TRITA-FKT 2002:39

ISSN 1103-470X
ISRN KTH/FKT/D--02/39--SE

ON DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF
RUBBER ISOLATORS

Mattias Sjberg

Stockholm
2002

Department of Vehicle Engineering

The Marcus Wallenberg Laboratory
for Sound and Vibration Research

The Marcus Wallenberg Laboratory

for Sound and Vibration Research

On Dynamic Properties of Rubber Isolators

Mattias Sjberg

Doctoral Thesis

ISSN 1103-470X
ISRN KTH/FKT/D--02/39--SE

Address
MWL
Dept. Vehicle Engineering, KTH
100 44 Stockholm

Visiting address
Teknikringen 8
Stockholm

Telephone
+46 8 790 89 27

Fax
+46 8 790 61 22

E-mail
mwl@fkt.kth.se

Preface
The work forming this thesis was carried out between October 1999 and
December 2002 at the Department of Vehicle Engineering at the Royal
Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm and at Scania CV AB in
Sdertlje, which also provided the gratefully acknowledged financial support.
There are a number of persons who have helped me during this time period to
whom I would like to express my gratitude. First of all to my supervisor Leif
Kari ? thank you for providing excellent guidance in this subject and in the
world of research; to Kent Lindgren for his assistance with measurements; to
my room mate Urmas Ross for helping out whenever my computer and I
disagreed; to Anthony Vinogradoff for language and readability improvement
and to my industrial supervisor Boris Thorvald and to Tor Langhed for giving
valuable feedback with an industrial touch. I would also like to thank the
remainder of my colleagues at the Department of Vehicle Engineering and at
the Group of Vehicle Dynamics at Scania for an inspiring environment both
professionally and socially.
I would also like to thank my parents and my brother with his family for being
there, giving me such valuable spare time during all joint projects ? many
being in our wilderness in Hlsingland.
Finally, I would especially like to express my appreciation to my wife Malin
and my children Arvid and Vilma for providing the most important aspects of
my life.
Mattias Sjberg
Stockholm in December 2002.

Abstract
This work aims at enhancing the understanding and to provide improved
models of the dynamic behavior of rubber vibration isolators which are widely
used in mechanical systems.
Initially, a time domain model relating compressions to component forces
accounting for preload effects, frequency and dynamic amplitude dependence
is presented. The problem of simultaneously modelling the elastic, viscoelastic
and friction forces are removed by additively splitting them, where the elastic
force response is modelled either by a fully linear or a nonlinear shape factor
based approach, displaying results that agree with those of a neo-Hookean
hyperelastic isolator under a long term precompression. The viscoelastic force
is modelled by a fractional derivative element, while the friction force governs
from a generalized friction element displaying a smoothed Coulomb force.
This is a versatile one-dimensional component model effectively using a small
number of parameters while exhibiting a good resemblance to measured
isolator characteristics.
Additionally, the nonlinear excitation effects on dynamic stiffness and
damping of a filled rubber isolator are investigated through measurements. It is
shown that the well-known Payne effect ? where stiffness is high for small
excitation amplitudes and low for large amplitudes while damping displays a
maximum at intermediate amplitudes ? evaluated at a certain frequency, is to a
large extent influenced by the existence of additional frequency components in
the signal.
Finally, a frequency, temperature and preload dependent dynamic stiffness
model is presented covering the ranges from 20 to 20 000 Hz, ?50 to +50 ?C at
0 to 20 % precompression. A nearly incompressible, thermo -rheologically
simple material model is adopted displaying viscoelasticity through a time ?
strain separable relaxation tensor with a single Mittag? Leffler function
embodying its time dependence. This fractional derivative based function
successfully fits material properties throughout the whole audible frequency
range. An extended neo-Hookean strain energy function, being directly
proportional to the temperature and density, is applied for the finite
deformation response with component properties solved by a nonlinear finite
element procedure.
The presented work is thus believed to enlighten working conditions impact
on the dynamic properties of rubber vibration isolators, while additionally
taking some of these most important features into account in the presented
models.
KEYWORDS
Rubber isolator, Dynamic stiffness, Nonlinear, Payne effect, Audible
frequency, Fractional derivative, Mittag? Leffler function, Thermo rheologically simple, Neo-Hooke

Dissertation
This thesis consists of an introduction and 5 appended papers. The performed
work has been planned jointly by Mattias Sjberg and Leif Kari, where the latter
acted as supervisor. The appended papers are:
PAPER A
Sjberg M. Rubber Isolators - Measurements and modelling using fractional
derivatives and friction. SAE paper No 2000-01-3518, 2000.
The model development, implementation, simulation, experiment, evaluation and
writing were essentially performed by Mattias. Mattias has done approximately
95 % of the total work.
PAPER B
Sjberg M. Kari L. Nonlinear behavior of a rubber isolator system using
fractional derivatives. Vehicle System Dynamics 37(3), 217-236, 2002.
The model development, implementation, simulation, experiment, evaluation and
writing were essentially performed by Mattias. Mattias has done approximately
95 % of the total work.
PAPER C
Sjberg M. Kari L. Nonlinear isolator dynamics at finite deformations: An
effective hyperelastic, fractional derivative, generalized friction model.
Submitted 2002 for publication in Nonlinear Dynamics.
The model implementation and simulation were essentially performed by
Mattias. The model development, evaluation and writing was performed jointly
by Mattias and Leif. Mattias has done approximately 75 % of the total work.
PAPER D
Sjberg M. Kari L. Testing of nonlinear interaction effects of sinusoidal and
noise excitation on rubber isolator stiffness. Polymer Testing 22(3), 347-355,
2003.
The experiments, evaluation and writing were essentially performed by Mattias.
Mattias has done approximately 95 % of the total work.
PAPER E
Kari L. Sjberg M. Temperature dependent stiffness of a precompressed rubber
isolator in the audible frequency range.
Submitted 2002 for publication in International Journal of Solids and Structures.
The model development, evaluation and writing were performed jointly by
Mattias and Leif. The simulation was performed by Leif. Mattias has done
approximately 50 % of the total work

Contents
1 Background
1.1 VIBRATION ISOLATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 AIM OF PRESENTED RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1
1
2

2 Component properties
2.1 NONLINEAR EFFECTS OF RUBBER COMPONENTS . . . .
2.1.1 Dynamic amplitude dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Consequence of frequency interaction on the dynamic amplitude dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 TEMPERATURE FREQUENCY SHIFTS . . . . . . . . . . .

3
3
3
6
8
8
9

3 Component modelling
3.1 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Fractional derivatives . . . . . . . .
3.2 DYNAMIC AMPLITUDE DEPENDENCE
3.3 FINITE DEFORMATION DEPENDENCE

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4 Presented models
4.1 MODEL IN PAPER A C .
4.1.1 Elastic force model . .
4.1.2 Short term viscoelastic
4.1.3 Friction force model .
4.1.4 Total force model . . .
4.2 MODEL IN PAPER E . . . .

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force model
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5 Future Research

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23

Chapter 1

Background
It is believed that rubber was first used by the Mayan people in ancient Mesoamerica as long ago as 1600 BC, where sap from the rubber tree was mixed with juices
from other plants. This resulted in a durable and elastic material used for making e.g. rubber balls for ritual games and artwork. The recipe for the modern
type of rubber however, where natural gum is heated after being mixed with
sulphur a process called vulcanization is accredited to Charles Goodyear.
Accidentally he found in 1839 that, due to the vulcanization process, the rubber changed drastically producing a material with unique mechanical properties.
Ever since, rubber has found an indisputable role in many mechanical applications where tires, seals, hoses and vibration isolators are a few examples.

1.1 VIBRATION ISOLATORS

Associated with vehicle applications, vibrations are normally conceived as unwanted dynamic motions and great effort is made reducing these motions to
improve comfort for passengers and goods and to increase vehicle component
durability. The most common way of reducing unwanted vibrations at a receiving structure is, at some point between the source and receiver, to either reflect
the vibration energy by significantly changing the impedance or to dissipate it
by inducing additional damping. The former is readily achieved either by introducing a much softer component compared to the surrounding structure or
by introducing an increase in mass. Structures in vehicles are generally quite
stiff and additional mass comes with a penalty in the form of increased fuel
consumption, meaning that in practice the most widely used way of changing
the impedance is by introducing a softer component a vibration isolator.
The properties of rubber being generally soft while showing large inherent
damping makes the material a perfect choice for use in vibration isolators. A
representative rubber vibration isolator consists of one or more pieces of vulcanized rubber bonded to metal parts, facilitating load distribution and installation.


M. SJOBERG

The large difference in material bulk and shear modulus enables the design of
a wide range of component properties by adjusting its geometry.
Material as well as component properties are discussed in the subsequent
text and they are related in that a rubber component exhibits the same basic
characteristics concerning stiffness and loss angle as the material does in terms
of shear modulus magnitude and loss factor. Exceptions to this rule of thumb
are e.g. when the geometry of the component introduces additional nonlinear
effects, such as a progressive stiffness (discussed in Paper C), or when the evaluated frequency range is extended, resulting in component internal resonances
which influence its dynamic properties (discussed in Paper E).

1.2 AIM OF PRESENTED RESEARCH

As various mechanical systems utilize rubber isolators for dynamic improvement, there is a great need to understand and properly predict the behavior of
these rubber components. However, as the field of interest often varies; from
low frequencylarge amplitude dynamics to structure borne sound transmission,
while prediction of system dynamics is performed with a variety of tools; e.g.
multi body system (MBS) programs, finite element (FE) programs and linear
frequency domain transfer function predictions, it is difficult to implement a
model considering all applications. Furthermore, a model accounting for too
wide ranges of working conditions would probably not be of practical use since
the computational effort would be quite cumbersome. Using simplified rubber
component models, which adequately span the working conditions in question
while omitting less important properties, is therefore often desirable. However,
the need to correctly adjust simple model parameters often demand extensive
investigations. The aim of this work is thus to enhance understanding of how
component properties are influenced by certain working conditions while also
providing some accurate descriptive models. Those presented can be used in
complete system investigations and as a means of finding model parameters for
simpler approaches.

Chapter 2

Component properties
2.1

NONLINEAR EFFECTS OF RUBBER COMPONENTS

Component nonlinearities due to amplitude dependence are often present as

discussed by Harris and Stevenson [37]. These effects can be due both to the
geometrical design of the component as well as to intrinsic material behavior as
discussed by e.g. Treloir [88] or Freakly and Payne [31]. These references present
material nonlinear stressstrain relations for finite strain ranging approximately
from 20 to 500 %. Components also exhibit nonlinear properties for small to
intermediate amplitudes ranging approximately up to 5 % component strain
due to material behavior where small cyclic deformation results in increased
stiffness compared to that of large cyclic deformation [31].
An example of how the finite amplitude material or geometrical properties
might influence a component forcedisplacement curve, is given in Figure 2.1 as
the precompression of a cylindrical component (with a diameter of 10 mm and
a height of 2.5 mm) results in a progressive preload curve (shown by the dotted
line). Dynamic steady state motion of different amplitudes superimposed on the
precompression, in this case 0.8 mm, reveals that stiffness (indicated by the slope
from the minimum to the maximum point of the oscillating motion) is reduced
as amplitude increases. This behavior is known as the Payne effect [79] also
denoted as dynamic amplitude dependence, although the effects are in fact rate
independent. Despite this attempt to distinguish between reasons for component
nonlinearities by means of different amplitudes it is not always possible to make
a clear distinction as e.g. large amplitude oscillations are influenced not only by
the Payne effect but also through material and geometrical finite deformation
dependencies as discussed in Paper C.
2.1.1

Dynamic amplitude dependence

There are two well-known amplitude effects occurring in filled vulcanized rubber
material; the Mullins effect and the Payne effect. An example of the former
effect is when previously unstrained rubber is subjected to strain cycles at con-


M. SJOBERG

1000

760

720

500

680
Force [N]

Force [N]

Force [N]

750

640

250
600

0.25

0.5

0.75

Displacement [mm]

(a) Dotted line;

Nonlinear forcedisplacement curve due to precompression.

560

0.75

0.8

0.85

Displacement [mm]
Displacement
[mm]

(b) Solid line; Dynamic nonlinearity due to small amplitude motion.

(Zoomed at the working point)

Figure 2.1: Schematic component behavior when exposed to a precompression

with superimposed small amplitude dynamic motion.

stant peak value and the first few oscillations result in reducing peak stress
values as discussed by Mullins [69], Mullins et al. [68]. This effect is also shown
by Sjoberg [85] through component measurements. To eliminate the recording of this effect while performing measurements of dynamic characteristics, it
is useful to conduct mechanical conditioning, namely subjecting the test object to a few large deformation cycles to rearrange molecular networks prior to
measurements.
The latter effect often becoming more pronounced as fillers, such as carbon
black, are added to the rubber compound is displayed as a decreased shear
modulus magnitude with increased amplitude. Component measurements and
models showing this phenomena are presented in Paper A D. Interaggregate
interactions breaking as motion increases, but which are almost fully recovered
within each cycle, is believed to be the main reason for this effect [66]. An intact
filler structure displays a large shear modulus magnitude for small amplitudes
but as the amplitude increases the structure breaks resulting in a modulus decrease. The breaking of filler structure, described as frictional behavior, however
increases the loss factor and as the amplitude increases further the frictional behavior is released resulting in a low shear modulus magnitude due mainly to the
remaining polymer chains and rubber-filler hydrodynamic effects [66, 79]. The
energy dissipation mechanism is also decreased in importance resulting in low
values of loss factor [65]. An example of the Payne effect is shown in Figure 2.2
as dynamic stiffness and loss angle of a filled vibration isolator is evaluated for
various amplitudes. A thorough discussion is given in reference [79], showing
examples of a strong amplitude dependence of the shear modulus and loss factor of butyl rubber with various filler concentrations. In addition, Medalia [66]

15

20

10

15

10

Loss angle [ o ]

Stiffness [kN/mm]

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

5
2

Amplitude [mm]

Figure 2.2: Measurements of stiffness and loss angle of a filled rubber isolator
showing a strong amplitude dependence, denoted the Payne effect [Paper D].

gives a good review of amplitude, frequency and temperature effects on mechanical rubber characteristics. Other work focusing on the influence of fillers
on dynamic properties is performed by e.g. Dean et al. [21], Jurado et al. [44],
Sommer and Meyer [86] and Wang [93], where the two latter articles, besides
the Payne effect, also discuss temperature influences on the filler effects. Wang
et al. [92] point to additional stress reducing phenomena due to repeated strain
sweeps.
The effects discussed here result not only in nonlinear amplitude effects as
indicated in Figure 2.2 but also in a frequency split. A single frequency harmonic
displacement excitation, x = asin(0 t) of a rubber vibration isolator, results in
a force response of the fundamental frequency, or first harmonic 0 , as well as
of a number of physical overtones
X
F = F0 sin(0 t + 0 ) +
Fn sin(n t + n ),
(2.1)
where the first equals the third harmonic, the second equals the fifth harmonic
etc, as shown in Paper D. Tariq et al. [87] as well as Onogi and Matsumoto [74]
quantify the degree of nonlinearity by evaluating the overtones. As discussed
in Paper C, the existence of additional harmonics is possible if the component
exhibits e.g. nonlinear finite forcedisplacement relations which is the case in
Figure 2.1.

6
2.1.2

M. SJOBERG
Consequence of frequency interaction on the dynamic amplitude dependence

Vibration isolators are rarely exposed to single tone excitation which however
is the usual measurement condition for evaluating component properties. An
example of an isolators use clearly violating this simplified case, is an ordinary
rubber engine mount reducing transmission of high frequency engine vibrations
to the chassis, while simultaneously being driven over rough road surfaces inducing large movements of the engine. Influence of these effects have to some
degree been investigated by Harris [36] while presenting elastomer response during non-sinusoidal excitation, a subject also addressed by Turner et al. [89] and
Gregory [35]. Coveney et al. [20] present simulations of a model exposed to
dual-sine excitation and compare these to the measurements in reference [36],
whereas Kooijman and Verheij [53], having railway sleeper rubber pads in mind,
show measurements pointing to a softening effect on high frequency low amplitude stiffness due to simultaneous large amplitude step loading. Paper D of
this thesis experimentally investigates the influence of multiple excitation on
the dynamic amplitude dependence as component stiffness and loss angle for a
high frequency signal is evaluated while being superimposed with large amplitude low frequency signals, as shown in Figure 2.3. Here it can be concluded
that stiffness at a certain frequency is not governed by the amplitude at that
frequency but rather by the largest amplitude present in the signal and that superimposing large amplitude motion, also increases the loss angle. Additionally
presented in Paper D is the high frequency component stiffness while being
exposed to low frequency noise, thus being a novel extension of the previous
work in reference [36]. In accordance with the previous case a high frequency
stiffness reduction is found due to the large amplitude noise. Further, the low
frequency noise influence is increased as its amplitude increases and as its cut-off
frequency approaches that of the high frequency signal, as shown in Figure 2.4.

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

Stiffness [kN/mm]

12
Stiffness at 10 Hz with varying
amplitude at 10 Hz

10
8

Stiffness at 10 Hz with varying

superimposed amplitude at 1 Hz

6
4
2

Damping [ o ]

25
20
15
10
5

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

Amplitude [mm]

1.4

1.6

1.8

Figure 2.3: Dashed line; Component stiffness and loss angle at a single reference
harmonic signal of 10 Hz with varying amplitude. Solid line; Component stiffness and loss angle at 0.05 mm and 10 Hz reference signal superimposed with a
1 Hz signal of various amplitudes.

Figure 2.4: Component stiffness at reference signal 0.05 mm with 50 Hz with a

superimposed noise signal of varying amplitude and cutoff frequency.


M. SJOBERG

8
2.2 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE

Transition point

Glassy region
Transition region
Rubber region
Transition point

Temperature

Loss Factor

Shear Modulus Magnitude

Rubber, as all elastomers, shows a relatively strong temperature dependence

where the material behavior is split into three regions; a glassy, a transition and
a rubber region. For low temperatures the material is crystalline rendering a
high magnitude of the dynamic shear modulus whereas the loss factor is small.
As the temperature increases, the material eventually enters the transition region, where it becomes leather-like while the dynamic shear modulus magnitude
decreases. The transition point, where the change of shear modulus magnitude is the greatest, also results in a maximum value of loss factor. Dynamic
shear modulus magnitude and loss factor both exhibit moderate changes with
temperature once the rubbery region is reached. A diagramatical view of the
temperature dependence is given in Figure 2.5, where shear modulus magnitude
and loss factor is displayed at a fixed frequency as discussed by Christensen [16],
Payne and Scott [78] and Gobel [34].

Temperature

Figure 2.5: Schematic characteristics of rubber material temperature dependence.

2.3

FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE

Rubber material additionally exhibits a strong frequency dependence displaying

a glassy, transition and rubber region, as shown in Figure 2.6 being measurements of an unfilled crosslinked rubber material at room temperature [48].
Clearly the shear modulus magnitude increases with frequency throughout the
regions, an increase being moderate in the glassy and rubber region while taking
on the greatest rate of change in the transition region. The loss factor increases
with frequency in the rubber region, decreases in the glassy region and reaches
a maximum in the transition region, which for this unfilled material at room
temperature is found at a very high frequency. In practice it is virtually impossible to measure material dynamic characteristics at the frequencies shown
in the graph. However, it is possible to determine the characteristics at high

Shear Modulus Magnitude

[N/m2]

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

10

10

10

Glassy Region

Transition Region

Rubber Region

10

10

10

10

Loss Factor

2
1.5
1
0.5

Glassy Region

Rubber Region
Transition Region

0
10

10

10

10

Frequency [Hz]

Figure 2.6: Measured unfilled material frequency dependence for an extended

frequency range.

frequencies by using the knowledge of temperaturefrequency shifts as discussed

in Section 2.4.
Stiffness and loss angle measurements for normal rubber isolators at low
to intermediate frequencies at room temperature normally reveal the same basic characteristics, where an increase in frequency increases both stiffness and
losses. This is shown in Figure 2.7 through measurements on a filled natural
rubber vibration isolator [85]. (Besides the frequency, amplitude is also varied
during measurements, revealing the previously mentioned dynamic amplitude
dependence, as discussed in section 2.1.1).

2.4 TEMPERATURE FREQUENCY SHIFTS

By comparing Figure 2.5 and 2.6 it can be concluded that there is a resemblance
between the influence of frequency and temperature on the material properties.
A material is said to be thermorheologically simple when the relation between
the frequency and temperature dependence is described by an equation of the
form
T () = 0 (T ),
(2.2)
where T and 0 is the shear modulus at temperature T and at reference temperature T0 respectively and T is a well chosen empirically defined shift function [30, 78]. This method also called the method of reduced variables


M. SJOBERG

Dynamic Stiffness [kN/mm]

10

0.05 mm
20
15

0.1 mm

10
5

0.5 mm
1 mm
2 mm
3 mm
50

100

150

200

Frequency [Hz]

250

300

(a) Stiffness for various amplitudes

and frequencies.

(b) Loss angle for various amplitudes and low

frequencies

Figure 2.7: Frequency and amplitude dependence of a carbon-black filled component. From reference [85].

has a sound base in thermodynamics as discussed by Christensen [16]. Different shift functions are possible e.g. the Arrhenius or the WilliamLandelFerry
equation given by
C1 T

T = 10 C2 +T ,

(2.3)

Shear modulus magnitude

with the two material constants C1 and C2 . The method of reduced variables is
commonly used to describe extended relaxation or dynamic behavior as shown
by e.g. Rogers [81], Kari et al. [48], Palade et al. [75], Alcoutlabi and MartinezVega [1], Aprile et al. [2] and Bossemeyer [13].
The shift equation is frequently expanded to include changes of density and

aT
T / T0

T / 0
Frequency

Figure 2.8: Schematic influence of three contributions due to an increase in

temperature affecting shear modulus magnitude as a function of frequency.

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

11

entropy resulting in the equation

T () =

T T
0 (T ),
T0 0

(2.4)

where vertical and horizontal shifts are present, as shown in Figure 2.8. The
factor T /T0 is due to a change in the motion of molecules within the rubber and
can be derived from simple molecular theories whereas the factor T /0 is due
to a change in the material density, where an increase in temperature decreases
density. The shift function T shows how the curve is moved horizontally with
increasing temperature resulting in a shift to the right. In general, the largest
contribution to the change in shear modulus is due to the horizontal shift,
whereas the second largest is due to the factor T /T0 and the smallest to T /0
[30].

Chapter 3

Component modelling
As indicated by previous discussions, modelling dynamic properties of rubber
components is a rather complex task as numerous factors e.g. frequency, amplitude, ambient temperature and applied preload are likely to have major effects
on the properties in question.

3.1

FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE

The simplest model of a rubber isolator accounting for both elastic and viscous
effects is the Kelvin-Voigt model where a linear elastic frequency independent
stiffness is coupled in parallel with a viscous dashpot where force is proportional to a first order time derivative of the displacement. As discussed by
Knothe and Grassie [51] in their review on the modelling of railway tracks,
this is the most widely encountered rubber material or component model. It is
a fully linear representation omitting all amplitude dependent effects and due
to the viscous dashpot, it also strongly overestimates rubber high frequency
losses, a property which in fact shows a relatively weak frequency dependence,
as discussed by Enelund and Olsson [26] and Fenander [29]. Additionally, it
represents an infinite force response to a step displacement loading. Replacing
the dashpot with a Maxwell element, being a spring in series with the dashpot,
normally results in better high frequency description of stiffness (thus remedying
the step displacement force overestimation) but in a poor loss factor description.
The resulting model, which is known as a three-parameter Maxwell model or
the standard linear solid, can be expanded through incorporating the generalized Maxwell model, also known as the Wiechert model, obtaining improved
broad band description. Although this techniques popularity is shown through
its wide use [4, 12, 61, 73, 77] it nevertheless inevitably increases the number of
parameters to clearly describe elastomer dynamic behavior.
Other models employed to describe polymer viscoelastic behavior are the
mini-oscillator model [64], the Augmented Hookes law [22] and the anelastic

12

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

13

displacement fields [55]. All of these methods involve the concept of hidden
variables.
3.1.1

Fractional derivatives

An efficient alternative in reducing the required number of model parameters

while still obtaining a good description of viscoelastic materials or components
frequency dependence is by incorporating constitutive relations including fractional calculus, as discussed by Gaul [32]. Instead of integer order time derivatives, as in the case of the ordinary dashpot, those of non-integer order, known as
fractional derivatives, are employed, although a formulation involving fractional
integration is sometimes preferable, as it simplifies the handling of initial conditions [25]. Rossikhin and Shitikova [82] as well as Shimizu and Zhang [84] give
thorough reviews of the use of fractional derivatives in the dynamic modelling
of viscoelasticity.
Although the history of the mathematical concept of fractional calculus dates
back to the seventeenth century, as described in a historical survey by Oldham
and Spanier [72], utilizing the tool for the description of viscoelasticity is more
recent. In the early nineteen eighties Bagley and Torvik [6] applied the tool
for describing material constitutive relations while solving equations of motion.
Koeller [52] discusses fractional derivative components also known as springpots, which replace ordinary dashpots in viscoelastic models. Replacing the
Kelvin-Voigts dash-pot by a spring-pot results in a fractional Kelvin-Voigt,
which is applied by Cosson and Michon [17] and Horr and Schmidt [41]. Its
time domain solutions are investigated by Yuan and Agrawal [94], Hwang and
Hsu [42] and Eldred et al. [24], the latter investigating numerical time-domain
solutions mentioning the aspects of history term truncation due to the nonlocality of the fractional derivative operator. A time domain solution of the fractional
Kelvin-Voigt is presented in Paper A C, using the Gr
unwald definition while
also including the dynamic amplitude dependence. The fractional standard linear solid is used in references [6,17,32,67,76] and by Kari et al. [48] applying the
model to fit rubber dynamic material data of an extended frequency range subsequently calculating isolator behavior. Also in references [1,13,75,81] extended
frequency material behavior using the method of reduced variables are combined
with fractional representations while Aprile et al. [2] expand the theories to a
thermo-coupled problem while investigating structural dampers.
Time domain solutions of the fractional standard linear solid are investigated by Atanackovic [3], Schmidt and Gaul [83], Fenander [29], Enelund and
Olsson [26] and Enelund et al. [27]. Enelund and Lesiuetre [28] also extend
the previously mentioned theory of anelastic displacement fields [55] to include
fractional order equations for the anelastic strain. Extensions of the fractional
differential concept are discussed by Kari [46], Bagley [5] and Ingman and Suzdalnitsky [43], while assuming the order of the derivative to be continuously
distributed, temperature and time dependent, respectively. Fractional derivative models in connection with thermodynamics are discussed by Lion [57].


M. SJOBERG

14

Force

Fully developed stiffness

Initial stiffness

Displacement

Figure 3.1: Measurements of typical hysteresis loops for different amplitudes of

the motion.

3.2

DYNAMIC AMPLITUDE DEPENDENCE

Most of the previously mentioned models are linear and thus they neither take
into account nonlinear behavior due to finite deformation (discussed in Section
3.3) nor the dynamic amplitude dependence. However, modelling the dynamic
behavior of rubber components exposed to an environment which causes the
amplitude to vary which is normal in many applications the dynamic
amplitude effect should not be neglected when filled rubber is used.
Losses are present even at quasi-static conditions for filled rubber exposed
to a harmonic excitation, indicating that the material exhibits damping mechanisms which cannot be described by viscous theories alone. Figure 3.1 shows
typical hysteresis loops of a filled rubber for cyclic excitation with different amplitudes. It can be seen that the incremental stiffness starts at a high value at
the beginning of each motion but tends to a constant value as the displacement
increases. In models relating forces to displacements, this behavior can be modelled by adding a rate independent friction force to the elastic and, if frequency
dependence is considered, viscous forces.
One way of considering this is by replacing the viscous component in a standard linear solid by a friction component as shown by Gregory [35]. Coveney et
al. [20] elaborate on another type of model that includes friction components in
series which is later used with a three-parameter Maxwell model [18]. The same
authors also present results for the rate independent friction component when
implemented in a finite element analysis [19]. Kraus [54] describes agglomeration and deagglomeration of filler particles using a model displaying dynamic

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

15

viscoelastic behavior based on the van der Waals potential. This model is later
used by Ulmer [90] and Vieweg et al. [91]. Kaliske and Rothert [45] describe
a friction model based on numerous Coulumb dampers in series with elastic
springs, a model expanded by Bruni and Collina [15], Austrell et al. [4] and
Brackbill et al. [14] to include frequency dependence, giving good representation of measured properties. A method to fit the often numerous parameters
of the generalized Couloumb friction model is presented by Olsson and Austrell [73]. Dynamic amplitude dependence is modelled by Mallik et al. [63]
through separating the restoring and damping forces, making both nonlinear,
needing a total of eight parameters. Also the complex Bouc-Wen model, being
a nonlinear differential equation model, has been used to describe hysteretic
effects [71]. Another model also taking into account the amplitude and a frequency dependence is presented by Barber [7] which however needs extensive
measurements to properly adjust the numerous model parameters.
The rate independent friction component included in the model presented
in Paper A and further used in Paper B C, shows a smooth behavior using
only two parameters. This model, which is similar to the one presented by
Berg [911], gives a good description of the measured characteristics.

3.3

FINITE DEFORMATION DEPENDENCE

Including long-term nonlinear behavior in the description of vibration isolators

are performed by numerous references e.g. Ravindra and Mallik [80] or Natsiavas
and Tratskas [70], where elastic restoring forces of the nonlinear Duffing-type are
investigated. Focus of these works is on the analytical solution of the dynamic
problem, while the isolator properties are not necessarily obtained from real
components.
A suitable and straightforward approach, when focus is shifted to model
agreement with specific experimental observations of component properties, is
to find an equation describing the preloadprecompression curve, to be included
in the elastic modelling. This methodology is performed by Gjika et al. [33] while
investigating the response of a structure on rubber vibration isolators. A recent and comprehensive review of analytical elastic force models is presented
in reference [39]. In particular, nonlinear shape-factor based models, where the
increased shape factor, due to decreased isolator thickness during compression
is accounted for, showing improved representation [49, 56]. The former of the
models is a refinement of the latter displaying results for cylindrical isolators
that surprisingly well agree with those of a time consuming finite element computation using a Neo-Hookean hyperelasticity. Paper C utilizes the nonlinear
model from reference [49] for describing finite elasticity thus resulting in an
extension of the model in Paper A B.
However, a convenient technique to include the preload dependence in constitutive relations sought for e.g. FE-implementation, is to assume hyper-elastic
material behavior using a strain energy function, while properly accounting for

16

M. SJOBERG

finite strain. Numerous variations of phenomenological strain energy functions

are found in the literature [8, 40] where ArrudaBoyce, BlatzKo, Mooney
Saunders, MooneyRivlin, Neo-Hooke, Yeoh and Ogden are a few examples.
Zdunek and Bercovier [95] employ the MooneyRivlin model in the analysis of
a rubber bushing and a conical spring presenting results of loadcompression
curves. Investigating oscillatory motion superimposed on a finite deformation
due to preload, being a key issue, when modelling vibration isolators, is simplified by the assumption that time and prestrain effects are multiplicatively
separable. Zdunek [96] uses this simplification with an equation relating the
time dependent relaxation function to the materials shear relaxation modulus,
while solving the stiffness problem for vibration isolators. Kari [47] as well as
Kim and Youn [50] apply the concept of this time prestrain separability where
the latter draw conclusion that this is valid for unfilled materials and the former applies distributed fractional representations of the short-term response.
A different approach to an additive separability of the rate independent stress
and a rate dependent overstress modelled by a classical viscous damping
model is found in [58, 59] where instead, a temperature dependence is included through a multiplicative split of the deformation gradient as proposed
by Lu and Pister [62]. Later Lion expands the model by adding the dynamic
amplitude dependence [60]. The frequency dependence is further modelled by
a fractional standard linear solid in conjunction with hyperelastic models in
references [38, 76] also being the description applied in Paper E, while additionally accounting for the influence of temperature on component properties in
the complete audible frequency range.

Chapter 4

Presented models
4.1 MODEL IN PAPER A C
The model presented in Paper A C which relates component forces to component compression, describes a vibration isolator taking into account frequency
and dynamic amplitude dependence. It consists of three parts which additively
contribute to the exerted component force using only five parameters to describe
component characteristics (see Figure 4.1 for its mechanical analogy). The first
part is an elastic component, the second gives short-term viscoelasticity through
the fractional derivative component springpot mentioned in Section 3.1
and the third part is the smooth frictional component mentioned in Section
3.2. The model disregards thermomechanical coupling effects and wave effects
within the isolator.
4.1.1

Elastic force model

In Paper A and B the elastic component consists of a linear stiffness which

is found to adequately describe the component elastic characteristics in the
amplitude range of interest. However, this model is extended in Paper C by
introducing an elastic component exhibiting nonlinear behavior arising from
)[

)elast

)freq

)frict

Figure 4.1: Mechanical analogy of model presented in Paper A C

17


M. SJOBERG

18

geometrical and material nonlinearities associated with finite deformations. A

shape factor based theory is used to achieve an appropriately simplified model
transforming the complex geometry of a preloaded cylindrical component into
a globally equivalent configuration [49]. The incremental elastic stiffness at
compression 0 x L is given by
Kelast =

D2
3 D2 L
1
+
,
4 (L x)2
8L(L x)

resulting in the elastic compression force

3 D2 x
D2 (2L x)
Felast =
1+
,
4 Lx
16L2 (L x)

(4.1)

(4.2)

for an isolator with original height L and diameter D made of a rubber material
using a static shear modulus . This nonlinear behavior has been shown to
agree surprisingly well with a time consuming finite element analysis [49].
4.1.2

Short term viscoelastic force model

The frequency dependence is described by a springpot where force is proportional to a non-integer time derivative D of the displacement
Ffreq = bD x

(4.3)

where 0 < < 1 and b > 0 are model constants. The main advantage of the
model being the minimum parameter number required for a broad frequency
band fit to rubber component measurements. The short-term viscoelastic force
at time tn = nt is obtained through the Gr
unwald definition as
Ffreq (tn ) = bD xn b

n1
4t X (j )
xnj ,
() j=0 (j + 1)

(4.4)

where denotes the Gamma function. Apparently the fractional derivative

operator is a nonlocal operator in temporal sense for 0 < < 1; that is, the
fractional derivative depends on the displacement history not only on the
current value in line with components made of materials with memory e.g.
rubber isolators.
4.1.3

Friction force model

The model describing friction in this work displays the smooth characteristics
found through measurements as shown in Paper A and B hereby enabling
a good fit to forcedeflection curves. The friction force develops gradually,
following the equation
Ffrict = Ffs +

x xs
(Ffmax Ffs ),
x2 (1 ) + (x xs )

(4.5)

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

19

for a motion in increasing x-direction and

Ffrict = Ffs +

x xs
(Ffmax + Ffs ),
x2 (1 + ) (x xs )

(4.6)

for a motion in decreasing x-direction. The two parameters defined by the user
are the maximum friction force Ffmax and a displacement parameter x2 giving
the rate of friction force development.
The parameters Ffs and xs are updated each time the displacement changes
direction at x = 0 as Ffs Ffrict |x=0
and xs x|x=0
. Clearly, the friction force

is independent of compression displacement rate magnitude while developing

nonlinearly and gradually with compression displacement.
4.1.4

Total force model

A straightforward evaluation of exerted component force using Equation 4.2

4.6, resulting in a total force

Ftot (tn ) = Ffreq x(tn ) + Felast x(tn ) + Ffrict x(tn ) ,

(4.7)
is possible when the model is excited by prescribed displacements. However, a
Newmark algorithm is used to calculate resulting displacements from the equations of motion when the model is included in a dynamic system with external
excitation, as described in Paper A. Paper B brings the model verification
one step further as the response of a one degree of freedom system (with a rubber isolator acting as a resilient component between a mass and a displacement
excited base) is experimentally investigated and compared to simulations. In
Figure 4.2 a time sequence of measured base excitation and corresponding mass
response is shown together with those of simulations.
By using the smooth friction description from Equation 4.5 - 4.6 this model
shows an improved dynamic amplitude description compared to the models in
references [4,45,73] while it simultaneously reduces the number of model parameters. The novel solution of including a fractional Kelvin-Voigt for the description
of viscoelastic behavior in conjunction with the smooth friction model, extends
the applicable frequency range normally seen for this type of model, [4, 9, 10].
Additionally, an even more versatile model for description of vibration isolators
is obtained through extending the model to include nonlinear finite compression
behavior, as shown in Paper C.

4.2

MODEL IN PAPER E

The model presented in Paper E takes into account a frequency, precompression and temperature dependence of a vibration isolator while being confined to
isothermal conditions. Applied for the long-term finite deformation response is
an extended neo-Hookean strain energy function, being directly proportional to
the temperature and density. This motion is decomposed into a homogeneous


M. SJOBERG

Displacement [mm]

20

Mass response

0.05
0.025
0
0.025

Displacement [mm]

0.05
0

0.25

0.5

0.75

0.75

Base excitation

0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.02
0

0.25

0.5

Time [sec]

Figure 4.2: Comparison between measured (solid) and simulated (dotted) mass
response when system is exposed to a base displacement excitation.

Thermal
expansion
T

Long-term finite
deformation

Precompression
T

Superimposed
dynamic motion

Figure 4.3: Motions of the model in Paper E.

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

21

10

50oC
25oC
0oC
+25oC
+50oC

Stiffness (N/m)

10

10

10

Phase (degrees)

10

0
500
1000
1

10

10

10
Frequency (Hz)

10

10

Figure 4.4: Calculated component transfer stiffness and phase versus frequency
for various temperatures using model in Paper E.

thermal expansion, followed by a quasistatic mechanical loading due to the

preload. Handling the following superimposed infinite motion giving dynamic
contributions, is simplified by the timeprestrain separability for non-filled material, justified in references [50, 96]. The applied constitutive relation is elastic
in dilatation while displaying viscoelasticity in deviation, where its time dependence is described through the shear relaxation modulus. Incorporating a
MittagLeffler function for the description of time-domain relaxation enables a
broad frequency band fit when being transformed into the frequency-domain.
Additionally, an assumption of thermo-rheological simplicity enables the use
of the method of reduced variables with the WilliamLandelFerry equation
describing the temperaturefrequency shifts. Component properties for an extended frequency range (20 20 000 Hz) are solved using a nonlinear finite
element procedure and results for various temperatures are presented in Figure
4.4. It is clear that component stiffness is greatly influenced by both temperature and frequency where low temperatures result in large values of component
stiffness as the material exhibits transition and glass region properties
while higher temperatures reveal the presence of isolator internal resonances.
The model extends the previous works in references [47] and [48] by including
temperature and preload, respectively. It thus presents a versatile model covering a wide range of working conditions for a complete vibration isolator, while
effectively reducing the number of model parameters, as opposed to previous
references [38,5860] primarily focusing on material behavior. The three former
are applicable in a relatively narrow frequency band and the latter, together

22

M. SJOBERG

with [76], extend the frequency applicability, however omitting temperature dependence.

Chapter 5

Future Research
The presented work is believed to enlighten the working conditions impact on
the dynamic properties of rubber vibration isolators while additionally taking
some of these most important features into account in the presented models.
Nevertheless there are possible extensions to the presented work which include
Linearizing the model in Paper A C, (i.e linearizing the friction force
model,) for various working conditions. This would simplify stiffness and
loss angle evaluation e.g. for extraction of parameters for alternative rubber component models.
Including a temperature dependence and a thermodynamic coupling effect
to the model in Paper A C. This would mean that monitoring the
effects of changes to the dynamic properties due to internal dissipation
could be investigated.
Investigating the reasons for the loss angle behavior for dual signal excitation in Paper D.
Including the dynamic amplitude dependence to the model in Paper E
hereby improving the model versatility.

23


M. SJOBERG

24
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