Mechanisms An Machines Theory PDF

Textbook for University
MECHANISMS AND MACHINE THEORY

( - )
Y e Z h o n g h e ( )
L a n Z h a o h ui ( )
M . R. S m i t h
HIGHER EDUCATION PRESS
Abstract
T his text book is wr itten according t o The Basic Teachi ng Requir ements for the Course of Mechanisms and
Machine Theory in Advanced Indust rial Colleges drawn up by t he National Minist ry of Education . It contains
t he aut hors results on t eaching and scientific r esearch duri ng r ecent years . I t aims a t cultivating st udents ba-
sic design ability and crea tive ability in design . Analytical met hods and synt hesis of mechanisms ar e emphasized .
This text book r eflects new achievements and developments curr ent in mechanism st udy . Altoget her there are
twelve chapters : Int roduction , St ruct ur al Analysis of Planar Mechanisms , Kinema tic Analysis of Mechanisms ,
Planar Linkage Mechanisms , Cam Mechanisms , Gear Mechanisms , Gear Trains , Other Mechanisms in Com-
mon Use , Combined Mechanisms , Balanci ng of Machinery , Motion of Mechanical Systems and Its Regulation ,
Creative Design of Mechanism Systems . At the end of most chapt ers , many thinking problems and exercises are
enclosed . To help Chinese st udents to read t he t ext , an English-Chinese vocabulary is appended .
T his book can be used as a t ext book for t he course of Mechanisms and Machine Theory or t hat of specialit y
English for undergraduates specializing in machinery in advanced engineering universities . I t can also be used as
a r eference book for related teachers , students and engineeri ng technicians .
(CIP)

- : Mechanisms and Machine Theory/
, ,
: , 2001. 7

ISBN 7 - 04 - 009234 - 4

. - . - - - . -
- - . TH111

CIP (2001) 26188
-

Mechanisms and Machine Theory (- )
Ye Zhonghe Lan Zhaohui M .R .Smit h

55
010 - 64054588
a htt p :/ / www .hep .edu .cn
htt p :/ / www .hep .com cn
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7871092 1/ 16
16
380 000

100009
010 - 64014048

13. 90
,

P r e f a c e
Mechanisms and Machi ne Theory is one of t he impor tant technical foundation courses
for mechanical st udent s in universities . I t covers t he basic knowledge needed in analysis and
synt hesis of commonly-used mechanisms and t he dynamics of mechanism systems . This course
gives students an elementary abilit y to design or improve mechanical devices . This course plays
an important par t in cultivating t heir creative abilit y and gr eat at tention has been paid t o t his
course in engineering universities . Alt hough many Chinese textbooks have been publis hed ,
English text books writ ten by Chi nese teachers have not yet appeared .
Faced with t he globalisation of t he economy, technology and education , Chinese st udent s
should be able to st udy and work in English . They have, in fact , learnt English for six years
in middle school . Af ter entering universit y, t hey learn more English courses but , because al-
most all ot her courses use Chinese textbooks and are taught in Chinese , t hey have few oppor tu-
nities to learn ot her courses in English directly . In order to change t his stat us, more and more
at tention has been paid to English or bilingual teaching . Of course , English text books are in
st ock in English-speaking count ries . However , at t he initial stage , Chinese t eachers and stu-
dent s could accept text books written by Chi nese t eachers more easily . I t is for t his r eason t hat
we have produced t his t extbook .
Mainly Ye Zhonghe and Lan Zhaohui of Fuzhou Universit y wrote the contents of t his
book . The content s fulfil t he fundamental teaching r equirements in China . Dr .
of t he University of Newcastle upon Tyne in Great Britain , has had over t hir ty years experi-
ence of teaching t his subject and has checked and embellished t he whole book to ensure t he flu-
ency of t he language . This textbook is t her efor e a result of interna tional cooperation .
We would like t o expr ess our t hanks here to Professor Zou Huijun of Shanghai Jiao Tong
Universit y and Professor Zhang Ce of Tianjin Universit y for t heir encouragement and suppor t
for t his textbook . We are also grateful to Fuzhou Universit y for t he suppor t for it s publication .
We hope t hat t he publication of t his t extbook will promote t he teaching in English of technical
courses in universities t hroughout Chi na . We hope also t hat people out side China will find t his
t extbook helpful , not least i n coming t o know somet hing about the teaching of Mechanisms
and Machine Theory in China .
This book can be used as a text book for t he course of Mechanisms and Machine Theory or
t hat of specialit y English for undergr aduat es specializing i n machinery in advanced engineering
universities . It can also be used as a reference book for r elated t eachers, st udents and engineer-
ing technicians .
Ye Zhonghe
Lan Zhaohui
M. R. Smit h
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, ,

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M. R. Smit h 30 -, ,

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M . R . Smit h
7 4 2
C O N T E N T S
Ch a p t e r 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1. 1 St udy Object 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1. 2 St udy Content 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1. 3 Purpose 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 2 S t r u c t u r a l Ana l y s i s o f P l a n a r M e c h a ni sms 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. 1 Planar Ki nematic Pairs and Planar Mechanisms 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. 2 T he Kinematic Diagram of a Mechanism 6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. 3 Degree of Freedom of a Mechanism 12 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. 4 Points for At tention during t he Calculation of DOF 15 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. 5 T he Composition Principle and St ruct ural Analysis 19 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Problems and Exercises 23 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 3 Ki n e m a t i c An a l ys i s o f M e c ha ni sms 26 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3. 1 Tasks and Met hods of Kinematic Analysis 26 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3. 2 Velocit y Analysis by t he Met hod of Inst ant Centr es 26 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3. 3 Kinematic Analysis by Analytical Met hods 31 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 4 P l a n a r L i n k a g e M e c ha n i sms 43 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
4. 1 Charact eristics of Planar Linkage Mechanisms 43 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
4. 2 T he Types of Four- bar Linkages 44 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
4. 3 Charact eristics Analysis of Four-bar Linkages 48 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
4. 4 Dimensional Synt hesis of Four- bar Linkages 56 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 5 Ca m M e c h a ni sms 72 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. 1 Charact eristics and Classification of Cam Mechanisms 72 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. 2 Follower Motion Curves 75 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. 3 Plate Ca m with Translat ing Roller (or Knife- edge) Follower 81 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. 4 Plate Ca m with Oscillating Roller Follower 93 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. 5 Plate Ca m with Translat ing Flat-faced Follower 97 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

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5. 6 Plate Cam wit h Oscillati ng Flat-faced Follower 99 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 6 Ge a r M e c h a ni s ms 107 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 1 Types of Gear Mechanisms 107 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 2 Fundamentals of Engagement of Tooth Profiles 109 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 3 T he Involute and Its Proper ties 110 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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6. 4 Standard Involute Spur Gears 113 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 5 Gearing of Involut e Spur Gears 116 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 6 Contact Ratio of an Involute Spur Gear Set 119 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 7 Manufact uring Met hods of Involute Profiles 120 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 8 Addendum Modificat ion on Involute Gears 124 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 9 Helical Gears for Parallel Shaf ts 127 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 10 Worm Gearing 132 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 11 Bevel Gears 136 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 7 Ge a r T r a i n s 141 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. 1 Gear Trains and Their Classifica tion 141 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. 2 T rain Ratio of a Gear Tr ain with Fixed Axes 142 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. 3 T rain Ratio of Elementary Epicyclic Gear Tr ain 143 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. 4 T rain Ratio of a Combined Gear Train 146 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. 5 Applica tions of Gear Tr ains 149 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. 6 Mechanical Efficiency of Planetary Gear Trains 151 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. 7 Tooth Numbers of Gears and Number of Planet Gears 153 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. 8 I nt roduction to Other Kinds of Planetary Gear Tr ains 154 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 8 O t h e r M e c h a ni sm s i n Co mm o n U s e 160 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8. 1 Ratchet Mechanisms 160 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8. 2 Geneva Mechanisms 165 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8. 3 Cam- Type Index Mechanisms 169 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8. 4 Universal Joints 171 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8. 5 Screw Mechanisms 173 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 9 Com b i n e d M e c h a ni sms 177 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. 1 I nt roduction 177 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. 2 Met hods for t he Classification of Combined Mechanisms 177 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. 3 Series Combined Mechanisms 178 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. 4 Parallel Combined Mechanisms 181 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. 5 Compound Combined Mechanisms 183 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. 6 Multiple Combined Mechanisms 185 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. 7 Feedback Combined Mechanisms 186 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. 8 Mixed Combined Mechanisms 187 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. 9 Mat ters Needi ng At tention 189 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 10 Ba l a nc i n g o f M a c hi n e r y 195 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10. 1 Purposes and Met hods of Balancing 195 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10. 2 Balancing of Disk- like Rot ors 197 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10. 3 Balancing of Non- disk Rigid Rot ors 199 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2
10. 4 Unbalancing Allowance of Rotor 204 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 11 M o t i o n o f M e c h a ni c a l S ys t e ms a n d I t s R e g u l a t i o n 208 - - - - - - -
11. 1 Int roduction 208 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11. 2 Motion Equation of a Mechanical System 208 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11. 3 Solution of t he Motion Equation of a Mechanical System 212 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11. 4 Periodic Speed Fluctuat ion and its Regulation 215 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11. 5 Int roduction t o Aper iodic Speed Fluctua tion and its Regulation 219 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ch a p t e r 12 C r e a t i v e D e s i g n o f M e c h a ni s m S y s t e ms 222 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
12. 1 Int roduction t o Design of Mechanism Systems 222 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
12. 2 Creative Thinking and Crea tive Met hods 224 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
12. 3 Kinematic Parameters of t he System 227 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
12. 4 Selection of Mechanisms 228 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
12. 5 Cooperation of Worki ng Links 230 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
12. 6 Evaluation of t he Mechanism System 233 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
12. 7 Design Example of a Mechanism System 234 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Vo c a b ul a r y 239 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
R e f e r e n c e s 245 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
247 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3
C h ap t e r 1
I n t r o d u c t i o n
1. 1 S t u d y Ob j e c t
There are vast numbers of different kinds of machines in t he world , all wit h a wide variet y
Fig . 1-1
of const ructions , characteristics and uses . The
single- cylinder four-stroke internal combustion en-
gine shown in Fig . 1- 1 is a t ypical and very familiar
machine and works as follows . The power from t he
combusting gases pushes on t he piston 2 causing it t o
t ranslate downwards . Through connecti ng- rod ( or
coupler) 3, the reciprocation of pist on 2 is t rans-
formed into t he rotation of cr ank 4 and flywheel 4.
( The inertia of t he flywheel 4drives t he piston 2 t o
move upwards on t he return stroke .) The crank 4,
t he flywheel 4, and t he pinion 4ar e fixed t ogether
by keys , so t heir motions are t he same . Also, t he
cams haft ( wit h its two cams 5and 5) is keyed t o
gear 5 . Therefore , gear 5, cam 5and cam 5ro-
tate t oget her as one body . The number of t eet h on
t he gear 5 is twice t hat of t he pinion 4so t hat t he
pinion 4rotates t wice for every r evolution of t he gear
5 . This is t o coordinate t he motions of piston 2, i n-
let valve 6 and outlet valve 7 . Through t he contact
bet ween t he cam 5and follower 6, t he cam rotation
is tr ansformed into a regular reciprocation of t he inlet valve 6 so t hat t he valve opens and closes
at a precise time . Similarly, t he cam 5controls t he regular r eciprocation of outlet valve 7 . In
t his way, t he internal combustion engine t ransforms t he heat energy from t he fuel and air mix-
ture into mechanical energy of t he crank rotation .
The connecti ng- rod 3 is formed by t he rigid assembly of t he coupler body , big-end cover ,
nuts, bolt s etc . They are t he basic element s of manufact ure , which ar e called machi ne ele-
ments . After assembly , t he body, t he big- end cover , t he nut s and t he bolt s form a rigid
1
st ruct ure and move t oget her . The rigid st ruct ure is a basic element in kinematics analysis ,
which is called a li nk . Similarly, t he crank 4, t he pinion 4, t he flywheel 4, and t he keys ,
form anot her link . The gear 5 and t he t wo cams form a t hird link . In t he st udy of ki nematics ,
we are concerned only wit h t he motion of links , not of individual machine element s .
As described above , t he function of t he cylinder 1 ( or t he engine body or frame ) , t he
pist on 2, t he coupler 3 and t he cr ank 4 is to t ransform t he r eciprocation of t he piston 2 into
t he rota tion of t he crank 4 . They constit ute a sli der- crank mechanism . The function of t he
engi ne fr ame 1, t he pinion 4and t he gear 5 is t o change t he direction and speed of rotation .
They constit ute a gear mechanism . The function of t he frame 1, t he cam 5and t he follower
6 is to t ransform t he conti nuous rotation of t he cam i nt o a regular reciprocation of t he follower .
They constit ute a cam mechanism . ( The same applies to t he frame 1, the cam 5and t he fol-
lower 7 .) We see , t herefore , that a mechanism is a system of links which can t ransform or
t ransmit force and motion . The i nternal combustion engine s hown in Fig . 1- 1 is t hus a system
consisting of t hree ki nds of mechanism . I ts struct ural block diagr am is shown in Fig . 1-2 .
Fig . 1-2
Machi ne is a mechanical system t hat can t ransmit or t ransform energy , materials or infor-
mation . As we shall see , many pr actical machines contain mor e than one mechanism while
many simple machines ar e composed of only one basic mechanism . The term machi ner yis
used to cover bot h mechanisms and machines . The st udy object of t his book is machinery .
1. 2 S t u d y C o n t e n t
The internal combustion engine is only one example of t he many different kinds of ma-
chines in t he world . Many machines , at first sight , appear t o have very differ ent const ruc-
tions, tr ansmission characteristics and applications . Fort una tely, af ter examination of more
examples in detail , we fi nd t hat most machines, even very complicated ones , are built up from
only a few t ypes of commonly used mechanisms , such as li nkage mechanisms ( t he slider-crank
mechanism is one of t hese) , gear mechanisms, cam mechanisms etc . The functions and pro-
files of machines may be quite different , but t he mechanisms used in t hem are often t he same .
This sit uation is si milar t o t he combinations of t he seven- piece puzzle . Wit h only seven plates ,
many different pa tterns can be construct ed . The most content of t his book is for analysis
2
and synt hesis of some commonly used mechanisms .
Alt hough t her e are many kinds of machine, it is not possible or necessary t o st udy all kinds
in t his book . We will exami ne t he necessary basic topics in machinery t heoryand study t he
analysis and synt hesis of some commonly used mechanisms . Dimensions affecting t he motion of
t he mechanisms are called k inematics di mensions . For example , t he r adii of t he holes and t he
shape of t he cross- section of t he coupler 3 have no effect on its motion . They are not kinemat-
ics di mensions . In t he coupler 3, t he distance between t he cent res of t he t wo holes is t he only
kinematics dimension . Synt hesis is t he process of determini ng only t he kinematics di mensions
of a mechanism r equir ed to produce a particular motion . The term synt hesis differs from
designwhich is t he process of pr escribing t he sizes , shapes , material compositions , ar-
rangement s of part s, calculations of str ength , met hods of production , etc . For example , t he
radii of t he holes and t he shape of t he cross- section of t he coupler 3 are not considered in t he
synt hesis of t he mechanism , but must be considered duri ng t he design of t he machine when
forces and st resses are to be calculated .
1. 3 P ur p o s e
This t extbook Mechanisms and Machine Theory is an aid to t he st udy of machines and
mechanisms . I t is hoped t hat , after st udying t his text book, t he students will grasp t he basic
t heory and obtain t he basic knowledge and skills needed in mechanisms synt hesis and kinematic
and dynamic analysis of machinery . This should lead t o t he ability t o choose machinery motion
pat terns , analyze and synt hesize mechanisms and develop designs for practical working machin-
ery . The knowledge to be obt ained from t his text book is t herefor e a fundament al i n analyzing
existing machines and designing new ones .
3
C h ap t e r 2
S t r u c t u r al A n al y s i s o f
P l a n a r Me c h a n i s m s
2. 1 P l a n a r Ki n e ma t i c P a i r s a n d P l a n a r M e c h a ni sm s
2. 1. 1 Kinematic Pairs
As mentioned in Chapter 1, a mechanism is a combination of links which can t ransform or
t ransmit a determined motion . In order to t ransmit and tr ansform motion , every link must be
kept permanently in contact wit h ot her li nks by some ki nd of connection and have motion rela-
tive to t hem . Such a mobile connection is called a ki nemat ic pai r . For example , t he connec-
tions between t wo links in Fig . 2- 1 t o Fig . 2- 6 are kinematic pairs . A pair t hat per mit s only
relative rota tion is called a revol ute pair , as shown in Fig . 2- 1 . A pair t hat allows only rela-
tive rectilinear t ranslation is called a sli di ng pair or prismatic pai r , as s hown in Fig . 2- 2 .
The kinematic pairs in Fig . 2- 3 to Fig . 2-6 ar e called gear pai r , cam pair , screw pai r ,
and spherical pai r , r espectively . One kinematic pair can connect only t wo links .
The par t of t he link surface which makes contact wit h anot her li nk and forms a kinematic
pair is called a pai r element . The combination of t wo such elements on t he connected links
constitutes a kinematic pair . For example , t he cylindrical surfaces of t he hole and t he shaft in
a revolut e pair ( Fig . 2- 1) are two pair- element s . Those connections t hat joi n two machine el-
ement s firmly and do not allow t he connected machine element s t o move relative t o each ot her ,
such as welds , rivets , or nut s and bolt s , are not ki nematic pairs .
If two links connected by a kinematic pair can move relative to each ot her only on a plane ,
t he kinematic pair is called a planar k inematic pai r , ot her wise , a spati al ki nematic pai r .
For example , t he r evolute pair in Fig . 2-1, t he sliding pair in Fig . 2- 2, t he gear pair in Fig .
2-3, and t he cam pair in Fig . 2-4 are planar pairs , while the scr ew pair in Fig . 2-5 and t he
spherical pair in Fig . 2-6 are spatial pairs .
If t wo pair- elements of a kinematic pair have surface contact or it s equivalent , t he ki ne-
matic pair is known as a lower pai r . The revolute pair in Fig . 2- 1 and t he sliding pair in Fig .
2-2 are planar lower pairs , while t he screw pair in Fig . 2-5 and t he spherical pair i n Fig . 2-6
are spatial lower pairs . Since t he two links of a lower pair ar e connected by a surface, t he pr es-
sur e bet ween t he t wo links is lower . This is a simple way of rememberi ng why it is called a
4
Fig . 2-1 Fig . 2-2 Fig . 2-3
Fig . 2-4 Fig . 2-5
Fig . 2-6
lower pair .
If t he connection takes place only at a point or along a line ( assuming t he materials to be
rigid ) , it is known as a hi gher pai r . The gear pair i n Fig . 2-3 and t he cam pair i n Fig . 2-4
are planar higher pairs . The connection bet ween a ball and a plane is a spa tial higher pair .
Since t he t wo links of a higher pair ar e connected by a point or a line , t he pressure bet ween t he
t wo links is higher . That is why it is called a higher pair .
2. 1. 2 Kinematic Chain and Mechanism
When a number of li nks are connected by means of ki nematic pairs, t he resulting mobile
system is a ki nematic chain . If every link in a kinematic chain has at least two pair- elements ,
all links form a closed chai n , as shown in Fig . 2-7a and b . If one or more links i n a kinematic
chai n have only one pair-element , t hen t he kinematic chain will be an open chai n , as shown in
Fig . 2-7c and d . Most machines use closed chains , while open chai ns ar e often used in robot s
and manipulat ors .
In order to tr ansmit motion , one of t he links in t he ki nematic chain must be fixed to t he
base of t he machine . The fixed link is also called t he f r ame and t here is only one frame for
each mechanism . The fr ames of most machines are fixed to t he ground, while t he frames of
5
Fig . 2-7
some machines , e. g. cars , aeroplanes, etc ., can move relative to t he ground . The relative
reference system is of ten fi xed to t he fr ame when t he motion of links is st udied .
Some movi ng li nks have t heir own independent motion characteristics . They are called
dri vi ng li nks . The ot her movi ng li nks are called driven li nks . Among all t he driven links ,
one or more are used to generate t he expected out put motion . Such driven links are called out-
put links . For example , in t he internal combustion engine in Fig . 1-1, t he piston 2 is t he
driving link, t he coupler 3 and t he crank 4 are t he driven links . The crank 4 is also an output
link .
If all links of a mechanism move in planes t ha t r emain par allel to each other , we say t hat
t he mechanism is a pl anar mechanism . Ot her wise , it is a spatial mechanism . For example ,
in t he int ernal combustion engine shown in Fig . 1-1, all planes on which links move are paral-
lel , so it is a planar mechanism . Gear mechanism in Fig . 6- 6 to Fig . 6-8 are spatial mecha-
nisms . All kinematic pairs in a planar mechanism must be planar kinematic pairs, while t he
mechanism containing only planar kinematic pairs may be a spatial mechanism . For example ,
t he universal joint shown in Fig . 8- 20, which contains only revolutes , is a spatial mechanism .
If all kinema tic pairs in a mechanism are lower pairs, t he mechanism is called a lower pair
mechanism, or more often, a l inkage mechanism . All mechanisms in Chapter 4 ar e planar
linkage mechanisms . The universal joint in Fig . 8-20 is a spatial lower pair mechanism . If a
mechanism has one or more higher pairs, it is called a higher pai r mechanism . The internal
combustion engine in Fig . 1-1 is a planar higher pair mechanisms . The gear mechanism in
Fig . 6-6 to Fig . 6-8 are spatial higher pair mechanisms .
2. 2 T h e Ki n e m a t i c Di a g r a m o f a M e c h a ni sm
2. 2. 1 De finition and Purpose
In order t o analyze an existing mechanism or design a new mechanism , it is helpful to
draw a simple diagr am to indicate the kinematic relationship bet ween links . Since t his diagram
is used only t o express the relationship between t he motions of links, it should be simple but
provide all necessary ( not r edundant ) informa tion determi ning t he relative motion of all links .
Such a diagram is called t he ki nematic diagram of t he mechanism . Those detailed st ructur es
6
irrelevant t o t he motion t ransmission should be omit ted or simplified . For example, t he profile
and section shape of a link, t he r adius of a revolute , t he s hape of t he cross section of a sliding
pair , t he number of machine element s in a link and t heir manner of connection are irrelevant to
t he motion t ransmission . They should not be crowed into a kinematic diagram . In t he ki ne-
matic diagram , links and kinematic pairs should be repr esented by si mple and specified sym-
bols . In t his way, t he kinematic diagram can reflect t he ki nematic charact eristics of t he mech-
anism more clearly and more si mply . The abilit y to draw t he kinematic diagrams of mecha-
nisms from examina tion of r eal machines or t he assembly drawing of a machine is a basic techni-
cal skill for engineers engaged in designing , manufact uring or maintaining machines .
Since a mechanism is built of links and kinema tic pairs , we study first t he representations
of links and kinema tic pairs in t he kinematic diagram befor e we star t t o draw t he whole ki ne-
matic diagram of a mechanism .
2. 2. 2 Representation of a Kinematic Pai r
The kinematic function of a kinematic pair is only t o constr ain t he t wo links it connect s in
order to maintai n a special r elative motion . For example , t he kinematic function of a r evolute
(referring to Fig . 2-1 ) is to const rai n t he t wo li nks connected t o rotate about t he cent re of t he
revolute relative to each ot her . A revolute is conveniently repr esented by a s mall circle placed at
t he cent re of t he revolute no matter how large it s radius is , as shown in Fig . 2-8 . If a link is
connected to t he fr ame by a r evolute , t he revolute is called a f i xed pivot . The frame is often
indicated by shading, as shown in Fig . 2-8d . A fixed pivot can also be repr esented by a small
circle wit h t riangle suppor t and shading , as shown in Fig . 2-8e .
The kinematic function of a sliding pair ( Fig . 2- 2) is to constrain t he t wo connect ed links
t o t ranslate in t he direction of t he pat hway relative to each ot her . Therefore , t he act ual shape
of t he cross section of t he sliding pair has no influence on t he kinematics of t he mechanism .
Shown in Fig . 2-9 are some t ypical kinema tic repr esentations of sliding pairs . The shaded links
represent t he fr ame .
Fig . 2-8
For t he two links in a sliding pair , t he motion characteristics of t he slidi ng pair will not
change no mat ter which link is drawn as t he sliding block or t he guide bar . Fur t hermore , t he
kinematic r elationship between t wo links in a sliding pair does not change so long as t he center-
line of t he slidi ng pair in t he kinematic diagr am is parallel to t he pat hway in t he mechanism .
7
Fig . 2-9
Therefore , t he t wo links of a hydraulic cylinder shown in Fig . 2-10a can be r epresented in t he
kinematic diagram as shown i n Fig . 2-10b t o e .
Fig . 2-10
The gear pair is represented by t wo chai n dot ted circles tangent to each ot her ( t wo t oot h
Fig . 2-11
profiles may be added ) , as shown in Fig . 2-11 , since
two gears are equivalent kinematically to t wo friction
wheels rolling wit hout slipping .
Fig . 2-12
In a cam mechanism , t he cam contour and t he end
profile of the follower have an effect on t he motion charac-
teristics between t he cam and t he follower . Hence it is
necessary to dr aw t he act ual cam cont our and t he end pro-
file of t he follower in t he kinematic diagram , as shown in
Fig . 2- 4 .
2. 2. 3 The representation of a Link in the Kinematic Diagram
The kinematic function of a link is t o hold t he rela tive position of all pair elements on t he
link unchanged during t he motion of t he mechanism . For example , for a t wo- revolut e li nk in
Fig . 2-12a , t he kinematic function of t he link is to keep t he
distance lAB bet ween t he centers of t he revolut es A and B
unchanged . lAB is t he only kinematic dimension in t his link .
Therefore , a link wit h only two revolutes is illust rated mere-
ly by a st raight li ne joining two small circles center ed at t he
centers of the revolutes , as shown in Fig . 2-12b . A link
wit h more t han t wo pair elements can be represented by a
ha tched or welded polygon wit h pair element s at corners , as
shown in Fig . 2-13 .
Not e t he difference bet ween t wo diagrams in Fig . 2-14 .
8
Fig . 2-13
Fig . 2-14
The special representative symbols used i n a kinematic diagram for some common mecha-
nisms are listed in Table 2-1 .
Table 2-1 Special Symbols for Some Commonly Used Mechanisms
Elect ric Mot or Cone Gear Drive
Bel t Dri ve Rack and Pi ni on
Chai n drive Wor m and Wor m Gear Drive
9
Continue
Out er- meshed Cyli ndrical Gear Drive Cam Dri ve
In ner- mes hed Cyli ndrical Gear Drive Ra tchet Mechanism
The kinematic diagram should be drawn to scale so t hat t he diagram has the same kinemat-
ic characteristics as t hose of t he original mechanism . I t can be used in gr aphical kinematic and
dynamic analysis . If we want to emphasize only t he struct ural characteristics and illust rate t he
motion t ransmission , t hen t he diagram does not have to be drawn exactly to scale . Such a dia-
gram is called t he schematic di agram of t he mechanism .
2. 2. 4 Procedures for Drawing the Kinematic Diagram of a Mechanism
(1) Run t he mechanism slowly, study car efully the struct ure of t he mechanism . Deter-
mine t he t ypes of all kinematic pairs . Analyze t he t ransmission rout e from t he driving link to
t he out put link . Then st op t he mechanism at a suitable position for drawi ng .
( 2) For a planar mechanism , all moving li nks move in parallel planes . Thus , a plane par-
allel t o t hese planes is chosen as a drawing plane . Sometimes, a local view may be drawn to
clarify t he st ructure .
(3 ) Draw t he schematic diagram of t he mechanism . Firstly, dr aw all fixed pair element s
or t he pair element s on t he frame . Be careful about t he relative positions bet ween t hese fixed
pair element s . This is an i mport ant step . Then begin t o draw t he moving li nks . Dr aw t he
drivers first and t hen draw t he driven links according to t he route of motion t ransmission . Be-
fore drawing a link, determine t he t ypes of all kinematic pairs on it and it s kinematic dimen-
sions .
(4) For convenient reference , t he links are numbered while t he kinematic pairs ar e let-
tered . The input link is marked wit h an arrow in t he dir ection of motion . Each link, no mat-
ter how many machine element s it has, can have only one serial number . An apost rophe to t he
right of t he serial number may be used to distinguish t he different machine element s of t he same
link . All machine elements belonging to t he same link in t he kinematic diagram must be con-
0 1
nected firmly by welding symbols .
(5) Calculat e t he degree of fr eedom of t he mechanism ( see Sec. 2. 3 ) according t o t he
schematic diagram, and check if it is t he same as t ha t of t he act ual mechanism .
(6 ) Measure all and only kinematic dimensions . Those dimensions which will change dur-
ing t he motion are not kinematic dimensions .
(7 ) Select a suitable scale
l
, t he fact or of which is
l
=
act ual lengt h
lengt h in diagram
, and
t hen dr aw t he kinematic diagram of t he mechanism .
Example 2-1
Draw t he kinematic diagram of t he internal combustion engine shown in Fig . 1-1 .
Solution :
The crank 4 and t he pinion 4ar e connected firmly wit h a key . They constit ute a single
Fig . 2-15
Fig . 2-16
link . Therefore , in t he kinematic diagram , t he
crank 4 and t he pinion 4must be connected by a
welding symbol and have t he same serial number .
Similarly, t he gear 5 , t he cams 5and 5constit ute
a single link . Not e the welding symbol between t he
gear 5 and t he cam 5. There are alt oget her one
fr ame and six moving links : pist on 2, coupler 3,
crank 4 ( toget her wit h pinion 4) , gear 5 ( t oget her
wit h cams 5and 5) , cam follower 6, and cam fol-
lower 7 . The pist on 2 slides relative to t he frame 1
along t he axis of t he cylinder . Therefor e , t he connection bet ween t he piston 2 and t he frame
1 is a slidi ng pair . Although t he cross- section of t he cylinder is circular , it is not a r evolute
pair . The type of any ki nematic pair is determined by t he kinematic relationship between t he
t wo links it connect s . The circular section is used for ease of manufacturing . Draw all fixed
pair element s first . Following t he procedures mentioned
above, t he kinematic diagram of t he mechanism is drawn
as shown in Fig . 2- 15 . A local view ( Fig . 2-15b ) is
drawn because of t he overlapping of t he two cam follow-
ers .
Example 2-2
Ther e are t hree moving links in Fig . 2-16a . Circular
disk 1 rotates rela tive to t he frame 4 about a fixed axis A .
The circular disk 1 matches wit h a hole on anot her circular
1 1
disk 2 . The circular disk 2 matches wit h a large hole on t he link 3 . The link 3 oscilla tes
about a fixed axis D . Draw t he kinematic diagram of t he mechanism .
Solution :
Obviously , A is a fixed pivot bet ween t he frame 4 and t he link 1 . Draw first t he t wo
fixed pivots A and D . Links 1 and 2 are connected by a revolute whose cent re is at B . On t he
link 1 , t her e ar e only t wo revolutes : A and B . Ther efor e, t he link 1 is r epresented by a
st raight line joining two small circles cent ered at A and B . Similarly, t here are only t wo revo-
lute pair element s on t he link 2 . One is t he element of t he revolute B and t he ot her is the ele-
ment of t he revolute between t he links 2 and 3 whose cent re is located at C . The link 2 is
t herefore represented by a st raight line joining two small cir cles centered at B and C, Similar-
ly, t he link 3 is repr esented by a st raight line joi ning two small circles center ed a t C and D, as
shown in Fig . 2-16b .
2. 3 D e g r e e o f F r e e d o m o f a M e c ha n i sm
2. 3. 1 De finition
In t he four-bar mechanism shown in Fig . 2-17, there ar e t hr ee moving li nks . There are
many kinematic par ameters of links and point s in this mechanism , e. g. , 1 , 2 , 3 . But
t hese ki nematic parameters are dependent on each ot her . Intuitively, we can see t hat among
angles 1 , 2 and 3 , only one angle is i ndependent . In the five- bar mechanism ABCDE
shown in Fig . 2-18, if t wo angles ( say, 1 and 4 ) ar e given , t he locations of all moving
links will be determined . So t he number of independent ki nematic parameters for t his mecha-
nism is two . Int uitively , t here is only one independent kinematic paramet er , say angular coor-
dinate 1 of t he cam 1, in t he cam mechanism shown in Fig . 2-4 . In t he internal combustion
engi ne shown in Fig . 2-15, t he positions of all moving links can be determined, so long as t he
position of t he slider 2 is given . The number of independent parameters needed to define
uniquely t he loca tions of all moving links wit hin a mechanism wit h respect to t he fr ame is called
Fig . 2-17
Fig . 2-18
2 1
t he degree of f reedom ( DOF) of t he mechanism . So t he DOF of t he mechanis ms in Fig . 2-
4, Fig . 2-15 , Fig . 2-17 and Fig . 2- 18 are 1, 1 , 1, and 2 , respectively .
2. 3. 2 Degree of Freedom of a Link and the Number of Constraints of a Kinematic Pai r
The DOF of a mechanism can be calculated according t o t he number of links and t he num-
ber and t ypes of ki nematic pairs . If a moving li nk in a plane is not connected t o any ot her link
( Fig . 2-19) , t hree independent parameters are required to complet ely define it s exact location ,
e. g. two li near coordinates ( xA , yA ) t o define t he position of any poi nt A on t he link , and
one angular coordinate ( ) to define t he angle of a line on t he link wit h respect to t he axes .
Therefore, an unconst rained li nk on a plane would have 3 DOF . Two unconnected indepen-
dent links on a plane would have 6 DOF .
Fig . 2-19
Fig . 2-20
Fig . 2-21
When t he two links are connected by a ki nematic pair , t heir independent motion will be
const rained because t hey must remain in contact at all ti mes . In ot her words, t heir DOF will
decrease . The numbers and t he t ypes of const raint s are different for differ ent kinema tic pairs .
For example , if two li nks are connected by means of a revolute pair , as s hown in Fig . 2-20,
we need only 4 independent parameters to defi ne t heir exact locations . These may be th ree pa-
rameters ( xA , yA , and 1 ) to defi ne t he location of li nk 1 first , and another parameter
(21 ) t o define t he position of li nk 2 relative to link 1 . Thus, t he t wo- link system shown in
Fig . 2- 20 has only four DOF . Hence , connecting t wo planar links wit h a revolute pair has t he
effect of removing two DOF from t he system . In ot her words, a revolute pair set s two con-
st raints . I t const rains x and y relative t ranslation and permit s only pure relative rot ation be-
tween t he links it connects .
Similarly, a sliding pair ( r eferring t o Fig . 2-2 ) const rains
relative t ranslation along t he common normal and r elative rotation,
permit ti ng only a rectilinear relative motion along t he pat h of t he
slide way . Thus, one planar lower pair sets t wo const raints , or
eli mina tes t wo DOF .
If t wo links are connected by a planar higher pair as shown in
3 1
Fig . 2- 21, the two links cannot have relative motion along t heir common normal n-n at t he
point of contact . Ot herwise , t he t wo links will separat e or interfere . However . one link can
slide along t he common tangent t- t and rotate relative to t he ot her link . This higher pair is
t herefore also called a roll & sli de pai r . Thus, a planar higher pair has only one const raint or
eli mina tes only one DOF .
2. 3. 3 Structural Formula of a Mechanism
Each unconstr ained link has 3 DOF . Befor e any connections are made, a system of N
moving links will have a total of 3 N DOF . Since each planar lower pair eliminates two DOF
and each planar higher pair elimi nates one DOF , t he DOF of a planar mechanism wit h N mov-
ing links , Pl planar lower pairs and Ph planar higher pairs can be calculated as :
F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph (2- 1)
wher e F denotes DOF .
This is called t he st r uct ural for mula of the mechanism . Note t hat N does not include t he
frame . Using t he st ructur al formula of t he mechanism to determine t he DOF of t he cam mech-
anism in Fig . 2-4 . we have : N = 2 , Pl = 2 , Ph = 1, F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 32 - 22 - 1 =
1, which agrees wit h t he r esult by intuition .
As a fur t her demonst ration of t he use of t he st ructur al formula of a mechanism , refer to
t he internal combustion engine in Fig . 2-15 . We have : N = 6, Pl = 7 ( four revolutes, A ,
B , C and D, and t hree sliding pairs, C, E, and F) , Ph = 3 , F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 36 -
27 - 3 = 1 .
2. 3. 4 Conditions for a Mechanism to Have a Determined Motion
As mentioned before , t he DOF of a mechanism is t he number of independent par ameters
required to specify t he locations of all moving links in a mechanism wit h r espect t o t he frame .
Independent paramet ers ar e supplied only by t he driving links . Since t he driving links are al-
ways connected to t he frame by lower pairs, one driving link ( toget her wit h t he corresponding
lower pair ) will provide only one independent parameter . For example , t he rot or of a motor
has one independent rotation . The pist on in t he hydraulic cylinder has one independent t ransla-
tion . Therefore , we can conclude t ha t t he links wit hin a mechanism can have determined rela-
tive motions if and only if t he DOF of t he mechanism is greater t han zero and equal to t he num-
ber of t he driving links . This is called the conditions f or a mechanism to have a determi ned
motion .
If DOF is zero, it is a truss . If t he number of driving links is less t han t he DOF of t he
mechanism, some driven links will not have determined motion . For example , in t he five- bar
linkage shown in Fig . 2- 18, F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 34 - 25 = 2 . If t here is only one driving
link , say link 1 , the positions of t he ot her moving li nks ( 2, 3, and 4 ) cannot be deter-
mined . They may be a t t he positions indicated by the solid li nes or t he dashed lines or at any
4 1
ot her position . If t he number of driving links is greater t han t he DOF of t he mechanism , t he
kinematic chain cannot move due to t he conflict bet ween t he input forces . In ext reme cases ,
t he weakest li nk in t he chain may be broken .
2. 4 P o i n t s f o r A t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e Ca l c ul a t i o n o f DOF
In t he development of t he struct ural formula of mechanism Eq .
was given to t he link dimensions . It is not surprising to find many exceptions t o t he formula in
practical cases wit h special geomet ric fea tures . The designer needs t o be aware of t hese possible
inconsistencies .
2. 4. 1 Compound Hinge
In Fig . 2-22a , link 1 connects wit h links 2 and 3 by revolutes A1- 2 and A1- 3 , respective-
Fig . 2-22
ly . The axes of t he two r evolutes coi ncide . I n t he kinematic diagram as
shown in Fig . 2-22b , only one circle is drawn . The t wo revolut es consti-
tute a compound hinge . The number of revolutes i n a compound hinge is
equal t o one less t han t he number of links joined at t hat hinge .
In a mechanism having gears or cams , car eful a ttention must be paid
t o t he existence of compound hinges . For example , in t he gear ed linkage
shown in Fig . 2-23 , t he bearings of li nks 4 and 5 match t he pins on gear
2 . Ther efore , t here are t wo r evolutes C2- 4 and C2- 5 at t he point C . They
constitute a compound hinge . Similarly , D is also a compound hinge since
t here ar e two revolutes , D6- 3 and D6- 5 , at t he hinge D . Therefore , for
t his mechanism , we have N = 5, Pl = 6, Ph = 2 , F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 3
5 - 26 - 2 = 1 . Similarly, t here ar e two revolutes and one sliding pair i n Fig . 2-24 .
Fig . 2-23
Fig . 2-24
2. 4. 2 Passive DOF
In t he plate cam mechanism wit h oscillati ng roller follower shown in Fig . 2-25a , t here are
t hr ee moving links : cam 1, roller , and oscillating follower 2 . There is a revolute bet ween t he
roller and t he follower 2 . Ther efor e, according to Eq . (2-1) , F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 33 - 2
5 1
3 - 1 = 2 . The t wo DOF are the angular coordinates of t he cam and t he
roller . However , t he rotation of t he roller about its cent re does not alt er
t he out put motion of t he follower 2 . Such a DOF which does not change
t he out put motion of t he mechanism is called a passi ve DOF . From now
on , any passive DOF s hould be deleted before t he calculation of t he DOF
of t he mechanism . If we delete t he passive DOF by welding t he roller to
t he follower 2 as shown in Fig . 2-25b , t hen F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 32 -
22 - 1 = 1 . This is t he real DOF of t he mechanism .
2. 4. 3 Redundant Constraints
Fig . 2-25
In many cases , more t han one constr aint may have exactly t he same kinematic function .
In t hese cases , only one of t he const raint s should be counted during t he calculation . Ot hers are
called redundant const rai nts , which must not be counted during t he calculation . Redundant
const raints occur in many sit uations as described below .
(1 ) When two links ar e connect ed by more t han one parallel sliding pair , such as t he con-
nection between t he follower 2 and t he frame 3 in t he cam mechanism shown i n Fig . 2-26,
only one sliding pair can be counted during t he calculation , ot hers are redundant const raint s
and must not be counted .
Fig . 2-26
Fig . 2-27
(2 y more t han one revolute pair whose axes coincide ,
such as t he connection bet ween t he crank and t he frame in a multi- cylinder internal combustion
engi ne shown in Fig . 2-27 , only one of t he r evolutes must be counted during t he calculation .
Ot hers are r edundant constr aint s and must not be counted .
(3 ) When two links ar e connect ed by more t han one higher pair whose common normals
passing t hrough t he point s of contact coincide ( such as t he t wo connections between t he cam 1
and t he follower 2 in t he cam mechanism shown in Fig . 2- 26 ) , only one of t he higher pairs
can be count ed duri ng t he calculation . Ot hers are r edundant const rai nt s , which should not be
counted .
However , if two links are connected by t wo higher pairs whose common normals passing
t hrough t he point s of contact do not coincide , as shown in Fig . 2-28, t he two higher pairs will
6 1
have two const raint s . Fig . 2-28a is equivalent to a revolute , while Fig . 2-28b is equivalent to
a sliding pair .
Fig . 2-28
Fig . 2-29
( 4) When t he distance between two point s on t wo links r emains constant during t he mo-
tion of t he mechanism , adding one link and t wo revolutes with t heir centers at t hese t wo point s
will create a redundant const raint .
In t he linkage ABCD shown in Fig . 2-29 (ignor e link EF and t he revolutes E and F for
t he moment ) , AB = CD = EF , BC = AD and BE = AF . Ther efore , t he distance between
t he point E on t he link BC and t he point F on t he frame AD is identically equal t o t he lengt h
of li nk AB during t he motion of mechanism . If link EF and t wo revolutes E and F are added ,
t his one li nk and its two r evolutes will create one constr aint , which is to keep t he distance be-
tween t he point s E and F equal to t he lengt h of link EF . According t o Eq . , F = 3 N -
2 Pl - Ph = 34 - 26 = 0 . Zero DOF means t hat t he kinematic chain can not move . In fact ,
t he li nkage can still move because of t he double- par allelogram st ructure . The reason is t hat t he
const raint from t he link EF and t he revolutes E and F is exactly t he same as t ha t from t he
original four- bar linkage ABCD . Therefore , t he const raint from link EF and t he revolut es E
and F is redundant . Befor e calculation , any redundant const raint must first be deleted . The
DOF of t he mechanism i n Fig . 2-29 should be calculated as F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 33 - 24 =
1 .
(5 ) When t he locus of a point is a st raight line , adding one link wit h one fixed guide way
par allel to t he st raight line and one revolut e wit h it s cent re a t t hat point will crea te a redundant
Fig . 2-30
const raint .
For example , in t he mechanism shown in Fig . 2-30 ( ignore
sliding block 5, fixed guide way AF and revolute D for t he mo-
ment ) , AB = BC = BD . I t can be shown t hat t he point D will
t race t he str aight- line AF perpendicular to AE . Adding t he slidi ng
block 5, t he fixed guide- way AF and t he revolut e D will provide a
const raint , which is t o force t he point D move along t he straight
line AF . Since t his const rai nt is exactly t he same as t hat from t he
original mechanism, t he const raint is redundant and t he mechanism can still move . Therefore ,
aft er deleting t he redundant const raint , t he DOF of t he mechanism is calculated as F = 3 N -
7 1
2 Pl - Ph = 33 - 24 = 1 .
(6 ) Form- closed cam mechanisms
In order to ensur e contact bet ween the cam and t he follower , many kinds of form- closed
cam mechanisms are used , such as shown in Fig . 2- 26 and Fig . 5-6 . One of the two higher
pairs bet ween t he cam and t he follower is a redundant const raint because of t he special dimen-
Fig . 2-31
sions .
(7 ) Symmet rical struct ure or duplicated st ructur e
In many cases , e. g. in order t o balance forces and improve
t he force conditions , many kinds of symmet rical struct ures or du-
plicated struct ures are used . Shown i n Fig . 2-31 is a gear t rain .
From t he ki nematic point of view, t he motion can be t ransmitted
from gear 1 to gear 3 by just one gear 2 . However , for pr actical
purposes, t hree gears 2, 2and 2are dist ributed symmet rically in
space . Thus , t he force conditions of the gears can be i mproved,
and a larger torque can be t ransmitted by t he mechanism . During t he calcula tion of t he DOF of
t he mechanism, only one of t he t hree gears 2, 2and 2s hould be counted while ot hers are re-
dundant . The connection at O is a compound hinge consisting of O4- 1 and O4 - 3 . The DOF of
t he gear t rain should t herefore be calculat ed as F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 33 - 23 - 2 = 1 .
Redundant const rai nt s can i mprove t he rigidity of a mechanism , improve the force condi-
tion in links, over come any undetermined motion , etc . and are widely used in many mecha-
nisms . The so- called met hod of deleting t he redundant const raints during t he calculation of
DOF does not mean t hat t he r edundant const raint s should be omitted from real mechanisms .
I t should be noted t hat all r edundant constr aint s require some special dimensions . Therefore ,
at tention should be paid t o manufact uring accuracy when any redundant constr aint is used . If
manufact uring and assembly errors in link lengt hs or pivot locations are too large , t he redun-
dant constr aint s will become r eal const raints and t he mechanism will jam .
Example 2-3
Calcula te t he DOF of t he mechanism shown in Fig . 2-32a .
Fig . 2-32
Solution :
There is a spri ng between t he frame 8 and t he slider 6 . The function of t he spring is to
8 1
force t he roller to maintai n contact wit h t he cam 7 at all times . I t does not kinematically con-
st rain t he r elative motion between t he two links . Therefor e, t he spring should not be count ed
in t he number of links .
There are t wo par allel sliding pairs E and Ebetween t he fr ame 8 and t he slider 6 . One
of t he slidi ng pairs is redundant . The hinge C is a compound hi nge of links 2 , 3 and 4 . The
roller has a passive DOF . After deleting t he spring , t he redundant constr aint and passive
DOF , t he mechanism can be redr awn as shown in Fig . 2- 32b . Ther efore , t he DOF of t he
mechanism can be calculated as F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 37 - 29 - 1 = 2 . To t ransmit a deter-
Fig . 2-33
mined motion , t wo drivers must be provided .
Example 2-4
Calcula te t he DOF of t he mechanism shown i n
Fig . 2-33 .
Solutions :
The roller has a passive DOF . If t he roller is welded to
link 5, t here is still a revolute between t he links 5 and 6 .
At point A , t here are two revolutes , A7- 1 and A7 - 2 . Similarly, C is a compound hinge of links
4, 5 and 7 . Wit h att ention to t hese points , t he DOF of t he mechanism can be calculated cor-
rectly as F = 3 N - 2 Pl - Ph = 36 - 28 - 1 = 1 .
2. 5 T h e Com p o si t i o n P r i n c i p l e a n d S t r u c t u r a l An a l y s i s
2. 5. 1 Composition Principle of Mechanisms
The links and t he kinematic pairs of a mechanism can be divided int o two part s . The first
par t consist s of t he frame , t he driver and t he ki nematic pair connecting t he frame and
t he driver pairs belong to t he second par t . The first par t
we will call the basic mechanism and t he second par t t he system of dri ven li nks . The mecha-
nism in Fig . 2-34 can for example be divided i nt o two such part s as shown in Fig . 2- 35 . Dur-
ing such division and classification , t he sum of links, t he sum and t ypes of kinematic pairs do
Fig . 2-34 Fig . 2-35 Fig . 2-36
9 1
not change . The sum of t he DOF of t he t wo par ts should t her efore be equal to t he DOF of t he
original mechanism .
In Sec . 2. 3. 4, we learned t hat in any mechanism which has a determined motion, t he
number of drivers must be equal to t he DOF of t he mechanism . I n t he basic mechanism, t he
driver is always connected to t he frame by a lower pair . Every driver ( and it s corresponding
lower pair ) has one DOF . Thus t he DOF of t he basic mechanism is equal t o t he number of
drivers, or equal t o t he DOF of t he original mechanism . The DOF of t he system of driven
links must t hus be zero . In some cases, t he system of driven li nks can be divided into smaller
groups . If t he DOF of each group is zero and no group can be divided fur t her into two or more
zero- DOF groups, t hen such groups are called Assur groups in memory of Assurs cont ribution
t o t his subject . For example , t he system of driven links in Fig . 2-35 can be fur t her divided in-
to t wo Assur groups as shown i n Fig . 2-36 .
In each Assur group , one or more pairs are used t o connect t he links wit hin t he group .
Such a pair is called an i nner pair . For example , t he pair C i n t he group DCB and t he pair F
in t he group GFE are t he inner pairs for t he groups concerned . Some pairs in an Assur group
are used t o connect t he group to kinematically determined li nks, Such pairs are called outer
pairs . For example , t he group DCB is connected to the kinematically det ermined links ( t he
frame and t he driver ) by lower pairs B and D . The pairs B and D are t herefore t he outer
pairs of t he group DCB . When t he group DCB is connected to t he determined links by t he out-
er pairs D and B, a four- bar mechanism ABCD is cr eat ed and all links in t he group DCB be-
come ki nematically determined . The group GFE is t hen connected to t he determi ned li nk BCE
and t he frame by lower pairs E and G . The pairs E and G ar e t herefore t he outer pairs of t he
group GFE . Note : t he revolute E is not an outer pair of t he group DCB . From t he assembly
order of t he Assur groups , we can see t hat t he group DCB is t he first group , while the group
GFE is t he second group .
Hence , as mentioned above , we can see t hat any mechanism which has a determined mo-
tion, can be assembled from a basic mechanism by connecti ng Assur groups to t he determined
links using outer pairs , group by group . This is the composit ion pri nci ple of mechanism . On-
ly after t he former Assur group is assembled , can t he la ter one be assembled .
2. 5. 2 Classif ication of Assur Group and Mechanism
In a lower-pair Assur group, F = 3 N - 2 Pl = 0 . Therefore , Pl = (3/ 2 ) N . Since N and
Pl ar e integers, t he number N of links must be even . The groups in Fig . 2-36 are t he simplest
lower-pair Assur groups in which t here are two links and t hree pairs . If N = 4, t he lower-pair
Assur group has t wo different constructions as shown i n Fig . 2- 37 . In Fig . 2-37a , lower pairs
A , B and C ar e used t o connect links wit hin t he group . They are t he inner pairs of t he group .
The group will be connected t o determined links by lower pairs D, E and F . Thus, t he lower
pairs D, E and F are t he outer pairs of t he group . In Fig . 2-37b , lower pairs A , B, C and
0 2
D ar e the inner pairs , while t he lower pairs E and F are t he outer pairs . Assur groups have
different gr ades according to different number of links and different st ructur e . The groups in
Fig . 2-36, Fig . 2-37a and Fig . 2-37b are classified as grade , and Assur groups, re-
spectively .
For t he same kinematic chain, t he composition can be changed if t he frame and/ or t he
driving link is changed . For example , t he ki nematic chain in Fig . 2-38 is t he same as t hat in
Fig . 2-34 but t he driver i n Fig . 2- 38 is t he link GF . The mechanism i n Fig . 2-38 is t hen
composed of a basic mechanism and a gr ade Assur group, as shown i n Fig . 2-39 .
Fig . 2-37 Fig . 2-38 Fig . 2-39
The gr ade of a mechanism is defined as t he highest grade of t he Assur group in t he mecha-
nism . Hence t he mechanis m in Fig . 2- 34 is a grade mechanism , while t he mechanism in
Fig . 2-38 is of grade . The basic mechanism is sometimes called t he gr ade I mechanism , e .
g ., a ceiling fan ( consisting of only a single rot ati ng li nk ) is a gr ade mechanism .
If all pairs in Assur group ar e r evolute pairs, t he group is called t he basic for m of Assur
group . If one or more r evolute pairs is replaced by sliding pairs , some derivative forms of As-
sur groups will be created . The group name , schematic diagram, inner pair and outer pairs of
some commonly used grade Assur groups are shown in Table 2-2 . The links in dashed lines
are t he kinema tically determined ones .
2. 5. 3 Structural Analysis
As mentioned above , a mechanism is assembled st arting wit h t he basic mechanism and
addi ng Assur groups t o t he determined links using t he outer pairs, group by group . The pur-
pose of st ruct ural analysis is t o disconnect t he Assur groups from t he mechanism and t o deter-
mine their t ypes and assembly order . The steps of st ruct ural analysis for grade linkage
mechanisms ar e as follows .
(1 ) Delete all redundant const raints .
(2) The fr ame and t he y deter mined links . Ot her links
are undet ermined links .
(3 ) From all undetermined li nks that are connected t o determined links , choose two con-
nected links . These two links constitute a grade Assur group g fails , it means
1 2
Table 2-2 Some commonly used grade Assur groups
Group name RRR RRP RPR PRP
Schema tic
diagr am
Inner pair B revolute pair B sliding pair revolute pair A
Outer pairs C, A A , sliding pair A , r evolute B
sliding pair 1 - 3
sliding pair 2- 4
Fig . 2-40
t ha t t he mechanism is not a grade mechanism .) The pair connecting t hese two links is t he
inner pair of t he group . The t wo pairs by which t he group is connected to t he determined links
are t he t wo out er pairs of t he group .
(4) When t he group is connect ed t o t he determined links by t he outer pairs , all links in
t he group become kinematically det ermined . Now r epeat step (3 ) until all links become ki ne-
matically determined .
This procedure is sometimes called group div idi ng . During
group dividing, any link and kinematic pair can only belong t o
one group and cannot appear twice in different groups . According
t o t he steps mentioned above , for t he mechanism shown i n Fig .
2-40, t he assembly order of groups, t ype of group , link serial
numbers, inner pair and outer pairs of each group are listed in
Table 2-3 . Si nce t he highest gr ade of group in t his mechanism is
, t he mechanism is a gr ade mechanism . During kinematic
analysis of t he mechanism, t he first group must be analyzed first .
Only af ter t hat , can t he second group be analyzed .
2 2
Table 2-3 Structural analysis for the mechanism shown in Fig . 2-40
Type
Li nk ser ial
numbers
Inner pair Outer pairs
First group RRR 2 , 3 A B , D
Second group RPR 4, 5 sliding pair C4 e -5 F , revolute C3 - 5
The t heory of st ruct ural analysis reveals t he internal rule of t he mechanism composition . I t
can help us to understand the st ructure of a mechanism , to analyze t he t ransmission route in
t he mechanism , and to improve our abilit y in mechanism design .
Problems and Exercises
2-1 Familiarize yourself wit h t he following terminologies: Kinematic pair , Pair element ,
Planar pair , Spatial pair , Lower pair , Higher pair , Kinematic chain, Closed chai n, Open
chai n, Frame , Driven link, Output link , Planar mechanism, Spatial mechanism, Linkage
mechanism, Higher pair mechanism , Kinema tic diagram , Schematic diagram , Kinematic di-
mension , DOF , Const raint of kinematic pair , Compound hinge, Passive DOF , Redundant
const raint , Basic mechanis m, Syst em of driven links, Assur group , Inner pair , Outer pair ,
Group dividing .
2-2 What is t he kinematic function of a kinematic pair ? What is t he kinema tic function of a
link ? What const raints will a r evolute set ? What const raint s will a sliding pair set ? What con-
st raints will a higher pair set ? Why is a pair having surface contact named a lower pair ? Why is
a pair having point or line contact named a higher pair ?
2-3 What point s should be considered during t he calculation of DOF of a mechanism ?
2-4 What is t he condition for a mechanism t o have a determined motion ? What will happen if
t he number of driving links is less t han or gr eater t han t he DOF of t he mechanism ?Why are re-
dundant const raint s used widely in pr actical mechanisms ? What should be considered during de-
sign and manufact ure when redundant const raint s are used ?
2-5 What is t he composition principle of mechanism ? How is t he grade of a mechanism deter-
mined ?
2-6 Draw t he kinematic diagrams and then calculat e t he degree of freedom of t he mechanisms
in Fig . 2- 41 to Fig . 2-46 .
2-7 Calcula te the degree of freedom of t he mechanisms shown in Fig . 2-47 to Fig . 2-58 and
Fig . 4-8 . Indicat e all points for att ention before t he calculation of t he DOF .
2-8 Carry out t he struct ural analysis for t he mechanisms in Fig . 2-51, Fig . 3-16, Fig . 3-
17, and Fig . 4- 8 . List t he assembly order of Assur groups, t he type of group , t he gr ade of
group , the gr ade of t he mechanism , t he link serial numbers , t he inner pair and t he outer pairs
of each group in each mechanism .
3 2
Fig . 2-41 Fig . 2-42
Fig . 2-43
Fig . 2-44
Fig . 2-45 Fig . 2-46
4 2
Fig . 2-47 Fig . 2-48 Fig . 2-49
Fig . 2-50 Fig . 2-51 Fig . 2-52
Fig . 2-53 Fig . 2-54 Fig . 2-55
Fig . 2-56 Fig . 2-57 Fig . 2-58
5 2
C h ap t e r 3
K i n ema t i c A n al y s i s o f
Me c h a n i s ms
3. 1 T a s k s a n d M e t h o d s o f Ki n e m a t i c An a l y s i s
The tasks of kinema tic analysis are to fi nd angular positions , angular velocities and angular
accelerations of driven links and/ or positions , linear velocities and linear accelerations of point s
on driven links, according t o input parameters of driving link ( s ) and t he dimensions of all
links .
In order to determine whet her or not all links will i nterfer e wit h each ot her , or t o deter-
mine t he st roke of a driven link, or t o find t he locus of a point , we must analyse positions of
t he links and/ or t he point s of i nt erest . Position analysis is also t he first step in velocit y and ac-
celeration analysis .
In order to calculate t he stored ki netic energy by for mula E = m v
2
/ 2 or E = J
2
/ 2, or to
determine t he power P of a mot or by formula P = Fv , we carry out t he velocity analysis ,
which is also a step on t he way to t he determination of t he acceleration .
Designers must ensur e t hat t he st resses in t he materials of t he proposed machine are kept
well below t heir allowable levels . To calculate t he st resses, we need to know t he static and dy-
namic forces on t he links . To calculate t he dynamic forces, we need t o know t he accelera tion
because t he iner tia forces ar e propor tional t o acceler ation .
Ki nematic analysis of mechanisms can be carried out by gr aphical or analytical or experi-
mental met hods . By geometric drawing, t he positions of all links in a gr ade linkage can be
determined easily accordi ng to t he assembly order of Assur groups, step by step . In t his chap-
ter , we will i nt roduce one of t he gr aphical met hods, named t he inst ant centr es met hod, for
velocit y analysis . The analytical met hod has many advantages over graphical met hods . In t his
chapter , we will put t he st ress on t he analytical met hod .
3. 2 V e l o c i t y An a l y s i s b y t he M e t h o d o f I n s t a n t Ce n t r e s
3. 2. 1 De finition of the Instant Centre
Shown in Fig . 3-1 are t wo bodies 1 and 2 having r ela tive planar motion . At any instant
6 2
t here exist s a pair of coincident point s, e. g. P1 and P2 ( extend t he two bodies, if necessary ,
Fig . 3-1
so t hat t he point P is in bot h bodies ) , t he absolute velocities of
which are t he same , in bot h magnit ude and dir ection , i. e. iP 1 =
iP 2 . At t his instant , t her e is no relative velocit y between t his pair of
coincident point s, i. e. iP 1 P2 = iP2 P 1 = 0 . Thus, at t his instant , ei-
t her link will have pure rotation r elative to t he ot her link about t he
point . This pair of coincident points wit h t he same velocities is defined
as t he instantaneous cent re of relative rotation , or more briefly t he in-
stant cent re , denoted as P12 or P21 . If one of links is t he fr ame , t he
instant cent re is called an absolute instant cent re , ot her wise, a rela-
tive i nstant cent re . The absolute instant cent re is t he zero-velocit y
point on a moving link , but it s accelera tion may not be zero .
At t he position shown in Fig . 3-1, t he two links rotate relative to each ot her about t he in-
stant cent re P12 . So any ot her pair of coi ncident point s , e. g. A1 and A2 , will have relative
velocities, i. e . iA 1A2 and iA 2A1 . The directions of iA1A2 and iA 2A1 are perpendicular to PA .
Therefore, if t he dir ection of t he relative velocit y of a pair of coincident poi nt s, e. g . A1 and
A2 , is known , t hen t he instant cent re must lie somewher e on t he normal t o t he relative veloci-
ty passi ng t hrough t he coi ncident point A .
3. 2. 2 Number of Instant Centres of a Mechanism
Each pair of links i and j has an instant cent re and Pi j is identical to Pj i . Thus t he number
N of instant centres of a mechanism wit h k links is
N =
k( k - 1 )
2
Not e: The frame is included in t he number k .
3. 2. 3 Location of the Instant Centre of Two Links Connected by a Kinematic Pai r
(1 ) Revolute pair
If two links 1 and 2 are connected by a revolute pair , as shown in Fig . 3-2a , t he centre
of t he revolut e pair is obviously t he instant cent re P12 or P21 .
(2 ) Pure- rolling pair
The pur e- rolling pair is a special case of a higher pair , as shown in Fig . 3- 2b . There is no
slippi ng bet ween t he t wo contacti ng point s A1 and A2 , i. e. , iA1 A2 = vA2A 1 = 0 . Thus t he
point of cont act A is t he instant cent re P12 or P21 . Kinematically, t he tr ansmission bet ween a
pair of gears is equivalent to rolling wit hout slipping bet ween a pair of circles . So t he contact
point of t he two pitch circles of t he gears 1 and 2 is t he instant cent re P12 for the gears 1 and
2, as shown in Fig . 3- 2c .
(3 ) Sliding pair
7 2
Fig . 3-2
As can be seen in Fig . 3- 2d , r ela tive tr anslation is equivalent to r ela tive rotation about a
point located at infinity in eit her dir ection perpendicular to t he guide- way . Ther efor e, t he in-
stant cent re of t he t wo links connected by a sliding pair lies at infinit y in eit her direction perpen-
dicular to t he guide- way .
The inst ant cent res mentioned so far are called observable inst ant cent res and should be lo-
cated and labeled before any ot hers ar e found .
(4 ) Higher pair (rolli ng & sliding pair )
Shown in Fig . 3-2e are two links 1 and 2 connected by a higher pair . Their contact point
is point A . The direction of relative velocities, iA1A2 and iA2A1 , between A1 and A2 must be
along t he common tangent . Ot her wise t here will be a relative velocity component along t he
common normal n- n which will make t he t wo links separate or interfere . So t he instant centre
P12 or P21 must lie somew here on t he common normal n-n t hrough t he point A of contact . It s
exact position can be located by the aid of t he t heorem of t hree centr es as described below . At-
tention : Their instant cent re is not located at t he point of contact or infinity .
3. 2. 4 Theorem of Three Centres ( Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem )
Any t hr ee links, e. g . links 1 , 2, and 3 , have t hr ee instant centr es: P12 , P13 , and
P23 . According to t he t heorem of t hree cent res , t he t hree inst ant cent res P12 , P13 and P23
must lie on a str aight line . This t heor em can be proved as follows .
Suppose t hat t he positions of P12 and P13 ar e known, as shown in Fig . 3-3 . Let us con-
sider any point , e. g . point C, outside t he line P12 P13 . Since P12 ( A) is t he instant centr e of
t he links 1 and 2 , t he link 2 rotates relative to the link 1 about t he point A . So iC2C1 AC .
Similarly, iC3 C1 BC .Since iC2 = iC1 + i C2 C1 , t hen iC2C1 = iC2 - iC1 .Similarly , C3 C1 =
Fig . 3-3
i C3 - iC1 . Obviously, for any point C outside t he line P12
P13 , t he dir ections of t he vectors i C2 C1 and i C3 C1 are not t he
same, i. e. i C2 C1 i C3 C1 . Therefore ( iC2 - iC1 )
(iC3 - iC1 ) from which one obtains iC2 i C3 . Hence ,
according to t he definition of i nstant centr e , t he point C can
not be t he instant centr e P23 between t he links 2 and 3 . In
ot her words, any point out side t he st raight li ne P12 P13 can-
not be t he instant centr e P23 . Thus t he t heorem of t hr ee cen-
8 2
tr es is derived: t he t hree i nstant cent res of any t hree i ndependent links in general plane motion
must lie on a common str aight line .
3. 2. 5 Applications of Instant Centres
Example 3-1
For t he four- bar mechanism shown in Fig. 3-4,
t he angular velocit y 1 of crank 1 is given . For t he
position shown,
( 1 ) locate all i nstant cent res for t he mecha-
nism ,
(2 ) find t he r atio 3/ 1 of the angular velocity
of link 3 to t hat of link 1,
(3 ) find t he velocit y iF of poi nt F on link 2 .
Fig . 3-4
Solution :
(1 ) There ar e six instant cent res in t his four- bar linkage mechanism . In order t o locate all
instant centr es i n a mechanism , we should first t ry to locate all observable instant cent res .
Ot her instant cent res can then be located by t he t heor em of t hr ee centr es .
There are four observable instant cent res ( P14 , P12 , P23 , and P34 ) and t wo unobservable
instant cent res ( P13 and P24 ) in t his mechanism . According t o t he t heor em of t hr ee cent res ,
P13 will lie not only on t he line P14 P34 , but also on the li ne P12 P23 . Since P23 is at infinit y per-
pendicular t o t he guidi ng bar 2 , line P12 P23 passes t hrough t he point P12 and is perpendicular
t o BF . Hence t he i ntersection Eof t he lines P14 P34 and P12 P23 is t he instant cent re P13 .
Similarly , line P23 P34 passes t hrough t he point P34 and is perpendicular t o BF , t he inter-
section G of t he lines P12 P14 and P34 P23 is t he instant cent re P24 . Thus it can be seen t hat it is
usual to apply t he t heorem of t hr ee cent res twice t o determi ne t wo lines, t he intersection of
which will be t he unobservable i nstant cent re . Instant centr es P14 , P34 , and P24 are absolute
instant centr es, while t he ot hers are r elative instant cent res .
(2 ) In order to find 3 for t he given 1 , we should take advant age of t he frame 4 . Their
t hr ee inst ant centr es ( P34 , P13 , P14 ) lie on a common st raight line . The moving links 1 and
3 rotate relative to the fr ame 4 about t he absolute instant cent res P14 ( A ) and P34 ( D) re-
spectively . In link 1, vE 1 = 1 lA E . In link 3, vE 3 = 3 lD E . (Extend t he t wo links . if neces-
sary . so t hat t he point E is in bot h links .) Since t he point E is t he instant cent re P13 be-
tween t he links 1 and 3, i E 1 = iE 3 . Therefore , 1 lA E = 3 lD E from which i31 = 3/ 1 =
lA E/ lD E = P14 P13/ P34 P13 . The lengt hs of lA E and lD E are measured directly from the kinematic
diagr am of t he mechanism . The direction of 3 is counter- clockwise at t his instant .
From above , it is shown t hat t he ratio i/ j of angular velocities bet ween any two moving
9 2
links i and j is equal to t he inverse ratio of t he two distances bet ween t he relative instant centre
Pi j and t wo absolute i nstant cent res Pf i and Pf j , t hat is,
i
j
=
Pf j Pi j
Pf i Pi j
(3- 1)
wher e t he subscript f r epresents t he fr ame . If t he relative instant cent re Pi j lies between t he
t wo absolut e instant centr es Pf i and Pf j , t hen t he dir ections of i and j are different . Ot her-
wise , t he dir ections of i and j are t he same .
(3 ) Since t he links 2 and 3 are connected by a sliding pair , they cannot rotate r elative to
each ot her . Thus , 2 = 3 = 1 lA E/ l E D . Since P24 is t he absolute instant centr e , t he link 2
rotates ( relative to t he frame 4 ) about t he poi nt P24 ( G) at t his instant . Therefore , vF = 2
lG F . It s dir ection is perpendicular t o GF, as shown in Fig . 3-4 . Note : Alt hough t he velocit y
of t he point P24 ( G) is zero, it s acceleration is not zero .
Fig . 3-5
Example 3-2
In t he cam mechanism wit h t ranslating roller follower shown
in Fig . 3-5, t he cam is a circular disk . Supposing t ha t t he angu-
lar velocity 1 of t he cam is known , t he velocit y i2 of t he fol-
lower 2 is to be found for t he position shown .
Solution :
As mentioned in Sec . 2. 4. 2, t he roller has a passive DOF .
The velocity of t he follower will not change if t he roller is welded
t o t he follower 2 . In such a case , t he cam 1 and li nk 2 are con-
nected by a higher pair . The instant cent re P12 bet ween t he cam
1 and link 2 must lie somewher e along t heir common nor mal n- n t hrough t he point of cont act
C . According t o t he t heor em of t h ree cent res, P12 must lie on t he st raight line connecting P13
and P23 . Since t he links 2 and 3 are connected by a sliding pair and t heir instant cent re P23 is
at i nfinity perpendicular to t he guide way, t he line P13 P23 passes t hrough P13 and is perpendic-
ular t o t he guide way . Thus t he i ntersection B of t he common normal n- n and t he line P13 P23
is t he instant cent re P12 and iB1 = iB2 . Note : Neit her t he cent re O of t he circle nor t he con-
tact point C is t he instant cent re P12 . On t he cam 1, iB1 = 1 lAB . Since t he follower 2 is
t ranslating, all point s on t he follower 2 have t he same velocity i2 . So i2 = iB2 = iB1 =
1 lAB .
Example 3-3
In Fig . 3-6, gear 3 rolls on t he fixed r ack 4 wit hout slipping . Assuming t he velocit y i1
of slider 1 is known, t he velocit y iD of t he cent re D of t he gear 3 is to be found .
0 3
Fig . 3-6
Solution :
In order t o find t he velocity of a point on t he gear
3, angular velocit y 3 of t he gear 3 should be found
first . As mentioned before , i n order to fi nd 3 of t he
gear 3 for t he given velocit y i1 of t he slider 1 , we al-
ways take advantage of t he frame 4 . Thus we should t ry
t o locate t he t hree i nstant cent res , P34 , P14 and P13 ,
bet ween t he th ree links, 1, 3 and t he frame 4 . The
gear 3 rolls on t he fixed rack 4 wit hout slipping . So t he
cont act point C is t heir instant cent re P34 . P14 lies at infi nit y perpendicular t o AB ( not AC !) .
P13 must lie on bot h lines P14 P34 and P23 P12 . So the int ersection E of t he lines P14 P34 and P23
P12 is t he instant centr e P13 bet ween t he links 1 and 3 . Ther efor e iE 3 = iE 1 . Since t he slid-
er 1 is tr ansla ting , i1 = i E 1 = i E 3 = 3 lC E . Thus 3 = i1/ lC E from which iD = 3 lCD =
i1 lCD/ l CE . The dir ection is as shown in Fig . 3-6 .
3. 2. 6 Advantages and Disadvant ages of the Method of Instant Centres
The met hod of i nstant cent res offers an excellent tool in t he velocit y analysis of simple
mechanisms . However , i n a complex mechanism , some instant cent res may be difficult to
find . In some cases t hey will lie off t he paper . Lastly, it should be pointed out t hat an instant
cent re , in general , changes it s location on bot h links during motion . The acceleration of t he
instant cent re is not zero ( except for fixed pivots ) . Therefor e , t he instant centre met hod can-
not be used in acceleration analysis .
3. 3 Ki n e ma t i c An a l y si s b y An a l y t i c a l M e t h o d s
In graphical met hods, none of t he information obtained for t he first position of t he mecha-
nism will be applicable t o t he second position or to any others . The kinematic diagram of t he
mechanism must be redrawn for each position of t he driver . This is very tedious if a mechanism
is to be analyzed for a complete cycle . Fur t hermore , t he accuracy of t he graphical solution is
limited .
In cont rast , once t he analytical solution is derived using an analytical met hod , it can be
evaluated on a computer for different dimensions and/ or at different positions wit h very little ef-
for t . The accuracy of t he solution far surpasses t hat required for mechanical design problems .
Thus, i n t his chapter we will put st ress on t he analytical met hod . Graphical met hods can be
used if necessary as a check on t he analytical solutions .
There exist many kinds of analytical met hods for kinematic analysis of linkages . The ki ne-
matic analysis of a multi-bar li nkage mechanism seems to be a hard task at first sight . Howev-
1 3
er , it becomes easier if t he Assur- group met hod is used . As mentioned in Sec. 2. 5, most link-
age mechanisms are built up by adding one or more commonly used Assur groups to t he basic
mechanism . Since t he DOF of an Assur group is zero, Assur groups have kinematic determina-
tion . Tha t is , t he motions of all links i n an Assur group can be determined so long as t he mo-
tions of all outer pairs are known . Taking t his fact into account , one can set up subroutines in
advance for some commonly used Assur groups . Then t he kinematic analysis of a multi-bar
linkage mechanism is reduced t o two simple steps : first , dividing t he mechanism into Assur
groups and secondly, calling t he corr esponding subroutine for each Assur group according to
t he t ype and t he assembly order of t he Assur group . This method is called t he Assur-group
met hod for kinematic analysis .
In t he next sections , we will set up some commonly used kinematic analysis subroutines
before analyzing a six- bar linkage mechanism .
3. 3. 1 The LINK Subroutine
Suppose t hat t he x and y component s of position, velocity and accelera tion of a point A
Fig . 3-7
( i. e. xA , yA , vA x , vA y , aA x , aA y ) , t he angular position , t he angular ve-
locit y, and the angular acceler ation of link AB ( i. e. , , ) , and t he
lengt h ( lAB ) of t he link AB are known, as shown in Fig . 3-7 . The x and y
components of position , velocit y, and acceleration of point B ( i. e . xB , yB ,
vB x , vB y , aB x , aB y ) can be calculated as follows .
In a Cartesian co-ordinate syst em ,
xB = xA + lABcos and yB = yA + lABsin
Differentiating t he above position analysis formulae wit h respect t o ti me , t he formulae for
velocit y analysis can be derived .
vB x = vA x - lAB (sin ) and vB y = vA y + lAB ( cos )
Differentiating agai n, t he formulae for analyzing t he acceleration of t he point B can be de-
rived .
aB x = aA x - lAB ( sin )- lAB ( cos )
2
and aB y = aA y + lAB ( cos ) - lAB ( si n )
2
These six formulae can be programmed in a subroutine . In t he TRUE BASIC computer
language , any subroutine must begin wit h statement SUB SUBROUTI NE- NAME ( T ABLE
OF PARAMETERS) and end wit h statement END SUB . Let us name t he subroutine LI NK .
Then t he LI NK subroutine is as follows:
SUB LINK ( / XA, YA, VAX, VAY , AAX, AAY, Q, W, E , LAB, XB, YB,
VBX, VBY, ABX, ABY)
LET XB = XA + LAB * COS( Q)
LET YB = YA + LAB * SI N( Q)
LET VBX = VAX - LAB * SI N( Q) * W
LET VBY = VAY + LAB * COS( Q) * W
2 3
LET ABX = AAX - LAB * SI N( Q) * E - LAB * COS( Q) * W^2
LET ABY = AAY + LAB * COS( Q) * E - LAB * SI N( Q) * W^2
END SUB
Every evaluating sta tement must begin wit h LET . In order to facilitate t he understanding
of t he progr am , parameters should have easily- recognized names . For example, vA x is named
VAX . The table of t he parameters corr esponds to x A , yA , vA x , vA y , aA x , aA y , , ,
, lAB , xB , yB , vB x , vB y , aB x , aB y . After t he subroutine is called, t he kinematic pa-
rameters of t he point B will be known .
3. 3. 2 The RRR Subroutine
In t he RRR group shown in Fig . 3-8 , t he kinematic parameters of t he two outer point s A
and C and t he lengt hs of t he t wo links AB and CB are known . The angular positions, angular
velocities, and angular accelera tions of t he links AB and CB can be calculated as follows .
When xA , yA , xC , yC , lAB and l CB are determined , t here are two assembly modes for
t his group , as shown in Fig . 3- 8, one i n solid lines and t he ot her in dashed lines .
Fig . 3-8
On t he link CB , xB = xC + l CB cos C B and yB =
yC + lCB sin C B
On t he link AB, xB = x A + lAB cos AB and yB =
yA + lAB sin AB
Combini ng t hese two set s of equa tions, one ob-
tains :
xC + lC B cos CB = x A + lAB cos AB
yC + l CB sin CB = yA + lAB sin
AB
(3-2)
There are two unknowns, AB and C B , in t his
set of equations . Since t here are t wo assembly modes for t his group , t here will be t wo set s of
solutions . Alt hough some ma thematical skill can be used to solve the above t rigonometric non-
linear equations to obtai n t wo set s of formulae for AB and C B , t he calculation process is t edious
and t he formulae derived would be very complicated . I t is hard to judge which set of formulae
corr esponds t o a specific assembly mode . The following is a si mple met hod to overcome t his
difficult y .
( a) lAC = ( xC - x A )
2
+ ( yC - yA )
2
(b ) cos AC = ( xC - xA ) / lAC and sin AC = ( yC - yA ) / lAC
The subroutine may be used for any combinations of t he positions of point s A and C . Note
t hat si n AC may not be equal to 1 - ( cos AC )
2
since sin AC may be negative . The magni-
tude of AC can be calculated according to t he values of bot h cos AC and sin AC by t he ANGLE
function in TRUE BASIC . Note again t hat may not be equal to ATN ( sin / cos ) since
may be greater t han
3 3
is only from - / 2 t o +/ 2 .Note :AC is 180different from CA .
( c) cos BAC = ( l
2
AB + l
2
AC - l
2
C B ) / ( 2 lAB lAC )
Since 180>BAC > 0, sin BAC = 1 - ( cos BAC )
2
. If lAC > lAB + l CB , t hen cos BAC >
1 . This means t ha t t he distance lAC between t he two out er point s is gr eat er t han t he sum of lAB
and lC B . If lAC < | lAB - l CB | , t hen cos BAC < - 1 and t he distance lAC is less t han t he differ-
ence bet ween lAB and l CB . In t hese cases , t he RRR dyad can not be assembled . The calcula-
tion of 1 - ( cos BAC )
2
will fail and computation will be stopped .
(d ) As mentioned before , t her e are two assembly modes for t he RRR group . For t he as-
sembly mode shown by solid li nes , AB = AC - BAC . During motion of t he mechanism, t he
assembly mode does not change as a r esult of change in position .
( e) xB = xA + lABcos AB and yB = yA + lAB sin AB
(f) cos CB = ( xB - xC ) / lC B and si n CB = ( yB - yC ) / lC B
The magnitude of C B can be calcula ted accordi ng to t he values of bot h cos C B and si n C B
by t he ANGLE function in TRUE BASIC .
Velocity analysis can be progr essed only after t he position analysis is finished . The angular
velocities, AB and C B , of t he li nks AB and CB can be found by differentiating Eqs . ( 3-2 )
wit h respect to time .
vC x - lC B ( sin CB ) CB = vA x - lAB (sin AB ) AB
vC y + l CB ( cos CB ) C B = vA y + lAB (cos AB ) AB
(3- 3)
Bot h velocit y and acceleration equations of a gr ade Assur group ar e dualistic linear equa-
tions . The explicit expressions for AB and C B can be found easily by solving t he two equations
simultaneously .
By differentiating Eqs . ( 3-3 ) wit h respect to ti me , anot her set of dualistic li near equations
wit h two unknowns, i. e . the angular accelerations AB and C B of t he links AB and CB , is
derived . The explicit expressions for AB and C B can be found easily by solving t he two equa-
tions si mult aneously .
Using t he above explicit expr essions, not t he equations , t he subrouti ne named RRR for
kinematic analysis of t he RRR group can be writt en as follows:
SUB RRR ( XA, YA, VAX, VAY, AAX, AAY, XC, YC, VCX, VCY, ACX,
ACY, LAB, LCB, QAB, WAB, EAB, QCB, WCB, ECB)
LET LAC = SQR( ( XC - XA)^2 + ( YC - YA)^2)
LET COSQAC = ( XC - XA)/ LAC
LET SI NQAC = ( YC - YA)/ LAC
LET QAC = ANGLE( COSQAC, SI NQAC)
LET COSQBAC = ( LAB^2 + LAC^2 - LCB^2)/ ( 2 * LAB * LAC)
LET SI NQBAC = SQR( 1 - COSQBAC^2)
LET QBAC = ANGLE( COSQBAC, SI NQBAC)
4 3
LET QAB = QAC - QBAC
LET XB = XA + LAB * COS( QAB)
LET YB = YA + LAB * SI N( QAB)
LET COSQCB = ( XB - XC)/ LCB
LET SI NQCB = ( YB - YC)/ LCB
LET QCB = ANGLE(COSQCB, SINQCB)
- -
LET WAB = - -
LET WCB = - -
- -
LET EAB = - -
LET ECB = - -
END SUB
Attention should be paid to t he sequence of t he revolut es let ters in t he table of t he parame-
ters when t he subroutine is called . For t his subroutine , t he t hree let ters A, B, and C are ar-
ranged in CCW .
3. 3. 3 The RPR Subroutine
Shown in Fig . 3-9a is an RPR Assur group . The revolutes A and C ar e outer r evolute
pairs . The eccent ric AB is perpendicular to guide-bar BD . The ki nematic par ameters of t he
centers, A and C, of t he two outer revolute pairs and t he lengt h of eccentric AB are known .
There ar e two assembly modes for t his group . One is shown in solid lines, t he ot her i n dashed
lines . The angular position, angular velocit y and angular acceler ation of t he guide-bar BD
(BD , , ) can be calculated as follows:
Fig . 3-9
lAC = ( xC - x A )
2
+ ( yC - yA )
2
cos AC = ( xC - x A ) / lA C ,
5 3
sin AC = ( yC - yA ) / lAC
l BC = l
2
AC - l
2
AB
If lAC < lAB , t hen t he group can not be assembled . In t his case , t he calculation of
l
2
A C - l
2
AB will fail and t he computation will be stopped .
ACB = arctan
lAB
l BC
BD =AC + MAC B
AB =BD - M/ 2
wher e M is t he coefficient of t he assembly mode . For t he solid mode , M = + 1 . For t he
das hed mode , M = - 1 . During motion of t he mechanism, t he assembly mode does not
change as a result of change in position . We can determine t he value of M according to t he as-
sembly mode at any angle of t he driver .
From Fig . 3-9 , we have
xC = xB + lB Ccos BD = x A + lAB cos AB + l BC cos BD
yC = yB + lB C sin BD = yA + lAB sin AB + lB C si n BD
Differentiating t he above equations wit h r espect to time r esult s in
- ( yC - yA ) + cos BD vl B C = vC x - vA x
( xC - xA ) + sin BD vl BC = vC y - vA y
(3- 4)
wher e vlB C is t he derivative of lB C wit h respect t o time .
Solving t he dualistic linear equations Eqs. ( 3-4 ) simultaneously, t he explicit expr essions
for t he t wo unknowns and vl B C can be found .
Differentiating Eqs . ( 3-4 ) wit h respect t o time ( note t hat vl B C is a variable) , anot her set
of dualistic linear equations wit h t wo unknowns ( one of t he unknowns is ) is derived . The
explicit expr ession for can be found easily by solving t he two equations simultaneously .
The subroutine for t he kinematic analysis of t he RP R group, which we will name RPR,
can be written as follows:
SUB RP R ` ( M , XA, YA, VAX, VAY, AAX, AAY, XC, YC, VCX, VCY , ACX,
ACY, LAB, QBD, W, E)
LET LAC = SQR ( ( XC - XA)
2 + ( YC - YA)
2 )
- -
LET QBD = QAC + M * QACB
- -
LET W = - -
- -
LET E = - -
END SUB
6 3
If lAB = 0 , t hen t he RPR group in Fig . 3-9 a is simplified int o anot her RPR group shown
in Fig . 3- 9b . For t he RPR group i n Fig . 3-9b, lAB = 0 and AC B = 0 . The value of M can be
set as any value .
Ki nematic analysis subroutines for ot her grade Assur groups , e. g . RRP , PRP groups
in Tab . 2-2, can also be derived and established in a si milar met hod .
3. 3. 4 Main Program
To analyze any mechanism , a main program is required . In t he main program , suitable
kinematic analysis subrouti nes are called accordi ng to t he t ypes and t he assembli ng sequences of
Assur groups .
Fig . 3-10
Example 3-4
The six-bar linkage shown in Fig . 3-10 is t he same as
t hat in Fig . 2- 40 . The driving crank 1 rotates at a constant
angular velocity 1 of 10 rad/ s . The known di mensions of
t he mechanism are : xE = 0, yE = 0, xB = 41 mm , yB = 0,
xF = 0 , yF = - 34 mm , l E D = 14 mm, lDA = 39 mm , lBA =
28 mm, ADC = 35, lDC = 15 mm, lF G = 55 mm . A mai n
progr am is required t o analyze t he output motions of link FG
and point G . The mechanism will be analyzed for t he whole
cycle when t he driver ED rotates from 0to 360wit h a st ep
size of 5.
Solution :
( a) Group dividing
The composition of t his mechanism has been analyzed in Sec . 2. 5. 3 . The t ypes and t he
assembly orders of Assur groups ar e listed in Table 2- 3 of Chapter 2 . I n t his linkage , link ED
is t he driver . Links 3 and 2 forms an RRR dyad . After t his dyad is connected to t he driver
and t he frame , t he motion of bot h links 3 and 2 ar e det ermined . Thus we can det ermine t he
motion of point C on t he link 3 . Rocker 4 and block 5 forms a RPR dyad . This dyad can be
assembled only af ter t he motion of t he point C is determined .
(b ) Main program
REM The main progr am for t he linkage mechanism in Fig . 3-10
FOR q Q1 = 0 TO 360 STEP 5
CALL LI NK ( 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 , Q1 * PI/ 180, 10, 0, 14, XD, YD, VDX,
VDY, ADX, ADY)
CALL RRR ( d XD, YD, VDX, VDY, ADX, ADY, 41, 0 , 0, 0, 0 , 0, 39,
28, Q3, W3 , E3, Q2 , W2, E2 )
7 3
LET QDC = Q3 + 35 * PI/ 180
CALL LINK ( XD YD, VDX, VDY, ADX, ADY, QDC, W3, E3, 15, XC,
YC, VCX, VCY, ACX, ACY)
CALL RPR ( _ 0, 0, - 34 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , XC, YC, VCX, VCY , ACX, ACY ,
0, Q4, W4, E4)
CALL LINK ( 0, - 34, 0, 0, 0, 0, Q4, W4, E4, 55, XG , YG, VGX,
VGY , AGX, AGY)
PRI NT @ Q1 , Q4 * 180/ PI , W4, E4 , XG, YG , VGX, VGY, AGX , AGY
NEXT Q1
END
The subroutine for t he first Assur group RRR should be called before t hat for t he second
Assur group RPR is called . In t he first Assur group RRR, t he point D should be a determined
point . So we use the first CALL LI NK statement to calculate t he kinematic parameters of t he
point D before RRR is called . The parameter PI i n t he first CALL line is set to by TRUE
BASIC aut omatically . Emphasis should be put on t he assembly mode , t he sequence and t he
corr espondence of parameters in t he table of parameters when calling a subroutine . Correspond-
ing data are t ransferred according to t he sequence , not according to t he name .
As mentioned before , an RRR group has two assembly modes, as shown in Fig . 3- 8 .
The RRR subroutine is writ ten for t he assembly mode shown in solid li nes . In order to use t he
RRR subroutine , t he revolutes D, A and B of t he RRR dyad in Fig . 3- 10 must corr espond to
t he revolutes A , B and C of t he RRR dyad in Fig . 3-8, respectively .
In t he second Assur group RPR, t he revolute cent re C should be a determined point . So
t he second CALL LI NK sta tement must be used to calculate t he kinematic parameters of t he
point C after RRR is called and before RPR is called .
The main progr am ends wit h t he statement END after which all subroutines ar e list ed in
any order . Putting t he related subroutines (LI NK, RRR, RPR) after t he END statement of
t he main program and runni ng it on a computer , produces t he following output values when
1 = 65:
Q1 Q4 W4 ` E4 XG YG VGX VGY AGX AGY
65 64 i . 2 3 . 165 - 2 . 475 23 _ . 9 15 . 5 - 156 . 7 75 . . 76 - 117 , . 3 - 555 . 4
3. 3. 5 Check on the Output Data
Faced wit h a vast amount of digit s print ed on t he scr een, it is hard t o judge whet her or not
t he output result s ar e correct . The out put values from t he analytical met hods can be checked as
follows . For some non-special position of t he mechanism , t ry t o draw t he kinematic diagram of
t he linkage mechanism by AutoCAD or t ry to dr aw it on paper as exactly as possible . Measure
t he x and y coordinates of t he out put points and/ or t he angular position of t he out put link .
8 3
Then t he measur ed da ta are compared wit h t he output position dat a obtained by t he analytical
met hod . Minor differences between t he measured values and t he analyzed values ar e acceptable
and can be considered as drawing errors and measuring errors . If t he out put position at t he
non-special position of t he mechanism is correct and t he out put position data change smoot hly
duri ng t he whole cycle , t hen t he position analysis can be considered to be correct .
Af ter t he output position data are checked , t he output velocity data obt ained in t he analyt-
ical met hods can be checked by the instant centers met hod or by ot her met hods .
A simpler way to check out put velocit y is to examine t he qualitative natur e of t he data .
For example, if t he displacement is increasing , the corresponding velocit y must be positive ;
ot her wise, nega tive . When t he displacement reaches it s limit , t he corr esponding velocit y
must be zero .
Similarly, if the velocit y is increasing, t he corresponding acceler ation must be positive ;
ot her wise , negative . When t he velocit y reaches it s limit , t he corresponding acceler ation must
be zero .
3-1 What is instant centr e ? What is absolut e instant centr e ? What is r elative inst ant cent re ?
What is t he t heorem of t hree cent res ?
3-2 Locate all instant cent res of all linkages in Fig . 3-11 for t he position shown .
Fig . 3-11
9 3
3-3 Locate all instant centres of mechanisms for t he position shown in Fig . 4-5, Fig . 4- 7,
Fig . 4-9 , Fig . 4-11 , Fig . 5- 34, Fig . 5- 36, and Fig . 5-37 .
3-4 Why do we always t ake advantage of t he frame when t he met hod of instant cent res is used
t o find t he ratio between t he angular velocities of t wo moving links ?
3-5 For the position shown of a geared linkage in Fig . 2-23 , det ermine t he ratio 3/ 1 of t he
angular velocity of gear 3 to t hat of gear 1 , using the met hod of instant cent res .
Fig . 3-12
3-6 I n Fig . 3-12, gear 4 rolls on fixed r ack 5 wit hout
slippi ng . Determine ratio 4/ 1 for t he position shown ,
using t he met hod of instant cent res .
3-7 For a pivot four-bar linkage si milar to t he one in Fig .
4-23b, lAB = 65 mm , lAD = lB C = 125 mm , lDC = 90 mm ,
BAD = 165and AB = - 10 rad/ s . Using t he met hod of
instant centr es,
( a) find t he velocit y of poi nt C .
(b ) locat e the poi nt E on t he line BC (or it s extension ) which has t he minimum velocit y
of all point s on t he li ne BC and it s extension , and t hen calculate it s velocity .
( c) locate t wo positions of t he crank AB corresponding t o vC = 0 .
3-8 Recount t he advantages and t he disadvantages of t he met hod of instant centr es . Can t he
met hod of instant cent res be used in acceler ation analysis ?
3-9 Compare t he advantages and t he disadvantages bet ween t he graphical met hod and the ana-
lytical met hod for kinematic analysis .
3-10 Wha t is t he kinematic determi nation of any Assur group ? What are t he advantages of t he
Assur group met hod in t he kinema tic analysis of linkage by computer ?
3-11 Can t he assembly mode of a grade Assur group change duri ng motion ?
3-12 Complete t he RRR subroutine in Sec . 3. 3. 2 and store it in a file named RRR .
3-13 Complete t he RPR subrouti ne in Sec . 3. 3. 3 and st ore it in a file named RPR .
Fig . 3-13
3-14 Shown in Fig . 3-13 is a simplified RRP
dyad composed of links 1 and 2 . The guide way
for the slider 2 is fixed and horizontal . The revo-
lute A is t he outer revolute . There are two as-
sembly modes for t his dyad . For t he assembly
mode shown in solid lines, let M = + 1 . For
t hat in dashed lines , let M = - 1 . Suppose that
t he coefficient M , t he y coordinate yB of t he
revolute B , t he lengt h lAB of t he link AB, and t he kinematic par ameters ( xA , yA , vA x ,
vA y , aA x , aA y ) of t he outer point A ar e known . Derive explicit expr essions to calcula te t he
angular position AB , angular velocit y AB , angular acceleration AB of the link AB . Write a
subroutine for t his si mplified RRP dyad and store it in a file named RRP . The first line of t he
0 4
subroutine is:
SUB RRP ( M , YB, LAB, XA, YA, VAX, VAY , AAX , AAY , QAB, WAB,
EAB)
For exercises from 3- 15 t o 3-24, a main program is required for each mechanism to analyse t he
output motion when the driving crank rotates 360 wit h a step size of 5. Combine the main
progr am wit h the related subroutines and t hen run it on a computer .
3-15 Suppose t ha t in t he four-bar linkage AB3 C3 D shown in Fig . 4- 34, t he link DC3 is a
driver which runs a t a constant speed of 10 rad/ s . The dimensions of t he linkage ar e : xA = 0,
yA = 0, xD = 200 mm , yD = 0, lAB = 300 mm , lB C = 365 mm , lDC = 360 mm . Analyse t he
output motion of t he driven link AB3 .
3-16 Shown in Fig . 4- 42 is a six- bar dwell li nkage . The dashed curve is produced by a cou-
pler poi nt E on a crank- rocker mechanism ABCD . The E1 E2 E3 portion of t he curve approxi-
mates to a circular arc . The lengt h of link EF is equal to t he radius of t he arc . Thus , t he out-
put link GF will dwell while t he coupler point E moves along t he circular arc E1 E2 E3 . The
mechanism has the following dimensions : xA = 0, yA = 0, xD = 300 mm , yD = - 200 mm ,
xG = 60 mm , yG = - 20 mm , lAB = 100 mm , lB C = 400 mm , lDC = 300 mm, l BE = 200 mm ,
lE F = 150 mm , lG F = 120 mm . Show t hat , at t he position AB = 74. 824, t he angular velocit y
G F of t he output link GF is always zero for any angular velocit y of t he crank AB .
3-17 In t he oscillating guide-bar mechanism as shown in Fig . 4-9 , xB = 0, yB = 100 mm ,
xA = 0 , yA = 0, lB C = 50 mm , lA E = 200 mm . The driving crank BC rotat es anti-clockwise at
a constant speed of 10 rad/ s . Analyse the out put motions of link AE and point E .
3-18 In t he crank and oscillating block mechanism as shown in Fig . 3-14, xC = 0, yC = 0,
xA = 100 mm , yA = 0, lAB = 30 mm, lBD = 50 mm , lD E = 40 mm , and BDE = 90. The
cr ank AB rotates at a constant speed of 10 rad/ s . Analyse t he output motion of point E .
3-19 The mechanism shown in Fig . 3-15 has t he following di mensions: xA = 0 , yA = 0,
xD = 200 mm , yD = 0, lAB = 80 mm , lCD = 60 mm , and lBE = 380 mm . The cr ank AB ro-
tates a t a constant speed of 10 rad/ s . Analyse t he output motion of point E .
Fig . 3-14 Fig . 3-15
3-20 In t he offset slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig . 4-5, xA = 0, yA = 0 , lAB = 100
mm , lB C = 300 mm, e = 70 mm . The crank AB rotates at a constant speed of 10 rad/ s . Anal-
1 4
yse t he out put motion of point C .
3-21 In t he six- bar mechanism shown in Fig . 3-16 , xA = 0, yA = 0 , xD = 450 mm , yD = 0,
lAB = 150 mm , lB C = 400 mm , lDC = 350 mm , CDE = 30, lD E = 150 mm, l EF = 400 mm .
The crank AB rotates at a constant speed of 10 rad/ s . Analyse t he output motion of point F .
3-22 In t he six-bar mechanism shown in Fig . 3- 17, xA = 0 , yA = 0, lAB = 28 mm, lB C = 66
mm , DBC = 60, lBD = 33 mm , xE = 94 mm , yE = 15 mm , lE F = 120 mm, The crank AB
rotates at a const ant speed of 10 rad/ s . Analyse t he output motion of t he point F .
Fig . 3-16 Fig . 3-17
3-23 The mechanism shown i n Fig . 4-8 has t he following dimensions : x A = 0, yA = 0,
xB = 0 , yB = 50 mm , lBC = 100 mm, lAD = 50 mm , lD E = 150 mm . The crank BC rotates at a
constant speed of 10 rad/ s . Analyse t he out put motion of point F .
3-24 The crank-shaper mechanism shown i n Fig . 4-10 has t he following dimensions: x A =
0, yA = 100 mm, xC = 0, yC = 0, yF = yG = 186. 6 mm , lAB = 50 mm , l CD = 200 mm , lD E =
100 mm . The driving crank AB rota tes clockwise at a constant speed of - 10 rad/ s . Analyse
t he out put motion of t he point E .
2 4
C h ap t e r 4
P l a n a r L i n k ag e Me c h a n i s ms
4. 1 Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f P l a n a r L i nk a g e M e c h a ni sms
Linkage mechanisms are lower-pair mechanisms, i n which all kinematic pairs are lower
pairs , i. e. revolutes or prismatic pairs . The main practical advantage of lower pairs over higher
pairs is t heir bet ter ability t o trap lubricant between envelopi ng surfaces . The load spreads on
t he whole surface of t he lower pair . Ther efor e, the cont act pr essur e between two links is low-
er . As a r esult , t he linkage is preferred for low wear and heavy load sit uations . The kinematic
pair element s are cylindrical or planar which are easy to manufact ure . The disadvantage of link-
age mechanisms is t hat it is difficult to perform precision motion as will be explained lat er .
A planar f our-bar mechanism is t he simplest planar linkage mechanism wit h one degree of
freedom . There are four li nks and four lower pairs in a four-bar mechanism, as shown in Fig .
4-1 and Fig . 4-2 . Four-bar mechanisms are ext remely versatile and useful devices . Many quite
complex motion cont rol problems can be solved wit h four-bar mechanisms . For t he sake of sim-
plicit y, designers should always first t ry to solve t heir problems wit h t his device . I n t his
Fig . 4-1
Fig . 4-2
3 4
chapter , we put emphasis on planar four- bar mechanisms .
4. 2 T h e T y p e s o f F o ur- b a r L i nk a g e s
4. 2. 1 The Basic Form of Four-bar Mechanism
If all lower pairs in a four- bar mechanism are revolute pairs , as shown in Fig . 4-1, t he
Fig . 4-3
mechanism is called a revol ute four-bar mechanism , which is t he basic form of
t he four- bar mechanism . In a r evolute four-bar mechanism , t he links connect ed
to t he frame are called side li nks . Usually , one of t he side links is an input
link , and t he ot her side link is an output link . The floating link couples t he in-
put t o t he out put . The floating link is t her efore called t he coupler . If a side
link can rotate conti nuously t hrough 360 relative to t he frame , it is called a
crank; ot her wise , a rocker . According to t he types of t he two side links , t he
types of t he r evolute four- bar mechanisms can be divided int o:
( a) Cr ank- rocker mechanism: In Fig . 4-1a , one side link AB can rotate
continuously th rough 360relative t o t he frame while t he ot her side link DC just
rocks . Therefore , AB is a crank while DC is a rocker . This mechanism is
called a crank-rocker mechanism . The input link may be the cr ank or t he rock-
er . In t he foot-operat ed sewing machine shown i n Fig . 4- 3, t he oscillation of the driving rock-
er DC is t ransformed into t he continuous rotation of t he driven crank AB .
Fig . 4-4
( b ) Double- cr ank mechanism: In Fig . 4-1b, bot h t he
side links AD and BC can make complete revolutions relative
t o t he frame AB . Thus , bot h A D and BC are cranks . This
mechanism is called a double- crank mechanism or a drag l ink
mechanism . If one crank rota tes at a constant speed , t he
ot her crank will rotate in t he same direction a t a varying
speed .
(c ) Double- rocker mechanism: I n Fig . 4-1c , bot h t he
side links DA and CB can only rock t hrough a limited angle
relative t o t he fr ame . Therefore , bot h DA and CB are rock-
ers . This mechanism is called a double- rocker mechanism . The cr ane shown in Fig . 4- 4 is a
famous use of t he double- rocker mechanism . In order to avoid raising or lowering t he load
while movi ng it , t he cent re E of t he wheel on t he coupler should t race a horizontal line .
4. 2. 2 Variation of Revolute Four- bar Mechanisms
The four-bar mechanism has some simple and useful variations . In t he followi ng we dis-
cuss four such variations .
4 4
(1 ) Replacing a r evolute pair wit h a sliding pair
If t he r evolute pair D in a cr ank- rocker mechanism ( Fig . 4-1a ) is replaced by a sliding
pair , t he revolut e four-bar mechanism t urns into a sli der- crank mechanism ( Fig . 4-2a ) . The
slider 3 t ranslates back and fort h while t he crank AB rota tes continuously . If t he extended
pat h of t he cent re of r evolute C goes t hrough t he centr e A of the crankshaft , t he mechanism is
t hen called an in- li ne sl ider-cr ank mechanism ( Fig . 4-2a) , ot her wise , an eccent ric ( or of f-
set ) sli der-cr ank mechanism ( Fig . 4-5) . The distance from t he crankshaf t A to t he pat h of
t he cent re of t he revolute C is called t he of f set , denot ed as e . Note : The two mechanisms in
Fig . 4- 5 are equivalent to each ot her . If t he crank is a driver , t he mechanism can be used as a
compressor . If t he slider is an input , t he mechanism can be found in most internal combustion
engi nes .
In Fig . 4- 6, t her e are two sliding pairs . The output displacement x of t he t ranslating
guide-bar 3 is t he si ne function of t he input angle of t he crank AB, i. e. x = rsin . Thus ,
t his crank and tr ansla ting guide- bar mechanism is often used as a si nusoi d gener ator .
In Fig . 4-7, t he output displacement y of t he slider 3 is t he tangent function of t he input
angle of t he oscillating guide-bar AC, i. e. y = ltan . Thus , t his oscillating guide-bar
mechanism can be used as a t angent generator .
Fig . 4-5 Fig . 4-6 Fig . 4-7
g different links as t he fr ame
If two links connect ed by a r evolute can rotate 360relative to each ot her , t he revolute is
called a f ully rotati ng revol ute; ot her wise , a partially rotati ng revol ute . The revolutes A
and B in Fig . 4-1a and Fig . 4-2a are fully rotating revolutes , while t he revolutes C and D in
Fig . 4-1a and t he revolute C in Fig . 4-2a are par tially rot ating revolutes . For t he same ki ne-
matic chain , different ki nds of li nkage mechanisms will be generated by holding differ ent links
fixed as t he frame . Such kinds of variations are called in versions . Thus t here ar e as many in-
versions of a given linkage mechanism as t here are links . Holding a link fixed as t he fr ame is
similar to fixing a viewer to t he link and observing t he ot her links . Thus , it is of impor tance to
note t ha t in version of a mechanism i n no way changes t he type of revol ute and the rel ati ve mo-
5 4
t ion bet ween its li nks . This propert y will be applied oft en in t his book .
Lets consider inversions of t he cr ank- rocker mechanism ABCD in Fig . 4-1a by holding
ot her links fixed as t he frame . If t he link AB is held as t he frame as shown in Fig . 4- 1b , t hen
t he links BC and AD become side links . Since revolutes A and B ar e fully rota ting revolutes ,
bot h side links BC and AD can rotate 360r elative to t he frame AB . Thus bot h side links are
cr anks , and t he mechanism becomes a double- crank mechanism . If t he link CD is held as t he
frame , t he mechanism becomes a double- rocker mechanism , as shown in Fig . 4-1c . If t he
link BC is held as t he frame as shown i n Fig . 4-1d, t hen t he mechanism becomes anot her
cr ank- rocker mechanism .
Fig . 4-2 shows t he four inversions of t he slider-cr ank kinematic chain . Fig . 4-2a is t he
basic slider- crank mechanism . If t he link AB is held as t he frame ( Fig . 4-2b ) , t hen bot h side
links BC and AE can rotate 360relative to t he frame AB because bot h fixed pivot s A and B
are fully rotating r evolutes . When t he cr ank BC rotates at a constant speed, t he rotating
guide-bar AE will rotate i n t he same direction at a varying speed . This mechanism is called a
rot at ing guide-bar mechanism . The small planer s hown in Fig . 4- 8 is one of it s applica tions .
If t he crank BC is shor ter t han t he frame BA ( Fig . 4-9) , t he guide- bar AE can only oscillate .
The linkage mechanism in Fig . 4- 9 is called an oscill ati ng gui de-bar mechanism . The quick-
ret urn mechanism in a shaper shown in Fig . 4-10 is one of it s applications .
Fig . 4-8 Fig . 4-9
Fig . 4-2c is obtained by holding t he link BC as t he frame . Since t he revolute C is a par-
tially rotating revolute, t he slider 3 in Fig . 4- 2a becomes an oscillating block 3 in Fig . 4-2c .
The mechanism in Fig . 4- 2c is called a crank and oscillati ng block mechanism . The hydraulic
cylinder shown in Fig . 4-11 is one of it s applications . The hydraulic cylinder is used widely in
practice . The self- tippi ng vehicle shown in Fig . 4-12 is an example .
The last inversion ( Fig . 4-2d) is obtained by holdi ng t he guide- block 3 as t he fr ame . I t
is called a t ranslati ng sli di ng- rod mechanism and used in hand-opera ted well pump mecha-
nisms ( Fig . 4-13 ) , in which t he handle is t he link AB ( extended ) .
6 4
Fig . 4-10 Fig . 4-11 Fig . 4-12
When t he link 3, which contains two sliding pairs, in Fig . 4- 6 is fixed , t he linkage
mechanism becomes an elli ptic t ra mmel as shown in Fig . 4-14 . This name comes from t he
fact t hat any poi nt on li nk AB tr aces out an ellipse . If t he link 1 in Fig . 4-14 is fixed as t he
frame, one obtains a mechanism known as t he Oldham coupli ng or double rot at ing block
mechanism, as shown in Fig . 4-15 . This mechanism is used to connect t wo rotating shaft s
wit h parallel but non-collinear axes .
Fig . 4-13 Fig . 4-14
Fig . 4-15
7 4
Fig . 4-16
ging a r evolute pair
In a slider- cr ank mechanism ( Fig . 4-2a ) , t he lengt h lAB of
t he crank AB is determi ned accordi ng t o t he kinematic r equir e-
ment s, while t he r adii of t he revolutes are determined by the
t ransmitted power . When t he power t ransmitted by t he li nkage
mechanism is quite large , t he radii of revolutes s hould be in-
cr eased . The appearance of t he cr ank AB can be affected if t he ra-
dius of the revolute B on t he cr ank is larger t han t he lengt h lAB of t he crank as shown in Fig .
4-16 . This enlarged crank pin is called an eccent ric and can be used to replace the cr ank i n t he
original mechanism . Note : Enlargi ng a revolut e pair in no way changes t he motion r elationship
bet ween any links .
(4 ) Interchanging guide- bar and sliding block .
There may be many different kinematic diagr ams for a sliding pair . Any link in a sliding
pair can be drawn as a guide-bar , and t he ot her link as a sliding block . Furt hermor e , t he cen-
tr e line of any sliding pair can be t ranslated wit hout changing any relative motion . Therefore ,
all t he kinematic diagrams in Fig . 4- 17 are equivalent to each ot her kinematically .
a ) b ) c) d ) e )
Fig . 4-17
4. 3 Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s An a l y s i s o f F o ur- b a r L i nk a g e s
4. 3. 1 Grashof Criterion (Conditions for Having a Crank )
In a r evolute four-bar mechanism, t he input motion is usually obtai ned t hrough a side link
driven by an electric motor directly or indirectly t hrough belt mechanism or gears . Therefore a
designer must ensure t hat one side link is a crank , which can be used as t he drivi ng link . This
can be checked by t he Grashof crit erion as follows .
Suppose we wish t o design a crank- rocker mechanism ABCD as shown in Fig .4-18 , in
which the side link AB is an input crank, while t he side link DC is a follower rocker .The
8 4
lengt hs of the four links ar e a, b, c and d , as shown .According to t he theory of t he composition
principle of mechanism discussed in Sec .2. 5 , t his revolute four- bar mechanism is built up by as-
sembling a RRR Assur group ( links BC and DC) on t he basic mechanism ( t he frame and t he
driver AB) .The distance bet ween t he point s B and D on t he basic mechanism is denoted as
f ( = lBD ) .If t he RRR Assur group can be assembled onto t he basic mechanism by t he t wo outer
revolutes B and D, t he lengt hs of t he t hree sides in BCD must obey t he t riangle inequality ,
t hat is, t he lengt h of one side of a t riangle must be less t han t he sum of t he lengt hs of t he ot her
t wo sides .Applyi ng t he triangle inequalit y to BCD in Fig .4- 18, we obtain t he following rela-
tionships:
b + c > f
c + f > b
b + f > c
These can be r ewritten as
b + c > f
b - c < f
c - b < f
(4- 1)
The distance f is a variable value during the motion of t he mechanism . The inequalities
(4-1 ) should be satisfied for any value of f if t he RRR Assur group can always be assembled
onto t he basic mechanism for any position of t he driving crank AB . Obviously , fm a x = a + d
and fm i n = d - a when t he crank AB and t he frame AD are collinear as shown in Fig . 4-18 .
Therefore , t he following inequalities should be satisfied if t he inequalities ( 4-1 ) are t o be satis-
fied for any value of f .
Fig . 4-18
b + c > f ma x = a + d
b - c < f mi n = d - a
c - b < f mi n = d - a
9 4
which can be rewrit ten as
a + d < b + c
a + b < c + d
a + c < b + d
(4- 2)
Adding pairs of t hese i nequalities leads t o t he result
a < c
a < b
a < d
(4- 3)
Thus from t he inequalities ( 4-3 ) , we can see t hat t he crank in a crank- rocker mechanism
must be t he shortest link . Again , from t he inequalities ( 4- 2) , we can conclude t hat the sum
of t he shor test li nk a and any ot her link is less t han t he sum of t he r emaining t wo links . In
ot her words , t he sum of t he s hort est and t he longest li nks must be less t han t he sum of t he re-
maining t wo links . This is called Grashof criterion . Suppose t hat lma x is t he lengt h of t he
longest link, lmi n is t he lengt h of t he shor test link , and lb and lc are t he lengt hs of intermediate
links . The Grashof criterion can be expressed as: lm a x + lmi n < lb + l c . A linkage mechanism
which satisfies t he Grashof criterion is sometimes called a Grashof l inkage mechanism .
Now we consider inversions of t he cr ank- rocker mechanism by holding ot her links fi xed as
t he fr ame . The lengt hs of all links ar e not changed so t hat all inequalities mentioned above are
satisfied i n each case . As mentioned in Sec. 4. 2. 2 AB is t he frame
( Fig . 4- 1b ) , a double-crank mechanism results . If t he link CD opposite to t he shor test link
AB is t he fr ame ( Fig . 4-1c) , a double- rocker mechanism result s . If t he link AD or BC adja-
cent to t he shortest link AB is t he frame ( Fig . 4-1a or d ) , then a cr ank- rocker mechanism re-
sult s .
Fig . 4-19 Fig . 4-20
If lma x + lm i n > lb + lc , t he linkage mechanism is a non- Gr ashof linkage mechanism , as
shown in Fig . 4-19 , in which no link can rotate t hrough 360relative to any ot her link and all
inversions are double- rocker mechanisms . However , in a Gr ashof double- rocker mechanism
( Fig . 4-1c) , t he coupler can rota te 360wit h respect to ot her links . A well- known example of
0 5
t he Gr ashof double- rocker mechanism is t he swi ng mechanism of a swing fan ( Fig . 4-20 ) . In
Fig . 4- 20, t he worm is fixed to t he fan vane , while t he worm gear is fixed to t he coupler AB .
When t he fan vanes rot ate , t he worm drives t he worm gear so t hat it rotates continuously wit h
t he coupler AB r elative t o t he link AD about t he centr e of revolute A . Thus, t he link DC will
rock relative t o t he link AD . In t his way , t he fan case fixed t o t he side link AD will oscillate
relative t o t he frame DC about D .
If lma x + lmi n = lb + lc , t he cent re lines of t he four li nks can become colli near . At these po-
sitions, t he out put behavior may become indeterminat e . These positions ar e called change-
poi nts . Such linkage mechanisms are called change-poi nt mechanisms . For example , t he
driving link AB and t he driven link DC in Fig . 4-21 are of equal lengt h , and t he coupler BC is
equal in lengt h to the fr ame AD . At t he change-point AB1 C1 D, t he rotation direction of t he
driven link DC becomes indeter minat e . When t he driving crank AB rotates from AB1 t o AB2 ,
t he driven link DC may continue rot ating in t he original direction t hrough t he change-point
from DC1 to DC2 , or rota te in t he reversed direction from DC1 to DC2 . The configura tion
AB2 C2 D is called a parallel-cr ank mechanism while t he configuration AB2 C2 D is called an
ant iparal lel-cr ank mechanism . The change-points can be handled by inertia of flywheel fixed
wit h t he driven crank or providing t he duplicate linkage 90out of phase, as shown in Fig .
4-22 . As a consequence, each linkage carries t he ot her t hrough it s change-point s so t hat t he
output remains determinate at all positions . Table 4- 1 summarizes t he type criteria for t he revo-
lute four-bar mechanis ms .
Fig . 4-21 Fig . 4-22
Table 4-1 Type criteria for the revolute four-bar mechanisms
Link as t he frame lm ax + lmin < lb + lc lmax + lmi n > lb + lc lm ax + lmin = lb + lc
Grashof Non- Gr ashof Change-poi nt
The shor test link Double- crank
Opposite t o shortest link Double- rocker
Adjacent t o shortest link Crank- rocker
Double-rocker
From t he above , we know t hat t he Gr ashof criterion lma x + lmi n < lb + lc is only a necessary
1 5
condition, not sufficient condition for having a crank . To det ermine the t ype of a r evolute
four-bar mechanism , we must check not only whet her t he necessary condition is satisfied but
also which li nk is the fr ame .
In an offset slider-cr ank mechanism shown in Fig . 4-5 and Fig . 4- 26, t he sum of t he
lengt h a of t he crank AB and t he offset e must be less than t he length b of t he coupler BC, if
t he crank AB is to rotate 360relative t o t he frame .
4. 3. 2 Pressure Angle and Transmission Angle
In a crank- rocker mechanis m ABCD as shown in Fig . 4-23 , t he crank AB is an input link
and the rocker DC is an out put li nk . The force F applied to t he out put link DC is tr ansmitt ed
t hrough t he coupler link BC . If t he friction for ce and gr avit y force are neglected , t hen t he di-
rection of t he force F in t he coupler is along t he line of its pi n joint s . The point receiving t he
force on t he follower link DC is t he point C . The acut e angle bet ween t he directions of t he
force F and t he velocity of t he point receiving t he force on the follower is defi ned as t he pres-
sure angle of t he mechanism at t hat position . The complement of t he pressure angle is
called t ransmission angle . If BCD < 90, t hen = BCD, as shown in Fig . 4-23a . If
BCD > 90, t hen = 180- BCD, as shown in Fig . 4-23b .
Fig . 4-23
The force F applied t o t he follower has t wo component s: the radial component Fr and t he
t angential component Ft , as shown in Fig . 4-23a . Only t he tangential component Ft can cre-
at e t he out put torque on t he driven link DC . The radial component Fr increases pivot friction
and does not cont ribute to t he output torque . Fr = Fsin = Fcos and Ft = Fcos = Fsin .
For t his reason , it is desir able t hat is not too grea t or is not t oo small . and change
duri ng motion . For smoot h operation of any mechanism without jerky movement s, t he maxi-
mum value of s hould be less t han t he allowable pressur e angle [ = 40
value of should be larger t han t he allowable tr ansmission angle [ = 50. Thus we s hould
find t he ext reme values of and .
BCD reaches it s ext reme when t he driving cr ank and t he frame link are collinear , as
2 5
shown i n Fig . 4- 24a and b . m i n ( and ma x ) will occur in eit her of t he two positions . The ex-
tr eme values of are illustra ted in Fig . 4-24a and b by m i n and m i n , r espectively , I t is com-
mon practice t o calculate bot h values and t hen pick t he worst case m i n = min {mi n
mi n } .
Fig . 4-24
The and must be drawn on t he driven
link . For t he same kinematic chain, t he posi-
tions and t he values of and will change , if
a differ ent li nk is chosen as t he driver . For ex-
ample, if t he rocker DC is a driver ( Fig .
4-25) , t he and of t he mechanism at t hat
position are different from t hose in Fig . 4-23a .
In a slider- crank mechanism , if t he cr ank
is an input li nk and t he slider is an output , as shown in Fig . 4-26, t hen t he acute angle be-
tween t he coupler BC and t he slider pat h is t he pr essur e angle at t hat position . = 90- .
The ext reme values of and , m a x and m i n , occur when t he crank AB is perpendicular to
t he slider pat h , i. e. , ma x = 90- mi n = arcsin
a + e
b
.
Fig . 4-25 Fig . 4-26
4. 3. 3 Toggle Positions and Dead-points
In a crank- rocker mechanism ( Fig . 4-27 ) , t he rocker DC r eaches its two li miting posi-
tions DC1 and DC2 , when t he cr ank AB and t he coupler BC become overlappi ng collinear
( AB1 C1 D) and extended collinear ( AB2 C2 D) . Note : compari ng Fig . 4- 27 wit h Fig . 4-24,
we can see t hat t he limiting position of t he rocker DC is different from that where m i n occurs .
Fig . 4-28 shows t he two limiting positions C1 and C2 of t he slider in an offset slider-crank
mechanism . In Fig . 4- 27, if t he link AB is a driver , t hen near t he limiting positions of t he
rocker DC, a small t orque applied t o t he link AB can gener ate a huge t orque on t he follower
rocker DC . In t his sense , t he li miting positions are called toggle positions . If t he rocker DC
is a driver , t hen at it s limiting positions , t he for ce applied t o t he follower AB passes t hrough
t he fixed pivot A of t he follower . In t hese sit uations, t he mechanism cannot move by applying
3 5
a t orque on the driving rocker DC . In t his sense , t he limiting positions are called dead poi nts .
Fig . 4-27 Fig . 4-28
By definition, a crank can rotate continuously relative to t he frame . Ther efore , in any
four- bar mechanism ( except t he change-point mechanisms ) , t he dead point will not occur if
t he cr ank is a driver . Change- points ( position AB1 C1 D in Fig . 4-21 ) of a change-point
mechanism are also dead poi nt s . Since a rocker or a slider can only move back and for t h be-
tween it s t wo limiting positions , t he dead point s will occur if t he rocker or t he slider is a driv-
er . The dead point s occur when t he driver reaches eit her of it s two limiting positions . There-
fore , if a rocker or a slider is t he driver , a flywheel on t he driven cr ank will be required to car-
ry t he mechanism th rough t he dead point , as shown in Fig . 4-3 . In Fig . 4- 22, the dead
point s are overcome by providing t he duplicate li nkage 90out of phase .
Fig . 4-29
In some circumstances, t he dead point is very use-
ful . It can provide a self-locking feat ure . An example
of t he applica tion of a dead point is t he clamping device
on machine tools , as shown in Fig . 4- 29 . Near t he
toggle position, a small force FP applied on t he coupler
BC will produce a very large torque on t he rocker DC
and consequently t he workpiece is clamped firmly .
Then t he linkage is moved slightly beyond t he toggle position and against a fixed stop . The
Fig . 4-30
mechanism is at t he dead point under t he force from t he clamped work-
piece . Any at tempt of removing workpiece t hen causes t he clamp to jam
harder against t he stop .
Shown in Fig . 4-30 is a landing mechanism i n airplane . When t he
wheel is at it s lowest position , links BC and CD are collinear . If t he st rut
AB suppor ting t he wheel would rotate counter- clockwise under t he weight
of t he airplane, the force t ransmitted to t he link CD t hrough t he link BC
passes t hrough t he pivot D . Therefore t he mechanism is at a dead point .
A small t orque on t he link CD is enough to prevent t he li nk DC from ro-
tating . This landing mechanism can give t he airplane high landing reliabil-
ity .
4 5
4. 3. 4 Quick Return Characteristics
When designing machine tools such as s hapers or power- driven saws, it is desirable t o give
t he working stroke of t he follower a slower speed because of t he higher resistance , and t o give
t he r eturn stroke a faster speed in order t o r educe idletime . Such a mechanism is called a quick-
ret ur n mechanism .
In t he crank- rocker mechanism shown in Fig . 4-27, C1 DC2 is called t he angular st roke
of t he rocker , denoted as m a x . C1 AC2 is called t he crank acute angle bet ween the t wo li m-
it ing positions, denoted as . If t he input cr ank AB rot ates counter- clockwise , t he rocker
will rock from its right limiting position DC2 to it s left limiting position DC1 , when t he crank
t urns t hrough t he angle ( 180+ ) from AB2 to AB1 . Then t he rocker will rock back from
DC1 t o DC2 when t he crank t urns th rough t he angle ( 180- ) from AB1 to AB2 . If t he input
cr ank AB rotates counter-clockwise at const ant speed, t he average angular velocities of t he
rocker DC in t he t wo strokes of t he follower are different . The ratio of t he faster aver age angu-
lar velocit y f t o t he slower one s is called t he coef f icient of t r avel speed variation , denot ed
as K . So,
K =
f
s
=
ma x/ tf
m a x/ ts
=
ts
tf
=
180+
180-
wher e tf and ts are t he time durations for t he faster stroke and t he slower stroke , r espectively .
From t he above , we can see t hat K is also t he time ratio of t he slower stroke to t he faster
st roke .
If t he li nkage mechanism in Fig . 4-27 is used as a quick- ret urn mechanism , t he counter-
clockwise st roke of the follower rocker should be t he wor king st roke, and t he clockwise st roke
should be t he ret urn stroke . If t he clockwise stroke of t he follower rocker is needed to be a
wor king st roke , t hen t he rotation direction of t he cr ank s hould be r eversed .
A cr ank- rocker mechanism wit h special dimensions may not have quick ret urn char acteris-
tics . For example , in Fig . 4-31 , t he driver AB rotates constantly . At t he t wo limiti ng posi-
tions of t he rocker , point s B1 , A , B2 , C1 , and C2 are locat ed on t he same st raight line .
The cr ank acute angle between t wo limiting positions is zero . Therefore t he coefficient K of
t ravel speed variation is equal t o one . Ther efor e t he cr ank- rocker mechanism in Fig . 4-31 has
no quick- r eturn characteristics .
In t he offset slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig . 4-28, t he distance C1 C2 is t he st roke
H of t he slider . C2 AC1 is t he cr ank acute angle bet ween t wo limiting positions . If t he
driving crank AB rotates counter-clockwise wit h constant angular velocit y, t he slider will take
a longer time in it s rightward st roke t han in its leftward stroke . The coefficient K of t he t ravel
speed varia tion, or the time ratio, is )/ ( 180- ) . Since = 0, an in-line slider-
cr ank mechanism ( Fig . 4-2a ) has no quick- r eturn characteristics .
In an oscillating guide- bar mechanism ( Fig . 4-32 ) , two limiti ng positions CD1 and CD2
5 5
of t he follower guide-bar CD occur when t he driving crank AB is perpendicular t o t he oscillat-
ing guide-bar CD . D1 CD2 is t he angular st roke ma x of t he follower . The acute angle be-
t ween AB1 and AB2 is . For t his linkage mechanism , happens to be equal to ma x . If t he
cr ank AB runs counter- clockwise at a const ant angular velocit y, t hen t he left ward st roke of t he
follower CD is t he slower st roke while t he rightward st roke is t he faster st roke . The coefficient
K of t he travel speed variation, or t he time ratio, is )/ ( 180- ) .
Fig . 4-31 Fig . 4-32
4. 4 D i me n si on a l S yn t h e s i s o f F o u r- b a r L i nk a g e s
Dimensional synt hesis of a li nkage mechanism is t he determination of t he kinematic dimen-
sions of t he links necessary to achieve t he required motion . Usually, differ ent problems will
need different met hods .
4. 4. 1 Body Guidance
Fig . 4-33
pivot s have not been det ermined
A revolute four-bar mechanism ABCD is to be de-
signed t o guide a li ne segment EF on t he coupler passing
t hrough t hree specified positions E1 F1 , E2 F2 and E3 F3 ,
as shown in Fig . 4-33 . Such a synt hesis problem is called
body gui dance . The known positions of t he li nk EF are
drawn in bold lines and t he ot her unknown lines are drawn
in fine or dashed lines .
Two moving revolute cent res B and C are chosen ar-
bitrarily on t he coupler . For example, points B1 and C1
are chosen arbit rarily on t he first position of t he coupler .
The shape of t he quadrilater al BCFE should remai n t he
6 5
same i n all positions . Therefor e , constructing quadrilaterals B2 C2 F2 E2 B1 C1 F1 E1 and
B3 C3 F3 E3 B1 C1 F1 E1 , we get poi nt s B1 , B2 , B3 and C1 , C2 , C3 . Since t he locus of t he
point B r elative to t he fr ame is a circle t he cent re of which is t he fixed pivot A , a cir cle is con-
st ructed passing t hrough t he t hree point s B1 , B2 and B3 . Bisect B1 B2 and B2 B3 . The inter-
section of t he two bisect ors is t he fixed pivot A . Similarly, bisect C1 C2 and C2 C3 . The inter-
section of t he two bisectors is t he fixed pivot D . Some li nes are not drawn for t he purpose of
clarity .
Graphical met hods provide valuable insight into t he synt hesis process as t he solution is
mor e easily understood . The accuracy of t he graphical met hods by hands is insufficient . How-
ever , t he accuracy of t he graphical met hods is good enough if Aut o CAD is used .
Fig . 4-34
If the moving revolute cent res B and C are
chosen arbitr arily on t he coupler , it may happen
t hat t here is no crank i n t he synt hesized linkage , or
t hat t he m a x and m i n may not be acceptable , or
t hat it is not possible to move t he coupler to all spec-
ified positions wit hout disassembling a dyad and re-
assembling it i n anot her assembly mode . That will
obviously be unsatisfact ory . For example, a r evo-
lute four-bar linkage ABCD is t o be designed to
guide a line segment EF on the coupler BC t hrough
t hr ee positions E1 F1 , E2 F2 and E3 F3 , as shown
in Fig . 4-34 . If t he points E and F ar e selected as t he moving revolute cent res B and C re-
spectively, t he fixed pivot s will be A and D . It can be seen t hat t he assembly modes of t he
RRR dyad in positions 2 and 3 are differ ent no matter which side link is t he driver . The syn-
t hesized mechanism cannot t herefore move t he coupler t hrough all t hree specified positions in a
continuous motion cycle . Unfor tunately , t he synt hesis techniques have no cont rol over t he
mode of a dyad . For t his reason , t he mechanism must be checked after synt hesis t o see
whet her t he mode of t he dyad r emains t he same in a continuous motion cycle . If not , one must
t ry selecting different locations of t he movi ng revolute cent res and t he mechanism should be re-
designed . This check is called consistency of the assembly mode of a dyad . Fur t hermore , t he
synt hesized mechanism should be checked for ma x and mi n when required .
(2 ) Two fixed pivots have been determined
A revolut e four-bar linkage ABCD is t o be designed t o guide a line segment EF on t he cou-
pler BC to pass t hrough t hree specified positions E1 F1 , E2 F2 and E3 F3 , while t he positions
of t he two fixed pivot s A and D have been determined . Fig . 4-35 illust rates t he problem . Ob-
viously , in t his case, one can not choose arbitr arily t he locations of t he moving revolute centr es
B and C on t he coupler . Ot her wise , t he cent re of t he circle t hrough t he t hree positions of a
moving revolute cent re will not happen to be t he corresponding fixed pivot . Such a moving
7 5
revolute cent re , t he location of which is to be determined, is called an undeter mi ned mov i ng
revol ute cent re ( UMRC) .
Fig . 4-35
The UMRC B ( Fig . 4-35 ) connect s t wo links
AB and BCFE . The coupler BCFE is said t o be de-
termined because t he positions of a li ne segment EF
on t he coupler are known . The link AB is undet er-
mined alt hough t he point A is determined . The de-
termined link ( BCFE) connected by UMRC ( B) is
selected as a reference li nk . A determined poi nt
( A ) on t he undetermined link ( AB) connected by
UMRC ( B ) is selected as a ci rcu m ference poi nt .
The locus of t he cir cumference point ( A ) relative t o
t he r eference link ( EF ) is a circle , t he cent re of
which is t he UMRC ( B) and t he radius of which is
t he length of t he undetermined link ( AB) .
In order to find t he locus of the circumference
point A r elative to t he reference link EF, t he link EF should be stationary . Since t he link EF
is a moving link , t he conver ting frame met hod should be used so t hat t he link EF is inver ted to
be stationary, or an imaginary frame . Triangles E1 F1 A , E2 F2 A and E3 F3 A in Fig . 4- 35
defi ne t he t hree relationships of t he point A relative t o t he link EF at t he t hr ee instant s . Sup-
pose that t he link EF is fixed in position 1 and t hat E2 F2 and E3 F3 are inver ted t o t he first po-
sition E1 F1 . Const ructi ng E1 F1 A2 E2 F2 A and E1 F1 A3 E3 F3 A , we get t wo
point s A2 and A3 . Poi nt s A , A2 and A3 are t he t hree positions of t he point A relative to
t he link EF when the link EF is sta tionary at E1 F1 and t he li nks have same relative motions
wit h respect to each ot her . The circle passing t hrough t he points A , A2 and A3 is t he locus
of t he point A relative t o t he first position E1 F1 of t he link EF . The cent re of t he circle is t he
first position B1 of t he UMRC B .
Anot her UMRC C can be found by a similar met hod . Const ructing E1 F1 D2
E2 F2 D and E1 F1 D3 E3 F3 D, we will get points D2 and D3 . The centr e of t he cir-
cle passing t hrough t he t hr ee points D, D2 and D3 is t he first position C1 of t he UMRC C .
4. 4. 2 Function generation
A revolute four-bar linkage is t o be designed t he out put side link of which swings t hrough
t wo specified angles 12 and 13 corresponding to t he t wo swing angles 12 and 13 of t he input
side link . Fig . 4-36 illust rates t he problem . The t wo fixed pivots A and D are known and t he
moving revolute cent res B and C are t o be found . Such a synt hesis problem t hat involves coor-
dina ting t he rota tional and/ or tr ansla tional orientations of t he input and out put is called f unc-
t ion gener at ion .
8 5
Fig . 4-36
Fig . 4-37
In t his design problem, t her e are two UMRCs ( B and C) . Since only t hr ee positions are
required in t his design problem , B or C can be chosen arbitr arily . Suppose t hat t he first posi-
tion B1 , of t he UMRC B on t he input side link is chosen arbitrarily . Constructing E2 AB2
E1 AB1 and E3 AB3 E1 AB1 , we get points B2 and B3 . The UMRC C connects t he
links BC and CDF . The position of t he link BC is unknown while t he positions of t he li nk DF
are determined . So t he li nk DF is select ed as t he r eference link . The determined point B on
t he undetermi ned link BC is selected as t he circumfer ence point . Triangles DF1 B1 , DF2 B2
and DF3 B3 ( Fig . 4-37 ) represent t he t hree position relationships between t he cir cumference
point B and t he reference link DF at t hr ee instant s . Usi ng inversion , let t he reference link
DF be fixed at position 1 . DF2 and DF3 ar e inver ted t o DF1 , while t he position relationships
are kept unchanged at t he same time , i. e. construct DF1 B2 DF2 B2 and DF1 B3
DF3 B3 . Hence we get two new points B2 and B3 . The points B1 , B2 and B3 are t he
t hr ee positions of t he point B relative to t he link DF1 , if t he r eference li nk DF is stationary at
t he first position and t he ot her links have r elative motion wit h respect to each ot her . A circle
9 5
passing t hrough t he t hr ee point s B1 , B2 and B3 is t he locus of t he point B relative to t he first
position DF1 of t he link DF . Therefore , t he i ntersection of t he bisectors of B1 B2 and B2 B3
is t he cent re of t he circle , or t he first position C1 of t he UMRC C ( neit her C2 nor C3 ) .
Constructing DC2 F2 DC1 F1 and DC3 F3 DC1 F1 , we get point s C2 and C3 .
Af ter synt hesis, t he lengt h of t he undet ermined link should be checked to see if its lengt h is
kept unchanged during motion , i. e ., B1 C1 = B2 C2 = B3 C3 . Check also Grashofs criterion ,
ma x or m i n , t he space limitation and t he consistence of t he assembly mode of a dyad . If not
satisfied , t he location of t he moving revolut e centr e B should be selected again and t he mecha-
nism should be redesigned .
4. 4. 3 Design of Quick Return Mechanisms
(1 ) Crank- rocker mechanism
As mentioned in Sec . 4. 3. 4, t he crank- rocker mechanism shown in Fig . 4- 27 can be
used as a quick ret urn mechanism . When t he driving cr ank AB runs at a constant speed , t he
coefficient of t ravel speed varia tion K = (180+)/ ( 180- ) So
=
K - 1
K + 1
180 (4- 4)
In t he limiting positions, AC2 = a + b and AC1 = b - a . The lengt hs, a and b, of t he
cr ank AB and t he coupler BC can be calculated if t he distances AC1 and AC2 ar e known , i. e.
a =
AC2 - AC1
2
b =
AC2 + AC1
2
(4- 5)
By a well-known geomet rical t heorem , for any point Ai on t he ar c C1 P of a circle ( Fig .
4-38) , C1 Ai C2 is constant . If PC1 C2 = 90, t hen PC2 is t he diameter of t he circle .
Suppose that the lengt h c of t he follower rocker , t he angular st roke ma x , and t he coeffi-
cient K of the tr avel speed variation have been specified . A crank- rocker mechanism is t o be
designed . The following design process of the cr ank- rocker mechanism is illustr ated in Fig .
4-39 .
Fig . 4-38 Fig . 4-39
0 6
pivot D and dr aw t he two limiting positions, DC1 and DC2 , of t he
follower rocker wit h t he known values of c and m a x .
(b ) Calculate wit h Eq . ( 4-4 ) according to t he specified value of K .
(c) Through C1 const ruct a line perpendicular t o C1 C2 . Through C2 construct a line so
t hat PC2 C1 = 90- . The intersection of t he two lines is labeled P .
( d ) Draw a cir cle wit h t he midpoint of C2 P as t he cent re and t he length of t he line C2 P as
t he diameter .
( e) The cir cle is t he locus of t he fixed pivot A . Any point A on t he arc C1 P will satisfy
C1 AC2 = . If t he lengt h d of t he frame is known , t hen an arc is drawn wit h t he poi nt D as
a centr e and d as a r adius . The intersection bet ween t he circle and t he arc is t he fixed pivot A .
If d is unknown , t hen choose a suitable point on t he arc C1 P as t he fixed pivot A . Measure
t he distances AC1 and AC2 . The act ual lengt hs, a and b, of t he crank AB and t he coupler
BC can be calculated from Eq . ( 4-5 ) .
Since any point on t he arc C1 P can be used as t he fixed pivot A if t he lengt h of the frame
is unknown , t here is an infinit y of solutions . Since AC2 D > mi n , t he position of t he point
A can not be set too low . Check m a x or mi n after synt hesis .
If K, ma x and t wo of t he di mensions a , b and c are known , t he mechanism can be de-
signed analytically as follows .
In C1 AC2 ( Fig. 4-27 and Fig. 4-39) , using t he cosine rule , one obtai ns
( C1 C2 )
2
= ( AC1 )
2
+ ( AC2 )
2
- 2 AC1 AC2 cos
Thus
2 c sin
ma x
2
2
= ( b - a )
2
+ ( b + a)
2
- 2( b - a ) ( b + a) cos
from which , one obtains
a
2
(1 + cos ) + b
2
(1 - cos ) - 2 c
2
sin
2 m a x
2
= 0 (4- 6)
Af ter determining any t wo of t he dimensions a , b and c, t he t hird dimension can be cal-
culated easily according to t he values of and m a x using Eq . ( 4-6 ) .
Af ter t hat , d can be calcula ted as follows . In C1 AC2 , according to t he sine rule ,
b - a
sin ( AC2 C1 )
=
C1 C2
si n
=
2 csin
m a x
2
sin
Therefore
AC2 C1 = arc sin
( b - a ) sin
2 csin
m a x
2
(4- 7)
AC2 D = 90-
ma x
2
- AC2 C1 (4- 8)
In AC2 D, according t o t he cosine rule ,
1 6
d
2
= c
2
+ ( a + b)
2
- 2 c( a + b ) cos ( AC2 D) (4- 9)
(2 ) Offset slider- crank mechanism
An offset slider- crank mechanism ( Fig . 4-28) can be a quick- return mechanism . Suppose
t hat st roke H, time ra tio K , and offset e are known , t he gr aphical design met hod for t his
mechanism shown in Fig . 4-40 is similar to t ha t in t he last example ( Fig . 4-40 is self- explana-
tory ) . This mechanism, however , can be easily designed analytically wit h some equations de-
Fig . 4-40
rived as follows .
In C1 AC2 ( Fig. 4-40 ) , according t o t he
cosine rule ,
H
2 8
= ( b - a )
2
+ ( b + a )
2
- 2 ( b - a ) ( b + a ) cos
= 2 b
2
( 1 - cos ) + 2 a
2
(1 + cos ) ( 4-10)
In C1 AC2 , according t o t he sine rule ,
b - a
sin ( AC2 C1 )
=
H
sin
.
In right t riangle A MC2 , si n ( AC2 C1 ) =
e
b + a
.Therefore ,
e = ( b + a ) sin ( AC2 C1 ) =
( b
2
- a
2
) sin
H
( 4-11)
If K (from which can be determined ) and any t wo of t he four parameters ( H, e, b
and a) ar e known , t hen t he ot her two unknowns can be calculated by solving Eqs . ( 4- 10 )
and (4-11 ) simultaneously .
(3 ) Oscillating guide-bar mechanism
An oscillating guide-bar mechanism ( Fig . 4-32 ) is a quick- ret urn mechanism . As men-
tioned in Sec . 4. 3. 4, t he oscillating guide- bar CD r eaches it s ext reme positions when t he driv-
ing crank AB is perpendicular to t he guide- bar CD . Suppose t hat t he time ratio K and t he
lengt h of t he fr ame lAC are known . The crank acute angle bet ween two limiting positions
happens t o be equal t o t he angular stroke ma x of t he guide- bar CD, i. e.
m a x = =
K - 1
K + 1
180
In right t riangle ABC, lAB = lAC sin (m a x/ 2 ) .
4. 4. 4 Path Generation
I t is of ten desired to synthesize a li nkage mechanism so t hat a poi nt on t he coupler will
move along a specified pat h . This synt hesis problem is called pat h generation . Usually, t his
t ask can be carried out by a four- bar linkage . The pa th gener ated by t he point on t he coupler is
called a coupler cur ve and t he gener ati ng point is called t he coupler poi nt . Different point s on
t he coupler , or on t he extensions of t he coupler , will t race innumerable coupler curves as t he
positions of the coupler poi nt on t he coupler and t he di mensions of t he li nks are altered .
2 6
A very useful reference for t he designer in selecti ng a proper crank- rocker mechanism to
obtain a required coupler curve is an atlas of four-bar coupler curves . The book consist s of a set
of char t s containing approximately 7300 coupler curves of cr ank- rocker mechanisms . An exam-
ple taken from t his a tlas is shown in Fig . 4-41 . Every coupler curve is produced by a coupler
point on the coupler . The small circle on t he coupler curve shows t he relative position of t he
coupler point on t he coupler . Each dash on t he coupler curves repr esent s 5of t he input crank
rotation to provide an indication of t he coupler point velocit y . The longer t he dash , t he faster
is t he velocity . By scanning t hrough t he atlas, t he designer may be able t o find sever al coupler
curves on different linkage mechanisms t hat will approximat ely accomplish t he same task . Af-
ter considering t he practical sit uation , e. g . t ransmission angle , space limitation , etc ., an
opti mal linkage mechanism can be chosen from t hese li nkage mechanisms . Then what remains
is only to adjust t he scale for t he size of curve desired t o complete t he solution .
Fig . 4-41
Some coupler curves have sections t hat are nearly st raight- line segment s; ot hers have cir-
cular arc sections . One of t he most interesting uses of coupler curves having st raight-line or cir-
cle-arc segment is in t he synt hesis of a si x- bar mechanism having a substantial dwell at t he ex-
tr eme point of it s out put motion .
The substantial por tion E1 E2 E3 of t he coupler curve shown in Fig . 4-42 approximates a
circular arc . It is produced by a coupler point E on a crank- rocker mechanism ABCD . A con-
necting link EF wit h a lengt h equal t o t he radius of t his ar c E1 E2 E3 is now added . At t he posi-
tion shown, point F coincides wit h t he centre of t he arc put link GF will dwell ,
while t he coupler point E moves t hrough point s E1 , E2 and E3 .
In Fig . 4-43 , t he fixed pivot G is located at t he intersection of extension of the t wo
st raight-line segment s of t he coupler curve . Therefore , t he out put link GF will have dwells at
bot h ext remes .
The arrangement shown in Fig . 4-44 uses a figur e- 8 coupler curve having a st raight- line
segment t o produce an intermediat e dwell linkage mechanism . The fixed pivot G must be lo-
cated on t he extension of the str aight- line segment .
3 6
Fig . 4-42 Fig . 4-43 Fig . 4-44
4. 4. 5 Limit ations of Linkage Mechanisms
Shown in Fig . 4-45 is a r evolute four- bar linkage arranged to co-ordinate t he rotations of
Fig . 4-45
t he input link AB and t he out put link DC . Suppose
t hat t he output link DC is r equired t o rotate t hrough
an angle 0 i from its i nitial position DC0 when t he i n-
put link AB rotates 0 i from it s initial position AB0 .
In ot her words , t he revolute four- bar linkage is t o be
synt hesized to gener ate a given function 0 i =
f (0 i ) .
Since t he angular r elations hip does not change if
all link lengt hs ar e multiplied by a common factor ,
t here ar e only t hree independent lengt h dimensions in t his synthesis problem . Let lAD = 1 .
Then t he lengt hs a , b and c are t he th ree independent lengt h dimensions . Also t o be consid-
er ed are t he initial positions, 0 and 0 , of t he input link AB and t he out put link DC . In all ,
t here ar e only five independent design variables t hat must be calculated in designing t he linkage
t o generate t he function 0 i = f 0 i ) , i. e.
0 i = f a, b, c, 0 , 0 , 0 i ) ( 4-12)
Suppose t hat t he linkage is used t o co-ordinate t he rotational angle of t he input and output
for five positions, i. e. 0 i = f 0 i ) , ( i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ) Put ti ng t hese five specified relationships
bet ween 0 i and 0 i into Eq. ( 4-12) , one obtains five equations as follows .
01 = f a, b, c , 0 , 0 , 01 )
- -
05 = f a, b, c , 0 , 0 , 05 )
Since t here are only five unknowns ( a, b, c, 0 , 0 ) in t his set of equations, t he val-
ues of t he five unknowns can be found by solving t hese equations simultaneously .
4 6
Since t here are only up t o five independent design variables in this synt hesis problem , at
most five equations can be solved simultaneously . Ther efore t his linkage can co-ordinate exactly
only up to five relationships bet ween t he input angle and t he output angle . At ot her positions ,
t here will be some error ( called st r uct ur al error ) bet ween t he act ual function and t he r equir ed
function .
Fig . 4-46
Suppose t hat a revolute four- bar linkage ABCD is
t o be designed so t ha t a coupler poi nt E will pass
t hrough an ideal curve ( dashed curve in Fig . 4-46 ) .
I t can be shown t ha t t he act ual coupler curve ( solid
curve) can pass exactly t hrough up to nine point s on
t he ideal curve , as shown in Fig . 4- 46 .
From t he last examples, we can see t hat a linkage
mechanism can match t he function exactly a t only a
limited number of positions . At ot her positions , t here
will be st ruct ural errors .
If t he number of t he r equir ed positions is larger
t han 3, t he algebraic synt hesis met hod oft en leads t o a set of non- linear equations containing
t ranscendental functions of t he unknown angles . I t is very t edious to solve t hese non-li near e-
quations si mult aneously . Also, t he met hod cannot r eally cont rol m a x , mi n , Grashofs crite-
rion, and t he st ructur al error between t he two pr ecision point s . In most indust rial synt hesis
problems however , designers of ten pr efer to minimize t he maximum struct ural error rat her
t han t o satisfy a few point s exactly while losing cont rol over t he maximum struct ural error . Op-
ti mization methods, however , can minimize t he maximum st ructur al error under some con-
st raints by opti mizing t he dimensions of t he mechanism . optimization met hods are now widely
used in t he synt hesis of linkages . Many optimization met hods need an initial linkage before op-
ti mization . These can be synt hesized by choosing a few t ypical r equir ed positions . Synt hesis
met hods mentioned in t his chapter ar e ext remely useful in providing a reasonable initial linkage
for fur ther optimization .
4-1 According to t he kinema tic diagr ams of the mechanisms which you drew in Chapter 2,
give t he names of t he mechanisms in figures from Fig . 2-43 t o Fig . 2-46 .
4-2 Listed in t he following table are five set s of dimensions of a revolute four-bar linkage
ABCD si milar to t he one in Fig . 4-25 . Determi ne t he t ype of t he linkage and t he t ype of t he
t wo side li nks AB and DC ( crank or rocker ) according to t he Grashof criterion . Can t he cou-
pler BC rotate 360wit h r espect to ot her links ( Yes or No ) ?
5 6
lA B lB C lDC lA D
T y p e o f
l i n k ag e
Ty pe o f AB T y p e o f DC
Can BC
r o t a t e 360 ?
45 50 a 60 2 20
20 35 a 70 2 90
20 45 a 70 2 90
80 20 a 45 2 60
40 30 a 20 2 35
4-3 In a revolute four- bar linkage ABCD similar to t he one in Fig . 4-25 , lB C = 100 mm ,
lDC = 80 mm , lAD = 110 mm .
( 1) Find t he range of t he values for t he lengt h lAB of link AB if t he linkage is eit her ( a) a
cr ank- rocker mechanism wit h crank AB, or ( b) a double- rocker mechanism .
(2 ) Can t he linkage be a double-crank mechanism by choosing lAB suitably ? Why ?
4-4 In t he r evolute four- bar mechanism si milar t o t he one in Fig . 4- 23b, let lAB = 60 mm ,
lB C = 130 mm , lDC = 140 mm , lAD = 200 mm, and BAD = 135.
(1 ) Determine t he type of t he r evolute four- bar mechanism .
(2 ) If t he side link AB is a driver and rotat es at a constant speed ,
( a) find t he pressure angle and t he tr ansmission angle of t he mechanism at t hat posi-
tion .
(b ) find t he angular stroke m a x of t he link DC .
( c) find t he crank acute angle bet ween t he t wo limiting positions .
(d ) calcula te t he time ratio K .
( e) will any dead- point occur during t he whole cycle of t he motion ?
(f) find t he maxi mum pressure angle m a x and t he minimum t ransmission angle mi n .
(3 ) If t he side link DC is a driver ,
( a) find t he pr essur e angle and t he tr ansmission angle of t he mechanism at t hat posi-
tion .
(b ) will any dead- point occur during t he whole cycle of t he motion ? If so, when ?
( c) find t he maximum pr essur e angle ma x and t he mini mum tr ansmission angle m i n .
4-5 In t he offset slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig . 4- 5, t he driver crank AB rot ates at a
constant speed . Let lAB = 120 mm , lBC = 250 mm , offset e = 60 mm , and AB = 60. Find
(1 ) t he length of st roke H of t he slider ,
(2 ) t he crank acute angle bet ween t he two limiting positions ,
(3 ) t he time ratio K ,
(4 ) t he pressure angle and t he t ransmission angle a t t ha t position ,
(5 ) t he maximum pressure angle m a x and t he minimum t ransmission angle mi n .
4-6 In an offset slider- crank mechanism ABC similar t o t hat in Fig . 4- 5, t he crank AB is a
driver . The lengt h of t he crank lAB = 25 mm . The offset e = 10 mm . The maxi mum pressure
angle ma x = 30. Find t he st roke H of t he slider and t he crank acute angle between t he two
6 6
limiting positions .
4-7 In t he double-crank linkage ABCD shown in Fig . 4-1b, lAB = 80 mm , lBC = 180 mm ,
lDC = 230 mm, lAD = 200 mm . The driver BC rotates at a constant speed . Find t he minimum
t ransmission angle mi n of t he li nkage .
4-8 According to t he data in Problem 4-3, find t he range of values for t he driving crank AB ,
if t he linkage is to be a cr ank- rocker mechanism and t he mini mum t rans mission angle mi n is
larger t han 50. Compare t he result wit h t hat in Problem 4- 3 (1 ) ( a) .
4-9 The crank- rocker mechanism shown i n Fig . 4-31 has no quick- r eturn char acteristics .
Prove t ha t t he lengt hs of links of t he linkage satisfy t he following equation : l
2
AB + l
2
AD = l
2
BC +
l
2
DC
4-10 Shown in Fig . 4-47 are t he two positions, B1 C1 and B2 C2 , of t he coupler BC of a rev-
olute four-bar linkage ABCD . The link AB is a driver . The pressur e angle at t he first posi-
tion is 0. The second position of t he mechanism is a toggle position . Design t he linkage .
4-11 Design a cr ank- rocker mechanism ABCD to move a line EF on t he coupler BC from po-
sition E1 F1 to position E2 F2 and then t o position E3 F3 ( Fig . 4-48 ) . xE 1 = 2. 18 mm , yE 1 =
- 15. 1 mm , xE 2 = - 3. 19 mm , yE 2 = - 56. 8 mm , xE 3 = 67. 5 mm, yE 3 = - 32. 8 mm ,
E 1F 1 = 61. 7, E 2 F 2 = 73. 4, E 3F 3 = 108. 5, lE F = 125 mm .
(1) If t he locations of t he fixed pivots A and D have not been det ermined, design t he
mechanism . Check whet her t he side link AB is a crank . Can bot h t he points E and F be se-
lected as t he two movi ng r evolute centr es ? Why ?
(2 ) Supposed t hat xA = 0 mm , yA = 0 mm , x D = 100 mm and yD = 0 mm . Find t he re-
quired moving revolute cent res B1 and C1 on t he coupler .
4-12 Design a revolut e four- bar linkage ABCD so that a point E on the coupler BEC will pass
t hrough t he t hree point s, E1 , E2 and E3 , as shown i n Fig . 4-49 . The first position B1 of t he
moving revolute cent re B , and t he fixed pivot s A and D have been specified . xA = 0 mm ,
yA = 0 mm , xD = 100 mm, yD = 0 mm , xB1 = 44. 2 mm , yB1 = 22. 2 mm . xE 1 = 50. 4 mm ,
yE 1 = 128. 5 mm, xE 2 = - 44. 65 mm , yE 2 = 115. 4 mm . xE 3 = - 63. 4 mm . yE 3 = 29. 35 mm .
Find t he first position C1 of t he movi ng r evolute centr e C .
Fig . 4-47
Fig . 4-48 Fig . 4-49
7 6
4-13 In a revolute four-bar linkage ABCD, as t he driver side link AB rotates from position 1
t o position 2 ( Fig . 4- 50 ) , t he ot her side link DC rotates 24. 6counterclockwise . As t he link
AB goes from position 2 to position 3, t he link DC rot ates 39. 3counter- clockwise . lAB = 50
mm and lA D = 100 mm . Synt hesize t he linkage graphically .
Fig . 4-50 Fig . 4-51
4-14 In an offset slider- crank mechanism similar to t he one in Fig . 4-5, as t he crank AB ro-
tates 100counter-clockwise from position 1 t o position 2 , t he revolute centr e C on t he slider
will t ranslate from point C1 to point C2 ( Fig . 4-51 ) . As t he crank AB rotates 100counter-
clockwise from position 2 to position 3, t he revolute centr e C t ranslates from point C2 to point
C3 , Offset e = 10 mm, xA = 0 mm, yA = 0 mm , xC1 = 28. 76 mm , xC2 = 40. 88 mm, xC3 =
69. 08 mm . Locate t he t hird position B3 of t he revolut e cent re B .
Fig . 4-52
4-15 In an offset slider-crank mechanism, a point F
on t he slider will displace 23. 25 mm from point F1 t o
point F2 when t he crank AB rotat es from position AB1
t o position AB2 ( Fig . 4- 52 ) . As t he crank AB rotates
from position AB2 to position AB3 , t he point F dis-
places 52. 13 mm from point F2 to point F3 , lAB = 50
mm , Design the offset slider-cr ank mechanism .
Fig . 4-53
4-16 In an offset slider- rocker mechanism ABC, t he
position of t he fixed pivot A and t he two positions,
C1 P1 and C2 P2 , of a li ne CP on t he coupler BC are
known, as shown in Fig . 4-53 . x A = 0 mm , yA = 0
mm , xC1 = 26. 05 mm , yC1 = 45 mm, xC2 = 66. 5 mm,
yC2 = 45 mm , 1 = 7, 2 = 11. The moving revolute
cent re B is on t he line CP Locate t he first position B1 of
t he point B .
4-17 In a revolute four-bar linkage ABCD, side link AB is a driver . The positions of t he side
link CD and a line segment CE on t he coupler CBE corr esponding t o t wo positions of t he link-
age are known, as shown in Fig . 4-54 . The first position of t he linkage is also a dead point .
lAD = 100 mm, lCD = 64. 550 8 mm , ADC1 = 42. 39, ADC2 = 133. 8, C1 E 1 = 104. 7,
C2E 2 = 93. 7, Find t he second position B2 of t he revolute B .
8 6
4-18 In a crank-slider mechanism , t wo set s of corr esponding positions between t he slider and
a line segment AE on t he crank ABE ar e known , as shown in Fig . 4-55 . The position C1 of
t he slider is it s lef t limiting positions . xA = 0 mm , yA = 0 mm , xC1 = - 100 mm . yC1 =
- 28. 15 mm , xC2 = - 65. 56 mm . Find t he first position B1 of t he revolute B .
Fig . 4-54 Fig . 4-55
4-19 In a crank- rocker linkage ABCD, side link AB is a driver . The positions of t he rocker
CD corresponding to t wo positions of t he linkage are known, as shown in Fig . 4- 56 . lAD =
100 mm, lCD = 75 mm , ADC1 = 64. 3, ADC2 = 134. 2. At the first position of t he link-
age , t he pr essure angle of t he linkage is zero . Position DC2 is one of t he limit positions of t he
rocker . Find t he first position B1 of t he revolut e B .
4-20 In an offset slider- cr ank mechanism ABC, t wo sets of corr esponding positions between
t he cr ank AB and a poi nt F on t he slider are known, as shown in Fig . 4-57 . When t he crank
AB is located at position AB1 , t he slider reaches it s left limit position . lAB = 30 mm ,
B2 AB1 = 112. 8, lF 1 F2 = 32. 96 mm . Find t he first position C1 of t he r evolute C on t he slid-
er .
Fig . 4-56 Fig . 4-57
4-21 When t he wheel of t he landing mechanism in an airplane is at it s lowest position , as
shown in Fig . 4-30 , links BC and CD are collinear . Suppose t he position of revolut e C is un-
known . Find t he position of t he revolute C on line DCB so t hat t he link AB will rotat e 90
counter- clockwise when t he link DC rotates 60clockwise . The known dimensions are : xA = 0
mm , yA = 0 mm , xD = 103 mm, yD = 23. 55 mm , and lAB = 100 mm .
4-22 In a r evolute four- bar linkage ABCD, cr ank AB is a driver . The positions of t he crank
AB and a line segment DE on anot her side li nk CDE corresponding to t wo positions of t he
linkage are known, as shown in Fig . 4-58 . The first position of t he rocker is one of it s t wo
9 6
limiting positions . lAD = 36 mm , lAB = 13. 5 mm, DAB1 = 28. 6, DAB2 = 137. 9,
ADE1 = 153. 8, ADE2 = 100. Find t he second position C2 of t he revolute C .
Fig . 4-58
4-23 In a crank- rocker mechanism ABCD s hown in Fig . 4-59, crank AB is a driver . The
first position of t he crank AB and t wo positions of t he rocker CD ar e known . At t he second
position, t he value of tr ansmission angle reaches it s mi nimum . lAD = 42. 3 mm, lDC = 13. 5
mm . DAB1 = 86. 9, ADC1 = 46. 6, ADC2 = 102. Fi nd t he second position B2 of t he
revolute B .
Fig . 4-59
4-24 In a revolute four- bar linkage ABCD, cr ank AB is a driver . The coefficient K of t ravel
Fig . 4-60
speed variation of t he rocker CD is t o be 1 . When t he
cr ank AB is located at position AB2 , as shown in Fig .
4-60, the rocker CD r eaches its limit position . lAD = 100
mm , lAB = 25. 2 mm , DAB2 = 26. 43. Design t his rev-
olute four-bar linkage .
4-25 Design a crank- rocker mechanism ABCD similar to t he one in Fig . 4-23a t o give 45os-
cillation of t he rocker DC wit h equal time back and for t h, from a constant input speed crank
AB . Let lAB = 30 mm and lB C = 80 mm .
4-26 Design a cr ank- rocker mechanism si milar to the one in Fig . 4-27 t hat will give a K value
0 7
of 1. 2 wit h an angular stroke of 45for t he rocker DC, from a constant input speed cr ank AB .
The lengt h of t he rocker DC is 100 mm . Check t hat t he minimum tr ansmission angle mi n be
larger t han 40.
4-27 Design a cr ank- rocker mechanism si milar to the one in Fig . 4-27 t hat will give a K value
of 1. 25 wit h an angular st roke of 32 for t he rocker DC, from a constant input speed crank
AB . Let lAB = 75 mm and lDC = 290 mm . Find t he lengt hs of links BC and AD .
4-28 Design an offset slider- crank mechanism similar to t he one in Fig . 4-40 . The offset e is
20 mm . The coefficient K of travel speed variation is to be 1. 3 . The working st roke H of t he
slider is to be 50 mm .
4-29 Design an offset slider-crank mechanism similar to t he one in Fig . 4-40 . The r atio of t he
lengt h of t he coupler BC t o t he lengt h of t he crank AB is t o be 4 . The coefficient K of t ravel
speed variation is t o be 1. 2 . The working stroke H of t he slider is t o be 200 mm .
1 7
C h ap t e r 5
Cam Me c h a n i s m s
5. 1 Cha r a c t e r i s t i c s a nd Cl a s si f i c a t i on o f Cam M e cha ni sms
As we learned in Chapter 4, linkage mechanisms ar e not suitable for t ransmitting compli-
cated motion, especially when t he driven link should dwell for a short time during a cycle . I n
Fig . 5-1
such cases , cam mechanisms can be used .
5. 1. 1 Characteristics of Cam Mechanisms
Cam mechanisms are t he simplest mechanisms to t ransfer a simple mo-
tion into any desired complicated motion . There are only t hree links in t his
mechanism: a cam ( driver ) , a follower ( t he driven element ) and t he
frame . The cam has a curved or grooved surface which mates directly wit h
t he follower and impar t s motion to it . I t is very easy to design t he cam
cont our even if t he motion of the follower is very complicated and so they
are used extensively in modern machinery . Fig . 5-1 and Fig . 5-2 illus-
tr ate t wo examples of cam applications . The motion of t he valve 3 in an
internal combustion engine ( Fig . 5-1 ) is determined by t he cont our of t he
cam 1 . Shown in Fig . 5- 2 is a t ool- feeding mechanism in an aut omatic machi ne tool . When
t he cylindrical cam 1 rotates at a const ant speed , t he follower 2 will oscillate and will force t he
t ool frame 4 t o t ranslate back and fort h . The motion of t he oscillating follower 2 is determined
Fig . 5-2
by t he shape of t he curve on t he cylindrical cam 1 .
The cost for cutting cam accurately is high . Cam mechanism can not t ransmit heavy loads
because of t he point or line contact between t he cam and t he
follower . As a r esult , it is usually used for cont rol mecha-
nisms or light- load mechanisms .
5. 1. 2 Classif ications of Cam Mechanisms
Cam mechanisms can be classified in several ways .
(1 ) By t he cam shape
( a) Plate cam ( or disc cam)
This is t he most popular t ype of cam ( Fig . 5- 3a ) . The
2 7
cam usually rotates continuously at a constant speed .
(b ) Translating cam
A t ranslating cam ( Fig . 5-3b ) is a plate cam wit h an infinit e radius . It t ranslates back
and for t h which produces a large iner tia for ce . So it is seldom used .
( c) Three-dimensional cam
In a t hr ee- dimensional cam mechanism , t he cam and t he follower move in t wo nonpar allel
planes . The cylindrical cam s hown i n Fig . 5-3c is one kind of t hree-dimensional cam . The
cylindrical cam can rot ate conti nuously in one direction , and so can be used at high speed .
(2 ) By t he motion type of t he follower
( a) Translating follower ( Fig . 5-4 )
Fig . 5-3 Fig . 5-4
This kind of follower t ranslates back and fort h along t he guide way of t he frame . If t he
cent reline of t he follower passes t hrough t he centre of t he camshaft , it is called the i n- li ne
t r anslati ng follower , as shown in Fig . 5-4a ; ot her wise, t he of f set t r anslati ng f ollower , as
Fig . 5-5
shown in Fig . 5-4b . The perpendicular distance from t he cen-
tr e of t he camshaft t o an extension of t he cent reli ne of t he fol-
lower is called t he of f set , denoted as e .
g follower ( Fig . 5-5d, e , f)
This type of follower wor ks more smoot hly t han t he t rans-
lating follower .
(3 ) By t he shape of t he follower end
( a) Knife- edge follower ( Fig . 5-5a , d)
Alt hough it is simple , t he str esses at t he line of contact ar e
excessive and cause r apid wear on t he follower and t he cam sur-
face . For t his reason, t his t ype of follower is seldom used in
practice . However , it is t he t heoretical basis for all followers
wit h ot her end shapes .
(b ) Roller follower ( Fig . 5-5b, e)
The roller follower gr eatly reduces wear because t he contact is almost entirely rolling rat her
3 7
t han sliding . This t ype of follower is probably used mor e t han any ot her type of follower .
( c) Flat- faced follower ( Fig . 5-5c , f)
This follower is simpler and less expensive t han t he roller follower . The contact st ress is
generally smaller since t he r adius of curvat ure of t he follower is infinite . This follower is used
often in high-speed cam mechanisms si nce a dynamic pr essure oil film can be formed easily be-
tween t he cam and t he follower when the speed of t he cam is high . The motion curve of t he
follower will be restrict ed since all sections of t he cam contour must be convex .
(4 ) By t he manner of keeping t he cam and t he follower in contact
If a follower is to reproduce exactly t he motion t ransmitted by a cam , t hen it must remain
in contact wit h t he cam at all speeds at all times . This can be achieved by force or by t he form
of t he follower or t he cam .
( a) Force- closed cam mechanism
Fig . 5-6
If t he contact between t he cam and it s follower is obtained by a preloaded spri ng, or by
4 7
gravit y, it is called a f orce-closed cam mechanism , as shown in Fig . 5-1 .
(b ) Form-closed cam mechanism
If t he contact is obtained by letting t he roller follower sit in a cam groove or by using a con-
jugate condition , it is called a for m-closed cam mechanism , as shown in Fig . 5-6 .
There is a large number of cam and follower combina tions . The designer can choose a suit-
able combination according to t he following factors : type of input ( rotation or t ranslation ) ,
t ype of output , relative position bet ween t he shaft s of t he cam and t he follower , rotati ng speed
of t he cam , loading on t he cam and t he follower , cost , etc . . Simplicit y is always a governing
factor in t he choice of a cam and follower . For t his reason, t his chapter is devoted to the sim-
plest t ype of cam , t he plat e cam .
5. 2 F o l l o w e r M o t i o n Cur v e s
Befor e a cam is designed , a motion curve of t he follower should be specified . A t ypical
cam application would require t he motion of t he follower somet hing like t hat shown in Fig .
5-7, wher e one full revolution of t he cam is expressed on t he abscissa while t he displacement of
t he follower is shown on t he ordinate . The follower is required t o rise from it s lowest position
t o its highest position (from Fig . 5-8a to b ) , dwell at the highest position (from Fig . 5-8b to
c) , ret urn to its lowest position ( from Fig . 5-8c to d) , and dwell at t he lowest position (from
Fig . 5-8d t o a) before repeati ng t he cycle . The grea test dist ance t hrough which t he follower
moves is known as t he total f ollower t ravel , or t he li f t , denoted by h . The rotation angle of
t he cam duri ng which t he follower rises from its lowest position to it s highest position is called
t he cam angle f or rise , denoted by 0 . The angle during which t he follower dwells at t he
highest position is called t he ca m angle f or outer dwell , denoted by s . The rotation angle
duri ng which t he follower returns from it s highest position to it s lowest position is called t he
cam angle for ret ur n , denoted by 0 . The angle during which t he follower dwells at the low-
est position is called t he cam angle f or inner d well , denoted by s . The curve in Fig . 5-7
shows t he relationship between t he displacement s of the follower and t he rota tion angle of
t he cam . This is called t he displacement curve of t he cam mechanism .
Differentiating s wit h r espect to ti me t will r esult in velocit y v =
d s
d t
=
d s
d
d
d t
=
d s
d
, or
Fig . 5-7
5 7
a) b )
c ) d )
Fig . 5-8
d s
d
=
v
. Since is a constant, t he
d s
d
- curve has a shape similar t o t he v - t curve. So
d s
d
,
denot ed by s , is called t he quasi- velocit y .
Differentiating v wit h respect t o t r esult s in acceler ation
a =
d v
d t
=
d
d s
d
d t
=
d
d s
d
d t
=
d
d s
d
d
d
d t
=
2 d
2
s
d
2
, or
d
2
s
d
2
=
a
2
6 7
Since is a constant , t he
d
2
s
d
2
- curve has a shape similar t o the - t curve . So
d
2
s
d
2
,
denot ed by s, is called t he quasi-acceler at ion . The di mensions of bot h sand sar e mm .
Usually, in given design conditions , s is a function of ( not of t ) . We shall t herefore follow
t he usual practice and be concerned wit h sand sr at her t han v and a .
For any given 0 and h , t he follower may rise along different motion curves and t he corre-
sponding dynamic char acteristics are differ ent . Some kinds of motion curves ar e int roduced be-
low .
5. 2. 1 Const ant Velocity Motion Curve
Constant velocit y means t hat t he v - t (or s- ) diagram is a horizont al str aight line , so
t he s - diagram ( t he integr ation of t he s- curve) is an inclined st raight line and t he accel-
er ation ( t he differentiation of t he velocit y) is zero, as shown in Fig . 5-9 .
Fig . 5-9
At t he beginni ng of the rise , t he velocit y changes from zero to it s
maximum ( const ant ) value in zero time . The differentiation of veloci-
ty ( i. e. acceleration ) at t his poi nt is t her efore positive infinite . At t he
end of t he rise , t he velocity changes from it s maximum to zero in zero
time and t he acceler ation is negative i nfinite . Any r eal follower must ,
of course, have some mass, so at t hese two point s, infinite accelera-
tion will produce an infinite inertia force . Alt hough t he elasticity of
links in cam mechanisms prevent s infinite acceleration , t he values for t he acceleration are very
high . The consequent large i ner tia force will result in a very large amount of shock , which is
called a rigi d i mpulse . This will produce vibra tion, noise , high st ress levels, and serious
wear . Consequently , a constant velocit y motion curve can not be used for t he full st roke .
5. 2. 2 Const ant Acceleration and Deceleration Motion Curve
In t his t ype of motion curve , t he follower is given a constant acceler ation during t he first
Fig . 5-10
half of t he rise and a constant deceleration during t he second half of t he
rise . The velocity curve and displacement curve can be created by inte-
gr ation of t he acceleration curve, as shown in Fig . 5- 10 .
At t he beginning of t he rise , acceler ation changes from zero to a
constant positive value in zero time . There ar e two more abrupt changes
in t he acceleration of t he follower , at t he midpoint and t he end of t he
rise . An abrupt change in t he accelera tion causes an abrupt change in t he
inertia force . Since every link in a cam mechanism has elasticit y, an
abrupt change in t he magnit ude and/ or dir ection of i ner tia force would initiate undesired vibra-
tion, which is called a sof t i mpulse . Therefore t his motion curve is not satisfactory for high
speed operation . However , because of t he lower maxi mum accelera tion compar ed wit h ot her
7 7
motion curves, t his motion curve can be used for low and intermediate speed cams .
5. 2. 3 Cosine Acceleration Motion Curve (or Simple Harmonic Motion Curve )
Since t he acceleration is positive during t he first half of t he rise and negative during t he sec-
Fig . 5-11
ond half of t he rise , a cosine curve bet ween 0 to can be used as t he accel-
eration curve in t he rise, as shown in Fig . 5-11 . The velocit y curve and
t he displacement curve can be created by integra tion of t he accelera tion
curve . We can see t hat alt hough t he motion curve avoids t he sudden re-
verse of acceleration a t t he middle- point of t he t ravel , t he acceleration will
still change abruptly at t he beginning and end poi nt s . That would produce
soft impulses . So t his motion curve can be used only for low or intermedi-
ate speed cams .
Thus it is very impor tant when choosing a displacement curve to ensure t hat t he velocit y
and acceleration curves ar e continuous at all times .
5. 2. 4 Sine Acceleration Motion Curve (or Cycloid Motion Curve )
Since t he acceleration is positive during t he first half of t he rise and negative duri ng t he sec-
ond half of t he rise , a si ne curve bet ween 0 t o 2 can be used as t he acceler ation curve in t he
rise , as shown in Fig . 5-12 . The equa tion of t he quasi- acceleration in t he rise will be
Fig . 5-12
s= c1 sin 2

0
( 5-1 )
The equation of the quasi-velocit y scan be created by t he in-
tegration of t he equation of swit h respect to ,
s= c2 - c1
0
2
cos 2

0
( 5-2 )
Integrating again wit h respect t o results in t he displacement
equation ,
s = c3 + c2 - c1
2
0
( 2)
2
sin 2

0
( 5-3 )
The constant s c1 , c2 and c3 can be found by applying t he boundary conditions to t he equa-
tions . In order to delete t he rigid i mpulse , sshould be zero at t he beginning and the end of
t he rise , t hat is, s= 0 when = 0 . and s= 0 when = 0 , Furt hermore , s should be equal
t o h when = 0 . Substit uting the t h ree boundary conditions int o Eq . 5-1 t o Eq . 5-3 yields
t hr ee equa tions and solving t he t hr ee equations simultaneously r esult s in c1 = 2h/
2
0 , c2 =
h/ 0 , and c3 = 0 .
Substit uting t hese constants into Eq . 5-1 t o Eq . 5- 3 yields t he displacement , quasi-veloci-
ty and quasi-acceler ation equations as follows .
8 7
s = h

0
-
1
2
sin 2

0
s=
h
0
1 - cos 2

0
s=
2h
2
0
sin 2

0
(5- 4)
Since t he dimensions of sand sare mm , all angles in all equations i n t his chapter s hould
be expr essed i n radians, not in degr ees . The maximum values of quasi- velocity and quasi- accel-
er ation, sma x and sma x , for t he sine acceleration motion curve are 2 h/ 0 and 2h/
2
0 , respec-
tively .
The acceleration is negative during t he first half of t he return and positive during t he sec-
ond half of t he ret urn , as shown in Fig . 5- 12 . The equations for t he r eturn wit h a sine accel-
er ation motion curve can be derived i n a si milar way . They are as follows .
s = h 1 -
(- 0 - s )
0
+
1
2
sin 2
( - 0 - s )
0
s= -
h
0
1 - cos 2
(- 0 - s )
0
s= -
2h
2
0
sin 2
(- 0 - s )
0
(5- 5)
Not e t hat the displacement s i n t he ret urn is measured from t he lowest position of t he fol-
lower . Angles in all equations in t his chapter are always measured from t he starting point of
t he rise .
In t his motion curve , t he velocity and t he acceleration always begin from zero, and
change smoot hly . There is no sudden change in velocit y and acceleration at eit her end of t he
st roke, even if t here ar e dwell periods at t he beginning or t he end of t he t ravel . Ther efore
t here is neit her rigid impulse nor soft impulse . This results in very good oper ati ng char acteris-
tics . Wear , s hock, st ress and noise ar e quite low . Ther efore t his motion curve gives a good
dynamic characteristic and is especially recommended for high-speed cams .
5. 2. 5 3-4-5 Polynomial Motion Curve
Anot her motion curve t hat is i ncreasingly being utilized is t he polynomial motion curve .
Since polynomials can be used t o approximate any function , it is not surprising to find t hat t he
polynomial motion curve can fit almost any required motion . The standard polynomial equa tion
is
s = c0 + c1 + c2
2
+ - + cn
n
wher e t he constants c0 , c1 , - , cn depend on t he boundary conditions . I t is customary to
specify certain geometric proper ties at t he beginning and t he end of t he t ravel . Suppose t ha t ,
in order t o delete any soft and rigid i mpulse , sand sof t he follower are t o be zero at t he be-
ginning and t he end of t he rise , as shown in Fig . 5-13 . Therefore , t he boundary conditions
9 7
Fig . 5-13
for the rise ar e: s = 0 , s= 0 and s= 0 when = 0; and s =
h , s= 0 and s= 0 when = 0 .
Since t her e are six boundary conditions, a polynomial of
six terms is required . Assume t hat
s = c0 + c1 + c2
2
+ c3
3
+ c4
4
+ c5
5
( 5-6)
Differentiating t he equation t wice wit h r espect t o will re-
sult in equations for sand s.
s=
d s
d
= c1 + 2 c2 + 3 c3
2
+ 4 c4
3
+ 5 c5
4
( 5-7)
s=
d
2
s
d
2
= 2 c2 + 6 c3 + 12 c4
2
+ 20 c5
3
( 5-8)
Substit uting t he six boundary conditions into Eq . 5- 6 t o Eq . 5-8 yields six equations and
solving t he six equations simultaneously r esult s in
c0 = 0, c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 =
10 h
3
0
, c4 = -
15 h
4
0
and c5 =
6 h
5
0
.
Substit uting t hese constants into Eq . 5-6 t o Eq . 5- 8 yields t he displacement , quasi-veloci-
ty and quasi-acceler ation equations as follows :
s = h 10

0
3
- 15

0
4
+ 6

0
5
s=
h
0
30

0
2
- 60

0
3
+ 30

0
4
s=
h
2
0
60

0
- 180

0
2
+ 120

0
3
(5- 9)
This motion curve is called a 3-4- 5 polynomial motion curve based on t he powers of t he re-
maining terms in t he displacement equation . sma x and sma x of t his motion curve are 1. 88 h/ 0
and 5. 77 h/
2
0 , r espectively . For t he same 0 and h, sma x and sma x of t he 3-4-5 polynomial mo-
tion curve are smaller t han t hose of t he sine acceleration motion curve . There is neit her rigid
impulse nor sof t i mpulse . Therefore , t he 3-4-5 polynomial motion curve is t herefore used fre-
quently for high speed .
The s - , s- and s- equations for ret urn wit h a 3-4-5 polynomial motion curve can
be derived similarly . They are :
s = h 1 - 10
- 0 - s
0
3
+ 15
- 0 - s
0
4
- 6
- 0 - s
0
5
s= -
h
0
30
- 0 - s
0
2
- 60
- 0 - s
0
3
+ 30
- 0 - s
0
4
s= -
h
2
0
60
- 0 - s
0
- 180
- 0 - s
0
2
+ 120
- 0 - s
0
3
( 5-10)
The s - , s- and s- curves for t he rise and t he r eturn wit h 3-4-5 polynomial mo-
0 8
tion curves are shown i n Fig . 5-13 .
5. 2. 6 Combined Motion Curves
As mentioned above , t he si ne acceleration motion curve has neit her rigid nor soft impulse ,
Fig . 5-14
but it s maximum acceler ation is quite large . The maximum acceler-
ation of t he constant acceler ation and deceleration motion curve is
low, but t he motion curve has a sof t impulse . The basic motion
curves mentioned in t he last sections can be combined in many cases
t o improve t he overall dynamic characteristics . The motion curve
shown in Fig . 5-14 is called the modi f ied t r apezoi dal acceleration
motion curve, which is a combination of t he sine acceleration curve
and constant acceleration and deceleration motion curve . This mod-
ified motion curve is designed to minimize ext reme acceleration and
delete any impulse at t he same time . sm a x and sma x of t his motion
curve are 2 h/ 0 and 4. 888 h/
2
0 , r espectively .
The modified sine acceler ation motion curve ( Fig . 5-15 ) is anot her popular motion curve .
Fig . 5-15
The shape of t his motion curve is bet ween t hose of t he cosine and t he
sine acceleration motion curves . Compared wit h t he cosine accelera-
tion motion curve , t his motion curve has no soft impulse . sma x and
sm a x are 1. 76 h/ 0 and 5. 528 h/
2
0 , r espectively . For t he same 0
and h , sm a x and sm a x of t his motion curve are smaller t han t hose of
t he sine acceleration motion curve and t he 3-4-5 polynomial motion
curve . So t his t ype of motion curve is used in cam mechanisms wit h
high speeds and heavier loads .
Choosing a suitable motion curve is one of t he key steps in t he
design of a cam mechanism . No one motion curve is preferable for all
applications . When choosing a motion curve , we should consider
t he speed of t he cam , t he load on t he follower , cost accounting, etc . For higher speeds, mo-
tion curves wit h lower maximum accelerations should be chosen . When t he mass or load is larg-
er , t he motion curve which has a lower maxi mum velocity should be considered first . For low
speed and lightly loaded cams , dynamic char acteristics are not critical and economy of produc-
tion should be considered first , e . g . t he tangent cam shown in Fig . 2-4 and t he circular arc
cam s hown in Fig . 5-20 can be chosen .
5. 3 # P l a t e Ca m w i t h T r a n sl a t i n g Ro l l e r ( o r Kni f e- e d g e )
F o l l o w e r
The cam profiles can be synt hesized by gr aphical met hods or analytical met hods . Gr aphical
met hods offer clear physical concept s and can help us to understand t he analytical met hods .
1 8
Therefore , a graphical met hod is introduced first .
5. 3. 1 Graphical Synthesis of the Pitch Curve
Shown in Fig . 5- 16a is a plate cam wit h tr ansla ting offset knife- edge follower ( ignore line
ABBK for t he moment ) . I t is t o be designed to accomplish a motion as follows; rise t hrough
a lift h = 80 mm wit h 3-4-5 polynomial motion curve during 0 of 140, s = 40, ret urn wit h
sine acceler ation motion curve during 0 of 100, and s = 80. The cam rotates count er- clock-
wise . The minimum radius rp of t he cam is 100 mm . The value of offset e is 40 mm .
First we calculate t he displacement s of t he follower for different values of t he cam angle
according t o t he given motion curve . For t he rise wit h 3-4-5 polynomial motion curve , Eq . 5-
9 is used . For t he r eturn wit h sine acceleration motion curve , Eq . 5-5 is used . Table 5-1 list s
some s vs . data .
Table 5-1 Some s vs . data
No . 0 3 1 J 2 a 3 x 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 0 12 G 13 ^ 14 v 18
/ () 0 3 20 a 40 x 60 80 100 120 140 180 200 0 220 G 240 ^ 260 u 280 v 360
s/ mm 0 3 1 . 86 11 J . 6 29 a . 4 50 x . 6 68 . 4 78 . 1 80 w 76 . 1 55 . 5 24 . 5 3 . 89 0
If t he cam rota tes an angle B0 OB= count er- clockwise from t he beginning ( from Fig .
5- 16a t o b) , t he follower will rise t hrough a corr esponding distance BB = s from t he lowest po-
sition along it s guide- way . Suppose t hat t he relative positions of all links in t he mechanism in
Fig . 5- 16b are frozen and t he whole mechanism is rotated in t he direction opposite t o .
The cam will be restored to it s original position and t he follower will move to position AB, as
shown in Fig . 5-16a where t he angle bet ween A0 B0 and AB is and t he distance BB = s .
This means t ha t , if t he cam is held stationary and t he frame and t he follower ar e rotat ed
around t he centr e O of t he camshaft in t he direction opposite to , t he r elationship between
t he follower travelling distance along it s guide- way and t he inverse angle is exactly t he same as
t he desired motion curve . This is called t he pri nci ple of i nversion .
During i nversion , t he perpendicular distance from t he cent re O of t he camshaf t to t he ex-
tension of cent reline of t he follower , i. e. offset e , always stays the same . So during inversion ,
t he extension of cent reline of t he follower always st ays tangent to a circle wit h radius equal to
t he offset e and centr e a t t he centr e O of t he camshaft . This circle is called the of f set ci rcle .
Since B0 OK0 BOK , B0 OB= K0 OK = . During inversion , t he knife- edge of
t he follower always stays in contact wit h t he cam contour . So t he locus t raced by t he knife-
edge is t he cam contour , which is also called t he pitch cur ve in t his example . The minimum
circle centr ed at O and t angent to t he pitch circle is called t he base ci rcle of the cam pitch
curve , or pri me ci rcle . I t s r adius is denoted by rp . When t he knife-edge contact s t he prime
2 8
Fig . 5-16
circle , t he follower is at it s lowest position .
The procedure to design t he pitch curve using t he principle of inversion is as follows ( refer
t o Fig . 5-16a) .
(1 ) Draw t he prime circle wit h radius rp and t he offset cir cle wit h radius e . Draw t he ini-
tial position A0 B0 of t he follower according t o t he magnitude and direction of the offset . The
t angent point bet ween t he extension of t he line A0 B0 and t he offset circle is labeled K0 .
(2 ) Divide t he offset circle into a number of equal segment s in t he dir ection opposite t o
and assign st ation numbers, K0 , K1 , K2 , K3 , etc ., t o t he boundaries of t hese segment s ac-
cordi ng to t he position numbers in Table 5-1, i. e. K0 OK = .
Fig . 5-17
(3 ) Lines KA are drawn from t hese point s, making t hem all
t angent to t he offset circle . The intersections of t he lines K A and
t he pri me circle are labeled as B. The line KA can also be located
by making B0 OB= and t hen drawing line KBA tangent t o
t he offset circle .
(4 ) The corr esponding position B of t he knife edge can be lo-
cated by laying off lBB = s along t he guide- way of t he follower .
(5 ) The pitch curve is obt ained by dr awing a smoot h curve
t hrough each point B , as shown in Fig . 5-16a .
Not e:
(1 ) The pitch curve can not be drawn in the direction of .
(2 ) The cent reline of t he follower must always be tangent t o
t he offset circle .
3 8
(3 ) The point B can not be located by laying off lBB = s along OB.
(4 ) Alt hough t he curve B0 B7 is t he curve for a rise , B0 OB7 0 because B0 OB7 <
B0 OB7 = K0 OK7 =0 . Similarly, B9 OB14 > B9OB14 = K9 OK14 =0 .
(5 ) The arc B7 B9 is t he arc for out er dwell , but OB7 < OB7 + B7B7 = rp + h .
If offset e = 0, t he offset t ranslating follower becomes an i n- line t ranslating follower , as
shown in Fig . 5-17 . The steps mentioned above can be simplified to synt hesize t he pitch
curve , or cam cont our , of t he plate cam wit h in-line t ranslating knife-edge follower ( r efer to
Fig . 5-17 which is self- explanat ory ) .
5. 3. 2 Graphical Synthesis of Plate Cam with Translating Roller Follower
Suppose t hat a plate cam wit h t ranslating roller follower ( Fig . 5- 18 ) is t o be designed,
Fig . 5-18
using t he same motion curve as in t he previous section . Obvi-
ously , t he given motion curve applies to t he roller cent re . A
vir tual t ranslating knife- edge follower is welded to t he tr anslat-
ing roller follower and t he knife- edge coincides wit h t he roller
centr e . Therefore , t he motion curve of t he knife-edge is t he
same as t hat of t he roller cent re , or that of t he t ranslating roller
follower . The locus of t he knife- edge , or t he locus of t he roller
centr e, relative to t he cam can be designed according to t he
met hods mentioned in t he last section, as t he dashed curve
shown in Fig . 5- 18 . The locus is called t he pitch cur ve of t he
ca m . Many roller circles ar e drawn wit h roller radius rR and
centr e at t he point s on t he pitch curve . These roller circles rep-
resent t he positions of t he roller relative to t he cam during inver-
sion . Since t he roller is tangent to t he cam contour at all times, t he cam contour is t he enve-
Fig . 5-19
lope of t he family of t he roller cir cles . So t he cam contour is found by
drawing a smoot h curve which is tangent t o all roller circles , as t he
solid curve shown in Fig . 5-18 .
We now have two curves , t he pitch curve and t he cam contour ,
which are par allel . The minimum radius of t he pitch curve , not t he
cam cont our , is called t he radius rp of t he prime circle . For t he knife-
edge follower , t he pitch curve and t he cam cont our are t he same .
The tangent point T between t he roller and t he cam contour is a
point on t he cam contour corresponding to t he roller center B . Line
B T is a common normal n- n t o the pitch curve and t he cam contour ,
as shown in Fig . 5-19 . Note : The poi nt T can not be loca ted by laying off lB T = rR along t he
guide- way or OB .
4 8
Example 5-1
Shown in Fig . 5- 20 is a circular arc cam wit h a t ranslating offset roller follower . The cam
cont our consist s of four arcs: T0 T1 , T1 T2 T3 , T3 T4 and T4 T T0 , as t he solid arcs shown in
Fig . 5-20
Fig . 5-20 . Their centr es are point s E, F, D
and O , r espectively . The cam rotates clock-
wise . Indicate rp , 0 , s , 0 , s , and t he lift
h .
Solution :
The motion of t he roller cent re repr esent s t he
motion of the follower . The required par ameters
cannot be found wit hout t he locus of t he roller
cent re relative t o t he cam , or t he pitch curve .
The pitch curve and t he cam contour are two par-
allel curves for t he plate cam wit h roller follower .
Since t he contour of t his cam is built up by four
arcs, t he pitch curves are also built up by four
arcs, as t he dot- and-dash arcs shown in Fig . 5-
20 . Two corresponding arcs have t he same cen-
t re . rp is equal to lOB , not lO T .
Using t he principle of i nversion , t he frame
and t he follower are rotated counterclockwise and t he roller cent re will move counter-clockwise
along t he pitch curve . During inversion , t he cent reline of t he follower will always be tangent
t o t he offset cir cle . When t he roller centr e B arrives at point B0 and B2 respectively, t he fol-
lower is a t t he starting position and t he highest position of t he rise . The centr elines of t he fol-
lower are located on lines B0 K0 and B2 K2 , respectively . So the curve B0 B1 B2 is t he curve for
t he rise . Thus t he angle t hrough which t he centr eline of t he follower is invert ed from position
B0 K0 to position B2 K2 is 0 . This angle 0 is also equal t o K0 OK2 , or B0 OB2 . Note
t hat B0 OB2 0 . At t he position B2 , t he roller centr e has moved from its lowest position
B2 to it s highest position B2 along t he cent reli ne A2 B2 of t he follower . So B2 B2 = h . Note
t hat B2 Gh .
When t he roller cent re start s moving from poi nt B2 , t he distance between the roller centre
and t he cent re O of t he camshaf t will decrease i mmediately, so t here is no outer dwell for t his
cam mechanis m, i. e. s = 0. Note t hat t he circular arc B1 B2 B3 is not a curve for outer dwell .
When t he roller centr e arrives at point B4 , t he follower r et urns t o it s lowest position . So t he
curve B2 B3 B4 is t he curve for t he ret urn . When t he roller cent re is at point B4 , t he centr eline
of t he follower is loca ted on li ne B4 K4 . The angle t hrough which t he cent reline of t he follower
is inverted from t he position B2 K2 to t he position B4 K4 is 0 . This angle is also equal to
5 8
K2 OK4 , or B2 OB4 . Note : B2 OB4 0 . Obviously , t he circular arc B4 BB0 is t he
curve for t he inner dwell and K4 OK0 = B4 OB0 =s .
5. 3. 3 Analytical Synthesis of the Pitch Curve
(1 ) Pitch curve for offset t ranslating follower
The process of analytically generating t he pitch curve of a pla te cam is closely parallel t o t he
graphical met hod . A Car tesian co-ordinat e system is fixed wit h t he cam . I ts origin is located at
t he centr e O of t he camshaf t and it s y axis is parallel to the cent reline A0 B0 of t he follower
when = 0, as shown in Fig . 5-21 . Comparing Fig . 5-21 wit h Fig . 5-16a , we can see t hat in
Fig . 5-21, K0 OK = , and BB = s . Since KB= K0 B0 = s0 = r
2
p - e
2
, KB = KB+
BB = s0 + s . The co-ordinates of the roller cent re ( or knife- edge) B , or t he equations of t he
pitch curve , can now be calculated as
xB = OE = FE + OF = KG + OF = M[ ( s0 + s )sin + Necos ]
yB = BE = BG - EG = BG - FK = ( s0 + s) cos - Nesin
( 5-11)
Fig . 5-21
wher e M and N are identifiers of t he direction of t he
cam rotation and t he direction of t he offset , respective-
ly . If t he cam rotates counter- clockwise , M = + 1;
ot her wise , M = - 1 . If t he sense of t he moment of t he
velocit y vect or vB of the roller centr e i n t he rise about
t he cent re O of t he camshaft is t he same as t hat of t he
cam rotation , as shown in Fig . 5-21 and Fig . 5- 35,
t he mechanism is called a posit ive of f set mechanism
and N = + 1; ot her wise , t he mechanism is called a
negati ve of f set mechanism and N = - 1 . In any case,
t he value of e0 .
Alt hough Eq . 5-11 is derived a t a par ticular posi-
tion in t he rise , it and t he following equations (Eq . 5-
12 t o Eq . 5-33) can be used in t he whole cycle .
(2 ) Pitch curve for in-li ne t ranslating follower
If t he offset e becomes zero, t he offset t ranslating follower will become an in- line tr anslat-
ing follower ( Fig . 5-17) . So t he formulae of t he pitch curve of a plate cam wit h i n- line t rans-
lating follower can be derived dir ectly from Eq . 5-11 by set ting e equal t o zero, t hat is,
xB = M ( rp + s )sin
yB = ( rp + s) cos
( 5-12)
5. 3. 4 Analytical Synthesis of the Cam Contour
For any pitch curve and specific radius rR of roller , t here are two curves par allel to it .One is
6 8
called t he outer envelope, and t he ot her is called t he i nner envelope, as s hown in Fig .5-22 and
Fig .5-6a .If t he cam rotat es in a counter-clockwise dir ection , then t he pitch curve will be gener-
at ed around t he cent re O of t he camshaf t in t he opposite dir ection , clockwise in t his example ,
because t he pitch curve is generated by t he principle of inversion .The direction of t he tangent
line at t he poi nt B is from B t o E, as shown in Fig .5- 22 .The slope of t he t angent line BE is
Fig . 5-22
tan =
d yB
d xB
=
d yB/ d
d xB/ d
=
yB
xB
wher e xB and yB can be derived by differ entiating xB and
yB in Eq .5- 11 wit h respect to , respectively .
xB = M[ ssi n + ( s0 + s) cos - Nesin ]
yB = scos - ( s0 + s) sin - Necos
( 5-13 )
If we set KB = y
2
B + x
2
B , t hen sin = yB/ KB and
cos = xB/ KB . Line TBT is a common normal t o t he
t hr ee par allel curves . So B TD = . Now, t he co-ordi-
na tes of t he tangent point T , or t he equa tions of t he cam cont our of t he plate cam wit h roller
follower , can be derived in right t riangle TBD .
xT = xB MrR sin = xB MrR yB/ KB
yT = yB MrRcos = yB MrR xB/ KB
( 5-14)
If t he cam rotates counter-clockwise , M = + 1 ; ot herwise , M = - 1 . Note t he and
signs in Eq . 5-14 . The upper signs are used for t he outer envelope , and t he lower signs
for t he inner envelope .
Fig . 5-23
5. 3. 5 Locus of Centre of Mi lling Cutter
The normal distance from the centr e C of milling cut ter t o t he cam cont our is always equal
t o t he radius rC of t he cut ter ( Fig . 5- 23 ) . So t he locus of
t he centre of t he milli ng cut ter , t he cam contour and t he
pitch curve of a plate cam wit h roller follower are t hr ee paral-
lel curves . The locus of t he centr e of t he milling cutter is t he
out er envelope of t he cam contour wit h distance rC . The
slope of t he tangent line of the cam contour at t he point T is
t he same as t hat of t he pitch curve at t he point B . Wit h t he
help of Eq . 5-14, t he formulae of t he locus of t he cent re C
of t he milling cutt er can be derived as follows
xC = xT - MrC yB/ KB
yC = yT + MrC xB/ KB
( 5-15)
7 8
Fig . 5-24
5. 3. 6 Pressure Angle
Shown in Fig . 5-24 is a plate cam wit h t ranslating roller
follower . Ignoring friction , t he force F exer ted by t he cam
on t he follower is along t he common normal . According to
t he definition of pressure angle in Sec . 4. 3. 2, t he acute an-
gle between t he line of t ravel of t he follower and t he normal to
t he pitch curve at t he roller centre is t he pressure angle of
t he mechanism at t his position . The force F does not act
along t he line of t ravel of t he follower but will have a compo-
nent acting perpendicular t o t he follower centreline . This
force is an undesirable side- t hrust on t he follower , which re-
sult s in deflection and jammi ng of t he follower stem . The
larger t he value of , t he larger t he side- t h rust will be . If t he
side- t h rust is too large, t he follower may jam in t he guide-
way . Pressure angle changes during motion so it is necessary t o cont rol t he value of t he maxi-
mum pr essure angle ma x . Listed in Table 5- 2 are t he values of allowable pr essur e angle [] .
For a force-closed cam mechanism, it is t he spring force , not t he force from t he cam , t hat
makes t he follower move in t he ret urn st roke . In t his case, t he follower will never jam in t he
guide- way during the ret urn . Hence t he allowable pressure angle [] in t he ret urn for a force-
closed cam mechanism is quite large . The oscillating follower works mor e smoot hly t han t he
t ranslating follower .
Table 5-2 The allowable pressure angle [ ] for cam mechanism
Return i n for m- closed
cam mechanism or rise
Ret urn in force- closed
cam mechanism
T ranslating follower 25 35
Oscillating follower 35 45
70 W 80
In Fig . 5-24 , point P is the instant cent re bet ween t he cam 1 and t he follower 2 ( Refer
t o Example 3- 2 in Sec . 3. 2. 5 ) . Therefore , vP 1 = vP 2 , or 1 OP = v2 . So, OP =
v2
1
=
d s/ d t
d/ d t
=
d s
d
= s. In right t riangle BPK , t he general formula for t he pr essur e angle can be
derived .
tan =
| OP - e|
BK
=
| s- Ne |
r
2
P - e
2
+ s
=
| s- Ne |
s0 + s
( 5-16)
wher e N = + 1 for t he positive offset mechanism and N = - 1 for t he negative offset mecha-
nism . I n any case, t he value of e 0 . A suitable amount of positive offset will reduce t he
8 8
maximum pr essur e angle in t he rise . But t he maximum pressure angle in t he ret urn will be-
come larger . However , for force-closed cam mechanisms, t his may very well be acceptable be-
cause t he spring assist s t he follower to move in t he ret urn and [] in t he ret urn for force- closed
cam mechanisms is quit e large . Therefore a suitable amount of positive offset is highly recom-
mended in the force- closed cam mechanism .
As can be seen from Eq . 5-16, for t he t ranslating roller follower , an increase in rp will
defi nit ely reduce and hence ma x . However , larger cams require mor e space and t his means
mor e mass and gr eater iner tia forces which may lead t o unwanted vibr ations when speeds are
high . Therefore we should t ry to use a smaller rp . But , t he smaller t he value of rp is, t he
larger t he value of m a x will be . When rp is so small t hat m a x is equal to [] in t he rise or in
t he ret urn, t he corresponding rp is called t he mi ni mu m r adi us of the pri me ci rcle, denoted as
rp
mi n
. To calculate rp
mi n
by differentia ting Eq . 5-16 is often very difficult because of t he result-
ing complex equation . In practice , rp must satisfy st ruct ural requir ement s . The minimum val-
ue of rp satisfying t hese requirement s , denoted by r
*
p , is given by one of t he following experi-
mental st ructure formulae :
r
*
p > 1. 1 rs + rR ( 5-17a)
Fig . 5-25
if t he cam and t he shaf t ar e t he same element , as
shown in Fig . 5-25a , or
r
*
p > ( 1. 6 2. 0 ) rs + rR ( 5-17b)
if t he cam and the shaft are two different machine
element s and connected by a key , as shown in Fig .
5-25b . rs in t he i nequalities ( Eq . 5-17 a and b ) is
t he radius of t he shaft .
During t he design of a cam , r
*
p is first chosen
as a t rial value for rp . Duri ng t he calculation of t he
pitch curve and t he cam cont our using a computer
progr am, is also calculated at t he same time usi ng Eq . 5-16 and t hen t he value of is
checked . If is greater t han [] at some , rp should be enlarged or a suit able amount of pos-
itive offset adopted . Then t he pitch curve , t he cam cont our , and should be calculated again
from t he zero value of . When rp is large enough , ma x will be less than [] . Not e t hat t he
lengt h of t he guide- way should be designed t o be as long as possible and t he amount of cantilever
of t he follower should be designed t o be as s hort as possible . Ot her wise , t he follower may still
jam in t he guide- way even if ma x < [] .
5. 3. 7 Radius of Curvature
Anot her impor tant factor affecting cam size and performance is cam curva ture . The for-
mula for t he radius of curvat ure of a cam profile is:
9 8
= - M
( x
2
+ y
2
)
3/ 2
xy- xy
( 5-18)
wher e : x and y are t he coordinat es of t he cam profile ; xand yare t he first derivatives of x
and y wit h r espect to , respectively; xand yare t he second derivatives of x and y wit h re-
spect to , respectively .
If t he calculated for a cam angle is positive , it means t hat t he corresponding section of
t he cam profile is convex; ot her wise , it is concave .
For a plate cam wit h t ranslati ng roller follower , differentiating Eq . 5-11 with r espect to
, respectively , results in xB , yB , xB and yB . Substit uting t hem into Eq . 5-18 yields an
easier formula to calcula te t he radius of curvat ure B of t he pitch curve of a plate cam wit h
t ranslating roller follower :
B =
[ ( s0 + s )
2
+ ( s- Ne)
2
]
3/ 2
- ( s0 + s) ( s- s0 - s) + ( s- Ne) ( 2 s- Ne)
( 5-19)
As mentioned above , t he pitch curve , t he cam contour and t he locus of t he cent re of t he
milling cut ter of a pla te cam wit h roller follower are t hr ee parallel curves . On t he convex sec-
tion, t he radius of curvat ure T of t he cam cont our is equal to B minus rR , i. e. T =B - rR .
If B > rR , t hen T > 0 and t he cam contour is clearly defined as shown in Fig . 5-26a . If B =
rR , t hen T = 0 and t he cam contour becomes poi nted forming a cuspas shown in Fig . 5-
26b . Nat ur ally , t his condition produces very high st resses and is to be avoided . We t her efore
st rive to make t he mi nimum value of t he radius T on t he convex section larger t han an allow-
able value , usually 3 5 mm . In ot her words, on the convex section ( where B > 0) , the fol-
lowing inequality must be satisfied .
B > rR + ( 3 5 ) mm ( 5-20)
If B < rR , as shown in Fig .5-26c , t he envelope of t he family of t he roller circles is t he curve
AEBCED , which int ersect s it self at E .The material BCE will be removed af ter machining .The
result is a pointed cam contour from which t he intended motion would not be achieved .This is
called motion distortion or undercutti ng .So inequalit y ( 5-20 ) must be satisfied for all convex
sections of the pitch curve .If a cusp occurs on t he convex section , the condition can be rectified
by eit her increasing rp or r educing rR .However t he use of a smaller roller has the disadvantage
of causing higher st ress .Also, if t he roller is t oo small , t he pin of t he roller may not be st rong
enough .Usually , rR is chosen bet ween 0. 1 rp and 0. 15 rp .
On t he concave section of t he pitch curve , t he corresponding cam contour is also concave
and will not become pointed ( Fig . 5- 27 ) . However , if t he mi nimum value of t he absolute val-
ue of t he radius of curvatur e on t he concave section of t he cam contour , | T | m i n , is less t han
t he radius rC of t he milling cutter , t hen t he locus AEBCED of t he cent re of t he milling cut ter
will int ersect it self at E and undercutting will occur in the bott om of t he concave section of t he
cam contour , as t he cross-hatched area shown i n Fig . 5-27 . So | T | mi n must be greater t han
rC . In ot her words , on t he concave section ( Where B < 0) , following inequality must be sat-
0 9
Fig . 5-26
Fig . 5-27
isfied .
| B | > ( rC - rR ) or B < ( rR - rC )
( 5-21)
If under cut ting occurs on t he concave section ,
t he condition can be rectified by eit her increasing rp
or reducing rC .
Example 5-2
For t he plate cam wit h t ranslating offset roller
follower shown in Fig . 5-18, a program is required
t o calcula te t he co-ordinates of t he pitch curve , t he cam contour and t he locus of t he cent re of
t he milling cutt er , , and B . Use t he data i n Sec . 5. 3. 1 . The follower has a roller of r adius
rR = 20 mm . The cam contour is to be cut by a milling cut ter wit h r adius rC = 30 mm .
Solution :
Since t he motion curves in t he rise and t he ret urn are 3-4-5 polynomial and sine accelera tion
motion curves , respectively, Eq . 5-9 and Eq . 5- 5 are used to calculate s , s, and sin t he
rise and t he ret urn , respectively . The co-ordinates ( xB and yB ) of t he pitch curve for t his cam
are calcula ted according t o Eq . 5-11 . For the cam mechanism shown in Fig . 5- 18, t he values
of M and N i n Eq . 5- 11 should be : M = + 1 and N = + 1 . The co-ordinates ( xT and yT ) of
t he cam contour are calculated according to Eq . 5-14 . The co-ordinates ( xC and yC ) of t he
cent re of t he milling cut ter can be calculated according t o Eq . 5-15 . is calculated according
t o Eq . 5-16 . B is calculat ed according t o Eq . 5-19 .
The progr am written in TRUE BASIC computer language is as follows .
REM : ALPHA is pr essur e angle . RHOB is radius of curvat ure of t he pitch curve .
LET M = + 1
1 9
LET N = + 1
LET RP = 100
LET E = 40
LET RR = 20
LET RC = 30
LET H = 80
LET DELTA0 = 140 * PI/ 180
LET DELTAS = 40 * PI/ 180
LET DELTA01 = 100 * PI/ 180
LET DELTAS1 = 80 * PI/ 180
LET S0 = SQR( RP
2 - E
2)
FOR I = 0 TO 360 STEP 2
LET DELTA = I * PI/ 180
I F DELTA < = DELTA0 THEN
LET D2 = DELTA/ DELTA0
LET S = H * (10 * D2
3 - 15 * D2
4 + 6 * D2
5 )
LET S1 = H * ( 30 * D2
2 - 60 * D2
3 + 30 * D2
4 )/ DELTA0
LET S11 = H * (60 * D2 - 180 * D2
2 + 120 * D2
3 )/ DELTA0
2
ELSE IF DELTA < = ( DELTA0 + DELTAS) THEN
LET S = H
LET S1 = 0
LET S11 = 0
ELSE IF DELTA < = ( DELTA0 + DELTAS + DELTA01 ) THEN
LET D4 = ( DELTA - DELTA0 - DELTAS)/ DELTA01
LET S = H * (1 - D4 + 1/ ( 2 * PI ) * SI N(2 * PI * D4 ) )
LET S1 = - H/ DELTA01 * ( 1 - COS(2 * PI * D4 ) )
LET S11 = - 2 * PI * H/ DELTA01
2 * SI N(2 * PI * D4)
ELSE
LET S = 0
LET S1 = 0
LET S11 = 0
END IF
LET XB = M * ( ( S0 + S) * SI N( DELTA) + N * E * COS( DELTA) )
LET YB = ( S0 + S) * COS( DELTA) - N * E * SI N( DELT A)
LET XB1 = M * ( S1 * SI N ( DELTA ) + ( S0 + S ) * COS ( DELTA ) - N * E * SI N
( DELTA) )
LET YB1 = S1 * COS( DELTA) - ( S0 + S) * SI N( DELTA) - N * E * COS( DELTA)
LET KB = SQR( XB1
2 + YB1
2 )
2 9
LET XT = XB + M * RR * YB1/ KB
LET YT = YB - M * RR * XB1/ KB
LET XC = XT - M * RC * YB1/ KB
LET YC = YT + M * RC * XB1/ KB
LET ALPH A = ATN( ABS( S1 - N * E)/ ( S0 + S) )
LET NUME = ( ( S0 + S)
2 + ( S1 - N * E)
2 )
( 3/ 2)
LET DENO = - ( S0 + S) * ( S11 - S0 - S) + ( S1 - N * E) * (2 * S1 - N * E)
LET RHOB = N UME/ DENO
PRI NT I , XB, YB, XT , YT , XC, YC, ALPHA * 180/ PI , RHOB
NEXT I
END
Some of the out put dat a are listed in Table 5-3 for refer ence .
Table 5-3 Some output data of Example 5-2
I () xB yB xT yT xC yC () B
110 y 142 5 . 40 - 94 5 . 395 124 . 15 - 86 c . 201 151 b . 52 - 98 . 492 4 . 186 114 . 77
240 y - 120 5 . 60 - 23 5 . 443 - 101 . 44 - 29 c . 162 - 130 b . 19 - 20 . 583 46 . 618 175 . 73
5. 4 P l a t e Ca m w i t h Os c i l l a t i n g R o l l e r F o l l o w e r
In t his mechanis m, as s hown in Fig . 5-28, t he follower oscillat es according to
Fig . 5-28
t he given motion curve while t he cam rota tes conti n-
uously . The angular displacement of t he follower is
t he angle .The angular lift of the follower is ma x .
The motion equations derived in Sec .5 .2 can also ap-
ply t o t he oscillating follower so long as s is replaced
by and h by ma x . For example , t he - formula
for t he rise of t he oscillating follower wit h sine accel-
er ation motion curve can be tr ansla ted from Eq .5-4
as follows .
= ma x
0
-
1
2
si n 2

0
5. 4. 1 Graphical Synthesis
Before designing t his cam , the following da ta
should be provided: t he r adius of prime cir cle (or t he
smallest r adius of pitch curve ) rp , t he distance lO A
bet ween t he two pivot s of t he cam and t he follower , t he lengt h lAB of t he follower arm, t he
3 9
initial stat us of t he follower ( left or right ) , t he direction of , t he motion curve - , and
t he radius of roller rR . Similar to t he graphical met hod used for t he tr ansla ting follower , t he
cam is held stationary while t he frame and t he follower ar e inver ted around t he cent re O of t he
cams haft in t he dir ection opposite to . During inversion, t he pivot A of t he follower moves
in the direction opposite to on a circle wit h cent re at O, which is called t he pivot ci rcle ,
i. e. , A0 OA = . At t he same time , t he follower swi ngs outward t h rough an angle corre-
sponding t o t he rela tive to t he frame according to t he known motion curve , i. e. , BAB =
and lAB = lAB = lA
0
B
0
. Note : The t hree points O, B, and B , are not located on same
st raight line . The locus of t he roller cent re B relative to t he cam is called t he pitch curve ,
shown as t he dot-and-dash curve in Fig . 5-28 . The cam cont our is tangent t o all roller circles .
Draw many roller circles wit h radius rR and cent re at points on t he pitch curve . The cam con-
tour is obtained by drawing a smoot h curve tangent to t he family of all roller cir cles , as t he sol-
id curve shown i n Fig . 5-28 .
Since t he follower arm must have some physical dimensions , t he side edge of t he st raight
arm of t he follower may interfere wit h t he cam contour . I t is necessary t o check t hat t his will
not occur at all positions . To avoid interference , t he arm may be designed as a bent rod, as
shown in Fig . 5-5e .
5. 4. 2 Analytical Synthesis of Pitch Curve
The procedure t o synt hesize the pitch curve analytically is closely parallel to t hat in t he
graphical met hod . A car tesian co-ordinate system is fixed wit h t he cam . I ts origin is located at
t he cent re O of t he camshaft and it s y axis coincides wit h t he cent re line OA0 when = 0, as
shown i n Fig . 5-28 . The angle 0 bet ween t he lowest position A0 B0 of follower arm and t he
cent re line OA0 can be calcula ted as
0 = arccos
l
2
O A + l
2
AB - r
2
p
2 lO A lAB
= arct an
(2 lOA lAB )
2
- ( l
2
OA + l
2
AB - r
2
p )
2
( l
2
O A + l
2
AB - r
2
p )
( 5-22)
As we learned during gr aphical synt hesis , A0 OA =, OAB= 0 , BAB = and
lAB = lA
0
B
0
= lAB . Thus t he co-ordinates of t he roller cent re B, or t he equations of t he pitch
curve , can be derived in Fig . 5-28 .
xB = OE - BG = M [ lOA si n + NlAB si n ( 0 + - N) ]
yB = AE - AG = lO A cos- lAB cos ( 0 + - N)
( 5-23)
wher e M is t he coefficient of t he direction of t he cam rotation and N is t he oscillating coeffi-
cient of t he follower . If t he cam rotates counter-clockwise, M = + 1; ot her wise, M = - 1 .
If t he swing direction of t he follower in t he rise is t he same as t hat of t he cam ( as shown i n Fig .
5-29 and Fig . 5-36 ) , N = + 1; ot her wise ( as shown in Fig . 5-28) , N = - 1 .
5. 4. 3 Analytical Synthesis of Cam Contour and Locus of the Centre of Milling Cutter
The pitch curve, t he cam contour and t he locus of t he cent re of t he milling cutter of a plate
4 9
cam wit h roller follower are t hree parallel curves, no matter whet her t he follower tr anslates or
oscillates . Therefore , for t he plate cam wit h oscilla ting roller follower , Eq . 5-14 can also be
used to calcula te t he co-ordinates ( x T and yT ) of it s cam cont our . For t he same reason , t he lo-
cus of t he cent re ( xC and yC ) of t he milling cut ter can also be calculated by Eq . 5-15 . Note
t hat , for t he oscilla ting roller follower , t he xB and yB ar e not t hose in Eq . 5-13 . They must
be derived by differ entiating the xB and yB in Eq . 5-23 wit h r espect to , respectively .
5. 4. 4 Radius of Curvature of the Pitch Curve
Differentiating xB and yB in Eq . 5-23 wit h r espect to result s i n xB , yB , xB and yB ,
t hen substit uting t hem into Eq . 5- 18 yields an easier formula for t he radius of curvat ure B of
t he pitch curve of t he plate cam wit h oscillating roller follower :
B =
[ l
2
OA + l
2
AB ( 1 - - )
2
- 2 lOA lAB ( 1 - N) cos (0 + ) ]
3/ 2
l
2
OA + l
2
AB (1 - N)
3
- lOA lAB K
( 5-24)
wher e K = (1 - N) ( 2 - N) cos (0 + ) + sin (0 + ) .
Similar to the plate cam wit h tr anslati ng roller follower , it is necessary t o check t he pres-
ence of cusps and undercutting of t he cam contour usi ng t he inequalities 5-20 and 5- 21 .
In t he absence of friction, t he for ce F exer ted by t he cam on t he follower acts along t he
normal n- n to t he pitch curve at t he roller centr e . By definition , the pressure angle of a
plate cam wit h oscillating roller follower is t he acute angle bet ween the normal n-n to t he pitch
curve a t t he roller centr e and t he line perpendicular to t he follower cent reline AB , as shown in
Fig . 5- 28 . According to the t heorem of th ree- cent res, t he intersection point P bet ween t he
normal n- n and t he frame OA is t he i nstant centr e bet ween t he cam 1 and t he follower 2,
i . e . , vP 1 = vP 2 , or 1 lO P = 2 lA P .
Since 1 N ( lA P - lOA ) = 2 lA P , lA P =
1 lO A
1 - N2
=
lOA
1 - N
where is t he derivative of
wit h r espect to .
A line PD is drawn from t he point P perpendicular to t he follower arm AB , as shown in
Fig . 5-28 . In right t riangle PBD, BPD = .
tan =
lBD
lP D
=
lAB - lAD
lPD
=
lAB - lA P cos ( 0 + )
lA P sin ( 0 + )
Substit uting lA P int o t he last formula will derive t he general formula to calculate .
tan =
| lAB (1 - N) - lOA cos ( 0 + ) |
lOA sin ( 0 + )
( 5-25)
During t he calculation of t he pitch curve and t he cam contour using a computer program ,
is also calculated at t he same time using Eq . 5- 25 and t hen t he value of is checked . The
value of [] is listed in Table 5-2 . If is grea ter t han [] at some , rp and/ or lAB s hould be
5 9
changed . Then t he pitch curve, t he cam contour , and should be calculated agai n from t he
zero value of . Note t hat , for t he oscilla ting roller follower , ma x may not be decr eased if on-
ly rp is enlarged . There is an optimal lAB corresponding t o each rp so that m a x is mi nimised . If
rp is large enough and lAB is t he optimal lengt h correspondi ng t o t he rp , t hen ma x will be less
t han [] .
Example 5-3
Shown in Fig . 5-29 is a circular cam wit h an oscillating roller follower AB . The cam ro-
tates about camshaft O clockwise . Indicate rp , 0 , s , 0 , s , m a x , and of t he mecha-
nism at t he position shown .
Solution :
Similar t o Example 5-1, t he pitch curve must be dr awn first since t he r equir ed
Fig . 5-29
par ameters cannot be found without t he pitch
curve . The pitch curve of t his cir cular cam is also a
circle , as t he dot- and- das h cir cle shown in Fig . 5-
29 . The smallest radius of t he pitch curve is t he ra-
dius of t he prime circle, i. e. , lOB0
= rp .
From t he principle of inversion , the pivot A
of t he oscillati ng follower moves on t he pivot circle
in t he direction opposite to while t he roller cen-
t re B moves on t he pitch curve in t he direction op-
posite to . Note t hat t he cent re of t he pivot circle
is t he centr e O of t he camshaft , not t he cir cle cen-
t re D . When t he roller cent re B arrives a t point
B0 and B1 , t he distance between t he roller centr e
and t he camshaf t is t he smallest and t he largest ,
respectively, or t he follower is at t he lowest and highest position , respectively . When t he
roller cent re arrives at point B0 and B1 , t he corresponding position of the follower pivot is lo-
cated at points A0 and A1 , r espectively . Where : lA
0
B
0
= lA
1
B
1
= lAB . When t he roller centre
moves from t he point B0 to t he poi nt B1 along t he pitch curve in t he direction opposite to ,
t he frame rotates from OA0 to OA1 in t he same direction . So A0 OA1 =0 . There is neit her
outer nor inner dwell , so t he r emaining angle is 0 , as s hown in Fig . 5-29 . Note : Alt hough
t he half circle B0 BB1 of t he pitch circle is a curve for t he rise , 0 B0 OB1 = 180.
Position A1 B1 is t he highest position of t he follower . Let t he oscillating follower swing
back around t he pivot A1 . When t he roller cent re contact s wit h t he pri me circle at point B1 ,
t he follower is at its lowest position . So B1 A1 B1 = ma x .
The normal t o t he circular pitch curve passes t hrough t he circle cent re D . The pressure
6 9
angle of t he mechanism at t he position shown is indicated in Fig . 5- 29 according to t he defi-
nition of t he pressure angle .
5. 5 P l a t e Ca m w i t h T r a ns l a t i ng F l a t - f a c e d F o l l o w e r
For t he plate cam wit h t ranslating flat- faced follower as shown in Fig . 5- 30, if t her e are
t wo parallel sliding pairs between t he follower and the frame , t hen one of t he guide- ways is a
redundant const raint . The motion of t he follower remains t he same no matter whether the fol-
lower is in-line or offset . It is convenient t o design t his kind of plate cam according to t he in-
line configur ation . Note t hat t his is not t rue for t he translating roller follower .
5. 5. 1 Graphical Synthesis
Similar to t he roller follower , t he int ersection B of t he cent reline of t he follower stem
Fig . 5-30
and the face of t he follower is tr eat ed as the knife- edge of
a vir tual knife- edge follower which is fixed to t he flat-
faced follower . In t his way, t he motion curve of t he flat-
faced follower applies also to t he vir tual knife- edge follow-
er . The design met hod for t he t ranslating in-line knife-
edge follower mentioned in Sec . 5. 3. 1 can be used to de-
sign t he locus of t he knife-edge of t he virt ual knife- edge
follower r elative to t he cam ( refer t o Fig . 5-17) , shown
as t he dot- and-dash curve in Fig . 5-30 . The locus is also
t he locus of t he intersection B relative to t he cam , which
is called t he pitch curve . I n Fig . 5- 30, B0 OB = and
BB = s . Since t he fla t face of t he follower is always per-
pendicular to t he centr eline of t he follower , a line is
drawn a t each of t hese points B perpendicular to t he cen-
tr eline of t he follower to represent t he position line of t he flat face of t he follower during inver-
sion . Duri ng i nversion , t he cam contour is always tangent to t he flat face of t he follower . So
t he cam contour may be drawn as a smoot h curve tangent to t he family of t he position lines of
t he flat face, shown as t he solid curve in Fig . 5-30 . As can be seen , t he cam contour is t he lo-
cus of tangent point T relative t o t he cam .
5. 5. 2 Analytical Synthesis
Similar to the plate cam wit h tr anslati ng roller follower , a Cartesian co-ordinate system is
fixed wit h t he cam . I ts origin is loca ted at t he cent re of t he camshaft and it s y axis coincides
wit h t he centr eline A0 B0 of t he follower when = 0, as shown in Fig . 5-30 . Since t he pitch
curve of t he plate cam wit h t ranslating flat- faced follower is t he same as t hat of t he plate cam
7 9
wit h t ranslating in- line roller ( or knife- edge) follower , Eq . 5-12 can be used to calculate t he
Fig . 5-31
co-ordi nates of t he pitch curve .
In Fig . 5-31, t he intersection D of t he common normal
passing t hrough t he t angent point T and t he line P13 P23 is
t he i nstant cent re P12 of t he cam 1 and t he follower 2 . So
vD 1 = vD2 , or 1 lOD = v2 . Therefore ,
lOD =
v2
1
=
d s/ d t
d/ d t
=
d s
d
= s
In Fig . 5-30, B0 OB = , lOD = s, and lBB = s .
So lD T = lOB = rp + s . The co-ordinates ( xT and yT ) of t he
t angent point T , or t he equations of t he cam contour , can
be derived by a met hod similar to that used to derive Eq . 5-11 .
xT = M[ ( rp + s) sin + scos ]
yT = ( rp + s) cos - ssin
( 5-26)
If t he cam rotates counter-clockwise, M = + 1; ot herwise M = - 1 .
As distinct from t hose of plate cams wit h roller follower , t he pitch curve and t he cam con-
tour of t he plate cam wit h flat- faced follower ar e not t wo parallel curves . In t he sections of out-
er or inner dwell , l BT = lOD = s= 0 . The point B coi ncides wit h t he tangent poi nt T . There-
fore , t he pitch curve and t he cam contour are coincident in t hese two sections . In t he sections
of the rise and t he ret urn, lB T = lOD = s0 . The point B does not coincide wit h t he tangent
point T . Ther efor e, the pitch curve and t he cam cont our are not coincident i n t hese t wo sec-
tions .
5. 5. 3 Locus of the Centre of Mi lling Cutter
For a flat- faced follower , t he locus of t he cent re of the milli ng cut ter is an outer envelop
par allel to t he cam cont our , not to t he pitch curve . The formulae for t he locus of t he cent re C
of t he milling cut ter can t herefore be derived direfctly by t ransforming Eq . 5-15 ,
xC = xT - MrC yT/ KT
yC = yT + MrC xT/ KT
( 5-27)
wher e xT and yT are t hose in Eq . 5- 26 and KT = y
2
T + x
2
T . The formulae of xT and yT can
be derived by differ entiating Eq . 5-26 wit h respect to , r espectively .
5. 5. 4 Radius of Curvature of Cam Contour and Radius of Prime Circle
The value of for t his mechanism is always zero, as shown in Fig . 5-31 . Ther efor e, as
distinct from t he plat e cam wit h t ranslating roller follower , rp mi n is not restricted by [] .
However , if rp is t oo small , it will be impossible to design a cam cont our t o tr ansmit t he de-
sired motion . For example, in graphical drawing, when a small rp is used, the flat face of t he
8 9
follower occurs at lines 1, 2, 3, etc ., as shown in Fig . 5-32 . A practical cam contour can-
not be drawn tangent to all t hese flat faces, since t he li ne 2 lies out side t he i ntersection of t he
lines 1 and 3 . The cam contour shown on t he computer screen would be an intersecti ng curve
AEBCED . The curve BC is concave . So t he act ual cam contour AED aft er machi ning cannot
drive t he follower into position 2, i . e . , t he follower cannot perform t he desired motion .
Fig . 5-32
The concavit y and int ersection of the cam cont our can be
checked by observing t he cafm contour on t he computer scr een or
by calculating t he radius of curvat ur e of t he cam contour . Dif-
ferentiating Eq . 5-26 wit h respect t o results in x T , yT , xT
and yT . Substit uting t hem int o Eq . 5- 18 yields an easier formu-
la for :
T = rp + s + s ( 5-28)
wher e sis t he quasi- acceleration which is negative in t he second
half of t he rise and t he first half of t he ret urn . From Eq . 5-28
we can see t hat , if rp is too small , T may be nega tive at some
cam angles . In t hese cases, t he cam cont our will be concave , just as t he curve BC in Fig . 5-
32 . Therefor e , in order to avoid concavit y and i ntersection , rp must be large enough so t hat
T is always positive . In practical use, all T should be larger t han an allowable value [T ] .
y, [T ] = (3 5) mm . rp is chosen by t he experi mental struct ure formula Eq . 5-
17 . During t he calculation of t he co-ordinates of t he cam contour by computer , T is also calcu-
lat ed at the same ti me . If T is less t han [T ] at some , rp should be enlarged and t hen t he
cam contour and T should be calculated agai n from t he zero value of . When rp is large
enough, all T will be larger t han [T ] for all values of and all sections of t he cam contour
will be convex .
5. 5. 5 Width of the Flat Face
The widt h of t he fla t face should be large enough to allow t he cam contour to be tangent to
t he flat face at any time ( refer to Fig . 5-30 ) . The flat face usually has a circular boundary
whose radius rF must be (3 4) mm larger t han t he maximum dist ance lB T ) ma x from any t an-
gent point T to t he point B (r efer to Fig . 5-31) . This distance can be easily picked off in t he
cam drawi ng . However , it can also be found easily by t he analytical met hod . As shown in
Fig . 5-31, lB T = lOD = | s| . During t he calculation of t he coordina tes of t he cam contour by
comput er , all values of scorrespondi ng t o all in t he rise and t he r eturn have been calculated .
Then t he maximum value of all | s| , | s| ma x , can be found .The act ual value of rF should be 3
4 mm larger t han | s| ma x .
*
5. 6 P l a t e Ca m w i t h Os c i l l a t i n g F l a t - f a c e d F o l l o w e r
In t his cam mechanism ( Fig . 5- 33 ) , the follower oscillates according to a given
9 9
Fig . 5-33
motion curve while t he cam rotates conti nuously .
If t he extension of t he flat- face of t he follower pass-
es t hrough t he pivot A of t he follower , t he follow-
er is called an i n- li ne oscill ati ng f l at f aced follow-
er ; other wise , an of f set oscill at ing f l at- f aced
f ollower . The perpendicular distance from t he
pivot A t o t he extension of t he flat face of t he fol-
lower is called t he of f set , denoted by e . The cir-
cle cent red at t he pivot A wit h t he offset e as a ra-
dius is called of f set ci rcle .
5. 6. 1 Analytical Synthesis of the Cam Contour
Before synt hesizing t he cam contour , the fol-
lowing data should be provided : rp , t he lengt h
lOA of t he frame , e, t he initial status A0 E0 T0 of
t he follower , the direction of , and t he motion
curve -of t he follower .
To help t he synt hesis of t he cam contour , an auxiliary line A H par allel to t he fla t face ET
is fixed t o t he follower , as s hown i n Fig . 5-33 . A Car tesian co-ordinate system is fixed to t he
cam . I t s origi n is locat ed at t he cent re O of t he camshaft and it s y axis coincides wit h t he
frame OA0 when = 0, as shown in Fig . 5- 33 . The initial angle 0 between t he flat face of
t he follower and t he fr ame OA can be calculated in right t riangle OA0 H0 .
0 = arcsin
rp - Ze
lO A
= ar ct an
rp - Ze
l
2
O A - ( rp - Ze)
2
( 5-29)
wher e Z is t he coefficient of intersection . If t he line ET intersect s t he line AO at a poi nt be-
t ween A and O, as shown in Fig . 5- 33, Z = - 1 . Ot her wise , as shown i n Fig . 5-34, Z =
+ 1 .
Wit h t he principle of inversion, t he cam is held stationary while t he fr ame and t he flat-
faced follower are invert ed around t he cam in t he dir ection opposite t o , i. e. , A0 OA =
and lOA = lO A
0
.
Since the line AH remains par allel to t he flat face ET at all times , t he motion
curve of t he follower applies not only to t he flat face ET but also t o t he line AH . During inver-
sion , t he flat face ET and t he li ne AH swing an angle out ward relative to t he frame OA ac-
cordi ng to t he given motion curve , i. e ., OAH = 0 + .
Now t he flat face E T of t he follower is tangent t o t he cam cont our at point T . A normal
t o t he flat face t hrough t he tangent point T intersect s wit h t he extension li ne of A O a t point
P . Accordi ng to t he t heorem of t hree cent res mentioned in Sec . 3. 2. 4, t he point P is t he in-
0 0 1
Fig . 5-34
stant cent re of the cam 1 and t he follower 2, i. e. , vP 1 = vP 2 ,
1 lOP = 2 lA P . 1 N ( lA P - lO A ) = 2 lAP where : N is
t he oscillation coefficient of t he follower . If t he swing direction of
t he oscillating follower in t he rise is t he same as t hat of t he cam,
as shown in Fig . 5-33 , N = + 1 . Ot her wise , as shown in Fig .
5-34, N = - 1 . Therefore we have
lA P =
lO A 1
1 - N2
=
lOA
1 - N
wher e is t he derivative of with respect t o t he cam angle .
Since A0 OA = OAG = and OAH = 0 + ,
EAD = JT E = HAG = OAG - OA H = - 0 - . In
right t riangle APK, one can derive t he following
lE T = lAK = lAP cos (0 + ) =
lO A cos (0 + )
1 - N
( 5-30)
Now t he x and y co-ordi nates ( xT and yT ) of t he t angent point T on t he cam contour cor-
responding to t he cam angle , or t he equations of t he cam cont our , can be derived as follow .
xT = - lA D + lA I + lE J = M{ lOA sin + NZe cos [ - N( 0 + ) ]
- lO A cos ( 0 + ) sin [- N (0 + ) ]/ ( 1 - N) }
yT = lO D + lE I - lJ T = lO A cos - NZe sin [- N (0 + ) ]
- lOA cos (0 + ) cos [- N (0 + ) ]/ ( 1 - N)
( 5-31)
wher e M is t he coefficient of t he direction of t he cam rota tion . If the cam rotates counter
clockwise , M = + 1, ot herwise , M = - 1 .
5. 6. 2 Locus of the Centre of Mi lling Cutter
The locus of t he centr e of t he milling cutter is t he outer envelope of t he cam contour .
Therefore , Eq . 5-27 can also be used t o calculate t he x and y co-ordinates ( xC and yC ) of t he
locus of t he centr e C of t he milling cutter for t his cam . Not e: for t his cam , xT and yT in Eq .
5-27 should be t hose in Eq . 5- 31 , not t hose in ot her formulae .
By definition, is t he acute angle bet ween the direction of t he velocity vT of t he tangent
point T and t he normal KT to t he flat face , as shown in Fig . 5-33 . In right t riangle A TE ,
A T E is also equal to .
= A TE = arct an
lA E
l E T
= arctan
e( 1 - N)
lOA cos ( 0 + )
( 5-32)
5. 6. 4 Radius of Curvature of the Cam Contour
Differentiating xT and yT in Eq . 5-31 wit h respect to , respectively, result s in xT , xT ,
1 0 1
yT and yT . Substituting t hem int o Eq . 5-18 r esult s in an easier formula for T as follows:
T =
lO A [ ( 1 - N) (1 - 2 N) sin ( 0 + ) + cos (0 + ) ]
(1 - N)
3
+ Ze ( 5-33)
wher e , and are t he angular displacement , quasi-angular velocit y, and quasi- angular
acceleration of the follower , respectively .
During synt hesis of t he cam cont our of a plate cam wit h flat- faced follower , t he cam con-
tour must be convex in all sections, i. e. t he r adius of curvat ure T of t he cam cont our must be
positive for any . In practical design, all values of T should be larger t han an allowable value
[T ] . Usually , [T ] = 3 5 mm .
5. 6. 5 Length of the Flat Face of the Follower
To ensure t he tangency bet ween t he flat face and t he cam contour , t he flat face of t he fol-
lower must be large enough . Duri ng t he calculation of t he co-ordinates of t he cam contour , t he
distance l E T bet ween two tangent point s E and T is also calculat ed at t he same ti me using Eq .
5-30 . The maximum value ( lE T ) ma x of all lE T values can be found easily . The actual lengt h of
t he flat face should be 3 5 mm longer t han ( l E T ) m a x .
5-1 Compare t he advantages and t he disadvantages of cam mechanisms and linkage mecha-
nisms .
5-2 Recount t he advantages and t he disadvantages of t he following kinds of follower : knife-
edge follower , roller follower , flat- faced follower .
5-3 What is rigid impulse ? What is sof t impulse ?
5-4 Derive equations for s, s, and sfor a rise wit h polynomial motion t o satisfy t he follow-
ing boundary conditions: s = 0, s= 0, s= 0, s= 0 when = 0; and s = h, s= 0 , s= 0,
s= 0 when =0 .
5-5 For t he plate cam wit h t ranslating offset roller follower , is t he angle between two r adius
vect ors at two ends of t he r eturn section of t he pitch curve equal t o 0 ? Is t he difference be-
tween t he maximum radius and t he minimum r adius of t he pitch curve equal t o t he lift h of t he
follower ?
5-6 Why should we specify a value of [] ? Why is [] in t he rise less t han t hat in t he ret urn
for a force-closed cam mechanism ? Why is [] of t he t ranslating roller follower in t he rise less
t han t hat of the oscillating roller follower i n t he rise ?
5-7 For t he plate cam wit h tr ansla ting roller follower , what is positive offset configuration ?
What measure can be adopt ed t o reduce t he maxi mum pressure angle m a x in t he rise ? Is t he
sta tement The larger t he positive offset , t he bet tercorrect ?
5-8 How is rp mi n chosen initially ? How is rp checked in t he plat e cam wit h different kinds of
follower ?
2 0 1
Fig . 5-35
5-9 For t he plate cam wit h t ranslating offset roller follower as
shown in Fig . 5-35, arcs GH and IJ ar e t wo arcs wit h centr e
at O . Indicate radius of pri me circle rp , offset e , cam angle
for rise 0 , cam angle for outer dwell s , cam angle for ret urn
0 , cam angle for inner dwell s , and lift h . For t he position
shown, indicate pressure angle , displacement s and t he
corr esponding cam angle .
5-10 Under wha t conditions will t he cam contour become
pointed on t he convex section of a plat e cam wit h roller follow-
er ? How can t his be rectified ? What should be consider ed
when t he value of rR is t o be chosen ?
5-11 Under what conditions will undercutting occur on t he
concave section of t he cam contour of a plate cam wit h roller follower ? How can t his be recti-
fied ?
5-12 A plate cam wit h tr anslati ng offset roller follower similar to t hat i n Fig . 5-35 is t o have
t he following motion: a rise t hrough lif t h = 40 mm wit h a sine acceleration motion curve dur-
ing 0 = 160, s = 40, a ret urn wit h a 3-4-5 polynomial motion curve during 0 = 80, and
s = 80. The dimensions are to be : rp = 40 mm . rR = 12 mm, e = 12 mm and rC = 25 mm .
( 1) Const ruct t he pitch curve and t he cam cont our gr aphically wit h a scale of 11 . Label
in red ink the cent reline of the follower , s, t he roller and corresponding t o = 70and =
0.
(2 ) Write a program to calculat e t he co-ordinat es of the pitch curve , t he cam contour
and t he locus of t he centr e of t he milling cut ter , , and . Show t he t hree curves on a com-
put er screen .
( 3) Find t he maximum pressure angle (rise ) m a x in t he rise and t he maximum pr essure an-
gle (r e t ur n ) m a x in t he r eturn , r espectively .
( 4) If t he offset e = 0 , find (ri se ) ma x and (r e t ur n ) m a x , respectively .
(5 ) If t he follower is offset at t he ot her side wit h t he same amount of offset , find
(r ise ) ma x and (r e t u rn ) ma x , r espectively .
( 6) Compare (rise ) m a x and (r e t u rn ) ma x between problems ( 3) , (4 ) , and ( 5) .
( 7) If 0 = 30and s = 130and rC = 50 mm , calculate corresponding to of 227.
Show t he locus of t he cent re of t he milling cut ter on a computer screen . Does t he locus inter-
sect it self ?
( 8) If 0 = 30and s = 130and rR = 35 mm , calcula te corr esponding to of 205.
Show t he cam contour on t he computer screen . Does t he cam cont our intersect it self ?
5-13 Will t he motion curve change i n a pla te cam wit h t ranslating roller follower if one of fol-
lowing changes happens ?
( 1) t he direction of cam rota tion changes while t he pitch curve r emains unchanged .
3 0 1
( 2) t he radius of t he roller changes while t he cam contour remains unchanged .
(3 ) both t he cam cont our and t he radius of roller change while t he pitch curve remains
unchanged .
( 4) t he direction of offset changes while t he pitch curve and t he amount of offset remain
unchanged .
Fig . 5-36
5-14 Why should t he arm of the oscillating roller follower in some cam
mechanisms be designed as a bent rod, as shown in Fig . 5- 5e ?
5-15 Must ma x be reduced if only rp is enlarged in a plate cam wit h os-
cillating roller follower ? How can m a x be reduced ?
5-16 For t he plate cam wit h oscillating roller follower as shown in Fig .
5- 36, arcs GH and IJ ar e two arcs wit h centr e a t O . Indicate radius of
prime circle rp , cam angle for rise 0 , cam angle for outer dwell s ,
cam angle for ret urn 0 , cam angle for inner dwell s , and angular lift
m a x . For the position shown , indicat e pressure angle , angular dis-
placement of follower and t he corresponding cam angle .
5-17 A plate cam wit h an oscillating roller follower similar to t hat in
Fig . 5-36 is t o have t he following motion : an angular lift m a x = 20 with a sine accelera tion
motion curve duri ng 0 = 130, s = 30, a ret urn wit h a 3- 4-5 polynomial motion curve during
0 = 140, and s = 60. The dimensions are to be: rp = 40 mm, lOA = 80 mm , lAB = 76 mm ,
rR = 12 mm , and rC = 16 mm .
( 1) Const ruct t he pitch curve and t he cam cont our gr aphically wit h a scale of 11 . Label
in red ink t he frame OA , , centr eline AB of t he follower , t he roller and corresponding to
= 60and = 0.
(2 ) Write a program to calculat e t he co-ordinat es of the pitch curve , t he cam contour
and t he locus of t he cent re of t he milling cutter , t he pressure angle , and t he radius of curva-
t ure B of t he pitch curve . Show t he t hr ee curves on a computer scr een .
(3 ) If 0 = 30, s = 170 and rR = 30 mm , calculate B corresponding to = 165.
Show t he cam contour on a computer screen . Does t he cam contour int ersect it self ?
(4) If 0 = 30 and s = 170 and rR = 12 mm and rC = 100 mm , calculate B corre-
sponding to = 184. Show t he locus of t he cent re of t he milling cut ter on a comput er screen .
Does t he locus intersect itself ?
5-18 For a plate cam wit h t ranslating fla t- faced follower , answer the followi ng questions :
(1 ) Suppose t hat t he cam contour is designed for t he in-line configuration accordi ng to a
given motion curve but t he follower is assembled in a positive offset configuration . Does t he
motion curve change ? Compare t he forced conditions in t he t wo configurations .
( 2 ) Are t he pitch curve and t he cam contour t wo parallel curves ? Why does t he cam
cont our coincide wit h t he pitch curve in the sections of t he outer dwell and t he inner dwell ?
(3 ) Is rp m i n determined by [] ? By what is t he rp m i n determined ?
4 0 1
Fig . 5-37
( 4 ) Should t he widt h of t he flat face of t he follower be
enlarged, if the cam is redesigned wit h a larger rp and t he same mo-
tion curve ? Why ?
( 5 ) Under what conditions will t he cam contour i ntersect it-
self ? How may t his be rectified ?
(6 ) What happens if t he widt h of a flat face is too shor t ?
5-19 For t he plate cam wit h t ranslating flat- faced follower as shown
in Fig . 5-37 , arcs GH and IJ ar e two arcs wit h cent re at O . Indicate
radius of prime circle rp , cam angle for rise 0 , cam angle for out er
dwell s , cam angle for ret urn 0 , cam angle for inner dwell s , and
lif t h . For the position shown , indicat e pr essure angle , displacement s and t he correspond-
ing cam angle .
5-20 A plat e cam wit h a t ranslating fla t- faced follower similar t o that in Fig . 5-37 is to have
t he following motion: a rise t hrough lif t h = 40 mm wit h a sine acceleration motion curve dur-
ing 0 = 140, s = 50, a ret urn wit h a 3-4-5 polynomial motion curve during 0 = 110, and
s = 60. The dimensions are to be : rp = 40 mm , rC = 20 mm .
(1 ) Const ruct t he pitch curve and t he cam cont our graphically wit h a scale of 11 . Label
in red ink t he follower cent reline , s, t he flat face, t he tangent point T between t he cam con-
tour and t he flat face , and corr esponding to = 60and = 0.
(2 ) Measur e t he minimum lengt h of t he follower face on t he left side and t he right side
of t he follower stem .
( 3) Write a program to calculate t he co-ordinates of t he pitch curve , t he cam contour
and t he locus of t he centre of t he milling cutter , and T . Show the t hr ee curves on a computer
screen .
(4 ) Find t he maximum quasi-velocity in t he rise and t he mini mum quasi-velocit y in t he
ret urn . Compare t he result s wit h t hose from Problem ( 2) .
( 5 ) If 0 = 70 and s = 100, calculat e T corresponding t o = 206. Show t he cam
cont our on a computer screen . Does t he cam cont our intersect it self ?
5-21 For t he pla te cam wit h oscillating flat- faced follower as shown in Fig . 5-34, arcs GH
and IJ are t wo arcs wit h centr e at O . Indicate radius of pri me circle rp , cam angle for rise 0 ,
cam angle for outer dwell s , cam angle for r eturn 0 , cam angle for inner dwell s , and an-
gular lift ma x . For t he position shown , indicate pressure angle , angular displacement of fol-
lower and t he correspondi ng cam angle .
5-22 A plate cam wit h an oscillating flat- faced follower similar to t hat in Fig . 5-34 is t o have
t he following motion : an angular lift ma x = 20wit h a 3 - 4 - 5 polynomial motion curve during
0 = 130, s = 20, a ret urn wit h a si ne acceleration motion curve during 0 = 180, and s =
30. The dimensions are to be : rp = 30 mm , lOA = 80 mm , e = 12. 5 mm , rC = 15 mm .
( 1 ) Const ruct t he cam cont our graphically . Label in r ed ink t he fr ame OA , , t he
5 0 1
flat face , t he t angent point T , and corresponding t o = 90.
(2 ) Write a program to calculate t he coordina tes of t he cam contour and t he locus of t he
cent re of t he milling cutter , , t he distance l E T , and T . Show t he t wo curves on a computer
screen .
(3 ) If 0 = 30and s = 120, calculate T corresponding to = 26. Show t he cam con-
tour on a computer screen . Does t he cam cont our intersect it self ?
6 0 1
C h ap t e r 6
Gea r Mec h a n i s m s
6. 1 T y p e s o f Ge a r M e c h a n i sm s
Gear mechanisms are widely used in all kinds of machi nes to tr ansmit motion and power
bet ween rot ating shaft s . Circular gears have constant t ransmission ratio whereas , for non-cir-
cular gears , t he ratio varies as t he gears rotate . In t his chapter , only circular gears are consid-
er ed . Depending upon t he relative shaft s positions, circular gear mechanisms can be divided in-
to planar gear mechanisms and spatial gear mechanisms .
6. 1. 1 Planar Gear Mechanisms
Planar gear mechanisms are used to tr ansmit motion bet ween parallel shaf ts . The teet h of
t his kind of gear mechanism are dist ributed on cylindrical surfaces . Planar gear mechanisms can
be divided into spur gear mechanisms ( Fig . 6-1 ) , helical gear mechanisms ( Fig . 6-2 ) and
double- helical gear mechanisms ( Fig . 6-3) . The toot h t race of a spur gear is par allel to it s ax-
is, and t herefore a straight li ne wher eas the t oot h t race of a helical gear is a helix . A double-
helical gear , sometimes called herri ngbone gear , is a combination of t wo helical gears wit h
equal and opposit e helix angles .
Fig . 6-1 Fig . 6-2 Fig . 6-3
There ar e t hree t ypes of cylindrical gear : t he external gear , t he internal gear , and t he
rack . Two meshing external gears form an external gear pair wit h two gears rotating i n oppo-
7 0 1
site directions . as shown in Fig . 6-1 . The engagement bet ween an external gear and an inter-
nal gear forms an internal gear pair , wit h t wo gears rotating in t he same direction , as shown in
Fig . 6-4 . The smaller gear in any gear pair is normally called t he pinion . A rack can be re-
garded as a par t of a gear wit h infinite r adius . A r ack and pinion convert a rot ation int o a recti-
linear t ranslation , or a rectilinear t ranslation into a rota tion, as shown i n Fig . 6-5 .
Fig . 6-4 Fig . 6-5
6. 1. 2 Spatial Gear mechanisms
Spatial gear mechanisms ar e used t o transmit motion and power between nonpar allel
shaf ts . They can be divided into bevel gear mechanisms ( Fig . 6-6 ) , crossed helical gear
mechanisms ( Fig . 6-7 ) and worm and worm wheel mechanisms ( Fig . 6- 8) .
Fig . 6-6
The axes of two meshing bevel gear mechanisms i nt ersect each ot her and t here ar e th ree
different t ypes: st raight bevel gear mechanisms ( Fig . 6-6a ) , helical bevel gear mechanisms
( Fig . 6-6b) and spiral bevel gear mechanisms ( Fig . 6-6c) . Among t hese , t he str aight bevel
gear mechanisms are used most widely while spir al bevel gear mechanisms are suitable for t he
case of high speed and heavy loads .
The axes of t wo meshing crossed helical gears ar e neit her parallel nor intersecting . as
shown in Fig . 6-7 . Their r elative positions can be arbit rary . If t he values of t wo helix angles
are equal and t he directions of helixes are opposit e for an external pair , or t he same for an inter-
8 0 1
nal pair , t he axes become parallel and t he crossed helical gear mechanism becomes a planar heli-
cal gear mechanism .
The axes of t he component s of a worm and worm wheel mechanism are perpendicular but
nonintersecting, as shown in Fig . 6- 8 . The worm is normally t he driver and has t he smaller
diameter . The worm gear or worm wheel is t he driven gear . Usually , t he worm and worm
gear mechanism is used to provide large speed reduction .
Fig . 6-7 Fig . 6-8
Among all t he kinds of gear mechanisms, spur gear mechanisms ar e t he fundamental ones .
Therefore , our discussion star t s wit h spur gear mechanisms .
6. 2 F un d a me n t a l s o f En g a g e me n t o f T o o t h P r o f i l e s
6. 2. 1 Fundamental Law of Gearing
Transmission of motion and power between a pair of gears is accomplis hed by means of
pushing t he teet h of t he driven gear by t he t eet h of t he driving gear . Fig . 6-9 shows a pair of
meshing teet h . The drivi ng pinion rotates clockwise wit h angular velocit y 1 while t he driven
gear rotates counterclockwise wit h angular velocit y 2 . The profiles of t he teet h contact at
point K wit h t he common normal n- n .
The common normal n- n i ntersect s t he cent re line O1 O2 at point P . I t is known from
Chapter 3 t hat t he point P is t he instant centr e of velocity of t he gears, i. e . vP 1 = vP 2 or
1 O1 P = 2 O2 P . The t ransmission ratio i12 of t he t wo gears can t herefor e be written as
i12 =
1
2
=
O2 P
O1 P
(6- 1)
This means t hat t he tr ansmission ratio of two meshing gears is inversely proportional to t he
ratio of t wo line segments cut from t he cent re li ne by t he common normal of t he toot h profiles
t hrough t he contact point . This conclusion is called t he f unda ment al l aw of geari ng .
The point P given above is called t he pitch point . As t he cent re dist ance O1 O2 is con-
9 0 1
Fig . 6-9
stant , t he position of t he point P must be fi xed if a constant t ransmission
ratio i12 is r equir ed . This implies t hat , wherever the t eet h cont act , t he
common normal n- n of t he t oot h profiles t hrough t he contact poi nt must
intersect t he cent re line at a fixed poi nt P , if a constant t ransmission ratio
i12 is required . In t his case , t he locus of t he point P on t he motion plane
of t he pinion is a circle wit h it s cent re O1 and radius O1 P . This circle is
called t he pitch circle of t he pinion . Similarly , t he pitch circle of t he gear
is t he circle wit h its cent re O2 and r adius O2 P . Therefore , a pair of gears
wit h const ant t ransmission ratio corresponds kinema tically t o a pair of fric-
tion wheels ( wit h diameters equal to t he pitch circle diameters of t he gears)
which are tangent and roll wit hout slippi ng . A pair of meshing gears is
t herefore dr awn as t wo tangent circles in t he kinematic diagram of a mecha-
nism .
If t he t ransmission ratio i12 is not constant , t he pitch point P will move along t he centre
line O1 O2 accordingly . The loci of P on t he motion planes of bot h gears are now called t he
pitch curves which are not circles . This applies only for non-circular gear mechanisms .
6. 2. 2 Conjugate Profi les
Meshing profiles of teet h t hat can yield a desired t rans mission ratio are termed conjugate
profiles . For cir cular gears , t he conjugate profiles are t hose t hat provide t he desired constant
t ransmission ra tio . Gener ally speaking, for any specific t oot h profile , we can fi nd its conju-
gate profile . Theor etically . t here is an infinit y of pairs of conjugate profiles to produce any spe-
cific t ransmission r atio . Never t heless, only a few curves have been used as conjugate profiles in
practice . Among t hem, involutes are used most widely since gears using involutes as teet h pro-
files, or involute gears as t hey are called , can be manufact ured and assembled easily . In t his
chapter we discuss only involute gears .
6. 3 T h e I n vo l u t e a n d I t s P r o p e r t i e s
6. 3. 1 Generation of Involute
An involute is the curve generated by any point on a st ri ng which is unwr apped from a
fixed cylinder ( BK in Fig . 6-10 r epresents t he unwrapped lengt h ) . This is equivalent ki ne-
matically t o a rigid rod BK rolling wit hout slippi ng on t he cyli ndrical surface and any poi nt on
t he rod generates an involute . The fixed circle is called t he base circle of t he involute and t he
st raight line BK is called t he generating line . rb is t he radius of t he base circle and t he angle K
is called t he unfoldi ng angle of t he involute at point K .
0 1 1
Fig . 6-10
6. 3. 2 Properties of the Involute
An involute gener ated as above has t he following properties .
(1 ) The lengt h of t he generating line segment unrolled
from t he base circle is equal to t he arc length of t he base circle
rolled , i. e .
BK = AB
(2 ) The normal of an involut e at any point is t angent t o it s
base circle .
(3 ) I t can be shown t hat t he tangent point B of t he genera ting line wit h t he base circle is
t he curvat ure cent re of t he involute at t he point K . In ot her words, t he lengt h of the segment
BK is t he radius of curvat ure of t he involute a t t he point K, i. e .
K = BK = r
2
K - r
2
b
Fig . 6-11
(4 ) According t o proper t y (2 ) , any tangent t o a base circle
is t he common normal to t wo arbit rary i nvolutes gener ated from
t hat base circle . Mor eover , t he normal distance between t hese
t wo involutes r emains t he same , no mat ter whet her t hey unfold
in t he same direction or in t he opposite direction . The normal
distance is always equal to t he arc distance along t he base circle
bet ween t he two star ting point s of t he t wo i nvolutes . In Fig . 6-
11, for example ,
A1 B1 = A2 B2 = AB and B1 E1 = B2 E2 = BE .
(5) The shape of an involute depends only on t he radius of
it s base circle . For t he same unfolding angle K , t he smaller t he radius rb of t he base circle ,
t he smaller t he radius of curvat ure of t he involute , as shown in Fig . 6-10 . As t he radius rb of
t he base circle approaches infinit y, t he involute becomes a str aight line .
(6 ) No involute exists inside it s base circle . An involute begins from its base circle and
goes out ward .
The above proper ties provide t he founda tion for t he t heory of involute gearing .
6. 3. 3 Equation of the Involute
Suppose t hat an involut e gear shown in Fig . 6- 10 is t he driven gear in contact wit h anot her
gear at t he point K . The force acts along t he normal BK of t he involute profile if friction force
is not considered . Therefore , accordi ng t o t he definition of pressure angle , t he angle between
t he normal KB and t he velocity v K of t he point K is t he pr essur e angle K , which is also equal
t o BOK . In OBK , we have
1 1 1
tan K =
BK
rb
=
AB
rb
=
rb (K +K )
rb
=K + K
rb = rK cos K
The polar parametric equation of the involute wit h K as a parameter is t hus
rK =
rb
cos K
K = tan K -
K
(6- 2)
wher e K is defined as the involute function of t he pressure angle K and can be writ ten as K =
inv K .The inverse function K of K (or inv K ) must be calculated numerically .
If t he roll angle ( =K +K ) is taken as a par ameter , we can derive t he corresponding
par amet ric equa tion of t he i nvolute i n a r ectangular coordinate system as
x = rb (cos +sin )
y = rb ( sin - cos )
(6- 3)
6. 3. 4 Gearing of Involute Profi les
Fig . 6-12 shows a pair of meshing involut e profiles . According t o proper t y (2 ) of t he
Fig . 6-12
involute in Sec . 6. 3. 2 , t he common normal to t he meshing invo-
lute profiles t hrough t heir cont act point K must be t he common tan-
gent t o t heir base circles . The position of t his common tangent re-
mains unchanged as bot h gears rotate , as does t he common normal
t o t he involute profiles . This r esult s in a fixed pitch point P .
Therefore, according t o t he fundamental law of gearing mentioned
in Sec . 6. 2. 1 , t he t ransmission ratio will remain const ant .
The locus of t he contact point of two meshing profiles on t he
fixed plane is called t he t rajectory of cont act . As the common nor-
mal t o t he involute profiles coincides wit h t he common tangent to t he
base circles, t he contact point of t he involut e profiles should lie on
t he common tangent to t he base circles . The t rajectory of contact of
t he involute gears t herefore coincides wit h t he common tangent to
t heir base circles . This t rajectory of contact is also called t he line of
action . I t can be seen t her efore t hat t he common normal to the involute profiles, t he common
t angent to t he base circles and t he line of action ar e indeed t he same line for an involute gear
pair . Two involutes cannot contact out side t he common t angent to t he base circles . If one
point on an involute is t o come int o cont act wit h some point on anot her involute , bot h point s
will not meet until t hey arrive on t he common tangent to t he base circles .
The reaction force bet ween t he meshi ng involute profiles is exer ted along t he line of action
if t here is no friction . As t he position of the line of action st ays unchanged during motion for an
involute gear pair , t he direction and magnit ude of t he r eaction force does not change during
2 1 1
motion and t herefor e t he t ransmission of power is smoot h . This is one of t he advantages of in-
volute gears .
As shown in Fig . 6- 12, O1 N1 P is si milar to O2 N2 P . The t ransmission r atio can
t herefore be writ ten as
i12 =
1
2
=
O2 P
O1 P
=
rb2
rb1
(6- 4)
This means t hat t he t ransmission r atio depends only on t he ratio of t he r adii of t he two base
circles . A change in cent re distance does not t her efor e affect t he constant t ransmission ratio of
an involute gear pair . This proper ty is called t he separabilit y of t he centr e distance in involute
gearing and is very useful in t he assembly of involute gear mechanisms .
6. 4 S t a n d a r d I nv o l u t e S p u r Ge a r s
6. 4. 1 External Gears
Fig . 6- 13 shows a par t of an external spur gear . The toot h number of a gear is denot ed by
z , which must be an int eger . The lengt h of t he toot h along t he axial direction is called t he
f acewidt h , denoted by B .
On t he t ransverse plane, the circle wher e t he tips of t he teet h lie is called t he addendum
ci rcle (or ti p ci rcle) . The diamet er and radius of t he addendum circle are denoted by da and
ra , respectively . Similarly , t he circle where t he root s of t he teet h lie is called t he dedendum
ci rcle ( or root ci rcle) wit h diameter df and radius rf .
The space between t he profiles of two adjacent teet h and wit hin t he addendum cir-
cle is called the toot h space . The arc lengt h of t he t oot h space along an arbit ary circle is called
Fig . 6-13
t he spacewi dt h on t his circle , denoted by eK . The arc
lengt h of t he toot h along an arbit ary circle is called t he
toot h t hickness on t his cir cle , denoted by sK . The ar c dis-
tance between correspondi ng poi nt s of adjacent teet h along
an arbitary circle is called t he pitch on this circle , denoted
by pK . Obviously, pK = eK + sK . If t he diamet er of t his
circle is dK , t hen
dK = z pK ( 6-5 )
Between t he addendum circle and t he dedendum cir-
cle , t her e is an important circle which is called t he ref er-
ence ci rcle . Par ameters on t he r eference circle are st an-
dardized and denoted wit hout subscripts , such as d , s, e
and p . The module m of a gear is int roduced on t he refer-
3 1 1
ence circle as a basic parameter , which is defined as
m =
p
(6- 6)
Therefore p = e + s =m (6- 7)
The units of m are mm . The module m has been standardized as follows .
Tab 6-1 Modules of Involute Cylindrical Gears ( GB/ T 1357 1987 ) mm
First ser ies
0 w . 1 , 0 Z . 12 , 0 v . 15, 0 . 2, 0 . 25 , 0 . 3 , 0 . 4 , 0 x . 5 , 0 f . 6, 0 T . 8, 1, 1 . 25 ,
1 w . 5 , 2, 2 . 5, 3, 4, 5 , 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 , 16 , 20, 25 , 32, 40 , 50
Second ser ies
0 w . 35, 0 . 7 , 0 r . 9, 1 \ . 75, 2 t . 25, 2 . 75, ( 3 . 25 ) , 3 ^ . 5 , ( 3 . 75 ) , 4 . 5 ,
5 w . 5 , (6 . 5) , 7 , 9 , (11 ) , 14 , 18 , 22 , 28 , ( 30) , 36 , 45
Modules of t he first series are prefer able to t hose in the second series and t hose i n br acket s
should be avoided if possible .
Combini ng Eqs. (6-5) and (6- 6) will give
d = mz (6- 8)
A toot h is now divided i nt o two part s by t he reference circle . The r adial distance between
t he refer ence circle and t he addendum circle is called t he addendum and denoted by ha . The
radial distance bet ween t he reference circle and t he dedendum circle is called the dedendu m and
denot ed by hf . The radial dist ance between t he dedendum circle and addendum circle is called
toot h depth , denoted by h wit h h = ha + hf .
Sizes of t he teet h and gear ar e propor tional to t he module m . For st andard spur gears , t he
following t hree relations should be satisfied simultaneously:
ha = h
*
a m (6- 9)
hf = ( h
*
a + c
*
) m ( 6-10)
e = s = 0. 5m ( 6-11)
wher e h
*
a is called t he coe f f icient of addendu m and c
*
is called t he coe f f icient of bot tom
clearance . Bot h ar e standardized : h
*
a = 1 and c
*
= 0. 25 for t he normal toot h ; h
*
a = 0. 8 and
c
*
= 0. 3 for t he shorter t oot h . I t can be seen t hat module m reflect s the size and t he bending
st rengt h of t he toot h .
The following relationships t her efor e apply to st andard spur gears :
h = (2 h
*
a + c
*
) m ( 6-12)
da = d + 2 ha = ( z + 2 h
*
a ) m ( 6-13)
df = d - 2 hf = ( z - 2 h
*
a - 2 c
*
) m ( 6-14)
So far t he size of t he base circle and t herefore t he shape of t he involute profile of t he toot h
have not be consider ed . As is known from equa tion ( 6-2 ) of the involute , t he ratio rb/ r is
equal to t he cosine of t he pr essur e angle on t he refer ence circle . Ther efore , pressure angle
is taken as a basic par ameter to determi ne t he base cir cle , i. e .,
4 1 1
db = dcos ( 6-15)
wher e db is t he diameter of t he base cir cle . The pr essur e angle is also standardized . I t is
most commonly 20 (sometimes 15) .
The pitch on t he base cir cle is called t he base pitch and denoted by pb ( Fig . 6- 13 ) . The
distance between corr esponding sides of adjacent toot h profiles along t he common normal is
called t he nor mal pitch and denoted by pn . According t o t he proper ties of t he involute , pn is
equal t o pb and
pn = pb =
db
z
=
d
z
cos = pcos ( 6-16)
Among t he above par ameters, z , m , , h
*
a and c
*
are t he fundamental par ameters
which determine the size and shape of a standard involute gear . A standard gear here implies
t hat m , , h
*
a and c
*
take t he st andard values and e = s .
Fig . 6-14
6. 4. 2 The Rack
Fig . 6-14 s hows a part of a rack . A rack can be r e-
garded as a special form of gear wit h an infinit e number of
t eet h and its cent re at i nfinity . The radii of all circles be-
come infinite and all circles become st raight lines , such as
t he reference li ne , tip line and root line . Since t he radius
of t he base cir cle is infinite , t he involute toot h profile be-
comes a st raight line t oo and t he pressure angle remains t he same at all point s on t he toot h pro-
file , i. e . K = , which is also called t he nomi nal pressure angle (20or 15) .
As t he teet h profiles are parallel st raight lines , t he pitch r emains unchanged on t he refer-
ence line , tip line or any ot her line , i. e . pK = p =m . This implies t hat t he sum of eK and
sK is constant , alt hough neit her eK nor sK is constant . The addendum and dedendum are t he
Fig . 6-15
same as for external gears .
6. 4. 3 Internal Gears
Fig . 6-15 shows a par t of an internal gear .
The teet h ar e dist ributed on t he internal surface of
a hollow cylinder . The t oot h of an internal gear
t akes t he shape of t he toot h space of t he corre-
sponding ext ernal gear , while t he toot h space of
an internal gear takes t he shape of t oot h of t he
corr esponding external gear . The diameters of
t he addendum circle and dedendum circle are cal-
culated as follows:
5 1 1
da = d - 2 ha = ( z - 2 h
*
a ) m ( 6-17)
df = d + 2 hf = ( z + 2 h
*
a + 2 c
*
) m ( 6-18)
wher e da must not be less t han db to ensur e t hat t he profile of t he toot h on t he top is an involute
curve .
6. 5 Ge a r i ng o f I nv o l u t e S p ur Ge a r s
6. 5. 1 Proper Meshing Conditions for Involute Gears
Fig . 6-16 shows a pair of meshing gears . In t he position shown , t wo pairs of teet h con-
tact simultaneously at poi nt s M and L . To ensure a continuous t ransmission, t his sit ua tion
must occur when t he pair of t eet h on the left is coming out of mesh and t he pair of teet h on t he
right comes into mesh . According to t he propert y of t he involute , t he common tangent to t he
base circles coincides wit h t he common normal t o t he teet h profiles . In ot her words, t he con-
tact point s M and L bet ween t wo involutes must lie on t he common tangent to t he base circles
Fig . 6-16
and M L is t he common normal to t he teet h profiles . To main-
tain t he proper meshi ng of two pairs of profiles at t he same
time, t he normal distances of t he teet h M1 L1 and M2 L2 on
bot h gears must be the same . By the proper ties of involute
curves , t hese two segment s are normal pitches (or base pitch-
es ) of t he gears and we have pn1 = pn2 or pb1 = pb 2 . According
t o Eqs . (6- 16 ) and ( 6-6 ) , t his result s i n
m1 cos 1 = m2cos 2 ( 6-19)
Since bot h modules and pressure angles ar e standard parame-
ters, t he above condition implies t he following t wo practical
conditions :
m1 = m2
1 =2
( 6-20)
In ot her words, t he modules and pressure angles of t wo
meshing gears should be t he same and this proper ty is called t he
proper meshing condition for involute gears .
6. 5. 2 Centre Dist ance and Working Pressure Angle of a Gear Pair
There are t wo requir ement s i n designing a gear pair . First of all , t he backlash should be
zero t o pr event shock bet ween t he gears . The backlash is t he difference bet ween t he spacewidt h
of one gear and t he toot h t hickness of anot her , bot h measured along t he respective pitch cir-
cles . I n ot her words, to obtain zero backlash of a gear pair , t he toot h t hickness of one gear on
6 1 1
it s pitch circle should be equal to the spacewidt h of anot her on it s pitch circle , i. e . s1 = e2 and
s2 = e1 . In practice , t here should be a small amount of backlash to keep an oil film between
t he gear teet h and prevent jammi ng af ter t he gears become heated . This is provided by toler-
ances on toot h t hicknesses while t he nomi nal backlash should be zero .
Secondly, t he bott om clearance should take t he standard value c = c
*
m t o prevent profile
interference and store some lubricant between t he teet h . The bot tom clearance c is t he r adial
distance from t he dedendum circle of one gear to t he addendum circle of anot her ( Fig . 6- 17 ) .
A gear pair should be assembled wit h a corr ect cent re distance . Bot h t he backlash and bot-
tom clearance ar e rela ted t o t he cent re distance . For an external gear pair , t hese increase wit h
t he cent re distance . If bot h are standard gears and t he bott om clear ance takes t he value c = c
*
m , t he cent re distance becomes ( see Fig . 6-17)
a = ra 1 + c + rf2 = rf1 + c + ra2
= r1 + h
*
a m + c
*
m + r2 - ( h
*
a + c
*
) m
= r1 + r2
=
m
2
( z1 + z2 ) ( 6-21)
a is t he sum of t he reference r adii , as shown in Fig .
6-17a . This cent re distance a is t herefor e called t he r eference centr e distance .
As mentioned befor e, t he mes hing of two gears corresponds to t he pur e rolling of t heir
pitch circles . We normally indicate t he parameters on t he pitch circle by t he use of t he super-
script . The t ransmission r atio i12 can also be writ ten as
i12 =
1
2
=
r2
r1
=
rb 2
rb 1
=
r2 cos
r1 cos
=
r2
r1
=
z2
z1
Therefore , if t wo gears ar e mounted wit h t he refer ence cent re distance a, t heir reference
circles are tangent to each ot her and roll wit hout slipping . In t his case , t he reference circles co-
incide wit h t heir pitch cir cles . Moreover , if bot h gears ar e st andard, we have s1 = s1 = e1 =
e1 = s2 = s2 = e2 = e2 =m/ 2 and t his result s i n t he zero backlash . I t has been shown t hat t he
t wo design r equir ements are fulfilled for a pair of standard gears if t hey are mounted wit h t he
reference cent re distance a .
The term worki ng pressure angle is defined as t he angle bet ween t he velocity of pitch
point P (on bot h gears ) and t he line of action and is denoted by . From Fig . 6-17b , we
can see t hat rb1 = r1 cos 1 and rb2 = r2 cos 2 and 1 = 2 = . Therefore , t he pressure
angles on t he two pitch circles are t he same and can be t hought of as t he working pressure
angle or t he pressure angle on t he pitch circles .
Care should be taken her e t o distinguish the pitch cir cle from t he reference circle and t he
wor king pressure angle from t he pressure angle . The r eference circle and pressure angle exist
on a single gear and t hey ar e fixed af ter manufact ure . The pitch circle and working pressure
angle are defined only after a pair of gears come into engagement . Their sizes depend not only
7 1 1
Fig . 6-17
on t he gears but also on t he wor king cent re distance a= r1 + r2 . If a= a , t hen t he pitch
circles coincide wit h t he refer ence circles and = . For many reasons however , t he working
cent re distance ais sometimes not equal t o the reference centr e distance a . Then rand are
not equal t o rand , respectively, as shown in Fig . 6- 17b . Since rb = rcos , we have t he
following impor tant relationship :
Fig . 6-18
acos = acos = rb1 + rb 2 (6- 22 )
For an internal gear pair , t he refer ence centr e dis-
tance is a = r2 - r1 =
m
2
( z2 - z1 ) , which fulfills t he
t wo design r equir ements in t he case of standard gears .
The relation acos = acos remains t rue .
6. 5. 3 Meshing of a rack and pinion
Shown in Fig . 6- 18 is t he meshing of a rack and
pinion . Accordi ng t o t he proper ty of i nvolute gearing,
t he common normal t o t he teet h profiles is t he tangent
t o t he base cir cle of t he pinion . This line is also t he line of action . Since t he t oot h profile of t he
rack is a str aight line , a line perpendicular to t he str aight profile of t he r ack and tangent to t he
base circle of t he pinion is t he line of action . The line of centr es passes t hrough t he cent re of
t he pinion and is perpendicular t o t he reference line of t he rack . The i ntersection bet ween t he
line of action and t he line of cent res is t he pitch point P and OP = r1 . Accordi ng t o t he defini-
tion of working pressure angle , , t he angle bet ween t he line of action and a line parallel to
t he refer ence li ne of t he rack is t he wor king pressure angle . From Fig . 6-18, we can see
8 1 1
t hat t he working pressure angle is equal t o t he nominal pr essure angle of t he rack .
Since t he toot h profile of t he r ack is a st raight line, the positions of the line of action and
t he pitch point P r emain unchanged, no matter where t he rack is placed (nearer to or furt her
away from t he pinion ) . Therefore , . Furt hermor e, since r1cos = r1 cos = rb1 and
, we have r1 r1 .
As mentioned above , , and r1 r1 are characteristics of r ack and pinion gearing
and differ from t hose of t wo spur gears .
If a r ack and pinion pair are so mount ed t hat t he r eference line of t he rack is tangent to t he
reference circle of t he pinion, t he pitch li ne of t he r ack coincides wit h it s refer ence line , bot h
are tangent t o t he reference cir cle of t he pinion . If t he rack is placed nearer to or fur t her away
from t he pinion , t he pitch circle of the pinion and t he pitch line of t he rack remain unchanged .
However , t he r eference line of t he r ack is now separated from its pitch line .
6. 6 C o n t a c t R a t i o o f a n I nv o l u t e S p ur Ge a r S e t
Shown in Fig . 6-19 is a pair of meshing gears . The driving pinion rotates wit h angular ve-
locit y 1 clockwise and t he driven gear wit h 2 counterclockwise . The li ne of action N1 N2 cut s
t he addendum circles of t he two gears at point s B2 and B1 , r espectively . The meshing begins
at point B2 , moves along t he li ne of action and ends at point B1 . The segment B1 B2 is t here-
fore called t he act ual line of action . B2 and B1 approach N1 and N2 respectively as the r adii of
bot h addendum circles increase , but t hey cannot pass beyond N1 and N2 as an involute does not
Fig . 6-19
enter it s base cir cle . N1 N2 is t herefore t he limit of B1 B2 and called
t he t heoretical line of action .
In Fig . 6-19, two pairs of teeth contact at point s B1 and K ,
respectively . B1 K is t he normal pitch pn ( or pb ) of t he gears .
The first pair of teet h is coming out of contact . In order to get a
continuous motion t ransmission , t he second pair of teet h must have
meshed along line B2 K before t he first pair moves out of cont act .
The normal pitch of t he teet h pn (or pb ) must t hen be not greater
t han t he lengt h of t he act ual line of action B1 B2 . The cont act ratio
is defi ned as t he ra tio of t he lengt h of B1 B2 t o pb and denoted as .
The condition of continuous motion t ransmission is t hen expressed as
=
B1 B2
pb
1 (6-23 )
Since
B1 B2 = PB1 + PB2 = rb1 ( tan a1 - tan ) + rb2 ( t an a 2 - t an )
=
m
2
cos [ z1 ( tan a 1 - tan ) + z2 ( tan a2 - tan ) ] ( 6-24)
9 1 1
and pb =mcos , can be calculated as follows
=
1
2
[ z1 ( tan a 1 - tan ) + z2 ( tan a2 - tan ) ] ( 6-25)
wher e is t he working pr essur e angle , a 1 and a2 are t he pressure angles on the addendum
circles
Similarly , we have t he formulae to calculate for a rack and pinion pair :
=
1
2
z1 ( tan a 1 - tan ) +
2 h
*
a
sin cos
( 6-26)
and for an internal gear pair :
=
1
2
[ z1 ( tan a 1 - tan ) + z2 ( tan - tan a 2 ) ] ( 6-27)
The value of t he cont act r atio indica tes t he aver age number of toot h pairs in contact during
a cycle t o shar e t he load . The higher the contact ratio , t he gr eater t he aver age number of toot h
pairs to share t he load and t he higher t he capacit y of t he gear set to t ransmit t he power . In
practice , an allowance is made so t hat t he contact r atio is larger t han 1. 2 .
6. 7 M a n u f a c t ur i ng M e t h o d s o f I nv o l u t e P r o f i l e s
6. 7. 1 Cutting of Tooth Prof iles
There are various met hods for manufact uring t oot h profiles , such as die casting, pr ecision
forging, powder process , moulding, cutting and so on . Among t hem , cut ti ng is t he most
widely used . There ar e generally t wo t ypes of cut ting met hods, i. e . form cut ti ng and gener-
ating cut ti ng .
(1 ) Form Cut ting
In form cutting ( Fig . 6- 20 and Fig . 6-21 ) , t he desired toot h profile is produced by pass-
ing a cut ter t hrough t he blank . Form milli ng wit h a disk milli ng cut ter is shown in Fig . 6-20 .
The cut ter rotates and t he blank is fed axially . End milling cut ters ( Fig . 6-21 ) are used for
large modules and double helical gears . The section of t he cut ter has t he shape of t he toot h
space of t he gear to be cut . Indexing is needed after a toot h space is cut so t he accur acy of t he
gear depends on t he accuracy of t he index plate as well as t he section shape of t he cutter . As
t he shape of an involute depends on it s base radius, a different cutter is required for each num-
ber of teet h even for t he same module and same pressure angle . This is divor ced from reality :
in practice , only 8 to 26 cutters are available for each module and pressure angle . Each cut ter
is used for several differ ent numbers of teet h and an error is t herefor e int roduced . The cutting
process is interrupted by the indexing and t he production rate is low in form milli ng . I ts main
advantage is t hat it can be accomplis hed on commonly available milling machines .
0 2 1
Fig . 6-20 Fig . 6-21
( 2) Generating Cutting
In a generating cutting met hod, t he edges of a cut ter take t he form of a gear ( or rack )
wit h t he same module and pressure angle as t he gear to be cut . There is a generating motion
bet ween the cut ter and t he blank as if t he cutt er engages as a gear wit h t he gear t o be cut . By
addi ng t he cutting motion between t he cut ter and t he blank , t he profile of t he t eet h is formed
gradually by a series of cuts .
Fig . 6-22 shows t he shapi ng process wit h a pinion-shaped shaper cut ter . If z0 is t he num-
ber of teet h of t he cutter and z t he number of teet h of t he gear t o be cut , t heir transmission ra-
tio should be
i =
1
2
=
z
z0
which defines t he genera ting motion to be provided by t he kinematic chain in t he cut ti ng ma-
chine . The cutting motion is t he reciprocation of t he cutter while t he feed is t he movement of
t he cutter toward t he blank . The blank should ret reat a little as t he cut ter goes back t o pr event
scraping on t he finished flank by the cut ter .
Fig . 6-22
External gears can be cut wit h a rack-shaped shaper cutter as shown in Fig . 6-23 . The
1 2 1
edges of the cut ter are now st raight lines which can be made accura tely . That is why involute
gears ar e easy to manufact ure .
Fig . 6-23
The cutting met hod shown in Fig . 6- 23 is not continuous in t he shaping of a gear . In
mass production, hobbing shown i n Fig . 6- 24 is used i nstead of shaping . The shape of a hob is
like a screw wit h some axial slot s t o form t he cut ti ng edges . The cut ting edge takes t he shape
of a rack and t he hob is t her efore a rack- shaped cut ter . The rotation of t he hob provides t he
cutting motion and is also equivalent to t he continuous t ranslation of t he rack- shaped cutter . At
t he same time , t he blank is driven at a certain t ransmission r atio to t he cut ter by t he kinematic
chai n in the cut ting machine and t his gives t he required generating motion . Meanwhile , t he
hob is fed along the axial direction of t he blank to cut t he teet h for t he whole facewidt h . Cut-
ting is continuous and t he production ra te is t herefore improved .
Fig . 6-24
In the generating met hod , one cutter is enough for each module and pr essur e angle, in
spite of t he number of teet h of t he gear to be cut . I t is t herefor e t he most widely used met hod
t o cut gears .
6. 7. 2 Cutting a Standard Gear with Standard Rack-shaped Cutter
The profile of a st andard rack- shaped cutter shown in Fig . 6-25b is similar to t hat of a
standard r ack shown in Fig . 6-25a but t he tip line is c
*
m higher t han t he addendum line for
cutting t he profile at t he root to provide t he bot tom clearance . The cutting edge between t he
tip li ne and t he addendum line is not a st raight line and t he corr esponding gear profile cut is not
2 2 1
Fig . 6-25
involute . Therefor e, in discussing t he generating of an involute profile , we simply regard t he
standard r ack-shaped cutter as having t he same profile as t he standard rack .
To cut a standard gear , t he t ransmission ratio of t he cutter and t he blank in generating
motion is t he same as t hat of t he rack and t he gear , i. e ., r1 1 = v2 . This is accomplished by
t he kinematic chai n in t he cut ti ng machine . Furt hermore , t he reference li ne of t he cut ter
should be t angent t o t he refer ence circle of t he gear after t he feeding has fi nished , as in Fig . 6-
26 . Thus t he r eference line of t he cutter rolls wit h t he r eference circle of t he gear wit hout slip-
ping . Therefore , t he pitch, module , pressure angle , toot h t hickness and spacewidt h of t he
gear on t he reference circle are t he same as t hose on t he reference line . As t he t oot h t hickness
and spacewidt h of t he cut ter on t he reference line are equal to each ot her , t he gear is cut wit h
s = e = p/ 2 =m/ 2 . Since t he distance bet ween the reference line and t he tip line of t he cut ter
is ( h
*
a + c
*
) m and t he dedendum circle of t he gear is cut by t he tip line of t he cut ter , t he ra-
dius of dedendum circle of t he gear rf1 = r1 - ( h
*
a + c
*
) m . Note : t he addendum cir cle of
t he gear is not cut by t he dedendum line of t he cutter ! To get a standard gear , t he blank must
be cut on a lat he wit h radius ra 1 = r1 + h
*
a m .
Fig . 6-26
3 2 1
6. 7. 3 Cutter Interference
In a genera ting process , it is sometimes found t hat t he t op of t he cutt er enters t he profile
Fig . 6-27
of the gear and some par t of t he involute profile near t he root portion is re-
moved , as shown in Fig . 6-27 . This is called cutter i nter f erence and will
r educe t he contact ratio as well as t he str ength of the toot h . Obviously ,
cutter interference should be avoided or minimized .
For a rack-shaped cutt er , it can be proved t hat cutter i nterfer ence will
occur if t he addendum line of t he cut ter passes t he limit point N1 of the line
of action s hown in Fig . 6-28 . In cutting a st andard gear , t he r eference line
of t he cutter is tangent to t he r eference circle of t he gear and t he addendum
line of t he cut ter intersect s t he line of action at point B2 To prevent cutter interference , t he
point B2 should not pass point N1 , as shown in Fig . 6-28, i. e .,
Fig . 6-28
PN1 PB2
from which we obtain
1
2
m z sin
h
*
a m
sin
z
2 h
*
a
sin
2
This results in t he minimal number zm i n of teeth of

a standard spur gear cut by a standard r ackshaped cut-
ter wit hout cutter i nterfer ence .
zmi n =
2 h
*
a
sin
2
( 6- 28 )
Values of zmi n for differ ent and h
*
a values are giv-
en below .
20 15
h
*
a 1 ` 0 w . 8 1 0 . 8
zmi n 17 w 14 30 24 F
6. 8 A d d e n d um M o d i f i c a t i o n o n I nv o l u t e Ge a r s
6. 8. 1 Introduction of Addendum Modi fication
Standard gears enjoy interchangeabilit y and are widely used in many ki nd of machines .
However, t hey also have some disadvantages . The number of teet h should not be less t han
zm i n to prevent cutt er interfer ence . More compact const ruction can not be achieved wit h larger
z values . The worki ng cent re distance as hould be equal t o t he reference cent re distance a to
4 2 1
meet t he two design requirement s . No ot her values can be used . The curvat ure radius of t he
t oot h profile and t he toot h t hickness of t he pinion at the root are less t han those of t he gear .
Therefore t he st rengt h of t he pinion is much lower t han t hat of t he gear . The st rengt h of t he
standard gear mechanism is t hus lower even if t he st rengt h of t he gear is adequat e .
To improve t he performance of gears, addendum modification is employed . Gears wit h
addendum modification are also called corrected gears . The gear-cut ting machines and t he cut-
ters ar e the same as t hose for standard gears . In adition , t he tr ansmission ratio bet ween t he
cutter and t he blank r emains unchanged . The difference from cut ting standard gears is t hat t he
reference line of t he cut ter may not be tangent to t he reference circle of t he gear . As mentioned
in Sec . 6. 5. 3, r1 = r1 for r ack and pinion geari ng . The line tangent to and rolling wit hout
slippi ng on t he refer ence circle of t he gear is t he pitch line of t he rack-shaped cutt er . As men-
tioned in Sec . 6. 4. 2, t he pressur e angle and t he pitch of a rack ar e t he same on any line .
Therefore , parameters z , m , r = m z/ 2) , , and rb = ( rcos )of t he corrected gear remain
t he same as t hose of standard gears . This means t ha t differ ent por tions of t he same involute are
employed for t he profiles of t he standard gear and t he corrected gear .
6. 8. 2 Geometric Dimensions of Corrected Gears
In cut ting t he corr ected gear , t he r ackshaped cutt er is located a distance xm from t he
Fig . 6-29
position used for cut ting t he standard gear , i. e .
t he distance bet ween t he pitch line and t he reference
line is x m . Here , m is t he module and x is t he
modification coefficient . If t he cutter is placed fur-
t her away from t he position for cut ting a standard
gear , x is positive and t he modification is consid-
er ed positive . Ot her wise , if t he cut ter is placed to-
wards t he axis of t he blank, x and t he modification
are negative .
To prevent cutter interference , the modifica-
tion distance x m of t he cut ter should be sufficiently
large i. e . xm h
*
a m - N1 G, as s hown in Fig . 6-
29 . This result s i n
x h
*
a -
zsin
2
2
from which t he minimal modification coefficient xm i n can be derived using Eq . (6-28 ) :
xmi n =
h
*
a ( zm i n - z )
zmi n
( 6-29)
Obviously , xm i n > 0 if z < zm i n .When z > zm i n , t he gear can be negatively modified, as xm i n < 0 .
Since t he dedendum circle of t he gear is cut by t he tip line of t he cutter and t he cut ter has
5 2 1
ret reated x m , t he radius of t he dedendum circle rf for t he correct ed gear is now given by
rf = r - ( h
*
a + c
*
) m + x m ( 6-30)
As shown in Fig . 6-29 , t he t oot h t hickness and t he spacewidt h of a corrected gear on t he
reference cir cle ar e respectively
s =
m
2
+ 2 KJ =

2
+ 2 x tan m ( 6-31)
e =
m
2
- 2 KJ =

2
- 2 x tan m ( 6-32)
The toot h t hickness of a positively modified gear is larger t han t hat of a st andard gear .
The bendi ng st rengt h of a positively modified gear is t herefore i mproved .
6. 8. 3 Gearing of a Corrected Gear Pair
To keep zero backlash for a corrected gear pair , t he following rela tions should hold , as in
Fig . 6-30
t he case of standard gears
s1 = e2
s2 = e1
as shown in Fig . 6-30 . Then t he pitch on pitch circles of bot h gears
is
p= s1 + e1 = s2 + e2 = s1 + s2 ( 6-33)
The following formula can be derived from Eq . ( 6-33)
inv =
2 ( x1 + x 2 ) tan
z1 + z2
+ inv ( 6-34)
This is called t he gearing equation wit hout backlash . This e-
quation can be used t o calculate t he worki ng pressure angle ac-
cordi ng t o t he modification coefficient s x 1 and x2 . Then t he wor king cent re distance acan be
calculated from acos = acos . For a given specific working centr e distance a, t he work-
ing pressure angle should be calculated first from acos= a cos . Then t he sum of x 1
and x2 can be calculated by Eq . (6- 34 ) .
Fig . 6-31
If x1 + x2 0 , t hen and aa . To get t he stan-
dard bot tom clearance c = c
*
m as shown in Fig . 6-31 , t he
following relationship should hold
a= ra 1 + c
*
m + rf2 = rf1 + c
*
m + ra2
t hen t he radii of t he addendum cir cles can be derived as
ra1 = a- rf2 - c
*
m
ra2 = a- rf1 - c
*
m
( 6-35)
Attention : it can be proved t hat if x1 + x2 0, t hen
aa + ( x1 + x 2 ) m
ra 1 r1 + h
*
a m + x1 m
6 2 1
ra 2 r2 + h
*
a m + x2 m
Corrected gears are not interchangeable like standard ones .
6. 8. 4 Types of Corrected Gear Pai rs
Addendum modification overcomes t he shortcomings of standard gears t o some ext ent . By
means of positive modification , cut ter interference can be avoided for a gear wit h a number of
t eet h less t han zmi n . Correct ed gear pairs can take any working centr e distance wit hout back-
lash . Positive modification can improve t he str ength of t he pinion and t herefor e i ncrease t he
st rengt h of t he whole gear mechanism .
There are two types of corrected gear pairs , one wit h r eference cent re dist ance and t he
ot her wit h modified cent re distance .
A corrected gear pair wit h reference cent re distance is also called a height correction gear
pair wit h x1 + x2 = 0 . Normally , t he pinion is positively modified and t he gear nega tively .
Thus, the t hickness of t he t eet h incr eases on t he pinion and decreases on t he gear . This means
t hat t he str engt h of t he teet h is incr eased on t he pinion and decreased on the gear .
A gear pair wit h modified centr e distance is also called an angular correction gear pair wit h
x1 + x2 0 . This is a general case and toot h t hicknesses on bot h gears can be i ncreased or de-
cr eased . Usually, t he pinion should not be negatively modified . The working pressure angle
and t he working cent re distance can meet special requirements .
The main task in designing a corrected gear pair is t o determi ne t he modification coeffi-
cient s which should meet t he following requirements .
( a) The gearing equation wit hout backlash must be satisfied .
(b ) No cut ter interference, i. e . x1 x1 mi n and x2 x2m i n .
(c) The toot h t hickness sa on t he addendum circle s hould be large enough, i. e . sa
m .
(d ) The contact ra tio should be large enough, i. e . 1. 2 .
6. 9 H e l i c a l Ge a r s f o r P a r a l l e l Sh a f t s
6. 9. 1 Generation and Characteristics of Helical Teeth
Until now, gears have been discussed only in t he tr ansverse plane . In fact , gears always
have a cer tai n facewidt h . The profile of a planar gear is formed by a st raight line KK on a gen-
er ati ng plane as t hat plane rolls wit hout slipping on t he base cylinder . In t he case of a spur
gear , t he str aight line KK is parallel to t he axis of t he gear .The t oot h surface of t he spur gear
is t herefore an involute cyli nder , as shown in Fig . 6-32 . The toot h surfaces of t wo spur gears
are generat ed by t he same st raight line KK parallel to t he axes of the gears as t he generating
plane rolls on two base cyli nders wit h parallel axes . The t oot h surfaces of spur gears cont act on
7 2 1
a st raight line par allel t o the axes of t he gears as shown in Fig . 6- 33 . This i mplies t hat toot h
profiles go into and out of contact along t he whole facewidt h at t he same time . This will t here-
fore result in t he sudden loading and sudden unloading on teet h as toot h profiles go int o and out
of contact . As a result , vibr ation and noise ar e produced . That is why t ransmission by spur
gears is not completely smoot h .
Helical gears are produced to overcome t he shortcomings of spur gears . The st raight line
KK on t he gener ating plane is no longer par allel to t he axis of t he gear as shown in Fig . 6-34a .
As t he gener ati ng plane rolls wit hout slipping on t he base cylinder , every point on t he st raight
line KK will produce an involute . The curve connecti ng t he starting points of t he involutes on
t he base cylinder is a helix . The surface profile of a helical gear is t herefore called an i n vol ute
helicoid .
Fig . 6-32 Fig . 6-33
Fig . 6-34
The toot h surfaces of t wo helical gears for par allel shaft s are generated by t he same st raight
line KK inclined to t he axes of t he gears as t he generating plane rolls on t wo base cylinders wit h
8 2 1
Fig . 6-35
par allel axes , as s hown in Fig . 6-34b . The t oot h surfaces
of two engaging helical gears contact on a str aight li ne in-
cli ned to t he axes of t he gears . The lengt h of t he contact
line changes gr adually from zero t o maximum and t hen
from maxi mum t o zero as shown in Fig . 6-35 . The load-
ing and unloading of t he teet h become gradual and smoot h .
Tha t is why helical gears can oper ate at a higher speed .
6. 9. 2 Parameters of Helical Gears
There are two set s of parameters for a helical gear .
One set is on t he t ransverse plane and t he ot her set on t he normal plane . Gear teet h are cut by
moving or feeding t he standard t ool perpendicular t o t he normal plane . The cutters are t he
same as t hose for spur gears wit h standard paramet ers . Therefore , paramet ers on t he normal
plane are t he standard values . On t he ot her hand , it can be seen from t he genera ting process of
t he profile shown in Fig . 6-34 t ha t t he t ransverse profile of a helical gear is an involute, t he
same as in t he case of a spur gear . To make use of t he formulae for spur gears, t he par ameters
in t he equations for spur gears should be r eplaced by t hose on t he tr ansverse plane of helical
gears . Therefor e , it is necessary t o set up relationships bet ween bot h set s of parameters .
By unwrapping t he reference cylinder as s hown in Fig . 6-36, it can be seen clearly t ha t
Fig . 6-36
pn = pt cos (6-36a)
and
mn = mt cos ( 6-36b )
wher e subscript n i ndicates t he normal plane and t indicates t he t ransverse plane . is
t he helix angle on t he refer ence cylinder . It can be positive or negative , referring t o right hand-
9 2 1
ed or left handed . The relationship between n and t can be seen clearly i n a helical rack shown
in Fig . 6- 37 . abc is on t he t ransverse plane and abc on t he normal plane wit h ab = ab
and ac = accos . Then
tan n =
ac
ab
=
accos
ab
= tan t cos ( 6-37)
The addendum and dedendum of a standard helical gear can be calculat ed on t he normal
plane as
ha = h
*
a n mn ( 6-38)
hf = ( h
*
a n + c
*
n ) mn ( 6-39)
Fig . 6-37
wher e h
*
a n is t he normal coefficient of addendum and c
*
n is
t he normal coefficient of bot tom clearance . Since t he cut-
ters for helical gears are t he same as for spur gears, mn ,
h
*
a n and c
*
n take t he same standard values as for spur gears .
The refer ence diameter and centr e distance should be
calculated on the t ransverse plane as
d = z mt =
z mn
cos
(6-40 )
a =
1
2
( d1 + d2 ) =
mn ( z1 + z2 )
2cos
(6-41 )
I t can be seen from above t hat t he adjust ment of t he centre distance can be done by not on-
ly addendum modification but also changing t he heli x angle of t he gears . Fur t hermore , helical
gears can also be modified as can spur gears if necessary .
6. 9. 3 Proper Meshing Conditions for Helical Gears
As t ransverse profiles of helical gears are involutes, a pair of helical gears mounted on par-
allel shaft s should have t he same module and pressure angle on t he t ransverse plane according to
t he proper meshi ng condition of spur gears, i. e . mt l = mt 2 , t 1 = t 2 . In addition , teet h on
bot h gears should slant at t he same angle . This means 1 = - 2 for an ext ernal gear pair or
1 =2 for an internal gear pair . Since cos 1 = cos 2 , mt 1 = mt 2 and t 1 = t 2 i mply mnl = mn 2
and n1 = n 2 according t o Eq . (6- 36 ) and Eq . ( 6-37 ) . Ther efor e, t he modules and pressure
angles of bot h gears on t he normal plane ar e also equal t o each ot her , respectively . Bot h n and
mn should be standard values .
6. 9. 4 Contact Ratio for a Helical Gear Pair
By t he definition of contact ratio i n t he case of a spur gear set in Sec . 6. 6, cont act r atio
= B1 B2/ pb , where B1 B2 is t he lengt h of t he actual line of action, or t he distance moved by
t he toot h pair along t he base circle during engagement ( Refer to Fig . 6-19 ) . pb is t he base
pitch . Shown in Fig . 6- 38 are unfoldi ng base cylinders for a spur gear and helical gear . Let us
0 3 1
Fig . 6-38
compare t he meshing processes of a helical gear pair
and a spur gear pair . Line B2 B2 indica tes t he start po-
sition of meshing and B1 B1 t he end position for t he
spur gear pair . The corresponding helical gears come
into cont act also at B2 B2 , but gradually . One of t he
end faces of t he helical gear begins to come out of con-
tact at B1 B1 , but t he teet h do not get out of contact
fully until t he t oot h arrives at B1 B1 . This lasts for a
distance L as t he teet h are inclined at an angle b on
t he base cylinder . b is t he helix angle on t he base
cylinder wit h
tan b =
db
l
=
dcos t
l
= tan cos t ( 6-42)
wher e l is t he lead of t he gear . I t can be seen in Fig . 6- 38 t hat t he distance for t he helical gear
t o move along base cyli nder during t he engagement is B1 B2 + L . Therefore , t he contact ra-
tio for a helical gear pair is
=
B1 B2 + L
pbt
=
B1 B2
pbt
+
L
pbt
=+ ( 6-43)
wher e is called t he face contact r atio or overlap ratio . Hence
=
L
pbt
=
Btan b
pbt
=
Btan cos t
pt cos t
=
Bsin
mn
( 6-44)
wher e B is t he facewidt h of t he helical gear . is now called t he t ransverse cont act r atio and
can be calculated wit h the parameters on t he t ransverse plane by ( 6-25) , i. e .
=
1
2
[ z1 ( tan a t 1 - tan t ) + z2 ( tan a t 2 - tan t ) ] ( 6-45)
Due to , t he contact ratio of a helical gear pair is much higher t han that of a spur gear
pair . A large contact ratio means t hat more gear teet h ar e engaged at t he same time which
gives high st rengt h to t he gears . This is one of t he advantages of helical gears over spur gears .
6. 9. 5 Vi rtual Number of Teeth for Helical Gears
Consider t he normal plane n- n at point P on t he reference cylinder as shown in Fig . 6-39 .
The intersection of t he reference cylinder wit h t he normal plane is an ellipse wit h r as it s shor t
radius and r/ cos as its long r adius . According to t he information in Advanced Mat hemat-
ics, t he radius of curvat ure of t he ellipse at point P is
=
( r/ cos )
2
r
=
r
cos
2
A spur gear can be dr awn using t he helical gear values of , h

*
a n , c
*
n , mn and n t o re-
place r , h
*
a , c
*
, m and , r espectively . Then t he number zv of teet h of t he spur gear can
be derived as
1 3 1
zv =
2
mn
=
d
mn cos
2
=
mt z
mn cos
2
=
z
cos
3
( 6-46)
I t can be shown t hat t he t oot h profile of t he spur gear is equivalent t o t hat of a helical gear
on t he normal plane . The spur gear is called t he v ir t ual gear of t he hel ical gear . The number
zv of teet h of t he virt ual gear is called t he vir t ual number of teeth for t he helical gear . zv is used
t o select t he series number of milling cutter if a helical gear is t o be cut by a form cutter . It is
Fig . 6-39
also used to calculate t he st rengt h of t he toot h . Fur-
t hermore , t he minimum number of teet h of t he stan-
dard helical gear wit hout cutter interference can be de-
rived from (6- 46 ) as
zmi n = zv m i n cos
3
( 6-47)
wher e zv m i n is t he minimal number of t eet h of t he
standard vir tual spur gear wit hout cutter interference .
Obviously , st andard helical gears can have fewer teet h
t han standard spur gears .
Compared to spur gears, helical gears oper ate
mor e smoot hly and have higher st rengt h . The work-
ing cent re distance of a helical gear pair can be adjust-
ed by t he helix angle . Helical gears ar e t herefore
widely used for high speed or heavy load tr ansmission .
The main disadvantage of helical gears is t hat t hey
produce an axial t hrust which is harmful t o t he bearings of t he shaf ts . The helix angle is t here-
fore limited to wit hin 8 to 20t o prevent excess axial t hrust .
6. 10 W o r m Ge a r i n g
6. 10 . 1 Worm Gearing and its Characteristics
Worm gear drives shown in Fig . 6-8 ar e used t o tr ansmit motion and power between non-
intersecting and non-parallel s haft s, usually crossing at a right angle . Worms are a kind of
screw, usually right handed for convenience of cut ting , or left handed if necessary . Worm
wheels ar e the mating gears of t he worms . Worms are usually drivers to reduce t he speed . If
not self-locking, a worm wheel can also be t he driver in a so- called back-drivi ng mechanism to
incr ease t he speed . The following are t he main characteristics of wor m gear drives:
(1 ) Smoot h silent operation as screw drives .
(2 ) Greater speed reduction in a single step . This means compact designs .
(3 ) If t he lead angle of a worm is less t han t he friction angle, t he back-driving is self-lock-
ing . In t his case , only t he worm can be t he driver . This function is sometimes required for
2 3 1
safet y .
(4 ) Lower efficiency due t o t he greater relative sliding speed between t he teet h of t he
wor m and worm wheel . The friction loss may result in overhea ting and serious wear . There-
fore , brass is usually used as t he mat erial for t he worm wheel to reduce friction and wear .
6. 10 . 2 Types of Worms
Cylindrical worms ar e most widely used in indust ry . There are str aight sided axial worms
(ZA- worm , Fig . 6-40 ) , involute helicoid worms ( ZI- worm , Fig . 6- 41 ) , arc- contact worms
(ZC- worm , Fig . 6-42) and so on . The profile of a ZA- wor m on t he t ransverse plane is an
Archimedes spir al . The profile of a ZI- worm on t he tr ansverse plane is an involut e . The profile
of a ZC- worm on t he axial plane is a concave arc . Among t hese , t he ZA- worm is t he most sim-
ple and called t he common worm toget her wit h t he ZI- worm . The ZC- worm has higher power
capacit y and is more and more widely used in worm reducers . In some special cases, envelop-
ing worms ( Fig . 6-43) and spiroids ( Fig . 6-44 ) are used . These new kinds of worm drives
have higher power capacity and efficiency but are complicated in manufact ure .
Fig . 6-40
Fig . 6-41
3 3 1
Fig . 6-42 Fig . 6-43 Fig . 6-44
6. 10 . 3 Proper Meshing Conditions for Worm Drives
The t ransverse plane of a worm wheel passing t hrough t he axis of t he worm is called t he
mid-plane . The engagement bet ween a worm and a worm wheel on t he mid- plane corr esponds
t o t hat of a rack and pi nion as shown in Fig . 6-45 . Ther efor e, t he modules and pressure an-
gles of t he worm and worm wheel on t he mid- plane s hould be equal to each ot her . In ot her
words , t he module mt 2 and the pressure angle t 2 of t he worm wheel on t he t ransverse plane
should equal t he module mx 1 and t he profile angle x1 of t he worm on t he axial plane r espective-
ly, i. e .
mt 2 = mx1
t 2 = x 1
In addition , t he lead angle 1 of t he worm should be equal t o t he helix angle 2 of t he
wor m wheel in t he case t hat t hey cross at a right angle , i. e .
1 = 2
and t he directions of bot h helices should be t he same .
The above conditions are only those necessary conditions for a worm and a worm wheel to
mesh properly . In fact , t he worm wheel should be cut by a cut ter wit h t he same par ameters as
t hose of the mati ng worm . Furt hermore , t he rela tive position between t he cutter and t he
wor m wheel a t t he end of cutting s hould be t he same as t hat between t he worm and worm gear
in engagement .
6. 10 . 4 Main Parameters and Dimensions for Worm Drives
(1 ) The profile angle of worm . The axial profile angle of worm x1 is prescribed to be
20. This can be incr eased to 25in power tr ansmission or decreased to 15or 12in indexing
devices .
(2 ) The module . The series of modules for worms is somehow different from those for
gears . Modules for wor ms ar e list in Table 6-2 .
4 3 1
Fig . 6-45
( 3) The number of t hreads of t he worm z1 and t he number of teeth of a worm wheel z2 .
z1 can be chosen from 1 to 10 and z1 = 1, 2 , 4, 6 are preferable . A small number is chosen if
t he t ransmission ratio is high or self- locking in back- driving is required . A large number is tak-
en t o increase t he efficiency . z2 can be calculated from z2 = i12 z1 and values bet ween 29 70
are suggested for power t ransmission .
Table 6-2 Modules and Reference Diameters of Worms ( GB/ T 10085 1988 ) mm
Module m 1 1 . 25 1 ` . 6 2 2 v . 5 3 . 15
Mid- diameter d1 18
20 ` ,
22 I . 4
20 ` , 28
(18 ) , 22 ^ . 4,
(28) , 35 u . 5
(22 1 . 4) , 28 ,
( 35 H . 5) , 45
(28 ) , 35 . 5 ,
(45 ) , 56
Module m 4 5 6 . 3 8 10 u
Mid- diameter d1
( 31 b . 5) , 40,
(50) , 71
(40 I ) , 50 ,
(63) , 90
(50 ) , 63 ,
(80) , 112
( 63 _ ) , 80,
( 100 ) , 140
( 71 ) , 90,
( 112 ) , 160
Module m 12 . 5 16 _ 20 25
Mid- diameter d1
(90 ) , 112,
(140 ) , 200
(112 ) , 140 ,
( 180 ) , 250
( 140 H ) , 160 ,
( 224) , 315
(180 ) , 200 ,
( 280 ) , 400
(4 ) The mid-diameter d1 of worm and t he refer ence diamet er d2 of worm wheel .Since t he
wor m wheel should be cut by a cutt er wit h t he same shape as t he mating worm, t he mid-diame-
t er d1 of t he worm is st andardized to reduce t he number of cutters . D1 should be chosen toget h-
er wit h t he module from Table 6- 3. The rigidity and str engt h of t he worm shaft increase wit h
d1 .The reference diameter of worm wheel can be calculat ed by d2 = mz2 .
(5 ) The lead angle 1 of t he worm , 1 can be calculated as follows :
tan 1 =
z1 m
d1
=
mz1
d1
( 6-48)
The efficiency increases wit h increase of 1 .If 1 is less t han t he equivalent friction angle
v , t he worm gear pair is self-locking in back-drivi ng .
(6 ) The cent re distance a of t he worm gear pair .This can be calculated as follows .
5 3 1
a = r1 + r2 + x2 m =
1
2
( d1 + mz2 + 2 x2 ) ( 6-49)
Here x2 is t he modification coefficient of t he worm wheel .Worm wheels are equently mod-
ified to get standard centre distances .Since t he shape of t he worm should be t he same as t he
standard worm wheel cutter , t he worm should not be modified .
6. 11 B e ve l Ge a r s
6. 11 . 1 Types and Applications of Bevel Gears
Bevel gears shown in Fig .6- 6 are used to t ransmit motion and power between intersecting
shaf ts .The teet h of a bevel gear are distributed on the frustum of a cone .The corresponding
cylinders in cylindrical gears become cones , such as t he r eference cone, addendum cone and de-
dendum cone .The dimensions of teet h on differ ent t ransverse planes are different .For conve-
nience , par ameters and dimensions at t he large end are taken t o be standard values .The pressure
angle is nor mally 20and modules should be chosen from Table 6-3 .
Table 6-3 Modules of Bevel Gears ( GB/ T 12368 1990 ) mm
- , 1 i , 1 . 125 , 1 . 25 , 1 . 375, 1 . 5 , 1 . 75 , 2, 2 . 25, 2 . 5 , 2 k . 75 , 3 , 3 - . 25 , 3 . 5, 3 K . 75 , 4 , 4 . 5, 5, 5 . 5 , 6 , 6 . 5 , 7 , 8 , 9, 10 , -
The shaft angle of a bevel gear pair can be any r equir ed value .In most cases, t he t wo shaft s
intersect at a right angle .
As mentioned above, t here are st raight ( Fig .6- 6a ) , helical ( Fig .6-6b ) and spiral ( Fig .6-6c )
bevel gears .Str aight bevel gears are most widely used as t hey are easy to design and manufac-
ture .Spiral bevel gears operate smoot hly and have higher load capacit y . For high speed and
heavy load, spiral bevel gears ar e preferable , such as in aeroplanes, automobiles and t ractors .
Here , however , only st raight bevel gears are discussed .
6. 11 . 2 Back Cone and Virtual Gear of a Bevel Gear
The bot tom of t he reference cone is called t he ref erence ci rcle of t he bevel gear wit h it s ra-
dius r = mz , as shown in Fig .6-46 .The reference cone and t he back cone of a bevel gear have
t he same axis and t heir generat rices intersect perpendicularly at t he r eference circle .In Fig .6-
46, OPA and OPB are t he refer ence cones of pinion 1 and gear 2, respectively, while O1 PA
and O2 PB are t he back cones of pinion 1 and gear 2, respectively .In Fig .6-47 , OPA and O1 PA
are t he r eference cone and back cone of t he gear 1 .The reference cone angle of gear 2 here is
2 = 90and t he surface of t he reference cone becomes a plane .Such a bevel gear is called a
crown gear .The back cone of a crown gear is a cylinder .
The back cone can be unfolded imaginarily into a sector gear with z teet h as shown in Fig .
6-46 and furt her filled up to a full gear .This i magi nary gear is called t he v i rt ual gear of t he
bevel gear .The toot h number of t he virt ual gear is called the vi rt ual number of teet h zv of t he
6 3 1
bevel gear .The t oot h profile of t he vir tual gear is almost t he same as t hat of t he bevel gear at
t he large end .The module and pressure angle of t he virt ual gear ar e t hose of t he bevel gear .The
engagement of t he virt ual gears is equivalent to t hat of t he bevel gears .
The reference radius rv1 of t he vir t ual gear 1 is t he back cone distance O1 P as in Fig .6- 46
for t he pinion , i .e .
rv1 = O1 P =
r1
cos 1
=
z1 m
2cos 1
On t he other hand , dv1 = zv1 m .This results in
Fig . 6-46 Fig . 6-47
zv1 =
2 rv1
m
=
z1
cos 1
( 6-50)
Similarly ,
zv2 =
z2
cos 2
( 6-51)
The engagement of bevel gears can now be understood wit h t heir vir tual gears .For a pair of
bevel gears to mesh properly , t heir respective modules and pressure angles at t he large ends
should be equal .The cont act r atio of t he bevel gear set .The vir t ual number of t eet h zv s hould
not be less t han t he minimum number of teet h of t he vir tual gear .
6. 11 . 3 Parameters and Dimensions of Bevel Gears
As mentioned above , most dimensions of bevel gears are measured at t he large end .First of
all , t he reference diameter is
d = mz = 2 Rsin ( 6-52)
wher e R is t he outer cone distance and t he refer ence cone angle as shown in Fig .6-48 .The
t ransmission r atio of a gear pair is
7 3 1
Fig . 6-48
i12 =
1
2
=
z2
z1
=
d2
d1
=
si n 2
si n 1
( 6-53)
When t he s haft s of two gears intersect at a
right angle , i. e . = 1 + 2 = 90, t he t ransmission
r atio becomes
i12 = tan 2 = cot 1 ( 6-54)
and t he outer cone distance becomes
R = r
2
1 + r
2
2 =
m
2
z
2
1 + z
2
2 ( 6-55)
The addendum and dedendum ar e measur ed a-
long t he genera trix of t he back cone and t her efore
t he addendum diameter and dedendum diameter of a st andard bevel gear become
da = d + 2 ha cos = d + 2 h
*
a mcos ( 6-56)
df = d - 2 hfcos = d - 2 ( h
*
a + c
*
) mcos ( 6-57)
For t he bevel gear , h
*
a = 1 and c
*
= 0. 2, not 0. 25 .
The apexes of t he dedendum cone and t he r eference cone coincide .The dedendum angle f
and dedendum cone angle f can be calculated as follows .
f = arctan
hf
R
( 6-58)
f = - f ( 6-59)
If t he addendum cone has t he same apex as t he reference cone , t hen t he bot tom clearance
changes along t he facewidt h .I n t his case , t he addendum angle a and addendum cone angle a
can be calculated as follows .
a = arctan
ha
R
( 6-60)
a = +a ( 6-61)
Fig . 6-49
For t he gear pair to have constant bot tom
clearance everywhere along t he facewidt h, as
shown in Fig . 6-49, t he addendum angle a
should be t he same as t he dedendum angle f .
Such a design can avoid t oo small bot tom clearance
at t he small end and ensure lubrication . The ad-
dendum cone angle a in t his case becomes
a = +f ( 6-62)
In such a design , the apex of t he addendum
cone does not coincide wit h t hose of t he dedendum
cone and t he reference cone .
8 3 1
6-1 Under which conditions can a pair of gears
operate uniformly, continuously and smoot hly ?
6-2 What characteristics do involute gears have ?
6-3 What is t he contact r atio ? How does it r elate to t he numbers of teet h z1 , z2 , module m ,
pressure angle , coefficient of addendum h
*
a and wor king center dist ance a?
6-4 How can t he module , pressure angle , number of teet h and modification coefficient of a
gear be obtained when it is cut by a rack-s hape cut ter in t he generating method ?
6-5 What are t he differences between t he pitch circle and t he reference cir cle , bet ween t he
wor king pressure angle and t he pressure angle ? How ar e they related to each ot her ?
6-6 What is cut ter interference and how can it be avoided ?
6-7 Where is addendum modification useful and how do t he par ameters z , m , , ha , hf ,
d , da , df , db , s, e change in addendum modification ?
6-8 On which plane ar e t he parameters of a helical gear defined as standard values and why ?
6-9 What is t he vir tual gear of a helical gear and why is it introduced ?
6-10 What ar e t he advantages and diadvantages of helical gears ?
6-11 What is the mid-plane of a worm drive ? Why is t he mid-diameter of a worm defined as a
standard value ?
6-12 What ar e t he back cone and vir tual gear of a bevel gear ? Why are t hey introduced ?
6-13 An involute has t he radius of base circle rb =50 mm . Determine t he following .
g angle K , pr essur e angle K and radius of curvatur e K of t he involute on
t he circle rK =65 mm .
gle K and radius of circle rK if K = 20.
6-14 A st andard spur gear has pressure angle = 20, number of teet h z = 40 and tip diameter
da = 84 mm . Determine t he module m .
6-15 An involut e standard spur gear has parameters z = 26 , m = 3 mm , h
*
a = 1, = 20.
Find t he radii of curvat ure of t oot h profile on t he refer ence circle and t he tip circle and t he pres-
sur e angle on t he tip circle .
6-16 A pair of standard spur involute gears has a module of 5 mm , pressure angle = 20,
cent re distance a = 350 mm , t ransmission ratio i12 = 9/ 5 . Calculate t he numbers of teeth z1 ,
z2 , reference diameters d1 , d2 , addendum diameters da 1 , da 2 , base diameters db1 , db2 ,
t oot h t hickness s and spacewidt h e .
6-17 How many teet h would an ext ernal standard spur involute gear have when its dedendum
circle and it s base circle coincide ? Which one is bigger as t he number of teet h increases ?
6-18 For a pair of external standard spur gears, = = 20, m = 5 mm , z1 = 19 , z2 = 42 .
Calcula te t he contact r atio .
6-19 A pair of external spur gears have t he numbers of teet h z1 = 30, z2 = 40, module m = 20
9 3 1
mm , pr essur e angle = 20. Determine t he working pr essure angle when t he working cen-
tr e distance is a= 725 mm . If = 2230, find t he worki ng centre distance a.
6-20 Given a pair of external spur gears with z1 = z2 = 12, m = 10 mm , = 20, h
*
a = 1,
a= 130 mm , x 1 = x2 . Calculate x 1 and x 2 , check t he cutter i nterfer ence .
6-21 There is a pair of external standard spur gears in a shaping machi ne wit h z1 = 17, z2 =
118, m = 5 mm, = 20, h
*
a = 1, a= 337. 5 mm . The pinion is worn out and t he gear is
worn to such an extent t hat t he toot h t hickness is decr eased by 0. 75 mm . How can t he gear be
repaired by addendum modification and a new pinion be design to mesh wit h t he repaired gear ?
6-22 A pair of standard external helical gears have t he following par ameters: z1 = 20, z2 =
118, m = 5 mm, n = 20, h
*
a n = 1, B = 30 mm, a = 350 mm . Find t he helix angle , total
cont act ratio and t he virt ual numbers of teet h zv1 , zv2 .
6-23 A standard worm wheel has t he number of teet h z2 = 40, refer ence diameter d2 = 200
mm . It meshes wit h a single- t hreaded worm . Determine
(1 ) Module of t he worm gear set on t he mid- plane mt 2 and mx1 ;
(2 ) Axial pitch px 1 and lead of t he worm;
(3 ) Cent re distance a wit hout modification .
6-24 A pair of st raight bevel gears have parameters z1 = 15, z2 = 30, m = 5 mm , h
*
a = 1,
c
*
= 0. 2, = 90. Det ermine ot her di mensions d1 , d2 , da1 , da 2 , df 1 , df 2 , 1 , 2 , a 1 ,
a 2 , f1 , f2 , zv1 and zv2 with constant bott om clearance .
0 4 1
C h ap t e r 7
Gea r T r ai n s
7. 1 Ge a r T r a i n s a n d T h e i r Cl a s si f i c a t i o n
In t he previous chapter , t ransmissions wit h only a pair of gears are considered . In many
practical cases , t his is not enough . In various kinds of machines, it is of ten necessary to use
series of gears to meet different requirements . Such a t ransmission system by more than one
pair of gears is called a gear t rai n .
There are differ ent kinds of gear trains as shown i n Fig . 7- 1 . If t he positions of all gear
axes in a gear t rain are fixed , it is called an ordi nar y gear t r ai n or gear t r ai n wit h f ixed axes .
This can fur t her be divided into gear t rains wit h fixed par allel axes and gear tr ains wit h fixed
non - parallel axes . If at least one gear axis i n a gear t rai n rotates around t he ot her axis, t he
gear t rai n is called an epicyclic gear t rai n . For example , t he axis of gear 2 in Fig . 7- 3 rota tes
around t he axis of gear 3 . Therefor e , t he gear t rain in Fig . 7-3 is an epicyclic gear tr ain .
Epicyclic gear t rains can fur t her be divided into element ary epicyclic gear t rains and combined
gear tr ains . Shown in Fig . 7-3 is an elementary epicyclic gear t rai n . In t his gear t rain, t he
axis of gear 2 rot ates around t he fixed axis O - O . At t he same time, gear 2 also rotates rela-
tive t o t he link H around its axis A - A . The movement of gear 2 is similar to t ha t of a planet
in the solar system . Such gears are t herefor e called pl anet gears . The link carrying planet
gears is called t he planet carrier , denoted by H . The gears engaging wit h planet gears and ro-
tating around t he same fixed axis as t hat of t he planet carrier are called sun gears . There is one
planet carrier , two sun gears , and one or more planet gears in an elementary epicyclic gear
t rain . Sun gears and t he planet carrier are called t he f unda ment al members i n an element ary
epicycl ic gear t rai n , as t hey rotate around a fixed axis on t he frame . In such an elementary
epicyclic gear tr ain , if neit her of the two sun gears is fixed as shown in Fig . 7- 3, t he degrees
of freedom of t he mechanism are given by F =34 - 24 - 2 = 2 and it is called a di f f erenti al
gear t rai n . Ot herwise , if one of t he sun gears is fixed wit h t he fr ame as shown in Fig . 7- 4,
t he degrees of freedom of t he mechanism are given by F = 33 - 23 - 2 = 1 and t he gear t rain
is called a pl anet ary gear t rai n . A combined gear t rain is a combi nation of sever al elementary
epicyclic gear t rains or a combi nation of at least one elementary epicyclic gear tr ain wit h at least
one ordinary gear train , as shown in Fig . 7- 6 . In t his chapter , the calculation of the train ra-
tios , or t ransmission ratios , of differ ent kinds of gear tr ains will be st udied first . Lat er , appli-
1 4 1
cations, efficiency and design problems will be discussed to some extent .
Gear t rains
gear t rai ns wit h fi xed axes
gear t rains wit h fixed parallel axes
gear t rains wit h fixed non- parallel axes
epicyclic gear t rains
elementary epicyclic gear t rains
planetary gear t rains
differential gear t rai ns
combi ned gear t rains
Fig . 7-1
7. 2 T r a i n R a t i o o f a Ge a r T r a i n w i t h F i x e d Ax e s
The t rain ratio of a gear train is t he r atio of t he angular velocities of input and output mem-
bers in t he gear tr ain . The t rai n ratio here includes two factors , t he magnitude and t he relative
rotati ng dir ection of t he two members .
7. 2. 1 Absolute Value of Train Ratio
Consider t he gear tr ain in Fig . 7-2 as an example . Gears 1 and 2 form a pair of external
cylindrical gears and gear 3 is an internal one . Gears 3and 4 form a pair of bevel gears . The
gears 4and 5 are a worm gear pair . Suppose gear 1 is t he driving wheel (i nput member ) and
gear 5 t he driven wheel ( output member ) . Then t he absolute value of t he tr ain r atio of t he
gear train is | i15 | = | 1/ 5 | . The absolute values of t he t ransmission ratios of every pair of
Fig . 7-2
meshing gears are as follows
| i12 | =
1
2
=
z2
z1
( a)
| i23 | =
2
3
=
z3
z2
(b )
| i34 | =
3
4
=
3
4
=
z4
z3
( c)
| i45 | =
4
5
=
4
5
=
z5
z4
(d )
Multiplying t he above equations side by side, we get
| i12 i23 i34 i45 | =
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
=
1
5
= | i15 | =
z2 z3 z4 z5
z1 z2 z3z4
(7- 1)
This means t hat t he absolute value of t he tr ain ratio of a gear t rain wit h fixed axes is t he
product of t he absolute values of t ransmission ratios of every pair of meshing gears composing
t he gear t rain . It s absolute value is t he ratio of t he product of teet h numbers of all t he driven
gears over t hat of all t he driving gears, i. e.
| Train r atio of gear t rain wit h fixed axes | =
product of t oot h numbers of all t he driven gears
product of toot h numbers of all t he driving gears
(7- 2)
2 4 1
7. 2. 2 Relative Rot ating Directions of Gears
In t he above gear t rain , t he rotating direction of the gear 1 is given as shown in Fig . 7-2
wher e t he dir ection of t he arrow i ndicates t hat of t he peripher al velocit y of t he gear on t he visi-
ble side . Wit h t he help of arrows, t he rotating directions of ot her gears can be easily deter-
mined . For cylindrical and bevel gears , arrows of meshing gears bot h point eit her t owards or
away from t he pitch point . For t he worm gear pair , a met hod is suggested to determi ne t he
relative dir ection of rotation as follows . The lef t hand is used for right- handed worms and t he
right hand for left- handed . The hand grasps t he worm such t hat t he fingers point in t he rot at-
ing direction of t he worm . Then t he t humb indicates the direction of peripheral velocit y of t he
wor m gear at t he pitch poi nt . In t his way, t he rotating direction of every gear in t he gear t rain
can be determined as shown in Fig . 7-2 .
I t is easy t o see t hat two gears wit h parallel shaft s rot ate in t he same direction in an internal
gear pair or in opposit e directions in an external gear pair . I n t he first case, t he t rain ratio is
defi ned positive and in t he second case negative . I n a gear t rain wit h fixed parallel axes, t he
sign of t rain ratio can be determined by ( - 1)
m
where m is t he number of external gear pairs in
t he gear train . In ot her words, if t here ar e odd numbers of external gear pairs between t he in-
put and out put gears, t he t rain r atio is negative , ot her wise positive .
Attention should be taken here t hat t he rotating directions of gears i n gear tr ains wit h fixed
non-parallel axes can not be determined by ( - 1)
m
. They can only be determined by drawing
arrows, as shown in Fig . 7-2 . When t he axes of bot h input and out put gears ar e parallel to
each ot her , t he directions of t he t wo gears will be t he same or opposite . The train r atio must
be positive or negative . In ot her words, t he + or - sign must be added befor e t he r atio
of teet h number t o indicate t heir relative rotating directions .
The gear 2 in t he above gear t rain engages simultaneously wit h the gears 1 and 3 . It is
t he driven gear for gear 1 and driving gear for gear 3 . It s number of teet h can be cancelled in
Eq . ( 7-1 ) . The function of gear 2 is to change t he rota ting dir ection of t he out put gear , not
t he absolute value of t he t rain ratio . Such gears are called i dle wheels .
7. 3 T r a i n R a t i o o f El e me n t a r y Ep i c y c l i c Ge a r T r a i n
Shown in Fig . 7-3a is a typical elementary epicyclic gear t rain . It consist s of t wo sun
gears (gear 1 and gear 3 ) , one planet gear ( gear 2 ) , one planet carrier H, and t he frame .
Suppose t hat the planet carrier H rotates in an angular velocit y H . The t rai n ratio of t his gear
t rain cannot be calculated si mply as a gear t rain wit h fixed axes because of t he rotation of t he
planet carrier . I magine t ha t we add an angular velocit y ( - H ) to t he whole gear t rain . I t
will keep t he relative motion between any t wo links unchanged . Now t he angular velocity of
t he planet carrier H is H - H = 0 . This makes t he planet carrier H fixed, as shown in Fig .
3 4 1
7-3c . Therefore , t he position of all t he axes of t he gears are fixed and t he gear tr ain is convert-
ed int o a gear tr ain wit h fixed axes , as shown in Fig . 7-3c . Such an imaginary ordinary gear
t rain is called t he conver ted gear t rain of t he original elementary epicyclic gear train .
Fig . 7-3
Since t he convert ed gear t rain is a gear t rain with fixed axes, it s t rain ratio can be calculat-
ed as for an ordinary gear t rai n . In t he converted gear t rai n shown in Fig . 7-3c , t he angular
velocities of t he gears 1 and 3 ar e ( 1 - H ) and ( 3 - H ) , respectively , not 1 and 3 .
They are denoted as
H
1 and
H
3 , respectively , i. e .
H
1 = 1 - H and
H
3 = 3 - H . The
t rain ratio between t he gears 1 and 3 in t he conver ted gear t rain is denot ed as i
H
13 . It can be de-
rived in t he same way as for a gear train wit h fixed axes as follows .
i
H
13 =

H
1
H
3
=
1 - H
3 - H
= -
z2 z3
z1 z2
= -
z3
z1
(7- 3)
Train r atio i
H
13 is positive when gears 1 and 3 in t he conver ted gear tr ain rotate in t he same
direction and negative when opposit e . That is why t here is a - symbol befor e t he toot h
number ra tio in t he above equation . This sign cannot be neglected and should be carefully de-
termined .
Example 7-1
In t he gear t rain in Fig . 7-3, z1 = z2 = 30, z3 = 90 , n1 = 100 r/ min clockwise , n3 = 100
r/ mi n counterclockwise . Find nH .
Solution :
Eq . ( 7-3 ) can be writ ten as
i
H
13 =
n1 - nH
n3 - nH
= -
z3
z1
Not e again t ha t t he - sign befor e t he t oot h number ratio is because of t he opposite di-
rections of
H
1 and
H
3 in t he conver ted gear t rain , not because of t he opposite directions of n1
and n3 . Usually, t he value of angular velocity is defined as positive when counterclockwise .
4 4 1
Then n3 = + 100 r/ min and n1 = - 100 r/ min . Inserting t he values of z1 , z3 , n1 and n3 , we
get
- 100 r/ mi n - nH
+ 100 r/ mi n - nH
= -
90
30
and t hen
nH = + 50 r/ min
This means that t he planet carrier H rotates in 50 r/ min counterclockwise . Be careful
again her e t hat the values of n1 and n3 should be i nser ted into the equation toget her wit h t heir
signs .
In an elementary epicyclic gear t rain , we s hould distinguish i13 from i
H
13 , and 3 from
H
3 , and so on . i
H
13 is dependent only on t he st ructur e of t he gear tr ain and has not hing t o do
wit h n1 and n3 . However , i13 can be affected by t he input s of t he gear t rains . The directions
of 3 and
H
3 can be opposite . The sign of i
H
13 , or t he sign before t he t oot h number ratio, is
Fig . 7-4
determi ned by t he r elationship between
H
1 and
H
3 , not t he relation-
ship bet ween 1 and 3 .
Example 7-2
In t he planetary gear tr ain shown in Fig . 7-4, z1 = 100 , z2 =
101, z2 = 100, z3 = 99 . Find t he t rain ratio iH 1 .
Solution :
For t he planetary gear t rai n shown in Fig . 7- 4,
i
H
13 =
1 - H
3 - H
=
1 - H
- H
=
z2 z3
z1 z2
Therefore ,
1
H
= 1 -
z2 z3
z1 z2
= 1 -
10199
100100
=
1
10 000
iH1 =
H
1
= 10 000
I t can be seen t hat t he t rai n r atio her e is very large . But only t he planet carrier H , not
gear 1 , can be t he input member and the gear t rain can be used only t o decr ease t he speed, not
t o i ncrease it . Ot her wise , t he gear t rain will be self- locking .
If z3 is 100 instead of 99 i n t his example , we will get
1
H
= 1 -
z2 z3
z1 z2
= 1 -
101100
100100
= -
1
100
iH1 = - 100
This means t hat increasi ng z3 by only 1 changes not only t he magnitude but also t he dir ec-
tion of t he angular speed of t he output gear 1 .
5 4 1
So far , only t he angular velocities of fundamental members have been consider ed . If t he
axis of a planet gear is parallel t o t he axes of sun gears and t he planet carrier , t he kinematic re-
lationships bet ween t he planet gear and t he fundamental members can also be derived in t he
same way . For example, in t he gear t rain shown in Fig . 7-3, t he following relationships
hold :
Fig . 7-5
i
H
12 =
1 - H
2 - H
= -
z2
z1
i
H
23 =
2 - H
3 - H
=
z3
z2
But t hese t wo equations do not hold for t he elementary
epicyclic gear t rai n shown in Fig . 7-5, which consist s of bevel
gears . As t he axis of planet gear 2 is not par allel to t he axis of plan-
et carrier H , t he algebraic value ( 2 - H ) is meaningless . Nevert heless , kinematic relation-
ships between t he fundamental members can be determined by t he following equation :
i
H
13 =

H
1
H
3
=
1 - H
3 - H
= -
z2 z3
z1 z2
= - 1 (7- 4)
The value of i
H
13 is negative because t he rotation directions of t he gears 1 and 3 i n t he con-
vert ed gear train are opposite , as t he arrows show in Fig . 7-5 . Note t hat t he arrows indicate
t he rota tion directions of t he gears 1 and 3 in t he converted gear tr ain , not t hose in t he original
elementary epicyclic gear t rain . In t his differential gear t rain wit h t wo degrees of freedom , t he
rotation directions of two driving gears 1 and 3 may be t he same .
7. 4 T r a i n R a t i o o f a Co mb i n e d Ge a r T r a i n
Befor e calculating t he tr ain ratio of a combined gear t rain , it is necessary to divide t he
combined gear tr ain i nt o several elementary epicyclic gear t rains and ordinary gear t rains and
t hen to write t heir t rain ratio equations independently .
First , find t he planet gears ( t he axes positions of which are not fixed ) and t heir corre-
sponding planet carriers . Those gears engaged wit h t he planet gear and havi ng t he same fixed
axis as t hat of t he planet carrier ar e t he corr esponding sun gears . There may be more t han one
planet gear in an elementary epicyclic gear t rain . If more t han one planet carriers ar e found ,
t hen t hey must belong t o different element ary epicyclic gear t rai ns . Some members of a com-
bined gear t rain may belong to and play different roles in different subt rains and t hey become
links among t he subt rains .
To derive t he t rain ratio of a combined gear t rain, the tr ain ratio equa tions of all subt rains
should be written first . I n every t rain r atio equa tion for an epicyclic gear t rain, t he angular ve-
locit y of t he planet carrier should appear and t hose of t he planet gears should be avoided . In
t his way , t he minimum necessary tr ain r atio equations can be written easily . Then t he t rain
6 4 1
ratio of t he combined gear t rain can be found by solving t he equations simultaneously . The fol-
lowing examples illustr ate t he steps in analysing a combined gear t rain .
Example 7-3
The numbers of teet h of t he gears in t he gear t rain shown in Fig . 7-6 are given
Fig . 7-6
as z1 , z2 , z2, z3 and z4 . Calculate t he t rain ratio i1H .
Solution :
(1 ) Dividing t he gear t rain
First , t he planet gear is searched for . The gear 3 is found t o be a
planet gear . The link H is it s planet carrier . The gears 2and 4 en-
gage wit h t he planet gear 3 and have t he same fixed axis as t hat of t he
planet carrier H . Therefore , t he gears 2and 4 ar e t he corresponding
sun gears . The planet gear 3, t he planet carrier H, and t he sun
gears 2and 4 make up an elementary epicyclic gear t rain . The r emaining gears 1 and 2 make
up a gear t rain wit h fixed axes . The gear 2is fixed wit h the gear 2 .
(2 ) Deriving t he tr ain r atios of subt rains independently
The t rain ratio equations of t he t wo subt rains ar e:
i12 =
1
2
= -
z2
z1
( a)
i
H
24 =
2 - H
4 - H
=
2 - H
- H
= -
z3 z4
z2z3
= -
z4
z2
(b )
From Equation ( b ) we have :
2
H
= 1 +
z4
z2
( c)
(3 ) Find t he tr ain ra tio of the combined gear t rain
Multiplying Eqs . ( a) and ( c) gives t he result :
i1H =
1
H
=
1
2
2
H
= -
z2
z1
1 +
z4
z2
Not e: t he t rain ratio of t he combined gear t rain can not be calcula ted by taking t he whole
gear t rain as an elementary epicyclic gear train and t hen adding ( - H ) to t he whole gear
t rain . The following equation is wrong
i
H
13 =
1 - H
3 - H
=
z2 z3 z4
z1 z2z3
because in such a conver ted mechanism ( addi ng - H to t he whole gear t rain ) , t he gear 1 be-
comes a planet gear and t he conver ted mechanism is not a gear t rain wit h fi xed axes . It is
t herefore necessary t o divide t he combined gear t rain into several elementary epicyclic gear
t rains and gear t rains wit h fixed axes befor e calculating t he t rain r atio of a combined gear tr ain .
7 4 1
From Fig . 7-6 , we can see t hat t he combined gear t rai n is formed by connecting t he gear
t rain wit h fixed axes and t he elementary epicyclic gear tr ain in series . The total t rain ratio is
t he product of t heir t rain ratios .
Example 7-4
A r educer of a hoist is shown in Fig . 7-7a . Numbers of teet h of all t he gears are given .
Find t he tr ain ra tio i15 .
Solution :
(1 ) Dividing t he gear t rain
The given combined gear train in Fig . 7-7a can be divided into t wo subtrains as shown in
Fig . 7-7c and d . Gears 2 and 2are planet gears . The gears 1, 2 ( 2) , 3 and 5 make up
an elementary epicyclic gear t rain ( differential gear t rai n ) in which t he gear 5 serves as t he
planet carrier only . The gears 3, 4 and 5 constitute an ordinary gear tr ain . The gear 3is
fixed wit h t he gear 3 . The st ructure of t he syst em can be illustr ated by t he block-scheme in
Fig . 7-7b .
(2 ) Deriving t he tr ain r atios of subt rains independently
Fig . 7-7
The gears 1, 3, and 5 are t he fundamental members in t he differ ential gear t rai n shown
in Fig . 7- 8c . We t herefore derive the t rain r atio equation as
i
5
13 =
1 - 5
3 - 5
= -
z2 z3
z1 z2
( a)
8 4 1
In t he gear t rain wit h fixed axes shown in Fig . 7- 7d , we have
i35 =
3
5
=
3
5
= -
z5
z3
(b )
(3 ) Findi ng t he tr ain ra tio of the combined gear t rain
From Equation ( b ) we get
3 = -
z5
z3
5
Inserting this r esult into Equation ( a) , we have
1 - 5
-
z5
z3
5 - 5
=
1/ 5 - 1
-
z5
z3
- 1
= -
z2 z3
z1 z2
from which
i15 =
1
5
=
z2 z3
z1 z2
z5
z3
+ 1 + 1 ( c)
Substit uting t he numbers of teet h into Equation ( c ) , we get
i15 =
3378
2421
1 +
78
18
+ 1 = 28. 24
The fundamental members 5 and 3 in t he differential gear t rain shown in Fig . 7-7c are re-
lat ed by t he ordinary gear t rain shown in Fig . 7-7d . The degree of fr eedom of t he whole gear
t rain becomes one . Such a combi ned gear t rain is called a closed epicyclic gear t rain .
7. 5 A p p l i c a t i o ns o f Ge a r T r a i ns
Gear t rains ar e widely used in many ki nds of machines t o perform t he following functions :
(1 ) Br anching tr ansmission
A gear tr ain makes it possible for a mot or to drive mor e than one driven shaft at t he same
time . In a machine tool , for example , t he spindle and t he feeding screw are generally driven
Fig . 7-8
by t he same motor t hrough gear t rains .
(2 ) To get a large t rain ratio
When a large t rai n ratio is needed , a gear t rain is a bet ter
choice t han only a pair of gears . Especially, an epicyclic gear
t rain can provide a very large t rain ra tio, as shown in Exam-
ple 7-2 .
(3 ) To change t he speed of rotation
Fig . 7-8 shows a tr ansmission box . Besides t he differen-
tial gear t rain , t here are a brake T to brake t he gear 3 and a
clutch C t o connect t he gear 3 and t he planet carrier H . Gear
1 is t he input member and H t he out put . When t he brake T
9 4 1
is on and t he clutch C is off , we get a planetary gear t rain and t he tr ain ratio can be calculat ed
as
i
H
13 =
1 - H
3 - H
=
1 - H
- H
= -
z3
z1
i1H =
1
H
= 1 +
z3
z1
When t he br ake T is off and t he clutch C is on , all t he moving members are fixed toget h-
er . 1 = H and t he t rain ratio becomes i1 H = 1 . Such kinds of speed change are easy t o handle
and t herefore used widely in vehicles .
(4 ) To combine or resolve t he motion
There can be two input fundamental members in a differ ential gear t rai n as it has t wo
degrees of freedom . This means t hat a differential gear t rain can combine t he motions of t wo
input shaft s t o get t he t hird one . For t he gear t rain shown in Fig . 7-5 , we get from Eq . ( 7-
4) t ha t
H =
1
2
( 1 + 3 ) (7- 5)
wher e 1 and 3 are combined to get H . Such gear tr ains are used in some machine tools like
hobbing machines .
The same differential gear tr ain can also be used inversely t o resolve t he motion . Shown in
Fig . 7-9 is a rear wheel differential gear t rain of an aut omobile .
Fig . 7-9
Sun gears 1 and 3 drive t he two rear wheels sepa-
rately . They are bot h driven by bevel gear 4 as t he
planet carrier H . If t he automobile runs st raight
ahead , t he gears 1 and 3 turn at t he same angular
velocit y, i. e ., 1 = 3 . Inser ting t his into Eq .
(7- 5) , we get
H = 1 = 3
This means t hat t he differential gear t rai n turns
as a whole and t he friction loss in it is avoided .
If t he car t urns left wit h a r adius r as shown in
Fig . 7-9 , t he r esistance of t he road would make
t he wheel t urn wit hout slipping . That is
1
3
=
r - l
r + l
(7- 6)
Solving Eqs . ( 7-4 ) and ( 7-6 ) simultaneously, we have
1 =
r - l
r
H
3 =
r + l
r
H
0 5 1
Such an aut omatic resolution of motion prevents t he ext ra wear of t yres when t he vehicle
t urns .
7. 6 M e c h a n i c a l E f f i c i e n c y o f P l a n e t a r y Ge a r T r a i ns
The mechanical efficiency of a gear t rain is impor tant if t he gear t rain is used in power
t ransmission . The mechanical efficiency of an ordinary gear tr ain is t he product of efficiencies
of every pair of gears, if t hey ar e connected i n series in t he gear tr ain . The mechanical efficien-
cy of an epicyclic gear train is not so easy t o calculate and we discuss here only planetary gear
t rains as t hey ar e often used in power t ransmission .
Denoting t he input power , t he out put power and t he frictional power as Nd , Nr and Nf ,
respectively, t he mechanical efficiency can be defined as follows :
=
Nr
Nr + Nf
=
1
1 +
Nf
Nr
(7- 7)
or
=
Nd - Nf
Nd
= 1 -
Nf
Nd
(7- 8)
Since Nd or Nr is usually known , t he key point here is t o det ermine Nf .
From Eq . ( 7-7 ) , we get
Nf = Nr
1
- 1 (7- 9)
From Eq . ( 7-8 ) , we get
Nf = Nd (1 - ) ( 7-10)
The frictional lost power in a machine depends on t he reactions in kinematic pairs , fric-
tional coefficient s and relative velocities between pair element s . All of t hese do not change if an
epicyclic gear tr ain is t urned int o t he conver ted gear t rain by adding an ext ra angular velocit y
( - H ) t o t he whole gear t rai n . In ot her words, t he frictional lost power Nf in an epicyclic
gear train is t he same as t hat N
H
f in the corr esponding converted mechanism . This is t he way
we calculate t he efficiency of an epicyclic gear t rain . This met hod is t herefor e called t he
method of the converted mechanism .
Consider t he planetary gear t rai ns s hown in Fig . 7- 10 as examples . If t he moment acting
on t he gear 1 is M1 , t hen t he power t hrough t he gear 1 is
Nl = Ml l
In t he converted mechanism , t he power t hrough t he gear 1 becomes
N
H
l = Ml ( l - H ) = N1 (1 - iH 1 ) ( 7-11)
If N
H
1 > 0, t hen t he gear 1 is a driving wheel i n t he conver ted mechanism and N
H
1 is t he
input power i n t he conver ted mechanism . According to Eq. ( 7-10) , t he frictional lost power
1 5 1
Fig . 7-10
N
H
f in t he converted mechanis m is t hen
N
H
f = N
H
1 ( 1 -
H
13 ) = N1 ( 1 - iH 1 ) ( 1 -
H
13 )
wher e
H
13 is t he mechanical efficiency of t he converted mechanism, which can be calculated as
in ordinary gear t rains .
If N
H
1 < 0 , t hen t he gear 1 becomes a driven wheel in t he conver ted mechanism and N
H
1 is
t he out put power in t he conver ted mechanism . According t o Eq. ( 7-9 ) , t he frictional lost
power is
N
H
f = | N
H
1 |
1
H
13
- 1
= | N1 (1 - iH1 ) |
1
H
13
- 1
1
H
13
- 1
can be approximated by ( 1 -
H
13 ) as
H
13 is near to 1 . Therefore , for t he bot h
cases, t he frictional lost power can be written as
Nf = N
H
f = | N1 ( 1 - iH 1 ) | (1 -
H
13 ) ( 7-12)
If t he gear 1 is the driving wheel in t he epicyclic gear t rain, t hen N1 is t he input power of
t he epicyclic gear t rain and t he efficiency of t he epicyclic gear t rain is
1 H =
N1 - Nf
N1
= 1 -
Nf
N1
= 1 - | 1 - iH 1 | ( 1 -
H
13 ) ( 7-13)
If t he gear 1 is a driven wheel in t he epicyclic gear tr ain , t hen N1 is t he output power of
t he epicyclic gear t rain and t he efficiency of t he epicyclic gear t rain becomes
H1 =
| N1 |
| N1 | + Nf
=
1
1 + | 1 - iH1 | ( 1 -
H
13 )
( 7-14)
I t can be seen now t hat t he mechanical efficiency of a planetary gear t rain is a function of
2 5 1
it s tr ain ra tio | iH1 | , as well as a function of
H
13 . If | iH1 | is large enough, t hen 1H may be-
come negative and t he gear t rain is self-locking . Therefore , it is necessary t o calculate t he me-
chanical efficiency according to Eqs. ( 7-13 ) and ( 7-14 ) when we design a planetary gear
t rain .
A planetary gear tr ain is called a positi ve mechanism if t he train ratio of it s convert ed
mechanism i
H
13 is positive . The negative mechanism is similarly defined . I t can be shown from
Eqs. ( 7-13) and ( 7-14) t hat a negative mechanism has a higher efficiency t han it s convert ed
mechanism . Tha t is why nega tive mechanisms are more often used in power t ransmission .
Usually, t he tr ain r atio of a negative mechanism can not be very large due to t he li mits on t he
practical dimensions . When a large t rain r atio is needed i n a power t ransmission , several nega-
tive mechanisms can be connected in series to get a large t rai n ratio .
7. 7 T o o t h Numb e r s o f Ge a r s a n d Num b e r o f P l a n e t Ge a r s
The choice of t oot h numbers of gears and t he number of planet gears in a planetary gear
t rain s hould meet t he following four requirement s . The gear t rain shown in Fig . 7-10a is taken
as an example to illust rate t he requirement s .
(1 ) Train ratio condition
Suppose t rain ratio i1H is given . From Eq. ( 7-3 ) , we have
z3 = ( i1H - 1) z1 ( 7-15)
(2 ) Concent ric condition
Gear 1, gear 3 and planet carrier H should rotate around t he common axis . If all t he
gears ar e standard spur gears , we have
r3 = r1 + 2 r2
1
2
mz3 =
1
2
m z1 + mz2
z2 =
1
2
( z3 - z1 )
Inserting Eq. ( 7-15) i nt o t he last equation , we get
z2 =
1
2
z1 ( i1H - 2) ( 7-16)
(3 ) Assembly condition
Alt hough one planet gear is enough kinematically , more planet gears of t he same size are
mounted bet ween sun gears 1 and 3 t o tr ansmit more power . To balance t he centrifugal forces
of t he planet gears , t hese planet gears should be spaced equally . If t he number of planet gears
is k , t hey ar e separa ted from each ot her by an angle H = 360 / k .
Suppose t he first planet gear has been mounted at O2 as s hown in Fig . 7- 11 . Then turn
t he planet carrier H t hrough H . This makes t he gear 1 turn t hrough an angle 1 .
3 5 1
Fig . 7-11
1
H
=
1
H
= i1 H = 1 +
z3
z1
or
1 = 1 +
z3
z1
H = 1 +
z3
z1
360
k
In order t o mount t he next planet gear at O2 , t he angle 1
should contain an exactly integr al number of teet h of gear 1,
i. e .
1 = N
360
z1
Comparing wit h t he above equation , we get
z1 + z3
k
= N ( 7-17)
wher e N should be an integer .
(4 ) No-overlapping condition
In Fig . 7-11 , O2 and O2 are the centr es of neighbouring planet gears . To avoid t he over-
lapping of t he t wo planet gears , t he cent re dist ance O2 O2 should be greater t han t he adden-
dum diameter of t he planet gears . If all t he gears are standard spur gears, we have
2( r1 + r2 )sin
180
k
> 2 ( r2 + h
*
a m)
or
( z1 + z2 ) sin
180
k
> z2 + 2 h
*
a ( 7-18)
Eqs. ( 7-15) to ( 7-18) should be sa tisfied in choosing t he toot h numbers of the gears and t he
number of t he planet gears . For ot her t ypes of planet ary gear t rains, similar equations can be
derived and should be fulfilled .
7. 8 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o O t h e r Ki n d s o f P l a ne t a r y Ge a r T r a i n s
7. 8. 1 Planet ary Reducer with Small Tooth Difference
The planetary gear t rain shown in Fig . 7- 12 consist s of fixed internal sun gear 3, planet
gear 2 and planet carrier H . The centr e distance bet ween gear 2 and gear 3 is called offset e .
The t rain ratio can be calculated as follows:
2 - H
3 - H
=
z3
z2
Since 3 = 0 , we get
iH2 =
H
2
= -
z2
z3 - z2
4 5 1
The t oot h difference ( z3 - z2 ) is chosen small and t he absolute value of t he t rain ratio iH 2
becomes gr eat . Such a gear t rain is t he so- called planetary gear t rai n wit h small toot h differ-
ence .
Gear 2 performs a planetary motion . An out put mechanism is therefore needed t o output
t he rota tion of gear 2 . The most widely used out put mechanism is shown in Fig . 7-12 . There
is a plate on t he out put shaf t V and t here ar e several pins wit h
Fig . 7-12
diameter d2 on t he plate . These pins locate in t he holes made on t he planet gear wit h diameter
d1 . The relation between d1 and d2 is d1 = 2 e + d2 . Bot h t he pins and holes are dist ribut ed on
t he circles wit h t he same diameter D . As t he planet moves , t he kinema tic relationship be-
tween t he planet gear and t he out put pla te corresponds to t he par allel- cr ank mechanism
O1 O2 BA . This makes t he output s haft rotate wit h t he same angular velocit y as t he planet
gear .
7. 8. 2 Cycloidal- Pin Wheel Planetary Gearing
The cycloidal-pin wheel planetary gearing is a special planet ary gear t rain wit h one toot h
difference where t he internal gear is a pin wheel and t he external gear is a cycloidal gear as
shown in Fig . 7-13 .
The t oot h profile of a cycloidal gear is for med as shown in Fig . 7-14 . The pitch circle of
gear 3 rolls wit hout slipping along t he pitch circle of gear 2 which is fixed . Then a point M on
gear 3 out side its pitch circle draws a cur tate epicycloid M1 M6 . If t he point M is t he toot h
profile of gear 3, t he curtat e epicycloid is t he tooth profile of gear 2 . Practically, a circle wit h
radius rz and cent red at t he point M is taken as t he t oot h profile of gear 3 and t his circle gener-
at es t he toot h profile of gear 2 t hrough C1 C6 . The gear 3 is t herefore called a pin wheel and
t he gear 2 a cycloidal gear .
Compared wit h t he planetary gear t rain wit h one t oot h difference consisting of involute
gears, t he cycloidal-pin wheel planetary gearing enjoys t he following advantages .
(1) There is no t oot h profile interference bet ween t he internal and t he external gears ,
which may happen in t he case of involute gears .
5 5 1
Fig . 7-13
Fig . 7-14
(2 ) There are more pairs of teet h in contact at t he same time t o tr ansmit t he power . The
cont act ratio and t her efor e t he t ransmit ting capacit y are high .
(3 ) The working pr essur e angle is s maller . This decreases t he load on t he bearing and in-
cr eases t he mechanical efficiency .
7. 8. 3 Harmonic Drive Gearing
A set of harmonic drive gearing consists of a rigid circular spline , a flexspli ne and a wave
generat or , as shown in Fig . 7-15 . The rigid circular spline is a rigid internal gear . The flexs-
pline is a nonrigid hollow external gear . I t can also be seen as a special planet gear . There are
t wo or t hree rollers mounted on t he wave gener ator which is inser ted int o t he hole of t he flexs-
pline . The number of rollers is called t he wave number n . The toot h difference between t he
rigid spli ne and t he flexspline ( zr - zs ) should be a multiple of n and is often taken as n . The
wave generat or is t he driving member . As it rotates, its rollers make the teet h on t he flexs-
pline engage wit h t he rigid spline . The role of the wave generator is a planet carrier . The t rain
ratio of t he drive can be calculated as for a planet ary gear t rain .
One of t he rigid splines and t he flexspline should not rotat e and t he ot her becomes t he out-
put member . If t he rigid spline is fixed and t he flexspline is t he out put member as s hown in
Fig . 7-16a , t hen t he t rain ratio is
iHs =
H
s
= -
zs
zr - zs
Alterna tively , if t he flexspline does not rotate and t he rigid spli ne is t he out put member as
shown in Fig . 7-16b, t hen t he tr ain ra tio becomes
iH r =
zr
zr - zs
6 5 1
Fig . 7-15
High t rain ratio, high efficiency, smoot h t ransmission and simple const ruction ar e t he ad-
vantages of t his gearing . I ts main problem is t he fatigue of flexspline .
Fig . 7-16
7-1 How are gear t rains classified and what ar e t heir main applications ?
7-2 How can the t rain ratio of an ordinary gear t rain be calcula ted ? How can t he relative ro-
tating dir ections among gears i n an ordinary gear t rai n be determined ?
7-3 What are t he st ruct ural characteristics of an elementary epicyclic gear t rain ? What is t he
convert ed gear t rain ? How can t he t rai n ratio of an elementary epicyclic gear t rain be calculat-
ed ? How can t he sign in front of t he t oot h number ratio be determined ? How can t he rotating
direction of t he out put member in an epicyclic gear t rain be det ermined ?
7-4 How is a combined gear tr ain divided ?
7-5 How can t he mechanical efficiency of a planetary gear tr ain be calcula ted ? What are t he
differences between t he positive mechanism and t he negative mechanism ?
7-6 Which conditions should t oot h numbers of gears and number of planet gears i n a planetary
gear train fulfill ?
7-7 Shown in Fig . 7-17 is a hoist . The teet h numbers of all the gears are given . Find t he
7 5 1
t rain ratio i15 and point out t he rota ting direction of t he handle t o r aise t he weight .
Fig . 7-17
Fig . 7-18
7-8 Shown in Fig . 7- 18 is t he gear t rain in a clock . S , M and H denote t he pointers of sec-
ond, minute and hour , respectively . The given numbers of teet h are z1 = z2 = 8, z2 = 64,
z3 = 12, z4 = 15 . If t he modules of gear 4 and gear 5 are equal ,
Fig . 7-19
find t he numbers of teet h z3 , z4 , and z5 .
7-9 Shown i n Fig . 7- 19 is a differ ential gear t rain wit h z1 = 15,
z2 = 25 , z2 = 20, z3 = 60, n1 = 200 r/ min , n3 = 50 r/ min . Find
nH when
(1 ) n1 and n3 are in t he same dir ection ;
(2 ) n1 and n3 are in t he opposite directions .
7-10 Shown in Fig . 7-20 is a gear t rain in which gear 3 engages
wit h gears 2 and 4 simultaneously . What kind of gear train is it ?
If z1 = 34 , z2 = z3 = 20, and z4 = 74, find t he t rain r atio i1 H .
7-11 Shown i n Fig . 7-21 is a gear t rain wit h z1 = 6, z2 = z2 =
25, z3 = 57, and z4 = 56 . Find t he tr ain r atio i14 .
Fig . 7-20
Fig . 7-21 Fig . 7-22
7-12 In t he combined gear t rain shown in Fig . 7-22, z1 = 36, z2 = 60, z3 = 23, z4 = 49,
z4 = 69 , z5 = 31, z6 = 131, z7 = 94, z8 = 36, z9 = 167, n1 = 3 549 r/ min . Find bot h t he
magnitude and t he direction of nH .
8 5 1
Fig . 7-23
7-13 Shown in Fig . 7-23 is a gear t rai n wit h z1 = z5 =
z6 = 17, z2 = 27 , z2 = 18, z3 = 34, z4 = 51 . Find t he
t rain ratio i16 .
7-14 Shown in Fig . 7-24 is a differ ential gear tr ain in a
t extile machine wit h z1 = 30 , z2 = 25 , z3 = z4 = 24, z5 =
18, z6 = 121 , nH = 316 r/ min , n1 = 48 200 r/ min . n1
and nH are in t he same dir ection . Find n6 .
7-15 I n t he gear t rai n shown in Fig . 7-25 , gear 1 is
fixed wit h t he shaft of t he mot or and t he motor is mounted on gear 3 . n
3
1 = 1 440 r/ mi n . z1 =
z2 = 20, z3 = 60 , z4 = 90 , z5 = 210 . Fi nd n3 .
Fig . 7-24

Fig . 7-25
7-16 In t he gear t rain shown in Fig . 7-10a , z1 = 20 and i1H = 4. 5 . All t he gears are standard
spur gears wit h h
*
a = 1 . Determine the numbers of teet h z2 and z3 and t he number of planet
gears k . If t he mechanical efficiency of every pair of gears is =0. 9 , find t he mechanical effi-
ciency of t he gear t rain 1H .
9 5 1
C h ap t e r 8
O t h e r Me c h a n i s ms i n
Commo n U s e
The planar linkage mechanisms, cam mechanisms, and gear mechanisms discussed in pre-
vious chapters are t he commonest basic mechanisms used in machine design . In addition to
t hese , many machines and inst rument s cont ain ot her kinds of mechanism . In t his chapter ,
some of t hem in common use will be introduced briefly t o broaden t he st udents knowledge .
8. 1 R a t c h e t M e c h a ni sm s
8. 1. 1 Working Principle of Ratchet Mechanism
A ratchet mechanis m consists of a driving rocker 1 , a driving pawl 2, a driven ratchet 3,
Fig . 8-1
a holding pawl 4, and t he frame 7 , as shown Fig . 8- 1 . The
driving rocker 1 is on t he same shaft as t he ratchet 3 . The
holding pawl 4 and t he drivi ng pawl 2 are forced into con-
tact wit h t he ratchet 3 by springs 5 and 6, respectively .
When t he drivi ng rocker 1 rotates counter- clockwise ,
t he driving pawl 2 will move int o t he toot h space of t he
ratchet 3 and cause it to rotate . Meanwhile , t he holding
pawl 4 will slide over t he toot h back of t he ra tchet 3 . When
t he driving rocker 1 rotates clockwise, t he holding pawl 4
will move into t he toot h space of t he ra tchet 3 to pr event it
from rotating clockwise . Ther efor e, t he ratchet 3 will
dwell while at t he same time, t he driving pawl 2 will slide
over t he t oot h back of t he ra tchet 3 . Thus , when t he driving rocker 1 oscillates continuously ,
t he ra tchet 3 will rotate intermittently counter- clockwise .
The motion t ype of t he input link of t he ratchet mechanism is oscilla tion . Therefore ,
ratchet mechanisms ar e often used in series wit h mechanisms which can t ransform a continuous
rotation into an oscillation , e. g. crank- rocker mechanisms, cam mechanisms , etc .
0 6 1
8. 1. 2 Types of Ratchet Mechanisms
According t o t heir struct ure characteristics, ratchet mechanisms in common use can be di-
vided into t wo types: t oot h ratchet mechanisms and silent ratchet mechanisms .
(1 ) Toot h r atchet mechanisms
There are two sub- types for toot h ratchet mechanisms: ext ernally meshed ( Fig . 8-1 ) and
internally meshed ( Fig . 8-2 ) . If t he diameter of t he ratchet becomes i nfinite , it becomes a
ratchet rack ( Fig . 8-3) . The intermit tent rota tion of t he ratchet in one dir ection will become
an intermitt ent t ranslation of t he ratchet rack i n one direction .
Fig . 8-2 Fig . 8-3
By using differ ent struct ures , t he inter mit tent rotating direction of t he ratchet may be
fixed or changeable .
( a) Fixed dir ection ( Fig . 8-1 ) : In t his mechanism , t he driven r atchet 3 can rot ate inter-
mitt ently only in t he fixed dir ection ( counter clockwise in Fig . 8-1 ) when t he driving rocker
1 oscillates continuously . The t oot h shape of t his kind of r atchet is asymmetrical . The com-
monly used teet h for t his r atchet are sawtoot h ( Fig . 8-4a ) , t riangular wit h st raight edges
( Fig . 8-4b) and t riangular wit h curved edges ( Fig . 8-4c) .
Fig . 8-4
( b) Changeable dir ection ( Fig . 8-5 and Fig . 8-6 ) : If t he direction of int ermittent rota-
tion of t he driven ratchet is required t o be changeable , t he ra tchet 3 can have rectangular teet h
1 6 1
while t he pawl should be reversible, as shown in Fig . 8-5 . When t he pawl is in position 2,
t he ratchet 3 will rota te intermittently counter- clockwise . Conversely , if t he pawl is turned
over into position 2, the ra tchet 3 will rotate intermittently clockwise .
Shown in Fig . 8-6 is anot her kind of ratchet mechanism , t he ratchet rot ation direction of
which can be changed . When t he pawl 1 is loca ted at t he position as shown, t he r atchet 2 will
rotate i ntermittently counter clockwise . If t he pawl is lifted, rotated 180about it s axis and
dropped , t hen t he pawl will i nser t agai n into t he t oot h space of t he ratchet and t he ratchet 2
will rotate intermit tently clockwise . If t he pawl is lif ted, rota ted 90 about it s axis and
dropped , t hen t he small pin fixed wit h t he pawl 1 will rest on t he pla tform on t he top of t he
case . The pawl and t oot h of the r atchet will come out of mesh . In t his way , t he ratchet 2 will
not rota te when t he driving pawl 1 oscillates .
Fig . 8-5 Fig . 8-6
All t he ratchet mechanisms mentioned above are single function , i. e . t he driving rocker
can drive t he r atchet only in eit her direction of t he oscilla tion . Shown in Fig . 8-7 is a double
function r atchet mechanism . In bot h directions of t he oscillation , t he drivi ng link 1 can drive
t he ratchet 3 t o rotate intermitt ently in t he same dir ection . The shape of t he driving pawl 2
could be st raight ( Fig . 8- 7a) or hooked ( Fig . 8- 7b ) .
a) b )
Fig . 8-7
Fig . 8-8
2 6 1
The rotation angle of t he ratchet in one cycle can be adjusted by adjusti ng t he rocking angle
of t he rocker . For example , if t he ratchet mechanism is connected i n series wit h a crank-
rocker mechanism , t hen t he angle can be adjusted by changing the link lengt hs of t he crank-
rocker mechanism . Alternatively, a cover pla te 4 over ratchet 3 may be used , as shown in
Fig . 8-8 . By adjusti ng t he position of t he cover plate , t he rotation angle of t he ratchet in one
cycle can be adjusted .
(2 ) Silent ratchet mechanism
In toot h ratchet mechanisms , rigid impulse and noise are created when t he pawl st rikes
t he toot h root . In addition , the str ength of t he pawl is low and t he tip of pawl is subject to
wear . To avoid t he noise , an alternative design is oft en used in which t he effect of friction pro-
duces t he required motion . Shown in Fig . 8- 9 is such a mechanism . The driving sector block
2 is held in contact wit h driven wheel 3 by means of a retaining spring at tached t o t he driving
rocker 1 . When t he driving rocker 1 rota tes anti- clockwise , t he friction force bet ween t he
Fig . 8-9
sector block 2 and t he driven wheel 3 causes t he sector
block 2 t o rotate r elative to t he drivi ng rocker 1 anti-
clockwise . The normal force and t he frictional force in-
cr ease . When t he frictional force is large enough, t he
driving sector block 2 will drive t he driven wheel 3 so
t hat t hey rotate toget her . The driven wheel 3 is driven
anti-clockwise t hrough an angle . When t he rocker 1 ro-
tates clockwise , t he wheel 3 would be caused to rotate
clockwise but is pr evented from doing so by locki ng sec-
tor block 4 . The sector block 2 rotates clockwise r elative
t o the rocker 1 against t he retaining spri ng and allows
t he rocker 1 to move fr eely while t he wheel 3 is held
locked by block 4 . In t his way t he wheel 3 is driven stepwise anti- clockwise while t he input
rocker 1 oscillates back and fort h .
Compared wit h t oot h ra tchet mechanisms , t he silent ratchet mechanism can t ransmit mo-
tion smoot hly and silently . Tha t is why t his kind of r atchet mechanism is called silent. In
one cycle, the t oot h r atchet must rota te at least one toot h space and it s rotation angle must be a
multiple of t he angle between two neighbouring teet h . However , in the silent ra tchet mecha-
nism, it is t he frictional force between t he driving sector block and t he friction wheel which
t ransmit s motion . Therefore , i n t he silent ratchet mechanism , t he rota tion angle of t he driven
wheel in one cycle can be changed fr eely by adjusting t he rota ting angle of t he drivi ng rocker .
However , some sliding between t he driving sect or block and t he friction wheel is inevitable .
Therefore , t he accur acy of motion is poor and t he t ransmitted torque is limited .
In order t o increase t he t ransmitted t orque , more working planes are usually used in t he
silent ratchet mechanism , as shown in Fig . 8-10 . I t consist s of an external ring 1, a st ar
3 6 1
wheel 2 , and some rollers . Notches are cut on t he star wheel 2 . The roller is pushed to t he
Fig . 8-10
narrow side of t he notch by a small spring so t ha t normal
forces and frictional forces will exist bet ween t he roller
and t he external ring and between t he roller and t he star
wheel . When t he external ring 1 rotates clockwise , t he
frictional force causes the roller to move t owards t he nar-
row side of t he notch . The normal for ce and t he friction-
al force increase . When t he frictional force is large e-
nough , t he external ring 1 will drive t he star wheel 2 so
t hat t hey rotate toget her . When t he ext ernal ring 1 ro-
tates counter-clockwise , t he roller will roll towards t he
wider side of t he notch . The normal forces and t he fric-
tional forces bet ween t he roller and t he ext ernal ring and
bet ween t he roller and t he star wheel will decrease and
approach zero . Ther efore , t he star wheel 2 will dwell while t he external ring 1 rota tes
counter- clockwise . If t he external ring 1 oscillat es continuously, t he star wheel 2 will rotate
intermitt ently clockwise .
Fig . 8-11
8. 1. 3 The Applications of Ratchet Mechanisms
Apart from it s use for intermittent motion , t he ra tchet
mechanism can also be used as a safet y device in lif ting machines .
In t he hoist shown in Fig . 8-11, t he holding pawl 2 slides over
t he t oot h back of t he r atchet 1 when weight FQ is lifted . If t he
power is cut suddenly , t he weight FQ t rends to drop freely and
make t he r eel 1and ratchet 1 rota te clockwise . At t his time ,
t he holding pawl 2 mounted on t he frame will drop into t he t oot h
space of t he ratchet by spring for ce and it s own weight . Thus,
t he r atchet 1 is prevented from rotating and t he weight FQ can
not drop . In t his circumstance , t he ratchet mechanism act s as a
safet y device . To lower t he weight FQ , t he pawl 2 must be wit hdrawn from the teet h of t he
ratchet .
Ratchet mechanisms are often used in machines to allow overrun . One of t he most famous
examples is t he so called free wheel in bicycles, as shown in Fig . 8-2 . If our feet st op ped-
aling (or even back-pedal ) when t he bicycle is going for ward , t he chain and t he wheel 1 will
also stop rotating . However , t he rear axle 3 will continue to rotate clockwise by iner tia force .
The pawl 2 on t he rear axle 3 will slide over t he t eet h back of t he internal r atchet ( a clear clat-
ter can be heard when t he pawl 2 st ri kes t he toot h root of t he internal ratchet ) . This is t he so-
called overrun . ( I t should be pointed out her e t ha t overrun is t he unique characteristic of t he
4 6 1
ratchet mechanism .)
In modern machine tools , t he t ool frame is often requir ed to approach t he workpiece at dif-
ferent speeds : fast for a quick approach and slowly for an accurate feed . Machine t ools often
use t he silent r atchet mechanism shown in Fig . 8-10 t o accomplish t his . Suppose that t he pow-
er is input to t he external ri ng 1 t h rough a worm and worm gear mechanism . When t he exter-
nal ring 1 rotates clockwise, it forces t he rollers to be pressed tightly in the narrow side of t he
notch of t he star wheel 2 . Thus, t he external ring 1 drives t he star wheel and t he output shaft
at a low speed clockwise . When t he output shaf t is required t o be run at high speed, t he power
drives t he output shaft and t he star wheel dir ectly clockwise t hrough anot her tr ansmission chain
(not shown in t he figur e) . However , t he external ring 1 is still driven t hrough t he worm and
wor m wheel mechanism and runs at lower speed . Since t he speed of t he star wheel 2 exceeds
t hat of t he external ring 1, t he mechanism act s as an overrun clutch and it is not necessary to
cut t he low speed t ransmission chai n when a high speed is r equir ed . The speed interchange
t herefore becomes quite easy .
8. 2 Ge ne v a M e c h a n i sm s
8. 2. 1 The Working principle of the Geneva mechanism
A Geneva mechanism consist s of a drivi ng pla te 1 wit h a roller G, a driven Geneva wheel
2 wit h r adial slot s, and a frame , as shown in Fig . 8-12 . As t he roller G enters i nt o t he r adial
slot , t he driving plate drives t he Geneva wheel by t he roller G and forces it to rot ate . Af ter
t he driving plate 1 and t he Geneva wheel 2 rotate to the position shown in Fig . 8-13 , t he
Fig . 8-12
Fig . 8-13
5 6 1
roller G leaves t he r adial slot . Driving plate 1 t hen continues t o rotate while t he Geneva wheel
1 dwells . Therefore , t he continuous even rotation of t he driving plate 1 is tr ansfor med into an
intermitt ent rotation of t he driven Geneva wheel in one direction .
In order t o star t and stop t he Geneva wheel smoot hly, t he Geneva mechanism should be so
designed t hat t he crank O1 G must be perpendicular t o the cent ral line of t he radial slot when
t he roller G begins to enter int o and t o leave t he r adial slot , as s hown in Fig . 8-12 and Fig . 8-
13, respectively . In t his way, t he angular velocit y of the driven Geneva wheel will be zero at
t hese positions . No rigid impulse will exist .
In order to ensure t hat t he roller G can enter exactly into t he next r adial slot at t he next
cycle , t he Geneva wheel must not rotate after t he roller G leaves t he r adial slot . For t his pur-
pose , a convex locking arc plate mm is fixed to t he driving plate 1 and concave locking arcs nn
are made bet ween neighbouring radial slots . The r adii of t he convex and the concave locking
arcs ar e t he same . At t he moment when t he roller G begins to enter i nt o the radial slot , one
end point m of t he convex locking arc m m should arrive exactly at t he cent re line O1 O2 , as
shown in Fig . 8- 12 . At t his moment , t he concave locking arc nn begin to disengage from t he
convex locki ng arc m m and t he roller G can drive t he Geneva wheel . At t he moment when t he
roller G begi ns t o leave t he radial slot , anot her end point m of t he convex locki ng arc m m
should arrive exactly a t t he cent re li ne O1 O2 , as shown in Fig . 8-13 . Aft er the roller G leaves
t he r adial slot , t he convex locking arc m m and t he concave locking arc nn are engaged over
some arc . Hence , t he Geneva wheel 2 is held stationary until t he roller G enters t he next radi-
al slot and t he next cycle begins . Since some clearance exist s bet ween t he t wo locking arcs , t he
positional accur acy is not very high . In modern high accuracy index mechanisms , a special po-
sitioni ng mechanism is added t o position t he Geneva wheel accurately and prevent it from rot at-
ing .
8. 2. 2 The Types of Geneva Mechanism
Depending on t he relative positions of t he axes of driving plate and Geneva wheel , Geneva
mechanisms can be divided into planar Geneva mechanisms and spherical Geneva mechanisms .
There ar e also t wo sub- t ypes of planar Geneva mechanisms: one is t he external Geneva
mechanism, as shown in Fig . 8-12 . The rotating directions of t he driving pla te and t he driven
Geneva wheel are opposite . The ot her is t he internal Geneva mechanism, as shown in Fig . 8-
14 . The rot ati ng directions of t he driving plate and t he driven Geneva wheel ar e t he same .
These t wo kinds of planar Geneva mechanisms ar e used t o t ransmit motion bet ween two par allel
shaf ts .
Shown in Fig . 8-15 is a spherical Geneva mechanism . The axis of driving plate 1 is per-
pendicular to t hat of the driven Geneva wheel 2 which is in t he shape of a halfsphere . The ro-
tation axis of driving pla te 1, driven Geneva wheel 2 and roller 3 all pass t hrough t he sphere
cent re O .
6 6 1
Fig . 8-14 Fig . 8-15
There may be one or more rollers on t he driving pla te . If more t han one roller is used , as
shown in Fig . 8-16 , t hen t he driven Geneva wheel will rota te and dwell many ti mes while t he
driving plate rotates once . If t he times for each dwell of t he Geneva wheel are required to be
different , t hen t he rollers should be distributed unevenly . If t he times for each rotation of t he
Geneva wheel are required t o be different , t hen t he rotating radii of t he rollers should be differ-
ent . For the Geneva mechanism shown in Fig . 8- 17, t he times for each dwell and for each ro-
tation of t he Geneva wheel are all different during one cycle of t he driving plate .
Fig . 8-16 Fig . 8-17
7 6 1
8. 2. 3 The Ratio k between Motion Time and Dwell Time
The ra tio bet ween t he motion time tm and t he dwell time td of t he Geneva wheel is denot ed
by k . Usually, t he driving plate rotates at a constant speed . Thus , t his ratio k can be ex-
pressed by t he r atio of correspondi ng angles . For Geneva mechanisms wit h one roller ( Fig . 8-
12) , tm corresponds to angle 1 of t he drivi ng plate 1 while td corresponds to angle ( 2 - 1 )
of t he driving plate 1 . Therefore , t he ratio k is
k =
tm
td
=
1
2- 1
=
- 2/ z
+ 2/ z
=
z - 2
z + 2
(8- 1)
From t he above formula , we can see t hat t he number z of t he radial slot s must be larger
t han 2since t he r atio k must be greater t han zero . Si nce t he numera tor is always less t han t he
denominator in Eq . ( 8-1 ) , t he motion time of t he Geneva wheel is always less t han it s dwell
time in Geneva mechanisms wit h a si ngle roller .
If n rollers ar e dist rbut ed evenly on t he driving plate ( Fig . 8-16 ) , t hen t he motion time
tm of t he Geneva wheel during one circuit of t he driving plate corresponds t o angle n1 of t he
driving plate . For t he remaining angle ( 2- n1 ) , t he Geneva wheel dwells, i. e . td corre-
sponds t o ( 2 - n1 ) . Therefore , t he ratio k of Geneva mechanism wit h n evenly dist ribut ed
rollers is
k =
tm
td
=
n1
2 - n1
=
n ( - 2/ z )
2 - n (- 2/ z )
=
z - 2
2 z/ n - ( z - 2 )
(8- 2)
Since t he ratio k must be gr eater t han zero, t he denomi nat or in Eq . (8-2) must be grea ter
t han zero, i. e .
2 z
n
- ( z - 2 ) > 0 or , n <
2 z
z - 2
(8- 3)
According to Eq . ( 8-3 ) , t he allowed number n of rollers G can be deter mined af ter t he
number z of r adial slot s is known . For example , if z = 3 , t hen n = 1 5 . If z = 4 or 5 , t hen
n = 1 3 . If z6, t hen n = 1 2 .
For internal Geneva mechanisms ( Fig . 8-14) , t he angle of t he driving plate corresponding
t o t he motion time of t he Geneva wheel during one cycle is always greater t han . Therefore ,
internal Geneva mechanisms can have only one roller on t he driving plate . Usi ng a met hod sim-
ilar t o t he above , t he ra tio k between t he motion time tm and t he dwell time td of t he internal
Geneva wheel can be derived as follows :
k =
tm
td
=
z + 2
z - 2
(8- 4)
Since k must be gr eater t han zero, t he number z of r adial slots in an internal Geneva
mechanism can not be less t han 3 . In addition , according to Eq . ( 8-4 ) , t he motion time tm of
an internal Geneva wheel is always greater t han it s dwell ti me td .
8 6 1
The motion relationship of Geneva mechanism in motion stroke is equivalent to t hat of t he
oscillating guide bar mechanism shown in Fig . 4-9 . I t can be shown t hat t he angular accelera-
tion of t he Geneva wheel changes abruptly when t he Geneva wheel start s and stops . There-
fore , a soft impulse exist s at t hese t wo instant s . The lower t he number of radial slot s, t he
grea ter is t he abrupt change in angular acceler ation and t he worse t he motion smoot hness .
Therefore, t oo small a value of z s hould not be chosen during design . In r ealit y , external
Geneva mechanisms wit h 3 radial slots are seldom used . According to Eq . ( 8- 1) , t he ra tio k
of t he external Geneva mechanism incr eases wit h increase of z . But t he incr ease of k is not
grea t when z > 8 . Ther efore , in practice , z should be chosen bet ween 4 8 . If a larger k is
required, an internal Geneva mechanism is suitable . The dynamic char acteristics of t he inter-
nal Geneva mechanism are much better t han t hose of t he external one .
If it is possible to dist ribute t he axes of the driving plat e and t he driven Geneva wheel per-
pendicularly, t hen a spherical Geneva mechanism ( Fig . 8-15 ) s hould be used . The dynamic
char acteristics of t he spherical Geneva mechanism are much bett er t han t hose of t he external
Geneva mechanism , but slightly inferior to t hose of t he internal Geneva mechanism . The r atio
k of t he spherical Geneva mechanism is identically equal to 1 and independent of t he number of
radial slots . This char acteristic is better than t hat of t he internal Geneva mechanism . There-
fore , t he spherical Geneva mechanism is used more in combined machine tools wit h multiple
wor king positions .
8. 2. 4 The Characteristics and Applications of Geneva Mechanisms
Geneva mechanisms have many advantages, e. g. simple st ruct ure , small dimensions ,
easy t o manufactur e, swift t o change position , high mechanical efficiency, etc . Compar ed to
t he ra tchet mechanism , t he Geneva mechanism has no rigid impulse and t he motion is
smoot her . The str engt h of t he Geneva mechanism is higher t han t ha t of t he ra tchet mecha-
nism . Ther efore , Geneva mechanisms can be used to drive rotating tables wit h large moment s
of iner tia .
However , t he angular acceleration of t he Geneva wheel changes abruptly at two instant s
when t he Geneva wheel star ts and stops and a soft impulse is cr ea ted . Therefore , t he angular
velocit y of a Geneva mechanism should not be too high . The rotation angle of a Geneva wheel
for each cycle can not be adjusted . I t s adaptabilit y t o particular applica tions is poorer t han t hat
of a ratchet mechanism . Therefore , Geneva mechanisms ar e mostly used for index mechanisms
in which it is not necessary to adjust t he rotation angle .
8. 3 C a m- T y p e I n d e x M e c h a n i sm s
There are two types of cam- t ype i ndex mechanisms : cylindrical-cam index mechanisms
( Fig . 8-18 ) and hourglass- cam i ndex mechanisms ( Fig . 8-19 ) . They are of ten used in ma-
9 6 1
chines which need to t ransmit indexing motion or intermittent motion between t wo crossed
shaf ts .
Fig . 8-18 Fig . 8-19
8. 3. 1 Cylindrical Cam Index Mechanisms
The driving cam 1 of t he cylindrical cam index mechanis m ( Fig . 8-18 ) is a cyli ndrical
ridge cam . A number of rollers, 3are evenly dist ributed around the face of t he driven pla te 2 .
The driving cam rot ates at constant speed . As shown in t he figur e, t h rough an angle of t he
driving cam , t he ridge takes t he form of a spiral . For t he rest of t he cam rotation, t he ridge is
perpendicular to t he axis of t he camshaf t . As t he cam rotates t hrough t he angle t he driven
plate rota tes t h rough angle equal to 2/ z ( where z is t he number of rollers ) .
In order to ensure accurate indexing, t he widt h of t he cam ridge should be designed such
t hat bot h faces ar e always in contact wit h two adjacent rollers on t he driven plate .
8. 3. 2 Hourglass Cam Indexing Mechanisms
In t he hourglass cam indexing mechanism ( also called t he Ferguson Mechanism ) , t he
rollers are mounted radially around t he circumference of t he driven plate ( Fig . 8-19 ) . In prin-
ciple , t his cam mechanism is similar to a single t hread hourglass cam wit h t he driven plate per-
formi ng as a worm gear . As i n t he cyli ndrical mechanism , t here is a por tion of t he driving
ridge wher e t he pitch is zero and t he driven plate is held stationary . In t he remaining section ,
t he pitch of t he driving ridge causes t he driven plate t o rotat e t hrough 2/ z . As t he i nput shaft
rotates continuously , t he driven plate rota tes intermitt ently in one dir ection .
8. 3. 3 Advantages , Disadvantages and Applications
The cam profile is designed accordi ng t o t he required motion curve . Bot h rigid and soft im-
pulse can be avoided when t he driven plate start s and stops . Therefor e, t hese kinds of mecha-
0 7 1
nisms can transmit motion smoot hly and t heir dynamical char acteristics are very good . Noise
and vibration is very low . Any ratio between motion ti me and dwell time can be designed . In
addition , t he positional accuracy is high and reliable . No ext ra positioni ng device is needed .
Their st ruct ures are compact . In order to minimize power consumption , t he rollers of these
t wo mechanisms often use needle bearings . However , t hey are complicated t o manufact ure .
The accuracy for manufacture , assembly and adjust ment must be high . These t wo mechanisms
are used widely in high-speed , high- accuracy index mechanisms , e. g. high-speed punch press-
es , multi-colour print ers, packers, etc .
In t he hourglass- cam index mechanism , clearance between t he roller and t he side face of
t he curved ridge can be eliminated by adjusting t he cent re distance between t he cams haft and
t he driven shaf t . Thus , t he roller and curved ridge remain pr est ressed during dwell and index-
ing . Therefore , compar ed wit h t he cylindrical-cam index mechanism , t he hourglass-cam in-
dex mechanism has higher index accuracy ( t he i ndex accuracy may r each 5) and better dy-
namical char acteristics , etc .
8. 4 Uni v e r s a l J o i n t s
8. 4. 1 The Single Universal Joint
The single universal joint shown in Fig . 8-20 is a spatial low-pair mechanism which can
Fig . 8-20
tr ansmit rotation between t wo intersecting shaft s .
I t consists of a driving shaft 1, a cross piece 2, a
driven shaft 3, and t he frame 4 . The ends of driv-
ing shaf t 1 and t he driven shaft 3 are in t he form
of a yoke . All axes cross at t he centr e O of t he
crosspiece 2 . The acute angle between t he driving
shaf t 1 and t he driven shaft 3 is 13 .
When t he driving shaft 1 completes one revo-
lution, t he driven shaf t 3 will also complete one
revolution . However , it can be shown t ha t t he in-
stantaneous angular velocities of t he two shaf ts ar e
not equal at all times, i . e . t he driven shaf t 3 will
t urn at a variable speed if t he drivi ng s haft 1 t urns
at const ant speed . The tr ansmission ratio i13 of t he t wo shaft s is a function of t he angle 13 and
t he rotation angle 1 of t he drivi ng shaft 1 . If 13 = 0, t hen i13 is identically equal t o 1 . If
13 = 90, t hen i13 = 0, i. e ., t he t wo s haft s can not t ransmit rotation . If 0<13 < 90, t hen
i13 will vary periodically . When t he driving shaft 1 rota tes at constant angular velocit y 1 ,
1 7 1
t hen t he angular velocity 3 will fluct uate periodically wit hin 1cos 13 1/ cos 13 . Shown in
Fig . 8-21 ar e t he curves of i13 vs 1 (0 180) for differ ent 13 . We can see t hat t he ampli-
tude of t he fluct uation of 3 increases wit h t he increase of 13 . This fluct uation of 3 will cause
additional dynamical loads and s haft vibration . Therefor e , 13 must not be too gr ea t . In prac-
tical applications, 13 does not exceed 35 45.
Fig . 8-21
The st ructur e of t he universal joint is simple . I t is easy t o assemble . The universal joint
can adapt to poor working conditions . The angle 13 between t he t wo shaft s of t he single uni-
versal joint is also allowed to change duri ng transmission . Only t he amplitude of t he fluct ua tion
of 3 will change .
8. 4. 2 The Double Universal Joint
Since t he ratio i13 of t he single universal joint is not constant , vibration will occur during
t ransmission . In order to make 1 3 , a double universal joint should be used , i. e ., t he
driving shaf t 1 and t he driven s haft 3 are connected th rough an intermediat e shaft 2 and t wo
single universal joint s, as s hown in Fig . 8-22 .
Fig . 8-22
I t can be shown that , in order to make t he ra tio i13 between t he input shaft 1 and t he out-
put shaft 3 identically equal to 1, t he following two conditions must be satisfied .
(1 ) The angle 12 bet ween t he driving shaf t 1 and t he intermediat e shaf t 2 must be equal
t o t he angle 23 between t he intermediate shaft 2 and t he driven shaft 3 .
2 7 1
(2 ) When t he left yoke of t he intermediate shaft 2 lies on t he plane defined by t he axes of
t he drivi ng shaf t 1 and t he intermediate shaft 2, t he right yoke of t he intermediate shaf t 2
must lie exactly on t he plane defined by t he axes of t he intermediate shaft 2 and the driven
shaf t 3 .
In realit y, a double universal joint is seldom used to connect two s haft s locat ed on different
planes . Obviously, if t he driving shaft 1 and t he driven s haft 3 are located on t he same plane ,
t hen t he second condition can be simplified as follows:
(2
*
) The t wo yokes of t he intermediate shaft 2 must lie on t he same plane .
Alt hough t he angular velocit y of t he int ermediate shaft 2 fluctuates, it s dynamical load
can be neglected since its moment of inertia is small . In order to adapt automatically to t he
change i n t he distance between t he t wo single universal joint s, t he intermediate shaft 2 is often
made of two part s which ar e connected by a sliding key (spline) , as shown in Fig . 8-22 .
Fig . 8-23
The universal joint is easy t o assemble and
can be used in poor working conditions . I t is suit-
able for applica tions where t he angle and t he dis-
tance bet ween t he t wo shaf ts change continuous-
ly . Therefore , it is used widely in aut omobiles ,
machine tools, and textile machinery , etc . For
example , i n t he vehicle shown i n Fig . 8-23 , t he
gearbox 1 will be forced to vibrate up and down
when t he vehicle runs on rough roads . Thus, t he
distance and t he angle bet ween t he gearbox 1 and t he differential 2 will change continuously .
Wit h a double universal joi nt , t he tr ansmission is smoot h and continuous and the vehicle can
run normally .
8. 5 S c r e w M e c h a n i sm s
8. 5. 1 Working Principle and Types of Screw Mechanisms
A mechanism including screw pair ( s ) is called a screw mechanism . In addition to screw
pair ( s) , screw mechanisms in common use may also include revolutes and/ or prismatic pairs .
Screw mechanisms can be divided into single- t hread screw mechanisms, double- t hread screw
mechanisms, etc . The single- t hread screw mechanism is t he most commonly used . It consist s
of a t hr eaded bar and a nut . I ts kinema tic relations hip is quite si mple so it is not necessary to
explain it in detail . The lead screws in lat hes, screw presses, screw jacks, etc . are examples
of primary applications .
Shown in Fig . 8-24 is a simple t hr ee- link double- t hread screw mechanism . The scr ew bar
3 7 1
1 and the stationary nut ( frame) 3 form a screw pair A . The screw bar 1 and li nk 2 form a
screw pair B . The link 2 and t he frame 3 form a prismatic pair C . The link 2 can not rotate
but t ranslate relative to t he fr ame . Suppose t hat t he lead of t he t hr eads A and B are lA and lB ,
respectively, and bot h are right-handed t hreads . When t he screw bar 1 rotates once in t he di-
rection shown in Fig . 8- 24, t he screw bar 1 will t ranslate a distance lA t o the left relative to
t he stationary nut ( or frame) 3 along it s cent re line . Similarly , t he screw bar 1 will t ranslate
Fig . 8-24
a distance lB to t he left relative to t he nut 2
since t he nut 2 can not rotate . In ot her words ,
t he nut 2 will tr ansla te a distance lB t o t he right
relative to t he scr ew bar 1 . Therefore , t he ac-
tual tr ansla tion of t he nut 2 is t he algebr aic dif-
ference bet ween t he t ranslation of t he nut 2 rela-
tive t o t he screw bar 1 ( l B to the right ) and t he
t ranslation of t he screw bar 1 rela tive to t he
frame 3 ( lA t o t he left ) . If lA > lB , t hen t he
nut 2 will t ranslate ( lA - lB ) to t he left . If lA < l B , t hen it will t ranslate ( lB - lA ) t o t he
right . When t he screw bar 1 rota tes t hrough an angle relative t o t he stationary nut (frame)
3, t he absolute t ranslation of t he nut 2 will be | lA - lB |

2
. If t he leads lA and lB of t he
t hr eads A and B are quite closely si milar , t hen a fine feed will results i. e . t he t ranslation of
t he nut 2 is quite small alt hough screw bar 1 rotates t hrough a large angle . This kind of mech-
anism is often called a differ ential screw mechanism .
When the leads of t he t hreads A and B in t he differ ential screw mechanism are closely sim-
ilar , not only can t he nut 2 have a fi ne t ranslation , but also t he leads of t he t wo t hreads A and
B do not need t o be too small (so t hat t he screws have enough st rengt h ) . Ther efore , differen-
tial screw mechanisms are often used as fine measuring inst ruments , index mechanisms, and
many fine adjust ment devices .
I t can be shown similarly t hat t he absolute t ranslation of t he nut 2 will be | lA + lB |

2
t he spiral directions of t he t hreads A and B are opposite . This gives a quick t ranslation of t he
nut 2 . This ki nd of mechanism is often called a compound screw mechanism .
8. 5. 2 The Characteristics and Applications of Screw Mechanisms
The st ruct ur e of scr ew mechanisms is quite simple . The screw is easy to manufact ure .
The motion accuracy is quite high . The speed r atio is quite large . Very large axial t hrust can
be produced wit h a small driving torque . The transmission is smoot h and generates no noise .
The screw is self- locking . However , t he mechanical efficiency is quite low because of t he slid-
ing between scr ew bar and nut . For convenience of manufactur e, t he right-hand t hr ead is
4 7 1
most of ten used . Left- hand t hreads are used only in special applications .
Shown in Fig . 8-25 is a fine adjust ment mechanism for adjusting t he boring t ool in a bor-
ing machine . The t ool sleeve 3 is fi xed on t he boring bar 6 by setscrew 5 . The t ool sleeve 3
and t he boring tool 1 form a prismatic pair C by setscrew 2 . Befor e adjust ment , set screw 2
should be loosened so t hat t he boring tool 1 can t ranslate axially inside t he tool sleeve 3 . The
spiral direction of t he screws A and B are the same . If lA = 2 mm and lB = 2. 25 mm , t hen t he
boring t ool 1 t ranslates only 0. 25 mm for one r evolution of t he adjusti ng screw 7 . Thus, t he
feed of t he boring tool 1 can be adjusted accur ately .
Compound screw mechanisms are often used in devices which need to move component s
quickly, e. g . connection of t rucks, fixt ures, etc . Shown in Fig . 8-26 is a self- centering
bench vice . The leads of t he t wo screws ar e t he same and t heir spir al directions are opposite .
When t he screw bar 3 is turned , t he centering clips 1 and 2 can approach t he workpiece 5
equally quickly and t he workpiece 5 can be center ed and clamped .
Fig . 8-25
Fig . 8-26
8-1 Explain t he difference between t he two terminologies in ratchet mechanisms: double
function and changeable direction .
8-2 List t he advantages and t he disadvantages of t he t oot hed r atchet mechanism and t he silent
ratchet mechanism .
8-3 In order to avoid t he rigid impulse at t he t wo moment s when a Geneva wheel star ts and
st ops , what are t he design requirements ?
8-4 What measures must be taken to pr event a Geneva wheel from moving during dwell time ?
How are t he cent ral angle and positions of end points determined in designing t he convex lock-
ing arc of t he driving pla te ?
8-5 Is t he motion ti me of a Geneva wheel always grea ter t han t he dwell time i n ( a) an external
Geneva mechanism wit h single roller , ( b ) an external Geneva mechanism wit h more rollers ,
( c) an internal Geneva mechanism ?
5 7 1
8-6 Can t he internal Geneva mechanism be used wit h mor e than one roller ?
8-7 Why is t he external Geneva mechanism wit h 3 r adial slots seldom used in practice ?
8-8 Why is t he index accuracy of t he hourglass-cam index mechanism higher t han t hat of
cylindrical- cam index mechanism ?
8-9 Which two conditions should be satisfied if a double universal joint is used t o connect two
shaf ts locat ed on t he same plane ?
8-10 In a differential scr ew mechanism as shown in Fig . 8-24 , bot h spiral dir ections of t he
t hr eads A and B are right-handed . The lead of t he screw A is 3 mm . The nut 2 is r equir ed to
t ranslate 0. 2 mm to t he right if t he scr ew bar 1 turns one r evolution i n t he direction shown in
t he figure . What is the lead of t he screw B ?
6 7 1
C h ap t e r 9
Combi n ed Mec h a n i s m s
9. 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
The planar linkages, cam mechanisms , fixed axis gear mechanisms, gear t rai ns, Geneva
mechanisms, ratchet mechanisms , etc . discussed earlier are t ypical basic mechanisms . Many
kinematic requirement s can be met wit h t hese basic mechanisms . However , t he motion pat-
terns (position , velocity , and acceleration ) obtainable wit h t hese basic mechanisms are limited .
Wit h the development of production met hods, higher degrees of mechanization and au-
tomation are r equir ed . Machines are required to realize more complicated motion pat terns and to
have better dynamical char acteristics . Because of t heir limitations, it is gener ally difficult , or
even impossible , to realize t he more complica ted motion requirements using basic mechanisms .
Therefore , i n production practice , some basic mechanisms are of ten combined so t hat every ba-
sic mechanism can not only bring its particular kinematic function into full play but also over-
come it s limitations . Mechanism systems combined in such a way are called combined mecha-
nisms and t he basic mechanisms in t hese combined mechanisms are called sub-mechanisms .
Combined mechanisms can t hus be bet ter in performance and can meet many higher require-
ment s .
9. 2 M e t h o d s f o r t h e Cl a s s i f i c a t i on o f C omb i n e d M e c h a-
n i sm s
In order to clarify t he kinematic t ransmission route between t he sub-mechanisms and/ or
Assur groups in a combined mechanism , st ructural analysis must be complet ed on t he combined
mechanism . The detailed steps of st ructur al analysis for combined mechanisms ar e : Disconnect
t he sub- mechanisms and/ or Assur groups from t he combined mechanism accordi ng to the ki ne-
matic diagram of t he specific combined mechanism , identify t heir tr ansmission route , t hen
show t he struct ure and t ransmission route in block diagrams . Lastly , decide on t he t ype of t he
combined mechanis m according t o t he patt ern of t he t ransmission route .
There are various met hods for t he classifica tion of combined mechanisms . They may be
classified by t he names of sub-mechanisms, e. g. gear-linkage , cam- linkage , gear- cam mecha-
nism , double- cam mechanism , etc . They may also be classified by t he pat terns of t ransmission
7 7 1
rout e , e. g. i n series , in parallel , by feedback , etc . The lat ter classification shows t he tr ansmis-
sion route, which simplifies t he kinematic analysis and synt hesis of combined mechanisms .
Therefore , t he la tter classification is used in t his book .
9. 3 S e r i e s Co mb i n e d M e c h a ni sm s
Some basic mechanisms and/ or Assur groups are connected in series so t hat t he out put mo-
tions of one basic mechanism ( or Assur group ) is t he input motion of t he next basic mechanism
(or Assur group ) . The mechanism syst em combined in t his way is called a series combi ned
mechanism .
Shown in Fig . 9-1a is a t ransmission mechanism in a textile machine . By use of a cam
mechanism, t he input rotation of t he cam 1 is t ransformed int o t he oscillation of follower 2 and
t he motion of point B . Wit h t he help of an RRR Assur group consisting of links 3 and CD,
t he determined motion of t he point s B and D gives link CD a det ermined motion . The link CD
is t he input gear 4 of t he gear- rack mechanism . Thus, t he output r ack 5 is given t he r equir ed
motion . According to t he above st ruct ural analysis, t he struct ural block diagram of t he com-
bined mechanism should be t hat shown in Fig . 9-1b . The output motion of one basic mecha-
nism ( or Assur group ) is t he i nput motion of t he next basic mechanism ( or Assur group ) .
Therefore , t his is a series combined mechanism .
Fig . 9-1
In t he planetary gear t rain shown in Fig . 9- 2, differ ent point s on the planet gear 2 will
t race different loci which ar e often r eferred to as cycloids . The shapes of t hese cycloids depend
upon t he meshi ng pattern ( internal mesh or external mesh ) , ratio of teet h and t he position of
t he point on t he planet gear 2 . Suppose that , initially, t he planet carrier H is located at hori-
zontal position AB0 and t he point on t he planet gear 2 is located at point C0 on the cent re line
AB0 , as shown in Fig . 9- 2 . When t he planet carrier H rotates t hrough angle H and arrives at
t he position AB, t his poi nt will arrive at point C . Si nce
8 7 1
Fig . 9-2
2 - H
3 - H
= N
z3
z2
t herefore , 2 = 1 - N
z3
z2
H
wher e N is t he coefficient for meshing . ( N = + 1 for
internal mesh . N = - 1 for external mesh .) 2 and H
are positive counter- clockwise , negative clockwise .
Therefore, for t he gear-li nkage shown in Fig . 9- 2, t he
x- y coordinates of t he point C are
xC = lAB cos H - lB C cos 2
yC = lAB sin H - lB C si n 2
If t he ratio z3/ z2 is an i nt eger m , t hen t he point C
will draw m complete cycloids . Some curve sections of some cycloids can be approxi mated to an
arc or a st raight line . Using t hese proper ties ingeniously, intermit tent mechanisms can be con-
st ructed in which t he follower can dwell approximately for long time periods .
Fig . 9-3
In t he gear-li nkage with planet gear shown in Fig . 9- 3a , z3/ z2 = 3 and t he point C is lo-
cated on the circumference of t he pitch circle of t he planet gear 2 . The locus of t he point C will
be t hree general hypocycloids C1 C2 C3 C1 , as shown in t he figure . The hypocycloid C3 CC1 is a
close approxi mation t o an arc . An RRP Assur group consisting of coupler 4 and sliding block 5
is added to t he original mechanism . The lengt h of t he coupler 4 is set equal to t he r adius of t he
arc . The slideway of t he slidi ng block 5 is set t o pass t hrough t he cent re D of t he arc . Thus ,
t he driven sliding block 5 will dwell approxi mately when t he point C moves from t he position
C3 to t he position C1 ( t he corresponding rota tion angle of t he driving planet carrier AB being
9 7 1
120) . At t he ot her positions of t he driving planet carrier AB , t he sliding block will r ecipro-
cate at a variable speed . As analyzed above , t he st ruct ure of t his combined mechanism is shown
in Fig . 9- 3b . The mechanism is a series combined mechanism .
If t he sliding block 5 is r eplaced by a rocker 5 (i. e. group is r eplaced by an
RRR Assur group ) , t hen t he driven rocker 5 will oscillate wit h a long time dwell at one end of
it s motion .
Fig . 9-4
Using t he cycloid with a st raight- line sec-
tion, a combined mechanism can also be cr eat ed
t he follower of which can dwell approxima tely
for a long time . For example , in t he gear- linkage
shown in Fig . 9-4, z3/ z2 = 4 . If lB C =
0. 36 r2 , t hen t he locus of t he point C on gear 2
is a squar e wit h rounded corners . If an RPP As-
sur group consisting of sliding block 4 and slid-
ing bar 5 is added to t he original mechanism by
revolute C and prismatic pair D, then t he slid-
ing bar 5 will have a long approximate dwell at
each end of it s r eciproca tion .
In t he gear-li nkage shown in Fig . 9-5a , crank AB is a driver . The planet gear 2 is fixed
t o t he coupler 2 while t he sun gear 5 is mounted on shaft D . The gear 2, gear 5 and rocker 3
constitute a differential gear t rain wit h two DOF . The angles 2 and 3 of t he coupler 2 and
rocker 3 are t he t wo output s of t he crank- rocker mechanis m ABCD . They are also t he input
motions of t he differential gear tr ain wit h t wo DOF . They are combined in t he differential gear
t rain and 5 is used as t he out put . Therefore , t he mechanism is a series combi ned mechanism
and it s st ruct ural block diagram is shown in Fig . 9-5b .
Fig . 9-5
0 8 1
9. 4 P a r a l l e l C omb i n e d M e c h a ni sms
In some combined mechanisms , t he motion of t he driver is input simultaneously to n single
DOF basic mechanisms ( or kinematic chains ) arranged in parallel . The n out put motions of
t he n single DOF basic mechanisms (or ki nematic chains ) are input simultaneously to a basic
mechanism ( or Assur group ) wit h n DOF and t hen combined to produce an out put . The
mechanism system combined in such a way is called a par allel combi ned mechanism .
In t he gear- linkage shown i n Fig . 9-6a , gear 1 (or crank AB ) is a driver and rot ates at a
constant speed . On t he one hand, t he constant rota tion of t he crank AB makes the rocker 3 os-
cillate at a variable speed t hrough a cr ank- rocker mechanism ABCD . On t he ot her hand , t he
constant rotation of t he gear 1 makes t he gear 7 rot ate at a different constant speed clockwise
t hrough a fixed axis gear tr ain . The sun gear 5, sun gear 7 , planet gear 6 and planet carrier
DE constitute a differential gear tr ain wit h t wo DOF . I t combines t he constant rotation of t he
gear 7 and t he variable oscillation of t he planet carrier DE and t hen out put s a variable rota tion
of t he int ernal gear 5 . From analysing t he st ructure as above , we can see t hat t he streamlined
diagr am of kinematic analysis, or st ruct ural block diagr am , should be t hat shown i n Fig . 9- 6b .
Therefore , t he mechanism is a par allel combined mechanism .
Fig . 9-6
Many kinds of loci , even very complicated and special shaped loci , are often r equir ed in
engi neering . I t is difficult t o generate t hese loci satisfact orily using t he basic mechanisms and so
t hese complicated loci are frequently realized by gear li nkages . The five-bar gear-linkage shown
in Fig . 9- 7a is one of t he most frequently used gear-linkages to produce complicated coupler
loci . On t he one hand , t he driver 1 gives t he point B a determined motion t hrough link AB ;
on t he other hand , t he driver 1 gives t he gear 2 and t he point D determined motions t hrough
t he fixed axis gear t rain . The revolutes B and D are two outer revolutes of t he RRR Assur
group . The determined motions of t he r evolutes B and D ar e t he two input motions of t his
1 8 1
RRR Assur group . Since t he motions of t he points B and D are determined, t he point F has a
determined locus . The st ruct ural block diagr am of t he mechanism is shown in Fig . 9-7b . From
t his, we can see t hat t he gear-linkage is a par allel combined mechanism .
a ) b)
Fig . 9-7
The locus shape can be easily adjusted if one of following is changed : t he toot h ra tio, t he
link lengt hs , t he r elative angle of t wo cr anks, t he position of t he point F on t he coupler , etc . If
t he toot h ratio i12 = m/ n and t he m and n ar e two i ntegers which can not be divided by a
same i nteger , t hen t he point F will complete a cycle only if t he cr ank 1 rotates m cir cuit s and
t he crank 2 rotates n circuit s . Thus, t he locus of t he point F can be quite complicated .
Fig . 9-8
Shown in Fig . 9-8a is a cam-li nkage which can realized any predetermi ned locus . The cam
1 is fixed on cr ank AB . On t he one hand, t he rotation of cam 1 gives t he point B a determined
motion t hrough t he link AB ; on t he ot her hand, it gives a det ermined motion t o point D
t hrough t he planar cam mechanism wit h oscillating roller follower 4 . The revolutes B and D
are t he t wo outer revolutes of t he RRR Assur group consisti ng of links 2 and 3 . As t he mo-
tions of the point s B and D are determined , t he motions of t he two links in t he Assur group can
2 8 1
be determined . Thus, t he point G is given a determined motion . From t he st ructur al analysis
above, we can see t hat t he mechanism is a parallel combined mechanism . I ts st ructur al block di-
agr am is s hown in Fig . 9-8b . The point G can move accurately along a pr edetermined locus by
designing t he cam profile correctly .
Shown in Fig . 9-9a is a double cam mechanism consisting of t wo cam mechanisms . Came
1 and 1are fi xed to each ot her . The slot s on t he cams will force the followers 3 and 4 to re-
ciprocat e i n t he x and y directions , respectively . The sliding blocks 5 and 6 form a PRP Assur
group . The movement of t he follower 3 cont rols t he motion of t he revolute cent re M i n t he x
direction . Similarly , t he movement of t he follower 4 cont rols t he motion of t he revolute centre
M in t he y dir ection . The input rotation of t he cams produces x and y reciprocations t hrough
t wo cam mechanisms . These reciprocations are combined in t he P RP Assur group which gener-
at es t he locus of point M . As a result , t he st ruct ural block diagram of t he mechanism should be
t hat shown in Fig . 9-9b . Ther efore , t he mechanism is a parallel combined mechanism .
Fig . 9-9
9. 5 C omp o un d Co mb i n e d M e c h a ni sm s
In a parallel combined mechanism , t he n output s of t he driver are input si multaneously in-
t o n single DOF basic mechanisms ( or kinematic chains ) arranged in parallel . The n output
motions of t he n single DOF basic mechanisms ( or kinematic chains ) are combined in a basic
mechanism wit h n DOF to produce a determined out put . I n some cases, n of ( n + 1 ) out put s
of t he driver are input simultaneously into n si ngle DOF basic mechanisms ( or kinematic
chai ns) arranged in parallel . The n out puts of t he n single DOF basic mechanis ms ( or ki ne-
3 8 1
matic chains ) and an out put come from t he driver directly are input simultaneously int o a basic
mechanism ( or Assur group) wit h ( n + 1) DOF to produce a determi ned output . The mech-
anism system combined in such a way is called a compound combi ned mechanism .
Shown in Fig . 9-10a is an inver ted gear-li nkage consisting of a r evolute four-bar linkage
ABCD and a pair of external meshed gears . The planet gear 2 is fixed to coupler 2 . The out-
put gear 5 is located on shaft A of t he driving crank AB . In a double-crank mechanism
ABCD, t he motion of t he link 2 can be determined . The gear 5, gear 2 and planet carrier 1
constitute a differential gear t rain wit h t wo DOF . After t he motions of t he planet carrier 1 and
t he planet gear 2 are determined completely , t he motion of t he sun gear 5 can be determi ned .
As a result , t he struct ural block diagram of t he mechanism is t hat s hown in Fig . 9- 10b . From
t his, we can see t hat t he mechanism is a compound combined mechanism .
Fig . 9-10
Fig . 9-11
In t he cam-gear combined mechanis m shown in Fig . 9-11a , t he planet carrier H is a driver
while t he sun gear 1 is an out put gear . The roller on t he sector planet gear 2 runs in t he slot of
t he stationary cam 3 . When t he planet carrier H rota tes at a constant speed, t he roller will
move along t he slot . Thus , t he motion of link BC and sector gear 2 will be determined . In t he
differential gear t rain H-1- 2-3 wit h two DOF , t he output motion of t he sun gear 1 can be de-
4 8 1
termined if t he motions of t he planet carrier H and t he planet gear 2 are known . As analyzed
above, t he st ructural block diagr am of the mechanism should be t ha t shown in Fig . 9-11b .
One of t he inputs of t he differential gear t rai n wit h two DOF comes directly from t he driver
while t he ot her i nput comes from t he stationary cam mechanism . From t he st ructural block dia-
gram , we can see t hat t he mechanism is a compound combi ned mechanism .
9. 6 M ul t i p l e C omb i n e d M e c h a ni sm s
In some combined mechanisms, t he basic mechanisms are connected t o each ot her so t hat
t he relative frame of one is t he out put link of t he former . Every basic mechanism has it s own in-
dependent power source . Each basic mechanism execut es it s own motion t ransmission and t he
combina tion is t he out put of t he whole mechanism . The mechanism system combined in such a
way is called a mul tiple combi ned mechanism .
In t he excavator s hown in Fig . 9-12a, t he fr ame 4 of t he first basic mechanism 1-2-3-4 is
t he chassis of t he excavator . The second basic mechanism 5-6- 7-3 is connected to t he output
link 3 of the first basic mechanism , i. e. put link 3 of t he first basic mechanism is used
as the relative frame of t he second basic mechanism . Equally, t he t hird basic mechanis m 8-9-
10-7 uses t he output link 7 of t he second basic mechanism as it s relative frame . Each basic
mechanism has its own independent power so t her e ar e t hree inputs and t he machine is a multi-
ple combined mechanism . I ts st ructural block diagr am is shown in Fig . 9-12b .
Fig . 9-12
Shown in Fig. 9-13a is the schematic diagram of a funfair horse . The first basic mechanism
consisting of t he fr ame 5 and link 4 is t he carriage mechanism ( t he mechanism in Fig. 9-
13b) . I ts out put link 4 rota tes about t he fixed shaft O- O. The cr ank-oscillating block mecha-
nism consisting of links 1, 2, 3, and 4 is t he carried mechanism ( t he mechanis m in Fig .
9-13b) . The relative frame 4 of t his mechanism is t he output link of t he first mechanism I .
The power input of carriage mechanism causes t he horse to move around in a circle . The
5 8 1
power input of the carried mechanism gives t he rise and fall of the cent re of gravit y M of t he
horse and t he pitching movement . When t he t wo basic mechanisms oper ate at t he same , t he
funfair horse can execute more complicated movement s, e. g. rotati ng, up and down , and
pitching at same time . The st ructur al block diagram of t he mechanism is shown in Fig . 9- 13c .
This is anot her example of a multiple combi ned mechanism .
Fig . 9-13
9. 7 F e e d b a c k C om b i n e d M e c h a ni sms
As is well known , a differ ential mechanism has two DOF . T wo inputs ar e needed t o out-
put a determined motion . In some differ ential mechanism , one of t he input s comes from t he
driver directly . The ot her input is t he feedback from t he out put of t he differential mechanism
t hrough t he si ngle DOF kinematic chain . The mechanism system combi ned in such a way is
called a feedback combi ned mechanism .
Shown in Fig . 9-14a is a correction and compensation device used in gear cutting machine
t ools . The worm and worm wheel mechanism ( the mechanism in Fig . 9- 14b ) is a t wo
DOF mechanism . The rotations of t he wor m and t he worm wheel are , respectively, t he input
and output of the whole mechanism . The rotation of t he cam ( or t he worm wheel ) can drive
t he worm to r eciproca te axially . The st ructur al block diagr am is shown in Fig . 9-14c . One of
inputs of t he two DOF worm and worm wheel mechanism , i. e. t he r eciprocation of t he worm ,
6 8 1
is t he feedback of the out put ( t he rotation of t he worm wheel or cam ) th rough the single DOF
cam mechanism . Therefor e, t he whole mechanis m is a feedback combined mechanism .
Fig . 9-14
In gear cut ti ng machine tools, because of errors in manufact ure and assembly , t he gear
blank and t he cut ting t ool do not maintain t he correct tr ansmission ratio . This error reduces t he
accuracy of t he gear . However , wit h t his correction and compensation mechanism , t he error
can be corr ected continuously . The cam profile is designed according to t he actually measur ed
error . The worm is t hus forced to t ranslate axially by t he cam mechanis m while t he worm
wheel rota tes . Thus, t he worm wheel is given an additional rotation t o correct t he kinematic er-
ror .
9. 8 M i x e d C omb i n e d M e c h a ni sm s
A mechanis m syst em formed t hrough mor e t han one combination pat tern is called a mi xed
combi ned mechanism .
Shown in Fig . 9-15a is a t ransmission mechanism in a printer . When t he driver AB ro-
tates , t he li nk 3 is given a det ermined motion t hrough a double- crank mechanism ABCD . The
cam is fi xed to t he crank 3 and drives the t ranslating roller follower 6 (or rack 6 ) . Wit h t he
link subroutine, t he motion of t he point E can be determined . Then , t he motion of t he point F
can be determined wit h t he RRP subroutine . The rack 6, gear 7 and t he output rack ( plat-
form) 8 constit ute a gear- rack mechanism wit h t wo DOF . The translations of bot h t he rack 6
7 8 1
and t he point F cause t he r ack 8 t o r eciprocate . Following t his analysis , t he st ructur al block di-
agr am of t he mechanism is as shown in Fig . 9-15b . The combination pattern is neit her series
nor parallel . Therefore , we have a mixed combined mechanism . The use of t he cam mecha-
nism is to corr ect the velocit y of t he out put rack 8 so t hat t he velocity of t he plat form 8 is ap-
proximately constant duri ng t he work st roke .
Fig . 9-15
Fig . 9-16
The t hree-gear drive shown in Fig . 9-16a is a well- known mechanism which can be used to
produce a varying output motion from a continuous rotary input . The input shaf t at A drives an
eccent ric gear at a constant speed 1 . The offset AB of t his gear forms t he input cr ank of a
four-bar linkage ABCD t o which t wo gears are a ttached at C and D . The motions of coupler 2
and rocker 3 can be determined in t he rocker-crank mechanism ABCD . The gear 1 , gear 6
and coupler 2 constit ute a differential gear t rain wit h two DOF . The motion of t he gear 6 can
be determined according t o t he motions of t he coupler 2 and t he gear 1 . The gear 6, t he gear
5 and t he rocker 3 constit ute anot her differential gear train wit h two DOF . The motion of gear
5 is a combination of those of t he rocker 3 and the gear 6 . Applying t his analysis , t he st ruc-
8 8 1
tural block diagram of t he mechanism is as shown in Fig . 9-16b . From t his, we can see t hat
t his is a mi xed combined mechanism .
9. 9 M a t t e r s Ne e d i n g A t t e n t i o n
Lastly, t here are t wo points for attention .
( 1) For t he same kinematic chai n, if differ ent links are chosen as frame or driver , t hen t he
combina tion pat tern of t he combined mechanisms will be different . For example , t he kinematic
chai ns i n Fig . 9-5a and Fig . 9- 10a are t he same . However , since different links are chosen as
driver , t he combi ned mechanism in Fig . 9-5a is a series t ype while t hat i n Fig . 9- 10a is a com-
pound type .
(2 ) The main purpose of t he st ructural analysis and t he st ructural block diagr am is to clari-
fy t he t ransmission route , not t he classification . For t he same mechanism , if differ ent met hods
are used for kinematic analysis , t hen t he st reamli ne diagrams for ki nematic analysis, t he st ruc-
tural block diagrams , and t he combination pat terns corresponding to t he differ ent kinematic
analysis met hods will be different , even if t he frame and t he driver are unchanged . This is quite
normal .
Fig . 9-17
For example , shown in Fig . 9- 17a is a combined gear t rain with t hree sun gears 1, 3 and
4 . The sun gear 1 is an input gear while t he sun gear 4 is an output gear . According t o differ-
9 8 1
ent kinematic analysis routes, t he combination pattern of t his combined mechanism may be se-
ries ( shown in Fig . 9-17b ) or compound (s hown i n Fig . 9-17c) or feedback ( shown in Fig .
9-17d ) .
9-1 In t he combined mechanism shown in Fig . 9-18 , link 1 is a driver while t he sliding
Fig . 9-18
block 6 is t he output link . Analyze t he motion
t ransmission route and dr aw it s struct ural
block diagram . What is t he combina tion pat-
tern of t he combined mechanism ?
9-2 The cam- linkage shown in Fig . 9-19 is
t he holding mechanism i n a chocolate packing
machine . The link AB is a driver while sliding
block 4 is t he output link . Analyze t he motion
t ransmission route and dr aw it s struct ural
block diagr am . Wha t is t he combination pattern of t he combi ned mechanism ?
Fig . 9-19 Fig . 9-20
9-3 In t he planetary gear t rain shown in Fig . 9- 2, z3 = 50 , z2 = 20 , module m = 3 mm and
lB C = 0. 69 r2 . Draw t he locus of t he point C .
9-4 In t he gear- linkage shown in Fig . 9-3a , r3 = 150 mm and r2 = 50 mm . The drivi ng carri-
0 9 1
er AB runs at a constant speed H = 10 rad/ s .
(1 ) Draw t he locus of t he point C .
(2 ) Suppose l4 = 7. 11 r2 . Write a program to calculate t he displacement sD , velocity vD
and accelera tion aD of t he slidi ng block . Draw t he motion curves sD- H , vD- H , and aD- H .
9-5 In t he gear- linkage shown in Fig . 9-4 , r3 = 200 mm , r2 = 50 mm and lBC = 0. 36 r2 . The
driving carrier AB runs at a const ant speed H = 10 r ad/ s .
(2 ) Write a progr am t o calculate t he displacement s5 , velocit y v5 and acceleration a5 of t he
follower 5 . Draw t he motion curves s5- H , v5- H , and a5- H .
9-6 In t he gear- linkage shown in Fig . 9-20, link AB is a driver while t he oscillating bar 5 is
t he output link . At t he position shown , t he t hree point s A , B , and C are on t he same hori-
zontal line . lAB = 150 mm , lB C = 100 mm, lAD = 500mm , z3 = 90 and z2 = 30 . The driving car-
rier AB runs a t a constant speed H = 10 r ad/ s .
(1 ) Analyze t he motion transmission route and dr aw it s st ructur al block diagram . What is
t he combination pa ttern of t he combined mechanism ?
(3 ) Write a progr am to calculate t he angular displacement 5 , angular velocit y 5 and an-
gular acceleration 5 of t he driven rocker 5 . Draw t he motion curves 5- H , 5- H , and 5-
H .
Fig . 9-21
9-7 In t he cam- linkage shown i n Fig . 9-
21, t he driving rotary block 1 rot ates contin-
uously . By designing t he contour of t he fixed
cam correctly , t he sliding block 4 can get a
predet ermined motion . Analyze t he motion
t ransmission route and dr aw its st ruct ural
block diagram . What is t he combination pat-
9-8 In t he combined mechanism shown in
Fig . 9-22, t he driving crank AB runs at a
constant speed and drives guide bar 2 and oscillating block 3 . The guide bar 2 will r eciprocate
relative to t he oscillating block 3 . A rack is fixed t o guide bar 2 and gear 4 is mounted on shaft
C . The rack meshes wit h t he gear so t hat t he gear can output a very large angular oscillation .
Analyze t he motion t ransmission rout e and draw it s st ructur al block diagram . What is t he com-
bina tion pat tern of t he combined mechanism ?
9-9 I n t he gear-linkage shown in Fig . 9-7a, suppose t hat r1 = 28 mm , r2 = 42 mm , lAB =
lCD = 24 mm and lBF = lD F = 110 mm . The relative position bet ween t he cr anks AB and CD is
shown in t he figur e . Draw t he locus of t he point F .
9-10 Shown Fig . 9-23 is a cam-linkage which can t race any complicated locus . The driving
1 9 1
cr ank AB rotates toget her wit h t he cam about t he shaft A . By designi ng t he cam profile cor-
rectly, t he revolute C bet ween t he couplers 2 and 3 can move along a pr edetermined locus .
Analyze t he motion t ransmission rout e and draw it s st ructur al block diagram . What is t he com-
Fig . 9-22 Fig . 9-23
9-11 Shown in Fig . 9-24 is a cam-linkage used in a printer t o tr anspor t paper . The t wo cams
are fixed to each ot her . When t he double cam rotates , t he sucker J fixed to coupler 2 will move
along t he locus m m so t hat paper can be lifted and t ranspor ted . Analyze t he motion tr ansmis-
sion route and draw it s st ructural block diagr am . What is
Fig . 9-24
t he combination pattern of t he combined mecha-
nism ?
9-12 In t he gear- linkage shown in Fig . 9- 25, t he
cr ank AB is a driver . The output pinion 5 is located
on t he shaf t A . Analyze t he motion t ransmission
rout e and draw it s st ructur al block diagr am . What is
t he combination pattern of t he combined mecha-
nism ?
9-13 In t he cam- worm combined mechanism shown
in Fig . 9- 26, t he worm 2 and t he cylindrical cam 2
are fixed toget her . They are connected to t he input
shaf t 1 by a sliding key, i. e. 2 = 1 . The sta-
tionary pin 4 runs in the slot of t he cylindrical cam
2and causes reciprocation of cam 2and worm 2 .
The t ranslation of t he worm 2 will cause an additional rotation of worm gear 3 . Analyze t he
motion t ransmission rout e and draw its struct ural block diagram . What is t he combi nation pat-
9-14 In t he cam- gear- linkage shown in Fig . 9- 27, t he cam is fi xed to gear 1 . They are bot h
input links . Gear 3 is t he output . Analyze t he motion t ransmission route and dr aw its struct ural
2 9 1
block diagr am . Wha t is t he combination pattern of t he combi ned mechanism ?
9-15 Shown in Fig . 9- 28 is a schematic diagram of an indust rial robot . Analyze t he motion
t ransmission route and draw its struct ural block diagram . What is t he combination pa ttern of
t he combined mechanism ?
Fig . 9-25 Fig . 9-26
Fig . 9-27 Fig . 9-28
9-16 In t he gear-linkage shown in Fig . 9-29 , gear 1 is a driver while gear 6 is t he out put .
Analyze t he motion t ransmission route and draw it s st ruct ural block diagram . What is t he com-
9-17 In t he gear-linkage s hown in Fig . 9-30 , t he crank AB is a driver while gear 4 is t he out-
put . Analyze t he motion t ransmission route and draw its st ruct ural block diagr am . What is t he
combina tion pat tern of t he combined mechanism ?
9-18 Shown in Fig . 9-31 is anot her kind of gear-li nkage which can t race complicated loci . In
t his combined mechanism, t he t wo meshed gears 1 and 5 are mounted on coupler 2 . When t he
driving cr ank AB rotates, t he poi nt M fixed to gear 5 will t race a complicated locus . Analyze
3 9 1
t he motion t ransmission route and dr aw its st ruct ur al block diagram . What is t he combina tion
pat tern of t he combined mechanism ?
Fig . 9-29 Fig . 9-30
9-19 In t he kinematic chain shown in Fig . 9-16a , if t he driver is t he link 3 instead of t he gear
1, while t he gear 5 is still an out put gear . Analyze t he motion tr ansmission route and draw it s
st ruct ural block diagram . What is t he combination pat tern of t he combined mechanism ?
Fig . 9-31
4 9 1
C h ap t e r 10
B al a n ci n g o f Mac h i n e r y
10. 1 P ur p o s e s a n d M e t h o d s o f B a l a n c i n g
10 . 1 . 1 Purposes
The cent re of mass of some machine element s, e. g. cams, may not coincide wit h t heir ro-
tating cent res because of t he asymmet ry of t he st ruct ure . Even for symmet rical machine ele-
ment s, t he cent re of mass may still be eccent ric because of uneven dist ribution of materials, er-
rors in machining and also in casting and forging . Ot her errors may be caused by improper bor-
ing, by keys or by assembly .
Fig . 10-1
Shown in Fig. 10-1 is a disk t he mass cent re of
which is displaced by an eccentricity e from it s ro-
tating centr e . When t he disk runs at constant an-
gular speed , , t he cent rifugal for ce F crea ted
by t he mass m is F = me
2
dir ected radially out-
wards . Since t he magnitude of t he centrifugal
force F is propor tional t o t he squar e of angular
speed , t he magnit ude of cent rifugal force F of
high speed part s may reach quite high levels even
for a small eccent ricit y e . For example , t he
weight W of a round plane cutter is W = 500 N and t he rotati ng speed n = 2 000 r/ min . Al-
t hough t he eccentricit y e is only 1mm, t he cent rifugal inertia force F cr ea ted is F = me
2
=
( W/ g ) e
2
= 2 238 N , which is much larger t han it s weight . Furt hermore , t he direction of
t he cent rifugal force F exerted on t he frame is time varying, and it will t herefor e i mpart vibra-
tion to t he fr ame . This vibration can adversely affect t he st ruct ural integrit y of t he machine
foundation . It also decr eases t he machining precision and efficiency , increases t he st ress in
components , causes wear and subject s bearings t o r epeated loads which cause par t s t o fail pre-
matur ely by fatigue . If t he rot ating frequency of a part is near to it s resonant frequency, t he
amplitudes of vibr ation may reach dangerous levels . Ther efore , we should try t o eliminate t he
unwanted cent rifugal forces in machines, especially in high- speed machinery and precision ma-
5 9 1
chinery . However , some machi nes , g . vibrat ors, shock drillers , etc . do work by vibra-
tion .
10 . 1 . 2 Methods
The process of designing or modifying machinery in order to r educe unwanted vibration to
an accept able level , and possibly to eliminate it entir ely, is called bal ancing . The balancing of
machinery can be divided int o balancing of rotors and balanci ng of mechanisms .
(1 ) Balancing of rotors
Par ts constr ained t o rotate about a fixed axis ar e called rotors . Such rot ors can be divided
furt her into rigid rotors and flexible rotors .
( a) Rigid rotors
If t he rot ati ng frequency of t he rotor is less t han ( 0. 6 0. 7 ) nC1 ( where : nC1 is t he first
resonant frequency of t he rotor) , t hen t he rotor is supposed t o have no deforma tion duri ng ro-
tation and is called a ri gi d rotor . According t o t he ratio between t he axial di mension and diam-
eter , rigid rotors can be divided int o disk-li ke rot ors and non-disk rigid rotors .
Rotors whose axial dimensions B are small compared to t heir diameters D (usually B/ D <
0. 2) , such as gears, pulleys, cams, flywheels, fans, grinding wheels, and impellers, are
called disk- like rotors . The masses of such rotors are assumed practically to lie in a common
t ransverse plane .
If B/ D0. 2, such as crankshaf ts , spindles in machi ne tools , axles of elect ric motors ,
etc ., t he rotor is called a non- disk ri gi d rotor .
(b ) Flexible rotors
In some machines, g . steam t urbines , t he mass and axial dimensions of t he rotor are
quite large , while t he diameter is quite small . Therefore , it s t he first r esonant frequency nC1
is low . If t he working rotating frequency of t he rot or is larger t han (0. 6 0. 7) nC1 , t hen t he
rotor will have large elastic deforma tion due t o imbalance during rotation . The elastic deforma-
tion makes t he eccent ricit y larger t han t he original one so t hat a new imbalance factor is added
and t he balancing problem becomes mor e complica ted . Such a rot or is called a f lexible rotor .
The balancing t heory of flexible rot ors is beyond t he scope of t his book . In t his book , empha-
sis is put on t he balance of rigid rotors .
(2 ) Balancing of mechanisms
The coupler of a linkage has a complex motion . The acceleration of it s mass cent re and it s
angular accelera tion vary t hroughout t he motion cycle . The coupler will t herefore create a vary-
ing inertia force and iner tia moment of force for any mass distribution . So t he balance of link-
ages must be considered as a whole . The resultant i ner tia force of all moving part s is equal to
t he net unbalanced force acting on t he fr ame of a machine , which is referr ed t o as t he shaki ng
f orce . Li kewise , a r esultant unbalanced moment acting on t he frame , caused by t he inertia
forces and iner tia moment s of all moving part s , is called t he shak ing moment . The s haking
6 9 1
force and t he s haking moment will cause t he frame t o vibrate .
Alt hough t her e exist many met hods t o make a linkage mechanism fully shaking force and/
or fully shaking moment balanced, t he results are usually unr easonable , g ., t he internal
bearing forces may be too gr eat , t he st ruct ure may be too cumbersome , t he driving moment
required may be too large , etc . Thus, a par tial balance may represent t he best compromise be-
tween many dynamic criteria . Optimization met hods can be used to reach a reasonable result .
10. 2 B a l a n c i n g o f Di s k- l i k e Ro t o r s
10 . 2 . 1 Conditions for the Balancing of a Disk- like Rotor
Consider t he rigid disk- like rotor shown in Fig . 10-2 which is assumed t o rotate wit h con-
stant angular velocity . Unbalanced masses ar e depicted as point masses mi at radial distances
ri . In t his case , t her e are t hree masses , m1 , m2 , and m3 , but t her e could be any number .
Fig . 10-2
Each of t he unbalanced masses in Fig . 10-2 produces
a centrifugal for ce Fi ( i = 1, 2, 3 ) acting radially out-
wards from t he axis of rotation wit h a magnit ude equal to
mi ri
2
( i = 1, 2 , 3 ) . All cent rifugal forces Fi in t his
disk-like rot or are planar and concurrent . If t he vector
sum of t hese forces is zero, t hen t he mass cent re of t he
system coi ncides wit h t he shaft cent re and t he rotor is bal-
anced . Ot her wise , it is called i mbalance . Since t he im-
balance can be shown statically, such imbalance is called
st atic i mbalance . I n t his case , a four t h mass mC with
rotati ng radius of rC is added to t he system so t hat t he vec-
torial sum of t he four centrifugal forces is zero and balance
is achieved . The added mass is called a counter wei ght .
Such balance is called st atic bal ance . Therefor e , t he condition for t he balancing of a disk- like
rotor is
FC + Fi = 0 ( 10- 1)
wher e FC is t he cent rifugal force produced by t he counterweight mC . or
mC rC
2
+ mi ri
2
= 0 ( 10- 2)
The quantit y
2
can be eliminated from Eq . (10-2 ) , yielding t he following relations hip:
mC rC + mi ri = 0 ( 10- 3)
wher e mi ri is called t he mass- radi us product , which has a similar char acteristic t o t hat of t he
cent rifugal force Fi . Note t hat mi ri is a vector , not a scalar quantit y . Therefore , t he condi-
tion for t he balancing of disk-like rotor can be described as: t he vect or sum of all inertia forces
7 9 1
or t he vect or sum of all mass- radius product s must be zero . The st atic balance is equivalent to
bringing t he system cent re of gravit y t o t he axis of rotation .
10 . 2 . 2 Calculation for the Balancing of a Disk-like Rotor
Eq .(10-3 ) y by resolving it int o x and y components , as fol-
lows:
mC rC cos C + miri cos i = 0
mC rC sin C + mi ri sin i = 0
( 10- 4)
wher e i represent s t he location angle of t he mass i . Solving the two equations simultaneously
for ( mC rC ) and C , we have
mC rC = mi ri cos i
2
+ miri sin i
2
( 10- 5)
C = arctan
- mi ri sin i
- mi ri cos i
( 10- 6)
Note t hat t he proper quadrant for t he angle C must be determined by t he signs of bot h t he
numerat or and denominat or of t he arctan function in Eq . (10-6 ) . Because only t he value of t he
product is required , eit her mC or rC can be selected arbitr arily . Usually , counter weight s are
placed at as large a rotating radius as is practicable to mi nimize the amount of t he added mass .
In pr actice , rotors are oft en balanced by removing mass in t he direction of imbalance ( g .
drilling a hole as t he open circle mC shown in Fig . 10-2 ) , rat her t han by adding counter-
weight s to t he periphery 180from t he i mbalance . Removing mass is not only easy t o achieve
but also decreases t he mass and t he moment of iner tia so t hat t he iner tia moment of force can be
decreased when t he rot or rotates at an uneven speed .
From t he above , we can conclude t hat any number of masses in a disk- like rotor can be
balanced by adding a single mass or removing a mass at an appropria te position .
10 . 2 . 3 Static Balancing Machines
Imbalance t ha t arises from t he uneven densit y of materials , manufact uring errors, etc .,
cannot be predicted purely by computation duri ng design . Therefor e, experimental procedur es
Fig . 10-3
and equipment are necessary t o detect t he imbalance
in a given rotor even if t he rotor has been designed t o
be balanced . In many instances , it is mor e econom-
ical t o allow an imbalance caused by manufact ur e and
t hen to balance t he rot or by adding or removing ma-
terial as indica ted by a balancing machine .
The static balancing machine shown in Fig . 10-
3 has t wo hard horizontal parallel r ails . The rigid
8 9 1
rotor for test is laid on t he r ails . If t he centr e of mass of t he system coincides wit h t he axis of
rotation, t he rotor will not roll regardless of t he angular position of the rotor . Si mple experi-
ment s to determine whet her t he disk is statically unbalanced can be conducted as follows . Roll
t he disk gently by hand and permit it t o rock under t he action of gravit y until it comes to r est .
The r est position of t he disk indicates t he lowest angular location of t he mass cent re , but not
t he amount . So a t rial weight ( e. g . a lump of plasticine) can be at tached to t he highest point
of t he rotor . Since t he amount of unbalance is unknown , t hese corrections must be made by
t rial and error until t he rotor does not roll along t he r ails from any initial location . This will de-
termine t he amount and t he location of mass- radius product required for balance . Then balanc-
ing may be achieved by drilli ng out material at t he location of t he imbalance or by adding mass
t o t he periphery 180from this location according t o t he unbalanced mass- radius product .
Fig . 10-4
Since corr ection by t he static balancing machine in Fig . 10-3 must be made by trial and er-
ror , it will t ake much ti me t o balance a rot or . The static balancing machine shown in Fig. 10-
4 can indica te bot h t he magnit ude and t he location of imbalance at t he same time . There is a
spherical pair bet ween t he frame and t he plat form . The machine is essentially a pendulum
which can tilt in any direction . When an unbalanced rot or is mounted on t he platform of t he
machine , t he pendulum tilt s . The dir ection of t he tilt gives t he angular position of t he imbal-
ance while t he tilt angle indicates t he amount of t he imbalance .
10. 3 B a l a n c i n g o f No n- d i s k R i g i d R o t o r s
10 . 3 . 1 Conditions for the Balancing of a Non-disk Rigid Rotor
All cent rifugal forces on a disk- like rotor are planar and concurrent . After a disk- like rotor
is sta tically balanced on a static balancing machine , t her e will be no vibr ation when it runs at a
constant speed . However , even if a non-disk rigid rotor is statically balanced, it may still ex-
hibit unwanted vibration when rot ated about it s axis . For example , in t he non-disk rigid rotor
shown in Fig . 10- 5, two equal masses m1 and m2 lie in a common axial plane and at equal dis-
9 9 1
t ances r1 and r2 from t he axis of rotation . Ther efore , t he mass cent re of t he rotor is located at
point S on t he axis of rotation and t he rotor will rest on t he rails of a sta tic balancing machi ne in
any angular position, as shown in Fig . 10-5b . Ther efor e it is statically balanced .
Fig . 10-5
However , if t he non-disk rigid rotor of Fig . 10-5 is placed in bearings and caused t o rotate
at an angular velocit y , t he centrifugal forces F1 = m1 r1
2
and F2 = m2 r2
2
act outwards .
Alt hough t he resultant of t he two cent rifugal forces is zero, t he forces are not collinear and a
resultant couple will exist . The direction of t he r esultant couple changes during rotation . The
resultant couple will act on t he frame and tend to produce rot ational vibration of t he frame .
Such an imbalance can only be detected by means of a dynamic test in which t he rotor is spin-
ning . Therefore , t his is r eferred t o as dynamic imbalance . The rotor in Fig . 10-5 is t her efore
sta tically balanced and dynamically unbalanced .
From t he above , we can see t hat t he conditions for t he balancing of a non- disk rigid rot or
are : Bot h t he vect or sum of all inertia forces and t he vector sum of all moments of iner tia forces
about any point must be zero, Fi = 0 and Mi = 0 .
10 . 3 . 2 Resolution of Forces
In Fig . 10-6 , an eccent ric mass m creates a cent rifugal force F = mr
2
. From Theoreti-
Fig . 10-6
cal Mechanics , we know t hat t he cent rifugal force F can be re-
placed dynamically by a pair of forces FA and FB parallel to F
and acti ng i n t wo arbit rarily chosen tr ansverse planes A and B,
as shown in Fig . 10-6 . The necessary conditions t o replace F
by FA and FB dynamically ar e:
(1 ) The resultant force of FA and FB must be equal t o F .
(2) The resultant of t he moment s of FA and FB about any
point must be equal t o t he moment of F about t he same point .
0 0 2
Taking point C as t he cent re of moment , we have
FA + FB = F
FA lA = FB lB
Solving t he t wo equations simultaneously will give
FA = Fl B/ l and FB = FlA/ l ( 10- 7)
The forces FA and FB can be seen as t he centrifugal forces created by mA and mB on t he
planes A and B , r espectively . Therefore ,
FA = mA rA
2
and FB = mB rB
2
( 10- 8)
Substit uting Eq . (10-7 ) into Eq . ( 10- 8) will give
mA r A = mrlB/ l and mB rB = mrlA/ l ( 10- 9)
From t he above , we can see t hat a mass- radius product mr can be replaced dynamically by
a pair of mass- radius product s ( mA r A and mB rB ) par allel t o t he original one and acting in t wo
arbit rarily chosen transverse planes .
10 . 3 . 3 Calculation for the Balancing of a Non-disk Rigid Rotor
Shown in Fig . 10-7 is a non- disk rigid rot or on which t hr ee masses ( m1 , m2 and m3 )
exist in t hree t ransverse planes . The cent rifugal forces of t he t hr ee masses will act in radial di-
rections as shown . The t h ree masses have mass- r adius product s F1 , F2 , and F3 , respective-
ly . F1 = m1 r1 , F2 = m2 r2 , and F3 = m3 r3 , . We can i magine t hem t o form a spa tial force
system ( where we have divided t he forces by
2
) .
Fig . 10-7
1 0 2
According t o Eq . ( 10-9 ) , F1 can be replaced dynamically by two mass- radius products ,
F1A and F1 B , on two arbitr arily chosen t ransverse planes A and B , respectively , as shown in
Fig . 10-7 .
F1A = m1 r1 ( l - l1 )/ l and F1 B = m1 r1 l1/ l
Similarly , F2 and F3 can be replaced dynamically by F2A and F2B , and F3A and F3 B , on t he
planes A and B, r espectively .
Now, F1 , F2 , and F3 have been r eplaced dynamically by F1A , F2A , and F3A on t he plane A ,
and F1B , F2 B , and F3 B on t he plane B .In t his way , t he complicat ed spatial for ce system has been
convert ed into two simpler planar concurrent for ce syst ems on two planes .In order to balance
F1A , F2A , and F3A on t he plane A , a counter weight mA is added .Accordi ng to Eq .( 10-3 ) , t he
magnitude and t he location of t he counter weight mA must sa tisfy t he following condition .
mA r A + m1 r1 ( l - l1 )/ l + m2 r2 ( l - l2 )/ l + m3 r3 ( l - l3 )/ l = 0
Wit h t he same met hod as in Sec . 10. 2. 2, t he above vect or equation can be solved by di-
viding into x and y component s and t hen ( mA rA ) and A can be calculated by solvi ng t he t wo
equations simultaneously .
Similarly, in order to balance F1 B , F2 B , and F3 B , on t he plane B, a counter weight mB
can be used . The magnit ude and t he location of t he counterweight mB must satisfy following
condition .
mB rB + m1 r1 l1/ l + m2 r2 l2/ l + m3 r3 l3/ l = 0
The values of ( mB rB ) and B can be calculated by dividing t he above vector equation into
x and y components and t hen solvi ng t he two equations si mult aneously .
Af ter choosi ng as large rot ati ng radii rA and rB as is practicable , t he magnit udes of mA and
mB can be calculated . Since t he vector sum of t he four mass- r adius product s on the plane A is
zero and t hey ar e planar and concurrent , bot h resultant force and resultant moment about any
point ar e zero . Similarly, t he vector sum and resultant moment about any point of t he four
mass- radius product s on t he plane B is also zero . Therefore , t he non-dis k rigid rotor becomes
dynamically balanced .
The above met hods can be extended to any rot or wit h any number of imbalances on any
number of tr ansverse planes . The conclusion is t ha t any number of masses on any number of
t ransverse planes of a non-disk rigid rotor can be balanced dynamically by a mini mum of t wo
masses placed in any t wo arbitr arily selected transverse planes . The selected tr ansverse planes
are called balance pl anes . In pr actice , t hose planes on which counter weight s can be mount ed
easily , or mass can be removed easily, may be chosen as t he balance planes . Usually , t hey are
near beari ng suppor ts in order t o minimize t he bending moment s and t he r esulting shaft deflec-
tion .
2 0 2
For t he disk- like rotor shown i n Fig . 10-2, moment equilibrium is inherent if Fi = 0 or
miri = 0, since t he i ner tia force vectors ar e planar concurrent . For a non-dis k rigid rot or ,
however , t he inertia forces are not concurrent . Thus, for t he balance of a non- disk rigid ro-
tor , bot h r esultant force and resultant moment of for ce must be zero . Ther efore , static bal-
anci ng is sufficient for disk- like rot ors, while non-disk rigid rot ors must also be dynamically
balanced . However , if t he unbalance t olerance of a high speed disk- like rot or is very small , it
is also necessary to balance t he disk-li ke rotor in a dynamic balancing machi ne , as mentioned in
t he next section , since t he precision in dynamic balancing is higher t han t hat in static balanc-
ing . A dynamically balanced rotor is also statically balanced, but , in general , t he converse is
not t rue .
10 . 3 . 4 Dynamic Balancing Machines
We have seen t hat any dynamically unbalanced rot or wit h any number of imbalances on any
t ransverse planes is equivalent to a non-disk rigid rot or consisting of t wo lumped masses locat ed
on t wo balancing planes . The task of a dynamic balancing machi ne is to locate t he magnitude
and t he angular position of t hese two equivalent masses on t he two user- specified balancing
planes .
According to t he different principles and met hods of measuring t he unbalanced forces ,
Fig . 10-8
a variety of dynamic balanci ng machines has been
evolved over t he years . A detailed description of
t hem is beyond t he scope of t his book . Most bal-
anci ng machines consist of a framework t hat car-
ries t wo beari ngs C and D int o which t he rotor
journals are placed , usually wit h t he rot or axis
horizont al , as shown in Fig . 10-8 . The frame is
at tached t o flexible pedest als t hat permit t he bear-
ing to oscillate in one direction ( usually horizon-
ta l) normal t o t he rotor axis . The rotor is
brought up to a desired angular speed by means of a belt drive , or a universal joint at one end .
The amplitudes of t he resulting lateral vibra tions of t he bearings at C and D caused by the im-
balances are measur ed wit h highly sensitive elect ronic pickups . Modern balancing machines
perform all of t he required calculations automatically after t he user has enter ed t he lengt hs be-
tween balancing planes ( A and B) and beari ng planes ( C and D) . After t hat , t he angular
positions and t he values of t he unbalanced mass- radius products on the two balancing planes are
shown on r eadout devices .
I t is impor tant to note here t hat if sever al wheels are to be mounted upon a shaft , t he
wheels should be balanced individually on a static balancing machine before mounti ng . Ot her-
wise , additional bendi ng moment s inevitably exist after t he assembly is balanced dynamically in
3 0 2
t wo planes .
10. 4 Un b a l a n c i n g Al l o w a n c e o f Ro t o r
The unbalancing effect will be r educed sharply after t he rotor is balanced on a balancing
machine . However , we cannot expect absolut ely perfect balancing, because t he resolution of
any measurement instrument is limited . Some imbalance will remain in t he rotor aft er balanc-
ing . Alt hough a bet ter balanci ng can be achieved by a bet ter balanci ng machine wit h higher
precision , it i nvolves higher cost . The amount of residual eccent ricit y t hat can be tolerated is
called tolerable i mbal ance . I t depends upon the speed at which a rotor is to oper ate and t he
wor king requirement . Usually, t he higher t he angular speed , t he lower t he allowed eccen-
t ricit y e . The product of e and is often used t o repr esent t he balance pr ecision of a rot or .
The Commit tee of t he International Standards Organization (I SO) has formulated r ecommen-
dations for t he allowable qualit y grade G = [ e ] for different classes of machinery . Typical
recommended values of G are listed in Table 10-1, where t he dimensions of e and are mm
and rad/ s, respectively .
Table 10-1 Recommended values of G
G/ ( mm/ s ) rotor types
4 000 Cr ankshaft assembly of slow marine diesel engi nes wit h uneven number of cylin-
ders .
1 600 Cr ankshaft assembly of large two- cycle engi nes
630 Cr ankshaft assembly of large four- cycle engines
100 Complete engines for cars , trucks, locomotives
40 y Car wheels , drive shafts , cr ankshaft assembly for engines of cars , t rucks , loco-
motives
16 y Individual engine components
6 4 . 3 Fans , flywheels , machine t ools
2 4 . 5 Gas and steam t urbines, small elect ric armat ures
1 b Tape recorder and phonograph drives , gri nding machine driver
0 4 . 4 Gyroscopes , pr ecision grinder components
First , choose t he balance precision G from Table 10-1 according t o t he t ype and working
condition of machine . Then calculat e t he allowed eccent ricit y [ e] from G/ . The product of
[ e] and t he mass m of t he rotor is t he allowed unbalanced mass- radius product . For a disk- like
rotor , t he calculated m [ e] is t he allowed unbalanced mass- radius product [ me] . For a non-
disk rigid rot or , m [ e] should be resolved int o two allowed unbalanced mass- r adius product s
4 0 2
Fig . 10-9
on two balancing planes . For example , shown in Fig . 10- 9 is a
machine tool spindle . The working rotational speed is n = 1 000
r/ mi n, the mass m = 10 kg, lA = 100 mm and lB = 200 mm . The
balance pr ecision is G = 6. 3 mm/ s from Table 10-1 . Ther efore ,
angular speed = 1 0002/ 60 rad/ s100 rad/ s . The allowed
eccent ricit y [ e] = G/ = ( 6. 3/ 100 ) mm = 0. 063 mm . The to-
tal allowed remaining unbalanced mass- radius product [ me ]
100. 063 kgmm = 0. 63 kgmm . The allowed unbalanced mass- r adius products on t he t wo
balancing planes A and B can be calcula ted by Eq . ( 10-9) as follow : [ me]A = [ me] l B/ l =
0. 42 kgmm and [ me]B = [ me] lA/ l = 0. 21 kgmm .
10-1 What is static balancing ? What is t he condition for sta tic balancing ? What is t he least
number of counterweight s to be used to balance a disk- like rot or if t here are five concent rat ed
masses on t he rotor ?
10-2 What is dynamic balancing ? What ar e t he conditions for dynamic balancing ? What is t he
least number of counterweights to balance a non-disk rigid rotor if t here ar e five imbalances on
five different transverse planes ? What is a balancing plane ? Can t he balancing planes be chosen
arbit rarily ? What kind of plane can be chosen as balancing plane in pr actice ?
10-3 Is static balancing sufficient for a disk-li ke rotor ? Is static balancing sufficient for a non-
disk rigid rotor ? Is it cer tai n t hat a rotor is dynamically balanced if it has been st atically bal-
anced ? Is it certain t hat a rot or is statically balanced if it has been dynamically balanced ?
10-4 The disk- like rot or in Fig . 10-2 has unbalanced masses m1 = 10 kg, m2 = 21. 4 kg and
m3 = 36 kg at rotating radii r1 = 100 mm , r2 = 112 mm and r3 = 110 mm, and angular orienta-
tions 1 = 30, 2 = 130and 3 = 270. Determine the magnitude mC and t he location angle C
of t he counter weight if it is t o be placed at a rot ating r adius rC of 115 mm .
Fig . 10-10
10-5 Shown in Fig . 10- 10 is a disk-li ke rot or on which t her e are four
imbalances . The masses, rot ati ng radii , and angular orientations are :
m1 = 5 kg, m2 = 10 kg , m3 = 8 kg and m4 = 7 kg, r1 = 10 mm , r2 = 10
mm , r3 = 15 mm and r4 = 20 mm . The rot or is to be balanced by remov-
ing a mass mC at a rotating radius of 25 mm . Find t he magnit ude mC
and it s location angle C .
10-6 The masses , rotating radii , and angular locations of t he unbal-
anced masses ( m1 , m2 , and m3 ) shown i n Fig . 10-7 ar e: m1 = 2 kg , m2 = 3 kg and m3 =
1 kg, r1 = 20 mm , r2 = 15 mm and r3 = 25 mm , and 1 = 240, 2 = 150and 3 = 330. The
distances between planes are : l1 = 200 mm, l2 = 350mm, l3 = 550 mm, and l = 900 mm .
The system is t o be balanced dynamically by adding a mass mA on t he balancing plane A at a
rotati ng radius of 50 mm and a mass mB on t he balancing plane B at a rot ating radius of
5 0 2
45 mm . Determine t he magnit udes ( mA and mB ) and angular locations (A and B ) of t he
required counter weight s .
Fig . 10-11
10-7 An unbalanced mass m is mounted out board of bal-
anci ng planes A and B, as shown in Fig . 10-11 . m =
2 kg, r = 10 mm . The rotor is to be balanced dynamically
by adding two counter weight s mA and mB on t he balancing
planes A and B, respectively , at a rotating r adius of 50
mm . l1 = 100 mm , l2 = 200 mm . Determine t he amount s
( mA and mB ) and angular locations of t he t wo counter weight s .
10-8 Th ree unbalanced masses m1 , m2 and m3 exist on t hr ee t ransverse planes 1, 2 and 3,
respectively, as s hown in Fig . 10-12 . Their mass- radius products are : m1 r1 = 2 kgmm ,
m2 r2 = 6 kgmm, m3 r3 = 3 kgmm , respectively . The locations are as shown . Suppose t he
system is to be balanced fully by t wo balancing mass- r adius products , Fb 1 and Fb3 , on t he
planes 1 and 3 , respectively . Determine t he amount s and angular locations of t he two balanc-
ing mass- radius product s .
Fig . 10-12
10-9 Two unbalanced masses m1 and m2 exist on t wo t ransverse planes 1 and 2 of a non- disk
rigid rotor , as shown in Fig . 10-13 . Unbalanced mass m1 is mounted out board of balancing
planes A and B . m1 = 2 kg, m2 = 5 kg , r1 = 100 mm , r2 = 50 mm , l1 = 200 mm , l2 = 180
mm , l3 = 300 mm . Suppose t he system is t o be balanced dynamically by subt racting masses
mA and mB on t he balancing planes A and B, respectively, at a rota ting radius of 150 mm .
Determine t he amount s ( mA and mB ) and angular locations (A and B ) of t he masses to be
removed .
Fig . 10-13
10-10 On t he non-disk rigid rotor shown in Fig . 10- 14, t here exist four unbalanced masses .
6 0 2
Their masses , rotating radii , and angular locations ar e : m1 = 10 kg , m2 = 15 kg, m3 = 20 kg
and m4 = 10 kg , r1 = 40 mm , r2 = 30 mm , r3 = 20 mm and r4 = 30 mm and 1 = 120, 2 =
240, 3 = 300 and 4 = 30. l12 = l23 = l34 . The system is to be balanced dynamically by
addi ng a mass mA on t he balancing plane A at a rotating r adius rA of 50 mm and removing a
mass mB on t he balanci ng plane B at a rotating radius rB of 60 mm . Determine t he magnitudes
( mA and mB ) and angular locations (A and B ) of t he r equir ed masses .
Fig . 10-14
7 0 2
C h ap t e r 11
Mo t i o n o f Me c h a n i cal
S y s t em s a n d I t s R e g u l a t i o n
11. 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
In t he kinematic analysis of a mechanism , t he motion of t he input li nk should be given . In
most cases , t he input link is supposed t o run a t a constant speed . This is only an approxima-
tion t o realit y . The act ual motion of t he input link depends on t he mass dist ribution of t he
mechanism and t he external forces acting on t he mechanism . In t his chapter , we will st udy
t he act ual motion of t he mechanism accordi ng t o t he mass dist ribution of t he mechanism and t he
external forces acting on it .
The whole operating process of a machine can be divided into th ree phases : t he star ting
phase, t he steady working phase, and t he stopping phase . In t he star ti ng phase , t he work
done by t he drivi ng forces ( input wor k ) is greater t han t he sum of t he work done by resis-
tances ( out put work ) and t he frictional loss . Therefore , t he speed of t he machi ne increases .
In t he st opping phase , t he sit ua tion is reversed and t he speed decr eases . In a worki ng cycle of
t he steady working phase , t he i nput work is equal t o t he sum of t he out put work and t he fric-
tional loss . But t his may not be t rue in ot her int ervals and t he speed of t he machi ne is not nec-
essarily constant . There may exist some speed fluct uation which is not desirable and should be
limited t o below some level to ensur e t he qualit y of performance . That is t he tas k of t he r egula-
tion of t he motion .
11. 2 M o t i o n Eq u a t i o n o f a M e c h a n i c a l S y s t e m
11 . 2 . 1 General Expression of the Equation of Motion
As we have seen in previous chapters , most mechanisms in use have only one degree of
freedom . I n ot her words , one independent parameter or generalized coordi nate is enough to
describe t he kinematic state of such machines . In t his case , t he principle of work and energy is
useful in deriving t he equation of motion . Suppose t ha t t he kinetic energy of t he system in-
cr eases by d E in an interval d t and t he elementary work done by all t he external forces acting
on t he system in t he same interval is d w . According to t he principle of work and energy , we
8 0 2
have
d E = d w = Nd t ( 11- 1)
wher e N is t he sum of t he i nstantaneous power of all t he external forces .
For a planar mechanism consisting of n movi ng links , t he kinetic energy of t he system can
be expressed as
E =

n
i = 1
Ei =

n
i = 1
1
2
mi v
2
C i
+
1
2
J
C i

2
i ( 11- 2)
wher e Ei is t he kinetic energy of link i , mi is t he mass of link i , Ci is t he mass cent re of link
i , JC i is t he moment of inertia of link i about it s mass centr e Ci , v
C i
is t he velocit y of mass
cent re Ci , and i is the angular velocit y of link i .
If t her e are k non- conservative forces denoted as Fj ( j = 1 , - , k ) acting on the mechanism
and t he sum of moment s of forces acting on link i is Mi , t hen t he sum of instantaneous powers
N can be writ ten as
N =

k
j = 1
Fj vj cos j +

n
i = 1
Mi i ( 11- 3)
wher e vj is t he velocity of t he point at which t he force Fj acts and j is t he angle bet ween Fj
and vj . If t he angle j is acute , t hen cos j is positive and it means t hat t he force Fj is a driv-
ing force . If t he angle j is obt use , t hen cos j is negative and it means t hat t he force Fj is a
resistance . Bot h Mi and i are defined positive if t hey are counter- clockwise and negative if
clockwise . If t he directions of Mi and i are t he same, it means t he Mi is a driving moment
and t he power Mi i is positive . If t he directions of Mi and i are opposite , it means t he Mi is
a resist ance moment and t he power Mi i is nega tive .
Inserting Eqs . ( 11- 2) and (11-3 ) into Eq . ( 11- 1) , we get
d

n
i = 1
1
2
mi v
2
C i
+
1
2
J
C i
2
i =

k
j = 1
Fj vj cos j +

n
i = 1
Mi i d t ( 11- 4)
This is t he general equation of motion of a planar mechanism wit h t he degree of freedom
F = 1 in differential form .
11 . 2 . 2 Dynamically Equivalent Model of a Mechanical System
In Eq . ( 11-4 ) , t here are still many unknown velocities . For a mechanical system wit h
one degr ee of freedom , suppose link 1 rotates about a fixed pivot and it s angle of rotation 1 is
chosen as t he generalized coordinate of t he system, t hen Eq . (11-4 ) can be rewritten as .
d
1
2

n
i = 1
mi
v
C i
1
2
+ J
C i
i
1
2
2
1 =

k
j = 1
Fj
vj
1
cos j +

n
i = 1
Mi
i
1
1 d t ( 11- 5)
This can fur t her be simplified as
d
1
2
Je
2
1 = Me 1 d t ( 11- 6)
wher e Je is called t he equivalent moment of iner tia and Me t he equivalent moment of force wit h
9 0 2
Je =

n
i = 1
mi
v
C i
1
2
+ J
C i
i
1
2
( 11- 7)
Me =

k
j = 1
Fj
vj
1
cos j +

n
i = 1
Mi
i
1
( 11- 8)
If t he di mensions of t he mechanism are given , t he speed ratios vC i/ 1 , i/ 1 and vj/ 1
are functions of 1 only . But Fj and Mj t hemselves may be functions of vj , i , and t as well .
We have , t herefore ,
Je = Je ( 1 ) ( 11- 9)
Me = Me (1 , 1 , t ) (11-10)
In t his way, a mechanical system with one degree of freedom can be assumed as an
Fig . 11-1
imaginary link rotating about a fixed pivot , as shown in Fig . 11-1 . I t s mass
cent re is located at t he fixed pivot and it s moment of iner tia about it s mass
cent re is Je ( 1 ) . The moment of force Me ( 1 , 1 , t ) act s on it and
makes it rotat e wit h an angular velocity 1 . The motion equation of link 1 in
Fig . 11-1 is t he same as Eq . (11-6 ) . 1 calculated according to Eq . ( 11- 6)
for li nk 1 in Fig . 11- 1 is t he same as t ha t calculated according t o Eq . ( 11- 4)
for t he whole mechanism . However , t he calculation of Eq . (11-6 ) is sim-
pler t han t hat of Eq . (11-4 ) . Such an i maginary li nk is called t he equivalent
link , or t he dynamically equivalent model , of a mechanical system .
Similarly, if we choose a t ranslating member as an equivalent link and take it s displace-
ment s1 as t he generalized coordinate , t hen we can define t he equivalent mass me ( s1 ) and t he
equivalent force Fe ( s1 , v1 , t ) as follows .
me ( s1 ) =

n
i = 1
mi
v
C i
v1
2
+ J
C i
i
v1
2
(11-11)
Fe ( s1 , v1 , t ) =

k
j = 1
Fj
vj
v1
cos j +

n
i = 1
Mi
i
v1
(11-12)
wher e v1 = d s1/ d t . The correspondi ng equation of motion is then
d
1
2
me v
2
1 = Fe v1 d t (11-13)
This is anot her kind of equivalent link , as shown in Fig . y, t he equivalent
Fig . 11-2
li nk should have t he same dynamical response as t he chosen
link i n t he act ual mechanis m . This is ensured by t he e-
quivalent moment of iner tia Je ( or equivalent mass me ) ,
and t he equivalent moment of force Me ( or equivalent
force Fe ) , as t he kinetic energy of t he equivalent link is e-
qual to t he sum of t he kinetic energies of all links in t he original mechanism and t he power Me
1 (or Fe v1 ) is equal to t he sum of powers of all t he external forces and external moments of
force acting on t he origi nal mechanism . These are t he principles used in calculati ng Je ( me )
0 1 2
and Me ( Fe ) . In addition , when we choose one link as t he equivalent link, t his means t hat
we take it s displacement ( angular or linear ) as t he displacement of t he equivalent link or t he
generalized coordi nate of t he syst em . The dynamically equivalent model of a mechanical system
as given above simplifies gr eatly the dynamical problem of t he mechanical system .
Example 11-1
In t he mechanism shown in Fig . 11-3, cr ank O2 A is fixed with gear 2 . The numbers of
t eet h of gear 1 and gear 2 are z1 and z2 , r espectively . The mass centr es of gear 1 and gear 2
(including cr ank O2 A) ar e located at O1 and O2 , respectively . The moment of i ner tia of t he
gear 1 about O1 is J1 . The moment of inertia of t he gear 2 ( including cr ank O2 A) about O2
is J2 . The lengt h of t he cr ank O2 A is l . The mass of link 3 is m3 and t he mass of link 4 is
m4 . The driving moment M1 act s on t he gear 1 and t he resistance F4 act s on t he link 4, as
shown in t he figur e . Take t he gear 2 as t he equivalent link . Calculat e the equivalent moment
of iner tia Je and t he equivalent moment of for ce Me .
Fig . 11-3
Solution :
(1 ) Ki nematic analysis of t he mechanism
1 =
z2
z1
2
v
A3
= l2
v4 = l2 sin 2
(2 ) Calcula tion of Je
The links 3 and 4 are tr ansla ting . They have
no rotating kinetic energies . The links 1 and 2
have no t ranslating kinetic energies . Since t he kinetic energy of the equivalent link 2 s hould be
equal t o t he sum of t he kinetic energies of all links in t he original mechanism, we have
1
2

2
2 Je =
1
2

2
1 J1 +
1
2

2
2 J2 +
1
2
v
2
A3
m3 +
1
2
v
2
4 m4
Je R =
1
2
2
J1 + J2 +
v
A 3
2
2
m3 +
v4
2
2
m4
=
z2
z1
2
J1 + J2 + l
2
m3 + l
2
m4 sin
2
2
(3 ) Calcula tion of Me
M1 is a driving moment of force and it s work is positive . F4 is a resistance and it s work is
negative . Since t he power Me should be equal t o the sum of t he powers of all t he external
forces and ext ernal moment s of for ce acting on t he original mechanism , we have
Me 2 = M1 1 - F4 v4
Me = M1
z2
z1
- F4 l si n 2
1 1 2
We can see here t hat t her e are two par ts i n t he equivalent moment of inertia Je . One is t he
constant ( first t hree terms i n the example) and anot her is variable ( wit h respect t o 2 ) . If
t he t ransmission ratio of one link t o t he equivalent link is constant , its cont ribution t o t he
equivalent moment of i ner tia is also const ant . Ot herwise, it is variable . The equivalent mo-
ment of force can also be divided into two par ts . One is the driving moment (positive) and an-
ot her is t he r esist ant moment ( negative) , i. e .
Me = Me d - Mer (11-14)
For more complicated mechanisms , Je can be calculated numerically . If t he equivalent link
runs at an arbit rary speed , we calcula te t he corr esponding velocities and put t hem i nt o t he for-
mulae (11-7 ) and get t he numerical results of Je for t he given position . Me can be calculat ed
similarly if it is independent of 1 and t . ot her wise Me should be determined step by step dur-
ing t he solution of t he equa tion of motion .
11 . 2 . 3 Other Forms of Motion Equation
Eqs. ( 11-6) and (11-13) are t he equations of motion in differ ential form . Ot her forms of
motion equation are available for different purposes . For convenience , we delete t he subscript s
of all t he variables and consider only t he rota ting equivalent link . Suppose = 0 , = 0 and
J = J0 when t = t0 . Int egrating Eq. ( 11- 6) , we get
1
2
J()
2
() -
1
2
J0
2
0 =
0
M ( , , t )d (11-15)
The left hand side of t he equation is t he incr ement of kinetic energy and t he right hand side
is t he work done by all t he forces in t he same interval . Eq. (11-15) is t her efor e called t he en-
ergy form of motion equation . By differentiation , Eq . ( 11-6) can be rewrit ten as
J( )
d( )
d t
+

2
()
2
d J()
d
= M ( , , t ) (11-16)
This is t he equation of motion in t he form of moment of force .
11. 3 } S o l u t i o n o f t h e M o t i o n Eq u a t i o n o f a M e c h a ni c a l
S y s t e m
Gener ally, t he equivalent moment of i ner tia J is a function of position and t he equivalent
moment of force M is a function of position , velocity and time t , as described above . In
cert ain situations, t hese functions can be writ ten in different forms so t hat t he solution process
can be simplified . We discuss a few such cases below .
11 . 3 . 1 Solution for Constant M and J
This is t he simplest case and is suitable for mechanical systems wit h constant t ransmission
ratios and constant forces . From Eq . ( 11- 16 ) , we have
2 1 2
M = J
d
d t
= J (11-17)
wher e is t he angular acceler ation . Fur t hermore , we get
=
M
J
= 0 + t (11-18)
= 0 + 0 t +
1
2
t
2
wher e 0 , 0 are initial angular position and initial angular velocit y, respectively .
Eliminating t in Eq . ( 11-18 ) , we obtain
2
-
2
0 = 2(- 0 ) (11-19)
Example 11-2
The spindle of a machine rotates at t he speed n = 700 r/ min . The equivalent moment of
inertia is J = 0. 05 kgm
2
, assuming t he spindle is taken as t he equivalent link . If t he machine is
t o be stopped wit hin t hree t urns of t he spindle , find t he mini mal braking moment of force on
t he spindle and t he corresponding time t t o stop .
Solution :
0 =
n
30
=
700
30
s
- 1
= 73. 3 s
- 1
= 0
- 0 6
From Eq . ( 11- 19 ) , we have
-
73. 3
2
26
s
- 2
= - 142. 5 s
- 2
From Eq . ( 11- 18 ) , we get
M = J= 0. 05 ( - 142. 5 ) Nm = - 7. 13 Nm
t =
- 0
=
0 - 73. 3
- 142. 5
s = 0. 51 s
Since t his is in t he st opping phase , t he direction of t he braking moment M should be op-
posite to n, as t he minus sign implies .
11 . 3 . 2 Solution for M = M ( ) J
The driving moment of an elect ric mot or is a function of speed . Resist ances of come kinds
of machines , such as centrifugal pumps and blowers , ar e also functions of speed . If t hey are
driven by elect ric mot ors wit h constant tr ansmission ratios, t hey onstit ute a system wit h M =
M ( ) J .
3 1 2
Since J is constant , Eq. (11-17) is still valid . By separ ati ng variables, we get
d t
J
=
d
M ( )
or
d
J
=
d
M ( )
Integration of t hese equations r esult s in
t = t0 + J
0
d
M ( )
(11-20)
and
= 0 + J
0
d
M ( )
(11-21)
Example 11-3
A mechanical system has an equivalent moment of force M = M0 - k and a constant
equivalent moment of inertia J .Find t he motion of t he equivalent link = ( t )
Solution :
According to Eq .( 11-20 ) ,
t = t0 + J
0
d
M0 - k
= t0 -
J
k
ln ( M0 - k)
0
Af ter some tr ansformations , we get
( t ) =
M0
k
-
M0
k
- 0 e
-
k
J
( t - t
0
)
(11-22)
11 . 3 . 3 Solution for M = M ( ) and J = J ( )
The driving moment of an internal combustion engine is a function of t he position of t he
cr anks haft . Resistances of some machines , such as shaping machines and punching machines,
are also functions of position . These r esult in t he position-variant equivalent moment of force
M () .J = J( ) is t he general case if t he tr ansmission r atio of a given machine is not constant .
1
2
J( )
2
( ) =
1
2
J0
2
0 +
0
M ( )d
Fur t her more , ( ) can be solved as
( ) =
J0
J( )
2
0 +
2
J( )
0
M ()d (11-23)
Since ( ) = d/ d t , by integr ation we obtai n
t = t0 +
0
d
( )
(11-24)
4 1 2
Eqs .(11-23) and (11-24) toget her provide a par ametric form of t he function = ( t ) , wit h
as a parameter .
11 . 3 . 4 Solution for M = M ( , ) and J = J ( )
A shaping machine driven by an elect ric motor is an example of t his model . Generally, t he
equation of motion i n t his case can not be solved analytically . We provide her e a method of nu-
merical solution . Eq . ( 11-6) can be rewrit ten as
1
2

2
d J( ) + J( ) d= M (, )d (11-25)
Dividing t he angle into small segment s, we get discrete points of as i ( i = 0 , 1,
2, - ) wit h i + 1 - i = . The differences of J and are t hen J = Ji + 1 - Ji and i =
i + 1 - i . Turning t he differential Eq . (11-25) int o a difference equation , we have
1
2

2
i ( Ji + 1 - Ji ) + Ji i ( i + 1 - i ) = M ( i , i )
Solving for i + 1 , we get
i + 1 =
M ( i , i )
Ji i
+
( 3 Ji - Ji + 1 ) i
2 Ji
(11-26)
From t he initial condition 0 , t he velocit y can be calcula ted, point by point , wit h Eq .
(11-26) .
11. 4 P e r i o d i c S p e e d F l u c t u a t i o n a n d i t s Re g ul a t i o n
11 . 4 . 1 Condition for a Periodic Steady Working State
Constant speed wit hout any fluct uation is nat urally an ideal state in t he steady working
phase . I n t his case , from Eq . ( 11- 6) , we have
1
2

2 d J
d
= M
Practically , t his is i mpossible if M0 . Ther efore , t he conditions for t he constant speed
wor king stat e must be
d J
d
= 0
M = Md - Mr = 0
If t he above conditions can not be met at all times, t he steady wor king state is at most pe-
riodic . The periodic steady working sta te means
( ) = ( + T )
wher e T is t he period of t he system, which is t he lowest common multiple of periods of J and
M, i. e.
J( ) = J(+ T )
5 1 2
M ( ) = M (+ T )
From Eq .(11-15) , we have
+
T
Md =
1
2
J(+ T )
2
( + T ) -
1
2
J()
2
( ) = 0
from which
+
T
Md d =
+
T
Mr d (11-27)
This means t hat t he work done by driving forces is equal t o t he work done by resistant
forces wit hin a period . This is t he condition for a periodic steady working state .
11 . 4 . 2 Coe ff icient of Speed Fluctuation
The speed fluctuation of a machine may cause an ext ra dynamic load and vibration of t he
system and t herefore should be cont rolled wit hin some limit s to ensur e good working quality .
The coefficient of speed fluct uation is t hen introduced and defined as
=
m a x - m i n
m
(11-28)
wher e ma x and mi n are t he maxi mum and minimum angular speed . m is t he average angular
speed and is approxi mated as
m =
m a x + m i n
2
Multiplying t he above t wo equations will give
2
ma x -
2
mi n = 2
2
m (11-29)
Recommended allowable coefficient s of speed fluct uation for some kinds of machines are
listed in Table 11-1 .
Table 11-1 Allowable Coe fficients of Speed Fluctuation [ ]
Machines [] Machines []
Rock crusher 1 4 / 5 1/ 20 Pump , blower 1 / 30 1/ 50
Punching machine ,
Shear ing machine
1 4 / 7 1/ 10
Paper machine ,
loom
1 / 40 1/ 50
Rolli ng mill 1 / 10 1/ 25 Spinning machine 1 / 60 1/ 100
Automobile , t ractor 1 / 20 1/ 60 DC generat or 1 x / 100 1/ 200
Machine t ools 1 / 30 1/ 40 AC genera tor 1 x / 200 1/ 300
1
2
J
2
=
0
Md+
1
2
J0
2
0
The wor k W is t he i ntegr al of t he moment of force, which can be defined as
6 1 2
W =
0
Md =
0
( Md - Mr )d (11-30)
If J is constant , t hen r eaches ext reme values when W reaches extr eme values . We
have
1
2
J
2
ma x = Wma x +
1
2
J
2
0
1
2
J
2
mi n = Wmi n +
1
2
J
2
0
The difference between t he above two equations gives
1
2
J(
2
ma x -
2
mi n ) = Wma x - Wmi n
Putting Eq . (11-29) into t he above equation will give
J
2
m = Wma x - Wmi n
Defi ning Wma x = Wma x - Wm i n as t he maxi mum increment of work , we get
=
Wma x
2
m J
(11-31)
11 . 4 . 3 Calculation of moment of inertia of a Flywheel
The regulation of periodic speed fluct uation means limitation of t he coefficient of speed
fluct uation so t hat
[] (11-32)
As we can see from Eq . ( 11-31) , if we increase J , will be decreased . Therefore , if
> [] , we can add a flywheel wit h enough moment of i ner tia t o r educe t he value of so
t hat [] . The equivalent moment of inertia of t he flywheel JF can be calulated by
JF =
Wm a x
2
m []
- JC (11-33)
wher e JC is t he constant part of t he equivalent moment of i ner tia of t he original system wit hout
t he flywheel . The variable par t of t he equivalent moment of inertia is neglect ed ( if not zero )
t o simplify t he problem and t his approxi mation leads t o a more reliable result . If JC JF , even
JC can be neglected .
Essentially, t he flywheel is an energy storage device . In some par t of a period T , if Wd
> Wr , or t he wor k W is postive and t he kinetic energy is increasing, t he flywheel absorbs ki-
netic energy wit h increase of speed . However , such an increase in speed is less compared t o t he
case wit hout t he flywheel . On t he ot her hand , when t he wor k W is negative and t he kinetic
energy is decreasing, t he flywheel r eleases kinetic energy and t he speed decreases less . In t his
way, t he speed fluct uation is r educed . However , t he speed fluctuation can not be eli minat ed
completely wit h t he help of t he flywheel only , as we can see from Eq . (11-31 ) . Besides , if
possible , t he flywheel is better mounted on a shaft wit h higher speed . The higher t he speed of
t he flywheel , t he grea ter t he cont ribution of t he flywheel t o t he equivalent moment of iner tia .
7 1 2
Example 11-4
The equivalent resistant moment of force of a machine is as shown i n Fig . 11-4 wit h t he
period T = 2 . The equivalent driving moment of for ce Md is constant . The average speed of
t he equivalent link is nm = 1 000 r/ min . The equivalent moment of inertia of all t he li nks ex-
cept t he flywheel is negligible . The allowable coefficient of speed fluct uation is [] = 0. 05 .
Find t he mini mum moment of inertia JF of t he flywheel on t he equivalent link .
Fig . 11-4
Solution :
(1 ) Find Md
From Eq . ( 11- 27 ) , we get
2Md =
2
0
Mr d = 0. 2560 Nm + 0. 7510 Nm + 0. 5 ( 10 + 60 ) Nm
Md = 28. 75 Nm
( positions where ma x and m i n appear
According to calculus and Eq . ( 11- 17 ) , m a x and m i n can appear only wher e M = 0 or M
is discontinuous or at t he ending points of t he interval . Therefore we need t o calculate t he work
W defined by Eq . ( 11- 30 ) only at positions A , B, C and D as in Fig . 11-4 . Af ter some
simple calculations, we have t he following result s:
position A B C D
/ rad 0 2 0 . 25 1 G . 375 2
W/ Nm 0 2 - 24 x . 54 30 . 68 0
Hence , ma x appears at = 1. 375 and m i n appears at = 0. 25 .
(3 ) Calcula te t he maximum i ncrement of work
Wma x = Wma x - Wmi n = 30. 68 Nm - ( - 24. 54) Nm = 55. 22 Nm
(4 ) Calcula te t he minimum moment of iner tia of t he flywheel
JF
Wma x
2
m []
=
55. 22
1 0002
60
2
0. 05
kgm
2
= 0. 1 kgm
2
8 1 2
11. 5 > I n t r o d u c t i o n t o A p e r i o d i c s p e e d F l u c t u a t i o n a n d i t s
R e gu l a t i o n
Duri ng t he working process of a mechanical system, t he resistance may change irregularly
or randomly . This result s in t he so-called aperiodic speed fluct uation . Suppose t hat t he nomi-
nal equivalent driving moment Md and resistant moment Mr of a mechanical system ar e as
shown in Fig . 11-5 . The curves of Md and Mr intersect at t he working point s wit h working
speed s . Consider t he case
Md

<
Mr

as shown i n Fig . 11- 5a . If t he speed is decreased to
a for some r eason, as Md > Mr in this region, t he speed will ret urn t o s . If t he speed is in-
cr eased to b for some ot her reason, as Md < Mr now , t he speed will come down towards s .
The operation of t he machine is st able in t his case . In t he opposit e sit uation where
Md

>
Mr

as shown in Fig . 11- 5b , t he speed will not come back toward s if there is a dist urbance . The
system is unstable in t his case .
Fig . 11-5
if t he syst em is unstable, a speed regulat or or governor is needed to r egulate t he input en-
Fig . 11-6
ergy and make t he system stable . One kind of cen-
trifugal governor is sketched in Fig . 11-6 . The
wor king machine 2 is connected t o an i nternal- com-
bustion engine 1 . The spindle of t he governor is also
connected t o t he engine . If t he load is reduced , t he
speed goes up . This increases t he centrifugal forces
on weights A , lifting t he slide B and putting down
t he valve C . The gas intake int o t he engine is de-
cr eased . This reduces t he input power and t he energy
balance is achieved . The aut omatic r egulation works
also in t he opposite dir ection and t his makes t he syst em stable . The design of speed r egulat ors
9 1 2
is beyond t he scope of t his book and is not discussed furt her .
11-1 What is t he equivalent force or equivalent moment of force of a mechanical syst em ? Are
t hey t he r esultant force and t he resultant moment of t he syst em ? How can t hey be calculat ed ?
11-2 What is t he equivalent mass or equivalent moment of iner tia of a mechanical syst em ? Are
t hey the sums of t he masses and moments of inertia of t he system ? How can t hey be calculated ?
11-3 What is t he dynamically equivalent model of a mechanical system and why is it set up ?
What does it mean if one link is chosen as t he equivalent link ?
11-4 Write down t he motion equations of a mechanical system in differ ent forms . How can
t hey be solved ?
11-5 What is t he periodic speed fluct ua tion ? Wha t is t he coefficient of speed fluct uation ?
Where can t he maxi mum and minimum speeds appear ? How can t hey be checked ?
11-6 Why and how should t he periodic speed fluct uation be regula ted ? Wha t is t he function of
a flywheel and where should it be mounted ? How can it s moment of iner tia be calculat ed ?
11-7 What is t he aperiodic speed fluct uation ? Why and how s hould it be regulat ed ? What is
Fig . 11-7
t he function of a speed regulator ?
11-8 A planetary gear t rain wit h two planets is shown in Fig . 11-7 .
The module of all t he gears is m . The numbers of t eet h are z1 , z2 and
z3 respectively . The moment s of iner tia of t he links are J1 , J2 , and JH .
The mass of a planet is m2 . The resistant moment of force MH act s on
t he planet carrier H . Take gear 1 as t he equivalent link . Find t he equiv-
alent resistant moment of force Mr of MH and t he equivalent moment of
inertia J of t he whole gear t rai n .
11-9 A planar linkage is shown in Fig . 11- 8 wit h dimensions lAB = 3 l , lCD = 2 l , lD E = 6 l ,
Fig . 11-8
lAC = l . The moment of iner tia of crank 1 about it s centr e of mass A is J1 . The moment of in-
er tia of rota ting guide 3 about it s cent re of mass C is J3 . The mass of slider 2 is m2 and it s mo-
ment of iner tia about it s centr e of mass B is J2 . The mass of coupler 4 is m4 . I ts cent re of
mass s4 is located at the middle of DE . I t s moment of iner tia about s4 is J4 . The mass of slider
0 2 2
5 is m5 . The r esistant force F5 acts on slider 5 . Take crank 1 as the equivalent link . Find
t he equivalent r esistant moment of force Mr of F5 and t he equivalent moment of inertia J of t he
whole linkage for 1 = 90.
11-10 In a lif ting device shown in Fig . 11- 9, t he numbers of teet h of t he gears are z1 = 20
and z2 = 80 . The r adius of t he reel is R = 150 mm . The moment of inertia of gear 1 is J1 =
0. 01 kgm
2
. The moment of inertia of gear 2 t oget her wit h t he reel is J2 = 2 kgm
2
. The lift ed
weight is G = 2 000 N . The driving moment on gear 1 is M1 = 100 Nm . Find t he angular ac-
celer ation 1 , t he angular speed 1 and t he rotating angle 1 of gear 1 , 0. 5 second after star t-
ing from standstill .
Fig . 11-9 Fig . 11-10
11-11 A mechanical system has an equivalent moment of inertia J = 0. 5 kgm
2
and equivalent
moment of for ce { M}N m = - 70 - 0. 3 {} r a d/ s . The star ting angular speed is 0 = 150 r ad/ s .
Find t he ti me t for = 0 .
11-12 A mechanical system wit h a constant equivalent moment of iner tia J = 1 kgm
2
is periodic
and stable . The equivalent r esistant moment is Mr =
70
and t he equivalent driving moment

Md is constant . The angular period of t he motion is T = 2 . The initial speed for 0 = 0 is
0 = 100 rad/ s . Find t he angular speed and angular accelera tion of t he equivalent link as
functions of t he rotating angle .
11-13 The output moment of force Md of an internal combustion engine on t he crankshaft is a
given function of t he rotating angle as shown in Fig . 11-10 . The angular period of motion is
T = . The average speed is nm = 620 r/ min . The engine is used t o drive a machine wit h con-
stant r esistant moment . The allowable coefficient of speed fluctuation is [] = 0. 01 . Masses
and moment s of inertia of all t he links are neglected . Find t he needed moment of iner tia JF of
t he flywheel on t he crankshaf t .
1 2 2
C h ap t e r 12
C r ea t i v e D e s i g n o f
Me c h a n i s m S y s t em s
12. 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o De s i g n o f M e c h a ni sm S y s t e m s
12 . 1 . 1 Mechanisms systems
In t he previous chapters, we have discussed some of t he most commonly used mecha-
nisms . While some simple machines consist of only one kind of such mechanisms, in most cas-
es , using only one simple mechanism is not enough to perform t he required mechanical actions
in a machine . Take t he shaping machine shown i n Fig . 12-1 as an example . Two working
links ( or out put links) are needed t o shape a flat surface . They ar e t he sliding block wit h t he
shaping t ool ( cutter ) and the worktable holding t he workpiece . Carrying t he cutter , t he slid-
ing block moves back and for t h to perform t he cutting motion and t he stroke of t his motion is
adjustable to fit t he size of t he workpiece . The worktable moves int ermittently t o provide t he
feeding action while t he sliding block moves back . The amount of feed is also adjustable . Such
a worki ng process needs several simple mechanisms wor king t oget her to fulfill t he whole func-
Fig . 12-1 Shaping machine
2 2 2
tion .These mechanisms opera te toget her in a machine and form a mechanism system .Anot her
example of a mechanism system is t he well- known internal combustion engine , shown in Fig .
1-1 , which consist s of a crank and slider mechanism, cam mechanisms and a gear mechanism .
The crank and slider mechanism convert s the back and fort h movement of t he pist on int o rota-
tion of t he crankshaft . The gear mechanism and cam mechanisms cont rol the movement s of t he
valves exactly and ensure t he synchronised operation of t he whole engine . According t o system
t heory , a machi ne can be seen as a system of mechanisms and a mechanism is a sub- system of a
machine . Hence , t he design of a machine is t he design of a mechanism system .
The qualit y, performance and compa tibilit y of a mechanical product depend mainly on it s
design . Any error , defect or car elessness in design may result i n considerable ext ra cost in
manufact ure or even t he failure of t he product . The impor tance of design is obvious here .
12 . 1 . 2 Routine design and creative design
There are differ ent levels of design . When you design a machine which uses similar mod-
els , t hen you can design by imita tion . Take one si milar machine as a model . t hen , by keep-
ing t he mai n st ruct ure unchanged but changing some of t he dimensions or sizes of t he machine
or replacing some par t s with new ones, you can carry out a design quickly . Such a design is
called a routine design . If you design a totally new machine or apply a new working principle in
a machi ne , you have t o create a new st ructure , not just imita te t he existing one . This is cre-
ative design . Of course, creative design is more difficult t han t he routine one . Creative de-
signs play an important part in developing new product s to meet t he growing demands of cus-
tomers .
The kinematic function of a mechanism system is to conver t the motion of a prime mover
into t he required motion of the output links of a mechanism system . To carry out t he design of
a mechanism system , an engineer should be familiar with t he analysis , synt hesis, and design
met hods of various mechanisms as discussed in t he pr evious chapters . Furt hermore , he or she
should be able t o choose t he most suitable mechanis ms and combine t hem into an integrat ed sys-
tem . This requir es some experience and technique about which various t heories and met hods
are curr ently being developed . This chapter includes some of t hese t heories and met hods .
12 . 1 . 3 The four phases of the design process
Generally , t he design process of a mechanism system can be divided into t he followi ng four
phases :
(1 ) Planni ng of t he product
In t his phase , t he whole function of t he product should be determined and t he design task
should be defined . Some investigation of t he market and a feasibility analysis should be done
here .
(2 ) Designing t he kinema tic diagr am of t he mechanism syst em
3 2 2
This phase can be divided furt her into t he following steps:
( a) Determina tion of t he worki ng principle of t he machine
Designers are required to have ext ensive knowledge of science and technology . Special at-
tention should be paid to t he so- called high technologies and t heir recent developments . Ad-
vanced working principles will produce excellent products if applied properly . Fur t hermore ,
t he function of all working links should be prescribed .
(b ) Type synt hesis of t he mechanisms
Suitable types of mechanisms should be chosen and combined i nt o a mechanism system ac-
cordi ng to t he technical requirement s of t he machine . The t ypes of mechanisms chosen s hould
all perform t he required motions . This is t he most cr eative step and effort should be concent rat-
ed her e .
( c) Drawing t he diagram of t he worki ng cycle
This diagram is also called t he diagram of t he motion cycle of t he mechanism system . I t is
actually t he ti me table for t he actions of all t he working links . Such a diagram ensures t he syn-
chronisation of all mechanisms in a machine .
(d ) Dimensional synt hesis of mechanisms
According to t he actions of t he working links and the working cycle diagram of t he mecha-
nism system , t he kinematic dimensions of t he mechanisms can be determined based on t he
met hods given in previous chapters .
( e) Drawing t he kinematic diagram of t he mechanism system
This is t he final step in t his phase .
We shall concent rat e mainly on t his phase accordi ng to t he scope of t his book .
(3 ) Concrete design
Based on t he kinema tic diagram of t he mechanism system and t he for ce analysis of t he sys-
tem , t he st ruct ural design can be done . The technical drawings of all machine element s and
t he assembly dr awi ng of the machine should be complet ed .
(4 ) Improvement of t he design
Af ter a prot otype machine is made , a series of test s should be carried out on it . Corr ec-
tions can t hen be made to improve it s performance .
In t he design process described above , some feedback or iteration may be necessary to
achieve a bet ter result . We shall discuss t he design process in more det ail la ter .
12. 2 Cr e a t i v e T hi n ki n g a n d Cr e a t i v e M e t h o d s
As mentioned above , crea tive design is very impor tant in t he development of new prod-
uct s . Cr eative t hinking and creative met hods are helpful t hroughout t he whole process of de-
sign . It is t her efore desirable for engineers t o learn somet hing about cr eative t hinking and cre-
ative met hods .
4 2 2
12 . 2 . 1 Creative thinking
Some ways of cr eative t hinking ar e introduced i n pairs as follows .
(1 ) Thinking in images and abst ract t hinking
The element s of t hinking in images are concr ete images . An i mage r eflect s t he general fea-
tures of one kind of object . During t he design of a machine for example , t he shape , t he colour
and ot her external feat ures appear in t he br ain of t he designer . He or she can imagine how to
assemble, disassemble or run t he machine . Such a t hinki ng activit y is thinking in i mages .
Abst ract t hinking takes concepts as t he t hinking elements . I nfer ence is it s main feat ure .
For example , when a force is t o be enlarged , t he speed of t he working link should be decreased
according t o t he pri nciple of conservation of mechanical energy .
Of t hese t wo, t hinking i n images is more flexible while abst ract t hinking or reasoning
t hinking is rigorous . They should complement each ot her in cr ea tive design .
(2 ) Divergent t hi nking and convergent t hinking
Divergent t hinki ng searches for different ways t o solve a problem . The infor mation from
t he given problem is r earr anged in different directions wit hout routi ne const raints to produce as
many ways as possible to solve t he problem . For example , in order to r educe t he frictional loss
in a machine, we can t ry to use mat erials wit h lower coefficient of friction , to r educe t he r eac-
tions or t he rela tive velocities between kinematic pair elements , to decrease t he number of ki ne-
matic pairs , to lubricate t he bearings, or t o r eplace sliding wit h rolli ng, and so on . A good
designer should have extensive knowledge and wide interest s in many differ ent fields . More-
over , he or she should be able to apply t he knowledge and experience to produce new ideas .
On t he ot her hand, convergent t hinking derives t he best idea from many possible ones
arising in divergent t hinking . Divergent t hinki ng and convergent t hinking are complementary
t o each ot her in a creative activit y . Convergence is of little significance wit hout sufficient diver-
gence whereas divergence is t he basis of convergence . The purpose of divergence is t o provide
enough choices for convergence . A cr ea tive process often needs several cycles of convergence
and divergence and finally stops at convergence .
(3 ) Logical t hinki ng and nonlogical t hinking
Logical t hinking is a rigorous way of t hinking . It reflects t he act ual process and reveals t he
essence of a subject based on scientific concept s . The main forms of logical t hinking are analy-
sis, judgment , induction and inference . Logical t hinking is widely used in crea tion . The in-
vention of t he comput er can be seen as t he creative achievement of logical t hinking .
In cont rast t o logical t hinking, nonlogical t hinking does not obey logical formulae st rictly .
I t is a flexible free way of t hi nking and can lead for tuitously to some unusual and novel results .
The main forms of nonlogical t hinking are association , imagination , intuition and inspiration .
Association is a mental activit y relating one t hing t o anot her . I magi nation crea tes a new image
on t he basis of association . Int uition is a quick dir ect judgment based on vast experience . Intu-
5 2 2
ition is not so st rict , but quite valuable in creating new models and conceptions . Inspiration is
t he st rong excitation of intelligence . I t follows long hard work on a difficult problem and burst s
out suddenly . The brain t hen becomes very active and cr eative . Many new ingenious ideas
spring up and t he problem is solved quickly in this period .
Nonlogical t hinki ng plays an impor tant par t in creative design . We should try t o make full
use of it .
12 . 2 . 2 Creative methods
I t is said t hat t here ar e hundreds of cr eative met hods in t he world . In fact , everyone can
cr eate some new met hods wit h a lit tle effort . This means t hat t here is no mystery surrounding
cr eation . Of course , cr eation is also not easy and it is t her efore helpful to know somet hing
about crea tive met hods .
(1 ) Br ainstorm
A small group of people ( not more t han 10) is called t oget her to hold a meeting . The sub-
ject of t he meeting should be announced in advance . Everyone is encouraged to expr ess his
opinions freely no mat ter how str ange t hey are . I n fact , unusual or even curious ideas are wel-
come and should not be criticized . I n such a free at mosphere , people activate and inspire each
ot her . New concepts , new met hods and new assumptions can easily well up . This is a diver-
gent process and proves t o be an effective way t o collect t he wisdom of t he masses .
(2 ) Questionnaire
A series of questions about a problem or invention are listed first . They are t hen checked
and discussed carefully . Solutions or new inventions may arise from such checks and discus-
sions . Typical questions asked are as follows :
( a) Are t here any ot her applica tions of t he present invention ?
(b ) Can t he met hod of manufact ure , s hape , colour or ot her aspect s of t he pr esent inven-
tion be changed ?
( c) Can t he present invention be made s maller and lighter ?
(d ) Can t he pr esent invention be replaced by somet hing else ?
( e) Is it possible t o apply the present invention inversely ?
(f) Is it possible to combine some of t he present inventions ?
A good questionnaire leads people to search for a better solution or make new inventions in
different directions . It can be done personally or i n a group . Questions should be checked one
by one or even be repeated to ensur e effectiveness .
(3 ) Imitation
By imitating or simulating some natur al process or living bei ngs , new machi nes or tech-
niques can be developed . Various ki nds of robots and manipulat ors are examples . Some popu-
lar techniques in computer science , such as t he simulat ed annealing algorit hm , genetic algo-
rit hms and neural net works can be seen as t he achievement s of imitation .
6 2 2
(4 ) Listing drawbacks
Listing all t he defects or weakness of a product , we may find some ways to improve it s
performance or even to invent somet hing new . Si milarly , we can list the hopes for a product
and find a way to improve it .
(5 ) Transplantation
Transplantation of an advanced technique from one field or product t o anot her will proba-
bly r esult in a new invention . Some milit ary techniques have been successfully used i n civil
products in t his way .
Mor e creative met hods can be found in t he literat ure . The key point here is to get t he spir-
it of t hem , t hat is changing and associating somet hing somewhere .
12. 3 Ki n e ma t i c P a r a m e t e r s o f t h e S y s t e m
12 . 3 . 1 Prime kinematic parameters of the system
Af ter determination of t he wor king principle of a machine , t he motion forms and t heir
kinematic parameters of working links should be determined . The main motion forms of work-
ing links are rotation , r ectilinear t ranslation , curvilinear motion ( of a point ) and compound
motion . We now discuss t hese one by one .
There are t hree types of rotation . ( a ) Continuous rotation , the ki nematic parameter of
which is its angular velocit y or r evolution per mi nute ( rpm ) , e. g. t he spindle of a lat he , a
drilling machine or a milling machine and so on . ( b ) Step ( or intermit tent ) rotation ( for
some rotating tables in automatic machines ) , t he kinematic paramet ers of which are t he fre-
quency, stepping angle , kinematic coefficient and so on . ( c) Rocking motion , t he kinematic
par ameters of which are t he frequency , angle of rotation and the time ratio .
Rectili near t ranslations also have different forms . ( a) Reciprocating t ranslation ( e. g. as
in t he sliding block in a shapi ng machine) , t he kinematic parameters of which are t he frequen-
cy , t he lift and t he ti me ratio . (b ) Rectilinear tr anslation wit h dwells, t he kinematic parame-
ters of which are t he number of dwells in a cycle , t he sequence of intervals of motion and
dwell , t he lift , mean velocity and so on .
The kinematic paramet ers of a curvilinear motion ( e. g. for a mixer ) are involved in t he
pat h which t he end point of t he working li nk should follow . They can be given as functions of
t he coordinates of t he movi ng point ( wit h respect t o ti me ) , or at several discrete positions of
t he point . The pat h can be planar or spatial , fixed or adjustable .
A compound motion is a combination of t he above forms of motion . For example , t he mo-
tion of a drill is a combi nation of rot ation ( cutting motion ) and a r ectilinear t ranslation ( feed-
ing) . The kinema tic parameters of a compound motion depend on it s component s and t heir
combina tion .
7 2 2
The above kinematic parameters of t he worki ng links are determined in t he planning of a
product . Car eful planning and calculation are needed to determine t he parameters wit h proper
accuracy . We can t hen choose prime movers and t heir kinematic par ameters .
12 . 3 . 2 Selection of prime mover
Motion forms of prime movers can be rotation, rocking and reciprocating motion . Electric
motors provide rota tion . Hydraulic motors and pneumatic motors provide bot h rotations and
rocking motion . Hydraulic cylinders, gas cylinders and electric li near motors provide r ecipro-
cating motion . The kinematic parameters of prime movers are velocity ( angular or linear ) ,
rocking angle and frequency , lift and so on .
The most widely used prime mover in machi nery is t he AC asynchronous electric mot ors
wit h different synchronous speeds . The higher t he synchronous speed, t he smaller t he size and
t he weight of t he motor , and t he lower t he price . But higher velocit y of t he motor will in-
cr ease t he size and price of t he tr ansmission system if t he velocity of t he working link is low .
Modern indust ry provides many new t ypes of motors , e. g. servo motors, step mot ors and
frequency modulating motors . Also, spri ngs and weight s can serve as prime movers occasional-
ly . Different pri me movers have differ ent char acteristics and are suitable for different cases .
Selection of prime movers is one of t he important steps in machi ne design .
12. 4 S e l e c t i o n o f M e c h a ni sms
According t o t he motion forms and kinematic parameters of t he working links and prime
movers described above , mechanis ms can be chosen t o conver t t he motions of pri me movers in-
to t hose actions of t he working links . One way to do t his is by decomposition and combina tion
of t he functions of t he machine . Functions of t he system ar e first resolved int o several sub-
functions or function elements . For each function element , all t he possible function carriers
(mechanisms which carry out t he function ) ar e listed . The combination of all t he function car-
riers in each group provide a great many solutions among which some feasible ones can be cho-
sen . Furt her evaluation of t hese feasible schemes will produce the best one .
Anot her effective way t o select mechanisms is imit ation and re- formation . First , deter-
mine t he key t echniques of t he machine to be designed and t hen search for t he corresponding
devices as models . According t o t he functions and design demands of t he machine , t he models
can be reformed or combined and t he mechanism system determined . This met hod is often ap-
plied when relevant r eferences can be found .
I t is now helpful to review different mechanisms wit h t heir kinema tic functions .
12 . 4 . 1 Rotation transmitting mechanisms
These kinds of mechanisms are used t o change t he velocity and t he dir ection of rota tion .
8 2 2
They can be divided furt her into t hr ee t ypes .
(1 ) Frictional mechanisms
This type of mechanism includes belt mechanisms and frictional wheel drives . They are
simple i n const ruction and smoot h in oper ation . Sliding in t he mechanisms can provide prot ec-
tion against overload . They can be designed as stepless speed regula tors . The drawbacks are
t he inaccuracy of t ransmission ratio, lower power capacit y and lower efficiency .
(2 ) Engagi ng mechanisms
This type of mechanism includes gear mechanisms , worm gear mechanisms, chain mecha-
nisms, gear t rains, and so on . A chain mechanism is of ten used between two parallel shaft s
wit h longer cent re distances and lower accuracy compared to a gear mechanism . I t operates less
smoot hly t han gear mechanisms and should not be used at high speed . Gear mechanisms and
wor m mechanisms can t ransmit rotation bet ween t wo shaft s wit h any relative orientation .
They have higher power capacit y and efficiency and oper ate smoot hly . They are used widely in
a range of machinery .
(3 ) Linkage mechanisms
Examples of t his kind of mechanis m are t he double- cr ank mechanism ( Fig. 4-1b ) , paral-
lel- crank mechanism ( Fig. 4-22) and rota ting guide- bar mechanism ( Fig. 4-2b ) . Such mecha-
nisms contain only lower pairs and provide various of transmission functions . They are easy to
manufact ure but not easy t o design t o suit t he given tr ansmission function .
12 . 4 . 2 Step mechanisms
The out put li nk of a step mechanism performs unidirectional motion with periodic dwells .
The Geneva mechanism ( Fig. 8- 12 ) , ra tchet mechanism ( Fig. 8-1 ) and index cam mechanism
( Fig. 8-18 and Fig. 8-19) ar e t ypical st ep mechanisms . As mentioned in Chapt er 8, a ratchet
mechanism conver ts a rocking motion into a step (or intermittent ) motion . The rotating angle
of t he out put link ( r atchet wheel ) can be adjusted . This mechanism should be used only at
low speeds and loads because of t he impact between t he r atchet wheel and t he jaw . A Geneva
mechanism operates more smoot hly t han a ratchet mechanism , but t he rotating angle of it s out-
put link can not be adjusted . Indexing cam mechanisms are ideal step mechanisms for high
speed applications .
Some geared linkages ( Fig. 9-16a ) have been designed as pilgrim-step mechanisms in
which t he tr ansmission function has t he characteristic of an overall unidir ectional motion but
wit h periodically r ecurring reversals . They have found applications in light indust ry machin-
ery .
12 . 4 . 3 Reciprocating and rocking motion generating mechanisms
Reciprocating and rocking motions ar e frequently used forms in machinery . Since rota tion
is t he usual motion form of a prime mover , t his t ype of mechanism should be used t o conver t a
9 2 2
rotation into a reciprocating or rocking motion .
The slider- crank mechanism ( Fig . 4-2a ) , crank and tr anslati ng guide- bar mechanism
(Fig . 4-6 ) and cam mechanism with t ranslating follower ( Fig . 5-18 and Fig . 5-30 ) conver t
rotation int o r eciprocating motion . The crank- rocker mechanism ( Fig . 4-1a ) , oscillating
guide-bar mechanism ( Fig . 4-9 ) and cam mechanism wit h oscillati ng follower ( Fig . 5-28 and
Fig . 5-34 ) conver t rotation int o rocki ng motion . Cam mechanisms can carry out almost any
t ransmission function exactly wit h lower load capacit y because of the higher pair . The lif t of
cam mechanisms is also limited wit hin a small range to maintain a favorable pressure angle . On
t he contrary, linkage mechanisms can not carry out exactly t he given t ransmission function in
most cases . But t heir load capacit y and lift of t he out put link are greater t han t hose of cam
mechanisms .
The screw mechanism conver t s rotation into t ranslation wit h high accuracy and a gr eat de-
cr ease in speed . It serves oft en as a fine t uning mechanism . I t can produce great force wit h
self-locking in t he reverse direction . The efficiency of a t raditional screw mechanism is not high
but nowadays , rolling screw mechanis ms wit h high efficiency are available .
Similarly, the rack and pinion mechanism conver t s rotation int o t ranslation wit h a higher
velocit y, but it oper ates less smoot hly t han t he screw mechanism .
12 . 4 . 4 Path-generating mechanisms
Linkage mechanisms ( Fig . 4-41) , geared linkages ( Fig . 9-7) and some ot her combined
mechanisms ( Fig . 9-8 ) can serve as pat h-generating mechanisms . Four-bar linkages are t he
simplest ones and easy to build . But t hey can gener ally follow t he given pat h only approximate-
ly . Linkage mechanisms wit h more bars or geared linkages can sometimes do better , but still
can not follow t he pat h exactly . Combined mechanisms wit h a t least one cam ( Fig . 9- 8) pro-
duce almost any given pat h exactly but wit h higher cost due t o cam manufact ure .
12. 5 C o o p e r a t i o n o f W o r ki n g L i nk s
12 . 5 . 1 Types of cooperation
Af ter mechanisms for t he worki ng li nks have been chosen , t hey must be connected into a
mechanism system . The key problem her e is the cooperation of t he working links .
(1 ) Independent kinematic chain for each working link
In some cases, motions of working li nks are independent of each ot her . For example , in
t he grinding machine shown in Fig . 12- 2, t he wor king links are t he grinding wheel , t he
grinding wheel carrier and t he spindle . There is no cooper ation problem and no accurate t rans-
mission r atio is needed between t hem . In t his case , we can design an independent ki nematic
chai n wit h its prime mover for each working link . In t his way, t he mechanism system can be
0 3 2
Fig . 12-2 Grinding machine
simplified .
Except in t he above cases, cooperation among working links must be consider ed . There
are two kinds of cooper ating r ela tionships, velocit y and displacement .
(2 ) Velocity cooperation
Velocity cooperation r equires accurate t ransmission ra tios among working links . For exam-
ple , in a gear cutting machine, the t ransmission ra tio bet ween t he cut ting tool and t he work-
piece should remain constant t o ensur e t he correct gener ating motion . Similarly, t he tr ansmis-
sion ra tio bet ween t he spindle and t he carriage of a lat he should be constant i n cut ting a screw .
In such a mechanism system , all working links should be driven by t he same prime mover .
Belt mechanisms should not be used bet ween t hese worki ng links . The corresponding tr ansmis-
sion ratios are determined according to t he required velocit y cooperation .
Fig . 12-3 Biscuit packing machine
(3 ) Displacement cooperation
Displacement cooper ation r equir es t ha t mo-
tions of all t he working links should be timed and
spaced cooperatively , e . g . in a shaping ma-
chine and an int ernal combustion engine . The
biscuit packi ng machine shown in Fig . 12-3 is
anot her example . The two folding bars ar e t he
wor king links in t he folding mechanism . They
rock and fold t he packing paper around t he bis-
cuit periodically . The pat hs of t heir ends inter-
sect at point M . Therefore , t heir motions
should be ti med and spaced to avoid any i nterfer-
ence . For example , if t he left bar moves first , t hen before it ret reat s t o point M , t he right
bar should not enter t he region to t he left of t he point M .
12 . 5 . 2 Working cycle diagrams
To ensure t he displacement cooperation of working links, t he working cycle diagram of t he
mechanism system s hould be drawn . Her e one link should be chosen as refer ence link t he posi-
tions of which ar e taken as ti me markers to indicate t he sequence of actions .
There are t hr ee forms of working cycle diagrams as follows:
1 3 2
Fig . 12-4 Working cycle diagram of a shaping machine
(1 ) Rectili near working cycle diagram
Fig . 12- 4 is t he working cycle diagram of a shaping machine ( Fig . 12-1 ) . The crank in
t he guiding bar mechanism is t he reference link wit h a period of 360. Each st rip indicates t he
sequence of actions of one working link . I t can be seen from t he diagram t hat t he sliding block
has a quick- r et urn motion . The feeding of t he table is carried out duri ng t he return stroke of
t he sliding block .
Fig . 12-5 Working cycle diagram of an
internal combustion engine
(2 ) Circular wor king cycle diagram
Fig . 12-5 is t he working cycle diagram of
an internal combustion engine ( Fig . 1-1 ) . The
cr ank shaft is t aken as refer ence link wit h a pe-
riod of 720. Each ring in t he diagr am indicates
t he sequence of actions of one working link .
(3 ) Rectangular coordinate working cycle
diagr am
Fig . 12-6 is t he working cycle diagram of
t he foldi ng mechanism ( Fig . 12-3 ) in t he bis-
cuit packing machine mentioned above . The
spindle of t he machine is t he refer ence link with
a period of 360. The rot ating angle of t he
spindle is taken as t he abscissa and t he angles of
t he foldi ng bars are t he ordinates . The diagram
shows not only t he sequences of actions but also t he motion laws of t he working links and t heir
kinematic relation . This kind of working cycle diagr am is superior to t he pr evious t wo .
Fig . 12-6 Working cycle diagram of the folding mechanism
2 3 2
A working cycle diagram is act ually a timetable of working links . It provides a basis for
designing , connecting and adjusting t he mechanism syst em to ensur e t he cooperation of t he
whole system .
Af ter t he working cycle diagram is fi nished , t he kinematic dimensions of t he mechanisms
can be determined . Then t he ki nematic diagram of t he mechanism system can be drawn .
12. 6 Ev a l u a t i o n o f t h e M e c h a n i sm S y s t e m
12 . 6 . 1 Indexes of evaluation
During t he synt hesis of a mechanism system, we gener ally get more t han one solutions as
t he result of divergence . Now we t ry to get t he best of all from t hese feasible solutions by
means of evaluation .
A mechanism system can be evaluat ed in five aspects as follows:
(1 ) System functions: Motion laws , Tr ansmission accuracy .
(2) Working performance : Applicable range , Adjust ability , Oper ating speed, Load ca-
pacit y .
(3) Dynamic performance : Peak value of acceleration , Noise , Resist ance t o wear , Reli-
abilit y .
(4) Economics: Manufact urabilit y , Sensitivit y t o error , Convenience of adjust ment , Ef-
ficiency .
(5 ) St ructure : Size , Weight , Complexit y .
Altoget her we have 17 indexes as above , denoted by Ai ( i = 1 , 2, - , 17 ) . Of course ,
t he number of i ndexes can be adjusted ( neglected or added) in a par ticular design . According
t o t he design demands and t he experiences of expert s, we dist ribute weighting fact ors ki ( i =
1, 2, - , 17 ) t o all t he indexes wit h
17
i = 1
ki = 100 .Next , for each index Ai , we choose a value
gi ( gi [0 , 1] ) to evaluate t he corresponding fit ness . We can t hen calculate the t otal score
H for t he mechanism system as follows:
H =

1 7
i = 1
ki gi ( 12- 1)
The maximum of H here is 100, indicati ng t he ideal system . Comparing t he total scor es
of different mechanism systems , we can identify the best one .
12 . 6 . 2 Hints for improvement
If none of t he mechanism systems is good enough, some modification must be made to im-
prove t he system . Several hints for i mprovement ar e listed below .
3 3 2
(1 ) Choose t he kinema tic chai n t o be as short as possible
A shorter kinematic chain her e means fewer links and kinematic pairs . This can reduce t he
cost of manufacture and t he kinematic error . Efficiency can also be increased .
(2 ) Use t he mechanism with higher efficiency
The efficiency of a kinematic chain is t he product of t he efficiencies of t he component
mechanisms if t hey are connected in series . Ther efore , t he kinematic chain t ransmitting t he
main power should not i nclude a mechanism wit h lower efficiency .
(3 ) Arrange t he mechanisms in proper order
Generally, t he speed of working links are lower t han t he ot hers and variable . Therefore ,
t he mechanisms which conver t t he forms of motion ( e . g . cam mechanisms and linkage mech-
anisms) are placed at t he end of t he kinema tic chain , i . e . near t he working link . I n t his
way, t he vibr ation of t he mechanism can be reduced . In addition , t he frictional t ransmitting
mechanisms such as belt drives should be arranged near t he motors where t he speed is higher
and t he torque is lower . Such an arr angement can r educe t he size of t he driving system wit h
overload protection and t he pri me mover can be loca ted wit h more flexibilit y .
(4 ) Choose reasonable tr ansmission ratios
Every mechanism should wor k wit hin it s applicable r ange of t ransmission ra tio t o ensure
proper performance . Furt hermore , careful choice of t he tr ansmission ratios can consider ably
reduce t he size of t he system .
Obviously , t he above hint s can also be used in selection of the mechanisms or rough initial
evaluation of t he mechanism system .
12. 7 D e si g n Ex a m p l e o f a M e c h a ni sm S y s t e m
We will now t ake t he shaping machine as an example t o explain t he process of design of a
mechanism system .
12 . 7 . 1 Design requirements and kinematic decomposition
A shaping machine is generally used for cutting planes on t he workpiece by t he relative re-
ciprocating motion between t he cut ter and t he workpiece . The st roke of t he reciprocating mo-
tion of t he cutter s hould be adjustable t o fit t he length of t he plane to be cut and t he velocit y of
t he cutt er motion should be uniform ( not necessarily constant ) to ensure t he cutting quality .
A feeding in t he dir ection perpendicular to t he cutting motion is necessary to form a complete
plane . Such a feeding motion should be adjust able to fit differ ent materials and cut ting require-
ment s . The feedi ng motion should not interfer e wit h t he cut ti ng motion . The supplementary
time should be reduced t o increase productivity .
There are two possible decompositions of t he cut ting process . In t he first decomposition ,
t he workpiece reciprocates and t he cutter feeds intermit tently . This fit s a large workpiece, as
4 3 2
in a double housing planer . In t he second decomposition , t he cutter reciprocates and t he work-
piece feeds intermitt ently as mentioned at t he beginning of t his chapter . This fits t he shaping
machine cutting workpieces of small or middle size .
According to t he kinematic decomposition of t he technical process, t her e ar e two working
links in t he machi ne . For such a common machine tool , we choose t he electric mot or as it s
prime mover . Next , we discuss t he mechanisms for cutting and feedi ng separately .
12 . 7 . 2 Selection of the mechanisms for cutting
The mechanism for t he cut ting motion must convert rotation into r eciprocation wit h a
quick- ret urn to incr ease productivit y . Some possible choices are listed as follows .
(1) Screw mechanism wit h t he cut ter fixed to t he nut . This mechanism can provide t he
cutter wit h constant velocity and contains only lower pairs . But t he efficiency of t he screw
mechanism is low and ot her mechanisms ar e needed t o give a quick- ret urn stroke . This would
complicate t he system .
( 2) Rack and pinion mechanism wit h t he cut ter fixed to t he rack . This mechanism can al-
so give t he cut ter a constant velocit y wit h high efficiency . But it can not provide the quick- re-
turn it self as can t he scr ew mechanism .
(3) Offset slider-crank mechanism wit h t he cut ter fixed to t he slider . The offset of t he
slider can produce a quick- r eturn st roke . This mechanism works reliably and is easy to make
since it is a lower pair mechanism . The main dr awback is t hat t he velocit y of t he slider in t he
cutting st roke is not uniform enough . Also, t he lengt h of coupler must be large t o ensure a
practical pressure angle .
(4 ) Cam mechanism wit h t he cutter fixed t o t he t ranslating follower . Wit h a properly
Fig . 12-7 Cutting mechanism
for shaping machine ( No . 1 )
designed cam profile , t his mechanism can provide t he cut ter
wit h constant velocit y in t he working stroke and the requir ed
quick- ret urn st roke . But t he lengt h of the st roke in t his
mechanism is not adjustable and t he higher pair element s ar e
not suitable for t he large cutting force .
(5 ) Cam mechanism wit h oscillating follower connected
in series wit h a rocker and slider mechanism shown in Fig .
12- 7 . The oscillating follower in t he cam mechanism is bet ter
in t ransmitting force and it is easy t o extend the st roke , but
t he problem of t he previous case remains .
( g guide-bar mechanism shown in
Fig . 12-8 wit h t he cutter fixed t o t he slider . This mechanism
may provide t he cutter wit h quite uniform movement in t he
wor king st roke and a quick- ret urn . By adjusting t he lengt h of t he crank , t he st roke of the slid-
er can be changed easily . This mechanism contai ns only lower pairs which is t herefore benefi-
5 3 2
cial for t he t ransmission of force . Similar mechanisms ar e shown in Fig . 12-9 , Fig . 12-10 and
Fig . 12-11 .
Fig . 12-8 Cutting mechanism
Fig . 12-9 Cutt ing mechanism
Fig . 12-10 Cutting mechanism for
shaping machine ( No . 4 )
Fig . 12-11 Cutting mechanism for
shaping machine ( No . 5 )
Evaluating t he above mechanisms , we find t hat t he mechanism in Fig. 12-9 satisfies all t he
requirement s quite well and is simple and compact in st ruct ure . This mechanism is finally cho-
sen t o drive t he sliding block with t he cut ter .
12 . 7 . 3 Selection of the feeding mechanisms
The mechanism for t he feeding motion should conver t rotation into intermit tent movement
of t he table wit h self-locking to keep t he workpiece st eady while cutting . Some possible choices
are listed as follows .
(1) Rectilinear Geneva mechanism and ra tchet mechanism shown in Fig . 12-12 and Fig .
12- 13 . These t wo mechanisms evolve from t he general Geneva wheel and ratchet wheel mecha-
nisms . They can provide intermitt ent feeding of t he workpiece and are simple in st ruct ure .
6 3 2
But t hey need an ext ra locking mechanism since t hey ar e not self- locking in t he reverse dir ec-
tion . The amount of feed cannot be adjusted in t he case of t he Geneva mechanism .
Fig . 12-12 Rectilinear Geneva mechanism
Fig . 12-13 Rectilinear ratchet mechanism
(2 ) Pinion and double- r ack mechanism connected in series wit h ratchet mechanism shown
in Fig . 12-14 . This mechanism can change t he movi ng direction of t he table aut omatically at
t he end of t he st roke , but it is not self-locking .
Fig . 12-14 Pinion and double- rack
mechanism
(3 ) Screw mechanism connected in series wit h
ratchet mechanism and crank and rocker mecha-
nism shown in Fig . 12-15 . Here t he scr ew mecha-
nism is self-locking . The two- way r atchet mecha-
nism can change t he rotating direction of t he screw
and also t he moving direction of t he t able . By
changi ng t he lengt h of t he crank , t he swing angle
of t he rocker can be adjusted and t herefor e t he feed
is adjustable . This mechanis m meets all t he re-
quirements and is t her efore chosen for feeding motion .
Fig . 12-15 Feeding mechanism for shaping machine
12 . 7 . 4 Kinematic diagram of the shaping machine
Displacement cooperation bet ween t he cut ter and t he table holding t he workpiece is re-
7 3 2
quired . The working cycle diagram of t he mechanism system is t hen drawn as in Fig . 12- 4 .
Based on t his diagram and t he fundament al r equir ements of t he machi ne , t he kinematic dimen-
sions of t he mechanism system can be determi ned and finally t he kinema tic diagram of t he
mechanism system can be drawn as in Fig . 12-16 .
Fig . 12-16 Kinematic diagram of shaping machine
8 3 2
V o cab u l a r y
abscissa
acceler ation
addendum ( )
allowance ,
amplitude ,
anneal
anti-clockwise
apex , ,
Archimedes spiral
Arctan
ar mat ur e , ,
Assur group ( )
atlas ,
axis ( , )
axle ( , )
backlash
bear ing
bevel gear
bisect or
block diagram
blower
bold line
bolt
bori ng ,
bot tom clearance
cam
cantilever
cardioid
carrier , ,
Cartesian coordi nate system
categorize
cent rifugal governor
chain dotted line
chassis
chord
circumference
clamp ,
clar it y () , ( )
classification ( )
classify
clearance ,
clip ,
clockwise ( )
clutch ,
coefficient
coincident
compact ,
compensat e
complement ,
component ,
composition , ( )
compound () ,
compression
compressor
concavit y ,
concrete ,
conjugate
consequence ,
consist ence ,
const raint ,
consumption ( )
contact ratio
cont our ( ) , -
cont rast
converse ,
convex ,
coordi nate ( ) , -,
corr ected gear
corr espondence ,
cosine
9 3 2
counter- clockwise
counterweight
couple , ( )
coupler
crank
crankshaft
criterion , ,
cross-hatch
crosspiece ,
cross-section
crossed helical gear
crown gear
crusher ( )
curta te epicycloid
curvat ure
curvilinear ( )
cusp ,
cycloid
cylinder , ()
dash ( and ) dot line
dash line
deceleration ( )
decomposition
dedendum
deflection
defor mation
denominator
density
derivative ,
derive ,
det ect ,
diagram ()
diesel ( )
differentiat e , ( ) ,
dimension
disconnect ,
disengage , ,
displace ,
DOF ( degree of freedom)
double Haas planer
double- helical gear
drag- link mechanism
drill , , ,
driller ,
driven link
duplicat e () ,
dur ation ( , ) ,
dwell
dyad
eccentr ic ,
eccentr icit y ( )
elastic
elasticity ,
engage ,
envelope ,
enveloping worm
equilibrium ,
evaluate , ,
evolution , ,
excavat or
exer t ,
extension ( )
facewidt h
feed
feedback
fit ness ,
fi xt ure
flexspline
fluct uate ( )
flywheel
forge
for m cutti ng
for mula
for t h
for t uity ,
fr ame ,
fr amework ,
friction ( )
frustum ,
fulcrum
gear
gear t rai n
gearbox
geared linkage
0 4 2
generati ng cut ting
generat ri x
Geneva mechanism
gravit y
grind ,
grinder ,
groove ,
group dividing
guidance ,
guide bar
gyroscope
Har monic ( ) , ( )
helicoid ,
helix
herringbone ( )
hinge ,
hob ,
hoist ( ) , ( )
horizontal
hour-glass
hydraulic
hypocycloid
identifier ,
idle ( )
illust rate
imbalance
imita tion ,
impeller , ()
incline ( )
inconsistency ( )
increment ,
index ( ) , ,
induction ( ) ,
inequalit y ,
iner tia ( ) ,
inference ,
infinite ,
inlet ,
inspiration , ,
inst ant cent r e
inst rument ,
int eger ,
integrate () ,
integrity ,
interchangeability
interference , -
inter mediate ,
intersect ,
interval ,
inverse ,
inversion ,
involut e ,
jack
jam ,
journal ,
key
kinematic diagram
kinematics
label ,
lat he
lead , , ,
lead screw ,
lif t , ,
li ne of action
li nk , ,
li nkage
local view
locomotive
locus
loom
loosen ,
lubricant ,
lubricate
machinery
magnitude ,
manipulat or ,
marine ,
match ,
maximum ,
mechanics
mechanism () , ( )
mechanization
mesh ,
milling
1 4 2
minimize
minimum ,
mobile , ,
modulate
module
moment of iner tia
multiply , ,
network
nor mal ( ) ,
notch , ,
numerat or
nut
offset , ( )
omit ,
optimiza tion
orbit ,
ordi nate
orientation ,
oscillat e
overrun ,
Packer
parallel ( ) ,
parallelogram
parameter ,
passive DOF
pa thway ,
pawl
pedal ( )
pedestal
pendulum ,
periphery , ,
perpendicular ,
phonograph
pin ,
pinion
pist on
pitch ,
pitch ci rcle
pitch curve ,
pivot ,
plasticine
polar , ( )
polygon
polynomial ( )
portion
positive- drive
precision , ,
predetermine ,
preload
prime circle
prime mover -
prismatic pair
profile ,
proper ty
pulley
punch ,
punch press
quadr ant
quadr ilat eral , ( )
rack ,
radius
rail , ,
ratchet
ratio
readout ,
rear ( )
reciprocate ( ) ( )
rectangle ,
rectify ,
reel
refer ence cent re distance
refer ence circle
regulat or ,
reliabilit y
representation ,
reproduce ,
rest rict , ,
resultant , ,
reversal , ,
right t r iangle
rigidity ,
rivet - ,
rocker
rod
2 4 2
roller , ,
rot or ,
sawtooth
scalar ,
scope
screw ,
sect or
segment , ,
self- tipping vehicle
sense ,
sensitivity , ( )
sequence , ,
servo ,
setscrew
seven- piece puzzle
shape , ,
shaper
shear , ,
shock ,
side link
side- t hrust
sine
sinusoid
slant ( ) ,
sleeve ,
slider
slideway
slot ,
socket
spacewidt h
spindle ,
spin
spir al , ( ) ,
spline
spring
spur gear
stepping mot or
stepwise
st reamline ( ) ,
st roke , , ,
st ruct ur e ,
st rut ,
subroutine
subscript
substit ute ,
subt ract ,
sucker ,
swing
tangent ( ) , ,
ter minology
theor em ,
thickness ,
tip ci rcle
tolerance ,
tolerate ,
toot h space ,
toot h t r ace
torque ,
t raject ory , ,
t rammel , - ( )
t ransfer ,
t ransformation ,
t ranslate ,
t ransmission ,
t ransmit , ,
t ranspor tation
t rial ,
t riangle
turbine
undercut
unfold
unfolding angle
universal joint
valve
vane
vectorial ( )
velocity
vice ,
viewer
vi rt ual gear
wear ,
wit hdr aw ,
workpiece
wor m
3 4 2
wor m gear
wor m wheel
wr ap , ,
yield ,
yoke ,
4 4 2
R e f e r e n ce s
1 Erdman A G, Sandor G N . Mechanism Design : Analysis and Synt hesis . Prentice- Hall International Inc ,
1984
2 Erdman A G, Sandor G N . Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synt hesis . Prentice- Hall Interna-
tional Inc , 1985
3 Grosjean J . Ki nematics and Dynamics of Mechanisms . McGraw- Hill Inc , 1991
4 Kimbrell J T . Kinematics Analysis and Synthesis . McGr aw- Hill Inc , 1991
5 Mabie H H , Reinholtz C F . Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery . John Wiley & Sons I nc , 1987
6 Nikr avesh P E . Computer- aided Analysis of Mechanical Systems . Pr entice- Hall International Inc , 1988
7 Nor ton R . Design of Machinery . McGr aw- Hill Inc , 1992
8 Reuleux F . The Kinematics of Machinery . Dover Publications Inc , 1963
9 Wilson C E . Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery . Happer & Row Publishers , 1983
10 I Shigley J E . Theory of Machines and Mechanisms . McGr aw- Hill Book Company , 1980
11 J Ye Zhonghe , Smit h M R . A new equation for t he cr itical fr ame lengt h in t he t hree-gear drive . Mechanism
and Machi ne Theory , 1990, 25 (5 ) : 557 562
12 I . - . : , 1986
13 I - . - . : , 1978
14 I , - . - . : , 1987
15 I . - CAD . : , 1987
16 I . - . : , 1985
17 I . - . : , 1999
18 I , . . : , 1985
19 I . - . : , 1994
20 I . . : , 1992
21 I . - . : , 1991
22 I , . - . : , 1987
23 I , . - . : , 1990
24 H - , . . () , 1993 ,
21 (2 ) : 51 54
25 I . - . : - , 1989
26 I - . - . : , 1985
27 I . - . : , 1999
28 I . - . : , 1999
29 I , . - . : , 1987
30 I , . - . 5 . : , 1997
31 I . - . : , 1998
5 4 2
32 I , . . , 1999 (5) : 10 13
33 I . . , 1987 (1 ) : 36 39
34 I . . , 1990 (2 ) : 38 39
35 I , . . , 1991 (2 ) : 44 47 .
36 I , . .
, 1995 ( 5) : 57 60
37 I , . . , 1995 ( 6) : 37 116 .
38 I , . . , 1999 ( 3) : 42 43 .
39 I . - . : , 1993
40 I , . - . 7 . : , 1997
41 I . . : , 1994
42 I . - . : , 1999
43 . . : , 1997
6 4 2

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MECHANISMS AND MACHINE THEORY

This results in t he minimal number zm i n of teeth of

A spur gear can be dr awn using t he helical gear values of , h

and t he equivalent driving moment

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