Colour in the Ancient Mediterranean World ..Liza Cleland and Karen Stears With Glenys Davies BAR International Series 1267 2004 en NE ORES OSM P EN eBritish Archaeological Reports are published by John and Erica Hedges Ltd and by Archacopress This volume has been published by: John and Erica Hedges Ltd British Archaeological Reports 7 Longworth Road Oxtord OX2 6RA England ‘TeliFax +44(0)1865 511360 E-mail: publishing@barhedges.com www barhedges.com Enquiries regarding the submission of manuscripts for future publication may be sent to the above address Do look at the web site which has a list ofall BARS in print. BAR $1267 Colour in the Ancient Mediterranean World © Individual contributors 2004. ‘Volume Editor: John W Hedges Printed in England by Biddles Ltd ISBN 1 84171 3732 AILBAR titles available from: Hadrian Books 122 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7BP England E-mail: bar@hadrianbooks.co.uk www. hadrian oak ‘The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment, is available free from Hadrian Books or access web site All volumes are distributed by Hadrian Book LtdCONTENTS ist of Figures and Plates INTRODUCTION Liza Cleland Notes on Contributors SI JON ONE: THE CREATION OF COLOUR Katherine Eremin, Anita Quye, Howell Edwards, Susana Jorge Villar and Bill Manley Colours of Ancient Egyptian Funerary Artefacts in the National Museums of Scotland Ann Brysbaert ‘Take It or Leave It? Towards more non-Destructive Approaches in Aegean an ‘Mediterranean Bronze Age Painted Plaster Studies Frederic Davidovits Notes on the Nature of Creta Anularia and Vitruvius’ Recipe for Egyptian Blue Sylvia Rozenberg, ‘The Role of Colour in Herod’s Palace at Jericho Marie-Louise Nosch Red Coloured Textiles in the Linear B Inscriptions [Irving Ziderman Purple Dyeing in the Mediterranean World: Characterisation of Biblical Tekheler Benedict Lowe ‘The Industrial Exploitation of Murex: Purple Dye Production in the Western Mediterranean Orit Shamir Coloured Textiles found along the Spice Route joining Petra and Gaza ~ Examples from the First to Eighth Centuries AD SECTION TWO: COLOUR IN ARTISTIC CULTURE Mary Ann Eaverly Colours of Power: Brown Men and Brown Women in the Art of Akhenaten Carole Gillis ‘The Use of Colour in the Aegean Bronze Age Fritz Blakolmer Colour in the Aegean Bronze Ag Fron Monochromy to Polychromy Georgina Muskett Colour Coding and the Representation of Costumes in Mycenaean Wall Painting Faya Causey with Jack Shepherd Amber Michael Duigan Colour and the Deceptive Gift Susan Deacy and Alexandra Villing Athena Blues? Colour and Divinity in Ancient Greece Katerina lerodiakonow Empedocles and the Ancient Painters, 32 40 46 49 33 56 6 68 74 8 85Marek Baranski Coloured Hellenistic Architectural Remains from El Ashmunein (Hermopolis Magna) Egypt 96 SECTION THREE: COLOUR IN LITERARY AND LINGUISTIC CULTURE, Patricia Hannah ‘The Cosmetic Use of Red Ochre (Miltos) 100 Kerasia Stratiki Melas in Greek Cultural Practices: the case of heroic sacrifices in the Periegesis of Paus 106 Andreas Fountoulakis, ‘The Colours of Desire and Death: Colour Terms in Bion’s Epitaph on Adonis 110 Mark Bradley ‘The Colour ‘Blush’ in Ancient Rome 17 Jacqueline Clarke Colour Sequences in Catullus’ ‘Long Poems’ 12 David A. Warburton ‘The Terminology of Ancient Egyptian Colours in Context 126 Michael Clarke ‘The Semanties of Colour in the Early Greek Word-Hoard 131 APTER-PAPER Liza Cleland Colour in Antiquity 140 PLATE CAPTIONS 146 PLATE SECTION 147 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Karen Stears for organising the conference, Dr. Glenys Davies for proof-reading the penultimate draft of this text, and John Hedges, the publisher, for his encouragement in making it camera-ready. I also ‘thank all the contributors for bearing with me throughout the long and complex process of bringing the volume together, ‘Ona more personal note, I thank Anna for coming through on the ilustrations when it mattered, and generally the Clelands and MacDonalds, for their support and inspiration, and for helping me keep it together.Section Two: Colour in Artistic Culture Empedocles and the Ancient Painters Katerina lerodiakonow ‘There is clear archaeological and textual evidence that in the classical period ancient painters used just four colours, namely white, black, red, and yellow: white from Melos, Atic yellow, red from Sinope, and lamp-black (Pliny NH. 35.50).' Cicero (Brutus 18.70) Plutarch (De def. or. 436B-C) and the pseudo-Aristotelian treatise De ‘mundo (396013) confirm this. Pliny gives Apelles’ “Alexander Holding the Thunderbolt” as an example of such painting (WH. 35.92). Unfortunately, no original example of the Greck pictorial art of the classical period survives. Historians of art reconstruct the development of ancient Greek painting from painted pottery decorations and Roman copies of Greek murals and mosaics. ‘The magnificent early third century BC Alexander mosaic from Pompeii, presumed to be a copy of a late fourth century original by Philoxenos of Eritrea, provides us with a typical case of a work executed in shades derived from white, black, red and yellow, ? Similarly, the ancient doxographical tradition (Aétius 1.15.3=DK 31 92) ascribes a theory postulating four basic colours 0 the fifth century _ philosopher Empedocles: the sime number as the basic elements, ‘earth, water, air and fire, from which everything in the world is generated. ‘The four basic colours are, in this cease also, white Qaeuxsv), black (uEhav), red @pu8pSy), and yellow (c3xpdv). Primarily on this basis, scholars we often assumed that Empedocles associates the four elements with these four specific colours, although they have not always agreed as to their exaet correlation. And it has further been suggested that there must be a connection between the ancient painters” four colours and Empedocles’ colours of the four elements.” Of course, assuming that the four-colour technique influenced Empedocles’ choice of colours for his four elements presupposes that it was actually used during Empedocies* life-time, if not beforehand. ‘There is an ‘ongoing discussion, however, as to when exactly the four-colour palette was historians of Greek art have interpreted the ancient sources (Pliny, NH. 35.50, and Cicero, Brumus 18.70) on the introduction of the four-colour palette quite differently, Pliny claims that Apelles, Action, Melanthius, * Pigments - Pliny, NH. 35,30-89; Vitruvius 7.714, * Known as “The Battle of Fssus this i now atthe National Museum in Naples. Green is occasionally used for details, but no sufficiently 10 affect its general four-colour character (Cohen 1997: 167-9). "The Crowing with Thorns’ by Titian in| the Munich Pinakotek (¢.1$70-1576) is a modern example of| the four-colour technique (Jex-Blake & Soers 1896: 97). Morelli (1883: 43) initially made the comparison between the two, and remarks that the aged Titian’ example was afterwards ‘often followed by Rubens and Van Dyck, but most brilliantly by Frans Hals, eg. “Regents ofthe Old Men's Almhouse’ and *Rezentesses ofthe Old Women’s Alrahouse" dated 1664, ‘belonging to the Frans Halsmuseum in Haarlem. ® Prantl 1849: 41-2; Kranz. 1917: 127-8; Siegel 1959: 152-3 Bollack 1969: vol, II, 368: Scheibler 1974: 101; Brano 1977 56-7, 1 and Nicomachus, all within the fourth century BC, used four colours. Cicero's list of four-colour painters begins with Polygnotus, a very near contemporary of Empedocles, continuing with Zeuxis and Timanthes, of the late fifth and early fourth century. These painters belong to the generation before Nicomachus, the earliest ‘ofthe four-colour painters mentioned by Pliny. Some art historians suggest that Pliny’s remarks are more authoritative and that Cicero is plainly mistaken, They Claim that ancient painters started using only four colours not earlier than the fourth century (Pollitt 1974: 110-11). Others insist that these remarks do not have to be treated contradictory: it makes perfect sense to suppose that painters of the fifth century were the first to paint with just four colours, the technique being further developed in the fourth century. The earlier painters perhaps used the four colours in very few combinations, whereas the painters of the fourth century leamt to use endless ‘combinations of them (Jex-Blake & Sellers 1896: 96-7). Since there is no evidence that ancient painters were interested in Empedocles” theory of the four elements, scholars refer to an Empedoclean fragment, claiming that Empedocles was probably influenced by the ancient painters" practice, especially in his choice of the colours white, black, red, and yellow (B23): As when painters adorn votive offerings, ‘men well taught by wisdom in their art, and so when they take in their hands pigments Of various colours, mixing them in harmony, more of some, less of others, from them they prepare forms resembling all things, ‘making trees and men and women and beasts and birds and water-nourished fish and long-lived gods, first in their prerogatives In this way let not deception overcome your mind that there is any other sou 1 for the countless bbut know these things clearly, having heard the story from a god. ‘The comparison here seems to be between what painters actually do when they mix their pigments of various colours, and what happens when the strugele between Empedocles’ two personified motive forces, Love and Strife, results in the generation of everything from the “5 broray ypadies dvatiuora ro%iAsow aipes dup ims imo ues eb Seba, gir énei oly ugphinst PoNyp00 bepuaxa jepai, Spuouiny ueifavre a ulv mht, dhde 8 heoeen fe rev idea naow SNiyuia ropsivousy, Bvt re evibovee xa Evepas Se yicas figds 7 olewods ve xa Ubarobpéoves ais ral 1 Gis BoAryelegves Tuten gepiovons cine! én pte ture sets Sunny, Soon ye Byhe yeyaxaar Gonere, mre, EaKs ropes alr tt tot mpa pudoy bolacombination of the four basic elements.’ Just as the painters manage to represent everything in the world by using pigments of various colours, Love and Strife bring it about that everything in this world arises out of the Four different elements. For the comparison to work, this fragment must refer t0 the way painters mix their pigments (P&phaxa)® “Mix” is used notin the sense of completely blending pigments Of various colours in order to proguce new oes, but in the sense of arnging pigments side by side in onder to realistically portray the world,’ It seems that this was. txactly the practice followed by the painters of the filth century BC (Richter 1944: 322; Devambez. 1962: 25). Tey drew an outline, filled it in with a colour and then juxtaposed washes of different colours on top; different Shades were produced by superposing layers of colour, rather than blending in advance.” Ancient sources suggest that this is the way Empedocles understands. the Combination of the Four elements: they do not completely blend, asin a chemical mixtere, but are set side, y side and fitted together without losing their identity.” Hence, “rohixpoc bépuaKa” in the Empedoclean fragment does: not mean ‘many-coloured pigments’, ie. pigments produced by mixing many colours, but simply pigments of various colours. The use of the adjective ‘tohuxpoa” Teaves open how many colours Empedoces has in min. though the comparison strongly suggests a rather limited, if not sina, number, four, like the number of the basic elements, oF more, or thee, or even just two. The number eannot be large, however, fo the reference is supposed t0 5 Note here the use ofthe duals ueiGavTe and xriGovre: in order for the comparison to work better, Empedocles introduces two painters whose art can be paralleled with the workings of Love and Strife, The term gapnaxa refers in this context to the pigments used for painting; ef, Herodotus 1.98; Aristophanes, Eccl. 735; Plato, Rep. 20¢; Pol. 277 ris worth noting that in Pato's Poiticus (2776) the term “fagcrmaka’ is used in an interesting comparison between philosophical argument and a portrait: A philosophical “argument that needs further elaboration is just ikea portrait that has a Finished outline, though it sill neces to be completed by paints and by mixing the colours (Tots opHcKO1s Kai TH ‘ayyxpdact Tau xpcoud Teav): not by blending the colours vo produce new hues, but by properly combining the colours with fone another: ¥ According to Plutarch (De glor. Ath 2), Apollalonis ws the first painter io use mixed colours (Sopa atthe end ofthe fifth century. On the painters’ use ofthe term #8op6 as equivalent to IEIELs. cf. Porphyry, De abstn, 4.20.28. On the subsequent ‘widespread use of mixed colours by ancient painters, ef Dionysius of Haicarnassus, De Tsaeo 4 On the way Empedocles understands the combination of elements, ef, the use ofthe verbs auvapuoteotas (B71.4) and ‘Sp}SGeoBan (B107. 1; ef. B96), both of which standardly ‘mean “tf ad “to join things together’, like for instance the part of a boat, ofa wall, or af human body (Homer, Od. 5.248 and 361; Herodotus 2.96; Euripides, Mel. 23%; Tro. 111 Hippocrates, Off 25; Oss. 12). Also, ef. Aristotle, De gem. et corr. 3$4426-31=A43, and Galen, in Hipp. De nat, hom, 15.32 Kuhn=CMG 5.9.1. 19.7-12=A34 help us understand how just four elements can explain the seemingly endless variety of objects in this world, ‘This fragment, therefore, does not, and is not meant to, give us direct information about how all colours originate from the mixture of a few. It rather points out that, by using pigments of a few colours, painters can represent all the diverse objects in the world. Moreover, this fragment cannot really help us to settle the issue concerning the number of the basic colours, for this comparison with painting does not mention the colour of the four elements. Rather, the comparison is supposed to be between the four elements, and the few colours ancient painters used to depict the world; not between the four Colours of the four elements and the four colours used by ancient painters. In other words, the comparison works perfectly, even if some elements were not intrinsically coloured, or if fewer than four colours characterised the tour elements. Aatiys’ testimony about Empedocles” theory of four basic colours is thus unconfirmed by the surviving fragments, ‘nd therefore questionable, Indeed the doxographi tradition is most probably misleading in ascribing the four colours of Democritus to Empedocles. Theophrastus, (De sens, 73-5-DK 68 A135) says that Democritus, postulated four simple colours, namely white, black, red land green (xhep6v). Adtius, though, _ presumably misreports this and presents the four Democritean colours, as white, black, red and yellow (1.15.8); and this i the list which the doxographical tradition then erroneously also aseribes 10 Empedocles, as well as to. the Pythagoreans (1.15.7; Diels 1879: 50, 222: Beare 1906: 21... 6; Milled 1908: 83; Longrigg 1976: 432:3.. Which, then, are Empedocles’ basic colours? Both, Empedocles’ extant fragments and some of our ancient sources seem to Support the view that Empedocles talks only of two basic colours: black and white. In particular, there is an Empedoclean fragment in which the sun, i. fire, is’said to be white and hot, while rain, ic, water, is said to be dark and cold (B21.1-6):" But come! Gaze on this witness to my previous words, if anything was in my previous {remarks} left wanting in form: sun, white to look on and hot in every respect, heavenly bodies bathed in hest and shining light, rain everywhere dark and cold; and from earth issue firmly rooted solids. AAW dye, Tow Sépcoy nporépcov émudorupa Sépesv, sin nat nporinoian huouhov erhero hope. jeivov piv Aguebu Bava Sepubw amavrti, GuBoova 8 Seo cider Kal Goyer Scucrat aya, Subpoy 8 kv rd SvaSevrd te pryaheov te EES ains moopeouot Scheuva Te kat ovepecoTSection Two: Colour in Arti It is important fo note that, although all four elements are presented in this fragment, only fire and water are clearly ‘characterised by their colours. "” ‘Theophrastus, too, reports that “Empedocles says concerning colours that white is of fire and black of ‘water” without saying anything about the colour of earth and air (De sens. 59=A69x; cf. De sens. 7=A86)." Moreover, he says “First of all, his [Democritus’} increase of the number of primaries is puzzling; for the fother philosophers propose white and black as the only simple colours.” (De sens, 79=DK68 A135)."° This remark would make no sense if Empedocles, with whose views Theophrastus is familiar, had already assumed four primary colours or even the very four primary colours Democritus came to postulate. Finally, when ‘Theophrastus accuses Empedacles of suggesting a theory which does not explain our perception of other colours apart from black and white, he explicitly presents these colours as the only colours which Empedocles considers as basic (De sens. 17=A86):" Moreover, [there are problems} in his treatment of the individual senses. For it turns out that recognition occurs by what is like. For as to the organ of vision, if it is composed of fire and its opposite, it might be able to recognise the white and the black by their likes, but how will it recognise grey and the other colours, namely the mixed ones? For he explains it neither with the pores of fire nor with the pores of water nor with ‘her pores combined from both. Yet we see these no less than the simple colours. So, even if the terms used here for primary/simple colours (@pxac / amv) are not Empedocles’ own, Theophrastus’ testimony strongly suggests, together with the surviving fragments, that Empedoctes talks only of the colour of fire and the colour of water, namely the colours white and black, as the basic colours ‘To sum up, although scholars and historians of Greek art have usually stressed (on the basis of Aétius’ testimony) the connection, conceming the use of four colours, between Empedocles and ancient painting, our ancient * On Empedoctes identification of fire withthe sun and of wate wit the rain ad he sea foe instanee Simplicius, Phys. 159.1012. The éuppove probably refers here to the ‘mo and the stars, which ae undersood 3s combinations af fine a i; ef, Wright 198: 178 EumeBorkie 8 xa mepl rev xpeousrtead Ail wai bx ve uv hewkov To0 mops, to 8 aw roi ioTos " Tpcovov piv oiw ro sious SroSowar Tas &pxés Exel ‘rive erropiow: of yap dbo to heuxov xai To péAay s Tobraw Gmhas dvrev uovev. “ini iv Tals xa wpos” ouyBatve yap rar Byoteot ‘vive viv yuaoiy. Thy yap Sp Stav fx ropes xi, Ti vtiou oueThan, To Lev heueov xo pédaw Bivor Gv ‘ois Guoiois yuapitery, To 5 Qo.ow xai TakAa xpcouaTe a jeer neds; OFTE yap Tos Tob Ups oie TIS TOD GBaros mépois oF édhors moti Kolwois & aupoiv apcauav & ovbiv hrrov rove Taw omhav 93 Culture sources all talk of Empedoctes’ two colours, namely white and black, the colours of fire and water respectively. There is no evidence 1 suggest that he provided different colours for the other two elements, air and earth, or that he believed air and earth to be intrinsically coloured. ‘The immediate issue, if Empedocles postulates as basic only the colours white and black, is how to produce all colours from these. Since this is not my topic here, I simply want to point out that this same issue also arises in other ancient theories of colour, and most prominently in the third chapter of Aristotle’s De sensi. However, even if the claim that Empedocles postulates the same four colours used by the painters of his time is unfounded, perhaps their practice does help us to better understand the issues at stake concerning colours at the time. It has been argued that, whenever painters of the fourth or of the filth century used just four colouss (and archaeological evidence suggests that this was not the cease in all of their works), this was always a deliberate choice on their part. Even the earlier painters must have had a preater range of colours open to them, as becomes. clear, for instance, from traces of blue and green paint ‘which are found on buildings and sculptures: in fact, blue and green seem fo have been available to ancient painters as early as the archaic period (Robertson 1959: 13; 1975: 260) and 500; Scheibler 1974: 98.9), How can we explain this deliberate restriction of colours? ‘The fourth century painters had undoubtedly achieved a high Jevel of sophistication in producing new colours. Their decision 10 use only four colours has been Understood as a consequence of interest in an aesthetics of colour characteristic of the works of their famous predecessors. The drive behind the innovation of the fifth century painters to use just four colours has reasonably been suggested as an naturalistic representation. In order 10 simplify experiments with three-dimensional forms, ancient painters must have found it helpful, if not necessary, to restrict their colours. ‘The four-colour palette seems to have been the invention ‘of the major participants in the discovery of the technique known in European art as ‘chiaroscuro’ (using highlights and cast shadows to simulate normal optical experience of light falling on objects, Bruno 1977-66). The ancients called this “ckiaypagia’, literally meaning drawing or painting with shading.'® Hence, since painters of the fifth and fourth century we ‘an atmosphere of chiaroscuro, they used the colour white as the equivalent of light, and the colour black as the equivalent of darkness, although we nowadays would never include these among primary colours But, again, there are two different descriptions of the invention of oKtaypagia. Plutarch (De glor. Ath, 2) ° pfuh 1910; 1912; Poll 1974: 247-54, For a diferent imerpretaion of ox1aypagice as an impressionistic technique relying on the phenomenon of optical colour fusion ef. Keuls 1975; Pemberton 1976. Rouveret (1989: 13-63) inerpret it as technique especially used in the classical peri! at the theatre j.eas painting en srompect olsupposes Apollodorus to have invented this technique: Supported. by Pliny’s discussion of Apoliodorus” Contsibution to art towards the end of the fifth century (HLH. 35.60-1), On the other hand, Quintilian (Inst. rat 12.104) states that it-was Apollodonas’ student Zeuxis, who “invented the law of lights and shades” (lamin limbrarumgue invenisse racionem). Some aft historians thave suggested that Quintiian must be mistaken (Pollit 1974:252) Others have tried to reconcile these apparently contradictory statements, proposing that they may describe two different moments in the development of omeypadia (Bruno 1977: 28:9), Apollodoras was probably the fist to perfect the shading methods and Fpart & more convincing three-dimensional appearance, tutereas Zeuxis may have invented a kind oF chiaroscuro jn which shading assumed a more dominant role and the huances. of colouring became increasingly complex Finally, in the fourth century, pelle, Protopenes Pausis, and Nikias would fully achieve the naturals ideal in their works, both by successful foreshortening and. shading, as well as by the use of mixed colours (Pliny, NH. 35.798f,)."° te seems, therefore, that i too the ancient painters some time to develop the technique of oxteyparb I fact, is history must have started even earlier. Although, enerally speaking, there is 90 depth in archaic Greek painting up to the early fifth century, some kind of primitive shading does appear on late archaic works, al fh te early clasical period. Certainly, before the middle ‘ofthe fifth century, painters like Polygnotus seem to have deliberately restricted their colours, exactly because thie tnain concer was to develop the chiaroscuro effect by thing the colour white for highlights and the colour black for shades (Robertson 1959: 14-15,153; 1975: 489; Richer 1959: 266-7). That isto say, it may be pertectly true that Apollodorus was the inventor of oxiaypagia, but he presumably depended on previous generations of painter, systematising and further developing. their experiments. Similarly, it is reasonable to think that Empedocles, ‘constructing a cosmological theory in order to explain the constitution of the sensible world, was also interested explaining light and darkness. Thus he associated the colour white with the brightness of the element fire and the colour black with the darkness of the element water. T do not want, however, to claim a direct influence between the practice of painters in the fifth century and Empedocles’ discussion of the colours white and black, Instead, I want to suggest that it seems to have been a preoccupation of the time to understand how light falls on Objects and how the contrast between light and darkness is produced. Ido not believe that the fact that Empedocles "© X goo example illustrating the developments in the use of shading during the fourth eentury is Pausias’ painting of an OX, ‘which was depicted entirely in black and in a foreshortened position rather than in profile Pliny, Nf. 35.126-7); what Pausias apparently dil in order to convey the spatial mass of the fon's hay as to just ase different shades of lack, instead of the standard atthe time technique of painting the highlights i ‘white andthe less salient parts in dark colour. 94 tion Two: Colour in Artistic Culture did not provide different colours for all four elements shows that his theory was not fully worked out (because he did not provide colours for all elements, or associate all four elements with other opposites, like the hot and the cold, the dense and rare, or the bitter and the sweet, Lloyd 1964: 93 n. 4), Rather, he deliberately discussed only two colours, white and black, because it is on the basis of these that light and darkness (Which play such a crucial role in the way things present themselves to us, including the way they seem 10 be coloured) can be adequately accounted for.Section Two: Colour in Artistic Culture Bibliography Beare, J. 1. 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(1959) * Theories of vision and colour perception of Empedocles and Democritus; some similarities to the modern approach”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine 33, 145-59 Wright, M. R. (1981) Empedoctes: The Extant Fragments (New Haven/London)