Kennedys Call: The Peace Corps Impact on U.S.

- Latin American Relations

Joshua Conine
HIST 3020: Historical Methods
12/11/13









2

In 1961 John F. Kennedy signed executive order 10924, and in doing so, created the
United States Peace Corps.
1
Creating such an organization had always been on Kennedys
agenda, but what finally inspired Kennedy to take action was the reaction he received from
University of Michigan students during his 1960 speech at Ann Arbor, Michigan when he said,
On your willingness to do that, not merely to serve one year or two years in the service, but
your willingness to contribute part of your life to this country, I think will depend the answer
whether a free society can compete. I think it can!
2
It can be argued that Kennedys Peace Corps
was a direct product of the Cold War in an effort to garner support for the United States, as
opposed to the Soviet Union, by spreading goodwill. As such, the mission and overall goals of
the Peace Corps have evolved from its formation into the post-Cold War era. Perception of the
Peace Corps by citizens of the countries in which it is active, as well as United States citizens,
has changed along with its evolution as well. By analyzing Peace Corps operations in Latin
American countries during three different time periods: the beginning years, the late 1970s until
1990, and the modern era; this paper will show that since its creation, the Peace Corps mission
in Latin American countries has evolved from a focus on battling communism and spreading
democracy; towards establishing self- sufficient countries through education in technical skills,
and providing assistance through basic needs. Also, both Latin American and American
perception of the Peace Corps has changed from a sense of mistrust and suspicion towards
acceptance.

1
Anonymous, Peace Corps, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum,
http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-History/Peace-Corps.aspx (accessed December 8, 2013).
2
John F. Kennedy, Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy, Peace Corps,
http://www.peacecorps.gov/about/history/speech/ (accessed November 25, 2013).
3

Since the Peace Corps formation in 1961, over 215,000 Americans have volunteered in
139 different countries.
3
The Peace Corps has established a positive legacy by providing
invaluable services and resources to underprivileged countries across the world. However, the
factors contributing to the United States formation of the Peace Corps are much more self-
serving. When the Peace Corps was formed, the United States and the Soviet Union were on the
brink of nuclear war. Each nation struggled to garner support throughout the world from
peripheral nations, as well as promote their respective form of government. Charles Wetzels
article, The Peace Corps in our Past, acknowledges this fact and describes Congress intentions
when approving the Peace Corps,
Congress visualizes it as a weapon of American foreign policy against communism.
Thus, Representative Henry Reuss of Wisconsin, one of a handful who pioneered the new
undertaking, announced that the peoples of the developing countries need economic
assistance, but even more they can profit from exposure to the ideas of Thomas Jefferson
and Abraham Lincoln.
4

People were aware of the United States motives when giving aid to underdeveloped countries.
In 1970, Robert S. Walters wrote, Khrushchev has suggested that the anti-Communist
motivation for U.S. and Western economic assistance is so pervasive that the LDCs should give
the USSR credit for whatever Western aid they receive.
5
Both of these quotes establish the fact
that the Peace Corps was in fact a product of American anti-communism associated with the
Cold War. Taking this fact into consideration, the evolution that the Peace Corps underwent from
its conception to the modern, post-Cold War era can be observed.

3
Paul D. Coverdell, Peace Corps Fact Sheet, Peace Corps,
http://files.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/pdf/about/pc_facts.pdf (accessed November 25, 2013).
4
Charles J. Wetzel, The Peace Corps in Our Past, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
365, The Peace Corps (May, 1966),http://www.jstor.org/stable/1034933 (accessed November 4, 2013).
5
Robert S. Walters, American & Soviet Aid: A Comparative Analysis (Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press, 1970),
15.
4

In the beginning, the Peace Corps mission was centered on stopping the spread of
communism. In order to do this Kennedy wanted to establish an organization that would provide
invaluable resources to countries at risk of falling under communist influence. Gerard Rices,
The Bold Experiment describes the initial three goals of the Peace Corps during the Kennedy
era as, to provide the developing countries with trained manpower, to help promote a better
understanding of Americans on the part of the peoples served, and to help increase American
knowledge of other peoples and cultures.
6
Karen Schwarzs, What You Can Do for Your
Country summarizes each of the different eras the Peace Corps was active in, and also provides
several accounts from Peace Corps volunteers. In her description of Peace Corps operations in
the Kennedy years she discusses the fact that many American volunteers in Latin America found
themselves working in community development, and that, these volunteers would set an
example of Yankee ingenuity and stick-to-itiveness.
7
Modeling democracy and the American
way was a common theme in the Peace Corps original goals. In his writings about why he
joined the Peace Corps Roger Landrum writes, There was a sense of exhilaration about maybe
carrying forth democracy and establishing new relations with Asia, Africa, and South America.
8

One of the best ways to spread democracy is through education, and the Peace Corps focused
much of its resources to the education of underdeveloped nations in Latin American countries.
Education began, and continues to be, one of the primary goals of the Peace Corps. Peace
Corps volunteers teach a variety of subjects to their students including art, music or even drama.
Bennet Oberstein, who served as a drama teacher in Brazil, described the importance of subjects
like drama by saying, Along with helping communities to develop better methods of

6
Gerard T. Rice, The Bold Experiment: JFKs Peace Corps (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985), 283.
7
Karen Schwarz, What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the Peace Corps (New York: William Morrow
and Company, 1991), 35.
8
Roger Landrum, The Kennedy Years, 1961-63, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the
Peace Corps, ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 37.
5

agriculture, sanitation, and nutrition, we know that a truly developed nation is a nation that can
express its ideas and has found its voice.
9
In its initial stage the Peace Corps was able to spread
pro-democratic sentiments, alongside essential knowledge through the work of teachers like
Bennet Oberstein in underprivileged Latin American countries.
Initial American perception of the Peace Corps was overwhelmingly supportive among
young college age Americans. There was a flood of willing and able young Americans ready to
answer Kennedys call. Michael Tudor, who served from 1961 to 1963 wrote, I went into the
Peace Corps first and foremost because I adored President Kennedy. I was in love with him. I
was a nineteen-year-old medical student and he was my hero.
10
Kennedy was known for his
way with words, and his public speaking abilities clearly garnered a vast amount of support for
his recently developed Peace Corps among young Americans. Another common factor
contributing to young Americans joining the Peace Corps was the chance to make a difference in
the world, a common goal for many human beings. When describing his decision to join the
Peace Corps Michael Moore, a volunteer from 1962 through 1964, describes is realization that
not everyone in the world is as well off as Americans by saying, Then, the chaplain at Yale
began making it clear to all of us that, Hey, guys, theres a whole lot more to the world than
whats going on here.
11
An anonymous volunteer, whos reasoning for joining the Peace Corps
can be found in Iris Luces, Letters from the Peace Corps, wrote, We have so much and others
have so little. May I help someone less fortunate than myself, giving them my time, my effort,

9
Bennet Oberstein, Teaching, in The Peace Corps Experience, ed. Roy Hoopes (New York: Clarkson N. Potter,
1968), 117.
10
Michael Tudor, The Kennedy Years, 1961-63, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the
Peace Corps, ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991),36.
11
Michael Moore, The Kennedy Years, 1961-63, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the
Peace Corps, ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 37-38.
6

my knowledge and my enthusiasm?
12
Kennedys Peace Corps received ecstatic support from
the younger American generations due to his overall charisma; as well as the opportunity to
make a difference in the world provided by the Peace Corps. However, not all America reaction
to the Peace Corps creation was positive.
Many Americans were skeptical of the Peace Corps, believing in to be a useless
organization, and a waste of tax dollars. Thaine Allison, who volunteered from 1962 until 1964,
wrote about her University department chairs reaction to her decision to join the Peace Corps by
saying, At Chico State there were five graduates that year from the brand-new school of
agriculture. Three of us went into the Peace Corps. The department chair was a bit upset that we
were turning down real jobs.
13
As is the case with Thaine Allisons department chair, many
people considered joining the Peace Corps to be a wasted opportunity due to minimal
compensation. Sylvia Feinman, daughter of a Russian immigrant, wrote about her fathers
disapproval of her decision, He told me, I didnt come here from Russia to work hard so my
children could have it better, and then have my daughter go to Africa and get lice.
14
Considering
the Peace Corps to be a waste of time was not the only negative perception about the Peace
Corps held by Americans during the Sixties. Many people viewed the Peace Corps as a haven for
draft dodgers, an idea not too far from the truth. Robert Marshall summarized his reasons for
joining the Peace Corps by saying,
Everyone at Harvard was very eager to find something that would get them out of the
draft. Joining the reserve units was very common. Some of my friends were gorging
themselves on chocolate to make their acne worse so they could get exempted on skin

12
Anonymous, in Letters from the Peace Corps, ed. Iris Luce (Washington D.C.: Van Rees Press, 1964), 4.
13
Thaine Allison, The Kennedy Years, 1961-63, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the Peace
Corps, ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 38.
14
Sylvia Feinman, The Kennedy Years, 1961-63, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the
Peace Corps, ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 38.
7

problems. Another guy was working on his flat feet. The Peace Corps was one of the
easier options and also a noble one.
15


Acceptance or disapproval of the Peace Corps during its early years in the United States seems to
be dependent on a citizens age. Younger, college-aged Americans were captivated by the idea;
while the older, more conservative generations did not see its merits, and were suspicious of the
organization. Many recipients of aid from the Peace Corps shared this skeptical analysis of the
Peace Corps intentions.
Latin American Perception of the Peace Corps was initially very skeptical. The United
States received heavy criticism around the world for its involvement in Vietnam, and this critical
view of American actions did not escape third world countries. In his book The Politics of the
Peace Corps & Vista, Zane Reeves describes the interaction between Peace Corps volunteers and
skeptical locals, On many occasions, the communication problem was compounded by a daily
environment of hostility, suspicion, and loneliness. Many volunteers became disillusioned and
politically radicalized by their encounters with entrenched local elites.
16
Criticism about the
Vietnam War was not the only negative aspect of Latin American perception of the Peace Corps.
Tom Livingston, who volunteered from 1961 to 1963, wrote, In 1961, many of the nonaligned
countries saw the Peace Corps as another aspect of American imperialism.
17
For good reason,
many South American countries feared American imperialism. In their eyes, the United States
could easily, under the flag of goodwill, grasp a foothold in their respective countries.

15
Robert Marshall, The Vietnam Era, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the Peace Corps,
ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 117.
16
Zane Reeves, The Politics of the Peace Corps & Vista (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1988), 54.
17
Tom Livingston, The Kennedy Years, 1961-63, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the
Peace Corps, ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 39.

8

The second era to be discussed in this paper is the time period from the mid-1970s until
the 1990s. Tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union were still high; however,
Cold War military conflicts in this era did not match the intensity of the Vietnam War. Latin
American countries still experienced implications of the Cold War, for example, the invasion of
Grenada, but for the most part, the Cold Wars main battles in the 1980s took place in the
political realm, movie screen, and sports arenas. The infamous miracle on ice in the 1980
winter Olympics serves as an example of the pacified hostilities between the U.S. and Soviet
Union that were relegated to the sports arena. In his analysis of the 1980 Olympic hockey teams
impact on Cold War politics Donald Abelson writes, As Dave Silk, a forward on the 1980 US
Hockey Team observed, For us it was a hockey game. To the rest of the world, it was a political
statement.
18
Communism was on its way out, and democracy was finally established as the
dominant political system. However, this new political climate did not negate the necessity of the
Peace Corps. The Peace Corps was needed now more than ever in order for the U.S. to maintain
a good standing among the nations of the world, and its primary goals adjusted accordingly in
order to achieve this.
With the need to promote democracy and halt the spread of communism slowly fading
the Peace Corps goals had to change with the times in order to better serve the third world
countries in need. In writing about the Peace Corps of the 1980s U.S. Senator from Connecticut
Christopher J. Dodd wrote, There is now, perhaps, a greater expectation that the volunteers will
create something substantial in their host countries. There is a sense that the standard of success

18
Donald Abelson, Politics on Ice: The United States, the Soviet Union, and a Hockey Gamin in Lake Placid,
Canadian Review of American Studies 40, no. 1 (March 2010), Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed
December 4, 2013).
9

can be measured in the number of water projects or schools that get built.
19
As is often the case,
bureaucracy gets in the way of progress. Rather than focus on the people, the Peace Corps
became focused on the numbers it could use to justify its operations. Water projects and schools
are essential, and provide valuable resources to their recipients; however, less focus was being
placed on teaching under developed nations how to improve itself, on its own.
Community development also lost significance in the Peace Corps goals in this time
period as well. As Lowther Lucas points out in his book, Keeping Kennedys Promise,
The director of community development in a Caribbean nation agreed that pure
community development is pure fantasy. Volunteers could help identify peoples needs,
perhaps, and could sometimes organize them to work toward a solution. But real progress
had to be tangible, and that meant money and services; these, the host government- would
have to provide.
20


Again, we see the prevalence of money and numbers to justify aid, rather than truly making a
difference for the future of these people. Despite this unfortunate change in Peace Corps
bureaucracy, the good-hearted American volunteers continued to make as much of a difference
in peoples lives as they could. In fact, In 1984 the Dallas newspaper, Dallas Morning News
discussed the need to increase Peace Corps volunteers in Latin American countries,
21
thus
illustrating the Peace Corps continued dedication to providing assistance to under developed
Latin American nations. Despite this continued dedication, Peace Corps volunteers often realized
the waning impact they were having on the communities they had dedicated themselves to.
Virginia Pace, A volunteer stationed in Honduras from 1984 to 1986, described her

19
Christopher J. Dodd, Reminiscence: The Dominican Republic, in Making A Difference: The Peace Corps at
Twenty-Five, ed. Milton Viorst (New York: Weidenfield & Nicolson, 1986), 78.
20
Kevin Lowther and C. Payne Lucas, Keeping Kennedys Promise (Boulder: West view Press, 1978), 59.
21
Mercedes Olivera, Peace Corps urged to increase role in Central America, director says, Dallas Morning News,
May 12, 1984, (accessed October 10, 2013). http://infoweb.newsbank.com.libproxy.uwyo.edu/iw-
search/we/HistArchive/.
10

disappointment with the Peace Corps literacy program by saying, On paper the literacy program
was stunning and our group couldnt wait to get to Honduras. But the Peace Corps had jumped
on the Kissinger Commission bandwagon and Plan Alfa was on its way into the grave.
22

Another volunteer in Honduras wrote about his frustrations with the way things were going by
saying, Theres not much tradition of education on Honduras and all of a sudden were
saying to the Campesinos that they should give up an hour a day five days a week for this. The
first year there might be ten to twenty-five people in a class. Then it got down to two to eight
people.
23

After twenty-five years of operation, the average American citizens perception of the
Peace Corps began to improve. In a 1985 article for news paper The Oregonian, Henry Gottlies
wrote, On Monday, on the University of Michigan Student Union steps in Ann Arbor, where
Kennedy stood that night, the organizations 25
th
anniversary will be celebrated. Vice President
George Bush, whos Republican Party once damned the Peace Corps, will speak.
24
This article
shows that even the Republican Party, once heavily opposed to any liberal program, realized the
significance of the Peace Corps efforts. In another article, written for The Mobile Register in
1977, George Gallup discusses the overall approval of Jimmy Carters plan to require service in
such organizations. In the latest nationwide Gallup survey, two persons in three indicate support
for a law which would require all young men to give a year of service in either the military
forces or in non-military work here or abroad, such as VISTA or the Peace Corps.
25
Such a high

22
Virginia Pace, The Reagan Years, 1981-89, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the Peace
Corps, ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 234.
23
Peter Buckey, The Reagan Years, 1981-89, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the Peace
Corps, ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 235.
24
Henry Gottlies, Peace Corps Marks 25
th
Anniversary, The Oregonian, October 6, 1985,(accessed October 10,
1013), http://infoweb.newsbank.com.libproxy.uwyo.edu/iw-search/we/HistArchive/.
25
George Gallup, Majority Favors Service Law, The Mobile Register, January 20, 1977, (accessed December 4,
2013), http://infoweb.newsbank.com.libproxy.uwyo.edu/iw-search/we/HistArchive/.
11

approval rating of this law shows how accepting the American people were becoming about the
Peace Corps.
Suspicion about Peace Corps operations from Latin Americans slowly began to subside
during this time period as well. Natives began to trust their American volunteers, and the
building of water systems and schools greatly enhanced their living conditions. Brian Smith, a
volunteer In Honduras from 1986 to 1988, described his relationship with natives by saying,
The people in my village were glad I was there. Even when the embassy was under siege, this
older lady said, If theres ever any trouble, you stay with me and everything will be okay.
26

Joan Moore described the impact that a woman in her village had on her life by saying,
She would deliver babies in the room next to this house where she stayed, and that was
what got me interested in later becoming a nurse practitioner. I stayed there a few nights,
and she would wake me up in the middle of the night and let me come in and be in on
these births.
27

Relationships like these developed between volunteers and the communities they served all over
the world, and they show how the Peace Corps was becoming more and more accepted by Latin
American individuals.
The modern or post- Cold War era of the Peace Corps is very different than that of its
predecessors. The Cold War is a thing of the past, and democracy no longer needs to be spread
throughout the world. Focus is orientated towards helping developing nations learn the technical
skills needed to be self sufficient. In fact, in The Complete Guide to Joining the Peace Corps, the
mission of the current organization is described as, Volunteers work with local governments,
communities, schools, and entrepreneurs to address changing and complex needs in education,

26
Brian Smith, The Reagan Years, 1981-89, in What You Can Do for Your Country: An oral History of the Peace
Corps, ed. Karen Schwarz (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 236.
27
Joan Moore, Friends can Become Family, in Voices From the Peace Corps: Fifty Years of Kentucky Volunteers,
eds. Angene Wilson and Jack Wilson (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2011), 235.
12

health and HIV/AIDS, business, information technology, agriculture, youth development, and
the environment.
28
Many challenges face the modern day Peace Corps volunteer, things like
illness, disease, and injury are a persistent concern; in fact, of all the Peace Corps volunteer
deaths from 1984 to 2003, 13.6% can be attributed to illness, 16.7 % to homicide, and 68.2% to
unintentional injury.
29
Volunteering for the Peace Corps has by no means become safer since its
creation, but through several decades of implementation, the Peace Corps has been able to hone
in on some of the best ways to serve under developed nations, and the modern day volunteer can
be assured of having a positive impact in places like Latin America.
American perception of the Peace Corps has become very positive. Gone are the days
when conservatives attack the liberal nature of the Peace Corps, and both sides can agree on its
impact in the world. In The Complete Guide to Joining the Peace Corps, Sharlee DiMenichi
states, President Obamas enthusiasm for the Peace Corps echoes that of its founder. In
President Kennedys final State of the Union address on January 14, 1963, he lauded the Peace
Corps as a unique means of sharing American goodwill.
30
American society has also come to
accept volunteering in the Peace Corps as a positive action. In the same book, the benefits of
joining the Peace Corps are described as an excellent chance to build your resume, a better
chance at getting a federal job, a good way to get into Graduate school, and it can help with
student loan debt.
31


28
Sharlee DiMenichi, The Complete Guide to Joining the Peace Corps: What You Need to Know Explained Simply
(Ocala, Fl: Atlantic Publishing Group, 2011), 17.
29
Nancy M. Nurthen and Paul Jung, Fatalities in the Peace Corps: A Retrospective Study, 1984 to 2003, Journal of
Travel Medicine 12, no. 2 (March 2008), Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 9, 2013)
30
Sharlee DiMenichi, The Complete Guide to Joining the Peace Corps, 17.
31
Ibid., 19-26.
13

Host country citizens have become very welcoming to Peace Corps volunteers, which has
created a very different environment from that of the suspicious Vietnam era in the 1960s. Many
modern volunteers report being well respected and accepted in their Latin American
communities. For example, Kyra Stenslie, who volunteered in Paraguay from 2006 until 2008,
and in Panama in 2012, wrote,
During my Peace Corps Response service in Panama, I was warmly accepted and treated
as a valuable member of my host community, just as I had been as a two-year volunteer
in Paraguay. My experience serving in Paraguay was life-changing and certainly worth
repeating.

After fifty-two years of operation, the Peace Corps has provided invaluable services to
the world. Kennedy envisioned an organization that would usher in a new era of cultural
relations around the globe, and in the process of doing so, help those in need. The Peace Corps
has succeeded in Kennedys original mission by not only helping the world, but teaching
Americans about the world. In its early phase, the Peace Corps focus was on spreading
democracy and halting the spread of Communism; it received ecstatic support from the younger
generations of Americans, yet older, more conservative Americans, as well as members of host
countries In Latin America felt suspicion and contempt. This evolved into an era of the Peace
Corps dictated by bureaucracy, and a sense of failure by some of its volunteers. Yet, despite this,
overall American and Latin American perception of the Peace Corps began to warm up, and even
become accepting. This led to the modern, post-Cold War era of the Peace Corps in which
operations are centered on helping underdeveloped nations not only become self reliant by
teaching technical skills, but are focused on improving living conditions everywhere. The United
States Peace Corps has proven to be an invaluable resource in the world, and the perfect chance
for Americans wishing to make a difference in the world to answer Kennedys call.
14

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15

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16

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