040 205 251
150 016
143, 085
102. 688
350 150
410. 440
. $ 12 I s 29. 762 12. 914 17, 179
39, 594 3; ; :
31. 125 41. 485 62. 212 124. 405
2 314 62. 3 I 3 82, 899 124; 151
75, 988
157, 570
101, 282
%%
151. 884
6; ; , z
; $ 1 7/ g 116, 239 199. 323
154, 641 : 3z
p I l / g 320, 556
265. 173 : x;
291, 917
%Z
6631767 995: 390
I 164; 099
I 426. 159 630: 674
1, 215; 817
1. 063, 217 1, 594. 422
[ *; g, $; ;
& I l/4 504, 402 671, 041 I 1, 004, 965 1, 620, 513 2. 430, 151 #: 859: 561
- -
ROPE-DRIVING.
The transmission of power by cotton or manila ropes is a competitor
with gearing and leather belting when the amount of power is large, or
the distance between the power and the work is comparatively great.
The following is condensed from a paper by C. W. Hunt, Trans. A. S.
111. E.. xii, 230:
But few accurate data are ak~$!eble, on account of the long period
required in each experiment, a rope lastin g from three to six Fears.
Installations which have been successful. as well as t,hose in which the
wear of the rope was destructive, indicate that 200 Ibs. on a rope one
inch in diameter is a safe and economical working strain. When the
strain is materially incrensed, the wear is rapid.
In the followinti cauations
C = circumfer&& of rope, inches; g = gravity;
D = sag of the rope in inches:
F = centrifugal force in pounds:
H = horse-power:
P = pounds per foot of rope;
L = distance between pulleys, ft.:
w = working strahl in pounds;
n = force in pounds doing useful work:
S = strain in nounds on the roue at the millev.
2 = tension hi pounds of drivhig side of She r&e;
t = tension in pounds on slack side of the rope;
2) = velocity of the rope in feet per second;
WIRE ROPE.
m = ultimate bresking strain in pounds.
w = 720 C?; P = 0. 033 0; w = 00 C?
I .
- .
This makes the normal working strain equal to f/36 of the breaking
strength. and about %a of the strenrth at the solice. The actual af roi n I lV.YI.!
are o?di&rily much i?:ater. owing io the vibrjtioiti iti running, as well
aslrom imperfectly adjusted tension mechanism.
For this invest,fgatiGn we assume that. the strain on t~he driving side
of a rope is eql1al to 200 Ibs. on a rope one inch in diameter, and a,n
equivalent strain for other sizes. and that the rope is in motion at vari-
ous velocities of from 10 to 140 ft. per second.
The centrifugal force of the rope in running over the pulley will reduce
MARNING: This- is a 1910 edition. Some of ?h terial may no longer be accurate
- the amount of force available for the transmission of power. The cen-
trifugal force F = Pv2 -L g.
At a Speed of about 80 ft.. per second, the centrifugal force incteases
faster than the Dower from mcreased velocitv of the rone. and at about
140 ft. per se&d equals the assumed allowable tenslon of the rope.
Computing this force at various speeds and then subtracting it from the
assumed maximum tension, we have the force available for the trans-
mission of power. The whole of this force cannot be used, because a
certain amour\!, of tension on the slack side of the rope is needed to give
adhesion to the pulley. What tension should be given to the rope for
this nurnose is uncertain. as there are no erneriments which rive accurate
data. It is known from considerable esperi&ce that when t&rope runs in
a groove whose sides are inclined toward each other at an angle of 4?
there is sufficient adhesion when the ratio of the tensions T + t = 2.
For the present purpose T can be divided into three part,s: 1. Tension
doing useful work; 2. Tension from centrifugai force; 3. Tension to
balance the strain for adhesion.
The tension t can be divided into two parts: 1. Tension for adhesion:
?. Tension from centrifugal force.
It is evident, however, that the tension required to do a given work
should not be materiallv exceeded durinr the life of the roDe.
There are two methoils of putting ropes on the pulleys: one in which
the ropes are Single and spliced on, being made very taut at first,, and
less so as the rooe lenzthens. stretchina until it slius. when it 1s re-
soliced. The otlier m&hod is to wind-a sin& roD6 dver the oullers
as mauy turns as needed to obtain the necesssry hors&power and put..a
tension pulley to give the necess&ry adhesion and also take uD the wear.
The tension t on 6ne of the roDes ieouired to transmit the normal horse-
pow&r for the ordinjry speeds-and s&s of pro&? is~computed by formula
(1). below. The total tension T on the driving side of the rope is
assumed to be the same at all SDeeds. The centrifugal force. as well aS
an amount equal to the tensiori for adhesion on tlie slack &de of the
rope, must he taken from the total tension 1 to ascertain the amount of
force available for the transmission of power.
It is assumed that the tension on the slack side necessary for giving
adhesion is equal to one half the force doing useful work on the driving
ROPE DFllVlNO
40
.Ha~se Iolver of manila
35
. rope atvnri ouaspeeds
36
31
FIG. 186.
side of (he rope: hence the force for useful work is R 7 2/3,(T - F): and
t$$enslon on the slack side to give the required adhesion is l/3 (T - 3).
t=(T--)/3+F.. . . . . . . . . (1)
The suti of the tensions T and t is not the same at different speeds, as
the cqilat,ion (1) indicates. As F varies as the square of the vr1oc~t.y.
thertA 1s. with an increasing speed af the rope, a decreasing useful force,
and an incrrilsing total tciislon. t, on the slack side.
,,.~ ,,, ,..L.G.as
MARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some of t
-.
1. 9
34: :
5. 9
1: : :
17. 4
23. 7
30. 8
2500
ROPE-DRIVING.
1191
With these assumptions of allowable strains the horse-power will be
H= 2v CT - F) + (3 X 5.50) . . . . . . . . (2)
Transmission ropes are USUally from 1 to 2 inches in diameter A
computatipn Of the horse-power for four sizes at various speedsand
under ordumry conditions. based on a maximum strain equivalent to
200 lbs. for a rope oue inch in diameter,, is given in Fig. 186. The
horse-power pf other sizes is readily obtamed from these. The maxi-
mUm power Is transmitted, under the assumed conditions, at a speed
about SO feet per second.
of
The wear of the rope is both internal and external: the internal is
caused by the movement of the fibers on each other, under pressure in
bending over, the sheaves, and the external is caused by the slipping and
the werlg!ng in tl!e prooves of the pulley. Botb of these causes of wear
are, wlthm the limits of ordinary practice, assumed to be directly pro-
portional to the sl,red.
The, rppe i? supposed to have the strain T constant at all speeds on
the dnvmg side, and in direct proportion to the area of the cross-section:
hence the catenary of the driving side is not affected by t.he speed or by
the diameter of the roPe.
The deflection of the rope between the pulleys on the slack side varies
with each change of the load or change of t.he speed, as the tension equa-
tion. (1) indicates.
The deflection of the rope is computed for the assumed value of T and
n
t by the parabolic formula S = [s + PD, S being the assumed strain
T on the driving side, and t, calculated
side. The tensiou t varies with the speed.
by equation (l), on the slack
Horse-power of Thnsmission Rope at Various Speeds.
Computed from formuls (2) given above.
$4 Speed of the Rope in feet per minute.
-
I
__-
2. 3
: : ;
2;
5. 8
7. 0 8. 2
9. 2 10. 7
14. 3 l 4. l 3
20. 7 23. 1
20. 2 32. 0
36. 8 42. 6
The following notes are from the circular of the C. W,. Eunt Co.:
For a temporary installation, it might be advisable to increase the work
to double that given in the table.
For convenience in estimating the necessary clearance on the driving
and on t,he slack sides, we insert a table showing the sag of the rope al
different speeds when transmitting the horse-power given in the pre-
ceding table. When at rest the sag is not the same as v;hen runnmg.
being grea~ter on the driving and less on the slack sides of the rope. The
ssg of the driving side when transmitting the normal horse-power is the
same no matter what size of rope is used or what the speed driven at.
because the assumption is that the Strain on the rope shall be the same
at all speeds when transmitting the assumed horse-poxver. but on the
slack side the stmins nnd consequently the sag. vary with the speed of
the rope and also with the horse-po\Ger.
fhe speeds.
The tabl e gives the sag for
If the actual sag 1s less than given in the t~able. the rope
1s sOrained more than the worl;-requires.
This table ij; only approximate, and is exact only when t,he rope is
rWllin:: at its normal speed, transmitting its full load and strained to the
assumed amount. All of these conditions are varying in actUal Work
*r; , ; , - . ~. , . , . .
3 material may no longer be accurate
ROPE-DRIVING.
SAG OF THE ROPE BETWEEN PULLEYS.
~~$~~~ Driving Side. Slack Side of Rope.
Pulleys
in feet,.
All Speeds. 8OfLpersec.[ 60ft.persec. 1 4Oft.persec.
For large amounts of power it is Gammon to use a nuaber of r?pes
lying side by side in grooves, each sphced separa!ety. For lighter dnvea
sOme engineers use one rope wrapped as m?ny @es around the pulleys
as ls necessary to get the horse-power required, with a tension pulley to
b.l~.-P nn t,he slack as the rone wears when first nut in use. The weight
;;;^t:u$& this tensions pulle> should be carefully adjusted, as the over-
F+ra.lme of the rone from this cause is one of the most common errors
~~~&&driving. We therefore give a table showing- the proper strain o,n
the rope for the various sizes, from whxh the tensIon weight to transm$
the horse-power in the tables 1s easily deduced. This strain can be still
further reduced if the horse-power transmltted is usually,less than the
nnminal work which the rope was proportioned to do, or II the angle of
._-----~~~~;
groove m the pulleys is acute.
With a given velocity of the driving-rope, the weight of rope requ@?d
for transmitting a given horse-power is, the sa?e. no matter what Suze
rope is adopted. The smaller rope will requxe more parts, biit the
weight will be the same.
The size of the pulleys has an important effect on the wear of the rope -
the larger the sheaves, the less the fibers of the rope slide on each other
and conseouentlv there is less internal wear of the rone. The nullevh
should not be lea< than forty times the diameter of the ro& ior eco&%i&~
wear, and as much larger as it is possible to make them This ruie applies
also to the idle and tension uulless as well a,s to the main drivine-nullrv.
Data of Manila Transmission Rope.
From the Blue Book of The American Mfg. Co., New York.
The nngle of the sides o? thd grooves in which the rope ru&&es,
with ditferent engineers, from 4.5 to 60. It is very important that t~he
sides of these grooves should be carefully polished, as the fibers of the
rope rubbing on the metal as it comes from the lathe tools will gradually
break fiber by fiber, and so give the rope a short life. It is also neces-
sary t,o carefully avoid all sand or blow holes, as they will cut the rope
out ~.ith surprising mpidit.y.
I ENSION ON THE SLACK PART OF TIIE ROPE.
Length of
Splice, ft.
Y--
Ten?
__
1 l/4
-
IIt
123
132
145
t58
173
190
__
f tht
L on the Slot
r 12 t t 3/4
Rope.
2
283
E
339
373
: rope on tne puueys.
ixpenence shows that. the
rope first in one direction
.re rope. 4t .rninTs where
increased wear on tht
and then in the othe
two, cages are used, t one lowerecl oy tne same
enmnc domg the same worli, cue wire ropes,, cut from the same coil. are
usually arranged so that one rope is bent continuously in ne direction
a@ the other rope is bent first in one direction and then in the other, in
Widiug on the drum of the entiine. The rope having the opposite bends
Wars mllc!i more rapidly thair the other, lasting about three quarters
?S long as.lts niate. This difference in wear shows in manipa rope. both
m transmission of power and in coal-boisting. The pulleys should be
arranged, as far as possible, to bend the rope in one direction.
T--
IDiameter of the Rone and Pounc Speed of
Rope. in feet
*er second.
:i
2J
E
ii
-
i i !
t e
wi
0. 5625
Y: 7656
I : %
I . 8906
2. 25
: : ~2~
4.
Et25
760
%
510
i t
380
344
2
255
230
- -
upon the arm@
*won weight is usea.
? rope from bending th
r is similar to that of
one being tio@ed ani
-
Mllclt depends also
especially where a te
DIAMETER OF P~LWXS ASD WEIGFIT OB ROPE.
Weight of transmission rope = 0.34 X djam.?
Breaking strength
= 7,000 x diam.2
Maximum allowable tension = 200 X diam.?
Diam. smallest practicable
Ve%ryebf rope (assumed)
= 36 X diam.
= 5,400 ft. per min.
DIiseellanoons Notes on Rope-IJr!ving. - ~ellleaux @Ves f?rmulz
for caiculatlng sources oi loss in hemp-rope transnussion due to (1) Jour@
friction (2) stiffness of ropes and (3) creep of ropes. The constants m
these f&hue are however uncertain from lack of espenmental .data.
He calculates an ;Iverzge c&e giving loss of poxver due t !ournatfnctl!t
=
4?&, to stiffness 7.g?&, and to creep 5%. or 16.8% In all, and says tins
is not to be considered higher than the aCtWl loss.
Spencer nliller in a aper entitled
driving I. (Tmnr.)A 9. 8. +.
*A Problem in Continuous Rope-
c 1897). reviews the difficulties which ocCur$
rQ+flrlving wjth j ~ontlnu~us rope from a large to a small pulley.
adopts the a;lgle of 450 as a minimum angle t, use on the smaller pulley.
and recommends tllai the larger pulley be grooved with a wider angle to a
,:,;.,,,,.degree such thai the resistance to slippin,
v is equal ln both wheels.
Diag;etT of
In inch&
I2
Smallest Diameter Length of R,ope to
of Pulleys, in
Approximate
inches.
allow for Splicing. Weight, in Ibs. per
in feet. foot, of rope.
;: 2 ::1;
;; :.
; :
a. 24
; : 9 0. 60 %
60 ; , : 0. 83
72 1. 10
84 14 1. 40
. .
, ,
. . . . _. oav.
This is a 1910 edition. Some of ie material may no longer be accurate
1194 FRICTION AND LUBRICATION.
Mr. Miller refers to a 250-H.P. drive which has been running ten years
the large pulley being grooved 60 and the smaller 45. This drive was
designed to use a II/d-in. manila rope, but the grooves were made deep
enough so that a Q-in. rope would not bottom. In order to determine the
value of the drive a common T/s-in. rope was put in at first, and lashed six
years. working under a f actor of silfety of only 14. He recommends, how-
ever, for continuous rope-driving a factor of safety of not less than 20.
A heavy rope-drive on the separate, or Errs;lish. rope system is described
and illustrated in Pows,,April. 1892. It is in use at the India Mill at Dar-
wen. England, and is driven by a 2000-H.P. engine at 54 revs. per min.
The fly-wheel is30 ft. diameter, weighs 65 tons, and is arranged with 30
grooves for 1 Qin. ropes. These ropes !ead pff to receiving-pulleys upon
;\h;e;lveral floors, so t.hat each Roar recmves Its power direct from the t?y-
. The speed of the ropes IS 5089 ft. per min., and five 7-ft. receivers
are used. Lambeth cotton ropes are used.
on this subject see Rope-Driving,
(For much other information
by J. J. Flather, John Wiley & Sons.)
Cotton Ropes are advantageously used a,s bands or cords on the
smaller mpchme appliances; the fiber, being softer a.nd more flexible
than mamla hemp, gives good results for small sheaves: but for larme
.drives, where power transmitted is in considerable amounts, cotton ropz
as compared with manila. is hardly to be considered on account of
the followmg disadvantages:
It is leas durable: it is injkiously affected
by the wveuthef. so that for exposed drives, paper-mill work. or use in
!vater-wheel plbs. jt is absolutely unsatisfactory; it is difficult if not
m~Poss+,, to splice uniformly; ever the best quaMy cotton rope is
much mferior to manila in strength the breaking strain of the highest
grade being but 4000 X diam.2 i&s against 7000 X di&m.* for manila; while
for the tran+ssioit of equal powers, the cost of a cotton rope variei
from one-third to one-half more tha.n manila. - ( Blue Book of the
Amer. Mfz. Co.)
A different opinion is found in a paper by E. Kenyon in Pm. Iust
Engrs. cold ~Ship,bu,ildcrso/ Scotlartd. 1904. He says: Evidences of t.hi
progrsss of cotto! 111 the lnanufllrture of driving-ropes are so far-reaching
that Its superlorlty may be considered as much an accepted principle in
enhanced power-transmitting value, its immunity from frequent atten-
rope transmission as the law of gravitation is in science.
As to the longevity
of cptton ropes, 24 cotton ropes 13/J-in. diam. are transmitting 820 H.P. at a
PenPheral speed of 4396 ft. per min., from a driving pulley 28 ft. dia,m.
All, the card-room ropes in this drive have been running since 1875, a
perlot of 26 years, wlthout any attention whatever.
FRICTION AND LUBRICATION.
Friction is defined by Ranldne:as that force which acts between t.wo
bodies at their surface of contact, so as to resist the,ir sliding on each
other. and which depends on the force with which the bodies are pressed
together.
Coe~Rcient of, Friction. -The ratio of the force required to slide a
body alonr: a horizontal plane su:face to the weight of the body is called
t.hr coefficient of friction,
It is equivalent t.0 the tangent of the n@zof
rel~ose. whirl! is the angle of inclination to the horizont,al of an inclined
plane pn cVhi?h the body will just overcome its tendency to Slide.
angle IS usua,lly denoted by 8, and the coefficient hv f. f= tn. 0~
The
_-._ _.
Friction of Rest and of Xotion. -The force required to st,art a
l)otiY ~lrtlu!g,is called the friction of rest,, and the force required to con-
Qnue Its shdmg after having started is called the friction of motion.
Rolling Friedion is the force required to
ml borlv on a plane or on a curved surface.
roll a cylindrical or spheri-
It. depends on the nature of
!llr sllrf+ces and on the force with which they are pressed together, but
,ls cssent~illy different from o?rlinary, or sliding, friction.
Yrlction of Solids. - Rcnnies es1~cfrimrnt.s~ (1829) on friction of solids,
us~all.\: uuluhricatcd and dry, led to the following conclusions:
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
FRICTION AND LUBRiCATfON. 1195
1. The laws of slidina frict.ion differ with the character of the bodies
2. The friction of fibrous material is increased by increased extent of
surface and by time of contact, and is diminished by Rressure. and speed.
3. With wood, metal, and stones, within the linut of abrasion, friction
varies only with the pressure, and is independent of the extent of surface,
time of contact, and velocity.
4. The limit of abrasion is determined by the hardness of the softer of
the two rubbing parts.
5. Friction is greatest with soft and least with hard materials.
6. The friction of lubricated surfaces is determined by the nature of
the lubricant rather thsn by that of the solids themselves.
Friction of Rest. (Rennie.)
i-
187
224
2:
560
672
764
Values of f.
Vrought iron on Wrought on
Wrought Iron. cast Iron.
I
0.28
29
3: .37
.38
Abraded
Steel on Brass on
cast Iron. cast Iron.
0.30 0.23
.33 .22
3:
.21
.21
.36 .23
A&Cd
.23
.23
~qrn of Unlulwiccdccl Prictioq. - A.
Al . \ Vel l i ncton. Eng g, Xcws.
April 7 1888 states that the most Important and the best, dctermmcd of
all the iaws of unlubricated friction may he thus expressed:
The coefficient of unlubricated friction decr,eases mat~eriallv with
velocity, is very much gre&ter at minute velocltles of 0 f, falls verv
rapidly with minute increases of SU,C!I
velocities, and continues to fail
much less rapidly with higher velocltles up to ? certain. v&ng point,
following closely the laws which obtain with lubricated friction.
Friction of $&cl Tires Sliding on Yleel Rails. (Westinghouse &-
Galton.)
Speed, miles per hour. . . . . 10 1,5 29 35 45 50
Coefficient of friction . . . Oi:AO .Ob7 .O$ .05? .yfz .Oit
Adhesiou, Ibs. per gtoss ton 195 Ii9 ,172,
th~~~~~*~les~~~~~;r~~c~ ~fi;&~$~~~i;oiling one move) the other.. It,s la\VS
are not yet definitelv r&n.t>lislled in conseouence Of the UncertalntY \;;te$
exists in experiment I1y yv ..-
,,i,i;n\~~mnrh of t,he resistance is due to roug, .__-.. -- _..
of surface how much t,o original and permanent irregularity of form,
~l.nd hnw &lrrh tn dist.nrt,ion under the load.
(Thurston.)
-..- ..-,. . . . . . _.. I_ -.I_-- ---
Coefftcients of Rolling Friction. - If R = resistance applied at the
circumference of the wlleel, TV = total weight, r = radius of the wheel,
and f = a coeficirnt, n = flV + r. f is very variable. Coulomb$r;T-
0.06 for wood 0.005 for metal, where 11 is in pounds aud r in feet.
gold made t.hk value off for iron on iron 0.002.
For wagons on soft soil >lorin found f = 0.065, and on hard smooth
roads 0.00.
A Committee of the Societv of Arts (Clark, R. T. D.) reported a loaded
omnibus +,o exhibit a rcsista&e on various loads as b&K:
Pavement.
Granite . . . . .~.
Speed per hour. ~,;fl$ient. Resistance.
Asphalt . . . . . . . .
3.87 mi@.
3.56
0 .Olll
;;A: per pl.
Wood.. . ..,... .: 3.34 1;
0 .OlS5
41:60 ;;
Macadam. graveled.. . .
Macadam, granite, new . . .
! I;;
4-I .48
,,
0 %I! .
101.09
material
accurate
FRICTION AND LUBRICATION. 1197 %RICTION AND LUBRICATION.
Thurston gives the value of
I
for ordina
railroad track, 0.002; best posse )le milrozd
try railroads, 0.003; well-laid
tra.r*li II no 1 -.--. _, _.__.
The few experiments that have been made upon the coefficients of
.rolling;frlction. apart jrotn axle friction, are too incomplete to serve as a
basis for practical ruies.
Laws of Fluid Frictto
(Trautwine.)
mn. - For all fluids. whether liauid or aaseous.
the resistance is (1) independent of the pressure betweeil the tisses iti
contact: (2) directly proportional to the area of rubbing-surface; (3) pro-
uortional to the souare of the relative velocity at moderate and hiah
Friction of RIotion. - The following is a table of the angle of repose
0 the coefliclent of fricl,ion f = tan B, and its reciprocal, 1 + f, for tl!e
Aaterials of mechanism - condensed from. the tables of General Mann
(1831) and other sources, as given by Itanlime:
6.
14 to 26 V$
I I l/20 to 2
26112 to 31
131/z to 140
I I l/20
I I l/2;& 140
ll31/2
I50 to 191/z
29 llf
200
0.25 to 0.5
0.2 too.04
0.5 to 0.6
.:.F o.2t
0. 20;;30. 25
0.33
,.270~;b0.38
0.36
s:::
%: o.2
0.07 lo 0.0
0.05
0.03 to 0.03
O.Oj?
4 to 2
3 to 23
2 to 1.67
4.7 4 3.05
3 l.89
3.7,&2.86
4:::
6.67
?13:0 3
\Vo,yd y wo?d!d, dry.
soaped ..............
Meps 0 ok+ dry.
wet. ..................
I 1 I.
.eoapy. .......
0
elm. dry.. ........
ipeeds. and to the ielocit
nature of the surfaces of t le sohd agai.nst which tne stream may flow. but P
nearly at low Speeds:. (4) independent of the
deDendent to some extent unon their degree of rourbners: (5) DroDort.ional
to-the density of Ihe fluid, and rela&d in sonic way to. iis kiscosity.
(Thurston.)
The Friction of Lubr@ted Sur f aces approximates to that of solid fric-
tion as the journal is run dry, and to that of fluid friction as it is flooded
with oil.
Angles of Repose and Coefficients of Friction of Ruilding Natertals.
(From Rankines Aoulied Blechilnics.)
IIerp IJF O~,k, dry:. ,
wet.. . .
L+her oz oak. .
metals, dry..
II
metals. wet. . .
. .a II
greasy~
.I .a .a
oily...,
-I-
-
--
-
-
--
-
0. f = talz 8.
I
Gx
Me!& 9: me!,& dry. .-.
wet,.
Smooth surfaces. occGol
ally greased.,
Smooth surfaces, contint
ously greased.. :.
Smooth surfaces, best resul
Bronze on liguum vit:c, 001
stantly wet . . . . . . . . .
.-
,
-
Dry mnaanry and brickwork.
Masonry and brickwork with
damp-mortar.. .
Timber on Stone... . . ,
Iron on stone.. _.
Timber on timber.
Timber on metals..
&tnls on metals..
Masonry on dry clay.
Masonry on moist clay..
Eart~h on earth.. _.
Earth on earth, dry sand, clay,
0.6 to 0.7 1.67 to 1.4 14.3 to 12.3
20
_.,,.........
,..,.........
0.74
about 0.4
0.7 t,o 0.3
0.5 to 0.2
0.6 to 0.2
O.Z3l~,O. 13
1.35
2.5
,W
I.67 to 3
4 7 .69i67
3.
4 to I
and mixed eart~h..
Earth on earth, damp clay..
Earth on earth, wet clay. ;.
Earth on earth, shingle and
gravel........................
Average Coctflrients of Friction.--. lowluLl of ciw? iroll in I+w32
bearing. velocity 7% feet per minute: temlu:rature iOo I~.: intrrmlltent
feed thrbueb an oil-hole. _.
(Thurston on Friction attd Lost Work.)
Pressures, pounds per square inch.
Oils.
0 lb
I I
32 48
Sperm, lard, neat+ft., etc.. ,159 to .250 ,138 to .I92 ,086 to .I41 .077 to .I44
Olive, cotton-seed, rape. et0 lb0 to .283 .I07 to ,243 ,101 to .I68 ,079 to .I31
Cod and menhaden 1240 to ,270 ,124 t. .I67 ,097 to .I02 .OSf to .I22
Mineral lubricating-oils.. ,154 to .2b1 ,143 to .233 ,086 to .I78 ,094 to .222
-
With fine Steel journals running in bronze bearln:S and, conOin+;$
lubrication coefficients far below those above given art ohtalned.
with sper&oil the coefficient with 50 lbs. per square tncb pressure was
0.0034. with 200 lb%. 0.0051. with 300 lhs.. 0.0057.
For &rv low
hlr.Wood
ressures, as in spindles, the coefficients are mncb h$her.
Thus 1 ury found, at a temperature of 100 ztnd a VelocltY of
.-._.
0.33
0.25 to I .O
0.7.b 0.75
0.31
2.63 to I.33
:.23
0.81 1.23 too.9
! 1
-
I
Friction nf Journa,ls. (3lorin.)
Lubrication.
Unguent.
Intermittent
._
Continuous.
Cnefilcients of
Material.
_
-
Cast iron on cast iron.. . ,
1
Cast imu on bronze.. . . .
Cast imn 0 lignum vitm..
1
Wrought. irou on cast iron.
Wrought iron on bronze. I
Iron on lignum vi&. .
1
Bronae on bronze..
t
Oil, lard, tallow.
Unctuous and wet
o.070~;40.08
Oil, lard, tallow.
Unctuous and wet,
o.070~~60.08
Oil, lard.
Oil, lard. tallow. 0.07 to 0.08
600 feet per minute,
Pressures, lbs. per sq. in.
Coefficient.. . . . . . .
0138 0227 0% 058 oP17
Theqe high c0efficient.s however. and the great decrease illthe coefficient
at h&eased pressures arb limited as a prnct,ical mntt,er only to the smaller
pressurec which exist especinlly in spinning machinery. where the p:evre
1s so light and the film of oil so thick that the viscosity Of the 011 IS an
lmport~ant, part of the total frictions1 resistance.
lkpcrimcnts on Friction of a Joumal~ I!ubricated
by an 0~
hath (reported bg the Committee on. Fnction, Prc. In& jr. E.
Nov., 1883) show that the absolute frictlon,
that is, the absolute tan-
Oil, lard.
Unctu,us.
pi,e, Il.
0.11
0.19
0.10
0.09
Prof. Thurston says concerning t,he ahove fig:IIres t,hat much hctt,er
results are probably obtained in good practice vi tb ordinary mnrhinery.
Those here given are so greatly moditied hy vsrist.ionS of speed. pressure.
and temperature.. that tbcy cannot he taken as correct for general purposes.
the materi al may no l onger be a$$&
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. So&??
1198 FRICTION AND LtJBBICATION.
gential force per square inch of bearing, required to resist the tendenc
of the brass to go round with the journal, is neilrly a constant under
loads, within ordinary working limits.
a 1 P
Most certainly it does not in-
crease in direct proportion to the load, as it should do according to the
ordinary theory of solid friction. The results of these experiments
seem to show that the friction of a perfectly lubricated journal follows
the laws of liquid friction much more closely thau those of solid friction.
They show that under these circumstances the friction is nearly inde-
pendent of the pressure per square inch, and that it increases with the
velocity, though at a rate. not near1
The experiments on fnction at a!
so rapid as the square of the velocity.
ifferent temperatures indicate a great
diminution in the friction as the temperature rises. Thus in the case of
lard-oil, taking a speed of 450.r.p.m., the coefficient of friction at a tem-
perature of 120is only one-third of what it was at a tern ~erature of 60.
The journal was of steel, 4 ins. diameter and 6 ins. ong, and a gun- ?
metal brass, embracing somewhat less than half the circumference of the
journal, rested on its up ,er side, on which the load was applied.
the bottom of the journa l
When
was Immersed in oil, and the oil therefore carried
under the brass by rot.at.ion of the journal, the greatest load carried with
rape-oil was 573 lbs. per sq. in., and with mineral oil 625 lbs.
In experiments with ordinary lubrication, the oil being fed in at the
center of the top of the brass, and a, distributing groove being cut in the
bpss parallel to the axis of the jmu-nai, the bearing would not run cool
with only 100 11,s. per sq. in., the oil being pressed out from the bearing-
surface and through tile oil-hole, inst,eatl of beiufi carried in by it. On
Introducing the oil at the sides through two parallel grooves the lubrica-
Qon appeared to be satisfactory, but the bearing seized &th 3SO Ibs.
per sq. in.
When the oi! was int.roduced through two oil-holes, one near each end
of the brass, and each connected with a cllrvetlgroove, the hrnss refused
to t?ke its oil or run cool, and seized wibh a load of only 200 lbs. per sq. in.
JVith an oil-pad under the journal feeding rape-oil, the bearing fairly
carried 551 lbs. Mr. Towers conclusion from these experiments is t&t
the frMon depends on the quantity and uniformity of dist.ribution of the
@, and may be avything between the oil-bath rcsutt,s and seizing. accord-
11~ to the perftctlon or imnerfecBion of the lubrication. The lubrication
may be very small, giving % coefficient of l / l oo: but . it. appeared as though
It could not be diminished and the frict.ion increased much beyond this
point without imminent risk of heating and seizin,c.
ably represents the most perfect lubrication possible, and the imzt
The oil-bath p,ro-
beyond which frict,ion cannot bc retlured by lllhrir;rt~ion; and the esperi-
ments show that with speeds of from 100 to 200 fret per minute, by
properly proport,ioning t,he Ijearing-surfncc to t,he load, it is possible to
reduce the coefficient of frirt,ion t.o as low as 1/1noo.
A coeiGiriit of Vl mn
IS easllv attainable, and prohnbly is frequently attained in ordinary
ent i ne- bear i ngs i n wvhi cl l t l i e di r ect i on of the faire is mpltliv alternating
and the oil given an opportunit.y t,o get between the surf&es while the
durat.ion of the force in one direction is not sufficient to allo;v time for
the oil film to be squeezed out.
Observations on the behavior of the apparatus gave reason to believe
that with perfect luhrirat.ion the speed of minimum friction was from
100 to !SO feet per minute, and that this s
:Fo,l,e hrrher wit.h an incfesse of lqnd, an K
eed of minimum friction tends
also with less perfect, lubrica-
Bathe speed of rmmmum fnct,lon is meant that speed in approach-
ing which from rest the friction diminishes, and above which t.he friction
i nrrwcoc _ . . . . -~.._
Coe~rie~ts of Frict,lon of Motion and of Rest of a ,T~~rnal. -
.I\ rast-tron ~ournnl in steel boxes. tested by Prof. Thurston s ,L speed of
rubbins of 150 feet per minute, with lard and with sperm oil, gave the
following:
Press. per sq. in., lbs.
Coeff.. wit.h sperm
50 100 2.50
0.013 0 .ons
500 750 1000
n ,004
Co$.. with lard . ..*. 0 .O? 0.0137 :$%5 0.0053. 0 006ij 0.12.!,
0 .on41 0.009
The coefficients at starting were:
With sperm. 0.07 n .135
Withlard...:::::::: 0.07 0.11
X
yK& _ y; 5 0. 18
0.12
_ ~. ..~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some-;
.
FRICTION AND LUURICATIOX. 1199
The coefficient at a speed of 150 feet. per minute decreases \yvit!l increas?
of pressure until 500 lbs. per sq. in. 1s reached; above tIus It increases.
IIJ,~ coefficient at rest or at starl.iug iucreases with the pressure throu&-
&y<tlle range of the tests.
Coefficients of Friction of Journal with Oil-hath. - Abstract of
results of Towers esperlment,s on friction (Proc. Inst. .\I. E., Nov., 1883).
.lournal, 4 in. diam.. 6 in. long; temperature, 90 F.
Nominal Load. in Ibs. per sq. in.
Lubricant in Bath.
i 625 1 520 1415 j 310/ 2051 l 53j 100
Coefficient of Friction.
j - ( . 0009 ) . 001:
Laid o,i!: f15: ft.,per min. . . n~,_l nn~
__. . . . _/ , _. . _, _, . ""I , ~. uu~1~. 0029~. 0042 . 0052( . 009
2/ . 0014) . 0020 . 0027! . 0042
.!ii 1 .zOO?j I.@-JJ$i .O$ 2 . 0034 . OOXl . 0076
I ~I ", . ~"". GL
..-l .--- -.
, . ""&I I _""_ . 0066 . 0083 . 0151
. 0016 . 0019 , 003
I I
. 0027i . O037 . 0064
Spefm-o.iJ: I$ f t;per yin. . . . . seizd
Ryxf,~: I$fft;!xSn?,in .,.,.,.....
001 . 0009 . OOOR! . 0014 , 002 , 004
, OOl 5 . OOl 6 . OO: 6: . 0024 , 004 . 007
. 0012 . 0014i . 0021 . . . , 004
no2 . 0024' . 0035 , , . . , , 007
R3 , . . . _ . Ol 25
17 , . . . . . Ol 52
. . . . ,...... .0018 ._.-
Rape-oil fed by
siphonlubrj~~tor:(~~~ft:perl~in. :::-::: ::::::: -::: :~~~:~$
Rape-oil, pad
under journal:
157ft. per min. . . . . . . _....,. _.,__ .0099 .Ol(
314 ** ' ( . . . ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . 0099~. 00~
Comparative friction of different lubricants under same $rcums.tances,
temperature go., oil-bath: sperm-oil, 100: rapeall, 106; mineral 011, 129;
lard, 135; olive 011. 13.5; mineral grease, 217.
Value of Anti-friction Metals. (Denton.) -The various white
metals available for lining brasses do not afford coefllcients of friction
lnmer t,ha.n can be obtained with hare brass. but t,hey are less liable to
_- -- ----.:
overheating. becsuse of the superiority of such material o$er bronze
ln ability to permit of abrasion or crushing, without escessive Increase of
friction.
' ~hma+. nn f l ?ri rt. i nn a.nd T.nst, Work) sars that pun-bronze, Babbitt,
and other soft-;;~%?%ib;$+ I%% s&~&i&y the &ne frictioli; in other
words, the frirt.ion is determined bv the nature of t,he unguent~ and $,yt
by that 01 ..- .__- _..O --__- ___, . ~. .~~~ ~~~~~
I LiIj
soft metals run at hicyher tempcriltures than the bronze: This, however,
does not necessaril.v?ndicate a serious defect. but simply deficient CO!-
duct~ivity. The val ce of t. hr whi te atlovs for bearinrs !ies mainly in their
readv reduction to a smc
alt.Pt~l.t.inn of either sllrfal
&ih su&cG&er~ any local or general injury by
ce or form.
Ira- (.T~SI~II~ Rose.) - Cast iron appears to be an
- ___. - .._._ -_ ._.. .--- _--~~~
Cast Iron for * Bearin&...
excention to th e general ruI~,-thattlle~hjrder the metal the greater the
resisiance to wear because cast iron is softer in its texture and easx:r to
cr& with steel toois than steel or wrought iron, but, in some situatiors it
is far more durable than hardened steel: thus when surrounded by steam
it will wear better than will any other metal. Thus, for inst,ance. es-
g
erience has demonstrnt.ed that piston-rings of casts iron Kilt wea,r smoother.
etter and equally a,s long as those of steel nlld longer than those of
eithermroueht iron or brass, whether the cylinder in which it works be
Composed o? brass, steel, wrought iron, or cast iron: the latter being the
more noteworthy, since two surfaces of the Same mehl do not, as a rule.
wear or work well together.
SO atso shtic-valves of brass are not. fon.nd
to wear so long or so smont.hlv ns t,lmse of cast iron. let, the metal oJ Jlhlct
the seat.ing is composed
___ _..~~~
i;e&atever it may; while. on the other 11:
cast-iron slide-valve will wear longer of itself and cause less wear to
Its seat, if the latter is of cast iron, tlran if of steel, wrought iron, or
brass.
upon Iron under stes,m-pressure is double that of iron upon iron.
Friction of Metals under Steam-pressure. 7 The friction of(2rag
Babcock, Trans. A. S. M. IX., i. 151.)
.
Morins Laws of Friction. - 1. The friction between two bodies
is directly proportioned to the pressure; i.e., the coefficient is constant
for all oressures.
- ~~ ---;
2. The coetF,clent and amount of friction, pressure l~,einq ttlp FI~P O*O
independent of the area,s in contnct~
.3.: The qoe,i%:ient of friction is independent of velocity although static
frxtlon (fnctlon of rest) is greater than the friction of m&ion.
Engg News, April 7, 1888 comments on these laws as follolvs:
From 1831 till about 1~76 thbre W:~C nn :>+tumnt Ix.,r+). j.-_n(.:-I.
-- --. 1 -.--_- ..Y :,-YL(IY 1Vl,,?,l .,pcLl\,r,g i
enlarge our knowledge of the laws of frlctlon, which during all that pel
was assumed to be complete, although it was really worse than notllj
since it was for the most part wholly false.
In the year first mentio,
Morin began a series of experiments which eslended over two np tt-
years, and which! resulted in the enunciation of these three
mental laws of fnction, no one of which is even appro.ximatelq Clout
For fifty years these laws were accepted as axiomatic and were n-an
as sUct1 wIthOut question in every scientific work published dur
whole period. Now that they are so thoroughly discredited it Itits u
attempted to esplain away their defects ou t,hr erc~lnrl th:l t tt7a-r r*,>
funda-
. ._..*
- u ,dTed
,ink that
I~.-.. ,eeu
.._I_. ^ ,.,. . ..-. . ..-.. .ver
llq il ~ ~-. . . _-, -. __.,,, .-..,>,;irs, etc aiid that
Morin him&!f Ollly annolunced them as true witllifi tile raneebf his con-
ditions.
_a:.: ^.. ,.
It IS now clearly established t1lo.t. t,lll~ar0 ~P,A nn 1Tmlts or con-
.r. llllll_hl rrlcy lead i0 tiKil;i&i
kind of error, while many of the constants \vere as inaccurate as the laws
For example, in Morins hhle of Coetfi&nts of !doving Friction 0;
SlIlOOttl Plane hlfWXS, perfect.ly lubricatctl !vlllch may be found in
hundrvJs.of Wst-hoks now in use. the coci~firient of wrought h-on 0x1
brass IS /$lVt?~l as O.Oi5 to 0.10X which would make the rolling friction of
actualj; is.
=-. .dn instead of Ihe 3 to 0 Ibs. which it
Genrr?l Morln, in a letter to the Secret,arv of the Institution of %lechan-
ical I+lne% d+te$ March 15, 1879, whites as follo\vs concerning his
exprrlmellts on fmtlon made more than forty vears before: The reqults
furnlsh~d bY mY experilnents as to the relntioi~shetween pressure, suriace,
and speed on the one hand, and sliding friction 011 the otllrr have alwavs
bee? regarded bs tnvself,. not as mathemnt,ical I:LWS. but 11s Glose approsi-
mntmris to th,$ truth. wlthin the limits of the data of the euperfments
themselves.
IlIe, same holds. in my opinion, for manv other 151~~ of
Practical me~ha:Ms. such as those of rolling resistance,Iluld reslstailce,
HP 3
g,enernllY assumed that friction betwe& lubricst,ed &rf&es follo~vs~~~
simple law that the amonnt~ of the friction is Some fixpd fr2,rtinn of
the oressure between t.he !
p he ;.,t,.;,..:r.. ,.l Ill,. --.. --.--~~
--.I surfaces, such fraction b~,iiig:indrpendent ot t
:I mnlIs or practice.
1~11 and the veloritr of rubbing,
and that the fixed fraction referred t,o
ficients of friction criven hr th+ ~y-n&n>an
Practical lubnc$ion. such as those given in &ebherfi ifanual of po,ver.
Bv the expenments of Thurslon. Woodhurv, Tolvpr, etc.. holvever. it
appear s t l l nt the f?ction b!tween I uhr t cnt ~r l ~
machine bearit-
!I metallic surfaces. suchns
independent of
IKS. 1s not .rllrect,ly proport~ionnl to t.he pressure 1s not
are about tenfo
the speed. and that the coeffirient.s of Bforin and mebber
Prof. Dentor
Id too great for modern joumnts.
1 offers an ex,phrnatlon of tllis npparfqt contradiction of
a,llthorities by showinp,
wlt~tl Inbomtorv &sting-machine d?ta
that.
aforins l.aW,hold for bearings I~illricnted I;!: a rf~st.rlcted fred of iul,;lcant.,
SuCl; as Is atfordrd by the oil-cups common to !rlacllln~~rv~ \vllerenq the
murrl experiments have been made with a surplus feed dr sup&bun.
~ i;,
>J
WAR~:ING: This is a I910 edition. Some Of - th
FRICTION AND LUBRICATION.
dance of h~bricant. such as is provided only in railroad-car journals, and
5 few specinl cases of practice.
TlrAt the low coetficlents of friction obtained under the latter conditions
are realized in the case of car:Jorlrnuls, 1s pro\cd by the fact that the
ten,pemture of car-boxes remams ?t
1UU at high vulocilics: and, f+pvri-
men{, shows that this temperature 15 consistent ouly with a co$hclent of
friction of a frsctlon of ,one per cent.
Deductions Irofn Fsprnments on
train resistance also imhcate the, same Ipw degree ,oi.frxtion.
But t!lese
low coefficients do not account tor,thc Internal fnctlon of steam-engnes
as well as do the coefficients of Xlorm and Webber.
In Americun J~arhinist, Oct. 23, lS90. Prof. Denton saxs: Xorins
measurements of fric,tion of iubricated journals did not extend Fo hght
pressures.
They app!y only to the conditions ot general shaftmg and
engine work.
He clearly understood that there was a frictional resista,nce, due solely
to the viscosit:y of the oil, and ,that therefqre, for very hght pressures,
the laws which he enunciated did not prevail.
He applied his dynamometers to ortiinary shaft-journals n;ithout
special. preparat,ion of the rubbin,
=surfaces, and without rrsortmg to
artificial methods of supplying the oil.
Later experimenters have with fe\v exceptions devoted thefnselves
escluslvelv to the measurement of resistance pr+ically due to viscosity
alone. They have eliminated the resistance to v<hlclt hlorln coIlfilled his
measurements, name1.y. the friction due to such contact;; of the rubbing-
altrfaces its orevail \vith a very thin film of lubricant bet\veen compara- _..._~~~
tlvely rollgli surfaces.
Prof. Denton I&O says (Tram. A. 5. M. l?.. s, T,lS): I do not, believe
there is a parl.lcle or prciof in any investigation of friction ever made,
that ~~o~$ns I:,,w do not hold for ordinary practical oil-cups or restricted
rates of f~:c~d.
L>\\vs OF FRICTION: Wm.r.-r.unnicArm San~l\c~s.
(Oil-bath.)
1. The coefficient of frictlon!vith thr Rllrfnces H?irienbly lubricated 1s
from l/s to l/t that for dry or sca,ntily hlhricated surfaces.
2. The coefficient of frl&lon for moderate pr*.sslmz and spreds. varies
nnm~-ir~l+~+ul,. i,,v0r+tv as the ILormal pr~surr: the frictional resistance
ntnre the nnrm:ll nrrsstlre remalnin,o constant.
3. At very low jorlrnal s eeds the c:oetfi:ient c
high. but, as the speed of s ~dln~: lncrcasc+! from
p.
nhout 10 to, 100 ft,. per
min. the friction diminishes. and again rises WIWI that speed 1s exceeded.
varying approsimatc~lg as the square root of the sperd.
4. The corlWient of friction varies spprosimntcly inverse1.S as t,he
tymperature, \vlthlu certain lirnit,s, nsmelY, just, before nbraslon takes
plnre.
The evidence upon which these laws are based is t,aken from various
Ming to Law I is derived from the First
Zsperiments. hy Mr. Warlrhnmp Taxer.
modern esperlmelits. That re
Report on Fricbion I
Method of Lubriczt.ion.
I
Coefficient
Frictioll
t of Compzmtire
I_ Friction.
q&bath
Si i hm ~i i i l i f G&. . . I
Pad URder JOWIld . .
ml & 1 g: ys
With a load of 293 Ibs. per $(I. in. and a journal speed of 3>4 ft. PP
min. Mr. ,Tower found the co&icnt of friction to he 0 .0016 wllh an oil-
bat h and O. OOW or six t i mes ns much. wi t 11 a pad. The WrY low Co-
efficihnts obt?ln&l hv Mr. Tower will he accounted for b,v I,a\\- 2. as he
found that t,& frlct,iomal resistance per square inch under varWg loads
t ,. Is nearly constant,, as below: -
9.w ..__ :;~. ,:
e material may no longer be accurate
+oad.inIbs. Persq.in. 629 465 415 363 310 258 205 153 IOO
;;;yny resist per IO.416 0.514 0.498 0.472 0.464 0.43s 0.43 0.458 0.45
:he frictional resistilnce per square inch is the Product of the coefficient
01 rnc+m $0 the load per square inch on horizontal sections of the brass
Hence, If t1us product be a constant, the one factor must vary intiers&
as the other, or a lug:! load will give a low coefficient, and t<c:ce versa.
For ordln?ry.l!ibricatlon, the coefficient is more constant under varying
loads; the frlctlonpl resistance then varies directly as the l,oad as shorvn
by Xr. Toiver in Table VIII of his report (Proc. Inst. 111 E
1683)
tvifh respect to Law 3, A. M. Wellington (Trans. A ,$ 6 E. l&34) in
esPernnents On journals revolving at very Iow velocitie- f&n6 that the
friction ~1s then very great, and nearly constant undli varyinv kondi-
tions of the lubrication, load, and teniperature
But as the sEeed in-
cr!+ed tile friction fell slowly and regularly, alid again returned to the
OWWlal amount Wile11 the velocity w&s reduced to the.s&me rate.
shown in the following table:
This is
Speed, feet per minute:
o+ 2.16 3.33 4.86 8.82
Coefficient
21.42 35.37
of friction:
53.01 S9.2S 106.0~
0.11s. 0.094 0. 070 0. 069 0. 055 0. 047 0. 040 0. 035 0. 030 0. 026
l[t was also found by Prof. Kimball that when the journal velocity nras
!nUeased from 6 to 119 ft. per minute, the friction was reduced 707.
!n another case the frlctlon was reduced 67% when the velocity &
increased from 1 to 100 ft. p?r minute; but after that point was reachei
the coefficient vaned apI)roslmately wth the square
root
The follo\ying results were obtained by Mr. lower:
of the velocity.
Feet per minute. 209 262 314 366 419 471
Nominal Load
per sq. in.
~---
--
Coeff.,offri$iorl.I.I. 0.00l00..00120.0013 O.OOl~O.Ool4 0.0017
. 0013 . 0014 . 0015 . OOl 7 .0018 .007.
520 Ibs.
1. L#
. 0014 . 0015 . 0017 . 0019 . 0021 . 0024
468 l bs.
415 Ibs.
The variation of fiction
inverse ratio, Law 4.
with temperature is aJ)proslmatelv in the
per minute:
Take, for example, Mr. Towers results, it 262 ft.
Temp. F.
( 1W 1 100 1 90' . 1 80 1 70" 1 60"
Obserwtl..
--
Calclrl:lterl. .
0. 0051 0. 006
0. 0073 0. 0092 0. 0119
0. 00518 0. 00608 0. 00733 0. 00964 0. 01252
This law does. n?t hold good for Pad or siPhon lubricat~ion as then t,he
coelftclent of fnctlon diminishes more rapidly for ~%,ivel, i&ments of
kmpmture. but on a Kradually decreasip
.g scale. until the normal tem-
perature has been fea~h~l; t.his normal temperature increases direct]\,
as the h(f Per sq. In. This is shown in the follo!ving table talcen fror;l
Mr. Stroudle~-s experiments with a pad of rape-oil:
-
Temp. F........,., 1050
1350 1400 1450
Cdfkient.. . . . . . . -----
D~crp:l~e of Co&..
O.OllO O.6l65O.0102
0. 0005 0. 0004j 0. 0002
-
In the Cnlton-~Vest.in:lloilse esperimentn it tvas follnd thzt lvltl,
wlorif Ic.u b&w 100 fb. per min.. and wil:h 10~~ prc:q:sllrtxs the fictlonll
r-ism(*e v+ried tlircctiy as blw normill l,rc:;sllrn. l& ,vh& z vclo(>Ity bf
100 ft. Per nm1. KU ~UWK~WI. the coelficient of fri&ion grc;itli diminislletl:
I
.on a shaft of 5.in. diame
1 ton per sq. in. The sp&z \%?% k d AC.. r.- . .._. ~. ~.
sarv to force t,he oil under-the bearing by means of a pump.
For heavy
hoii7ontal shafts, such as a flv-wheel shaft, carrying 100 tons on tY0 Jour-
nats,\lis pract,ice for m=+tinechl into the bearings was to flatten !he Journal
along one side thrcll,...YL.l _..
about an
. I.. ..;~-.
eighth of an Inch in width for each inch m diameter up to S in. diameter;
above that size rather less flat in Proportion to the diameter.. At first
sight it appeared alarming to get a continuous flat place comw round
in every revollltion of a heavily loaded shaft: yet it carried the 011 effec-
tually int.0 the bearing. which ran much better in Consequence than a
trulc crlindrical iournal wit-- - un4 nAr.
P
n
~~~ ...-.___I___....c._
*,&o-boats Mr. Thornycroft alloys a Pressure
of never more than 50 11)s. per sq. in.
Prof. Thurston (Friction 2nd Lost Work
ressure per square inch ls reached on
l0vNi piv0t.s of swing bridges.
Mr. Tower ~tps (z+w. IIIY~. M. E., .Jan. 1884): In eccent,ric-pins of punch-
in:: and sl&~fip ~~~~cl~in& very l,irh pkssltres nrc sometimes used v&h-
Out sei7,ing. 11, zd;lItion to tile alternation in the direction. the pressure
is *Pnlied for oniv a verv short space of time in these mnclnnes. so that
the-Oil has no tirlik to besqtleezeti out.
Iti the discuwlon tin Mr. Toivcrs paper (Iroc. Inst. Jf. E.. ls?5) it lvas
Stat,etl that it &is well known from practical experience that 1~1th a con-
' i i ARNi i ! i : Thi s~is a 1910 editidn.
FRICTION AND LIJRRICAIION.
Iron, the same experiments Prof.
Kennedy found that the coefficient of
f,lction for high Pressures was sensibly less than ior low.
~Ilomable Yressurcs on Bearing-surfaces. Woe. Inst. M. E.
\lsy, l,yss.) - The Conlmittee
on Friction experiinentcd with a steei
;iog ot rectangular, sectlon, pressed
between two cast-iron disks, the
allnukar be&ring-surisces ol whx,h were Fevered with gun-metal, and were
1z in. inside diameter and 14 111. outSKW.
The two $slis were rotated
toc,cther, and the steel rius wa,s prevented from rotatmg by means of a
&cr the holding force of wlucl? was measured. When- oiled through
PO
o&s,cut in each face of the rmg and tested at from 2.0 to 130 revs.
mi*, it was found thkkt a pressure of 75 lbs. per sq. :n. of bearing-
$$face &s a,s much as it would bear safely at the highest speed with?ut
seiaing, although it carried 90 Ibs. p?r sq. in. at the lotv+ speed.
The
coelEc,ient of friction is also much higher than for il cshndncal bean%,
and the friction follows the law of the fnctlon of sohds much more nearly
till,, that of liquids. This is doubtless due to the much less ,perfect
luirication applicable to this form of bearing compared with a cylf!ldricsl
one. The coefficient of friction appears to be about the same \~\lth the
Same load at all speeds,
or in other words. t,o be independent of the
speed. but it seems to dimikisb some\vhat *as the loa? is l?cr+sed, and
rn:,,v &: stated aPIxosimately as l/20 at 15 Ibs. per sq. m., dmxmshmg to
I
I I ,% per sq. i n.
-:i:ii i;gh coeflicicnts of friction are explained by the difficulty of h$ri-
-..l:*.,* -2 ,*olIar-bearing, It is similar to the shde-block. of an ewne,
_...
carry only about one-tenth the load per sq. in. tlliLt can be
*d by the crank-pins.
....-rl~rir~~~t~t.~ nn r:vlindhcal journuls it has been shoed tlvat when a
ubricatcd from the side on which t,he
.I..~> c( tl~r~ limit. of orcssure that it WOUIC yure ca.rry;
twa>r sirle ;~nrt was :~lloWe(l I,0
G+h it, 6OO lb& per sq. in. ~ils reachid With imPu
n,. F in ~l,ir.h W:I~ reckoned upon rhe full diameter
ihn c-i~.th nnrt nf the circle that Was
i that the pressure
~&~l~if~l% 600 lbs. pGL .x1. ....,
...I... .
of tile beu-ing, came to be reclioncd On t.., uLz.w.. ,,... I -.
ta,lting the greater proport,ion of the losd. lt follower
upon that part of the circle amounted to about 1~~00 Ibs. Per sq. ifi.
in connection with t.lwsn exr,eriments Xr. \\ xksteed states. tb;t,i;
drilling-macllines th
lbs. per sq. in., but tiLIc aI,tiLy -A . ..-.-..
in any of the experiments Af +rfi lJ
working very slowly and i
much luphcr pressures are a(
- _. . _ _ . .
I npt . c. . , E. , JSSG) @und. that J&c: total frictional
resistance is matenally rcuuceo by tilmmishing the widlh of the brass.
The lubrication is most etticient in reducir
subtends an an& of rru ~ttt 1W to 6G.
~g the f,riction when the brass
and IlOO.
The film 1s probably at,its best
of a rai1wa.y axle-bwrinn where an oil-ernove i.
the elf sicle, which is probably due t6
es the crown of the brass, and so leaving
IlrO.,,. ,ln,,cr~r.l,.nt~l.. II.>- ..I ~^
In railway +es tile brass wars always &I thi. forward side. The
same qbservetlon has been made in marine-engine jourmats, which always
\\-ear m exactly the re:ersc way to what might be espect.ed.
filr. St.roud-
leg thinks this t~~culiurity is due to a Mm of lubricant being dralvn in
from the lltldcr. side Of the Journal Tao the aft part of the brass, \vt,tch
cl~ectuully lub,nca+ a+1 pre,ve!lg vw;eac 01~ that~side; and that when the
.~.~.
WCII 1 he bmss and
the journal. The hearing
load of ,WGS 11)s;. ,lt,?n it.
was -half immcrscrl in oil, and had a tot,at
The journal rotated I.50 r.p.m. Tt,e pressure
of t hr 011 \JW deter!rltnetl by drilling: small 11ole.s in the benrinK at, diRerent
point,; awt co,,,wrtl,l~ tt,rr11 by tutws t,o a l3ollrrlon ga,,ge.
It ,,.RS fo,,,,d
that the Pfessur~ Varied from 310 to 825 lbs. per set. in. the greatest
I.;,.
wwlr~ beIn:: :t lltt,te to the of? side of the center line of ihe too of the
~~innx. 111 the direction of motion of i,lw in
wsllre on tne t,r:winp. The speed was re-
oil-txewlrc remained t,he same.
at lo:~d. Itx per sq. in.. . .
at t,he lower speed:
,,,, t ,>C I-*ia+i,...
443 333 211
- 132 0.00168 0.00247 0.01%
Th e *l~~li~~~*i !?nd per sq,!are inch is the tot,nl land diVided by the
h of the journal. .4t the low sptted
r.wn. 1.t was increased to 67G IRS. per SC,. in. without any signs of
rlclLllnp or setzin~.
. , ~ ~, , ,.., (.;-ri
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some (
--
FRICTION AND LUl3RICAlIOS. 1205
~ct,ses of overheat~mg out 01 X2 trials. The tests shoiv Irow purely a
,,,:,tter of chance 1s the overhwting, as 5 brass n-hich raIi hot al 5,OO~ lb.5.
load on one day would rml cool on a later date at ,the same,,or hu$er
pressure.
The explnnstion of this aptxwently arlxtrar)- dttlerence of
be,lavlor is that t,he pccid+al variations of the smoorhnrss of l+ sur-
f..ces almost infiniteslma,l 111 their m t i gnillide,,cause variations of frlctlon
,vhic& are always tending to produce owrl,estmg, and II 1~ solely a !n;tttcr
of cllance when these tcndenctes preponderate over the lubrtcating
illti~*imX of the oil.
There is no :~t~tneci~ble advantage shown by spern!-
oil, when there is no tendency to overheat - that is, parattlne can lubrt-
catc under the highest pressures which occur, as well a~ .$perm, when the
surfaces are within the conditions anording the minimum coelilcient,s of
friclioll.
sperm and other oils of high heat-r&sling quatitiea, like vegetable oil
ancl nPrroleum c.vllnder slacks rlit?m from the more volatile lubncants,
the ~3:hances of the continual
ion producing overhcnting.
-_..
TI,~ etiect of emery or other gritty substance in reducing overhcatiw
The etfcct of the emery upon the slnfaccs of the bearinrs is to cover the
latter \\:tth a series of parallel grooves, and aptxtrentty aiter such grooves
are made t,he presence of the emery dots not practically i,,crcase the
[rict,ion over its itntoutlt when pure oil only in Iwt\wen t,tle ,suriacee.
Tllc infinite nr,,,,twr of jiroovc~ conslit MI! :L Vrrg twrfc~t Inwa!!s 01 lllWr,l,!G
it uniform oil s,,t,ply at every poiltt of tlie bWrmg:s.
;ls ll,,lr: as ~:rOOY~!S
tn the jorlrnal match with those in the brwsw lhe friction appears Lo
amount to ollly al,o,tt 10c/O to 15% of the wcssure.
]ournal is placed lwtwccn a set of brnsscs w uch are ,orooved, n,,d ws- 1.
I9tt if a smoot,h
Sure be applied the jo,,r,mt crushes tl,e grooves and becomw brazed
or coated \vith l&r and then tt,e coeflicient of friction become3 ntward
of 40ir,. If then c&g is applied, the friction is made wry ,n~C1, 1~3 bY
its presence, because the grooves are made to match each ot,her, and 3,
,,niform oil supply prewils at every point of the benril!cs. whereas before
the annlicntion of the emery many spots of the bearmg receive no oil
betwvb&, tliem.
Xoment of Frictfon and Work of IWction of Sliding-sllrfaccs. et&
Moment of Friction,
Enrrq lost by Fric-
in~+1-ll,s. tionin ft.-lbs.
ner min.
Flat surfaces. . . . . . . ..a....... fir-s
Shafts and ,journals . . . l/z flltl O.S%lS fllritz
Flat pivobs . . . ._ .
0.340/11~r?I
l..G - r,3
Collar-bearing.
0.340 /11n rn
Conical pivot.. %fllr cosec (L
0.349 fllrtf cosec a
Conical journal. . . . 2/3/llr St!C CL
0.349 fllr,l WC a
Trtmcnted-cone pivot..
),,a - r,s
?/311tr1.?
*$ - ,,n
(1.340 /IIg=
Hemispherical pivot . . . . . . fllr
0.5_3G fII,.,I
Tmctris, or Schieies ant~i-
frMon pivot . . . .~. flcr
().523G fllrrtl
In the above f = coclficietlt of friction:
I& = \frei4lt on jo,,rnal or pivot, in pmmdl-:
r = rattcls, tl = diameter. in inches:
,* = space ill feet throrleh which sliding takes Place;
ss2 = ollter raclilis, r, = inner radi!is:
n = n,,mt,cr of revolutions prr !l,llll,fP:
a = the haif-:lnglc .0f the cone, i.e.,
tile nl~+2 of t.he slow
. .
wttn tne asIs.
the material may no longer be accu;-ate
., ~
,,,, ,,,,,, : ~,j
1206 .. FRICTION AND LUBRICATION.
FRICTION AND LUBRICATION. 1207
To obtain the horse-power, divide the quantities in the last column
by 33,000. Horse-power absorbed by friction of a shafts= .?t;! .
I
lti,O~~O
The formula for energy lost by shafts and journals is appro.uimateIY
true for loosely htted besrings.
Prof. Thurston shows that the torrent
formula.varies according to the charncter of fit of the bearing; thus fir
loosely htted .lournals, if U = the energy lost,
2f nr
U = z/I Wn inch-pounds = 02F1~7L foot-,bs.
41 -FfZ
For perfectly fitted journals u = 2.54 f ar l Yn inch-lbs.= 0.3325 ~Iv&
ft.-lbs.
For a bearing in which the journal is so grasped as to glVe a uniform
pressure throughout, U = f +r I V?z inch-lbs. = 0.4112f~& ft.-lbs
Resistance of railway trains and x<agons due to friction of trains:
Pull on draw-bar = f X 2240 i R pounds per gross ton
.I.
in which R is the ratio of the radius of the wheel to the radius
A cyhndrical journal, perfectly fibted into a bearinn and
of journal.
carrvina a
total load, distributes the nressure due to 1.16s lnrld &equally 6~ $lle
bearing, the maximum pressure being~nt.. *h~--k+~~~
radius. while at the ext,rPmilicc nf th0
.I ~..- -..,.%mity of the Vertical
is zero.
_..---. ---1.-,1 -. . ..i hbrlzontal diameter the pressure
$t any point of the bearing-surface at t.he estremitV of a radius
n-hich maws an nnele 0 with the wrt,ira,l radius the normi D~~SS~IPP ia
proportional to coS 8. If-, Z-*\o;~&iZ
zu = total load on a unit of length of the
. . k,.issure on a, unit, of surface
journal, and r = radius of ~iourna,ll
wcose = 1.571~,. ,p = ucose + 1.57~.
Tests of Laqe Shaft Ik;rrin& are reported by Alhwb KinKsbury
ill frans. A. a$. dl. I?., 1905. A lorizontn,l shaft was supported in two
bearmgs 9 X.30 ins.. and a third bearing 15 X 40 iw., mitlwav between the
other, two, was pressed upwards against the shaft !)y a weiihcd lever so
that lt was subjcctetl to a pressurk of 25 to 50 tons.
flooded with oil from a supply tank.
The journals {Gere
The shaft wils driven bv an electric
motor. and the friction HP. was determined
supphed. Following are the principal results:
by measuringthe current
Load. tons* 1
25 25 25
25
LT3d per;?. in.* 83
25 33.6
42.3 47 47 50.5
s3
Syoe$ r.t;;.
83 112
141 157 157 168
180 179 Slp,e$. fyotr min.* 301 454 4so 946 1343 1286
F$c,, I& 6.43 70s 704 1180 1785 1890 3720 4900 5050
5.12 10.1 Coeff. of frictiont 16 17.9 41.9 47,s 52.3
.004o .004s .0040 .0037 .0037 .0029 .0024 .0025
* On the large bearing.
.0022 .rm!~
t Three bearings.
The last three tests were with paraffin oil: the others with heal-y machine
oil.
ClcaranCc between Journal and Bearing. - John K. Upp in
TrflliS, A. 8. M. E.. 1905 gives a table showing the diameter of bore
of llprlzont,al and vert.ical bearings accordinp to t,he practice of one of the
!eadmg !m*derS Of electrica! machinerv.
The maximum di?meter of t,he
.loUrKil 1s the sxne as its nomin~al dinmeter with an Slio!vAbie rlritt,ion
bekm m~~l!~~~m of 0.0005 in. up to 3 in. tliad. 0.001 in. from 5% ;o j in.,
?nd ,0.9010 111. from IO to 24 in. The maxim& bore of 7, hori&t?l hew
!W 18 t:lrw thnn t,lie diam. of the journal bV from O.i$? in. for ;, &in.
JoWnal to 0.999 for 6 in., for journals 7 to i5 in. it is 0~004 + OfOOi X
diam., an? for 16 to 24 in. It is uniformly 0.02 in.
For Vertical journa,ls the
clearance IS less !)Y from 0.001 to 0.004 in. accordinK to the diameter.
allowahie Variat,ion above the minimum bore is from 9.001 to 0.005
The
Allo~~blc freSsures on Bearings. -J. T. N;cholson in a paper
read before t.he Tlanchester ASSOC. of Engrs. (&n. iwach., a&. 16, 1908,
\rJkNIN&~: This~ is a 1910 edition.
somc+j
r- Dig& Feb., lyOS), as a result of a theoretical study of the Lubrication
,&ings and of their emission of heat, obtains the formula p = p/id =
fiilW~
of be.- -
4o (~,\T\T)/$ in which p = allowable pressure per sq,. in. of projected area,
p,- tota, pressure, 1 = length jnd d = tlrwn. of .lournal. TV = revs. per
It appears from this formula that the greater Lhe speed the greater
$~$d~owsble pressure per sq. in.. so that for a l-tn. Journa! the alloxvaabl~
reSqure per sq. in. is 126 lbs. at 100 r.p.m. and 1\9 lbs. at ,300 r.p.m.,
For a j-l,?. journal lS9 lbs. at lOO,s~,ld 2X.3 lbs. at a00 r.p.m,
w. H. Sr:Ott
(~,~~,,D~geSt, Feb., 1908) says this 1s covtrpry to the teachmr;: of IxaLtlcal
experience and therefore the formula 1s Inaccurate.
>lr. &Ott,. from a
~...A.~ ,,f lhe rrrwrim~nts of Tower, I,&sche, and Stnbecli, derwes the
~~~o&~~ form&e for t& several conditions named:
car main bearings of double-acting vertical engines.
p = 750 D1/4/1V14
(( , 6 a1 II horizontal *
p = 660 D/l?/.\r/4
** 1 6. single-act~ing Iour-cycle gas en-
gines . . . . . . . . : ; .
p = 13.50 Dr112/.\7114
114
nor crank pins of vert. and hor. double-actmg enknnes . P = 1560 D1!4/Xl
, I< I*
single-acting four-cycle gas engines. p = 3000 D/4/1\
/4
For cl_ead loads with ordinary lubrication _ . . p =
400 iv-h
., (1 I
forced . :
p = 1600 A-/4 \ -/4
p = allowable pressure,in !bs. per sq. in. of projected area; D = diam.
per sq. m. CI~ projecwu arw; D = diam.
in 111s.: iV = revs, per. mm.
= x.z.7. ~~.I~fl~- (7kfl,lS. ..I. s. M. I?., 1905), as t~lx result of an @:estigat,ion
of ii;le ql~aft and mill hearings that were rul!nmg ,near the lunlt of dura-
t~,ilit,y akl heating yet not dangerollsly heatl!x. gives the formula TV =
400.
p = pressure in 11)s. per scl. in. of pro,wtetl area, 1 = VeloCltY of
circumference of henrh!:: in fl,.
The formula is apl~hcahle t<, .,c-: . ..-.. . . . .
s\izftilltr wtlicll is intended to run wlttl tl?e C,L- .-.... -_ _....-.. ~~~~~
&rilltP, usll:&~ recc*ve and gives ttle masmIUm or most. severe duty to
wl,ich?t 1s safe to subi& ordinary ckai,t. or oiled ball and socket bearlngs
jv*,ic,l are I~r~iJlitforf it. k not, safe for P
rf3inarv shnftine to Use cast-zro,tr
boxes, wit1
conditions
Archbui. -...
inn table of at
I,I.~,II-... _ _I . . . . .~~ A . ..a..+. ., ~...-.,.:.. -- ~~~~
1 either sight feed. w~lc feed, or grease-cup olhng, under as severe
1as P X V = 200.
k+ nnd Deeleys Lubrication and Lubricants gives the fOllOW-
.lowable pressures in lbs. per sq. ix of projected area of
dikerent bearings:
Crank-pin of shearing and punchin,
0 machine, hard steel, inter-
mittent load bearing.
..................................
Bronze crosshead neck journals.
..........................
Crank pins, larfi$ slow engine
.............................
Crsnk pins, marme enwws ...
..................................................
Main crankshaft bearing, fast mawe
Same,slowmarine.. ....................................
Railway coach journals
..................................
Flywheel shift jollrnals.
................................
Smallenginecranlipin.. .................................
Small slide block, marine en&me. ;. .............
..........
Stationary engine slide blocks.
...........................
Same,usualcase.. .....................................
Propellerthrustbearings.. .. .... ,.
Shafts in cast-iron stens. high speed:
............................................
Bearing Pressures for HQ:IVY Intern!ittrnt Loads.
(Oberlin Smith.
Trans. A. ,y. i~f. B., 1905.) - IU a prmchmg press of about 54 to.ns capa-
city, the pressure upon the front journal
of the main shaft IS about
2400 lhs. per SQ. in. of projected area.
Upon the eccentric t1i.e pressure
aainqt the pitman driving t.he ram is some 7000 tbs. Per scl. 111. -both
s&f&s beinw of cast iron wd sometimes runnine at. a surface speed Of
l40 feet per Pninute.
Srlcil mzciliney r,,n war
little tronble in the way of heat& orcl~bt.inc.
in and Fear out Wth W
..\,, illst,:lnce of eweswe
Pressure nlzy bca c*t,etl in the Gas,: f :I Ferrwute toggle press, where the
~ .,:,a. Whole ram~res&c of 400 tonsis brought to bear upon hardened steel
,y.+ ,,
&&*.b,ide .,~~ . . , ~.
the material may no longer be accurate
toggle-
f
ins, ru,nning in cast irpn or bronze bearings, 3 in. in diam. by nearly
14 in. ng.
20,000 Ibs.
rhese run habitually, for maximum work, under a load f
Der so. in.
Thrust Bearings in JIarine Practice. (C. W. Dirkie. Tro~rs. A. S.
AI. Il.. 1005.) -Thr: approximate pressure on a thrust bearing of a propeller
shaft assuming two thirds of the indicated horse-power to be effective
2 x 60 x 3:mo 1.H.P
on the gropcller is P = I.H.P. X 8 x 3 x 0080 = -.-.-.
s
X 217.1. in
which 8 = speed of ship in knt.s per hour, P = total thrust iI1 lbs.
The
foll,wini: arc data of water-cooled bearings which have given satisfactory
srrvlce:
.
-1 111 I\LLL.S.. . . . . . .
1 hrust-ring surface, horse-shoe type,
22
sq. UIS..
Hors+power. one engine, I.H:$: .....
11% SD1
Indicat~(~d pressure on bearing, Ihs,. . .
Itcssum per sq. in. of surfncc. Ibs. . .
1:$8S S$$i
Mt~a!l speed of bearing sarfacc~s. ft. ner
05 100 -- __._
_
111111.. . . . .
642 610 s27 504
I3r:trin~s for T,ocomotivcs.
.m,,- ~
(G. RI. Basford, Trans. A. S Al. E.,
- Ue+.rh!g. areas for locomobive journals are delermine;i chir+lv
of lubrication. On driving i ml rnnl s thp fnllr
1:,1,,;,., -
hy the possibilities
---:--0
Jwllg
fi&Wrw of Ixrssure in Ihs. per sq. in. of pr,jected area give g?d service:
I%!: frelxht. 200: switching, 220 Ibs.
1200 to 1700 11x.; wrist Dins to 4000 Ihs~ ner sq. in.
. C in tentier Uearings are usually loaded from 300 to 325 lbs. pel .~ ,. .,l.
13rarin~s of Cor!iss Evgincas.
n
(I. II. BP(w, Tm~s. A. S. iii. IS..
100~.) - In the pmct.ice of -me of the largest buihlrrs the greatest
allowed per sq. in. of projected area for a11 shafts is 140 1~s.
ressure
WZines .the pressure
R n most
er sq. in. multiplied by t,he velocily of the bearing
surfa~ce 111 ft. per sec. ICS between lntrcl nd IRIM F
E:fwill R,~nolds sa.vs that a main en,oine bearing to l)e qafe against
Ulldlle ~l~~tlllK SllOllld be Of Slldl a size that the Ixotiuct, of the-square root
Of the SPeCd Of rllbbillx-surface iu lwt pcr second mldtiplied bv the pounds
I~~r.square inch of projcctcd arca, sholrl~l not psct:ed 375 fors horizontill
ellQW, or WO for a vlart ical engine when the shaft is lift,ed at every revo-
htlon. Locomotive driVhlg boxes in sonle cases give the produr; is iligb
::.:
.,:&..?&
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of
PIVOT-BEARINGS
-- xc.< hut this is accounted for bv the c:ooling action Of the air.
(An.
7, 1003.)
~^;i;nnpurature of Isngjne I Gwxi ngs.
(A. M. JIatIipc, Tram. A. S. M.
F, 1005.)--An esilmmatlon of the tempcrat,urc of bc:ar?!lgs of a large nun,-
&; of engines of various makes showed more above I.&j0 F. than below
t h:tt figure. Mzuly hearings were running with a temperature over !51Jjoo,
an(l in one case at 150. and in all of these cases the bearings were gWmg
no trouble.
PIVOT-BEARINGS.
The Schi el e Curve. - \V. 1-I. Harrison (Am., dlach., 1891) says t,he
Sehlele curve is not as good a form for a beanng as rhe segn!ent ot a
sphere. He says: A mill-stone weighing a,ton frequsntly bea,rs Its wh?le
weight upon the flat end of a hard-steel pivot 11/s m. dmm.,.r 1 SQ. tn.
area of bearing; but to caxry a weight of 3000 lh. he arlv~strs an end
hearing ahout 4 ins. diam., made in the form of a seqrnent of a spllrr,e
about l/z in. in height. The die or fixed hcarinr: should be tlislietl ,L fit
the pivot. This form gives a chance for the hearin:: t? adjust lts,f+f,
wldch it does not have when made flat, or when made with Ihe Schlele
curve. If a side bearing is ll~!cessaFy it can be orran:ed farther up the
sllaft. The pivot and die should bc of sbccl,
hardened: cross-gutt,ers
should be in the die to allow oil to flow, and a
central oii-hole should be
mnile in t
The ad
..nifnmml~:
he shaft.
vantage chimed for the Sclliele bearin,
v is that the pressure is
tlistrihutetl over its surface, and that it therrfore wears uni-
~~~~~~~~~~Wilfre11 Lewis (AIM. .W~K/I.., April 10. 1%.1) says t,hat its ments
as a tllrlist.-l,lrarillf have been v:wtly vcrcstimnted: that the term
anbi-friction applied to it is a misnomer, since its friction 9 greater
than that of a flat stcq) or collar of the same dinmrter.
He advlsc,s l$t
flat t,hrllst-hc!:lrinLs sl~idd always he annular in form, having an inside
diameter one-half of the estxrnal tlinrncter.
Fri cti on of a Fl at Pi vot- l wari ng. - The Rc+carch Comrr!ittec on
Friction (Proc Inst. M. E.. lS01) csperimcnted on a stcl)-IWnnc. lhtt-
trnded 3 in. diam. t,hr oil t)ein!z forced into the bearinr: t,hroWh a hok!
in ibqc&t.er and distributed through two radial prooves. insuring t,hrWh
Iuhricat~ion. The step was of steel and the bearing of manganese-bronze.
At revnlubions per min.
Th~~coeficient of friction
varied between } and 0 0221 0.0113 0 .OlO? 0.015s 0.0167
With a white-mrtnl bearing at 128 revs. the coefficient of friction +as
a little larger than with the manpnnese-bronze.
.Xt, the hi&car nprrds
the cefficlPnt of friction was less, owing t, the more perfect, luhricat.ln,
as shown by the more rapid circulation of the il. .4t, 1% revs. t,he
bronze-bearing heated and seized on one occasion nlth a load of 260 Ibs..
ml on another occasion with 300 Ihs. per sq. in.
The white-metal henr-
in under similar conditions hea,ted and seized rvith a load of 240 1bs.
Per s in. The steel footstep on manganese-bronze wvns aft.er!vafds
tried. t uhricat,ing with three and with four radial grooves: but the fnctlon
\vas from one and a half times to t.wice as treat, as wit,h only the two
grooves.
%!rrury-hath Pivot. - A_ ncnrlv frlctinIess step-hearinc may be
htained by floating the bearing with lt,s superincnmhcnt Wi!Zht Won
meram. Such an apparatus is used in the lichthouses of La Heve.
Havre. It is thus descrlhed in Engg. July 14. lSO3. D. 41:
The optical apparatus welehinp about, 1 t,on. rests on a circular cast-
irOn tnhle, which is slIpported hv a vertical shaft of n-rowzht iron 2.36 in.
giamcter. This is kept, ln position ai t,he top by a bronze rine and it,er
mn si rpport, and : I t t, k hot, tomi n the same n-n?. while it rota- on a
removable steel pivot resting in a steel socket,. which is fitted to the base
of the shpport. To the rprt.ical shaft, them is riridly fixed a floating cast-
iron tinr 17.1 in. diameter and 11.8 in. in deptli. \vI-hich is plllngpd Into
and rothes in a mercury bath contained in a tired olltrr drWn Or +lk-
the drar:;nce between the vertical surfarcs of the dim and ring WOOF:
onlv 0.3 in.. so as t reduce as m~h as possible the plume 0.f mercury
tabOUt 220 Ibs.), while the horizontal clearance at the bottom 1s 0.4 In*
ie material may no longer be accurate
BALL-BEARINGS, ROLLER-IlEAnINGS, ETC. 1211
210 PRICTION AND LUBRICATION.
BALL-DEARINGS, ROLLER-IjEARINGS, ETC.
Friction-rollers. - If a journal instead of revolvinr on ordina,,,,
Surface speed of journal 0 to 50 ft. per min. Le,ngt!l of journal 1112
diameters.
The rolls are made of tool steel not too lugh m carbon, and of
spri ng temper
The iournal or shaft should be made not above a medium
snrmg tempt
g<.
---------~~~
The box should be made of high carbon steel and tem-
;;pred~ as hard as possible.
?nllnr Tl l r mt Bearings. - The Mossberg thrust bearing is
~51 TWIXS contained in a cage, and two collars,, one being
d the other fixed to the shaft and revolving wvlth it.
~~rh~~nlln.r i,s made conical to correspond with the rollers
One
+arings be supported on friction-rollers the force required to m&e-ih;!
Journal revolve will he reduced in nearly the same proportion that the
diameter of the axles of the rollers is less than the diameter of the rollPra
ear LL 1. I.._
,Ger of the cones is at the cent,er of the Shaft. The
angle of the cones 1s 6 to 7 degrees.
Larger angles are obJectlonable.
niving excessive end thrust. The following s&es are made:
themselves. In experiments by A. $1. Wellir@on with a journal 3l/&
d&m. supported on rollers S in. diam.. whose axles were 13/4 in. d&m., the
fr@on m starting from rest was l / 4 the friction of a.11 ordimary 3~-ln
bearing, bgt at a car speed of 10 miles per hour it was l/2 that of the ordl:
nary bearmg. The ratio of the diam. of the axle to diam. of roller was
1314: 8, or as 1 to 4.6.
Coefficients of Friction of Roller Bmrings. C. H. Benjamin,, Afachl/.
Oct., 1905. - Comparative tests of plain habbitted, McKee1 plain roll&
and Hyat.t roller bearings gave the following values of t,he coetlicient 0;
friction at a speed of 560 r.n.m.:
Safe Pressure on Bearing.
TftlSg$
Outside
Dismeter
Ins. .
of Ring. %&P:.
hen. of
Ins. ixre
Sq. ins
2--
-~~
21/ 16- 2~/ 4 p 30 19. 000
) ~/ ta- 3' 14 49, 000
4l / 10- 41/ 4 Wl f J
: :
70, 000
~~l m- 5V4 123/ s 30 54 108, 000
bl/la-6%
147: s
: "z I i "2
125. 000
i J ~he- 81/ z
v/ M- 91/ 2 : : : j ;
200. 000
32 162 300,000
- 1
- - . . .
9, 500
20, 000
: ~%i
62' 000
l oo: ooo
150, 000
plain Roller Thrust Ikarings. -S. S. Kvelancl, or, the Standard
Roller Bearing Co., contributes the following data of plam roller thrust
bearings in use in 1903. The bearing con$sts of. a large ntmlbt!r of short
cylindrical rollers enclosed in openings m a chslc pl+ced, between. two
hardened steel plates. He says
our plain roller bearmg 1s theoretically
wrong, but in practice it works perfecW.
and has replaced many thou-
sand ball-bearings which have proven uns&tisfactory.
-i
Diameter
of
JoWnal.
Hyatt Bearing. McKee1 Bearing. Babbitt Bearing.
Max. / Jfin. j *vz Max. j Min. / Ave.
-.
Max. Min. Ave.
---
. 032 , 012 , 018
, 019 , 011 , 014
, 042 , 025
. 029 , 022 : Z
.
, 033 , 017 , 022 , 074 , 029 , 043
, . . . . . . . . _ , 088 ~078 , 028 . Ol 5 , 021 , 114 , 083 : E
, 039 , 019 . 027 . I 25 . 089 . I 07
-
The friction of the roller bearing is from one-lift,h to one-third that of a
f.,
lain bearinp at moderste loads and speeds. It is noticeable that a,s the
o&d on a roller bearing increases the coefficient of friction decreases
A slight change in the pressure due to the adjusting nuts WE sukcient
to increase the friction considerably. In the McKee1 beari ng the rol l s
bore ou a cast-iron sleeve and in the Hyatt on a soft-st,eel one. If roller
bearir?gs are properly adjusted and not overloaded a saving of from 2-3
to 3-4 of the friction may be reasonably expect,ed.
MC&eel hearings contained rolls turned from solid steel and guided by
spherical ends fitt,ing recesses, in cage rings at each end.
The cage rings
were joined t.o ench other by steel rods parallel to the rolls.
Lubrication IS absolutely necessary wit.h ball and roller bearings,
although the contrary claim is often advanced.
ditiocs an almost im erceptible
Under favorable con-
to immerse half the P owest
film is sufficient; a sufficient quanrity
preventive.
ball should always be provided as a rust
Rust and grit must be kept out of ba!l and roller bearings.
Acid or rancid lubricants are as destructive as rllst. (Henry Hess.)
Bot,h ball and roller bearings, to give the bist satisfaction. should be
made of steel, hardened and ground; accurat,elv fitted, and in proper
al&nment wit,h the shaft and load: ciertued and oiled regularly. a,nd fitted
with as large-size halls or rollers as
I~
)cr minute and load to be Carrie
Q ..
ossible depending upon the revolutions
011 1s absolutely necessary on both
~111 and roller bearings, to prevent rust.
Roller Bearings.
(S. S. Eveland.)
-The Mossberg roller bearings for journals are made
in the sizes given m the table below. D = diam. of journal: d=diam. of
roll: X = number of roi l s: P = safe load on journals, in lhs.
~tl in a bronze supporting cage.
The rolls
(Trans. A. S. Jf. E.. 1905.3 are enclos
D d
--
N p DdN P D d/S P
- --__ ____
2; %i 6 ", 5, j 24
5gg
E
13' 000
24: 000
7 13/ y ; "z
; l 7/ "' $o' l i oo
24
24 37, 000
115: OOO
2 1l/4 i 26 175,000.
-
_
Weight.
on ench
in., Ibs.
roll.
Ibs.
IVTeight
+m. Bzir-
ings, lbs
Number and
Size ofi~;llers.
I .
Size.of
Be~~ne~
_..
-
I
36 "I ax 51111
32 s/ 4x "i s
g 13/ 4; ; g
54 1 x 112
70 11/ 4X5/ 8
546 167
833
750 ' 2: ;
833 417
988 463
1334 833
500 6.000
470 10.000
420 15,000
370 20,000
b325 25,000
300 60,000
The Hyatt Roller Bearing.
(A. L. Williston. Tran,s. A,. S. df..E.,
1905.) - J%e distmctive feature of the Hyatt roller, bearmg !.q a Aeltible
roller made of a strip of steel wound into a coil or sprmg pf unifqrm &am-
eter. A roller of this construction insures a uniform dLitrlbut.lon ?f tl!e
load along the line of contact of the roller and the s!lrfac$s on which It
operates. It also permits any slight irregularities in either JOLlrllal Or box
Wthout causing excessive pressure.
The roller is hollow and serves as
*n oil reservoir. For a hezvy load, a roller of heavy stock c+n be made.
while for a higt>-spe& be&n* under light pressure a roller of hght Fvelght*
made from tbln stock can beked. Following are the restlks of SOme tests
of the Hyatt hearlni ln comparison with ot,her bearings:
A Shaft 152 ft. long, -
?/I8 in. di&m. supported by 20 bearings, pelt-
driven from one end, gave a friction load of 2.28 HP. with babbitted
bearings and 0.~0 H.P. with Hyat,t bearings.
\Vlth ss countershafts
running in babbitted bearingc: the H.P. required was S.%J when the main
shaft was in babbitted bear&i and 6.36 H.P. when it Was ill &LLtt kLLrlw.
WARNI NG: This is a 1910 edition. Some 0
,&+L
w&*, :.~~.,~
the materialtiay no longer be accurate
1212 FRICTION AND LUBRICATION.
Hyatt bearing 130 rwn. 0.0114 302
Cast-iron bearing
r.p.m. * 0.0099 585
12s 6
0.0.54s
r.p.m.
302
0.0147
Bronze bearing
0.0592 130 410 6
0.0576 320
O.OGS3
0.0661 5s" I 0.14n
Notes on Ihll ISwrings. -The followin,~ notes are contributed by
Mr. Henfy Hws. 1910, llatt bearings in modern tlse dat,e from the bt-
cyct. 1 hat broxht In t,tie adjustable cup and cone and tt,rreSptnt
c?l,Jtact type. U!xler the tlemantls for greater toad resist.luce ~~~3 ret,%-
tJllltY, tile two-POlUt COUtWt type. \vittlOrlt ndjtlSt:ll,itity: my& &Ol&;
ttlat,,ls now ,!!se(l under,toatls from a few pounds to many tons,
suct1 a
l~WlX*:: Cc+htS Of an imwr race, an outer race an<1 tl,e series of balls
that roll 11: tra~lis of. curwl cross section.
Various designs are used,
dlffertw cl!letly In the dwirm for separating the balls and hi the arrlnge-
melit for inlrodllcin::
used type tin:; raCPS f
the balls between the races
The most &cly
,h::t tire of the same cross se&on bhru+ut un-
broken by any P~WWY for the inbroduct~tou Qf batts. Tontntroduce
tl!: balls the two rac~fs are first
2scentrirnltv placed; tulle baits wilt fill
stl,httY more ttl:ln a tlalf cirwmferenci:; elnsiic separators or sotid cages
are usrd to snace t.hH tx111
3 ptac~d at the onta~led~id~~iti~~
Weakening of th,e race 1s not. important. This tv
L~LLLb:, ,l,,C,t: Lilt=
tirety discartletl in favor of the on,? atjove describe
A third type has a filling
-i
e 1~~s beeu almost e,,-
.
ew, uzh to tang+ the bottom of the ball trar:tr.
twnilis cut into each race not quit, deep
As this n-enkened
sect+11 *:ccess+r*ly COmeS under the load during cacll revolution the
cmymg capxlt~y is redllced.
Afbw slight wear there ttevrtops an &ter-
fmncc Of the balls with the etlg:cs of these pc:ntn~!s lvhtc,h sertourty
reduces (lit: spwls and toad rapacity.
usyTf ttus t,.ype to take end tllrust..
This iuterfareu& pre&des itie
1 he (!arrYiW c:w:icil,,y of a 1);) tt-bt*:trinx is tlirwtly proporttouat to the
m****hr of hlls ulld to the square of 1111: ball tlt:uilelcr.
WARNING: This is a' 1910 edition. Some 0
BALL-BE,U1IigGS, ROLLElt-BEARISGS,. ETC.
1213
1. jbor Radial Bearings :
h _ 9 for uninterrupted race tracli, cross-section crirvnture = 0.52
and ~a tn. ball diameter respeclwety for mner and outer races.
.en:lrat,ed balls, uniform load, and steady speed up to 300~
min.
,sll typ
erwise as a,hove.
K 5 5 fqr full k
side. 0th
e, filling opening in one race at the unloaded
k = 2.5 for hot
cage separay
revs. per mm.
uniform 1oiLd.
a radial bearing of the first type. as abore.
The
- +I.? smaller K.
The type with ftllmg OpellillgS
:lM.
K = 0.9 for thrust on
larger the balls LLLC ~.~
in each race is not suitable for end thi
Ttle radial iosd bearing,&, up to high speeds,
speed, as to carrying capscIty.
practically unaffected by
II. ZWust Bearings :
\Vtt,ll the llirust tvpe, consisting of one flat plate,and one seat plate
wit,, grooved bat1 r&s, the load capacity decreases wttl speed Or
L = +yJd
-.
cross-
K,= cnstant for material and &e cross-sertion. etc., R = revoh-
ti ons per minute.
I$ rs*ljies from about XMN revs. per min. dowu to 1 rev.
per mtn as for crane hooks and similar elenwnt~.
I( = b, to 40 for mst,erital used by tile Dll F or IIB, and race
sect/ on radi us = approx. 1.66 ball rndi!)s.
K = 0.5 for unhardened steel. cczasIonally used for rer;i(T;T;e
a st:el that is fairly hard lvithout
tern ering mltsJ be used,
Jvh,Au rhere is no hammering or sharp oatl vari,~**-a
P
lk,lls must be carefully selected to make I!!:~ ~!!:!y.
races;
n only
..-. -L* ~11 that are Used
l*,g o**e a**or**rr u,b more t&all O.OO(jl
. . . I.._ .,-... _. ____..~~_
iwh.
A lJzll t,tlnt is lnor(: tIlti*, that larger thau its frll\W WI1 sustw
more than its proportion Of the 10X1,
and mng therefore be overloaded
and wilt in turn overload the ra,ccs.
The usual test of b:$l qt)atltY.
wlllrll consists in compressing ? ball
the J-x&d at ruptllre. gives the qualW .f
. ~I~:,:...
-$ he hall to r+t
,,LUII\I..
. . . . .i,t? deformations
I*tllt me to carry, out: Of ,even
ti,011 !intler load IS uniformity of
,~._I ,...,,
+!l d&rm
hlc; of the
-,rcIL.U the races.
~0 ..I,. 1 :.\ a,l t,,ese
ttti plates, hilt not of the balls. .
permuwn~ deform:~lion that is Of ilpt?~. ba
u~volved are very small t,tle twt is ? dlth
greater importance than a smal l detorm~~
sucll def ormsti ol i between the \ , al k eUl~~lO~~~1: n l~~~~~u W
less than its softer lnste and so will carrv more than Its
load. and will therefore t-*
overloaded snti in turn vt,xn
Coned bearings for
-11s are objectionable. The. d
f orms of beartngs is their adjristnl~le feature.
A be:~rW
tkmed with reference to a certain load ma,y be enormoli II- ^.I,
the material may no longer be accurate
the centers of the balls): d = diam. of balls: n= numb
age clearance space between the balls.
ler
Then D = (d
of balls; s = aver-
cf,.= .D sin (18O/n) - s: s = D sin (180/,~) - d: ?z =
+
6me 1s (d + s) + D. The clesrance s should be abol
11
6) c sin (180/n).
1t
30 + angle who&
0.003 in.
VALUES OF 1800/ n AND OF SIN 180c :.
I
z :%~
;: . 50000 .58799
25.714 .43388
22.500 .3826.3
20 34202
Z.364 ::E2
15 .25882
i3.846 .23931
12.857 .22252
F
n. ~6
&
2
c
z
u 12. o\
.g
0
OD
-- --
15 12 0.20791 27 6.667
16 11.250 .I9509 28 6.429
17 10.588 .I8375 29 6.207
18 IO .I7365 30 6
19 9.474 .I6454 31 5.806
20 9. .I5643 32 5.625
21 8.571 .I4904 33 5.455
22 8.182 .I4233 34 5.294
23 7.826 .I3616 35 5.143
;; ;:;a-& ..I2533 .I3053 36 37 5
4.865
26 6. 923 . I 2055 38 4. 737
L.
( t.ilbOS
: K;:
.I0453
.I0117
. 09801
: ES
. 08963
%I:
.08258
I
. 08047
:oE
. 07473
. 07300
. 07134
:E!i
. 06679
:kE
. 06279
Grades of l&Ills for Rearings. (S. S. Eveland, Trans. A. S. X ET
1905.) - A.gmde @IIs vary about 0.0025 in. in diameter: B glade
0.001 to 0.002 in:: while high-(luty or special balls are furnished varyin;
not over 0.0001 111. ,The crushmg strength of balls is of little importance
as to the load a bennng ~11 carry, the revolut,ions per minute being quite
as fmportant as t,he load.
A.
S?ving ,of Power by Use of B.zll-Bearing+. - Henry Hess (Trans
S. r. &., 1909) describes a series of tesrs made by Dodge and Day on j
2Wo in. hne Shaft 72 ft. long, alternstelv equipped with plain rinn-oiling
babbitted boxes and with Hess-Bright ball-bearings.
were driven from ~u!!eys on the lhle shaft.
Eight count&shafts
plain, bearings.
The countershaft pulleys had
The conclusions from the tests made under normal belt
comhtions of 44 ani 67 lbs. per inch width of angle of single belt are as
fo!loW:
a. Savings due to the substit,ution of ball-bearinxs for plain bearings on
line shaft,s may be safelv calrulatcd by rising 0.0015 as the coefficient of
ball-bearm friction. 0.03 as the roetlicient of line &aft friction, and 0.08
as the coetficient of collntershaft friction.
6. When the belts from line shaft to countershaft pull all in one direc-
tion.and nearly horizont~allp the saving due to the substitution of hall-
bennngs for plain bearings on the line shaft may be safely talcen as 35%
of the bearinz frirbion~
,c. When ball-bqarings are used also on the counttirshafts the savings
~11 be correspondmgly greater and may amount to 70% or more of the
bearing friction.
d. These percent~agcs of savings are percent,ages of the frict,ion work
,,.b :.. &I.^ -a-:..
103b 111 L,,? pLiL,,L oe
L..
transmitted.
anngs:
me
they are not percentages of the total power
transmitted tr
.xne iatter will depend upon the ratio of the total power
) that absorbed in the line and countershafts.
and count.ershnfts varies. as
e. The power consumed in the plain line
Is well known. from IO to $Om .
suhst it ution of ball-bea+
,D fin different industries and shops. me
rondiiions of parapraph
:s for plain bearines on the line shri f t. nnf r l l nrl er
0. will t.hus resliit in saving of total power of
35 X 0.10 = 3. . 5% to 35 X 0. 60 = 217,.
COtlnWrShftS
By using ball-bearings on the
also, the saving of total power will be from 70 x 0.10 = 7%
to 70 X 0.60 = 42%.
KNIFE-EDGE BEARINGS.
Allowable !oads on Bnife-edges vary wit.!1 the manner in which the
Pivots or kmfe-edges are held in the lever and tile pivot supports or
seats secured to the base of weighing machines.
The csrension of the
,,.,,..,.. ,~. .,.. ~~~.~,~ ,,.,, .,~,_ :L.&&
HARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some
FRICTION OF STEAM-ENGINES. 1215
pivot begond the solid support is practically worthless. A high-grade unl-
form too steel with carbon 0.90% to 1.00 & should be used. The temper
of the seats should be drawn to a very hght straw color:,that OI the pivots
should be slightly darker. The angle of 90 for the kmfe-edge has given
goo$ results for heavy loads. For ordinary weighing machinery and most
testmg macllmery 5000 !bs. per ilK!? of length IS afnple. Loads of lO,O~o
lhs. per inch of length are perrnisslble, but the pivot must be flat at Its
upper portion, normal to the load and supported Its whole 1engt.h. with a
minimum denection of parts to secure reasonable accur,acy. The edge may
he made perfectly sharp, for !oads up to !OOO lbs, per inch of length. For
greater loads the sharp edge IS rubbed \$h an o!lstone. so that a smooth-
ness is just visible. A pronounced radws of kmfe-edge ~~11 decrease the
sensibility of the apparatus. (Jos. W. Bramwell, Eng. News, June 14,
1906.)
FRICTION OF STEAJI-ENGINIES.
Distribution of tire Friction of Engines. - Paof. Thurston, in his
~r!ction and Lost Work, gives the followmg:
0
2~
hlain bearings. .................... 4Y. o
Piston and rod
.....................
.Crank-pin.
.......................... 2: 5.1
Cross-head and wrist-pm ............ 4.1
Valve and rod
..................... 52:;
Eccentric strap. ................... 5r3 El
Link and eccentric
.........................
-- ___
Total .................... 100 .o 100 .o
1
22. 0
9.0
100 .o
No 1 Straight-line. 6 x 12 in.. balanced valve; ,No. 2. Stxaight-line,
R x iz {n.. unbalanced valve: No. 3,7 X 10 in., Lansin;: traction, locomo-
tive valve-gear.
Prof Thurstons tests on a number of different styles of engines indicate
that tGe friction of any engil!e is practically constant under all loads.
(?mn~. A. S. kl. E., vii!,, 86; 1x. 74.).
In a straight-line engine, 5 X 14 In.. I.H.P. from 7.41 to 57. 5?, the
friction H.P. varied irregularly between 1.97 and 4.02, the vanatlon
being independent of tbe load.
With 50 H.P. on the brake the I.H.P.
was only 52.6, the fricdion bemg only 2.6 H.P. Or about 5%.
A compound condensing-engine, tested fro!; 0 to 102.6 brake H.P., gave
.
I.H.p. from 14.92 to 117.8 H.P., the friction H.P. varying only from
14.92 to 17.42.
At the maximum load the friction was 15 .2 H.P., or
1.9~
- C-:,.+:-S inn-~a,ses \:;!th increase of the boiler-pressure from 30 to,iO
mes constant. The friction generally increases wth
;o this rule.
IJ) comparing the calculated
;;~~~;,~ii, ~.l~bf&ctinnks det,ermined bv measure-
Ibs., and then beco~---
increase of speed, but there are exceptious 1
Prof. Dent,,11 (,stenens ~nrlirntnr~ .illiV. ls9
friction of a number of en&..,.,
ment fin,& that in One Case, a i~~~l;,,;;;dnia,irk~~ac~~~~e, ttlOfIiCt~Ol! Of
the cbmpressor, 171/2H.P., is accounted for by a coefficient ,Of fGCt!On
bf 71izy0 on a!! the external bearings, allowing 6% of the entire friction
of the machine for the frict,ion of pistons, stuffing-bpses. a;nd. vF!ves.
In
the case of the Pawtucket pumping-engine. estimatmg the friction of the
external bearings with a COefi
ri m~t of f ri rt, i onof 6% and that of the _._.. . -__-.. . ,
pistons, valves, and stuffing-b0
xes as in the case of the ice-machine. \ve
have the total friction distribul
ted as folloxvs:
Horse- Per cent
Dower. of ivhole.
Cranlc-pins and effect of piston-t.hrust on main shaft-6 .?I
Weight of fly-heel and main shaft . . .
Steam-valves.. . . . . . . . . . .
A :t{
Eccentric.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o .;t
n .O
11.4
Z
1.2
~ )
Pistons
........................................ ;:J$ 1 .-
Stuffing-boxes, six altogether
?, .;G
11.3
....................
Air-pump
..................................... __ -355
Tota! frictibn of engine with load
z :$.
100.0 ,
Total friction per cent of indicated power.
-
1216 FRICTION AND LUBRICATION.
The friction of this engine. though very low in proportion to the indi-
cater1 power, js satisfactorily accounted for by hlorins law ,,tsed with a
coeliicient c
,hnc?a d,tn t,
>f friction of 30/0.~ In both cases the main items of friction Sri
Y..,I.Iti =..- 3 the weight of the fly-wheel and main shaft and to the piston.
thrust on crank-pins and main-shaft bearings. In the ice-machine the
latter items are the larger owing to the extra crank-Din to work the numna
while in the ParvtucliEt engine the fortier prepotiderates, as thec&$l
thrusts are partly absorbed by the pump-pistons, and only the surplus
effect acts on the crank-&aft.
Frof. J&nton describes in +ans. A. s. M. E., x. 392, an apparatus by
which he mea?ured the friction of the piston packing-ring. When the
part: oJ the piston were thoroughty devoid of lubricant, the coefficient
of fr@on was found .t? be about 71/z;/; with an oil-feed of one drop in
trvo rmnutes the coetixwlt was about 5%; with one drop per minute it
was about 3%. These rates of feed gave unsatisfactory lubrication, the
pjston gronuing at the ends of the stroke when run slowly, and the flow of
011 left upon the surfaces was found by analysis to contain about 507, of
iron. A feed of two drops per minute reduced the coefficient of friction
to about l%, and gave practically perfect lubrication, the oil retaining its
natural color and purity.
FRICTION RRAICES AND FRICTION CLUTCHES.
Fri cti on Blakes are used for slowin :: down or stopping a moving
machin,: by convertin&! it.s energy of mo:ion into !,ea[, or
the speed of a descenrii,ng ioa~l.
f OK Cni i i i oi i i ug
The sim Ilest form ,s the block brake
commonly used for railwi~y car whee!s, w nch resists the motion of thi i.
JYhecl not only with the force due to ordinary slidi,,
t:,at due to culting or grinding away the surface of Ihe r,,~:!t;,ls in contact
If P, 5, total pressure act.ing Ilord to the sliding surface. f = coeflirieni
of fr,cllon. and v = velocity in fwt pc? minute, then the energy nbsor!x:d
in fwt-pounds per ,ninnte, is P/v.
If the surfilce is lubrw,aietl and thi
prrwirc: per sq,,arc inch not great cnou~h to squeeze out t,he lubricant
then tl,e v,!l,,,,! of f for dillerent materials may bo taken from i\lnrini
tnblw for fru%,on o, mption, page I 196. but if the pressure is;great enough
to force out the Iubrx,snt, t,lwn the coefficient becomes much greater
and (he surface or surfaces will cut a,nd wear, with a rapid rise of tempera-
ture.
~JAF$JI~G: ihis is a.l$lOeditih. Some of
FItJCTION OF IIPDlZAULIC PLUNGER I.\CKING. 1217
0.~5 to 0.3. Eomer values than these should he assumed for vcjocities
exc~etl i ng 400 ft. per minute. The
..i.~~14~~~~.~ should not esceed 25 or 30 1
ressurc per square mch m disk
bs., and ~vooden surfaces should
~$~&&ed beyond 20 to 25 11,s. per scl.~in. S,:e Kimball ilnd Barr on
J~acll~lle Design, also l,n,,s. ri. S. 111. E., 1903 and 1OM.
F:h+rically Operated Urnkes arc rlisc,wied by: H. 4 Steen in a
lx,l,~~ read before the Engrs. Secy. of, W. Ie,,nn.. rqrmtetl 1 Iron Trade
fietl., Dec. 24, 190s. Formulz are gwen for the t,fiie reqr,,Ted for stop-
for the heat generated nnd the temperaLure T&L-, for different types
if brakes.
3Iagnetic and Elcet,ric Brake+--For braking the load on electric
cr:u,es a band brake is usec! which 1s held 08 t,he drum by, the actqn of
cl lliagnet or solenoid, and is put on by the actmn of a :prinF or iyvelght.
T\,C sole~noid usw~lly consists of a coil of wre connected m series wth the
motor. and a plunger worltinrr inside of the coil. It should be so rxo-
p&one!tl that..its a&ion is ,.-. . . ...- -... IS
rurrent is Cut off,
Too rapid acblon 1s pre;entE~l-hy-F;ialiillgtlte ends of
the solenoid wi air -,--.I- --+
-~~For electric-driv-.. _.._ r.__ ____ ~
brake by reversing the direct,ion L. ..- l.lll--- _.~.-__ .._, _ -_.__. ;. .;~~.~ ~.
to become a generator suppjying current to a rheostat m which It 1s Con-
verted i nto [ wat and 4i sl nnt. rv. Tn some eases the electric current
. . . .._ ,_.... _.._, _..~.
rcEard to the dcslgn of bilnd Inakc~~the eiw~tion~ are:
21
-.-
3= PX, t- 1 -P, s = D x F (
9= S x D X O.LG; X rcvol,!tions per
trtinute ill \cllich T = the grwtc~r ti:,,sion on tl,e bi,,,d, t = the lesser
tcnsionon the band, P = equivalunt lw,l on lhe brake drum, S = factor
from the accompanying table, X = ,& in \vhich log. N = 1~2ssf~,
where f := tile coefiicient of frict,ion and c the lenzth of arc of contact in
degrees divided by 360. D = diam. of brake drum, F = wdfh, of face
of brake drum, ,S = a checking factor \!:l,icl, has a ,,,as~,num lirnlt of ,63,
4 = a checking factor which has a limit of 54,000 il.ale & Towne practice)
or 80.000 (13n,~n hoist. pr;tct.icc).
Ex.~~I~LE.--~~ IJIUK~ Imke is to be dcsi~ucti ha\-ing an arc of contact
of %O, coellicicnt of friction = 0.2.
tlrurn diametc-r 30 ins., face 4 ins.,
speed 100 r.p.,n., and a load of 3000 Ibs. actin,
I* on a diamet~er of 20 ins.
Then
P= 3000 X ~0+30=2000 po~~~~ls, s = 1.68 (from table), T = 2000 X
1. 68 = 3360 po,,nds, t = 3360 - 2000 = 1360 l,or,nd.;, ,S = 2 X3350?
(30 X-I) = 56 (withill the limit), 4 = 50 X30 X0.62 Xl00 = 41,000 (\~ltl,,n
the limit).
Degrees.
180
195
210
240
250
Valurs of x.
/ =0. 2. f f O. 3. f - 0. 4.
__, -
1 I
2. 14 1. 64 1. 40
2. 03 ' . 35 1. 93 3
1. 76 ' 3 I %
1. 72 1. 21
Degrees,
260
270
280
290
300
j - =0. 2. ' ; f =O. 3. f =O. 4.
/
1. 68 ! 1. 35
1. 64 !
1. 60 I
I %
I . 57 ! 1: 1:
I . 54 i 1. 14
FGFX&.eri a 1 hay no longer- be accurate
FRICTION AND LUBRICATION.
LUDRICATION.
p which is constant for this range of pressure.
01 the de
The loss is independent
th of stuffing-box or leather ri!ig, and is given by the formula
F= K@, n which F = total frictional 10% m pounds, P =pressure ln Pounds f
per sq. m., d =diameter of
K 1s a coefficient, which CY
Lunger 111 Inches,
epends on the kmd and condition of the pack.
ing, and is given as follows for various cases,.
For cotton or hemp, loose or braide$ dipped in hot tallow; plungers
smooth glands not pulled down too tight, packing therefore retaining
its eta&city. dimensions such as usually occur, K =0.0X?.
Same conditions, after packing is some months old, K =0.132.
Materials the same. but with hard packing, unfavorable conditions,
temperatures or applied by a meth0.d npt requiring a perfect fluidity,it is
probable that the least aIIIOU!It Of 011 ~11 be uxd wheu the viscoSiLy 2s as
.rron.t, IIS in the net~roleum cshnder stocks. When. however. the oil ~II.+,
i&;L-fieely at oirlinary tcmpera@re~ and the feed of oil is r&tricLed, aS in
the case of crank-pin bearings, It 18 not practicable to feed such heavy
oils in a satisfactory fanner. oils of less vlSCOsity or of a Iluidity
approximating to lard-oil must then be used.
Rcl;lti~Ve Value of Lubricants. (J. E. Denton, Aal. Macl~.. Oct. 30,
1390.) - The three elements which determine the value of a lubricant
llle t.he cost lluc to consumntion of lubricants. tile co.st snent for ronI t,b
etc K =a,.~ rtiuch as 01299.
ikather packing: soft leather, well made, etc., K=0.036 to 0.054.
Hard, stiffly tanned leather, K =0.12 to 0.156.
Unfsvorable conditions; rough plungers, gritty water, et,c., K =as much
overcome the frict,ional resi&ance caused by us& of the lubricant, and the
cost due to the metallic wear on the journal and the brasses.
The ~halitications of a Good Lubricant. as laid down bv W Hi
as 0.239.
Weisbach-Hermann. Mechanics of Hoisting Machinery, gives a
formula, which when translated into the s&me notation as the One in
Hutte is
I$:&~. ii~~l%~~~. I?&. c. E., vol. XIV, p. 372, &e: 1. Sufficient body to
keep the surfnces free from contact under maximum pressure. 2. The
greatest possible fluidity coxist.ent with the foregoing condition. 3. The
lowest possible coefficient of friction, which in bath lubrication would be
for fluid friction approximately. 4. The greatest capacity for storing
F=0.0312 ?~d to 0.0767 pd.
Since the total pressure on a plunger,is 1/4nif*p, the ratio of the loss of
plessure~to the total pressure is Kpd ~-l/4&p, or, usmg the extreme valuc~
of K 0.0.112 and 0.299 the ratio ranges from 0.04ad to O.RS-id, or from
4 to 28 per cent divitlcd I,y the tliamet,er in inches.
Walter Ferris (rim. Mach., Feb. 3, 189s) derives from the formula
given above the following formula for the pressure produced b
packed hydraulic intenailier made with two plungers of different d,
r a hemp.
Ismeters:
A-KD
pz =I A
a+!+1 (
iu which p? = prcsssure per sq. in. produced by the intensifier. $1, = initial
pressure, A =area anrl L) =diam. of the larger plunger, (8 =area nud ,d =
tlinm. of the smaller, pllmger, and K an espermlental coellicieut. He gives
t.he following results of tests of an intensitier with a small plung?r Y ins.
diam. and two 1arge plungers, 141/4 and 173/q ins., either oneof wluch could
be used as desired.
D&n. of large plung&, in. . Ill/4 14114 173;r 173i!
I nit,iul pressure, Ibs. 3%
1510
1775
and carrrinx away heat. 5. A hiph temuerature of d&omnositioK
6. Powerio Fesist okidation or the action of tile atmosphere. 7. $Yeedom
from corrosive action on the metals llpon which the lubricant is used.
The Examination of Lubricating Oils. (Prof. Thos. B. Stillman,
,Stc~zs Indicator, July, 1890.) -The generally accepted conditions of
a good lubricant are as follows:
1. Body enough 1.0 Ixevent the surfaces to which it is annlied from
coming in &tact with e&h other. (Viscosity.)
. _
2. Freedom from corrosive acid, of either mineral or animal origin.
3. As fluid as possible consistent with body.
4. A minimum coctficient of friction.
5. High flash and burning points.
6. Freedom from all materials liab!r to moduce osidation or mun-
ming.
Intensilicd calc~~laletl by formula* 806 1613
Etfiriency of machine 0. s:s 0.963 O.SS O.Sici
LUIlRlCATlON.
Xcasurement of the Ihmhility of Lnbrica,nts. - (J. E. De$On,
Tm!rs. A. S. ill. E., xi, 1013.) 7 Practical dijferences of, ~urab~ltt~~ol
key;ca;,xtS depend. not on a+y MIerenccs of inherent nbihty to rLsLsl
:: woru Out by rubbing, but upon the rat:e at wli~cll they Ao\\
through and away from the b,euring-surfaces. The conditions which
control this flow are so delicate in their influence that nli attempts thu!
far made to measure durability of lubricant,s may be said to have fililec
to make distinctions of lubricating value having any practical significance
In some kinds of service the limit Tao the consumption of oil depends up01
the extent t,o which dust or other refuse becomes mixed with it,, as il
railroad-car lubricat.ion and in the case of aprirultuml machinery. Till
economy of one oil over a,nother, so far as the qllnlity used is concerned -
that is, so far as dllrability is concerned - is simply proportional to thl
rilte at which it, can insinuate itself into and flow out of minute orifices 0:
cracks. Oils will differ in their ability to do t,his. first. in proportion ,t(
t,hrir viscosit,y, rind. second, in proportion to t,he cnpillury properties whit!
they may possess by virtue of the particidnr inpredic~nts Itsed. in the1
rolnposltlon. Where the thickness of film brt\!rrn rubbing-surface
must be so great that large amounts of oil pass through bearings in a give!
time, and the surroundings are such as to permit oil to be fed at hlgl
The esaminat,ions to be madc Loverify the above are both chemical and
mecbanica!. and are usuxllg arranged in the following order:
1. IdenWication of the oil, \vhether a simple mineral oil. or animal oil,
or a mixture.. 2. Density. 3. Viscosity.
point.
4. Flash-point. 5. Burning-
6. AcidiLV. 7. Coetficient of f&ion. S. Cold test.
Detailed direcbjons for making all of the above tests are giVen in Prof.
Stillmsns article See also Stillmans Engineering Chemistry. p. 366.
Xotcs on Speciflcations for Irtrolrom Lubri cants. (C. 31. Everest.
Vice-Pm. Vacuum Oil Co., Proc. Ellginecri!ig (.ofrgress. Cllicnro \Vorlds
Fair. 1893.) - The sprcitic graVit.v ww the first standard esiablished for
determining qlu~litg of lul)rirntinL: oils, but it has 10~ since bcben dis-
carded as a conclusive test of lubricating qllality. However, ns the
specific gravity of a particular petroleum ml increases the ViscoSity also
Increases.
The object of the fire test of a lubricant, as RelI as its flash test, is the
prevention of danger from tire through the use of an oil that will evolve
1nHammnble vapors. The lowest fire Lest permissible is 300. which gives
a liberal factor of safetv Under ordinary conditions.
The cold test of an oii, i.e., the temperature at which the oil will congeal.,
Should be well below the temperature at which it is used: ot,herwise the
coefficient of friction would be correspondingly increased.
*Assuming Z< =O.2. The efficiency calculsted by the fOrInU~a in e&cl
cdse was 0.953.
,,.
WARNING: This- is a 1910 edition. Some j?
Viscosity, or fluidity, of nn oil is usually expressed in seconds of time in
Mich a given quantity of oib will flow through a certain orificeat the tern-
Derature stated, comparison Sometimes being made with wat,er, Sometimes
n?th Sperm-oil, and again with rape-seed oil. It. seems evident. that
\v-lthin limit,s the lower the viscositv of an oil (~vit.hollt a too near approach
to metallic contact of the rubbing &fares) the loW?r will br the COeffkieUt
of friction. But we conS:ider that each bearing in a mill or factors would
Pr$ably require an oil of different viscosity fr~om any other bearin,oin.the
nul!, in order to give lt,S lowest coefficient of friction. and that Shght
vaflations in the condition of a particular bearing would change the re-
Wements of that bearing: and further. that when nearing the danger
pWit the quest,ion of Viscosit~y alone probably does not govern.
The requirement of the New England hlanufacturers Associat:ion. that
an oil shall not lose over sir, of its volume when hent.ed to 140 Fahr. for
12 hours, is to prevent losses by evaporation, with t,hc resultnllt CffCCtS.
tne material accurate
The I;.-ecipitalion test gives no indicat.ion of thr qun!ity of t.he oil itself
ac: tile free carbon in improperly manufactured oils-can be easilv removed
It 1s doubtful whether oil buyers who require certain giveti standard;
of laboratory tests are better Pcj.ved than those who do not
the stan$ards are so faulby that to
5 2
supply 011 ho knnws to be faillty: am the reqltirements of the best stand. t
xxss them 811 oil rnanufa&&e~%u~~
ards can wnerally be met by pmducts that will gi7.e inferior results in
actual serivce.
Pennx. R. R. Specifications for Petro&i:u Prodncts, 1900. -
Five different grades of petroleum products will be used.
The materials desired under this specifiwtion are tl-e products of the
distillation and refining of petroleum unmixed with any other substances.
150 E-e-test Oil. - This grade of oil will not be accepted if sample
(1) is not. water--whit,e in color: (2) fla,shes helow 130 Fahrenheit:
(3) burns below 151 Fahrenheit; (4) is cloudy or shipment has cloudy
barrels when received, from the presence of glue or slispcnded mat.ter,
( 5) becomes cy jaque or shows cloud when the sample has been 10 minute;
at a temperatr .ire of 0 Fahrenheit.
300" Fi re- k2
(1) is not
;t,012. ~~T]!is grade of oil wiil not be accepted if sam~lc
water-white in cola r: (2) flashes zlow 249 Fahre ~~~~~ -nhc!it-
(3) burns below !EW Fahrenheit: (4) is cloudy or shipment~has &oudi
bar!sls when received, from the presence of glue or suspended mat,ter.
(5) becomes opaque or shows cloud when the sample has been 10 minutei
at a temperature of .3? Fahreiiheit; (6) shows precipitation when some
of the samp,le IS heated to 4.50 F. The precipitntion testy is made by
having about two fluid ounres of the oil in a :+is-ollnce beaker with a
t,hernlometer s!lspended in the oil, and t,hen heating slowly tinti] the
thermometer shows the required t.emperat,ure.
but must show no nrrri r~i t~nti 6, n~
The oil changes color,
PwnJifze n WI .VeC
if the sari
cbnl Oils. - These grades of oil will not he accepted
nple from shipment (1) is so dark in color that printing with
_..
long-primer wpe cannot be read \vit,h ordina:
41~5 oil !/ inch t,hiek: (2) flashes bel ow
ry (In?-light throwh 3 layer of
zw F. : ( 3 h3S n, rmri tv 21. _.~.. .__,. -.
60 P., below 24 or above 3.i Baumc:; (4) from Ociciher ist to Mar 1st
llil.S I--- a cold t,est above 10 F., and from May 1st t.o October 1st has arold
test above 32 F.
Tl
thick
le co@ rest is made by l ravi np a layer of the oil of the prescribed
mess Irl a. p;oper glass vessel, and then putt.ing the print,inp on one
e . .
t.l;r,?u@l the layer of oil with the bark side or Ene vessc^L arm rmrli!;~ it 1
of fhe ohserver t,o!vard the source <J I ~lpr.
We11 Oil. -This grade of oil will not, he accepted if the sample from
shipment. (1) Rashes. from Nay 1st. to October 1st below 29y I;. or
from October 1st to May 1st.. below 249 F.: (2) hass cravit~v :~t 6w we
hdnw ~3 nr no
n cold test, nhove II,- N.. ano f
above 3 F : (4) sho\vs any 1
mixed with 6 C.C. of gasoline.
and suspended matt,er.
Tlie prec.ipitntion
It. is made hy pllt.tinp or,
.hove 31 I%num~~: (3) from O&ber 1st to Rlar 1st l1;lS
_,.^ 1-
-mm May 1st to October tst has ncold test,
precipibat~ion when 5 cubi c! cmti mdPrs 2w
whirh must not be above SW 7
then adding the pres
t.0 sband ten minutes.
mntwial can be seen.
7.11111 n~b,.>,LGl,ly 1,
t.rst. is-t.0 PS(.~II~P
C.C.
. .
tarr>
F. in temprmture. i ntro n 100 C.C. &d;lat.e;
cribed amount of oil and sh;lking.t,llorollClllr. MOW
wit- tii~f~~--r.. -I no separated or prbcipitated
SW fi~-ht Oil. -This grade of oil will not he accepted if sample
from,shipment (1) flashes below -M-Lo F.; (2) sho\vs precipit,ation with
gasoline when bested as descrihrcl for well oil.
Pgnted dirert.ions for determining flashing and hurninc: tests and for
m~klil~cok~ tests and tnkinggravit.y arefurnished by therailroad rompnnv.
Pmm:~. R. R. Spcciflcations fur Lubricat,inz Oils (1894). (h
force in 1901.)
A, freight cars: -!?gine oil on shift,ing+mgines: miscellaneous greasing
ln foundries, e,tc. B, cylinder lllbricant on mariilr :quinment and on
st,~tinnnry envies.
tender truck boxes :
C, engine oil; ail engine mac!linerj: engine :,,nd
shafting and machine tools; bolt Ivtting; gene.Ta.1
lubrication except cnrs.
]uhricant for locomotivrs.
D, passenger-car lubricatitin. E, cylinder
D?, in March, April. Nay,
CI. 191. for uS:e irl Dec., Jan., and Feb.: Cn,
and August.
Sept., Oct., and Nov.; C3, Dz, in June, July,
Weighrs per gallon. A. 7.4 lb%: U. C, D, E. 7.5 Ibs.
~rea,se Lubricants, -Tests madeonsn Ol.zn lubricant testing machine
at Cornell University are reported in Pozcer. Sov. 9, 1909. IL was found
tl,at some of the commercial greases stood much higher. pressures than
the oils tested, and that the coefticients of friction at moderate loads mere
0ftta as low as those of the oils. The ,iourna? of the testing machine
1~3s 3314 in. diam., 3 Yzin. long, and the b&bitt bearing shoe had a projected
area of 5.5 sq. in. The speed was 240 r.p.m. and each test lasted one
hour, except when the bearing showed overheating. The following are
the coefficients of friction obt.ained in the tests:
Lbs. Min-
Pe:
era1 Ei
SC(. !!I. Zresse. Grease.
-
I
i::;
0. 023
........ :::I!
........ 0. 019
........ 0. 028
Testing 9i
Teding Matls
II for Steam Turbines. (Robert Job, Trans. Am. Sot. for
1909.) --
In some t.571 ;es of steam-t~urbines, the bearings are very closely adjusted
and. if the &i is not clear and free from waxv substances. clorginr and
Engine Engine ~~~~~~~
Oil. Oil.
. . . . . 0. 017
. 0. 026
:reas&.
0. 025
0. 022
EZi
0. 019
heating quickly results. A number of red en&e and t&inei&%ome
oi which had.given good service and others bad service were tested and
it was found that clearness and freedom from t urbidltg were of importance.
but mere coior. or lack of color,.seemed to have little influence, and good
service result.s were obtained with oils which were of a red color, as well
as with t,hose which mere filtered to an amber color.
Haati uo Test--It was folmil that 011 heatint: the oils to 4.50 F.. ?
which had given l%d service showed a ma:ked &rrkening oi coior. wnde
those which had proved satisfactory showed little change. Wit,h oils
that had been filtefed or else had h&l chemically treated in such manr~er-
that the so-called amorphous waxes had been completely removed,
on .npplying the hent,ing test only a slight darkening of color resulted,
It is of advantage. in addition to other requirements to specify that an
oil for steam turbines on being heated to 450 F. for five minutes shall
show not more than a slight darkening of color. The test is that com-
monly used in t,est of 300 oil for burning purposes.
Separnting T&.-It is known that elimil;at.ion of the wses causes an
increase in the ease wit.h which the oil separnbes from hots xater when
thotourhlv shaken with it. This condit,ion can be t,aken advantng:,$
1~ bo~tw
Wt .. R
reicribing that cvhen one Ounce of the oil is placed in a 4-0~.
two ounces of boiling .water, t~he bot~tle corked and euaken h:?rd, for
one minute and let stand, the oil must separate from the water Wthln a
specified time. depending upon the nature of the oil, and that; there must
he non appearance of waxy.substances at the line of demarcation between
Me oil and the water.
Qllnntlty of 011 needed to Run an Engine. -The VacllUnl oil Co. in
1% in response to an inquiry as to cost of oil to run a IOOO-H.P. Corllss
engine wrote: The cost of running two engines of equal size of the same
make &I not always the same. Therefore, while we conld furn@h figures
.showing what it. is costing some of our customers hs\%x Corhss engines
of 1000 H.P. we could only give a general idea. whichin itself might be
co~~siderabl~out of the way as to the probable cost of r~hnder- and
engine-oils per year for a particular engine. Such an euwe ought tO
Constit,uent Oils.
Extra lard-oil. . . .r
Est ra No. 1 lard-oil. . . . . .
500 fire-test oil.. . . . .
ImdFm? oil.
Yell oil..
Used for.. . _. .
WARNING: This i
no be accurate
run readil . on less than 8 drops of 600 \V oil per miimte.
arc figure ci
If 3000 drop?
to the quart. a!?(! !? rtrops rrsed per minute, it wouid tab? aboilt
two and one half barrels (52.5 gallons) of 600 W cylinder-oil. at 65 cents
per gallon, or about 085 fqr cylinder-oil per year, running ? days a week
and 10 hours a day. Engme-oil would be even more d,ifllcult to guess at
what the cost -vould be, because it would depend upon the number of
cups reqrured on the engne. which varies somewhat. according to the
style of the engine. It would doubtless be safe, however, to calculate
at tne outsIde that not more than twice as much engine-oil would be
required as of c>-linder-oil.
Corliss compound engine,
. .
triple exp.
t 2ooY~e%iT~
20, 33. and -1
Porter-.4!len
Rsll
45; 83 revs. per min.: 1 drop of
6 to x 1 drop 1 in two minutes. 2 48; drop ~everp minut.es
;rD; 143 revs. per min.; 2 drop;
IWI., reduced afterivards to 1 drop
ad**.
I20 and 36 x
6,
I
of oil per m
per min.
.a t 15 and 25 x \ 16: 210
every 4 minutes.
revs. per min.; 1 drop
The Vacuum Oil Co; in IS92 published the.following results of practice
with 6011 W cylinder-oil:
Results of tests on ocean-steamers cornmunizated tc the author bv
Prof. Demon In lSQ2 gave: for 1200-H.P. marine engine, 5 to 6 English
~al!ons (6 t.o 7.2 U. S. gals.) of engine-oil per 24 hours for ext.ernal Iubrl-
catmn: and for a 1500-11.1. marine engme, t~riple expansion, running
75 revs. per mm., 6 to. 7 Eng!ish gals. per 24 hours. The cylinder-oil
consumption. is e~ceedl,nglY variable,, -from 1 to 4 gals. per day on
different engmes, mcluchng.cylinder-011 used to swab tl,e piston-rods.
Cylind$rLubrication. -J. H. Spoor, in Pomer. Jan. 4 :QlO, has made
a st,udy or a great number of records of the amount of oii used for lubri.
catmg, ~cylinders of tliffqent engines. and has reduced t.hem to a svs-
tematlc basis of the equivalent number of pints of oil used in a IO-h&r
g9.v for different areas of surface lubricated.
The surface is determined
m square Inches by mult@ying the circumference of the cylinder bg the
length of st,roke. The results are plot.ted in a series of curves for different
types.of engines, and approximate average figures t~aken from these curves
are given be!ow:
Compound Engines.
Pints of oil used in I,0 hrs.
Sq. ins. lubricated . . . . . . . . 2?;00~4,O,O50 6hIJ;0 8,920 IO&);0 12,;00, I$?0
Corliss Engir.es.
Sq. ins. lubricated
.............................
PintsofoilinlO hrs.Avge..
Max
1,;p; 2ip;2 !;Ol$ 4,30;5
Min.
...............................
.:::: 1.2 2.25 L
.................... - 1.00 - -
Aut6mat,$ high-speed engines, about 2 pints per I 000 sq in,
Simple &de-valve engines, about 0.5 pints per 1.060 so. i;ls.
AS shown in the figures under 2.OOO.-Corii&, a certain engine maY take
21!4 times as much oil as another engine of the same size.
The difference
FaY be due to smpobhness of cylinder surface, kind and pressure of piston
rings. qllahty Of 011. nirt~hod of introducing thelubricant, etc.
Variations
in speed of a ,D~WI type of engine and in steam pressrlre do not annear to
ma!;+= much difference,
biit the Smali automatic high-speed engin t,akes
more oil than a,?y ot.her tYpe.
without any cybnder oil. except
Vertical marine engines are commonlv run
rods.
that used occasionally to swab the &ton
Q~xantiP< of Qil used on a Locomotive Crank-pin. - Prof Denton
7mr.;r. .4. A. .A{. .K.. xi, 1020. says: A very economical case ofpracticni
o&Cc lsumpt,lon 1s when a, locomotive main crank-pin consumes about
SIS rtlbir inches of oil in a thoustnd miles of service
Thisis equivalent
to :I consumption of one milligram to seventy squire inches of surface
rubbed over.
~.Y,,,
)~
,A.,.:~
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some (
SOLID LUBRIC;I .JTS.
1223
So&t RIlxture for i%chine TaoIs. (Peilna. R. R. iSS+.) - Disso!ve
5 ibs. of common Sal-soda in 40 gallons of w;ttei and ;t!r thoroughly.
when needed for use mix a gallon of this soll;tlon ~t.ll auout a &nnt of
engine oil. Used for the cutting arts of machme t,ool!: instead of oil.
\Vater as a Lubricant.
(C. 18 Naylor Zr!czr. ii. S. .lf. I<.
, 1905,) -
Two steel jack-shafts 18 ft. lo!16 with bearhlgs 5 X 14 ins. racb receiving
175 H.P. from engines and dnvm,
(7 5 electric generators, u:ith SIX belts all
p,llllng horlzontall,y on,the same ~1% of the shaft, @ice troUble by heating
. \vhen lubricated with 011 or grease..
\Vater was substitute,d. and the shafts
ran for 11 years, IO hours a day, without ser/ous interrupt,lon.
to the shaft before closing down for the-night. Tao prevent
qil was, fed
rustm,?. The
wear of the babbit L%i bearings 111 I? :: pars was about l/4 in., and of tbL shaft
nil.
Acilesons Defiowulated Graphite.
ENS. ,ve~s, Aug. 1, 1907.)-In 1906, Mr. E.
(Trans. A.I .F.E., 1907:
G. pcheson dIscovered a
process of producing a fine, pure, unctupus grapl;lt,e 1 the electric fur-
nace. He calls it deflocculated graphite.
B:J treatms tlus graplute
ln the disintegrated form with a water sol$ion of tanmn, tfie amount
of tannin being from 340 to 6yo of the weight of the graphlte treated.
h& found that it would be retamed m suspenfilon 111 Water,. and that It
mas in such a fine state of subdivision t,hat a, large.pan of lt wouk! run
through the finest filt,er paper, the filtrate bemg an Intensely black hquld
in which the graphite would remain suspended for months.
The addition
of a minute quantit.y of hydrochloric acid causes the graphite to ~~OCCU-
late and group together so that it will no longer,P.ow through filter paper.
The same effect has been obbaiiie? with alumma. clay. lampblack and
slloxlcon, by treatment with tannin.
The graphke thus suspended m
water, known as aqueda~g.
has been suc,cessfrdly used as a lubricant
for joul-nals with sight-feed and with chain-feed oilers.
It also prevents
rust in iron and steel. The deilocculnted graphite ITas also been, SIPS-
pended in oil, in a dehydrated condition,
making an es:ellent lribrlcant
known ;qs otldag. Tests b
Drof. C.
J
II. Benjamin of oil with 0.5%
;;oF2phlte showed that it ha a lower coefficient of frict.ion than the 011
SOLID LUMZICAXTS.
Grapllite in a condition of powder and used as a solid lubricant. so
called. to &tinmdsh it from a liquid lubricant, has been found to do well
wi:ere the lat.tei has failed.
Ronnie in 1829. says:
was cised .
Graphite lessened fr:ctior: in all cases wbvhere it
General Norin, at a later date, conrluded from expenments
that ii could be used with advantage under heavy pressures: and Prof.
Thurston found it well adapt.ed for use under both light and heavy pres-
sures when mixed with certain oils.
It is especially ~-ah!?ble to prevent
abrasion and cutting under heavy loads and at 10~ v$loatles.
For comparative tests of various oils with and wnhout graphite, see
paper on lubrication and lubricants, by C. F. Mahery, J@ur. A.S.M.E.,
Feb.; 1910
Sna~~&x~ also called talc and steatite, in the form of powder and
with Gil or fat is sometimes used as a lubricant. GraPhfte or
g.&:one mixed withsoap, is used on surfaces Of wood wOIkmg against
ro; or wood.
hlinn ic s enlid mmnmlnd. kallv containing graphite, made !n.thc
s _ ~~
either i
~~~ .
fo~~~~*~&i~ ,,~$&~-;~~~~~-~re fitted permanently into holes drilled
in the surface of the bearing.
The bearing thus fitted runs without any
other !ubfication.
..,,
&i..:,-.~:,.~ ~._~~
the material may no longer be accurate
1224
THE FOTWPRT. THE FOUWDItY.
1225
ICupolas as large as 54 inches in tliamet,er ar? n6.w (!3(,uj built without
b&es. TI-
m-c.+ r*flon+ tlevelooment with this sze cupola 1s to place a
THE FOUND.RV.
(See also Cast-iron, pp. 414 to 429, acd Fans and Blowers, pp. 626 to 643.)
Cupoia Practice.
BZast-pres!nLTe. - AL I -(--~ _-. -.. . -.. ~~~. ~..~~~
ton of iron, which would weigh about 2400 pounds, or more than both
,ron :?l.d fuel. W[lr** l % nroner ouantitv of air is suppiied, the com-
L&on of the fuel j
[<~m~upply of ai r i s ms~n~~. ~. . ~,
". . - _ - . . . . , ~_I ____^_- ' . . . . , . . , ~~~ ~~~~
bon&oxi de gas i n I - L - - - , dt.
The amount of heat evolved m these t1.0
. l/z, showing a loss of over two-thirds of the heat by
comousclon. [Combustion is never perfect in the cupqla ewe
P
t
+*x.^-fis. The CO* formed by complete combustion 1s large y
. v.^I^i..-
through the hot coke above the fusion zone.1
-+. wo nhta,in the most, ranid meltine w!En we are
It is not always true tha,. _ ---... . . . . . ..-_. ;~~c ~Too muTch air absorbs
forcing into the ~10 *1= largest auantlty of alr.
ileat, reduces the VZLI~~,~;~~~~_-., ,~~
:~~~~:,zre~and tetard<combustion. and the f ire !n the
cupola may be extinguished wth too much blast.
Slag in Cupolas. - A certain amount of slag 1s
necessary to protect the
molten iron whir h hn- -1% to the bottom from the action of the blast; If
:es accompanying it are condensed from
lm. Mach.. June 30. 1892:
--
48
14
": 2
4986
18
2"
2. 5
ES
2124
10
6
A
51
16: :
' 2
6120
20
10. 7
i . 5
15. 5
14
27;
14
7
72
24: : ,
7380
1058
E""
i :
I i . 5
16
6
I
3":
I
3;
12 : 6, 07( ) 3
- -
2
%i
1310
11. 7?0
26
: : , "
j . 5
1:
7
I 60
47
I O
$530
The following table and the r
an article by Simpson Bolland ir
Diam. of lining in.. _.. . _.
Hei ht to charg &or ft.
Fue~used in bed lbs.:....:
First charge of i&n !bs.
Other iuei charges, ibs.. . .:
Other iron chargss, lhs.. .
Diam. blnst pipe. in... , .
No, of bin. round :uyeres.
Equiv. No. flat tuyeres.. .
Width of flat t,uyeres. in.. .
I-feigh t of flat tuyeres, in. .
Blast pressure, ox.. .
Size of Root blower. No.. . .
Iievs. per min..
Engine for blower, H.P..
Seurtevmt blower. No... .
Engine for blower. I1.P..
Melting cap., lbs. per hr.. .
.I
,.
.
i
r
-
36
8: :
2520
302
": : "
3. ;
~2"
13. :
i
e41
2. 5
3".
1820
*.A
lt was not there, wt: LLUII
When slaa from any cil~
led away by inserting-a 1.
..,I ,cIrY LLlllr~
Ls- :---. would suf f er from decarbonization.
-use forms in too great abundance, it should be
nle a lit.tle below the tuyeres, through which It
71 ri nes in the bottom.
forms to an< anoreciable extent
wili find its wvay as the iron. ...~~~. ~~~ ~~~
With clean iron and fuc!. slag seldom .~..~.~
In small heats: hut when the cupola is to be taxed to its ljtmost capacity
it is t.hen incuml--- -3. +l.o melter to iiux the cbwges all Mough the heat, ,C!,b 11 b,,L ~~~
carrying it away-in the rnilillil ---:er directed. a-
The best flu:~
c ror pms FL.-,,ose is the chips from a white-marble yard. ETCH rt,rn,
About 6 pound- bv tiLllj yyL
- l - +I.- *-? of iron will give good results when all is clean.
[Fluor-spsr is now largely uses
l:!lx. I
When fuel is had, or iron is d
both together, it becomes imperative
that tbe slag be kept running
time.
Fuel for Cupolas. - The best fuel
requires 1
for melt!pg iron is, coke, because it
I .T,l_^_
ess blast, makes hotter iron, and meltr; Iaster I,11811 cc!%
w ~ft-l~
coal must be used care should be exercised in Its select.ion.
5 are b&h:.
A!! ant!lra-
black, hard, and free from slate. \vi!l tne!t lr.on
xx-.. I).^ I_^_
.t results, small. cupolas +muld, be charqed wth admirab!y. rw L~Y,,UT:
the size called efre :; a still larger grade fot medmm-sIzea cupo! as. aw
-I ..,I answet for al! large cupolas, when care 1s taken
Mr. I+land sass that the melt&!g capacities in the table are not sup
posed to tz! al! that wn he melted !n the hour by some of the best cup&as
I+ are simply the amounls WhlCh a common cupola Unt!er Ord!na,ri
cnccmstances may be expected to melt in the time specified.
By height pf CIJPO!a 1s meant, tile distance from the base to llle bottom
side of the ~nargmg door. The distance from the sand-be- kiter lt his
been formen at the b+Lom of the cupola, up to the und$ side .,f tile
tuyeres 1s taken at 10 mb. in all cases.
A!! the ammmtS for fuel are btisetl upon a bottom of 10 ins deep
The
quantity of fuel USed 011. tl>e bed 1s more in proportion as ihe depth ls
mcreased. and less when It IS made shallower.
The amount of fuel required on the bed is based on the supposition that
the cupola Is a straight one all through, and that the bottom is LO ins
deep. If the. bottom be more, as in those of the Collisu type, then addi:
tional fuel wll be needed.
Z+xt Charge of Zron.. - The amounts given are safe figures to work upon
in eveiy mstance. yet It wll always be in order after pro&g the ability
o1 the bed to carfY.the load quoted, to make zi slow and gradual increase
of, the 1oa.d until lt 1s fully demonstrated just how much burden the bed
~111 ca.rrv.
.__
\\hat is called lumi, 1a I&~
to pack it carefully on the cha,tgcs.
Melt,ing Capscity of Dlccrent Cupolas. - The foliOKing .figures
are given by \y. B. Q?w. m The Fowdr!/, Aug., 190s. s!lowlng the U.&Y
records of capacity a ,nd theblast pressure of several cupola
is:
!X;;. of lining;
. . . . . . 44 44 47 4rJ 54 54
Tous per hour. . 6. 7 7. 3 8. 4 9. 1 7. 7 8. 5 l "o2 I ?4 1% 1% 1%
Pressure, OZ. per
sq. in.. 12.9 16.4 17.5 11.8 13.6 11.0 20.8 15.5 16.S 12.6 8.7
. ~~L~uL plotted diagrams of records of 46 tests of different cupolas the
. ..a
following~figures arebbtaineu:
Earn. of lining, ins . . . . . . . . . . 30 36
Mar. tons per hour.. . . . . . . 3
42 45 _ 5s Ti 7: 2:
Avge. ** I* . ** . . . . . . . . . 2. 5 5 25
11 12 13. 5 14 14.6 :A.2
4 E 9
Max. pressure, oz.. . . . . . .
E. 7 : Fi
For a given cUpO!a and blower the melting rate increases as the square
mot of the pressure.
A cupola melth~g 9 tons per hour with 10 wces
Pressure wi!! melt about 10 tons wi th 1~2. 5 ounces, aud 11 tons wth 15
%%% would require (ll/g)3=l.V times as much pomer for 11. to? as
The power required varies as the cube of the meltmg rate9 so
for 9 tons. Hence the advantage c?f large cupolas and blowers wth hgllt
Pressures.
gives the fo lowng, A 2&ln. cupo!a should have from 30 to 400 lbs.
Charginq a gupola. - &as. A. Smith (Am. dfa&~b. 12, Is9Li
coke on bottom b&l. a 36-h,. cupola, 700 to SO0 lbs.: a 46-m. cupola.
1500 lbs.; and a 60-h;. wpol& should ly&ve one ton of fUe! on bOtt0m be&
,~, ,,
Stcccee
;I& Chwws of Fuel and Iron. -The highest proportions are
..__. c ^.....
MX lovored. fqr the simple reason that successful melting with any greater
ProPortIon of iron Fo fuel is not the rule but, rather the exception
Db*&~ of MUUZ BI wt-pipe. -.The sizes given ~&re of sufflcieI;t area
for $11 !engths up to 100 feet.
,.?lt?ieres. - Any $rmngement or disposition of tuyeres may be mnde,
lt hl(.h shall answer m their totality to the areas given in tile t,able.
On no
~o*-i~hUion must the t,uy-ere area be reduced; thus, an S4-inch cupola
dll*St hnve tuyere area equal to 31 Dines A i ns rlinm _r 1 R 4-t +r*--n-oo
.^_._..
e me&ing-point into the smnilest-pos~~~lelcdm-
n fUSlOn w11 have less space to traverse while
; M~IIIKMX VI Lhe blast.
:murse has been had to the placing of addit.ional
lyeres in some instances -the Stewart rapid cllpola
having
wee rows, and the Colliau cupola furnace having two rolvs, of tuyeres.
p-
-4 ;$:
,,.,
12x
THE FOUNDRY.
To every pound of fue! on the be{], three, and sometimes four pounds of
metal CiLn be added wltlr safety, If the cupola has proper blast in after.
charges. to every pound of fuel add 8 to IO pounds of metal; &ny well-
constructed cupola will stand ten.
F. P. ?olcott (An&. df~c/~, Mar. 5, ISOl) gives the following a; the
practice Of the Colwell Iron-works, Carter&, N. J.: We melt daily from
txy-enty to fortx t.ons o,f iron. with an averape of 11.2 pounds of lror t
one et fuel. In ~a 36-tn. cupola st?Ven to nine pounds is good melt,&
but ln ar CupOla that ImFS up 4S to 60 inches, anvthing less than ning
pounds Shq~ a defect. ln arrangement of tuyeresor strength of blast,
or m charwnz Iin.-
The i\iol;iei.~.Test-!,,oo:c,
,by Thos. D. West, gives forty-six reports
in talrular form cf cupola practlrr m thirty States. renching. fronl nfajne
to c!reKon.
- I I i , I
* Per s . ft. cupola area at .N in. dixm. from iron tlo~.n to blast off.
t Inclu&~g bed.
( 2- l i n
The il
An escess of coke decreases the melting rate
Iron in the cupola is
melted m a fised zone, the first charge of iron ah&e +,,r: bed being melted
by burning coke in the bed. As this iron is melt~l ihe ch,lr=e of coke
amve It descends and restores to the bed the ar t:.;lt whi>lPhas been
burned away. If there is too much coke in the cl:arge the iron is held
it can be melted, and this of course decreases the economy and the melting
above the melting zone, and the excess coke must 11~ buined away before
speed.
Cupola Charges in Shove-found
y two cupolas are charged esa$s
tile bed or bc+t\,~ ~ the charges dtl~fel
,,s.d in the charges. Belay ~111 be I
prominent stove-foundnes m the cou
l ha~ .-.,.
.~+xl of fuel, coke. . . . .
1, 500
Fqrst charge of iron..
5,000
Ail t,her charges of iron..
1,000
First and second charges of
coke, each.. .
200
Thus for a lelt of 18 tons there w
5 ratio of 7 to 1. Increase the nmo
ratio of S pounds of iron to 1 of coal
lbs.
2s. (Iron .@. .\pril 1.. ,392.) -
he same. The amount of fuel on
while var) ins amounts of iron are
,nd charging-ii% from sme of the
I
DIII
,U
is
fi-Bed of fuel, coke.
First. charge of iron.. . .
;,;;;
First charge of fuel.. _. 150
All other charges of iron,
each . . 1, 000
For an IS-ton melt 5060 lbs. of CO
Ike
of 7.1 111s. of iron to 1 pound of colt<
IL,.
Second and third charges of
fuel. 130
All other charges of fuel.
each........................ 100
would be necesb%ry, giving a ratio
:.
,J. lbs.
&FM of f uel , coke. . . . . . . . . . . . I . 600
First charge of iron.. _. 4, 000
All other charges of irou. . . . . Z,Oli
Ai l other charges of coke.. . .
First and second charges of
coke. . . . .
200
In a melt of 1S tons 4100 lbs. o~,;~k; would be used, or a rstio of 5.5 to 1.
lbs.
W-Bed of fuel, c&e. . IGO
5,600 I
All &al ez of coke. each..
. .- ~
200
First charge of iron.. _.
All other cnarges of irou.. . . 2,900
In a melt of 1s tons, 3900 lbs. of fuel would be wed, giving a ratio of
9.4 pounds of iron to 1 of coke.
Very nigh, inpted. for stove-plate.
,I.
y$gJ I
..,a.
E-Bed of fuel, coal.. . .
First charge of iron. . 5:OOO
All other ch3~*e3 nf irnn. ench 2.;$
All other ch~.rge~ of cool, each
First ,.I.., r**= f cx,l.. . .-<.. -c
2M
In a melt of 18 tons 4iO0 lbs. of coal would be used, giving a ratio of
7. 7 Ibs. of iron to 1 lb. of coal.
Four nest charges of coke,
each. . . 150
Six next charges of coke, each 120
Nin&teennesr chargesof coke,
each. . 100
Id be 5120 lbs. of coke used, giving
.t of iron melted to 24 tons, and a
obtained.
lbs.
These are SuRcient to demonslrnt,e the mryino prnctices esist,ing
among differeut stove-foundries.
In all these places the 1r)n was proper
Car stove-plate purnoses, and apparent.& there was little or no M?erence
in the kind of worli in t,he sand at the (liferent foundries.
Foundry Blower Practice. (IV, 13. SllOW, TXI I I S. d. &. -ti $;;
1907.) - Tke Velocit,V of air produced by a blower is expressed
I
formula v = 4/2gp;. If p, the pressure, is t+?n in ounces per sq. in...
and (1 the density, in pounds per cu. ft. of dry illr at, 50 and a~tmOspherlC
press&e of 14.69 11)s. or 235 ounces, = 0.77SS4 lb., the formula reduces
to V = 41,746,7OO p/(235 + p), no allowance being made for.ch+ge of
temperature during discharge.
From this formu the following .f;lgures
are obtained. Q = volume discharged per min.. through an orlfic? of
1 sq. ft,. effective area, H.P. = horse-power requxed t.0 mo-je the ~lveu
Volume under the given conditions, ?, = pressure in OtlnCcS per Sq. ln.
-AL
P
I 35. 85 0. 00978
2 50. 59 0. 02759
3 61. 83 0. 05058
O. U70 18 146. 88 0. 7211
4 71. 24 0. 07771
0. 49% 19 150. 61 0. 7804
5 79. 48 0. 1084
0. 5518 20 154. 221 0. 8412
The greatest effective area over which a fan will maintain the ma?mum
Velocity of discharge is linown as the
sc capacity area or square inches
Of blast. As originally established bv St.urtevant it is represented by
Dwv/3, D = d&m. of wheel in ins., ly & width of wheel at CKCumfCrencel
:he material may m longer be accurate
1328
THE FOUNDRY.
r Th~.fpily;ing t&k is~calculated on these bases: Capaciby area per inct
I
f (&&gg. _
periphery of wheel = l/3 of diam. Air, 5OF. Velocitl
rircumferentiai speed of the wheel
Power = doubln +lrr
koretical. In rotary pnsitive blowers as well as in fans, the ve
and the volume yary as the~number of reVolr,tions, the pressure
L- ye
loc1ty
as the squarr, Gno the pwer as the cube of bhe number of reV0lu varies
In the fan.. howeve- tions
.~ u!cre?se of pressure can be had onlv bv incre
.A...:
t,he :evolut.lqns, w\;hlle 111 tne rotary blower a great ran@ o( press;rrJei
obtamable wth constant speed by merely varyinn t,he resistance
With 2 r0tarY blower at constant. speed, theoret,ically. a,?d disregardingthe effect
cf r.har!ges in tempernture an? density, the volume is constant: the velocity
as the square of the outlet
buries inversely as the effective out!et. area: the pressure varies inversely
ared
,
and the power varies difectly as the pressure.
.lence a,s the square of the velocity.
The maximum power ii
bkper disclrarges against the greatest resistance.
wumd ,when a fan $scharges against the least, and svhen & rotary
y.5 !
- _/
! Tohl Pressure in Ounces per Square In&.
$;! Item.!-
i
I= z ; -/;
I i
B 7 i 3 i 9 ] 10 1 11 1 12 1 13 1 14 / 16 I 16
melting rati0 the
Average pmctike ia
WARNING: -This is a 1910 edition.
Sorne~gF
. _
TIIE FOUiFDEP.
1229 ;
were mckctl in 3.77 hours,
or 7.G !.ons per hr)l,r. while wilt,, the rotw!:
blower 2.W
hours \vere required to melt. 31..5 tc. IIS, an h0:irly rate 0f 1:j.G
t ,,,, ls, :m increase of nearly 40 per cent 111 OLttIt!lt
This rcduccs to n net
inJ,,,t, of 4. 0' 3 H.P. per ton melt,ed per hour with the fan, and 2.9s H.P.
,v,t,h the rotary blower; an apparent. advantage 0.
f 2;:; in favor of the
rotary.
Had the rotary been of smaller cspiicit:; sil(.h escess1w pressures
lvoL~~d not have been necessary,
t.he puwer would l1:iv-e been decrrased,
arlll the duration of the heat prolowed,
with pmbable decrease m the
hours per ton.
Had the fan been run at higher speed t~he H.P.
d have Increased, the time decreased and t,he povcer per t,on Per hour
(;.$iii have more closely approache<l that re.qlnrtd bJ the roT.tary blou;er.
Theoret,icsllp f0r 0thkrw;lse const,:mt cand,tlons, the fo!lOWlRg relations
hold for cupo~s~ and ,Felting riltes within the range of practlc?l operation:
For B given-cupols:
For & given melting rate: For 3, given VOluWe:
jr u. V, z/P. or m.
VcCl1LP 31 5 D
v 0. Ai
P u) tl
For a given cupoln
ix P 82 P or 1 + D E a. w, or E
L BLOWERS.
Korse-
power.
Power IhiUired far i. Cupola Fan.
lpri!, 1301.j -I
(Thos. D. West, The Found?,
depe1ds O* the le~~t~t and ~mneter of tile Piping, the number of bend
1 he power required when a fan is connected witl1.a cuP0k
WlvW et?;, R:ld OLy t:he rwstance to the Passage of blast through $6
Cl!~O!&
difkref.c~.heti.ween tht powwrequired to run rhe fan with the outlet OPet,
11; aI~!~~lmate power reqitireu in everyday practice is the
and l~:tth 1t ~10~ed.
0r that Wtlt .$e Otttlt- Open. ,A fan drking a cupola 66 ins diam.
A tuther rule is Tao take is56 of the maximum Pokver
ISO0 r.P.m., U~~vctt by an electrtc motor rec:.;ired horse-polver ahd gavi
pressures as follo\vs :
Outlet open, 146.6, outlet ciosed 37 9
15 p?.; attached t.o cupola. wth no fuel in It, 130.5 5 oz.- afizi .mdling.
Yessure
a!% Coke bad .been fir+$. 101.0. 10 OZ.: dt1rit1g the r;n iO:g to i6.i 11 t0
13 0,r+ the varrttions b~mg due to changes in the resistances to the pissaae
of !ne blast.
~~iht~~& of Cupola Gases. -Jules De Clercv in a Paper read
before the Amer. Foundrymens Assn., advises t.he &t;rn of a portion of
tl1? gases frotn t.he upper part of the charge to the tttveres and thus
t1tkng the carbon ntonoside thev contain.
ha; tkrehv sttcc.eeded itt melt,ittg 15lbs. of iron per lb. of colte and a~ the
He stnys that 4. Baillot
sat: time obtained a greater melting speed and a sttperio; quality 0f
castmtrs.
Lin: Colliau ct$& &yGi&i
Ilatio of fuel to iron, 1 to 7.&l.
g d :t 00 ccl, *16S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ew SCClP. . . . . _. . . _. _. _.
Mill&s.. .
;,;;j lb;;. .
. ( A
Loss of tnet:tl.. ._. . _. :
. . . ,
200
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l&l
Amout.t mdted.. . . . . . .._....... . . . 6001)Ib:
x:2
LOSS d metal, 5.60Yo. Ratio of loss. I ;0 17 .&.
KY.%5 -Of ~?fteners in Foundry Iractice
June
J m 21, NW.) - In the fottttdry the problem is to llave thk rjpht pro:
W. Graham lrort 4ge
portions c I,ortions 0f com+t,ed a,nd graphitic carbon in the resulting ca.st&g. this
1~ dotIe by ~ecsmg tne 1s done by gettmg the proper proportion of silicon.
the Pr0lXrtions of silic; the P~?lXrtlons of. silicon aEord
The variatiok in
producII:g Dr0dwtt,g .a cast trail of any required mechanical chararter \vhl,-h js
possi .
.a cast iron 01 anv re
a i&i&& F,d
. . inexpensive means of
?os+e w,th .the tnaterital employed.
1rot1s 111 L: lr0nS 111 t!,e right proportions,
In t~l,is :~ay. by tnixit,g suitable
more chea
a, required grade of cashing can be made
more cheaply than by twing 1ron.s in which the neces.;ary proportions are,
alreadv fo alreadv foIlnri
.\fr. I$p.f0tmd tha; more silicon is lost dttring the remelting of pig of
over lO ik s1Xwn than tn remelting pig iron of louver percent.lucs of s1licott
He Itlso Poit!ts out the possible dkadvantage of ustn~r ferr~Z+l~lco1;: con
t,allllW as ht:h a Percentage of cotnbinetl c?rbot, is G.;Osb .+0 0&c0tne
the hd ,HktS pf combined carbon in other irons
desired in my to be emplol-erl in making the strongest &stinc:.
The ~c?t~lt Irons generally contain much m&e phoyphort1s tlgnti;
.mtstake t.0 mts with srron
g low-phosPhor,ts irons an iron t.l;at ~voultl
tlt-t:15e the mount of phosPhorus for the sake of ntldin-- softening
cl!t;l~ltlS when softness can be produced by mixing irons 0f &e same low
ittwphortts.
~JW perci.LLa,c, uI sll~~~t~ at,rl 1,
i
c?u*d be etnp*osed.if an iron having a large ambtttlt of silicO,l I.x.-ere -ni.ed
w\-lth thetn In sttfftctent atnount. This xvould brl,,r the silicon ;0 +hp.
Proper Pr?Porrion and would cat!se the (
Jhe graPhl0C state and the rc
Irons uSed in tlxi~ :I.*., -- -.-
.\fr. Keep fo
ovtr .^- ...
He +u ,NLI!LS OUL tne p
.,VL CII..T,...
_.~. I.I-.1.1tcot1.~ con-
t,au,tt,g as Wl a Percentage of cotnbineti &r&-&~.:OS> .to nrpn.nme
the bad effew of combined carbon
The Scotch irons gent
desired in irons to bc
m&ake t,p -i.- . ...,
iwrrase t,
qttalitirs, wttett sottn
itit05phortts.
W0r further discussion of the influence of silicon see pages 415 atld 427.)
J~~t&lWSs Of Large Castings.
!W. A. Bole Tmns. rl. S Jf B.
*OO;.> - Thin cast.inxs, by virtue of their more rapid coolit,g a;e almost
Certat:l to bestronger Per unit sert,ion than wotdd be the caseif t.he same
tne~a~ were Pottred into larger and heavier shapes.
JIany larwe iron castings
are of- questionable strength. hecattse of internal straits at?d Ia& of har-
0f the best quality.
mony betwen their elements. even t~hougtt the casting is poured 0,tt 0f iron
This may be flue to lack of experience on the pan of
,~,,:il
THE 1WUNDIZT.
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
The allowance necessary for shrinkage
and the ditferent. conditions under
the +hir,kness runs about one _ .. _ . .._.._.. ~..
,llowin:: allowance can be made:
For cast iron, l/g inch per fq$. For $$
.?/~a inch per foot.
I:. . . ,. ,,
. ..-.. __ -__, ,
Thl&er castings, under the same condit,ions, Will Shrink !eS% and t,himIer
Ones more, thtau t.l,ls stand+d.
The qtrJlit\: of the materlal and t,he man-
ner of molding and coohng
will also t&&e ,a diference.
(See also
Shrinkage of Cast Iron, page 423.)
~1~. ~~~~ ( TTatt.& A. ,y. 111. E., ~01. Xvi) gives the fol\O~~huz ap.proxi-
mate key for reg1tlating fottndry mixtures: so as to ProdlIce a shnnkage
of 11s ht. per ft. in castings of diRerent s&tons:
Size of casting.. . :. . . Ii2
1_ 2
3 4 in. sq.
Silicon required, per cent . _ . . 3.24
2.7?- 2.25- l:F55
1.25 per cent.
Shrinkage of a Q-in. testknr . . 0.125 .13a
.I-10
.165 in per. ft.
Grotvtit of Cast Tron by Heatin!+
(Proc. I. and S. Itlst., 19UlJ.I 7
Ittvest@t,lons by Profs. Rttgan and Carpenter con@] Mr. .Wterbrldge s,
experiments. (See page 425.)
~hCy found: 1. Heattng lshtte iron Causes
it to hrcotQe gray.
and it expands more than sulfici+ 10 overcome the
~ori~ittial shrinkage.
2. Iroh when heated increases ln ~veight, PrObabk(
due to absorption of oxygen.
3. The cllanqe in size due 00 heatmg 15
not only a tnolectd&r Change.
but also a Ch$mlcal one.
4. The growvth pf
one b&r was shown to be due to penetrat,,on Of gases.
Khen heated 111
vacu0 it contracted.
Hard iron dIla to excessive Silicon. -IV. J. Icefl? in JouT-.hnt*
Foundr~mez:s Asm. Feb., l+OS, reports
a case of hard- iron c0vttaml*g
graphite 3~O4. com\,ined (1 0.10; Si, 3.97: P. 0.61: S,. O..Oa: .\In* 0.~6.
He
says. F~;* st.o+e plate ani light hardware cast,ings It. 1s an advantage to
have Si asldgh as x.~O.
.% +I..,* The ~sllrface of the
,,; .i
Wl1en it. t,,;;t~:; $;b;;
:,_,_:,_ Castings often kcomc very 113rd,
b
The surface of heavier f&s of a casting having 3.97 Si will be harder than
the.surCace 0c tlihuier parts. Onjinarily if a casting is hard an hlcreass
of s1hcnn softens it, bwafter reachmg 3.00 or 3.50 per cent, silicon hardens
0 CastmE.
Ferro~Alloys for Foundry Use. E. Houghton (I ron Tr. 124,
Oct. 24. 1907.) ~The objects of the us? of ferro-alloys in the foundry a$
1, t,o act as deoxld&rs Fnd de+phun&r$, the added element remaining
only 1 small quant1t~e.s 1 the hnlrhed castmg: 2, to alter the romposition
of the castmg and so to control its mechanical properties.
Some of these
?,l-tloy~ ?r: Fade in tlle.biast..iur~are. but the purest grades are made in
tne wectnc Iu~nace.
o! blast furnace
17.50-20.87) 9.45-14.2X 1.17- 2.201 3.00- 5 90 8.10-17.00 1.55- 2.30
0.07- 0.10
0.50- 0184
0.06- 0.08 C.l3- 0.36
I.O~;,l.S9
15.71-20.50
0.02- 0.90- 0.05 1.75 0.27- 0.30 0.04- 0.07
0.16- 0.33;Cr. ,::::4::::
I I I
Tbe following are typical analyses of other alloys made in the electric
furnace:
Si Fe AIn Ai CZ Mg ~C S P Ti
F .
-----
erro-tltzuuum.. . . . . . . . . I.21 . . . . . . . . . 0.30 . . . . . ~3%0.030~53.0
Ferro-aIuminl1rl,si!icide. . . . 45.65144. I5 tr. 9.45 nil , nil 0.55 0.01/0.03 .
Ferro-calcium-sdrc1de . . . . . . . 69. 80j 11. 150. 222. 55, 15. 05/ 0. 26 i . 140. 01j 0. 04 . . I .
Ferro-aIumium. Al, 5. 10 and 20%.
9s: Fe. 2 to 4: C, under 5.
Metallic manvanese, 3111, 95 to
Do. refined. %I, 99. Fe 1. e 0
Da~~emus. Ferro-silicon. .- Phosphoretted an;1 a&ni~~rette~l hvdro-
gen, h&y PoISO~!ls gZx?s. are Said to be disengaged In a humid a[mo+
pherr C;pm fefro-slbcon containing between 30 and 407 ant1 bet\ veen 4;
and 6.5 :.c of Sl. alld there is theyefore danger in transwrtfng It in paisencrer
strainslups. A FreIlch commlsliloll has reromzrcndrtl tl!e abad&n&t
of the manufacture of FeSi of these critical percentages. (~a =ll,rlicre
.fSWYwe. Dec. 11. 1909. EZq. Reu., Feb. 26. 1910.)
Qua1it.v of Foundry Coke.
(R. Moldenke, !fmnn. A. S. 31 E
190!.).- U~ual1.v t.Ire sulphur, ash and fixed carbon are sufficient togiss
a Cal: idea of the value of coke, apart from its physical structure, speclfid
grav1t.y. etc. T-he advent qf by-product coke I\-ill necessitate closer
_ attention, to moisture
Beehive coke, when shipped. in open cars may
through mattentio, cause the purchase of .from 6 to 10 per cent oi aate;
at coke Driers.
Cocerig sulphur,very hot running of the cn
In the Iron.
ala results in 1~s sulphur
In good coke. the amount of S s~uld not esce;d i.2 per
P
cent: but. unfort.unat~eIy, the percentage often rnns :
high as 2.00 If
the coke has a good structure, a averace specific prav:~v not over li per
cent of ash and over 56 per cent of fixed carhon, it, doesiot matter much
whether it be of the 72 hour or 24 hour varjctv.
Departure from
I!!,~.,~~~~~!!_romp?~ItCon of a coke of any particular region s11011ld place the
r-.r**~~l>*w~~ on 1.s guard at once, and sometimes the plentiful
IImesto!le at the right moment may save many caqtings.
use of
Cashes made in Permanent Cast-Iron MO&. 2 E. A. Custer in
a paper before the Am. Fonndrymens Arm. C~11g. h-ars &CTv Q- lgdg)
~]~%rdxS the method of making casth1gs in iron molds. ini th;qrl+lty
of these r+ings.
\erS heavy mokls are Used. no provC+on ls &ade
?=inst shn!dcage:e, and t.he cast1ne is removed from the 1old as -oo as
11. has set, Elvillg It no,tlme .fo chill or to shrink hy t:ooiinK,
O&r 600
Wccs have bee11 Cllst in a smgle 1old without its showing any SIg11s of
TEE FOUNDRY.
1233
fnflurec The mold should be so @avy ,th$ it -will not become highly
.lleated in use. Casting a 4-i. fnpe ?e~ghmg 60 lbs. every seven mm-
uteS l a mold weighb~g 6500 Ibs. Jw npt raise, the temperature above
300~ I?.
In using pernumcnt molds the iron a:5 1t c!m1es lrom the cupola
Should bc very bot. The be% results in ca~sL!l!g ~,lpt! are had with uqn
contailling over 3yb carbon and abqut 2<,& ?&con. Iron when cxst ln
a,, iroll mold and renloved as sooll as It sets, pOSSeSSeS,SOllle !lUUSUd p?Op-
erties.
It, \vlll take * temper, and wbeu t.ernpereu 1~111 retam niagnetlsm.
If the casting be take from the mold at a bright heat an? suddenly
quenched in cold !wt,er,
it has the cutt.inr; power of a good high-carbon
Steel, whether the iron be high or low in ~lllcon, p!lospltorus. sulphur or
mangmese. There is no evidence of chill
; no white cry.<tals are sho~~n.
Glnlling molten iron swiftly to the point ,of setting. and then allowmg
lt to cool gradually, produces a metal t&t 1s el!tlrely new Tao the art.
It
has the chenlicsl characteristics of cast Iron, wth the esceptlqr. of com-
blned carbon, and it also possesses some of the pr?pertles of high-carbon
steel. A piece of cast iron tlrat has 0.44% colLmed, and yer, 2% free
catbon, bw bee tempered repeatedly and wvlll do better serwce m a lat~he
than a good non-alloy steel;
Once this peculiar propert? !s imparted to
the castiog, it is impossible to elimiuote it.except by ren+tmg.
A bar of
iron so treated can be held in a lla,me until the metddnps from the end,
and yet quenching will restore it to its original hardness.
The character of the iron before being quenched IS very fine, close-
gminerl, and yet it. is easily rnachh?ed.
If permanent molds can b? used
with success in i!je foundry.
anrd a systtm of cont,inuo:w, pouring ,be
lnauwrated which in duplicate work would obviate the necessity of havmg
molriers mhv is it necessary to melt pig iron in the c~!pola?
Whzt wuld
bemoreidejl t.ha a series of permanent molds supplied wth molten i!on
P
racticaily direct Cram ihe blast furnace?
The interposition of a trbeat:ng
adle such as is used by the steel makers makes possib!e the treatments of
the molten iron.
The niolten Iron from the blast furnace is mlWh hotter t!lan.tllat Ob-
tained from rhe cupola, so ?.hat there is every reason to b&we that the
castings obtamed from a blast funlace :yould be of a better quahty than
ahe the pig is remelted in the cupola.
It is Immaterial whether a iron contains 1.55 or 3% silicon, SO long as
the molten mtLss is at the pro;r+x temper?t.rlre, _
90 that tbe high tempera-
tures obt,ained from t,he
blast *urnace wou!d go Car toward ot-fsetting the
variations in t;ilt: impurities.
R. H. Prohrt (~astir~g~, July, 1909) giVes the follO~~iW anal& of
molds which rave t,he best results: Si.
2.02; s.~o.o;; P. os9: .\I. 0.29:
C.C.,O.S4: G.C.. 8.76.
~folds made from iron wth the Collowhlg allalxsis
were worthless: $X, 3.30; S, 0.06; P, 0.67; JIn, 0.17; CC., 0.19: G.C., X8.
Mnhopany-xassnu ..........
..
Hondums. .....
..
Pine, red
Spanish
... ..........................
..
wtur e. .................
* yellow. ................
- -
Cnst
I ron.
lbs.
10. 7
' 2
12: :
14. 1
Weight of Castings determined from ITeight of Pattern.
(Roses Pnt.tern-makers Assist,ant.)
--
-
Will weigh when cast in
lbs.
12.2
G
t-1.2
19. 0
16. 0
Gun
metal .
- -
! bS.
1; :
9.9
11;::
16.5
ilfolding Sand. (Walter Bagshnr~. Proc. Inst. ~11.. E.. lSgl.).-The
c&mica,] conlposition of snntl will affect the nat.ure of the castmg, no
matter what t,reat,nwnt~ it, underroes.
fitat.ed generally, good s?d 1s
composed of 94 pRrt~ slliw 5 parts atumina. and t.races of magnesia and
oxide of iron. &audc;t&dng much of the nletallic oxides, and especially
lime, is to be avoided. Geographical position is tbe chief factor governing
thp w4rct.ion of fand: and mhet,her weak or st.row. its deficiencies are made _.._..~_...-_..._ __ .,-..~.. _..~.
UD for by the skdl of the molder. For this rea%n the same sand is oft&
uied for both heavy and ilht castings. the proportion of coal ~v!w+&e
according to the nature of the casthig. A Gminon misture of facing:
sacd consists of sis parts by weight of old sand, four of new sand, and one
of coal-dust. Floor-sand requires only half the above proportions Of new
sand and coal-dust to renew it..
measure of uew sand to two of old
German founders adopt one part by
sand: to which is added coal-dust in
the proportion of one-tent.11 of the bulk for large cast.&% and one-twen-
t&h for smaii casthw. A few founders mis street-sweepings with the
rnai in order to get norositv when the met,al in the mold is likelr to be
a long time in setting. Plumbago is effective in preventing destiuct,ioti
of the sand; but owng to its refractory nature, It must not be dusted
on in such nuant.itie.. as to close the Dares and mevent free exit of the
gases. Powdered French chalk, soa$stone, and other substances are
sometimes used for facing the mold: but nest to plumbago, oak charcoal
takes the best olarz, notwithstandinrr its liability to float occasionally and
For ihe Weat~ment of sand in the molding-shop the most primitive
method is that of hand-ridd!ing and treading. Here the materials are
roughly proportioned by volume. and riddled over an iron Platte in a flat
heap. where the mixture is trodden hlto a cake by stamping with the feet:
it is :urned over with the shovel, and the process repeated. Tough
sand can be obtained in this manner. its t.oughnes.. be.ing usually tested
py squeezing a handful into a ball and then breaking 14; but the prpcess
IS slow and tedious. Other things being equal, the chief charact~erlstlcs
of a good molding-sand are tougbness and porosity, qualities thz$ depend
on the mamwr of mixing as well as on uniform ramming.
Toughness of Sand. - In order t.o t~est the relabive toughness, sand
mixed m rarious sacs was Dressed under a uniform load iilto bars 1 in. so.
and about 12 in. l&g, and each bar was made to
ff
reject further an?l
further over the edge of a table unt~il its end broke o by its own weight.
Old sand from the shop Soor had very irregular cohesion,. breaking at all
lenpths of projections from l/3 in. to IV? in. New sand in Its natural state
hefd t,ogelher until an overhang of 23/4 m. was reached. A mixture of old
sand. new sand. and coal-dust
Mixed under railers . . . . . . . . . . broke at 2
.L
in the centrifugal .nachihe...: 2
$I !ZZ;; f?. $ ovefpang.
. .
through a riddle.. . . . . _ . . . . .
13,4 21/* * ** -6
showinz as a mean of the tests onlv slieht differences between the last
three methods. but in favor of ma~hin&vork. In many instanres the
fractures were so uneven that minut.e measurements were not taken.
Heinrich Ries iCa.stDxx Jull-. 19M) sas-s that chemical anals-sis gives
little or no information-r&a&he the b&dine namer. texture: uerinea-
bility or use of sand, .+e only case in R-hi& ~2 & of &lue~ bei% in the
selection of a highly sllxious sand for certain work such as steel casting.
Dimensions of Foundry Ladles. -The following table gives the
dimensions, inside t,he lining, of ladles from 2.5 lbs. to 16 tons capaclt,Y..
A11 the ladles are supposed to have straight sides. (Am. iliach., -lug. 4,
1892.)
Capy Diam .j . )epth. Capy. Diam. Depth.
I I
in. in.
Capy.
THE MACHINE-SHOP.
THE MACHINE-SHOP.
SPEED OF CUTTING-TOOLS IN LATHES, MILLING
MACHINES, ETC.
Relation of diameter of rotating tool or piece, number of revolutions
and cutling-speed:
Let d = diam. of rotati-.g piece in inches. n 7 No. of revs. per min.;
S = ;FflTd of cmxmference Jn feet per nunute;
S = 12 =X2616&t; n= -A.-
0.2618d
Approximate rule: Number -of revolutions per minute = 4 X speed in
feet per minute + diameter in inches.
,., ~.~.
the material
GEARING OF LATIIES.
The !+~cl of .CoUntcr-shaft of thr lathe is dclcrmincd bv an
aisumptl0n of a slow si,ecacl with l,lre ha& gear. sap 6 feet per mihute,
on the largest dnunc~ler that the &he will swing.
Es+*Mv.E. - A 30-inch labhe will swil ?x 30 inches =, say, 90 inch=
circumference = 7 feet 6 inches; the lo,\-est~ triple gear should give a
speed of 5 or 6 feet per minute.
the ~om1~ountIing en@iy. Some lathes am so ro.ns;ructr!d that the stiul
,,n which the Hrst driver 1s pbtced ~evolvcs only !ndf as ia as the sp~ntlle.
Tllis (an be ignored in the calculatlnns by cloul~hnr: the numb*lr of threads
Of t,,1e lead-screw. If both the last conditions are pre.sent IKnore.thern
ln t,he cal cul ati ons by muttiplying the number of threads per mch !n t.he
lead-screw bp four. If the t.@ad to be tilt IS a fractmnal one. or If the
pitcll of the ead-screw is fractlom;ql, or if both are fractional. then reduce
tile frxtions to a common denomi,mntor,
sud use the nUmerators of these
fra&ms as if t.hey,equaled the pitch of the screw to be: cut. and of the
Itlad-screw. reSpeCtlVely. Then Use that part of the rule given abo-,re
which applies to theVla+e in qUestion.
For instance. suppose it is desired
to cut, a thread of 2J/3z-mch
In~b Then the pitch of the P
itch, and the lead-screw has.4 threads
e&d-screw will be l / 4 inch, wtnch IS equa
rr to
81~ inch.
We now have two fractions. 2%~ and a/s. and the trro screws
\viII be in the proportion of 25 to 8. and the gears can be figured by the
above rule, assuming the number of threags to be cut to be 8 per Inch,
and those on the lead-screw to be z5 per Inch.
But this latter number
,nxy be fmther modified by condltlons named above, such as a reduced
s &d of the str,td. or fixed compound gears.
& lead-screw had been 2 l/z threads p
In the instance given. If
er inch. then its pitch being 4/10
Inch we have the fractions 4/10 and h/s?. which, reduced to a common
dendminator. are 04/1(u, and 125*.rio1 a!ld t!le gears will be the same as If the
lead-screw had 125 threads Per mch. and the screw to be cot 64 threads
__ _.-_ . . . I... ..U-
all\- in geometric progression, being ohtained ~ei&i%v a combina:ion of
cone-pr$ey arld back gears, or by a single pulley in Oc,onnect,ion with a
gear trz%lrt, l%her of these systems may be used witch a variable speed
motor. qcmg a **-+ .III I- range of available speeds.
It i; desirai~le~ Tao keep worli rotating at a rate that will give the most
eronornical cuttmg speed, necessitating. somet.imes. frequent. crhanges In
spimllr speed. A vanable speed motor arranzed for 2f1 snr~Is VI penmet.&
. . . . I ,,--- ..,e to the
m-chanical combmation of belts and back gears gives a tine gradation of
cxtin:: .spe~ds. The~spindie speeds obtained &h the hither snorts nf
.!I. mntnr ii1 cm
awl ba
_ . . . . . . .,_ .,.,,
I. speeds av::i.i-
able In the mot.or iii conn&ion wit:h the next higher sPeed arranpenlent
ot Mb and gears. bUt about 200 us&d speeds are nossible.
( E/ cc. KC! . , Feb.
E. R, . T) n, , vl ~, .
motor and ge. Zredh?a( l kdt. hh. i vi th2: speed variations in the motor and 3 in
tile bead. 1,he speerl range of the spindle is from 4.: to 5i)o r.nlm. RV
t,he 11-e of tbls arrangement.. and taliinc Zdvdl l tarH Of t, he RWPA dl nn&
Pnsiible for
,_~ ~. . .._ ..,... __ _._-..
different diameters of the {cork. a sarinp of R-5 1 nor r.ont .
obtained in t~he t.ime of tclrning a Piece ordinarily rear,
. ..I xls
Rule for Gearing Laths for Scrrm-rut&.
_ G&i % mi nutes
(Garrin Maeit&
on the indes:
f
Ilt this Keai upon t~llc stud, then multiply the
n:lr$:cr of threads per inc 1 to, be chit. by the same number, and put the
m the screw.
per inch.
on this subject consult also !Formulas in Gearine,. published by
Brown $ Sharpe Mfg. Co., and Jnmiesons A1,plied Mechamcs.
Chnge-gears fur Screw-cutting Lathes.-There is a !nck of
uniformity among lathe-builders as to the change-eeafs provided for
screw-cUtting. W. R., Macdonalci., in Am. Ma&.. Aprtl 7. 1892,. pro;
Posed the following series, bv which 33 whole threads (not fractlonall
map be cut by &ranges of only nine geilrs:
tbnr 48 into 48 cuts 6 thre&ls per inch. then 6 X.$-I2;, zia;b;,-ii;;d:
and 11 % X 1 = 46, gear on screw.
Any multiplier may be used so long
as rhe product.s inchrdc: gears that, bel ong with the In&.
instead Of 1 as a ml l i ti pkr wr: may u. i e 6.
For instance,
stud. and 11 >i X 6 = 69, gear upon screw.
Thus, 6 x 6 = 36, g:tar upa
Rules for Calculating
thqre is no index. (Am
Simple and Compound Crarinx where
the stud runs
Mwh.) - If the lat,Ire i s sbnpl e- grared
at the sdme speed as the spindle. select some
;~-for, ~t,I:e scr$x\;, +ld !nn!tiply its number of teeth br t.he number
ber of thr&ds per inch io~be~~~-~~ --.-- .-...
this result. bv the num-
tbr Lear for the stud. If this
This xii1 slve t,he number-of teet,h in
re.:Ult i:; a fractional ml mher~ or a nun, ber
Spindle.
Whole Threads.
20 130 )
- i -
2 ;;g
8 6 al7
10 8 417
I Q217
14 . .
22 18 617
24 20 417
26 22 317
Screw.
-.. --., --._.- -...,r gear for the
Or. select the eear for the stud first, then multiply its nl l ml ) er Of
teeth by the number of threads per inch to he cut. and di vi de 1~1: t. he
nrtnl he
.
Ten tears are sufficient to cut all the usual tllreads,.nith the exCePti .!-- -
Ion
of perha, s 111/v the standard pipe-thread; in ordinary pracalce any
fractionaf threzd between 11 and 13 will be near enotlph foi the Custom-
ary short. nine-thread: if not. the ad&ion of a single Fear wll1 give 14.
in this i a bl e the aitch of the lead-scr
.ew is 12, and it may be objected
tn as too fine for the purpose.
This may be rect,ified by making tile repi
!
itch 6 or any other desirable pitch, aid establishin: the proper ratlo
etween the l&he soindie and the gear-stud.
Quick Chan& Gears: -About 1905. lat,ne mamtf@+reI
s began
building *q&k *change
I^
lathes In which gear cna:lpng 10r scr.elv
Cutting i s eIunI~~~ei1 The lead-screw carries a cone of gears. One of \yhlCh
Is in mesh v;Ith j mdvahle gear ln a nest. of gears driven from the spmdle.
Bc cb: mzi nn thn nosition of this moval-
)le gear, in relarion t,o the cone Of
%Cars, t\l- prop-- ~L$i-6 &f speeds between the sPindie and lead-screws Is
Obtainedr:or c&&&y desired thread usual in the range Of the machme-
About 16 different iuntibcrs of thread?
; per inch can usually be Cut by
means of the quick change gear train.
I)lIferent threxis from those
UsUaiiy availzbie can be cut by means of change gears
between thespindle
,;;p
~,m,a&:&
WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some (
Nose of Too:
123s THE MACHINE-SHOP.
rk
and quick change gear train. The threads per inch usually available
range ,rom !Z to 46 in a l%inch lathe bo 1 to 24 in a 3(+inch lathe. Catalogs
of lathe manufacturers should be consult.ed for co !structional details
Shap$s of Tools. -For illustrat.ions and descri$ions of various for&
of cutt.mg-tools. see Taylors Experiments. below: also see articles on
Lathe Too1s.m Appletons Cyc. hiech., vol. ii. and in Modern JIechanism
Cold _Chlsels. -Angle of cutting-faces (Joshua Pose): For cast steel
about, 6a degrees; for gun-metal or brass, about. 5U degrees; for coppe;
and soft metals, about 30 to 35 degrees.
Metric Screw-threads may be cut on lathes with inch-divided lead.
ing-screws:, by the !xse of change-wheels with~50 and 127 teeth; since 127
cewmeters = 50 m&es (127 X 03937 = 49.9999 in.).
Rule for Setting the Taper in a Lat~he. (Am. Mach.) - No rule
can be given which will produce exact results, owing to the fact that
the centers enter the work an indefk1it.e distance. If it were not for
fhis circumctance the following would be an exact rule, and it is an approx.
imation as,it is. To find the distance to set the center over: Divide the
differencq m rhe dlarneters of the large and small ends of the taper by 2
and multiply this quotient by the rat~io which the total length of the shaft
bears to the length of the tapered portion. EXAMPLE: Suppose a shaft
Chr,e feetlong IS to have a taper turned on the end we foot long the large
cud of the.taper being two inches and the small end one inch d&meter,
2-I
--2 - X : = 1% inches.
01
Eorizontal Line ? 1
Line
TAYLORS EXIERIXESTS.
Fted V, T@or directed a series of experiments. estrndinn over 6
years. on Leeds, speeds, &ape of tool. composition of tool st,eel*and heit
treatm-..~.. treatment.. His results are given in Trans. 8. S. >I. E., ssI-ii!.The art
of Cutt.ing Sletals. 7 of Cutt.ing Sletals. 7
~. The Art
speed ;y
,FPee? steel and to
The <ot.es below apply mainly to stools oft I+$ The not.es below apply mainly to tools of high
* .,A +r. I .-^..-- . ..-_ ,_ - --.. z-z--~ . ~.
heavy
Inch :n cross-section. inch in cIV=_ . _- _____.
work requiring tools not less than i/a by 31~
Proper Shape of Lathe Tool. - Nr. Taylor disrorered the best Proper Shape of Lathe Tool. - Nr. Taylor disrorered the best
s$pe .for lathe t.qols to be as shown in Fig. lsi ~-i&h the suwles s$Pe .for lathe t.qols to be as shown in Fig. lS7 ~-i&h the suwles
Rlren ln the fo!!owmg table, when used on materi& oi t.1~ r1n.q sbo& Rlcen In the fOl!O\vlng table, mhen used on materials of the class sbo&
The es.~ ._ The esact outline of the nose of the tool is shown in Fie. 1s~
actual dimensions of a l-inch --..,--a-- -A- --~ ~
-- I.._.. .- -.. _ .,~. *&4. The The
actl!31 dimensions of a l-inch roughing tool are sho\vn 1~1 Fi@, 189
Let R = radics of point of tool, ti = Let R = radics of point of tool, A =
JOG,
width of tool, L = length of shznk
and II = height. of shanlr, all in inches. and II = height. of shanlr, all in inches.
wor,n OI tool L = lenwth of shlna
R-n
Then L ~'11 ~4 C .A" U = I + Af TllenL=l~.~f.~.W=1.5A:
R = 0.5 A - 0.31% for cuttiny hard st~eel and cast iron. d = 9 j A 2
O.lSi.1 fOi soft steel.
in Fig. ~$7.
The meaning of the terms back slop& etc., isshown
Sect.ion Through Line -4-B Showing
Greatest, or True Slope of lip Surface.
-I
FIG. 157.
AngIes for Tools.
* x3teria1 cut. a = clearance.
Cast iron; Had stez.
!
b = back slope. c = side slope.
6 degrees. 0 degrees.
Jlediuy~l; sz-
14 degrees.
6 degrees. 8 degrees. 22 degrees.
Tire steel. 6 degrees.
-
5 degrees. 9 degrees.
FIG. 1%
* AS far as the shape of Bhg boo1 i:q concerned, Tavlor divides metals to
he cut into general classes:
f :,
((1) cast Iron and hard keel, st.eel of o -15-0.50
)r: cent carbot?, 100.000 pounds t,en.cile strength, and 1s per centstret,cb
twig a low hmlt of hardness. , (b) Soft steel, softer t.hx~ above. (c) chilled
iron: W) tire steel ; (e) extreme12 soft steel of carbon, say, O.iO-0.15 per
cent.
.
The table presupposes the use of an automatic tdol grinder
are ground by hand the clearance angle should be 9 detrrees
If tools
The lip
rW&s for tools cutting hard steel and cast iron should -be 68 degrees;
.:.
.~.~_.,~~ ,.,..
be accurate ,
WARNING: This~ is a 1910 edition. Some
for soft steel. 61 degrees: for chilled iron, SG to 90 degrees. for tire steel
74 degrees; for extremely soft steel, keener than 61 dekees
A tooi
should be given more.side than bacli slope: it can tlleh by? groind mop
times wthout weakemng, the chip does not strike the tool post or clamp:
THE MACHINE-SHOP. ,
FIG. 189.
and it is also easier to feed.
side. as in Fig. 189 above, to
The hose of the tool should be set;: EE
avoid any tendency to upset
iL tooi Of this shape, lathe tool posts sliould be set Ioffer
center of the work than is cow (1907) customary.
below the
Fur&% and Grinding Tools.-The best method of dressing a tool
is to turn one end UP nearly at right angles to the shank so that the
nose Mll be high above the top of the body of the tool.
be thus done in two heats.
i)ressinq can
Tools should leave the smith shopbwith
a ctz+rance angle of 20 degrees.
are -lven m 3Ir. Taylors paper.
Detailed directions for dressiw a tool
To avoid overheating the tool in grind
1119. a streanj of water. of at least five gallons a minute should be thrown
at low velocity on the n3se of the tool where it is in bontact with the
emery wheel.
In hand winding:. tools should not be held Brmlr against
fhe wheel, but should be moved over it.s surface
It is of t.he utmost
!mPorta?Ce that high speed steel tools should not be heated bore lOO F
m grmdmg.
. Automatic tool grinders are economical e&n in l smzti
Sll,?P. . Grindmg machines should have some means kor Tutomhticailv
adJMtmg the premre of the tool against the grinding wh&l
Each si&?
of~tool shquld have Fdapted to it a. pressure nutomaticallv ahju
ted and
\$,irh 1s Just suffirlent to grind rapirllv Githoltt overh&tln~ :he tool
htandar~! shapes should be adopted,. to Which ,211 toolg shouid se srround
there llw??. 110 economy in aUtOm2LtlC grinding without stlnd?rdshapes
Iht (*rlndina Wheel. -The best grindiilg wheel & fbund to bl
a cor~~lldum wheel, of a misture of 24 and 30 grit.
WARNING: This is a 1910 editioni~ Sot~@~??~ th
prcssnro of Tool, etc, -UP. Tnylor fotund that there is no definite
reh~tion between the cu!Jx& speed of tools and the pressure with which
t.lle chip beitrs on the hp. surface of t,he tool.
the pressure per ,square Inch of ,sectlonnl
He found, howeyer, that
~l@tly ?s the t,luckness of the chip, decr,e+ses.
il,e tool IS sometImes equal to the entire
t,i,e lip surface of the toql, and the feed gears
a pressure of this magmtude at the nose of the tool.
Chatter. -Chatter is caused by: too sma!l lathe dogs; imperfect
bearing at the points where the face plate drives the dogs; badly made or
badly fitted gears; shaf@ in the machine of too small diameter, or of too
great length; loose fits m bearmgs. A tool which chatters must be run
at a cutting speed about 15 per cent slower than can be used if the tool
does not chatter, irrespective of the use or n+-use ?f water on the taol.
A higher cutting speed can be used with an intermittent cut. as occurs
on a planer, or shaper, or in turmng, say, the periphery of a gear, than
with a steady cut. To avoid chatter, tools should have curred cuttmg
edges or two or more tools should be used at the same Lime m the same
machine. The body of the tool should be greater m height th?n wdth,
and should have a true, solid bearing on, the tool support, which latter
should extend ,to almost bene&th the cuttmg edge of the tool.
Machmes
should be made massive beyond the metal needed for strength alone,
and steady rests should be used on long work. It is advisable t,o use a
steady rest, when turning any cylindrical piece of diameter D, when the
length exceeds 12 D.
Uses of Water on Tool. -With the best high ,speed ,&eel too$ a
gain of 16 per cent in cutting )speed can be made m cutlmg cast won,
steel or wrought iron by throwing a he:~;y stream of mater dwxtly on
the chip at the oint where it is being removed from the forging by the
t,ool. Not less t mn three gallons a mhulte sho111d be used for a 2 X 31/z- P
inch tool. The gain is practically the same for all qlwblities ?f steel,
regardless of hardness and wi!ether thick or t.hin ,chips are bcmg r,ut.
Interval between Grindings. -Mr. Taylor derlred a table s!iowmg
how :ong various sizes of tools should run without regrinding to give the
maximum work for the lowest all-wound cost. Time a tool should run
continuously without regrinding equals 7 X (time. to chsngg. tool -!-
proper portion of time for redressing + time for grinding + tnne eqm-
valent to cost of the tool steel ground off).
Si~o;;~,ol.
Hours.
1 1$7/3 I l/a zo2 l/4 i 3/425 2 314
22%
If the proper cutting speed (A) is known for a cut of given duration.
the speed for a cut (B) of different durst,ion can be obtained bY multIPlY-
ing (A) by the factor given in the follov;ing table:
Duration of cut in minutes:
At known speed (A) ......... , . 20 40 20 '40 SO 80
&d,ved speed (B). ...........
0.92 0.92 0% lTo"9 l"E9 39
40 80
- .......................
Fo
,L . 3
r cuttine sneeds of high-sneed lathe tools to last 1% hours, see
UN% on pages 1244 and 3345.*
Effect of E&d ,zud Dept,h of Cut on Cutting Speed.--With a given
depth of cut metal can be removed fast,er with a coarse feed and SloW
speed. than &itb fine feed and high speed.
With a given dept.h of cut, a
Wtting speed of S, and a feed of F. S,varies as l/\F.
best high speed steel, varying the feed and
With tool? of the
de tth of cut varies the
CUtting speed ln the same ratio when cutting hari I steel as When cutting
soft steel.
Best High Speed ho1 Steel - Composition - Heat Treatment
-Mr. Taylor a.ttd Msunsel White develoned a numbw of hiph an,&
-~ ---,,-. Irlcu
steels? the-one showing the best a,&around i;aliiie&-h&&ig the following
chemical composition: Vansdium,
L47: carbon. 0.674: mn11aanese.
0.29; tungsten, 18.19: chromium
0.11: siiicon. 0.043. The ,,SP 2
vanadium materially urn xoies
of treatment is describer 1
high speed steel. The fol+:i:i; :<<thli
high speed steel.
as the best for this or anv other compos;i,ion of
The too! should be forged at a light yellow heat, and
after forjilng slowly and umformly, heated to a bright cherry red, allowin;
plenty of time for the heat to penetrate to the center of the tool, in order
to avoid danger of cracking due to too rapid heating. The tool should
then be heated,froF a bright cherry red to practically its melting-point as
rap$!y as posulble III an intensely hot fire; if the extreme nose of the too!
is shghtly fused no harm is done. Time should be allowed for the tool
to become uniformly hot from the heel to the lip surface.
After the !ngh he@ has been given the tools, as above described, they
should be cooled rapIdly untd they are below the breaking-down point, *
or. say. down to or below 1550 F. The quality of the tool will be but
little affected whether it is cooled rapidly or slowly from this point down
to the temperature of the a,ir. Therefore, after all parts of a tool from.
the outside to the center have reached a uniform temperature below the
breaking-down point, it is the ractice sometimes to lay it down in any
part of the room or shop whirl 1s free from moisture, and let it cool in f.
tt>e air, and sometimes to cool it in an air bla,st to tl!,: temperature of the
mr.
The b$st method of cooling from the high heat to below the breaking.
down pomt is to plunge the tools into a bath of red-hot molten lead below
the temperature of 1550 F. They should then be
bath fainta,ined at a uniform temperature of 1150
d
)lunged into a lead
because the same
bath 1s afteiwarti used for reheat,& the tools to givethem their second
trentme!lt. This bath should contain a sutficient,ly large bode of the lead
so that Its temperature can be maintained uniforin: and for this purpose
sho111d be used preferably a lead bath containing about 3600 11). of lead
Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of never allowing
the tool Jo have its temperature even slightly raised for a very short
time ,dunng the process of cooling down.
The temperature must either
remam absolutely st,utionary or continue to fall after the operation of
coohng llas once started, or the tool will be injured
Any temporary rise
of ternperadure during cooling, however small, will injure the tool.
ho\vever. apphes onlv to cooling the tool to the temperature of 2%
130,F. Between the limits of 1740 d%grees and the temperature of
the air, the tool ran be raised or lowered m temperstlire dime after time
and for Fny length of time without injury.
And it should also be noted
that dur!ng the tirst operation of heating the tool from its coid state to
the meltmg-lxxnt, no Injury results from allowin:: it to cool slightly and
then reheating. It is from reheating during the operation of cooling
from the hig!l heat to 1240 F. that the tooi is inillred.
Tbe above-described operation is commonly kn&vn as the first or high-
heat treatment.
To briefly recapitulate, the first or high-heat treatment consists of
heating the tool -
(a) slowly to 1500 F.;
(b) raP&l1y from that temperature to just below the melt,ing-point.
(C) Coo$g fast to below the breaking-down point 1.e ljjOF
($1 COOhllg either fast or slowly from 1550 F. to teh&ature ofthe air.
s
cc+ Tre?tment, .Rehgatin
temperiLLlure nas oeen reached the 1
too should be reheated to a t,enmerature T
the Cooled Tool. - After air-
of from 700 to 1240 F.. preferably by plungin~~ it in the before&ntioned
lead bath at 1150 F. and Inept at that tempe&ture at least five minutes.
To avoid danrer of fire cm.rl~s. fhe t.n
01 should be heated slowlv before ~.~. . . .._ -.._. -..- _
imnmersing in the bath. The above tool heated in this fashion possesses
a h%h degree of red hardness (ability to clot st,eel with the nose of the
tool at red heat), while it is not estrliordinnri!r hard at ordinarv tem-
peratures.
In the lathe.
It 1s difficult to injure it bv overheatring on the grindstbne or
It will operate at. 90 per Cent of lt.s maximum cutting speed,
even Mthout the second or low-&at treatment.
able for giving the first heat. ~UI:I
A coke fire is urefer-
it, s!~n~~ltl bc made as deep as p&sible.,,
TkYLORS ESPEiUhIENTS.
Cooling the tool by plunging it in cm or water. renders it liable to fire
n.m,+~s and to brittlerless m the body. Next to the lead bath an air blast
s!10p, I.. -ll-..~
to be as fOl!OWS
,111 -._...md of Treating Tools in Small ,Sbops. - For small
n_l in t,rpn,t.incr \li;h-speed tools, Mr. Taylor con~lers the best inethod
for the blacksmith who is equipped oniy with the
imith-Shop.
d and before start,inr: to give them their
apparatus ordmarily found in a~ I
After the tools have been forge
Ilest fuel should be added to. the smiths fire so as tb give a good deep
bed &ther of coke about the size of a WhlUt or of firswlasS ~lacksmlths
rnf+ ~oa,l~ A number of tools should then be laid with thex noses at a
for coolhip.
%%,~~~&wY= from the hotter oortion of the fire. so that they n
~,,6,, -A -..- -- ----;- .~~. ~~~..~ _
lay all
be pre-lleatlng.mhlle the fire i> being blown up to its proper intensity.
After reaching its proper intensity, the tools should be heated one at a time
over the hottest part of the fire as rapidly as practicable up to Just below
their melt.ing-point. During this operation they should be repeatedly
turned over and over so as to insure a uniform high heat throughout the
whole end of the tool. As soon as each too! reaches its !ugh heat, it
shou!d be placed with its nose under a heavy air blast and allowed to
cool to the temperature of the air before, being relnoved from the blast..
Unfortunately,, however. the black;rmths fire IS so shallow that It IS
incapable of mmntaining its most interlse heat for more than a cop-
paratively few minutes, and, therefore, It IS only through these few ml:-
utes that first-class high-speed tools can be properly.heated m the smith s
fire. Grest numbers of highYspeed tools are tln$- turned Out from
smiths fires whir+ are not sufhciu~tlv inteose in theu heat, and they are
therefore infc .,._. . . . ._..
on the wllole, a !il;~~:!i~~;;;iii;~~~ri~~~~~~~~le from coke may be Ggardetl as
better for giving t.he hifill heat. to t.oo!s thall a
soft-coal tire, merely
becs,lse a coke f~lrp <*:1.n I,r. mope easilv made !)y the smith which will
rrmain canable fo
melting-pdints.
Quality of -.._.
author. Dec. 30. 19C
Fin-i. Any of a hi.. ,, -.. . ..-.._.. .,. ,._O._ I _-._ _.,.._ ..-
are amply good, and !mt little attention nee&be pa~1 to the Wecinl direc-
tions for beating and cooling high speed tools given by the makers of the
tool steel. The most lmDortant matter is t,hnt. an intenselv hot hre should
be used for giving the tools t!lPjr lioh I
allowed to soak a long time ill .~
as Dossible sod then cooled in an ai
_ _..-. -.-
..eat. and that, t,h& should not be
;;ib~r*f$$st, They should be heated as fast
t~nnh SW rllinrd on the emerr wheel
&cond. The preatest number of --.. _ -.- _-_...- .~~ .~~~
through overheating either because a wheel whose surface is glaa<d 1s
used or because too smnl! a stream of water iS run upon the nose Oi the
tool. The emery wheel should be kept sharp through frecluent dress-
ings ,mith a diamond tool.
Third. Uniformity is the most important
t,alitv in high speed tools.
$.tooi steel should be used
For this reason. only one make of high spee -
;i
&i...,. ,,~~, ,, .~~
ie material may no- longer be auk-ate
Soft.
?.fe-
dium.
I
%
129.
105.
. . . . .
. . .._
-i-k
4%
78.5
. . . . .
-i&G
E
74.6
k2::
-E
79.7
2::
43.7
:,
::
.
. .
i-
:
i
i
I
I
,
-.
1
I
,
I~;~~ 239.0 1,9.,
58.4
191.0 95.1
142.0 70.6
47.5 118.0 59.1
. . . . . . 103.0 51.7
. . . . . . 85.0 42.1
- --_
toz.0 216.0 IOB.0
72.9 172.0 86.2
50.7
s::
I2B.O 64.0
107.0 53.4
93.4 46.7
. . . . . 76.8 38.4
---_
$I
187.0 93 5
41.6
149.0 74.6
33.8
III.0 55.5
29.3
92.5 463
23.8
73.1 35.5
66.4 33.2
---
73.2
51.6
168.0 w.,
36. I
29.5
24; ii,:
:::i
83.2 41.6
72.6 36.3
59.7 29.8
--
z:; 144.0 71.8
:27
115.0 57.3
85.1 42.6
70.9
20.8 Lt.0
35.5
31.0
*...
I
51.0 25.5
---
52.3
;$;
131.0 55.6
105.0 52.3
21.0
77.6 9.9.8
64.7 32.4
. . . .
. . . . . l% 2;::
29. I
25.2
20.5
58.9
2::
26.8
:s.B
Iz.0
40.1
290
23 7
2:
-
47.7
36.7
:z
---
202.0 101.1
156.0 77.,
II2.0 5,b.i
91.8 4,5.!
79.3 39.i
64.3 32.i
--
178.0 89.0
137.0 6(1.6
99.4 43.7
81.0 40.5
70.1 35.0
56.8 28.4
--
163.0 81.5
26, y:z
74.1 37,o
641 32,O
52.0 26.0
--
z:: :::
80.0 400
g.j g.2
45.8 229
---
35.0 67 5
4 0 52 I
i:.: :i:
0.1 2, 6
I
C.
W-I
: Speeds. Feet per 36lnute. oi TaylorWhIte ?&eel Lathe Tools. to Last .l *h XCams Be&~@ecn Grlnd:n%s.
I
s/c-Inch.
-I
&St Iron.
Steel
482.0 241.0 ~10.0 222.0 111.0 65.0 467.0 234.0 106.0 445.0 223.0 101.0 206.0 103.0 60.0
323.0 ,161.O 73.4 169.0 134.3 49.2 306.0 153.0 69.5 281.0 141.0 63.9 147.0 73.3 42.6
y:; 1;;; 49.3 39.0 126.0 97.0 59.8 48.5 34.9 28.3 200.0 156.0 100.0 78.0 -45.5 35.5 135.0 177.0 08.7 67.4 40.2 30.7 97.5 76.0 38.0 40.8 28.5 22.2
. . . . . . . . . . . :;. . . .
83.4 41.7 24.4 . . . . . ..*.. . . . . . .:.. . . . . . . . . . . 64.1, 32.1 18.7
. . . . . .s . . . . . . . **.
66.4 33.2 19.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--- -e- ---.-
423.0 212.0 %.I 20311.0 102.0 59.3 417.0 209.0 94.8 200.0 100.0 58.6 404.0 202.0 91.8 194.0 97.0 56.7
y34:~ I$;:; 645 43:2 156.0 ,,O.lJ 70.2 55.0 32.0 45.6 273.0 179.0 136.0 89.3 62.0 40.6 104.0 148.0 74.0 51.8 ,43.3 30.2 255.0 161.0 128.0 81.0 36.6 57.9 138.0 93.1 69.3 46.5 27.2 40.4
151.0 75.3 34.2 88.8 44.4 25.9 140.0 69.8 31.7 02.6 41.3
,
24.1 *** *** *-** 72.1 36.1 21.3 r
128.0 63.0 29.3 76.2 38.1 22 20.3 . . . . . . .._. ..I.. 41.0 20.91 12.2
. . . . . . . . ~.. .._... 60.9 30.4 17.0
._~l ,._. . ,
q::::: I::::: I:::::! .).: !.....!
I-I-
,-,_
358.0 179.0
==-7~ -=-21 2016);;;;;1.....I.;.../..,,i/.....I...~.
0.0 75.0 43.0 286.0 143.0 65.0 !S@ !Z.a 45.4
i..- -- I-,~i-l-I- ,-.I ___,- ,-,-I-
i
la;:!
I
%:I 33.11.. . .
65.5 32
l24(j ,,,, 1, : ,,.
THE MACHINE-SHOP.
I?ey High-Speed Steels. - Am MUC~L. April S, hfay 20 anti V 1909
describes the operations of some new w&ties of hig$speed ste< ma&
by Sh&e!d ma!?!!facturcrs, W!lich show resuits su,enor to those of the
earlier high-speed st,eels in cndtlrauce of tool, ah1 ity to cut very hard +
s, and higher speeds.
i n ht. he- wvorl : ~
The following are the results of some of the
I De?! ! ! Msterinl Cut.
Diam.
,in. j CUILII
Steel, 2.00 f J ...................
st.ee1, 0.70 0..
8:s
.................
Steel, 0.70 C
114
...................
Steel. 0.4oc..
VlO
........
Steel,0.40C.. :
G3
........
c
_ _~ l/S
l/g t.0 y:1
Cast iron.. . . . . . . . . . 5 ft.
VlO
st~eel,0.4oC . . . . . . . . . .
l/8
Steel.. . . . . . .
53/s in.
Nickel steel.. _. .
93/4 in.~
f/s
31/z in.
fast, Iron.. ........... 2 ft.
kmt iron ............. I I 5 ft. c
Steel casting, 0.45 C.. 20 in.
g
818
Std, 0. 60C. . . . . . . . . . 71/ 2i n. .Q/M
LOI
1132
l/10
l/32
l/8
GO
l/8
).OIL
18
%o
107
4% ins.
6 ins.
El 54 8 ins. iris.
64 72 ins.
52 124 ins.
50 115 15, tgoi ~0 min.ll
- I
* Then 13/q in. at 50 ft. per min.
$ Then 2S ins. at 3s ft.
$ Then 1 l/8 in. at 6.5 ft. per min.
$ Then 22 ins. at 160 ft,. 11 Iteqrured 2s H.P.
Chilled rol!s! too l!ard for ordinary high-speed steel were cut at a speed
of So ft. per mm., with s/l8 in. depth of cut and l/8 in. i;eed.
-
:I
Feed
in.
-I.
~
AS
VllJ
h3
Vl6

2: 9 13 43/4 in.*
::
in.t
0713 in.
E
28 ins., $
28 ins., S
The following results were obta,ined in drilling:
I I ,
3/q i n. Close cast, iron.. .
I4 Steel.0.25C . . . . . . .
466 0.018 61/2in. 70holes, 3 ins. deep.
247 0.011
314 Hard steel. _. 526
60 hol es. 23, ' 4 ins. deep.
3.h Steel
. . . . . 6in. 12 bol es, 21/ z ins. rleep.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .._.. 400 . . . . 31/ z 14 in. at one operation.
A miliiI!g clltter 5 in. tlinm.. with 54 teeth, milling teeth in saw-blanks,
at a cuttmg speed of 56 ft.. per min. and a feed of 1 in. per min cuts
SO blanks (three or more together), each 32 in. diam., 3/8 in. thlcc, 210
teeth. before re-xrindinz.
Us& of 1~ RL;lSnet &I D&ermine the Hardcninrr Temperature.
(~lt.slogLle of Firhh-Sterling Steel Co.) --At the proper%artl&ig heat a
plrre of regular tool steel loses it,s power t.o at.trxt a magnet. By touch-
ll1.g 5 magnet against the t.001 as It heats up in the furnac~e t,he magnet
w!ll take hold until t.lw proper heat for quenching is reacheri. and t,hrn it
wll not take hold at any point.
it can be ha.rtl~~d.
This determines the lowest brat :zt which
BY heati&&&y, trying wit.b a magnet frequentlv, and dippin? the
tool when the magn:t will not bake hold, an estrem& hard tool ~$1 be
secured and one whwh will do excellent work.
be allowed to become heated. In order to
The magnet should not
guard against the loss of
~nagnetkln ill a hOrSeShOe magnet an electro-magnet may be made by
Passing an electric current thrOlIgh a coil of wire womld 011 &, iron rod.
CASE-HARDENING, ETC.
Cnsc-llnriletling of Iron and St&l, Cknentation Harreyizing..-
When won or soft steel is heated to redness or abo& in contact with
charcoal or other carbonaceous material, the ca.rbon grndu:~ll.\- penetrates
.
MILLING CUTTEIZS. 1247
the metal, converting it into high carbon s@el. The depth of penetra-
tlon and the percent.age pf carbon abtiorbed mcrcase !vlth the temperature
,& \-&ll the len.gth Of time nllowed.for t&! procrss. In the old cementa-
tion process for convertmg wrolught irqn mto blister st,er:l for re-melting
ia crucibles fla,t bars were packed wth charcoal in an oven which was
kept at 5 red beat for severa! days. .In the Harvey process of hardening
tbs surface of armor p&te, t.he @ate IS covered witti charcoal and heated
ln a furnace for a considerable time, and then rapidly cooled by a spray
.of water.
In case-hardening, a very hard surface is given to articles of iron or
Enft, steel by coverinn them or packing them in a box or oven wit.h a ma-
iX:i ~contsininr csibon. heating thein to redness while so covered and
~~~~-chiIling tliem. BIany di&rent substances halve been used foi thk
purpose, such as wood or bone charcoal, charred leather, sugar, cyanide
nf natasslum. bichromate of notash. etc. HYdrocarbons. such as illu-
$i%i$ ga$ gasolene or na$htha, are z&o used. An&. Machinist,
Feb. 20, 1908. describes a furnace made by the American Gas Furnace
Company of Elizabeth, N. J., for case-hardening by gas. The best results
WP obt,ained with soft steel. 0.1~2 to 0.15 carbon. and not over 0.35 man-
ganese, but st.cel of 0.20 to 6.22 carbon may be its&d. The carbon begins
to penetrate the steel at about 1300 F., and 1700 F. should never be
mrti eded with ordinary steels. A deWi oft carbonizix of I/(;4 in. is
&%&d wit.11 gas in olie hour, and l/4 ifi. in 12 hours. After carbonizing
the steel should be annealed at about 16W F. and cooled slov~l~. then
re-heated to about. 1400 F. and quenched in water. Nicxkel-chrome steels
may be carbonized at 2000 F. and tungsten steels at 22lJW F.
Change of Shape due to Hardening and Tempering. - J. E. Storey.
Am. Mach., Feb. 20. 13OS! describes some experiments on the change of
dimensions of steel bars 4 .n. long. 7/u in. diwn. in hardenina and temner- :.~~~.~~~~~~~
ing. On hardening the -th-in&eased in different pi&es .OOOi to
.OOl.%in., but in t\!o piwes r .-.Kht shrinkngc, masimum .O(JOli, was found.
The diameters increased .0003 to .0036 in. On temneriw the lenet~h
de&eased .0017 to .OlOS in. as compared with the origina .i ins. leng?h,
while the diameter was increased. .0003 to .0029; a few samples showing
a decrease max. 0009 in. The general effect of har ning is a slight
increase inbuik, which increase is reduced by temper&!. The distortion
is more important than the increase in bulk.
MILLING CUTTERS.
George Addy (Proc. Inst. 111. E., Oct., 1500, p. 537) gives ths followine:
Analyses of Steel. - Tl!e follo\ying are analyses of nnlhng cutter
b$nlts, made from best quahty crucible cast steel and from self-harden-
z Ivanhoe steel:
C Si P &Ill S Tungsten d:i$,l\z
Crucible Steel, 1.2 0.112 0.018 0. 36 0.02 . . . 98.29
Ivanhoe Steel, 1.67 0.252 0.051 2.56 0.01 5. 63 90.81
The first analysis iS of a cutter 14 in. diam., 1. in. Ride. which ,g?e
very good service at a cutting-speed of 63 ft. per min.. Large milhw
cul,ters are sometimes built up, the cutting-edges only being of tool step\.
A cutter 22 in. diam. by 5 l/a in. wide has been made in this %ay, the teet.11
being clamped between two cast-iron flatlges. Mr. Addy recommends
for this form of tooth one with a cutting-angle of 7Op, tl13 face Of t.be
tooth being set 10 back of a radiiL1 line on the cutter, t.be ciearaiVX-~Wle
be@ t.hus loo. At, the Clarence Iron Works, Leeds,.the face of the tooth
is set 10 back of the radial line for cutting wrought Iron and 20 for Steel.
Pi tch of Teeth. -For obtaining a suitable pitch of teeth for
$llinE-cutters of variotls diameters there exists no standard Ill!:, the
:;$I being usually decided in an arbitrar,? manner according to indlx ldual
2. For estimatin: t.he pitch of teet.h tn a cut.ter of an Y diameter from
4 i n. to 1~ i n. , xfr. ~t~tlg has worked out the following ru E, I which be has
found capable of giving good results il? practice:
Pitchin inches = d(diam. in inches X S) X 0.0625 = 0.177 z/z.
:J. BI. Gray gives a rule for pitch as follows: The number of teeth in a
milling cutter ought to be 100 times the pit,ch in inches: Ibt i% If there
,,, Were27 teeth, the pitch ought to be 0.2; in. Tbe rules are practlcdlly
Mu-.i.;.:.., _,,,,, ..~.
the material may no longer be accurate
MILLING CUTTERS
1249
THE MACHINE-S&.
the smne, for if d = &am., 11. = no. of teeth, 11 = pitch, C = Cirwm.
ference, c = pn; rl = $ = ---
--
1102 &il.S3p?; p- ~/0.0314cl=0.177 dZ, I
D
-7$,
FIG. I91.-Half-round Keyway
No. of teeth, n = 3.$.4d.+ p. .
Tee:h of Plain or Spiral Milling Cutters. (dfachl~, Aprif, 1907.) -
Plain milling cutters~ are usuully manufactured in sizes from 2 to 5
in. diameter, and up to &in. face. The use of solid plain milling cutters
of over j-in. fnce is not advketl, aud rntters over 5-in. face should be,
made in two or more interlocking sections.
jjGc-
Hole. H
\vi$ th
D;pth,
NUMBER OFTEETHAND ANOUNTOFSPIRXLO~'LAINMIL~ING CCTERS.
No of t,eeth = 5 X am. + 2-L.
2
, Length of Spiral = 9 X diam. f 4.
11/16-13/16 7/Q-l 3/lE I l l/4-l ills] l l/Z-2 2 l/16-2 7/1R 2 1/ 2- 3
V16 114 5116 3/s 7116 112
3/32 l/s %2 3116 7!32 114
Diameter of cutter,
N2&14x~tll 23;4 3 3112 4 4112 5 5% 6 6112 7 7% 8
16 18 18 18 20 20 22 24
Length of one turn of spiral. inches.
24 26 26 28 30 30 32
22 a-11/4 26112 28.314 31 3j1/, 40 441/a 49 53112 58 6-3112 67 i1 I/? 76.
A cutter with an included angle of 60 (12 on one side and 48 on the
other) is recommended for fluting plain milling cutters, althoogb cutters
of 5Y (12 and 40) we commonly furnished by manufacturers.
an.&. of relief of milling cutters sl;oirid be between 5 snd TO.
The
Kicked Cutters. -Cutters for milling broad surfaces, whetlw of the
spiral or st.might type, u?;nallg have nicks cut in the teeth, the nicks
being staggered in consecutive tectb.
ming the teeth with chips.
These alford relief from jam-
Side Xilling Cutters (Jfach~, April. 1907.) - The teeth of side
milling cu:ters sbollld have the same general form as those of plain
millinK cutters. escep1,ing that the cutter used to form them should have
an included angle of about 75.
Power Required for iWilling.
0. 26
Zi
:;:2
E;:
i::
9. 3
0. 28 20. 5
0. 26 9. 0
0. 24 10. 2
t:::, 16. 5 13. 8
0. 102
0. 113
0. 175
Z:E
0. 070
:::z
0. 063
0. 138
Extreme Result~s wit11 :
fi~Q%, Dee. 28. 1803) gives we f%howmp
e1
rewts 111 na,t-L:

obtained in a Pratt & Whitney milling &achine: The ml
%Ern.
cut wre 5 in. diam
he @
12 teeth,40 to 50 r.p.m. nnd 47/s in. feed Per mm.
One single cut was &n over this irce at a feed of 9 in. per min.. but
the mills showed plainlv a,t the Cn$ &at this rate was greitter t.hm thev
%k?:,~ Sxl,rf&.fe sp,& 64 ft
At, 50 i.p.m for these mill< the f:lures are 1s follow, with
ne&. feefi per too& 0 90813 in .
Cuts per in., 12:). And wi& 9-in:fce<i pkr min.: Surfacespeed. 64 fi:
~ Per min.; feed per tooth, 0.015 in.; cuts per in., 662/3. ;>;j:,:,
NUXBER OF TEKTTII IN BIDE MILLING CUTTERS.
Dism. of cutter,
Number of teeth = 3.1 d&m. + 11.
2 21/ q 2112 2V. i 3 3' / 2 4 4112 5 5112 6 6112 7 7x12 8 9
Number of teeth,
18 18 1S 20 20 22 24 24 26 28 30 32 32 34 36 38
.SliIIinl: Cutters with Inserted Teeth. -When it is required to use
millln$ cutters of B grwter diameter than about 8 in., it IS preferable
to insert the teeth in il disk or head, so n LS to avoid the esnense of
making solid critters and the diificultv of hardenin:: them, n&t merely
because of the risk of breakage in hardening them, but also on account
of the difficulty- in nbtnininr: a uniform degree of .hardness or temper.
Keyways in JLiIling Cnttcrs. - A num
adopted t~he 1,
Iber of manufactureis have
xyways s110wrx below. as swnderds.~
inches are given in the tables.
The dimensions in
VJ
0
%
Ri
.._. .~~~,, ..~,
.,, ,~,, .~, ^
p;T~,~{k _WARNJgG: This is a 1910 edition.
Some of the material
may no longer be accurate,
1250
:
THE MACHINE--SHOP.
At a feed of 4718 in. per min., the mills stood up Well in this job of
cast-iron surfacing, while with a g-in. feed they required grinding after
surfacing one piece: in other words, it did not damage the mill-teeth to
do this job with 123 cuts per in. of surface finished, but they would not
endure 66213 cuts per in. In this cast-iron milling the surface Speed
of the mills does not seem to be the factor of mill dest,rucrion; it ts
the increase of feed per tooth that prohibits increased production of
finished surface. This is precisely the reverse of the action of single.
pointed lathe zmd lane: tools in gener&l; with such tools there is a sur-
face-speed limit w xi cb cannot be economicaily exceeded for dry cuts,
and so long as this surface-speed limit is not reached. the cut per tooth
or feed can be made anything up to the limit of the driving power of the
lathe or ptaner. or to the safe strain on t.be work itself, which can in many
cases be easily broken by a too great feed.
In wrought metal estreme figures were obtained in one esperiment
made in cutting keyways s//10 in. wide by l/s in. deep in a bank .of
8 shafts lIj4 in. diam. at once, on a Pratt & Whitney, No. 3 column
milling machine. The S mills were successfully operated with 4%ft.
surface speed and 191/z in. per mtn. feed; the cut.ters mere j-in. diam..
with 2~ teeth, giving the foilowing figures, in steel: Surface speed, 45
ft.
Fe R
er minute: feed per tooth, 0.02024 in.; cuts per inch. 50, nearly.
with the revolution of mill. Flooded with oil, that is, a large
stream of oil running constantly over each mill. Face of tooth radial.
The resuhine kevwav was described as havtnr a heave wave or cutter-
mark in t& b&to& and it was said to have shbwn no signs of
being heavy work on t.he cutters or on tbe machine. -4s a result of the
experiment it was decided for economical steady work to run at li r.p.m.,
with a feed of 4 in. per min., flooded cut., work fed with milt revotution,
giving the foilowing figures: Surface speed, 21,1/4 ft. per min.; feed per
tooth, O.OOS4 in.: cuts per in., 119.
The Cincinnati afilling Machine Co. (1906) giecs the followin, esam-
ples of rapid milting machine work: Gray iron cast.ings 10 I!4 m. wide,
14 in. long X 13/4 in. t.bick. finisbed all over, and a slot 5% X 1 in. cut
from the solid. A gang of five cutt,ers was used, two of S in.. two of
31:: in. and one of 53/4 in. diameter, respectively. These took a cut
Yls in. deep across the t.op and two edges, and milled t,he slot in one
operation. The table travel was 4.2 in. per minute.
including chucking. was 15.6 minutes.
The average time,
Gray iron castings 3 in. and 61/v in. wide X 251/, in. long. 11/4 in. Gray iron castings 3 in. and 61/v in. wide X 251/, in. long. 11/4 in.
t.hick; were surfaced by a face milt d in. diameter at a surface speed of t.hick; were surfaced by a face mitt d in. diameter at a surface speed of
SO feet per minute. The cut was 3/m in.. and t,tle table travel 11.4 tn. SO feet per minute. The cut was 3/16 in., and t,be table travel 11.4 tn.
per minute in t.he 3-in. part and S in. per minute in the 6 Q-in. part. per minilte in t.he 3-in. part and S .iii. per minute in the 6 Q-in. part.
The total time for finishing, including chncking, was seven minutes. The total time for finishing, including chncking, was seven minutes. The The
planer required 23 minutes for the sa.me operation. planer required 23 minutes for the sa.me operation. In finishing .the In finishing Jhe
opposite side of these castings. two castings are milted at one set.tmg opposite side of these castings. two castings are milted at one set.tmg
si16 in. of st,ork being removed ail over and two slots 5/s X 5;s in. milted si16 in. of st,ock being removed ail over and two slots 5/s X 5;s in. milted
from t,he solid. from t,he solid. A gang of seven cutters 3 of 3 tn., 7 of 4 1/4in.. and t A gang of seven cutters 3 of 3 tn., 7 of 4 V4in.. and t
of S I/J in. dia,meter. wa,s used at 38 revol&ons ner minute and a feed of of S l/s in. dia,meter. wa,s used at 35 revoluiions per minute and a feed of
0.1 in.. giving a table t.ravel of 3.8 in. per minute. 0.1 in.. giving a tiible travel of 3.8 iti. per minute.~ These txo cast@@ These txo cast@@
xverc finished in IS minutes, including chucking, the actual milling @me xverc finished in IS minutes, including chucking, the actual milling @me
being eight minut,es on each piece. being eight minut,es on each piece. A planer working at 55 ft. CUttlng A planer working at 55 ft. CUttlng
speed finished t,he same job in 36 minutes. speed finished t,he same job in 36 minutes.
An inserted-tooth face mill 12 in. dia,meter took a g-in. cut. l/8 in. An inserted-tooth face mill 12 in. dia,meter took a g-in. cut. l/8 in.
deep across the entire face of a gray iron casting at a table travel of 5 tn. deep across the entire face of a gray iron casting at a table travel of 5 tn.
per minute. per minute. The length of cut was 18 inches and the time required The length of cut was 18 inches and the time required
611~ minutes. 611~ minutes.
The following table summarizes a number of typical jobs of milling: The following table summarizes a number of typical jobs of milling:
.
.
1251
Typical LWlling Jobs.
(Cincinnati Milting Mach. Co.; Brown B Sharpe Mf!
.i
$
cut,
Inches.
Cutter.
I
Steel
Gray iron : :
Lumen metal
Sptine (R) . . ,
Jieyseet (R) . .
Keyseat (R) . .
Surfacing 11;)
Surfacing (F) 1
Face Zlling (F)
Face Milling (It)
Surfacing (R) .
Surfacing !F) .
T-slot~t.ing . . .
Brass . .
Tool steel .
Gray iron :
Gray iron
Grav iron 1 1
-
_-
C
C
::
C
II
5132
3h
3/l% 2 I2
310 2 12
VI 2
t.01
3116
21/z 31
l/lR 2 Y2 3
t.015 8 IO
l/s 6 8
p, y?, 32
3%
ieeNote 3 I l/lo
I.!0 12 4.5
l/8 12 3.5
1.20 12 4
66 1Of
t: E
00 7E
37 25
47 123
I$
1::
t;0
$0
1:c
(0,
1.0
i:o
!I0
GO,
i0
.Oj j 8.3
.108~17.9
::z 2::
.Oj 1 .SI
.3O 14.1
,168 4.3(
1;; 3i.i
.Oj ,t2:6
.266.12.
,226; 12.
,148 9.0;
I
Surfacing .
Surfacing .
Surfacing . . .
Graff iron .
Gray iron .
1
!2
-
. (F) Finishing cut: (R) .Itougtdng cut.
1 End mill: 2 spiral mill wibh nicked teeth:. work done by peripheral
teeth. 3 Both sides of clttter engaged, makmg slot width equal to
2utter diameter; slot l/lax Qinch. 4 Carbon steel nicked spiral cutter.
Tests with a Helical Millin Cutter, 3 in. diam., 6 in. tong: S teeth:
pitch of helix. 183/4 in.: notches teeth: on cast iron and ou mild steel T
are reported by P. V. Vernon in Am. &la&., .June 3. 1909. The cutte;
was ruqat a constant speed, 84 turns per minute, cutting speed 66 ft.
pet min. In the tests on cast iron the depth of cut u;as varied from
0.14 to 1.10 in., and the feed per min. from lO!J/ls in. to l?i,z in. The
material removed per minute rang&d from 7.39 to 15.23 cu in., and the
cu. tn. per min. per net machine horse-power from 1.06 to 1.32, averaging
about, 1 2n ~-- -.--.
In the tests on steel the depth of cut was 0.10 to 1.10 in. and the feed
103/8 to OS/s in. per min.; the material removed per min. from Z.SS to 6.27
CU: tn. per min.: and the cu. in. per min. ner net 1I.P. from 0.17 to 0.71. aver-
Wng about 0.57. No rezutni relatioli annears bet,ween rbe rate df fepd
and the metal removed p& min., but tt~~&&%n output, on cast Iron
aas obtained with a cut j/s in. deep and a feed of 47/g in. per min.; and
on mild steel with a cut 0.12 in. deep and a feed of 91/a in. per min.
a[illing with or against 9 the Fee&-Tests made with the
Brown & Sharpe No. 5 milling-machine (described by H. L. Arnold
in Am. ~%fach. Oct. 1s 1884) to determine the relntire adrantage oi
*Uunlng the milling cutler with or against the feed - nith the feed
Fpant:x that the teeth of the cutter strike on the top surface or
,.SC;L!.e of cast-iron work in process of beinz milted. and nzninst t,he
lreu meaning that the teeth-begin t.0 cut inihe clean. newly cut surface
Of the work and cut upwards toward the scxle-showed a derided advan-
tage in favor of running the cutter a&&t t,he feed. The result is
directly opposite to that obtained in
by experts of the Pratt & W1litne.v Co
tests of a Pratt 6 Khit.ney machine
In the tests wit,h the Brown & Shari>e machine t.he cutters uqed were 6
*nrhes face by 4112 and 3 inches diameter respect,ivel\- 1 i tee& in each
m11l, 42 revolutions per minutein each &se or nea,rt\-50feutt~ per minute
: %rface sJ)eed for the 41/z-inch and 33 feet t& minute for t,he 3-inch mitl.
.:&abe revolution marks were 6 to the inch, giving a feed of 7 inches Per
., ,,. _.~,_,~ ..,. ,. ,.~.
WARNING: This-~ is a ~'1910 edition. ~~~~-- Some of the material may no longer be accurate
minute. and a cut per tootbof 0.011 inch. When the machine was forced
tb t&limit of its driving the qepth of cut was U/sz inch when the cutter
ranm the old way, or agamst the feed, and only l/4 inch when it ran
in the new way, or with the feed. The endurance of the milling
cutters was much greater when they were run in t.he old way. The
Brown & Sharpe Co. says that it is sometimes advisable to ml11 rvlth
the feed, .as in surfacing two sides of a piece with straddle mills, the
cutters ad1 then tend to hold the -work down. In milling deep slots or
cutting off stock with t.hin cut.ters or saws milling with the feed is less
likely to crowd the cutter sidewise and ma,ke a crooked slot.
Xodern Xilling Practice. (Cincinnati silling Machine Co., 1907.) -
The limit of milling operations is determined by t.he strength and dura.
bility of the cutter. A rigid frame on the machine and Powerfu1
feed mechanism increase these. The chief causes of low output are:
Improperly constructed cutters: insufficient rigidity in the machine; and
timidity, due to lack of experience., of both builders and operators. The
principal cause of cutter failures is insufficient space for chips between
the cutter teeth. Fixed rules cannot be laid down for proper feeds and
speeds of milling cutters, these depending on the character and hardness
6 of the metal being cut. On roughing cuts it is desirable to run thP cutter
at a speed well within its limit. and use as heavy a feed as the machine
e-n pull. The size of chip taken by each tooth of the cutter with the
heaviest feeds is comparatively light. and wit.11
cutters there is little danger of breaking the cutter
rper1.y sharpened
o feed.
y glvmg too great
It is considered better practice. however, t.o break an occasional
cutter than to run machines at a low rate. It is not considered desirable
to run even higb speed steel cutters at excessive speeds. The great
value of these cutters is t!heir long life and ability to hold a cutting edge
as compared with carbon steel cutters.
cutters sharp. as accurate or fast work is Imposslb e with dulled teeth.
It is Import+t to keep the
The cler ?nce angle should be kept low; about 3 degrees for steel, and not
more than ~5 degrees ~for gray iron.
The followh!i speeds in fket per minute ares good basis for roughing
the materials Indicated:
Carbon steel cutters.
Cas;gIron. Rfaehin~oy Steel.
High speed steel cutters.
Too12$teel. Brass c;m$ Bronze.
80 40 120
On cast-iron work a jet of air delivered to t.he cutter with sufficient
prolongs the cutters Efe.
forte to blow the chi s away as fast as made permits faster feeds and
A stream of oil fed under hearr pressure to
nash t,he cti~s awaY has the same eRect when cnttin~ st.r& On finish- - .
ing cut? the iate of feed used determines the-grade--~f-th~-finish.
- ..__ . .
If a
spiral mill is used the feed shotild range from 0.036 in. to 0.05 in. per
revolution of a 3-in. diameter cutter. As such cuts are light. the speed
of cutth!g can be much higher than used for roughing cuts. The nature of
tbe rut. 1s a factor in det,ermining speeds; a saw can run twice as fast BS
a surface mill. Iieysea,ting and similar work can be best done with a
oiain cutter rather than a side mill.
II? eneral
shoul, f
small cutters are preferable to large ones, n,nrt the hole
be as small as the strengt~h of t,he arhnr chili v
._.... _.._ ..~.
advisable in surface milling to have the
-- .._ -..,- _ ..:... dermit~. It 1s
cutter wider than the work.
Iubricanc for.Milling Cutters;. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co., 1907.j-
An escelle:n lubncaut. to use with a pump, for mi!!ing rut:.ers is made
by mixing to,gcther and boiling for one half hour, l/4 lb. sa1 soda, l/z pint
Iard oil, t/z plrrt soft SOaD and water enouvh to make 113 nIlarts.
Xilling Xaehine ve&us Planer. - For comparative data of work
done by each see paper by J. J. Grant, Trans. A. S. M. E., ix, 2%
He says: The advantages of the milling
manv. among which are the following:
machine over the planer are
rapidity of production - the cutting
Exact duplication of worki
P.
roductlon as several machines ca.n
: !.
be
being continuous; lower cost 0
operated by one workman, and
1~ not a sMled mechanic; and lower cost of tools for producing agive@
amount of work.
IIigh Speed Steel Drills -The Cleveland Twist Drill CO. SBVS
that a high speed steel d&l should be started tvith a peripheial
speed between 50 and 60 ft. per minute, and a feed of O.OO.? to 0.010
;-,ln. Per revolution for drills over W-in. A drill with a tendency
to Wear away on the outside is run& too fast; if it breaks or chips on
the cutting edges it has too much feed When used in steel or wrought
i!o$ the drill should be flooded with a good lubricant.
~1 1s recommended, and for cast iron, an air blast.
For brass, =arafine
Pomr Required to Drive High Speed Steel Drills. -The .bzrica.n
Tool Works Co. (1907) obtained some remarkable results with drills
high-speed steel as shown in thetables below.
of
The machine used was
$:, atnP!-e-Keared radial and the drill was of the Celfows trpe, a flat bar of
:+ steel, twIsted, afford&g ease of lubrication, and a free escipe for tbo Chips.
& ,_
WARNI NG: Thi s- ii a
t i o ;~-& ,~,.
Some of the material may no
DIULLR.
1253
DRILLS.
Constant ?or Finding Speeds of Drills. - For finding the speed in
feet, when the number of revolutions is given; or the number of revolu-
tlons, when the speed in feet is.given.
Constant. = 12 t (size of drill X 3.1416).
Number of revolutions = Constant X speed in feet.
Speed in feet = Number of revolutions f constant.
Size
%i!
-
&Xl-
I
size
stant. Drill,
In. In.
--
3200::: 314 13/16
15.28 ?!a
12. 22
10.19 I
lVl6
8. 73 Il/lfJ
7. 64 1118
6. 79 13/1tj
6. 11 Ill4
5. 54 IS/,,
Ch-
stant~.
In.
5. 09
4. 70
4. 36
%
3. 59
3:;:
3. 06
2. 91
Size
Drill.
In.
-
_
-
Con- Size Con-
staat. y;11. St$.
-I* * ---
2. 78 2 1. 91
2. 66 21/ 113 1.85
2. 55 2118 1.80
2. 44 231% 1. 75
2. 35 2114 2. 26
2. 18
25116 E
1. 61
; : A:
2318
; ; $l 6 i %
1. 97 29, & 1149
m I
Speed ot Drills. -The Cleveland Twist Drill Co. (1907) gives the
following speeds in r.p.m. for drilling wrought iron, machinery steel or
soft tool steel, with high speed and carbon st.eel drills.
Size Con-
Drill. &at.
. .
--
2. 518 I .45
Zlil6 1. 42
23i.l I .39
2 3hfJ 2 ila 1:E
; %6 I .30
3 116 1:;:
3l / 8 1. 22
3114 1.18
he 1834
l/l? 917
3/1a 611
114 458
5110 367
318 306
7tui 262
l/a 229
vl6 204
518 184
'i/l6 167
314 153
- -
437 !3/16
382 1114
-
-.
-
1;:
122
115
108
102
96. 5
2:;
83. 3
:6::
: : i
204
191
180
170
160
153
145
139
133
127
-
--
1s,$s 73.4
1 =I8 70.5
I /U, 67.9
,314 65. 5
113/ l , j 63. 2
171s 61. 1
lls/ 16 59. 2
--
1::
113
109 2112
I ; ; . ' ; "; ; 6
98.7 2ivlf
95. 6 2314
92. 7 213/lf
90. 0 27/ g
.
_ .
/
-
49. 5
48. 2
47. 0
45. 8
44. 7
43. 7
42. 6
41. 7
40. 7
39. 8
39. 0
38. 2
. _
-
62.7
80. 5
78. 5
76. 5
32C
71: 1
69. 5
2%
65. 1
63. 4
The feed per revolution recommended for drills smaller t.han I/z-in.
1s from 0.004 to 0.007 in.; and from 0.005 to 0.01 in. for drills l;.rger
than I/z-in.
~, ..~.,~ ..I ~..~,.i ,,., .,,. ~~~:,:T.i>~
longer be accurate
THE MACHINE-SHOP.
Power Required to Drill Steel with High Speed Steel Drills.
R.P.M.
-
%:g
Feeds.
*.
Ft. per Mm. In. per Rev. 1 in. per &fin.
HW&*
52. 3 . 012 4. 27
61. 5
I ?- .
. 012 3. 75
50. 9 . 024 4. 51
: ; : :
' 9": :
. 024 4. 5 I
86. 2 :E 3. 07 2. 00 g
Power Required to Drill Cast Iron 2 fn. thick with High Speed
Steel Drill.
Size of Feeds.
Dri l l , R.P.M.
Inches.
%Z
Ft. per &- In. per Rev. In. per Mic
I
1 v32 313 84. 5 13132 313 14. 4
216
: ; : 7 : : 2
. 033
% 66. 0 97. 0
' E
60
: E 55. 0 : : 12
. 024 1. 44
-.
Extreme Results with Radial Dri!ls. (F. E. BOCOI
+ach., bfar.. 17, !910.) -Three di f f erent radial drilling m
sIgned. to drive lugh-speed steel drills of the t.\visted t.ype
of theu endurance, were tested by drilling steel billets of
carbon at speeds and feeds which caused the drills to breal
mg holes from 2 to 11 ins. deep. The following are a few o
obt,ained with different sizes of drill.
-
;.
- -
-
H.P.
rsel
lacl
to
al
i(,f
135::
1%
15. 6
10. 2
lski, Am.
!dnes. de-
the limit
bout 0 70
,fter d&l-
he results
Driil Revs. $zT
Feed. Metal removed. H.P.
size.
Lo . Max.
ins. mm. ft. Per Per rev. Ins. per Cu. ins. Lb. per H.P.
per lb.
min. in. I min. . I per min. 2%
per
min.
--
I%? 290
I
I Q 312 I:: ::i: I L8
1' 14 330 107
E: : "
2. 95 8. 48
0. 0207 6. 83
11/ S u) 8 61. 3
8. 33
11. 4
0. 022
i i : ; ;
4. 58 4. 54
10. 6
1 Vlll 330 1 91 0. 0207
I .27
6. 83 6. 1. 68 I : : :
Th.e H.P. of one of the machines running light at full speed \vas 4.4;
runnmg ligllt at slow s
It was conclud+ rom these tests. which were destructive to the P
eed 2 H.P.
$ills. that for maxlmum production and considering the life of the drills,
It. is best to run a I+. dfill at about 300 r.p.m. with a feed of 0.015 in.
per rev., and a 1Vz-m. dtil 225 r.p.m. with a feed of 0.02 in. per revolu-
tion.
Some Data on High-Speed Drilling are given bv G. E Hallenbeck
in Iron Tr. Rev., Aprd 29. 1909. A Baker high-spe& driling machine
Was .used, Holes 11/s in. diam. were drilled through 41/d-in blocks of
cast iron m W/s seconds
G/x@ in. diam. were drill ex
er hole. or at the-rate of 29 in. per &.
through 3/4 in. steel plate in 31/s seconds.
Holes
Experiments 9x1 Twist Drills. - An extensive series-of esperiments
on the forces actmg on twist drills of hi@-speed steel wheu operatin&
,,~.,a.,~,-,. _-,_-_.~_~~ ,,_, ~.
!&@jING: This.~ii a lglb ~&i-t;ioni ~---r.a
,,-
Some of the materiiii-may, no, longer be accurate:
DRILLS. 1255
on cast-won and steel IS reported hy Dempster Smith and A. P&;&off in
proc. Inst. M. B.. 1909. Abstracted in Am. J fach.. ?I lay, 1909, &j
I ndust. .E?W.. May, 1909. Approximate equations derived from the
first set of ,e.xperlments are as follows:
Torque in pounds-feet, I =(1800 t C 9)&, for medium cast-iron;
T .=(3200 t -I- ZO)@,, for medium steel.
1 _ ?OO. for me&urn cast-iron:
End thrust, lb%., P = 115,000
P = 160, 00O( d - O..5J t + 1000, for
me&urn steel: d = dlam., t = feed per revolution of drill, both in inches.
The steel was of medium hardness. 0.29 C, 0.623 Jln.
The end thrust in enlarghlg holes in medium steel from one size to
a larger w&q as follOujs: s/4 in. to 1 in., P = 15,200 t - 60: 1 in. to 11/s in.,
P I 25, 500 t +. ; 3/ 4 m. t,o 11/z in., P = 30,000 t + 200.
A second series of experiments, with soft cast-iron of C.C., 0.2; G.C.,
2.9; Si. 1.41; Mn, 0.68; S, 0.035; P. 1.48, and medium steel of C. 0.31;
Si: 0.07; Mn, 0.50: S, 0.018;. P, 0.033: t,ensile strength,. T2,600 lbs. per
sq. in,, gave results from which were derived the followmg approximate
equations:
Torque, Ibs.-ft., T = 740 d*sW,-or 10 &C 100 t(14 d*+ 3) for cast-iron,
T = 1640 dl*sto*g, or 25 dY1 + 100 t) for medium steel,
End thrust, lbs. P = 35,500 @TVS, or 200 cl+ 10.000 t for cast iron,
P = 35,500 f17toe6, or 750 d + 1000 t(i5 d + 50) for
medium steel,
end for different sizes of drill the following equations:
-
Drill. I 314 I
. I
I 1112
1
Cast iron T =.. _. _. 5+ 1. 1oot 10+1. 750 t j 25+3. 700 f
Caati ronP =. . . . . . . . __ 125+82, 000 t 200+89. 000 t
Steel T =_. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. 5+3, 350t 17. 5+4, 4oot
35$~03. &0"
Steel P =. . . . . . . 550+109,000t 750+131. 000 1 1, 250+i 62$00 t
Drill.
I 2 I 2 I2 I 3 8
CavtironT= . . . . . . . . . . 40+580t
Cast, iron P =.. . . _.
- %+8. 800f 90+12, 9OOt
Shd T =. . . . . . . . .
5ocJ +110, 0oot 6OO+l 26, OOO t 850+140$00t
Steel P =.. . . . . . . . . . . .
75+12, 5OO t 112. 5+19. 050t 175+26, 25Ot
1,500+181, 250 t 1, 725. t224. 375 t 2. 350+280, 006 t
The tests above referred to were made without lubricants
lubricants were used in drilling steel the average torque varied%:
72% with l/400 in. feed to 9~7~ with l/35 in. feed of t~hat obtained when
operating dry. The thrust for soft, medium and hard st,eel is 26%,
37% and 1270 respectively less than when operathlg d - no marked
difference being found, as in the torque. with different fe es? The horse-
power varies as to7 and as tW for a given drill and speed. The torque
and horse-power when drilling medium steel is about 2.1 times that
required for cast iron with the same drill speed and feed. The horse-
Pow$r per cu. in. of metal removed is inversely proportional to do2 p3,
aad 1s Independent of the revolutions.
While the chisel
P
oint of the drill scarcely affects the torque it is account-
able for about 20 /o of the thrust. Tests made wit.h a, preliminary hole
drilled before the main drill was used to enlarge t.he hole showed that the
work required to drill a hole where only one drill is used is greater than
that required to drill the hole in two operations, with drills of different
diameter.
nomy of power a drill with a larger point angle than 120 is to
ed. but the increased end thrust strams the mal-&ne in ProPor-
there is more danger of breaking the drill.
ng, the average recommended speed of 4s ft
and
_ .r&nnlu$fiJ&~~~~
60 ft. for mild steel. and the results obtam
es given m the following table are derived.
._.I ..,.,..,.. ~.~~, .~, ,..
POWER REQUIRED FOR MACIIIXE TOOLS. 1257
sl,nPe of tool, and with the nature and density of metal operated
--A the nmwr rwlrired to run a mwhme empty ii 1
up, :I:
I
Medium Hard Steel.
Blight belt will increase tl!e friction,
A third C&use is the vnrratlon of Journnl-friction, due to slacking up r
tightening the cap-screws. an-l also the end-thrust. bearing screw.
Hartigs investigations show that it requires less rotai power t turn
ff a given weight of metal in a given time.thsn it does to plane ofi the
srtnw amount; und aiso that ihe power is Less for large than for small
diameters. (J. J. Flather, dm. Muck, April 33, lS91.)
i
-a-
0. 27 / 0. 295
0. 46210. 4401
0. 682i O. 586
1. 17 10. 876c
1. 715; 1. 167
2. 32 I I . 457
2. 92, j 1. 748
3. 63 ' 2. 038
4. 32 2. 325
5. 05 2. 619
5. 62 2. 939
6. 6 3. 199
7. 4 3. 4E9
8. 22 i 3. 78
9. 05 14. 07
' 0. 0 j 4. 36
0. 8 j 4. 65
I
--
0. 721 2. 54
1. 078 2. 22
I . 426 I . 99
2. 152 1. 75
2. 863 1. 59
3. 574 I . 47
4. 285 1. 39
5. 005 1. 31
5. 715 1. 26
6. 436 I . 21
7. 136 I . 165
7. 857 I . 135
8. 567 I . 105
9. 267 1. 07
9. 998 1. 05
I O. 718 1. 024
! ! . 42 1. 0
&-
-.=
7e E
z:
1 c <
E? -
23
!O
i=
I
-
0. 28:
Xi
I.23
1. 8
2. 44
3. 08
3. 81
4. 54
5. 3
6. 12
6. 92
7. 76
8. 66
9. 5
: : :
-
d to Remove Btetal in Lathes.
!Y hlccb. Tool Co., 19K.)
:ONE-HE+D LATHE.
Horse-power Requi:
(Lodge & Shi!
ret
pie
:c
-
,
--
20-INCII
Cut, In.
-
--
1
--
I
-__
0. 48 3. 90 I . 471
0. 74 4. 60 I . 158
0. 49 4. 65 I . 102
0. 49 2.64 I . 384
0. 66 5. 44 3. ! 41
0. 59 4. 77 3. 410
0. 45 3. 91 2. 751
0. 21 2. 54 3. &i 9
0. 69 5. 34 1. 535
0. 53 5. 11 1. 547
0. 69 4. 10 l . 5i O
0. 36 4. 04 I . 319
Dip. Cu. in. Lb.
remov- lwnrJ\~~
vork,
in.
ed per ed per
min. hW.
2 W/32 5. 74 96
3% 5. 33 5. 125 i :
3. 656 62
lepth. Feed
I
0. 109 I / s
0. 055 l / g
0. 109 l / 10
0. 094 ' / ' I O
0. 273 11~
0. 430 y&l
0. 334 l ! ] f $
0. 086 1112
0. 109 l / g
0. 1' 7 I / g
0. 217 l / l 9
0. 109 l / s
266
253
167
153
2 23132 8. 2 I 38
7. 91 I %
90
POWER REQUIRED FOR 3lbcRlx~ TOOLS.
.,~esistance Overcnnle in Cutting 3lctai. (Traw A. S. JI. E.;
wu. 30%) -some experiments made at the works of William Sellers
6- CO. Si+ed bhttt the resistance in cutting steel in a lathe would var
f rom ~MtOOO to 7OOJ J OO pounds per srluare inch of section
whiie fr cajt Iron the resistance is al , ol l F one third as much.
remve i!
The power
requw3 t remve a giwn amount of metai depends n t~he shape of the
mt ad on the shale and the sharpnes. ~ of t,he tool used. If the cut is
r?r-nrl~ squar,e in section.. t,he power required is a minimum- if wide and
thin. a masnnom. The dullness of a t~ool affects but littie the power
required for a hearr cut.
e H.P. running idle 0..53; average H.P. with cut 4.Z.
20-1xcr1 GEARED-HEAD LATHE,
I
Cut, in.
I
epth. Feed
I
Dtfm. Cu. in.
remov-
yrk ed per
In. min.
n
E
_-
Lb.
3mx=
!d per
IlOW.
--
0. 266 ?/ l o
0. 28' l / j 5
0. 281 l / l 6
0. 109 ' / I S
215 2. 1' I I . ' I . 142
190 I . 58 a. 35 1. 347
205 I . 55 12. 69 1. 329
126 1. 28 a. 90 0. 827
0. 6C9 111~
0. 609 11, ~
0. 641 l / l , j
0. 281 l / g
2057
28. 56
3 3/ 3? 2%.
4nl 3? 13. 4
4 5132 1%
12. 65
: : :
63h
526
I . 34 6.94 2.963
1.35 9.50 3.006
1.6. 12.69 3.216
I . 18 10. 49 3. 217
226
' 2; :
213
1. 62 10. 60 1. 265
0. 94 I I . 56 I . ; 02
1. 75 12. 49 I . 100
2. 15 11. 20 1. 129
I
T&y,; Aer
uLF,,, age H.P. running idle 1.543; avernge H.P. \vitb cut ~10.55.
the material may no longer be accurate WARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some o

THE M.4CHINE-SHOP.
+power to Drive ,JIachine Tools.
Owing to the demand imposed by high speed tool steels stouter machines
are more necessary than formerly; these possess more rigid frames and
powerful driving gears. The most modern (1907) forms of lathes obtain
all speed changes by means of geared bead-stocks, pover being delivered
at a smgle speed by a belt, or by a motor. If a motor drive is used, a
speed variation may be obtained in addition to those available in the
head, by usmg a variable speed motor, whose range usually is about
3:l. The Lodge & Shipley Co. (1906) made an exhaustive series of
tests -to determine the power required to remove metal, using both the
cone-tread lathe and the more modern gea,red-head lathe. The table on
irage 1257 shows the results obtained with 20-in. lathes of each type.
to
Power Required to Drive Machine Tools. -The power re
drive a machine tool varies with the material to be cut. %
uired
here
IS considerable lack of agreement among authorities on the power required
Prof. C. II. Benjamin
c beu1g.a con&am and iV the
1902) gives a formula H.P. = CIP
both wrth the quality
of metal removed per hour. c varie;
and the type of machine.
values of c.,
-
--
%
w
Cut. Inches
1
-
--
1
:
3
--
3
1
]
--
1
1
I
I
1
1
--
1 :
--
--
--
1
--
n
1
-.
-.
I ?
--
7 1.69 4.5 4.2125 BP. shunt
5 2.15 6.4
2 5. 55 8. 4
5.41 wound vari-
13.9 ablespeed. ,:.
2 6. 3. 12. 0 15. 71
_I---/ ,.:: .,- .:&
I / 3. 1 12. 0 7. 7 25 H.P; shunt ::: ,,:1.:-~;~
1 Lathe.. 1 Planer. 1 Shaper. 1 $iil?e.
/la la
L/l% 4s
Vl% 118
111% l/8
L/l% 311%
V16 311%
7. 17 I wound vari-
1. 17 2. 6
1. 9\
1. 91
2. 63
. - .
1. 7 i
5. 8
_^
3. 71
abl e speed.
^. - Cast iron .
&&in.2~&2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0. 035 0. 032 0. 030
~-
0. 14 i ,
To01 steei . _ . . . . . . . .
0. 067 1. . . . . . . .
Bronze . . . . .- _ _. .~ . .
. . . . . . . . I 0. 30
_ _ . _ . . . I . 0. 10
I . / 4 Z. Y i 2. 12 2. 2 L. 3/
- - - - / I : I I 3. 0, 4 2 6. 6 8. 41 10 H.P. shunt :::i
In each case the power to drive the machine without load should be
added. 0. 11. Camnbell (Proc. Encr. Sot. W., Pa.. 1906) gives, esclu-
sive of friction loss& H-i? =hm~ K l ai r ~.-, -- --..1g % t constant and VJ the nounds
of metal removed per minute. For hard steel K=2.5. for soit steel
&=l.S: for wrought iron. K =2.0; for cast iron. K =1.4. This formula
gmes results ahout 50 y0 lower than Prof. Benjamins.
The Westinghouse Elec. and Mfg. Co. (1906) gives i. set of form&.
based on the dimensions of the machine.
-- - -1
4.3 5.9 7.7;3 H.P.sh.wd~ :: ~,i::.:
2. 7 5. 0 4. 9 var.speed. ,: ..;:;:i:
_---.----
1. 76 2. 9 3.2125 H.P. shunt, ~.?,:.~~
2. 38 2. 6 4. 3 wound vari - : Y. ' ?
5. 41 9. 6 9. 7
3. 75 7. 2 6. 8 I
ablespeed.. _. :.. ,::~
2. 05 2. 6 2. 91
_
1. 90 2. 7 2. 71
- - - - .
Axle lathe Ssft s!eel
I
For 1
20 ft. ner mmute. n.r. = 11.1.5 s - 1. fn
lat,hes
FI X
20 ft.
For
minut,
For
era1 ct
For Hcacg Ra,dial Drill Presses. D.P. =- 0.1 S.
S = swing of drill. inches, in both cases.
, I ' 0. 81 2. 3 1. 6;
. 7 0. 96 2. 7 1. 5;
. 9 0. 83 1. 3 1. 7
, 5 0. 52 3. 5 1. 0
. 9 0. 54 1. 2 I . 1
- - - - -
21-m. drill Wrot i?z
press .
I I
. .A
j
6, 6.
fJO-ii. planer Soft steel
66 *a
In general. in all t,he above B~est~inghouse formula, if high-speed steel
tools xe used. running at higher cutting speeds than above, the increase
111 Itorse-power 1s proportional to the increase in speed.
R[Y .WX. For planers, in which the iength of bed in feet 1s approximate&
two-t~rnths of the widt,li between housings in inches, using water-hardened
steel tools. cutting at 1.5 to 20 ft. per minute, H.P. = 3 11.
Hp.Pn~m-
. 3
For I fcacy Forge Planers. HP. = 4.93 11.
Ii = width between housings, feet.
These formulae are for planers having a ratio of return to cutting speeds
of about 3 : 1. and are for
than t.wo tools are 0peratJ
l&ners with two tools in operation. If more
or If the ratio of cutting and return speeds .
is increased. or if the len.gth bf bed is greater than given above. the horse-
Power .rdven by the above formulae should be increased. The horse
PO\\-er required by mot,or-driven planers is principallv determined by the
current inrush at tbe instant of quick reverse, rather than bv that actuallY
reqmred t,o cut the metal: Dotom for operating planers should have
greater overload c+pacitY than for any other tool.
j
,,;.&g$
c..,,~,r,,;:;J>&&@
WARNING: ,Thi~$,:,i,s a,,;3910 edition. Sam,
-l--l -I -- 3 4~73 12~1 9. 5 1j H. P. corn-
C+ iron
i l- Hard stet:
,<
Soft steel
!I
I
l/32
1132
I
v4
31%
I I III
* Enlarging hole from smaller dimensions to larger.
material may no longer be accurater,::~I;~~~~.
Actual tests~j1906) of &number of machine tools iu the shops of the
Pittshurg and Lake, I?;& 11. It. showed the horse-power absorbed in drip.
1pg under the condltmns givexin the table on page 1259. The results
obtained are compared with those Computed bv Campbells formula
above.
12
I;. L. Pomcroy (+n. Alec. 1&v., 190s) gives: H.P. required to drive _
FDWC, m whxh F = feed and D = depth of cut, in inches, s
sneed in ft. per min.. iV = number of tools cuttim. C = a constan
tchose values -with ordhmry,carbon steel to& &&:-i%y cast iron, O.jjrtz
0.3; soft_ steel or wrought iron, O.& to 0.7; locpmotive drivmg-\,-yheel
tires, 0.r to 1.0; very hard Steel, 1.0 to 1.1. ~Thls formula is based
Prof. Flathers dynamometer tests. An atmlysm of experiments bY $n
Nicholson of Manchester. which confirm the formula. showed the av,,,:;
H.P. required at t.he mdtor per pound of me&l removed
be as follows: &l,edmm or soft steel, or wrought iron, 3.4 H
K.
er minute7;
2.65 H.P.; cast.-Iron, soft or medium, 1.00 H.P.; cast iron,
; hard steel
Size of Majors ior Machine Tools.
hard, 1.36H.p
(E/ax IVorld. May 27, x905.)--:
The average SK+ of motof usually fitted to machine tools is shown by the
table below, bemg compded by the Electra-Dynamic Co. from publIshed
data. In special CWZ.S the power required may be several times the
value here piven. -~. -.._
Boring Mills.
1I.P.
34 and 36 in. . . . 5
H.P.
H.P.
42. 48 and 50 in.
60 in..
71/z 6 ft. anti 7ft: : : I;
8ft.. .
Oft. : :. : : : ;t
TTc,i., T.o,hoa
-kI,p,
2 and 14in. . . !
I..*... .,.I..U. H.P,
20 and 30 in. . . . 3
H.P.
16 in. 1 l/2 36 in. . . 4
54 in.. . . . . 6
20 to 25in. : : : : 2 42 :md 48 in. : : : 5
60in. . . .
72 in. .
W2
: IO
Drill Prr.~?s.
1I.P.
21 fo32in. . . _ 2 36 to 48 in. . . . T I50 to 60 in. . .Hf.
7 x l7in. X 3t~o6ft. Y I 43
Un
22 x 24 in.
x
4
Tao
0
ft.
; : 4; X 42 in. X 10 to
X 48 in. X 2
12ft. . . ;:d
26 X 26 in.
X
6
to
12
ft.
to 14ft. . . 15
30 30in. . . 50 s
X
6to
l4ft.
X 60in. X 4 to
60
l8ft.
X
. 20
36 X 36 in. X 8 t.o 16 ft,. : 60 in. X 20 77 Tao y 77 ;n 22 ft. -X-!O to 24ft. : : :?I
H.P.
12 to 14;. 5 16anrl 18in. . . . $5~ 26 to36in.
-_ _.
N.Y.
io
Shapers.
H.P. n.r.
2 to !6in. . . . 2 2 to 16in. . . . 2 24 to 26in. . 5
.H.P.
24 to 26 in. . 5.
H.P H.P
18 to 20 in. . 3
.-
28 to 30 in. : 6 6
36in. . . . . . . 8 36in. . . . . . . 8
The values given above for enEine lat,hes are less than t.hose uqed The values given above for engine lat,hes are less than t.hose uqed
the IL. I<. LeBlond Mach. Tool CO
b b
the IL. I<. LeBlond Mach. Tool Co.. which recommends (IgO?) the fo-
WG~ rn*ommends (190;) the fo-
lowing size motors for use with it,s lathes.
P P
I.
-
Swing of Int,he.
Howe-power of Motor.
in.
I
Speed
Mediumduty.] Heavy duty.
ratio.
I I
Maximum speed
rmige R.P.M.
.Abbrevintions: E., engine: W. W.,, rvood-xorlting machinery; I& hf..
mmmg machinery; AI. E.. marine engmes: L., locomotives: H. M., heavy
machinery; $1. T.. machine tools: C. & L.. cranes and locks: P. + ~?,!i !.~
8.
resSes and dler P. SE 8.. pulleys and shafting: H. F., heavy forgmgs;:--:?
_. ;
If., se\\in=-machines: ,\I. S.. niachine-scrcxs. IT., files. ~,
*-Hi& Soccd ~I?.nlrrhinv T.st
J. T. Henthorn stat,es (Trans. A. 8. h. E.. Gi. 462) that in print-mills ~
g.;:: ,,:
which he examined the friction of the shafting and engine was in 7 cases ,~,:::,. .~
> .,II,,,S ,..
&b,:;h....:~,
POWER REQIJ,IRED FOR MACHINE &&: : i~$jl
Hocsc~p~t~er Required to Drive Slmfting. - S>ML;el iVebber,.in
hfs h~anua~.of Powe,r gives, among numerous tables Of,power required
to.tlrive textde !nnchmery. a t.able of results of tests of shaft~ing. A line
of 2 l/s-in. shaft~ing..342 ft. long, weighing 4098 II)., with pulleys weigh-
iup ,s:yJl lb., or. a total of ,94-9 lb.. supported on, 47 pearings. 216 rev-
outlons per mmute. required 1.S5S H.P. to drive it.
eoeflicient of friction of 5.SZr0.
This gives a
In seventeen tests the coefficient ranged
from 3.:~4~o to 11.4%. averaging 5.73%.
fforse-power consumed in BIachine-shops. - How much pbiver
1s required to drive ordinary machine tools? and how msny men
ean be employed per horse-power? are questions whichit is Im 0s:~
sihie to answer hy any fixed rule. actor 8
to the conditions in each shop.
The power varies greatly mg
The following table given by J. J. Elather
ln his work on Dynamometers gives an idea of the variation in several
large works. The, percentage of the total power required to drive, the
shafting varies from 15 to SO, and the number of men employed per total
H.P. varies from 0.62 to 6.04.
Horse-power; Friction; Men Etnplo~ red.
Name of Firm.
Lane & Bodiey . .
J. A. Fny & Co.
Union Iron Work; :
Frontier Iron & Brnsr
Taylor Mfg:: co. : :
Baldwin Loco. Works
w. Sellers k co. (0C
depsrt~ment~ .
Pond Mach. Tool Co.
Pratt & Whitney Co.
Brown & ~bar~e co.
Pale & Towne Co.
Fen-acute Mach. Co.
T. B. TVoods sons
Bridgeport Forge Co.
Singer Mfg. Co. . .
g$&f$. CO~f&
Screw Co.
Hartford nIach.scr;,
cmlpmy .
Nicholson File CO. :
e
iv
-_
Averages . .
%
Work.
_-
5
i
I
I
I
5
5
. WARNING: This ,~,is~~:~~~.~,1910
_.~~~
edition. Sok the material ~may no longer ibex
__~ -~~
Power Required to Drive Bhchines in Groups-L P Alford
(Am. :Uach., Oct. 31, 1Wi) gives the results of an investigation tn
determlne the po!ver required to drive machinery in groups
The methoi
employed comprued disconnect~ing parts of the shafting ii a belt-driven
plant., and drivmg .the disconnected porrion with its machines by aa
;ie;tstc motor, readmgs of the power required heing taken every 5 mia
. The avernge Power required for the entire factory was consider:
able less than tl!e sum of the power required for the individual machines
due to tools bemg stopped at some portion of the day for adjustment
replacement of work, etc.
The condit.ions of group driving are such that
fixed rules cannot be laid down, but a study must be made of each individ.
ual case.
AURASWE PROCESSES.
Revolutlnn~ per Minute Required for
peripllery Speed. Also Stress per.
Norton Whnolc n.t the Specs . . . . -__., -_ _...
Surface Speeds, Feet per Minute.
1000 1 2000 1 3000
1 4000 ) 5000 ) 6000 ) 7000 1 SO00 j 9000 1 ~~Odo.,~~-;$
_-
17. .- I 27
~~ - - -

1s per Minute.
- -7 7-
--
19098 ,~,.I:,:~:
8
:
5279 19099
7639 9549
5093 6366
3820 4775
3056 3820
2546 3183
2183 2728
1% 2387
:i;:
%:
955 1%
049 1061
764 955
% %
2z 2:;
2918 26738
1459 13369
7639 8913
5729 6684
4584 5347
3820 4456
3274 3820
2865 3342
2292 2674
12 2228
I%
16::
1485
1% E::
7;: 2;:
637 743
.
must use a, ver strongly bonded wheel, on account of the leverage exerted
on its gram, w nch tends to tear out the cuttmg particles before they have r
done their work. If the Contact IS a broad one, as in like grinding a hole
or where the work brmgs a large part of the surface of the wheel inti
operation, softer grades must be,used. because the depth of Cut. is so
rnhmtely small that the cuttmg points m work become dulled quickly and
must be renewed, pr the wheel, glazes and loses its eiliciency.
Vibrations m grinding machines cause percussion on the cutting grains
necessitatmg harder wheels. Wheels mOUUted on rigid machines Can b;~
,softer in grade and are much more efficient.
Speeds pt Grinding Wheels. -
The factor of safety in vitrified wheels
is ProPortional to the grade of hardness. Bursting limits are from 13 060
to 25,000 feet per minute, surface speed.
Wheels are tested by Stan&d
makers at 10.000 feet, corresponding to a stress of 250 Ibs. per square inch
Runmng speeds in practice are from 4000 to 6000 feet, depending on
work, conditron of .mschine, and mounting.
,+Jer$Y speaking. grinding of tools, reamers Cutters and surface
grmd!ng is done at about 4000 feet, snagging andrough forms of hand
gripdmg at 3003 to 5500 feet, cylindrical grinding, or where the work 1s
rigidly he!d and where the wheel feed is under control, from 5500 to 6500
feet. and In some instances as high as 7500 feet.
These speeds are all for vitrified wheels.
to wheels made by the elastic and silicate processes.
The same speeds will apply
Grades of Emery. -The numbers rePresenting the grades of emery
run from g to 120. and the degree of smoothness of surface they leave may
be compared to that, left bs files as follows:
2 -
able- to Fiy re Sl
Wheels.
:irc :umrerenc es in F
Inches.)
-
- -
-
i-z .
4
i
iz
4
,.
Speed of Polishing-wheels.
Wood covered with leather, about
. ~ . . . . . . . . . . . .7000 ft.. per minute.
Wood covered with a hair brush, about
. . .2500 revs. for largest.
Wood covered 1 r/z to S dinm., hair l(>to 11/d* long,
all..
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Walrus-hide wlm&.~~~&
. . . . . . . .45OiJ revs. for smallest.
. . . . . . .
,8(100 ft,. per minute.
Rag-wheels, 4 to 8 in. diameter about.. . . . . . . : : : .TOOO ft. per minute.
Safe Qwedp for Grindstones and Emery-wheels. - G D. Hi-cos
(Iron -age. .iPrll 7: 1892). bv an application of the formula for cenl,rif:1mal
fop 111 tbwheels (see Fly-wheels), obtains the figures for sl,r;iins@in
grmdstolws and emery-wheels which,are given in the tables below:
f?rmuk are: ~
His
2
%
$
.r: v .,,, .., C: ,
.- --
_ ,, --::.:;.,:~?.y
--
3.403 25
9.68; 19
,?tress Per sq.. in. of seytion of a grindstone = ~~70710 x LV 1 x O.OOOO-95
9.94t i0
Stress Persq. 111. of section of an emery-wheel - (0.70710 x fi)? x o.ooo~~)~w~
;;:mi
i!
D = diameter in feet, N = revolutions Per minute
Her takes the weight of sandstone at 0.07s lb. Per dubic inch znd tllat
10.73:
i2
i3
of an emery-wheel at 0.1 lb. Per cubic inch: 0hio stone \+eig)ls ab&rt 0.0~1
lb. and Huron stone about 0.089 lb. per cubic inch. The Ohio stone will
:
i
i
6 I
;:
1
I3
:5
I
:et, Per tn
:.umferenc
l~ear a speed at the PeriPhery of 2500 to 3000 ft. per min. wlncll letter I
1 I:511 i6
should never be exceeded.
The Huron stone can he trust.hd up to 4060
I
1 I .78 57
ft.* lvt?ell Properly Clamped between flanges and not escessivelv wedged I
1 12.04 58
in setting. .%Part from the speed of grindstones as a cause ofburslinp
I
Prob:ibl,i the majority of arridenm have really been ,-atno-~ I... . ..-A-.-;
I ) 1: : : :
59
60
tkm 011 the shaft and over-wedging to t,rue them.
sIIItz IIIt% CIIIE,
, I
square. t,he escessive rlrivinp of wedges to true the stones st,a,rts cracks in
the corners that eventually run out umil the centrifugal && becomes
To find surface Speed. in f(
El? I te.
-.-~~~~~ti~iv the circ
e( see a
i,; :,y$le)
greater than the tenaCitv of the remaining solid stor,e, ~~~~~~ tile
RULE.
nr-its of mxtti Caution in t,he use of wedges as wei1 1s the holdin of
tions Per minute I
hw W~~~-TlUltUll~ StOlles bPt~\%een large .&&es and leather ~vl&rs,
sllFfnnr. nnon~ AI rmm~ of -gileel being given, to find number of revo: .; ,_i f _.._... .~
;: :-
The Ir~i 110~ sa.vs ~the strength of &~iiuJ~t,ones when wei 1s red&d 40
to 5oy;.
~~,,i~?~~!Ol~~ $~~tyxJ~ ~soakedall, ~~igl~~,.~lr water broke at a stress ,;
1~~~~~~~ \;icgG $mdle.
,.~prauct
--Mu,tip,v s,lrface speed, in feet, per min., by 12 and divide ~tho .~R:.
i^l, ,,_,_. i ,,
by ~3.14 tikc. l h,7 Ainm
nf the wheel m mches.
: !jARplING::~-This is &l 9~10 edi thi - v. . . - - . _. . _ . . . - - - . - - - " - r)
~- ~' : i '
EMtiRY: \yHEELS .4ND GRINDSTONES. I, , ..126j
l+r Grinding High-speed Tool Steel, The American Emery Wheel~C&
r,..ommeuds a wheel one number coarser and one grade softer~than a wheel
for grinding carbon steel for the same seryxe.
yp&al Wheels. - Rim wheels and Iron-center wheels are specialties
tllat require the makers guarantee~and awgnment of speed. ~. ,. :
Sjtrains in Grindstones. : .~ . !
of 8.0 lb. per sq. in.
sq. m.
4 section of the same stone dry, broke at 146 lb. per
A bet.ter quality stone broke tit stresses of 186 and 116.lb. per S,J
1~. when dry and wet respectively.
Selection of Eme.ry Wheels. 7 The Norton Co. (190:)
follqwmq iabk showng the proper grain and gmde of whee
P
ublishes the
servwF.5.
for chfferent
The ,column headed grain indiwtes the coarseness of the
matenal compqsmg the wheel, being designated by the number of meshes
per Inch of a. Sieve through which the grains
r
ass. A No. 20 grain will
pass through a W-mesh sieve, but not througl a SO-mesh. et.c.
LI~~IT OF VELOCITY AND APPHOSI.\I.~TE ACTUAL STlLUs PUt SCfL4RE
lNCH OF ~$XTION.\I~ AREA FOR GRINDSTOICS OF:. ,, .:.
~hfm>Irr.\r rlmsI1.E &nmNGTH.
-
Table for Select&m of Glades.
150 1. 200 1 250 1 iop 1,. 356. 1~:: 400,
Grade Letters or
Degrees of Hard.
nest. Furnished
in Exceptional
ChSCS.
Diam-
eter.
100
Class of Work.
-
-
No. of
Grade
Grain or
D&y=pf
i;,iz
grecs of
$g;ur: uz?g
nished,
Fur-
nished.
11~3. lbs. 11,s. 11% ~. lhs. ~1hS.
::::
6.35 9.93 14.30 18.36
9.88 15.49 22.29~ 20.64 Z:%
8.04 14.28 22.34 32.16 ;_~. :. ..: . . ...: 1,::
10.93 19.44 30.38 . . :. . .~. ; _ i . .~../f . .
y:;; ;;:u; .; . . . . . . . . . . . .~..,. Y.. .:.:.
46 100 N * P
46 I 60 H Ii
SOme-
times
Soft a.5
Large cast iron and steei castings .
Small cast iron and st.eel castings .
Large malleable iron cartings .
Small malleable iron castings . : :
Chilled iron castings . .
Wrought iron . . . . . 1 1 1 1 :
Brass castings
Bronze castiqgs : : : 1 : : : : :
Rough work m general.
General machine-shop use : : : :
Lat.he and planer tools . . ;
Small tools . .
Wood-working tdolS : : : : : : :
Twist. drills (hand grinding)
Twist drills (special machines) : :
Reamers. taps, milling cutters, etc.
(hand grindmg)
(special machines) . .
Edwing nnd joining agricuit&al irnl
pjements
Grinding pl&pdints: 1 1 1 1
Surfacing plowbodies _ . : ! . .
Stove mounting . ,. . . . .
Finishing edges of stoves : .
Dr.lj; fOi$l~9 m. . . . . . . .
Gumming and sharpening saws
Planing-mill and paper-cut,ting knive
car-wheel grinding. . . . . . . .
y; : .......
Approximate bre&ng strain ten
....... times t~he strain for size opposite the
...............
bottom figure in each column.
-The fip~uxs atthe bottom of columns designate t,lie limit Of +elocity
(in ravnlltt,irms per mimito at the head of the colnml!s) for stones of the
. *-,.A :ollimn opposit.e the designabing fique.
A general rule of si lfety for any size grindstone that has a compact and
strong mxin is to lim -.... ~.._ .~ ~~~~ lit the peripheral velocity to 47 feet per sCC0lld.
.JosllL.. _ -.,- \_.__ .--..- ..- I:,. 1l.n~ I1lnrlwn Machine-shop Practice) says: The nvcrnw cir-
cumferential weed of print1
FEr gri!;ding machinlsl
stones in workshops may be giren:ns fdOWS:
ts to+, about, .900 fT?t pi! min!ite. . .
mmmte; n
..l
. . . ...600
and other similar, rapid grinding
----r ---- ---
The speeds of stones for file-grinding
is thus given in the Grinders List.
Diem ft.. 5% 5
Revs. per min. 1% :4! lb ?I% lsO 196
&I/2 ii 3112 3.
216 7-w 270 308 360
The following table, from the Mechanical World, is for the diameter of
stones and the number of revolutions they should run per minute (not to
be esceeded). with the diameter of change of shift-pulleys rewire?, vary-
ing each shift or change al/z inches, 2t/4 inches, or 2 inches in chameter
for each reduction of 6 inches in the dia meter of the st~one.
,.,
T-
-
Revolutibns
per Minute.
Shift of Pulleys, in inches. .:
7
~2%
2 ,~
2 va
135
i44
154
166
1%
%
270
308
360
EXPLrlN.4TION OF GRADE LETTERS.
Soft.
%2
Medium.
E I
Mykdy Hard.
III
F
Ic;
z
a ::
P !
w
x
The intermediat,e letters between those designated as soft medium
soft.. et,r.l indicate so many degrees harder or stift.er: e.0. L is bne grade
or .desree softer ,than medium; 0, .2 degrees harder thati medium but not
q#e lnediumhard.~ :.~. ,~ :, ,.~~:,~ ,,.,:~~-:::,~.
:. ,.,~ : .
with, say, a countershaft Pulley driving a 46-inch pulley on the gri;ir
stone spmdle. and the stone makes the right number (135) of revolutions
Per -mulute. the reduction in the diameter of the pulley on the grindings
stone spindle, when t ,he stone has been reduced 6 inches in diameter, -$$I
requires to be also reduced 2% inches in diameter, or to shift from 40
similarls for columns 4 and 5. An,7 InCheS t? :371/z inches, and so on
other su!table dimensrons of pulley may be used for the stone when eii$
feet m drameter, but the number of inches in each shifty named, in order
to be correct, will have to be nrol
the stone should run,
,.-portions1 to the numbers of retiolutions
as &%I mcolumn 2 of the table.
Name of Stone. Hind of Grit.. Texture of Stone. Color of Stone.
I
Varieties of Grindstones.
(Joshua Rose.)
FOR Woo~won~~.uo TOOLS.
I
Wickersley. . . Medium Tao fine
Liverpool or Melling Medium t,o fine
Very sqf t
Sof&%?th sharp
Soft. and sharp
Soft and sharp
I
Grayish yellow
Reddish
Uniform light blue
Uniform light blue
FOR GRINOINO Baooao SUHF.KES, AS SAWS OR IRON PLATES.
Newcastle
Independence : :
I
gyarz to medm Yellow

The hard on:3
.\lassillon. coarse
Hard to medmm Grayish whit~e
,I Hard to medium Yellowish whim
Efficiency of a Screw. -Let a = angle of the thread that is, the
angle whose tangent is the pitch of the screw divided bi the circum-
fercnce of a crrcle whose diameter is the mean of
ano Dottom of the thread.
the diaxmeters at the top
Then for a square thread
Efficiency = l - f tan a
1 + f cot.an a
in whicwf is the coefficient of friction.
and Slade. Applied Mechanics.)
(For demonstration, see Cotterih
Since cotan = 1 + tan, we may sub-
srrtute for cotan a the reciprocal of the tangent, or if p = pitch, and
c = mean circumference of the screw.
: , :EfEc,iency~~-, --- -
l- MC
.)
:y:+[C/P
EXAMPLE. 6
.
Efficiency of square-threaded screw of 1/z inch pitch. ~:~
Diameter at bottom of thread, in. . . 1 2 i * :
ulameter at tap of thread, ic.~ . ; . .
Mean wcumference of thread, in.. , . 3.927 ~,3.%9 1% 12!!&
1.1/i ; _ * ,;
C
Tangent
Efficient
;ocangent a = c +- p . . . . . . .
;a,=p+c
. =7.854 14.14 20:42 26.70 :,~
:y !ff= 0.10 : :. : : : : : :
=0.1273 .0707~ .0490 :037j . .
:y1ff=0.15. . . . . , .
=5.?.3% 41.270 33.770 27.2%
=45.%~ 31.7% 24.4% 19.9.7,
Efficient
The efficiency thus increases with the nteenn~sa nf t.he nitoh
The above f@mulce and examples are for squartTe-i~~e~~~~scren.s and
consider. the frwtioll pf the screw-thread only, and nol the friction ok the
collar of step b
the efficiency. 4
whwh end +rust is resisted, and which further reduces
he efficiency IS also further reduced by giving an inclina-
tion t,o the side of the thread, as in the V-threaded screw.
of this subject, see pa er by Wilfred Lewis, Jour. Frank. Inst. 1880; also
Trans. A. s. At-~ E.* VOY xii, 784.
For discussion
Efficiency of Screw-holts. - Mr. Lewis gives the following appro& :
mate formula for or$nary screw-bolts (V-threads, with collars): p= pitch
of screw,, d.= outs!de diameter of screw, F = force applied at circum-
ference to !Ift a unit of weight, E = efficiency of screw. For an average
case, m which the coefficient of friction may be assumed at .I&
F=Pfd
-2-l
Es-.!?--.
p+d
For bolts of the dimensions given above, 1/>inch pitch and out.side
diameters 11/z, 21/z, 31/z, and 41/2 inches, the efficiencies accbrding to this
formula would be, respectively, 0.25. 0.167, 0.125. and 0.10
.James McBride (Tran:;. A., S. M. E., xii, 781 j describes in experiment
wth an or$lary +in~h screw-bolt, with a V-threitd. ~1/2 threads per inch
raising a wNrt of , ~00, pounds, the force being applied by turning bh;
nut. 9f the Powef apphed S9.S
nut on Its supportmg washer an z
er cent was absorbed bv frict~ion of the
of the threads of the bolt in the nut.
The nut was not faced. and had the flat side to the washer
Professor Ball in his Experimental Mechanics says: .Expefiments
showed 1. two cases respectively about 3/ 3 and 3/ 4 of the power \\-as lost.
Trautwne says: In practice the :riction of the screw (:vhich under
heavy loads becomes very great) make the theoretical calculations of
but little value. .
Weis+rh says: The efficiency is from 19 per cent to 30
EqelenCY of a I)ifferential Screw.- A s
er cent.
correspon ent of t,he
A!>zerwf?l ~l~n&?iist describes an experiment with a differential <crem-
punch, Con$ing Of an outer screw 2 inch diameter, 3 threa&
ll!Ch. and au Inner screw 1,3/s inch diameter, 3112 threads per inch.
P he
Pitch of the outer screw belllg V3inch and that of the inner scre!v ?/7inch
the Punch would advance in one revolution l/3 - Z/T = l/z, inch.
I%spenments \yere made,tO determine the force required to punch an
WIII-mCh hole 111 lron l/4 inch thick, the force being applied at t,he end.
of a lever-arm of 473/4 inch.
6300.
The leverage would be 47s/4 X ZT x 21 =
The mean force applied at the end of the lever V,XS 95 pounds,
and the force at the punch, if there was no friction would be 6300 X~
95 = 5,QS.~OO. pound- The force required to punchthe iron assuming
a sheamlg RSlStance i 50,000
IGts 5 1~ X l / 4 = 2;.LOC, poun 8
ounds per square inch, would de 50 000 X
s, and the efficiency of the punchlvould
be 2i.000 + 598.500 = onlr 4.5
Used RS a PunC!l the,mean force at P t
er cent. With the larger srrew onlv
le end of the lever was only S2 pound;.
The leverage in this case was 473/d X 2~ X 3 = 900 the total force
reterred to the punch, including friction, 900 x 82 =73 800 and the
efhciency X.000 c
steel, well fitted,
73.SO() = 36.7 per cent. The screwswerk of tool-
and lubncsted with lard-oil and plumbago.
TAPER BOLTS, PINS, REANERS, ETC.
Taper Bolts for Locomotives. - Bolt-threads, U. S. Standard. eri-
Cept stay-bo1t.s and boiler-st,ud,s, V-t.hreads, 12 per it
all(i p&., \ &I ._^^ I. 1 * ~~~ T . . .
bolt. taper 1;
Taper R<~~erk~~ rvhvePrntt & Whitney Co. makes st,zndard taper
reamer! fqr l~corrioti$~ work &per l/l~~itiCI& ~$eer~ foot from i / 4 i&h diameter i
. . .~ :: ,,, .~
..:,, ~, j.,_ ,;y:.;:. .a., i :,,-;
--
;A P
.- ( -
252 356 2
369 A75 211~
.572 ,700 2%
.778 .930 33/ :
1. 020 1. 231 41/ :
1. 475 1. 748 531;
I 2. 116 2. 494 7V
2.75 327 10
DIorse Taners.
3114 3V1u ~VI U 322 ~/ I CI 314
51144151,s I l/3 ,635 s/a 11:1/32 si, ~318 :I2 5314
7313 7
1314 . % 113 2
: I / 4 l / z . I 5 a
l Ol j 3 91/ 3 2% I . 135 l 3/ 3211/ 16, 1~/ 8 3/ 4, . l a ! " l /
J .60,
-62
.63
.62
4 .6;
FIG. 192. -Morse Tapers. See table ah?+ ~~. ;> !,~
~.
Tbs. NO. 3 Jarno taper is 1 l/z inches~ long, 0.3 inch diameter at the small
end and 3/S mcn diameter at the large end.
Standard SW.el Taper-pins. -The following sizes are made bY The
Pratt & Whitney Co.: Taper l/4 inch to the foot.
Number:
EORCE.. AND SI!RINK IT?. ~
I of cup,
0 12 3 4
Diameter large end:
5~678
9 10
0.156 0.172,0.1% 0.219 0.250 0.289
Approximate fractional sizes:
0.341 0.409 0.492 0.591 0.706
5132 lVG1 3/m 7t32
Lengths from
114
19/64 w32 3132 V? 19132 %z
314 314 314 314 314
Tn*
314 314 1
IV4 1113 1112
~&&chin~ was equnl to 90
f&ng the given dwtance.
Weight of drop X fall X efficiency
Formula: Mean pressure in pounds = compression
-_
1
1114 11/2 1314 2
2 114 3 . . . _^I . 114 1 3x14 ~I . . 4112
Diavetel~ stuw enu or stanaaru taper-pin ream.tr:t
51f 4 6
0. ~15 0. 146 0. 162 O.iY3 0.208 0.240
Standard Steel
0.279 0.331 0.398
Mandrel
0.482 n~.r;~~
.,_..._~~~~
,J. I,. Bacon (Tr0
drop hammer Of
FlllW of MC!....-.
nor pressures per squt,.e inch, divide by the ~mearl- area, oPJ~oSed to
--..-xnti~ *et,ion during the opera.tlon.
~-ments on Bessemer steel plugs by .I ,W. !loseleY and
)Ls. A. s. .M. E., xxvii. 605) indicate&an effielency for the
about 70 p,er cent.
,+%.I~. (David Tpwnsend, Jour. Frai~k: .I?& March.
- _..
1~7s.) - In punching holes T/If;-lnc,h
diameter through iron blocks 13/d
inches thick, it was fol~lnd
that the core punched out Was 0lllY .I l/16
ine\les tlrick md its volume was only about 32 peg cent of the volu.me
of the hole.
Therefore, 6s per cent of the metal d#+d by punching
the hole flowed into the block itself, increasing Its dunewon%
:: .
SG FITS.
Forcing Fits Of- Pins
.I& Axles by Hydraulic P~CS~IIW. 1 A
d-inch axle 1s turned 0.015 inch diameter larger than the hole mtoVwhlch
it is to be fitted. They are pr
oc. c. 4 A" h" a "re. <q! , re of 30 to 33 tons.
/T.~P~IIPP bv CMeman Sellers, 1
15, diameters ad&&i &:
ClC
LY~L~;II tw UY cue aDove rule.
~-xe a litt,le smalier than
For ordinary boiler-work the die is made
from ~/IO to YIO of the thickness of the pJat,e lar=er than the diameter
the die accurately,
of th? punch: and some b&w-makers a,dvocateamaking the punch 6t
dfach .)
For punching nuts, the punch fits in the die.
(AWL.
-@U~rwf&&< the crsnk-pin inw a wwLLLUIlrr .. . ...=
,. ..__..
pinhoJe is perfectly true and smooth,.
the pin should be pr+ed in with a
ressure of 6 tonsfor every inch of chameter Of bhe \vlle+ ct..
llbe? the
[oldis ,,t perfectly true ivhich may be the result of shrlnl;uG the t!re on
tile ,yheel center after tl;e ho!e for the crank-pin has been bored, or If,?;
hole is llot perfectly smooth, the pressure may hare to be mcr+ysed
tons for every inch of diameter of the w+el-fit.
C.&m,. .IfaCJUf%t.f
Shrinkage Fits. _ In 1886 the American Rail\va.< JIaSter >leCJ!anics
ded the following shrinkage atioWdllCeS for t,Ues of
standard locomotives.
The tires are uniformiy heated. >Y g@lames.
slipped over the cast-iron centers, and allon;e$,to.?ool.
~he_~~$-~s~$~~
trlrnptf to the standard Sizes given beiow. anu me tires arr: tiuI,c: Jll,:*lGr
by the amount of, the slirin
ikage designated for each:.
Diameter of center, in.. . . . . . 38 ~~ 4i
50 56 ' ~62 66.
Shrinkage allowance, I*.. . . . .040 .0-l, .O53 .060,
, 066 . 070
This shrinkage aJlomatice is ap roximately l/8ti inch Per foot. Or /N.
A common allowance is l/1000.
Tafting the mof!
,,~IBS nf dastic~tv of steel at --... _* _...
30 000 000 the strain caused by :shrinkag~ ~01
.rld be, 30,000 ib; per sq. ill.,
le& ~nm&rtzin amount due to compresslon of the Center.
A&. i+,acjLini.zt plrbhshed at ~1 later dat.e a table-of 31. M.
allowances
for Illrink fits,: $J,Jch correspoltd bo the followin? Allowance = 0.001
(tt +I) for d = ~0 to -20 in.: O.OOI (d + 2)~ for d =.a1 to 60 111.; 0.001
( d; 3) f or d =6< to 53
in . 0,()8g for d=s.i 111. d=dratn. of wheel ce+er.
For running force fits, .4n!
i,r,,,+ Fives the follontng tiiosvan~~: d-do.
of bearinrr or hole, a =+ a.
!!owance.
:n the cut.ting nor-
~.. . . . . . _YC
Size of Blanks &~~n tf
(JOJO.. f+mk fnst.. Nov. 1586)
% :f blanks. The first is a t,entat,lve method and consists simply in a
x?ves znree methods of finding the
Ihis is for wse mainly in complica,teti cases, and \vbE
s?ea Of eVermwi?ts n-lth various blanks, untii the proper one is found.
tiOflS of tltA di
e and punch can be finnllv siTed a,fter the other &ric b
dolIe.. The semd method is bv n.ei+ing t,ile szmple piece and then
tharlleter of a piece having: the required area to equai the sample in
k!lon-lW the ~Wkht of t,he sheet me& per squ&e inch co&plltinp t&
vei,ght. The third method is by computation, and the f&muJa 1s 2~
d<tJ
+ ML for a sharp-corn
-
d = diameter of NJ,. IL = lInKIlL or sup.
.e<$,Cur). where 2 = diamet.er of blank,
For a round-cornered cup
Each siiz overlaps smaller ocie
d= 1 2 3
-__
Rnnninp, n = . . . . . _,
Force.a =. . . . . .._.
~. r/JARNING: This his a 1910 edition. Some 0'
Running, a= . . . . . .
Force. (1= .; . . . . . . .
Allowances for drive fits are one-half those for force fits.
Limits of Diameters for Fits.
1903.) -
C. W. Hunt Co. (Am. Nhch. July 16
in ins.
For parallel shafts and bushings (shafts changing): d= diam:
Shafts: Press fit, + 0.001 d + (0 to 0.001 in.).
(0 *non01 in.).
Drive fit, + 0.0005 d +
<-. I- .,..,
Shafts: Hand
in. for 4 1
fit., 5 0.001 to 0.002 in. for shafts 1 to 3 in.;~ 0.002 to 0.003
_ so 6 I I I . ; 0. 003 to 0.004 in. for 7 to 10 in
Hoie~~~aii-fits 0 to - 0.002 in. for
1
0 to - 0.004 in. for 7 to 10 in
to 3 in.; 0 to - 0.603 in. for 4 to 6 in.;
Parallel journals and bearings Gournals changing):
.~~.
Close fit - 0.001 (I + (0.002 Tao 0.004 in.); Free& - 0.001 d +(O.O07
to 0.01 in.): Loose fit, - 0.003 cl+ (0.02 to 0.025).
for taper s!laft and bushings (holes changing)
Limits of diameters
taper 3h 1~. per ft., large end to nominal
Shaft turned to standard
size.* 0.001 in
Holes are
reamed ut!td the large end is sma,ll by from 0.001 d f 0.004 to O.Ooj in,
for Press ht. from O.OOOS d + 0.001 in. for drive fit, and from 0 to 0.001 ln
for hand fit. In press fits the shaft is pressed into t.he hole until thi
true sizes match. or l/le in. for each 1/1~~) in. that the hole is small.
zhe;t;,Ye formulae aPPlY to steel shafts and cast-iron wheels or other
Sb.ft .~ll~W~nc~S for Electrical Machinery.- In
use
Electric Co. (John RIddell, Trans. A. S. 31. E., xxiv, 117. ~.
by General
.
Ez
.z.= 2 4 8 12 16
20 24 28 2.2 36
m
40 44 46
==AB---.----
-----
---
A, B 0.ooO5 .00075 ,001 .OOl C o. O+Oj . 0007j
.0012
. 0015 . 0017 . 0020
.0012 .0015 .0015 .0017 .0017 .002 .0 2 .~23
D 0.0005 .000751.0017 I
.0025 E o. l Nj SW27 I I .0033
. 0023 . 0025 . 0028 , 003 . 0033 . 0035 . 0; ; 38 . 004
. ' hNj . 0057 . 007
.004 .0045 ,005 .0058 .0063 .0068 .0073 .r~@
, 008 . 0093/ . 0115 . 0125 . 0128j . O138j . O15 I . 016
A, minus $lowance for sliding fit.
B. plus allowance for commuta-
tors anlf sPht hubs. C,.press tit for armature spiders: solid steel. D;
do.. sohd ca,st iron.
E. press tit for couplings, ar,d shrh& fit.
Hunning .Fits. - Wm. Gangster (Am. Mach., July S, 1909) gives the .~
pracwe of different manufacturers as folio\vs:
An electric man!lfacturingCo. allows a clearance of O 603 t,o 0.004 ln for
shafts 1 lizrp 2*/g In. dlam.:, 0.003 to 0.006 for 21/s ins : 0.004 to O.OOk for
23/d to 3113 llw.: 0.005 to 0. 007 in. for 4 and 41/z ins.:O.OO6 to O OO6 in
for 5 Ins.: 0.009 to 0.011 in. for 6 ins
for l$n. ordina?y benrings to a lhtle o;er ~31 in. for 6-in
Dodge Mfg. Co. allows f;om 116;
Clutch sleeves
O.OOb t0 0.015 111.; loose pulleys as close ab 5.003 in. in the smaller sizes:
and about l/a in. on a 21/z-in. hole.
n:att JfininF Car Wheel CO. allows l/16 in. for all sizes of wheels and
416 111. end play.
A la,rge fan-blower concern allo!vs 0.005 to 0.0) in.
on fan journals from s/10 to 27116 ins.~
Prrssur$ Rcquire,d for Press Fits. (dm. Mach.. March 7 1907 ) -
The followmg approslmate form&e give the pressures require4 for p&ss
fits of cranks and crank-pms, as used by an engine-building firm.
pressure on ram, tons; D=diameter Inches.
P=total
crank fits up to D =lO.
Crank fits D = 12 to 24.
P = 9.9 D - 14.
Stmight. cmnk-pins: ~~ :
P = 5 D -I- 40.
Taper crgk-pins. ~~: ::,Y; f,: :;T -y:..:.: ,-: ,; 1 ii~g _ 7:
:.
D F,lbs. $;. D F,lbs
-- ----
I.001 1000 3lP 1.0015 2200
1. 0015 2150 685 1. 0015 2800
1. 002 2570 818 1. 002 4200
1. 0025 4000 1272 1. 0025 4600
::::::[::::::\::::::)::::::I:::::
Per
:q. tn.
I I.
D F,lbs
700 1. 001 5320
892 1. 001 5820
1335 I . 002 7500
1465 1. 002 8l OO
. , . . . _ 1. 0025 9340
, __. . . 1. 0025 9710
The foi!,,i, method was used. .b$.Coi&man Seller& (sfe~&s lndiatot .
April. 139:) !O g$ the
the size pbtamed ?n bui P
roportiotis Of the parts of machines based upol;
Of machIn&
ding,a Iarge.ma+ine and a small One io any series
This formula is. used In getting up the pro
arranging the set Of ProportIons from which any
mat IF
ort.ion-book and
me can be con
strllctcd Of intermedIate size between the largest arid smallest of the series1
Rule to Establfsh Construction Formula. -Take difference bR
tween the nOmmai ~zes of the largest and tile smallest machines that have
been desUZned.Of.the same construction.
Takr also the difference between~
the size Of Mnkar Parts on the largest and smallest machines selected
r,)lvide t,Fe latter by. the former, and the result obtained wilt be i
factor, huh@, mui
I+chiae, and Increase Y
lied by the nominal capacity of the intermediate
or diminished bv a constant I
&!lve tile. %ze Of tl!e part required.
) Will
To find the (* incre~~~~f?e~~,litipi~,
the nouunai caP&cltY Of some known size by thefxtor obtain&d and ~ufi
tract the reW!t from the size of the part belonging to the niachink 0;
nominal Capmty Selected.
&&IWLE. - Suppose the size Of a Part of a 72-inch machine is 3 inches
and the eorrespomhng Part of a 4%inC11 machine is 1718 or 1.375 inches!
then 72 - 42 .= 30. Wld 3 inches - 17/.9 inches = 11 i inch@ = 1 ] 25:
1.12~~30=6.6.~75=the faetor,and .0375 ~&z=l.j7~.
1.575 s
Then 1.8;5 -
.3 = the increment to be added~. Let D = nominal capacity;
then tile formula will read: 2 = D x .03;5 + .3.
Proof: f2 X -6375 f .3 = 1.875, or 17/s, the size of one of the selected
Pas.
some prefe? the fOrnmia: aD + c = 2, in which D = nominal capacity
in lncllrs or In
5 q the part to e
Ounds. c is a constant increment, a is the facbor, and
e found.
.
KEYS.
E.
Sjzes of IicY. for xiii- earing.
C. Parkhursts rule: Wit th i
(T7nn.s. A. S. M. E., xiii. 229.)-
of key= l/s diameter of shaft, depth =
l/s diameter Of shaft: taper i/s inch to the foot.
Custom in aiichigan saw-mills: Keys of square section &ie = 1,
diameter of s*~aft, or as nearly as may be in even sixteenth; Of an inch.
J. T. Hawkinss ru1.e: ~Vidth = l/3 diameter of hole; depth Of side abut,-
ment in shaft = l/s dmmet~er of bole.
W. S. Husons rule: %-inch key for 1 to IQ-in. shafts ?&in. key for
1 l/4 to 1 l/z-Inch shafts. ?&inch key for 1 l/z to i 3!&q-iF.ch &fts and SO On
Taper 1,s inch to the fcoot.
width ,jf key.
Total thickness at large end of splice, 4/i
Vnwin (Eieme,nG Of Xachine Design) gives: Width = l/~d + i/ inch.
Tkkness = l/8 4 + */a inch, in which d = diameter of slyaft in ilci,es
When wheels Or imiieys r,ransmitting oniv a small ammInt Of pO!ver Irk
keyed on iar:e shafts, he says. ttese di&ensions are excessive
in &at
case. if HP. = hOrs;e-power transmitted 1)~ rile wheel Or puiier ,v =.
r.p.m.. P - force actI% at the CirClmferen& in pounds, and R <radius
Of puiiejf in inches, take
d a
= 100 H.P.
4 N
Prof. coleman Seiiers (Sferens Indimtor. .4prii 1392) gives the foilow-
ing: The Ilze Of keys. both for shafting and fo; machine tool< are the
Proportion?; -adopted 11.v William Sellers & Co., and rigidly a&red 10
dur111 q il pen!xi Of nearly fortr rears. Their practice in makin: kers and
fit!h~$ them 1s. that the keys siiali always bind tight sidetvise &t Iiot t,op
and bottom: that ~1% POt net~essarily touch either at the bottO& of ,the ker- .,~
seat in t,lie +!t or ton~h the top~of, the~slot cut in the gear-\vheei thatts ,>,>%
_ :,q?c$;y!
$t Idit&%eei ,i~pon the shaft bemg a forcing fit, or a fit tlia~, ii
as to require screw-pressure to put the wheel 1x1 p&e upon, the
~~
Size of~Keys for Shafting. : . ~, %I:;,
.~
Diameter of Shaft, in.
Size of I&y. in. .
............................
5/1ex3/s ~:~: :
,7/16X 12
................... 3ilC x 6/s
6116
33/,s 3711s
.
.......... .
Li
41611s .~, ;~
ll/lcr,y~ ..
471,s .......... w/
2 11116 ?I]
6 15/16
Length Of key-seat for coupling s 11/2X nominal diameter of shaft. ~.~
,
Size of Keys for Machine Tools.
..~
(
Diam. of Shaft, in.
Size of Key.
in. sq.
. . . V8
. . . 3/16
~. . . 314
. . . S/16
. . . 7116
. . . %6
. . . 11/16
15/uj and under.
1 t0 13/16 . .
11/4tOi7/16 . .
1QtoiWla . .
13/q t0 z3h6 . .
2114 to 2WlO . .
2314 t0 315/16 y .
The;e~;~;;d%& ~;s~si&&f k&i,-~both proper and necessary, but
widely different in nature.
1. The common fastening key, ueua!iy made
in width one fourth of the shafts diameter, and the depth five, eighths t0
one third the width.
These keys are tapered and fit on all zldes, Or. a%
it is commonly described, bear ail over,
They perfor! the double
function in most ca$es of driving or transmitting and
astemng the keyed-
dwise on the shaft. Such keys, when
t
on member against movement en_ .._
properly made, drive as a strut, diagonally from corner to corner. I
I :
2. The Other kind or class of keys are not tapered and fit on.tnetr Sines
onlv a &gilt clearance beine left on the back to insure.agamst wedge
ment such keys are corn-
,e smes oruv oeing planed. so t.he_dF.pth
. -
actidn Or i;tdiai strain. T&~e&,??&i~& by shearing strain. I
For fired work where there is po s@ing moye
.-
I:
moniy made of square section, th- -.~~~.~
is more than the width by so much as 1s cut away-ill finishing !Jr fit~l6.
For sliding bearings as in the case of drilling-machine spindles, the
denth should be increaked n.nd in cases where there is heavy strmn there
-* -._- :--
should be two keys or feathers Instead of one.
The following tables are taken from proportions adopted bind PrWiCai
use. .
Flat kevs ai in t.he Erst table. are employed for fised work when ;tne
: parts are-t.6 be heid not Oniy against torslonai StraiIl. but.ai!O a,Yu%t
rl in ~9,s~ of henvv st~rain the st,rut p%~~lPif: beu~g
each
G&tirst movers generally. Then
use are, straining t,he !\-Ork Out, qf
ed in fi!t!ng, and dest.rnglne the Ed
keyed JOlilt., When a \ \ - hd Or other
kev of this kind t~~~t,,~,nruea~~~l~,,~~,...
-
Ii iitted or noti
machine-t,ooi-makers. and ins the CaSe of ac? . .
nnot be, because of th~,\\?%mg strmy,;:
g completed work. .:
,~ ,,,,.
~~~,.,~ ,.; ,L .,. ;;.~ ..;:: i,;,.L::i -,,, ;:.+: ;, :,. ,, ,,~ ,,,,
Some of the material may no l onger be, accurat%: : '
I. DIMEXSIONS OF FLAT KEYS, IS INCHES.
11. DIMENSIONS OF SQUARE KEYS, lx hCli~S.
, * I I * .
Diameter of shaft. . . I
Breadth of keys.. . . s/z
Ill4 1113 13/q 2
7132
21/2 3
Dep?h of keys. . . . . . 311,~ id
%2 w33 Y32 w32 17132
5116
3/8 7/16 1/2 She
G I 9 I I I I
Diameter of shaft,
I
I l/4 I l/2 ! 3/4
Bradth of keys. : : : l/d
2
Depth of keys . . . . j 3/6
l/4 Z/is 5116
4 112
3/g 7/16 7!l6
5/a
I8
P. Prribil furnishes the followin::
Macht,i&. He s;Lvs:
table of dimensions to t~he Am.
On special heavy \voFk and very short hubs we
put in two keys iiione shaft 90 degrees apart.
rvlwre we cannot us6 keys with noses.
With special long hubs,
the standard.
the keys sbonld he thicker than
Diameter of
Shafts. Inches.
3/16
5116
318
1i2
-
-
--
Thi&-
es, I.?
Diameter of
Shafts, Inches.
37/l, to 3lQa
3 Sfta t0 43/,6
4i/l6 to 411/l(1
4 718 to
5718
5 3/g
to 63/s
671s to 73ia
-
3% 4
6t16 11/16
st8 314
-
-
Thick-
ness. In.
5/S
1VlU
314
1YlU
I
t l/S
Keys longer than 10 inches, sar 14 to 16 inches l/lc in& thicker. keys
lOn$r than 10 inches. say 18 to20 inches, l/s i&h thic-ker; and so on.
Spe~u11 short hubs to ha;e two keys.
For description of the Woodruff system of keying see cirrnlar of the
Pratt + \\ hitney Co.: also Modern Mechanism, p&e &.
F0i %eyways m milling cutters see page 1245.
HOLDING-POWER OF HETS ASD SET-SCREWS.
Tests of the Holfiinx-pnwer of Set-screws in PUU~VS
(G. 1.nn.m.
!??o?~s. A. S. M. E.. s, 230.) -These tests were made b\. u~ln~ a pulley
fastened to the shaft by two set-screws with t,he shnit lie<& to the
~~tders: the1 the load required at. the rim of the pullev tocause it to
sbp was determmed. and this being multiplier1 by t,henumber 6.037
(obtained by adding to the radins of the pullev one-h?lf the diameter
of tile wire rope. and dividing the sum hv t.wl& the r&us of the qhaft.
sinre there Were two set-screws ill actioli at a time) gives the hoiding-
Powr of the set-scretvs.
The Set,-wrens used mere of wrought iFOn,
h Of aQ i:lctJ in diameter, and ten threads to t,he inch; the shaft used was
,~,&
,,,, ~~>.l~luYa
GIARNING: Thi s is a 1910 edition. Some o
0f steel and rather hnrd,,the set-screws making but little impression t!pon
it.
They were set up wth.a force of 75 pounds at the end,of a ten-mch
rn0nkey-wrench. The set-screws used were of four km<s. marked
respectively A, B, C, al1.d D. The results were as follows:
b ends perfectly flat. s/win. diam. 1412 to 2294 lb%: ti.verage 2064.
B radius of rounded ends about l/s+. 2i47 to 3079 11~s.: average 2912.
Cradius of rounded ends about 1/4-l% 19W to 3059 Ihs.: average 2Si.3.
lj, ends cup-shaped and case-hardened 1961 to
2958 Ibs.; average 2470.
R~:~Luus. -.4. The set-screws were not, entirely normal tool the shaft:
hence they bore less in the earlier trials. before they had become flattened
by wear.
B. The ends of t.hese s&-screws, after the fjrst t.wo~ t@ls. were fpund
to be flattened, the flattened area haying a dlameter~oi about l/4 mch.
C. The ends were found, aft.er the first two t&Is, to be flattened, as
in B.
D. The first teat held well because the edges w$re sharp, then the
tlolding-poweF fell,.off till they had become flat&ned m a manner smnlar
tn B. when the holding-power increased again.
Tests of the Holding-power of Keys. (Lanza.) -The load was
al)
P
lied as in the tests of set-screws, the shaft being firmly keyed to the
ho ders. The load re uired at the rim of the pulley lo shea: the beys
.;gas determined. and t w. multiplied by a suitable cmwant, ~determmed 1.
in a similar way to that used in the case of set-screws, gires.us t~he shear-
ing strength per square inch of the keys.
The kew tested were of eight kind% denoted, respwtively, by the
letters A, B C D, E, F G and H, and the restills were as follows: A, BI ?.
and F. eacli itests; E,3 tests; C, G, and H, euch 2 tests.
A, Norway iron, 2 XV8 X W2.
40,184 to 4i,?60 lbs.: aTerage, 42.7%
B. refined iron, 2 X l/a X l5/32,
36,482 to 39,254 11~: average, 3S.OSY
C. tool steel, 1 X l/4 X 15!32\
91,344 & 100.036 lb%:
D, machy steel, 2 x Vfl X W?
64.630 to 70,186 lbs.: al-erage. 66.S75
E, Norway iron,~ 1 y3* y 3/g x 7/16 36,850 to 37,222 lbs.: average, 37,036
F, cast-iron. 2 X l/a X 15/32,
G. cast-iron, 1 l/s X 3/d X 7/l6r
;yi; tg ;2;;;!bs.: average. 33.034
H, cast-iron, In X VZ X 7/1d,
29.614 & 383978:
In A and B some crushing took place hefore shearing. InI,Ektt;
keys being only 7/16 inch deep. tipped slight,ly ln the ke?--Way.
,
the& test., there was a defect in the key-way of the pulley.
the material may no l onger be. accurate: : . ~~
DkNAtiOMETERS.
Dynamometers are instrume<ts used for mea,suring power.
They are
of several class,es. as: 1. TractI on dynamomet,ers, used for dete;m\ning
the power reqmred to pull a car or other vehicle, or a plow nor harrow
2. Brake or absprption dynamometers, in which the power of a rot.ating
shaft or wheel 1s absorbed or converted into heat by the friction of a
brake; and 3. Transmission dynamometers in wbicb the power in a
rotatmg shaft is measured durinp its t. ra. nsmi s&mt. hmwh 5
connection to another shaft, without ~e~~~ahs;;r~~~~---O.-
L belt or othe;
Traction Dvnamnm~t~~= rrmx-~l~.r r~~mr+~ill t\vo principal parts: (1) A
*..I - ----rted, the extension
spring measuring the
f the pulling force; and
:r-covered drum,rotated
nnifnrm rno.3.4 h..^1^..L
i >OOO. 33 +2 z is practically
leng6h of arm. ~
;ultin$ friction will show
&&;;i&i& - nrohablv on account of insufficient. lubrication -
great lI1colf.---l.l
the jaws being dl0\~6 1 to s&e t.he pulley, thus producitig shocks and
sudden vibrations of the 1 ever-arm.
; x+ wnnae a,,rh 9,s ha,*
SOL. U.-V--$ .~ .._. _ .-- -.... 5. plane-tree, beech,
?
o&r, or mjple, tire all
.-
% nreferred to the ha,rder woods for brake-b ocks. The rubbing-sur-
; grease.
. (G. I. Alden. Trans. A. $5.
~~$&l~&ild be well lubricated with a heav]
The Alden Absorption-d~amonl~~~,c~.
lf E vol. xi, 95% also xii, 700 and xiii, 429.) -This dJ-namometer is a
t ,i&-hra,ke. wl$ch is cnuable in ouite moderate tizes of absorbing pc ,,..,.- - ~..
1 ~~WWS with unllsu;il st,ra.dinbss and comnlete reaulat~ion; A
rargt ,,- . . U-y
smooth cast-i ron disk is I;-,, -._ ~~
in a east,-iyon :
-~.. .._ -- ---.. o -------- -~--- .~
shell, formed of two disks and a ring at their circumference,
. ..hiqj.~$ free to revolve on fhe shaft. To the interior of rach of the sides
,T LBL\
of the shell is fitt.ed a coppt.
\vsl,er-t.igbt space.
Water ul;;i;i;~;essure-~~o~-~jl~-~~~~pipes is ad&ted
into each of these spaces, forcing the Conner elate arainst. t.he central disk.
Tile chamber inclosing the disk is ft ___- _.._ __..
- ~~~
fixed a weighted arm, which resist.s the tendency of the shell to rotate
nith the slyaft, cnuscd by the friction of the plates against the ,centr&l
disk. Four brakes of this type,
.5B in. dism,. were used in tesRng the
csperirnental locomotive at Purdue Univerwty (Trans. 21. S. AI. E.,
xiii, 429). Each was designed for a maximum. moment of lp,SOp fopt-
pounds wit,h a water-pressure of 40 111s. per sq. In.
The area 1n etfecOlve
ccntact with the copper plat.es on either side is rrpresentrd by an annular
surface hnvinr: it.5 ont.er radins ecjual to 2S ins. and its inner radius equal
+n 0 ins. I%e apparent coefEcient of friction between tile plates and the Y_ I
disk was 3% %.
to the speed of the traction:
I\
through g earing. on which.-&
escension of the s ring is regjs-
tered by a pencl . From the 7
average beigbt of t,he diagram
FIG. 193.
drawn by the pencil above the
qero-line the average pulling force
ln pounds is obtained, and this
multiplied by t!le distance traversed, in feet, gives the work done in
foot,-pounds. 1 he product divided by the time in minutes and by 33,099
gives t~he horse-power.
The Prony lrrake is the typical fo
(See Fig. 193,. from Flather on Dvnan
Primari-
rm of absorption dynamometer.
nometers.)
wu Gena 40
This rotat
rotate the aI
,IY this consists of a lever connected to a revolving shaft or pullev
fn~u,c!b ? mantier that the friction induced between the surfaces in con&
m in the direct,ion in which the shaft revolves
the end
ion is counterbalanced by weights P, hung in the sca,le-pan ai
of the lever. In order to measure the power for a given number
of revolutions of pulley, we add weights to the scale-pan ant1 screwy up
o;1 bolts b.b. unti! the fr$tion induced balances the weights and the lever
n Its horizontal posisition while the revolutions of the shaft
= rclrrain constant.
$poFef$,the bsam is generally omitted -the friction being
1 or strap thrown over t.he pulley. Ropes
For sm:
measured uy welgntmg a bane
or cords are often used for the same purpose.
Inst,ead of hanging weights in a scale-pan, as in Fix. 107, the friction
p-a? b,: Wighed~on F platform-scale; in this case the direction of rot&on
oelng rtle s&me. the lever-i ?rm will be on the opp&te side of the shaft
In a modificat,ion of th IS brake, the brake-wheel is keyed to the &aft
2-n-d .i,ts rim is~provided with Inner flanges wh~ich form an annular t,rougl;
water to keep
. .
ti!e pulley from heating. A small
.to the trouah and revolves with
Capacity of Friction-lmtkes. -
\V. W. Reaumont (Proc. Inst. C. E..
1389) has detIn(;erl a formula by men,nn nf which t,he relative canacit.v Of ._.. I .~ ~~~~
brxkes can IN? cornDared. iudginr frc
011 the amount of horse-potrec a&et-
tained by their us&. - - -
If 11 I = wirit,h nf rnhhinrr-slrrface on bra,l;e-wheel in inches; v A Vd. _ .__,-_.._ .:..
of point o~CiGK. of wbeetln feet, per mil&e; R = coefficient; then
: lVV-+ H.P. 1. -
Frof. Flather obtains~ the va lues of I<given in the last column of the
ijoined table:
stream of wat~er conszanrly mscharges in
the.PulleY--tlJe centrifugal force of the particles of Eater o&-$coming the
actlo~ of gra\ltY; a WaSte-Dine with its end fln~ttened is so placed in bhe
troug
U...&us mater. The brake
consi$s of a flesible strap tbwi&h %& ~~~e~blocks of \vood formin= t.he
rubbmg-surface: the ends of the strap are connected by an adjusrabie
bolt-clamp. by means of which any desired tension mar he oht,nined.
The horse-po\ver or work of TV he shaft is determinedfrom the fo, 11o\ving:
Design of Brake.
33
33.38 McLaren. compensa~u~g!. . . . :.
; z. 19 Bl cLaren, w: Lt~er- cool etl nnd camp : . . .
Carret.t, water-cooled and camp . .,.
32 Garrett,, wat,er-cooled nncl romp . . .
ll.ll/ $chpenheyder, vxt,er-cooled ~. : . :
785
, : 858
, . 802
i
. . , . . . . . . . . ~~~
i %; , $~$ i ~l l ki , k ci ; . ~ni er- cobi eci . . ; . . , ,
209
Vebber. water- cool ed . . . . L . ; l . . . . . . .
84.7 Let II = work of fill-aft, equals r
P = unbaianl
L:
Let II = work of shaft, equals power absorbed per minute.
P = unbalanced pressure or weight in po{lnds, actingon lever-
n-- ^.
arm at distance L:
L = length of lever-arm in feet from center of shsft.
%- -velocity of a
were allowe (f
oint in feet per minute at, d~starrce L, if arm
1
to rotate at, the speed of the shaft;
11 3 number of revolutions per minute; .~
HZ.. = horse-power. .:~ ., . ~, .: ~~ ,:. .,
UP :
..,. . .~ ; ;: .~.,: ~,
.__- .-~ _
%- ==velo~ny of a
were alIo!ve
oint in feet per minute at, dist&ce L, if arm
3, ^.._L
(f to rotate at, &speed of the shaft:
.
Westinghouse, mster-cooled . . . . . .:.
,*
West,inghouse, wnter-cooled
. . 847 : . :
. , . . , . . c. . . ~. : . . ;
I 1 /.__L
he above cllculations for eleven brakes give values qf K~ varYin? f;
to 13% for actual horse-pow&s tested, t.he average being K = 6%. ~~~~
-
ram .~~
material may no long&
Y: WARNI,N%;'.:Thfs his ~,a 1910 edition.
~,,,
Instead of assuming an average CkefFkient, Prof. Flather pr.oposes
fallowinrr:
the
Wat&ooled brake, non-compensating, K =400. TV = 400 J3.P~. + V.
Water-cqoled brake, compensating, K =750. TV=750 H.P. + V.
Non-coohng brake, with 6r without compeniating device, K=900; 11:~
900 H.P~ + V
transmission Dy,namometers are of.various forms, as the Batchelder
dsoamomete,r, in +ch the power is transmitted throU+ a train-arm
:Jf bevel ge?nng, With its modifications. as the one descrikd by the author
in 1 wRS. d. I. 31. E. viii, 157, and the one described by Samuel lrrebber
ln Tmns. A. S. M. I?.,
X, 514; belt dynamometers, as the Tatham. the
Van Winkle dynamometer, in which the power is transmitted frdm a
rerolvlng shaft $0 another in line with it, the two almost touchin
t~hrough the medium of coiled springs fast.ened to arms or disk kej-ed td
me?st?nn,- the power required to run dynamo-electric machines.
the sh?fts: the Brackett and the Webb cradle dynamometers uied;e:o,r
SCnPtlon-s of the four last n,amed are given in Flather on Dynamometers.
The Iyenerson transmwon dynamometer is desc,ribed in T,arls. A. ,y.
-If.. E.. 1909.. It has the fqrm of a shaft coupling, one part of \vhirh con-
tN*S 8 ClLv1t.Y filled wth 011 and covered by a flexible copper dilphranm.
The of,her part.. by mc~anspf bent Irversand a thrust ball-bear&, b&s
an ;~slal pressure 011 the diaphragm and on the oil, and the pressure of the
oil 1s meksured bv :I. ~3mw
- V-_.
JfUCh iniormaiion on various forms of dvnamomete& will be found in
TrCf&% .-1. S. 31. E., ~01% vii to XV, inclusive, indexed Under Dynamomr:ers.
ICE-MAKING OR REFRIGERATING
MACHINES.
References. - An elaborate discussion sf the thermodmamic theory
of the aCtlO of the various fluids used in the producti& of cold ,vas
published by 11. L$~OUX in t,he Annales des Mines and transllted in ~?a,*
~~~08~~o~~dS .1fo!&l~ne in lSi9. This work, revisedand addlti;ns mlde in
the kht of reCel!t experience by Professors Denton Jacobus and gtesen-
berger. rva: repnntctl in 1S92. (Van Nostrands Skience S&es NO. 46.)
T-he vork. 1s &My mathematical, but it also contains much iniormation
P* lmmedlate practical value. from which some of the matter @ven below
1s taken.
Other references are Woods Thcrmodvnamirs Chap. V, and
?umerous pn~ers hv Professors Wood Denton iacohus ?nd Linde in
rmffn. -4. F. Jf. A., ~01s. s to xiv: kohnsons Cvclop$d;a article on
Refri
cerntine-marhines:
and the followinp books: Siebels kompend of
)Iechanwal R~fri,Dcr~tion:~~I\Io(lern Refrigerating ,&flchincrv by I orenz
transIatcd by Pope:~ Refrigerating MachInes, by Gar&cr T. ii0&11e&: Rg, ,>,:
~~orlt~ion 1~ .I. Wemyss .Anderson, and Rcfrigeration,,Cold %orage,and ~.. ,
pe.mal;llg, uy A. J. Wallis-Taylor. For properties of Ammonia and Sul- .~
nh,lr Dioxide. see nauers by Professors Wood and Jacobus, Tmns. A. A-
s. X and-xii.
For illus y~I~~,w ._.,_.____ __.~.._ -- my
builders, as Frock & Co.,~ \Vaynesboro, P+.;be La Vekne ReirigGat,ing-.
machine Co., New York,; Vilter Mfg. Co,. RIII\~wltee; York Xi,-.. Ilqrli,.Co.,
pa: Henry Vogt Nachme Co.; Loumv~lle, Ily.,: Carbondale >@h$e Co.,
&$bondale, Pa.; and others. See also artxlrs In Ice and Hefrvmuhon.
nn~n.tinns nt a Refriszerating-m yy-- - -,----: -. ~. ~~ ~.~
machine. - Appak1i6.s deui,-n&d for,
refrigerating 1s based upon the foilowing series of operation%
Compress a gas or vapor by means,of some external fprce.
then relieve
it of its heat so as to diminish its volume:
nest: cause this compressed gas
or vapor to expand so as to produce mechamca! work, and thus lo+
it,s temperature. The absorption of heat at this stage, by the gas, In
resuming its original condition, constitutes the refrigeratmg effect of the
,,.
apparatus.
A refrigerating-macldine is a heat-engine reversed. ..~~.
From this similarity between heat-motors and freezing-machines it ...-..
results that all the ecluations deduced from the mechamcal theory~ of heat :.; ::,:,~
to determine the performance of the first, apply equnll:i to the second.
,:
The efficiency depends upon the diference between ~the extremes qf.
temperature.
The useful effect of a relrigerating-machine depends upon the ratio
~,
between the heat-units eliminated and the worli expended tn compressmg
and expanding.
Tllis result is Inrlepentlent of the natute of the body eInploWi.
.,.
r:nliL-P the heat-mot,ors, t,hc frc?ezillfi-mnchii~e poswscs r!ie great,est 1
\vIlcn the range of temperature is small, and when the final
elevated.
ratwes are the same, there is no theoretical advantage in
II ZZC r:>t~lv3 tlxxn a vapor in order to produce cold.
The c~lce or tue intermediate body mould be determined by practical
considerations based on the,pll)sical CharWteriStiCS Of the bOdY-, SUCh aS
thementer or less farility for manipulatin
g it, the ext.reme pressures
required for the best effec.ts, etc,.
Air offers the double advantage that it is ererywhere obt.ainable, and
that we can vary at xi11 the higher pressures, indepeudent, of the
tempera;
ture of the refriierant.
But to produce a given usef$ effect, the apparatus
must be of larger dimensions than that required by liquefiable vapors.
The maximum pressure is determined by the temperat!Ire of -t,he Con-
denser and the nature of the volatile liqUld; thIS pressure 13 OIt~en Very
hieh.
?qhen a change of volume of a saturated vapor is made under const.?nt
pressure the temperature remains constant.
The addit,ion or subtractlo
of heat which produces the change of vo&u~e, is reprqsenred by an
increas; or a diminution of the qiiantity of hqmd mised n?th the \QPor.
On the ot,her hand when vapors, even if s?t,urated. are !lo longer m
contact wit11 t,lleir liqhtls, and receive an addIt:on OF heat. either tllroU%h
compression by a mechamcnl force., or from ~~---~
they comport themselves nearly in the Sa
and become superheated.
It results from this property, that refrigeratjng-machines using n
liquefiable gas n-ill afford resu1t.s differing according to the niethod.1
Working and depending upon the State of the gas. Whether It rWlSms
constanilv SaturGed. or is superheated during a part of the cycle of
s6me external source of
me way as permanent
Working. .
The iemncrature of the cond~enser is determined by Iocd conditions. : _^^ . ~~~~~ ~_.& .._^ ^C .Lr. . . ..%to.. r*,r-
The interioi \vtll exceed bp 9 to .lW tne temperiLcnK UI irl=-
\,zCI .A~
nished to the exterior.
This latter Till vary from about ~2 F.. tKe
+,mmnnrotrlrn d n.n~+.Pr fymn cotlsiderable depth below the Surface, to
Imates. -The ,~::::r:
It at tms rtmpe
e reaolw manaKed by the :IP
ZGZ~~S~+.,-the temperature of swface-wat.er, in hot cl
volatile liquid employed in the machine ought II<
1
have a tension above t,hat which can h. . ~~~
On the other hand if the tension of the gas it the niinimum !~m~
is loo low, it becobes necessary to give to the c~ornpr~~on-c~~~I~~o~-
~.:
&: ,,,. - !iLrf,e., dimensions, In order t~hnt the ,weight ~Of vapor c?mpress$ by a a ~~,;~-:
? b? the ~r&eri $1 Mornay no l,ong~er ,~be acc,urate :;,:i~,:,::;+:
~ SULPHUR DIosiDE AND .AMGQ~I~ G,A$; :.,~,,~ 1285 ~,~.
,. ,~~
Nothing definite is known .regarding the spplicationof methviic ether or
of the petroleum products chymogene in practical. refrigerating service.
The inflammabilityof the latter and the cumbrousness of tjle compresso;
required are ob.lections to Its use.
.I.
PROPERLTlW Ol? SULPIIVR DIOXIDE AND
~,, A.MMONIA~ GAS. z .~ ~ . .;~
Ledouss Table for Saturated Sulphur-dioxide Gas. ,:
seln&; stroke of the pistonshali be sufficient ~to produce a notably useful,
These two conditions, to which may be added others, such as those
dependmg upon the greater~or less facrlity of obtaining the liquid; u
the dangers mcurred in~its use, either from its infiammability or
unhea
P
on
th-
fulness, and finally upon its action upon then metals, limit ~the choice to a
small number of substances.
The gases or vapors generally available are: sulphuric ether, sulphurons
oxrde, ammqnia, methylic ether, and carbonic acid.
The follo~vlng table, derived from Regnnult. shows the tensions of the
vapors of these substances at different t,emperatures between - 0~~ and
f 104.
Heat-units espressed in B.T.U. per nound of,~su
B.T.IJ Lbs.
::%
9. 27
11. 76
237;
22. 53
3
39. 93
47. 61
56. 39
66. 36
77. 64
90. 31
157. 43
158. 64
159. 84
161. 03
162. 20
E:!
165. 65
166. 78
167. 90
168. 99
170. 09
171. 17
172. 24
173. 30
. c19. 56
16. 30
. 13. 05
9. 79
6. 53
.~ 3. 27
0.00
z:::
9. 83
13. 11
16. 39
19. 69
22. 9%
26. 2%
;:::
I%
14. 46
14. 66
14. 84
15.01
15. 17
X2
15. 59
15. 71
15. 82
15. 91
-
7
1
5,
I
--
. I
--
-
176. 99
174. 95
172. 89
170. 82
168. 73
166. 63
164. 51
162. 38
160. 23
I:!:!;
EE
k%Z
-
,
-
r
I
.-
-
E. F. Miller (Tm%s. A. 8. di. Z?., 1903) reports a series of test.s on the
pressure of SOa at various t,emperatures, t.he results agreeing CloSelY Wrtll
those of Regnnult up to the highest figure of the huter, 14Y F.. 178 lbs.
absolute. He gives a table of pressures and t,emperat,ures ~fOrceverY .
degree between -~ 40,,and 217. The results ~olmxined at temperatures
between 113 and 31~ are as below:
Temp. F.
113 122 131 140 149 1. 58 167 Ii6 194 208 :ii?
TeOyp
Ebull.
tion.
Pressures and Boiling-points of Liquids available for Vsse
in Refrigeratin,rr-machines.
/
i-
Tension of Vapor, in lbs. per sq. in., above Zero.
-~-
-
(
__
-
$rrdninic Pictet
Fluid.
. . . .
. . . . .
I l . 15
13. 85
17. 06
20. 84
25. 27
30. 41
36. 34
43. 13
50. 84
59. 56
69. 35
%f
. . . . .
. .
: (
_-
.
.
Ethyl
hioride.
. . . . . . .
. . .
2. 13
2. 80
3. 63
4. 63
::2
9. 00
Il.01
13. 36
xi
22.90
27. 05
31. 7%
37. 12
I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _
10. 22
13. 23
16. 95
21.5i
27. 04
Z:Z
50. 91
;::t;
89. 21
105. 99
125. 08
146. 64
E:E
227. 76
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . ::li
1. 30 9. 27
1. 70
22::;
1:::5
18. 31
::::
22. 53
27. 48
5. 54 33. 26
6. 84 39. 93
8. 38 47. 62
I:::;
56. 39
66. 37
174::;
77. 64
90. 32
. . :. . .
251.6 292. 9 ...ij:,..
340. 1 16. 2
393. 4 19. 3
453. 4 22. 9
520. 4 26. 9
594. 8 31. 2
E 36. 2 41. 7
864. 9 48. 1
971. 1 55. 6
E% 64. 1 73. 2
1338. 2 82. 9
-
The table shows that the use of ether does not readily lead to the pro-
duction of low temperatures, because its pressure becomes then very
feeble.
Ammonia. on the contrary, is well. adapted to the product,ion of low
temneratures.
.~_ . . ..yiic ether yields low temperatures without attaining too great
pressures at the temperatnre of the condenser.
Sulphur dioside readily
affords temperatures of - 14 to - 5. while its pressure is only 3 to 4
atmospheres at the ordinary temperature of the condenser.
These latter
substances then lend tliemselves conveniently for the production of cold
by means of mechanical forre~
Pres. Ibs. per sq. in.
104.4 1.ZO.l 137.5 156.7 179.5 203,s 230.7 360.5 331.1 371.S 415.
Density of Liquid Ammonia.
At temperature C.. . . . . -10
(D.Xndreff, Tmhs; A. S, +W. E.. S, 6$.
At temperature F.. .; . . . . fl4
Density . . . . . . . . . . .
0.6492
The$e may he expressed very nearly by
8 = 0.6364 - 0.001.4t Cemigrader,
CJ = 0.6502 - O.OOOiiiT Fahr. ~ ~ .~
Latent Heat of Evaporation of .kwn@a. .(\f~~d. Tr@~,A* se..
Af. E., x, 641.)
h = 555.5 -
Ledoux found he -
0, 613 T - 0.000719,T: (in BiT.,U;P~F):
. 583x3 - o. Fj 499 T - 0.0001173T?.~
For experiment:1 &tes at different temperatures determined by,Prof.
Denton. see Trans. A. S. Al. E.. xii, 356.
~.,_ Vol. x, 646.
For &culat.ed vttlye~. se@
.,:L
The Pictet linidis a mixture of 97yo sulphur dioxide and 3r; carbonic
acid. At, atmospheric pressure it affords a temperature 14 lower than
sulphrir dioxide. (Its is not now used - 1010.)
Carbonic acid is in use to a limited extent, but the relat.ivelr preo:er
compactness of compressor that it requires. and its inoffensive &meter,
are leath~ to 1t.s recommendation for service on shipboard.
Certain ammonia p1ant.s are operated with a surplus of liquid Present
dm-ing conlpresslon. so that superhea~ting 1s prevented
known as the cold or wet I svst.em of compression
This prncrice is
Ethyl rhloridp. GHnCI. isa rolorless gas which at atmospheric pre.ssure
rondeWs !o a hquiil at 51,V F. The latent heat at 2R F. is given st 174
B.T.17.. DmPit,~y of the eas ~(nir=l)--,1.?27. Specific heat at constant
w3sure. O.~7~;.,at~lol,sfaat~ volume,~, 0.243: : :
WARNING:.,This is.~a:~,j910 edition. Some
Properties of the Saturated Vapor of Ammonia.
(~,,ur. Franklin Inst., Dec., 1890) found the specific hea,t,bet\!%$n 62 and
310 C. to hn 1~2287fi. I I- _.---. . Ludeking and Starr (Am. Jour. Snence. 111. 45, TOO)
obtainer, Y.VII.
~1 n cm prnf~ Wood -deduced from thermodsnamic eq ____. ..--- ~._~.
Jlgmons
- 338' C., and Ledoux in Jcke .manner. finds
Elleau and Ennis %ive, Ledouss equation
0
$% constant d&ived.from~ their experiments, thus e ,= 0.9834 +
.003058 t c.
Strength of Aq.ua Ammonia at 60 F.
% NH3 by wt.
10 : l, 14
sp.gr.
. &G , 960 933 , 945' ~. & . ; : I
% NH3
' 30~. . 31?
SP. gr.
.89i 392 . .ss8 .8&
Specific Heat of Ammonia Vapor at the Saturation Pqint.
(Wood.
Trans. A. S. Al. E.; s, 644.) - For the range of temperatures ordlntn1.y
used in engineering practice, the speCiliC heat of SatufaJed; a.mmoma IS
negative, and the saturated vapor will condense n1t.h adlaoatR expansion.
The liquid will evaporate with the comprewonof the vapor, and,when all
is vaporized will superheat.
Regnaul t (Rel. des. Exp.. ii, 162) gives for specific heat of~~a,m~ocia~g&
0. 50836. (Wood, Trans. A. S. 1%1. E.. xii. 133.)
Weight of Superheated Ammonia Vapor at lX6i~!bs. i;aug@ Pressure
(= .30.67 lbs. abs. ) (C. E.~ Lucke. Ice and Re~riwr(ltzo1l., %ar., 1908.)
W\Veight at O F. 0.1107 Ibs.
(Woods Thermodynamics.)
P$; , . >
. .
: %E
. 0237
. 0238
. 0240
. 0242
. 0243
. 0244
: ! %
. 0249
: %i
. 0253
. 0254
$g;
. 0259
. 026l
, 0263
. 0265
. 0266
: h%
: i ; : :
: Z
: : %
: Z
: %Z
. 0291
. 0293
. 0295
: : ; ; ;
. 0302
: %Z '
Temperature
-
I
.Pressure.
Absolute.
Degs.
F.
-
-,
Abso,
lute, 1
2
- 30
- 25
z : ;
- I O
- 5
i
i i
i t
: P
40
45
: ;
60
65
70
75
i t
; :
100
I O5
I I 0
I I 5
120
I 25
130
135
I 40
145
I 50
I 55
160
I 65
- -
; .
- _
5
5
j
i
i
i
,
,
,
.bs. pe
sq. in.
-
er I
. I
--
7
Fi
:
0'
2
5
i
4
:
;
P
-_
-L
-
If
i-
.l
--
Volum
of Vapa
per lb.
cu. ft.
e
lr 0
--
id
- .-
420. 61
425. 6f
430. 6f
ZEI
%: 66f
455. 66
46f . M
z?: i
: ; ; : 2
gETI
; I %:
505. 66
510. 66
: : ; : 22
525. 66
530. 66
535. 66
: 2: : :
550. 66
: i Z
: ; tE:
: ; Z:
585. 66
: i ; : : :
600. 66
605. 66
510. 66
515. 66
$20. 66
325. 66
I:;!:
2035.
%:
: t; ?
3877.
4373.
4920.
5522.
%
7695. ,
; : ; ; : :
10512
i l 6i 6
I 2811
14102
15494
1%;
20336
: %
26300
28565
30980
: %z
E?
45528
48978
52626
56483
60550
64833
69341
%t; ;
10. 69
12. 31
14. 13
16. 17
18. 45
20. 99
%i
30. 37
34~. 17
: 2": ; ;
47. 95
53. 43
59. 41
65. 93
73. 00
80. 66
i ; : ; ;
l %
129. 21
141. 25
154. 11
; : ; : s"
198. 37
$X
251. 97
; ; ; : 2
: : i : : ;
365. 16
392. 22
420. 49
450. 20
4: : : : o"
549. 04
579. 67
576. 69
573. 69
: i %
564. 64
561. 61
: : 58: : ;
552. 43
549. 35
: %
540. 03
536. 92
533. 78
530. 63
: : ; : ?l
Xi
514. 73
: l %
2: :
498. 11
z%
2%
482: 41
$! : : ;
472. 11
468. 75
465. 39
462. 01
458. 62
455. 22
451. 81
448. 39
;;:::;
1::::;
14. 507
12. 834
1%
L%f ;
7I 2- 29
6. 492
5. 842
: : : i ;
4. 313
3. 914
: : 5: ;
2. 958
$: %
2. m
: : i : ;
1. 770
; : ; i ;
1. 398
; : ; i !
; : ; S
0. 970
Ei
: : ; I
0. 695
0. 652
0. 613
0. 577
0. 0410
. 0468
. 0535
. 0608
. O685
: : , Ei
. 0988
. I 108
. I 239
. I 383
, I 544
. I 712
. I 898
. 2100
: S
. 2aO9
: : ; i :
: I %
: I %;
: : %
, 612s
. 6623
. 7153
. 7716
: : ; ; : 5
9569
1: 0309
; : I ; : :
1. 2642
1. 3495
I . 4385
1: ; : : :
1. 7333
-
L -
Drusity of Ammonia Gas. -
0.593. Kegnnult (Trans. A. 8. M. fi
nental,
Sprcitic Heat of Liquid Ammonia.
(Wood. Trans. A. S. M. E.,
S. 643.) --The specific heat is nearly constant, at different temperatures,
and about equal to that of mater, or unity.
From O" to 100 F., it is
C = 1.096 - O.OOlZ, nearly.
In a later Paper by Pmf. Wood (Trans. A. S. dl. E., sli, 136) he gives
a hiher valur. viz., c = 1.13136 + 0.000438 T.
L. it. sky altd Wm. LD. Enni s (Jmrr Fra?~i;Zi?t 1tt~t. April 189s)
give t.lle rwl1t.s of nine ~drterminatic?ns &de
bel.weerl Ob and bO" C.
~~ldcl: r,ww fyn, .fyr;~. to 1.056,, ,a\re;aging 1.0-06.
,, ..~
T-on St,romberd ,z~,!2;:;ij
' I25 0;;;: 225 0. 07438
150 , 250 0. 07176
175 0. 08033 275
200 0. 07713 300 11' : : ; : : .
5 0. 1095 25 0. 1050
1; 0. 1085
: t %EF
20 t: 100~~ 100 0. 09096
Specific Heat and Ava,ilable Latent Heat of Hot I;iq$d Ammonia
at 15.67 Ibs. gauge pressure.
(Lucke.) Latent heat at 15. 6, I bs. and O" F.
= 5jo.5 B.T.U. Spe,cilic heat = 1.096 - O.OOlZ~T.
;( Iurrec-
,/ I
ion for
Yooling
56.65
2:;:
10. 84
75. 45
g!?
85. 92
emp.
of
;iquid
UPdY~
peci ti c
Heat.
,,ai!nble
.atent
Et!?
rated
rapor.
y& :
489. 33
ii%%
475. 50
47: .o:
%?
457. 90
Forrec-
ion for
:ooling.
Latent
[Teat for.
~nturate~:
vapor.
556. 05
544. 66
539. 33
:;::8:
;g:;y
:xi
503. 70
Tee
Liquid
SUpply.
1. 090
1. 084
; : : ; i
1.066
1. 060
: . o: :
! %
11036
The latent heat for saturated vapor is subject to t.hree corrections in
det,erminino the available latent heat.
First,, for the remperature of the
liquid whl& must be cooled from its supply
temperAruye~ to the tern--
Perature correspondin::
to the back pressure, as m !he table above:
Second for \vet,ness of vapor, a deduction of- .i%9 B.T.C. for~each 1%. of

moistuie. t,hlrd for superheat of vapor in case It leaves the expansion
coils or choler hotter than the temperature correepondn!: to ?le pressure.
an addition of the number of degrees superheat
m+tiphed by the spcclhc
&&;;t, ta&eii aa 0.508.
: WARNING: rThis is~ ~a 1910 edition.
Soluhilit
t
of Ammonia. (Siebel$ -One pound of water Ml dis-
solve t.lle fo Iowmg weights of ammonia at the pressures and temperatures
F stated
~.
, .
Ahs.
Abs. Abs.
1040
sq. in.
1040 yy- 320 680
sq. in.
sq. in.
----.-w--p--- lb. lb. Ib. ------
14. 67 0. 899 0. 518
15. 44
dk38
0. 937
2%3 : t) i 6
0. 635 0. 349 22. 19 1. 283
db851 0%5 2: ! $9 1%3 O%O db486
16. 41 0. 980 0. 556 0: 669 0. 363
17. 37 1. 029 23. 16 0. 574 1. 330 0. 685 0. 378
0. 434 28. 95 I : 656 0' 842 0' 801 0: 493
18. 34 1. 077 24. 13 0. 594 1. 388 0. 704 0. 391
19. 30 25. 09 I . 126 1. 442
0. 445 30. 88 1. 758 0' 881 0. 511
0. 613 0. 722 0. 404
0, 454 32. 81 1. 861 0: 919 0. 530
0. 463 34. 74 I . 966 0. 547
20. 27.
26. 06
I . 177 1. 496 0. 632 0. 741 0. 414
27. 02 1. 549
0. 472 36. 67 2. 070 0. 955 0. 565
0. 761 0. 479 38. 60 __. . . . . 0. 992: . 0. 579
Prgperties of Saturated Va ors
R :
. -The figures in the following t,able
are given by Lorenz, on the nut orlty of hlollier and of Zeuner.
Heat of
Vaporization,
Heat of Liquid,
Absolute
c. F. B.T.U. per lb.
B.T.U. per lb.
Pressure,
Volume of
Ibs. per sq. in. oub~$et.
NHJI 202 j SOz Nla 1 GOI
I
SOz NH31 COP 1 SOz NH31 CO+?
50 555. 5 86. 0' 158. 9
68" 539. 9 66. 5i i 52. 5 33. 58
T 86O 521. 4 27. 1~144. 8
104O 500. 4 . . . . . j l 35. 9 69. 58~. . , . . . . .
The figures for COz in the above table differ widely from those of
Regnault. and are no doubt more ~reliable.
Hra,t Grnerated by Absorption of Ammoni a
Fiehel.) - pt devel oped when a solution of 1 lb.
I,Berthelot from
&H, in 1~ lbs \vdter
IS diluted;\Ith a great amount of water = Q = 142/n. B.T.U.
925 B.J?.G. to be developed when 1 lb. NHs is &sorbed bv z -r&t deal
A&mln$
(ssy 200 Ibs.) of water, the heat developed in makin- solutl&s 07 differerlt
stren,gths (1 lb. NH3 to n lbs. water) = (2, = 92.i 2 ~ti/n B.T.U
Heat
developed when b lbs. NH3 is added to a solution of I lb. NE& $ n lbs.
water = Q3= 92$ - 142 (2 b+ b2)/n B.T.U
.
Let the weak k pOr enter the absorber with a.stren-th of 107 = 1 lb
XH3 + 9 lbs. water,
and the strong liquor leave tl; absorbe? wit.h i
strens1.h of 25%? = 3 lbs. NH3 + 9 lbs. water h =: 2, 12 = 9. Q: = 925 x
2 - 142 (4 + 4)/9 = 1724 B.T.U.
Hence by &ssolviug 7 lbs of ammonil,
gas or vapor-in a sol$ion of 1 lb. ammo&a in g lbs.iyat&
me obtaih
12 lbs. of a ;ar6 solution, and the heat generated is 1724 B.T U
CoqlinS hffect,, Compressor Volume, and Posver R,eq&rfd
folloWW table. gives the theoretical results comput.ed on the
-The
<asis of
+b tt?nlp~rat.llTS 111 the evapor at or of 14 F. and in the condenser of 8S F .
111 the first three columns of figures the cooling agerlt is s!lppoued to flo;;
throu$~ .f he regulnting valve wi.th this latter temperature; in t,he last
three It IS previously cooled to 50 F.
From the $roke-yolume per 100,000 B.T.U. the minimum theoretical
hors+Powqr I$ obtained as follows: Adiabatic compression is Tssumed
for the m110 of t~he absolut~e condenser pressure to :hat of the vjporizer,
and fhe mean ,Pressurc t hr Wi f $ t he stroke thns found in lhs. per sq ft, .
?ultlplymg this by t.he stroke volume per hotlr and tli&linv ibv I O&I O$
elves the net horsv+power.. ,:The :~ratio of the I~,WL~ ef-r$ iv& &&re
~1.P.. to t.he vaportier ~pressure;~V.P;;,~for different ratios of condense;
Pressure,~ C.P., tp#v;apo.rl+ pfessure:is given on the next, page.
-..
,~&
~~~OO,OOOB.T.U.per,~ ; 1
. ~. . . . __. _____, . , , . , 188 4 1272.
1 ~ I.
664. 3, ~182. 5
~J
1094.
j638.5, ;
9. Mi ni mum HP. Der 100, oOo B.T.U.per hour . .._....... 4.98 4.90 4.96 4. 98 ~~
^ - 1 - - - I 1.
Rmr os OF CONDESSER PRE
SURE, 11. P.. T
--
--
1.0 0. 2. 0 0. 752 3. 0
1. 2 0. 186 2. 2 0. 865 3. 2
1. 4 0. 350 2. 4 0. 970 3. 4
1. 6 0. 487
. I
2. 6 1. 070 3. 6
1. 8 0. 630 2. 8 1. 163 3. e
TJ RE
VAP
-
2
. .
k~
I+
--7--
1:::
1.41,
1.49
1.56,
results indicat.e.that for the vjrious cooling systems no a
difference exists m the work required for the same amount of co1
preciable
at the p!ace where it. is to be applied.
cr delivered
-Properti& o! Wine Used to Absorb Refrigerating Effect of
. Ammonia. (J. E. Denton, Zrans. A.S. M. E., x 799.) - A solution of
LiVerpc?Oi Salt in well-water having a specific gravity of 1.17, or a weight
per cubic foot of .73 Ibs., will not sensibly thicken or congeal at 0 F
The mean specific heat between 3Q and 16O Fahr. was found by centon
to be 0.80~~ Brine of the same specific gravity has a specific heat of 0.805
at 65 Fahr., according to Naumann.
Naumanns values areas follows (Lehr- und Handbuch der Thermochemie,
1883):
SP&icheat . . . . . 0.791 0.805* 0.863 0.895 0.931 0.962 6.978
Specific gravity.. . I.187 1.170 1.103 1.072 1.044 1.023 1.012
De?
DW
f$
wt:
Frea
SPe
AC2
0.95
188
H
spec
T:
and
chlo
ing i
ing
are
:. s
gc
ce
Of
.-of
czil
blc
ord
i
1
rid
i bc
Properties of Salt Brine (Carbondale Calcium Co.1
?aum6 60 F.. . . . . . .
ialinometer 60 F. . . . I
Lvit~y 60 F.. . . . _ . . .
nt of salt, by wt.. . .
1 gallon, lbs.. . . . _. .
1 cu. ft.. lbs.. . . _ . .
?gpointOF . . . . . . . . .
cheat . . . . . . . . . . . . .
wide of Ca,leium solution is commonly used instead of brine
ling to Naumann, a solution of 1.0255 sp. gr. has a specific heat oi
A solution of 1.163 sp. gr. in the test reported in Engg, July 22,
rave a specific heat of 0.827.
. Dickinson (Science, -4pril23, 1909) gives the followlng values of the
: heat of solut.ions of chemically pure calcium chloride.
:nsity
.Oi...
Specific Heat
.14...
. . . . . . . . . . . . .0.869 + 0. 00057 t
20.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .0.773 + 0.00064t
. . . . . . . . _ . . . . . .0.710 + 0.00064 t
. 26. , . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 0. 662 + 0. 00964 t
idvantages of chionde of calcium solution
at.it has !ittle or no corrosive action on iron and brass.
e IS sold m the fused or granulated state, in steel drums contain-
hut 75% anhydrous chloride and 25% water or in solutioh contain-
t,o 50% anhydrous chloride, in tank cars.
The following data
:en from the catalogue of the Carbondale Calcium Co.
PRoPERrrEs OF SOLVAY CALCIUM c
.ORIDE SOLr
I
:; 1:32::
35. 5 1. 327
36. 5 1. 338
37. 5 1. 349
:fferent
1.100
@antits Of.757, calcium chloride required to make solutions of dj
SDCC~~C grantees and freezing points.
Sp. graviitv _ . . . . . . . . .
Lbs. per cu ft. solu-
1. 250 1. 225 1.200 1.175 1.150 1.135
bion . . . . .
Lbs. per gallon ..: : : : 2;:$?66
25. 06 22.05 19.15 16.26 13.47 10.70
Frerzingboint 0 F.
3. 36
. - 32. 6 - 19. 5 , #
&: 6 +f-;S +$8&J + $
of
Boiling points of ~.calcium chloride solutions:
sp. Cr. at. 5Q F.. . . ,1.104 1.185
Boiling point F. . .,
1.268 1.341 I.353
;.: 215.6
Sp.gr. at boilingpomt
,221.O
solid at 5Q0
230.0 ,240.Y 248.0
1.085 1.110
266.0 282.2
l.LO9~1.308 1.365
306.5
&.452,:,X,26 1.619
* Ice-meltinxx ~Eff&ct. - Its is aereed that, the term "i&-mdtin~ , :
effect means the cbld produced in an insulated batil:of
--- ---____.._ .,
brilie on the
assumption that each! 144 B.T.U. represents one pound of.~ice, tl:s belng~
the latent heat of fusion of Ice, or the heat required to melt a~ pound of ice
at 32 to water at the same temperature.~
The performance of a machine, expressed iii .pounds or ton& of lc&
melting capac&y, does not mean that the refrigerating-machine .jrould
make the same amount of actual ice, but that the cold produced is equiva-
lent to the effect of themelting office at 3Y to water of the same temuera-
ture.
In niaklng artificial ice then water frozen is generally about 70F. when
submitted to the refrigerating effect of a
chilled from 12 to ,20 below its freezing-point;
tion of cold, from the exposure of the brine tank
the ice-cans: therefore the weight of
latent heat of fusion, 144 thermal ~units,
fourths of the cold produced in the shrine
I.H.P. of the engine driving tbe~compressing-Pumps. Again, there is
considerable fuel consumed to operate the brine-circulating pump, the
condensing-water and feed-pumps, and to reboil, or purlfy,~ the condensed
steam from which the ice is frozen. This fuel. together wit,h t.\lat wast.ed
in leakage and drip water, .amounts to about one-ha~lf that required to
drive the main steam-engme. Hence the pounds of.actual ice manu-
factured from distilled water is just about half t,he equivalent of the
refrigerating effect produced in the brine per indicated horse-power of the
steam-cylinders.
When ice is made directly from natural water by mea~ns of the plate
system, about half of the fuels used with distilled water. is saved by
avoiding the reboiling, and using steam expansively in a compound
eneine.
EHler-machines, used in India,, are said to have produced about 6 lbs.
of actual ice per pound of fuel consumed.
The ether machine is obsolete. because the density of the vapor gf ether.
at the necessary working-pressure. requires that t,he compressing-cylinder
shall be about 6 times larger than for sulphur dioxide, and 17 times
larger than for ammonia.
Air-m%ehincs require about 1.2 times greater capacity of compressing
cylinder, and are, as a whole, more cumbersome t.han ether machmes,
but they remain m use on shipboard. In using air t.he espansion must
take place in a cylinder doing work. instead of through a. simple expanslon-
cock which is used with vauo? machines. The work donein the expan: sion-
cylinder is utilized in assisting the compressor.
The Allen Dense Air Nachine takes for compression air of cqrisiderabl;:
Pressure which is contained in the machine and-in a system of DiPeS. : Tli
.-
&ir at 60 or 70 rbs. pressure is compressed to 210 of 740 Ibs.: lt~is then
passed throl:r;h a cod immersed in circulating water and cooled to near!y
the tempera:i;re of t.he wat,er. It then passes int,o an expander, which 1s.
in construct.ion. a common form of sheam-engine with a cut-off valve.
This engine takes out of the air a quantity oft heat equivalent to the
work done, by the air while expandin,, n to the original pressure of 60 or
70 Ibs., and reduces its temperature to about 90 ~td 1200 F. be@\\: the
temperature of the cooling water supplr. The return stroke of the piston
Pushes the air out through insulated Dipes to the places that are to be
refrigerated, from which ii is returnedtd the compr&or.
The air pushed out by the expander is commonly about 35 t0 i5 b&lo?
E& refriierating appiratus the highly compres+d air ,after Cooling
In arrangements where not all t.he cold is, taken out of the air
-hi the coil is further coo&d b< being brought in su&ce contact witli:the
returning and still cold air, h&fore ent.ering the expander; BY this means
temperatures of 70 to QO below zero may be obtained.
The refrigerating effect in B.T.U; per minute is: Lbsiofair handled Per
., ,~_.~.
the be
min. X 0.2375 X difrercnce Of temperature of air passing 01zt nF ,...
wider and of that rcturnlne to the ma.chinp~ I.
A I CA-
Carbon-dioxjde MaclkG are in~extensive use on shipboard
s. H
Bl!nnell (&ng. ~Lcws, .+pnl 9, 1003) says there are over 15.00 COz piant,s 01;
shipboard. He describes a large duplex COz compressor built by the
Brown-Cochmne Co., Lorain, p.
the I)an&h- Agricultural :
Stora
Tesbs of CO, machines bv a coTs;2t,e,p,f
;e., of London.
jociety were reportkd in lS99,~in-ai& i
ChIcago..
Carbon-choslde machines are built also by I~~es~{~
:hy!-Chloridev machines are made by Railway and Stationary Rcfrig-
crating Lo., New 1 ark City.
The compressor is a rotary pump When
grivrn by an e!ect,ri,c motor the complete apparatus is very comI;act and
IS therefore suItable for refrigerator cars or ot,her places where spa& is
restricted.
Sulphur-Dioxide Machines. -
Results of theoretical calculations
are plven in a table by Ledous showing an ice-melting capacity per hour
P
er horse Power ranging from 134 to 63 lbs.. and per pound of coal ranging
ram 44 7 t? 21 1 lbs., as the temperaturecorresponding to the pressureof .-
the vapor m the condenser rises from 59 to 104O F. The theoretical
results do not represent the actual.
Prof. Denton sa,ys concerning Ledouxs theoretical results-
f$!~es given are !ugher than those obtained in practice because:&
effect of sUPerh:atlng of the gas during admission to the dylinder is not
consIdered.
25%.
This superheating may cause an increase of work of about
There are qther losses due to superheating the gas at the brine-
tank. and 1n the PIP: leading from the brine-tank to the compressor SO
t hat ,i!l Xtllal PraCtlCe a Sulphur-dioxide machine working und& ihe
cond1blOnS of an a+ollltc prC1EbllrC in the condenserof 56 Ibs. per sq. in
and the correspondmg temperature of 77O F., will give about 22 Ibs Of ice:
mchlg CaP3utY per pound Of co&which is about 60%
of the the&etical
ampunt ne#ct,ing frictjon. Or SO% including friction
~u~I~il~.lr-t~losli~e m!achlnes we not now used ii1 the Uniied Stat,.. (1910).
KetriCrl.atinC-nf;lchincs using Vapar of )Vatcr
these ~lXhlle~, ~O~l~tirIieS called vacuum machines.
(Ledous.) - In
hater at ordinary
temPeratur% 1s Wetted i?to. or placed in comlection with a chamber
!n Kvhich a strong KWUllm 1s maint,ained.
A portion of the &ter rapor-
IZeS, t!le beat to CnNxz the vaporization being supplied from the Kater not
FRPOrw.ed, SO that the htter is chilled or frozen to ice,
If brine is used
in+ad of pure w-p$r, it,s temperature mav be reduced belo\\: the freezin,o-
pnint of water.
1 he water vapor is comfiressed from 31~ a pressure of
0.1 lb. Per sq. in. to 1.1!? 11~. and discharged into a co&&&.
r?ntl~!~~ed ?nd rcmovrrl by means of an orrlinarv nir-pump,
It, is t.hen
The prin-
cl& .of actIon of Such a machille is the same aB t,hat of volatile-J-apor
maclunes.
A t$eoretical calcul?t.ion for ice-making, assuming a Io\ver t,emper-,ture
of 32 F.,. a Pressme in the condenser of 1112 lbs. per sq. in., ;znd i coal
consmptm of 3 lb.% w I.H.P. per hour fiives a,11 ice-meltinp effect of
34.5 lbs. Per ,POUnd of coal, nrslecting frict,[on.
Ammonia for ice-1naklng
COndtlo~lS &!lrS 10.9 h. The volume of the compressing cylinder is
about 150 times the Lheoret.ic,al volume for an ammonia machin& for these
condit,ions.
[The patten Vacuum Ice CO., of Baltimore, has a large plant on t.his
system m operation 1191n>~l
-hmmOniia Cornpi.essi;;;;-machines - *C&jl* zs
COt)l.W+iO71,. -, In the cold svstemor humid s$tLsome of the
Systems of
anWInla ~~m?flRx t!le Co~gressioll Cylinder is liquiil so th?t the belt
de~rebed 111 ~ne,cybnder 1s a,lxorbed bV the liql1id add -the t(emperat&
of the ammoma tnereby confined to the tioiling-point due t.0 t,he condenser-
PreSSllW L, NO j,aCliCt is therefore reqldred about the cylinder
In the dry or hot system all ammonia enterink the compressor is
CWeoW and the temperatwe becomes by compression several hundred
der;reey, gf-Wt?r bhan bhe b?ilinp-point dlle to the condenscr-pre,~sure
A
lubncnted.
X2 ~?~-J~~CI\Et 1: therefore IleCcSSary f0 permit the cylinder to be pro&y
Dw, Wet a,nd Flooded Systems.
swqw or one where the ammoni a, I raves ti l e , - 41 El i n~l I
(York AIfg. Co.) - An expansion
wv1. ...trCtit~? .SU*?r:iCCiifdv
AcquiLcJ ~uOlftf3~1~ 4norc pipe surface than a wet comp&ion syst,ern,
,, .~ ,.
AMMONIA MACHINES.
1 zys
in \v\-hicb the ammonia leaves the Coils <o$ai,ning sufI?cient ent.rain@
liquid to maintain a wet compression condltlon tu the coppressor.
T\le flooded system is one where the sinmonla 1s alloWeL to tlo\! tl!rough
the coils and lnt.0 a trap, where the gz+s 1s separated from the llquld, the
gls p+ng on to the compressor, wlule, th,e bqu1.d
& cods again, together with tl~e fresh bquld,
gpes around through
wh~ll 1.i fed Into the trap.
Such a system requires only about one-llalf t,he evaporating surface that
afl expansion system does to do the s&me worli.
Ille relative proportjons
of the three systems may be expressed as follo\\zs:
A Dry Compression plant will need.
with iln Kspapsion Evaporating
Gvst.em.a mednun sizecompressor, a large size eVaporatlng system, a small
$GKmt of ammonia.
A Dry Compression plant will need, with a Floodid Evaporating System.
2, small size compressor, a small size cvaporiltmg system, a large amount
of ammonia.
A Wet Compression plant mill need, with.a \V$ Compress.jon Evapo-
rat,ing System. a large ~lze co?pressor, a medmm ~Lze eraporatmg system,
a medmm amount of ammonia.
The Ammonia Absorption-machine comprises a genefator which
contains a concentrated solution of ammonia in w?ter; t~h1s. generator
Is heated either directly by a fire, or, indirectiy by plpy,S leading from a
stean~-boiler. The vapor passes brst mt,o an ann.yzer, a chamber ro,n-
netted with the lIpper part of the generat,or wlucb srpara:es some of t,rie
mater from thn 7r:lncr
*hen i nto a rectifier. where then TaDor is pnxtly
wi f , h a. weak solution of ammania: a
An absorption-chamber is filled ..___ - .;.
tube pl& lids chamber in communication with the c?Olfn&!-t,ank.
The absorption-chalnber communicntcs with the boiler by two tubes:
one leads froln the bottom of the gencbrator to the top of the chamber, the
other k.acls from t,bc boltom of tht: cbnnibcr to tb! l?p of the generator.
Upon the latter is rnollntld II. nxlrnn. to force the hornd from the absorp-
tion-chamber, where the
..~~. __ ..~~~~~.
Into the generator, ~~~~ereti;~~~~~~l~~isi;;;rn S to 12 atmospheres. -
To work the appara,tus the amIIIOtli3 SOlUtion ill the generator is first
heated. This releases the gas from the soh1tion. and the PressWe IlSeS.
When it reaches the tension of the saturat,ed gas at the telnperature of the
condenser there is a liquefnct.ion of the gas. and also of a small amount of
steam. Bv mexns of a cock the flow of the lirluefird gas into the refriger-
ating coilscontnined in the cooler is regulated.
It is here vaporized by
absorbing the heat from t,he substance Dlaced t,here to be cool ed. AS
fast as it is vaporized it
. _.._ ._~. .~~~~~
is absorbed by theweak solution in theabsorbing-
chamber.
Under the influence of the heat in the boiler the soWion is mw2pall.Y
saturated. the stronger solution being upperlnost..
The weaker portion 1s
:onveyed by the pipe entering the top of the absorbing-chamber, the
low being re&ated by a cock, while the pump sends an equal quantity
If strong soWIon from theechamber back to the holler.
Thq working of the apparatlls depends upon the adjustment and regli-
of the flow of the gas and liquid: by these means tlje pressufe;s
* ..\
lation
varied, and consequently the temperature in the cooler may be CoI I Trol l eo.
The working is similar to that of compression-machines. The absorp-
tion-chamber fills the office of a,spirntor, and the generator plays the Part
of cnmnressor. The mechanical force Drodncing esl1aust,ion 1s here re-
lechanical.folce
~iaced-6ptii~jffinity of mater for ammonia gas. and the m
:omDression is replaced by the heat which severs this amnitY
an8 sets the f
I~er-?- ^ L^
:as at liberty.
ecr s ;ausorpbion apparatus (1SiO) is thus described bj- Wallis-j%l.or.
The c ,hnr=e of liquid ammonia (26 BnumP) is vaporized by the apphrat.lqn
of heat, &d the mixed vapor passed t,o t.he analyzer and Wtlfier. wherein
the lmlk of the wat,er is condensed at a comparat,irelr elevat.ed temperature
and returned to the generator. The ammoniacal vapor or Kas 1s t,hen
passed to the condenser, where it is liquefied under the combined actIon
of the cooling-water and of the pressure mpint,ained in the venerator.
The
lionid a,mmnnia nrn~*ir.allp anbydroxs, 1s b!:en
use:: jp. the refrieerato?.
alid-tile~~~~~~~1e~e~~~~, still under considerable pressure, is admitted to
to the boiler at the teKI pef atUre of the steam entering ,the~ generator.
The engine of the compression-machine is aSSuI ?ed: ~o exhaust thro,ugh .a
feed-water heater that heats the feed-water to 212 F. .The engm;;:
assumed to consume 261/ 4 Ihs. of.water per hour per horse-po!ver.
figures for the compression-machine include the effect of ,frittlon, which
is taken at 15% of the net !vork of compression.
(For discussion of the efliclency of the absorption System, see Ledouxs
,vork; paper by Prof. Linde, and discussion on the same by~Prof. Jacobus,
Trans. A. S. M. E., xiv. 1416, 1436; and papers by Dent!! and Jacobus,
Trans. A. S. M. E.. x. 792, xiii, 507.
.-
erat.
8ils.
33. 7
33. 7
33. 7
16. 9
33. 7
33. 7
16. 9
16. 9
Condenser, Pounds of Ice-melting Effect
per tb. of Coal.
-
The ice-melting capacity is expressed IX3 folloWs:
24 x pounds
of brine circulated per
Tons (of 2000 lbs.)
Ice-melting ca-
pacity per 24 hours >
x specific hejt
x range of temp. > ~,
hour
=
144 x 2000
61.i 38. 1
59. c
33. 5 969
The analogy between a heat-engine and a refrigerating-maCti1ne ls as
38. 3
13o. c
33. 9 967
follows. A steam-enine receives heat from the boiler, converts 4 Part of
::::
35. 1 931
it into mechanical $orl< in the cylinder. and ttl ro\ vS a{Yay the @er!nce
59. 0
86. 0
31. 5 1000
The ammonia in a cpmpression refrlgeratmg-
35. 4 28. 6 908
ves heat from the brine&ml< or cold-room, yecelves an
30. 0 36. 2 aunt of heat from the mechanical wgrl; done in the corn--
86. 0
29. 2 966
33. 3 26. 5 1025
der and throws away the sum into the condenser.
The
30.0 34. 1
04. 0
27. 0 I 002
1,; &eam-engine = work done + heat, received from bo!ler.
33. 4
04. 0
25. 1
31. 4 23. 4 E
y of ihe refrigernt.ing-machine = heat recelyed from the b?ne-
room +heat required to produce the \sork 11) the compression-
the tmmonia absorption-apparatus, the amm@a re+ves
-
-
d in the amm~qnia will low,
the brin&tank ?nd additional heat from t.he holler or generar?V
er
out ij% to 20% below th
the ecom 3II
le figures gi
1.v of + n nnndomer and ~II~,O the cooling !vater s;.?-piled
and rejects tbc sum into .h, -.- -
,ve !%I In to the absorber. The efficiency =
heat received from the brines t- ucat re-
ceived from the boiler.
itrai
edi ti on.
2
106. t
106. f
170. 6
1i 0. t
170. 6
170. t
227. ;
227. ;
1 of water
irpi.ioil-ma
e1
t;:;
59. 0
s9. 0
86. 0
86. 0
86. 0
86. 0
104.0
104.0
-
t c
:
the a,
the ta
The Rfflcienc~ of Refrigerating Systems depends on the temper-
ture of tbe condenser water, whether there is sufficient coudenser surfa:;
for the compressor and whether or not the condenser pipes are free from
uncondensable foreign gases.
Wit!1 these things right., condenser pressure
for different t~emperatures of coohng water should be approximately as
follo\Vs:
Temperature of room, I? . . . . . . . .
Back pressure, gage, lb . . . . . .
10 15 20 2s 32 36 4O SO 6O
Temperature of ammonia, o P.. .
10 12 15 2:! 25 27 30 35 4O
- 10 - 5
0 8 12 14 17 22 26
The condevser pressure should be kept as low as possible and the back
PpSUre iiS high as pO+~le, narrow limits between such pressures being
a> lTyor$ant to the ef&wncy 0: 5 refrigerating svstem as wide ones are
t0 t1.a~ 01 a st.eatn engine m which t!le ecmlomv &creases rvith the range
between boder pressure and condenser pressure. (F. E. JIatthel,.s
Porwr. Jan. 26. lcjO!t.)
Cyiindcr-il&:ting: - In compression-machines emplovino volatile
vapors tl!e PnIlciPa! cause Of the difference between the tlieo&tical and
the PraCt1G-d r,esUlt 1s the lteating of the ammonin, bv the \varm cylinder
Wills. during Its entrance into the compressor, ther;bv expanding lt so
that to compress a pound of ammonia a greater nutibcr of relFolut{ons
Of t!le ammo~ua-gas as it issues from tl1e brine-ta11x,
must be mad? by the c?mpresmng-pumps than corresponds to the density
i s t !W KI t I Of t he ac t ual wei ght of ammonia pumped to the amount
1 olum~tnc Hficiency.- The volumetric eRiciency of a compressor
calculated from the pi&on displacement.
,\lr. Voorhres deduces from
D?nton:, experiments the formula: Volumcztric efficiellc:y = E = I _
(tl - tu),!33u. in Wl11Ch tl = the theoretical temperature of gaq after
<omPre%on and t=t,ernpera)ure of gas delivered to rile compressor.
The
temPerat%re tl. = TI - 460. Is Ca~k ul at ed from the formula for adiabatic
Compression. r, = To (Z~,&,#z8. in which T1 and To are absolute tern--
Peratares and PI and PO a~bsolute pressures
In eight t.ests br Prof.
Denton the volumetric efficiency ranged from 73.57, to Sam afid they
vary less than 1% from the efficiencies calculated by the fo&&da
ten1PeratWe Of the
The
tlm!! the theoretical.
gas dwharged from the compressor averaged $0 less
l%: \.olumetric efliciency.of a,dry compressor is greatest n-hen the vapor
cortr?s to the compressor witI! httle or no superheat. 3u sliperhat of the
suction gas rqduces the capacltg of the compressor -1.7, and 1000 9~.
The ~folloWng table (from Voorhees) gives the t&oretical di$harge
temPeratu:es (t,) and volumetric efficiencies (E) bv tile formula iqll the
:+ial c**b~c feet of displ+rment of compressor (P) per ton of ;ef;i-era-
tm per mm11te for the gwen gaune pressures of snction and condens&
Suct~ion pressures.
i 0 i 15 I 3O
Chd. press. MO).... 3&o
Cond.1mss. FO.... 2210
Cond. ~re&?00,..., 167O
_/.L.a.,,_,_~,.,__ ,..._,_ ~~~ _~ ...~.._
I WARNING:,- This is ;a 1910 edition. Some
pounds of Ammonia pr Minute to Produce 1 Ton of .Refriger$on,
.,A Percentage of Liqm Evaporated at the Expansion Valve. 2
a*..- -
- ~~,dmser. Pressure sud
r
Temperature.
170 lbs.. 90r. j Ibs~,100.
Refrigerator, pressure zuld
telnperoture 0 lb%,--7-9. 0.431 lb., 19%
Refrigerator pressure and
0. 441 lb., 20,8~).45lib., 22.5%
temperature 15 lb%.
-O... 0,42O,ib., 14.4% 0.430 lb., 16.2~C!0.4401b;, 18.0%
Refrigerator pressure and
1 :.
temperature, 30 lbs..
- 17": 0.415 lb., 11.6y, 0.425lb.. 13.47C10.4341b., 15.2770
BEean Effective Pressu,re, and Horse- wer. - Voorhees deduces
the following (Ice a& Zl+x7., 1902):
M.E.!?= 4.333 p,, [(p&i,)-1 -1j.
m r suction and p, conuenser pressure, abs. Ibs. per sq. rn.
The masl-
mum M.E.P. occurs when p,~ = PI
+ 3.113. The pefce~ntage of stroke
during which the gas is discharged from t& compre~sof 15: PI= (&/Z+)o@.
The compressor horse-power. C.H.P.,, 1s O.O(!43, fi X. ?!.E,P.
The frlctron of the compressor and Its engme combme&L- @v&n b
Voorhees as 3&l/& of tt1e compressor H.P. or 25% of the,engme
H. # .
Vdues of the mean effective pressure per ton of refrlgrrPtmn (M), the
compressor horse-power (C) and the engme horse-power (E) are gwen
h& m for the conditions named.
, ~ ..
Suction I sx I I S ~1 ~30
pressure.
--
. I I I I , , . ,
By cooling the liquid between the condenser and the espansion ;c$$;
the capacity will be mcreased and the horse-power per ton redt!ced.
1
compression from 15 to 1.70 Ibs.. if the liquid at the espnn~+ valve is
cooled to 76O instead of 90 the N.P. per ton will be reduced :?Si.
Pr nf ~ T.x k e deduces a formula for the I.H.P. per ton of refrigerating
- --.-*
-- -__. -.-~~~~-
capanty. as follo\vs:
p = mean effective p?essure, Ibs. per sq. in: L = lengrh of st~rqke in
ft.; a = areit of p&on !n so&. ?ns.:
12= no. of compressions per rninut?:
EC= apparent volumetric e clency, the ratio of tbe~rolume of ammoma
apparently taken in per stroke to the full displacement.. of t,he.pistqnn:
we = weight of I cu. ft. of ammonia vapor at t,he .b&c.k presure, as kt exx&s
la the cylinder when compression begins: L,= lategt heat of vaporization .~
available for refrieeration: 288,000 = B.T.U. equivalent to ~1 ton of
refrigeration: TV = ions refrigeration per 24 hours:
^ ^_
4 I.H.P. pIm. + 33,000 usil
-=LaE,nw,XLcX60X24=- T WC&
144 X 288. 000
fart.
The Voorhees i?Iultiple Effect Cqmpressor is bnwd upon the
that both the economy and tJe ca?a..-- -c ^ *.--m>ression machme
._.I_.
_-__
Lt.3 I it CLrm ~,
vary
wn the back pressure.
In tne past 1~ has always been nrreswy to run a
compressor at a was suction pressure corresponding t.o thelowest requved
temP@%&ture. T& multiple effect compressor takes in gas from two or
raore refrigerators at. two or more different suction pressures and tem-
Wratures on the same suction stroke of the compressor.
The SuctKm g;,
.,!$\t_b? higher press$re helps to compress t,lie lower suction pressure.
~ . ---I---^ :- i .
-1.2 compressor rvlinder; the 0~
Icmperatuie ana correspi&mg low oacrc pressure ~behi?l connected to
one suction port, usually in the c$iuder head, and the h&h back Pres-
L A - ---:*-ninm of tile grdcc the cghnder
-?,-:on reaches the end of 10
Fuction s0roke. .the ser,ond or high back pressure port is uncovered, the
low pressure suction valve closing automatically. and the cylinder ts
completely fillcrl with gas at the high pressure. By this means the
cqmpressor operates with en economy and capacity corresponding to tile
higher bark pressure, ma~mg a gain in capacity of often SOYI, or more.
(Truns. Am. Sac. Kefrig. Etsgrs., 1906. )
Quanti ty of Ammonia Required per Ton of Refri eralion.-..
TOW followmg table is condensed from one given b:: F. E. .lat,thews tn T
I mns. A. S. .X. .E , 1905. The weight in I bs: per minute is calcutata
rrom. the formula P = (144,X 2000) + [I4401 - (h, - ha)] in which
I is toe latent heat of evaporation at the back pressure in :he cooler, and
h, and IrO the heat.of the Ii
the cqoler respectively. 9
nid at the temperatures of the condenser and
T?e spqcific. heat of the liquid has been taken
aBt~T~~fy. The ton of refngeratlon 1s 2000 Ibs. in %a hours = 288,660
B = Pounds of ammonia evaporated per minut,e.
C = Cubic feet of gas to be handled per minute by the compressor.
cad or Condenser Gauge Pressure and Corresponding
Tempzrat ure.
1. Latent, heat of volatilizntion. 1. Latent, heat of volatilizntion. W. weight of vapor per cubic foot. BJ, W. weight of vapor per cubic foot. BJ,
back pre.+s;ure or suction gauge pressure. back pre.+s;ure or suction gauge pressure.
Bnck Pressures
Ternperztures
-20.5
-IL
15 25
% -lo 52!5, ll.5
36 40
16. 80 $0 26. 1
.\Ir. Matthews defines a standard ton of refrigeration as the e uivalent
of 27 lbs. of anhydrous ammonia evaporated per hour from liquid .st.
Slfc F. into saturated vapor at 15.67 fbs. gauge pressure ( 0" F. ) , wh@
requires 1~066 B.T.u.; or 20,950 units of evaporation, each of wvhicb .fi
WUUI to 5i2.iS B.T.U., the heat required to evaporate 1 lb. of ammon!3
from a t~emperature of -
pressure.
28.5 F. mto saturated vapor ate atmOSPbe
~,~
,,,,,; ,, ,;_,;;&
, :
WARNING:This is a -1910 edition. Some 0
Size and
York bIfg. CO.
Capacities of Ammonia Refrigeratin
Base? on 15.67 tbs. back-pressure, 185
>Iachin~cs. .-
pressure, and condensing water at 60 F.
7 bs. condensing
Compressors,
Bore. Stroke
--
Engine. 3pCfS
7 R,ef rig-
Bore. %roke. erati on
- -
Dou~~~-Acrrs~ ! %u~mssons.
Compressors. Eneine.
,o
@pacity
;
- ! Tons
30rl e.
l Refrig-
Stroke. Bore; iStroke./.eratton
- ---..--.-.-/
For larger capacities the machines are built with duples compressors,
driven by simple, tandem or cross compound engines. ~~ .
DISPL~~EXT I\ND HORSE-POWER PER TON OF REFRIGER.~T~O~.
Dry Compression. S. A.. Single-acting; D. A. , doubl&-acting.
I
Suction Gauge Pressure and Corresponding Temp.
145 lb. 82O F. S.A.. . . .
145 lb. 82O F: D...L .
165 lb. 139~ F: S.X.. .
165 lb. 89O F , D..\.
tf6tb.95.5~$.,S.A...
l@:b.95.SF. D.A...
M5lb. lOl.4o F. S.A...
?5lb. 101.4F.;D.A...
* Cu. in. Dis
5 ! h. =
- 17. 5OF.
12.608 I . 65
14, 645 1. 92
13. 045 1.83
15, 203 2. 13
13, 491 2. 01
15. 774235
13, 947 2. 19
16. 3622. 57
10 lb. =
- 8. 50F.
9, 811. 1. 4
11, 300 I . 61
10, 148 l . 5f
11, 720 1. H
10, 487 1. 7;
12. 150 I . 95
10, 834 I . 81
12, 590 2. 11
Icement. per Min. pe
15. 67 Ih.
z 00 Ia.
i 20th. = / 25 lb.=
1 5.7OF. 11.5F.
7. 829 I . 195
1901 1. 358
No92 I . 341
a224 1. 529
3362 I . 4861
) 555 1. 7~
3630 1. 631
J &390 1. 87
69903, . 201~6027! 1. 071
. 769811. 357. 6751i 1. 2
5 7219. 1. 336 6223! 1. 197
8176: 1. 513. 6985~1. 344
7450: , . 47 1642Oi l . 323
8459i l : 6~, ' 7222j l . 4S8
r Ton of Refrig&xion.
The volumetric efficiency ranges from 63.5 to 76.5%. for double-acting.
and from 74.5 b0 8.5.5?; for sinyle-acting compressors. mcrearing lvitb the
decrease of col~denser presstIre and with the Increase of suction pressure.
Were t.hr: t&uicl is cooped lower than t,he t,emperatnre correspondin
to the condensi ng pressure t.hrre will be a reductmn in h&e-Po!v*r an
dis
8
c g
P
tacement,
tqutd
proportionat t,o t,tle increase of work don? bv each pamd
handl ed. The f.1l.p. is that of the compressor.. For En.gine
Wfs,j orse-Power add 177~ up to 20 t,ons capxit~y and 15% for larger mach~mes. ~,,
#&;,;,
Rated, Capqity of Refrigerating III+~chines. - It is customary t,
rate refngeratmg machines in tons of refrigerating capacity in 24 hours
on the basis of a suction pressure of 15.67 Ibs. gauge, corresponding t(
0 F. temperature of saturated ammonia vapor, and a condensing pressur,
of 185 lbs. gauge, corresponding to 95.5O F. The actual capacity increase!
with the increase of the suction pressure, and decreases with the increase
of the condensing pressure. The following table shows the calculatec
capacities and horse-
different pressures. P
ower of a machine rated at 40 H.P., when run &I
York Mfg. Co.) The horse-power required increase
with the mcrease of both the suction and the condensing pressure.
1 Suction Gauge Pressure and Corresnondinr Temn.
5 lb = 10 lb= 15.67lb. 20 lb. =
Conden+x;pPresu.
- 17.50. -+.5F. =O F. 5. 7" F.
2-5 lb. = ;30ib:=
I I .5O F. 16.8 F
7
145lb.= 82F ......... 26.650.634.255.1
165lb.= 89F.. ....... 25.754.233.1 59.441.463.848
185lh.= 95.5F.. ..... 24.857.432
205 lb. = 101.4 F.. .....
Piston Speeds and Revolutions pcriWinute.- There is a great diver.
sity in the practice of different builders as to the size of comnresser. the
piston speed and t,he number of revolutions per minute for a given
rated capacity. F. E. Matthews. 2mn.s. A. S. M. E., 1905, has plotted
a di&gr+n of the various speeds and revolutions ndopted by four promi-
nent budders, and from average curves the following figures are obtained:
Ton%. . . . . . . . . . 20 30 48 -50 60 80 100 120 140~160 180200i240 360!400 5W
R.P.M . . . ~:_.. 90 78 73 68 64 60 581/, 57 561 55 54 531 52 51! ~81/ ' ~ 46
Piston speeds.. 200 215 228 246 250 270 280 286 290293 296 300 315 34f378
I II I
425
Mr. Matthews recommends a standard rating of nmchines based on
these revolutions and speeds and on an apparent compressor displace-
ment of 4.4 cu. ft. per minute per ton rating.
Condensers for Refrigerating RIaehines are of two kinds: sub-
merged, and open-air evaporative. The submerged condenser requires
2 hrge volume of cooling water for maximum efficiency. dccordiaP
to Siebel the amount of condensing surface, the water entering at 70
and leaving at SO, is 40 sq ft.. for each ton of refrigerating capacny,pr
6$ lineal feet of 2-m. pipe. Frequently only 20 sq. ft., or go ft. of li/rln.
Pipe. is used, but this necessitates higher condenser
sq. ft. of cooling surface, h = heat of evaporation o P
ressures. If F s;
1 lb. ammonia st
the condenser temperature, K = lbs. of ammonia circuia~ted per minute,
m = B.T.U. transferred per minute per sq. ft. of condenser surfaces
f = tempenture.of the ammonia, in the coils and ~1% the tempersture Of
the Water, outside,.:,F;=~hlS Ir m(t, ::,,.tJ. For t = 80 and 1, = 70, 111
~:T . . .
. ::..s _..._ ~...,.....l;l;:r. __: ,... .~
. 1 I ,..:.- ,;;;i:,-:
.:i, ;.:..:.~:,:; 1~ ..,., i: _.
.&:$
~_ ,-.,,_ _ ,,_ ,.,, >..l.~&&&
::,~WARNIN,G:_~,Th,is,~,is, ~Kj910 &ition,
Some
may be taken at 0.5. -Practicaliy the amount of water required Willie ~I~
vary from g to 7 gallons ~per minute per ton of refngeration. When ..~ ~~,
cooimg wat,er IS scarce, cooling, towers are commonly used.
,E. T. Shlllkle gives the average sirfact? of several submerged con-
delu;ers as equal to 167, lineal feet of l-in. pipe per ton of ,refrigeratiqn. : :
Open a,ir or evaporation surface condensers are usua1l.y made of a stack
A na.ral!el tubes with return bends. and means for distributing t.he water
~Zi &t it will flow uniformly overthe pipe surface.. Shinkle $ves. as the
jverage surface of open+ir coolers 142 ftl of l-in. pipe. or 99 ft. :of .l l/4 in.,
9jpe per ton of refrigerilting capacity.
CAPACITY OF CONDENSERS. (York .iMfg. Co.) - The~:follo&g ,table :: .: :
shcws the capacities and horse-power per ton refrigerat.ion of. mmsection ~. ~_
e9uruer-current double-pipe condenser; 1 i/a-in. and %iii.lpipe,, 12 pipes
hi eh. 19 feet in lensth outside of water bends. for water velocities 100 ft.~ .~
[;%a ft. per minute: initial temperature of condensing water 70. ~,~ : I ;jg
,k;
g;
.-
-
-.
--
-
rota1
XllOllS
C
used
Per
min.
i
_
7. 77
11.65
15.54
19.42
23.31
31.08
-
Mlon
ter mil
ler tar
,<ef rig
High Pressure, Con&ant.
Condensing Water.
7. 77
:I .65 z::
Xi I .554
I.942
23. 31 2. 331
31. 08 ! . I 08
-I ---
-i-
-
I
/ 1 , ,,;;
2.2e 6. 7 IS 1. 71
5. 75 10. 185
9. , 98
1% I S? %
1:::
$g!
0. 007
- 15: ;:;;~ 0.011
:::Ei 24. 18. 8~ 185 1. 71 a. 016 0.030
Capacity Constsnt..
i i 8
5. 75 Z: ii:
9. 91! IO. 165
15.
z:
155
21. 6 37. 8 10. I:
.I ~. I,
The horse-power per ton-is for single-actin
sucbion pressure.
:~ The friction in water pump and connections should be,
horse-power and to total horse-power.
Cooling-Tourer Practice in Refrigera
:Jr., Sou!hern Engr., I\ lar., 1909.) - The. effic
upends on exposing the greatest ouant.it.y of
,slr-currents: In a tower designed to handle 100 gallons :F
oranges of temperature found when handling different quantities.of~ Waters ~~,
.?e as follows:
s of water per minute ..: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
erature of the atmospheres.. . . . .~. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lve humidity, y0 :. . . . . . . . :... . . . . . . , . ,~..
l temperature. : ~ .~ ; . . . ; . .~. . . .
temperature. ,, ~. . ~. ., .::. : . . . . ,;
. . . . . . . .~, . . . . .
e materials may ~tio :~Jon
The, final, i&per; The, final, i&per;
perUire does not e: perUire does not e:
TEST-
es which may be obtjined wheri the initial &,
!d 100~ are as follows: ~ ~: :
Final temperature of water leaving tower,~~ :
Atmosphere temp.
For ammonia condensers we pgure on supplying 3 gallons per minute ,,f
eirculatmg mater per ton of refngeration, or 6 gallons per minut.e per ton of
ice made per 24 hours, and guarantee a reduction range from 150 to 16~0
down Tao about 100 when the temperature of the atmosphere does not
esceed 30 nor the relative humidity 60%. When the temn~rat.~~rn nf +I..
atmosphere and.the humidity are 60th above 90i i&s~~~$$-ti;k-,~
and the ammoma pressure must be increased.
Thr Bcfrigerating-Coils of a Pict.et ice-machine described by Lea
had 79 sq. ft. of surface for each 100,000 t.heoretic negative
UT
prod!!ce$ per hour.
heat-&s
The temperature corresponding to the pressure of
the $oxlde In the coils is 10.4O I?., and that of the bath (calcium chloride
solut~ou) in which they were,immersed is 19.4O.
Comparison of Actual and Theoretical Ice-meltin- Capacity. -
The followfng is a con!parison of the theoretical ice-me&g capacity of
an ammoma compresaon machine with that obtained in some of Prof.
%!brijters tests on a Linde machine halving a compressioll-c~;linder 9.9~in.
bore and 165in. stroke, and also in tests by Prof Denton on a machine
havmg two single-acting compression-cylinders 12in. x 30 in.:
No. of
Test.
Ice-melt,i?g Capacity per lb. of Coal,
assummg 3Ibs. per hour per
HO~SPDOWW.
-
rheoretical
Friction * Act.ual.
included.
1 Condenser.1 S&ion.
Per cent of
Loss Due to
Cylinder
Superheating.
:::: ii:!
69.2 0.5
68.5 -11.8
84.2 15.0
82.7
84.6 :d:i!
50.4 40.6
37.6 30.0
29.4 22.0
22.8 16.1
27.4
21.6
18.8
:;:::
14.5
-
- .
-
19.4
%
29.4
* Friction taken at figures observed tn the tests, which range frou
14% to 20% of the work of the s&a&cylinder.
TEST-TRIALS OF REFRIGERATING MACHINES.
(G. Linde, Trans. A. S. M. B., siv, 1414.)
The purpose of the test is to determine the ratio of consumpt,ion aad
product.lon, SO that there will have to be measured both the refrigerative
effect and the heat (or mechanical work) consumed also the coolrag
\va,ter. The refrigernt,ive effect is the product of thi number of heat-
umts ((3) abstracted from the body to be cooled, and the quotient (T, - T)
+ T: in \vhicb Tc = absolute temperature at which heat is transmitted to
., ~: WARNING:, This :3s~. a 1910~~ edition-.
, Sbi
of the material may no~~' l onger , De: , accuraT; e:
The determination of the quantity~~of cold will he
er exactness, only when the machine is employed
$f&
erate a hqu!d; and if the cold .be found from the quantityof liquid
rlrculated per unit of time, from itsrange of refrigeratipn,.and frqm its
sp&ic heat.
su*Ecier!A .~ ~._~~..~ .~~ .~~~.
tisn of n curr~ezt of circulating air, nor tram the manufacture of ~acertain
Quan$tY Oi . ~. nor from a calculation of the fl,+ld circulating: nithin: the
mac*~le (for Iy,,ranCe, I-- ~~-~-~-111-- ~ ~~~-~~
P
ressor). Tlms the renigeratlon ox Dnne.will generally.form the basis
or tests makmg any pretension to accuracy. The degree ofrefrlgeration
should not be greater than necessary for allowing the range of temperature
10 be mea!
from 5 to v CauL. . ..___ _-__ ___.
sured witn toe necessary
. co ?3^L...
will nl1ffir.n~
exactness; a range of temperature of
The condenser meaSUrements for cooling water and it.s temperatures
&l be possible with sufficient accuracy only with submerged~condensers.
~, The measurement of the.quantity~of brine circulated, and of the cooling
mter, is usually effected by water-meters inserted into the~conduits: Jf
(he necessary precautions are abserved, this method is admissible. -.,For
q@e precise test.% however, the use of two ~accurately gauged tanks
wkch are alternately filled and emptied must be advised. :,~ .. ~
To measure the temperatures of brine and cooling water at t.he entrance
snd exit of refrigerator and condenser respect,ively; the emplorment of
specially constructed and frequently standardized thermometer; is indis-
pensable; no less important is the precaution of using at each spot simul-
taneously two thermometers, and of changing the. position of one such
thermometer series from inlet to outlet (and vice versa) after t.he espirat,ion
of one-half of the test, in order that possible errors may be compensated.
r+ rc imnnrtont to determine the snecific heat of the brine used in I .~ i
each mstance for Its corresponding temperature range, as small differ-
ences in the composition and t,he concentration may .cause.considerable
ralktinna
AC ra*ar& +rlp measurement of consumntion. the nroaramme will not
hi% a~~~$c&-r~les in cases where only the mkasurem& of~steam and
cooling mater is undertaken. as will be mainly the case for trials of absorp-
[~Xl~d,i.X
nor comPression-machines the stesm eonsumPt,ion ,-.. . ..-_ ,.... ~.
OnOnrlr L+~ --*:he nuaiitv of the steam-enrine and on that of the d. CLLYU l,YLl 1111 hi
Ief;igerat,ing-machine, ivhileit
-:~~
is evidenoly desirable to know t.he con-
sumption of the former separately from that of the latter. bias a rule
Steam-engine and compressor are coupled directly together, t.,hus render-
lag a direct mensurement of the power absorbed by the refrigerating-
machine rmno=ihl~, and it will have to suffice to ascertain t,he indicated,
%%?%&m-engine and compressor. ~By further measuring
for the engine running empty, and by comparing the differences 0~
between steam-engine and compressor result.ing for Mde varia-
KZ-~-~~--~- .nressures. the effective cohaumntion oft work L, for
Wrk bo
the work
In nnwoP
Heat finlance. - We ,Possess an important aid for checking the car-
rmtness of the resn1t.s found in each t.ricl by forming the ~balnr!ce in each
me for the heat received and rejec,ted. Cmly those tests should be re- :
aarded xs correct bevond doubt. which show a sufficient~. conformity in. ~~ :
the heat balance
to account fullv
It.is t.rue that in certain instances it ma~.iiot.,be easy
for t,he t.ransmission of ,heat between the several Parts of ~:
,&e machine and it,s environment by radiat.ion Andy convection. hut gener- ~,
,,alY !particularlv for compression-machines) it will ,be possible bo obtain :. ;
-for the heat received and rejected a balance exhibiting small discrepancld :
:.ojljy.
&~,>et~~:.,~
.~
_.~~ ~. ~. ~~I:, .~.
_~j ,,_,,. ;., ..,..~< i;,;~:ilL,; ..;,-:_,..~-.;~;.?.-::
of the cit$ial may:60 .~.long,er ,~be ~~aCCUrat$!;
Report of Test; I Reports intended tb Abe used. for comparison Gt(h
the figures found for other machines will. therefom have to embrace ar
least the following observations:
Refnonrofur: .
_.~,. _I_ -.
@anti ty of brine circul@ed Peru hour ;
Brine temperature at inlet to refrig
Brine temperature, at
,era,to;:I:.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
outlet of refrigerator.
..,........ . . . . . . . . . . . .
sPeci6,. ~~-~ ~!.
c grawy or onne (at 64O Fahr.) . . . : ..*...... . . . . . . . . ~.I
Skitic heat.of btine. . ; . . . . . _ . . _
. . . . . . . . . . ~.
Heatabstracted(coldproduced)....::~~1.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..o.
.
Absolute pressure in tne refr
CO7Ut.%St?7.:
-igerator.. . . .~. . . . . . . .;. . . . . . :.~T
Quantity of cooling water per hour
Temperature at inlet to condenser
............. . ................ .n
...
.............
Temperature at outlet of condenser
...................
.............. ..............
ABSORPTIOS-MACHINE.
Still:
Steam consumed per hour.. . . . .
Abs. pressure of heat.ing steam. . . .
Temperature of condensed steam at
outlet . . .
Heat imparted io.&il.. . . . . . . . . . , .@k
Absorber:
(2nantit.y of cooling water per hour
Temperature at inlet : . .
Temperalure at outlet . . . .
Heat removed.. .&
Pump for Ammonia lY&uor:
Indicated work of steam-engine . .
Steam-consumption for pump
Thermal equivalent for work of
1 pump _. .ALp
Total sum, of losses by radiation$r$
convectron.. . .
Heat Ralance:
3
Qe +Qe = 91 + Q? rt Qs.
For the caIc$atjon of efficiency and for comparison of various &sts
the actual ef%enws must be compared with the theoretical ma.xhnui
of effiCleneY Q + (AL) mas. = T c (Tc - T) corresponding to the tm
perature range.
Temperagure Range. - For the temperatures (T and TV) at ahlch th!
heat iS a~bstrac,ted in t~he refrigerator and imparted to the condenser. it is
correct to select the temnerstrlre of t,he hnnn ~bo.ri-- 41
..- --..... Lc.ulLLLs b;le reftieerrtor aad
that. of, the cooling water leaving the condenser, because it 1s In principle
lmposs~ble to keep the refrigerator pressure higher than would correspond
to the lowest brine temperature. or t.o reduce the condenser pressure
below that corresponchng to the out~let temperature of the cooling water.
Prof. Linde show that the murimz~m tbenr~tirn7 -aciency of a corn
pression-machine may be expressed~by ihe f&-&&-~ -I
Q + (AL) = T s(T,- T),
C~AIPREXI~N-UACHIXE. :~
Compressor:
Indicated work . . . .I,,
Temperature of gases at inlet
Temperature of gases at exit
Steam-engine:
Feed-water per hour. ;. : ,
Temperature of feed-water
Absolute steam-pressure bc.
fore steam-engine . . . . , . .
Indicated work of steam-en:
gine . . . . .L.
Condensing wa,ter per hour..
Temperature of do. . . .
Total sum of losses by radir.
tion and convection.. & QI
Heat Balance:
Qe + AL, = &I f Qs.
It follows that the expenditure of heat Q necessary for the p;od&tl&i,::_~
,f the quantity qf cold 6j in a compression-machine wail be:the,?+,ller, :,;,,;:
he smaller the &fKerence of temperature T, - T.
DIetering the Anun,onia. - For ..a complete test of, & &&&a ~
efrlgerating-:-macllinr: it. 1s~ advisable to ,measure the qua+ty of ammonia ~
,lrculated, asp was done In the test of. t.he 7%tpn ma&Fe de!cnbed: Sy:
&of. Denton. ~. (T?Ywzs., A. S. ;W. B., .x11, 326.)
.
ACTUAL l?ERFORDIAhCES OF ICE-WAKING ~L~CHIhWii. :::
_--
The table given on pageI308~ is abridged from Denton; Jacobus,~~and
[Iiesenbergers translation. of Ledoux on Ice-making Machines. The :~
~ollo\ving shows the class and ,Slze of the machmcs. test& leferred to by
,etters in the table, with the names oft the authontles:
Glass of Machines.
.,
A. Ammonia~cold-compression.. . .
8. Pictet fluid dry-compression i. .~.
C. Bell-Coleman air.. . . ;. . . . .:
p,Closedcycleair..: :...; . . . . . . .
E. Ammonia dry-compression.. . . . :
F. Ammonia ~absorption , . . .
Authority.
-7
Sch$ter.
Dimet&ions of Corn-,
pressitin-cylinder i
., -inches. .,:
Bore. :~ : Stroke. .~.f~~,
,9.9 ,~ :
,:. i6.5.~ ,, ,~:
11.3 ., : 24.4 .
28.0 ,~.. 23:f :
~10.0 .18.0
12.0 .30.0 Im
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~i......
.
In class A, a German double-acting machine wiz compression cylinuer
0.9 in. bore, 16 in; stroke, tested by Prof. Schriiter, the ice-melting capac-
ity ranges from.#6.29 to 16.14 tbs. of ice per pound of coal, according 3s
the suction pressure varies from about 45 to 8 Ibs. above the afmosphere.
this pressure being the condition which mainly controls the economy Of
compression machines. These resu1t.s are equivalent to realizlng~ from
,72% to 57% of theoretically perfect ,performances. The higher per cents
appear to occur with the higher suction-pressures. indicating a greater
loss from cylinder-heating (a phenomenon the reverse of cylinder conden-
&at.ion in steam-engines). as the range of the temperature Of .the gas in
,.
-,
the compression-cyiinderis greater. - ,
In E. an American single-acting compression-machine. tRo compression
~CYlinders ea,ch 12 X 30 m., operat.ing on the dry system,: test,ed bY
Prof. Denton, the percentage of theoretical effect realized ranges .from
89.5% to 62.6%. The friction losses are higher for the American machine.
?%I, latters higher effidiency ma.y ~beattrlbuted. therefore, to more perfect
displacement.
Thelargest ice-melt.ing cap&y in the Americ& machineis !Xls lb&
This corresponds to the highest suction-pressures used in American
e :
ractlce for such refrigerat.lon as is required in beer-storage.cellars llS!llg
he direct-expansion system. The conditions most nearly Correr-pmldinK
to American brewery pract.ic@ in the German tests are those +ilns 5,
which give an ice-melting capacity! of 19.07 lbs.
For the manufacture of art.ificial ice, the condit,ions of p&ire are ihoie
,!f lines 3 and 4 and lines 25 and 26. In the former the condensing Pres-
sure used requires more expense for cooling water than is common in
American practice. The ice-melting capacity is therefore greater in the
$rmsn machine, being 22.03 and 16.14 lbs, against 17.+?.and~ li.52 for
^.-~
in which Q =
h
UantitY of Feat abst.racted (cold produced).
AL = t ermal eqmvalent of the mechanical rvork ixpended;
L = t,he mechanical work, and A = I + 7;s.
T = absolute temperature of heat abstrabt,lo;l (refrlgera
T, = absolute temperature of heat rejection (condenser).
..,. ~~,
id& or fictet Xfachine& + Non r&m% are :
on of the, ice-melting capacity- of machines
In the I pictet fluid, : 3 mixture of about ~97% ~ .Y~ ~
of carbonic acid, the presenceof t~~e~rb,omc~ _
If u = ratio .bet.ween the heat equivalent ~of the mechanical
a temperature. about I.4 Fahr. degrees lower. than is obtained 1 -~
and the wu+ty~ of heats &; which must. be irl?nsrt~~ +-+hn
s
produce the :vork~,~ ,,then: . . ::.-.:,~ .,,
motor to
ure s~lpl~r dioxide at atmospheric pressure. The latem heat of :~,
e-a .A2 Y 6.U isture has never be& determined, but is assumed $9 ~~~~qu?l~t~, ,:I, :
pure sulphur dioxide.
..~~
PERFORMANCES ~OF ICE-MAKING MACHl%ES: :I309 ~~-
. ~,
.~
~1;
Performance of a ?. %ton Aml nnni aCnmnr~~. i nn- maFhi n~. ( 1F~
For brewery refrigerating conditions, line 17,. we have 26.24 11x. ice.
melting capa$ty, and for ice-niakin~
FeItJng capaclt,y is 17.47, lbs:
a conchtions, line 13, lhe ice.
These Agures are practically as econon,.
ICal 5s t,hoSe for ammoma, the per cent Of theoretical effect realized
rangJng from 65.4 to 57.S. At extremely low temperatures, - 15 Fahr,,
lines 14 and lS, the per cent realized is as low as 42.5.
Actual Performzmce of Ice-makinn Nachines.
--- ----______.
D&iOJl, Trans. A. S. nf:-,!?.~-$~;-Y~%.~ -The machine had two, s&l::
acting com,pressio: n cvlinders 12 X 30 in.. and one Corliss stram-cvl~in&er.
double-actmg, 18 X-36 in. It was rated by the pxmuf&urers as i
%ton machme. but .it showed ~7.5 tbns of Ice-refrigerating effect per
24 hours during the test.
,,
The most probable figures of performance in eight trials a&as folk&s:
Ammonia
I
I I
,
I
I
I
1
-
L-4 I -I----/-I I=---
; j-i-&
I 151 28 36. 76 28. 86
8 l b1 27. 5 36. 36 26. 45
2: 22.60
: . 147 i ; ; ' Z ". 29
6. 27
; : ; ; ' 42. 0 36.43
: : : : : 0, ; 83 . 1. 70~~i . 60
14. 10 . ' . I 7. 6 6. 40 - 2. 22 37. 20 17. 00 Ki E
135 15. 7 4. 62 3. 22 27. 2 13. 20
2. 00
1. 25 2: 59 2. 57. '
- l - l - l -
: -
:
i
The principal results in four tests are glven in t.he table on page 1311.
.The fuel economy under different conditions of operation is shown in
the following talk: .,
14. 9 17. 9 14. 4 26.2
15. 1 18. 0 lb.7 19.5
15. 1 16.8 l b. 0 13. :
14. 8 15. 5 19. 5 9. 1
15. 024. 1 10. 5 lb.9
15. 2 17. 9 10. 729. f
15. 1 18. 0 12. 12l . t
11. 7 15.6 IS.0 9.5
15. 0 l b. 4 13. 5 20. C
' 1. 7 12. 0 14. 8 19. 5
, 7. 0 21. 522. 925. 6
6. 8 20. 6 22. 9 17. 9
7. 1 18. 5 24. 0 I I . 6
7.6 15. 725. 7 5. 7
9. 3 27. 2 l b. 9 15. 7
7. 3 21. 6 14. 028. l
7. 5 20. 5 12. 8 19. 3
7. 6 15. 921. 1 6.8
5. 3 12. 422. 3 17. 0
2. 9 19. 9 14. 7 I I . 9
4. 8 9. 924. 3 3. 5
3. 283. 221. 9 10. 3
3. 438. 132. 1 4. 9
B. 1 85. 0 22. 7 73. 9
7.7172.6 18.6 37.9
7. 9173. 6 19. 3 46. 5
3. 9 80.6 19.7 74.4
. . 42. 2
I O. 63 30. 8 19. 154. 8
10. 01 33. 5 20. 253. 4
! 2. 03 37. 1 25. 2 50. 1
6. 14 42. 9 29. 144. 1
9. 07 36. 0 28. 5 77. 0
16.29 28.5 19.956.8
; 3~. 23 31. 3 21. 956. 4
7. 55 41. 1 28. 3 46. 1
i 3. 77 33. 1 22. 950. 6
15. 01 35. 2
' 3. 07 39. 9
123. 852. 0
22. 224. 1
i 4. 11 41. 3 24. 023. 1
7. 47 42. 2 25. 220. 4
0. 14 54. 5 38. 5 16. 8
6.05 36.2 23. 131. 5
6. 19 33. 4 2~526. 8
6.24 34.6 25.025.6
1. 93 47. 5 33. 4 18. 0
8. 04' 39. 5 22.6226
6.68 37.7 27.032.1
9.86 54.2 39.5 17.7
5. 42 71. 7 56.926.6
3.0 80.0 63.089.2
4.16 32.8 11. 765. ~
4. 52 37. 4 22. 757. b
7. 55 34. 9 18. 6 59. 9
5. 31 30. 5 13. 5 70. 5
) . I 47. 8 I . . . . . . . '
Pounds of Ice-melting Effect with
Engines -
Non-com-
pound Con.
densiug.
30 3. 61
17. 5 2. 11
43 5. 18
27. 5 3. 31
37. 5 4. 51
$5 23;
34. 5 4. 16
The non-condensinz entine is assumed to reauire 25 Ibs. of steam ?xr
aerived from the investigktion:
~1.H.P. per hour, the ti~n&npouyd condensing $0 Ibs., and the compmind
condensing 16 Ibs., and the boiler eficiency is assumed at S.3 lb% ,of wat~er
Per lb. coal under working conditions. The following conclusions were
1. The capacit.y of the machine is proportional, almost Entirely, to t,he
w%ht of ammonia circulated. This weight depends ~011 rhe snction-
I I I_
Ider.
. . .._ n,
.cylllla~~~~~~
pressure and the disnlacement of the comtikssor-btimus. Then Dractical
* Temperature of air at entrance and exit of expansion-cylir
t On ? basis of 3 Ibs. of coal per hour per H.P. of steam-
comprrsslon-machine and an eva,pornf ion of 11 .I Ihs. of water
of combustible from ar
t Per cent. nf tl wnro
per p0nJlu
Jtl at 212 1;. in the absorptioii-JnaclJlne.
r._,l -..--- _..._
t%JPkrature, of 0 F. cai
..,I_ ..~I . .
5 LOSS d,ue
-- -..._-.. ;tical with no friction.
.__I:- >~~- . ~.
,tO h$a:i:i.ng during, 0spiratloJJ of ,gas ln the compresSl0n
CJ JJJJo*r arm to ratri,arJ
II Actuali
U11 and ScJp~TlJeatiJlfi at brine-tan]<.
in~lJding:resistance due:tO inlet and exit valves.
,,,;>&:
gg;:,?c:
_/ . . . . . -:..:. _. ..~... ,,. ,;. L,, ;~.. ,: :.:.i:,,~ A..
WARN 1 NG: ~;Th i s i s ;,,,,,:a fj 9 1 0
.,..A&
e-J it i & . rz.L Eli Some of the material may no. longer beg accyrate;;~;,,~~
snction-nrrsallres rs,&e from $ Ibs. ahove ihe atrriospliere, xi\ibh*xvhich a
II !>e produced, to, 28 lbs. above~.t.liti atmosphere: .
men tne temperatures of refrigeration are confined t;o tlbout. 2s F.
e lower pressure only about one-half as much weight: of ammonia
e circulated as at the upper pressure, the proportion being about. lq 1~: ,.
rdance with the ratios of the absolute pressures, +2 and,.42~1@.
,.
respe&vely.
.
For each cubic foot of piston-displacement per minute~a
capacity of about o&sixth of,a ton of refrigerating effect per 24 hoara
can be produced at the lower,pressure, and of about~ one-third pf a ton at
the upper pressure. No other elements practically affect the capacity
of a macl~ne:1 provided the coohng-surfxe 111 the brine-tank or other space
to be cooled is equal to about 36 sq. ft. per ton of capacity~at 2S Ibs. back
pressure. For example, a difference of 100% in the rate of circulation of
brine, while producing a proportional difference in the range of tempera.
ture of the latter, made no practical difference in capacity.
The brine-tank was 101/z X 13 X lOV3 ft.. and contained 8000 lineal
feet of l-in. pipe as coolin -surface.
7.
The condensing-tank was 12 X 16 x
10 ft.. and contained 5000 met1 feet of l-in pipe as cooling-surface.
2. The economy in coal-consumption depends mainly upon ,both the
suction-pressures and condensing-pressures. Maximum economy with a
given type of englne, where water must be bought at average city pr&
is obtained at 23 Ibs. suction-nressure and about 150 Ibs. condensinp:
pressure. Under these condit~ions; for a non-condensing steam-engine
consuming coal at the rate of 3 Ibs. per hour per I.H.P. of Seam-cylinders,
24 lbs. of ice-refrigerating effect are obtained per lb. of coal consumed.
For the same condensing-pressure, and with 7 Ibs. suction-pressure, which
affords temperatures of OJ F., the possible economy falls to about 14 Ibs. of
refrigenuing effect per lb. of coal consumed. The condensing-pressure is
determined by the amount of condensing-water supplied to liquefy the
ammonia in the condenser. If the latter is about 1 gallon per minute
per ton of refrigerating effect per 24 hours, a condensing-pressure of
156 lbs. results, if the initial temperature of the water is about 56O F.
Txenty-five per cent less waler causes the condensine-nressure to i n-
crease-to 160.lbs. The work of compression is therebyYincreased about
20%, and the resulting economy is reduced to about 18 Ibs. of ices
effect per lb. of coal at 2S lbs. suction-nressure and 11.5 at 7 Ihs. Tf. on
the other hand, the supply of watkr is made 3 gallons per minute~;the
condensing-pressure may be confined to about 105 Ibs. The work o!
compression IS thereby reduced about 25% and a proport.ional increase
of economy resu1t.s. Minor alterations of economy depend on t,he initial
temperature of the condensing-water and variations of latent heat., but
these are confined within about 5% of the gross result. t.he main element
of control being the work of compression, as affected by the back pressure
and condensingpressure, or both. If the steam-engine supplying the
motive power may use a condenser to secure a vacuum. an increase of
economy of 25% is available over the above figures, making the lbs. of
ices effect Per lb. of coal for 1.50 lbs. condensing-nressure and 28 Ibs.
suction-pressure 30.0. and for 7 Ihs. suction-pressure, i7.5.. It is. however.
unpracticable to use a condenser in cities where water is bought. The
latt.er must be pracfirally free of cost to be available for this mubose.
In tl?is case it may be assumed that water nil1 also be availab!e for-coil-
densmg the ammonia to obtain as low a condensing-pressure as about
100 11~s.. and the economv of the refrigerating-machine becomes, for
2s Ibs. back pressure. 43.0 Ibs. of !I ice-effect .per lb. of coal or for 7 tbs.
b I& measure 27.5 Iha~ of i re &SW+. ner II\ of ennt Tf n l -nAnnr 3 d r oi l -
densiil~-en~in4-c~n~I;e-u:se;ii.~~ith ~~~s;-~;;;-,,,;mptl~n-~~;-i;;;;r $r
horse-power of 16 lbs. of wat.er, the economy of the refrigerating-machine
may be 25% higher than the figures last named, making for 28 Ibs. back
Pressure a refrigerating-effect of 54.0 lbs. per lb. of coal, and for 7 lba.
back Pressure a refrigerating effect of 349 Jbs. per lb. of coal.
performance of a ?&ton Refrigcra
Av. high ammonia press. above atmos ..... :
Av. back ammonia press. above atmos: . : .~.
Av. temperature brine inlet ............. :. .
*v. temperature brine outlet. ..............
Av. range of temperature ... ; ..... .I ........
J&s. of brine circulated per minute ....... ..
Av. temp. condensing-water at inlet .........
Av. temp. condensing-water at outlet ......
Av.nnseOftOmpOrrttOrO ..................
Lha. water circulated p. min. thro condser
Lhs. water per min. through jackets. .. : ....
Range of temperature in jackets ..............
Lbs. ammonia circulated per min ... I .......
Probable temperature of liquid ammonia;
eatmnce t.o brine-tank. ;. ....... .. ... .+.,
Temp. of amm. corresp. to av. back press.
Av. temperature of gas leaving brine-tanks
,Temperatureof go entering compressor ....
Av. temperature of gas leaving compressor
~Av. temp. of gas entering condenser .........
:Temperature due to condensing pressure ...
,Qat given ammonia:
By brine, B.T.U. per minute. ...........
By compressor, B.T.U. per minute ......
BY atmosphere, B.T.U, per minute..
ToWheat rec. by amm .. S.T.U. per min..
......
I&t taken from ammonia:
.l ., BY condenser, B.T.U. per min ........ ..
.. By jackets. B.T.U. per -i- ,I LLL ..............
BY atmosphere, B.T.U. per min
Total heat rej. by amm. B.T.U. per min
,Dif. of heat recd and rej., B.T.U. per min
% work of compression removed by jacket:
Av. revolutions per min . .
:&an elf. press. steam-cyl. lhs. per sq. in
ban eff. press. amm-cyl., tbs. per sq. in.
Av. H.P. steam-cylinder. .. ..
.
Av. H.P. ammonia-cylinder ..... ...... ... ...
..........
.. ..
FdCtion in per cent of stream H.P
.. ..... ...
........................
Total
: : : : :
cooling water, gallons per mid. pei
';~ t0nw24hours ..... ........ .... ......
Tons ice-melting capacit.y per 24 h&.
..
Lbs. ice-refrigeratina eff. per lb. coal at
Ibs. Per H.P. per h&. .I
:Cost coal per ton of ice-refrigerating effecl
' $~~4Perton . . . . . . . .
atsl per 1606 cu.ft
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......
. . .
............
. .
...
. . l
s water per ton of ice-refrigerating effecl
;
.....
..... Total Cost Of 1 ton d~ic~refhgerating .eff
.
, 1:,
151 lhs.
25~
36: 76'
2; Go
x&I I
44. 65"
a3. 64a
39. 010
' i t
24. 0"
- 28. 17
*71. 30
k140
34. 2'
*390
213"
2000
84. 50
, yg;
182
' ! g
22%
58. 09
32. 5
65. 9
i : : ;
. a. 0
0. 75
74. 8
24. 1
$0. 161
g: ; ; !
i 2 ~lbs
, 2 *c
"z, : ; ;
4. 24'
2173
56. 65'
85. 40
, 20. 75'
115
44
16. 2O
14. 68
1. 18
. 36. 43
14. 1
pi
,I
14. 29'
~- i %t
943 '
46. P"
85. 46
36. 56'
257~~'
40
16. 4O
16. 67
*63. 7O
- 50
3. 00
10. 13'
2390
2090
82. 5O
8524
"i i i
11409
~0. 79
, ~~ 44 64
17. 27
, $0. 23
71. 20
19. 67
I i
I
Ammonia Compressinla-lnac~ine.
AcTuhL RE~wLT~ OBTAINED EAT THE MUNICH TESTS
(Prof. Linde, Trans. A. S. M.,B.,xiv. 1419. )
-
No.ofTest............:...........
Temp. of refrig-
erated brine 1
Inlet, deg. F . . . .
Outlet. deg. F...
Specilic heat of brine.. . . . . . . .
Brine circ. per hour. ou. ft... . .
Cold produced, B.T.U. per hour..
Cooling water per hour, cu. ft.. . .
I.H.P. in steam-engine cylinder.. .
Per I.H.P. in camp-cyl
PerI.H.P.in steam-cyl
Per lb. of steam.. . . . .l
43.194
37. 054
0. 861
( 039. 38
342, 909
"E: $
24, 813
21, 703
1, l OO. S
28. 344 13. 952
908: 84 2; . ; &3; '
8. 771
63! %3
263, 950 172: 776
260. 83 187. 506
16. ' 47 15. 28
- 18, 471
16, 026
i 2. 770
785. 6
11, 307
564. 9
- 0. 2791 i s. ZSl
7; : ; ; ; m; f
. 414. 98 800. 93
121. 474 220, 2&j
139. 99 97. 76
14. 24 ~21. 61
10. 140 11, 151
8, 530 10, 194
435. 82 1512. 12
A test of a 3.5ton absorption-machine in New Haven, Conn., by Prof.
Demon (7ran.s. A. S. M. E., x, 792), gave an ice-melting effect of 20.1 Ibs.
per lb. of coal on a basis of boiler economy equivalent to 3 Ibs. of steam
per I.H.P. m a good non-condensing steam-engine. The ammonia wag
Worked between 138 and 23 Ibs. pressure above the atmosphere.
Performance of .z Single-acting Ammonia Corn
P
rcssor. -Tests
were made at the Works of the Eastman Kodak Co., Rot iester, N.Y., of a
machine, fitted With two York Mfg. Co.% single-acting compressors,
15 in. drsm., 32 iu. stroke, bo determine the horse-power
eration.
Mfg. Co.):
Followmg arc the,principtl average results ( E
er ton of refrig-
ulletm of York
Dnteof test, 1908. . . . . . . . . Mar. 6
Temp. dischg. gas. av. 216.2
Temp. suction gas. av.. 15.2
Temp. suction at. cooler. 9.33
Temp. liquid at exp. valve 74.85
Temp. bri ne. i nl et. . . . . . . . 22. 89
Temp. brine., outlet . . 13.58
Revs. per mm.. . . . . . . . 45.1
Lbs. liquid NH3 per min.. 20.76
Sue. press. at math. lb. . 20. I I
Condenser pressure.. . . . 183. 96
Indicated H.P... _. ._. . . . . 69.35
Tons Refrig. Capy, 24 hrs. 49.06
I.H.P. per ton capacity.. I . 411
.?
__
i
I
7
-
-7 -7
klar.7 Mar.8
I I
Mar.9
--__
! ; ; : 3" 250. 6 16. 8 245. 8 14. 8
9. 36 I O. 37 9. 29
74. 16 71. 98 77. 91
23. 19 25. 26 22. 73
13. 96 45. 0 : ; 4; 4 ; 34: ; 2
20. 43 21. 04 15. 59
I Q. 90 19. 97 20. 04
' 34. 41 186. 99 187. 27
69. 80 70. 05 52. 57
48. 79 50. 38 37. 01
1. 427 1. 389 1. 42;
I I
.-
1
I
1
-
byor. iy.
! 53. 0 242. 9
13. 5 18. 2
9. 90 13. 20
7&. 6l 82. 88
27. 35 28. 41
' 5. 53 56. 0 2f
25. 99 . , . I . .
20. 18 18. 13
187. 90 186. 8
89. 48 105. 11
61. 39 66. 65
1. 425 l . 43!
-
1
I
3
-
55. 5
17. 9
9. 13
; : ~I !
12. 87
44. 8
%i
i %6"1
49. 31
I . 375
-
Full details of these tests were reported to the Am. Secy. of Refrib*
Engrs. and published in Ice and Refrigeration, 1908.
Performance of Absorplion Nachines. - From an elaborate rev%W
by Xlr. Voqrliees of t.be action of an absorpt,ion machine under certam
smted conditions, showing the quantity of ammonia circulated per hour
Per ton of. refrigeration, its temperature, etc., at the several stages Of
the operation, and its course throuwh the several parts of the apparatus*
the following condensed statement ?s obtained:
Cienerator. - 30.9 Ibs: dry steam. 38 11~s.
evaporates 32.2% strong liquor to 22.3oJ, wea
gauge pressure condens@J*
,k li
Errbanger. - 3.0; Ihs. Weak liqrlor at 264O
uor.
Absorber. - Adds 6.43 Ibs. vaoor from the
9.
lbsstrong liquor,,at .slI. to 60 t
~~C~~i$&~\$ m&i@ 3.44,
,6 the pump.
~,: ,__.. ;.:.~~:,;:~&~.~, .,;LI~::: ;:::~-. .z..-l::.
. ,,&
aI._,
~~,.,WARN,ING,~,:i:This~ :is a 1910 edi,tiqn. Soml
PERFORMAI+E:~~~~OF ICE--NANNY XI&+& ., 1313
.~ .. :
d t6 224", some of it is now gas, and the
!VOL NW,.
Exchanger. - 3.4-I ibs. heal&
of a littlc less than 3, , -,.- ~.
zer. - (A series of shelver in a tank above the generator) delivers
to the generator. whlie the vapor, 91% NHa. 0.4982 lb., goes
3 the gas to 110 separating Water vapor rigO.0682 lb.
?turns throurrh a tran tn the generator,~ .,
oled and condensed to liquid
rom 73O to X6? : ,
drip ii uor which rG ~~~~ ~~. ~~~-.. _..~,. __
Con a enser. -0.43 l b. NHa gas at 110 co
at 90 by. 2 gals. of water per min. heated f
Expansion, Va!ve and Cooler, 7 Reduces 1
cooling 3 gals
and the cycle
. . or brine
iquid to 0~ .and boils it at 00
er min. from 12 to 3O.
is repeatez
Gas ~passesto absorbe;
-of the 3 .g+ Per min. of Cooi,ing Water flowing from. the eondenser,
:. where It IS heated to 142; and I.&gal. through
ieated to 110.
.-I-~
the absorber, where it is 1
Heat Balance. - Absorbed in.the generator. 496: in the brine cooler,
200, Total 696 B.T.U.
~93: Total 696 B.T.U.
Rejected; condenser, 220; absorber,~ 383; rectifier,
:
The following table shows the strength of the liquors and t~he quantity
-of steam requued per hour per .ton of refrigeration under the ,conditions
: stateo: ,_. I,
Condenser Pressures.
.81 per cent... ~\\I per cent.. . . . . . . 24 2: : 75 3?70 &5 2?3 2815 I 8 28 36 . . . . . . 13. 13
SG. pounds. .
6. 28
30. 1
17. 7 26. 9
. . . .
.SL, pounds . .
. . 48. 7 ' 34. 1 27. 9
. . . . :. 1. 7
2i . i
.
7. ;
.
4; . : ' K; 2; : s"
2. 4 ~2. 3 2. 2
1 1 . .
SZ, strong liquor: lV2, weak liquor; SG, lbs. of steam per hour per ton
,of refrigeration for the generat,or, SL. do. for t.he liquor pump. Pressures
are in Ibs. per so. in.. eauee.
The folldwing~table gives the steam consumption in 16s. per hour per
ton of refri,geration, for engine-driven compressors and for absorption
~acliines with liquor pump not exhausting imo the generator at the suc-
tion and coudenser pressures (gauge) given: SC, simple non-condensing
engme, CC. compound condensing engme. A, absorption mxhine.
Condeuser Prcssurea. ..
.
SC
Suction Pressures. ,.. : :,
0 15 30 0 . l 5 30 - 0, ~ ' 15 30
- - _- - - - - - -
w: : . . . . . . . . . . . *. . 78. 3 44. 5 31. 1 90. 5 ' 52. 5 37r2 104. 0 61. 4 44. 5
. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . 31. 8 42. 0 25. 8 16. 6 48. 4 28. 0 19. 0~ 29. 5 24; 3 43. 4 ' 32. 8 28. 0 ,55.6~ 51. 1 32.7 36. 4 25.9 30. 1
, - . .
~~. The economy of the absorption machine is much better for ahconditions
than that of a simplex non-condensing engine-driven .compressor. At
surtion gsuge pressures above 8 to lo lbs. the economy of t.he compound
condensing engine-driven compressor. exceeds,~ that of the absorpt.lon
:;:&sUres below 8 to 10 I bs.
Machine, the absorption machine giving the superior:economy at: suction
Neans for Ap lying
Socy, 1890.) - TP
the Cold. (M. C. Bannister. Liverpool Engg
le most useful means fork applymg the~cold to various
uses 1s a saturated solution of brine or chlonde of magnesium, which
remains liquid at 5O Fahr. The brine is first cooled by being circulated
in contact with. the refrigerator-tubes. and then distributed through
coils of pipes, arr%nged either in the substances requiring a reduction of
temperature, or in the cold stores or rooms prepared for them; the air
coming in contact with the cold tubes is immediately~ chilled, and the
moisture in the air deposited on the pipes. It then falls, making room
for warmer air, and so circulates~ until the whole room is at the tempera.
ture of the brine in the pipes.
The Direct Expansi,oa Nethod consists in coriveying the compressed
cooled ammonia (or other refrigerating agent) directly to the room to be
cooled, and then expanding it through ac expansi,op cock into pipes in the
room. Advantages of this system are its simplicity land hits rapidity of
action in cooling a room; disacl,vantages are the danger of leakage of the
ga,s and the fact that the machme cannot be stopped without a rapid rise
m the temperature of the room. With the brine system, with a large
amount of cold brine.in the tank, the machine may be stopped for a con.
siderable time without serious coolmg of the room.
Air kas also &en used as the circulating medium. The ammonia-pipe
refrigerate the air in a cooling-chamber, and large conduits-are used to
convey it to and return it from the rooms to be cooled. An advantage of
this system is that by it a room may be refrigerated more quickly than by
brine-coils. The returning air deposits its moisture on the ammo&+
pipes, in the form of snow, which is removed by mechauical brushes.
ARTIFICIAL-ICE MANUFACTURE.
Under summer conditions, with condensing water at 70. artificial-ice
machines use ammonia at a condenser pressure,
atmosphere and 15 lbs. suction-pressure.
about 190 lbs. above the
In a, compression type of machine the useful circulation of ammonia,
allowing for the effect of cylinder-heating, is about 13 lbs. per hour per
indicabed horse-power of the steam-cylinder. This weight of ammonia
produces about 32 lbs. of ice at 15O from water at iOa. If the ice is made
from distilled water,, as in the can system, the amount of the latter
supplied by the boilers is about 33% greater than the weight of ice
obtained. This excess represents steam escaping to the atmosphere
from the re-boiler and steam-condenser, to purify the dist,illed water,, or
freeit from air; also. the loss through leaks and drips, and loss by melting
of the ice in extracting it from the cans. The total steam consumed er
horse-power is, therefore, about 32 X 1.33 =.43.0 lbs. About 7.0 R s.
of thls covers the steam-consumption of the s&am-engines driving the
brine circulating-pumps, the several cold-water pumps, and leakage.
drips, etc. Consequently, the main steam-engine must consume 36 lbs. of
steam per hour per I.H.P.. or else live steam must be condensed t,o supply
the required amount of distilled water.
gained by using steam at hi
There is. therefore. nothing t.o be
8
h rates of expansion in the steam-engines, in
making artificial ice from~ lstdled wnter. If ~the cooling water for the
ammonia-coils and steam-condenser is not too hard for use in the boilers,
ii may enter the latter at about 175 F.. by restrlcring the quant~ity to
11/z gallons
\
er minute per ton of ice.
wa2ter may t
With good coal 81/z lbs. of feed-
en be evaporated, on the average, per lb. of coal.
T!ie ice made per pound of coal will then be 32 + (43.0 + 8.5) - 6.0
Ibs. Tllis corresponds with the results of average pracii&.
If ice is manufactured by the plate system. no distilled water is
used for freezing. Hence the water evaporated bv the boiler may be
reduced to the amount which will drive the steam-rilotors and the latter
inay use steam expansively to any extent consistent t&h the power
required to compress the ammonia, operate tbe feed and filt.er pumps.
and the hoisting machinerv.
power needed for corn
The latter may require about 15% of the
If a compound B
res&ng the ammonia.
con ensing steam-engine is used for driving the corn--
pressors. the steam per indicated steam horse-power,,or per 32 lbs. of
net ice. may be 14 lbs. per hour. The other motors at 50, 11)s. of steam
Per horse-power will use 7.5 lbs. per hour, making the total consUmPtl
Per steam ,horseppw+$f~ the compressor 21.5 lbs. Taking the &aPo*
~~ ART&qICICIAL I~E~~~ANUFACTURE.~.:~ ~ :~~ -~<,. 1315
;
tion at 8 Ibs., the feed;w&ertemperatUre being limited &ah&tIi& the
coal per horse-power IS 2.7 Ibs. per. hour. The net ice ~per.lb. ~of cohl ,is
then about 32 + 2.7 = 11.8 lb% The best results with plate+,ystem?
ks. of ice uer lb. of coal.
lasts; using a compound steam-eugine, have thus far afford? ,at)out ioii2
-in the plate system the ice gradually forms, in ffom.8to i0~ da& to
a thickness of about llinches, 011 the hollow plattis, 10
which the cooling fluid circulates.
x 14 feetin area, in
,In the can ytem ~tl?e water is frozen~in blocks \ceigb&g about
300 lbs. e-iii, an the freezmg Is~~completed m from 40 td 48 hours. The
freezing;lsuk area oceupjed by the .plate system is,~ therefore; about
;;;l;; $nes. and the,xiblc colltents about four times. as ~U$I as:reQ,uired
can sqst.em. : ~,
The investment for the Plate.& about one-third greater t,han for the
can system. In the latter System ice is being drawn throughout the
24 hours, and the hoisting is done bye hand tackle. Some can plants
are equipped with pneumatic hoists and on large hoists elect& cranes are
used to advantage. In the plate system the entire daily product 1s
drawn, cut. and stofed in a few hours, the hoisting ~being performed
! py power. The distnbution of cost is as follows for then two s&ems, tak-
,, lng the cost for the can or distilled-water system as 190, which repre-
isents an actual cost oft about $1.25 per net ton:
.~ ~~ ~A. .,,.
Hoisting and storingice~; . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Engineers, firemen, and coal-passer. . . . . _
Can System; Pl+$ :$&em.
;$:; ~;,,.
Coal at $3.50 per gross ton.. : ~. ~. . . .
~.13.9
Water pumped directly from a natural source
42.2 : .20.0
at 5 cts. per 1000 cubic feet. . . . . . . . . . .
<. .Interest and depreciation at 10% .
1.3 ~.. :2.6
~ . .
Repairs.. . . . .~. . :T?.
24.6 32.7 ..~
2.7 3.4
--- I_
100.00 ~~ ~75. 4 .,
A compound condensing engine is assumed to be used br the plate
svstem.
. Testy of the New Ynrk Hygeia Ire-making Plant. - (Bc siessrs.
Hupfel. Griswold. and Mackenzie: Stet:ena It~tlicntor. Jan.. lS94.i
The flnnl results of the t,ests were a,s follows: ~~ ~
Net ice made per pound of coal. in pounds. . . :. . .. . . . . .:.
Pounds of net ice per hour per horse-power . . . . . . : . I . . . .. . _
7.12
Net ice manufactured per day (12 hours) in tons. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37 .8
~Av. pressure of ammonia-gas at condenser, 11~s. per sq. in. above
97
atmos.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . I.. .....: .._. 135.2
Average back presslire of amm.-gas. 11,s. per sq. in. aboreatmos.
Average temperature of brine in freezing-tanks, degrees F.. . . . .
15.8
Total number of cans filled per week . . . . . , . . . . I . . ~ . . . : . .
19.7
4389
Ratio of cooling-surface of coils in brine-tank to can-surface.. :. . ,I to 10
An Ahsorption Evnporat,or Ice-mnkin
dale Machine Co. is in operation at t,he ice 1~ ant of the Richmond Ice Co., k
System, bniltbr thecarbon-
Clifton, St,aten Island, N. Y.. which produces the extra dlstill& wat,er bv
an evaporat.or at pmctically no fuel~cost. and thus a.bout~ 10 tons of dii-
~~ tilled w-ater ice per ton of coal~is obtained. St.eam from t.he boiler at
. 100 lbs. pressure enters any evapo&or, dist~illing off steam at 70 tbs. .
,~ ?hlCh operales the pumps and ,ausiliary machinery. These exhaust
!nto Ihe Ice machine generator under 10 lbs. pressures. where~the eshaust
, Is Condensed. In a loo-ton plant the evaporator will condense 43 tons
of live steam, distilling off 40 tons of Steam to operate the auxiliaries.
; which exhaust hit.0 the generator: 20 tons of live steam hss to be added
to.this exhaust, making 60 tons in all, which is the amounr requiied to
oPerat,e the generator. The 60 tons of condensation from the geerierator
,~ and 43 tons from the evaporator go tb the re-boiler, ~making 103 tons of
distilled wat,er to be frozen into ice. The tota, st,eam consumpfion is the
,, SO tons condensed in the generator plus 3 tons for radiation. or 63 tons
n all. Hence if the boilers evaporates 6.6 11~s; wat,er per.
- the economy of the plant will be lOl/z~lbs. ice p&r pound o If
mind, of~coal
coa$ a reiult
which cannot be obtained even with compound condens& engines .and
.i: compression machines.
,;~>
T; ne materi al may no.
I
-_
Heat-eschanging coils. on the otder of a closed feed-water. heatei, are
used to heat the fee&water going to the boiler. The condensation leav.
ing the generator and evaporator at a high temperature is utilized for
this purpose; by this mews securing * feed-water telnperature con.
siderab1.v in excess of 212.
lee-Jlaking with Exhaust Steam. -The eshaust steam from electric
light plant; is being utilized to manufacture ice on the absorption systen,.
A lO-ton plant at the Holdredge Lighting Co., Holdredpe. Neb.. built by
the Carbondale Jlachine ~Co., is described in l&c. World. April i. 1910.
Here 11 tons of ice were made per day with exhaus:t steam from the
electric engines at ~/z lbs. pressur?, using 01/s K.W.. or .31/z H.P., for
driving the circulsting pumps.
Tons of Ice per Ton of Coal. -From a long table by Mr. Voorhees
showing the net tons of plate ice that may be made in well-dcsigneci
plants under a variety of conditions as to type of engine, the following
figures are taken:
Compression,. Simple Corllss engine.. non-condenshig.. . . . . . . . 6.1 tons
Absorption hquor pump and ausd1aries not eshausting into
generator, sunple. non-condensing engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.0
Compression, confpomid condensing engine.. . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . 11.2
Compression triple-espansion condensing engine. . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5
Absorpt.ion. pump and auxiliaries exhausting into generator,
Co&~ non-condensing engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . _ . _ 13.3
Compwsion and absorption. compoutld engitie, non-condensing 16.0
Comprrsion. triple-expansioncondensingengine. multipleeffect 16.5
Compression awl absorption, trip!+expansion non-condensing
engine. multiple effect _ . _ . . _ . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . 19.5
Standard Ice Cans or.Noulds.
(Buffalo Refrireratinz Machine Co.)
Size of Can.
Time of
Freezing.
-
1
Size of Can.
I I xl l x32
11x22~32
11X22X44
11x22~56
14x14x30
Time of
Freezing.
.MARINjE ENGINEERING.
Rules for Neatswing Dimennious- and Obtaining Tonnage of
T7essrls. (Record of American and Fc.rdgn Shipping. American Bureai1
of Shipping, N. Y.. lS9O.) - The dim msions to be measured as follo\vs;
I. Leugth.~ L. - From t,he fore-side! of st~em to the aft~er-side of strrn-
posts measured at middle iine on t,he upper deck of all- vessels. except
those having a continuous hurrirauwleck extendfug right fore and aft,
in which the 1engW is to be mr-asurerl on the range of deck immediateb
below the hurriranc-deck.
Vessels having clipper heads, raking forward, or receding stems. or
rnkinp stern-posts. t~he leugth to be the distance of the fore-side of sW1n
from aft-side of st,ern-post at the deep-load water-line measured at middle
line. (Tl~r inner or propeller-post to be taken as stern-post in scM-
steamers.)
II. Breadt,h, B. -To be measured over the widest frame at its ~videst
part: in other words. t~he molded breadth.
III. Depth. D. -To be measured at the dead-fiat frame arld at middle
line of vessel. It shall he the distance from the top of Hoor-plate to the
ulcer side of urmer deck-hewn in all vessels exceut those having a Con:
iK4RINE ENGINEERING. : -~
1317
lrom top of floor-plate to midway between top of hurrlcane~ deck-beam
and the top of,deck-byam Of tile Ueck immediately below hurricane-deck
In vessels htte? wth a continuous hurricane-deck, extending right
fore and aft. and mtended for the American const~iw; trade, the deptl1 is
to be the distance troll1 lop of floor-plate to top 01 deck-l,eam of deck
lum~etliately below hurricane-deck.
Rule for Obtaining Tonnage. - Multiply together t.he length, breadth
and depth, and thw product by 0.75; Uivide the last product by 1~0:
the quotient will be the tonnage. 2; X B X D X 0.75,slOO = tonnage.
The v. S. Custom-house Tonnage Law, May 6. 1861. provides that
*the regMer tonnage of a vessel shall be her entire internal cubic capac:lty
in tons of 100 cubic feet each. This measurement includes all the sy~a
between upper decks, however many there may be.
for making the measurements are given in the law.
Explicit directions
The Displacement of a Vessel (measured in tons of 3340 lbs.) is
the weight of the volume of water which it displaces. For sea-water it is
equal to the volume of the vessel~beneath the water-line,~in cubic feet.
divided by 35, which figure is the number of cubic feet of sea-water at
60 F. in a ton of 2240 Ibs. For fresh water the divisor is 35.93. The
U. S. register tonnage will equal the displacement when the entireinternal
cubic capacity bears to the displacement the ratio of 100 to 35. .-
The displacement or gross tonnage is sometimes approximately es&
mated as follows: Let L t!enole the length in feet of the boat. R its extreme
breadth in feet, and D the mean draught in fret,: the product of these
three dimensions will give the volume of a pnrallelopipedon in cubic feet.
Putting Ir for this volume, we have V = LX B X L). ~-
The volume of disDlacement may then be expressed as a percentage
of the volume V, knol+n as the block coefficient. This percentage varies
for diderent classes of ships. In facing yachts with very deep keels it
varies from 22 to 33: in modern merchantmw from 55 to 90: for ordimarr
small boat.s probably 50 will give a fair estimate. The volume of ( I i &
placement in cubic feet divided by 35 gives the displacement. in tons.
Coefficient of Fineness. -A term used to express the relation between
the displacement of a ship and t,he volume of a rect~angular prism or box
whose lineal dimensions are the length, breadth, and draught.
Coefficient of fineness = D X 35+ (L X B X IF); D being the displace-
ment in tons of 35 cubic feet of sea-water to the ton, L t~he lengh between
perpendiculars, B the extreme breadth and II the mean draught. alliu feet.
.Coeffleient of Water-lines. -An expression of the relation of the dis-
Placement to the volume of the prism whose section equhls the midship
section of the ship, and length equal to t,he length of the ship.
Coefficient of water-lines=D X35+ (area of immersed water sectionXL).
Se&ton gives the following values:
Coefficient Coefficient of
Finely-shaped ships.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _.
of Fineness.
Fairly-shaped ships.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~0. 55
~ Ordinary merchant steamers 10 to 11 knot,s.. _
0. 61
Cargo steamers, 9 to 10 knots. . . . . . . . . . ._..
0. 65 ' ~.
Modern cargo steamers of large size . . . ~ . _ . . .
. 0.70
0. 78 0. 83
Resistance of Ships. -The resistance of a ship passing through water
mpv vary from a number of causes, as speed, form of body, displacement,
nudship dimensions, character of wetted surface. fineness of lines, et~c.
The resistance of the water is t.mofold; 1st. That due to the displacement
of the water at the bow and its replacement at t,he stern. tiFith the con-
sequent formation of waves. 2d. The frlct,ion bet.ween the nett.ed sur-
face of the ship and t,he water, known as skin resistance. : A common
Vprosimate formula for r-we of vessels is
Resistance = speed2 x (/displacement2 X aconstant, nor R =s?D3 X.C.
If D = displacement in pounds. S = speed in feet per minute. R
resistance in foot-pounds per minute, R = CS?Da. The-cork done ins
overcoming the resistance through a dist,ancc coo&t; Sis R X S = CSD*;
and if E is the efficiency of the prope>Pc. rp nnct nrwbi:wry combined, the
Indicated horse-power I. H.P. = Cs31>3-+ (Ex 33.0%).
&
&*
If S = speed in knots, D = displacement ii! tons, ,and ~C, a constant .
tiltimrts hurricai&tlrrk. ext,ending ripht fore and aft. and not iilWI~(lea
.for thr~ Americzn coasting trade, in which the depth js to be the distance
. . ~. , ^. . . . . ~, . . , - , . . - - , - s. _~~. r. i . , . . . . , ^. : . ~' : . . ~; i . , i . . . > . ; I
he matwi al mav no l oncj &r' ~&accurat, e~i ; , -
,_
1318 MARINE ENGINEERTNG.
which includes all the constants for form of vessel, efficiency of mechanism,
etc.. I.H.P. = S3D3+Cc.
The wetted surface varies as the cube root of the squaie of the displace.
ment: thus. let L be the length of edge of a cube just immersed, \vhose
displacement is D and wet@! s;lrface W.
and 1V = 5 Y L* = 5 X (1/D)-.
Then D = E3 or L =$5,
That is, 11 varies as 03.
Another approximate formula is
I.H.P. = area of immersed midship section X Si i K.
The usefulness of these two formulae depends upon the accuracy of the
so-c al l ed constants C and K, which vary with the size and form of the
ship, aud probably also with the speed. Seaton gives the following,
which may be taken roughly as the val ues of C and K under the condi.
tions expressed:
General Description of Ship.
.a
306
feet,l,ong. finely,?haped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 t,o 17
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,I5 ** 17
:4$
8. .a .I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 15 240
. . a* 1
. . . . . . . . . . .._. II a 13 260
Ships over 369 feet !png, fairly thaped . . . . . . _ _ . _ . _ . . I; 1: 1: 240
Shipszver 250 feet!png. finelyd;baped:::: :::::::::: 13 1 15
260
200
.I I a1
. . . . . . . . . . . .._ 1; 1: 240
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;:
Ships over 250 feet $ng. fairly$aped _. . . _ . . . _ _ . _ _ . 1; ::-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
):
ii
Ships zver 260 feet !png. finely,?haped.. . _ . _ . . . . _ . I I * 12
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 II E
Ships over 260 feet long, fairly shaped . _ _. . . . . _ . . . . 9 I I!
Ships under 290 fee;,long, finelyti shaped.. . . . . . _ . . . I I 12
. . . . . . . . .._.._ IO * II
I .1 I
;
. . . . . . . . . . . .._ 9
Ships under 266 feet long, fairly shaped.. . . . . . . . .
O 2: 9 * lo
-
Coetlklent of Performance of Vessels. - The quotient
~(displ~cement) X (speed in knot.s)a+ tons of coal in 24 hours
gives a coefficient of performance which represents the comparative cost
of propulsion in coal expended.
sion-engines i .^-^
Sisteen vessels with three-stage expan-
fro- . Izn
Ln I YYU gave an average coetlicient of IJ,SlO, the range being
~111 IL,IJU io 16,700.
In 1881 sevent??n vessels n$h @o-stage expansion-engines gave an
,l the length of the vessels tested arerage coemclent of 11,ilU. In 1SS
ranged from 260 to 320. and in 1590 from 295 to 300. The speed i n knots
divided by then square root, of the length in feet in 1881 averaged 0.539;
and in ISSO, 0.579; ranging from 0.520 Tao 0.641. (Proc. Inst. df. E.,
July, lS91. p. 339.)
Defects of the Common Formula for Resistance. - arodern
experimems throw doubt upon the truth of the statement that the resist,-
ante varies as the sqnare of the speed. (See Robt. afansels letters in
~ngineehg. 1891; also his paper on The Mechanical Theory of Steam-
ship Propulsion. read before Se,
Chicago. lS93.)
ction G of the Engineerhig Congress.
Ranbrines IFormula for total E!SiStanCe of VeSSelS of 1 he f wave-line
R =ALBV* (1+ 4sinz 8-l. sin@).
.
ln which equation B is the mean angle of greatest obliqult . of t.h$ stream- ~,
lines, A is a constant multiplier, B the mean wetted girt ?I of the surface ~..
esposed to friction, L the lengt& i,n feet, and V the speed in knots..~ .The
pou;er demanded to,impel a slup 1s tbu s the~product of a constant to be
determined by experiment, the area ~of the netted surface, t.he cube of :
the speed, and the quantity in ~the parenthesis, which is known as the 1~
**coefficient of augmentation. In calculating the resist.ance of ships the
last term of the coefficient may be neglected as too small to be practically :.~
important. In applying the formula,, the mean of the squares of the :,
sines of the angles of maximum obli
3
ulty of the water-lines is to be taken ~
for sin* 8, and the rule ~$1 then rea thus:
To obtain the re-sistance of a ship of good form, in pounds, tiultiply th&. ,.~
length in feet by the meanimmersed girth and by the coefficient ~of aug.
mentation, and then take the product of this.augmented Surface, as
Rankine termed it, by the square of the speed in knots, and by the proper
constant coefficient selected from the following: ..~..
For clean painted vessels, iron hulls. . , . . .. A~= 0 .bl ~ -
For clean coppered vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A = 0.009 t o. 0.008 y
For moderately rough iron vessels . . . . . . . . A = 0 .Oll + ~.
The net, or effectivi horse-power demanded will be ~:u&e -closely
obtained by multiplyingthe resistance calculate$, as above,
in knots and dividing by 326.
8, the speed :. :
~Tbe gross, or indwated, power is obtained
by mu,ltiplying the last quantity by the reciprocal of the efficiency of the :
machinery and nroneller. which usually should be about 0.6. Rankine
uses as a-divisor inkhis dase 200 to 260.
The forms of the vessel, even when designed by skillful and experienced
naval architects, will often vary to such an extent as to cause the above
constant coefficients to vary somewhat: aud the range of variation with ;
good forms is found to be from 0.8 to 1.5 the figures given.
For well-shaped iron vessels, an a,pprosimate formula for the horse-
power required is H.P.= SV3i 20,000, in which S his the augmented ,~
surface. The ex ression SV + H.P. has been called by Rankine the
coefficient of prop&on.
..,~
In the ,Hudson River steamer.:Jlary Powell, : ,. ..,
according to ThursQm, this coefficient was as high as 23.300.
The expression DW + H.P: has been called the Zoconmtke pezformame.
(See Rankines Treatise on Slupbuilding. 1564: Thurstons 3lanual of the
Steam-engine, part ii, p. 16; also paper by F. T. Bonles, U. S. N.. Proc. ,~.~
U. S. Naval Institute, 1583.)
Rankines method for calculating the resist,ance is said by Se&ton to ~. 1
give more accurate and reliable results than those obtained bythe qlder .:: .
rules, but it is criticised as being difficult and inconvenient of a.pplication.~ :
E.-R. Numfords Nethod & Calculating Wetted Surfaces is given-
in a paper by Archibald Denny, Engg. Sept. 21. 1894. The following
is his formula, which gives closely accurate results for medium draughts,
beams, and finenesses;
.,
S = (LX DX 1.7)+ (LX BX 0,
fn which S = wetted surface in square feet: L = 1engt.h between perpen-
diculars in feet. D = middle draught in feet; B = beam in feet; C =,
block coeffiriant,~
In
Seaton says:.In small steamers the chief resistance is theskinresistance.
very fine steamers at high speeds the amount of power required seems
excesswe when compared with t hat of ordinary steamers at ordinary
spe_eds.
In torpedo-launches at certain high speeds the resistance increases at a
lower rate than the square of the speed.
In ordinary sea-going and river steamers the reverse seems to be the
case. 1: .,~,.~~I:- ,:~ ~, .I
,, ,-
The formula may also be expressed in the form S .& L(1.7 D + BC).
In the case of twin-screw ships having project.ing shaft-casings, or in
the case of a ship having a deep keel or bilge keels, an addition must be .;, : :
made for such projections. The formula gives resu1t.s which are in . ~~ ~
general much more accurate than those obt~ained by I<,irks method, It ~~ ,,
underest,imates the surface when t.he beam draught. or block coeficlen!s .: . .i
are excessive: but the r:rror is small exceptin t,he case of abndrmal forms. .., :,
such as stern-wheel steamers having very escessive beams (nearly one- ~
fourth the length). and also very full block coefficie@. The formula .~, ~,~~
8L:~@ves a surface about 6% too small for such forms. : : .~ : j :
.~,!. ,~ :, . . . . ~~. ;:
*. t
,. ,: ,,,~,_, ~: ,.,
materi al
The:wetted surface of ,&lie bldck is neafly equal ~to ,that ~of the ship ,,f
the sa?e length,, beam alid dFaught: usually ar/o~ to 5% greater;
exceedmgly line hollow-line slnps it may be SyO greater.
In
Area of bottom of block = (F + M) x E;
Area of sides = 2 M X H.
Area of sides of ends = 4 X ~F~.(~)%f; I:~
Tangent of half angle of entrance = llze/F = B/(2 F).
ob~mn-&his~ by a table of patural tangents, the angle of entrant.: may, be
Angle of Entrance Fore-body in
of the Block Model. parts of length.
Oceanzgoing stea?ers, 14 knots and tipwd
12 to 14 knots . . . . .
1s; to 15O
a.
cargo steamers, 10 to 12 I cuots. .
.2210 $ ;;
0. 3 too.36
0. 26 to 0.3
' 0.22tO 0.26
Dr. Kirks Nethod. -.T!tis method is generally used on the Clyde.
The general idea proposed by Dr. Kirk is to reduce all ships to so
def i mte and simple a form that they may be easily compared; and the
magmtude of certam features of this form shall determine the suitability
of the ship for speed, etc.
The form con.slsts of a middle body, which is a rectangular parallel&
gas&, as shown in Fig. 194.
iped, and fore-body and after-body, prisms having~isosceles triangles for
.
FIG. 194.
This is called a block model. and is such that its length is equal to that
of the ship, the depth is equal to the mean draught. the capacity equal
to the displacement vol ume, and its s.rea of section equal to the area of
immersed midship sect.ion. The dimensions of the block model may be
obtained its fOllOWS: I& .4G = JCL? = length of fore- or after-body = P;
Gff = length of middle body = fit: KL = mean draught = H; EK =
area of immersed midship section SKL =B. Volume of block =(F +M) X
B X H: midship section = B X H; displacement in tons - volume In
cubic ft. i 35.
AH = -4Gf GIi = F+ M 2 displacement X.35 L(B X H).
TO find the Indicated Horse-power from the Wetted Surface.
(Spaton.) -In ordinary cases the horse-power per 100 feet. of wetted
purface may be found by assuming that the rate for a
1s .j. and that the quantity varies as the cube of the s
To find the number of T.H.P. necessa.rv to drive a
knots, having a wetted skin of block model of 16,200 square feet:
The rate per 100 feet = (15!10)3 X .5 = 16.875.
Then T.H.P. required = 16375 x 162 = 2734.
When the shin is exceptionally well-proportioned, the bottom uite
clean. and t.he efficiency of the machinery high, as low a rate as 4 I. %.P.
Per 100 feet of wetted skin of block model ma, v be allowed.
The qoss indicated horse-power includes the power necessary to ov@
Come Phe frirt.ion and other resist.anre of t,he engine it,self and the shaft.ing,
and nlso t,h,e Dower lost, i n the propeller. In other words, I..H.P. is no
measure of the .resist.ance of t,he ship, and can only he,relied on as a mean?
Of dcridine the sixe.of enpi thS for Speed. SO l ong as the ef f i ci ency, of 0.3
engine and prop++ js~ knowi! defini@ly,.,or so long as similar engines and,,,.
,..:f :.; .,,,, :,..
-_ ./+.,A. ,. :_: ,L L_ : ;,:..;:k
,:,,;y )./&RN INGf:,;Th~i,s 1, i s a 1 $10 &J i~-ffGF>
nropellers are, employed in ships to becompared. The former i$dj&di
in. and it is ~nearlv imnossible in nractice to know hnw met& Of . i o Cbta
the power shown in the cylinders is &mpi&etl useful1
resistance of the ship. Then following example is giv
ation in the efficiencv of oronellers: ..~. ~~
y in overcoming the
en to show thee vari:
_.. _ _~ ~~~~
HXS.
Knots. I.H.P.
H.N.S.
Amazon, with j,4-blsded screw, gave :. . . . . 12.064 cith 1940
Amazon, I with a 2:bladed screw, inlzreased
pitch, and fewer revolutions
R.!d.S. Iris,~ with a 4-blade R
er minute.. . . . . . . 12.396~ *,~ i$63
screw
~H.M.S. Iris,
.~. . . . . . . , . . . . . .,.,1&577 I,;- jO;r
~~
with 2-bladed screw, increased pitch,
fewer revolutions pet knot.. . . . . . . .. . . ; ,. i ;. . . :~, . ; 15.587~,- .:-1556
1 1 Relative Horse-powerRequired for Difflerent~ Speeds of Vessels. Relative Horse-powerRequired for Difflerent~ Speeds of Vessels.
(Horse-power for 10 knots *~ 1.) i The horse-power is, taken-usually to (Horse-power for 10 knots *~ 1.) i The horse-power is, taken-usually to
vary as the~cube of the speed,. but in different vessels nnd at different vary as the~cube of the speed,. but in different vessels nnd at different
s s
t t R R
eeds it may vary from the 2.8 power to tbe 3.5power, depending upon eeds it may vary from the 2.8 power to tbe 3.5power, depending upon
e lines of the vessel.and upon the efficiency of thc.engines;. the pro- e lines of the vessel.and upon the efficiency of thc.engines;. the pro-
peller. etc. (The peller. etc. (The
,. power of tl?e spee ,. power of tl?e spee B B
ower may vary at. a much higher rate than the 3.5 ower may vary at. a much higher rate than the 3.5
when the speed is much less than normal,. a,nd the when the speed is much less than normal,. a,nd the
machinery 1s therefor working at less than its normal effictency.) ~,- : .,. _, machinery 1s therefor working at less than its normal effictency.) ~,- : .,. _,
-gj
g; 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
f f l 2A
f . G- -
- - - - - - - - -
61' 8 . 0769. 239. 5351.
Sz-0 .0701 ,227 .524 1.
i i . 1
0640 . 216 512 1
: 0584 , 205 : 501 I :
tY. 2 . 0533 ,195 ,490 I. 1.7922.9354.5006.5599.189 12.47 16.4721.2826.9733.63
S= . 0484 , 185 . 479l . 1. 6253. 0564. 7166. 9579. 84913. 49 17. 9823. 41 29. 9037. 54 "
S3. 4 . 0444 , 176 , 468 1. 1. 8593. 1394. 943 7. 378 10. 56 14. 60 19. 6225. 7633. 1441. 9G
S= . 04O5 , 167 . 458l . 1. 8933. 2475. 181 7. 824 I I . 31 15. 7921. 4228. 3436. 7346. 77
EXAMPLE IN UYE OF THE TABLE. - A certain vessel makes 14 knots
~, speed wiith 587 I.H.P. and 16 knots wiclh 900 I.H.P. ,What I.H.P. will
be required at 18 knots, the rate of increaseof horse- ower wivith increase of
speed remaining constant? The first step is to An f the rate of increase.
~. thus: 14z : 16 :: 587 : 900.
15 knots. ~2ixl$s
10 1: ~,:20.35
~~ 19.16 ~
,:;:.a :
18 09
19 .~: : .x7:14 I
20 1:~ .: .~;l&m ", ~~~
, : ' . . ~
More amcrate methods thm those above gi ven f or estim?ting the horse-
uired for allv proposed ship are: I. Estimations Calcu!ate?
esults of trials of similar vessels driven at~.."cOrSesP,~ndin~ ,;.,
zlog16-slog14=log9OO-log5S7; ,~.
2 (0.204120 -a 0.146128) = 2.954243 - 2.768635,
.whence z (the exponent of P in formula H.P. LC S2) = 3.2.
From the table, for Sa.2 and 16 knots, the I.H.P. is 4.5 times the I.H.P.
at 10 knots; :. H.P. at 10 knots = 900 + 4.5 = 200.
From the table for ,Ys** and 18 knots, the I.H.P. is 6.559 times the I.H.P.
at 10 knots: :. H.P. at 18 knots = 200 X 6.559 ? 1312 H.P.
Resistance per Horse-power for Different Speeds. (One .horse- 1
Power = 33,000 lbs. resistance overcome through 1 ft. in 1 min.). -.The
resistances per horse-power for various speeds are as follows: For a speed
.~~ of 1 knot, br 6080 feet per hour = 101 V3 ft. per min.. 33,000 + lo! ?3 =
325. 658 Ibs. per horse-power: and for any other speed 325.~!5S,lb?. &tlded
by the speed in knot.s: or for
;.~
-
speeds; similar vessels being those that havethe,same ~ratio of length
to breadth and ,to draught: and the same coefficient of fineness. anrl
,,,,,
estimated Displacement, IZZ~o&mg;
120
144
160
180
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
F
; $~
10 n
g
. 65
55
: E
.65
2:
: 6
: i :
2:
. 55
.65
. 55
. 65
. 55
965
. 55
: E
: Z
: : :
: tj
: 67:
2;
: : i
: ?
. z
: 7i
1;
1;
. g
: B
1;
. 6!
: S
. 6!
. 7:
. 5
i i
. 6
. 7
i
i
i
i
i
i
i.
i
i
i
i
E
:
:
lo, may, , r- p . ~ longer
Eatimnl
parer I
C.la.
Orn Dh
LJesmt.
4. 3
; : ;
6. 0
' 07: :
' 1: : ;
E
; ; : :
~%Fi
~62. 9
%
79. 2
I I I
97~
147
104
143
202
I 31
179
: z,
%
%
368
: : : ~
455
257
373
526
383
2; ;
548
806
1175
769
1111
E
1451
f E
1616
2171
I E
2543
1747
2266
%
: r; i ;
. ~. , .
corresponding speeds those which are proportional to the squarero;ti
of the lengths of the respective vessels. Froude found tirat the resistances.
of such vessels varied almost exactly as wetted surface X (speed)*.
2. The method employed by the British Admiralty and by some Clyde
sbipbmlders, viz., ascertaining the resistance of a, model of the vessel
12 to 20 ft. long, in a tank, a;nd calculating the, power ,from the result;
approsimate estimates.
The figures in 7th column are calculated by the formula H.P. =S3Dg+ c
in which e = 200 for vessels under 200 ft. long when C = 0.65, and 210
when C = 0.55; c = 200 for vessels 200 to 400 ft. long when C =0.75
220 when C = 0.68, 240 when C = 0.55; c = 230 for vessels over 460 ft:
long when C = 0.75, 2.50 when C = 0.65. 260 when C = 0.55.
The figures in, the 8th column are based on 5 H.P. per 100 sq. ft. of
wetted surface.
T-diameters of screw in the 9th column are from formula D = 3.31
~I.H.~P., and in the 10th column from formula D = 2.71 t/E.
8. 3
8. 2
8. 7
2
2
a: 9
9. 7
. 10. 5
9. 6
To find the diameter of screwfor any other speed than 10 <riots revolu.
tions being 100 per minute, multiply the diameter given in the table by
the 5t.h root of the cube of the given speed + 10.
For anv other revolu-
tions per minute than 100, divide by the~revohnions and muhiplv by 100
To, hnd the approximate horse-power for any other speed than.10 knots
muhipiy the horse-power given in the table bv the cube of the ratio of the
given sP& to 10. or by the relative figure from t.able on p. 1321.
F. E. Cardulio. -Mach!/. April, 1907; gives the following formula as
cios~appro=mating the speed of modern types of hulls: S = 6.35
a,, rI -
\/!&&
in which S = speed in knots, D = displacement in tons.
If
we take 8 = 10 knots, then I.H.P. + D2/3= 3.906
S = 10. then H.P. = 1813.
Let D = 10 000 and
The tableon page1323 gives for a bis
ment of lo.400 tons and a coefficient of fineness 0.65, 1966 and
iace-
averagmg 1863 H.P.
1760 % .P..
Internal Cpmbustion Marine Engines. - Linton Hope (Engg
April 8, 1910). m a paper on the applicat.ion of internal combustion en+&
to fishmg boats and fine-lined commercial vessels, gives a table sho?ving
the brake H.P..reqwred to propel such vessels at various speeds. The
followng table IS an abridgment.
in t.ons~
L=load water line; D=displacement
_- ..__
Block Coefficient.
I Speed in Knots. -
0. 35 0. 4 4 1. 5 j 6 1 7 / 8 / 9 . I , l O
LID LID
Drake Horse-power.
L D
--
75 loo
69 77
;; it
52 35
2 ::
40 I 6
37 I 2
;; y/1
T
0. 25
L D
--
,
-
78 105
71 81
; ; i f
54 36
50 28
if:
38 I 3
35 9
32 61,
:z ;:,
44 . . . . . . . . . .
40 . . . . . . . . . .
37 . . . . . . . . . .
34~. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.... ..........
.............
I I
..............
~..:
,.. ,_
The :pitch.of a
descnbrng a.hehx ~11 .f
ropeller is the distance w&h any point in a blade
travel in the direction of the axis during one revolu.
tlon, the p?mt bemg assumed to move around bhe axis. The pitch of a
propeller w$h a umform rxtch is equal to ,the distance a propeller \vill
advance dunng one revolution, provided there is~ no slip.
In a c ase of
this kind. the term pitch is analogous to the term rpitch of the thread
of an ordinary single-threaded screw.
Let P =. pitch of screw in feet. R = number of revolutions per second
V = velocity of Stream from the propeller = P X R, ?I = velocity of th,$
ship in feet per second, V - 2) = slip, A = area in square feet of section
of stream from the screw. approlrimately the area of a circle of the same
diameter, A X V = vohme of water projected astern from the ship in
cubic feet per second. Taking the weight of a cubic foot of sea-water
at 6-l lbs., and the force of gravity at 32, we haye from the co.pmon for;
mul a for force of acceleration, viz.: F= My = W 2, or F - +
I second.
9 t
- 7 %I, whet
- Thrust of screw in pounds = v(V-v)=ZAV(V-we).
Rankine (Rules, Tables, and Dat.a, p. 275) gives the following: To
calculate the thrust of a propelling instrument (jet, paddle, or screw) in
pounds, multiply together the transverse sectiona. area, in s
of the stream driven astern by.the propeller: the speed of t
uare feet
R e stread
relatively to the ship in knots: the real slip, or part of that speed which is
impressed on the stream by the propeller, also in knots; and the constant
5.66 for sea-water, or 5.5. for fresh water. If S = speed of the screw in
knots, s = speed of slur In knots, A = area of the stream in square feet
(of sea-water),
Thrust in pounds = A X S (S 2 s) X 5.136.
The red slip is the velocity (relative to water at rest) of the water pro-
jected.sternward; the apporetlt slip is the difference between t.he speed of
the ship and the speed of the screw; i.e., the product of the pitch of the
screw by the number ?f revolutions.
This apparent Slip Is sometimes negative, due to the working of the
screw in disturbed water which has a forward velocit$, following the ship..
Negative apparent slip is an indication that the propeller is not suited
to the ship. The apparent slip should generally be about 8% to 10% at
full spsed in well-formed vessels with moderately fine lines; in bluff cargo
t rarely exceeds 5%.
rffective area of a screw is the sectional area of the stream of water
is general@. if not alway!, greater than
good ordinary examples 1s 1.2 or there-
; 1.4: a fact probably due to the st.iffri&s
motion laterally amongst its particles.
111. E., xi. 102s. found the ratio of the
! the screws of different vessels to be as
Tug-boat, nith ordinary true-pitch screw
Tug-boat, with screw having blades proj&i& &&;l;j;d 1: 1:: : : : : A 1%
Ferrrboat I%ergen, with or-
dinary true-pitch screw i
at speed of 12.00 stat. miles per hr.. 1.53
Steamer Homer Ramsdell,
at speed of 13.4 stat. miles per hr.. 1.45
with ordinary true-pitch screw. . . . . 1.20
Size of Screw. - Sealon says: The size of a screw depends on so
many things that it is very difficult to lay down any rule for @dance,
and murh must always be left to the experience of t,he designer, to alloW
f?r all the circumst.ances of each particular case. Then following rules are
given for ordin+ry:,,eases (Seaton and Rounthwaites Pocket-book):
,.
P ~.=? pitch :af. p&Ii& Ii,; .feet =
10133 R
_~ :.:.~.; :.I~,;., : .~ ; .::,-, : .,.,. ~: :-;;,yT~i? (100 - 2)
in which S = speed in ~,
__,, &
-
~~ ~ ., ;. 1.. 1;. ., :;
in the table below. If K 4 ~20, D = 20,0&111H.P1
&~$ x iz)3. 1
Total developed area of blades = Cd1.H.P. j. I<, in which C &~a coefli-
cientto be taken from.the table.
pitch, given in SealOn& ]ti+I&~n&e$ng, is
C = 737 for ordinary yessels, aAd 660 for slow-
soeed cargo vessels with full line&- ~. ~, ~. :; I-~:,., : ,: ~~
Thi rl i ness of blade at
sha.ft in inches, n ~&uL~ __ -___._,
where it joins the boss,~ measured parallel io the
shaft axis; I;, = 4 for cast
iron, 1.5 for cast steel, 2 for gun-metal, I.5 for high-class bronze.
Thickness of blade at tip:Cast iron 0.04 D -t- 0.4 in.; cast steel 0.03 4 i-
~0.4 in.; gun-metal. 0;03 D +,0.2 in.; high-class bronze, $02 D ,+ 0.3 in.,
w. hf we l I = di : s, met, er of nrorleller in feet. : . . ~~ ~, .:
Bluff cxrgo boat~s.~. . . .
Cargo. moderat,e lines. .~. .
Pass. ant1 mail, fine lines.
.6 6. 6. I ,
. .
6. 66
4.
1: v0.y fiy.. . .
X%:.31 ves+s. 1: 1: 1:~
Torpedo-boats, : ::
4
. :
%
3
~!
3
I
--
1: A; : 5 4; .-;~:~ Ca,st. ifpn
19. 5~20. 5 15 - 13. C.I.orS.
20. 5- 21. 5 14. ~12: 5
21 - 22 1. 2. ~11 :
22. - 23 ~ . l O. j - ~ 9
G. td. o+
( . *.
21 - 22. 5 , l l . i 10. 5
22 i ; 23. 5 K&7
~1: .
4
B. or FS.
C. I., cast iron; G. M., gun-melal;
1 ,:I:. ,J
B., bronze; S., steel; F.S., forged steel.
From the formulae D = 20,000
I.H.P.
.&sd P
(PXRP
if
P = D and R = 100, we obtai n D = 9400X T~H~P.:= .?!Sl </Ix
If P = 1. 4 fi and R = 100. then D = J145.e
- .__. -.. -.-- ~~-
;XI.H.P.=2.71 q1.H.P.
0Fp trrrn +nrtili~Ii ;hp &UWS fnr diameter of screw iti the table
From thLY1 y ..- .uA.......I _._ _.O ____ _.. ...~~~~~~
on page 1x13 have been calculated. They may be used as rough approx-
imations to the correct diameter of screw for any given horse-power. for
a speed of 10 knots~and 100 revolutions per minute.
For any other number of revolut,ions per minutemultiply the figures
in the t.able.by 100 and divide by the given number.of revOlllt!OnS.
For
any other speed than 10 knots since the I.H.P. vanes aPprOxlmately as
t~he cube of the speed, and the diameter of the screw as t~heath root of the
I.H.P., multiply the diameter given for 10 knotS~ by the &b root of the
cr~he of one-tenth of the given speed.
Or, multiply by. the following
factors:
i.375 1.423 1.470 1.515 1.561 1.605 1.645 1.691 1.733 1 774 1 &, 1~55
For mcr$ accur++ determinations of diameter and pitch of icrew ihe
formulae and coefh~lents ~lven by Seaton, quoted above, should be &sed
Efficiency of the.Propeller.,- According to Rankine, if then slip oi
the water be S, Its weight W. the resistance R, and the~speed of the s&p V,
12 = ws =+ g: Rv = wev + g.
This impelling ?ction must, to secure masimum efficiency. of propeller
be effected by an Instrument w!tich takes hold of the fluid without shoed
of hsturbance of ,the surroundmg mass, and, by a steady acceleration
aves It t,he reqqred fina. ve1ocit.y of discharge
propeller overconnng the resistance R would thenbe
The velocity of thi
fv+(V+S)1~2.=v+s/2;
and the work performed would be
R (vf s/2)-= WV, i gf Wsz + 2g
the first Of the iaSt,twO terms being useful, the secondthe minimum lost
work; th!: latter b?ng the wasted energy of the water thrown back\vard
The efhencY IS ~5 T 21 + (V f s/2); and this is the limit attainable wit6
a perfect pr?p$ling Instrument, wh~hlimit is approached the more nearly
as t!e conrtltlons above, prescribed are the more nearlv fulfilled. The
effiLlencY of the
0. 60, and, never a t
ropelllng instrument is probably r&y much above
eve 0.80.
111 deW?UW the Screw-prOpelk, as was shown by Dr Froude the
best angle for the surface is that of 4V with the planeof tl;e disk. hilt as
ali prts of the bide cannot be given the same angle, it should where
pracrxable, be so proportioned that the a(
effort should be made 45O.
pitch-angle at the cgnter of
according to Froude. 77%.
The maximum possible efficiency is then,
111 orde;, that the water should be taken on without shock and dis-
CharRed. \\lth ,maunum backward velocity, the scre . v must have an
axially lncreasng p&h.
The true screw is by far the more usual form of propeller, in a11 steamer/s
~;::iimpercl~6~~ and naval. (Thurston, Manual of the Steam-engine:
T_hecombined efficiency of screw, shaft engine etc. is generally taken
at on.%. In some cases it may reach 60+$ or 65y0. Rankine t$kes the
effective H.P. to equal the T.H.P. + 1.63.
Results of Researches on the efficiency of screw-firopellers are sum-
man.zed by S. W. Barnahy, in a paper read before section G of the ~ngi-
neenng Congress. Chicago 1893.
,pnnciples haye been est~h~shed:
He states that the following general
(a) There 1s definite amount of rea,l slip at which, and at which only
mawn~lm efinency can be obtained with a screw of a,nv given tvpb
api th,S amount vanes with the pitch-ratio
The slip-ratio proper to z
mren ratio of Pitch to diameter has been discovered and tabulated for a
screw of a standard type, as below :
Pitch-ratio and Slip for Screws of S
.-
Jf
I
;:;
19. 5
20. 1
: : "7
20. 7
I
21. 3
; : t i i : :
-
(0) Screws of large pin
sei~s$~. add to the resistar
PortIon to their distance
the race.
tch-ratio, besides being less efficient in them-
we of the hull b.y an amount bearing some
ro-
from It, and to the amount of rot&ion ie t m
F.
tandnrd Form.
Pitch-ratio. Re,$Lzz Of
I
cc) The best pitch-fatio~lies ,probahiy between 1 1, and x.5
@I, The flller &~~~~~~~ST.yf,t!l? ~CSsei,, the less the pitch-ratio should be.
.,
._,.. yy:,, . . ..~..,.) ::i~ i~:~,., . . .-,.
,,.
THE ,SCRtiW-+ROPELLE$ .~ , :
~. 1327 .,.,.
(e) Coarse-ttched. screws should be- &c,ed funi+ ~f r o~~<~t ~ ,T!ef:
than fine-pitc ed ones.
(f) hpparerlt uegative slip is a natural result of abnormaf.&ojortions
Of +opellers.
(,J), Three blades are to be~pceferred for high-speed vessel?. but when
the dlamcteris uuduly restricted, four or even more may be a$mntage~~usly
employed.
C!L) An rffic
:ient fork of blade is an ellipse having a minor axis $clrtal
tof&r-tenths the major axis.
(i) The pitrh of wide-bladed screws should increase.~from forward ~t0.
..I* hnt n IIniinrm nit& eves satisfactory results when the l&de? are
$gix.of the blade.
(j) A considerable inclinjtion of screw-shaft produces viblat,ipn, ,and
R+th fight-handed twin-screws turning putwards, If the shafts are InChneU.
at all it shouid be upwards and outwards from the propellers..,
Fo; result,s of experiments with screw-propellers, see F., c.: Ifarshali.
proc Inst. fif. E., 1881; R. E. Froude, !lrans.
Insti ,Sav. Arch&. lSS6;
G. A: Calvert Trans. I?&; Nav. .-lrchs.; 18S7: S. W. Earnalj?,. PTOC: I nst.
C. E., lsgo, ;ol. cii. and D. W. Taylor s
Resistance of Sblps and Screw
Propulsion.
Also Mr. Taylors paper in Proc. So,c. N,av.~.Arc>. I$ ,Xarlne
Engrs., 1904.
Mr. Taylor found the highest effiaencles, .exceedmg 70%.
in propellers with pitch ratios from ~1.0 to 1.5 ratlo of width af blade to
diameter of 11s tp l/s, and ratio of developed area of blade to disk area of
0 >Ol to 0.322.
i!ne of the most important results deduced: from esprrine~ts on model
screws is that they appear to have practically eq,ual etficlen~les through-
out 2 wide rangeboth in pitch-ratio and in surtace-ratio: SO that great
latit;lde is left to the designer in regard to the form of, the Propeiler.
Anot,her important feature is that, although these espernnenta are .not
a direct.guitfe to the selection of the rnC$ elticient propeller for a Partlcu-
lar ship they supply the ,means of ana+ing t,hf Performances of srreys
fitted td vessels and of thus indirect,ly determmlng \\li:~,~~~,h~~~~,t~a:ee
the best dimensions of screw for a VeSSei of a class
known. Tl~us a great advance has been made on the ol d method 0: tri al
upon the ship itself, which was the origin of almost every conceavable
erronemls view respecting the screw-propeller.
(PrOC. Inst. -If. E.. July,
1891.)
\[r. Rarnaby in proc. I&. C. E., 1890. gives j table to be used in.cal-
cuiations for determining t.he best dimensions of s,cre\vs for F-n Uen
speed and H.P. from which the following table is abndqed.
It. Ia deduced
from Fr oudes experiments at Torquay.
!Trflns.~ln,st. .&a~. A@S.. 1666.)
Cd = disk area in sq.
ft. x V3jH.P. CR = revs. per mm. X D/V.
v = speed in knots, D A diam. of screw in ft.
on the screw shaft.
H.P. = ef f er t i VeR~i ~
Di sk area = 0. 7S54 IF= CA X I.H.P./I.
per .min. = cR x V/D. The constants Cd and CR assume a
standard
vqiue of the speed of the wake, equal to 19% of t,he s
eed
R
of the ship.
I; a very full ship it may amount to 30%, therefore V s
ould he reduced
when using the constants by amounts vnr??:lng from, 29% ~to 0 as the
form varies from very full to fairly fine.
Effy. of
Screw, %.
Pitch ratio.
465 ! i 221 304 128 215 134 157 142 , 115 150
546 99 355 104 251 109 184 115 I 35 123
86 160 $
1% 131
1;
625 83 405 87 288 92 2111 97 1% 104
704 72 456 76 325 80 236 85 173 90
i I > 1; ; $
, 129
I $
789 63 507 67 360 71 263 75 193 : 80
558
60 396 64 PI 68 212 73
, 144 ~~; ; ! g
' 159
. , $
. . . _ . . . .
699
55 432 58 315
~~
. . . . . . . . : : I : : : : : ; ; "o : ; 2; ; ' : ; t : ; t:
' i f : ; $ +; ; ~. j : ; . ; ; .
53 27& 57 202! . 62. 153 ~67
5
' 6
7. 5! 27 24.4 3. 5 0. 5 5 ;; i,65$ ii.5 2Rr~ &84; paddle, 4.74
2 5- , . . . 90 6' 300 17
3. 2 9. 9 7. 4 90 10' 300 17
I : 62; 2' 90
2 . . , . 6. 9 100 I O: 50018
I . 72: 2: 100
1. 68; 100 2 I t. 2 8. 1 90
3 10. 5 7. 4 110
11, 900 18. 2
1. 5 10. 5 7. 7 I I 0
13, 300 18. 3
3. 46; 2.
104
5 ! I 3 10. 5
14, 32020. 18
1. 70: 3, 86
150
1. 71; 2, 2, 105
5 i i 12. 5 4. 7 165 I 80
20, 00021. 8
1950021
2, 45; 2, 7l ;
30' 00022. 01
7 43. 2 68. 2. 113 2 I I 0
4' 37: 2' 79: 4' 98
5 20. 9 14. 3 I 78
! . 5 28. 5 17. 3 192
30: 00022. 5 2: 52: 2: i 391 4: 96
1 ; 63. 6; ; . 5 220
27. 00020. 72 2, 471/ z; 2, 79;
225
36. 00023. 5
38, 0002335
4. 36. 6; 2, 73. 6; 4. 93 2, 103. 9; 4, 106. 3
1. 538 132. 5 195 68. 00025 4, 37. 4; Turbtne.7 4. 49. 2; 4, 74. 8; 4, 112. 2
. . . . .
27, 483
. .
: 9, 286
: sg:
' 0: 265
$07;
i 4' 205
9
2: ;
71643
8. 350
:
5 2,
i 2
G. ~,T .~:;..~::Servia. ................
v) (_i.~, .:~...~:Alaeka ..................
:
,, I~ ~:,:;,::, City of Rome. ..........
:
k. ., :: _:.::: Oregon.
V) :Y .:.;~ Umbria
.................
;;;;f:;
.................
Paris. ..................
ji ~
Teot,onic ................
Campania .......... .f ...
-: IGii. \Vilhelmd.Grosse
,a~ Oceanic.. ...............
s.
Deutschland ............
Kaiser \Vilhelm II
Lusitania.
.....
..............
Turbines and Bollkrs & the ~~&itania.y~
(Thomas Bell Proc
Inst.. Sau. Arc/@.,. 1908.) -Some of the principal dimensionsof the
turbmes and boders of the Lusitania are as follows:
Blades, ins.~.
In Last
k. Expansion.
Turbines.
H.P...;. L.p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . ..I............... ,g
2% -
Astemn.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.........
: : 2
12318
104
22
. . . *. *. . . . . . . .
8
Tota! cooling surface, main condensers, 89 800 s
inlet, 1~s sq. ft: bore of circulating discharg&pes
. ft. area of exhaust
BOILERS. - WorklUg PressWe. 195 Ibs. per
92 itis
sq: in: 2i double-ended
boilers, !7 ft. 6 in. mean diameter by 22 ft. long. 2 siigle-ended boilers
17 ft. 6 In. mean diameter by 11 ft. 4 in. long total number of furnacev
192; total grate StIffaCe, 4048 sq. ft.; total heaiing surface 158 35.7 3
. ft !
total length of boiler-rooms, 336 ft.; total length of ma& anh a>& &j
engme rooms. 149 ft. 8 in..
2.
.The fo@G~g are ,the weights of the various revolving parts, together
w!tl; the stze of bearings and the pressure:
&eight of one H.P. turbine rotor complete, 86 tons; one ,L.P. rotor;
120 tons; one astern rotor, 62 tons.
Main Bearing
Journals.
Pressure
* Per Sq. In.
At 190 Revs.
Diatnet,er. ~~~~~~f ~~~~~ ~~~oceu~ed
- H.P. rotor.. . . . . . . . .
L.P. rotor . . . . . . . . . . . .
271/s in.
33l/sin.
443j 4i n.
46 l/z in.
80 Ihs. 1350 ft. per min.
Astern rotor.. . . . . 1 24Q in. 1 34314 i*
z3 P
1650 ft. per min.
S. I 200 ft. permin.
Performance of the Lusitania.
(Thos. Bell Proc. Inst. XUV.
Archts.9 131~8: PoWer, XflsV 12, 1908.) -The folloivini records \\sere ob-
tained in the official trial&
Speed in knots _ . . . .
Shaft horse-power. . ...: 1 1 . .
15.77
Steam cons. per shaft, H.P. ti;.
13,400 2Of:OO 33.20100 48::OO &.&O
of t~urbines, Ibs.. . . . . . .
of ausilianes, Ibs.. . . _ : :
total Ibs.. . . . . . .
::3
&24 14.91 13.91
26. 53 20. 9: 1%
2. 01 Zi
Temperature of feed $&;
15.93 14.46
- - r . . . . . . . . . . . . . __. _ ~.
Coal cons. Ibs. per shaft
200 200 199 .179 165
H.P. hr . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. 52 2. 01 1. 618 1. 56 1. 43
Estimated steam and coal consumption under service conditions, at
same speeds:
-~
Steam cons. of ausiliaries
Per shaft H.P. hr. 1bs.l
Steam cons. of totai per
6.97 4.92 3.41 2. 65 2.17
fhd
shaft H.P. hr., tbs.. _
COllS.. lbs. per shaft,
28. 20 22. 18 18. 32 16. 57 14.94
H.P. hr., Ibs. . .
Est. COG COIIS., on a voragi
2. 76 2. 17 1. 8 1. 62 1. 46
of 3100 nautical niiles,
gross t,ons . . . . . . .
3. 270 3, 440 3, 930 4, 700 5, 490
The folloaing fbzures are taken from the records of a vorage from
Qlleenstown to Sandy Hook. 2781 nautical miles. Nov. 3-8 lg(i8 4 days,
ly hrs. -10 m.: .4wages: Steam pressure at bo& 168 lb&. temperature
, "ot: S%l - . 7f : T; , f eed . \ %er, , 197 , ; , , , . pcuum, 28. 1 iA.: speed,14.25 knots;
,, _,,iI.,.~,,: L ::;A;
.~. . .
.,.. ..,.. __i _.,. -.L.,l.G.l.~~2 ~.
:
.., _~~_.. ~- ~. ..~
-, _,~.~ ,i,, &;,&&&#
:i.yqp+:~ ..Jhis, i$,.a 1~910 edition-~ SOme
speed. best ,day, .24.8 knots: revolutiqns, 18!.1; shp. ~i5.9r,; coal,
497ti tons. Steam consumption:. mam turbmes, 851,500. !b%, = 13~1 lbs.
per shaft H;P. hr. (on a basis of 65,000 +sft Hip.); ~auxlllary machinery,
.114,000 I bs. , =1.75 per H.P. hr.; evaporatmg plant and heatmg, 32,600 lb%,
-0.5 lb. per H.P. hr. Total, 998,000~ Ibs., = 15.35 lbs.~ Peru shaft H.P.
Average coal burned! ~~ 43112 tons per hour. Water evaporat~ed
coal 10.2 lbs. from feed at 196O, = 10.9 Ibs. fromand at 212O.
,Coal f% all purposes per shaft I$.P.~,hour. 1.5 lbs. Coal per.sq. ft. of
grate per hour, 24.1 lb% The coal was half Yo@@re~,+nd iiaif South
_.I-,--
In September, 1909, the Lusitania made the Westward. p&sage, 27.84
miles from Daunts Rock near Queenstown to .4mbrose Channel Llghtshtp, ~
off Sandy Hook, in 4 days 11 h. 42 m.; averaging 25185 knots for the entire
~ ~
: fi
Four successive days runs,, from noon.!0 noon, were 650, 652,
zs,i% 674 miles.
Relation df Horse-Power to Speed. -If & and S2 .are twn successive .
~,
speeds and plPz the corresponding horse-powers, then to lindthe, value
of the exponent z in tile e uation B.P. m S tie~have, . .
~ ~
5 5 (Log%*- logr,)s(log~*- logs,).;~ ,;, ~. :; ,:.,
Applving this formula to the hors&powers and speeds of the I~ Lusitania
\~e &nd that bet\veen 15.77 and 18 knots z = 3.21: beWe+ 18 and 21

?: = x.09: between 21 and 23 knots z~= 4;1,2: between 23 and
Dn.l Al a-r r r l >nol .mt h Rar l i sl l i 1na.t ~. (Seatons Marine.EnRineerlng.) -
Th~~ff~~,~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~i~~~~~l is &&lly taken froth the cehters
of opposite floats; but it is difficult to cay what is absolut,$y that dmmeter,
as much depends on the form of float, the amount of @q, and the waves
set in motion bv the wheel. The slip of a radia~l wheef,ls from 15 to 30
per cent, depeiaikfz,;,; di e sw. e 01 now.
.___- 3f one float = C x I.H.P. + :D. ~,
D is the effective diameter in feet. and C is a multiplier, varying from 0.25 ._ _._. _____.. - ~~.~~~~~..
irrl tugs to 0.175 in fast:running light ~steamers,
~ : .,~ ~~
The breadth of the float. is usually about l/s Its length, and.its thickness
about l/s its breadth. The number of float.s varies directly ~wlth the dim-
eter and there should be one float for every foot of, diameter.
(Gor a discussion of the action of the, radial wheel. .see Thurston,
hf anUa1 of the Steam-engine, party ii, p. 182.)~
:.~ ~~.
Feathering Paddle-wheels.
(Seaton.) - The diameter oi a f&her-
ing-wheel is found as follows: The amount of slip ,var.iW. from 12 to ?O
P
er cent althoUgh when the floats are small or the reststance great ?t
Y as high as 25 per cent; a well-designed wheel on a rr~ell-formed sbp
should not exceed 15 per centunder ordinary cirWmStanC=. .,:
~, ,:..
:.a:,
:
If K is the speed of the ship in~knots, S the percentage of slip, and R the ~,~
revolutions per minute,
Diameter of wheel at c&tcrs = K (100~f 8) + (3.14 X k)
The diameter; ho!vever, must be such as will suit the structurk of the
slop. s? that a modlhcat.lon may be necessary on this account,, jnd the
revolutions altered to suit it,.
The diameter will also depend on the amount of dip or i.mmer$ion of
Hoat.
When a Ship iS working at\vags in smooth water the immersion of the
top edge: should not exceed l/n t.hr hre2,rlt.h of the float: and for penprsl
service at sea an immersinn i;f ~ii; thp-h;;;;
2.C -:---*
-- II ..- -...-dth of the float is sufficient
If the ship is intendefl to carry cargo, the immersion when light need noi
he more than 2 or 3 Inches, and should not be more than the breadth of
float when at the deenest drauctlt; indeed, the efficiency of the wheel falls
off rapidly with the iinmersion o
Area of o
f the wheel.
.C is a multin!ier. varvine
ne Ro&t = C x I.H.P. L D.
y ~~~_ frc . Jm 0.3 to 0.35; D is the diameter of the
wheel to the float centers, in fccb.
The number of floats =~ 12 (D
The breadth of the float = 0.35 x
The ttdclmess of fioats = l/12 thr
Diameter of gudgeons = thickrr
+ 2).
the length.
? breac1t.h.
Seaton and Rounth\\aites
ess of float.
PO&et-book gives:
Number of
where n is number of revolulionc b l,_. . . . . . . . . .,.
Area of one float (in square feet) =
I.H.P. X 33.00
where N = number of Hnnt,s in one wheal
NX (DXi
For vess+plying always in smooth water K = 1200
For sea-going
steamers k = l!OO. For tugs and such craft as reqiire to stop and
start frequently In a t,ide-way K = 1600.
It wilt he 0llit.n accurate enough if the last four figures of the cube
.~2.. I~
For illust.rat.ed descriotion of t,hp festhering paddle-wheel see seaton*E
diameter of-j-f,,lL:- --~.:F-:-: ..: &ninthma~ites .Pocket-book. Th;!
for equal efliciencv.
IcnllK-wneel IS allout One-half that of a radial wheel
lurston.)
Efficiency of @ad&: ,wl>eels.~~ Cofnp!ltations by Prof. Thurston of
the efficiency of propulsiou uy patime-wneels gtl
ve for tight river steamers
with ratio of velocitv of the vrssr~l~ ?i~ t.n velocity of the naddte-flont, n,t.
,lip=-3/30. rsdius~~of~thewileei
a$ a slipof 25 per cent, 8.11 cffi~ieGc~;;E uO.71:
.wlth the same shp and rat,io of v/V, and a -~
1: and for ocean steamers
.0.6S3.
dip =1/z radius, an efficiency of
JET-PROPULSION.
Numerous experiments have been made in drivinrr n .rocr>l I,., t,m ~~~~~_. _._
.I>
reaCtion of a jet of water pllmped through an %l~~~in tilec{ei; hut
tl1c.v haye all resulted iti commercial failure.
the Wntcr~itch,
Two-jet propulsiol;steatners,
1100 tons, and the Squirt a small torpedo-boat
were built by the Brit.ish Government. The firmer was tried in 1867:
:l~f P:~w ~111 efflciencY of nppamtus of onlv 18 per cent,.
The latter gnvc
a spwd of 12 knots. as against 17 knot,s nt, hi nai hi - a ~i c+~r- ~hi ~h. . . i nn
WFP\\- and eqrlnt steam-power.
.,.. .I Y..-YcL-.7.& Flk
The mathematical theory of the ef
of the jet was discussed hv Rankine in The Engi,leer, Jan, 11 19
hP sh?WYl t.tlat the rreatbr t,tu= nr, nnt, i
nrl~l of t,tie rr%itc
iWien$
-, ,67. and,
11 by a jet-
... ..f t,he theory
. =.a\. opinions of many
1888-90 in New York
and t.hP Evolution.,,
only s!s$@
.
~. . . . : . , . , ,
lhe theory of the Jet-propeller is similar to that of the cl crew- propel l er.
If d f ttle?.area Of the ict in Square feet, v its wlocity &:ith reference t0
the Onfico, In feet Per.%?Col~$* t the v@p$t,y of the Ship ln reference to
the earth, then the thrust of the jet (se: Screw-propeller, Dante). is 2 n:l ,: ,.~~
(V - v). The work done on the vessel 1s 2 AV(V -. v)v, Rnd~ttle work
rvasted on the rearward, projection of the jet 1; l/z X 2 d r( V - w)!.
The efficiency iS
29V(V-v)v
2 A V (V - 2) 1: + A V ! V - t)*
=L. This~espresslon ,
v+?,
equals u&y when V = 2). ttmt is, n-hen the velocity of the jet with rcifer-

:;>c p the earth,~or V - 2), = 0; but then the thrust .of the propeller is
. The greater the value of V as compared wslth 2. thf: less the
efficiency. For ! = 20 u, as was proposed in t,he Evolution, the ; ;
efficiency of the jet would be less than 10 per cent, and, this %ould be
.,:
!m?,her reduced hv the frlct.ion of the pumping mechanism and of the
-------;
water in pi es.
The !yhoL theory . of propulsion map be summed up in na&nes .:
v,vords: That prope Irr IS the best. other things heinq eqlral, wluch drives ~,~
astern the largest body of water at the lowest velonty..
It. is practically impossible to devise any system of hydraulic or~jet
nmrrl tl si on which can compare favorably, under these conditions, with
&ers%w or the naddle.wheel.
Reaction of a Jet - If a jet of water issues horixontatlq from a vessel.
+hc react.ion on the Gde of the vessel opposite the orifice 1s equal to the ,~~..-.:L
hvht . nf r l . cnl l l mn of water t, hr secti on of whi ch i s the area of the orifice,
: 1
~&ii;e%~ght is twice the head.
The propelling force in jet-propulsion is the reactiop of t.tlFstream :
issuing from the orifice, and it is the same whet.her the Jet 1s discharged
under wa.t,er in the open air, or against a solid waii. .For oroof. see
account of t&s hy C. J. Everett, Jr., given by Prof. J. Bur!&Webb,
Trans. A. S. Al .__ -. lx, sii, 004.
, .,
CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS.*
FOUNDATIONS.
Benring Power of Soils. - Ira 0. Baker, Treatise one MaSOnry : .
Construction.
BenFinE Power in
Kind of Material. I
Tons per Fquare Foot.
I. Maaimum. :
- I
Minimun
Rock-the hardest - in thick layers, in native bed.
Rock equal to best ashlxr masonry. . . . .
2$
Rock equal to best brick masonry.. . . . . .
Rock equal to poor brick masonry.. . . ., . . .
1:
Clay on chick beds, always cl
Clav on thick beds. moderate y dry. . . . . , . . . .
Fy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -z,
Cln~~,soft....:;.................;.....................
Gravel and coarse sand, well cemented.. . . . . . . . . . . .
~A
and well cemented.. . . . . . ., . . . . .
4
2
Tl!e building code of Greater New Y&k
msxlmum permlsslble loads for different
s
so g :;, ~1 ,,, .
&fies the folldwmg ai ihe :
s:
1; Soft clay, one ton per s
Ordinary clay and 8
uare foot;
sari
tons per square foot;
together, inn layers, yet and. spri,ngy, t& .
I Loam. clay or fine sand,,firm and -I- *
~14. three tons per square foot.
Very firm coarse sand. stiff gravel or hard clay, four tons per squa&
foot, or as otherwlse det.er$ned by the Commissioner of Build-~
mgs having jurisdiction.
Bearing Power of Piles. - Engineering News Formula:
tons = 2 1Vh i (S + 1).
Safe load in
W= we,ight of hammer in t,ons. h = height of fall
of hammer in feet, s = penetratlon under last blow, or the average under
last five blOWS.
jafe Strength of Brick Piers, exceeding six diameters in height.
(Iildder.)
Piers laid with rich lime mortar, tons per sq. in., 110 i 5 H/D
Piers lajd w!th 1 to 2 natural cement mortar, 140 -.51/s H/D.
Piers lald with 1 to 3 Portland cement mortar 200 - 6 If/D.
H = height; D = lejst horizontal dimension, in feet.
Thickness of Found&i 0: n Walls. (Kidder.)
Height of Building.
wn storms
&tree stories
.............................
...
Four stori es .
.........................
Fi C star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l es
Si x stori es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-
MASONRP.
Allowable Pressures on iMasonry in Tons per Square Foot.
(Kidder.)
Different Cities.*
I(11 ,
I
( 2) ( 3) ( 4) ( 5) ( 6) ( 7)
Granite. cut,.
-.
0
- -
- - - -
#arl$e and!imesibne,c;t;::::::: : : : : : : : : :
. . .
40 : ; I ; ;
. . . . . . . . . . . 40
. .
2a-1 I
. . . . . , . . . . . .
9 i i
. . 12
~2% 15
9
. . ~.
. . 11 l / z I l l / 2 ; :
61/ i I I a ' a
essed brick in natural cement.. .:I.. .
liubbkstone in natural cement.. . . .
I $ : ; : . : . . . . . . . .
. . . . 12
In foundations:
5 a' . . . . . . 10 I . 2
Dimension stone.
Portland cement
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,..,
concrete
5- 7 . . : . . . . . . 30
. . . . . . . . . . .
Natural cement concret.e.. .
; i 5. . '
. . . 15 I O
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a 4 . . . . . . . 4
* Fray buil(hq lms. (1) Boston, 1897. (2) Buffalo 1897. (3) New
Y?rks $99: (4) fhicaro, 1803; (5) St. L&is. 1807; (6) p&jelp\&,
1sW; (I) Denver, 1898.
Cr~lslliw Strength of X&in. cubes of Concrete
Pounds Per square foot. The concrete was made of 1 p
cementl z par~ts ~nd,..with ayerugeco?i+te stone and gravel; as below.
,.,. ,.
.,:,~ ,~ .,.~. ~~.. ,:? ,.. ,,.,
..~,.~ ,.~/I,.
.,.., ~~~_.~-~,I, ,, ~. ___,~_ .~, _.., ._,, _.~,i,..~~,,.~ _. ,
;.,#,RNIf@:.~~~~h~~ ,&#y,;& 191~b led
6 ,iarts stone .......... :1
3 harts stone, 3 gravel
... .:.
130,756 1 172,325 1 324,875 ~361.600 ;~~440,040
.......
. 136,750 266,962 :.
4partsstone,2gravel..;.
..~:. 2%,037,,:~,356,200
.......
6 parts (314 stone, l/4 grsno-
.
...
. ...........
...... .
. . _
.....
..:;~: ....... j 408,300
lit.hic). ......
........................... ..:. : :
,,I :
6 parts : L\ - erage gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 900 234, 475
...... .
. 388,700
6 nuts coarse stone, no fine
385, 612. ~' 265. 55O. j ' 406, 700
..................... .: 234,475. 220,350 ! 266,300
Reinforced Concrete. -The building law& of .N&v York,~t.~.Lcitii&.
Cleveland 2nd Buffalo, and the National Board of .Fxe Underxrners agree
in orescribing the,following as the maximum allowable tvorbing. stresses:
Extreme fiber stress in compression in con-
.................... ...........
Crete..
Shearing stress in concrete
.,:
...................
Direct corn
F
ression in concrete.
............
Adhesion o steel to concrete. ..
..............
Tensile stresS in steel.;.
Shearing stress in steel
..........................
............. ..
Safe Loads on Reams. -
Uniformly distributed load: ~, .,~
Safe loa,l ill ,,,r = 2 X br&dt,h X square of dept.h XA .. :~:
, I
sptiln in feet
span in f&t X load
Breadth in inches = 2 x squere of depth x d * :
_ :., .
The depth is taken in inches. ~Th& Coefficient a, is %s,the maximum
fiber stress for safe loads and is the safe load for a beam 1 m. ~sqWar% 1 ft.
The following v&es of A are given by Kidder as .One-t!llr$ of
fttndreaking weight of timber of the quality used in first+@ bmldmgs.
The values for stones, are based on a factor of safety Of SlS. ~.
~,
VALUES FOR A. - COEPFICIE~T FOR BEA?:, . .
^^
C?st iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
zt;e;;ght Iron.. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American Woods:
Chestnut.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pine,~Tesas~yellow. :.; ;. .,. , . : $
Spnlce.. _. .: .~. . . . . . . . . -:. .,:;
Whitewood (poplaf).. . . . .,. .;:
y.65
Redwood (C$forma) . . . . . . . .~ .~. .,:; ;:63
Hemlock .,....... i . . . . . . . . . . . :.:
$ Bluest,one flagging (Hudson ;;i5
Oak, white.. . . . . . . .
75
R,iverj . .. . . .x. ; .,. . . .
Granite, average.. . .,. . . .,._ .,. :
Pine, Georgia yellow. .,. . .
1:: I.,imestone . . . . . . . . . . :; . . . . . . . . . :.,
..I:
Pine, Oregon. . . . . .
,,7
Pine, red or Norway.. . .~
Pine, white, Eastern.. :.
ii
Marble . . . . . . . . ..:.~,.;.: . . . . . ~.$;o~,,
Sandstone. . . . . . . .,.. . . .,.
55
Slate... . . . ._ . .._......... . . . . 5O
Pine. white, Western.. .
Maximum Permissible Stresses in Structural. -
Materials used in
Ruildings.
(Buikling Ordinances of the Clt,r of ChlCag+ 1893.) 7 Cas.t
iron crushing stress: For plates,
15,000 11~ per square, mch: for .Imt+
brlikets or corbels compression l?$OO lbs. per SqWJe l+. and tensIon
3600 lhi. per sq&e inch. For gmlers, beams, corbels. :hrsc&ets,, ?nd
trusses. 16.000 lbs. per square iuch for steel and 12,000 Ihs.,for iron.:;
For &a% girders i
Flange area = maximum &n&g mtiment.hl f t~~b~. : . b( Cq) l ~: - . ~ . ' f : : ~, ~, . ~
D = distance between center of gravity Of fhang& ln feet!- 1: ::~
C = 13, 500 for steel, 10,000 for iron.
,:;
Web area = maximum shear + C.,
~,~ ~. .,.
C = 10.000 for steel; 6,000 for iron,
~.
., ,. ,~, ,,
.,,,,
_,. .~, ..
For rivets in Single shear per square inch of rlvetarea
7500 I bs. , iron. 6000 lbs
If shop-?riven. steel, 9000 Ibs.; iron, 7500 Ibs.; if &d-driven, steel;
For timber girders: s -c5@ + 1.
of beam In feet, c = 160 for long-leaf yellow pine, 120 for oak, 100 for
b = breadth of beam in inches. d = depth of beam in inches 2 = length
wnlte or Norway pine.
Safe Loads in Tons, Uniformly Distributed, .for White-oak Beams.~
(In accordance with the Building Laws of Boston.)
Formula: W = s.
W = safe load in pounds: P, estreme fiber
stress = 1000 tbs. per square inch for white
oak; B. breadth in inches: D. depth in inches;
L. distance between supports in inches.
i Distance bet.ween Supports in Feet,.
~11~12~14/15~1~(1~~~1~(i9]21~23~25~
Safe Load in Tons of 2690 Pounds.
2X6
2X8 E
2x10 1. 85
; , x; 2 5: ;
3x0 1. 78
3X10 2. 78
3x12 4. 00
3x14 5. 45
3x16 7. 11
4x10 3. 70
4x12 5. 33
4x14 7. 26
4x16 9. 48
4x1s 12. oa
For other kinds of wood than white oak multiply the figures in the
table bY a figure selected from those given below
safe stress
6!
er square inch on beams of different kin
6
which
to the bull mg laws of the cities named) and divide hv 1~00.
represent the
s of wood according
New York.. . .
J hton.. . .
800
Chicago..
. . . z% ;t:
. 1100
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii!
__....... ._......,
900 1E+ 1440
* Georgia pine.
t White oak.
WALLS.
eral rule for mercantile buildings over four stories ln height
Thklmss of WaJIs of Buildings. - Kidder gives the followlnf :I -.n-
Of the three uPPer stories 16 ins., of the nest three below 20 ins
For brick equal to those used in Boston or Chicago makethe thickness
three 24 ins.. and the neat three 28 ins.
the next
make only the two upper stories 16 ins. thick, the nest three 20 ins., and
For a poorer quality of materiai
80 on down.
ins. 111 t~hickness. : ,..:,~-:-~, _ ~.
l? buiidmgs lessthan five stdries~ in hel+t the top story may be 12
:..~,;-,.+J.~
.:,,:
.,~~. ~,.~ ~~
.r,; ..y,;~;:
., ___,,___ pi . . _~ ,:~,~:~... . . . . . . . .._ _, . .....~. ..~IL.. ;..~- -
; WARNJN(&Th~iS iS a,#;:?910 edition* Orne
ALL BU~LDI~VG~ OVER KIVE rironrr;~ m IIEELI~.
; .\.~.UC ,iqjur:, y,w ~,G
range of the thicknesses req$red by the ordinances of eight clrfferent
cities. - Condensed from hidder.)
.
I Stories. .:.:,
St&
I ,lst. 2d. 3d. 14th.1~5th.j 6th. 1~7th.l 8th.l Sth~.jlOth
2
3
!
t
10
II _!
12 -
(Extract from the Building Laws of thcCity of New ~york~, 1893,)
Walls of Warehouses, Stores, Factories, and Stables.:- 25 feet
or less in width between walls, not less,than 12 in to heioht. of 40 ft.;
If 40 to 60 ft. in height, not less than 16 m. to 40 ft., Andy@. thence to
60 .t,%ft. in height, not bless than 20 in. to 25 ft., and 16 in. thence t0
_~ .~
16 h
85 to lot
20 in. to 7
Over
75 t,o8% ft. ln height, not l&s than 24 in.
to 20 ft.: 20 in. to 66 ft.; and
t,,r, ~?%+ht not less than 28
5 ft.,%nd 16 in. to top;
in. to 25 ft.; 24 in. to 56 ft;;
nevt above the curb, shall .be increased ~4 ?@pe; l f l . t@CuckneSS.
100 ft. ln height, each additional 25 ft. in~lletgnt,. or part tneryh;
_ - . - I , - e . x. , . A &.a .
unner 100 feet remaining the same as specmeu nx a \\a~ 01 ~x;ab
height.
If walls are over 25 feet apart, one oearnlg-\ti
thicker t&an above s ecitied *^- ^-i-Ty q- bvt _
said walls are more t ian 25 met al~rb. P
Strength of Floors, Roofs, and Stipports. ~~~
Floors calculated to
bear safelyper sq. ft.,; in:..
addition to their own wt.
Floors of dwelling, tenement, apartment-houses or hotel, Rot
z .: ,~
less than.
. . . . . . . . .._....... 7Olbs. ,%.
Floors of o@&$$&i, hidi i&i &aji+: I,,, ;..,... : . . . . y i . :,
1 I ,...:,A:_._
1
F&ii of puniic-assemmy uuuumg, ILUV KDD YLKVU . . . . . . . . . .
120 :
Floors of store, factory~, warehquse, etc., not less than.. . . . . ~122 :: .i:~
Roofs of al 1 buildings, not less tnan.. .~. . . .~. . . . . . . . .:. . . .
uv ~.
-.
imoo:
ri!ver floor shall be of sufficlsnt strength to bear safelY.the weight *- %-^
1 t:
CO K
Ih ,h.r
thereon, in additkx to the weight of the materials of, wlllc.. ~;~-
nposed.
The. strength of all COlUtillS and Posts,
.t
c;oim~.s ,md Posts. -
shall
L.- :-
floor is car
_.I~- ,
be comouted according to Gordons formuke. and the crusmng wergrus 111
.-.I_- A-^ +hn fdlnn~ino-nnmed mateiialS.~
Pounds; to the square men or scct~ou. M
111,; ll 3. l.lC . . . . . .._... .~~
shall be taken ss the coefficients in said formula!, name+: C?st.kon, 80,060;
wrolight or rolled iron 40 060: rolled steel, 4.8.000: white Pine and sPruce.
35110: pit,ch or Georgia pine, 5000:
American oak, 6066.. The breakmg -~
\
%rength of wooden beams and girders shall becomputed accordmg to
the formulm in which the constants for transverse &rains for central load
shn!! be as follows pamely: Hemlock, 406: whit,e pine. 456: spruce, 450:
pitch or Georgia pine 550.~ imerican oak. 556: and for~wooden beams and
girders carrying a un$orn& distributed load the constiznts will be double!&i:
.~. L _, <,,.i,,__*. : ,
The factors of safety shall he & nna tin for?- fnF .,n h--....- -:-A--.. -.~ ,
other nieces siihiert. tn D. trlr I- - ..-nsverse strain; as one to four for all posts
coiumns, and other vertical sup
as one to ti.ve for other materra s. subject to a compressive strain. as one
-P
orts when of wrought iron or rolled steel:
to SIX for tie-rods. tie-beams, and other pieces subiect to a tensile strain.
Good. solid, natural earth s!rall be deemed to sustain safely a load of four
tons to the superficial foot, or as otherwise determined by the super.
mtendent of buildinns. a,nd t.he width of footing-courses shall be at. least
sufficient t.0 meet t. hi s renOii .___ .-,...rement. In computing the width of walls
a cubic foot of brickwork shall be deemed to weigh 115 Ibs.
Sandstone
white marble. granite, and other kinds of building-stone shall be deemed
to wemh 16O 11)s. ner cubic foot.
xood brickwork shah-ho
The safe-bearing load t.o applv t0
taken at 8 tons per superficial foot when good
iime~ mo~%ar-&~-u~~ l>& tons per superficial foot when good lime and
cement mortar mixed IS used, and 15 tons per superficial foot when good
~~~~ -- ----
cement mortar is used.
Fir?-poof Buildings -Iron and Steel Colu~nc. - All rnc+-irmn
..IY~6~1ti-~~~+ or rolled-steel columns shall be made true and smooth ai
both ends. and shall rest on iron or steel bed-plates, and have iron 0r
st~eel Cap-Plates. which shall al.<n he made true. All iron nr st.eei tri mmar-
~~~~ ~~ -.. _. -_-- _ .,_* . . ..- In-
beams. headers; and tail-beams shall be suitably framed and connected
Logether, and the iron girders, columns, beams, trusses and all other iron-
work 01 all floors and roofs shall be strapped, bolted anchored and con-
nected together, ml to the walls, in a strong and substantial manner
Where beams are framed into headers, the angle-irons which are bolred
to the tad-beams, shall have at least two bolts for all beams over 7 inches
m depth. and three bolts for all beams 12 inches and Over in depth and
these bolts shall not be Iess than 3/4 inch in diameter.
Each one ofsucli
angles or knees, when bolted to girders, shsll have the same number of
bolts.as stated for the other leg.
The angle-iron in no case shall be less
in, thickness t.hpn the header or trimmer to which it is bolted, and the
wvldt.11 0f angle m no case shail be less than one third the depth of beam
exceptmg th;Lt no angle-knee shall be less than 2,1/s inches wide nor
required fo be more than 6 inches wide.
beams, 3 inches deep and under shall have
All wrought,-iron or rolled:steel
bearings equal to their depth
lf re.Stlng On a wall: 9 to 12 inch beams shall have a bearing of 10 inches
?,nd all beam,s more. than 12 inches in depth shall have bearings of noi
~CSS than 12 Inches lf resting on a wall.
Where beams rest on ?ron sup-
Ports. and are properly tied to the same, no greater bearings shall be
requi red than one third of the depth of the beams.
Iron or steel Hoor-
beams shall be so armnged as to spacing and length of betms that the
load 40 b? supported by them, together n-itch the weights of \he materials
used 111 tile COllstrUcti0ll of the said floors, shall not cause a deHcction of
the said beams of more than l/30 of an inch per linear foot of span. and
they shall be tied together at mtervals of not m0re than eight times the
depth of the beam.
Under the el
lmzis of all iron or steel beams, where they rest on the walls. a
_^_ ..--~~. . .
&me Or,Cast-iruii ,!,en!piate snail be built into the walls.
Said template
shall be 5 inches wide 111 12-inch walls, and in all walls of greater thickness
said templare slrall be 12 inches wide: and such templates, if of st.one.
shall n0t. be m any case 11~
shalt be less than 12 inch
,ss,t$a;l 2% inches in thickness, and no template
So cast-iron post or (
:$i@s shall be used in any building of a less
average thickness of shaic man tnree
quarters of an inch. nor sha!l it
have an unsupp0rted length of more than twent.v times it.; least lateral
dimensions or diameter.
No wrought-iron or rdlled-steel column shall
have an unsupported length of m0re than 1.
diluensI0lIs or diameter, nor shall i
Mrty times it.s least lateral
mch in thickness.
ts metal be less than 0ne fourth of an
Lintels? Bearings and Supports - All iron or steel lintels shsll
have bearmgs proportiomate to the we&ht to be imposed thereon but ho
lime! used to span any opening m0re iiran 10 feet in widbh silzli have a
bearmg less than 12 inches at each end if rest,inp on 2 wall. bu; if rest,ing
end. by the bhickness of the wall to be supported.
0n an irOn Post.. sllch lintel shall lntve abmring of at ieast 6inches a\ each
Sfralus. on Girders and Rivets. - Rolled iron or steel beam girders
or rrveted lr0n or ateel plate girders used as lintels or as girders, carrying
,~~
#RNING:
edition.
:: FLOO,RS. : i339~
. :
.~
a wall or floor or both, shall be so prop?rtioned that the~loads wl!ich Imay :.
come upon them shall not produce strams,m tension or compressionu
f
on :.
the flanges of more tlrsn12.000 lbs. for iron, nor more ~than~ 15.000 bs.,
for steel per square inch ~of the gross section of earh of such, flanges, nor ,:,
a shearing strain upon the web-plate of, more than 6000 lb& per .square
lncb of section of such web-plate, lf Of lroll,
nor m0re bhan 7000 pounds,
if of steel. but no web-p1at.e shall be less than l/4 inch in thickness.
,Rivets
ln plate girders shall not be less tlr+n 5/3 mcb m diameter, and shall not be
spaced m0re than 6 mches apart m zany case.
They shall be 0 spaced
that their shearing strains shall not exceed 9000 lbs. per s
uare mch, ,on
theirdlameter multiplied by the thickness of the plates t Irougll which
9
they pass.
The riveted plate girders shall Abe. pr0portioned upon the
suppositl0n that the bending or chord strains are resisted entirely by then
:.
upper and lower Hanges, and that the shearmg strams,are resisted en-
tlrely by the web-plate. No part of the web shall be estimated as, Hange
area nor m0re than .0ne half of that portion of the angle-iron which lies
against the web. the distance between the centers of gravity of the
nanwe areas will be cousidered as the effective depth.of the girder.
T?ie building laws of the city of New York contam a great amount Of
detail in addition to the extracts above,
and penalties are provided for :.
violation. See An Act creating a Department of Buildings, etc.., Chapter ;
273, Laws of 1832.
Pamphlet copy published by Baker;V~oorhres & Co., .
Neti York.
I&xinlmn Lad on Floors. ~(Engg. Nov. 18, lS92, p: 644.) - Maxi-, .
m$m mad per square foot of floor surface due to the weight of a denser
crowd Considerable variation is apparent in the figures given by many
auth0rltles, as the following table ~110~s:
Authorities.
Weight ( ,f Crowd,
I,_^ -,
IUS. per sq. ft.
FLOORS.
French practice, quoted by,Trautwine and Stoney
........ y
Hatfield (Transverse Strains, p. SO).
......................
7;
Mr. Page London, quoted by Traut.wme
................... 84
Maximum load on American highway bridges accordmg to
100
Waddells general specifications.
....................
Mr. Nash, architec,t of Buckingham Palace
......... : ......
Esnerlments by Prof. W. N. liernot,, at Melbourne .
. ....... :
Experiments by Mr. B. B. Stoney (On Stresses, up. 6151
Esperlmenbs by Prof. L. J. Johnso~l, EW. iVelW April l!,
1904...................................~...
The lgghest results were obtained by crowdmg a number of Persons
previously weighed into a sma
11 rnnm the men being tightly packed so as
to resemble such a crowd as fl
; and plat-
_
other public I forms of a theatre Or
. . _--.__, ..~~
reouently 0rcurs on the sEa,irnnys
milding.
XI&. (Kidder.) Pounds per square :
*
For dwellings, sleeping and lodging rooms..
... :. . ; ........ . .
For schoolrooms.
..... :
............................ :
For offices, upper stories
........................ : ..-~. ::
For offices, first story
...
For stables and carrrage houses .........
.:.
..............................................
For banking rooms, churches and theaters.
:
For assembly halls, dancing lralls, and the corridors of all
ublic buildings. including hotels.
f.
... .................... ...... .... ..
For rill rooms .I.. ................ ,.
.
..
........... Y ~
..
For ordinary stores, light storage, and hght manufactur-
.... ... .... .
....... .. ........... ..... .. .... .
Also kgsustain a concentrated load at any pqlnt 0f 4OOO .lbs.
SJJRESGTH OF FLOORS. ~ ~: , , ,~
(From cir$ular of the Boston hfsnUfaCtUrers hfutual Ins%m??r%?,
~,
The fnttowinp. tables were prepared b-y .C. .I..BIIVoOdburv. for determln- :
lng spf0 hmlln on floors.
Care shQuld hue ~LWr~eh~ t0 select the figure
givin
ovation of load as tbe one
pill~~~~alest-possible amount and concemr~
The weight of the floor ,should be deduc;ed from the figure given in the
t,able. i? order.to ascertafn the net load which may be placed upon any~
floor. rhe welght.of spruce may be taken at 36 lbs. per cubic foot, and
that of Southern pme at 48 Ibs. per cubiii~ foot.
Table I was cbmputed upon a working modulus~of rupture of Southern
pme Of 2lFq lbs., using a factor of safety of six It. can also be applied
to ascertsmmg the strength of spruce beams if the figures given m the
table are mu!tiphe? by 0.75; or in designing a floor to be sustained by
sPrl!ce beams, multIPly the required load by 1.28, and use the dimensions
as given by the table.
These tables are computed for beams one inch in width because the
strength of beams mcrease directly as the width when tie beams are
broad enough not to cripple.
EXAMPLE. - Req$red the safe load per square foot of floor which
may be Safely sllstulwti i!y a floor on Southern pine 10 X 14 in beam0
8 ft. on,centers! and 20 ft. span. In Table I a 1 x 14 in beak 20 &
span, Wdl sustam 118 Ibs. per foot of span: and for a beak 10 ink nridi
the load would be llS0 lbs. per foot of span, or 1471~2 Ibs. Per sq: ft. of
floor for Southern-pine beams.
From this should be deducted the weight
of the floor. 171/z lbs. per sq. ft., leaving 130 Ibs. per sq. ft as a safe load
If the beams are,of spruce, multiply 1471/z by.0.78, reducing the load td
115 lbs. Deductmg the weight of the Boor, 16 lbs., leaves the safe r.et
load as 90 ibs. per 84. ft. for spruce beams.
Table II applies to floors -whose strength must be in excess of that
neceSsWY to Sustsln,the weight. in order to meet the conditions of deli-
cate. Or rapidly moving machinery. to the end that tile vibration or dis-
tortlou of the Hoor may be reduced to the least practicable limit.
In Phe table the limit, is that of a load which &ould cause a bending of
the bean19 Tao a curve of.which the average radius would be 1250 ft.
This table is based upon a modulus ofelasticity obtain,ed from obser-
vat.lons up3n the deHection of loaded storehouse floors and is t,aken at
2.000,003 Ibs. for Southern pine; the same table can be ipplied to spruce
whose modulus of elastic,ity is taken as 1,200,OOO Ibs if s!s tenths of
the load for Sol$er!l pine is taken as the proper loadior spruce. or in
t!le matter of desrgmng. the load should be increased one and twd thirds
tunes, and the dimension of timbers for this increased load as found in
t.he tab!e should be used for spruce.
-.
it were not soi S/s of the wl)ole Iosd upon the floor&vould be ,siGtained by
~
every other beam,, and ~s/s of the load by the uerrespo,v$ng ajt~crnat~e
beams.
It can .also be a plied to beams and floor-timbers supported at each
end aI@ m the mlc die. remembering that the deflection of a beam sup- .f
ported In that manner is only 0.4 that of a beam of equal span which
rests at each end; that is to say, the floor-planks are ??;z times as stiff.
cut two bays In length. as theg would be if cut onlv one bsy in length.
When a fioor$ank !wo bays in length is evenly lo&ded 3116 of the load
on t,he plank IS sustained Fy the beam at each end of thi plank and lo/i8
by the beam under the middle of the plank; so that for a complkted floor
3/S of the $1 would be sustained by the beams under the joints of the
P@k. and J/S of the load by the beams, under the middle of the plank:
this 1s the reason of the importallce of breaking joints ill,a floor-plank
everX 3 ft. 111, prder that eacl~~&sn:~shpfl receive an identical load. If
,. .~,. . ..~.,
If the beams are of ~SpruCe, the result of 75 111s. %hduld be &lti&ied
by 0.6 reducing the load .to 45 lbs. The weight of -the: floOr,.in this
instande amounting to 16 lbs.;, .would leave then n$$&?ad, as .2,9, I&. for
spruce beams.
If the kzcms w&e two sparis ii length, they Could; u&r these cd&
ditions support two Andy a half :times,as much load ?vit.h an equal amOUnt
of dei&tiofi, unless such load should esceed the li!nlt~of safe !oad as found
by Table I, a would be*the case;under~ the~condGons,.of tius prolj,ie;p.
P:-L~ G.tc rr~~r more resistance to tire than iron
ham in mi l l wnrl c ,.~l%nerim&ts
- - - - . - ___. , _ _. ~~~
,~,, pii;;< and hjve generally displaced t,..,.... . . . . . . . . . . . ---_. -Y--=- -~~~
::
at the IJ. S. Arsenal at Watertown ~AIass., show that sound timber Ppsts
.d i n millwnrk vieldbr direct .crushmg,
of the proportions customarily u.
:~ the strength being directly as the ULzLy uv ..? I .:..--- I... r -...
yielded at about 4500 tbs. per sq. m., COnhrmln~ the geneial
PVCtiCe:Of
allowing 600 1,s. per sq. in. as a safe load. Square coF?nsm are,,:qe
fourth stronger tlran round ones of the same diameter. ~_
(C. J. H. Wopdbury.) . : i .:
(If the loat1 is concentrated at the center of the span. the byLmS,will
sustain half the amount given in the table.)
J , oad i n pounds per fOOt Of Span. ~~
--
z 38 27
; 20 15
9
z ""
i z : : : : :
13
14
15 . . .
16 _. _.
17 I . _, . i
18
19 . . ; .
; : : : : :
; ; : : : :
i ; : : : :
. : :
Depth of Beam in inches.
122 192 259
=
85 126 180 247 62 93 132 181
241
: : : $I
4A 71 101 139
38 56 185 240 80 305
110 146 190
241 301
:Ei
30 46 65 89
25 38
118 154
54
195
73 244 98 127 300
* . 0972
211 32 45 62
18 27
82 107
38
136 161 202 169 248 301
53
70 91
208
: ; $j
16 23 33 116 144
45 78
178
253 1728
14 20 60 29 100 124 153
21j . : 2028
40 53 68
' 186 2352
18 25
87 I O8
35
951 84,
133
46 60 1171
162
76
: 27, - ~6
. 16 22 31 41 53 68
147 . 3072
104; 1251. 3468
, . . . . . 20 27 37 47' 60 75
. . 18 25 33
93
43 54 68 83
1121 3888
. . . . . . . 22 30 38 49 61 75
101 : 4332
. . . . . . . . . . 20
; : ; ;
44 55
91 . &I O
68
. . . . .
40 50
83 . 5292
62
. . . 22 29 37 46
75 . 5808
57 691 6348
. . . . . 27 34 42 52 63/ : 6912
. . 25 31 39 48 581. 7500
JIaxhmm Spans ior 1. 2 and 3 Inch Plank
(Am. Mach Feb. 11
190-A.) -Let W = !0wl per sq. ft.; 1 = length inins . TV = $jlq. s d
safe fiber stress, usms a factor of safety 0f 10. b = &th of planl;: d =
thickness; P = deflection, E = coefficient of &asticity, I = mom&t of
InertIs = l/12 l@.
' @s W/ S = ShF/ 6: 8 = 5 TV23
f 384 EI. Takinw 5 at 1200 tbs., E
for mssunum span. m inches, are obtain&f:
at SOO.OPO and s = 1.~ 360 for long-leaf vellow pine, tt% follo!ving figures
Uniform load, Ibs.
per sq. ft.. 40 60 so 100 150 200 %O 300
l-ip. ,,lank i For strength. . 75 For deflection. 61 53
3;
4s
33 30
28
; i 33 . . . . . .
, 22
z- i n. pl ank ( ~~: ~~~, GT~: 1; :
1: : 1: : 96 i S i i . 5 4s 2: ' , , ' 5,
41 3s
si n, pl ank 1 For strength. . 227
For deflection
1% 161
.113 99 90
14- i 117
83 73
101. gi
66 61
; ;
For Wl i te oak 5 may be taken at 1000 and E at 550 000. for CanTdial
spruce, S = SOO, E = 600,000; for hemlock. s = 600,~ G 450,13&.
COST OF BUILDINGS.
I!1 buildings ?v,er two stories, plumhing $75 for ca.ch fixture including
Inlnng and pxt.lbions.
door slxxe and one
Two tisturcs on each fioor up to SOOO-sq. ft. of
fraction ther~:of.
fixture for each additioual 5000 sq. ft. of floor or
1. -If tke soii is poor or the condit,ions of the site are such as to require
more than ordinary foundations, the cost will he increased.
2, If the !klding is lo IJO used for ordiuary stomp:: purposes with lotv
stows nud r!o .top Iloors. ~h$! cost will be decreased from about 10% for
lurg$ low hmldmgs to 25io ior small high ones, ahout 20% usually being
5 fax allowince.
3. If the building is to he used for manufacturing and is stihst,antinlly
built of wood, the cost \vill he decreased from ahout 65: for large one-
story buildings t.o 33:; for high small h&dings; 155~; rv~uld usually he a
fair allowmce.
4. If the building is to he used for storage with low stories and built
stlbstantiall~ of wood, the cost. will he decreased from 13c/o for large
one-story huildinjis to 50;/0 for small high buildings: 3070 would usually
be-a fair allowance.
a. If the total Row loads are more than 75 lhs. per sq. ft. the cost is
incwnsi.rf
6. ?<ii &kr: buiiciings, the cost must he increased
feat IIfcs on the outsid& and interior finish.
lo cover architectural
l~(~i11forCI.~I-(~(II~Cr~te huiltliugs dcsigucd to cnrry fioor loads of 100 lbs
Wr 1. ft.. or less will cost ahout 25l& more than the slow-burning t&
of nil11 coustruction.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
SLLYDdRL)S OF RllL~SUREMEST.
C.G.S. (Cmtimcter, Gramrne, Second) or dbsolut~ Yyste;~~
Jf Physirnl ~Iensurements:
CTxit c~f .swxe or distance
Unit of niass
Unit of time
= 1 cent.imeter, cm.;
= 1 gramme. gm.;
= 1 second, s.:
I , . , . 5, . 5
xi i -
= & of 1 horse-po!wr=0.00131 H.P.
mmetic Pole is one :vhich reacts on an eq11x1 pole at a
.~.,..__ . . ..I\. I?~- *
ce of 1 ilyne.
it~renetl!. the gawrs. is t,he intensity of
a force of 1 dyne. One-tenth of
The C.G.S. unit ,of quantity of electricity is that represented by the
,
flow oft 1 C.G.Y. unit of current for 1 second.~
Oue-tenth of this is t.he
The practical Units used in ~hXtric;l~l CdeUhknS ilrC:
,.i,nr,ere the unit of,current strength, or rate of floW, ~repre3Wlted,b!, 1.
Iolt t& unit of electro-motive fort-c, electrical pressure, or dlllcrence
of potdntial, represented hy E.
Ohm the unit. of resistance, represented by I<.,
~o&n~ (or ampere-second), the rulit of quantity, (2.
.4mperehnr = 3600 coulombs. y.
Watt (ampere-volt, or volt-ampere), the unit of power, P.
Joule (volt-coulomb), the unit of energy or \vork, IV.
Farad, the unit of cupacity, represented by ~c.
Henry the unit of inductance, represel~ted by .L.
Usingletters t,o represent the units, the rclatmns hetvxen them map
he expressed hy the following formula?, in which t reprCSelltS one SCCoUd
and Tone hour:
I=;, &=I& Q&T, C=$, W=QE,,P=IE.
AS these &tiOns, co!ltain uo cocfficieU~ ot~hp, than ll@ty. $e fetters
may represent any quantities given in tel
pie, if E reprrsents the numhcr of volts 1.- ___., .:_.___ .,. ..-; ., ~~~
number of ohms resistance in a circuit, then t~helr ftl I; + ZZ will give
the number of a~mpercs current strcncth in that cp2U!t.
The ahove six formula: can be combined by slll,sbltlitlc!l~.or clitninat,ion,
so as to k+ve the rclarions between any ot the qlukiLntltlcs. Tl!e most
important of thesewprc the fqllowing:
779
The definitions of thcsc UnitS ns ado&l at the ~ntcrl~ationa~ ~lectrica!
Concwxs at Clllcapo in lS93 and as estal)lishcd hy Act 01 CollGrcSS Ok
the United States July 12, 1694, are as foliO\YS:
The ohm is suhstantin.lly equa,l to 109 (or 1,00!),000,000) !lIIi!S Of resist-
ance of the C.G.S. system and is represented by the re~ist~ncc O~kW~
to an u"vnrvi nrr dwrri c rlr;rrnt hv 5 column of mercury at 32 F,. l-i.,+521
gram m
106.3 c
ml..
entimeters.
.ut: ampcrc is l/10 of the unit of current of the C.G.S. swem, and is
r>r..~ti,~~~I ,r,,irm,.+, of t,he lmvaryillg crlrrellt, which w-lien passed
.c of silver iu wat,cr in accordance with skmdard 1, a& .3LLLII\,,, 111 . ...I..
cations deposits silver at the rate of 0.001115 ?~amme w second.
colt is the electro-motive force t,hat.
steadily applird to a Con-
whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a current of one amwrc.
practically equivalent 10 1000/14:14 (or 0.697-i) of the electro
2 force between the poles or elcrtrodcs of a Clarks Cell at a tern-
1t1 Ilrenared in the manner dcscrihed in the stwxiwd
amurrc in one sect ampere in one second.
l% f&ml is the The fnratl is the capn&y of a condenser charged to a I)Otcntial of one
volt. by one coulom volt. by one coulomb of electricity.
The joule is eqllal to 10,000.000 unit.s of work in t.he C.G.P. &cm. amI
is practicnlly equivalent to the energy expended in ouo sec~d hY an
nmpere in RU ohm.
The Z&L 1s equal to 10,000,OOO units of powr in the C.G.S. system, and
is practically equivalent to the work done at the rate of One joule per
spwifications.
The coulotnb is We quantity of electricity tmnsfcrred by a current of one
i;AkN~G: .This ins a 1910 edition.
. _.,_ -c,
Some of the material may no l onger be accurate , :
4
1 !egal ohm = 1.0112 B.A. units, 1 B.A. unit = 0.9889 legalohm.
1 international ohm = 1.0136 B.A. units, 1 B..4. unit = 0.9866int. ohm.
1 international ohm = 1.0023 legal ohm, 1 legal ohm = 0.9977int. ohm:
DERIVED UNITS.
1 megohm
1 microhm
= 1 million ohms;
= 1 millionth of an ohm;
1 milliampere = l/lo~) of an a,mpere;
1 micro-farad = 1 millionth of a farad.
RELATIONS OF VARIOUS UNI TS.
1 ampere. ...................
1 volt-ampere ................
lxvatt.. .....................
i
1 joule. .....................
f
= 1 coulomb per second:
= 1 watt = 1 volt-coulomb per sec.;
= 0.7373 foot-pound per second,
= 0.00094X heat-unit per sec. (Fahr.),
= l/j40 of one horse-
= 0.7:373 foot-Dcnul 2
ower;
= work done ljy onewatt in one sec.,
= 0.0009477 heat-unit;
= 1055.2 joules;
= 1000/746 or 1.3405 horse-powers;
= 1.3405 horse-power hours,
= 3.654.200 foot-pounds,
= 3412 heat,-unils:
= 716 watts = 746 volt-amperes
= 33,000 foot-pounda per minut&
1 British thermal unit. . . . . . . L
1 kilowatt, or 1000 watts
1. kiiowatt-hour,
. . . . . .
1000 volt-ampere hours,
1 British Board of Trade unit.
1 horse-power . . . . . . . . .
1
The ohm, ampere, and volt are defined in terms of one another as
follows: Ohm,, the resistance of a conductor t,hrough which a current of
one ampere ~11 pass when the electro-motive force is one volt
the quant.lty of current which will flow through a resistance
Ampere
when the elertro-motive force is one volt.
of one ohm
Volt. the electro-motive force
required to cause a current of one ampere to Row through a resistance of
one ohm.
For Methods of making Elrctricsl ~Icnsurements Testin- etc
see Ilunroe & Jamiesons Pork&Book of ~l~:ctri::a~~ R,u\es $?bfi\ and
Dat,:: S. P.,Thompsons Dynamo-Electric lfachinerg. Ca&rt& Pitter-
Son s Ekrtrlcal Mensurernent~s; and worlis on Elect&! En$incering
Eguivalfnt Electrical and Mechnnicnl Vnits -H. Wlrd Le&rd
P!ll)hhwi 111 The Is'ZectricaZ Eng<~~eer. Feb. 2s i kgg z t, &l e of useful
eqmv:tknt~ of ekctrical and mechanical unfts,from k&i& the table on
PnSe 1347 is taken, with some modficatiow.
Units of t,he Magnetic Circuit.
UM mWwKC @e is a pole of such st,rengt,h that when placed at. a dis-
ta.nC* of one centimeter
wth a force of one dyne.
from a similar pole of equal strength it repels it
-~~WWEC Moment is the product of the strength of either pole into the
distntire, between t.he two poles.
ItllCrWt!/ of Xwnetizution is the magnetic moment of a magnet divided
br its vnl~~rn~
f~~tp~~$!/ of :l~wnetic
maznetw pots.
Field is bhe force eserted by the field upon a unit
The unit is t~he gauss.
~~~~s~~.=WlIt Of field strength or density symbol H is thtt jntensit.Y of
fkld ~VhCll acts on a unit
per square cenlimeter.
.6
ale n+th a for& $bne d& =o;le line of force
ne wuss produces 1 dqne of force per centi-
*nw lewth of Condnctor 81pon a currrnt. of 10 im
f
eres or an electro-
motlv? force of ~~100.000.000.volt. in a cent,imeter et14il of cot~ductor
when its velocity across the field is 1 centimeter per seond.
A field of
1
8
-
3 ,,
II I :!
2,
-:; *
-2
I~ARNTNG:
..r,u\,..L This is ~a 1910 edition.
some& the material , may no l onger ~be, ~accurat
s on,nnit pole, or H lines ,per
hes 4r; lines of force proceedmg
WATER. ELECTRICITY.
nit denshy.
agnetism passing
Symbol, $.
tensity of flus is the same as
ynantity. asually me+sured in cubic
1~. or gallons, but is also equiva-
Coulomb,, unit of quantity, Q, =
The name maxwell is given to a unit quantity
rate 01 flow X time, as ampere-
eter in non-magnet~ic materials
lent to rate of now X time; as cu. ,srconds. 1 ampere-hour = 3600
ateriols the iiux produced by
ft. per second for so many hours. coulombs.
Joule, vo!t-cou!omb~ If. the unit of
nsitg multiplied by,
Work, or energy, measured in foot-
work, = product of quantity by
pounds; product of weight of fall-~
+,in UlPPt r,Lmnfiv~ fnrra = vdt- yL.~ \I.-~.Y~..-Y. . . ..,._ ._-_
axwells per Square
lng water into height ot fall; !n smoere-second. 1 joule = O:i373
pumping, product of quunt@ ln root-pou11d.
,-
cubic feet into the pressure in lbs. If c (amperes) = rate of flow, and
per square foot against which the 12 (volts) = differenre of uressure
water is pumped.
bet&e&i two points in a~circuit,
energy expended = I&, = PRt.
powr, rate of work. Horse-power =
ft.-lbs. of work in 1 min. f 33,000,.
Watt, unit of power, P, = volts X
In water tlowing in pipes, rate of
smperesl = current or rate of
flow in cu. ft. per. second X resist-
flow X difference of potential.
62S.R gilberts.
Orrstcd=unit of magnetic reluctance: it is the reluctance of a cubic centi-
yc;t$ tlm tlow in lbs. per sq. ft.
1 watt = 0.7373 foot-pound per sec.
= 1748 of a horse-power.
meter of an air-pump vncumm,. Symbol, R.
~c~~tchrsce is that. quantity m a magnetic circuit which limits the flux ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE.
under a given M.M.F. It corresponds to the resistance in the electric cir-
wit.
maws of Electrical Resistance. -The resistance, R, of any con-
Per~neawe is the reciprocal of reluctance.
I
ductor varies directly as its length, 2, and inversely as its secrronal area, s,
The reluctirif!/ of any medium is its specific reluctance,, and in the C.G.S.
or IZ ia 1 t S.
syst cm is the reluctance offered by a cubic centimeter ot the body between
If r = the resistance of a conductor 1 wit in length and 1 square unit
01~1~~1~1 parallel faces. The reluctivity of nearly all substances, other
in sectional area, H = rl -+ S.
The rommou unit of length for electrical
than the magnetic metals, is sensibly that of vacuum, is equal to unity,
calculations in English measure is the foot, and th,e unit of area of wires
and i.; independent of the flux density.
is the circular mil = the area of a circle 0.001 m. timmeter. 1 mil-foot =
Prrrneability is the reciprocal of magnetic reluctivity. It ls a number
1 foot long 1 circ.-mil area.
and t!ie symhoi is jt.
Resistance of 1 mll-foot of soft copper wire at 51 F. = 10 international
Krterials differ in regard .to the resistance they offer to the passage olmls.
of lines of force: thus iron is more permeable than air. The permeability
Ex.wer,n. - What is the resistance of a wire 1000 ft. long, 0.1 in. dinm.?
of a substance is expressed bv a coefficient, ,I. which denotes it.s relation
t,o the permeability of air, which is taken as 1. If H = number of mag- I
0.1 in, dism. = 10,000 rirp. mils.
R = 1-2 f s = 10 x 1000 + 10,000 = 1 ohm.
net ic lines ner souare cent~imeter whkh w.lll *ass throltgh an air-space
Iwtween the no& of a magnet. and B the number of lines which will
pass t hro~~qh b rert.ain piece of iron in that space. then p = B f H. The
prrmeabilhv varies wit II the quality of the iron, and the degree of sat.ura-
t,ion. reachins a nractiral limit for soft wrought iron when l3 = about
IS.000 and for c&t iron when B = about 10,000 C.G.S. lines per square
centimeter.
The permeability of a number of materials may be determined by means
of the table on page 1354.
Sln!rifir, resistance, also rnlled rcsistivity, is the resistance of a material
of ,tnit ll.nwt,l, and section as compared wit II thr r~slstancr ot soft copper.
(Jondtic.t~vit,v is the rwiproral of slwcifc resistance, or the relative
comlttc$lng poker compared Nth copper tnlien at 100.
Rrl;ltivc Concluctivities of Different Metnls at O0 and 100 C.
(Mntthiessen.)
1
I
Conductivit~ies. I
1 Conductivit~ies.
..iSALOGIES RETWEEN THE FLOW OF WATER ASD
t
Metnl s.
At 00 c. At 1000 c.
Metnl s.
At ooc. At 100C.
ELECTRICITY.
. i t320 F. At2120 F.
. kt32OF. At212" F.
w4TEn. ELECTRIC-ITT.
IIend. difference of kvel, in feet. Volts; electro-motive force: differ- Volts; electro-motive force: differ-
1
ence of potrminl: E. or E.1I.F. ence of potrminl: E. or E.1I.F.
1 Silver. hard.. 100 71. 56 Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. 36
Diffrrence of pressure. 11,s. per sq. in.
Rrsistnnre of pipes, apertures, etc., Ohms, resistance, R. Increases di- Ohms, resistance, R. Increases di-
, i Copper, hard. 99. 95 ~70. 27 Lead.. . . . . .
: : i :
increases with length of pipe, with rectly as the length of the conduc- rectly as the length of the conduc- I
Gold, hard. 77. 96 55. 90 Arsenic.. .
4:;;
3. 33
contractions. roughness. etc.: de- tor or mire and inversely as its SgC- tor or mire and inversely as its SgC-
f
Zinc, pressed. . 29. 02 Antimony. 4. 62 3. 26
Cndmium.
:06:67: xercury, pure.. 1.64
creases Ivith increase of sectional tional area, R CO 1 t P. tional area, R CO 1 t P. It vnrlcs It vnrlcs I.245
.b:sjir..
area. niti the nature of the c0uductor. niti the nature of the c0uductor.
Platinum, soft.. . : Zl t _. Bismuth..
R:lr? of 00~; as cubic ft. per second, Amperes: current; current strength; Amperes: current; current strength;
I
Iron.soft........ 16. 80 ,_........
sallow per min., etc., or volume intensity of current: rate of flow: intensity of current: rate of flow:
dirided !>y t,he time. In the min- I amnere = 1 coulomb oer second. I amnere = 1 coulomb oer second.
Rcsista.nre 0f Various ar&ds and .~lloYs. k Col!del=e(f from :z
ing rroions sometimes expressed
Amperes =
volrs
in miners lnclms.
ollms; I; g; EFIR.
$le compiled by H. F. Parshall and II. If. Hobart, from different at!thori-
R = resist,ance in ohms per mil foot = rrstst.anre per centnneter
Cl& x0.015.
C =perccnt incrwsc of resistnuce per degree C.
. . ~
WARNING: This is a , I 910 ~edition.~
Some of the material ti ay no longer be accurate: ,
,,, ,~,: ,,,.., ,~,,.
, : ELECTFiICAL ENGINEERING.
riluminu~. 99% pure.. 15. 4 0. 423 White cast iron.. . . . . . . . . . 340
6 . . 17. 4 . 381 cast iron.. . . l.. _. 684 Aluminum, 94; copper. 1
Al. bronze, Al 10; Cu, 90.. 75.5
Antimony, compressed.. 21 I
Bismuth, compressed . 780
Cadmium, pure.. . . . . . 60
Copper, annealed, (D). _. 9.35
Copper. annealed, (AI) . . 9.54
Copper, 88; silicon, 12.. _. 17.7
Copper, 65.8; zinc. 34.2.. 37.8
Copper. 90: lexl, IO . 31.7
Copper, 97; aluminum. 3.. 53 .O
Cu. 87;Ni. 6.!;A1.6.5 . ..__ 89.5
Copper, 65; mekel, 25.. . . 205
CII, 70; manganese, 30 . . 605 I
&rcury ......... . ... . ... 566
I: I
065 Nickel .................... 73.7
019 Palladium, pure ......... 61 .I
latinurn. annealed . . 539 . 004 I I
Platinum; 67; silver, 33.. . 145
,036 Phosphor bronze.. .~.; . . I 33 6
German silver
Cu, 60; Zn, 25; Ni , 15. . . . I89
Gold, 99.9% pure.. . . . 13.2
Gold. 67: silver. 33.. . 61.8 I
! I . 377 Silver pure. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,SITin. Are. ..:.............I 7: : :
:&1Zik,~pure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._ 1 G:!i IroIl.reryplire...........~ 5415 j
(D) Del ,var and Fleming; (11) Matthiessen.
-
c-
2:
. 4l I
:E
,000
, 072
. 62
2:;
, 133
:G
. 440
.406
Conducbivity oP dluminum. -J. W. Richards (Jour. Frank.. Znst
Mar.. lS97) gives for hard-drawn aluminum of purity 98..5, 99.0, 99.5:
and 99.;3% respectively a conductivity of .55. 59, 61, and 63 to 64y0,
coljp~r being 100c/,. The Pittsburg Reducbion Co. claims that its purest
aitnniniim has a com1uctivit.y of over 64.5y0. (Emqg News, Dec. 17,
1 S!)fi~!
Gern!;!n Silver. -The resistance of German silver depends on its
cqmposltlon. Alatthiessen gives it as nearly 13 times that of copper,
~~111 a temperat~ure coefficient of 0.0004433 per degree C.
Weston how-
Cvt!r (Proc. Electrical Congress. lS93, p. 179),. has found copper-ii&&
zinc alloys (German silver) which had a reslstance of nearly 2s times
that. of copper, and a temperature coefficient of about one-h& that given
by AIatt,hiessen.
Conductors and Insulators in Order of their Value.
COSDTYCTRR. I xScLATORS (sox- cosDucroRs).
All metals
Well-burned charcwl
Dry air Ebonite
ShelhX
Ihnnbngo Par&k1
Guttn-percha
Acid solutions
Itlia-rubber
Amber
Mine solutions
Silk
Resins
Sleklllic ores
.-\niml fluids
Sulphur
Dry paper
Parchment
m-m
IA-inrr vegetable suhstnnces Jet
Dry leather
Moist earth
Porcelain
\1-Llter kiks
Oils
According to Culley, the resistance of distilled water is 6754 million
times as great as that of copper. Impurities in water decrease its resist-
n r-e .....l.
Rrsi+anre Varies with Temperature. - For every degree Centi-
wade ttle resistance of copper increases about 0.47,. or for every degree F.
O.%??~:. Thus a piece of copper mire having a reslsrance of 10 ohinS
at, 32 xouid have a resistance of 11.11 ohms at .Sz F.
The following table shows the amount of resistance of a few substances
uwd for various electrical purposes by which 1 ohm is increased by a
rise of temperature of lo C.
IGtinoid . ,~. .
Plat.ium silver. ._ I _.
0.00021
Gernnn silver (yee above)..
0.00031
0.09944
Gold. silver. ................. 0.00065
Cast iron. ................... O.MWJ
Copper ....................... O.OOm
WARNING: This is a '1910 edition. Some
DIRECT ELECTRIC CURRENTS.
1351
bnnealjng. - Resistance is lessened by annealing.
Mstthiessen givres
the follO\x%~g rciative conductivities for copper and silver, the comparison
being made with pure silver at 100 C.:
Metal. ,TemD. C.
g;;~;rey.:.:.
. . . . . 110
14. 6' . , . . . . . .
Hard.
95. 31
Ar$y;;d. Ratio.
95. 36
1 to 1.027
103 &: 1 to 1.084
Dr. Siemens compared the conductivities of copper. silver, and brass
with the following results. Ratio of hard to annealed:
Copper.. . .1 to 1.055 Silver. . ..I to 1.145 Brass....1 to I.180
Standard of Resistance of Copper Wire. (Trans. -4. I. E. E.,
Sept. and Nov., 1890.) - Xstthiessens standard is: A hard-drawn copper
wire 1 meter long. weigilillg 1 gritmme, has a resistalwe of 0.1469 B.p
unit at O C. Relative conducting power (Xatthiessen): silver, 100:
hard or unannealed copper, 99.95: soft or amlealed copper, 102.31. &n:
ductivity of copper at other temperatures than O0 C., Ct =Ca (l-O.00387 t
+ 0.000009009 P).
The resistance is the reciprocal of ihe conductivity, and is
Rt = R, (1 + 0.00357 t + 0.00000597 17).
The shorter formula R, = R, (1 + 0.00406 t) is commonly used.
. 4 committee of the Am. Inst. Elect.rical Encinerrs recommend the
following as the most correct form of the Matthiessen standarc;. taking
8.89 as the sp. gr. of pure copper:
. 4 soft copper wire 1 meter long and 1 mm. diam. has an electrical
resistance of 0.02057 B.A. wit at O0 C. From this thr rwistance of a soft
copper wire 1 foot long and 0.001 in. diani. (mil-foot) is 9.720 B.:!. units
at 0.0 c.
Standard Resistance at 0 C. B.A. Units. Legal Ohms ~ Intwnnt.
Ohms.
Meter-mill+eter, soft F,opper 0. 02057 0.02034 0.02029
;;;,LGc;ntlmeter
81
0.000001616 ~.~l$OO159S ~.~~~00193
%720 _._-.. ..__- . I -
1 @I$. ?f s?.ft copper ?: ;;W:;2 C. ?f 5OO.4 F. 10. 9.977
10.175
Hard&awing and annealing are found to produce pro ortional changes
in t~he conductiviby and the temperature coefficient.. t he range of con-
ductivit,y of numerous samples representative of the copper now in rom-
mon use for electrical purposes is from 94.5% to lOl.Si (on the basis of
1OO70 corresponding to 1.7213 micro-ohms per celitirneter-cube. at 20%.
Using this result. a measurement of the conductivity of a sample gives.
also its temperature coefficient. Tbns. am (in the formula, I$ = Rm [l +
%I (t - 2O)l for a sample of copper is given by multi
The valne assumed by P
lying 0.00393 by the
Percentage conductivity. t le Am. Inst. El. En.,
00 = 0.0042, or a2o = 0.00357, is the true temperature coefficients for
copper of 95.6% conductivity. (J. H. Dellinger, Eke. Rer.. May 7. 1910.)
For ta,hles of the resistance of copper wire, see pages 1357 and 135%
also page 240.
Taking Matt,hiessens standxd of Pure copper as 100%. some rrfmed
metal has eshibited an electrical conductivity equirnlent. to 103yG.
Nntthiessen fonnd that impurities in copper sufficient to dccrense ,lt,s
density from 8.94 to 8.90 produced a marked increase oft electrical rc.ilst-
ante.
DIRECT ELECTRIC CURRESTS.
Ohm% Law. - This law expresses the relation bet.n-een the &h+e
funclamental units of resist.ance. electrical pressure, and current.
I, 15:
Current =
electrical presswe
resistance
; I= g ; whence E = IR, and R = F *
In terms of the units of the three quantities.
-volts
Amperes = ohms : volts = amperes X ohms; ohms =
volts
amperes
EXAMPLES: Simple Circuits. - 1. If thesource has an effective electrical
pressure of 100 volts, and the resistance is two ohms, what is the current?
I= E _ 100
- = 50 amperes.
R 2
2. What pressure will give a current of 50 amperes through a resistance
of 2 ohms? E = IR = 60 X 2 = 100 volts.
3. What resistance is required to obtain a current of 50 amperes when
the pressure is 100 volts? R = E i I = 100 i 50 3 2 ohms.
Ohms law applies ,equallg to a complete electrical circuit and to any
oart thereof.
Series Circuits. - If conductors are arranged one after the other they
are said to be in series, and the total resistance of the circuit is the sum nf
the resista.nces of its several Darts. T,et, A Ui rr I ! 35 hc\ n. S~YI ~POnf
current,
such as a battery or genei;Ltor,-produ~inp a difference of ootential or
E.U.F. of 120 volts, meusured G&ss ab, aiid let the circ,uit contain fout
conductors whose resistances, rl, ~2, ~3, T,,, arc 1 ohm each, and three
other resistances, RI. Rz, R:, each 2 ohlns.
The
total resistance 1s 10 ohms, and by Ohms law
the current I = E i II = 120 + 10 = 12 ai n-
This current is constant throughout the
circuit, and a series circuit is therefore one of
constnnt current. The cfrop of potent,ial in the
whole circuit from n around to b is 120 volts.
or Ii = KI. The drop in any portion depends
on the resistance of tha,t Imrtion: thus from 0 to
El the resistance iS 1 ohm, the constant current 12 amperes, and the drop
1 x 1% = 12 v0lt.s.
The drop in passing through each of the resistance
RI. 122. I& is 2 X 12 = 24 vo1t.s.
Pimallel, Divided, or Multiple Circuits.- Let B, Fig. 196 be a
generator producing an E.U.F. of 230 volts across the term&s ab.
The current is divided. so that part
BOW thronch the main wires. ae and
part through the shunt. s. having a
resistance of 0.5 ohm. Also the current
has t~hrer. paths between c and d, vie..
throueh tlie three resistances in parallel S
IIt. Iis, 113. of 2 ohms each. Consider
tht the resistance of the wiresisso small
t,hat it inay be neglected. Let the con-
ductances~ of the.four psrhs he repre-
,sented by C,. Cl, CZ, Ct. The total
Fm. IO&
conductance is C, + C,+ CZ + CS = C and the tot,al resistance R -
1 -+ C. The conductance of each path is t.he reciprocal of its resistance.
the total conductance is the sum of the sepamte conductnnces. and the
resistance of Che combined or
total conductance.
parallel pzzths is the reciprocal of the
R-la
= l+ 3.5 = 0:286obm.
The current. I = E + n = 770 amneres.
,, .
DIRECT ELECTRIC CURRENTS. 1353
paths. Next consider the points cd;
through e and the other throuf91 Cd.
here there are two paths i one
Find the total rewtance as before.
kindly consider the points uD; here there are two paths - one t,brough
c the other through s. Find the conductsnces of each and rhelr sum.
$he product of this sum and the~voltnge at ub $1 he the top1 amperes
of current and the current through any path ~111 be proportional t.o t$e
conductanke of that path. The resistances, I<, and conductances, ,
of the several paths are as follows:
R, of efRahg = 0.1 + 2 + 0.1 = 2.
c
0.4545
Rb of eR?g
=
2 0.5
Joint R, = 1.048 0.9545
Rdof ce+ dgf R, - 1.248 0.8013
R, of cRd -2 0.5
Joint A!/ = 0.7687 1.3p13
l&,of ac+ bdf R/ -.0.9687 -- 1.0332 .
Q&Of s = 0.5 2
Joint R,+ Kh = 0.330 3.0332
220 x 3.0332 = 667.3 amperes.
220 x 2 = 440 amp.; through c = 227.3 amp.
227.3 x 0.5
227.3
i 1.3013 = 87.34 am&p.,
X 0.8013 + 1.3013 = 139.96
139.96 x 0.5 + 0.9545 = 73.31 :;
13!).96 X 0.45.1.5 f 0.05-15 = 66.65
~ The drop in voltage in any section of the 1,ine is found by the fOrm@a
- ~1 fl being the resistance of that section and I the current 1n It.
xs t,tle h of each section is 0.1 ohm we flnd IS for ac and bd efdl_= 22.7
&Its for ce awl dg each 14.0 volts, and for ef and Oh e1Id1 b.66 VOkS.
The.;oltage across cd iS
220 - 2 x ~2.7 = 174.6 volts: across eg,li4.6 - 2
x 14.0 = 146.6, and acros,s fit 146.6 - 2X 667 = 133.3 volts. Taldng
,:vs~ voltages and the resistances Ill. A?. R3, eay!l
3 ohms. we find from
= p; + 1~ tile cwrrent through each of these reststances ~7.3. 73.3, and
66.65 nmneres as beforc- _.
Intrrw,l R&stance. - In a simple circuit we have two resistances.
that of tl;e clrclllt .I{ and that of the int,ernal parts of the scmrce of elec~tro-
motive force rnllcd internal resistance. r.
The formula of Ohms law
when the lntkrnal reslst,ance is considered is I = I3 + (R + 7).
Paver of the Circuit. -The .po\ver,
or rate of work, in watts =
current in amperes X electro-motive force it1 Volts =,I X I?.
Since
I = E + 12, ,yatts = @ + It = electro-motive force2 f re9st,ance.
&A&IF - What H.P. is required to supply 100 lamps of 40 ohms
resis&ce&cb, requlrlnF: an electro-motive force of 90 volts?
I
The number of volt-amperes for each lamp is $ = g, 1 volt-ampere
9
- 0.00134 H.p.; therefore g X 100 X 0.00134 = 12 H.P. ~(electrical)
WARNING: This is, ,a (1910 edition.
.,,~.,. ~.
f the m,ateribl .rnay. no longer tj e accurate
, ,
~~. .DIRECT RIAECTRIC CURRENTL : 1355
Heating of Coils. -The rise of temperature in magnet coils. due to
the pxzxxge of current, through the wire 1s. approx1matelY propo;$m$al to
the watts lost in the coil per uyifiof effectyz%radlatlng surface,
:
tmy- or t-G*
( being the temperature rise inUdegrees I$.: .i. the effective radiating
surface. a&d I,! a coefficient which varies widely, accortlmg to,conditton.
In electromagnet coils of small size and power, I; may be as large as 0.015.
Crd1narily it ranges from 0.012 down to O.003: a fair average 1s 0.007.
The more exposed the coil is to air circulation, the larger 1s the Value Of k:
the larger the proportion of iron to copper,, by weight,, in @core and
winding the thinner the .wlnding with relation to i!s dtmenslon parallel
with th: magnet core, and the larger the space factor of the.winding,
the larger will be the value of k.
The space ~factor is the. ratio of the
actual copper cross-section of the whole coil to the gross cross-section of
copper, insulabion. and interstices.
Fusion of Wires. -
W. II. Preece gives a form$a. for the current
required to fuse wires of different metals, viz., I = ada, in,which d is the
diameter in inches and 0 a coefficient whose value, for different metals
is as follows: Copper, 10.244:. aluminum, 75%: platinum. 3172: German
silver 5230. platmotd; 4750: iron, 3148; tin, 1462;. lead, 1379; alloy of 2
lead &d 1 h. 1318.
Or, heat - current* X resistance X time
i
The ele$tro-motive force here is that causing the Row. or the difference
:n potential between the ends of the conductor
The electrical unit of heat, or joule = 10rergs = heat generated in
one second by a current of 1 ampere flowing through a resista11ce of one
ohm = 0.239 gramme of water raised lo C
calories = !2R{ X 9.0009478 British thermal unit.s
II = PRt X 0.239 gramme
In electric hghting the energy of the current isconverted into heat in
the lamps. The resistance of the lamp is made great so that the required
quantity of heat ,may be.developed, while in the wire leading to and from
the lamp the resistance is made as small as is commercially practicable,
SO that as httle energy as possible may be wasted in heating the wire
Energy.) -It becomes a matter of great 1mporta11ce to tieterminebefore-
IIeating of Conductors. (From Kapps Electrical Transmission of
hand what flse in temperature: is to he expected in each given case. and
1f that rise should be found o be greater than appears safe provision must
be made to increase the rate at which heat is carried off This can gen-
erally be done. by increasing the superficial area of the conductor.
we have one ClrCUlar conductor of 1 square inch area and find that nith
Say
IOOO amperes flowing it would become too hot.
Nowby splitting up this
COnductor into 10 separate wires each one-tenth of a sn11a.re inch cross-
sect1onnl area, nre
formed into heat, bm ne uave increase
nave not altered the. tot,al amount of enere
. . ._.^ L.--~ V trans-
~~~. xi tlie surfas exposed to ti% cooling
acrion of the surrounding air in the ratio of I: 410 and therefore the ten
tlml !vires Cm1 diSsip&e more than three times the hea,t., as compared with
the smgle thick wire.
Prof. Forb,es states that an insulated wire carries a greater current with-
out overheatmg than a bare wire if the diameter he not too great
iW the diameter Of the cable to be twice t,he diam of t,he condu$~
greater current can he carried in insulated wires than in bare wires uoto
LO inch diam. of conductor
If diam. of cr. .
tlurtor, this is the case up tol.1 inn* A:-- .
ttue = 4 t~imes diam. of Eon-
Heating of Bare Wires. -
.lll.~s UIUIIII. of conductor.
Iiennelly:
.The following formulae are given by
Allowable Carrying Capacity of Copper IVirCs.
(For inside wiring, National Board of Fire Underwriters
Rules.)
--
t
I
Am1 !S.
-
(
:.obber
overect
I
B.&S.
G3uge.
her In-
nation.
Circular
Slil*. ubber
overed. i
.-
-
,err
-
ot
S
,-
her In-
.lation.
300
; tEl
590
680
760
%
1, 000
$;
1' 220
1:290
1, 430
1, 550
1, 670
I
: ,
/
- -
^
200
::o
390
, 450
500
550
600
650
690
; ; ;
810
890
970
1. 050
%zi
26: 250
33, 100
41, 740
52, 630
3%
105: 500
. 11; xf l i
211: 600
$%z
ioo:ooo
5OO. OGQ
; 32:
8g: Og
1,000:ooo
1,100.oofl
I , 2OO. oca
1, 300, ooo
1. m. ~
1, 600. 000
1, 800. ~
2. 000, 000
I
s. gauge must not oe used except in nx-
Wirea smaller than NO. 14 IL &
tu;e~&~pGdant cords,.
The lower limit is specified for
tion of the insulation.by
For insulated alumlnur
that 0f conoer wire with the.sal
rubber-covered wires to prevent deteriora-
the heat of the wires.
n wire the safe-carrying CapaciCy is g4 Per cent of
ne insulation.
+hn ~~+io~~l Ronrd of Plre Underwriters.
~$~~ph?ets published 0Y A* ..-1.-..._. --..
or& for complete speclhcatlons and rules for rvirmg.
Underwriters
Insulation - The thickness of nisulatlol~ required
b
o 9
the rlIles of tile National B&l of Fire UnderWiterS varies with thL ?se
the wire the character of the insulation, and t,lle voltage.
The thick-
ness of ln&latlon on rubber-covered wires cnrrrmg voltages up t? 6oo
varies from i/~t inch for a
1
No 1S B. & S. gauge wtrq to ra.
inch for a \?rlre Of
1,000,000 circular mils.
Weather-proof insulation ts required to be slightlY
t.hicker.
For voltages of.over 600 the insulation is requned to 1~~ at least
3/ 31 inch thick for all sizes from No.
14 B. & s. gmge.to~ 5fI10.000 IIII~S and
l/ainch thick for larger sizes.
T = temperature
I = current in amperes, (1 =
that of the air in Fahrenheit degrees:
iameter of the wire in mils.
If we take T - t = 90 F., -$% = 4.49, then
d = 10 $I? and I = 4dJ
i 1000.
This latter formula gives for the carrvinp capacity in amperes of bare
WS ~lhost c%NtiY the. figures given for weather-proof w&s in the
@ire l.~nder\vrlt.ers table, except in the case of Nos I8 and I6 R. c q
Of -) JIM b amperes, giveu in the table.
ga)ge. f0r \vhlCh the formula gives 8 and II amperes,reSpect,ivel~, inSte&
.,
,,: .~.. _ ., ,: ,_ _~.. ..,,_ ,. .~
WARNING:, This is;~,a 1910~ edition.
DiRECT ELECTRIC~ CURRENTS.
Drop of Voltqo of Wires with CI
- Rules, a.* 5 in th
Volt: i dr
>.
c :r
11. 000
. : : Rubber 1 il
Covered.
P&the
-I-
proof.
-
I
?F
1. 05
. 685
. 400
, 316
. 252
: %
. 126,
, 100
, 079
. 063
, 049
30. 0
26. 5
23. 5
20. 6
17. 6
16. 6
15. 8
14. 8
%I
I f : :
10. 8
10. 1
2::
3i . 4
28. 6
25. 0
23. 6
22. 5
21. 4
20.
18. 9
17. 7
16. 7
1; :
i ters*
urrents ,
e above
0. 052
, 035
, 026
. 021
. OI B
. 015
. 013
. 0118
: : I ! ; :
: i %i
. 0075
: EE
. 00524
: I
I
Copper-wire Table. -The tnblc on pages 1357nnd 1:
OllC com,plltc?d by the Committee on Units and Stan,
cm Instltuto of Electrical Engineers (Trans., Oct., 189,
isabridged from
ds of ttrt Ameri-
Distance in Feet that the Different.
Horse-powers
can be Transmitted with a Loss of One Volt.
I
115 j 230
l,-J I . 0
I 2. 0
2. 3
2
Z
: 6. 0 7. 5
9. 0
7112 12. 5
IO 16. 5
, . . . . . 18. 0
21. 1
I 5 25. 0
20 : ; : :
37. 6
25 . . i %l
. . 75. 3
. . . 113. 0
192 308490778 1232
96
_. , _
154245 309 616 780
83 , 135 213 348 535 680
48 77 122 194 308 390
43 60 108 173 273 346
32 51 81 127 205 260
25 40 65 I 04 I 64 208
21 34 54 86 137 173
15 24 40 61 100 125
. I 8 291 47 76 96
i i i : . . . E E
. 20 30 50 62
i i . . z : :
-I
2i.
. . . . . . . . . . . __I 32' 41
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 38
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .,..
960 . I . . . . . . . . .
834 , . . . . .
460608 780985 1232! . . . .
426 540 700 875
320 405 520 656 I O95j l 39j 82111045
258325 416 525 657 S36
213 270 347 438 547 697
153 I 94 250 315 394 501
118 I 47 189239 298 380
106 135 173 219 273 348
91 I I 5 I 46 I 86 233 297
76 97 125 157 197 250
68 86 I I 0 140 174 222
58 76 94 119 I 48 I W
51 64 83 104 131 I64
45 58 73 93 I I 6 I 43
34 43 55 70 87 I l l
. . . 32 41 52 . . . .
. . .
. $ . YY
WARNING:. ,Jhis is a ~'19~10. edition.
I
. ,~: ,; ,.
~ the material ti&r+ lodger be ,,accur+
The vtlue of T for soft copper wire at 7.5 F. is lO~.?Oci international ohms.
For or&txwy drawn copper wire the value of 10.8 IS COmmOll& taken, COT-
responding to a bonductivity of 97.2 per Cent.
For a circuit voing and return, the total length is 2 L. and the form@
l,ecomes A~ = 2!.6 ZL + e, L here being the &stance ffOln the polllt Ot
supply to the point of delivery.
If E 1s the voltage at the generator alzd (1 the per centof diop in theline.
- 216OZL
then e = Ea + 100, and A = . aE
P .
If p = the power in watts. = EZ, then Z = z, aad A =
2160 PL .
II I+!*
-
If pk = the power in kilowatts, A = 2.160,00; FkL +u.@.
.I
IfL, =
the distance in miles and A, the area in CirCUbr inches, then
, clnr D. T i E-2 Tf A - = are& ill Sqwre inches, A, = 5030 PkL,
2 &? When the :.iea m cmx~w tllllil ixUI --..
..---...- ..__ -* .~~
if the& formnl:e reference should be matl~ to tt!e,tal)le Of .#Wrtble CapaC-
ity of Wires to see if t,he calcukted sire bj suthclent t.o avpld overheatmg.
For all ill&&r wiring the rules of the N%tloIlal Board qf Fire Un$er\vrltefS
should be followed.
See Appendix to Vol. II of Crackers Electrm
Lighting.
Weight of Copper for a Given
Power. - Taking the w+ght of
a ml1 foot of copper at 0 0000030~7 lb., the weight of copper m a circzitl;f
len,til 2 Land cross-se&ion 8, in circ. mils, is 0.000006031 LA lbs.,
.
gb,stituting for A its value 2160 ZL + aZ? e have
p in watts, L in ft.
P. in kilnwatts. L in ft.
, a & - ? an- i
1 l i L. . ____- - . . - .
1v = 3G4.i jR6,OOO FkL?,+ C@;
pk in kilowatts, L, in miles.
ml_- . . ..G~..+ J --nper required varies directly as the polver transmitted
,,, -L _I..^.. nr Ir.se. rlirDr*rl,~ 2~s the
inversely as the pen.~dnbage 01 ulut, ~1 ~u.19~ ~-A--V-J
_- _..J shuare of thG
(list?nce md inversely as the square Of the toltage.
Fiom ii,, last formula the following table has been calculsted:
500 145.822
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~ . . . . . :
I,000 36,456
. . . . . . . . . . .
%?I
_._........
10'000
2oaoo
40000
6O:OoO
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
I
I I .
-
In calculating the di&nre, an additiml of about 5 P cent should be
made for sag of the wires.
ELI XZRI C ~TIMJSMISSION, DIRECT CURRESTS.
1361
Table Il. - ~~00, 1000, and WOO Volt Circuit%
-
I Wire Sizes;
B. & S. Gauge.
' 5 I I v2
-_
97 960 146 940 195 920/ 244 900 293 &sO: 3' i l 840 489 000
77' 690 116' 535 155 3@J l j l 94: 225 233: 970; 310: 760 3&3: 450
61' 620 921430 12?; 24U154, 050 184, 860 216. 480 308, 100
&384l 73, 320 97, 760 122u) O 146, 640. 15) ?, 420 244, 400
38, 750 58. 1251 77, 500 96,875 116,250il~~,000 193,750
30 760 46 140' 61 520 76900 92 28o' l 23. 040 l 53. 800
24' 370 36' 555 40' 740 601925 73: l l O: 97, 480 121, 850
19' 320 28' 980 38' 640 48. 300 57, 460: 77, 280 96, 600
15' 320 22' 980 30; 640 38, 300 45, 960 61, 280 76, 600
l Z: E50 181225 24, 300 30, 375 36, 450i 48, 300 60, 750
I
I
9640 14460 19, 280 24, 100 28. 920; 38, 560 . 40. 2@0
71640 11' 460 15, 280 i 9, l OO22. 92Oi MO. 560 38, 200
6P33 I
~9' 090 12 I 20 15. 150 18, 1801 24. 240 30, 300
4805 7' 207 9: 610 12.010 14,415: 12,220 24.025
31810 51715 7, 620' 9, 525 I l , 43Oi 13, 220 19, 050
. 3. 020 4 530 6, 040 7. 550 9, 060' 12. 000 15. 100
>
2 395 3' 592 4, 790' 5. ?85 7, l 85i 9, 580 11, 975
*. 1' 900 2- 856 3. 800 4, 750 5, ?ow 7, 600 ; g
, . I : 510 2: 265 3, 020 3, 775 4, 530: 6. 3@
I . 9501 1, 425) I,YCO
2, 375 2, 850 3, 803 4: 750
I 1 I -
loo0 v.
E
00
0
I
7
i i
; :
' 1:
I 4
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
il
Y--
000 v
0
1
oooc,
000
00
0
:.
3
5.
6
i
9
I O
i :
l j
I 4
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
-
EXAMPLES IN TIME USE OF THE WI RE TADLEK-1,. Required the mari-
mum load in amperes at 220 volts that cau be carried 9;1 f&% by No. 13
wi re without e:<ceedi~~~r 1 L% rlrnn ..__. ...~~.~
Find No. 6 in the
*&?O~<o~ &&u of Table I: opposite rl1i.i in the If%
column is the nurnt ,er 4005, +ch is th? ampere-feet.
D~;iding this by
tired distance (9.5 feet) gives the load. -ki.i5 umprrys.
_^^
big%ple 2. + ~uu-yolL 1
,ine is to carry 100 amperes 600 IriG with a drop
not escc :eding 5:; ; wlrat size of wire will be re ulred:
The 3 .mpere-fret will be 100 X 600 = 60,000.
1~ Qferring torbe 5% column
of Table II the newest number of ampere-feet is 60,ijo. which is OPPoslte
No 3 wirein the 50O-volt column.
+hese tables also show the percentage of the power de!jx--zref to .a line
that 1s lost ln non-inductive alternating-current circuits.
x!ch circ$ts.are
obtained when the loads consists of incandescent IamPS and the clrcW Wes
lie onlr an inch or two apart. as in conduit wiring.
EfH&cncY of Electric Systems.-
Tl~eefficiency of a system is the rat10
of the power delivered by the electric mot,ors at the dlstaut end of the
line to the power delivered to the dynamo-electric machjues at the other
tf:t&e of nnc\)ine, ranging shut as follo\v* for dyuamos at full load:
The efficiency of 3 dynamo or motor varies \vith Its load and Wth
,hhks h3w,heen compiled by,Profesoor Forbes snd otliers in accordance
.vltQl modifications of this rule.
For a given entering horse-power the q~:e+
i km i.3 !nerelY one as to what current density or how many ampere5 ptr
.xluare Inch of conductoq, should be erqployed:
Kelvins rule gives ibout
:I!):3 amperes per square mch, and Pro.. >ssor Forbess tables gi\re a cnrrellt
rly3it.y ,Ff 3houf. SO ampwes per square inch as m&t economical
A41 ( ?Z!ectnc Tr:lnsmissipl~ of Power ) sboxvs that while relvins rnle
mrrectly mdlcates. the. connation. of minimum cost in trsnsn;ssion for a
cabit: to most power transmission kvork
~,lven cuml t and lme, it omns many practical considerations nncl is inappll-
&Ch plant h3S to be considered
on its merits and very various conditidns are lilcely to determine the line
loss in. +fTerent cases.
Alvin S 13~ nor ally
Severa! cases are cited by 3ell to sholv that nether
proper allowr:nce for loss of en:rgg in the line
ilIodlfic3tlon of it is a safe guide in determining the
W&v Tables. -
The tahks on this and tllk following page show the
relatlo!l between load., distanw, and drop or loss by voltage in & t\vo-
Wire direct-current circuit of any standard size of wire
based on the formula
The tables are
(2l.B IL) c
A = Drop in volts.
I= current in amperes. L = distance in feet from point of sclpply to point
of delivery. ,.A = ?eccmnal area of wire in cirr:Lliar milq
The factors I and
.C are mMwm.,1n the table, in the cornpol,md fact& 0 ampere feet.99
lV:im TABLE - ib%mIcm mwrwEE:N LOAD. DIJT,\NCC. T, oaq . a~, , , &z~
NGTE.-@e numbers in the body of the tables are Ampere-Feet i e
Amperes XDlstnnce (length of one wire).
See examples on nest page:
I - 11fhwlt and 220-vqlt Two-wire Circllits.
-
1
--
Line Loss in +mntsgc of the Rat,ed voltage. and poffer
LOSS RI Percentage of the Deliverncl &.vcr.
: .-
2201'
-
-- --
- -
2
000 I
N )
(
!
I
7
::
I 4
,.....
I .I 8 ,
I I 1
6, 750 5, 360 10, 14&3, 520/ 20, ~80~27040
5,040!10,720 6, 375 16,080 21:4X1
33 800
4, 250
5, 055 R, 500j 12, 750 17. 000
26800
40 560
4, 005 6, 740 10, 110 13, 480
21' 250
32160
54080 67600
3, 370
13: 350 16' 850
25 500
428s3
20' 220
34' 000
53600
26' 960
42' 500
2, 670
5, 340 8, 010 10, 680 16; OZO21; 360
33' 700
26: 700
2, 120 1. 680 3. 180 4. 240 2, 520 6. 360 8, 480
1, 995 3. 360 5, 040 6, 720
10600 I 2 720 16960 21 200
1, 330
1, 055
838
1, 582 2, 660 3, 910 5, 320
8' 400
5' 275 6' 650
10' 800
7' 980
13' 440
10' 640
16' 800
I , 2571 2, 110 1, 675 3, 165 4. 2201
13' 300
2, 514 3, 350
4: 190 6' 330 8' 440 10' 550
4i 8 E:
9971 1. 330 1, 995 2660
5: 028
627 790 1, 054 1, 560 2: 108
3 370
~~~ E 1, 254 997 1, 330 1, 672
21615 3: :
5 6; 7f f i , 320' 6650 8: 380
: I %
418 627 836
2, 090 1. 660 2: 508 1995
4' 215
I . 045 ( 354
3' 344 2' 660
5' 270
I ; 672
3325 4: 180
2: 090
For motors at full load the efficienc& run about a,s follo\Ys:
H.P. 1 2 5 10 20 50 i . 5 100
my. 70 i 5 80 35 88.5 90 91 ~~5 91.6
The efficiency of both generators and motors decreases,,~~hr~~c~~~
slowly and thec more r pidly, as the load decreases.
has its . charnct.eristic
1) curve of efficiency showmg the rati? of putput
to input at different loads.
The following 1s a rough approslmatlon for
direct-current mschines: Decrease of efficiency 3t half:lo$d. 3%: l/4 l@a?.
lO~~;/~loild,20 70;*/le load, 50%.
The lossin transrnwlon. due to fall uk
Rcslstancesof Pure Ahninnm Wire.*
ELECTRIC TKANSMISSION, DIRECT CURREXTS. 1363
Systems of Elcch!ical Distribu$jon in Comm& USC.
1. DIRECT CU~SRENT.
A. Cm&stunt Pi?tential.
110 to 125 and 220 to 250 Volts.-Distances less than,
1500 feet.
For incandescent lamps.
For arc-lamps, usually 2 in series.
For motors of moderate sizes.
2OO to 250 and 440 Volts, 3-wire.-Distances less tha,n,
5000 feet.
For incandescent lamps.
For arc-lamps, usually 2 in series on each branch.
For motors 110 or 220 volts, usually 220 volt&
500 Volts.-Distances less than, say. 20,000 feet.
Incidentally for arc-lamps, usually 10 m senses.
For motors. stationary and street-car.
Conductivity 63 in the &Iati,hiesen St
167.111 pow:
ldard Scale. Pure alutii,inum weighs
per cubic foot. ,
-
$2
Resistances at 70 F.7
I -r 2:
C~ Ohm3 Ohms
. ? *erl OOO per
$a Feet. Jlile.
---I I-
Feet
OF:.
SSY;
say,
---
Resistances at 70 F.
-
Feet
GEli
. 0041656
%~~"
. 016749
. 026628
. 042335
%A8
. I 7028
. 27061
. 43040
2%'
. 7306
. 7505
. 3746
. 9590
Ohms Ohms
,er 1000
Feet. i&K
--
12. 985 68. 56,
16. 381 06. 501
20. 649 109. 02
26. 025 137. 42
32. 830 173. 35
41. 400 218. 60
52. 200 275. 61
65. 856 347. 70
83. 010 38. 32
104. 67 552. 64
132. 00 697. 01
166. 43 878. 80
209. 85 1108. 0
264. 60 1397. 6
333. 68 1760. 2
420. 87 2222. 2
530. 60 2801. 8
669. 00 3532. 5
543. 46 4453. 0
064. 0 5618. 0
341. 2 7082. 0
591. 1 , 893O. O
--
2652.
%: .
6310:
5005.
1245.
987. 0
783. 0
%: :
_. . ^_
3YU. 3
: %I
194. 8
154. 4
122. 5
97. l C
--
i
-
77. 05
61. 06
2: :
30: 45
7. 58
6. 01
4. 77
3. 70
3. 00
38"
1. 50
1. 19
0. 95
0. 75
0. 59
00 AU; ; ; . 6636:
0 . 8368~
1 . I 9982 1. 0552
z 131770 25200 1. 3305 1. 6779
; . 50526 . 40067 2. 1156 2. 6679
6 . 63720 3. 3687
7 . 80350 4. 2425
8 1. 0131 5. 3498
9 1. 2773 6. 7442
10 1. 6111 8. 5065
I I 2. 0312 10. 723
! 2 2. 56! 5 : : . : : j
. 13 3. 2300 17. 055
14 4. 0724 21. 502
15 5. 1354 27. 114
16 4. 4755 34. 190
B. Constant Current:
Usually 5. 61/z, or 9% amperes, the volts insxeasing to several
t!?ousand, as demanded, for series arc Jamps.
II. ALTERNATING CWRIMNT.
A. Constant Potential.
For incandescent IAmps. arc-lamps, and motors.
Polyplrase Systems.
For arc and incandescent lamps. motors, utid rdtary con-
verters 1,~ givhlg direct current.
polyphase - 2- and :Qhase - high tension (25,000 volts and
over), for long-dist~ence transmission; transformed by
ate::-i:c 31:d st~~r~-down t~ransf0rmer.s.
B. Con.stnnt Cww~ft.
Usual l y 5 to 6. 6 ampercs. For arc-IamDs.
The Rclativc &Ivantnges 6f Different Systems vary with each par-
t;w&r transmissnm problem, but m a general wny may be tsbuk,ted as
1 :
Svstem. Advantages. Disadvantages.
17l 8. 1670 43. 124
18 10. 300
I I
54. 388
Low xltage. Safety, simplkity. Expense for copper.
. Z-mire
z
t High voltage. Economy, simplicity. Danger: difliculty of
n
building machines.
* Calculated on the basis of Dr.. Matthiessens standard viz: The re-
sistance of a pllre soft. copper wre 1 meter long, having a weight of 1
gram=0.1417:?? International Ohm at O0 C.
(From Alummum for Electrical Conductors: Pittsburgh Reduction Co.)
3
--
.E
3- wi re.
Low voltage on machines Not saving enough in
s
and saving in copper. copper for long dis-
s
-2 tances. ~Necessity for
Multiple-wire.
Low volt?@ at machines
and savmg in copper.
* !~alnnced system.
-
Single phase. Economy of copper.
Cannot st,art under load.
glow efficiency.
--
L
-- -
CT
.w Economy of copper, syn-
+i
ehronous speed unnec- Requires ~more than two
e
Multiphase.
ess3rv; applicab!e to wmes,
z
very ion9 distances.
-4
Xotor-dynamo.
High-voltage A.C. trans- Expensive.
I mission. Low-voltage LOW efikiency.
-
D.C. delivery. 1~
el$rical Pressme or drop in the line.
we% the other conditions. remainin
is governed b-- the size of the
g the same. .~ Fora long-distance
iransnwlon plant this will vary from 5% upwards. .
.Fv$h generator efficiency and motor efficiency each 90%. and t,rans-
nmM0n loss .?%, the combined efficiency is 0.90 X 0.90 X 0.95 = 76 95r
The methods for long-dktance transmission may be divided intd th$e
general classes: (1) conti?xous current; (2) alternating current; and (3)
rotpry-convenrer or mr.tor-dynamo 1
systems. There we many factors
whxh gpvern the select.ion of a system.
there wll be found cer::ain fixed and certain unfixed conditions
general the fised factors are: (1)
For each problem consider;:
ca acity of source of power. (2) cdst of
P0:ver at source; (3) Sost of power ,y other means at point bf delirerx; P
(-4) d:?nger con$eratlons at motors; (5) operating conditions: (6) con-
stwxmn condlt.lons (length of line, character of country etc.). The
Part!Y fixed condltlons are: (7) power which must be de&red 1.e.. the
e!%xncy 0f tl!e system: (S) size and number of delivery units. The
variable condltlons are: (9) initial voltage: (10) pounds of copper on line;
(11) 0fkmal cost of all spparatwand construction; (12) expenses opemt-
mg (hsed charges, int.erest. depreciation, tases insurance etf ). (13)
liability 0f trpuble and st~oppages: (11) danger at itation and bn liie; (15)
co:iwnwnce m operdtinw
,,making changes, $stensions, etc.
,I~
WARNING: This isa 19lOdition .
. ..~_A _,., ,,,
Some of ~-the material. may, no. longer be accurate
TABLE OF ELECTRICAL HORS.E-POWEkS.
I~ormula: -
vrdt,sx impec.S=II~p
746
. , or 1 volt ampew = .0013405 HP.
Reac! amperes at top and volts at side or vice versa.
? 1 I
c.: I
izz
Volts or Amperes.
Loss of ene&y in conductors (drcp) e~u;ds 20%. Motor efficiency, 90%.
Length of conductor per mile qf ::ingle distsuce. 11,000 ft., to allow for
sag. Cost of copper taken at 16 wnts per pound.
30 40
I
- - - _
--
3000".
20 . um! . !a381 . 5362
-
_ -
-
I
-
-
Miles. 1ooov. 2000 Y. 4mr: 0,000 v.
. 0402 . "51
. 0804 .lOi
.lZO6! 16C
:lE 214 .266
2%;: ,321
. 375
. 3217 . 420
: ; ; ; ; I . 452
. 536
. 4424 339
. 4626 . 643
. 522Y 597
563; SC&
. 64Y4 . Y57
:;a;; .9*1
. OG5
. 7641 I . OI !l
. 8043 1. 072
. 8445 1. 126
A947 l . , HO
. O?. l Ll 1. 233
. ow 1. 2H7
l.OUS 1.34,
I . 040 1. 304
1. 086 1. 448
l . l ?B 1.501
1.166 1.555
1.206 l.tiW
1.247 1.862
1. 2Y7 1. 716
1. 32i 1. 760
I . 307 1.823
l . l U8 l . P. 77
1.600 2.145
1.810 2.413
2.011 2.681
2.213 2.040
2. 413 3. 217
2. 614 3. 485
2. 916 3. 753
3. 016 4. 021
3. 21: 4. 200
3. 418 4. 558
p$#J
, 2: 0610.09
6. 09 21. 45
0.11 26.81
4.13 32.17
8.15 37.53
2.17 42~3
;:I; pm:
2 I.
5OcJ l v.
_
%!
18. 70
: : : i i
74. 90
102. 00
133. 25
168. 60
2; :
%: : I I
EEi
533. w
%C
75o: oo
833. 00
so. 13
?X
2. 08
3. 25
i %
8. 32
i ~: ~~
15. 75
18. 70
: %i
29. 25
XI
%i
52. 00
SO. 08
i I %
1: 33
: : Ei
4. 08
5. 33
6. 74
8. 33
10. 08
I : : :
16. 32
18. 72
: : : i i
: i : :
33. 32
i:E
0:W
0. 33
0, 52
0. 75
1 02
! : Z
2. 08
2. 52
3. 00
' 4: Ei
Et
%i
7. 50
a. 33
, 563
. 5YS
,616
. 643
. Oi O
so7
. 723
311 .Ml% All
3?! . omu . 42!
33 . u&m . 4x
34 . 0, 55s . 45!
35 . 04ti Y2 . 46!
J UI . 05m . 53,
451 . ol xx &UT
5U . 06X, 3
551 . x373 : %
ut( . 6. %, 43 . 80;
65; . 08713 . 871
70 m3Y4i . 03t
73 . 10054i *. !I @
so .lOXli 1.072
6.51 .113!N I.139
001 .l?O65! 1.200
651 . 12; 3511. 273
luo .13m 1.341
200 .%10: 2.681
wj .40215l *.022
409 . 536?0/ 5. 362
54, ): . B; U; 6. 703
GW: . 8043018. 0, 3
i w . 0X35! 9. 3Y,
804' l . U704~, 0. 72
w I . ?Oti 512. 06
' . ow 1. 3405~13. 4,
; . "oo: 2. 6Sl O?6. 81
O. M)J 4. MLS. U). 22
(. ooOi 5. 36"0. 53. 02
SOO 6. ; 0?5' 67. 03
6. U+v 8. 043~so. 43
7. l hN~9. 3535, 03. X4
s. Lcxl l o. ; ?* / , Ui . ?
!l . thhl I ?. , hi 5120. 6
10,Ow 13.405 134.1
COST OF COPPER T(EQUIRED TO DELIVEIl OSE ,\ IECHAXIt XL H_ORSE-POWER
m XOTCR-SHAFT WITH VARYING PERCENTAGES OF Loss IS VONDUJCTORS,
UPOX THE ASSUMIPTION TII.~T THE POTESTIAL AT MOTOR TERMINALS IS
IN EACH &SE 3000 VOLTS.
Xotor 4icienc.y. SO%. Cost of copper equals 16 cents per pound.
Length of comiuctor per mile of single disrance, 11.000 ft.
1.475
1.000
2. 145
2. ?70
i . 123"
10. 72
: : : :
l b7
21. 45
53. 62
&Z
134. 1'20
24,
2?'
2: 4. 5
; g;
13-i
;3R1
*u: 1,
c,,
.,. I~.. ,....: .~ .,,._ .~ ,,.,,.. ~,, ,,.
rrJARNING: ,This is, a 1910 edition.
..ild&L
Some of
_: 8
-
--
20% 30%
I
- i .
Miles. 10%
material may, no,
1366 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
ELECTRfC RAILWAYS.
Space wiil not admit Df a proper treatment of this subject in this work
Consult Crosby and Bell, The Electric Railway in Theory and Practice:
Fairchild, Street Railways; iMerrill, Iteference Book of Tables and Formu&
for Street Rail;vay %nguxers; Bell. Eiectric Transmission of Power;
Dawson, Engineering and Electric Traction Pocket-book;, The Standard
Handbook for Electrical Engineers; and Fosters Electrxal Engineers
Pocket..:book.
railways.
The last named devotes 240 pages to the subject of electric
Electric Railway Cars and Motors. (Foster.) -Small cars weighing
10 t? 12 tons may be fitted with two 3%H.P. motors and be geared for a
masnnum. speed of 25 to 30 miles per hour. Larger.ca;s of the single-
truck variety weighing close to 15 tons may be equipped with IO-H.P.
motors. Suburbiln cars weighing 18 lo 25 tons and measuring 45 ft. over
all may be eqmpped with four 50-H.P. motors and be geared for a maxi-
mu?, speed of 40 m.p.h. Larger ~types of suburban cars, 50 ft. over all
seatmg 5% passengers, weigh 2s to 30 tons and are eqm
75-H.P. motors geared for,a maximum speed of 45
ped with fou;
m.p. R The largest
type of suburban car 1s eqmpped with four 125-H.P. motors: and is geared
for a maximum speed of 60 m.p.h.
Grades upon city &es may run as high as 13 per cent, and to surmount
these I! is necessary to have every axle on the citr equipped with mo:ors.
thus w&-truck cws re
3
uire two, and double-tr11ck cars four motorsf
and even +cn the cars ~11 be unable to Surmount these grades with ver
bad conZitiorij of track. The motor capacity per car should be libera
P
not so mucl! from the danger of overheating the motors as to prevent
unrlur slx1rkr.l:: xheu .surmo11ntin:: the hzavv arsdes.
A 4000-1I.P. I~Sltrctric Loeon~otive , b,liltU by the Westingh&use El
& llfs. tin. for th1! Now York trrminal and tunne: of the Penna. R.R., &
dcscrilxd 1n E&n ~Vcfun, Nov. 11. 1909.
In wheel a,rrs?ce1nent. weight distribution and general rharnct,er of
the runrung gear 1t is bhe practical cq11ivalcnt 0; two American-tape steam
loc:ornor ires co11plerl back to back.
frame and are side-connected through
The motors are mount.rd upon t,he
jack shafts to driving wheels by a
spstem of cranks and parallel connecting rods.
The connecbing ru?l.~ are
all rotat~ing links between rotating elements, and thus can be perfectly
counterbalanced for all speeds.
72 ins. above the 1~1s.
The center of gravity is approsimately
In these electric locomotives the variable pressure of the unbalanced
&ton of the steatn locomotive is replaced by the more constant torque
and rnore constant rotnting effort of t.!x drive wheels, so that t.he ~011
upon the drawb&r is therehv con.-&nt and uniform.
start a train of 550 tons traiilnp ,
The engine will
.~l upon grades of aprzosimately 2%.
A, tractive e,lfort of 60,000 11: ,., and a normai speed of 6(, miles per hcur.
IWh full tram load on a I:,wI crack, are guaranteed.
The tot~al weight of th,
is on t,he <i&t drivers.
: :,comotive is %.2,100 lbs.. of which 208 000 Ibs.
The locomotive is claimed to develop 40bO H.P.
for r.hort tmles. say ,20 minutes, without abnormal temperature rise.
Each
half of the locomotwe carries a single motor, four 6S-m. drive wheels and
ant: four-$eel, swing-bolster, swivel truck, with 36-in. wheels. Each
section has Its own steel cab, the two cabs being connected by a vestibule.
The rigid wheel-bases are 7 ft. 2 in. and t,he total mhee:-ease of each
l1;llf is 23 ft. The modive power consists of two motors of a 60O-volt.
200+H.P.. commutating-pole type.
out Its crank, 42,000 lbs.
Each motor weighs complete with-
The main-field winding is in t.wo secoions, 00th
of which are used together at low-sperd operation.
At hi& speeds only
one-half is needed, and at intermediate control points one is shunted with
rwstqnce. These field positions are available for all series ;uld parallel
groupings of the motors, so that eight running positions (or speeds) are
pos~[b)e. Bridging tonne-tions are used in psssing from series to parallel
Rrouwngs 01 the motors, so that the main circuits are not opened in the
process.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING - ILLKVIINATION. 1367
ELECTRIC LIGHTING. - ILLUMISATION.
r~.~;n~+i~,n - Snme writ,ers distineuish lichtine and illumina-
I.IYI.I.--UI..---.
tion. Lighting refESs-GtiG ~cilaiacier of tl<& lights themselves, as
dazzling, brilliant, or soft. and pleasing. and illr.minati~Jn to the qllantity
of light reflected frnm ohiects. bv which they Ire rendered visible. If
the objects in a rod... -._ -.---.-,,
The qusntity ,of light is estimated-in candle-pc!ier per srluare foot of
area or y cubx Joot of SpWe. The amount of ill11mination given by
one can< le at n. rlwt,:mre nt 1 ft.. is known as a candle-foot.. Since t,he
illumination \ -.._., . . . . .
foot is given by a 16-c:
25-c-a. lamp at a 1
m rivn - ~~U~~~%seiy as the square of the distance, one candle-
mdl+power lamp at a distance of 4 ft., or by a
dist,ance of 5 ft.
Te&s,Units, II ___~~ . . . . ~_
of light, measured in umts of lum~nnous flux,
Tnt,ensit.v with which the flus is emittei
,nflnitions.-Qrlantitv of light proceedingfromasource
or lumens.
I from a radiant in a single
direction, called candle-power.
Illumination, density of the light Aus incident upon an area.
Luminosity, brixht.ness of-surface; flus emitted per umt area of.surface.
Cnndle-power, the unit of luminous. int,enslty. A spermacetl qandle
burning at t.he rat,e of 120 grGns er hour 1s the old stand1$ used in t.he
r&s industry. It is very unsatis actory as a standard or& .is being dis- P
$tced by d&em.
The hefner lamp, burning amyl acetate, is the legal. st~andard in Ger-
The unit of luminous intensity produced by this lain
P
when con-
zF:;z(ed and opwatet; as prescribed is &led a he/twr. .Tle standard
~~horatories of Great Britain, France and Aineriw have agreed upon
tl:e foilowhlg relative values of the units used 111 the several countrie?:
1 :nter:utiond Candl e = 1 Pentane Candle= 1 Bougie Decnnnle = 1 Ameri-
P-II c::mriin = i.il FIefnew-O.lO,& Carwl unit. 1 Hefner = 0.90 Inter-
-._.. _ -._.. __._..._._
nntio national Candle.
Int I t i t r i t ~si c Urilllanc~ of a source of light =candle-powr per square inch
of surface expose? hi a giveu dirilr~(.i~~tl of surface exposed iu a giveu directiott.
a
Ltym??~y t.lll? 11mt. of h11111110u Lumen the unit of luminous fiux, 1s the quantity, ot light, inclu?;;;
a unit soiid angle and radiated fro1n a swrce of umt intensity.
mczi+.v A unit
SC-.- ~~~~I solid angl is the angular space subtended at the surface of a-sphere by
phere by
an area eqd to the scluare cf the radius, or by 1+4r, or l/l?.:7064 qf tl!e an area eqksl to the sclusre cf the radius, or by 1+4r, or l/12.:7604 qf tt!e
surfaCe of the snlwre surfaCe of the sphere. The lizht of a source nhose average Ii~tenSlty In The light of a source nhose average mtenslty 1n
~11 ~jipntinnc ic all directions is l cand!e-power, or one mean spherical candle-power. has
,, t.nt,i a t.otnl Hus of 12.5664 lumens.
Foot -~an,d~e the unit of illumination, = 1 lumen per sc@are. foot: the
illuml11;ition ieccived by a surface every point of which 1s distant one
foot. from a source of one candle-power.
,QL.Z, or meter-candle, ? iumen per square meter: 1 foot-candle= IO:76
meter-candles.
LUG of Im,w,% &wwcs.-The illumination of. any Sllrfilce Q. inver$$$
proportiolnl to the square of its distance from tile SOUrCe of hght.
1s strictly t,rue when the sou
mn nf liuht iu 9~ nnint 2nd is verv nearly true
in all cakes when the di-t.~~l~
,\~C L .LD,.Y .., I L I_... ,. -...- -- .~
.___ Ae is more than ten times the greatest dimen-
sion of Lhe light-giving surface.
r.mr, nf f!n.nnPn. When a surface is illuminated by a beam of light ----..__. ~~~~~
str%ig% at an angle other than a right. L..,.,. 1._-
lnolp tlw iUumination is pro-
nortional to the cosine of the angle the beam make
:s with a normal to
.~ ~--~~~~~~~
the surface
If ~=thk illumination at any point in a surface, I the intensl,ty of light
coming from a source B the angle of deviation of the direction of the
beam from a normal to the surface, n,id 1 the distance from the source,
then E= I cos 0 + 12.
Relative Color Values of Various Illuminants. -The libt Pro-
ceeding from any source mav be amalyzed in terms of the elementary
color elements red green and blue, bp mesns of +he spectroqcope or by
a colorhneter. Th; following rekative values have been obtamed by the
Ives calorimeter (T~Q.~.s. IZZ.. Eng. SOC. iii, 631). 111 $1 cases the red
rays in,the light are taken as 100. and the two Wires wen are respec-
tiirely the proportions of green and blue relative to 100 red.
Average daylight, lOO,lOO. Blue sky. 106.120. Overcast sky, 92.85.
Afternoon sunlight, 91, 5G.
Direct-current carbon arc, 64, 39. Mercury
..,/L ,,.. ~. ~,~
. . ~~~~ ,.~~ .~,,
Some of the material may no longer be accurate
13G8 ELECTRICA .L ENGINEERING.
arc (red 100). 130. 1, go. Moore carbon dioxide tube, 120, 520. WeIs-
bath mantle, 314% cermm, Sl, 28. Do., 11/47$ cerium, 69, 14.5.
ceriurn, 63. 12 3.
Do.. Is/e%
power. 55, 12.1.
Tungsten ?i~mp. 1.25 watts per meau horizontal candle-
Nernst glower, bare, 51.5. 11.3. Tantalum lamp, 2
watts per m. h. c.-p.,~ 49. 8.3. Gem lamp, 2.5 watts per m. 11. C.-P., 48, 6.3.
Carbon incandescent lamp, 3.1 watts per m.h.c.-p., 45, 7.4. Flaming
arc, 36.5, 9. Gas flame, open fish-tail burner, 40, 5.8. Moore nitrogen
tube, 2S, 6.6. Hefner lamp, 35, 3.5.
Rel atl on of Illumination to Vision. - Wickcnden gives the follow.
in:: sklrnmary of the principles of effective visiw.:
1. Tile eye worlis with approximately normal efficiency upon surfaces
posse.ssm~ 5~ e!fcptive lun+nosity of one lumen per square foot or more.
2. Excessive dluminatlou and inadequate illunimation strain and
fatigue the eye m an eftort to secure sharp perception.
3. Intrinsic hrillisncy of more than 5 c-p. per sq. in. should be reduced
by a diffusing medium when the rays enter the eye at an angle below 60
with the horizontal.
4. Flickering, unsteady, and streaky illuminat.ion strains the retina
in the effort to maintain uniform vision.
5. True color v:klues are obtained onls r From light possessing all the
elements of diffused daylight in approximately e
nwaletit
6. An esc:ss of ultra-viol% rsys is to be Avon
3
proportions.
ed for hygienic reasons.
7. Jkthetx considerabions commend light of a faint reddish tint as
warm and cheerful in comparison with the cold effects of the green tints,
althollgh the latter are more etlective in revealing tine detail
Arc ~n~nps are divided into three classes: 1. Those which produce
light by the incnndcscence of ktensely hot refractory electrodes. 2.
Those which produce light mainly from the luminescence in the arc of
mineral snlt,s vaporized from carbon electrodes.
3. Those which produce
light by t!~e Iumincscence of metallic vapor derived solely from the cathode,
the nnodr Ikin: wwonsumed.
Tile Co,bof~ Arc.--111 direct-current open arcs the anodes are consumed
at the rnte of 1 to 2 inches per hour, and the cathodes. or negatives, at
&lf this rate. In ;tlternatilig-current open arc.9 the consumpt.ion is equal
m path carbons, 1 to 1.5 incl,es per hour.
Enclosed arcs have longer life
owng to the restricted oxidation of the carbons, but. they are of reduced
brilliancy and lower efficiencv. Carbons of the ordinarv sizes burn l/n~
to l/s in. per hour,givirtg a life of 100 to 150 hours for dk,-current and
80 to 100 hours for alternating-current lamps. The enclosing globes
absorb from 5 to 40cY, of the Ii&t,.
The Fkwzing Arc.-The carbons are impregnated with calcium fluoride
or othw luminrscent snlt,s. The current is usually 8 to 12 amperes and
the voltage per lamp 35 bo 60.
efiii:irnt variety of the flame arc.
The regewrativc flame arc is a highly
The .lfcwnetiteArc hns for a cathode a tkn iron tube packed
mixture of magnetite, Fe&,. and tit.anium and chromium oxides.
al!ode consists of copper or brass.
nit:,,;
wth low currents.
It is well adapt.ed Tao series operation
The l-ampere lamp, using SO vo!ts per lamp, IS highly
successful for street illumination.
lllun~ination by Arc
dkgrams and curves
Lam
showin P
s at Different Distances.-- Several
g t le hght distribution in a vertical plane
a!ld the illuminstion at different distances of different types of lamps are
given by Wicltenden.
m the table below.
From the latter are taken the approximate figures
the dame arcs 21 ft.
The carbon and the magnetite lamps were 25 ft. high,
Horizontal Distance from Lamp, Feet.
Kind of Lamp.
A. Open cwbon arc. DC., 6. 6 amps.
B. E:~chxi carbon arc, A.C. 6.6
C. Flame arc,,
MARNING: This is a
-
.I
i
i l I 30 140 I 50 pOp50j 200~250
Foot-candles, normal illnmi-
nation.
,... 0.400.290.20 , 032 . OI 4 , 006 , 002
1. 30 . I 9 . I 35 . l O, 027 . 013 . 006 . M12
. I 1. 10. 31 . I 4 . os . 05
. 85 . 65 . 15 . 055; ; 03 . 02
. . _ 1. 00 . 69 . 51 . I 5 , 075 , 045 , 025
, 471 . 40 . 30 . 21 . O? , 035 . 0221. 018
I
A 6.6 amp. D. C. , open arc, clear globe.
0: 6.6 am;., A. C., enclosed arc, opal imcr and clear outer globe,
small reHector.
C. 10 amp,, flame arc, vertical electrociw: 50 volts, 1520 X.H.C.-P.;* 0.3J
watt per M.L.H.C.-I.;* 10 hours per trim.
D. 7 amp. regenerative flame arc, 70 volts, 2440 Jl.L.H.C.-P., 0.2 watt
per hl.L.H.&.-P.. 70 hours per trim.
E.6.6amp.,D.~.seriesmagnetit,earc,70volts,51O~vatts,ll.~0.\l.L.H.C.-P.
75 to 100 hours per trim.
F. 4 amp., D.C. serlesmagnetitearc, 80volts,320 wat,tu, 57.5 X.L.H.C.-P..
150 to 200 hours per trim.
Data of Some: Arc Lamps.
Type of Lamp.
Hours
Per
Trim.
Am-
Peres.
D.C. series carbon, open.. . _. 9 to 12
D.C. series carbon, enclosed. 100 to 150
Z:i
A.C. series carbon, enclosed. 70 to 100 7.5
DC. multiple carbon, en-
closed .._. _.. ,~,. . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 to 150
5. 0
AC. multiple carbon, en-
closed.. . . . . . . . . . 70 to 100 6.0
DC. Hame :LPCS. Opel..
I~e~enerative. semi-enclosed
IO g 16 1;
A.C:. flamen~rcs, open . . . . . . . . 10 to 16
Jlaguetit~e. o*on.. . . . . .
70 to 100
1: 6
.
Ter- Ter-
minal minx1
Volts. 1 , watts.
50
: : :
2:
480
110 550
\ vatts
per
rn.l.h.
C.-l,.
0:;
1. 25
2. 25
2. 40
0. 45
2: ;
0. 45
-.. I L.V~
~~~~t,U;;~.p~,s,;,,,t Foot I&&&&~i\&~ Lig
1Qml (nm. fT&tn, Feb., 1903) gives the follO\WK! t:
Ib!e. deduced from1
experience, ,showing the amount of energy rcqll.. .-
irwlfor yoorl illumination
nmals.
by means of enclosed arcs, based on watts at lamp terr
Building.
Jv,,$,er
RIaebine-shops; high roofs. electrically driven machinerx, no n c ._ ,
belts
.......... ....
....... :............
... ....
....
RIachine-shops; low roofs, belts and other obst.ructlons
.....................
;;:;51vo i,25
Hardwa,re and shoe stores
.................................
0. 5 to 1
..... .:
Depart,tnent stores; light nrnterlal.. brlo-a-brat, etc
..............
o,75 to , ,25
Depart,ment, stores;~oolored materml..
nIilllid~ting;~~lainwhit~eg~~o~!y.. ..........................................................
a,9 :g 1::
Blill li&t~in~; colored goods. h:gh looms.
.........................
,., to l.5
General office; no incandescents..
.................................
, ,25 t .. , ,75
Drafting rooms
..................................................
, ,5 to 2
The space in s
lamps k given as ofiows m the Ikt. Library of Technolotr~ -. l-91. 13 ., Ot- 8.
yds. properly illu!ninated by 4X-\vnIt enclosed arc
door arexs, 2000-2500 sq. yds: trainsheds, l-100-1000; fOlidrW (g~wal
~illumination), 600-8001 machi&!-shoDs, 2
00-2jO; thread and cloth mlils.
* &f.~.~.-p. =nlearl hnri mntal candle-pwver; X.L.H.C.-P.=mean lower ,. . . ..__ - .
hemispherical candle-power.
~ELECTRIC~ LIGHTING -ILLu~~IN.~TIc)s. 13i l
Tile SO- and GO-waft sizes corres,>nl,ld respectively to the o;d 16-c
wa&t lamp (at top ,.olt::~;e) and tile old 16-C.-p., 3.-j-watt lamp
voltage).
.-g.,-S.l-
(at ottom
The !\OUE l,ife of a!i of the l&ted ~&rb~n i:imps sl1o.r~~ the total life and
ZheGem i.amp is an ilB~m%!d type Of the car!,on lamp, having a carbon
filamer.i, hea.;ed to such a degree in an electric oven that it takes on the
properties oi metal and hence the name, Gem Metalized Filav1ent.
Vadation in Candle-Power, Efflcicncy, and Life. - Th.: follow-
ing table shows the variation in candle-power, etc., rf %md;?td 100 to
. .
125 volt, 3.1 and 3.5 watt carbon lamps, due ?nl variat,iou ,,. .&age sup-
plied to them. It will be seen that if a 3.i-,rvatt lamp is run at 105%
beloa, its normal voltage, it may have over 9 times as long a life,, but it
will give or.ly 537, of its normal lighting power, and the light wl!l cost
50% more in energy per candle- ower.
Y
If it is run at 67;: above its normal
volt:ige. 1t will give 37% more ight. will take nearly 20c0 less energy for
equ:~ll Iigh, power, but it will have less than one-third of ?ts normal life.
formed itJ the vapor throughoutthe tube. The tubes are made about
1 in. 1 diameter and of different lengths. as below.
lamp 1s very efficient,
,The mercury vapor
deficient in red rays.
but the color of the light is unsatisfactory, being
The spectrum consists of three bands, of yellow
green and viol&, respectively.
The intrinsic brilliancy of tile lamp ii
very moderate, about 17 candle-power per square inch.
hmps are made of the sizes given below.
Commercial
The lamp is essentially a direct-
cufre+ lamp, but It may be adapted to alternating-curre;lt by use of the
principle of the mercury arc rectifier.
of about 1000 hours.
The tubes have a !ife ordinarily
--
Rel&v
3. 5wvai ts.
-5
--
-
-
?er cent, of
Normal
Candle- ,
power.
2:
69. 5
i z
94. 5
100
106
I
137
-
Watts per
Candle, 3.1
,vatt Lamp.
I I I I I
--
Imxndescent Lamps. - Candle-lmwer of nominal 16-c.p. IIO-volt
carbon lamn:
_ -
-
4. 65
4. 24
5%
3. 34
: : : i
2. 99
: : i
2. 54
-
. . . .
. . . .
:::::
1. 53
I %
2
: : :
Mean hoilzontal 15.7 to 16.6. mean spherical 12.7 to 13.8, mean heml-
spherical 14.0 to 14.6, mean within 30 from tip 7.9 to 10 9
Ordinary c;rhoit +ps take from 3 to 4 watts per cnndie-power
A 16-
candle-power lamp usmg 3.5 watt,s per candle-power or 56 watts at 119
volls takes a current of 56+ 110=0.51 ampere.
For a given efficiency
or watts per candle-power t!le current and the power increase directlv 1~
the car,dle-power.
An ordinary lamp taking 56 watt.s, 13 lilmps take i
H.P. of electrica! energy, or 1S lamps 1.008 kilowatts
Ratinl: of Incandescent Lam
terms, of their mean horizontal can
II
s. - Lamps a& commonly rated iq
I?-power, and their energy consum;-
tlon !n terms qf wrqtts per mean horizontal candle-.power.
The mean
spherical. intensity dufers from the horizontal intensity by a factor which
rnrles with different kinds and styles of lamp.
In carbon lamps it is
usually about @2,%. and In tantalum and tungsten lamps about 76 to 75%
of the mean tiorizontsl candle-power.
The, n.ew lamp ratings (&&Y. 1910) of the National Electric Lamp
AssocMlon designate all lamps by wattage instead of by candle-power
as f0rmerl.v.
The candle-power of a lamp falls off with its length of life, so that during
the latter half of its life it. has only 60 er cent or 70 per cent of its rate
candle-power, and the watts per cindlelpower are incr@ased 60 per Cent or
70 per cent. After a lamp has burned for 500 or 600 hours it is more eco-
nomical to break it and supply a new one if the price of electrical energy
,
is that usually charged by central stat,ions.
Incandescent Lamp Characteristics.-From a series of curves giVe.n
in Wickendens Illumination and Photometry the following approsl-
mate figures have been derived:
LIFE, CANDLE-POWER AND WATTS PER C.INDLE-POWER.
Hours 0 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Lamps Per cent of candle-power.
Lamps jre labeled .with a three-voltage label and the regular type of
16 C.-P. carbon lamp, in general use, will be made on the basis of 3.1 watts
per C.-p. at top voltage.
Carbon 100 102 96 91 86 S3 81
Tantalum 100 144 119 loo go 6-t so
Tungsten 100 104 110 112
1:: 1:: SS 10;
98
2
92 90
-
I
-.
r
1;
!.
I
.4ctua
YES- Actual Watt,
watts watts. p&
20. 2
18. 3
16. 4
33. 6
30. 5
i i : :
36. 6
32. 8
E.
3
-
700
I O00
' Zo"!
850
' E
850
1350
I
--
-
Per cent Watts per candle.
Carbon 100 107 109 112 115 119
Tantalum 100 8; ;o ;;; lot F ;I& 109 109 110 112
Tungsten 100 97 96 97 2 103 1. 07 10s l!O 111
- -
I O I I O 5. 00
20 2. 0
I
T.
:!.O 2000
;:I;
T. 60.0 2.97
60 hf . 57. 9 3. 18
25 M.
27
24. 1 % 3. 31
E. 7. 3
I R. 55. 7 3. 39
23. 2 725 3. 52
6. 6 1050 100
30 I g g: ; : : g i : : % I
T. 100.0 2.97
M. 96. 4 3. 18
B. 92. 9 3. 39
B: 27. 8 3. 69
7. 5 2100
T. 120.0 2.97
50 I
T. 50.0 2.97 120
MI .
48. 2
E.
, 3. 18
46. 4
I E
3. 39 1317,
ri i I
K115. 8 3. 18
B. 111.4 3.39
T, top: MI, middle; ,$, bottom voltage.
RELATIOX OF C\ ~BL~-POWERTOTER.\ IINAL VOLTS.
Per cent normal volts S.L 88 92 96 100 104 108 112
Per cent normal cilndle-Dower.
- Carbon 154
Tantalum 46
46 60 78 100 123
56 139 161
Tungsten
2 82 100 11s
86 100 115 134 158
The above figures SIWW
t,i% nece%ty
of close regulatiolr of voltage of
lighting circuits. Slight reductions- of volbnge cause the !&ht to fall far
.below uormal, while &!esr volt,age greatly dirninlqhes tlle.lllt~ of the lamps.
.~ ..,. ..,
may ~no longer "be accurate
WA!
~. . ~. , . , i . , ~ _, _~. ~. . , . : . ~. , , , _. _, ~~, , : . . . ~~
2NING: This.is. a 1910 edit
:
I?ercen.t normal volts 92 94 96 9S 100 102 104 106 108
Per cent normal watts per candle-power.
Carbon 124 116 108 110 94 i% 82
Tantalum 126 11s 112 95
Tungsten 120 115 110 ;;; ;oo 96 03 .g :i
Avcrwe Performance of Tmatnitlni and Tungsten La,mps. -
(Winchenden.) 100 Tao 12.5 v&s.
Tantnlum. Tungst~en.
---
Rated horizontal . .
c-p.
12.5 20 Mear~ spherical c-p. 8. 9 15. 8 3?6
200
Rated w: ttt~per c- p. . . . . . .
I ?6 24: ; 37: : 62?
2. 5 2. 0 2. 0
\ Vatts ~xrm. spher. c- p. . .
1. 25 1. 25 1. 25 1129
152
~2. 53 2. 53 2. 53
Total wnLts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. 60. 1. 62 1. 59
25.
1. 58 ; : z
40, 25 35- 45
Useful hours.. . . . . . . . 800 1 800
50- 70
800 85- 115~230- 270 800 ( &?oo
*For direct current; 500 hrs. for 60 cycle alt. current.
for alt. current.
t500 to 700 hrs.
SpeciRc:~tions for Lamps. (Croclcer.) -The initial candle-power of
any I~mp at the rated .voltsge should not be more than 9 per cent above
9 the value cailetl for. T!ie averarre candle-newer of a lot, nhotilrl or belov
be \vithin 6 per cent of the rated vall;e.
.~. _.._ -.-
The stand& &&n&s (of the
carbon lamp) are 3.1, 3.5, and 4 watts per candle-power. Each lamp at
rated voltage should take within 6 ner cent of the watts snecified. and t,he
aWr:We for tile lot should he withhi 4 oer cent.
is t he~~time it \$ !)urn before falling to il
The W?f$ll Iif,, nf a lamp
1: ceul; of its ?mtlal candle-power.
certal;-cj;;,ii~~,,ower. say so
For 3.1 watt lamos the useful life
al
ahout 400 Lo 460 hours, for 2.5 watt lamps about SOO, atid: wat,t lamps
:1011t 1600 hours.
Speci,al I+nps. - The ordinary 16 c-p. IIO-volt is the old standard
for mterior IIghtmg.. Improved forms of incandescent lamp, such as t.he
tungsten, are now, 1910, rapidly coming into use, so that no one style of
lamp ci?ll be corlsitlercd the standard.
for diffrtreut volbages and
Thousands of vurietic:, of lamps
candle-power are made for special purposes,
from I,ilt? prunary lamp, supplied by primary batteries using tllrec volts
and nbollt. 1 ;Impc:re and giving l/a c.-p., and the 3/4 C.-P. hicrcle lamp, 4
vclts ant1 0.3 ampere, lamps of 100 c-p. a,t 220 volts. Se&s lamps of
1 c-1). are used in llluminatinrr sizns. 213
amp&e and 1Z.5 to 13 volts, $-$~t,lan~ps
being used on a I lO-vo:t circuit. Standard
sizes for different voltaaes. 50. 110. or 220.
are 8, 16, 24. 32, 50, arid iO0 k-p.
ThrNernst Lamy depends for its oper-
ation tipon thr. pecu lar property of certain
rare earths, such as yttrium, thorium, Z*i-
conium, etc., of becoming elect.ricnl con-
ductors when heated to a certain tem-
perat,ure; when cold, these orides are
non-conductors. The lamp comprises a
glower cornnosed of rare earths mixed
I w<th a bindinelnaterial ar?d messed into a
small rod: a tieater for bringing the glower
up to the conducting temperature: an auto-
1
lmrcx
1 matic cut-out for dikonnking the heate,!
when the glower lights up. and a ballas!
FIG. 197.
consisting of a small resistance coil of we
effih1lt.
having a positive temperature-resist,anre co-
The ballast is connected m series with the *Tlower; its mzsrnce
is rquired to c0rnpenstl.t.e the negative temperdture-&stance coet tf. rlent of
EKlXTRIC LIGHTING -- ILLUUIXATION.
1373
the glower: without the ballast, the resistanceof the glower would become
lower and lower as its temperature rose, untii the How of current through
it would destro
s
it. Fig. 195 shows the elemtinlary circuits of a simple
Nernst lamp. he cut-out is an ekctromagnet connected in series with the
glower. When current begins to How t,hrough the glower, the magnet
pulls up the armature lyin, cr across the contacts of the cut-out, thereby
cutting out the heater. The heate: is a coil of fine wire either locate;1
very near the glower or encircling it.
in& in diameter and about 1 inch long.
The glower k from l/s2 to l/,.0
In the original Nernst lamp the glowers were adapted only for alternat-
ing-current, but direct-current glowers are ndw made.
The lamps are made with one glower, or with two. three, or six glowers
connected in parallel, and for operation on 100 to 120 and 200 to 240 volt
circuits. A 30-glower lamp for 220 volts, rated at 2000 C.-P., is also made.
Lamps with one glower are rated at 66 watts (110 volt), 85 (220 v.).
110 and 132 watts (110 or 220 v.) with a corresponding myan horizontal
candle-power of 50, 77, 96 and 114. respectively. The 2- 3- and 4-glower
lamps are mui;iples of the 132 watt (220 v.) single glower lamps, their
m.h.c.-p. being respectively 231, 3.59 and 504. The Nernst lamp is
commonly used where units of intermediate size between incandescent
and arc l i mbs are desired.
Cost of &ctric Lightning. A. A. Wahlauer (El. World. July, 19OS.i
--The following table shows the relative cost of 1000 candle-hours of
illumination by lamps of different kinds. based on costs of 2, 4 and 10 cents
per 1i.W. houi for electric energy. The life, K. is that of the lamp for
incandescent lsmps, of the glower for Nernst lamps, of the electrode for
arc lamps! and of the vapor tube for vapor lamps.
L, = mean spherical candle-power.
5, = watts per mean spherical candle.
P = renewal cost per trim or life, cents.
K = life in hours.
CT
= 1000 P/(KL,).
C, c (S, x R) + C, = cost per 1000 candle hours.
R = rate in cts. per 1C.W. hour.
Illuminsnt.
Incandescent Lamps. R=2 4 I O
i:nrbon . . . . . . . . . 0.31 110 13. 23. 8 8 450 1. 35 16c. p. 10. 3 17. 9 40. 7
Gem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 45 I I 0 16. 53. 05 I O Q150 1. 35 20 c. p. 8. 8 14. 8 33. 2
Meridian. . ,2.3 110 82 3. 05 35 4300. 95 100 c. p. 8 14. 1 32. 4
Nernst., I .O I I 0 42. 5 2. 6 32. 5 500 1. 5 IlOWat~t. 8.2 13.4 29
Tantalum.. 0.36 I I 0 I 7 2. 3 25 9. 1 13. 7 27. 5
Tnngst.en _... _. 0.91 I I 0 72 1. 4 I 00
gOO: ; 5 ; cg:
6. 4, 9. 2 17. 6 - - .
Direct-Current Arc Lamps.
55 400 1. 3 4 I 4.6 7.2 I 5
110 2602. 1
I 10 5502. 0
3
1011
I 50 O. I;3mp. 4. 4 8. 6 21. 2
160. 5 IO O I50 .8
:
20 I . 2. 5 : . 6 z. 2 : I ,
FFgnetite.. ( IO 3.5 110 55 60010. 75 225 1.7 1500. 155 3. 5. ; : ; 1 ; : ; I 1; : ;
. _.
Bl ondd. . . . . . . . . . . aming.. 5 55 55010. 5 3. 5 4. 5 7. 5
Inclined flaming.. I O 55 1100 0. 5
Inclined .enclosed
flaming 5.5 100 15000~. 3651 15
:NG..
Ilhnniannt.
Alternating-Current .4rc Lamps.
. I . . . 300 1. 75 5
. . .._. 250 2.6 4.5
ISamp. 5.7 9.2 19.7
425 0.8
5. 6
8.5 l{;;i 7io
10. 8 26. 4
_. .
1000 0.55 9
7. 2 8. 8 13. 6
_. . .
.._.__ 715 0.5 12.5
%::: !: 2. 9 4 7. 3
3. 3 4. 3 37.
Mercury-Vapor i.smps.
Q"nrtz. . . . . . . . . . . . I Cooper Hewit:.... 3.5 4. 0 1 220 110 127401 770 0. 331 0.5 350 600 14OOoiO.2 3.5amp:l.4
/ 1000/ 0. 125~4. 2 I O. 851
2.4
I . 451
5.4
3. 25
ELECTRIC WELDING.
,-lf_hc Fppa~m!us most gener$ly used consists of an alternating-current
u~-lr&LLl", ~eeal!
COilOf an
ng a Co~DaratlvelY high-potential current to the primary
large in s<
mquctlon-cod or tra!lsformer, the secondary of which is made so
'lot t
?ctlon and so short I I I length as to supply to the work currents
:xceedmg two or three volts, and of very large volume or rate of flolr,
The welding clamps are attached to the secondary terminals
Other
form of ?pParatus. such as dynamos constructed to yield alternating
currents dir& from the armature to the welding-clamps, are used.
The conductl$ty for heat of the metal to be welded has a decided influ-
2llc~On the heating, and in melding iron itscomperativelv low heat conduc-
tion assists the \york mat.erially.
(See papem by Sir p. Bramwell Proc.
+sc. C. E., Part Iv., vol. Cii. p. 1; and Elihu Thomson, Trans. A. I.Af. E.,
SIS. 877. )
Frg. P. Royce. Iron Age, Nov.. 25, lS92. gives the following figures
showing the amount of power reqwred t,o weld axles and tires:
AXLZ-WELDP?C.
l-inch round axle requires 25 H.P. for.
I-inch square axle requires 30 H.P. for:.
ii/4-inch round axle requires 35 H.P. for.
.: : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
lV4-inch square axle requires 40 H.P. for
2-inch round axle requires 75 H.P. ior
..........
.:
..
.....
__.
2-inch square axle requires 90 H.P. fo;
.
...
.. ...
1. .,
...
.
.. ..
....
..
....
..
.... ...
...
:
......................
Seconds
4. 5
E'
70
9. 5
100
Tl!e sWtiY increased time and power required for welding the sqilare
+e 15 not only due to the extra metal in it, but in part to the care which
Its Is best bo use to secure a perfect alignment.
TIRE-WELDING.
*-.-. .A..-..-..-..., . . . . . . . . . .
. -- y. for . ..-ee................
Secqn-ds.
P ~2. for. I H,P. fore::I :::::I . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.P.for __...-... ...
El
[.P.for ._._-__.. I:~:::::.:::::::::
55
62
Tl!e t@e above given for welding is of course that required for the actual
aPP!!catlon of the current onl y. and does not include that consumerl by
Placmg +e asles or tires in the machine. the removal of the ;Ipset and
other finrrhing processes.
From the darn thus submitted the cost, of
\veMiw em be readily figured for anY locality where the p&of fuel and
VW of labor are known.
ELECTRIC HE;1TERS. 1375
In almost all cases the cost of the fuel used under the boilers for produc-
ing power for electric welding is practically the, same as the cost of fuel
used in forges for the same amount of work, talimg Into consideration the
difference in price, of fuel used in either case.
Prof. A. B. Kenne:iY foun,d that 21/z-inch iron tubes l/a-inch thick were
melded in 61 seconds, the net horse-power required at th,is speed being 23.4
(say.33 indicated horse-power) per square inch of section. Brass tubmg
reqmred 21.2 net horse-power. About 60 total mdicat~ed horse-power
would be required for the welding of angle-irons 3 X3 X%-inch in from ,two
to three minutes; Copp? requiresabout 80 horse-power per square inch
of section, and an inch bar can be weided in 25 seconds. It takes about
90 seconds to weld a steel bar 2 inches in diameter.
ELECTRIC HEATERS.
?Vherever a comparatively small amount of heat is desired to be auto-
matically and uniformly maintained, and started or stopped on the instant
without waste, there is the province of the electric heater.
The elementary forin of heater is some form of resistance, such as coils
of thin wire introduced into an electric circuit and surrounded with a sub-
st.ance which wi!l permit the conduction and radiation of heat, and at the
same time serve to electrically.insulate the resistance.
This resistance should be proportional to the electro-motive force of the
current used and to the equation of Joules law:
I I =PRt X 0.21,
where I is the current in amperes: R, the resistance in ohms: t, the time in
seconds: and N. the heat in gram-centigrade units.
Si nw t, he re~i ntmwe of metals increases as their temnerature increases; a
th~~;virei~e~~~~~Gy:urrent-passing through it will r&t more, and grow
hotter and hotter until its rate of loss of heat by conduction and radiation
equals the rate at which heat is supplied by the current.
In a short wire.
before heat enough can be dispelled for commercial purposes. fusion will
begin. and in electric heaters it is necessary to use eit.her long leng;zt,;;
thin wire, or carbon, which alone of all conductors resists.fuslon.
majority of heaters, coils of thin wire are used, separately embedded in
some substance of poor electrical but good thermal co$ducrivlty.
The Consolidated Car-heating Co.s electric heater consists of a galvan-
ized ironwire wound in a spiral groove upon a porcela,in insulatoy. Each
heat,er is 3OUs in. long, +7/s in. high. and Ws in. wide. Cpon lt 1~ mound
392 ft. of wire. The wzght of the whole is 23% Ibs.
Each heater is desijined to absorb 1000 watts of a .%X-volt &rent.. Six
heaters are the complement for an ordinary electric. car, For ordmary
weather the heaters may be combined by the switch m different ways, so
that five different intensities of heating-surface are possible, besIdes the
position in which no heat is generated, the current being turned off.
- For heating an ordinary electric car the Consolidated CO. states tl!at
from 2 to 1, amperes on a 500-volt circuit is sufficient. Winh the outsi de
temperature at %O to 30, about 6 amperes ~11 suffice. With zero or
lower temper&tare, the full 12 amperes is required to heat a car effectively.
Compare these figures with the experience in steam-heating Of railway-
cars, as follows:
1 B. T. U. = 0.29084 watt-hours.
6 amperes on a 500-volt circuit = 3000 watts.
A current consumption of 6 amperes~ will generate 3600 -+ 6.29oS4 =
10,315 B.T.U. ,per hour.
In steam-car heating, a pwsenger coach usually requires from 60 Ibs, of
steam in freezing weather to 100 lbs. in zero weather per hour.. Surwosm
the steam to enter the pipes at ~0 lbs. pressure. and to be dlsclvsrg$!l$
2000 F., each pound of stcsm will give up 983 B.T.V. to the car.
i
, , , ___- _z
WARNI NG: This ,is a 1910 sedition.
Some of the mzkriai ?ky ?I&~ lbti&%be~ accurate
the equivalent of the th&nal Units delivered by the elec$rical-heating
system.in pounds of steam, is 10.31.5 f 983 = I@+ nearly.
Tl~s the Consolidated Co.% estimates for electric-heatin:: provide the
equivalent of IO?2 lbs. of steam per car per hour in freezing weather and
21 lbs. in zero weather.
Suppose that by the use of good coal, careful firing, well-designed boilers
and tripleexpansion engines we are able in daily practice to generate
1 H.P. delivered at the fly-wheel~withan expenditure of iz Ibs. of coal per
hour.
We !Iave then to convert this energy into electbcity, transmit it by wire
to the heate, and convert it into heat by passing it through a reslstance-
coil. We m&g set the combined efficiency of the dynamo and line circuit
at 83%. and wili suppose that all the electricity is converted into heat in
the resistance-coils of the radiator. Then 1 brake H.P. at the engine =
OS5 electrical H.P. at the resistance coil = 1,683,OOO ft.-lbs. energy
hour =2180 heat-units. But since it required 21/z Ibs. of coal to
1 brake H.P.. it follows that the heat given out at the radiator
deve op P
er
of coal burned in the boiler furllace will be 2180+2li~=S72 R
er pound
.U. An
prdinary steam-heating system utilizes 9652 H. U. per Ib:of coal for heat-
mg; hence ,the efficiency of the electric syst,em is to the efficiency of the
steam-heatmg system as 872 to 9652, w about 1 to 11.
Aug. 9, 90: Xar. 30, 92; May 15, 93.)
(Engg News,
Electric Furnaces. (Condensed from an article by J. Wright in
Elec. dge. Nay. 1904. The original contains illustrations of many styles
of furnace.)-Electric furnaces may be divided into two main classes
(1) those in which the heating effect is produced by the electric arc estab:
lished between two carbon or other electrodes connected wit!1 the somce
of current,. commonly known as arc furnaces; and (2) those in which the
heatmg qffect is produced by the passage of the current through a reslst-
ance, wh~h either forms part of the furnace proper, or is constituted,
by a suitable conducting train, of the material to be treated in the furnace.
Such furnaces are known as resistance furnaces.
The -1loissan arc furnace consists of two chalk blocks, bored out to
receive a carbon crucible which encloses the center or hearth nf the furnace
proper. Inbo this cavity pass two massive carbon electrodes, throu h
openings provided for them in the walls of the st.ructure. which is bed
together by clamps.
T
The arc established between the ends of t~he carbons
when the current is turned on plays over the center of the crucible, heat-
ing its contents.
In t.he Siemens arc furnace a refractory crucible of plumbago. magnesia,
lime. or other suitaJ,le material is supported at t,he center of a qlinder
or j acket. and packed around with broken charcoal, or other poor con-
ductpr of heat. The negative electrode consists of a massive carbon rod
passq \ert.ically through the lid of the crucible, and free to more
vertically therein. The
num or carbon, consists o P
ositive electrode, which may be of iron, plati-
a r,>d passing up through the base of the crucible.
The furnace. NBS originally designed for the fusion of refractorv,metals
and their ore.% Electricai contact is established bet.ween t.he lower
electrode and the s@mi-met.allic ma,ss in the crucible, and the arc cont,inues
to play bettyeen the surface of the mass and the movable carbon rod.
As the current through the furnace increases1 tha,t through the shunt
amdinr of a solenoid which controls the posltion of the movable rod
diminishes, thereby raising the negat.ive ,electrode and restoring equillb-
rium. .
Ti,e Xi&on fmnace is a modification of the Siemens. the solenoid
regulation of the upper movable carbon heing replaced by a worm and
hand wheel. while the furnace is made continuous in operation by .th,e
provision of a t.appinp hole for drawing off tbe molten products. This
tspe, of furnace was employed by Willson in the manufact,ure of calcium
carbide; many other types of arc furnaces have been developed from
these earlier forms. (See El. Age, May, 1904. for illustrations.)
The Borchers furnace is typical of that class in which a core, formin&!
Parr of thq furnace itself, is heated by the passage of the current t.hrou#
*t. and imp&s its heat to the surrounding mass of material contained In
th!l furnace. It consists of a bl ock of refractory material. in the center of
\QWi 1s an opening forming the crucible, into which is fed the material to
1
PRLMARY B.5TTERIES. 1377
!
be treated. T!iin :ipaccls bridged by a thin carboIl rod &jCtl is attaChedq
!
at Its exbremltlcs, to two carbon electrodes, passing t,hrou-t, the ,valls of
tbc furnace. The qurrent !leats the smalls-r rod to a ve:;:-high tempera-
ture. and the rod diffuses Its heat throughout the mass, from its center
I
outwards. !
H. I. Irvme has brought Out a reSisthCc furnace iI1 xvllir]I tile heated
column consists of a fusetl electrolyte, m,aintsincd in a state of fusion by
t.he passage of the C~lIT$ilt, Wld COmIIllIlllcatirl~ its heat t)v radiation Snd
diffusion. to the eIuxChIlg charge, Which is p&eked around it. i
A novel type of IeSist~anCe fUrIxtCe, patented independentlr nittl Some /
slight wriat.iOIl pf <letail, by Colby. Ferranti, and Kjellin isv;orked on
t,he inductive pnnclple. a~$ con&s of an annular! or lleli~al, ChaIlnel in
a refractory base, filled \Wb a conducting, or semi-conducting, medium
which constitutes the furnace charge, and has a heavy current induced
in it by a surrounding cm1 of many turns,. carrying an alternating current.
The device, m fact, acts as the closed-cmuit secondary of a step-down
transformer.
The Acheson furnace for the manT?facture of Carborundum is a rough
fircbric,k structure, t!irough the end walls of which project the electrodes
consisting of composite bundles of carbon rods set in metal cla,mps. The
space between the two $ectrodes is bridged by a conducting path of coke.
wldch const~itutrs the core of the furnace. This core is packed round
with the raw material. consist.ing of c,oke. sand. sa)wdust and com~non salt.
A 2 l/a ton Heroult electric steel furnace has been installed 1;~ the Firth-
Q+*riillrr steel Co. at Demmler, Pa. In this furnace an arc is formed
la*, 1,**1++1 nf vqetal and two eranhitc elrt:t.rodf~i which 2.r~ .stl-
k,Y<.....D -
betweer; t.,,. vcIyLI 111 lL1
pwtl cd over it. Single-phase, sisty~&?le altematinr current is used
and is ~t,~~l~r,ri down t,o 110 volts by transformers from ttIe 1 l.OOO-volt yyI* ,,,. ~.. . . ., . . .
in
The IIn-nace consumes about 250 kilowatt,s. It procl&es steel
clllalitv to crucible steel. at a cost lit,tlc gieatcr than open-hearth
(Z21. Hei-iqw. 8lily 14, 1910.)
The Iron Trade Zieciet& 1906, cont,ains a series of illustrated articlgs
on electric furnaces. by J. B. C. Kershaw. See also paper by C. F. Bur-
gess. in Trans. Western SOW. of Engrs., 1905. and paprrs in Trans. ilm.
Electra Chemical Society, I902 and later dares.
PRIiNARE BATTERIES.
Following is a partial list of some of the best linown primary cell9 or
batteries.
NOUW.
Daniell. _. . .
Gravity.. .
Gt0W?. . ,
luler.. .
Edkotl-I,nhnde
Leclanche.. I
Cl:rrk. .
wrstoll
Dry battery .
the mater i al may no. l onger oe accurate
The F,:i!er cell is adapted to teiephone$ or any intermittent work. It 1
can stano cn open circuit for months without. deterioration.
The Edison-Lalande cell is suitable for either clcsed or~open circuits.
The LeclancW cell is adapted for open circuit intermittent work. such
a,s bells. telephones, etc.
The Clark and Weston .cells are used for electrical standards. The
Weston cell has largely superseded the Clark.
Dry cells are in common use for house service, igniters for gas engines,
etc.
-
Batteries are coupled in series of two or more to obtain an e.m.f; greater
than that of one cell, and in mult~iyle to obtain more amperes rvit~hout
chltnge of e.rn.f.
Spark coils, or induction coils with interrupters, are used to obtain
ignit.ion sparks for gas engines, etc.
ELECTRICAL ACCUXULATORS OR STORAGE-BATTERIES.
The original, or Plant& storage battery consistedof two plates of metallic
lead immersed in a vcsc~ 1 containing sulphuric acid. An electric current
being sent through the cell the surface of the positive plate was convened
into peroxide of Icarl, Pb02. Tids was called charging the cell. .aft~er
being thus charged the cell cordd be used as a source of electric current,
or discharged. Plant6 and other authorities consider that in charging.
Pb02 is formed on the positive plate and spongy metallic lead on the
negative. both being converted into lead oxide. PbO, by the discharge.
but others hold that sulphate of lead is made on both plates by discharg-
ing, and that~during the charging PbO? is formed on the positive plate and
metallic Pb on the other, sulpburic acid being set free.
The acid beine cont.inualiv abstracted from the electmlvt.e a~ t.hP dis-
charpe proceeds, the density of the solution becomes less. In the char&w
operation this action is reversed. t&e acid being reinstated in the licuid
and therefore cnusing an increase in its density.-
The difference of potential developed by lead nnd lead peroside in]-
mersed in rlilitbe I$SO, is about two rolts. A lead-peroxide plate gradu-
ally loses its electrxal enerxy by local action, t.he rat.e of such loss rarrinr:
according to the circumstances of its preparation and the condition of the
cell.
In t.he Faure or pasted cells lead plates are coated with minium or lith-
arge made into & pasbe with acidulaied wat~er. When dry these blares
are placed in a bath of dilube H?SO; and sub&ted to the action of rhe
current. It.\- which the oxide on the positive plate is converted into peroxide
and t~hat mi the negative plate reduced to fmelJ: divided or porous lend.
The Chloride Aecum~lator made by The Electric Storage Battery
Co., of Philadelphia. consists of modified Plant6 nosltives and modified
I+re nenatives. The posibive plate, called the 5Ianchrster tvl,t, con-
slsts of a hard lead arid into which are pressed buttons of c&rugaterl
pure lead tape. rolled into spirals. When electrolvtically formed.
i hw blutons become coated with lead peroxide. *he negative is the
w-~~~till~l Box type in which the grid is made in two halves which are
riwtcd t.ogether after IL past.ing with lead oxide. the latter upon char-
in:: being reduced to spo~!gy lead. The out,side faces are covered xifh
wrforat.ed lead sheet, wh~h serves to retain the spongy lead or active
material.
The ~following t,ables give the elements of several sizes of chloride
ac(:~*nMat.ors. Type G is furnished in cells containing : l-75 plales. and
WW H. from 21 plates to any greater number desired. The voltageof cells
Of ill1 Sizes is.sligbtly above two volts on open circuit, and during discharge
MARNING: This .is a 1910 edition. Some
.ELEC,TRICAL ACCUWJLATORS.
1379
varies from t;hat. noint at the hreininp in 1~7s nt +I,& C.WI .A~,- ..,^ ..,.:--.
at the normal (eight-hour) rates.
nl,
At higher rates t~lie final \volt,:wn.is I,,,,$
otlice buildings and 0thG liirge isolated plants.
~~.I ~~~- . -- ..-. IYYII,I, 111
for Lbe purpose of absorbing
the energy of the generating plant during times of lighr load.~ and for c.ityinrr
it out during times of heavy load or \vheli the genenrting I~lant~is~idle.~-~~~
advantages of their use for such p{lrposes are t,hus enumerated:
1. Iteductlo,n m coal consumpt.lon and gaueral operating expenses due
to +e.generqting mach!nery being run at, the point of greatest ecd,;omy
mhlle m service, al!d bemg shut down entxely during- hours ~of ligllt load,
the battery supplyuig then whole of t~he current.
TYPE.
Size oi Plates.
Outsidedimensions ot
rubber jar, inches:
Outsidedimensions of
glws jar. inches:
lbs.:
\Veight of cell eom- \Veight of cell eom-
plete. with acid. tbs.: plete. with acid. tbs.:
!Height of cell over
all. inches: %I., ,....um.
8% lyl I 1 1 I 8 2 loll2 lOV2:101!2 101~2,101/~ 101/*
* 4%. 5%. and 6% ins. t s/4, i, and I V4. Ihs. t 7!/z. 9% and I Iv2 Ibu.
DYacht type.ruhberjhr~.5,7,and9pl~tes.Z~lz in. hlgherthanstandtrrd.
TYPE * E.
Size of Plates. 7314x73/4 in.
acid:
Height of ~elll~!~
,-+Yer al z- ar
inches:
*D= addition per plate from 2.~ to 7~ plates; approximate as to dimen-
sions and weights.
.
of the
.,.., . ..- . .,~,.,~ .) .,. ,.~.Y. ,i .,
material may 00 l onger, be accurate
tsnk ,.. 332 .372 41 I LO
;73/4 273/4,273/4 I
tank 331:4,33V4 \
27914 27314,. :.
33/41333/4 ._
75 D*
480 20
2072 28
2960 40
5920 20
480 20
of tank.
in&e.:
: --
\5eisht of electrolyte
in pounds ,......__.. 188 210 231 253 338
Weight of cell. com-
p:;: .$tpy.
tank. pounds 568 645 719 ,798
Keight nf oe!! Over
all, inches _.,. ., 39 1 39. 39 1.39
*D == addition per plate from 26 to 75 plates; approximate as to dimen-
sions alid weights.
2. The possibility of obtaining good regulation in pressure during fiuc-
tlintions in load, eslkially when the day load consists largely of elevators
and similar disturbing elements.
3 . To meet sndtlcn demands which arise unexpectedly, as in the case of
tl;~rliness caused by storm or thuntl~r-sllo\ers; also in case of emergency
due to accident or stqqqe of generating-plant.
4. Smailer generating-plant required where the battery takes the Peal<
of t,he land, which us~~ally only lasts for 3 few hours, anlJ .ve,t where no
battery 1s usrii necessitates SuPicient generator% etc., 1~elW 1llSt~alled to
provide for ihe mnsirnltm output., which in many cases is about dottblc
ttw norm;tl Olltpllt..
The Working Current, op Energy ElRciency, of a stornsc-rcll.
i.; the ratio hrt,\vren the value of the current or eneyxy espendc*d 111 t,lic
chnrpinz oprrat~ion. and that obt~aineil when the c~rli 1; tlisrhar~:cd at. any
sprrilied rate.
III a lend st,ornge-cell, if the surface and quantity of nct,ire mnkrial be
accurately ~m~portionril. and if the ilisrharre Ix commenced imn-efli;itelJ
after the termination of the charge. then a current efficiency of as much as
JS;, mav IF obtninc~d, provided the rare of tlisrhaixe is low antI wrll rcglt-
lutrc!. 3ince t,lie current etficiency decreases iw the tlisch:xpe rate in-
creases. ant1 since very low discharge rates ari seldom lisetl iii-practice.
f+fi&nri~s as hizh as this are never obtained nlnct,icullv. the average
-4s the normal nvernrre discharzinr elertro-motive force of a lend
5Pronrlarr cell never exceeds 2 vo1d.G. Ynd as an average etectro-motive
force tlniinp normal charge of about 2.X volts is required at. it,s poles
to overcome b0t.h it.s opposing elerbro-motive force and its internal
rkkunre, t,here is an inMa loss of at least 15 q, betwren t.lle volt.nge
req~~irrd to chnrxe it and t.bat at which it. discbarrrs. Thus xit h a cur-
rrnr etficiencp of 9Oclo and a volt efficiency of S.?<x, the energ:: rtliriency
unl1L.r the best conditions cannot be much over 75:a, while in pmrtice
it is nearer 702.
Important Grneral 12ttlcs. --Storage cells should not be escessirely
charged. untlercl~srged or allowed to stand when completely dlschnrged.
In set tkig up new cells t,he manufacturer should nlwnys be consnlted
as to 0le proper purity and Specific gravity of t,he rlrc%rolytc (solut,ion)
to he used in t.he cells and also as to t.he durut.ion of the init.ial charge.
ELECTROLYSIS. 1381
Charging should be done at the normal rate (as given by & manu-
facturer) or as near to it as possible.
At regular periods once each xeeli
or iTWO Weeks, deIEndill,Y Ofl WhettJer the cells hilve to be charged daily
or not, an overcharge should be blven, lasting until the speci f i c grari ty
of th,e electrolyte and the ccl1 voltage have risen to ~a maximum and
remained constant for about one hour.
vary from 2.40 to 2.70 volts
r
er cell.
The end of charge voltage may
charges
All othercharges termed regulai
s,hould cease short y before the maximum v&u&q obtained on
the precedq overclrarae are reached. If cells are standing idle they
should receive an overcharge once every two tveeks.
Discharges should be stopned when the cell voltage has fallen to 1.~0
volt? ,with current t{owing Lt or about the normal rate.
specific gravity of the electrol
The fall in
and the manufacturer should L
rte is also useful as a guide on the discharge
e consulted as to the proper iirnits.
The level of the electrolyte should be kept above the top of the plates
by adding pure fresh water, Addition of new electrolyte is seldom
necessary and should be done onls 3n advice from the manufac?urer.
be
The sediment which collects in the bottom of the cells should always
removed before it touches the plates.
The battery room should be well ventilated, especially n-hen charging
and great care taken not to bring an exposed flame near the cells whet;
ctlarging or shortly after.
Metals or impurities of any kind must not he allowed to get into the
cells. If such should happen, ,the impurity should be removed at once,
and if badly contaminated, the electrolyte replaced with new.
doubt as to the purity of electrolyte or water4 the manufacturers &&f~
be consulted.
To take cells ollt of commission, the electrolyte should he drawn off.
the cells filled with water and allowed to stand for 12 or 15hours. Th:
wnte~ c?ii then .be driqwn otf and the plates allowed to dry. When
putt,mg mto servxe again, the same procedure should be followed as with
the initinl charge.
ELECTltOLYSIS.
The separetion of a chemicni compound into its constituents by means
of an electric current.
trolysis.
Faraday gave the nomenc:ature relating to elec-
The compound to be decomposed is the Elect.rolrte. and the
process Electrolysis. The plates or poles of the batterr a& Electrodes.
The plate where the greatest pressure exists is the Anode. and the ot,her
pole is the Cathode. The products of decomposition are Iotis.
Lord Rny:ekh found that a current of one ampere will deposit 0.017253
grain, or O.OOlLlS gram. of silver per second on one of the plates of a
sliver voltnmet,er,- the liquid employed being a solution of silrer nilmte
containing from 1.3% to 20?/ of thesalt.
set free by a current, of cne amnere
The weight of hrdrogen similarly
is O.OOO01ONS cram der second.
,~WARNING: This i.s~_a ~1910~&ji,ti@~. Some of the materi al may no accurate : ,
RLRCTRO-CHERIICAt EQUIVdLEXTS.
ELECTRO-POSITIVE. I-
Hydrogen ...............
Potassium
I&
..............
Sodium
R,
................
d I.....: - ..-
Nat
a.wxlllllU1ii ..............
Magnesi i i m
Aia
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Gold I
ME
.................... At,?
Hydrogen.. . . .
Potassium..
I&
Sodium . _. .
R,
d I.....: -..-
Nat
a.wxlllllU1ii.. _. . .
Magnesium . .
Aia
Gold
ME
. .: . . . . .~
si l ver _. . . Silver _. . .
Au2
Copper (cupric) Copper (cupric)
Agl Agl
(cup-ous) ::..: g,uy (cup-ous) ::..: :,uy
Alercury (mew&). 1:. Alercury (mew&). 1:. I I
II II
Hg: Hg:
Tin Tin
(mercurous). . He: (mercurous). . He:
(stannic) (stannic) . . . . . . . . SK, SKI.,
ELECTRO-qL4TIVE. 1
Osygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chl ori ne.
OS
I odi ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cl *
Bromi ne
I ,
Ni trogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Br,
Na
1.00
39. 04
22. 99
27. 3
23. 94
196. 2
107. 66
63. M)
63. 00
199. 8
1%
' E
55. 9
58. 6
64. 9
206. 4
1 .oo
39. 04
22. 99
9. 1
11. 97
a~. 4
W"
63. 00
99. 9
199. 8
29. 45
58. 9
EY
29. 3
32. 45
103. 2
15. 96 7. 98
35. 37 35. 37
' E ' %
14. 01 4. 67
-
::%?
0. 23873
0. 09449
f %E
1. 11800
E: : z
1: 03740
2. 07470
0. 30581
0. 61162
: : %z
0. 30425
%: :
0. 08286
%E
0. 82812
0. 04849
5
G
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
0. 03738
1. 45950
0. 85942
0. 34018
; : $I $
4. 02500
1. 17700
2. 35500
: : g; ; i
1. 10090
2. 20180
0. 69681
1: : ; ; ' $
1. 21330
3. 85780
. . . . . . .
. . . . .
. . .
. . .
. . . . . . .
*Va!ency is the etom-c-:-- rl.LILL~ or atom-repin&g power of an eiement com-
pared with hydrogen, whose valency is unity.
tAtomic weight is the weight of one atom of each element compared
with hydrogen, whose atomic weiahtis unitv.
~Re&erels estensior. of Faradays law &ved that t,he electro-chemical
equivalent of en element is proportional to its chemical equivalent. The
latter IS equal to its combining weight. and not to atomic weight + mlency,
as defined by Thompson. Hospitslier,, and others who have copied their
tables. For example. the ferric salt IS an exception to Thompsons rule.
as are sesqui-salts m general.
Thus: *eight of silver deposited in 10 seconds by a current of 10 amperes
=weight of hvdrogen li!)ernted per second X number of seconds X current
strength X10~.7=0.00001038 X10X10X107.7=0.11175 gram.
Weight of copper deposited in 1 hour by a current of 10 amperes =
0.00661035 X 3600 X10X 31.5 = 11.77 grams,
Since 1 ampere per second liberates 0.00001038 gram of hydrogen,
strength of current in nmueres
= weight in grams of H liberated per second f O.OOOOIO3S
weight, of element liberated per second
= 0.00001038 Xchrmicsl equivalent of clement
,
THE %f.\CNETIC C!IRCUIT. 1383
THE NAGNETIC CIRCUIT.
For units of the magnetic circuit, see page 1346.
Lines and Loops ~of Force. - It is conventionally assumed that the
attractions and. repulsions shown by the action of a marnet or a con-
ductor won iron lilinss a1
magnet o-r conductor.
re, due to-
-The
lines of force 1 -
number of lines
surroundmg the
of the forces acting.
indicates the magnitude
As the iroIl filings arrange themselves in concentric
circles. we may assume that the
curvei or loops of force.
forces may be represented by closed
The following assumptions are mjde con-
cerni,lF- .I__ I....-._ ^F a-^..^^ i.. ^^..-I..^*:-_^ ,.:_ :..
: Irlt: ,uvp I l~tj 111 t% C,Ulll;~lt: ul~ub:
1. I hat the lines or 100~s of force 111 the conductor are I XV~I I PI tn t, h
axis of the conductor. -
~. r-_l___ _ I__
2. That the loops of force external to the conductor are proportonal in
number to the current in the conductor, that is, a definite current gener-
ates a definite number of loops of force. These may be stated as the
^..__^
dr.=nnth of lie!d in propo:tion to the c-u~,rnt.
--p=.=&, t,
ne radii of the ioops of force are at right angiesto the axis of
the conductor.
The magnetic force proceeding from a point is equal at al1 points on the
surface of an imaginary sphere described by a given radius about that
point. A sphere of radius l cm. has a surface of 4 II square centimeters
if + = total flux, expressed as the number of lines of force emanating from
a magnetic pole having a strength M.
qb=4xdf ; M=r$s4x.
hfagnetic moment of a magnet = product of strength of pole di and its
length, or distance between its poles L. hlagnetic moment =+L+4n.
If B = number of lines Mowing through ench square centimeter of cross-
section of a bar-magnet, or tho specillc induction. and A =cross-section
Magnetic hIomeht = LAB +.lz.
If the bar-magnet be suspended in a magnetic field of derwity H and so
placed that the lines of the tield are all horizontal and at right angles to the
axis of the bar elie north ale will be pulled forward, that is. in the direc-
tion in whichthe lines rf r on, and the sout.11 pole will be pulled in the
opposite direction, the t.wo forces producing a torsional moment, or torque,
Torqcle = MLH =LABH + -In, in dyne-centimeters.
Magnetic attraction or repulsion emanating from apoim rnries inversely
as t,he square of the distance from that point,. The law of inverse squares,
hozvever, is not true alien the magnetism proceeds from a surface of appre-
ciable e$en?, and t.he distances are small, as in dynamo-electric machines
and ornmary efectromagnets.
;
The Magnetic Circuit,. - In t!ie electric circuit
Current = RR$;zce, or I= $: Amperes = 2s l
I Similarly, in t.he ma,gnetic circuit ._,
F,uv = hfagnetomotive Force
Reluctance
h&wells = zzz$ss .
Reluctance is the reciprocal of permeance, and permeanc,e is equal to
permeability X path area +path length (metric measure); hence
.$= Fpas 1.
One ampere-turn produces 1.257 gilberts of magnetomotive force and
one inch equals 2.54 centimeters: hence, is inch measure,
+= (1.257Al)p6.45a+ 2.541= 3.192paAti 1.
The am ere-turns required to produce a given magnetic flux in a given
path WI 1 be .P
At= +I+ 3.1?2~a=0.3133~1~-.un.~
Since magnetic flulr+area of path = magnetic density, the ampere-turn
required to produce a density B, in lines of force per square lncil of are5
of path, will be
At= 0.3133 BZ+ P.
be
This formula is used in practical work. as t.he.magnetic density must
predetermined in order to ascertain t!le permeability of the material
under its working conditions. When a magnetic circuit includes several
qun,lities of material, such as wrought iron, cast iron. -and air, it 1s most
direct to work in terms of ampere-t,urns per unit length of path. The
,. .., ,.
WARNING: This iS a 1910 editions.
DYSAJIO-ELECTRIC MIACI-IINIS. 1335
,.
ampere-tyns for wch matcrisl are dctcrmitied scparntcly, and the wind-
inp is d,wgned to produce the sum of till. the ampere-turns. The following
table gives the average results from a number of tests made by Dr. Samuel
Sheldon:
i-; discussed in a series of articles by C. R. Underhill, in Uec. World,
,\pril 29, May 13, and Oct. 7, 1005.
Vxious forms of magnetic chucks are illustrated and described by 0. S.
\ViLllier, iii ipvz. Blach., Feb. 11, 1909.
_-
H
__-
10
20 I
30 I
$
E
t:
100
150
200 :
250 I
300 ;
--
H=
7. 95
15. 90
23. 85
31. 80
39. 75
47. 70
55. 65
63. 65
7l . M)
79. 50
119. 25
II
159. 0
195. 0
i 38. 5 ,
.-
i 1.25;
$2
60. 6
80.8
101 .o
121. 2
141. 4
1%
202: o
303. 0
404. 0
505.0
506. 0
.._
8Jnpe:
4. 3
5.7
$7
7. 6
8.0
2
9. 0
9. 4
I :::
13"::
.turr
I I . 5
t3.a
I
14. 9
15. 5
16. 0
16. 5
16. 9
1:::
17. 7
18. 5
1;:;
20. 1
per cm. =
74. 2
a9.0
96. 1
100.0
103. . 2
106. 5
109. 0
III.0
II!::
1:;:;
127.1
129. 6
.495
13. 0
i 4. i
15. 3
15. 7
16. 0
1:::
16. 7
16. 9
17. 2
1%
1::;
pC?*
1% 17. 5 17. 3
I%: ,
I;:; I
110. 9 18. 2
116.1 120.6 1% I
l$:Y :;:: I
turns per inch.
92. 2
:00.7
104. 5
107. 1
109. G
lil.6
112.9
114.1
116.1
117. 3
);?I;
l 3; ' . 2
133. 5
Esa~rrw~.- A mapnetic circuit con&
ts of 1.2 ins. of cast steel of 8 sq. ts of 1.2 ins. of cast steel of 8 sq.
ins. cross-se&on; 4 ins. of cast iron of 2
sheet iron of S sq. ins. cross-section: and
f7 sq. ms. cross-section: 3 ins. of f7 sq. ms. cross-section: 3 ins. of
of 12 sq. ins. area. Required, the am
two air-gaps each l/lo in. long and two air-gaps each l/lo in. long and
:l)ere-turns to produce a flus of :l)ere-turns to produce a flus of
765, 000 mnsn~ells, which is to be uniform
throughout the nlngnetic circuit. throughout the nlngnetic circuit.
The flus density in the steel is 56s 00
per+turns per inch of length, accortlhlg
0+8=06,300 maswells: the am- 0+8=06,300 maswells: the am-
t,hat the 1 in. of steel will require 52i.z
to Sheldons table, are 60.6, so to Sheldons table, are 60.6, so
The density in the cast iron is 76~,0O(
ampere-turns. ampere-turns.
=4x .K,nl6n
)+2:!=3J,OOO: the ampere-turns )+2:!=34,000: the ampere-turns
-. -- --.
The density m the sheet iron : = 76S,OOO + S =a!G,OOO; ampere-turns per
inch = 30: tbtal aml:wc-turns folk SLI~I:L I I -011 = JU.
The air-gap density is 76S.000 f 12 = 64.000: ampere-turns per in. =
0.,3.133B: n,niperc-turns required for air-g:ap=0.3133 x 6.1, 000 + s= z506.4.
1 he etIt,lrC cir(!Llit Will require 727.2 + 160 + 90 + 2606.4 = 34S3.6 am-
Pe:e-turns, assuming uniform fIu:c throuelmut.
For magnets used in hoisting,~see paxe 1169.
Determining the Polarity of l~lcctro-m,agnets. -If n wire is
wound around in magnet in a right-handed hells. the end at which thu
current How into t.he helis is the south pole. If 5 wire is wound around
nn ordinsry wood-screw, and the current flows around the helix in t,he
direction from the head of the screw to the point, the head of t,he screw is
the south pole. If a magnet is held so that the south pole is opposite the
eye of the observer, the wire being wound ii~ 1. right-handed helix around
it, the current ;:DWS m R right-hsnded direa.,,i. with the hands of n clock.
Determining the Direction of a Current. - Place a wire carrying
a current above and parallel to 5 pivoted magnetic needle. If the cur-
rent be flowing along the wire from N. to S., it will riluse the N.-se&in?:
pole to turn to the eastward; if it be flowin: from S. to S., the pole will
turn to the westward. If the wire be below the needie. these motions
will be reversed.
BIaswells rule. The direction. of the current and that of the resisting
magnetic force are related to each other as are the rotation and the for-
ward travel of an ordinary (right-handed) corkscrew.
DYS.UIO-ELECTRIC BIACHISES.
There are three classes of dynamo-electric mxhinrs. viz.:
1. Gcnemtors, for the conversion of mcch;uri~al into electrical energy.
3. Motors. for the conversion of clwtriral into mwh;unicnl energy.
Genrkntors and motors are both sulxlirirlcd into flirrrt-current. and
alterillltilir-cilrr~!ilt mii~cliinc~<.
3. lb,nsformc~rs. for tlw convwsion ill onct chiwct cr or wlt,:tge of cur-
rent into :~noth~!r,, as direct into illtwniltitw or ;~lt~trn:ttiriu into direct, or
from one volto?> mto 8 higher or lowor volt;w.
Kinds of Dymkmo-clcctric Ilkchinus as rcyqartls JI:innw of
Winding.
1. ,Se!~c~rntcZ!/-c~cit~~ Dyrmnfo.--The field ma,gnet coils hare no connec-
tion with the armature-coil:;, but receive their current from :L separate
machine or source.
2. Series-wutcnd D~n~~nzo.- The field windin:: and the external circuit .
are connected in series with the armature wintlili~, SO that (heentire arma-
ture current. must. pass through the field-coils.
Since in in series-wound dynamo the armnture-coils. the field. and the PY-
ternal circuit are in series, any increase in the resistance of rhe esternnl
circuit will decrease the electromotive force from t h,, clwrease in the ma??-
netizinl: wrrtwt,s. A decrensr in the resistance of the external circuit will,
in it like manner, increase the electromotive force from the increase in the
magnetkin:: current. The we of n. regulator avoids these changes In the
In pract.ice there i.s considerst~le le&g& ii of magnetic lines of force:
l\Wp from the useful nath. there lxinl: no
material opnque to magnetism and therefore no mealis of kitricfineit to
a &yvrn path. The amount of lenlane is proportional to the pwmeance
of $e leakajie pnt.hs available bet ween two points in a magnetic circuit
which are at different rnng~eti c potentials. such 5s opposite ends of a
mapnet coil. It is seldom pract.icsble to predetermine with anv n[)proach
to WcurwY bhe magnetic lraltape~ that xii1 occur under ~irellcontfitiolls
lmlfss one has profuse data ob,
ditions. In d
Mined experimentally mider slmiiar con-
1 .:i I,0 ?
!Ynamo-electric machines t,he leakage coefficient varies from
elect~rotnotive force.
.3. S/wft-~oofcntl D!/nnmo.-The field magnet coils are placed in a shunt,
to the armat.ure circuit, so that only a portion of the current genrrated
passes through the field magnet coils, but all the dinrrence of pot~~~l~tial Of
the nrmnture acts at the terminals of the field-circuit,.
In il shunt-wound dynamo an increase in t,he resistilnce of the esterllal
circuit increases the elertromotive force, and a decrense in the resistance
of t,he external circuit tlecrenses the electromotive force. .This is just the
reverse of t,he series-wolintl dynamo.
In n. shunt-wound dvnnmo a continuous bnlnncing of the current occuf%
the current dividing at the brushes between t,he field and the e.sterllilfl yt;;
wit. in the invww nronortion to the resist.ance of these circmts.
resist~nnce of . .._ __._ _ ._-. ___ _ .._ __I_- ..__ _.
ter
current passes t,hrough the field magnets, and SocailStG tk rlrctiomotxe
force t,o become greater. If, on the contrary, the rrsist.nnce of t,he esternal
circuit decreases, 1~~s current passes through the field, wd the elect,ro-
mot,ive force is proportionately decreased.
4. C~~ff.po~~fitf-l~~f~~ld Dwmnm.-The field magnets are wound with tffo
separate sct.s nf rnik clnfi of which is in series with bhe nrmnt~urc and t.he
rst.~wial circ
--- - -..
Trachw or Lifting Force of a Magnet. -The lifting poli-er or
Pill! exerted by an rlect,ro-magnet upon an armature in xtunl contact
Wt~h 1t.S pole-faces is given by t.he formula
a being the area of
Lhs,= B~c~+7~,13~1.000.
over t!ds arcil. If t.he arnnLtur5 is very claw to tllc-ooie~~~~~~-t~~is~ for-
muln niso n,pplics w1t.h sutlicicnt :wcur:~y for ~~11 pr;tctical puposes, but
J ~onsidrrable air-gap rcxulers it in;rnnlic;il~le.
The design of solenoids for the coil-imd-pluLger typo of elcctro-magnets
circuit.
~.. .,..,,.. .~._~ ,~ ,.
WARNING: This is ,a 1910 edition. .--.&.~
), ,, ~~.: . ,,.,
Some of the material may no longer be acctirde
Motors .-The
motors.
above c@ssification Irr regard. to winding applies also to
?foving Force of a Dynamo-electric Xachine. - A wire through
whxh a currentzd, asses has when piaced in a magnetic field, a tendency _ ,,
to move perpen icular to Itself ,and at, right angles to the lines of the
field. The force producnlg this tendency is P =lBI dynes, in which
1 =length of the !vire, I =tlie current in C.G.S. units, and B=l.he lnduc.
tion, or flux density, m the field in gausses or lines per square centimeter.
If the current I is taken in amperes, P =lBZ + lO=lBZ X 10-l.
If Pk is taken m k~logrxns,
Pk = lBI +9,810,000 = 10.1937 ZBZX 10-s kilograms.
Ex.4xPLE.-The mean strength of field, B. of a dynamo is 5000 C.G.S.
lines; a, current pf 100 ,a,mperes Hews through a wire; the force acts upon
locent~metersot the wxe = 10.1937 X 10 Xl00 X5000X 10+=0.505; kilo-
grams.
Torque of an Armature. - The torque of an armature is themoment
tending to turn it. In a generator it is the moment which must be
applied to the armature to turn it in order to produce current.
In a motor
n is the turning moment which the armature gives to the puliev.
Let I = current in the armature in amperes, E=the electromotive force
in volts, 2 = the torque in pound-feet, += the flux through the armature
in maswells, N = the number of conductors around the armature, and x=
the number of revolutions per second. Then
Watts = I E = 2snTX 1.356.*
In any machine if the flux be constant, E is directly proportional to the
speed and = &V?b c 10s: whence
+NlslO =2nTX1.35G:
T = ?;oY x
.&VI +.\-I
27 x 1.356 = 8.52 x 1oJ
pound-feet.
Let 2 = length of armature in inches, (2 = diameter of armature in inches,
B = flus density in maswelis per square inch,, and let m = the ratio of the
conductors under the influence of the pole-pieces to the whole number of
conductors on the armature. Then
+=fndXlXBXm.
These formuire apply to both generators .and motors.
They show that
torque is independent of the speed and varies directly with the current and
the tlus,. The total peripheral force is obtained by dividing the torque bv
the radius (in feet) of the armature, and the drag on each condurtor &
obtained bp dividing the total periplieroi force by the number of conductors
under the mtluence of the pole-pieces at. one ti:ne.
ES.i.\tPLE.-Given an armature of iei~gth I = 20 inches, diameter d = 12
inches. number of conductors IV = 120. of which 80 are under the inHuenre
of the pole-pieces at one time; let Olie Hus density B = 30,000 maswells
per sq. in. and the current I = 400 amperes.
+A$
x 20 x 30,000 x son = i,540,000.
T= 7.~40.000 x 120 x -IO;;
8.52 X 100 000 000
= 424.5 pound-feet.
9 1
Total peripheral force = 424.5 f 0.5 = 549.6 ibs.
Drag per conductor = 849.6 c 120 = i.OS ibs
The work done in one revolut,ion = torque X,&umference of a circle
of 1 foot radius = 424.5 X 6,.x? = 2670 foot-pounds.
Let the revolutions per minute equal 500, then the horse-power
2670X 500
=
33000
= 40.5 H.P.
Torque, Horse-power and Revolutions. -T= torque in pound-feet,
H.P. = T X Rpm. X 6.2532 + 33.000 = fE +- 746.
Whence Tzxque
= 7.0403 BI + Rpm. or 7 times t.he wat.ts c the revs, per min. nearly.
electromotive Force of the Armature Circuit. - From the horse-
Power. calculated as above, together with the amperes, we can obtain
the EXF., for IE =,H.P. x 746, whence E.M.F. or 6 = H.P. X 7J6+1.
*, 1 ft.-lb. per second = 1.356 watts.
~,
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC .MACHINES. 1387
If H.P.. as above, = 40.5, and Z = 400, l? = 40~~oi~46~ ~75.5 volts.
The E.3f.F. may also be calculated by the following formula%
I = Total current through armature,;
e,= E.M.F. in armature in volts;
N= Number of active conductors coun.ted all around arm;LtUre:
p = Number of pairs of poles (p = 1 in a two-pole machme);
n= Speed in revolutions per minute;
+ = Total flux in maxwells.
e,=$~N e.
10-s for t,wo-pole machines.
p+N it for multipolar machines with series-
e, -$,gij l. wound armature
Strength of the Magnetic Field. -
Let I = current ,in amperes, N 7
number of turns in the coil, A = area of the cross-section of the core in
square centimeters, l= length of core i+l;;;tlmeters. :I the perm,e;b~lty of
the core, and 4= Rux in maxweiis.
4 =
1257SI.
(Z+Ad
In a dynamo-electric machine the reluctance will be made up of three
separate quantities, viz.:
that of the field lnagnet cores, that, of the air
spaces between the field magnet pole-p&ces and the armature, an&th;t
of the armature. The total reluctance is the SI I ~I of,the three.
a I,
.&, .!, be the length of the pttth of magnetic lmes I I ! theheid magnet
cores 2* in the air-gaps and m the armature rc:ipcx%rvely: and let d,,
A A, be the areas of ihe cross-sections perpentlicuinr t0 the path Of the
mggnetic lines in the field magnet cores.
the air-gaps, and the armature
respectively. Let the permeability of the tieid magnet cores bepI, and of
the armature ILL. Tbe.pertneabiljty ofJ!ie air-gaps is taken as umty. Then
i& total ~relutitance of ~the machine will be
Ll ,L +Ls_.
Allll A2 Ass
1.257 NI
Thnflrry *= (L~~A~~~)+(L~~A~)~(L~~~~S~*~).
_ &. ---.-, r
The ampere-turns necessary to create a given flus in a machine may be
found by the formula,
NT = ,$ [(L1 +
A#,) + (&-c-A.>) + (L:? .h41
1,257- *
But the total flus generated.by the field coils is not available to produce
current in the armature.
There is a leakage between the field magnets.
and this must be al!owcd for in c?icuiations. The leakage coefficient
varies from 1.3 to 2 in different machmes.
The meanine of the.coeficlent
is that if z BUS of say 100~maxwelis per square cm. are desired In the field
coils it {Gill be necessary to provide ampere turns for 1.3 X 100 = 130
ma&ells if the leakage coefficient be 1.3.
arrn+tldr m+hod of csJculatlng the ampere-tukns necessary to produce a
gi;~~~~~siatucalcuiate the magnetomotive force required in rach portion
of the machine separately introducing the leakage coefficient In the calcu-
lation for the &ld Lagnet& and dividing the Sum of t,he magnetomotlve
forces bt 1.257.
In th;! ordinary type of multipoljr machine there are as many magnetic
circuits as t,here are poles.
Each winding energizes part Of tW? cqcU$s.
The.&lcuiution 1s made in the same manner *s fyr a~ single magnetic circmt-
*The le,v$b of tile pati in the field magnet cores Lt include$ tlx!t Portion
of the pat11 \vhictl lies in tile piece joining the cores of the vdys field
magnets.
.
ALTERNATING CUItltENTS.*
The advantages of alterrmting over direct currents are: 1. Greater
simplicity of dynamos and motors, no commutators being required; 2.
The feasibility of obtaining high voltages, by means of static transformers,
for cheapening the cost of tmnsmission; 3. The futility of transforming
from qne voltage to itnother, either higher or lower, for different purposes.
A direct current is uniform iu strength and direction, while an alternat-
ing current rapldty rises from zero to a maximum, falls to zero, reverses
its directIon, at,tsins a maximum in the new direction, and again returns to
zero. Th&s series of changes can best be represented by a curve the abscis-
s&s of Miich represent time and the ordinates either current or electro-
motive force (e.1n.f.). The curve usual1
P
chosen for this purpose is the
sine curve, Fig. 172; the beat forms of a ternators give a curve that is a
very close approximation to the sine curve, and a11 cslcuLstions and de-
ductions f,form$e ace based on it. The equation of the sine curve is
y = s!n .r, in which 1~ 1s any ordinate, and 2 is the angle passed over by
a moving radius vector.
After, the How of a direct current has been once established, the only
oppowon to the flow is the resistance offered by the conductor tom the
passage of current through it: This resistance of tlte conductor, in treat-
ing of altern+ting currents, 1s sometimes spoken of as ohnbic ~esistnm2.
The word resistance, ,used alone, always means the ohmic resistance
In
nlternatin:: currents, 111 addition to the resistance, several other qua&ties,
which,a.ffcct ths flow of current, must be talceu into considertiLion.
quant,lties are mductance, capacity, and skin effect.
under sepnrak headings.
They are dlsc?$$
The current ?ntl the e.1n.S. may be in phase rvit.h each other, that is,
they may attail! their maxunum strength at the same instant, or thry
may not,, dcpendln~ 011 the character of the circuit. In a circuit contaiuhi~
<mlg resistance, tlwcurwiit au11 e.m.f. are in phase; in a current contain-
mg induct~ance the c.m.f. attahw its musimum value before the current,
or leads the current.
the e.m.f.
In ,a circuit containing capacity the current learl~
If both capacity and inductance are preseut iu a circuit, they
will tend to neutralize each other.
Maximum, Average, and Effective Values.-The strength and the
e.m.f. of an alt+~at~ing current being constantly varied,, the maximum
value of enher is attained only for au instant in eac,h pertod.
mum values are little used iu calculat~ions,
The masi-
except in deducing formuke
and for proportionhlg insul:x~tin, which must stand the maximum pressure.
The arerllce value is cbkned by averaging ihe rriinai,es of the sine
curve represewing the current, and is 2
value.
+ rr or 0.637 of the maximum
The ~nlue of greatest hnportance is the effective, or square root of the
mean square, value. It is obt.aincd by t:king the square root of the
mew! of the squaw of the ordinates of the sine curve.
The effective vnhw
is the value shown on altcrtl;lt,illp-clurrent meawri,ng instruments.
Tl1o
product of the square of the elkctive value of the current and the resist-
ance of tlte circuit is the heat lost in the circuit.
The comparison of the tna~:imum, average, and effective values is as
follows:
Frc~urncy:-The time required for an alterr:atkg, current to 1~s
t.hro~@r ,ne complete cycle, as from one niasimum potnt t.0 the nest(a
awl 6. FIS. Ii?). is termed t,he period.
is+ t*;i;l& ;:,(:
lhc.number of periods in a second
dtrection bwice
fiqiisncy i tile Ciirre,,i.
suite the current chen~~es its
in each period, the number of reversals or alternations is
*(My a very brief treatment of bhe subject of allernating currents can
he n~ven in this 11oo;i. The following works ar-
for rcfercrw: Altornakin::
d> recommended a,s ualuable
Current,s and Alternating Current Machinery.
1)~ D. C. and J. I. Jltckson: St~andard Polyphase Apparatus and Systems
by M. A. Oudin: Po!yphase Electric Currents. by S. P. Thompson; Electrid
Li~hl~inlr. by F. B. Cracker. 2 vols.: Electric Power Transmission bv Louis
Ikll: Alternating Curi-cuts.,~ by Bedcll and Crehorc: Alt.ernatil;~-~llrrent
Pl~no~~n:t. by Chas. I. .St&nmetz.
mathematical,
The two last named are highly
1
WARNIN~G:This-~is- a"~1910 edition.
~._.A
Some of
double the frequency. A current of 1X altcrnuti~jn5 per second has a
ncriod of l!so aud a frequency of 60. The frecruunc:y of a currwt is equal
A 1,E.E. recomnicnrls ihe adoption of three frr:clucncles,viz. L?~j , ' f N &I 120.
With the higher frequencies botl? transformers and conductors \vill be
less costly in a circuit of a given reSst,ance but the capacity and inductance
elfects in each will be increased, and t.hese tend to increase the cost. wit11
high frequencies it also br ;mes difficult to operate alternators in parallel.
A low frequency current cannot be used on lightin% circuits, as the light,s
will flicker when the frequency drops below a certain figure.
the freqllency should not be less than -10.
For arc lights
not be less than 5
For incandewent lamps it sho\;ld
I . If the circuit is to supply both power and light a
frpolwncv of 60 is usuallv desirable. For nolrer transmksion to loner dis-
- - - . x- . - - - - v
t,nnccs a low frequency, say 25, is consideied desirable, in order to lessen
the caoacitv effects. If the alternating current is t. be converted into
direct, i!urr&t for 1 ighting purposes a low frequency may
frequency frill then hilve no etfect on the lights.
he used, as the
Inctuctanec.-Intluctance is tlil;t property of an electriczl circuit by
wllich it resists a change in the current.
conducbor products a magnetic lius
A current Howing through a
:~r~~nrl t.he conductor. If the current
be changed in st.rcngth or dirrct,in,
t1l llus is also changed, protlucinr
ifi tile conductor an e.nl.f. whose clircc-
tiou is opprwti to that of the current
in tlw coudwtor. This counter e.m.f.
is tlw UJIOI~C~ e.nzJ. nf ittd~wtmcc.
one
per
Cnp:lritv.-Any insulated conductor has the pnwr of holding a quail-
tity of static elrctricit?. This power is twuetl the ~wpu~ii!/ of tl!e bpdy.
Tlie capncitv of a circuit is mwsurcd by t,he quimtit~ of ?lwtrlclty In It
when a,t unit potrnlial. It mav he increased br mean:: of a condenser.
A condenser consi& of two pardllcl conductors, iiwrllatrd from each other
by a ll!l-c!?!!!!l~~c?orl Tlw conrl~!c!&s ;irc 1usu;111v in shwt forlI1.
The unit of capacity is a foratl, symbol C.
.4 i!ondenwr has a capacify
of one farad when one coulomb of electricity contained iii it produces a dlf-
ference of potential of one vlt;or when a rate of change of pressure of
one volt per second produces a current of one amprre.
The farad is to
I OVP II. Irnit t, be convenicntlv used in nmctlce. and the micro-farad or
. ... ..- .__- ._.__ ~.. _..- .~ .~~ ~~~
~~i~~ i,lsj:jnt wil.1 t,ot be equal to the product of t,he cfftr!ive v@es \VhlC.h
are shown on the instruments.
Th polver in t,he rircult at any Instant 1s
the product of the simu1tancus values of current aud e.m.f., and the,v?lts
and amperes shown on tile recordinK instrument:; ml%t. be mUltl1~1led
together and their product mUltip1iccl by a power factor before th true
the material may no longer be accurate.
Condensivereactance= -A-
2lrfC
The total apparent resistance of the circuit, due to both the ohmic resist-
ance and the total reactance, is termed the impedance and is equal to the
square root of the sum of the squares of the resistancdand the reactance.
Impedance =Z= l/It3 i (2 rfL)2 when inductance is present in the circuit.
Impedance =~=d~g+ -(2%)
when capacity is present in the circuit.
Admitt?nce is the reciprocal of impedance = 1 + Z
If both inductance iwi capacity are present in the cikuit. thereact,ance
of ?ne tends to balance tllat of tl!e other; the total reactance is the alge-
bmlc sum of the two reactawes; ihus,
- . I
Total reactance = S = 2 z~L - 1
In ai1 cases the tangent of the an~k~f
by the rewtance. In the last case
,.Ski?- Effect.-Alternating currentsfiend t,;,,~~;~~,g;;~~.=r rlnnrit.r .+
1 at the axis of a conductar.
tlie sunace cn51
y .U.A..x> &
tl!e virrual resistance of a
-. r.ik3 1s 60 make
wire .greater t&:1 its true om:jic ie.&ance
\)$I1 !oW frecwmcjes: ?ljtl small wres the skin effect is SIIWII
quite important
Ikltt it kcome~
The s&n effect factclr,.by wliich the ohmic resi&i<e is to be multiplied
!o obtam the, VlrtUal reSlStallce, for diRerent sizes of cvire and frequen,+a
1s as Col i ows:
Wire No. 0 00 000 0000 l/2 in.. 3/4 in
25 CYCkS. factor .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60 cycles. factor . . .
I . 001 1. 002 I . 005
~30Wc~es,fact6r . . . . . . . . i.008 I.010 I.017
oI!Ills LnLV aPPliCd to .k~ternating-Ckrrent Circuits _ To nppl\-
r)tlrll S I:lIV !n a!tsrntin~,=l,!!r-~,~ ^i_^..Z.
111 the expression of the Ia\v.
._ . . ..-I~ b ciii;iii~s + sit&t cjlaiye& necessarj.
The Ia\v should read
Impedance 1s substituted for resistance.
ran+, behind thee m:f., a&f the pker fWiOT Of t~!e~Circ$t his c~Sil1~: 0.
The
e.m.f. of rhe circ;iL is I?: = IZ.
Fro. 199.
~ ,Frc. 209.
If the above circuit contained, instead pf the inductance L, ? capacit~y C.
The line Lc ~011ld be,~pro-
then would the plygon be drawn as Len Fig. 200.
portional Tao r and ,\vould be drawn in a direction op~posite to that of
bc in Fig. 193.
The impedance would again be Z, the e.m.f. would be
z XI but the current would lead the e.m.f. by the angl e 8.
Suppose the ~circuit to contain resistance, ~mductance. and ca.pa$;;:
The lines of the impedance polygon would then be laid off as m Fig.
The impedance of the Circuit WOUh.
1 be represented by nd, and the angle of
lag by e.
If t he capacity of the circuit had been suchthot cd masless than
bc, then wmltl the e.m.k have led the ,current.
FIG. 203.
I= E
E
1/f$+p=z
~wmlancc POl$gons.-1. Series Cirncits
C;l.n be d+termiwd graphica~lv as foiio\v;,
.-The impedance of a circuit
Suppose a circuit to con-
tam a, rWUanCe R anti an inductance L, and to cxrry a currc1lt I of fre-
tile direction of currc:nt.
weV-f. . 111 Fk. I!)!) IfCLw t.he line nb proportional t.6 H and represent,ing
At, 1) erwt bc perpendicular io a6 and propor-
tlona! to.2 rf$. Join a -and c. Thkline UC represents the impedance of
the circla rile :Wk 0 tJct~\vcen a6 a,+ ,pc is the angle of lag oi the cur-
From the point c a horizontal line cd, 12 units long, is drawn to represent
122. From the point d the line de is drawn vertically u~xvnrcls to represent
the inductance L1. Its length is
2iifL,=2 x3.1.~16~6oxo.o~=1~.s5.
From the point e a horizontal line d 20
:e of t,he cirbuit in dmx. -The
unit,s long, is drawn to represent i>i.-YrG
line adjoinin
imp&km
:: n and f will rewesrnt the
awl e 8, l xtwem al, nnd af, is the angle of
106 of the e.m.f. behind the current. TI,e
imtxdnnce ix this case is 47.5 ohms, n11c1
the angle of lag is go 1.5.
The e.m.f. when a current of 2 amperes
is sent through is
IZ = E-= ) x 47..5 = 95 voltsl
If an e.m.f. of 120 VOltS be impressed on the c&u&, tile current flo\ving
through will be
I= 13J
120
y=
L
7 = 2.53 amperes.
47.3
The power factor = cos U = cos go 15 = 0.957.
The power in the circuit at 120 volts is
IX .%X CO.? 0 = 2.53 X 120 X 0.9S7 = 299.6 watts.
_ 2.. P~!dlel ,CZ++.---If two circuits be nrmnaed in rxuallel. the current
Frc. 105.
tl+nce mult iplipd
Itwe circuit is t,he
IllI? (
,.~...: I
tt:Wmnl of the pnmllrlogmm will represent the ndmitt:mre of the
~~i~llw~l~t simple circuit. The admittance multiplied by the e.m.f. givrs
tll~total current in the circuit.
I~s.aPI.E.---Given the circrlit in Fin
006. consisting of two branches
%wch 1 consists of 3 r&stance R, 212 ohms an intluctnnce I = 0.0;
hKV, a resistance Rz = .$ ohms. and n capwitv C1 = I20 mic~~ofwwis
(O:pOOl2 fnmd). Branch 2 consists of an inductdnce Lz = 0.015 hei& n
rwSt~flre R3 = 10 oluns, and an inriuctnnce LZ = 0.03 henry
Of 100 wl!s is impressed on the circuit nt n freqtiency of GO. .
An e.Ai.f
kind the ad:
+tance of the entire circuit. the current. thp powr fwtor aid t,he po\r-rr
lit the Mwit. Construct tlw imprrlnnce polywns. fir t,hk t~o branches
W,;lratelY :lS shown in Fig. Wi, n nntl b. Tlrf:imnrdanre in bmnch 1 is
I!.~) ohm. n,nrl the current is (l/16.4) X lOO=O.l9 amperes.
0 k:ul of t,he cwwlt is 1 4.5.
The nwle
The impedance in branch 2 is 19.5 ohms
and t!w w-rent is (l/19.5) ~1OO=Ii.l3 amperes.
rtIrrmt ic: fit0
The angle of lag of t,he.
~. ALTERNATING CURRENTS.
t l,e t \VU tir$b&eg, and drawing them from the point o, in Fig. 207 c, paralld
to tl:e imp&lance lines in th?ir respective Po!~@ms. The tliagonul from o
is tht: admkt:~nce of the entxe circuit, and In this case k equal to 0.092.
2s
L? a.015 R$= 10 La=.03
L per f.,ot =
(
2sG i- 140.3 1%
t7 z+) 10-o.
L per mile = 12070 + 740 1%
(
<2$) IO-
. , ~. A
. - : . ~.
So& of the makeri al .m$y no ion&k be accurzite
INDUCWSCE, IN M~LLIIIENRYS PER MILE. FOR EACII OFTWO PARALLEL
COPPER Wmm.
Interaxial
American Wire Gauge Number.
Di %?* 0000 j 000 1 00 ! 0 j j 2 1 3 j 4 j 6 8 1 I O 1 12 i / '
1; I . 130 1. 353 1. 391 I . 168 1. 205 1. 428 1. 465 1. 242 I . 280 1. 502 1. 540 1. 317 1. 354 I . 544 I . 615 1. 690
2 1. 576 1. 707 I . 614 1. 745 I . 651 1. 784
1. 577 1. 764 I . 838 1. 913
I . 688 1. 8i 8 1. 725 1. 856 1. 764 1. 893 1. 800 I . 986 2. 061 2. 135
2 2. 023 I . 871 1. 909 1. 946
I . 931 2. 117 2. 1922. 266
2. 059[ 2. 097
1. 9822. 023 2. 058 2. 095 2. 132i 2. 2082. 2822. 3562. 432
2. 1342. 1722. 2102. 246, 2. 283~2. 3582. 433 2. 5072. 582
Capacity of Conductors. - All conductors are included in three
classes, viz.: 1. Insulated conductors with metallic protection. 2. Single
aerial conductor with earth return; 3. Metallic circuit consisting of two
parallel aer~l wire. The capacity of the lines may be calculated bv
means of the following formulae taken from Crock&s Electric Lighting.
Class 1.
7361 k 105 38. 83k 10-s
C per foot = log (D f d). C per mile= iog (D i d) .
Class 2.
7361 X lo- 38. 83 x 10- e
C per f oot =E( ~, ~+~) , Cpermi l e=, ; gc4hhdd) -
C per foot of each wire =
3651 X 10-15,
Class 3. I
log (2 2% + d)
.
1
C per mile of e&h wire= :J;4i:i FiJ.
In which C is the cspscit,;- in-farads. D the internal di%met,er of the metallic
covering. d the diameter of the conductor,
above the gro~lnrl n.nrt A t.tm i nte
Ii the he& of the conductor
all In inches: i
_ ..-, _.._ __ .~T . . . ..msial distance between two parallei wires
(: is B dielwtrlc constant which for air is equal to 1 and for
pure rubber isequal to 2.5.
to be bare.
The formulae in classes 2 and 3 assume t.he wires
.If they are insulated, 1; must be iwroduced in the numerator
and given a value slightly greater t,han 1.
Single-phase and Polyphase Currents. - A single-
Is a simple alternating current carried on a single pair 0
base current
F
generated on a machine having a single armature winding.
wres, and is
sented by a single sine rurve.
It is rrpre-
Polyphnse current.s are known ns two-phase, three-phase, six-phase or
any other number, and are represented by a corresponding number of ;ine
curves.
ph+%x?.
The most commonly used syst,ems are the two-phase ant1 three-
.
-
l. Ilzro-phase CzcrrcTats.--In a two-phase system there are two single-
phase alteinating currents bearing a definite~time relation to each other phase alternating currents bearing a definite time relation to each other
and represented by two sine curves (Fig. 205). and represented by two sine curves (Fig. 205).
The two sepsrste cllrrents mav be generated by The two sepsrste cllrrents mav be generated by
the same or by separate ma&ines. If br selvil- the same or by separate macikies. If br sew
rat,e machines, t.he armat.ures of the twoshoultl rat,e machines, t.he armat.ures of the twoshould
b&ytively coupled together. Two-Phase cur- be positively coupled together. Two-phase cur-
rents are ~wu~lly generated by a machine with
tno, armature windings. each winding termi-
FIG. 205. natmg m two collector rin.gs. The two wintlinrs
j
are so related t,hat the t.\vo currents will be 90
apart. For this wmm two phase-currents are also called .: quarter-
:
phase currents.
;
T\vo-Phase currents may be distributed on either three or four wires.
The threp-wire swt.em of distribution is shown in Flz. 006
;
One of tire
are
aPi - . .
phtisr CIIICILJ.
Two-phase currents
The threp-wire swt.em of distribution is shown in Flz. 006
One of the
return wes is dispensed with. connection being made a&o& to the other
a8 shown. - The cpmmon return wire shordd be made 1.41 t.imes the area
_.c ^?.I~
return wes is dispensed with. connection being made a&o& to the other
a! sWvn. The common return wire shordd be made 1.41 times the area
!
of ather of the other t\!:o wires, these two being equal in size.
1
NARNING: This is,,a 1910 edition.
Some of
ing on the geneiator. The system will t,hen
be four-wire, and v511 work properly with un-
balnnced circuits.
The A connect.ion is shown in Fig. 213.
Each of t.he three circuit,s ah, ac. bc, receives
the currenb~due to a sconrate coil in the arma- / \
ture winding. This form of connection will
work properly even if the circuits are unbal-
awed: and if the circuit contains lamps, they
will not fluctuate when the circuit changes
from a balnnced to 8n unbalanced condit,ion. FIG. 213.
or vice wma.
~e.~snr~ment: of Power in Polmhase Circuits. - 1. T~o-~hose
Circuik-The power of ~tk:o-phase ciirrents di+tributed ,by .four wires
may be measured by two wattmeters introduced mto, the cirwit as shown
in Fig. _ 710. The sum of the readings of the two iliWWWIltS is the t,otal
power. If lmt one wattmeter~is avnilable, it should be introduced first in
one &wit,, and then in the other. If the current or e.m.f. does not vary
during the operation. the result will be correct. If ~the circuits are per-
fectl$~balanckd, twick the reading of one wat~tmeter !vUl be t~he total power.
the material .may no lbnger 6&&b&
ALTERNATING CURRENTS. 1395
The four-wire system of distrilmtion is shown in Fig. 210. The two
phases are entirely independent, and for lighting purposes may be operated
astwo.single-phase circuits.
FIG. 209. FIG. 210.
2. Three-pknse Cllrrents.-Three-pIiase currents consist of three alter-
nating currents, differine in phase by 120. and represented by three sine
c~~rvcs. ns in Fig. 211,. They may be distributed by three or six wires. If
distributed. by the +-wire system, it is analogous to the four-wire, two-
phase system, and IS equivalent to three single-phase circuits. In the
t.hree-wire system of distribution the circuits may be connected in two
different ways, howi respectivel:v as the Y or star connection. and the A
(delta) or i&h connectio~i.
FIG. 211. FIG. 212.
The Y connection is shown in Fig. 212. The three circuits are joined
at the point o, known as the neutral point, and the three wires carrying the
current are connected at the points n. h. and c, respectively. If the three
circ1rit.s 00, ho, and co are composed of light,s. they must be equally loaded
or the lights will fluctuate.
the lights will remain st.esdy.
If the three circuik are perfectly balanced,
In this form of connectitiz each wire may
be coikidered as the return-wire for the other
two. If t,he three circuits are unba,lanced, a
return wire may be run from the neutral point -4
o to the neut,ril uoint of the armatuie kind-
The power of twg-phase cdrrenla, distributed !~y three wires may ue
measured by two wattmeters as shown hi Fig.
rezlitl~s is the total power.
200. The sum of t.tK! tx\O
If but one wattmeter is avaiiabie, the coar,~e-
wire co11 should he connected m scrics with t,he wire ef and one extremity
of the prt?ssllre~coli should be Connected to s.xne point on ef. The other
end sh~rulrl be connected first to the wire a and then to the \vire d, a read-
iug hug takeu in esrh podtiw of the wire.
gives the power in the cirruns,
The sum ~of the readings
2. Tlm~-lh%s~ Circuits.- The power in a three-phased circuit may be
measured by three \$+ters. connected as in Fig. 214 if the system b
Y-connected,,and as m l,lg. 215 if the system is A-connected. ,The sum of
FIG. 214.
the ~va.ttmrtc!r readinKs gives t,he power in t~he system. If the circuits are
perfectly balanced, three times the reading of one wattmeter is the total
rm\V,P~
Thf pour in a A-connected system mar- be measured by Tao watt.-
luct+rs. as shown in Fit. 216. If the power iartor of the system is greater
thau 0.50, the arithmc~t~irai sum of the readings is the power in the circuit
if tl1.e power factor is less than 0.50, the arithmeticill difference of th;
reaclrngs is the power.
0.50, map be discovered
Whether the power factor is greater or less than
br interchanging the wattmeters without dis-
turbmg the relative conneciion of their cclarse- and fine-wire coils
defiections of t.he needles are ;e&%e
the difference of the readings is thg
po%er. If the needles are deflected in
the same direct.ion as at first, the sum of
the readings is the power.
Alternating-current Generators.-
These differ little from direct current
generators in many respects. Any direct-
current ,generator. if provided kit11 col-
lector rmgs instead of a commutator,
could be used as ash&-phase alternator.
The frequency would in most cases, hon-
FIO. 216.
ever, be too low for any practical use.
- The fields of alterna.tors are nlnxrs
separately excited; the machines Iire
~m~:thnrs rompouuded bv shunting some of their own current around the
f+cls thrM a rectif.vi@ device which changes the current to pulsating
rlmrt current. In all large machines the armature is stationary aud the
field magnets revolve.
dLTER;YATISG-CURREST CIRCUITS.
,
,
ALlERNATING:CURRENT CIRCUITS. j.397
Let TV = total power delivered in watts:
D = distance of transmisriion (one way) in feet:
P* = per cent loss of rklitxrcd power (IV);
E = voltage between main conductors at consumers enri of Circuit;
li = a constal?t; for Continuous Current = 2160:
T = a variable r:cn!!nrliu:: on the system and nature of ihe load; for
continuous current = 1;
M = a variable, depend 1 no on the size of wire and frequency; for con-
ti nuous current = 1:
A = a factor; for continuous current = 6.04;
Area of conductor, circular miis E
DXIPXK;
pX.E?
Current in main conductors = TV i( T + E
Vlts lost in lines =P X E X M + 100:.
DXWXKXA
Pounds cower = p x l,ooo,ooo~
The following tables give values for the various constants:
Per cent of
Value of K. Value of T.
Power Factor.
:q
too 95 85 80 100 95 ) 85. 80 $3
System:
----- ----
Si ngl e- phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I I I
Two-ph:rse. kvire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21602400 30003380 1. 00~1. 05, 1. 17, 1. 25, 6. 04
Three-phase, 3-wire.. . . . . . . . . . :.
1690' 0. 50~0. 53~0. 59~0. 62~12. 08
l 690~0. 5~~0. 6l ~O. 68 0. 72 9. 06
1, 1 I
*P & t hi be expressed as a \vhOie nimiber, not as a decimal: thus a 5
per cent loss should be Written 5 and not .03.
. . . ~~_ , , - , , , - . _ l i __, . , . , , , , . . . . . i , . ~. . _, , , . ~, c: , , . . : ~. . . ~, ~~. ~ , . . " , . . . . pi , _. , , ~. . . ~ . . , . , . . . . : , . ~.
WARNIN(G.This is:,:3 1910 edition. Some of the material,~may,,no lgqr be accurate: ,
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCCIT~. . I%%
other expenses are rendered practically negligible. In the shorter lines,
however, from about one mile to 60 or 75 miles, t.!. le most ~uitabh: voltage
must be determined in each inditiidusl case.
ing table will serve as a guide.
The voltages in the follow-
Direct current. ordinaro t,nm-wire system.
-AL ,--_ ~,, ,.........: . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.000
sage .Sls$. . . . . . . . . . . 0.375
VOLY.R : 7 GI: A~vrsasta FOR VARIOUS LIXE hSGTHS. A_!tern+ng~,urrent~single+hase two-wire.an;-t;;o-phasefo[ir-mire
~I wo-pnase tnree-wre, volts< e between outer and midd!e wire s&e
I. 000
- .--
I
as in sinzlc-Dhase two-wires . . . . . . . 0.729
2e..... 1. 4: :
voltage betiveen two-buterNire$sa;d
T$ree;phase three-wire.
four-wire
......................................
0.7<.
........ ... .. . . .. .... 0.333
The weight of cor)~~~~~i~~e~s~l;~;o~ortional to the squares of the
voltng~s. other things being.equal,
The maximum value of an alternating
e.m.f. 1s 1.41 times its effectwe rating ...
see Crackers Electric Lighting, vol. II.
For deriva,ion of the above figures
Volts. Vulk. Mik.9.
I
Volts. ] ;Ililes. Xiks.
20-40
%%I
- - - - I I - -
6, 600~13, 2O! l
13. 200- 22. 000
22, uOo- 44, 000
44, 000- 66. 000
66, 000- 88. 000
843,000-l 10,000
1 5004000 3- 10
;:;
10004300
I
I O- 15
2300- 6600 15- 20
Standard machinery is made for 2300. 6600, 13.200. 22,000, 33.000,
. 44,000, 66,000, 88,000 and 110,000 volts, and standard generator;V;;;
made for the ~above voltages up to and includhlg 13.200 volts.
the line voltage is higher than
employed.
13,200. step-up transformers must be
In a given case the savmg m cost of conductor by using the
higher voltage may be more than offset by the cost of transformers, and
the questicin of voltage must be determined for each case.
Line Spa&g.-Line conductors should be so spaced as to lessen the
tendency to leakage and to prevent the mires from swinging together
or against the towers. With suspended disk insulators the radms of ffee
movement is increased, and special account should be taken of spacmg
when these insulstors are used. The spacing should be pnly suffici.ent
for safety, since increased spacing increases the self-inductton of the line,
and while it lessens the capacity, it does so only in a, slight degree. The
following spacing is in accordance with average practice.
CONDUCTOR SP.~CING ADVIWBLE FOR V.43uou VOLTAGES.
-approximate Rule for Size of Wires for Three-Phase Trimsrnission
Lines. (General Electric Co.)
The table given below is for 1~s~; in making rough est,imate,s for the sizes
^I...:_.- I .
01 b\ws !or cnree-phase tr;Lns!nission. n,s in the following example.
Requwed. - The we ot wres t,o deliver 500 liw. at 6000 volts at the
elld of a three-phase line 12 miles long, ailowing an energy loss bf 10%
and a power fact,or of 85cA.
If the example called for t.he transmission of
100 li:~. (on which the t.able is based). we should loi,k in the 6000-volt
Column foF,thc nearest figure Tao thegiven distance and take the size of wire
correspondmg. 13ut the example calls for the t&nsn&sion of five thnes
this amoUnt of power. and the size of w:
Mi,ch in this case is 12 miles.
ire varies directlv as the distance.
Therefore we look for thi; product 5 X 12 =
~~LJ II! tilt? 6(jOO-volt CO~UIIIII of tile table.
The nearest value is 60.41 and
the size of we corresponding is No. 00. which is. therefore, the size capable
of transmitting 100 Ii:v. over
line I2 miles Ion,,
a liue 60.44 miles iong, or 500 Iiw. over a
-, as required by the esamnle.
If it is desired _ _- to ascertain the si;
Of 5:G. or one-half the loss for w
neces~nrg to multiply tl
tersely as the per cent el
LC.bJ L.T,
re of wi&%hich will give an energy loss
hich the table is computed, it is only
ie value obtained by 2,
,L,l.<F., Inm
since the area varies in-
Volts. ( Inches. 1 Volts. / Inches. 1 Volts.
5.000 45, 000 60 woo0
15. 000 2i 60, 000
30. 000 48 75, 000 ii: ;$g - 1
%-
B.&E
52.630 2.54 5.96
w.370 3 II 7.51
BJ.b% 4.21 9 4fJ
m5.s 5.29 II 92
#J,.IM 6 71 15.11
167.8130 645 ,904
:gf
IO 62 2l92
12.58 28.33
5w.wo 25 17 ,M 65
6
9
4
3
:
0
ct
WV3
IO 16 16.55 23.84 u).M 66 2
13.32 2kO5
I49 00
30 04 53 28
254 0 5%
83.4
4,) 75
16,8( 2b 32 37.92 67,36 105.3
187.75 33, 6 52~25 751
2I2,CQ 421.2 658.00 948
21 16 33 IO 47 6.5 84 64 132 4
Lb 04 4, 97
290 00 ,192
to.44 107 36
529 6 027 54
lb? 9
33 al 5.7 65, 76.14135 2-l
377 75 67, 6 ,o.mI ISI1
211 4 476 001 045.6 ,321 Er VW
Sates on IT!&-tension Transmission
The cross-sectmnal area and.
(General Electric Co. 1909.)-
coilsc:quent,iy, weight of condllct,i*s varies
inl-emly a-s the square of the volts~c for a given polver transmission.
The coat 01 conductors is therefore rciduced 7.j~
is doubled.
,. every tiw the voltaw
The cost of other apnarnbus and appliances incwnses wi!h
hqeasing voltage..
In the lonwst lilies. from abmlt 190 miles up. the
saving 11: CoPPer wth the highest practicable voltages is so great that the
smallest.
MARNING: This is a 1910 ~bditioh.
,,... ..~^ .-,. 1~
Some of the material ,rnay t% longk be kxurate
TRAWWO&3ItS; CONVERTERS, ETC.
Transftrrmers.~A transformer corisists essentially of two coils of wire,
one coarse and one fine, wound llpon an iron core. The function of B trans-
Sormer Is to convert elWtrk!al energy from one potential to another.
If
ehe transformer GNISCS a change from high to low voltage, it is kno\vn as a
transformer; if from low to high
known as a step-up
trans-
I
ELECTRfC UOTORS. 1401
Plonverters, etc. - In a&lition to slatic t~ran&rniers, vario:ls m%-
chines arc used for the purpasc of chrtnging the volta&e of direct WrrW~ts
or the voltage philse or frequency of alt~ern;~t.bl~ currents, and :dso for
ohanging alternating currents to direct or vice versa. Tlrf3e macllines are
all rotary and are known as rotary converters, motor-dytlanlos, and
dy1lun0tors.
A rotary converter consists of n. field escited by the mac!line it.self, ~ntl
an armatture which is provided with both coilector rings and a comnlut;l-
tor. It receives direct current and changes it to alt~ernating, workin:: iis a
direct-current motor, or it changes alternating to direct current working
as n synchronous motor.
A ~n*~r-dynnmo consists of a motor and a dynamo mounted on the
;l;e,r+tti?n of the primary and secondary vol-
r of turns in the two t,nges u~penus on tne number
nsformers may also be used to than-e
one phase to current of another ph&.
The windings and the nrmngem&l
It of the trans-
must be adapted to each particular case.
217 an arrangement is shown wherebl
may be converted into thre&-
are required, one
nrIm:I.Pv a~nrl cmorinrlsrr. nr*:lq it1 f I,,>
same base anil coupled together by 8. shaft.
A dynamotor has one field and two arlrlatWc Nindings on tile same core.
One winding performs the functions of 5 motor armature, and the other
those of a dynamo armature.
.4 booster is it machine inserted in series in a direct=?urrent circuit to
chatire its voltage. It may be driven tither by an electric mot.or or other-
wise.~
The BIercury Arc Rectifier consists of a mercury vapor arc enclosctl
in a11 rshausted glass vessel into which are scaled two !ertr!insl anodes
connected to tl]c two wires of an alt~rl~alillfi-crirrcnt cncrnt. A third
terminal, at the bot,t,om of the vessel, is :I. mercury ~arhotle: When ill)
arc is op~~rating, it is 5 fiood condilctor from either anode to the cathode,
but pract,lcally iln insulator in the other direct,ion. The tlvo anodes
connected acsoss the terminals of the ;lltcrn:ltinF-cilrrPrlt line become
:tlternately positive and negative.
While either anode is positive, there
is an arc carrying the current between it and the C~lthotle.
When the
pol;lritv of the alterilatinc-current reverses, t,he arc p+es from the other
:rnodc to the mercury cathode, which is alnags ne?ltlve.
The current
lca,lln:: otlt from the mercury ca$hode is uni-dircctlonal.
By meiln~ of
rc~;totsnces the p~lls;ltiOns are smoothed ant snd the current a~ the c&tbode
&comes 0,trUO direct current with pulsatim~s of sInal LUllplltUdO.
_. . _
vin,n its
le secondary of the IOO-to-100 trans-
,+t and joined to one terminal of the
-., ..-a any pair of the three remaining terminals of
t,br srco~&% ihere will esist n ditference of potential of 50
r!lere are t!vo sources of loss in the transformer. viz., the copper loss and
the iron 10,~s. The copper loss is proportional to t.he square of the current.
being t!ie I%J 11~s due to heat.. If I,, Ii,, be th
resl)ectl\-:ly of t,llc! primary. and 12. &, t.he current and resistntlce respec-
timely f the sccond;try, then the tot.al copper loss is IP, =1,?R, + I*Jlzp tint1
i: current and resistan&
t.lic percentage of copper loss is ----.--.=
I,?R, -I- I$l&,
W..
, where WP is the rnfrp)
tleliverc:d to the prinn?r
1
due to !>!;:;:eresis ant1 i3I
s. The iron loss is constant at all loads, it1111 is
dy currents.
*t,iines cooled, by means of forced air or water cur-
ng vein III 011, which tends to equalize the temprrature
,> ,,r.<,~m.~
-The efficiency of il transformer is the ratio
tput in tatts at.,the secondary terminals to the input ai the
ke out.put is equal to the i!lprtt 1~s:: tlie
ull-load eaiciency of a trilnsforrnrr is u~u;111~
9Spercent. As t!le copprr 10s~ T.-nrirs
ency of n transformer rurirs consider-
:formers on lighting circuits usunlli- operate
II ~~~:a~~ 1~11,. CL i ~1~2~ sluiul part of the dag, thougll they use sorne cttrrcant
le t~ime to supply the iroll losses.
i~itn of t,llr time t,he all-day 8
For transformers operate<1 onl\- 3
I,~341 rttFln\eilry,
efficiency is more important, than the fiill-
,.-,.-- :..h~s computed by comparing the watt-hours outpUt t0
f n .lO-1i.W. transformer, whose rapper and iron
: yh 1.j per, cent, and which operates 3 hours at, full
It no load. is computed aa folio\vs:
^ ._ .-_-_
Iron i2::;. all lo:&= 10 xo.c15=u lo I\ kv
Copper IOS, full load = 10 xO.oi5~0.15ii iv
Copper lost, l/9 load = 0.15 x(~/~)Z = 0.03175 Ii:m.
I_ron los? I\. I\. hours=O.I5 xG4=:2.t:
yrwr loss. fnll~ load. Ii. W. hours =0:15 x3 =0.45.
Wwr km. .I2 load, 1i.W. hours=0.0:375 x=O.O75.
Outwit. l\.\V. hours={ (10 x3) f(5 x2) >-4n.
IllPut. 1i.W. hours=40+3.6+~
All-day erficiencv = 40 + 44. I x =n nhi
The t,mnsformrrs hc&tofore dis
farmers 2nd oprrutr at a constant voltage with n variable cllrrcnt.
the w~r:ltion of Imlps in series :I CO~S~.:L~~.-PIIP
Tln?n~ iue
Cltssed are CoiistDnt-notPnt,i:ll tmns- . .
. . ..rent transform~~r is rcqlrired.
a nllmb~r of t,ypc?.s of t,llis tr:rtlsform~~r.
..I r.1 . That rn:~tlllf:1~t.~lrP(i br
ELECTRIC MOTORS.
.Classification of Motors.
-(From the Standardization Rules of
n ,Y. \
t11e A. I. I!,. fi.,
a. Co~~,~ta~&~p~cd dfolor.~, in which the speed is either constnnt or does
not mat~eriallv wry: such as syncilronolts motors, induction motors with
smnll slil). and or~linary direct,-current ~llnnt~ motors.
6. .lf ttl!T-s pect/ Motor,~ (two-.speed, three-spcctl, et<: .), wh&h can bF oP-
crated at any one of several distinct specrls. t.hrse speeds bell&! pra$lcally
independent of the load. such as motors with t,\vo armature, wlildl?SP.
Atljtc rtahlc-,~p& Notors in which t.he speed can b12 varied grac~+nlly
o&r z co;lsiderable range L;ut when once adjilstetl remains PK~CtlCNY
~~~&ted by the load, s&b as shunt motors designed for a considerable ..I. -.____.
range of field variation.
(1 rnr!~ing-s~zetl dfotors, or motors in which the speed varies with the
load c;xrrilsing wheu t,he load increases: such as ,serlcs motors.
Toe selection of a motor for a specified service mvolves,
n ~tochanical abi1it.v to develop the requisite torque and speeds, BS
giG$ni;.q. its speed-torqile curve.
.\bility to commutate successfully tile current demnnded.
c ;\bllltj; to operate in service without occasioning, il temperature rise
in in\ part which will endanger the life of the lnSuln,tloll.
ThS nominal rating, or the hor.se-power olllpllt nhldl il IIlOtOr 1~11 giV0
with il rise of temperature not esceedin,
(7 90 degrees at. t,lie commuta,tor
and 75 tleorees at any other part nfter nn hours run on a test stsnd .lS ;I
nwthu,d OF designating motors wllicli is in COlI1111011 IlS~lW, tl:OU~ll lt IS
not :* proper measure of service capncit,y.
Xotor ClassiAcation of the Am. .
kssn. of Electric 3lot.or ;1Iann-
fwhrcrs. (Elcc. Jo20.,
Aug. 1909.) _Alteroatinp-rllrrel~t motors and
clirect-cwrrent lnotors call easily be classllied under t.lle Sd~IllO speed ll~~tl-
ings and this has been done as below.
A. - Constant ~~~~~~~ dfotors - in
which the speed is, ,eithcf constant
Or does IlO+, vary nlaterially such as syncbrollolts mot Or8. lildll,ctlolt rnotOrS
wit11 small slip; ordinury d&ct-current sb+ motors, and direct current
UARNING: This is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no lbn&r b&%xtikd%
compound-wo!md motors, :the,no-load speed of which is not more than
20 per cent higher than the full-load speed.
13. - Nulti-Speed Motors -
be apexted. at any one of several lstmct s eeds, these speeds. being
(two-speed, thr;-speed, etc.) -which can
practxally mdepend,ent of the load, such as erect-current motors with
two armature wmdmgs and induction motors with primary windings
capable of bein!: grouped so as to form different numbers of poles,
C. - Adjustrcble Spcetl Motors. - (1) Shunt-wound motors in which
the speed can be yarned gradually over a considerable range, but when
once adJusted rem+ms practically unaffected by the load such as motors
desIgned for a considerable range of speed by field variation
(2) Componnd-wou!ld motors in which the speed can be varied
gra:!ually over a cons$e;able range, as in (I), and, when once adjusted
varies with the load, similar to compound-wound constant-speed motor;
or varymg-speed motors, dependmg upon the percentage of compounding
D1 - ~ur!/L(no $peed Motors, or motors in which the speed Varies wit6
the @ad. decreasmg when the iwad increa,ses, such as series motors and
hesvlly compounded motors
Examples of heavily co!npound6<i motors
are tbos,e cfesiqned fqr ben&ng roll service and mill service ;in which
Shunt-wlndmg IS pr?vid,ed only to limit the light-load operjti&. speed.
1\l:1ly motor apphqtlons can be made more intelligently if in addition
to u+ng the class1hcaJion given above, the service is described in terms of
contmuous pr intermittent duty, and load constant or varying
In order
to malie thlS Dolnt clear, the following table has been prepaied, giving
one esampl,e o! each of the, different classes of service.
Practically every
motor apphcallon can be listed under one or the other of these headings.
Speed.
CLASEIIFIC.ITION OF MOTORS.
Duty. Load.
Example.
Continuous.
(
Intermittent.
Continuous.
Intermittent.
Continuous.
Intermitt~ent.
Continuous.
1
Intermittent.
Fan.
Line-shaft.
Vacuum pump.
Paper-cutter.
Paper cdemler.
Printing Ixess.
Vacu111n 1mnp.
Lathe.
Small fan..
Bending press.
House pump.
p!r;,ne.
*
Fire*pump.
The AUX~~~ZI~Y-PO~C Type of RIotor.
1006.! -
(J. M. Hlpple, El. Sour.. hhy,
: tllo 1netllods of controlling the motor speed the-most satls-
INLMJ IS, the sll,lKle Voltage direct-cukrent system in which the Variation
of Sl~x!ti 1s ol~t:1~111etl by sliimt-field control.
The insertion of resistance
in t.1~ shunt-lieltl circuit varies the strength of the magnetic E&i .lnd LJ
tl,le str~*Ilg:tll of tie111 is decreased the speed of the motor 1s lncrda>ed in
dlrrct. proport~ion.
&I OK~ill~lrY shullt-w!mnd motor operat,ing under the above conditions
)W il. slWed range Of mnr to one will spark excessively at the
brushes
unles: the motor is r:$etl co11siderablg under i bs rl orrnai capaci ty
sPrl~u!g 1s d11$ prmclpally to tl1e meskened magnetic field a&l to
This
the
d1storflon or Shlftmg of this Eeld due to reaction on it by the field produced
by.-the ampere t,urns in t,tlP IIP~~+~~Y~~
The USfi Of an ~~~lsil~~ry-~~i;ii;yrcorrecting this cqnditlon produces
*.\Inlti-speed motors are at, present aln,ost exclusively zltern%tincr-
current motors.
The classes of service in which these motois $re us& Se
hited, hL 5 co11siderable tick1 may develop later.
ELECTRIC NIOTORS. 1403
sparkless commutation and a condition of practical stability of field and
conseouentlv of si~eetl in the motor.
This auxiliary field is produced by
i;,et&ii~i& ~~l~ill-pljle-pieces.
polp-pieces midway
The distortion at the point of commuta-
tion which would occtir if there was no aasiliar,
1 winding i$ revented by
ahe fi~ltl ~~roducetl bv the auxiliary winding.
This field emg always e.
1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~
~il~~~~-~~-tb~h~~ilr;Y overloads.
sparklessly at
Motors of this tvoe are reversible with no change in setting of brushes _--.--- .~ ~~~~~ ~ I
nr nt. l wr adjustment. The brushes being fixed in the neutral position it
lcessarv to reverse the current m both ausiliary field and arma-
;.o &Ycure e&t& similar operating conditions in the reverse as in the
lirection.
-P Itl1~~r.t~~ Rlntnpn.-Anv direct-current motor. no matter
tpeed ------.
-7---:--
what its type of field wmdmg, If supplied with current of constr& potential
at its terminals. wEI run at constant speed lf its Eel d strength and the,load
do not change. The speed of a given motor is directly proportmnm;
to tbe net impressed e.m.f. divided by the effective Eeld strength.
net. imnrrssed e.m.f. is that part of the supply e.m.f. wluch must be
&irt.lv nnnn~d hithe counier e.m.f. of the armi L..--..a
rture. Thus, lf the
supply v&&%-is %I volts, ,the load 50 amperps and, the armature &cult
resistance 0.2 ohm, the net Impressed e+.m,z. !:til be ,--lO,,~olts, because the
armature drop is 0.2 x50= 10 volt,s.
effective field strength Is
the actual field flus set up by the field winding after overco,ming the arma-
ture reaction which always weakens the field slightly.
Tn t.1~ cas,;? of a shunt-wound motor operated on a c+st+-potenttal
cir%i%tii-in adjukable external resist~iince in series wit11 the armature.
no matter at what point the external rrsbtance 1nay be set, so long as It
remains at that point, giving unchanging voltage al the motor terminals.
the speed will be constant unless the held strength,or lo+tl be altered.
The speed of a series-wound motor increases very happily w,M decreasmg
load when olxriltctf on a c!olistsilt-l)otu!lti;rl Wcult. becommg so hlgh at
no load as to be destructive to the armatrlre.
The reaso!l for this ls that
the armature current poses also through the firld windmg. SO that any
decrease in armature cwvat weakens the field and causes the speed to
inrrpa.~ f:l.r ~~vond the rate it would attain with a constant Beld.
(C.P.
_-_- _.__ -_.,-..- .~~~
Poole POKW. July, 1007.)
Thi speed of a shunt motor is dependent upon the details of its entire
design. The following ecl11ation shows the relation of the speed to the
main elements of the machine:
(E-I, R,) c 104
,LC : ,
AIlL\
,
where E ls the impressed electromot,ire force, R, the resistanze Of the
armature I the current throllgh it, c the number of parallel circuits for
the currek kough the armature, M t:he magnetic flus @umber of lines
of force) per p,ote, p the number of poles. N the number ot arplature con-
. ductors. and n the speed in revolutions per second.
(E1. Re~a,.July 17.
WARNING: This is a 1910 &tit.ion.
4
Some of the material i i i j "f 6' ~ongeb& a&rat. 6
r
YiRdiW a fe!vtUjIi& Cbk&%ted~iti series with the armature and .reve&,ed
111 comPar]son With the main winding. , Either of these arrangements
Ci~ses the.motOr to speed up under load, and the extent of this action
may be adJusted to equal precisely the tendency ordinarily meb of slowing
down under load. (S. S. Lvheeler, &cc. 43, Dec., 1904.)
SPed ConttOl of %3xtrie ~Motors. Itbeostats. (The Electric Con-
troller and Mfg. CO.)-.& 1notor of any size? when its arm~.r3x~~ ir at r2St
fiffers a VCrj hiit, tk+jistance to the flow of C,lrrellt alld a~&&&ve and
Perhaps destructive aurrent would fiow through it if it were connected
across the suPPlY m5ms while at rest. Take the case of a motor adapted
109a normal full-load current of, 100 amperes and having a res&ance of
O.-j ohm; if this motor were connected across a zx)-volt circuit a*current
of 1.000 amperes would flow through its armature -in other words it
would be overloaded 900% with consequent danger to ils willdings &d
also to the drlven machine.
having % resistance of 9:)-
In t!le case of the same motor, with a rheostat
- + ohms mserted in the mot~or circuit, at the time
of Staft*W the toiai RSlStanCe to the Row of currellt would be the resist-
ance Of the motor (0.35 ohm) plus the resistance of the rheostat (:! Vj
ohms), or a total of 2.5 ohms.
Under these conditions exactly full-l&
current. or 100 amperes, would Now through the motor, .and neither the
:
motor nor the driven machine would be overstrained in starting.
This
shows the necWity of a rheostat for ihniting the fiow of current in starting
the motor from rest.
.An electric motor is simply an inverted generator or dynamo - ~011~
?W?nt!Y \~fl.ell !tS armatl~lre begins to revolve a voltage is enerated rvithin
1t.s \~l~$W3 Just as :t voltage is generated in the windings of a generator
when driven by a prime-mover.
This voltage gelierated within the movinc
armttlre Of * motor opposes the voltage of the ciri:uit from which thz
!nOtOr Isslllq~lled, and, hence is li1101v11 ins a I
colmter-electromotive force.
rlx net voltWe emllns to force current throngrh tt1e armature of a motor
\rhW the motor IS runnmg is. therefore, the IinZvolta~ge minus thecounter.
elect,romot.ive F~WW
euuced to one ollm without
me motor.
~SCL LLk !.LAcG 11111-
the resista--- -
has almosl
As the armature further increases its speed
IAL= uf the rheostat may be further reduced unti! when tile motor
t reached. full speed all of the rheostat 1naY be but out ,u~d the
coltnter-electrornot~ve force generated by the motor \vlll al&t equal
*he VOltWe sUPPhed bY the hlle so thi!t an excessive curreRt camlot flow
t IlroU~+ the nrmstUre.
a rheostat is pfo,Wetl for starting an ekctric motor the
yce ron,dUctor b&g
dlvlded into sections, s11ch that the e;ltire
1mm resistance of the rheostat. is in circliit rvitll tl. > motor
,~*I*Stilllt of startinrr anil the etfective length of tl;e conductor, and
.~.~~~**II.T l~r~r~ ,oe reduced as the motor comes up to speed.
g out the resl+llce of a starting rheostat care must be used
not to Cut It out t.00 raPIdly.
+ I. f/,y ;yature C5ll speed up, a sufficient coullter-electrornoti,,~ for&
If the resistance is cut out 1&e rtpi;lly
generated to properly oppose the How of current, and the
1f all
will be pverloaded.
-
the resistance of the startling rheostat is not cut. out the motor will
Prrak at reduced voltage. and hence at less than norrllzl speed.
A
heostat 80 ~~~~~ll~ed that all or a portion of its resistznce &y be left lu
*mar wm to secure reduced speeds is callefl a .a rhtostatic c.ontroller.
Wh rheostntic contr0ller.j are used for controlling series and compo:lnd-
om!d motors driving cranrs
llllder the control of an bp?riltor.
and similar machinery requiring Variable
l.notor t~he-speed varies inversely as the load -the
lufiher the speed. A series-wound motor of any size
lItage under no load. or a very light load will
ELI UJ *VW a steam-enfgne without a governor when &en
tive ()f~tlc? SPwd and fo,r a given load tilespeed v;&s (lirectlv as tile volt-
For.a Kiven Joad a series-wound motor draws the same current irrespec-
SY. 1 lle WA at il glvell +td Jllay be varied by varying tile resigance
,
in the motor circuit -in the meantime if the load on the motor be con-
stant the Current drawn from the line Will be constant. regardless of the
~speed.~
The above statements. rel&te to the use of a rheostat .in Series with a
- _ ..z . . .._.^. ^ ..I .,.,. ;.tmt I.?. -I ,..-. url i.. ..,.,IIYJ
ii.
.,.. ..,. ,... ..* Y.Y!!.iYlYTrl.va- 1ux o~~li~~~~ till tile ~not:)r ];a~ been broljg,ht
1,113 J,,l,,li ,VL,,U lvrcr !i .I, I..k.
up ~0 normal full speed by cuttmg out the starting r+ance.
With a
.
shunted field a motor is driving. a load at it sgeed tu$ler than normal
and therefore requires a correspondmgly increased currem.
If a resistance is placed in parallel with the armature of a series motpr.
the motor will operate at less than normal speed when all of the starting
.
resistance has been cut out.
This connection is known as shUl!tf!d
armature connection
and is useful where a low speed is de:slred at hght
lo&&g and is p&~ticularly useful in some cases where the hlad beCOmes,a
negative one, that is, where .ll,
+ 0 load tends to overhaul rhe motor, as 1a
lowering a heavy weight.
A slltll&womd motor unlike a series motor, whet?, supplied .with full
Voltage, maintains pra&ally a constant speed regardless of v;iriatlons 111
load within the limits of its capacity.
It sutomatuxlly acts hke a stesm-
engire having a very efficient governor.
I& speed of a shunt-wvound motor may be decreased brl~w h+rmal by
a rheoskatlc controlter in series with its arm&ture ami- ~LS ,be ,mcreased
above normal 1,s meilm of a rheostat in series with lt,s held wmdl!lg.
The
latter rheostat 1s known as a fieL1
rheostat.
9 and, ,to be etfectlVe, must
~ave~a!l~g,h psistapce owing to the small current \vhMl I~O\VS through the
.c
have characteristics in mnny
wound motors, Andy speeds lower .y.I-,.. ..--.--- ~~I
illg resistance in series \vith the wmdlm$of the sec0nd.w (
Selection of 3IotoCs for Different IrIndS Ot kCYIP~-
and &I. hrendt,~ El. World, NOV., 1907.) -The
-_._ _____ (q. B. Cracker
! types of direct-current
motor are as follo\VS:
DIRECT-CtJRREXT 3IOTFRS.
T!/W.
Op,erutiw Characteristics.
Shunt-wound motors.. . . . . b
Sta,rting torque usuallv 50,tO 100 per cent
greater thnn rated r~nn~~b torque, and
fairly const,ant speed over wde IWild
ranges.
Series-wound motors. _. . _ _ _. Powerful
starting torclue,
speed varying
greatly ,(invprsely) with
load changes. .
Compounc!-wound motors.. .Co;npromlse ,oetIVetn
shunt and serves
types.
Differently-wound motors . . .Startlng torque very snla& speed can Fe
made alnmst absolutely constant for load
clya,tlges witi& rated caWilclty.
The conditions under which mn+nery oper&tes, in rG?a?l to. varying
speed and power roqcircd of the drWu,
,I motor, may be drW.led mto four
. .
: ELECTRIC MOTOR& 1407
classes. and cert
.
aln~~typ&% Of ,lii$OiS iirk ustiallybest suited to these divi-
sions, which are as follows:
((t)..Work which requires~ the motor to opera& automatically at a
practxally Constant speed, regardless of load changes or other conditions.
(0) Work requiring freqtient starting
tiqns in speed, mcludinrt sor net .i mec r ani r l
$3 An approximstc
of the speed should it
and stopping and wide *aria-
-.-y __...-_ _.___I -Ir.u
acceleration.
21~ steady load or work that varies as some function
change.
,:~
(d) Work in which the ;
dless of the speed.
spe_eP v?riations w;L;I COIIJL~LIIL torque may ue desired.
or where
0
Ed (a) applies to line-Shaft equipments with manv machines
The fir.% cas
;

.,
-,
.,, :
..~
.,.
lperated by the same motor anti where slight speed varijtions may be
allowed:. the direct-current shunt or slightly compounded motor or the
alternatmg-current mduction motor. would answer, depending upon the
character of electric current available.
A refinement of this problem is
encpuntered in the driving of textile machinery, especially silk looms w:th
which even a shg!it speed variation might affect the appearance of ihe
finished product. In such instances t~he a.lt.er
natbig-current motors. ootv-.
whereas (d) is set to operate at a desired speed for some time and regulates
automatica!!y when so adjusted.
The Electric Diive ins the Machine-Shop. (A. L. De Leeuw,
Trans A S.df.E~., 1909.)-Absence of rehable data IS apparent all over
the fieid &this subject, and it will therefore be lmposslble to,say before-
hand with any fair degree of certamty how much, If anything, can be ~.::.A ,, ,,.;
gained by the conversion of a shop from a shaft to motor drive.
Nothin
=&l clear y show what may be accqmphshed. The savmg OF power IS 7
but an exhaustive study of the entire plant i: all its aspects
,.I~ ,;Y:;;,;:;,;;:,-
.:,,,; ,.~,, ,T,,,
by no means the only nor the most lmport,ant economy resultmg frpm a ~;~:x::,~;-j.:
conversion to electric drive, and such a cqnverslon may even be lughly, ,~,:-:::i:~~~~;
economical, though there be an actual loss m power consumed.
The uestion whether alternating or direct current should be use4 is~
: %,,..F.ii ,,; ;,::
-:,:.~::,:i;<r~~
especial y cllfficult of solution., t .
and there is a wide difference of opunon ,: Y: :,c:.z;~:
among engineers as to wluch 1s best.
Given a plant covering a, large area ,,,.. i::;;;;,:;
and using large amounts of current, of which onl ,y a small portion LS used ;Y;+$;:
for variable-speed machinery, and of sufficlent~slze to permit of the Use of , :_ I;+~~~:;~~
a seps.rate unit for lighting current, then alternatmg current wquld be the.
,:.,~~~~,~.:.~,~~,,~::
logical solution.
On the other hand, given a cpmpact plant, usmg a large ; ~.;;:;L;_::;;;
portion of the power for variable-speed, machmery. direct-driven by mo-
:, 3 ;; .,,:k$.,*, i_ ~~~~::;:,~~~:;
tors and of wluch the lighting load is small in the da@me, t&n It would ),:,;$:;i;:$
be n&tu.ral to select direct current.
As a rule, however, conchtlons are not :~+:$Z$:;:;
so simple.
Of late the problem has been complicated. by the fact that .:.;:,;;,::;5z$;
many machine tools may be had with single-p$ley drive. t? winch a,
alternating-current or a ~direct-curr$nt motor IS equally apphcable.
.. 2: ;;F;;,,:;,.: ;
: ,;
~,, ,,,-:
,~:,+.,:,y+,:; .,.,,
The poi nt s in favor of the altern+mg-current motor are:,
%
a High break-down point: that IS, the motor goes on with no material
. .,~I: :..; I, ,;
.:;,$;i; >,
change of speed under very heavy overload.
::,:I,:-;:,
b Freedom from commutator trouble.
This is especially valuaple .,;: ::i:::: :Y:,
where fine chips are made, or where corn
ressed air is used in COnneCtlOn
with the machine. The better makes o
P
.: ,
direct-current motors are now
equally free from this kind of trouble.
c &iost cities are now lighted by alternating current, SO that City cur-
reut can be used in smaller plants, provided tne machme tools are arranged
:.i:;:,
,~~-. ;~,
for this kind of motor.
.,; _;:y
,y:: , :
,_
;.
phase induction or polyphase synchronous, are g%nerallv employ&d -&-
cause the speed of direct-current .motors varies considerably wltb voltage
changes and the variation in temperature which occurs after several hours
of operation, whereas the speed of the a
tlternatiti6+current motors. unk nn
the voltage varies greatly, is primarily dependent upon the frequency
of the supplied current.
The second class (b) is divided into two parts, the first being electric
traction and cra?e service, in which the motor is frequently started and
stqpped and rapidly accelerated at starting: or where the speed is to be
admsted automa.t.i&lv to the load, slowing down when heavily loaded
- I-
r ,.-de. . These conditions are well satisfied by the
SeLieS I not or of either the dlref?t nr n.ltematillg-rllrrellt types, dependlog
~-~ is of this cbnractnr 2,~ regards
III ui calls for
zVVL. requirements,
f over-compormded
upon the current supl~lied~.
~.~. .__ __ ___
Elevator service
frequent .Startiug and stopping, but after rapid j$ei&~~;--~--L
a speed Independent of the load. Hence, to fulfill lxn+Il
elevator rnohors when of direct-current type are heavily
to give the sprirn c hr !a0t or i c t i n at .tor+:n,~. +I:,... ...lrr
YLICBI, \ruen tlie motor is up
t0 Hpeed~, ~thl~-~~~esfil~~,~l~InlgisU~~~~~~~~ircllited and it operates as a
shunt ma&me. Recently, however, two-speed shunt motors bavp heen
employed for this service
!, the field beinrr of~maximuti st.mmh for =tlr+,
mg and .sparking prevented by use of-inter-poles.
If only alternat.ing
!Xlrrent 1s aVailable the Dolvnlmse induction motor should be employed
.:&I-.- ~..
ring or compensator controi
in:,...
- &I_- -.tss the motor
but for powerful starting torque IX,IK=T SUP-
would be necessary.
For the second ~ubdiv Wl,, L 111S Cli
must be start,ed and stopped frequentiy and nnt. rar~irll~i 0-l
on the contrary simply inched
.._I L.mr.I, ,,zelerated. bUt ~~~ _. __
forward at the sta$,,r& in the operation
of printing presses, gun tirrrets, etc.
These condltlons of service are
satisfied by a direct-current compound motor provided with double
armature and series-parallel control of the machine.
The.third class (c) of work is the operation of pumps, fans or blower
Ml UI PmeI ~t S a?tl lts requirements are satisfied by the series lnotor 1
speed adJUsts itself to the
vhose
work, and also because it exerts the masi
torque required at starting.
imum
It must be, however.either geared or dil
rectlv
conuect.ed_tq the apparatus, because the breaking of the belt or the SL..--..
vould cause a series motor to rape n.nrl hw nmr . inirlr4 remOYa1 ot the load 1
IddPrl
The oPer?tion of pumps by electric. motor&is- &ally eff&~;d-~,&~x;I,9
smce ordinary plunger pumps do not operate efficiently if driven in ey,&
of fifty strokes per I
nillute, and to aCCOmDlish this 11% di r ec t . mnnwr i nn
would ,demand a very low speed and costiy motor. -~C&~t~&~~*;;;;;;ps
operatmg at high sueed mav he di r ec t . dr i ven
e-tool service, for
uL.uyALL6 VL ~~~ALL,~IL; soeed requires the
nllmbefoi rt%&iii& o?lirie?yi& or tool to vary inversely as the diameter
of the cut.
This condition is satisfied best by the direc&urrent shunt or
sllg!ltly compom~ded motors, as they are readily controlled in speed by
varlatlon of the ap
It is to be note $
lied voltage, shunt field weakening etc
that (n)~and (c) reELdate automatiiallvto maintain a
constant sired w hi l e .~.
.speeds.
. .- ..--d (b) and (d) are controlled by llilnd ?o give varia,ble
l+rtheymore, (b) is usw&Jiy Under controlof the hand a,11 the time.
I
~- ,-
Compound-wound motors ore wed where there om wdden calls for
excessive porver of short durotLon. IYI on plsners, punch presseo. etc..
6erien.motom should be u.sed where B
and where exce#B*o stDrtlng torqgue and
a.9 for operating cmu.
Jeed reg~htbn b not esentid
owetartlng upeeda are requirei.
When in doubt se to the cboico of compound or emiee motora of emrdl
horec-power, the cboicc might be deter,,,,, b
in baor of rho series motor. Series motora
LW., .boL lleer be
the sln,p,,cit of ootm,
used when the motor can run whhqu load, & the spcd would s,cce,erate
bwond the point of anfety.
The iliterlliltil~Cl,nclll motor of the ~quirrekaII0 rotor type co,mupmda
totho cmata~~t-speed, ~hnt. dhmt-eurrent motor. but with D ho&reskt-
aneo rotor it ~pproiud~w ttwre closely the cllilructcristlce of c mm
direct-curreot motor.
und
Vwioble speeil mocbhw drlvca by nquirre -wze
p
mtore mSt Ir.ve t,,l? IIwu~Pry mec,,iul,rul axed c,,r,ngw.
The slip-rinx indectlon motor with extcrnd rotor rveistonce WOW be
II!mI for xrbld. x x71. bnt thb LILIL not be CnnYtruHl to 1110*,1 thllt it
Crwllllltb tu L bL%t-ourrent, rdjt~mble~,nrrl IlltOr. y1 it hils the f
chanutcr~rlicr of R dlrwt-currmlt shunt motor with oroutum motrol.
Tbo Selt-rolltPlncd, rotor rcsistrnce ty
drive. and for group8 ~vi~cn of suttbie.nr s
e
E
would bc used tar !,l,eshPtt
e.
3lullLmeed. nlternntin~-rurr~nt mnton we thoec ziv,g D number of
definite speeds. wtily BOO m,d 1300 or 000. !,O,,. lZO0 and 1800 rev,
per min.. and are mudr for both constant boree-,,o\,ser us, conswm
torque. Thrse motom would be eed where ,,,tenw,r curreut only wu
nsndrbb. or direct current ,,m,ttd; and the s
together with one or twn chotye genrs, would g YB the required speeds.
feed rilwe of the motor.
ALTEBNATING-CURRENT 3ITolu.
- _* .--... _-.-
WARNI NG:
,. .I
This is a,
:
,
.
I
I
t
!
I
1
i
__..e-
Some
. _ ,
I. ..-.-CI .q.?q
I
&TElt~iTWo-CURRENT MOTOR%
1409
pwn ,,,lj ma,. .I.Y. .I. .----- -
- ihe &t&-i a.1. hay no lorig& 6~a&c;
head. In this the centrifugal hump is esactly opposite to ,the plunger
or reciprocating pump, which,
g ;. :
emg posltlve m its~action, mcreases Its
load with increase of head and vice versa. [In some modern typF.of
centrifugal Dump the load decreases with decrease of head after reacqing
the maximum load corresponding to, the head for which the pump ,s
designed. See catalogue of the De Lava1 Steam Turbine CO., 1910. W. h.1
INDUCTION MOTOR APPLICATIONS.
Squirrel Cage: Phase-Wound.
-
Constant Speed. Variable Speed. Constant Speed. Variable Speed.
Centrifugal& --In sugar CentrifUgalS is an application where the sole
purpose of the tqOt,Or IS to accelerate the load to full speed, in sa
thirty
seconds, where It IS ,allomed to run one minute and then shut olvn to
repeat th? cycle a minute later.
x
The centrifugal consists of a cylindrical
basket with perforated, walls and mounted around a vertical shaft as an
D~\[~s. The sun!e pn!lc!ple is used in laundry extractors where the wet
linen is placed in a similarly perforated basket and the water whirled out
by centnfugal force.
Constant-Speed. Motors with Phase-wound Secondaries. 2 There ape
classes Of service which require a heavy starting
close speed regulation after the motor is up to
tor
%
ue combined with
spee These require-
ments are exact!y ,met, by a motor With a phase-&ound secondary
The secol?dary !vmdmg !tself h+s a very low resistance, which means Q
small * shp,l high runnmg efficlencv and
tion when t,he secondary is short-&rcuite
resistance enables the motor to
x
ower-factor and good regula-
develop
The insertion of external
with a moderate stnrtinz current.
kaximum torqub at the start
I-Motor-generabor I-Starting mo- I-Flour mills.
s&3. tom. Z-Paper Ina-
1 -Hw;k;;tsnd
Z-Pump% 2-Crane motors chinery. pulp 2-Cranes.
3-Blowers. 3-Fly-wheel grinders, 3-Elevators.
4-Line-shaft drive. service. beaters; 4-Fly-wheel mo-
5-Cement machin- Punches, 3-Belt convey- Thor-generator
6-$%-working
Shears. etc. ors. sets.
machinery (es-
cept planers).
7-Cotton-mill ma- tractors. 6-Line shafting.
chinery.
B-Paper mnchin-
6--Brake motors 7--q&viEf;wheel 6-Coal and ore
7-Cross-bend unloaders.
calenders
%dan engined: 8-V%%%ors.
7-Dredging ma-
chinery.
9-Concrete mixers. &Shovels.
9-Mine haulxee.
Blolyers.-Rotary blowers, except positive blowers, have a charac-
teristic similar to cent.rifugal pumps, in that the load varies with the
amoun,t of air delivered and becomes less as the pressure against which
the blower is working increases. That is to say, the maximum load
which could be put on a motor driving a blower of this @urewould he to
take a,!vay all delivery pipes and let. the blower eshaust into the open au.
Line Shafting. - Sqmrrel-cage mobors are used very successful!y
for driving line+hafting where the idle belts are run ou loose pulleys. m
this way keeping,down t.he starting torque.
.
Motors wifh Phase-wound Secondaries for Variable Speed Sercice. -
Cement Mills. -The possibility of entirely covering the bearings and
The application. which is trpical of this class, is found in hoist and
cr+ne service. Motors for this work are designed for intermittent oper-
the absence of all moving contacts make the sqltirrel-cnge motor Success- atIon and given a nominal rating based upon the horse-power which
ful where Olie more complicated construction and moving contact. Sur-
faces of the wound serondarv motor or the direct-current machine are
they will develop for one-half hour, with a* temperature rise of
damaged by accumulation of dust. In starting up a tube mill it must
40C. They never operate for as long a period hs thirty minutes
be rotated through nearly 90% before the charge of pebbles and cement
contmuously and they are called upon at times t,o develop a torque
greatly in excess of their nominal rat,inE. For these reasons motors of
begins t.o roll. This makes the st$rting condition severe and a motor
shouid hare a startina toroue of not less than twice full-load torque to
this class should never be applied on a librse-power basis, but always on
I .
a torque basis. Since torque is the-ma,in consideration and the service
do the work.
Wood-\Torking hlachinerv. - On account of high friction and great
is l!itermittent these motors are usually mound for the maximum torque.
inertia, t.he starting torqueis sometimes so high and of so long duration
which they wilt develop and given a nominal rating ,based upon one-t,hird
(t.(t.~~ seconds t,o one minute) that it is bebter to apply a wound-secondary
to one-half of t.his torque. Double drum hoists, hoisting in balance, and
large mine haulage proposit,ions in general require a motor rated on a
different basis. For this service the motor should have the necessary
Paper >Inchinery. - If calenders are driven wit.h a const,ant speed
m,aximum torque and be able to develop for about two or three hour<,
mot,or it is necess&ry to make some provision either IW mrrhanicnl speed-
with a safe rise in temperature, a horse-power equivalent to the square
changing devices or a small auxiliary motor for securing a slow threading
root of the mean square requirement of the hoisting cyc!e. These are
speed.
only general rules and the most~ careful consideration should be given in
S~rrirr&Cage Variable Speed Afotors. - These motors in general 1~;~ I
each individual case to secure a motor which will perform the work
high rrsist,ance end rings. high slip and high starting torque.
satisfactorily.
torque increases automat,ically as the speed decreases. In these general
Coal and-Ore Unloading Jlachinery. - Dredges -Power-Shovels. -
respect.s t,hey resemble a direct-current. series motor and are in fact fitted
Owing to the comnlication~ of the cvcle of ooeration ,there is more diffi-
for t,he szzme class of work, with the added advantage that they have a
cults..in Drovidinr-a motor for this .innsratu~~ than in the, Case.Of a Dbain
~~==~~-~~-
limiting speed and cannot run away, under light loi~tl.
hoist. irsua~ly~the~ &&&e~-oi&cles per hour given, is the maxiinum
Fly-Wheel Service. - In driving tools which are used with fly-wheels
which the appilratus can develop a,nd in practice it. will not be possible
such as punches, shears, straighteniugrolls and the like, the UsefulueSs
to operate at so high a speed. This in itself is somewl@ of a factor of
WARNING: ,This is a 1910~&jit,i&n.
.~...~ ..,, ~,~,.,.li
"some ~~ the materia~I~, may .-.o~..~lonser~. gk .,I. acc;.b;iie;
I
i n
i
nLTER!ATING-CURRENTS MOTORS., .
1411 ,m~
of high slip comes in,.as, if the fly-wheel is to give up its energv it: 1s
obh
goo 2
ed to slpw down in speed when the load comes on.
.4 mot& witti
regulation and low shp .would try to run at, constant speed carrvlng
, the fly-wheel and load a,s we:& but the motor in question * lies doGpn 8)
a,nd allows the fly-wheel .tocarry the peak load, speeding up again when
the peak has nassed.
safety. thopgh ,not one which cati be re!ied upon; +s~ the test for accept-
ance B ordmardy made at the.contract~number of operations per hour.
The most impressive application of motors of this class and perhaps
in the operation of any electrical apparatus is the fly-wheel motor-gen-
erator set for hoist@ or heilvy reversing roll service in steel mills.
vice of this nature IS extremely .Ructuating in its requirements,
Ser-
very great peaks one instant and almost ~!lothing the next.
having
This. is a
severe strain on the generating plant from which power is~ being drawn.
Alternating&urrent nlotors for Variable Speed. (W. I. Slichter,
Trans. A.S.M.B.. 1963.) -
The speed of an alternating-current motor ma,y be controlled in a
number of ways:
(o) By varying the potential applied to the primary of a motor having
a suitable resistance in the secondary.
(b) By vaiying the resistance in the secondary circuit.
(cl By changing the connections of t,he primary in a manner to change
the nu?ber of poles. I
(UJ my varying tne rrequency or t,ne appued voltage.
T& changeable pole and variable frequency methods are the nost
efficient, hut,do not permit of a variation through a wide range of speed.
The rheostatlc contrbl is thesimplest and easiest of control, giving a range
from s-tandstill to full speed, but IS not as efficient as the first two. although
more efficient than potential control. The last mentioned has the dis-
advantages of low etficiencv and considerablv increased heat,ine in the
motor itself, dnd is also un&ble at low speeds: s;y below one-third speed.
That 1s. a small variation in torque or a smaller variation in voltage will
cause a cons~dersble variation in speed.
Mr. Geo. WV. Colles. in a discussIon of Mr. Schlichters paper, says that
the variable-speed ihduction-motor problem has not yet been solved.
Of the four possible methods given, the first is the simplest. 8s hereT!
merels necessiwv t.0 insert a comuensator in circuit with the motor.
howe%. Is decidedly unsntisfactor
a high-resistancesecondary, even t le full-speed efficiency of t le motor is 9,
as, owi& to the necessit
i
of ha%L~
largely reduced, while st quarter-speed it is about 17yc, and even at half-
speed on!v 37%,.
- All the-othei solutions given are too complicated and they cannot be
regarded as other than makeshifts. The resistance:in-secondary method
is the only one that has been used to any extent. This nullifies the merl-
torious natural features of the squirrel-cage motor, whose complete freedom.
from exposed contacts, commutator and slip-rings made it much Simpler.
and therefore cheaper, than the direct-current motor; and it now becomes
more espensive and delicate, and considerably less efficient. The effi-
;;$Y IS now but 65% at s/4 load, 43% at l/z load, and only 22 70 at V4
SIZES OF ELECTRIC GENERATORS AND BIOTORS.
(Condensed from Bulletins of the General Electric Co., 1910.)
Direct-connected Engine-driven Railway Genera,tors. Form S.
g-pole. Kw.. . . . . . . . . . . . . ;I00
Speed, r.p.m., . . . . . ..: . . . 275
150 200
200 200
S-pole. 300 kw.. 120 and 100 r.p.m.; 400 Kw., 150, I?0 and 100 r.p.m.;
500 Iiw., 120 r.p.m.
IO-pole, 500 Kw., !OO and 99 r.p.m. 14-pole 800 Kw., 100 snd 80 r.p.m.:
l-l-pole, 1000 Iiw.. 100 and 80 r.p.m.; 1200-kw., 80 r.p.m., 16-pole. 1600
Kw.. 100 and 75 r.p.m.
?O-pole, 2000 Kw., 75 r.p.m.; 24+ole, 2500 Kw., 75 r.p.m.: 26-pole. 2700
Iiw., 90 r.p.m.
Slow and Moderate Speed Belt-driven Generators. Type CL.
Form U.
22 2
%; 725 725
75 100 150
550 550 550
550 ,i25 45.5
35 4.5 60 75
1050 975 925 $50
10 edition.
6::
650
.:
Slow and,Xoderate Speed Belt-driven Motors; Tyae~&...~~&& B.
650 730
750
635
.: 65 800 57.5
md~250 volts, speed.
90 :. $6:~ ,. 600
575 500, :,...
,;2z&
tncJ22~ vc$s, speed.
440
540 470 ,440 ~,ff
:
575 ~500 500 ~~. :;o ~,,
6 poles, Kiv.... ~. . :. . . . 30 125, 259 and ~500 Volta, .:40 ~.55~. ~:70. B5~ ;I05 150
900 C850 jib0 ~:, 700
845 ;..SOO 750 -655 kiti
speel.~ . . . . . . . . . . :. 1025, 975
110 and 220 vblts, speed 965 915
E,ERING., :
After a continuous run of 10 hours, at full-rated ~loadi th&,rlse in tem-
perature abpve that. of the surrounding air. as measured by the ther-
mometer, will note exceed the following: Armature,~ 3.Y C.: Commutator
.,
40 C., Field, 450 C. The ~motors will operate for two hours at ,257:
over!oad, and withstand a momentary overload~of 5Cl$&v&hotit injurious
heatmg.
Belt-driven Alttirnators. Form P.~ Rek&hg~&ei& ~,
22
. . . . . . . . . . . .~. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 5; ,.I~~+5 ~. .a .12 t
~~30 IS 3 ,100 , 150 2;;
Ypeea.......; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200 1200
Amperes at I balanced 3-phase load
full load balanced 2-nhase!osd
7.5 12.5
900 900 601) 600
18.8. 25: 37.5,50
6.5
(single-phase load . . . . 10
11 Ii%!% ., 22
2300 volts 16.5 -ih.% -5
~,33 :44
49 65
$uilt with or without direct-connected exciters. Adapted to 2- .&
3-phase windings without change except in the ,armattire coils, Poten-
t&ills, &phase, 240, 480, 600, 1150, 2300: 2-pha&!~ P-IO, 480, 1150, 2300.
When used as ssnchronous motors these machmes have a cnndenaer
effect, and in co-nsequence~ can -be us&d t&&prove. the power factor
when used in combinut,ion with induction motors.
The full-load single-phase rating at 100% power factor isSOo/ of the
full-load a-phase rating at both 100% and 80% powerfactor. , $he full-
load single-phase rating at any power factor from~ 106 to SOY, is the unity
dower factor single-phase ratinrr multiolied bv the Dower factor. For
instance, for the%-IQO-900 macliine.. which is the +&load 3-phase rating
unity and SOY0 power factor, the smgle-phase rating for 100YO at both
power factors IS 80 Kw., anal for 807, power fjctor it, is 80 X 0.8% 64 Kw.
Slow and Moderate Spekd iMachines wit!1 Commu&ting Iboles;
GEFERATOI~, TYPE DL(T, FORM A. : ~, Y:,:,,,: .,,
Frame
.
Slow Speed. ~MgderateSpeed. ,
1 ~,~ Speed..
Poles. Kw.
7- .-
-
--
125 v. !
250 v.
-
.~ *Nottc
therefore with the current: through the armature,and a niagfiet$fi&$fs
produced of, such inte!ns!ty as to properly reversethe current in, the
armature co& short-cmxuted during commutation. ~The ~pole pieces are
so prqportloned and wound ~+s to compensate for armature.reaction,and
practically non-flashmg and sparkles? commutation is insured up t;the
severest overloads. As the magnetizmg~current around t&commutating
poles is revepsed pith the armature, the poles perform theirs functions
equally well m whichever direction the motors are running;. ., ~.
Due to the good commutating characteristics of commuta&&~ole
r&way motors, their overload capacities are considerably, increased and
a more rugged form of, motor is obtained which is less~subject to, irijur
through careless hand& by, motormen than the present standard ral-
waymotor.
I
.,
Slow Speed. Moderate Speed.
-
-.
-
30
2
; FJ
115
150
175
250
350
-
i 1
Speed. Speed.
125 v.
250~.
- -
as.
125 Y.
' I 5 v* ' 55Ov
25ov. 23ov. .
825 E 925
: : : 700 i i :
675 650
E 625
: ?I :
675
600 E
575 525 : i i
: ; t
*450 425
1
I
!
E 1250
1000 1%
. 950 900 z
850 975
800 925
: z 2
650 675
Small Polyphase iUotors./, ,.I~: ~.I :
qn6f$wle, 4pole, 1ml mm., H.P., l/6, /a, l/z, 3/4; 1; 11/Z, 2,~ 3, 5 71/z,
,I
,.p.ti., H.P., Y4, U2, 1, I.& 2, 3; ki. ~&he, 800
r.p.m., ~_.
$i $ 4bol e' . 750 r.b.m.;
H.P., l/4! l/2, 1, 2, 3.
H.P.; Ii;; l/s, _, -. -, -, -, . l/z, 1, 2. 3,. i;
; .~
6-pble, 560
I are synchronous speeds.~ Full-load speeds are from
IOUS.
The speeds giver
93 to 97% of the syncnrol
Motors below 1 H.P. s
110,220,440 and 550 volt
* Not to be made for 125 or 115
Ire adapted for 110 arid 220 volts; others for
is.
The first eight sizes are made with enclosed and partly enclosed as
well as o en casings. For the several types of casings the horse-powers
are as be ow: P
_ f
.,
H.P., Slow Speed.
.I
H.P., Moderate Speed.
r --
i?-
ciosed~
-
En-
closed
Ven ti-
l ated.
_
i i
55
70
1;:
Et
-
Fram
En- r
-
Semi-
1pen En-
closed.
--
rotally
En- Frame Open
cl osed.
- - - -
Single-phase Motorss 110 and 220 volts.
60-cycle,
60-cycle,
4pole. 1500 r.p.m., H.P.. l/4, l/2, 1, i, 3, 5, 7 l/z, 10 15.
25-cycle,
6-pole,
25-cycle,
2-pole, 1500 r.p.m., r.p.m., H.P., l/4, */4, l/z, l/2, 3/4, 1, 2, i/2. 3, 2, 5. 3. 5, 7 10. 112, lo.
1200 H.P.. 1
4-pole, 750 r.p.m., H.P., l/4, V2, 1, 1112, 2, iliz, 5. ,3,
_
-
30
2
; ;
125
150
175
$I
2;
f
i
-
Type CQ Motors. Continuous Current. ~. .
an%
Class.
g$ ;I
2
CQ 314
CQ 1
CQ 2
CQ3
CQ 5
CQ 7%
CQ I (
*Speed (Shunt-Wound M 3l - s) . ~
--
! 50 v
-
iOOV
-
I I OV
. -
--
2
2
EE
1600
1425
1935
1%
1060
1600
1060
1600
1060
1475
800
1220
635
975
61C
9M:
115v
-
f i ti
1650
1475
: i ?i
1900
1100
1650
1100
1650
1100
1525
825
' E
1000
; g
125v 22OV
_-
2300
1850'
1%
2cQO
1275
E
1650
1100
1650
I I 00
1525
825
' 62: :
1. 000
. z
Small Moderate Speed Engine-driven Alternators.
.1
2;; 200 ]
60 '
52
73
1150,
Gus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . - 24 26
Spe8d:::::::::::::::::::::::::: 3: : 2%
1% 1%
257 226
balanced 3-phase load _ 12.6 17.6 26. 5
balanced 2-phase load. lOi;
37. 6
single-phase load . 2 3223 2
Potentials, 3-phase, 240. GO, 600. 1150, 2300; 2-phase, 240, 480,
2300.
Box-Frame Type of Railway Motors. Four Field Coils.
H.P., IS. 42. 45, 75, 50. 75, 100, 125. 160, 170, 200, 225.
!
The first two sizes are for 24-in. gauge, the next two for 36-in., and the
otbzrs for standard gauge.
Commutating Pole Railway Motors.
Made in six sizes 50 to 200 H.P. Wound for 600 voits. The two
?mallest have sblit ,frames:~ .the,others box frames.
The commutating.p@s, located.between the main exciting pole Pieces.
are cimnected .Up, &htheir windings: in series with one another and with
the airman!@&.: ~;.The qtinghrt~ic ~strength of the commutating poles varies A<
. .. WARN1 N,G.: : Thi ~~:~i~~:$~~~ (9 10
. off
~,,.I~.
editioiie,e ~~$i< of
,., ._,. ,..~.,,
The standard,CQ open motorwili deliver its rated horse-power output
continuously wlthout a temperature rise, in any part exceeding .l5O C.
by the thermoineter above the surro:mdmg air, An overload of 250/o
may be mamtamed for one hour contmuously~ wthout injurious heating
or sparking. or a 40% overoad mome,rtarilg.
Motors developed from the C&l frame and smalter wiil operate semi
or totally enclosed withy the same load limits as when opeu.
Owing to
the fact that the CQ2 and larger frames have less radiating surface per
horse-power than the smal!er frames, t~he ratings attainable \vith them
when enclosed are necessarily reduced to keep the heating within estab-
/
lisherl limits _..._._ __..__-.
The volrages for which standard motors are built are 115 230 and 550
When motors are rated at 115 volts, they ma
between 110,and 125 volts, and when rate< 9
be used on &cuit.s ranging
at 230 volts, they may be
used 311 circmts rsnging between 220 and 250 volts, and standard heating
guarantees will be maintained.
When motors are rated at 550 volts, they may be used on circuits
ranging bettyeen 600 and 600 volts, mcluslve. and standard heating
guara,ntees wiil be maintained up to 550 volts, and at 600 volts the heat-
mg will not be injurious.
Sewing-Machine Motors.
Ratings, H.P.,
Speed, r.p.m.,
%o. VlS. ?lO. %. 1/n.
1800, 1500, 1500, WOO, 2300, for direct Current;
altmrnatmg current 1800 r.p.m. for all sizes.
Wound for 115 and 230 volts, D.C., and 110 and 2>0 volts, AC., 60
ax!lrS,
Ou special order, machines may be furnished for any commercial volt,-
age between 50 aud 250, and for any stand:ard frequency hct\veeu 25
and l-15 cycks.
.
SYXBQLS USED IN ELECTRICAL DIAGRAMS.
--c1 I)SPST
-(=1bCl-SPDT
-0 C- DPST
-a=&
& a & * )
-7-
DPor Caivanometer. Ammeter. Voltmeter. I\-attmeter. !
Switches: S, single;
0 doubk P, rde: ~~~~~
T, throw.
Resistance. Resistance.
Motor Rhunt-wound Motor
or Generator.
Series-wound
or Generat,or. Motor or Generator.
T~+nhnse Three-phase Batmry. Tmus- Compouud-
Generator. Generator. forhler. wound Motor
SeparateI, c
excited Motor
or Genemtor. or Generator.
Abbreviations, 1
Abrasion, resistance to, of manga-
nese steel, 471
Abrasive processes, 1262-1265
Abscissas, 71
Absolute temperature, 540 .
zero. 540
Absorption of gases, 579
of water by brick, 348
refrigerating-machines,1293-1313
Accelerated motiou,. 501
Acceleration, defimtion of, 497
force of. 501
work of; 504
~4ccumuliltors. electric, 1375
Accttylene and calcium carbide, 825
Acetylene blowp~~, 827
-tieme welding 464
generators and burners, 826
Ache;o&s defloccufuted g:rapllitC,
Acme sirew thread, 226
Adiabatic compression of air, 6-01
curve, 929
eunansion. 575
expsnsionof air, 606
expausion in compressed air-
engines, 608
expansion of steam, 929
Adiabatically cnmpressed air. mean
effective pressures, table. 609
Admyirzty metal, composltlon of,
Atlm;!@ce of alternating CurrentS,
Air (,sE~ also Atmosphere). 5YO6.53
aii.~xa+or mixture, weight of, 584,
--_
-bound pipes, 722
carbonic acid allowable in, 653
cooling of, 568. 681
compressed, 593. 604-626 (see
Compressed air)
compressor, hydraulic, 622
compressors, centrifugal, 620
conmressors. effect of intake
temperatures. 619
compressors, high altitude, table
of, 611
compressors, intercoolers for, 620
compressors. tables, 614. 615
den&v and pressure, 581, 586
flow of, hrpipes, 591
flow of, in longiplpes, 595
flow of, 111 vent atmg ducts, 6.x
__
581, ,586, 663
volume transmit:ed in pipes, 591
weight and volume of, 2S
we!ght of (t.able), 556
rreight of, 173
Alcohol as fuel. $13
denatured, 513
engines. 1078
vapor tension of, 514
Altle~~~~bsorption dynamometer,
.4lgeb;a 34-35
rllzehra~c symbols, 1
Alligation, 9
Alloys, 360-355
aluminum, 371. 375. 376
aluminum-antimony, 375
aluminum-copper. 371
aluminum-silicon-iron. 374
aluminum. tests of, 374
aluminum-tungsten, 375
aluminum-zinc, 375
a,ntimony, 381, 383
bearing metal. 380
bismuth, 379
caution as to strength of. 373
compositionof, :n brass foundries,
coE$sition~ by mixture and by
anal.vsis. 364
copper-manganese, 376
1417
.Air, few of, through orifices, 588
friction of, in underground pas-
sages, 685
head of, due to temperature
differences, 687
heating of, see also Heating
heating of, by compression, 604
horse-power required to corn--
losgs;~J$rxire of, in pipes, tables,
mnnoir&tkr. 581
propertres of, 580 *
pump, 1055
pump for condenser, 1053. 1055,
pump. maximum work of, IO:6
pvrometer 528
secitic he& of, 537
t ierinometer, 530 P
veio;;y509f6 m pipes, by anemom-
volum&. densities, and pressures,
MARNING: This is a 1910 edition.
Some of & mater i a 1. ma;, no~~ lonser',6G ~. adc'urate ~
: ~JNDEX.
Alloys, copper-tin, 360 Alloys, copper-tin, 360
,-opper-t,JPd !wo
copper-tin-lead, 369
copper-t! copper-tjn-zinc, 363-367
cc copper-zmc, 362
cc copper-zinc-iron. 369
ferro-, 1232
for casting under pressure, 371
fusible, 380
Japanese, 368
liquation of metals in, 364,
mafTyy;i of non-magnetx met-
nickil, 378
the strongest bronze, 365
vanadium and copper, 371
white metal, 382
Alloy steels, 470-480 (see Steel)
Alternating-current motors, vari-
able speed, 1412
Alternating currents, 1387
admittance, 13S9
average. maximum, and effective
values. 138S
calculation of circuits. 1397
Aluminum wire, el&trical resistance
of,, table, 1362
Ammonia, carbon dioxide and sul-
phur dioside. cooling effect
and compressor volume, 128s
gas, properties of, 1287
he;;;~ierated by absorption of,
liquid. density of, 1285
liquid, specific heat of, 1256
P
li uid, specific heat and available
atent heat, 1287
solubility of, 1258
va~;or& superheated, weight of,
Ammonia-absorption refrigerating
. machine, 1293, 1313
test of, 1315
capacity, 13S9
c!ap,xity of conductors, 1394
converters, .1400
delta connection, 1393
frequency, 1388
generators for, lB96
impedance, 13%
impedance poly~oiis. 13JO
inductance, 13Y9
induct,ion mot.or, 1409
measurement of power in poly-
phase circuits. 1395
Ohms law apphed to, 1390
power factor, 1389
reactance, 1389
sh!gle and polpphase, 1395
skin effect, 1390
synchronous motors. 1409
t~ransformers. 1400
Y-connection. 1395
Alternators, sizes of, tables, 1413
Altitude by barometer, 5S2
Aluminum. 174
Ammonia-compression refrigerating
machines, 1292. 1303.
tests of, 1307-1311
Ampere, definition of, 1345
Analyses, asbestos, 257
boiler scale, 693
boiler water. 693
cast iron, 416-419
coals. 789-797 ~~. .~. ._.
crucMe steel, 466, 468
fire-ciw. 255
pas. 82%
biases of combustion 7%
magnesite, 257
Analysis of rubber goods 356
Analyticit geometry, 71-f4
Anchor forgings, strength of, 331
Anemometer, 596
An&, economical, of framed struc-
tures, 522
of 1y9p60se of building material,
Angles, Carnegie steel, properties of,
table, 29%29s
plot,ting without protractor, 5-L
problems in. 39, 40
st,eel. table of properlies of, 29.5,
296
alloys (sic Alloys)
alloys used in automobile con.
struction, 376
nlloys. various. 371.. 375, 376
alloys. tests of. 374
brass, 373
bronze, 371
bronze wire., 243
coating on Iron. 449
conductors, cost compared with
is, 373
copper, 1399
effect of, on cast iron. 416
electrical c:xxductivitv of, 1350
properties and uses, 3.57
sheets and bars, table, 220
solder, 359
steel. 472
strengt.11 of, 358
t I!ermit proce:
w-e, 243, 359
steel, table of safe loads, 29;. 29s
steel. tests of, 340
trigonometrical properties of, 67
An~ultw velocity, 498
Animal, power, 5Oi-509
Anne,&tg, effect on conductivity,
1 ----
effect of, on steel, 454, 455
Influence of, on nmgnetic capa-
city of steel 459
malleable cas$nps. 4~1
of steel, 460! 46&e Steel)
of steel forgmgs, 45s
of structural steel, 460
Annuities. 1.5.-17 ~. . - - _.
Annular gearing,. 1145
Anthracite..classlfication of, 787
COlllpOSltlOll Of, i S7
gas. s15
sizes of, 792
space occupied by. 793
.,.i -.,. ~,..~~. ..,._. ,~,,~.~,
MARNING: This is ,a 1910 edition.
.~~ ,.,._ _*~
Some of
INDEX. ant-hea
Anti-friction curve, 51, 1209
Inc~tals. 1199
Anti-logarithm, 135
Antimony, in al!oys, 383, 336
properties ?f, 17.5
Apot;x&xs measure and weight,
Arbitrition bar, for cast iron, 415
Arc, circular, length of, 59
urcular, relations o{, 59
lamps, see Electric hghting
lighting of areas watts per
square foot rec&ed for, 1369
lights, electric, 1368
Arcs. circular, t,able, 123, 124
Arches, corrugated, IS6.
Area of circles. table. 111-119
of circles, sguare f&et. diameters
feet and inches, 127, 128
of 55g-e;Vmetncal ptsne figures,.
of irregular figures, 57, 58
of sphere, 63
Arithmetic, 2-33
Arithmetical progression, 10
Armature. torque of,~ 1885
Arrnatllre-circ~iit, e.m.f. of, 1386
Armo&;lates, heat trcstmeiit of,
.4slwstos. 2.57
Asp!laltum coatinK for iron, 447
Asses, work of, 509
Asymptotes of hyperbola, 74
Atmosphere. we also Air
erluivalent pressures of, 27
moisture in, :iS:i
pressure of, 5Sl
Atomic weights (table). 170
Autogenous welding. 464
Austenite. 456
Aut,omat!c cut-$ engines. 937
Autoo~o~~~iellOrrllles, rated capacity
gear;, efficiency of 1148
screws and nuts. t,al,le 22
Automobiles, st.eelwed ii,. 4S6
Avogadros Iniv of gases, 57s
Avoirdupois weight,, 19
Asles, forcing fits of, by hydraIdic
i?
ressure, 1273
ra road, effect of cold on, 441
steel,. specifications for, 453, 485
steel, strength, of, 332
Babbitt metal. 3s:~. 384
Babcock Sr Wilcox boilers,. tests
with various coals. 799
Bagasse as fuel, 809
Balances,. to weigh on incorrect, 20
Ball-bearnw, 12 10
saving of power by, 1214
Ball~~1~llers. carrying capacity
Balls ior bearings. grades of, 1214
hollnw copper, 322
Band brakes, design of, 1217
Bands and belts for carrying coal,
etc., 117.5
and belts, theory of, 11.15
Bank discount, 13
Bar iron, see al.w Wrought iron
Bars, eye, tests of, 338
iron and steel, commercial sizes
of, 179
Lowmoor iron, strength of, 330
of various materials, weights of,
178
steel, 461, see steel
twisted, tensile strength of, 264
wrought-iron, compression tests
of, 337
Barometer, lewlinr with, 582
to find altitude by, 582
Barometric readings for various alti-
tudes, 58.2
Bsrrels. number of. in tanks, 133
to find volume of, 66
Basic,Bessemer steel, strenglh of,
4oz
Ba ,tter&s. primary tiectric, 1377
storage, 13iS
BamtiBs hydromete?. 172
Bazins exper@wnts on weirs. 732
Beayi3nd girders. safe lauds on.
formnla for f+r~~re of. 281
j rormulse for transverse strength
of 28-2S5
of n&form st renzt h. 286 __ . . . . . . .~~.... -..:..._.~~, ~~~
specx;l. coefEclents for loads on,
ste2ei4formuhe for safe loads on,
wooden. safe loads, by building
laws, .1336
yellow pine, safe loads on, 1336,
Beari%!ceOes tesits on elevation Of
elastic limir. 261
Benrinrr n~e~isnnn= on rivets. 403
Be
,arings. allowable pressure on,
1203, 1206
and iournals clearance in, 1206
ball, 1210
calculating dimensions of, 1025
cast-iron, 1199
conical roller. 1211
engine, temperature of. 1209
for high rotntire speeds, 1208
for steam t.urbines, 1208
knife-edge, 1214
mercur.- -. ..^I 7 onn
.y IJ\>. I.Gil
is.5 el~gmrs. 1205
motives. 1708
it in curtis steam turbine,
iO6:%
oil pressure in: 1204-
overheatill-g 0X. 1203
pivot, 12OJ, 1209
roller, 1210
shaft, length nf lnri
the material may no l onger be accurate.
i
. .
Bearings, steam-engine, 1165
thrwst, 1208
Bearing-metal alloys, 380-384
practice, 382
Bearing-metals, anti-friction, 1199
composition of, 367
Bed-plates of steam-engine, 1025
Bell-metal, composition of, 366
Belt conveyors, 1175
Belt dressings, 1128
factors, 1119
Belts, arrangement of, Ii26
care of, 1127
cement for leather or cloth, 1128
centrifugal tension of, 1115
endless, ,1127
evil of tight. 1126
lacing of, 1124
length of, 1125
open alld crossed, 1112
quarter twist, 1124
sag of, 1126
steel, 1120
Belting, 1115-1132
Barths studies on, 1123
formulae, 11.16
friction of, 1115
horse-power of, 1116-1119
notes on. 1123
practice, 1116
rubber, 1128
strength of, 335, 1127
Taylors rules. 1120-1122
theory of, 1115
vs. chain drives, 1133
width for given horse-power,
1118 ___-
Bends, effects of, on Row of water
in pipes, 721
in pipes, 593
in pipes, table, 214, 215
pi
P
e, flexibility. of, 215
vuxy:, etc., reswtance to flow in,
7--
Bend;:;8 curvature of wire rope,
test,s of steel, 454
Bent lever, 511
Bernouillis theorem, 734
Bessemer converter,
I~- C.T_
temperature
111, ox,
steel, 451 (SCC Steel, Bessemer)
Bessemerized cast iron, 429
Bevel wheels, 1144
Billets, steel, Specifications for, 483
Binomial, anv power of, 34
theorem, 39
Bins, coal-storage, 1172
Birmingham garage. 29
Bismuth alloys, 37' 3
Bismuth, properties of, 175
Bituminous coal (sre Coal)
Black body radiation, 552
Blast areaof fans, 629
flIrllacxs. consumpl:i;~ii of char-
cm! in SO6
furnaces,steam-boilers for, 865
^ - ~_.~. ~,. _,. .~ ._,., ,, ~~
WARNING: This is
Bla$furnaces, temperatures in, 528
pipes, see Pipes
Blechyndens tests of heat trans-
mission, 567
Blocks or pulleys, 523
efficiency of, table, 1158
strength of, 1157
Blooms, steri, weight of, table, 185
Blow, force of, 504
Blowers, see also Fans.
Blowers and fans, 626-652
and fans, comparative efficiency,
631
blast-pipe diameters for, 643
capacity of, 632
experiments with. 629
for cupolas, 633.634
in foundries, 1227
rotary, 649
rotary, table of, 650
steam-jet, 651
velocity due to pressure, 629
Blowing-engines, dimensions #oi,
652
machines, centrifugal, 622
Blue heat, effect on steel, 458
Board measure, 20
Boats, see Ships
Bodies, falling, Ia?vs of, 497
Boiler compounds, 895
explosions. 902
feeders, gmvity, 908
feed-pumps, 761
fxnaces, height of, S89
furnaces. use of steam in, 824
heads, 885
heads, strength of, 314, 316
heating-surface for steitm heat-
ing, 664, 667
plate, strength of, at high tem-
peratures, 439
scale, analyses of, 693
tubes used as columns,, 341
tukF>;;panded, holding power
8 -
tubes, [IimenSions of, t.ahle, 209
tube JOlll+S. rolled, siipping point
of, 312
Boilers for house heating, 665
horse-power of, S.54
incrustation of, 691, 692
locomotive, lOS9
natural gas as fuel for, 817
., of t~he Lusit.ania 1330
for steam-heating, 667
steam, S54 (see Steam-boilers)
Boiling, resistance to, 54:~
Boiling-point of water, 690
Boiling-points of substances, 532
Bolts and nuts, 221-228
and pins,, taper, 1271
eff+t of initial strain in. 325
ho$k$ power of, in white pine,
square-head, table of weights of,
229
INDEX bol-can
Bo!ts, strength of, tables, 325, 326
track, weight of, 230
variation in size of iron for, 223
Boyles or Mariottes law, 574. 577
Braces, diagonal, stresses in, 516
Brackets, cast-iron, strengt,h,of, 277
Bral~9mrse-power, defimtmn of,
___
Prony, 1280
Brakes, band. design of, 1217
electric, 1217
frictionI 1215
magnetic. 1217
Brass alloys, 366
and copper tubes, coils and bends,
214.-
inHuence of lead on, 369
plates and bars, weight of,
t.ables, 219. 220
rolled, composition of, 367
sheet and bars. table, 220
tube, seamless, table, 215, 216
wire, wcigbt of, table, 219
Brazing of aluminum bronze, 373
metal, composition of, 366
solder, composition of, 366
Brick, absorption of water by, 34s
kiln, temperature in. 528
piers, safe strength of, 1334
sand-lime, t&s of, 349
specitic gravity of, 174
strcn,ct,h of, 33G. 317-3.50
weight of, 174. 347
Bricks, frc. number rcqldred for
various circles. table, 25-I
fire, sizes and ShilpCS of, 253
Bricks, magnesia, 257
Bricly,:rk, allowable pressures on,
n&we of. 177
weight of, 177
Bridge iron, durability of. 442
links, st.eel. strength of, 331
members, strnins allowed in, 272
trusses. fj17-521
Brine, boiling of, 543
properties of, 543,. 544
Brmells tests of hardness, 342
Briquettes, coal, 801
Britzy;n:a metal, composition of,
.,V
Briti;;? ;tymal unit (B.T.U.),
Brittlk&s of steel. see St,eel
Bronze, aluminumj strength of, 372
ancient, composltion of, 364
deosidixed. tiomposition of, 371
Gurleys, composition of, 366
manganese, 377
navy-yard, strength of, 374
phosphor, 370
strength of, 319, 321. 334
Tobin? 36!, 368
variation in strengtllof, 362
BuilT;fi, construction of, 1333-
fire-proof, 1338
Buildings, heating and ventilation
of,656 ;~
m$ appfosimatw cost Of, 1342
tmnsnii~wm of heat through
walls of, 6,59~
~~11s of. 1336
Building-laws. New York City,
1337-1340
on columns, Sew York, Boston,
and Chicago. 277
Building-mawrials
friction of,. 1146
coefficients of
sir;;,nd weights, 174, 178, 186,
_._
Bulkheads. plating and framing for,
table. 316
stresses in due to water-pressure,
315
Buoyancy, 690
Burrnesters method of calculating
Cone pulleys, 1113
Burning of steel, 457
Burr trrxs, stre+es in, 518
Bush-metal. composition of, 366
Busl$ oSfgoa1 and Of coke, wvelght
13utt-j&s, riveted, 4;s
C. C;i,;i4system of mcasurcmcnts,
CO?. carbon didrhl~~. enrbonic arid
CO? recorders. nuto!w~phic, SGO
t.raction ropes:. 247
Cables, chain, proving test,s of, 251
chain, wrou:bl -iron, 251-252
flexible sdeel ivlre. 249
galvanized steel. 4s
suspension-t,ri~~lee. 248
Cable-ways, ~~~p~nsion, 1181
Cadmium, properties of, 175
m
Calcium carbi$z a1a1 acetyle,ne. 8%
chloride refrigeratmg-ms-
chines 1290
Calculus, i4-8:3
Cnloric engines. 107,,1
Calorie, definition ox, 532
Calorimeter for coal, Mahler bomb.
798
steam, 912-915
st,eam, coil. 913
steam, separating, 914
steam, throttling. 913
Calorimetric tests of coal, 797, 798
Cam, 512
Campbells formula for Strellgtll of
steel, ,453
Canals, irrWtion. iO$
&nd;&;Pgo\ve~ and hfe of lamps,
definition of, ,1367
of electric lights. 1368-1373
of gas 1ipht.s. 830
Canvas, strength of, 335
a 1910 edition. Some of the tikterial may :no longer , be accurate
INDEX. ten-ck! 1423
Centrifugal Dumps (see Pumps,
centrifugal), 76-i-770
C
tension of belts, 1115
illains, formulas for safe Iwad on,
.326
link belting. 1172
monobar, 1174
pin, 1174
pitch,, breaking and working
strams of, 252
roller, 1174
sizes. weights and properties,
251. 252
Capacity. electrical, 13S9
electncal, of conductors, 1394
Ca,p-screws, table of standard, 225
Cars, steel plate for, 483
Car-heating by steam, 673:
Car-journals, friction of, 1204
Car-wheels, cast iron for, 426, 427
Carbon, burning out of steel, 461
dioxide. see COa
effect Of OnStrength Of steel, 452
KS. 814
Cast-iron pipe, 191-195 (see Pipe,
cast-iron)
Chimneys, tall brick, 922
velocity of air in, 917
Chisels, cold. cutting angle of, 123s
Chord of circle, 59
Chords of trusses, strains in 519
Chrome paints, anti-corrosiie, 445
steel, 471
Chrommrn vanadium steels, 476-
478
Cippoleti weir, 733
Circle, 58-61
area of. 5s
tliamet*r of to enclose a number
of rings, 5
equation of, 72
large, to describe an arc of, 52
length of arc of, 59
length of arc of. Huyghens
approximation, 59
length of chord of, 59
problems, 40-42
properties of, 58, 59
relations of arc, chord, etc., of, 59
relations of, to equal, inscrlbetl
and circumscribed sauare. 60
relatidn of chemica,l cnmnmitinn
to frscture, 4!11
shrinkarre of. 415. 423, 1231
SpecificGtions for,415
SPeCifiC gravity and strength, 428
strength of, 421
Strength ill relation to silicon and
cross-section, 422
strength in relation to size nf
Carbonic acid allowable in air
Carbonizing see Case-hardenink
653
Carborundum, made in the electric
furnacr+ 1377
Cargo hoisting by rope, 390
Csrnexie steel sections, properties
of. 287-306
sp&Kcations for, 251
strengih,oS,. table, 251 252
_-. --?
tests of, 330. 419. 420
theory of .r&tion of strength to
com.positlon. 421
var&ion of density and tenacity,
Wa;F4;$Pe, transverse strength
white, . converted into gray by
heating. 424
Castings, deformation of, by shrink-
age, 423
from blast-furnace metal, 425
hard, from soft pig. 42b
hard to drill, due to low Ma., 426
iron, analgsis of, 417
iron, strengt.h of, 330
madn in permanent cast-iron
molds, 1239
maZeable, r&s for use of 433
shrinkage of, 1231
specifications for, 418
st,eel. 464-466
steel, specificat.ions for, 464, 456
steel. swngth of, 3x1
wxlaness of large, 1230
weight of, from pattern, 1233
Cntensry. t,o plot,, 53
Ccm~4t7 as a prwervativo coating,
for leather b,elt,s. 1128
Portland, st.rengt,h of. 336
Portland, tests of, 351
weight a,ntl spec,ifc gravity of,
174
Cements, mortar, strength of, 350
Cementation or cazc-hardening,
4%. 1246
Cementite, 416. 456
Center of gravity. 492
of regular figures, 492.
of gyration. 494
of oscikabion, 494
of percussion. 494
Cent,igrade Fahrenheit conversion
t,a,le, 524. *w5
t.hermomelrr scale. 524. 525
Centrifugal fans (see Fans, cen-
trifrwal)
fans, hi&-pressure, 621
force,.497
force III tty-wheels, 1029
ChiLin-i&&s, efiici&lc~ Of, 11.5s
Chain-cables, proving t&s of, 2.51
weight and strength of, 251
Chain-drives, 1129
vs. belting. 113:!
Carnoicycle 572 574
cycle, ekiciericies of, 967
cycle, eiTi$ency of steam in, 650
Cl&n-lioists, 1157
Chalk, strength of, 349
Chmge gears for Isthes, 1237
Channels, Carnegie steel, properties
--b-l I--
velocity of water in, 704
mds, table, 293
qth of, 330
II. SO:>-SO7
Carriers. bucket, 1172
Case-hardening of iron and steel,
456 l46 8 -
sectors and segments of, 61
area in square feet, dialneter in
$c~;2~tal~les, of cylinders),
L .
cir;yrnw;nce and area of, table,
circumferences in feet, diameters
in inches, table, 126.5
circumferences of, X inch to 32
;p;;F of gases nod water
!l of, 177
osition of, SO6
on, 417. 4%
;s of different methods of
Illilking, 806
weights per cubic foot, 177
slaw, 574,575
in tool? 1241
sl elem&ts, table, 170
symuols, 170
hemistry of cast iron, 415
:Iiexys formula for flow of water,
^^^
WJ
Chilling cast iron, 415
Chimneys, 91.5-928
draught, power of, 91,7
drsur4 .I- ^^__. nt 5
effect
;,e, ,rllcly, YId
of fiues on draught, 91s
.n+i1n+inn Ccl.2
bars. tests of, 419
beams, strengt,h of, 427
Bessemerized, 429
chemistry of, 415-419
columns. eccentric loading of, 27s
columns, strength of, 274-27s
colllmr~s, tests of, 275
tolunrns. weight of, tnblc, 191
conii~ined carbon chnngrd to
graphitic bv heating, 42.1
compressive strength of, 267
corrosion of, 441
cylinders, bursting strength of,
: Gi
durability of, 442
~* effect 0J cupola melting, 425
expansion in cooling, 423
,zro\vt.h of by heatin~,,1231
ha[ijldue to excewve silicon,
inffuewe of length of bar on
St rrQ$h. 42
inf?urnce of phosphorus, s!llphur.
feet 120
Cixaits. alternating current, sre
hlternatiu!: current
electric, w Electric circuits
electric e.m.f in 1352
eiectric: pol~:phhse. 1395 (see
Alt,ernnt mg currents)
electric,, power of, 1353
inagnet,ic, 13%
Circular arcs, lengths of, 59
li:n~$h.s of tables 123 124
cur& forr;lulns fAr, GO
fuwt~ons. Calculus, 52
i&Ii, 1s
measure. 20
mil, IS, 30, 31.
mil wire gouge, 31 mil wire @uge, table, 30 c.,:;k
p,itch.
1134 .
ring, 61
segments, areas of, 121, 122
Circumference of circles, 1 inch to
32 feet table. 120
of circles: t,able, 111-119
Cisterns and tanks, no. of barrels
for verltilluvlrrFj, yv.,
height of, 919
height of water cotumn due to
unbalanced pressure in, 917
Largest in the world, 923
lightning protection of, 920
radia,l brick, 923
rate of combustion due to, 91s
reinforced concrete, 927
sheet iron, S;2S
sizeof, 919-92s
size of, table, 921
st.abi1it.y of, 924
steel, 92.5
steel. desk nf wx L l, .I_.,
lation for, 926; 928
et,c.. 415
journal bearings, 1199
malleable 49
manufnct~i&of. 414
mist,ure of. wibh steel, 429
mobility of molecules of 42.4
Pepmwlt expansion of: by hcat-
lug:, 429
in, 133
cspacitv of, 1%
Classifica$on of iron and st,eel, 413
Clay, cubic feet per ton, 178
fire. a,nalysis. 255
melting point of, 529
Clrarance bet,wren journal and
bearing, 1206 steel; fouiid
.,., .,,.~,i( -. . .,,,,. 1,
WARNING: This, is
Clearance in steani~e&in&, 93&99S
Clutches, friction, 11.55; 1216
Cpke, fOUndry, qUafity of, 1232
.friction coil, 1156
weight of, 177
Coat, analysis of, 789-797
Coke-ovens, generation of steam
analyses of various, table. 796
from waste heat of, 803
and co+, Connells~~lle, 793 *
Coking, experiments ifl, 802
ap7p;mmate heatmg value, of,
COld~2ffect of,~ on callroad axles,
anthracite, sizes of, 792
bituminous, classification of, 787
caking and non-caking, 78Y
calorimeter, 795
calorimetric tests cannel. 758 of, 797, 198
effect of on strength of iron and
steel, 440
Cold-chise!s, form, of, 1235 _
Cold;3r$wmg, eflect of, 09 steel,
Cold-drawn steel, tests of, 339
Cold-rolled steel. tests of, 339
Coid-rolling, effect of, onsteel, 45%
Cold-saw, 1262
tion of 786, 787
.- . *,.,
clnssili&
conveyors. 11,~
cost of fc
cubic fee
.Du
lrsteam power, 983
..~ ..dt per ton, 177
,longs formula for heating
value of, 798
ciencies of, in gas-engine tests,
wx
effi
4 I_~_
evaporative power of, 799
foreirn. analvsis oft 796
fumilces f~~ditf&$t.~798
treating value of. 789-792. 797
protlu& of distiilstion of; 80:1
prosimat e analysis and heating
value of. table. 790
purchase of hy spcc;fication, 799
l<llodej Island graphitic; 7YS
sampling of, ,for analysis, 797
si::xxii~racite. 79.3
semi-bituminous, composition of,
.-. .I
space occupied by anthracite,
793
Coatings, preservative, 447-450
CoeFicient~ of elasticity, 260, 351
of finrness. 1317
of friction. definition, 1194
of friction of journals, 1197
of f&ion. rolling, 1195
of friction. tables; 1195-1197
of performance of ships,
of ororx#ers. 1.325
1318
of irntisrerse strenptil, 282
of wat~er tines, 1317
of expansion, 539 (see Expansion
by hear)
Coils and bends of brass tubes. 214
Coils, electric. heating of, 1355
Coils, heat. radiated from, in
blower system. 679
Coiled pipe.?. ~14
Coke. :lJlnlvses of. NY?
by$rodii& of i%mfacturo of,
SO?, SO3
CollaY~;~ of corrifgaterl furnaces,
IY
of tubes, tests of, 320
resistance of hollow cylinders
to. 318-322
Collars for shafting, llO9
Cologarithm, 136
Color determination of temnem.-
ture. 531
scale for steel tempering,, 4G9
values of various illummants,
1367
Colu~,~. Bethlehem shapes, 309.
., .
built, 272
Carnegie channel, dimensions
and Safe loads. 305, 306
CaSt-hll, strengt,h Of. 274-278
cast-iron, tests of. 275
cast-iron, weight of table, 191
eccentric, loadin:: of, 278
Gordons formula for. ~270
Hodgkinsons formula for, 269
ma$ $f, old holler tubes, tests
miii, Kl
permissible st,resses in, 277
strength of, 274
strength of, by New York buihl-
ing laws. 1337
wrought-iron. tests of, 338
wrought-iron, ultimate strengt II
of. table. 271
steel; built; 272
Z-bar, tables of safe loads on,
300-304
Combination, 10
Combined st.resses. 312
Combustion, analyses of gases of
--_
7iY.5
heat of. 533
of fuels. 7%
of gases,
in, 786
rise of temperature
rate of, due to chimneys. 91s
theory of, 784
Composition of forces, 4S9
Compound engines (SW St,eam-
en~illes. compound), 946-953
interest,, 14
~ocolnotlve~, 109s. 1101
_ . . j ~, ~_, ~. ~..~~.
,; MARNING: This is,a 1910 edition. Some c
INDEX.
corn-eon 1425
Compound numbers, 5
Drooortion. 7
Units of v&ghts and measures,
0.7 00
Con$s:td-air.. $3. 604-626
aaiaaacic. and isothermal com-
pression, 60.4
adiabatic ~espansim and corn-
PreSSiOn, tables. 609. 610
compound compression, 609
cranes, 1168
diagrams, curve of, 61 I
drills driven by, 616
engines, adiabatic expansion in,
60s
engines, efficiency, 613
ilow of. in pipes, 594
for motors, eftect of heating,
form&e, 606
for street railways. 625
heating of, 604 -
hoisting engines, 618
horse-power required to c
press air. 606
Iocomotivc~. 1104
losses due to heating, 606
loss of enprrrv iu. 604
machines,
ftlR SIC
air required to run,
612
- - - ) - . . I
mean effective pressures, tables.
609, 610
mine pumps, 625
moistltre in. 554
motors, 61.5
motors with return-air circuit,
620
Popp system, 612
pract.i(al applications of, 619
pumpill!:
lift,). 617
with (see crlso Air-
rPl!Et& Of. 619
tramwayg. 624, 625
transmission. 59.7
tri~nsmisSiOn. efficiencies of, 613
volumes. mean pressures per
stroke, etc., table, 605
work of adiabat.ic compression,
607
Compressed steel, 464 ,
Compressibility of liquids, 172
adiabatic, formulE
and iexure combined 312
and shear combined, ii2
atid torsion combined, 312
in steam-engines, 93.5
of air, adiabatic, t~ables. 609, 610
Compressive strength, 267-269
strength of iron bars, 337
strengths of moods, 344. 346
tests, specimens for, 26s
Compressors. a,ir. effect of intake
tern
air. ta E
eraturc. 619
les of. RIARI:T
Concrete. durability of iron in 412
reinforced,
allowab!e woiking
_ Ijtresses. 13.35
Condenser, barometric, 1051
the Leblanc, 1057
h+%%?rS, 1050-1061
air-pump for, 1033, 1065
calculation of surface of, 910
choice of. 1059
circulating pump for, lo,57
cooling towem for 1060
cooling water reqdired 1050
co!itinuous use of c00iiOg water
in, 10%
contraflow, 1053
ejector, 1051
evaporative surface, 1057
for refrigeraring machines, 1300
heat transference in, 105%
increase of power due to, 10%
iet. 1060
Sutiace, 1051
tu;Fj5and tube plates of. 1054,
tubes,, heat transmission in, 563
Condensing apparatus, power used
by, 10%
Conduction of heat, $5:~
of heat external, 554
of heat internal. 55:)
Couttuctivity, elrctric: (see Elec-
tric conductivity)
electrical, of mcfals. 1349,
Condu&rs, elcctncal, healing of,
elcctriral, in series or parallel.
resistance of, 1352
Conduit, water, efficiency of, 7%
Cone. measures of, 63
pulleys. 1112
Connecting-rod.?, steam-engine,
1003, 1004
tapered, 1005
Conic sections, 74
Coooid. parabolic, 66
Conservation of energy,, 506
Colls~~tan,
i
copper-nickel alloy,
Constants,, steam-engig, 941
Consi;F4tlon of bmldmgs, 1333x
Controllers, for electric motors.
140+
Conyzcp, loss of heat. due to.
7
we
Convectionof heat, 553
D;Ern$;llaw of, table of factors
Conversion tables, metric, 23-27
Conve~rt;;~ Bessemer. temperature
ConveAers, elecbric, 1400
Conveying of co?1 111 mines, 1178
Conveyors. belt, 1175
cable-hoist. llYl
CWI.~ 1172
horse-power required for, 1173
the material may no l onger De, accura- ce
Conveyors, screw,.1~175 . ~Cor&SiOn,~ -res&an& of aluminum
Cooli;z39agents rn refrigeration, alloys to, 376
resistance to of nickel steel. 474
INDEX.
Crushi ng .strength of .masonry
materu$s, 349
CrystaJptlon of iron by fatigue,
Cubature of volumes, 78
Cube root, 9
Daltm~
CPU-drj
law of gaseous
'1427
Pressures,
roots, table of, 94-109
Cubes of decimals, table lo9
Cubes of numbers, table,94-109
Cubrc feet and gallons, table, 129
measure, 18
Cu~o:$3an, power required for,
gases, utilization of, 1230
.pract+e, 1224-1230
practrce, improvement~of, 1226
results @f increased driving, 1229
Cupolas, blast-pipes for, 643
blast-pressure in, 1.224-1228
blowers for, 633, 634
Charges for: 1224-1227
charges in stove foundries, 1227
dimensions of, 1224
loss in melting iron in, 1230
rotary blowers for, 650
slag in, 1225
Current motors,, 734
Currents. electrrc (see Electric cur-
rentsj
Cooling of air. 568
for ventilation: 681
Cooling-tower practice in refrigerat-
ing plants, 1301
for condensers, 1060
Co-ordinate axes, 71
copper, 175
371
442
Corrrigated arches, 186
Corrosive agents in atmosphere,
furnaces, 319;881
iron, sizes and weights, 186
plates,
steel.
properties of- Carnegie
table, 289
af an angle table, 166-169
_- _--I. L
Damysiabiiity of 491
Darcys formula, flow of water 704
formula,.table from 0f HO& of
water m pipes, 709-711
Decim.al equivalents of fractions 3
eqUWalentS of feet and inches: 5
D:c;;QT$
Cosine of an aogre, 01
table, 166 169
Cost of coal for steam-power,
of steam-power, 981, 982
rntnnaont rrf nn !ldP a.7
983
-984
Copper and vanadium a,lloys,
Copper ball pyrometer, 526
balls, hollow, 322
cast, strength of, 334. 360
drawn, strength of, 334
effect of on cast iron, 415
mang--- II ^.... *>.?e
nicke
squares and cubes of 109
Delta connection for alternating
currents, 1395
metal wire, 243, 369
Denominate numbers 5
Deoxidized bronze 3j1
Derrick, stresses in, 516
Diag~$$s. formuhe for strains in,
1
plates, strengcn 01. 3.5-f
rods, weight of, table, 215
Coulomb.~deiinition of. 1>45
steels, 475
Counterbi
strength of at high temperatures,
gines
of locon
tubing. bends and coils. 214
tubing; weight of, tab&2,l,6
weight required in drlferent
systems of transplission, 1398
wir2erd plates, werght of. table,
wire, carrying capacity of, UII-
derwritecs table, 1355
wire, cost of for long-distance
transmission,, 1363
wire, cross sectron required for a
gtven current, 1359
wire, electrical resistance, table,
1337. 1358
tlancing of hoisting-en-
Ii63
hotives, 1102
n-engines, 980
rise system or hoisting,
of stear;
Counterpc
1164
Couples, 491
Couplings, Hange, 1109
hose, standard sizes, 207
Covenngs for steam-pipe, tests of,
558-561
Coversine of angles, table, 166-169
Coxs formula for loss of head, i17
Crane clutins, 231, 252
installations, notable, 1168 .
pillar, 150-ton, 1163
Cranes, 1165
and hoists, power required for.
1169
-A
Diametral pitch, 1134
Diesel oii, engine, 1078
~~~~W;~~cqh~, 74-83
coefficient: sign of, 79
gearing, 1145
of exponential function, 80, 81
partial, 76
pulley, 513
second, third, etc., 78
screw, 514
screw. etticiency of, 1270
~wllldluss, 514
Drtfe~5ntisls of algebraic functions,
Differentiation, formula? for, 75
Discount, 12
Disk fans (see Fans d&k)
Displacement of ships, 1317, 1322
Distillation of coal, 803
Distiller for marine work, 1061
Dist$mmg ;4$paratus. multiple sys-
Domed lieads of boilers 316
Domes 011 steam boilers: 889
Drau9g;; po!ver of chrmneys, 916,
Draught theory of chimneys, 915
Drawing-press. blanks for, 1272
Dressings, belt,, 1128
Driers and drymg, 547
performance.of, 549
Drrft3&lts, resistance of in timber,
Drill gauge, ba ble, 30
Drill press. horse-power required by,
125.3. 1256
Drills, high-speed steel, 1253
rock, an required for, 616.
rock, requirements of air-driven,
616,
tap. sizes of, ~225, 1269
twist, experiments with, 1254
twist, speed of, 1253
Drilling, high-speed, data on, 1254
holes, speed of, 1253
steel. and cast iron, power re-
qurred for, 1254
classification of. 1165
compressed-air, 1168
electric, 1166-1168
electric, loads and speeds of,
1167
Curve of PVn construction of 576
Curvs?-m pipe-lines, resistanbe of,
7x1
Cutting metal. resistance over-
come in, 1256
me&@ by oxyacetplene flame,
464
wire. stranded. 242
wire,, weight of for electric cir-
cults, 13.59
tin-aluminum alloys,
tin alloys, 360
375
tin alloys. properties and com-
position of, 360
tin-zinc alloys, propert,ies and
COI:
tin-zi
nposltion, 363
nc alloys, law of variation
of streng
zinc allovs.
th of. 364
strenrth of. 364
zinc alloys; table-of composition
and properties, 362
zinc-iron alloys, 369
Cord of wood, 805
Cordage, technical terms relating
bl,. RSS
speeds of machine tools (see also
Tools, cutting), 1235
speeds of tools, economical, 1243
stone with wire, 1262
Cut-off for various laps and
of slide valves 1042
travel
Cyc!oid. construction of, 51
differential equations of, 82, 83
mtegration oi, 82
measures of, 62
Cycloidal gear-teeth, 1138
Cylinder-condensation fn steam-
engines, 936-937
lubrication, 1222
measures of, 63
Cylmders, hallow, resistance of to
COllapSe, 318-322
hollow, under tension, 316
hooped, 317
hy@ulic press, thickness of, 317,
locomotive, 1088
steam-engme (see Ste,am-en-
guyed, stresses in, 516
jib. 1165
poiver required for, 1166
quay, 1168
sample, stresses in, 515
traveling, 1166-1169
Cran~O~;gles, steam-engine, t,able,
gines)
arm, drmensions of, 1009
pins, steam-engine, 1005-1009
pins. steel, specificat~ions for. -IS3
shaft, steam-engine, torsion and
flexure of, 1019
shafts, steam-engine, 1017-1019
Cranks, steam-engine, 1009
Critical point in heat treatment of
steel, 456
temperature and pressure of
gases and liauids. 580
.-. _.-
weight of. table, 356-391, 1157
Cork, properties of, 355
Corn, yeight of, 178
Corrosirr by stray electric currents,
due to overstrain. 446
electrolytic theory of, 444
of iron, 443
Of .str&m-boilers, 4.43, 897
prevention of, 444
ste;5;-engine, ratios of, 950; 952,
tables of capacities of,. 127
th&k hollow, under tension 316
thm hollow, under tension, 317
Cylindrical ring,.65
tanks, CaPacMes of, ta.ble,~ 128
Cross-head guides, 1002
pin, 1009
Crucible steel, 451,. 457, 466-470
(see Steel, crucible)
.~
Drop in electric circuits, 1352
in voltage of wires of different
sizes, 1356
pres~~3pressures obtsinilhle by,
. .
Efficiency of pumps, 759
t.ed joints, 405, 407 of rive._
of screws,. 1270
).
of steam-oouers, i 360
of steam-engmes, 934
Effort, definition of, 503
Ejector condensers, 1051
F&tic limit, 259-262
r------ xn
1
tppm3lC, Lv
Bauschingers definition of, 261
elevation of, 261
relation of,t.o endurance, 261
Electric lransmission. high tension,
notes on 13JY
triLnsmissi&r Iinw spacing for
high voitages,.is99
welding, 13i4
wires (see Wires UWL Copper
wres)
Electrical and mechanica units,
equlvaient values of, 1347
cond,uctlvity of steel, 453
dis;tW&utlon~ systems in use,
engineering 1344-1416
heating, 6Y4
horse-pamer, 940. 1353
horse-nowei-. table. 1364
machiiwy, alternating current
standard voltages of, I%399
machmery, shuft fit, allowances
for. 1274
Dry measure, 19
Drying and evaporation, 542-547
apparatus, design of, 550
in a vacuum, 546
of different materials, 547
DIictility of metals. table. 177
Dulongs formula for heating value
of coat, 798 _
15v;o;f ~i~vection. tableof factors
lav;o~fi;$iation, table of factors
resilience, zou
resistance to torsion, 311
Wohlers experiment,s on, 261
Elasticity, coefficient of, 260
modules of, 260
module of, of various materials,
^W.
Engines. alcohol, lo78
automobile, capacity of, 1077
blowing, 652
COmpresWt-air, efficiency of, 613
fire, capacities of, 725
g;ls, 1071-lOS4 (SW Gas-engines)
holstmb. 1163
hot-air or caloric, 1071
l~yrlraulir. 753
internal combustion, 1071-1084
or1 and gasoline, .1077
m$ine. stesm-pipes for, 848
n:kphtha. 1071
petroieum. 1077
punrp!ng:, X1-775
engmrs)
(see Pumping-
*-:i -.-
Dnrnbdrty of cutting t,ools, 1243
of iron, 441,4.l2
Durancs rule for areas, 57
Dust explosions. SO7
Electric brakes, 1217
Electric circuits (see Circuits, elec-
tric)
machines, t~ables of (see Dyns-
mo-electric machines), 1412
power. cost of, 985
resistance, 1349
resistance of different metals
and alloys, 1350
symbo!s, 1416,
sy$xy, relative advantages of,
:
fuel. 8Oi
current, cost of fuel for, 764
current, determining the direc-
tion of, I:%94
current required to fuse wires,
1355
currents, alternating, 13S7 (see
Alternating currents)
currents, direct, 13.52
currents, heating due to 135:l
currents. short-circuiting of,
1360
Duty, measure of, 28
of j)Lilllf)in~-crt~ine, 771
trials of prllnpillfi-engilleu. 771-
57i
Dynamic and static properties of
strels, 4i6
Dyna;;iyO> fundnmcnt~a~i equations
Dyn:&-+ctric mx$ines,
ficiltc.xl of, 13s:
classi-
machines, e.m.f. of armature
circuib. 13S6
solar, 9SS
stea.m. 929 (we Str,?)m-engines)
winding. 1169
Entropy, definition of, 573
of \wter and Stealll, 576
of ;v;ter and steam, tables, S39-
rmit~., reiations of, 13):6
Elcctrlclty, analogies to flow of
wder. 134Y
drive in the mxhine-shop, 1407
furnaces, 1376
gerii~tors, usual sizes, tables,
heater:. 684
!ig!lt sta!ions, economy of f:-
gines in. 963
Iighting. 1.767,
lighbing,
lighting,
cost of, 1373
terms used in, 1367
locomotiv~e, 4000 H.P.. X366
m;to;; (see aZa0 blotors), 13S5,
motors, alternating current, va-
ria,ble speed,, 1412
mot,ors,
1402
auxiliary pole hype,
motors, commercial sizes, tables,
1412
mot.ors for machine tools 1407
motors, selection @f, for different
service, 1405
motors, speed of, 1403
motors, speed comrol of, 1404
molars. types used for various
purposes, 1410
Drocess of treat.ing iron surfaces,
449
standards of measurements 1344
systems of distribution, 136.1:
units used in. 1344
Elect,ro-chemical equiva,lents, 13Sl
Electra-magnets. 1384
p0larit.v of. 1354
Elect,r;~;nagnetic 1
strengtii oi. 1384 measureme,lts
-7
temperature diagram, 57.1
@cycloiri. 51
Equnlizat.lon of pipes, 596, S53
Equation of payments, 1.4
of pipes, S53
Eqnniions, airrebrsic, 35-37
-..I. -0
machines, moving force of, 1385
machines, strength of field, 13S7
machines. tables of, 1412
machines, torque of armature,
1 m5
Dynamometers. 1250
Alden nbaorpt~ion. 1281
hydraulic absorption, 6000 H.P.,
lY>
WI -
Proriv brake.
tr:lctio1~. 1SO
1250
tmnsmwion, 1282
Dyne, definition of, 4SS
&%, --
Electra-motive force of armature
circuit, 13S6
E.X.F. Of electric c&wits, ,1352
Electrolys&, 1382
ElecyiJytic tneory, of Corrosion,
quivalent ormce, mme ventua-
tion, 6S6
uuivalei&s, electro-chemical, 13Sl E .
Erosion of sous by water, 705
Eule$~9formuia for long columns,
1.
Evaporation. 5Z-547
*-*
Elements, chemical, t.able, 170
Elements of machines, 510-515
Elevators, coal, 1172
gravity discharge. 1172
E,&$c:%cr%:;r 101f7;6, 47
em&ions of. 72
measures~ of; Si
Ellipsoiri, 65
Elongation. lneasurement of, 265
Emery. grades of, 1263-1266
whrrls. speed and selection of,
126.3, 1266
wlwels, strains in, 1264
Endless screw, 514
Endurance of matrrials. relation of,
to ehtstic limit, 261
Energy, avnilable, of expanding
stea!lt. 84
Eart,h. cubic feet per ton, 17s
Ecrentric loading of columns, 275
steam-ermine. 1020
Erononlicai~angle of framed struc-
Economics of power-plants, 9S.l ~
Economizers. furl. SO4
Edison wire gauge. 31
in salt manufacture, 543
latent heat of.,%?
of sugar solutions, 545
of water from reservoirs and
channels, 543
tot.al heat of. 542
unit of, S55
EVapOrator. for marine work, 1061
Evolubion. S
Fstlauster, steam-jet, 651
wire-gauge t.nbie. .30
Etficiency. definition of, 12
of a machine. 507
of compressed-air engines 613
of compressed-air transmission,
612
of eiect,ric transmission, 1861
of fans. 631
of fans and
lation. 6S::
chimneys for venti-
of injector, 907 .
railway cars. resistance of, lOS6
railway cars and ~motors, 1366
milwys. 1366
storage-bat,teries. 1378
t.mnsmission~ 1359-1364 (see
Transmission, electric)
MARNING: This is a. 1910 &itiOh.
~~,~~ ,A.,
Some of
conservatio~n of, 506
,,
. :,
INDEX.
&x-for 1431 ,j
Fans. pipe lines for, 643
Pressure due to velocity of, 627
WantQ! of air delivered by, 628
theory of efficiency of, 641
Farad, definition and value of,
1345
Flagging, strength of, 550
Flanges, cast-iron, forms of, 202
forged aud rolled steel, 200
for&z: steel, ~for rIveted pipe,
for riveted .pipe, 201
pipe, extra heavy, table. 199
pipe. standard, table, 19s
Flat &&%tFSsgSin steam-bqilers, 880,
plates: strength of, 313
steel ropes. 248
surfaceg hi steam-boilers, SSS
Flanged~ fit tiuys. cast-iron. 203
fittings, cast.-steel, 20%
Flesure of beams, formuia for, 252
and compression combined 312
and tension combined. 315
and torsion combined, 312
Flight conveyotis. 1,152
Flights, sizes. and weights of, 1174
FlooTi4Fsimum load on, 1337.
Floes of lyater in pipes at uniform
velocny,, tablii, 710
of water III pipes, table from
DArcys formula, 709-711
of water in pipes, table from
Kutters formula. 70i 708.
Of water i? 2O+. pipe, <O6
of;;;ter in nveted steel pipes,
f water. Iiutters formula 701
of water over weirs, 697, 731
of;;ter t~hrugh nozzles. table,
of water t~hrough orifices, 697
of water through reclangular
oritices, 729
Exhaust-steam,
54;s
evaporation by,
for h#ing, pS1
Expytiyn, acilabatic, formulae for,
by heat, 538
coefficients of,,539
of air, adiabatx. ta:bles, 609, 610
of cast iron, permanent by heat-
ing, 429
of ga,ses, construction of curve of,
57fi -.-
of gases, curve of, 74
of iron and steel, 441
of liquids. 540
of nickel steel, 474
of solids by heat, 539
of steam, 929
cf steam, actual ratios of, 935
of timber, 345
of water, 687
Explosions, dust, 807
Explosive energy of steam-boilers,
90%
Fatigue, effect of, on iron, 441
resistance of steels, 447
Feed and depth of cut, effect of, on
speed of tools, 1241
Feed-pump (see Pumps).
Feedbva;;$ cold, strams caused
wate; heaters, 909-311
water heaters, transmission of
heat in, 564
water heating, saving due to,
909
water, purification of, 694, 695
water to boilers by gravity, 908
Feet and inches, decimal equiva-
lents of, table, ,5
Fence wires, crrsIn of, 444
Ferrite, 416. 456
Ferro-alloys f?r, foundry use, 1232
sillcc;, addition of, to cast-iron,
sil&, dahgeroils, 1232
Field, magnetic, 1346
Fiftl!fzots and powers of numbers,
.&I
Fineness, coefficient of, 1317
Finishing tern erature effect of,
in steel roiing 454
Fink roof truss, 52i
Fire, temperature of, 7%
Fire-brick arches in locomotives,
Espnent,q. theory pf, 37
Esp;fle~@~~functlon, chfferential
Eye ba& iests of, 338
Of water, UF for pipes and con-
duits, table, iO1
of water, values of c, 703
of water, values of coefficient of
!rictiou, ,71.5
Fl~;5 water, horse-power of,
water
-._-9
measurement of, 727-
i&3
strengt.h of. 1337-1340
Flow of air in long pipes, ,595
of air iu pipes. 591
of air through orifices, SSS, 642
of compressed air, 594
of ganses, 5794
of gas in pipes, 834-536
of gas in pipes. tcbbles, 835
of inef As. 1273
of steam ii 1~ pressure, 669
of steam,
847
capacities of pipes,
of steam in long pipes. 847
of steam in pipes. 845
of steam, loss of pressure due to
friction, 845
of steam.. loss of pressure due to
radiation, 549
of steam, Napiers rule, 844
of steam, resistance of bends,
valves, etc., 845
of f;tm, through a nozzle, 544,
of steam through safety valves,
905
Flues, collapsing pressure of, 31,s
corrugated. Biitlsh rules, 318.581
corruaatyd. U. S. rules, 886
(SEC &so Tubes and Boilers)
Flus, maynrtir, 134s
Fly-\;h;;ls, centrifugal force in,
di;n&ers for various speeds,
steam-engine, x026-1034 (see
-Steam-engmes)
wkr;en;;;ound, for extreme speeds,
Factor of safety, 352-355
of saCt!ty, formulas for. 354
of safety in steam-boilers, Y79
of evaporation. 8i4-578
l?act;;; heating by fan system,
Fahreilheit-Centigrade conversion
table. 524. 525
1091
Fire-brick, n
variolrs c
refrar
sixes i
umber required for
irclrs, t,abie, 254
,toriness of, 255
Lnd shapes of, 253
weight of. 253
ire-clay, analysis of. 255 F,
pyrometer. ,526, 529
Fire-engines, capacities of, 725
Fire-proof buildings, 1335
Fire-streams,
.._.,. ---
discharge :
ferent pr
effect of ir
Failures of stahd-pipes, 325
f steel. 462
Fairbairns experiments on riveted
joints, 401
Falling bodies, graphic represen-
tation, 498
7-.- -
weight of. for alt,ernating current
units, 1025
Fouming or priming of steam-
boilers. 692. 399
723
,Z:-,~a
from nozzles at dif-
essures. 723
icreased hose length,
bodies, height and velocity of
tables. 499. 500
bodies, laws of, 497
Fans (scr c&so Blowers>
Fot~-pound. unit of work, 503
Force, centrifugal, 497
definitions of, 4SS
graphic representation of, 459
moment of, 490
of a blow, 504
of acceleration, 501
of wind. 597
lmits of, 4SS
Forces,.composition of, 489
eqmhbrium of, 492
parallel, 491
parallelogram of, 489
DarallelouiDedon of. 490
polygon bf; 4S9
resolution of, 4S9
work, power. etc., 503
Forc;&draught in steam-boilers,
Forcing and shrinking fits, 1273
(See Fits)
aud blowers, 6%%3
and blowers. comparative effi-
cieticies, 631
best proportions of, 627
blast-area of. 629
centrifuanl. 621. 620
of steam, tables of. 669, 546, 847
of water. 697
of water, approximate formula,
720
friction loss in hose, 725
pressure required for given
length of, table, 723
Fireless locomotive,, 1103
Fits, force and shrink, 1273
force and shrink, pressure re-
quired to start., 1775
limits of diameter for, 1274
press.
1275
pressure required for,
running, 1274
stresses due to, 1275
Fitt,ings (SW Pipe-lit.tings)
cast-iron pipe. sizes and weights,
tab!e, 196-197
, ^
. . ~, . ~_, , . . .
~_~ . . , , , . .
MARNING: This
,.,:
is a 1910 editi,on. Some 0;
centrifu&l: high-&ssure, 621
cupola. power required for, 12,3O
desiqn of, 627
disk Mi-fi.tQ
of water, Chezys formula, 699
of water, DArcys formula, 704
of ;Oa6teel;sperlment.s and t.ables,
of water, exponential formula,
716
effect of resistance on capacity
of, 636
efficiency of, 631. 641,64S
csperiments on. 630, 631
fr cupolas, 633
!li$zh-pressure, cap&city of,, 635
lnfiuence of speed on efficiency.
64i
influence of spiral casings, 6.i6
methods of testing, 639
of mater, fall per mile and slope.
table, 700
Forging and grinding of tools. 1240
I- . . . I._^ ^ .- -I^_. I C^_ A,.*
of water. forrnul3e for, 697-706
of Wter in cast-iron pipe, 706
of water in house service pipes,
table, 712
of wat.er in pipes, 699 of tool steel, 464, 468, 1240
the material may no longer be accurate~
-
Forgings, steel. annealing of,~458
strength of, 331
Forging-press, bydrsuli~, 782
Eoun&gon walls, thickness of;
Found&ions of buildines. 1333
massgy, allowable pressures on,
Foundry coke. quality of, 1232
irons (see Pig iron and Cast iron)
ladles, dimensions of, 1234
moldmg-sand, 1233
pract/ce, 1224-1234
prxt&e, shrinkage of castings.
p&&e, use of softeners, 1230
use of ferro alloys in, 1232
Fractions, 2
product of, in decimals, 4
Fmmes. steam-engine, 1025
Framed structures, stresses in, 515-
52
Framing, for tanks with flat sides,
316
Franciss formulae for weirs, 731
l+cezin:: point of water, 690
Frcn;; measures and werghts, 22-
th&mal unit, 532
Freq~,en;y of alternating currents,
st:;;p9rd. in electric currents,
Friction and lubrication, 1194-1223
brakes and friction clutches, 1216
brakes. capacity of, 1281
clutches. 1155
coefhcient of, definition.. 1194
coefficient of, in water-popes, 715
eoefhcient of, tables, 1195-1197
drives. po&er transmitted by,
11:,-i
fluid, I:LIYS of, 1196
la\y;0;f, of lubncatcd journals,
los;l;f head by, in water-pipes,
momc:nt of, 1005
Xxins lufvs of, 1200
of rar iournnls, 1204
of I~yrlmJJlic packing, 780. 1217
;,i Inbricxt,ed Journals, 1199-1209
of air in amine passages, 6S5
of metals, under steam pressure,
of motion, 1194. 119i of motion, 1194. 119i
of pivot bearings, 1205, 1209 of pivot bearings, 1205, 1209
of rest. 119.5 of rest. 119.5
of solids. 1195 of solids. 1195
of steam-engines, 1215 of steam-engines, 1215
of steel tires on rails, 1195 of steel tires on rails, 1195
rullers 1210 rullers 1210
rollht~, 1195 rollht~, 1195
Jmlubricated, law of, 1199 Jmlubricated, law of, 1199
\VWl< of, 1205 \VWl< of, 1205
Frkl iomtl gwrinp, 1154 Frkl iomtl gwrinp, 1154
tiuds, hv of water, 716 tiuds, hv of water, 716
Fusing-disk 1262
Fusion, latent heat of, 541
of electrical wires, 1355
g. value of, 49s
Gallon, British and American, 2S
Gallons and cubic.feet. t,able. 129
pe;;mute, cubic feet per second.
-.
Galvanic act,ion, corrosion by, 443
Galvnni;rt:tl wire rope, 247
wire, test for! 450
\rJAf?NING: This i.s 5 1910 ~ebition.
_.I.
Some (
Frustum of cone, 63
of parabolic conoid, 66
of pyramid, 63
of spheroid, 65
of spindle, 66
Fuel, 7S4-527
bagrtsse, 809
charcoal, 805-807 (see Charcoal)
coke, Sol-804 (see Coke)
combustion of, 784
dust, 807
economizers, 894
for cupolas, 1225, 1232
gas, 814 (see Gas)
gas, for small furnaces, 824
heat of combustionof, 533,784
liquid, 810-814
peat, 808
pressed, 801
sawdust, 808
solid, classification of, 786
straw. SOS
:;;y;o;f combustion of, 784
1
we&t of, 177
wet tan bark, SOS
wood, 804. so.5
Functions, of sun and difference of
angles, 69
of twice an an01070
trigonometric, tables of, 166. 169
trigonometric, of half an angle. i0
Furnace flues, steam-boiler, for-
mulae .for. 881
Furnace for melting iron for mnllea-
ble castings, 430
heating (see Iiesting)
Furnaces, biast, gases of, 525
blast, temperature in, 528
corruaated. 319
down*dr&ht. S90
electric, 1376
for different coals. 796
for house heatina; ~664
gas fuel for..%?4
hot:air,, heatmg of, G61
industrtal, tempemtures, in, 527
open hearth, t.emperabure in. 5lS
steam-boiler (see Boiler-furnaces)
Fusibility of metals, 175-177
Fu:;ible alloys, 3S0
plugs in boilers, 379, SS9
Fusin&e~~;ratures of substances,
,.I_
INDEX.
gal-gen 1433
Galvanizing by. cementation, 450
iron surfaces 449. 450
Ga,s (see also hel-gas, ,\Vater-gas
Producergas, IlIummating g&j
ammonia, 1x5-1289
ana&es by voiume and weight,
and oil engines, rules for testing;
I.081
and vapor mixtures, laws of, 578
anthracite, 815
bituminous, 816
carbon.~814
coal. 828
How Of. in pipes, 534-836
(&Ye
Illu-
Flow of gas)
60~ Of, in long pipes, 596
fuel (set? also Water-gas)
fuel, cost of, 833
fuel for Small furnaces 82.1
illun,rinating, 828-83.1 (see
mmating~-gas)
natural. 817. SlS
perfect,. equations of a, 574
producer, 81s
producer, combustion of, 519
producer, from ton of coal, 818
stil1)llur-tliosirle, 1285
water. S17, SZO-S33 (see Water-
.gilS)
Gase;7~absorption of, by liquids,
Avogadros law of, 575
combustion of, rise of tempera-
ture in, 786
cupoia, utilization of, 1230
densities of, 57s
expansion of, 575, 577
expansion of by heat, table, 538
low of, 579
_._
ieat of combus_tion of, 533
I ^.
law 01 Cnnrles. 574, 5;s
liquefaction of, 579
blariottes law of. 577 . .
of combust,ion, analyses of, 7S5
physical properties of 577-580
specific heat.s of. 535. :5:x7
waste,
866
use of, urider~boiiers, 865,
weight and specific gravity of,
table, 173
Gas-engine. economical perform-
ante of, 1080
heat losses in, 1050
test,s xvitti diferent coals, 823
Gas-engines. 1071-10S4
calculation of the power of 1073
conditions of maximum eOi-
ciency. 1079
efficiency of, 1079
four-ry?le and two-cycle, 1072
rroverninn. 1079
horse-po%r. estimntc of, 1077
ignibion. 1078
Gas-engines, sizes of, 1076
temperatures and piessures itl,
1072. 1074
tests of, IOSi-lOS4
GWeXhauSterS, rotary 65 1
Gas-producer practice,821
Gas-producers and scrubbers,
portions of, 819
yro-
Use of steam in, 824
Gasoline engines, 1077
vapor Pressures of, 814
Gauge, decimal, 33
sheet metal, 29, 31-33
Stubs wire, 29, 30
wire, 29~-31
Gauges, limit. for iron for screw
threads, ?:3
Gauss, definition and value of,
1346, 134s
Geari~7c~ctron, forsteam turbines,
reversing, 1020
Wheeis, calculation of speed of,
1137 .
wheels, formulir: for dimensions,
1135, 1136
wheels, mi~1lhn.r cutters for. 1138
wheels, proportions of, 1137
worm, 514
Gear;i4utomobile, efficiency of,
lathe, for screw cuttine, 1236
of lathes, quick change, 1237
Gea,rs. spur, machine-cut, 1153
with short teeth, 1135
Gearing, annuiar, 1145
bevel, 1144
chordal Ditch. 1135
comparison of f&m&e, ll50-
1153
cycioidai teeth, 1138
differential. 1145
efiictencv of, 1146-114s .
forms of t,eettr,. 1138-1145
forrguc? for drmensions of, 1135,
frictional, 1154
involute teeth, 1140
p!tch,$it,rh-circle, et.c:. 1133
pttch inmeters for 1-mch cJrcJi-
lar pit~ch. 1135
proportions of teeth, 1135, 1136
racks,, 1141
raw-hide. ll53
relation of dinmetral and circular
pitch 1134
speed of, 1153
sniral. 1143
stepped; 1143
strength of, 1145-1156
toothed~wheet, 514, 1133-1153
twisted. 1143
worm, 1143
worm, efiiciency of. 1147
Genef;,t;;+ st,andard dimensions
the material may no longer be ?i &?' i &
mean etfertive pressure in. 1076
pressures developed in, 1072
Generators, alternating current; Guests formula for combined
1396 (see Dynamo electric
ma+ines)
stresses, 312,
e ~
_ ^,I_ _ ._^
Guntp;;z&, vanation in strength
Get
F
GunT2$, vari~ation in strength of,
Gun-metal (bronze), composition
iec$nc, 138o, 1412,
)metncal problems, 38-54
. vogression, 11
propositions, 54
Geometry, analytical, 71
German stiver, 334, 378
conductivity of, 1350
y of recoil of., $06
Gesner process, treating iron sur-
nze, composltionof, 366
faces, 449
ropes, wire, 247
Gilbert., unit of magneto-motive
stand-pipes, 327
force, 1348
wires, table of weights. and
Girders, allowed stresses in plate
skength, 249
and lattice. 274
Gyration, center of, 494
and beams, s& ie load on,, 1334
radius of, 279
building, Nev v York building
table of radii of, 49,5
laws, 1338
iron-pla te, strength of, 331
II-colums, Bethlehem steel, 509,
steam-b oiler, rules for, 882
warren, stresses in, 520
Halpin7heat storage system, 897,
Glass.~s~kylight. sizes and weights, Hammering, effect of, 6n steel, 464
190 Hardening of steel, 455
strength of, 343
weight of, 174
Hardn,ess of copper-tin alloys, 361
of metals, Bnnells tests, 342
Gordons formuls for columns, 270 electro-magnetic tests of, 343
Gold, mPJting temperature of, 527 scleroscope tests, 343
prnn~,rti~~~ of 1 I.6 nf wa,tl?r. fml
GO!
..I, , ..I -.: _,-
r.eraung .of g+s-engines, 1079
__ .._ ___, __ _
Harvev process of hardening steel,
-: .^
Governor, inertis, 1048 u40
Gove;;;gs, steam-engine, 1047- Haulage, wire-rope, 1177-llS1
wire-rope. endless rose system.
Grade line, hydra&c, 721
Grain, weight of, 178
Granrt,e. sfrength o,f, 335, 348
Grapt;yi Acheson s deflocculated,
> I
lubricant., 1223
paint, 447
Grate surface, for house heating,
boilers and furnaces, 665
surface in locomotives, 1091
surface of a steam-boikr, S5i
Gruvd. cubic feet per ton, 175
Gravity, acceleration due to, 497
GreaWst comtnon
divisor. 2
measure or
Creek letters. 1
Gree$o;?y, hot-water, heating
* I
steam-heating of, 673
Grinding of t,ools, 1240, 1241
wy;;,for high-speed tools, 1240,
wire-rope trapway. 1179
Haul;;i7capacity of locomotives,
Hawley down-draught furnace, S90
Hawsers. flesible,st,eel wire, 249
stt?F;jtable of sizes and strength,
-
steel. weight of, 249
Head, frictional, m cast-iron pipe,
table, 719
loss of. 714-i2:! (see Loss of
head)
of air, due to temperature differ-
ences, 6S7
of water, 699
of water, comparison of, with
various units, 689
Heads of boilers, SS5
of boilers. unbmced, wrought~-
iron, st.rength of, 314
Heat,, 5' 34i i
conducting poxer of metals, 553
conduction by varioussubstances,
51\1-!~fil
Wheels (see Grindstones and
.,. <,yI
Emery wheels)
conduction ofi 553
wheels. speeds of, 1264
convection of, 553
Grindstones, speed of, ,1?67 ,
et&rt, of on grain of steel, 456
St.IXillS in. 1167
pi. expansion due to. 53s
varieties of, 1268
, ,gencmted by electric current.
:.~ 1354
,.~ ,. _... _
MARNING: This is,a 1910 edition. Some c
. , , ~
INDEX. hen-hoi
IXeat, latent, 541 (see Latent heat)
loss by convection, 570
losses in steam power plants, 9S5
mechanical equivalent of, 532,
837
of combustion, 533
of cornbu$ion,of fuels, 533. 784
quax&t+ve measurement of,
.
radikng power of substances,
552
radiation of, 551 (see also Radia-
tion)
reflecting power of substances,
resistance, co&icients .of 556
resistance. reciprocal 0) con-
d+vity. 555
spFl;;fzj 534-535 (see Specific
steam, storing of, 897, 957
storage,, Yalpiri system, 897. 937
tr$rtn$on, Blechyndens tests
try6$kssion from Hame to water,
trt;6Cssion from gases to water,
transmission fromsteam to water,
561. lj5,?
try6yisslon, in condenser tubes,
tmn~4mission in feed water heater.
transm@sjon in radiators. 669
tmk~;russion, resistance of metals,
-1-
transmission through building
walls,, etc., 557, 659
trann;mssion through plates. 553,
transmission through plat.es from
steam or hot wat.cr to air, 569
treat.ment of steel (see Steel)
treatment of high speed tool
st.eel. 1242
unjt of, 532, 837
H&!%s ~~so~~,,,sf~~te~~~~l~,-
tion of surface of, 9.10
ca;tq;on, for hot-blast heating,
--:
cast Iron, tests of, 680
electric. 1375
feed-water, 909-911
feed-water, open type. 911
feed-water, transniission of heat
im 561
Hea&g-i building to 70, 6zj3
Heating and Ventilation. 653-687
allowance for exposure and leak-
bl%&%$em 675-651
boiler heating surf+. 667
cor6vtatlon of radlatmgsurface,
heatiug surface, intlirect,~669
Heating and Ventilation heating
value of radiators, 6>6. 668
hot-water heatin- 674-6;s (see
Hot-water h&iny)
overhead steam pip&, 673
steam-heating
Steam-heating) 665-674 (see
transmission of heat through
building walls, 659
Heating air, heat absorbed in. 66
Heating, blower system, capacity
of fans for, 682
by electricity, 654
by exhaust steam 981
by hot-air furnaces, 661
by hot water, 675 (see Hot-water
heating)
by steam (see Steam-heating)
furnace, size. of air pipes for, 66j
fuF6aze, T;icfl forced air supply,
guarantees. performance of,
of electrical conductors, 1354
683
of factories by blower system, 6Sl
of greenhouse?, 673
of large bulldmgs, 656
of steel for forgmg, 46s
of tool steel. 46i
H
water by steain~c%ils, 56.5
eating-surface of steam boiler, .
555, S56
H, eat-insulating
of, 555
muterials, tests
Of coais, 79:. i98
value of wood. SO-1
Height, table of, corresponding to
a given velocity, 499
Helical steel springs, 395
Helis. 62
Hemp rope, table of strength and
wekht of. 3S6. X37
rope s&nglb-of, 335
Henry, definition and value of.
i34.3
High speed tool steel (see Steel,
and Tools)
Hintlley worm gesr, 1144
Hobsoi!s ho,c-blast pyrometer, 528
Hodg&xon s,formula for columns,
Hoist$ by hydraulic prc,ssurc.
counterpoise system, 1164
cranes, 1163 (see Cranes)
effect of slack rope, 1162
endless rope system, 1165
eng@es, 1163
engmes, compressed-air, 615
engines, counterbalancing of,
1163
horse-power required for, 1162
Koepe syst,em. 1165
limit of depth for, 1162
loaded wagon system, 1164
of cargoes, 390
pneumat.ic, 1163
the m&$ial,.~ may no l onger, be accurate.
INDEX.
ice-iro
s437 ,,
Hoisting rope, 356
rope, iron or steel, dimensions,,
ropes, sizes and strength of, 390,
906
strength, and properties, table,
91.1
->*
ropes, stresses in, on in,clined
planes, 1179
rope, tension required to pre-
vent slipping, 11YZ
suspension cable ways, 1181
tapering ropes, 1164
Holding power of bolts in white
pine, 324
heating, computation of radiating
surface, 675, 677
Hot-water heating, 674-675
heating, Indirect, 676
heating of greenhouses, 674
heating. rules for,,674
hea&g, arrangement of mains,
heatinr. size .of Ames for. 676
Ice-making. absorption evaporator
system. 1316
inakin& machines, lZ?S%-1316 (see
Refrigerating machines)
making plant, test of, 1315
malting, tons of ice per ton of
coal. 1316
01~2; of expanded bailer tu~bes,
power of lag-screws, 324
power of n+ls in ,wood, 334
PO;;; of nads, splltes and screws,
power of tubes expanded hit0
sheets, 342
Calili: r&,1. 32
Iuteci-acion. 7;
I:~tem&er.5 for air compr&sors,
making With exhaust steam 1316
manuf?cture, 131.4 (see R&r&e-
eratmg machines)
melting effect. 1291
Ignition in gas engines 1075
Illuminating-gas, 82S-$34
calorific equivalents of constitu-
ents, 830
coal-gas, 828
fuel value of, 833
space required for plants, 832
water-gas. 829
Illumination. I:?67
heating; sizes of-H&v and r&$n
pipes, 678
heatkng, velocity of flow, 674
he@;g wltb forced cnxulatlon,
House-heating (see Heating)
House-service pipes, flow of water
in, table, 712
How-c t$ss, strqsses in, 5.20
Hurn;;;ty, relative, table of, 551,
Hyatt roll& bearings, 1211
Hydraesfer phone, treating iron
Interest, 12
compound. 13
Interpolation. formula .f& 8;
Inrar. iron-nickel alloy, 4i5, ,540
Involute. 53
gear-teeth. 1140
gear-teeth,
1142
aPprosimation of,
Involution, 7
Iron and steel, 17.5, 413-484
and steel. classification of, 413
and skel. effect of cold
strength of, 440
on
and strep. inoxidizable surface
for, 44s
and steel. Pennsylvania Rail-
rOad sprci!ication for, 438
and strrl. preservative coatings
for, 447-450
and steel. ri:latiYe corrosion of,
444
and steel sheets. weight of, 181
and steel. specitic heat of, 535,
5RR
power of wood screws, 324
Hollow cylinders, resistance of to
collspst:, 318-x2
shafts, torsional streilgt.h of, 311
Homo::c:nGt.y test for fire-box
strcl, 4%
Ho0~~;~1 shacltlcs, .strength of,
by arc lamps at different dis-
tances, 1368
of buildings;. watts per square foot
required for, 1369
relation of, to vision, 1368
Ilhuniuants, relative color values
of. 1x67
H
H
surraces, 449
,ydraut pxssures required with
different, lengths of hose, 723
ydraulic air compressor, 622
apparatus, efficiency of, 780
cylinders, thickness of, 780
engine, 783
gf~~,y&7g,-,,,
Impact, 505
huedance. I.189
pol~gorls. 1390
Iinpiik water wheels, 749
trr wheel. tangentikkl)
(ret wa-
Impurities of water, 691
Incandescent lamp, 1370
Iarnps (see Lamps)
Inches and fractions as decimals
of a, foot, t.able, 5
Incliuerl-olane. 512
heavv crane. 1159
propGrtions of, 1159
Horse-gin. 509
Horse, work of, 508
Hors&[ywer, brake, definition of,
I-
computed from torque, i386
constmts,
941,-944
of steam-engines,
cost of, 735
definition of. 28, 503
electrical. 940, 1353
elrct,ricxl, table of 1.364
hours, definition of, 503
nominal, definition of, 944
of f;u~s. 630
of Howing water, 734
of mnriue and locomotive boilers,
s57
formuke; approsimate, 720
grade-line, 721
p?clting. friction of, 780
Dme. table. 212
~dv& insLondon, 781
I
pre$+ thickness of cylinders for,
._.._
and steel. tensile strength at
hkh temperatures, 439
Iron bars (8~ Bars)
ba&weigl~t of square and round,
bridges durnbilibr of, 442
cast. 414-429 (x& Cast-iron)
coefficients of expansion of, 441
color of. iit, \-nrious temperat,urrs,
,521 .._-
copper-zinc alloys, 369
covrosion of. 443
comg t ed , sires and weights,
1
of Howing~ water, 734
of mnriue and locomotive boilers,
s57
of sbenm-boil trs,. 8.54 of sbenm-boil trs,. 8.54
of steam-boilers. builders rat- of steam-boilers. builders rat-
ing, 85: ing, 85:
of steam-engines, 940-946 of steam-engines, 940-946
Hose couplings, national stand- Hose couplings, national stand-
nrd.,207 nrd.,207
fire, fnction losses in, 725 fire, fnction losses in, 725
hydrant pressures required with hydrant pressures required with
ditferent lengths of, 723 ditferent lengths of, 723
rubber-lined, frict,ion loss in. 725 rubber-lined, frict,ion loss in. 725
Hot-air engines, 1071 Hot-air engines, 1071
Hot,-air hesting (see Heating) Hot,-air hesting (see Heating)
Hot-l&t pyrometer, Hobsons, Hot-l&t pyrometer, Hobsons,
prewes in iron !vOrlis. 781
pressure, hoisting by, 781
pressure, transn+on, 779-;S3
prejs~r~~~lisinissloll, energy of,
prt?;$;; transmission, speed of
through pipes and
valves. 7s1
modiofi on, 502
st.rttsses iu hoisting ropes on. 1179
wire-rope haulage, 1177
vulcanized. t,ests of, 356
Indicated horse-power, 940-916
Indicator diagrams,
rie. 939
au&&of, 992
ram,.778; %I
rivetmg machines, 782
Hydraulics (see Flow of water)
Hvdrometer 17
bry and \<et hb. 583
Hyperk cola, asymptotes of, 74
construction of! 50
curve on indicator diagrams,
944
ksts of locomotives 1098
Indicators, steam-r&e. 938-946
(see Steam-engines)
st,eam-engine, errors of, 939
IndirectP heating radiators, 669
Inductance. 13S9
of lines and circriit,s, 1393
Induction, magnetic, 1348
motor applications, 1410
mot,ors, 1409
Inert~ia. detinition of, 455
moment of. 59, 493
hots, St&. segregation in, 463
Inject,or, 7i6
efikiency of. 907
eqtla$ou of. 906
InOS~~;~$ surfaces, production
dum1)ilit.v of. 441-442
flat.-rolled. xeieht of, 182, 183
for holts. variation in size of, 223
for stay-halts. 438
latent heat of fusion of, 541
malleable. ~429 (see Malleable
equations of, 73
Hyperbolic
163-16.5
logarithms, tables of,
Hypocycloid. 51
I-beams (see nlso Beams)
Carnegie, table of, 288
safe loads on, 290
spacing of, for uniform load. 291
Ice. Dro0erties of. 691
iron)
pig (ace Pig-iron an? Cast-iron)
pl;t;p, approsunating weight of,
plate. weight, of. table, 184
properties of. Ii5
rivets. shearinp resistance of, 407
rolw. tint., table of strength of,
system of heating, 680 (see Heat.
Hot l%%s. 1205 .:. r ;
rope, table bf strength of. 386
shcarinrr st rrng h of. 310
slwets. Weights of. 33, 181 stren$th of. 344
~llSpt?Ck~1l of stemn-boilers, 901
~,~.
WARNING: This is a 19lO~kditibn. Some I
Iron $es, collapsing pressure ~of,
v_-
silicon-aluminum alloys, 374
wrought, 435-439 (see Wrought
IridiZn)properties of 175
Jrregulir figure, area 01, 57, 55
solid,, volume of, 66
irrigation canals, 704
Isot!wmal compression of air, 604
expilnsion, 575
expansion of steam, 929
Japa;mz;e alloys, composition of,
Jarno tapers. 1271
Jet condc msers, 1050
propulr don of ships, 1333
reacaion or a, 1333
$.+?. ..*&i^^, . ..^^.. nn
ereu * joints)
joists. co
Joule, def
ncents of, 21
:m, ~Il,,I~;oI WYlxl, 1-2
)ints. riveted, 401-412 (see Riv-
initiJn and value of, 1345
Joules equivalent, 533
JourwF~,(see ulso Shafts, and Bear-
-..-,,
coefiiclents of friction of. 1197
Journal-bearillgs. cast-iron, 1199
frictiou of, 1199-1209
of engines, 1015
Kaolin. melting point of,. 529
Kelvins rule for electrx trans-
mission. 1360
Krrosene foi. scale in boilers, 899
Keys, dimensions of, 1276
for machine tools. 1277
for shafting, sizes of, 1277
holding power of, 127s
sizes of, for mill-gearing, 1276
Keyways for milling cutters, 1245
Kinetic energy, 503
King-post truss, stresses in. 51.7
liirkaldgs dest on strengt,h of
materials, 330-336
Knife-edge bearings,, 1214
Knob, or nautical nille, 17
I<not,s 391-392
Koepks system of hoist,ing. 1165
lirupp steel tires and axles. 332
Iiutters formula. How of water. f01
formula, table froml of floi\r- bf
water in pipes, 707, 705
Lacing of belts, 112.4
Ladles. foundry, sizes of, 1234
Lag screws, 234
holding power of, 324
Lamp, mercury vapor, 1369
Lamps, arc, 1365
arc, data of, 1369
arc. illumination by, at different
distancrs. 1368
incandescent., characteristics of,
1371
Lamps, incandescent electric, 1370
incandescent, rating of, 1370
incandescent, variation in can-
dle-power. efficiency and life,
. --.
li5,l
life of, 1370-1376
Nernst, 1372
specifications for, 1372
tantalum and tungsten, 1372
Land measure, 17
Lang la rope, 246
L&p an J lead m slide valves, 1034-
1036
Lap-joints, riveted, 406
Latent heat of ammonia, 1255
heat of evaporation, 542
heat of fusion of various sub-
stances! 541
,heat of fusion of iron, 541
Lathe, change-gears for, 1237
cutting speed of, 123.5
horse-power to run, 1.257-l-360
ruF;?6for screw-cutting gears,
-a
setting taper in, 1235
tools, forms of lT3S
?&tt$;sgnders. ill&ved stresses in,
Lawsb? fallhx bodies. 497
of motion, 4%
Lead and tin tubing, 217. 215
coatings on non surfaces, 450
effect of, on copper allow, 369
pipe, tin-lined, sizes and weights.
table, 217
pipe, weights and sizes of, table,
217 --.
properties of, 175
sheet, w,eight of, 2 IS
wit;;;-pipe, xeight.s and sizes of,
--- ---
Lead-lined iron niue. 215 Lead-lined iron pipe, 215
Leakage of steam in engines, 946 Leakage of steaininenginrs, 946
Least common multiple. 2 Least common multiple. 2
Leather, strength of, 335 Leather, strength of, 335
Le Chateliers pyrometer. 526 Le Chateliers pyrometer. 526
Lentz cornpolrnd engine, 96s Lentz cornpolrnd engine, 96s
Leveling by barometer, 5% Leveling by barometer, 5%
by boiling water, 532 by boiling water, 532
Lever, 510 Lever, 510
bent, 511 bent, 511
Lighting, electric, 1.367 Lighting, electric, 1.367
electric, cost, of. 1373 electric. cost, of. 1373
LightQm;g proteclion of chimneys, LightQni;g proteclion of chimneys,
:--
Ligmtes, analysis of, iQ6
Lim%;n$5f;ement mortar, strength
. .
Limestone, strength of, 349
Limit, elastic. 25Q-262
gages for screw-thread iron, 223
Lines of force 13s
Links, steel b&fge. strength of, 331
st,rarn-engine,, size of, 1020
Linkil~w~ing. sizes and weights,
. ~. ~. . ~I . ~. . . _. . , . , ~.
WARNING: This is a 1910 .edition.
Some 0
INDEX. lin-mag
,.
Link-motion! locomotive, 1093
steam-engme, 1044-1046
Lintels in buildings, 1338
LiqUatiOn of metals in alloys, 364
Liquefaction of gases, 579
Liquid air. 579
measure. 18
Liquids, absorption of gases by, 579
compressibility of, 172
expansion of, 540
Specific gravity of, 172
specific heats of, 535
Load;w9 and storing mnchinery,
Locomotive boilers,.size of, 1059
crank-pin, quantltv of nil ncerl
on, 1223
cylinders, 1088
electric, 4000 H.P., 1366
engine performance, 1099
forgings, st.rengbh of, 331
link-motion. 1095
testing. 1099
Locomotives, 1084-1105
boiler pressure, 1093
classification of, 1092
compounding of, 1101
comnressed-air. 110s
Logarithms, SO
hyperbolic, tables of, 163~165
tables of, i36-163
use Of, 134-136
Logs. area of water required to
store, 254
weight of, 254
Loop, steam, S52.
Loops of force, 1382
Long measure, 17
Loss and profit,, 12
of head, 714-722
of head, Coss formula, 717
of head in cast-iron pipe, tables,
714
. -
of head in riveted steel pipes, 714
Lowmoor iron bars, strength of, 230
Lubricant wat.er as a 1222
Lubricants, examination of, 1219
grease IT1
measu;ement of durability, 1218
ml, specifications for, 1210
qualifications of good, 1219
relative value qf, 1219
soda mist.ure, 1223
solid. 1223
specitications for petroleum, 1219
Lubricat.ion, 1118-1223
of engines. quantity of oil needed
I.... 3 .,.>*
comixessed-a&: &tiil compound
cylinders, 1105
counterbalancing of, 1102
dimensions of, 1096-109s
drivers, sixes of, 1094
economy of high pressures in,
1092
effect of speed on cylinder pres-
sure. 1093
performance of, 1330
Lun. definit~ion of, 1367
IO,, ALi
of steam-engine cylinders, 1223
Lumber, weight of, 254
Lumen, definirion of, 1367
Lusitania.
of. 1330
turbines and boilers
efficiency of, 1OS7
exhaust-nozzles, 1091
fire-brick a,rches in, 1091
Firetess, 1103
fuel efficiency of, 1095
fuel waste of, 1101
grate surface of, 1091
hauling capacity of.
horse-Dower of. 1OSQ
1057
indicator tests of, 109s .
light. 1103
leading types of, 1092
%ltet compound, 1096
narrow gauge, 1103
performance of high speed, log4
petroleum burning. 1103
smoke-stacks, 1091
SDeed of. 1094
steam distrit%ion of, 1093
steam-ports, size of. 1094
superheating in, 1102
tractive power of; lOS8, 1101
types of. 1092
vaIve trivet, 1094
water Consumption of, 109s
weight of, 1100
Wootten. 1090
Lozarithmic curve, 74
ruled paper, 55
SiIleS. etc., table, 169 .~.~~
the material may no 101
hlachine screws, A.S.M.E. stan-
dard, tabie, 226
screws. taps for, 1269
shop, 123% 1279
shop, elecr ric drive in. 1407
shops, horse-power t@quired in,
1256-126
Machines. d>-name-electric (see
Dynamo-elertri< machines)
~laci~~~oto~~~_electr~c motors for,
tools, keys rbr. 1277
to$ssnpower required for, 1256-
_---
tools, proportioning a series of
sizes of, 1276
tools, soda mixture for, 1223
tools, speed of, 1235
Machines, efficiency of, 507
elements of, 510-515
Macly;y , coal-handling, 1172-
_
horse-power required 1.0 run,
1256-1267
Mactaurins theorem, 79
Rlagnaliun~.
.
magnesium-aluminum
allog. 3!6
nlagnes!a brlrks. 257
luagliesiuln,~properties:of, 176
,,. ,.
i ger be accurate

k1agiiet use of, to determine har-
dening temperature of ~steel,
1246 - -
ag&s, electro-. !3Sl
lifting, 1169
Magnetic! alloys of non-magnetic
metals, 375
_._.~...
field, 1346
field, strength Of, 1357.
[{us, magnetic induction. 1348
moment, 1346 ,~,
pole unit Of, d~~~IlltlOIL 1346
H:~.mrlization. imensity Of, 1346 .._..n.-..~~
f&gneto-motive force, 13-18, 13t
c3
hfaenolia metal, compOsltlOll of.
381
hIahlers calorimeter. 798
~lallcshility of metals, table. 177
I\Ialleahle castings, annealing, 431
castings, design of, 433
castings, pi iron for, 430
rast.ines. T . ..~..... ~, ru es for use of, 433
castmgs, tes1.s of, 435
iron, physical characteristi%
432
iron, shrinkage Of, 431
iron, specifications, 433
iron, strength of. 430, 434
iron test bars, 432
hfa;,drels, standard steel, 1272
FJang~,nese bronze. 377
.-copper alloys, 376
effect of, on csst-iron. 415,426
effect of, on steel, 452
properties of, 17G
steel, 470
?,ianila rope, 386
rope, weight and strength of, 391
~fanogmph, a high-speed engine
indicator,,939
nhnomete~r, arr, 5Sl
Alan-wheel, 508
Uan, work of, tables, 507, 505
hlnrhle, sirength of. 335
Mnriue engine, internal combus-
tion, 1322
engineering. 13X-1333 (SCs
Ships and Steam-engines)
practice, 1339
hInriot.tes law of gases, 577
Mnrtensit.0, 416, 456
hIas;yi aliowahle pressures on,
A.>.,, A
crushing strengt,h of. 319
materials, weight and specific
gravity of, 174
~, ;
Mass, definition of, 487, 501
= weight + II, 503
Materials. 170-257
strength of, 258-359
strength of, Kirkaldys tests,
33U-33G
various, weights of, table, li8
Xasima and mmima, 79, SO
ithx;;~~, defimtion and value of.
Measure and weights, ccmpound
units,, 27, 25
and weights,metric system, 22-27
Measures. apothecaries, 18, 20
board and timber, 20
circular, 20
Ilwltlc;ll, 17
of work, Power and duty. 28
old land, 17
shipping, 19
solid or cubic, 18
square, 13
surface. 18 _
time, 20
hleasurcment of vessels, 1316
of air velocity, 59G
of elougation, 265
of Ilowing water, 77-733
Measurements. miners iuch, 730
Mechanics, 487-522
Mechanical and elect.rical units,
equivalent values of. 1347
equivalent of heat, 532, S37
powers, 510
stokers, 8Y9
hIekarski compressed-air brsm-
way, 624
Melting points of substauces, 532
temperatures, 527
Mensuration, 55-67
Blercurp, properties of, 1%
vapor lamp, 1369
Mercury-bath pivot, 1209
Rfercurial thermomet.er, 523
Rfesure and Nouels pyrometric
telescope, 529
Metacenter definit,ion of, 690
I$etals, anti-friction, 1179
coetficients of expansion of. 539
coefficients of friction of. 1196
electrical conductivity of, 1349
fl\V of, 1273
heat-co.!ducting power of, 553
life of under shocks, 262
properties of, li4-177
resistance overcome in cutting
of, 1256
specific gravity of, 171
specific heats of. 535, 536
table of drrttility, infusibility.
malleability and tenWhy, i i i
tenacity of at various tempera-
tures, 439
weight of, 171
MARNING: This is a 1910 sedition. Some 0'
%fetnline lubricant 1223
Blet~allogrsphy. 456
Meter, Venturi, 72Y
Mobs law of frictioll, 1200
Morse taPera, 1271
Nete;n%, water delivered through,
Mortar, strength of, 350
OtfXXi acCelerated, formuhe for,
MetrEonversion tables 23-27
measures and weights.22-27
screw-threads, cutting of 1235
~frcroscopic constituents df cnst-
Iron and steel, 416, 456
Mil. circular; 18, 30, 31
Mill o$r~;d&gs, approximate cost
friction of, 1194 1197
Neytons I~~vs df 488
on inclined planes, 502
Perpetual, 507
retarded, 497
Moto:3)~tS, Power of engines for,
Motors: ahernating-current, 1408
Compressed-air, 612
electr!c (see Electric motors)
electrrc, classification of
1401
for electric railways, 13GG
water current, 734
Moving strut, 511
Mule, work of, 509
Muhiphase electric currents 1395
Mult$$ system of evapo&on,
c01uinns, 1341
M~~~?cu%rs, for gear-wheels,
113R
Cutters, helical, tests with
cutters, inserted t,eeth, 124i3
1251
cutters, keyways in, 124s
cutters, lubricant for. 1252
cutters, number of teeth in
124s
cutters, pitch of teeth, 12i7
cutters, side, 124s
cutters. snirsl, 1248
cutlers; &C
:I for, 1247
machines, c
machines. f
:nttinp speed of, 1249
, creed of 1249
m:c,;i;ms,
high results with,
IL<3,,G
. machmcs, typical jobs on, 1251
mnchlncs 2r.s. Planer, 1252
Power required for 1249
. i,.,,
fif iK%
-,.A^..- 2-7n
..,,..a:1
CC) 1Ullt;ll, I%Jr
nS, esperlments on, 645
vcn&ttion, 655
fiflnes, centrifugal fans for 644
Mine-ventilating fans, 645
i\,finers inch. 18
inch measuremems 730
Modulus of elssticit.y,260
of elasticity of various materials,
351
of;r;istance or section modulus,
of rupture, 282
Moisture in atmosphere, 583
in steam, determination of, 912-
915
Molding-sand, 1233
Molds. cast-iron, for iron castings,
analysis of, 1233
Moment of a couple, 491
of a force, 490
of friction, 1205
of inertia, 279, 493
statical, 490
Moments, method of, for deter-
qmng stresses, 519
of :nert.ia of regular solids, 493
of rnertnt of structural shapes,
279
nfomentum, 502
Mend gas producer. 822
Cm~~9metnl. coPper-nickel alloy,
I
Monobar, chain conveyor, 1173
Multivane fans. 636
Muntz met~al, composition of, 366
hfushet steel, 4i2 .
N; lfis, Cllt. table of sizes and
weights. 234
cut vs. wire. 324
holding polver of, 323
we. tahtr of sizes and weights,
235, 236
$hp.ding power of wood, 324
engines, 1071
rule for flow of steam,
Natural gas, 517 81s
NautM measure, 17
__ mile, 17
Nernst electric lamps, 1372
Newtons laws of mot.ion, 48s
Nickel-copper allovs, 37s
Nickel, effect of bn propel.ties of
steel, 473
Properties of, 176, 357
steel. 470
steel, tests of, 472
steel, uses of, 474
-vanadium steels, 475
Niter process,
faces, 449
treating iron sur-
Nortbexgj-d-n-ater heat,ing sys-
Nozzles, f&n- of steam through,
844, IO65
flow of water in,. 713
for measuring discharge of pump.
mg envines iS
mster. efiicieric$ of, 753
Nttt ;;II bolt heads, thickness of,
Oats, weight of. 178
Ocean waves. power of, 75.5
Oerst.ed, unit of magnetic mlue
tance, 1345
,. the m,ateri a 1 may no ,Ionge.k~~,?be~ .,adc;rate
Ohm, definition and value of, 1345
Ohms law, 1352
law applied to alternating cur-
rents, 1390
law applied to parallel circuits,
1352
laL;3;2pplied to series circuits,
Oil as fuel, 812
fire-test of, 1220
for st.eam turbines, 1221
lubricating 1218-1223 (See LU-
bricants)
paraftble. 1220
pressure in a bearing,, 1204
qu+fty needed for engines,
~G&iks. 1077
temuering of steel forgings, 458
( Ipen-hearth _&rnace, tempera-
tures in. 527
steel (see Steel, open-hearth), 451
Ordinates and abscissas, 71
OWV rllhic feet, ~PP ton. 178
( KGe. equivalent. in mine venti-
latioli,, 6S6
flow of air through, 555
flow of water through, 697
rectangular, flow of water
t.hmil!& t,ahle. 729
( lsciliatib;;-~e;lterbf,-494
radiu IS of, 494
Yverhe
ad st,eam-pipe radiators, 673
3x, work of, 509
( Xx-acetylene welding. 464
Osj.gen. effect of onstrength of
steel, 453
Z. value a,nd relations of,.58
Packinn.
..-.-
hydraulic, fnction ,of,
121,
Packing-rings of engines, 1000
Paddle-\vheels, 1331
Paint, 447
qoalit ies ofi 445
quantit,y of, for a given silrface,
4-G
Paper, logarithmic ruled, 55
Parabola, area of by calculus, 77
construction of, 49, 50
equat,ions of, 73
paoh of a projectile, 502
Parabolic conoid, 66
spindir. 66
Parallel forces, 491
Parallelogram area of, 55
of forces. 4S9
of velocities, 499
Pamllelopipedon of forces, 490
Parentheses in algebra, 35
Parrial payments. 14
Pnrt,ine and threading tools, speed
of. l43
Pattw;; weight of,, fyr castings,
-0
- ,. ,..~ .~. .~.,. ,,
WARNING: This is
Payments, equa,t,Ion of, 14
l??;;liEdS416, 406
Pelt& water-wheel, 748
Pendulum, 496
conical, 496
Percentage, 12
Percussion, center of, 494
Perforated plates, strength of, 402
Permeability, magnetic, 1345, 1383
Permeance, magnetic, 1348
Permutation, 10
Perpetual motion, 507
Petr$Ftm as a metallurgical fuel,
013
cost of as fuel, 812
engines, 1077
Liia, 810
products of distillation of, SIO
products, specifications for, 1219
value of as fuel. Sll
Petr~1~;3m-burnmg locomotives,
Pewter,composition of, 3S3
Phosphor-bronze, composition of,
566
specifications fir. 370
springs, 401
strength cf, 370
,losphorkts. inllnence of, on cast- PI
iron, 415
influence of. on steel. 452
Piano-wire. stiength of; 239
Pictet fluid, for refrigerating, 1254
,ezomet,er 727
,g-iron (a& a& Ca,st iron)
g
analysis of, 416
charcoal st.rength of, 425
distribution of silicon in, 424
for n?alle~bk;pstings, 430
$p&- -
ZlZfXcon, etc., on, 415
sampling, 41s
specifications for, 418
tests of, 419
.les. bearing power of, 1334
t,rwsxh of. 269
Pi
Pillafs, s
Pine, str
Pins. forI
-----c_~~~
ellgt~lr of, 344
cini fits of by hydraulic
~prksure. 12i3
taper lT:!
Pinions: r:v-hide,. !I53
Pigapcyds Re~dxhtv of. 215
mul;
,_-, _.... ~.~~~.,
les, compound hi&%, for-
a for 720
cast-n
71Q
on, friction loss in, Iable,
ca$$;~specificnt.ions for mefnl
covekgs. t,ests of, 559
dimensions, Briggs standard,
202, 207
fittings, Hanged, 203-206
fittings, valves. etc., resistance of,
, .iTa$Zs est,n heavv table 199
~~ ,-flanges: tab16 of staii;tnnl, I&
a, 1910 edition.
~, .,.A
Some 0
4
INDEX.
DiP-Pla cl443
PipeSdon and steel, stkngth of,
iron, tin-lined and lead-lined, 218
threading of, force required for,
342
wooden stave, 215
Pipes, air, carrymg capacity of. 662
&I, loss of presswe in, tables,
593-595
air-bound, 722
and valves for superheated steam,
851
bent and ceiled, 214,215
blo2$tm, .wxghts and sizes of,
Pipe% vd~lme of air t.rntismirted in
table, 591
welded, standard, table of cl;-
mensions. 21)F:
Pipe-joinr , ~Kockwood 202
PiPing. powr-house. identificatiol:
01 by different colors 854
Piston rings. steam-engin; 1000
rods, steam-engine, looi-100:s
piston valves
1 steam-engine, 1043
Pistons. fi+f.nr,
n-engine. 990 ~~- ---.
Pivot-beanngs, 1205 <SO-g
Pivot-bearing. me&y bath, 1209
Pitch, diametral.
of gearinr. 1133
1134
of rivets.-i0.l ~, _~-
Of screw-propeller 1325
Pitot tube gauge, 72j
tube,,use, in testing fans, 640
Plan$e.m$ned, 512 (see Inclined
surfaces, mensuration of jj
Planer, heavy work on, 11;6
ho;f+to;\;T;A required to run,
cast-iron, 191-195
cast-iron. formuke for thickness
of., 193
cast-Iron. safe pressures for,
tables, 19+. 195
cast-iron, tlnckness of, for vari-
ous heads, 192, 193
cast-iron, transverse strength of,
427
cast-iron, weight of, 191-JO5
coiled, table of, 214
effects of bends in. 593, 727
equalization of, table, 597
equation of. Y53
iiOw of air in, 591
flow of gas in, F34-536
flow of sten:n in, 545
flow of water in. 699
for Steam heatin,rr, 669
house-service, Rw of water in,
table. 71% . ..-... _-
iron and st,eel. corrosion of, 443
lead, safe heads for, 217
lead, tin-lined, sizes and weights,
table, 217
lea&7Neights and sizes of, table,
lines for fans and blowers, 643
lines, long, 721
loss of head in, 714-722 (we
Loss of head)
marimum and mean velocities
in, 727
Pro&wet;;lJng to radiating sur-
@stake of the iniet, 715
nfled. for conveying heavy oils,
721
riveted flanges for, table, 213
* riveted hydraulic, weights and
safe heads, table, 212
riveted-iron, dimensions of,
table, 211
rive&d, safe pressure in 5~7
riveted steel, loss of head in, 717
riveted steel, water. 329
sizes of threads on, 367
spiral riveted. table of, 213
steam (see St,ealwpipes)
St:,:, wes of m steam heating,
lhllli, \VOOllc!l,
for, 1:;::2
lu:lsirtlliill-:D3.Ils
Plates (see crl.w Sheets)
Wld-piClilrd. heat transmission
throu,oh. 365
areas of, in square feet, table.
130, 131
boiler, strength of at high trm-
peratures. 439
brass, weight of. tables. 219. 220
Carnegie rrough. propwtirs of,
table, 23
circular, strength of, 313
copper, strengh of, 334
copper, weighr of, table, 219
corrugated steel, propertirs of.
table, 2S9
flat, ca&iron;strength of, 313
flat. for steam-boilers, rltlcs for.
sso. SE& sss
flat, unstayed. strength of, 314
for stand-pipes, 327
iron and steel. approximating
weieht. of. 461.
iron,, &gili of. table, IS4
of different, materials, t.hbl? for
calculating weights of, 1 ;S
perforated. strength of, 40
punched, loss of strengt.h in, 401
stayed. s,trength of. 315
slyill boiler, spec&at,ions for.
_1-
steel, far cars, specificat.ions for.
483
steel, specifications for, 4S1
steel, tests of. ~331, 333
tra&;m]sslon of heat through, -.-
table, of capacities of, 127
the ,material may no longer be accurate.
INDEX. pip-pm
144.3
PiPe,,lfon and steel, strength of,
54L
Pipes volume of air t~mnsmit ted in
table, 591
tflnition and value of, 1345
US law, 1352
Payments, equntlon of, 14
law applied to alternating cur-
~e;litee8416, 456
rents, 1390
la\;3;$phed to parallel circuits,
Pelt& water-wheel, 748
Pendulum, 496
lau;:7~~pplied to series circuits,
conical, 496
Percentage, 12
_ Percussion. center of lVl
Oil as fuel, 812
Perforated plates, st!et%h of 402
me-test of, 1220
for stesm turbines, 1221
Permeability, magnetic, 1348, 1383
lubricat~ing 1218-1223 (see LU-
Permeance. magnetic, 1348
Permutation, 10
bricants) Perpetual motion, 507
oarsffine. 1220
m.A--..~~-- ~~ ---I-l.~~--.I-~. z...,
Iebrleum as a mecaurglcnl ulet.
^_^
welded,. Standard, table of tli-
-.
mensrons, 208
ilP@JWlt, Rockwoo,d 20
Piping: power-house, iden&atior:
of ;)Y different colors 854
Piston rings, steam-engi& 1000
rods, steam-engine, lOOi-100~
Piston valves, steam-engine, 1043
Pistons, steam-engine 999
Pivot-bearings, 1205 13Og
Pivot-besrinp rnorrr~v~~L61. -n-r.
Pitcl,, dj,j~~~~;ai;~ii~;J Use, lLU
of gearing, 1133
of rivets, 404
Of Screw-propeller, 1325
Pitot tube gauge, 727
tube,.use in ter;iing fans, 640
PlaneP,,;;;;lned, 512 (see Inclined
surfaces, mensuration 0f 55
Planer, heavy work on, 12313
horse-power required to run,
1258 1260
iron, tin-lined and lead-lined, 218
threadmg of, force required for,
wooden stave, 21s
Pipes, air, carrymg capacity of, 662
an, loss of presscre in, tables,
593-595
air-bound, 722
and valves for superheated steam,
851
bent and coiled, 214,215
bl;;k8-tin, weights and sizes of,
pressure in a bearing, 1204
qut;;fty needed for eng:
_ . ^_^
ines.
2)s. coal as ruel, 23x3
wetl. 1220
-engines, 1077
tempering of steel forgings,. 458
Open-hearbh furnace, tempera-
tures in. 527
steel (see GeeI, open-hearth), 451
Ordimues and abscissas, 71
Ores, cubic feet per ton, 178
Orifice, equivalent, in mine venti-
lation,, 686
vs. Milling m:&ine, 1252
Planers. cmting speed of 1256
Planished~ anti Russis iron, 449
Plank. wooden, maximum spans
for. 13:x
Plates (see ulso Sheets)
acid-pickled, heat transmission
through. 565
SM
cost,of as fuel, 812
engines. 1077
cast-iron, 191-195
cast-iron. form&e for thickness
of., 193
cast-aon, safe
-bles. IQ.+. 195
pressures for,
,iron, thmkness of, for vari-
s heads, 192. 193
cast-iron, transverse strength of,
.^_
421
cast-iron, weight of, 191-195
coiled, table of, 214
effects of bends iu. 593, 737
equalization of, table, 597
equation of. 853
flow of au through, 588
flov? of water throueh. 697
flow of air in. 591
flow of gas in, S34-836
Row of steam in, S45
flow of water in, 699
for steam heating, 669
house-service, flow of
table, 712
water in,
iron and st~eel, corrosion of, 443
lead, safe heads for, 217
lead, tin-lined, sixes and weight,s,
table, 217
ie;u7~eights and sizes of, table,
lines for fans and blowers, 643
lines, long, 721
loss of head in, 714-722 (see
Loss of head)
366
specifications fQr, 370
springs, 401
strength of, 370
Phosphorus, influence of, on cast-
iron, 415
influence of, ou steel, 452
Piano-wire, strength of; 239
Pictet Huid, for refrigerating, 1284
Piezometer, 727
Pig-iron (see also Cast iron)
analysis of, 416
chsrcon,l, strength of, 42s
distribution of silicon in. 424
for malleable castings, 430
grading of, 414
influence of silicon, etc., on, 415
sampling, 418
snecifications for. 418
mnsimum and mean velocities
fn. 727
Pr;[:zn$ng to radiating sur-
resistance of the inlet, 715
nfll& for conveying heavy oils,
,Zl
recta
thr
Oscillat
~rgular, flow of water
,ough, table 729
ion, center of, 494
radius of, 494
!verhead steam-pipe radiators, 673
I _^^
c
OS. work or, SW
Oxy-acetylene weldim~ 46J
Oxygen. effec
steel, 453
areas Of; iu square feet, table,
130, 131
boiler, strength of at high tern--
peratures. 439
brass, weight of, tables, 219, 220
Cxnegie trough, properties of,
table, 289
circular, strength of, 313
copper, strength of, 334
copper, weight of, table. 219
fmrrt,P:l+Prt Ftlml nwlnurtiuo r\f
flat, cast-iron. strengbh of. 313
flat, for steam-boilers, rules for,
SSO, 835, SSS
r Mt, unstayed. sbrengtti of, 31.4
for stand-pipes, 327
iron and steel, npprosimat~ing
meirrht. of. 461
iron:-%ght of.-table. 184
of drfferent materials, table for
calculnt~ing weights of, 17s
perforated, strength of, 40~
punched, loss of strengt,h in, 401
s;a;edLTkrzngth of, 315
^-^^:f^_.r: ^_.. *-_
Z. value and relations of..58
Pack;it~~ hydrauhc, fraction ,of,
LA*,
Packing-rings of engines, 1000
Paddle-wheels, 1331
Paint, 447
qualities of, 448
qu@ty of, for a given surface,
4x5
Paper. logarithmic ruled, 85
Pambolu, area of by calculus, 77
consbruct,ion of, 49, 50
equa t.inns nf 7.7
pat,!
Pnrabc
tests of, 419
Piles, bearing power of, 1334
Pillars, strengtti of, 269
Pine, st.rength of, 344
Pins, forcing fits of by hydraulic
pressure, 12?3
taper, 1272
~ofTl;roj&tiie, 501
)lic conoid, 66
die, 66
:l forces, 491
?logmm area of, 55
uces,, 459
,elocuies. 499
Pinions, raw-hide, 1153
Pipe bends, flexibility of, 215
brarmhes. compound pipes, for-
mula for, 720
rlopipedon of forces, 490
heses in algebra, 35
Partial payments, 14
Pnrtir~g ;l,r4dr threading tools, speed
Patty;
!Ti weight ,of,~.~for castings,
cas7$on. frrct,ron loss in, table,
ca;t.~4~9specifications for mefal
coverings, tests of, 559
din2m~s$00~. Briggs standard,
fittin&, flanged, 203-206
fitt6$~. valves, rt,c.. resistance of,
O~(Z
flang&, extra heavy, table. 199 flanges, extra heavy, table. 199
fkanges, table of standard, 198 fkanges, table of standard, 198
. ..,.. _ ..^, .~...
YARNING: This i,ssa 1910 edition. Some 0
,-
I
riveted flanges for, table, 213
,* nveted hydraulic, weights and
safe hevk hhle, 212
riveted-iron, I
table, 211
dimensions of,
riveted, Safe pressure in, 887
nveted steel, loss of head in, 717
riveted steel, water, 329
sizes of threads on, 207
Spiral riveted, table of, 213
steam (sp Steam-pipes)
steam, sizes of in steam heating,
taiZof Capacities of, ~127
st.eel, for crrrs, sprcifiirat~ions for,
483
steel, specifications for, 481
steel, t?sJs of, 331, 333
t~rann6s;ni~s~ion oft heat through,
Plates, transmlssionofhest through, .
from air to water. 566
transmission of heat through,
from steam to sir. 569
Plate-girder, strength of, 331
Plate-girders, allowed stresses in,
Plsti
Plati
274
PlF;jng for I bulkheads, table, 310
tanks, table,, 316
ste :el, stresses m, due to water
pressure?, 315
nite. 475, 540
num, .properties of, 170
pyrometer, 526
Loire: 243
+m!n system of_h+ing, 67s
~~t~u-~n-~teet rone. ~40
Plugs;, fusible,, in stesm bpilers, SS9
Plunger pac@g, bydrsuhc. fwtlon
Pl,et~~a~~~;loistinp 1163
postal trsnsmissibn, 624
Polarity of electro-magnets, 1384
Polishing wheels, speed of, 1264
Polyhedron, 64
Polygon, area of, 56
construction of, 43-45
Folygons. impedance, 1390
of forces, 489
t,able of, 46, 56
Polypbase circuits, 1395
Popp system of compressed-air, 612
Population of the United States, 11
Portland cement,, strength of, 336
Port 10;7Pgenu,g in steam-engmes,
Pos,?l transmission, pneumatic,
Potential energy, 503
Poland-calorie. definition of, 532
Pounds per square inch, equiva-
lent,s of, 27
Powr and work, measures of, 2S, ,
animal,, 507
detinitlon of, 503
electrical cost of. 9,S5
fac$;9 of altcrnatmg currents,
lt&aulic. in London, 751
of a waterfall. 734
of electric circuits. 1353
of ocean !mYes, 755
unit of, 503
Powxs of numbers, algebraic, 34
of numbers, tables! 7, 94-110
Po!ver-plant. econonncs, OS4
Pratt, t.russ, stresses in, 515
Preservative coabings, 447+0
Prrs;2;;s. pressure requwed for,
high-speed steam-hydraulic, 753
hydraulic forging, 7S2
hytoau;t(, t,hlckness of cylinders
i
Presses~ i~ydraulic, in iron works,
7Sl
,;
,,,
Presses, punches, etc., 1272
Pressed fuel, 801
Pressure..collapsing of flues, 31s
coliapsung of hollow cylinders.
318
Pressures of adisbatically com-
pressed air, 609
Priming, or foaming, of steam
boilers, 692, S99
Prism, 63
Prismoid. 64
rectangular, 63
Prismoidal formulq. 64
Problems, geometncal, 38-54
in circles, 40-41
3 and angles, 38-40 in lint
in polygons, 43-46
in triangles, 42
Process, the thermit, 372
Producers, gas (see Gas-producers)
Producer-eas. SlS-S25 (see Gas)
Producers, gas, use of steam in, 824
Profit and loss,,12
PFogression. arithmetical and gee-
metrical, 10. 11
Projectile, parabola path of, 501
Froiiv brake ES0 -
Propkller shifts, strength of. 3.71
screw. 1324 (see Screw-propeller)
cone. 1112
convexity of, 1113
diRerent,ial, 213
for rope-driving, 1190
or blocks, 513
proportion of: 1111
speed of, 112,?. 1137
Pulsometgr, tests of. ,775
Pum~;sur, for condense srs, 1053.
air-lift, 776
and pumping ewines, 757-779
boiler-feed, 761
boiler-feed, etliriency of, 90s
centrifugal, 764-770
centrifugal. design of, 765
centrifugal. multi-stage, i6.i
centrifugal, relation of height, of
lift t,o velocity, 766
centrifugal. tests of, i 6S, 770
circulatmg. for condensers, 10.57
denth of ~1,~tinn nf 757
tl&ct-act,in
feed. for marine enrines. 1057
high-dut.y, i&2 -
horse-power of, 757
jet, 776
leakage, test, of, 772
lift, water raised by, 759
mine, opersted by compressed-
air, 625
piston speed of, 7G0
WARNING: This i,s a 191~0editi6ni some
Pumps, rotary, 770
weed of water iwpassnges 0f~7.50
steam, sizes of. tables. 75s. (00
suction of. with hot water, 757
theoretical capacity of, 757
vacuum. 775
valves, $61, 762
Pump-inspection table, 725
Pumping by compressed air, 617,
777 (see also Air-lift)
by gas-engines, cost of, 764
by7;tym pumps, cost of fuel for,
COS! Of eleCtr?C Current for, 763
engme, screw. 762
engine, rhe d Auria, 762
Pumping-engines.. duty trial8 of,
77lL-57~<
..* .,.,
economy of, 763
ltigh-duty records; 77.1
table of data for duty trials of,
ii.3
use of nozzles to measure dis-
charge of, 72s
Pllnc!hes. chmillce of, 1272
spiral. 1272
Punched p!ates, ?trengt,h of, 402
Punting and dnlling of steel. 450,
PIirificat,ion of water, ti9.&
Pyramid, 63
frustum of,. 63
Pyrometer. air, Wiborglts, 528
coppe
fire-cl
!r-ball. 526
Hohst
ay, Segers, 53
ans hot-blast 5S
9 -
LeChateliers 526
arincinles of..523
thernio-electric, 526
Uehling-Steinhart 530
Pyrometers, graduation of, 527
Pyrometric telescope, 529
Pyrometry, 523
Quadrat,ic equations, 36
Quadrat,ure of plane fipurrs. 77
of surfaces of revolution, 7S
Quadrilateral. area of. 44
area of, inscribed in circle, 55
(quadruple-espallsioo engines, 956
Quantitative measurement of heat,
522
Quarter-twist belt, 1124
Quart,z, cubic feet per ton, 17s
Queen-post. truss, iuverted, stresses
in, 51s
truss. stresses in, 517
Quenching test for soft steel, 4~3
.
INDEX.
pun-rcr
1445
Rack, gea.ring) 1141
Radian, defimt,ion of. 499
Rndl$$% power of subst,ances,
a
surfwe, c&nputntion of,
water heating. 6i.5
surface. comput~at ion
steam heating, 669
for
of,
hot-
for
Rad&ting surface, proportioning
pipes for, 671
Ilildiation, black body, 552
of heat, 551
of vartous substances, 5.j?, 569
Stefan and Boltzmans la\v 55
table of factors for Dul&gs
la!\X Of, 570
Radit;;rs, experiments with, 668,
indirect, 669
overhead sleam-pipe, 673
steam and hot-water 66s
steam, ,removal of a& from
transmtssion of heat in 66s
673
Rad-hts of gyration. 279. 494
of gYraratiOl1. griphi&- method
for finding, 2SO
of gyrat,ion of structural shapes,
11! 280
!lllation. 49-L
213
of ox
Rails, s
r.^^l
R
teel. sl.lec&ations for, 484
*:rcl, st,rength of, 331
ailroad aslcs., 441
track, materra~ required for one
mile of, 232
t,r+s, resistance of, ios.4-1OS7
trmns
Railway
, speed of, 1094
,
624
st rcct ,
35
compressed-air,
. -
track bolts and nilts. 230
Railways, electric, 1369
narrow-gauge, 1103
Ram, hydraulic, 778
Rany;;s formula for columns,
Ratio, 6
Raw-ltide pinions, 1 I.?+
Ilea+iF of nlternatmg currents,
Reamers, taper, 1270
Reaumur t~hermometer-scale, 523
Reralescence of steel, 455
Receiver-spare in engines, 950
Recigr;o_ls of numbers, tables of,
use bf, 93
Recorder, continuous. of water or
steam consumption. 940
carbon dioxide. or CO?, 860
Rectangle, definition of, 55
value of dinronal of, 55
Rect,nngular piismoid, 63
Rectifier, in absorption refrigere-
t.ing machine, 1293
mercury arc, 1401
Red lead as apreseryative, 447
Reduction, ascendmg and de-
scendmg, 5
R,eeses fnsing disk, 1262
RcRect.ing power of subst,ances,
552
fR.efr$;$ting (see also &e-making,)
dir&es&nsion method, 1314
Refrigerating-mnchiues, actual and
theoretical capacity, 1302
air-machines, 1291
ammonia absorpt~ion,. 1293,1\?;
ammonia compression, ,
1303
condelisers for, 1300
cylinder-heating, 12QG
dry, wet. and flooded systems,
-1292
ether-machines, 1291
heat-balance, 1305
ice-melting effect, 1291
liquids for, pressure and boiling-
points of, 12S4
mean effective nressure and
horse-power. 1297
operations of, 1253
performance of, 1307
performance of a single acting
compressor, 1312
pipe-coils for, 1302
pollnrls of ammonia per minute,
1297
properties of brine; 1290
nronerties of vanor. 1284-1287
iua$rtizs;f alninohia required
( L.
rat.etl capacity of, 1300
relative efficiency of, 1295
relative performance of .am-
mania-compression and ab-
sorption machines, 1294
sizes and capacities. 1299
sneed of. ?300
sidphur-diiiside machine, 1292
test rcporls of, 1306
temoerature rance. 1306
tests of. 1x02
ti;SiGg Gater vapor, 1292
volumetric efficiency. 1296
Voorhees multinle-&ect.. 1297
Refrigrrnt ing plalit,s. cooi&t&ver
practice in, 1301
Refrigernt in!: systems, efficiency
of, 1!)6
Refrigrration. 11!?-1316
a reversed heat cycle. 574
means of npplginp t,he cold, 1314
Regrnern!,or. heat,,. 9Si
Regn;;$ts esperunents on steam,
Reinforced concrete, working
stresses of, 133:
Reluctanre, magnet~ic. 134s. 1383
Relucti+y. magnet,@, 134s
Rese;;;lrs, eraporat,lon of water in,
Resilience, elastic. 260
of mat.erials, 260
Resistance. elastic. to torsion, 311
electrical (see Electrical resist-
alIce). 1343
elect ricxl. effect of annealing on,
1331
elect ricnl. ctfect 6f temperature
on, 1350 i
Resls.?;?, electrical, in circuits,
electrjcal, internal, 1353
ele;;;;cfl, of copper-wire, 1351.
electrical, of steel, 453
electrical, standard of, 1351
elevation of ultimate, 261
modulus of, or section modulus,
9811 I--
of copper wire, rule for, 242
of metals to repeated shocks, 262
of ships, 1317
of trains, 1054
work of, of a material, 260
Resolution of forces, 489
Retarded motion., 497
Reversing-gex,for steam-engines,
dimensions of, 1020
Rheostat,s, 1404 .
Rhornxxd, defimt.lon and area of,
Rhombus, d&&ion and area of, 55
Rivets, bearing pressure on, 403
cone-head, for boilers, 231
diameters of, for riveted joints,
table, 406
in steam-boilers, rules for, 879
pitch of, 404
pressure required to drive, 412
round head, weight of, 22s
steel. chemical and nhvsical tests
of; 413
_
steel, specifications for, 4Sl
tinners, table. 232
Riveted iron pipe, dimensions of,
table, 211
joints, 333. 401-412
joints, British rules for, 410
joints, drilled, vs. punched holes,
401
joints, efficiencies of, 405
joints, notes on, 402
joints of ma,simum efficiency. _
40s
joints, proportions of, 405
joints, single riveted lap, 404
joints, table of proportions, 411
joints, test,s of double riveted
lap and butt, 406
joints. tests of, table, 337
joints. triple and (quadruple. 40s
pipe, How of water in, 714
pipe. weight of iron for, 213
Rivet-iron and steel, shearing re-
ciQt.7 ,.a r\f An7
R
U..,YII~~c. u.* r,
iveting. cold, pressure required
for 412
effici&v of different methods.
ha%)JTanrl hydmulic, strength of,
macldnes. hydraulir. 7S2
of structural steel. 450
pressure .rc?qldrcd for. 4,l2
lload5s~Qrcslstance of carnages on,
.
,
INDEX. roe-m2
1447 ~I
Rock-d,rills, air required for, 616 Rock-d,rills, air required for, 616
reqmrements of air-driven, 6113 reyulrements of air-driven, 6113
Rods Of difierer!t materials, table Rods of different materials, table
ILo,,~;of p$Lll$!~g y+ps of, ! 7s for calculating weights of, 178
Rollers and balls, steel,
cir,--.., 1, l, capacity of, 317
carrying
Roller bearings, 1210 Roller bearings, 1210
chain and sprocket drives, 1129 chain and sprocket drives, 1129
Rolling of steel, effect of finishing Rolling of steel, effect of finishing
temperature, 454 temperature, 454
Roofs, strength of, 1337 Roofs, strength of, 1337
Roof-truss, stresses in; 521 Roof-truss, stresses in; 521
Roofing materi%l!, 186-190 Roofing materials, 186-190
_ materials materials, ,w$ght of various, 190
-^- 1.1:
RoP;& hcustmg or transmission,
Jm.
hoisting, iron and steel, 244 bOiSting, irOIl and steel, 244
manjla, data of, 1189-1193 manjla, data of, 1189-1193
ma$a, hoisting and ma$a, hoisting and
3011, life of, 391 3011, life of, 391
transmis- transmis-
wire (see Wire-roDe) wire (see Wire-rope)
R0p.e~ 1top.e~ and cables, 386-393
cable-traction. 247
coy.; and hemp, strcngtb of,
Hat iron and steel table of
strength of, 24S. 3s17
hemp, iron and steel, tablo of
streIl&!th and weight. of,
hoist~ing (ace Hoisting-rope)
356
Lang Lay, 246
locked-wire, 250
manila. 3S6
ma3n&k.jy1eight and strength of,
.:.
splicing of, 389
steel flat. table of sizes, weight
and strength, 245, 387
steel-wire hawsers, 249
table of strength of iron, steel
and hemp. 3S6
taper., of muform strength, 11S3
Be~hmcal t.erms relating to, 3S$
wire (see Wire-rope)
Rope-driving. 1191-1194
Englis!] practice, 1194
pulleys for, 1192
horse-power of, 1191
sag of rope, 1191
tension of rope, 1190
various speeds of, 1191
weight of rope, 1193
Rope-transmission, 386
Rotary blowers, 649
steam-engines, 1062
Rotation. accelera,ted, work of, 504
Rubber belting,. 1128
eoods, analysis of, 356
vllkanized, tests of, 356
Rule of t,hree. 6. 7
Running fits, 1274
Rupture. modulus of, 2~2
Russia and plnnished iron. 449
safety valves:, spring-loaded, 904
Salt, weight of, ITS
solubility of, 544
Salt-brine manufacture, evapo-
ration in, 543
Pwqi~s of, 543. 544. 1290
SGlutlon,, specific heat Af 537
Sand, cubic feet per ton, i7S
molding, 1233
Sand-blast, I?62
Sand-lime brick, tests of 349
Sandstone. strength 0f 249
Saturation point-of vabors, 578
Sawing metal. 1262
Sawdust as fuel. SOS
Scale, boiler, 692, S97
boiler, analyses of, 693
effect of, on boiler efficiency SgS
Femgit of, from steam boilers,
_--
Scales. thermometer, comparison
of, 524. 52.j
Sca?thng, table of contents of, 21
SClllele lxrot. bearing, 1209
Schielcs anti-friction curve, 51
8cler;W~pe. for testing hardness,
Screw. 62
boiis,~&cienc,v of, 1270
conveyoy 1175
diHerentra1. 514
ditferentinl, efficiency of, 1270
efficiency of, 1270
(eleCTWit ?f mnchine), 512
h$s;? A.S.Jf .E. standard, table,
propeller. 1324
prope!ler. coefficients of, 1325
propeller. eff1cienc.y of, 1326
propeller. slip of, 1326
Screws and nuts for automobiles,
table ??2 ,-
cap, table of standard, 225
lag, holding poiver of, 324
lag, table of. 234
machine,
22fi
A.S.M.E. st&dard,
---
set, table of standard, 225
wood, dimensions of, 234
wood, holding power of, 324
Screw-thread. Acme, 22.6
Screw-threads. 220-227
Brit,ish Association standard, 222
English or Whit,north standard,
table. 220
Inte~r;ationa~l (metric) standard,
limilt-gauges for, 223
metric, tufting of, 1238
stan$rd 81zes for bolts and taps,
U.z+&.or Sellers standard table of, .
Fnfet,p. factor of, 352-355
,Scrubbers for gas producers, 819
Safc~02~;;&es for steam-boilers,
Sea-wat,er, freezing-point of, 690
Secant of an an,-le. 67
Secants of angles, t.able of, 166-169
. . .
~, .,.~ .,~__ ,.
NARNING: Thjs, iS.a 1910 &liti&,
,._ ,.i
Some of the materi al may~no l onger ,be accurate
sif-sph
Silicon-aluminum-iron alloys, 374
Silicon-bronze. 371
Silicon-bronze wire, 243,371
Silundum, 1377
Silver, melting temperature, 527
properties of, Ii6
Simpsons rule for areas, 5,;
Sine of an angle, 67
Sines of angle?. table, 166-169
Single-phase cncuits, 1395
Sinhon. 726
,,Specifi: grsyity of ice, 691
gravny ot Ilqulrls, table, 172
wvsty of metals, table, 171
gravitv of steel. -1c.t
gravity of stones brick, etc., 174
Specific hl:iLt, .5;&:~S *
heat, determination of, 534
lleat of ammonia, 1286
!ieat of air, SS7
heat of gases -
heat of ice. n4 Y35 537
Section modulus of structural
shapes,, 230, 2SI
Sector of cm&, 61
Scrliment in steam-boilers, SDS
Segcr p,yrometer coties. 5%
riegment. of circle, 01
Segm-enm, circular, areas of, 121,
Sheet metal. weight oi, by decimal
gauge, 33
iron and steel, weight of, 181
Shelby cold-drawn tubing, 210
Sllell~orfo~SOsteatn-bollers, material
sphe&al, strength of, 316
Shell-plate formuhe for steam-
boilers, 880
Sherardizing. 450
Shibu-ichi, Japanese alloy, 368
Shingles, weiglrts:nd areas of, 1S9
Ship ;3~;itsnia, performance of,
Ships, Atlantic steam, perform-
ance of, 132s
coefficient of fineness of, 1317
coefficient of performance. 131s
coefticient of water lines. 131i
displacement of, 1317, 1321!
horse-power of, 1321-1323
horse-oower of. from wot,ted
.
Segregation in steel inguts, 462
Self-inductance of lines and cir-
cuits, 1393
Semi-steel, 428
$jepara+nrv stem 011
Set-scrc
heat of iron and steel 535 530
heat of liquids, ,535
heat of metals, 536
heat of Saturated steam, 537
heat of solids, 53;i
heat of superheated steam, S3S
heat of water, 536, 691
heat of woods.536
Specifications for boiler-plate, 453
for castings,418
Slide-valves, steam-engine,
Steam-engines, 1034-1047)
(.We
for cast iron, 418
for chains, 251
Slope, table of, and fall in feet ner
mile, 700
for elliptical steel springs, 399
for foundry niz iron. JIX
Slott;~6,0 power, required to run,
for galvenizid wire! 239
for helical steel sprmgs, 395
Smoke-prevention, 890~S93
for mcanclcscent lamps, 1372
Smoke-slacks, sheet-iron, 928
for malleable iron,,43:%
locomotive, IO!)1
for metal for cast-non pipe, 419
Snow, weight of, 691
for oils 11(9
Soapstone lubricant, 1223
for net;ol&m lubricants, 1219
strength of, 349
for Phosphor-bronze, 370
Sotla misture for machine tools,
for purchase of coal, 799
1222
for spring steel, 4S3
Softeners in foundrv nractice,
for steel aslcs. 483, 485
for steel billets. -IS:3
, o . . . _I -_, ..,
%s. strength of, 1161
lesrings, 1015
ings, large, tests of, 1206
,:.*.,, ,.Y..nb, -svy
It. allowances for electrical
machinerv 1274
governors, id-18
jtlaf~w~~lld hearings of cngincs,
surf&x 1323
horse-po\;er of internal com-
bustion engines for. 13LL
resistance of, per horse-power,
1321
resistance of, Rankincs formula,
1319
rules for measuring. 1316
rules for tonnage. 1317
small sizes. engine power rc-
quired for, 132::
m~,tecl st!rfare o,f. 1320
tlollow, 1109
hollow,
311
torsional rtrcugth of,
steam-engine. 1010-1010
str~l pron~Gr. strength of,
Shafting, 1100-1110
rollers for, I!09
dcllcction of, 1107
formuhe for, 1106
hoy;Otowcr transmitted by,
kevs for. 1277
la$ng ollt. 1109, If:0
power required to tlri:ve, 1261
Sllnh~-do. Jafxtnesc alloy, 36S,
Shapers. power required to run,
1330
steel
steel
castings! 464. 486
crank-pms, 4%
steel for automobiles, 486
steel forgings. 4%
steel rails, 484
steel rivets. 4Sl
for steel sntire-bars. 4%
for aluminum, 350
Soldering aluminum hronxe, 373
for steel tii;;.<~485
Solders,
-355
composition of variotis,
for structural steel, 4S0
for structural s.teel for ships, 463
Soliti6;odies, mensuration of, 6%
for tin and terne-plate, 1SS
for wrought iron. 437-438
heed of cuttins: effect of feed and
Shapes of test specimens, 266
strutrt.ural steel, properties of,
2837-310
Shear anI1 compression conibined,
312
Shipping m&sure. 19.~ 1311:
ShOCkS. resist.anre of metals to
repeated, 262
stresses produerd hy, 263
Short circuit~s. electric. 1360
Shrinkage fits (see Fits. 1273)
of cast,-iron. 415. 423 measure, 1S
1 ~depth of cui on, 1241
of cutting t,oots. 1235
of vessels. 1321
Sphere, measures of, 63
Spheres of different, materials, table
for calculatina weight of. 1iS
and tension combined, 312
poles. stresses in. 516
Shearing. effect of on structural
5t.w1. 459
resistance of rivets, 407
st,reng:tli of iron and steel, 340
Shearing strengt.11 of woods, table,
3.47
Solid of revolution. 65
Soluhility of common salt. 544
of sulphate of lime, 545
Sorbite, -456
Sources of energy, 5DG
Specific gravitv. 170-174
gravity and kaumes hydrometer
compared, table, 172
gravity and strength of cast iron,
42s
of alloys, 3S-l
of castings, 1231
of malleable iron castings, 431
strains relieved by uniform cool-
ing, 42.3
Sign of ditferent~ial coefficients. 79
of trigonometrical functiou~, 6s
Sims. artthtnetirpt. 1
Silicoqr~4tlistribution of, in pig iron,
L
ex;y;jvc, making cast-iron hard.
I
infhtrnce of, on cast-iron, 415.
A,?
taH,es of ,6yo1unt& asid surfaces.
SpherLi f&gon. area of, 64
segment, volume of, 65
shells and domed boiler heads,
316
shells, strength of, 316
shell. thickness of, t,o resist a
given pressure, 316
t,riangte, area of, 64
ZOII~, area and volume of, 68
st,rength, relation to tensile
SbrPIl~tll. 340
stwavrs,, diamober of, for given
tensmn of wire rope, llS6
for xirc rope t~ransmission. 118-t
silze of, for manila rope, 390
F;\M!ts (see trrso plat,?s)
Slswt, altmrin~m~, wright of, 220
llr:tss. wright of, 220
cclppcr, weixht of, 219
metal, strength of, 334
gravit.p of brine: 544
gravity of cm-lr01!. 428
grav$y of copper-t,ni a!loys. 360
gr;tly of copper-tm-zmc alloys,
gravity of gases, 173
.I-
infitnnce of, on steel, 452
relat~inn of, t,o strength of cast-
.,. iron, 415, 422
,.. _,~ (. ,.~ . ..I .._ _.. ,., ,,. ._
WARNING: Th,is is a 1910 edition. Some of the material may no longer be accurate,
1450 ,:,
,:
&&g& >' ', ,.' '~,:
,: ,~
Spheroid, 65
Spikes, holding power of, 323
wire, 233
railroad and boat, 233
Spincii, surface and volume of, 65,
Spirai- 52 62
conical: 62
construction
gears, 1143
of, 52
62
Spira;l;:veted plane: pipe-fittings, table,
Steam, dry. identification of, 915
energy of, expanded to various
en?~~~~t%?es, 839-843
exg;; mg, available energy of,
expansion of, 929
flow of, 844-851 (see Flow of
steam)
gaseous, 838
generation of, from waste heat
of coke-ovens, 803
heat required to generate 1
pound of, 837
.
-_-
pipe, table of, 213
Sphces. railroad track,. tables, 233
Splic;+ars>steel, spemfications for,
_--
Splicing of ropes, 388
of wire rope, 393
Springs, 394-401
elliptical, specifications for, 399
elliptical, sizes of, 399
forengine-governors, 1048-1050
helical, 396
helical, formuhe for defiection
and strength, 395
helical, specifications for, 395
helical, steel. tables of capacity
and deflection, 395-400
laminated steel, 394
phosphor-bronze. 401
semi-elliptical, 394
steel, strength of, 333
steel, chromium-vanadiun, 401
to resist torsion, 399
Sprocket wheels, 1130
Spruce, strength of, 345
Square, definition of, 55
measure. 18
325
guy-ropes for, 32i
heights of, for various diamet,ers
and plates, table, 329
thickness of plates of t,ahle. 329
thickness of side plates, 35
wind-strain on, 328
Statical moment, 490
Static and dynamic properties of
steel, 4i 6
Stays. steam-boiler, loads on, 882
steam-boiler, material for, 852
St.ay-bolt iq@n, 438
tSt.ay-bolts% steam-boilers, 888
St.ayed surfaces, strengrh of, 315
sjteam, 836-854
determining moisture in, 91%91.5
dry. de!inition, 836 :,., : : .,
,.,.
latent heat of. 836
loop, 852
loss of pressure in pipes,. 849
maximum efficiency of, in Carnot
cycle, 850
mean pressure of expanded, 930
metal, 368
power, cost of, 981-984
receivers on pipe lines, 853
Regnsults experiments.on. ~3s
saturated, definition, 836
saturated, density, volume and
latent heat of, 839
saturated, properties of, table,
839-842
saturated, specific heat of, 837
saturated, temperature and pm+
sure of, 837
sat.urated, total heat of, 836
separators, 911
superheated (seealso Superheated
steam)
superheated, definition, 836
superheated, economy of stram-
engines with, 969
su erhea,ted.
F
pipes and vales
or, 8.51
superheated, properties of, 843
superheated, specific heat of, MS
temperature of, 536
vessels (see Ships)
weight of, per cubic foot, t,ab!e,
839
wet, definition, 836
Steam-boiler, 854-901
compounds, 898
efficmncy, computation of, 860
efficiency, relation of, to rate of
driving, air-supply, etc., S62
furnaces, height of, 889
plates, ductility of, 884
plates, tensile .strength of, 8%
tests, heat-balance in, 872
tests, rules for, SG6-874
tubes, holding power of, 883
tubes, non and st,eel. 853
tubes, material for, 883
Steatn;one& bumped heads, rules
condhions to secure economy of.
859, 862
i,,:, construction of, 879-889
,~ ,~
7:?
.,? :
INDEX. ste 1451 .':
','
. 1
!
Steam-boilers, construction
~United States merchant-vesz$
rules, SS4
corrosion of, 443, 897
curves Of performance of, 863
dangerous, 901
domes on, S89
down-draught furnace for, 890
effect of heating air for furnaces
of, 865
evaporative tests of, 864-868
explosive energy of, 902
factors of evaporation, 874-878
factors of safety of, 879
feed,-pumps for, efficiency of, 908
feed-water heaters for, 909-911-
feed-water saving due to heat-
ing of, 909
fla;s$ates in, rules for, 880, 885.
flues and gas passages, propor-
tions of, 858
foaming or priming of, 692.899
for blast-furnaces, 865
forced combustion in, 894
fuel economizers. 894
furnace form&e, SSi
fusible plugs in, 889
girders, rules for, 882
grate-surface, 855, 857
grate-surface, relation to heating-
surface, 857
gravity feeders, 908
heating-surface in, 855. 856
heating-surface, relation of, to
grate-surface, 857
heat losses in, 861
height of chimney for. 91.9, 921
high rates of evaporation, 865
horse-power of, 854
hydraulic test of, 879 *
incrustation of, 897-902
injectors on, 906-908 (see In-
iectors)
marine. oorrosion of, 900
maximum efficiency with Cum-
berland coal, 865
measure of .duty of, 855
mechanical stokers for, 889
nerformance of. 858
tiressure allowable in 884-888
proportions of, 855~S58
proportions of grate and heat-
ing-surface for given horse-
power. 855, 857
Proportions of grate-spacing,~857
nveting, rules for, 579
safety-valves, discharge of steam
through, 905
safety-valves for, 902-906
safety-valves, formuhe for, 902
safety-valves, spring-loaded, 904
safe working-pressure, 887
scale compounds, 898
scale in, 897-902
sediment in, 898
shells, material for, 880
strength of. 879-889
strength of rivets, 879
tests of. at Centennial Exposi-
tlon. 864
tube-
use o F
late.% rules for, 882
kerosene in, 899
use of zinc in, 901
using waste gases, 865, 866
Steam-calorimeters, 919-915
Steam-conslimption rn. engines,
Willans law, 962
cominuous recorder of, 940
Steam-domes on boilers, 889
Steam-engines, 929
advantages of compounding, 946
advantages of high initial and
low back pressure, 967
and turbine. in\lQ04, best econ-
omy of, 977
bed-plates, dimensions of, 1025
bearmgs, size of, 1015
clearance in, 936
compom~tl, Q46-953
compound, best cylinder ratios,
932
compound, calculation of cylin-
ders of, 952
compound, combined indicator
diagram, 949
compound condensing, test of
wvlth and wit~hout jackets, 976
compound, economy of, 968
cylinder condensation, experi-
ments on, 937
cylinder condensat,ion. loss by,936
co~~y;iS two us. three cylm-
compoimd. formulae for expan-
sion and work in, 951
compound. high-speed, perform-
ance of, 960, 961
c~;~,ouQ;$ high-speed, sizes of,
compound, non-condensing, et&
ciency of, 971
comnound. receiver, idea! dia-
gram, 947
compound, receiver space in, 950
compound. receiver type, 947
compound, steam-jacketed.. per-
formances of, 960
compound, steam-jacketed, test
of. 976 ...
~compound, Sulzer,..water con-
sumpt.ion of, 969 :
compound, velocity of steam in
passages of, 956
cof6mFS$ vs. trrple-expansion,
Stea~m-cngines. fly-wheels. centrifu-
gal force in, 1029
fIy-wheels, dmutcters of, 1030
flyi;)&, formulzz. for, 1026,
fly-WLAS. speed, variation in,
1026 1027
fly-whe&, str?ins in, 1031
flyi+&& thxkness of rim of,
Steam-engines, qlLadruple. perform-
ance of, 974
rat.io qf expansion in, 932
re\ToF;eog gear, dimensions of,
rollin&mill. sizes of, 980
rotary, 1062
setting the valves of, 1043
shafts and bearings, 1010-1023
shaft,s, bearings for, 1,015
sh;~& bending res&anco of,
shafts, dimensions of, 1010-1017
s!xafts, equivalent twisting mo-
ment of, 1012
shafts, fly-wheel, 1013
shafts. twisting resistance of,
1010
single-cylinder, ecdnomy of, 957
single-cylinder, high-speed, sizes
and performance of, 960
single-cylinder, water consump-
tlon of, 957-959
slide-valve, definitions, 1034
slide-valve diagrams. 10:15-1039
slide-valve, effect of clrnnging
lap. lead, etc.. 1039
slide-valve. etfect of lap and 1~1,
, ,..> , * ,,.>n
Steam _ engine-i. triple - expansion. Steam _
non-con!lensing, 961
triple-esp:insion. sequence of .~
cmnks in 3.56 CriLnks in 3.56
triple-espanlon.st~~,n-ja~i;e~ed, triple-espnnlon.st~~,n-ja~i;e~ed,
Performance of, 961, 962 Performance of, 961, 962
triple-espan.~ion.theorctical m&n triple-espan.~ion.theorctical m&n
r+ctive nressures. !I.54 effective pressures. 9.54
triple-expansion, types of, 956
triple-expansion, water consump-
t,lOn of. 9.59, 969
Use of reheaters in, 975
usmg superheated steam, 97%
974
valve-rods, dimensions of. 1019
WakChaert valve-gear, 1046
water consmnption from indi-
cator-cards, 943
~water consumption of. 937
with fluctuating loads, wasteful,
9:3-f:
with sulphur-dioside addendum,
-3 u I cc
wrist-pin. dimensions of,. 1009
Steam tire-engines. capzclty and
economv of, 964
stp,t,n @t&O fiR:-Rl
heat& UC. diameter -of supply
mat ,IIS. 6il. 673
heatir ur. indirect. 669
hcabit
_-.
compression, effect of, 933
condensers, 1050-1061 (see Con-
densers)
connecting-rod ends, 1005
connecting-rods; dimensions of,
100:3-1003
cost of, 981-984
counterbalancing of, 980
~r~n$;~pms, chmenslons of, 1003-
----
fly-wheels, weight of? 1027, 1025
fly-wheels, wooden nm 1033
foundations embedded in air, 980
frames, dimensions of, 1025
friction of. 1215 I
---Y
crank-pins. pressure on, 1008
crank-pins, strength of, 1007
cranks, dimensions of, 1009
crank-shafts,
1017-1019
dimensions of,
crank-shaft,s for torsion and
flerure. 1019
cra$;;haft~s for triple-expilnsion,
goWnors, fly-ball, 1047
governors, fiy-wheel, 1048
zovernors. shitft. 1048 .~~~~ ~~~~. ~~~~~I ~~~~
governors, springs for, 1048-1030
guides, sizes of. 1002
highest economy of, 97.5
high piston speed in, 966
high-speed, British, 966
hich-soeed Corliss. 966
i&$-shed, econoiny of, 96.5
high-speed, performance of, 959-
962
high-speed, sizes of, 959-962
high-speed tltrotthnp. 967
horse-power constants, 941-9.1~4
indicated horse-power of singlc-
cylinder, B-LO-946
indicator dingrams, 938
indicator diagram, analysis of.
992
indicabor diagrams. to draw
clearance iine on. 944
indicator diaerams. to draw es-
----
cmnk-shafts, three-throw, 1019
cross head and crsnk, relative
motion of, 1042
cross !:xd-pin, dimensions of,
1009
heath
hent,it
jnckel
jet bh
wt. PY
xx, indirect, size of rcgis-
ters and ducts, 669
heatin: of Lrernhonses, 673
lg. rhipes for, 669
I~ vacuum systems of, 673
:Z;~ltt enzines. 975
c~;kt.;T, most economica, point of.
cylinlicrs. dimensions of, 996. 997
cyljntlrr-head bolt.*. size of. 99!)
ry;;;er-heads, dimensions of,
tlrslgn, current practice, 1022
dir;nJ+mns of parts of, 979, 996-
ec;en$-rods, dimensions of,
I.,*--IJo
slide-rslve. lead. lo:39
slide-valve; port openinK. 1039
sM+$ve. ratto ot lap tn travel.
Z~X
sli&v$ves, crank-angles, table,
slide-vslves, cut-off for various
$$?and travel, table, 1042.
*.-- _. hauster, 651
ventilator,
,, :.
Jet 652
pipe corerin:?, tests of, 558-561
pipes, 8.51~S.54
pipes, copper. t.ests of, 851
ninoQ. Conner. st,rcnxth of. 851
$iG; faGre< of, Si;,i
pipes for engi!les, 848
pipes for m:\rme engines, 548. .
pipes, proportioninc for mmt-
mum !os:
paxtsion cl&e, 944
inrhcator rigs. 939
indicators, etrect of leakage, 946
indicators, errors of, 939
ixfluence of vacuum and super-
heat on economy, 972
Lentz compound, 968
limitations of speed of, 9G6
link mot.ions, 1044-10.46
links size of 1WO
mea; and teiminal pressures, 930
mean effective pressure, calcu-
lations ofi 931
measures OI duty of, 933
non-condensing, 95S, 960, 961
oil re uired for, 1221
pipes 9 or, 848
pistons, clearance of, 996
pistons. dimensions of, 999
ptston-rins, size of, 1000
piston-rod guides, size of, 1002
p@on-mds, fit of, 1001
piston-rods, size of. 1001
piston-valves, 1043
preventjon of vibration in, 980
pm~~ftions, current practice,
_--._
slide-valve, settin,rr of, 1043
slide-valves. relative motion of
crosshead and crank, 1042
small. coal consumntion of. 064
Small; water Consuni~tioh Gf, 963
steam consumption of different
types, 969
steam-jackets, influence of, 975
steam-1 turbines and gas-engines
rtnmmred. 986
A..
eccentrics, dimensions of, 1020
effect of moist.ure in steam, 9x2
economic performance of, 957-
981
economy at various loads and
speeds, 963, 064
economy, effect on, of wet steam,
972
friction, S49
pipes, riveted-steel. 852
p&s, ~~nmwrf~. loss from. 853
-~&j&Z;~(~&l~~ m&ldcnsa-
{& in. 8.3
pipes, vnlres in, 852
pipes, mire-wound, S51
turbines, 1062-1071
turbine. lon:pressure, combined
with high pressure reciprocating
engine, 1331
turbines. tesling oil for,, 1221
t.urbines and gas-engine, com-
bined plant of, 9S6
turbine and steam-engine com-
pa,red, 97s 1
t,urbmes. effirxency of, 1067
turbines, impulse and reaction,
1062,. 1066
economy of compound vs. triple-
expansion, 9S.4
cronomy of, in central stations,
Of%3
econornv of, simple and com-
pound cotn
eco~~omy 2
arerl. 96s
963
1111 er variable loads,
economy with superheated steam
,969
ctficiency in thermal unit,s per
minut~e, 934
E ;ulzer*com$o~md and triple-es-
---_:_- ,,na
panslull, YY
superheated steam in, 969
to change speed of, 1048
to put on center, 1043
three-cylinder, 1019
rules for t.ectn nf~ W&Q.
triple-e
triple-expansion and compound,
relntive economy, 984
triple-esoansion. crank-shafts
estimating I.H.P. of sin& cylin-
der and compound. ~40
exhaust steam used for heating,
9Sl
esp:msions in, tnhlr, 935 '
IVY-wheels, 1026-1034
Ily-wheels, arms of, .1032
I3 I
proportions of, 996-1026
quadruple expansion, 956
, , ~. . _, . . - . . . _ . - . ~_, _. _. . ^, , , . , . . _~. , ,
WARNING: This ,i.s a : 910 edition.
for. 1619
triple-espxtsion, cylinder pro-
portions 993-955
tri&-expans~on, cylinder ratios,
.a
tri&expansion, high-speed.
f;z&s and performances of, 961,
___. ___.
turbines, theory bf, 1063 turbines, theory bf, 1063
turbines using exhaust, from re- turbines using exhaust, from re-
ciprocating engines, 1069, 1331 ciprpceting engines, 1069, 1331
Steamships, Atlantic, performances Stea~~hf~~~Atlan,tIc, performances
nf~ lx?8
Steel, &i-%7 Steel, 451-487
allov. heat treatment of. 479 alloy, heat treatment of, 479
aluminum, 472 alummum, 472
analyses and properties of, 4633 analyses and properties of, 4633
and iron. classification of. 413 and iron, classification of, 413
annealirig of. 459, 460, 4% annealirl~ of. 459, 460, 46S
asles. specificat~ions for, 483, 4S5 asles. specificat,ions for, 483, 4S5
as1e.s. streneth of. 13 axles, strength of, 332 . . .
bars, effect. -of n&kin:, 461 bars, effect. of nickinp, 461
beams, safe loa,d on. S-l beams, safe loa,d on. S-l
hending tests of, 45-l hending tests of, 45-l
Bessemer basic,ult.imatestrength Bessemer basic,ult.imatestrength
of, G2 of, G2
BT;;ner, range of strength of, BT;;ne(ner, range of strength of,
IGIl& sl)ecifications for. 4S3 IGIl& sl)ecifications for. 4S3
blooms, weight of, table, IS5 blooms, weight of, table, IS5
brillcc-links, strength of, 331 brillcc-links, strength of, 331
l~ril1ltrnrs.s IIIIC to IIoating, 45s l~ril1ltrnrs.s IIIIC to IIoating, 45s
I~tIrIiinr carbon oltt of. 461 I~tIrIiinr carbon oltt of. 461
---
tuI%$s, steam consumption of,
ca.%mgs, strength of, 333
ceInt:>,tation or ease-hardening
of, 1x6
chrome. 47:
chrornluln-vnna.di~lm. 476-478
chromirun-vanadii:!n spring, 401
cold-drawn, tests of, 339
cold-rolled, tests of, 339
color-scale for tempering, 46ti
comparative tests of large and
small pieces, 455
copper, 475
corrosion of, ,4&j. 444
crank-pins, specifications for, 453
crit,ical pomt in heat treatment
of, 456
crucible, 466-470
Crucible, analyses of, 466. 469
crucible, etfect of heat treatment,
4<57, 466
crucible, selection of grndes of,
466
crucible, specific gravkies of, 466
effect of annealing, 455
effect of annealing on grain of, 454
elfect of annen,lmg on mngnetic
rapacity. GO
effect of cold on strengfh of, 410
elect of finishing tempernturc in
rolling, 454
.,
~p~~-~~~rtli, structural, strength
pIat& (see Plates, steel)
rails, specifications for, 4%
rails, strength of. 331
range,of strengt,h in, 454
recalescence of, 455
...
.,
. . , , ~^_ / . . ~ . , , . ~. . I _~. , . , _ L, , , , ; , . _~
YARNING: This is,,~g 1910 editi~bn.
A , ~
Some of .
---
electrical conductivity of, 453
endurance of, under repeated
stresses, 463
cspansion of, by heat, 540
eye-bars, test of, 338
failures of ,, 46
fatigue rcslstance o$ 477
fir;-&x. hoInogeneIty test, for,
fluid-compresse; 464
for car-axles, sp&ificstions. 483,
455
forqsdi-i;Ft uses, agalyses of,
fxgings, annealing of, 4.58
forgings, oil-tempering of. 458
forgings, specifications for, 4S2
for rails, specifications.4S-1:
hardening of, 455
hardening temperat~ure of, use of
a magnet to determine, 1,346
harveyizing, 1246
heiLting in a lead bath, 467
heating, in melted salts by an
electric clUrrent, 467
heating of, for forgjnu, 46s
he;;, trelttment of Cr-Va steel.
high-speed tool, 470
high-speed tool, emery tvheel for
grinding, 1240, 1267
hi%&&eed tool new, tests of,
igh-speed tool, Taylors es-
periments, 1238
hig4h;trength, for shipbuilding,
inp0t.q segregation in, 462
life of. under shocl<, 263
low strength of, 433
low strenath due to insufficient
work. 4o4
manganese, 470
manganese, resistance t.o abra-
sion of, 470-471
manufacture of, 451
melting, temperature of, 52s
mixture of, with cast iron, ,429
Mushet. 472
nickel. 472
nickel; tests of, 472
nickel-vanadium, 475
of different carbons, uses of. 463
open-hearth, range of strenp;h
of, 454
Steel. relation between chemical
CornPosition and physical char-
acter of. 452
r@et, shelirGi resistance of 407
rivets, specifications ior 4~1
rope, fiat, table of strhngth of,
337
rope, i table of strength of, 356
shearii
sheets
ng strength of, 340
soft, ci
, weight of, IS1
specifi,
Uenching t.est for, 483
cations fOr,+480-4S7
.^~
specific. swsvit~r 01. 4~1
sPlice-
-..oI \V upa*
sta@ and dynamii: properties of,
476
strength of. Kirkaldys tests,
strength of, variation in. 454
331
structural, annealing of.
structural,
460
drilling of, 4~0
structural, eI?ect of punching and
shearmg, 459
structural, for bridges, specifica-
tion 3 of, 4so
structr
catic
lrat, for buildings, specifi-
111s of, 4so
structr ml. for ships, srlecifica-
tions of, 4S3
structural, punching of, 460
structural, riveting of, 459
structural shapes, properties of,
287-310
structural, specifications for. 4So
structural, treatment of, 469-460
StrUCtUral, upsetting of. 460
structural, welding of, 460
struts, 271
tempering of, 468
tensile strength of, at high ten\-
pe,ratures, 439
tensile strength of, pure, 453
tires, specifications for, 4S5
tires,strength of, 332
tool. Comnositinn and heat treat.-
INDEX.
mknt of. 1243
tool, heating of, 467
tungsten, 472
Used in automobile construction,
4W 2
very . ~~~. --.. - Dure. low strength of, 453
water-pipe, 329
welding of, 460, 463
wire gauge, tables. 30
mnrlcinv nf I~+~ 1\111e lIeat. 45s ..--I.~o _, _ .,I
working stresses in bridge mem-
bers, 272
i
tion, 552
3tefan and Boltzmrm law of radia-
Sterro metal, 369~
St. Gpthard tunnel loss of pressure
In air-pipe mains in, 595
Stokf&Taylor gravity underfeed,
03
Stokers, mechanical, for stetlm-
boilers, 889
Stokers, under-feed, S90
Stone, streng!h of, 335, 3.47
iveignc ano specific gravity of,
table, li-1
~Stone-cutting with wire, 1262
Storage of steam heat, 897, 987
batteries, 1378
batteries, efficiency of 1380
batteries, rules for car; of 138i
Storms, pressure of wind in 599
Stoves, for heating compre&ed-air,
efficiency of, 612
foundries, cupola charges in 1227
Stra$it-line formula for col;lmns,
ZI L
Strain and stress, 25s
Strand, steel wire, for gUJrs, 249
g:gFrnas fuel, 80s
flO(V, ;gjlls
measurement of
Streams, fire. ~722-725 (see Fire-
streams)
running, horse-power of; 734
Strength and specific gravity of
cast iron, 425
COlnPresSive, 267-269
compressive, of woods, 344, 346
loss of. in Iinched plater 401 ,
of anchor-Lings 331
of ah:minum,~358
of aluminum-copper alloys, 371
of basic Bessemer steel, 352
of belting, 335
of blocks for hoisting, 1157
of boiler-heads, 314 315
of boiler-plate at high tempera-
tares, 439
of bolts, 373, 326
of brick, 325
of brkl i and st.one, 347, 350
of bridge-links, &<l
of bronze, 331,360
of cmivas, 333
of castings, 330
of cast iron; 421
of cast-iron beams, 427
of cast-iron columns, 274
of cast-iron cvlinders, 427
of cast-iron Bange? fittings, 428
of bTrTt4Fy, relation to size of
. .
of 4;Ft-lron water-pipes, 194,
of of chain cables, table,
of
chains, t.able, 251, 252 251, 252
chalk, 349
of cement mortar, 350
of columns, 269T-278. 1337
of $fLpper at high temperatures
A.
of copper plates, 334
of copper-tin alloys, 361
of copper-twin-zinc alloys, graphic
representjltioii, 364
of copper-zinc alloys, 364
of
pf
cordage, table, 386-391,
crank-pins, 1007
1157
the mat&is1 may no.,lon@r be accurate,
Strength of electro-magnet, 1386
of nagging, 350
~Stresses combined, 312
of fiat plates. 313
eaect of, 258
of fiooi's, 1337-1340
to framed strluctures,
111 @tin::
515-522
of German silver; 334
of bullthea&. et.c..
01 Edass. 343
of granite, ~335
of gun-bronze. 363
due to water-lxessure,~ 31.5
in steel Plating due to water
pressure, 315
Tail-rope, system of haulage, 1175
Tanbark as fuel, SOS
Tests. CI Tests,, compressive (xc Corn*&,
rangent of an angle, ti7
8ive strength) sive oLcrri;L,,,
of steam-boilers, rules for, 866 of steam-boilers, rules for, 866 * *
Tang;enp of angles, table of, 166-
>
of steam-engines, rules for, 98s of steam-engines, rules for, 98s
of strength of materials (see of strength of materials (see
Strength)
ar-__--_.Li
tensile (see Streugth and Ten-
Tangential or impulse wster-
wheels,.tables of, 7.51
Tanks and:cwterns, number of bar-
rels in, 133
capacities of, tables. 128, 132
with flat sides, ~plating and fram-
ing for, 316
T
sile strength)
Test-pieces, comparison of large
and small,.455
Thermal Thermal capacity, 534
storage storage, 897, 987
units, units. 532
Thermit Therrmt process, the, 372
weldin welding process, 463
Thermod Thermodynamics, 571-577
laws 01 laws of, 572
Thermon Thermometer, air, 530
centigr centigrade and Fahrenheit com-
naie pared, ta,bles, 524
Threads, Thread?, pipe, 202. 207
Tbreadin Tbre;ffm$4nd partmg tools, speed
of. 1 1.
of hand and hydraulic riveted
joints, 402
of ice, 344
@uctures, frS
btructtn
produced br shocks, 263
met!, stresses in, 515
al maienals, permissil)le
_ _ ,. ,. _
of iron and steel, effect of cold
on, 440
of iron and steel pjlpc, 361
of lime-cement mortar, 350
of limestone, 349
of locomotive forgings, 331
of Lowmoor iron bars, 330
of malleable iron, 430, 434
of .marble, 335
shaPes, elements bf 2SO
shaP% moment ok inertia of,
3x -.-
steel shapes,
310
properties of, 2S7-
sllapes. radius ofygyration of, 279
s&m, steel (see Steel. struc-
of masonrv. 349
of materials, 25S-3.59
of materials, Iiirkaldys tests
330-336
Tantalum electric Ismps. 1371
Taps, A.S.M.E. standard, 227
form&e and table for screw-
threads of, 224
Tap-drills, tables of, 227, 12G9
Taper. to set in a Iatbe, 123S
Tapered wire rope, llS3
Taper pins. 1272
Tapers, Jarno. 1271
Morse, 1271
of perforated plates, 402
of Phosphor-bronze, 370
of Portland cement, 336
, of rireaed joints, 337, 401-411
of roof trusses, 521
of rope,
of
333, 3S!i, 1193
sandst.one, 349
of sheet metal, 334
of silicon-bronze
of
wire, 371
sospst.one, 349
of sprin:: steel, 333
of spruce timber, 345
of stayelI surfaces 315
of steam-boilers, $79-SS9
cural,
etc.),
also 13eams, angles,
steel rolled sections, proper-
t&s Of 257-310
Strut, mo&g, 511
St.ruts, steel, formuhe for, 271
strength of, 269
wrought-iron, formuhe for, 271
Suction lift of Pumps 757
Sugar mamufacture, $09
+solutions, concentration of, ,555
Sulphnte of limo, solubilit~ of 54.5
Sulphur dioxide addenilunl 10
steam-engine, 976
dioxide and ammonia-gas, pro-
perties of, 12S5
diy;d,e. refrige:erutillg-rnacl~it~,a,
inHuence of, on cast iron, 41.5
infiuenre of,, on steel, 4.52
Sum and dlfference of nuglrs,
functions of, 69
Snn,~c!;t of, as a source of p0\vrr.
Superheated steam, effect of on
steam consumption, 972
steam, economy of strum-rn-
gines with. 969
stem, practical npplicntion of,
9i3
Taylors experiments on cutting:
tools of high-speed skel. 123s
Taylors rules for belting, 1120
theorem. 79
Tccttl;; gears, forms of, 113%
of 1~~6rs, proportions of, 1135,
Ti:letirapb-wire, joints in. 239
tests of, tabIe. 23s
Telpherage. 1171
Temperature,, absolute, 540
determ~nat!on of by @or, 5.31
de~,r7m~$ons of meltmg-pomts
I .
L,.
pipe; force required for, 341
Three-phase trausmission, rule for
sizes of wires, 1398
circuits, 1395
Thrust be+rinr;s, 1208
Tides, utillzatlon of power of, 756
Ties, railroad, reqrured per mile
of track, 232
Tiles, weipbt of, 186
Timber (see also wood)
3. safe loads. 1335. 1341
beams;.strength df, 344
expansion of. 345
effect of on strength, ;44, 439-
441
of fire, 7S5
of steel propeller-shafts, 332
of steel rails, 331
of steel tirw 332
rise of, in combustion of gases,
786
of structural shapes, 287-310
of thnber, 34-l-347
of twisted iron, 264
of u$ayed surfaces, 314
stress due to, 312
Temperature-entropy diagram, 574
-ent,ropy diagram of water and
stesm, 576
of welds. 2.51. 333
of wire, 335, 336
of wire and hemp rope, 334, 335
of wrought-iron columns, 2;l
of s-rllow pine, 344
ranq of, in steel, 454
shearing,
shearing,
of iron and steel, 340
of woods, table, 34;
Sugejtk&.ing, economy due to, .
t\
Temper carbon, in c&St-iron. 416.
Tempering, effect of, on steel, 46s
.of steel, 468
m&sure, 20
preserratlon of, 347
strength of, 344-347
table of cont,ents in feet, 21
Time, measures of, 20
Tin. alloys of (see ~Uloys)
lined iron pipe, 21s
plates. 187
properries of, 176
plates,.lS7
Tires. locomotive. shrinkage fits,
in locomotives, 1102
Surface condensers, 1051
of sphere, t.able. 123 126
Surfaces
62-67
of geometAra1 snlids.
oil, of steel forgings, 4%
Tenacity of different metals, 177
of metals at various tempera-
tures, 344, 439
Tensile strength, 265
strength, Increase of, by twist-
ing, 264
SLt33, Dl,CL1&bI, I, V.VI
itanium. addit,ions to cast-iron,
tensile. 2A.T
tensile: Gi;ron and steel at high
tempernturcs, 439
t.ensile, of Pure steel. 453
torsional, 311
t,r:iwverse, 282-286
Strrss nnd strain, 253
due to temprrat,ure. 312
St hw+.s
72
of revolution, quadrature of. 79
unst,aved Rat, 314
Suspension mb!ew:t~s llS1
Sweets slide-valve dIagmm, 1036
Symbols. chemical, 170
electrical. 1416
Synchronous-motor, 1409
strengtb of iron and steel at
high temperatures, -139
strength of pure steel, 453
strength (see Strength)
tests, Precautions in making,
266
1273
steel, friction of on rails, 1195
steel, specificn?ions for, 485
&^..a ..r-~.~.+,. ,,c ?2,
T.
41s. 426
aluminum a IIOV. 375
Tobin bronze,-
Toggle-joint, r?
Tool steel lscr
36s
ill
tests, shapes of specimens Cor,
266
---..~~~~~ x
01~0 Steel)
s:eel lugh-speed, composition
and bent.-t reat.ment, of, 1242
st,eel. best quality. 1242,
steel, high-speed, new (1909),
A~~ ALL. .t ,o*e
sllowet1.h~ bridge membt~rs.
Tension and flexure combiucd, 312
and shear, combined, 312
Terne-plate, 1%
Terra cotta, weight of, 1%
wscs 01, ,lL-i,
steel. Irlgb-speed. Taylors cx-
nerinient,s. 1238..
s&l in sm&l shops, best treat-
rnent of. I?-L.5
steel of different qualities, 1243
..,_..,-,. .,,, ,- _.,.,_.. 1, ,,, ,_ ,~.~,_ ._ .~ ~..~,. :;.:,-,>I .I.;.. ./: ~ : .,.,
WARNING: This js a 1910 edition. Some of the material. may no l onger be acqu' ate
.
TOOk, CuttlIlg, durabilif,y~ bf, 1243
economical cutting speed of,
1243
INDEX. uni-wa.t 1459
Triple-expapsion engine
Steam-efigines)
(see
Transverse strength, 252-236
Trapezium and Trapezoid, 55
Trisngles, mensuration of, 55
problems in, 42
spherical, 64
@lrtion of, 70
Tngmlometncal
slide rule, $4
computations by
form&e, 69
functions, table, 166-169
functions, loganthmic, 169
Trigonometry, 67-70
Triple effect evaporators, 543
Troostite. 456
Trough piat&& properties of, 289
Troy weight. 19
Trusses, bridge.. stresses in, 517
roof, stresses m, 521
Tubes, boiler, table, 209
boiler, used as columns, 341
brass, seamless, 216
collapse of, formuke for, 320
collapse of: test,s of, 320
collapsing pressure of, tabie, 321
copper, 216
expanded.
342. 883
holding power of,
lead and tin, ?I7
of $fFrent materials, weight of,
sealnless aluminum bronze, 372
steel, cold-drawn. She!by 210
surface per foot of Iength.2;1
welded, extra strong, 209
Versed line of an arc. 68
sines, table. 166-169
Verticals, formuhe for strains in,
519
VesSels (see also Ships)
Vessels, framing of. table, 316
Vibrs&ns In engm&, preventing,
Vis-viva, 502
Volt, definit.ion of,1345
Voltages used in long-distance
transmission, 1399
VolupQes of revolution, cubature of,
Vulc&&ed India rubber, 356
Unit of heat, 532
of work, 50?
Units, etectrlcal and mechanical,
equivalent values of, 1347
electrical, relations of, 1346
of the magnetic circmt. 1346
United States, population of, 11
standard sheet metal, gauge, 31
Unstayed surfaces, strength of, 314
Upsetting of structura!. steel, 459
cutting, effect of feed and depth
of cut on speed of, 1241
cutting? in small shops, best
method of treatment, 1243
cutting, interval between grind-
ings of, 1241
cutting, pressure on, 1241
forging and grinding of, 1240
cutting, use of water on, 1241
machine (see Machine tpols)
pa$nf?;;d thread, cuttmg speed
. -.
Vacy57 at different temperatures,
drying in, 546
. high advantage of, 1059
higghj3mfluence of on, economy,
inches of mercury and absolute
pressures, 1053 -
pumps, 775
syste:ns of steam heating, 673
Valve-gear, Stephenson, 1044
Walsckiert. 1046
VAlv;; a$ elbows. friction of air
7 *
amtofitt;;gs, loss of pressure due
pumj. 762,
111 steam pipes, S.52
straight-way gate, 199
Vnlve-stem or rod, design of, ;OIS
(see Steam-engines)
Vanadium and copper alloys, 371
effect of on cast Iron, 416, 426
steel spring, 401
-chrome steel. .476-4i8
-nickel steels, 475
Vapor, pressures of various liquids.
!Vall;3;i buildings, thickness of,
of l;;,rehouses,, factories, etc.,
windows, etc., heat loss through,
AXI
.,:,
~~VakChUXt valve-gear, 1046
Warren girder, stresses in. 520
Wash$rs~,;rought and cast, tables
I .
.%
&itig of coal
ster, 687-697
amount of to develop a giveu
norsi e-power. 763
sbradi! ng power of, 705
my; is of. 693
boiling
bricant, 1222
point of, 690
boiling point at various baro-
meiiic pressures, 5%
comparison of head in feet with
Toot~hed-wheel gearing 514, 1133
Tonnaee of vessels. i:&
Tons per mile,eq&alent of, in lbs.
per yard, 28
Torque computed from watts and
revolutions. I.?Rfi
ho;~m&&GkF- a&i- revolutions,
of an armature, 1356
Torsion and compression com-
bined. 312
and Resure combined, 312
elastic resistance to, 311
of shafts. 1010.1106
rests of iefibed iron, 339
Torsional strength, 311
Track bolts. 232
spikes, 233
Tracy;;- force of a locomotive,
Tmctrix Schieles anti-friction
c&-e. 51
Tube&ates, steam-boiler, rules for,
Tungsgn and aluminum alloy, 375
electric lamps, 13il
steel, 472
Turbine wheel, test,s of, 742
wheels, 737-748
wheels. proportions of, 739
wheel tables. 751
Turbines. fa,ll-increaser for, 747
of 13,500 H.P.. 747.
rating and efficiency of, 743
steam. (ace Steam-turbines)
Turf or pea,t, as fuel, SOS
Tumbuckles, 231
Tuyeres for cupolas. 1224
Twist, drills (see Dnlls)
drills. sizes and speeds, 17.54
Twist-drill PZLR~~P. tn,l,le~ Rn
Trains, m&o: ad. resistance of, 1084
Failroad, SE leed of, 1094
loads, average, 1101
rrammels, to describe an ellipse
with, 46
Tramways. compressed-air 624
wire-rope, 1180
Transformers, efficiency of, 1400
electrical. 1400
Transmission, compressed-air (see
compressed-air)
electric. 1359, 1396
electric. area of wires, 1359
electric. Cost of copper, 1365
drct rir. ttconomy of, 1360
rler:ric. efficiency of. 1361
electtiC. systems of, 1363
electric. weight of copper for, 1359
e!ect,rir. wire table for. l.?fin
various units, 689
compressibility of, 691
c0nduit.s. long, efficiency of, 735
consumpt,ion oflocomotives. 1098
consumption of steam-eligines
(see &earn-engines)
current motors, 734
zpsion ,a,nd abrading by. 705
flow of (see Flow of water)
flowing in a tube, power of, 734
flowing, measurement of, 727
freezing-point of, 690
hammer 7%
water, and air mixture, weight
Of, 584, 5S6
ammonia, carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxide, properties of,
1288
hardness of, 694
head of, 6S9
heating of, by st.ea,m coils, 565
heat-units per pound of, 6%
horse-po\ver required to raise, 757
impurities of, 691
in pipes, loss of energy in, 780
jets, vertical, 722
meters, capncit~y of, 722
pipe. cast-iron, transverse
strength of, 4!27~
piy?% compound with branches,
and gases, mixtures of, 5;~~
sat+ation point Of, 57s
Vapo;y3: pressures m refrlgeratblg,
Varnishes, 448
Velocity, angular, p9S
due to filling a given height, 500
parallelogram of, 499
*able of height corresponding to
a given. 499
.-, .--_-. II
1rs, sbrenath of, 264 Twisted ste;;i &
Two-phase currents, 1394
Type-metal, 3S4
\entilAing .ducts. quant,ity of air
carried by, 655
fans, 626-645
Ventilation (see also Heating a,nd
Ventilation)
cooling air for, 6Sl
of mines (see ~~Iine-Ventilation)
by a.steam-jet, 652
of plmes; equivalent orifice, 686
Vcnt$prs. centrifugal for mines,
Venturi meter, 728
. drauhc-pressure
.I-
sion,
tmnsmis-
of hcnt (see Pleat)
of power by wire-rope (see Wire-
rope). 11S3-11S9
Pneun?atic post,al. 624
rope, iron and steel 45
FOllc (see I~ol,e-rlriI:il~~.~
UehlF3s and Steinbart pyromet~er,
Underyfiters rules for electrical
wiring, 1355
Tinerlual arms on balances, 20
Unit of evaporation, 555
of force, 488
1 .:of power, 50::
.--
power, 734
power planls, l&h lmssure. 754
power, value of, 735
preasllrcs aud heads, table, 689
a 1910 edition. Some 0
~~.
the material may no longer be &$?%b?
WARNING: This 4s
pressure pe
prices cha\i$ y:qin cities j22
pumping by compressed air. 776
auritication of. 694-697
Guantity ~of discharged from
pipes, ioi-7r2
specUic heat of. 536, 691
topl2heat and entropy of, 839-
::t:: $%%k%?%?Y.. 328
transporting p&r of, 565
under pressure, energy of. 734
units of pressure and head, 6S9
velocity of, in open channels, 704
velocity of, in pipes, 707-712
vapor and air mixture weight of,
554. 586
weight at different temperatures,
687, 6S8
weight of one cubic foot, 25
wheels, 737
wheels, ct. power.
wheels, Jp elton, 74s
of, 755
?vheels, tangential, 750
wheels. tangential choice of, 749
whcel.~ tangential table, 751
Wat~c~rfa~ll, power of a, 734
\Yater-gas, 89
atial~ws of, 830
manufacture of, 830
plant, efliciency qf, 831
Websters formula for strength of
steel, 452
Wedae, 512
volume of, 63
Weighing on an incorrect balance, 20
Weight. definition of, 4S7
and specific gravhy of materials
171-174
nuest,inrr1
(see alsu Material in
7------..--,
measures of, 19
Weir dam measurement, 731
flow of water over, 731
t.r:tpezoidal, 733
Welds. strength of, 333
Welclmg by osy-acetylene flame,464
electric. 1374
of steel, 160. 463
process, thet,hermit, 463
JVeld$f by osy-acetylene flame,
electric, 1374
of st~eel. 460, 463
WARNING: This is
Wiborgh air-pyrometer, 528
Wildwood pumping-engine, high
economy of, 774
Will:;~,law of steam consumption,
2
Wind, 597-603
force of, 597
pressure of, in storms, 598
strain on stand-pipes, 328
Winding engines, 1163
Windlass, 514
ditferential, 514
Windmills, 599-604
capacity and economy, 60;
Wire. aluminum, properties of, l
243. 1362
alummum bronze, 243
brass. properties of, 243
brass, weight of. table, 219
copper, hard-drawn, specification
for. 243
cower. st.randed. 242
copper; rule for r&stance of. 242
copper, table of size, weight and
resistance of Edison gauge. ?40
copper, telegraph and telephone,
241
co
f
per. weight of bare and insu-
at+. 241
galvanized, for telegraph and
telephon? lines, 2:JS
gap;Fzed Iron, specifications for,
galvanized steel strand, 249
gauges, tables, 29
insulated copper, 241 .
iron and steel 237-239
nails. 235. 236
phosphor-bronze. 243
piano, strength of,,239
platinum, properties of, 243
plow steel, 239
of different metals, 243
silicon-bronze, 243,371
steel, .properties of, 237
stranded feed, table, 242
telegraph, joints in, 239
telegraph, tests of, 238
weight per mile-ohm 238
Wireis; various metals, strength of
Wire-rope, 244-250
rope, bending curvature of, 1188
rope, bending st.ress of, I lS4
rope, breaking strength of, 1184
rope, flat, 24s
rope, galvanized, 2.47
rope haulage (see Haulage)
rol$l$rse-power transrmtted by
ropcl,8xxsc-power transmit.t.ed
rope, iocked, 250
rope, notes on use of, 250
_ rope, plow steel, 246
.
,
INDEX. wit--icon. 1461
Wire;?&% radius of curvature of,
rope. sag ordeflection of, 1187
rope, splicing of. 395
ropes. strength of, 334
rope, sheaves for, 1184
rope, tapered, 1153
rope tramways, 1179
rope transmission, deflection of
rope, IlSq, $187
rope transmtqon. inclhled. 1188
rope transmission, limits of span,
1157
Wooclfs, ,&y&an, sheeringstrengt h
test; of. 346
rope transmission, long distance,
1158
ro~~R~mission of power by,
rope transmission, sheaves for
llS6
Wire-wvound flv-wheels 1034
Wirinrr rntlea l'tn~l~rwrijnrc 7Kr:
---.. o -.._--, V..--j . . . . cLy yv,
table for direct currents, 1360
table for motor service, 1356
table for three-phase transmis-
sic.. .Z~~ . ..,.,..
Wohlel
; ;
cornpo&tion of, 805
drying of, 347
eswnsion of, by heat, 345
screws, holding power of, 323
stren,7t. ,.F .> t 4 9 17
.g,r1 L, *>~,*-*>t,
.gth of. Twkaldys tests, 336
ht, of. table,. 173
ht and heatmg values of, 804
ht per cord, 255
Wooden fiy-wheels, 1033
stave pipe, 215
moolf compound engines, 947
Wooten locomotive, 1090
Work, definition of, 28, 502
energy. Dower. 502
of ad&b&c compression, 607
of acceleration, 504
of accelerated rotation, 504
of a man, horse. etc., 507-509
of friction, 1205
Worm gearing, 513 1143
Wrist-pin?, dimensions of, 1009
Wrought iron, chemical composi-
tion of. 436
iron, effect of rolling dn strength
of. 437
iron; no-..-_- ____ __, _-_
iron, slag in, 436
iron, specifications, 437. 438
,strength of. 3:30. 337, 435-439
Iron, strength of, at high tem-
_^_^ _..-.. .c.,.
perilrurrs. 5t.m
iron, strength of,I<irkaldys tests,
331
Yacht rigging,palvanized steel, 248 -
Yield point, 2.39
Z-bar_cqlumns, dimensions of, LOO-
au*
Z-bars, Carnegie, properties of, 299
Zero, absolute, 540, 537
Zcuners slide-valve diagram, 1036
Zinc alloy? (see Alloys)
propert.les of. 177
use of. in. steam boilers, 901
. __
Zone, spherical.. 63
of spheroid, 6.5
of spindle, 65