Welding

Welding
Parts are joined together by Fusion. Fusion is
brought about by a combination of heat and
pressure between parts being joined. In normal
welding processes very high temperatures and
little or no pressure is used.

Welding conditions
Smooth joint surfaces that match each other

Surfaces clean and free from oxides, grease and dirt.

Metals to be joined have same microstructure

Welding conditions continued.

The metals should be good quality (no internal
impurities)

Welding Preparation
Before starting a weld, the joint edges should be
carefully prepared.
Beveling large edges
Cleaning (Chemical/Mechanical)

Weld Joints

Welding Symbols

Weld defects
Welding Techniques

Weld Joints - Parts of a Weld Joint

Joint root
Groove face, Root face and Root edge
Root opening and Bevel
Bevel angle, Groove angle and Groove radius

Weld Joints - Types of Weld Joint

Butt Joint

Corner joint

Lap Joint

Edge Joint

T Joint

Splice Member

Joint Root
is that portion of a joint to be welded where the members
are closest to each other
The joint root may be
either a point, line, or
an area
The joint roots are
shown as shaded areas
in (A)-(D) and lines in
(E) (F)

Groove face, Root face and Root edge

Groove face is that
surface of a member
included in the
groove
Root face (land) is
that portion of the
groove face within
the joint root

Root edge is a root

face of zero width

Root opening and Bevel

Root opening is
the separation
between the
work pieces at
the joint root
Bevel
(chamfer) is an
angular edge
preparation

Bevel angle, Groove angle and Groove

Radius

Butt Joint
A joint between two
members aligned
approximately in the
same plane

Lap Joint
A joint between two
overlapping members

T Joint
A joint between two
members located
approximately at right
angles to each other

Corner Joint
A joint between two
members located at
right angles to each
other

Edge Joint
A joint between the
edges of two or
more parallel or
nearly parallel
members

Splice member
is the work piece that spans the joint in a spliced joint

Singlespliced
butt joint
Double-spliced
butt joint with
joint filler

Basic components of a WELDING SYMBOL

Reference Line (Required element)

Arrow
Tail

Reference Line must always be horizontal,

Arrow points to the line or lines on drawing
which clearly identify the proposed joint or weld
area.

Weld Symbol Terminology

OTHER SIDE
ARROW SIDE
Fillet Weld (Arrow Side Only)

Fillet Weld (Both sides)

Work

Welding Techniques
There are many different methods of welding. The difference
between them is outlined by two important features
The way the metal is heated
The way additional filler metal if any is fed into the weld

Types of Welding
Electric Arc Welding

Gas Welding

Robotic Welding

Resistance Welding

Friction Welding

Electric Arc Welding

The heat for fusion is supplied by an electric arc

Arc is formed between electrode and work this melts

and fuses the joint edges

Types of Electric Arc Welding

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

Metal Arc Gas Shielded (MAGS) MIG

Tungsten Arc Gas Shielded (TAGS) TIG

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

Most widely used of all
the arc welding processes
Commonly called stick
welding

Applications
repair work, structural steelwork,

Touch electrode against

work withdraw
electrode to establish
arc. Heat of arc melts
base metal, the
electrodes metal core,
and any metal particles
in electrodes covering.
Heat also melts,
vaporises, or breaks
down chemically
non-metallic substances in covering for arc shielding.
Mixing of molten base metal and filler metal from
electrode produces coalescence required to effect
joining.

Advantages
Used with many electrode types & sizes
Used in all positions

Used on great variety of materials

Flexibility in operator control makes it the
most versatile of allwelding processes
Low cost of equipment

Dis-advantages
Rod becomes shorter & periodically needs replacing
Slows production rate (% time welder welding)

The Electrode and Coating

Coating is a combination of chemicals

Cellulosic electrodes contain cellulose

Rutile electrodes titanium oxide (rutile)

Basic electrodes contain calcium

carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride
(fluorspar)

Function of Electrode Coating

Produce gas to shield weld pool from
oxidisising effects of atmosphere

Fluxing elements help weld pool to form

Helps slag to form-removes impurities

Slag slows down cooling preventing

Brittleness
Can contain alloying elements or additional
filler metal

Equipment used in MMA

AC power source
Takes power directly from mains power
supply. It use a transformer to supply the
correct voltage to suit the welding
conditions.

DC power source
Two types

DC generator
Transformer-rectifier

DC Generator
An electricity generator is driven by a
motor. The motor can be electric,
petrol or diesel. The generator
provides DC current for the arc

Transformer-rectifier
A transformer with an electrical device to
change AC to DC, this is known as a
rectifier. It has the advantage of being able to
supply both DC and AC

Basic Transformer-rectifier circuit (AC to DC)

On/Off
switch

Step Down
Transformer

Bridge Rectifier

Smothing
Capacitor
High AC
Voltage

230V

DC
output
_

Low AC
Voltage 1050V

Transformer
A transformer converts AC current at one
voltage to AC at a higher or lower voltage

Step Down

Step Up

Metal Arc Gas Shielded (MAGS) MIG

MIG is similar to MMA in that heat
for welding is produced by forming
an arc between a metal electrode and
the workpiece

Applications
Sheet and Heavy plate, production
welding by robots on cars

MIG is similar to
MMA in that heat for
welding is produced
by forming an arc
between a metal
electrode and the
workpiece; the
electrode melts to
form the weld bead.
The main difference
is that the metal electrode is a small diameter wire fed from a
spool and a sheilding gas is used. As the wire is continuously
fed, the process is often referred to as semi-automatic welding.

Advantages

Large gaps filled or bridged easily

Welding can be done in all positions
No slag removal required
High welding speeds
High weld quality
Less distortion of work piece

Equipmnt used in MAGS

Three major elements are :
Welding torch and accessories
Welding control & Wire feed motor
Power Source

Shielding Gas

Welding torch and accessories

GAS DIFFUSER
NOZZLE

CONTACT TIP

The welding torch guides the wire and shielding gas to the
weld zone.
Brings welding power to the wire also
Major components/parts of the torch are the contact tip,
shielding gas nozzle, gas diffuser, and the wire conduit

Welding control and wire feed motor

Main

function is to pull
the wire from the spool
and feed it to the arc
Controls wire feed speed
and regulates the starting
and stopping of wire feed

Welding power source

Positive (+) lead is connected

to the torch
Negative (-) lead is connected
to the work piece

Sheilding Gas
Purpose of shielding gas is to
protect the weld area from the
contaminants in the atmosphere
Gas can be Inert, Reactive, or
Mixtures of both
Argon, Helium, and Carbon
Dioxide are the main three gases
used in MAGS

Tungsten Arc Gas Shielded (TAGS) TIG

TIG is similar to MMA in that
heat for welding is produced
by forming an arc between a
metal electrode and the
workpiece

Applications
Used in joining magnesium and
Aluminium, stainless steels
for high quality welding
Thin sheet material

In the TIG process the arc

is formed between a
pointed tungsten
electrode and the work
piece in an inert
atmosphere of argon or
helium. The small intense
arc provided by the
pointed electrode is ideal
for high quality and
precision welding.
The electrode is not consumed during welding. When filler metal
is required, it must be added separately to the weldpool. There
are two currents one for starting the arc the other switched on
using a trigger or foot pedal, this is a high frequency current
to maintain the arc, this is generated by a separte unit.

Advantages
Superior quality welding

Can be used in mechanised systems

Used to weld aluminium and stainless
steels

Free of spatter
Low distortion

Equipment used in TAGS

Power source
TIG must be operated with a
constant current power source either DC or AC

Electrodes
Electrodes for DC welding are normally pure
tungsten. In AC welding, as the electrode will be
operating at a much higher temperature, It should
be noted that because of the large amount of heat
generated at the electrode, it is difficult to
maintain a pointed tip and the end of the
electrode assumes a spherical or 'ball' profile.

Sheilding Gas
Shielding gas is selected according to the material being welded.
Argon
Argon + Hydrogen
Argon/Helium
Helium is generally added to increase heat
input (increase welding speed or weld
penetration). Hydrogen will result in cleaner
looking welds and also increase heat input,
however, Hydrogen may promote porosity
or hydrogen cracking.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Similar to MIG welding, SAW
involves formation of an arc between
a continuously-fed bare wire
electrode and the workpiece

Applications
SAW welding taking place in the flat
position. Ideal for heavy workpieces
Carbon-manganese steels,low alloy
steels and stainless steels

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

The process uses a flux to generate protective gases and
slag, and to add alloying elements to the weld pool. A
shielding gas is not required. Prior to welding, a thin layer
of flux powder is placed on the work piece surface. The arc
moves along the joint line and as it does so, excess flux is
recycled via a hopper. Remaining fused slag layers can be
easily removed after welding. As the arc is completely
covered by the flux layer, heat loss is extremely low. There
is no visible arc light, welding is spatter-free and there is no
need for fume extraction.

Equipmnt used in SAW

Wire
SAW is normally operated with a single wire on either AC or
DC current. Common variants are:
twin wire
triple wire

single wire with hot wire addition

metal powdered flux addition
All contribute to improved productivity through a marked
increase in weld metal deposition rates and/or travel speeds.

Flux
Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals
The flux is specially formulated to be compatible with a
given electrode wire type so that the combination of flux
and wire yields desired mechanical properties. All fluxes
react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal
chemical composition and mechanical properties

Gas Welding (Oxy-acetylene)

A number of welding processes use a flame
produced by burning a mixture of fuel gas and
oxygen. The gas usually used is Acetylene but other
gases are also used.
Separate cylinders and
a hose pipe from each
cylinder transports the
gases to a torch.
Gas and fuel mix in
the torch
burns @ 3100C.

During the welding heat from the flame is

concentrated on the joint edges until the metal
melts and starts to flow. When the molten metal
from both sides melts it starts to fuse, when the
metal cools down the two parts become
Permanently joined
Additional Filler
Metal is fed in by
hand into the weld
pool, at regular
intervals where it
becomes molten
and joins with the
parent metal.

The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame

Reducing or Carburizing
Excess acetylene (0.9:1)
(Alloy steels and
aluminium alloys)
Oxidizing
Excess oxygen (1.5:1)
(Brasses, Bronzes, copper)
Neutral
Equal acetylene & oxygen
(low carbon steel, mild
steels).

Inner Cone

Max. Temp.
Zone

Secondary Combustion
envelope

Acetylene
feather

The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame

Carburising

Neutral

Oxidising

The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame

The oxy-acetylene flame has two distinct zones.

The inner zone (Primary combustion Zone) is the hottest part

of the flame. The welding should be performed so as the point
of the inner zone should be just above the joint edges.
C2H2 + O2

2CO + H2

Primary Combustion zone

The outer zone the secondary combustion envelope

performs two functions
Preheats the joint edges
Prevents oxidation by using some of the surrounding
oxygen from weld pool for combustion and gives off
carbon dioxide and water vapour
CO + H2 + O2

CO2 + H2O

Secondary Combustion zone

Equipment used in O-A welding

The oxygen and acetylene hose pipes

Gases used
Gas pressure Regulators
Flashback arrestor
Welding torch/Welding nozzle
Filler rods and fluxes

The oxygen and acetylene hose pipes

Reinforced rubber hoses.
Acetylene hose has left hand thread couplings and colour
coded red.
Oxygen hose has right handed thread couplings and colour
coded blue

Gases used
Oxygen extracted from air and compressed into
cylinders at high pressure. Cylinder is black. Oil should
never be brought into contact and should not be used on
fittings
Acetylene (C2H2) is a fuel gas. Cannot be compressed
directly as explodes at high pressures. Cylinders are
packed with porous material which is filled with
acetone Acetone absorbs acetylene. Cylinder colour
coded maroon

Gas Pressure Regulators

One gauge indicates the pressure of the cylinder and the
other indicates the pressure in the supply pipe to the torch.

Welding torch
Oxygen and acetylene are delivered to the torch by separate
hoses. Each gas is controlled by a valve on the torch. The
two gases mix in the torch and after they are ignited burn at
the nozzle.

Mixer

Needle valves

Flashback Arrestors
These are positioned on both the fuel gas and oxygen
supply between the hose and the regulator. Their purpose
is to prevent the return of a flame through the hose into
the regulator.

Filler Rods and fluxes

Filler rods are used when additional filler metal is
required in the weld area they come in different
diameters.

Fluxes protect the weld pool from contamination by

oxygen and nitrogen, they are normally in paste
form placed on a heated filler rod before welding
begins

Resistance welding
Resistance welding uses the application of electric
current and mechanical pressure to create a weld
between two pieces of metal. Weld electrodes conduct
the electric current to the two pieces of metal as they are
forged together. The welding cycle must first develop
sufficient heat to raise a small volume of metal to the
molten state. This metal then cools while under pressure
until it has adequate strength to hold the parts
together. The current density and pressure must be
sufficient to produce a weld nugget, but not so high as to
expel molten metal from the weld zone.

 Spot welding
Seam Welding

Spot welding
Ideal for joining light sheet metal. The
electrodes are made from copper.
Pressure is applied to the electrodes and
an electric current is passed through the
circuit. The high resistance between the
joint faces causes rapid heating and
fusing of a small globule of metal from
both faces.

Seam welding

The rollers allow the workpiece to

move through the welder
continously. A stream of electrical
pulses pass through the rollers and
welds the joint

Resistance Welding Benefits

High speed welding
Easily automated
Suitable for high rate production
Economical

Resistance Welding Limitations

Initial equipment costs
Lower tensile and fatigue strengths
Lap joints add weight and material

Friction welding
One part is held stationary while
the other part is rotated
When the parts are hot enough the
rotation is stopped and the parts
forged together

Robotic welding
Robots are driven using actuators which
control the robotic arm from an input signal.
They can use hydraulic (large robots),
pneumatic(small actuators with simple
control movements) or electrical principles of
operation.
A computer sends instructions in electrical
signals or pulses. An interface converts these
digital pulses into analogue electricity for the
motors. The robot is fitted with sensors which
can send feedback on the position of the robot.

Advantages of Robotic welding

Faster production rates
Efficent continous operation
Safe working practice
Reliable and consistent welds
Full automation

Cost effective

Examples
Automated welding of motor vehicles
skeletel frames and bodies.

Robotic welding Terms

Lead through programming Teaching robot movements
through guiding it manually through a sequence of
operations. These are recorded to memeory
Machine Vision Area of vision robot has, limits which
robot sensors can operate
Working enevelope The area within which a robot can
operate. Where the work is caried out by robotic arm
Yaw left and right movment of robotic arm
Roll rotation of robot about one of its axis
Degrees of freedom These are the number of
independent movements of the arm joints( or actuators)
the robot has.