Methods of data collection

Supervised by:
Prof DR. Ragaa Ali
Vice Dean of Community
services and environmental
prepared by :
Amal Mohamed El Hussein
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Objectives
By the end of this presentation each candictate will be able to:-

1. Determine the need for physiological & psychological data
collection methods.
2. Recognize the importance of observation as data
collection methods.
3. Discuss the importance of questionnaires as data collection
methods for nursing research.
4. Describe the general characteristics of questionnaires.
5 -Identify the importance of interview as data collection
methods

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Out lines

Introduction.
Biophysiological measures.
* uses and types.
* advantage and disadvantages.
Psychological data collection methods.
Observational data collection methods.
* determine behavior to be observed.
* Research observes.
* observational sampling.

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Observation procedures.
Relationship between observer and subject.
Types of observational methods.
Methods of recording structured and unstructured
observations.
Advantages and disadvantages of observational
methods.
Interview and questionnaires
Critique the data collection methods.

Out lines
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Nurses use all of their senses when collecting
data from Patients for whom they provide
care. Nurses researchers also have available
many ways to collect information about their
research subjects. The major difference
between the data collected when performing
patient care and the data collected for
purpose of research is that the data
collection methods employed by researchers
need to be: objectives, consistency, and
operationalization.

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The method must be appropriate to problem,
hypothesis, setting and population- Research should
have quality instrument with adequate reliability and
validity.

The methods chosen by the research would depend on:
The problem begin studied.
The nature of the subject.
The relative cost.
Benefit of each method.

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There are five important questions to ask when the
researchers is & in the process of collecting data:

1 - What data will be collected? "Types of data" e.g: is the study
designed to measure knowledge, attitude or behavior?
2 - How will the data be collected? "Instrument".
3 - Who will the data be collected? "Research collector"
4 - Where will the data be collected? "The setting"
5 - When will the data be collected? "Determine month, day and
sometimes even the hour for data collection.

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Data collection methods can be
divided into
Physiological, psychological, observation, interview
,quastionnaries and records ( data available):-
1 ) Physiological or Biological measures:
These types of measures are generally more objective and
accurate than many of the other data collection methods. It
can be physical as weight or temperature, chemical as blood
glucose level, microbiological as with culture, or anatomical as
in radiological examination.

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Types of Bio-physiologic measures:
1 . vivo.
2. vitro.
Advantages:
It is objective , precision and accurate because two reading of
the same instrument taken at the same time by two different
nurses are likely to give the same result.
Disadvantages:
Requires specialized equipment, knowledge, training and special expertise.
Very expensive if the equipment didn't present in the hospital.
Variable of interest may be changed. e.g the presence of a heart rate
monitoring might make some patients anxious and increasing their heart
rate.
Measuring can be affected by the environment.

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Uses of Biophysiological measures in nursing
research:

1 - Studies of basic biophysilogic processes that have relevance
for nursing care
2 -Explorations of the ways in which nursing actions affect the
health out come of patients

3 - Evaluation of specific nursing procedure or intervention.

4- Studies to improve the measurement and recording of
biophysilogic information regularly gathered by nurses.

5 - Studies of correlates of physiological functioning in patient
with health problem
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Psychological test
Researcher have many methods to test the personality
characteristic of people

(A) Personality Inventories:
Are self reports measures used the difference in personality trait, needs or
values of people. This inventions seek information about a person by
asking questions or requesting responses to statements that are
presented. They are accurate because subjects respond honestly to the
items.
Some of more commonly used personality inventions:
Minnestoma multiphase personality inventory (MMPI)
Sixteen personality factor questionnaire (16 PE)
Edwards personal preference schedule (EPPS)

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B) Delphi technique:

This term used to describe a data collection technique that
employs several rounds of questions to seek consensus on
particular topic from a group of experts.
Purpose:
To obtain group consensus from the panel of expertise,
without brining this group together in a face to face meeting .
This type of procedure is appropriate to examine the opinions,
beliefs or future predictions of knowledgeable people on
some special topic of interest.

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C) Visual analogue scale
It is present subject with straight line which
horizontally or vertically on apiece of paper
The line is anchored on each end by word or
short phrases that represent phenomenon
such as pain . It used frequently in nursing
researches and useful with patients who are
experiencing discomfort such as nausea .
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D) Q sort ( methodology )
It is means of obtaining data in which subjects
sort statements into categories according to
their attitude toward or rating of the
statement .
That are written on cards or pieces of paper ,
the respondent are asked to arrange the item
according to their attitude or belief about the
item .
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E) Projective techniques
In this technique subject is presented with
stimuli designed to be ambiguous or to have
know defent meaning . Then the person is
asked to describe the stimuli and reflect the
internal
Feeling of the subject that are projected on to
the external stimuli . It is more acurate in
gathering psychological data .
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The most famous project is :-
The Rorschach Inkblot test :- subject are
presented with card that show design , which
actually inkblot rather than true picture or
drawing . One person may interpret that two
figures dancing , another person might
describe the same as two people .
The Themantic apperception test :- consist of
aset of picture and subject are asked to tell
story relating what they think is happing in the
picture .
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F) Vignettes
Are brief description of event or situation to
which respondent are asked to react . The
description may be fictitious or fact . The
information about respondents perception ,
opinion or knowledge about some
phenomena under study ( use open or close
ended guestion) . Are usually written ,
narrative description and used vidotape as
example .
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3 ) Observational methods:

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May be the only way to gather some kinds of
data . It can be gather such information
through all of the sense .
Determing behavior to be observed :-
1-The characteristic and condition of individual
Eg presence of edema .
2-Psychomotor skills such as ability of client
with diabetes to performed insulin injection

Determining behavior ( cont)
3-Activity as personal habits eg eating habits
4-Verbal communication as shift report .
5-Non vearbal communication as body language
6-Environmental condition as noise.
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Note:

Nurses are well qualified to conduct observation research
because they observe client in health care setting every day.

Observation procedures:
The research must determine how and when observation will
be made. The degree of structure of the observation and the
period for gathering data must b e considered.

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Types of observation
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A) Structured observations :- The researcher has
obtain knowledge about the phenomena of
interest , the tools is usually check list in
which the expected behavior have been
identified and indicate the frequency of
occurrence .
Method of recording it :-
i. Category system
ii. Checklist
iii. Rating scale .
Observational sampling:

A Event sampling:
Involves observation of an integral behavior or
events eg. Researcher were interested in
determine the ability of nursing student to:-
Perform catheterization procedures correctly.
Shift changes at nurses.
Cast removal of pediatric patient.

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B Time sampling:

Involve observation of event or behavior during
certain specified times.
Time frame systematically eg the periodic
observation of specific behaviors for 5 minutes
each one hour.
Random selected eg observation family's
behavior in intensive care unit waiting room.

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B) Unstructured observations:

Observer everything and record it with observer, it
useful to be used with qualitative research . mainly
for descriptive information" The research attempt to
describe events or behavior as they occur, with no
prior ideas of what will be seen. This requires a high
degree of concentration and attention by the
observer.

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Methods of recording unstructured observation:

I - Anecdotes :focus on the behaviors of interest by illustrating particular point.
II-log( field diary): is a daily record of event and conversation as it is occur.
III- Field notes: include dairy log but tend to be broader "more analytic and
interpretive than logs' Categorized according to purpose at the study.
IV- Methodological notes: are instruction about how subsequent observation
will be made "method of observation".
V - Theoretical notes ( analytical notes): Interpretation of attached meaning to
observation according to theory.
VI- Personal notes: are comments about the researcher's own feeling during
research process "Interpretation of the research".

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C)Semi structured observation:

It is the combination between structured and un
structured observation It provides the
quantitative and qualitative types of data that
have become important to nurse researchers.

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Advantages of observations
Provide the depth and Varity of information
To study the variable 0f interest.
Useful to describe adequately their own
behavior as:
i. People are embrassed to report their activity
eg aggressive or hostel action
ii. Emotional behavior eg grieving
iii. Young children, mentally ill , unconscious
patient.
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Disadvantages of observation
Ethical difficulties , in case of lack of consent
to be observed.
Reactivity of participant Hawthorne effect
Factor interfere with objectivity and enhance
biased as :-
i. Emotion , attitude and value of observer.
ii. Personal judgment, interest and comment.
iii. Hastly decision before adequate information.
iv. Reaction between observer and anticipant.
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4 ) Questionnaires:

Are used more frequently in nursing research than any other data
collection method have purpose of asking subjects to report data for
themselves.
Questionnaires should be:
Neat in appearance
Grammatically correct
Contain no typing or spelling error
Avoid crowded appearance.
Avoid too long questions "Adesirable length for a question is less than 20
words".
should be written in the respondents preferred language.
should be appropriate for the knowledge and reading level of the least
educated respondent.
State questions in an affirmative rather than negative manner.

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Types of question:

1 Demographic questions:
"gather data an the characteristic of sample"
data may be subjected to statistical analysis,
eg age, educational back ground and religion
2 Open ended question:
That allow the subject to respond in their own
words eg essay, fill in the blank and may be
used in combination with closed ended
questions.

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3) Attitude scale
A Close ended questions (likert scale)

Which offer respondents fixed alternatives from which to
choose.
It contain five or seven responses for each item, ranging from
strongly agree to strongly disagree.
As equal number of positively and negatively worded items
are presented.
Some researchers prefer to eliminate the "uncertain" category
and force respondent into some form of agreement or
disagreement with the items.
The respondents may select answers that are really not their
choice.

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B) Semantic differential scale
Asks subject to indicate their position or
attitude about some concept between tow
objectives that are present in relation to the
concept being measured .it used to evaluate a
setting , person , group , educational course, it
is easy than likert scale , eg evaluation of
clinical instructor .
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4 - contingency questions:

Are relevant for some respondents and most for
other e.g. a research might want to
determined if client has been satisfied with
the type of nursing care received during
previous hospitalization have you been
hospitalized before? NO ---------------------------
Yes how would you rate the care you
received during your last hospitalization
Poor faire good

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5 Filler questions:
Are items in which researcher has no direct interest but included
on a questionnaire to reduce the emphasis on the specific
purpose of other questions.

6 Cover letter (mailed letter):
The letter should be brief and contain the following information:
Identification of the researcher and any sponsoring a agency
or person.
Purpose of the research.
How participant was selected .
Reason of the respondent should answer the questionnaires.
Length of time to complete the questionnaires.

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Identification ( cont )
How data will be used or made public.
Deadline to return of questionnaires.
An offer to inform respondent of results of
study .
Contact phone number , address or both .
Personal signature of the researcher.
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Advantages of questions:

1 - Questionnaires are quick and generally inexpensive means
obtaining data from a lager number of respondents.
2 - Questionnaires are one of the easiest research instrument to
test for reliability and validity.
3 - The administration of questionnaires is less time consuming
than interviews or observational research.
4 - Data can be obtained from respondent in widespread
geographical areas.
5 - respondents can remain anonymous, so provide honest
answer.

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Disadvantages of questionnaires:

1 - Mailing at questionnaires may be costly.
2 - Response rate may be low.
3 - Respondent may provide socially acceptable answers.
4 - Respondent may fact to answer some of the items.
5 - There is no opportunity to clarify items that may be
misunderstood by respondent.
6 - Respondent may be not literate.
7 - Respondent may be not reprehensive of the population.

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Interview measure
In which the interviewer obtain responses from
a subject in a face to face encounter or
telephone call.
Types of interviews :-
a) Structured interview :-involve asking the
same guestion, in the same order, and in the
same manner of all respondent in a study ,
must try to remain objective during the
interview, and avoid unnecessary interaction
with respondents
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b) Un structured interview
(focused)
The interviewer is given a great deal of freedom
to direct the course of interview , like
conversation and topics are pursued by
interviewer, it conducted in naturalistic
setting. It most appropriate to exploratory or
qualitative research , produce more in depth
information on subjects belief and attitude
than other .
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c) Semi structured interview
Fall between the structured the unstructured ,
interviewer required to ask a certain number
of specific guestion, but additional allowed or
even encouraged, both closed and open
ended questions are included. Data are
obtained that can be compared across all
respondents in the study .
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Interview guidelines
Before the interview:-
The interviewer should introduce himself to
the participant .
Explain the purpose of the study .
Identify how the information will be used .
Identify how long the interview will be last.
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During the interview
The interviewer should ensure a comfortable
atmosphere , eg lying down, control
unnecessary noises.
Use language is clearly understood and
conversational tone .
Participant should be informed that there are
no right or wrong answer.
No pressure should be applied for answer.
Sensitive guestion should be left until the end
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After the interview
Ask participant if they have any
guestions,explanation.
Thank participant, should indicate how the
study participant may obtain the result.
Advantages :-
Responses can be obtained from a wide range
of subject , rate is high,in depth.
Non verbal behavior and verbal manner can
be observed .
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Disadvantages
Training programs are needed for interviewers
Interview are time consuming and expensive
Arrangement for interviews may be difficult to
make .
Subject may provide socially acceptable
responses.
Subject may be anxious because answers are
being recorded.
Subject may misinterpret by non verbal
behavior.
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