Evaluating teaching: guidelines and good practice

Evaluation of teaching involves collecting evidence, from various stakeholders, for the
purpose of improving the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process. A successful
evaluation generates outcomes that are valid, reliable and indicate directions and action
for improvement.
There is much more to an evaluation than `putting out a questionnaire'.
These guidelines suggest five ke questions to be addressed !hen considering the
practical issues of evaluating teaching. The stop short of engaging in the !ider issues
of ho! such evaluations relate to the educational aims of the taught programme, or to
the total e"perience of the student# these are issues for attention through the $eer
Teaching %bservation scheme.
&. 'hat is the purpose of the evaluation(
)t could be an evaluation of
the qualit of the educational provision *the product+ - !hich could be the
!hole programme, a course *module+, a class *lecture, seminar, laborator, etc+
the performance of the provider*s+ - the academic staff, tutors, support staff,
involved in the deliver of this programme,course,class
the e"perience of the students as partners in the process - their e"perience of
!hat is provided, and of the providers their motivation and approach to learning
a combination of these things - provided that the various purposes are made
absolutel clear to those asked to make the evaluation
-ood practice: make clear to all those involved the purpose, or purposes, of the
evaluation.
.. 'hat is the focus of the evaluation(
/or e"ample, ou might !ant to kno! about
the clarit of the stated educational aims and learning outcomes
the realism of stated pre-requisites,prior kno!ledge
curriculum and content - perceptions of relevance,usefulness
the !a in !hich the curriculum !as presented or delivered
the development of sub0ect-specific skills
the development of non-sub0ect specific *personal and,or transferable+ skills
the appropriateness of the methods of assessment
the appropriateness of the stle of teaching, and the performance of teacher
the qualit of feedback to the student on the performance of the student
the motivation,attitudes of the student
the educational challenge presented to the students the !orkload, ho! reasonable, ho!
realistic
the support available to students,coursebooks,resources for independent
learning
the effort made b the student, and the take-up of support,guidance
the overall e"perience of the student of the teaching and support for learning
but a string of questions !ith such a !ide range of foci makes it difficult for the person
giving the evaluation to recall, reflect and give a careful response.
-ood practice: make clear to all those involved the focus of an evaluation - if
there are multiple foci organise the questions into clusters, identifing the focus
of each cluster - help the evaluator to concentrate and make a reflective response
1. 'ho !ill be asked to make the evaluation(
An evaluation of teaching !ill normall be designed for students as the primar
evaluators, but there is advantage in also seeking evaluation b all the partners in the
process. The responses of the different participants in the process - students and staff -
permit a correlation that adds greatl to the reliabilit and validit of the outcomes of the
evaluation. 2uch correlation provides insight into the level of harmon, or disharmon, of
perceptions bet!een the partners in the teaching-learning process. )nternal and,or
e"ternal academic peers can also be invited to participate in the evaluation, to introduce
a !ider perspective on, for e"ample, the academic standards of the educational
provision.
-ood practice: correlate outcomes of evaluation from different vie!points
!herever possible.
3. 'ho !ill see the outcomes of the evaluation# !ho !ill act upon them(
4efore designing an evaluation it is necessar to define
ho!, and b !hom, the ra! data !ill be processed to generate outcomes
to !hom the outcomes !ill be reported, and in !hat detail
!ho bears responsibilit for taking action in the light of the outcomes
The evaluators, and the evaluated, must have access to the outcomes of the evaluation.
2o too must the person*s+ responsible for the management of the qualit of the
educational provision, such as a 5ead of 6epartment, programme leader *or equivalent+
or chair of a departmental teaching committee. 5o!ever, not all of these need have
access to the same level of detail.
-ood practice: make clear, from the outset, to all involved in the evaluation
process !ho !ill have sight of the outcomes, and !ho !ill be responsible for
taking action, and monitoring the effectiveness of action. *7ote: there is little point,
and potential harm, in seeking evaluation of matters !here there is no realistic prospect
of an action follo!ing the outcomes of evaluation.+
8. 'hat methods of evaluation are available(
%nl !hen the purpose of evaluation, its focus, reporting and responsibilit for
action have been determined can the method of evaluation properl be addressed. There
is al!as advantage to be gained b using several methods of evaluation
and correlating their outcomes.
a+. 9uestionnaire
This familiar method of seeking feedback from students has the potential advantage of
speed *in administration+, anonmit *of response+ and standardisation *for purposes of
comparison bet!een cohorts+. )t can suffer from poor response rate and validit of
outcomes if not designed !ith care *for purpose and focus+, and if over-applied *the
effect of :questionnaire-fatigue:+.
$oints to consider:
'ho should design the questionnaire( The ans!er is determined b the purpose of the
evaluation, and is, most commonl, the person*s+ responsible for the deliver of the
education under evaluation, but it is good practice to seek the vie!s of the intended
evaluators of its suitabilit for the purpose. The Education Enhancement team can
provide help !ith questionnaire design.
2hould the questions be designed for response on a rating scale *eg. a positive
statement !ith response on a scale of `agree' to `disagree'+( ;ating scales lend
themselves to rapid processing and ease of comparabilit across cohorts,ears,
especiall !hen using online surve tools, but the limit the range of response.
2hould the questions be designed for freeform response *eg. :!hat did ou find most
challenging about ...:+( /reeform responses allo! a more subtle range of responses,
and for the raising of issues beond those set out in the questionnaire, but the take
longer to complete, longer to process and much longer to report. )t is good practice for
the processing and reporting to be done b someone not closel involved !ith the
sub0ect of the evaluation. A good compromise is a questionnaire that is mainl of
rating-scale format *for speed and consistenc+ !ith some opportunities for freeform
response.
5o! long should the questionnaire be( )n order that the purpose and focus remains
clear it is good practice to keep a questionnaire short - about .< questions !ould be
about right for a rating-scale format, but much less if all the questions allo! freeform
response.
'hen should it be administered( The ans!er to this depends entirel on the purpose.
/or e"ample, evaluation after the end of a module gives a more complete picture, but
too late for that cohort to benefit from the information - evaluation part-!a through the
module, or after individual classes, gives an incomplete picture, but !ould enable some
ad0ustment of the remainder of the module to benefit that cohort. The purpose and focus
also determine the best frequenc of administration, but it is un!ise to overload to the
e"tent that questionnaire fatigue sets in. )t is good practice for a department to have a
planned schedule of evaluation, !ith higher frequenc of evaluation !here there is
cause for concern, and lo!er frequenc !here evaluation gives stable positive
outcomes.
b+. 2tructured group intervie! *nominal group technique+
This is a meeting !ith students at !hich the are asked to give their vie!s about a
programme, course or class. )t must be structured !ith care to generate constructive
debate, and so that students feel free to e"press their vie!s !ithout personal risk.
Tpicall, students are asked to !ork in small groups to reflect upon good and bad
features of the educational provision *eg. programme, course or module+, its deliver,
and their o!n performance and e"perience. A spokesperson from each group is asked
to rela the considered vie!s of the group to the meeting. The role of the member of
staff leading the meeting is to compile a summar of such vie!s, to validate them at the
meeting, and, later, to produce a short report of the main outcomes.
The structured group intervie! allo!s students to have greater freedom of e"pression
than a questionnaire, and more opportunit to make constructive suggestions for
improvement. )t tpicall requires a meeting of about an hour, but the processing is done
during that hour and the time needed for producing a report is short. )t is good practice
for a group intervie! to be led b an e"perienced leader !ho is not involved in the
deliver of the educational provision that is being evaluated, and preferable not in the
same department. Education Enhancement can provide guidance on the operation of
structured group intervie!s, and members of EE have e"perience of leading and
reporting such meetings.
c+. 2tudent-staff liaison committee
Ever academic department has a staff-student liaison committee. 'hile this is neither
the right venue, nor necessaril the right group, to conduct evaluation, it is an
opportunit for students and staff as partners in the teaching,learning process to
identif priorities for scheduling evaluations
propose particular purposes and foci of evaluation
comment on the outcomes of evaluations, their validit and reliabilit
)t is good practice for ever meeting of a liaison committee to include a default agenda
item on evaluation of teaching, so that it is a legitimate topic to raise at an meeting.
$oints raised at student-staff liaison committees can provide useful correlation !ith
outcomes of evaluations made b other methods *see also the =ode of $ractice for
student-staff liaison committees+.
d+. 2elf-evaluation and peer evaluation
A simple but effective form of self-evaluation b a course,module team is for them to
undertake the same form of evaluation undertaken b the students, ie. to complete the
same questionnaire, or to conduct a self-evaluation using the same format of a
structured group intervie!. The degree of harmon bet!een the staff responses and the
outcomes of the students' evaluation is a good indicator of staff a!areness of student
perceptions. )tems of disharmon suggest that staff understanding of students' needs
and concerns needs to be addressed before attending to issues of detail that arise from
the evaluation.
$eer evaluation, b e"ternal e"aminers, to support self-evaluation of teaching in relation
to the maintenance of academic standards is a familiar and routine activit. >ess
familiar, but equall valuable, is regular peer evaluation of the teaching,learning process.
A colleague, focusing on the process that is taking place, adds a dimension of
evaluation that ma escape the member of staff and the students, !ho are generall too
bus !ith the business of teaching and learning to observe the process itself. 5o!ever,
casual `dropping-in' on a class is not the best approach to peer evaluation. )t is good
practice for peer evaluation to be a planned and structured process, involving
the separate stages of
briefing, to set conte"t and identif aims and learning outcomes of the process
that is to be observed
observation, !ith a checklist of ke features to look for, agreed at the briefing
de-briefing, to give feedback on the observation and to compare the perceptions
of the observer and the observed
E"amples of observation checklists and features to look for in the teaching,learning
process are available from the Education Enhancement. Again, both self-evaluation and
peer evaluation provide correlation !ith, and add value to, other forms of evaluation of
teaching.
Evaluating Your own Teaching
Introduction
Methods for Evaluating Your Teaching
Web References and Resources
Introduction
Courses need to be continuously monitored, reviewed and renewed to ensure the teaching
(including the teaching and learning activities and the assessment and course (ob!ectives,
learning outcomes and contents "uality are u#$to$standards and u#$to$date% This is the core duty
of any teacher regardless of being a new or an e&#erienced staff%
Evaluating teachers' own teaching is a way to identify the strong as#ects of their #ractice, as well
as their wea(nesses which may need to be changed and im#roved% Teachers should ta(e
initiatives and res#onsibility to evaluate their teaching and ma(e im#rovements over time% It is
im#ortant to understand that evaluating your teaching does not mean you are a bad teacher, in
fact, it means "uite the o##osite%
) good teacher teaches and learns%
You could be the best teacher with the best course materials, course activities, learning outcomes
and assessments% *ut as time changes, course needs to revise to suit the needs of the society,
the em#loyers and the diversity of students% ) good teacher will ta(e in criticism, initiate
evaluation and learn from their students%
The +tudent Evaluation of Teaching and ,earning (+ET, -uestionnaire is one of the ways
courses and teachings in ./0 are evaluated% ./0 #laces significant im#ortance on student
learning and on the continuous enhancement of teaching and learning outcomes% 1or more
information on +ET,, #lease contact the Centre CET,%
Methods for Evaluating Your Teaching
2% Self-monitoring: Teachers monitor their own #erformance as they teach% Teachers
should monitor themselves while teaching% )fter each teaching session, teachers should as(
themselves (or com#lete a brief self$evaluation form on whether they have met their determined
goals and ob!ectives, and evaluate the good and the to$be$im#roved as#ects of the session%
Teachers can (ee# a log (i%e% a teaching #ortfolio, or video log as described in the ne&t section to
trac( their own #rogress and im#rovement over time%
o +elf$monitoring is a meaningful source of information for evaluating teaching%
Teachers would ta(e s#ecial notice of (and record those information which are #articularly
im#ortant to them, li(e a customi3ed #rofile for individual teachers%
o .owever, self$monitoring involves self$!udgment% It is often difficult to be totally
fair and ob!ective% 4ersonal biases and misinter#retations of students5 reaction by the teachers
themselves may interfere with the effectiveness of the evaluation%
6% Audio and video recording: Teachers can audio$ or video$ta#e their teaching sessions,
which allows them to (ee# record of and investigate their actual teaching #erformance in detail%
Teachers can review the records with other colleagues to discuss the areas for im#rovements%
o )udio and video recording #rovide teachers with ob!ective information that
reflects what was actually ha##ening in the class% It is always easy for #eo#le to monitor others
and notice their wea(nesses, but it is rather difficult for them to monitor themselves, es#ecially
during teaching when teachers are devoting most of their attention in instructing and e&#laining to
students%
o Recording reflects the actual teaching #erformance, but it is meaningless by
itself% 1or e&am#le, it does not tell teachers whether s#ea(ing at a #articular #ace is good or bad%
Teachers have to discuss with their fellows to obtain o#inions to identify the strengths and
wea(nesses in their teaching, as well as #ossible room for im#rovements%
o It is a good idea to arrange several recording sessions throughout the semester
(e%g% one at the beginning, one in the middle and one at the end of semester to chec( with the
#rogress and im#rovement of s#ecifically targeted areas% *ut it is im#ortant to obtain the consent
from students and the faculty before doing the recording%
o 1urthermore, (ee#ing a log of class video records can hel# teachers trac( their
own #rogress, and it is also a useful reference material for new teaching staff to learn from%
7% Students feedback on teaching: +tudents5 #erce#tion of learning e&#erience in class is
sometimes the most direct way to weigh how effective a teacher delivers his teaching% )fter all,
the goal of education is to ma(e students learn and understand% Therefore, what students
#erceive and e&#erience in class would directly determine how effective they are learning%
Collecting students5 #erce#tion of teaching should be carried out several times in the semester (at
least once at mid$term and once at the end of term, to allow o##ortunities to correct #oor
#ractices rather than leaving them till the end of course% Two common methods to collect
information about students5 #erce#tion towards teaching are "uestionnaires and interviews%
o uestionnaires: This is a common method to collect students' o#inion about
teaching, and it has been used widely across universities as a standard #ractice% +tandardi3ed
"uestions on the "uestionnaires collect information about students5 bac(ground, general o#inions
about the course (e%g% the to#ics are interesting, course materials are difficult, too many
assignments, comments given on assignments are hel#ful etc%, and an overall evaluation on the
effectiveness of the course and the teacher, using #redefined scales of "uantitative scores (e%g% 2
8 +trongly )gree, %%%, 9 8 +trongly :isagree% +ome general o#en$ended "uestions such as ;What
do you thin( can be im#roved in this course<; and ;What do you li(e most about this course<; are
usually included in the "uestionnaires% =f course, teachers can #ut down some s#ecific to#ical
"uestions in which they #articularly would li(e to (now about%
-uestionnaires can collect res#onses from a large number of students
simultaneously, which #rovide a com#rehensive #icture that reflect the o#inions of the whole
class (i%e% good re#resentativeness, and can be efficiently administered in terms of time and
resources% Res#onses in "uestionnaires are given anonymously, so students are more willing to
freely e&#ress what they actually thin( and #erceive about the course%
.owever, the limitation of "uestionnaire lies at its standardi3ed
organi3ation of "uestions% -uestions on the "uestionnaires are fi&ed, and therefore the teachers
cannot #robe further information of their interests immediately base on the res#ondents'
res#onses as in interviews%
)lso, "uestionnaire survey is better to be administered by someone who
is not in charge of the grades of students, so that students would feel more comfortable to
e&#ress themselves%
-uestionnaire survey must be careful designed to avoid confusion and
negative effect from the students (e%g% students may thin( that this is a way to test how much they
have learnt%
o Interviews: 1ocus$grou# interviews with students can be conducted by the
teachers themselves (if trust has been built among the teacher and students or an outside
#erson (if greater level of ob!ectivity is re"uired% Teachers can set the "uestions that they are
interested to (now about with their faculty5s colleague and consultants in advance, and #robe
more detailed information and clarifications from students during the interview% It is obviously a
more fle&ible o#tion com#ared to large class "uestionnaire surveys%
:irectly interviewing students can usually reveal students5 thoughts on
some unantici#ated as#ects, which can generate lots of useful information%
*ut interviews can usually only be conducted with a small #ortion of
students in the class, which may not necessary be reflecting the whole #icture of thoughts of the
entire class%
o *esides the above methods, teachers can also deduce how well the students are
learning and ac"uiring (nowledge from the class by loo(ing at their assignments and test results%
4rovided that the assignments and tests are well$designed and have high validity in measuring
students5 learning achievements, they can be good indicators of how effective the goal of hel#ing
students to learn is achieved by the teaching delivered% .owever, teachers cannot infer from
assignments and test results about what is good or bad about their teaching, and what causes
students to learn better or worse%
=ne general limitation of assessing teaching "uality based on students' feedbac( is that their
o#inions can be very biased to their own #ers#ectives% Many students may not actually (now
what they should (now and learn from the course% )lso, students usually do not #ossess enough
(nowledge about how the course can be taught, including the #ossible #edagogies and course
contents%
It is also very im#ortant that teachers should tell students that they are aware of and are
genuinely interested in the o#inions given% )fter receiving students5 feedbac(, teachers should
describe to the students what changes are made in res#onse to their o#inions, and also e&#lain
the reasons why they choose not to change the other #ractices as re"uested by students%
+tudents would "uestion the usefulness of collecting their o#inions if teachers do not let them
(now their o#inions are heard%
>% !eedback from observation b" other colleagues and e#$erts: Teachers can invite
other colleagues or e&#erts to sit in their classes and directly observe how the teaching is
conducted (including teaching style, contents, #ace etc%, to give feedbac( and constructive
criticisms% +imilar to video recording, observation by other #eo#le allows teachers to become
aware of many things that they are too busy to notice while conducting their teaching% Teachers
can negotiate with the observers before the class observation regarding the areas of focus, and
discuss the im#ortant #oints in a debriefing meeting afterwards%
o %eer-observation: ?unior teachers can invite other !unior #eers to observe and
give feedbac( to their teaching% This would be free from any #olitical ris( and #eers would be
willing to e&change and share their ideas freely and honestly%
o &bservation b" senior colleagues: Teachers can also invite e&#erienced
senior teachers to be their observers% +enior teachers who have e&#eriences in teaching can
often #rovide useful o#inions for new teachers to get started smoothly% @evertheless, #olitical
ris(s can be a concern since some teachers behave differently when being observed by seniors
who ma(e decisions about their #romotion and tenure%
o &bservation b" $rofessionals from an outside $art": Teachers may consult
their university's teaching su##ort center or similar organi3ations to arrange a teaching consultant
to observe their classes% These consultants do not necessarily need to #ossess ade"uate
(nowledge about the sub!ect being taught, but they can #rovide ob!ective comments to teachers
on general #resentation s(ills, s(ills of facilitating student discussions, and ideas for active and
interesting learning a##roaches%
)mmuni?ation:-
This schedule may vary depending upon where you live, your child's health, the type of
vaccine, and the vaccines available. Some of the vaccines may be given as part of a
combination vaccine so that your child gets fewer shots. Ask your doctor which vaccines your
child should receive.
Birth
HBV: Hepatitis B vaccine recommended to give the first dose at birth, but may be
given at any age for those not previously immuni!ed.
1-2 months
HBV: Second dose should be administered " to # months after the first dose.
2 months
DTaP: $iphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis vaccine
Hib: Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine
IPV: %nactivated poliovirus vaccine
PCV: &neumococcal con'ugate vaccine
Rota: (otavirus vaccine
4 months
DTaP
Hib
IPV
PCV
Rota
6 months
DTaP
Hib
PCV
Rota: This third dose may be needed, depending on the brand of vaccine used in
previous immuni!ations.
6 months and annually
Influn!a: The vaccine is recommended every year for children ) months and older.
*ids under + who get a flu vaccine for the first time will receive it in two separate doses at
least a month apart. Those younger than + who have been vaccinated in the past might
still need two doses if they have not received at least two flu vaccinations since ,uly #-"-.
*ids ) months to . years old are still considered the group of kids who most need the flu
vaccine, but updated guidelines from the /enters for $isease /ontrol and &revention 0/$/1
now recommend that all older kids and teens get it, too.
%t's especially important for high2risk kids to be vaccinated. High2risk groups include, but
aren't limited to, kids younger than . years old, and those with chronic medical conditions,
such as asthma, heart problems, sickle cell anemia, diabetes, or human immunodeficiency
virus 0H%31.
%t can take up to # weeks after the shot is given for the body to build up immunity against
the flu.
6-1" months
HBV
IPV
12-1# months
Hib
$$R: 4easles, mumps, and rubella 05erman measles1 vaccine
PCV
Chi%&n'o( )*ari%lla1
12-2+ months
H,V: Hepatitis A vaccine given as two shots at least ) months apart
1#-1" months
DTaP
4-6 yars
DTaP
$$R
IPV
Vari%lla
11-12 yars
HPV: Human papillomavirus vaccine, given as 6 shots over ) months. %t's
recommended for both girls and boys to prevent genital warts and certain types of cancer.
Tda': Tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis booster. Also recommended during each
pregnancy a woman has.
$nin-o%o%%al *a%%in: And a booster dose is recommended at age ").
Coll- ntrants
$nin-o%o%%al *a%%in: (ecommended for previously unvaccinated college students
who will live in dormitories. 7ne dose will suffice for healthy college students whose only
risk factor is dorm living.
.'%ial %ir%umstan%s
H,V is recommended for kids # years and older who have not received the vaccine
and are at increased risk of developing hepatitis A. This includes kids who live in states or
will travel to countries where the disease is common.
$nin-o%o%%al *a%%in can be given to kids as young as # months old who are at
risk of contracting meningococcal disease, such as meningitis. This includes children with
certain immune disorders as well as those who live in 0or are planning to travel to1
countries where meningitis is common. This vaccine also should be given to teens "6 and
older who did not receive it in childhood.
Pnumo%o%%al *a%%ins also can be given to older kids 0age # and up1 who have
immunocompromising conditions, such as asplenia or H%3 infection, or other conditions,
like a cochlear implant.
Current Immunisation Schedule
The National Immunisation Program (NIP) Schedule
(0 - 4 Years)
Valid from 1 July 2013
Age 'isease immunised against
(irth .e#atitis *
) months :i#htheria
Tetanus
4ertussis
4olio
.ib
.e#atitis *
4neumococcal
Rotavirus
* months :i#htheria
Tetanus
4ertussis
4olio
.ib
.e#atitis *
4neumococcal
Rotavirus
+ months :i#htheria
Tetanus
4ertussis
4olio
.ib (refer to note 2
.e#atitis * (or at 26 months
4neumococcal
Rotavirus (refer to note 6
,) months Measles
Mum#s
Rubella
.ib
.e#atitis * (or at A months
Meningococcal C
,- months Measles
Mum#s
Rubella
Baricella
4neumococcal (refer to note 7
* "ears :i#htheria
Tetanus
4ertussis
4olio
Measles (refer to note >
Mum#s(refer to note >
Rubella (refer to note >
.ote:
2% 1our doses of .ib vaccine are due at 6, >, A and 26 months of age when 54R4$T .ib5
containing vaccine is used%
6% Three doses of Rotavirus vaccine are due at 6, > and A months of age when RotaTe"
vaccine is used%
7% 1our doses of 4neumococcal vaccine are due at 6, >, A and 2C months of age when
+ynflori& vaccine is used%
>% MMR vaccine is only to be given at > years if MMRB vaccine was not given at 2C
months%
mmuni/ation, or immunisation, is the #rocess by which an individual5s immune
system becomes fortified against an agent ((nown as theimmunogen%
When this system is e&#osed to molecules that are foreign to the body, called non-self, it will
orchestrate an immune res#onse, and it will also develo# the ability to "uic(ly res#ond to a
subse"uent encounter because of immunological memory% This is a function of the ada#tive
immune system% Therefore, by e&#osing an animal to an immunogen in a controlled way, its body
can learn to #rotect itselfD this is called active immuni3ation%
The most im#ortant elements of the immune system that are im#roved by immuni3ation are the T
cells, * cells, and the antibodies * cells #roduce%Memory * cell and memory T cells are
res#onsible for a swift res#onse to a second encounter with a foreign molecule% 4assive
immuni3ation is when these elements are introduced directly into the body, instead of when the
body itself has to ma(e these elements%
Immuni3ation is done through various techni"ues, most commonly vaccination% Baccines
against microorganisms that cause diseases can #re#are the body5s immune system, thus
hel#ing to fight or #revent an infection% The fact that mutations can cause cancer cells to #roduce
#roteins or other molecules that are un(nown to the body forms the theoretical basis for
thera#eutic cancer vaccines% =ther molecules can be used for immuni3ation as well, for e&am#le
in e&#erimental vaccines against nicotine (@icB)E or the hormone ghrelin in e&#eriments to
create an obesity vaccine%
*efore vaccines, the only way #eo#le became immune to a certain disease was by actually
getting the disease and surviving it% Immuni3ations are definitely less ris(y and an easier way to
become immune to a #articular disease% They are im#ortant for both adults and children in that
they can #rotect us from the many diseases out there% Through the use of immuni3ations, some
infections and diseases have almost com#letely been eradicated throughout the 0nited +tates
and the World% =ne for e&am#le is #olio% Than(s to dedicated health care #rofessionals and the
#arents of children who vaccinated on schedule, #olio has been eliminated in the 0%+% since
2FGF% 4olio is still found in other #arts of the world though so certain #eo#le could still be at ris( of
getting it% This includes those #eo#le who have never had the vaccine, those who didn5t receive
all doses of the vaccine, or those traveling to areas of the world where #olio is still #revalent%
)ctive immuni3ationHvaccination has been named one of the ;Ten Ireat 4ublic .ealth
)chievements in the 6Jth Century;%
K2L
Contents
KhideL
2 4assive and active immuni3ation
o 2%2 )ctive immuni3ation
o 2%6 4assive immuni3ation
6 +ee also
7 References
> E&ternal lin(s
Passive and active immunization[edit source edit !eta"
Medical student #artici#ating in a #olio vaccine cam#aign in Me&ico
Immuni3ation can be achieved in an active or #assive mannerD vaccination is an active form of
immuni3ation%
Active immuni/ation0edit source 1 edit beta2
Main article: Active immunity
)ctive immuni3ation can occur naturally when a #erson comes in contact with, for e&am#le, a
microbe% If the #erson has not yet come into contact with the microbe and has no #re$made
antibodies for defense, as in #assive immuni3ation, the #erson becomes immuni3ed% The immune
system will eventually create antibodies and other defenses against the microbe% The ne&t time,
the immune res#onse against this microbe can be very efficientM this is the case in many of the
childhood infections that a #erson only contracts once, but then is immune%
)rtificial active immuni3ation is where the microbe, or #arts of it, are in!ected into the #erson
before they are able to ta(e it in naturally% If whole microbes are used, they are #re$treated%
The im#ortance of immuni3ation is so great that the )merican Centers for :isease Control and
4revention has named it one of the ;Ten Ireat 4ublic .ealth )chievements in the 6Jth Century;%
K2L
,ive attenuated vaccines have decreased #athogenicity% Their effectiveness de#ends on ability
to re#licated and elicits a res#onse similar to natural infection% It is usually effective with a single
dose% E&am#les of live, attenuated vaccines include measles, mum#s, rubella, MMR, yellow
fever, varicella, rotavirus, and influen3a (,)IB%
%assive immuni/ation0edit source 1 edit beta2
Main article: Passive immunity
4assive immuni3ation is where #re$synthesi3ed elements of the immune system are transferred
to a #erson so that the body does not need to #roduce these elements itself%
Currently, antibodiescan be used for #assive immuni3ation% This method of immuni3ation begins
to wor( very "uic(ly, but it is short lasting, because the antibodies are naturally bro(en down, and
if there are no * cells to #roduce more antibodies, they will disa##ear%
4assive immuni3ation occurs #hysiologically, when antibodies are transferred from mother
to fetus during #regnancy, to #rotect the fetus before and shortly after birth%
)rtificial #assive immuni3ation is normally administered by in!ection and is used if there has been
a recent outbrea( of a #articular disease or as an emergency treatment for to&icity, as in
fortetanus% Treatment of this sort is often the sub!ect of case based learning in first year medical
curricula% The antibodies can be #roduced in animals, called ;serum thera#y,; although there is a
high chance of ana#hylactic shoc( because of immunity against animal serum itself%
Thus, humani3ed antibodies #roduced in vitro by cell culture are used instead if available%