Plasticity

Class Hours: T-W-Th 8:00 am

Venue: Lecture Hall Complex (L9)

Nilesh Prakash Gurao

Assistant Professor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Kalyanpur, Kanpur 208016 UP, India

 Permanent deformation that cannot be recovered after load removal

Hookes law (linear relation between stress and strain) not valid
Beyond Hookes law to failure

Plastic behaviour

Tensile test to study plastic behaviour

Elastic properties may be of interest, but these are measured
ultrasonically much more accurately that by tension testing

 Change in dimensional and shape

loss of tolerance(s)

premature retirement of a structure or component from service

Design and analysis of engineering structures and components
Plasticity theory deals with yielding of materials under complex stress
states
Utility :

To decide whether or not a material will yield under a stress state

To determine the shape change that will occur if it does yield
Utilise tensile test data for predicting the work-hardening during
deformation under such complex stress states.
Provides basis for developing computer codes for predicting
Provides codes for designing forming dies

 Permanent deformation beyond a critical value of stress

Conditions for yielding under complex stress state

f (x, y, z, yz, zx, xy) = C, where C is a material constant.

f (1, 2, 3) = C for isotropic material
Most solid materials, it is reasonable to assume that yielding is
independent of the level of mean normal stress,
m = (1 + 2 + 3)/3 plastic deformation causes no volume change.
Elasticity is stretching bonds, plasticity is shearing planes of atoms by slip
and twinning With slip and twinning only the shear stresses are important.
With this simplification, the yield criteria must be of the form
f [(2 3), (3 1), (1 2)] = C.

Tresca maximum shear stress criterion

The simplest yield criterion is one first proposed by Tresca.

It states that yielding will occur when the largest shear stress reaches a critical
value.
The largest shear stress is
max = (max min)/2
the Tresca criterion can be expressed as
max min = C.
If the convention is maintained that 1 2 3, this can be written as
1 3 = C.
The constant C can be found by considering uniaxial tension.
In a tension test, 2 =3 = 0 and at yielding 1 = Y, where Y is the yield strength.
Substituting into Equation C = Y.
Therefore the Tresca criterion may be expressed as
1 3 = Y
For pure shear,
1=3 =k,
where k is the shear yield strength.
Substituting in Equation
k = Y/2,
so
1 3 = 2k = C.

Plastic on surface of yield locus

Elastic

Von Mises Criterion

Second invariant of deviatoric stress (distortion strain energy )reaches a critical
value
J2 =

k2,

for principal stress

1
( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 3 1 )2 k 2
6

1 0 , 2 3 0
1 2
2 0 k 2
6
0 3k

1
( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2
2

Generalized von mises or J2 Flow theory

1
2
2
0
( x y )2 ( y z )2 ( z x )2 6 xy
6 yz
6 zx2
2

Von Mises Criterion: Plane stress condition

Equation can be simplified if one of the principal
stresses is zero (plane-stress conditions). Substituting
3 = 0,
12 + 22 12 = Y2, which is an ellipse.
With further substitution of = 2/ 1,
1 = Y/(1 + 2)1/2.
Consider an isotropic material loaded so that the
principal
stresses coincide with the x, y, and z axes. Assuming
the von Mises yield criterion
Applies. We can now make a plot of y versus x
yield locus with z = 0.
The maximum ratio of 1/Y
corresponds to the minimum value
Let x =1, y =2, and z =0.
1 + 2.
Now =2/ 1. Figure show results from
Differentiating and setting to zero,
substituting several values of into Equation
d(1 + 2)/d = 1 + 2; = 1/2.
solving for
Substituting into equation ,
x/Y
and
y/Y =x/Y,
1/Y = [1 1/2 + (1/2)2]1/2
and then plotting.
= (4/3) = 1.155.

Graphical Representations

Tresca criterion

Von Mises criterion

Region within yield locus is elastic

Onset of plasticity at the yield locus
What happens beyond is unknown
Explained by Druckers postulate, flow rule and hardening behaviour

Comparison of experimental and empirical

multiaxial yield criteria.
(After Courtney, 1990. Reprinted with
permission from McGraw-Hill.)

15.5% difference between Tresca and von Mises

No difference in two criterion in uniaxial and biaxial tension and compression

Tresca is more conservative in shear

Yield surfaces in 3D

Centre line is <111> and hydrostatic stress

(1+ 2+ 3)/3 acts along it

Tresca and von Mises yield locus are ideally hexagonal prism and cylinder in 3D
Yield locus in 2D is actually a section of this prism or cylinder

Anisotropy of Yield surface

Hill Criterion

Druckers rule
Energy has to be expended for plastic deformation
Rate of energy dissipation is non-negative
The total plastic strain vector must be normal to the yield surface
ij d ijp 0
where d ijp is incremental strain vector

Yield locus is always convex

True stress true strain curve stress always increases with strain

Hardening rule
Expansion of yield locus with plastic deformation

Strain hardening

Isotropic
Kinematic (anisotropic)

Bauschinger effect

Tension-compression asymmetry

YS in compression < YS in tension

Rotational

Actual is combination of all the three

Isotropic

Kinematic

Rotational

Effective stress and strain

Need to compare different tests say tension, torsion, compression
Complex state of stress
Effective stress and strain for comparison
Different stress strain curves can be compared in terms of von Mises
stress-strain curves
You can then compare say torsion test with tensile test

Proportional Loading
Plastic strains are independent of strain path
Ideal condition
Real life

complicated stress history

Plastic stress-strain relationship is important to understand deformation behaviour

of materials
Relate stress and strain in increments
Relate stress to total strain

Incremental/Flow theories

Deformation/Total strain theory

The latter is easy but the former is more accurate

Both the theories coincide for proportional loading

 Ideal plastic solid where elastic strains are negligible

Constant volume in plasticity 11 22 33 0

d1 d 2 d 3

'1 '2 '3

Ratio of plastic strain increment to current deviatoric stress is constant

Elasto-plastic is more complicated

Levy-Mises criterion

Generalized theory of plasticity

Yield criterion whether material deforms plastically or not
Hardening rule
Flow rule

how material continues to deform

what path material follows during plastic deformation to achieve
new position according to hardening rule

Tension Test
Tensile properties

Materials selection for applications

Tensile properties

compare new materials or processes in R&D

With plasticity theory, tensile stressstrain curves can be used to predict a

materials behavior under forms of loading other than uniaxial tension, (von
Mises criterion or J2 flow theory)
Often the primary concern is strength
The level of stress that causes appreciable plastic deformation of a material
is called its yield stress.
The maximum tensile stress that a material carries is called its tensile
strength (or ultimate strength or ultimate tensile strength).
A materials ductility is also of interest. Ductility is a measure of how much
the material can deform before it fractures

Stress-strain curve

Elastic Limit and Yield Strength

True Elastic limit ~10-6

Hookes law is valid

Proportional limit as the first departure from linearity

Elastic limit as the stress that causes the first plastic deformation
The more accurate the strain measurement is, the lower is the stress at
which plastic deformation and nonlinearity can be detected
Offset yield strength
construct a straight line parallel to the initial
linear portion of the stressstrain curve, but offset from it by e = 0.002
(0.2%.)

Off-set Yield Strength

The yield strength is taken as the stress level at which this straight line
intersects the stressstrain curve
The rationale is that if the material had been loaded to this stress and then
unloaded, the unloading path would have been along this offset line, resulting
in a plastic strain of e = 0.002 (0.2%)
The advantage of this way of defining yielding is that it is easily reproduced

More Than one Yield Point: Upper and Lower

The stressstrain curves of some materials (e.g., low carbon steels and linear
polymers) have an initial maximum followed by a lower stress

After the initial maximum, at any given instant all of the deformation occurs within
a relatively small region of the specimen

Steels

Continued elongation occurs by propagation of the Luders band along the gauge
section, rather than by continued deformation within it. Only after the band has
traversed the entire gauge section does the stress rise again

Luders band

Upper and Lower Yield Point

In the case of linear polymers, the yield strength is usually defined as the initial
maximum stress.
For steels, the subsequent lower yield strength is used to describe yielding. The
initial maximum stress is too sensitive to specimen alignment to be useful. Even
so, the lower yield strength is sensitive to the strain rate.
ASTM standards should be followed. The stress level during Luders band
propagation fluctuates. Some laboratories report the minimum level as the yield
strength and other use the average level.

Repetition of serrations
Fe-C, Al-Mg

Dynamic strain aging

Tensile Strength
As long as the engineering stressstrain curve rises
uniform deformation along the length
Max stress before fracture (ductile material)
Localised deformation after max stress (Ultimate Tensile Strength)
Necking or localised deformation at UTS or TS
UTS = Fracture stress (brittle materials)

Very brittle materials (e.g., glass) fracture before they yield. Such materials
have tensile strengths, but no yield stresses

Stress strain curve for a strain hardening material

Figure 3.7. After a maximum on the stressstrain curve, deformation localizes to

form a neck.

Definition of Tensile Strength

Resilience and Toughness

Ability of absorb energy in the elastic range and release it when stress is
removed
Resilience
Ability to absorb energy in plastic range
Spider silk has high toughness
High carbon steel has high resilience
Resilience
Toughness

Toughness

Tensile specimens

True stress-True strain

True stress

P P A0

s(1 e)
A A0 A

A0 L0 AL
e

L L L0

L0
L0

L A0

1 e
L0
A

ln(1 e)

Where
s = engineering stress = P/A0
e = engineering strain

Power law
K n
0 K n
K ( 0 ) n

Necking
Onset of non-uniform deformation
Localised thinning of sample

Decrease in load bearing capacity of sample due to reduction in cross

sectional area = Increase in load bearing capacity of sample due to strain
hardening
Homogeneous deformation below this strain

 K n
d
Kn n 1
d
d
n
n n n 1
d

d
u n

Different type of stress-strain curve

Elastic
Brittle material like glass,
ceramics

Elasto- plastic heterogeneous

Yield point alloys like steel Fe-C

Elasto-plastic homogenous
Pure metals Cu, Al

for crystalline polymer

Structure breakdown
and re-orientation

Elasto- plastic heterogeneous

Alloys Al-Mg, twinning in Ag

Rubber, no load drop

complete reversibility

Super-plasticity
Very large elongation before failure
High homologous temperature

Relative term
ceramic
e metal

e
f
f
ceramic
e metal

e
f ,sup erplasticity
f ,sup erplasticity

Visco-plasticity
Time dependent permanent deformation
Creep
High homologous temperature
(T/Tm > 0.5)

Prasad and Chokshi, Acta Mater 58 (2010) 5724

Effect of strain rate and temperature

Stress as strain rate
Remember difference between constant
engineering strain rate (cross head velocity) and
constant true strain rate)

Yield stress as temperature

Strain rate and temperature effects decided by
micro-mechanisms of deformation
Well discuss after understanding dislocations

Different type of tests

Compression test

Forming behaviour

Most metal working processes are compressive in nature (rolling, forging, with
exception of wire drawing that is tensile)
H/D ratio important in compression
H/D= 1.5 optimum if >1.5

buckling, if <1.5

barelling

(Hot) Torsion test forming behaviour at large strain

Torsion is best as there is no instability due to necking, buckling or buldging

Hardness test on small samples has compression and hydrostatic stress
Hardness = 3*YS as a general rule
Testing paves way for processing

Compression and Torsion

Hardness

Processing

Original

Compression and tension

along diffraction plane

Shear

Remember to find the state of stress along the diffraction direction

Also keep in mind that in diffraction, you see the reciprocal space
Hydrostatic stress

3
1

3
v1 = v2

v1 > v2
1

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