LITERATURE STUDY

Master thesis: Girders with corrugated webs

H.G. de Hoop











Supervising Committee

Prof. Ir. F.S.K. Bijlaard
Dr. Ing. A. Romeijn
Ing. S. Wierda (Iv-Groep)
Ir. P.H.G. Feijen (GLP)







Papendrecht, The Netherlands
November 2003










Literature study 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2 INTRODUCTION TO GIRDERS WITH CORRUGATED WEBS ........................................... 4
2.1 PROFILED STEEL SHEETING........................................................................................................... 4
2.2 GIRDERS WITH CORRUGATED WEBS AND THEIR APPLICATION...................................................... 4
2.3 WEB CONFIGURATIONS ................................................................................................................ 6
2.4 MANUFACTURING AND MATERIALS.............................................................................................. 7
2.5 WEB-FLANGE CONNECTION.......................................................................................................... 8
2.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE CORRUGATE WEBS.................................................. 9
2.7 CURRENT RESEARCH WORK........................................................................................................ 10
3 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR.................................................................................................... 11
3.1 BASIS FOR CALCULATION............................................................................................................ 11
3.2 BENDING..................................................................................................................................... 11
3.3 NORMAL FORCES......................................................................................................................... 18
3.4 TRANSVERSAL FORCES................................................................................................................ 19
3.5 TORSION...................................................................................................................................... 19
4 FAILURE MECHANISMS AND CHECK-CRITERIA............................................................ 21
4.1 FLANGE BUCKLING...................................................................................................................... 21
4.1.1 Global flange buckling......................................................................................................... 21
4.1.2 Local flange buckling........................................................................................................... 24
4.2 YIELD OF THE TENSION FLANGE .................................................................................................. 26
4.3 WEB PLATE BUCKLING................................................................................................................ 27
4.3.1 Local buckling...................................................................................................................... 28
4.3.2 Global buckling.................................................................................................................... 30
4.3.3 Interaction between local and global buckling? .................................................................. 31
4.3.4 Local transverse loads ......................................................................................................... 32
4.4 YIELD OF THE WEB PLATE ........................................................................................................... 33
4.5 LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF THE GIRDER ........................................................................ 33
4.6 BUCKLING OF THE GIRDER .......................................................................................................... 36
4.7 TORSIONAL BUCKLING................................................................................................................ 37
4.8 DEFORMATION OF THE GIRDER.................................................................................................... 37
5 DIFFERENCES FLAT-CORRUGATED WEB GIRDER ........................................................ 38
5.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 38
5.2 GENERAL..................................................................................................................................... 38
5.3 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR .......................................................................................................... 39
5.3.1 Basis of calculation.............................................................................................................. 39
5.3.2 Transversal moments ........................................................................................................... 39
5.3 ARITHMETIC METHODS................................................................................................................ 39
5.3.1 Moment capacity.................................................................................................................. 39
5.3.2 Transverse moments............................................................................................................. 40
5.3.3 Flange buckling.................................................................................................................... 40
5.3.4 Local web buckling due to transverse forces ....................................................................... 41
5.3.5 Global web buckling due to transverse forces ..................................................................... 43
5.3.6 Buckling of the girder........................................................................................................... 43
5.3.7 Lateral torsional buckling of the girder............................................................................... 43
5.4 APPLICATION FIELD..................................................................................................................... 44
6 STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES ............................................................................................. 45
6.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 45
6.2 DUTCH STANDARD TGB 1990 ................................................................................................. 45
6.3 DAST-RICHTLINIE 015................................................................................................................ 46
6.3.1 Global content of the standard............................................................................................. 46
6.3.2 Section 4: Girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs.......................................................... 46
6.4 EUROPEAN STANDARD ................................................................................................................ 47
6.4.1 Eurocode 3: Design of steelstructures ................................................................................ 47
6.4.2 Annex D Members with corrugated webs.......................................................................... 47





Literature study 3
1 INTRODUCTION

This literature study is the first part of the master thesis: Girders with corrugated webs and
is carried out for better understanding of the behaviour and use of these girders. With help of
this literature study an explorative analysis will be carried out during the next phase of the
thesis and finally a software-tool can be developed.

Section 2 of this literature study will give a general introduction to girders with corrugated
webs. The girders are still used for more than thirty years in several application fields, which
will be described in this section. Also topics like the manufacturing, the web-flange
connection and the web configuration will come up.
The mechanical behaviour of girders with corrugated webs will be described in section 3.
After an explanation of the basis for calculation, the effects of the following load types will be
discussed: bending, normal forces, transversal forces and torsion.
Section 4 will deal with all relevant failure mechanisms of girders with corrugated webs. Here
not only the failure mechanisms will be described, but also the available check-criteria with
regard to these mechanisms.
For a clear understanding of girders with corrugated webs, the differences between plate
girders with flat plates and corrugated plates will be described in section 5.
In the last section an overview will be given of the most relevant standards and guidelines
relevant to the production and design of girders with corrugated web plates. With help of
these standards and guidelines the several case studies of the explorative analysis will be
carried out.





Literature study 4
2 INTRODUCTION TO GIRDERS WITH CORRUGATED WEBS

2.1 Profiled steel sheeting

The lightness of cold-formed thin-walled structures was formerly their most important
feature and therefore they were used mostly in products where the weight saving was of
great importance. This kind of products was naturally needed in
especially transportation industries e.g. aircrafts and motor
industry.
The profiled sheeting types have been developed significantly
since the first profiled steel sheets. The first plates were very
simple and the stiffness of these was not very high. The
manufacturing process and the materials limited the shape of
the profiles to simply folded or corrugated shapes. From the
early 1970s, the development of the shapes of sheeting profiles
and also better materials and manufacturing technologies lead
to possibilities to provide more complex profiles. Also stiffeners
were added to flanges of the profile. This improved substantially
the load-bearing capacities of the developed new profiled steel
sheets. A huge range of profile types are available nowadays
used for structural purposes (floors, walls,
roofs, pipes, etc.) and for functional purposes.

2.2 Girders with corrugated webs and their application

To save weight, a Swedish company got the idea to fabricate plate-girders with corrugated
webs (see figure 2.2). These girders also could be used in structures where the weight
saving was of great importance. Girders with corrugated webs are marketed as a product
from specialised fabricators or as one-off structures. One example of the former is the Dutch
company GLP Corrugated Plate Industry, manufacturer of trapezoidal corrugated webs with
unlimited lengths and girders as well. Other examples are Ranabalken, which has been on
the Swedish market for about forty years and the company Zeman & Co form Austria, which
is producing similar beams, but with sinusoidal corrugated webs.


In 1966 in Sweden, the first variant of the thin walled welded plate girder with a very great
slenderness has been fabricated. This girder had a vertical corrugated web, also for low
weight reasons. Especially for bridge building they thought that the application of these
girders would be very useful. But it was only in 1986 that the first composite bridge with
corrugated webs was constructed. The idea of the steel-concrete bridge was the
construction firm Campenon Bernard. This first bridge, the Cognac bridge, was constructed
with tubular members with in situ casted pre-tensioned concrete flanges. The advantage of
Figure 2.2: Girder with corrugated web
Figuur 2.1: Facade with profiled steel
Fig 2.3: Composite bridge with corrugated webs.





Literature study 5
using corrugated webs in structures with pre-stressed concrete is a lower loss of pre-
stresses, because of the low longitudinal stiffness of the corrugated web. The Cognac bridge
is builded within the framework of an innovation project, where economical considerations
were of overriding importance. The next few years several similar bridges are built, like the
Maupre bridge, the Asterix bridge and the Dole bridge in Europe, but also several in
Japan. The Maupre bridge has a steel tubular member filled with concrete as lower flange.
Figure 2.4 shows a similar bridge, recently built in South Korea.
Later on, these webs were not only used for bridges constructed with tubular members, but
also for other types of bridges, like the plate girder bridge showed in figure 2.5.












In the United States, girders with corrugated webs are more and more widely used for bridge
building. Many manufacturers are producing such kind of girders. Young j. Paik patented the
girder and marketed it to builders in 1970s, and with Sumitomo, a Japanese company that
manufactures girders with corrugated webs, the girders were manufactured with PACO
Engineering Corporation as the exclusive U.S. distributor. Pennsylvania Department of
Transportation (PennDOT) is sponsoring research, adopting corrugated webs, to realise
additional benefits from High Performance Steel. It intends to construct a demonstration
bridge with girders with corrugated webs.
Bridges with corrugated webs have been used at least once in Sweden as well, although it
was a temporary bridge.

The other important application field became the use as roof girder in the industry and high-
rise building. Especially in Germany, but also in Sweden, several halls are built with portals
of girders with corrugated webs (see figure 2.6).













Because of the high strength-to-weight ratio, the span lengths could be wider and less
columns are necessary. Nowadays this is the main application field of these girders.
Other application fields of (girders with) corrugated webs are: cranebrackets, craneways,
feed silos/ tanks and transportation structures (side panels of trains, containers and trucks).
Figure 2.4: Bridge in South Korea Figure 2.5: Trapezoidal plate girder
Figure 2.6: Halls built with girders with corrugated webs (left: US Army headquarters in Germany





Literature study 6
2.3 Web configurations

The webs of the girders can be corrugated to different types of profiles. Figure 2.7 shows not
only the trapezoidal webs, but also a sinusoidal web and a swallows tail-web. Also other
configurations are possible, like the cell-formed webs and webs with rolled stiffeners. These
rolled stiffeners cause a better buckling behaviour.















The aesthetics of the different configurations is totally different, but also the fabrication, the
mechanical behaviour and the costs of the different types have to be taken in account when
making a choice for one of them.
One of the possible configurations is the sinusoidal profiled web (see figure 2.7). In addition
to benefits in production technology, the sinusoidal corrugation has the advantage over
trapezoidal profiling of eliminating local buckling of the flat plate strips.

To increase the shear strength, the plates of le viaduc de franchissement de la vallee de la
Marne in France, are made of circular hollow sections welded together with flat panels.





















Figure 2.7: Web configurations
Figure 2.8: Web shape of le viaduc de franchissement de la vallee de la Marne (France)





Literature study 7
For most of the configurations still a great lack of knowledge exists. The available
information mostly deals with trapezoidal webs and also this master thesis will only deal with
trapezoidal profiled girders. Figure 2.9 shows a cross section of a trapezoidal corrugated
girder with the variable quantities. An increase of the angle between the diagonal and the
parallel strip of the web, causes an increase of the bending stiffness of the girder, but it also
leads to a higher use of steel. The angle is also an important factor in the local and global
buckling behaviour of the web girder. An other important quantity of the cross section is the
width of the web b
t
, because it has an influence on magnitude of the transversal moments on
the flanges. The webs are available with a thickness t
w
in the range of 215 mm, which is
governed by the fabrication process. The maximum depth of the web is 3 m, a limitation
given by the welding machine. These figures would make it possible to fabricate girders with
b
t
/t
w
= 1500, though thats beyond the maximum ratio given by the German standard: DASt-
Richtlinie 015.













2.4 Manufacturing and materials

Cold-formed steel members can be manufactured e.g. by folding, press-braking or cold-
rolling. The trapezoidal webs are manufactured using cold-forming. Also the cylindrical
members are manufactured by cold rolling from flat steel webs. Cold-rolling technique gives
good opportunities to vary the shape of the profile (see figure 2.10).

During the cold-forming process varying stretching forces can induce residual stresses,
which can significantly change the load-bearing resistance of a section. Favourable effects
can be observed if residual stresses are induced in parts of the section which act in
compression and, at the same time, are susceptible to local buckling.

The most common steel
material that is used in
profiled steel webs is cold-
formed structural steel. For
corrosion protection, the
girders with corrugated webs
can be hot chip zinc coated,
but the girders can also be
hot-galvanised without
difficulty. Normally is made
use of S235 or S355 steel.
The use of higher strength
material for the flanges is
possible, but in terms of
Fig. 2.11: stress-strain curves cold-formed structural web
Figure 2.10: Corrugating of the web Figure 2.9: Cross section of a trapezoidal web





Literature study 8
statics, this is only meaningful in exceptional cases.
The mechanical properties are dependent on the rolling direction so that yield strength is
higher transversally to the rolling direction. In figure 2.11, typical stress-strain curves of cold-
formed structural web steel with nominal yield strength of 350 N/mm
2
at room temperature
both longitudinally and transversally to rolling direction are shown. For this thesis will be
made use of the yield strength longitudinally to the rolling direction.

2.5 Web-flange connection

Smith (1992) performed four tests on two girders with corrugated webs, which were welded
to the flange using intermittent welding. He found that the connection between the flange and
the web is critical for the shear strength as the weld used in the test was subjected to high
strength and web was easily ruptured at this point before it reached its buckling strength.
Smith suggested that intermittent welding of the corrugated webs to the flange is not
advisable.
Normally the corrugated web is connected to the flanges with a single continuous fillet weld,
which is important for the competitiveness. According to the standards, the connection
between the flanges and a flat web should be carried out with two fillet welds on both sides
of the web. Figure 2.12 shows how the transversal moments in the web can be transferred to
the flanges. According to the German recommendations (DAST Richtlinie 015), it is also
allowed to use a single continuous weld. Probably, the reason for this is the profiled shape of
the web. Figure 2.13 shows how the transversal moments in the web could be transferred to
the flange. According to fabricators of the girders, there is some talk of burning in of the
weld, so its not a perfect fillet weld, but a (partial) penetrated weld. However, this argument
can only be put forward when standardised.













At the institute for steelbuilding, TU Braunschweig, research has been done to connections
between flanges and trapezoidal profiled webs [11]. One of the connections is the bolted
connection showed in figure 2.14. This connection could be economic favourable, because
of the lower labour costs. However, this depends on the circumstances of the fabricator.








Web
Flange
Flange
F
Figure 2.12: Double welded web
Figure 2.13: Transversal moments
for a single welded corrugated web
Figure 2.14: Bolted connection web-flanges





Literature study 9
2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of the corrugate webs

The advantages of the corrugated webs are:

- thinner webs are possible;
- lower dead weight of the structure;
- a better buckling behaviour;
- aesthetics of the structure?
- erection cost is reduced, since the corrugation in the web provides a higher
resistance against bending about the weak axis, none of the auxiliary lifting
equipment normally needed is required;
- when used in combination with prestressed concrete (composite bridges): a
lower loss of pre-stresses, because of the low stiffness of the web in
longitudinal direction (see figure 2.15);








- decrease of necessary transverse and longitudinal stiffeners, because of the
dfgghigh out-of-plane stiffness of the web (see figure 2.16).









Possible disadvantages of building with corrugated webs are:

- a lack of knowledge and standards;
- a lack of software packages for the design;
- longer delivery times and appropriate minimum order conditions apply;
- aesthetics of the structure?


Figure 2.15: stiffness in longitudinal direction
Figure 2.16: Out-of-plane stiffness web





Literature study 10
2.7 Current research work

A wide range of different kind of research activities concerning corrugated steel webs is
going on in several countries. Most of the studies are based on both experimental test
results and usually also modelling results produced with some finite element modelling
programs. Usually the aim is to analyse the mechanical behaviour of the girders, for the
development of design rules. So at TU Berlin, Aschinger obtained his doctorate with a thesis
on the bearing capacity of girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs. Later on an
investigation is carried out into the interaction between flexural buckling and plate buckling
on the web crippling capacity of trapezoidal sheeting and into the different buckling
coefficients. Also in Sweden a lot of investigation has been done into the shear resistance,
flange buckling, etc. The work in Sweden has mainly been done at Chalmers university and
at the Royal institute of technology in Stockholm.

The scope of some investigations is to increase the load-bearing capacity of corrugated
webs, with different web configurations. There are also some on-going research projects
(especially in Japan) concerning the application of corrugated webs in composite bridges.
In Australia, e.g. in Queensland University of Technology, and also in several other
universities, there are on-going investigations into the behaviour of girders with corrugated
webs under variable loading. Preliminary results from limited tests indicate that the
resistance to fatigue can be higher for girders with corrugated webs than for conventionally
stiffened girders. One of these projects will determine the behaviour of bridge girders with
corrugated webs under variable loading and establish the fatigue strength for such girders.
At this moment, the fatigue durability of the Shinkansen Bridge with corrugated steel web
(Japan) is investigated.
Also the materials, coatings and the manufacturing technology are developed constantly.





Literature study 11
3 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR


3.1 Basis for calculation

As a result of its trapezoidal profiling, the
web has a very low stiffness in longitudinal
direction (see figure 3.1). So the web does
not participate in the transfer of longitudinal
normal stresses from bending. This means that:

In static terms, the girder with corrugated web corresponds to a lattice girder

in which the bending moments and the normal forces are transferred only via the flanges,
while the transverse forces are only transferred through the diagonals and verticals of the
lattice girder (in this case the corrugated web). Among others, A. Bergfelt [4] has confirmed
this assumption with a laboratory research and a finite element analysis. Figure 3.2 shows
the normal stresses in the flanges and the transversal stresses in the web as a result of a
laboratory research with help of strainmeters.















3.2 Bending

Figure 3.3 shows the mechanics scheme of a single span girder with trapezoidal corrugated
web, loaded with a local force. This local force causes shear stresses in the web and normal
stresses in the flanges. In figure 3.4 an infinitesimal part of the web in interaction with the
flanges is regarded. The shear stresses in the web cause extra shear stresses in the
flanges. Figure 3.5 shows these stresses and the resulted shear forces T
1
(x) and T
2
(x).
Figure 3.1: Longitudinal stiffness of the web
Fig 3.4: Shear stresses in web/ flanges Fig 3.5: Shear stresses/ forces upper flange
Fig 3.2: Normal/shear stresses in the web Figure 3.3: Mechanics scheme





Literature study 12
When the flange is schematised as a girder, the following loads on the flange exist (see
figure 3.6):

- A horizontal component (in x-direction) from the shear force in the diagonal parts of
the web F
x
(x):

2
1
2
) ( ) (
a
a w
x T x F
x
-
=
(w = length of corrugation)


- A horizontal component (in y-direction) from the shear force in the diagonal parts of
the web F
y
(x):

1
) ( ) (
a w
b
x F x F
t
x y
-
=

- Transversal moments around the z-axe M
z,1
(x) as a result of the eccentrical shear
forces T
1
(x):

2
) ( ) (
1 1 ,
t
z
b
x T x M =





Figure 3.6a: Loads on the upper flange (in XY-plane)





Literature study 13
Because of the thickness of the flanges, the shear forces also cause bending moments
around the y-axe and torsion moments around the x-axe. Figure 3.6b shows a scheme of the
same upper flange, but now for the cross section in XZ-plane.
The following bending moments and torsion moments exist:


- A bending moment M
y,1
(x) around the y-axe as a result of the shear force T
1
(x):

2
) ( ) (
1
1 1 ,
t
x T x M
y
=

(t
1
= thickness of the flange)


- A bending moment M
y,2
(x) around the y-axe as a result of the x-component of the
shear force F
x
(x) in the diagonal parts of the web:

2
) ( ) (
1
2 ,
t
x F x M
x y
=


- A torsion moment M
x,2
(x) around the x-axe as a result of the y-component of the
shear force F
y
(x) in the diagonal parts of the web:

2
) ( ) (
1
1 2 ,
t
x T x M
x
=

























Figure 3.6b: Loads on the upper flange (in XZ-plane)





Literature study 14
To find mathematical expressions for the loads on the flanges, an equation for the shear
force T
x
is necessary:


dx
h
x V
x T
dx
h
x V
x
dx t x x T
w
z
w
z
w

=
=
) (
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
t
t



The transverse force could have a parabolic function, so a lot of calculations are necessary.
This can be prevented with help of the following equation:

= dx x V x M
z y
) ( ) (


Figure 3.7 shows the V- and M-line of a
part of a corrugated web. So the
following equation for T(x) can be
obtained:


w
y
w
y y
h
x M
h
x M x x M
x T
) (
) ( ) (
) (
D
=
- D +
=


Now equations can be found for all
loads on the flanges. Because of the
analogy, only the force F
y
(x) and
bending moment M
z,1
(x) will be worked
out:



1
, ,
) (
a w
b
h
M M
x F
t
w
P y Q y
y
-

-
=

and:


2
) (
, ,
1 ,
t
w
Q y R y
z
b
h
M M
x M
-
=





Figure 3.7: V- and M-line of one corrugation length





Literature study 15
Now it is possible to formulate the expressions for points at any place. For the points A,B,C
and D (see figure 3.8 on the next page) the expressions are given.

















1
1
,
) ( ) (
a w
b
h
a M a w a M
F
t
w
end y end y
B y
-

- - +
=


1
1 1
,
) ( ) ) ( 2 (
a w
b
h
w a M a a w a M
F
t
w
end y end y
D y
-

+ - + - +
=


2
) 0 ( ) (
, 1 ,
t
w
y end y
A z
b
h
M a M
M
-
=


2
) ( ) (
1
, 1 ,
t
w
end y end y
C z
b
h
a w a M w a M
M
- + - +
= etc.


Because of the regularity of the distances, general formula can be given for the loads on the
flanges. Again the formula for F
y
(x) and M
z,1
(x) are given:

[ ]
) (
)) ( ( )) ( ( ) (
1
1
a w h
b
w i a M w i a w a M x F
w
t
end y end y y
-
+ - + - + =

For I is 0n-1 (n = number of diagonal parts of the web)

[ ]
w
t
end y end y z
h
b
a w i a M w i a M x M

- + - + =
2
) ) ( ( )) ( ( ) (
1 1 ,


For I = 1n-1 (n = number of diagonal parts of the web)

Figure 3.8: The points A,B,C and D on the flange





Literature study 16
Furthermore, attention have to be paid to the end field of the girder (a
end
). Figure 3.9 shows
the possible end fields and in figure 3.10 the shear force T
2
(x) and its components F
x,E
(x)
and F
y,E
(x) are given.

With help of the found equations:



1
, ,
) (
a w
b
h
M M
x F
t
w
P y Q y
y
-

-
=

and:

2
) (
, ,
1 ,
t
w
Q y R y
z
b
h
M M
x M
-
=

the equations for the components of the shear force in the end
field (F
x,E
(x); F
y,E
(x) and the following moment M
z,2
(x)) can be
determined. These equations are also valid for the place where
the transverse forces change sign (an example of this is given in
figure 3.11).

i
i
w
y
i
i
E x E y
a
b
h
x M
a
b
x F x F
D
= =
) (
) ( ) (
, ,



i y
w
y
i y E x z
e
h
x M
e x F x M
, , , 2 ,
) (
) ( ) (
D
= =
Figure 3.9: Possible endfields
Figure 3.10: Shear force in endfield Figure 3.11: Shear forces at Vz





Literature study 17
Figure 3.6b shows the bending
moments M
y,1
(x) and M
y,2
(x) on the
upper flange,


) ( 5 , 0 ) (
1 , ,
1
x M x M
y T y
=


) ( 5 , 0 ) (
2 , ,
x M x M
y F y
x
=


and the torsion moments around the x-
axe M
x,2
(x).


) ( 5 , 0 ) (
2 ,
,
x M x M
x
y
F x
=

These bending moments also cause
normal stresses in the upper flange,
which are made visible in figure 3.13.
Now a formula for the total normal
stresses can be obtained:



( )
1 ,
1 ,
1 ,
1 ,
0 ,
) ( ) ( ) (
y
y
i
z
z
i
y
y
x
W
x M
y
I
x M
z
I
x M
x = s

Figure 3.13: Normal stresses in the upper flange
Figure 3.12: M-lines of the upper flange





Literature study 18
3.3 Normal forces

Girders with corrugated webs are also used in structures, where it has to transfer normal
stresses (portals, pillars, etc.) Because of the low longitudinal stiffness of the corrugated
web, the normal forces are transferred via the flanges.


2 1
A A
N
x
+
= s in which:

=
=
2 2 2
1 1 1
t b A
t b A



Figure 3.14 shows the mechanics scheme of a girder loaded with a normal force and of the
upper flange loaded with half of the normal force. The normal forces cause strains in the
flanges, which are hindered by the corrugated web. (See constraint forces F
1
, F
2
en T
1
.)




















The points of application of the constraint forces are on the insides of the flanges, so these
forces cause moments in the flanges. The derivation of the expression for the normal
stresses in the upper flange is analogous to the derivation of the normal stresses in
paragraph 3.2:


1 ,
1 ,
1 ,
1 ,
2 1 y
y
i
z
z
x
W
M
y
I
M
A A
N

+
= s


in which:



2
5 , 0
1
1 1 ,
t
T M
y
= respectively:
2
5 , 0
1
1 ,
t
F M
x y
=

Figure 3.14 Girder and its upper flange loaded with normal force





Literature study 19
3.4 Transversal forces

The transverse forces are only transferred
through the diagonals and verticals of the
corrugated web.

w
z
z
A
x V
x
) (
) ( = t

with:
w w w
t h A =




3.5 Torsion

When a girder with a trapezoidal web is loaded by a torsionmoment M
T
(see figure 3.16),
shear forces arise in the sections between the web and the flanges. Figure 3.17 shows the
shear forces and their directions for the upper- and lower flange. The flanges are varying
under compression and under tension.














With help of figure 3.18, in which the transferring shear forces over the web are made visible,
a deformation figure of the total girder can be made (figure 3.19).

Figure 3.15: Shear stresses in web as result of transverse force
Fig 3.16: Girder with torsionmoment Fig 3.17: Shear forces in upperflange (a), lower flange(b)
Fig 3.18: Shear forces Tx and Tz in the web Fig 3.19: Deformation of the girder





Literature study 20
The total deformation of the girder subjected to torsion can be subdivided into four basic
deformations:

1. Shear deformation of the parallel parts of the web by T
x
.












2. Flange bending around the y-axe by T
z
.













In which:
z
z
T
T
T C = = =
2
2


3. Bending of the total girder around the y-axe, as a result of T
x
.













4. Bending of the flange around the z-axe, as a result of T
x
.

Figure 3.20: Shear deformation
of a parallel part
Figure 3.21: Vertical deformation of the upper flange
Figure 3.22: Bending of the total cross
section around the y-axe





Literature study 21
4 FAILURE MECHANISMS AND CHECK-CRITERIA

4.1 Flange buckling

In determining the normal bearing force of
the flanges, a distinction must be made
between tensile and compressive stresses.
In the context of compressive stresses, the
stability of the flange must be taken into
account. A distinction must be made here
between the global and local stability of the
flange. Paragraph 4.1.1 deals with global
flange buckling and 4.1.2 with local flange
buckling.


4.1.1 Global flange buckling

According to Annex D.2.1 of prEN 1993-1-5, the design buckling resistance of the
compression flange is derived as follows:

0
, 1 1
, ,
M
r y
d R b
f t b
N
g
c
=

where:
r y
f
,
includes the reduction due to transverse moments in the flanges.

0
,
) (
4 , 0 1
M
y
z x
T
T y r y
f
M
f
f f f
g
s
- =
=


c is the reduction factor for lateral buckling according to 6.3 of EN 1993-1-1


z
M is the transversal moment in the flange. (see next pages)


2
1 1
6
b t
M
z
X

= s is the maximum longitudinal stress as a result of .

z
M

0 , 1
0
=
M
g (see NAD-NVN-ENV 1993-1-1:1995)


Finally, the compression flange should be verified against buckling as follows:

0 , 1
, ,
,

d R b
d E
N
N

Figure 4.1: Local flange buckling





Literature study 22
Where the design value of the compression force is:

2 1
, ,
,
2 1
1
1 , ,
5 , 0 5 , 0 t t h
M
N
A A
A
N
w
d E y
d E d E
+ +
-
+
=


Determination of the reduction factor for lateral buckling c
The reduction factor for lateral buckling can be determined in accordance with 6.3 of EN
1993-1-1: Buckling resistance of members. The value of the reduction factor for the
appropriate non-dimensional slenderness should be obtained from:

[ ]
) (
) ( 49 , 0
9 , 93
1
) 2 , 0 ( 1 5 , 0 :
) 0 , 1 (
1
, 1 1
,
1
1
,
2
2
2
force critical elastic the f t b N
factor on imperfacti the
f
E
gyration of radius the is i
length buckling the is L
i
L
N
f A
Where
r y cr
r y
cr
cr
cr
r y
=
=
= =
=

=
+ - + = F

- F + F
=
a
e p l
l
l
l l a
c
l
c



(For slenderness 2 , 0 l or for
crit d E
N N 04 , 0
,
buckling effects may be ignored and
only cross sectional checks apply.)

Determination of
z
M
With help of figure 4.2, the expression for
z
M can be found:











Figure 4.2: Loads on the flange
bt





Literature study 23
) ( 5 , 0 ) (
1 ,
x F w x M M
y z z
+ =

In paragraph 3.2 the formula for ) (
1 ,
x M
z
and ) (x F
y
are obtained:

[ ]
) (
)) ( ( )) ( ( ) (
1
3
1
a w h
a
w i a M w i a w a M x F
w
end y end y y
-
+ - + - + =

For I is 0n-1 (n = number of diagonal parts of the web)

[ ]
w
end y end y z
h
a
a w i a M w i a M x M

- + - + =
2
) ) ( ( )) ( ( ) (
3
1 1 ,


For I = 1n-1 (n = number of diagonal parts of the web)


However, to determine the exact value of M
z
, the influence of the end fields of the girders
and of the local loads have to be taken in account. For these reasons, too many calculations
are necessary to determine this exact value. Aschinger [2] has done some FEM-analyses to
define some practical formula for M
z
, which come close to the real values:

) max( ) max(
1 , z y z
M m F f M + =

where:

= =

= =
) max(
) max(
) max( ) max(
) max(
2 2
) max(
2
) max( ) max(
, 2
1 3
1
3
1 1 ,
z
w
t
w t
w w
z
y y
z
w
t
w
w w
z
z
V
h
b
t b
t h
V
T F
V
h
b a a
t a
t h
V a
T M



and where the factors f and m can be obtained from table 4.1.



Load figuration
Factor f Factor m





0,13


1,50




0,065

0,60




0,065

0,50


Table 4.1: The factors f and m





Literature study 24
The Dutch standard
According to the European standard, the compressed flange should be verified against
buckling around the z-axe. Analogous to this arithmetic method, the check can be carried out
with help of 12.1 of NEN 6771 as follows:

0 , 1
, , , 1 ,
, , , 1

d u c buc z
d s c
N
N
w


Where:
d s c
N
, , , 1
is the design value of the compression force.

r y d u c
f t b N
, 1 1 , , , 1
) ( = is the elastic critical force of the compression flange.

r y
f
,
can be calculated analogous to the European Standard!
buc z,
w is the buckling factor for buckling around the weak z-axe.

For the determination of the buckling factor is referred to 12.1.1 of NEN 6770. The buckling
factor depends on the relative slenderness, which can be calculated with:

u
z
E z
d u c
rel z
F
N
l
l
l = =
,
, ,
,


where:
r y
d
u
f
E
,
p l =

z
buc z
z
i
l
,
= l is the slenderness with regard to buckling around the z-axe.

in which:
buc z
l
,
is the buckling length with regard to the z-axe.

12
12
1
1 1
3
1 1
b
t b
b t
A
I
i
z
z
=

= = is the radius of gyration.

4.1.2 Local flange buckling

Local flange buckling will be influenced by the geometry of the web in a favourable way
compared to the flat web. So normally, this failure mechanism will not be normative.
According to annex D.2.1 of prEN 1993-1-5, the rules for plate elements without longitudinal
stiffeners in 4.4 (1) and (2) of prEN 1993-1-5 can be used with appropriate buckling
coefficients. The effective area of the compression flange with the gross area A
c
should be
obtained from:

1 1 , 1
t b A A
c eff
= = r r

where r is the reduction factor for buckling. This factor may be taken as follows:

0 , 1
188 , 0
2

-
=
p
p
l
l
r





Literature study 25
with:
s
e
s
l
k
t b
f
cr
y
p
4 , 28
= =


where:
r y
f
,
235
= e (f
y,r
in N/mm
2
)

t is the thickness of the compression flange

s
k is the buckling factor:


Determination of the flange slenderness p l
To calculate the flange slenderness, the buckling factor should be determined. The buckling
factor depends on the appropriate width b. There are several proposals of which b has to be
taken into account. Johnson and Cafolla [8] suggested that the average outstand of the
flange could be used for the appropriate width b if:

( )
14 , 0
2
1 1
3

b a w
a w


It is not stated what to do if this criterion is not fulfilled, but presumably the idea is to use the
largest outstand.

The design rules for Ranabalken (see paragraph 2.2) states that the outstand should be
taken as:

mm
b
b 30
2
1
- =

In order to cover a wide range of different patterns of corrugations, two checks are needed
according to annex D.2.1 (2) of prEN 1993-1-5. The highest flange slenderness from these
checks should be taken into account.


Check (a)

For a very long corrugation in combination with a narrow flange, there is a possibility that the
largest outstand will govern the buckling. However, the flange will be supported by the
inclined parts of the web and a safe approximation of the relevant length should be a = a
1
+
2a
3
. The buckling coefficients of such a plate, assuming conservatively a hinged support
along three edges of the web, is:

2
43 , 0

+ =
a
b
k
s
with: b is the largest outstand from weld to free edge

3 1
2 a a a + =







Literature study 26
0
, 2 2
, , 2
M
r y
d R
f t b
N
g

=
Check (b)

For a geometry with a corrugation width of the same order as the flange width, the flange will
buckle in a mode of rotation around the centreline of the web, but with a stronger restraint
than for a girder with a flat web. This restraint will depend on the stiffness of the flange and
the flexibility of the web. The buckling coefficient will vary in the range 0,431,25 and for
simplicity a fixed value of 0,55 is accepted. So for this check, the slenderness parameter will
be defined with the following input:

2
55 , 0
1
b
b and k = =
s


Finally, the compression flange shall be verified against buckling in the same way as it has to
be done for global flange buckling:

0 , 1
, ,
, , 1

d R b
d E
N
N


Where:
0
, , 1
, ,
M
r y eff
d R b
f A
N
g
c
=

2 1
, ,
,
2 , 1
, 1
, , 1
5 , 0 5 , 0 t t h
M
N
A A
A
N
w
d E y
d E
eff
eff
d E
+ +
-
+
=


With help of the Dutch standard
The check can also be carried out with help of 12.1.1 of NEN 6771, explained in paragraph
4.1.1, with the difference that an effective width of the compressive flange should be taken
into account. For calculation of the effective width can be made use of the European
standard, but also of the German standard: DASt-Richlinie 015, paragraph 4.2.3.

1
, 1 ,
1
240
7 , 30 b
f
t b
d y
eff
=

This equation has been derived with help of buckling coefficient k
s
= 0,6.
This value may be used (instead of k
s
= 0,43 assuming conservatively a hinged support
along three edges and one free edge), because of the trapezoidal shape of the web plate.

4.2 Yield of the tension flange

In case of normal stresses in the flange, the load carrying capacity of the flanges is derived
as follows:









Literature study 27
Where:
r y
f
,
includes the reduction due to transverse moments in the flanges.

0
,
) (
4 , 0 1
M
y
z x
T
T y r y
f
M
f
f f f
g
s
- =
=


z
M is the transverse moment in the flange (see paragraph 4.1).

Finally, the tension flange shall be verified against yielding as follows:

0 , 1
, , 2
, , 2

d R
d E
N
N


Where the design value of the normal force is:

2 1
, ,
,
2 1 ,
2
, , 2
5 , 0 5 , 0 t t h
M
N
A A
A
N
w
d E y
d E
eff
d E
+ +
+
+
=


4.3 Web plate buckling

The use of corrugated webs makes it possible to use slender web plates. For high shear
stresses, two main buckling modes exist; one local governed by the largest flat panel and
one global involving more than one corrugation. Figure 4.4 shows these buckling modes and
an intermediate form: zonal buckling.




















Figure 4.4: buckling modes (from left to right): local, zonal and global





Literature study 28
According to annex D.2.2 of prEN 1993-1-5, the shear resistance due to buckling may be
taken as follows:

w w
M
w y
c d R
t h
f
V

=
1
,
,
3 g
c


Where: 0 , 1
1
=
M
g (see NAD-NVN-ENV 1993-1-1:1995)

=
buckling global for factor reduction
buckling local for factor reduction
g c
l c
c
,
,
c
c
c


4.3.1 Local buckling

Local buckling is governed by the largest flat panel with width a
max
(the maximum of a
1
and
a
2
). For this buckling mode the folding lines keep straight.
The reduction factor
l c,
c for local buckling may be calculated from:

0 , 1
9 , 0
15 , 1
,
,

+
=
l c
l c
l
c

Where the slenderness l c, l may be taken as:

3
,
,
,

=
l cr
w y
l c
f
t
l

The critical stress for local buckling t
cr,l
can be derived with help of the mechanics scheme
of the largest flat panel of the corrugated web, shown in figure 4.5.


2
max
,
83 , 4

=
a
t
E
w
l cr
t


with: [ ]
2 1 max
, max a a a =




With help of the German and Dutch standards
According to equation (410) of DASt-Richtlinie 015, the shear resistance due to local
buckling may be taken as follows:

w w d b w w
M
k y
l d R
t h t h
f
V =
,
,
, ,
60 , 0 35 , 0 t
g
k
t


Figure 4.5: mechanics scheme largest flat panel





Literature study 29
Peil [11] has done a thorough investigation into reduction factors with regard to the local
shear strength of girders with corrugated webs. Its concluded that the reduction factor can
be increased safely up to 0,85. So, only with regard to local buckling the shear resistance
can be calculated with the following equation:


w w d b d R
t h V =
, ,
85 , 0 t

The design buckling shear stress should be determined with the following slenderness (412):


l cr
d y
rel plaat l c
f
,
,
, ,
3 t
l l

= =

The rest of the calculation can be carried out in accordance with 13.7 of NEN 6771, where:


E l k i l cr
k s t t
t
= =
, , ,


in which: 35 , 5 =
t
k (see paragraph 5.3.4)


( )
2
max 2
2
1 12

=
w
d
d
E
t
a
E
u
p
s with: [ ]
2 1 max
, max a a a =

The design buckling shear stress can be calculated as follows:


t
t
t
C
plooi
d plooi
=
,


where:

> + -

=
291 , 1 1210 , 1 0937 , 0
291 , 1 0 1
, ,
,
rel plaat rel plaat
rel plaat
if
if
C
l l
l
t



3
, ,
,
d w y
rel plooi plooi
f
= s t

in which:

< < -
<
=
291 , 1 1
291 , 1 7 , 0 677 , 0 474 , 1
7 , 0 0 0 , 1
,
2
,
, ,
,
,
rel plaat rel plaat
rel plaat rel plaat
rel plaat
rel plooi
if
if
if
l l
l l
l
s







Literature study 30
4.3.2 Global buckling

The reduction factor
g c,
c for global buckling may be calculated from:

0 , 1
5 , 0
5 , 1
2
,
,

+
=
g c
g c
l
c

Where the slenderness g c, l may be taken as:

3
,
,
,

=
g cr
w y
g c
f
t
l

The critical stress for global buckling t
cr,g
can be derived from the orthotropic plate theory
[13] and is given by:


4
3
2
,
4 , 32
y x
w w
g cr
D D
h t

= t


where:
( )
( )

=
+ =

=
) 2 ( 3
12
) (
1 12
2 1
2
2 1
2
3
n corrugatio one of area of moment nd a a
b t
I
length unfolded a a s
n corrugatio one of length w
w
I E
D
s
w t E
D
t w
y
y
y
w
x
u


Although it is more correct to include the factor ( )
2
1 u - in the denominator of the expression
of D
x
, according to prEN 1993-1-5 the factor can be omitted from the formula.

The critical stress for global buckling is valid for simply supported long plates. In [13],
Hglund gives a solution for restrained rotation along the edge. For fully clamped edges the
coefficient 32,4 increases to 60,4. But this assumption is hard to believe, because it is not
very likely that the flanges are rigid enough to provide a complete rotational restraint for such
a stiff plate as a corrugated web.

With help of the German and Dutch standards
In accordance with equation (410) of DASt-Richtlinie 015, the shear resistance due to global
buckling may be taken as follows:






Literature study 31
w w d b w w
M
d y
g d R
t h t h
f
V =
,
,
, ,
60 , 0 35 , 0 t
g
k
t


The design buckling shear stress should be determined with the following slenderness (414):

=
otherwise
f
for
f
g cr
d y
l cr
g cr
g cr
d y
g cr
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
3
0 , 2 5 , 0
3
2
t
t
t
t
l

The design buckling shear stress can be calculated in accordance with 13.7 of NEN 6771, as
presented for local buckling in paragraph 4.3.1.

4.3.3 Interaction between local and global buckling?

Model Leiva
The main concern of Leiva in [9] is the interaction between local and global buckling, which
is based on observation tests. His idea is to consider this interaction by defining a combined
critical stress:

( )
n
n
g cr
n
l cr cr
1
, , 3 ,
-
- -
+ = t t t

Leiva discussed only n =1, but the equation has been written more general for later use.
This model of Leiva forms the basis of the Combined model, in which the combined critical
stress is used in combination with the reduction factor:

0 , 1
9 , 0
2 , 1
3 ,
3 ,

+
=
c
c
l
c

Model Hglund
The model of Hglund [13] has two separate checks, one for local and one for global
buckling. The reduction factors for local and global buckling, respectively, are given by:

0 , 1
66 , 1
64 , 1
,
,

+
=
l c
l c
l
c

0 , 1
5 , 0
5 , 1
2
,
,

+
=
g c
g c
l
c

The reasoning behind the two checks is that for local buckling a post-critical strength
(redistribution of stresses when the critical buckling stress is reached) is expected, which
should not be present in case of global buckling. This is reflected by l
c,l
appearing linear and
l
c,g
appearing squared in the reduction factors.





Literature study 32
Further, Hglund has discussed the restraint from flanges to global buckling and he suggests
an increase of the buckling coefficient to 40 instead of 32,4 if a certain stiffness criterion is
met.

For giving rules to EN 1993-1-5, Johansson [7] has evaluated the above-mentioned models
among others. This evaluation shows that the theory of Hglund gives the best results,
especially for global buckling. For this reason, in the European standard is also mentioned
that two separate checks are sufficient and the reduction factor for global buckling of
Hglund can be used.
However, the reduction factor for local buckling starts the reduction at zero slenderness,
which is considered quite unlikely. For some low value of the slenderness, the shear yield
resistance of the web should be reached. For this reason, in prEN 1993-1-5 the reduction
factor for local buckling has been replaced with help of the model of Leiva:

0 , 1
9 , 0
15 , 1
,
,

+
=
l c
l c
l
c


4.3.4 Local transverse loads

In annex D of prEN 1993-1-5 is noted that for transverse loads the rules in section 6:
Resistance to transverse loads can be used as a conservative estimate.
For unstiffened and stiffened webs the design resistance to local buckling under local
transverse loads should be taken as:


1
,
,
M
w eff w y
d R
t L f
F
g

=

where:
eff
L is the effective length for resistance to transverse forces:

y F eff
l L = c
where:
y
l is the effective loaded length, see 6.5 of prEN 1993-1-5.

F
c is the reduction factor due to local buckling, see 6.4.

For the determination of the reduction factor
F
c should be made use of the following
buckling coefficient:


2
max
2 6

+ =
a
h
k
w
F
with: [ ]
2 1 max
, max a a a =

The verification should be performed as follows:

0 , 1
,
,
2
=
d R
d E
F
F
h (Compressive stresses are taken as positive.)







Literature study 33
With help of the Dutch standard
The verification mentioned above could also be performed in accordance with the Dutch
standard, paragraph 14.2.2 of NEN 6770, in which the design resistance to local buckling
under transverse loads should be determined as follows:

+ = =
f f
w
w
f
d y w d u d R
t h
c
t
t
t
t
f E t F F
2
3 125 , 0
,
2
, 2 , ,
(at the supports)

+ = =
f f
w
w
f
d y w d u d R
t h
c
t
t
t
t
f E t F F
2
3 5 , 0
,
2
, 2 , ,
(in other cases)

where: c is the effective length for transfer of the force.
and: 2 , 0
2

-
f
t h
c



4.4 Yield of the web plate

The shear stresses are only transferred through the diagonals and verticals of the corrugated
web. So, for corrugated webs the design resistance for shear should be taken as:

3
,
, ,
d y w
d u z
f A
V

= with:
w w w
t h A =

The corrugated web will be verified against yielding as follows:

0 , 1
, ,
, ,

d u z
d s z
V
V
where:
d s z
V
, ,
is the design shear force.


4.5 Lateral torsional buckling of the girder

It is not easy to determine the lateral torsional buckling resistance of a girder with corrugated
webs. For that reason only a few investigators have paid some attention to this failure
mechanism and still no satisfactory solution has been found. So the standards doesnt deal
with this topic and most of the constructors only verify the compression flange against lateral
buckling around the strong axe. According to NEN 6771 this procedure should be followed
when the following condition is fulfilled:

5000
10
2 3
12
>


=
g w
f
l b t
t h
a

However, in case of girders with corrugated webs, the thickness of the web should be
replaced by an alternative higher thickness t
w
*
. Further investigation into appropriate
restrictions is necessary.






Literature study 34
According to 12.2.2 of NEN 6771 a laterally unrestrained beam subjected to bending around
the y-axe shall be verified against lateral-torsional buckling as follows:

0 , 1
, ,
, max, ,

d u y kip
d s y
M
M
w


where:
d s y
M
, max, ,
is the design value of the moment around the y-axe.
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) 2 2 , min
2 1 , , 2 2 , , 1 1 , ,
t t h f t b f t b M
w f r y f r y d u y
+ + =
kip
w is the lateral torsional buckling factor

According to Lindner (1990), a reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling k should be
applied for girders with corrugated webs. This reduction factor k can be used analogous to
the lateral torsional buckling factor:


4
1
1
M
kip
k
l
w
+
= =

Where M l is the relative slenderness ratio for bending, which should be determined in the
same way as it should be done in accordance with 12.2-4 of NEN 6771:



ke
d u y
rel
M
M
M
, ,
= = l l (If 4 , 0
rel
l , then this check is not necessary.)


Determination
ke
M
The differential equation for description of lateral torsional buckling of an I-girder, loaded with
a constant bending moment, is:

0
, , 0
2
2
4
4
=

- -
z d
d s
t d wa d
I E
M
dx
d
I G
dx
d
I E
j
j j


This equation results into the following lowest value of the moment where lateral torsional
buckling will take place:


wa d z d
g
t d z d
g
d s
I E I E
l
I G I E
l
M + =
2
2
, , 0
p p


The first part of the equation refers to the torsional rigidity and the second part to the warping
rigidity of the girder. In NEN 6771 the second part is neglected, however for girders with
corrugated webs with usual dimensions this second part also has to be taken into account.
For that reason the theoretic elastic lateral torsional buckling moment can be defined as
follows:






Literature study 35
wa d z d
g
t d z d
g
red ke
I E I E
l
I G I E
l
C
k M + =
2
2
p


In which:
red
k is a reduction factor to be determined with 12.2.5.2 of NEN 6771
C is a coefficient to be determined with 12.2.5.3, mindful of the recent
dfgdmodifications (NEN 6771:2000/A1:2001)

g
l is the length of the girder between the gaffes.
z
I is the second moment of inertia with regard to the z-axe

t
I is the torsion moment of inertia

( )
2
3
2 1
3
1
12
1
t b t b I
z
+ =

= =

3
2 2
3
1 1
3 3
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
t b t b t h t b I
w
w t



Single span plate girder
For a single span plate girder, loaded with a constant bending moment, the following formula
can be derived:

+ =
t d g
wa d
t d z d
g
ki
I G l
I E
I G I E
l
M
2
2
1
p p


Lindner and Aschinger [2] studied lateral torsional behaviour of girders with corrugated webs
and found that the torsional section constant J for a girder with a corrugated web doesnt
differ from that of a beam with a flat web, but that the warping section constant is different.
They carried out tests at the Technical University of Berlin to determine the warping section
constant
wa
I of girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs:

2
2
min
p
+ =
E
l
c I I
g
w wa wa



where:
2
2 , 1 ,
2 , 1 ,
min
m
z z
z z
wa
h
I I
I I
I
+

+ + =
2 2
:
2 1
t t
h h which in
w m



w u
h b
c
m t
w

=
8
2 2

+

=
2 , 1 ,
2 , 1 ,
2
1
3 2
1
600 2
:
y y
y y
m
w
m
I I
I I
E a
w h
t a G
h
u which in







Literature study 36
4.6 Buckling of the girder

According to 1.3 of DASt-Richtlinie 015, at most one of the flanges is assumed to be under
compression. Its not clear that this assumption is also valid for girders with corrugated webs.
Even Eurocode 3 doesnt give any restrictions to the normal forces in girders with corrugated
webs. For that reason this assumption is not adopted in this analysis.
Analogous to 12.1 NEN 6771, a girder with corrugated web under compression (columns of
a portal, etc.) shall be verified against buckling around the weak axe as follows:

0 , 1
, , ,
, ,

d u c buc z
d s c
N
N
w


where:
d s c
N
, ,
is the design value of the compression force.

d w y d u c
f t b t b N
, , 2 2 1 1 , ,
) ( + = is the design buckling resistance of the girder.

buc z,
w is the buckling factor for buckling around the weak z-axe.

For determination of the buckling factor is referred to 12.1.1.4 of NEN 6770. The buckling
factor depends on the relative slenderness, which can be calculated with:

u
z
E z
d u c
rel z
F
N
l
l
l = =
,
, ,
,


where:
d y
d
u
f
E
,
p l =

z
buc z
z
i
l
,
= l is the slenderness with regard to buckling around the z-axe.

in which:
buc z
l
,
is the buckling length with regard to the z-axe.

A
I
i
z
z
= is the radius of gyration with regard to the z-axe.
Because of the small thickness, the contribution of the web to the second
moment of inertia around the weak z-axe will be overlooked. When only the
flanges are taken in account, the following formula can be derived for the
second moment of inertia:

( )
2
3
2 1
3
1
12
1
t b t b I
z
+ =

However, for A the total area of the girder should be taken into account:

( ) ( ) ( )
w w
t h
w
s
t b t b A + + =
2 2 1 1


(s is the unfolded length and w is the length of one corrugation.)





Literature study 37
4.7 Torsional buckling

When a girder is not only under compression, but also loaded by a bending moment around
the strong axe, torsional buckling can take place. The resistance against torsional buckling is
delivered by the sideways bending stiffness of the compression flange and by the torsional
stiffness of the whole profile. So torsional buckling of columns has a similarity to lateral
torsional buckling of girders. NEN 6770 shows the following interaction formula for a girder
under compression and bending around the strong axe:

1 1 , 1 1 , 1
, ,
, , ,
, ,
, ,

d u z kip
d s equ y
d pl buc z
d s c
M
M
N
N
w w


where:
buc z,
w should be determined according to 12.1.1 of NEN 6771, see paragraph 4.6.
kip
w is the lateral torsional buckling factor according to 12.2 of NEN 6771, see
sdfsdfsparagraph 4.5.
d s equ y
M
, , ,
is the equivalent bending moment around the y-axe. It depends on
asdasdasd the load configuration, see par. 12.3.1.2.1 of NEN 6770.

4.8 Deformation of the girder

For the deformations of a girder with a corrugated web no standards exist. Aschinger [2] has
done some investigation into the deformation of girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs.
Because of the slender high webs, not only vertical deformation of the flanges, but also
shear deformation of the web exists.

( )
( )
warp
L
x w w
v
z z
L
x y
v
y y
w dx
a a t h G
a a V V
I E
M M
w +
+
+
+

=

= = 0 3 1
2 1
0 0 ,


In the formula also a deformation due to warping can be seen. This deformation is a result of
the three-dimensional structure of the profiled web plate. This deformation quantity has been
investigated by Baehre [3] and he found the following equation for the deformation:

z
w w
curv
V
t
j
h E
K a
w

=
5 , 2
2
2


where K is a constant dependent on the profile of the web. For trapezoidal corrugated webs
the following formula for K can be used:

( ) L t t h K K
f w w Di
2
=

Di
K is dependent on the dimensions of the trapezoidal corrugated web plate. In [2] for
several configurations of the web plate the value of this constant can be found.

According to NEN 6702 the maximum deformation of floor and roof girders in the final stage
shall be verified with the following equation:

L u w
eind
= 004 , 0





Literature study 38
5 DIFFERENCES FLAT-CORRUGATED WEB GIRDER

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter, an explanation on differences between girders with corrugated webs and
girders with standard plates will be presented. After a short description of several general
differences, a more extensive study will be made of the mechanical differences (5.3) and the
differences between the arithmetic methods and standards to use (5.4). Finally, it will be tried
to gain an insight into the economic favourable application field of girders with corrugated
webs.

5.2 General

Since the 1970s, girders with corrugated webs are fabricated and at this moment building
with these girders is still in the making. In the first instance, the corrugated webs were
fabricated because of their good stability behaviour. Especially high corrugated webs
showed a much better buckling behaviour and so webs with a very small thickness could be
made possible. For portals of halls, bridges and high-rise building, the low dead weight can
be a great advantage over the standard plate girders.

Because of the profile of the web, the fabrication costs for material (per kilogram) and
welding (per meter) are higher than for a flat plate girder. On the other hand, no transverse
and longitudinal stiffeners are necessary and the web is connected to the flanges with only a
single continuous fillet weld. An important difference with the (double welded) flat plate girder
is that its not permitted to use these girders under variable loading.

An other important difference forms the much lower stiffness of the corrugated web in
longitudinal direction. This low stiffness can be very useful in composite bridge building. For
bridges constructed with tubular members with in situ casted pre-tensioned concrete flanges,
the low longitudinal stiffness of the web causes a lower loss of pre-stresses.

For a long time the standard plate girders have been
used and a lot of experience has been obtained. So its
very easy for the structural engineer to make use of the
flat plate girder.The use of girders with corrugated webs
is still in the initial period and there is still a lack of
necessary information and experience. Even the
necessary standards and adequate software packages
are not available.
An other disadvantage over the use of standard plate
girders can be the longer delivery times and minimum
orders conditions of girders with corrugated webs.

Finally, the aesthetics of the structure plays a part in the
possible use of girders with corrugated webs.







Fig. 5.1: Aesthetic appearance





Literature study 39
5.3 Mechanical behaviour

5.3.1 Basis of calculation

In paragraph 3.1 is concluded that, in static terms, the girder with corrugated web
corresponds to a lattice girder, in which the bending moments and the normal forces are
transferred only via the flanges, while the transverse forces are only transferred through the
diagonals and verticals of the lattice girder (in this case the corrugated web).
Because of the participation of the flat plate in the transfer of longitudinal normal stresses
from bending, the flat plate girder does not correspond to a lattice girder. The transverse
forces are only transferred through the plate, but the bending moments and the normal
forces are also partially taken up by the plate. So buckling of the web plate, due to these
normal forces and bending moments, shall be checked, while for corrugated webs only
buckling due to transverse forces shall be checked.

5.3.2 Transversal moments

For a girder with a corrugated web, the shear stresses in the web cause extra shear forces
(F
x
, F
y
), bending moments (M
y,1
, M
y,2
, M
z,1
) and a torsion moment (M
x,2
) in the flanges (par.
3.2). Because of the transversal moments in the flange, the yield stress will be reached
earlier in the flanges. This can be taken into account with help of a reduced yield stress.
Normal forces in the girder also cause strains in the flanges, which are hindered by the
corrugated web. So, also due to normal forces, transversal moments exist in the flanges.
For the flat plate girder, these transversal moments does not exist and its not necessary to
calculate with a reduced yield stress.

5.3 Arithmetic methods

5.3.1 Moment capacity

According to annex D.2.1 of prEN 1993-1-5, the bending moment resistance may be derived
from:

=

1
, 1 1
0
, 1 1
0
, 2 2
,
; ; min
M
w r y
M
w r y
M
w r y
d R
h f t b h f t b h f t b
M
g
c
g g


So, the bending moment resistance of girders with corrugated webs, is determined by the
normal force resistance of the flanges.
For flat plate girders also participation of the web plate has to be taken in account. Due to
the normal forces and bending moments buckling of the plate could happen. The calculation
of the moment capacity of a welded flat plate girder can be carried out with the cross-
section-reduction method in accordance with 10.2.4.2.3 of NEN 6771;

the effective width of the web can be calculated as follows:


1
1 y
r
-

=
b
b
eff

where:
d
d
, 1
, 2
1
s
s
y = is the ratio between the lowest and the highest stress in the web.





Literature study 40

w
h b =

2
,
,
22 , 0
rel
rel
r
r
l
l
r
-
= is the reduction factor.

in which:
x k i
d y
rel
f
, ,
,
,
s
l
r
=

where:
E x x k i
k s s
s
=
, , ,

The buckling coefficient can be determined with table 2.


For 0
1
< y :

=
=
e e
e e
b b
b b
6 , 0
4 , 0
2 ,
1 ,


With help of the effective cross-section, the bending moment resistance of the girder can be
determined:


e y
e y d s x
d s
z
I
M
,
, , ,
,

=
s


in which:
e y
I
,
is the moment of inertia with regard to the y-axe.

e y
z
,
is the distance between the neutral line and the top of the girder.

5.3.2 Transversal moments

According to the German and European standards the effect of transversal moments can be
taken into account with help of a reduced yield stress:

0
,
) (
4 , 0 1
M
y
z x
T
T y r y
f
M
f
f f f
g
s
- =
=


Where:
z
M is the transverse moment in the flange. (see next pages)
0 , 1
0
=
M
g (see NAD-NVN-ENV 1993-1-1:1995)

5.3.3 Flange buckling

To prevent the compression flange of a girder with a corrugated web from local and global
buckling, it should be verified against buckling around the z-axe. For a standard flat plate
girder, the effective width of the compression flange should be determined with buckling
coefficient k
s
= 0,43.





Literature study 41
Local flange buckling will be influenced by the geometry of the web in a favourable way
compared to the flat web. The flange will be supported by the inclined parts of the web and
so, according to annex D.2.1 of prEN 1993-1-5, a safe approximation of the relevant length
should be a = a
1
+ 2a
3
. The buckling coefficients of such a plate, assuming conservatively a
hinged support along three edges of the web, is:

2
43 , 0

+ =
a
b
k
s


with: b is the largest outstand from weld to free edge

3 1
2 a a a + =

For a geometry with a corrugation width of the same order as the flange width, the flange will
buckle in a mode of rotation around the centreline of the web, but with a stronger restraint
than for a girder with a flat web. This restraint will depend on the stiffness of the flange and
the flexibility of the web. The buckling coefficient will vary in the range 0,431,25 and for
simplicity a fixed value of 0,55 is accepted. So for this check, the slenderness parameter will
be defined with the following input:

2
55 , 0
1
b
b and k = =
s


According to DASt-Richtlinie 015, the effective width of the flange can be calculated with
help of buckling coefficient k
s
= 0,6:

1
, 1 ,
1
240
7 , 30 b
f
t b
d y
eff
=


5.3.4 Local web buckling due to transverse forces

Unlike the flat web plate, the corrugated web has two shear buckling modes; one local
governed by the largest flat panel and one global involving more than one corrugation.

Buckling factor
t
k
According to 13.6 of NEN 6771, the critical stress for shear buckling in a flat plate can be
calculated as follows:

= =
2
2
2
,
) 1 ( 12
w
w
d
d
E E k i
t
b
E
k
u
p
s s t
t


in which
t
k depends on the ratio a between the length and the height of the web:






Literature study 42

1
4
35 , 5
1
35 , 5
4
2
2
> + =
+ =
a
a
a
t
t
for k
a for k


For local buckling of the corrugated web, the critical stress can be calculated with help of the
following equation (see paragraph 4.4.1):


2
max
,
83 , 4

=
a
t
E
w
l cr
t [ ] ( )
2 1 max
, max a a a with =

So, the used value of the buckling factor for local shear buckling of a corrugated web is:

( )
35 , 5
) 1 ( 12
83 , 4
1 12
83 , 4
2
2
2
1
2
2 2
2
max ,

-
=
-

= =
d d
w d
w
E
l cr
a
t E
a
t
E
k
u
p
u
p s
t
t



For a long flat plate ( 1 >> a ),
t
k also reaches the value 5,35. The difference between the
behaviour of the flat plate and the corrugated plate, must become clear in a different Euler
buckling stress.

Euler buckling stress
E
s
The Euler buckling stress can be calculated with 13.6-4 of NEN 6771:


( )
( )

-

=

=
2
2 2
2 2
2
2
1 12
1
1 12
u
p
u
p
s
w d d
E
t E
b
t
b
E


For the flat plate:
w
h b =
For the corrugated web:
max
a b =

The different width causes a great difference between the Euler buckling stress of the flat
and the corrugated web plate. The lower value of the width of the corrugated web causes a
much higher Euler buckling stress of the corrugated web. This forms the most important
difference between the flat plate girder and the girder with a corrugated web.







Literature study 43
5.3.5 Global web buckling due to transverse forces

The critical stress for global buckling of a corrugated web is not calculated with help of a
buckling factor and the Euler buckling stress, but with the variable value:


4
3
2
,
4 , 32
y x
w w
g cr
D D
h t

= t (see paragraph 4.4.2)

Because of the high orthotropic plate stiffness (D
x
, D
y
) of the corrugated web, the critical
stress for global buckling will be higher than for the flat plate girder.

5.3.6 Buckling of the girder

According to 12.1 of NEN 6771, a girder with a corrugated web and the flat plate girder
should be verified both to buckling around the weak z-axe as follows:

0 , 1
, , ,
, ,

d u c buc z
d s c
N
N
w


Because of the low longitudinal stiffness of the corrugated web, the normal stresses are only
transferred through the flanges. For this reason, the design buckling resistance of the girder
is:

d y d u c
f t b t b N
, 2 2 1 1 , ,
) ( + =

While for the flat plate girder the whole cross-section can be used:


d y w w d u c
f t h t b t b N
, 2 2 1 1 , ,
) ( + + =

Due to these normal forces and possible bending moments, buckling failure of the plate
could happen. So only for the flat plate the buckling behaviour of the plate should be
checked in accordance with 10.2.4.2.3 of NEN 6771 (see also paragraph 5.3.1).

5.3.7 Lateral torsional buckling of the girder

Because of the small thickness of the corrugated web, the torsion stiffness has a low value.
However, the warping stiffness has a very high value (because of the higher warping section
constant and other common used dimensions), so the warping stiffness should also be taken
into account for calculation of the theoretic elastic lateral torsional buckling moment.
For girders with flat web plates, the lateral torsional buckling factor should be determined
analogous to the buckling factor, according to 12.1.1.4 of NEN 6770. For girders with
corrugated webs an alternative lateral torsional buckling factor can be used (par. 4.5):


4
1
1
M
kip
l
w
+
=





Literature study 44
5.4 Application field

Usually, rolled I-sections are used in an economic favourable way for span lengths in the
range of 212 meter, with a ratio of h/l 1/30. For flat plate girders and comb girders, the
optimum span length is in the range of 820 meter, with a ratio of h/l 1/20 and for trusses
the optimum span length is in the range of 1535 meter, with a ratio of h/l 1/10.

It is not easy to give a reliable estimation of the application range of girders with corrugated
webs. To know the economic application range, not only a girder with a corrugated web has
to be calculated, but for comparison also the competing girders, like the flat plate girder, a
truss and a comb girder. For all of these alternatives a lot of design choices have to be
made; A flat plate with a great thickness or application of transverse/longitudinal stiffeners?
The same design height or the optimum height? What kind of supports? Truss type? etc.
For a good estimation of the several girder types, its also necessary to do the calculation for
several span lengths.

For these reasons, the girder with a corrugated web will be compared with the competing
girders in a further stadium.
For a limited comparison between the flat plate girder and the girder with a corrugated web is
referred to [16], in which a calculation example is given for girders with a height of 2,0 meter
and a flange width of 350 mm. The girders in the example have a span length of 18,0 meter
and are loaded with two local forces of 500 kN. It is concluded that the transverse force
resistance of a girder with a corrugated web is ten times higher than the resistance of the flat
plate girder with the same web thickness. To reach the same strength, the web thickness of
the flat plate girder should be multiplied by 2,5.






Literature study 45
6 STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES

6.1 Introduction

Based on analytical, numerical and experimental results obtained, several design
recommendations, guidelines, etc. have been published. However, the knowledge obtained
is limited to a few mainly European countries like Sweden and Germany. Table 6.1 shows an
overview of the standards and guidelines relevant to the production and design of girders
with corrugated webs.



Date Country Code number Title
1982 Sweden StBK N5 Light-Gauge Metal Structures
1991 Netherlands TGB 1990 Grondslagen bouwconstructies
- NEN 6702 Belastingen en vervormingen
- NEN 6770 Staalconstructies
- NEN 6771 Stabiliteit
- NEN 6772 Verbindingen
1990 Germany DASt-Richtlinie 015 Trger mit Schlanken Stegen
2002 Europe Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures
- Part 1.1 General rules/ rules for buildings
- Part 1.5 Plated structural elements


Only part 1.5 of Eurocode 3, the Swedish standard StBK N5 and the German DASt-Richtlinie
015 deal with girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs. For the general demands with regard
to the material properties, tolerances, etc, the European and the Dutch standard will be
taken into account. In the next paragraphs the contents of the above-mentioned standards
will be presented, except for the Swedish standard (unobtainable).

6.2 Dutch Standard TGB 1990

In NEN 6700 TGB 1990 Algemene basiseisen, all basic demands are given, which are
applicable for all kinds of structures irrespective of the sort of material. These fundamental
demands are specified in NEN 6702 TGB 1990 belastingen en vervormingen and in the
structure material bounded NEN 6770 TGB 1990 Staalconstructies.
This standard with regard to steel structures is completed with the following standards:

NEN 6771: TGB 1990 Stabiliteit
NEN 6772: TGB 1990 Verbindingen
NEN 6773: TGB 1990 Dunne plaat
NEN 6774: TGB 1990 Brosse breuk
NEN 6072: TGB 1990 Brandwerendheid



Table 6.1: Overview of the most relevant standards





Literature study 46
6.3 DASt-Richtlinie 015

6.3.1 Global content of the standard

DASt-Richtlinie 015 deals with girders with slender web plates. The first section deals with
the following general topics; the application field, the structural joints, steel sorts, the
geometrical demands, demands to the loads, the way to check the bearing capacity of
girders and the assumptions for the calculations.

After this general section the following topics come up:

Welded I-sections without stiffeners
Welded I-sections with stiffeners
Girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs
Girders with a gap
Local forces and their introduction
Constructive refinement (about bearing supports and welded joints)
Corrosion protection
Transport and assembly


6.3.2 Section 4: Girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs

General
The direction of the profile should be perpendicular on the girder axe and the web should be
connected with the flanges by the vertical and parallel parts. The web should be connected
with the flanges by continuous fillet welds; a single weld will satisfy. Its advised to place the
corrugated web centrically with regard to the flanges and to use a constant height.
Cut outs are not permitted in corrugated webs.

Bending moment resistance

- Calculation model
The bending moments and the normal forces are only transferred through the flanges and
the shear forces are only transferred through the webs. The bending moment resistance is
confined by yield in the tension flange or buckling of the compression flange.
Because of the profile of the web, transverse moments and out-of-plane forces exist in the
web. For that reason, the yield stresses of the flanges should be reduced by a factor,
presented in the standard (401).

- Stability of the compression flange
To verify the compression flange against buckling, the compression flange can be checked
as a bar under compression bending around the strong z-axe. Formula (402) gives the
equation of the effective width to be taken into account. Girders with corrugated webs should
be verified to lateral torsional buckling analogous to the verification of girders without
stiffeners.

Transverse force resistance
The transverse force resistance is not influenced by bending moments and normal forces.
When the girder is verified by the above-mentioned guidelines, the transverse force
resistance should be determined with help of formula (405). A distinction is made between





Literature study 47
the shear force resistance to local buckling and global buckling. Formula for the slenderness
and the critical stresses of the web are presented.

End stiffeners
End stiffeners should be designed according to chapter 6: Local forces and their
introduction.

6.4 European standard

For the design of steelstructures the following standards are relevant:

Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures
Eurocode 2: Basis of structural design
Eurocode 3: Design of steelstructures

Eurocode 3 is subdivided into several parts. For the design of girders with corrugated webs,
part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings and part 1.5: Plated structural elements are
the most relevant ones.

6.4.1 Eurocode 3: Design of steelstructures

Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings
Part 1.1 of Eurocode 3 gives basic design rules for steel structures with standard low alloy
structural steels and planar plated structures with plate thicknesses t > 3mm.
After a general section, the basis of design is presented, in which additional clauses to those
given in preceding parts are provided. Section 3 deals with material properties of products
made of low alloy structural steels. Section 4 gives general rules for durability and section 5
refers to the structural analysis of structures. Section 6 gives detailed rules for the design of
cross sections and members, and section 7 gives rules for serviceability. The final section
deals with connections and joints.

Part 1.5: Plated structural elements
Part 1.5 of Eurocode 3 gives design requirements of stiffened and unstiffened plates, which
are subject to inplane forces. These requirements are applicable to shear lag effects, effects
of inplane load introduction and effects from plate buckling for I-section plate girders and box
girders. Plated components subject to inplane loads as in tanks and silos, are also covered.
Paragraph 6 of section 2: Basis of design and modelling deals with members with
corrugated webs. Its stated that the bending stiffness may be based on the contributions of
the flanges only, and that the webs may be considered to transfer shear and transverse
loads only. For details with regard to the verification of the web and the flanges is referred to
Annex D.

6.4.2 Annex D Members with corrugated webs

General
The rules given in this annex D are valid for I-girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs and
for I-girders with sinusoidal corrugated webs. Cut outs are not included in the rules for
corrugated webs and for a conservative verification of the local transverse loads is referred
to the rules in section 6.






Literature study 48
Bending moment resistance
A formula is presented to determine the bending moment resistance of the girder. The
bending moment is restricted by yield of one of the flanges or by buckling of the compression
flange. For the trapezoidal corrugated web (not for the sinusoidal one) a reduction applies on
the yield stress. The reduction factor for buckling of the compression flange should be
determined analogous to 6.3: Buckling resistance of members of part 1.1: General rules
and rules for buildings. The effective area of the compression flange should be determined
according to 4.4: Plate elements without longitudinal stiffeners with the given input.

Shear resistance
A general expression is presented to determine the shear resistance of the girder. In this
expression a reduction factor is introduced, which is equal to the smallest of the reduction
factors for local and global buckling. After that the necessary arithmetic methods are given to
determine these reduction factors.

End stiffeners
End stiffeners should be designed according to section 9: Stiffeners.