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R Failure Modes
R Failure Modes
PERFORMANCE
Failure Modes
The use of engineered composite structures requires an insight into the failure modes that are
unique to these types of materials. Some people say that composites are forgiving, while
others note that catastrophic failures can be quite sudden. Because laminates are built from
distinct plies, it is essential to understand how loads are shared among the plies. It is also
critical to distinguish between resin dominated failures or fiber dominated failures. Armed
with a thorough understanding of the different ways that a structure can fail makes it possible
to design a laminate that will soften at the point of potential failure and redistribute stress.
Failures in composite structures can be classified as by either strength or stiffness
dominated. Strength limited failures occur when unit stress exceeds the load carrying
capability of the laminate. Stiffness failures result when displacements exceed the strain limits
(elongation to failure) of the laminate.
Tensile failures of composite materials is fairly rare, as filament reinforcements are strongest in
tension along their primary axis. Tensile loading in an off-axis direction is a different story.
Resin and fiber mechanical properties vary widely in tension, so each must be studied for stress
or strain limited failure with off-axis loading scenarios.
Compressive failures in composites are probably the hardest to understand or predict. Failures
can occur at a very small-scale, such as the compression or buckling of individual fibers. With
sandwich panels, skin faces can wrinkle or the panel itself may become unstable. Indeed,
incipient failure may occur at some load well below an ultimate failure.
Out-of-plane loading, such as hydrostatic force, creates flexural forces for panels. Classic
beam theory would tell us that the loaded face is in compression, the other face is in tension,
and the core will experience some shear stress distribution profile. For three-dimensional
panels, predicting through-thickness stresses is somewhat more problematic. Bending failure
modes to consider include core shear failure, core-to-skin debonds, and skin failures (tension,
compression, and local).
Although composite structures are not subject to corrosion, laminates can sustain long-term
damage from ultraviolet (UV) and elevated temperature exposure. Based on the number of
pioneering FRP recreational craft that are still in service, properly engineered laminates should
survive forty-plus years in service.
Lastly, the performance of composite structures in fires is often a factor that limits the use of
these materials. Composites are excellent insulators, which tends to confine fires to the space
of origin. However, as an organic material the polymeric resin systems will burn when
exposed to a large enough fire. Tests of various sizes exist to understand the performance
marine composite materials system during shipboard fires.
209
Failure Modes
Marine Composites
Tensile Failures
Stress
Strain
Tensile tests are usually performed under standard temperature and humidity conditions and at
relatively fast speeds (30 seconds to 5 minutes). Test conditions can vary greatly from in-service
conditions and the designer is cautioned when using single-point engineering data generated
under laboratory test conditions. Some visible signs of tensile failures in plastics are:
Crazing: Crazes are the first sign of surface tensile failures in thermoplastic materials and gel
coat finishes. Crazes appear as clean hairline fractures extending from the surface into the
composite. Crazes are not true fractures, but instead are combinations of highly oriented
fibrils surrounded by voids. Unlike fractures, highly crazed surfaces can transmit stress.
Water, oils, solvents and the environment can accelerate crazing.
Cracks: Cracking is the result of stress state and environment. Cracks have no fibrills, and
thus cannot transmit stress. Cracks are a result of embrittlement, which is promoted by
sustained elevated temperature, UV, thermal and chemical environments in the presence of
stress or strain. This condition is also termed stress-cracking.
Stress whitening: This condition is associated with plastic materials that are stretched near
their yield point. The surface takes on a whitish appearance in regions of high stress. [4-34]
210
Chapter Four
PERFORMANCE
Membrane Tension
Large deflections of panels that are constrained laterally at their edges will produce tensile
stresses on both faces due to a phenomena called membrane tension. Figure 4-24 illustrates
this concept and the associated nomenclature. The ASCE Structural Plastics Design Manual
[4-34] provides a methodology for approximating large deflections and stresses of isotropic
plates when subjected to both bending and membrane stress. For long rectangular plates with
fixed ends, the uniform pressure, q, is considered to be the sum of qb, the pressure resisted by
bending and qm, the pressure resisted by membrane tension. Similarly, the maximum
deflection, wmax, is defined as the sum of deflection due to plate bending and membrane action.
ASCE defines the deflection due to bending as:
(1 2 ) q b b 4
wc = 0.156
E t3
(4-8)
(4-9)
where:
E = material stiffness (tensile)
= Poisson's ratio
t = plate thickness
b = span dimension
The deflection of the plate due only to membrane action is given as:
(1 2 ) q m b 4
wc = 0.41
Et
(4-10)
14.5 w c3 E t
(1 2 ) b 4
(4-11)
Combining (4-9) and (4-11) results in the following expression for total load:
q =
wc E t 3
(1 2 ) b 4
w2
6.4 + 14.5 2c
t
211
(4-12)
Failure Modes
Marine Composites
The Manual [4-34] suggests that trail thicknesses, t, be tried until acceptable deflections or
maximum stresses result. Bending stress for long plates is given as:
cby = 0.75 qb b2
(4-13)
q m2 b 2 E
(1 2 ) t 2
(4-14)
The total stress is the sum of equations (4-13) and (4-14). With thick or sandwich laminates,
the skin on the loaded side can be in compression, and thus the combined bending and
membrane stress may actually be less than the bending stress alone.
Figure 4-24
212
Chapter Four
PERFORMANCE
Compressive Failures
Analytical methods for predicting
compressive failures in solid and
sandwich laminates are presented in
Chapter Three. The following discussion
describes some of the specific failure
modes found in sandwich laminates.
Figure 4-25 illustrates the compressive
failure modes considered. Note that both
general and local failure modes are
described.
General Buckling
Crimping
Wrinkling
Figure 4-25
Dimpling
General Buckling
Formulas for predicting general or panel buckling are presented in Chapter Three. As hull
panels are generally sized to resist hydrodynamic loads, panel buckling usually occurs in decks
or bulkheads. Transversely-framed decks may be more than adequate to resist normal loads,
while still being susceptible to global, hull girder compressive loads resulting from longitudinal
bending moments.
Bulkhead scantling development, especially with multi-deck ships, requires careful attention to
anticipated in-plane loading. Superposition methods can be used when analyzing the case of
combined in-plane and out-of-plane loads. This scenario would obviously produce buckling
sooner than with in-plane loading alone. The general Euler buckling formula for collapse is:
critical
2 EI
l 2 cr
(4-15)
213
Failure Modes
Marine Composites
lcr = 2l
lcr = l
lcr = 0.5l
lcr = 0.707l
Figure 4-26 Critical Length for Euler Buckling Formula Based on End Condition
[Sandwich Structures Handbook, Il Prato]
Eskin
(1 )
2
skin
t skin
(4-16)
where:
tskin = skin thickness
c = core cell size given as an inscribed circle
214
Chapter Four
PERFORMANCE
M y
Iz
Neutral
Axis
(4-17)
x = skin tensile or
compressive
stress
V
2I z
max =
Vh 2
8I z
h2
y 2
4
(4-18)
(4-19)
215
Failure Modes
Marine Composites
(4-20)
v = shear deflection
m = moment deflection
Neutral Axis
Bending Stress
Shear Stress
Neutral Axis
Bending Stress
Shear Stress
Neutral Axis
Bending Stress
Shear Stress
Figure 4-29 Bending and Shear Stress Distribution in Sandwich Beams (2-D) with
Relatively Stiff Cores [Structural Plastics Design Manual published by the American
Society of Civil Engineers.]
216
Chapter Four
PERFORMANCE
Dv
Dmf
Load
(4-21)
Qp
Neutral Axis
Mp
Bending Stress
Shear Stress
Qs
Ms
Skin Neutral Axis
Qs
Skin Neutral Axis
Ms
Bending Stress
Shear Stress
Q=Qp+Qs
M=Mp+Ms
Neutral Axis
Bending Stress
Shear Stress
Figure 4-30 Bending and Shear Stress Distribution in Sandwich Beams (2-D) with
Relatively Soft Cores [Structural Plastics Design Manual published by the American
Society of Civil Engineers.]
217
Failure Modes
Marine Composites
ai
Eai [ | y yi | +
(4-22)
ti ]
218
Chapter Four
PERFORMANCE
(| y y |)
(4-23)
where:
min = the smallest critical strain that is acting on an individual ply
The minimum section moduli for outer and inner skins, respectively, of a sandwich panel based
on the failure moment responsible for first ply stress failure is given as:
n
FM
SM o =
i =1
(4-24)
to
FM
SM i =
i =1
(4-25)
ci
where:
SMo = section modulus of outer skin
SMi = section modulus of inner skin
n = total number of plies in the skin laminate
to = tensile strength of outer skin determined from mechanical testing or
via calculation of tensile strength using a weighted average of
individual plies for preliminary estimations
ci = compressive strength of inner skin determined from mechanical
testing or via calculation of compressive strength using a weighted
average of individual plies for preliminary estimations
219
Failure Modes
Marine Composites
Creep
Engineered structures are often required to resist loads over a long period of time. Structures
subjected to creep, such as bridges and buildings, are prime examples. Deckhouses and
machinery foundations are examples of marine structures subject to long-term stress. Just as
many marine composite structural problems are deflection-limited engineering problems,
long-term creep characteristics of composite laminates has been an area of concern, especially
in way of main propulsion shafting, where alignment is critical. The following discussion on
creep is adapted from the Structural Plastics Design Manual published by the American
Society of Civil Engineers. [4-34]
Figure 4-32 Variation in Viscoelastic Modulus with Time [Structural Plastics Design
Manual published by the American Society of Civil Engineers]
220
Chapter Four
PERFORMANCE
= 0 + t t n
(4-26)
When the continuously applied stress, , is less than the constants 0 and t given in Table
4-7, equation (4-26) can be rewritten as:
= 0
+ t t n
t
0
(4-27)
0
and Et, a modulus that
0
t
, equation (4-27) can be given as:
t
(4-28)
Constants for the viscoelastic behavior of some engineering polymeric systems are given in
Table 4-7. Data in Table 4-7 is obviously limited to a few combinations of reinforcements and
resin systems. Indeed, the composition and orientation of reinforcements will influence creep
behavior. As composite material systems are increasingly used for infrastructure applications,
creep testing of modern material systems should increase.
221
Failure Modes
Marine Composites
E0
dimensionless
ins/in
ins/in
psi
psi
10 psi
Et
6
10 psi
Polyester/glass (style
181) - dry
0.090
0.0034
0.00045
15,000
14,000
4.41
31.5
Polyester/glass (style
181) - water immersed
0.210
0.0330
0.00017
80,000
13,000
2.42
76.5
Polyester/glass (style
1000) - dry
0.100
0.0015
0.00022
10,000
8,600
6.67
39.1
Polyester/glass (style
1000) - water immersed 0.190
0.0280
0.00011
80,000
6,500
2.86
60.2
0.190
0.0067
0.0011
8,500
8,500
1.27
Polyester/glass woven
roving - dry
0.200
0.0180
0.00100
40,000
22,000
2.22
22.0
0.160
0.0057
0.00050
25,000
50,000
4.39
100.0
0.220
0.25
0.00006
80,000
11,000
3.20
200.0
Polyethylene
0.154
0.027
0.0021
585
230
0.0216
PVC
0.305
0.00833
0.00008
4,640
1,630
0.557
222
7.73
0.111
20.5