Chapter 2

HYDRAULIC DESIGN
2.1 Diversion weir and intake str!tre
2.1.1 H"dro#o$" Ana#"sis
(1% Esti&atin$ 'issin$ Rain(a## Data
There are many methods for estimating of missing rainfall data. In such case, the
Normal Ratio method shall be adopted with the formula given below.

'

+ + PC
NC
Nx
PB
NB
Nx
PA
NA
Nx
x P
3
1
where
!" # $stimating rainfall in %tation "
N" # Normal annual rainfall in %tation "
N&,N',N(# Normal annual rainfall in %tation &,',(
!&, !',!( # Rainfall in the same time with the estimating rainfall at station,
&,',(.
)2% Avera$e Depth o( Rain(a## *ver Area
In a basin containing more than one rain)gauge stations, the computation of
average precipitation may be done by the following methods*
a. Arith&eti! avera$e &ethod
+hen the rainfall is uniformly distributed over the area, the average rainfall
may be ta,en as the arithmetic average of the recorded rainfall.
n
n P P P P
P
n
av
- ..........
. 1
+ + +

where
!
av
# average depth of rainfall
!
1
# depth of rainfall in station 1
!
.
# depth of rainfall in station .
!
n
# depth of rainfall in station n
+. ,hiessen -o#"$on &ethod
This method is useful for areas which are not much rugged rather plain and
are of intermediate si/e (012 to 3,222 s3.,m4. &lso if the rain)gauge stations
are few compared to the si/e, Thiessen polygon method is suitable.
n
n n
m
A A A
A AP P A P A P A
P
+ + +
+ + +

.. ..........
- ..........
. 1
. 1 1 1
. ) 1
+here,
!
m
# average depth of rainfall
!
1
# depth of rainfall in station 1
!
.
# depth of rainfall in station .
!
n
# depth of rainfall in station n
&1 # area of station 1
&. # area of station .
&n # area of station n
!. Isoh"eta# &ethod
&n isohyet is a line 5oining places of e3ual rainfall intensities on a rainfall
map of the basin. &n isohyetal may represent an accurate picture of the
rainfall distribution over the basin. If the net wor, rainfall stations within
the storm area is sufficiently dense, the isohyetal map will give a reasonable
accurate indication of the rainfall distribution /ones.
n n
n n n n
m
A A A A
P P A A P P A P P A
P
+ + + +
+ + + + + +

1 . 1
1 1 3 . . . 1 1
.. ..........
. - 4 ( .... . - 4 ( . - 4 (
!
m
# average depth of rainfall
!
1
,!
.
,..!
n
# successive isohyets
&
1
,&
.
&
n
# area of the isohyetal map
d. Choi!e o( &ethod
1. If the basin is 3uite rugged and hilly, isohyetals should be used.
.. If the basin is not rugged rather plain, Thiessen polygon should be drawn.
3. If the area is of intermediate si/e (upto 1,222 s3.,m4, Thiessen poylygon
should be used.
. ) .
6. If the area is large (over 1,222 s3.,m4 isohyetal map should be drawn.
1. If the gauging stations are few compared to the si/e of the area, Thiessen
polygon method should be used.
7. If the net wor, of rainfall stations within the storm area is sufficiently
dense, the isohyetal map will give a reasonably accurate indication of the
rainfall distribution.
).% /re0en!" Ana#"sis
There are many probability distributions which have been found useful for
hydrologic fre3uency analysis. %ome of the most important are as follows*
a. Nor&a# Distri+tion
The probability function of Normal 8istribution is as follow*
. .
4 (
9
.
e"p
.
1
4 (

x
x P
+here *
# :ariance
# mean value
The feature of Normal 8istribution is based on the value of asymmetrical
(%,ewness4 # 2.
The probability value is as follows*
! ( ) 4 # 11,;0 <
! (4 # 12 <
! ( = 4 # ;6,16 <
+. Lo$ Nor&a# Distri+tion
The probability function of >og Normal 8istribution is as follow*

,
_

n
n Inx
n x
x P

.
.
1
9
e"p
.
1
4 (
+here *
. ) 3

,
_

. .
6
.
1

Ln n

,
_

.
. .
.

Ln n
The feature of >og Normal !robability, if asymmetrical :alue ((s4 # 3 (v.
+here, (v # (oefficient of :arian.
The value of (s is positive always.
!. G&+#e Distri+tion
The ?umble 8istribution have double e"ponential function probability as
follow*
4 (
4 (
9
B x A
x P

+here & and ' are parameter

then B x A If 4, (

4 (
9
x P
Refer to fisher and Tippett, the value

.;1 , 1
* A of

61 , 2 B
The feature of ?umble 8istribution is *
(s # 1,13@7 and (, # 1,6
(, is Aurtosis (oefficient
. ) 6
d. Lo$ 1 -earson ,"pe II Distri+tion
The !robability function of >og)!earson Type III 8istribution is as follow *

,
_

1
]
1

a
c x b
a
c x
b a
x P
1
9
4 ( 4 (
1
4 (

+here *
!B ("4 # !robability of "
" # variable "
a,b,c # parameter
# gamma function
The regression function is linear function *
ks Y
y

C
+here *
D # >ogarithmical value of "
y
C
# Eean value of D
% # :ariance of D
A # 8istribution (haracteristically of >og !earson Type III.
The >og F !earson type III 8istribution will be used if the feature of three
methods above are not possible.
e. ,he $oodness o( (it test
The probability 8istribution which is ta,en shall be tested by the Gormula
shown below.
) Tested by (hi F %3uare
) Tested by %mirnov F Aolmogorov
. ) 1
a4 Tested by (hi)%3uare
.
1
.

,
_

Ei
Ei oi
X
G
i
+here *
H
.
# !arameter of (hi)%3uare
? # Number of group
Ii # &mount value of sub group up to i
$i # &mount value Theoretical of %ub group up to i
The result test *
) If H
.
J 1 <, probability 8istribution can be ta,en
) If H
.
K 1 <, probability 8istribution can not be ta,en
) If 1< K H
.
K 1<, the probability 8istribution can not be
recommended, the data have to be evaluated.
b4 Tested by %mirnov F Aolmogorov
8ma" # ! ( Hm4 F !B (Hm4 K 82
+here *
8ma" # Ea" 8iviation
82 # (ritical value of %mirnov)Aolmogorov (tee table follow4
(ritical :alue (824 of %mirnov)Aolmogorov
N

2322 2312 2324 2321
1 2,61 2,11 2,17 2,70
12 2,3. 2,30 2,61 2,6@
11 2,.0 2,32 2,36 2,62
.2 2,.3 2,.7 2,.@ 2,37
.1 2,.1 2,.6 2,.0 2,3.
32 2,1@ 2,.. 2,.6 2,.@
31 2,1; 2,.2 2,.3 2,.0
62 2,10 2,1@ 2,.1 2,.1
61 2,17 2,1; 2,.2 2,.6
12 2,11 2.10 2,1@ 2,.3
N 5 42
1326
N
2.4
1322
N
2.4
13.7
N
2.4
137.
N
2.4
%ource * 'onnier, 1@;2
. ) 7
* 8egree of (onfident
The result test *
) If 8ma" K 8I, the probability 8istribution can be ta,en.
) If 8ma" J 82, the probability 8istribution can not be ta,e.
(. /#ood dis!har$e
The two recommended methods to establish the empirical rainfall run off
are * (AI)21. %ection &.1.1.4
) The 8er +eduwen method for catchment area up to 122 ,m
.
) The Eelchior method for catchment area large than 122 ,m
14 Eethod 8er +eduwen
The 8er +eduwen flood formula is based on the following formulae*
A q Q
n n

(14
44 0 ( - 1 . 6 1 ( +
n
q
(34
A
A
t
t
+
+
+
+

1.2
@
1
1.2

(64
61 . 1
71 . 70
.62 +

t
R
q
n
n (14
.1 . 2 1.1 . 2
.1 . 2

I Q L t
(74
+here *
L
n
is flood discharge (m3-s4 with a return period of n years
R
n
is ma"imum daily rainfall (mm-day4 with a return period
of n years
is run off coefficient
is areal reduction coefficient for the catchment rainfall
3
n
is area rainfall in m
3
-s.,m
.
with a return period of n years
& is catchment area (in ,m
.
4 up to 122 ,m
.
t is duration of rainfall in hours
> is river length in ,m
I is (Eelchior4 gradient of the river or terrain
The average river gradient I is determined in the same way as in the
Eelchior method. The upstream (steepest4 12 percent of the river length
and height difference are e"cluded.
Note that the time t in the 8er +eduwen method represents the critical
duration of rainfall leading to the value of the pea, discharge. This is
not the same as the time of concentration in the Eelchior method.
. ) 0
In (14 the design one)day rainfall R
n
has to be filled to obtain the rainfall
3
n
. Note that 8er +eduwens formulae were prepared for one day
rainfall of .62 mm.
(omputations are carried out by iterative solution of the e3uations 1, 3,
6, 1, and 7.
a. (alculate &, > and I from the catchment contour map and substitute
values in the e3uations.
b. $stimate a value for L
o
and calculate e3uations 7, 1, 6, 3 and 1.
Grom (14 the discharge L
c
is calculated.
c. Repeat calculations for a new value L
o
e3ual to L
c
above.
d. The pea, discharge is found when the adopted L
o
e3uals L
c.
.. Eelchior Glood Gormula
The Eelchior method for flood computation was first published in
1@16. The basic relationships are as follows*
a. Runoff (oefficient
The runoff coefficient is ta,en as a fi"ed value. Iriginally values
between 2.61 and 2.7. were suggested. In many cases these values
have proven to be too low. Recommended values are given in Table
&.11 below. They are average values deduced from the M% %oil
(onservation %ervice curve number method as published in NM%'R
8esign of %mall 8amsO.
Table &.11 Runoff coefficients
%oil cover Pydrological soil group
( 8
dense forest (well developed vegetation4 2.72 2.02
>ight forest (medium developed vegetation4 2.71 2.01
Mpland crops (sloping4 and bare areas 2.01 2.;2
The description of the hydrologic soil groups is as follows*
?roup ( * %oil having low filtration rates when thoroughly wetted
and consisting chiefly of soils with a layer that impedes downward
movement of water of soils with moderately fine to fine te"ture.
These soils have a slow rate of water transmission.
?roup 8 * (high runoff potential4 *
%oils having very low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and
consisting chiefly of clay soils with a high swelling potential, soils
with a permanent high water table, soils with a claypan or clay at or
near the surface and shallow soils over nearly impervious material.
. ) ;
These soils have a very slow rate of water transmission.
b. Rainfall
The rainfall 3 is ta,en as the average rainfall intensity until the
movement of the pea, discharge. This is a period T (time of
concentration4 after the start of the rainfall. Rainfall 3 is determined
as a point rainfall and converted into area rainfall as 3.
In Gigure &.1.1, the area rainfall 3 (in m
3
-,m
.
4 is given as a
function of the time and the area for one day rainfall of .22 mm .
The 3 for G # 2 and T # .6 hours is calculated as*
. 3
. - 31 . .
37222 .6
1222 1222 . . 2
km s m
x
x x
q
n

... &.1.4
In case the one day rainfall 3n would be different the values of the
figure will change proportionally e.g. for a one day rainfall of .62
mm the 3
n
value of G # 2 and T # .6 hours would be *
. 3
. - 00 . .
.22
.62
31 . . km s m x q
n

... (&.134
&real variation in rainfall is assumed to have a circular or elliptic
shape. To find the area rainfall over a particular catchment an ellips
is drawn around the catchment boundaries (see Gigure &.1..4 The
short a"is should be at least .-3 of the length of the long a"is. The
ellips may cut through the e"tending edges of the catchment. The
area of the ellips G is ta,en to determine the 3 value for the
catchment area &.
In Gigure &.1.1 the 3 values are given for areas G.
. ) @
. ) 12
c. Time of concentration
Eelchior established the time of concentration T
c
as*
6 . 2 . . 2
1;7 . 2

I Q L T
c
(&.164
where *
T
c
is time concentration in hours
> is length of the river in ,m
L is pea, discharge in m
3
-s
I is average river slope.
Gor determination of the river slope the upstream 12 percent of the
length is e"cluded. Peight difference and length are ta,en from a
point 2.1 > from the upstream catchment boundary (see Gigure
&.1.4.
d. 8esign Glood (omputation
The pea, discharge is calculated following steps*
a. 8etermine the one day rainfall for a selected design return
period.
b. 8etermine for the catchment area from Table &.1.1
c. (ompute &, G, > and I for the catchment area.
d. $stimate a first value of the time of concentration T
o
from
. ) 11
Table &.1...
e. Ta,e for T
c
# T
o
value of 3
no
from Gigure &.1.1 and calculate
L
o
# 3
no
&.
f. (alculate the time of concentration T
c
for L
o
with $3. (&.164
g. Repeat steps d and e for new T
o
value e3ual to T
c
until estimated
and computed time of concentration have the same value.
h. (alculate the pea, discharge for the final T value.
2.1.2 Shape o( over(#ow !rest o( weir )re(er to 8-9223 Se!tion :.2.2%
To ,eep suitable overflow condition on the weir, a shape of overflow crest of weir
should be carefully designed from a hydraulic view point.
Two types of crest for solid overflow weirs in rivers are generally used as shown
below*
14 (ylinder crest
The cylindrical crested weir has a discharge coefficient considerably higher than that
of a broad crested weir. In rivers this has significant advantages as it will reduce the
upstream water level during floods. The discharge coefficient is higher because of
streamline curvature and sub atmospheric pressure on crest.
i!"#e$ Cy&in'e# C#est ty(es
.4 Igee crest
&n ogee crest has the shape of the lower napes of an aerated sharp crested weir.
Therefore it will give no sub atmospheric pressure on the surface of the crest on over)
flow at the design discharge. Gor small discharges the water will give a downward
pressure on the crest.
In designing of the downstream face of the ogee crest the following e3uation was
developed by the M% &rmy (orps of $ngineer*
D-hd # (I-,4 . (H-hd4
n
+here*
H and D are coordinates of the downstream face
hd is the design head over crest.
A and n value are parameters, the value of which depends on the approach
velocity and inclination of the upstream face.
. ) 1.
;a#es o( k and n
%lope of upstream face , n
:ertical
1 to 2.33
1 to 2.70
1 to 1
..222
1.@37
1.@3@
1.;03
1.;12
1.;37
1.;12
1.007
The upstream part of the crest varies with the slope of the upstream face as can be
seen in the following figure*
Shape o( o$ee !rested weirs
2.1.. Dis!har$e over !rest o( weir and $ate )re(er to 8-9223 Se!tion :.2.2%
C"#inder !rested weir
14 The head discharge e3uation for a short crested weir in a rectangular control
. ) 13
section reads
L # (
d
. (.-34 . Q(.-34.gR
S
. b . (P
1
4
1.1
(14
+here* L * discharge in mT-s
(
d
* discharge coefficient ((
d
# (
2
.(
1
.(
.
4
g * acceleration of gravity in m-sU ( @.;4
b * length of crest in m
P
1
* energy head above crest in m
The discharge coefficient (
d
on cylindrical crested weir is the product of*
(
2
* a function of P
1
-r e"ceed (see the below figure4
(
1
* a function of !-P
1
(see the below figure4
(
.
* a function of !-P
1
and the slope of the upstream weir face (see the
below figure4
(
2
has a ma"imum value of 1.6@ if P
1
-r e"ceeds 1.2. The (
2
values are valid if the
weir crest is sufficiently high above the average bed of the river channel !-P
1
1.1.
In the design phase ! may be ta,en as half of the distance from the crest to the
average bed of the river as it was before the weir was constructed. Gor !-P
1
values
less than 1.1 may be used to find the reduction factor (
1
.
(orrection coefficients for the influences of an upstream sloping weir face on the
discharge are given in figure of coefficient (
.
for ogee crested weir with sloping
. ) 16
upstream face. The correction coefficient ((
.
4 is assumed to be about e3ual to that for
ogee crest shapes.
:alues of the drowned flow reduction factor as a function submergence of ratio can
be obtained from figure of drowned reduction factor as a function of P
.
-P
1
.
The discharge coefficient (e on an ogee crested weir is the product of (
2
, (
1
and (
.
((e # (
2
. (
1
. (
.
4.
(
2
which is a constant (# 1.324
(
1
which is a function of !-hd and P
1
-hd.
(
.
which is correction factor the upstream face
The factor (
1
is given in figure of correction factor for other than design head on an
ogee crested weir, and should be applied for different weir heights above the river
bottom.
The values of (
1
are valid for an ogee crested weir with a vertical upstream face. If
the upstream weir face is sloping, a second dimensionless correction coefficient (
.
on the basic coefficient should be introduced. This is a function of both the weir face
slope and the ratio !-P
1
. :alues of (
.
can be obtained from figure of coefficient (
.
. ) 11
for an ogee crested weir with sloping upstream face.
. ) 17
.4 +idth of the weir
The width of a weir between its abutments should be e3ual to the average width of
the river in a stable section. Gor the lower reaches of a river this average width may
be ta,en at a baneful discharge, in which case the mean annual flood may be ta,en to
find the average width of the weir.
The ma"imum width of the weir between its abutments should not e"ceed 1.. times
the average river width in a stable stretch.
Gor rivers carrying a heavy load of coarse sediments the width should be adopted
more closely to the average width, i.e. 1.. times this width should not be ta,en.
To prevent costly energy dissipaters the flow per unit width should be restricted to
about 1.)16 m
3
-s-m, which gives a ma"imum energy head of 3.1 to 6.1 m (see the
below figure )Effective c#est *i'th+4.
The effective crest width ('
e
4 is related to the actual crest width ('4 between
abutments and-or piers by the following e3uation*
'
e
# ')..(n.A
p
= A
a
4.P
1
(.4
+here* n * number of piers
A
p
* pier contraction coefficient
A
a
* abutment contraction coefficient
P
1
* energy head in m
The coefficients A
a
and A
p
are given in the below table (refer to A!)2., %ection
6...14.
!iers Ap
Gor s3uare)nosed piers with rounded corners at a radius
e3ual to about 2.1 of the pier thic,ness. 2.2.
Gor round)nosed piers 2.21
Gor pointed)nosed piers 2
&butments Aa
Gor s3uare abutments with head wall at @2
to direction of flow 2..2
Gor rounded abutments with head wall at @2
to direction of flow 2.1 P1 J r J 2.11 P1 2.12
Gor rounded abutments where r J 2.1 P1 and
head wall not more than 61 to direction of flow 2
In the calculation of the effective width, the actual width of the scouring sluice (with
open front4 should be ta,en at ;2< of the width as designed. (see the below figure
)Effective c#est *i'th+4
. ) 10
34 Mnder flow gate
The discharge e3uation that can be used as an underflow gate is
L # A . . a . ' . [(.g4 . (h
1
4]
S
where* L* discharge in mT-s
A* factor for submerged flow (see the below figure )Coefficient , fo#
s"bme#!e' 'ischa#!e -f#om .chmi't/4
* discharge coefficient see figure
a * opening the gate in m
' * gate width in m
g * acceleration of gravity in m-sU ( @.;4
h
1*
water depth in front of the gate above the sill in m
. ) 1;
2.1.: H"dra#i! <&p +asin )re(er to 8-9223 Se!tion :.2.:%
The following figure of a design method for hydraulic 5ump basin shows an
e"planation of the design method*
. ) 1@
Grom the graph of (34 versus P
1
and the drop height /, the velocity :
1
at the start of
the 5ump can be found from*
:
1
# { (.g4 . [(S . P
1
4 = /]}
2.1
+here * :
1
*velocity at start of 5ump in m-s
g * acceleration of gravity in m-sU ( @.;4
P
1
* energy head above crest in m
/ * drop height in m
+ith 3 # :
1
. y
u
,

and the formula for the con5ugate depth in a hydraulic 5ump*
y
.
- y
u
# (1-.4 . [1=(;Gr4U]
2.1

in which Gr # :
1
- (g . y
u
4
2.1
+here * y
.
* water depth above end sill in m
y
u
* water depth at start of 5ump in m
Gr * Groude number
:
1
* velocity at start of 5ump in m-s
g * acceleration of gravity in m-sU ( @.;4
The con5ugate depth for every 3 can be found and plotted. To ,eep the 5ump close to
the inclined face of the weir and above the floor, the floor must be lowered till the
downstream water depth is at least e3ual to the con5ugate depth. Gor submerged
flows where the downstream water levels are more than .-3 P
1
above the crest, no
energy dissipaters are needed.
2.1.4 =asin #en$th
The length of the hydraulic 5ump basin downstream from section M as shown in the
. ) .2
above figure )0y'#a"&ic 1"m( (a#amete#s+ is usually somewhat less than the
undisturbed length of the 5ump because of the use of an end sill. This flow)stabili/ing
sill is commonly placed at a distance >
1
downstream of section M*
>5 #1 ( n = y
.
4
+here * >5 * length of basin in m
n * height of end sill in m
y
.
* water depth above sill in m
The re3uired height of this end sill is a function of the Groude number Gr
u
of the
incoming water depth y
u
and the tail water depth, that can be determined from figure
of e"perimental relationship between Gr
u
, y
.
-y
u
and n-yu for an abrupt step.
2.1.7 =a!kwater !rve !a#!#ation
& bac,water curves is used to calculate the length and the elevation of flood
emban,ment along the river floods with different return periods.
The calculation of the bac,water curve can be carried out by many methods as shown
below*
(i4 & fairly accurate and sufficiently safe appro"imation of the bac,water curve
(refer to A!)2., %ection ;..4

slope I
a
x
L
z
h
. ) .1
=a!kwater !rve
V # h . [1)("->4]U WWWWWWW (14
Gor h-a X 1 , > # .h-I
Gor h-a Y 1, > # (a=h4I
+here* a * water depth in river without weir in m
h * height of setup at weir in m
> * total length over which bac,water curve is noticed in m
/ * setup at distance " from weir in m
" * distance from the weir
I * river slope
(ii4 The e"act computation of the bac,water curve by the standard step method if
the cross sections, slopes and roughness factors of the river are ,nown over a
sufficient distance upstream of the weir site.(refer to 'ernouli Gormula4
1
z
y

1
Z
S
0
. X
1
Datum
X
River bed So
1
2
2g

1 .
1
!"ergy li"e S#
$ater sur#a%e S&
z
2
2
y
2
Z

h
#
S '
1
2
X
he

2 .
2g
2
2
%
2
. ZH = y
1
= [
1

!
2
.
.
1
# y
.
= [
.
.
!
2
.
.
.
= %
f
. ZH (14
$
.
F $
1
#
f
. .
X

2
ZH #
f o
. .
E E

1 .
(.4
(alculation of $, specific energy, or assuming
[
1
# [
.

$ # y = [[(
!
2
.
.
1
4] (34
%
f
#
3
6
. .
.. . . R
v n

if Eanning formula is used.

. ) ..
V
1
# %
2
. ZH = y
1
= /
.
(64
V
.
# y
. =
/
.
(14
$nergy losses caused by friction is
h
f
# %
f
ZH #
.
1
(%
1
= %
.
4 ZH (74
%
f
is ta,en as the average friction slope at both ending sections
Insert the value above in the e3uation (14, so that it can be written as follows*
V
1
= [[
1
.(
!
2
.
.
1
4] # V
.
= [[
. .
(
!
2
.
.
.
.
] = h
f
= h
e
(04
+here,
(h
e
4 * energy losses caused by the turbulence.
h
e
# A. (:
1
.
-.g4, A # 2 to 2.1 and 2.. for gradually section narrowed or
enlarged
A # 2.1 for narrowed or enlarged section
Total energy head at both ending sections
P
1
# V
1
= [[
1.
(:
1
.
-.g4] (;4
P
.
# V
.
= [[
..
(:
.
.
-.g4] (@4
%o, the e3uation becomes
P
1
# P
.
= h
f
= h
e
(124
2.1.6 Diversion Channe# )re(er to 8-223 Se!tion 2...1 and 12.2%
& diversion channel if needed during construction is usually designed based on the
flood with a return period of .1 years unless ris, consideration ma,e another return
period appropriate.
To asses this ris, use can be made of the graph on Gigure 12.1 which gives the ris,
of accidences of a chosen flood during the life)time of the structure.
. ) .3
2.2 Cana#s and drains
2.2.1 ,"pi!a# !ross se!tion (or irri$ation !ana# and draina$e !ana#
The typical cross sections set out in Gigure 3.6 and Gigure 0.. of A!)23 should be
applied for irrigation canals and drainage canals, respectively.
2.2.2 /#ow (or&#a )re(er to 8-92.3 Se!tion ..2%
The manning ( %tric,ler 4 formula is used for determination of mean velocity or
hydraulic gradient of a uniform flow.
: # A . R
.-3
. I
1-.
,
.
1 . , 4 ( , m h b P h mb b A
P
A
R + + +
L # &.:
+here, L * 8esign discharge in m
3
-sec
: * Eean water velocity in m -sec
n * Roughness coefficient
R * Pydraulic radius in m
& * Glow area in m
.
! * +etted perimeter in m
I * Pydraulic gradient of canal
A * (oefficient of %tric,ler formula # 1-n
b * 'ed width in m
m * %ide slope ( 1 vert # m hor4
h * +ater depth in m
2.2.. Ro$hness Coe((i!ient
Roughness coefficient in the Eanning formula is decided, depending on the canal
conditions, and the following coefficients are used for the detailed design*
. ) .6
(i4 Irrigation canal
(anal condition %tric,lerBs (,4
) $arth lined and unlined canals
L * over 12 m
3
-sec
L * between 1 and 12 m
3
-sec
L * between 1 and 1 m
3
-sec
L * less than 1.2 m
3
-sec
) >ined canal - structure
(a4 (oncrete
(b4 Easonry
61
6..1
62
31
02
72
(ii4 8rainage canal
Eain drain system %tric,lerBs (,4
h J 1.12 m
h K 1.12 m
32
.1
h # water depth in channel, m.
2.2.: ;e#o!it" o( !ana# (#ow )re(er to 8-92.3 Se!tion :..3 8-9223 Se!tion 6.:.1%
The ma"imum and the minimum velocities are as follows*
(i4 Irrigation canal
(onstruction material :min (m-s4 :ma" (m-s4
$arth canal 2.32 2.72 (depending on ,ind of soil4
Easonry canal
(oncrete canal
2.32
2.32
..22
3.22
(ii4 8rainage canal (refer to A! 23, %ection 3...64
The ma"imum allowable velocity is determined in two steps*
1. $stablish the basic velocity (:b4 for a straight canal with 1 m water depth as
in Gigure 3.., :b # 2.7 m-s for (!I4 plastic Inde" values lower the 12.
.. 8etermine the correction factors on :b for canal curvature, different depth
and void ratio as in Gigure 3.3.
The formula for ma"imum allowable velocity is mentioned below*
:ma" # :b " & " ' " (
:ma" is ma"imum allowable velocity in m-s
:b is basic velocity in m-s
& is correction factor for void ratio of canal surface
' is correction factor for water depth
( is correction factor for (urvature
. ) .1
. ) .7
2.2.4 Cana# se!tion
Gor canals with design discharges up to 2.12 m
3
-s the canals cross)section is
appro"imately a semi circle.
(anal with high design discharges are generally wide and shallow with b-h ratios (n4
up to 12 and higher.
(i4 'ottom width F water depth ratio ('-P4 (refer to A!)23, &nne" .4
The following '-h ratio is used for design of the irrigation earth canals, and the
minimum base width is 2.32 m. The bottom width of canals would be designed with
variation of 12 cm.
. ) .0
8ischarge (m
3
-s4 '-h
>ess than 2.32
2.32 to 2.12
2.12 to 2.01
2.01 to 1.22
1.22 to 1.12
1.12 to 3.22
3.22 to 6.12
6.12 to 1.22
1.22 to 7.22
7.22 to 0.12
0.12 to @.22
@.22 to 12.2
12.22 to 11.22
11.22 to 11.22
11.22 to .1.22
.1.22 to 62.22
1
1.2 to 1..
1.. to 1.3
1.3 to 1.1
1.1 to 1.;
1.; to ..3
..3 to ..0
..0 to ..@
..@ to 3.1
3.1 to 3.1
3.1 to 3.0
3.0 to 3.@
3.@ to 6..
6.. to 6.@
6.@ to 7.1
7.1 to @.2

(ii4 %ide slope (refer to A!)23, %ection 3.3.., %ection 6.3.14
Gor irrigation canal (the minimum slopes in cut for earth canal4*
%oil material ?roup symbol %ide slope range, 1*m
roc,
stiff peat
stiff clay, loam, looses
!t
(>, (P, EP
K 2..1
1.2 to ..2
1.2 to ..2
sandy clay, cohesive sandy soil %P, %E 1.1 to ..1
silty sand %E ..2 to 3.2
soft peat !t 3.2 to 6.2
Gor irrigation canal (in well compacted fill4*
+ater depth = freeboard 8 (m4 Inside slope
>ess than 1.2 1.2
1.2 to ..2 1.1
..2 and over ..2
Gor irrigation canal (lined canal4 *
Type of soil hK2.01 m 2.01 K h K 1.12
%andy clay, cohesive sandy soil
>oose sandy soil
%andy loam, porous clay
%oft peat
1.22
1.22
1.22
1..1
1.22
1..1
1.12
1.12
Gor the larger canals stability of the lined side slope has to be chec,ed against sliding
and overturning.
. ) .;
Gor drainage canal (refer to A!)23, %ection 0.3..4*
$"cavation depth 8 (m4 Inside slope
>ess than 1.2 1.2
1.2 to ..2 1.1
..2 and over ..2
(iii4 Greeboard (refer to A!)23, %ection 6.3.1, %ection 0.3..4
Gor irrigation canal
8ischarge (m
3
-s4 Einimum Greeboard (m4
$mban,ment, unlined >ining
>ess than 2.1
2.1 to 1.1
1.1 to 1.2
1.2 to 12.2
12.2 to 11.2
11.2 and more
2.6
2.1
2.7
2.01
2.;1
1.22
2..2
2..2
2..1
2.32
2.62
2.12
Gor drain
8ischarge (m
3
-s4 Greeboard (m4
>ess than ..1
..1 to 12.2
12.2 to .1.2
.1.2 and more
2.3
2.3
2.6
2.1

(iv4 Einimum emban,ment width (refer to A!)23, %ection 3.3.14
8ischarge (m
3
-s4 +ith inspection road
(m4
+ithout inspection road
(m4
>ess than 1.2
1.2 to 1.2
1.2 to 12.2
12.2 to 11.2
11.2 and more
1.2
1.1
..2
3.1
3.1
3.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2 or more
2.2.7 Head #oss (or open !hanne#
In hydraulic design of open channels such as canal, culvert, chec, structure, etc., the
following head losses are considered*
(i4 Griction loss (P
f
4
(ii4 Transition
(a4 ?radual contraction ( h
gc
4
(b4 ?radual enlargement ( h
ge
4
(c4 %udden contraction ( h
sc
4
(d4 %udden enlargement ( h
se
4
(iii4 Pead loss at trash)rac, ( h
t
4
(iv4Pead loss due to pier ( h
p
4
(v4 Pead loss at inlet ( h
i
4
(vi4 Pead loss at outlet ( h
o
4
. ) .@
14 Griction loss (h
f
4
h
f
# fB(>-R4:
.
- 1@.7 # fB(>-R4h
v
fB # 1@.7n
.
- R
1-3
h
f
# (n
.
:
.
- R
6-3
4>
# I>
where, h
f
* Griction loss (m4
fB * (oefficient of friction loss
> * >ength of canal (m4
: * Eean flow velocity (m-sec4
R * Pydraulic radius (m4
N * Eanning roughness coefficient
I * Pydraulic energy gradient of canal (h
f
- >4
h
v
* :elocity head (m4 (# :
.
- 1@.74
.4 Pead loss at transition (h
r
4
The length of the transition should not be less than the length determined in the
following manner*
> (+
u
) +
d
4 - (.tan\4 , but more than . m
where, > * >ength of transition (m4
+
u
* +idth of water surface in upstream canal (m4
+
d
* +idth of water surface in downstream canal (m4
\ * &ngle of transition ( less than .1]4
(a4 ?radual contraction (h
gc
4
h
gc
# f
gc
(h
vd
)
h
vu

4 = >I
m
where, h
gc
* Peadloss due to gradual contraction or convergence channel
(m4
f
gc
* (oefficient as bell)mouthed type of transition is ta,en,
f
gc
#2..
h
vd
* :elocity head in downstream channel (m4 (# v
d
.
- 1@.74
h
vu
* :elocity head in upstream channel (m4 (# v
u
.
- 1@.74
v
d
* :elocity in downstream channel (m-sec4
v
u
* :elocity in upstream channel (m-sec4
> * >ength of transition (m4
I
m
* Eean hydraulic gradient # (I
u
= I
d
4 - .
I
u
* Pydraulic gradient of upstream channel
I
d
* Pydraulic gradient of downstream channel
(b4 ?radual enlargement (h
ge
4
h
ge
# f
ge
(h
vu
)
h
vd

4 = >Im
where, h
ge
* Peadloss due to gradual enlargement or divergence channel
(m4
f
ge
* (oefficient as bell)mouthed type of transition is ta,en,
f
ge
#2.3
h
vu
* :elocity head in upstream channel (m4 (# v
u
.
- 1@.74
. ) 32
h
vd
* :elocity head in downstream channel (m4 (# v
d
.
- 1@.74
v
u
* :elocity in upstream channel (m-sec4
v
d
* :elocity in downstream channel (m-sec4
> * >ength of transition (m4
I
m
* Eean hydraulic gradient # (I
u
= I
d
4 - .
I
u
* Pydraulic gradient of upstream channel
I
d
* Pydraulic gradient of downstream channel
In case the bell)mouth type of transition is inapplicable, losses of head should be
calculated as a sudden contraction or a sudden enlargement.
(c4 %udden contraction (h
sc
4
h
sc
# f
sc
h
vd
where, h
sc
* Peadloss due to sudden contraction (m4
f
sc
* (oefficient as shown below
h
vd
* :elocity head after contraction (m4
&
d
-&
u 2 2.1 2.. 2.3 2.6 2.1 2.7 2.0 2.; 2.@ 1.2
fsc 2.12 2.6; 2.61 2.61 2.37 2..@ 2..1 2.13 2.20 2.21 2
&
d
* Glow area after contraction (m
.
4
&
u
* Glow area before contraction (m
.
4
(d4 %udden enlargement (h
se
4
h
se
# f
se
h
vu
where, h
se
* Peadloss due to sudden enlargement (m4
f
se
* (oefficient as shown below # (1) &
u
-&
d
4
.
&
u
* Glow area before enlargement (m
.
4
&
d
* Glow area after enlargement (m
.
4
h
vd
* :elocity head after contraction (m4
&
u
-&
d 2 2.1 2.. 2.3 2.6 2.1 2.7 2.0 2.; 2.@ 1.2
fse 1.22 2.;1 2.76 2.6@ 2.37 2..1 2.17 2.2@ 2.26 2.21 2
34 Pead loss at trash)rac, (h
t
4
h
t
# 3f
r
h
vu
f
r
# asin\(t - b4
6-3
where, h
t
* Peadloss at trash)rac, (m4
h
vu
* :elocity head at 5ust upstream channel (m4 # v
u
.
- 1@.7
v
u
* :elocity at 5ust upstream channel (m4
a * (oefficient to be determined according to shape of element bars.
&s a rule, s3uare nose and tail shape of element bars would be
used
for trash)rac, of structure for the !ro5ect (a # ..6.4
\ * &ngle to floor (degree4
t * Thic,ness of bars (m4
. ) 31
b * (lear space between bars (m4
64 Pead loss at piers (h
p
4
h
p
# (L
.
- 1@.74^ Q1- ((
.
'e
.
(h
u
F h
p
4
.
4 R F Q 1 - ('
c
.
h
u
.
4 R _
where, h
p
* Peadloss at piers (m4
L * 8ischarge (m
3
-sec4
( * (oefficient of pier
&s a rule, semi)circular shape of pier would be applied
for the !ro5ect (( # 2.@.4
'
e
* $ffective canal width (m4 ( # '
c
F N'
p
4
'
c
* &verage canal width (m4
N * Number of pier (nos.4
'
p
* +idth of pier (m4
h
u
* +ater depth in upstream channel (m4
14 Pead loss at inlet (h
i
4
h
i
# f
i
h
vd

where, h
i
* Peadloss at inlet (m4
f
i
* (oefficient to be determined according to shape of entrance
) 'ell)mouth circular 2.1
) 'ell)mouth rectangular 2..
) Irdinary 2.1
h
vd
* :elocity head in downstream channel (m4 ( # v
d
.
- 1@.7 4
v
d
* :elocity in downstream channel (m-sec4
74 Pead loss at outlet (h
o
4
h
o
# f
o
h
vu

where, h
o
* Peadloss at outlet (m4
f
o
* (oefficient # 1.2
h
vu
* :elocity head in upstream channel (m4 ( # v
u
.
- 1@.7 4
v
u
* :elocity in upstream channel (m-sec4
2.2.6 Head #oss (or !#osed !ondit
In hydraulic design of closed conduits such as siphon, turnout, etc., the following
losses are considered*
(i4 Griction loss
(ii4 Pead loss at inlet
(iii4 Pead loss at outlet
(iv4Pead loss due to bend
14 Griction loss (h
f
4
(a4 Gor circular section
h
f
# f

(>-84h
v
f # (1.6.1n
.
4 - 8
1-3
. ) 3.
h
f
# Q ( 7.31.n
.
v
.
4 - 8
6-3
R> # I>

(b4 Gor rectangular section
h
f
# f

(>-R4h
v
f # (1@.7n
.
4 - R
1-3
h
f
# Q ( n
.
v
.
4 - R
6-3
R> # I>

where, h
f
* Griction loss (m4
> * >ength of conduit (m4
h
v
* :elocity head in conduit (m4 (# v
.
- 1@.74
v * Eean velocity in conduit (m4
8 * 8iameter of conduit (m4
R * Pydraulic radius (m4
n * Roughness coefficient
f * (oefficient
I * Pydraulic gradient (# h
f
- >4
.4 Pead loss at inlet (h
i
4
Refer to NPead loss for open channelO.
34 Pead loss at outlet (h
o
4
Refer to NPead loss for open channelO.
64 Pead loss due to bend (h
b
4
h
b
# f
b
h
v
where, h
b
* Peadloss due to bend (m4
f
b
* (oefficient as shown below
h
v
* :elocity head in conduit (m4 ( # v
.
- 1@.7 4
v * Eean velocity in conduit (m-sec4
8eflection angle fb
1] 2.213
12] 2.232
11] 2.26;
.2] 2.270
.1] 2.2;;
32] 2.111
31] 2.167
62] 2.1;6
61] 2..36
14 Pead loss due to transition (h
r
4
Refer to NPead loss for open channelO.
. ) 33
2.. Cana# str!tres
:arious structures are re3uired in connection with the construction of irrigation
canals. They are *
(i4 8ivision structure - turnout with measuring device,
(ii4 (hec, structure,
(iii4 %iphon,
(iv4 (ulvert,
(v4 8rop,
(vi4 %pillway,
(vii4 8rainage culvert,
(viii4 8rain a3ueduct,
(i"4 'ridge, and
("4 +ashing step.
2...1 Division str!tre > trnot with &easrin$ devi!e
The following structures are designed to divert the irrigation water from canal to
canal or from canal to farm land*
(i4 8ivision structure for secondary canal
(ii4 Turnout for tertiary canal
(iii4 8ivision bo" for tertiary and 3uaternary canals
The discharge measurement structure will be installed in the parent canal at every
division structure and in the branch canal after the outlet of the ma5or off)ta,e.
The following si" (74 types of discharge measurement structures (A!)26, ..14 will be
assessed from the technical and economical viewpoints for each sub)pro5ect*
'road)crested weir*
(ipolleti weir
!arshall flume
Romi5n movable weir
(rump)de ?ruyter orifice
(onstant head orifice
&ccording to A!)26, the structures must be 5udged based on the several factors such
as*
. ) 36
8ivision structure Pead regulator on the secondary canal to divert irrigation
water from the main and the secondary canals
Turnout Pead regulator on the tertiary canal to divert irrigation water
from the main and the secondary canals.
Tertiary
( division 4 bo"
(ombined structure of chec, structure on the tertiary canal and
head regulator of another tertiary canal or 3uaternary canal.
Luaternary
(division4 bo"
(ombined structure of chec, structure on the 3uaternary canal
and head regulator on the 3uaternary canal or outlet to farm
plot.
suitability of the structure for measurement re3uirements
accuracy under field conditions
sturdy, simple and economical structure
simple and accurate discharge formula
easy operation and reading gauges
simple and in)e"pensive to maintain
suitable for the local conditions and acceptable to farmers
The standard recommends three (34 types of discharge measurement structures such
as the board)crested weir, the !arshall Glume and the (rump)de ?ruyter orifice as
shown in Table ..1 of A!)26.
The features of three measurement structures are e"plained as follows*
(a4 'road)crested weir (refer to A! 26, %ection ...4
The broad)crested weir is an overflow)type structure comprising a truly level
and hori/ontal crest between vertical abutments. The upstream corner is
rounded in such a manner that flow separation does not occur.
The discharge e3uation for a broad)crested weir with rectangular control section
is
1 . 1
1 3 - . 3 - . h bc ! Cv C' Q
The discharge e3uation for a trape/oidal broad)crested weir is
[ ] [ ]
1 . 2 .
4 1 ( . Yc 0 ! yc m yc bc C' Q +
+here*
L is discharge in m
3
-s
(d is discharge coefficient
(f # 2.@3 = 2.12 P
1
->, for 2.1 K P
1
-> K 1.2
P1 is energy head upstream in m
> is length of crest in m
(v is approach velocity coefficient
g is acceleration of gravity in m-s
.
(@.;4
bc is width of crest in m
h1 is upstream head to weir sill in m
Dc is water depth at control section in m
m is side slope at control section ( 1* m4
The range of discharge can be classified with the ratio *

min
ma"
Q
Q

Gor rectangular weir # 31 for trape/oidal weir

# 11, and for large weirs

and .12 for small weirs.
. ) 31
(b4 !arshall flume
The !arshall flume is a long)throated flume. In order to attain the accuracy of
measurement, the discharge would be measured under the perfect overflow
condition. The range of measurement should be between the minimum
discharge and the ma"imum discharge as shown below. The dimensions of
flume are shown in the below table (A!)26, &nne" 14 . The following are
several parts of those*
(Mnit for + `!* mm4
'
& a ' ( 8 $ > ? A E N ! R H D
8ischarge (m
3
-s4
Ein. Ea".
11..6 (7 in4 7.1 616 712 3@6 3@0 712 321 712 07 321 116 @2. 627 11 07 2.22. 2.111
..;.7 (@ in4 ;0@ 1;0 ;76 3;1 101 07. 321 610 07 321 116 12;2 627 11 07 2.223 2..11
326.; (1 ft4 130. @16 1363 712 ;61 @16 712 @16 07 3;1 ..@ 16@. 12; 11 07 2.226 2.610
610.. (1.1 ft4 166; @71 161@ 07. 12.7 @16 712 @16 07 3;1 ..@ 1707 12; 11 07 2.221 2.7@1
72@.7 (. ft4 11.6 1217 16@1 @16 1.27 @16 712 @16 07 3;1 ..@ 1;16 12; 11 07 2.21. 2.@30
@16.6 (3 ft4 1707 111; 1761 1.1@ 110. @16 712 @16 07 3;1 ..@ .... 12; 11 07 2.21; 1.6.0
1.1@.. (6 ft4 1;.@ 1.1@ 10@6 11.6 1@30 @16 712 @16 07 610 ..@ .011 712 11 07 2.237 1.@.3
11.6.2 (1 ft4 1@;1 13.1 1@63 1;.@ .32. @16 712 @16 07 610 ..@ 32;2 712 11 07 2.261 ..6.6
1;.;.; (7 ft4 .136 16.. .2@. .136 .770 @16 712 @16 07 610 ..@ 366. 712 11 07 2.201 ..@.@
.133.7 (0 ft4 ..;7 11.6 ..6. .63; 323. @16 712 @16 07 610 ..@ 3;12 712 11 07 2.2;7 3.63;
.63;.6 (; ft4 .63; 17.7 .3@1 .063 33@0 @16 712 @16 07 610 ..@ 610. 712 11 07 2.2@; 3.@6@
(c4 (rump)de ?ruyter Irifice (refer to A! 26, %ection ..64
The (rump)de ?ruyter ad5ustable orifice is a long)throated flume fitted with a
vertically movable streamlined gate. It is a modification of the aad5ustable
proportional moduleB introduced by (rump in 1@... 8e ?ruyter (1@.74
modified the flume alignment and replaced the fi"ed aroof)bloc,B as designed
by (rump with an ad5ustable sliding gate. The resulting structure can be used
for both measurement and regulation of the rate of flow (see Gigure ..114.
(14 Pydraulic design
The discharge formula for the (rump)de ?ruyter orifice can be written as*
4 ( .
1
* h ! * b C Q
'

where *
L is discharge in m
3
-s
(
d
is discharge coefficient (#2.@64
b is width of opening in m
w is gate opening in m (w 2.73 h
1
4
. ) 37
g is acceleration of gravity in ms
.
( @.;4
h
1
is water height above the sill in m
& rating table is given in Table &...6. Gor the standard width (rump)de
?ruyter orifices graphs have been included in Gigure &..1 to &..1
Gor the design of the (ump)de ?ruyter orifices the graph on Gigure ..1. can
be used. It gives the hydraulic characteristics of the orifice based on two ratios.
1 1
h
*
, an'
h
h

The ratio
min
ma"
Q
Q

can be found from Gigure ..1.
. ) 30
. ) 3;
(.4 (haracteristics of the (rump)de ?ruyter ad5ustable orifice
) h # h
1
F h
.
is sufficient to create critical flow under the gate. This is
true if h # h
1
) w, but it may be less if the diverging transition is
designed in such a way that part of the velocity head in the throat is
recovered. If critical flow occurs, the actual diverging transition
design has no influence on the head)opening)discharge rating of the
structure.
) To avoid streamline curvature in the 5et under the gate, the throat
length > should not be less than h
1
.
) To obtain critical flow under the gate and to avoid air vortices
upstream of the gate, the gate opening height should be less than 2.73
h
1
. The gate opening height should be more than 2.2. m for accurate
measurements.
) Glow must be guided towards the gate opening in such a way that
flow separation does not occur. The bottom and sides of the
converging transition do not need to be curved.
) The movable gate must have a section as shown in Gigure ..13.
) The ad5ustable orifice can be treated with e"isting hydraulic theory.
!rovided that critical flow occurs under the gate a rating table with an
error of less than 3< is a available (Table &...64.
) The head)loss re3uired for modular flow is less than h
1
F w. It can be
reduced if a gradual diverging transition is used downstream of the
throat e.g. Gor 1 to 7 sloping diverging transition the re3uired head
loss h is reduced to 2.1 (h
1
F w4. This head loss is less than that
re3uired for other orifices.
) The structure is sturdy it cannot be damaged easily.
) The structure tends to trap floating debris.
. ) 3@
. ) 62
. ) 61
. ) 6.
. ) 63
2...2 Che!k str!tre
& chec, structure is used to control the flow or to maintain a certain water depth
in the canal. The chec, structure to be used for this pro5ect is in general e3uipped
with manually operated sluice gate. Gor some pro5ects, the e"isting design has
applied the stop logs for controlling gates. In such a case the e"isting designs are
used as they are.
2.... Siphon
& siphon is a closed conduit designed to run full, usually under pressure, that
transports canal water by gravity under roads, various types of channels, and
depressions.
14 Einimum diameter (refer to A!)26, %ection 1.1.14
Einimum diameter is 2.72m, to ma,e inspection and cleaning possible.
.4 8esign flow velocity
To avoid sedimentation in the conduit, the flow velocity in a siphon conduit
should be more than two (.4 times of that in the upstream canal. The
preferable flow velocity in the barrel is 1.1 m-sec to ..1 m-sec. The
ma"imum velocity should not e"ceed 3 m-sec.
34 %eal at inlet
In order to minimi/e hydraulic loss and to ensure smooth operation, small
submergence for the top of opening of the headwall should be provided at
the inlet side. The minimum re3uirement of seal is shown as follows*

8iameter of conduit Einimum value of seal
>ess than @22 mm 1.1 times of the velocity head in the conduit or
11 cm (whichever is larger4
Eore than @22 mm 1.1 times of the velocity head in the conduit or
61 cm(whichever is larger4
No %ubmergence for the top of opening at the headwall is needed at the outlet side.
34 'uried depth of conduit
Gor the sa,e of safety, the conduit of siphon should be buried in the ground
with the depth specified (from the outside crest of conduit to the ground
surface4 below.
Road* minimum 2.7 m (at least e3ual to its diameter4
(anal* minimum 2.3m for a lined canal
minimum 2.7 m for a earthen canal
River* minimum 1.2 m
. ) 66
64 Transition
The transition will be installed at both inlet and outlet of conduit. The
following types of transition are adopted*
'o" type
'ell mouse type
2...: C#vert )8- 2: se!tion 4.:%
& culvert is a closed conduit designed to transport canal or drainage water under
free flow condition underneath roads, various types of irrigation and drainage
canals, and depressions.
14 Type and shape
The following standard is used for selection of suitable shape and type of
culvert*
Type %hape 8esign discharge m
3
-sec
!re)cast concrete
(ast F in F place concrete
(ircular
(1mJ8J 2.0 m in diameter 4
Rectangular
>ess than 1.2
Eore than 1.2
.4 8esign velocity
The minimum allowable velocity for the culvert is 1.3 times of the upstream
canal. The ma"imum allowable velocity is 1.1 m-sec for culverts in irrigation
canals and 3.2 m-sec for drainage canals.
34 Ithers
Gor a constructional reason, a distinction must be made between a cross
drainage culvert and a road culvert*
>ea,age is to be prevented at any rate at cross drainage structures,
which re3uire special measures.
&t road culverts, however, the structure must be able to resist traffic
loads.
2...4 Drop )re(er to 8-92:3 Se!tion 4.6%
The drop is categori/ed into two types such as vertical drop and inclined drop. The
inclined drop is regarded to be the same category as the chute.
%election of the vertical drop and the inclined drop should be made in accordance
with drop height of water level (m4.
:ertical drop* 2 m to 1.1 m
Inclined drop* more than 1, 1 m
. ) 61
2...7 Spi##wa" )Re(er to 8- 2:3 Se!tion 6.2.1%
The spillway is re3uired at the place where the canal section becomes smaller than
the upstream one to the considerable e"tent. The spillway consists of a side)
spillway and waste way.
2...6 Cross drain and a0ed!t )Re(er to 8- 2:3 Se!tion 4.7%
(ross drain or drain a3ueduct is re3uired at the place where the main and
secondary canals cross the natural stream, drain or depressed area. & selection of
either cross drain or drain a3ueduct is made, ta,ing into account the water level
and available water head, and ground elevation.
2...? =rid$e )Re(er to 8- 2:3 Se!tion ?%
The bridges are provided at the place where the canal crosses the roads and
footpaths.
2...@ Aashin$ step
+ashing steps are provided near the villages for convenience to inhabitant.
2.: Str!tres re#ated to drains
The structures related to the drains are as follows *
(i4 (ulvert
(ii4 'ridge
(iii4 Glood control gate
The drainage canal related structures will be designed in accordance with the same
criteria as those for irrigation canal related structures mentioned above.
. ) 67