FACULTY OF MEDICINE CAIRO UNIVERSITY

Your Guide
For First Year Students


2014/2015







1
Your Guide

For First Year Students

Many Thanks To :
Marwa Ashraf
Amen Mesbah
Yara Mohamed
Yasmeen Ahmed
Doha Ebrahim
Rana Abd El-Wahab
Doaa Maged
Reem A. Hebaish
Maha Saad
Hala Yehia
Mariam Bakr
Maryam Radwan
E7san Atef
This Guide is divided into 4 parts for each subject:
1- Tips for studying it
2- Translation for new words
3- Illustrating Diagrams
4- Useful summaries
5- Common Questions
NB: guide
.. chapters

Best wishes



2
1- Physiology

N.B: ,
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4 - goal Physiology

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3
Translation




Chapter 1 : Introduction
translation word
physiology
/ viral
organ
system
Cell
tissue
liver
( ) Cardiovascular system
Nervous system
Intra-
Extra-
adult
male
female
fat
volume
( ) vessel
vascular
fluid
plasma
circulation
/ Artery/arteries
vein
Blood capillary
lymphatics
Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid)
cation
anion
/ Principle
indicator
/ Inject/injection
intravenously
inert
/ Toxic/non toxic
utilize
Diffusion
(equally) Uniformly
sample
withdraw
concentration
distribution



4
formula
Heavy water
Na thiocyanate
Dye
radioactive
iodine
homeostasis
oxygen
Carbon dioxide
glucose
ion
Amino acids
Waste products
( ) Cell membrane (plasma membrane)
Alimentary tract
kidney
balance
pH
pH buffer
( ) protoplasm
cytoplasm
nucleus
organelle
specialization
( ) elastic
/ Permeable/semi-permeable
thickness
lipids
cholesterol
carbohydrates
dynamic
bilayer
flexibility
Selective permeability
embedded
toughness
receptor
Active transport
enzyme
Vesicular transport
molecule
liquid
Constant motion
Concentration gradient
/ Passively/actively
/ rate
factor
Molecular weight



5
/ Lipid soluble/water soluble
nitrogen

Kinetic energy KE
hydrophobic
hydrophilic
charged
urea
pore
Electrical charge
bond
Hydrated ions
diameter
Conformational change
/ Outer/inner
Voltage gated channels
Electric potential
( / ).../ ligand
cyclic adenosine mono phosphate C-AMP
( ) Acetyl-choline
Carrier mediated
With/down conc gradient
Against conc gradient
Fraction of second
Characteristic features
specificity
galactose
Directly proportional
Inversely proportional
osmosis
Pure water
solute
solvent
solution
Osmotic pressure
mass
( ) Hypertonic solution
Hypotonic solution
Intestinal lumen
ATP Atpase activity
/ Negative / positive
/ Hinder x favor
/ Agonise/antagonise
equilibrium
swell
rupture
/ Symmetric/asymmetric
/ Macro/micro



6
vesicle
catalyze
/ Conversion/convert
neural
( ) neurotransmitter
neuron
Synaptic cleft
hormone
synapse
In between inter
Adjacent/contiguous
hexagonal
regulation
/ drugs







































Introduction
Total body
water (TBW)
(60%)
Intracellular
Fluid (ICF)
(40%)
Extracellular
Fluid (ECF)
(20%)
Intravascular
Fluid (IVF)
(5%)
Interstitial
Fluid (ISF)
(15%)
Homeostasis
-Definition
-Mechanism
inside the body
The cell
Protoplasm
-The
cytoplasm
-The cell
organelles
&
inclusions
-The
nucleus
Cell
membrane
composition
Transport
Diffusion
Simple

Lipid
bilayer

-Lipid
soluble
-Water
molecules
-Lipid
insoluble
Protein
channels
Distinguished
by :
-Gating
-Selective
permeability
Facilitated
Charactarized
by :
-Specificity
-Competition
between
similar
substances
for the same
carrier
-Rate of
facilitated
diffusion
Osmosis
Active
transport
Types
of
specific
carrier
proteins
-Uniport
-Symport
-Antiport
Types of
active
transport
-Primary
-Secondary
Vesicular
transport
Endocytosis
-Phagocytosis
-Pinocytosis
Exocytosis
Intercellular
communication
1-Gap
junctions
2-
Synaptic
3-
Paracrine
&
Autocrine
4-
Endocrine
Determination of
water volume with
Ficks principle


Donnan effect




7
Chapter 2 : Autonomic Nervous System :
Translation word
Autonomic nervous system
coordination
Endocrine system
gland
( ) signal
( ) Sensory organs
CNS (Central nervous system)
response
histology
soma
Cell processes
dendrites
impulses
axon
nerve
Nerve fiber
Myelin sheath
terminates
anatomically
Spinal cord
ganglia
peripheral
Node of ranvier
neurolemma
Sensory fibers
Motor fibers
stimuli
tension
distension
/ Viscera/visceral
/ Posterior horn
/ Anterior horn
reflex
Reflex arch
muscle
Afferent neuron
Efferent neuron
Somatic nervous system
Skeletal muscles
Smooth (plain) muscles
secreting
/ Voluntary/involuntary
/ Pre/post
Cranial nerve
diverge
/ Dorsal/ventral



8
ratio
( ) Paravertebral
Vertebral column
cervical
superior
inferior
aorta
/ Abdomin/abominal
Adrenaline and Noradrenaline catecholamines
/ / stimulation
( ) Adrenal / suprarenal gland
/ Medulla / cortex
Thoracic
/ lumbar
Spinal nerve
Dilation/dilatation
pupil
lens
Upper eyelid
exophthalmus
/ Vasoconstriction/vasodilatation
Conjuctival vessels
Sweat gland
/ Contraction/relaxation
Cutaneous blood vessels
skin
Salivary gland
saliva
viscid
cerebral
Blood flow
Arterial blood pressure ABP
Mental alertness
(
)
syndrome
lesion
cardiac
force
excitability
conduction
Coronary blood vessels
lung
/ pulmonary
Gastrointestinal tract
inhibition
stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine



9
/ Proximal/distal
sphincter
Pyloric sphincter
/ Arterioles/venules
pancreas
lysis
glycogen
spleen
/ RBCs (red blood corpuscles/cells)
urine
pelvis
pelvic
rectum
Retention of feces (stool)
Urinary bladder
Genital organs
shrinkage
penis
Vas deferens
Seminal vesicles
prostate
/ ejaculation
semen
uterus
Menstrual cycle/menstruation
limbs
erection
fatigue
( ) metabolism
basal
enhance
clotting
lipolysis
cranio
sacral
oculomotor
facial
glossopharyngeal
vagus
midbrain
pons
Lacrimal
nasal
Medulla oblongata
Parotid gland
ventricle
Atrium/atria (plural)
consumption



11
/ Bronchus/bronchi
Esophagus=oesophagus
( ) Gall bladder
Sphincter of oddi
evacuation
Nervi erigentes
defecation
micturition
respiration
hypothalamus
emotions
Cerebral cortex
synthesis
mitochondria
Transmitter vesicles
Cytoplasm of the axon axoplasm
Action potential
depolarization
calcium
Fuse with
affinity
pseudo
adrenaline Epinephrine
Noradrenaline norepinephrine
destruction
bronchioles
acceleration
elevate
arterioles Total peripheral resistance TPR
perfusion
bleeding
reinforce
Fatty acids
/ catabolism
anabolism
digestion
absorption
Pharmacological manipulation
Bind to
initiate
/ augment
stimulant
dose
Mimetic -
depress





Autonomic Nervous System



Regulating systems
The nervous system
Structural
unit
neuron
Body
cell
(soma)
The cell
processes:
dendrites
axon
Divided
anatomically
Central
nervous
system
(CNS)
- Brain
- Spinal
cord
Peripheral
nervous
system
(PNS)

ganglia

nerves
Sensory
fibers
Motor
fibers
Divided
functionally
Somatic
Autonomic
Sympathetic
-Origin
-Course of
fibers
-Functions
Parasympathetic
-Origin
-Course of
fibers
-Functions
Chemical
transmitters
Acetylcholine
-Sites
-Synthesis
-Release
-Removal
Noradrenaline
-Sites
-Synthesis
-Release
-Removal
Receptors
of the
effector
organs
Cholinergic
-Types
-Sites
Adrenergic
-Types
-Mechanism
of action
-Distribution
& action
Drugs that
Affect the
autonomic
activity
Functional
unit
Reflex arc
-Sensory organ
-Afferent neuron
-Synapse
-Efferent neuron
-Effector organ
The endocrine system
Alarm
(Stress)
response



11
Chapter 3 : Blood :
defense
microorganisms
tumour
Hemostasis=stobbage of bleeding
exchange
thrombus
/ Organic/inorganic
sulphates
triglycerides
density
volatile
Uric acid
beneficial
/ Massive loss
ectomy
hepato
hepatectomy
antibodies
Lymphoid tissue
cirrhosis
-itis
sufficient
renal
impermeable
/ acid/acidic
/ Base/basic
Amphoteric /amphipathic
toxin
Humoral immunity
coagulation
viscosity
conservation
Steroid hormones
Thyroid hormones
minerals
reservoir
/ depletion
Labile=dynamic
Erythto-
/ Nucleus/nuclei
average
infant
High altitudes
biconcave
convex
disc
pigment



12
ribosomes
/ Sphere/spherical
squeezed
Polypeptide chain
atom
Ferrous Fe+2
Ferric Fe+3
Bone marrow
Chemical reaction
fetus
extraction
deoxygenated
displace
Oxidizing agents
reduction
Congenital absence
hereditary
sequence
/ Genetically determined
inherit
thalassemia
Sickle cell anemia
precipitate
intrauterine
deficiency
hypoxia
percentage
dehydration
polycythemia
anemia
glomeruli
tubules
Life span
fate
decline
/ fragile
tight
Bile
Hemolytic anemia
Mucous membrane
jaundice
Poiesis -
Restricted to
infiltration
Vertebra/e
skull
ribs
Stem cells



13
divide
colony
hemorrhage
Half life
Renal failure
Severe anemia x mild
Compensate for
/ mechanism
mitosis
miosis
DNA Recombinant DNA
therapy
alkalosis
androgens
x-ray
radiation
/ Malignant x benign
lethal
aggregate
Old RBCs Senescent RBCs
/ sloughed
Epithelial cells
duodenum
cereals
beans
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid
gastric
Divalent
replete
saturation
excretion
degradation
inflammation
carcinoma
Diabetes mellitus
division
diminished
/ Intrinsic/extrinsic
Parietal cells
manifestations
sedimentation
antibodies immunoglobulins
pregnancy
pathological
diagnosis
prognosis
X Acute x chronic
X Diluted x concentrated



14
ankylostoma
Peptic ulcer
piles
defective
obstruction
platelets
oval
bone marrow myeloid
adherence
endothelium
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
lysosomes
Hydrolytic enzymes
granules
temporary
plug
threads
dissolve
resume
/ dissolution
myogenic
Trauma
transversely
longitudinally
contraction spasm
adhesion
Sub-
pseudopodia
discharge
induce
Myocardial infarction MI
neutrophils
catalyst
irreversible
Roman numerals
protease
Cascade effect
amplification
Devoid of
In vivo
In vitro
Blood transfusion
action onset
antidote
administration
symptoms
subcutaneous



15
antibiotic
hemophilia
Mild trauma
recessive
Varicose veins
atherosclerosis
/ disseminated
septicemia
-penia
Biliary obstruction
enterocytes
/ hazards
orally
anticoagulant
petechiae
meshwork
lobe
stain
Allergy
Parasites
Chemical attraction Chemotaxis
Mother cell or compound precursor
antigen
Thymus
Lymph node
infection
redness
Accumulation
exudates
Stick to
Ameboid movement
/ Repel/repulsion
/ Opsonin/opsonization
Innate immunity
Acquired immunity
potent
Non-virulent
discriminate
/ Differentiate
Polysaccharide
Major histocompitability complex
/ intact
placenta
/ Morphology
1 mono
2 di
3 Tri
4 Tetra



16
5 Penta
6 hexa
7 Hepta
8 octa
9 Nona
11 deca
Tears
Breast
/ Trigger
Neuro Glial cells
Prophylactic
/ Proliferation
forensic medicine Medico-legally
paternity
Maternity
Contamination
Anginal pain
Angina pectoris
/ occlusion




Arabic English

Congenital absence
Sequences
Sickle cell anemia
Precipitate
Hypoxia
Intrauterine
Packed cell volume
High altitude
Hazards
Viscosity
Blood transfusion
Jaundice
Erythropoiesis
Vertebrae
Skull
Ribs
Pelvis
Athletes
Hemorrhage
Atomic radiation
Lethal



17

Menstruation
Duodenum
Cereals
Sloughed off
enterocytes
Inflammation
Liver cirrhosis
Diabetes mellitus
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
Vegetarian
Gastric glands
Neurological manifestation
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
Pathological
Hemolysis
Gastrectomy
Peptic ulcer
Piles
Splenectomy
Adherence
Temporary
Trauma
Humoral
plug
enhance
Inhibition
stimulation
Myocardial infraction
Meshwork
Vivo
Vitro
Anticoagulant
Coronary arteries
Intravenous
Intramuscular
Orally
Symptoms
Petechiae
Antibiotic
Biliary duct
Hemophilia
Atherosclerosis



18

Disseminate
Septicemia
Deficiency
uterus
















































Blood
Composition
Plasma
-Composition
-Plasma
proteins
Cellular
Elements
Function
-Transport
-Defense
-Hemostasis
-Homeostasis
Physical
properties
Erythrocyte
sedimentation
rate (ESR)
Blood
viscosity
Osmotic
resistance
Blood
groups
ABO
system
Rh
blood
type
Blood
transfusion
-Indications
-Precautions
-Effects of
incompatible
blood
transfusion
Anemia
Definition Blood
indices
-Mean corpuscular
hemoglobin (MCH)
-Mean corpuscular
volume (MCV)
-Mean corpuscular Hb
concentration (MCHC)
Types &
causes
1-Normocytic
2-Microcytic
3-Macrocytic
Polycythemia

Red blood
cells (RBCs)
Platelets
White blood
cells (WBCs)



RBCs
Functions
Functions
of
hemoglobin
Functions
of the cell
membrane
Hemoglobin
Types
Chemical
reactions
Abnormal
hemoglobin
Count
Characteristics
Life span
& Fate
Erythropoiesis
Sites Stages of
development
of RBCs
Factors
affecting
Erythropoiesis
O
supply
Healthy
bone
marrow
Healthy
Liver
Hormones Diet
Proteins Iron
-Forms of iron
in the body
-Requirements
& balance
-Absorption &
regulation
Vitamins
(Vitamin
B &
Folic acid)
-Sources &
requirements
-Absorption
-Deficiency
Trace
elements
Erythropoietin
hormone

Sources

Mechanism
of action

Stimulation
of secretion

Hepcidin




Hemostasis
Constriction
of blood
vessels
-Local
myogenic
contraction
-Nervous
reflexes
-Local
humoral
factors
Temporary
hemostatic
plug

-Adhesion
-Activation
-Release
reactions
-Aggregation
-
Procoagulant
activity
-Fusion


Blood
coagulation
Clotting
Factors
-Contact group
-Prothrombin
group
-Fibrinogen
group
Clotting
mechanism
Intrinsic
system
Extrensic
system
Interaction
between
Extrinsic
&
Intrensic
systems
Anticlotting
mechanisms
General
-Smooth
endothelium
-Removal &
inactivation of
activated
clotting factors
in the liver
-Heparin
Specific
-Thromboxane
Prostacyclin
interaction
-Antithrombin
lll
-Fibrinolytic
system
Anticoagulants
Invivo Invitro
Abnormalities
-Excessive
bleeding
-Excessive
intravascular
clotting
-Excessive
bleeding &
intravascular
clotting
Platelets
Structure &
Production
Hemostatic
Function
Tests



Immunity
WBCs
Lymphocytes Phagocytes
Monocytes
Polymorphonuclear
leukocytes
-Neutrophils
-Eosinophils
-Basophils
Types
Non-specific
Mechanical
& Chemical
barriers
-Epithelium
-Mucous
secretion
-Acid
secretion
Cellular
defense
-Microphages
-Macrophages
-Natural killer
cells
Humoral
mechanisms
-Lysosomes
-Interferons
-Properdin
system
-Acute phase
proteins
-Complement
system
Specific
Cellular
immunity
T-lymphocytes
Types &
functions
Humoral
immunity
B-lymphocytes
Plasma cell
formation &
Ig secretion
Primary &
secondary
antibody
response
Structure &
types of Ig
Antigen-
antibody
interaction
Development
of immune
system
Recognition
of antigen
Communication
between cells in
the immune
system
Major
Histocompetibility
Complex (MHC)
Tissue
Transplantation
I nflammatory
Response



19
Questions:

Department Book Short Essay Questions :
Chapter 1 : Introduction

-Define osmosis and explain its importance in cell membrane transport.
-Describe functions of cell membrane proteins.
-How simple diffusion occurs through cell membrane?
-Explain facilitated diffusion.
-What are the types of active transport?
-Explain what is meant by primary active transport giving an example.
-Explain types of intercellular connections.
-What is meant by vesicular transport?



Chapter 2: autonomic nervous system

-What are the differences between autonomic efferent fibers and somatic
motor nerves?
-Give an account on the function and types of autonomic ganglia.
-Describe the origin and function of symoathetic supply to the head and
neck.
-What is meant by horner's syndrome?
-Describe the effect of stimulation of sympathetic supply to the thorax.
-Describe the effect of stimulation of greater splanchnic nerve.
-Give an account on the innervations and functions of sympathetic
nervous system to the abdomen and pelvis.
-Describe the distribution and functions of the preganglionic fibers arising
from lateral horn cells of the lower 6 thoracic and upper 3 lumbar
segments.
-Give an account on origin and functions of pelvic autonomic nerves.
Describe the distribution and function of preganglionic fibers in cranial
nerves. -
-Describe the origin and function of the parasympathetic outflow to the
head and neck.
Discuss functions of vagus nerve. -
-What are the sites of secretion of acetylcholine in autonomic nerves?
-Where are the sites of cholinergic fibers?
-Explain the release and removal of acetylcholine.
-What are the types of acetylcholine receptors? How can each receptor
be stimulated and blocked?
-What are the types of adrenergic receptors ? explain their mechanism of
action
-Give a short account on autonomic supply to salivary glands.
-Give an account on the adrenal medulla . mention the difference
between adrenaline and noradrenaline.
-What are the sympathetic vasodilator fibers?
-Compare between the alpha and beta adrenergic receptors as regards
their stimulation , mechanism of action , functions and blockade.



21
-What are the methods of removal of noradrenaline?
-What is meant by the alarm or stress response?
-Give an account on the ganglion stimulants.
-Give an account on the ganglion blockers.
-Discuss the drugs that augment the parasympathetic activity.
-Discuss the drugs that depress the parasympathetic activity.
-Discuss the drugs that augment the sympathetic activity.
-Discuss the drugs that depress the sympathetic activity.
Chapter 3: blood
-Give an account on the types and functions of plasma proteins.
-What is meant by albumin-globulin ratio?
-Explain functions of RBCs.
-Mention the sites of erythropoiesis and the dietary factors affecting it.
-Explain the role of vitamins in erythropoiesis.
-Give an account on erythropoietin hormone(sites of secretion
mechanism of action stimulation of its secretion ).
-What are the forms of iron in the body?
-Explain the mechanisms of iron absorption by the enterocytes.
-What is the role of hepcidin in iron absorption?
-What is the role of the liver in erythropoiesis?
-Define anemia explaining its main causes.
-What are the main types of anemia ? explain the causes of each type.
-What is meant by polycythemia?
-What are the types of the granules in the platelets?
-What is the mechanism of platelets adhesion?
-What is the mechanism of platelets activation and secretion?
-Discuss the different agonists involved in the activation of platelets.
-Describe platelet aggregation.
-Give an account on the coagulation factors groups.
-Discuss the regulation of hemostasis.
-Describe the intrinsic pathway of blood clotting.
-Describe the extrinsic pathway of blood clotting.
-Give an account on the fibrinolytic system.
-Give an account on anticoagulants.
-Describe the inflammatory response.
-Discuss nonspecific humoral immunity.
-Give an account on the complement system.
-Discuss types , functions and mechanism of activation of T-lymphocytes
in response to antigen.
-Discuss the function of B-lymphocytes.
-Give an account on types of immunoglobulins.
-Discuss antigen recognition and presentation.
-Discuss blood groups and the effect of incompatible blood transfusion.
-Explain what is meant by erythroblastosis fetalis.









21
















Matching:


Cell Membrane: - 1
match the following components with their descriptions below:
a. voltage- gated channels
b. ligand-gated channels
c. structural proteins
d. gap junctions
e. tight junctions
f. desmosomes
g. symport
h. antiport



( )1- bind cells together by adherence of ridges from one cell to similar
ridges from neighboring cells.
( )2- open or close by alterations in trans membrane potential.
( )3- transports 2 substances simultaneously in the same direction
( )4- keep the integrity of the membrane and give it strength.
( )5- allow rapid passage of ions between cells.



22
Autonomic receptors:

ow: Match the following receptors with the description bel
a. 1- adrenergic receptors
b. 2- adrenergic receptors
c. -adrenergic receptors
d. muscarinic receptors
e. nicotinic receptors
f. adrenal medullary cells


( )1-when stimulated they produce decreased heart rate.
( )2- produce their effect by increasing intracellular calcium.
( )3- release catecholamines in response to actication of nicotinic
receptors.
( )4-produce their effect by inhibiting adenyl cyclase.
( )5-cause bronchodilation when activated.
( )6- are found in the membrane of postganglionic neurons



23
Autonomic Nervous System : - 3

Match the following autonomic components with their descriptions below:

a. collateral ganglia
b. terminal ganglia
c. paravertebral chain
d. cholinergic fiibers
e. postganglionic sympathetic fibers
f. postganglionic parasympathetic fibers
g. acetylcholine
h. noradrenaline

( )1-include all sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic fibers
( )2- they are present near or in the visceral organ itself
( )3- they are sympathetic gangla related to the origin of big vessels
( )4- is destructed by monamine oxidase
( )5- when stimulated it produces contraction of the wall of urinary bladder
( )6- is secreted by the postganglionic sympathetic fibers to sweat glands.



24
Erythropoiesis: - 8

omponents related to erythropoiesis with their match the following c
corresponding description:


a. vitamin B12
b. iron
c. kidney
d. liver
e. bone marrow of long bones
f. bone marrow of ribs and sternum
g. folic acid
h. androgens


( )1- forms 85% of erythropoietin hormone.
( )2- its deficiency produces microcytic anemia
( )3- the site of erythropoeisis at age 40
( )4- its absorption needs intrinsic factor
( )5- forms globin part of hemoglobin
( )6- stimulate erythropoietin hormone secretion.



25
Immunity: - 9

g components with their corresponding description : Match the followin

a. membrane attack complex
b. agglutination
c. margination
d. eosinophils
e. opsonization
f. chemotaxis


( )1- it is the sticking of the neutrophils to the capillary wall
( )2- it is the formation of clump like chains of antigen antibody complexes
( )3- it is the attachment of the organism to the phagocyte
( )4- it is activated complements c5-9 that cause lysis of cells
( )5- it is the attraction of the phagocytes to the site of the infection



26
Anemia: - 10

Match the following components with their corresponding description:

a. iron deficiency anemia
b. microcytic anemia
c. normocytic anemia
d. hemolytic anemia
e. pernicious anemia
g. macrocytic anemia
h. bone marrow disease


( )1- normal under the microscope , MCV is normal (90
3
)
( )2- occurs due to chronic repeated blood loss
( )3- Anemia due to deficiency of intrinsic factor
( )4- can occur due to sickle cell anemia, accompanied with jaundice
( )5- produces normocytic anemia, decrease in WBCs and platelet count
( )6- can occur due to folic acid deficiency



27
Bleeding Disorders: - 11

Match the following components with their corresponding description :

a. hemophilia A
b. hemophilia B
c. hemophilia C
d. thrombocytopenic purpura
e. disseminated intravascular thrombosis
f. leukemia
g. vitamin k deficiency
h. polycythemia



( )1- occurs when platelet count decreases, there is prolonged bleeding
time.
( )2- congenital disease with prolonged coagulation time due to deficiency
of factor VIII.
( )3- produces decrease in factor VII
( )4- due to deficiency of factor XI
( )5- occurs due to consumption of many clotting factors
( )6- due to deficiency of factor IX



















28
Cases :
Case 1 : Atropine overdose:

Mona a 45-years old teacher is planning a 10-days cruise , she asks her physician for medication to
prevent motion sickness . The physician prescribes scopolamine, a drug related to atropine, and
recommends that she take it for the entire duration of cruise, while taking the drug , mona experiences
no nausea or vomiting as hoped . However, she does experience dry mouth , dilation of pupils(
mydriasis) , markedly increased heart rate (severe tachycardia) , and difficulty voiding urine.
Questions:
1. What symptoms do you observe in this woman related to atropine intake?
2. How do you explain these symptoms from the physiological point of view?
3. Where and how does atropine exert its effect?
4. What kind of therapeutic treatment would you suggest? Explain you answer.
5 .complete:
a. this woman has dilated pupils because atropine blocks .................... receptors on the ............ muscle
of the iris
b. cholinergic receptors are of 2 types :....... and ...........
6. If the temperature of mona was measured : what do you expect it ? Explain your answer
7. which of the following is characteristic of the parasympathetic but not of sympathetic nervous system
?
a. ganglia in or near target tissues
b. nicotinic receptors in postganglionic neurons
c .muscarinic receptors on some target tissues
d. cholinergic preganglionic neurons




29


ase 2 : organophosphate poisoning : C
A 60-year old male farmer was admitted to hospital with an episode of convulsions ,
tumors , general weakness , and precoma . Relatives denied consumption of any poison and medications ,
but the gave a recent history of spraying his fields with pesticides . as the doctors inspected him they
noticed sweating, lacrimation , defecation , and fasiculations in his muscles. Vital signs revealed pulse rate
62/minute . blood pressure of 120/80 mmHg, respiratory rate of 14 per minute , normal temperature , and
he had plenty of oral secretions. Pupils were pin point bilaterally. Laboratory tests revealed that serum
cholinesterase level was 123 units ( normal range- 5000-9000 units . he was diagnosed as
organophosphate poisoning.

uestions : Q
1.What are organophosphates? What is their effect?
2. Which symptoms were indicative of organophosphate poisoning?
3. How do you explain these symptoms?
4. What is the expected effect of organophosphate poisoning on the heart ?
5. What kind of therapeutic treatment do you suggest ? explain your answer?
6.-What are the major side effects of this treatment?
7. Sites of release of acetylcholine are:
........................................................



31
ase 3 : raynaud's phenomenon: C
Heba is 30-year old secretary. She went to her doctor complaining that on exposure to
mild cold weather her fingers and toes turn sequentially white the blue and become painful. Heba told her
doctor also that this condition sometimes occurs with stressful situations. The doctor suspected raynaud's
disease which is characterized by excessive sympathetic stimulation of smooth muscles in arterioles of
digits and a marked response to stimuli that cause vasoconstriction. He advised heba to do Doppler
ultrasonic testing to make quantitative measurements of arterial blood flow velocity in her hands ( this test
gives a sensitive indication of the degree of vasoconstriction in response to cold ). The result of Doppler
ultrasound confirmed the diagnosis.
Questions:
1. From the symptoms as described what receptors are involved in the phenomenon?
2. Can you explain the color changes in heba's hand?
3. Why this condition is triggered by stress?
4. Based on your autonomic knowledge , what treatment do you suggest?
5. After studying vascular can you suggest another treatment?
6. Give an account on types of adrenergic receptors and explain their mechanism of action
Mode of action Adrenergic receptor

1. 1111111
2.
3.
4.





31
Case 4: Autonomic drugs:
A 12-year old girl is brought to the emergency room with difficult breathing. On
examination she is found to have dyspnea with audible wheezes and is diagnosed with asthma. The patient
is given an inhaled drug. Which provides immediate relief of the bronchial constrictive symptoms.
Questions:
1. What autonomic nervous system receptor does this drug target?
2. What is the mechanism of action when these receptors are stimulated ?
3. What neurotransmitter is used for these receptors?
4. Which of the following fibers release norepinephrine?
a. preganglionic fibers innervating the adrenal medulla
b. postganglionic fibers causing bradycardia
c. postganglionic fibers causing constriction of the iris
d. postganglionic fibers causing arteriolar constriction
e. sympathetic fibers innervating sweat glands



32
Case 5 : Myasthenia gravis:
A 21-year old woman was referred to a neurology clinic with a 1-month history of double
vision, difficulty chewing food, swallowing and weakness in her upper arms. These symptoms were mild or
absent in the morning and tended to worsen through the day. When she was seen towards the end of an
afternoon neurology clinic she was found to have a bilateral ptosis and disconjugate eye movements that
could not be ascribed to any Individual cranial nerve lesion. Her upper limb power was initially normal but
deteriorated with repeated testing. An intravenous injection of neostigmine, an acetylcholinesterase
inhibitor, improved the neurological signs. A clinical diagnosis was made of myasthenia gravis. Subsequent
blood testing showed the presence of a high level of antibodies against the acetylcholine receptors which
further confirmed diagnosis.
Questions:
1. What is the ionic mechanism that underlies the endplate potential (EPP) produced by acetylcholine
release?
2. Why severe muscle weakness occur in myasthenia gravis?
3. What effect would an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor have at the neuromuscular junction? How can this
effect be used in the treatment of this patient?
4. Which of the following classes of drugs is contraindicated in a patient with myasthenia gravis: drugs with
acetylcholine like action acetylcholinerterase inhibitors blockers of ACH release ? Explain your answer.
5. Which of the following enzymes catalyzes the synthesis of ACH?
a. acetyl-coenzyme A
b. acetylcholinesterase
c. ACH-H+ exchanger
d. amino acid decarboxylase
e. choline acetyltransferase
6. Put these events in the correct order:
End plate potential (EPP) action potential in muscular fiber ACH release from presynaptic terminal-
opening ligand gated ion channels opening ca+2 channels in presynaptic terminal binding of ACH to
nicotinic receptors action potential in nerve fiber.



33

ic Anemia: Case 6 : Megaloblast
A 14-year old boy was referred to a large medical center complaining of weakness, light-
headedness, palpitations and some neurologic manifestations such as numbness and parasthesias in the
extremities weakness and ataxia. The patient was senn in the pediatric hematology clinic where blood was
drawn for cbc and reticulocyte countand B12 levels.
- the results were as follows : ( normal values between brackets):

- RBCs: 1.14x 10
6
/mm
3
(4.7-6.1x10
6
/mm
3
)
- Hematocrit : 12.7 % (42-52%)
-Hemoglobin: 4.4 g/dl (14-18 g/dl)
-MCV: 111.4
3
(80-94
3
)
-MCH: 38.7 pg (27-31 pg)
-MCHC: 34.7 g/dl (33-37 g/dl)
-Reticulocytes 2.6% (0.5-1.5 %)
- B12 <100 pg/ml (200-950 pg/ml)
After the doctor saw the results, the boy was diagnosed as megaloblastic anemia
Questions :
1. Why the patient was diagnosed as megaloblastc anemia?
2. What is the cause of megaloblastic anemia in this patient? Is there other causes ?
3. The patient suffers from neurological symptoms , why ?
4. what is pernicious anemia ? how it can be treated ?
5. Explain the mechanism of absorption of vitamin B12.



34
Case 7: Iron Deficiency Anemia:
Hadeer is a 40-yeas old sales woman who presents to the outpatient clinic for a general
medical check-up. Her main complaint is that recently she has noted feeling tired and short of breath after
walking several blocks doing her door-to-door sales work. She reports no chest pain,palpitations, cough,
wheezing, or leg swelling.
- Past medical history : previuor repeated hemorrhoidal bleeding.
- social history : she is single with no children.
- physical exam : Wt=86kg, HR=88 , BP = 132/72.
- ECG is normal. Chest x ray show nos pulmonary edema or infiltrates.
- Blood tests showed:
- hemoglobin = 4.4 gm/dl
- hematocrit= 16.0 % , MCV = 57.2
3
, ferritin < 10 % of total body iron
She was diagnosed as severe iron deficiency anemia.
Questions:
1. Why she was diagnosed as iron deficiency anemia ? What is the type of this anemia ?
2. Describe the mechanism of iron absorption?
3. What are the causes of iron deficiency anemia?
4. Concerning iron :
a. the transport form of iron in the plasma is ..
b. The iron is stored in the in the form of .
c. Iron is important for the formation of .
d. Excess iron in the body produces .
5. Hemosiderosis is a dangerous disease , why ?



35
Case 8 : Hemophilia:
A 9-year old boy with history of and severe bruising following minor trauma and swollen
painful joints developed a progressive bleeding after a minor injury. Interestingly, his maternal grandfather
died at age 27 of a bleeding complication following an appendectomy. In the hospital, while suturing the
wound, further bleeding occur from the wound site investigations showed :
Platelet count = 280,000/ mm
3
of blood (150,000-350,000 mm
3
)
Bleeding time = 6 minutes (normal = 3.5-10.5 minutes)
Prothrombin time (pt) = 11 sec (normal =10- 12 sec)
Activaed partial thromboplastin time
(APTT)=58 seconds ( normal= 20-30 seconds)
Factor VIII level was decreased
Hematocrit and white blood cell count were both normal
He was diagnosed as Hemophilia A
Questions:
1.Explain what is meant by hemophilia? What are the differences between hemophilia A,B,C ?
2. What is the significance of pt and APTT tests ? why in this patient the APTT is elevated and the pt not
elevated?
3.Describe the intrinsic pathway of coagulation.
4. What is the importance of vitamin k in the coagulation process ? is it useful in this patient, why ?
5. Can you suggest the treatment of this patient?
6. The bleeding time is normal in this patient . what is the explanation of this
result?


63
2- Anatomy :
1 -
,
2 - course
relation artery .
3 -

main points
point .

Translation

Basis book
word Translation
Anatomy
Erect position
Reference
Upper limb
Palm
Thumb
lateral
Medial
Supine position
Prone position
Cubitus = elbow
Lithotomy position
Flexion
Hip bone
Abduction of hip joints
Knee
Plane = section
Sagittal plane
Vertical
Para-
Anterior
Posterior
Horizontal=transverse
superior
Inferior
Epidermis
Dermis
Stratified
Squamous Flat
Epithelium


63
Waterproof
Sebaceous glands
Swaet gland
Hair follicles
Ridges
Elastic
fibers
Lymphatics=lymphvessels
Tiny
Bundle
Arrector pili muscle
Contraction
Relaxation
Goose
Pigment
Lanugo hair
Fetus 5
Uterus
Permanent
Nails
Duct
Coiled
Creases
Polygonal
Diamond-shaped
Flexure lines
Longitudinal
Trunk
Neck
Incision
Scar
Sole
Digits
Arch
Fascia
Superficial
Deep
Abundant
Gluteal region
Abdomin
Breast
eyelid
Penis
Scrotum
Thermal insulator


63
Nerve
Vessel
Mammary gland
Lymph node
Facial muscles
Membrane
Well-defined
Venous return
Septum/septa /
intermuscular
interosseous
Intra
Extra
Inter
Thick
Wrist /
Joint
Ankle
Tendon
Plantar
Sheath
Carotid artery
Vagus nerve
Vein
Artery
Pulley
Raphe
Cavity
Line
Pericardium
Fibrous
Ligaments
Skeleton
Connective tissue
Axis
Vital organ
Skull
Brain
Thoracic cage
Vertebral column
Pelvis
Lower limb
Leg
Foot
Locomotor system


63
Bone marrow
Enamel of teeth
Exo-
Endo-
Mandible
Sternum
rib
Appendicular=peripheral
Ossification
Clavicle
Cartilage
Shaft
Spongy
Articulation
Endothelium
Periosteum
Meta-
Peri-
Sensory
Fine
diameter
Fracture
Scapula
Air sinuses
Nasal
Maxilla
Resonance of voice
Mucosa
Inspiration
Expiration
Process
Patella
Diminish
Friction
Nutrient
Oblique
Cortex
Medulla
Groove
Medullary cavity = bone marrow
Ascending
Descending
Foramin/a /
Plexus
More prominent


04
Delivery
Everted
Inverted
Chondro- cartilage
Perichondrium
Compression
Costal Related to ribs
Larynx
Epiglottis
Trachea
Homogenous
Heterogenous
Nest
Symphysis pubis
Opaque
Translucent
Tensile
Auricle of the ear
Eustachian tube
Mobile x immobile /
Tibia
Fibula
Temporary
Pus
Be manifest
Moist
Glistening
Perforate
Villi
Cushion
Semilunar
Cruciate ligament
Radius
Ulna
Convex
Concave
Shoulder joint
Gliding
Antagonize
Sac
Sub
Cutaneous
Voluntary
Spindle-shaped = fusiform
Myo-


04
Viscera
feather
Deltoid
Spiral
Innervation
Spinal nerve
Hilum
Thigh
Arm
Hand
Perimysium
Calf of leg
thrombosis



































04

Questions
BASIS
M.C.Q.S
1- regarding the anatomical position , one is wrong :
a) human body is standing erect
b) eyes are looking forwards
c) thumb is directed medially
d) upper limbs are hanging beside the body
e) palms are facing forwards
2- the plane which divides the body into 2 equal halves right and left is :
a) median lpane
b) coronal palne
c) paramedian plane
e) horizontal plane
3- arterial supply of bone is derived from :
a) nutrient artery
b) metaphysical arteries
c) epiphysial arteries
d) all of the above
e) a + b only

4- regarding yellow elastic fibrocartilage , one is wrong :
a) very rich in elastic fibers
b) it shows ossification in old age
c) it is present in auricle of ear


06
d) it is present in epiglottis
e) external nose
5- hyaline cartilage is present in the following sites except one :
a) fetus
b) auricle of the ear
c) costal cartilage
d) larynx
e) tracheal rings
6- white fibrocartilage is present in one of the followings :
a) epiglottis
b) auricle of ear
c) intravertebral disc
d) costal cartilage
e) larynx
7- regarding white fibrocartilage , one is wrong :
a) rich in collagen fibers
b) it doesnt show ossifoication in old age
c) it is tarnslucent
d) present in the intervertebral disc
e) present in symphysis pubis
8- regarding joints of the body , one is wrong :
a) the superior tibifibualr joint is syndesmosis
b) the joint between tooth and its socket is gomphosis
c) the joint between the flat bone of the skull is suture
d) the joint between epiphysis and diaphysis is primary cartilaginous


00
e) symphysis pubis is secondary cartilaginous
9- regarding characters of synovial joints , one is wrong :
a) it has a joint a joint cavity
b) it has a fibrous capsule
c) the articular surfaces of the bones are covered by yellow elastic cartilage
d) the intracapsular non-articular structures are covered by synovial membrane
e) it has supportive ligaments
10- one of the following joints is uniaxial :
a) shoulder
b) wrist
c) elbow
d) knee
e) hip

11- one of the following is biaxial joint :
a) shoulder
b) hip
c) elbow
d) knee
e) superior radioulnar
12- one of the following is a polyaxial joint :
a) hip
b) knee
c) wrist
d) superior radioulnar


04
e) elbow
13- regarding the type of wrist joint , one is correct :
a) ball and socket synovial
b) condylar synovial
c) saddle synovial
d) ellipsoid synovial
e) none of the above
14- an example of strape-like muscle :
a) rectus abdominis
b) sartorius
c) deltoid
d) supinator
e) none of the above
15- an esample of strape-like muscle with tendinous intersections is :
a) sartorius
b) deltoid
c) rectus abdominis
d) tibialis anterior
e) temporalis
16- an example of multipennate muscle is :
a) deltoid
b) tibialis anterior
c) rectus ant.
d) supinator
e) sartorius


03
17- an example of bipennate muscle is :
a) rectus abdominis
b) rectus femoris
c) sartorius
d) deltoid
e) tibialis anterior


ESSAY QUESTIONS
GIVE AN ACCOUNT ON EACH OF THE FOLLOWING :
1- factors responsible for the stability of a joint (may,2013)
2- factors affecting range of movement
3- characters of synovial joints (may,2010)
4- classify joints according to axes of movements , give examples (sep,2008)
5- attachment of skeletal muscles (june,2008)
6- shape and form of skeletal muscles (sep,2008,june,2009)











03

MATCH
1-
1- irrigular bone a) carpal bone
2- sesamoid bone b) roof of skull
3- long bone c) femur
4- flat bone d) patella
5- short e) vertebra

2-
1- syndesmosis a) symphysis
2- gomphosis b) between epiphysis and diaphysis
3- suture c) between flat bones of skull
4- primary cartilaginous e) inferior tibiofibular
5- secondary cartilagenous d) between tooth and its socket

3-
1- shoulder a) saddle synovial
2- elbow b) ellipsoid synovial
3- carpometacarpal joint of thumb c) ball and socket synovial
4- suoerior radioulnar d) hinge synovial
5- wrist e) pivot synovial

4-
1- quadrilateral A) lumbrical
2- starpe like B ) flexor pollicis longus
3- strape like with tendinous
intersections
c) sartorius
4- fusiform d) thyrohyoid
5- unipennate e) rectus abdominis







03
FILL IN THE BLANKS


1- the position which is used as a reference in describing human body is called
..
2- near to the back of the body is .
3- away from the median plane is
4- movement towards the median plane is .
6- when the sole of the foot is directed inwards it is called ..
7- an example of a muscle present in the superficial facsia of the neck is
.
8- an example of a muscle which its tendon passes under a fibrous pully is

9- a bone embedded in a tendon is called . Bone
10- an example of uinaxial joint is .
11- the largest sesamoid bone in the body is
12 an example of pneumatic bone is .
13- epiphysis bone is cobered with ..
14- deep fascia forms for insertion of muscles of both sides in the
middle line
15- the deep fascia forms sheaths around big vessels and nerves e.g.
. Sheath in the lower limb and .. sheath in head and neck







03
Upper
ESSAY
1-BONES :
1- Name the muscles and ligaments attached to the upper end of the humerus
(jan,1995, salah el dien )
2- describe the upper end of the radius , name the related joints and structures
attached (jan,2000,salah el dein)
3- enumerate the surface land marks of the ulna. (june, 1999,salah el dein)
4- name the muscels and ligaments attached to the upper end of the humerus .
(jan,1995)

2-REGIONS :
-Pectoral , shoulder and scapular region:
1- give short account on clavipectoral fascia . (jan,2000)
2- discuss the lymphatic drainage of the breast. (jan,1991,2013)
3- deep relation of deltoid muscle . (jan,1993)
4- write the origine of latissmus dorsi muscle. (jan,1998)
5- write short notes about the boundries of auscultation triangle.
(jan,2001)
6- anastomoses aroud the scapula . (jan,2001)

7- name the movement of shoulder girdle and muscles producing them
(jan,2002)
8- boundries and contents of quadrangular space (june,2002)
9- write short account on attachment , action and nerve supply of muscles
attaching humerus to axial skeleton (june,1991)
10- give the origin , insertion , nerve supply , action and relations of deltoid


44
muscle (
june,1999,2008)
11- name the ertery and nerve passing deep to the rhomboids and levator
scapulae (june,1998)
12- name the three structures in the deltopectoral groove (june,1998)
13- attachment and nerve supply of muscles forming the rotator cuff of the
shoulder joint (june,2004)
14- attachment , nerve supply and action of pectoralis minor muscle
(june,2011)
15- lymphatic drainage of mammary gland (june,2013)


-AXILLA :
1- name 3 boundries of apex of axilla (jan,1998)
2-give the structures forming the medial and lateral wall of axilla
(jan,1999)
3- dicuss the anatomy of axillary artery and mention anastomosis it shares in and
give its surface marking (jan,1993)
4- axillary lymph nodes (jan,1991)
5- discuss the formation of brachial plexus (jan,1991)
6- branches of posterior cord of brachial plexus and their root value
(jan,2001)
7- discuss the detail anatomy of axillary artery (june,1993)
8- give an account on relations and branches of third part of axillary artery
9- discuss in short , groups of axillary lymph nodes (june,1990)
10- name the branshes of axillary nerve (june,1998)
11- describe in short the boundries and contents of axilla (june,2011)


44
12- give course , relations and branches of radial n erve in axilla
(june,1995)
13- course , branches and injury of circumflex nerve (june,2003)

-ARM :
1- give 5 structures at the insertion of coracobrachialis (jan,1991)
2- compare between biceps and triceps muscles (june,1992)
3- name 3 arteries sharing the anastomosis around surgical neck of the humerus
(jan,1998)
4- give the course , relation and branches of musclocutaneous nerve

(jan,2000)
5- describe surface anatomy of radial nerve of the arm
6- enumerate cutaneous nerve supply of the upper part of the arm , give their
root value and parent trunks (jan,1992)
7- branches of brachial artery (jan,2003)
8- origin , course and destribution of musculocutaneous nerve (jan,2003)
9- give a brief account on intermuscular septa of the arm (june,1994)
10- give the relation of brachial artery and its branches (june,1990,1996)
11- name four branches of brachial artery (june,1997)
12- give the anatomy of cubital fossa (june,1993)
13- give account on boundries and contents of cubital fossa (june,1997)
14- anatomical structures ( events ) at level of insertion of coracobrachialis
muscle
(june,2008)
15- attachment and action of biceps brachii muscle (june,2011)
16- attachement , nerve supply and relation of brachialis muscle


44
17- give course , relations and branches of radial nerve in the arm and forearm .
enumerate its branches (june,1990,2006,sep,2009)
18- origin , course and branches of profunda brachii artery (june,2004)


-FOREARM :
1- write the attachment , nerve supply and important relations of muscles that
produce pronation of forearm (jan,2002)
2- origin , insertion , nerve supply and action of flexor digitorum superficialis
muscle (jan,2001)
3- dicuss the superficial and deep relation of the flexor retinaculum of the wrist
(jan,1994)
4- name five structures connecting radius and ulna together
5- anatomical description of pronated and supinated forearm , muscles
responsible , joints involved and the types of these jonits (jan,2013)
6- describe the branches of the ulnar nerve in the forearm (1999,benisuif)
7- describe the course , relations , and branches of anterior interosseous artery
(jan,2000)
8- describe the course , relations and branches of the radial artery

(JAN,1992)
9- describe the attachment of the flexor retinaculum at wrist joint , mention the
structures deep to it (jan,2012)
10- give the origin , insertion , nerve supply , actions and main relations of flexor
digitorum superficialis muscle (june,1998)
11- attachment , nerve supply and action of 2 muscles arising from interosseous
membrane of forearm (june,2003)
12- enummerate arteries which anastomose at wrist joint (sep,2009)
13- name 3 long muscles take origin from the back of ulna


46
14- describe the course of ulnar nerve in the fore arm (june,1996)
15- name 3 muscles supplied by posterior interosseous nerve (june,1998)
16- posterior interosseous nerve and its injury (june,2002)
17- give account on course , relations and branches of radial artery in the
forearm and hand (june,1998,2003)
18- give an account on course and relations of ulnar artery (june,1999)
19- name 4 branches arising from ulnar artery in forearm (june,1998)
20- give an account on the course relation and branches of ant. And post.
Interosseous arteries of forearm (june,1997,1999)
21- relation and branches of the median nerve in the forearm

(june,2003,2008)
22- name 3 long muscles take origin from the back of the ulna

-HAND :
1- describe the anatomy of the palmer cutaneous branches of median and ulnar
nerves (jan,1993)
2- describe the branches of median nerve in the hand (june,1999)
3- discuss the motor and cutaneous nerve supply of the hand (jan,1992)
4- give the surface anatomy of the deep palmer arch (jan,1998)
5- course and distripution of the deep branch of ulnar nerve in the hand

(jan,2001)
6- write a short note on skin creases infront of wrist palms and fingers

(JAN,1993)
7- discuss the boundries and contents of the mid palmer space of the hand


40

(jan,1998)
8- describe the anatomy of the flexor synovial sheathes in the hand and fingers
(jan,1993)
9- sensory innervations of the hand (jan,2002)
10- summarize the sensory and the motor supply of the hand (june,2010)
11- describe the facial spaces of the hand (palm) (june,2000)
12- discuss attachment , action of interosseous muscles in the hand

(june,1995)
13- describe the movement of opposition of the thumb (june,1997)
14- formation , surface marking , relations and branches of superficial palmer
arch (june,2002)
15- name muscles innervated by deep terminal branches of the ulnar nerve

(june,2005)
16- discuss the nerve supply of the hand (june,1991)
17- give an account on course , relations , branches of median nerve in forearm
and hand (june,2008)
18- discuss in brief each of the following :
a) long muscles of the thumb


44
b) anatomical snuff box (june,1992)
19- attachment and deep relations of the extensor retinaculum (jan,2002)

-VEINS , LYMPH DRAINAGE , CUTANEOUS NERVE SUPPLY , NERVE
INJ URY AND J OINTS OF UPPER LIMP :
1- describe the movement on shoulder and muscles producing each movement
(june,1998)
2- give account on radio-ulnar joints and movements taking place at this joints
(june,1999)
3- give an account on anatomy of radioulnar articulations (june,2001)
4- give an account on joints of the fingers , write a note on other actions of
muscles works on fingers (june,2013)
5- relation of elbow joint (june,2005)
6- enumerate arteries anastomosing at the elbow (june,2008)
7- enumerate arteries anastomosing at wrist joint (june,2009)
8- course , relations and tributaries of superficial veins of upper limb

(june,2005)
9- discuss the anatomical basis of claw hand deformities (june,1993)
10- movement of the thumb and muscle producing them (june,2006)
11- name 5 structures (not muscles ) connecting radius to ulna (june,1996)
12- describe ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow , mention structures that come
in contact with it
13- anatomy of radial ulnar articulations (june,2001)
14- give a short account on pronation and supination (june,2007)



43
15- anatomical description of the pronated and supinated forearm , muscles
responsible and joints involoved and the types of this joints

(june,2013)




FILL IN THE BLANKS

Regions :

1- the deltoid muscle is supplied by . Nerve , it is inserted into .
(sep,2003)
2- the medial half of breast receive arterial supply from the perforating branches
of . And . (june,2011)
3- the .. vein and the . Nerve and the . Artery pierce
the clavipectoral fascia
4- the breast extends medially to , lateral to .. , above to
.. and below to .
5- the lateral quadrants of the breast are derived are drained into the
group of axillary lymph nodes , while the medial half recieves arterial supply from
the perforating branches of and
6- the trapezius recieves motor fibers from and sensory fibers .
7- the rhomboid muscles receive nerve supply from .. which arises from

8- the anterior fibers of deltoid can do and rotation
9- the posterior fibers of deltoid can do and rotation


43
10- the middle fibers of deltoid abduct the arm from .to .
Dergrees
11- the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles are supplied by the
nerve that arises from
12- the .. passaes belows the suprascapular ligament within the
suprascapular foramen , while the passes above the liagement
13- the rotator cuff muscles include .. , .., .. and

14- the upper triangular space of axilla transmits the vessels while
the lower triangular space transmits the nerve and . Vessels


AXILLA :
1- among the branches of the lateral cord of the brachial plexus are . And
..
2- the branches of the root of the brachial plexus include .. and .
(june,2011)
3- the axillary artery begins at the outer border of the and ends at the
lower border of the . (may,2013)
4- the cervico axillary canal is bounded anteriorly by .. and medially by
.. (may,2013)
5- the nerve and the . Artery pass through quadrangular space
of axilla
6- the posterior wall of axilla is formed of .. , and ..
7- the first part of the axillary artery gives the . Artery while the second
part gives the .. , .. arteries
8- the third part axillary artery gives , . And artries
9- the anastomosis around the sacpula is formed of . , . And
.. artries
10 the branches of the roots of the brachial plexus include and


43
..
11- the branches of the trunks of the brachial plexus include .. and
.
12- the branches of the lateral cord of the brachial plexus are ..
13- the branches of the medial cord of the brachial plexus are . , .
, .. ,. And
14- the branches of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus are .. ,
.. , ., . And .



ARM :
1- the cubital fossa is bounded laterally by the .. muscle and medially by
the . Muscle (june,2008)
2- the . Nerve and the .. artery pass behind the medial
epicondyle of the humerus
3- the anastomosis around surgical neck of the humerus is formed of .. ,
and . Arteries
4- the coraco brachialis can do and of shoulder joint
5- the medial half of brachialis is supplied by
6- the medial half of brachialis is supplied by . Nerve , while its lateral
half is supplied by .. nerve
7- the brachial artery begins at the lower border of .. as a continuation of
.
8- the median nerve lies on the . Side of the upper part of the brachial
artery and on the .. side of the lower part
9- the anastomomsis infront of lateral epicondyle is formed of and
..
10- the anastomosis infront of medial epicondyle is formed of and


43
..
11- the anastomosis behind lateral epicondyle is formed of and

12- the anastomosis behind medial epicondyle is formed of and
..
13- the musclocutaneous nerve supplies .. , .. and .
14- the lateral boundry of the cubital fossa is .. while its medial boundry
is .
15- the floor of the cubital fossa is formed of .. and .. muscles
16- the ulnar artery shares in anastomosis around the elbow by and
while around the radial artery share by . And .
17- in the cubital fossa , the median nerve gives muscular branch to . ,
, . And ..


-FOREARM :
1- the nerve passes between the 2 heads of pronator teres while the
. Nerve passes between the 2 heads of flexor carpiulnaris
(june,2008)

2- the flexor barpi ulnaris inserted into 2 carpal bones .. and
(may,2013)
3- the anterior surface of the interosseous membrane gives attachment to
. And ..
(may,2013)
4- the radial pulse can be easily felt between the tendons of .. and
..
5- in the middle 1/3 of the forearm , the ulnar nerve and artery descends
vertically between .. and .


34
6- the ulnar artery descends .. to flexor retinaculum , while the median nerve
passes . To the retinaculum
7- the anastomosis infront of the wrist is formed of . , . And
.
8- the anastomosis on the back of the wrist is formed of , .
And ..
9- in the upper 2/3 of the forearm , the median nerve descends between
.. and
10- in the forearm , median nerve gives muscular branches to and
.
11- posterior interosseous nerve supplies all the muscles of the back of the
forearm except . , and . Which are
supplied by the main trunk of the .. nerve
12- the superficial radial nerve descends in the upper 2/3 of the forearm deep to
.. muscle on the side of the radial artery
13- the posterior inertosseous nerve winds around the lateral aspect of
inside the substance of the .. muscle
14- the flexor retinaculum is attached medially to . And .
And laterally to .. and ..
15- the special tunnle formed by flexor retinaculum infront of trapezium transmits
the tendon of which inserted into .
16- the structures that passes superficial to flexor retinaculum include
, . , . , .. and
17- the structures the passes through the carpal tunnle include . ,
and ..
18- the first compartment deep to extensor retinaculum transmits the tendons of
. And ..
19- extensor retinaculum attached medially to . And . And
laterally to . And
20- the structures that passes superficial to extensor retinaculum are .
, .. , and


34
21- the second compartment transmits tendons of and ..
22- the third compartment transmits tendons of .
23- the fourth compartment transmits tendons of and .. and
terminals of artery and .. nerve
24- the 5
th
comp. transmits the tendon of while the 6
th
transmits the
tendon of ,
25- the synovial sheath of the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus is called
. Bursa . the common synovial sheath of the tendons of the flexor
digitorum superficialis and prufudus is called .. bursa


-HAND :
1- the lateral two lumbricals are supplied by .. nerve while the medial
two lumbricles are supplied by nerve (june,2008)
2- the thenar muscles are supplied by nerve while hypothenar are
supplied by the .. nerve
(sep,2008)
3- the . , .. are components of the proximal row of the carpal
bones
(may,2013)
4- the. Bone is the first carpal bone to ossify , while .. is the
least
5- all the interossei are supplied by . While the lateral 2 lumbricles are
supplied by and the medial 2 lumbricals are supplied by

6- the lumbricals can do flexion of joints and extension of
joints
7- the palmer interossei can do adduction od .. , .. and .
Fingers
8- the dorsal interossei can do abduction of .. , . And
. Fingers


34
9- the ulnar artery continues in the hands as the palmar arch
, while the radial artery continues as the .. palmar arch
10- the superficial palmer arch lies at the level of the border of fully
extended thumb , while the deep palmer arch at the level of the .. border
11- in the thumb , the fibrous flexor sheath covers the tendon of .. ,
while in each of the medial 4 fingers it covers the tendons of and
.
12- the anantomical snuff box is bounded laterally by the tendons of and
.. and medially by the tendons of


-VEINS , LYMPH DRAINAGE , CUTANEOUS NERVE SUPPLY , INJ URIES
AND J OINTS OF UPPER LIMB :
1- the shouldar joint is a synovial joint of .. variety the glenoid cavity
of the scapula is rather despended by a rim of fibrocartilage is called
.
(may,2010)
2- the basilic vein begins at the side of the dorsal venous venous
arch of the hand , it unites with the .. at the lower border of teres major to
form ..
3- the cephalic vein pierces the deep fascia at the groove , then
pierces the fascia to end in the .. vein
4- the skin of the floor of the axilla is supplied by the . Nerve , its root
value is .
5- the upper lateral cutaneous nerve of the arm is a branch of . , while
the lower lateral cutaneous nerve of the arm is branch of
6- the lateral cutaneous nerve of the forearm is a branch of .. , while the
medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm is a branch of ..
7- injury of the upper trunk of brachial plexus is called and id
accompanied by the loss of sensation on the .... side of the upper arm
8- motor manifistations of injury of lower trunk of the brachial plexus are mainly


36
due to paralysis of . And .. which is called ..

9- injury of radial nerve mostly occures in fracture of . And results in a
deformity called ..
10- posterior interosseous nerve injury may results from fracture of it is
not accompamied by wrist drop due to intact muscle
11- carpal tunnle syndrome results from compression of the .. nerve
while passing through the carpal tunnle the deformity called ..
12- if the median nerve is injured above the elbow , there will be ulnar deviation
of the hand due to the paralysis of ..
13- inability of the patient to grip a piece of paper between 2 fingers is a sign of
. Nerve injury and it is due to paralysis of .
14- if the ulnar nerve is injured above the elbow there will be radial deviation of
the hand due to paralysis of ..
15- protraction of scapula can be done by and .
16- retraction of the scapula can be done by . , .. and ..
17- elevation of the scapula can be done by . And
18- depression of the scapula can be done by .. and .
19- upward rotation of glenoid cavity can be done by .. and ..
20- downwards rotation of glenoid cavity can be done by . , .
And
21- at least 2 openings are found in the capsule of the shouldar joint , one for
. And the other for .
22- the . Ligaments blend with the anterior surface of the capsule of
shoulder joint , the . Ligaments keeps the long head of the biceps in
the position in spiral groove
23- fglexion of the shoulder joint is performed by .. , .. ,
and ..
24- extension of the shoulder joint is performed by , ,
and .


30
25- abduction of the shoulder joint is about for .. degrees , and its
performed by and . Further abduction occures mainly
at the joint by the action of .. and
26- adduction of the shoulder joint is performed by . , ,
and .
27- medial rotation of the shoulder joint is performed by ,
, . And
28- lateral rotation of the shoulder joint is performed by ,
and .
29- the .. and .. nerves carry proprioception from thr shoulder
joint
30- the elbow joint is a synovial joint of . Variety , while the wrist
joint is a synovial joint of .. variety
31- flexion of elbow joint can be done by . And .
32- extension of elbow joint can be done by and .
33- the carrying angel is about degrees and it disappears when the
elbow joint is fully ..
34- movements of pronation and supination occure at the .. joints ,
the axis of supination and pronation extend from the .. above and to the
. below
35- the medial collateral ligament of the elbow is attached to . And

36- the lateral collateral ligament of the wrist is attached to .. and
.
37- abduction of the wrist can be done by , ..and ..
38- adduction of the wrist can be done by , and
..
39- the coracoclavicular ligament is formed of antrolateral part called the ..
part and postromedial part called . Part
40- the anterior surface of the interosseous membrane gives attachment to
. And ..


34
41- the posterior surface of the interosseous membrane gives attachment to
. , .. , and

Embryology
M.C.QS
1. Which of the following cells contain a haploid number of chromosomes
? (june,2008)
a) primary oocyte
b)primary spermatocyte
c) somatic skin cell
d) spermatid
e) zygote
2. The aim of spermeogenesis : (june,2009)
a) reduction of the chromosomal number
b) changing the shape of male germ cell
c) changing the germ cell into motile animal
d) determination of sex
e) storage of cytoplasm in sperms
3. the secretory phase of the uterine cycle : (june,2009)
a) lasts about 10 days
b) endometrium increases very much in thickness
c) uterine glands become filled with glycogen & mucin
d) endometrial artries become very tortuous
c) under influence of progesterone
4. the primary oocyte does not complete the first mitotic division before :
(self assessment


33
)
a) puperty is reached
b) fertilization
c) implantation
d) birth
e) fifth month
5. regarding spermatogenesis , the following statements are true EXCEPT :
(self assessment )
a) the process starts at the end of property
b) the first meiotic division occurs in primary spermatocyte
c) the second meiotic division each ( spermatocyte gives ) four spermatides d)the
nucleus of spermatid occupies most of the head of the spermatozoon
e) the mitochondria of the spermatid collect in the acrosome
6. regarding gametogenesis , the following statements are true EXCEPT :
(self asses. )
a) the male primordial germ cells give rise to spermatogonia at puperty
b) the preimordial germ cell differentiate into oogonia once they arrive to the
developing ovary
c) the number of chromosomes is reduced to half after the first meititic division is
completed
d) in the process of spermiogenensis , the spermatid is transformed into a sperm
e) the spermatogonium develops into mature sperms in about 10 days
7. regarding ovulation , the following statements are true EXCEPT :
(self asses.)
a) after ovulation , the corpus luteum is formed from the collapsed follicle
b) the ovum escapes from the ovary surrounded by some follicular cells called
corona radiata


33
c) it occure under the effect of LH hormone
d) it occurs about the middle of the ovarian cycle
e) the ovum escapes from the ovary befors completion of the 1
st
meiotic division
8. regarding the female sex hormones , all the following statements are
correct EXCEPT : (self asses. )
a) estrogen is produced by the follicular cells
b) estrogen stimulates the endometrial glands secretion
c) the corpus luteum secretes progesterone during 1
st
four months of pregnancy
d) the high level of estrogen stops the secretion of FSH
e) the placenta takes the role of progesterone secretion after degeneration of the
corpus luteum
9. regarding the process of fertilization , the following statements are true
EXCEPT : (self asses.)
a) it occurs in the ampulla of the uterine tube
b) sperms can fertilize the ovum only after capacitation
c) sperms bond to sperm binding site on the cell membrane of the ovum
d) both the head and the tail enter the ovum
e) the oocyte completes its 2
nd
meiotic division soon after fertilization
10. regarding fertilization , mark one correct statement : (self asses. )
a) the process of capacitation lasts for about 20 hours
b) the tail of the sperm enters the ovum during fertilization
c) the cortical and zona reactions precede the penetration of the zona pellucid
d) there are no sperm binding sites on the zona pellucid
e) when x-carrying sperm fertilizes the ovum the resultant is male offspring
11. one of the following structures is not a constitutent of the tertiary
chorionic villi : (may,2013)
a) cytotrophoplast


33
b) syncytiotrophoplast
c) extraembryonic mesoderm
d) extraembryonic coelom
e) blood capillaries
12.during the third week of development , the following events occure
EXCEPT : (self
asses.)
a) the bilaminar germ disc is transformed into trilaminar germ disc
b) the intraembryonic mesoderm is differentiated to paraxial , intermediate and
lateral plate mesoderm
c) the three germ layers of the disc develop from the epiblast
d) an ectoendodermal membrane appears near the cephalic end of the
embryonic disc and is called cloacal membrane
e) the notochord develops from the migration of the cells of the primitive pit
towards the cephalic end of the embryonic disc
13. regarding gastrulation , mark one correct statement : (self asses.)
a) means the formation of bilaminar germ disk
b) it means formation of the three germ layers
c) it means formation of the yolk sac and amniotic cavity
d) it means formation of the extraembryonic mesoderm
e) it occurs during 2
nd
week of development
14. regarding the folding of the embryonic disc , the following statements
are true EXCEPT : (self asses.
)
a) only cephalic and caudal parts of the embryonic area are involved in folding
b) the cephalic fold causes reversal of position of the heart and pericardium
c) the cephalic fold encloses part of the yolk sac , which forms foregut
d) the caudal fold encloses part of the yolk sac , which forms hindgut


33
e) the caudal folding of the embryo brings the connecting stalk ventrally
15. regarding the embryonic disc , the following statements are true
EXCEPT : ( self
asses. )
a) notochord lies in the midline axis of the disc
b) the disc is first rounded then pear shaped
c)somites of the paraxial mesoderm differentiate into dermomyotomes and
sclerotomes
d) dermatome parts of dermomyotomes , give rise to epidermis of the skin
e) sclerotomes gives rise to vertebral coloumn
16. the following structures are derivatives of the neural crest EXCEPT :
(self asses. )
Autonomic ganglia
Adrenal cortex
Melanocytes
Glial cells
Conotruncal septum of the heart
17. all the following glands are ectodermal in origin EXCEPT : (may,2010)
a) mammary gland
b) pancreas
c) pituitary gland
d) sebaceous glands
e) adrenal medulla
18. the following strustures are derivatives of the ectoderm EXCEPT :
(may,2013)
Central nervous system


34
Sensory epithelium of the eye
Vertebral column
Mammary gland
Hair and nails


19. concerning extraembryonic mesoderm: (june,2009 )
a) develops from mesodrmal germ layer
b) begins to be formed on 11
th
and 12
th
days
c) lies on the inner surface of the cytotrophoplast
d) formed of loose tissue
e) forms with the cytotrophoplast the chorion
20. regarding somites , the following statements are true EXCEPT :
(self asses.)
a) they develop from lateral plate mesoderm
b) these differentiate into ventromedially placed sclerotome
c) their dorsolaterel wall differentiates into dermomyotomes
d) dermatomes give rise to dermis of skin
e) sclerotomes five rise to the vertebral column
21. the age of an embryo of 16 counted somites is : (self asses.)
a) 22 days
b) 23 days
c) 24 days
d) 25 days
e) 26 days


34



22. all the following structures are endodermal derivatives EXCEPT :
(june,2008)
a) liver
b) pancreas
c) thyroid gland
d) stomach
e) kidney
23. concerning the decidua : (june,2009)
a) is the endometrium after fertilization
b) consists of three parts
c) the decidua parietalis forms the maternal part of the placenta
e) the decidua capsularis covers the fertilized ovum
d) the decidua basalis lies between the embryonic pole and myometrium
24. regarding the full term placenta , all the following statements are
correct EXCEPT : (june,2008)
a) has a discoid shape
b) its diameter is 15 to 25 cm
c) its weight is 500 to 600 gm
d) the maternal surface is smooth and covered by amnion
e) the umbilical cord is attached near the centre of the fetal surface




34
25. regarding the placenta , all the following statements are correct
EXCEPT : (may,2012)
a) placenta previa results from implantation of the blastocyst into the lower
segment of the uterus
b) the placenta produces chorionic gonadotropins during thr first four months of
pregnancy
c) progesterone and estrogen hormones are produced by the placenta
d) the placental barrier separates the fetal blood from the maternal blood
e) the decidua capsularies shares in the formation of the placenta
26. regarding the placenta , all the following statements are correct
EXCEPT : (self
asses.)
a) decidual septa donot reach the chorionic plate
b) its maternal portion is formed by decidua basalis
c) its fetal portion is formed by chorion frondosum
d) prevents passage of the maternal antibodies to the fetal blood
e) it produces progesterone after the 4
th
month of pregnancy
27. during the late months of pregnancy , the placental barrier consists of :
(self asses.)
a) splanchnopleuric mesoderm
b) cytotrophoplast and syncytiotrophoplast
c) extraembryonic mesoderm and cytotrophoplast
d) endothelium of the fetal capillaries and syncytiotrophoplast
e) intraembryonic mesoderm and cytotrophoplast and syncytiotrophoplast
29. regarding placenta previa , mark one wrong statement : (self asses.)
a) its due to implantation of the blastocyst in the lower segment of the uterus
b) placenta previa centralos is the most dangerous type


36
c) it may lead to bleeding after labor
d) it may lead to asphyxia of baby during labor
e) caesarian section may be dona in such cases
30. concerning the allantois : (june,2009)
a) an endodermal protrusion
b) arises from cranial part of the yolk
c) opens into the terminal part of the hid
d) its extraembryonic part will be obliterated
e) its intraembryonic part forms apex of urianary bladder
31. regarding the contents of the primitive umbilical cord , mark one
correct statement : (june,2011)
a) connecting stalk
b)allantois and allantoic vessels
c) yolk sac stalk and vitelline vessels
d) all of the above
e) B and C only


32. regarding the amniotic fluid , the following are correct , EXCEPT :

(may,2010)
a) it is produced by amniotic cells
b) It serves as a protective cushion
c) polyphy dramnios occures in cases of esophageal atresia
d) oligohydramnions occures in cases of anencephaly
e) it allows fetal movement


30
33. regarding the functions of yolk sac , the following items are correct
EXCEPT :
(JUNE,2011)
a) it has a nutritve function to the embryo
b)formation of the gut
c) the premordial germ cells are formed in the wall of the yolk sac
d) formation of blood cell in the early stages of development
e) the vitelline veins form the portal vein , the hepatic veins and the liver
sinusoids
34. regarding twins , all the following statements are correct EXCEPT :
(may,2011)
a) in case of early separation of the zygote , each of the resulting monozygotic
twins has its own placenta
b) ahmed and dina were diagnosed as monozygotic twin
c) the dizygotic twins usually have separate placenta
d) the monozygotic twins have very similar finger prints
e) in case of separation of the bilaminar germ disc , the resulting monoygotic
twins share the same amniotic cavity




34
ESSAY QUESTIONS


A- give short account on the following :
1)normal and abnormal sites of implantation (june,sep,2008)
2) notochord (sep,2008)
3) chorionic villi (june,2008)
4) define the neural crest and enumerate its deravatives (sep,2009)
5) paraxial mesoderm (june,2008)
6) results of folding (sep,2009)
7) abnormalities of placenta (sep,2008)
8) development of placenta and its congenital anomalies (june,2011)
9) components of placenta , mention its normal and abnormal sites within the
uterus (may,2013)
10) describe in brief the development and anomalies of the umbilical cord
(may,2010)




33


MATCH
1- Select from the column (B) the derivative of structures in column (A) :
(june,2008)
1- neuroectoderm a) epithelial lining of the respiratory
tract
2- surface ectoderm b) kidneys
3- paraxial mesoderm c) central nervous system
4- endoderm d) dermis of the skin
5- intermediate mesoderm e) epiderms of the skin

2-
Structure time of formation
1- morula a) fourth week
2- blastocyst b) third week
3- formation of bilaminar disc c) third day
4- formation of trilaminar disc d) fifth day
5- folding of embryo e) second week
f) first week

3- hormones
1- LH a) responsible for the proliferative
phase of the endometrium
2- HCG b) responsible for ovulation
3- progesterone c) responsible for the growth of
primordial follicles
4- oestrogen d) secreted by chorion
5- FSH e) responsible for the secretory phase
of the endometrium







33
4-
1- cleavage a) monthly shedding of endometrium
2- ovulation b) extrusion of the ovum from the
mature graafian follicle
3- manstruation c) repetitive division of the zygote
4- implantation d) fusion of sperm and ovum
5- fertilization e) penetration of the blastocyst in the
endometrium

5-
1- placenta a) estrogen during ovarian cycle
2- testis b) progesterone in early pregnancy
3- graafian follicle c) testosterone
4- corpus luteum D_ LH and FSH
5- anterior pituitary E) progesterone in late pregnancy

6-
1- 44+ XO a) downs syndrome
2- 44+ XX b) normal female
3- 44+ XXY c) normal male
4- 45+ XX or 45+ XY d) turner syndrome
5- 44+ XY e) klinefelter syndrome






FILL IN THE BLANKS

1- in monosomy , the zygote contains chromosomes , while in
trisomy it contains .. chromosomes .
2- the zona pellucida disappears at the day after fertiliation and implantation
begins at the . Day , impalantation is completed by the day .


33
3- the amniotic cavity is roofed by the and its floor is formed by ..
4- the embryonic period extends from .to .. weeks of
development and is called the period of .
5- after folding , the part of the secondary yolk sac enclosed within the embryo is
called . And the remaining part is called
6- the full term placenta is a disc of about cm in diameter and ..gm
in weight
7- the early placental barrier is formed of layers which are
8- placenta previa leads to .. during late pregnancy and / or of
the baby during labot
9- ovulation occures as a result of rupture of . Under the effect of
.. hormone which is secreted by .
10- by the end of the 2
nd
week of pregnancy , the trophoplast differentiates into
.. and , while the lateral plate mesoderm split into 2 layers
. And .
11- the trilaminar germ disc forms at the beginning of the . Week and is
constituted of 3 layers named .. , and ..




97
3- Biochemistry
1 - biochemistry

2 - chapters pathways mechanism

diagram .
3 - MCQs chapter
Translation
Chapter 1 : Introduction
word translation
Biochemistry
Biological
Chemical reaction
Cellular
Enzyme
organelle
Bond
Covalent bond
Atom
Polarity
Electronegativity
Polar
Electron density
Dipole
Hydrogen bonds
Ionic bonds
Van der waals forces
Partial charge
Angle
Boiling point
Solid
liquid
Gas
Half life
Vaporize
solubility
Strand
Poly peptide chain
Nucleic acids
Repulsive force
Hydrophobic interactions
Cluster
Squeeze To push
Affinity


08
Organic
Fusion
Heat capacity
Universal solvent
Dissociate
Solute
Cellular membranes
Amphipathic
Bile salts
Reactant
Metabolism
Hydrolysis
Condensation
Oxidation-reduction reactions
Gerbil
Law of mass action
Rate
Directly proportional
Inversely proportional
Product of
Concentration
Reacting substances
Reversible reaction
Velocity
Constant
Equilibrium
Ratio
Reaction products
Pure water
Neutral
Equation
Vice versa
Log
Proton
acid
Base
Alkali
In excess of
Buffer pH
pH
Co2 tension = pCO2
Bronchial asthma
Emphysema
Pneumonia
Asphyxia


08
Sulfuric acid
Diabetes mellitus
Deficiency
Renal
Excretion
Juice
Intestine
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Reabsorption
Fever
High altitude
Gastric juice
Gastric wash
Administration
Peptic ulcer
Hyper- +
Hypo- -
Depression
Respiratory center
Homogenous
Heterogenous
Diameter
Invisible
Colloidal solution
Starch
Filter paper
Semipermeable membrane
Suspension
Naked eye
precipitate
Centrifugation
Lyophilic Solvent lover
Lyophobic Solvent hater
Aqueous
Saturated solution
Concentrated solution
Diluted solution
Mass
Volume
Diffusion
Kinetic energy
Edema
Bowman's capsule
Diuretics


08
Surface tension
Immiscible
Coalesce
Viscosity
Adherence
Iodine
Brownian movement
Bombardment
Dialysis
Cellophane
Immerse
Purification
Sediment
Fractionation
Electrolyte
Electric field
Electrophoresis Migration in an electric field
Chromatography
Isomer
Structure
Configuration
Stereo
Functional group
Geometrical
Optical
Substituent
Plane

Chapter 2 : Carbohydrates :
word Translation
Formula
Molecular formula
Prism
Reflect
Parallel to
Clockwise
Antagonize
Linkage
Intermediate
Cyclization Ring formation
Grape sugar
Semen
Cyclohexane
Conjugated with
Derivatives


08
Inversion
Cereals
Tubers
Legumes
Helix
Achro- No color
Erythro-
Constipation
Sulfate free - sulfate
Connective tissue
Umbilical cord
Ovum
Vitreous body
Subcutaneous
Sperm
fertilization
Cartilage
Tendon
Cornea
Sclera ( )
Transparency
Anti-coagulant
Ground substance
Compressibility
Embryo
Morphogenesis
Thrombus
Lipids
Mucous fluid


Chapter 3 : Lipids :
Word Translation
Waxes
Fatty acids
Monohydric alcohol 1 OH group
Monocarboxylic 1 COOH group
Even number
Impaired growth Retardation
Dermatitis
Linseed
Anaphylaxis
Odorless
Margarine
Rancidity


08
Moisture = humidity
Volatile
Bitter taste
Stem
Fur
Sebaceous glands
Wool
Transduction
Venom
Biliary calculi
Kinase = phosphorylase Enzyme that adds phosphate
Phosphatase Enzyme that removes phosphate
Vasopressin=ADH
Yeast
Fungi
Gonads
Adipose tissue
Ultraviolet rays = UVR
Entero-
Hepato-
Ovary
Genesis
Testis
Endometrium
Uterus
Lactation
Apricot
Egg yolk












85
Summaries
Introduction:

Chemical bonds:
1) Covalent bonds: It's sharing of electrons ,, strong and difficult to be
broken __________________

equal un-equal
like the bond in CH
4
like the bond in H
2
O

the Electro-negativity the electro-negativity
in both C and H is equal of O
2
is more than H
(Non-polar) so it attracts the electrons
for a longer time (Polar/dipole)

Notes:
The cause of polarity is electro-negativity
Any compound having covalent bonds and non-equal sharing of
electrons is dipole

2) Non-covalent bonds: Non sharing ,, weak and easy to be broken

a-Hydrogen bond: It occurs when H atom which covalently linked to
electro-negative atom become shared with another
electro-negative atom
ex. H
2
O ,PTN, DNA (important for their structure and properties)

b-Electrostatic interaction: It occurs between 2 oppositely charged ions
or molecules
N.B. NaCl is not ionic interaction,, as the ionic/electrostatic interaction acts
over larger distances




86

c-Van der waals forces:-Transient electrostatic interaction between 2 atoms
or molecules when they are close to each other
(becoz of the random distribute of electron in the
outer orbit)
-It's the weakest non-covalent bond
-The minimum distance (Van der waals distance
VD) is .3: .4 nm,, if increased the
the attraction decreased, and if increased the
attraction also decrease (becoz of repulsion)

d-hydrophobic interaction: It happens under 2 conditions:
1-presence of water
2-presence of 2 non-polar groups in the water
the water pushes the 2 groups of non polar groups towards
each other (by hydrophobic interaction linkage) as they don't
dissolve, so the water try to decrease the interaction between
it and the molecules
Note: All the non covelent bonds are attractive forces except van der waals
forces at a distance less than VD

Water:
1)Structure: a-Dipolar
b-Can form hydrogen bonds

2)Properties: a-Thermal: due to presence of hydrogen bonds
water: Solid liquid vapor
no. of HBs: 4 (max) 2:3 0
-our body temperature is constant although there are external changes
becoz of vaporization ( when the external temp. rises that breaks hydrogen
bond inside our bodies and water vaporize to keep temp. constant)

Note: when the water turns from liquid to solid some bonds form so the


87
volume increases
b -Solvent prop.: Water is a powerful universal solvent due to dipolar
structure , means is have both + and - charges so any compound can
dissolve
Note: polar compounds form hydrogen bonds with water

*Why there are amphipathic molecules?
-As they facilitates transport of hydrophobic compound in the hydrophilic
environment inside the body
*what are the amphipathic molecules?
-Bile salts, soap & phopsholipids

Note: when micelles are formed they are stabilized by 2 bond:
hydrogen bonds: between polar parts and water
hydrophobic or van der waals: non-polar parts with each other

c-Reactant prop.: water isn't only a solvent, but it acts in the reactions too
-hydrolysis -condensation -oxidation-reduction

*Metabolic water:
Definition: Water produced from oxidation of food or fat stored in the body
Importance: Enable animals living in dry environments to survivve long time
without water (ex. camels, rats & kangaroos)

Dissociation of water:
Law of mass action: at any given temp. (within conditions) velocity of
reaction is to the product of the molecular concentration of reacting
substance
(substance) A+B C+D (product)
V
1
A.B V
2
C.D
V
1
= K
1
A.B V
2
= K
2
C.D




88

at equilibrium: V
1
= V
2

K
1
A.B = K
2
C.D
K
1
/ K
2
= C.D / A.B
equilibrium constant K = C.D / A.B
K: the ratio between molecular concentration of reaction product and
reacting substances

H
2
O H
+
+ OH
-

K (of water) = (H
+
) (OH
-
) / H
2
O *dissociation is so weak (from every 1
million of H
2
O just 2 molecules dissociate)
so K
w
(H
+
) (OH
-
)
K
w
10
-7
10
-7

10
-14
*this law is applied to all water solutions

*If K
w
is constant , then when H
+
con. is
high ,, OH
-
will be low , and vice versa

Acids: Substances when dissociated in water gives (H
+
) (proton donors)
1) strong acids: completely dissociated in water (irreversible)
ex. 100 HCL 100 H
+
+ 100 Cl
-

2) weak acids: partially dissociated in water (reversible)
ex. 100 CH
3
COOH 10 H
+
+ 10 CH
3
COO
-
+ 90 CH
3
COOH

Basis: Substances when dissociated in water gives (OH
-
) (proton acceptor)
1) strong basis: completely dissociated in water (irreversible)
2) weak basis: partially dissociated in water (reversible)


PH (potenia hydrogen/ power of hydrogen):
Its the negative value if log H
+
ions con.
*How to keep PH constant??


89
-by getting rid of excess acid and keep secreted acids = basis

Factors regulate PH: (oral)
1)Buffers: -1
st
line defense against change in PH
-have an immediate response, acts in a fraction of sec.
-low deficiency
- low effect
2)Respiration: -inspiration when acids
-expiration when basis
-low (becoz it has minimal and max. rate)
3)kidney: -2
ed
line of defense
-excrete excess compounds in urine and absorb reduced
compound from blood
-acts slowly, needs several days to reach max. capacity
-high effect

Buffers:
Definition: Solutions that regulate PH when moderate amount of acids or
basis are added
Composition: 1)Weak acid and its salt with strong base
H
2
CO
3
+NaOH NaHCO
3
+H
2
O
2)Weak base and its salt with strong acid
NH
4
OH + HCl NH
4
Cl + H
2
O
Mechanism: -HCl is a strong acid (proton donor) if it stayed in blood for a
long time it would change PH by [H
+
] so we react it with a
buffer (H
2
CO
3
/NaHCO
3
)
HCl + NaHCO
3
H
2
CO
3
+ NaCl (neutral)
-NaOH is strong base (proton acceptor) and it would change
the PH by [OH
-
]
H
2
CO
3
+ NaOH NaHCO
3
+ H
2
O (neutral)
*If excessive acid or base is added the buffer system is consumed and the
PH changes



90

Physiological buffers:
1)Bicarbonate buffer system In blood (the most imp. buffer system)
Structure: BHCO
3
/ H
2
CO
3
20 / 1
bad buffering capacity (buffers are good when acid = base)
but it's suitable for the body bcoz our bodies produce acids
*Explain why it needs proper lung function?
-If we put HCl to BHCO
3
H
2
CO
3
+ BCl
H
2
O + CO
2
(need to inspiration)
-If we put NaOH to H
2
CO
3
NaHCO
3
+ H
2
O (so we need to respiration to
keep more acid in the body to buffer NaOH )
*Explain why it's the most imp. buffer system?
-1.present in high concentration
2. easily formed by tissues
3.easily corrected by respiration

2)Phosphate buffer system in all cells
3) Protein buffer system in cells & plasma
4) Hemoglobin / oxyhemoglobin in RBCs
















91

Solutions:

True solution
(Crystalloids)
Colloidal solution Suspension
1 nm Between 1:200 nm 200 nm
Homogenous Heterogeneous
Invisible by eye and
microscopes
Visible only by
microscopes
Visible by naked eye
Pass filter paper and
semi permeable papers
Pass through filter but
not semi permeable
Doesnt pass through
both
Can't be precipitated Precipitated by
centrifuge
Precipitate
automatically
Ex. NaCl, glucose, urea
in water
Ex.Starch and protein
in water
Ex. Sand in water,
RBCs in plasma

Colloidal solution:
Definition: The colloidal system is made of 2 phases:
dispersed phase (solute) , dispersion medium (solvent)
Classification:
Emulsoids Suspensoids
Solvent lover (lyophilic) Solvent hater (lyophobic)
Highly charged Poorly charged
Surrounded by water Not surrounded
Difficultly precipitated
(needs con. solutions)
Easily precipitated
(needs dil. solutions)
Easily redissolved Once precipitated never redissolved
Ex. Strach and ptn in water Ex. Ferric hydroxide and Gold sol.

Notes: -Emulsoids needs con. solutions when precipitated to remove
surrounding water 1st (dehydration) then removing the charges
(neutralization)
-When we make dehydration, Emulsoids turn to Suspensoids


92

General prop.:
Diffusion: Passage of solute particles from high con. to low con.
Cause: Radpid movement of particles

Osmosis: Passage of solvent particles from low con. to high con. through
semi permeable membranes
Osmotic pressure: pressure needed to prevent osmosis according
to con. and no. of molecules
Osmole: no. of impermeable particles dissolved in a sol.
regardless its charge
Osmolarity: *measure of the osmole of solute dissolved in 1 liter
of the solvent
*measure of osmotic pressure of a sol. regarding
water, depend on the no. of particles not its nature
for ex. Na
2
SO
4
= 3 osmole , NaCl = 2 osmole
Osmolality: measure of osmole of solute per Kg of the solvent
(When the solvent is water osmolarity = osmolality)
Tonicity: measure of the osmotic pressure of the solution exerted
on a cell membrane regarding osmotic pressure of plasma
Notes: -Any solution injected in th body must be isotonic
-Saline is the most popular solution used in medicine
Importance of osmotic pressure (op):
Body fluids regulation: 1-Capillary bp: filtration force help to direct
plasma to the veins, this plasma have ptns
(solute) directed to the interstitial fluid (solvent)
2-Op of plasma ptns: re-absorption force takes
water
* At the arteriolar end ,, force 1 > 2 ,, so the plasma
moves towards the ISF, with glucose and O
2

*At the veinular end ,, force 2 > 1 ,, so the plasma goes
to veins, giving away waste product



93

*Explain why hypoproteinemia causes edema?
becoz filtration happens with reabsorption, and less ptns cause
accumulation of fluids in the ISF

Urine formation: Kidney works by the same mechanism (filtration,
reabsorption, excretion)
Notes: -more solute in urine, more volume of urine
-diabetic person have more glucose which stays a=in the
renal tubules and absorb much water, increasing volume
of urine
-hypertension patients takes hypertonic medisine which
contain diuretics to decrease blood volume and tension

Surface tension: The force by which the surface molecules are held
together
Interfacial tension: tension between 2 impermeable sol.
Factors affecting ST: bile salts, phospholipds, salts (emulsifying factors)
decrease surface tension
*Explain how the soap cleans?
it has both polar and non-polar parts, forming micelles, the polar
parts form hydrogen bonds with water decreasing its ST,, and oil
droplets gets inside the micelles (becoming water soluble)

Viscosity: Resistance of a fluid to flow in a tube
Cause: attraction of particles to each other
*In blood it's related to BP,,, it gets down with high temp.

Hydrotropy: It's the ability to dissolve water insoluble particles in water
without changing its nature (by lowering its interfacial tension
by adding emulsifying factors)


94
Note: Emulsifying factors = amphoteric compounds = hydrotrophic agents =
tension lowering substances = interfacial tension lowering factors
Adsorption: It's attraction of small particles to the surface of large
particles depending on (the charge between them,, surface
area)
*Constipation is caused of toxins in colon, so we give the
patient coal particles to attract the toxins then it's excreted
in urine
Elution: It's removal of the adsorbed particle from the adsorbent surface
*it's the basis of many chromatographic techniques

Specific prop. of colliodal solutions:
Tyndall effect: colloidal particles are seen as light spots under the ultra-
microscope as it reflects light in water
Brownian movement: the particles are in continuous movement due to
bombardment of colloidal particles by solvent
Oncotic pressure: Although crystalloids have more particles,, but colloids
Op is more effective becoz they are impermeable and
can attract fluid more

Methods of separation:
Dialysis
Ultrafiltration
Ultracentrifugation
Precipitation
Electrophoresis: Migration in electric field
Depend on : no. of charges
molecular weight
Chromatography: Separation of protein mixture on the basis of molecular
properties (size, shape, molecular weight, )




95
Carbohydrates:

Definition: -Organic compounds
-Polyhydroxy alcohol with functional aldhyde (CHO) or
keto (CO) group
-Carbon with H
2
O (C no. = H
2
O no.)
Classification: -Monosaccharides: 1 unit of sugar
-Disaccharides: 2 units of sugar
-Oligosaccharides: from 3 to 5 units
-Polysaccharides: more than 10 units

*Monosaccharides:
They are the simplest sugars, having the general formula (CH
2
O) ,
according to its functional group it's classified into:

1)Aldoses:
-Any sugar must end with CH
2
OH (primary alcohol) ,, and in the
middle HCOH (secondary alcohol)
-The simplest aldose (parent) is the aldotriose glyceraldhyde from
which all aldoses can be derived (theoretically) by adding 2ry
alcohol below CHO
-The penultimate carbon defines whether the compound is L or D
isomer
(if the OH is on the right it's D,, on the left it's L )

2)Ketoses:
-The simplest kitose is the ketotriose dihydroxyaceton from which all
ketoses can be derived (theoretically) by adding 2ry alcohol below
CO
-Also have D and L isomers according to the penultimate carbon,
except Dihydroxyaceton which doesnt have asymmetric carbon



96

*Epimers:
They are optical isomers with conditions:
1-Having more than 1 asymmetric carbon
2-All are the same, only 1 is different
Ex. glucose is epimer for mannose and galactose ,,, but mannose
and galactose aren't epimers

*Optical activity:
It's the ability of a substance to rotate the plane polarized light (PPL)

ordinary light prism PPL tube with sugar rotation

vibrates in all directions vibrates in 1 direction
parallel to the prism base

the condition of OP is that the compound have 1 or more asymmetric
carbon ,, so the only sugar optically inactive is dihydroxyaceton

The sugar might rotate the light to the right / clockwise /
dextrorotation (d) / (+) [the most popular dextrorotatory is glucose]
or to the left / anticlockwise / levorotation (l) / (-) [the most popular
levorotatory is fructose]


*The ring structure:
The ring structure is common in nature not the aldhyde form
Aldoses: the aldhyde group makes condensation as it has (CO)
if C
1
combines with C
5
pyranose ring
if C
1
combines with C
4


furanose ring
The linkage between the aldhyde group and hydroxyl group no. 5 is
called Hemiacetal


97
Haworth formula: describes the pyranose and furanose rings as the
groups to the right is projected downwards and
the groups to the left is upwards
in case of D-sugars, C
6
is projecting downwards
and the anomeric carbon in the position is
downwards and position is upwards

Ketoses: The keton group here is the one making condensation
C
2
with C
6

Pryan
C
2
with C
5
Furan
The linkage between the keto and alcohol group is called Hemiketal


*Mutarotation:
It's the spontaneous change of an optically active substance when a
freshly prepared solution is left to stand
for ex. when a mixture of and forms of glucose dissolved in water
both forms gradually change to reach a final value of +52.5 ,
this is called mutarotation

Important Monosaccharides:
Trioses, Tetroses and Pentoses are intermediates during oxidation of
glucose in living cells
Pentoses are also components of nucleotides and nucleosides of
ribonucleic acids

Hexoses: glucose is the main sugar of blood, dextrorotatory,
formation of disaccharides and polysaccharides
fructose present in honey, fruits and semen, levorotatory,
component of sucrose and insulin
lactose present in milk, found in GAGs, glycolipids and
glycoproteins



98

*Monosaccharide derivatives:
1)Sugar acids:
Sugar oxidation corresponding sugar acid
a-aldonic acid:
RCHO RCOOH
glucose glucunic ,, galactose galactonic

b-uronic acid:
RCH
2
OH RCOOH
glucose glucuronic ,, galactose galacturonic

c-aldaric acid:
CHO COOH
| |
CH
2
OH COOH

glucose glucaric ,, galactose galactaric

d-L-ascorbic acid:
not formed in the body, but formed in lower mammals (ex. cats and
dogs), its deficiency causes scurvy , found in fresh vegetables and
fruits












99
2)Sugar alcohol:
Sugar reduction corresponding sugar alcohol

RCHO RCH
2
OH
glucose sorpitol ,, mannose mannitol,,
galactose dolcitol/ galacitol

Important members of sugar alcohols:
1-Glycerol: component of TAGs and most phospholipids
2-Ribitol: froms riboflavin (Vit. B
2
)


3)Myo-inositol:
component of phospholipids (phosphatidyl inositol), it's found as its
hexaphophate Phytic acid which inhibits the absorption of Ca
+2
,Mg
+2
,
Fe & Cu
+2
from intestine due to forming insoluble salts


4)Deoxysugars:
the OH group is replaced with a hydrogen atom

Important members of deoxysugars:
1- 2-deoxy -D-ribofuranose: present in DNA
2- L-fucose: present in blood group antigens and some cell
membrane glycoprotein


5)Aminosugars:
HCOH HCNH
2

glucose glucosamine ,, galactose galactosamine
mannose mannosamine



100
they are conjugated with acid and/or sulphate like glucosamine 2,6
bisulaphate in heparin and N-acetylglucosamine hyaluronic acid


6)Aminosugar acids:
They are formed of addition of acids to aminosugars
ex. Addition of Pyruvic acid to mannosamine Neuraminic acid
N-acetyl Neuraminic acid (NANA) enters in the structure of
glycolipids and glycoproteins


7)Ester formation:
Acid + Alcohol Ester
Phosphoric acid + Alcohol Ester phosphate (Glucose 1-P,)
Sulphoric acid + Alcohol Ester sulphate (sulpholipids - -D-
galactose 3-sulphate)


8)Glycosides:
It's the product of condensation with 2 alcohols or phenols (1 from
hemiacetal and the other from another alcohol)
* the word glycoside = acetal ,, thats why the ring structure is called
Hemiacetal .. as it still needs another alcohol
*any glycosidic linkage is named according to the anomeric carbon to
which it's attached ( or )

there are 2 types :
a- O-glycosides: when the anomeric carbon reacts with alcohol
(disaccharides and polysaccharides)
b- N-glycosides: when the anomeric carbon eacts with N
1
of
perimidine or N
9
of purines (nucleosides and
nucleotides) or amide group of asparagine
(glycoproteins)


101
*Disaccharides:
They consists of 2 units of sugars connected together by glycosidic
linkage

Classification:


Reducing Non-reducing
Have free anomeric carbon
(one is involved in the linkage
and 1 is free)
Contain no free anomeric
carbons
(both involved)
Have or forms
(mutarotates)
Have no or forms
(no mutarotation)
Ex. Maltose
Isomaltose
Cellobiose
Lactose
Ex. Sucorse


A)Reducing:
1-Maltose (malt sugar):
2 D-glucopyranose units
the linkage is -1,4 glucosidic linkage
hydrolysis of starch (by -amylase ) gives maltose
hydrolysis of maltose (by maltase enzyme) gives 2 glucose units

2-Isomaltose:
the linkage is -1,6 glucosidic linkage
it's the product of hydrolysis of starch at branching points (by
isomaltase enzyme)





102
3-Lactose (milk sugar):
-D-Galactopyranose + D-glucopyranose
the linkage is -1,4 galactosidic linkage
hydrolysis (by lactase enzyme) gives glucose + galactose

4-Cellobiose:
2 -D-glucopyranose
the linkage is -1,4 glucocidic
found in the polysaccharide cellulose
not hydrolyzed in the body , but hydrolyzed (by the cellulase enzyme)
in the bacteria

B)Non-Reducing:
Sucrose (cane sugar):
-D-Glucopyranose + -D-fructofuranose
the linkage is either -2,1 fructosidic Or -1,2 glucosidic
hydrolyzed (by sucrase enzyme) giving glucose and fructose
*Sucrase is called also invertase bucoz sucrose is dextrorotatory then
after hydrolysis it becomes levorotatory


*Oligosaccharides:
They are formed of 3 to 10 sugar units
Most of them are not very important ,, non digestable,, enter in the
formation of immunoglobulins , glycolipids and ABO blood groups


*Polysaccharides:
They are formed of more than 10 or more sugar units
They are non-Reducing coz bothe carbons are involved in the
linkages



103
A)Homopolysaccharides:
made up of only 1 type of monosaccharides

a-Glucans: formed of D-glucose
1-Starch: Storage form of carbohydrates in plants
Found in cereals, legumes and tubers
they have 2 types: Amylose, Amylopectin

Amylose Amylopectin
Percentage 15-20 % 80-85 %
Shape Linear (helix) Branched
Linkage -1,4 glucosidic -1,4 Or 1,6 glucosidic
Action of amylase
(hydrolysis)
Maltose Maltose & Isomaltose
Color Deep blue color Light blue color
Units no. 300 glucose unit 24-30 glucose unit for
each branch (100-150)
Molecular wight lower m.w Higher m.w

2-Dextrin: Obtained from partial hydrolysis of starch
have 50-60 glucose molecule
have 3 types:
*Higher dextrin (amylodextrin): Violet color with I
2
, 50-60
*Intermediate (erythrodextrin): Red color, 30-40
*Lower dextrin (achrodextrin): Colorless, 10-15

3-Glycogen: Storage form of carbohydrates in animals and humans
Found in liver and muscle
Formed of branching glucose molecules with less
branching points
Gives red color with I
2

*Compare between Glycogen and amylopectin



104

4-Cellulose: Linear polymer of -D-glucopyranose


-1,4 glucosidic linkage
Found in vegetables and cotton
Parallel chains attached with hydrogen bonds
Not soluble in water
Not hydrolyzed inside the body but hydrolyzed in
bacteria , partially to cellobiose and completely to
glucose
Colorless with I
2

Notes: -Amylose is helix shaped,, more spaces ,, takes more iodone,,
gives more color,, Unlike cellulose which is parallel
-Cellulose is not digestible becoz we have only amylase to
hydrolyze linkage
-Despite cellulose isn't digestible, it's important in diet as it
prevents constipation, as it remains in big molecules helps
to stretch intestine

b-Fructans: Formed of D-fructose
Inulin: Found in plants
Used to measure kidney function (as it's not absorbed in
the kidney and sent back to urine)


*Heteropolysaccharides:
GAGs: Unbranched / linear heteropolysaccharides,, usually made up
of an amino sugar and a uronic acids
A)Sulphate free GAGs:
Hyaluronic acid:
Formed of repeating units of (D-glucuronic acid + N-acetyl
glucosamine)
n



105
Found in Ground substance of loose c.t, Vitreous humor, Synovial
fluid, Embryonic tissues and Zona pellucida
Important as : 1-lubricant in synovial fluid
2-shock absorbent in vitreous humor
*Why is age related to pain ?
becoz the hyaluronic acid is replaced with dermatan sulphate which
is not a good lubricant

B)Sulphate containing GAGs:
1-Chondroitin Sulphate (CS):
Formed of repeating units of:
(D-glucuronic acid + N-acetyl D-galactosamine sulphate)
n

Present in catilage, bone and tendons
2-Dermatan Sulphate (DS):
Formed of repeating units of:
(L-iduronic acid + N-acetyl D-galactosamine 4-sulphate)
n

Present in skin, cornea and bone
It has a role in maintaining the structure of sclera of the eye
3-Keratan Sulphate (KS):
Formed of repeating units of:
(D-galactose + N-acetyl D-glucosamine 6-sulphate)
n
Present in cartilage, cornea and loose c.t
Important for maintenance of corneal transparency
4-Heparin:
Formed of repeating units of:
(Uronic acid 2-sulphate + D-glucosamine 2,6-bisulphate)
n

Present in ECM, lung, liver and blood (anticoagulant)
Produced by mast cells
5-Heparan sulphate:
It contains more glucuronic acid and less sulphate than
heparin
Present on many cell surfaces amd ECM (bound to proteins)


106

Proteoglycans:
They are carbohydrates attached to protein core ( 95% carbs, 5% ptn)
Bound to proteins in the ECM
Importance of GAGs and Proteoglycans: (CALCA)
1-Component of ECM
2-Attract water (becoz of the (-) charges of sulphate and acetic acid
which attracts Na
+
and K
+
)
3-Limit passage of large compounds and allow smaller compounds
(works as a barrier in the extra cellular fluid)
4-Compressibility (the fluid in the cartilage gets out when there is a
pressure instead of this pressure gets to bone and fracture it )
5-Aggrecan formation



*Glycoproteins:
They are proteins attached to oligosaccharides (covelntely
bonded)
8 monosaccharides are commonly present in the
oligosaccharide chains [Galactose, Glucose, Mannose, Xylose,
Fucose, NANA, N-acetylglucosamine, N-acetylgalactosamine]

They present in mucous fluid, blood and cell membrane

ABO blood group antigens:
the blood group depends on the oligosaccharide part of the
glycolipid or glycoprotein
the X part determine the blood group
if both are Galactose then the blood is B
if both are N-acetylgalactosamine it's A (GBNA)
if not present it's O


701
Lipids:

Definition: -Organic compounds (formed of C,H
2,
O
2
,, found in organs)
-Insoluble in water
-Soluble in fat / non-polar / organic solvents (ex. Ether ,
Benzene , Acetone , Chloroform)
-Esters of fatty acids or associated with them in nature

Biomedical Importance: -High source of energy (used in case of fasting)
1 gm lipids 9.3 kcal
1 gm CHO 4.3 kcal and PTN 4.1 kcal
-Fat soluble vitamins ( A, D, E, K )
-Essential fatty acids

) Alcohol with Fatty acids esters of Simple lipids ( - Classification:
Alcohol with tty acids Fa esters of Compound lipids ( -
) Carbohydrate ,,Phosphate ,, Sulphate +
-Derived lipids (hydrolytic products of lipids or associated
with lipids in nature)

*Fatty Acids :
General formula : R-COOH (R: non polar hydrocarbon chain)

Definition: -Organic acids
-Mostly with even no. of carbons
-Mostly mono-carboxylic

Presence: Found as esterified with alcohol or unesterified (free fatty
acids/ FFAs)
N.B. FFAs are water soluble and carried on albumin

Nomenclature: -If we counted from the carboxyl group , it would be C
1

then the following C
2
, C
3
and so on ,, C
2
is also known as
then the following would be , and so on


701
Ex. CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
COOH ,,,, CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
COOH

4 3 2 1

-If we counted from the methyl group, It's called
1
then
the following would be
2
,
3
and so on
Ex. CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
COOH


1

2

3

4


Classification: -According to saturation :
1.saturated: no double bonds
2.Unsaturated: have 1 or more double bonds (Cis or
Trance bonds )
Notes:
The chemical nature of any FA is derived lipid
ex. Butyric acid : short chain fatty acid saturated
derived lipid lipid
The end product of any FA synthesis in the body is
Palmitic acid (C
16
)
Excessive CHO in the body turn to FAs
Most FAs in nature are long chain
The melting point of any FA depends mainly on the
interaction between the molecules , Cis bond is bended
less interaction less melting point ,, while trance
bond is Parallel more interaction higher melting point


-According to Nutrition:
1.Essential fatty acids: can't be formed in the body
(- linolenic & linoliec )
2.Non-essential fatty acids: can be formed in the body
mainly from Carbohydrate



701
Note:
Arachedonic acid is synthesized in the body from
linoleic but in case of its absence it may be
considered as essential fatty acid


Deficiency: -In adults : sterility & fatty liver
-In Infants : impaired growth & dermatitis

Physical Pro.: -Solubility in water: soluble up to 6 carbon
chains
-Physical state: short (till 10 C) chains are
liquid ,, long chains are solid ( Saturated )
Unsaturated long chains are liquid due to
presence of Cis bonds
Chemical reactions: 1) Due to Carboxylic group:
a-Ester formation TAG (triacylglycrol)
b-Salt formation Soap
c-Reduction Fatty aldhyde Fatty alcohol
2) Due to presence of double bonds:
a- Addition of H
2

Corresponding saturated
b- Addition of I
2

c- Addition of O
2
Corresponding peroxide
further oxidation (splitting) lower chains
of acids and aldhydes
Notes:
Peroxides have a bad taste
Oxidation by H
2
O
2
destroy lipoproteins of plasma
and cell membrane ( Lipid peroxidation )








770
*Ecosanoids :
Definition: -Derivatives of PUFAs containing 20 C
-Derived theoretically from a hypothetical
(doesnt present in nature ) compound
Prostanoic acid
Prop. : -They are hormone like molecules, autocrine & paracrine
regulation
-They have physiological and pharmacological action
-They are produced by mammalian tissues
-The subscript no. indicates the no. of double bonds in the
molecule,, ex. PGE
1
contain 1 double bond
Classification:
1)Cyclic (prostanoids) compounds:
a-Prostaglandins (PG) : -They were 1st discovered in the prostatic gland
-All have cyclo pentane ring in their structure
(from C
8
to C
12
)
-Most imp. members are:
PGE: Ether soluble, have Keton group at C
9

PGF: Phosphate buffer soluble, have hydroxyl
group at C
9

Action: PGE
2
Vasodilatation, smooth muscle relaxation,
bronchodilatation ( relieve bronchial asthma)
PGF
2
Vasoconstriction, smooth muscle contraction
b-Thromoxanes (TX) : -They are formed by platelets
-They have Oxane ring in their structure (2 oxygen
atoms)
-ex. TXA
2 ,
TXB
2

Action: Vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation, thrombus formation
c-Prostacyclins (PGI) : -They contain additional ring in their structure
-PGI
2
antagonize TXA
2

Action: Vasodilatation, prevent platelet aggregation and thrombus
formation





777
2)Acyclic compounds:
d-Leukotriens (LT) : -They are secreted from leukocytes, mast cells and
platelets
-They contain 3 conjugate double bonds
Action: -Increase vascular permeability
-Component of Slow-Reacting Substances of Anaphylaxis (SRS-A)
e-Lipoxins (LX) : -They are secreted from arterial wall
-They contain 4 conjugate double bonds but have more
oxygen than LT
Action: Anti-inflammatory compound


Notes:
The word Anaphylaxis is an allergic reaction, the body forms
antibodies (by mistake) against a specific medicine when it's
taken again
Conjugate double bonds mean they are not methylen interrupted

CH
2
CHCCCCHCH
2
CHCHCH
2
CHCH

Oxane ring is formed of 5 carbon atoms with one O in the end

*Simple Lipids :
Esters of FAs + Alcohol
____________

Glycrol Monohydroxyalcohol
Neutral(TAG) Waxes

1) Triacylglycrol (TAG) :
State: Colorless, Odorless, Sweet taste
Classification: -Oils: High content of USFA
-Solid: High content of SFA
Physical prop.: -Yellow color due to presence of Carotinoids
-Insoluble in water but soluble in fat solvents


772
Chemical reactions: a- Addition of H
2
(Hardening / reduction):
Convert USFA (oil) SFA (solid), hence the name
b- Addition of I
2

*Iodine no. : Its the no. of grams I
2
absorbed by
100 gm of fat or oils ( p.s. It's higher in oils )
c- Hydrolysis:
Acid hydrolysis: TAG dil HCL glycerol + 3FFAs
Enzymatic hydrolysis: TAG Lipose enzyme glycerol +3FFA
Alkaline hydrolysis: TAG 3KOH glycerol + 3RCOOK
(saponification)


Rancidity: Development of bad odor and taste of fats and oils due to
exposure to high temp., humidity, light, O
2
, metals (copper)
1-Hydrolytic: lipase enzyme(bacteria), High temp., short
chains of FAs
2-Oxidative: O
2
in oils rich in USFA peroxides, fatty
aldhydes, fatty ketons, lower chains of fatty acids
Protection: addition of antitoxins (Vitamin E, Phenols, Quinones)
2) Waxes:
Definition: -Complex mixture of non-polar lipids
-Serve as protective coating in ( stem, leaves , fruits)
-Present in skin of fur animals
Physical pro.: Insoluble in water, not easily hydrolyzed
Composition: Long chains of FAs with Long chain Monohydroxyalcohol
higher than glycerol
(have 1 CH
2
OH,estrified with 1 FA)
Note: monohydroxy = monohydric
Examples: a- Bee's wax (true wax): Palmitic acid C
16
+ Mericyl alcohol C
30

very strong , hard to be hydrolyzed, not made in the body
b- Lanolin: FA ester + Lanosterol (not made in the body)
c- Vitamin A: called Retinol coz formed in Retina '
d- Vitamin D: called Calciferol coz it's very important for
calcium in bones and teeth


773
*Compound lipids:
Esters of FAs + Alcohol + other group
____________

phosphate carbohydrate
(phospholipids) (glycolipids)

1)Phospholipids:
FA + Alcohol + Phosphate
____________

Glycerol Sphingol
(phosphoglycride/ (sphingomyelin)
glycrophospholipid/
glycrophosphatide)

A)Glycrophospholipid: FA + Glycerol + Phosphate
Definition: Derivatives of Phosphatidic acid
Examples:
1- Phosphatidic acid/ Diacylglycrophosphate (DAGP) (precursor)
*It's formed of (hydrolytic products) : 1Glycerol + 1SFA (usually no.1)
+ 1USFA (usually no.2) + 1 phosphoric acid

Formation Presence
2- Lecithin
(ph. choline)
phosphatidic acid + Choline cell membrane, blood
plasma, lung, liver,
brain
3- Cephalin
(ph.ethanolamine)
phosphatidic acid +
Ethanolamine
cell membrane, blood
plasma
4-Phosphatidyl
Serine
phosphatidic acid +
Serine
cell membrane
5-Lipositol
(ph. inositol )
phosphatidic acid +
Inositol
cell membrane (2ry
msn)
6-Phosphatidyl
glycerol
phosphatidic acid +
Glycerol



774
7-Cardiolipins
(di-ph. glycerol)
2 molecules of phosphatidic
acid attached by 1 glycerol
inner mitochondrial
membrane, cardiac
muscles, tissues


8-Plasmalogens : these are types of etherphospholipids characterized by
presence of ether linkage at position 1 derived from
C 16:0 , C 18:0 , C 18:1 fatty alcohols the R group either
Choline or Ethanolamine
Found in nervous or cardiovascular tissues
Reduced levels of tissue plasmalogens causes Alzheimer
Hydrolysis: a group of enzymes "Phospholipases" (PLA
1
, PLA
2
, PLC, PLD)

not present in humans

snake venom toxins: contain Lichithinase enzyme with PLA
2
activity,
when injected into blood , it converts phospholipids
in RBCs cell membrane into Lysophospholipids,
causing death if not treated with antitoxins


Note: Lysophospholipids are the hydrolytic products of phospholipids
from reaction of phospholipases


B)Sphingomyelin: FA + Sphingosine (shingol) 18 C + Phosphate
Composition: FA + Sphingosine (amide bond) Ceramide
Ceramide + Phosphocholine Sphingomyelin
Presence: Cell membrane of (lung, brain, myelin sheath)








771
Importance of phospholipids: (ALPHEC)
1-Arachidonic acid , which is important for synthesis of Ecosanoids
*If the cell want to make ecosanoid it uses the phospholipids in the
cell membrane which contain USFA on position no.2 of glycerol
this USFA is mostly Arachidonic acid , and the cell has also ph.lipase
2 which can separate the Arachidonic and use it
2-Lung surfactant (surface actant) which is formed from dipalmitoyl-
lecithin (lecithin with 2 palmitic acids on position no.1 & 2 )
*its lack is responsible for respiratory distress syndrome in infants
3-Platlet activating factor (PAF) which is a Choline plasmalogen , it has
palmityl alchohol at position no.1 and acetic acid at position no.2
4-Hydrotropic substances, prevent deposition of cholesterol as stones
Hormone 2ed msn, G-ptn activates PLC which converts PIP
2
into
IP
3
and DAG
IP
3
Increases Intracellular Ca
+2
,, DAG activates ptn kinase C (PKC)
1
st
msn which is responsible for ptn phosphorylation
both effects cause cellular response chemical transmitters, growth
factors and hormones
5-Emulsyfication, important for digestion and absorption of fat becoz
they're amphipathic molecules
6-Cell membrane and plasma lipoproteins




2) Glycolipids
FA + Alcohol + Carbohydrate

Sphingosine *FA + alcohol ( Ceramide )
A)Cerebrocides:
Composition: They contain either glucose (Glucocerebrosides) or
galactose (galactocerebrosides)
They have also fatty acid (24 C ) like Cerebronic , Nervonic,
lignoceric acids
Presence: Widely spread in Brain tissues and centers


771
B)Sulphatides:
Composition: They have the same structure of cerebrocides and but
they contain a sulphate group at C3 (hydroxyl group)
of the galactose
Presence: Liver, muscle, testies

C) Gangliosides:
Composition: They are formed of Ceramide connected to a complex
carbohydrate radical containing Glucose, Galactose,
NANA, Aminosugars
The FA is usually 18 C like Oliec & Staric acids
Presence: Ganglia


Importance of glycolipids: (CMR)
1-Cell membrane of RBCs
2-Myeline sheath
3-Receptors for hormones and external stimuli ,, provide Recognition
properties

Notes:
The Sphingol (sphingosine) is the only amino-acohol in lipids
Sphingosine cant form waxes becoz it has more than one CH
2
OH
and there is no esterification in Sphingomyelin becoz there is no
conjucation with 1
st
or 3
rd
(CH
2
OH / CHOH)
Cerebronic is -hydroxy lignoceric
Sphingolipids are : Sphingosine, Cerebrocides, Sulphatides, Ganglicides
H
3
PO
4
is: Phosphate group / Phoshopric acid
Phosphatidyl is: Phophatidic acid
RCOOH + NH
3

Amide bond
RCOOH + alcohol Ester bond
Bisulphate means 2 sulphate groups at the same carbon
Bissulphate means 2 sulphate groups at different carbons
Choline containing lipids are : Lichithin, Plasmalogen, Sphingomyelin
The word Hydrolysis means breakdown by addition of water


771
*Derived lipids:
They are hydrolytic products of simple and compound lipids ( Fatty acids
& Alcohol ) are substances associated with them in nature ( Steroids,
Carotenoids, Vitamins A,D,E,K )

1) Steroids:
Definition: They are compounds containing steroid nucleus which is
composed of 17 C and four fused rings (A, B, C, D)
The ring name is Cyclo-Pentano-Perhydro-Phenanthrene
(CPPP)
Classification: A)Sterols
B)Bile acids
C)Steroid hormones

A) Sterols:
Definition: The word Sterol means Solid (ster-) Alcohol (-ols)
They contain:
1-Zoo sterols: present in animal, like Cholesterol
2-Phytosterols: present in plants, like Sitosterol
3-Mycosterols: present in yeast and fungi, like Ergosterol
Notes: All sterols have an OH at C3
Sitosterol reduces the absorption of cholesterol
Ergoterol can be converted into vitamin D
2
(ergocalciferol)
by UVR



Choesterol:
Definition: The most important zoo sterol
Composition: It contains 27 C
Found free (30%) or esterified (70%) (cholesterol ester)
Found in wax (highly non-polar)
Chemical nature: Cholesterol: Sterol steroid derived lipid
Cholesterol Ester: Wax simple lipid
Presence: Brain, Liver, Gonads, Skin, nervous tissue, adipose tissue


771
Precursor: Every cell can make its own cholesterol, its own building unit
is Active acetate/Acetyl co.A

Plasma level: 120: 240 mg/dl , preferred to be 200 to avoid coronary
heart diseases and atherosclerosis
Importance: 1-Important component of the cell membrane, as it has an
OH group of cholesterol give it some polarity (amphipathic
compound)
2-It's the precursor of all steroid hormones
3-It can be converted to bile acids and salts
4-It can be oxidized in the Liver into 7-dehydroxycholesterol
Notes:
This conversion is accompanied by opening of a ring
Vitamin D
2
is called ergocalciferol, while vitamin D
3
is called
cholecaciferol
Excretion: Either in the body by conversion into Bile salts, Cholesterol
ester, Dyhydrocholesterol Or reduced in intestine by the
intestinal bacteria giving Coprostanol (copro = stool) to be
excreted in stool


B) Bile acids:
Definition: They are derivatives of Cholanic acid (24 C) theoretically
hypothetical compound
Classification:
-1ry Bile acids : formed in the liver from cholesterol
a-Cholic acid: 3,7,12 trihydroxycholanic acid (the main)
b-Chenodeoxy cholic acid: 7,12 dihydroxycholanic acid
-2ry bile acids : formed in the large intestine from 1ry bile acids
this happens by the action of 7 -dehydroxylase enzyme
in the intestinal bacteria ( by removing OH from C7 )
c-Deoxy cholic acid: 3,12 dihydroxycholanic acid
d-Lithocholic acid: 3 monohydroxycholanic acid




771

Notes:
The word cholic means bile
The word Lithyasis means forming stones ,, Lithocholic acid is the
least polar least soluble most forming stones, hence the name
Cholic acid is an amphipathic compound , becoz it has polar parts
(3 OH , COOH) and non polar parts (the rest )


Bile salts:
Formation: Bile acids conjugation (80% glycine, 20% taurine) Bile salts
* glycine is an amino acid while taurine is amino acid derivative
Excretion: they are excreted in liver in bile as Sodium glycocholate and
Sodium taurocholate
*Entero-Hepatic circulation is the way by which bile salts return
back into liver after they are reabsorbed intestine
Importance: (REBS)
1-Removal of excess cholesterol in blood by converting it
into bile salts
2-Emulsifying factors for digestion and absorption of fats
3-Prevent precipitation of cholesterol stones in bile
4-Stimulate liver to secret more bile (Choleretic effect)
Note:
The gall bladder has 4 bile acids, 2 1ry ( direct synthesis) and 2
2ry
(entero-hepatic circulation)











720

C)Steroid hormones:
____________

sex hormones corticoids (C21)
____________

male (C19) female
____________

estrogen (C18) progesterone (C21)

1-Sex hormones:
Male (Androgens) :
Definition: They are theoretically derived from androstane ring
(C19) (hypothetical compound)



Classification:
a-Testosteron: The main hormone, secreted by testis, acts as
a prohormone
It's converted to the most potent (active) form in the tissue
which is Dihydrotestosteron (DHT)
small amounts of testosterone are formed in the ovaries and
adrenal cortex
b-Androstenedione
c-Androsterone
d-Dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
e-Epiandrosterone

Action: Development of 1ry sex organs (testis) & 2ry sexual characters
(voice, hair distribution, fat distribution) (abdomine)
Stimulation of spermatogenesis
Increase muscle bulk (anabolic)


727

Inactivation: It happens in liver and excreted in urine
They are conjugated with glucuronic , sulphuric acids to be
more soluble
Excretory metabolites are androsterone & etiocholanolone
which form the major 17-ketosteroids in urine


Female (Estrogens):
Definition: They are derived theoretically from Estrane ring (C18)
(hypothetical compound) and they have phenol ring A
Classification:
a-Etrane (E
1
)
b-Estradiol (E
2
): The most potent, secreted by ovaries & placenta (during
pregnancy), small amounts are secreted by testis and
adrenal cortex
c-Estriol (E
3
)
Action: Development of 1ry sex organs ovaries & uterus and 2ry sexual
characters (voice, hair distribution, fat distribution, enlargment
of the breast)
the withdraw is responsible for menstrual cycle
Inactivation: Estradiol is converted to less active hormones in Liver to be
excreted in urine after conjugation with glucuronic and
sulphuric acids

(Progesterones):
Definition: It's theoretically derived from pregnane ring (C21)
(hypothetical compound)
It's secreted by ovaries after ovulation and formation of
carpus leuteum and by placenta during pregnancy
Action: -Prepare endometriam for implantation
-Maintains normal pregnancy
-Prepare breast for lactation
-Its withdrawl with etrogens cause menstraul bleeding



722

Inactivation: its converted in liver to inactive product pregnadiol and
excreted in urine
Its excertion increases during pregnancy
**reduction of progesterone into pregnandiol requires 6 H atoms :
2 O into OH,, 2 removal of between C4 and C5 ,, 2 CO
into HCOH


2-Corticoids: (Adrenal cortex hormones)
Definition: They are derived theoritically from Pregnane ring
They are formed and secreted of adrenal cortex
Classification:
a-Glucocorticoids: 1-Corticostero
2-Cortisol (most potent): 17-hydroxycorticosterone
3-Cortisone: 11-dehydro, 17-hydroxycorticosterone
Action: 1-Increase gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from non-carb.
ptns), lipolysis (hydrolysis of TAG in adipose tissues), protein
catabolism
2-Decrease glucose utilization
3-May produce diabetes mellitus in case of prolonged
administration

b-Mineralocotricoids: 1-Aldosterone (most potent): contain aldhyde
group at C 18
2-11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC): It's presented as
a scientific form of deoxycorticosterone acetate
(DOCA)
Action of Aldosterone: It acts on the kidney, increasing the secretion of
K
+
and H
+
and decrease reabsorption of Na
+

* its action is regulated by Plasma ptn level
* It's called mineralocortocoids coz of its effect on minerals





723

2) Carotenoids (terpenes):
Definition: -Fat soluble pigments
-Yellow to Red in color
-Widely distributed in plants (orange, apricot, tomato, apples)
-Found also in humans & animals fat ( milk, butter, egg yolk)
-The most imp. members are , (most potent) , carotenes
(they are precursors of vitamin A) /
Classification:
1- -Carotene:
-Consists of 7 -Ionone ring,, 7 -Ionone ring and 4 isoperene units
connected together through 2 methenene groups
-Gives 1 molecule of Vitamin A

2- -Carotene:
-Consists of 2 -Ionone rings and 4 isoperene units connected together
through 2 methenene groups
- Gives 2 molecules of Vitamin A

3- -Carotene:
-Consists of 1 open Ionone ring ,1 ionone ring and 4 isoperene units
connected together through 2 methenene groups
-Gives 1 molecule of Vitamin A


Notes:
Vitamin A is important for vision
Every Ionone ring gives 1 molecule of vitamin A
Carotenase (dioxygense) enzyme split -Carotene and convert
it
to 2 retinal aldhyde (vitamin A aldhyde) then retinal reductase
enzyme converts it into 2 retinol alcohol (vitamin A alcohol)
which is active and can form Wax
[ -Carotene carotenase 2 retinal retinal reductase 2 retinol ]


124
Amino Acids:

Definition: -Building units of proteins
-20 of them are required for protein synthesis (19 are -amino
acids and only 1 is an imino acid
-Organic acids (have 1 or more NH
2
group/s)
Note: The NH
2
group must be attached to the carbon, if it's not that won't
be an amino acids

General formula: RCHCOOH

NH
2
Classification:
1)Chemically:
______

Aliphatic Aromatic Heterocyclic
Phenyl alanine Histidine
NEUTRAL Tyrosine Proline
Glysine Tryptophan Hydroxy proline
Alanine
(Branched a.a)
Valine
Leucine
Isoleucine Aliphatic Aliphatic
(Hydroxy containing)
Serine ACIDIC BASIC
Threonine Aspartic Lysine
(Sulpher containing) Glutamic Hydroxylysine
Cysteine Arginine
Metheonine
(Amids of a.a)
Asparagine
Glutamine



125
Notes: -Aliphatic means have no rings
-Aromatic means have benzene ring
-Heterocyclic means have another ring than benzene

-Hydroxy proline and Hydroxylysine aren't required for ptn synthesis , hence they
are present becoz they ar formed from proline and lysine

-Serine is hydroxyalanine, Cysteine is thioalanine,Histidine is imidazolealanine,
Tryptophan is indole-alanine, Tyrosine is Parahydroxyphenylalanine

-If we want to add another NH
2
we dont add it in the -Carbon coz it has to be
free for ptn synthesis

-Diamino mono carboxylic basic amino acids
Dicarboxylic mono amino acidic amino acids

2)According to polarity:
a-Non polar/ hydrophobic:
Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Tryptophan
& proline
b-Uncharged/ polar: polar groups forming hydrogen bonds with water
*Contaning hydroxyl: Serine, threonine, tyrosine & hydroxyproline
*Containing SH: Cystiene
*Containing amide: Asparagine & Glutamine
c-Charged:
*Acidic: Aspartic, Glutamic
*Basic: Lysine, Hydroxylysine, Arginine & Histidine

Note: In case of acidic and basic amino acids , the carboxyl & amino acid groups aren't
only

3)Nutritionally:
a-Essential: -They aren't formed in the body
-Their deficiency cause growth rate & ptn synthesis (Negative
Nitrogen balance)
b-Semi-essential: Formed in the body in a rate enough for adults but not growing
children / animals
*Both are gathered in the word VITAL LYMPH (A, H are semi essential)


126
Valine, Isoleucine, Threonine, Arginine, Lysine, Leucine, Tryptophan, Methionine,
Phenylalanine, Histidine

Notes: -Recently they found that Histidine is essential, so we can say there are 9
essential and 1 semi-essential amino acids
-Tyrosine is made of Phenylalanine, so it's essential in case of phenylalanine
absence

c-Non essential: They are formed in the body mostly from carbohydrate

Proteins of High biological value: Contain all essential a.a & easy to be digested
ex. animal ptn (milk, egg)
Proteins of Low biological value: Deficient in 1 or more a.a & difficult to be
digested
ex. plant ptn (beans), collagen, elastin

4) Metabolically: According to their metabolic fate
a-Pure ketogenic: give keton bodies inside the body
Lysine & leucine
b-Pure Glucogenic: give glucose inside the body
all the other a.a except those in the 2 groups
c-Mixed: give both keton bodies and glucose
Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, Tyrosine & isoleucine


MIXES:
1*Mention essential a.a containing OH group
-Threonine
2*Mention essential, basic a.a
-Lysine
3*Mention essential a.a containing sulpher
-Methionine
4*Mention essential, heretocyclic a.a
-Tryptophan
5*Mention essential, aromatic a.a
-Tryptophan, Phenylalanine
6*Mention essential aliphatic a.a
-Valine, leucine, isoleucine


127
Properties:
1)Optical activity:
-All amino acids are in the -position except Glycine (optically active)
-They are present in the D & L forms (L-isomers are common in nature)

2)Amphoteric prop.:
Definition: In Acidic medium they acts as a base and carry (+) charges, In Alkaline
medium they act as an acid and carry (-) charges
Mechanism: -In Acidic medium there are much (+) charged already (H
+
ions) , so
NH
2
won't dissociate and it would take protons to decrease the
acidity becoming NH
+3

-In Alkaline medium there are much (-) charges (OH
-
ions) , so COOH
will dissociate and give H
+
protons to combine with OH
-
ions,
becoming COO
-

*Define IEP (iso electric point):
-It's the PH at which amino acids carry both (+) and (-) charges forming
(Zwitterons) , and they can't migrate in the electric field to the Anode or Cathode

Notes: -Amino acids are always Charged, uncharged amino acid aren't present at
any PH
-This property is for Neutral amino acids (mono amino-mono carboxylic)
not for acidic or basic ones

3)Chemical properties:
a-Reactions due to amino group:
* with acids acts as a base
*Methylation gives monomethyl, dimethyl, trimethyl derivatives
*Deamination gives -keto acid and ammonia (oxidative deamination)
in vivo: by amino acids oxidases or transamination
in vitro: H
2
O
2
*with CO
2


gives carbamino derivatives

b-Reactions due to carboxylic group:
*with strong alkalis form salts
*with weak alkalis remove COO and give primary amines (decarboxylation)
this happens when a.a is heated with barynium hydroxide and it's common
in putrefactive process of large intestine bacteria



128
Note: Histamine, Tryptamine & Tryamine are 1ry amines, but Asparagine &
Glutamine are amide forms

c-Reactions due to amino & carboxyl groups:
Formation of the peptide bond:
-It's formed by condensation of carboxyl group of 1 amino acid with the amino
group of the 2ed amino acid (accompanied always by removal of H
2
O)
- It must happen between -amino acid and -COOH
-It's a very strong covalent bond
-Dipeptide 2 amino acids (1 bond)
Tripeptide 3 amino acids (2 bonds) and so on


*Glutathione:
-Innumerate amino acids forming glutathione :
Glitamine (glu-), Cystiene (thi- /sulpher), Glycine (-one/)

-It's a tripeptide amino acid
-It's an imp. hydrogen carrier (SH is the active site)
-It assumes a dimeric form on oxidation through formation of disulphide bond
(G-S------S-G)
-The peptide bond in it is -COOH (exception)












129
Proteins:

Definition: -They are organic compounds formed of a.a linked together by
peptide bonds
-Its molecular weight ranges from 5000 to millions
-They constitute 50% of organic compound of any cell
-They contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulpher
and sometimes Iron, Zinc, Copper..

Importance: 1-Main source of Nitrogen, Sulpher
2-Hormones, Enzymes, Antibodies (immunoglobulin) are
protein in nature
3 -Plasma proteins are responsible for osmotic pressure &blood
substances transport (hormones, minerals, lipoproteins)
4-Hemoglobin is a ptn responsible for O
2
transport
5-Important components of cell membrane like (receptors, &
transporters)

Structure: -Protein in its native state have 3D structure (1ry, 2ry, tertiary)
-Proteins which is formed from of 1 or more polypeptide chains
has an additional quaternary structure

Primary structure:
Definition: It's the no. and sequence of amino acids forming the backbone
of the polypeptide chain
Bonds responsible for its maintenance:
peptide bonds, disulphide bonds (if present)
-They are responsible for 1ry structure maintenance and though
its Function
-They can't be broken by denaturation (covalent / very strong)




130
Formation: -amino acids united by peptide bonds
The chain starts on the left side by a.a no. 1, containing free
amino group (N-terminus), and on the right ends by a free
carboxyl group (C-terminus)
Note: -Any change in the sequence of a.a can lead to profound physiologic
effect
-DNA determine the 1ry structure which control by its turn 2ry and
3ry structure
-Monomeric is 1 peptide chain, Dimeric is 2 peptide chains & so on

Secondary structure:
Definition: The shape of polypeptide chain as a result of the relation
between successive amino acids,
It contains mainly -helical & -pleated sheets but there are
also some forms like loop region, bends & diordered regions

** folded ,, extended (curly hair have chains)
1) -helical structure:
Definition: It's folding of the p.p chain along its long axis into coiled
structure
Bonds maintaining: Hydrogen bonds and ven der waals forces
Formation: -It's right handed coiled (anti clockwise)
-The distance between 2 successive a.a is .15 nm
each turn has 3.6 a.a and though its length is .54 nm
-The R groups projecting outwards of the helix
-The Hydrogen bonds are formed between (CO & NH)
*NH group of the 6th bond is bonded to CO of the 2ed bond
and so on (maximum stability)
-The right handed helix if more stable than the left one
- -helix is hydrophobic becoz of intra chain H
+
bonds
- -helix is spontaneously formed (since it's more stable)




131
- -helix is interrupted by :
proline: an imino acid have no free R radical and can't form
hydrogen bonds
successive similar a.a: cause repulsion forces when having long
R radicals
successive charged a.a

2)-pleated sheets:
Definition: It's the full extension of the polypeptide chains which line side
by side to form sheets
Bonds maintaining: hydrogen bonds
Formation: -The side chains are above or below the plain of the sheet
-It's formed 2:5 adjacent polypeptide chains
-When they run in the same direction (N to C terminus) it's
termed as parallel -pleated sheets and opposite direction is
called anti-parallel -pleated sheets
- -pleated sheets between different regions/domains of the
of the p.p chains
Notes: - -keratin present in Silk and spider web
- -keratin contain anti-parallel -pleated sheets wwhich presents
also in Amyloid ptn in Alzheimer's disease

3) loop region:
-They are formed of 5 or more amino acids
-They are of varying sizes
-They lack regular 2ry structure (disordered shape)
-They present on the surface of protein
ex. heparin loops connecting -pleated sheets

4) -bends/turns:
-They are formed of 4 amino acids
-They have fixed shape, making tight turns
-They connect 2 adjacent strands of anti-parallel -pleated sheets


132
-The 1st amino acid is hydrogen bonded to the 4th
ex. proline & glycine (small R radical) help bending

5)disordered regions:
-They are specific regions of many proteins
-Many of them become ordered when a specific molecule (ligand) is
bond to them
ex. -The catalytic center/active site/ substrate of many enzymes
-The receptors of hormones
-The antigens of antibodies


*Supra secondary structure (motifs):
These are proteins that have combination of -helix and -pleated forming
different regions/domains
ex. -- , Greek key, -meander

Note: What's the difference between Keratan and Keratin ?
-Keratan is GAG while Keratin is Protein

Tertiary structure:
Definition: It's the twisting of the polypeptide chain, forming a globular
protein
Bonds maintaining and formation:
-Hydrophobic interaction by association of non-polar side chains
together
-Electrostatic bonds: by binding of oppositely charged amino acids
ex. -amino group of Lysine (+) and 2ed/non-carboxyl group of
Aspartic (-)
-Internal hydrogen bonds in amiono acid side chains
ex. OH of Serine & Threonine, amide group of Asparagine &
Glutamine



133
-Van der waals forces: weak interaction between uncharged
groups in ptn
-Disulphide bond: The strong one (related to 2ry structure more
than tertiary)
ex. Insulin, Keratin

4)Quaternary structure:
Definition: It's the relation between all the other structures
Bonds maintaining: same as tertiary structure
Formation: -Present in ptn having 1 or more p.p chain (polymers or several
subunits)
-Each subunit has its own 1ry, 2ry, 3ry structure which combine
together giving quaternary structure
-It's important for the activity of some protines (enzymes,
hemoglobin)

Protein conformation:

Fibrous Globular
P.P chains arranged in parallel, along
a single axis forming fibers/sheets
P.P chains tightly folded forming
spherical/ globular shape
Insoluble in water or diluted salts Soluble in water
Supportive/protective function Mobile/dynamic function
Its axial ratio (length/width) is more
than 10
Its axial ratio is less than 10
Ex. Collagen, Elastin, -Keratin Ex. Enzymes, Plasma ptns,
Hormones, Immunoglobulins







134
General properties:
a-Colloidal prop.: -Most ptns have high molecular weight
-They are hydrophilic (emulsoids)
--helix is insoluble ,, the sequence of amino acids also
determine solubility (polar: soluble, hydrophobic: insol.)
b-Amphoteric prop.: -Proteins have both NH
2
& COOH groups
-Each ptn have its own Iso-electric point (the PH at
which the no. of (-) charged COO
-
groups balance the
no. of (+) charged NH
3
+
groups)
-At the iso-electric point ptns are max. instable
(rapidly denaturated, poorly dissolved)
c-Denaturation:
Definition: It's the change of native state of ptns due to rapture of non-
covalent bonds and disulphide bonds ,, it may be reversible
Factors: -Physical: Heat, Pressure, X-rays, UVR,etc
-Chemical: Strongs acids, alkalis, salts, solvents,..etc
Effects: 1-Decrease solubility (exposure of non-polar groups)
2-Increase digestibility (exposure of peptide bonds to proteolytic
enzymes)
3-Increase viscosity
4-Loss of 2ry tertiary, quaternary structure (loss of function)
5-Loss of biological activity (inactivation of enzymes)
6-Loss of antigenic prop. (denaturated ptns can't induce
antibodies)

Notes: -Proteins Denaturation
Lipids Rancidity
Carbohydrates putrefaction
-To protect proteins from denaturation we have to avoid:
Freezing temp., strong shaking, acids, alkalis, heave metals and
Urea NH
2
-CO-NH
2
(binds with COOH and break 2ry structure taking
H
+
ions)



135
d-Osmotic pressure: Plasma ptns are very large molecules so they can't
pass through semi-permeable membranes (capillary
walls) so they exert effective physiological osmotic
pressure, mainly albumin
e.g. Hypoalbuminemia causes edema

e-Precipitation of ptns:
-Concentrated mineral acids (small amounts: precipitate, large amounts:
hydrolyze)
-Concentrated salt solutions (Na
2
SO
4
, MgSO
4
,)
-Salting in: inslouble ptn + diluted solution soluble ptn
Salting out: soluble ptn + con. solution participated ptn (insoluble)
-Albumin is highly soluble in water so it needs full saturated solution to be
precipitated , while Globulin need half saturated solution
-Concentrated acids or basis increase denaturation and decrease
precipitation


Classification:
Simple ptns: on hydrolysis give amino acids only
Conjugated ptns: on hydrolysis give amino acids & prothetic (added) groups
Derived ptns: they are derived from simple or conjugate ptns by
denaturation or hydrolysis




Simple proteins:
-They are made of L-amino acids only
-Most of them dont stay alone, they combine with other groups becoming
conjugate




136
1,2)Protamines & Histones:
-Basic amino acids are abundant in their structure (lysine, arginine-
histidine)
- Usually connected to nucleic acids
-Non-coagulable proteins
-ex. of histones is globin in hemoglobin


3)Albumin 4)Globulin
Water souble Water insoluble
Low molecular wight High molecular wight
Precipitated with full saturation Precipitated with half saturation
High biological value
Heat coagulable ptns
Positive color reaction
Ex. Serum albumin, Lactalbumin
(milk) Egg albumin
Ex. Serum globulin, Egg globulin

5,6) Glutelins & Gliadins (Prolamins):
-Acidic amino acids abundant is their structure (glutamic)
-Heat coagulable ptns
-Insoluble in water
-Soluble in dilute acids and alkalis
** zein of maize have Tryptophan which gives rise to nicotinic acid,
prolonged consumption of maize in absence of other ptns of high
biological value leads to decrease in nicotinic acid formation (pallegra)

7)Albuminoids (Sceloproteins):
-Kertin: Low biological value ,, insoluble in water
-Collagen: by heat Gelatin by cold jelly-like material
-Elastin
-Reticulin


137
Conjugate proteins:
-They are formed of ptn part and non-ptn part (prosthetic group) which is
linked to it by covalent and non-covalent bonds and hydrophobic
interaction
-On hydrolysis they yield non-ptn compounds and amino acids

1)Phosphoproteins: (covalent modification)
They are responsible for activation and inactivation of some enzymes and
other regulatory proteins by phoshporylation (Kinase) and
dephosphorylation (phosphatase)

2)Glycoproteins:
Glucose Galactose Mannose
Xylose Fucose
NANA N-acetyl mannosamine N-acetyl glucosammine

Function: (MECH TPACI)
1-Mucins acts a lubricant
2-Enzymes (alkaline phosphate)
3-Cell membrane ptns
4-Hormones (FSH, LH, TSH)
5-Transport molecules (transferrin)
6-Plasma ptns
7-ABO blood group antigens
8-Cell receptors, Cell interaction, Viral or bacterial interaction
9-Immunoglobulins

3)Chromoproteins:
a-Chromo metallo: metals give color
ex. Iron (Red), Copper (Greenish blue), Magnesium (green) in chlorophyll
b-Chromo non-metallo: color without metals
ex. Flavoptns (Yellow), Carotenoids (Orange), Milanoptns (brown to black)


138
4)Lipoproteins:
In cell membranes: important constitutes of cell membrane, peripheral
and integral proteins ( TAG, Phsopholipids, Cholesterol)
In plasma: various types originating from liver or intestine, changes in their
levels causes Atherosclerosis, Arterial and Cardiac diseases

5)Metalloproteins:
a-Containing Iron (Fe):
1-Hemoproteins:
Hemoglobins, myoglobins, catalases, peroxidases .. etc
2-Non-Heme Iron (NHI):
Ferritin: storage form of iron in spleen, liver& bone marrow, 23% iron,
formed of apoferritin and ferric acid,
Transferrin: iron binding ptn in plasma, formed by liver& transports iron
Hemosiderin: presents in iron toxicity cases, 35% iron
Lactoferrin: present in milk and leukocytes, facilitates iron transport

b-Containing Copper (Cu):
Lysyl oxidase: collagen synthesis
Cytochrome oxidase (a-a
3
) (hemoptn containing Cu): Aerobic oxidation
Superoxide dismutase (SOD): *removal of superoxide free radicals
* termed Erythrocuprein in RBCs,
Heptocuprein in liver and cerebrocuprein
in brain
*mitochondrial superoxide contains Mn &
cytosolic superoxide contains Zn
c-Containing Magnesium (Mg):
Kinase, Phophatase & Phosphorylase

d-Containing Zinc (Zn):
Storage form of insulin in B-cells (carboxypeptidase, carbonic anhydrase,
alcohol dehydrogenase)



139
e-Nucleoproteins:
These are ptns combined to nucleic acids, RNA or DNA


Derived proteins:
1) 1ry derived ptns:
Derived after denaturation (Metaproteins and coagulated proteins)
Contain acid metaproteins, alkaline metaproteins, and those derived after
heat coagulation

2) 2ry derived ptns:
Derived after hydrolysis
a-Proteases
b-Peptones
c-Polypeptides


Biologically active ptns, peptides and amino acid derivatives:
1)Pancreatic hormones

Insulin Glucagon
Formed of 51 amino acids Formed of 29 amino acids
In 2 chain (A,B)
Connected by disulphide bonds
In 1 chain
Secreted by pancreatic B-cells Secreted by pancreatic A-cells
Responds to hyperglycemia
Increases glucose uptake &
utilization
Responds to hypoglycemia
Maintains glucose level specially
during fasting







140
2)Parathyroid hormones:
It's a polypeptide made of 48 aa
Secreted by parathyroid gland
Responds to Hypocalcemia, helps to maintain blood Ca
+2
level with vit. D

3)Thyrocalcitonin:
It's a polypeptide made of 32 aa
Responds to Hypercalcemia by lowering Ca
+2
level

4)Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4):
They are derivatives of tyrosine
Secreted by Thyroid gland
Assists in body metabolism

5)Adrenaline & Noradrenaline:
They are DOPA derivatives (dihydroxy-phenylalanine)
Secreted by adrenal medulla

6)Ant. and post. pituitary hormones and hypothalamic releasing factors:
ACTH
FSH
LH
TSH
GH
TRH










141
Questions
1-Carbohydrates
On biochemical basis explain :
1. sucrose after hydrolysis by invertase enzyme is known as invert sugar ? ( 95)
2.sucroseis non- reducing while lactose is reducing disaccharide ? ( 90)
3.lactose is the most suitable sugar in milk ? ( 90)
4.cellulose has no nutritive value but should be included in the diet ? ( 91)
5.optical activity of monosaccharide(.95)
6.heparin is anticoagulant(.2003)
7.glucose and galactose are epimers(.2003)
8.ribose is pentose while glucose is hexose and both are monosaccharide.
9.dihydroxyacetone is optically inactive.
10.mucic acid is optically inactive.
11.Racemic mixture is optically inactive.
12.cellulose is not digested by amylase.
13.hyaluronidase is called spreading factor.
14.age related pain in old people.
Define:
Mutarotation
Optical activity
Monosaccharide
Asymmetric carbon atom
Epimers
Enantiomers
Racemic mixture


141
Mesocompound
Easter
Glycosides
GAGS

What is the hydrolytic product of:
neuramenic acid
sialic acid
maltose
lactose
inulin
starch
heparin
chondroitin sulfate
cellulose
What is the chemical nature of:
ribose
ribulose
glucose or galactose
fructose
sucrose
deoxyribose
ribitol or sorbitol
glucuronic acid


141
starch
dextrin
inulin
hyaluronic acid
NANA
Dermata sulfate

Enumerate:
1.ketohexose &ketopentose 8.reducing disaccharide.
2.2 optical isomer. 9.fructans&glucans
3.2 sugar alcohol. 10.sulfate containing GAGS
4.2sugar acid. 11.homopolysaccharide.
5.imroptance of glucose. 12.2disaccharide containing B linkage.
6.2amino sugar. 13.1 GAGS act as anticoagulant
7.deoxy sugar.
14.1 sugar alcohol enter in the synsis of vit.B2.



2-Lipids

On biochemical basis explain :
*Rancidity offat gives bad oder&taste.
*Iodine value of cotton-seed oil is higher than that of olive oil.
*Oils is liquid but fats is solid at room temp.


144
*Arachidonic acid may be formed in the body.
*PL are important for blood clotting.
*Timnodonic may be essential.
*Snake venom cause death.
*Testosterone is considered as a prohormone.
What are the hydrolytic product:
Lipositol
Plasmalogens
Spingomylin
Cerebroside
Lecithin
Lanolin
Cephalin
Cardiolipin
Ganglioside
Phospholipids by the action of phospholipase.
Phosphatidic acid.
Ceramide.

Define:
fatty acids
simple lipid
rancidity
iodine number


141
soap
saponification
waxes
hardening
eicosanoids
what is the chemical nature of :
TAG
WAXES
Lecithin-cephalin-cardiolipin
Cerebroside
Glycerol
Cholesterol
Cholic acid
Cortisol
Dihydrotestosterone
Aldosterone
Oleic acid
Mention :
2 essential fatty acid :1 ia W3and other W6
2 bile acids
4 glycerol containing phospholipids
2 steroid hormone one is the most potent
mineralocorticoid&the otheris the most potent estrogen
2 phospholipids:one containing no glycerol &the other
containing non-nitrogenous base


141
Steroid hormones:3 corticoids&2 sex hormones
Primary bile acid
Choline containing phospholipids
The most potant corticoids
2 W6 PUFA
2 W6 PUFA
2 sphingolipids and 2 eicosanoids
4 spingosine containing compounds

3-Introduction
What is the diagnosis:
PH PCO2 HCO3
normal

PH PCO2 HCO3



Define:
Iso-osmotic solution
Osmolality
Tonicity
Isotonic solution
Hypertonic solution
Viscosity


141
Surface tension
Hydrotropy
Adsorption
Elution
Electrophoresis
Metabolic water
Mention:
Non-covalent bonds
Water properties
Causes of thermal properties of water
Causes of solvent properties of water
Strong acid&base
Weak acid&base
Causes of metabolic acidosis
Causes of respiratory acidosis
Causes of metabolic alkalosis
Causes of respiratory alkalosis
Types of solutions
Types of solution according PH
Importance of OP
Factors that decrease surface tention(emulsifying agent)
On biochemical basis explain:
Van der waals force is the weakest non-covalent force
Water is dipole


141
Water can form hydrogen bond
Thermal properties of water
Water is universal solvent
Metabolic water is very important
Biocarbonate buffer system is the most important buffer system
Diuretics increases urine volume
In diabetis there is polyuria
Colloidal OP is more important than crystalloidal pressure
In electrophoresis the medium is alkaline




941
4- Histology
1 - histology
2 -

Translation
Translation Word

( -
)

Histology
Magnification
Minute
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscular tissue
Nervous tissue
Spleen
Interrelated
Urinary system
Optical instrument
Specimens
Resolution power

Fine adjustment
Fixation
putrefaction
autolysis
Dehydration
Shrinkage
Solvent
Solute
Impregnation
Transparent
Embedding
Sectioning
Staining
Microtome
Egg albumin
Diagnosis
Hematoxylin ( basic stain)
Eosin (acidic stain )
Fragile
Vital stain
Supravital stain
Stellate
Eukaryote
Polygonal
Fuzzy
Cell coat (glycocalyx)
Hydrophilic
Hydrophobic


951

Modulating fluidity
Restricting
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Exocytosis
Electron-dense granules
Catalysts
Inheritance
Muscular dysfunction
Fibroblast
Segregation
Gylcosylation
Bud off
Detoxification
Peri
Saccules
Lysosomes
Packing
Homogenous
Heterogeneous
Vesicle
Residual
Postmortem autolysis
Thyroid gland
Noxious
Scattered
Assembly
Cilia
Proliferation
Perpendicular
Duplication
Retina
Chronic
Stacked on each other
Accumulation
Osteoclast
Lobulated
Nuclear sap
Malignant cell
Colloidal
Successive
DNA Replication
Analyze
Transient
Stem cell
Necrosis
Apoptosis
Anoxia
Dense plaque


959

Clotting
Centrifuged
Mitogenic agent
Disperses
Hermaphrodism
Mongolism
Forensic medicine
Aberrations
Non- disjunction
German measles
Mental retardation
Amenorrhea
Avascular
Pneumocytes

Pleura
Pericardium
Peritoneum
Convoluted
Gall bladder
Goblet
Urethra
Trachea
Bronchi
Oral cavity
Anal canal
Cornea
Vagina
Nasal orifice
Dome
Mucous
Secretion
Salivary gland
Serous secretion
Mammary gland
Sebaceous gland
Belt
Rubbery
Vaso- constriction
Fusiform
Stroma
Adipose tissue
Droplet
Allergy
Bronchial asthma
Prominent
Engulf
pseudopodia





The Cell
Cytoplasm
Cytosol
Organelles
Membranous
1.Plasma membrane
2.Mitochondria
3.Endoplasmic
reticulum
4.Golgi Apparatus
5.Lysosomes
6.Peroxisomes

Non-Membranous
1.Ribosomes
2.Cytoskeleton:
a)Microtubules
b)Filaments
3.Proteasomes
Inclusions
Stored Food
-Carbohydrates
-Fats
Pigments
-Endogenous
-Exogenous
Nucleus
Nuclear
membrane
Chromatin Nucleolus Nuclear sap



Definition
L.M E.M
Function
s


951
Questions
Cytology
Multiple choice questions (mcqs):
1.the cell membrane can be demonstrated by ....stain: (department questions)
a.H&E
b.PAS
c.Sudan |||
d.vital
e.orcein
2.what is meant by membrane traficking :(departmenet questions)
a.cell immunity
b.cell protection
c.cell recognition
d.cell adhesion
e.membrane recycling
3. as regard the glycocalyx: (department questions)
a.present on both surfaces of the cell membrane.
b .contains special carrier
c.formed of lipids &proteins
d.plays a role in antibody formation
e.plays a role in cell adhesion &recognition
4.pinoctyosis is the process by which the cell membrane can engulf : (department
questions)
a.fluid droplets
b.solid particles
c.bacteria
d.dead cells
e.foreign bodies
5.which of the following molecules form the coating of vesicles involved in endocytosis
and exocytosis: (may 2009)
a.clathrin
b.spectrin
c.vimentin
d.actin
6.the cell organelle that can divide is : (department questions)
a. sER
b.mitochondria
c.lysosomes
d. rER
e.golgi apparatus
7.the cytoplasmic organelle which contains DNA&RNA is: (department questions)
a.rER
b.sER
c.lysosomes
d.golgi
e.mitochondria
8.two organelles share in the formation of lysosomes:(department questions)
a.rER&sER


951
b.sER&Golgi
c.rER &Golgi
d.rE&cell membrane
e.golgi&cell membrane
9. the reservoir of calcium within the cytoplasm of skeletal muscle cells is: (may 2009)
a.sarcomere
b.transverse tubule
c.sarcolemma
d.sarcoplasmic reticulum
10. which membranous organelle is prominent in cells that synthesize steroid hormones
: (department questions)
a.golgi apparatus
b.sER
c.mitochondria
d.lysosomes
11.H&E-stained sections of plasma cell,golgi apparatus appears:(department questions)
a.perinuclear
b.apical
c.basal
d.unstained
e.brown granules
12. lysosomes perform all the following functions except:(may 2008)
a.nucleic acid hydrolysis
b.protein degradation
c.destruction of bacteria
d.destruction of old organelles
e.protein glycosylation
13. Autolysosomes are formed when a 1ry lysosome fuses with : (department questions)
a. an old organelle
b. a phagosome
c.a pinocytic vesicle
d.a residual body
e.multivesicular body
14.peroxisomes are characterized by: (department questions)
a.vesicles bud off golgi apparatus
b.its enzymes are synthesized by sER
c.its enzymes are synthesized by attached polysomes
d.contain sulfatases
e.its enzymes become internalized
15.the organelle responsible for synthesis of secreted proteins: (department questions)
a.mitochondria
b.lysosomes
c.attached ribosomes
d.smooth endoplasmic reticulum
e.free ribosomes
16.principle component of Nissl granules which are responsible for their basopilia is:
(may 2009)
a.DNA
b.RNA
c.proteoglycaN
d.protien


954
17. microtubules are formed of a protein called: (department questions)
a.actin
b.myosin
c.tubulin
d.vimentin
e.clathrin
18.the diameter of microtubules is: (department questions)
a.15nm
b.6nm
c.25nm
d.24nm
e.8-10nm
19.the triplet arrangement of microtubules is found in which of the following (may2009)
a.centrioles
b.cytoplasmic microtubule
c.flagellae
d.axoneme
20.the structures at the base of cilia are ultrastructurally similar to centrioles and are
involved in ciliary movement (may 2009)
a.terminal web
b.desmosomes
c.basal body
d.stereo cilia
21.the wall of the centriole is formed of : (department questions)
a.27 microtubule
b.20 microtubule
c.9 microtubules
d.18 microtubule
e.2 microtubules
22.the rootlets of the cilia have: (department questions)
a.27 microtubules
b.20 microtubules
c.18 microtubules
d.9 microtubules
e.2 microtubules
23.the axoneme of the cilia has: (department questions)
a. 27microtubules
b.2microtubules
c.18 microtubules
d.9 microtubules
e.20 microtubules
24.Actin filaments: (department questions)
a.share in formation of cilia
b.share in formation of the flagella
c.share in formation of mitotic spindle
d.share in neurons to support processes
e.share in formation of microvilli
25.myosin filaments: (department questions)
a.share in muscle contractions
b.share in formation of microvili
c.share in formation of mitotic spindle


955
d.share in neurons to support processes
e.share in formation of flagella
26. the primary function of intermediate filaments is which of the following: (may2009)
a.generate movement
b.provide mechanical stability
c.help in seperation of dividing cells
d.transport organelles within the cell
27.vimentin intermediate filaments are present in : (department questions)
a.hair
b.connective tissue &muscles
c.neurons
d.glial cells
e.nail
28.neurofilaments are present in : (department questions)
a.epithelial cells and form hair
b.connective tissue
c.neurons
d.glial cells
e.muscle
29.the cells of a patient suffering from Alzheimers disease,will show: (department
questions)
a.defective mitochondria
b.defective lysosomes
c.defective rER
d.defective golgi body
e.defective proteasomes
30.glycogen granules are stained with: (department questions)
a.osmic acid
b.silver stain
c.sudan |||
d.janus green
e.Bests carmine
31. which of the following would be suited to demonstrate lipid: (may 2008)
a.wrights stain
b. hematoxylin and eosin stain
c.sudan stain
d.silver impregnation
e.Massons trichrome stain
32.chromatin islands are: (department questions)
a. attached to the inner surface of nuclear envelope
b.arranged in clumps scattered in the nuclear sap
c.condensed around the nucleolus
d.fine granules scattered in the cytoplasm
e.attached to the centrioles
32.pars amorpha of the nucleolus : (department questions)
a.represents newly formed strands of rRNA
b.represents granules of mature rRNA
c.represents parts of chromosomes encoding for rRNA
d.represents the light areas of the nuclear sap
e.represents the nucleolus associated chromatin
33.as regards ribosomes: (department questions)


951
a.are formed in the nucleolus
b.are formed of DNA associated with proteins
c.are concerned with beta oxidation of long chain fatty acids
d.are formed of two subunits of equal size
e.cause cytoplasmic acidophilia
Match column (A) with column (B)
Column(A) Column(B)
1.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum a.power house of the cell
2.mitochondria b.contain oxidoreductase enzymes
3.Lysosomes c.present in steroid hormone secreting cells
4.golgi apparatus d.well developed in secretory cells
5.peroxisomes e.contain hydrolytic enzymes
f.concern with protein synthesis
g.control exchange of materials

Column (A) Column(B)
1.Bests carmine a.residual bodies accumulate in nerve cells
&cardiac muscles
2.Sudan ||| b.endogenous pigment in RBCS
3.iron hematoxylin c.stains fat
4.haemoglobin d.stains centrioles
5.lipofuscin e.stains glycogen
f.protects from ultraviolet rays
g.dyes injected under skin

answer the following questions: (written)
1.define the cell organelles .enumerate membranous and non-membranous organelles.
2.mention the modifications of the cell membrane with reference to their functions.
3. describe histological structure &functions of rough endoplasmic reticulum . (sept
2008)
4. differntiate between rER and sER in terms of : (june 2012)
a.LM
b.EM
c.functions
d.cell types in which each is typically abundant;include examples
5.enumrate the cell organelle involved in the secretory activity of cell.mention the
functions of 2 onli.(93)
6. enumerate with reference to functions the organelles that participate in the cellular
metabolism .(92)
7.Differentiate between lysosomes and peroxisomes in terms of :
a.origin


951
b.contents
c.functions
d.effect of deficiency on human healthy
8. describe the different type of lysosomes .(june 2011)
9. mention four functions only of intracellular microfilaments in different cells of human
body .(94)
10.mention 2 functions for each of the following (98)
a.lysosomes
b.cell coat
c.golgi apparatus
d.smooth endoplasmic reticulum
11.describe how determination of type of intermediate filaments can help to diagnose
cell of origin in tumors. (june 2011)
12.mention one specific stain for each of the following:
a.fat cells (91\2000)
b.liver glycogen














Cytogenetics
Cell cycle
Mitosis Interphase
-Gap1 phase ( G1 phase)
-Synthesis phase ( S
phase)
-Gap2 phase (G2 phase)
Cell renewal
-Non-renewing cells
-Potentially
renewable cells
-Continuously turn
over cells
Cell death
Necrosis Apoptosis
-Pyknosis
-Karyorrhexis
-Karyolysis
Cell division
Mitosis
-Prophase
-Metaphase
-Anaphase
-Telophase
Meiosis
-Meiosis I
-Meiosis II
Stable phase (G0
phase) & cell cycle
checkpoints
Stem cells



Human
chromosomes
Normal
Classification
Gene
complement
-Autosomes
-Sex
chromosomes
Position of
centromere
-Metacentric
-Submetacentric
-Acrocentric
-Telocentric
Chromosomal
length
Abnormal
Types of
abnormalities
Numerical
Euploidy
-Triploid
-Tetraploid
-Polyploid
Aneuploidy
-Trisomy
-Monosomy
Structural
Breaks Deletion
-terminal
deletion
-Interstitial
deletion
-ring
chromosome
Inversion
-Pericentric
-Paracentric
Translocation
-Robertsonian
translocation
-Reciprocal
translocation
Duplication Isochromosomes
Sex
chromatin
(Barr body)
Causes of
aneuploidy
Examples of numerical
aberrations in
autosomes & sex
chromosomes


951
Cytogenetics
Multiple choice questions(mcq):
1.Duplication of centrioles occur at: (department questions)
a.G1 phase
b.S phase
c.G2 phase
d.G0 phase
e.metaphase
2. tubulin is synthesized in : (department questions)
a.S phase
b.G2 phase
c.G1 phase
d.telophase
e.prophase
3.one of the following is non-renewing cell (department questions)
a.hepatocyte
b.epidermal cell
c.nerve cell
d.cartilage cell
e.blood cells
4. one of the following is a potentially renewable cell: (department questions)
a.liver cell
b.skin epidermal cell
c.plasma cell
d.macrophages
e.cardiac muscle cells


951
5.Necrosis shows the following: (department questions)
a.pyknosis
b.karyorrhexis
c.karyolysis
d.cell swelling
e.breakdown of cytoplasm
6.karyorrhexis means : (june 2011)
a.nuclei become small and eccentric
b.fragmentation of chromatin into pieces
c.dissolution of the nucleus
d.breakdown of the cytoplasm into vesicles
e.phagocytosis of the cell remnants by macrophages
7.mitosis is characterized by the following: (department questions)
a.exchange of genes
b.absence of crossing over
c.daughter cells contain n chromosomes
d.occurs in germ cells
e.daughter cells are not identical to mother cells
8. colchicine is a chemical that stops chromatides from separating in mitosis.which
stage the cell will reach and then stop dividing: ( june 2011)
a.interphase
b.prophase
c.metaphase
d.telophase
d.anaphase
9. c.metaphase
d.telophase


911
d.anaphase
10.which of the following is true for Barr body: (department questions)
a.lies on the inner aspect of the nuclear envelope in all buccal epithelial cells
b.it appears as a drum stick like mass in 3-5% of female neutrophils
c.the number of barr bodies equals to the number of x-chromosomes in the nucleus
d.it represents the active X-chromosomes
e.patient with Turner syndrome has one Barr body in her cells
11.numerical aberration include the following except : (june 2012)
a.Down syndrome
b.aneuoploidy
c.deletion
d.turners syndrome
12.kleinfilter syndrome occurs due to : (may 2009)
a.deletion
b.isochromosome
c.non disjunction
d.duplication
13. Tuneres syndrome is characterized by except : (june 2012)
a.tall female
b.mental retardation
c.primary amenorrhea
d.underdeveloped ovaries
e.infertility
14. mongol child has the following except : (june 2012)
a.lateral upward slope of eyes
b.mentally retarded


919
c.small genetalia
d.trisomy 20
e.cardiac abnormalities
15. trisomy of chromosome X is : (department questions)
a.Turners syndrome
b.Klinefelters syndrome
c.Downs syndrome
d.Cri du chat syndrome
e.multiple X syndrome
16.cri-du-chat syndrome is an example of a genetic disorder caused by a : (june 2012)
a.deletion
b.inversion
c.isochromosome
d.translocation
17. philadelphia chromosome:
a.translocation between chromosomes 22&9
b.Duplication of chromosome 22
c.terminal deletion of chromosome 9
d.inversion affecting chromosome 9
e.interstitial deletion of chromosome 22
19.Down syndrome: (department questions)
a.may be caused by centric fusion between chromosomes 21 &14
b.may be due to X chromosome monosomy
c.may be due to multiple X syndrome
d.may be caused by chromosome 21 monosome
e.may be due to 47 chromosome (XXY)


911
20. one of the following is a balanced aberration: (department questions)
a.Reciprocal translocation
b.Ring chromosome
c.terminal deletion
d.Duplication
e.isochromosome
Match column (A) with column (B)
Column (A) Column (B)
1.prophase a.specialized working cells
2.metaphase b.duplication of centrioles
3.Anaphase c.synthesis of tubulin
4.telophase d.disappearance of nucleoli
5.G1 phase e.cleavage furrow
f.split of chromatids
g.chromosomes arranged in the equatorial
plane

Column (A) Column (B)
1.Downs syndrome a.(45,XO)
2.klinefelters syndrome B.(47,trisomy 21)
3.Turners syndrome c.deletion of short arm chromosome 5
4.Cri du chat syndrome d.deletion of short arm chromosome 6
5.wolf syndrome e.deletion of short arm chromosome 4
f.(47,XXX)
G.(47,XXY)

Answer the following questions: (written)
1.enumerate 4 differences between mitosis and meiosis.(2000)
2. classify chromosomes according to the position of their centromeres.(2001)
3.give short account on sex chromatin (barr body) & its clinical importance
4. mention four clinical importances for chromosomal studies.(karyotyping). (99)
5.define aneuploidy.list the types &causes of aneuploidy (2010 )
6. mention one important characteristic for each of the following (95)
a.Down syndrome


911
b.Turner syndrome
c.kleinfilter syndrome
7. describe 5 differnet types of structural aberrations in chromosomes. (june 2011)
8. compare between:
a.ring chromosome and inversion
b.translocation and duplication
9. Name the chromosomal abnormality in which of the following cases : (june 2013)
a.loss of fragments between 2 breaks in the same arm of chromosome and fusion at the
break sites
b.two breaks in the chromosome on one side of centromere followed by rejoining in an
inverted form
c.loss of segment from one end by a single break
d.addition of a fragment of one chromosome to its homologous chromosome
e.addition of one extra chromosome to have a karyotype of 2n+1
f.fusion of the long arm of one chromosome and the long arm of a nother non
homologous chromosome with loss of short arms of both chromosomes















Epithelium
Surface
epithelium
Simple
1-Simple squamous
2-Simple cubical
3-Simple columnar
4-Simple columnar
ciliated
5-Pseudostartified
columnar
-pseudostratified
columnar non-
ciliated
-pseudostratified
columnar ciliated
with motile cilia &
goblet cells
-pseudostratified
columnar ciliated
with non-motile
cilia
Stratified
1-Stratified squamous
-Keratinized
-Non-keratinized
2-Stratified cubical
3-Transitional
-Relaxed state
-Stretched state
4-Stratified columnar
-ciliated
-Non-ciliated
Glandular
epithelium
Classification
according to:
Number
of cells
a)Unicllular
b)Multicellular
Nature of
secretion
a)Watery
b)Serous
c)Mucous
d)Mucoserous
Mode
(mechanism)
of secretion
a)Merocrine
b)Apocrine
c)Holocrine
Function
a)Secretory
b)Excretory
Branching
of duct
a) Simple
b)Simple branched
c)Compound
Shape of
secretory
part
a)Tubular
-Simple
-Simple branched
-Simple coiled
-Compound
b)Alveolar
-Simple
-Simple branched
-Compound
c)Tubulo-alveolar
-Simple
-Simple branched
-Compound
Neuro-epithelium
-Sensory cells
-Supporting cells
Myo-epithelium
Polarity &
membranes
specializations
Apical
specializations
-Microvilli
-Stereo cilia
-Cilia
-Flagella
Lateral
specializations
-Tight junction
-Adherens junctions
-Macula adherens
-Gap junction

Basal specializations
-Hemidesmosomes
-Basement membrane
-Basal infoldings



914
Epithelium
Multiple choice question(mcq):
1.the epithelium is characterized by : (department questions)
a.it has low power of regeneration
b.it consists of cells with wide intercellular spaces
c.it is penetrated by blood vessels
d.clear or non clear basement membrane
e.lack nerve supply
2.The surface epithelium : (department questions)
a.is modified to give secretion
b.is modified to contract
c.is modified to receive sensation
d.cover surfaces or line cavities
e.has wide intercellular spaces
3.simple squamous epithelium is formed of: (department questions)
a.one layer of cube like cells with flat nuclei
b.one layer of flat cells with rounded nuclei
c.one layer of flat cells with flat nuclei
d.two layers of flat cells with flat nuclei
e.one layer of flat cells with nuclei at more than one level
4.endothelium is the lining epithelium of : (department questions)
a.pleura
b.alveoli
c.bowmans capsule
d.serous membranes
e.blood vessels


915
5.one of the followings is not a site of simple squamous epithelium: (department
questions)
a.proximal convoluted tubules
b.bowmans capsule of the kidney
c.the alveoli of the lungs
d.lymphatic capillaries
e.blood vessels
6.in absorbing cubical cell,the brush borded seen by L\M is: (department questions)
a.cilia
b.flagella
c.microvilli
d.stereocilia
e.desmosomes
7.the function of simple columnar epithelium is: (department questions)
a.secretory only
b.absorptive only
c.easy filtration
d.protection
e.secretion and absorption
8.pseudo-stratified columnar ciliated epithelium can be found in : (department questions)
a.ovary
b.blood vessels
c.upper respiratory passages
d.urinary passages
e.lung bronchioles
9.one statement about pseudo-stratified columnar ciliated epithelium is true: (department
questions)


911
a.may be keratinized
b.is highly vascular
c.all cells resting on a basement membrane
d.is a type pf stratified epitheilium
e.all cells are tall columnar cells
10.simple columnar ciliated epithelium is found in: (department questions)
a.intestinal absorptive cells
b.fallopian tube
c.gastric secretory cells
d.trachea
e.nose
11.the following statement is true concerning stratified squamous epithelium:
(department questions)
a.cells connected by desmosomes
b.it is always keratinized
c.found in trachea
d.all its cells rest on the basement membrane
e.formed of 3-5 layers
12.the following statement is true about transitional epithelium: (department questions)
a.the basement membtane Is clear
b.the superficial cells are columnar
c.it consists of one layer of cells
d.the intercellular space contains mucoid-like substance to allow gliding of cells over
each other
e.the basal cells are flat
13.one of the following organs is lined with transitional epithelium: (department
questions)
a.uterus


911
b.urinary bladder
c.vas deferens
d.gall bladder
e.intestine
14.stratified columnar ciliated epithelium can be found in: (department questions)
a.uterus
b.fallopian tubes
c.ureter
d.trachea
e.foetal oesophagus
15.exocrine glands: (department questions)
a.are only unicellular glands
b.discharge secretory product by diffusion in the blood
c.discharge their secretion via ducts
d.secretes hormones
e.are only monocrine
16.the gland with an unbranched duct is called: (may 2009)
a.simple gland
b.compound gland
c.tubulo-alveolar gland
d.simple branched gland
17.salivary glands are considered as: (department questions)
a.merocrine glands
b.holocrine glands
c.apocrine glands
d.compound alveolar


911
e.compound tubular
18.the compound alveolar glands are met with in : (department questions)
a.salivary glands
b.sweat glands
c.the sebaceous glands
d.the mammary glands
e.kidney
19. taste bud is an example of: (department questions)
a.myoepithelium
b.surface epithelium
c.secretory epithelium
d.neuroepithelium
e.excretory epithelium
20.in zonula occludense, the distance between 2 cell membranes is: (department
questions)
a.20 nm
b.20 m
c.200 nm
d.200m
e.0nm
21.macula adherence (desmosome) is characterized by: (department questions)
a.encircles the cells
b.permits the passage of ions
c.important in intercellular communication
d.bundles of tonofilaments are anchored to the plaques
e.very narrow gap between the cells
22.concerning zonula adherens, one statement is true: (department questions)


911
a.tonofilaments are inserted into the plaques forming hairpin-like structures
b.the adjacent cells are separated by a narrow gap,crossed by communication channels
c.it is a disk shaped junction between epithelial cells
d.it encircles the cell like a belt
e.the strongest type of junctions
23. the portion of the junctional complex primarily responsible for restricting the passage
of molecules between adjacent epithelial cells : (may 2009)
a.zonula occuludens
b.zonula adherens
c.macula adherens
d.hemidesmosome
Match column (A) with column (B):
Column (A) Column (B)
1.Aorta a.simple columnar
2.oesophagus b.stratidied squamous(keratinized)
3.urinary bladder c.pseudo-stratified columnar
4.trachea d.simple squamous
5.thyroid follicle e.Transitional
f.stratified squamous (non keratinized)
g.simple cubical

Column (A) Column (B)
1.Tight junction a.intestinal cells
2.adherens junction b.narrow intercellular space
3.Desmosome c.wide intercellular space(30 nm)
4.Hemidesmosome d.transitional epithelium
5.junctional complex e.intercellular space=zero
f.intercellular space=20nm
g.in basal part of basal cells of epithelium







911
Answer the following questions (written)
1.enumerate the general characteristics of epithelium.describe the different types of the
simple epithelium with reference to their sites &functions.(91)
2.write a detailed account on stratified squamous epithelium.(98\sept 2008)
3. Give short account on hostological structure of transitional epithelium (sept 2009)
4.name and describe the structure of epithelium lining the urinary bladder.(2011)
5. give short account on myoepithelium.(2005)
6.give account on glandular epithelium.(93)
7. discuss apical &basal modifications of epithelial cell surfaces.(2002)
8.epithelial cells are linked together by different types of junctions.
a.name types of junctions found between epithelial cells
b.which junction(s)named in the answer to question 2.a is (are) associated with : (june
2012)
1. abelt like structure
2.condensation of actin filaments at cytoplasmic side
3.intermediate filaments
4.narow gap
9.list the drifferences between:
a.zonula adherens and macula adherens
b.zonula occludens and gap junction









919
Connective tissue
Multiple choice questions (mcq)
1.The functions of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells include: (department questions)
a.formation of collagen fibers
b.formation of blood cells
c.secretion of the intercellular matrix
d.formation of elastic fibers
e.contraction of blood capillaries


2. pericytes: (june 2011)
a.secrete ground subtstance of the connective tissue
b.the most common type of cells in the connective tissue
c.can differentiate into fibroblasts
d.have well developed golgi apparatus
e.have pale acidophilic cytoplasm
3.fibrocytes are characterized by: (department questions)
a.euchromatic nuclei
b.deeply basophilic cytoplasm
c.spindle with few processes
d.well developed golgi apparatus
e.active cell
4.Unilocular adipocyts: (department questions)
a.about 50-150 microns
b.heat generation
c.small fat droplets


911
d.can divide
e.central nucleus
5.Histiocytes have: (department questions)
a.darkly basophilic cytoplasm
b.euchromatic nucleus
c.pseudopodia
d.poorly developed golgi apparatus
e.few lysosomes
6.leptin hormone is secreted from the following cell: (department questions)
a.fibroblast cell
b.histiocyte
c.plasma cell
d.adipocyte
e.mast cell
7.plasma cells: (june 2012,department question)
a.originate from T lymphocytes
b.clock-face nucleus
c.small cells
d.few mitochondia
e.phagocytic cells
8.negative golgi image is very prominent in : (june 2011)
a.mast cell
b.plasma cell
c.macrophage
d.reticular cell
e.fibrocyte


911
9.Anti-body producing cells within connective tissue are termed : (may 2009)
a.mast cells
b.fibroblasts
c.plasma cells
d.macrophages
10.connective tissue cell that is concerned with allergy is : (june 2011)
a.mast cells
b.plasma cells
c.reticular cells
d.fibroblasts
e.adipocyte
11.concerning mast cells: (department questions)
a.they are antibody forming cells
b.they are undifferentiated cells
c.they secrete histaminases enzymes
d.contain granules with metachromatic staining affinity
e.they can be demonstrated with trypan blue stain
12.concerning collagen fibers: (department questions)
a.wavy branching bundles formed of non-branching fibers
b.they are basophilic
c.they are of one type
d.they are not affected by acids or alkalis
e.stained yellow with van gieson stain
13.scurvy is due to defective synthesis of : (department questions)
a.collagen
b.elastin


914
c.reticulum
d.ground substance
e.matrix
14.elastic fibers are characterized by being: (department questions)
a.single,thin
b.non-branching
c.basophilic
d.affected by chemicals
e.yellow with orcein stain
15.reticular fibers in lymphoid organs are composed of which collagen: (may 2008)
a.collagen type 1
b.collagen type 3
c.collagen type 4
d.collagen type 5
e.collagen type 9
16.loose connective tissue would be typically found in which of the following locations :
(may 2009)
a.perichondrium of cartilage
b.deep layer of dermis
c.lamina propria of the digestive system
d.tendons
17.the loose areolar connective tissue is present in the following sites except : (june
2011)
a.submucosa of the organs
b.serous membranes
c.under the epithelium of the cornea
d.around the blood vessels


915
e.dermis of the skin
18.the functions of white adipose connective tissue include : (department questions)
a.withstand stress
b.heat generation
c.binds structures together
d.forms the stroma of organs
e.heat insulation
19.concerning the reticular connective tissue: (department questions)
a.contains all types of connective tissue cells
b.reticular fibers form branching bundles
c.stained with silver to demonstrate the reticular fibers
d.bind structures together
e.can be demonstrated by H&E
20.vitreous humor of the eye is formed of : (june 2011)
a.reticular connective tissue
b.mucoid connective tissue
c.brown adipose connective tissue
d.yellow elastic connective tissue
e.irregular white fibrous connective tissue
21.white fibrous connective tissue: (department questions)
a.has abundant matrix
b.rich in blood supply
c.contains the three types of connective tissue fibers
d.cells are fibroblasts and fibrocytes
e.present around the kidneys
22.which of the following parts contain dense irregular connective tissue : (june 2008)


911
a.tendon
b.sclera of the eye
c.mesentry
d.lamina propria
e.subcutaneous tissue
23.concerning the yellow elastic connective tissue ,all are true except : (june 2012)
a.dense type of connective tissue
b.regular parallel elastic fibers
c.present in eustachian tube
d.gives brown black colour with orcein stain
e.present in the wall of aorta

Match column (A) with column (B)
Column (A) Column (B)
1.fibroblast a.metachromatic stain
2.macrophage b.can differentiate into smooth muscle cells
3.reticular cell c.rich in different types of lysosomes
4.mast cell d.peripheral flattened nucleus
5.plasma cell e.stellate shaped with many long processes
f.darkly basophilic cytoplasm and pale nucleus
g.clock face nucleus

Column (A) Column (B)
1.loose areolar connective tissue a.mediastinum of fetus
2.yellow elastic connective tissue b.large arteries
3.regular white fibrous connective tissue c.Tendons
4.Brown adipose connective tissue d.vitreous humor
5.mucoid connective tissue e.ear pinna
f.sclera
g.most abundant type






911
Answer the following questions(written)
1.mention the name and functions of only 4 types of fixed connective tissue cells.(98)
2. mention 4 characteristics of the pericyte cell .(one of the connective tissue cells ). (97)
3.give short account on the following cells with reference to their functional ultra
structure : (june 2008)
a.fibroblasts
b.mast cell
4.give short account on mast cell (site,LM,EM,functions) (sept 2009,june 2011)
5. mention only the name and functions of free connective tissue cells present in the
connective tissue proper.(99)
6. enumerate 4 connective tissue cells involved immune function and mention one major
function of each .(2002)
7.what are the different types of connective tissue proper? mention 2 sites only in human
body for each type.(94)
8.name 2 sites for each of the following :
a.Loose connective tissue.
b.Adipose connevtive tissue.
c.white fibrous connective tissue.(2002)
d.yellow elastic connective tissue. (2002)
9.give short account on adipose connective tisse (may 2009)
10. what are the types of adipose connective tissue (fat).give 2 sites of each.(2001)
11.mention 4 characteristics for white fibrous tissue.(tendinous connective tissue). (97)