Civil V Transportation Engineering Unit 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8

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VTU
Civil Engineering
5 Semester
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Transportation
Engineering - 1
[10CV56]
2010 Scheme
Branch Name: Civil Engineering
SEM: 5
University: VTU
Syllabus: 2010
Table of Contents:
Transportation Engineering - 1 (10CV56):
Sl. No. Units
1 Principles of transportation engineering
2 Highway development and planning
3 Highway alignment and surveys
4 Highway geometric design-I
5 Highway geometric design-II
6 Pavement materials
7 Pavement design
8 Highway economics
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING-I 10CV56
Page 1
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING I
Subject Code: 10CV56
No. of lecture Hours/week: 04
Total No. of Lecture Hours: 52
I A Marks : 25
Exam Hours : 03
Exam Marks : 100
UNIT 1
PART A
PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:
Importance of transportation, Different modes of transportation and comparison,
Characteristics of road transport Jayakar committee recommendations, and implementation
Central Road Fund, Indian Roads Congress, Central Road Research Institute
04 Hrs
UNIT 2
HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING:
Road types and classification, road patterns, planning surveys, master plan saturation
system of road planning, phasing road development in India, problems on best alignment
among alternate proposals Salient Features of 3rd and 4th twenty year road development plans
and Policies, Present scenario of road development in India (NHDP & PMGSY) and in
Karnataka (KSHIP & KRDCL) Road development plan - vision 2021.
06 Hrs
UNIT 3
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS:
Compiled by www.studyeasy.in
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Ideal Alignment, Factors affecting the alignment, Engineering surveys-Map study,
Reconnaissance, Preliminary and Final location & detailed survey, Reports and drawings for
new and re-aligned projects
04 Hrs
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN I:
Importance, Terrain classification, Design speed, Factors affecting geometric design, Cross
sectional elements-Camber- width of pavement- Shoulders-, Width of formation- Right of
way, Typical cross-sections 05 Hrs
UNIT 4
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN II:
Sight Distance- Restrictions to sight distance- Stopping sight distance- Overtaking sight
distance- overtaking zones- Examples on SSD and OSD- Sight distance at intersections,
Horizontal alignment-Radius of Curve- Super elevation Extra widening- Transition curve
and its length, setback distance Examples, Vertical alignment-Gradient-summit and valley
curves with examples.
07 Hrs
PART - B
UNIT 5
PAVEMENT MATERIALS:
Subgrade soil desirable properties-HRB soil classification-determination of CBR and
modulus of subgrade reaction-Examples on CBR and Modulus of subgrade reaction,
Aggregates- Desirable properties and list of tests, Bituminous materials-Explanation on Tar,
bitumen, cutback and emulsion-List of tests on bituminous materials.
06 Hrs
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UNIT 6
PAVEMENT DESIGN:
Pavement types, component parts of flexible and rigid pavements and their functions, design
factors, ESWL and its determination-Examples, Flexible pavement- Design of flexible
pavements as per IRC;37-2001-Examples, Rigid pavement- Westergaards equations for load
and temperature stresses- Examples- Design of slab thickness only as per IRC:58-2002
06 Hrs
UNIT 7
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION:
Earthwork cutting-Filling, Preparation of subgrade, Specification and construction of i)
Granular Sub base, ii) WBM Base, iii) WMM base, iv) Bituminous Macadam, v) Dense
Bituminous Macadam vi) Bituminous Concrete, vii) Dry Lean Concrete sub base and PQC
viii) concrete roads 05 Hrs
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE:
Significance and requirements, Surface drainage system and design-Examples, sub
surfacedrainage system, design of filter materials
03 Hrs
UNIT 8
HIGHWAY ECONOMICS:
Highway user benefits, VOC using charts only-Examples, Economic analysis - annual cost
method-Benefit Cost Ratio method-NPV-IRR methods- Examples, Highway financing-BOT-
BOOT concepts
06 Hrs
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TEXT BOOKS:
1. Highway Engineering S K Khanna and C E G Justo, Nem Chand Bros, Roorkee
2. Highway Engineering - L R Kadiyali, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi
3. Transportation Engineering K P Subramanium, Scitech Publications, Chennai
4. Transportation Engineering James H Banks, Mc. Graw. Hill Pub. New Delhi
5. Highway Engineeering R. Sreenivasa Kumar, University Press. Pvt.Ltd. Hyderabad
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Relevant IRC Codes
2. Specifications for Roads and Bridges-MoRT&H, IRC, New Delhi.
3. Transportation Engineering C. Jotin Khisty, B.
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LIST OF CONTENTS
UNIT-I PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING-I........................... 10
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ ................... 10
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION..................................................................... . 11
DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION............................................................ 13
CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MODES ....................... 15
JAYAKAR COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION ......... 17
Central Research Fund (CRF): ........................................................................................ . 18
Indian Road Congress (IRC):.......................................................................................... . 18
Central Road Research Institute (CRRI): ......................................................................... 19
UNIT-2 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING ............................................ 19
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... . 19
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS: .................................................................................... 21
ROAD PATTERNS:....................................................................................................... . 23
PLANNING SURVEYS:............................................................................. .................... 24
MASTER PLAN: ............................................................................................................ 26
SATURATION SYSTEM: ...................................................................................... ........ 27
ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA:............................................................................. . 28
Unit 3 Highway alignment ................................................................................................ 32
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Alignment ...................................................................................................................... . 32
Requirements.................................................................................... ............................... 32
Factors controlling alignment .......................................................................................... 32
UNIT 4 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN I & II ........................................................ 34
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 35
Factors affecting geometric design.................................................................................. . 35
Camber........................................................................................................................... . 37
Width of carriage way ............................................................................................. ........ 38
Kerbs............................................................................................................................. .. 38
Road margins ............................................................................................. ..................... 39
Shoulders........................................................................................................................ . 39
Parking lanes ................................................................................................................... 39
Bus-bays......................................................................................................................... . 40
Service roads ................................................................................................................... 40
Footpath .......................................................................................................................... 40
Guard rails....................................................................................................................... 40
Width of formation .......................................................................................................... 41
Right of way .................................................................................................................... 41
Sight distance .................................................................................................................. 42
Types of sight distance ................................................................................................... . 42
Stopping sight distance .................................................................................................... 44
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Overtaking sight distance................................................................................................ . 45
Overtaking zones ............................................................................................................ . 47
Horizontal curve ............................................................................................................. . 48
Analysis of super-elevation............................................................................................. . 50
Horizontal Transition Curves ........................................................................................... 53
Length of transition curve ............................................................................................... . 54
Setback Distance ............................................................................................................. 56
Vertical alignment .......................................................................................................... . 59
Gradient .......................................................................................................................... 59
Summit curve .................................................................................................................. 60
Valley curve .................................................................................................................... 62
UNIT 5 PAVEMENT MATERIALS............................................................................... . 66
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 66
Subgrade soil ................................................................................................................... 66
Desirable Properties........................................................................................................ . 67
Soil classification ............................................................................................................ 67
2. Highway Research Board (HRB) classification of soils................................................ 67
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test ............................................................................... 69
AGGREGATES .............................................................................................................. 75
Tests for Road Aggregate ................................................................................................ 76
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS ......................................................................................... 77
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Types of Bituminous Materials ........................................................................................ 77
Tests on Bitumen............................................................................................................ . 78
Bituminous Emulsion ..................................................................................................... . 80
BITUMINOUS PAVING MIXES ................................................................................... 83
Unit 6 Introduction to pavement design .......................................................................... . 85
Requirements of a pavement ........................................................................................... . 85
Types of pavements ......................................................................................................... 85
Flexible pavements ......................................................................................................... . 85
Rigid pavements .............................................................................................................. 87
Types of Rigid Pavements .............................................................................................. . 87
Factors affecting pavement design ................................................................................... 88
IRC method of design of flexible pavements.................................................................... 92
Rigid pavement design ................................................................................................... . 95
Wheel load stresses - Westergaard's stress equation ......................................................... 95
UNIT 7 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION......................................................................... . 98
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 98
EARTHWORK .............................................................................................................. . 99
CONSTRUCTION OF EARTH ROADS.............................................................. ......... 102
CONSTRUCTION OF GRAVEL ROADS .................................................................... 104
CONSTRUCTION OF WATER BOUND MACADAM ROADS.................................. 105
CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS ................................................. 109
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Construction Procedure for Bituminous Concrete .......................................................... 115
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE..................................................................... ........................... 123
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ . 123
IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE .............................................................. 123
UNIT 8 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE ........................................................ 128
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ . 128
HIGHWAY USER BENEFITS ..................................................................................... 129
Annual Highway Cost................................................................................................... . 131
HIGHWAY FINANCE ................................................................................................. 136
Highway financing in India........................................................................................... . 138
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UNIT-I PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING-I
INTRODUCTION
Basic Definition: A facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the
movement of passengers or goods. At its most basic, the term transportation system is used
to refer to the equipment and logistics of transporting passengers and goods. It covers
movement by all forms of transport, from cars and buses to boats, aircraft and even space
travel. Transportation systems are employed in troop movement logistics and planning, as
well as in running the local school bus service.
Function: The purpose of a transportation system is to coordinate the movement of people,
goods and vehicles in order to utilize routes most efficiently. When implemented,
transportation systems seek to reduce transport costs and improve delivery times through
effective timetabling and route management. Periodic re-evaluations and the development of
alternative routes allow for timely changes to the transportation system in order to maintain
efficiency.
Features: A standard transportation system will usually feature multiple timetables designed
to inform the user of where each vehicle in the fleet is expected to be at any given point in
time. These timetables are developed alongside an array of route plans designed to coordinate
vehicle movements in a way that prevents bottlenecks in any one location.
Benefits: The main benefit of implementing a transportation system is delivery of goods and
personnel to their destinations in a timely manner. This in turn increases the efficiency of
vehicle use, as the same vehicle can be used for multi-drop jobs, such as bus services or
home delivery networks, far more effectively when their routes are planned in advance rather
than being generated on the fly.
Size: Transportation systems are developed in a wide variety of sizes. Local transport
networks spanning the bus network for a city and its suburbs are common, as are country-
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wide delivery networks for haulage firms. Airlines use international transportation systems to
coordinate their flights. The larger the distance being covered, the more effective the use of
vehicles when a transportation system is used.
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
The world that we live in now will most likely be impossible had it not been for
innovations in transportation. There would not have been any great infrastructure,
industrialisation, or massive production, if transportation was incompetent. Life would not
have kept up with the fast changing times if there were no huge trucks, bulldozers, trailers,
cargo ships, or large aircrafts to carry them to different places. In other words, the global
society would not have experienced comfort and convenience had it not been for
advancements in the transportation sector. Today, humanity has technology to thank for all
the wonderful things that it currently enjoys now.
Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since every
commodity produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products or medicine needs
transport at all stages from production to distribution. In the production stage transportation is
required for carrying raw materials like seeds, manure, coal, steel etc. In the distribution stage
transportation is required from the production centres viz; farms and factories to the
marketing centres and later to the retailers and the consumers for distribution.
The transportation has lots of advantages and even disadvantages. The more focus is
on advantages as we cannot think about the life without transportation. The importance of
transportation may include:
x Availability of raw materials: Transportation helps in carrying the raw materials
from one place to another place. Initially raw materials are made at one place and are
being transported to another place for processing and for manufacturing goods.
x Availability of goods to the customer: The goods are being transported from one
place to another place. These goods which are produced at one place are transported
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to other distant places for their usage. It flexibly moves the goods from one place to
another place.
x Enhances the Standard Of Living: It improves the standard of living. As the
transportation of each and every good is being done then the productivity increases
which results in the reduced or the effective costs. Because of reduction in the cost
they can use different commodities for different purposes and can lead a secure life.
x Helps a lot during the emergencies and even during natural disasters:
Transportation helps during the natural disturbances. It helps in quick moving from
one place to another place and supplies the required operations.
x Helps for the employment: Transportation provides employment for many people as
drivers, captains, conductors, cabin crew and even the people are used for the
construction of different types of transportation vehicles. And even by the use of
transportation the remote people are being employed with the access to the urban
facilities and the opportunities.
x Helps in mobility of the laborers: Many people are traveling to other countries on
their employment basis. Transportation plays an important role in such cases.
x Helps for bringing nations together: Transportation on the whole is used for
globalization i.e. it brings nations together and it creates awareness about the cultural
activities and even about the industries and helps a lot for importing and exporting of
different goods.
These above are some of the necessities which make us to use transportation.
The importance and adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates
its economic and social development.
Economic Activity: Two important factors well known in economic activity are:
x Production or supply and
x Consumption for human wants or demand.
Social Effects: The various social effects of transportation may be further classified into:
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x Sectionalism and transportation
x Concentration of population into urban area
x Aspect of safety, law and order.
DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
Three basic modes of transport are by land, water and air. Land has given
development of road and rail transport. Water and air have developed waterways and airways
respectively. Apart from these major modes of transportation, other modes include pipelines,
elevators, belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and monorails. Pipe lines are used for
the transportation of water, other fluids and even solid particles
The four major modes of transportation are:
x Roadways or highways
x Railways
x Airways
x Waterways.
Airways:
x The transportation by air is the fastest among the four modes.
x Air also provides more comfort apart from saving in transportation time for the
passengers and the goods between the airports.
Waterways:
x Transportation by water is the slowest among the four modes.
x This mode needs minimum energy to haul load through unit distance
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x The transportation by water is possible between the ports on the sea routes or along
the rivers or canals where inland transportation facilities are available.
Railways:
x The transportation along the railway track could be advantageous by railways
between the stations both for the passengers and goods, particularly for longer
distances.
x The energy requirement to haul unit load through unit distance by the railway is only
a fraction (one fourth to one sixth) of the required by road.
x Hence, full advantage of this mode of transportation should be taken for the
transportation of bulk goods along land where the railway facilities are available.
Roadways:
x The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to
one and all.
x The road or highways not only include the modern highway system but also the city
streets, feeder roads and village roads, catering for a wide-range of road vehicles and
the pedestrians.
x This mode has also maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction,
time and speed of travel etc. through any mode of road vehicle.
x It is possible to provide door to door service by road transport.
x The other three modes (railways; water ways; airways) has to depend on the roadway
for the service.
x Ultimately, road network is therefore needed not only to serve as feeder system for
other modes of transportation and to supplement them, but also to provide
independent facility for road travel by a well planned network of roads throughout
the country.
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CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MODES
It is accepted that the fact road transport is the nearest to the people. The passengers
and goods have to be first transported by road before reaching a railway station or an airport.
It is seen that road network alone could serve the remotest villages of the vast country like
occurs.
The various characteristics (advantages) and disadvantages of different mode of transport are
briefly listed here:
Roadways:
Advantages:
x Flexibility: It offers complete freedom to the road users.
x It requires relatively smaller investments and cheaper in construction with respect to
other modes.
x It serves the whole community alike the other modes.
x For short distance travel it saves time.
x These are used by various types of vehicles.
Disadvantages:
x Speed is related to accidents and more accidents results due to higher speed.
x Not suitable for long distance travel
x Power required per tonne is more.
Railways:
Advantages:
x Can transport heavy loads of goods at higher speed
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x Power required per tonne is less compared to roadways
x Chances of accidents are less.
Disadvantages:
x Entry and exist points are fixed
x Requires controlling system and no freedom of movement
x Establishment and maintenance cost is higher.
Waterways:
Advantages:
x Cheapest: Cost per tonne is lowest
x Possess highest load carrying capacity
x Leads to the development of the industries.
Disadvantages:
x Slow in operation and consumes more time
x Depends on weather condition
x Chances of attack by other countries on naval ships are more.
x Ocean tides affects the loading and unloading operation
x The route is circuitous.
Airways:
Advantages:
x It has highest speed
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x Intercontinental travel is possible
x Journey is continuous over land and water
Disadvantages:
x Highest operating cost (cost/tonne is more)
x Load carrying capacity is lowest
x Depends on weather condition
x Should follow the flight rules.
JAYAKAR COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION
RECOMMENDATIONS: Over a period after the First World War, motor vehicles using the
roads increased and this demanded a better road network which can carry mixed traffic
conditions. The existing roads when not capable to withstand the mixed traffic conditions.
For the improvement of roads in India government of India appointed Mr. Jayakar Committee
to study the situations and to recommend suitable measures for road improvement in 1927
and a report was submitted in 1928 with following recommendations:
x Road development in the country should be considered as a national interest. As the
provincial and local government do not have the financial and technical capacity for
road development.
x Extra tax to be levied from the road users as fund to develop road.
x A Semi-official technical body has to be formed to collect and pool technical
knowhow from various parts of the country and to act as an advisory body on various
aspects of the roads.
x A research organisation should be instituted at National level to carry out research and
development work and should be available for consultation.
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IMPLEMENTATIONS:
Majority of the recommendations were accepted by the government implemented by
Jayakar Committee.
Some of the technical bodies were formed such as,
Central Road Fund (CRF) in 1929
Indian Road Congress (IRC) in 1934
Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) in 1950.
Central Research Fund (CRF):
x Central Research Fund (CRF) was formed on 1
st
March 1929
x The consumers of petrol were charged an extra leavy of 2.64 paisa/litre of petrol to
buildup this road development fund.
x From the fund collected 20 percent of the annual revenue is to be retained as meeting
expenses on the administration of the road fund, road experiments and research on
road and bridge projects of special importance.
x The balance 80 percent of the fund to be allotted by the Central Government to the
various states based on actual petrol consumption or revenue collected
x The accounts of the CRF are maintained by the Accountant General of Central
Revenues.
x The control of the expenditure is exercised by the Roads Wings of Ministry of
Transport.
Indian Road Congress (IRC):
x It is a semi-official technical body formed in 1934.
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x It was formed to recommend standard specifications.
x It was constituted to provide a forum of regular technical pooling of experience and
ideas on all matters affecting the planning, construction and maintenance of roads in
India.
x IRC has played an important role in the formulation of the 20-year road development
plans in India.
x Now, it has become an active body of national importance controlling specifications,
guidelines and other special publications on various aspect of Highway Engineering.
Central Road Research Institute (CRRI):
x CRRI was formed in the year 1950 at New Delhi
x It was formed for research in various aspect of highway engineering
x It is one of the National laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research.
x This institute is mainly engaged in applied research and offers technical advice to
state governments and the industries on various problems concerning roads.
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UNIT-2 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
Highway design is only one element in the overall highway development process.
Historically, detailed design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the preceding phases
of planning and project development with the subsequent phases of right-of-way acquisition,
construction, and maintenance. While these are distinct activities, there is considerable
overlap in terms of coordination among the various disciplines that work together, including
designers, throughout the process.
It is during the first three stages, planning, project development, and design, that designers
and communities, working together, can have the greatest impact on the final design features
of the project. In fact, the flexibility available for highway design during the detailed design
phase is limited a great deal by the decisions made at the earlier stages of planning and
project development. This Guide begins with a description of the overall highway planning
and development process to illustrate when these decisions are made and how they affect the
ultimate design of a facility.
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Meaning of Highway and Road:
Road: A road is a thoroughfare, route or way on land between two places, which typically
has been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance, including a
horse, cart, or motor vehicle.
Highway: A highway is a public road, especially a major road connecting two or more
destinations. Any interconnected set of highways can be variously referred to as a "highway
system", a "highway network", or a "highway transportation system". Each country has its
own national highway system.
TYPES OF ROAD:
Basically, different types of roads can be classified into two categories namely,
x All-weather roads and
x Fair-weather roads.
All-weather roads: These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major river
crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible upto a certain limit extent, the road
pavement should be negotiable during all weathers.
Fair-weather roads: On these roads the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at
causeways where streams may overflow across the roads.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS:
Roads are classified based on various aspects namely,
1) Based on the carriage way,
x Paved Roads: These roads are provided with a hard pavement course which should be
atleast a water bound macadam (WBM) layer.
x Unpaved Roads: These roads are not provided with a hard pavement course of atleast
a WBM layer. Thus earth roads and gravel roads may be called as unpaved roads.
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2) Based on Surface pavement provided,
x Surface Roads: These roads are provided with a bituminous or cement concrete
surfacing.
x Unsurfaced
surfacing.

Roads: These are not provided with bituminous or cement concrete
x Roads which are provided with bituminous surfacing are called as black toped roads
and that of concrete are referred to as concrete roads respectively.
3) Based on Traffic Volume:
x Heavy
x Medium
x Light traffic roads.
4) Based on Load transported or tonnage:
x Class-I or Class-A
x Class-II or Class-B.
5) Based on location and Function:
x National Highways (NH): The NH connects the capital cities of the states and the
capital cities to the port. The roads connecting the neighbouring countries are also
called as NH. The NH are atleast 2 lanes of traffic about 7.5m d wide. The NH are
having concrete or bituminous surfacing.
x State Highways (SH): SH are the main roads within the state and connect important
towns and cities of state. The width of state highways is generally 7.5m.
x Major District Roads (MDR): These roads connect the areas of production and
markets with either a SH or railway. The MDR should have atleast metalled single
lane carriage way (i.e., 3.8m) wide. The roads carry mixed traffic.
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x Other District Roads (ODR): these roads connect the village to other village or the
nearest district road, with ghat, river etc. these roads have a single lane and carry
mixed traffic.
x Village Roads (VR): these roads, like other district roads, connect the village or
village or nearby district road. The roads carry mixed traffic.
6) Modified Classification of Road system by Third Road Development Plan:
x Primary System (Expressways and National Highways)
x Secondary System (State Highways and Major District Roads)
x Tertiary System (Other District Roads and Village Roads).
7) Based on Urban Roads:
x Arterial roads
x Sub-arterial roads
x Collector Streets
x Local Streets
Arterial and Sub-arterial roads are primarily for through traffic on a continuous route,
but sub-arterials have a lower level of traffic mobility than the arterials.
Collector streets provide access to arterial streets and they collect and distribute traffic
from and to local streets which provide access to abutting property.
ROAD PATTERNS:
There are various types of road patterns and each pattern has its own advantages and
limitations. The choice of the road pattern depends upon the various factors such as:
x Locality
x Layout of the different towns, villages, industrial and production centres.
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x Planning Engineer.
The various road patterns may be classified as follows:
x Rectangular or block pattern: In this, entire area is divided into rectangular
segments having a common central business and marketing area. This area has all the
services located in the central place. This pattern is not convenient or safe from traffic
operation point of view and it results into more number of accidents at intersections.
Eg: Chandigarh city.
x Radial or star and block pattern: In this, roads radially emerge from the central
business area in all directions and between two built-up area will be there. The main
advantage in this, central place is easy accessible from all the directions. Eg: Nagpur
x Radial or star and circular pattern: In this roads radiate in all the directions and
also circular ring roads are provided.
Advantages: Traffic will not touch the heart of the city and it flows radially and
reaches the other radial road and thereby reducing the congestion in the centre of the
city. This ring road system is well suited for big cities where traffic problems are
more in the heart of the city. Eg: Connaught place in New Delhi.
x Radial or star and grid pattern: It is very much similar to star and the circular
pattern expects the radial roads are connected by grids. In this pattern a grid is formed
around the central point which is a business centre. Eg: Nagpur road plan.
x Hexagonal pattern: In this entire zone of planning is divided into hexagonal zones
having separate marketing zone and central services surrounded by hexagonal pattern
of roads. Each hexagonal element is independent. At each corner of hexagon three
roads meet.
x Minimum travel pattern: In this type, city is divided into number of nodal points
around a central portion by forming sectors. And each sector is divided again in such
a way that from each of the nodal centre, the distance to the central place is minimum.
PLANNING SURVEYS:
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Prior to the development of highways planning is required for any engineering
works, which is a basic requirement for a new project or for an expansion. In all
developing countries like India where, the resources are limited and requirement is
high then planning provides better utilization of funds in a system.
Objective of Planning surveys:
x Workout, the financial system and recommended changes in tax arrangements and
budget procedures, provide efficient, safe economics, comfortable and speedy
movement for goods and people.
x Plan a road network for efficient traffic operation at minimum cost.
x Plan for future requirements and improvements of roads in view of developments and
social needs.
x Fix up datawise priorities for development of each road link based on their utilities.
The planning surveys consist of the following studies:
x Economic Studies: This study consists the following details:
Population and its distribution
Trend of population growth
Age and land products
Existing facilities
Per Capita income.
x Financial Studies: This study involves collecting the details such as:
Sources of income
Living Standards
Resources from local levels
Factor trends in financial.
x Traffic or road use studies: In this details collected are:
Traffic Volume/day, annual or daily traffic peak flow.
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Origin and destination studies
Traffic flow patterns
Mass transportation facilities
Accidents, cause and cost analysis.
x Engineering studies: This involves:
Topographic study
Soil details
Location and classification of existing roads
Road life studies
Specific problems in drainage constructions and maintenance.
MASTER PLAN:
Master plan is refered to as road development plan of a city; district or a street or for
whole country. It is an ideal plan showing full development of the area at some future date. It
serves as the guide for the plan to improve some of the existing roads and to plan the network
of new roads.
It helps in controlling the industrial, commercial and agricultural and habitat growth
in a systematic way of that area. It gives a perceptive picture of a fully developed area in a
plan and scientific way.
Stages in the preparation of master plan:
x Data Collection: It includes data regarding existing land use, industrial and
agricultural growth, population, traffic flow, topography, future trends.
x Preparation of
experts.
draft plan and invite suggestions and comments from public and
x Revision of draft plan in view of the discussions and comments from experts and
public.
x Comparison of various alternate proposals of road system and finding out the
sequence in which the master plan will be implemented.
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In India targeted road lengths were fixed in various road plans, based on
population, area and agricultural and industrial products. The same way it may be taken as a
guide to decide the total length of road system in each alternate proposal while preparing a
master plan for a town or locality.
Preparation of Plans:
x Plan-1: This plan should give the topographical details related to existing road
network, drainage, structures, towns and villages with population, agricultural,
industrial and commercial activities.
x Plan-2: Should give the details pertaining to the distribution of population
x Plan-3: Should indicate the location of places with productivity.
x Plan-4: Should indicate the existing network of roads and proposals received.
Ultimately, the Master plan is the one to be implemented.
SATURATION SYSTEM:
In this system optimum road length is calculated for an area based on the concept of
attaining maximum utility per unit length of the road. This is also called as maximum utility
system.
Factors to attain maximum utility per unit length are:
x Population served by the road network
x Productivity (industrial and agricultural) served by the road network.
The various steps to be taken to obtain maximum utility per unit length are:
x Population factors or units: Since, the area under consideration consists of villages
and towns with different population these are grouped into some convenient
population range and some reasoning values of utility units to each range of
population serve are assigned.
Population less than 500, utility unit = 0.25
501 to 1001, utility unit = 0.50
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1001 to 2000, utility unit = 1.00
2001 to 5000, utility unit = 2.00 etc.
x Productivity Factors or units: The total agricultural and industrial products served
by each road system are worked out and the productivity served may be assigned
appropriate values of utility units per unit weight.
x Optimum Road length: Based on the master plan the targeted road length is fixed for
the country on the basis of area or population and production or both. And the same
may be taken as a guide to decide the total length of the road system in each
proposal.
ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA:
The first attempt for proper planning of the highway development programme in India
on a long term basis was made at the Nagpur Conference in 1943. After, the completion of
the Nagpur Road Plan targets, the Second Twenty year Plan was drawn for the period 1961-
1981. The Third Twenty Year Road Development Plan for the period 1981-2001 was
approved only by the year 1984.
First 20-Year Road Plan (Nagpur Road plan):
This plan was formed in the year 1943 at Nagpur. The plan period was from 1943-
1963.Two plan formulae were finalized at the Nagpur Conference for deciding two categories
of road length for the country as a whole as well as for individual areas (like district). This
was the first attempt for highway planning in India. The two plan formulae assumed the Star
and Grid pattern of road network. Hence, the two formulae are also called Star and Grid
Formulae.
Salient Features of Nagpur Road Plan:
x The roads are classified as,
Primary System (NH/Expressways)
Secondary System (SH/MDR)
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Tertiary System(ODR/VR)
x Construction and Maintenance of NH was assigned to Central government
x It aims for 2, 00,000km of bituminous road and 3, 32,700km of other types.
x The formulae was based on star and grid pattern of road network and was considered
as two equations:
I Category: NH/SH/MDR
II-Category: ODR/VR
x NH/SH/MDR are meant to provide main grids and ODR/VR as internal road system
x The development allowance is 15%
x The length of railway track was deducted.
Second Twenty Year Road Plan (Bombay Road Plan):
As the target road length of Nagpur road plan was completed nearly earlier in
1961 a long term plan was initiated for twenty year period which was initiated by IRC.
Hence, the second twenty year road plan came into picture which was drawn for the
period of 1961-81. The second twenty year road plan was envisaged overall road length
of 10, 57,330 km by the year 1981.
Salient Features of Second 20 year Road Plan:
x Aim to provide 32km/100 sqkm area
x Every town with population above 2000 in plains should be connected by a
bituminous road or mettaled road.
>2000 in plains
>1000 in semi-hill area
>500 in hilly area
x 1600 km length of expressways was proposed
x Development allowance is 5% only
x Length of railway track was not deducted.
x Five equations are given to find NH/SH/MDR/ODR/VR.
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Comparison of I and II 20-year plans:
First 20-year Plan Second 20-year Plan
x Areas is divided into two types Areas is divided into three types
namely, developed and semi-developed namely, developed; semi-
developed areas
x Two equations are given to find
NH/SH/MDR/ODR/VR
x Aim is 16km/100 sqkm
x Development allowance is 15%
x No express ways
x Length of Railway track was deducted
and undeveloped area.
Five equations are given to find
NH/SH/MDR/ODR/VR. Aim
is 32km/100 sqkm.
Development allowance is 5%.
1600km of expressway was
included.
Not deducted.
Third Twenty Year Road Plan (Lucknow Road Plan):
The third twenty year road plan was prepared by the Road Wing of the
Ministry of Shipping and Transport with the active co-operation from a number of
organisations and the experts in the field of Highway Engineering and Transportation.
This document was released during the 45
th
Annual Session and the Golden Jubilee
celebrations of the Indian Road Congress in February 1985 at Lucknow. Therefore, this
plan for 1981-2001 is also called as Lucknow Road Plan.
Salient Features of Second 20 year Road Plan:
x Road development is based on the primary, secondary and tertiary road system
x All the villages with the population above 500 is to be connected with the metalled
road
x Aim is 82km/100 sq km
x NH will form the main guideline
x The length of SH and MDR are calculated based on the area of population
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x Town >1500 MDR
1000-1500 ODR
x Roads should also be built in less industrialized area
x Long term master plans should be prepared at taluk, district and state levels
x Existing roads should be improved
x There should be improved environmental quality and road safety.
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Unit 3 Highway alignment
Alignment
The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called
the alignment. Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths. Vertical alignment
includes level and gradients. Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will
enhance the construction, maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Once an alignment is fixed
and constructed, it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and
construction of costly structures by the roadside
Requirements
The requirements of an ideal alignment are
x The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be
straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
x The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be
provided.
x It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially at
slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.
x The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial
cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum.
Factors controlling alignment
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We have seen the requirements of an alignment. But it is not always possible to satisfy al
these requirements. Hence we have to make a judicial choice considering all the factors.
The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:
x Obligatory points these are the control points governing the highway alignment.
These points are classified into two categories. Points through which it should pass
and points through which it should not pass. Some of the examples are:
{Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and
permanent path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The
road approach to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should be
avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge the highway alignment may be changed.
{Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives
are to either
Construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends
on factors like topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.
{Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an
intermediate town orvillage nearby. These were some of the obligatory points through
which the alignment should pass. Coming to the second category, that is the points
through which the alignment should not pass are:
{religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for any
purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
{Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which
would result in an increase in initial cost. So the alignment may be deviated not to
pass through that point.
{Lakes/ponds etc: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
necessiate deviation of the alignment.
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x Traffic: The alignment should suit the tra_c requirements. Based on the origin-
destination data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment
should be drawn keeping in view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
x Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight
distance etc. also governs the alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve
minimum, it may be required to change the alignment of the highway. The alignments
should be finalized such that the obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum
requirements of sight distance. The design standards vary with the class of road and
the terrain and accordingly the highway should be aligned.
x Economy: The alignment finalized should be economical. All the three costs i.e.
construction, maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum. The construction
cost can be decreased much if it is possible to maintain a balance between cutting and
filling. Also try to avoid very high embankments and very deep cuttings as the
construction cost will be very higher in these cases.
x Other considerations: various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage
considerations, political factors and monotony.
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UNIT 4 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN I & II
Introduction
The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway. The emphasis of the geometric design is to address the requirement
of the driver and the vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc. The features normally
considered are the cross section elements, sight distance consideration, horizontal curvature,
gradients, and intersection.
Factors affecting geometric design
Factors affecting the geometric designs are as follows
x Design speed:
o Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric design. It
directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of vertical curves.
Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc, a design speed is adopted for
all the geometric design.
x Topography:
o It is easier to construct roads with required standards for a plain terrain. However, for
a given design speed, the construction cost increases multi form with the gradient and
the terrain.
x Traffic:
x It will be uneconomical to design the road for peak traffic flow. Therefore a reasonable
value of traffic volume is selected as the design hourly volume which is determined from
the various traffic data collected
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x Environmental:
o Factors like air pollution, noise pollution etc. should be given due consideration in the
geometric design of roads.
x Economy:
o The design adopted should be economical as far as possible. It should match with the
funds allotted for capital cost and maintenance cost.
x Others:
o Geometric design should be such that the aesthetics of the region is not affected
Cross sectional elements
The feature of the cross-section of the pavement influences the life of the pavement as well
as the riding comfort and safety.
Pavement surface characteristics
For a
important;
Friction
safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design
of horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also affects the acceleration
and deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping
of vehicles.
Various factors that affect friction are:
x Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),
x Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
x Condition of the tire (new or old), and
x Speed and load of the vehicle.
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The choice of the value of f is a very complicated issue since it depends on many variables.
IRC suggests the coefficient of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the speed and
coefficient of later friction as 0.15.
Unevenness
It affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel consumption
and wear and tear of tires. Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the
cumulative measure of vertical undulation of the pavement surface recorded per unit
horizontal length of the road.
Light reaction
x White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare during day time.
x Black roads has no glare during day, but has poor visibility at night
.
Drainage
The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water
into the pavement layers.
Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the
transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
The objectives of providing camber are:
x Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
x Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
x Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or
n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface.
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Figure: Lane width for single and two lane roads
Width of carriage way
Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the
traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle
and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.
Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or
footpaths. Different types of kerbs are (Figure 12:3):
x Low or mountable kerbs:
These types of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to remain in the
through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little
difficulty..
x Semi-barrier type kerbs:
When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their height is 15 cm
above the pavement edge.
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x Barrier type kerbs:
They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They are
provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a
height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
Submerged kerbs:
They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between the
pavement
pavement.
edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and stability to the
Road margins
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally
called road margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.
Shoulders
A shoulder are provided along the road edge and is intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base
and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully
loaded truck even in wet conditions.
Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving in the road. The parking lane should have
a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.
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Bus-bays
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that
they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way.
Service roads
Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like
freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a
separator and access to the highway will be provided only at selected points.
Cycle track
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high
Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every
additional track.
Footpath
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They
are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular
traffic is high.
Guard rails
They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an embankment.
They serve to prevent the vehicles from running o_ the embankment, especially when the
height of the fill exceeds 3 m.
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Width of formation
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or
carriage way including separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in
formation/cutting. The values suggested by IRC are given in Table
Right of way
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the
highway and may reasonably provide for future development.:
x Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and
road margins.
x Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the
vertical alignment.
x Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
x Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
Table: Normal right of way for open areas
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The importance of reserved land is emphasized by the following Extra width of land is
available for the construction of roadside facilities.
Figure: A typical Right of way
Sight distance
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the
visibility of the road ahead of the driver.
Types of sight distance
Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over
which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary or
moving objects. Three sight distance situations are considered for design:
x Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance
x Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is the defined as twice SSD
x Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
x Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the
illumination of head light
x Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection
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The most important consideration in all these is that at all times the driver travelling at the
design speed of the highway must have sufficient carriageway distance within his line of
vision to allow him to stop his vehicle before colliding with a slowly moving or stationary
object appearing suddenly in his own traffic lane. The computation of sight distance depends
on:
x Reaction time of the driver
Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total reaction time may be split up into
four components based on PIEV theory. In practice, all these times are usually combined into
a total perception- reaction time suitable for design purposes as well as for easy
measurement.
x Speed of the vehicle
The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed, more time
will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed increases, sight
distance also increases.
x Efficiency of brakes
The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle characteristics
etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are applied.
But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency..
x Frictional resistance between the tire and the road
The frictional resistance between the tire and road plays an important role to bring the
vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately. Thus
sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while
computing the sight distance..
x Gradient of the road
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Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the
vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less.
Stopping sight distance
SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely
without collision with any other obstruction..
Lag distance is the distance the vehicle traveled during the reaction time t and is given by vt,
where v is the
velocity in m=sec2.
Braking distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle during braking operation. For a level
road this is obtained by equating the work done in stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy
of the vehicle. If F is the maximum frictional force developed and the braking distance is l,
then work done against friction in stopping the vehicle is
Fl = fWl
kinetic energy at the design speed is
where W is the total weight of the vehicle. The
Therefore, the SSD = lag distance + braking distance and given by:
SSD = vt + v2
2gf
Where v is the design speed in m=sec2, t is the reaction time in sec, g is the acceleration due
to gravity and f is the coefficient of friction. The coefficient of friction f is given below for
various design speed.
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Table: Coefficient of longitudinal friction
When there is an ascending gradient of say +n%, the component of gravity adds to braking
action and hence braking distance is decreased. The component of gravity acting parallel to
the surface which adds to the braking force is equal to W sin = W tan = Wn=100.
Equating kinetic energy and work done:
Similarly the braking distance can be derived for a descending gradient. Therefore the general
equation is given by Equation 13.2.
Overtaking sight distance
The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver
of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the
opposite direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along
the center line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2m above the road surface
can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface. The factors that affect the OSD are:
x Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle coming in the
opposite direction.
x Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
x d1 the distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t = t1 - t0
x d2 the distance traveled by the vehicle during the actual overtaking operation T = t3 - t1
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x d3 is the distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation (T).
Therefore:
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
It is assumed that the vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to vb, the speed of the slow
moving vehicle Band travels behind it during the reaction time t of the driver. So d1 is given
by:
d1 = vbt
Then the vehicle A starts to accelerate, shifts the lane, overtake and shift back to the original
lane. The vehicle A maintains the spacing s before and after overtaking. The spacing s in m is
given by:
s = 0:7vb + 6
Let T be the duration of actual overtaking. The distance traveled by B during the overtaking
operation is2s+vbT. Also, during this time, vehicle A accelerated from initial velocity vb and
overtaking is completed while reaching final velocity v. Hence the distance traveled is given
by:
The distance traveled by the vehicle C moving at design speed v m=sec during overtaking
operation is given
by:
The overtaking sight distance is (Figure)
Where vb is the velocity of the slow moving vehicle in m=sec2, t the reaction time of the
driver in sec, s is the spacing between the two vehicle in m given by equation 13.3 and a is
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the overtaking vehicles acceleration in m=sec2. In case the speed of the overtaken vehicle is
not given, it can be assumed that it moves 16 kmph slower the design speed. The acceleration
values of the fast vehicle depends on its speed and given in Table
Table 13:2: Maximum overtaking acceleration at different speeds
Overtaking zones
Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided throughout the length
of the highway. These are zones dedicated for overtaking operation, marked with wide roads.
The desirable length of overtaking zones is 5 time OSD and the minimum is three times OSD
(Figure 13:2).
Sight distance at intersections
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At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the
drivers approaching the intersection from either sides. They should be able to perceive a
hazard and stop the vehicle if required.:
o Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
o Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
o Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
Horizontal curve
The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is a reactive force acting
outward on a vehicle negotiating it. Centrifugal force depends on speed and radius of the
horizontal curve and is counteracted to a certain extent by transverse friction between the tyre
and pavement surface. On a curved road, this force tends to cause the vehicle to overrun or to
slide outward from the centre of road curvature. The centrifugal force P in kg=m2 is given by
P = Wv2
gR
where W is the weight of the vehicle in kg, v is the speed of the vehicle in m=sec, g is the
acceleration due to gravity in m=sec2 and R is the radius of the curve in m. The centrifugal
ratio or the impact factor
W
P
is given by:
P = v2
W gR
The centrifugal force has two effects: a tendency to overturn the vehicle about the outer
wheels and a tendency for transverse skidding. Taking moments of the forces with respect to
the other when the vehicle is just about to override is give as:
Ph = W b
2
At the equilibrium over turning is possible when
V2 = b
gR 2h
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And for safety the following condition must satisfy:
b > V2
2h gR
The second tendency of the vehicle is for transverse skidding. i.e. When the centrifugal force
P is greater than the maximum possible transverse skid resistance due to friction between the
pavement surface and tire. The transverse skid resistance (F) is given by:
F = FA + FB
= f(RA + RB)
= fW
where FA and FB is the fractional force at tire A and B, RA and RB is the reaction at tire A
and B, f is the lateral coefficient of friction and W is the weight of the vehicle. This is
counteracted by the centrifugal force (P), and equating:
P = fW or
P = i
At equilibrium, when skidding takes place (from equation14.2)
P = f = v2
W gR
and for safety the following condition must satisfy:
f > v2
gR
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If this equation is violated, the vehicle will overturn at the horizontal curve and if equation
14.4 is violated, the vehicle will skid at the horizontal curve
Analysis of super-elevation
Super-elevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided at horizontal curve
to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of the pavement with respect to
the inner edge, throughout the length of the horizontal curve.
Forces acting on a vehicle on horizontal curve of radius R m at a speed of v m=sec2
are:
x P the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the center of gravity,
x W the weight of the vehicle acting down-wards through the center of gravity, and
x F the friction force between the wheels and the pavement, along the surface inward.
At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we get,
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At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we get,
P cos = W sin + FA + FB
= W sin + f (RA + RB)
= W sin + f (W cos + P sin )
where W is the weight of the vehicle, P is the centrifugal force, f is the coefficient of friction,
f is the transverse slope due to super elevation. Dividing by W cos , we get:
Attainment of super-elevation
Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
x Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slope is rotated
about the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the same plane as the
inner half.
Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation
There are two methods of attaining super elevation by rotating the pavement
x Rotation about the center line : The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is
depressed and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount of super
elevation, i.e., by E=2 with respect to the centre
x Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge as
well as the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of
superelevation with respect to the inner edge.
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Mechanical widening
The reasons for the mechanical widening are: When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal
curve, the rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels as shown in
figure. this phenomenon is called off tracking, and has the effect of increasing the effective
width of a road space required by the vehicle. Therefore, to provide the same clearance
between vehicles travelling in opposite direction on curved roads as is provided on straight
sections, there must be extra width of carriageway available.. The expression for extra width
can be derived from the simple geometry of a vehicle at a horizontal curve as shown in figure
Let R1 is the radius of the outer track line of the rear wheel, R2 is the radius of the outer track
line of the front wheel l is the distance between the front and rear wheel, n is the number of
lanes, then the mechanical widening Wm (is derive below:
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If the road has n lanes, the extra widening should be provided on each lane. Therefore, the
extra widening of a road with n lanes is given
by,
Psychological widening
Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There is
a tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some extra
space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking operations on
curves. IRC proposed an empirical relation for the psychological widening at horizontal
curves Wps:
Horizontal Transition Curves
Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from straight to circular
curve gradually and has a radius which decreases from infinity at the straight end (tangent
point) to the desired radius of the circular curve at the other end (curve point) There are five
objectives for providing transition curve and are given below:
1. To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the beginning of
the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the comfort of
passengers.
2. To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security,
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Type of transition curve
Different types of transition curves are spiral or clothoid, cubic parabola, and Lemniscates.
IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve because:
1. It full fills the requirement of an ideal transition curve, that is;
(a) rate of change or centrifugal acceleration is consistent (smooth) and
(b) Radius of the transition curve is 1 at the straight edge and changes to R at the curve point
(Ls / 1R) and calculation and field implementation is very easy.
Length of transition curve
The length of the transition curve should be determined as the maximum of the following
three criteria: rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, rate of change of super elevation, and
an empirical formula given by IRC.
1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
At the tangent point, radius is infinity and hence centrifugal acceleration is zero. At the
end of the transition, the radius R has minimum value R. If c is the rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration, it can be written as:
The length of the transition curve Ls
1
in m is
Ls1 = V3
cR
where c is the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration given by an empirical formula
suggested by IRC as
c = 80
75 + 3.6v
Cmin = 0:5; Cmax = 0:8:
2. Rate of introduction of super-elevation
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Raise (E) of the outer edge with respect to inner edge is given by E = eB = e(W +We). The
rate of change of this raise from 0 to E is achieved gradually with a gradient of 1 in N over
the length of the transition curve (typical range of N is 60-150). Therefore, the length of the
transition curve Ls2 is:
Ls2 = Ne (W +We)
3. By empirical formula
IRC suggest the length of the transition curve is minimum for a plain and rolling terrain:
Ls
3
= 35v2
R
Steep and hilly terrain is:
Ls
3
=12.96v2
R
And the shift s as:
s = L
2s

24R
The length of the transition curve Ls is the maximum of equations
Ls = Max: (Ls
1
; Ls
2
;Ls
3
)
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Setback Distance
Setback distance m or the clearance distance is the distance required from the
centerline of a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide
adequate sight distance at a horizontal curve. The set back distance depends on:
1. Sight distance (OSD, ISD and OSD),
2. Radius of the curve, and
3. Length of the curve.
Case (a) Ls < Lc
For single lane roads:
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Case (b) Ls > Lc
For single lane:
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Curve Resistance
When the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of the front and the r
ear wheels are different. The front wheels are turned to move the vehicle along the curve,
whereas the rear wheels seldom turn. This is illustrated in figure 16:4.The rear wheels exert a
tractive force T in the PQ direction. The tractive force available on the front wheels is Tcos
in the PS direction as shown in the figure 16:4. This is less than the actual tractive force, T
applied. Hence, the loss of tractive force for a vehicle to negotiate a horizontal curve is:
CR = T -- T cos
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Vertical alignment
The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients(straight lines in a vertical plane)
and vertical curves. The vertical alignment is usually drawn as a profile, which is a graph
with elevation as vertical axis and the horizontal distance along the centre line of the road as
the the horizontal axis.
Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal.
While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided designing the vertical curve. Before
finalising the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation cost and the practical
problems in the site also has to be considered.
Types of gradient
Many studies have shown that gradient upto seven percent can have considerable
effect on the speeds of the passenger cars. On the contrary, the speeds of the heavy vehicles
are considerably reduced when long gradients a sat as two percent is adopted. Although, atter
gradients are desirable, it is evident that the cost of construction will also be very high.
Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the
designer attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain, length
of the grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In
atter terrain, it may be possible to provide at gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical
and sometimes not possible also.
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Minimum gradient
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important. Camber will
take care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along the side drains requires
some slope for smooth flow of water.
Limiting gradient
This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous increase in cost
of construction. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it may be frequently necessary to adopt
limiting gradient.
Exceptional gradient
Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations. They
should be limited for short stretches not exceeding about 100 meters at a stretch.
Summit curve
Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards. They are formed when two
gradients meet as illustrated in figure below in any of the following four ways:
1. When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient
2. When positive gradient meets a at gradient
3. When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient.
4. When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient
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Type of Summit Curve
Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results; the common practice has
been to use parabolic curves in summit curves. This is primarily because of the ease with it
can be laid out as well as allowing a comfortable transition from one gradient to another.
Length of the summit curve
The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the length of
the curve which is parabolic. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided by the sight
distance consideration.
Distance .Let L is the length
Case a: Length of summit curve greater than sight distance
The situation when the sight distance is less than the length of the curve
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Case b: Length of summit curve less than sight distance
When stopping sight distance is considered the height of driver's eye above the road surface
(h1) is taken as 1.2 meters, and height of object above the pavement surface (h2) is taken as
0.15 meters. If overtaking sight distance is considered, then the value of driver's eye height
(h1) and the height of the obstruction (h2) are taken equal as 1.2 meters.
Valley curve
Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards. They are
formed when two gradients meet as illustrated in figure below in any of the following four
ways:
1. When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient
2. When a descending gradient meets a at gradient
3. When a descending gradient meets an ascending gradient
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4. When an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient
Length of the valley curve
The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar transition curves of equal
length The transitional curve is set out by a cubic parabola y = bx
3
where b = 2N
3/
L2 The
length of the valley transition curve is designed based on two criteria:
1. Comfort criteria; that is allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is limited to a
comfortable level of about 0:6m=sec3.
2. Safety criteria; that is the driver should have adequate headlight sight distance at any part
of the country.
Comfort criteria
The length of the valley curve based on the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
that will ensure comfort: Let c is the rate of change of acceleration, R the minimum radius of
the curve, v is the design speed and t is the time, then c is given as:
Ls = V
3

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cR
For a cubic parabola, the value of R for length Ls is given by:
Safety criteria
R = Ls
N
Length of the valley curve for headlight distance may be determined for two conditions:
x length of the valley curve greater than stopping sight distance and
x Length of the valley curve less than the stopping sight distance.
Case 1: Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance (L > S)
The total length of valley curve L is greater than the stopping sight distance SSD. The
sight distance available will be minimum when the vehicle is in the lowest point in the valley.
This is because the beginning of the curve will have infinite radius and the bottom of the
curve will have minimum radius which is a property of the transition curve.
Where L is the total length of valley curve, N is the deviation angle in radians or tangent of
the deviation angle or the algebraic difference in grades, and c is the allowable rate of change
of centrifugal acceleration which may be taken as 0:6m/sec
3
.
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Where N is the deviation angle in radians, h1 is the height of headlight beam, is the head
beam inclination in degrees and S is the sight distance. The inclination is = 1 degree.
Case 2 Length of valley curve less than stopping sight distance (L < S)
The length of the curve L is less than SSD. In this case the minimum sight distance is
from the beginning of the curve. The important points are the beginning of the curve and the
bottom most part of the curve. If the vehicle is at the bottom of the curve, then its headlight
beam will reach far beyond the endpoint of the curve whereas, if the vehicle is at the
beginning of the curve, then the headlight beam will hit just outside the curve. Therefore, the
length of the curve is derived by assuming the vehicle at the beginning of the curve. The case
is shown in figure below.
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The gradients are very small and are acceptable for all practical purposes. We will not be able
to know prior to which case to be adopted. Therefore both has to be calculated and the one
which satisfies the condition is adopted.
UNIT 5 PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Introduction
Subgrade soil
Subgrade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure which directly
receives the traffic load from the pavement layers. The subgrade soil and its properties are
important in the design of pavement structure. The main function of the subgrade is to give
adequate support to the pavement and for this the subgrade should possess sufficient stability
under adverse climate and loading conditions.
The formation of waves, corrugations, rutting and shoving in black top pavements and
the phenomena of pumping, blowing and consequent cracking of cement concrete pavements
are generally attributed due to the poor subgrade conditions.
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Desirable Properties
The desirable properties of soil as a highway material are
x Stability
x Incompressibility
x Permanency of strength
x Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and
ground water
x Good drainage, and
x Ease of compaction.
The soil should possess adequate stability or resistance to permanent deformation under
loads, and should possess resistance to weathering, thus retaining the desired subgrade
support. Minimum variation in volume will ensure minimum variation in differential
Soil classification
1. Grain size analysis
According to size of grains soil is classified as gravel, sand, silt and clay. As per
Indian standard classification the limits of grain size are as follows.
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
C
0.6
M
0.2
F C
0.02
M
0.006
F C
0.006
M
0.002
F
Fraction of soils
2.0mm 0.06mm 0.002mm
Larger than 2.00mm size
Between 2.00mm 0.06 mm size
Between 0.06mm 0.002 mm size
Smaller than 0.002 size
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay
2. Highway Research Board (HRB) classification of soils
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This is also called American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO)
classification of Revised Public Roads Administration (PRA) soil classification system. Soils
are divided into seven groups A-I to A-7. A-I, A-2 and A-3 soils are granular soils,
percentage fines passing 0.074 mm sieve being less than 35. A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7, soils are
fine grained or silt-clay soils, passing 0.074 mm sieve being greater than 35 percent.
A-1 soils are well graded mixture of stone fragments, gravel coarse sand, fine sand
and non-plastic or slightly plastic soil binder. The soils of this group are subdivided into two
subgroups, A- 1-a, consisting predominantly of stone fragments or gravel and A-I-b
consisting predominantly of coarse sand.
A-2 group of soils include a wide range of granular soils ranging from A- 1 to A-3
groups, consisting of granular soils and upto 35% fines of A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7 groups.
Based on the fines content, the soils of A-2 groups are subdivided into subgroups A-2-4, A-2-
5, A-2-6 and A-2-7.
A-3 soils consist mainly, uniformly graded medium or fine sand similar to beach sand
or desert blown sand. Stream-deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand with some coarse
sand and gravel are also included in this group.
A-4 soils are generally silty soils, non-plastic or moderately plastic in nature with
liquid limit and plasticity index values less than 40 and 10 respectively
A-5 soils are also silty soils with plasticity index less than 10%, but with liquid limit
values exceeding 40%. These include highly elastic or compressible, soils, usually of
diatomaceous of micaceous character.
A-6 group of soils are plastic clays, having high values of plasticity index exceeding
10% and low values of liquid limit below 40%; they have high volume change properties
with variation in moisture content.
A-7 soils are also clayey soils as A-6 soils, but with high values of both liquid limit
and plasticity index, (LL greater than 40% and P1 greater than 10%). These soils have low
permeability and high volume change properties with changes in moisture content.
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California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
This is a penetration test developed by the California division of highway. For
evaluating the stability of soil subgrade and other pavement materials. The test results have
been correlated with flexible pavement thickness requirement for highway and airfield. CBR
test may be conducted in the laboratory on a prepared specimen in a mould or in situ in the
field.
Laboratory CBR test
The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of
x Cylindrical mould
Mould 150mm dia, 175mm height with 50mm collar height, detachable perforated base with
spacer disc of 148mm dia and 47.7mm thick is used to obtain a specimen of exactly
127.3mm height.
x Loading Machine
Compression machine operated at a constant rate of 1.25mm/min.Loading frame with
cylindrical plunger 50mm dia & dial gauge for measuring the deformation due to application
of load.
x Compaction rammer
Type of compaction No of layers Wt of hammer
(kg)
Fall (cm) No of blows
Light compaction 3 2.6 31 56
Heavy compaction 5 4.89 45 56
x Annular weight or surcharge weight
2.5 Kgs of surcharge wt of 147mm dia are placed on specimen both at the soaking and
testing of prepared samples.
Procedure
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x CBR test may be performed on undisturbed soil specimens.
x About 5kgs of soil is taken passing though 20mm IS sieve and retained on 4.75mm IS
sieve
x The soil is mixed with water upto OMC.
x The spacer disc is placed at the bottom of the mould over the base plate & a coarse filter
paper is placed over the spacer disc.
x Then the moist soil sample is to be compacted over this in the mould by adopting either
IS light compaction or IS heavy compaction.
x For IS heavy compaction 3 equal layers of compacted thickness about
56 evenly distributed blows from 2.6kgs rammer.
44mm by applying
x For IS heavy compaction 5 equal layers of compacted thickness about 26.5mm by
applying 56 evenly distributed blows from 4.89 kg rammer.
x After compacting the last layer, The collar is removed and the excess soil above the top of
the mould is evenly trimmed off by means of straight edge (of 5mm thickness).
x Clamps are removed ant the mould with compacted soil is lifted leaving below the
perforated base plate & the spacer disc which is removed.
x Then the mould with compacted soil is weighed
x Filter paper is placed on the perforated base plate &* the mould with compacted soil is
inverted & placed in position over the base plate.
x Now the clamps of the base is tightened
x Another filter paper is placed on the placed on the top surface of the sample & the
perforated plate with adjustable stem is placed over it.
x Now surcharge weights of 2.5 or 5kgs are placed over the perforated plate & the whole
mould with the weights is placed in a water tank for soaking such that water can enter the
specimen both from the top & bottom.
x The initial dial gauge readings is recorded & the test set up is kept undisturbed in the
water tank to allow soaking of the soil specimen for full 4 days or 96 hrs.
x The final dial gauge reading is noted to measure the expansion & swelling of the
specimen due to soaking.
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x The swell measurement assembly is removed, the mould is taken out of the water tank &
the sample is allowed to drain in a perpendicular position for 15 min surcharge wt,
perforated plate with stem, filter paper are removed.
x The mould with the soil subgrade is removed from the base plate & is weighed again to
determine the wt of water absorbed.
x Then the specimen is clamped over base plate surcharge wts are placed on specimens
centrally such that the penetration test could be conducted.
x The mould with base plate is placed under the penetration plunger of loading machine.
x The penetration plunger is seated +at the centre of the specimen & is brought in contact
with the top surface of the soil sample by applying a seating load of 4kgs.
x The dial gauge for measuring the penetration values of the plunger is fitted in position
x The dial gauge of proving ring & the penetration dial gauge are set to 0.
x The load is applied though the penetration plunger at a uniform rate of 1.5mm/min
x The load reading are recorded at penetration reading 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 7.5, 10
& 12.5mm.
x In case the load reading starts decreasing before 12.5mm penetration, the max load & the
corresponding penetration values are recorded.
x After the final reading the load is released & the mould from loading machine.
x The proving ring calibration factor is noted so that load dial gauge value can be converted
into the load in kg.
Calculation
Swelling or expansion ratio is calculated from the formula.
Expansion ratio = (100 ( df di))/h
Where,
df = Final dial gauge after soaking in mm
di = Initial dial gauge before soaking in mm
h = initial ht of the specimen in mm
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Therefore, CBR= Load sustained by the specimen at 2.5 or 5mm penetration x
100
Load sustained by std specimen at corresponding penetration level
CBR at 2.5mm = P
1
(kg) x 100%
1370
CBR at 5mm = P
2
(kg) x 100%
1370
x Generally CBR value @ 2.5mm penetration is higher & this value is adopted.
x The initial upward concavity of the load penetration is due to the piston surface not
being fully in contact with top of the specimen.
x Top layer of soaked soil being too soft.
Modulus of subgrade reaction of soil
Plate bearing test
x The plate bearing test has been devised to evaluate the supporting power of subgrade or
any other pavement layer by using plates of larger diameter.
x Plate bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of subgrade reaction in the
westergardss analysis for wheel load stresses in cement concrete pavement.
x In the plate bearing test a compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement layer
through rigid plates of relatively large size & the deflection are measurement for various
stress values.
x The deflection level is generally limited to a low value of 1.25mm to 5mm.
Modulus subgrade reaction (k)
x K may be defined as the pressure sustained per unit deformation of subgrade at specified
pressure level using specified plate size.
x The standard palte size for finding K value is 75cm dia in same test a smaller plate of
30cm dia is also used (75,60,45,30 & 22.5 cm dia).
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Apparatus used
Bearing plate:
Mild steel of 75cm dia & 1.5 to 2.5 cm thickness.
Loading equipment:
Reaction frame or dead load applied may be measured either by a proving ring or dial gauge
assembly.
Settle measurement:
It may be made by means of 3 or 4 dial gauge fixed on the periphery of the bearing plate from
an independent datum frame. Datum frame should be supported from the loaded area.
Procedure
x At the test site, about 20cm top soil is removed & the site is leveled & the plate is
properly seated on the prepared surface.
x The stiffening plates of decreasing dia are placed & the jack & proving ring assembly are
fitted to provide reaction against the frame.
x 3 or 4 dial gauges are fixed on the periphery of the palte from the independent datum
frame foe measuring settlement.
x A seating load of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320kgs for 75 dia) is applied & released after a few sec.
x The settlement dial gauges reading are now noted corresponding to zero load.
x A load is applied by means of jack sufficient to cause an average settlement of about
0.25mm.
x When there is no perception increase in settlement or when the rate of settlement is less
than 0.025mm/min (case of clayey soil or wet soil), the reading of the settlement dial
gauge are noted & the avg settlement is found & the load is noted from the proving ring
dial reading.
x The load is then increased till settlement increases to a further amount of about 0.25mm
& the avg settlement & load are found.
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x The procedure is repeated till the settlement reaches 0.175cm.
x A graph is plotted with mean settlement versus mean bearing pressure (load/unitarea) as
shown in fig.
Bearing pressure settlement curve.
x The pressure p (kg/cm2) corresponding to a settlement delta = 0.125cm (obtaines from
the graph shown above)
x The modulus of subgrade reaction k is calculated from the relation.
K = P kg/cm2
0.125
Correction for smaller plate size
x In some cases the load capacity may not be adequate to cause 75cm dia plate to settle
0.175cm.
x In such a case a plate of smaller dia (say 30cm) may be used.
x Then K value should be found by applying a suitable correction for plate size.
x Assuming the subgrade to be an elastic medium with modulus of elasticity E (kg/cm2),
the theoretical relationship of deformation (cm) under a rigid plate of radius a (cm) is
given by
Delta = 1.18Pa
E
But, K = P
D
Substitute the value of D in K
Therefore K = P x E
1.18 Pa K = E
1.18a
x If the value of E is taken as constant for a soil, Then k x a = constant
x i.e. Ka = ka or K = ka
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a
x Hence if the test is carried out with a smaller plate of radius a & the modulus of subgrade
reaction K is found.
x Then the corrected value of modulus of subgrade reaction K for std plate of radius a, is
given by K = k1 a1
A
AGGREGATES
Introduction
Aggregates form the major portion of pavement structure and they form the prime
materials used in pavement construction. Aggregates have to bear stresses occurring due to
the wheel loads on the pavement and on the surface course they also have to resist wear due
to abrasive action of traffic.
Strength
The aggregates to be used in road construction should be sufficiently strong to
withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load. The aggregates which are to be used in top
layers of the pavements, particularly in the wearing course have to be capable of
with4jnhighs1cssesinaddItion to
strength resistance to crushing.
- wear and tear; hence they should possess sufficient
Toughness
Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel loads.
Sever impact like hammering is quite move on water bound macadam roads where stones
protrude out especially after the monsoons.
Durability
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The stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist
disintegration due to the action of weather. The property of the stones to withstand the
adverse action of weather may called soundness.
Shape of Aggregates
The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve opening
through which an aggregate may pass, and not by the shape. Aggregates which happen to fall
in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical, angular flaky or elongated shape of
particles. It is e and donated particles will have less strength and durability when compared
with cubical angular or rounded articles of the same Stone. Hence too flaky and too much
elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
Adhesion with Bitumen
The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water
when compared with bituminous materials, otherwise the bituminous coating on the
aggregate will be stripped off in presence of water.
Tests for Road Aggregate
In order to decide the suitability of the road stones for use in construction, the
following tests are carried out:
(a) Crushing test
(b) Abrasion test
(c) Impact test
(d) Soundness
(e) Shape test
(f) Specific gravity and water absorption test
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(g) Bitumen adhesion test
The essential features of these tests are discussed below. Separate tests are available
for testing cylindrical stone specimens and coarse aggregates for crushing, abrasion and
impact tests. But due to the difficulties of preparing cylindrical stone specimen which need
costly core drilling, cutting and polishing equipment, the use of such tests are now limited.
Testing of aggregates is easy and simulate the field condition better, as such these are
generally preferred.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Introduction
Bituminous binders used in pavement construction works include both bitumen and
tar. Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude where-as
road tar is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal or wood. Both bitumen and tar have
similar appearance, black in colour though they have different characteristics. Both these
materials can be used for pavement works.
(i)
(ii)
paving bitumen from Assam petroleum, denoted as A-type and designated as grades
A35, A 90, etc.
paving bitumen from other sources denoted as S-type and designated as grades S 35,
S 90, etc.
Types of Bituminous Materials
Bituminous material used in highway construction may be broadly divided as
(i)
(ii)
Bitumen and
Tar
Bitumen may be further divided as petroleum asphalt or bitumen and native
asphalt.There are different forms in which native asphalts are available. Native asphalts are
those which occur in a pure or nearly pure state in nature. Native asphalts which are
associated with a large proportion of mineral matter are called rock asphalts. The viscosity of
bitumen is reduced some times by a volatile diluent; this material is called cutback.
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Bitumen
Crude petroleum obtained from different places are quite different in their
composition. The portion of bituminous material present in the petroleums may widely differ
depending on the source. Almost all the crude petroleums contain considerable amounts of
water along with crude oil. Hence the petroleum should be dehydrated first before carrying
out the distillation. General types of distillation processes are fractional distillation and
Tests on Bitumen
Bitumen is available in a variety of types and grades. To judge the suitability of these
binders various physical tests have been specified by agencies like ASTM, Asphalt Institute,
British Standards Institution and the ISI. These tests include penetration test, ductility tests,
softening point test and viscosity test. For classifying bitumen and studying the performance
of bituminous pavements, the penetration and ductility tests are essential.
The various tests on bituminous materials are
(a) Penetration tests (b) Ductility tests (c) Viscosity tests
(d) Float test (e) Specific gravity test (f) Softening point test
(g) Flash and Fire point test (h) Solubility test (i) Spot test
(j) Loss on heating test (k) Water content test
Cutback Bitumen
Cutback bitumen is defined as the bitumen, the viscosity of which has been reduced
by a colatile diluent. For use in surface dressings, some type of bitumen macadam and
soilbitumen it is necessary to have a fluid binder which can be mixed relatively at low
temperatures. Hence to increase fluidity of the bituminous binder at low temperatures the
binder is blended with a volatile solvent. After the cutback mix in construction work, the
volatile gets evaporated and the cutback develops the properties. The viscosity of the cutback
and rate of which it hardens on the road depend on the characteristics and quantity of both
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bitumen and volatile oil used as the diluent. Cutback bitumens are available in three types,
namely,
(i) Rapid Curing (RC)
(ii) Medium Curing (MC) and
(iii) Slow Curing (SC)
This classification is based on the rate of curing or hardening after the application. The grade
of cutback or its fluidity is designed by a figure which follows the initials; as an example RC-
2 means that it is a rapid curing cutback of grade 2.The cutback with the lowest viscosity is
designated by numeral 0, such as RC-0 and SC-0. Suffix numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
designate progressively thicker or more viscous cutbacks as the numbers increase. This
number indicates a definite viscosity irrespective of the type of cutback; in other words, RC-
2, MC-2 all have the same initial viscosity at a specified temperature. The initial viscosity
values (in seconds, standard tar viscometer) of various grades of cutbacks as per ISI
specifications are given in Table 6.7.
Thus lower grade cutbacks like RC-0, RC-l etc. would contain high prop solvent
when compared with higher grades like RC-4 or RC-5, RC-0 and MC-0 may contain
approximately 45 percent solvent and 55 percent bitumen, whereas, RC-5 and MC-5 may
contain approximately 15 percent solvent and 85 percent bitumen.
Rapid Curing Cutbacks are bitumens, fluxed or cutback with a petroleum Distillate such as
nephta or gasoline which will rapidly evaporate after using in construction, leaving the
bitumen binder. The grade of the R.C. cutback is governed by the proportion of the solvent
used. The penetration value of residue from distillation up to 3600C of RC cutback bitumen
is 80 to 120.
Medium curing cutbacks are bitumen fluxed to greater fluidity by blending with a
intermediate-boiling-point solvent like kerosene or light diesel oil. MC cutbacks evaporate
relatively at slow rate because the kerosene-range solvents will not evaporate rapidly as the
gasoline-range solvents used in the manufacture of RC cutbacks. Hence the designation
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medium curing is given to this cutback type. MC products have good wetting properties and
so satisfactory coating of fine grain aggregate and sandy soils is possible.
Slow curing cutbacks are obtained either by blending bitumen with high-boiling-point
gas oil, or by controlling the rate of flow and temperature of the crude during the first cycle
of refining. SC cutbacks or wood soils harden or set way slowly as it is a semi volatile
material.
Various tests carried out on cut-backs bitumen are
(a)
(b)
Viscosity tests at specified temperature using specified size of orifice.
Distillation test to find distillation fractions, up to specified temperature and to find
the residue from distillation up to 360C
(c) Penetration test, ductility test and test for matter soluble in carbon disulphide on
(d)
residue from distillation up to 360C
Flash point test on cutback using Pensky Martens closed type apparatus.
Bituminous Emulsion
A bitumen emulsion is liquid product in which a substantial amount of bitumen is
suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous medium and stabilized by means of
one or more suitable materials. An emulsion is a two phase system consisting of two
immiscible liquids; the one being dispersed as fine globules in the other.Usually, bitumen or
refined tar is broken up into fine globules and kept in suspension in water. A small proportion
of an emulsifier is used to facilitate the formation of dispersion and to keep the globules of
dispersed binder in suspension.
Some of the general properties of road emulsions are judged by the following tests
(i) Residue on Sieving: It is desirable to see that not more than 0.25 percent by w of
emulsion consists of particles greater than 0.15 mm diameter.
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(ii) Stability to Mixing with Coarse Graded Aggregate: This test carried out to fit the
emulsion breaks down and coats the aggregate with bitumen too early before mixing
is complete.
(iii) Stability to Mixing with Cement : This test is carried out to assess the stability
emulsions when the aggregate contains large proportions of fines.
(iv) Water Cement: To know the percentage water in the emulsion which depend the type
of the emulsion.
(v) Sedimentation: Some sedimentation may occur when a drum of emulsion is standing
before use, but on agitation, the emulsion redisperses and can be used.
(vi) Viscosity: The viscosity of emulsified bitumen should be low enough to be sprayed
through jets or to coat the aggregates in simple mixing.
Three types of bituminous emulsion are prepared, viz., (i) Rapid Setting (RS),
Medium Setting (MS) and (iii) Slow Setting (SS) types. Rapid Setting type emulsion is
suitable for surface dressing and penetration macadam type of construction. Medium Setting
type is used for premixing with coarse aggregates and Slow Setting type emulsion is suitable
for fine aggregate mixes.
Tar:
Tar is the viscous liquid obtained when natural organic materials such as wood and
coal carbonized or destructively distilled in the absence of air. Based on the material from
which tar is derived, it is referred to as wood tar or coal tar; the latter is more widely used for
road work because it is superior. Three stages for the production of road tar are
(i) Carbonization of coal to produce crude tar
(ii) Refining or distillation of crude tar and
(iii) Blending of distillation residue with distillate oil fraction to give the desired road tar.
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There are five grades of roads tars, viz., RT- I, RT-2, RT-3, RT-4 and RT-5, based on
their viscosity and other properties. RT-l has the lowest viscosity and is used for surface
painting under exceptionally cold weather as this has very low viscosity. RT-2 is
recommended for standard surface painting under normal Indian climatic conditions. RT-3
may be used for surface painting, renewal coats and premixing chips for top course and light
carpets. RT-4 is generally used for premixing tar macadam in base course. For grouting
purposes RT-5 may be adopted, which has the highest viscosity among the road tars.
The various tests that are carried out on road tars are listed below
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
Specific gravity test
Viscosity test on standard tar viscometer
Equiviscous temperature (EVT)
Softening point
Softening point of residue
Float test
Water content
Distillation fraction on distillation upto 200C, 200C to 270C and 270C to
3 30C.
Phenols, percent by volume
Naphthalefle, percent by weight
Matter insoluble in toluene, percent by weight
The requirements for the five grades of road tars based on the above test results are given by
the ISI. Bitumen and tar have black to dark brown colour. But bitumen is a petroleum product
whereas tar is produced by the destructive distillation of coal or wood.
Comparison between tar & bitumen
Bitumen Tar
It has black to dark brown color It also has black to dark brown in color
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It is natural petroleum product Tar is produced by the destructive distillation
of coal or wool
It is soluble in carbon disulphide & in carbon
tetrachloride
Tar is soluble only in toluene
It has better weather resisting property It has inferior weather resisting property
Bitumen are less temp susceptible Tar is more temp susceptible
Free carbon content is less Free carbon content is More
It neither binds the aggregate well nor retains
the presence of water
It binds aggregate more easily & retain it
better in the presence of water.
BITUMINOUS PAVING MIXES
Requirements of Bituminous Mixes
The mix design should aim at an economical blend, with proper gradation of
aggregates and adequate proportion of bitumen so as to fulfil the desired properties of the
mix. Bituminous concrete or asphaltic concrete is one of the highest and costliest types of
flexible pavement layers used in the surfacing course. The desirable properties of a good
bituminous mix are stability, durability, flexibility, skid resistance and workability.
.
Mix design methods should aim at determining the properties of aggregates and
material which would give a mix having the following properties.
bituminous
(i) Sufficient stability to satisfy the service requirements of the pavement and the traffic
conditions, without undue displacements.
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(ii) Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement by coating the aggregate bonding
them together and also by water-proofing the mix.
(iii) Sufficient voids in the compacted mix as to provide a reservoir space amount of
additional
stability.
compaction due to traffic and to avoid flushing, bleeding and loss of
(iv) Sufficient flexibility even in the coldest season to prevent cracking due to repeated
application of traffic loads.
(v) Sufficient workability while placing and compacting the Mix.
(vi) The mix should be the most economical one that would produce a stable, durable and
skid resistant pavement.
Three mix design methods, namely, Marshall, Hveem and Hubbard-Field methods are
briefly explained in the following paragraphs. These methods have been widely used by
various agencies in the design and construction with satisfactory results. In each of these
methods, the laboratory test results on the mixes have been correlated with the performance
studies in developing the design criteria.
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Unit 6 Introduction to pavement design
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed
materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied
vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of
acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics,
and low noise pollution.
Requirements of a pavement
The pavement should meet the following requirements:
x Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-
grade soil
x Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it
x Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles
x Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed
Types of pavements
The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two,
flexible pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred
by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible
pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road). On
the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural
strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads).
Flexible pavements
Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-
grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure (see Figure 19:1). The
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wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress decreases
with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic
The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and less quality material can be
used. Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in
the form of surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments generally found on low
volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on high volume roads such
as national highways).
pavement layer
.
Types of Flexible Pavements
The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:
x Conventional layered flexible pavement,
x Full - depth asphalt pavement, and
x Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high quality expensive materials
are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials are placed in
lower layers.
Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the
soil subgrade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not
available.
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Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers
in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the
sub-grade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and
protect from surface water
Rigid pavements
Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses
to a wider area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure below
Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared
sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material.
Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this
layer can be called as base or sub-base course. In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the
slab action, and the pavement behaves like an elastic plate resting on a viscous medium Rigid
pavements are constructed by Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by
plate theory instead of layer theory,
Types of Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:
x Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
x Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
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x Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
x Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement is plain cement concrete pavements constructed with
closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for
load transfer across joints. They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement Although reinforcements do not improve the
structural capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m.
Dowel bars are required for load transfer. Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even
after cracks.Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement Complete elimination of joints are
achieved by reinforcement.
Factors affecting pavement design
Traffic and loading
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include
contact pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions.
Contact pressure
The tire pressure is an important factor, as it determines the contact area and the
contact pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the
contact area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered.
Wheel load
The next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the
pavement required to ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configuration affects
the stress distribution and deflection within a pavement. Many commercial vehicles have dual
rear wheels which ensure that the contact pressure is within the limits. The normal practice is
to convert dual wheel into an equivalent single wheel load so that the analysis is made
simpler.
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Axle configuration
The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced by the
introduction of multiple axles.
Moving loads
The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle is moving at creep speed.
Many studies show that when the speed is increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the stresses
and deflection reduced by 40 per cent.
Repetition of Loads
The influence of traffic on pavement not only depends on the magnitude of the wheel
load, but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each load application causes some
deformation and the total deformation is the summation of all these
Environmental factors
Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause
various damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types, temperature
and precipitation.
Equivalent single wheel load
To carry maximum load within the specified limit and to carry greater load, dual
wheel, or dual tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the
single wheel load having the same contact pressure, which produces same value of maximum
stress, deflection, tensile stress or contact pressure at the desired depth. The procedure of
finding the ESWL for equal stress criteria is provided below. This is a semi-rational method,
known as Boyd and Foster method, based on the following assumptions:
x equalancy concept is based on equal stress;
x contact area is circular;
x influence angle is 45o; and
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x soil medium is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic half space.
Where P is the wheel load, S is the center to center distance between the two wheels, d is the
clear distance between two wheels, and z is the desired depth.
Equivalent single axle load
Vehicles can have many axles which will distribute the load into different axles, and
in turn to the pavement through the wheels. A standard truck has two axles, front axle with
two wheels and rear axle with four wheels. But to carry large loads multiple axles are
provided. Since the design of flexible pavements is by layered theory, only the wheels on one
side needed to be considered. On the other hand, the design of rigid pavement is by plate
theory and hence the wheel load on both sides of axle need to be considered. Legal axle load:
Repetition of axle loads:
The deformation of pavement due to a single application of axle load may be small
but due to repeated application of load there would be accumulation of unrecovered or
permanent deformation which results in failure of pavement.
Equivalent axle load factor:
An equivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the damage per pass to a pavement by
the ith type of axle relative to the damage per pass of a standard axle load. While _finding the
EALF, the failure criterion is important. Two types of failure criterias are commonly
adopted: fatigue cracking and rutting. The fatigue cracking model has the following form:
Where, Nf is the number of load repetition for a certain percentage of cracking, _t is the
tensile strain at the
bottom of the binder course, E is the modulus of elasticity, and f1; f2; f3 are
constants. If we consider fatigue
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cracking as failure criteria, and a typical value of 4 for f2, then:
Where, i indicate I
th
vehicle, and std indicate the standard axle. Now if we assume that the
strain is proportional to the wheel load,
Similar results can be obtained if rutting model is used, which is:
where Nd is the permissible design rut depth (say 20mm), s the compressive strain at the top
of the subgrade,
and f4; f5 are constants. Once we have the EALF, then we can get the ESAL as given below.
Equivalent single axle load, ESAL =
Where, m is the number of axle load groups, F
i
is the EALF for i
th
axle load group, and ni is
the number of passes of ith axle load group during the design period.
Example Let number of load repetition expected by 80 KN standard axle is 1000, 160 KN is
100 and 40 KN is 10000. Find the equivalent axle load. Solution:
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IRC method of design of flexible pavements
Design traffic
The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles
(8160 kg) to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following
information:
1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD
2. Traffic growth rate during the design life
3. Design life in number of years
4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way.
Initial traffic
Initial traffic is determined in terms of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD). For the
structural design of the pavement only commercial vehicles are considered assuming laden
weight of three tones or more and their axle loading will be considered. Estimate of the initial
daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day 24-hour classified
traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the basis of
potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area.
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Traffic growth rate
Traffic growth rates can be estimated
(i) by studying the past trends of traffic growth, and
(ii) By establishing econometric models. If adequate data is not available, it is
recommended that an average annual growth rate of 7.5 percent may be adopted.
Design life
For the purpose of the pavement design, the design life is defined in terms of the
cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before strengthening of the pavement
is necessary. It is recommended that pavements for arterial roads like NH, SH should be
designed for a life of 15 years, EH and urban roads for 20 years and
other categories of roads for 10 to 15 years.
Vehicle Damage Factor
The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number of
commercial vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the number of standard
axle-load repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per commercial
vehicle. The VDF varies with the axle configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of road, and
from region to region. The axle load equivalency factors are used to convert different axle
load repetitions into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. For these equivalency factors
refer IRC: 37 2001. The exact VDF values are arrived after extensive field surveys.
Vehicle distribution
A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction and by lane is
necessary as it directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load application used in the
design. Until reliable data is available, the following distribution may be assumed.
x Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two lane
roads and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design should
be based on total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
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x Two-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 75 % of the
commercial vehicles in both directions.
x Four-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 40 % of the
total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
x Dual carriageway roads: For the design of dual two-lane carriageway roads should
be based on 75 % of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction. For dual
three-lane carriageway and dual four-lane carriageway the distribution factor will be
60 % and 45 % respectively.
Numerical example
Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with the following data:
1. Two lane carriage way
2. Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 400 CVPD (sum of both
directions)
3. Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %
4. Design life = 15 years
5. Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 2.5 standard axle per commercial
vehicle
6. Design CBR of subgrade soil = 4%.
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Rigid pavement design
Wheel load stresses - Westergaard's stress equation
The cement concrete slab is assumed to be homogeneous and to have uniform elastic
properties with vertical sub-grade reaction being proportional to the deflection. Westergaard
developed relationships for the stress at
interior, edge and corner regions, denoted as _i; _e; _c in kg/cm2 respectively and given by
the equation.
where h is the slab thickness in cm, P is the wheel load in kg, a is the radius of the wheel load
distribution in cm, l the radius of the relative stiffness in cm 29.1 and b is the radius of the
resisting section in cm
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Temperature stresses
Temperature stresses are developed in cement concrete pavement due to variation in
slab temperature. This is caused by (i) daily variation resulting in a temperature gradient
across the thickness of the slab and (ii) seasonal variation resulting in overall change in the
slab temperature. The former results in warping stresses and the later in frictional stresses.
Warping stress
The warping stress at the interior, edge and corner regions, denoted as ti; te; tc in
kg/cm2 respectively and given by the equation
Frictional stresses
The frictional stress f in kg/cm2 is given by the equation.
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Where W is the unit weight of concrete in kg/cm2 (2400), f is the coefficient of sub grade
friction (1.5) and L is the length of the slab in meters.
Combination of stresses
The cumulative effect of the different stress give rise to the following thee critical cases
x Summer, mid-day: The critical stress is for edge region given by critical = e + te
f
x Winter, mid-day: The critical combination of stress is for the edge region given by
critical = e+ te + f
x Mid-nights: The critical combination of stress is for the corner region given by
critical = c + tc
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UNIT 7 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
Introduction
The science of highway engineering raises some fundamental questions as to what is a
road or highway, how is it planned and designed and lastly how is it built. By now in the
preceding chapters, Depending upon the desired strength of the pavement, the aggregate
gradations and the type and proportion of binders are decided. These three basic binder
medium give rise to a number of construction methods.
Types of Highway Construction
The highway types are classified as below:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Earth road and gravel roads
Soil stabilized roads
Water bound macadam (WBM) road
Bituminous or black-top roads
Cement concrete roads
The roads in India are classified based on location and functions. All the roads do not cater
for the same amount of traffic volume or intensity. Since the funds available at hand for
financing the construction projects are also meager, it is necessary to have roads which cost
less. The adoption of low cost roads is now preferred in developing countries like India where
large lengths of roads are to be constructed in the rural areas with the limited finances
available in the country. Earth roads and stabilized roads are typical examples of low cost
roads. Stabilised soil roads are gaining importance in the form of low cost roads. .
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EARTHWORK
General
The subgrade soil is prepared by bringing is to the desired grade and camber and by
campacting adequately. The subgrade may be either in embankment or in excavation,
depending on the topography and the finalized vertical alignment of the road to be
constructed.
Excavation
Excavation is the process of cutting or loosening and removing earth including rock form its
original position. Transporting and dumping it as a fill or spoil bank. The excavation or
cutting mat be needed in soil, soft rock or even in hard rock, before preparing the subgrade.
Embankment
When it is required to raise the grade line of a highway above the existing ground
level it becomes necessary to construct embankments. The grade line may be raised due to
any of the following reasons
i)
ii)
To keep the subgrade above the high ground water table.
To prevent damage to pavement due to surface water and capillary water.
iii) To maintain the design standards of the highway with respect to the Vertical
alignment.
The design elements in highway embankments are:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Height
Fill material
Settlement
Stability of foundation, and
Stability of slopes
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Height
The height of the embankment depends on the desired grade line of the highway and the soil
profile or topography. Also the height of the fill is some times governed by stability of
foundation, particularly when the foundation soil is weak.
Fill Material
Granular soil is generally preferred as highway embankment material. Silts, and clays
are considered less desirable. Organic soils, particularly peat are unsuitable. The best of the
soils available locally is often selected with a view to keep the lead and lift as low as
possible. At times light-weight fill material like cinder may be used to reduce the weight
when foundation soil is weak.
Settlement
The embankment may settle after the completion of construction either due to
consolidation and settlement of the foundation or due to settlement of the fill or due to both.
If the embankment foundation consists of compressible soil with high moisture content, the
consolidation can occur due to increase in the load. The settlement of the fill is generally due
to inadequate compaction during construction and hence by proper compaction this type of
settlement may be almost eliminated. Whatever be the type of settlement, it is desirable that
the settlement is almost complete before the construction of pavement.
Stability of Foundation
When the embankment foundation consists of weak soil just beneath or at a certain
depth below in the form of a weak stratum, it is essential to consider the stability of the
foundation against a failure. This is all the more essential in the case of high embankments.
The foundation stability is evaluated and the factor of safety is estimated by any of the
following approaches:
(a) Assuming a certain failure surface such as a circular arc or any otier composite shape
and analysing it with Swedish circular arc analysis or method of wedges, as the case
may be.
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(b) Estimating the average shear stress and strength at the foundation layers by
approximate methods and estimating the factor of safety.
(c) using theoretical analysis based on elastic theory.
The factor of safety in the case of compressible soil foundation is likely to be
minimum just after the completion of the embankment. Later due to consolidation of
foundation and consequent gain in strength there will be an increase in the foundation factor
of safety.
Stability of Slopes
The embankment slopes should be stable enough to eliminate the possibility of a
failure under adverse moisture and other conditions. Hence the stability of the slope should
be checked or the slope should be designed providing minimum factor of safety of 1.5. Often
much flatter slopes are preferred in highway embankments due to aesthetic and other reasons.
Construction of embankments
The embankment may be constructed either by rolling in relatively thin layers or by
hydraulic fills. The former is called rolled-earth method and is preferred in highway
embankments. Each layer is compacted by rolling to a satisfactory degree or to a desired
density before the next layer is placed.
Preparation of Subgrade
The preparation of subgrade includes all operations before the pavement structure
could be laid over it and compacted. Thus the preparation of subgrade would include site
clearance, grading (embankment or cut section) and compaction. The subgrade may be
situated on embankment or excavation or at the existing ground surface. In all the cases, site
should be cleared off and the top soil consisting of grass roots rubbish and other organic
matter are to be removed. Next, the grading operation is started so as to bring the vertical
profile of the subgrade to designed grade and camber. Bull dozers, scrapers and blade graders
are useful equipment to speed up this work. It is most essential to compact the top of
subgrade, upto a depth of about adequately before placing the pavement layer.
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Soil Compaction
By compaction of soil, the particles are mechanically constrained to be packed more
closely, by expelling part of the air voids. Compaction increases the density and stability,
reduces settlement and lowers the adverse effects of moisture. Hence proper compaction of
fills, subgrade, sub-base and base course are considered essential for proper highway
construction.
The various factors influencing soil compaction include the moisture content, amount and
type of compaction, soil type and stone content. It is a well known fact that there is an
optimum moisture content (OMC) for a soil which would give maximum dry density for a
particular type and amount of compaction. Hence it is always desirable to compact the soil at
the OMC after deciding the compacting equipment.
Compacting equipment
Soil compaction is achieved in the field either by rolling, ramming or by vibration.
Hence the compacting equipment may also be classified as rollers, rammers and vibrators.
Compactions of sands are also achieved by watering ponding and jetting.
Rollers
The principle of rollers is the application of pressure, which is slowly increased and
then decreased. The various type of rollers which are used for compaction are smooth wheel,
pneumatic tyred and sheep foot rollers. Further the construction equipment such as trucks,
tractors and bull dozers also help in compaction of the materials to some extent.
CONSTRUCTION OF EARTH ROADS
General
An earth road is the cheapest type of road prepared from natural soil. The pavement
sections is totally made out of the soil available at site and at near-by borrow pits. The type of
construction by and large, depends upon the type of soil at site. The camber provided to the
earth roads is very steep and ranges between I in 20 to I in 33. The steep cross Slope helps to
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keep the pavement surface free of standing water; otherwise the soil being Previous, the
water would damage the pavement section by softening it. The maximum cross slope of 1 in
20 is recommended to avoid erosion due to rain waters and formation of cross ruts.
Specification of Materials
Soil of the following properties is considered satisfactory for constructing earth roads:
Base Course Wearing course
Clay content < 5% 10 to 18%
Silt content 9 to 32% 5 to 15%
Sand Content 60 to 80% 60 to 80%
Liquid limit <35% <35%
Plasticity index <6% 40 to 10%
Construction Procedure
The construction of earth road may be divided into the following steps:
x Material. The soil survey is carried out and suitable borrow pits are located within
economical haulage distances. The borrow pits are usually selected outside the land
width. The trees, shrubs, grass roots and other organic matter including top soil a
removed before excavating earth for construction.
x Location. The centre line and road edges are marked on the ground along the alignment,
by driving wooden pegs. Reference pegs are also driven to help in following the desired
vertical profile of the road during construction. The spacing of the reference pegs
depends on the estimated length of road construction per day
x Preparation of subgrade. The various operations involved in the preparation of subgrade
are as follows:
a) Clearing site
b) Excavating and construction of fills to bring the road to a desired grade.
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c) Shaping of subgrade.
The site clearance may be carried out manually using appliances like spade, pick and
shovel. Mechanical equipment like dozer, scraper and ripper may also be used for the
purpose. Construction of fills and excavation of costs to bring the road profile to the
desired grade may also be done either manually or using excavation, hauling and
compaction equipment.
x Pavement construction. The borrowed soil (more than one soil type mixed to the
desired proportion, if necessary) is dumped on the prepared subgrad and pulverized.
The field moisture content is checked and additional water is added, if necessary, to
bring it upto OMC. light compaction is considered desirable. The camber of the
finished pavement surface is checked and corrected if necessary.
x Opening to traffic. The compacted earth road is allowed to dry out for a few days
before opening to traffic.
CONSTRUCTION OF GRAVEL ROADS
General
Gravel roads are considered superior to earth roads as they can carry heavier traffic.
The road consists of a carriageway constructed using the gravels. The camber mat be between
I in 25 and 1 in 30. A well compacted crushed rock or gravel road is fairly resilient and does
not become slippery when wet.
Material
Hard variety of crushed stone or gravel of specified gradation is uses. However
Varieties of Stone may also be utilized. There are no specifications for the mal Rounded
stones and river gravel are not preferable as there is poor interlocking.
x Material Gravel to be used for the construction is stacked along the
proposed road.
sides of the
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x Preparation of subgrade. Site is cleared and fills and cuts are completed. Trench is
formed to the desired depth of construction. The width of the trench is made equal to
that of the carriageway. The trench is brought to the desired grade and is compacted.
x Pavement construction. Crushed gravel aggregates are placed carefully in the trench
so as to avoid segregations. Aggregates are spread with greater thickness at centre and
less towards the edges so as to obtain the desired camber. The layer is rolled using
smooth wheeled rollers starting from the edges and proceeding towards the centre
with an overlap of atleast half the width of roller in the longitudinal direction. Some
quantity of water may also be sprayed and rolling is done again s that the compaction
is effective. The camber is checked and corrected from time to time using a template
or camber board.
x Opening to traffic. A few days after the final rolling and drying out, the road is
opened to the traffic.
CONSTRUCTION OF WATER BOUND MACADAM ROADS
General
The Water bound macadam (WBM) is the construction known after the name of John
also article 2.16 and 2.17. The term macadam in the present day means, the pavement base
course made of crushed or broken aggregate mechanically interlocked by rolling and the
voids filled with screening and binding material with the assistance of water.
Specifications of Materials for WBM Pavement
Coarse Aggregates
The coarse aggregate used in WBM generally consists of hard varieties of crushed
aggregates or broken stones. However, soft aggregates like over burnt bricks metal or
naturally occurring soft aggregates such as kankar or laterite may be used. Crushed slag
obtained from blast furnace may also be used.
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Property Requirements for Pavement layer
Sub-base Base Course Surfacing course
(i) Los Angeles abrasion
(maximum value, percent)
or
60 50 40
(ii) Aggregate impact
50 40 30
(iii) Flakiness index
- 15 15
Properties of Coarse Aggregates
The crushed stone aggregate should be generally hard, durable and free from flaky
and elongated particles. The IRC specifies the following ph requirement of coarse aggregates
for WBM construction, in terms of the test value the three pavement layers.
Size and Grading Requirements of Coarse Aggregates
The coarse aggregates for each layer of construction should, as far as possible
conform to any one of the three gradings specified below. Grading No.1. consists of Coarse
aggregates of size range 90 to 40 mm and is more suitable for sub-base course. Thickness of
compacted layer is usually 100 mm. Grading No. 2 consists of aggregates size range 63 to 40
mm and grading No. 3 of range 50 to 20 mm and compacted thickness of each layer is
normally 75 mm..
Binding Material
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Binding material consisting of fine grained material is used in WBM construction to
prevent raveling of the stones Kankar nodules or lime stone dust may also be utilized, if
locally available. The binding material with plasticity index value 4 to 9% is used in WBM
surface course construction; the plasticity index of binding course material should be less
than 6.0% in the case of WBM layers used as base course or sub-base course, with
bituminous surfacing. If the screenings used consist of crushable material like moorum or soft
gravel, there is no need to apply binding material, unless the plasticity index value is low.
Quantity of Materials
x The approximate loose quantities of materials required in m3 for 10 cm compacted
thickness of WBM sub-base using coarse aggregate of grading no I per 10 m2 area
are:
(a) Coarse aggregate size 90 to 40 mm = 1.21 to 1.43
(b)
(c)
Stone screening type A, 12.5 mm size
or
Crushable type screenings (moorum/gravel)
Binding material for sub-base course
= 0.40 to 0.44
= 0.44 to 0.47
= 0.88 to 0.10
x The approximate loose quantities of materials required in m3 for 7.5 cm compacted
thickness of WBM base course or surfacing course using coarse aggregate of grading
No. 2 per 10 m2 area are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Coarse aggregate size 63 to 40mm
Stone screening type A, 12.5 mm size for base course
Stone screenings for surfacing course
Alternatively, Stone screenings type B,
9.0 mm size for base course
9.0 mm size for surfacing
Alternatively, crushable type screenings
Binding material for base course
Binding material for surfacing course
= 0.91 to 1.07
= 0.18 to 0.21
= 0.15 to 0.17
= 0.30 to 0.33
= 0.24 to 0.26
= 0.33 to 0.35
= 0.06 to 0.09
= 0.10 to 0.15
(Note: Binding material is not required if crushable type of screening is used).
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Preparation of Foundation for Receiving the WBM course
The foundation for receiving the new layer of WBM may be either the subgrade or
sub-base or base course. This foundation layer is prepared to the required grade and camber
and the dust and either loose materials are cleaned. On existing road surface, the depressions
and pot-holes are filled and the corrugations are removed by scarifying and reshaping the
surface to the required grade and camber as necessary. If the existing surface is a bituminous
surfacing, ftirrows of depth 50 mm and width 50 mm cut at 1.0 m intervals and at 45 degrees
to the centre line of the carriageway before laying the Coarse aggregate.
Provision of Lateral confinement
Lateral confinement is to be provided before starting WBM construction. This may be
done by constructing the shoulders to advance, to a thickness equal to that of the compacted
WBM layer and by trimming the inner sides vertically
Spreading of Coarse Aggregates
The coarse aggregates are spread uniformly to proper profile to even thickness upon
the prepared foundation and checked by templates. The WBM course is normally constructed
to compacted thickness of 7.5 cm except in the case of WBM sub-base course using coarse
aggregate grading no.1 which is of 10.0 cm compacted thickness.
Rolling
After spreading the coarse aggregates properly, compaction is done by a three
wheeled power roller of capacity 6 to 10 tons or alternatively by an equivalent vibratory
roI1q the weight of the roller depends on the type of coarse aggregates.
Application of Screenings.
After the coarse aggregates are rolled adequately, the dry screenings are gradually
over the surface to fill the interstices in three or more applications. Dry rolling is continued as
the screenings are being spread and brooming carried out.
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Sprinkling and Grouting
After the application of screenings, the surface is sprinkled with water, swept rolled.
Wet screenings are swept into the voids using hand brooms. Ad screenings are applied and
rolled till the coarse aggregates are well bonded and firmly set.
Application of Binding Material
After the application of screening and rolling, binding material is applied at a uniform
and slow rate at two or more successive thin layers. After each application of binding
material, the surface is copiously sprinkled with water and wet slurry swept with brooms to
fill the voids.
Setting and Drying
After final compaction, the WBM course is allowed to set over-night. On the next day
the hungry spots are located and are filled with screenings or binding material, lightly
sprinkled with water if necessary and rolled. No traffic is allowed till the WBM layer sets and
dries out.
Checking of Surface Evenness and Rectification of Defects
The surface evenness of longitudinal direction is checked by 3.0 m straight edge and
the number of undulations exceeding 12mm in the case if WBM layer of grading no. 1 and
10mm in the case of grading nos. 2 and 3 are recorded in each completed length of 300m; the
maximum number of undulations permitted in each case in 30. The spots with 15mm
undulations are marked for rectification of defects.
CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS
Introduction
Bituminous pavements are in common use in India and abroad. It is Possible to
construct relatively thin bituminous pavement layers over an existing Pavement. Therefore,
these are commonly adopted as wearing course. Flexible pavement could be strengthened in
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stages by constructing bituminous pavement layers one after another in a certain period of
time unlike the cement concrete pavement construction
Types of Bituminous Construction
Number of types and methods are in use for bituminous pavement construction. It is
attempted to broadly classify them here based on the methods of construction. The following
construction techniques are in use:
x Interface treatment like prime coat and tack coat
x Surface dressing and seal coat
x Grounted or penetration type constructions :
a) Penetration macadam
b) Built-up spray Grout.
x Premix which may be any of the following:
a) Bituminous bound macadam
b) Carpet
c) Bituminous concrete
d) Sheet asphalt or rolled asphalt
e) Mastic asphalt
Explanatory Notes on Bituminous Construction Types
x Interface Treatment
Thus surface of the existing pavement layer is to be cleaned to remove dust and dir
and a thin layer of bituminous binder is to be sprayed 1.
Prime coat: Bituminous prime coat is the first application of a low viscosity liquid
bituminous material over an existing porous or absorbent pavement surface like the WBM
base course.
Tack coat. Bituminous tack coat is the application of bituminous material over existing
pavement surface which is relatively impervious like an existing bituminous surface or a
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cement concrete pavement or a pervious surface like the WBM which has already been
treated by a prime coat.
x Bituminous Surface Dressing
Bituminous Surface Dressing (BSD) is provided over an existing pavement to serve as
thin wearing coat. The single coat surface dressing consists of a single application of
bituminous binder material followed by spreading of aggregate cover and rolling. When the
surface dressing is similarly done in two layers, it is called two coat bituminous surface
dressing.
x Seal Coat
Seal coat is usually recommended as a top coat over certain bituminous pavements
which are not impervious, such as open graded bituminous constructions like premixed carpet
and grouted Macadam. Seal coat is also provided over an existing bituminous pavement
which is worn out.:
(a)
(b)
(c)
To seal the surfacing against the ingress of water
To develop skid resistant texture
To enliven an existing dry or weathered bituminous surface.
x Penetration Macadam
Bituminous Penetration Macadam or Grouted Macadam is used as a base or binder
course. The coarse aggregates are first spread and compacted well in dry state and after that
hot bituminous binder of relatively high viscosity is sprayed in fairly large quantity at the top.
x Built-up Spray Grout
Built-up Spray Grout (BSG) consists of two-layer composite construction of
compacted crushed aggregates with application of bitumin9us binder after each layer for
bonding and finished with key aggregates at the top to provide a total compacted thickness of
75 mm.
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x Premix Methods
In this group of methods the aggregates and the bituminous binder are mixed
thoroughly before spreading and compacting. It is possible to coat each particle of aggregate
with the binder still the quantity of binder used may be considerably lesser than penetration
macadam type construction. In premixed constructions, the quantity of bitumen used could be
precisely controlled and they offer increased stability of the mix even with lower bitumen
contents.
Bituminous Macadam
Bituminous Macadam (BM) or Bitumen Bound Macadam is a premixed construction
method consisting of one or more courses of compacted crushed aggregates premixed with
bituminous binder, laid immediately after mixing. The BM is laid in compact thicknesses of
75 mm or 50 mm and three different gradations of aggregates have been suggested for each
thickness to provide open graded and semi-dense constructions.
x Bituminous Premixed Carpet
Premixed Carpet (PC) consists of coarse aggregates of 12.5 and 10.0 mm sizes,
premixed with bitumen or tar binder are compacted to a thickness of 20 mm to serve as a
surface course of the pavement. Being a open graded construction, the PC is to be invariably
covered by a suitable seal coat such as premixed sand-bitumen seal coat before opening to
traffic. The PC consists of all aggregates passing 20 mm and retained on 6.3mm sieve. When
a fairly well graded material as per specification is used for the construction of the
bituminous carpet of thickness 20 o 25 mm, the construction method is called semi-dense
carpet.
x Bituminous Concrete or Asphalt Concrete
Bituminous Concrete or Asphaltic Concrete (AC) is a dense graded premixed
bituminous mix which is well compacted to form a high quality pavement surface Course.
The AC consists of a carefully proportioned mixture of coarse aggregates fine aggregates,
mineral filler and bitumen and the mix is designed by an appropriate method such as the
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Marshall method to fulfil the requirements of stability, density, flexibility and voids. The
thickness of bituminous concrete surface course layer usually ranges from 40 to 75 mm. The
IRC has provided specification for 40 mm thick AC surface course for highway pavements.
x Sheet Asphalt
Sheet asphalt or rolled asphalt is a dense sand-bitumen premix of compacted thickness
25 mm, used as a wearing course. The sheet asphalt consists of well graded coarse to fine
sand (without coarse aggregates) and a suitable penetration grade bitumen to from a dense
and impervious layer. This is usually laid over cement concrete pavement to provide an
excellent riding surface. The sheet asphalt also protects the joints in cement concrete
pavements and could cause a reduction in warping stresses due to a decrease in the
temperature variations between top and bottom of the concrete slab.
x Mastic Asphalt
Mastic asphalt is a mixture of bitumen, fine aggregates and filler in suitable
proportions which yields a voidless and impermeable mass. Though the ingredients in mastic
asphalt are similar to those in bituminous concrete, properties of mastic asphalts are quite
different. The mastic asphalts when cooled results in a hard, stable and durable layer suitable
to withstand heavy traffic. This material also can absorb vibrations and has property f self-
healing of cracks without bleeding. It is a suitable surfacing materials for bridge deck slabs.
Construction Procedure for Bituminous Macadam
The Bituminous Macadam (BM) bitumen bound macadam is a premix laid
immediately after mixing and then compacted. It is an open graded construction suitable only
as a base or binder course. When this layer is exposed as a surface course, at least a seal coat
is necessary.
Specifications of Materials:
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The grades of bitumen used are 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100 penetration. Road tar RT-4,
cutback and emulsion can also be used in cold mix construction technique. The binder
content used varies from 3.0 to 4.5 percent by weight of the mix). Aggregates used are of low
porosity fulfilling the following requirements for the base Course.
Los Angle abrasion value 50 percent max.
Aggregate impact value 35 percent max.
Flakiness index 15 percent max.
Stripping at 40C after 24 hours immersion (CRRI test) 25 percent max.
Loss with sodium sulphate, 5 cycles 12 percent max.
For binder course the specified maximum abrasion and impact values are 40 and 30
percent respectively.
The grading of the aggregates for 75 mm and 50 mm thickness for base and binder
course instruction as specified by Indian Roads Congress are given in Table 8.4 (a) &
respectively. The quantity of aggregates required for 10 m2 of bitumen bound macadam are
0.60 to 0.75 m3 and 0.90 to 1.0 m3 respectively, for 50 and 75 mm compacted thickness. The
bitumen quantity would be determined based on the grading adopted as specified above.
Constructions Steps
x Preparation of existing layer: The existing layer is prepared to a proper profile. Pot holes
are patched and irregularities are made even. The surface is properly cleaned.
x Tack coat or prime coat application: A track coat is applied of thin layer of bitumen
binder on the existing layer either using the sprayer or a pouring can. the quantity of
application is 40 to 7.5 kg per 10 m2 for black top layer and 7.5 to 10kg per 10 m2 for
untreated WBM layer.
x Premix preparation: The bitumen binder and aggregates as per recommended gradings
are separately heated to the specified temperatures and are then placed in the mixer
chosen for the job. The mixing temperature for each grading and the bitumen binder is
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also specified based on. the laboratory results. A tolerance of 10C is allowed. The
mixing is done till a homogeneous mixture is obtained. The mixture is then carried to the
site for its placement through a transporter or a wheel barrow.
x Placement. The bituminous paving mixture is then immediately placed on the desired
location and is spread with rakes to a pre-determined thickness. The camber profile is
checked with a template. It may be stated here that a compacting temperature also
influences the strength characteristic of the resulting pavement structure. It is therefore
required that the minimum time is spent between the placement of the mix and the rolling
operations.
x Rolling and finishing The paving mix. The rolling is done with 8 to 10 tones tandem
roller. The rolling is commenced from the edges of the pavement construction towards the
centre, and uniform overlapping is provided. The finished surface should not show
separate lines of markings due to defective or improper rolling. The roller wheels are kept
damp, otherwise the paving mix may partly stick to the wheels and the finishing may not
be good. A variation of 6 mm over 3 m length is allowed in the cross profile. The number
of undulations exceeding 10 nun should be less than 30 in 300 m length of pavement.
Construction Procedure for Bituminous Concrete
The bituminous concrete is the highest quality of construction in the group of black
top surface. Being of high cost specifications, the bituminous mixes are properly designed to
satisfy the design requirements of the stability and durabi1ity. The mixture contains dense
grading of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and mineral filler coated with bitumen binder.
The mix is prepared in a hot-mix plant. The thickness of the bituminous concrete layer
depends upon the traffic and quality of base course.
The specifications of materials and the construction steps for bituminous concrete or asphaltic
concrete (AC) surface course are given below:
Specification of Materials:
a) Binder: Bitumen of grade 3 0/40,60/70 or 80/100 may be chosen depending Upon tic
condition of the locality.
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b) Aggregates and Filler: The coarse aggregates should fulfill the following requirements
:
Aggregate impact value, maximum percent : 30
or Loss Angeles abrasion value, max percent : 40
Flakiness index, max percent : 25
Stripping at 40C after 24 hours, max percent : 25
Soundness:
Loss with sodium sulphate in 5 cycles, max. percent : 12
Loss with magnesium sulphate in 5 cycles, max. percent : 18
The gradation of aggregates and filler should conform to those given in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5 Gradation of Aggregates for Bituminous Concrete
Sieve Size, mm Percent passing by
weight
Grading 1 Grading 2
20.00 - 100
12.50 100 80-100
10.00 80-100 70-90
4.75 55-75 50-70
2.36 35-50 35-50
0.60 18-29 18-29
0.30 13-23 13-23
0.15 8-16 8-16
0.75 4-10 4-10
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CONSTRUCTION OF CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
Introduction
The Cement concrete pavement maintains a very high recognition among the engineer
and the road users alike. Due to the excellent riding surface and pleasing appearance, the
cement concrete roads are very much preferred.
Specifications of material for cement concrete pavement slabs.
The materials required for plain concrete slabs are cement coarse aggregates, fine
aggregates and water. In case reinforcement is provided, steel wire fabric or bar mats may be
used of the required size and spacing. Other materials are for the construction of joints, such
as load transfer devices, joints filler and sealer.
Cement:
Ordinary portland cement is generally used. In case of urgency rapid hardening
cement may also be used to reduce curing time.
Coarse aggregates:
The maximum size of coarse aggregates should not exceed one fourth the slab
thickness. The gradation of coarse aggregate may range from 50 to 4.75 mm or 40 to 4.75
mm, the aggregate is collected in two size ranges, one below and the other above 20mm size.
When the grading is from 20 to 50 mm, the materials are collected in two groups, below and
above 25 mm size.:
Aggregate crushing value
Aggregate impact value
Los Angles abrasion value
Soundness, average loss in
Weight after 10 cycles
: 30 % max.
: 30 % max.
: 30 % max. as per the ISI and
35% max. as per the IRC
: 12 percent max. in sodium sulphate
: 18 percent max. in magnesium sulphate
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Fine aggregate.
Natural sands should be preferred as fine aggregate though crushed Stones may also
be used.
Proportioning of concrete.
The concrete may be proportioned so as to obtain a minimum modulus of rupture of
40 kg/cm2 on field specimens after 28 days curing or to develop a minimum compressive
strength of 280 kg/cm2 at 28 days, or higher value as desired in the design.
Plants and Equipment
The equipment necessary for the construction of cement concrete slabs are for
batching, placing, finishing and carrying the concrete pavement. Equipment commonly used
are given below.
Concrete Mixer:
If batching by volume is required then the separate measuring boxes are provided for
the different aggregates. Each box is provided with a straight edge for striking off excess
material after filling.
Batching Device
Concrete mixer of adequate capacity of the batch type is provided. It has a rated
capacity of not less than 0.2 m3 of mixed concrete. The mixture is equipped with a water
measuring device capable of accurate measurement of water required per batch. Some
mixtures are also equipped with timing devices which automatically lock the discharge lever
during the full time of mixing and releases it at the end of mixing period.
Wheel Borrow
Wheel borrows with two wheels are used to transport concrete for short distances
from the mixer.
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Vibrating Screed
Vibrating screed comprises of a wooden or mild steel screed with suitable handles
driven by vibrating units mounted thereon, propelled either electrically or by compressed air
or by a petrol engine, and travelling on side forms.
Internal Vibrators
It comprises of vibrating head with suitable motive power either of compressed air,
electricity or of a petrol driven engine right enough to ensure proper control and
manipulation in the mass of concrete. It is used to ensure compaction of the cement concrete
along with the forms and also to avoid any tendency of honey-combing at the edges of the
slab.
Tools and appliances for surface, finishing operations in common use are float,
straight edge, belt and fiber brush.
Float
The longitudinal float is of 75 cm length and 7.5 cm width and is made of hard wood
and is fixed with handle. (See Fig. 8.15). This is used for smoothing the concrete.
Straight Edge:
It is used to check the finished pavement surface in longitudinal direction. It is made
of hard wood with M.S. plate at bottom, 3 meter in length, 10 cm in width with two handles
as shown in Fig. 8.16.
Belt:
Canvas belts are used for finishing the pavements surface before the concrete hardens.
The canvas is of 25 cm width and atleast 75 cm longer than the width of pavement slab. It has
two wooden handles at the end. See Fig. 8.17.
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Fibre Brush:
Fibre brush broom is used to make broom marks across the pavement surface and to
make it skid resistance. Hard fibres are used projecting out of the wooden bursh of length
45cm and width 7.5 cm, with a handle about 2 meter long.
Edging Tool
The edging tool is used for rounding the transverse edges at expansion joints and the
longitudinal edges. The vertical limb of this tool extends to the required depth. The rounded
edge of the M.S. plate has radius f 6 mm.
Other Small Tools
Other small tools d equipment such as spades, shovels and pans water pots etc.
necessary for the work are also provided.
Construction steps for cement concrete pavement slab
(i) Preparation of Subgrade and Sub-base
The subgrade or sub-base for laying of the concrete slabs should comply with the
wing requirement; that no soft spots are present in the subgrade or sub-base; that the
uniformly compacted subgrade or sub-base extends atleast 30 cm on either side of the width
to be concreted; that the subgrade is properly drained; that the minimum modulus subgrade
reaction obtained with a plate bearing test is 5.54 kg/cm2.
over the soil subgrade. In such a case, the moistening of the subgrade prior to placing
of the concrete is not required.
ii) Placing of Forms
The steel or wooden forms are used for the purpose.
The steel forms are of M.S. channel sections and their depth is equal to the thickness
the pavements. The sections have a length of at least 3 m except on curves of less than 45.0 m
radius, where shorter sections are used.
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(iii) Batching of Material and Mixing
After determining the proportion of ingredients for the field mix, the fine aggregates
and coarse aggregates are proportioned by weight in a weight-batching plant and placed into
the hopper along with the necessary quantity of cement. Cement is measured by the bag. All
batching of material is done on the basis of one or more whole bags of cement.
(iv) Transporting and Placing of Concrete
The cement concrete is mixed in quantities required for immediate use and is
deposited on the soil subgrade or sub-base to the required depth and width of the
pavement section within the form work in continuous operation.
(v) Compaction and Finishing
The surface of pavement is compacted either by means of a power-driven finishing
machine or by a vibrating hand screed. For areas where the width of the slab is very
small as at the corner of road junctions, etc., hand consolidation and finishing may be
adopted:
(a) Concrete as soon as placed, is struck off uniformly and screeded to the crown
and cross-section of the pavement to conform the grade.
(b) The tamper is placed on the side forms and is drawn ahead in combination
with a series of lifts and drops to compact the concrete.
Floating and Straight Edging
The concrete is further compacted by means of the longitudinal float. The longitudinal
float is held in a position parallel to carriageway centre line and passed gradually from one
side of the pavement to the other. After the longitudinal floating is done and the excess water
gets disappeared, the slab surface is tested for its grade and level with the straight edge.
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HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
INTRODUCTION
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-
soil water within the right of way this includes interception and diversion of water from the
road surface and subgrade. The installation of suitable surface and sub-surface drainage
system is an essential part of highway design and construction.
IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Significance of Drainage
An increase in moisture content causes decrease in strength or stability of a soil mass
the variation in soil strength with moisture content also depends on the soil type and the mode
of stress application. Highway drainage is important because of the following reasons:-
x Excess moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its stability the pavement
is likely to fail due to subgrade failure as discussed in Article 10.1.
x Increase in moisture cause reduction in strength of many pavement materials like
stabilized soil and water bound macadam.
x In some clayey soils variation in moisture content causes considerable variation in flume
of subgrade. This sometimes contributes to pavement failure.
x One of the most important causes of pavement failure by the formation of waves and
corrugations in flexible pavements is due to poor drainage.
x Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavements causes failures due to stripping of
bitumen from aggregates like loosening or detachment of some of the bituminous
pavement layers and formation of pot holes.
x In places where freezing temperatures are prevalent in winter, the presence of water in the
subgrade and a continuous supply of water from the ground water can cause considerable
damage to the pavement due in frost action.
x Erosion of soil from top of unsurfaced roads and slopes of embankment, cut and hill side is
also due to surface water.
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Requirements of Highway Drainage System
x The surface water from the carriageway and shoulder should effectively be drained off
without allowing it to percolate to subgrade.
x The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering the roadway.
x The side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry away all the
surface water collected.
x Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes should not cause
formation of cress ruts or erosion.
SURFACE DRAINAGE
The surface water is to be collected and then disposed off. The water is first collected
in longitudinal drains, generally in side drains and then the water is disposed off at the nearest
stream, valley or water course. Cross drainage structures like culverts and small bridges may
be necessary for the disposal of surface water from the road side drains.
Collection of Surface Water
The water from the pavement surface is removed by providing the camber or cross
slope to the pavement. The rate of this cross slope is decided based on type of pavement
surface and amount rainfall.
where there is restriction of space, Construction of deep open drains may be undesirable. This
is particularly true when the road formation is in cutting. In such cases covered drains or
drainage trenches properly filled with layers of coarse sand and gravel may be used. In urban
roads because of the limitation of land width and also due to the presence of foot path,
dividing islands and other road facilities, it is necessary to provide underground longitudinal
drains. Water drained from the pavement surface can be carried forward in the longitudinal
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direction between the kerb and the pavement for short distances (See Fig. 4.9). This water
may be collected in catch pits at suitable intervals and lead through underground drainage
pipes. Section of a typical catch pit with grating to prevent the entry of rubbish into the
drainage system.
Drainage of surface water is all the more important in hill roads. Apart from the
drainage of water from the road formation, the efficient diversion and disposal of water
flowing down the hill slope across the road and that from numerous cross streams is an
important part of hill road construction. If the drainage system in hill road is not adequate and
efficient, it will result in complex maintenance problems.
Design of Surface Drainage System
The design of surface drainage system may be divided into two phases:
(i) Hydrologic analysi
(ii) Hydraulic analysis
Once the design runoff Q is determined, the next step is the hydraulic design of
drains. The side drains and partially filled culverts are designed based on the principles of
flow through open channels.
Data for Drainage Design
The following data are to be collected for the design of road side drain:
x Total road length and width of land from where water is expected to flow on the stretch of
the side drain.
x Run-off coefficients of different types of surfaces in the drainage area and their respective
areas (such as paved area, road shoulder area, turf surface, etc.)
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Designed Steps
Simplified steps for the design of longitudinal drains of a road to drain off the surface
water given below:
x The frequency of return period such as 10 years, 25 years etc. is decided based on
finances available and desired margin of safety, for the design of the drainage system.
x The values of coefficients of run-off C1, C2, C3 etc. from drainage areas A1, A2, A3
etc. are found and the weighted value of C is computed.
x Inlet time for the flow of storm water from the farthest point in the drainage area to
the drain inlet along the steepest path of flow is estimated from the distance, slope of
the ground and type of the cover. Figure 11.3 may be used for this purpose.
x Time of flow along the longitudinal drain T2 is. determined for the estimated length
of longitudinal drain L upto the nearest cross drainage or a water course and for the
allowable velocity of flow V in the drain i.e., T2 = L.
x The total time T for inlet flow and flow along the drain is taken as the time of
concentration or the design value of rain fall duration, T = T1 + T2.
x The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a convenient bottom width
and side slop of the drain. The actual depth of the open channel drain may be
increased slightly to give a free board. The hydraulic mean radius of flow R is
determined.
x The required longitudinal slope S of the drain is calculated using Mannings
formula adopting suitable value of roughness coefficient n.
Example 11.1
The distance between the farthest point in the turf covered drainage area (with an
average slope of 1.5 % towards the drain) and the point of entry to side drain is 200 m. The
weighted average value of the run-off coefficient is 0.25. The length of the longotudinal open
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drain in a sandy clay soil from the inlet point to the cross drainage is 540m. The velocity of
flow in the side drain may be assumed as 0.6 rn/sec so that silting and erosion are prevented.
Estimate the design quantity of flow on the side drain for a ten-years period of frequency of
occurrence of the storm.
Cross Drainage
Whenever streams have to cross the roadway, facility for cross drainage is to be
provided. Also often the water from the side drain is taken across by these cross drain in
order to divert the water away from the road, to a water course or valley. The cross drainage
structures commonly in use are culveris and small bridges. When a small stream crosses a road
with a linear waterway less than about six meter, the cross drainage structure provided is
called culvert; for higher values of linear waterway, the structure is called a bridge.
SURFACE DRAINAGE
Change in moisture content of subgrade are caused by fluctuations in ground water
table seepage flow, percolation of rain water and movement of capillary water and even water
vapour. In sub-surface drainage of highways, it is attempted to keep the variation of moisture
in subgrade soil to a minimum. However only the gravitational water is
drainage systems.
drained by the usual
Lowering of Water Table
The Highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of subgrade, in order
that the subgrade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive moisture. From practical
considerations it is suggested that the water table should be kept atleast 1.0 to 1.2 m the
subgrade. In places where water table is high (almost at ground level at times) the best
remedy is to take the road formation on embankment of height not less than 1.0 to 1.2 meter.
When the formation is to be at or below the general ground level, it would be necessary to
lower the water table.
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UNIT 8 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE
INTRODUCTION
Better highway system provides varied benefits to the society. Improvements in
highway results in several benefits to the road users such as :
x Reduction in vehicle operational cost per unit length of road.
x saving travel time and resultant benefits in terms of time cost of vehicles and the passengers
x Reduction in accident rates.
x Improved level of service and ease of driving.
x Increased comfort to passengers.
Therefore he level of service of a road system may be assessed from the benefits to the
users
The improvement in road net work also benefits the land owner by providing better access
and consequently enhancing the land value. The cost of improvements in the highway of
land, materials, construction work and for the other facilities should be worked out. From the
point of view of economic justification for the improvements, the cost reductions to the
highway users and other beneficiaries of the improvements during the estimated period
should be higher than the investments made for the improvement. In the planning and design
of highways there is increasing need for analysis to indicate justification of the expenditure
required and the comparative worth of proposed improvements, particularly when various
alternatives are being compared.
The government or any other agency finances highway developments. The funds for
these are generally recovered 1ins the road users in the form of direct and indirect taxations.
Highway Finance
highway projects.
deals with various methods of raising and or providing money for the
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HIGHWAY USER BENEFITS
General Benefits
Several benefits are brought to highway users and others due to the construction of a
new highway or by improving a highway. Road user benefits are the advantages, privileges or
savings that accrue to drivers or owners through the use of one highway facility as compared
with the use of another. The various benefits due to highway improvement may be classified
into two categories: (i) quantifiable or tangible benefits in terms of market values and (ii) non
quantifiable or intangible benefits.
Quantifilab1e Benefits
Various benefits which can be quantified include benefits to road user such as
reduction in vehicle operation cost, time cost and accident cost. The other benefits include
enhancement in land value. These are briefly explained below:
x Saving in vehicle operation cost is due to reduction in fuel and oil consumption and
reduction in wear and tear of tyres and other maintenance costs. A road with sharp curves
and steep grades require frequent speed changes; presence of intersections require stopping
idling and accelerating; vehicle operation on road stretches with high traffic volume or
congestion necessitates speed changes and stopping and increased travel time.
Non-quantable Benefits
The non-quantifiable benefits due to improvements in highway facilities include
reduction in fatigue and discomfort during travel, increase in comfort and conveniences
improvement in general amenities, social and educational aspects, development of

and
recreational and medical services, improved mobility of essential services and defence forces,
aesthetic values, etc..
Motor Vehicle Operation Cost
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The factors to be considered for evaluating motor vehicle operation cost would differ
depending on the purpose of the analysis. The vehicle may be classified in different groups
such as passenger cars, buses, light commercial vehicles, single unit trucks combination
vehicles etc., for the purpose of cost analysis. The motor vehicle operation costs depend on
several factors which may be grouped .as given below:
x Cost dependent on time expressed as cost per year such as interest on capita depreciation
cost, registration fee, insurance charges, garage rent, drivers license salaries etc. as
applicable.
x Cost depending on distance driven expressed as cost per vehicle-kilometer. The items
which may be included here are fuel, oil, tyres, maintenance and repairs etc.
x Cost dependent on speed include cost of fuel, oil and tyre per vehicle-km-time-cost of
vehicles, travel time value of passengers, etc.
x Cost dependent on type of vehicle and its condition. Operation costs of larger vehicles are
comparatively higher. The operation cost of old vehicles maintained in poor condition is
also higher.
x Accident costs.
The costs of vehicle operation and time for unit distance may be taken as:
T = a+ (b+c) (14.1)
Speed
Where
a = running cost per unit distance, independent of journey time
b = a fixed hourly cost, dependent on speeds
c = the portion of the running cost which is dependent on speed
Therefore the operation costs may be considered to consist various components like motor
fuel cost, lubricating oil consumption, tyre costs, vehicle repair and maintenance,
depreciation, cost due to slowing, stopping, idling and standing delays, costs related to
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pavement surface and its condition, grades, curves and traffic volumes. Also the time costs
and accident costs are taken into consideration.
Example 14.1
Calculate the operating cost of a passenger car for 100 km length of a rural highway
with no sharp curves for most economical speed of vehicles operation using the following
HIGHWAY COSTS
General
The total Highway Cost for road user benefit analysis is the sum of the capital costs
expressed on an annual basis and the annual cost of maintenance. The total cost for highway
improvement is obtained from the estimate prepared from the preliminary plans. The total
cost of each highway engineering improvement proposal is calculated from the following five
components
(i) Right of way
(ii) Grading drainage, minor structures
(iii) Major structures like bridges
(iv) Pavement and appurtenances
(v) Annual cost of maintenance and operation
Computation of total annual highway cost based on summation of the annual cost of
individual items of improvements and their average useful lives is considered to be a proper
and accurate approach.It is difficult to estimate the service lives of highway elements as there
are several variables such as soil, climate topography and traffic. Road life studies enable
estimation of lives of pavements, bridges and other roadway facilities.
Annual Highway Cost
The items to be included while computing annual highway cost are
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(i) Administration (a portion) Personal service, building, equipment operation, office,
insurance etc.
(ii) Highway operation Equipment. building vehicle operation including capital costs of
vehicle.
(iii) Highway maintenance
(iv) Highway capital cost : Cost of highway components such as right of way, damage,
earthwork, drainage system. pavement bridges and traffic services depreciation cost
and interest on investment.
(v) Probable life and salvage value at the end of this period.
The average annual highway cost for a road system may be summed up by the
formula.
Ca H + T + M + Cr
where
Ca = average annual cost of ownership and operation
H = average cost for administration and management at head quarters
T = average annual highway operation cost.
M = average annual highway maintenance cost.
Cr = average annual capital cost of depreciation of investment
capital or the capital recovery with return on capital
The annual cost is considered in the economic assessment of highway projects. Instead of
considering the overall cost of a project the annual repayment of a capital loan plus the
interest over a specified period of time of the annual capital cost is considered in the analysis.
The first cost of a capital improvement is converted into equivalent uniform annual cost by the
formula:
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i(1 - i)n
Cr = P (1+i)n-1 = P (CRF)
Where
Cr = receipt in a uniform series for n periods to cover P at a rate of
interest i
P = first cost of improvement of an element of a highway
i = rate of interest per unit period
n = period of time in number of interest periods
i(1 - i)n
CRF = Capital recovery factor = (1+i)n-1
At the end of the service life of road pavement, some of the items could be assigned
some salvage value. However the salvage value of some other items may be negligible.
The average annual capital cost Cr for a project considering salvage value may be
estimated by the use of the formula (for the capital-recovery with salvage value):
i(1 - i)n
Cr = (C-Vs) (1+i) n-1 + I Vs
= (C- Vs) CRF + i Vs (14.4)
Where C = total investment on construction
Vs = salvage value at the end of n years
i = interest rate applicable
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n = number of years of expected use of the facility
The compound amount accumulated sum S on the principal sum of proposed
improvement cost or single payment P, including interest rate, i in n years is given by:
s = P ( 1 + i)n (14.5)
economical proposal among various alternatives, in the analysis for economic justification of
the proposed improvement, it is required to use judgment such as quantitative selection of the
factors in which annual highway cost depends and the estimation of AADT of each class of
vehicle considering the normal increase in traffic and the generated traffic.
Methods of Analysis
The procedure for the economic evaluation of highway projects consists of
qualification for cost component and the benefits arising out of the project and to evaluate by
one of the methods of analysis.
There are several methods of economic analysis. Some of the common methods are.
Annual-cost Method, Rate-of-Return Method and Benefit-Cost Method.
Annual-Cost Method
The annual cost of each element of capital improvement is found by multiplying by
the appropriate CRF value calculated for the assume life span. The annual cost Cr may be
found using the relation (Eq. 14.3).
C1 = P. i(1+i)n = P(CRF)
(1+i)n-1
Rate-of-Return Method
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There are number of variations for the determination of raw of return of a highway
improvement. In the rate of return method, die interest rate at which two alternative solutions
have equal annual cost is found, If the rate of return of all proposed projects are known, the
priority for the improvement could be established.
Benefit Cost ratio Method
Principle of this method is to assess the merit of a particular scheme by comparing the
annual benefits with the increase in annual cost
Benefit cost ration = Annual benefits from improvement
Annual cost of the improvement
= R R1
H1 - H
Where R = total annual road user cost for axisting highway
R1 = total annual road user cost for proposed highway
improvement
H = total annual cost of existing road
H1 = total annual cost of proposed highway improvement
The benefit-cost ratios are determined between alternate proposals and those plans dub
are not attractive are discarded. Then the benefit cost ratios for various increments of added
investment are computed to arrive at the best proposal. hi order to justify the proposed
improvement, the ratio should be greater than 1.0. However, the choice of interest rate would
affect the results of the benefit-cost solutions.
Total annual road user cost for proposal B = RB = Rs. 2491,125
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Benefit-cost ratio,
B = RA-RB = 3081,330 - 2491.125 = 590,205 = 2.874
A HB-HA 381,900 - 176,527 205, 373
Total annual highway cost of proposal C = HC = Rs.3,75,100
Total annual highway cost of proposal C= HC = Rs.2377,245
Benefit cost ratio,
C = RA-RB = 3081,330 - 2377.245 = 704,085 = 3.546
A HC-HA 375,100 - 176,527 198, 573
Therefore, alternative C is the best one with higher benefit-cost ratio.
HIGHWAY FINANCE
Basic principle in highway financing is that the funds spent on highways are
recovered from the road users. The recovery may be both direct and indirect.
Two general methods of highway financing are:
Pay-as-you-go method
Credit financing method
In pay-as-you-go method, the payment for highway improvements, maintenance and
operation is made from the central revenue. In credit financing method, the payment for
highway improvement is made from borrowed money and this amount and the interests are
re-paid from the future income.
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Distribution of highway cost
The question of distributing highway cost among the Government, road-user and
other has been a disputed task in several countries. Many economists are of the view that the
financial responsibility for roads should be assigned only among the beneficiaries on the
basis of the benefit each one receives.
There are several theories suggesting the method of distribution of highway taxes
between passenger cars and other commercial vehicles like the trucks. However in India the
annual revenue from transport has been much higher than the expenditure on road
development and maintenance. Therefore there is no problem of distributing the highway cost
among other agencies. Also the taxation on vehicles is being considered separately by the
states and there seems to be no theory followed for the distribution of taxes between various
classes of vehicles.
Sources of Revenue
The various sources from which funds necessary for highway development and
maintenance may be made available, are listed below:
Taxes on motor fuel and lubricants.
Duties and taxes on new vehicles and spare part including tyres
Vehicles registration tax.
Special taxes on commercial vehicles
Other road user taxes
Property taxes
Toll taxes
Other funds set apart for highways
There should be an equitable distribution of revenues available for highways.
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Highway financing in India
The responsibility of financing different roads lies with the Central Government, State
Governments and local bodies including Corporations, Municipalities, District Boards and
Panchayats.
Taxes levied by Central Government for highway financing are:
Duties arid taxes on motor fuel
.Excise duty on vehicles and spare parts, tyre etc.
Excise duty on oils, grease, etc
Taxes levied by the State Governments include:
Registration fees for vehicles and road tax
Permits for transport vehicles
Passenger tax on buses
Sales tax on vehicle parts tyre etc.
Fees on driving licenses
Taxes levied by local bodies are mainly the toll tax.
Ever since the introduction of Central Road Fund (CRF) in the year 1929 by taxing motor
fuel, this has been the main source of finance for the State Government to meet the road
development needs, without having to go through the time consuming process of special
sanctions each time. However of late the CRF is also being merged with the general revenue,
in March 1976 the Lok Sabha has passed the resolution Of the Ministry of Transport ensuring
the existence of the CRF separately with the specified objectives. An Amount of not less
than 3.5 paise per litre out of the duty of customs and excise on motor spirit would be set
apart towards the CRF for the road development. While utilizing this fund, greater attention
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would be given to schemes of all-India importance. Twenty percent of the fund would be
retained by the central Government as reserve. The fund will also be used for road research
schemes, traffic studies, economics surveys and training arrangements for young engineers.
The gross revenue from road transport in India during the sixth plan period 1978-83, 1980-85
was about Rupees l2,000 Crores
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