12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007
Astronomical Instruments In Ancient India
Shekher Narveker*
Agnel Polytechnic,
Goa, India
Abstract—Some of the measuring instruments made up of
simple mechanisms used for the measurement of length, angle,
and time have been described in ancient Indian literature.
However these instruments have remained unnoticed due to
language constraints. These instruments were put into use by
various ancient Indian astronomers and mathematicians.
This paper is an attempt to interpret and construct these
instruments based on the available ancient Sanskri tliturature.
Some of the applications of this instrument are also included in
this paper. This paper is an attempt to highlight progressive
development of this instruments from 1000 BC to 1507 AD.
Mercury-water wheel mechanism used for time measurement is
also included.
Keywords: unnoticed, progressive development,
mercury-water wheel.
I. Introduction
Ancient Indian literature that is available today makes it
clear that there were instruments based on simple
mechanisms which were used to measure vertical angle,
horizontal angle, angles in an inclined plane, distances
and height. Similarly time was measured using water
vessels and also with mechanism working with water
head as a potential. These instruments are discussed in the
various sections of the paper. Original Sanskrit script
describing the instrument and its translation is also
included.
Section II deals with Historical review, section III deals
with Instruments developed by mathematician Lalla.
Section IV deals with stick instrument. Section V deals
with disk instrument. Section VI deals with semicircular
disc, plumb bob type instrument. Section VII deals with
star anglar positioning instrument. Section VIII mentions
a type of armilliary sphere. Section IX deals with water
wheel mechanism for time measurement, and section X
concludes the paper.
II. Historical Review.
A. Period of Suryashidhanta (1000 BC).
In India people had started the use of the
astronomical instruments before 1000 BC. During this
period one of the prominent books 'Suryasidhanta' was
written for astronomical calculations. The content of this
book is available but its author is not known. The title
'Suryasidhanta' means sun theory and it highlights the
calculations of positions of stars and planets.
*
E-mail : srn33@rediffmail.com
Some of the Indian mathematicians later have
developed their own instruments and developed their own
methods to facilitate the theory of 'Suryasidhanta'.
Introduction of zero in mathematics and the decimal
method of calculation is one of such invaluable
contribution.
B. Aryabhatta (476 AD)
In his book named 'Aryabhattium' he has given lot of
references of Suryasidhanta. He had developed
instruments like chakra yantra (disk instrument), Gola
yantra (type of armillery sphere) and shadow instruments.
C. Varahamihira (505 AD)
He has done a valuable job of compilation of five
astronomical theories which were in use before Crist and
suryasidhanta is one of them. This compiled book is
known as 'Panchasidhanta'. He had developed some ring
and string instruments.
D. Lalla (700 BC)
He wrote a book 'Shihya Dhi Viddhida'. He was well
known because of twelve instruments which he brought
into practice. These instruments are dealt later in sec III.
E. Bhaskaracharya (1072 AD)
He was one of the promonent Indian mathematicien
and astronomer, who wrote a book ‘Sidhantshiromani'. In
his book he has documented valuable ancient liturature
and given the references of many of the instruments used
by the astronomers before him. Similarly he has
documented the various methods for the use of these
instruments.
F. Ganesh Dayvatnya (1506 AD)
He has also described the use of the instruments in his
book 'Grahalaghawam'. There is a typical method of star
positioning listed in his book. His star positoning
instrument is dealt later in section IX.
Prominent astronomers, their period, books written by
them and instruments used by them are listed in the
table 1. Shadow instruments (gnomon) are not included in
this table.
12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007

Astronomers and Contribution in the form of Instruments used by Equivalent name.

their period. book them. Original name
(1000 BC) Suryasidhanta
Aryabhata Aryabhata Sidhanta Chakra Yantra Disk instrument.
(476 AD) Aryabhatiya Gola Yantra Spherical instrument
Varahamihira, Pancha Sidhanta Chakra Yantra Ring instrument.
(505 AD) Brihatsamhita
Brihat Jataka
Brahmagupta Brahmasphuta Siddhanta
(598 AD) Karmakhandakhadyaka
Lalla Shihya Dhi Vriddhida Gola Yantra, Spherical instrument.
(700 AD) Bhangana Yantra, Ring instrument.
ChakraYantra, Disk instrument.
Dhanu Yantra, Bow & arrow instr.
Ghati Yantra. Time vessel.
Shakat Yantra Two pivoted sticks
Kartari Yantra, Scizzor instrument
Shalaka Yantra, Needle instrument.
Yashti Yantra Stick instrument.
Shripati Jyotishratnamala, Shalaka Yantra Needle instrument
(999 AD) Shidhantashekhara
Bhaskaracharya Sidhantashiromani Chakra Yantra Disk instrument.
(1072 AD) Leelavati, Chaapa Yantra Semicircular disk instr.
Beejaganitam, Yashti Yantra Stick instrument.
Karanakutuhala Gola Yantra Spherical inst.
Ganesh Daywanya Grahalaghav, Jalatnalika Yantra Star positioning
(1507 AD) Sudhiranjani, (method) instrument
Tarjaniyantram
TABLE 1. Astronomers, books written by them and their instruments.
.
Most of above books are available and they form a fair Script can be read as: Vikalanamkalasastya, tat sastya
link from 1000 BC to 1507 AD. Instruments used during bhaga, uchate, tantrimsatam bhavedrasi, bhagano
the period of suryasidhanta [1],[3] are mentioned in its dvadasaiva te.
text (fig 1). It tells us about the instruments that were Translation : Sixty vikala is one kala, sixty units (kala) is
based on the use of mercury, water, oil, sand, spokes etc. one bhaga, it is said this way that, thirty units (bhaga)
makes one rashi, twelve rashi makes one bhagana.
Vikala, kala, bhaga, bhagana are the units of the angle.
In the modern notation vikala, kala and bhaga are
second, minute and degree respectively. Rashi is also
Fig 1 Script of Suryasidhant stating the instruments. another unit used for the measurement of angle.

Script can be read as: Paradara, ambu, sutrani, B. Length.

shulbataila jalanicha. Bijani, pasava, asteshu prayoga, Unit used for the measurement of length was
stepi durlabha. Yahodara, Angula, Hatha, Danda, Krosha and Yojanas.
Translation : Mercury filled in spokes, water, thread, This unit has been described in the book Lilawati. (Fig3).
with good craftsmenship these instruments are made,
along with oil mixed with water. Also seeds, fine sand, is
used in these applications, these instruments are rare.

III. Units of measurement.

A. Angle.
Unit used for the measurement of angle has been
Fig 3 Units for measurement of length are mentioned in the sript of the
describe [1],[2] in the text of suryashidhant (Fig 2). book Lilawati.
.
Script can be read as:
Yavodaray-raagul-mashashata-sankhay-hasto-angulay
shada-gunitaisacha-turbhihi.
Hasteshacha-trurabhivatiha dandaha, kroshaha sahastra-
Fig 2 Script of Suryasidhanta stating the units for angular
measurement.
dwitayena tesham.
12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007
Sthadhojanam krosha-chatushastayen, tatha karanam
dashaken vansha.
Nivartanam vimshati-vansha-sankhayhi shetram
chaturmishacha bhujay-nirbandham.
Translation :
Eight rice grains (yahodara) makes one fingure width
(angula), twentyfore fingures make one hand (hasta),
four hands make one stick (danda), 2000 danda make
one krosha (unit of length).
Four krosha make one yojana (unit of length), ten
hasta make one vamsha (unit of length), one nirwatan
(unit of area) is equal to 400 square vamsha.
C. Time
Unit for the measurement of time was Vipal, Pala,
Gadi, Hora, and Deena. Sixty Vipala makes one pala.
Sixty pala makes one ghati. 150 Pala makes one Hora.
24 Hora (Hours) makes one Deena (a day). Similarly
units for the measurement of weight, temperature are
also described in ancient text.
IV Instruments of Lalla.
Astronomer Lalla describes his fomous twevelve
instruments [3],[4] in his book 'Shihya Dhi Viddhida' as
given in fig 4.
Fig 4 Twelve instruments used by Lalla are described in this script..
Script can be read as:
Golo, bhagana, chakra, dhanu, ghati, shanku, shakata,
kartaryaha. Pipta, kapal, shalaka, dwadahsa yantrani saha
yastya.
Translation:
Sphere, ring, dial, bow, time measuring water vessel.
Gnomon, divider, scissor. Circular seat with central
stick, semicircle with stick, combination of sticks, are the
twelve instuments along with a stick.
These twelve instruments are as described below and
some are shown in fig 5.
The Gola yantra is a type of armilliary sphere used to
locate planetary positions. Bhangana is a ring with
angular graduations alonge its circumference, it is a type
of protractor. Chakra is a circular disk with angular
graduations, it is also a type of protractor. Dhanu is a
semicircular disk with angular graduations and a stick
pivoted at the center, it is a type of protractor with a
plumb bob arrangement. Ghati is a small vessel with a
hole at the bottom. It was used to measure time. Shanku
is a type of gnomon, a long vertical cone used to identify
East-West-North-South direction based on shadow of its
tip. A special geometrical construction known a 'Matsya'
was used for this purpose. Altitude of sun and day time
was also measured with this instrument based on the
shadow. Shakata consists of two 'V' shaped sticks,
pivoted at the end. Kartari means a seizer. This
instrument is made up of two sticks both pivoted
together. It was used like a caliper, and also to measure
angle with the help of protractor. Pitha is a horizontal
disk with a vertical stick at its center. It was used to
measure local time based on its shadow, it was used to
measure the height with the help of special geometrical
contruction. Shalaka is combination of two sticks with a
string. Yasti is just a long stick having standard
dimensions, it was used to measure height and distances.
Special geometrical constructions were framed to
facilitate the use of this stick. These proposed
geometrical constructions were to construct the
proportionate triangles with the help of which heights of
terrestrial objects could be calculated.
Fig 5 A sketch of some of the instruments described by Lalla.
V. Stick Machine of Bhaskaracharya.
This machine was known as Yasti Yantra. Yasti means
a stick. It is also refered as Dhi Yantra. Dhi Yantra
means a machine to be used with intelegence. This
machine has been also described by mathematicians like
Lalla, Shripati and others but Bhaskaracharya has
developed his unique method to calculate the height of
terrestrial objects like trees and mountains. The principle
and constructional details of this machine are available
in fair detail in 'Shidhantashiromani' of Bhaskaracharya
[7]. His script describing this instrument is given in the
fig 6.
Fig 6 Sript describing the stick instrument of Bhaskaracharya.
Script can be read as:
Vansasha mulam pravilokya chagram, tatsavantaram
tatsya samuchayam cha.
Yo vetti yastey-va kar-sthaya sow, dhi-yantra vedi vada
kim na vetti.
Translation :
Look at the bottom and top of bamboo tree, simply
looking at it you can find its distance and its height.
12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007
The person who obtains these distance and height with a
stick, such person can calculate many other astronomical
parameters using this stick which is a intelegent machine
(dhi yantra).
This machine (fig 7) has a stick pivoted to a board. Fig
8 shows geometrical construction to calculate the height
of a tree. To use this machine one has to focus the top
and bottom of the object and draw the two lines on the
board. With these two lines, two triangles are
constructed and based on their proportions, height of the
object is calculated. It is to be noted here that there is no
need to measure the distance between the object and the
observer. This instrument was also used for land survey.
Fig 7 Stick machine known a yasti yantra of Bhaskaracharya.
H
h1
l1
h2 l2
d angular positioning of cities. It was also used to measure
l2 h
Height = H = d h 1 + d
2 l1
Fig 8 Stick machine was used to calculate the height of the tree and
other terrestrial objects.
VI Disk Instrument of Bhaskaracharya.
This machine is known as Chakra Yantra. It means
dick machine. It appears to be the combination of chakra
yantra, shanku yantra and pitha yantra of Lalla. Its
description is available in the script of Sidhantshiromani
[7] as given in fig 9. This instrument is a type of
protractor used for angular marking, measurements and
to obtain astronomical parameters. (Fig 10).
Fig 9 Sript describing disk instrument of Bhaskaracharya known a
chakra yantra.
Script can be read as: Chakram chakrashankam
paridhow slatha-shrunkhala-dika-dhararam.
Dhatri tribh adharat kalpya bhardheatra khardha cha.
Tanmadhe sushmatam shiptawarka-bhimukha-nemikam
dharyam.
Bhumerunnatta-bhagastatra-kshachchyaya bhuktaha.
Tatkhardhantacha nataa unnata-lavasangunikrutam
dhrudalam.
Dhrudalonnata-shabhaktam nadya stula paire prokta.
Dalikrutam chakra-mushanti chaapa kodandakhandam
khalu turyagolam.
Translation :
A disk with graduations on the cercumference and is
supported with a flexible chain.
Horizoantal line on this disk is named as bhumi (earth),
space above this line is akash (sky), top point of vetical
line is named as khardha.
At its center attach a stick.
Hold this disk in front of sun, stick will cast its shadow.
Angle between the ground (horizontal) line and shadow
of stick is named as ‘unnata’.
Similarly angle between top point of disk and shadow of
the stick is nammed as ‘natta’.
This natta and unnata are used to calculate the local time.
Half of this disk is known as ‘Chaapa Yantra’, and half
of this chaapa yantra is named as turya yantra.
On the surface of this disk a special construction is
recomended to mark E-W-N-S direction [7]. This
instrument was used for angular marking of land and
time and to measure some astrological parameters like
'natta' and 'unnatta'.
Fig 10. Disk instrument of Bhaskaracharya.
VII. Semicircular disk machine of Bhaskaracharya.
This machine is known as chaapa Yantra. Chaapa
means a semicircle. This instrument appears to be the
modified version of Dhanu Yantra of Lalla.
Bhaskaracharya has attached a long stick along the
diameter of the semicircular disk [7]. Disk has the
angular graduations and a pivoted chain at the center of
the disk (fig 11), this chain is used in similar way like a
plumb bob. Description of this instrument is also given
in Sidhantashiromani [7] which is already listed in fig 9.
Basically it was used for the measurement of vertical
angle.
12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007
Fig 11 Semicircular disk instrument of Bhaskaracharya known as
chaapa yantra.
Height of the terrestrial objects, diameter of earth,
diameter of moon, circumference of earth and distance
between moon and the earth was calculated by
Bhaskaracharya using this instrument.
To calculate the height of the terestrial object, stick
was focussed at the bottom and top of the object and the
angle was measured. This angle was then used to
calculate the height with the help of jya and cotijya. This
jya and cotijya are similar as sine and cosine resp.
VIII Star positioning instrument of Bhaskaracharya.
This instrument is known a Gola yantra and has been
also described in the text of 'Sidhantshiromani'. It is
somewhat similar to armilliary sphere. However the
terminology used here is not understandable and it is
difficult to construct the instrument in its original form.
Instrument used by Aryabhatta for star positioning
consists of one horizontal disk, positioned in E-W-N-S
direction and another similar disk held perpendicular to
it with a plumb bob arangement [4].
IX. Star positioning Instrument of Ganesh
Daywatnya.
This instrument is known as Jala nalika yantra. It
means water and tube machine. It is described as a
method of measuring star angle with the help of
horizontal water surface and a hollow tube. Angle is
measured with the help of constructed triangles as
described in the book Grahalaghawam of Ganesh
Daywatnya. This original script is not in full detail, it is
given as a outline of points as explained below (fig 12).
Its detail explanation is available in other edited
books[2].
Fig 12 Script describing the star angle measuring instrument.
Translation :
A method to measure the angle of the planet through a
tube. In the respective direction, complete the
construction, that is if star is in east then in the easten
side or if star is in west then western side, construct the
further proccedure.
Construct the triangle and mark its base, height and
hypotenuse.
Locate the gnomon, hold the thread, and hold the tube on
top of the gnomon and look at the star.
Keep a plate filled with water and you can observe star
immage through this water.
This arrangement consists of a levelled surface
placed in E-W-N-S direction [2]. Triangles are
constructed on this surface to obtain angles. A gnomon
is placed on this surface. A tube is placed on the top of
the gnomon. A plate filled with water is kept on the
surface. Reflected image through water surface of the
star or a planet is observed through the tube and its angle
is measured with the help of constructed triangles. A
thread is used to measure height, base and hypotenuse in
the vertical plane. This instrument was used for mapping
of stars and planets. Instrument used for star angle
measurement is shown in fig 13.
Observer's
Eye
Star
Tube
Plate
Gnomon Table
with
water
Fig 13 Schematic diagram of star angle measuring instrument.
X. Time measuring machine of Bhaskaracharya.
This machine was known as ‘Jala chakra yantra’. It
means water wheel machine. It is a time measuring
machine and is described in the book Sidhantsiromani
[7]. Schematic diagram is shown in fig 14, its script is
shown in fig 15, and fabricated model is shown in the fig
16. This mechanism operates with a balance between
mercury in the tubes and the water in the vessels.
This mechanism uses water head as a potential. In the
initial position, containers are empty and mercury is in
lower position on the wheel. As the water gets collected
into one of the container, the wheel starts rotating. A
stage comes when mercury slides from one end of the
tube to the other end of tube and causes an imbalance,
due to which the wheel rotates further. Because of
mercury, wheel rotates in jerks. If four containers are
used then each container rotates the wheel by 90 degrees.
Copper tube
( siphon) Water
reservoir
Tube
Container
Wheel
Mercury
Water
Draining tray collection tank
Fig 14 Schematic diagram of time measuring machine.
12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007
Fig 15 Script describing time measuring machine.
Script can be read as:
Laghu-daruja-samachakre sama-sushiraraha samantara
nemyam.
Kinchid-wakra yojyaha sushira-syardhe pruthaka tasam.
Rasapurne tachakram dyadhara-shasthita svayam
bhramati.
Tamradi-mayasya-nkusha-rupanalasyambu-poornasya.
Yeka-kunda-jalantardwitiya-magram twadho-mukham
cha bahihi.
Yugapanmuktam chet ka nalena kunda-dwahihi patati.
Nemyam badhadwa ghatika-chakram jalayantrawata
tatha dharyam.
Nalaka-prachuta-salilam patati tatha tad-ghati-madhe.
Bhamati tatastat satat purna-ghati-bhihi samakrustam.
Chakra-chutam tadudakam kunde yati pranalikaya.
Translation :
A symetric wheel made of wood with exactly similar and
hollow spokes joined to the rim such that they are
slightly inclined.
Hollow spokes should be half filled with mercury. Wheel
should be supported on the axle to rotate freely.
Copper or other metallic U shaped bent tube, is inverted
and filled with water.
One end of tube is deeped in water tank and other end
kept below water level and outside the tank.
If both ends are oppened simultaneously then water
flows outside the tank through the tube.
On the rim attach the vessels, place the whole
arrangement of water wheel below the tube.
Such that the water flowing through the tube falls into
the vessel.
Vessel gets filled with water and wheel starts rotating.
Water gets poured out of the vessel and is collected in
the tank through a channel.
Time period of rotation of this wheel is constant as
long as water flow is constant. It was used to measure
the time which was based on revolutions made by the
wheel.
Fig 16 Time measuring machine of Bhaskaracharya.
V. Conclusion
The concept of measurement of angle, height and time
with the help of instruments and mechanisms was being
practiced in ancient India. It appears that there is a
progressive development of instruments from 1000 BC
to 1507 AD. Measurements were also done with well
defined units for angle, length and time. Similarly
innovative geometrical constructions were used to
facilitate the use of these instruments. A typical time
measuring mechanism using water-mercury was used to
achieves the constant time period of rotation.
Acknowledgement:
The author is thankful to Sanskrit Bharati and Bharat
Vikas Parishad for their support and for arranging the
literature. Thanks goes to Mr. Vishavanath G. Joshi for
helping the author to learn Sanskrit language and to
translate the scripts.
References:
[1] Baladevprasadji Mishra. (Ed). Suryasidhant, Khemraj Shrikrishna
Prakashana, pages 234, 1996.
[2] Bramhanand Tripathi, (Ed) Grahalaghavam of Ganesha
Dayawanya., Choukhamba Surbharati Prakashan, Varanassi, page
109, 1995.
[3] Chinmaya Yuva Kendra, Awakening Indians to India. Central
Chinmaya Mission Trust. Page 397, 404, 2003.
[4] Keshav Srusti (Ed), Vijanan Bharati Publication, Mumbai, page
21, 23, 29, 31, 90
[5] Shrikapileshwara Shastri, (Ed), Suryasidhant, Choukhamba
Sanskrit Sausthan, Varanassi, Page 264, 270, 2003.
[6] Ramchandra Pandey, (Ed), Lilawati, Kkrishanadas Akadamy,
Varanassi, page 2, 134, 196, 1993.
[7] Muralidharachaturvedi, Shrimad Bhaskaracharya Pranit
Sidhantsiromani, Sampurnanand Sanskrit University, Varanassi,
page 360-362, 443,470, 1998.
[8] Mohan Apte, Ganitashiromani Bhaskaracharya, Moraya
Publication, Mumbai, page 115-118, 1998.
[9] S. R. Narvekar, 'Constant RPM Water wheel Clock', Proceedings
of 12th National Conf. on Machines & Mechanisms 2005, India,.
page236-242,2005.