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Otomat Va Ngon NG Hinh TH C
Otomat Va Ngon NG Hinh TH C
MC LC
LI NI U .......................................................................................................... 5
Chng I: M u ................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Tp hp v cc cu trc i s......................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Tp hp v cc tp con ............................................................................. 8
1.1.2 Tp hp v cc php ton hai ngi .......................................................... 9
1.3 Quan h v quan h tng ng .................................................................. 12
1.4 Hm s .......................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Logic mnh v tn t .............................................................................. 16
1.5.1 Logic mnh ........................................................................................ 16
1.6.2 Cng thc mnh ................................................................................. 18
1.5.3 Dng chun ca cc cng thc ............................................................... 20
1.5.4 Cc qui tc suy din trong tnh ton mnh ........................................ 23
1.6 Tn t (v t) v cc lng t ........................................................................ 25
1.7 Cc phng php chng minh ...................................................................... 28
Bi tp v logic v lp lun ................................................................................. 30
Chng II: L thuyt tmt ............................................................................... 35
2.1 tmt hu hn ............................................................................................. 35
2.1.1 Cc tnh cht ca hm chuyn trng thi ................................................ 38
2.1.2 Cc phng php biu din tmt ........................................................ 39
2.1.3 Ngn ng on nhn c ca tmt ................................................... 40
2.2 tmt hu hn khng n nh .................................................................. 41
2.3 S tng ng ca tmt n nh v khng n nh ........................... 43
2.4 Cc tiu ho tmt hu hn ........................................................................ 47
Bi tp v tmt hu hn ................................................................................... 51
Chng III: Vn phm v ngn ng hnh thc .................................................. 53
3.1 Bng ch ci v cc ngn ng ...................................................................... 53
3.2 Cc dn xut v v ngn ng sinh bi vn phm .......................................... 55
3.3 Phn loi cc ngn ng ca Chomsky ........................................................... 62
3.4 Tnh qui v cc tp qui ......................................................................... 70
3.5 Cc php ton trn cc ngn ng ................................................................... 73
3.6 Ngn ng v tmt ...................................................................................... 76
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LI NI U
L thuyt tmt ra i xut pht t nhng nhu cu ca thc tin k thut, ch
yu l t nhng bi ton v cu trc ca cc h thng tnh ton v cc my bin i
thng tin t ng. Ngy nay, l thuyt ny c mt c s ton hc vng chc v
nhng kt qu ca n c nhiu ng dng trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau.
Song song vi l thuyt tmt, cc ngn ng hnh thc cng c tp trung
nghin cu nhiu t nhng nm 50 ca th k 20, khi cc nh khoa hc my tnh
mun s dng my tnh dch t mt ngn ng ny sang ngn ng khc. Cc
ngn ng hnh thc to thnh mt cng c m t i vi cc m hnh tnh ton c
cho dng thng tin vo / ra, ln kiu cc thao tc.
tmt v vn phm sinh ra cc ngn ng hnh thc thc cht l mt lnh vc lin
ngnh, gp phn rt quan trng trong vic m t cc dy tnh ton v iu khin t
ng, c pht sinh trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc nhau t cc h thng tnh
ton, ngn ng hc n sinh hc. Khi nghin cu vi t cch l cc i tng ton
hc, l thuyt ny cng cp n nhng vn c bn ca khoa hc my tnh, v
cc kt qu nghin cu c nhiu ng dng ngay i vi cc ngnh ton hc tru
tng.
Ngy nay, cc l thuyt v ngn ng hnh thc, tmt v l thuyt tnh ton c
hnh thc ho thnh cc m hnh ton hc tng ng cho cc ngn ng lp trnh,
cho cc my tnh, cho cc qu trnh x l thng tin v cc qu trnh tnh ton ni
chung. tmt v ngn ng hnh thc c p dng rng ri trong nhiu lnh vc
khoa hc v ng dng nh: m hnh ho, m phng cc h thng tnh ton, cc k
thut dch, thng dch, tr tu nhn to, cng ngh tri thc, ...
Nhm p ng nhu cu ging dy, hc tp v nghin cu ca cc sinh vin ngnh
Cng ngh thng tin, chng ti bin son gio trnh tmt v ngn ng hnh
thc theo hng kt hp ba l thuyt chnh: l thuyt tmt, ngn ng hnh thc
v l thuyt tnh ton vi nhiu v d minh ho phong ph.
Gio trnh ny gii thiu mt cch h thng nhng khi nim c bn v cc tnh
cht chung ca tmt v ngn ng hnh thc.
Chng m u trnh by cc khi nim c bn, cc tnh cht quan trng ca cc
cu trc i s, logic mnh , logic tn t v cc phng php suy lun ton hc
lm c s cho cc chng sau. Chng II gii thiu v l thuyt tmt, nhng
khi nim c s v cc hot ng ca tmt. Vn phm v cc ngn ng hnh
thc c cp n chng III. Nhng vn lin quan n tp chnh qui,
ngn ng chnh qui v tmt hu hn c trnh by chi tit chng IV.
Chng V, VI nghin cu cc khi nim c s, mi quan h gia cc lp ngn ng
v cc tnh cht rt quan trng ca ngn ng phi ng cnh, tmt y xung. Lp
cc ngn ng phi ng cnh loi LR(k) c nhiu ng dng trong chng trnh dch,
chng trnh phn tch c php c trnh by trong chng VII. M hnh tnh
ton my Turing, mi quan h tng ng tnh ton gia cc lp ngn ng c
cp chng cui. Trong chng ta tm hiu v phc tp tnh ton ca cc
h thng tnh ton, nhng bi ton quyt nh c v nhng bi ton thuc lp
-5-
-6-
-7-
CHNG I
M u
1.1 Tp hp v cc cu trc i s
1.1.1 Tp hp v cc tp con
Tp hp l s kt tp nhng i tng c cng mt s thuc tnh ging nhau, v d
tp tt c cc sinh vin ca Khoa CNTT. Mi i tng thnh vin c gi l
phn t ca tp hp.
Cc ch in hoa A, B, C, c s dng k hiu cho cc tp hp; cc ch thng a, b, c,
c s dng k hiu cho cc phn t ca mt tp hp xc nh. Phn t a thuc tp A, k
hiu l a A, ngc li, khi a khng phi l phn t ca A, k hiu l a A.
Tp hp c th c m t theo cc cch sau:
(i) m c cc phn t. Ta c th vit cc phn t ca tp hp theo th t
bt k trong cp du ngoc {, }, v d tp cc s t nhin chia ht cho 7 v
nh hn 50 c th vit l {7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49}.
(ii) M t tp hp theo tnh cht ca cc phn t. V d tp cc s t nhin
chia ht cho 7 v nh hn 50 c th vit:
{n | n l s nguyn dng chia ht cho 7 v nh hn 50}.
(iii) nh ngha qui. Cc phn t ca tp hp c th nh ngha thng qua
cc qui tc tnh ton t cc phn t bit trc. V d tp cc s giai tha
ca n c th nh ngha:
{fn | f0 = 1; fn = (n-1) * fn-1, n = 1, 2, }.
-8-
(ii)
V d 1.1 S = {1, 2, 3, 10} c th phn hoch thnh hai tp A1 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}tp cc s l v tp cc s chn A2 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
1.1.2 Tp hp v cc php ton hai ngi
Trc tin chng ta xt cu trc bao gm mt tp hp v mt php ton hai ngi.
Trn tp hp S (sau ny l cc bng ch) c th xc nh mt php ton hai ngi,
nh nguyn thc hin gn mt cp phn t bt k a, b ca S vo mt phn t duy
nht k hiu l a * b. Php ton ny cn c gi l php * (php ton sao) trn tp
hp tha mn cc tin sau.
Tin 1 Tnh ng ca *. Nu a, b S th a * b S.
Tin 2 Tnh kt hp. Nu a, b, c S th (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
Tin 3 Phn t n v. Tn ti duy nht mt phn t c gi l n v e S
sao cho vi mi x S, x * e = e * x = x.
Tin 4 Phn t ngc. Vi mi phn t x S, tn ti duy nht mt phn t k
hiu x sao cho x * x = x * x = e. Phn t ny c gi l phn t ngc ca x.
Tin 5 Tnh giao hon. Nu a, b S th a * b = a * b.
-9-
(ii)
Tp hp (Set)
Tin 1, 2
Na nhm (Semigroup)
5
ton
Na nhm Abelian
3
ton
Monoid Abelian
4
ton
3
ton
5
to
n
Monoid
4
ton
Nhm (group)
5
Nhm Abelian
(iii)
(iv)
V d 1.3
Tp cc s nguyn N vi php cng v php nhn (tng ng vi * v ) to
thnh vnh giao hon c n v (0 l n v ca php cng, 1 - n v ca
php nhn).
Tp tt c cc s hu t (cc phn s dng p/q, p, q l cc s nguyn, q 0)
vi 2 php cng, nhn to thnh trng.
- 11 -
Tin 1-5
Tin 6, 7, 11
Vnh (ring)
10
10
to
n hon
Vnh giao
8
to
n
8
to
Vnhnc n v
10
to
Vnh giao hon c nn v
1-11
Trng
Hnh H1-2 Cc cu trc i s
Phn x. Nu xRx vi mi x S.
(ii)
(iii)
- 12 -
S=
aS
C
aS
nn S
C
aS
Vy
C
aS
S. T suy ra (i).
(1.1)
V d 1.6
a/ Trn tp s t nhin N, nRm khi m v n u chia ht cho 2 s c hai lp
tng ng l tp cc s chn v tp cc s l.
b/ Cc lp tng ng ca quan h tng ng trong v d 1.5 (b/) chnh
l cc lp hc c xp trong mt Khoa.
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(ii) R12 = R1 R1
(iii) R1n = R1n-1 R1, vi n 2.
Da vo cc tnh cht ca tp hp v quan h, chng ta c nh l khng nh s
tn ti ca bao ng bc cu ca mi quan h.
nh l 1.2 Gi s S l tp hu hn, R l quan h trn S. Bao ng bc cu R+ ca R lun
tn ti v R+ = R1 R2 R3... Bao ng phn x, bc cu ca R l R* = R0 R+. Trong
R0 = {(a, a) | a S} l quan h ng nht.
V d 1.7 R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)} l quan h trn {1, 2, 3, 4}. Tm R+
Chng ta tnh Ri. Lu , nu c (a, b) v (b, c) R th (a, c) R2.
R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
R2 = R R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)} {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
= {(1, 3), (1, 4)}
R3 = R2 R = {(1, 3), (1, 4)} {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
= (khng c cp no trong R2 c th ghp vi cc cp trong R).
R4 = R5 = . . . = .
Vy, R+ = R R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4), (1, 3)}.
V d 1.8 R = {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)} l quan h trn {a, b, c}. Tm R *.
Trc tin tm R+.
- 14 -
1.4 Hm s
Khi nim hm s xut hin khi chng ta mun xt mi quan h tng ng duy
nht ca i tng vi mt i tng cho trc.
nh ngha 1.10 Hm hoc nh x f() t tp X vo tp Y l qui tc gn tng
ng mi phn t x trong X bng mt phn t duy nht trong Y, k hiu l f(x). Phn
t f(x) c gi l nh ca x thng qua f(). Hm f() c k hiu f: X Y.
Cc hm c th nh ngha bi:
(i) Tp cc nh ca cc phn t,
(ii) Qui tc tnh tng ng f(x) v x.
Cho trc f: X Y v A X. K hiu f(A) = {f(a) | a A} Y.
V d 1.9
a/ f: {1, 2, 3, 4}{a, b, c} c th nh ngha f(1)= a, f(2) = b, f( 3) = f(4)= c.
b/ f: Z Z c xc nh bi cng thc f(x) = x2 + x.
nh ngha 1.11 Cho trc hm f: X Y.
(i) f c gi l n nh (one-to-one) nu x y th f(x) f(y).
(ii) f c gi l ton nh (onto) nu mi phn t y ca Y u l nh ca
mt phn t no ca X, ngha l f(X) = Y.
(iii) f c gi l song nh nu f va l n nh v l ton nh.
V d 1.10 f: Z Z c cho bi f(n) = 2*n l n nh nhng khng phi hm
ton nh v cc s nguyn l khng l nh ca s no c. f(X) l tp con thc s ca
Y.
nh l sau gip chng ta phn bit c s khc nhau c bn gia tp hu hn v
tp v hn.
nh l 1.3 (Nguyn l chung b cu) Gi s S l tp hu hn. Hm f: S S l
n nh khi v ch khi l hm ton nh.
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- 16 -
- 17 -
- 18 -
P Q
PQ
(P Q) P Q
QP
Lut lu ng
P P P,
I2
I3
PPP
PQ QP
Lut kt hp
P (Q R) (P Q) R,
I4
P (Q R) (P Q) R
I5
Lut hp th
P (P Q) P,
I6
P (P Q) P
Lut De Morgan
I7
P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
(P Q) Q P,
(P Q) Q P
Lut ph nh kp
( P) P
I8
P P T,
PPF
I9
P T T,
P F P,
- 19 -
P T P, P F F,
(P Q) (P Q) P
I11
Lut nghch o
(P Q)
QP
I12
(P Q) ( P Q)
I13
(P Q) (P Q) (Q P)
(P ( Q R)) ( P Q)
(P Q) (P R) P Q
- 20 -
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Gii:
Cng thc nhn gi tr ng trong cc hng th 1, 4, 5 v 8. Cc hi s cp cc tiu tng
ng vi nhng hng l (P Q R), (P Q R), ( P Q R) v ( P Q R). Vy
dng chun tuyn chnh tc ca s l
(P Q R) (P Q R) ( P Q R) ( P Q R)
Mt khc, ta d nhn thy i ngu ca dng chun tuyn s l dng chun hi.
Tng t nh trn, ta c cc nh ngha ca cc dng i ngu nh sau:
nh ngha 1.20 Tuyn s cp cc i ca cc bin mnh P1, P2, Pn l mt cng
thc dng Q1 Q2 Qn, trong Qi l Pi hoc l Pi. Mt cng thc dng chun
hi chnh tc hay (chun hi u ) nu n l hi ca cc tuyn s cp cc i.
Lu : D dng suy ra nu l dng chun tuyn chnh tc th s l dng chun
hi chnh tc.
Tng t nh i vi dng chun tuyn chnh tc, ta cng khng nh c l mi cng
thc u chuyn tng ng c v dng chun hi chnh tc v l dng chun
duy nht.
V d 1.16 Tm dng chun hi chnh tc ca cng thc = P (Q R)
- 22 -
( P Q R) P Q R.
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
Gii:
Cng thc nhn gi tr sai trong cc hng th 2, 3, 6 v 7. Cc tuyn s cp cc i tng
ng vi nhng hng l ( P Q R), ( P Q R), (P Q R) v ( P Q R).
Vy dng chun hi chnh tc ca s l
( P Q R) ( P Q R) (P Q R) ( P Q R)
1.5.4 Cc qui tc suy din trong tnh ton mnh
Trong lp lun logic, ta thng da vo mt s mnh c cng nhn (cc gi
thuyt, tin ) l ng suy dn ra nhng mnh ng khc. Nhng mnh
suy ra c gi l h qu, cc tnh cht hay nh l.
Cc qui tc suy din chnh l cc cng thc hng ng (tautology) dng ko
theo: P Q, trong P l gi thit v Q l kt lun.
ph hp hn vi cc qui tc chng minh trong cc chng trnh, chng ta c
th vit cc cng thc dng mnh Horn: P1 P2 Pn Q di dng:
- 23 -
Pn
Q
Di y l bng cc qui tc suy din c bn trong lp lun logic ton hc, c s
dng trong lp trnh logic, trong suy din v chng minh ton hc, ...
Bng 1.10 Cc qui tc suy din
Cc qui tc
P (P Q)
(P Q) P
(P (P Q)) Q
( Q (P Q)) P
( P (P Q)) Q
(( P Q) (Q R))) (P R)
((P Q) (R S) (P R)) (Q S)
- 24 -
((PQ)(RS)( Q S)) ( P R)
P R
V d 1.18 Hy chng minh rng
PQ
Q R
P S
R
S
Gii:
Theo RI7 ta c
PQ
Q R
P R
Mt khc, R ( R), kt hp vi kt lun trn v p dng lut RI4 (Modus tollens)
ta c
( R)
P R
P
S dng kt lun ny cng vi gi thit P S v p dng RI5 suy ra iu phi
chng minh.
P
P S
S
1.6 Tn t (v t) v cc lng t
Trong suy lun, chng minh ton hc v trong qu trnh tnh ton, ta thng s
dng nhng mnh c cc bin. V d "x > 5", "x = y + 10". Nhng mnh ny
c th ng, sai tu thuc vo cc gi tr ca cc bin x, y. Mt khc, mnh
"x > 5" c hai phn:
+ x l bin, l ch im m mnh khng nh,
+ "ln hn 5" - ni v tnh cht ca x v cn c gi l tn t (hoc v t).
Ta c th k hiu P(x) "x ln hn 5". Pht biu P(x) cn c gi l hm tn t
hay hm v t. Khi P(4) = F, P(8) = T.
- 25 -
- 26 -
I15
I16
(x (P(x)) x ( P(x))
I17
(x (P(x)) x ( P(x))
I18
x (P(x) R) x P(x) R
I19
x (P(x) R) x P(x) R
c l mt phn t P(c) l ng
P(c)
x P(x)
- 27 -
(*)
Hay vit P(x1, x2, . . . xn) Q(x1, x2, . . . xn), vi x1, x2, . . . xn D
chng minh nh l (*) chng ta c th thc hin mt trong cc cch sau:
Phng php th hai l chng minh gin tip (hay phn chng). Gi s
P(x1, x2, , xn) = T v Q(x1, x2, . . ., xn) = F. Lc xem P, Q nh l
cc nh l, kt hp cc tin , nh l, hay cc nh l khc c
chng minh dn ra iu bt hp l (mu thun). nh l trn c
chng minh v ta c:
- 28 -
Chng minh bng phng php lp lun, suy din - lp lun loi tr cc
trng hp.
Chng minh bng phng php qui np ton hc. Gi thit mnh S(n)
xc nh trn mi s nguyn dng. chng minh mnh S(n) ng
th chng ta thc hin nh sau:
(i)
- 29 -
(**)
(***)
(****)
Bi tp v logic v lp lun
1.1 Cho S = {a, b}*. Vi mi x, y S, nh ngha x y = xy (ghp 2 ch).
(a) S c ng vi ?
(b) Php c tnh kt hp, giao hon?
(c) S c phn t n v i vi ?
1.2 Tm quan h l bao ng i xng ca R trn tp S.
1.3 Nu X l tp hu hn th |2X| = 2|X|
1.4 Nhng quan h R sau c phi l quan h tng ng hay khng
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
1.5 Cho f: {a, b}* {a, b}* xc nh bi f(x) = ax, vi x {a, b}*. Hi f() c
nhng tnh cht g?
1.6 Nu w {a, b}* tha mn abw = wab, chng minh rng |w| l s chn.
1.7 Nhng mnh sau ng hay sai trong trng s thc?
a/
b/
c/
d/
x, y , nu x < y th x2 < y2
x, y , nu x < y th x2 < y2
x, y , nu x < y th x2 < y2
x, y , nu x < y th x2 < y2
5n 1 chia ht cho 4
1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n - 1) = n2
2n n2, vi n = 4, 5, . . .
2 + 4 + 6 + . . . + 2n = n*(n + 1)
(*)
(x) S(x)
y P(x), Q(x), R(x), S(x) l cc bin v t xc nh trn trng M.
a/ Vit cng thc tng ng vi m hnh suy din (*) nu trn v n c phi l
cng thc hng ng khng?.
b/ M hnh suy din trn c ng trn trng M khng?, nhng quy tc suy din no
c p dng trong m hnh suy din .
3. Hy din t nh ngha gii hn lim f(x) = L di dng mt cng thc v t.
x x0
4. Ch ra rng cng thc ((x) P(x)) tng ng vi cng thc (x) P(x) trn
trng M = {a1, a2, , an}.
1.16* ( thi cao hc nm 2005, cu 1 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
1. Pht biu sau ng hay sai, ti sao?
Tt c mi ngi c bng c nhn th u tt nghip i hc.
Lan c bng c nhn.
Vy suy ra Lan tt nghip i hc.
2. Hai cng thc sau c tng ng logic vi nhau khng, ti sao?
A = P (Q R) v B = (P Q) (P R)
3. Cho trc cng thc F = (P Q) ( P R)
a/ Kh php ko theo v rt gn cng thc F.
b/ Tm dng chun hi chnh tc (chun hi y ) v chun tuyn chnh tc
ca F.
- 33 -
- 34 -
CHNG II
L thuyt tmt
Chng hai gii thiu nhng khi nim c s v cc tnh cht ca l thuyt tmt.
Ni dung bao gm:
2.1 tmt hu hn
Chng ta s tm hiu v mt nh ngha tng qut nht ca tmt v sau thu
hp cho ph hp vi cc ng dng ca khoa hc my tnh. Mt tmt c nh
ngha nh l mt h thng ([2], [3], [4], [5], [6]), trong nng lng, vt cht
hoc thng tin c bin i; c truyn i v c s dng thc hin mt s
chc nng no m khng cn c s tham gia trc tip ca con ngi. V d nh
my ph-t-copy t ng, my tr tin t ng ATM, ...
Trong khoa hc my tnh, thut ng tmt c ngha l my x l t ng trn d
liu ri rc. Mi tmt c xem nh l mt c ch bin i thng tin gm mt
b iu khin, mt knh vo v mt knh ra.
I1
I2
tmt
q1, q2, qn
Ik
O1
O2
Om
- 35 -
Output
Hnh H2-2 Thanh ghi dch chuyn 4 bit s dng D-flip flaps
Thanh ghi dch chuyn trn cn c gi l my hu hn trng thi c 24 = 16
trng thi (0000, 0001, , 1111), mt dy vo v mt dy ra, bng ch ci vo
(tn hiu vo) = {0, 1}v bng ch ci u ra (tn hiu ra) O = {0, 1}. Thanh
Hnh H2-3. My hu hn trng thi thc hin thanh ghi dch chuyn 4 bit.
Nhn xt: Hnh vi ca mi my tun t (cc thao tc thc hin tun t) u c th
biu din c bng mt tmt.
Sau y chng ta xt nh ngha hnh thc v tmt hu hn trng thi gi tt l
tmt hu hn.
- 36 -
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Bng d liu vo
u c R
B iu khin
hu hn
- 37 -
(2.1)
(2.2a)
(2.2b)
(2.3)
- 38 -
K hiu vo
a1
a2
an
q0
(q0, an)
q1
(q1, an)
qf
qk
(qf, an)
(qk, an)
trong , Q = {q1, q2, qk}, = {a1, a2, , an} v F l tp tt c nhng trng thi
qf (nhng trng thi nm trong hnh trn), q0 l trng thi bt u (c mi tn i
n).
V d 2.2 Xt tmt hu hn c hm chuyn trng thi c xc nh theo bng
sau
Bng B2.1 Bng chuyn trng thi ca M
Dy vo
Trng thi
q0
q1
q2
q3
q2
q3
q0
q1
q1
q0
q3
q2
- 39 -
q0
q1
1
0
q2
q3
= (q3, 01)
= (q1, 1)
= (q0, )
= q0 .
q1
a
q3
b
Hnh H2-6 Biu din th ca tmt hu hn M cho trc
Da vo cc tnh cht v cch biu din ca hm chuyn trng thi trn th nh
hng, chng ta nhn thy:
- 40 -
0
0
q0
q1
q2
- 41 -
(2.4)
(ii) S Q, (S, ) = S,
(2.5)
(iii) S Q, a , (S, a) =
( q, a )
(2.6)
qS
(2.7)
q0
q1
q2
0, 1
q3
q4
- 42 -
Theo (2.4)
Theo (2.7)
Theo (2.6)
Theo (2.6)
c bit ca TK.
- 43 -
Q = 2 Q ,
(ii)
q0 = {q0},
(2.8)
(2.9)
Khi |x| = 0, hin nhin (q0, ) = {q0} v theo nh ngha , (q0, ) = q0 = {q0},
ngha l (2.9) ng vi |x| = 0.
Gi thit (2.9) ng vi mi y v |y| n. Xt xu x c di n + 1. Ta c th vit x = ya,
trong |y| = n v a . Gi s (q0, y) = {p1, p2, pk} v (q0, ya) = {r1, r2, rl}. Bi
|y| n nn theo gi thit qui np ta c
(q0, y) = {p1, p2, pk}
(2.10)
- 44 -
(2.11)
q0
q0
q1
q1
q1
q0, q1
{q0}
{q1}
{q0, q1}
{q0}
{q1}
{q0, q1}
{q1}
{q0, q1}
{q0, q1}
Nhn xt: Khi M c n trng thi, M tng ng s c th c 2n trng thi. Tuy nhin,
chng ta khng nht thit phi xy dng tmt c tt c 2n trng thi m ch cn nhng
trng thi t n t trng thi khi u v i n c trng thi kt thc.
Trong bng chuyn trng thi B2.3 trng thi l khng t n c t trng thi
bt u {q0} nn c th loi b i. Ngoi ra, cho tin li chng ta c th k hiu
- 45 -
s0
s1
s2
s1
s2
s2
q0
{q0, q1}
q2
q1
q0
q1
q2
{q0, q1}
- 46 -
{q0}
{q0, q1}
{q2}
{q2}
{q0, q1}
{q0, q1}
{q0, q1}
{q1, q2}
{q1, q2}
{q0}
{q0, q1}
- 47 -
Lu :
1. Da vo bng chuyn trng thi cho trc ta d dng xy dng c cc lp
0 = {Q10, Q20}, Q10 = F, Q20 = Q - F;
- 48 -
b
b
q0
q3
q4
q5
b
a
b
q2
q1
q7
q6
b
q0
q1
q0
q1
q0
q2
q2
q3
q1
q3
q3
q0
q4
q3
q5
q5
q6
q4
q6
q5
q6
q7
q6
q3
Theo thut ton trn ta c Q10 = {q3}, Q20 = { q0, q1, q2, q4, q5, q6, q7} v
0 = {{q3},{ q0, q1, q2, q4, q5, q6, q7}}.
Chng ta xt tip quan h 1-tng ng tnh 1. Trc tin ta c
Q11 = {q3}. Da vo bng B2.7 chng ta d kim tra c q0 l 1-tng
ng vi q1, q5, q6 v (q0, t) v (qi, t), i = 1, 5, 6 v t = a, b l cng kt
thc hoc cng khng phi l trng thi kt thc. Vy Q21 = { q0, q1, q5, q6}.
Tng t ta c th kim tra c q2 -tng ng vi q4 v Q31 = { q2, q4}.
Hin nhin cn li Q41 = {q7}. T chng ta c
- 49 -
{q0,q6}
{q1, q5}
{q1, q5}
{q0,q6}
{q0, q6}
{q2, q4}
{q2, q4}
{q3}
{q1, q5}
{q3}
{q3}
{q0,q6}
{q7}
{q0, q6}
{q3}
[q0,q6]
b
a
[q3]
a
[q7]
b
a
a
b
[q2,q4]
[q1,q5]
b
- 50 -
Bi tp v tmt hu hn
2.1 Chng minh rng trong tmt hu hn, nu (q, x) = (q, y) th
(q, xz) = (q, yz) vi mi z trong +.
2.2 Cho trc tmt hu hn M = (Q, , , q0, F). Gi s R l mt quan h trn
Q c nh ngha nh sau q1R q2 nu (q1, a) = (q2, a) vi a . Hi R c
phi l quan h tng ng hay khng?
2.3 Xy dng mt tmt khng n nh on nhn {ab, ba}, v s dng n
tm tmt n nh on nhn cng tp .
2.4 Xy dng mt h bin i on nhn c cc xu c cha cat hoc rat t
bng ch a, b, c,
2.5 Xy dng mt tmt khng n nh on nhn c tp tt c cc xu t tp
{a,b} kt thc bng xu con aba.
2.6 Xy dng tmt n nh tng ng vi
M = ({q0, q1, q2, q3}, {0, 1}, , q0, {q3}) vi c cho trong bng
Bng B
Trng thi \
q0
q0, q1
q0
q1
q2
q1
q2
q3
q3
q3
q2
2.7 M = ({q1, q2, q3}, {0, 1}, , q1, {q3}) l tmt khng n nh, trong
c cho bi
(q1, 0) = {q2, q3}, (q1, 1) = {q1}
(q2, 0) = {q1, q2}, (q2, 1) =
(q3, 0) = {q2},
Tm tmt n nh tng ng vi M.
2.8 Xy dng tmt n nh trn {0, 1} on nhn tt c cc xu cha chn
ln cc ch s 1.
2.9 Xy dng tmt n nh trn = {a1, a2, , an} on nhn cc ngn ng
sau:
a) L1 = {x * | x c di l}
b) L2 = {x * | x c di chn}
c) L3 = {x * | x c di chn v ln hn 1}
- 51 -
q0 0
0
1
q5
q1
1
q4
q2
M2:
1
q3
s0 a
s1
s3
s2
s4
q0
q2
q1
0
q5
1
q4
q6
1
0
q7
- 52 -
q3
CHNG III
- 53 -
(ii)
(iii)
(v)
R nu .
G
xut, ta vit .
G
L(G) = {w * | S w}
G
- 56 -
Lu :
1. Mi dn xut u phi thc hin trn c s s dng cc qui tc; khi s cc
qui tc s dng ng mt ln th chng ta vit ; khi s qui tc ln
G
hn mt ln th vit l .
G
V th 0n1n L(G), vi n 0.
ch ra rng L(G) {0n1n | n 0}, chng ta bt u xt mt cu w bt k thuc
L(G). Nu s dng S (k hiu rng) trc th ta nhn c . Trong trng
hp ny w = = 0010. Ngc li, khi s dng qui tc S 0S1 th sau chng ta
c th hoc s dng S hoc tip tc s dng S 0S1. Qu trnh dn xut
*
L(G) {0n1n | n 0}
Vy L(G) = {0n1n | n 0}.
V d 3.5 Cho trc vn phm G = ({S, C}, {a, b}, P, S), trong P = {S aCa,
CaCa | b}, tm L(G).
V S aCa aba, vy aba L(G). Hn na
S aCa
n 1
trong
Vi n 1, i 0, chng ta c
*
{ anbnci | n 1, i 0} L(G).
- 58 -
S 0n-1S(A2)n-1
*
n-1
n-1
0 012(A2)
*
n
n-1 n
0 1A 2
*
n n n
012
0n12(A2)n-1 0n1An-1 2n
Sau p dng n-1 ln 1A 11 th c
*
0n12(A2)n-1 0n1n2n
Suy ra L(G) {0n1n2n | n 1} v cui cng L(G) = {0n1n2n | n 1}.
V d 3.10 Xy dng vn phm G sinh ra L = {anbncn | n 1}.
Chng ta c th xy dng vn phm G sinh ra L bng phng php qui. Tuy
nhin, nu xy dng vn phm sinh trc tip ra L l tng i kh. Vy, chng ta
c th thc hin theo hai bc.
(i) Xc nh cc qui tc dn xut ra ann,
(ii) Chuyn n v bncn.
c cc xu ann dng (i), chng ta c th s dng nhng qui tc n gin nh
S aS | a. Nu bc (ii) chng ta s dng ngay qui tc bc th s c
(bc)n. Nhng n y khng th chuyn (bc)n v c bncn v v tri khng c bin
no c. Do vy ta c th s dng = BC, vi B v C l cc bin. Sau dn cc
- 59 -
S an-1S(BC)n-1
an-1aBC(BC)n-1
anBnCn
an-1abBn-1Cn
anbnCn
anbn-1bc Cn-1
anbncn
(3.1)
(3.2)
- 61 -
- 63 -
(i)
1. S w nu v ch nu w c s cc ch a bng s cc ch b,
*
2. A w nu v ch nu w c s cc ch a ln hn s cc ch b l 1,
*
3. B w nu v ch nu w c s cc ch b ln hn s cc ch a l 1.
Chng ta chng minh tnh cht 1.
Bc c s: |w| = 1 th chng ta ch c A a hoc B b. Do vy t S khng th
dn xut ra xu no c 1 k hiu, ngha l tnh cht trn l ng.
- 64 -
- 66 -
abbbx1abbcdy1ccd
abbbx2abbcdy2ccd
(3.3)
S dng k hiu A sinh ra trng hp (3.3) v k biu B sinh ra trng (3.4). Khi
vn phm G c cc qui tc dng:
S abbbAabbcdAccd | abbbBabbcdBccd
A aC | bC | cC | dC | eC
C aA | bA | cA | dA | eA |
B aD | bD | cD | dD | eD |
D aB | bB | cB | dB | eB
sinh ra x1, y1 * c di l
sinh ra x2, y2 * c di chn
- 67 -
...
- 68 -
(ii)
- 70 -
W0 = {S},
(ii)
Wi Wi+1, vi mi i 0,
(iv)
(v)
Wk = { (VN )* | S v || n}
Tnh cht (iii) suy ra t (ii). chng minh (iv), chng ta xt N l s tt c cc xu trn
VN c di nh hn hoc bng n. Nu |VN | = m th N = 1 + m + m2 + ... + mn
bi v mi l s cc xu c di i trn VN . N c xc nh v n ch ph thuc vo
n v m. Hin nhin l |Wi| N, vi mi i. T suy ra (da vo nguyn l chung b
cu) Wk = Wk+1, vi k N.
T (ii) v t (iv) Wk = Wk+1 ko theo Wk+1 = Wk+2. Vy chng ta chng minh c
tnh cht (v) v
*
Tnh cht (v) khng nh w L(G) (S w) khi v ch khi w Wk. Chng ta bit
l W1,W2 , ..., Wk c to ra sau hu hn bc.
- 71 -
- 72 -
L1, L2 i th L1 L2 i, i = 0, 1, 2, 3.
nh l 3.5 Cc lp ngn ng 0, 1, 2, 3 ng i vi php hp .
Chng minh. Gi s L1, L2 i, i = 0, 1, 2, 3. p dng nh l 3.1 chng ta xy
dng c hai vn phm G1 = (VN1, 1, P1, S1), G2 = (VN2, 2, P2, S2) thuc loi
i sinh ra L1, L2 tng ng. Cc qui tc trong P1, P2 c dng , vi v
ch cha cc bin hoc c dng A a, vi A l bin cn a l k hiu kt thc.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, chng ta c th gi thit VN1 VN2 = (bng cch t
tn cc bin khc nu chng xut hin trong c hai tp).
Chng ta nh ngha vn phm mi
G = (VN1 VN2 {S} , 1 2, P, S), trong
S l k hiu mi khng thuc VN1 VN2 v
P = P1 P2 {S S1, S S2} vi i = 0, 1, 2
Ring i vi trng hp cc ngn ng chnh qui (i = 3) th
P = P1 P2 {S a | bA, S c | dB} nu c S1 a | bA v S2 c | dA
P = P1 P2 {S aS, S bS} nu c S1 aS1 v S2 bS2
- 73 -
G1
G2
S S1 w, suy ra w L1.
G
G1
S S2 w v w L2.
G
G2
- 74 -
Gc
Gc
Do L1 L2 L(G).
*
G1
G2
Gc
Ch :
Php ghp cc ngn ng khng giao hon, ngha l L1L2 L2L1.
Php ghp c tnh kt hp vi php hp v php giao
L1(L2 L3) = L1L2 L1L3
(L1 L2)L3 = L1L3 L2L3
L1(L2 L3) = L1L2 L1L3
(L1 L2)L3 = L1L3 L2L3
nh l 3.7 Cc lp ngn ng 0, 1, 2, 3 ng i vi php o v.
Chng minh. Gi s G = (VN, , P, S) l vn phm loi i, i = 0, 1, 2, 3 v
L = L(G). Chng ta cn ch ra rng LT cng l loi ngn ng i.
Xy dng vn phm GT = (VN, , PT, S), trong PT gm nhng qui tc t P v
o ngc li c v tri v v phi ca chng.
PT = {T T | P}
Nh th nu G l loi 0, 1, 2 th kim tra ngay c GT cng l loi 0, 1, 2. i vi
vn phm chnh qui chng ta chng minh chng sau.
- 75 -
(ii)
Lp 3 ng vi php ly phn b.
(iii)
- 76 -
Error!
Loi 0
My Turing
Cm ng cnh
tmt Tuyn
tnh gii ni
Phi ng
cnh
tmt y
xung
Chnh qui
tmt
hu hn
S 0S1 | 0A1, A 1A | 1
(b)
S 0S1 | 0A | 1B | 0 | 1, A 0A | 0, B 1B | 1
(c)
S 0A | 1S | 0 | 1, A 1A | 1S | 1
(d) S 0A | 1S | 0 | 1, A 1A0 | 1S |1
3.2 Xy dng vn phm sinh ra cc ngn ng sau:
(a)
(b) {0n1m0m1n | m, n 1}
(c) {0n12n | n 1}
(d)
{0n1n | n 1} {1m0m | m 1}
- 77 -
{albmcn | l + m = n}
(d)
{albmcn | l, m, n 1}
3.9 Chng minh rng G1 = ({S}, {a, b}, P1, S), trong P1 = {S aSb | ab} l
tng ng vi G2 = ({S, A, B, C}, {a, b}, P2, S), vi P2 = {S AC,
C SB, S AB, A a, B b}.
3.10 Xy dng vn phm sinh ra {(ab)n | n 1} {(ba)n | n 1}.
3.11 Chng minh rng vn phm gm cc qui tc A xB | y, trong x, y *
v A, B l cc bin l tng ng vi vn phm chnh qui.
3.12* ( thi cao hc nm 2000, cu 3 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
Cho ngn ng phi ng cnh L = {anbn0, cm1kdm | n > 0, m > 0, k 0}
(i) Hy tm vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra L.
(ii) Hy a ra dn xut chng t t a2b20, c311d3 c sinh ra bi vn phm
tm c trong cu (i).
3.13* ( thi cao hc nm 2000, cu 3 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
Cho ngn ng phi ng cnh L = {an0kbncmdm | n > 0, m > 0, k 0}
(i) Hy tm vn phm phi ng cnh G sinh ra L.
(ii) Hy kim tra xem cc t a302b3c2d2, a202b2c2d c c sinh ra bi vn
phm G tm c trong cu (i)?
3.14 Ch ra rng tp {abc, bca, cab} l ngn ng sinh ca mt vn phm chnh qui
c bng ch ci l {a, b, c}.
3.15 Xy dng vn phm sinh ra
(i) L1 = {(ab)n | n > 0}, L2 = {(ba)n | n > 0}
(ii) L = L1 L2
(iii) L = L1L2
3.16 Gi s G = ({A, B, S}, {0, 1}, P, S), trong P c cc qui tc S 0AB,
A0 S0B, A1 SB1, B SA | 01. Ch ra rng L(G) = .
3.17 Nhng pht biu sau ng hay sai, ti sao?
(a) Nu G1 v G2 tng ng vi nhau th chng cng mt loi.
(b) Nu L l tp con hu hn ca * th L l ngn ng phi ng cnh.
(c) Nu L l tp con hu hn ca * th L l ngn ng chnh qui.
- 78 -
1
0
q1
b
q2
q3
q4
a/ Tm ngn ng on nhn c bi M
b/ Xy dng vn phm chnh qui G sinh ra ngn ng c on nhn bi
tmt nu trn.
c/ Xu w = 1abba c c sinh ra trong G hay khng?, ti sao?
*
CHNG IV
- 80 -
(ii)
(iii)
Tm li:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii) {1, 11, 111, ...} c biu din bi biu thc 1(1)*.
V d 4.2 Xc nh cc biu thc chnh qui biu din cho cc tp (ngn ng) sau:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Gii:
- 81 -
(ii)
(iii)
+R=R
I2
R = R =
I3
R = R = R
I4
* = v * =
I5
R+R=R
I6
R* R * = R *
I7
RR* = R*R
I8
(R*)* = R*
I9
+ RR* = + R*R = R*
I10
(PQ)*P = P(QP)*
I11
I12
(P + Q)R = PR + QR v R(P+Q) = RP + RQ
(4.1)
(4.2)
(theo I9)
= (1*(011)*)*
(p dng nh l 4.1 vi Q = )
= (P1*P2*) *
(t P = 1, P2 = 011)
= (P1 + P2)*
(theo I11)
= (1 + 011)
V d 4.4 Hy ch ra rng
(1+00*1) + (1+00*1)(0+10*1)*(0+10*1) = 0*1(0 + 10*1)*
Bi v (1+00*1) +(1+00*1)(0+10*1)*(0+10*1) = (1+00*1)(+(0+10*1)*(0+10*1) (theo I12)
= (1 + 00*1)(0 + 10*1)*
(theo I9)
= ( + 00*)1 (0 + 10*1)*
= 0*1(0 + 10*1)*
(theo I9)
q0
q1
q3
q2
- 84 -
R=
R = ai
P
Hnh H4-3 (e) H chuyn trng thi on nhn P*
Do vy, nh l c chng minh bng qui np v k thut xy dng cc h
chuyn i trng thi tng ng.
- 86 -
(4.3)
(4.4)
Pij =
Pikk-1(Pkkk-1)*
Pkj
k-1
Pijk-1
(4.5)
0
q0
2
q1
q2
0
q0
2
q1
q2
0
q0
2
q1
q2
2
Hnh H4-5 (b) Loi b - dch chuyn t q0 n q2
c/ Cui cng loi b - dch chuyn t q1 n q2 c kt qu nh Hnh H4-5 (c).
1
0
q0
2
q1
q2
2
Hnh H4-5 (c) Loi b - dch chuyn t q1 n q2
4.3.3 Chuyn cc h chuyn trng thi khng n nh v h thng n nh
chuyn mt h chuyn trng thi khng n nh (trn th chuyn trng thi, t
mt nh c nhiu hn mt cung i ra c cng nhn v c th c nhiu nh bt u) v
h chuyn trng thi n nh, s c thc hin tng t nh thut ton chuyn
TK v T tng ng, chng ta c th thc hin theo thut ton sau.
Thut ton 4.2: Chuyn h chuyn trng thi khng n nh v h chuyn trng
thi n nh.
1. Chuyn h chuyn trng thi cho trc sang bng chuyn trng thi, trong
mi trng thi ng vi hng v cc k hiu vo ng vi ct,
2. Xy dng bng chuyn trng thi tip theo ca phn t t bng trc bng cch
xc nh tt c cc tp con cc trng thi t c t tp cc trng thi khi
u,
3. th chuyn trng thi ng vi bng chuyn trng thi thu c s cho h chuyn
trng thi n nh tng ng. Nhng trng thi kt thc ca h chuyn trng thi
- 88 -
b
q1
b
q2
q0
q1, q2
q1
q0
q2
q0, q1
Qa
Qb
[q0, q1]
[q0, q1]
- 89 -
b
b
[q0,q1,q2]
- 90 -
q1
0
1
q2
q3
0
Hnh H4-9 Cho trc th trng thi
Da vo th chuyn trng thi, chng ta c th xc nh c cc phng trnh
theo cc trng thi nh sau:
q1 = q10 + q30 + ,
(4.6)
(4.7)
q3 = q20
(4.8)
(4.9)
- 91 -
q1
q2
a
b
b
q3
q4
a, b
q1
q2
q3
0, 1
- 93 -
q0
q1
q0
(00 + 11)
q2
q3
(0 + 1)*
q1
0+1
q4
00 + 11
q2
q3
q5
q1
q6
0
q0
q4
0, 1
0
q3
q2
1
q7
q5
q1
q1
0, 1
q0
qf
1
q2
- 94 -
q1
q0, q1
qf
q0, q2
q2
qf
qf
qf
qf
+ Tip theo xy dng bng phn t k tip t trng thi bt u t [q0]. T bng
4.3 chng ta thy [q0] i theo cung c nhn 0 th n c [q0, q1] v i theo cung
c nhn 1 th n c trng thi [q0, q2]. Tng t, [q0, q1] i theo cung c nhn 0
th n c [q0, q1, qf] v i theo cung c nhn 1 th n c trng thi [q0, q2].
T trng thi [q0, q2] i theo cung c nhn 0 s chuyn n [q0, q1] cn i theo cung
c nhn 1 s n [q0, q2, qf]. Tip tc xt s chuyn trng thi t [q0, q1, qf] theo
cung c nhn 0 s dn n chnh n cn i theo cung c nhn 1 s n [q0, q2, qf].
Tng t vi trng thi cn li, [q0, q2, qf]. Vi mi phn t a xc nh tng
ng Qa c bng chuyn trng thi tip theo.
Bng 4.4 Bng chuyn trng thi tip theo
Q
Q0
Q1
[q0]
[q0, q1]
[q0, q2]
[q0, q1]
[q0, q2]
[q0, q2]
[q0, q1]
[q0,q1,qf]
[q0,q1]
0
0
q0
1
[q0,q2]
[q0,q2,qf]
0, 1
[q0,q1,qf]
q0
[q0,q2]
a, b
- 96 -
a
b
a, b
P
j 1
m
1fj
qj=qk
qm
Gii:
(i)
- 98 -
L =
n 1
q0
q1
0, 1
q2
q0
q1
0, 1
q2
Q0
Q1
- 100 -
V d 4.16 Xy dng vn phm chnh qui sinh ra tp chnh qui c biu din
bi E = a*b(a+b)*.
Gii: Trc tin chng ta xy dng tmt hu hn M on nhn E.
a
a, b
q0
qf
(ii)
(iii)
- 102 -
q0
q1
qf
- 103 -
i 1
X
n 1
tn
L
k
(4.10)
(4.11)
(4.12)
{X1, X2, , Xn }, nu L
{[], X1, X2, , Xn }, nu L
q0 = []
F = {[x] Q | x L} v hm chuyn trng thi c nh ngha nh
sau:
([x], a) = [xa] vi a v x *.
(4.14)
(4.15)
= [xya] = [xy ]
Tt nhin khi x = , th t (4.15) suy ra (q0, y) = [y], vi mi t y +.
(4.16)
L.
{0, 1, 2}
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
- 105 -
(ab + a)*(aa + b)
(ii)
(a*b + b*a)*a
(iii)
a* + (ab + a)*
(ab + c*)*b
(ii)
a + bb + bab*a
(iii)
(a + b)*abb
q1
0
q4
q2
q3
q1
1
q2
0
q0
q3
q4
q4
q2
4.10 Chng minh rng L = {ww | w {a, b}*} khng phi l tp chnh qui.
4.11 Chng minh rng cc tp sau khng phi l tp chnh qui
(i)
{anb2n | n > 0}
(ii)
(iii)
{anbn | n > 0}
(iv)
(ii)
(iii)
4.16 Cho ngn ng chnh qui trn bng ch ci {0, 1}, gm tt c cc t cha hai
k hiu 0 ng lin nhau.
(i) Hy biu din ngn ng bi biu thc chnh qui
(ii) Hy tm vn phm chnh qui sinh ra ngn ng
(iii) Hy xy dng tmt hu hn on nhn cng ngn ng trn.
4.17 Xy dng tmt hu hn n nh tng ng vi biu thc chnh qui
10+(0+11)*1.
4.18 Cho ngn ng L trn bng ch {0, 1} c cc t cha chn ln s 0 v chn
ln s 1.
(i) Tm biu thc chnh qui biu din cho L.
(ii) Xy dng vn phm sinh ra ngn ng L.
- 107 -
1
q0
q1
0
q2
x
y
q3
q4
- 108 -
CHNG V
Ni dung ca chng nm cp n:
Cy dn xut v cc phng php xc nh vn phm phi ng cnh,
Tnh nhp nhng v qu trnh gin lc vn phm phi ng cnh,
Cc dng chun: dng chun Chomsky v dng chun Greibach,
B Bm (iu kin cn) cho cc ngn ng phi ng cnh v mt s
thut ton quyt nh c.
- 109 -
V d 5.2 Cho trc vn phm G = ({S, A}, {a, b}, P, S), trong P gm:
S aAS | a | SS, A SbA | ba
Cy dn xut ca G sinh ra xu w = aabaa s l:
S
1
S
3
S
2
a
10
a
4
S
6
A
5
b
7
a
8
a
9
Gc ca n l mt nh v ca cy T,
- 110 -
a
4
b
a
7
8
Hnh H5-2 Mt cy con ca cy T hnh H5-1
Lu : Cy con cng ging nh cy dn xut, ch khc nhau l nhn ca cy con c
th khng phi l k hiu bt u S. Nu nhn ca gc ca cy con l A th cy con
c gi l A-cy.
nh l 5.1 Gi s G = (VN, , P, S) l vn phm phi ng cnh. Khi
*
(4.17)
A2
Am
...
(4.18)
1X2...Xm .
*
..
12
*
. . . m =
.
*
.
*
Chng ta i xy
X1
Xm
A X1X2...Xm
.
k 1
k 1
th:
(i)
(ii)
- 112 -
2 2 2
ba.
X2
S
b
b
X2
w.
k 1
w.
wi
wi
w.
Tng t, c
B
S
X2
1
0
1
2 2
+
a
S
S
S
S
a
a
b
a
Hnh H5-6 Hai cy dn xut cng cho kt qu a + a * b
- 114 -
(ii)
Nhng bin khng xut hin v phi, hoc khng xut hin v tri
ca cc qui tc, v d E khng xut hin v phi v khng dn n
c t k hiu bt u S.
(iii)
Cc qui tc rng, v d E .
(iv)
(ii)
Nu A VN th A
(ii)
L(G) = L(G).
w,
G'
w * v ngc li nu A
w
G
th A VN
chng minh (i) chng ta lu rng Wk = W1 W2 ... Wk. Chng minh qui
*
np theo i = 1, 2, ..., k, A Wi ko theo A w vi w *.
G'
Nu A W1 th A w v w *, do A
w.
G
w,
G'
w1 w2
G'
...wm *.
w
G'
nu A
w
G
v w *
- 116 -
(4.19)
*
w.
G
W1 = {A, C} bi A a v C b
W2 = {A, C} {A1 | A1 , ( {A, C}*}
= {A, C} {S} bi S CA
W3 = {A, C, S} {A1 | A1 , ( {A, C, S}*}
= {A, C, S}
Vy W3 = W2. Do ,
- 117 -
- 118 -
Xy dng W
(ii)
- 119 -
- 123 -
(ii)
(ii)
|vx| 1
(iii)
|vwx| n
(iv)
uvkwxky L vi mi k 0.
Chng minh:
T h qu 5.2 ta c th kim tra c L hay khng. Khi L th ta xy dng
vn phm phi ng cnh G = (VN, , P, S) dng chun Chomsky sinh ra
L {} (trng hp L th xy dng vn phm G = (VN , , P, S) dng
chun Chomsky sinh ra L).
Gi s |VN| = m v t n = 2m. Ta ch ra rng n l s cn tm b trn.
- 125 -
vBx
uvkBxky
v B
*
w. V S
uBy
uwy = uv0wx0y L. Vi k 1, S
uBy,
uBy
- 126 -
(ii)
- 128 -
- 129 -
CHNG VI
tmt y xung
Chng ny cp n:
tmt y xung,
6.1 Cc nh ngha c s
M hnh ton hc thc s hu hn c nghin cu trong cc chng trc vn
cn cha tho ng vi phn ln cc mc tiu ca cc lnh vc khoa hc, c bit
l khoa hc my tnh. N khng c kh nng on nhn ngay c mt ngn ng n
gin nh L = {anbn | n 1} v n khng th m c s ch a c c trc khi
ch b u tin c tnh n. Khng th xy dng tmt hu hn trng thi
on nhn c L bi v cc xu ca n c dng anbn vi n l tu v sinh ra
chng th phi c v hn trng thi. Tuy nhin, vic m rng trc tip tmt hu
hn bng cch cho php n c v s cc trng thi r rng l khng phi l m hnh
tnh ton ph hp. N qu tng qut v khng tho mn yu cu ch yu v tnh
hiu qu ca khoa hc tnh ton.
Vy tmt loi no thch hp on nhn c nhng ngn ng nh th?. Cu
tr li chnh l tmt y xung.
Mt cch t nhin tm kin thng tin t bng lm vic da trn nguyn tc ngn
xp vo trc ra sau (hay vo sau ra trc). Mt bng lm vic nh vy
c ni n nh mt bng (kho) y xung. Mt tmt y xung l mt tmt
hu hn km theo mt bng y xung v hn tim nng.
tmt y xung hot ng nh sau: N c bng ch (k hiu) vo, c trng thi
iu khin, trng thi bt u, kt thc ging nh tmt hu hn. Ngoi ra, n cn
c kho (b nh) y xung. Mi ln thay i trng thi n c th c, ly ra t nh
xung y hoc ghi mt k hiu vo kho y xung. tmt y xung c nh
ngha hnh thc nh sau.
nh ngha 6.1 tmt y xung (PDA) l b by:
A = (Q, , , , q0, Z0, F), trong
(i)
- 130 -
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
- 131 -
(6.1)
nu (q, a1, Z1) cha (q, ). Quan h chuyn i cc hnh trng s to thnh dy
bin i hnh trng.
PDA trng thi q vi cc k hiu y xung Z1Z2 Zm PDS c k hiu vo a1.
Sau chuyn i hnh trng trn th xu vo cn x l l a2an.
Nu = Y1Y2 Yk th quan h (6.1) c th m t nh sau:
a1 a2 . . .
a2 a3 . . .
an
Z1
Z2
.
.
.
Zm
an
Y1
Y2
Yk
Z2
Z3
Zm
(6.2)
(6.3)
(q, x, ) * (q', , )
(6.4)
(6.5)
(6.6)
(6.7)
- 133 -
(6.8)
(6.9)
(6.10)
theo (6.5)
theo (6.7)
theo (6.8)
(q1, b, bZ0)
theo (6.9)
(q1, , Z0)
theo (6.10)
(qf, , Z0)
theo (6.10)
- 134 -
(b)
(c)
V d 6.4 Xt PDA A = ({q0, q1}, {a, b}, {a, Z0}, , q0, Z0, ), vi cho trc
nh sau:
R1: (q0, a, Z0) = {(q0,aZ0)}
R2: (q0, a, a) = {(q0, aa)}
R3: (q0, b, a) = {(q1, )}
R4: (q1, b, a) = {(q1, )}
R5: (q1, , a) = {(q1, )}
Xc nh N(A) v kin thit B T(B) = N(A).
Gii: Trc tin chng ta c th ch ra N(A) = {anbn | n 1 }. Tht vy
(q0, anbn, Z0) * (q0, bn, anZ0) bng cch p dng R1 v R2
* (q1, , Z0) bng cch p dng R3 v R4
- 135 -
(q0, b, a) = {(q1, )}
(q1, b, a) = {(q1, )}
Kt lun
(q, b, a) = {(q, )}
(6.11)
Ta chng minh tnh cht trn qui np theo cc bc trong dn xut ra uA. Nu
0
S uA, th u = = v A = S. Hin nhin, c s qui np l ng. Gi thit
(6.11) ng vi dn xut qua n bc.
Ta xt S
S
n 1
u1A11
u = u1u2, = 12.
p dng gi thit qui np vi n bc u, ta c
(q, u1u2v, S) * (q, u2v, A1)
(6.12)
(6.13)
uAv
uuv = w.
T (6.12) suy ra
(q, uuv, S) * (q, uv, Av)
V A u l qui tc trong P, nn (q, uv, A) * (q, uv, uv)
Theo qui tc R2 , ta c (q, uv, uv) * (q, , ), ngha l w = uuv N(A) khng
nh L(G) N(A).
Tip theo ta chng minh chiu ngc li L(G) N(A).
Tng t, ta chng minh mt tnh cht b tr
Nu (q, uv, S) * (q, v, ) th S
(6.14)
Chng minh (6.14) qui np theo cc bc dch chuyn trng thi ca PDA.
Bc c s qui lp l hin nhin ng, v nu (q, uv, S) 0 (q, v, ) th u = ,
0
S = , th tt nhin S .
Gi s (6.14) ng vi n bc dch chuyn. Ta xt trng hp vi n + 1 bc dch
chuyn trng thi
(q, uv, S) n+1 (q, v, )
(6.15)
Trong bc dch chuyn trng thi cui cng trong hnh trng (6.15) ca PDA c
th nhn c t mt trong hai dng sau: (q, , A) (q, , ) hoc (q, a, a) (q, ,
). Theo trng hp u th (6.15) c th vit thnh
(q, uv, S) n (q, v, A2) (q, v, 12) = (q, v, )
Theo gi thit qui np th S
uA2 u12 = u
- 139 -
w L(G) S
(6.16)
S [q0, Z0, q]
- 141 -
P1
P2
P4
P3
P5
P6
S
F
S
F
aa
a+
a*
E
E
P3
P4
E
E
E
E
E
E
P1
P4
P2
P4
+a
++
+*
*a
*+
**
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
Mt vn khc hay gp phi trong phn tch c php l qui tri. Bin A c
gi l qui tri nu n c dng A A. Khi gp phi trng hp qui tri th
b phn tch c php c th ri vo chu trnh lp v hn. nh l sau cho php loi
b qui tri.
nh l 6.6 Cho G l vn phm phi ng cnh c tp tt c cc A-dn xut l:
{ A A1, , A An, A1, , Am}. Vn phm G1 c xy dng t G
bng cch thm bin mi A v thay cc A-dn xut trong G bng A 1A, ,
A mA, A 1A, , A nA v A l tng ng vi G.
Chng minh: Tng t nh i vi b 5.3.
nh l 6.5 v 6.6 ch p dng dng hiu qu xy dng b phn tch c php
top/down cho mt s vn phm phi ng cnh, khng phi cho tt c cc trng hp.
Chng ta khi qut qu trnh xy dng b phn tch c php top/down nh sau:
Xy dng b phn tch c php top/down (trn / xung)
1. Loi qui tri bng cch s dng nh l 6.6 cho tt c cc bin qui tri.
2. p dng nh l 6.5 loi b s nhp nhng khi cn thit.
3. Nu vn phm thu c l LL(k) vi k l s t nhin th p dng k
thut nh nu hai v d trn phn tch qua k bc trn/xung.
V d 6.10 Xt ngn ng gm tt c cc biu thc s hc vi php +, * trn cc
bin x1 v x2. Vn phm sinh ra L c dng:
G = ({T, F, E}, {x, 1, 2, +, *, (, )}, P, E), trong P c cc qui tc:
EE+T
ET
TT*F
F (E)
F x1
F x2
- 143 -
TF
F (E)
T FT
E + TE
F x1
F x2
T * FT
Bc 2: p dng nh l 6.5 loi b s nhp nhng bng k thut phn tch
thnh tha s. Thay F x1, Fx2 bng F xN, N 1 | 2. Kt qu c vn
phm G2 tng ng:
G2 = ({T, F, E, E, T}, {x, 1, 2, +, *, (, )}, P, E), P c cc qui tc:
P1: E TE
P2: E + TE
P6: T
P7: F (E)
P3: E
P8: F xN
P4: T FT
P9: N 1
P5: T * FT
P10:N 2
E
T
F
T
E
N
E
E
E
P6
P1
E
P1
P4
P8
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
P9
E
E
E
E
E
P10
+
E
E
E
E
P2
E
E
E
E
P5
E
E
P1
P4
P1
E
E
E
E
E
E
P6
P1
E
- 145 -
Trng thi
p
px
p
p1
p
p+
p+
p+
p+
p
p(
p
px
p
p2
p
p)
p)
Dy vo
Cha c c
x1 + (x2)
1 + (x2)
1 + (x2)
+ (x2)
+ (x2)
(x2)
(x2)
(x2)
(x2)
(x2)
x2)
x2)
2)
2)
)
)
$
$
Kho Stack
Z0
Z0
xZ0
xZ0
1xZ0
1xZ0
FZ0
TZ0
EZ0
+EZ0
+EZ0
(+EZ0
(+EZ0
x(+EZ0
x(+EZ0
2x(+EZ0
2x(+EZ0
F(+EZ0
- 146 -
Lut
Qui tc
s dng p dng
R1
R2
R1
R2
R1
R8
Fx1
R6
TF
R4
ET
R2
R1
R2
R1
R2
R1
R2
R1
R9
Fx1
p)
p)
p
p$
p$
p$
p$
p$
p$
$
$
$
T(+EZ0
E(+EZ0
)E(+EZ0
)E(+EZ0
F+EZ0
T+EZ0
EZ0
Z0
R6
R4
R2
R1
R7
R6
R3
R10
R11
TF
ET
F(E)
TF
FE+T
Bi tp v tmt y xung
6.1 Xy dng PDA on nhn bng kho y xung rng cc ngn ng sau:
(a) {anbmcn | m, n 1}
(b) {anb2n | n 1}
(c) {ambmcn | m, n 1}
(d) {ambn | m > n 1}
6.2 Xy dng PDA on nhn bng trng thi kt thc cc ngn ng nh trong
bi 6.1
6.3 Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra cc ngn ng sau v sau xy
dng cc PDA on nhn chng bng kho y xung rng:
(a) {anbn | n 1} {amb2m | m 1}
(b) {anbmcn | m, n 1} {ancn | n 1}
(c) {anbmcmdn | m, n 1}
6.4 Xy dng tmt y xung n nh trn {a, b} on nhn tt c cc dy
Palindrrome c di l chn theo kho y xung (ngn xp) rng.
6.5 Ch ra rng tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} c s k t a bng s k t b, c
on nhn bi mt tmt y xung n nh.
6.6 Ch ra rng {anbn | n 1} {amb2m | m 1} khng th on nhn bi mt
tmt y xung n nh.
- 147 -
- 148 -
CHNG VII
Vn phm LR(k)
- 149 -
w, vi , V*N v w *,
(i)
S Aw
(ii)
S Aw
(iii)
R
*
w, vi , V*N v w *,
Lu :
1. Nu w hoc w cha t hn (|| + k) k hiu th c th b sung
thm cc k hiu c bit nh $ chng hn vo bn phi.
2. nhn c cy suy din, chng ta mun s dng nhng suy din theo
th t ngc. T w v nu c qui tc A th chng ta phi quyt
nh xem qui tc ny c c p dng bc cui trong suy din tri
nht hay khng. Xt k k hiu pha bn kia ca trong w chng ta
c th chn qui tc A bc cui theo yu cu. Nu c w
tho mn iu kin (iii) v c th p dng A bc cui ca suy
- 150 -
Ab2
AB
A
A
B
b
S Aw
R
*
S Aw
R
w = x
(7.1)
w = x
(7.2)
- 152 -
- 153 -
- 154 -
Bi tp v vn phm LR(K)
7.1 Chng minh rng vn phm G c cc qui tc S aAb, A aAb | a l LR(1).
N c l LR(0)?
7.2 Hy ch ra rng S 0A2, A 1A1 | 1 khng phi l LR(k), k 0.
7.3 Cho trc vn phm S AB | a, A aA | aB | a, B b, tn ti mt s
nguyn k no vn phm ny l LR(k)?
7.4 Hy ch ra rng {anbncm | n, m 1} {anbmcm | n, m 1} khng phi l
LR(k) vi mi k nguyn dng.
7.5 Nhng pht biu sau c ng khng, ti sao?
(a) Nu vn phm G l nhp nhng, G l LR(k) vi k no .
(b) Nu vn phm G l khng nhp nhng, G l LR(k) vi k no .
7.6 Vn phm G c cc qui tc: S C | D, C aC | b, D aD | C c phi l
LR(0)?
7.7 Vi mi qui tc A ca vn phm phi ng cnh G v w *$k ($ VN ),
nh ngha Rk(w) tp tt c cc xu dng w sao cho A l iu khin
*
- 155 -
CHNG VIII
a1
a2
a3
a4
a5
an
u R/W
qk
Hnh H8-1 - M t mt my Turing
Mi bc chuyn ca my Turing, ph thuc vo k hiu do u R/W c c t
bng d liu v trng thi ca b iu khin, my s thc hin cc bc sau:
1. Ghi mt k hiu mi trn bng ti ang duyt (ngha l thay k hiu
c c trn bng bng k hiu no ).
2. Dch chuyn u R/W (sang tri (L), sang phi (R) hoc ng yn ()).
- 156 -
- 157 -
a4
a1
a2
a3
a1
a2
a4
a3
u R/W
q2
Hnh H8-2 Mt m t tc thi ca my Turing
K hiu di u R/W l a1 v trng thi hin thi ca MT l q2. Nhng k hiu
khc B l dy a4a1a2a3 c ghi bn tri ca q2 v nhng k hiu khc du B
bn phi ca a1 l a2a4a3. Vy m t hin trng ca MT trn l
a4 a1 a2 a3 q2 a1 a2a4a3
Dy bn tri
Dy bn phi
K hiu u R/W
Hot ng ca my Turing M
Tng t nh tmt y xung, khi hm chuyn ca MT thay i trng thi khi
c mt k hiu bng d liu th m t hin trng ca n cng s thay i theo.
Ti mi bc, my MT mt trng thi q, u c nhn k t s, hot ng ca my
s ph thuc vo b chuyn c xc nh bi hm chuyn (). Hot ng ny bao
gm vic ghi mt k t mi ln k t m u c ang nhn, chuyn u c
sang phi hay sang tri mt , ng thi b iu khin chuyn sang mt trng thi
mi.
Php chuyn ca cc th hin ca MT c nh ngha nh sau:
nh ngha 8.3. Gi s (q, xi) = (p, y, L) v x1x2 ... xi-1 q xi ... xn l m t hin
thi ID ca MT. Sau khi x l xi th MT chuyn sang th hin
x1x2 ... xi-2 p xi-1y xi+1 ... xn
- Nu i > 1 th s bin i hin trng ca MT c vit nh sau:
x1x2 ... xi-1 q xi ... xn x1x2 ... xi-2 p xi-1y xi+1 ... xn
M
- Nu i - 1 = n th Xi l B.
- Nu i =1 th khng c ID k tip, ngha l u c khng c php vt
qua cn tri ca bng.
+ Tng t, (q, xi) = (p, y, R) th th hin ca MT c bin i nh sau:
x1x2 ... xi-1 q xi ... xn x1x2 ... xi-1y p xi+1 ... xn
M
(y, y, R)
(0, x, R)
q1
(1, y, L)
q2
(0, 0, R)
q3
(x, x, R)
(y, y, R)
q5
(B, B, R)
q6
(0, 0, L)
(x, x, R)
q4
(0, 0, L)
(1,x,L)
q2
q2
q1
(0,x,L)
(x,x,R)
Bx0y1B Bx0y1B Bx0y1B
q1
q4
q3
(y,y,R)
(1,y,L)
(0,x,R)
Bxxy1B BxxyyB
Bxxy1B (B,B,R)
(y,y,R)
q2
q2 BxxyyBB
q3
BxxyyB
q5
q5
- 159 -
(y,y,L)
(x,x,R)
(y,y,R)
BxxyyB BxxyyB BxxyyB
q3
q5
q5
Trong , * l bao ng bc cu ca .
MT
MT
K t trn bng
0
xRq2
bRq5
0Rq2 yLq3
yRq2
0Lq4
xRq5 yLq3
0Lq4
xRq1
yRq5 bRq6
- 160 -
q1
Bq2R
q2
Bq1R
- 161 -
K hiu
0
(q1, x, R)
(q1, x, R)
(q2, y, L)
q0
(q1, x, R)
q1
(q1, x, R)
q2
(q2, x, L)
q3
(q2, y, L)
(q4, B, )
q4
(q2, x, L)
- 162 -
(q0, x, R)
- 163 -
q1
q2
q3
q4
q5
q6
q7
K t trn bng
1
BRq2
1Rq2
1Lq6
1Lq6
BRq3
2Rq3
BRq4
3Rq5
2Lq5
B
BRq1
BRq2
BRq3
BLq7
BLq5
BRq1
m n, nu m n
0,
ngc li m < n
+ Dy vo: 0m10n
+ Dy ra: 0 m\ n
MT lp li vic thay th ln lt tng s 0 u bng bng B ri tin sang phi,
sau 1 v tm 0 ri thay 0 ny bng 1. MT li chuyn sang tri cho n khi gp B
- 164 -
- 165 -
- 166 -
0
(q2,2,R)
(q2,0,R)
(q3,0,L)
K t trn bng
1
1
(q4,1,L)
(q2,1,R)
(q3,1,L) (q1,2,R)
(q5,1,R) (q4,0,L)
B
(q3,0,L)
trng thi q1 nhn thy 0, MT i 0 thnh 2 v i vo trng thi q2. trng thi
q2, MT dch phi ti B, ghi 0 ri dch tri trong trng thi q3. Khi trng thi q3 m
gp 2, MT i vo trng thi q1 tip tc lp li qu trnh trn cho ti khi gp 1.
Trng thi q4 c dng bin i 2 thnh 0 v th tc dng ti q5.
lm y chng trnh ta phi thm cc trng thi bin i hnh trng khi
u q00m10n thnh B0m-11q10n1. Tc l ta cn ba qui tc:
(q0, 0) = (q6, B, R), (q6, 0) = (q6, 0, R), (q6, 1) = (q1, 1, R)
Sau , ta li thm cc php chuyn v trng thi cn thit bin i t hnh thi
Bi0m-i1q50n10n i thnh Bi+10m-i-11q10n10n i l trng thi bt u li vic COPY,
ng thi kim tra i = m hay khng (khi tt c cc 0 ca 0 m b xo). Nu i = m
th 10n1 b xo v qu trnh tnh ton s dng trng thi q12.
1. S ACaB
2. Ca aaC
3. CB DB
4. CB E
5. aD Da
6. AD AC
7. aE Ea
8. AE }
(ii)
AaiCajB, vi i + 2j l mt ly tha ca 2.
(iii)
AaiDajB, vi i + j l mt ly tha ca 2.
- 169 -
- 170 -
- 171 -
Nu (p, Y, E) (q, ) th Y = v E = R
Nu (p, Y, E) (q, $) th Y = $ v E = L
*
MT
q vi q F v * }
2) l mt tp hu hn cc k hiu cui, VN =
3) P l tp hu hn cc qui tc dng trong , (VN )*,
chui phi c cha bin v rng buc || ||
4) S VN l k hiu bt u.
Ngn ng do vn phm cm ng cnh G sinh ra l
*
L(G) = {w w * v S w}
L(G) c gi l ngn ng cm ng cnh. Thut ng cm ng cnh c xut x
t mt dng chun ca vn phm dng ny, trong mi qui tc c dng
1A2 12 vi , cho thy mt bin A ch c th c thay th bi mt
chui (khc rng) trong ng cnh 1 - 2. iu khng ging nh trong vn
phm phi ng cnh, vi cc qui tc c dng A (|| 0), s thay th ny khng i
hi ng cnh.
V d 8.11 Xt vn phm G = (VN, , P, S) vi VN ={ S, B, C}, ={a, b, c} v P
gm cc qui tc nh sau:
1. S aSBC
2. S aBC
- 172 -
Tht vy, vi qui tc (1) v (2) ta c chui dn xut S an(BC)n. Sau , bng
cch p dng qui tc (3), mi bin B s c thay th ln trc cc bin C trong
chui dn xut: an(BC) * anBnCn. Bi qui tc (4) v (5), mi bin B s c thay
th thnh cc k hiu kt thc b, v cui cng vi (6) v (7), mi bin C cng s
c thay th thnh c. Tm li, ta c chui dn xut nh sau:
*
- 173 -
2)
Thay bi , nu cn thit ta phi dch chuyn phn cui xu sang phi cho
ch, tuy nhin nu dch chuyn ra ngoi $ th LBA ngng v khng chp
nhn.
3)
- 174 -
S1 [a, q0a$]
S2 [a, a]S2,
S2 [a,a$]
a - {, $}
Cc qui tc trong G cho php thc hin giai on 2, ging nh LBA MT thc hin
(sinh vin t xy dng xem nh bi tp).
Cui cng, giai on 3, cc qui tc sau y s c s dng, vi q F:
[a, q] a
a - {, $} v , c th c.
Ch rng s qui tc l hu hn, v v / hoc ch gm , $ v mt k hiu
nhp vo. Chng ta cng c th xo thnh phn th hai ca mt bin nu n lin k
vi k hiu kt thc bng cch dng cc qui tc dng:
[a, ]b ab
b[a, ] ba
- 175 -
- 176 -
ba
ba
b3
b3
Do , PCP c li gii.
V d 8.13. Chng minh rng vi hai danh sch x =(01, 1, 1) v y = (012, 10, 12)
th PCP khng c li gii.
Trc tin chng ta thy, vi mi xi x v yi y, ta c |xi| < |yi|, vi mi i. Do
vy, xu c to ra bng dy cc xu con ca x s lun ngn hn xu c to ra
bng cc xu con tng ng ca y. V vy, PCP khng c li gii.
Post pht biu nh l sau:
nh l 8.8 PCP trn bng ch vi || 2 s khng quyt nh c.
S dng k thut rt gn chuyn bi ton PCP v nhiu lp cc bi ton quyt
nh trong ngn ng hnh thc. Nhng kt lun sau y c th suy ra c t bi
ton PCP [4].
(i)
- 179 -
- 180 -
(ii)
L l NP,
(ii)
- 181 -
a x
j 1
ij
= bj, i = 1, 2, , n
- 182 -
- 183 -
PCP l gii c vi n = 1?
PCP l gii c vi n = 2?
8.11 Chng minh rng PCP vi {(01, 011), (1, 10), (1, 11)} khng c li gii.
8.12 Ch ra rng PCP vi S = {(0, 10), (110, 03), (021, 10)} khng c li gii.
- 184 -
1.9 2.
b/
c/
- 185 -
X1
Trc khi tm dng chun tuyn, ta thc hin mt s php bin i v rt gn cng
thc. Ta t A = (x)(P(x) Q(x)) (x)(Q(x) R(x)) (x)(S(x) R(x))
= (x)((P(x) Q(x)) (Q(x) R(x)) (S(x) R(x))).
- 186 -
q1
q2
q1
q2
q3
q1
q3
Bng chuyn trng thi ca T tng ng vi bng A.2 l
- 187 -
[q0]
[q1]
[q2]
[q1]
[q3]
[q2]
[q1]
[q3]
a, b
2.6 Bng chuyn trng thi ca tmt n nh tng ng l
Bng A.3
Trng thi/
[q0]
[q4]
[q1, q4]
[q2, q3]
[q1, q4]
[q4]
[q4]
[q4]
[q2, q3]
[q2, q3]
a1
a2
a3
...
an-1
an
q0
q1
q1
q0
q1
q0
q1
q0
...
...
q1
q0
q1
q0
a1
a2
a3
...
an-1
an
q0
q1
q1
q1
...
q1
q1
q1
q2
q2
q2
...
q2
q2
q2
q1
q1
q1
...
q1
q1
- 188 -
q0 0
0
1
q5
q1
1
q4
q2
M2:
s0
s1
q3
s2
s4
s3
b
c
a/ Ngn ng on nhn c bi M1: T(M1) = {0(14)n0 | n 0} {1}
Ngn ng on nhn c bi M2: T(M2) = {a(cb)nbm | n 0, m 1} {cm | m 1 }
b/ tmt M c ghp t M1 v M2 sao cho T(M) = T(M1)T(M2), c th xy
dng nh sau:
q0 0
1
q4
s0
q1
s1
q2
1
q3
s2
b
s4
c
s3
b
q5
q1
0
1
q4
c
q2
s1
q3
s2
s4
s3
Chng 3
3.1 (a)
m n
m n
3.2 (a)
ln,
S 0A1 mt ln v A 1A0 (m-1) ln ri A 10 l chng ta
thu c {0n1m0m1n }. Ngha l {0n1m0m1n | m, n 1} L(G).
(c) G c cc dn xut S 0S11 | 011.
3.6 (a) Vn phm cm ng cnh nhng khng phi l phi ng cnh, v d vn
phm c c cc dn xut: S aS | b, aS aa, B a.
(b) Vn phm phi ng cnh nhng khng phi l chnh qui, v d vn phm
c c cc dn xut: S AS | a, A a.
3.7 (a) G = ({S, A, B}, {0, 1}, P, S), trong P c cc dn xut S 0S1 | 0A,
S 1B | 0 | 1, A 0A | 0, B 1B | 1. S dng S 0S1, S 0, hoc
S 1th nhn c 0m1n, trong m v n khc nhau l 1. nhn
c s cc ch s 0 nhiu hn s cc ch s 1 ta p dng A 0A | 0,
S 0A lp li nhiu ln, ngc li nhn c s cc s 1 nhiu hn
th p dng S 1B, B 1B | 1 lp li nhiu ln.
G c cc dn xut S aSc | ac | bc | bS1c, S1 bS1c | bc. Mt xu
ca L dng albmcn, l + m = n, c th vit thnh albmcmcl vi l, m 0. p
dng l-ln qui tc S aSc, thu c alScl. Nu m = th p dng tip S
(c)
- 190 -
q1
a
b
q4
q2
a
q5
a
q3
- 192 -
q0
q1
0
1
q3
q2
y
q4
q3
a
x
q6
y
q5
b
q4
,
*
suy
- 196 -
Chng 6
6.1 (a) PDA on nhn {anbmcn | m, n 1} c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q0, q1}, {a, b}, {a, Z0}, , q0, Z0, }, trong c xc nh nh sau:
R1: (q0, a, Z0) = {(q0, aZ0)}
R2: (q0, a, a) = {(q0, aa)}
R3: (q0, b, a) = {(q1, a)}
R4: (q1, b, a) = {(q1, a)}
R5: (q1, a, a) = {(q1, )}
R6: (q1, , Z0) = {(q1, )}
Bt u vo t vic xp cc k hiu a vo kho y xung cho n khi gp b
(lut R1, R2). Khi b xut hin, tmt thay i trng thi nhng vn khng
thay i kho y xung (lut R3). Khi cc k hiu b c c ht (lut R4),
sau xo i cc k hiu a (lut R5).
Vy, (q0, anbman, Z0) * (q1, , Z0) (q1, , ), ngha l anbman N(A).
Sau chng minh N(A) = {anbman | m, n 1}.
(b) tmt PDA on nhn {anb2n | n 1} c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q0, q1, q2}, {a, b}, {a, Z0}, , q0, Z0, }, trong c xc nh bi:
(q0, a, Z0) = {(q1, aZ0)}, (q1, a, a) = {(q1, aa)}, (q1, b, a) = {(q2, a)}
(q2, b, a) = {(q1, )}, (q1, , Z0) = {(q1, )}.
(c) tmt PDA on nhn {ambmcn | m, n 1} c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q0, q1}, {a, b, c}, {Z0, Z1}, , q0, Z0, }, trong c xc nh bi:
(q0, a, Z0) = {(q0, Z1Z0)}, (q0, a, Z1) = {(q0, Z1Z1)},
(q0, b, Z1) = {(q1, )}, (q1, b, Z1) = {(q1, )},
(q1, c, Z0) = {(q1, Z0)}, (q1, , Z0) = {(q1, )}.
6.3 (a) G = ({S, S1, S2}, {a, b}, P, S) sinh ra {anbn | n 1} {amb2m | m 1},
trong P c cc qui tc: S S1 | S2, S1 aS1b | ab, S2 aS2bb | abb.
tmt PDA on nhn L(G) c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q}, {a, b}, {S, S1, S2, a, b}, , q, S, }, trong c xc nh bi:
(q, , S) = {(q, S1), (q, S2)},
(q, , S1) = {(q, aS1b), (q, ab)},
(q, , S2) = {(q, aS2bb), (q, abb)},
- 197 -
6.8* (i) Vn phm phi ng cnh G sinh ra L = {ancbmcdk | n > m > 0, k > 0}
c cc qui tc: S AC, A aB, B aBb | aB | acb, C cD, D dD | d.
(ii) Dn xut sinh ra a3cb2cd2: S AC aBC a2BbC a3cb2C
a3cb2cD a3cb2cdD a3cb2cd2
(iii) Cy c php ca t a3cb2cd2:
S
A
B
a
d
b
- 198 -
S 01kA1k2
R
012k+12 w
(A7.1)
S 01k+1A1k+12
R
012k+32 w
(A7.2)
vi = 01k+1, = A, w= 1k+12. V cc xu c to ra bi 2k + 1 k
t u tin (lu || + k = 2k + 1) ca w v wl mt, = ,
ngha l 01k = 01k+1, dn n mu thun.
7.3 Vn phm G l nhp nhng v ab c hai cy dn xut, do khng c mt s
nguyn k no vn phm ny l LR(k).
7.4 V anbncn xut hin trong c hai tp, do s c hai cy dn xut khc nhau.
Vy G l nhp nhng, suy ra khng phi l LR(k) vi mi k nguyn dng.
Chng 8
8.2 Dy tnh ton i vi xu con 12 ca 1213 l
q11213 Bq2213 BBq313.
V (q3, 1) khng xc nh nn MT dng. i vi 2133, 312 th my Turing
cho trc v d 8.7 khng bt u c.
8.3 Xy dng M c ba trang thi: q0, q1, qf, trong q0 l trng thi bt u c
s dng ghi nhn chn s ln s 1 gp v q1 c s dng ghi nhn
l ln s 1 gp, qf l trng thi kt thc. M c xc nh bi bng chuyn
trng thi nh sau:
Trng thi
q0
0Rq0
1Rq1
q1
0Rq1
1Rq0
BRqf
qf
8.5 My Turing on nhn tt c cc Palindrrome c di chn trn tp {0, 1} c
xy dng nh sau:
(a) MT c k t vo t bng vo (0 hoc 1), xo k t i v chuyn sang
trng thi khc (q1 hoc q2).
(b) MT c phn cn li v khng thay i cc k hiu trn bng cho n khi
gp du trng B.
(c) u c R/W chuyn sang tri. Nu k hiu bn phi nht ph hp vi k
hiu bn tri nht th k hiu phi nht c xo i, ngc li MT dng.
- 200 -
K hiu vo
0
BRq1
0Rq1
0Rq1
BLq5
0Lq5
0Lq6
1
BRq2
1Rq1
1Rq2
B
BRq1
BRq3
BRq4
BLq6
1Lq5
1Lq6
BRq0
BRq0
k i li
- 201 -
AB
AB
AB
AC
2A
AB
Ca
R+
R*
R1R2
PQ
f: X Y
|x|
(Q, , , q0, F)
(VN, , P, S)
A
ngha
a thuc tp A
a khng thuc tp A
A l tp con ca B
Tp rng, tp trng
Phn t rng, phn t trng
Hp ca tp A v B
Giao ca tp A v B
Hiu ca tp A v B
Phn b ca tp A
Tp tt c cc tp con ca A
Tch Cc ca tp A v B
Lp tng ng cha a
Bao ng bc cu ca A
Bao ng phn x, bc cu ca A
Hp thnh (ghp) ca hai quan h R1 v R2
Hi mnh , php v logic, AND
Tuyn mnh , php hoc logic, OR
Php keo theo, P suy ra Q
Php ph nh logic
Php ng nht
Lng t (lng t) ph dng: vi mi
Lng t (lng t) tn ti
Quan h tng ng
Hm f t X sang Y
di (s phn t, c) ca xu (dy) x,
Mt tmt hu hn
Mt php chuyn trng thi
Mt vn phm
Qui tc, suy din trong vn phm
Mt dn xut trong vn phm G
Mt dy dn xut ca vn phm
R1 + R 2
R1 R2
R1 *
NP
Php dn a thc
ngha
M
T
F
TK
T
VN
L(G)
0
1
2
3
CNF
GNF
PDA
PDS
N(A)
T(M)
LL(k)
Tp cc mnh
Gi tr ng (True)
Gi tr sai (False)
tmt hu hn khng n nh
tmt hu hn n nh
Tp cc k hiu khng kt thc, cc bin
Tp cc ch ci, cc k hiu kt thc
Tp cc xu c sinh bi vn phm G
Lp tt c cc ngn ng loi 0
Lp tt c cc ngn ng loi 1
Lp tt c cc ngn ng phi ng cnh (loi 2)
Lp tt c cc ngn ng chnh qui (loi 3)
Dng chun Chomsky
Dng chun Greibach
tmt y xung
Kho y xung
Tp on nhn bi PDA vi kho PDS rng
Tp cc xu on nhn c bi tmt M
Tp con ca vn phm phi ng cnh, c
trc k k t pha trc
Tp con ca vn phm phi ng cnh, c
cc k t t tri qua phi
tmt tuyn tnh gii ni
LR(k)
LBA
- 203 -
Ting Vit
Lut hp th
Lut kt hp
Php ton nh nguyn
Phn tch c php di ln trn
Lut giao hon
Vnh giao hon
Vnh giao hon c n v
Hm tnh c
Ghp xu
Dng chun hi
nh kin thit
Vn phm phi ng cnh, vn phm loi 2
Vn phm cm ng cnh, vn phm loi 1
Dn xut, qui tc
Cy dn xut, cy phn tch c php
tmt hu hn n nh, T
Dng chun tuyn
Tam on lun
nh i thit
Lut phn phi
Na nhm
Trng
tmt hu hn (trng thi)
Bi ton tho ca cng thc mnh
Nhm
Cn iu khin, iu khin
Suy lun bc cu
Lut lu ng
- 204 -
- 205 -
- 206 -