HISTORY OF MOSAIC ART

The earliest known examples of mosaics made of different materials were found at a temple
uildin! in Ara" Mesopotamia " and are dated to the second half of #rd millennium $C% The&
consist of pieces of colored stones" shells and i'or&% (xca'ations at Susa and Cho!ha )anil
show e'idence of the first !la*ed tiles" datin! from around +,-- $C%.+/ Howe'er" mosaic
patterns were not used until the times of Sassanid (mpire and Roman influence%
0reek and Roman mosaic
Mosaics of the 1th centur& $C are found in the Macedonian palace2cit& of Ae!ae " and the 1th
centur& $C mosaic of The $eaut& of 3urr4s disco'ered in 3urr4s " Alania in +5+6" is an
earl& fi!ural example7 the 0reek fi!ural st&le was mostl& formed in the #rd centur& $C%
M&tholo!ical su8ects" or scenes of huntin! or other pursuits of the wealth&" were popular as the
centrepieces of a lar!er !eometric desi!n" with stron!l& emphasi*ed orders% 0reek fi!ural
mosaics proal& copied or adapted paintin!s" a far more presti!ious artform" and the st&le was
enthusiasticall& adopted & the Romans so that lar!e floor mosaics enriched the floors of
Hellenistic 'illas " and Roman dwellin!s from $ritain to 3ura2(uropos % Most recorded
names of Roman mosaic workers are 0reek" su!!estin! the& dominated hi!h 9ualit& work across
the empire7 no dout most ordinar& craftsmen were sla'es% Splendid mosaic floors are found in
Roman 'illas across :orth Africa " in places such as Cartha!e " and can still e seen in the
extensi'e collection in $ardo Museum in Tunis " Tunisia %
There were two main techni9ues in 0reco2Roman mosaic; opus 'ermiculatum used tin&
tesserae " t&picall& cues of 1 millimetres or less" and was produced in workshops in relati'el&
small panels which were transported to the site !lued to some temporar& support% The tin&
tesserae allowed 'er& fine detail" and an approach to the illusionism of paintin!% Often small
panels called emlemata were inserted into walls or as the hi!hli!hts of lar!er floor2mosaics in
coarser work% The normal techni9ue was opus tessellatum " usin! lar!er tesserae" which was laid
on site% There was a distinct nati'e Italian st&le usin! lack on a white ack!round" which was no
dout cheaper than full& coloured work <see the do! at left=%
In Rome" :ero and his architects used mosaics to co'er some surfaces of walls and ceilin!s in
the 3omus Aurea " uilt 61 A3" and wall mosaics are also found at >ompeii and nei!hourin!
sites% Howe'er it seems that it was not until the Christian era that fi!ural wall mosaics ecame a
ma8or form of artistic expression% The Roman church of Santa Costan*a " which ser'ed as a
mausoleum for one or more of the Imperial famil&" has oth reli!ious mosaic and decorati'e
secular ceilin! mosaics on a round 'ault" which proal& represent the st&le of contemporar&
palace decoration%
The mosaics of the ?illa Romana del Casale near >ia**a Armerina in Sicil& are the lar!est
collection of late Roman mosaics in situ in the world" and are protected as a @:(SCO Aorld
Herita!e Site % The lar!e 'illa rustica" which was proal& owned & (mperor Maximian " was
uilt lar!el& in the earl& 1th centur&% The mosaics were co'ered and protected for B-- &ears & a
landslide that occurred in the +Cth centur&% The most important pieces are the Circus Scene" the
61 m lon! 0reat Huntin! Scene" the Dittle Hunt" the Daours of Hercules and the famous $ikini
0irls" showin! women exercisin! in modern2lookin! ikinis% The perist&le " the imperial
apartments and the thermae were also decorated with ornamental and m&tholo!ical mosaics%
Other important examples of Roman mosaic art in Sicil& were unearthed on the >ia**a ?ittoria in
>alermo where two houses were disco'ered% The most important scenes there depicted
Orpheus" Alexander the 0reatEs Hunt and the Four Seasons%
In +5+#" )liten mosaic " a Roman mosaic" famous for its man& scenes from !ladiatorial
contests" huntin! and e'er&da& life was disco'ered in the Di&an town of )liten % In C---
archaeolo!ists workin! in Deptis Ma!na " Di&a unco'ered a #- ft len!th of fi'e colorful
mosaics created durin! the +st or Cnd centur& A3% The mosaics show a warrior in comat with a
deer" four &oun! men wrestlin! a wild ull to the !round" and a !ladiator restin! in a state of
fati!ue" starin! at his slain opponent% The mosaics decorated the walls of a cold plun!e pool in a
ath house within a Roman 'illa% The !ladiator mosaic is noted & scholars as one of the finest
examples of mosaic art e'er seen F a Gmasterpiece comparale in 9ualit& with the Alexander
Mosaic in >ompeii %G
$eautiful and impressi'e are also the recent findin!s in )eu!ma %.C/
Christian mosaic
(arl& Christian art
Aith the uildin! of Christian asilicas in the late 1th centur&" wall and ceilin! mosaics were
adopted for Christian uses% The earliest examples of Christian asilicas ha'e not sur'i'ed" ut the
mosaics of Santa Constan*a and Santa >uden*iana " oth from the 1th centur&" still exist% The
winemakin! putti in the amulator& of Santa Constan*a still follow the classical tradition in
that the& represent the feast of $acchus " which s&moli*es transformation or chan!e" and are
thus appropriate for a mausoleum" the ori!inal function of this uildin!% In another !reat
Constantinian asilica" the Church of the :ati'it& in $ethlehem the ori!inal mosaic floor
with t&pical Roman !eometric motifs is partiall& preser'ed% The so2called Tom of the Hulii "
near the cr&pt eneath St >eterEs $asilica " is a 1th2centur& 'aulted tom with wall and ceilin!
mosaics that are !i'en Christian interpretations% The former Tom of 0alerius in Thessaloniki
con'erted into a Christian church durin! the course of the 1th centur&" was emellished with
'er& hi!h artistic 9ualit& mosaics% Onl& fra!ments sur'i'e of the ori!inal decoration" especiall& a
and depictin! saints with hands raised in pra&er" in front of complex architectural fantasies%
In the followin! centur& Ra'enna " the capital of the Aestern Roman (mpire " ecame the
center of late Roman mosaic art <see details in Ra'enna section=% Milan also ser'ed as the
capital of the western empire in the 1th centur&% In the St A9uilinus Chapel of the $asilica of
San Doren*o " mosaics executed in the late 1th and earl& ,th centuries depict Christ with the
Apostles and the Aduction of (li8ah 7 these mosaics are outstandin! for their ri!ht colors"
naturalism and adherence to the classical canons of order and proportion% The sur'i'in! apse
mosaic of the $asilica of SantEAmro!io " which shows Christ enthroned etween Saint
0er'asius and Saint >rotasius and an!els efore a !olden ack!round date ack to the ,th and to
the Ith centur&" althou!h it was restored man& times later% The aptister& of the asilica" which
was demolished in the +,th centur&" had a 'ault co'ered with !old2leaf tesserae" lar!e 9uantities
of which were found when the site was exca'ated% In the small shrine of San ?ittore in ciel dEoro"
now a chapel of SantEAmro!io" e'er& surface is co'ered with mosaics from the second half of
the ,th centur&% Saint ?ictor is depicted in the center of the !olden dome" while fi!ures of saints
are shown on the walls efore a lue ack!round% The low spandrels !i'e space for the s&mols
of the four ('an!elists%
Alin!aunum was the main Roman port of Di!uria % The octa!onal aptister& of the town was
decorated in the ,th centur& with hi!h 9ualit& lue and white mosaics representin! the Apostles%
The sur'i'in! remains are somewhat fra!mented%
A mosaic pa'ement depictin! humans" animals and plants from the ori!inal 1th2centur& cathedral
of A9uileia has sur'i'ed in the later medie'al church% This mosaic adopts pa!an motifs such as
the :ilotic scene" ut ehind the traditional naturalistic content is Christian s&molism such as
the ichth&s % The 6th2centur& earl& Christian asilicas of SantE (ufemia it;$asilica di
SantE(ufemia <0rado= and Santa Maria delle 0ra*ie in 0rado also ha'e mosaic floors%
Ra'enna
In the ,th centur& Ra'enna " the capital of the Aestern Roman (mpire " ecame the center of
late Roman mosaic art% The Mausoleum of 0alla >lacidia was decorated with mosaics of hi!h
artistic 9ualit& in 1C,21#-% The 'aults of the small" cross2shaped structure are clad with mosaics
on lue ack!round% The central motif ao'e the crossin! is a !olden cross in the middle of the
star& sk&% Another !reat uildin! estalished & 0alla >lacidia was the Church of San 0io'anni
('an!elista% She erected it in fulfillment of a 'ow that she made ha'in! escaped from a deadl&
storm in 1C, on the sea 'o&a!e from Constantinople to Ra'enna% The mosaics depicted the
storm" portraits of memers of the western and eastern imperial famil& and the ishop of
Ra'enna" >eter Chr&solo!us % The& are onl& known from Renaissance sources ecause the&
were destro&ed in +,65%
Ostro!oths kept ali'e the tradition in the 6th centur&" as the mosaics of the Arian $aptistr& "
$aptistr& of :eon " Archiepiscopal Chapel " and the earlier phase mosaics in the $asilica of
San ?itale and $asilica of SantEApollinare :uo'o testif&%
After ,#5 Ra'enna was con9uered & the $&*antine (mpire and ecame the seat of the
(xarchate of Ra'enna % The !reatest de'elopment of Christian mosaics unfolded in the second
half of the 6th centur&% Outstandin! examples of $&*antine mosaic art are the later phase mosaics
in the $asilica of San ?itale and $asilica of SantEApollinare :uo'o % The mosaic depictin!
(mperor Hustinian I and (mpress Theodora in the $asilica of San ?itale were executed
shortl& after the $&*antine con9uest% The mosaics of the $asilica of SantEApollinare in Classe
were made around ,15% The anti2Arian theme is o'ious in the apse mosaic of San Michele in
Affricisco " executed in ,1,2,1B <lar!el& destro&ed" the remains in $erlin =%
The last example of $&*antine mosaics in Ra'enna was commissioned & ishop Reparatus
etween 6B#2B5 in the $asilica of SantEApollinare in Classe % The mosaic panel in the apse
showin! the ishop with (mperor Constantine I? is o'iousl& an imitation of the Hustinian
panel in San ?itale%
$utrint
The mosaic pa'ement of the ?rina >lain asilica of $utrint " Alania appear to pre2date that of
the $aptister& & almost a !eneration" datin! to the last 9uarter of the ,th or the first &ears of the
6th centur&% The mosaic displa&s a 'ariet& of motifs includin! sea2creatures" irds" terrestrial
easts" fruits" flowers" trees and astracts J desi!ned to depict a terrestrial paradise of 0odKs
creation% Superimposed on this scheme are two lar!e talets" taulae ansatae" carr&in!
inscriptions% A 'ariet& of fish" a cra" a loster" shrimps" mushrooms" flowers" a sta! and two
cruciform desi!ns surround the smaller of the two inscriptions" which reads; In fulfilment of the
'ow <pra&er= of those whose names 0od knows% This anon&mous dedicator& inscription is a
pulic demonstration of the enefactorsK humilit& and an acknowled!ement of 0odKs
omniscience%
The aundant 'ariet& of natural life depicted in the $utrint mosaics celerates the richness of
0odKs creation7 some elements also ha'e specific connotations% The kantharos 'ase and 'ine
refer to the eucharist " the s&mol of the sacrifice of Christ leadin! to sal'ation% >eacocks are
s&mols of paradise and resurrection7 shown eatin! or drinkin! from the 'ase the& indicate the
route to eternal life% 3eer or sta!s were commonl& used as ima!es of the faithful aspirin! to
Christ; Llike a hart desires the water rook" so m& souls lon!s for thee" O 0od%K Aater2irds and
fish and other sea2creatures can indicate aptism as well as the memers of the Church who are
christened%
Date Anti9ue and (arl& Medie'al Rome
Christian mosaic art also flourished in Rome" !raduall& declinin! as conditions ecame more
difficult in the (arl& Middle A!es % ,th2centur& mosaics can e found o'er the triumphal arch
and in the na'e of the asilica of Santa Maria Ma!!iore % The CB sur'i'in! panels of the na'e
are the most important mosaic c&cle in Rome of this period% Two other important ,th2centur&
mosaics are lost ut we know them from +Bth2centur& drawin!s% In the apse mosaic of
SantEA!ata dei 0oti <16C21BC" destro&ed in +,I5= Christ was seated on a !loe with the twel'e
Apostles flankin! him" six on either side% At SantEAndrea in Cataarara <16I21I#" destro&ed in
+6I6= Christ appeared in the center" flanked on either side & three Apostles% Four streams
flowed from the little mountain supportin! Christ% The ori!inal ,th2centur& apse mosaic of the
Santa Saina was replaced & a 'er& similar fresco & Taddeo )uccari in +,,5% The
composition proal& remained unchan!ed; Christ flanked & male and female saints" seated on
a hill while lams drinkin! from a stream at its feet% All three mosaics had a similar icono!raph&%
6th2centur& pieces are rare in Rome ut the mosaics inside the triumphal arch of the asilica of
San Doren*o fuori le mura elon! to this era% The Chapel of Ss% >rimo e Feliciano in Santo
Stefano Rotondo has 'er& interestin! and rare mosaics from the Bth centur&% This chapel was
uilt & >ope Theodore I as a famil& urial place%
In the Bth25th centuries Rome fell under the influence of $&*antine art" noticeale on the mosaics
of Santa >rassede " Santa Maria in 3omnica " SantEA!nese fuori le Mura " Santa Cecilia in
Traste'ere " Santi :ereo e Achilleo and the San ?enan*io chapel of San 0io'anni in Daterano
% The !reat dinin! hall of >ope Deo III in the Dateran >alace was also decorated with
mosaics% The& were all destro&ed later except for one example" the so2called Triclinio Deoniano
of which a cop& was made in the +Ith centur&% Another !reat work of >ope Deo" the apse mosaic
of Santa Susanna " depicted Christ with the >ope and Charlema!ne on one side" and SS%
Susanna and Felicit& on the other% It was plastered o'er durin! a reno'ation in +,I,% >ope
>aschal I <I+B2IC1= emellished the church of Santo Stefano del Cacco with an apsidal
mosaic which depicted the pope with a model of the church <destro&ed in +6-B=%
The fra!ment of an Ith2centur& mosaic" the (piphan& is one of the 'er& rare remainin! pieces
of the medie'al decoration of Old St% >eterEs $asilica " demolished in the late +6th centur&% The
precious fra!ment is kept in the sacrist& of Santa Maria in Cosmedin % It pro'es the hi!h artistic
9ualit& of the destro&ed St% >eterEs mosaics%
$&*antine mosaics
See also; (arl& $&*antine mosaics in the Middle (ast
Mosaics were more central to $&*antine culture than to that of Aestern (urope% $&*antine
church interiors were !enerall& co'ered with !olden mosaics% Mosaic art flourished in the
$&*antine (mpire from the 6th to the +,th centuries% The ma8orit& of $&*antine mosaics were
destro&ed without trace durin! wars and con9uests" ut the sur'i'in! remains still form a fine
collection%
The !reat uildin!s of (mperor Hustinian like the Ha!ia Sophia in Constantinople " the :ea
Church in Herusalem and the reuilt Church of the :ati'it& in $ethlehem were certainl&
emellished with mosaics ut none of these sur'i'ed%
Important fra!ments sur'i'ed from the mosaic floor of the 0reat >alace of Constantinople
which was commissioned durin! Hustinian Es rei!n% The fi!ures" animals" plants all are entirel&
classical ut the& are scattered efore a plain ack!round% The portrait of a moustached man"
proal& a 0othic chieftain" is considered the most important sur'i'in! mosaic of the
Hustinianian a!e% The so2called small sekreton of the palace was uilt durin! Hustin II Es rei!n
around ,6,2,BB% Some fra!ments sur'i'e from the mosaics of this 'aulted room% The 'ine scroll
motifs are 'er& similar to those in the Santa Constan*a and the& still closel& follow the Classical
tradition% There are remains of floral decoration in the Church of the Acheiropoietos in
Thessaloniki <,th26th centuries=%
In the 6th centur&" Ra'enna " the capital of $&*antine Ital&" ecame the center of mosaic
makin!% Istria also oasts some important examples from this era% The (uphrasian $asilica in
>arentium was uilt in the middle of the 6th centur& and decorated with mosaics depictin! the
Theotokos flanked & an!els and saints%
Fra!ments remain from the mosaics of the Church of Santa Maria Formosa in >ola % These
pieces were made durin! the 6th centur& & artists from Constantinople% Their pure $&*antine
st&le is different from the contemporar& Ra'ennate mosaics%
?er& few earl& $&*antine mosaics sur'i'ed the Iconoclastic destruction of the Ith centur&%
Amon! the rare examples are the 6th2centur& Christ in ma8est& <or (*ekielEs ?ision= mosaic in
the apse of the Osios 3a'id Church in Thessaloniki that was hidden ehind mortar durin!
those dan!erous times% The mosaics of the Ha!ios 3emetrios Church " which were made
etween 6#1 and B#-" also escaped destruction% @nusuall& almost all represent Saint 3emetrius
of Thessaloniki " often with suppliants efore him%
In the Iconoclastic era " fi!ural mosaics were also condemned as idolatr&% The Iconoclastic
churches were emellished with plain !old mosaics with onl& one !reat cross in the apse like the
Ha!ia Irene in Constantinople <after B1-=% There were similar crosses in the apses of the Ha!ia
Sophia Church in Thessaloniki and in the Church of the 3ormition in :icaea % The crosses
were sustituted with the ima!e of the Theotokos in oth churches after the 'ictor& of the
Iconodules <BIB2B5B and in Ith25th centuries respecti'el&" the 3ormition church was totall&
destro&ed in +5CC=%
A similar Theotokos ima!e flanked & two archan!els were made for the Ha!ia Sophia in
Constantinople in I6B% The dedication inscription sa&s; GThe ima!es which the impostors had
cast down here pious emperors ha'e a!ain set up%G In the IB-s the so2called lar!e sekreton of the
0reat >alace of Constantinople was decorated with the ima!es of the four !reat iconodule
patriarchs%
The post2Iconoclastic era was the he&da& of $&*antine art with the most eautiful mosaics
executed% The mosaics of the Macedonian Renaissance <I6B2+-,6= carefull& min!led
traditionalism with inno'ation% Constantinopolitan mosaics of this a!e followed the decoration
scheme first used in (mperor $asil I Es :ea (kklesia % :ot onl& this protot&pe was later totall&
destro&ed ut each sur'i'in! composition is attered so it is necessar& to mo'e from church to
church to reconstruct the s&stem%
An interestin! set of Macedonian2era mosaics make up the decoration of the Hosios Doukas
Monaster&% In the narthex there is the Crucifixion" the >antokrator and the Anastasis ao'e the
doors" while in the church the Theotokos <apse=" >entecost" scenes from ChristEs life and ermit St
Doukas <all executed efore +-1I=% The scenes are treated with a minimum of detail and the
panels are dominated with the !old settin!%
The :ea Moni Monaster& on Chios was estalished & Constantine Monomachos in +-1#2
+-,6% The exceptional mosaic decoration of the dome showin! proal& the nine orders of the
an!els was destro&ed in +ICC ut other panels sur'i'ed <Theotokos with raised hands" four
e'an!elists with seraphim" scenes from ChristEs life and an interestin! Anastasis where Min!
Salomon ears resemlance to Constantine Monomachos=% In comparison with Osios Doukas
:ea Moni mosaics contain more fi!ures" detail" landscape and settin!%
Another !reat undertakin! & Constantine Monomachos was the restoration of the Church of the
Hol& Sepulchre in Herusalem etween +-1C and +-1I% :othin! sur'i'ed of the mosaics which
co'ered the walls and the dome of the edifice ut the Russian aot 3aniel" who 'isited
Herusalem in ++-62++-B left a description; GDi'el& mosaics of the hol& prophets are under the
ceilin!" o'er the triune% The altar is surmounted & a mosaic ima!e of Christ% In the main altar
one can see the mosaic of the (xhaltation of Adam% In the apse the Ascension of Christ% The
Annunciation occupies the two pillars next to the altar%G.#/
The 3aphni Monaster& houses the est preser'ed complex of mosaics from the earl&
Comnenan period <ca% ++--= when the austere and hieratic manner t&pical for the Macedonian
epoch and represented & the awesome Christ >antocrator ima!e inside the dome" was
metamorphosin! into a more intimate and delicate st&le" of which The An!el efore St Hoachim
F with its pastoral ackdrop" harmonious !estures and pensi'e l&ricism F is considered a
super example%
The 5th and +-th2centur& mosaics of the Ha!ia Sophia in Constantinople are trul& classical
$&*antine artworks% The north and south t&mpana eneath the dome was decorated with fi!ures
of prophets" saints and patriarchs% Ao'e the principal door from the narthex we can see an
(mperor kneelin! efore Christ <late 5th or earl& +-th centur&=% Ao'e the door from the
southwest 'estiule to the narthex another mosaic shows the Theotokos with Hustinian and
Constantine% Hustinian I is offerin! the model of the church to Mar& while Constantine is
holdin! a model of the cit& in his hand% $oth emperors are eardless 2 this is an example for
conscious archai*ation as contemporar& $&*antine rulers were earded% A mosaic panel on the
!aller& shows Christ with Constantine Monomachos and (mpress )oe <+-1CJ+-,,=% The
emperor !i'es a ul!in! mone& sack to Christ as a donation for the church%
The dome of the Ha!ia Sophia Church in Thessaloniki is decorated with an Ascension mosaic
<c% II,=% The composition resemles the !reat aptistries in Ra'enna " with apostles standin!
etween palms and Christ in the middle% The scheme is somewhat unusual as the standard post2
Iconoclastic formula for domes contained onl& the ima!e of the >antokrator %
There are 'er& few existin! mosaics from the Momnenian period ut this paucit& must e due
to accidents of sur'i'al and !i'es a misleadin! impression% The onl& sur'i'in! +Cth2centur&
mosaic work in Constantinople is a panel in Ha!ia Sophia depictin! (mperor Hohn II and
(mpress (irene with the Theotokos <++CCJ#1=% The empress with her lon! raided hair and
ros& cheeks is especiall& capturin!% It must e a life2like portra&al ecause (irene was reall& a
redhead as her ori!inal Hun!arian name" >iroska shows% The ad8acent portrait of (mperor
Alexios I Momnenos on a pier <from ++CC= is similarl& personal% The imperial mausoleum of
the Momnenos d&nast&" the >antokrator Monaster& was certainl& decorated with !reat
mosaics ut these were later destro&ed% The lack of Momnenian mosaics outside the capital is
e'en more apparent% There is onl& a GCommunion of the ApostlesG in the apse of the cathedral of
Serres %
A strikin! technical inno'ation of the Momnenian period was the production of 'er& precious"
miniature mosaic icons% In these icons the small tesserae <with sides of + mm or less= were set on
wax or resin on a wooden panel% These products of extraordinar& craftmanship were intended for
pri'ate de'otion% The Dou're Transfi!uration is a 'er& fine example from the late +Cth centur&%
The miniature mosaic of Christ in the Museo :a*ionale at Florence illustrates the more !entle"
humanistic conception of Christ which appeared in the +Cth centur&%
The sack of Constantinople in +C-1 caused the decline of mosaic art for the next fi'e decades%
After the recon9uest of the cit& & Michael ?III >alaiolo!os in +C6+ the Ha!ia Sophia was
restored and a eautiful new 3eesis was made on the south !aller&% This hu!e mosaic panel
with fi!ures two and a half times lifesi*e is reall& o'erwhelmin! due to its !rand scale and
superlati'e craftsmanship% The Ha!ia Sophia 3eesis is proal& the most famous $&*antine
mosaic in Constantinople%
The >ammakaristos Monaster& was restored & Michael 0laas " an imperial official" in the
late +#th centur&% Onl& the mosaic decoration of the small urial chapel <parekklesion = of
0laas sur'i'ed% This domed chapel was uilt & his widow" Martha around +#-12-I% In the
miniature dome the traditional >antokrator can e seen with twel'e prophets eneath% @nusuall&
the apse is decorated with a 3eesis " proal& due to the funerar& function of the chapel%
The Church of the Hol& Apostles in Thessaloniki was uilt in +#+-2+1% Althou!h some
'andal s&stematicall& remo'ed the !old tesserae of the ack!round it can e seen that the
>antokrator and the prophets in the dome follow the traditional $&*antine pattern% Man& details
are similar to the >ammakaristos mosaics so it is supposed that the same team of mosaicists
worked in oth uildin!s% Another uildin! with a related mosaic decoration is the Theotokos
>are!oritissa Church in Arta % The church was estalished & the 3espot of (pirus in +C512
56% In the dome is the traditional stern >antokrator" with prophets and cheruim elow%
The !reatest mosaic work of the >alaeolo!an renaissance in art is the decoration of the Chora
Church in Constantinople% Althou!h the mosaics of the naos ha'e not sur'i'ed except three
panels" the decoration of the exonarthex and the esonarthex constitute the most important full2
scale mosaic c&cle in Constantinople after the Ha!ia Sophia% The& were executed around +#C-
& the command of Theodore Metochites % The esonarthex has two fluted domes" speciall&
created to pro'ide the ideal settin! for the mosaic ima!es of the ancestors of Christ% The southern
one is called the 3ome of the >antokrator while the northern one is the 3ome of the Theotokos%
The most important panel of the esonarthex depicts Theodore Metochites wearin! a hu!e turan
" offerin! the model of the church to Christ% The walls of oth narthexes are decorated with
mosaic c&cles from the life of the ?ir!in and the life of Christ% These panels show the influence
of the Italian trecento on $&*antine art especiall& the more natural settin!s" landscapes" fi!ures%
The last $&*antine mosaic work was created for the Ha!ia Sophia" Constantinople in the middle
of the +1th centur&% The !reat eastern arch of the cathedral collapsed in +#16" rin!in! down the
third of the main dome% $& +#,, not onl& the i! >antokrator ima!e was restored ut new
mosaics were set on the eastern arch depictin! the Theotokos" the $aptist and (mperor Hohn ?
>alaiolo!os <disco'ered onl& in +5I5=%
In addition to the lar!e2scale monuments se'eral miniature mosaic icons of outstandin! 9ualit&
was produced for the >alaiolo!os court and noles% The lo'eliest examples from the +1th centur&
are Annunciation in the ?ictoria and Alert Museum and a mosaic dipt&ch in the Cathedral
Treasur& of Florence representin! the Twel'e Feasts of the Church%
In the trouled &ears of the +,th centur& the fatall& weakened empire could not afford luxurious
mosaics% Churches were decorated with wall2paintin!s in this era and after the Turkish con9uest
%
Rome in the Hi!h Middle A!es
The last !reat period of Roman mosaic art was the +C2+#th centur& when Rome de'eloped its
own distincti'e artistic st&le" free from the strict rules of eastern tradition and with a more
realistic portra&al of fi!ures in the space% Aell2known works of this period are the floral mosaics
of the $asilica di San Clemente " the faNade of Santa Maria in Traste'ere and San >aolo fuori
le Mura % The eautiful apse mosaic of Santa Maria in Traste'ere <++1-= depicts Christ and
Mar& sittin! next to each other on the hea'enl& throne" the first example of this icono!raphic
scheme% A similar mosaic" the Coronation of the ?ir!in " decorates the apse of Santa Maria
Ma!!iore % It is a work of Hacopo Torriti from +C5,% The mosaics of Torriti and Hacopo da
Camerino in the apse of San 0io'anni in Daterano from +CII251 were thorou!hl& restored in
+II1% The apse mosaic of San Criso!ono is attriuted to >ietro Ca'allini " the !reatest Roman
painter of the +#th centur&% Six scenes from the life of Mar& in Santa Maria in Traste'ere were
also executed & Ca'allini in +C5-% These mosaics are praised for their realistic portra&al and
attempts of perspecti'e% There is an interestin! mosaic medaillon from +C+- ao'e the !ate of
the church of San Tommaso in Formis showin! Christ enthroned etween a white and a lack
sla'e% The church elon!ed to the Order of the Trinitarians which was de'oted to ransomin!
Christian sla'es%
The !reat :a'icella mosaic <+#-,J+#+#= in the atrium of the Old St% >eterEs is attriuted to
0iotto di $ondone % The !iant mosaic" commissioned & Cardinal Hacopo Stefaneschi " was
ori!inall& situated on the eastern porch of the old asilica and occupied the whole wall ao'e the
entrance arcade facin! the court&ard% It depicted St% >eter walkin! on the waters% This
extraordinar& work was mainl& destro&ed durin! the construction of the new St% >eterEs in the
+Bth centur&% :a'icella means Glittle shipG referrin! to the lar!e oat which dominated the scene"
and whose sail" filled & the storm" loomed o'er the hori*on% Such a natural representation of a
seascape was known onl& from ancient works of art%
Sicil&
The he&da& of mosaic makin! in Sicil& was the a!e of the independent :orman kin!dom in
the +Cth centur&% The :orman kin!s adopted the $&*antine tradition of mosaic decoration to
enhance the somewhat duious le!alit& of their rule% 0reek masters workin! in Sicil& de'eloped
their own st&le" that shows the influence of Aestern (uropean and Islamic artistic tendencies%
$est examples of Sicilian mosaic art are the Cappella >alatina of Ro!er II " the Martorana
church in >alermo and the cathedrals of CefalO and Monreale %
The Cappella >alatina clearl& shows e'idence for lendin! the eastern and western st&les% The
dome <++1C21C= and the eastern end of the church <++1#J++,1= were decorated with t&pical
$&*antine mosaics i%e% >antokrator" an!els" scenes from the life of Christ% ('en the inscriptions
are written in 0reek% The narrati'e scenes of the na'e <Old Testament" life of Sts >eter and >aul=
are resemlin! to the mosaics of the Old St% >eterEs and St% >aulEs $asilica in Rome <Datin
inscriptions" ++,1J66=%
The Martorana church <decorated around ++1#= looked ori!inall& e'en more $&*antine althou!h
important parts were later demolished% The dome mosaic is 'er& similar to that of the Cappella
>alatina with Christ enthroned in the middle and four owed" elon!ated an!els% The 0reek
incsriptions" decorati'e patterns" the e'an!elists in the s9uinches are o'iousl& executed & the
same 0reek masters who worked on Capella >alatina% The mosaic depictin! Ro!er II of Sicil&"
dressed in $&*antine imperial roes" recei'in! the crown & Christ was ori!inall& in the
demolished narthex to!ether with another panel" the Theotokos with 0eor!ios of Antiochia" the
founder of the church%
In CefalO <++1I= onl& the hi!h" French 0othic pres&ter& was co'ered with mosaics; the
>antokrator on the semidome of the apse and cheruim on the 'ault% On the walls we can see
Datin and 0reek saints" with 0reek inscriptions%
The Monreale mosaics constitute the lar!est decoration of this kind in Ital&" co'erin! -"B,
hectares with at least +-- million !lass and stone tesserae% This hu!e work was executed etween
++B6 and ++I6 & the order of Min! Ailliam II of Sicil& % The icono!raph& of the mosaics in the
pres&ter& is similar to Cefalu while the pictures in the na'e are almost the same as the narrati'e
scenes in the Cappella >alatina% The Martorana mosaic of Ro!er II lessed & Christ was
repeated with the fi!ure of Min! Ailliam II instead of his predecessor% Another panel shows the
kin! offerin! the model of the cathedral to the Theotokos%
The Cathedral of >alermo " reuilt & Archishop Aalter in the same time <++BCJI,=" was also
decorated with mosaics ut none of these sur'i'ed except the +Cth2centur& ima!e of Madonna
del Tocco ao'e the western portal%
The cathedral of Messina " consecrated in ++5B" was also decorated with a !reat mosaic c&cle"
ori!inall& on par with CefalO and Monreale" ut hea'il& dama!ed and restored man& times later%
In the left apse of the same cathedral +1th2centur& mosaics sur'i'ed" representin! the Madonna
and Child etween Saints A!ata and Duc&" the Archan!els 0ariel and Michael and Pueens
(leonora and (lisaetta%
Southern Ital& was also part of the :orman kin!dom ut !reat mosaics did not sur'i'e in this
area except the fine mosaic pa'ement of the Otranto cathedral from ++66" with mosaics tied
into a tree of life" mostl& still preser'ed% The scenes depict ilical characters" warrior kin!s"
medie'al easts" alle!ories of the months and workin! acti'it&% Onl& fra!ments sur'i'ed from
the ori!inal mosaic decoration of Amalfi Es :orman Cathedral% The mosaic amos in the
churches of Ra'ello pro'e that mosaic art was widespread in Southern Ital& durin! the ++th2
+#th centuries%
The palaces of the :orman kin!s were decorated with mosaics depictin! animals and landscapes%
The secular mosaics are seemin!l& more (astern in character than the !reat reli!ious c&cles and
show a stron! >ersian influence% The most notale examples are the Sala di Ru!!ero in the
>ala**o dei :ormanni " >alermo and the Sala della Fontana in the )isa summer palace" oth
from the +Cth centur&%
?enice
In parts of Ital& " which were under eastern artistic influences" like Sicil& and ?enice " mosaic
makin! ne'er went out of fashion in the Middle A!es% The whole interior of the St MarkEs
$asilica in ?enice is clad with elaorate" !olden mosaics% The oldest scenes were executed &
0reek masters in the late ++th centur& ut the ma8orit& of the mosaics are works of local artists
from the +Cth2+#th centuries% The decoration of the church was finished onl& in the +6th centur&%
One hundred and ten scenes of mosaics in the atrium of St MarkEs were ased directl& on the
miniatures of the Cotton 0enesis " a $&*antine manuscript that was rou!ht to ?enice after the
sack of Constantinople <+C-1=% The mosaics were executed in the +CC-s%
Other important ?enetian mosaics can e found in the Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta in
Torcello from the +Cth centur&" and in the $asilical of Santi Maria e 3onato in Murano with a
restored apse mosaic from the +Cth centur& and a eautiful mosaic pa'ement <++1-=% The apse of
the San Cipriano Church in Murano was decorated with an impressi'e !olden mosaic from the
earl& +#th centur& showin! Christ enthroned with Mar&" St Hohn and the two patron saints"
Cipriano and Cipriana% Ahen the church was demolished in the +5th centur&" the mosaic was
ou!ht & Frederick Ailliam I? of >russia % It was reassemled in the Friedenskirche of
>otsdam in the +I1-s%
Trieste was also an important center of mosaic art% The mosaics in the apse of the Cathedral of
San 0iusto were laid & master craftsmen from ?eneto in the +Cth2+#th centuries%
Medie'al Ital&
The monaster& of 0rottaferrata founded & 0reek $asilian monks and consecrated & the
>ope in +-C1 was decorated with Italo2$&*antine mosaics" some of which sur'i'ed in the
narthex and the interior% The mosaics on the triumphal arch portra& the Twel'e Apostles sittin!
eside an empt& throne" e'okin! ChristEs ascent to Hea'en% It is a $&*antine work of the +Cth
centur&% There is a eautiful ++th2centur& 3eesis ao'e the main portal%
The Aot of Monte Cassino " 3esiderius sent en'o&s to Constantinople some time after
+-66 to hire expert $&*antine mosaicists for the decoration of the reuilt ae& church%
Accordin! to chronicler Deo of Ostia the 0reek artists decorated the apse" the arch and the
'estiule of the asilica% Their work was admired & contemporaries ut was totall& destro&ed in
later centuries except two fra!ments depictin! !re&hounds <now in the Monte Cassino Museum=%
GThe aot in his wisdom decided that !reat numer of &oun! monks in the monaster& should e
thorou!hl& initiated in these artsG 2 sa&s the chronicler aout the role of the 0reeks in the re'i'al
of mosaic art in medie'al Ital&%
In Florence a ma!nificiant mosaic of the Dast Hud!ement decorates the dome of the $attistero
% The earliest mosaics" works of art of man& unknown ?enetian craftsmen <includin! proal&
Cimaue =" date from +CC,% The co'erin! of the ceilin! was proal& not completed until the
+1th centur&%
The impressi'e mosaic of Christ in Ma8est&" flanked & the $lessed ?ir!in and St% Hohn the
('an!elist in the apse of the cathedral of >isa was desi!ned & Cimaue in +#-C% It e'okes
the Monreale mosaics in st&le% It sur'i'ed the !reat fire of +,5, which destro&ed most of the
medi'e'al interior decoration%
Sometimes not onl& church interiors ut faNades were also decorated with mosaics in Ital& like in
the case of the St MarkEs $asilica in ?enice <mainl& from the +Bth2+5th centuries" ut the oldest
one from +CB-JB," GThe urial of St Mark in the first asilicaG=" the Cathedral of Or'ieto
<!olden 0othic mosaics from the +1th centur&" man& times redone= and the $asilica di San
Frediano in Ducca <hu!e" strikin! !olden mosaic representin! the Ascension of Christ with
the apostles elow" desi!ned & $erlin!hiero $erlin!hieri in the +#th centur&=% The Cathedral
of Spoleto is also decorated on the upper faNade with a hu!e mosaic portra&in! the $lessin!
Christ <si!ned & one Solsternus from +C-B=%
Aestern and Central (urope
$e&ond the Alps the first important example of mosaic art was the decoration of the >alatine
Chapel in Aachen " commissioned & Charlema!ne % It was completel& destro&ed in a fire in
+6,-% A rare example of sur'i'in! Carolin!ian mosaics is the apse semi2dome decoration of
the orator& of 0ermi!n&2des2>rQs uilt in I-,2I-6 & Theodulf " ishop of OrlQans " a
leadin! fi!ure of the Carolin!ian renaissance % This uni9ue work of art" redisco'ered onl& in the
+5th centur&" had no followers%
Onl& scant remains pro'e that mosaics were still used in the (arl& Middle A!es% The Ae& of
Saint2Martial in Dimo!es " ori!inall& an important place of pil!rima!e" was totall& demolished
durin! the French Re'olution except its cr&pt which was redisco'ered in the +56-s% A mosaic
panel was unearthed which was dated to the 5th centur&% It uses somewhat incon!ruousl& cues
of !ilded !lass and deep !reen marle" proal& taken from anti9ue pa'ements% This could also
e the case with the earl& 5th centur& mosaic found under the cathedral of Saint2Puentin "
where anti9ue motifs are copied ut usin! onl& simple colors% The mosaics in the Cathedral of
Saint2Hean at D&on ha'e een dated to the ++th centur& ecause the& emplo& the same non2
anti9ue simple colors% More fra!ments were found on the site of Saint2Croix at >oitiers which
mi!ht e from the 6th or 5th centur&%
Dater fresco replaced the more laor2intensi'e techni9ue of mosaic in Aestern2(urope" althou!h
mosaics were sometimes used as decoration on medie'al cathedrals% The Ro&al $asilica of the
Hun!arian kin!s in S*QkesfehQr'Rr <Ala Re!ia= had a mosaic decoration in the apse% It was
proal& a work of ?enetian or Ra'ennese craftsmen" executed in the first decades of the ++th
centur&% The mosaic was almost totall& destro&ed to!ether with the asilica in the +Bth centur&%
The 0olden 0ate of the St% ?itus Cathedral in >ra!ue !ot its name from the !olden +1th2
centur& mosaic of the Dast Hud!ement ao'e the portal% It was executed & ?enetian craftsmen%
The Crusaders in the Hol& Dand also adopted mosaic decoration under local $&*antine
influence% 3urin! their +Cth2centur& reconstruction of the Church of the Hol& Sepulchre in
Herusalem the& complemented the existin! $&*antine mosaics with new ones% Almost nothin!
of them sur'i'ed except the GAscension of ChristG in the Datin Chapel <now confusin!l&
surrounded & man& C-th2centur& mosaics=% More sustantial fra!ments were preser'ed from the
+Cth2centur& mosaic decoration of the Church of the :ati'it& in $ethlehem % The mosaics in
the na'e are arran!ed in fi'e hori*ontal ands with the fi!ures of the ancestors of Christ"
Councils of the Church and an!els% In the apses the Annunciation" the :ati'it&" Adoration of the
Ma!i and 3ormition of the $lessed ?ir!in can e seen% The pro!ram of redecoration of the
church was completed in ++65 as a uni9ue collaoration of the $&*antine emperor" the kin! of
Herusalem and the Datin Church%.1/
In C--#" the remains of a mosaic pa'ement were disco'ered under the ruins of the $i*ere
Monaster& near the Ri'er MureS in present2da& Romania % The panels depict real or fantastic
animal" floral" solar and !eometric representations% Some archeolo!ists supposed that it was the
floor of an Orthodox church" uilt some time etween the +-th and ++th centur&% Other experts
claim that it was part of the later Catholic monaster& on the site ecause it shows the si!ns of
stron! Italianate influence% The monaster& was situated that time in the territor& of the Min!dom
of Hun!ar& %
Renaissance and $aro9ue
Althou!h mosaics went out of fashion and were sustituted & frescoes" some of the !reat
Renaissance artists also worked with the old techni9ue% Raffael Es Creation of the Aorld in the
dome of the Chi!i Chapel in Santa Maria del >opolo is a notale example that was executed
& a ?enetian craftsman" Dui!i di >ace%
3urin! the papac& of Clement ?III <+,5CJ+6-,=" the TCon!re!a*ione della Re'erenda
Farica di San >ietroG was estalished" pro'idin! an independent or!anisation char!ed with
completin! the decorations in the newl&2uilt St% >eterEs $asilica % Instead of frescoes the
ca'ernous $asilica was mainl& decorated with mosaics% Amon! the explanations are;
1 The old St% >eterEs $asilica had een decorated with mosaic" as was common in churches
uilt durin! the earl& Christian era7 the +Bth centur& followed the tradition to enhance
continuit&%
2 In a church like this with hi!h walls and few windows" mosaics were ri!hter and
reflected more li!ht%
3 Mosaics had !reater intrinsic lon!e'it& than either frescoes or can'ases%
4 Mosaics had an association with e8eweled decoration" flauntin! richness%
The mosaics of St% >eterEs often show li'el& $aro9ue compositions ased on desi!ns or
can'ases from like Ciro Ferri " 0uido Reni " 3omenichino " Carlo Maratta " and man&
others% Raphael is represented & a mosaic replica of this last paintin!" the Transfi!uration %
Man& different artists contriuted to the se'enteenth2 and +Ith2centur& mosaics in St% >eterEs"
includin! 0io'anni $attista Calandra " Faio Cristofari <d% +6I5=" and >ietro >aolo Cristofari
<d% +B1#=%.,/ Aorks of the Farica were often used as papal !ifts%
The Christian (ast
The eastern pro'inces of the (astern Roman and later the $&*antine (mpires inherited a
stron! artistic tradition from the Date Anti9uit& % Similarl& to Ital& and Constantinople
churches and important secular uildin!s in S&ria and (!&pt were decorated with elaorate
mosaic panels etween the ,th and Ith centuries% The !reat ma8orit& of these works of art were
later destro&ed ut archeolo!ical exca'ations unearthed man& sur'i'in! examples%
The sin!le most important piece of $&*antine Christian mosaic art in the (ast is the Madaa Map
" made etween ,1C and ,B- as the floor of the church of Saint 0eor!e at Madaa " Hordan % It
was redisco'ered in +I51% The Madaa Map is the oldest sur'i'in! carto!raphic depiction of the
Hol& Dand % It depicts an area from Deanon in the north to the :ile 3elta in the south" and
from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the (astern 3esert % The lar!est and most detailed
element of the topo!raphic depiction is Herusalem " at the center of the map% The map is
enriched with man& naturalistic features" like animals" fishin! oats" rid!es and palm trees%
One of the earliest examples of $&*antine mosaic art in the re!ion can e found on Mount :eo
" an important place of pil!rima!e in the $&*antine era where Moses died% Amon! the man&
6th2centur& mosaics in the church complex <disco'ered after +5##= the most interestin! one is
located in the aptister&% The intact floor mosaic co'ers an area of 5 x # m and was laid down in
,#-% It depicts huntin! and pastoral scenes with rich Middle (astern flora and fauna%
The Church of Sts% Dot and >rocopius was founded in ,6B in :eo 'illa!e under Mount :eo
<now Mhiret Mukha&&at =% Its floor mosaic depicts e'er&da& acti'ities like !rape har'est%
Another two spectacular mosaics were disco'ered in the ruined Church of >reacher Hohn near&%
One of the mosaics was placed ao'e the other one which was completel& co'ered and unknown
until the modern restoration% The fi!ures on the older mosaic ha'e thus escaped the iconoclasts%
.6/
The town of Madaa remained an important center of mosaic makin! durin! the ,2Ith
centuries% In the Church of the Apostles the middle of the main panel Thalassa" !oddess of the
sea" can e seen surrounded & fishes and other sea creatures% :ati'e Middle (astern irds"
mammals" plants and fruits were also added%.B/
Important Hustinian era mosaics decorated the Saint CatherineEs Monaster& on Mount Sinai %
0enerall& wall mosaics ha'e not sur'i'ed in the re!ion ecause of the destruction of uildin!s
ut the St% CatherineEs Monaster& is exceptional% On the upper wall Moses is shown in two
panels on a landscape ack!round% In the apse we can see the Transfi!uration of Hesus on a
!olden ack!round% The apse is surrounded with ands containin! medallions of apostles and
prophets" and two contemporar& fi!ure" GAot Don!inosG and GHohn the 3eaconG% The mosaic
was proal& created in ,6,U6%
Herusalem with its man& hol& places proal& had the hi!hest concentration of mosaic2co'ered
churches ut 'er& few of them sur'i'ed the suse9uent wa'es of destructions% The present
remains do not do 8ustice to the ori!inal richness of the cit&% The most important is the so2called
GArmenian MosaicG which was disco'ered in +I51 on the Street of the >rophets near
3amascus 0ate % It depicts a 'ine with man& ranches and !rape clusters" which sprin!s from a
'ase% >opulatin! the 'ineEs ranches are peacocks" ducks" storks" pi!eons" an ea!le" a partrid!e"
and a parrot in a ca!e% The inscription reads; GFor the memor& and sal'ation of all those
Armenians whose name the Dord knows%G $eneath a corner of the mosaic is a small" natural ca'e
which contained human ones datin! to the ,th or 6th centuries% The s&molism of the mosaic
and the presence of the urial ca'e indicates that the room was used as a mortuar& chapel%.I/
An exceptionall& well2preser'ed" carpet2like mosaic floor was unco'ered in +515 in $ethan& "
the earl& $&*antine church of the Da*arium which was uilt etween ### and #5-% $ecause of
its purel& !eometrical pattern" the church floor is to e !rouped with other mosaics of the time in
>alestine and nei!horin! areas" especiall& the Constantinian mosaics in the central na'e at
$ethlehem%.5/ A second church was uilt ao'e the older one durin! the 6th centur& with another
more simple !eometric mosaic floor%
The monastic communities of the Hudean 3esert also decorated their monasteries with mosaic
floors% The Monaster& of Mart&rius was founded in the end of the ,th centur& and it was re2
disco'ered in +5IC2I,% The most important work of art here is the intact !eometric mosaic floor
of the refector& althou!h the se'erel& dama!ed church floor was similarl& rich%.+-/ The mosaics
in the church of the near& Monaster& of (uth&mius are of later date <disco'ered in +5#-=%
The& were laid down in the @ma&&ad era" after a de'astatin! earth9uake in 6,5% Two six pointed
stars and a red chalice are the most important sur'i'in! features%
Mosaic art also flourished in Christian >etra where three $&*antine churches were disco'ered%
The most important one was unco'ered in +55-% It is known that the walls were also co'ered
with !olden !lass mosaics ut onl& the floor panels sur'i'ed as usual% The mosaic of the seasons
in the southern aisle is from this first uildin! period from the middle of the ,th centur&% In the
first half of the 6th centur& the mosaics of the northern aisle and the eastern end of the southern
aisle were installed% The& depict nati'e as well as exotic or m&tholo!ical animals" and
personifications of the Seasons" Ocean" (arth and Aisdom%.++/
The Ara con9uest of the Middle (ast in the Bth centur& did not reak off the art of mosaic
makin!% Aras learned and accepted the craft as their own and carried on the classical tradition%
3urin! the @ma&&ad era Christianit& retained its importance" churches were uilt and repaired
and some of the most important mosaics of the Christian (ast were made durin! the Ith centur&
when the re!ion was under Islamic rule%
The mosaics of the Church of St Stephen in ancient Mastron Mefaa <now @mm ar2Rasas = were
made in BI, <disco'ered after +5I6=% The perfectl& preser'ed mosaic floor is the lar!est one in
Hordan% On the central panel huntin! and fishin! scenes are depicted while another panel
illustrates the most important cities of the re!ion% The frame of the mosaic is especiall&
decorati'e% Six mosaic masters si!ned the work; Staurachios from (sus" (uremios" (lias"
Constantinus" 0ermanus and Adela% It o'erla&s another" dama!ed" mosaic floor of the earlier
<,IB= GChurch of $ishop Ser!ius%G Another four churches were exca'ated near& with traces of
mosaic decoration%
The last !reat mosaics in Madaa were made in B6B in the Church of the ?ir!in Mar&
<disco'ered in +IIB=% It is a masterpiece of the !eometric st&le with a 0reek inscription in the
central medallion%
Aith the fall of the @ma&&ad d&nast& in B,- the Middle (ast went throu!h deep cultural
chan!es% :o !reat mosaics were made after the end of the Ith centur& and the ma8orit& of
churches !raduall& fell into disrepair and were e'entuall& destro&ed% The tradition of mosaic
makin! died out amon! the Christians and also in the Islamic communit&%
Orthodox countries
The craft has also een popular in earl& medie'al Rus " inherited as part of the $&*antine
tradition% Yarosla' " the 0rand >rince of the Mie'an RusE uilt a lar!e cathedral in his capital"
Mie' % The model of the church was the Ha!ia Sophia in Constantinople " and it was also
called Saint Sophia Cathedral % It was uilt mainl& & $&*antine master craftsmen" sent &
Constantine Monomachos " etween +-#B and +-16% :aturall& the more important surfaces in
the interior were decorated with !olden mosaics% In the dome we can see the traditional stern
>antokrator supported & an!els% $etween the +C windows of the drum were apostles and the
four e'an!elists on the pendenti'es% The apse is dominated & an orant Theotokos with a
3eesis in three medallions ao'e% $elow is a Communion of the Apostles%
>rince S'iatopolk II uilt St% MichaelEs 0olden23omed Monaster& in Mie' in ++-I% The
mosaics of the church are undoutedl& works of $&*antine artists% Althou!h the church was
destro&ed & So'iet authorities" ma8orit& of the panels were preser'ed% Small parts of ornamental
mosaic decoration from the +Cth centur& sur'i'ed in the Saint Sophia Cathedral in :o'!orod
ut this church was lar!el& decorated with frescoes%
Mosaics stopped ein! used for church decoration as earl& as the +Cth centur& in the eastern
Sla'ic countries% Dater Russian churches were decorated with frescoes" similarl& than orthodox
churches in the $alkan%
The apse mosaic of the 0elati Monaster& in 0eor!ia from c% ++#- is proal& the work of
$&*antine mosaicist in'ited & Min! 3emetre I % The fra!mentar& panel depictin! the
Theotokos flanked & two archan!els looks thorou!hl& $&*antine <with 0reek inscriptions=% The
use of mosaic in 0elati was a demonstration of the imperial amition of the $a!rationids% The
mosaic co'ered church could competed in ma!nificence with the churches of Constantinople%
0elati is the onl& monumental mosaic which sur'i'ed in 0eor!ia ut fra!ments pro'e that the
earl& churches of >itsunda Qs Tsromi were also decorated with mosaic as well as other" lesser
known sites% The destro&ed 6th centur& mosaic floors in the >itsunda Cathedral ha'e een
inspired & Roman protot&pes% In Tsromi the tesserae are still 'isile on the walls of the Bth
centur& church ut onl& faint lines hint aout the ori!inal scheme% Its central fi!ure was Christ
standin! and displa&in! a scroll with 0eor!ian text%
Hewish mosaics
@nder Roman and $&*antine influence Hews also decorated their s&na!o!ues with classical
floor mosaics% Man& interestin! examples were disco'ered in 0alilee and the Hudean 3esert %
The remains of a 6th2centur& s&na!o!ue ha'e een unco'ered in Sepphoris " which was an
important centre of Hewish culture etween the #rd2Bth centuries and a multicultural town
inhaited & Hews" Christians and pa!ans% The mosaic reflects an interestin! fusion of Hewish and
pa!an eliefs% In the center of the floor the *odiac wheel was depicted% Helios sits in the
middle" in his sun chariot" and each *odiac is matched with a Hewish month % Alon! the sides
of the mosaic are strips depictin! $ilical scenes" such as the indin! of Isaac " as well as
traditional rituals" includin! a urnt sacrifice and the offerin! of fruits and !rains%
Another *odiac mosaic decorated the floor of the $eit Alfa s&na!o!ue which was uilt durin!
the rei!n of Hustin I <,+I2CB=% It is re!arded one of the most important mosaics disco'ered in
Israel% (ach of its three panels depicts a scene 2 the Hol& Ark" the *odiac" and the stor& of the
sacrifice of Isaac% In the center of the *odiac is Helios " the sun !od" in his chariot% The four
women in the corners of the mosaic represent the four seasons%
A third superl& preser'ed *odiac mosaic was disco'ered in the Se'erus s&na!o!ue in the
ancient resort town of Hammat Tierias % In the center of the 1th centur& mosaic the Sun !od"
Helios sits in his chariot holdin! the celestial sphere and a whip% :ine of the +C si!ns of the
*odiac sur'i'ed intact% Another panel shows the Ark of Co'enant and Hewish cultic o8ects used
in the Temple at Herusalem%
In +5#6 a s&na!o!ue was exca'ated in Hericho which was named Shalom Al Israel s&na!o!ue
after an inscription on its mosaic floor <G>eace on IsraelG=% It appears to ha'e een in use from
the ,th to Ith centuries and contained a i! mosaic on the floor with drawin!s of the Ark of the
Co'enant " the Menorah " a Shofar and a Dula' % :ear& in :aaran " there is another
s&na!o!ue <disco'ered in +5+I= from the 6th centur& that also has a mosaic floor%
The s&na!o!ue in (shtemoa <As2Samu = was uilt around the 1th centur&% The mosaic floor is
decorated with onl& floral and !eometric patterns% The s&na!o!ue in Mhiret Susi&a <exca'ated
in +5B+2BC" founded in the end of the 1th centur&= has three mosaic panels" the eastern one
depictin! a Torah shrine" two menorahs " a lula' and an etro! with columns" deer and
rams% The central panel is !eometric while the western one is seriousl& dama!ed ut it has een
su!!ested that it depicted 3aniel in the lionKs den% The Roman s&na!o!ue in (in 0edi was
remodeled in the $&*antine era and a more elaorate mosaic floor was laid down ao'e the older
white panels% The usual !eometric desi!n was enriched with irds in the center% It includes the
names of the si!ns of the *odiac and important fi!ures from the Hewish past ut not their ima!es
su!!estin! that it ser'ed a rather conser'ati'e communit&%
The an on fi!urati'e depiction was not taken so seriousl& & the Hews li'in! in $&*antine 0a*a
% In +566 remains of a s&na!o!ue were found in the ancient harour area% Its mosaic floor
depicts Min! 3a'id as Orpheus " identified & his name in Herew letters% :ear him were lion
cus" a !iraffe and a snake listenin! to him pla&in! a l&re% A further portion of the floor was
di'ided & medallions formed & 'ine lea'es" each of which contains an animal; a lioness
sucklin! her cu" a !iraffe" peacocks" panthers" ears" a *era and so on% The floor was pa'ed in
,-IU,-5% Its is 'er& similar to that of the s&na!o!ue at Maon <Menois= and the Christian church
at Shellal " su!!estin! that the same artist most proal& worked at all three places%
The House of Deontius in $et SheEan <exca'ated in +5612BC= is a rare example of a s&na!o!ue
which was part of an inn% It was uilt in the $&*antine period% The colorful mosaic floor of the
s&na!o!ue room had an outer stripe decorated with flowers and irds" around medallions with
animals" created & 'ine trellises emer!in! from an amphora% The central medallion enclosed a
menorah <candelarum= eneath the word shalom <peace=%
A ,th2centur& uildin! in Huldah ma& e a Samaritan s&na!o!ue% Its mosaic floor contains
t&pical Hewish s&mols <menorah" lula'" etro!= ut the inscriptions are 0reek% Another Samaritan
s&na!o!ue with a mosaic floor was located in $et SheEan <exca'ated in +56-=% The floor had onl&
decorati'e motifs and an aedicule <shrine= with cultic s&mols% The an on human or animal
ima!es was more strictl& oser'ed & the Samaritans than their Hewish nei!hours in the same
town <see ao'e=% The mosaic was laid & the same masters who made the floor of the $eit Alfa
s&na!o!ue% One of the inscriptions was written in Samaritan script%
In C--#" a s&na!o!ue datin! from the ,th or 6th centur& was unco'ered in the coastal Ionian
town of Saranda " Alania % It was the first time remains of an earl& s&na!o!ue ha'e een
found in that area" and the histor& of its exca'ation is also noteworth&% Alanian archaeolo!ists
first disco'ered remains C- &ears earlier and thou!ht them to e from a house of worship" ut
prohiition of reli!ion under the ti!ht Communist rule at the time pre'ented them from
explorin! it further% Mosaic finds at the site su!!ested a Hewish past" leadin! to a 8oint pro8ect
e!an etween Alanian archaeolo!ists from the Institute of Archaeolo!& in Alania and the
Herew @ni'ersit& Institute of Archaeolo!& % The team found exceptional mosaics depictin!
items associated with Hewish holida&s" includin! a menorah" ramEs horn" and citron tree% Mosaics
in the asilica of the s&na!o!ue show the facade of what resemles a Torah " animals" trees" and
other ilical s&mols% The structure measures C- & C1 m% and was proal& last used in the 6th
centur& as a church%
Middle (astern V Aestern Asian Art
>re2Islamic Araia
In South Araia two mosaic works were exca'ated in a Pataanian from the late #rd centur&"
those two plates formed !eometric and !rape'ines formation reflectin! the traditions of that
culture% In the 0hassanid era reli!ious mosaic art flourished in their territor&" so far fi'e
churches with mosaic were recorded from that era" two uilt & 0hassanid rulers and the other
three & the Christian Ara communit& who wrote their names and dedications%
>re2islamic >ersia
Tilework had een known there for aout two thousand &ears when cultural exchan!e etween
Sassanid (mpire and Romans influenced >ersian artists to create mosaic patterns% Shapur I
decorated his palace with tile compositions depictin! dancers" musicians" courtesans" etc% This
was the onl& si!nificant example of fi!urati'e >ersian mosaic" which ecame phohiited after
Ara con9uest and arri'al of Islam %
Islamic art
Islamic architecture used mosaic techni9ue to decorate reli!ious uildin!s and palaces after the
Muslim con9uests of the eastern pro'inces of the $&*antine (mpire % In S&ria and (!&pt
the Aras were influenced & the !reat tradition of Roman and (arl& Christian mosaic art%
3urin! the @ma&&ad 3&nast& mosaic makin! remained a flourishin! art form in Islamic
culture and it is continued in the art of *elli!e and a*ule8o in 'arious parts of the Ara world"
althou!h tile was to ecome the main Islamic form of wall decoration%
The first !reat reli!ious uildin! of Islam " the 3ome of the Rock in Herusalem " which was
uilt etween 6II265C" was decorated with !lass mosaics oth inside and outside" & craftsmen
of the $&*antine tradition% Onl& parts of the ori!inal interior decoration sur'i'e% The rich floral
motifs follow $&*antine traditions" and are GIslamic onl& in the sense that the 'ocaular& is
s&ncretic and does not include representation of men or animals%G.+C/
The most important earl& Islamic mosaic work is the decoration of the @ma&&ad Mos9ue in
3amascus " then capital of the Ara Caliphate % The mos9ue was uilt etween B-6 and B+,%
The caliph otained C-- skilled workers from the $&*antine (mperor to decorate the uildin!%
This is e'idenced & the partl& $&*antine st&le of the decoration% The mosaics of the inner
court&ard depict >aradise with eautiful trees" flowers and small hill towns and 'illa!es in the
ack!round% The mosaics include no human fi!ures" which makes them different from the
otherwise similar contemporar& $&*antine works% The i!!est continuous section sur'i'es under
the western arcade of the court&ard" called the G$arada >anelG after the ri'er $arada % It is
thou!ht that the mos9ue used to ha'e the lar!est !old mosaic in the world" at o'er 1 mC% In +I5#
a fire dama!ed the mos9ue extensi'el&" and man& mosaics were lost" althou!h some ha'e een
restored since%
The mosaics of the @ma&&ad Mos9ue !a'e inspiration to later 3amascene mosaic works% The
3ome of the Treasur&" which stands in the mos9ue court&ard" is co'ered with fine mosaics"
proal& datin! from +#th2 or +1th2centur& restoration work% The st&le of them are strikin!l&
similar to the $arada >anel% The mausoleum of Sultan $aiars " Madrassa )ahiri&ah " which
was uilt after +CBB" is also decorated with a and of !olden floral and architectural mosaics"
runnin! around inside the main pra&er hall%.+#/
:on2reli!ious @ma&&ad mosaic works were mainl& floor panels which decorated the palaces of
the caliphs and other hi!h2rankin! officials% The& were closel& modeled after the mosaics of the
Roman countr& 'illas" once common in the (astern Mediterranean% The most super example can
e found in the ath house of HishamEs >alace " >alestine which was made around B11% The
main panel depicts a lar!e tree and underneath it a lion attackin! a deer <ri!ht side= and two deers
peacefull& !ra*in! <left side=% The panel proal& represents !ood and ad !o'ernance% Mosaics
with classical !eometric motifs sur'i'ed in the ath area of the Ith centur& @ma&&ad palace
complex in An8ar " Deanon % The luxurious desert residence of Al2Aalid II in Pasr al2
Hallaat <in present2da& Hordan = was also decorated with floor mosaics that show a hi!h le'el
of technical skill% The est preser'ed panel at Hallaat is di'ided & a Tree of Dife flanked &
G!oodG animals on one side and GadG animals on the other% Amon! the Hallaat representations
are 'ine scrolls" !rapes" pome!ranates" or&x" wol'es" hares" a leopard" pairs of partrid!es" fish"
ulls" ostriches" raits" rams" !oats" lions and a snake% At Pastal " near Amman " exca'ations
in C--- unco'ered the earliest known @ma&&ad mosaics in present2da& Hordan " datin! proal&
from the caliphate of Ad al2Malik in Marwan <6I,2B-,=% The& co'er much of the floor of a
finel& decorated uildin! that proal& ser'ed as the palace of a local !o'ernor% The Pastal
mosaics depict !eometrical patterns" trees" animals" fruits and rosettes% (xcept for the open
court&ard" entrance and staircases" the floors of the entire palace were co'ered in mosaics%.+1/
Some of the est examples of later Islamic mosaics were produced in Moorish Spain % The
!olden mosaics in the mihra and the central dome of the 0reat Mos9ue in Cordua ha'e a
decidedl& $&*antine character% The& were made etween 56, and 5B- & local craftsmen"
super'ised & a master mosaicist from Constantinople " who was sent & the $&*antine
(mperor to the @ma&&ad Caliph of Spain% The decoration is composed of colorful floral
araes9ues and wide ands of Ara calli!raph& % The mosaics were purported to e'oke the
!lamour of the 0reat Mos9ue in 3amascus" which was lost for the @ma&&ad famil&%.+,/
Mosaics !enerall& went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the Ith centur&% Similar effects
were achie'ed & the use of painted tilework" either !eometric with small tiles" sometimes called
mosaic" like the *illi8 of :orth Africa " or lar!er tiles painted with parts of a lar!e decorati'e
scheme <Pashani = in >ersia" Turke& and further east%
Modern mosaics
:oted +5th centur& mosaics include those & (dward $urne2Hones at St >auls within the Aalls
in Rome %.+6/ Another modern mosaic of note is the worldEs lar!est mosaic installation located
at the Cathedral $asilica of St% Douis " located in St% Douis" Missouri %.+B/ A modern example
of mosaic is the Museum of :atural Histor& station of the :ew York Suwa& % Some modern
mosaics are the work of modernisme st&le architects Antoni 0audW and Hosep Maria Hu8ol "
for example the mosaics in the >ark 0Xell in $arcelona % Toda&" amon! the leadin! fi!ures of
the mosaic world are (mma $i!!s <@M=" Marcelo de Melo <$ra*il=" Sonia Min! <@SA= and
Saimir Strati <Alania=%
Mosaics as a popular craft; Mosaics ha'e de'eloped into a popular craft and art" and are not
limited to professionals% Toda&Es artisans and crafters work with stone" ceramics" shells" art !lass"
mirror" eads" and e'en odd items like doll parts" pearls" or photo!raphs% Ahile ancient mosaics
tended to e architectural" modern mosaics are found co'erin! e'er&thin! from park enches and
flowerpots to !uitars and ic&cles% Items can e as small as an earrin! or as lar!e as a house%
Mosaics In Street Art
In st&les that owe as much to 'ideo!ame pixel art and popculture as to traditional mosaic" street
art has seen a no'el rein'ention and expansion of mosaic artwork% The most prominent artist
workin! with mosaics in street art is the French In'ader % He has done almost all his work in
two 'er& distinct mosaic st&les" the first of which are small GtraditionalG tile mosaics of I it
'ideo !ame character" installed in cities across the !loe" and the second of which are a st&le he
refers to as GRuikcuismG" which uses a kind of dual la&er mosaic 'ia !rids of scramled
RuikEs Cues% Althou!h he is the most prominent" other street and uran artists do work in
Mosaic st&les as well%
CalNada >ortu!uesa
>ortu!uese pa'ement <in >ortu!uese " CalNada >ortu!uesa= is a kind of two2tone stone mosaic
pa'in! created in >ortu!al" and common throu!hout the Dusosphere % Most commonl& takin!
the form of !eometric patterns from the simple to the complex" it also is used to create complex
pictorial mosaics in st&les ran!in! from icono!raph& to classicism and e'en modern desi!n% In
>ortu!uese2speakin! countries" man& cities ha'e a lar!e amount of their sidewalks and e'en"
thou!h far more occasionall&" streets done in this mosaic form% Dison in particular maintains
almost all walkwa&s in this st&le%
3espite its pre'alence and popularit& throu!hout >ortu!al and its former colonies" and its
relation to older art and architectural st&les like A*ule8o " >ortu!uese and Spanish painted
tilework" it is a relati'el& &oun! mosaic artform" its first definiti'e appearance in a modernl&
reco!ni*ale form ein! in the mid2+I--s% Amon! the most commonl& used stones in this st&le
are asalt and limestone %
SA:3 MOSAIC
S((3 MOSAIC
0DASS MOSAIC
OD3 COM>@T(R
:(A COM>@T(R