1

Richard Cleve
Lectures 10 ,11 and 12
DENSITY
MATRICES, traces,
Operators and
Measurements
Michael A. Nielsen

Michele Mosca
Sources:
2
Review: Density matrices
of pure states
We have represented quantum states as vectors (e.g. ,),
and all such states are called pure states)
An alternative way of representing quantum states is in terms
of density matrices (a.k.a. density operators)
The density matrix of a pure state ,) is the matrix = ,) (,
Example: the density matrix of o,0) + |,1) is
| |
(
(

=
(

=
-
-
- -
2
2

3
Reminder: Trace of a matrix
The trace of a matrix is the sum of its diagonal elements
e.g.
22 11 00
22 21 20
12 11 10
02 01 00
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
Tr + + =
(
(
(

Some properties:
| | | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| |
i
i
i
A A Tr
A Tr UAU Tr
CAB Tr ABC Tr
BA Tr AB Tr
B yTr A xTr yB xA Tr

=
=
=
=
+ = +
t
] [ ] [
Orthonormal basis { }
i

4
Example: Notation of Density
Matrices and traces
Notice that o
0
=
(0||), and o
1
=
(1||).
So the probability of getting 0 when measuring ||) is:
2
2
0
0 ) 0 ( | o = = p
( )
( )
( ) ( )


0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Tr Tr
Tr
= =
= =
= =
-
where = ||)(|| is called
the density matrix for the
state ||)
1 0
1 0
+ =
5
Review: Mixture of pure states
A state described by a state vector ||) is called a
pure state.
What if we have a qubit which is known to be in the
pure state ||
1
) with probability p
1
, and in ||
2
) with
probability p
2
?

More generally, consider probabilistic mixtures of
pure states (called mixed states):
( ) ( ) { } ... , , , ,
2 2 1 1
p p =
6
Density matrices of mixed states
A probability distribution on pure states is called a mixed state:
( (,
1
), p
1
), (,
2
), p
2
), , (,
d
), p
d
))
The density matrix associated with such a mixed state is:

=
=
d
k
k k k
p
1

Example: the density matrix for ((,0), ), (,1), )) is:
(

=
(

+
(

1 0
0 1
2
1
1 0
0 0
2
1
0 0
0 1
2
1
Question: what is the density matrix of
((,0) + ,1), ), (,0) ,1), )) ?
7
Density matrix of a mixed
state (use of trace)
then the probability of measuring 0 is given by
conditional probability:
( )

=
i
i i
p p | state pure given 0 measuring of prob. ) 0 (
( )
( )


0 0
0 0
0 0
Tr
p Tr
Tr p
i
i i i
i
i i i
=
=
=

where

=
i
i i i
p | | is the density matrix for the mixed
state |
Density matrices contain all the useful information about an
arbitrary quantum state.
8
Recap: operationally
indistinguishable states
Since these are expressible in
terms of density matrices alone
(independent of any specific
probabilistic mixtures), states with
identical density matrices are
operationally indistinguishable
9
Applying Unitary Operator to a
Density Matrix of a pure state
If we apply the unitary operation U to
the resulting state is
with density matrix

U
( )
t
t
U U U U =
10
Density Matrix
If we apply the unitary operation U to
the resulting state is
with density matrix


( ) { }
k k
q ,
( ) { }
k k
U q ,
t
t
t
U U
U q U
U U q
k
k
k k
k
k
k k

=
|
.
|

\
|
=

Applying Unitary Operator to a

Density Matrix of a mixed state
How do quantum operations work for these mixed states?
11
Operators on Density matrices of
mixed states.
Effect of a unitary operation on a density matrix:
applying U to still yields U U

Effect of a measurement on a density matrix:
measuring state with respect to the basis ,
1
), ,
2
),..., ,
d
),
still yields the k
th
outcome with probability (
k
, ,
k
)
Why?
Thus this
is true
always
12
Effect of a measurement on a density matrix:
measuring state with respect to the basis ,
1
),
,
2
),..., ,
d
), yields the k
th
outcome with probability
(
k
, ,
k
)
How do quantum operations
work using density matrices?
(this is because (
k
, ,
k
) = (
k
,) (,
k
) = ,(
k
,),
2
)

and the state collapses to ,
k
) (
k
,
13
More examples of density matrices
The density matrix of the mixed state
((,
1
), p
1
), (,
2
), p
2
), ,(,
d
), p
d
)) is:

=
=
d
k
k k k
p
1
1. & 2. ,0) + ,1) and ,0) ,1) both have
3. ,0) with prob.
,1) with prob.
4. ,0) + ,1) with prob.
,0) ,1) with prob.
6. ,0) with prob.
,1) with prob.
,0) + ,1) with prob.
,0) ,1) with prob.
Examples (from previous lecture):
(

=
1 1
1 1
2
1

=
1 0
0 1
2
1

14
5. ,0) with prob.
,0) + ,1) with prob.
7. The first qubit of ,01) ,10)
Examples (continued):
(

=
(

+
(

=
4 / 1 2 / 1
2 / 1 4 / 3
2 / 1 2 / 1
2 / 1 2 / 1
2
1
0 0
0 1
2
1

has:
...? (later)
More examples of density matrices
15
To Remember: Three Properties of Density
Matrices
Three properties of :
Tr = 1 (Tr M = M
11
+ M
22
+ ... + M
dd
)


=

(i.e. is Hermitian)

(, ,) > 0, for all states ,)

=
=
d
k
k k k
p
1
Moreover, for any matrix satisfying the above properties,
there exists a probabilistic mixture whose density matrix is
Exercise: show this
16
Use of Density Matrix and Trace to
Calculate the probability of obtaining
state in measurement
If we perform a Von Neumann measurement
of the state wrt a basis
containing , the probability of
obtaining is


=
|
|
( ) | | | Tr =
2 This is for a pure
state.
How it would be for a
mixed state?
17
Density Matrix
If we perform a Von Neumann measurement
of the state
wrt a basis containing the probability
of obtaining is



( ) { }
k k
q ,
|
|
( )
( )


Tr
q Tr
Tr q q
k
k k k
k
k k k
k
k k
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=

2
Use of Density Matrix and Trace to Calculate the
probability of obtaining state in measurement (now
for measuring a mixed state)
The same
state
18
Conclusion: Density Matrix Has
Complete Information
In other words, the density matrix contains
all the information necessary to compute
the probability of any outcome in any
future measurement.



19
Spectral decomposition can be used to
represent a useful form of density matrix
Often it is convenient to rewrite the
density matrix as a mixture of its
eigenvectors

Recall that eigenvectors with distinct
eigenvalues are orthogonal;
for the subspace of eigenvectors with a
common eigenvalue (degeneracies), we
can select an orthonormal basis
20
Continue - Spectral decomposition used
to diagonalize the density matrix
In other words, we can always
diagonalize a density matrix so that it
is written as

k
k
k k
p

=
where is an eigenvector with
eigenvalue and forms an
orthonormal basis

k

k
p
{ }
k

21
Taxonomy of
various normal
matrices


22
Normal matrices
Definition: A matrix M is normal if M

M = MM

Theorem: M is normal iff there exists a unitary U such that
M = U

DU, where D is diagonal (i.e. unitarily diagonalizable)

Examples of abnormal matrices:
(

1 0
1 1
is not even
diagonalizable
(

2 0
1 1
is diagonalizable,
but not unitarily
eigenvectors:
(
(
(
(

=
d

0 0
0 0
0 0
2
1
23
Unitary and Hermitian matrices
(
(
(
(

=
d

0 0
0 0
0 0
2
1
with respect to some
orthonormal basis
Normal:
Unitary: M

M = I which implies |
k
|
2
= 1, for all k
Hermitian: M = M

which implies
k
e R, for all k
Question: which matrices are both unitary and Hermitian?
Answer: reflections (
k
e {+1,1}, for all k)
24
Positive semidefinite matrices
Positive semidefinite: Hermitian and
k
> 0, for all k
Theorem: M is positive semidefinite iff M is Hermitian and,
for all ,), (, M ,) > 0
(Positive definite:
k
> 0, for all k)
25
Projectors and density matrices
Projector: Hermitian and M
2
= M, which implies that M is
positive semidefinite and
k
e {0,1}, for all k
Density matrix: positive semidefinite and Tr M = 1, so 1
1
=

=
d
k
k

Question: which matrices are both projectors and density

matrices?
Answer: rank-one projectors (
k
= 1 if k = k
0
and
k
= 0 if k = k
0
)
26
Taxonomy of normal matrices
normal
unitary Hermitian
reflection
positive
semidefinite

projector
density
matrix
rank one
projector
If Hermitian then
normal
27
Review: Bloch sphere for qubits
Consider the set of all 2x2 density matrices
Note that the coefficient of I is , since X, Y, Z have trace zero
They have a nice representation in terms of the Pauli matrices:
(

= =
0 1
1 0
X
x
(

= =
0
0

i
i
Y
y
(

= =
1 0
0 1
Z
z
Note that these matricescombined with Iform a basis for
the vector space of all 2x2 matrices
We will express density matrices in this basis
28
Bloch sphere for qubits: polar
coordinates
2
Z c Y c X c I

z y x
+ + +
=
We will express
First consider the case of pure states ,) (,, where, without
loss of generality, ,) = cos(u),0) + e
2i|
sin(u),1) (u, | e R)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(

+
=
(

=

2 cos 1 2 sin
2 sin 2 cos 1
2
1
sin sin cos
sin cos cos

2
2
2 2
2 2
i
i
i
i
e
e
e
e
Therefore c
z
= cos(2u), c
x
= cos(2|)sin(2u), c
y
= sin(2|)sin(2u)
These are polar coordinates of a unit vector (c
x
,

c
y
,

c
z
) e R
3
29
Bloch sphere for qubits: location of
pure and mixed states
,+)
,0)
,1)
,)
,+i)
,i)
,+i) = ,0) + i,1)
,i) = ,0) i,1)
,) = ,0) ,1)
,+) = ,0) +,1)
Pure states are on the surface, and mixed states are inside
(being weighted averages of pure states)
Note that orthogonal corresponds to antipodal here
30
General
quantum
operations
Decoherence, partial traces,
measurements.
31
General quantum operations (I)
Example 1 (unitary op): applying U to yields U U

General quantum operations are also called
completely positive trace preserving maps, or
admissible operations
I A A
j
m
j
j
=

=1
t
Then the mapping

=
m
j
j j
A A
1
t

is a general quantum
operator
Let A
1
, A
2
, , A
m
be matrices satisfying

condition
32
General quantum operations:
Decoherence Operations
Example 2 (decoherence): let A
0
= ,0)(0, and

A
1
= ,1)(1,
This quantum op maps to ,0)(0,,0)(0, + ,1)(1,,1)(1,
Corresponds to measuring without looking at the outcome
(
(

(
(

-
-
2
2
2
2
0
0

For ,) = o,0) + |,1),

After looking at the outcome, becomes ,0)(0, with prob. |o|
2

,1)(1, with prob. |||
2
33
General quantum operations: measurement
operations
Example 3 (trine state measurement):
Let ,
0
) = ,0), ,
1
) = 1/2,0) + \3/2,1), ,
2
) = 1/2,0) \3/2,1)
Then
I A A A A A A = + +
2 2 1 1 0 0
t t t
The probability that state ,
k
) results in outcome state A
k
is 2/3.
This can be adapted to actually yield the value of k with this success
probability
(

=
0 0
0 1
3
2
Define A
0
= \2/3,
0
)(
0
,

A
1
= \2/3,
1
)(
1
, A
2
= \2/3,
2
)(
2
,
(

+
+
=
6 2
2 3 2
4
1
(

=
6 2
2 3 2
4
1
We apply the general quantum mapping operator

=
m
j
j j
A A
1
t

Condition satisfied
34
General quantum operations: Partial trace discards
the second of two qubits
Example 4 (discarding the second of two qubits):

Let A
0
= I(0, and

A
1
= I(1,
(

=
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
(

=
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
State o becomes
State becomes
( ) ( ) 11 00 11 00
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
+ +
Note 1: its the same density matrix as for ((,0), ), (,1), ))
(

1 0
0 1
2
1
Note 2: the operation is the partial trace Tr
2

We apply the general quantum mapping operator

=
m
j
j j
A A
1
t

35
Distinguishing
mixed states
Several mixed states can have the same
density matrix we cannot distinguish
between them.
How to distinguish by two different density
matrices?
Try to find an orthonormal basis ,|
0
), ,|
1
) in which both
density matrices are diagonal:
36
Distinguishing mixed states (I)
(

=
1 0
0 1
2
1
2

,0) with prob.

,0) + ,1) with prob.
,0) with prob.
,1) with prob.
(

=
4 1 2 1
2 1 4 3
1
/ /
/ /

,|
0
) with prob. cos
2
(t/8)
,|
1
) with prob. sin
2
(t/8)
,0)
,+)
,|
0
)
,|
1
)
,|
0
) with prob.
,|
1
) with prob.
Whats the best distinguishing strategy between these two
mixed states?

1
also arises from this
orthogonal mixture: as does
2
from:
t/8=180/8=22.5
37
Distinguishing mixed states (II)
( )
( )
(

=
'
8 sin 0
0 8 cos
2
2
2
/
/

,0)
,+)
,|
0
)
,|
1
)
(

=
'
1 0
0 1
2
1
1

Weve effectively found an orthonormal basis ,|

0
), ,|
1
) in
which both density matrices are diagonal:
Rotating ,|
0
), ,|
1
) to ,0), ,1) the scenario can now
be examined using classical probability theory:
Question: what do we do if we arent so lucky to get two
density matrices that are simultaneously diagonalizable?
Distinguish between two classical coins, whose probabilities
of heads are cos
2
(t/8) and respectively (details: exercise)
,1)
Density matrices
1
and
2
are simultaneously diagonalizable
38
Reminder: Basic properties of
the trace

=
=
d
k
k , k
M M
1
Tr
( ) N M N M Tr Tr Tr + = +
( ) N M N M Tr Tr Tr =
( ) ( ) M N N M Tr Tr =
( ) a d c b d c b a = Tr
( ) ( )

=

= =
d
k
k
MU U M
1
1
Tr Tr
The trace of a square matrix is defined as
It is easy to check that
The second property implies
and
Calculation maneuvers worth remembering are:
( ) a M M a b b = Tr
and
Also, keep in mind that, in general,
39
Partial Trace
How can we compute probabilities for
a partial system?
E.g.
y x
p
p
y x
y x
y x
y
xy
y
y x
xy
y x
xy

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
o
o
,
Partial
measurement
40
Partial Trace
If the 2
nd
system is taken away and never
again (directly or indirectly) interacts with
the 1
st
system, then we can treat the first
system as the following mixture
E.g.

2 2 ,
2
Tr x
p
p
y x
p
p
x
y
xy
y
Trace
y x
y
xy
y
= ~

|
|
.
|

\
|

~
|
|
.
|

\
|

From previous
slide
41
Partial Trace: we derived an important
formula to use partial trace

2 2 ,
2
Tr x
p
p
y x
p
p
x
y
xy
y
Trace
y x
y
xy
y
= ~

|
|
.
|

\
|

~
|
|
.
|

\
|

y y
y
y
p Tr
2
=

=
x
y
xy
y
x
p

Derived in
previous
slide
42
Why?
the probability of measuring e.g. in
the first register depends only on

( )
( )

2
2
2


Tr w w Tr
p w w Tr
w w Tr p
p
p
y y
y
y
y y
y
y
y y
y
wy
y wy
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=

2
Tr
43
Partial Trace can be calculated in
arbitrary basis
Notice that it doesnt matter in which
orthonormal basis we trace out the
2
nd
system, e.g.

1 1 0 0 11 00
2 2
2
+ +
Tr
In a different basis

( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = + 1
2
1
0
2
1
1 0
2
1
11 00
( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ 1
2
1
0
2
1
1 0
2
1

44
Partial Trace
( )( )
( )( )
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
2
1
1 0 1 0
2
1
2 2
* *
* *
2



+ =
+
+ +
Tr
( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ + 1
2
1
0
2
1
1 0
2
1

( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ 1
2
1
0
2
1
1 0
2
1

(cont) Partial Trace can be calculated in
arbitrary basis
Which is the same as in
previous slide for other
base
45
Methods to calculate the Partial Trace
Partial Trace is a linear map that takes
bipartite states to single system states.

We can also trace out the first system

We can compute the partial trace directly
from the density matrix description

( ) ( )
k i j l j l k i
l j Tr k i l j k i Tr
= =
=
2
46
Partial Trace using matrices
Tracing out the 2
nd
system

(

+ +
+ +
=
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

33 22 31 20
13 02 11 00
33 32
23 22
31 30
21 20
13 12
03 02
11 10
01 00
33 32 31 30
23 22 21 20
13 12 11 10
03 02 01 00
2
a a a a
a a a a
a a
a a
Tr
a a
a a
Tr
a a
a a
Tr
a a
a a
Tr
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
Tr
Tr
2
47
Examples: Partial trace (I)
In such circumstances, if the second register (say) is discarded then the
state of the first register remains o
Two quantum registers (e.g. two qubits) in states o and
(respectively) are independent if then the combined system
is in state = o
In general, the state of a two-register system may not be of the
form o (it may contain entanglement or correlations)
We can define the partial trace, Tr
2
, as the unique linear
operator satisfying the identity Tr
2
(o ) = o
For example, it turns out that
( ) ( ) 11 00 11 00
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
+ +
(

1 0
0 1
2
1
Tr
2
( ) =
index means
2
nd
system
traced out
48
Examples: Partial trace (II)
Weve already seen this defined in the case of 2-qubit systems:
discarding the second of two qubits

Let A
0
= I(0, and

A
1
= I(1,
(

=
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
(

=
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
For the resulting quantum operation, state o becomes o
For d-dimensional registers, the operators are A
k
= I(|
k
, ,
where ,|
0
), ,|
1
), , ,|
d1
) are an orthonormal basis
As we see in last slide, partial trace is a
matrix.
How to calculate this matrix of partial trace?
49
Examples: Partial trace (III): calculating
matrices of partial traces
(

+ +
+ +
=
(
(
(
(

11 11 10 10 01 11 00 10
11 01 10 00 01 01 00 00
11 11 10 11 01 11 00 11
11 10 10 10 01 10 00 10
11 01 10 01 01 01 00 01
11 00 10 00 01 00 00 00
2
Tr
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,






For 2-qubit systems, the partial trace is explicitly
(

+ +
+ +
=
(
(
(
(

11 11 01 01 10 11 00 01
11 10 01 00 10 10 00 00
11 11 10 11 01 11 00 11
11 10 10 10 01 10 00 10
11 01 10 01 01 01 00 01
11 00 10 00 01 00 00 00
1
Tr
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,






and
50
Unitary transformations dont
change the local density matrix
A unitary transformation on the system
that is traced out does not affect the
result of the partial trace
I.e.
( )
( ) { }

2 2 ,
2

Tr p
U I y U p
y y
Trace
y
y y
= ~
~

51
Distant transformations dont
change the local density matrix
In fact, any legal quantum transformation
on the traced out system, including
measurement (without communicating
back the answer) does not affect the
partial trace
I.e.
( ) { }
( ) { }
2 2 ,
2

,
Tr p
y p
y y
Trace
y y
= ~
52
Why??
Operations on the 2
nd
system should not
affect the statistics of any outcomes of
measurements on the first system

Otherwise a party in control of the 2
nd

system could instantaneously
communicate information to a party
controlling the 1
st
system.
53
Principle of implicit
measurement
If some qubits in a computation are
never used again, you can assume (if
you like) that they have been
measured (and the result ignored)

The reduced density matrix of the
remaining qubits is the same
54
POVMs (I)
Positive operator valued measurement (POVM):

Let A
1
, A
2
, , A
m
be matrices satisfying
I A A
j
m
j
j
=

=1
t
Then the corresponding POVM is a stochastic operation on
that, with probability produces the outcome:

j (classical information)
( )
t
j j
A A Tr
( )
t
t
j j
j j
A A
A A
Tr
(the collapsed quantum state)
Example 1: A
j
= ,|
j
)(|
j
, (orthogonal projectors)
This reduces to our previously defined measurements
55
POVMs (II): calculating the measurement
outcome and the collapsed quantum state
Moreover,
( )
t
j j
A A Tr
( )
j j
j
j j j j
j j
j j



A A
A A
= =
2
Tr
t
t
When A
j
= ,|
j
)(|
j
, are orthogonal projectors and = ,)(,,
= Tr,|
j
)(|
j
,)(,|
j
)(|
j
,
= (|
j
,)(,|
j
)(|
j
,|
j
)
= ,(|
j
,),
2
(the collapsed quantum state)
probability
of the
outcome:
56
The measurement postulate
formulated
in terms of observables
A measurement is described by a complete set of
projectors onto orthogonal subspaces. Outcome occurs
with probability
Pr( ) .
The corresponding post-measure
Our
ment state is

form

:
j
j
P j
j P
P
=
.
j
j
P

This is a
projector
matrix
57
The measurement postulate formulated
in terms of observables
A measurement is described by a complete set of
projectors onto orthogonal subspaces. Outcome occurs
with probability
Pr( ) .
The corresponding post-measure
Our
ment state is

form

:
j
j
P j
j P
P
=
.
j
j
P

A measurement is described by an ,
a Hermitian operator , with spectral decomposi
Old form: o
tion

bservable
.
j j
j
M
M P =

The possible measurement outcomes correspond to the

eigenvalues , and the outcome occurs with probability
Pr( ) .
j j
j j
P

=
The corresponding post-measurement state is
.
j
j
P
P

The same
58
An example of observables in action
Suppose we "meas E u xample: re ". Z
has spectral decomposition 0 0 - 1 1 , so
this is just like measuring in the computational basis,
and calling the outcomes "1" and "-1", respectively, for
0 and 1.
Z Z =
Find the spectral decomposition of .
Show that measuring corresponds to measuring
the parity of two qubits, with the result +1 corresponding
to even parity, and the result
Exercis
-1 correspon
:
i
e
d
Z Z
Z Z

ng to odd
parity.
00 00 11 Hint: 11 10 10 01 01 Z Z = +
59
An example of observables in action
Suppose we measure the observable for a
state which is an eigenstate of that observable. Show
that, with certainty, the outcome of the measurement is
the corresponding eigenvalue
Exerci
of the ob
se: M

servable.
60
What can be measured in
quantum mechanics?
Computer science can inspire fundamental questions about
physics.
We may take an informatic approach to physics.
(Compare the physical approach to information.)
Problem: What measurements can be performed in
quantum mechanics?
61
Traditional approach to quantum measurements:
A quantum measurement is described by an observable M
M is a Hermitian operator acting on the state space
of the system.
Measuring a system prepared in an eigenstate of
M gives the corresponding eigenvalue of M as the
measurement outcome.
The question now presents itself Can every observable
be measured? The answer theoretically is yes. In practice
it may be very awkward, or perhaps even beyond the ingenuity
of the experimenter, to devise an apparatus which could
measure some particular observable, but the theory always
allows one to imagine that the measurement could be made.
- Paul A. M. Dirac
What can be measured in quantum mechanics?
62
Von Neumann measurement
in the computational basis
Suppose we have a universal set of quantum
gates, and the ability to measure each qubit
in the basis
If we measure we get
with probability
} 1 , 0 {
2
b

b
) 1 0 (
1 0
o + o = u
63
In section 2.2.5, this is described as follows
0 0 P
0
=
1 1 P
1
=
We have the projection operators
and satisfying
We consider the projection operator or
observable
Note that 0 and 1 are the eigenvalues
When we measure this observable M, the
probability of getting the eigenvalue is
and we are in
that case left with the state

I P P
1 0
= +
1 1 0
P P 1 P 0 M = + =
b
2
) Pr(
b b
P b = =
b b
) b ( p
P
b
b b
~
o
o
=
u
64
What is an Expected value
of an observable
b
If we associate with outcome the
eigenvalue then the expected outcome is



| |

) Pr(
M Tr bP Tr
bP P b
b b
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
=
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =

b
65
Von Neumann measurement in
the computational basis
Suppose we have a universal set of quantum
gates, and the ability to measure each qubit
in the basis
Say we have the state
If we measure all n qubits, then we obtain
with probability
Notice that this means that probability of
measuring a in the first qubit equals
} 1 , 0 {
x
n
} 1 , 0 { x
x
e
o
x
2
x
o
0

e
o
1 n
} 1 , 0 { 0 x
2
x
66
Partial measurements
(This is similar to Bayes Theorem)
x
p
1 n
} 1 , 0 { 0 x
0
x

e
o
0

e
o =
1 n
} 1 , 0 { 0 x
2
x 0
p
If we only measure the first qubit and leave
the rest alone, then we still get with
probability
The remaining n-1 qubits are then in the
renormalized state
67
Most general measurement

o
k k
000
U
68
In section 2.2.5
This partial measurement corresponds to
measuring the observable
1 n 1 n
I 1 1 1 I 0 0 0 M

+ =
69
Von Neumann Measurements
A Von Neumann measurement is a type of
projective measurement. Given an
orthonormal basis , if we perform a
Von Neumann measurement with respect to
of the state then
we measure with probability

} {
k

o = u
k k
} {
k

( ) ( ) u u = u u =
u u = u = o
k k k k
k k
2
k
2
k
Tr Tr
70
Von Neumann Measurements
E.x. Consider Von Neumann measurement of
the state with respect to
the orthonormal basis
Note that
)
`

+
2
1 0
,
2
1 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
| o
+
|
|
.
|

\
| +
| + o
= u
2
1 0
2 2
1 0
2
) 1 0 ( | + o = u
We therefore get with probability

|
|
.
|

\
| +
2
1 0
2
2
| + o
71
Von Neumann Measurements
Note that
2 2
1 0
| + o
= u
|
|
.
|

\
| +
2 2
1 0
* *
| + o
=
|
|
.
|

\
| +
u
2
2
1 0
2
1 0
Tr
2
1 0
2
1 0
2
| + o
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
u u
|
|
.
|

\
| +
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
|
|
.
|

\
| +
u u
|
|
.
|

\
| +
72
How do we implement
Von Neumann measurements?
If we have access to a universal set of
gates and bit-wise measurements in the
computational basis, we can implement Von
Neumann measurements with respect to an
arbitrary orthonormal basis as
follows.
} {
k

73
How do we implement
Von Neumann measurements?
Construct a quantum network that
implements the unitary transformation
k U
k
=
Then conjugate the measurement
operation with the operation
U

o
k k
U
k
2
k
prob o
1
U

74
Another approach

o
k k
U
1
U

k
k

000
k k k
000 k 000
k k k
k k k
o o
o o


2
k
prob o
These two approaches will
be illustrated in next slides
75
Example: Bell basis change
10 01
01
+ = |
Consider the orthonormal basis consisting
of the Bell states
11 00
00
+ = |
11 00
10
= |
10 01
11
= |
Note that
xy
|
x
y
H
We discussed Bell basis in
lecture about superdense
coding and teleportation.
76
Bell measurements: destructive and
non-destructive
We can destructively measure
Or non-destructively project
xy
y , x
y , x
| o

x
y
H
2
xy
prob o
xy
y , x
y , x
| o

xy
y , x
|
H
2
xy
prob o
00
H
77
Most general measurement

000
U
( ) 000 000
2
Tr
78
Simulations among operations:
general quantum operations
Fact 1: any general quantum operation can be simulated
by applying a unitary operation on a larger quantum system:
U
,0)
,0)
,0)

o
Example: decoherence
,0)
o,0) + |,1)
(
(

=
2
2
0
0

output
discard
input
zeros
discard
79
Simulations among operations:
simulations of POVM
Fact 2: any POVM can also be simulated by applying a
unitary operation on a larger quantum system and then
measuring:
U
,0)
,0)
,0)

o
quantum output
input
classical output
j
80
Separable states

=
=
m
j
j j j
p
1
o
product state if = o

separable state if
A bipartite (i.e. two register) state is a:
Question: which of the following states are separable?
( )( ) ( )( ) 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
2
1
2
1
2
+ + + =
(i.e. a probabilistic mixture
of product states)
( p
1
,,

p
m
> 0)
( )( ) 11 00 11 00
2
1
1
+ + =
81
Continuous-time evolution
Although weve expressed quantum operations in discrete
terms, in real physical systems, the evolution is continuous
,0)
,1)
Let H be any Hermitian matrix and t e R
Then e
iHt
is unitary why?
H = U

DU, where
(
(
(

=
d

D
1
Therefore e
iHt
= U

e
iDt
U =
U
e
e
U
t i
t i
d
(
(
(

1
t
(unitary)
82
Partially covered in 2007:
Density matrices and indistinguishable states
Taxonomy of normal operators
General Quantum Operations
Distinguishing states
Partial trace
POVM
Simulations of operators
Separable states
Continuous time evolution