Formability Training Sep 2013 PDF

Fundamentals of Sheet Metal Formability
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i
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Test your Sheet Metal Fundamentals......................................................................... 1
Chapter 2: Presentations .................................................................................................. .............. 5
Section 1: Manufacture and Processing of Sheet Metals........................................................... 6
Section 2: Determination of the Mechanical Properties of Sheet Metal ................................... 15
Section 3: Basic Modes of Deformation in Stamping ............................................................... 26
Section 4: Defects in Stamping................................................................................................. 36
Section 5: Tests of Formability ................................................................................................. 40
Section 6: Press Actions ............................................................................................................ 59
Section 7: Basics of Draw Die Development............................................................................. 71
Section 8: Advanced Forming Processes and Technologies ................................................... 82
Section 9: Review: State-of-the-Art in Forming Simulation Technology................................. 90
Chapter 3: Workshops ................................................................................................................. 100
Workshop I: Mechanical Properties of Sheet Metal Materials ........................................... 101
Part 1: Review Typical Uni-Axial Force/Extension Data.......................................................... 102
Part 2: Derive Engineering Stress / Engineering Strain Data .................................................. 103
Part 3: Derive True Stress/True Strain Data............................................................................ 104
Part 4: Derive True Stress/True Plastic Strain......................................................................... 105
Workshop II: Practical Assessment of the Post-Formed State ........................................... 107
.
Part 1: Identify and Measure Major and Minor Axes ................................................................ 109
Part 2: Calculate Major and Minor Strains ................................................................................ 110
Part 3: Plot Major Strains Against Minor Strains ...................................................................... 113
Parts 4 and 5: Identify the Mode of Deformation ...................................................................... 114
ii
Chapter 1: Test Your Sheet Metal Fundamentals
Proprietary Information of Altair Engineering, Inc.
Chapter 1
Test your Sheet Metal
Fundamentals
In This Chapter:
Quiz
1

Test your Sheet Metal Fundamentals
1) What is the definition of Steel?
a) Alloy of Iron and Carbon b) Alloy of Aluminum and Carbon
c) Alloy of Tungsten and Carbon d) Alloy of Nickel & Cadmium
2) What does DQSK Steel stand for?
a) Draw Quality Special Killed b) Draw Quantity Simple King
c) Design Quality Steel Killed d) None of the above
3) If a member is subjected to a force of F, across a section of area A, the amount of
engineering stress in the member is
a) F/A b) F*A
c) A/F d) None of the above
4) If the initial length of a member is L and it undergoes an elongation of l the
engineering strain e is
a) l/ L b) l/(L-l)
c) L*l d) L*(L-l)
5) In the above example how will you compute the true strain from engineering strain
e?
a) 1+e b) ln (1+e)
c) ln (e) d) ln (e-1)
6) If the total strain is e, the plastic strain is e
p
, what is the value of the elastic strain
e
e
?
a) e
p
1 b) e
p
* e
c) e e
p
d) None of the above
7) Luders Bands appear
a) After the yield point b) Before Yield point
c) At Failure d) After Failure
2
8) Higher strain ratio r implies ability to draw
a) More deep b) Less deep c) No effect d) Cannot draw
9) In steels in general the higher the value of the yield, the hardening exponent n is
a) Higher b) Lower c) Same d) No effect
10) In the Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) the X and Y axes represent respectively
a) Major and Minor Strain b) Minor and Major Strain
c) Major and Minor Stress d) Minor and Major Stress
11) Points above the FLC in the FLD diagram indicate
a) Safe zones b) Failure due to splitting
c) Wrinkles d) Marginal failure due to splitting
12) The lower the Youngs modulus of the material
a) Greater is the springback b) Lower is the springback
c) No change d) Cannot say
13) Tip Angle of the die influences which of these?
a) Initial contact b) Draw depth
c) Flow of the material d) All of the above
14) Addendum is defined as the portion
a) Outside the part b) Inside the part
c) Around the drawbead d) On the punch
15) Draw Bars are used to control the
a) Unequal length of line b) Flow of the material
c) Blank shape d) All of the above
3
16) Metal Gainers are used in
a) Stretch flanging operation b) Shrink flanging operation
c) Trimming d) None of the above
17) In mechanical presses the maximum tonnage occurs
a) At TDC b) Remains the same through out
c) At BDC d) Between the TDC and BDC
18) Which is true?
a) Hydraulic Presses are slower than Mechanical Presses
b) Hydraulic Presses can attain higher loads
c) Hydraulic Presses can give constant tonnage throughout the stroke
d) All of the above
19) Superplastic forming is done under
a) Elevated temperature b) At very low temperatures
c) Very high tonnage d) None of the above
20) Wrinkling can be observed in one step simulation by looking at the
a) Thinning percentage b) Major and Minor Strains
c) FLD contour d) All of the above
21) To do incremental analysis the user requires
a) Die data b) Blank size and properties
c) Process conditions d) All of the above
4
Chapter 2: Presentations
Chapter 2
Presentations
In This Chapter:
Manufacture and processing of sheet metals - 6
Determination of the mechanical properties of sheet metal - 15
Basic modes of deformation in stamping - 26
Defects in stamping - 36
Tests of formability - 40
Basics of draw die development - 59
Press actions - 71
Advanced forming processes and technologies - 82
Review: State-of-the-Art in Forming Simulation Technology - 90
5
Formability of Sheet Metal Basic Training
2013, Altair Engineering Inc. Reproduction Prohibited Without Written Permission
1 of 18
SECTION I
MANUFACTURE AND PROCESSING OF
SHEET METALS
2 of 18
OUTLINE
Composition of steel
Micro-Structure, Processing and Alloying additions
Coating Systems
Mild Steels
Advanced High Strength Steels
Other Materials
6
3 of 18
STEEL COMPOSITION
Carbon Steels
Element %weight
Carbon 0.030% - 0.050%
Nitrogen 0.002% - 0.005%
Manganese 0.150% - 0.300%
Aluminium 0.030% - 0.070%
Silicon <0.010%
Silicon Phosphate <0.010%
4 of 18
SHAPING, ROLLING AND FINISHING
Hot Rolling
The importance of Recrystallisation
Variables in Hot Rolling
Cold Reduction
Grades of Cold Reduced Materials
Batch Annealing
Continuous Annealing
7
5 of 18
BATCH AND CONTINUOUS ANNEALING
6 of 18
COATING SYSTEMS
Barrier Methods
Sacrificial Systems
Hot Dip Processes
Electro-deposition
Organic Coating
Plastic Laminated Strip
8
7 of 18
COST COMPARISON
Factors Affecting Steel Costs
Steel Type Relative
Cost
Hot Rolled Carbon Steel 0.86
Cold Rolled Class II 1.00
Cold Rolled Class I 1.02
HSLA AISI 50XK 1.11
HSLA AISI 60XK 1.14
Hot Dipped Galvanised 1.17
Aluminized 1.21
Electro-Galvanized 1.29
8 of 18
HIGH STRENGTH STEELS (HSS)
HSLA
Dual Phase Steels
Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP Steels)
Bake Hardenable Steels
Martensitic (Mart) Steel
The last 4 fall in the category of Advanced High Strength Steel
(AHSS)
9
9 of 18
AHSS MICRO-STRUCTURE AND BEHAVIOR
www.worldautosteel.org
10 of 18
AHSS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
10
11 of 18
AHSS THINNING
Substitution of DP 350/600 for HSLA 350/450 reduces the
maximum thinning from 25% to 20%
12 of 18
SPRINGBACK
DP steels show larger springback than HSLA. For TRIP steels
springback is between DP and HSLA steels.
11
13 of 18
OTHER MATERIALS
Sound Deadened Steel (Polymer Composite Sandwich)
Stainless Steel
Aluminum
Titanium
Magnesium
Composites
14 of 18
Material Requirements
For the end customer
Visual appearance
Corrosion resistance
Safety in crash
For the OEM
Ease of manufacture (formability)
Low cost
Ease of coating and surface treatment
12
8
15 of 18
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Low Density - light
Good corrosion resistance
Nontoxic (used in food containers)
Good recyclability (about 90% recovered and recycled in
automotive)
4-5 times more expensive than steel (pound for pound)
Will split at sharp stamping angles; more springback than steel
16 of 18
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
5000 series: 2.5~3% Mg
Good drawability
Strength and ductility are low (up to 275 MPa and 22%
elongation)
Can form Luders bands
Work hardens during stamping
6000 series: 1% Si, 0.5~1% Mg
Higher strength (up to 400MPa)
Heat treatable
Compatible with paint processing
Bake hardens during painting
13
17 of 18
Titanium
Relatively light
High Strength
Superior corrosion resistance
Expensive (about 5 times cost of aluminum)
Difficult to extract in its pure state
Traditionally used in aerospace applications
18 of18
Composites
Light
High Strength
No corrosion
Poor cycle time
Difficult to control process (thermal)
Delamination issues
Traditionally used in aerospace and race car applications
Recent trend towards commercial vehicles
14
1 of 22
DETERMINATION OF THE MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF SHEET METAL
SECTION II

2 of 22
UNI-AXIAL RESPONSE OF A METAL
Material response is fundamental to formability
Subject material to well defined load with clearly
measured response
Fundamental test of material response independent of
specimen geometry
Uni-axial tensile test is the basic experimental test
Direct stress as opposed to shear stress
Metals behavior identical for both tension and
compression
15
3 of 22
SIMPLE BAR EXAMPLE
For an applied tensile direct
load the extension of the bar
is measured (Fig 1)
Monotonic increase in
applied load measure
resulting extension
Obtain Load / Extension
Characteristics
Initial linear relationship
between load and extension
(Hookes Law)
Limit of Proportionality
Fig 1
4 of 22
ELASTIC RESPONSE
Elastic behavior characterized by two independent elastic
constants
Common elastic constants are Youngs Modulus (E) and
Poissons Ratio ()
Both constants can be measured from uni-axial tensile test
Youngs Modulus determined by slope of stress/strain curve
Poissons Ratio relationship between longitudinal and lateral
strain (Fig 2)
16
5 of 22
Fig 2
6 of 22
ELASTIC RESPONSE (Contd.)
Elastic properties ( Bulk Modulus (K), Shear Modulus (G) )
Metallic elastic constants insensitive to wide range of chemical
composition
Medium strength mild steel / high strength E = 200210 GPa
Poissons Ratio = 0.3
) 1 ( 2 u + = G E ) 2 1 ( 3 u - = K E
17
7 of 22
ELASTO-PLASTIC
RESPONSE
Elasto-plastic behaviour
exhibits non-linear
response
Loading beyond yield
point results in
irrecoverable plastic
strains (Fig 3)
History Dependent
Fig 3
8 of 22
Post-Yield Terminology
(Fig 4)
Definition of yield stress
(Limit of proportionality,
proof stress)
Work / Strain hardening
Ultimate stress (tensile
strength)
Uniform elongation strain
Fracture elongation strain
Fig 4
18
9 of 22
A DISCUSSION OF UNI-AXIAL TENSILE TEST
Typical Tensile Test Configuration (Fig 5)
Specimen is monotonically loaded until fracture
Gauge length is continuously measured for applied load
Typically, quasi-
static application
of load
Displacement v
Load Controlled
(Low v high
work hardening)
Fig 5
10 of 22
Typical Experimental Curves and Idealizations
Many metals do not exhibit a distinct yield point
Fig 6
19
11 of 22
Yield Point Elongation (YPE) is characterised by discontinuities
(Fig 7)
Stretcher strains (Luders Bands) appear on the surface
Fig 7
12 of 22
Strain-Rate Effects on Mechanical Properties
Elastic Response is Insensitive to Strain-Rate
Elevated Yield Stress /
Post-Yield Behaviour
(Fig 8)
Generally forming
speeds too low to
include
Fig 8
20
13 of 22
STRESS / STRAIN CURVE DEFINITIONS
Engineering Stress / Engineering Strain (Also Nominal)
Convert Load / Extension Curve
o A P/ = s o L Lo L /
- = e
Length Original - L
Length Gauge Measured - L
Area Original - A
Load Applied -
o
o
P
14 of 22
True Stress / True Strain
Finite element codes use true stress / true strain formulation
Relationship between engineering and true stress / true strain

) 1 ( e s s + = T
) 1 ( log e e + = n T
where
s - Engineering Stress
e - Engineering Strain
sT - True Stress
eT - True Strain
21
15 of 22
True Stress / True Strain
Conversion produces
increased
representation of the
instability region (Fig 9)
However, still only
approximate measure
of fracture
Stress-Strain Relationship
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
N
/
m
m
^
2
)
Engineering
True
Fig 9
16 of 22
Power Law Fits
Hollomans Law and Ludwig Equation

n
n
or T
o T T T
K K e s s e s + = =
stress yield Reference
exponent ning) (strengthe hardening Work - n
Value Strength -
o
- s
K
n and K determined from log s / log e gradient
Can be an approximate fit.
22
17 of 22
Krupkowski-Swift Law

where

n
o
K e e s + =
n
n
u
n
e
K

=
s

n
y
o
K
1
=
s
e
K - Strength parameter
n - hardening exponent
e - Constant 2.712
su - Ultimate tensile strength
eo - Reference Strain
18 of 22
Strain-Rate Effects
Cowper-Symonds Inclusion of Strain-Rate effects
C, p - Cowper Symonds Hardening Parameters
e - Strain rate
Extension to Hollomans Law
m - Hardening Parameter
p
o
C
1
1
+ =
e
s
s
m
T
n
T T
K e e s =
23
19 of 22
METAL ANISOTROPY
Generally, metals considered as isotropic
Material properties are independent of direction
Typical anisotropic materials wood, polymer composites, bone
A specialized case of anisotropic is orthotropic
Material properties are orthogonal directions
Cold rolling of sheet metal produces orthogonal direction
properties (Rolling / Transverse / Through Thickness) (Fig 10)
20 of 22
Fig 10
24
21 of 22
Through Thickness Anisotropy

Plastic Strain ratio r

r is a measure of the resistance to thinning

thickness and width Original -
thickness and width Final -
wo,to
wf,tf
Fig 11
o
f
n
o
f
n
t
w
t
t
w
w
r log log
= =
e
e
22 of 22
In-Plane Anisotropy

Rolled sheet is anisotropic in the plane of the sheet

Sheet is tested in three directions 0, 45, 90 to the rolling direction

Lankford parameters r
0
, r
45
and r
90

Allows determination of an average r

A further measure is r

{ }4 2
90 45 0
r r r r + + =
{ }
2 2
45 90 0
r r r r
- + =
25
1 of 19
BASIC MODES OF DEFORMATION IN
STAMPING
SECTION III
2 of 19
Historical Perspective
First Example of Mass Production - The Roman Army
Thousands of Formed Brass Plates for Soldiers Belts
Using Presses Dating Back to 1 AD
First Example of Crank Press for High Speed Mass
Production 2000 years later in 1850 - Military applications
Dramatic Expansion of Sheet Metal Forming Due to
Arrival of Motor Car
26
3 of 19
Deep Drawing
Developed by Alexander
Parkes (1813 - 90)
First Copper, Then Steel
With Bessemer
Parkes Bessemer
Experiment
4 of 19
Components
Punch
Blank
Blank Holder
Die
Punch
Die
Blank Holder
Blank
27
5 of 19
Punch
Nomenclature
Punch Nose
Punch Profile Radius
Punch Profile
Radius
Punch Nose
6 of 19
Blank Holder
Holding Pressures
Friction
Punch
Blank
Holder
Die
Blank
28
7 of 19

Die
Nomenclature

Die Profile Radius

Die Binder Face
Die Profile Radius Die Binder Face
Draw Bead
8 of 19

Blank

Flange - held between the die binder face and the
blank holder

Material - Careful choice vital for successful form

Lubrication - Can assist deep draws

Shaping - Can relieve stresses at corners of boxes

29
9 of 19
Deep Drawing
Nomenclature
Drawing Ratio
Bend Ratio
Limiting Drawing radius
Punch
Blank
R
r
0

10 of 19
Deep Drawing
Processes
Radial Drawing Between
Die and Blank Holder (x)
Bending / Unbending
Under Tension Over Tool
Radii (y)
Stretching Between
Punch and Die (y/z)
Stretching Over Punch
Nose (z)
z y x
30
11 of 19

BASIC MODES OF DEFORMATION
Deep Drawing

Stretch Forming

Stretch Flanging

Bending
12 of 19

DEEP DRAWING
31
13 of 19
DEEP DRAWING Contd.
Principal deformation modes are stretch radially and
shrink compression in the flanges
Limit of Deep Drawing determined from a balance of
drawing forces (blank holder, beads, bars etc ) and the
fracture resistance of the side walls of the blank
r-value, Limiting Draw Ratio (LDR), Equivalent Drawing
Load and Draw Forming Ratio as a measure of the
drawing capability of a blank
Standard tests to assess drawing performance
14 of 19
STRETCH FORMING
32
15 of 19
STRETCH FORMING Contd.
Surface area of the blank is enlarged by stretching or
stretch-drawing to form the component
Localized straining events should be kept to a minimum
The ability of the material to redistribute stresses by
work hardening is critical in stretch forming, i.e. n-value
Combination of Low Yield plus High Tensile Strength is
optimal for stretched panels
Tests to assess stretch
16 of 19
STRETCH FLANGING
33
17 of 19
STRETCH FLANGING Contd.
Central hole is subject to expansion. Material in this
area is highly strained
Edge ductility is of critical importance
Tests to assess stretch-flange capability
18 of 19
BENDING
34
19 of 19

BENDING Contd.
Sheet Metal is subject to a curvature change over a finite radius

Bending is initially an elastic event which is recoverable.
However with increased moment and/or sheet tension a
permanent plastic set may be introduced

Outer and inner radius will be in tension and compression
respectively

35
1 of 8
DEFECTS IN STAMPING
SECTION IV
2 of 8
STAMPING FAILURES
Splitting
Wrinkling
Springback and Side Wall Curl
Earing
36
3 of 8
SPLITTING
Splitting predominantly is initiated by a localized deformation
called necking
4 of 8
SPLITTING
37
5 of 8
WRINKLING
Caused by compressive instability
6 of 8
SPRINGBACK AND SIDE WALL CURL
Springback and Side Wall Curl are caused by elastic recovery
of the panel after the part is unloaded when the tools retract
from BDC
38
7 of 8
EARING
Caused by excessive planar anisotropy of the materlal, high Dr
8 of 8
STAMPING FAILURES Contd.
Galling, Panel Scoring, Pick-up

Stamping Marks, Feature Line Movement, Skid-Lines

Highs and Lows, Oil-canning

Bad Strike, multiple contacts out of sync, Bow Waves

Sag into Die Cavity, prior to hit. Alteration to length of line

De-lamination, powdering and flaking

Dent resistance and Fatigue. Is the post-formed panel ready
for its form, fit and function

39
1 of 37
TESTS OF FORMABILITY
SECTION V
2 of 37
Basic Theory
Strains measured by
change in ellipse
diameters relative to circle
diameters
Major Strain
Minor Strain
Strains calculated are
surface strains
40
3 of 37
Example:

Original Circle Size: 3 mm
dia
Major Ellipse Axis: 4 mm
Minor Ellipse Axis: 2.6 mm

Major Strain: (4-
3)/3*100%
= 33%
Minor Strain: (2.6-
3)/3*100%
=-13%

Plotting Major and Minor Strain
Minor Strain (%)
Major Strain (%)
0 -10 -20 20 10
10
20
30
40
4 of 37

Types of
Deformation
Behavior

Plotting points on major
and minor strain diagrams

Modes of deformation can
be derived from major-
minor strain plots
41
5 of 37
Constant Volume
Volume of metal stays
constant during plastic
deformation
Metal moved not added or
removed
Provides relationship
between surface and
thickness strains
6 of 37
BASIS OF THE FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM
Keelers famous paper published 1965
Inferred that for any given material a limit strain graph could be
derived empirically and hence plotted
This empiricism would encompass scribing small diameter circles
onto metal test pieces and bi-axially stretching to failure
Measure the strain circles at the onset of failure
Keeler results were for +ve major and minor strain. Goodwin
(1968) proposed method for both +ve and -ve major and minor
strains and as such the Keeler-Goodwin diagram (FLD) was
derived
42
7 of 37
KEELERS ORIGINAL RESULTS
The results from Keelers paper (1965), for +ve major and
minor strain
8 of 37
BASIS OF THE FORMING LIMIT CURVE
Curve Premise: by stretching sheet samples of varying
dimensions, and thus inducing different modes of
deformation, a number of limiting strain points for a material
can be attained
These limiting strain points may then be connected
culminating in a Forming Limit Curve
The Forming Limit Curve (FLC ) plotted on a Forming Limit
Diagram (FLD), defines the limits to which a material can be
strained successfully before inducing failure caused by
localised non-uniform deformation of the material
The FLC is a measure of a metals Formability
43
9 of 37
FORMING LIMIT CURVE PRODUCTION
Method was devised by Nakazima et al.
Using hemi-spherical punch and steel strips of fixed length, but
varying width, a whole range of strain ratios (e1/e2) can be
produced, from -0.5 to 1.0. The width of the strips force the
different mode of deformation
Bi-axial modes on the wider strips to pure shear on the thinnest
Strips 6 long and between 1 and 6 wide used in suitable steps
will produce an adequate FLC
Strips marked with 2-3 mm circle grid prior to deformation, this
enables thinning strain and circle grid analysis to be carried out
on the post-formed strips
10 of 37
NAKAZIMA STRIPS
44
11 of 37
FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM CONVENTIONS
When measuring strain, the major strain is by definition the larger
of the two strains relating to a deformed ellipse. The major strain
is always greater than or equal to the minor strain
The FLD in industry is usually always plotted as the relation of
Engineering major strain to Engineering minor strain. This is
again by convention
Measurement equipment should be thoroughly calibrated before
estimating induced strain. This should be done on circles of
known diameter. Any persistent error should be recorded on the
test sheet.
Results from strips which do not exhibit a pole failure should be
disregarded
12 of 37
FORMING MODES ON THE FLD
Plane Strain
Equi-Biaxial Tension
Pure Shear (Draw)
Uni-Axial Tension
Uni-Axial Compression
Strain Ratio
45
13 of 37
FORMING MODES ON THE FLD Contd.
14 of 37
RESULTS OF DIFFERENT MODES ON PANELS
Right Hand Side
Left Hand Side
46
15 of 37
THE FORMING ENVELOPE
Concept of Forming Envelope on the FLD
Ductile Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Propensity to Wrinkle
Damage
Recap of Failure Modes bounded on the FLD
16 of 37
THE FORMING ENVELOPE Contd.
47
17 of 37
THE FORMING ENVELOPE Contd.
18 of 37
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FLC
n-value
FLD
o
Strain Rate Hardening
Gauge Influence on the FLC
Out of Plane Loading and In Plane Loading
Edge Ductility
48
19 of 37
INFLUENCE OF n-value ON THE FLC
20 of 37
FLD
49
21 of 37
INFLUENCE OF STRAIN RATE ON THE FLC
22 of 37
INFLUENCE OF GAUGE ON THE FLC
50
23 of 37
INFLUENCE OF EDGE DUCTILITY ON THE FLC
24 of 37
OFFSET TO FLC FOR SAFETY
51
25 of 37
COMPLEX STRAIN PATHS AND THE FLC
26 of 37
SOME EXAMPLE FORMING LIMIT CURVES
52
27 of 37
Basics of Circle
Grid Analysis

Circles marked on blank
surface in regular pattern

As blank deforms to
create pressing, circles
deform

Deformations can be
measured and strains
derived.
28 of 37

Early Marking
Techniques

Original scribed square
grid designs
Problematic Because:
Grid line spacing too wide
Difficult to decide what to
measure
Scribing slow, lead to non-
typical failure
53
29 of 37
Evolution of Circle
Grids
Circle grids chosen in
favour of other marking
methods
Clearly identifiable
measurable quantities
Better accuracy
Several grid designs have
been developed
30 of 37
Choice of Circle Size
What is the lower limit ?
Grumbach and Sanz generated FLDs using range
of circle sizes
Found dependency of FLD shape and level
Circle diameters 2 to 3 mm chosen to meet plane
strain criterion
54
31 of 37
Imprinting Techniques
Requirements:
Durable - Cannot be damaged or worn during
process
Accurate - Distortions will be measured relative
to pre-defined original size
Efficient - Standard size grids can be marked
on any type of blank
32 of 37
Photogridding
Coating of blank with ultraviolet-
sensitive emulsion
Exposed through negative
Developed
Highly accurate method but delicate
55
33 of 37
Electrochemical
Marking
Nylon sheet produced
through photoresist
method
Felt pad soaked in
electrolyte
Electrical connnections
made to blank and roller
Process takes 20-30s to
complete
34 of 37
Measurement Techniques
Must be efficient and accurate
Mylar tape
56
35 of 37

Measurement
Methods (Cont)

Bench Microscope

Ayres Analyser

36 of 37
ANALYTICALLY DERIVED FLC
57
37 of 37
Workshop
58
1 of 23
PRESS ACTIONS
SECTION VI
2 of 23
Established Forming Technologies and
Methodologies
Press Actions
Introduction to Mechanical Presses
Force Curves
Speed of Hit
Stroke (Top Dead Centre to Bottom Dead
Centre)
Shut Height
Press Stiffness
Hydraulic Presses
Mechanical and Hydraulic Presses - pros
and cons
Automation in the Press Shop
Transfer Presses
Tandem Presses
59
3 of 23
Press Actions
Mechanical, Hydraulic, Steam, Pneumatic and Electromagnetic
Press Actions / Press Motions
Single Action processes
Double Action processes
Multiple Actions
Screw Type Action
Press Frame Construction & Typical Layouts
Drive Systems, Number of slides
Press Drive mechanisms - crank, knuckle joint, cam-driven
4 of 23
Introduction to Mechanical Presses
Presses can be as large as 6000 tons
Bed sizes can be up to 10 metres by 5 metres
Presses can have large bed and die space, but low tonnage
Presses can have small bed sizes, but high tonnage (e.g. coining
presses)
Force generated by slide through a crank connected to motor
60
5 of 23
Mechanical Presses &
Press Shops

Presses
Typical Mechanical Press
Terminology
Force Mechanism
Gear Action
Clutch and Brake Mechanism
Marquette Function
Gas Pins
Press Guards
Power isolators
Die Jacks
Cam pressing
6 of 23
Mechanical Presses &
Press Shops

Terminology
Crown
Bed
Bolster Plates
Wrist Pins
Saddle
Slide
Upright
Connections
Punch
Die
Blank Holder
61
7 of 23
Force Curves
Mechanical Press
Force Rating determined by
loads on press frame and tie
rods, gears, shafts and
bearings
Energy rating determined by
drive motor, clutch and brake
Press Energy
Press Tonnage
8 of 23
Speed of Hit
Presses can operate between 1 and 3600 strokes/minute.
Choice of press speed is crucial to successful process.
Available energy to do work also varies.
62
9 of 23
Stroke
Stroke is the distance between
Top Dead Centre (TDC) and
Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).
The dimensional difference of
the slides movement during the
power cycle. The stroke must
always be greater than the
distance the die has to travel to
operate properly.
10 of 23
Shut Height
SHUT HEIGHT
The space reserved in the press
for the accommodation of the
tools. It is measured from the top
of the press bed to the bottom of
the slide (RAM) with the screw
adjust up.
63
11 of 23
Press Stiffness
Every press deforms under load
Type of operation will determine press stiffness
Influences the functional accuracy of pressed panels
Stiffer and stronger the better!
12 of 23
Introduction to
Hydraulic Presses
Hydraulic Presses Provide
Slower Cycle Times
Speed Variability
Controllable Force
Characteristics
64
13 of 23
Hydraulic Presses
Hydraulic Presses can have many slides and motions

Press construction to same standard as mechanical presses

Drive system stiffness in fluid compressibility

Typical press capacity 100 to 1000 tons
14 of 23
Hydraulic Presses (cont)
Speed Requirements

Slower cycle times than mechanical presses
Pressing speeds up to 0.25 m/s
Approach/return speeds up to 0.85 m/s

65
15 of 23
Hydraulic Presses (Cont)
Hydraulic Press Types
Push down
16 of 23
Pull down
Lower overall height
Stiffer Design
More expensive
66
17 of 23
Fluid Cell Type
Uses flexible bladder
Can make shapes impossible to press in conventional press
Process time can be up to 3 mins
Used in aircraft industry
18 of 23
Hydraulic Press Advantages
Adjustability
Impossible to overload
Variable speed
Variable force
Economic when high forces are required
Material thickness variations
67
19 of 23
Hydraulic Press Disadvantages
Slower speed
Larger drive motors required
Require special cooling
Shock loading
Hydraulic versus Mechanical presses
20 of 23
Automation in the Press Shop
Tri-Axis Transfer Press Line
Performs all stamping operations within one press
Use of feedbars to transfer panels.
Transfer presses are usually five stages
68
21 of 23
Transfer Presses
Advantages
Performs all pressing operation
within one press
Faster die changes than
tandem press
Faster running rates than
tandem press
Disadvantages
More expensive than tandem
press
Less versatile than tandem
press
22 of 23
Tri-Axis Transfer Press Line
Successive Operations Performed Within One Press
Panel Transfer by Feedbars
with Attached Transfer Fingers
Advantages:
Fast Running Rates (SPM)
Die Changes Faster
69
23 of 23
Tandem Presses
Series of individual presses in
close proximity
Robots handle transfer between
presses
Number of presses may vary
Cost effective and flexible
70
1 of 21
BASICS OF DRAW DIE DEVELOPMENT
SECTION VII
2 of 21
CONTROLLING MATERIAL FLOW
Establishing the Tip Angle for a complex stamping
Die Addendum
Draw Bars
Draw Walls
Binder Development
Drawbeads, position, geometry, closure
Material gainers, Take-up beads
71
3 of 21
TIP ANGLE
Tip Angle refers to the amount by which the panel is rotated
about the horizontal axis whilst being pressed. The panel is
pressed at rotated angles in order to establish a constant depth
of draw, which is hopefully minimized
4 of 21
The Die Addendum is defined as the area on the punch face,
which extends from the product trim line out to the punch
opening
The purpose of the Die Addendum is to control the balance of
material movement during forming, with the use of draw walls,
draw bars, draw beads and others etc
The main function of the addendum is to balance the length of
line and optimize stretch in the panel
DIE ADDENDUM
72
5 of 21
ADDENDUM COMPONENTS
6 of 21
PRODUCT
73
7 of 21
ADDENDUM
8 of 21
DRAW BARS
Draw bars are use to take-up excess metal caused by a non-
uniform draw depth. The male bar is usually part of the punch
and the female part is a section of the die
74
9 of 21
DRAW WALLS
Draw walls are merely a connection between the edge of the
part and the punch opening line
Draw walls are used to match height differences between the
binder surface and the product surface
10 of 21
BINDER DEVELOPMENT
Develop binder to pre-form the blank and supply restraining
force on the material during the pressing process. Binder
should prevent wrinkle formation in early stages of draw
Binder shape usually consists of basic shapes such as planes,
cones, cylinders etc
Binder Development consists of adding addendum surfaces
beyond the trim line, constructing generator lines to ensure
developable surface, establishing the punch opening line,
extending the binder surface, establish binder width and smooth
the binder surfaces (smooth transitions)
Estimate blank holder loads
75
11 of 21
BINDER DEVELOPMENT
12 of 21
BINDER DEVELOPMENT Contd.
76
13 of 21
DRAWBEADS
Main function of a drawbead is to control the amount and
direction of material flow into the die cavity

The geometry of the drawbead will dictate the way in which the
material flows through the feature. Drawbeads may also be
nested in pairs

The positioning of the drawbead is also an important
consideration in producing a successful pressing

Movement of drawbead lines must also be taken into account
when designing your press tooling

Usually better to start off with more aggressive beads and ease
them. More difficult to work other way

14 of 21
DRAWBEADS Contd.
77
15 of 21
OTHER FORMS OF PROCESS CONTROL
Length of Line
Material Gainers
Take-up Beads
Lances
Free Form Dies
Multiple Hits, Draw-Redraw, Reverse Hit
Selective lube & blank geometry
16 of 21
LENGTH OF LINE
78
17 of 21
MATERIAL GAINERS
Material Gainers are used on stretch flange operations to avoid
splitting of the flange material. Usually embossing features are
placed on the tools in the area to undergo the stretch flange
operation, usually only partially within the panel, as here
18 of 21
MATERIAL GAINERS
79
19 of 21
MATERIAL GAINERS
20 of 21
TAKE-UP BEADS
Take up beads are used to prevent wrinkle development when
forming decreasing curves in flanges (shrink flanging)
As the overall flange length is reduced the take up beads absorb
the excess material
80
21 of 21
PROBLEM FEATURES
Box Corners

Embossing

Piercing

Hole Expansions, Burrs, Coining

Transitions

Ironing

Movement of Weld Lines
81
1 of 16
ADVANCED FORMING PROCESSES AND
TECHNOLOGIES
SECTION VIII
2 of 16
Advanced Forming Processes and Technologies
Hydroforming: Tube and sheet
Tailor welded blanks
Superplastic forming
Back pressure drawing
Rubber forming
Spinning
Flow forming
Explosive forming
Magnetic forming
Contoured die drawing
Double blanks, sandwich panels, patch piece
technology
Expert systems, Neural network
82
3 of 16
Tube Hydroforming
Process used for automotive sub-frames, exhaust systems and
structural parts.
Process involves putting a straight or bent welded tube into a forming
die. Die is then filled with water. Using very high pressure, metal tubing
is reformed and bent.
Critical process parameters include velocity, pressure and position.
www.thefabricator.com
4 of 16
Sheet Hydroforming
Simulation process involves the following:

Putting sheet on the blankholder.
Closing the blankholder and applying pressure to the fluid.
Stretching the sheet until it is pressed against the punch. The resulting
plastic elongation is controlled and produces a strain hardening effect.
Moving the punch inside the die. The sheet touches the punch. The
forming of the sheet metal blank depends only on the pressure of the
fluid.

83
5 of 16
Tailor Welded Blanks
This process refers to stampings where multiple sheets are welded
together prior to the deep drawing process
This enables designers to tailor the best properties of the different
metals so that they are located precisely where they are required
Precise process control is required to prevent weld-line movement
during deep drawing
www.a-sp.org
6 of 16
Superplastic Forming
Superplastic forming is the ability of a material to withstand large amounts
of elongation without necking or breakage.
Process consists of heating the material to the superplastic forming
temperature within a closed die, and then applying pressure to force the
blank into the die.
Uniform deformation is dependent on precise control of strain rate and strain
rate sensitivity.
84
7 of 16
Back Pressure Drawing
In this process the punch draws the
blank into a pressurised fuid, which
holds it tightly against the punch,
forcing thinning and failure further
up the cup wall.
8 of 16
Rubber Forming
Advantages
Tooling costs reduced by up to
90%
Lead time reduced
Tool modifications are simple
High quality parts can be
produced
Disadvantages
Process requires trial and error
Poor material utilisation
Higher press capacity is
required
Restricted to shallow parts
Hand work often required to
finish parts
85
9 of 16
Spinning
Circular sheet metal blank is rotated
in a lathe and a manually operated
tool is used to form the part.
10 of 16
Flow Forming
This process can produce large
thickness reduction, giving parts
with good surface finish and high
strength.
86
11 of 16
Explosive Forming
In this process an underwater
explosion generates a shock
wave which deforms sheet
metal into a die.
Used for small quantity
production Suitable for one-off
manufacture of large parts
Process can produce a different
strain distribution than other
forming processes.
12 of 16
Magnetic Forming
High energy rate process
Current flows in opposite
direction through conductive
material placed near coil
Sheet metal between 0.25 and
12mm can be formed with a
number of pulses.
Up to 6000 J at 2 second
intervals can give pressures up
to 350 M Pa.
Used for high volumes of small
components
87
13 of 16
Contoured Die Drawing
Die contour is such that only the
edge of the blank touches the
die making initially a conical
shape.
No blank holder is required as
blank remains tangential to die
14 of 16
Advanced Forming Processes and Technologies
Other processes:
Roll forming
Double blanks
Sandwich panels
88
Other Processes
Roll forming

Double blanks

15 of 16
Other Processes
Hemming

Ironing

16 of 16
89
1 of 19
Review: State-of-the-art in Forming Simulation
Technology
Section IX
2 of 19
Sheet Metal Forming Simulation Methods
Product Development Process
One-Step or Inverse Method
Simulation Examples
Deliverables of the One-Step Method of Simulation
Incremental Stamping Finite Element Analysis
Incremental FEA worked example
Overview
90
3 of 19
There are two main stream methods of simulation of Sheet
Metal Forming processes. These are used to assess the
formability of any given component. Either of the two methods
to be discussed should be utilized at distinct junctures in the
design and process development phases. This is done to
reduce the overall cost of product development, but also to
significantly reduce costs associated with marginal and poor die
performance and to achieve a compression of the time to
market.
Inverse (One Step) Method
Incremental Explicit and/or Implicit FEA Methods
Sheet Metal Forming Simulation Methods
4 of 19
Product Design Process Dev.
Soft Tool Build
&Tryout
Soft/Hard
Tool Tryout
Die Development through Trial and Error
Costly
Time consuming
Expensive to:
Redesign part
Rebuild tool
Looking down the barrel
X
X
X
SIMULATION
Traditional Methods w/o CAE
91
5 of 19
Product Design Process Dev.
Soft Tool
Tryout
Hard
Tool Tryout
One Step
One Step
Incremental Time/Cost
Savings
Relatively inexpensive to modify design
Reduces trial and error
Physical verification still required
Less time required for tooling
Today - Integrated with CAE
6 of 19
Begins with the part shape
Finds nodes on the original
blank surface
Accounts for:
Material properties
Binder tonnage
Draw-beads
Friction
Up front Analysis without run-
offs
One-step (Inverse) Method
92
7 of 19
Part Designers
Up-front analysis
Without part runoffs
Identify possible
manufacturing concerns
due to part shape
Inexpensive Virtual Product
Modification
Early Feasibility Tryouts
8 of 19
Die Development Engineers
Quickly check:
Material
Blank-holder
Draw-beads
Friction
Process & Product changes
Binder Modification
Product Modification
Better overall part
93
9 of 19
HyperForm
Reality
Virtual Draw-Die Tryout
10 of 19
Product - Analysis Engineers
Maximize correlation between
computerized and physical
testing
Influence of thickness
Distribution on Structural
Performance
Increase accuracy
Efficient structural parts
94
11 of 19
Advantages
Fast Solutions. Most analyses complete in seconds
Mesh requirements are not stringent
Simple input requirements and run control. FE expertise is not an essential
with One-Step solvers
Link to further structural FEA - thickness, plastic strain distribution
Disadvantages
Currently only works with single stage stampings
Only first and last state are available
Limited abilities with regard to blankholding surfaces with complex
curvature
One-Step Stamping Simulation
12 of 19
Advantages
Multi-stage pressing simulations with full results transfer and
springback
Multiple time slices through the pressing process to aid die
development
Better deformation mode determination than One-Step solutions
Full strain-path history and tool marks are available through
process and on bottom
Adaptable to other types of press simulation e.g. tube hydroforming
Disadvantages
Solution times are hours compared to seconds for One Step
Mesh quality of blank and mesh of critical importance to the
success of the Incremental analysis
FE expertise is certainly an aid in running these analyses
Incremental Stamping Simulation
95
13 of 19
Incremental Stamping Example
Door Aperture Pressing
14 of 19
Incremental Stamping Example
Inputs to incremental analysis
Fully meshed discretization of the tooling surfaces
Blank mesh
Material properties, n, r0, r45, r90, gauge, hardening curve
Frictional conditions
Blankholding pressures
Location and number of Marquette/Gas pins
Process motions, velocities accelerations
Gravity stage
Holding Stage
Deep draw
Secondary stage, Tertiary stage ...
Trimming
Springback
96
15 of 19
Gravity Stage (Holding Stage)
Inputs to gravity stage
Blank given a 1g acceleration toward the stationary tools
Die is deformable but impenetrable by blank
Energies are damped until blank is at steady state
16 of 19
Binder Wrap
Inputs to Binder wrap
Upper and lower blankholder clamp the blank into a pre-form
Critical process in Stamping process. Controls how much and
where the material is locked into die cavity!
97
17 of 19
Process Variables
Input
Blank size in certain directions - blank shape - tailored!
Pierced central how shape - lances!
Frictional conditions - selective lubrication
Blankholder tonnages - marquette pin locations
Draw walls, bars, sausages
Draw bead locations and severity
r value directions
die clearances
18 of 19
Results of Incremental Analysis
Deliverables
Blank: Thickness distribution, strains, strain history, full set of
stress tensors, tool marks, displacements, edge movement and
energies
Tools: Contact pressure stresses, deformation (deflection), punch
resultants and energies
Iterate to provide a successful component
Compare to practical results
98
19 of 19
What else can Software do for us?
Process
Optimization
Process
Validation
n-Sigma
Evaluation
Process
Layout
Transfer
Validation
Feasibility
Die Design
Geometry
Stress/Crash
Analysis
Results
Mapping
Die Optimal
Casting
Cost Analysis
Blanking
Nesting
KPIs
Measurement
99
Chapter 3: Workshops
Chapter 3
Workshops
In This Chapter:
Workshop Mechanical Properties of Sheet Metal Materials
Workshop Practical Assessment of the Post-Formed State
Proprietary Information of Altair Engineering, Inc.
100
Mechanical Properties of Sheet Metal Materials - Workshop
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SHEET
METAL MATERIALS
WORKSHOP
101
This workshop calculates the true stress / true plastic strain curve which is
derivation from typical uni-axial force / extension data.
Part 1: Review Typical Uni-Axial Force / Extension Data
Specimen Dimensions
Gauge Length, L = 80 mm
Specimen Width = 20 mm
Specimen Thickness = 2 mm
Specimen Initial Cross Sectional Area, A
o
= 40 mm
2

Material Properties
Youngs Modulus, E = 210,000 Nmm
-2

Typical Uni-Axial Force / Extension Data
FORCE
(N)
SPECIMEN
LENGTH
(mm)
5600 80.16
6400 80.80
7000 81.60
7680 84.00
8400 86.40
9240 89.60
10600 94.40
12120 99.20
15680 108.80
17000 112.00
102


Part 2: Derive Engineering Stress / Engineering Strain Data

Engineering Stress = Applied Load / Original Cross Section Area

Engineering Strain = Extension / Original Length

ENGINEERING
STRAIN

ENGINEERING
STRESS
(Nmm
-2
)

o A P/ = s
o L Lo L /
- = e
103
Part 3: Derive True Stress / True Strain Data
The conversion from engineering to true stress / strain data is achieved using the
following :-
TRUE
STRAIN
TRUE
STRESS
(Nmm
-2
)
) 1 ( log
e e

=
n T ) 1 (
e
s
s = T
104
Part 4: Derive True Stress / True Plastic Strain
This final manipulation of the stress / strain curve is often required for input into a
finite element programme (eg. RADIOSS, DYNA, PAMSTAMP, OPTRIS) whose
mathematical formulation is based on the true stress measure.
The elastic strain component is subtracted from the total strain component.
p e T
e e e =
E
T e
/ s e =
The elastic strain only represents a negligible percentage of the total strain once
the specimen commences yielding.
PLASTIC
STRAIN
TRUE
STRESS
(Nmm
-2
)
105
Graphical Presentation
106

Practical Assessment of the Post Formed State - Workshop

PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE POST-FORMED
STATE

WORKSHOP
107
Practical Assessment of the Post-Formed State - Workshop
This workshop demonstrates the derivation of major and minor strains from
deformed circle grid markings made on formed parts. The workshop requires
accurate measurements to be taken from the provided plots.
Part 1:
Attached is a sheet with plots of ellipses, which result from deformation of circles
marked on the blank due to straining of the part during the forming process. The
original circle size is also plotted and clearly identified at the top left of the page.
Identify the major and minor axes of the ellipses and measure their lengths.
Tabulate them in the first column of the attached table.
Part 2:
Calculate the Major and Minor strains by reference to the original circle diameter.
Tabulate them in the third and fourth columns of the attached table.
Part 3:
Plot the major strains against the minor strains for each ellipse. Plot a single
point for each and identify it with the ellipse number.
Part 4:
From the position of the point in the major-minor strain space, identify the mode
of deformation
Part 5:
Try to identify where the modes of deformation might occur in the box component
plotted in the Figure. Mark each position with the ellipse number.
108
PART 1 DEFORMED CIRCLES
Reference Circle.
Diameter :
Ellipse 1
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
Ellipse 2
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
Ellipse 3
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
Ellipse 4
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
Ellipse 5
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
109
PART 2 CALCULATION SHEET 1

Ellipse 1
Major Engineering Strain :
Minor Engineering Strain :
Ellipse 2
110



Ellipse 3

Ellipse 4

111

Ellipse Number Major Engineering
Strain
Minor Engineering
Strain
1
2
3
4
5
Table 1: Summary of Measured Strains
Ellipse 5
112
PART 3 MAJOR / MINOR STRAIN PLOT
0 10 20 30 -40 -30 -20 -10 40
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Major Engineering Strain (%)
Minor Engineering Strain (%)
113
PART 4 / 5 MODE OF DEFORMATION
Ellipse Number Mode of Deformation Position on Box
1
2
3
4
5
114

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