2006

.1

.2

.3

15

.4

17

.5

18

.6

20

.7

21

24
24

.1

25

.2

28

.3

31

.4

33

.5 ) (

36

.6

38

.7

42

45

.1

45

.2

47

.3

48

.4

51

.5

52

.6

52

59

59

.1

59

.2

61

.3 ) - -(

61

.4 /

62

:
.5
.6

62
63

.7

63

.8

64

.9

64

.10

64

.11 Environmental Compliance

.12
:

65
65
66
66

.1

67

.2

68

.3

69

.4

71

: -

62

81

.1

81
82

.2

84

.3

85

.4

87

.5

88

.6

88

95
96
97

2001

117

2002

124

2005

131

2001

138

2005

140

151

143

144

2002

.2001
:
.1
.

. .

.

. .

.2
) (Urbanization
.
.
.3

.
.
.4

.
.5
.

.
.6

.
.7
.
.
.

.

:

. . - .

:

1933-1929
.

.

.
.

Sustainable Development 1969

Limits To Growth 1971

.

.
.



15 .
.
.

.
.
.
.


.

. .

.
. .


.

.
.1 :
1969
.

.
.1972

" " .




.


.

.
.
1987 United Nation
World 1Commission on Environment and Development.
" :
"
. .

.
.
.
.



Center of Excellence for Sustainable Development: Definitions of Sustainable Development,
www.sustainable.doe.gov/overview/definitions.html

.



.
1992 " "

.221


.

.
.
21

.

:
.
.
.
.

.
.

( United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

Brazil, 3-14 June 1992.

Earth Summit): Agenda 21, Rio de Janeiro,

.


. 21
.
21
.
2002 )
(.
.2 :
1987 )
(

(Our Common Future) 3

.1983

2000 .

"

" 4

.
.

: .
.
3 : ) (142 1989.
4 .19

"

".5

"
.

" 6
.

.
.

:

.

.

.
.
.
.
.

21
1992 .

5 84
6 95
7 .110

1992 8

.
"




".


.
1993 David W. Pearce and Jeremy J.
9Warford
.
GNP

:
SUSTAINABLE INCOME = GNP Dm Dn R A

= GNP
= Dm )( Man-Made Capital
= Dn .

8 . : . 1992.
David W. Peaece and Jeremy J. Warford: World Without End - Economics, Environment and Sustainable
Development, World Bank, 1993.

= R Restorative Expenditure
= A Aversive Expenditure
) ( Man-made Capital

.


.


Gross National Cost

)

(
.

.


.

&
)
( .
.

10

/ .


.
&
.1987

1995 10 Better World

. " :

".
1987
. .

.

.
1997 & Sara Schley and Joe Laur11
) SEED (
.

" :
.
10

Better World (BW): Envisioning a Sustainable Future, MagNet Inc., 1995.

//www.betterworld.com/BWZ/9610/cover1.htm
11
Sara Schley and Joe Laur: The Sustainability Challenge: Ecological and Economic Development. Collen
Lannon, 1997. //www.seedsys.com/articale1.htm

11

.
)
( ".

.



.


.


.

. &
.

1998

12

Alyson Warhurst

.

. " :

.
) ( )

12
Alyson Warhurst: ESRC Global Environmental Change Programme, Developing a Sustainable Economy:
Towards a Pro-Active Research Agenda. International Centre for the Environment, University of Bath. 1998
//www.sussex.ac.uk.htm

12

( .
".
)
(
.
.

. ) (
. Man-made Capital
:
.
.
.
.


) (
.

2002 . Nick Hanly, Jason F.

Shogren & Ben White13 /14 Solow/ Hartwick

.
/ Environmental

) National Product (ENP Net

) National Product (NNP NNP :
Nick Hanly, Jason F. Shogren & Ben White: Environmental Economics, in theory and practice. Palgrave
Macmillan, 2002, p 433-434.

13

14 1987 1989
.1992
.

13

NNP = NP Dm
:
= NP
= Dm Man-made Capital
NNP ENP :

)ENP = NP ( Dm + Dn

Dn .
ENP :
.
/ .

. /

.

.
ENP :
NNP .
)
(.
)
(

14

2002

15

:

.
) (
.
.

.
.3 :

1996 William E. Rees16

. 1992
.
" Human Carrying Capacity
)( ) (

".


.

Ecological Footprint
:
15 . : 285
2002 . .61 57
16
William E. Rees: Revisiting Carrying Capacity: Area-Based Indicators of Sustainability. The University of
British Columbia, School of Community and Regional Planning. //www.dieoff.org/page110.htm.

15

"

"

Personal Planetoid
.
.
:

aai =ci / pi

:
= aai .i
= ci .i .
= pi . .i
aai .
): Ecological Footprint (ef
i=n

ef = aa i
i =1

:
= .ef .
.
= .n .

) EF p = N (ef
.

16

:
= EFp
= N .



.


.
.

. .
.4 :
Aalborg

199417

.

.
,
%80 .

Charter or European Cities and Towns Towards Sustainability ( Aalborg Charter).

//www.iclei.org/Europe/echarter.htm

17

17

.
.

.
.


.


.
.



.

.
.
.5 :
1990

&Siegfried Brenke& Dennis Church& William Hansell

Edward Vine& Richard Zelinski18

Siegfried Brenke& Dennis Church& William Hansell& Edward Vine& Richard Zelinsk: Building
Sustainable Communities, The Historic Imperative For Change, 1990.
//www.ecoip.com/dc-products/prod_ncw.htm

18

18

.

.
.
. :
" .

) (
.
.
"
" .

.
".

.

.21


.

.

.

19

.6 :
1993 Paul Ekins & Michael
Jacobs Environmental Unsustainability19
:

) . :
. CFCs, HFCs .-

) ( ) (
:
CFCs . . ) ( :
. . . . ) ( :
. - .

) ( :
. .Paul Ekins & Michael Jacobs: Environmental Unsustainability. 1993.
//www.unu.edu/hq/unupbooks/80901e/80901E06.htm//

19

20

) ( :
. .
) ( :
. ) ( :
. .
.
1990 3.5 2030
.
.7 :
1996 "
"

20

) (21
:
:
. . . - .

. :
United Nations: Indicators of Sustainable development, Framework and Methodologies. UN Commission
on Sustainable Development, August 1996.

20

21

. . . . :
:
. .:
. : . : . . :
. . - .

.:
. - .

- .

. :
. - .

22

. . 1999 Ian Moffatt ,

Nick Hanley, Mike Wilson& Robin Faichney Universty of
Sussex :
Approximate Environmentally-
): adjusted National Product (AENP

.
.
): Genuine Savings (GS
Man-made Capital
.
): Ecological Footprint (EF
) (
Net Primary Product relative to
): Consumption (NNP/c

.
): Environmental Space (ES

.

Index of Sustainable Economic

) Welfare (ISEW Genuine Progress Indicators

): (GPI

.

23

21

:
)
( 2002
.
1992 )
( . 1996



. .2015 2002

Major Groups
.
.

:
. . - .

.
.
21
9 96 4 2002
. .2002

24

170 . :
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
) (.
.
.

:
. .

.

.
.

.
.1 :

25

.
) (

) (

.
.
.
.


Product Life Spam
.

) (

) (.

.

:

.

26

.
. .
.
.
.
. .

Polluter Pay
.
-

27

. .
.2 :

.

.

.


.
.
.
) (


.

28

.
.


.
.
. .
:

.
. -

.
.
.

.

.

.

.2015

29

2005

.2004
.
.

.

) (
.

.
.

.
.
.

30

.
.
.
. .
. . .3 :



.

.







400 .

31

.


.




.
:
-

.


.

32

.


.
.4 :

.

.

.

.
.

:
.
.
.
:
.
.
.

33

.


.


.


)( .

.

.

.



.
:
.

34

] .
.
. .2010
.2015
2000
.

.

.

.

.

.
- .

35

.

.
.
. .
.5 ) (:

.

.
:
.
.
.
.

.71-62

.
:
:
.

36

.
:

25
% .


.

.

.2005

:
. . ) (.

.


.

.


.

37

.6 :
.
.
.

. .

) (1992
:
"

.

".
:
:




.
.

.
:

38

.



.
.
1992
% 0.7 .

.

.

.
.

.

.


.

39

.
:

.

.
.
.

.
.

.

.

.

.
.

.

.
" "
.

40

.
.

.
:


.


.
:

.
.

.

.

.
.

.


.
.

41

.





.
.

.
.

.

.
.

.7 :
21
) (21
.
Governance .

42

.
:
.
.
21
.

.
21
.
.
. :

.

.

) 21 21
(21 )( .
:

43

.
.
:

.
.
:
.
.

.
.
/
.

2005
.
: Major Groups

) (
.

.

. .

44

:
.1 :

.
284 .
125 65

.22

) (

. )

(
.

.

.
500 .
15 20 )
10 15(

15 20
.

:23

22 : 2002 .39-37
23 .51

45

.
.
.
.

.

.
.


. :


.

:
.
.

46

.2 :


.

.

.
.

.

.

.


.
.


.

47

Pollution Bench Mark

.
.

325

500 .24

. )(

.
.

.
.

.3 :
:
:

.

24 .32

48

.

.
:
)(
.
.

.
.
: )
(
.

.
.

49

) (1-1

+
Pollution
Bench marck

50

)( :
.

.
.
: :
78
.
.
2.5

.
.
.4 :

.

. 1042617 2004
2.7/ .

51

.
.


. .
.5 :
) (

.

.
.
)
(


.


.

. .
.6 :
% 3.4
6
%

52

.
) ) .( 1-2

.
965 2005
2007
) 57.8 ( .
.
.
) (1-2 1965
2005

1965
1975
1985
1995
*2005

160

36.1

299

63.9

308

30.9

687

69.1

470

27.7

1227

72.3

656

41.5

922

58.5

973

34

1894

66

: 2004 ) 1965
(1995 .45
* : 2005/6/30
.

53

.2002
:


.
.

.

.


.
:
:
.
.
:
. - .

. .
.

54

.

.

.


.
:
.
Ecological Footprint25 10.3
.

26

) (2-2
) /(
) (2-2

.
.
.


Over Fishing .

M. Wackernagel, et al: The Ecological Footprint of Nations, UBP Project (1996 data) Calculation of the
Kuwaitis average Ecological Footprint (1996 data), Centre of Sustainability Studies, Mexico, 2001.
wwww.rprogress.org

25

26 .

55

) (2-2 / ) (1996

)/(

)
(

16.0

2.260

42806

18.941

12.3

3.375

79831

23.654

12.2

269.439

7100007

26.351

10.5

5.241

156027

29.770

10.3

1.686

28941

17.165

9.5

3.634

52765

14.520

9.5

3.720

51655

13.886

8.5

18.141

337909

18.627

8.4

5.126

105174

20.518

7.7

29.947

573695

19.157

M. Wackernagel, et al: The Ecological Footprint of Nations, UBP Project (1996 :

)wwww.rprogress.org .data

.
.

56

35
30
25

20

15
10
5
0
9 10

)(2-2
:

:
-

.


.

.
.


.

57

.

.
.
.
.


.
. .

.
.
:

.

.
.


.

58

.

.
:

.
.
) (3-2
.

:

:

: :
.1 :

59

)(3-2

)
(
/

Environmental Compliance

60

.

.


.
.
.
30
" " .


. .
.2 :

.
)( .

.
.3 ) - -(:

.

.
.

61

.

.


)
25
(
.4 / :

.
.

.

: :
.5 :
/.


.
.

.
.

62

.6
:

.

.

.

.
.
.
.
.



.

.
.7 :

/ .

.
.

63

/.

.

.

.
.8 :

.

.
.
.9 :

/

.

.
.10 :
/ .

National

Accounting

64

.
.11 Environmental Compliance
:
.

.
.

Environmental Auditing

.
.
.12 :

.

.

65

1992

) .( Agenda 21

.
.

.

Indicators of Sustainable Development Framework and Methodologies
1995

27

Commission on Sustainable

. Development
.
.

.
.

Mathis

Wackernagel28 Rio+5 Forum

Ecological Footprints of Nations
. 1997

27

United Nations: Indicators of Sustainable Development Framework and Methodologies, New York, 1995.
Mathis Wackernagel et al: Ecological Footprints of Nations, How Much Nature Do They Use? How Much
www.ecouncil.ac.crNature Do They Have?, Rio+5 Forum, 1997.
William E. Rees 1996
.

28

66

.
.

.

:
?How Much Nature Do They Use? How Much Nature Do They Have
.

.
.1 :

.

:29

.
.

.
.
Benchmark
.
Yale Center for Environmental law and policy, Yale University & Center for International Earth Science
Information Network, Colombia University: 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index, Benchmarking
National Environmental Stewardship. World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland & Joint Research
Center, European Commission, Ispra, Italy. 2005.

29

67

:
. CIESIN . ) ( Devos . .
.2002 2000
Environmental Sustainability
.Index
.2 :


.
.

.
.
.
ESI
.
)
( .
.
.
.

68

.

.

:
.
.
.

.
.

.
.
.3 :

.
.
.
.

.

69

)(1-3

ESI

ESI

21

21

76

) (1-3
21 76 .

.
:
:
-

70

:
:
-

:
:
:

:
-

:
:
.4 :

.

71

.
2001.2005 2002
:

.
.
.
:
.
) (1-3 2005 2002 2001

2001

2002

2005

31.9

116

23.9

142

36.6

138

29.8

121

34.2

138

37.8

136

25.7

141

44.6

110

40.2

120

47.9

83

46.5

67

48.8

74

44

115

40.1

96

51.7

53

47.8

84

43.7

83

50.8

62

51.8

55

38.4

105

44.5

104

39.8

132

80.5

73.9

75.1

78.2

73

73.4

: Environmental Sustainability Index 200120012005

) (1-3
.

.
.
.

72

. ) (4-3) (3-3)(2-3

) (2-3 2001
ESI
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

) (3-3 2002
ESI
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

73

) (4-3 2005
ESI
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

21 )
(

.
)( 76
.

) (4-3) (3-3) (2-3

.2005 2002 2001

74

) (2-3 2001
2001

40

20

80

29

18

39

35

70

18

16

46

48

51

42

53

37

32

62

40

45

40

52

60

32

56

35

56

68

27

25

85

58

79

91

70

87

52

82

85

74

: Environmental Sustainability Index 2001

. .

) (
.

)

. .
)
(

75

.
.
.
) (5-3 2001
450

2001

400

350

300

250

200

150
100
50

76

) (3-3 2002
2002

19

10

77

37

14

35

29

78

34

18

27

13

75

37

46

38

41

40

34

54

48

62

34

57

43

51

71

50

56

48

57

69

35

59

41

58

71

27

41

79

58

85

86

55

78

58

85

86

52

: Environmental Sustainability Index 2002

.
.
)
( .
) (6-3 2002
400

2002

350
300

250

200

150

100
50

77

.
.
2005 2001
.2002
83 55 .2005

) (4-3 .2005
2005

69

34

24

31

9
27

37

31

46

43

64

49

40

72

40

60

59

61

37

15

44

41

40

44

54

47

38

55

52

55

41

52

61

50

61

33

59

56

29

19

74

61

81

92

68

82

48

78

91

66

: Environmental Sustainability Index 2005

.

.
.
.2002

78

120
.83
55

.

.
) (7-3 2005
400

2005

350
300

250

200

150

100
50

) (7-3

:
:
.

.

.

79

:
.
.

.
.

80

-

:

/
.

.

.
. /
" " Polluter Pay
.

. .
.

.
.

.

.

81

.

.

-1 :

) ( .
Non-marketable Activities

.

.
1993

.
) (21 .1992

.

14000 1996 Indoor

Environment Outdoor Environment
.
.

82

14000 Environmental Management

) System (EMS

) ( .
.
EMS .
1999

30

EMA

. EMS
.
.

2004

31

.

.
2003

Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting.
SEEA 2003 :32

.

.
Technology: Report of the Expert Working Group Meeting on Governments' Role in Promoting
Environmental Management Accounting, Washington DC, 30-31 August 1999
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/technology/estemausa.htm
31
Report of the Meeting on Environmental-Economic Accounting
Copenhagen, 20-21 September 2004.United Nations.Department of Economic and Social Affairs February 2005.
Handbook of National Accounting, Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting 2003.
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envAccounting/seea.htm

30

32

83

.
.

.

.
.

. )
(.

-2 :

.

/ Cost/

Benefit Analyses
) (.

.
.

.
:

.

84

.


) ( .
) (
.

.
.
.

(.

) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA
.
.

.
.
-3 :
.
Accounting Scope
:
:

.
.

85

)
( Non-marketed goods and
.services
.
:

.
.
:

.
.

) (
.


.

.

33

External Costs
.

European Commission: External Costs, Research results on Socio-Environmental damages due to electricity and
. www.accaglobal.comtransport. 2003.

33

86

) Value Subtracted /

(.

.
-4 :

.
.
SEEA 200334

SEEA 2003 .

.
.

/ .

.
SEEA 2003
. SEEA 2003
.

Handbook of National Accounting, op., cit.

34

87

-5 :
)
( :
.
) . System of National Accounting (SNA

.

. )
( .
-6 :


. :
.1 :
.
:

:
.
: .
.
:
.

88

:Residuals ) (.
.2 :Hybrid Flow

.
) ( .
/

) (1-4
.
.

89

) (1-4

) (

90

.3 :

.
.

.
) (.

.
.4 :

.

.
.
.
.
) .(SAM

National Accounting Matrix

) Including Environmental Accounts (NAMEA

.
.
. :

91

) (1-4 )(NAMEA

)(+

)(-

:


:

.
.5 :
.
.

. .

92

: :

.
.

.
.
: .
.

.
.
: .
.
.
.
.
: .
.
.
.

) (.
. Landscapes

93

) (.

.
.6 :
.
:

.
.7 :

.
.

94

:

.
:


.

.

. SEEA 2003

.

.

95

96

:
)( :

285 2002 . 57
.61

9 96
4 2002
). - (
:
) (142 1989.
: 2002
.39-37
)( : .
1992.

143

:
Alyson Warhurst: ESRC Global Environmental Change Programme,
Developing a Sustainable Economy: Towards a Pro-Active Research
Agenda. International Centre for the Environment, University of Bath.
1998 //www.sussex.ac.uk.htm
Better World (BW): Envisioning a Sustainable Future, MagNet Inc.,
1995. //www.betterworld.com/BWZ/9610/cover1.htm
Center of Excellence for Sustainable Development: Definitions of
Sustainable Development,
www.sustainable.doe.gov/overview/definitions.html
Charter or European Cities and Towns Towards Sustainability (
Aalborg Charter). //www.iclei.org/Europe/echarter.htm

Copenhagen, 20-21 September 2004.United Nations.Department of Economic and

Social Affairs February 2005.

David W. Peaece and Jeremy J. Warford: World Without End Economics, Environment and Sustainable Development, World Bank,
1993
Environmental Sustainability Index, Benchmarking National Environmental
Stewardship. World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland & Joint Research
Center, European Commission, Ispra, Italy. 2005.
European Commission: External Costs, Research results on Socio-Environmental
damages due to electricity and transport. 2003. www.accaglobal.com.
Handbook of National Accounting, Integrated Environmental and Economic
Accounting 2003.
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envAccounting/seea.htm
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/technology/estemausa.htm
M. Wackernagel, et al: The Ecological Footprint of Nations, UBP Project (1996
data) Calculation of the Kuwaitis average Ecological Footprint (1996 data),
Centre of Sustainability Studies, Mexico, 2001. wwww.rprogress.org
Mathis Wackernagel et al: Ecological Footprints of Nations, How Much Nature Do
They Use? How Much Nature Do They Have?, Rio+5 Forum, 1997.
www.ecouncil.ac.cr

Nick Hanly, Jason F. Shogren & Ben White: Environmental

Economics, in theory and practice. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, p 433434.
Paul Ekins & Michael Jacobs: Environmental Unsustainability. 1993.
//www.unu.edu/hq/unupbooks/80901e/80901E06.htm//
Report of the Meeting on Environmental-Economic Accounting

Sara Schley and Joe Laur: The Sustainability Challenge: Ecological and
Economic Development. Collen Lannon, 1997.
//www.seedsys.com/articale1.htm

144

Siegfried Brenke& Dennis Church& William Hansell& Edward Vine&

Richard Zelinsk: Building Sustainable Communities, The Historic
Imperative For Change, 1990. //www.ecoip.com/dcproducts/prod_ncw.htm
Technology: Report of the Expert Working Group Meeting on Governments' Role
in Promoting Environmental Management Accounting, Washington DC, 30-31
August 1999

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( Earth

Summit): Agenda 21, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3-14 June 1992.
United Nations: Indicators of Sustainable Development Framework and
Methodologies, New York, 1995.

United Nations: Indicators of Sustainable development, Framework and

Methodologies. UN Commission on Sustainable Development, August
1996.
William E. Rees: Revisiting Carrying Capacity: Area-Based Indicators
of Sustainability. The University of British Columbia, School of
Community and Regional Planning. //www.dieoff.org/page110.htm.
Yale Center for Environmental law and policy, Yale University & Center for
International Earth Science Information Network, Colombia University: 2005.

145