Simata&Sustimata

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.
50 '

" ".
, , ,
, ,
, ,

, ,
.

.

.

, ,
.

1

.
.
.

.
.

.

. m xi (t) , i =
1, 2, ..., m p yj (t) , j = 1, 2, ..., p F

x1 (t)
x2 (t)
x (t) =
..
.
xm (t)
xi (t) , i = 1, 2, ..., m
y1 (t)
y2 (t)
y (t) = .
..
yp (t)
yi (t) , i = 1, 2, ..., p. t0 0,
( F ),
, t0 0 p
: yj (t0 ) = 0, j = 1, 2, ..., p. ,
x (t) y (t)
F
y (t) = (F x) (t)
(1.1)
yi (t) , i = 1, 2, ..., p
t xi (t)
t xi (t)
[t0 , t].

.
.
m = p = 1
.
y(t)
t x(t)
t, ,
t0
t.
.
.
.
x(t) y(t) ??.
(block diagram) .
x (t )
y (t )
x (t )
y (t )
(block diagram)
1.1
.
??.
p (t) t

v (t), ( ),
.
1
p (t )
v (t )
v (t )
t
1.2 ??
. i (t)
v (t) R , t,
. i (t)
v (t) . H

Zt
1
v (t)
i (t) = i1 (t) + i2 (t) ,
v (t) =
i1 ( ) d ,
i2 (t) =
(1.2)
C
R

?? C R
(
) " " .
i1 (t )
v (t )
i (t )
i1 (t )
i2 (t )
v (t )
i2 (t )

.
?? .

x(t )
y (t )
1

1
2. 1.5
.
1
y (t )
x (t )

(feedback)
. 1
2 2
1.
( ??)
+
1
-
(feedback).

(
?? ??)
.
" "
??. a (t)
1

t. ( ) a (t)
.
a (t) " " "" "" ""
u (t)
. ar (t)
( ) (reference input) e (t) = ar (t) a (t)
"" ar (t) a (t) , "
" "" e (t) ""
u (t) t1 t t1
e (t) 0 a (t) ar (t).
ar ( t )
ar ( t )
a (t )
e (t )
uto-pilot
u (t )
a (t )
u (t )
.
-

.

(..
, ,
, ) .
..
( ??).

/QQ[3b8](t)
r(t).
(t )
r (t )
t
r (t )
e(t )
(t )
(t )
, e (t) = r (t) (t) ""

r (t) 0,
e (t) /QQ[3b8] (t) .

,
,
,

.

.

.

. ..
.
,
, ,

1

()

.

(.. Wiener Kalman)
..
,
.

.

(feedback).

.

.
(
) (sensors)
,
(
??) , ,
" " -- ,
( ??)
.
.

( )
( )

( )
+
+
.

,
.

.

.
,

. ..
Fourier Laplace

.

10
1

.

AM FM,
.

,
.

.

. .. (1.2)
??.
.

,

.

.
.

.
.

.
, ,

.
. "-"
(input-output) ,
.
" " (state space models).

11
,
.
- .
1. -
- .
2.
3. Laplace /QQ[36]
.
4. Fourier .
5.

(time domain models). 2 3
(frequency domain
models). Fourier
Laplace.
R

.

( )
x (t) : R R t () .
1.3 v (t)
i (t)
.
.. x (t) v (t)
.

n x1 (t) , x2 (t) , ..., xn (t) n 1
12
1
x (t)
x (t) =
x1 (t)
x2 (t)
..
.
xn (t)
: RRn

.
(multidimensional signals)
1.4 ..
(x, y, t) (x, y) t.

(??) ( ??)
u(t)
1
u (t) .
r(t)
13
1.1 u (t) (unit step function)

u (t) = 1,
t0
u (t) = 0,
t<0
0 6= K R Ku (t) K t 0.
x (t) : RR, :
x (t) u (t) = x (t)
x (t) u (t) = 0
t 0
t < 0
( ??,??)
25
20
15
10
5
-4
-2
0 0
-5
x (t) = 10 + t2 sin .5t, t [5, 6]

25
20
15
10
5
-4
-2
0 0
v (t) = u (t) x (t) , t [5, 6]

1.2 r (t) ( 1.10) (unit ramp function)
(
0 t < 0
r (t) :=
t t 0
r (t) = tu (t)
14
1
0 6= K R Kr (t) () K
t 0 . r (t)
u (t):
Zt
r (t) =
u ( ) d
, t t = 0 r (t) ,

dr (t)
= u (t)
dt

x (t) t1 > 0 x (t t1 )
x (t) t t1
t1 < 0 x (t t1 ) x (t)
t t1 . .. x (t) = u (t) (
) t1 = 2 u (t t1 )
u (t) 2 t1 = 2 u (t t1 )
u (t) 2 .
u (t) ?? ??
u (t t1 ) t. .. t1 = 2 t = 0, u (t 2) = u (2) = 0,
t = 1, u (t 2) = u (1) = 0, t = 2, u (t 2) = u (0) = 1 ...
2
1.5
1
0.5
-1
0 0
u (t) , t [1, 5]
15
2
1.5
1
0.5
-1
0 0
u (t 2) , t [1, 5]
2
1.5
1
0.5
-4
-2
0 0
u (t + 2) , t [5, 5]

x (t) t1 x t
1 6=
+
+
x t1 t1 t1 t1 t1 .

+
t1 x t
1 = x t1 . x (t)
t x (t) .

(. ??)
2t + 1
(t) =
2t
+1
t < 2
2 t 0
0 t 2
t > 2
16
1
2
1.5
1
0.5
-2
0 0
-1
-0.5
= 1, t [2, 2]

t = 0.

t<
2
2
p (t) = 0
t , t
2
2
> 0 (??).
t t = 2 t = 2 .
( ??,??)
p (t) = u t +
u t
2
2
p (t) = 1
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-4
-2
0 0
u (t + 2) , t [5, 5]
17
0.5
-4
-2
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
u (t 2) , t [5, 5]
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-4
-2
0 0
p (t) = u (t + t1 ) u (t t1 ) t1 = 2
1.5 1 2
u(t).
y(t)
-1
1.
18
1
y(t)
-2
2.
1. "" ,
[0, 1), [1, 2) [2, 3):
1
3
5
y(t) = r(t)p1 (t ) + p1 (t ) + [1 r(t 2)]p1 (t )
2
2
2
,
T
T
PT (t) = u(t + ) u(t )
2
2
:
p1 (t 12 ) = u(t 12 + 12 ) u(t 12 12 ) = u(t) u(t 1)
p1 (t 32 ) = 1(t 32 + 12 ) 1(t 32 12 ) = 1(t 1) 1(t 2)
p1 (t 52 ) = 1(t 52 + 12 ) 1(t 52 12 ) = 1(t 2) 1(t 3)
:
y(t) = r(t)[1(t) 1(t 1)] + 1(t 1) 1(t 2) + [1 r(t 2)][1(t 2) 1(t 3)]
y(t) = t1(t) t1(t 1) + 1(t 1) 1(t 3) (t 2)1(t 2) + (t 2)1(t 3)

2. ,
"" [1, 2) [2, 5)
[5, +):
3
7
y(t) = 2r(t 1)p1 (t ) + [2 r(t 2)]p3 (t ) 1(t 5)
2
2
p1 (t 32 ) = 1(t 32 + 12 ) 1(t 32 12 ) = 1(t 1) 1(t 2)

p3 (t 72 ) = 1(t 72 + 32 ) 1(t 72 32 ) = 1(t 2) 1(t 5)
y(t) = 2r(t 1)[1(t 1) 1(t 2)] + [2 r(t 2)][1(t 2) 1(t 5)] 1(t 5)
19
y(t) = 2(t 1)1(t 1) 2(t 1)1(t 2)+

+ 2 1(t 2) 3 1(t 5) (t 2)1(t 2) + (t 2)1(t 5).
Dirac
Dirac1
"" (t).
(t) . (t)
" " "" (distribution) (
, ).
(t) `'.

{gn (t)} . {gn (t)} (t)
:
lim gn (t) = 0 t 6= 0
n
Z
lim
gn (t) dt = 1
n
n
1
2 |t| n
n = 1, 2, ...
gn (t) =
1
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (1902-1984).
. Bristol . ,
Bristol
. 1923
St John's College Cambridge.
, Erwin Schrdinger Werner Heisenberg
,
, . 1932 Lucasian Professor of Mathematics
Cambridge, o Sir Isaac Newton (2006)
Steven Hawking. o 1933 Dirac Schrdinger, Nobel .
,
.
20
g4(t)
2
g2(t)
1
g1(t)
1/2
-1
-1/2
-1/4
1/4
1/2
( . 2.11). (t) = limn gn (t) ,

t = 0.
t = 0. (t)
(t) x (t).
(t) x (t)
Z
Z
x (t) (t) dt = lim
x (t) gn (t) dt
(1.3)
n
(t) :
1. (t) :
(t) = 0,
t 6= 0
2. 6= 0
3. > 0
(t) =
1
(t)
||
(t) dt = 1
(1.4)
2 = 1 (t)
"" ,
(t) = (t)
(1.5)
(t) "" 1
t = 0 ??. t1 > 0 (t t1 )
(t) t1
t1 < 0 (t t1 ) (t)
t1
(t )
21
(t t1 )
t1
(t) t1 > 0 (t t1 )
:= t t1 = t1 t 1.5
(t t1 ) = ( ) = ( ) = (t1 t)
(1.6)
1.4
(
0 t t1 6= 0 t 6= t1
R t1 +
(t t1 ) =
(1.7)
(t t1 ) dt = 1, > 0
t1
1.7 t1 6= 0 6= t1 ( t1 ) = 0
x (t ) ( t1 ) = x (t t1 ) ( t1 )
( ??)
22
1
x ( )
x ( )
x (t )
=t
x (t )
x (t t1 )
( t1 )
= t1 = t

Z
Z
x (t ) ( t1 ) d = x (t t1 )
t1
t1 = 0
Z
H 1.9 t = 0
t1 +
x (t ) ( ) d = x (t)
??
( t1 ) d = x (t t1 )
(1.8)
(1.9)
x ( ) ( ) d = x (0)
x ( ) ( ) d = x (0)
0 6= K R
K (t) = 0,
Z
K ( ) d
= K,
t 6= 0
(1.10)
R, > 0
u (t)

(t):
Zt
u (t) =
( ) d
t t = 0
23
(1.11)
' , t < 0,
(t) = 0
Zt
t < 0
( ) d = 0
(1.12)

Rt
( ) d = 1 t > 0 > 0
Rt
( ) d =
( ) d = 1 = u (t)
1.9
Z
x ( ) (t ) d = x (t)
(1.13)
. 1.13
Z
Z
Z
1.6
1.7
x ( ) (t ) d =
x ( ) ( t) d =
= x (t)
t+
t+
x (t) ( t) d
1.7
( t) d = x (t) 1 = x (t)
( . 1.20).
x ( )
( t ) = (t )
x (t )
0
t
. 1.20
24

x (t) = Ceat
C a .

. C a x (t)
. a < 0 x (t)
?? a > 0 1.22. a = 0
x (t) = C.
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
1.22: x (t) = et , t [0.5, 2.5]

12
10
8
6
4
2
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
1.23: x (t) = et , t [0.5, 2.5]

25
a . .. a = j 0 , 0 R.
x (t) = ej0 t
.
T > 0, x (t) = x (t + T ) t. T
x (t) = ej0 t .
ej0 t = ej0 (t+T ) = ej0 t ej0 T

ej0 T = 1
0 = 0, x (t) = 1 T . 0 6= 0
T0 x (t), (
ej0 T = 1),
2
T0 =
| 0 |
ej0 t ej0 t .
??
x (t) = A cos ( 0 t + )
0 (angular frequency)
.
0.5
0 0
-5
10
15
-0.5
-1
. 2.24: x (t) = sin (t + 7) T0 =
2
0
= 1, t [5, 17]
rad rad/ sec.

0 = 2f0 f0
Herz (Hz).
26
1
T0 = 20 .
.

. Euler
ej0 t = cos 0 t + j sin 0 t

A
A
A cos ( 0 t + ) = ej ejo t + ej ejo t
2
2
Ceat , C, a ,
,
.
C : C = |C| ej a
: a = r + j 0
Ceat
= |C| ej e(r+j0 )t = |C| ert ej(0 t+)
= |C| ert cos ( 0 t + ) + j |C| ert sin ( 0 t + )
= |C| ert cos ( 0 t + ) + j |C| ert cos 0 t +

2
r = 0
. r > 0

ert ( 1.24) r < 0
ert . ( ??).
2
1
-4
-2
0 0
-1
-2
. 1.25: x (t) = e.2t sin (5t + 7) , t [5, 5]
27
2
1
-4
-2
0 0
-1
-2
. ??: x (t) = e.2t sin (5t + 7) , t [5, 5]

x (t) t1
x (t1 + h) x (t1 )
lim
h0
h
h (h > 0) (h < 0) .

, x (t) : dx(t)
dt
t=t1
t1
dx (t)
x (t1 + h) x (t1 )
= lim
dt t=t1 h0
h
x (t)
x (t) t1 .
( ) x (t)
t1 x (t) t1 .

. .

. , (
),
x (t) t1 . x (t)
t t = t1 .
x (t)

dx (t) +
(t t1 )
+ x t1 x t
1
dt
28
1
dx(t)
x (t) t t = t1 ,
dt
(t t1 ) t = t1 .
x (t) t1
(t t1 ) t = t1

x t+
x (t) t1 .
1 x t1
1.6 x (t) = Ku (t) u (t)
0 6= K R. Ku (t)
t t = 0. Ku (t)

K u 0+ u 0 (t 0) = K (1 0) (t) = K (t)
K = 1,
u (t) (t) .
1.7 (.
??):
2t + 1
0t<1
1
1t2
(1.14)
x (t) =
t
+
3
2
0
3<t
x(t)
3
2t + 1
2
1
1
-t+3
t
0
. 1.31: .
x (t) t t = 0, 1, 2, 3
2 [u (t) u (t 1)] [u (t 2) u (t 3)]
x (t) (. ??)

2 [u (t) u (t 1)] [u (t 2) u (t 3)] + x 0+ x 0 (t)

+ x 1+ x 1 (t 1)
= 2 [u (t) u (t 1)] [u (t 2) u (t 3)] + (t) (t 1)
29
3
2
(t)
t
1
-1
-2 (t-1)
. 1.32: . ??

. ..
t1 t < t 2
x1 (t) ,
x (t) =
x2 (t) ,
t2 t < t 3
x3 (t)
t t3
x1 (t) , x2 (t) , x3 (t) t.

. ..,
x (t) = x1 (t) [u (t t1 ) u (t t2 )] + x2 (t) [u (t t2 ) u (t t3 )]
+x3 (t) u (t t3 )
= x1 (t) u (t t1 ) + [x2 (t) x1 (t)] u (t t2 ) + [x3 (t) x2 (t)] u (t t3 ) ,
t t1
(1.15)
1.15 x (t)
x (t) = f1 (t) u (t t1 ) + f2 (t) u (t t2 ) + f3 (t) u (t t3 )

f1 (t) = x1 (t)
f2 (t) = x2 (t) x1 (t)
f3 (t) = x3 (t) x2 (t)
(1.16)
30
1
, x (t) 1.16.
f1 (t) ,
t1 t < t 2
x (t) =
f1 (t) + f2 (t)
t2 t < t3
f1 (t) + f2 (t) + f3 (t)

t t3
x (t) 1.17
(1.17)
x (t) = f1 (t) [u (t t1 ) u (t t2 )] + [f1 (t) + f2 (t)] [u (t t2 ) u (t t3 )]

+ [f1 (t) + f2 (t) + f3 (t)] u (t t3 ) ,
t t1
1.8 1.7
x (t) = (2t + 1) [u (t) u (t 1)] + (1) [u (t 1) u (t 2)]
+ (t + 3) [u (t 2) u (t 3)]
x (t) 1.16,
x (t) = (2t + 1) u (t) 2tu (t 1) + (t + 2) u (t 2) + (t 3) u (t 3)

F
x (t) y (t)
y (t) = (F x) (t) .
F x (t) x (t) y (t) .
.
x (t) : (, ) R t
. x (t) kxk,
`'
. kxk
kxk 0, kxk = 0 x (t) = 0 t
(1.18)
kaxk = |a| kxk a R
(1.19)
kx1 + x2 k kx1 k + kx2 k

.
1-
Z
kxk1 :=
|x (t)| dt
(1.20)
(1.21)

2-
kxk2 :=
-
1/2
|x (t)|2 dt
kxk := sup |x (t)|
31
(1.22)
(1.23)
p-:
Z
1/p
p
|x (t)| dt
, p1
kxkp :=
(1.24)
p- Lp ,

n
o
Lp := x (t) : kxkp <
t 0,
n
o
L+
=
x
(t)
:
x
(t)
=
0,
t
<
0,
kxk
<
p
p
L+
p Lp
n
o
L
p := x (t) : x (t) = 0, t 0, kxkp <
1.24 p-: kxkp x (t)

R
p
|x (t)| dt < . x (t) Lp , 1
p < ,
lim |x (t)| = 0

Lp .

E x (t)
Z +
E :=
|x (t)|2 dt
P x (t)
Z
1 T /2
|x (t)|2 dt
P := lim
T T T /2
A 0 < E < , E x (t) (
P = 0) x (t) . E = ,
0 < P < , P x (t) ,
x (t) .
1.9 Y x (t) = (1 et ) u (t), u (t)
32
1
. x (t) kxk = 1. (. ??) (
u (t) ) .
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0
-2
4
t
x (t) = (1 et ) u (t) , t [2, 8]

1.10
Z T
Z
2
u (t) dt = lim
E = lim
T
12 dt = lim T =
T
Z T
Z T
1
1
1
1
2
u (t) dt = lim
12 dt = lim
T =
P = lim
T 2T T
T 2T 0
T 2T
2
u (t) .

E = lim

t2 u (t) dt = lim
T
(T )
=
T 3
t2 dt = lim
Z T
Z T
3
1
1
1 (T )
t2 u (t)2 dt = lim
t2 dt = lim
=
T 2T T
T 2T 0
T 2T
3

.
P = lim
x (t) , Rn
( Cn )
x1 (t)
x2 (t)
: (, ) Rn ( (, ) Cn )
x (t) =
..
xn (t)
x (t)
33
|x (t)| x (t) 1.21 ??

kx (t)k Rn Cn .
1-
Z
kxk1 :=
2-
kxk2 :=
-
kx (t)k dt
1/2
kx (t)k2 dt
(1.25)
(1.26)
kxk := sup kx (t)k
(1.27)
(1.28)
p-
kxkp :=
1/p
kx (t)k dt
, p>1
p
kx (t)k R C :
1/2
kx (t)k := |x1 (t)|2 + |x2 (t)|2 + . . . + |xn (t)|2

n
(1.29)
xi (t) x (t):
kx (t)k := max (|x1 (t)| , |x2 (t)| , . . . , |xn (t)|)
(1.30)
, 1.18.

t
t = kT , T > 0 k ,
. k = . . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . . x (t)
(discrete time signal) t
( 3).
.

. r (t) = t, t = 0, T, 2T, 3T, . . . r (t) = 0,
t = T, 2T, . . . .
.
1
1
0.5
x(kT)
34
0.5
1.5
2
kT
3. x (kT ) = exp (0.5kT ) sin (3kT ) T = 0.5

k k = 2 k = 6.

(sampling) .

T .

T ,
t = kT
k = . . . 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .
.
1.34.
x (t) t T > 0
x (t) S{x (t)}

(
x (t)
t = kT
S {x (t)} = x (kT ) :=
, k = ...2, 1, 0, 1, 2, ... (1.31)
t 6= kT
T > 0 sec .
f0 := T1 sec
Hertz.
2
0 =
(1.32)
T
35
rad/ sec.

T = 1
t = k k = . . . 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . . .
x (t) t
x (k)
x(t)
x(kT)

.

1.11 x (t) = u (t), u (t)

S{u (t)} u (t)
(
u (t)
t = kT
S {u (t)} = u (kT ) =
, k = ...2, 1, 0, 1, 2, ... (1.33)
t 6= kT
??
u (t) .
0.8
u(k)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
3
u (kT ) T = 1
?? u (kT t1 )
1

u (kT ) t1 = 2T T = 1.
u(k2)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
3
u (kT 2T ) T = 1
?? u (kT + t1 ) t1 = 2T T = 1.
0.8
u(k+2)
36
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
5
u (kT + 2T ) T = 1
1.12 y (t) = e.2t u (t), u (t)

S{y (t)} y (t)
(. ??)
S {y (t)} = y (kT ) = e.2kT u (kT )
(1.34)
37
0.8
x(k)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
4
10
x (kT ) = [exp(0.2kT )] u (kT ) T = 1 /QQ[3ba]

k = 10.
1.13
Z t
w ( ) d
x (t) =
0

w (t)
??
w(t)
w(2T)
w(3T)
w((k-1)T)
w(T)
w(0)
w(kT)
2T
3T
(k-1)T
kT
38
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
5
kT
4. /QQ[394](kT ) T = 1
x (kT ) = T w (0) + T w (T ) + T w (2T ) + ... + T w [(k 1)T ]

=
k1
X
T w (nT ) = kT
n=0
k1
X
(1.35)
w (nT )
n=0
S{x (t)} x (t).

(t) t = 0
.
(unit pulse)
(kT )
/QQ[394] (kT ) = 1
k=0
/QQ[394] (kT ) = 0
k 6= 0
4 . 5
(kT + t1 )
(kT ) t1 = 2T
T = 1. 6
(kT t1 ) (kT )
t1 = 2T T = 1.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
5
kT
5. /QQ[394](kT + 2T ) T = 1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
5
0
kT
6. /QQ[394](kT 2T ) T = 1
39
40
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
5
7.
p(kT ) = u(kT + N T ) u(kT N T ) N = 1, T = 1

. x (kT )
x (kT ) (kT ) = x (0) (kT )
(1.36)
(kT )
u (kT )
(kT ) = u (kT ) u (kT T )
u (kT ) =
m=0
(kT mT )
(1.37)
(1.38)

N . ( 7)
(discrete time rectangular pulse)
p (t) = 1
p (t) = 0
t = N T, N T + T, . . . , N T T, N T . . .
t

p (kT ) = u (kT + N T ) u (kT N T )
41

{a1 , a2 , . . . , aN } N .
(digital signal)
{a1 , a2 , . . . , aN } . t = kT , x (t) = ai i
1 i N .
. '
..
t = kT k = . . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(binary signal) 1 0,
x (t) = 1 x (t) = 0 t = kT k = . . . 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .

.

x (t) , v (t). x (t) v (t)
, (x v) (t)
Z =
(x v) (t) =
x ( ) v (t ) d
(1.39)
=
1.39 .
x (t) , v (t).
. x (t) = 0
v (t) = 0 t < 0, x ( ) = 0 < 0 v (t ) = 0 t < 0
( t < ). 1.39
= 0 = t,

(x y) (t) = 0,
t<0
Z =t
(x y) (t) =
x ( ) v (t ) d ,
=0
(1.40)
t0
(1.41)
1.40 t > 0 x (t) v (t)

t > 0, x (t) v (t) L+
1
Z t
Z t
|x ( )| d <
|v ( )| d <
t > 0
(1.42)
0
1.42
. 1.39 1.40
x ( ) v (t ). x ( ) x (t)
42
1
t . v ( ) v ( )
= 0 v (t1 ) t1
v ( ) ( ??,??,??).
25
20
15
10
5
-4
0 0
-2
-5
v ( ) = 10 + 2 sin .5 , [5, 6]
25
20
15
10
5
-2
0 0
v ( t1 ) t1 = 2, [2, 8]
25
20
15
10
5
-4
-2
0 0
v (t1 ) t1 = 2, [4, 6]
1.14 x (t) = eat u (t) v (t) = ebt u (t) u (t)

a, b R. x (t) = 0 v (t) = 0

t < 0, (x v) (t) 1.40
Z =t
(x v) (t) =
ea u ( ) e[b(t )] u (t ) d ,
t0
=0
(1.43)
[0, t] u ( ) = 1 u (t ) = 1 ( 1.47)
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-4
0 0
-2
: u (t ) t = 2 i [5, 5]
??
(x v) (t) =
=t
ea e[b(t )] d
=0
= ebt
a = b
(x v) (t) = ebt
a 6= b
=t
e[(ba) ] d ,
t0
(1) d = ebt t,
t0
=0
=t
=0
1 n [(ba) ] o =t
e
ba
=0
o
ebt n [(ba)t]
1
e
ba
eat ebt
,
t0
ba
(x v) (t) = ebt
=
=
43
44
1
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.4
0 0
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Sx. 1.48: x ( ) = e3 u ( ) , [0.5, 2]

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.4
0 0
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Sx. 1.49: v ( ) = e5 u ( ) , [0.5, 2]

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
00
0.2
0.4
Sx. 1.50: v ( )
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.4
-0.2
0 0
0.2
0.4
Sx. 1.51: v (t ) = e5(t ) u (t ) , t = 0.2, [2, 2]
45
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.4
-0.2
0 0
0.2
0.4
Sx. 1.52: x ( ) u( )v (t ) u (t ) , t = 0.2, [0.4, .5]

x (t) , v (t) , w (t)
:
(x v) w = x (v w)
(x v) (t) = (v x) (t)
x ( ) v (t ) d =
v ( ) x (t ) d
(1.44)
1.44 t = t .
x (v + w) = x v + x w
(1.45)

xc (t) := x (t c) , vc (t) := v (t c)
(x v) (t c) = (xc v) (t) = (x vc ) (t)
(1.46)
46
1
x (t c) x (t) c
( , c < 0,
c > 0), (x v) c :
(x v) (t c) x (t c) x (t)
v (t) x (t) v (t c) v (t).
1.46 .

x (t) :=
dx(t)
dt
d
(x v) (t) = x v (t)
dt
. :
d
(x v) (t) =
dt
(1.47)
Z
d
d
v ( ) x (t ) d
(v x) (t) =
dt
dt
Z
Z
d
=
v ( )
v ( ) x (t ) d
x (t ) d =
dt
=
v x (t) = x v (t)
x(1) (t) :=
x ( ) d v (1) (t) :=
v ( ) d

Z t
(1)
(x v)
(t) : =
(x v) ( ) d
(1.48)
=
x(1) v (t) = x v (1) (t)

x (t)
(t) :
Z =
(x ) (t) = ( x) (t) =
( ) x (t ) d
(1.49)
=
( ) = 0 =
6 0, ( ) x (t ) = ( ) x (t)
1.49
Z =
Z =
(x ) (t) =
( ) x (t) d = x (t)
( ) d = x (t)
=
(x ) (t) =
x ( ) (t ) d = x (t)
47
(1.50)
?? x (t)
(t) x (t) .
(t)
.

t1 (t) := (t t1 ) ,
t1 R
t1
. x (t) ?? 1.46,
(x t1 ) (t) = (xt1 ) (t) = xt1 (t) = x (t t1 )
(1.51)
, x (t) t1
(t t1 ) (t) x (t) t1
: x (t t1 )
Z
x (t ) ( t1 ) d = x (t t1 )
(1.52)
( . 1.53).
48
x()
x(-)
x(t)
x(-t)
-t
x(t-)
(-t1)
x(t-t1)
t1 t
Sx. 1.53
(1.52) t1 = 0
Z
x (t ) ( ) d = x (t)
, , ( (1.44),
Z
x ( ) (t ) d = x (t)
(1.50).
1.15
0t<1
1,
x (t) =
1, 1 t < 2
0
t
v (t) ( 1.54)
(
1, 0 t < 1
v (t) =
0 t
x( )
49
v(- )
-1
-1
Sx. 1.54: Oi synarthseiw x ( ) kai v ( )
x( )
x( )v(t- )
v(t- )
1
1
1
-1
-1
t-1
-1
Sx. 1.55: Grafikh parstash tvn x ( ),v (t ) kai toy ginomnoy x ( ) v (t ) gia t [0, 1]
x(t)
x(t)v(t- )
v(t- )
1
1
1
-1
1
t-1
t
-1
t-1
-1
-1
x ( ) v (t ) ( ??) 0 t 1

Z
t
(x v) (t) =
(1) d = t
50
x ( ) v (t ) ( ??) 1 t 2

Z 1
Z t
(x v) (t) =
(1) d +
(1) d
t1
= 1 (t 1) + (1) (t 1) = 2t + 3
x(t)
x(t)v(t- )
v(t- )
1
1
1
t-1
t-1
-1
-1
x ( ) v (t ) ( ??) 2 t 3

Z 2
(x v) (t) =
(1) d
t1
= (1) [2 (t 1)]
= t 3,
2t3
t 3 x ( ) v (t )
(x v) (t) = 0 t 3
1.58.
51
-2t+3
t
1
-1
t-3
Sx. 1.58: Grafikh parstash thw (x v) (t)

(x v) (t) = t [u (t) u (t 1)] + (2t + 3) [u (t 1) u (t 2)]
+ (t 3) [u (t 2) u (t 3)]
= tu (t) + (3t + 3) u (t 1) + (3t 6) u (t 2)
(t 3) u (t 3)

x (kT ) , v (kT ) . x (kT ) v (kT )
(x v) (kT )
X
(x v) (kT ) =
x (iT ) v (kT iT )
(1.53)
i=
x (kT ) = 0 v (kT ) = 0 k < 0 x (iT ) = 0 i < 0 v (kT iT ) =

0 kT iT < 0 kT < iT k < i
52
1.53
i=
(1.54)
x (iT ) v (kT iT )
= ... + x (2T ) v (kT + 2T ) + x (T ) v (kT + T ) + x (0) v (kT )

+x (T ) v (kT T ) + x (2T ) v (kT 2T ) + ...
= x (0) v (kT ) + x (T ) v (kT T ) + x (2T ) v (kT 2T ) + ...
=
k
X
i=0
x (iT ) v (kT iT )
k .
1.53 1.54 x (kT )
v (kT ) k
i. v (kT iT )
x (iT ) v (kT iT ) . v (kT iT )
kT = 0 kT
v (iT ) . v (iT ) v (iT )
kT = 0 v (kT iT ) kT
v (iT ) . k > 0 v (kT iT )
kT v (iT ) .
v (kT ) v (kT iT ) v (kT ) k
k 1.
1.16 x (kT ) = ak u (kT ) , v (kT ) = bk u (kT ) a, b R

u (kT ) : u (kT ) = 0 k < 0
u (kT ) = 1 k = 0, 1, 2, ... x (kT ) = 0, v (kT ) = 0 k < 0
x (kT ) v (kT ) 1.54
k
k
X
X
(x v) (kT ) =
x (iT ) v (kT iT ) =
ai u (iT ) bki u (kT iT ) , k = 0, 1, 2, ...
i=0
i=0
u (iT ) = 1 u (kT iT ) = 1 0 i k
k
k
X
X
ai bki = bk
ai bi ,
(x v) (kT ) =
i=0
k = 0, 1, 2, ...
i=0
a = b
k
X
i=0
ai bi =
k i
X
a
i=0
k
X
i=0
1i = 1 + |11 + 12 {z
+ ... + 1k} = 1 + k
(x v) (kT ) = bk (1 + k) = ak (1 + k) ,
k = 0, 1, 2, ...
a 6= b
k i
X
a
53
k+1
1 (a/b)
(1.55)
b
1 (a/b)
i=0
( 1.55 1 (a/b))
"
#
k+1
bk+1 ak+1
k 1 (a/b)
(x v) (kT ) = b
=
k = 0, 1, 2, ...
1 (a/b)
ba
=

x (kT ) , v (kT ) , w (kT )
x (v w) = (x v) w
(x v) (kT ) = (v x) (kT )
(1.56)
i=
i=
v (iT ) x (kT iT )
(1.57)
1.57 i := k i i = k i 1.53
X
X

x kT iT v iT =
i=
i=
v iT x kT iT
=
i=
X
i=
v (iT ) x (kT iT )

x (v w) = x v + x w
(1.58)
54
x (kT ) , v (kT )
xq (kT ) := x (kT qT ) , vq (kT ) := v (kT qT )
q q > 0, (q < 0) , xq (kT ) vq (kT )

() x (kT ) v (kT ) qT
.
(x v) (kT qT ) = (xq v) (kT ) = (x vq ) (kT )
1.59, 1.53
X
(x v) (kT qT ) =
x (iT ) v (kT qT iT )
(1.59)
(1.60)
i=
vq (kT ) ,
v (kT qT iT ) = vq (kT iT )
(1.61)
1.61 ??,
X
(x v) (kT qT ) =
x (iT ) vq (kT iT ) = (x vq ) (kT )
i=
1.59. 1.59
.
(kT )

(kT ) = 1
k=0
(kT ) = 0
k 6= 0
x (kT )
(x ) (kT ) = x (kT )
(1.62)
x (kT )
(kT ) x (kT ) . (kT )
.
1.62
(x ) (kT ) =
i=
x (iT ) (kT iT )
(1.63)
(kT iT ) = 0 kT iT 6= 0 k 6= i (kT iT ) = 1
55
kT iT = 0 k = i 1.63
X
x (iT ) (kT iT )
i=
= ... + x (2T ) (kT + 2T ) + x (T ) (kT + T )

+x (0) (kT ) + x (T ) (kT T ) + x (2T ) (kT 2T ) +
... + x (kT ) (0) + x [(k + 1) T ] (kT (k + 1) T ) + ...
= x (kT ) (0) = x (kT )

(kT qT )
t = qT
q ,
q (kT ) := (kT qT )
qT.
x (kT )
X
(x q ) (kT ) =
x (iT ) (kT qT iT ) = x (kT qT )
(1.64)
i=
1.64 x (kT )
(kT qT ) qT
x (kT ) qT
q > 0 ( q < 0).

1,
1.1.
/
2.1 x1 (t) , x2 (t) , . . . , xm (t) m
y1 (t) , y2 (t) , . . . , yp (t)
p .
m ' p,
.
x1(t)
x2(t)
.
.
.
xm(t)
y1(t)
y2(t)
.
.
.
yp(t)
Sx. 2.1: Polymetablht ssthma

m = p = 1
(single-input, single output system). m > 1 p > 1,
(multivariable system). x1 (t) , x2 (t) , . . . , xm (t)
y1 (t) , y2 (t) , . . . , yp (t)
t, t, xi (t) yi (t)
.
.
, , ..
. , ,
. ,
58
, (sensors), ..
v (t) t
,
.
t ,
(continuous-time system) .
t t = kT
(discrete-time system).
.
-
.
t0

t0 .
.. , ...,

... t0
.
2 . t0
, xi (t)
t > t0 yi (t)
t > t0 .

t0
x (t) x (t) = 0 t < t0 .
y (t)
y (t) = (F x) (t)
t > t0
(2.1)
F x (t)
y (t) . F x (t) t > t0
y (t). y (t) 2.1

2
H nnoia thw `katstashw' enw systhmatow ua oriste sto keflaio 7.
59
x (t) .
F , , . -
x (t) y (t).
y (t1 ) t1 > t0
x (t) , t [t0 , t1 ] x
x (t1 ) t1 . -
x x (t)
t. -
y (t) = (F x) (t)

y (t) = F (x (t))
- 2.1

, ..
-
(identification problem) .
F
.
F
.
-
2.2.
60
ic(t)
i(t) = x(t)
iR(t)
R
vc(t) = y(t)
C
Sx. 2.2: Kklvma RC

x (t) i (t) y (t)
vc (t) C. Kirchhoff
i (t) = ic (t) + iR (t)
(2.2)
ic (t) C iR (t)
R.
dy (t)
ic (t) = C
(2.3)
dt
1
iR (t) = y (t)
(2.4)
R
2.3 2.4 2.2 :
dy (t)
1
C
(2.5)
+ y (t) = x (t)
dt
R
.. 2.5 /
. F
.. 2.5 x (t)
t t0.
x (t) = 0 t t0. 2.5
y (t) = y (t0 ) ,
t t0
(2.6)
y (t0 ) t0 .
x (t) t t0.
1
2.5 C1 e( RC t)
1
1
1
1
t) dy (t)
(
RC
e
(2.7)
+
y (t) = e( RC t) x (t)
dt
RC
C
i
1 1
d h 1 t
e RC y (t) = e RC t x (t)
dt
C

dv (t)
(2.8)
= q (t)
dt
61
v (t) = e RC t y (t)
(2.9)
1 1
q (t) = e RC t x (t)
C
2.8
Z t
v (t) = v (t0 ) +
q ( ) d ,
t0
(2.10)
t t0.
(2.11)
2.9 2.10 2.11,

Z t
1
1
1 1
e RC t y (t) = e RC t0 y (t0 ) +
t t0.
(2.12)
e RC x ( ) d ,
C
t0

Z t
1
1 1 (t )
y (t) = e RC (tt0 ) y (t0 ) +
x ( ) d ,
t t0.
e RC
C
t0
RC t0 y (t0 ) = 0,

Z t
1 1 (t )
y (t) =
x ( ) d ,
t t0.
(2.13)
e RC
C
t0
2.13 F / RC
Z t
1 1 (t )
y (t) = (F x) (t) =
x ( ) d ,
t t0.
(2.14)
e RC
C
t0
2.13 y (t) t
x ( ) t0 t. t

t0 t.
2.13
x (t) . .. t0 = 0
x (t) u (t), 2.13
Z t
h 1
i =t
1 1 (t )
y (t) =
d = R e RC (t )
(2.15)
e RC
=0
0 C
h
i
1
= R 1 e RC t ,
t t0.
y (t)
(step responce) (. 2.3).
62
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0
Sx. 2.3: Apkrish se bhmatikh esodo kyklvmatow RC tan R = C = 1.
Sx. 2.4
2.4
x (t).
y (t) t
y (0) = 0 x (t)
t.
Newton
dy (t)
d2 y (t)
=M
dt
dt2
kf dy(t)

dt
dy(t)
x (t) dt
kf . y (t) x (t)
:
d2 y (t)
dy (t)
M
+ kf
(2.16)
= x (t)
dt2
dt
M . RC
x (t) kf
63
- F
- 2.16.
' y (t) x (t) = 0 t t0 . y (t0 )
t0 y (t0 )
, t t0 x (t) = 0 , ( 2.16)
k k
l
f
M
(tt0 )
y (t) = y (t0 ) +
y (t0 ) 1 e M
(2.17)
,
t t0
kf
2.17 y (t0 ) = 0, y (t) = y (t0 )

t t0 . ,
' (x (t) = 0 t t0 ), t t0
y (t0 ).
y (t0 ) 6= 0, 2.17 t ,

M
y () = y (t0 ) +
y (t0 )
(2.18)
kf

,
, .

2.16

.
y (t) x (t) 6= 0 t t0
y (t0 ) = 0, y (t) = 0.
v (t) :=
dy(t)
dt
t, 2.16
M
2.19
v (t) =
t
t0
dv (t)
+ kf v (t) = x (t)
dt
k k
1
e
M
f
M
l
(t )
y (t) = y (t0 ) +
x ( ) d ,
(2.19)
t t0
(2.20)
t0
v () d
(2.21)
64
y (t0 ) = 0, 2.20 2.21

)
Z t (Z
k
l
f
1 k
M ( )
y (t) =
x ( ) d d
e
t0
t0 M
(2.22)
u (t) , 2.22
Z t Z t
k
l
f
1 k
M ( )
y (t) =
u ( ) x ( ) d d
e
t0
t0 M
Z t k
Z t
f
1 kf
=
e M u ( ) d x ( ) d
eM
t0 M
t0
u ( ) = 0 < u ( ) = 1 ,
Z t k
Z t
f
1 kf
y (t) =
e M d x ( ) d
eM
t0 M
Z t
kf
1 kf kf t
M
M
M
y (t) =
e
e
e
x ( ) d
t0 kf
Z t
k k
l
f
1
M (t )
y (t) =
(2.23)
1e
x ( ) d ,
t t0
t0 kf
2.23
x (t) t0 (
y (t0 ) = 0, y (t0 ) = 0). 2.23 F -

.
t0 = 0 x (t) = u (t) 2.23
Z t
k k
l
f
1
M (t )
y (t) =
1e
d
0 kf
k
l =t
f
1
M k
(t )
=
e M
kf
kf
=0
1
M kf t
M
=
+
e M
t
,
t0
kf
kf
kf
lim y (t) = ( 2.5).
t
(2.24)
65
10
8
6
4
2
0 0
Sx. 2.5: Bhmatikh apkrish aytokinhtoy me M = 1 kai kf = 0.1

2.24 (t) x (t)
u (t)
t0 ( y (t0 ) = 0, y (t0 ) = 0)
kf
dy (t)
1
(t) =
1e M t ,
t0
=
dt
kf
lim (t) = k1f ,
t
x (t)
u (t) k1f (. 2.6).
Sx. 2.6: Grafikh parstash thw taxthtaw (t) =
1
kf
h
kf i
1 e M t gia M = 1, kf = .1

L M
2.7.
66
L
x(t)
(t)
Mgsin (t)
Sx. 2.7: Apl ekremw.

x (t) M
,
M g sin (t)
. y (t) (t)
.
-
:
d2 (t)
M L2
+ M gL sin (t) = Lx (t)
(2.25)
dt2
g . sin (t)
2.25 .
2.25
y (t) x (t) . | (t)| (t)
sin (t) ' (t) 2.25

d2 (t)
M L2
+ M gL (t) = Lx (t)
(2.26)
dt2

. T = 1 , y (kT ) = y (k)
k x (k) k .
k k = 0, 1, 2, ...
y (0) .
x (k) , x (k) = c. y (1)
67
1
I
y (1) = y (0) + y (0) x (1)
12
I . ..
10I = 0.1.
y (2) 2
I
y (2) = y (1) + y (1) x (2)
12

I
y (k + 1) = y (k) + y (k) x (k + 1) , k = 0, 1, 2, ...
12
I
y (k + 1) 1 +
(2.27)
y (k) = x (k + 1) , k = 0, 1, 2, ...
12
I
1 + 12 y (k) 2.27 k + 1.
2.27 k = 0,
I
y (1) = 1 +
(2.28)
y (0) x (1)
12
k = 1,
I
y (2) = 1 +
(2.29)
y (1) x (2)
12
k = 2,
I
y (3) = 1 +
(2.30)
y (2) x (3)
12
2.28 2.29
I
y (2) = y (1) + y (1) x (2)
(2.31)
12
I
I
I
= y (0) + y (0) x (1) +
y (0) + y (0) x (1) x (2)
12
12
12
!
2
I
I
I
y (0) x (1) x (1) x (2)
=
y (0) + 2 y (0) +
12
12
12
I
I
=
1+
y (0) 1 +
x (1) x (2)
12
12
2.29 2.30
3
2
I
I
I
y (3) = 1 +
y (0) 1 +
x (1) 1 +
x (2) x (3) (2.32)
12
12
12
2.31 2.32 y (k) k 1
y (0) x (k)
68
k
ki
k
X
I
I
y (k) = 1 +
y (0)
x (i) ,
1+
12
12
i=1
k = 0, 1, 2, ...
(2.33)
2.33 x (k) ,
y (k) k . ,
x (k) = 0 k 1,
k
I
y (k) = 1 +
y (0) , k = 0, 1, 2, ...
12
, y (k) k , 1 + I/12 > 1 I > 0.
- .
2.33
t0 = k0 = 0 y (0) = 0. y (0) = 0 2.33
ki
k
X
I
y (k) =
x (i) , k = 0, 1, 2, ...
(2.34)
1+
12
i=1
- F
y (k) x (k) ,
2.34
ki
k
X
I
y (k) = (F x) (k) =
x (i) , k = 0, 1, 2, ...
1+
12
i=1
, - F
F y (k) x (k)
y (0) = 0. , F
.

.
.
.
-
y (t) = (F x) (t)
(Causality)
(2.35)
69
2.1 (2.35) (causal)

t0 , x (t) y (t0 )
t0 x (t) t0 .
2.1
-:
y (t) = (F x) (t) = x (t + 1)
(2.36)
2.36 y (t) t
x (t + 1) x (t) t + 1.
2.36
x (t) sec
2.8, x (t) = u (t) u (t 1) . 2.36
y (t) x (t) x (t + 1):
y (t) = x (t + 1) = u (t + 1) u (t + 1 1) = u (t + 1) u (t)
u (t) u (t 1)
1 2.9.
,
. y (t) 2.36
x (t).
1.5
0.5
-1
-0.5
0 0
0.5
1
t
1.5
Sx. 2.8: Aitiath esodow x (t) = u (t) u (t 1)
70
2
2
1.5
0.5
-2
-1.5
-1
t
-0.5
00
0.5
Sx. 2.9: Mh aitiath jodow y (t) = x (t + 1) = u (t + 1) u (t)
2.1
. t,
, ,
. ,
. .. s
. .. y (s) = (F x) (s) -
x (s)
x (s) = 0 s 0, (
) y (s) s 0.
2.2 -
y (t) = (F x) (t) = x (t 1)
(2.37)
y (t) t
x (t 1) x (t) t 1 .
2.10, 2.11.
2.11 1 .
1 .
- 2.37
(ideal time delay system).
71
Sx. 2.10: Aitiath esodow x (t) = u (t) u (t 1)

2
1.5
0.5
0 0
0.5
1.5
t
2.5
Sx. 2.11: Aitiath jodow y (t) = x (t 1) = u (t 1) u (t 2)
2.3 RC 2.1.
t0 = 0, 2.13 -
Z t
1 1 (t )
y (t) =
x ( ) d ,
t0
(2.38)
e RC
C
0
x (t) = 0 t < t1 t1 > 0. x ( ) = 0
< t1 2.38 t < t1 . y (t) = 0
t < t1 , RC .
2.2 y (t) = (F x) (t)

y (t0 ) t = t0 x (t1 )
t0 .
72
- :
y (t) = F (x (t))
2.4 y (t) = Kx (t), K R. t0 , y (t0 ) =

Kx (t0 ) , y (t0 ) x (t0 )
t0 . .
2.3 y (t) = (F x) (t)

y (t0 ) t = t0 x (t)
t t = t0 .
2.5 RC -
2.38. 2.38 y (t)
t x ( ) 0 t. RC
.
i : y (i) (t) :=
i
x(t)
x(i) (t) := d dt
i .
di y(t)
dti ,
2.4 y (t) = (F x) (t)

(finite dimensional) n,
y (n) (t) n y (t) y (i) (t) x(i) (t)
0 i n 1. n- y (n) (t) y (t)
i x(i) (t) x (t) i n.

n m y (n) (t)
y (n) (t) = f y (t) , y (1) (t) , . . . , y (n1) (t) , x (t) , x(1) (t) , . . . , x(m) (t) , t
(2.39)
f y (i) (t) , x(i) (t) t.

n 2.39 .

(infinite dimensional)
73
, n n-
y (n) (t) y (t) 2.39.
2.6
- 2.25. 2.25 2.39
M gL
L
d2 (t)
=
(2.40)
sin (t) + x (t)
dt2
I
I
2.40 2.39
. n = 2.
2.7

dy (t)
(2.41)
= ay (t 1) = x (t)
dt
0 6= a R. y (t 1) 2.41,
2.41 2.39 n.
.
2.41
(time delay system).
. 2.41
(delay differential equation).
.
-
y (kT ) = (F x) (kT ), k .
(recursive)
n, m kT nT -
y (kT + nT ) y (kT )
y (kT + nT ) = f (y (kT ) , y (kT + T ) , . . . , y (kT + nT T ) ,
x (kT ) , x (kT + T ) , . . . , x (kT + mT ) , kT )
(2.42)
(2.43)
n .

(non-recursive).
2.8 2.4.
74
I
y (k + 1) 1 +
(2.44)
y (k) = x (k + 1) , k = 0, 1, 2, ...
12
2.44 2.42 n = 1, m = 1 T = 1
1.
(Linearity)
2.5 2.35
x (t) , v (t)
[F (x + v)] (t) = (F x) (t) + (F v) (t)
(2.45)
y (t) =
[F (x + v)] (t) x (t) + v (t)
(F x) (t) x (t)
(F v) (t) v (t).
2.6 2.35 a C
x (t)
[F (ax)] (t) = a (F x) (t)
(2.46)
2.46 y (t) =
[F (ax)] (t) ax (t) a
(F x) (t) x (t) .
2.7 y (t) = (F x) (t)
.
2.45 2.46
[F (ax + bv)] (t) = a (F x) (t) + b (F v) (t)

(2.47)
x (t) , v (t) a, b R
2.2 2.47 F .
75

- F .
.

. ,
.

.

.
2.9 2.12.
i(t)
R1
x(t)
R2
y(t)
Sx. 2.12: Kklvma me idanikh dodo.

y (t) R2 .
i (t) > 0
i (t) 0. - y (t) = (F x) (t)
R2
y (t) =
x (t) ,
x (t) > 0
(2.48)
R1 + R2
y (t) = 0,
x (t) 0
x (t) .
x (t) u (t).
R2
y (t) =
u (t)
(2.49)
R1 + R2
1,
u (t), 2.48 y (t) = 0 t 0.
76
2
2
1 R1R+R
u (t). .
2
.
.
2.10 -
y (t) = (F x) (t) = x2 (t)
(2.50)
. a R x (t) , 2.50
ax (t) a2 x2 (t) . a
x (t) ax2 (t) 6= a2 x2 (t).
.
2.11 - y (t) =
Kx (t), K ( 2.13).
( )
x (t) Kx (t).
4
2
-4
-2
0 0
-2
-4
Sx. 2.13: Sxsh eisdoy-ejdoy se idanik grammik enisxyth.

-
2.14 y (t) = Kx (t) |x (t)| M ,
0<M R
77
y(t)
-
x(t)
Sx. 2.14: Sxsh eisdoy-ejdoy se mh idanik enysxhth

x (t) > M Kx (t)
x (t) > M .
2.12 :
Z t
y (t) = (F x) (t) =
x ( ) h (t ) d ,
t t0
(2.51)
t0
h (t) h (t) = 0 t < 0.

h (t)
1
2.51. h (t) = (1/C) e RC t t 0
RC 2.1
kf
1
h (t) =
1e M t ,
t0
kf
2.2.
ax (t)+bv (t) a, b
x (t) , v (t) . 2.51
Z t
y (t) =
h (t ) [ax ( ) + bv ( )] d
t0
= a
t0
h (t ) x ( ) d + b
t0
h (t ) v ( ) d
y (t) = a (F x) (t) + b (F v) (t)

2.51 .
RC
2.51, .
78
2
.

- -
y (n) (t) = f y (t) , y (1) (t) , . . . , y (n1) (t) , x (t) , x(1) (t) , . . . , x(m) (t) , t
(2.52)
2.52 2.52
.
a0 (t) , a1 (t) , . . . , an1 (t) , b0 (t) , b1 (t) , . . . , bm (t)
f y (t) , y (1) (t) , . . . , y (n1) (t) , x (t) , x(1) (t) , . . . , x(m) (t) , t
=
n1
X
ai (t) y (i) (t) +
i=0
m1
X
bi (t) x(i) (t)
i=0
2.52
n y (n) (t) y (t)
n1
m
X
X
y (n) (t) =
ai (t) y (i) (t) +
bi (t) x(i) (t)
(2.53)
i=0
i=0
2.13 - 2.40
(M gL/I) sin (t) .
.

-
y (kT + nT ) = f (y (kT ) , y (kT + T ) , . . . , y (kT + nT T ) , x (kT ) ,(2.54)
x (kT + T ) , . . . , x (kT + mT ) , kT )
2.54 2.54
. 2.54

n1
m
X
X
y (kT + nT ) =
ai (k) y (kT + iT ) +
bi (k) x (kT + iT )
(2.55)
i=0
i=0
2.14 2.4
- 2.27 2.27
2.55 .
79

1, t1
x (t) , x (t t1 ) t1
x (t) t1 > 0 t1 < 0.
-:
y (t) = (F x) (t)
(2.56)
2.8 2.56 (time invariant)

x (t) t1 3 ,
x (t t1 ), y (t t1 ) 2.56
, x (t t1 ) t1
y (t) x (t), :
y (t t1 ) = (F x) (t)
(2.57)
x = x (t t1 ).
2.57 t1
x (t) y (t), ( t1 > 0
t1 < 0) x (t t1 ) x (t)
y (t t1 ) y (t) t1 .
x (t t1 )
x (t) ( y (t))
y (t t1 ) y (t).

.
2.15 -
y (t) = (F x) (t) = x (t 1)
(2.58)
x (t) u (t) .
2.58 y (t) x (t) = u (t)
y (t) = (F u) (t) = u (t 1)
2.58 x (t) = u (t 2) (
2 )
y (t) = (F u (t 2)) (t) = u (t 3)
3
t1 R an to ssthma einai synexow xrnoy ka t1 = kT , poy k akraiow, kai 0 < T R an to
ssthma einai diakrito xrnoy.
80
2.58 y (t) = (F u) (t) = u (t 1)

x (t) = u (t) t1 = 2 sec
y (t 2) = u (t 1 2) = u (t 3)
y (t 2) = u (t 3) = (F u (t 2)) (t) = u (t 3)
2.58 .
2.16 -
y (t) = (F x) (t) = tx (t)
(2.59)
' . x (t)
u (t) . 2.59 y (t)
x (t) = u (t)
(
t t 0
y (t) = tu (t) =: r (t) =
(2.60)
0 t < 0
r (t) (. 2.15).
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-2
0 0
Sx. 2.15: jodow toy systhmatow y (t) = tx (t) tan h esodow x (t) isote me thn monadiaa bhma
synrthsh u (t) .
2.59 x (t) = u (t 2)
(
t t 2
y (t) = (F u (t 2)) (t) = tu (t 2) =
0 t < 2
(. 2.16)
(2.61)
81
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
-4
0 0
-2
Sx. 2.16: jodow toy systhmatow y (t) = tx (t) tan h esodow x (t) isote me thn kauisterimnh k
t1 = 2 sec monadiaa bhmatikh synrthsh u (t 2))
2.60 t1 = 2 sec y (t) = (F u) (t) =
tu (t) =: r (t) x (t) = u (t) t1 = 2 sec
(
t 2 t 2
y (t 2) = r (t 2) = (t 2) u (t 2) =
(2.62)
0 t < 2
(. 2.17)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
-4
-2
0 0
Sx. 2.17: H xronikh metuesh kata t1 = 2 sec thw ejdoy y (t) = tu (t) =: r (t) toy systhmatow se es
x (t) = u (t) .
y (t 2) = (t 2) u (t 2) 6= tu (t 2)
2.59 .
, .

-
2.53.
82
2.53 (
t),
ai (t) = ai R bi (t) = bi R i t R
- RC
,
.
,
- 2.55,

,
ai (k) = ai R bi (k) = bi R i k N
2.17 2.44
I
k
. I k ,
-
, .

,

-:
y (t) = (F x) (t)
(2.63)
y (t)
x (t) 4 .
F
.

F .
4
To ssthma poy orzetai apo thn 2.63 mpore na enai ssthma peirhw distashw.
83
2.9 h (t)
2.63 , x (t)
(t) t = 0
.
2.63
h (t) := (F ) (t)
h (t)

.

.
. h (t)
. ..
-

n1
m
dn y (t) X di y (t) X di x (t)
+
ai
=
bi
(2.64)
dtn
dti
dti
i=0
i=0
h (t) 2.64 x (t) = (t)
y (i) (0 ) = 0 i = 0, 1.2, . . . , n 1.
3
m
P
H (s) :=
sn
bi si
i=0
n1
P
ai
,
si
mn
i=0
5
x (t) y (t)
2.64 h (t)
Laplace H (s)
h (t) = L1 {H (s)}
5
Blpe paraktv Keflaio 3
84
2
2.18
2.2, -
:
1
d2 y (t) kf dy (t)
=
x (t)
+
(2.65)
2
dt
M dt
M
y (t) t x (t)
t. h (t)
t y (t) t
(t) t = 0
t = 0 .
.
t = 0 y (0 ) y (0 )
t = 0 . h (t)
2.65 x (t) = (t)
.
y (0 ) = 0, y (0 ) = 0. 2.65 x (t)

Z t
k k
l
f
1
(t )
y (t) =
(2.66)
1e M
x ( ) d ,
t0
0 kf
2.66 x (t) = (t) ?? 1,
h (t)
k k l
f
1
t
y (t) h (t) =
(2.67)
1e M
,
t0
kf
h (t) ,
-
(2.63). , (t) = 0 t < 0,
h (t) = 0 t < 0.
, ,

(t)
h (t).
(t ) h (t ) > 0
h (t ) = (F (t )) (t) ,
(t) := (t )
h (t ) = (F ) (t) ,
> 0
> 0
(2.68)
(2.69)

1 (t)
,
85
x (t)
(2.70)
x (t) = (x ) (t) = ( x) (t)
, x (t) :
Z =
Z =
x (t) =
x ( ) (t ) d =
( ) x (t ) d
=
(2.71)
,
- (2.63)
x (t). (2.71) (2.63)
Z =+
Z =+
y (t) = (F x) (t) = F
x ( ) (t ) d (t) =
(F x ( ) (t )) (t) d
=
(2.72)
F (2.72)
Z =+
Z =
y (t) = (F x) (t) =
(F x ( ) (t )) (t) d =
x ( ) (F (t )) (2.73)
(t) d
=
=
Z =
=
x ( ) h (t ) d
=
(2.68). (2.73)
y (t) ,
, x (t)

h (t) x (t).
, x (t) = 0 t < 0 ,
, h (t) = 0 t < 0 h (t ) = 0 t < 0
( t < ) (2.73)
= 0 = t (2.73)
y (t) =
=t
=0
x ( ) h (t ) d
(2.74)
2.1 ,
,
x (t). x (t) = 0, t < 0. y (t) t 0
h (t)
x (t) :
Z t
y (t) = (x h) (t) =
x ( ) h (t ) d ,
t0
(2.75)
0
86
2.75
Z t
y (t) = (h x) (t) =
h ( ) x (t ) d ,
t0
(2.76)
0
- :
(F x) (t) = (x h) (t) = (h x) (t) ,
t0
(2.77)
2.19 0 < c R
h (t) = u (t) u (t c)
(2.78)
u (t) u (t c)
u (t) c u (t) u (t c)
c .
2.78
c
2.18.
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
-4
-2
Sx. 2.18
t = 0
x (t)
(t), y (t) u (t) u (t c) .
2.18,
q (t) t = 0
q (t) = 0 c t < 0
q (t)
x (t) = (t)
Z t
q (t) =
( ) d = u (t)
t t = 0
2.18 ;
y (t) = u (t) u (t c)
, , 2.75
2.1, y (t) (
x (t) ( x (t) = 0 t < 0))

y (t) = (x h) (t) =
87
x ( ) h (t ) d
(2.79)
h (t) = 1 0 t < c h (t) = 0 t,

(
1,
0t <c
h (t ) =
0,
t
0 t < c t < c t
t > t c,
(
1,
tc <t
h (t ) =
(2.80)
0,

2.80, 2.79
Z t
y (t) =
x ( ) d
(2.81)
tc
2.81 y (t)
2.18 x ( )
c . 2.18
.

- 2.63.
2.10 g (t)
x (t) u (t)
t = 0 .
- F
(F u) (t) = g (t)
2.75,
g (t) = (h u) (t)
(2.82)
2.82
,
g (t) =
(2.83)
(h u) (t) = h u (t) = h u (t)
dt
u (t) = (t) h (t) = (h ) (t) , 2.83
g (t) = h (t)
(2.84)
88
/QQ[3a0 2.2] h (t)

g (t)
2.84,
Z t
g (t) =
h ( ) d

(2.85)
/QQ[3a0 2.3] g (t)

.
x (t) (x (t) = 0, t < 0).

2.84 2.75,
Z t
y (t) =
h ( ) x (t ) d = g x (t)
(2.86)
0
: g x (t) = g x (t),
2.86
y (t) = g x (t)
(2.87)
2.86 2.87
.

- .

.

.

.
89

-

n1
m
+
a
=
bi
(2.88)
i
dtn
dti
dti
i=0
i=0
2.88, x (t) t 0 y (t)
t > 0 x (t)
t = 0 ( ).
t0 = 0. a0 , a1 , . . . , an1 b0 , b1 , . . . , bm
.
3
2.88 ,
n. ,
2.88
m n.
.
2.11 f1 (t) , f2 (t) , ..., fn (t)
t t1 t t2
c1 , c2 , ..., cn C, ci 6= 0 i

c1 f1 (t) + c2 f2 (t) + . . . + cn fn (t) = 0
(2.89)
f1 (t) , f2 (t) , ..., fn (t)
t t1 t t2
c1 , c2 , ..., cn 2.89
c1 = c2 = ... = cn = 0.
2.20 f1 (t) = t, f2 (t) = t2

t c1 t + c2 t2 = 0 t (c1 + c2 t) = 0 c1 /c2 = t
c1 t + c2 t2 = 0.
90
y (t) 2.88 t > 0

1. x (t) 0 t +
2. n
y (0) , y (1) (0) , . . . , y (n1) (0)
(2.90)
y (i) (t) :=
2.88
t = 0 . n

y 0 , y (1) 0 , . . . , y (n1) 0
(2.91)
m x (t) k (t)
() ,
2.88 t = 0 .
2.88
dm x (t)
bm
dtm
k (t)(i) , t = 0
y (t) n 1

t = 0.
di y(t)
dti .

2.88. x (t) = 0, t 0,
..
n1
dn y (t) X di y (t)
+
ai
=0
(2.92)
dtn
dti
i=0
.. i :=
n
n1
+ an1
di
dti .
+ . . . + a1 + a0
.. 2.92
n + an1 n1 + . . . + a1 + a0 = 0
(2.93)
.. 2.92
. i , i = 1, 2, ..., n
.
91
2.12 y (t) .. 2.92

ya (t).
..
2.92 n
y1 (t) , y2 (t) , . . . yn (t) 0 t +.
y1 (t) , y2 (t) , . . . yn (t) 2.92
. .. 2.92
ya (t)
y1 (t) , y2 (t) , . . . yn (t) ..
2.92,
ya (t) = c1 y1 (t) + c2 y2 (t) + . . . + cn yn (t)
c1 , c2 , ..., cn n

y (0) , y (1) (0) , . . . , y (n1) (0).
y1 (t) , y2 (t) , . . . yn (t) i C
2.93 .. 2.92.
1 ( )
2.93 n

1 , 2 , . . . , n R
n + an1 n1 + . . . + a1 + a0
= ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( n )
2.92
y1 (t) = e1 t , y2 (t) = e2 t , ..., yn (t) = en t
2.92
y (t) = c1 e1 t + c2 e2 t + . . . + cn en t
2.21 ..
dy (t)
d2 y (t)
+3
+ 2y (t) = 0
2
dt
dt

2 + 3 + 2 = 0

1 = 1 2 = 2
..
y (t) = c1 et + c2 e2t
92
y (0) = 0 y (0) = 1
y (0) = c1 e0 + c2 e0 = c1 + c2 = 0
y (0) = c1 et 2c2 e2t t=0 = c1 2c2 = 1

c1 = 1, c2 = 1

ya (t) = et e2t
2 ( )
2.93 r
1 , 2 , . . . , r R
i ki 1 k1 +k2 +. . .+kr = n
n + an1 n1 + . . . + a1 + a0
= ( 1 )
k1
k2
( 2 )
kr
( r )
2.92
y1 (t) = c11 + c12 t + . . . + c1k1 tk1 1 e1 t
y2 (t) = c21 + c22 t + . . . + c2k2 tk2 1 e2 t

..
.
yr (t) = cr1 + cr2 t + . . . + crkr tkr 1 er t
cij , i = 1, 2, ..., r j = k1 , k2 , . . . , kr 2.92

ya (t) = y1 (t) + y2 (t) + . . . + yr (t)
2.22 .. n = 4
d3 y (t)
d2 y (t)
dy (t)
d4 y (t)
+8
+ 24
+ 32
+ 16y (t) = 0
4
3
dt
dt
dt2
dt

4 + 83 + 242 + 32 + 16
4
= ( + 2) = 0
r = 4
1 = 2 k1 = 4
..
ya (t) = c1 + c2 t + c3 t2 + c3 t3 e2t
93
2.23 .. n = 4
d4 y (t)
d3 y (t)
d2 y (t)
dy (t)
5
+
6
+4
8y (t) = 0
4
3
2
dt
dt
dt
dt

4 53 + 62 + 4 8
3
= ( 2) ( + 1) = 0
r = 2
1 = 2 , k1 = 3
2 = 1 , k2 = 1
.
y1 (t) = c11 + c12 t + c13 t2 e2t

y2 (t) = c21 et
..
ya (t) = c11 + c12 t + c13 t2 e2t + c21 et

3 ( )
3.1 2.93
1 = 1 + j 1 , 1 = 1 j 1 1 , 1 R, 1
6= 0 1 1

n + an1 n1 + . . . + a1 + a0
= ( 1 j 1 ) ( 1 + j 1 ) dn2 n2 + dn3 n3 + . . . + d1 s + d0 = 0
di R, i = 0, 1, ..., n 2.
1 1
y1 (t) = e1 t (c1 sin 1 t + c2 cos 1 t)
3.2 2.93
1 = 1 + j 1 , 1 = 1 j 1 1 , 1 R, 1 6= 0
1 1 k

n + an1 n1 + . . . + a1 + a0
= ( 1 j 1 )k ( 1 + j 1 )k dn2k n2k + . . . + d1 s + d0 = 0
di R, i = 0, 1, ..., n 2k.
1 1
y1 (t) = e1 t c11 + c12 t + . . . + c1k tk1 sin 1 t+e1 t c11 + c12 t + . . . + c1k tk1 cos 1 t
94
2
2.24 .. n = 2
d2 y (t)
+ y (t) = 0
dt2

2 + 1 = ( j) ( + j) = 0
r = 2
1 = j, 1 = j
..
y (t) = e0t (c1 sin 1t + c2 cos 1t) = c1 sin t + c2 cos t
2.25 .. n = 4 :
d4 y (t) d2 y (t)
+
20y (t) = 0
dt4
dt2

4 + 2 20
= ( 2) ( + 2) 2 + 5 = 0

p
1 = 2 , 2 = 2 ,3 = j 5,3 = j 5
..
y (t) = c1 e2t + c2 e2t + c3 sin 5t + c4 cos 5t

2.88.
2.13 y (t) 2.88

y (0) , y (1) (0) , . . . , y (n1) (0)
yb (t).
yb (t) () x (t)

Z t
yb (t) =
x ( ) h (t ) d
0
h (t) .
95
ya (t) yb (t)
y (t) 2.88
y (t) = ya (t) + yb (t)
2.88 .

2.14
y (t) t .
2.15 y (t)
t .
n = 1 m = 0 2.88
dy (t)
(2.94)
+ ay (t) = bx (t)
dt
a, b R. 2.94
RC 2.1. y (t) 2.94
y (0) x (t)
Z t
y (t) = eat y (0) +
e[a(t )] bx ( ) d , t 0
(2.95)
| {z }
0
{z
}
|

|
{z
t = 0
Z t

y (t) = eat y 0 +
e[a(t )] bx ( ) d , t 0
1
a = RC
b =
RC 2.1.
0
1
C
(2.96)
2.95 2.96
n = 1 m = 1 2.88
dy (t)
dx (t)
(2.97)
+ ay (t) = b1
+ b0 x (t)
dt
dt
2.97 dx(t)
dt
2.94.
96
2.97 x (t) .
q (t) := y (t) b1 x (t)
(2.98)
y (t) = q (t) + b1 x (t)
(2.99)
2.98
dq (t)
dx (t)
dy (t)
=
b1
dt
dt
dt
2.97 dy(t)
dt
dq (t)
dx (t)
dx (t)
= ay (t) + b1
+ b0 x (t) b1
dt
dt
dt
= ay (t) + b0 x (t)
2.99 y (t) 2.100,
dq (t)
= a [q (t) + b1 x (t)] + b0 x (t)
dt
= aq (t) + (b0 ab1 ) x (t)
(2.100)
(2.101)
2.101 2.94, 2.95

Z t
q (t) = eat q (0) +
e[a(t )] (b0 ab1 ) x ( ) d , t 0
(2.102)
0
, 2.102 q (t) 2.99

q (0) := y (0) b1 x (0) ,
Z t
y (t) = eat [y (0) b1 x (0)] +
e[a(t )] (b0 ab1 ) x ( ) d + b1 x (t), t 0
{z
}
|
|0
{z
}

(2.103)
2.103 .
x (t) k (t),
t = 0 ,
Z t

y (t) = eat y 0 b1 x 0 +
e[a(t )] (b0 ab1 ) x ( ) d +b1 x (t) , t 0
0
x (0 ) = 0,
Z t

y (t) = eat y 0 +
e[a(t )] (b0 ab1 ) x ( ) d + b1 x (t),
| {z }
0
{z
}
|

t 0 (2.104)
x (t) u (t),
x (t) (t), x (0 ) = u (0 ) = 0
97
2.104. 2.104 x (t) = u (t) ,

Z t

y (t) = eat y 0 +
e[a(t )] (b0 ab1 ) d + b1
(2.105)
0
b0
= eat y 0 +
b1 1 eat + b1
a
| {z }
|
{z
}

b0
b0
+ b1 eat + , t 0
=
y 0
a
a
2.105 b1
y (t) 0 0+ .
b1 dx(t)
dt 2.97
.

Laplace
2.95 n- . 3.

(realization)
(simulation)
.
y (t)
x (t)
.

2.19
x(t)
y(t)
??.
Sx. 2.19: Oloklhrvthw

x (t) 6= 0 t t0
t0 y (t0 )
98
t0 y (t)
Z t
y (t) = y (t0 ) +
x ( ) d ,
t0
t t0
(2.106)
2.106 -
:
dy (t)
= x (t)
(2.107)
dt
t0 = 0 y (t0 ) = 0,
-
Z t
y (t) = (F x) (t) =
x ( ) d , t t0
t0

.
. x (t) + v (t) x (t) v (t) x (t) v (t)
2.20 2.21
x (t) k 2.22.

.
x(t)
x(t)+v(t)
v(t)
Sx.2.20: Leitoyrgik digramma prsueshw shmtvn

x(t)
x(t)-v(t)
v(t)
Sx. 2.21: Leitoyrgik digramma afareshw shmtvn.
x(t)
y(t)=kx(t)
k
Sx. 2.22: Leitoyrgik digramma pollaplasiasto.
99

-
n-
2.88 m n
n ,
.
..
n1
m
+
a
=
bi
i
dtn
dti
dti
i=0
i=0
i :=
di
dti
D () : = n + an1 n1 + ... + a1 + a0
N () : = bm m + ... + b1 + b0
D () y (t) = N () x (t)
(t)
D () (t) = x (t)
(2.108)
(2.109)
y (t) = N () (t)
(2.110)
.. 2.109 2.110 .. 2.108
2.110
(2.109) N ()
y (t) = N () (t) =
x (t)
D ()
2.108. 2.109
n (t) = x (t) an1 n1 (t) ... a1 (t) a0 (t)
2.110
y (t) = bm m (t) + +... + b1 (t) + b0 (t)
.. 2.109 2.110 .. 2.108

-
:
dy (t)
dx (t)
(2.111)
+ ay (t) = b1
+ b0 x (t)
dt
dt
q (t) ?? , 2.107,
100
dq(t)
dt ,
:
ay (t) + b0 x (t)
dq (t)
= ay (t) + b0 x (t)
dt
y (t) ,
(2.112)
(2.113)
y (t) = q (t) + b1 x (t)
2.113 2.112,
dy (t)
dx (t)
(2.114)
= ay (t) + b0 x (t) + b1
dt
dt
2.114 2.23
2.111 .
2.23
(simulation) 2.111.
b1x(t)
b1
b0x(t)
x(t)
dq(t)/dt
q(t)
b0
+
_
ay(t)
a
Sx. 2.23: Prosomovsh systhmatow prvthw tjevw

-
:
d2 y (t)
dy (t)
d2 x (t)
dx (t)
+ a1
+ b1
(2.115)
+ a0 y (t) = b2
+ b0 x (t)
2
dt
dt
dt2
dt
2.20
(simulation) 2.115.

. q1 (t)
y(t)
101
q2 (t) ,
2.24,
dq1 (t)
(2.116)
= a0 y (t) + b0 x (t)
dt
dq2 (t)
= a1 y (t) + q1 (t) + b1 x (t)
dt
(2.117)
y (t) = q2 (t) + b2 x (t)

(2.118)
2.118 2.117,
dy (t)
dx (t)
(2.119)
= a1 y (t) + q1 (t) + b1 x (t) + b2
dt
dt
2.119 2.116,
d2 y (t)
dy (t)
dx (t)
d2 x (t)
=
a
y
(t)
+
b
x
(t)
+
b
a
+
b
1
0
0
1
2
dt2
dt
dt
dt2

2.24 2.115 .
b2
b1
x(t)
dq1 (t)/dt
b0
+
q1
dq2(t)/dt
q2(t)
_
a1
a2
Sx. 2.24
2.26 ,
-
dy
d2 y (t)
M
+ kf
(2.120)
= x (t)
dt2
dt
kf
1
2.115 a1 = M , a0 = 0, b2 = 0, b1 = 0, b0 = M
.
2.25.
y(t)
102
dy(t)/dt
x(t)
1/M
kf/M
Sx 2.25: Leitoyrgik digramma aytokinhtoy

.
h (kT )

.
.

x (kT ) y (kT )

y (kT ) = (F x) (kT )
(2.121)
F - .
, .
h (kT ) x (kT )
(kT )
kT = 0.
h (kT ) = (F ) (kT )
(2.122)
h (kT )
. 2.1
.
2.4 ,
,
103
x (kT ). x (kT ) = 0, k < 0. y (kT )

k = 0, 1, 2, ...
h (kT ) x (kT ) :
y (kT ) = (x h) (kT ) ,
k0
- :
(F x) (kT ) = (x h) (kT ) ,
t0
. 1.63 1 :
X
1.63
y (kT ) = (F x) (kT ) = F
x (iT ) (kT iT ) (kT )
=
i=
i=
X
2.122
(iT ) x (kT iT ) (kT ) =
i=
1.56
h (iT ) x (kT iT ) =
i=
i=
(2.123)
(F ) (iT ) x (kT iT )
x (iT ) h (kT iT ) = (x h)
(2.124)
(kT )

-
Z
y (t) = (h x) (t) =
h ( ) x (t ) d
(2.125)
0
t = kT, T > 0, k ,
Z
y (kT ) =
h ( ) x (kT ) d
0
=
=
h ( ) x (kT ) d +
0
Z iT +T
X
i=0
iT
2T
h ( ) x (kT ) d + . . . +
iT +T
iT
h ( ) x (kT ) d
h ( ) x (kT ) d
T h ( )
x (kT ) iT < iT + T
h ( ) = h (iT ) ,
x (kT ) = x (kT iT ) ,
iT < iT + T
iT < iT + T
104
,
y (kT ) =
=
=
Z
X
iT +T
i=0 iT
Z iT +T
X
i=0
i=0
X
i=0
iT
h ( ) x (kT ) d
h (iT ) x (kT iT ) d
h (iT ) x (kT iT )
iT +T
iT
h (iT ) x (kT iT ) T
(2.126)
y (t) t = kT
T.

x (kT ) y (kT )

n1
m
X
X
y (kT ) +
ai y (kT nT + iT ) =
bi x (kT nT + iT ) , n m (2.127)
i=0
i=0
n, m , ai , R, i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n, bi R, i = 0, 1, 2, ..., m.
2.127 x (kT )
n y (T ) , y (2T ) , ..., y (nT ). n
2.127 bm 6= 0
2.127 n m. .
2.127 k = n
y (nT ) = a0 y (0) a1 y (T ) .... an1 y (nT T ) +
(2.128)
b0 x (0) + b1 x (T ) + ... + bm x (mT )
2.128 y (nT ) tn = nT
x (mT ) tm = mT. m > n
y (nT ) tn = nT
x (mT ) tm = mT > nT = tn
. n m
,
.
105
2.27 ,
x (kT )
y (kT )
y (kT + T ) + ay (kT ) = b0 x (kT ) + b1 x (kT + T )
(2.129)
k = 1 2.129
y (0) = ay (T ) + b0 x (T ) + b1 x (0)
x (T ) = 0, y (T ) = 0
y (0) = b1 x (0)
(2.130)
k = 0 2.129
y (T ) = ay (0) + b0 x (0) + b1 x (T )
(2.131)
= ab1 x (0) + b0 x (0) + b1 x (T )
(2.132)
k = 1 2.129
y (2T ) = ay (T ) + b0 x (T ) + b1 x (2)
= a [ab1 x (0) + b0 x (0) + b1 x (T )] + b0 x (T ) + b1 x (2)
= a2 b1 x (0) ab0 x (0) ab1 x (T ) + b0 x (T ) + b1 x (2)

k1
X
y (kT ) =
(a)ki1 (b0 ab1 ) x (iT ) + b1 x (kT ) , k = 1, 2, ...
i=0
x (kT ) = (kT ) 2.130

y (0) = h (0) = b1 (0) = b1
y (kT ) = h (kT ) = (a)k1 (b0 ab1 ) ,
k = 1, 2, ...
Laplace

' Laplace
, ,

. , Laplace

.
Laplace6 2 3
.
Laplace 2.1
Laplace 5.
,
Laplace
-
??.
Laplace
7.
6
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thw Acadmie Royale des Sciences to 1773. Vw ejetasthw toy Basiliko Svmatow Pyroboliko ejtase
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ypoyrgw esvterikvn toy Napolontow Banaprth o Laplace geine predrow thw geroysaw kai kmhw.
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XVIII toy apneime ton ttlo toy markisoy. Lgetai ti tan lgo prin peunei oi paristmenoi anafruhkan
stiw anakalceiw toy o Laplace epe Ayt ta opoa gnvrzoyme enai lga env ayt tvn opovn xoyme
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108
3 Laplace
Laplace
x (t) t .

Laplace x (t) , L{x (t)},
X (s) s = + j

Z
L {x (t)} = X (s) :=
x (t) est dt
(3.1)
Laplace x (t) ,
L{x (t)}
Z
L {x (t)} = X (s) :=
x (t) est dt
(3.2)
0
3.2
x (t) t 0.
x (t) t < 0.
x (t) t < 0
. x (t) = 0 t < 0, 3.1
3.2
.
Laplace.

Z
|x (t)| et dt <
(3.3)
,
3.3 , x (t) Laplace
( ). ,
min ,
min ,
min <
s
Re (s) > min
(3.4)
( Re (s) := s)
Laplace X (s) x (t) . s
3.4 , 3.2 , s
Laplace X (s) x (t) . Laplace
X (s) x (t) s
X (s).
Laplace
109
Laplace X (s) x (t) x (t) .
3.1 x (t)
u (t) . Laplace U (s) u (t)
Z
U (s) =
u (t) est dt
Z0
est dt
=
0
1 st
e
s
t=
(3.5)
t=0
es = lim esT
(3.6)
s = + j 3.6
es = lim e[(+j)T ] = lim eT ejT
T
(3.7)
3.7 > 0 Re (s) > 0.

Re (s) > 0, 3.7 , 3.5
1 0 1
U (s) =
e =
s
s
> 0
Z
u (t) et dt <
0
U (s)
s Re (s) > 0.
3.2 x (t)
(t) . Laplace X (s) (t)
Z
X (s) =
(t) est dt
(3.8)
0
(t)
x (t) =
t = 0
X (s) =
=
=
x ( ) ( t) d
x ( ) ( ) d = x (0)
=
( ) es d =
=0
( ) es d = e0 = 1
=
110
3 Laplace
X (s) =
(t) dt = 1
(3.9)
(t) et dt = e0 = 1
Laplace (t)
C. Laplace X (s) (t)
1 s.
3.3 x (t) = ebt u (t) , b R.

Laplace X (s) x (t)
Z
X (s) =
ebt est dt
0
Z
e(s+b)t dt
=
0
1 (s+b)t
e
=
s+b
t=
(3.10)
t=0
e(s+b) = lim e(s+b)T

T
3.11 s = + j,
e(s+b) = lim e(+b)T ejT
T
(3.11)
(3.12)
3.12 + b > 0,
:
lim e(+b)T ejT = 0
T
Laplace X (s) x (t)

1
X (s) =
(3.13)
s+b
X (s) 3.13
s Re (s) > b.
Laplace
X (s) Laplace x (t) ,
Laplace X (s)
L1 {X (s)}
Z c+j
1
L1 {X (s)} = x (t) =
X (s) est ds
(3.14)
2 cj
Laplace
111
3.14 s = c + j
c j c + j, c R s = c
X (s) .
Laplace X (s)
3.14. ..
X (s) ,
s,
Laplace X (s) X (s)
( 5.2 5.3).
Laplace X (s) x (t)
(3.15)
x (t) X (s)
, Laplace X (s) x (t) ,

X (s)
3.1. Laplace
u (t)
(t)
ebt
1
s
(3.16)
1
1
s+b , b
Laplace
Laplace.
x (t) X (s) v (t) V (s) , a, b C

ax (t) + bv (t) aX (s) + bV (s)
. Laplace
Z
ax (t) + bv (t)
[ax (t) + bv (t)] est dt
0
(3.17)
112
3 Laplace
,
Z
Z
Z
st
st
[ax (t) + bv (t)] e dt = a
x (t) e dt + b
0
v (t) est dt
= aX (s) + bV (s)
3.4 u (t) + et u (t) . 3.16

1
1
u (t)
et u (t)
s
s+1

1
1
2s + 1
u (t) + et u (t) +
=
s s+1
s (s + 1)

x (t) X (s) , 0 < T R,
x (t T ) u (t T ) esT X (s)
(3.18)
x (t T ) u (t T ) T ,
x (t) u (t) . 3.18 T
esT
Laplace.
. Laplace
Z
x (t T ) u (t T )
x (t T ) u (t T ) est dt
0
t < T u (t T ) = 0
Z
x (t T ) u (t T )
x (t T ) est dt
(3.19)
t := t T t = t + T , dt = dt, t = 0 t = T t = t = .
Z
Z
st
x (t T ) e dt =
x t es(t+T ) dt
T
sT
=e
st
x t e
= esT X (s)
3.19 3.20 3.18.
3.5 T :
(
1, 0 t T
p (t) =
0, t < 0 T < t
(3.20)
Laplace
113
0 < T R.
p (t) = u (t) u (t T )
Laplace
3.18
1
1
1 esT
u (t) u (t T ) esT =
s
s
s
3.1
T , x (t) u (t) .
x (t + T ) , 0 < T R
T , x (t) . Laplace
x (t + T )
Z
x (t + T ) est dt
(3.21)
3.21 Laplace X (s)

x (t) .

x (t) X (s) , 0 < a R,
1 s
x (at) X
a
a
. Laplace x (at)
Z
x (at) est dt
0
(3.22)
(3.23)
1
t = at. : t = a t, d t = a (dt) , t = 0
t = 0 t = t = .
Z
Z
s
1
st
x (at) e dt =
x t e[( a )t] dt
a
0
0
1 s
=
X
a
a
3.6
u (at), 0 < a R. 3.22
1 1
1
u (at)
=
a s/a
s
u (at) = u (t) 0 < a R.
114
3 Laplace
tn
x (t) X (s) , 0 < n Z
tn x (t) (1)n
dn
X (s)
dsn
(3.24)
. 3.24 n = 1.
Z
X (s) =
x (t) est dt
(3.25)
3.25 s,
Z
d st
d
x (t)
dt
X (s) =
e
ds
ds
0
Z
=
(t) x (t) est dt
(3.26)
3.26 Laplace
tx (t) . 3.24 n 2
, X (s) .
3.7 r (t) = tu (t) .
u (t) U (s) , r (t) R (s) 3.24
d
d 1
1
R (s) = U (s) =
= 2
ds
ds s
s
tn x (t) , n = 1, 2, . . . ,
n!
tn u (t) n+1
(3.27)
s
3.8 v (t) = tebt , b R. ebt

3.24
d 1
1
V (s) =
=
ds s + b
(s + b)2
n bt
t e ,
n!
tn ebt
n+1
(s + b)
1
s+b .
v (t) V (s) ,
(3.28)
eat
x (t) X (s) , a C,
eat x (t) X (s a)
(3.29)
Laplace
115
. Laplace eat x (t)

Z
Z
eat x (t) est dt =
x (t) e(sa) dt = X (s a)
0
3.9 v (t) = [u (t) u (t T )] eat , 0 < T R a R.

3.5
1 esT
u (t) u (t T )
s
3.29
1 e(sa)T
v (t) V (s) =
sa
sin t cos t
x (t) X (s) , R
j
x (t) sin t [X (s + j) X (s j)]
2
x (t) cos t
1
[X (s + j) + X (s j)]
2
(3.30)
(3.31)
. 3.30. Euler
j jt
sin t =
ejt
(3.32)
e
2
3.29
ejt x (t) X (s j)
(3.33)
3.32 3.33 3.30. 3.31
.
3.10 v (t) = cos t.
Laplace v (t) t 0,
v (t)
v (t) = (cos t) u (t)
u (t) 1s . 3.31 x (t) = u (t) ,
1
1
1
s
v (t) V (s) =
+
= 2
2 s + j s j
s + 2
s
cos t 2
(3.34)
s + 2

sin t 2
(3.35)
s + 2
116
3 Laplace
1
3.11 v (t) = ebt cos t. x (t) = ebt X (s) = s+b
3.31
1
1
1
s+b
ebt cos t
(3.36)
+
=
2
2 s + j + b s j + b
(s + b) + 2

ebt sin t
(3.37)
(s + b)2 + 2
3.12 v (t) = sin2 t. x (t) = sin t X (s) = s2 +

2
3.30
#
"
j
2
v (t) = sin t V (s) =
(3.38)
2 (s + j)2 + 2 (s j)2 + 2
#
"
2
2
j
(s j) + 3 (s + j) 3
=
2 (s + j)2 (s j)2 + 2 (s j)2 + 2 (s + j)2 + 4
=
=
j j4 2 s
2 s4 + 4 2 s2
2 2
2
s (s + 4 2 )
Laplace
x (t) , v (t) x (t) = 0, v (t) = 0 t < 0 ,
1, (x v) (t) x (t) v (t)

Z t
(x v) (t) =
x ( ) v (t ) d ,
t0
0
v (t) = 0 t < 0, v (t ) = 0 t < 0

v (t ) = 0 t <
,
Z
(x v) (t) =
x ( ) v (t ) d ,
t0
(3.39)
0
x (t) X (s) , v (t) V (s) Laplace

(x v) (t) x (t) v (t)
Laplace X (s) , V (s):
(x v) (t) X (s) V (s)
(3.40)
Laplace
117
. 3.40 Laplace
3.39
Z Z
(x v) (t)
x ( ) v (t ) d est dt
(3.41)
0
3.41,
Z
Z
(x v) (t)
x ( )
v (t ) est dt d
0
(3.42)
t = t 3.42,
Z
Z
x ( )
v (t ) est dt d
0
Z0
=
x ( )
v t es(t+ ) dt d
0
Z
s(t+ )
=
x ( )
v t e
dt d , v t = 0 t < 0
0
0
Z
Z
st
s
=
x ( ) e d
v t e dt
0
= X (s) V (s)
3.42, 3.40.
3.40, ,
Laplace. ,
3.40 Laplace
X (s) Y (s) x (t) y (t) ,
.
3.40 (x v) (t)
x (t) v (t) . Laplace
X (s) , V (s) x (t) v (t)
Laplace X (s) V (s) .
(x v) (t) .
3.13 x (t) = u (t) u (t 1) ,

1 . (x x) (t) . 3.9
X (s) x (t)
1 es
X (s) =
s
118
3 Laplace
3.40, Laplace (x x) (t)
2
1 es
1 2es + e2s
2
X (s) =
=
(3.43)
s
s2
1
1
1
=
2 2 es + 2 e2s
s2
s
s
n = 1 3.27
1
tu (t) 2
s

x (t c) u (t c) ecs X (s) 3.43
Laplace X 2 (s)
(x x) (t) = tu (t) 2 (t 1) u (t 1) + (t 2) u (t 2)
(x x) (t) 3.1.
1
2 .
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.5
0 0
0.5
1.5
t
2.5
Sx. 3.1: Grafikh parstash thw (x x) (t)
x (t) x (t) < 0 t < 0 x(1) (t)

x (t) :
Z t
(1)
x
(t) =
x ( ) d
x (t) X (s)
x(1) (t)
1
X (s)
s
(3.44)
. 3.44 3.40.
Laplace
(u (x (t) u (t))) (t) =

=
119
u (t ) x ( ) u ( ) d
x ( ) d
(3.45)
3.40, Laplace (u (x (t) u (t))) (t)

1s X (s) .
3.14 x (t) = u (t) . x (t)
r (t) = tu (t) . 3.44, Laplace
r (t) 1s Laplace u (t) .
1
r (t) 2
s

x (t) X (s) ,
dx (t)
sX (s) x (0)
dt
(3.46)
. Laplace x (t)
Z
x (t) est dt
(3.47)
3.47 . v (t) = est dv = sest dt
w (t) =: x (t) dw = x (t) dt.

Z
Z
t=
x (t) est dt = v (t) w (t)|t=0
w (t) dv
0
Z 0
t=
x (t) (s) est dt
= est x (t)t=0
0
Z
st
s0
x (t) est dt
= lim e x (t) e x (0) + s
t
0
= lim est x (t) x (0) + sX (s)

t
|x (t)| < cet , t > 0, , c R, s Re s > ,

lim est x (t) = 0
x (t) est dt = x (0) + sX (s)
3.2 x (t) t = 0
120
3 Laplace
(i)
(t) () (t) (t) 3.46

0 .

x (t) sX (s) x 0
(3.48)
x (t) = 0 t < 0, x (0 ) = 0
x (t) sX (s)
3.15 x (t) = u (t) X (s) = 1s . x (t) = (t) ,

t = 0. 3.48
Laplace x (t) = (t)

1
x (t) = (t) sX (s) x 0 = s 0 = 1

s
2
Laplace d dtx(t)
x (t)
2
Laplace X (s) x (t)
x (0) x (0) , ..
d2 x (t)
s2 X (s) sx (0) x (0)

(3.49)
dt2
Exercise 3.1 3.49
3.3
(t) () (t) , 3.49
0 .
3.16 x (t) = (t) X (s) = 1.
..
() (t) (t) (t)

(t) sX (s) x 0 = s 1 0 = s
..
(t) s2 X (s) sx (0) x (0) = s2 1 s 0 0 = s2
n x(n) (t) n
x (t) ,
x(n) (t) sn X (s) sn1 x (0) sn2 x (0) . . . sx(n2) (0) x(n1) (0) (3.50)
Laplace
121
3.17 x (t) = (t) X (s) = 1.

() n (n) (t) (t)
(n) (t) sn

x (t) X (s) ,
x (0) = lim sX (s)
s
dx (t)
dt
t=0
= lim s2 X (s) sx (0)

s
i
h
x(n) (0) = lim sn+1 X (s) sn x (0) sn1 x (0) . . . sx(n1) (0)
s
(3.51)
(3.52)
(3.53)
3.4 3.53 t = 0 n
x(n) (t) x (t) (t) ()
(t) .
3.53 .
. 3.53 n = 0 (3.51).
x (t) sX (s) x (0)
x (t)
x (t) est dt
(3.54)
(3.55)
3.54 3.55,
Z
sX (s) =
x (t) est dt + x (0)
(3.56)
s 3.56, lims est =

0,
lim sX (s) = x (0)
s
3.18 Laplace X (s)

x (t)
3s2 + 2
X (s) = 3
s + s2 + 3s + 2
122
3 Laplace
3s3 + 2s
= 3
s s3 + s2 + 3s + 2
x (0) = lim sX (s) = lim

s

x (t) X (s) , limt x (t) .
lim x (t) = lim sX (s)
s0
. 3.46
Z
dx (t) st
e dt = sX (s) x (0)
dt
0
s 0 3.58 ,
Z
Z
dx (t) st
dx (t)
lim
e dt =
dt = lim [sX (s) x (0)]
s0 0
s0
dt
dt
0
limt x (t) ,
Z
Z
dx (t)
dx = x () x (0)
dt =
dt
0
0
3.59 3.60, 3.57.
(3.57)
(3.58)
(3.59)
(3.60)
3.5 lims0 sX (s)

limt x (t) . .., x (t) = sin t
1
x (t) = sin t X (s) = 2
s +1
s
lim sX (s) = lim 2
=0
s0
s0 s + 1
limt sin t .
limt x (t) ,
X (s) . .. x (t) Laplace
N (s)
X (s) =
D (s)
N (s) , D (s) s
,
.
N (s) = bm sm + bm1 sm1 + . . . + b1 s + b0
D (s) = an sn + an=1 sn1 + . . . + a1 s + a0 , an 6= 0
pi C,i = 1, 2, . . . , n n D (s) = 0,
D (s) D (s) = an (s p1 ) (s p2 ) (s pn )
N (s)
X (s) =
(3.61)
an (s p1 ) (s p2 ) (s pn )
Laplace
123
/QQ[3a0 3.1] limt x (t)

pi (< 0) , n 1
pi pi i {1, 2, . . . , n}
.
3.19
2s2 3s + 4
s3 + 3s2 + 2s
X (s) 3.61,
2s2 3s + 4
X (s) =
s (s + 1) (s + 2)
p1 = 0, p2 = 1, p3 = 2
. 3.1
limt x (t)
2s2 3s + 4
4
lim x (t) = lim sX (s) = lim
=
=2
t
s0
s0 (s + 1) (s + 2)
1 (2)
X (s) =
3.1.

4.
124
3 Laplace
3.2. Laplace

tn
eat
sin t
cos t
ax (t) + bv (t) aX (s) + bV (s)

x (t c) u (t c) ecs X (s) , c > 0

x (at) a1 X as , a > 0
n dn
tn x (t) (1) dt
n X (s)
at
e x (t) X (s a) , a C
x (t) sin t 2j [X (s + j) X (s j)]
x (t) cos t 12 [X (s + j) + X (s j)]
(x v) (t) X (s) V (s)
x(1) (t) 1s X (s)
x (t) sX (s) x (0)

..
x (t) s2 X (s) sx (0) x (0)
x(n) (t) sn X (s) sn1 x (0) sn2 x (0)

. . . sx(n2) (0) x(n1) (0)
x (0) = lims sX (s)
x (0) = lims s2 X (s) sx (0)

x(n) (0) = lims [sn+1 X (s) sn x (0)
sn1 x (0) . . . sx(n1) (0)]

limt x (t) ,
limt x (t) = lims0 sX (s)
Laplace
3.3. Laplace
u (s) 1s
as
u (t) u (t a) 1es , a > 0
n!
tn u (t) sn+1
, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
(t) 1
(t) s
..
(t) s2
(n) (t) sn , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
(t c) ecs , c > 0
1
ebt s+b
, bC
n!
n bt
t e
(s+b)
n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
n+1 ,
s
cos t s2 +
2
sin t s2 +2
2
sin2 t s(s22
+4 2 )
(s+b)2 + 2
s+b
ebt cos t (s+b)
2
+ 2
s2 2
t cos t (s2 +2 )2
t sin t (s22s
+ 2 )2
ebt sin t
Laplace
F (s) = L {f } (s) =
est f (t)dt
125
126
3 Laplace
f (t)
1
t
tn
t1/2
t1/2
t
F (s) = L {f } (s)
1
s
1
s2
n!
, n
sn+1
r
3/2
2s
( + 1)
, > 1
s+1
f (t)
sin kt
cos kt
sin2 kt
cos2 kt
t sin kt
t cos kt
2 (1 cos kt)
t
sin at
t
F (s) = L {f } (s)
k
s2 + k 2
s
s2 + k 2
2k 2
s (s2 + 4k 2 )
s2 + 2k2
s (s2 + 4k 2 )
2ks
(s2
+ k2 )
s2 k 2
(s2 + k 2 )
s2 + k 2
s2
a
arctan
s
ln
Laplace
f (t)
sin kt + kt cos kt
sin kt kt cos kt
F (s) = L {f } (s)
2ks2
(s2 + k 2 )2
2k 3
(s2 k 2 )
1 cos kt
k2
s (s2 + k2 )
kt sin kt
s2
a sin bt b sin at
ab (a2 b2 )
1
(s2 + a2 ) (s2 + b2 )
sin at cos bt
t
1
a+b 1
ab
arctan
+ arctan
2
s
2
s
cos bt cos at
a2 b2
127
k3
+ k2 )
(s2
s
(s2 + a2 ) (s2 + b2 )
f (t)
sinh kt
cosh kt
2
sinh kt
cosh2 kt
F (s) = L {f } (s)
k
s2 k 2
s
s2 k 2
2k2
s (s2 4k 2 )
s2 2k 2
s (s2 4k 2 )
f (t)
t sinh kt
t cosh kt
2 (1 cosh kt)
t
F (s) = L {f } (s)
2ks
(s2 k2 )2
s2 + k 2
(s2 k2 )2
ln
s2 k 2
s2
128
3 Laplace

f (t)
F (s) = L {f } (s)
1
sa
1
eat
teat
(s a)2
n!
tn eat
ebt eat
t
f (t)
(s a)
n+1 ,
ln sa
sb
1
2
ea /4t
t
a
2
ea /4t
3
2 t
eat ebt
ab
aeat bebt
ab
F (s) = L {f } (s)
ea s
ea
1
(s a) (s b)
s
(s a) (s b)

f (t)
eat sin kt
eat cos kt
F (s) = L {f } (s)
k
(s a)2 + k 2
sa
2
(s a) + k 2

f (t)
eat sinh kt
eat cosh kt
F (s) = L {f t} (s)
k
2
(s a) k2
sa
(s a)2 k2
Laplace

f (t)
F (s) = L {f } (s)
2k 2 s
s2 + 4k4
k s2 + 2k 2
s4 + 4k 4
2
k s 2k 2
s4 + 4k 4
s3
s4 + 4k4
sin kt sinh kt
sin kt cosh kt
cos kt sinh kt
cos kt cosh kt
Bessel
f (t)
F (s) = L {f } (s)
1
s2 + k 2
J0 (kt)
Error
f (t)
a
a
erfc 2
=
1
erf
t
2 t
F (s) = L {f } (s)
ea
s
2
a
2 t ea /4t a erfc 2
t
ab b2 t
e e

erfc b t +
2 t

2
eab eb t erfc b t +
2 t
ea s
s s
+ erfc
2 t
ea s

s ( s + b)
bea s
s( s+b)
Dirac
f (t)
F (s) = L {f } (s)
(t)
(t t0 )
est0
129
130
3 Laplace

f (t)
F (s) = L {f } (s)
eat f (t)
F (s a)
f (t a) u (t a)
eas F (s)
u (t a)
eas
s

f (t)
at
F (s) = L {f } (s)
e f (t)
F (s a)
f (t a) u (t a)
eas F (s)
f (n) (t)
sn F (s) s(n1) f (0) ... f (n1) (0)
tn f (t)
Rt
f ( ) g (t ) d
0
(1)n
dn
dsn F
(s)
F (s) G (s)
Laplace

Laplace
.

R [s] s
R. R [s]
R [s] ,
() : R [s] Z+ (Z+ : )
0 6= a (s) R [s], : a (s) = deg a (s) Z+
deg a (s) a (s)7 :
(i) a (s) , b (s) R [s] , a (s) b (s) 6= 0, deg [a (s) b (s)] deg a (s)
7
O baumw toy mhdeniko polyvnmoy a (s) = 0, orzetai deg (0) :=
Laplace
131
(ii) a (s) , b (s) R [s] , b (s) 6= 0, q (s) , r (s) R [s]
a (s) = b (s) q (s) + r (s)

(3.62)
r (s) = 0 deg r (s) < deg b (s) .
R [s] R {0}
R (s) R [s] :
n (s)
R (s) := t (s) | t (s) =
(3.63)
, n (s) , d (s) R [s] , d (s) 6= 0
d (s)
R (s) ()
.
t (s) = n(s)
d(s)
(proper rational f unction) deg d (s) deg n (s) t () = k
R. Rpr (s) .
t (s) = n(s)
d(s) Rpr (s) t (s): q := (t (s))
() : Rpr (s) Z+ ,
(
deg d (s) deg n (s) t (s) 6= 0
(t (s)) =
+
t (s) = 0
Rpr (s)
( )
t (s) = n(s)
d(s) Rpr (s) (t (s)) = 0 deg d (s) =
deg n (s) . t (s) =
t (s)
n(s)
d(s)
d(s)
n(s)
n(s)
d(s)
Rpr (s) Rpr (s)
Rpr (s) t () = k 6= 0. t (s) =
Rpr (s) deg d (s) > deg n (s) , t (s)

(strictly proper rational f unction) .
Rpr0 (s)
. t (s) Rpr (s)
t (s) Rpr0 (s) t () = 0. t (s)
s = q = (t (s)) = deg d (s) deg n (s) > 0.
:
Rpr0 (s) Rpr (s) R (s)
R Rpr (s)
RRpr0 (s) = Rpr (s)
R [s] R (s)
R [s] Rpr0 (s) = R (s)
132
3 Laplace

x (t) X (s)
X (s) =
N (s)
R (s)
D (s)
(3.64)
N (s) = bm sm + bm1 sm1 + . . . + b1 s + b0 R [s]

D (s) = an sn + an=1 sn1 + . . . + a1 s + a0 R [s] ,
an 6= 0
bi R, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . m, aj R,j = 0, 1, 2, . . . n. p1 , p2 , . . . , pn C

D (s) = 0
(3.65)
z1 , z2 , . . . , zm C
N (s) = 0
(3.66)
aj R, j = 0, 1, 2, . . . n, (bi R,i = 0, 1, 2, . . . m),

j {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} , (i {0, 1, 2, . . . , m}) pi = i + j i i 6= 0,
(zk = k + j k , k 6= 0) pi ( k ) ,
n (m) 3.65 ( 3.66) pi =
i j i , (z k = k j k ) .
.
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn C D (s) = 0, D (s)
D (s) = an (s p1 ) (s p2 ) (s pn )
N (s)
N (s) = bm (s z1 ) (s z2 ) (s zm )
X (s)
bm (s z1 ) (s z2 ) (s zm )
X (s) =
(3.67)
an (s p1 ) (s p2 ) (s pn )
zi 6= pi D (s) N (s)
( i = 1, 2, ..., m, zi = pi (s zi )
N (s) X (s) (s pi )
D (s) X (s))
X (zi ) = 0
z1 , z2 , . . . , zm (zeros) X (s) ( C)
( X (s)). , ( )
lim |X (s)| =
spi
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn (poles) X (s) ( C).
Laplace
133
Laplace
N (s)
(3.68)
Rpr (s)
D (s)
Laplace
L1 {X (s)} = x (t) X (s) .
X (s) =
r = 1
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn X (s) 1,
pi 6= pj i 6= j. X (s)
c1
c2
cn
X (s) =
+
+ ... +
(3.69)
s p1
s p2
s pn
ci = [(s pi ) X (s)]s=pi C, i = 1, 2, . . . , n
(3.70)
3.69, , Laplace
X (s)
x (t) = c1 ep1 t + c2 ep2 t + . . . + cn epn t
(3.71)
pi , 3.71
( 2).
3.20
X (s) =
s+2
Rpr (s)
s3 + 4s2 + 3s
D (s) = s3 + 4s2 + 3s = s (s + 1) (s + 3)
D (s) = 0 0, 1, 3 X (s) p1 =
0, p2 = 1, p3 = 3.
c1
c2
c3
X (s) =
+
+
s
s+1 s+3
s+2
2
c1 = [sX (s)]s=0 =
=
(s + 1) (s + 3) s=0 3
s + 2
1
=
c2 = [(s + 1) X (s)]s=1 =
s (s + 3) s=1 2
s + 2
1
c2 = [(s + 2) X (s)]s=1 =
=
s (s + 1) s=3
6
134
3 Laplace
Laplace
2 1
x (t) = et
3 2
X (s)
1 3t
e ,
t0
6
r = 1
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn X (s) 1.
. ,
x (t)
.
p1 = + j, 6= 0. p1 = j
D (s) = 0. p2 := p1 . c2 = c1 X (s)

c1
c3
cn
c1
X (s) =
+
+
+ ... +
s p1 s p1
s p3
s pn
x (t) = c1 ep1 t + c1 ep1 t + c3 ep3 t + . . . + cn epn t
c1 ep1 t + c1 ep1 t
Euler
= c1 e(t+jt) + c1 e(tjt)
= et c1 ejt + c1 ejt
ejt = cos t j sin t
c1 ep1 t + c1 ep1 t
= et (c1 cos t + jc1 sin t + c1 cos t jc1 sin t)
= et [(c1 + c1 ) cos t + j (c1 c1 ) sin t]
c = a + jb
c1 + c1 = (a + jb) + (a jb) = 2a = 2 Re c1
j (c1 c1 ) = j (a + jb) j (a jb) = j (j2b) = 2b = 2 Im c1
c1 ep1 t + c1 ep1 t = 2et [(Re c1 ) cos t (Im c1 ) sin t]

(3.72)
3.72

p
A cos t B sin t = A2 + B 2 cos (t + )
(3.73)
Laplace
3.73
tan1 B

1 A
180 + tan
A>0
A<0
(Re c1 ) cos t (Im c1 ) sin t = |c1 | cos (t + )
tan1 Im c1
Re c1
=
180 + tan1 Im c1
Re c1
3.74 3.72,
135
(3.74)
Re c1 > 0
Re c1 < 0
c1 ep1 t + c1 ep1 t = 2 |c1 | eat cos (t + )
(3.75)
3.21
X (s) =
s2 2s + 1
s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 2
D (s) = s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 2 = (s + 1 j) (s + 1 + j) (s + 1)
D (s) = 0 ( X (s)) p1 = 1 + j, p2 =
1 j, p3 = 3. = 1, = 1,
c1
c3
c1
X (s) =
+
+
s+1j
s+1j
s+1
s2 2s + 1
3
c1 = [(s + 1 j) X (s)]s=1+j =
=
+ j2
(s + 1 j) (s + 1) s=1+j
2
s2 2s + 1
=4
c3 = [(s + 1) X (s)] = 2
s + 2s + 2
s=1
5
9
|c1 | =
+4=
4
2
Im c1
4
1
= 180 + tan
= 180 + tan
= 126.87
Re c1
3
??,
x (t) = 5et cos (t + 126.87 ) + 4et ,
t0
r > 1
p1 X (s) r > 1
pr+1 , pr+2 , ..., pn (
136
3 Laplace
r = 1). X (s)
c1
c2
cr
X (s) =
+
+ ... +
(3.76)
s p1 (s p1 )2
(s p1 )r
cr+1
cn
+
+ ... +
s pr+1
s pn
ci = [(s pi ) X (s)]s=pi ,
i = r + 1, r + 2, ..., n
1 di
r
cri =
[(s p1 ) X (s)]
,
i = 0, 1, 2, ..., r 1
(3.77)
i! dsi
s=pi
Laplace X (s)
3.76
1
tn1 at
n = 1, 2, 3, ...
e
n,
(n 1)!
(s + a)
3.22
5s 1
s3 3s 2
D (s) = 0 1, 1, 2, r = 2
c1
c3
c2
X (s) =
+
+
2
s + 1 (s + 1)
s2
i
d
d 5s 1
2
c1 =
=
(s + 1) X (s)
ds
ds s 2
s=1
s=1
9
=
= 1
(s 2)2 s=1
h
i
5s 1
=
=2
c2 = (s + 1)2 X (s)
s 2 s=1
s=1
5s 1
c3 = [(s 2) X (s)]s=2 =
=1
s + 1 s=2
x (t) = et + 2tet + e2t ,

t0
X (s) =
Laplace

N (s)
X (s) =
R (s)
D (s)
(3.78)
Laplace
137
. m = deg N (s) > deg D (s) = n.

Q (s) , R (s) R [s] , N (s)
D (s)
N (s) = D (s) Q (s) + R (s)
(3.79)
deg Q (s) = m n
deg R (s) < n
(3.80)
( 3.62).
N (s)
R (s)
(3.81)
= Q (s) +
D (s)
D (s)
R(s)
3.80 D(s)
Rpr0 (s) ( ).
Laplace X (s)
Laplace Q (s)
R(s)
. Laplace
D(s)
Q (s)
dn
(t) sn ,
n = 1, 2, 3, ...
dtn
R(s)
Laplace D(s)

.
X (s) =
3.23
X (s) =
3.79

N (s)
s3 + 2s 4
= 2
D (s)
s + 4s 2
X (s) = s 4 +
20s 12
+ 4s 2
s2
d
(t) 4 (t) + v (t)
dt
v (t) Laplace
20s 12
V (s) := 2
Rpr (s)
s + 4s 2
s2 + 4s 2 = 0 s1,2 = 2 6 = 0.449, 4.449.
V (s) ,
0.614
20.614
V (s) =
+
s 0.449 s + 4.449

v (t) = 0.614e0.449t + 20.614e4.449t , t 0

d
x (t) = (t) 4 (t) 0.614e0.449t + 20.614e4.449t , t 0
dt
x (t) =
138
3 Laplace

Laplace
.
, , ,
.
-:
y (t) = (F x) (t)
(3.82)
y (t) , x (t) ,
x (t)
x (t) = 0 t t0 ,
t = t0 .
, ,
, 2
- F :
Z
y (t) = (h x) (t) =
h ( ) x (t ) d
0
h (t) . x (t) = 0 t < 0

Z t
y (t) =
h ( ) x (t ) d , t > 0
(3.83)
0
Laplace 3.83.
3.40, Laplace
(h x) (t) H (s) X (s) Laplace H (s)
X (s) h (t) x (t) ,
Y (s) = H (s) X (s)
(3.84)
Y (s) Laplace y (t) .

H (s) .
3.84 .
3.84
s. 3.84

s t = 0 (
t = 0 )
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) .
139
H (s) Laplace
h (t)
h (t) H (s)
(3.85)
x (t)
, X (s) 6= 0,
3.84 X (s),
Y (s)
H (s) =
(3.86)
X (s)
3.86 H (s)
Laplace Y (s) y (t) Laplace
X (s) x (t) .
H (s) Laplace h (t)
,
. , Y (s)
x (t) ,
Y (s)
3.86 X(s)
(
x (t)).
3.86 H (s)
y (t)
x (t).

. ,
3.86 .
3.24 x (t) = et u (t)

, (
t = 0 )
y (t) = 2 3et + e2t cos 2t, t 0
2
3
s+2
Y (s) =
+
s s + 1 (s + 2)2 + 4
1
X (s) =
s+1
140
3 Laplace
3.86
2 (s + 1)
(s + 1) (s + 2)
H (s) =
3+
2
s
(s + 2) + 4
i
h
[2 (s + 1) 3] (s + 2)2 + 4 + s (s + 1) (s + 2)
h
i
=
2
s (s + 2) + 4
=
s2 + 2s + 16
s3 + 4s2 + 8s
3.25
??.
( ). ??

h (t) = u (t) u (t c)
c > 0. Laplace h (t),

1 1
1 ecs
H (s) = ecs =
s s
s

s, H (s) s.

3.84.
Laplace 3.84,
y (t) = Laplace H (s) X (s)
(3.87)
3.87 y (t)
x (t)
x (t) .
Laplace X (s) H (s) x (t) h (t) ,
H (s) X (s) . y (t)
Laplace H (s) X (s) .
3.26 3.24
Laplace -
141
s2 + 2s + 16
s3 + 4s2 + 8s
x (t) = e2t u (t) .
y (t)
t = 0.
1
x (t) = e2t u (t) X (s) =
s+2

s2 + 2s + 16
s2 + 2s + 16
h
i
Y (s) = H (s) X (s) = 3
=
2
(s + 4s2 + 8s) (s + 2)
s (s + 2) (s + 2) + 4
H (s) =
Y (s) ,
c0
c1
c2 s + c3
Y (s) =
+
+
s
s + 2 (s + 2)2 + 4
16
c0 = [sY (s)]s=0 =
=1
2 (8)
(3.88)
(2) (2) (2) + 16

= 2
(2) (4)
c2 c3 3.88
(s + 2) s2 + 4s + 8 2s s2 + 4s + 8 + (c2 s + c3 ) s (s + 2)
c1
= [(s + 2) Y (s)]s=2 =
= s2 + 2s + 16
s,
s3 2s3 + c2 s3 = 0
(3.89)
6s2 8s2 + (c3 + 2c2 ) s2 = s2

(3.90)
3.89 c2 = 1, 3.90 c3 = 1.
5 2t
2t
y (t) = 1 2e
+
cos (2t + 26.565 ) , t 0
e
2
Laplace -

. , ( 1)
,
-.

s
Laplace
142
3 Laplace
. ,
H (s)
. .

,
-

dy (t)
dx (t)
(3.91)
+ ay (t) = b1
+ b0 x (t)
dt
dt
Laplace 3.91,
sY (s) y (0) + aY (s) = b1 [sX (s) x (0)] + b0 X (s)
(3.92)
Y (s) Laplace y (t) X (s)

Laplace x (t) t 0.
t = 0 x (t)
t = 0 [ x (0+ ) 6= x (0 )] , 3.92
t = 0

sY (s) y 0 + aY (s) = b1 sX (s) x 0 + b0 X (s)
(3.93)
x (0 ) = 0, 3.93

sY (s) y 0 + aY (s) = b1 sX (s) + b0 X (s)
3.94

(s + a) Y (s) = y 0 + (b1 s + b0 ) X (s)
(3.94)
(3.95)
y (0 ) b1 s + b0
Y (s) =
(3.96)
+
X (s)
s+a
s+a
3.96
s. 3.96
Laplace y (0 ) ,
3.96 Laplace
x (t)
t 0.
t = 0 y (0 ) = 0
[ x (0 ) = 0]. , ,
b1 s + b0
Y (s) =
(3.97)
X (s)
s+a
??,
Laplace -
143
-
(3.98)
Y (s) = H (s) X (s)
H (s) . 3.97
3.98
b1 s + b0
H (s) =
(3.99)
Rpr (s)
s+a
H (s)
b0 ab1
H (s) = b1 +
s+a
h (t) =L1 {H (s)}
H (s),
h (t) = b1 (t) + (b0 ab1 ) eat ,
t0
(3.100)
?? h (t)
. 3.100
. h (t)
t > 0.

3.91.
b1 = 0 3.99
Y (s)
b0
b0 /a
K
H (s) =
(3.101)
=
= 1
=
X (s)
s+a
Ts + 1
as + 1
K = b0 /a, T = a1 , a > 0 s = T1 < 0.
y (t)
x (t) x (t) = u (t) =
1, t 0
t = 0 (
dy(t)
y (0) = 0, dt
= 0). 3.101 Laplace Y (s)
t=0
y (t)
K
Y (s) =
X (s)
Ts + 1
L{x (t)} = X (s) = 1s
K
k1
k2
Y (s) =
(3.102)
=
+
(T s + 1) s
s
Ts + 1
k1 , k2 R. 3.102 T s + 1
K
k1 (T s + 1)
=
+ k2
s
s
s = T1
K
k2 = 1 = KT
T
144
3 Laplace
3.102 s
k2 s
K
= k1 +
(T s + 1)
Ts + 1
s = 0
k1 = K
3.101
K
KT
Y (s) =

s
T s + T1
1
1
y (t) = L1 {Y (s)} = KL1
KL1
s
s + T1
1
1
= Ku (t) Ke T t = K 1 e T t , t 0
K = 1.
t = T
y (t) = 1 e T t ,
t0
y (T ) = 1 e T T = 1 e1 = . 63212
(3.103)
t = T . 63212
u (t) = 1.
1
t=T =
a
.
1 2 T1 > T2 >
0

1
1
<
<0
T2
T1
( 3.2) 3.103 y (t) 2
T2 y (T2 ) = . 63212
t = T2 ' , 1 T1 .
Laplace -
145
-1/T2
-1/T1
Sx. 3.2
. T1 = 5, T2 = 2
3.3.
1.5
1.0
0.5
10
12
14
Sx. 3.3
3.27 .
2 -
dy (t)
(3.104)
= x (t)
dt
3.91 3.104, a =
0, b1 = 0 b0 = 1.
0s + 1
1
H (s) =
=
s+0
s
H (s)
Laplace
. x (t)
(t) , y (t) (t)
u (t). Laplace u (t) 1s
H (s) = 1s .
146
3 Laplace

,
-

d2 y (t)
dy (t)
d2 x (t)
dx (t)
+
a
y
(t)
=
b
+ b1
(3.105)
+
a
+ b0 x (t)
1
0
2
dt2
dt
dt2
dt
x (0 ) = 0 x (0 ) = 0. Laplace
3.105 y (0 ) , y (0 )
t = 0 ,y (0 ) , y (0 ),

s2 Y (s) y 0 s y 0 + a1 sY (s) y 0 + a0 Y (s) (3.106)
= b2 s2 X (s) + b1 sX (s) + b0 X (s)
y (0 ) s + y (0 ) + a1 y (0 ) b2 s2 + b1 s + b0
+ 2
X (s)
(3.107)
s2 + a1 s + a0
s + a1 s + a0
3.107 s
3.105.
3.107 Laplace
y (0 ) y (0 )
3.96 Laplace
x (t)
t 0 x (0 ) = 0, x (0 ) = 0.
t = 0 y (0 ) = 0 y (0 ) = 0
Laplace
b2 s2 + b1 s + b0
Y (s) = 2
X (s)
(3.108)
s + a1 s + a0
3.108,
b2 s2 + b1 s + b0
H (s) = 2
(3.109)
s + a1 s + a0
Y (s) =
3.28 3.4.
Laplace -
147
8
dy(t)/dt
x(t)
q(t)
y(t)
dq(t)/dt
6
Sx. 3.4 Leitoyrgik digramma

3.4
y (t) = 6y (t) + q (t)
(3.110)
(3.111)
q (t) = 8y (t) + 2x (t)
3.110 3.111,
y (t) = 6y (t) + [8y (t) + 2x (t)]
(3.112)
3.112 3.105 3.109,

2
H (s) = 2
s + 6s + 8
h (t)
Laplace H (s) . H (s) ,
1
1
H (s) =
s+2 s+4
h (t) = e2t e4t ,

t0
( 3.5)
148
3 Laplace
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 0
0.5
1.5
t
2.5
Sx. 3.5: Kroystikh apkrish h (t) = e2t e4t

y (t)
x (t) x (t) = u (t)
t = 0 .
t = 0 Y (s) = H (s) X (s) . X (s) = 1s ,
2
1
Y (s) = 2
s + 6s + 8 s
Y (s) ,
0.25
0.5
0.5
Y (s) =
+
s
s+2 s+4

y (t) = 0.25 0.5e2t + 0.25e4t ,
t0
( 3.6)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 0
0.5
1.5
t
2.5
Sx. 3.6: Bhmatikh apkrish y (t) = 0.25 0.5e2t + 0.25e4t ,
t [0, 3]
y (t)
x (t)
x (t) = u (t) y (0 ) = 1, y (0 ) = 2.
t = 0 Y (s)
Laplace -
149
3.107,
s+8
2
1
Y (s) =
+
s2 + 6s + 8 s2 + 6s + 8 s
s2 + 8s + 2
=
s (s2 + 6s + 8)
0.25
2.5
1.75
=
+
s
s+2 s+4

y (t) = 0.25 + 2.5e2t 1.75e4t ,
t0
( 3.7)
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0
0.5
1.5
t
2.5
Sx. 3.7: y (t) = 0.25 + 2.5e2t 1.75e4t , t [0, 3]
n-

n-
n1
m
+
a
=
bi
(3.113)
i
dtn
dti
dti
i=0
i=0
m n. Laplace 3.113
y (i) (0 ), i = 0, 1, ..., n 1 t = 0 '
x(n) (t) sn X (s) sn1 x (0) sn2 x (0)

. . . sx(n2) (0) x(n1) (0)
Laplace Y (s) y (t)
150
3 Laplace

sn Y (s) sn1 y 0 ... sy (n2) 0 y (n1) 0

+an1 sn1 Y (s) sn2 y 0 ... sy (n3) 0 y (n2) 0 + ...
..
.

+a1 sY (s) y 0
+a0 Y (s)
h

i
= bm sm X (s) sm1 x 0 ... sx(m2) 0 x(m1) 0
h

i

+bm1 sm1 X (s) sm2 x 0 ... sy (m3) 0 y (m2) 0 + ...
..
.

+b1 sX (s) x 0
+b0 X (s)
s + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0 Y (s) +
= bm sm + bm1 sm1 + . . . + b1 s + b0 X (s)
1
0
a
1
i n1
h
..
..
n1
n2
+ s
s
... s 1 .
.
...
a2
a1
a2
bm
0
bm1 bm
h
i
.
..
sm1 sm2 . . . s 1 ..
.
...
b2
b1
b2
(3.114)
0
0
..
an1
...
0
0
..
bm1
...
...
...
..
.
1
an1
...
...
..
.
bm
bm1
0
0
..
.
0
1
y (0 )
(1)
y (0 )
..
(n2)
(0 )
y
y (n1) (0 )
x (0 )
0
(1)
0 x (0 )
.. ..
.
.
(m2)
0 x
(0 )
(m1)
x
bm
(0 )
x(i) (0 ) = 0 i 0, 1, 2, ..., m 1 3.114

C (s) N (s)
Y (s) =
(3.115)
+
X (s)
D (s) D (s)
Laplace -
C (s) =
sn1
sn2
... s 1
1
an1
..
.
a2
a1
0
1
..
0
0
..
. . . an1
a2 . . .
...
...
..
.
1
an1
0
0
..
.
0
1
151
y (0 )
y (1) (0 )
..
.
y (n2) (0 )
y (n1) (0 )
(3.116)
N (s) = bm sm + bm1 sm1 + ... + b1 s + b0 R [s]
D (s) = sn + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0 R [s]

. C (s)
3.115 s
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) . .. n = 2

C (s) = y 0 s + y 0 + a1 y 0

N (s) D (s) .
3.115 s
3.113.
3.113 Laplace
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 )
3.115 Laplace
x (t)
t 0 x(i) (0 ) = 0 i 0, 1, 2, ..., m 1.
Laplace 3.115
C (s)
N (s)
y (t) = L1
+ L1
X (s)
D (s)
D (s)
= ya (t) + yb (t)
(3.117)
= ( ) + ( )
t = 0
: y (i) (0 ) = 0, i = 0, 1, ..., n 1 C (s) = 0
Laplace
N (s)
bm sm + bm1 sm1 + ... + b1 s + b0
Y (s) =
X (s)
(3.118)
X (s) =
D (s)
sn + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0

bm sm + bm1 sm1 + ... + b1 s + b0
H (s) =
Rpr (s)
(3.119)
sn + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0
R [s]
152
3 Laplace

,

3.113:
n1
m
+
a
=
bi
i
dtn
dti
dti
i=0
i=0
3.1
D (s) = sn + an1 sn1 + . . . + a1 s + a0
.. 3.113

D (s) = sn + an1 sn1 + . . . + a1 s + a0 = 0
(3.120)
.. 3.113
. pi C, i = 1, 2, ..., n 3.120
.
3.2 zi C, i = 1, 2, ..., m
N (s) = bm sm + bm1 sm1 + ... + b1 s + b0 = 0
.
H (s) 3.113

N (s)
bm sm + bm1 sm1 + ... + b1 s + b0
H (s) =
=
D (s)
sn + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0
N (s) D (s) ' .
f (s) R [s] N (s) D (s) .
N (s) = f (s) N (s)
D (s) = f (s) D (s)
N (s) , D (s) .

N (s)
H (s) =
D (s)
(s)
f (s) H (s) = N
D(s)
3.113.
Laplace -
153
3.3 f (s) N (s)

D (s) (decoupling zeros).
(
)
(s)
H (s) = N

D(s)
{ }
= { } { }
3.29
d2 y (t) dy (t)
dx (t)
+
(3.121)
2y (t) =
x (t)
dt2
dt
dt

D (s) = s2 + s 2 = (s 1) (s + 2)
p1 = 1 p2 = 2.

s1
s1
1
H (s) = 2
=
=
s +s2
(s 1) (s + 2)
(s + 2)
f (s) =
s 1 N (s) = s 1 D (s) = (s 1) (s + 2)
p1 = 1. p2 = 2.
H (s)
3.121.
,
H (s) R (s) .
H (s) Rpr (s)
. , H (s)
, .
.
H (s).
H (s)
154
3 Laplace
3.119. 3.118 D (s),

n
s + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0 Y (s) = bm sm + bm1 sm1 + ... + b1 s + b0 X (s)

(3.122)
Laplace 3.122,
n1
m
+
ai
=
bi
dtn
dti
dti
i=0
i=0

-, .

.
Laplace
.

,
H1 (s) H2 (s)
3.8.
X(s)
H1(s)
Y1(s)
+
X(s)
Y(s)
X(s)
H2(s)
Y2(s)
Sx. 3.8: Parllhlh diasndesh do systhmtvn

Laplace Y (s)
Y (s) = Y1 (s) + Y2 (s)
(3.123)
,
Y1 (s) = H1 (s) X (s) Y2 (s) = H2 (s) X (s)
Laplace -
155
X (s) Laplace
Y (s) = H1 (s) X (s) + H2 (s) X (s)
(3.124)
= [H1 (s) + H2 (s)] X (s)
3.124 H (s)
H1 (s) H2 (s)
,
(3.125)
H (s) = H1 (s) + H2 (s)

H1 (s) H2 (s) 3.9.
X(s)
H1(s)
Y1(s)
H2(s)
Y2(s)=Y(s)
Sx. 3.9: Seiriakh diasndesh

Y1 (s) = H1 (s) X (s)
(3.126)
Y2 (s) = H2 (s) Y1 (s)

Y (s) = Y2 (s) = H2 (s) H1 (s) X (s)
(3.127)
3.127 H (s)
H1 (s) H2 (s)
,
H (s) = H2 (s) H1 (s) = H1 (s) H2 (s)
(3.128)
(Feedback)
H1 (s)
H2 (s) 3.10.
156
3 Laplace
X1(s)
X(s)
Y1(s)=Y(s)
H1(s)
Y2(s)
H2(s)
Y(s)
Sx. 3.10: Diasndesh msv arnhtikhw anatrofodthshw

.
, Y2 (s)
H2 (s)
X (s), Y (s) = H1 (s) X1 (s) = H1 (s) X (s) .
H1 (s) .
H2 (s)
X (s), Y (s)
. Y2 (s)
X (s) 3.10
.
3.10
Y (s) = H1 (s) X1 (s)
(3.129)
X1 (s) = X (s) Y2 (s) = X (s) H2 (s) Y (s)
(3.130)
Y (s) = H1 (s) [X (s) H2 (s) Y (s)]
(3.131)
[1 + H1 (s) H2 (s)] Y (s) = H1 (s) X (s)
(3.132)
H1 (s)
(3.133)
X (s)
1 + H1 (s) H2 (s)
3.133 H (s)
H1 (s)
H (s) =
(3.134)
1 + H1 (s) H2 (s)
N1 (s)
N2 (s)
H1 (s) = D
, H2 (s) = D

1 (s)
2 (s)

Y (s) =
H (s) =
1+
N1 (s)
D1 (s)
N1 (s) N2 (s)
D1 (s) D2 (s)
N1 (s)
D1 (s)
D1 (s)D2 (s)+N1 (s)N2 (s)
D1 (s)D2 (s)
N1 (s) D2 (s)
D1 (s) D2 (s) + N1 (s) N2 (s)
Laplace -
157

D1 (s) D2 (s) + N1 (s) N2 (s)
H (s) =
H1 (s)
1 H1 (s) H2 (s)
(3.135)

.
.

: ,

. /- (bounded-input/bounded-output stability).

. -/-

.
-/ .
,
,
- .
??
,
.
160

, ,
-
n- :
n1
m
+
a
=
bi
(4.1)
i
dtn
dti
dti
i=0
i=0
x (t) : R+ R y (t) : R+ R .
2 y (t)
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 )
x (t) ( t 0 x(i) (0 ) = 0
i = 0, 1, 2, ..., m 1) :
C (s)
N (s)
+ L1
X (s)
D (s)
D (s)
= ya (t) + yb (t)
y (t) = L1
(4.2)
= ( ) + ( )
C (s) s
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) ,
N (s) = bm sm + bm1 sm1 + ... + b1 s + b0
D (s) = sn + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0

.. ??. x (t) = 0 t 0
X (s) = 0 y (t) ya (t)

C (s)
1
y (t) = L
(4.3)
= ya (t)
D (s)

4.1
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 )
ya (t) ..
n1
dn y (t) X di y (t)
+
ai
= 0, t 0
dtn
dti
i=0
161

lim ya (t) 0

ya (t) t, y = 0 t
.
4.2 M
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ), M > 0
( )
|ya (t)| M t 0
(4.4)
?? ,
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) , |ya (t)|
ya (t) t 0.
4.3
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 )
|ya (t)| t
(4.5)
??
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) , |ya (t)|
ya (t) .
.

i C, i = 1, 2, .., r r
D (s) = 0 .. ??
i = 1, 2, ..., r i mi ,
.. ??
D (s) = (s 1 )m1 (s 2 )m2 (s r )mr
(4.6)
162
4
C(s)
m1 + m2 + . . . + mr = n = deg D (s) . D(s)
:
C (s)
C (s)
Y (s) = L {ya (t)} =
(4.7)
=
m
m
m
D (s)
(s 1 ) 1 (s 2 ) 2 (s r ) r
c11
c1m1
c12
=
+ ... +
+
m +
(s 1 ) (s 1 )2
(s 1 ) 1
c2m2
c22
c21
+ ... +
+
m +
(s 2 ) (s 2 )2
(s 2 ) 2
..
.
cr1
crmr
cr2
+
+ ... +
+
m
2
(s r ) (s r )
(s r ) r
cik C, i = 1, 2, ..., r k = 1, 2, ..., mi
C (s) y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 )

1
dmi k
cik =
[(s i )mi Y (s)]s=i , i = 1, 2, ..., r k = 1, 2, ..., mi
(mi k)! dsmi k
(4.8)
t Laplace
tk1 i t
1
, i = 1, 2, ..., r k = 1, 2, ..., mi
(4.9)
e
k
(k 1)!
(s i )
Laplace ??

C (s)
1
1
ya (t) = y (t) = L {Y (s)} = L
(4.10)
D (s)
tm1 1 1 t
= c11 e1 t + c12 te1 t + ... + c1m1
e +
(m1 1)!
tm2 1 2 t
c21 e2 t + c22 te2 t + ... + c2m2
e +
(m2 1)!
..
.
tmr 1 r t
+cr1 er t + cr2 te2 t + ... + crmr
e
(mr 1)!
r i , i = 1, 2, ..., r D (s) = 0
.. ??
i = i + j i ,
i R, i R j = 1 .
i = 1, 2, ..., r
(4.11)
?? ya (t)
163

tk1 (i +ji )t
, i = 1, 2, ..., r k = 1, 2, ..., mi
e
(k 1)!
,
i R, mi , :
cik
( j)
1 , 2 , ..., r D (s) = 0
mi , i = 1, 2, ..., r 1 , 2 , ..., r .
i mi :
(1) i = 1, 2, ..., r, i < 0
tk1 (i +ji )t
: lim
= 0 k = 1, 2, ..., mi
e
t (k 1)!
??
lim ya (t) 0
t
?? .
(2) i = i0 i0 i0 = i0 + j i0
i0 = 0 i = i + j i , i = 1, 2, ..., r, i 6= i0
i < 0,
() mi0 i0 = j i0 mi0 = 1, i0
m 1
t i0
?? ci0 mi0 m
ei0 t ci0 1 ei0 t
( i0 1)!
ci0 1 eji0 t
m 1
t i0
j t
i0 t
i0 = 1, t 0
(mi 1)! e
= e
0
i = 1, 2, ..., r, i 6= i0 , i < 0 ??
t , ?? M > 0
( cik )
|ya (t)| M, t 0
?? .
() mi0 i0 = j i0 mi0 = 2, 3, ...

tk1 i0 t
e
i0 ?? ci0 k (k1)!
k1
t
eji0 t , k = 1, 2, ..., mi0
ci0 k (k1)!
k1
k = 1, 2, ..., mi0 2
lim
eji0 t = ,
t (k 1)!
??
|ya (t)| t
164
?? .
(3) i = i0 , i0 i0 = i0 + j i0
i0 > 0 i0 ??
tk1 i0 t
tk1 ( i0 +ji0 )t
ci0 k (k1)!
e
ci0 k (k1)!
e
, k = 1, 2, ..., mi0
k1
lim
e(i0 +ji0 )t = , k = 1, 2, ..., mi0
t (k 1)!
|ya (t)| t
?? .

4.1 i = i + j i C, i = 1, 2, ..., r r
D (s) = 0 .. ?? mi 1,
i , i = 1, 2, ..., r.
i = 1, 2, ..., r
Re (i ) = i < 0
(4.12)
i
mi 2
Re (i ) < 0,
(4.13)
i mi = 1
Re (i ) = i 0
(4.14)
4.1
D (s) = 0 .. ??
C := {s : s = + j | < 0}, (

j j).
i
D (s) = 0 mi = 1,
Re (i ) = i 0, mi 2
Re (i ) = i < 0
D (s) = 0 .. ??
mi = 1 j.
i D (s) = 0
Re (i ) = i > 0 i D (s) = 0
Re (i ) = i = 0 mi 2.
165
4.1
D (s) = (s + 1 j)2 (s + 1 + j)2 (s + 2 3j) (s + 2 + 3j) (s + 2) =
2
(s + 2) s2 + 4s + 13 s2 + 2s + 2 .
D (s) = s (s j) (s + j) (s 3j) (s + 3j) (s + 2) =

s (s + 2) s2 + 1 s2 + 9
2
2
D (s) = s (s j) (s + j) (s 3j) (s + 3j) (s + 2) =
2
2
2
s s + 9 s + 1 (s + 2) .
??.

.
' i D (s) = 0 ,
C(s)
mi = 1, i = 1, 2, ..., r = n. D(s)

n
C (s) X ci
Y (s) =
(4.15)
=
D (s)
s i
i=1
ci C, i = 1, 2, ..., n
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) .
Laplace ?? ya (t)
C (s)
ya (t) = L1 {Y (s)} = L1
(4.16)
D (s)
n
X
=
ci ei t ,
t0
i=1
??
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) ya (t) 0
t i = 1, 2, ..., r Re (i ) = i < 0.
i , mi = 1, i = 1, 2, ..., n,
j.
.
: D (s)
n 1 .
1 = 0 Re (i ) = i < 0 i = 2, 3, ..., n.
C(s)

D(s)
n
Y (s) =
C (s)
c1 X ci
=
+
D (s)
s
s i
i=2
(4.17)
166

ya (t) = L1 {Y (s)} = c1 u (t) +
n
X
ci ei t ,
i=2
(4.18)
t0
u (t) . ??
i = 2, 3, .., n :

e i = e(i +ji )t = ei t eji t
= ei t |cos i t + j sin i t|
= ei t 1, t 0

|ya (t)| c1 +
n
X
i=2
|ci | ,
(4.19)
t0
M := c1 +
Pn
i=2 |ci |.
: D (s)
n 2 .
1 = j 1 2 = 1 = j 1 , 1 6= 0 Re (i ) = i < 0 i = 3, 4, ..., n.
C(s)
D(s)

n
Y (s) =
X ci
C (s)
c2
c1
+
+
=
D (s)
s j 1
s + j 1 i=3 s i
c2 = c1 ( c1 )
ya (t) = L1 {Y (s)} = c1 ej1 t + c1 ej1 t +

??
n
X
ci ei t ,
i=3
c1 ej1 t + c1 ej1 t = 2 |c1 | cos ( 1 t + )
ya (t) = 2 |c1 | cos ( 1 t + ) +
n
X
ci ei t ,
i=3
??, Re (i ) < 0 i = 3, 4, ..., n :

n
X
|ya (t)| 2 |c1 | +
|ci | ,
t0
poy =
Im c1
Re c1
tan1
tan
Re c1 > 0
Im c1
180 +
tan
Re c1 < 0
Re c1
(blpe keflaio 3, Migadiko ploi me pollaplthta r = 1)
(4.22)
t0
i=3
tan1
(4.21)
M = 2 |c1 | +
8
(4.20)
t0
Pn
i=3
|ci |.
167
, D (s)
C+ = {s C, Re (s) > 0} .
??, y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) ,
|ya (t)| t .
D (s)
1 = 1 + j 1 , 1 6= 0, 1 6= 0 m1 = 2, (
1 = 1 j 1 m2 = 2) r 2 i .
C(s)
D(s)

C (s)
C (s)
=
2
D (s)
(s 1 j 1 ) (s 1 + j 1 )2 (s 3 ) (s r )
c11
c12
+
=
+
(s 1 j 1 ) (s 1 j 1 )2
c22
c21
+
+
(s 1 + j 1 ) (s 1 + j 1 )2
c3
cr
c4
+
+ ... +
+
2
(s 3 ) (s 4 )
(s r )
Y (s) =

L1
= te(1 j1 )t
(s 1 j 1 )2
ya (t) =L1 {Y (s)}
Ate1 cos ( 1 t + )
A, . i , i = 3, 4, ..., n
mi = 1, i = 3, 4, ..., r , :
i = Re (i ) < 0, i = 3, 4, ..., r ya (t)
1 < 0 .
= 1 + j 1 , m1 = 2 j
, 1 = 0 1 > 0) |ya (t)|
t .
4.2

d2 y (t) kf dy (t)
1
+
=
x (t)
dt2
M dt
M
y (t) t x (t)
.

s2 + (kf /M ) s = 0
1 = 0 2 = kf /M.
168
kf > 0, M > 0, 2 .
1 = 0, , .
ya (t)
y (0 ) y (0 ) . 3.107
kf
C (s) = y 0 + y 0 +
y 0
M
k
y (0 ) + y (0 ) + Mf y (0 )
C (s)
Ya (s) =
=
D (s)
s (s + kf /M )
(M/kf ) y (0 ) + y (0 ) (M/kf ) y (0 )
(4.23)
s
s + kf /M
Laplace ??
h

ya (t) = (M/kf ) y 0 + y 0 u (t) (M/kf ) y 0 e(kf /M )t (4.24)
i

h

= (M/kf ) y 0 u (t) e(kf /M )t + y 0 u (t)
i

h

= (M/kf ) y 0 1 e(kf /M )t + y 0 ,
t0
=
limt e(kf /M )t = 0

(4.25)
ya (t) (M/kf ) y 0 + y 0 t
?? |ya (t)| t 0.
??, ya (t) t .

( ) y (0 )
y (0 ) y (0 )
.
. ??
M = 1, kf = 0.4, y (0 ) = 1 y (0 ) = 1, 4.1
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0 0
Sx. 4.1
- - -
169
- - -

, ,
.
.
ya (t)

y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) .

yb (t) x (t) , t 0
: y (0 ) = y (1) (0 ) = ... = y (n1) (0 ) = 0.
, , ,
h (t) .
h (t) h (t) = 0 t < 0.
yb (t)
x (t) t 0
y (0 ) = y (1) (0 ) = ... = y (n1) (0 ) = 0. 2

Z
t
yb (t) = (h x) (t) =
h (t ) x ( ) d
(4.26)
4.4 v (t) cv (
v (t)) |v (t)| cv t.
4.5 -/ x (t) ,
yb (t) .
4.2 -/-
h (t) L1 ( . 1: )
Z
0
|h (t)| dt <
(4.27)
170
4
4.2 ??
h (t) - .
. yb (t)
x (t) t 0
t = 0 . ??
Z t
Z t
|yb (t)|
h (t ) x ( ) d =
|h (t )| |x ( )| d
(4.28)
0
x (t) cx
t 0
|x (t)| cx
?? ?? :
|yb (t)| cx
(4.29)
(4.30)
|h (t )| d
:= t ??
Z 0
Z t
Z t
Z t
|h (t )| d =
|h ( )| (1) d =
|h ( )| d =
|h ( )| d
0
(4.31)
?? . B
Z t
|h ( )| d = B <
t 0
(4.32)
?? ??,
|yb (t)| cx B
t 0
. ??
-/-.
, -/ ??
.
/QQ[3a0 4.3] ,
--.
. ??
?? -/
-. H (s) .
D (s) n 1 , 2 , ..., n
- - -
171
mi = 1, i = 1, 2, ..., n 9 H (s)
{1 , 2 , ..., k } , k n. H (s)
N (s)
H (s) =
(s 1 ) (s 2 ) (s k )
H (s) ,
k
X
ci
H (s) =
(4.33)
(s
i )
i=1
ci .
Laplace ??, h (t)

k
X
1
h (t) = L {H (s)} =
ci ei t ,
t0
(4.34)
i=1
??,
k
k
X
t X
ci e i =
|h (t)|
|ci | ei t
i=1
i=1
|h (t)| dt
k
X
i=1
k
X
t
i
|ci | e
|ci |
dt =
i=1
ei t dt
(4.35)
Re (i ) < 0 i = 1, 2, ..., n

Z
t
1
e i dt =
i = 1, 2, ..., n
(4.36)
<
|Re (i )|
0
?? ??
Z
k
X
|ci |
|h (t)| dt
|Re
(i )|
0
i=1
?? ??
--..
10 ( ??)
, /- ??
.
9
Lgv piiuanvn aplopoihsevn metaj koinvn paragvntvn metaj tvn N (s) kai D (s ) to snolo tvn
N (s)
plvn thw H (s) = D(s
enai genikvw yposnolo tvn rizvn toy xarakthristiko polyvnmoy D (s ).
)
10
pvw ua dome paraktv na ssthma enai staueropoihsimo an kai mno an la ta aposyzeyktk
mhdenik toy systhmatow (blpe Keflaio 3: Ploi kai mhdenik toy systhmatow) anhkoyn sto
C = {s C, Re (s) < 0} h isodnama an kai mno an loi oi pargontew (s i ) toy xarakthristiko
polyvnmoy D (s) toy , oi opooi kat ton ypologism thw synrthshw metaforw H (s) toy
aplopoiontai kai den emfanzontai san roi toy paranomasto thw H (s) , antoistoixon se ployw i toy
systhmatow oi opoioi anhkoyn sto C . Blpe kai paraktv.
172
.
4.3 RLC 4.2
1
1
N (s)
LC
P (s) =
=
= 2 RLC
1
D (s)
(s 1 ) (s 2 )
s + L s + LC
R
R
R
1
1 =
b=
+ b, 2 =
b,
2L
2L
2L
LC
R
b < 0, P (s) Re (i ) = 2L

. b > 0, P (s) .
b<0
2L
, b > 0
2
R
b<
2L

R
b<
2L

+ b<0
2L
.
R, L, C > 0.
C (t)
x (t) t 0, i (t) = C dvdt
, v C (0) = C1 i (0) ,
vC (t) 0 vC (0)
i (0).
R
x(t)
L
i (t)
vC (t) = y(t)
Sx. 4.2
Routh
??,
Routh
173
D (s)
D (s) = 0.
,
Routh.
Routh ,

D (s) = 0, D (s) = 0
C := {s C : s = + j | < 0}.

D (s) = an sn + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0 ,
an > 0
(4.37)
an > 0.
??,
i D (s) = 0 .
D (s)
,
ai > 0
i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n 1
(4.38)
, D (s) ,
, D (s) = 0
+
C := {s C : s = + j | 0}
. ??
,
?? .
Routh,
. D (s) ,
??, Routh
Routh
174
4
sn
sn1
sn2
sn3
..
.
s2
s1
s0
an
an1
bn2
cn3
..
.
d2
e1
f0
an2
an3
bn4
cn5
..
.
d0
0
0
an4
an5
bn6
cn7
..
.
0
0
0
..
.
Routh n + 1 s.
(n/2)+1 n (n + 1) /2
n .
D (s), an sn .

an1 an2 an an3
an an3
bn2 =
= an2
an1
an1
an1 an4 an an5
an an5
bn4 =
= an4
an1
an1
..
.

bn2 an3 an1 bn4
an1 bn4
cn3 =
= an3
bn2
bn2
bn2 an5 an1 bn6
an1 bn6
cn5 =
= an5
bn2
bn2
..
.
, , .
,
a0 D (s) . bn2 = 0,
bn2 = 0, 0001 ( ) . ,
cn3 = 0, cn3 = 0, 0001 .
Routh
a0 .
/QQ[3a0 4.4] Routh
( C )
Routh .
, C
Routh.
Routh
175
Routh
.
, n
D (s) 4, Routh

D (s).
4.4 n = 2 a2 = 1,
D (s) = s2 + a1 s + a0
Routh
s2 1
a0
1
s a1
0
s0 a1 a0a(1)0
=
a
0 0
1
Routh 1, a1 , a0
D (s) = 0 C a1 > 0, a0 > 0.
, ?? . a1 > 0 a0 < 0
Routh,
. a1 < 0
a0 < 0 Routh
+
C .
a1 < 0 a0 > 0,
+
Routh C .
4.5
D (s) = s3 + a2 s2 + a1 s + a0
Routh
s3
s2
s1
s0
1
a2
a2 a1 (1)a0
a2
a0
a1
= a1
a0
a2
a1
a0
0
0
a0
>0
a2
a0
a2
D (s) = 0 C
a0
a2 > 0, a1 > , a0 > 0
a2
a1 >
176
a2 < 0, a1 > aa02 a0 > 0,

Routh .
a2 < 0, a1 > aa02 a0 < 0,
Routh
+
C . a2 < 0, a1 < aa02 a0 < 0, ,
.

(unity feedback).
,
(P )

??.
(P ) (C)
:
1. C (s) ,
(C) ,
2. C (s)
(C)
(P ) (C)
4.2, (P, C) u1 (t) u2 (t)
y (t) yc (t),
, .
(C)
(stabilizing compensator) (stabilizing
controler).
4.6 (P )
(C), (P )
(C) (P ) .
177
u1(t)
u2(t)
uc(t)
(C)
yc(t)
+ u(t)
+
y(t)
()
Sx. 4.2

, 4.2 4.3
(P ) (P )
4.3 (P ) (P )
'
/QQ[3a0 4.5] (C) (P ) (P )

(C) .
u1(t)
u(t)
y(t)
(P)
+
yc(t)
uc(t)
(C)
u2(t)
+
Sx.4.3
4.2

.
(tracking)
(C) y (t)
178
(P, C) u2 (t),
(C)
u2 (t) limt y (t) = u2 (t) .

4.2 (rejection) y (t) , u1 (t).
(C) u1 (t)
y (t) . u1 (t)
u2 (t) ,
4.2 (C)
(P ) .
(P )
(C).
(P ) ,

+
C = {s C, Re (s) 0} (
` ' 3).
(P )
0
di
. i := dt
:= 1
i , i = 0, 1, 2, ..

D () = n + an1 n1 + ... + a1 + a0
N () = bm m + bm1 m1 + ... + b1 + b0
.. ?? (P )
D () y (t) = N () u (t)
(4.39)

Dc () yc (t) = Nc () uc (t)
(4.40)
.. (C) , Dc () Nc ()
, uc (t) , yc (t)
(C). ?? ??
(feedback)
4.2,
u (t) = yc (t) + u1 (t)
(4.41)
uc (t) = u2 (t) y (t)
(4.42)
179
u1 (t) , u2 (t) , ?? ??
D () y (t) = N () [yc (t) + u1 (t)]
(4.43)
= N () yc (t) + N () u1 (t)
?? ??
Dc () yc (t) = Nc () [u2 (t) y (t)]
(4.44)
= Nc () u2 (t) Nc () y (t)
D () y (t) N () yc (t) = N () u1 (t)
(4.45)
Nc () y (t) + Dc () yc (t) = Nc () u2 (t)

(4.46)
..
"
#"
# "
#"
#
D () N ()
y (t)
N ()
0
u1 (t)
(4.47)
=
u2 (t)
Nc () Dc ()
yc (t)
0
Nc ()
,
"
#
D () N ()
det
= D () Dc () + N () Nc ()
Nc () Dc ()
,
?? ,
"
# "
#1 "
#"
#
y (t)
N ()
0
D () N ()
u1 (t)
=
u2 (t)
yc (t)
0
Nc ()
Nc () Dc ()

D = D () ...,
"
#"
# "
#
Dc N
NNc
y (t)
u1 (t)
DDc +NNc
DDc +N Nc
(4.48)
=
DNc
cN
yc (t)
u2 (t)
DDNc +N
Nc
DDc +N Nc
.. (P, C)
[DDc + N Nc ] y (t) = Dc N u1 (t) + N Nc u2 (t)
(4.49)
[DDc + N Nc ] yc (t) = Nc N u1 (t) + DNc u2 (t)
(4.50)
4.3 ???? (P, C)

[DDc + N Nc ] y (t) = Dc N u1 (t)
(4.51)
[DDc + N Nc ] y (t) = N Nc u2 (t)
(4.52)
[DDc + N Nc ] yc (t) = Nc N u1 (t)
(4.53)
180
(4.54)
[DDc + N Nc ] yc (t) = DNc u2 (t)
nc := deg [D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)] ci , i = 1, 2, ..., nc nc

D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = 0
(P, C), ?? (P, C)

Re (ci ) < 0 i = 1, 2, ..., nc :
D (s) N (s)
+
C = {s C, Re (s) 0}
+
f (s) C
D (s) = f (s) D (s)
N (s) = f (s) N (s)
+
D (s) , N (s) ; C .
Dc (s) , Nc (s) (
(C)) ( ??)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = f (s) D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)

(4.55)
??
(P, C) f (s) (
+
C ) Dc (s) , Nc (s)
(P, C) .
(P ) .
( 3.38 3: )
,
(P ) .
/QQ[3a0 4.6]
(i) (P ) .
(ii) f (s) D (s) N (s) ,
f (s0 ) 6= 0 s0 C+ .
(iii) si C (P ) (
) C =
181
{s C, Re (s) < 0} , si C D (si ) = 0, N (si ) = 0

si C .
+
(iv) s0 C : D (s0 ) 6= 0, N (s0 ) 6= 0.

4.6 3.39
d2 y (t) dy (t)
dx (t)
+
(4.56)
2y (t) =
x (t)
dt2
dt
dt

2
+ 2 y (t) = ( 1) x (t)

D (s) = s2 + s 2 = (s 1) (s + 2)
3.39
+
C , s = 1 f (s) = s 1
N (s) = s1 D (s) = (s 1) (s + 2) . .
s = 1 ( s1)
(s)
P (s) = N
D(s)
P (s):
N (s)
N (s)
s1
1
P (s) =
=
=
=
D (s)
(s 1) (s + 2)
(s + 2)
D (s)
s = 2.
??. (i)(ii) (P )
Dc (s) , Nc (s)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) (P, C)
C . f (s) ()
D (s) N (s),
D (s) = f (s) D (s)
(4.57)
N (s) = f (s) N (s)

D (s) , N (s) (ii)
s0 C+ f (s0 ) = 0.
D (s0 ) Dc (s0 ) + N (s0 ) Nc (s0 ) = f (s0 ) D (s0 ) Dc (s0 ) + N (s0 ) Nc (s0 ) = 0
(P, C) (P ) ,
. (P )
f (s0 ) 6= 0 s0 C+ .
(ii)(iii) ,
f (s) D (s) N (s) , s0 C
182
D (s) = D (s) f (s) N (s) = N (s) f (s)

D (s) , N (s) f (s0 ) = 0. (ii)
s0 C+ f (s0 ) 6= 0,
si C f (si ) = 0 si C .
(iii)(iv) .
4.4 (C)
,
' .
Dc (s) Nc (s) ..
+
(C) C ,
L (s)
+
C
Dc (s) = L (s) Dc (s)
Nc (s) = L (s) N c (s)
Dc (s) , Nc (s)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = f (s) L (s) D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) N c (s)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)

(P, C) L (s) (
+
C ) (P, C) .
.
/QQ[3a0 4.7] (C)
(P, C)
: (C)
+
C .
4.5 ??
(C)
.
(C)

183
R [s] s
R Rpr (s)
11 ( 3: )
Rs (s) Rpr (s) :
N (s)
+
Rs (s) := P (s) =
Rpr (s) P (s) C
D (s)
+
( P (s) = N(s)
D(s) Rpr (s) C
D (s) = 0 C )
Rs (s) .

4.8 (P ) ..
D () y (t) = N () u (t)
degD (s) degN (s) (P ) .
(P ) P (s)
(P ) . , degD (s)
+
degN (s) (P ) C ,
. . D (s) = 0 C P (s) Rs (s)
. ()(: degD (s) degN (s)

D (s) = 0 C P (s) Rs (s)). (i)
degD (s) degN (s) , P (s) = N(s)
D(s) Rpr (s) . (ii)
N (s) D (s)
(s)
P (s) = N
D(s) D (s) = 0
D (s) = 0 C
{ P (s)} C . (i) (ii) P (s) Rs (s) .
()(: P (s) Rs (s) degD (s) degN (s) D (s) = 0
C ). P (s) Rs (s) P (s) Rpr (s) degD (s)
degN (s). , ,
P (s) Rs (s) D (s) = 0
+
C . f (s) D (s) N (s),
11
An N (s) , D (s) R [s] prvta metaj toyw tte h rhth synrthsh P (s) =
no an deg N (s) deg D (s) .
N (s)
D(s)
Rpt (s) an kai
184

D (s) = f (s) D (s)
(4.58)
N (s) = f (s) N (s)
D (s) , N (s) (P )
+
, f (s0 ) 6= 0 s0 C . D (s) = 0
+
C D (s) = 0.
??
N (s)
N (s)
P (s) =
=
D (s)
D (s)
+
P (s) C P (s)
/ Rs (s)
, . (P )
P (s) Rs (s) D (s) = 0 C .
4.6 (P )
,
P (s)
.
4.7 (P, C)
??-??
s0 C+ :
[D (s0 ) Dc (s0 ) + N (s0 ) Nc (s0 )] 6= 0
(4.59)
Dc (s0 ) N (s0 ) 6= 0
N (s0 ) Nc (s0 ) 6= 0
Nc (s0 ) N (s0 ) 6= 0
D (s0 ) Nc (s0 ) 6= 0
?? s0 C+
D (s0 ) 6= 0, N (s0 ) 6= 0
(4.60)
Dc (s0 ) 6= 0, Nc (s0 ) 6= 0
(P ) (C)
, (P ) (C)
, ??
?? (P, C) .
(P, C)

185
u1 (t) , u2 (t) yc (t) , y (t)

,
Dc N
Y (s)
Rs (s)
=
U1 (s)
DDc + N Nc
N Nc
Y (s)
Rs (s)
=
U2 (s)
DDc + N Nc
Yc (s)
Nc N
Rs (s)
=
U1 (s)
DDc + N Nc
DNc
Yc (s)
=
Rs (s)
U2 (s)
DDc + N Nc

(P, C)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
C .
(stabilising controler)
(C).
,
(P ) .
N (s)
Rpr (s)
P (s) =
D (s)
(P ) , N (s) , D (s)

Nc (s)
C (s) =
Rpr (s)
Dc (s)
(C) , Nc (s) , Dc (s)
(P )

P (s) . . ??
+
(P ) C (P )
+
C .
P (s) . . ??
C .
U (s) , Yc (s) , U1 (s) , Uc (s) , U2 (s) , Y (s)

Laplace u (t) , yc (t) , u1 (t) , uc (t) , u2 (t) , y (t) ?? ??
(feedback)
186
4.2
Y (s) = P (s) U (s)
(4.61)
Yc (s) = C (s) Uc (s)
(4.62)
U (s) = U1 (s) + Yc (s)
(4.63)
Uc (s) = U2 (s) Y (s)

(4.64)
, , ??-??
"
# "
#"
#
Y (s)
P (s) 0
U (s)
(4.65)
=
Yc (s)
0
C (s)
Uc (s)
"
# "
# "
#"
#
U (s)
U1 (s)
0
1
Y (s)
(4.66)
=
+
Uc (s)
U2 (s)
1 0
Yc (s)
?? ??
"
# "
# ("
# "
#"
#)
Y (s)
P (s) 0
U1 (s)
0
1
Y (s)
=
+
U2 (s)
Yc (s)
0
C (s)
1 0
Yc (s)
"
# "
#"
# "
#"
#"
#
Y (s)
P (s) 0
U1 (s)
P (s) 0
0
1
Y (s)
=
+
U2 (s)
Yc (s)
0
C (s)
0
C (s)
1 0
Yc (s)
"
# "
#"
# "
#"
#
Y (s)
P (s) 0
U1 (s)
0
P (s)
Y (s)
=
+
U2 (s)
Yc (s)
0
C (s)
C (s) 0
Yc (s)
"
# "
#"
# "
#"
#
Y (s)
0
P (s)
Y (s)
P (s) 0
U1 (s)
=
U2 (s)
Yc (s)
C (s) 0
Yc (s)
0
C (s)
# "
#"
#
"
#"
P (s) 0
U1 (s)
1
P (s)
Y (s)
=
(4.67)
U2 (s)
0
C (s)
C (s) 1
Yc (s)

"
#
1
P (s)
det
= 1 + P (s) C (s)
(4.68)
C (s) 1
,
"
#1
1
P (s)
C (s) 1
187
?? , ??
"
#"
# "
#1 "
#
Y (s)
P (s) 0
U1 (s)
1
P (s)
=
U2 (s)
Yc (s)
0
C (s)
C (s) 1
"
#"
#"
# "
#
P (s)
1
Y (s)
P
(s)
0
U
(s)
1
1+P (s)C(s)
1+P (s)C(s)
=
1
U2 (s)
Yc (s)
0
C (s)
1+PC(s)
(s)C(s)
1+P (s)C(s)
"
#"
# "
#
P (s)C(s)
P (s)
Y (s)
U
(s)
1
1+P (s)C(s)
1+P (s)C(s)
(4.69)
=
C(s)
P (s)C(s)
U2 (s)
Yc (s)
1+P
(s)C(s)
1+P (s)C(s)
P (s)
P (s) C (s)
Y (s) =
U1 (s) +
U2 (s)
1 + P (s) C (s)
1 + P (s) C (s)
P (s) C (s)
C (s)
Yc (s) =
U1 (s) +
U2 (s)
1 + P (s) C (s)
1 + P (s) C (s)
4.7
Hcl (s) :=
"
P (s)
1+P (s)C(s)
P (s)C(s)
1+P
(s)C(s)
P (s)C(s)
1+P (s)C(s)
C(s)
1+P (s)C(s)
(4.70)
??
(P, C) .
Hcl (s) :
N (s) Dc (s)
P (s)
, U1 (s) 7 Y (s) (4.71)
H11 (s) :=
=
1 + P (s) C (s)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
H12 (s) :=
N (s) N (s)
P (s) C (s)
, U2 (s) 7 Y (s) (4.72)
=
1 + P (s) C (s)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
H21 (s) :=
H22 (s) :=
P (s) C (s)
N (s) N (s)
, U1 (s) 7 Yc (s)
=
1 + P (s) C (s)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
(4.73)
C (s)
Nc (s) D (s)
, U2 (s) 7 Yc (s) (4.74)
=
1 + P (s) C (s)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
U1 (s) , U2 (s)
Y (s) , Yc (s) (P, C) .
4.8
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
(4.75)
188
Hcl (s)
(P, C) .
??, (P, C)
??-??, (C)
??-?? ,
??, ??-?? ,
??, (P, C)
??-??
??-?? ,

Hij (s) Rs (s) i = 1, 2 j = 1, 2
(4.76)
.
4.9 (P )
P (s) = N(s)
Rpr (s) N (s) , D (s) R [s]
D(s)
Nc (s)
Rpr (s)
. (C) C (s) = D
c (s)
Nc (s) , Dc (s) R [s]
??-?? ??-??

D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
Hcl (s) (P, C)
C .
4.7 (P ) ..
dx (t)
d2 y (t)
y (t) =
(4.77)
+ x (t)
dt2
dt
Laplace ?? y (0)(2) =
y (0) = x (0)(1) = x (0) = 0
s2 Y (s) Y (s) = sX (s) + X (s)
(4.78)
(s + 1) (s 1) Y (s) = (s + 1) X (s)
(4.79)
,
D (s) = (s + 1) (s 1) ,
N (s) = (s + 1)
. (P )
N (s)
(s + 1)
1
N (s)
Rpr (s)
P (s) =
=
=
=
D (s)
(s 1) (s + 1)
s1
D (s)
189

Nc (s)
(s 1)
(4.80)
=
Rs (s)
Dc (s)
(s + 1)
, H12 (s) :
U2 (s) 7 Y (s)
P (s) C (s)
N (s) N (s)
H12 (s) : =
=
1 + P (s) C (s)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
(s 1)
1
=
=
Rs (s)
(s + 2) (s 1)
(s + 2)
.. H11 (s) : U1 (s) 7
Y (s)
(s + 1)
P (s)
N (s) Dc (s)
=
H11 (s) :=
=
1 + P (s) C (s)
(s + 2) (s 1)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
.
Hcl (s) (P, C)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = (s 1) (s + 1) + (s 1) = (s + 2) (s 1)
s = 1.
C (s) =
Dc (s) Nc (s) :
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = f (s)
D (s) , N (s) f (s) .

Dc (s) , Nc (s) ??
(4.81)
4.10 ?? Dc (s) , Nc (s) R [s]

() D (s) N (s) f (s).
. ()( D (s) N (s) f (s)

?? Dc (s) , Nc (s) R [s]). G (s) D (s) N (s) .
L1 (s) , L2 (s):
D (s) L1 (s) + N (s) L2 (s) = G (s)
(4.82)
e (s) , N (s) = G (s) N

e (s)
D (s) = G (s) D
(4.83)
e (s)
f (s) = G (s) L
(4.84)
e (s) , N
e (s) . ?? L
e (s)
D
e (s) + N (s) L2 (s) L
e (s) = G (s) L
e (s) = f (s)
D (s) L1 (s) L
190
4
e (s) , Nc (s) := L2 (s) L
e (s) ??.
Dc (s) := L1 (s) L
()( ?? Dc (s) , Nc (s) R [s] D (s) N (s)

f (s)). Dc (s) , Nc (s) ??.
G (s) D (s) N (s) . ?? ??
h
i
e (s) Dc (s)+G (s) N
e (s) Nc (s) = G (s) D
e (s) Dc (s) + N
e (s) Nc (s) = f (s)
G (s) D
G (s) D (s) N (s) f (s).
/QQ[3a0 4.11] D (s) N (s) ,

f (s) R [s] ?? Dc (s) , Nc (s).
. D (s) N (s) , D (s)
N (s) 1 1 f (s) R [s]
/QQ[3a0 4.12] D (s) N (s)
Dc (s) , Nc (s) ?? Dc (s) , N c (s) ??
Dc (s) = Dc (s) + T (s) N (s)
(4.85)
N c (s) = Nc (s) T (s) D (s)
T (s) R [s] .
. Dc (s) 6= Dc (s) , N c (s) 6= Nc (s) ??.

D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) N c (s) = f (s)
(4.86)
?? ??
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) D (s) Dc (s) N (s) N c (s) = 0
D (s) Dc (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) N c (s) = 0
D (s) Dc (s) Dc (s) = N (s) Nc (s) N c (s)

(4.87)
?? D (s) N (s)
D (s) Nc (s) N c (s) N (s) Dc (s) Dc (s) .

T (s) R [s]
Nc (s) N c (s) = T (s) D (s)

N c (s) = Nc (s) T (s) D (s)
(4.88)
191
N c (s) ?? ??
D (s) Dc (s) Dc (s) = N (s) Nc (s) Nc (s) + T (s) D (s)

= N (s) T (s) D (s)
Dc (s) Dc (s) = N (s) T (s)
Dc (s) = Dc (s) + N (s) T (s)

Dc (s) , N c (s) ??
(4.89)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) N c (s)
= D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) T (s) + N (s) Nc (s) T (s) D (s)
= D (s) Dc (s) + D (s) N (s) T (s) + N (s) Nc (s) N (s) T (s) D (s)
= D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = f (s)

.
(proper stabilizing compensator)

(C)

C .
.
R [s]k k R [s] .
k
R [s]
k () .
1
R [s]
- pi (s) R [s],
i = 1, 2, ..., p (s) , 1 :
p1 (s)
p2 (s)
R [s]1
p (s) :=
..
.
p (s)
R [s]
()
p (s) R [s]1 () .
192
i = 1, 2, ...,
pi (s) = pki ski + pki 1 ski 1 + ... + p1 s + p0 R [s] ,
pj R, j = 0, 1, 2, ..., ki
pki 6= 0, ki = deg (pi (s)) pi (s) deg {p (s)}

p (s)
kio = deg {p (s)} :=
max
i=1,2,...,
{deg (pi (s))}

1
p (s) R [s]
R .
4.8 = 3
p1 (s)
3s + 2s2 + s + 1
31
p (s) = p2 (s) = s2 + s + 2
R [s]
p3 (s)
s4 2s3 + 5s2 + 4
k1 = deg (p1 (s)) = 3, k2 = deg (p2 (s)) = 2, k3 = deg (p3 (s)) = 4
deg {p (s)} max {deg (pi (s))} = max {3, 2, 4} = 4 = k3
i=1,2,3
p (s) :

0
3
2
1
1

p (s) = s4 0 + s3 0 + s2 1 + s 1 + 2
1
2
5
0
4
D (s) = sn + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0 R [s]
N (s) = bn1 sn1 + ... + b1 s + b0 R [s]
S (s) 2n 2
1
0
s
0
..
..
.
.
sn1
0
S (s) :=
0
1
0
s
.
..
.
.
.
n1
0
s
2n2
R [s]
2n 1 x (s)
1
0
D (s)
s
sD (s)
0
..
..
..
. "
.
"
#
#
sn1
sn1 D (s)
D (s)
D (s)
0
x (s) := S (s)
=
=
N (s)
1
N (s)
N (s)
sN (s)
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
0
sn1
sn1 N (s)
193
2n1
R [s]
(4.90)
deg {x (s)} = deg sn1 D (s) = 2n 1

x (s)
x (s) = x0 +x1 s+...+x2n1 s2n1 =
xi R
x0
, i = 0, 1, ..., 2n 1
a0 a1
0 a0
..
..
.
.
0 0
i
. . . x2n1 =
2n2n
b0 b1
0 b0
.
..
..
.
0 0
x1
. . . x2n1
2n2n
1
s
s2
..
.
s2n1
2n1
s (s)
= Rb
(4.91)
2n1
an1
0
..
..
.
.
a
.
.
.
a
1
1
n1
h
2n2n
R = x0 x1
0
0
...
0
bn1 0
...
0
..
..
..
.
.
.
...
0
b0
b1
. . . bn1 0
(4.92)
?? Silvester D (s)
N (s).
. . . an1
. . . an2
..
..
.
.
...
a0
. . . bn1
b1
...
..
..
.
.
0
1
..
.
...
...
..
.
Lemma 4.13 D (s) , N (s)

rankR = 2n
194
4
.() (D (s) , N (s) rankR = 2n).
D (s) , N (s) rankR < 2n.
h
i
> = 10 11 . . . 1,n1 20 21 . . . 2,n1 R12n
> 6= 0
> R = 0
(4.93)
?? sb (s) '
?? ??
"
#
D (s)
>
>
>
Rb
s (s) = x (s) = S (s)
=0
N (s)
"
#
i D (s)
h
=0
a1 (s) a2 (s)
N (s)
a1 (s) := 10 +11 s+...+1,n1 sn1 , a2 (s) := 20 +21 s+...+2,n1 sn1 ,
a1 (s) D (s) = a2 (s) N (s)

(4.94)
a1 (s)
N (s)
=
a2 (s)
D (s)
D (s) , N (s) ??,
a1 (s) N (s) a2 (s) D (s) k (s)
N (s) = a1 (s) k (s) ?? a1 (s) D (s) = a2 (s) a1 (s) k (s)
D (s) = a2 (s) k (s) N (s) , D (s) k (s)
.
() (rankR = 2n D (s) , N (s) ). rankR = 2n
D (s) , N (s)
0 C D (0 ) = 0, N (0 ) = 0. ?? ??
1
"
#
i
h
0
D (0 )
=
Rb
s
(
)
=
x (0 ) = S (0 )
= x0 x1 . . . x2n1
0
..
N (0 )
.
2n2n
2n1
0
2n1
sb (0 ) 6= 0 0 C 2n x0 , x1 , ..., x2n1
R rankR < 2n. .
??
0
0
..
.
0
2n1
(4.95)

195
4.14 D (s) , N (s)

fc (s) = f0 + f1 s + ... + f2n1 s2n1 R [s]
(4.96)
deg {fc (s)} 2n 1,
Dc (s) , Nc (s), deg {Dc (s)} n 1, deg {Nc (s)} n 1
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = fc (s)
(4.97)
.
Dc (s) = x0 + x1 s + ... + xn1 sn1
(4.98)
n1
Nc (s) = y0 + y1 s + ... + yn1 s
xi , yi , i = 0, 1, ..., n 1 Dc (s) , Nc (s) . ??
"
#
i D (s)
h
=
Dc (s) Nc (s)
N (s)
1
0
s
0
..
..
.
"
#
h
i sn1
0
D (s)
=
x0 x1 . . . xn1 | y0 y1 . . . yn1
0
1
N (s)
0
s
.
..
.
.
.
0
sn1
h
i
??,??
2
=
x0 x1 . . . xn1 | y0 y1 . . . yn1 R s
..
2n1
s
h
i
2
=
f0 f1 . . . f2n1 s
..
s2n1

h
i
h
i
x0 x1 . . . xn1 | y0 y1 . . . yn1 R = f0 f1 . . . f2n1
D (s) , N (s) , ?? R1
196
Dc (s) Nc (s)
h
i h
i
x0 x1 . . . xn1 | y0 y1 . . . yn1 = f0 f1 . . . f2n1 R1
(4.99)

C (s) =
Nc (s)
Dc (s) Rpr (s). 1 = {1 , 2 , ..., 2n1 }
R 2n 1
C , i = 1, 2, ..., 2n 1 , i = i + j i ,
i < 0 i, i 6= 0,
i : i = i j i . fc (s)
1 , 2 , ..., n :
2n1
Y
fc (s) :=
(s i ) = f2n1 s2n1 + f2n2 s2n2 + ... + f1 s + f0 R [s] (4.100)
i=1
4.15 Dc (s) , Nc (s) ??,

?? ??
Nc (s)
C (s) =
(4.101)
Dc (s)
.
. ??, C (s)

(P, C) :
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
(4.102)
C . ??????
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = fc (s)

fc (s)
,
.
1. 1 = {1 , 2 , ..., 2n1 } C fc (s)
??..
2. ?? Dc (s) , Nc (s) ,
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = fc (s) .
197
3.
??.
4.9 P (s) = s13 n = 3, N (s) = 1, D (s) = s3 .

i = 1, i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 fc (s) := (s + 1)5 = s5 +5s4 +10s3 +10s2 +5s+1.
R ?? R1 N (s) = 1, D (s) = s3
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
R=
= R1
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0

h
i
f0 f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 R1
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
h
i 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
h
i h
i
=
10 5 1 1 5 10 = x0 x1 x3 | y0 y1 y2
Dc (s) = x0 + x1 s + x2 s2 = 10 + 5s + s2 , Nc (s) = y0 + y1 s + y2 s2 =
1 + 5s + 10s2 ,.
Nc (s)
10s2 + 5s + 1
C (s) =
= 2
Dc (s)
s + 5s + 10

D (s) Dc (s)+N (s) Nc (s) = s3 s2 + 5s + 10 + 10s2 + 5s + 1 = (s + 1)5 = fc (s)
?? D (s) N (s)
Dc (s) , Nc (s) ?? Dc (s) , N c (s) ??

Dc (s) = Dc (s) + T (s) N (s)
N c (s) = Nc (s) T (s) D (s)
T (s) R [s]
198

Nc (s) T (s) D (s)
N c (s)
=
CT (s) (s) =
Dc (s)
Dc (s) + T (s) N (s)
c (s)
CT (s) (s) = N

Dc (s)
T (s)
deg N c (s) = deg Nc (s) T (s) D (s) deg Dc (s) = deg Dc (s) + T (s) N (s)
(4.103)

T (s) = c R
deg Nc (s) n 1,
deg Dc (s) n 1
deg Nc (s) cD (s) = deg cD (s) = n
deg Dc (s) + cN (s) n 1
c 6= 0 CT (s) (s) Rpr (s.)

4.10
T (s) = c R [s], N c (s) =

Nc (s) cD (s) = 10s2 + 5s + 1 cs3 = 10s2 + 5s + 1 cs3 , Dc (s) =
Dc (s) + cN (s) = s2 + 5s + 10 + c = s2 + 5s + 10 + c,
cs3 + 10s2 + 5s + 1
Cc (s) =
/ Rpr (s.)
s2 + 5s + 10 + c
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) N c (s) = s2 + 5s + 10 + c s3 + cs3 + 10s2 + 5s + 1

= (s + 1)

4.2. u2 (t)

y (t) .
(asymtotic tracking) y (t) u2 (t).
y (t)
`' u2 (t) t
. u1 (s) .
199
uc (t)
uc (t) = u2 (t) y (t)
(4.104)
4.2 uc (t)
. u2 (t)
`' c > 0.
(
c t 0
0 t < 0
`' K > 0
(
Kt t 0
u2 (t) =
0 t < 0
uc (t) 0
t
??
u2 (t) =
y (t) = u2 (t)
(4.105)
(4.106)

. (
u2 (t) = c, t 0) (: y (t))
c .
.
u2 (t) = Kt, t 0
radar
. radar
, (t)
(t) = Kt.
S (s) u2 (t)
uc (t) U2 (s) =L{u2 (t)} , Uc (s) =L{uc (t)}
Uc (s)
1
S (s) =
=
U2 (s)
1 + P (s) C (s)
y (t) `'
u2 (t)
S (s) s = 0.
4.16 (P, C)
u1 (t) = 0.
200
1. 1. u2 (t) uc (t) 0 t
S (s) s = 0
S (0) = 0.
2. 2. u2 (t) uc (t) 0 t
S (s) s = 0.

( Laplace,
, 3.) L{x (t)} = X (s)
+
C s = 0 ,
limt x (t) limt x (t) = lims0 sX (s) .
1. .
2. 1. u2 (t) : u2 (t) = c, t 0, u2 (t) = 0, t < 0
U2 (s) = sc , Uc (s) = S (s) sc .
S (s) Rs (s) .
c
lim uc (t) = lim sUc (s) = lim sS (s) = S (0) c
(4.107)
t
s0
s0
s
?? S (0) = 0.
3. 2. u2 (t) : u2 (t) = ct, t 0, u2 (t) =
0, t < 0, U2 (s) = sc2 Uc (s) = S (s) sc2 ,
c
c
lim uc (t) = lim sUc (s) = lim sS (s) 2 = lim S (s)
t
s0
s0
s0
s
s
S (s) s = 0, S (s)
S (s) = s2 S1 (s), lims0 S (s) sc = lims0 s2 S1 (s) sc = lims0 sS1 (s) c =
0.
4.8
1
D (s) Dc (s)
=
1 + P (s) C (s)
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s)
S (0) = 0 D (0) Dc (0) = 0 S (s)
c (s)
s = 0 P (s) C (s) = N(s)N
s = 0.
D(s)Dc (s)
??
P (s) C (s) s = 0, D (0) = 0
Dc (0) = 0 y (t) `'
u2 (t) .
S (s) =
4.11
v (t) u (t) '
201
..
kf
1
v (t) +
(4.108)
v (t) =
u (t)
M
M
u (t) v (t) ,
Laplace U (s) =L{u (t)}
V (s) =L{v (t)}
1
N (s)
= M kf
P (s) =
D (s)
s+ M
C (s)
v0 , v0 R . 4.4
.
j Im H(s)
j Im s
H(s)
H(s)
s
Re H(s)
Re s
Sx. 4.4
v (t) ( )

u2 (t).
uc (t) = v (t) u2 (t)
C (s) yc (t) .
u1 (t)
. .. u1 (t)

, .
u (t)
u (t) = yc (t) + u1 (t)
u1 (t) = 0, u2 (t) 6= 0 U2 (s) , V (s)
Laplace u2 (t) v (t) ,
V (s) U2 (s)
P (s) C (s)
V (s) =
(4.109)
U2 (s)
1 + P (s) C (s)
u2 (t) = 0 u1 (t) 6= 0.
4.3
4.5
202
u1(t)
u(t)
y(t)
(P)
+
yc(t)
uc(t)
(C)
u2(t)
+
Sx.4.5: Kleist ssthma tan u2 (t) = 0
P (s)
U1 (s)
1 + P (s) C (s)
U1 (s) Laplace u1 (t) .
, ?? ??,
P (s) C (s)
P (s)
V (s) =
(4.110)
U2 (s) +
U1 (s)
1 + P (s) C (s)
1 + P (s) C (s)
?? Laplace V (s)
u2 (t)
u1 (t) t = 0.
u2 (t) u1 (t) :
u2 (t) = r0 , t 0 u1 (t) = d0 , t 0
u2 (t) = 0, t < 0 u1 (t) = 0, t < 0
U2 (s) = r0 /s U1 (s) = d0 /s.
Nc (s)
C (s) =
Dc (s)
Nc (s) , Dc (s) R [s] degNc (s) degDc (s) .
?? Laplace V (s)
v (t)
P (s) C (s) r0
P (s) d0
P (s) [C (s) r0 + d0 ]
V (s) =
+
=
[1 + P (s) C (s)] s [1 + P (s) C (s)] s
[1 + P (s) C (s)] s
h
i
N (s) Nc (s)
r + d0
N (s) [Nc (s) r0 + Dc (s) d0 ]
D(s) Dc (s) 0
i
= h
(4.111)
=
N (s)Nc (s)
D
(s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) s
1+
s
V (s) =
D(s)Dc (s)
u2 (t) ( u2 (t) =
r0 , t 0, ) v (t) u2 (t)
v (t) r0
t
(4.112)
?? ??
Nc (s)
:
C (s) = D
c (s)
1. C (s) s = 0 : Dc (s) = sDc (s) , Dc (s)
R [s] Dc (0) 6= 0
203
2.
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) .
?? ??
1 2. , 2.
lim v (t) ,
t
lim v (t) = lim sV (s)

t
s0
(4.113)
, ??,
N (0) [Nc (0) r0 + Dc (0) d0 ]
lim v (t) =
(4.114)
t
D (0) Dc (0) + N (0) Nc (0)
1, Dc (0) = 0, ??,
N (0) Nc (0) r0
= r0
lim v (t) =
t
N (0) Nc (0)
v (t) u2 (t) = r0 , t 0
u1 (t) = d0 .

(1/M ) [Nc (s) v0 + Dc (s) d0 ]
V (s) =
[(s + kf /M ) Dc (s) + (1/M ) Nc (s)] s

Dc (s) = s
Nc (s) = s + 1

kf
1
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) =
s+
Dc (s) +
Nc (s)
M
M
kf + 1
1
= s2 +
s+
M
M
D (s) Dc (s) + N (s) Nc (s) = 0
q
2
(kf + 1) 4M
(kf + 1)
s1,2 =
2M
2M
2
4M > (kf + 1) ,
(kf + 1) /2M. kf > 0, M > 0, (kf + 1) /2M < 0
Nc (s)
C (s) = D
= s+1
s . Dc (s) = s
c (s)
??.
s (1/M ) [Nc (0) v0 + Dc (0) d0 ]
lim (t) = lim sV (s) =
= v0
s0
[(s + kf /M ) Dc (0) + (1/M ) Nc (0)] s
t
v (t) v0
t
. 4.4
Laplace Yc (s) yc (t)

i v
i
s + 1 h v0
1 h v0
0
Yc (s) =
V (s) =
V (s) +
V (s)
s
s
s
s s
Laplace Yc (s) ,
204
yc (t)
Z t
yc (t) = v0 v (t) +
(v0 v ( )) d ,
t0
0
uc (t) v0 v (t)
uc (t) = v0 v (t)

Z
t
yc (t) = uc (t) +
uc ( ) d ,
t0
yc (t) uc (t)
.
PI control. (proportional-integral control).
M = 1, kf = 0.1 v0 = d0 = 1.
Laplace V (s) ,
2s + 1
V (s) = 2
(s + 1.1s + 1) s
t = 0 ,
v (0) = 0 v (0) = 0.
Laplace v (t) V (s)
v (t) = 1 + 2.00358e0.55t cos (0.83516t + 119.94 ) ,
t0
v (t) 4.6.
1 u2 (t) = 1, t 0. 4.6

, t > 8 sec
v (t) u2 (t) = 1, t 0.
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0
10
Sx. 4.6: Taxthta toy aytokinhtoy t [0, 10] gia esodo anaforw u2 (t) = 1, t 0, u2 (t) = 0, t < 0.
205

(P )
deg D (s) > deg N (s) :
N (s)
Rpr (s) deg D (s) > deg N (s)
P (s) =
D (s)

K Rpr (s) :
C (s) = K R

(4.115)
D (s) + KN (s) = 0
K
??. K [0, ) ??
C. K = 0 ??

D (s) = 0
P (s) = N(s)

D(s)
K ?? s =
N (s) = 0
12

P (s)
. ?? C
k (, +)
.
12
Uevrvntaw ton orism tvn mhdenikvn miaw rhthw synrthshw P (s) =
N (s)
D(s)
san ta shmea s0
C {} gia ta opoa lim P (s) = 0 bl;epume ti an h synrthshw metaforw P (s) =

ss0
N (s)
D(s)
toy
anoikto systhmatow enai aysthr kanonikh rhth synrthsh deg D (s) > deg N (s) tte to shmeo
s0 = enai to mhdenik thw P (s) sto shmeo s = baumo = deg D (s) deg N (s) > 0.

Niquist

. ' y (t)

x (t) = A cos t, t 0, A R ,
= 2f , f = T1 T
. , ,
,
H (s) , y (t) x (t) = A cos t

x (t)
y (t) = A |H (j)| cos [t + ()] ,
t0
() = arg H (j) x (t)

y (t).
,

.

(argument principle). , Niquist,

,
.
208
5 Niquist

, ,
x (t) y (t)
(s)
H (s) = N
D(s) Rpr (s) .
pi
H (s) C :=
{s : s = + j | < 0}.
x (t)
x (t) = A cos t,
(5.1)
t0
A R R ( rad/sec)
x (t).
y (t)

y (t) = A |H (j)| cos [t + ()] ,
t0

,
A |H (j)| y (t)
A
|H (j)| H (s)
s = j
() = arg H (j)
H (s)
.
-
Y (s) = H (s) X (s)
Y (s) , X (s) Laplace y (t)

(s)
x (t) H (s) = N
D(s) .
x (t) ?? Laplace X (s) x (t)
As
X (s) = 2
s + 2
t = 0
t = 0 : y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 )
, Laplace Y (s)
209

As
N (s) As
N (s) As
=
(5.2)
=
2
2
2
+
D (s) (s + )
D (s) (s j) (s + j)
?? ,
(s)
c
c
Y (s) =
(5.3)
+
+
D (s) (s j) (s + j)
(s) s deg (s) < deg D (s),
N (s) As
N (j) Aj
A
c = [(s j) Y (s)]s=j =
=
= H (j)
D (s) (s + j) s=j
D (j) (2j)
2
N (s) As
N (j) A (j)
A
c = [(s + j) Y (s)]s=j =
=
= H (j)
D (s) (s j) s=j
D (j) (2j)
2
(s)
(A/2) H (j) (A/2) H (j)
Y (s) =
(5.4)
+
+
D (s)
(s j)
(s + j)
(s)
y (t) Laplace D(s)
.
Laplace ??,
A
y (t) = y (t) +
(5.5)
H (j) ej + H (j) ej , t 0
2
(3.75), ??
Y (s) = H (s)
s2
y (t) = y (t) + A |H (j)| cos [t + arg H (j)] ,
t0
(5.6)
D (s) =
0 (D (0) 6= 0),
( Laplace
3)
(s)
0
lim y (t) = lim s
=
=0
t
s0 D (s)
D (0)
y (t) 0 t
y (t)
y (t) t .
??, t
y (t) ' A |H (j)| cos [t + arg H (j)] ,
t0
(5.7)
??
y (t) t .
y (t) , () = arg H (j)
y (t) = A |H (j)| cos [t + ()] ,
t0
(5.8)
, ,
x (t) : x (t) = A cos t, t 0,
y (t)
210
5 Niquist
, () = arg H (j)
. A |H (j)|
y (t) A

|H (j)| H (s) s = j .

.
,
??.

t = 0 ,
t = 0 ,
Laplace Y (s)
C (s)
As
Y (s) =
(5.9)
+ H (s) 2
D (s)
s + 2
C (s)
y (0 ) , y (1) (0 ) , ..., y (n1) (0 ) ( 4).

As
(s)
(A/2) H (j) (A/2) H (j)
H (s) 2
=
+
+
s + 2
D (s)
(s j)
(s + j)

C (s) + (s) (A/2) H (j) (A/2) H (j)
Y (s) =
+
+
D (s)
(s j)
(s + j)
y (t) Laplace
[C (s) + (s)] /D (s) , ,
D (s)
, y (t) 0 t .
y (t) Laplace
(A/2) H (j) (A/2) H (j)

+
(s j)
(s + j)
y (t) = A |H (j)| cos [t + ()]

211

x (t) = Aet cos t,
(5.10)
t0
A, , . = 0,
??.
Laplace Laplace X (s)
x (t) ??
A (s )
A (s )
X (s) =
= 2
2
2
s
2s
+ 2 + 2
(s ) +
s2 2s + 2 + 2
X (s) s = + j, s = j,
|X (s)| s j
s = + j x (t) =
Aet cos t.
Laplace
x (t)
A (s )
Y (s) = H (s) X (s) = H (s)
2
(s ) + 2
= 0,
y (t)
y (t) = y (t) + A |H ( + j)| et cos [t + arg H ( + j)] ,
t0
x (t) ?? y (t)

, () := arg H ( + j)
s = + j .
A |H ( + j)| et A

s = + j |H ( + j)|
H (s).
s H (s) .
212
5 Niquist

, ,

bm sm + bm1 sm1 + ... + b1 s + b0
H (s) =
, mn
sn + an1 sn1 + ... + a1 s + a0

H (s) .
?? y (t) x (t) = A cos t , t 0
y (t) = A |H (j)| cos [t + arg H (j)] ,
t0
(5.11)
H (j) ,
R
C. , H (j)
Re H (j) Im H (j) , H (j)
H (j) = Re H (j) + j Im H (j)
X () := Re H (j) , Y () := Im H (j)
|H (j)| H (j)
q
|H (j)| = [X ()]2 + [Y ()]2
() = arg H (j) H (j),
Y ()
() = arctan
X ()
H (j)
H (j) = |H (j)| cos () + j |H (j)| sin ()
= |H (j)| [cos () + j sin ()]
= |H (j)| ej()
213
j Im H(s)
j Im s
H(s)
H(s)
Re s
Sx. 5.1: Eikna toy s C msv thw H (s) sto shmeo H (s) C.
H (j)
y (t)
|H (j)| () = arg H (j) H (j).
|H (j)| arg H (j)
x (t) = A cos t
[0, ) (frequency
responce curves).
|H (j)| decibel
|H (j)|dB
|H (j)|dB = 20 log10 |H (j)|
|H (j)| < 1, log10 |H (j)| < 0 |H (j)|dB :=
20 log10 |H (j)| < 0. |H (j)| = 1, log10 |H (j)| = 0
|H (j)|dB := 20 log10 |H (j)| = 0. |H (j)| > 1, log10 |H (j)| > 0
|H (j)|dB = 20 log10 |H (j)| > 0.
|H (j)|dB
|H (j)|dB
|H (j)|dB
< 0dB |H (j)| < 1
= 0dB |H (j)| = 1
> 0dB |H (j)| > 1
,
|H (j)|dB < 0 dB, A x (t) =
A cos (t) |H (j)| ,
|H (j)|dB = 0 dB, A
x (t) ,
|H (j)|dB > 0 dB, A

|H (j)|.
Re H(s)
214
5 Niquist
5.1 |H (j)|dB = 10dB:= 20 log10 |H (j)| log10 |H (j)| =
1
2 , |H (j)| = 3. 1623. |H (j)|dB = 20dB:= 20 log10 |H (j)|
log10 |H (j)| = 1, |H (j)| = 10. |H (j)|dB = 40dB:= 20 log10 |H (j)|
log10 |H (j)| = 2, |H (j)| = 100.
|H (j)|dB arg H (j) ,

Bode

.
5.2
H (s) =
s+
> 0. s = < 0
. () .
5.2
5.3.
u1(t)
u(t)
y(t)
(P)
+
yc(t)
uc(t)
(C)
u2(t)
+
Sx. 5.2
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-0.2
-0.4
Sx. 5.3
|H (j)| H (j)
=
|H (j)| =
=
2
j +
|j + |
+ 2
(arg) H (j)
() = arg H (j) = arg

= arg arg (j + )
j +
= 0 arctan = arctan
(5.12)
(5.13)
215
H (j)
( j)
H (j) =
=
j + a
(j + ) ( j)
2
j 2
=
2
2
+
+ 2
2
X () := Re H (j) = 2 +2 , Y () := Im H (j) = 2
+ 2 ,
s
2
2
|H (j)| =
+
=p
2
2
2
2
2
+
+
( + 2 )
2 2
Y ()
() = arctan
= arctan 2+ = arctan
X ()
2 + 2
|H (j)| () H (j) =
j+ = 2 5.4 5.5 .
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0
10
12
14
Sx. 5.4: To mtro |H (j)| thw H (j)san synrthsh thw kyklikhw syxnthtaw [0, 15] .
216
5 Niquist
0
10
12
14
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.2
-1.4
Sx. 5.5: To risma () = arctan 2 thw H (j) se rad san synrthsh thw kyklikhw syxnth
[0, 15]
5.4 H (s) =
s+ `'
A sin (t) < rad/ sec
> rad/ sec .
|H (j)| H (j)
-
H (s) .
5.3
K (s + z)
H (s) =
s (s + p)
s = z R s = 0
s = p R (. 5.6)
r(s)
e(s)
P(s)
217
y(s)
Sx. 5.6

H (j) =
K (j + z)
j (j + p)

|H (j)| =
K |j + z|
K |AP |
=
|j| |j + p|
|0P | |BP |
H (j)
K (j + z)
j (j + p)
= arg K + arg (j + z) arg j arg (j + p)
= 0 + arctan 90 arctan
z
p
= 1 2
j
5.6 |H (j)|
arg H (j) H (j)
.
arg H (j) = arg

H (j) H (j)
218
5 Niquist
[0, +)
H (s). H (s) ,
s 7 H (s)
C := {s : s = + j, , R} H (s) ,

j, [0, +) H (j) (. 5.7).
j, (, +) H (j) Nyquist
H (s).
j Im s = j
s = + j
j Im H(j)
(j)
H(j)
j3
Re H(j)
j2
j1
Re s =
=
Re H(j)
()
Im H(j)
H(j)
Sx. 5.7
5.4 H (s) =
5.8.
s+
= 2 : H (j) =
2
j+2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
219
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
Sx. 5.8: Polik digramma thw H (j) =
5.5 Nyquist H (s) =

5.9.
s+
1
j+1
= 2
0.4
0.2
0 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-0.2
-0.4
Sx. 5.9: Digramma Nyquist thw H (j) =
5.6 H (s) =
2
s+2 ,
1
j+1
s = + j
2
2 ( j + 2)
H ( + j) =
=
+ j + 2
( + j + 2) ( j + 2)
2 ( + 2)
=
j 2
2 + 4 + 2 + 4
+ 4 + 2 + 4
|H ( + j)| H ( + j)
v
!
u
2
u
2
(2 + 4)
t
|H ( + j)| =
+
( 2 + 4 + 2 + 4)2
( 2 + 4 + 2 + 4)2
220
5 Niquist
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
2
Sx. 5.10: To mtro |H (s)| thw H (s) = s+2
, sto migadik eppedo s = + j gia [5, 1]
[3, 3] . O plow eirsketai sto shmeo = 2, = 0.
|H ( + j)| s = + j, [5, 1] , [3, 3]

5.10 E . |H (j)| H (s)
[, ] E = 0.
1
1
1
5.7 H (s) = s+1

. s = j, H (j) = j+1
= 1+
2 j 1+ 2
1
1
1
X () = Re j+1
= 1+
2 , Y () = Im
j+1 = 1+ 2 , arg H (j) =
1
arg j+1
= arg 1 arg (j + 1) = 0 arctan 1 = arctan . = 0, H (0) =
1, arg H (0) = arctan 0 = 0 . = 1, H (j1) = 12 j 12 , arg H (j1) =
arctan 1 = 45 . , H () = 0, arg H () = arctan () = 90 .
5.8
2
+5j+2
j 3 5 2 +9j+12 , Re H
H (s)
s2 +5s+2
s3 +5s2 +9s+12 ,
232 +24
7 4 39 2 +144+6 , Im H
(j) =
(j) =
H (j) 5.11
H (j)
()142 42+ 4
7 4 39 2 +144+ 6 .
Nyquist
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
Sx. 5.11
Nyquist 5.12.
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
-0.2
-0.4
Sx. 5.12
Nyquist
5.13.
0.4
0.5
221
222
5 Niquist
r(s)
e(s)
P(s)
Sx. 5.13
N (s)
Rpr (s)
D (s)
K R
() . H (s)
y (s)
P (s) K
N (s) K
H (s) =
=
=
r (s)
1 + P (s) K
D (s) + N (s) K
5.13
Nyquist
P (j) K
Nyquist.

H. Nyquist 193213

Cauchy 1825
(the argument principle).
(winding number) (0, 0)
, f (s) ,
s = + j .
P (s) =

C
14 f (s) : CC
s C s
, s = pi f (s)
. f (s) ( )
. , , w = f (s),
13
14
H.Nyquist, Re generation Theory,

T he Bell Systems T echnical Journal
Vol 11, 1932, pp.126 147.
San uetik prosanatolism uevrome aytn poy xei thn for thw knhshw tvn diktvn toy vrologoy.
y(s)
Nyquist
223
w. (. 5.14). s
w,
.
j
j Im f(s)
wo
so
= arg wo
s = + j
w = Re f(s) + m f(s)
Sx. 5.14
f (s) = 0 ,
(0, 0) w. w0
s0 0 arg w0 w0 . arg w
, 0 , s
w = f (s) , w0 ,
w = f (s) .
w w0 , arg w 1 .
w,
, 1 0 .
w0 .
' , 1 0 f (s), s
,
arg f (s) = 1 0
arg f (s) 2 ,
1
N :=
arg f (s)
2
w w = 0
s .
Re f(s)
224
5 Niquist
N
f (s) .
5.1 ( ).
s = + j

s = s (t) = (t) + j (t)
t1 t t2
= s (t1 ) = s (t2 ) = . f (s)
|| ,
||. f (s) 6= 0 s
|| Z P f (s) (
f (s) ||
' ). : [, ] C
f (s) w = f (s) .
(t) := f (s (t)).
1
N = 2
arg f (s) || w = 0
w = f (s) Z f (s)
|| P f (s) ||:
1
N=
arg f (s) = Z P
2
. s = s (t) ||
f (s (t)) (. 5.14). , : [, ]
C , f (a) a = s (t1 )
f (b) b = s (t2 ) f (a) = f (b) ||.
t [t1 , t2 ] , s (t)
|| f (s (t)) s (t) : [, ] C.
w = f (s) : f (s) = |f (s)| ej(s) (s) = arg [f (s)] ,
ln f (s) = ln |f (s)| + ln ej(s) = ln |f (s)| + j (s).
w = w (t) = f (s (t))
dw
(t)
df (s (t))
df (s (t)) ds (t)
w0 (t) =
=
=
dt
dt
ds
dt
ds(t)
0
f 0 (s (t)) := df (s(t))
,
s
(t)
:=
ds
dt
w0 (t)
0
0
w (t) = f (s (t)) s0 (t) f 0 (s (t)) = 0
s (t)
w0 (t)
w0 (t) 0
f 0 (s (t)) ds (t) =
ds
(t)
=
s (t) dt = w0 (t) dt
s0 (t)
s0 (t)
f 0 (s (t))
w0 (t)
ds (t) =
dt
f (s (t))
f (s (t))
Nyquist
t2
t1
f 0 (s (t))
ds (t) =
f (s (t))

Z 0
1
f (s)
ds =
2j f (s)
t2
t1
f 0 (s (t)) 0
s (t) dt =
f (s (t))
f 0 (s)
ds =
f (s)
t2
t1
225
w0 (t)
dt
w (t)
dw
w
t2
f 0 ( (t))
(t) dt
t1 f ( (t))
I
I
1
1
1
df (s)
d [ln f (s)] =
=
=
[ln f (s)]|
2j f (s)
2j
2j
1
1
1
=
[ln |f (s)| + j (s)]| =
ln |f (s)|| +
[j (s)]|
2j
2j
2j
1
1
=
[ln |f ()| ln |f ()|] +
[j () j ()]
2j
2j
1
= 0+
[ () ()]
2
f (s (t)) || (s (t)) = arg [f (s (t))]
f ( (t)) () = arg [f ()] f (s)
|| () = arg [f ()] .
[ () ()] () = arg [f ()] () = arg [f ()]
f () f () 2 N ||
0 f (s) .
Z 0
1
1
1
f (s)
ds =
[ () ()] =
2N = N
2j f (s)
2
2
N ||
(0, 0) f (s) . N
(0, 0) (t) = f ( (t)) Z
f (s)
P f (s) .
1
2j
5.9 f (s) = (s+1)(s3)(s+2j)(s3j)

(s+5)2 (sj)(s+j)(s+4)
5.15. Z = 2, P = 3
N (0, 0) f (s)
N = Z P = 2 3 = 1
(0, 0) f (s)
.
226
5 Niquist
Im f(s)
2j
1j
-5
-4
-1
-1j
Re f(s)
-2j
Sx. 5.15
5.10 Z
f (s) f (s) 5.16
(-1 ) = -1 + j
(0 ) = 1 + j
(0 ) = 0
Sx. 5.16
5.16 P f (s) P = 4
(0, 0) f (s)
N = 1.
N =Z P Z =N +P =1+4=5
Nyquist (
Nyquist
227
Nyquist)
Nyquist.

4
5.13
D (s) + N (s) K

C := {s C | Re s < 0} .
0abc0
5.17 f (s) : CC f (s)

N (s) K
D (s) + N (s) K
f (s) := 1 + P (s) K = 1 +
(5.14)
=
D (s)
D (s)
f(s)
Im f(s)
R
0
Re f(s)
c
f(s)
s = + j
Sx. 5.17
N (0, 0)
f (s)
N =Z P
(5.15)
:
Z f (s)
P f (s) .
228
5 Niquist
R 0abc0 5.17
. R 0abc0
+
: C := {s C| Re s 0}
j (, +)
+
Z f (s) C
+
P f (s) C
??
Z D (s) + N (s) K
+
C
P D (s)
+
C .

D (s) + N (s) K
C
Z=0
(5.16)
??
N = P

(5.17)
/QQ[3a0 5.2]( Nyquist) 5.13

N
(s)K
j, (, +) f (s) = D(s)+N

D(s)
(0, 0) f (s)
N = P
P D (s)
+
C .
(s)K
f (s) = D(s)+N
D (s) = sn +
D(s)
n1
m
dn1 s
+ . . . + d1 s + d0 , N (s) = nm s + . . . + n1 s + no , m n 1, nm 6= 0.
oK
s = 0 f (0) = D(0)+N(0)K
= d0 +n
=
D(0)
d0
no
1 + d0 k 1 s lims f (s) =
(s)K
(s)K
lims 1 + ND(s)
= 1 + 0 = 1.
= 1 + lims ND(s)
. 5.18.
Nyquist
229
Im f(j) = Im (1+ P(j))

f(j)
j
a
R
Re f(j) = Re(1 + P(j))
c
f(s)
s = + j
Sx. 5.18
5.1 j, (, +)
(s)K
f (s) = D(s)+N
N
D(s)
(0, 0) f (s) j, (, +)
f (s) 1 = P (s) K N
(1, 0) f (s) 1 = P (s) K.
Nyquist
:
/QQ[3a0 5.3] 5.13
N
1
j, (, +) 15 f (s) = P (s) K
, 0
f (s)
N = P
P D (s)
+
C .
5.11
1
1
P (s) =
= 3
(s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 3)
s + 6s2 + 11s + 6
15
Parathrhste ti sthn perptvsh ayth to monopti taytzetai me to digramma Nyquist P (j)thw
synrthshw metaforw toy anoikto systhmatow.
230
5 Niquist
K
5.13 .
Nyquist P (s) .
s = j
1
1
(5.18)
P (j) =
=
3
2
2 ) + j (11 2 )
6
(1
(j) + 6 (j) + 11j + 6
6 1 2 j 11 2
=
2
2
36 (1 2 ) + 2 (11 2 )
6 1 2
11 2
=
2
2 +j
2
2
36 (1 2 ) + 2 (11 2 )
36 (1 2 ) + 2 (11 2 )
= Re P (j) + j Im P (j)
P (s) 5.19. ?? :
= 0 = 0, P (j 0 ) = P (0) = 16 ( ). Re P (j) = 0 1 2 = 0
1
= 1 = 1. = 1 = 1, P (j 1 ) = P (j1) = j 10
( ). Im P (j) =
2
0 11 = 0 = 2 = 11. = 2 = 11, P (j 2 ) =

1
P j 11 = 60
( ). , lim P (j) = 0 ( 0) (.
5.19).
P (j) P (s) 5.19.
Sx. 5.19
Nyquist
1
, 0 , N = P , P
K
D (s) = (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 3)
+
C . D (s)
+
C , P = 0
1
K
, 0 , N = 0 .
1
K
R
: ( . 5.20)
1
1
<
0 < K < 60
K
60
Nyquist
231
1
1
> K < 0 6 < K
K
6
K
6 < K < 60
x(kT)
y(kT)
-2T-T 0 T2T3T4T
x(kT)
z-1
y(kT)
X(z) y(kT)=x(kT-T) Y(z)
-2T-T 0 T2T3T4T
Sx. 5.20
Routh.

D (s) + N (s) K = s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 6 + K
(5.19)
Routh ??
s3 1
11
0
2
s 6
6+K 0
60K
s
0
6
s0 6 + K

Routh ,
60 K > 0 K < 60
6 + K > 0 K > 6

?? (. 5.21)
232
5 Niquist
K= 60
K= 60
K=0
K=0
-3
-2
K=0
-1
K= 60
Sx. 5.21
5.12
(s + 1) (s + 2)
P (s) =
(s 1) (s 2) (s + 3)
K
5.13 . P (s)
5.22.

1
K
, 0 , N = P , P
D (s) = (s 1) (s 2) (s + 3)
+
C . s1 = 1, s2 = 2 D (s) , P = 2

1
K
,0
N = P = 2
5.22
1
0.28 < < 0 K > 3.57
K
233
jIm P( j)
-0.28
1/3
Re P( j)
N = -2
Sx. 5.22
5.1 -. - s0 C
N (s0 , ) s 0
|s s0 | < , . -
s0 - -
s0 (. 5.23). -
s0 C N (s0 , ) - s0
s0 , s
0 < |s s0 | < . - N (s0 , )
s0
s0
s0 .
5.2 , . .
s0 S
- s0 S. -
s0 S
S, s0 S.
S S S ..
234
5 Niquist
8.Sx. 5.23
|s| = 1 |s| < 1 |s| 1. s0
S,
S. s0 S -
s0 S.
5.3 . . S
.
. .. s
|s| < 1 .
.
5.2 .
,
'. .. 0 < |z| 1
.
.
5.4 . s0 C
S C - s0
S.
235
, S
. s0
S.
5.5 . S
S S, S .
.. s |s| 1 .
5.6 . S
s S M |s| < M. S
|s| = M .
5.7 . S
S
S.
5.8 .
.
5.9 R ,
(region).
5.10 C
()
.
5.11 . C
{s : s = + j}
s : [t1 , t2 ] C, [t1 , t2 ] t1 < t2 .
s (t) || .
s (t) || .
236
5 Niquist
||
s (t) t ||
t t1 t2 .
{ s (t)| s : s = + j} .
= s (t1 ) = s (t2 )
. t1 6= t2 = s (t1 ) =
s (t2 ) = . (. 5.5). (t) , (t)
t
t1 t t2
= (t) , = (t) t1 t t2

s (t) = (t) + j (t)
t1 t t2
| |
= (t2)
a = (t1)
Sx. 5.24: Monopti
| |
a = (t1)
= = (t2)
Sx. 5.25: Kleist mh apl monopti
237
| |
a = (t1)
= = (t2)
Sx. 5.26: Kleist, apl monopti

`' ,
s (t3 ) 6= s (t4 ) t3 6= t4 .
(t) (t) ( s (t)) t1 t t2
.
P : t1 = ti1 < ti2 < . . . < tin = t2
[t1 , t2 ] (tik1 , tik ) ,
1 k n, . ,
[] , t [t1 , t2 ]

[s] (t) := s (t2 + t1 t)
[] || , t
t1 t2 , ||
.
5.13 s (t) = t + jt 0 t 1.
, 0
1 + j. s (t) = 1 + j 0 t 1.
5.14 s (t) = t2 + jt2 , 1 t 1
s (t) = 2t + 2jt 1 t 1 s (1) = 1 + j = s (1)

s (t) = s (t) t [1, 1] .
238
5 Niquist
5.15 s (t) = t + j |t| 1 t 1 (. 5.7)
s (0) . s (t) = tjt 1 t 0 s (t) = t+jt

0 t 1 [1, 0] [0, 1] .
.
.
(-1) = -1+j
(0) = 1+j
(0) = 0
5.16 , s : [0, 4] C (. 5.8)
0 t 1
t
1 + j (t 1) 1 t 2
s (t) =
(3 t) + j
2 t 3
j (4 t)
3 t 4
, .
5.8.
239
(2) = 1+j
(3) = j
(0) = (4) =0
(1) = 1
, .
5.8.
5.17 s (t) = s0 + rejt t1 t t2 r > 0.
, s (t) = jrejt t1 t t2 ( !).

t2 t1 + 2 t2 = t1 + 2k .
K (s0 , r).
5.12 ||
t
[t1 , t2 ] t1 t2 (t1 < t2 ) .
5.13 . f (s) s
s - s0 : |s s0 | < .
w0 C f (s) s s0 :
lim f (s) = w0
ss0
> 0 > 0 (
) s -: 0 <
|s s0 | < s0 f (s) -: |f (s) w0 | <
w0 .
240
5 Niquist
N(w0, )
w0
s
s0
f(s)
N*(s0, )
5.14 . f (s)
s s - s0 : |s s0 | <
s = s0 . f (s)
s = s0 lim f (s) = f (s0 ) .
ss0

f (s) s = s0 .
1. lim f (s) = w0
ss0
2. f (s0 ) , f (s) s = s0
3. w0 = f (s0 ) .
5.15 S
s0 S.
5.16 . f (s) S
s, f 0 (s) f (s)
f (s + s) f (s)
f 0 (s) = lim
s0
s
s 0
. f (s) s.
241
5.17 f (s) S
f 0 (s) s S.
5.18 S s = + j
S
|| .
5.4 f (s)
s =
+ j , .
f (s) = 0 . Z P
f (s) (
)
Z 0
1
f (s)
ds = Z P
2j f (s)
. ' f (s) s =
z s = p
. 1 2
.

1
2j
f 0 (s)
1
ds =
f (s)
2j
f 0 (s)
1
ds +
f (s)
2j
f 0 (s)
ds
f (s)
(5.20)
242
5 Niquist
f (s) s = z ,
f (s)
f (s) = (s ) g (s)
(5.21)
g (s) g () 6= 0.
?? 16
z
g 0 (s)
f 0 (s)
(5.22)
=
+
f (s)
(s )
g (s)
f (s) s = p ,
h (s)
p
f (s) =
h (s)
(5.23)
p = (s )
(s )
h (s) h () 6= 0.
0
0
(s)
(s)
p
?? 17 ff (s)
= (s)
+ hh(s)
1
2j
f 0 (s)
ds =
f (s)
=
1
2j
Z
Z
p
1
f 0 (s)
1
h0 (s)
ds =
ds +
ds =
f (s)
2j 2 (s )
2j 2 h (s)
2jp
+ 0 = p
=
2j
??
1
2
16
f 0 (s)
ds = z p
f (s)
f (s) = (s )z g (s)
ln f (s) = z ln (s ) + ln g (s)
d[ln f (s)]
f (s)] df (s)
= d[ln
ds
df (s)
ds
d[z ln(s)]
d[ln g(s)]
=
+
ds
ds
g 0 (s)
1
= z (s)
+ g(s)
17
Z
Z
z
1
1
g 0 (s)
ds +
ds
2j 1 (s )
2j 1 g (s)
2jz
+0=z
2j
0 (s)
1 df (s)
= ff (s)
f (s) ds
d[ln(s)]
z d[s] d[s]
ds
h(s)
f (s) = (s)
p
ln f (s) = ln h (s) p ln (s )
d[ln f (s)]
d[ln f (s)] df (s)
= df (s)
ds
ds
d[ln h(s)]
d[ln(s)]
=
p
ds
ds
0 (s)
p
= hh(s)
(s)
d[ln g(s)] d[g(s)]

d[g(s)]
ds
z
g 0 (s)
f 0 (s)
=
+
f (s)
(s )
g (s)
f 0 (s)
1 df (s)
= f (s)
f (s) ds
d[ln h(s)] d[h(s)]
d(s)
p d[ln(s)]
d[h(s)]
ds
d(s)
ds
f 0 (s)
h0 (s)
p
=
f (s)
h (s)
(s )
(5.24)
243
1 , 2 , ..., j 1 , 2 , ..., k f (s)

z1 , z2 , ..., zj p1 , p2 , .., pk
. 1 , 2 , ..., j 1 , 2 , ..., j
1 , 2 , ..., j 1 , 2 , ..., k .
??
Z 0
Z
Z
j
k
X
X
1
f (s)
1
f 0 (s)
1
f 0 (s)
ds =
ds
ds
2 f (s)
2 r f (s)
2 r f (s)
r=1
r=1
=
j
X
r=1
zr
= Z P
j
X
pr
r=1
C f (s)
s
|| .
f (s) s = s (t) , t1 t t2
s1 = s (t1 ) s2 = s (t2 )
Z s2
Z t2
Z
f (s) ds =
f (s) ds =
f [s (t)] (t) dt
s1
t1
5.19
. : [t1 , t2 ] C
C, (t) = (t) + j (t) , t1 t t2
s0 C || . N ( (t) , s0 )
(t) s0
Z
1
ds
N (, s0 ) =
2j s s0
.
Z x (kT )
. Z
Laplace .
Laplace x (t)
t R, Z x (kT ) , T >
0, k Z.
Z. 6.3 6.4
Z
Z. Z

Laplace

.

3. .

.
Laplace
, Z
. 6.6

z .
246
Z
Z:Z{x (kT )} x (kT ),
X (z) =Z{x (kT )} ,
z :
Z {x (kT )} = X (z) = x (0) + x (T ) z 1 + x (2T ) z 2 + ...
, ??
X
X (z) =
x (kT ) z k
(6.1)
(6.2)
k=0
?? Z: X (z)
x (kT ) z 1
x (kT ) 0, T, 2T, 3T, ...
z k ??
x (kT ) z k x (kT )
kT. .. x (kT )
Z {x (kT )} = X (z) = 3.2 + 2.5z 1 2.0z 2 + 7.41z 4 ...
x (kT ) 0, T, 2T, 3T, 4T...

x (0) = 3.2, x (T ) = 2.5, x (2T ) = 2, x (3T ) = 0, x (4T ) = 7.41....
?? z , X (z)
. Z: X (z)
z.
X (z) ?? Z
X (z) x (kT ) k = 0, 1, 2, ...
Z
k = 1, 2, ...,
x (kT ) k < 0
Z.
Z x (kT ),
X (z),
X
X (z) =
x (kT ) z k
(6.3)
k=
Z z
z 1 . x (kT ) = 0 k = 1, 2, ...,
Z x (kT ) . '
247
Z
Z.
z
Z: X (z) x (kT )
.
Z: X (z)
x (kT ) z z |X (z)|
< z |X (z)| =
Z.
Z

P
x (kT ) z k
?? z |X (z)| =
k=0
z : z = rej , r = |z| , = arg z ,

jk 2
e
= cos k + sin2 k 1/2 = 1
k X
x (kT ) z k =
x (kT ) rk ejk
|X (z)| =
x (kT ) rej
=
=
k=0
X
k=0
k=0
k=0
x (kT ) rk ejk =
x (kT ) rk
k=0
, 0 < M R
0 < R R
k 0 :
|x (kT )| M Rk
k
X
X
X
R
k
k
k k
|X (z)| =
R r =M
x (kT ) z
=
x (kT ) r
M
r
k=0
k=0
k=0
k=0
r z
R
r < 1 r > R. Z: X (z) ,
X (z) z R.
r = |z| > R
Z: X (z). , r = |z| < R
Z: X (z).
.
248
x (kT ), P
r
N
X
lim
|x (kT )| rk = c <
(6.4)
N
k=0
c r. ??

X
X (r) = X (z)|z=r =
x (kT ) rk
k=0
. r ??
, x (kT )
Z ( ).
R P, R
,
R < r r P
z
|z| > R
(6.5)
Z.
Z
??.
6.1 Z
(kT ) = 1
k=0
(kT ) = 0
k 6= 0
X
Z { (kT )} = (z) =
(kT ) z k = (0) z 0 = 1
k=0
k=0
| (kT )| k = 1 < > 0
(z)
z |z| > 0.
6.2 Z
249
k = nT :
(kT nT ) = 1
(kT nT ) = 0
Z { (kT nT )} =
k=0
(6.6)
k=n
k 6= n
(kT nT ) z k = (0) z n = 1 z n =
1
zn
, ,
z |z| > 0.
6.3 Z
:
u (kT ) = 1
k = 0, 1, 2, ...
u (kT ) = 0
k = 1, 2, ...
X
X
Z {u (kT )} = U (z) =
u (kT ) z k =
z k
k=0
k=0
1
1
= 1 + + 2 + ...
z
z
1
1
zU (z) = z + 1 + + 2 + ... = z + U (z)
z z
z
(6.7)
z1
U (z)
z |z| > 1.
U (z) =
6.4 a C, a 6= 0, Z
x (kT ) = ak u (kT )
a a2
Z ak u (kT )
= X (z) =
ak z k = 1 + + 2 + ...
z
z
k=0
2
a
a a
a
1 + + 2 + ... = 1 + X (z)
= 1+
z
z
z
z
: X (z) = 1 + az X (z)
z
X (z) =
(6.8)
za

N +1
N
N
N k
X
X
X
1 az
a
a
,
x (kT ) z k =
ak z k =
=
6= 1
z
r
1 az
k=0
k=0
k=0
250
z = |z| ej = rej
a

< 1 , lim a N +1 0
z
z
N
X (z) = lim
N
X
a
z

N
N
= az ej az
= az ejN
x (kT ) z k = lim
k=0
N k
X
a
k=0
1
z
a =
za
1 z

X (z)
z az < 1 |z| > |a| .
6.5 x (t) = u (t) Aebt ,
T > 0 x (kT ) = u (kT ) AebkT .
k
a = ebT , ak = ebT = ebkT ??
Az
Z {x (kT )} = Z u (kT ) AebkT =
(6.9)
z ebT
Z
Z
Z :
Z {a1 x1 (kT ) + a2 x2 (kT )}
X
=
{a1 x1 (kT ) + a2 x2 (kT )} z k
k=0
= a1
k=0
x1 (kT ) z k + a2
x2 (kT ) z k
k=0
= a1 Z {x1 (kT )} + a21 Z {x2 (kT )}
6.6 a 6= 1
Z u (kT ) + ak u (kT )
= Z {u (kT )} + Z ak u (kT )
z
z
=
+
z1 za
2z 2 (1 + a) z
=
(z 1) (z a)
251
q qT
,
u (kT qT ) = 1
k = q, q + 1, q + 2, ...
u (kT ) = 0
k = q 1, q 2, ...
q = 2 Z u (kT 2T )
X
Z {u (kT 2T )} = U2 (z) =
u (kT 2T ) z k
k=0
0
= u (2T ) z + u (T 2T ) z 1 + u (2T 2T ) z 2 + u (3T 2T ) z 3 + ...
= u (2T ) + u (T ) z 1 + u (0) z 2 + u (T ) z 3 + u (2T ) z 4 + ...

1
1
1
+ 3 + 4 + ...
=
2
z
z
z
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ ... = 2 1 + + 2 + ...
U2 (z) =
z2 z3 z4
z
z z
1
1
z
1
=
U (z) = 2
=
z2
z
z1
z (z 1)
q > 0
1
z
Z {u (kT qT )} = q U (z) = q
z
z (z 1)
Z{x (kT )} = X (z) q > 0
x (kT qT ) u (kT qT ). u (kT qT ) = 0 k < q , u (kT qT ) = 1
k = q, q + 1, q + 2, ...
X
Z {x (kT qT ) u (kT qT )} =
x (kT qT ) u (kT qT ) z k
=
k=0
X
k=q
x (kT qT ) z k
k = k q k = k + q k = 0 k = q k = k = .
X
X
X
(k+q)

k
q
=z
x (kT qT ) z =
x kT z
x kT z k = z q X (z)
k=q
k=0
k=0
Z {x (kT qT ) u (kT qT )} = z q X (z)
6.7 N > 0
252
N T, p (kT ) :
p (kT ) = 1, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., N 1
p (kT ) = 0, k

p (kT ) = u (kT ) u (kT N T )

Z {p (kT )} = Z {u (kT ) u (kT N T )} = Z {u (kT )} Z {u (kT N T )}
z 1 z N
z
z
zN 1
N
=
z
=
= N 1
z1
z1
z1
z
(z 1)
( )
Z
(q > 0) x (kT qT ) x (kT ).
X (z) =Z{x (kT )} .
Z {x (kT T )} = z 1 X (z) + x (T )
Z {x (kT 2T )} = z 2 X (z) + x (2T ) + z 1 x (T )
..
.
(6.10)
q
1
q+1
Z {x (kT qT )} = z X (z) + x (qT ) + z x (qT + T ) + ... + z
x (T )
x (kT ) = 0 k = 1, 2, ..., q ??

Z {x (kT qT )} = z q X (z)
Z{x (kT T )} = z 1 X (z) + x (T ) .
Z
X
X
Z {x (kT T )} =
x (kT T ) z k =
x [(k 1) T ] z k
k=0
k=0
253
k := k 1 k = k + 1. k = 0 , k = 1
X

Z {x (kT T )} =
x kT z (k+1) =
k=1
= x (T ) z 0 + x (0) z 1 + x (T ) z 2 + ...
= x (T ) + z 1 x (0) + x (T ) z 1 + ...
X

= x (T ) + z 1
x kT z k
k=0
= x (T ) + z
X (z)
?? q > 1 ' .

Z{x (kT )} = X (z) q > 0 x (kT + qT )

qT ,
x (kT ) .
Z {x (kT + T )} = zX (z) x (0) z
Z {x (kT + 2T )} = z 2 X (z) x (0) z 2 x (T ) z
..
.
(6.11)
q
q
q1
Z {x (kT + qT )} = z X (z) x (0) z x (T ) z
... x (qT T ) z
?? q = 1. Z
X
X
Z {x (kT + T )} =
x (kT + T ) z k =
x [(k + 1) T ] z k
k=0
k=0
k := k + 1 k = k 1. k = 0 k = 1
X

Z {x (kT + T )} =
x kT z (k1)
k=1
= x (T ) z 0 + x (2T ) z 1 + x (3T ) z 2 + ...
= z x (T ) z 1 + x (2T ) z 2 + ...
= z x (0) z 0 + x (0) z 0 + x (T ) z 1 + x (2T ) z 2 + ...
X
= z x (0) +
x (kT ) z k
k=0
= z [X (z) x (0)]
254
6
6.8 T ,
u (kT ):
u (kT + T ) = 1
k = 1, 0, 1, 2, ...
u (kT + T ) = 0
k = 2, 3, ...

z2
Z {u (kT + T )} = z [U (z) u (0)] =
z
z1
z 2 z (z 1)
z
=
=
z1
z1
Z u (kT + T ) Z
u (kT ) , , u (kT + T ) = u (kT ) k = 0, 1, 2, ...
k k 2
Z{x (kT )} = X (z) .

Z {kx (kT )} = z
'
d
X (z)
dz
d
d2
Z k 2 x (kT ) = z X (z) + z 2 2 X (z)
dz
dz
X (z) =
x (kT ) z k
(6.12)
(6.13)
(6.14)
k=0
?? z,
X
d
(k) x (kT ) z k1
X (z) =
dz
(6.15)
k=0
= z 1
k=0
kx (kT ) z k = z 1 Z {kx (kT )}
??. ?? z,
X
d2
X
(z)
=
k (k + 1) x (kT ) z k2
dz 2
=
k=0
X
k=0
z2
k 2 (kT ) z k2 +
kx (kT ) z k2
k=0
X
X
d2
2
k
X
(z)
=
k
(kT
)
z
+
kx (kT ) z k
dz 2
k=0
k=0
2
= Z k x (kT ) + Z {kx (kT )}
d
= Z k2 x (kT ) z X (z)
dz
(6.16)
(6.17)
255
??.
6.9 x (kT ) = ak , a C, a 6= 0 Z{x (kT )} = X (z) =

"
#
1
d
az
z
+
z X (z) = z
=
2
2
dz
za
(z a)
(z a)
z
za .
??
az
d
X (z) = Z {kx (kT )} =
dz
(z a)2
Z kak =
a = 1
az
(z a)2
Z {ku (kT )} =
z
(z 1)2
ak
Z{x (kT )} = X (z), 0 6= a C
z
Z ak x (kT ) = X
a
P
k

P
Z ak x (kT ) = k=0 ak x (kT ) z k = k=0 x (kT ) az
= X az .
(6.18)
cos (kT ) sin (kT )
Z{x (kT )} = X (z), , T R, > 0, T > 0
1 jT
z + X ejT z
X e
2
j jT
Z {sin (kT ) x (kT )} =
z X ejT z
X e
2
Z {cos (kT ) x (kT )} =
??. Euler
cos (kT ) =

cos (kT ) x (kT ) =
??
1 jkT
+ ejkT
e
2
1 jkT
x (kT ) + ejkT x (kT )
e
2
k
Z ejkT x (kT ) = Z ejT x (kT ) = X ejT z
(6.19)
256
Z {cos (kT )} =
1 jT
z + X ejT z
X e
2
=
cos (kT ) .
6.10 v (kT )
Z v (kT ) k = 0, 1, 2, ...
v (kT ) = cos (kT ) u (kT )

x (kT ) = u (kT )
z
X (z) =
z1
??, Z v (kT )
V (z) =
=
=
=
ejT z
ejT z
+
ejT z 1 ejT z 1
"
#
1 ejT z ejT z 1 + ejT z ejT z 1
2
(ejT z 1) (ejT z 1)
1 z 2 ejT z + z 2 ejT z
2 z 2 (ejT + ejT ) + 1
z 2 (cos T ) z
2
z (2 cos T ) z + 1
1
2
z 2 (cos T ) z
(2 cos T ) z + 1
Z {cos (kT )} =
z2
Z {sin (kT )} =
(cos T ) z
z 2 (2 cos T ) z + 1
x (kT ) , v (kT ) x (kT ) = 0, v (kT ) = 0

k < 0 Z{x (kT )} = X (z) ,Z{v (kT )} = V (z) . x (kT )
v (kT )
k
X
(x v) (kT ) =
x (iT ) v (kT iT ) , k 0
i=0
v (kT ) = 0 k < 0, v (kT iT ) = 0 k i < 0

k < i k
,
(x v) (kT ) =
X
i=0
x (iT ) v (kT iT ) ,
257
k0
Z
#
"
X
X
Z [(x v) (kT )] =
x (iT ) v (kT iT ) z k
k=0
i=0
x (iT )
i=0
k := k i
Z [(x v) (kT )] =
=
X
i=0
X
i=0
x (iT )
k=i
"
X
k=0
v (kT iT ) z
ki
v kT z
X
ki
,
x (iT )
v kT z
"
X
i=0
k=0

v kT = 0, k < 0
#
X
x (iT ) z i
v kT z k
k=0
= X (z) V (z)
Z (x v) (kT )
x (kT ) , v (kT ) X (z) V (z) Z
.
2.2. Z
258
k
k2
ak
cos kT
sin kT
ax (kT ) + bv (kT ) aX (z) + bV (z)

x (kT qT ) u (kT qT ) z q X (z) , q > 0
x (kT T ) z 1 X (z) + x (T )
x (kT 2T ) z 2 X (z) + x (2T ) + z 1 x (T )
..
.
x (kT qT ) z q X (z) + x (qT ) + z 1 x (qT + T )
+ . . . + z q+1 x (T )
x (kT + T ) zX (z) x (0) z
x (kT + 2T ) z 2 X (z) x (0) z 2 x (T ) z
..
.
x (kT qT ) z q X (z) x (0) z q1 . . .
... x (qT T ) z, q > 0

d
kx (kT ) z dz X (z)
d
d2
k 2 x (kT ) z dz
X (z) + z 2 dz
2 X (z)
z
k
a x (kT ) X a

cos (kT ) x (kT ) 12 X ejT z + X ejT z

sin (kT ) x (kT ) 2j X ejT z X ejT z
(x v) (kT ) X (z) V (z)
Pk
z
v (kT ) z1
X (z) , v (kT ) = i=0 x (iT )
x (0) = limz X (z)
x (T ) = limz [zX (z) zx (0)]
..
.
x (qT ) = limz [z q X (z) z q x (0) z q1 X (T ) . . .
... zx (qT T )
limk x (kT ) ,
limk x (kT ) = limz1 z1

z X (z)

x (kT ) Z: X (z) x (kT )
X (z)
N (z)
X (z) =
(6.20)
D (z)
N (z) D (z) z
deg D (z) deg N (z) .
259
6.11
z2 1
+ 2z + 4
`' N (z) = z 2 1 D (z) = z 3 + 2z + 4,
:
X (z) =
z3
z2 1
z 2 2 4z 1

3 4z 1
+3 + 0z 1 + 6z 2 + 12z 3
0 4z 1 + 6z 2 + 12z 3
+4z 1 + 0z 2 + 8z 3 + 16z 4
0z 1 + 6z 2 + 20z 3 + 16z 4
..
.
| z 3 + 2z + 4
|
| z 1 3z 3 4z 4 + . . .
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

z2 1
= z 1 3z 3 4z 4 +6z 5 +20z 6 +4z 7 64z 8 ... (6.21)
z 3 + 2z + 4
Z: X (z)
X (z) = x (0) + x (T ) z 1 + x (2T ) z 2 + +x (3T ) z 3 + . . .
(6.22)

x (kT ) = x (0) + x (T ) + x (2T ) + x (3T ) + . . .
z 1 ?? ??
x (0) = 0, x (T ) = 1, x (2T ) = 0, x (3T ) = 3, x (4T ) = 4, . . .
( 6.1)
X (z) =
260
20
15
10
5
-160-140-120-100-80-60-40-20 0 20 40 60 80 100120140160
Sx. 6.1
6.1 k = nT
(kT nT ) = 1
k=n
(kT nT ) = 0
k 6= n
( ??)
x (T ) = 1 = (kT T ) , k = 1
x (3T ) = 3 = 3 (kT 3T ) , k = 3
x (4T ) = 4 = 4 (kT 4T ) , k = 4
..
.
x (kT )
x (kT ) = (kT T ) 3 (kT 3T ) 3 (kT 4T ) + . . .

,
, x (kT )
261
y (kT ) x (kT )

y (kT ) = (F x) (kT )
(6.23)
F - .
2.7 2
- F
h (kT ) x (kT ) ,
h (kT ) := (F ) (xT )
x (kT )

X
y (kT ) = (F x) (xT ) = (h x) (kT ) =
h (iT ) x (kT iT )
(6.24)
i=
x (kT ) = 0 k < 0 ?? i = 0
i = k,
X
y (kT ) = (h x) (kT ) =
h (iT ) x (kT iT )
(6.25)
i=0
?? Z ??,
Y (z) = H (z) X (z)

(6.26)
Y (z) =Z{y (kT )} , H (z) =Z{h (kT )} X (z) =Z{x (kT )} .
H (z) .
Z

,
, x (kT ) y (kT )
- :
y (kT ) + ay (kT T ) = b1 x (kT ) + b0 x (kT T )
(6.27)
Z ??
??
Y (z) + a z 1 Y (z) + y (T ) = b1 X (z) + b0 z 1 X (z) + x (T )

(6.28)
262
Y (z) =Z{y (kT )} Z y (kT )

X (z) =Z{x (kT )} Z x (kT ) .
??
ay (T ) + b0 x (T ) b1 + b0 z 1
Y (z) =
+
X (z)
(6.29)
1 + az 1
1 + az 1
ay (T ) z + b0 x (T ) z b1 z + b0
Y (z) =
(6.30)
+
X (z)
z+a
z+a
x (T ) = 0 ??
ay (T ) z b1 z + b0
Y (z) =
(6.31)
+
X (z)
z+a
z+a
x (T ) = 0 kT = 0
y (T ) = 0, ??
b1 z + b0
Y (z) =
(6.32)
X (z)
z+a
?? ??
b1 z + b0
H (z) =
(6.33)
z+a
z

H (z)
b0 /a b1 (b0 /a)
=
+
z
z
z+a
b0 [b1 (b0 /a)] z

H (z) =
+
a
z+a
Z H (z)
h (kT )
b0
b0
k
h (kT ) = (kT ) + b1
(6.34)
(a) , k = 0, 1, 2, ...
a
a
6.12

y (kT ) = x (kT T )
(6.35)
?? ?? a = b1 = 0 b0 = 1. ??

0z + 1
1
H (z) =
=
z+0
z
x (kt) = u (kT ) :
u (kT ) = 1
k = 0, 1, 2, ...
u (kT ) = 0
k = 1, 2, ...
y (kT ) = u (kT T ) (. 6.11).
x(kT)
y(kT)
-2T -T 0
263
T 2T 3T 4T
x(kT)
z-1
y(kT)
X(z)
y(kT) = x(kT-T)
Y(z)
-2T -T 0
T 2T 3T 4T
Sx. 6.11
Z: U (z) =
u (kT ) ( ??),
Y (z) = H (z) U (z) =
1
z
z
z1
= z 1 + z 2 + z 3 + ...
1
z1
z
z1
(6.36)

Y (z) = y (0) + y (T ) z 1 + y (2T ) z 2 + +y (3T ) z 3 + . . .
, ?? ??
(6.37)
y (0) = 0, y (T ) = 1, y (2T ) = 1, y (3T ) = 1, ...
y (kT ) u (kT )
.

,
, x (kT ) y (kT )
- :
y (kT )+a1 y (kT T )+a0 y (kT 2T ) = b2 x (kT )+b1 x (kT T )+b0 x (kT 2T )
(6.38)
x (T ) = x (2T ) = 0. Z
??
Y (z) + a1 z 1 Y (z) + y (T ) + a0 z 2 Y (z) + z 1 y (T ) + y (2T )

= b2 X (z) + b1 z 1 X (z) + b0 z 2 X (z)
??
Y (z) =
[a1 y (T ) a0 y (2T )] a0 y (T ) z 1
1 + a1 z 1 + a0 z 2
1
b2 + b1 z + b0 z 2
+
X (z)
1 + a1 z 1 + a0 z 2
(6.39)
264
[a1 y (T ) a0 y (2T )] z 2 a0 y (T ) z
z 2 + a1 z + a0
2
b2 z + b1 z + b0
+ 2
X (z)
z + a1 z + a0
x (2T ) = x (T ) = 0
kT = 0 y (T ) = y (2T ) = 0, ??
b2 z 2 + b1 z + b0
Y (z) = 2
X (z)
z + a1 z + a0
??
b2 z 2 + b1 z + b0
H (z) = 2
(6.40)
z + a1 z + a0
Y (z) =
6.13
T = 1
y (k) + y (k 1) = x (k 1) x (k 2)
?? a1 = 1, a0 = 0, b2 = 0, b1 = 1, b0 = 1

z1
H (z) = 2
z +z
y (k) x (k)
:
u (k) = 1
k = 0, 1, 2, ...
u (k) = 0
k = 1, 2, ...
z
Z : U (z) =Z{u (k)} = z1
. Y (z) =Z{y (k)}
z1
z
1
Y (z) = H (z) U (z) =
(6.41)
=
z2 + z
z1
z+1
n
o
k
z
Z (a) = z+a
a
z
=1
z+a
z+a

a
z
1
1
1
Z
(6.42)
= Z {1} Z
z+a
z+a
?? ?? a = 1
y (k) = Z
{Y (z)} = Z
= (k) (a)
1
z+1
= (k) (1)k ,
k = 0, 1, 2, ...
265
n
,
, x (kT ) y (kT )
- n :
n1
m
X
X
y (kT ) +
ai y (kT + iT nT ) =
bi x (kT + iT nT ) , n m (6.43)
i=0
i=0
x (kT ) = 0 k = 1, 2, ..., n. .. T = 1, n = 3, m = 3

2
3
X
X
y (k) +
ai y (k + i 3) =
bi x (k + i n)
i=0
i=0
y (k)+a0 y (k 3)+a1 y (k 2)+a2 y (k 1) = b0 x (k 3)+b1 x (k 2)+b2 x (k 1)+b3 x (k)

(6.44)

Z {x (k q)} = z q X (z) + x (q) + z 1 x (q + 1) + ... + z q+1 x (1)
x (k) = 0 k = 1, 2, ..., q
Z {x (k q)} = z q X (z)
Z{y (k)} = Y (z) ,Z{x (k)} = X (z) ??
Y (z)+a0 z 3 Y (z)+a1 z 2 Y (z)+a2 z 1 Y (z) = b0 z 3 X (z)+b1 z 2 X (z)+b2 z 1 X (z)+b3 X (z)
1 + a0 z 3 + a1 z 2 + a2 z 1 Y (z) = b0 z 3 + b1 z 2 + b2 z 1 + b3 X (z)
Y (z)
b0 z 3 + b1 z 2 + b2 z 1 + b3
H (z) =
=
X (z)
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Z ??
C (z) N (z)
Y (z) =
(6.45)
+
X (z)
D (z) D (z)
N (z) = bm z m + bm1 z m1 + ... + b1 z + b0
D (z) = z n + an1 z n1 + ... + a1 z + a0

C (z) z
y (T ) , y (2T ) , ..., y (nT ) . x (kT ) = 0 k =
1, 2, ..., n ??
kT = 0 C (z) = 0, ??
N (z)
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(6.46)
X (z)
D (z)
266
??
N (z)
bm z m + bm1 z m1 + ... + b1 z + b0
H (z) =
=
D (z)
z m + an1 z n1 + ... + a1 z + a0
(6.47)

x (kT ) = 0 k = 0, 1, 2, ... X (z) = 0 ??
C (z)
Y (z) =
D (z)
C (z)
1
yzi (kT ) = Z
D (z)
x (kT ) = 0 k = 0, 1, 2, ...
y (T ) , y (2T ) , ..., y (nT ) .
6.1
x (kT ) y (kT ) -
n ?? ,
y (T ) , y (2T ) , ..., y (nT )
yzi (kT ) 0 k

y (T ) , y (2T ) , ..., y (nT ) 0 < M R
|yzi (kT )| M k = 0, 1, 2, ...

y (T ) , y (2T ) , ..., y (nT )
|yzi (kT )| k = 0, 1, 2, ...

p1 , p2 , ..., pr r ??
H (z)
N (z)
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m
m
m
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mi pi , i = 1, 2, ..., r.
267
1. |pi | <
1 i = 1, 2, ..., r.
2. |pi | 1 pi
mi = 1 |pi | < 1 mi 2.
3.
|pi | > 1 i = 1, 2, ..., r
|pi | = 1 pi mi 2.

T > 0 (t) t = 0
k, k , (t kT )
t,
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X
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k=
(t)
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pT (t) T :
X
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(6.48)
k=
= ... + (t + 2T ) + (t + T ) + (t) + (t T ) + (t 2T ) + (t 3T ) + ....
Fourier pT (t) .
, pT (t)
t pT (t) Fourier

X
X
1 X jk0 t
pT (t) =
(t kT ) =
k ejk0 t =
e
(6.49)
T
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k=
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

 0HWDV[KPDWLVPZ Laplace NDL V\QUWKVK PHWDIRUZ

 (\VWXHLD NDL VWDXHURSRKVK

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, e (t) = r (t) (t) ""

1.1 u (t) (unit step function)

x (t) = 10 + t2 sin .5t, t [5, 6]

v (t) = u (t) x (t) , t [5, 6]

y(t) = t1(t) t1(t 1) + 1(t 1) 1(t 3) (t 2)1(t 2) + (t 2)1(t 3)

p1 (t 32 ) = 1(t 32 + 12 ) 1(t 32 12 ) = 1(t 1) 1(t 2)

y(t) = 2(t 1)1(t 1) 2(t 1)1(t 2)+

( . 2.11). (t) = limn gn (t) ,

1.22: x (t) = et , t [0.5, 2.5]

1.23: x (t) = et , t [0.5, 2.5]

. 2.24: x (t) = sin (t + 7) T0 =

rad rad/ sec.

= |C| ej e(r+j0 )t = |C| ert ej(0 t+)

= |C| ert cos ( 0 t + ) + j |C| ert sin ( 0 t + )

= |C| ert cos ( 0 t + ) + j |C| ert cos 0 t +

. 1.25: x (t) = e.2t sin (5t + 7) , t [5, 5]

. ??: x (t) = e.2t sin (5t + 7) , t [5, 5]

= 2 [u (t) u (t 1)] [u (t 2) u (t 3)] + (t) (t 1)

x (t) = f1 (t) u (t t1 ) + f2 (t) u (t t2 ) + f3 (t) u (t t3 )

f1 (t) + f2 (t) + f3 (t)

x (t) = f1 (t) [u (t t1 ) u (t t2 )] + [f1 (t) + f2 (t)] [u (t t2 ) u (t t3 )]

kaxk = |a| kxk a R

kx1 + x2 k kx1 k + kx2 k

kxk := sup |x (t)|

1.24 p-: kxkp x (t)

x (t) = (1 et ) u (t) , t [2, 8]

|x (t)| x (t) 1.21 ??

kxk := sup kx (t)k

kx (t)k := |x1 (t)|2 + |x2 (t)|2 + . . . + |xn (t)|2

kx (t)k := max (|x1 (t)| , |x2 (t)| , . . . , |xn (t)|)

3. x (kT ) = exp (0.5kT ) sin (3kT ) T = 0.5

1.11 x (t) = u (t), u (t)

1.12 y (t) = e.2t u (t), u (t)

x (kT ) = [exp(0.2kT )] u (kT ) T = 1 /QQ[3ba]

x (kT ) = T w (0) + T w (T ) + T w (2T ) + ... + T w [(k 1)T ]

S{x (t)} x (t).

p(kT ) = u(kT + N T ) u(kT N T ) N = 1, T = 1

1.40 t > 0 x (t) v (t)

1.14 x (t) = eat u (t) v (t) = ebt u (t) u (t)

Sx. 1.48: x ( ) = e3 u ( ) , [0.5, 2]

Sx. 1.49: v ( ) = e5 u ( ) , [0.5, 2]

Sx. 1.51: v (t ) = e5(t ) u (t ) , t = 0.2, [2, 2]

Sx. 1.52: x ( ) u( )v (t ) u (t ) , t = 0.2, [0.4, .5]

Sx. 1.54: Oi synarthseiw x ( ) kai v ( )

x (kT ) = 0 v (kT ) = 0 k < 0 x (iT ) = 0 i < 0 v (kT iT ) =

= ... + x (2T ) v (kT + 2T ) + x (T ) v (kT + T ) + x (0) v (kT )

1.16 x (kT ) = ak u (kT ) , v (kT ) = bk u (kT ) a, b R

q q > 0, (q < 0) , xq (kT ) vq (kT )

= ... + x (2T ) (kT + 2T ) + x (T ) (kT + T )

= x (kT ) (0) = x (kT )

Sx. 2.1: Polymetablht ssthma

H nnoia thw `katstashw' enw systhmatow ua oriste sto keflaio 7.

Sx. 2.2: Kklvma RC

2.9 2.10 2.11,

Sx. 2.3: Apkrish se bhmatikh esodo kyklvmatow RC tan R = C = 1.

2.17 y (t0 ) = 0, y (t) = y (t0 )

y (t0 ) = 0, 2.20 2.21

y (t0 ) = 0, y (t0 ) = 0). 2.23 F -

Simata&Sustimata

Simata&Sustimata

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