Achieving depth in students learning through critical thinking and

pedagogical innovations: any relevance to entrepreneurship education?

Patrick Oseloka EZEPUE *
Business Intelligence and Quantitative Modelling Research Group
Cultural, Communications and Computing Research Institute
Faculty of Arts, Computing, Engineering and ciences
heffield !allam "niversity, "nited #ingdom $
%epartment of Applied tatistics
&namdi A'i(i)e "niversity, &igeria
*el+ ,--./0 11- 223 4154
Email+ p6e'epue7shu6ac6u(
Amechi A EZEPUE
Federal 8olytechnic Idah
8MB 1/49 Idah,
#ogi tate, &igeria
* Corresponding author:
%r 8atric( E'epue, Business Intelligence and Quantitative Modelling Research Group
Cultural, Communications and Computing Research Institute
heffield !allam "niversity, "nited #ingdom *el+ ,--./0 11- 223 4154
Email+ p6e'epue7shu6ac6u(
1
Abstract
*his paper revie)s the literature :ases on critical thin(ing and its lin(s to innovative
learning, teaching and assessment .;*A0 practices6 *he rationale for the research is the
need to ensure that student learning is critical and develops their entrepreneurial s(ills
and employa:ility )ithin the teaching of specific modules of a programme6 *he (ey
<uestions addressed in the research include+ =hat do )e really mean :y critical thin(ing
through a discipline> !o) do )e achieve depth in critical thin(ing )ithin the teaching
process> =hat are the lin(s :et)een critical thin(ing, learning theories and pedagogical
innovations in a discipline> =hat is the lin( :et)een all these issues and the <uest for
entrepreneurship?focused education in African higher educational institutions .!EIs0>
*he paper conceptually and practically e@amines the implications of these ideas in
ma(ing the teaching and learning of tatistics and Engineering programmes in .African0
higher educational institutions more entrepreneurial and the graduates more employa:le6
Key words: Critical *hin(ing, Innovative ;*A 8ractices, Entrepreneurship and
Employa:ility
on!erence "hemes: Entrepreneurship education and development
2
#$ %ntroduction
=e revie) in this paper some salient literature )hich connects the concepts of critical
thin(ing and pedagogic innovations6 *he paper e@plores four central <uestions posed in
the a:stract, namely+
&'#: =hat do )e really mean :y critical thin(ing through a discipline>
&'(: !o) do )e achieve depth in critical thin(ing )ithin the teaching process>
&'): =hat are the lin(s :et)een critical thin(ing, learning theories and pedagogical
innovations in a discipline>
&'*: =hat is the lin( :et)een all these issues and the <uest for entrepreneurship?
focused education in African higher educational institutions .!EIs0>
In a foundational paper on education and graduate entrepreneurshipAemploya:ility
E'epue $ E'epue 2//B note as follo)s+
C=e :elieve that to achieve a s(ills?:ased and theoretically sound training in DE$*E
re<uires that )e )or( to models of teaching, research+ consulting, project origination
and enterprise that provide such affordances as self-awareness, self- efficacy DBandura
1F99, 1FB5E, authentic learning experiences, creativity, critical thinking, the a:ility to
maintain deep expertise in a primary research domain .8R%,, use the e@pertise in a
primary application domain .8A%0 and continually gain general cultural literacy .GC;0
in different disciplines, especially those that are cognate to the 8R% and 8A% areasG6
*his paper particularly sho)s ho) the highlighted o:Hectives of an entrepreneurial
education could :e reali'ed through critical thin(ing6 *he theoretical contributions of the
paper are the conceptuali'ation of the percepts and mechanics of creative and
entrepreneurial education in any discipline and its lin(s to the literature :ases on
creativity and educational learning theories6 *he practical contributions of the paper
consist in deep e@emplifications of the theoretical ideas in specific disciplines I statistics
and engineering6
=e note that critical pedagogy has :een entrenched in "# and most developed
countries .Cottrell 2//30 :ut not that much in African !EIs6 *his is therefore a necessary
contri:ution to the development needs of the continent, especially since critical pedagogy
underpins, as )e sho) in this paper, the <uest for development?focused entrepreneurial
education6
It is e@pected that academics in African !EIs )ill adapt the thin(ing in the paper to
their o)n learning, teaching and assessment situations6 *his is the ultimate )ay in )hich
the education of the African mind can hug the strategic development needs of the
continent ? needs )hich are clearly stated in the "nited &ations Millennium %evelopment
Goals .M%Gs0 and emphasi'ed in the theme of this conference6
*he rest of the paper is as follo)s6 ection 2 revie)s some pertinent literature on
critical thin(ing and its relevance to the four central <uestions stated a:ove6 *he section
also lin(s up the revie) and the research <uestions in chec(lists )hich guide curriculum
deli:erations around critical pedagogy in any discipline6 ection 4 uses insights from the
chec(list.s0 to e@plore ho) critical pedagogy underpins entrepreneurial and
development-focused education6
ection -concludes the paper )ith a summary of (ey findings and an ending note on
the t)o main conference themes )hich the paper addresses, namely entrepreneurship
education and development.
3
($ &evie- o! pertinent literature on critical thinking and their a!!ect on
pedagogical innovations
=e recall the model of critical thin(ing discussed in &osich .2//30, 8aul $ Elder .2//1,
2//2 and 2//-0J this model consists of t)o parts I the eight elements of reasoning and
the seven standards of critical thinking6
*he elements are+ D1E point of vie) D2E purpose D4E <uestion at issue D-E assumptions
D3E implications and conse<uences D5E information D9E concepts and DBE conclusions and
interpretations6 *he standards are D1E clearness D2E accuracy D4E importance and relevance
D-E sufficiency D3E depth D5E :readth and D9E precision6
It is clear that this set of fifteen dimensions of critical reasoning define the <uality of
learner?researcher?teacher engagement )ith su:Hect matter under various learning
situations and environments6 It is also clear that thinking a:out and doing entrepreneurial
activities tas(s re<uires a com:ination of these dimensions6 For instance, one cannot hope
to succeed in an entrepreneurial activity if one does not consider the purpose,
implications and conse<uences, importance, and scope .:readth and depth0 of the tas(s
involved in the activity6
*he a:ove dimensions of critical reasoning are considered for different alternatives to
a problem and )ithin specific conte@ts in )hich the pro:lem occurs6 As e@plored in the
a:ove te@ts and illustrated in E'epue $ Chig:u .2//5, pp6 4?F ff0, critical thin(ing
through a discipline re<uires students to use the central logic of a discipline and the
a:ove elements and standards to fully understand and deal )ith pro:lems amena:le to the
logic6 !ence, student?learners could :e taught to thin( statistically, mathematically,
historically, :iologically, philosophically, sociologically, economically and so on, :y
fle@ing this :asic model in relation to disciplinary traditions o:taining in each field of
learning6 *his also applies to other life?)orlds of the learner e6g6 their professional life as
e@plored in 8aul $ Elder .2//206
*o flesh out the general nature of intelligent questioning that the elements invite
learners to engage in, )e refer to 8aul $ Elder .2//1, p6 1320 for the follo)ing generic
<uestions .applied to teaching and learning statistics, mathematics and related fields in
E'epue $ Chig:u 2//50+
=hat is the main goal of studying this su:Hect>
=hat are people in the study trying to accomplish>
=hat (inds of <uestions do they pose> =hat (inds of pro:lems do they attempt to
solve>
=hat sort of information or data do they gather>
=hat are the fundamental concepts, theories and organi'ing principles crucial to a
mastery of this field>
!o) should studying this field affect my vie) of the )orld>
!o) do )e CcreateG (no)ledge artifacts .products and services0 in this field and ho)
are these artifacts used in daily life>
"sing the seven standards of critical reasoning as a guide, ho) do I evaluate my
understanding of these elements and hence the overall <uality of my engaging )ith
reality .reading, )riting and pro:lem solving within and between connected
disciplines0> For instance, ho) clear, accurate, important and relevant are my goals>
4
!o) relevant are my assumptions> !o) deeply have I understood a topic, point of
vie) and <uestions at issue considered :y an author> !o) deeply and :roadly can I
apply the understanding>
As a literally functional dimension of depth in critical thin(ing .further e@plored
:elo)0 )hat is the full range of know-how that I can reali'e :y running the pro:lem
or learning situation through a thinking mesh consisting of a B :y 9 matri@
accommodating the elements and standards of critical thin(ing on the ro)s and
columns, respectively, if that helps>
"sing such a thin(ing mesh means interrogating all com:inations of elements and
standards that are meaningful )ithin the conte@t of the pro:lem and for each alternative
solution to the pro:lem6 It is clear that this provides the mechanism for gaining depth in
critical thin(ing, :ut this mechanism needs to operate in concert )ith insights from the
theories of (no)ledge .epistemology0 and learning6 =e revie) these foundations :elo)
to ena:le us unearth and understand other dimensions of depth in critical thin(ing6
*he a:ove <uestions can :e adapted to different class situations, te@ts, pro:lems, and
aspects of a learnerGs life?)orld )orthy of critical reflection6 *here are several e@amples
of central logics developed in &osich .2//30, 8aul $ Elder .2//1, 2//2 and 2//-0 for
different su:Hects, to ena:le learners to understand the gist of this overarching frame)or(
for thin(ing through a discipline6 E@amples are the logics of and intelligi:le course plans
for :iochemistry, American history, :usiness, psychology, philosophy, sociology .8aul $
Elder 2//1, pp6 134?15F0 and the logic of statistical science .E'epue $ Chig:u 2//5, pp6
3?506
Follo)ing &osich .2//3, p6 BF0 )e can define critical thin(ing in a discipline as
reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do in the
discipline and in the relationship between the discipline and the world at large. *his
pragmatic vie) of critical thin(ing opens many )orlds for the critical learnerJ it touches
on other thin(ing frame)or(s and the characteri'ations of creative and critical learning
e@plored in this paper6 It points to the :asic <uestions that any thin(ing frame)or( should
ena:le a learner?pro:lem solver to as(J hence, it simply offers a protocol for enhancing
creativity :y thoughtful engagement of reality6
"heoretical and epistemological !oundations o! critical thinking
*o further e@plore the concept of depth in critical thinking )e need some more vie)s of
critical thin(ing6 Moon .2//50 offers the follo)ing vie)s )hich suit this purpose+
checklist for critical, entrepreneurial and development-focused
pedagogy
16 Critical thin(ing encompasses a num:er of focused processes of thin(ing that are
evaluative andAor constructive in form6
26 Is a process of )or(ing )ith comple@ ideas and ma(ing effective provision of
evidence to Hustify a reasona:le Hudgment, )ith the evidence and Hudgment grounded
in the conte@t of the Hudgment .application or pro:lem06
46 A fully developed capacity to thin( critically re<uires an understanding of (no)ledge
as socially constructed and contextually relative, not merely a series of facts6
5
-6 Effective critical thin(ing should facilitate deeply creative rather than superficial
learning Dand should use a complete frame)or( such as the elements and standards of
critical reasoning in order to stand a higher chance of :eing reflexive and conte@tual,
)hilst ta(ing into account constraints, alternatives and emotional factors. .emphasis
ours06
36 trategies for developing critical thin(ing in disciplines and course programmes
include+
/a. teaching through philosophy .;ipman 1FF10J
/b. teaching through a discipline .Meyers 1FB5, &osich 2//3, 8aul $ Elder 2//20J
/c. teaching free of Dand acrossE disciplines .Broo(field 1FB90 and many others6
56 CriticalAcreative teaching and learning should dra) learners a)ay from their Ccomfort
'ones of (no)ingG and to)ards contextual knowing .Kygotsy 1F9B0 and should
facilitate active roles of discussing, dialoguing and pro:lem solving .i6e6 e@cite all of
GardnerGs multiple intelligences06
96 For this to happen, teachers should+
/a. model critical thin(ing themselves and provide e@amples of critical thin(ing in
specific disciplines under studyJ
/b. use formative and summative assignments to encourage students to thin(
criticallyJ /c. :e a)are of different )orlds in the same classroom .8erry 1F9/0J
/d. avoid spoon feeding studentsJ
/e. pose <uestions and allo) students to critically thin( them throughJ
/!. encourage critical thin(ing through effective .report0 )riting6
!n a generic framework for critical thinking and some answers to the
four research questions central to this paper
=e point out that the core component of the generic model for critical thin(ing is the
eight elements?seven standards model, since this frame)or( can :e stretched to
accommodate other thin(ing frame)or(s, including the a:ove meanings and pedagogic
implications of critical thin(ing6 =e therefore refer to the original 8aul $ Elder
frame)or( and the model in this section interchangea:ly as the generic framework for
critical thin(ing6 *his frame)or( ena:les us to provisionally e@plore the three central
<uestions of this paper as follo)s6
"#$: %hat do we really mean by critical learning in particular
disciplines&
For this <uestion, in addition to perspectives gained from the a:ove notes, a creative and
critical learner should :e a:le to use the learning ac<uired through a discipline to portray
characteristics 1 to - a:ove6
"# ': (ow do we achieve depth in critical thinking within the teaching
process&
A creative and critical learner?teacher?professional should+
/a. rigorously employ the thin(ing mesh resulting from the matri@ of elements and
standards in order to achieve functional )literal* depth in critical thin(ingJ and
6
/b. :e guided :y the teaching protocols in 3 to 9 a:ove, in order to achieve
philosophical+epistemological depth in critical thin(ing6
In other )ords, deeply critical and creative learners learn ho) to learn )ithin and across
disciplines and understand concepts in philosophy and epistemology that connects their
learning to their different life?)orlds6
"#,: %hat are the links between critical thinking, learning theories and
pedagogical innovations in a discipline&
*his <uestion re<uires a polite dip into the core concepts associated )ith learning
theories6 *he follo)ing ideas are ade<uate for this purpose6 Co@ $ ;ight 2//3, pp6 -5?53
provides vital clues through the follo)ing schema of learning gaps6 Lur argument is that
critical pedagogy must :e designed to overcome the five (ey learning gaps that could
e@ist in an ;*A programme6 Basically these are gaps :et)een /#. Recall and
"nderstanding /(. "nderstanding and A:ility /). A:ility and =anting *o /*. =anting *o
and Actually %oing /0. Actually %oing and Lngoing Change6
An underpinning language for ma(ing sense of these gaps is that of the -reflective
professional. s(etched in the first three chapters of ;ight $ Co@ .2//36 =e thus e@amine
ho) a com:ination of the chec(lists developed in this paper )ould help the reflective
professional overcome the gaps in their teaching and learning practices6 Inevita:ly, )e
)ill reiterate the foundational language along the )ay and in a closing commentary to
this section of the paper6 *he commentary )ill forge a close lin( :et)een our
understanding of the affordances )hich flo) to the reflective professional from the
chec(lists and the language of the reflective professional e@plored in ;ight $ Co@ .2//306
;ight $ Co@ .2//3, Chapters 1?-0 characteri'e creativeAcritical learning as an
-academic+learning weave. that+ is concerned )ith issues of meta-learning .learning to
learn0 and transferable learning .need for learners to develop transfera:le s(ills0J
learning that has Cadaptive and transformational potency. .ena:les the learner to cope
)ith an increasingly changing )orldJ is CconstructiveG and CdialogicG, re<uiring
personally constructed and Csocially shared meanings and understandingsGJ effectively
lin(s teaching and research in the production of useful (no)ledge .;o)sted $ tHern:erg
2//50J engages :oth students and academics in the <uest for authentic knowledgeJ
addresses the life?)orlds or Ctotal world experience of human?:eingsG, there:y giving
due attention to :oth the Cacademic competenceG of learnersG and teachersG discipline-
worlds and practical Coperational competenceG of their work-worldsJ accommodates the
Cpresage. characteristics that learners :ring to the :argain e6g6 their individual a:ilities,
learning styles .!oney $ Mumford 1FB20, and :iases to)ards different intelligences
.Gardner 1FF4, 1FFB06
In Chapter - of their te@t, ;ight and Co@ provide t)o useful conceptual charts .not
displayed here0 for teachers as reflective professionals to facilitate this mosaic of creative
learningJ the first chart is the schema of Clearning gaps .Co@ 1FF20, the second presents
a critical matrix of learning6 *his section of our paper e@ploits these conceptual charts
in more detail6
Clearly the gaps identify a continuum of si@ crucial areas of learning I recall,
understanding, a:ility, )anting to .desira:ility0, actually doing and ongoing change
.development and transformation0 ? )hich any successful learning intervention .most
importantly entrepreneurial education0 must address, al:eit une<ually, depending on
7
)hich of the five gaps :et)een the areas are more or less manifest in the learning
situation6
;ight $ Co@ .2//3, Figure -61, p6 -90 aptly depict these learning affordances as a
cascade of ellipses progressively em:edded in each other from CrecallG up to CchangingG, a
schemati'ation that e@presses the unfolding of being and knowing from the most :asic to
the most desired state of :eing )hich signify the goals of a critical, creative and
entrepreneurial learning, teaching and assessment process6 *hese goals provide practical
anchors to pedagogic innovations as engendered :y creativity and critical thin(ing ideas6
*he capacity to recall is essential as )hen learners need to marshal facts and ideas
learned in arguments and decision ma(ing6 *his capacity typifies the first stage of
(no)ing in Ba@ta MagoldaGs shemes of knowing e@plored :elo)6 *he first gap :et)een
recall and understanding is very limiting for a learner since this means that learners
cannot even :egin to use learned facts and ideas in specific conte@ts6
For e@ample, in the statistical education students may :e a:le to recall the five
phases of the IEKAI statistical modelling cycle, namely pro:lemAmodel identification,
estimation of model parameters, validation of the fitted model on test data, application of
the model to real?life situations, and iteration of the model :uilding process in light of
changes in the conte@t of the pro:lem over time6 But they are no )here a:le to apply
these phases to a real?life statistical pro:lem if there is a gap :et)een this recall and their
understanding of the stages6 E<ually in engineering education students may :e a:le to
recall the la)s of thermodynamics )ithout :eing a:le to understand and use their
implications in the efficient design of man?machine systems6
Indeed, one can argue that for effective operational competence student?teacher?
professionals only need to recall that there are five stages and three la)s of
thermodynamics, (no) )here to locate the descriptions of the stages and la)s and refer
to them )hen they are re<uired in pro:lem solving6 It is therefore the understanding part
that matters for application6 Gaps in recall and understanding are usually addressed in the
academic competence focus of critical and creative learning interventions6
=hat the chec(lists in this paper provide is a set of principles and practices that
effectively deal )ith this :asic gap :et)een recall and understanding6 For instance,
em:edding the elements and standards of reasoning into the learning intervention means
that learners develop an all?round understanding of the facts, conte@ts, alternative vie)
points, <uestions at issue, re<uired information, concepts, conse<uences and implications
of a learning situation6 Failure to do this may mean that the student learning is shallo) or
surface and not deep, critical and conte@tual enough to foster mastery6
*he ne@t cascade of gaps )hich encompasses the first gap is the gap in understanding
and a:ility to actually put the understanding into practice6 *his is )hy internship
programmes are re<uired in su:Hects li(e engineering, medicine, dentistry, la) and other
so?called professional disciplines6 But it must :e pointed out that almost every discipline
is professional, since the learner must :e put into authentic learning situations, )hich
preserve the messiness of real life pro:lems they are e@pected to resolve using core
(no)ledge from the discipline6
!ence, Hust as )e )ant dentists and medical doctors to :e a:le to demonstrate
practical or operational competence )hen faced )ith real patients, )e )ould also )ant an
e@pert in international relations to :e competent in handling comple@ diplomatic and
strategic negotiating situations, a statistician to use data and information from a :an( to
8
analy'e :an( financial management processes and suggest areas for improvement, to ta(e
Hust a fe) e@amples6
In ans)er to &') a:ove, these notes suggest that an efficient learning intervention must
use innovative curriculum delivery approaches e6g6 real life pro:lems, industry
placements and )or( e@periences, simulations of real life conte@ts, authentic
case studies, relevant and )ell?e@plained case e@amples, personal e@periences
of the learners and teachers, and appropriate formative and summative
assessments for learning, to overcome all the learning gaps indicated in this
paper .E'epue $ Chig:u 2//5, E'epue $ M)itondi 2//5 and E'epue $ "do
2//506

It is (no)n in the psychology of education literature that authentic mastery of
learning outcomes :y learner?researchers is mediated :y enhancements in self-concept,
self-efficacy, self-esteem and autonomy )hich these approaches generate in learner?
researchers, as opposed to traditional Cchal( and tal(G lecture .&ortcliffe 2//5 in mith
ed6 2//5, LG;eary 2//5 in mith ed6 2//5, Bandura 1F99, 1FB5 <uoted in LG;eary
2//506
/urther explanatory notes on epistemological development
%ra)ing from the )or(s of Ba@ter Magolda .1FF2, 1FF- and 1FF50, Moon .2//-0
chooses the follo)ing schemes for (no)ing as appropriate for higher education+
absolute knowing I holds that (no)ledge is certain, a:solute, factual and that
teachers are e@perts, a scheme in )hich (no)ing is entails accumulation of more facts
and a dualist position consisting of rights and )rongs .8erry 1F9/0
transitional knowing I ac(no)ledges a continuum in )hich there is partial certainty,
partial uncertainty as )ell as a:solute (no)ledge
independent knowing I in )hich learners recogni'e the uncertainty of (no)ledge
and are )illing to assert their o)n opinions and :elief
contextual knowing I in )hich (no)ledge is seen as constructed and is evaluated on
the :asis of the criticality of evidence )hich underpins the (no)ledge6 In this scheme
teachers are :est cast in the role of facilitators of (no)ledge, a relativist position
.8erry 1F9/06
Moon notes that fe) undergraduates reach consistent conte@tual thin(ing )hich should
characteri'e graduate programmes6 Moon .2//-0 then ma(es the important point that
learners generally progress from a:solute thin(ing to conte@tual thin(ing6 *his concept of
progression is fundamental to a characteri'ation of philosophicalAepistemological
.hereinafter shortened to philosophical0 depth in critical thin(ing I a depth that is crucial
to entrepreneurship and development?focused education6 =e note that this
characteri'ation is already in place in this paperJ it is em:odied in items 1 to 9 of the
a:ove chec(list of factors conducive to pedagogic innovations, and derives from MoonGs
definitions of critical thin(ing6
*he progression in student learning o)ed to de:t in critical thin(ing and mentioned
mentioned a:ove should not merely :e considered as staged from undergraduate to
graduate, :ut could happen all )ithin the undergraduate programme and also )ithin a
cognate family of modules6 *his vie) is supported :y the centrality of the generic
9
frame)or( for critical thin(ing in helping learners to )or( )ith all schemes of (no)ing,
as long as each scheme is related to the elements and standards of critical reasoning,
especially the purpose, point of view, !uestions at issue, context and alternatives6 For
instance, (no)ing the information to use is tantamount to having the facts of the case
absolute knowingJ deciphering appropriate and relevant information from the facts echoes
transitional"independent knowingJ and getting :eyond the facts to deduce implications
and conse<uences )ithin specific contexts and for alternative solutions portrays
contextual knowing6
*his a:ility on the part of the learner?researcher?teacher?professional to fle@ the
schemes appropriately )ould seem to re<uire the learners to :e overtly e@posed to the
generic critical thin(ing frame)or( in the first place6 It is in this )ay that progression of
learnersG thin(ing and (no)ing up to philosophical, as opposed to literal, depths could :e
achieved6
It is also essential to e@pose the learners overtly to the schemes of (no)ing
themselves and guide them in refle@ive discussions and feedback to help them reflect on
)hich state.s0 of (no)ing they consider their )or( to portray6 *here is a need for
fle@i:ilities in curriculum design aimed at enhancing philosophical depths in critical
thin(ing6
E@amples include introducing a generic critical thin(ing module at the inception of a
programme of studies and developing the themes either in further levels of the module or
reinforcing the themes overtly in specific modules through personal development files,
learning logs, and pro!ile assessments .assessments that first use formative comments on
a first draft to prepare students to perform :etter on a final copy of their )or(06 *hese
design issues should :e relevant to the su:Hect matter and learning outcomes of the
modules6 Additional to the schemes of (no)ing, Moon .2//50 .see also cott 2///0 gives
e@amples of the (ind of activities that critical thin(ing descri:es6 *hese activities include+
revie- o! someone elses arguments I as in research papers, dissertations, essays,
assignments I the (ey critical thin(ing activity :eing to analy'e the Ccomponents and
process of the argument and the <uality of the conclusion and process of reaching itG
evaluation o! an ob1ect I as of )or(s of art, piece of )riting .e6g6 a te@t, academic
paper, student )or(0, architectural and engineering constructions, media )or( and
study of literature I the (ey critical thin(ing activity :eing an Cevaluation of the final
o:Hect
development o! an argument I as )ith the content, process of reasoning and
presentation of the argument
critical thinking about sel! I )hich is :asically reflective learning I and )ould to
result also from a rigorous application of the elements and standards of critical
reasoning to issues a:out self6
habit o! engagement -ith the -orld I listening to, co?operating and co?creating
(no)ledge, products and services )ith others, a ha:it comprehensively developed in
the notes on creativity and creative learning6
*he importance of this map of critical thin(ing activities is that it helps us consider how
to teach and assess learners for critical, creative and entrepreneurial learning )ithin
specific modules6
10
M
11
checklist for achieving philosophical depth in critical thinking for 01
innovations
From the a:ove notes on philosophical depth in critical thin(ing )e can depict learning as
creative, philosophically deep and critical if+
16 student?learners and teachers understand the different schemes of (no)ing .i6e6
a:solute, transitional, independent and conte@tualAconstructivist (no)ing0 and if the
teaching and learning process progresses learners to)ards conte@tual (no)ing )ith
appropriate use of the other levels
26 the curriculum design and delivery e@pose learners .)ith e@amples0 to typical
activities )hich critical thin(ing descri:es e6g6 revie) of someone elseGs arguments,
development of o)n arguments, evaluation of o:Hects, critical thin(ing a:out
themselves, and ha:it of engagement )ith the )orld, all of )hich re<uire learners to
demonstrate depth in critical thin(ing
46 the .formative and summative0 assessments for learning measure learnersG
achievement of these goals as learning outcomes in the curriculum6
In conclusion, this section has e@panded our tool(it for facilitating creative, critical and
innovative learning, teaching and assessment processes in order to improve student
learning experiences6 More importantly, in order to design and assess such processes for
entrepreneurial and development-focused education6
General and module?specific critical thin(ing s(ills te@ts are availa:le for this
purpose e6g6 Cottrell .2//306 MaHority of the te@ts are :ased on the &osich?8aul?Elder
generic frame)or( for critical thin(ing, an o:servation that reinforces the centrality of
the frame)or( in approaches to pedagogic innovations6
*his paper formally e@plores, in this and preceding section.s0, the concept of depth in
critical thinking as arising from a combination of theoretical perspectives and
pedagogical feature6 *hese perspectives are summari'ed in the chec(lists for innovations
in teaching, learning and assessments6

)$ 2ome notes on applying the checklists to creative and entrepreneurial
learning
"#2: %hat is the link between all these issues and the quest for entrepreneurship-
focused education in frican higher educational institutions )(34s*&
I addition to ans)ers to this <uestion contained in the a:ove notes, the notes presented
here e@plore &'* in the light of educational learning theories and the strategies for using
them in reali'ing ;*A innovations6 In designing creative learning situations .including
curricula, assessments and learning materials0, there is a need to+
devise individual, paired and group tas(s and assessments )hich facilitate critical
colla:orationJ
ena:le learners to :ecome functionally and philosophically deep in their learning, :y
using positive participatory interactions .in appropriate spaces and at the right times0,
to ena:le the student?learners to have their o)n .critical0 voices and positions and
e@press their autonomyJ
12
ena:le learners to understand ho) to :e critical in specific cultural and cross?cultural
domains, using s(ills of critical thin(ing within and across disciplinesJ
enhance learnerGs creativity through critical use of information and technology6
A loo( at the eight elements and seven standards of critical thin(ing through a
discipline sho)s that mastery of these elements and standards is fundamental to
achieving these o:Hectives .&osich 2//30J see related ideas in E'epue $ Chig:u 2//5 and
E'epue $ M)itondi 2//56 =e ma(e the point here that using learning materials that
facilitate e@perientially deep and transforming (inds of participatory learning is
especially effective )hen the learning situation involves problem posing and problem
solving .as in case studies, pro:lem?:ased learning and related methods0 .E'epue $
Chig:u 2//5, E'epue $ "do .2//506
In an e@pansive treatment of creativity as un3conscious, 8ope .2//3, pp6 9/?9B0
provides us )ith the follo)ing clues to creative and critical learning+
the fact that it springs from unconscious .:oth personal and collective0 and conscious
processesJ
re<uires inspiration, imagination .imagineering0J
goes through five fundamental .:ut not necessarily consecutive0 stages I problem
posing3scoping .initial sensing and structuring of the pro:lem0, preparation .a
multidimensional investigation of the pro:lem0, incubation .a suspension of
conscious thin(ing a:out the pro:lem0, illumination .Cthe appearance of a happy
ideaG or solution0 and verification .Cthe conscious testing of the solutionGJ and
involves Cmultiple draftingG at sensory, emotional and cognitive levels, in a Cstream of
consciousnessG encompassing different ranges of e@perience )hich have meanings for
and )ithin a learnerGs life?)orlds .see %amasio 2///, pp6 419?43J ;ight $ Co@ 2//3,
p6 2906
=e therefore emphasi'e that appropriately com:ining critical thin(ing and decision?
ma(ing frame)or(s such as /#. the eight elements and seven standards of critical
reasoning and /(. techni<ues of creative pro:lem solving in a problem-based, case-
driven and discovery-based learning environment, is a royal road to ma(ing these clues
effective in achieving critical and creative learning6 For a learning programme to :e
entrepreneurial it must develop these capacities in the learner?teacher?professional6
*he po)er of this com:ination lies in its a:ility to coerce the multiple intelligences of
the learner and to facilitate the learnerGs progression through the a:ove five stages of
creative sense?ma(ing .as e@plored in the accelerated learning ideas of Rose $ &icholl
1FF906
Furthermore, the learning environment and process should facilitate active and
e@periential learning, CaddressG the head and heart of the learner .i6e6 :e analytical and
emotional0 and relate form and matter, :y training the learner to understand theoretical
.formal0 frame)or(s and their real?life .material0 applications .8ope 2//306
It is clear from these conceptions of depth in critical thin(ing and the responses to the
research <uestions addressed a:ove that facilitating critical, creative and entrepreneurial
learning re<uires students to em:ar( on a journey of excellence, of :ecoming
transformed :y formal teaching and personal learning to individuals capa:le of co?
creating (no)ledge and generating novel ideas, products and states of :eing, in alignment
)ith intended learning outcomes, )hich they o)n and adapt to their personal life?)orlds
.;ight $ Co@ 2//3, 13?--, 59?1F306
13
*he student also has to engage in mature reflections a:out the learning, :e a:le to
critically thin( things through a discipline, :e in the ha:it of re?visiting, Cre?mem:eringG,
re?familiarising, adapting and translating understanding across pro:lem situations and
domains of en<uiry, &osich .2//30, Richard $ Elder .2//10 and 8ope .2//306 *he co?
creation of (no)ledge implies colla:orative learning as intended in paired and group
)or( and related forms of assessment6
*here is a sense in )hich module learning outcomes must :e critically o)ned :y the
learner?student such that the knowledge is sufficiently personali5ed and other?related as
to conform :roadly to the central logic of the discipline and module assessment criteria,
and ena:le the learner to :e free to re?invent the (no)ledge in situational conte@ts6 *his is
a vie) of knowledge as :oth individually and socially constructed, ;ight $ Co@ .2//306
*he challenge in education for entrepreneurship through creative and critical learning
is fle@ing the instructional strategies optimally to achieve a :alance of features such as
learnersG capacities for independent .self?directed0 learning, their voice, creativity and
conformity"non-conformity to formal learning outcomes and curriculum design, ;ight $
Co@ .2//30, E'epue .2//5a, 2//5:0, E'epue $ Chig:u .2//50, E'epue $ M)itondi
.2//506 As e@plained in 8ope .2//36 pp6 142?1440 a complex systems perspective on
creativity vie)s creativity as a property or <uality )hich emerges from or is associated
)ith the a:ove chec(lists6
0$ onclusion
In this paper )e have outlined the theoretical frame)or(s )hich underpin an attempt to
design a creative learning and thin(ing curriculum conducive to entrepreneurship
education in .African0 !EIs6 =e have sho)n ho) to apply the frame)or( to any
discipline using mainly statistics and engineering education as e@amples6 *he responses
to the research <uestions and the deep discussions of the import of the responses for
creative learning demonstrate the fact that the concept of functional and philosophical
depths in critical thin(ing are fundamental to any attempt to sculpt a pedagogic
architecture that )ill support creative and entrepreneurial learning6
=e reiterate the fact that )hile creative critical learning strategies are increasingly the
norm in "# and other developed countries .Cottrell 2//3, Moon 2//-, 2//5, &ortcliffe
2//50, our e@periences )ith the &igerian higher educational system sho) that these
modern instructional practices are not yet, if at all they are, employed in most African
!EIs6 *his paper therefore aims to close this gap6 Moreover, even )hen the said practices
are no) common in the developed countries, )e have seen that the literature is )ea( on a
direct application of critical thin(ing to most disciplines other than creative )riting, the
arts and humanities in those countries6 *here are also epistemological concerns and
pedagogical restraints that need to :e overcome in successfully em:edding critical
thin(ing in ;*A practices .)eet $ )anson 2///06 !ence, the paper :ridges this gap in
the pedagogy, especially )ith respect to mathematical sciences and engineering
education, )hich are the core focus of the authorsG academic engagements6
Finally, )e note that achieving strategic goals of mass education of )ould?:e
entrepreneurs in &igeria and Africa needs to involve the fundamental theoretical and
practical solutions offered in this paper6
Ackno-ledgments
14
*he authors sincerely ac(no)ledge the support for this search colla:oration received
from their respective higher education institutions I heffield !allam "niversity, "# and
the Federal 8olytechnic, &igeria6
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