The Muslim Educational Needs

THE MUSLIM EDUCATIONAL NEEDS:
An Exposition of the Fundamental

Elements and Objectives of
Islamic Education
By
ANSHARI P. ALI, Ph.D (ISTAC)
Published by:
COLLEGE OF LAW EXTENSION
Mindanao State University
General Santos City
2012
Philippine Copyright, 2011

by
ANSHARI P. ALI, Ph.D
Email: anshariali89@yahoo.com
H/P#09099475492
ISBN No. 978-971-94531-1-6
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BY THE AUTHOR
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Dedication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
The Two Positions about Education . . . . . . . . . 9
CHAPTER I
THE ELEMENTS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION. . .16
The recipient of education.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The External and Internal senses. . . . . . . . . . 21
The Soul as Khalifah (Vicegerent). . . . . . . . . . 31
CHAPTER II
THE CONTENTS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION. . 39
The Meaning of Hikhmah (Wisdom). . . . . . . . 48
The Categories of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . .50

CHAPTER III
THE METHODS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION. . . 63
Tarbiyah (Good breeding). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Ta'lim (Instruction). . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Riyadah (Self-Discipline). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Tahdib (refinement). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Ta'dib (Education) . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ..77
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 85
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 85
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
References. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
About the Author
FOREWORD
Islamic education has always been a misunderstood
concept in the minds of many Filipinos, educators included.
The secularization of western education has inculcated into our
mental perspective the acquisition of knowledge that aids the
material aspirations of society, and in the process, relegates
the normative development of man to the sideways. As such,
western educational systems regard the holistic education of a
man as either unnecessary or redundant, and therefore, treat
human spiritual development as a mere collateral concern,
rather than the main focus of education.
This is the typical attitude of someone who thinks that the
reformative aspect of worship is exemplified only by religious
activities and limited solely to religious preaching. It denies the
natural oneness of man' body (jasad), soul (nafs) and spirit
(ruh), and does a disservice to the education of the whole man.
It sets an unseen wedge between man's individuality and his
society, and in so doing, produces a human community with
truncated perspectives.
The book of Dr. Anshari P. Ali, The Muslim Educational
Needs: An Exposition of the Fundamental Elements and
Objectives of Islamic Education, helps clarify the concept and
implementation of Islamic education in the Philippines.
According to Dr. Ali another important element of education is
the content which should be inculcated to the aql
(intellect) of a child or person, and while modern and

secular educational institutions gave much attention to the
method than the content of education, Islam provides more
emphasis on the latter.
The attention given to content in Islamic education ensures

that education is both divinely-sourced and humanpropagated. This acknowledges that the origin of all ilm
(knowledge) is God, and man merely propagates the knowledge
that comes from the Divine Source. This likewise expands the
scope of knowledge and knowledge acquisition beyond the
otherwise secular bounds of western education.
In his latest book, Dr. Ali demystifies Islamic education

by lucidly explaining what will otherwise appear as alien
Arabic terms to students and practitioners of western
education, such as tarbiyah (good breeding), ta'lim
(instruction), ta'dib (education), tahdib (refinement) and
riyadah (self-discipline); and by elaborating on the Islamic
concept of hikmah (wisdom).
Just as education is meant to enlighten, the book of Dr.
Ali aims to clear the cobwebs that shroud the mind in its
perception of Islamic education. It opens our eyes and
reveals the soul of Islamic education.
ATTY. MEHOL K. SADAIN

Professorial Lecturer
College of Law & Institute of Islamic Studies
University of the Philippines
September 12, 2011
ii
DEDICATION
This book is sincerely dedicated to the members

of my family, especially my late parents, my
children and my dear wife whom I promised my
heart and love forever
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All praises belong to the Almighty Allah Who is
the Light of the heavens and earth. The parable of
His light is as if there were a niche and within it a
lamp, the lamp enclosed in glass, the glass as it
were a brilliant star, lit from a blessed tree, an olive,
neither of the East nor of the West, whose oil is
well-nigh luminous, though fire scare touched it,
light upon light! Allah doth guide whom He will to
His light, Allah doth set forth parables for men, and
Allah doth know all things.
May the peace and blessings of the Almighty

Allah be upon the Holy Prophet Muhammad who
was sent in order to rehearse the signs of Allah
containing clear explanations that may lead forth
those who believe and do righteous deeds from
the depths of darkness into light.
I am greatly indebted beyond expression to my
late parents Mahmud H. Ali and Jarulah A. Ali for
having taken good care of me during my
childhood together with their prayer for my
guidance to the right path of Allah.
My wholehearted respect and sincere gratitudes
are due to Professor Dr. Syed Muhammad Naquib
al-Attas for the wisdom that I have learned and
acquired
iv
from him during my doctoral studies at the

International Institute of Islamic Thought and
civilization (ISTAC), IIU, Malaysia.
I am specially grateful to Atty. Mehol K. Sadain,
my former Professor at the Institute of Islamic
Studies, University of the Philippines, for having
extensively read the manuscript and for having
made the FOREWORD of this book. I wish to thank
Professor Julieta Arsenal of the Mindanao State
University, General Santos City for helping in
editing the manuscript of this book.
My thanks are due to Atty. Abdurrrahman T.

Canacan, Chancellor, MSU-General Santos City
and Atty. Mariano S. Lugares, Assistant Dean,
College of Law Extension, MSU-General Santos
City for their assistance in the publication of this
work.
I also thank those who, in one way or another,
have helped for the completion of this study.
Lastly, but not least, I am so thankful to the

members of my family, for their patience and
contributions for the success of this work.
A. P. A.
The Muslim Educational Needs
INTRODUCTION
One of the great challenges for the Muslim
scholars in this post-modern era is the challenge of
education. It is the concept of education as
conceived and disseminated throughout the world
by the Western civilization which is infused with the
character and personality of said civilization.
Western civilization means the civilization that
has evolved out of the historical fusion of cultures,
philosophies, values and aspiration of ancient
Greece and Rome amalgamated with Judaism and
Christianity, and developed by the Latin, Germanic,
1
Celtic and Nordic peoples. It derives from Ancient
Greece the philosophical and
1
epistemological elements and the foundations of

education and of ethics and aesthetics, from
Rome the elements of law, statecraft and
government; from Judaism and Christianity the
elements of religious faith and from the Latin,
Germanic, Celtic and Nordic peoples their
independent and national spirit and traditional
values, and development and
1
Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas, Islam and Secularism.

Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought
and Civilization (ISTAC), 1993, 134, hereafter cited as
Secularism.
advancement of the natural and physical sciences

and technology which they, together with the
Slavic peoples, have pushed to such pinnacles of
power.2
Western civilization is guided by the principles of
secularism. The term secularism is derived from the
Latin word saeculum which conveys a dual
connotation of time and location with reference to
the modern period of the world.3 It stands in
contrast to the sacred making an approach to life
divorced from the influence of religion, and thus
determined by temporal or worldly concerns.4
According to the Western world
2 Ibid.
3
This definition was provided by Syed Muhammad Naquib

al-Attas in his book titled Islam and Secularism which is
the earliest and most comprehensive account by a Muslim
scholar on the historical and philosophical meaning of the
terms secular, secularization and secularism. For further
reading, see Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Islam and
Secularism (Kuala Lumpur: Muslim Youth Movement of
Malaysia (ABIM), 1978), 14-49, hereafter cited as
Secularism; Also see Anshari P. Ali,
The Evolution of Islamic Law in the Philippines. General

Santos City: Mindanao State University, 2009, 66-70,
hereafter cited as Evolution.
See al-Attas, Secularism, 14-46; also see W. L. Reeses,
Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion (New Jersey:

Humanities Press Inc., 1980), 519; also Malcom B.
Hamilton, The Sociology of Religion (London: Routledge,
1995), 165, hereafter cited as Hamilton.
philosophical thought, secularism is an ideology

which disenchanted nature, desacralized politics
and deconsecrated values.5 The disenchantment
of nature involves the freeing of nature from its
religious overtones and the dispelling of animistic
spirits, gods and magic from the natural world so
that nature is no longer regarded as divine entity
in which man is free to act upon it.6 The
desacralization of politics means the abolition of
sacral basis of political power and authority as a
prerequisite of political and social changes in the
evolutionary process. 7 The deconsecration of
values implies the consideration of all cultural
creations as transient and relative so that every
value system including religion and worldview are
open to change on the basis of evolutionary
process.8
Secularism denotes the disappearance of
religious symbol of political and social aspects of
life.9 It was a result of the Western man's
interpretation of biblical faith and the long history
5 Al-Attas,
Secularism, 17; for further reading about

secularization, see Keith A. Roberts, Religion in Sociological
Perspective (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1990),
303-23, herafter cited as Roberts; also Hamilton, 165.
6 Al-Attas, Secularism, 16; Roberts, 306; Hamilton, 166.
7 Al-Attas, Secularism, 16; Roberts, 306.
8 Al-Attas, Secularism, 16; Roberts, 307.
Al-Attas, Secularism, 15; Roberts, 304.
of philosophical and metaphysical conflict in the

religious and purely rationalistic worldview of the
Western scholars. In other words, secularism is a
Western concept whereas secularization is a
process that is located in the west.11The former
arose in the west as a result of the power struggle
between the church and the state over the swords
of temporal and spiritual authority, both claimed
by the Roman Pope and the Holy Roman Empire,
whereas the latter involved the movement from a
sacred to a secular society in the sense of
abandoning any commitment to religious and
traditional values and practices by accepting
change and founding of actions on a rational and
utilitarian basis.12
10
Western civilization formulates its vision of

truth and reality not upon revealed knowledge
and religious belief, but upon cultural tradition
which is reinforced by philosophical premises
based upon speculation pertaining mainly to
secular life
10 See al-Attas, Secularism,18, Roberts, 305; Hamilton, 166.
11 Al-Attas, Secularism, 18; for further reading, see Rudolf
Heredia, Secularism and Secularisation: Nation Building

in a Multi-Religious Society, in Secularism and Liberation,
ed. Rudolf C. Heredia and Edward Mathias (New Delhi:
Indian Social Institute, 1995), 11-37, hereafter cited as
Heredia.
12 Hamilton, 167.
centered upon man as physical entity and rational

animal setting great store upon man's rational
capacity alone to unravel the mysteries of his total
environment and involvement in existence.13
Technically, such knowledge disseminated

from the Western World is mainly a product of
confusion and skepticism which has elevated
doubt and conjecture to the scientific rank in
methodology as a valid epistemological tool in the
pursuit of truth and reality of things.14
The dissemination in the Muslim world of
knowledge from the Western world infused with the
character and personality of Western culture and
civilization
through
universities
and
other
institutions of learning has resulted the infiltration
of key concepts from the Western world and the
emergence of intellectual confusion.15
The Intellectual confusion emerged as a result of
changes and restriction in the meaning of key terms
that project the worldview derived from revelation.
The effects of the intellectual confusion are
indicated in moral and cultural dislocation,
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
Ibid, 162.
which is symptomatic of the degeneration of

religious knowledge, faith and values.16 Said
confusion is also manifested in the corruption or
changes to the meaning of knowledge, its nature,
proper places and purposes.
17
As a result of the Western colonization and

cultural control of vital areas of the Muslim world
beginning in the 17th century, the West was able to
inculcate the projection of its worldview in the
Muslim mind and hence to dominate the Muslims
intellectually.18 The dissemination of the basic
essentials of the Western worldview and its
consolidation in the Muslim mind was gradually
accomplished through the educational system
based upon a concept of knowledge and its
principles that would ultimately bring about the
deislamization of the Muslim mind.19
The penetration to the Muslim mind of western
knowledge and education has resulted to the loss of
adab (self-discipline) implying the loss of the
capacity for discernment of the right and proper
places of things, the confusion of the order of
nature as arranged according to their grades
16Ibid.
17 Ibid
18
19
Ibid, 104.
Ibid, 105.
(maratib) and degrees of rank (darajat) and the

undermining of legitimate authority and the
inability to recognize and acknowledge right
leadership in all spheres of life.20
Adab means the knowledge of disciplining the body,
mind and soul that preserves man from errors of
judgment. It is the discipline that assures the
recognition and acknowledgement of the reality that
knowledge and being are ordered hierarchically
according to their various grades (maratib) and degrees
of rank (darajat), and one's proper place in relation to
that reality and to one's physical, intellectual and
spiritual
capacities
and
potentials.21
Such
acknowledgement means actualization in one self and
in society as a whole of what is recognized being a
manifestation of justice
('adl).
The Muslims in the Philippines are part of the
Muslim world that became victims of the
dissemination
of
Western
education
and
worldviews and its penetration to the Muslim
mind as a result
20 Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, The Concept of
Education in Islam: A framework for an Islamic Philosophy
of Education. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of
Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), 1991,35, hereafter
cited as Education in Islam.
21 Ibid, 27.
of the Spanish and American colonization of the

Moroland
for
many
centuries
and
the
establishment
of
the
Philippine
secular
educational system in their own communities.
The secularization and intellectual confusion
existing in the mind of some Muslim intellectuals in
the country regarding the proper places and
objectives of education can be remedied through
Islamization of the mind, the learning of Islamic
Epistemology of knowledge and education as well as
the adoption of adab and other Islamic key concepts
that should be incorporated to the curricula of some
universities within the Muslim areas in the country.
In this regard, the author wishes to make an
exposition about the fundamental elements and
objectives of Islamic education with a hope to shed
light about the truth and basic purpose of learning
and education on the basis of Islamic Worldview.
However, the author would like to begin

discussion on the subject with a brief
presentation about the two theoretical positions
concerning the purpose of education.
The Two Theoretical Positions

Philosophically, there are at least two theoretical
positions concerning the purpose of education. The
first position is called society centered position
whereby education is conceived primarily as a
vehicle to produce good citizens whether for various
kinds of democracies, oligarchies or monarchies.22
The perennial school or cultural transmission
school associated with Plato and with many
medieval Western scholars as well as a few modern
ones such as William T. Harris, Robert Hutchins
and Adler in the United States are included in the
society or state-centered position.23
The modern social re-constructionist school

associated with George S. Count of the United
States, Paulo Freire of Brazil and Jurgen
Habermas of Germany, as well as the feminists
who stress the principle of liberation are included
ultimately as
22 Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud, The Educational Philosophy
and Practice of Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas: An

Exposition of the Original Concept of Islamization, Kuala
Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and
Civilization (ISTAC), 1998, 121, hereafter cited as
Educational Philosophy.
23Ibid.
society-centered position, though at a different

24
point in the spectrum.
The followers of the society centered position
argued that since man is inherently a social
animal and knowledge is basically socially
construed, education should prepare individuals
to function and adapt successfully in their
respective society.
For them, the aims and objectives of education
are designed to strengthen the beliefs, attitudes,
knowledge and skills accepted and valued by the
social group.25 However, since beliefs, attitudes,
knowledge and skills valued and accepted by the
respective society are expected to continually
change, the education of all individuals in the
society must not only reflect such changes but
must also be prepared for all types of changing
circumstances.26
In this educational system, the needs and
interests of individual students are located in a
secondary position, although not totally neglected.27
It should be noted that most national
24 Ibid
25 Ibid, 122
26 Ibid, 122
Ibid, 122
10
systems of education in the world today

including the Philippines are state centered.
In the Philippines, the basic purpose of
education is to prepare students to become good
Filipino citizens committed to uphold the
Constitution, the rights and duties of citizenship
and the teachings of patriotism and nationalism.
For instance, the 1987 Constitution states that:
28
All educational institutions shall include the

study of the Constitution as part of the curricula.
They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism,
foster love of humanity, respect for human rights,
appreciation of the role of national heroes in the
historical development of the country, teach the
rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical
and spiritual values, develop moral character and
personal discipline, encourage critical and creative
thinking, broaden scientific and technological
knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency. 30
29
In line with the said constitutional postulate,

tertiary education in the country is designed to
assist each individual to develop his potential as a
28The Philippine Constitution, Article 14, Section 3 (1).
29Bernas, S.J. The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the
Philippines 2003 Edition, Manila: Rex Book Store,

2003.1231.
30The Philippine Constitution, Article 14, Section 3(2).
11
human being and enhance the quality of citizen

participation in the basic function of the society.31
There is no doubt, however, that the Philippine
educational system is anchored on the secular
principle of the state as enshrined in the
Constitution separating the religious activities of the
Church from the public affairs of the state. The
constitutional provision prohibiting the use of
public money or government fund for the teaching
of religion strengthens such principle.
32
In short the Philippine educational system is

basically designed for the physical and material
well being of the Filipino citizens, especially the
learning and acquisition of science and
technology as an instrument for national
development and progress,33 so that they may
become ultimately good instruments for the
realization of the interests of the state.
Technically, however, the teaching of religion or
religious belief has no proper place in the
curricula of the Philippine public schools.
Otherwise, such using of public money or
31 The Manual of Regulations for Private Schools, 1992,
Article 1, section 10 (a).
32 The Philippine Constitution, Article 6, Section 29(2).

33 The Philippine Constitution, Article 2, Section 17.
12
government fund for the teaching of religion or

religious belief may contradict the secular
principle as enshrined in the Philippine
Constitution. This may lead to the conclusion
that the purpose of molding a student in order to
become a God-fearing or religious (makadius)
person is not one of the alleged purposes of the
Philippine educational system.
However, the clamor of the Muslims about the
irrelevance of the Philippine educational system to
the educational needs of the Muslim minority in
the country has resulted in the establishment of
some Islamic studies institutes in the country.
Going back to the second theoretical position
concerning the purpose of education, the socalled child or person centered position primarily
stresses the needs, capacities and interests of the
students.34 This position has two major trends;
the first trend holds that the primary purpose of
education is to prepare the individuals to attain
happiness
by
achieving
maximum
social
economic success while the second stresses the
development of an intelligent, rich, and wellbalanced personality of each child.35 The person
centered position has
34
Educational Philosophy, 121.

35 Ibid.
13
been espoused by most of the dominant religions

of the world.36
The traditional Islamic educational system is
deemed to be a person centered one which has
always had the personal success and happiness in
this world and particularly in hereafter as its most
important aim and objectives.37 However, this
person-centered educational philosophy gradually
shifted to concentrate on the needs and interests of
society when the Muslim world came under the
beguiling
influence
of
western
ideas
and
institutions.38 However, the Contemporary Muslim
Philosopher in the Muslim world, Seyd Muhammad
Naquib at-Attas of Malaysia who has systematically
defined the meaning of Islamic education has
consistently argued and clarified that the purpose of
education in Islam is not to produce a good citizen,
nor still a good worker, but a good man.39
Such a good man is expected to be good to God,

good to himself, his parents, his family, his
relatives, his neighbors, his community, his
society, his country, to the animals and
environment.
36
Ibid, 121.
37 Ibid, 123.
38
39
Ibid.
Ibid.
14
As Islamic education is concerned about the

producing of a good man, the author wishes to
examine and describe the meaning and
characteristics of an Islamic education.
15
CHAPTER I
THE ELEMENTS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION
In Islam, education is defined as something
progressively instilled into man.40 This definition
encompasses the three fundamental elements
inherent in education, namely the content, the
process and the recipient of education.41
According to al-Attas, the recipient of education
pertains to man alone for the other members of
animal species that are not endowed with aql
(intellect) are excluded. In our discussion of the
elements of Islamic education, I shall start with
man being generally known as rational animal.
The Recipient of Education

Man is the sole recipient of education being a
rational animal (hayawan al-natiq) endowed with
aql (intellect).42
40 Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas, The Concept of
Education in Islam: A Framework for an Islamic Philosophy of

Education. Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1991, 13, hereafter cited
as Education.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
16
By defining man as rational animal, the term

rational is signified by the term natiq which points
to an innate faculty of knowing that formulates
meaning.43 The term natiq is derived from a root
word that conveys the basic meaning of speech, in
the sense of human speech signifying a certain
power and capacity in man to articulate words in a
meaningful pattern.44 Meaning is an intelligible form
with regard to which a word, an expression, or a
symbol is applied to denote it. When that word
expression or symbol becomes a notion in the mind
(aql), it means understood.45
In other words, man is a language animal, and

the articulation of linguistic symbol into a
meaningful pattern is a visible expression of the
inner, unseen reality that is called aql.46 Aql
refers to the human intellect which is man's
highest faculty of knowledge identified with the
eye of the heart (ayn al-qalb) for the heart means
essentially the seat of knowledge or the
instrument for the attainment of knowledge.47
43 Prolegomena, 121-22
44 Education, 14.
45
Prolegomena, 123.
46 Education, 14.
47 Osman Bakar, Tawhid and Science: : Islamic
Perspectives on Religion and Science, Selangore Dar alIhsan: Arah Pendidikan SDN BHD, Level 3A, Block B,
Peremba Square,
17
For Isma'I Ankaravi, the term al-nafs natiqah or

rational soul is evocative of two different meanings:
one is speaking and the other is reasoning.48
This is because what constitute man is not the
ability to talk but the power to comprehend the
intelligible and distinguish between right and
wrong, good and bad.49 In other words, the essence
of man is his ability to reason, not simply to speak.
Otherwise, even the parrot, which can learn to talk
by training, would be a man. On the other hand,
there are some peoples in the world who cannot
speak, like those who are dumb, yet who can still
think and reason.50 Man is thereby distinguished
from the rest of the beasts. It is by this spiritual
substance, that man comprehends the existence of
the intellects, pure soul, celestial bodies, the four
elements, the three kingdoms, as well as all signs
on the earth, in the sky and in the oceans, thereby
acquiring virtues and attaining happiness.51
Sauna Resort Section U2, 40150 Sha Alam, 2008, 24,

hereafter cited as Tawhid and Science.
48 Bilal Kuspinar. Isma'il Ankaravi on the Illuminative Philosophy,
Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and

Civilization (ISTAC), 1996, 116, hereafter cited as Illuminative
Philosophy.
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid,
51 Ibid.
117.
18
The real nature of aql is that it is a spiritual

substance by which the rational soul (al-nafs alnatiqah) recognizes and distinguishes truth from
falsehood52Aql is a quality that distinguishes
man from other animal and prepares him to
understand the theoretical sciences and master
the abstract disciplines.53 Also, it is the power to
understand the secrets of different things.
In other words, the term rational means the
capacity for understanding speech and power
responsible for the formulation of meaning which
involves judgment, discrimination, distinction and
clarification which has to do with the articulation
of words or expression in a meaningful pattern.
The word meaning refers to the recognition of the
place of anything in a system.55
54
The term aql itself basically signifies an active,

conscious entity that binds and withholds objects
of knowledge by means of words or symbolic
forms; and it indicates the same reality that is
denoted by the terms heart (qalb), spirit (ruh) and
soul (nafs).56
52 Al-Attas, education, 14.

53 Ihya Ulum al-Din, Kitab al-Ilm, 226.
54 Education, 15.
55 Ibid.
56 Prolegomena, 122.
19
This means that the seat of knowledge in man

is the aql which is a spiritual substance. When
this spiritual substance involves intellection or
apprehension, it is called aql (intellect).57
As for intellect, it performs abstraction of
objects of the external world and contemplates
the realities of things, and its functions are
localized in various regions of the brain.58
When the said spiritual substance deals with the
governance of the body, it is called nafs (soul).
When the same spiritual substance receives
illumination of guidance from God, it is called qalb
(heart). 59
When referring to the heart, the first meaning

indicates the pine-shaped lump of muscular flesh
situated to the left side of the body and the
fountain-head of the subtle vapor that is the
vehicle of the physical animal spirit.60 Through
this vehicle, the animal spirit rises from its
fountain-head in the heart to the brain through
the veins to all parts of the body. This spirit is the
conveyor of animal life
57 Ibid, 147.
58 Ibid, 147-8.
59 Ibid, 147.
Ibid
20

61
which is common to all animals. When it passes

away, it causes the death of the external senses
involving that of the body as a whole.62 This
indicates the double aspects of the heart, such as
physical and spiritual.
When the said spiritual substance separates
from the body as it reverts to its world of abstract
reality, it is called ruh (spirit).
63
In short, Islamic education must pertain to

the reality of man, and not simply to his body and
animal aspect, but his spiritual aspect. 64 It
means that such education being exclusive of
man excludes other animals which are not
endowed with aql (intellect).
The External and Internal Senses

In Philosophy, one of the fundamental functions
of the human soul as conceived by the peripatetic
philosophers is the capacity to obtain knowledge
by virtue of its external and internal senses. This
is generally known as the acquisition
65
61Ibid.
62 Ibid.
147.
63 Education,
13.
14.
65 Bilal Kuspinar, Isma'il Ankaravi on the Illuminative
Philosophy, Kuala Lumpur: International institute of
Islamic
64 Ibid,
21
of knowledge which involves two different processes:

(1) abstraction (tajrid) and (2) perception (idrak).66
Both of them operate in a reciprocal interaction
between the knower, called subject, and the thing to
be known, called object. In such a relation, the
knower first abstracts the image of an object in the
external reality by means of the external senses of
the soul, and then perceives it as a form by means
of its internal cognitive faculties or internal
senses.67
For Ibn Sina, there are two main groups of the

faculties of the rational soul. The first group,
called external consists of five senses: touch (allams), taste (al-dhawq), smell (al-shamm), hearing
(al-sam') and sight (al-basar).68 Touch is a faculty
which is spread over the entire surface of the
skin.6 9 It senses basically four diverse
circumstantial states: hot and cold, moist and
dry. In addition, it also gives an impression about
the following: light and heavy, smooth and rough,
soft and hard.70
Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), 1996, 113, hereafter cited
as Illuminative Philosophy.
66 Ibid
67 Ibid.
68 Ibid,
120.
69 Ibid.
70 Ibid,
120.
22
Taste sense is located in the nerves spread out

over the tongue. It perceives the taste through the
moisture that comes out of the squeezed juice.71
Smell sense is a faculty which is located in the
two lobes (za'idatayn) of the front part of the brain.
It perceives smells and odors by means of the air.72
Hearing is a sense located in the nerves dispersed
over the surface of the ear cavity. It perceives the
sounds by means of the air which enters the ear.73
Sight is the faculty located in the nerves of the

two pupils of the eyes. It perceives lights and
colors as images imprinted on the humors of the
eyes. An example of this would be a mirror which
reflects image.74
Ibn Sina also asserted that the five internal
senses also consist of a hierarchy of five faculties,
such as: common sense (al-hiss al-mustarak),
faculty of imagination (al-khayaliyyah), faculty of
idea or thought (al-fikriyyah), faculty of
71 Ibid.
72 Ibid.
73 Ibid,
120.
74Ibid
23
discrimination/estimation
(al-wahm),
and
75
retentive faculty (al-hafizah). Each of them, like
the external ones, becomes an instrument of
perception for the soul, each occupies a distinct
place, although, unlike others, only in the brain,
and each has a separate function in the process
of receiving information.76
For al-Attas, the existence of internal senses is
established by way of intuition (al-wijdan).77
The first of these internal senses receives the
information brought by the external senses and
combines and separates internal images or
representations of the external sensible objects.78
It is the common sense (al-hiss al-mustarak).
Common sense resides in the forepart of the

front ventricle of the brain.79 This faculty behaves
as a sort of pool' into which flow all the sensible
forms transmitted from the external world by the
five external senses.80 All the forms of objects
whether perceived through touch, smell, hearing,
sight or taste are first received by the common
75 Ibid,
76 Ibid,
120.
120.
77 Al-Attas,
Prolegomena, 150
151
79 Illuminative Philosophy, 120.
80 Ibid.
78 Ibid
24
sense, which, among the other internal senses, is

the closest to the external ones.81
In other words, common sense directly
receives the data of the five external senses. It is
necessary that the external sensible objects be
first present to the external senses before they
can be perceived by the common sense.82 It
perceives
only
their
individual
sensible
particulars, and not their intelligible universals,
and it is able to sense pleasure and pain, both as
perceived in the imagination as well as in the
external sensible objects.83
However, al-Farabi described common sense as
the ruling element of the external senses and as the
recipient of sensed forms, but it is excluded from
both the external and internal senses.84
Suhrawardi asserts that common sense also
visualizes the forms, even in dreams, in a direct and
visible manner without the interference of the
81 Ibid.
82 Prolegomena,
151.
151.
84 Osman Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam.
Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought
and Civilization (ISTAC), IIU, 2006, 52, hereafter cited as
Classification of Knowledge.
83 Ibid,
25
imagination.85 As it combines in itself the images

of all the transmitted forms, it perceives them by
direct vision.86
For Ankaravi, common sense perceives the
forms, not only in wakefulness but also in sleep
or in dream by way of designation whereby the
person who falls asleep can envision an individual
form away from its referent in external reality.87
In other words, he does it, in the absence of the
five external senses, due to his common sense,
and not by virtue of his intellect which conceives
only universal and not particulars.88
The Common sense receives the data provided
by the external senses, gathering together similar
as well as dissimilar ones, but does not retain
what it has received.89 In other words, the
function of recording and retaining the images or
forms of the external objects received by the
common sense belongs to the second internal
sense called the representative faculty.90
85Prolegomena,
151..
86 Ibid.
87 Illuminative
Philosophy, 121
88 Ibid.
89Prolegomena,
90
151.
Ibid, 151.
26
imagination.85 As it combines in itself the images

of all the transmitted forms, it perceives them by
direct vision.86
For Ankaravi, common sense perceives the
forms, not only in wakefulness but also in sleep
or in dream by way of designation whereby the
person who falls asleep can envision an individual
form away from its referent in external reality.87
In other words, he does it, in the absence of the
five external senses, due to his common sense,
and not by virtue of his intellect which conceives
only universal and not particulars.88
The Common sense receives the data provided
by the external senses, gathering together similar
as well as dissimilar ones, but does not retain
what it has received.89 In other words, the
function of recording and retaining the images or
forms of the external objects received by the
common sense belongs to the second internal
sense called the representative faculty.90
85Prolegomena,
151..
89 Ibid.
90 Illuminative
Philosophy, 121
91 Ibid.
89Prolegomena,
90
151.
Ibid, 151.
27
pertaining to its objects as if they were sensible

objects of the external world.95
This faculty, due to its close dependency on the
particular meaning and intentions inherent in the
sensible objects, is highly inclined to make
judgments
which
are
though
seemingly
acceptable and convincing to itself, yet in most
cases, in contradiction to the wise decision of
intellect.96
In other words, the estimation is where
judgments and opinions are formed, and unless
governed by intellect, the imaginative powers
related to it are the sources of errors of
judgment.97
The estimative faculty presides over judgments
not in the analytical way that characterizes
intellectual judgment, but in the imaginative way
determined by memory images through a process
of association from past experience, or not by
memory
images,
but
by
an
instinctive
interpretation of the image perceived by the soul
without going through any process of association
from past experience.98
95 Prolegomena,
152.
Philosophy, 120.
97 Prolegomena, 152
Prolegomena, 152.
96 Illuminative
28
The fourth internal sense, called the retentive

and re-collective faculty (al-hafizah and aldhakirah), retains meanings and conserves them
for the estimative faculty which receives these
meanings.99
The retentive faculty is situated in the rear
ventricle of the brain. Its primary function is to
recollect the individual incidents (al-waqa'i) and
situations (al-ahwal).
The retentive faculty, also termed as memory
and recollection, acts as a storehouse for
intentions and meanings transmitted from the
estimative faculty and retrieves them when
needed.100 The retentive faculty retains particular
meanings and memorizes them for close
inspection and appraisal by the perceiver for so
long as they remain in it.101 When they become
absent from retention and the perceiver wishes to
recall them, then it is called the re-collective
faculty.102
The fifth internal sense is the imaginative faculty
(al-mutakhayyilah). The imaginative faculty is
situated in the middle ventricle of the brain near
99 Prolegomena,
152.
100 Illuminative
Philosophy, 120..
29
the vermin form process.103 Its main task is to

work on the images and forms stored in the
faculty of representation, and thus separate and
combine them in various ways.104
In other words, imaginative faculty perceives
forms, then combines and separates them in an
act of classification, adds to them and takes away
from them so that the soul may perceive their
meanings and connect them with the forms or
images.105
The soul uses this faculty for the purpose of
classification by means of combining and
separating its objects, sometimes through the
practical reasons and sometimes through the
theoretical reason.106 Its essential nature is to
perform the function of combining and
separating, and not of perception. When the soul
uses it as an intellectual instrument, it is called
cogitative, and when it is used according to its
natural disposition it is imaginative.107
The soul perceives what this faculty combines
and separates of the forms through the mediacy of
103 Ibid.
104 Ibid.
105 Prolegomena,
153.
106Prolegomena,
153.
Prolegomena, 153.
30
the common sense as well as through the mediacy

of the estimative faculty.108 In its developed form
this faculty apprehends ideas beyond the spheres of
sense and sensual images.109 It is a specifically a
human faculty not found in the lower animals.110
In short, each of these internal senses or

faculties is invested with a specific function and
occupies a distinct location on its own in the
brain.
The Soul as Khalifah (Vicegerent)

In Theology, the spiritual substance as nafs
(soul) has a very important role in the existence of
a human being. In fact, the soul is the real person
as the body is considered as a mere physical
entity occupied by the soul during his life
existence in this world. The soul was created by
God, but it becomes immortal. After the creation
of the soul but before its appearance on earth,
God summoned such soul in order to testify
about his acknowledgement of the Lordship of
God. This can be understood in the verse of the
Holy Qur'an in which Allah says:
When thy Lord drew forth from the children of
Adam-from their loins-their descendants, and
made
108
Ibid, 153.
Ibid.
Ibid.
109
31
them testify concerning themselves, (saying): Am I

not your Lord (Who cherishes and sustains you)?they said: Yea! We do testify!111
In said verse, the entire souls of the children of
Adam individually and collectively made covenant
with God in which case they had made testimony
and acknowledgement about His Lordship. In o t h e
r w o r d s , s u c h t e s t i m o n y a n d
acknowledgement of the souls individually and
collectively about the Lordship of God also means
their recognition and acknowledgement that He is
their King, Creator, Sustainer and Master. When
they recognized that God is their master, it implies
their recognition of their status as servants of God.
In the same verse, God endowed the soul with

knowledge of absolute God which is deemed as
the beginning of man's acquiring of knowledge.
Similarly, God graced the soul with power to
answer the question which was asked by their
Lord.
As the soul was created and sent to this world,
God equips it with knowledge and the names of
everything that man does not know. Allah says in
the Holy Qur'an: And He taught Adam the names
of all things.112
111
Surah al-a'raf 7:172.
al-Baqarah, 2:31
32
Being equipped with knowledge, God appointed

the soul as khalifah (vicegerent) on earth. 113 Being a
khalifah on earth, the soul was entrusted with
amanah (trust) that includes the implementation of
justice and the commandment of God.114
Therefore, the first trial for man in enforcing

amanah and justice is his physical body as called
by Abu Hamid al-Ghazali as micro kingdom where
the soul is deemed as king being a khalifah or
representative of God entrusted to enforce therein
such God's commandment.115
In dealing with the governance of his body as a
kingdom, the soul has visible armies like the five
external senses, such as the power of seeing,
hearing, smelling, tasting and touching.116
Similarly, the soul-king has invisible armies
otherwise known as internal senses, such as the
power of common sense, power of thought, power of
imagination, power of memory and power of
judgment or discrimination in which the soul is
113 Surah
Al-Baqarah, (2:30).
114 Surah
115
al-Nisa', (4:58).
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ihya ulum al-Din: The Book of Destructive
Evils, trans. Maulana Fazul Karim Vol 3, Sind Sagar Academy, Pakistan,
5, hereafter cited as Book of Destructive Evil.
33
116
Ibid, 4.
empowered to distinguish right from wrong or

good from bad or the truth from falsehood.117
For al-Ghazali, the five external and internal
senses are, like armies, that are always
subservient to the order of the soul-king. For
instance, when the soul wants to close the eyes,
the eyes will automatically close or if the soul
wants to move the hand, the hand will
automatically move.118
However, in the physical body of man as
kingdom, there is such desire which may be likened
to a collector of revenue within a kingdom that
usually collects whatever the external and internal
senses have obtained. The desire is also supported
by Anger that Al-Ghazali termed as like a police
within a kingdom that usually encourages the
desire to pursue its move.119
The soul, however, is duty bound to enforce

peace and order within the body kingdom that
includes the disciplining of desire and anger by
placing them under the dictates of reason and
justice. For instance, desire must be controlled in
order to operate in a moderate way so that
patience which is the beautiful status of desire
may always
117
Ibid, 5.
118
Ibid, 4.
Ibid, 6.
119
34
be attained whereas greedy which is the worst

status of desire be avoided.120 It is not possible, of
course, for a person to live without desire, but
such desire needs to be disciplined so that love
may be reasonable under the shade of justice. It
is also natural for a person to be overwhelmed by
anger sometimes, but such anger requires
disciplinary measure so that it may operate
moderately without transgressing the right of
others and the limit of the law.
The soul is required to enforce the commandment of
God over every physical attributes of the body by
placing them in their real status as servant of God
being the basic purpose of their existence on earth.
Being the governor of the body kingdom

entrusted to enforce therein the commandment
and will of God, the soul is deemed accountable to
God for whatever disobedience committed by any
physical attribute of the body in which the soul
will be asked in the day of judgment by no less
than his Lord.
The real essence of man originated from the
worlds of (al-malakut) dominion and of (al-amr)
120
Ibid.
35
command.121 When man inclines himself towards

the right direction, the divine peace (al-sakinah) will
descend upon it, and the effusion of divine liberality
will successively be diffused in it until it achieves
tranquility in the remembrance of God and abides
in the knowledge of His divinity, and soars towards
the highest levels of the angelic horizon.122 The Holy
Qur'an called this state of the soul as al-nafs almutma'innah (tranquil soul). For instance, Allah
says:
O (righteous) soul, in complete

satisfaction! Comeback thou to thy
pleased (thyself), and well-pleasing
Enter thou, then among My devotees!
thou My heaven.123
rest
Lord,
unto
Yea,
and
well
Him.
enter
Sometimes the soul is drawn towards its

intellectual powers and encounters the intelligible
whereby their eternal truths cause it to affirm its
loyalty to God, and sometimes its animal powers
drag it down to the lowest foothills of the beastial
121 (Qur'an,:Ya
sin, 36:83); al-Mu'minun (23):88.
Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena to the

Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of the Fundamental
elements of the Worldview of Islam, Kuala Lumpur:
International Institute of Islamic Though and Civilization
(ISTAC), 1995, 146, hereafter cited as Prolegomena.
122
Al-Fajr (89):27.
36
nature.124 This vacillation in the state of the soul

is the state of the soul that censures itself which
is called al-nafs al-lawwamah, which is in earnest
struggle with its animal powers. In the Qur'an,
Allah says: And I do swear by the self-reproaching
soul. 125
By means of knowledge, moral excellence, and
good works, it is possible for man to attain to the
angelic nature, and when he does, he no longer has
in common with his fellow man the animal nature in
him except in outward form and fashion.126 But if
he falls into the degrading depths of the beastial
nature and remains captive in that condition, then
he is severed from the nature common to humanity
and appears as man only in shape and
construction.127 This is the state of the soul that
incites to evil. That is also the meaning of what
Allah says: The (human) soul certainly incites evil,
unless my Lord do bestow His Mercy.128
However, the physical body has important

contributions to man's intellectual and spiritual
development as it is through the bodily faculties
124 Prolegomena,
125 Al-Qiyamah,
147.
(75):2.
147.
126 Prolegomena,
127 Ibid.
Yusuf (12):53.
37
that the soul can acquire particular information

and data concerning the world of sense and
sensible experience.129 Through its various
faculties, the soul will then develop these sensedata into general principles, ideas and beliefs.130
129 Wan
, Philosophy, 54.
Ibid.
38
CHAPTER II
THE CONTENT OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION
Another important element of education is the
content which should be inculcated to the aql
(intellect) of a child or person. While modern and
secular educational institutions gave much
attention to the method than the content of
education, Islam provides more emphasis on the
latter.
In his comment about the importance of the
content of education, al-Attas asserted that the
teaching and learning of skills alone, however
scientific it may be or the teaching and learning of
human, natural and applied sciences alone do not
constitute education.131 There is something in
knowledge which when not inculcated will not
make its teaching, learning and assimilation as
education. Such something in knowledge has
Al-Attas, The Islamic Concept of Education: A Framework for

an Islamic Philosophy of Education, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC,
131
20, hereafter cited as Education.
39
reference to the content of education which shall

be inculcated to the mind of the student.132
However, al-Attas described the content of e d u c
a t i o n a s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d
acknowledgement of the proper places of things in
the order of creation, such that it leads to the
recognition and acknowledgement of the proper
place of God in the order of being and existence.133
Such recognition of the proper place of a thing

occurs when the relation of a thing with others in
the system becomes clarified and understood. It is
worthy of note that such relation of a thing with
others in a system describes an order.134
In the said description of content of education, the
term 'proper place pertains to two domains of
application. It may refer, on the one hand, to the
ontological domain which includes man and the
world of empirical things, and, on the other, to the
theological domain which includes the religious and
ethical aspects of human existence.135
Such 'proper place' means 'real' and 'true'
132Ibid.
133
Ibid.
134Ibid,
15.
Ibid.68.
40
place as denoted by the Arabic term haqq for haqq

signifies both reality and truth pertaining to the
two domains.136
The world of nature as depicted in the Holy
Qur'an is composed of symbolic forms (ayat), like
words in a book. Indeed, the world of nature is
another form of Divine revelation analogous to the
Holy Qur'an itself, only that the great, open book of
nature is something created as it presents itself in
multiple and diverse forms that partake of symbolic
existence by virtue of being continually articulated
by the creative word of God.137
In other words, the natural world is a book

containing knowledge, but such knowledge is not
evident merely from the physical phenomena for
these are nothing but signs the meaning of which
can be understood by those who are equipped
with proper knowledge, wisdom and spiritual
discernment.138
This is in line with the ayah (verse) of the Holy
Qur'an in which Allah says:
136
Ibid.
137 Prolegomena,
138 Wan,
133.
Philosophy, 65.
41
Behold! In the creation of the heavens and earth,

and the alternation of night and day, there are
indeed signs for men of understanding. They are
those who remember Allah standing, sitting, and
lying down on their sides, and contemplate the
(wonders of) creation in the heavens and earth
(with saying) Our Lord not for naught hast thou
created (all) this! Give us salvation from the
chastisement of the fire.139
Some natural objects are obvious as to their
meaning, just like the clear verses (muhkamat) of
the Qur'an, while other natural phenomena are like
the
ambiguous
verses
(mutashabihat).
Our
understanding and interpretation of these signs in
the external world must be based on the same
method of valid interpretation and understanding of
the written words of the Qur'an, i.e. through tafsir
or direct interpretation and ta'wil or deeper and
allegorical interpretation based on the clear and
direct ones.140
In other worlds, a thing, like a word, is in reality
a sign or a symbol, and a sign or a symbol is
something that is apparent but inseparable from
something else not equally apparent. When the
139
Surah al-Imran, 3-190-191.
140Wan,
Philosophy, 65.
42
former is perceived, the other, which cannot be

perceived becomes known.141
The meaning of a thing means the right
meaning of it as determined by the Islamic vision
of reality and truth as projected by the Qur'anic
conceptual system.142
The Holy Qur'an itself speaks of its signs and
symbols as consisting partly of those that are
clear and established (al-muhkamat), and partly of
those that are obscure and ambiguous (almutashabihat). In correspondence with the signs
and symbols of the Holy Qur'an, the world of
phenomena also consists of signs and symbols
which we call 'things' that are clear and
established in their meanings, and those that are
obscure and ambiguous.143
As the interpretation of those ambiguous texts
is to be based upon those that are clear and
established, the interpretation and explanation of
the obscure and ambiguous aspects of the things
of the empirical world must be grounded upon
what is already known and established.144
141 Ibid,
134.
142 Ibid.
143 Ibid,
136.
144 Ibid.
43
It is worthy of note that everything that exists in

the natural world is a symbol of something in the
higher world.145 Symbol is the reflection in a lower
order of existence of a reality belonging to a higher
ontological status. That higher world which is
symbolized by the natural symbols is the spiritual
world. The sun, for instance, symbolizes the Divine
Intelligence; a bird symbolizes the soul; a tree
symbolizes the grades of being; and water
symbolizes knowledge and rain revelation.146
For Ibn Sina, scientific facts became transformed
into symbols which were to act as guide posts for
the traveler upon the path of spiritual perfection in
his journey through and beyond the cosmos to the
Divine Presence.147 In other words, nature is also a
source of gaining knowledge of Divine wisdom.
Above all, everything in the natural world is a
symbol or sign for the power and existence of its
Author, that is the Almighty God.
Going back to the notion of right or proper place
of a thing, it involves necessity for things in the
ontological order of creation, are already so
arranged according to various levels and degrees
145Bakar,
Osman, Tawhid and Science 66.

66.
Ibid, 68-9.
146Ibid,
44
but man out of ignorance of just order pervading all

creation makes alterations and confuses the places
of things such that injustice occurs.148 For instance,
God created man as man, but some men placed
themselves in the place of women. Woman was
created as woman, but some women put themselves
in the place of men to the extent of having
committed injustice against themselves.
The place of a person, a thing or an object of

knowledge does not merely refer to the location or
the specific space occupied by the person, the
thing or the object of knowledge, but also the
natural position of a person, thing or object of
knowledge that conforms to the nature, both in
the external world and in the imagination and in
the mind as well as the spiritual world.149
As for a human being, the proper place of a man
is that he is to be considered as both spiritual and
physical. He is a living being possessing that inner
faculty of knowing that apprehends the meaning of
the universals.150 He has the power and capacity to
articulate words or symbolic forms in meaningful
patterns.151 He is spirit, soul, heart and
148
Prolegomena, 130.
149 Ibid.
150
151
Ibid, 131.
Ibid.
45
intellect manifested in bodily form, and his spirit,

soul, heart and intellect point to one and the
same reality being named by many names
because of its many modes in its relations with
the various levels of existence encompassing the
spiritual and physical domain. 152
Therefore, the harmonious condition by which a
person or thing is placed in its proper place signifies
justice.153 In other words, Islamic justice does not
only refer to relational situation of harmony and
equilibrium existing between one person and
another, or between the society and the state, or
between the ruler and the ruled, or between the
king and his subjects, but also for the harmonious
and rightly balanced relationship existing between
man and his self.154
On the other side, injustice, being the opposite of
justice, is putting a thing in a place not its own. It is
to misplace a thing; it is to misuse or to wrong; it is
to exceed or fall short of the mean or limit; it is to
suffer loss; it is deviation from the right course; it is
disbelief of what is true, or lying about what is true
knowing it to be true.155
152Prolegomena,
130-31
153Ibid,
66.
66.
155Ibid, 67.
154Ibid,
46
Thus, when a man does an act of injustice, it

means that he has wronged his own soul, for he
has put his soul in a place not its own; he has
misused it; he has made it to exceed or fall short
of its real nature; he has caused it to deviate from
what is right and to repudiate the truth and to
suffer loss.156
The Holy Qur'an stresses the point that man,
when he does wrong, is being unjust to himself,
and that injustice is a condition brought by man
upon himself. For instance, Allah says: Verily
Allah will not deal unjustly with man in aught: it is
man who wrongs his own soul.157
As the harmonious condition of things being in
their right or proper places signifies justice, the
knowledge in which a person is able to effect correct
judgment as to the proper places of things means
hikma (wisdom). Wisdom is the knowledge given by
God that enables the recipient to know the right
place, or to render correct judgment as to the right
place of a thing or an object of knowledge.158
Al-Attas also asserted that justice implies
knowledge of the right and proper place of a thing,
156 Ibid,
68.
157 Al-Nisa,
4:123; Yunus, 10:44.

Prolegomena, 129.
47
or right as against wrong, or the mean against the

limit, or spiritual gain as against loss or truth as
against falsity and falsehood.159 This is why
knowledge occupies a most important position in
Islam. In fact, man is bound to do with justice to
knowledge, that is, to know its limit of usefulness
and not to exceed or fall short of it, to know its
various orders of priority in relation to its
usefulness to one's self; to know where to stop and
to know what can be gained and what cannot, what
is true knowledge and what is learned guess and
theory-in sum, to put every datum of knowledge in
its right place in relation to the knowing one so that
what is known produces harmony in the one who
knows.160
The Meaning of Hikmah (Wisdom)

Going back to the meaning of hikmah (wisdom),
it is a science which is concerned with the real
natures of things as they are, as well as with the
appropriate action required.161 As to the use and
benefit of wisdom, it is to perfect the
Ibid, 68.
Ibid, 68.
Bilal Kuspinar, Islmail Ankaravi on the Illuminative
Philosophy, Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic
Thought and civilization (ISTAC), 1996, 70, hereafter cited
as Illuminative Philosophy.
159
160
48
human soul with the aid of gnosis. Every heart

attains happiness by wisdom as every problem
finds solution by wisdom.162
The science of wisdom deals with the matters
proper to its own subject-matter. For instance, the
science of medicine ('ilm al-tib) takes the human
body as its own subject-matter as the physician
occupies himself with the matters proper to human
body, like certain diseases attached to the human
body.163 In like manner, the subject-matter of
astrology or astronomy ('ilm al- nuzum) is the
heavenly bodies, since the astrologer or astronomer
deals with the issues related to the structure of
these bodies and their observations.164
Again, the science of Islamic jurisprudence ('ilm
al-fiqh) is involved with judicial matters and
religious obligations such as prayer, fasting,
almsgiving, pilgrimage and so on.165 The subjectmatter of divine science is absolute Being since
the sage (hakim) of divine science deals with the
matters that are proper to absolute Being.166
162 Ibid,
71.
Ibid, 71.
164
Ibid.
165 Ibid.
Ibid.
163
49
Therefore, when the truth of the matter is

revealed to man as he recognized it, it becomes
incumbent upon him to guide his conduct so as
to conform with that truth.167 In other words,
recognition of the truth in both domains, the
ontological and theological, necessitates in man a
conduct that conforms with that truth. Thus,
acknowledgment in the Islamic concept of
education means affirmation and confirmation or
realization and actualization in one's self of what
is recognized.168 Acknowledgment of what is
recognized is what renders education as
education, otherwise, recognition alone is but a
learning.169
Categories of Knowledge
In Islam, knowledge has been divided into
several categories on the basis of various
considerations. According to the method of its
acquisition,knowledge is divided into illuminative
or Gnostic knowledge and the scientific
knowledge.170 The illuminative or Gnostic
knowledge is the most valid, the highest of which
is revelation received by the prophets and followed
by
167 Ibid,
21.
168 Ibid.
169 Ibid.
170
Wan, Philosophy, 241.
50
the intuition of the sages, saints and scientists.171

The scientific knowledge is based on reason and
empirical experience.172 In other words, the
scholars also named these two categories of
knowledge as al-'ilm al-naqliyyah (revealed
knowledge) and al-aqliyyah (intellectual) or altajribiyyah (empirical knowledge).173
Revealed knowledge includes those sciences
acquired from the revealed books of God and those
Prophets sent by God. There are at least four (4)
books revealed by God, such as the Torah which
was revealed to Prophet Moses, the Psalm revealed
to prophet David, the Gospel revealed to Prophet
Jesus and the Holy Qur'an revealed to the Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon them all). Each of these
books contained knowledge.174 The Sunnah of the
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is also
considered as internal revelation from God.175
Such knowledge cannot be arrived at either by
reason or by experimentation.
171
Ibid.
172
Ibid.
173
Ibid.
174Surah
al-Maidah: 44 and 47.
175Muhammad
Hashim kamali, Principles of Islamic

Jurisprudence. Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn.,
1995, 19, hereafter cited as Principles.
51
The intellectual knowledge includes all sciences

that are product of the mind and those that can be
arrived by reason and experimentation. Included are
human sciences, natural sciences, applied sciences
and technological sciences.176
Considering its utility to mankind, knowledge

is divided into al- mahmudah (praiseworthy) and
al-madmumah (blameworthy).177
All
revealed
knowledge
are
praiseworthy.
Praiseworthy sciences include those on which the
activities of this world depend, such as medicine
and arithmetic. They are divided into sciences the
acquisition of which is fard kifayah and sciences the
acquisition of which is meritorious though not
obligatory.178 The Sciences which are deemed fard
kifayah
comprise
ever
science
which
is
indispensable for the welfare of man in this world,
such as medicine which is necessary for the life of
the body, arithmetic for daily transactions and the
division of legacies and inheritances, as well as
others besides.179 However, should one who can
practice them rise in that community, it would
suffice, and the obligation to acquire said
176 Al-Attas,
177 Ihya,
178
education, 42.
Kitab al-'Ilm, 37.
Ibid.
Ibid, 37.
52
knowledge would cease to be binding upon the

rest of the community.180 Other sciences
necessary for the development of the community,
such as agriculture, weaving, politics and even
cupping and tailoring are fard kifayah and
praiseworthy too.181
Going back to sciences which are deemed
blameworthy, it should be noted that basically
knowledge is not held to be blameworthy in itself,
but regarded as such in the eyes of men for one of
three reasons.
First, when such knowledge leads to any harm
whether the harm should fall on its practitioner or
someone else for which reason the science of magic
and talism is held blameworthy.182 The Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him) himself was the
victim of magic which caused him to become sick
until the Angel Gabriel made it known to him and
exorcized the evil spirit from underneath a stone in
the bottom of a well.183
Second, knowledge is blameworthy when it is
mostly harmful. Astrology is part of astronomy the
180 Ibid,
37.
181 Ibid,
Al-Gazali, Ihya Ulum al-Din, Kitab al-Ilm trans. Nabih Amin

Faris. Pakistan: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 7, Aibak Road,
182
Lhaore,1991, 73, hereafter cited as Kitab al-Ilm.
53
183
Ibid.
gist of which is that future events are indicated by

present causes.184 Astrology is an attempt to
know the course of the laws and ordinances of
God relative to His creatures. Therefore, Shari'ah
has declared it blameworthy.185
The Prophet said, whenever the decrees of God
are mentioned, withhold from discussing them;
whenever the stars are mentioned, desist from
any talk; and when my companions are
mentioned, refrain from any gossip'.186
Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased
with him) said: acquire of the science of the stars
enough to lead you on land and on sea but no
more. He warned against it for three reasons:
First, because it is harmful to most people, since
if they were told that these results would be the
consequences of the movement of stars, they
might think that it is the stars which influence
the course of events and are also the gods who
direct the world.187 The second reason is that
astrology is purely guess-work and in the opinion
of the average man, the influence of the stars is
not determined
184
Ibid, 74.
185 Ibid.
186 Ibid,
187
Ibid, 75.
54
either with certainty or even probability.188

Pronouncement in connection with it are the
result of ignorance.189 Consequently, astrology
has been pronounced blameworthy because of
this ignorance, but not as knowledge.190 A third
reason is that astrology is of no use at all. It is a
waste of time and life which is the man's most
precious things.191
The third reason for which a kind of knowledge
is deemed blameworthy is when the pursuit of that
knowledge does not give the practitioner any real
scientific advantage.192 Consequently, such
knowledge is intrinsically blameworthy, as for
instance, the study of the trivial science before
the important one, and the obscure before the
significant.193
Going back to the classification of knowledge,
knowledge is divided into Shar'iyah or Islamic and
non-Shar'iyah or foreign sciences on the basis of
its civilization origin.194
188
Ibid.
189 Ibid,
75.
190
Ibid.
191
Ibid, 76.
192
Ibid, 77.
193 Ibid.
55
In view of the human obligation towards it,

knowledge is divided into fard'ain (personal
obligation) and fard kifayah (social obligation).195
The basis of fard'ain knowledge is the prophetic
tradition in which the Prophet Muhammad (peace
be upon him) was reported to have said: talab al'ilm faridatun 'ala kulli muslimin wa muslimah
which means learning of knowledge is an
ordinance obligatory for every Muslim male and
female.196
The scholars, however, disagreed as to what
branch of knowledge that a man is required to
learn. For instance, the mutakallimun (scholastic
theologians) insisted that it is the scholastic
theology on the ground that the oneness of Allah,
as well as His essence and attributes may be
known through it.197
Thefuqaha (Jurists) held out for fiqh (Islamic
jurisprudence) alleging that the acts of worship,
the lawful and the unlawful as well as the
forbidden and permissible in daily conduct are
determined
195 Ihya,
Kitab al-Ilm, 30-32; Wan, Philosophy, 241.
196
Ihya, Kitab al-Ilm, 30.

Hamid al-Ghazali, Ihya ulum al-Din Kitab al-'ilm,
trans. Nabih Amin Faris, Lehore: SH. Muhammad Ashraf,
7-Aibak Road, new Anarkali, 1991, 30, hereafter cited as
Kitab al-'ilm.
197Abu
56
through fiqh. What the ordinary man needs in his

everyday life is determined through it.
The mufassirun (Qur'anic commentators) and
the muhaddisun (traditionists) are holding that it is
tafsir and hadith as, through the Qur'an and the
sunnah, all sciences are attained as they stood for
the science of the Qur'an and Sunnah.198
The mutasawwifun (Sufis) pointed out to

tasawuf (sufism) as the branch of knowledge
which was intended being the science whereby
man has to realize his position in relation to God
through mystical experience.199 Also, tasawuf
comprises the knowledge about sincerity and the
affections of the soul as well as the distinction
between the followers of God and the Satan.200
According to Abu Talib al-Makki, the above
quoted tradition implies the knowledge of the
fundamental principles of Islam on the basis of
the saying of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be
upon him) that Islam was built upon five pillars
as it is necessary to know how to fulfill the five
pillars of Islam as ordained by God.201
198 Ibid.
199 Ibid.
200 Ibid.
201 Ibid,
31.
57
The division of sciences into fard'ain (personal

obligation) and fard kifayah (social obligation) is
inferred from the dual aspect of man, such as the
body and soul. The first kind is food and life for the
soul which serves the more permanent and spiritual
dimension of man whereas the second is a provision
which man might equip himself within the world as
he pursues the pragmatic ends which serves his
secondary, secular, material and emotional mode of
existence 202
It is important to note that such fard'ain

knowledge is not restricted to the essential
elements of Islam (i.e. five pillars of Islam), but it,
Secularism, 144. must be pursued from the age of
responsibility through the highest level of learning
until death-bed.203
In other words, the fard'ain knowledge which
involves knowledge of prerequisites is obligatory
to every individual Muslims whereas fard kifayah
is obligatory to some Muslims only.204 While all
knowledge of the prerequisites or fard'ain is good
202 Al-Attas
203Ibid,
153; also Wan, Philosophy, 253.

Al-Attas, Secularism, 147.
58
for man, not all knowledge of the second or fard

kifayah is good for him.205
However, both kinds of knowledge have to be
acquired through conscious 'amal (action) for
there is no useful knowledge without action
resulting from it, and no worthwhile action
without knowledge.206
It is worthy of note that although the revealed,
praiseworthy, Shar 'iyah and fard'ain knowledge are
superior to the intellectual, blameworthy, nonshar'iyah, fard kifayah knowledge, the latter
knowledge should not be neglected as they are also
important when placed in their proper places. Also
religion cannot be truly explained and elaborated
particularly in our days without intellectual
sciences. The latter without the former will be
misguided and purely sophistical.207
Al-Attas delineated the basic subjects of

fard'ain knowledge, such as (1)the Holy Qur'an: its
recitation and interpretation, (2)the Sunnah: the
life of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him), the
history and message of the Prophets before him;
the hadith and its authoritative transmission, (3)
the
205 Ibid,
147.
206 Ibid.
59
Shari'ah: jurisprudence and law, the principles

and practice of Islam (Islam, Iman, and Ihsan), (4)
theology (tawhid): God, His Essence, Attributes,
Names
and
Acts,
(5)Islamic
metaphysics
(tasawwuf): psychology, cosmology, and ontology,
(6)linguistic sciences: Arabic, its grammar,
lexicography and literature.208.
Regarding the knowledge the acquisition of
which is considered fard kifayah, Abu Hamid alGhazali asserted that such necessary duty can
not be distinguished from other duties except
when the different sciences are enumerated. They
are divided into sacred (shar') and profane (ghayr
Shari) sciences.209 Such sacred sciences are those
which have been acquired from the Prophets and
are not arrived at either by reason.
However, fard kifayah sciences comprise every
science which is indispensable for the welfare of
man in this world, such as medicine which is
necessary for the life of the body, arithmetic for
daily transactions and the division of legacies and
inheritances, as well as other besides.210 These are
the sciences which, because of their absence, a
208 Al-Attas,
209 Ihya,
210
Education, 42.
Kitab al-ilm, 36.
Ibid.
60
community would be reduced to narrow straits.211

But should one who can practice them rise in the
community, it would suffice, and the obligation to
acquire their knowledge would cease to be binding
upon the rest of the community.212
Fard kifayah also includes knowledge on

fundamental industries, such as agriculture,
weaving, politics, computer, fire extinguishing
and even cupping and tailoring as if a town lacks
a cupper extinction would overtakes its people
and they should be driven to expose themselves to
destruction.213
In short, fard kifayah sciences include the
rational, intellectual and philosophical sciences,
especially human sciences, natural sciences,
applied science and technological sciences.214
For Abu Hamid al- Ghazali, to study intellectual
sciences,
especially
medicine,
mathematics,
administration, agriculture, and the like are fard
kifayah as they are leading to the progress of the
Muslim community.215 This is to
211
Ibid.
212 Ibid.
213 Ibid.
214Ibid,
215
43.
Ihya, Kitab al-Ilm, 37.
61
prove that Islam is not anti-progress so long as

such progress does not divert the Muslims from
their journey toward hereafter.
62
CHAPTER III
THE METHODS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION
The third fundamental element of education is
the method or system of inculcating knowledge to
the aql of a child. It is worthy of note that
methodology is the ways or methods by which
man can gain knowledge of reality either in its
partial or total aspects.216
Methodology also deals with man who is the
subject pole of knowledge, that is to say, the
subject that knows.217 This pole consists of all the
faculties and power of knowing within man which
are hierarchic in nature.218 It means that man is c
apableofhavingmultiplelevelof
consciousness.219
Methodology also deals with the Universe which
is the objective pole of knowledge, that is to
216 Osman
217
Bakar, Tawhid and Science, 19.
Ibid.
218 Ibid.
219 Ibid.
63
say, the object that is knowable being hierarchical

too.220 It means the Universe has multiple levels
of being or existence.
In other words, Islamic methodology of
knowledge (al-'ilm) deals with the essential
relationship between this hierarchy of man's
faculties of knowing and the hierarchy of the
Universe as well as the principles governing such
relationship.221 The anatomy of Islamic cosmos is
based on the data furnished by Revelation itself
that defines the whole domain of study to which
the Islamic sciences should be directed.222 Ibn
Sina asserted that true science is that science
which seeks the knowledge of the essences of
things in relation to their Divine origin.223
The basis of the method of Islamic education
is the verse Read in the name of your Lord Who
created. Created man out of clothed congealed
blood. Read and thy Lord is Most Bountiful. He
Who taught (the use of) the pen, taught man that
which he knew not 224 (al- Alaq, 1-5).
220 Ibid.
221 Ibid.
222 Ibid.
223 Ibid,
23.
Surah al-'Alaq, 1-5).
64
The verse spiritualizes and de-secularizes the

act of learning and education as to the command
for learning is grounded in the name and pleasure
of God. It also clarified that God is the source of
all knowledge and the Teacher of mankind. It also
gives information that man is not alone to
discover anything in the universe, but he still
needs the guidance and assistance of God being
the Master of the universe.225 It also implies that
since the source of knowledge is the Universal
God, then knowledge itself when coming from the
Divine Source is universal226
Being part of the integral teachings of the Holy
Prophet, all knowledge comes from God, and is
interpreted by the soul through its physical and
spiritual faculties. Hence, knowledge, with
reference to God as being its source of origin, is
the arrival in the soul of the meaning of a thing or
an object of knowledge; and with reference to the
soul as being its interpreter, knowledge is the
arrival of the soul at the meaning of a thing or an
object of knowledge.227
Theologically, knowledge is of two kinds, such as
the knowledge gifted by God to man and the one
225
226 Ibid.
227 Prolegomena,
182.
65
acquired by man through the means of his own

effort and rational inquiry based upon experience
and observation.228
Al-Ghazali suggested five major terms in
conceptualizing the methods of Islamic education,
such as tarbiyyah (Good breeding), ta'lim
(instruction),
riyadah (training), tahdhib
(refinement) and ta 'dib (education).229
Tarbiyah (Good Breeding)

The term tarbiyyah literally means to feed, to
nourish, to nurture, to bear, to foster, to rear, to
bring forth mature product and to domesticate.230
For
al-Ghazali,
tarbiyyah
means
the
nourishment of the body, but it should be
associated with tazkiyyah (purification of the
soul) to encompass the over all educational
development of a human being.231
For al-Attas, tarbiyyah basically refers to the idea
of possession that belongs to God (al-Rabb), the
Creator, Nourisher, Cherisher and Possessor of
228 Prolegomena,
229 Asmaa,
68.
Five Key Terms, 106.
230Al-Attas,
Education, 28.
Asmaa, Five Key terms, 124.
66
all.232 The term also embraces the act of feeding,

loving, sheltering and nursing as well as
cherishing which parents bestow upon their
children.233 In like manner, it is also used in
relation to the offspring of an animal other than
man, such as cattle farming, stock breeding,
chicken farming and poultry husbandry.234 This
implies that tarbiyyah encompasses the process
of developing the physical and material aspects
that are not restricted to man alone since such is
extended to animals as well.235
It should be noted that it was al-Attas who
argued about the inconsistency of taking the term
tarbiyyah to convey the meaning of Islamic
education. His analysis on the meaning of
tarbiyyah is part of his argument against those
Muslim scholars who used said term to convey
the meaning of an Islamic education.236 He
argued that those Muslim scholars who
conceptualized tarbiyyah as Islamic education
coined the term with the Western concept of
education as the term tarbiyyah is indeed a
transparent translation of education in the
232
Al-Attas, Education, 30.

31.
233Ibid,
234 Ibid.28
235 Ibid,
29.
236 Ibid.
67
Western sense encompassing animal species

which is not restricted to rational animal.237
For him, the Latin word educatio, meaning
education in English, is conceptually connected
with the Latin word educere or in English educe
which means to bring out or to develop from
potential existence in which the developing
process refers to physical and material things.238
The referents in the conception of education is
derived from the said Latin concepts that
encompass the animal species and not restricted
to rational animal.239 He also argued that
although intellectual and moral training are
infused into the basic idea of Western education,
they are geared to physical and material ends
pertaining to secular man and his society and
state.240
It has been explained earlier in the previous
pages of this work that Islamic education pertains
to man alone as rational animal endowed with
intellect excluding other animals that are deprived
of reason. It was suggested, however, that the most
appropriate term to convey the meaning of Islamic
education is ta'dib as such concept embraces the
237 Ibid.
238 Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
239
68
over all process of Islamic education encompassing

the element of tarbiyyah (Good breeding) and ta'lim
(instruction). The concept of ta'dib will be
explained later.
Ta'lim (instruction)
Regarding the concept of ta'lim, such term is
derived from the Arabic root word allama which
means to make someone 'alim or to make him
possess knowledge as it becomes firmly rooted in
his mind.241
The process of ta'lim (instruction) consists of the
three main components: the learned (al-'alim), the
learner (muta'allim) and the knowledge ('lim). As
learning is the quest to bring forth the thing from
potentially to actuality in oneself, teaching or
instruction is the action of bringing forth the thing
from potentiality to actuality in someone else.242
As 'ilm (knowledge) is defined as knowing the

thing as it is, ta'lim is the presentation to the
learner by the rational tranquilized soul of the
realities of things and their forms.243 However,
knowledge is potentially ingrained in the souls at
241 Asmaa,
242 Ibid,
243
120.
Ibid
69
the beginning of their creation, like the seed in the

earth and the gem in the depths of the sea or in the
heart of mine.244 This can be understood in the
meaning of verse 172 of the surah al-A'raf, when
God asked the souls of the children of Adam to
testify about the Lordship of God and said souls
acknowledged such testimony implying the fact they
have already knowledge about it as taught to them
by God. In fact, such acknowledgement of the souls
of the children of Adam about the Lordship of God
is deemed as the beginning of human knowledge.
Hence, the knowledge about God (ma'rifat Allah) is
the best knowledge for a human being and his first
obligation to acquire during his life on earth.
For Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, ta'lim is the means

for the acquisition of knowledge through which
men are elevated from the level of beasts to that of
human beings.245 The usual means of acquiring
human knowledge is divided into two: such as
through human teaching and the Divine
teaching.246 While the human teaching is a
familiar method which is easily perceived, the
Divine teaching is of two aspects, such as
knowledge
244 Ibid.
245 Ibid,
119.
Ibid.
70
attained through learning and the one acquired

through reflection (tafakur).247
Thus, the process of ta'lim necessarily involves
the cultivation of knowledge in the rational soul as
its recipient, since the first manifestation of its light
is in the brain or intellect that is the source,
foundation and fountainhead of knowledge.248
Knowledge springs from the intellect as the spring
of the fruit from the tree, the light from the sun
and the vision from the eyes.249
However, al-Attas emphasized that ta'lim

(instruction) is distinct from ta'dib (education) since
the former generally refers to the instruction and
cognitive aspects of education, but the latter already
includes within its conceptual structure the
elements of 'ilm (knowledge) and ta'lim
(instruction).250 Also, ta'dib includes both the
physical, emotional, and spiritual aspects of
education.251
247 Ibid,120.
248 Ihya,
Kitab al-ilm, 221.
249 Ibid.
250 Al-Attas,
251 Asmaa,
education, 34.
Five Key terms, 122.
71
Riyadah (Self-Discipline)
Concerning the Concept of riyadah (selfdiscipline), the term refers to a substitution of the
blameworthy state with the praiseworthy one.
For al-Ghazali, riyadah is a training of the soul

from a trivial to an intense struggle through
gentle and gradual effort until difficult states and
practices become plain and simple.252 For
instance, a man who wishes to acquire the quality
of generosity must perform generous acts
continuously struggling with his soul in giving
away some particular possessions until his nature
conform to it. Thus, the action will be developed
as one of his traits and part of his nature that will
become easy and habitual.253
A good character can be possessed through
Divine gift as some persons are born gifted, but
there is common means of achieving it through
self-mortification and self-discipline effort of
performing good traits until they become habitual
and pleasant. 254
252 Ibid,
114.
115
Ibid, 115; Also Ihya, Kitab al-Ilm, 3, 54
253 Ibid,
72
Such a good character implies the harmonious

relationship of the tree faculties of the soul, namely
the faculty of reason (aql), the faculty of anger
(gadhab) and the faculty of desire (al- shahwah). 255
When all faculties of the soul remain in order,

it implies equilibrium. The observance of the
equilibrium result in the fundamental traits of
character: such as virtues of wisdom , courage,
temperance and justice. Wisdom is a state of the
soul that enables man to distinguish between
right and wrong beliefs, between true and false
statements and between good and evil actions.256
Courage is a state of the soul in which the
faculty of anger is always obedient to wisdom and
temperance is a state of the soul in which the
faculty of desire is disciplined as being put under
the commands of reason and Shari'ah.257
As for justice, it is the state and power of the
soul in which the faculties of anger and desire are
controlled under the dictates of wisdom that is
guided by reason and Shari'ah 258
255 Asmaa,
256 Ibid,
257
117.
Ibid, 118.
258 Ihya,
Kitab al-Ilm, 3:54; Asmaa, Five Key Terms, 118.
73
The real purpose of riyadah (self-discipline) is

to attain self-purification from spiritual impurities
by subjecting the faculty of anger and desire
under the authority of reason and Shari'ah which
ultimately leads towards the refinement of
character reflected in outward actions and
deeds.259
Self discipline is a prerequisite for the
harmonious balance and equilibrium of the
character which is a spiritual health.260 Thus, the
aim of self-discipline and mortification is to bring
back the soul to its primordial state of equilibrium,
for it constitutes the health of the soul while
deviation from it constitutes its sickness.261
In relation to the child education, riyadah is

the most important term to denote the
significance of character formation in the early
phase of childhood particularly during the age of
discernment before they can discern good from
evil.262
Character formation is, in fact, of an utmost
importance during this period due to the
immaturity of their reasoning faculty at a time
259 Asmaa,
260 Ibid,
117.
261 Ibid.
262
Ibid.
74
when they are highly receptive to either positive or

negative influence.263
Tahdhib (Refinement)
Another method of Islamic education that alGhazali suggested is tahdhib (refinement). In
relation to Islamic ethical terminology tahdhib alakhlaq precisely means the refinement of character
inclusive of cleansing and purifying it.264
It refers to self-examination and the choosing of
appropriate options for the progress of the states
of the soul according to its stations (maqamat)265
For instance, the sign of which a person is at the
station of patience (sabr) is when his good deeds are
performed easily without any hesitation or when
generous man constantly takes pleasure in giving
his money with no reluctance. For al-Ghazali, a
person who insincerely gives away his money is not
generous person.266
Tahdhib alakhlaq (refinement of character)
requires the proper governance of the faculties of alghadab (anger) and al-shahwah (desire) thereby
the
263 Ibid.
264
Ibid, 125.
265 Ibid.
Ibid, 126.
75
sound faculty of intellect and justice are able to

control the faculty of desire through arousing
anger against it, and lessening the rage of anger
through arousing a strong desire against it so
that both desire and anger become submissive to
reason and Shari'ah.267
Such mujahadah (self-mortification) and riyadah
al-nafs (self-disciple) ultimately lead towards the
equilibrium of the rational faculty and the
perfection of wisdom as well as spiritual
transformation from base attributes to the
virtuous.268
According to al-Ghazali, if a child is purely
taught up through the process of refinement, he
will genuinely understand the reason and wisdom
underlying this disciplinary process (riyadah)
when he approaches puberty that represents his
mature age or reasoning (kamal al-'aql). At this
stage, he will understand at the rational level, the
concept of life and death, as well as the
accountability underlying every act in this world
and in character.
267 Ibid.
Ibid, 126-127.
76
Ta'dib (Education)
Ta'dib seems to be the most important method of
Islamic education. In fact, al-Attas argued that
ta'dib encompasses within its conceptual structure
the elements of tarbiyyah (good breeding), 'ilm
(knowledge), ta'lim (instruction) and riyadah (selfdiscipline).269 It conclusively reveals the personcentered aim of Islamic education and the total
development of a well-balanced personality through
the actualization of inner potential faculties and
quality of the soul.270
Invoking the original meaning of adab as derived
from a hadith reported by Ibn Mas'ud that the
Qur'an is a God's banquet on earth (Ma'dabat
Allahu fi al-ardh), al-Attas asserted that adab is the
inviting to a banquet.271 The idea of a banquet
implies that the host is a man of honor and
prestige, and that many people are present. The
people, who are present, are those who, in the
host's estimation are deserving of honor of the
invitation, as they are people of refined qualities and
upbringing who are expected to behave as befits
their station, in speech, conduct and
269 Al-Attas,
Education, 22.
Education, 22.
Al-Attas, Secularism, 149
270 Al-Attas,
77
etiquette.272 In the same sense that the enjoyment of

fine food in a banquet is greatly enhanced by noble
and gracious company, and that the food be
partaken of in accordance with the rules of refined
conduct, behavior and etiquette, is knowledge to be
extolled and enjoyed, and approached by means of
conduct as befits lofty nature.273
As the Holy Qur'an is God's invitation to a

spiritual banquet on earth, we are exhorted to
partake of it by means of acquiring real
knowledge of it. Ultimately, real knowledge of it is
the tasting of its true flavor.274 It should be noted
that knowledge found in the Qur'an is life and
food of the soul.
Going back to the meaning of ta'dib, it involves
the inculcation of adab which is a discipline of
body, mind and soul that assures the recognition
and acknowledgement of one's proper place in
relation to his physical intellectual and spiritual
capacities and potentials.275 It is the method of
acquiring good qualities and attributes of
272 Ibid,
149.
273 Ibid.
274 Ibid.
275 Ibid.
78
mind and soul that preserves man from

committing errors in making judgment and
action.276
For al-Ghazali, adab is the process of bringing
out (istikhraj) the inner faculty and latent character
trait into action by actualizing the good natural
disposition which is solely a Divine gift.277
This implies the two aspects of adab, such as

the divinely gifted origin of the innate natural
disposition and the acquisition of human action
through righteous practice and self-discipline.278
As for the first aspect, every child is born in
equilibrium and natural disposition(mu'tadilan
sahih al-fitra).
The said concept is derived from the hadith in
which the Prophet said: Every child is born with
sound natural disposition (al-fitrah), it is only his
parents who make him a Jew, Christian or a
Zoroastrian.279
Al-fitrah refers to the natural inclination in man
to assent to the existence of God. This idea is inline
with the verse of the Qur'an So set thou face
276 Ibid,
25.
277 Asmaa,
278 Ibid.
279
Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Janazah.
79
truly to the religion being upright, the nature in

which Allah has made mankind280 Some children
are born gifted with perfect innate disposition,
(kamal fitri), possessing sound intellect and good
character. They are inherently inclined to be
generous, truthful and courageous, particularly in
the case of the prophets, saints, and sages.
Regarding the second aspect of adab, good

character can be acquired through association
with those who possess the noble traits and
education.281 Thus, parents are the main social
factor for molding a child's good character and
who are the first to exercise and implement adab
(education) through ta'lim (instruction) and alI'tiyad (habituation).282
For al- Ghazali, although the soul and the body
are two distinct entities, they interactively affect
each other and mutually determine their
courses.283 As bodily action influences the soul,
the soul influences the physical performance too.
When the quality of the soul is established,
relevant bodily action necessarily proceeds from
it. The established state or quality of the soul is
called al-
280
Surah al-Rum; 30.
281 Asmaa,

Ihya, 3:78.
283 Asmaa, Five Key Terms, 110.
282 Al-Gazali,
80
khuluq (character) that can be considered good if

it is disposed towards the production of
praiseworthy deeds acknowledged by al- aql wa
al-shar (the intellect and the religious law).284
This process involves mujahada (spiritual
struggle) and riyadah (discipline), leading towards
purification of the soul and tahdib al-akhlaq
(refinement of the character).285 In other word, good
character is the ultimate refresh of ta'dib and the
highest form of which is the adab in religion,
especially in al-salah (prayer). In fact, the prayer is
the best activity where the real meaning of adab can
be manifested while a man is completely and
humbly submitting himself to his Lord Who is the
creator of the Universe and the owner of his soul.
The perfect outcome of this Divine educational

curriculum is the Holy Prophet (peace be upon
him) Himself as the exemplary model, as he
acknowledged in his hadith: My Lord educated me
(addabani), and so made my education (ta'dib)
most excellent286
The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)
was the first beneficiary and recipient of the
284 Ibid.
285 Al-Gazali, Ihya, 3: 126.
Al-Attas, Education, 26
81
Qur'anic educational content (al-ta'dihat fi alQur'an). He was the first being who was educated by
the Lord Himself through His Divine Speech until
his character and personality became equivalent to
the Qur'an. In one of his ahadith, the Prophet (peace
be upon him) acknowledged: I am raised upon to
accomplish noble character 287
Adab contains the meaning of 'ilm wa al-amal

(knowledge and action), the activities of the body
and soul, of physical and spiritual, as well as the
vertical and horizontal relationship of mankind
with God and fellow human beings.
Al-Attas gives several examples of how the
notion of adab is manifested in the various
human existence. Adah towards one's self in
which one acknowledges his dual nature of body
and soul thereby his rational soul subdues the
animal soul and renders it submissive to God.
The one's displaying of sincere humility, love,
respect, care, and charity to his parents, elders,
children, neighbors, and community leaders by
acknowledging his proper place in relation to
them is a manifestation of adab.
Adab is also an intellectual knowledge
whereby fard'ain knowledge is given priority than
287
Asmaa, Five key Terms, 113.
82
fard kifayah one being the proper and correct way

of learning and applying different sciences.
Respect towards the scholars and teachers
manifests such adab for knowledge.
The final purpose of seeking knowledge is to
actualize experience of happiness in this world
and ultimately in the hereafter when the person
shall behold his Lord.288Adab towards nature and
the natural environment mean that a person
should place trees, stones, mountains, rivers,
valleys, lakes, animals and their habitat in their
proper places.
For the spiritual world, adab means the
recognition and acknowledgement of the various
stations based on acts of devotion and worship,
the spiritual discipline that rightly submits the
physical or animal self to the spiritual and
rational self.
288
83
84
THE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
In summary, there are three fundamental
elements of Islamic education, namely: the
recipient, the content and the methods of
education.
Education is exclusive of human being as a
rational animal endowed with aql (intellect) which
is a spiritual substance. Such spiritual substance
is called aql (intellect) when it involves intellection
or apprehension, but nafs (soul) when it deals
with the governance of the physical body. It is
called qalb (heart) when it receives illumination of
guidance from God, but ruh (spirit) when it
separates from the body as it revertes to its world
of abstract reality.
Such spiritual substance was created by God,
endowed with knowledge, appointed as Khalifah
(Vicegerent) and entrusted with amanah (trust),
but it remains immortal whose worldly action is
subject for Judgment during the Judgment day.
However, the physical body has important
contribution to man's intellectual and spiritual
development as it is through the bodily faculties
that soul can acquire particular information and
data concerning the world of sense and sensible
experience. Through its various faculties, the soul
85
will then develop these sense-data into general

principles, ideas and beliefs.
The recognition and acknowledgement of the
proper places of things in the order of creation
leading to the recognition and acknowledgement
of the proper place of God in the order of being
and existence constitutes the basic content of
Islamic education.
Things in the creation of heavens and earth as
well as in man are already arranged as decreed by
God. The recognition of the proper places of
things in the order of creation implies hikmah
(wisdom) and its acknowledgement through
actualization means justice. In reality, everything
in the world of nature is pointed to its Author,
that is the Almighty God.
Knowledge has been divided into several
categories for various considerations. According to
the method of its acquisition, knowledge is
divided
into
al-'ilm
al-naqliyah
(revealed
knowledge) and al-aqliyah (intellectual) or altajribiyah (empirical knowledge). Knowledge is
also categorized into al-mahmudah (praiseworthy)
and al-madmumah ( blameworthy) on the bases of
its utility to mankind.
For its civilization origin, knowledge is categorized
into Shar'iyah (Islamic) and non-Shar'iyah (foreign
sciences). In view of the human
86
obligation towards it, knowledge is divided into

fard 'ain (personal obligation) and fard kifayah
(social obligation).
The revealed, praiseworthy, shar 'iyah and fard
'ain knowledge are superior to the intellectual,
blameworthy, non-shar'iyah and fard kifayah
knowledge, but the latter knowledge are also
important when placed in their proper places. The
elaboration of religion, particularly in our days
needs intellectual knowledge whereas intellectual
knowledge may be misguided without guidance
from revealed knowledge.
The division of sciences into fard'ain and fard
kifayah is inferred from the dual aspects of man,
such as the body and soul. The first kind is food
and life for the soul which serves the more
permanent and spiritual dimension of man
whereas the second is a provision which man
might equip himself within the world as he
pursues the pragmatic ends which serves his
secondary, secular, material and emotional mode
of existence.
The basic subjects of fard'ain knowledge are: (1) the
Holy Qur'an, (2) the Sunnah: the life of the Holy
Prophet (peace be upon him), (3) the Shari'ah, the
principles and practice of Islam ( Islam, Iman
87
and Ihsan), (4) theology (tawhd), (5) Islamic

metaphysics (tasawwuf) and (6) Arabic language.
Sciences the knowledge of which is deemed

fard kifayah also comprise every science which is
indispensable for the welfare of man in this world.
This includes the rational, intellectual and
philosophical
sciences,
especially
human
sciences, natural sciences, applied science and
technological sciences.
The essential relationship between the hierarchy
of man's faculties of knowing and the hierarchy of
the Universe and the principles governing their
relationship is the concern of Islamic methodology
of knowledge.
However, there are at least five key concepts for
the methods of Islamic education, such as
tarbiyah (good breeding), ta'lim (instruction),
riyadah (self-discipline), tahdib (refinement) and
ta'dib (education).
Tarbiyah embraces the act of feeding, loving,
sheltering and nursing as well as cherishing
which parents bestow upon their children.
However, the term encompasses the process of
developing the physical and material aspects not
restricted to man alone but extended to plant and
animal as well.
88
Ta'lim (instruction) is the action of bringing

forth the thing from potentiality to actuality in
someone else. It is the means for the acquisition
of knowledge through which men are elevated
from the level of beasts to that of human beings.
The process of ta'lim involves the cultivation of
knowledge in the rational soul as its recipient.
Riyadah refers to a substitution of the
blameworthy state with the praiseworthy one. It
can be achieved through self-mortification and
self- discipline efforts with the performance of
good traits until they become habitual and
pleasant.
The real purpose of riyadah is to attain selfpurification from spiritual impurities by subjecting
the faculty of anger and desire under the authority
of reason and Shari'ah which ultimately leads
towards the refinement of character reflected in
outward actions and deeds.
Tahdhib
al-Akhlaq
precisely
means
the
refinement of character inclusive of cleansing and
purifying it. It requires the proper governance of the
faculties of al-ghadab (anger) and al-shahwah
(desire) thereby the sound faculty of intellect and
justice are able to control the faculty of desire
through arousing anger against it, and lessening the
rage of anger through arousing a strong desire
89
against it so that both desire and anger become

submissive to reason and Shari'ah.289
Ta'dib is the most method of Islamic education
encompassing the elements of tarbiyyah (good
breeding), 'ilm (knowledge), ta'lim (instruction) and
riyadah (self-discipline). It conclusively reveals the
person-centered aim of Islamic education and the
total development of a well-balanced personality
through the actualization of inner potential faculties
and quality of the soul.
Adab is a discipline of body, mind and soul

that
assures
the
recognition
and
acknowledgement of one's proper place in relation
to his physical, intellectual and spiritual
capacities and potentials.290 It is the method of
acquiring good qualities and attributes of mind
and soul that preserve man from committing
errors in making judgment and action.
A good character is the ultimate refresh of ta'dib
and the highest form of which is the adab in
religion, especially in al-salah (prayer). The perfect
outcome of this Divine educational curriculum is
the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)
Himself as the exemplary model, as he
289 Ibid.
Ibid.
90
acknowledged in his hadith: My Lord educated me

(addabani), and so made my education (ta'dib)
most excellent.
The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)
was the first recipient of the Qur'anic educational
content and the first being educated by the Lord
through His Divine Speech until his character
and personality became equivalent to the Qur'an.
In one of his ahadith, the Prophet (peace be upon
him) acknowledged: I am raised upon to
accomplish noble character
Adab or self discipline is manifested in the
various aspects of human existence. Adab means
the one's acknowledgement of his dual nature of
body and soul thereby his rational soul subdues
the animal soul and renders it submissive to God.
His displaying of sincere humility, love, respect,
care, and charity to his parents, elders, children,
neighbors,
and
community
leaders
by
acknowledging his proper place in relation to
them is a manifestation of adab.
Adab is also an intellectual knowledge in
which fard'ain knowledge is given priority than
fard kifayah one being the correct way of
approaching knowledge. Respect towards the
scholars and teachers manifests such adab for
91
knowledge .
Adab
towards
the
natural
environment means the placing of trees, stones,
mountains, rivers, valleys, lakes, animals and
their habitat in their proper places.
The above explanation is a brief exposition
about the Muslim educational needs, particularly
the fundamental elements and objectives of
Islamic education.
Conclusion
It is hereby concluded that Islamic education is
part of the educational system which is theoretically
a person centered position the basic purpose of
which is to produce a good man (salih) and woman
(salihah). Such a good man, in the Islamic concept,
means precisely the man of adab
(self-discipline) encompassing his spiritual and
material life.
The aim of Islamic education is not exactly the

same with the purpose of the Philippine secular
education, that is to produce a good Filipino
citizen committed to uphold the interests of the
state.
However, the building of a good and peaceful society
is one of the aims of Islamic education by producing
good men to serve as instrument for building a good
and peaceful society. In fact,a good
92
man as defined by Islam is the one who is sincerely

conscious of his responsibilities towards God who
understands and fulfills his obligations to himself, his
parents, family, community, society, animals and
environment constantly striving to improve himself as
man of adab (self-discipline).
On the other hand, there is no guarantee that

a good citizen of a secular country may be a good
man as defined by Islam due to the concept of
secularism that separates the religious belief of a
person from his public affairs.
One thing that made Islamic education
different from Western secular education is its
approach towards the things or objects of
knowledge being inseparable from the Divine
source which cannot be found in western
approach. Another thing is the taking of the
character of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace
be upon him) as model for Islamic education but
alien in the Western educational system.
The final purpose of seeking knowledge and
education under Islamic worldview is to actualize
the experience of happiness in this world and
ultimately in hereafter when the person shall
behold his Lord.
93
Recommendations
In the Philippines, the different accredited
Islamic studies institutions need to incorporate the
course or subject on Muslim educational needs: the
fundamental elements and objectives of Islamic
education to their respective curricula as an
instrument for safeguarding the truth and reality
about the basic purpose of learning in pursuance of
Islamic
worldview.
The
same
subject
is
recommended for its incorporation to the curricula
of the universities established in the Muslim areas,
particularly in the college of education. On the other
hand, the curricula of the various madaris (Islamic
school) offering Islamic studies courses need to be
improved by including the study of technological
sciences being indispensable to the welfares of the
Muslims in the country, especially in the modern
period.
As some Filipino Muslim scholars argued that the
present secular educational system in the country is
not exactly suitable to the educational needs of the
Muslims in the country as it does not contain
curriculum designed for the benefits of a child or
person in hereafter, there is a need to design a
curriculum whereby Islamic and technological
sciences, particularly those relevant to the welfare of
the Muslim community in the
94
country are integrated in order to produce Muslim

Professionals who are expert in Islamic education or
fard'an knowledge and at the same time well versed
in the technological sciences, specially those that
are indispensable for the welfares of the Muslim
communities in the country being fard kifayah. Wa
Allahua'lamu bi al-sawab
95
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THE MUSLIM EDUCATIONAL NEEDS:

An Exposition of the Fundamental

Philippine Copyright, 2011

Marbel Gepcars Printing Press

The Categories of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . .50

About the Author

(intellect) of a child or person, and while modern and

The attention given to content in Islamic education ensures

In his latest book, Dr. Ali demystifies Islamic education

ATTY. MEHOL K. SADAIN

This book is sincerely dedicated to the members

May the peace and blessings of the Almighty

from him during my doctoral studies at the

My thanks are due to Atty. Abdurrrahman T.

Lastly, but not least, I am so thankful to the