Maths Quest 11 Advanced General Mathematics Spec Classpad Edition

VCE mATHEmATiCS
UNiTS 1 & 2
mATHS QUEST 11
Advanced General
mathematics
C A S i O C L A S S PA D E D i T i O N
mARK BARNES RUTH BAKOGiANiS KYLiE BOUCHER

TRACY HERFT ROBYN WiLLiAmS JENNiFER NOLAN
mARK DUNCAN
GEOFF PHiLLiPS
CONTRiBUTiNG AUTHORS
iAN WEBSTER | DOUGLAS SCOTT | ELENA iAmPOLSKY | SONJA STAmBULiC
ROSS ALLEN | DAViD PHiLLiPS | mURRAY ANDERSON | ROBERT CAHN | KATHY CHAmBERS
miCHAEL HALFPENNY | CAROLYN mEWS | JOHN SHORT | NiCK SimPSON
BORiS SmOLYAR | JENNY WATSON | BARBARA WOODS
SUPPORT mATERiAL
JOHN DOWSEY | DENNiS FiTZGERALD | EmiLY HUi | ViNOD NARAYAN
SimONE RiCHARDSON | PETER SWAiN | DAViD TYNAN
First published 2010 by

John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
Typeset in 10/12pt Times LT
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2010
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
National Library of Australia
Cataloguing-in-Publication entry
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Maths Quest 11 Advanced General

Mathematics / Mark Barnes... [et al.].
Casio ClassPad edition.
978 1 7421 6222 5 (student book.)
978 1 7421 6290 4 (teacher book.)
978 1 7421 6232 4 (student ebook.)
978 1 7421 6297 3 (teacher ebook.)
Includes index.
For secondary school age.
Mathematics Textbooks.
Mathematics Problems, exercises, etc.
Barnes, Mark.
510.712
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
CHAPTER 3
Introduction vii
About eBookPLUS ix
Acknowledgements x
Relations and functions 71

3a Relations 71
Exercise 3A 73
CHAPTER 1
3b Functions 74
Number systems: real and complex 1

1a Review of set notation 1
Exercise 1A 9
1B Subsets of the set of real numbers
1C
1d
1e
1f
1G
10
Exercise 1B 13
Properties of surds 14
Exercise 1C 20
The set of complex numbers 22
Exercise 1D 24
Multiplication and division of complex
numbers 24
Exercise 1E 28
Representing complex numbers on an
Argand diagram 29
Exercise 1F 31
Factorising quadratic expressions and
solving quadratic equations over the
complex number field 31
Exercise 1G 36
Summary 38
Exercise 3B 77
3c Inverse functions 77
Exercise 3C 80
Summary 81
Chapter review 82
eBookPLUS activities 85
Exam Practice 1
Based on Chapters 13 86
CHAPTER 4
Algebra 88
4a Review of index laws 88
Exercise 4A 91
4B Standard form and significant figures 92
4c
4d
Chapter review 40
CHAPTER 2
Transformations 44
2a Translations of points and graphs 44
Exercise 2A 49
2B Reflections of points and graphs 50
Exercise 2B 52
2C Dilations from axes 53
Exercise 2C 55
2D The ellipse and the hyperbola 56
Exercise 2D 61
2E Successive transformations 62
Exercise 2E 63
Summary 65
Chapter review 67
4e
4f
4g
Exercise 4B 94
Transposition 96
Exercise 4C 99
Solving linear equations and simultaneous
linear equations 101
Exercise 4D 111
Applications 114
Exercise 4E 119
Algebraic fractions 122
Exercise 4F 125
Linear literal equations 126
Exercise 4G 128
Summary 129
Chapter review 131
CHAPTER 5
Trigonometric ratios and their

applications 136
5a Trigonometry of right-angled triangles 136
Exercise 5A 141
5B Elevation, depression and bearings 143
Exercise 5B 146
5C The sine rule 148

5D
5E
5F
5G
5H
Exercise 5C 152
The cosine rule 154
Exercise 5D 158
Area of triangles 159
Exercise 5E 162
Trigonometric identities 163
Exercise 5F 165
Radian measurement 165
Exercise 5G 166
Arcs, sectors and segments 167
Exercise 5H 170
Summary 172
Chapter review 174
7G Transformation of data 259
Exercise 7G 261
Summary 263
Chapter review 264
Exam Practice 2
CHAPTER 8
Further algebra 272

8a Polynomial identities 272
Exercise 8A 275
8B Partial fractions 276
Exercise 8B 282
CHAPTER 6
Sequences and series 178

6a Describing sequences 178
Exercise 6A 184
6B Arithmetic sequences 186
Exercise 6B 191
6c Arithmetic series 192
Exercise 6C 194
6d Geometric sequences 195
Exercise 6D 199
6e Geometric series 200
Exercise 6E 205
6F Applications of sequences and series 206
Exercise 6F 208
Summary 211
Chapter review 213
CHAPTER 7
Variation 218
7a Direct variation 218
Exercise 7A 224
7B Further direct variation 227
7C
7D
7E
7F
iv
Exercise 7B 231
Inverse variation 235
Exercise 7C 241
Further inverse variation 244
Exercise 7D 246
Joint variation 249
Exercise 7E 252
Part variation 255
Exercise 7F 257
Contents
8c Simultaneous equations 283
Exercise 8C 287
Summary 289
Chapter review 290
CHAPTER 9
Algebra and logic 293

9a Statements (propositions), connectives and
9B
9c
9d
9E
truth tables 293

Exercise 9A 298
Valid and invalid arguments 300
Exercise 9B 307
Techniques of proof 310
Exercise 9C 314
Sets and Boolean algebra 317
Exercise 9D 324
Digital logic 325
Exercise 9E 331
Summary 333
Chapter review 336
CHAPTER 10
Linear and non-linear graphs 340

10a The circle 340
Exercise 10A 342

10b The ellipse 343
Exercise 10B 346

10C The parabola 347
Exercise 10C 350

10d The hyperbola 351
Exercise 10D 356
10E Polar coordinates 357

10F
10G
10h
10i
Exercise 10E 359

Polar equations 360
Exercise 10F 362
Polar graphs 363
Exercise 10G 365
Review of complex numbers and polar form
of complex numbers 367
Exercise 10H 372
Addition of ordinates, reciprocals and
squares of simple graphs 372
Exercise 10I 378
Summary 380
Chapter review 383
CHAPTER 11
Linear programming 389

11a Graphs of linear inequations 389
11b
11c
11d
11e
11f
Exercise 11A 393

Graphs of simultaneous linear
inequations 394
Exercise 11B 398
Graphs of systems of linear inequations 399
Exercise 11C 401
Maximising and minimising linear
functions 402
Exercise 11D 408
Solving linear programming problems 409
Exercise 11E 411
Further applications of linear
programming 415
Exercise 11F 417
Summary 420
Chapter review 421
CHAPTER 12
Coordinate geometry 429

12a Distance between two points 429
Exercise 12A 431

12B Midpoint of a line segment 432
Exercise 12B 434
12C Dividing a line segment internally in the
ratio a:b 435
Exercise 12C 438
12D Dividing a line segment externally in the
ratio a:b 439
Exercise 12D 442
12e Parallel lines 442
Exercise 12E 444

12f Perpendicular lines 445
Exercise 12F 446
12G Applications 447
Exercise 12G 451
Summary 454
Chapter review 456
Exam Practice 3
CHAPTER 13
Vectors 462
13a Introduction to vectors 462
Exercise 13A 465

13B Operations on vectors 466
Exercise 13B 470

13C Magnitude, direction and components
of vectors 471
Exercise 13C 474
13D i , j notation 475

Exercise
13D 478
13E Applications of vectors 480
Exercise 13E
483
Summary 487
Chapter review 488
CHAPTER 14
Statics of a particle 492

14a Force and tension 492
Exercise 14A 494

14b Newtons first law of motion 495
Exercise 14B 497

14C Equilibrium forces at an angle 498
Exercise 14C 501

14d Connected bodies in equilibrium 502
Exercise 14D 505

Summary 507
Chapter review 508
CHAPTER 15
Kinematics 511
15A Introduction to kinematics 511
Exercise 15A 518
Contents
15B Velocitytime graphs and accelerationtime
graphs 521
Exercise 15B 529
15C Constant acceleration formulas 532
Exercise 15C 535
15D Instantaneous rates of change 538
Exercise 15D 546
Summary 549
Chapter review 551
CHAPTER 16
Geometry in two and three

dimensions 556
16a Review of basic geometry 556
Exercise 16A 560

16B Geometric constructions 562
Exercise 16B 567
16c Polygons 567
Exercise 16C 575
16D Three-dimensional geometry 576
Exercise 16D 578
vi
Contents
16e Circle geometry 579
Exercise 16E 582

16F Tangents, chords and circles 584
Exercise 16F 589
16G Geometry in architecture, design
and art 592
Exercise 16G 597
Summary 599
Chapter review 601
Exam Practice 4
CHAPTER 17
Univariate data Available on eBookPlus

CHAPTER 18
Bivariate data Available on eBookPlus

Answers 608
Index 673
Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Acknowledgements
1a
1b
1c
1D
1E
number
systems: real
and complex
areaS oF STudy
Review of properties and computation with

natural numbers, integers, and rational numbers
Forms of representation including, for example,
equivalence of decimal and fractional forms
(terminating and infinitely recurring decimals
for rational numbers)
Geometric representation of natural numbers,
integers and rational numbers on a number line
Application of rational number arithmetic to
computation in practical situations involving
small and large numbers using scientific
notation
Definition and properties of real and complex
number systems
Review of set notation

Subsets of the set of real numbers
Properties of surds
The set of complex numbers
numbers
1F Representing complex numbers on an
Argand diagram
1G Factorising quadratic expressions and
complex number field
Irrational numbers and complex numbers as

roots of quadratic equations
Geometric representation of irrational numbers
that are roots of quadratic equations on the real
number line and representation of complex
numbers on an Argand diagram
Operations with irrational numbers of the form
a + b n , where a and b are rational numbers
and n is a positive integer that is not a perfect
square
Operations with complex numbers of the form
a + bi, where a and b are rational numbers and
i2 = -1
eBook plus
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
1a
review of set notation

Sets contain elements. In this chapter the elements are numbers.
For example, the following are six elements: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
is the universal set the set of all elements under consideration.
So, in this example, = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
is the empty or null set. This set contains no elements. = {}.
An upper case letter, such as A, represents a subset of .
In our example, A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
is read as is an element of. For example, 3 A.
is read as is not an element of. For example, 2 A.
is read as is a subset of. For example, {1, 3} A.
is read as is a superset of. For example, A {1, 3}.
Related symbols, such as , and , are also used.
Chapter 1
number systems: real and complex
A is the complement of A. This set contains all the elements not in A that are in . For
example, given = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, if A = {1, 3, 5}, then A= {2, 4, 6}.
A B is the union of A and B. This set contains all the elements in sets A and B. For the
example above, A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
A B is the intersection of A and B. This set contains all the elements in both A and B. For
the example above, A B = {1, 3}.
C\D is read as C slash D. This set contains all the elements in C that are not in D. If
C = {1, 2, 5, 6} and D = {2, 5}, then C\D = {1, 6}. This notation is particularly useful in
modifying a given set to exclude a small number of elements.
A Venn diagram may be used to illustrate set notation.
B
1
5
6
Worked Example 1
= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}. C = {4, 8, 12}. D = {2, 6, 10, 12}.

a Illustrate these sets on a Venn diagram.
Then state:
b C
c C D
d C D
e (C D) f C D
Think
a Draw a Venn diagram, and enter the elements in the
appropriate region.
g C\{2}.
Write
a
2
12
b The set C is the complement of C and contains all
elements not in the set C.
10
b C = {2, 6, 10}
c The set C D is the union of C and D and contains
c C D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
d The set C D is the intersection of C and D and
d C D = {12}
e The set (C D) is the complement of the union of
e (C D)=
all elements in sets C and D.
contains elements common to sets C and D.
sets C and D. It contains elements not in the union of

sets C and D. In this case, there are no elements not
in the union of sets C and D.
f The set C D is the intersection of C and D. It
contains elements common to the sets C and D.

There are no common elements to C and D.
g The set C\{2} is the set of C without the element 2.
It contains all the elements of the set C but not 2.
f C D =
g C\{2} = {6, 10}
Maths Quest 11 Advanced General Mathematics for the Casio ClassPad
The set of real numbers

Non-signed numbers natural numbers and fractions
Numbers were invented to quantify objects in the environment. Huntergatherers used counting
or natural numbers to communicate how many of a particular animal were seen on a hunting
trip. The set of natural numbers is given as N = {1, 2, 3, ...}.
The set of fractions is given as D. D includes 1 , 1 , 3 , 7 , 121 , ... , where fractions greater than 1
2 3 4 3
16
may be expressed as an improper fraction or as a mixed number. As 3 or 9 are also fractions,

3
3
N D.
Fractions were invented to divide an object into equal parts or a number of objects into equal
parts. For practical applications in the ancient world, the set of fractions (D) was all that was
needed. Mathematical oddities occurred, such as a proof that 2 could not be expressed as
a fraction, but these were considered more of a philosophical or mystical argument than a
practical use of numbers.
Signed numbers integers and rational numbers

The systematic consideration of the concept of number in algebra, and the numbers required to
solve equations of the form x + 2 = 0 and 3x + 1 = 0, resulted in the invention of integers and
rational numbers.
The set of integers is given by Z = {... , -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, ...}.
Note: When we are dealing with signed numbers the positive signs are usually omitted, that
is, Z = {... , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.
Z- is the set of negative integers: Z- = {... , -3, -2, -1}.
Z+ is the set of positive integers: Z+ = {1, 2, 3, ...}.
Therefore, Z = Z- {0} Z+.
p
The set of rational numbers is given by Q. These are numbers of the form , where p Z and
q
q Z \{0}.
Consistent with the definition of Q, Z Q.
Q- is the set of negative rational numbers.
Q+ is the set of positive rational numbers.
Therefore, Q = Q- {0} Q+.
Chapter 1 Number systems: real and complex
Was Q the largest set of numbers that could be mapped on a number line? The Greeks had
shown that 2, one of the solutions of x2 = 2, was not rational, and further evidence that Q
was not the largest set of numbers that could be mapped onto a number line came from writing
fractions in decimal form.
Rational numbers in their simplest form with denominators such as 2, 4, 5, 8, 10 produce
terminating decimals. Some examples include:
3
7
89
123
= 0.375,
= 0.4375,
= 0.712,
= 1.9921875
8
16
125
64
Rational numbers in their simplest form with denominators such as 3, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14,
15, 17 produce non-terminating recurring or repeating decimals. Some examples include:
1
3
17
99
= 0.333 = 0.3 , 1 = 0.1666 = 0.16 ,

6
5
12
= 0.42666 = 0.426
, 3 = 0.428571428571 = 0.428571
, 17 = 1.307692
= 0.171717 = 0.17
13
7
Division by zero
Are 2 and 0 rational numbers? 2 is the solution of 0x = 2, for which there are no solutions. 0 is
0
the solution of 0x = 0, for which there are an infinite number of solutions. As neither case gives
a unique rational number solution, then division by zero is not defined. The 00 case is sometimes
referred to as the indeterminate case.
Worked Example 2
Using a calculator, express the following rational numbers in decimal form.

a
16
4
7
b c
17
12
Think
Write
a Since the denominator is 16, expect a terminating
5
16
Since the denominator is 7, expect a

non-terminating, repeating decimal.
4
7
= 0.5714285714
Indicate the repeating sequence using dot

notation.
4
7
= 0.571428
Since the denominator is 12, expect a nonterminating, repeating decimal.
Indicate the repeating sequence using dot

notation.
decimal.
= 0.3125
17
12
= 0.41666
17
12
= 0.416
Irrational numbers
Irrational numbers are given by I. They are numbers that can be placed on a number line and
may be expressed as non-terminating, non-recurring decimals. For example:
-
1
3
3 ,
5 + 1, 4 3, 5 4, .
2
p
Irrational numbers cannot be written in the form , where p Z and q Z \{0}.
q
-
2,
Many irrational numbers in decimal form, such as 2 and , have digits that have no pattern.
For these numbers it is impossible to predict the next digit from the preceding digits. However,
other irrational numbers can be constructed with a pattern; for example:
0.10110011100011110000 and 0.01011011101111
There are two important subsets of the set of irrational numbers: the set of algebraic numbers
and the set of transcendental numbers.
Algebraic numbers are those that are the solution of an algebraic polynomial equation of the
form:
an x n + an - 1 x n - 1 + + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0,
1
where a0, a1, a2, , an - 1, an Z. For example, algebraic numbers include 3 3 from one of the
3
solutions of x3 - 3 = 0 and 2 4 from x4 - 8 = 0.

Transcendental numbers occur in the evaluation of some functions, such as trigonometric
functions. For example, sin (324) and p are transcendental numbers. The functions that
produce these numbers are often called transcendental functions.
Real numbers
Finally, the set of real numbers is given as R. R includes all numbers that can be put on a number
line, where R = Q I. The Venn diagram shows the relationships between R, Q, I, Z and N.
= R (Real numbers)
Q (Rational
numbers)
Z (Integers)
I
(Irrational
numbers)
N
(Natural
numbers)
Worked Example 3
For each of the numbers below, using R, Q, I, Z and N, state all the sets for which they are a member.
- 17

a -5
b

c 3 2
d 27.179
e 4.153
3
f 17.1354
Think
a
b
-5
- 17
3
is an integer.
is a rational number, as it can be written as a
fraction.
3
2 is an irrational number.
c
is a rational number, as it is a recurring
d 27.179
decimal.
e 4.153 is a rational number, as it is a terminating
decimal.
g 1.011011101111
h 32 5
i 17 4
Write
a
b
-5
is a negative integer (Z-). It is also a rational

number (Q) and a real number (R).
- 17
3
is a rational number (Q) and a real
number (R).
c 3 2 is an irrational number (I) and a real
number (R).
is a rational number (Q) and a real
d 27.179
number (R).
e 4.153 is a rational number (Q) and a real
number (R).
f 17.1354 is an irrational number as there is no
f 17.1354 is an irrational number (I ) and a
indication that there is a recurring pattern.
real number (R).
g 1.011011101111 is an irrational number.
g 1.011011101111 is an irrational number (I)
and a real number (R).
h 32 5 can be simplified to 2 and is therefore a
h 32 5 is a natural number (N). It is also an
natural number.
integer (Z ), a rational number (Q) and a real

number (R).
i 17 4 is an irrational number.
i 17 4 is an irrational number (I ) and a real
number (R).
Worked example 4
eBook plus
a
Express each of the following in the form , where a Z and b Z \{0}.
b

a 0.6
b 0.23
c 0.41
d 2.1234
Think
a
Tutorial
int-1211
Worked example 4
WriTe
Write 0.6 in expanded form.
Multiply [1] by 10.
Subtract [1] from [2].
State the simplest answer.
in the expanded form.

Write 0.23
Multiply [1] by 100.
Write 0.41 in the expanded form.
Multiply [1] by 10.
1
2
in the expanded form.

Write 2.1234
Multiply [1] by 1000.
0.6 = 0.666666
10 0.6 = 6.66666
[1]
[2]
9 0.6 = 6
6
0.6 =
9
2
=
3
b
= 0.232323
0.23
= 23.232323
100 0.23
[1]
[2]
= 23
99 0.23
= 23
0.23
99
0.41 = 0.41111
10 0.41 = 4.11111
9 0.41 = 3.7
3.7 37
=
9
90
2.1234 = 2.1234234
d
= 2123.423423
1000 2.1234
[1]
[2]
0.41 =
= 2121.3
999 2.1234
= 2121.3
2.1234
999
21213
=
9999
2357
=
1111
maths Quest 11 advanced General mathematics for the Casio Classpad
[1]
[2]
Note: The CAS calculator can

perform some of these calculations
for you. On the Main screen, tap:
Action
Transformation
toFrac
Complete the entry line as:
0.6666666666667
Then press E.
The basic properties of number are assumed to be true if a counterexample cannot be found. For
example, the statement the product of two integers is an integer is accepted as true because a
counterexample has not been found, but the statement the quotient, when defined, of two
integers is an integer is false because a counterexample 2 is not an integer.
3
Worked Example 5
Determine counterexamples for the following.

a The product of two irrational numbers is irrational.
b The sum of two irrational numbers is irrational.
Think
a
Write
Take a simple irrational number such as 2.

Multiply by another irrational number, say 2.
State your answer.
1
Take two irrational numbers

such as 0.101100111000 and
0.010011000111.
Add these numbers.
State your answer.
a Because
2 2 = 2, which is a rational
number, the statement the product of two
irrational numbers is irrational is shown to be
false.
b 0.101100111000 + 0.010011000111 =
0.111111111111
Because 0.111111111111 is a rational

number, the statement the sum of two
irrational numbers is irrational has been shown
to be false.
Standard form or scientific notation

Very large or very small numbers are conveniently expressed in standard form, a 10b,
where a R and 1 a < 10 and b Z. For example, 1234111 = 1.234111 106 and
0.000000000045 = 4.5 10-11.
Precision of answers significant figures and decimal places

In everyday life, the exact answer to a problem is not always required. For instance, if you were
asked how long it took you to get to school that morning, you would not be expected to give the
answer accurate to hundredths of a second. A reasonable answer to such a question would be in
minutes.
The numerical answer to a calculation may be required to be given correct to a set number
of decimal places, and this is done through a process of rounding. To determine the number
of decimal places contained in a number, count the number of digits after the decimal point.
For example, 0.35 has 2 decimal places. For numbers expressed to a given number of decimal
places, remember to round up if the next digit is 5 or more. For example, rounded to 2 decimal
places, 2.234 becomes 2.23 and 2.236 becomes 2.24.
To determine the number of significant figures contained in a number, count the number of
digits from the first non-zero digit. For example, 0.035 contains 2 significant figures. Any zeros
at the end of a number after a decimal point are considered to be significant. For example, 1.40
has 3 significant figures. The trailing zeros at the end of a number are not considered to be
significant. For example, 24 000 has 2 significant figures.
For numbers expressed to a given number of significant figures, remember to round. For
example, rounded to 2 significant figures, 2.234 becomes 2.2 and 2.236 also becomes 2.2.
Some examples are shown in the following table.
2 significant
figures
3 significant
figures
2 decimal
places
3 decimal
places
471860.2378
470000
472000
471860.24
471860.238
1.2389
1.2
1.24
1.24
1.239
1.0068
1.0
1.01
1.01
1.007
0.01678
0.017
0.0168
0.02
0.017
0.00
0.002
0.20
0.199
Number
0.001556
0.1991
0.0016 0.00156
0.20
0.199
Worked Example 6
Calculate the following products and quotients without using a calculator, expressing your
answer in scientific notation correct to 1 significant figure.
-10
a 8 1024 3 10
7 1017
8 10 10
Think
a
Write
Multiply the terms by using the properties

of indices:
an am = an + m.
a 8 1024 3 10-10 = 24 1014
Write the answer in standard form,

correct to 1 significant figure.
Multiply the terms by using the properties

of indices:
an am = an - m.
24 1014 = 2.4 10 1014

= 2.4 1015
= 2 1015
17
b 7 10- = 0.875 10 27
8 10 10
Write the answer in standard form,

correct to 1 significant figure.
0.875 1027 = 0.9 1027 or

= 9 1026
REMEMBER
1. Recall and apply the definitions of , , , , A, A B, A B and C\D, and how to

illustrate these on a Venn diagram.
2. Recall and apply the definitions of the following sets of numbers: N, D, Z, Q, I and R
and their relationships.
3. Rational numbers, expressed as decimals, are either terminating or non-terminating
recurring. Irrational numbers, expressed as decimals, are non-terminating and
non-recurring.
4. Division by zero is not defined.
5. Given a non-terminating, non-repeating decimal, use the process to express the number
p
in the form of a rational number.
q
6. Do simple calculations in scientific notation by hand and more complex calculations
using a calculator.
7. Express answers to the stated number of significant figures or decimal places.
Exercise
1A

1 WE1
If = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}, show these on a Venn diagram,
and then state the following sets.
a A
b A B
c A B
d A\{2}
e A B
f A B
g (A B)
2 WE2 Use a calculator to express the following rational numbers in decimal form.
213
15
16
a
b
c
64
44
13
3 WE3 For each number below, using J, Q, I and R state all the sets in which they are a member.
- 2,
1
1
16 21 - 2
, 4.135218976, 4.232332333
, , 3 , 6 3 , 16 4 , 5 5 , , 21.72, 2.567
8 16
7
4 WE4
a 0.24
Express the following in their simplest rational form.

b 1.123
c 0.123

d 2.1123
5 WE5 Find a counter-example, if possible, for the following statements. If a counter-example

is found, the statement is false (F). If a counter-example is not found, accept the statement to
be true (T).
a The product of two integers is an integer.
b The division of an integer by an integer is a rational number.
c The difference of two irrational numbers is irrational.
d The sum of an irrational number and a rational number is irrational.
6 Copy the Venn diagram at right and then shade the region represented by each of the following
sets.
A
B
a A
b A B
c A B
d (A B) \ (A B)
e A B
f A B
g (A B)
7 Complete the following table.

Number
3 significant
figures
4 significant
figures
2 decimal
places
3 decimal
places
1267.1066
7.6699
8.000 56
0.999 87
0.076 768
0.000 174 95
Calculate the following products and quotients without using a calculator,
8 We6
expressing your answer in scientific notation to 1 significant figure.
a 1.5 1016 4 1012
b 1.2 1024 3 10-10
d 7 1014 9 10-8
8 1017
4 10 10
c 3.2 1025 2 1015

f
2.5 1012 8 10
5 108
-7
9 Calculate the following products and quotients using a calculator, expressing your answer in
scientific notation to 3 significant figures.
b 8.2583 1025 9.2527 10-7
a 1.4574 1021 3.6677 109

c
5.7789 1017
4.6999 1010
2.578 1012 (8.775 10 7 + 7.342 10 6 )

5.878 1013
10 mC The smallest subset of R in which 4 - 2 3 27 belongs is:

a Z+
b Zc Q+
D Q-
E I
9
4
belongs is:
11 mC The smallest subset of R in which 4.4567
a Z+
b Zc Q+
D Q-
E I
12 mC If = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {5}, then A\ B is:

c
a {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
b {5, 6, 7, 8}
D {6. 7. 8}
E {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
13 mC 3.0102 and 92457 to 4 significant figures are:
a 3.01 and 92450
b 3.010 and 92450
c 3.01 and 92460
D 3.010 and 92460
E 3.0102 and 92457
and 0.232 233 222 333 respectively belong to the following sets.
14 mC 0.23, 0.23
a Z, Z, I
b Q, Q, I
c Q, I, I
D Z, Q, I
E Q, Q, Q
1B
Subsets of the set of

real numbers
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 1.1
notation
Mathematics is a form of communication. While the mathematical concepts can be
unambiguously defined, there are often difficulties in communicating these concepts because
of differences in notation. There is no international body that defines notation that is to be used
worldwide. There can be significant differences between nations and regions. The development
of notations in mathematics may be likened to the chaotic international development of the
10
English language. Just as with the English language, mathematical notations change with time
and geography.
At the secondary-school level, there is some attempt to standardise the notations used. As
a consequence, students are exposed only to some commonly used notations. At universities,
however, there is a proliferation of notations because international references are used.
How big is the problem? It is more an annoyance than a problem. Consider 2.4, 24 and 2,4.
All represent the same decimal number but in some countries 24 = 2 4. Then again, others
use 2.4 = 2 4.
Some notations for subsets of the set of real numbers

There are different forms of notation for representing subsets.
1. Describing, for example, {integers between and including 1 and 5}
2. Listing, for example, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
3. Set builder notation, for example, {x: x Z, 1 x 5}, which is read as the set of numbers x
such that x is an element of the set of integers and x is greater than or equal to 1 and less than
or equal to 5.
If x R, it is not necessary to include the nature of x. For example, {x: x 2} represents
the set of real numbers greater than or equal to 2. The two sets above may be represented on a
number line as follows.
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x z
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
If x Q, the graph on the number line appears to look like the corresponding graph for x R
because the number line appears to be continuous (although all irrational numbers are missing).
For example, {x: x Q, x 2} would appear to be identical to the graph of {x: x 2} shown
above.
If individual numbers are excluded from a given set, indicate this on a number line by an open
point. For example, {x: x 2}\{3} is represented on a number line below.
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
A given set can be stated in more than one way using set builder notation. For example,
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5} can be written as {x: x Z, 0 < x < 6}, {x: 1 x 5} or {x: x Z+, x 5}.
4. Interval notation is used for subsets of the set of real numbers. The definition of interval
notation is shown below. These sets are also illustrated on a number line.
a
[a, b] = {x : a x b}
[a, b) = {x : a x < b}
(a, b) = {x : a < x < b}
(, a] = {x : x a}
(a, ) = {x : x > a}
11
Notes
1. If a terminal point is included, a closed dot is shown on the number line.
2. If the terminal point is not included, an open dot is shown.
3. If the terminal point is , an arrowhead is shown and the notation uses a round bracket, for
example, [a, ).
Worked Example 7
List the following sets and then express each set using set builder notation. Illustrate each set on a
number line.
a {Integers between -3 and 4}
b {Integers less than 2}
Think
a
Write
This set involves integers.

List the set of integers.
Express the set using set builder notation.
Draw a number line showing arrowheads on

each end. Ensure that the numbers from
-3 to 4 are shown, using an appropriate scale.
Since, the set of integers is to be represented,
do not join the dots.
This set involves integers.

List the set of integers.
Express the set using set builder notation.
Draw a number line showing arrowheads on

each end. Ensure that the numbers from
-3 to 4 are shown, using an appropriate scale.
Since, the set of integers is to be represented,
do not join the dots, but show an arrow on the
left side of -3.
a {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3} = {x: x Z, -3 < x < 4}
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
b {, -2, -1, 0, 1} = {x: x Z, x < 2}
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x z
Worked Example 8
Use set builder notation to represent the following sets.

a {Rational numbers greater than 27}
b {Integers between and including both 100 and 300, except for 200}
c {Positive integers less 9 and greater than 50}
d {Real numbers from 1 to 3, including 3}
e {Real numbers that are less than 7 and greater than 2}
f {Positive real numbers that are less than 2 or greater than 7}
Think
Write
a The numbers in this set belong to the set of rational
a {x: x Q, x > 27}
b The numbers in this set belong to the set of integers,
b {x: x Z, 100 x 300}\{200}
c The numbers in this set belong to the set of positive
c {x: x Z+, x < 9} {x: x Z+, x > 50}
numbers, Q.
Z. Exclude 200.
Z+.
integers,
Express the set of positive integers less
9 and greater than 50 as the union of two sets.
12
d The numbers in this set belong to the set of real
d {x: 1 < x 3}
e The numbers in this set belong to the set of real
e {x: x < 7} {x: x > 2} or, more simply,
f The numbers in this set belong to the set of positive
f {x: x < 2} {x: x > 7} or
numbers, R, from 1 to 3, including 3.
numbers, R, that are less than 7 and greater than 2.

real numbers, R+, that are less than 2 or greater than 7.
{x: 2 < x < 7}
R\{x: 2 x 7}
Worked Example 9
Use interval notation to represent the following sets.

a {x: -2 < x 3}
b {x: x 4}
c {x: 3 < x 5} {x: 4 x < 7}
d {x: 3 < x 5} {x: 4 x < 7}
Think
Write
a x R. Only the end point 3 is included; therefore,
a (-2, 3]
b x R. Negative infinity is always preceded by a
b (-, 4]
c x R. Only the inner end points are included.
c (3, 5] [4, 7)
d x R. Only inner end points are included.
d (3, 5] [4, 7) = [4, 5]
use a square bracket.
round bracket when using interval notation.
REMEMBER
1. Set builder notation. For example, {x: x Q, -3 < x 17}. If x R, the set does not
have to be stated. For example, {x: -3 < x 17}.
2. Interval notation. For example, (-3, 17] = {x: -3 < x 17}, [-3, ) = {x: x -3}. This
notation can only be used if x R.
3. All subsets of R can be illustrated on a number line.
Exercise
1B

1 WE7
List the following sets and then express each set using set builder notation. Then
illustrate each set on a number line.
a {Integers between -6 and 1}
b {Integers from -3 to 4}
c {Integers greater than -6 and less than or equal to 4}
d {Positive integers less than 5}
e {Integers less than 5}
f {Integers greater than 2}
g {Negative integers greater than -5}
2 WE8
a
b
c
d
Use set builder notation to represent the following sets.
{Rational numbers greater than 5}

{Rational numbers greater than 5 and less than or equal to 20}
{Positive rational numbers less than 20}
{Integers between 5 and 20, except for 8 and 9}
13
e
f
g
h
i
{Positive integers less than 100, except for integers between 40 and 50}
{Real numbers from 2 to 5, including 2}
{Real numbers which are less than 5 and greater than 3}
{Real numbers which are less than 3 and greater than 7}
{Positive real numbers which are less than 3 and greater than 7}
3 WE9
Use interval notation to represent the following sets; then illustrate the sets on a
number line.
b {x: x < 2}
a {x: -3 x 1}
c {x: -2 < x < 1}
d {x: x 2}
e {x: 2 x < 5} {x: 4 x < 6}
f {x: x < 5} {x: 4 x < 6}
g {x: 2 x < 5} {x: 4 < x 6}
h {x: x > 5} {x: 4 < x 6}
4 MC Which of the following sets is an incorrect representation of the set
{all integers from 1 to 5}?
a {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
b {x: x Z, 1 x 5}
c {x: x Z, 1 x < 6}
E [1, 5]
D Z+\{x: x Z, x 6}
5 MC For the set illustrated on the given number line, which of the following cannot be true?
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
a (-5, 5]
b {x: -5 < x 5}
D {Real numbers from 5 to 5, not including -5}
1C
c {x: x Q, -5 < x 5}
e [-5, 5]
Properties of surds
A surd is any irrational number of the form n a , where a > 0 and n Z+. In this section we will
focus on the surds of the form a , where a Q.
For example, 21 is a surd, but 36 = 6 is a rational number and not a surd.
Simplifying surds
2 cannot be simplified because it does not have a perfect square factor, but
8 can be
simplified since 8 = 4 2 = 4 2 = 2 2 = 2 2 . A surd is not simplified until all perfect

square factors are removed, so the simplified version of 32 is not 2 8 but 4 2.
Worked Example 10
Simplify the following surds. (Assume that x and y are positive real numbers.)
a
384 b 3 405 c
-1
8
175
Think
a
Write
384 = 64 6
Express 384 as a product of two factors where

one factor is the largest possible perfect square.
Express 64 6 as the product of two surds.
= 64 6
Simplify the square root from the perfect
=8 6
square (that is, 64 = 8).

14
b 3 405 = 3 81 5
Express 405 as a product of two factors, one of

which is the largest possible perfect square.
Express 81 5 as a product of two surds.
= 3 81 5
Simplify 81.
= 39 5
Multiply together the whole numbers outside

the root (3 and 9).
= 27 5
Express 175 as a product of two factors where

one factor is the largest possible perfect square.
Express 25 7 as a product of 2 surds.
Simplify 25.
Multiply together the numbers outside the

square root sign.
-1
175 =
-1
8
-1
8
-1
8
-5
8
25 7
25 7
5 7
7
Addition and subtraction of surds

Only like surds may be added or subtracted. Like surds, in their simplest form, have the
same number under the square root sign. For example, 5 3 + 7 3 = (5 + 7) 3 = 12 3 and
5 3 - 7 3 = (5 - 7) 3 = - 2 3 .
Worked Example 11
Simplify each of the following expressions involving surds. Assume that a and b are positive real
numbers.
a 3 6 + 17 6 - 2 6 b 5 3 + 2 12 - 5 2 + 3 8 c
Think
a
100 a 3 b2 + ab 36 a - 5 4 a2 b
Write
All three terms are like, since they contain the

same surd ( 6 ), so group the like terms
together and simplify.
1
1
2
Simplify the surds where possible.
a 3 6 + 17 6 - 2 6 = (3 + 17 - 2) 6
= 18 6
b 5 3 + 2 12 - 5 2 + 3 8
= 5 3+2 43-5 2 +3 42
= 5 3 +22 3 -5 2 +32 2
= 5 3+4 3-5 2 +6 2
2
Collect the like terms.

Simplify the surds where possible.
=9 3+ 2
c
1
2
100 a3 b 2 + ab 36a - 5 4 a 2 b
= 1 10 a 2 a b 2 + ab 6 a - 5 2 a b
2
1
2
= 10 a b a + ab 6 a - 5 2 a b
= 5ab a + 6ab a - 10 a b
2
Add the like terms.
= 11ab a - 10 a b
15
multiplication of surds
Using the property a b = ab , where a, b R+, 2 6 = 12 = 4 3 = 2 3 .
Using the distributive property a(b + c) = ab + ac,
2 ( 3 + 6 ) = 2 3 + 2 6 = 6 + 12 = 6 + 2 3 .
Using an extension of the distributive property,
( 3 + 1) ( 3 - 2) = 3 3 - 2 3 + 3 - 2 = 3 - 3 - 2 = 1 - 3 .
When appropriate, the expansion of a perfect square may be used; that is,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2. For example,
( 3 - 2 )2 = 3 - 2 3 2 + 2 = 5 - 2 6
definition of the conjugate

The conjugate of a + b is a - b The conjugate of 3 - 2 5 is 3 + 2 5 . The product of a
conjugate pair is rational if the numbers under the square root are rational. For example,
( 3 + 2 )( 3 - 2 ) = 3 3 - 3 2 + 2 3 - 2 2 = 3 - 6 + 6 - 2 = 1.
This is a special case of the difference of perfect squares expansion, (a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2.
Worked example 12
eBook plus
Multiply the following surds, expressing answers in simplest form.
Tutorial
a 6 12 2 6
3
5
70 14 10
Think
a
int-1027
Worked example 12
WriTe
Simplify 12 .
a 6 12 2 6 = 6 4 3 2 6
=62 3 2 6
= 12 3 2 6
2
Multiply the coefficients and multiply the

surds.
= 24 18
Simplify the product surd.
= 24 9 2
= 24 3 2
= 72 2
Multiply the coefficients and multiply the

surds.
3
5
70 4 10 = 5 4 70 10
Simplify the product surd.
= 20 700
3
= 20 100 7
3
= 20 10 7
3
16
Simplify by dividing both 10 and 20 by 10

(cross-cancel).
3
= 2 7 or 3 7
2
Worked Example 13
Expand and simplify the following where possible.

a
7 ( 18 - 3) b - 2 3 ( 10 - 5 3 ) c ( 5 + 3 6 )( 2 3 - 2 )
Think
Write
Method 1: Using the rule

a
7 ( 18 - 3)
Write the expression.
Simplify 18.
= 7 (3 2 - 3)
Expand the bracket.
= 7 3 2 + 7 -3
Simplify.
= 3 14 - 3 7
-2
3 ( 10 - 5 3 )
(a) Expand the brackets.
= - 2 3 10 - 2 3 -5 3
(b) Be sure to multiply through

with the negative.
= -2 30 10 9
Simplify.
= -2 30 + 10 3
= -2 30 + 30
c
Expand the brackets.
c ( 5 + 3 6 ) (2 3 -
= 5 2 3 + 5 - 2 +3 6 2 3 +
3 6
Simplify.
2)
= 2 15 - 10 + 6 18 - 3 12
= 2 15 - 10 + 6 3 2 - 3 2 3
= 2 15 - 10 + 18 2 - 6 3
Method 2: Using a CAS calculator

a,b 1
& c
On the Main screen complete

the entry lines as:
7 ( 18 - 3)
3 ( 10 - 5 3 )
-2
( 5 + 3 6 )(2 3 - 2 )
Press E after each entry.
Write the answers.
a 3( 2 - 1) 7
b 30 - 2 30
c (2 3 -
2 ) 5 - 6 3 + 18 2
17
Division of surds
a
b
a
6
6
, where a, b R+. For example,
=
= 3
b
2
2
a
b
ab
=
, where a and b are rational, we can express
b
b
b
b
answers with rational denominators. For example,
Using the property
12 2 3
3
=
=
6
6
3
6
6
6
Using the property of conjugates, binomial surds in the denominator may be rationalised. For
example,
7-2 2
7+ 2
7-2 2
7+ 2
By multiplying the original surd by
7- 2
7- 2
7 - 14 - 2 14 + 2 2 11 - 3 14
=
7-2
5
7- 2
, we are multiplying by 1, so the number is

7- 2
unchanged but is finally expressed in its rational denominator form.
Worked Example 14
Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.

Assume that x and y are positive real numbers.
a
9 88
6 99
6
13
1
2 6- 3
1
3 6 +2 3
Think
a
Write
9 88
6 99
Simplify the fraction under the root.
9 8
6 9
Simplify the surds.
92 2
63
Multiply the whole numbers in the numerator

and those in the denominator.
= 2
Write the fraction.
Multiply both the numerator and the

denominator by the surd 13 or 1.
Rewrite the surds, using
a
b
a
.
b
9 88
6 99
6
13
=
=
18
Write the first fraction.
Multiply the numerator and the denominator

by the conjugate of the denominator.
=
=
6
13
13
13
78
13
1
2 6- 3
1
2 6- 3
2 6+ 3
2 6+ 3
2 6+ 3
(2)2 6 - 3
Expand the denominator.
Simplify the denominator.
Write the second fraction.
Multiply the numerator and the denominator

by the conjugate of the denominator.
Expand the denominator.
Simplify the denominator.
Add the two fractions together.

Find the lowest common denominator first.
2 6+ 3 3 6-2 3
+
21
42
2 6+ 3
21
1
3 6+2 3
1
3 6+2 3
3 6-2 3
3 6-2 3
3 6-2 3
6 - 22 3
32
3 6-2 3
42
2 6 + 3 2 3 6 - 2 3
+
2
21
42
4 6 +2 3 3 6 -2 3
+
42
42
10
Add the numerators.
7 6
42
11
Simplify where appropriate.
6
6
REMEMBER
1. To simplify a surd, take out all perfect square factors from the number under the root sign.
2. Like surds have the same number under the root sign when expressed in its simplest form.
3. Only like surds can be added and subtracted.
4. Multiplication properties: a b = ab , a ( b + c ) = ab + ac , and
( a + b )( c + d ) = ac + ad + bc + bd
5. The conjugate of a + b is a - b .
6. Special expansions:
(a) Expansion of perfect squares: (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
(b) Difference of perfect squares: (a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
7. Division properties:
( a + b)
( c + d)
a
b
( a + b)
( c + d)
a a
,
=
b b
( c - d)
( c - d)
a
b
ab
=
b
b
b
=
ac - ad + bc - bd , using the conjugate

c-d
of c + d .
19
Exercise
1c
Properties of surds
1 WE10
a
f
Simplify the following surds.

b
24
g 7 80
300
2 WE11
56
125
128
4
98
2 18
5
48
-
3 50
10
Simplify the following expressions.
a 7 2 + 4 3 - 5 2 - 6 3
b 2 + 5 7 - 6 - 4 7
c 3 5 - 6 3 + 5 5 - 4 2 - 8 5
d 18 - 12 + 75 + 27
50 - 72 + 80 + 45
2 3 3 2 5 3 5 2
+
4
8
8
4
3 WE12
f 3 12 - 5 18 + 4 27 + 5 98
h
2 27 3 32 5 48 5 2
+
5
5
3
2
Express the following surds in their simplest form.
a 6 15
b 2 3 5 7
c 4 7 3 14
20
15
3
4
4 WE13 Expand, giving your answers in their simplest form.

b
c 2 3 (3 3 + 2 )
-4
e ( 5 - 3 )( 5 - 2 )
f (3 3 - 2)(2 5 + 3)
g ( 18 - 12 )( 3 - 2 2 )
h ( 5 - 3 )2
i ( 5 + 7 )2
j (2 3 - 3 2 )2
k (2 12 + 3 18 )2
l ( 5 - 3 )( 5 + 3 )
m (2 5 - 3 )(2 5 + 3 )
n (2 3 + 3 2 )(2 3 - 3 2 )
a 3 ( 5 - 2 )
2( 7 - 6)
3 ( 32 - 3 12 )
o (5 5 - 10)(5 5 + 10)
5 WE14 Express the following surds in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
a
e
i
m
18
3
4 3
7 5
3
3- 2
12 - 8
12 + 8
2 24
3 3
2 8
3 12
2 2
2 5+3 2
2 5- 3
5-2 3
3 88
22
5
4 2
5- 3
5+ 3
3 5-4
5+4
5
3
1
5- 3
5+ 3
5- 3
2 18 - 24
3 8 - 54
6 Express the following surds in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
1
1
1
1
a

b
+
2 2 -3 2 2 +3
3 2 -2 3 2 2 +3 3
c
20
3 5
3 2-2 3
2 5 -1
2 2 +3 3
2 5+3 3
3 5 -2 3
3 5 -2 3
2 5+3 3
e
f
4 2 +3 3
4 2-2 3
2 5+3 3
3 5-4 3
5 2-2 3
Exam tip When subtracting fractions, be careful
of the signs. Make sure you subtract the whole
second fraction. Use brackets to help.
6 2 +3 3
3 5+4 3
[Authors advice]
2 5+3 3
7 Given that x = 2 - 3 2, find each of the following, giving the answer in surd form with a
rational denominator.
1
1
x2 - 2x
a x +
b x c
x
x
x+2
d
x2 + 2x
x+3
e x2 - 4x - 14
f 2x2 - 2x - 9
g Using your answers to e and f, state if 2 - 3 2 is a solution of x2 - 4x - 14 = 0 and

2x2 - 2x - 9 = 0.
8 Show that 5 - 2 3 is a solution of one of the following equations: x2 - 13x + 10 = 0 or
x2 - 10x + 13 = 0.
9 Show that 2 + 1 is a solution of both of the following equations: x 2 - 2 2 x + 1 = 0 and
x 2 - (2 2 + 3) x + 4 + 3 2 = 0.
10 MC Expressed in its simplest form,
a 3

a 2a
3
2
1
75 27 48 =
5
3
2
D 0
c 7 3
14 a3 b 2
7ab 2
c 2ab
b 2a
E - 3 3
D 2a 2 b 0
2a 2
12 MC Expressed in its simplest form, (3 3 - 4 8 )(2 3 - 3 8 ) =

a 114 - 34 6
b 120 - 34 6
D 18 - 24 2
E - 18 - 34 6

a
5 3
2 2
15 21
6 14
c 5 3
2
5 6
2 2
2 5+ 3
5- 3
a 13 + 3 15
2
b 12 - 15
2
D 12 + 3 15
2
E 13 + 15
2

a 3 5
D 52 - 30 5
c - 78 - 17 24
E 5 6
2
=
c 18 - 3 15
2
3 5-5
3 5+5
b - 30 5
D 5 6
4
3 5+5
3 5-5
=
c 30 5
E 3 5
21
1d
eBook plus
The need to invent further numbers became clear when equations such as
x2 = -1 and x2 = -9 were considered. Clearly there are no real solutions,
so imaginary numbers were invented, using the symbol i, where i2 = -1.
The equation x2 = -1 has two solutions, x = -i and x = i. As
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 1.2
-9
= 9 - 1 = 9 - 1 = 3 i 2 = 3i, x 2 = - 9 has the solutions x = 3i.

Quadratic equations such as x2 - 4x + 5 = 0 were investigated further. Using the general
formula for the solution of a quadratic equation, that is, if ax2 + bx + c = 0, then
b 2 - 4 ac
4 16 - 20 4 - 4 4 2i
,x=
=
=
= 2 i. If the discriminant, b2 - 4ac is
2a
2
2
2
negative, the equation has no real solutions, but it does have two complex solutions.
A complex number is any number of the form x + yi, where x, y R.
C is the set of complex numbers where C = {x + yi : x, y R}
Just as x is commonly used in algebra to represent a real number, z is commonly used to
represent a complex number, where z = x + yi.
C
If x = 0, z = yi is a pure imaginary number. If y = 0, z = x
R
is a real number, so that. R C. This is represented on the
Q
Venn diagram at right.
x=
-b
Z
N
notation
If z = a + bi, the real component of z, Re(z) = a, and the imaginary component of z, Im(z) = b.
For example, if z = - 2 - 2 3i, Re(z) = -2 and Im(z) = - 2 3 (not - 2 3i). Similarly,
Re(- 2 - 2 3i) = - 2 and Im(- 2 - 2 3i) = - 2 3 )
equality of complex numbers

If a + bi = c + di, then a = c and b = d.
For two complex numbers z1 and z2 to be equal, their real and imaginary components must be
equal.
Worked example 15
If (x + 2) + (y - 4)i = (2x + y) + xi, find x and y.

Think
22
Let the real parts be equal and the imaginary parts be

equal to form two equations.
Rearrange the linear simultaneous equations.
Add equations [3] and [4] to solve for x.
Substitute x = -1 into equation [2] to find the value of y.
State the answer.
WriTe
Re: x + 2 = 2x + y
Im: y - 4 = x
-x
-x
- y = -2
+y=4
-2x
=2
x = -1
y - 4 = -1
y=3
x = -1, y = 3
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
multiplication of a complex number by a real constant

If z = a + bi, then kz = k(a + bi) = ka + kbi.
For example, if z = -2 + 3i, then -3z = -3(-2 + 3i) = 6 - 9i.
adding and subtracting complex numbers

If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di, then z1 + z2 = (a + c) + (b + d )i and z1 - z2 = (a - c) + (b - d)i.
Worked example 16
eBook plus
-3
If z1 = 2 3i and z2 = + 4i, find

a z1 + z2
b z1 - z2
Tutorial
c 3z1 4z2.
Think
int-1028
Worked example 16
WriTe

a Use the definition for addition of complex
numbers:
z1 + z2 = (a + c) + (b + d)i
b Use the definition for subtraction of
complex numbers:
z1 z2 = (a c) + (b d)i
c First multiply each complex number by
the constant and then use the definition
for subtraction of complex numbers to
answer the question.
a z1 + z2 = (2 - 3) + (-3 + 4)i
= -1 + i
b z1 - z2 = (2 + 3) + (-3 - 4)i
= 5 - 7i
c 3z1 - 4z2 = 3(2 - 3i) - 4(-3 + 4i)
= 6 - 9i - (-12 + 16i)
= 18 - 25i

After setting the calculator to Cplx
mode, on the Main screen complete
the entry lines as:
2 - 3i W x
-3 + 4i W y
x+y
x-y
3x - 4y
Note: x and y are substituted for z1
and z2.
a,b 1
& c
Write the answers.
a z1 + z2 = -1 + i
b z1 - z2 = 5 - 7i
c 3z1 - 4z2 = 18 - 25i
rememBer
1. Complex numbers are of the form a + bi where i2 = -1.

2. If z = a + bi, then Re(z) = a and Im(z) = b.
3. If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di then z1 + z2 = (a + c) + (b + d)i and
z1 - z2 = (a - c) + (b - d)i.
4. If a + bi = c + di, then a = c and b = d.
Chapter 1
23
Exercise
1d

1
Express the following in terms of i.

a
16
10 + 10
c 2 +
20
- 28
12
State the values of Re(z) and Im(z) for the following.

a 3 + 4i
d 8 -
3
a
c
e
g
40
WE15
b - 2 + 2i
c ( 2 - 1) + ( 2 + 1)i
e -6
f 13i
Solve to find x and y in the following.
(x + 1) + (y - 1)i = 2 + 3i
(2x + i) + (3 2yi) = x + 3i
(2x + 3yi) + 2(x + 2yi) = 3 + 2i
(2x 3i) + (3 + 2y)i = y xi
4 WE16
b (x + 4) (3 + yi) = 2 + 5i
d (x + 2i) + 2(y + xi) = 7 4i
f (x + i) + (2 + yi) = 2x + 3yi
If z1 = 3 4i and z2 = 2 3i, evaluate the following.
a z1 + z2
b z1 - z2
d 2z1 - 3z2
2 z1 + 2 2 z2
c 2z1 + 3z2
f
2 z1 + 3z2
5 Find the following components.

a Re(2 + 3i + 3(4 - 2i))
b Re( 3 + 2 2i + 2 (- 3 - 3i ))
c Im(2(2 - 3i) - 3(4 - 2i))
d Im(2 3 - 2 2i + 2 (- 3 - 6i ))
6 MC If z1 = 2 - i and z2 = 3 - 2i, then Re(2z1 - 3z2) =
a 13
b -13
d -5
e 4
c 5
7 MC If z1 = 2 - i and z2 = 3 - 2i, then Im(2z1 - 3z2) =

b 4
a 4i
d -8
e -8i
c -4
8 MC If (2 + xi) + (4 - 3i) = x + 3yi, then the respective values of x and y are:

a 6, 1
b 3, 6
c 6, -3
d 6, 3
e 1, 6
1e
Multiplication and division of

complex numbers
Multiplication of complex numbers
If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di where a, b, c, d R, then

z1z2 = (a + bi)(c + di)

= ac + adi + bci + bdi2

= (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
Note that this is an application of the distributive property.
24
Worked Example 17
Simplify
a 2i(2 - 3i) b (2 - 3i)(-3 + 4i).
Think
Write
a 2i(2 - 3i) = 4i - 6i2
a Expand the brackets.
= 6 + 4i
b Expand the brackets as for binomial
expansion and simplify.
b (2 -
3i)(-3
+ 4i) = -6 + 8i + 9i - 12i2
= 6 + 17i
Alternatively, on the Main screen,

complete the entry lines as:
2i(2 - 3i)
(2 - 3i) (3 + 4i)
The conjugate of a complex number

If z = a + bi, then its conjugate, z , is z = a - bi .
The sum of a complex number and its conjugate z + z = a + bi + a - bi = 2a, which is a real
number.
The product of a complex number and its conjugate

zz = (a + bi)(a - bi)
= a2 - (bi)2
= a2 + b2, which is a real number.
\
Worked Example 18
If z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = -4 - 5i, find

a z1 + z2
b z1 + z2
c z1 z2
d z1 z2 .
Think
Write

a
Determine the conjugate of each

complex numbers using the
definition: if z = a + bi, then its
conjugate, z , is z = a - bi .
Evaluate z1 + z2 .
z1 = 2 + 3i
z1 = 2 - 3i
z2 = -4 - 5i
z2 = - 4 + 5i
z1 + z2 = (2 - 3i) + ( - 4 + 5i)
= - 2 + 2i
25
To evaluate z1 + z2 , first evaluate

z1 + z2.
Evaluate z1 + z2 .
b z1 + z2 = (2 + 3i) + (-4 - 5i)
= -2 - 2i
z1 + z2 = - 2 + 2i
c Evaluate z1 z2 using binomial expansion.
z1 z2 = (2 - 3i)(-4 + 5i)
= -8 + 10i + 12i - 15i2
= 7 + 22i
d Evaluate z1z2 first and then evaluate z1z2 .
z1z2 = (2 + 3i)(-4 - 5i)

= -8 - 10i - 12i - 15i2
= 7 - 22i
z1z2 = 7 + 22i

On the Main screen, complete the entry lines
as:
2 + 3i W x
-4 5i W y
conjg(x) + conjg(y)
conjg(x + y)
conjg(x) conjg(y)
conjg(x y)
Note: conjg can be typed directly onto the
screen or can be found by tapping:
Action
Complex
conjg
division of complex numbers

If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di where a, b, c, d R, then using the conjugate
z1 a + bi
=
z2 c + di
a + bi c - di
c + di c - di
ac - adi + bci - bdi 2
=
c 2 - (di)2
(ac + bd ) - (ad - bc)i
=
c2 + d 2
ac + bd ad - bc
= 2
i
c + d 2 c2 + d 2
=
Worked example 19
eBook plus
Express each of the following in a + bi form.

4-i
a
2
26
3 - 4i
b
3i
c (3 - 2i)-1
2 - 3i
d
2+i
Tutorial
int-1029
Worked example 19
Think
Write

a Divide each term of the numerator by 2.
b Multiply the numerator and denominator
by i and then divide each term of the

numerator by 3. Write the answer in the
required form a + bi.
Express (3 - 2i)-1 as a reciprocal.
Multiply the numerator and the

denominator by the complex
conjugate of the denominator.
4-i
1
= 2- i
2
2
3 - 4i i 3i - 4
=
3i
i
3
4
=
-i
3
c (3 - 2i )-1 =
1
3 + 2i
3 - 2i 3 + 2i
3 + 2i
=
9 - (2i)2
3 + 2i
=
9 - 4i 2
3 + 2i
=
13
Write the answer in the required

form a + bi.
Multiply the numerator and the

denominator by the complex
conjugate of the denominator.
Write the answer in the required

form a + bi.
3 2
+ i
13 13
2 - 3i 2 - 3i 2 - i
=
2+i
2+i 2-i

1
3 - 2i
4 - 2i - 6i + 3i 2
4 - i2
1 - 8i
=
5
1 8
= - i
5 5
=

On the Main screen, complete the entry lines
as:
4 -i
2
3 - 4i
3i
(3 - 2i)1
2 - 3i
2+i
27
REMEMBER
1. Multiplication of complex numbers:

If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di where a, b, c, d R, then

z1z2 = (a + bi)(c + di)

= (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i
2. If z = a + bi, then its conjugate, z , is z = a - bi , where the sum and product are both
real.
z + z = 2a and z z = a 2 - (bi)2
= a2 + b2
3. Division of complex numbers:
z1 a + bi
=

z2 c + di

= a + bi c - di
c + di c - di
=
c 2 - (di)2
(ac + bd ) - (ad - bc)i
c2 + d 2
ac + bd ad - bc
=
i
c2 + d 2 c2 + d 2
=
Exercise
1e
Multiplication and division of complex numbers

1 WE17 & 19
Evaluate the following, giving the answer in its simplest a + bi form.
a 2i(2 + 3i)
b (2 - 3i)(1 + i)
d (2 - 3i)2
e (6 + 7i)(6 - 7i)
3 + 4i
3 - 4i
h
-1
j (3 + 2i)
m
(3 - 2i)2
(2 - i ) 2
2-i 3+i
3 + 2i 2 - i
1 + 2i
2+i
c (-2 - i)(1 - 3i)

3 - 4i
f 5i
(2 + i ) 2
1 + 2i
1
1
l
+
2 - 3i 2 + 3i
i
-2
k (3 + 2i)
n 2 + 3i +
1
2 + 3i
3-i
3+i
3+i
3-i
2 WE18
If z1 = 4 - 3i and z2 = 3 - 4i, evaluate the following, giving the answer in its
simplest a + bi form.
a z1
d
28
z12
b z1z2
c z1 z2
e 2iz2
f ( z1 + z2 )2
g z1 1
j
z1
z
z
i 1
z2
z1
z2
k z1 +
1
z1
-1
z1 z2
z1 z2
z1 z1
=
z2 z2
If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di, prove that:
b z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
a z1 z2 = z1z2
4 Find x and y in each of the following.

a (x + yi)(2 + i) = 3 + 6i
x + yi
= 1+ i
1 + 2i
5 Solve for z.
b (2 - 3i)z = -3 - 2i
a (4 + 3i)z = 2 - i
6 For each of the following, state z and find z 1, then state z 1 in terms of z.
a z = 4 + 5i
b z = a + bi
7 mC Expressed in a + bi form, (2 3 - 3i)(3 3 - 2i) =

a 24 - 13 3i
b 12 - 13 3i
D (6 3 - 6) - 13 3i
E 12 - 5 3i
(2 3 - 3i)
8 mC Expressed in a + bi form,
(3 3 - 2i)
24
31
5 3
31
12
5 3
- 31
31
24
23
5 3
i
31
212
23
c (6 3 + 6) - 13 3i
=
c
5 3
23
24
31
13 3
31
i
-
9 mC Expressed in a + bi form, (1 + i)2 + (1 + i) 2 =

a
5
i
2
9
4
-4i
9
4
3
i
2
-4i
c 0
10 mC If (2x + yi)(3 - 2i) = 4 + 5i, then the respective values of x and y are:
1F
2
13
1
5
and
and
23
13
23
5
1
13
2
5
and
and
23
13
23
5
7
13
and
23
13
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 1.3
representing complex
numbers on an argand
diagram
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0968
Complex sums and differences
Whereas real numbers can be represented on a number line, complex numbers with their real
and imaginary components require a plane.
Chapter 1
29
The Argand diagram or Argand plane has a horizontal axis Re(z) and a vertical axis Im(z). The
complex number z = a + bi is represented by the point (a, b). Because of the similarities with the
Cartesian plane a + bi is referred to as the Cartesian or rectangular form.
The complex numbers 2 + 3i, 4, 3i and 2 4i are shown on the Argand plane below.
Im(z)
4
2 + 3i
2
4 2
4
4 Re(z)
3i
2 4i 4
Worked Example 20
a Express the following in their simplest form: i0, i, i2, i3, i4, i5.
b Use the pattern in these results to find the simplest form for: i8, i21 and i 63.
c Illustrate the points from part a on an Argand plane, and state their distance from the origin and
the angle of rotation about the origin to rotate from one power of i to the next.
Think
Write/Draw
a Use the fact that i2 = 1 and your knowledge of
a i0 = 1
b The pattern repeats as shown in part a .
i1 = i
i2 = -1
i3 = i2 i = -i
i4 = i2 i2 = 1
i5 = i4 i = i
b i8 = (i4)2
=1
i21 = (i5)4 i
=i
i 63 = (i 15)4 i3
3
=i
= -i
index laws to simplify each term.
Rule up a pair of labelled, scaled axes for

the Argand plane.
Place each of the points from part a onto
the plane and label them.
Im(z)
2
i2
2 1
5
1 i, i
0
i , i4
1 i3
2 Re(z)
30
Determine the distance of each point from

the origin.
All points are 1 unit from the origin.
State the angle of rotation about the origin

to rotate from one power of i to the next.
The angle of rotation about the origin to rotate

from one power of i to the next is 90 in an
anticlockwise direction.
REMEMBER
1. Complex numbers are represented as an ordered pair on a complex plane or Argand

diagram.
2. For an Argand plane, the horizontal axis is Re(z), and the vertical axis is Im(z).
Exercise
1f
Representing complex numbers on an Argand

diagram
1 Plot the following points on an Argand plane.
a 2 + 3i
d -2 - 3i
c -2 + 3i
f 2
b 2 - 3i
e -3i
2 WE20a Give the following in their simplest form.

a i7
d i 15
g (2i)9
3 a
b
c
d
b i37
e (2i)6
h -(-2i) 9
c i 4
f (-2i)8
If z = 3 + 2i, state z and calculate z 1.

Plot z, z , and z 1 on an Argand plane.
What transformation plots z onto z 1?
What is the relationship between the origin and the points representing z and z 1?
4 a If z = 2 + 3i, calculate iz, i2z, i3z and i4z.

b Plot z, iz, i2z, i3z and i4z on an Argand plane.
c State a transformation that will plot the point inz onto in + 1z for n Z+.
-
5 a If z = 1 + i, calculate z 2, z 1, z0, z2, z3 and z4.

b Plot z 2, z 1, z0, z, z2, z3 and z4 on an Argand plane.
c State the rotation required and the change in distance from the origin required to plot the
point zn onto zn + 1 for n Z.
d State the rotation required and the distance from the origin required to plot the point z0
onto zn for n Z+.
e State, using the results above, the following powers of z in their simplest Cartesian form.

i z5
ii z 3
iii z10
iv z17
v z 13.
1G
Factorising quadratic expressions

and solving quadratic equations over
the complex number field
In the introduction to complex numbers, a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0,
-
b b 2 - 4 ac
. The
2a
expression under the square root sign is called the discriminant, and is represented by , where
= b2 - 4ac. The discriminant can be used to determine the nature of the solutions. It can also
be used to determine possible methods for factorising a quadratic expression.
The table overleaf gives the method for factorising a quadratic expression and the nature of
the solutions of a quadratic equation for given values of , where a, b, c Q\{0}.
where a R\{0}, b, c R, was solved using the quadratic formula x =
31
Values of the discriminant
Factorising methods for an

expression
Nature of solution(s) of an
equation
=0
A perfect square.
State the answer.
One rational solution
is a perfect square
Factorise over Q or complete

the square.
Two rational solutions
> 0 and is not a perfect

square
Complete the square.
Two irrational solutions
<0
Complete the square.
Two complex solutions
Factorising quadratic expressions over the complex

number field
Just as in previous years, where factorising over R implies that all the coefficients must be
real numbers, factorising over C implies that all the coefficients must be complex numbers.
As factors over C are required in this section, the variable label will be z. In worked
example 21 below, the factors for the expressions in parts a and b are factors over both R and
C, but the factors for the expression in part c are factors over C only. It is still correct to say that
2z2 + 3 does not factorise over R.
If c = 0 and a, b R\{0}, then factorise az2 + bz by taking out the common factor z(az + b).
If b = 0 and a, c R\{0}, then factorise az2 + c using the difference of squares to
factorise.
Worked Example 21
Factorise each of the following quadratic expressions over C.

a 2z2 + 6z
b 2z2 - 6
c 2z2 + 3
Think
Write

a Factorise 2z2 + 6z by taking out the
highest common factor.
Factorise 2z2 - 6 by taking out the

highest common factor.
Factorise further using the difference
of two squares.
Factorise 2z2 + 3 by taking out the

common factor of 2.
Factorise further using the difference

of two squares. Let 3 = 3 i 2.
2 2
1
2
32
a 2z2 + 6z = 2z(z + 3)
2z2 - 6 = 2(z3 - 3)
= 2( z - 3 )( z + 3 )
3
2z 2 + 3 = 2 z 2 +
2
3
= 2 z2 - i2
3
3
= 2 z i z +
i
2
2
6
6
= 2 z i z +
i
2
2
Rationalise the denominators by

multiplying the relevant terms by
2
2

a , b On the Main screen, tap:
& c Action
Transformation
rFactor
Complete the entry lines as:
rFactor(2z2 + 6z)
rFactor(2z2 6)
rFactor(2z2 + 3)
Worked Example 22
Factorise each of the following quadratic expressions over C.

a z2 - 6z + 9 b z2 - 4z - 60 c 2z2 - 6z - 6 d -2z2 - 3z - 5
Think
a
Write
Calculate the value of the discriminant to

determine the nature of the factors.
Since = 0, the expression is a perfect square.

Since = 256, which is a perfect square, then

the factors will be rational.

Since = 84, which is not a perfect square but

is positive, use the difference of two squares to
find two factors over R.
a = b2 - 4ac
= (-6)2 - 4(1)(9)
=0
2
z - 6z + 9 = (z - 3)2
b = b2 - 4ac
= (-4)2 - 4(1)(-60)
= 256
z2 - 4z - 60 = (z - 10)(z + 6)
c = b2 - 4ac
= (-6)2 - 4(2)(-6)
= 84
2z2 - 6z - 6 = 2(z2 - 3z - 3)
2
3
= 2 z 2 - 3z + 2 - 3
()
( )-
3
= 2 z - 2
=2 z- 2d

21
2
( )
21
4
)( z -
3
2
21
2
3
2
d = b2 - 4ac
= (-3)2 - 4(-2)(-5)
= -31
33
Since = -31 which is not a perfect square but

is negative, use the difference of two squares to
find two factors over C.
- 2z 2
- 3z - 5 = - 2 z 2 + 2 z + 2
( ) +
5
2
9
- 16
31
i
4
3
= - 2 z2 + 4 z +
( )+
2(z + )
3
= - 2 z + 4
=-
3
4
3
4
31
16
31 2
16 i
= - 2 z + 43 -
31
i
4
)( z +
3
4
Solving quadratic equations over the complex

number field
Two methods can be used to solve quadratic equations over the field complex number:
1. Factor first and use the null factor property to state solutions
2. Use the formula for the solution of a quadratic equation.
The null factor property states that if ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0 or a = b = 0. From worked
example 22 d,
3
31
- 2 z 2 - 3z - 5 = - 2 z + 3 - 31 i
- 3
z+ +
i ,
4
4
4
4 so the solutions of 2z - 3z - 5 = 0 are from
z+
3
31
3
31
3
31
i = 0 and z + +
i = 0. The solutions are z =
i.
4
4
4
4
4
4
If az2 + bz + c = 0, where a C \{0}, b, c C, the formula for the solution of the quadratic
equation is z =
b b 2 - 4 ac
.
2a
Worked example 23
eBook plus
Solve the following using the formula for the solution of a quadratic equation.
a 2z2 + 4z + 5 = 0
b 2iz2 + 4z - 5i = 0
Think
Use the quadratic formula

-
b b 2 - 4 ac
to solve over C,
2a
where a = 2, b = 4, c = 5.
z=
a z=
34
Express the answer in the form a + bi.
4 16 - 40
4
24
4
-
4 4-6
=
4
=
4 2 6i 2
4
= -1
int-1030
Worked example 23
WriTe

1
Tutorial
6
i
2
Use the quadratic formula

-
b b 2 - 4 ac
to solve over C,
2a
where a = 2i, b = 4, c = -5i.
z=
b z=
=
=
4 16 - 4 -10i 2
4i
4 16 - 40
4i
4 - 24
4i
4 4 -6 i
i
4i
( - 4 2 6i)i
=
4
=
Express the answer in the form a + bi.
=i
=

a On the Main screen, tap:
& Action
b Advanced
solve
solve(2z2 + 4z + 5 = 0, z)
solve(2iz2 + 4z - 5i = 0, z)
6
2
- 6
6
+ i or
+i
2
2
REMEMBER
1. Quadratic expressions can be factorised. Quadratic equations can be solved.

2. Quadratic expressions of the form az2 + c can be factorised using the difference of
squares method.
Quadratic expressions of the form az2 + bz can be factorised by taking out z as a
common factor.
Quadratic expressions of the form az2 + bz + c can be factorised by completing the
squares method.
3. Quadratic equations of the form az2 + bz + c = 0 can be solved by either factorising and
using the null factor property or by using the quadratic formula.
4. The formula for the solution of az2 + bz + c = 0, where a C\{0}, b, c C, is
-b
b 2 - 4 ac
.
2a
5. The discriminant, = b2 - 4ac, can be used to determine the number (one or two) and
the nature of the solutions, particularly if they are rational, irrational or complex only.
6. Real solutions of a quadratic equations can be represented on a number line, whereas
complex solutions can be represented on an Argand diagram.
z=
35
Exercise
1g
Factorising quadratic expressions and solving

quadratic equations over the complex number
field
1 WE21
Factorise the following quadratic expressions over C.
a 2z2 - 6
1
d 2z2 +
2
b 2z2 - 3
c 3z2 + 6
e z2 - 4z
f 6z2 - 2z
g 2 2 z 2 - 2 z
h -4z2 - 3z
Factorise the following quadratic expressions over C without using the completion of the
square method.
a z2 + 8z + 16
b 2z2 - 8z + 8
c 2z2 + 3z - 2
2
2
d z + 2z - 3
e 2z - 2z - 24
f -12z2 + 10z + 12
3 WE22
Factorise the following quadratic expressions over C using the completion of the
square method.
a z2 + 4z + 14
b z2 + 10z + 16
c 2z2 + 5z - 3
d z2 + z - 3
e z2 + 8z + 16
f z2 + 2z + 3
2
2
g 2z - 5z + 2
h 2z + 8z + 16
i -2z2 + 5z + 4
2
j 4z + 4z - 1
4 WE22
Factorise the following quadratic expression, and then solve the given quadratic
equation.
a 3z2 - 2 = 0
b 2z2 + 5 = 0
c 2z2 - 7z = 0
d z2 - 6z + 5 = 0
e z2 - 5z + 6 = 0
f 2z2 - 5z + 3 = 0
g z2 - 4z + 2 = 0
h 2z2 + 5z + 4 = 0
2
i z - 6z + 5 = 0
j -3z2 - 2z - 1 = 0
5 WE23 Solve the following quadratic equations over C using the formula for the solution of a
quadratic equation.
a z2 - 10z + 25 = 0
b z2 - 10z + 5 = 0
2 + 4z + 7 = 0
d 2z2 - 7z + 6 = 0
c z
2
e 3z - 7z + 7 = 0
f -2z2 + 4z - 6 = 0
6 Expand the following.
a (z - (2 + 3i)) (z - (2 - 3i))
b (z - (2 + 3i))2
c (z - 2 + 3i) (z - 3 - 2i)
7 Solve the following quadratic equations over C, using the formula for the solution of a
quadratic equation.
a iz2 - 6z + 5i = 0
b (2 + i)z2 - iz - (2 - i) = 0
c -3iz2 - (1 + i)z + 5i = 0
8 MC Using the smallest set from Q, I and C, the solutions of 2z2 - 5z + 6 = 0 and
5z2 - 11z + 5 = 0, respectively, belong to the sets:
a C, C
b C, Q
c C, I
D I, I
E I, Q
36
9 MC The factors of z2 + 6z + 11 and 2z2 - 4z + 3, respectively, are:
2
2
a ( z + 3 - 2i)( z + 3 + 2i), 2 z - 1 i z - 1 +
i
2
2
2
2
B ( z + 3 - 2i)( z + 3 + 2i), z - 1 i z - 1 +
i
2
2
2
2
C ( z - 3 - 2i)( z - 3 + 2i), 2 z - 1 i z - 1 +
i
2
2
2
2
D ( z + 3 - 2i)( z + 3 + 2i), z + 1 i z + 1 +
i
2
2
2
2
E ( z - 3 - 2i)( z - 3 + 2i), 2 z + 1 i z + 1 +
i
2
2
37
Summary
Recall and apply the definitions of , , , , A, A B, A B, and C\D, and how to illustrate these on a
Venn diagram.
Recall and apply the definitions of the following sets of numbers: N, D, Z, Q, I, and R and their relationships.
Rational numbers, expressed as a decimal, are either terminating or non-terminating, recurring.
Irrational numbers, expressed as a decimal, are non-terminating and non-recurring.
Division by zero is not defined.
p
Given a non-terminating, non-repeating decimal, use the process to express the number in the form of a
q
rational number.
Do simple calculations in scientific notation by hand and more complex calculations using a calculator.
Express answers to the stated number of significant figures or decimal places.
Set builder notation. For example, {x: x Q, -3 < x 17}. If x R, the set does not have to be stated. For
example, {x: -3 < x 17}.
Interval notation. For example, (-3, 17] = {x: -3 < x 17}, [-3, ) ={x: x -3}. This notation can only be
used if x R.
All subsets of R can be illustrated on a number line.
Properties of surds
To simplify a surd, take out all perfect square factors from the number under the root sign.
Like surds have the same number under the root sign when expressed in its simplest form.
Only like surds can be added and subtracted.
Multiplication properties:
a b = ab , a ( b + c ) = ab + ac and
( a + b )( c + d ) = ac + ad + bc + bd
The conjugate of a + b is a - b
Special expansions:
1. Expansion of perfect squares: (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
2. Difference of perfect squares: (a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
Division properties:
( a + b)
( c + d)
a
b
( a + b)
( c + d)
a
,
b
a
b
a
b
ab
=
b
b
b
( c - d)
( c - d)
ac - ad + bc - bd
, using the conjugate of
c-d
Complex numbers are of the form a + bi where i2 = 1.

If z = a + bi, then Re(z) = a and Im(z) = b.
If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di then z1 + z2 = (a + c) + (b + d)i and z1 z2 = (a c) + (b d)i.
If a + bi = c + di, then a = c and b = d.
Multiplication and division of complex numbers
Multiplication of complex numbers:

1. If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di where a, b, c, d R, then

z1z2 = (a + bi)( c + di)
= (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
38
c + d.
2. If z = a + bi, then its conjugate, z , is z = a - bi where the sum and product are both real.

z + z = 2a and zz = a2 - (bi)2

= a2 + b2
Division of complex numbers:
z1 a + bi
=
z2 c + di
= a + bi c - di
c + di c - di
=
c 2 - (di)2
(ac + bd ) - (ad - bc)i
=
c2 + d 2
ac + bd ad - bc
=
i
c2 + d 2 c2 + d 2
Representing complex numbers on an Argand diagram
Complex numbers are represented as an ordered pair on a complex plane or Argand diagram.
For an Argand plane, the horizontal axis is Re(z), and the vertical axis is Im(z).
Factorising quadratic expressions and solving quadratic equations over the complex number field
Quadratic expressions can be factorised. Quadratic equations can be solved.

Quadratic expressions of the form az2 + c can be factorised using the difference of squares method.
Quadratic expressions of the form az2 + bz can be factorised by taking out z as a common factor.
Quadratic expressions of the form az2 + bz + c can be factorised by completing the square method.
Quadratic equations of the form az2 + bz + c = 0 can be solved by either factorising and using the null factor
property or by using the quadratic formula.
The formula for the solution of az2 + bz + c = 0, where a C\{0}, b, c C, is
-b
b 2 - 4 ac
.
2a
The discriminant, = b2 - 4ac, can be used to determine the number (one or two) and the nature of the
solutions, particularly if they are rational, irrational or complex only.
Real solutions of a quadratic equation can be represented on a number line, whereas complex solutions can
be represented on an Argand diagram.
z=
39
chapter review
Short answer
1 For each of the following, state all the sets (from Z,

Q, I, R and C) in which they are a member.
a
-4
b
1
e 27 3
-2 7
16
3
g 2p
d 3 3
h -3.221
i 3.21683947. . . (no pattern)

j
-3 + 2

k 1.1234
l i2
2 Express each of the following repeating decimals in

its simplest rational number form.
a 0.24
b 1.123
c 1.123
8 10 4 6 10 5
, giving your answer in
3 10 8
scientific notation, correct to 1 significant figure.
3 Calculate
4 Use interval notation to represent each of the

following sets, then plot each on a separate number
line.
a {x: x > 2}
b {x: 3 < x 4}
c {x: 4 x 10} {x: 8 < x < 12}
d {x: 4 x 10} {x: 8 < x < 12}
5 Use set builder notation to represent each of the
following sets, then plot each on a separate number
line.
a {7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
b {integers between 3 and 8}
c {rational numbers between 1 and 2}
d {rational numbers greater than 5, except
for 10}
e {real numbers greater than 4 and less than 5}
f {real numbers less than 4 or greater than 6}
a
80 + 72 - 50 - 45
5 (2 5 + 10 )
c (3 3 - 2 2 )(3 3 + 2 2 )
4 3- 2
2 3+ 2
2 3+ 2
3- 2
3+2 2
3+ 2
Exam tip Be careful with the signs. Make sure

you subtract the whole second fraction.
[Authors advice]
7 By substituting for x, show that 3 - 1 is a solution

z 2 - 4 3z + 6 = 0 .
8 Find each of the following components of a
complex number.
a Im(2 +
-8)
b Re((2 - i) + ( 3 + 2i))
c Im( - 2 3 (2 - 6i ))
9 Find x and y.
a (3 + 2 yi) + (1 - i ) = x + yi
b ( x + 2 y ) + (2 x + y )i = 9 + 6i
10 If z1 = 2 - 4i and z2 = 2 + 3i, express each of the
following complex numbers in a + bi form.
a 2 z1 + 3z2
b z1
c z1z2
-1
z
z
z
d 1
e z1 + z1 1
f 1 - 2
z1
z2 z1
11 Find z in its simplest form.
z
2-i
b
a
= 3 - 3i
= 3 - 3i
2-i
z
12 Plot the following complex numbers on an Argand
diagram.
a 2 3i
b i 29
c i 29
2 + 3i
d i(2 + 3i)
e
i
13 Factorise the following quadratic expressions over C.
a z2 + 7
b 2z2 + 3
2
c 4z + 5z
d 16z2 + 4z - 6
2
e z + 4z - 2
f z2 + 3z + 3
2
g 2z + 3z + 4
Exam tip Make sure you take the coefficient of
the squared term first.
d (3 3 - 2 2 )2
40
of z 2 - 2 3z + 2 = 0 , but is not a solution of
m 2 + - 5
n 0.172117722111777222. . . (pattern continues)
o 3 - 3
p 4i
q 3 + 7i
r 4 + 0i
6 Simplify the following surds.
[Authors advice]
14 For each of the following quadratic equations,

factorise the corresponding quadratic expression,
then solve the equation.
a 2z2 + 5 = 0
b z2 + 4z + 5 = 0
c 3z2 + 5z + 2 = 0
15 Solve each of the following quadratic equations
using the formula for the solution of a quadratic
equation.
a z2 + 6z + 10 = 0
b 2z2 + 4z + 5 = 0
c 3z2 - 5z + 4 = 0
2 Which of the following is a rational number?
4
0.14
a
b
0
1.167
c
0
0
d
-
5 {x: 4 x 6} {x: 5 < x < 7} and

{x: 4 x 6} {x: 5 < x < 7} can also be written as:
a (5, 6], [4, 7)
b [4, 7], (5, 6)
c [4, 7), (5, 6]
d [5, 6), (4, 7]
e R,
15
15
c
+
3
5
5
3
2
15
2 15
15
a 3 7 - 12
b 7 3 + 4 6
c 3 3 - 12 6
d 4 3 - 7 6
e 7 3 - 4 6
8 In its simplest form,
3 3 + 3 (1 + 3 ) +
3
3
is:
3 -1
a 4 + 5 3
b 2 + 3 3
c 3 + 5 3
d 5 + 7 3
e 4 + 3
( 3 - 2 )( 3 + 2 ) + ( 3 + 2 )2 +
5( 3 + 2 )
3- 2
is:
4
9
4 R\[3, 6) can also be written as:

a (-, 3] (6, )
b (-, 3) [6, )
c (-, 3) [6, )
d R\{x: 3 < x 6}
e (-, 3] (6, )
7 In its simplest form, 2 54 - 3 27 + 4 48 - 5 24

is:
7
11
3 The numbers 999, 0.000105 and 0.496 expressed to

2 significant figures are:
A 1000, 0.00011 and 0.5
B 1000, 0.00010 and 0.5
C 99, 0.00011 and 0.49
D 99, 0.00010 and 0.49
E 1000, 0.00011 and 0.50
a 5.3 + 0.6
Multiple choice
1 The numbers 27.366, 0.027356 and 273460.123

expressed to 3 significant figures are:
A 27.4, 0.0274 and 273000
B 27.3, 0.0273 and 273000
C 27.4, 0.027 and 273000
D 27.37, 0.027 and 274000
E 27.37, 0.027 and 273460.12
5
3
+
=
3
5
a 31 + 4 6
b 31
c 11 + 2 6
d 9 + 4 6
e 31 + 12 6
10 If z1 = 2 - i and z2 = 1 - 2i, then Re(z1z2) + Im(z1z2) =
e 5
a 4
b -5
d -4
c -5i
z
z
11 If z1 = 2 + i and z2 = -i, then Re 1 + Im 1 =
z2
z2
b -1
a 0
12
in + 1
+
is:
a 1
in
in + 2
b -1
c 1
in + 3,
d -3
e 3
n Z, in its simplest form
c 0
d i
13 When the complex numbers 1 + 2i,
e -i
5
,
1 - 2i
1 + 7i
1
and (2 + i)(4 + 3i) are plotted
3+i
5
on an Argand diagram, the number of distinct
points shown would be:
a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4
e 5
i 3 ( - 2 + i),
41
14 The equation z2 - 2z - 3 + 4i = 0 is best described

as having:
a two rational solutions
b two real solutions
c two complex solutions
D one complex solution
E one real solution
15 The equation 3z2 + 2z + a = 0, where a R, has
two distinct real solutions if:
a a<3
b a>3
c a3
1
1
E a>
D a<
3
3
16 The equation 3z2 + az + 2 = 0, where a R, has

two distinct real solutions if:
a a>2 6
b 0<a<2 6
c a2 6
D a < - 2 6, a > 2 6
E
-2
6<a<2 6
exTended reSponSe
1 a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Plot z = 1 + 3i on an Argand plane.

If O is the origin, show using trigonometry, that the angle made by Oz with the positive real axis is 60.
Calculate the distance Oz.
Calculate z 1, z0, z, z2 and z3, then plot them on the same Argand diagram used in a.
State the rotation about the origin and the change in distance from the origin to plot zn + 1 given zn.
State the rotation about the origin and the distance from the origin, to plot zn given z0 = 1.
State, using the results above, the following powers of z in their simplest form.
i z4
ii z6
iii z9
iv z 2
v z9
2 If the solutions of a quadratic equation are -1 and 2, then a quadratic equation giving these solutions is
(z + 1)(z - 2) = 0. A quadratic expression that produces these factors is (z - 2)(z + 1) = z2 - z - 2, but this is not
the only expression whose corresponding quadratic equation has the solutions -1 and 2.
a If the coefficients of a quadratic equation with solutions -1 and 2 are integers, give an example of
another quadratic expression whose corresponding quadratic equation would have the solutions -1 and 2.
State all quadratic expressions that satisfy the conditions above.
b In each case, find a quadratic expression with the coefficient of z2 = 1 that, when expressed as a
quadratic equation, gives the solutions:
i z = -2, z = 3
ii z = 4 + 3 , z = 4 - 3
iii z = 4 + 2i, z = 4 - 2i
iv z = 3 + 2 3 , z = 2 - 3
v z = 3 + 2i, z = 2 - i
c Note that the quadratic expressions in b ii and b iii have integer coefficients. If the coefficients of a
quadratic equation are integers and a and b below are integers, then state the other solution.
i z = a+b 3
ii z = a + bi
d z = 2 + 3i is a solution of z2 + bz + c = 0 where b, c Z.
i State the other solution, then find the values of b and c.
ii Substitute z = 2 + 3i into z2 + bz + c = 0, then find the values of b and c.
e If z2 - 2z + 3 = 0, find the solutions using the formula for the solution of a quadratic equation, then
factorise z2 - 2z + 3.
f If 2z2 + 4z + 3 = 0, find the solutions using the formula for the solution of a quadratic equation, then
factorise 2z2 + 4z + 3.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 1
42
eBook plus
aCTiviTieS
chapter opener
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions: Warm up with ten quick

questions on the set of complex numbers. (page 1)
1a
Tutorial
We4 int-1211: Watch how to express a recurring

decimal fraction. (page 6)
1b
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 1.1: Identify irrational numbers and

simplify surds. (page 10)
1c
Properties of surds
Tutorial
We12 int-1027: Watch how to multiply surds and

express answers in their simplest form. (page 16)
1D
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 1.2: Multiply and divide surds

and represent complex numbers on an Argand
diagram. (page 22)
Tutorial
We16 int-1028: Watch how to add and subtract

complex numbers. (page 23)
1E

numbers
Tutorial
We19 int-1029: Watch how to express the quotient of

complex numbers in the form a + bi. (page 26)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 1.3: Identify subsets of complex

numbers using mathematical notation and add and
simplify surds. (page 29)
1F
Representing complex numbers on an

argand diagram
Interactivity
Complex sums and differencs int-0968: Consolidate

your understanding of how to represent complex
numbers on an Argand diagram. (page 29)
1G
Factorising quadratic expressions and

complex number field
Tutorial
We23 int-1030: Watch how to solve quadratic

equations over the complex number field. (page 34)
chapter review
Digital doc
Test Yourself: Take the end-of-chapter test to test

your progress. (page 42)
To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
www.jacplus.com.au
Chapter 1
43
2a
2b
2c
2d
2E
Translations of points and graphs

Reflections of points and graphs
Dilations from axes
The ellipse and the hyperbola
Successive transformations
Transformations
areas oF sTudy
Sketching relations in the Cartesian plane

from descriptions, equations or formulas and
identifying their key features
Graphical representation of circles, ellipses,

parabolas and hyperbolas, and sketching their
graphs
Identifying asymptotes
eBook plus
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
2a

introduction to transformations
Under a transformation of the Cartesian plane, each point (x, y) maps onto its image point (x , y ).
In this chapter, the transformation Tr will be defined by the rule (x, y) (x , y ) and the
following transformations will be considered: translations, reflections and dilations. For each
transformation and combination of transformations, points and their images as well as rules and
their image rules will be considered.
some simple relations

The following relations with the given rules and properties will be dealt
with in this and subsequent chapters.
1. Linear (straight lines)
y = mx + c, where m is the gradient and (0, c) is the y-intercept
x = a, a vertical line with the gradient undefined
y
y = mx + c
2. Quadratic (parabolas)
y = ax2 + bx + c
x-intercepts (if they exist) are found by solving ax2 + bx + c = 0.
(0, c) is the y-intercept.
b
The equation of the axis of symmetry is: x =
.
2a
b
The turning point has an x-coordinate of x =
and
2a
the y-coordinate is found by substitution of the x-coordinate
into the rule.
If a > 0 the shape is (upright) and if a < 0 the shape is (inverted).
44
maths Quest 11 advanced General mathematics for the Casio ClassPad
x=a
(0, c)
a
y
y = ax2 + bx + c
x
y = ax2 + bx + c
3. Inverse (hyperbolas)
1
y =
x
Horizontal asymptote y = 0, the x-axis
Vertical asymptote x = 0, the y-axis
asymptote
x=0
y=
1
x
x
y=0
asymptote
4. Circle
x2 + y2 = a2
Centre (0, 0) and radius a
a x2 + y2 = a2
a
a
y
5. Exponential
y = ax, a > 0
Horizontal asymptote y = 0
Common point of (0, 1) for any a value
y = ax
(0, 1)
y=0 x
asymptote
Translations
Under a translation given by Th, k, (x, y) (x + h, y + k), x = x + h, y = y + k:
h is a translation in the x direction (horizontally)
k is a translation in the y direction (vertically).
T1, 2 represents a translation of 1 unit to the right and 2 units up for all points in a plane.
T1, 2 represents a translation of 1 unit to the left and 2 units down for all points in a plane.
Points under translations

Worked Example 1
The point A (3, 1) maps onto A under the translation T1,2. Find the coordinates of A.
Think
The translation T1,2 indicates that A is moved 1 unit to the

right and 2 units up. Write this using mapping notation to
find the coordinates of A.
Write
(x, y) (x + 1, y + 2)
(3, 1) (4, 3)
A(4, 3)
Worked Example 2
Find a translation that maps A(3, -1) onto A(2, 3).

Think
Write
Use mapping notation to determine the translations.
(3, -1) (2, 3)

(3, -1) (3 - 1, -1 + 4)
State the answer.
A is translated 1 unit to the left and 4 units

up, that is, T1,4.
Chapter 2 Transformations
45
Worked examPle 3
A translation is dened by the rule (x, y) (x 2, y + 3). If the image point is A(5, 6), nd the
coordinates of the original point A.
Think
WriTe
State the image equations. 5 is the image of x

under translation of 2 units. 6 is the image of y
under translation of 3 units.
x = x 2
=5
y = y + 3
=6
Solve for x and y.
x = 7, y = 3
State the answer.
If the image point is A(5, 6), and the translation

is defined by the rule (x, y) (x 2, y + 3), the
original point is A(7, 3).
rules under translations

Worked examPle 4
eBook plus
Find the image rule for each of the following, given the original rule and translation.
Tutorial
a y = x, T2, 3
int-1032
b y = 2x2, T 4, 5
Worked example 4
c y = f (x), T h, k
Think
a
46
WriTe
a x = x 2
State the image equations.
Find x and y in terms of x and y.
Substitute into y = x.
y=x
y + 3 = x + 2
y = x 1
Express the answer without using

the primes.
Given y = x under translation T2, 3, the equation of

the image (or image rule) is y = x 1.
Illustrate these transformations on

a graph.
y = y 3
x = x + 2
y = y + 3
b x = x 4
y = y + 5
x = x + 4
y = y - 5
Substitute into y = 2x2.
y = 2x2
y - 5 = 2(x + 4)2
y = 2(x + 4)2 + 5

the primes.
Note: In first form of the answer,
the turning point is (-4, 5), which
was the answer expected as
(0, 0) (-4, 5).
Given y = 2x2 under translation T-4,5, the equation of

the image (or image rule) is
y = 2(x + 4)2 + 5
or y = 2x2 + 16x + 37
Illustrate these transformations on

a graph.
Substitute into y = f(x).
y - k = f(x - h)
y = f(x - h) + k

the primes.
Given y = f(x) under translation Th,k, the equation of

the image (or image rule) is y = f(x - h) + k.
c x = x + h
y = y + k
x = x - h
y = y - k
Worked Example 5
Find the image of x2 + y2 = 1 under Th,k.

Think
Write
x2 + y2 = 1 is a circle with centre (0, 0) and a radius of 1.

x = x + h
y = y + k
x = x - h
y = y - k
Substitute into x2 + y2 = 1.
(x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = 1
Express the answer without using the primes.
Given x2 + y2 = 1 under translation Th,k,

the equation of the image (or image rule)
is (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = 1.
47
Worked Example 6
Given the rule and its image rule under a translation, state a possible translation and its abbreviated
version in the form Ta,b.
a y = x, y = x + 1 b y = x2, y = (x - 2)2 + 1 c y = x2 + 1, y = x2 + 2x - 4
Think
a
The original rule is y = x and its image is

y = x + 1. We need a point on each graph for
comparison. Substitute a value for x, say
x = 0, into both rules.
a y=x
When x = 0, y = 0
(0, 0)
y=x+1
When x = 0, y = 0 + 1
(0, 1)
(0, 0) (0, 1)
State the required translations in the form

Ta,b. That is, no translation on the x-axis and
translation of 1 unit up on the y-axis.
The original rule is y = x2 and its image is

y = (x - 2)2 + 1. We need a point on each
graph for comparison. Determine the turning
points of each equation.
State the required translations in the form Ta,b.
That is, translation of 2 units to the right on the
x-axis and translation of 1 unit up on the y-axis.
b y = x2 has a turning point at (0, 0).
The original rule is y = x2 + 1 and its image

is y = x2 + 2x - 4. We need a point on each
graph for comparison. Determine the turning
points for each equation.
c y = x2 + 1 has a turning point at (0, 1).
Write
State the required translations in the form Ta,b.

That is, translation of 1 unit left on the x-axis
and translation of 6 units down on the y-axis.
T0,1: no translation on the x-axis and

translation of 1 unit up on the y-axis.
y = (x - 2)2 + 1 has a turning point of (2, 1).

(0, 0) (2, 1)
T2,1: translation of 2 units to the right on
the x-axis and translation of 1 unit up on the
y-axis.
y = x2 + 2x - 4
= (x + 1)2 - 5
The turning point is at (-1, -5).
(0, 1) (-1, -5)
T-1,-6: translation of 1 unit left on the x-axis

and translation of 6 units down on the
y-axis.
REMEMBER
1. The rules, graphs and basic properties of lines, parabolas, hyperbolas, circles and
exponentials as listed under the heading Some simple relations are starting points for
the rules in this chapter.
2. Translations: Th,k, where x = x + h, y = y + k
Th,k is a translation h in the x direction (horizontally) and a translation k in the
y direction (vertically).
Note: Th,k is an abbreviated version of a translation; however, your description of the
translation must be explained in words.
3. Use x = x + h, y = y + k to find:
(i) image points and image rules after a translation, given a point or a rule and the
translation
(ii) original points and original rules before a translation, given an image point or an
image rule and the translation
(iii) the translation, given a point and its image or a rule and its image.
48
Exercise
2A

1 WE1
Given the coordinates of A and the translation, find the coordinates of the image, A.
a A(1, 2), T3,4

c A(-1, 2), T3,-4
2 WE2
Given a point and its image, state the possible translation in words as well as using
Ta,b notation.
a A(2, 3), A(4, 5)
c A(-1, -4), A(-3, 1)
3 WE3
b A(1, -2), T-3,4

d A(-1, -2), T-3,-4
b A(2, -3), A(4, -2)

d A(-2, -4), A(-1, -7)
Given the translation and the coordinates of the image, A, find the coordinates of A.
a T2,3, A(4, 1)
c T3,-2, A(-2, -3)
b T-1,2, A(-2, 1)
d T-2,-3, A(-5, -2)
Find the image rule for each of the following, given the original rule and translation.
4 WE4
For parts a to e, sketch the graphs on the same axes using the original rule and its image.
a y = x, T1,-3
b y = 2x, T1,-2
c y = -x, T2,-2
d y = 2x + 1, T-1,-2
2
2
e y = x , T-1,2
f y = 2x , T2,-1
g y = x2 + 2, T-3,4
h y = -2x2, T-2,3
2
i y = f(x), T -3,2
j y = f(x), T -1,-2
k y = 2x , Th,k
l y = -3x, Th,k
5 WE5 a Sketch on the same set of axes, x2 + y2 = 4 and its image under the translation T1, -1,
translated 1 unit in the positive x direction and 1 unit in the negative y direction.
1
b Sketch on the same set of axes, y = and its image under the translation T2,-1 (2 units
x
right and 1 unit down). State the equations of the asymptotes.
6 WE6
Given a rule and its image rule under a translation, state a possible translation.
a y = 2x, y = 2x + 3
b y = -x2, y = -(x + 4)2 - 3
c y = x2 + 2x + 1, y = x2 + 4x - 1
7 Given a rule and its image rule under a translation and a point to consider, state a possible
translation.
a x2 + y2 = 9, (x - 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 9. Consider the centre (h, k).
b (x + 1)2 + (y - 2)2 = 4, x2 + y2 - 2x + 2y - 2 = 0. Consider the centre (h, k). Complete the
square on both x and y for the image circle.
1
1
c y = , y =
+ 2. Consider the point of intersection of the asymptotes.
x
x 1
8 Using the property that under a translation Th,k, y = f(x) y - k = f(x - h), state a possible
translation in words and in the form Ta,b, given a rule and its image rule.
a y = 2x, y = 2x + 3
b y = 2x, y = 2x + 1 + 7
x
x
+
3
c y = 2 + 1, y = 2
-5
d y = 2x + 3 - 4, y = 2x - 2 + 1
9 MC Under T2,-1, the image of (2, 3) and the point whose image is (2, 3) are:
a (4, 2), (0, 4)
b (0, 4), (4, 2)
c (4, 2), (4, 2)
d (4, 2), (6, 1)
E (0, 4), (0, 4)
10 MC Under T-2,1, the image equation of y = x2 and the equation whose image equation
is y = x2 are:
A y = (x + 2)2 + 1, y = (x - 2)2 - 1
B y = (x - 2)2 - 1, y = (x + 2)2 + 1
C y = (x - 2)2 + 1, y = (x + 2)2 - 1
D y = (x + 2)2 - 1, y = (x - 2)2 + 1
E y = (x + 2)2 + 1, y = (x + 2)2 - 1
49
11 MC The translations which map (3, 4) onto (2, -4) and y = x2 + 1 onto y = (x - 2)2 + 2 are,
respectively:
a T-1,-8 and T2,1
b T1,8 and T2,1
c T-1,-8 and T2,2
d T1,8 and T2,2
E T-1,-8 and T-2,1
1
1
12 MC The translations which map y = 2x onto y = 2x - 1 + 1 and y = onto y =
1 are,
x
x
+1
respectively:
a T-1,-1 and T1,1
d T1,-1 and T-1,1
2B
b T1,1 and T-1,-1

E T-1,-1 and T-1,1
c T-1,1 and T1,-1

On the diagram, A is the image of the point A under reflection in the
line L. L is called the mediator.
My = 0 represents reflection in the line y = 0, the x-axis.
Mx = 0 represents reflection in the line x = 0, the y-axis.
y
x
A
y
C(x, y)
To determine the rule for each reflection, consider the

diagram at right.
My = 0 : (x, y) (x, -y) gives point B.
Mx = 0 : (x, y) (-x, y) gives point C.
Similarly, for reflection in the lines
y = x and y = -x, consider the diagram
at right.
My = x : (x, y) (y, x) gives point E.
My = -x : (x, y) (-y, -x) gives point F.
E(y, x)
A(x, y)
x x
B(x, y)
y
y=x
y
D(x, y)
y
x x
y
x
F(y, x)
D(x, y)
x x
y = x
Note: M is used to represent reflections since a reflection is a mirror image about its specified
axis or line.
Worked Example 7
Find the coordinates of the image of (2, -3) under the following reflections.
a My = 0 (reflection in the x-axis)
b Mx = 0 (reflection in the y-axis)
c My = x (reflection in the line y = x)
d My = -x (reflection in the line y = x)
Think
Write
a A reflection in the x-axis, My = 0, means (x, y) (x, -y).
a (x, y) (x, -y)
b A reflection in the y-axis, Mx = 0, means (x, y) (-x, y).
b (x, y) (-x, y)
c A reflection in the line y = x, My = x, means
c (x, y) (y, x)
d A reflection in the line y = -x, My = -x, means
d (x, y) (-y, -x)
(x, y) (y, x).

(x, y)
50
(-y, -x).
(2, -3) (2, 3)
(2, -3) (-2, -3)
(2, -3) (-3, 2)
(2, -3) (3, -2)
Worked examPle 8
eBook plus
a Find the image equation of y = 2x + 1 under the following reflections.
i My = 0 (reflection in the x-axis)
ii My = x (reflection in the line y = x)
b Find the image equation of y = 4(x 1)2 under the following reflections.
i Mx = 0 (reflection in the y-axis)
ii My = x (reflection in the line y = x)
Think
a
ii
Tutorial
int-1212
Worked example 8
WriTe
A reflection in the x-axis, My = 0, means

(x, y) (x, y).
Transpose to make x and y the subjects.
Substitute to find the image equations.
State the image equation without the primes.
A reflection in the line y = x, My = x, means

(x, y) (y, x).

Make y the subject.
i x = x,
y = y
x = x
y = y
y = 2x + 1
y = 2x + 1
y = 2x 1
ii x = y,
y = x
x = y
y = x
y = 2x + 1
x = 2y + 1
1
1
x +
2
2
1
1
y= x +
2
2
y =
ii
State the image equation without the

primes.
A reflection in the y-axis, Mx = 0, means

(x, y) (x, y).
A reflection in the line y = x, My = x, means

(x, y) (y, x).
i x = x,
y = y
x = x
y = y
y = 4(x 1)2
y = 4(x 1)2
y = 4(x 1)2
ii x = y
y = x
x = y
y = x
y = 4(x 1)2
x = 4(y 1)2

primes.
The image equation is x = 4(y 1)2. If

the equation is required with y as the
subject,
x
( y 1)2 = ,
4
y 1=
x
1
or y =
x +1
4
2
Chapter 2
Transformations
51
REMEMBER
1. Reflections: My = f(x), where y = f(x) is the equation of the mediator.

2. Use simple diagrams to find the rules of Mx = 0, My = 0, My = x, and My = -x, where
Mx = 0 is a reflection in the y-axis, My = 0 is a reflection in the x-axis, My = x is a reflection
in the line y = x and My = -x is a reflection in the line y = x.
Note: The above notation is an abbreviated version of a reflection; however, your
description of reflections must be explained in words.
3. Use the image rules to find:
(i) image points and image rules after a reflection, given a point or a rule and the
reflection
(ii) original points and original rules before a reflection, given an image point or an
image rule and the reflection
(iii) the reflection, given a point and its image or a rule and its image.
Exercise
2B

Find the coordinates of the image of (-2, 4) under the following reflections.
1 WE7
a
b
c
d
My = 0 (reflection in the x-axis)

Mx = 0 (reflection in the y-axis)
My = x (reflection in the line y = x)
My = -x (reflection in the line y = x)
2 WE8
Find the image rules of the given rules under the following reflections. In each
case, sketch, on the same set of axes, the graphs of the relations before and after the reflection.
a y = 3x, My = x
b y = -2x, My = -x
c y = 2x + 3, My = 0
d y = 2x2, My = 0
g y = x2 + 1, My = -x
j y =
1
+ 1, M x = 0
x
m y = 2x, My = 0
p y =
1
h y = , Mx = 0
x
1
k y =
+ 1, M y = x
x 1
1 2
x , My = x
4
1
i y =
, My= x
x +1
2
l y =
+ 3, M y = x
x 1
n y = 2x + 3, Mx = 0
o y = x , M y = x
e y = -3x2, Mx = 0
f y =
x + 2, M y = x
3 MC Under My = 0, the image of (2, 3) and the point whose image is (2, 3) are, respectively:
a (2, -3) and (2, -3)
b (2, -3) and (-2, 3)
c (-2, 3) and (-2, 3)
d ( 2, 3) and (2, 3)
E ( 2, 3) and ( 2, 3)
1
4 MC Under My = x, the image equations of y =
x and y =
are, respectively:
x 1
1
1
a y = x 2 ( x 0) and y = + 1
b y = x 2 ( x 0) and y = + 1
x
x
1
1
c y = x 2 ( x 0) and y = 1
d y = x 2 ( x 0) and y =
x
x +1
1
E y = x 2 ( x 0) and y = 1
x
52
dilations from axes
2C
A dilation of factor k from the y-axis (or parallel to the x-axis) is

y
represented by Dk, 1, with a rule (x, y) (kx, y). As shown on the diagram,
y
the x-coordinate has been transformed by a dilation factor k, k R+,
while the y-coordinate is unchanged.
x
kx x
Similarly, D1, k , represents a dilation of factor k from the x-axis (or parallel
to the y-axis), with a rule (x, y) (x, ky).
D2, 3, represents a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis and a dilation of factor 3 from the x-axis,
with a rule (x, y) (2x, 3y).
Worked examPle 9
Find the image of (4, 2) under the following dilations.

a D2, 1 (dilation factor of 2 from the y-axis)
1
b D 1 (dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis)
1,
c D1
2
,3
(dilation factor of
1
2
from the y-axis and 3 from the x-axis)
Think
WriTe
a x = 2x
a A dilation factor of 2 from the y-axis, D2, 1, means
(x, y) (2x, y).
b A dilation factor of
(x, y) (x, 1 y).
1
2
y = y
(x, y) (2x, y)
(4, 2) (8, 2)
b x = x
from the x-axis, D 1 , means

1,
y = 1 y
(x, y) (x, 1 y)
2
(4,
c A dilation factor of
1
2
(4, 1)
1
c x = 2 x,
from the y-axis and 3 from the
x-axis, D1 , means (x, y) ( 1 x, 3y).

2
2
2)
y = 3y
(x, y) ( 1x, 3y)
,3
(4,
2)
(2, 6)
Worked examPle 10
Find the image equation of y = x2 under the following dilations.

a D2, 1 (dilation factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis)
1
b D1 (dilation factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis and 3 parallel to the y-axis)
2
,3
Think
a
eBook plus
Tutorial
int-1033
Worked example 10
WriTe
A dilation factor of 2 parallel to the

x-axis (i.e. from the y-axis), D2, 1, means
(x, y) (2x, y).
a x = 2x
y = y
Chapter 2
Transformations
53
1
x
2
y = y
x=
y = x2
x
y =
2

primes.
A dilation factor of 12 parallel to the
x-axis and 3 parallel to the y-axis
(i.e. from the x-axis),
D1 , means (x, y) ( 1 x, 3y).
2
,3
The image equation is y =
1 2
x .
4
1
x
2
y = 3y
b x =
x = 2x
1
y = y
3
y = x2
1
y = (2 x ) 2
3
The image equation is y = 12x2.
Worked Example 11
Find the original point if the image point under D2,3 (dilation factor of 2 from the y-axis and 3 from
the x-axis) is (6, -9).
Think
1
A dilation factor of 2 from the y-axis and 3 from

the x-axis, D2, 3, means (x, y) (2x, 3y).
Transpose to make x and y the subjects. This

means that the original point will have an
1
1
x-value 2 that of the image point and a y-value 3
that of the image point.
Multiply the x-value of the image point by 2 and

the y-value of the image point by 3 to find the
original point.
Write
x = 2x
y = 3y
1
x = x
2
1
y = y
3
1 1
(x, y) x, y
2 3
(6, 9) (3, -3)
The original point is (3, -3).
Worked Example 12
Find the original equation, if the image equation under the dilation D3, 1 (dilation factor of 3 parallel
to the x-axis) is y = 3x2 + 1.
Think
1
54
A dilation factor of 3 parallel to the x-axis

(i.e. from the y-axis), D3,1, means (x, y) (3x, y).
Write
x = 3x
y = y
The image equation is y = 3x2 + 1. Reintroduce

the primes and substitute the values for x and y
to find the original equation.
y = 3x2 + 1
y = 3(3x)2 + 1
Simplify and state the original equation.
The original equation is y = 27x2 + 1.
REMEMBER
1. Dilations: x = mx, y = ny under Dm,n, with a dilation factor of m from the y-axis
(or parallel to the x-axis) and a dilation factor of n from the x-axis (or parallel to the
y-axis).
Note: Dm,n is an abbreviation for the dilations; however, you must express the dilations in
words.
2. Use the image rules to find:
(i) image points and image rules after a dilation, given a point or a rule and the
dilation
(ii) original points and original rules before a dilation, given an image point or an
image rule and the dilation
(iii) the dilation, given a point and its image or a rule and its image.
Exercise
2C
Dilations from axes

1 WE9
Find the coordinates of the image point for the given point under the given dilation.
a (2, 3), D2,1

d (-2, -6), D1
2
2 WE10
a
d
g
j
,2
c (4, -3), D2,3
,
3 4
For the given equation under the given dilation, find the image equation.
y = x, D2,1
y = 0, D1,2
x = 2, D1,5
y = x2, D1,2
m y = 2x, D2,3
p y = (x - 1)2, D2,3
s y = 2-x, D2,3
3 WE11
b (-2, 5), D1,3

e (-6, 4), D 2 3
y = x + 1, D1,2
y = 0, D1,4
x = 0, D2,4
y = x2 - 1, D2,3
1
n y = , D1,2
x
q y = (x + 2)2 + 1, D2,2
t y = f(x), Da,b
b
e
h
k
y = x + 1, D2,1
x = 2, D2,1
y = x2, D2,1
y = 2x, D1,2
1
o y = , D2,2
x
r y = 3(x - 1)2 + 2, D3, 2
c
f
i
l
Find the coordinates of the original point, given the image point under the given
dilation.
a (3, 5), D1,2 (dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis)
b (3, 5), D2,1 (dilation factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis)
c (-2, 3), D2,2 (dilation factor of 2 from the x- and y-axes)
d (-2, -3), D2,3 (dilation factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis and 3 parallel to the y-axis)
4 WE12
Find the original equation, given the image equation under the given dilation.
a y = x, D2,1 (dilation factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis)
b y = x2, D1,2 (dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis)
c y = 2x, D2,2 (dilation factor of 2 from the x- and y-axes)
1
d y = , D2,3 (dilation factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis and 3 parallel to the y-axis)
x
55
5 mC Under D3, 2 (dilation factor of 3 from the y-axis and 2 from the x-axis), the image of
(3, 2) and the point whose image is (3, 2) are, respectively:
b (9, 4) and (1, 1)
c (1, 1) and (9, 4)
a (9, 4) and (1, 1)
1) and (9, 4)
E (9, 4) and (1, 1)
d (1,
6 mC Under D2, 3 (dilation factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis and 3 parallel to the y-axis), the
image rule of y = f (x) and the rule whose image rule is y = f (x) are, respectively:
1
x
a y = 3 f and y = f (2 x)
2
3
1 x
c y = f and y = 3 f (2 x)
3 2
1
x
f (2 x) and y = 3 f
2
3
1 x
d y = 3 f (2 x) and y = f
3 2
b y=
eBook plus
x
E y = 3 f and y = 3 f (2 x )
2
2d
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 2.1

Note: Further work on the ellipse and the hyperbola is presented in chapter 10.
The ellipse
y
An ellipse is a conic section that is closely related to the circle.
b
Consider the image of the circle x2 + y2 = 1 under the
x
y
1
dilation Da, b , x = ax, y = by, so x = , y =
a
b
1
a
a x
1 1
2
2
x
y
x 2 + y 2 = 1 + = 1, therefore the image

b
a b
x2 y2
equation is 2 + 2 = 1.
a
b
This is the standard form or general equation for an ellipse, with centre at (0, 0), x-intercepts
(a, 0) and y intercepts (0, b). Pronumeral a is called the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor
axis.
The ellipse has two axes of symmetry. The longer axis is called the major axis and its length is
equal to 2a. Hence, a is the length of the semi-major axis. The shorter axis of symmetry is called
the minor axis and its length is equal to 2b. Hence, b is the length of the semi-minor axis.
The hyperbola
Consider the image of the hyperbola y =
the dilation D 1
2
1
2
. x =
1
2
x, y =
1
2
1
under
x
y, so
x = 2 x , y = 2 y .
1
1
y = 2y =
, therefore the image rule is y = 1 .
x
2x
2x
1 1
1
,
The point
and 1 unit from the origin.
is on the line y =
2 2
2x
1
1
1
,
is rotated clockwise through 45,
maps
2
2
2x
onto (1, 0) and the asymptotes x = 0 and y = 0 become
y = x and y = x.
If y =
56
y
y = ba x y = ab x
a
This rectangular hyperbola (rectangular because the asymptotes are at right angles) has the
equation x2 - y2 = 1.
x2 y2
This equation under the dilation Da,b becomes 2 2 = 1. This is the standard form
a
b
or general equation for the hyperbola with centre (0, 0), x-intercepts or vertices (a, 0)
b
and asymptotes y =
x.
a
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
= 1,
If the centre of the hyperbola is at (h, k) then the equation becomes
a2
b2
b
which has vertices (h a, k) and asymptotes ( y k ) =
( x h).
a
Worked Example 13
x 2 y2
+
= 1 under the following transformations. In each case,
9
4
sketch the graph of the original ellipse and its image.
a T2,-3 (translation 2 units right and 3 units down)
b My = x (reflection in the line y = x)
Find the image equation of
Think
a
1
2
Write/draw
Translation of 2 units right

and 3 units down, T2,-3, means
(x, y) (x + 2, y - 3).
a x = x + 2
y = y - 3
x = x - 2
y = y + 3
x2 y2
+
= 1 is
9
4
an ellipse with centre (0, 0).
x2 y2
+
=1
9
4
( x 2)2 ( y + 3)2
+
=1
9
4

primes.
The image is an ellipse with centre
(2, 3).
Sketch the original ellipse by plotting
key points.
Sketch the image graph by plotting
key points.
Some key points are:
(0, 0) (2, -3)
(-3, 0) (-1, -3)
(3, 0) (5, -3)
(0, -2) (2, -5)
(0, 2) (2, -1)
The image equation is
The original equation
Reflection in the line y = x, My = x,

means (x, y) (y, x).
Transpose to make x and y the
subjects.
( x 2)2 ( y + 3)2
+
= 1.
9
4
Centre: (2, -3).

y
6
4
2
6 4 2
2
4
6
x2
9
y2
4
=1
6 x
(2, 3)
(x 2)2
9
(y + 3)2
4
=1
b x = y
y = x
y = x
x = y
57
x2 y2
+
= 1 is an
9
4
ellipse with centre (0, 0).
x2 y2
+
=1
9
4
( y ) 2 ( x ) 2
+
=1
9
4

primes.
The image is an ellipse with centre
(0, 0).
The image equation is
Sketch the original ellipse by plotting

key points as for part a , then sketch
the image ellipse using key points.
Key points are:
(0, 0) (0, 0)
(3, 0) (0, 3)
(3, 0) (0, 3)
(0, 2) (2, 0)
(0, 2) (2, 0)
x2 y2
+
= 1.
4
9
Centre: (0, 0).

y
y=x
3
x2
9
2
3
2
3
x2
4
y2
9
=1
eBook plus
x2
y2
= 1 under the following transformations.

4
9
In each case, nd the equation of the asymptotes and sketch on separate axes
the graph of the original hyperbola and its image showing the asymptotes.
a T2, 4 (translation left 2 units and 4 units up)
b My = x (reflection about the line y = x)
Think
a
58
=1
x
Worked examPle 14
Find the image equation of
y2
4
Tutorial
int-1034
Worked example 14
WriTe
Translation of 2 units left and 4 units up,

T2, 4, means (x, y) (x 2, y + 4).
x2 y2
= 1 is
4
9
an hyperbola with asymptotes
3
y=
x and vertices at (2, 0).
2
Substitute to find the image equations
and the image asymptotes and image
vertices (h a, k).
a x = x 2
y = y + 4
x = x + 2
y = y 4
The image equation:

x2 y2
=1
4
9
( x + 2)2 ( y 4)2
=1
4
9
The equations of the image asymptotes:
3
y=
x
2
3
y 4 =
( x + 2)
2
The image vertices:
(h a, k) = (2 2, 4)
= (4, 4) and (0, 4)
State the image equation and its

asymptotes without the primes.
The image equation:

( x + 2)2 ( y 4)2
=1
4
9
Asymptotes:
3
y4=
( x + 2)
2
y=
y=
Sketch the original graph by plotting

3
x2 y2
x
= 1 with asymptotes y =
4
9
2
and vertices (2, 0).

( x + 2)2 ( y 4)2
= 1, with asymptotes
4
9
3
y=
( x + 2) + 4 and vertices
2
(-4, 4) and (0, 4).
( x + 2) + 4
3
3
x + 7 or y = x + 1
2
2
y = 32 x
y = 32 x
y = 32 x + 1
y = 32 x + 7
8
6
(4, 4)
4 (0, 4)
2
6 4 2
4
6
8
b
Reflection in the line y = x, My = x, means

(x, y) (y, x).
x2 y2
= 1 is an
4
9
3
hyperbola with asymptotes y =
x and
2
vertices at (2, 0). Substitute to find the
image equations and the image asymptotes
and image vertices (h a, k).
b x = y
y = x
x = y
y = x
The image equation:

x2 y2
=1
4
9
( y ) 2 ( x ) 2
=1
4
9
The equation of the image asymptotes:
3
y=
x
2
3
x =
y
2
The image vertices: (0, 2)
59
State the image equation and its

asymptotes without the primes.
The image equation:

y2 x2
=1
4
9
x2 y2
=1
+
9
4
Asymptotes:
3
x=
y
2
y=
5
Sketch the original graph by plotting

3
x2 y2
x and
4
9
2
vertices (2, 0).
y = 32 x
x
y
4
y = 32 x
2
2

x2
2
y2
x
+
9
4
3
and vertices (0, 2).
y
y = 23 x
y = 32 x
4
2
4 2
2
4
REMEMBER
x2 y2
+
= 1, centre (0, 0), x-intercepts (a, 0), y-intercepts (0, b). a > b where
a2 b2
a is the semi-major axis and b is the semi-minor axis.
1. Ellipse:
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
+
= 1, centre (h, k).
a2
b2
x2 y2
3. Hyperbola: 2 2 = 1, centre (0, 0), vertices (a, 0),
a
b
2. Ellipse:
b
x.
a
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
= 1, centre (h, k), vertices (h a, k), asymptotes

4. Hyperbola:
a2
b2
b
(y k) =
( x h).
a
asymptotes y =
60
Exercise
2D

1
For each of the following ellipses, state the coordinates of the centre and the values of the
semi-major and semi-minor axes. Sketch the graph of the ellipse.
( x 5)2 ( y + 3)2
+
=1
25
9
( x + 2)2 ( y 2)2
d
+
=1
4
16
x2 y2
+
=1
25 9
y2
c x 2 +
=1
4
a
2 For each of the following hyperbolas, state the coordinates of the centre and the vertices. Find
the equations of the asymptotes; then sketch the graph.
x2 y2
=1
9 16
( x + 2)2 ( y 4)2
e
=1
4
16
2
x
y2
h
+
=1
9 16
( x + 2)2 ( y 4)2
k
+
=1
4
16
a x2 - y2 = 1
d (x - 3)2 - (y + 2)2 = 1
g -x2 + y2 = 1
j
-(x
+ 4)2 + (y - 2)2 = 1
x2
y2 = 1
4
( x + 2)2 ( y 4)2
f
=1
16
9
y2 x2
i
=1
9 16
( x + 2)2 ( y 4)2
l
+
=1
16
4
c
x2 y2
+
= 1 under the following transformations. In each
16 9
case, sketch the graph of the image ellipse.
a T-2,-4 (translation 2 units left and 4 units down)
b My = x (reflection about the line y = x)
c D 1 (dilation factor of 2 from y-axis and 1 from the x-axis)
3 WE13 Find the image equation of
2,
x2
y2
= 1 under the following transformations. In each

9 36
case, find the equation of the asymptotes and sketch on separate axes the graph of the image
showing the asymptotes.
a T-1,2
b My = x
c D1 1
4 WE14 Find the image equation of
,
3 2
x2 y2
5 Find two pairs of values of a and b for which 2 + 2 = 1 has the same asymptotes as
a
b
x2 y2
= 1.
9
4
( x 1)2 ( y + 2)2
6 MC
+
= 1 is defined for:
9
4
a -2 x 4, -4 y 0
b -4 x 2, 0 y 4
c -1 x 3, -5 y 1
d 3 x 1, 1 y 5
E 3 x 3, 2 y 2
7 MC The equations of the asymptotes of
a y = 2 x 4 2 2 , y =
c y = 2 x + 4 + 2 2 , y =
( x 2)2 ( y + 4)2
= 1 are:
4
8
2x 4 + 2 2
2
b y = 2 x 4 2 , y =
2x + 4 2 2
d y = 2x - 8, y = -2x
2
x4+ 2
2
e y = 2x + 8, y = -2x
61
successive transformations
2e
eBook plus
Finding the nal image rule under successive

transformations
Worked examPle 15
int-0969
Successive
transformations
eBook plus
Under the translation T2, 3 followed by the reflection My = x:

a nd the coordinates of the nal image of the point (2, 3)
b nd the nal image equation of y = x2.
Think
Interactivity
Tutorial
int-1035
Worked example 15
WriTe
T2, 3
M y = x
( x, y ) ( x 2, y + 3)
( y 3, x + 2)
Determine a single rule that replaces

the successive transformations.
Use this rule to state the image

point.
Set up the image equations.
Transpose to make x and y the

subjects.
Substitute the values of x and y to
find the image equation.
Transpose to make y the subject
of the image equation.
(x, y) (y 3, x + 2)
(2, 3) ((3) 3, 2 + 2)
(2, 3) (0, 0)
b x = y 3
y = x + 2
y = x 3
x = y + 2
y = x2
x 3 = (y + 2)2
As (y + 2)2 = (y 2)2
therefore the image equation is (y 2)2 = x 3
or y = 2 x 3
3
4
Worked examPle 16
Find a transformation for each of the following.

a y = f (x) y = 2 f (x)
b y = f (x) y = f (2x)
c y = f (2x) y = f (2x 2)
d y = f (2x) y = f (2x)
e y = f (x) y = f (x + 2) 2
Think
WriTe
a x = x, y = 2y
b 2x = x or x =
a D1, 2 (dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis)
1
x, y = y
2
b D1
2
,1
(dilation factor of 1 from the y-axis)

2
c 2x = 2x 2 or x = x + 2, y = y
c T2, 0 (translation 2 units right)
d x = x, y = y
d My = 0 (reflection about the x-axis)
+ 2 = x or x = x + 2, y = y 2
e T2, 2 (translation 2 units right and 2 units down)
rememBer
Find a single rule to replace successive transformations and use it to find final image
points or equations.
62
Exercise
2E
1
Find the rule of a single transformation which replaces the following successive
abbreviated transformations, given the original is (x, y).
a D2,1, then T3,4
b T3,4, then D2,1
c My = x, then T3,4
d T3,4, then My = x
e D2,3, then T3,4
f T3, 4, then D2,3
g T3,4, then T-4, 3
h D2,1, then D3,2
i My = x, then Mx = 0
j My = x, then My = -x, then My = 0
k T2,-3, then D3,2, then My = 0
l My = 0, then T2,-3, then D3,2
m D3,2, then My = 0, then T2,-3
Under a transformation, Tr1, (x, y) (2x + 1, -3y + 2). Under a transformation,

Tr2, (x, y) (-2y + 2, -3x + 2). Find the rule of a single transformation that replaces the
following successive transformations.
a Tr1, then Tr2
b Tr2, then Tr1
c Tr1, then Tr1
d Tr2, then Tr2
3 WE15
Find the final image of (-2, 3) under the following successive transformations.
a D2,3, then T2,4

c T-2,-3, then D2,3
4 WE15
b Mx = 0, then T1,-2
d T1,-2, then D2,2, then My = -x
Find the final image equation for y =
transformations.
a T2,4, then D2,3
c D2,3, then T-2,-3
5
1
under the following successive
x
b T1,-2, then Mx = 0
d D2,2, then T1,-2, then My = -x
Find the transformation for each of the following.

a y = x2 y = (x - 2)2 + 3
d y = 3x y = 3-x
g y =
1
1
y=
x
x
j x 2 + y 2 = 1
b y = (x - 1)2 y = 4(x - 1)2

e y = 3-x y = 3-x + 4
h y =
1
1
y=
2x
2x 5
x2 y2
+
=1
4 25
l x2 - y2 = 1 (x + 4)2 - (y - 3)2 = 1
n y = 4x2 y = (2x - 1)2
6 WE16
c y = 2x2 y = -2x2
f y = 32x y = 32x + 1 - 2
i y =
5
5
y=
x +1
x+2
x2 y2
+
= 1 x2 + y2 = 1
4 25
x2 y2
m
= 1 x2 y2 = 1
9 16
2
x
y2
o x 2 + y 2 = 4
+
=1
9
16
k
Find a transformation for each of the following.
a y = f(x) y = -f(x)
c y = -f(-x) y = -f(-x + 1)
e y = -2f(-2x + 1) y = -2f(2(-x + 1))
b y = -f(x) y = -f(-x)
d y = -f(-x + 1) y = -2f(-x + 1)
f y = -2f(2(-x + 1)) y = -2f(-2x + 5) + 4
7 State the successive transformations starting with the first equation and finishing with the
second. There is more than one correct order for the transformations.
a y = x y = -2x + 4
b y = x2 y = -2(x + 1)2 - 3
1
2
+4
d y = x2 y = (2x + 3)2
c y = y =
x
x3
e y = 2x y = -2 4x + 3
f y = 2x y = 3(23x - 5)
63
h y = f (x) y = 2f (2x 1) 4
g y = f (x) y = 4 f (2x 1) + 3
i y = x6 y = (2x + 4)6 + 7
8 Sketch the graphs of the following using successive transformations, starting with the first
equation.
a y = x2, y = 2(x 2)2 1
b y = x2, y = (2x 1)2
2
c y = 1, y =
+4
x
2x 3
e y = 2x y = 3(22x + 3)
d y = 2x y = 2x + 3 + 4
f y = 2x y = 3(22x + 3) + 1
9 mC Under successive transformations, y = f (x) y = f (2x) y = f (2x) y = f (2x 2).

The transformations, in order, are:
a D2, 1, My = 0, T2, 0
b D1 , Mx = 0, T2, 0
c D1 , Mx = 0, T1, 0
2
d D1 , My = 0, T1, 0
2
,1
,1
,1
E D1 , Mx = 0, T1, 0
2
,1
10 mC Under the sequence of transformations, T1, 2, My = x, D2, 3 the final image rule
1
for y = is:
x
6
6
x4
1
d y = 3( x + 4) 1
a y=
6
3
x+4
1
E y = 3( x + 4) + 1
b y=
c y=
6
+3
x4
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 2.2
64
Summary
The rules, graphs and basic properties of lines, parabolas, hyperbolas, circles and exponentials as listed under
Some simple relations on page 44 are starting points for the rules in this chapter.
Translations: Th,k, where x = x + h, y = y + k
Th,k is a translation h in the x direction (horizontally) and a translation k in the y direction (vertically).
Note: Th,k is an abbreviated version of a translation; however, your description of the translation must be
explained in words.
Use x = x + h, y = y + k to find:
1. image points and image rules after a translation, given a point or a rule and the translation
2. original points and original rules before a translation, given an image point or an image rule and the
translation
3. the translation, given a point and its image or a rule and its image.
Reflections: My = f(x), where y = f(x) is the equation of the mediator.

Use simple diagrams to find the rules of Mx = 0, My = 0, My = x, My = -x, where Mx = 0 is a reflection in the y-axis,
My = 0 is a reflection in the x-axis, My = x is a reflection in the line y = x and My = -x is a reflection in the line y =
x.
Note: The above notation is an abbreviated version of a reflection; however, your description of reflections
must be explained in words.
Use the image rules to find:
1. image points and image rules after a reflection, given a point or a rule and the reflection
2. original points and original rules before a reflection, given an image point or an image rule and the
reflection
3. the reflection, given a point and its image or a rule and its image.
Dilations from axes
Dilations: x = mx, y = ny under Dm,n, with a dilation factor of m from the y-axis (or parallel to the x-axis)
and a dilation factor of n from the x-axis (or parallel to the y-axis).
Note: Dm,n is an abbreviation for the dilations; however, you must express the dilations in words.
Use the image rules to find:
1. image points and image rules after a dilation, given a point or a rule and the dilation
2. original points and original rules before a dilation, given an image point or an image rule and the dilation
3. the dilation, given a point and its image or a rule and its image.
x2 y2
+
= 1, centre (0, 0), x-intercepts (a, 0), y-intercepts (0, b). a > b where a is the semi-major
a2 b2
axis and b is the semi-minor axis.
Ellipse:
Ellipse:
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
+
= 1, centre (h, k).
a2
b2
65
b
x2 y2
2 = 1, centre (0, 0), vertices (a, 0), asymptotes y =
x.
2
a
b
a
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
Hyperbola:
= 1, centre (h, k), vertices (h a, k), asymptotes

a2
b2
Hyperbola:
(y k) =
( x h)
Find a single rule to replace successive transformations and use it to find final image points or
equations.
66
chapter review
Short answer
1 A translation that maps (-2, 3) onto (4, 1) also maps

y = x2 onto its image. Find the equation of the image.
2 Given a rule and its image rule, state the translation
in the form Ta,b and express it in words.
a y = x2, y = (x + 2)2 - 4
1
1
b y = , y =
+1
x
x +1
( x 4)2 ( y + 2)2
+
=1
4
16
( x 1)2 ( y + 2)2
+
=1
2
3
8 For each of the following hyperbolas, state the

coordinates of the centre and the vertices. Find the
equations of the asymptotes; then sketch the graph.
Exam tip Sketch the centre, asymptotes and
vertices; then make sure you sketch the graph in the
[Authors advice]
correct quadrants.
c y =
x, y =
x+2
d x2 + y2 = 4, (x 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 4
e y = 5x, y = 5x + 3 - 4
f y = x2, y = x2 + 4x - 2
3 Find the image of the given point under the given
reflection.
a (-2, 0), Mx = 0
b (0, -3), My = 0
c (2, 3), My = x
d ( -3, 2), My = -x
4 Find the image rule for the given rule under the
given reflection. Sketch the graphs of the given rule
and the image rule on the same set of axes.
a y = 2x, Mx = 0
b y = 2x2, My = 0
1
c y = 4x2, My = x
d y =
, My = x
x +1
e y = 2x + 1, My = 0
f x2 + (y + 1)2 = 9, My = 0
g y = x , M y = x
h y =
x, Mx =0
5 Find the coordinates of the original point, given the

coordinates of its image and the dilation.
a (2, 3), D2,1
b (-6, 3), D1,3
c ( 4, 4), D1
1
,
2 4
6 For the given equation under the given dilation,

find the image equation.
1
a y = x2, D2,2
b y = , D2, 3
x
d y = (x + 1)2 + 2, D3,2
c y = x , D4,1
7 For each of the following ellipses, state the
coordinates of the centre, the semi-major and semiminor axes; then sketch the graph.
x2
a
+ y2 = 1
4
( x 2)2 ( y + 4)2
b
+
=1
9
4
a
c
x2 y2
=1
4 16
2
x
b ( x 2)2
y2
=1
16
( y 1)2
=1
4
( x + 3)2 y 2
+
=1
4
4
9 Given a point and an equation, find the coordinates

of the image point and the image equation under
the given successive transformations.
a (x, y) (2x - 2, 3y - 3), (2, -3), y = x2
b (x, y) (2x - 2, 3y + 3), (-3, 2), y = x2
1
c (x, y) (-2x + 2, -3y - 3), (-2, -1), y =
x
1
d (x, y) (-y - 2, -2x + 4), (-2, -3), y =
x
10 Find the rule of a transformation that replaces the
successive transformations in the given order.
a T-2,3, D2,1
b D2,1, T-2,3
c D2,2, T2,-3, My = x
d My = x, D2,2, T2,-3
e T2,-3, My = x, D2,2
11 Find the transformation for each of the successive
transformations.
2
3
a y = 3x 1
y = 3 x
y = 3 x
y = 7(3 x )
y = 7(32 x )
4
y = 7(32 x + 2 )
5
1 1
1 2
1 3
y =
y =
x
x
2x
1
y=
1
2x + 1
b y =
y = 2 f ( x )
y = 2 f ( x)
c y = f ( x )
3
y = 2 f (3 x )
y = 2 f ( 3x)
5
y = 2 f ( 3 x + 2) + 2
67
12 Starting with the first equation, graph the second

equation using successive transformations.
a y = x y = -2x + 3
b y = x2 y = -2(x - 1)2 + 6
c y = x y = 2 2 x 1 + 2
d y = 3x y = -2(3 2x + 2)
e x 2 + y 2 = 1,
( x + 1)2 ( y 2)2
+
=1
4
9
f x 2 y 2 = 1,
x 2 ( y 2)2
=1
4
9
Multiple choice
1 The translation that maps (-2, 4) onto (4, -1) maps

(3, 5) onto:
A (1, 1)
B (9, 0)
C (5, 2)
D (9, 2)
E (5, 0)
2 Which of the following correspond to an equation
and its image under the translation T2,-1?
A y = x, y = x - 3
B y = 2x, y = 2x - 5
1
1
C y = x2, y = x2 - 5
D y = , y =
1
x
x2
E y = 2x, y = 2x - 1 - 2
1
1
3 Under a translation, y = maps onto y =
+ 3.
x
x+2
The equations of the asymptotes for the image are:
A x = 0, y = 0
B x = 2, y = -3
C x = 2, y = 0
D x = -2, y = 3
E x = 2, y = 3
4 Under a reflection, y = x2 maps onto y = -x2. The
image of (-2, 3) under this reflection is:
A (2, 3)
B (-3, 2)
C (-3, -2)
D (2, 3)
E ( 2, 3)
5 The image equation of y = x + 1 1 under My = x
is:
A y = x2 + 2x
B y = x2 + 2x + 2
2
C y = x
D y = x2 + 2x - 2
2
E y = x - 2
6 Under a dilation (x, y) (ax, by), the image
equation of y = f(x) is:
A y =
1
b
x
f
a
C y = bf (ax)
1
E y = f (ax )
b
68
x
B y = bf
a
x
D y = af
b
7 (6, -4) is the image point under D 1 . The original

3,
point is:
2
-2)
B (18, 8)
C (2, -8)
A (2,
-2)
E ( 8, 2)
D (18,
( x + 2)2 ( y + 3)2
8 The translation that maps
+
=1
9
16
x 2 ( y + 7)2
onto
= 1 is:
+
9
16
A T0,-7
B T-2,4
C T2, 10
D T-2,-10
E T2,-4
9 The equations of the asymptotes of
( x 2)2
( y 1)2 = 1 are:
4
A y = 2x - 3, y = -2x + 5
1
1
B y = x 1, y =
x+3
2
2
1
1
C y = x + 2, y =
x
2
2
1
1
D y = x, y =
x+2
3
2
E y = 2x + 3, y = -2x - 5
10 The coordinates of the vertices of
( x 1)2 ( y + 3)2
= 1 are:
4
9
B (-1, 3), (3, 3)
A (-1, -3), (3, -3)
C ( 3, 3), (1, 3)
D (-3, -3), (-1, -3)
E ( 3, 3), ( 1, 3)
11 The rule of a single transformation that replaces
T2,3, then D2,1, then My = x is (x, y)
A (y - 3, 2x - 4)
B (y + 3, 2x + 4)
1
C y 3, x 1
D (-y + 3, -2x + 4)
E (y - 3, 2x - 2)
12 Under the transformations Tr1: (x, y)
(2x + 1, -2y + 2) and Tr2: (x, y) (-y + 2, 2x), the
rule for Tr1 followed by Tr2 is (x, y)
A (2y + 4, 4x + 2)
B (-2y + 5, -4x + 2)
C ( 2x + 1, 4y + 4)
D (-y + 2, 2x)
E (2y, 4x + 2)
13 Under successive transformations,
1
y = x
y = 2 x
y = 2 x + 1, the
transformations 1 and 2 are:
A D2,1 and T-1,0
B D1 and T 1
,1
,0
c D1 and T1
2
,1
,0
d D2,1 and T 1
2
,0
E D1, 2 and T1, 0

14 Under successive transformations
15 Which of the following sequences of successive

transformations does not produce the rule
y = 2x y = 3(22x 3) + 1?
a M y = 0 , D1, 3 , D1 , T3
2
y = f ( x )
y = 2 f ( 2 x )
b M y = 0 , D1 , T3
y = 2 f ( 2 x + 2) + 3,
the transformations 1 and 2 are:
b D1
a D2, 2 and T1, 3
2
c D1
2
E D
,2
2,
1
2
and T1, 3
and T1, 3
,1
,2
and T1, 3
d D2, 1 and T1, 0
,3
c D1 , M y = 0 , T3
2
,3
,1
,1
,1
d D1, 3 , M y = 0 , D1 , T3
2
,1
,1
E D1 , T3 , M y = 0
2
,3
,1
exTended resPonse
1 a State the translation that maps x2 + y2 = 1 onto (x 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 1.

b By completing the square on both x and y, express x2 + y2 + 2x + 4y 13 = 0 in the form
(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2. State the coordinates of the centre and the radius.
c Find the translation that maps x2 + y2 = 1 onto x2 + y2 + 2x 2y 7 = 0.
x2
( x + 1)2
2 a State the translation that maps
y 2 = 1 onto
( y 3)2 = 1.
4
4
b By completing the square on both x and y, express 9x2 4y2 + 18x 8y 31 = 0 in the form
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
= 1. State the coordinates of the centre and the semi-major and semi-minor axes.
a2
b2
c Find the translation that maps 92 y2 + 2x 3 = 0 onto x2 y2 + 4x + 2y 1 = 0.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Transformations
69
eBook plus
aCTiviTies
chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on transformations. (page 44)
2a
Tutorial
We4 int-1032: Watch how to determine the rule for

the image achieved after translations using a CAS
calculator. (page 46)
2b
Digital doc
We8 int-1212: Watch how to find the image

equations following transformations. (page 51)
2c
dilations from axes
Tutorial
We10 int-1033: Watch how to find the image

equation after dilations. (page 53)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 2.1: Sketch and interpret nonlinear

graphs. (page 56)
2d
Tutorial
We14 int-1034: Watch how to find the image equation

of an ellipse after transformations. (page 58)
2E
Tutorial
We15 int-1035: Watch how to determine the

coordinates and image equations after various
transformations. (page 62)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 2.2: Sketch graphs and identify

chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Interactivity
Successive transformations int-0969: Consolidate

your understanding of the effects of successive
70
3a Relations
3b Functions
3c Inverse functions
relations and
functions
AreAs oF sTudy

Sketching the graph of an inverse function from

the graph of a simple function
eBook plus
3A
Digital doc
relations
10 Quick Questions
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. The following are examples of relations in listed notation.
A = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)} and B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
The set of first elements from each ordered pair is the domain. A typical domain element is often
represented by x.
The set of second elements from each ordered pair is the range. A typical range element is
often represented by y.
For relation A, the domain = {1, 2, 3, 4} and the range = {2, 3, 4, 5}. Alternatively, using set
builder notation, the domain = {x: x Z, 1 x 4}, which reads as the set of x-values, such
that x is an integer between 1 and 4 inclusive, and the range = {y: y Z, 2 y 5}, which reads
the set of y-values, such that y is an integer between 2 and 5 inclusive.
For relation B, the domain = {1, 2, 3} and the range = {1, 2}.
Some relations have a rule that relates the domain elements with the range elements. For
relation A, the rule is y = x + 1 and using set builder notation A = {(x, y): x Z, y = x + 1},
which reads as the set of coordinate pairs, (x, y), such that the domain is an element of integer
numbers and the rule for y is y = x + 1. Note that a relation may be uniquely defined using the
domain and rule.
For relation B, there is no obvious rule, so listing is the only method for representing this
relation.
Graphs of relations
Worked exAMPle 1
eBook plus
Graph the following relations and state the range.

a {(x, y): x Z +, y = x + 1}
b {(x, y): x [1, 2), y = x2}
2
2
c {(x, y): x + y = 4}
Tutorial
int-1036
Worked example 1
Chapter 3
relations and functions
71
Think
a
Write
The graph of y = x + 1 is linear. The domain

of the relation is x Z+, which is all positive
integers. Create a table of values, starting with
the smallest value of x. A small number of
points will suffice.
Determine the range.
Draw a pair of axes, showing an appropriate

scale and plot the points. Do not join the dots
as x Z+. Place an arrow on the last point
to indicate that the pattern continues in that
direction.
a The smallest positive integer is 1.
x+1
1+1
2+1
3+1
4+1
x
1
2
3
4
The range is y 2, where y Z+.

y
6
4
y=x+1
2
0
The graph of y = x2 is parabolic. The domain

of the relation is x [1, 2), so the graph is
continuous over the interval. The square bracket
indicates that there should be a closed circle at
x = 1 and the round bracket indicates that there
should be an open circle at x = 2. Create a table
of values to determine the points on the graph.
Draw a pair of axes, showing an appropriate
scale and plot the points. Join the dots.
Determine the range. The smallest y-value is 0

and the highest is 4, which has an open circle
and is therefore not included.
x2 + y2 = 4 is a circle with centre (0, 0) and a
radius of 2. The domain is not explicitly stated
and therefore x [2, 2] is implied. Draw a
pair of axes, showing an appropriate scale and
sketch the circle as described.
y
2
3
4
5
x2
-1
(-1)2
(0)2
(1)2
(2)
y
5
4
y = x2
3
2
1
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
The range is: y [0, 4).

y
x2 + y2 = 4
2
2
Determine the range.
The range is: y [2, 2].
REMEMBER
1. A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

2. The domain of a relation is the set of first elements of a set of ordered pairs.
3. The range of a relation is the set of second elements of a set of ordered pairs.
72
Exercise
3a
Relations
1 For each of the following relations, state the domain and range.
a {(2, 3), (4, 7), (6, 8)}
b {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1)}
c {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5)}
d {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 2)}
f {(x, y): x Z, x 5, y = -x}
e {(x, y): x Z+, y = 2x - 1}
g {(x, y): x Z, 4 x < 21, y = x - 4}
h {(x, y): x [2, 7), y = x + 1}
i {(x, y): x [2, 4), y = x2}
j {(x, y): x (-1, 1), y = x2}
k {(x, y): x (-2, -1), y = x2}
l {(x, y): y = x2 + 3}
-x2 + 3}
n {(x, y): x2 + y2 = 9}
m {(x, y): y =
2
2
o {(x, y): (x - 2) + y = 4}
p {(x, y): x [0, 3), x2 + y2 = 9}
2 WE1 Sketch the graph of each of the following relations. State the domain and range.
a {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 2)}
b {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5)}
c {(x, y): x Z, x 5, y = x + 2}
d {(x, y): x [-2, 3], y = -x2}
2
e {(x, y): y = (x - 1) + 3}
f {(x, y): y = -2(x - 1)2 - 2}
2
g {(x, y): x ( 2, 1], y = 2(x + 1) + 3}
h {(x, y): (x - 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 9}
2
2
i {(x, y): (x + 2) + (y - 2) = 5}
j {(x, y): x [0, 2), x2 + y2 = 9}
k {(x, y): x [0, 1), (x - 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 9}
l {(x, y): y [0, 3), x2 + y2 = 9}
2
2
m {(x, y): x [0, 2), y 0, x + y = 9}
n {(x, y): y 3, (x + 2)2 + (y - 2)2 = 9}
3
For each of the following graphs, state the domain and range.
a
10 5
10
10
10
10
10 5
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10 5
10
10 5
h
y
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10 5
10
10 5
10 5
10 5
10
10
10 5
10
Chapter 3 Relations and functions
73
10 5
10
10
10
10
10 5
10
10 5
10
10
( y 3)2
= 1 are, respectively:
4
b [2, 0] and [1, 5]
c [2, 0] and [5, 1]
e [0, 2] and [ 5, 1]
MC The domain and range of ( x + 1)2 +
MC The domain of
a R\(1, 3)
c R\[1, 3)
e R\{1, 3}
3B
10
10
a [1, 1] and [2, 2]

d [0, 2] and [1, 5]
5
( x 1)2 ( y + 2)2
+
= 1 is:
4
16
b R\(1, 3]
d R\[1, 3]
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 3.1
Functions
A function is a relation that does not repeat the first element in any of its ordered pairs. That is,
for any x-value, there is only one y-value. So, a function is a relation that is either one-to-one
(11) or many-to-one (many1).
A one-to-one function has one x-value for a given y-value, whereas a many-to-one function
has more than one x-value for a given y-value.
In general terms, a relation can be AB. To test for A, you can use a horizontal-line test. If the
line crosses the graph once, A = 1; if it crosses more than once, A = many. To test for B, you can
use a vertical-line test; again, if the line crosses once, B = 1, and if it crosses more than once,
B = many. For a relation to be a function, B must always equal 1. Graphs of one-to-one and
many-to-one functions are shown below.
y
y
Horizontal
line test
(A = 2)
1
1
1
Vertical line
test (B = 1)
x
Horizontal
line test
(A = 1)
11 function
2
x
1
Vertical line
test (B = 1)
Many1 function
A graph of a relation also represents a function if a vertical line does not cut the graph
more than once.
We have seen that listing or set builder notation can be used to state a function, but there is an
additional mapping notation for functions only.
f: X Y, f (x) = .............. For this mapping notation, f is the label for the mapping or function.
X is always clearly expressed as the domain. Y, the co-domain, is a set that is large enough to
contain the range, so the range co-domain. f (x) or y is the image of x under the mapping.
f (x) = ............... or y = f (x) is the rule for f.
74
Worked exAMPle 2
Explain why each of the following is an invalid use of mapping notation.

1
a f: R R, f ( x ) =
x
b f: R+ R+, f (x) = x 1
c f: R R, f (x) = x
Think
WriTe
a The function not defined when x = 0
a The domain is not specified.
and this needs to be stated clearly in the

mapping notation.
1
b The range is not a subset of the co-domain.
b f =
. The range co-domain.
2
2
c f (x) is not a function.
c The graph is not a function since it
is one-to-many. Mapping notation

cannot be used if the relation is not a
function.
Worked exAMPle 3
eBook plus
Find the range for the following functions.

a f: R+ R, f (x) = 4x 1
b f: R R, f (x) = x2 4x + 5
c f: R R, f (x) = 2x 1
Think
a
Tutorial
int-1037
Worked example 3
WriTe
f (x) = 4x 1 is linear. The domain

is x R+ or x (0, ).
f (0) = 1, but (0, 1) is not

included and therefore this
lower end of the range must be
represented using a round bracket.
State the range.
f (x) = x2 4x + 5 is an inverted
parabola over the set of real
b
numbers. Use x =
to
2a
determine the x-value of the
turning point, as this can be used
to indicate the maximum y-value
of the graph.
a When x = 0, f (0) = 4(0) 1
= 1
The range: y (1, ).
b x=

( 4)
2
= 2
Substitute this x-value into f (x) to

determine the maximum y-value.
f (2) = 4 + 8 + 5 = 9
State the range.
The range: y (, 9].
Chapter 3
75
Use a CAS calculator to draw this

graph.
f(x) = 2x - 1 is an exponential
graph over the set of real numbers.
As x -, 2x -1, y = -1 is an
asymptote.
Use the graph and the information

described above to state the range.
The range is: y (-1, ).
Worked Example 4
If f: R R, f(x) = 2x2 - 4x + 1, find

a f(x2) b f(2x + 1)
Think
Write
f(x2),
x2
To find
substitute
and simplify.
To find f(2x + 1), substitute

2x + 1 for x and simplify.
for x
f(x) = 2x2 - 4x + 1
f(x2) = 2(x2)2 - 4(x2) + 1
= 2x4 - 4x2 + 1
f(x) = 2x2 - 4x + 1
f(2x + 1) = 2(2x + 1)2 - 4(2x + 1) + 1
= 2[4x2 + 4x + 1] - 8x - 4 + 1
= 8x2 + 8x + 2 - 8x - 4 + 1
= 8x2 - 1
Alternatively, on the Main screen,

complete the entry line as:
Define f(x) = 2x2 - 4x + 1
f(x2)
f(2x + 1)
REMEMBER
1. A function is a relation that does not repeat the first element in any of its ordered pairs.
That is, for any x-value, there is one y-value.
2. A function can be one-to-one or many-to-one.
3. The graph of a function cannot be crossed more than once by any vertical line.
76
4. Mapping notation for functions: f: X Y, f (x) = ..............., where X is the domain, Y is

the co-domain (range Y) and f (x) is the image of x.
5. When required, the range can be determined from the domain and the rule.
exerCise
3B
Functions
1
We2
Explain why the following are an invalid use of mapping notation.
a f : R R, f ( x ) = x + 5
d f : R + R, f ( x ) =
2
b f : R R, f ( x ) =
x2 + x
x
c f: [1, 5] R+, f (x) = 4 x
e f: R+ R+, f (x) = x3 3x
f f: R R, x = 2
We3 Find the range for the following functions.
a
c
e
g
i
f: [2, 5) R, f (x) = 3x 2
f: R R, f (x) = 3x + 2
f: R R, f (x) = 2x2 + 8x + 1
f: (1, 3) R, f (x) = x2 + 4x + 2
f: [1, 3) R, f (x) = 2x + 2
k f : [4, ) R, f ( x ) = x + 5
m f : ( , 2) R, f ( x ) =
o f : R\{0} R, f ( x ) =
x2
1
2 x
f: R R, f (x) = x2 + 2x + 3
f: (2, 4] R, f (x) = 3 2x
f: R R, f (x) = 4 2x
f: (1, 3) R, f (x) = x2 4x + 2
f: R R, f (x) = 3x + 2
2
l f : R\{1} R, f ( x ) =
x 1
1
n f : R R, f ( x ) = x
2 +1
b
d
f
h
j
+x
x
3 For f (x) = x2 5x + 6, find:

a the factors of f (x) and the solutions of f (x) = 0
b We4 f (x2 1) in its simplest form.
4 The solutions of f (x) = 0 are 2 and 6. Find the solutions of:

a f (x2 x) = 0
b f (2x 2) = 0.
5
MC Which of the following is a valid use of mapping notation?
a f : R R, f ( x ) =
1
x 1
b f : R+ R+, f ( x) =
c f : [4, ) R, f ( x ) = x 4
1
e f : R R+, f ( x) = 2
x +1
6
3C
1
2
x +1
d f: R R, x = 2
MC The ranges for f : [4, ) R, f ( x ) =
a [3, ), (, 0)
b [ 5 , ), ( , 0)
d [ 5 , ), (0, )
e [ 5 , ), (2, )
inverse functions
1
are:
x2
c [3, ), (2, )
x + 5 and f : ( , 2) R, f ( x ) =
eBook plus
1
Under a mapping f, X maps onto Y. Under an inverse mapping f ,

Interactivity
int-0970
Y maps onto X. The following statements result:
1
Inverse
functions
1. f can only exist if f is a one-to-one function.
2. Domain f 1 = range f.
1
3. Range f = domain f.
4. If x and y are interchanged, the rule for f 1 is obtained from the rule for f.
Chapter 3
77
5. If x and y are interchanged, the graph of f 1 can be obtained from the graph of f by reflecting
in the line y = x.
y
3
(1, 2)
y
3
y=x
3 2 1
1
3x
3 2 1
1
(2, 1)
y=x
f 1(x)
f (x)
3x
It is possible to consider inverse relations. For example, the rule for the inverse of y = x2, a
many-to-one function is x = y2, a one-to-many relation. However, if we are to start with a
function f and finish with a function f 1, then f has to be a one-to-one function.
Worked Example 5
-
If f: (-1, 2] R, f(x) = 2x + 4, find the domain, range and rule of f 1(x), and sketch the graphs
of f and f 1 on the same set of axes.
Think
Write
-
First, determine if the inverse function, f 1(x),

exists.
f(x) is linear and a 1-1 function, so f 1(x) exists.
Determine the range of f(x). The domain is

x (-1, 2], so substitute the end values of x to
determine the range.
f(-1) = -2 + 4 = 2
f(2) = 4 + 4 = 8
Therefore, the range of f(x) is y (2, 8].
The domain of f(x) = the range of f 1(x). The

range of f(x) = the domain of f 1(x).
State the domain and range of f 1(x).
To determine the rule of f 1(x), let f(x) = y

and interchange x and y. Then make y the
subject.
Fully define the rule for the inverse function.
f 1: (2, 8] R, f 1 ( x ) =
Sketch the graphs over the required domains,

showing the line y = x.
y f(x) = 2x + 4
8
y=x
6
4
f 1(x) = 12 x 2
2
2
0
8 6 4 2
4 6 8 x
2
Domain f(x): x (-1, 2]

range of f 1(x) is y (-1, 2]
Range of f(x): y (2, 8]
Domain of f 1(x) is (2, 8]
Let y = 2x + 4
x = 2y + 4
-2y = 4 - x
1
y= x2
2
4
6
8
78
1
x2
2
Worked exAMPle 6
f: (, 1]
1
eBook plus
If
R, f (x) = + 2x + 2, find the domain, range and rule
of f (x), and sketch the graphs of f and f 1 on the same set of axes.
x2
Think
1
int-1038
Worked example 6
WriTe
First, determine if the inverse
function, f 1(x), exists. Since

2
f (x) = x + 2x + 2 is an upright
parabola, it is necessary to locate the
turning point using x =
Tutorial
2a
2
= 1
2
Since the turning point occurs at x = 1, and the domain is
x (, 1], f (x) is a 11 function and f 1(x) exists.

x=
Determine the range of f (x). The

domain is x (, 1], so substitute
the end value of x to determine the
range (this value is at the turning
point).
x = 1
f( = 1 2 + 2
=1
The point (1, 1) is the minimum point on the graph.
The domain of f (x) = the range
of f 1(x). The range of f (x) = the
domain of f 1(x).
State the domain and range
of f 1(x).
Domain f (x): x (, 1]
range of f 1(x) is y (, 1]
Range of f (x): y [1, )
Domain of f 1(x) is [1, )
To determine the rule of f 1(x), let

f (x) = y and interchange x and y.
Then make y the subject.
1)
Let y = x2 + 2x + 2
y = (x + 1)2 + 1
Interchange x and y
x = (y + 1)2 + 1
x 1 = (y + 1)2
y = x 1 1
Since f (x) = x2 + 2x + 2, and

x (, 1] (left side of the
parabola), then f 1 should be
f 1: [1, ) R, f 1 ( x ) =
x 1 1
y = x 1 1. Fully define the rule

for the inverse function.
6
Sketch the graphs over the required

domains, showing the line y = x.
f(x) = x2 + 2x + 2
y
5
4
3
2
1
0
5 4 3 2 1
1
2
3
4
5
y=x
1 2 3 4 5 x
f 1(x) = 1 x 1
Chapter 3
79
To view the graph and its inverse on

a CAS calculator, open the Graph
& Tab screen. Complete the
entry lines as:
y1 = x2 + 2x + 2 | x 1
y2 = 1 x 1
y3 = x
Tick each of the equations and tap $.
reMeMBer
1. The inverse function of f, f 1, exists if f is a one-to-one function.
2. For f 1, domain = range of f, range = domain of f and the rule is found by

interchanging x and y in the rule for f.
3. To graph f 1 from the graph of f, or f from the graph of f 1, reflect in the line y = x.
exerCise
3C
inverse functions
1
We5 For each of the following functions f, determine the domain, range and rule of f 1.
Sketch the graphs of f and f 1 on the same set of axes.

a f: [0, ) R, f (x) = 3x 2
b f: [1, 3) R, f (x) = 2x 4
c f: (1, 2] R, f (x) = 2x + 4
d f: (, 2] R, f (x) = 2x + 1
e f: (2, 2] R, f (x) = 2x 2
f f: [4, 2) R, f (x) = x 3
We6 For each of the following functions f, determine the domain, range and rule of f 1.
Sketch the graphs of f and f 1 on the same set of axes.

a f: (1, ) R, f (x) = x2 2x + 2
b f: (, 2] R, f (x) = x2 + 4x + 5
c f: (1, ) R, f (x) = x2 + 2x + 3
d f : [ 12 , ) R, f ( x ) = 2 x 2 + 2 x + 3
e f : ( 2, ) R, f ( x ) = x + 2
g f : ( 2, ) R, f ( x) =
x + 2 +1
f : ( 12 , ) R, f ( x ) = 2 x 1 + 1
h f : ( , 3 ) R, f ( x ) =
3 x + 2
f 1
3 For each of the following functions f, determine if

exists. For those that exist, find the
domain, range and rule of f 1.

1
1
a f : R\{0} R, f ( x ) =
b f : R\{0} R, f ( x ) = 2
x
x
1
1
c f : R\ 12 R, f ( x ) =
d f : (2, ) R, f ( x) =
( x 2)2
2x 1
4 MC For f: [1, ) R, f (x) = 2x2 4x + 4, the domain and rule of f 1 are:
{}
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 3.2
80
a [2, ), f 1 ( x ) = 2 x 1 b [3, ), f 1 ( x ) = 1 + x 2
2
2
d [3, ), f 1 ( x ) = 1 x 1
2
e [2, ), f 1 ( x ) = 1 + x 2
2
c [2, ), f 1 ( x ) = 2 x 1
Summary
Relations
A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

The domain of a relation is the set of first elements of a set of ordered pairs.
The range of a relation is the set of second elements of a set of ordered pairs.
Functions
A function is a relation that does not repeat the first element in any of its ordered pairs. That is, for any
x-value, there is one y-value.
A function can be one-to-one or many-to-one.
The graph of a function cannot be crossed more than once by any vertical line.
Mapping notation for functions: f: X Y, f(x) = ............... where X is the domain, Y is the co-domain
(range Y) and f(x) is the image of x.
When required, the range can be determined from the domain and the rule.
Inverse functions
The inverse function of f, f 1, exists if f is a one-to-one function.

For f 1; domain = range of f, range = domain of f and the rule is found by interchanging x and y in the rule
for f.
To graph f 1 from the graph of f, or f from the graph of f 1, reflect in the line y = x.
81
chapter review
10
1 For each of the following relations, state the

domain and range. Sketch the graph.
a {(2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3)}
b {(x, y): x Z, y = -x}
c {(x, y): x Z+, y = 2x}
d {(x, y): (x - 1)2 + (y - 2)2 = 4}
e {( x, y ):
f {( x, y ):
Short answer
( x 1)2 ( y 2)2
+
= 1}
4
16
5
10 5
10 5
10
10 5
10
10
y
10
10
10
f
5
y
5
10
10
2 For the graphs of the relations below, state the

domain and range.
10
10
( x 1)2 ( y 2)2
= 1}
4
16
5
10 5
10
3 Explain why each of the following are an invalid

use of the mapping notation.
10
5
10 5
10
c f : R R, f ( x ) = 2 3
4 Find the range for each of the following functions.
a f: [3, 4) R, f(x) = x - 4
b f: R R, f(x) = (x - 4)(x - 2)
c f: R R, f(x) = ex - 4
y
10
d f : [4, ) R, f ( x ) = x + 5
5
10 5
10
82
x2 + 1
x2
b f: R+ R+, f(x) = x2 - 1
10
a f : R R, f ( x ) =
10
e f : [ 2, 2] R, f ( x ) = 4 x 2
f f: R R, f(x) = -2x2 + 4x - 1
3
g f : R\{2} R, f ( x ) =
+1
x2
h f: (2, ) R, f(x) = log2(x)

1
i f : R R, f ( x ) = 2
x +1
Exam tip Make sure you state the range taking
the domain restriction into account.
5 For f(x) = x2 - 3x + 2:
a find the factors of f(x) and the solutions of
f(x) = 0
b find f(x2 + 1), the factors of f(x2 + 1) and the
solutions of f(x2 + 1) = 0.
Multiple choice
x2 y2
+
= 1 and
1 The ranges of ( x, y ): x [ 2, 0],
4
9
2
2
x
y
= 1 are:
( x, y ):
4
9
a [-3, 3], [-3, 3] b [-3, 3], R

c [-3, 0], R
e [ 3, 0], [ 3, 3]
d [0, 3], R
2 The implied domains for {(x, y): x = 2y} and
{( x, y ): y = 25 x 2 } are:
a (0, ), [-5, 5]
b [0, ), (-, -5] [5, )
c R, [-5, 5]
d [0, ), [-5, 5]
e (0, ), (-, -5] [5, )
3 Which of the following is not a proper use of
mapping notation?
a f: [2, 3] [3, 4], f(x) = x + 1
b f: (2, 3) [3, 4], f(x) = x + 1
1
c f : (2, 3] (7, 8], f ( x ) = x + 6
2
d f: [2, 3] R-, f(x) = -x + 1
e f: [2, 3] R+, f(x) = -x + 3
4 The ranges of f : R + R, f ( x ) = x + 4 and

f: R R, f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 are:
a (-, 2), [0, )
b (-, -2), [0, )
c ( , 0], [0, )
d (-, 2), R+
+
e ( , 2), R
5 If under the mapping f: R- R,
1
1
f ( x ) = 2 , and f ( x ) = , then x is:
3
x 1
9
1
b
a
c -2
24
8
d 2
e 2
6 Which of the following equations represents a
function for which an inverse function exists?
x2 y2
+
= 1
a ( x, y ): x [0, 2],
4
9
x2 y2
+
= 1
b ( x, y ): y [0, 3],
4
9
x2 y2
= 1
c ( x, y ): x [2, ),
4
9
x
y2
= 1
d ( x, y ): y [0, ),
4
9
x2 y2
= 1
e ( x, y ): x [2, ), y ( , 0],
4
9
2
7 For f: ( , 2] R, f(x) = x - 4x + 1, the domain
and rule of f 1 are:
a ( , 2], f 1 ( x ) = 2 x + 3
b [ 3, ], f 1 ( x ) = 2 x + 3
c [ 3, ], f 1 ( x ) = 2 + x + 3
d (3, ), f 1 ( x ) = 2 x 3
e (3, ), f 1 ( x ) = 2 + x 3
Extended response
-
1 For each of the following functions f, find the domain, range and rule of f 1. Sketch the graphs of f and f 1 on
the same set of axes.
a f: [0, ) R, f(x) = 2x + 1
b f: (-2, 4] R, f(x) = -2x + 1
Exam tip Make sure you write the equation of
c f: [1, ) R, f(x) = x2 - 2x + 3
the asymptotes.
d f: (-, 0) R, f(x) = x2 - 2x - 1
e f : [2, ) R, f ( x ) = x 2
f f : ( , 1] R, f ( x ) = 1 x
g f : [ 3, 0] R, f ( x ) = 2 1
h f : [ + 3, ) R, f ( x ) = 2
x2
9
x2
1
9
83
2 The perimeter for a new seal enclosure is to have a maximum side length of 8 m.
The width is to be twice the length (x).
a Draw a diagram of the enclosure and label the sides.
b Define a rule that gives the perimeter, P, of the new enclosure.
c What is the largest value that x can be?
d State the domain and range.
e Write in function notation the rule for the perimeter.
f Define a function for the area of the enclosure, A(x).
g If the maximum area allowed is 18 m2, find the dimension of the enclosure.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 3
84
eBook plus
ACTiviTies
chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on relations and functions. (page 71)
3a
Relations
Tutorial
We1 int-1036: Watch how to graph relations and state

their range. (page 71)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 3.1: Use set notation to identify

the domain and range of relations and functions.
(page 74)
3b
Functions
Tutorial
We3 int-1037: Watch how to determine the determine

the range for functions given in function notation.
(page 75)
3c
Inverse functions
chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Interactivity
Inverse functions int-0970: Consolidate your

understanding of graphs of inverse functions.
(page 77)
Tutorial
We6 int-1038: Watch how to find the domain and

range of an inverse function. (page 79)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 3.2: Identify types of relations and

their domain and range. (page 80)
Chapter 3
85
EXAM PRACTICE 1
SHORT ANSWER
20 minutes
1 Simplify 3 72 + 4 12 300 .
2 Sketch the graph of f:
f(x) = [2x + 1].
[3,
2 marks
3] R, where
3 marks
3 Let f: R R, where f(x) = x 2 and let

1
g: R\{2} R, where g( x ) =
.
f ( x)
Sketch the graphs of f(x) and g(x) on the same set
4 marks
of axes. Label all key features.
4 Show that if z1 = a + bi and z2 = c - di, then
equals
ac bd + (bc + ad )i
.
c2 + d 2
z1
z2
3 marks
MULTIPLE CHOICE
Chapters 1 TO 3
Which point represents z1 - z2?

A H
B J
D L
E M
C K
4 The graph of {(x, y): y = |x - 2|} is transformed by

a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis. The image of
this transformation can be represented by the rule:
A {(x, y): y = |2x - 2|}
1
B ( x, y ): y = | x 2 |
2
1
C ( x, y ): y = x 2
2
D {(x, y): y = |x - 4|}

E {(x, y): y = 2|x - 2|}
5 The graph of f is shown below.
y
10 minutes
Each question is worth 1 mark.

1 If z1 = 4 - 3i and z2 = 1 + 2i, then z1z2 equals:
A 5 - i
B 4 - 6i
C 2 - 5i
D 10 + 5i
E 2 + 5i
a
2 Point A (x, y) is translated by and then reflected
b
in the y-axis to the image B. The coordinates of
point B are:
A (x + a, y + b)
B (x a, y + b)
C (x + a, y + b)
D (x + a, y - b)
E (x - a, y b)
Which one of the following represents f 1?

A
Im (z)
K
z2
J
86
z1 H
Re (z)
3 The points z1 and z2 are shown on the Argand

diagram below.
L
exTended resPonse
30 minutes
1 Graphic designer Rhonda has been contracted by Wacky World to design a new logo for their T-shirts. Her
first design is shown below.
To allow Rhonda to have the flexibility to change her designs, she determines a function that models her
design. For her design, 1 cm represents 1 unit on the Cartesian plane.
y
y2
C
1 cm
B
y1
O
Graph 1
She finds that part of her design follows the rule y = | 2x 3 |.

a For the rule y1 = | 2x 3 |, determine the coordinates of:
i A
ii B
iii C
1 + 1 + 2 = 4 marks
The second part of the design is defined by y2, which is determined by transforming y1 onto the image of y2
as shown in Graph 1 above.
b Describe a transformation that maps the graph of y1 to y2.
1 mark
c Use set notation to determine the rule for y2.
3 marks
d In the context of this problem, determine the feasible domain and range. Write your answer using
function notation.
1 + 1 = 2 marks
2 Rhonda inserts another W in the design. The second W is smaller than the first. Rhonda uses the method
of finding a rule to describe part of the W and then applies transformations to complete the design. Using
Graph 1, her new design for W will include points ABC.
a The coordinates of B are (0, 1). Describe a transformation that maps B to the image B.
2 marks
The second W includes the original point A.
b Determine a rule that describes the line that passes through points A and B.
3 marks
4
c The point C lies on the line found in part c. If C has coordinates x, , find the exact value of x.
3
2 marks
d Rhonda is going to place the second smaller W above the first W. The position of B will become
(1, 3). Write down in matrix form, the combination of transformations that map B to its new position.
2 marks
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Digital doc
Solutions
Exam practice 1
exam practice 1
87
4a
4b
4c
4d
Review of index laws

Standard form and significant figures
Transposition
Solving linear equations and
simultaneous linear equations
4e Applications
4F Algebraic fractions
4G Linear literal equations
Algebra
AreAs of sTudy
Applications of arithmetic involving natural

numbers, integers, rational numbers and real
numbers
Substitution and transposition in linear relations,
such as temperature conversion
The solution of linear equations, including
literal linear equations
Developing formulas from word
descriptions, and substitution of values into
formulas
The construction of tables of values from a

given formula using technology
Linear relations defined recursively and simple
applications
The algebraic and graphical solution of
simultaneous linear equations in two variables
Solution of worded problems involving a linear
equation or simultaneous linear equations in
two variables
The construction of a table of values from a
given formula using technology
eBook plus
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
4A
review of index laws

Index, power or exponent
23
Base number
You learned in earlier years that 23 means multiply two by itself three times, that is,
2 2 2 = 8. The index indicates the number of times the base is multiplied by itself.
In general,
34
3
81
= 3
33 =
Index form Expanded form Basic numeral

a m = a
a
a
m times
In summary, the index laws are:

Multiplication:
Division:
Raising to a power:
Raising to the power of zero:
Raising to the power of one:
88
am an = am + n
am
am an = n = am - n
a
m
n
(a ) = am n
a0 = 1
a1 = a
maths Quest 11 Advanced General mathematics for the Casio Classpad
an
a
(a b)m = am bm; = n
b
b
1
a m= m
a
Products and quotients:

Negative powers:
Fractional powers:
a n = n am = ( n a )
When simplifying expressions and equations with indices, we generally use a combination of
these laws.
m
Worked Example 1
4 3
2 2
Simplify 3 x y 2 x y z .
5 x 8 yz
Think
write
Add the indices of x and the indices of y

and multiply the constants together in the
numerator.
Subtract the indices of x, y and z in the

denominator from those in the numerator.
Simplify to write answer with positive indices

and use the rule z0 = 1.
3x 4 y3 2 x 2 y 2 z 6 x6 y 5z
=
5 x8 yz
5 x8 yz
= 65 x - 2 y 4 z 0
6y4
5x 2
When numbers with an index are then raised to another index, the indices are multiplied.
Worked Example 2
Simplify
-
a x 3y2 (2x2y 1)3 b ( a4 b3 )
-2
a 7 b2
- .
a3 b 4
Think
a
Write
Remove the brackets by multiplying the

indices.
a x 3y2 (2x2y 1)3
-3
= x 3y2 23x6y
-1
Add the indices of x and y.
= 8x3y
Simplify to write answer with a positive

index.

indices.
b (a 4 b 3 )
-2
8x3
y
a7b2
a3b
-4
-
= a 8b
Change the division sign to a

multiplication sign and write the
reciprocal of the second term.
a 8b
1
-6
-6
a7b2
a3 b
-4
a3b 4
a7b2
Chapter 4 Algebra
89
a 5b 10
a7b2
Add the indices of a and b in the

numerators.
Subtract the indices of a and b in the

denominator from those in the numerator
and simplify to positive indices.
=a
-12 -8
b
1
a12 b8
Worked exAmple 3
Simplify
a 2n - 1 62n 3n + 1
eBook plus
Think
a
Tutorial
b 2n 41 - n 162n - 1.
int-1039
Worked example 3
WriTe
Change the 6 into 2 3.
a 2n - 1 62n 3n + 1
= 2n - 1 (2 3)2n 3n + 1

indices.
= 2n - 1 22n 32n 3n + 1
Add indices of numbers with base 2 and

add indices of numbers with base 3.
= 23n - 1 33n + 1
Change all numbers to a base of 2.

indices.
= 2n 22 - 2n 28n - 4
Simplify by adding indices of numbers

with base 2.
= 27n - 2
b 2n (22)1 - n (24)2n - 1
Worked exAmple 4
Simplify each of the following, expressing the answer with a positive index.
7
128 4 64
x 2 y6 x 3 y5
Think
a
WriTe
a
128 4 64
Write using fractional indices.
= 128 7 64 4
Write 128 and 64 in index form with a base of 2.
= ( 2 7 ) 7 ( 26 ) 4
Multiply the powers.
= 21 2 4
Simplify and write the answer.
= 21 2 2
= 22
b
Write the expression using index notation.
x 2 y6 x3 y 5
1
90
= (x 2 y6 ) 3 (x3 y 5 ) 2

powers.
Collect terms with the same base by

subtracting the powers.
= x3
=x
Simplify the powers.
Rewrite with positive powers.
3 5
= x 3 y2 x 2 y 2
2 3
5
22y 2
- 5 -1
6y 2
1
5 1
x6y2
REMEMBER
A combination of the laws below can be used to simplify indicial equations.

1
a m= m
a0 = 1
a1 = a
a
am an = am + n
m
an
Exercise
4A
am a n =
= n am = ( n a )
m
am
= a m - n
an
(am)n = am n
(a b)m = am bm

1 WE1 Simplify the following expressions.
a
d
12a 2 b
3a
3 1
- 3a 3 b 2
e 2a 2 b 4 3a 2 b
-2
6a b
2 WE2
8a3b 4
2ab
-1
- a2b- 4
2ab3
1
-1
f 8 3 a 2 b3 4 a 2 b 2
( x 3 y 2 )2
2x4 y2
2( x 2 y 2 )3
( 2 x 3 y )3
3 -2 2
e (m n )
2mn
(5m 2 n)2
3m 1
-2 2 3
(3m n )
n2
9w2
( - 3v1w 2 )- 3
-1 2 2
(2v w )
( 2v 3 ) 2
3
ab 2
(2 xy 2 )3
4 x 2 y3
-
(3 x 3 y 2 )2
4( x 2 y 2 ) 4
( 2m 1n - 2 ) 3
2(m 2 n 2 )4
(4 v 1w 2 ) 2
2w2
-2 2 3
2 -2 2
( 3m n )
(v w )
3 MC Expressing
a
( - 2 v 3 w )3 2 w 2
(5v 2 w 1 )3 (vw)2
ab in index form gives:

b ab
-3
-3
c (ab)
d ab 8
e (ab) 8
Chapter 4 Algebra
91
Simplify.
We3
a 2n - 1 4n + 1 16n
d
5
27 4 n + 2
16 3n -1
6n
2 n + 23 n
5n - 3 3n + 1
75n
f 72m - 2 4 32m
We4 Simplify each of the following, expressing your answer with positive indices.
3
9 81
a
d
( xy 3 ) ( x 2 y )
2
g
j
4B
b 3n + 2 9n - 1 27
5
24
( 4 x 3 ) 3 ( 3 x 4 )8
( x + 1)
2
x3
x +1
h
k
1
x6
-1
2
-1
-2
f 27
4
(64 m6 ) 3
4m
( )
c x2 x3
-2
x+2+
x
x+2
93 3
-5
4
1
x
-4
l ( y - 4) y - 4
standard form and significant figures

standard form
Standard form (or scientific notation) involves a practical use of indices. A very large or very small
number can be expressed in standard form as a more convenient way of writing it. This notation
involves expressing the number as a number between one and ten multiplied by a power of 10.
a 10n, where 1 a < 10
A computer may complete a basic operation in approximately 0.000 000 000 8 seconds. It is
easier to write a number such as this in standard form as 8 10 10 seconds.
Likewise, a light year is a measure of distance equal to 9 460 528 400 000 000 kilometres. In
standard form, this number can be expressed as 9.460 528 4 1015
Standard form is not only a more economical means of expressing these numbers, it also
makes calculations involving these numbers easier through the use of index laws.
To write a number in standard form :
Movethedecimalpointsothatthenumberappearstobebetween1and10
Countthenumberofdecimalplacesthedecimalpointhasbeenmoved(positiveifmoving
left or negative if moving right)
Multiplybythepowerof10equaltothisnumber.
Thesignofthepowerwillbepositiveifthemagnitudeoftheoriginalnumberisgreater
than 10
Thesignofthepowerwillbenegativeifthemagnitudeoftheoriginalnumberisbetween
0 and 1.
Worked exAmple 5
eBook plus
350 000 0.04

Solve
and express as a basic numeral.
70
Think
1
92
Express the problem in standard form.
Tutorial
int-1040
WriTe
Worked example 5
350 000 0.04

70
3.5 10 5 4 10 2
=
7 10
14 103
7 10
Simplify the numerator using index laws where possible.
Divide using index laws where possible.
= 2 102
Express as a basic numeral.
= 200
Significant figures
Often we will be interested in all the figures in a particular number.
Significant figures are counted from the first non-zero digit (19). For example, 0.0092 has
two significant figures (9 and 2).
Any zeros at the end of the number after the decimal point are considered to be significant.
For example, 0.250 has three significant figures (2, 5 and 0), whereas 0.025 has two
significant figures (2 and 5).
The trailing zeros at the end of a number are not considered significant. For example, 1200
has two significant figures (1 and 2).
All zeros between two non-zero digits are always significant. For example, 102.587 has
6 significant figures (1, 0, 2, 5, 6 and 7).
Worked Example 6
State the number of significant figures in the following numbers.

a 3.20560 b 20.01 c 0.0034 d 35000
Think
Write
a Significant figures are counted from the first non-
a 3.20560 has 6 significant figures.
zero digit (19). There are two zeros after the

decimal point, which are to the right of a non-zero
digit and so all digits are significant.
b Significant figures are counted from the first non-
b 20.01 has 4 significant figures.
zero digit (19). All zeros between two non-zero

digits are always significant. All digits in this case
are significant.
c Significant figures are counted from the first non-
c 0.0034 has 2 significant figures.
zero digit (19). The first non-zero digit in this case

is 3. Only 3 and 4 are significant.
d The trailing zeros at the end of a number are
d 35000 has 2 significant figures.
not considered significant. Only 3 and 5 are

significant.
Calculations involving significant figures

When performing calculations associated with significant figures, the following rules apply.
When adding or subtracting numbers, count the number of decimal places to determine
the number of significant figures. The answer cannot contain more places after the decimal
point than the least number of decimal places in the numbers being added or subtracted.
When multiplying or dividing numbers, count the number of significant figures. The answer
cannot contain more significant figures than the number being multiplied or divided with
the least number of significant figures.
Chapter 4 Algebra
93
Worked Example 7
Evaluate, expressing your answer to the appropriate number of significant figures:

a 345.87 + 20.1 b 23.020 0.023.
Think
a
2
3
4
2
3
Write
This question involves addition; therefore,

find the least number of decimal places of the
numbers in the question.
a 345.87 has 2 decimal places.
Add the numbers.

Round the answer to 1 decimal place.
Interpret this answer.
347.87 + 20.1 = 367.97

368.0
The answer has 1 decimal place and
4 significant figures.
b 23.020 has 5 significant figures.
0.023 has 2 significant figures.
The answer will have 2 significant figures.
23.020 0.023 = 0.52946
0.53
The question involves multiplication; therefore,

find the least number of significant figures of
the numbers in the question.
Multiply the numbers.
Express the answer to 2 significant figures.
20.1 has 1 decimal place.

The answer will have 1 decimal place.
REMEMBER
1. To write a number in standard form:

Move the decimal point so that the number appears to be between 1 and 10.
Count the number of decimal places the decimal point has been moved
(left: +; right: ).
Multiply by the power of 10 equal to this number.
2. The number of significant figures in a number can be determined by considering each
of the following rules:
Significant figures are counted from the first non-zero digit (19).
Any zeros at the end of the number after the decimal point are considered to be
significant.
The trailing zeros at the end of a number are not considered significant.
All zeros between two non-zero digits are always significant.
3. When performing calculations associated with significant figures, the following rules
apply:
When adding or subtracting numbers, count the number of decimal places to
determine the number of significant figures. The answer cannot contain more places
after the decimal point than the least number of decimal places in the numbers being
added or subtracted.
When multiplying or dividing numbers, count the number of significant figures. The
answer cannot contain more significant figures than the number being multiplied or
divided with the least number of significant figures.
Exercise
4b

1 Express the following in standard form.
a 360400
b 213.457
d 0.0324
e 0.00010031
94
c 1 023.98
f 570201009
2 WE5 Solve by expressing the numbers in standard form and simplifying using index laws.
Express your answer as a basic numeral.
28 000
420 000
11 200 000
a
b
c
350
1400
2800
d
80 000 000
16 000
3 100 000
1550
7 500 000
1500
0.000 24
0.3
0.000 018
0.06
0.000 056
0.0350
0.000 84
0.0021
5 800 000
0.02
130 000
0.0026
0.0066
11 000
0.000 095
190 000
18 000 0.0045
900
4900 0.001 75
35
750 000 00 0.000 025

1250
25 600 000 0.000 000 004

0.0064
3 MC 10.0673 expressed in standard form is:

a 1.00673 10
b 10.0673 10 4
2
d 0.100673 10
e 1.00673 10 1
4 WE6
a
d
g
j
Specify the number of significant figures in the following:
0.023
210.50
0.12010
0.000002
5 WE7
-2
c 0.100673 10
b
e
h
k
10.21
10.10
7620
4730.90
c
f
i
l
3045
34700.002
190.00
2800000
Calculate the following to the correct number of significant figures.
a 2.456 + 0.9
d 0.2507 - 0.120
g 403.5 5.1
b 12.340 + 1.02
e 1.903 230.576
h 2.01 0.05080
c 120.350 - 2.04
f 28.1 2.1020
6 MC The solution to 130.70 28.9913 with the correct number of significant figures is:
a 101.71
b 101.7090
c 101.7
d 101
e 101.709
7 MC The solution to 32.3695 1.870 with the correct number of significant figures is:
a 17.3
b 17
c 17.309
d 17.31
e 17.3100
8 Complete the following calculations, expressing your answer to the appropriate number of
significant figures.
a It is 1.35 kilometres from Janes house to school. Her average step length is 0.7 metres.
How many steps does it take for Jane to walk to school.
b If a container of sugar cubes has a mass of 250 g when full (excluding the mass of the
container), how many sugar cubes would be required to fill the container if they each have
a mass of 3.24 g?
9 The outer skin of a human cell, the cell membrane, is approximately 0.0000000084 metres
thick. If the radius of the cell (including the cell membrane) is 0.0000042 metres, what
fraction of the radius does the cell membrane constitute?
10 An Olympic size swimming pool contains 2500000 litres of water. The average daily water
usage for a family of four is 625 litres. How long would it take for a family to use the volume
of water equivalent to an Olympic size pool.
Chapter 4 Algebra
95
11 The Earth has a mass of approximately 5970 yottagrams (where a yottagram, Yg, is 1021 kg).
The mass of the Moon is 73500 zettagrams (where a zettagram, Zg, is 1018 kg). What
percentage of the mass of the Earth is the mass of the Moon?
4c
Transposition
A formula is an equation or a rule that defines the relationship between two or more variables.
If a formula describes a relationship between two variables, both of which are to the power of 1,
and does not contain terms that include a product or quotient of those variables, then such a
relation is said to be linear.
The graph that represents a linear relation is a straight line, which is where the term linear is
derived from. For example:
x 4y 7 = 0 and y = 3x + 6
are linear relations, whereas
x
x + y xy = 3 or x2 + y = 29 or
=7
y
are not (as explained previously).
Linear relations are often found in practical situations. For example, the formula for the
circumference of a circle, C = D, and the formula for the conversion of temperature from
9
degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit, F = 5 C + 32, both describe linear relations. If we wanted
to find many values of C given various values of F, it would be more convenient to have the
corresponding formula the formula that would have C on one side and everything else on the
other side of the equals sign.
The variable that is by itself is called the subject of the formula (that is, a formula
describes its subject in terms of all other variables). In the formula I = 20R, I is the subject.
To make R the subject, we need to rearrange the formula. Such a rearrangement is called
transposition.
96
I = 20R
I
20 R
divide both sides of the equation by 20.
=
20
20
I
Simply.
=R
20
I
Writethesubjectontheleft-handside.
R=
20
To rearrange or transpose a formula, we need to perform the same inverse operations to
both sides of the equation until the desired result is achieved.
To transpose the equation
Worked exAmple 8
Transpose the formula 4x = 2y - 3 to make y the subject.

Think
WriTe
4x = 2y - 3
Write the given formula.
Add 3 to both sides of the equation.
Divide each term on both sides of the equation by 2.
4 x 3 2y
+ =
2 2 2
Simplify both sides of the equation.
2x +
4x + 3 = 2y - 3 + 3
4x + 3 = 2y
3
=y
2
y = 2x +
3
2
To transpose the above formula, we use the same methods as those employed for solving
linear equations. The only difference is that in the end we do not obtain a unique (or specific)
numerical value for the required variable, but rather an expression in terms of other variables.
Mostoftherelationsthatdescribereal-lifesituationsarenon-linear.Consider,forexample,
any formula for area or volume. A few examples are the area of a circle A = r2(non-linear,
1
since it contains r to the power of 2); the area of a triangle A = 2 bh(non-linear,sinceitcontains
the product of two variables); and the volume of a cube V = s3(non-linear,sinces is cubed).
Non-linearformulascanbetransposedbyperformingidenticalinverseoperationstoboth
sides of the equations.
The inverse of x2 is x, the inverse of x is x2 and so on.
Worked exAmple 9
eBook plus
Transpose each of the following formulas to make the pronumerals indicated

in brackets the subject.
ab - ac
4
a A = 3 r2 (r)
b P=
( a)
c m = pq - rs ( s)
d
Think
a
Tutorial
int-1041
Worked example 9
WriTe
Write the equation.
Multiply both sides of the equation

by 3.
A = 3 r2
4
3 A = 3 r2 3
3A = 4r2
Chapter 4
Algebra
97
3 A 4 r 2
=
4
4
3A
= r2
4
Divide both sides by 4.
3A
= r2
4
Take the square root of both sides.

Note: From an algebraic point of view
we should write in front of the root.
However, since r represents a physical
quantity (radius of a sphere in this
case), it can take only positive values.
On the Main screen, tap:

Action
Advanced
solve
ab-ac
, a
solve p =
d
Then press E.
Write the answer.
r=
3A
4
a=
dP
b-c
Note: Capital P should be used in the answer.

c
Write the equation.
The inverse of x is x2 so square

both sides.
Subtract pq from both sides.
Divide both sides by r.
m=
pq - rs
m2 = pq rs
m2 pq = pq rs pq
m2 pq = rs
m 2 - pq - rs
= -r
r
m 2 - pq
-r
pq - m 2
s=
r
s=
Multiply the numerator and

denominator by 1 (optional).
REMEMBER
1. Transposition is the rearrangement of terms within a formula.

2. Relations can be transposed by performing identical inverse operations to both sides of
the equation that describes the relation.
3. The subject of the formula is the variable that is by itself on one side of the equals sign
while all other variables are on the other side.
98
Exercise
4c
Transposition
1 WE8
Transpose each of the following formulas to make the pronumeral indicated in
brackets the subject. (Where two pronumerals are indicated, perform a separate transposition
for each.)
a 5y + 4x = 20
(x, y)
b 3x 4y + 12 = 0
(y)
c m = 3a 14
(a)
d 5p = 2 3k
(k)
1
e 2 a = 4 b
(a, b)
f 10 3a = 2a b
g a = 3b 0.5c
(c)
i 5(3 2d) = 6(f + 4)
(d, f)
3a 2(b + 3a) +
= 1
2
3
(a, b)
(a, b)
2(a - 3)
= b
5
7(a - 4 b) 5(b - 2a)
j

=
3
4
2x
3x - 6 y
l

-6=
5
10
(a)
(a, b)
(x, y)
2 WE9
Transpose each of the following formulas to make the pronumerals indicated in
brackets the subject. (Where two pronumerals are indicated, perform a separate transposition
for each.)
a v2 = u2 + as (a, u)
b S = 4r2 (r)
1 1
1
r
+
( R, R1 )
c =
(r )
d A = A0 1 +
R R1 R2
100
t
e s = (u + v ) (t, u)
2
f T = 2
L
g
g C = a 2 + b 2
h s = ut + 2 at2 (a)
( L , g)
(b)
j R = mv2 - mv1
t
i P = I2R (I, R)
(m, v1 )
Questions 3 to 6 refer to the following information.

A gardener charges a $40 fixed fee for each visit plus $12 per hour of work.
3 MC Which of the following graphs represents the above information, where C represents the
total cost of a visit and t the time the gardener worked (in hours)?
b
a C
40
12
0
d C
40
0
40
0
(5, 100)
(4, 76)
c C
40
C
t
12
40 C
4 MC Which of the following represents the relationship between t and C?

a C + 40 12t = 0
b 12t + C = 40
c 12t + 40 C = 0
d t = 12C + 40
e 40 + 12t + C = 0
Chapter 4 Algebra
99
5 MC When the relationship between t and C is transposed to make t the subject, it is then
written as:
C + 40
C - 12
a t =
b 12t + 40 = C
c t =
12
40
C
3
C
d t =
+
e
- 3 13 = t
40 10
12
6 MC If the total bill came to $79, for how long did the gardener work?
a 3 h
b 3 h 15 min
c 3 h 30 min
d 3 h 45 min
e 4 h
Questions 710 refer to the following information. The volume of a square-based pyramid
1
with the side of the base s and the height h is given by the formula V = 3s2h.
7 MC The side length of the base of a square-based pyramid with the height h and volume V is
given by:
a s = 3
v
h
b s =
3h
V
c s =
h
3V
d s =
V
3h
e s =
3V
h
8 MC The height of a square-based pyramid with the side of the base 5 cm and volume
75 cm3 is:
a 8 cm
b 9 cm
c 10 cm
D 11 cm
E 12 cm
9 MC If both the side of the base and the height are doubled, the volume is:
A doubled
b tripled
C increased by 4 times
D increased by 6 times
E increased by 8 times
10 MC If the side of the base of a pyramid is doubled, but its volume remains unchanged, the
height:
1
A becomes twice as large
B becomes 2 of the original size
C becomes 4 of the original size
D becomes 4 times as large
E becomes 4 of the original size

11 The sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon is given by S = (n 2) 180, where n is
the number of sides.
a Transpose the formula to make n the subject.
b Use the appropriate formulas to complete the following table:
Polygon
Number of sides (n)
Triangle
Hexagon
Dodecagon
12
Nonagon
Heptagon
Sum of interior angles (S)
1080
540
360
1440
100
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 4.1
4d
n
12 The sum of n terms of an arithmetic sequence is given by the formula S = [2a + ( n - 1)d ],
2
where a is the first number of the sequence and d is the common difference.
a Transpose the formula to make a the subject and hence find the first term in a sequence
that has n = 26, d = 3 and S = 1079.
b Transpose the formula to make d the subject and hence find the common difference of an
arithmetic sequence with 20 terms, a = 18 and S = -20.
solving linear equations and

A linear equation is an equation that contains a pronumeral (unknown value) raised to the power
of 1. Such an equation may also be called an equation of the first degree. Examples of linear or
first degree equations include:
x+5
2x - 4 = 8, y = 7x - 12 and y =
.
3
Equations of the type:
1
y = , y = x , 2x2 - 4 = 8, x2 + y2 = 4 and y = x3 - 8
x
are not linear since they contain pronumerals that are raised to powers other than 1; in these
1
cases, -1, 2 , 2, 2 and 3, respectively.

A linear equation is an equation that contains a pronumeral raised to the power of 1. It
may also be called an equation of the rst degree.
solving linear equations

When we are asked to solve an equation, we are to find the value of the pronumeral so that when
it is substituted into the original equation, it will make the equation a true statement.
Equations are solved by performing a number of inverse operations to both sides of the
equation until the value of the unknown is found.
When solving equations, the order of operations process, BODMAS (i.e. Brackets Of
Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction) is reversed. We may therefore apply the
SAMDOB process (BODMAS in reverse). This means that the operations of subtraction and
addition are taken care of first, followed by multiplication and division. Brackets are dealt with
last.
Worked exAmple 10
Solve the following equations.

3x
a 2x - 3 = 4
b 10 =5
2
Think
a
WriTe
Write the given equation.
(Optional step.) Rule up a table with two

columns to the side of the equation. In the first
column, note each of the operations performed
on x in the correct order. In the second column,
write the corresponding inverse operation. The
arrows indicate which operation to begin with.
a 2x - 3 = 4
Operation
Inverse
-3
+3
Chapter 4
Algebra
101
2x 3 = 4
2x 3 + 3 = 4 + 3
2x = 7
Solve the equation by making x the subject.

Divide both sides of the equation by 2.
Simplify.
(Optional step.) As in part a above.
2x 7
=
2 2
1
x = 3 2 (or 3.5)
10 -
Operation
Inverse
-3
-3
+ 10
- 10
Solve the equation by making x the subject.

Subtract 10 from both sides of the equation.
3x
=5
2
3x
=5
2
3x
10 - 10 = 5 - 10
2
10 -
- 3x
2
4
- 3x
Multiply both sides of the equation by 2.
-3x
Simplify.
= -5
2 = -5 2
-3x
-3
= - 10
=
x=
-10
-3
10
3
= 3 13
Step 2 in worked example 10 is an optional step that may be used initially to help you become
familiar with the process of solving equations.
The answers may be checked by substituting the values obtained back into the original
equation or using a CAS calculator.
If the pronumeral appears in the equation more than once, we must collect terms containing
the unknown on one side of the equation and all other terms on the other side.
Worked Example 11
Solve for x in the equation: 2x 4 = 4x + 6.

Think
102
Transpose 4x to the LHS of the equation by subtracting

it from both sides of the equation.
Write
2x 4 = 4x + 6
2x 4x 4 = 4x 4x + 6
2x 4 = 6
Simplify.
2x
4+4=6+4
2x = 10
-2x
-2
10
-2
x = 5
If the equation contains brackets, they should be expanded first. In some cases, however,
both sides of the equation can be divided by the coefficient in front of the brackets instead of
expanding.
Worked Example 12
Solve for x in 2(x + 5) = 3(2x - 6).

Think
Write

1
2(x + 5) = 3(2x 6)
Expand each of the brackets on both sides of

the equation.
2x + 10 = 6x 18
Transpose 6x to the LHS of the equation

by subtracting it from both sides of the
equation.
2x 6x + 10 = 6x 6x 18
41x + 10 = 18
4x
+ 10 10 = 18 10
4x = 28
-4 x
-4
Simplify.
- 28
-4
x=7

1

Action
Advanced
solve
solve(p = 2(x + 5) = 3(2x - 6), x)
Then press E.
Write the answer.
Solving 2(x + 5) = 3(2 x 6) for x, gives x = 7.
Chapter 4 Algebra
103
If an equation contains a fraction, we should first remove the denominators by multiplying each
term of the equation by the lowest common denominator (LCD).
Worked Example 13
Find the value of x that will make the following a true statement:
Think
x+2
x
= 5- .
3
2
Write

x+2
x
= 53
2
Determine the LCD of 2 and 3.
Multiply each term of the equation by the

LCD.
Expand the bracket on the LHS of the

equation.
2x + 4 = 30 3x
Add 3x to both sides of the equation.
2x + 3x + 4 = 30 3x + 3x
5x + 4 = 30
Simplify.
LCD of 2 and 3 is 6.
x+2
x
6 = 56- 6
3
2
6( x + 2)
6x
= 30 3
2
2(x + 2) = 30 3x
5x + 4 4 = 30 4
5x = 26
5 x 26
=
5
5
1
x = 5 5 (or 5.2)
104

Action
Advanced
solve
x
x+2
solve
= 5 - , x
3
2
Then press E.
Write the answer.
Solving
26
x+2
x
1
or 5 5.
= 5 - for x, gives x =
5
3
2
Sometimes in equations containing fractions, a pronumeral appears in the denominator. Such

equations are solved in the same manner as those in the previous examples. However, care must
be taken to identify the value (or values) for which the pronumeral will cause the denominator to
be zero. If in the process of obtaining the solution the pronumeral is found to take such a value,
it should be discarded.
Even though the process of identifying the value of the pronumeral that causes the
denominator to be zero is at this stage merely a precaution, this process should be practised as it
will prove useful in future chapters.
Worked exAmple 14
Solve the following equation for x:
eBook plus
2 3
1
.
+
=
x 2x x - 1
Tutorial
int-1042
Worked example 14
Think
WriTe

1
Identify the values of x that will cause the

denominator to be zero.
Note: Once the equation has been solved,
values that cause the denominator to be zero
will be discarded.
First fraction:
x=0
Second fraction: 2x = 0
x=0
Third fraction: x - 1 = 0
x=1
x cannot assume the values of 0 and 1, since this will
cause the fraction to be undefined.
2 3
1
+
=
x 2x x - 1
Determine the LCD of x, 2x and x - 1.
LCD of x, 2x and x - 1 is 2x(x - 1).
Multiply each term of the equation by the

LCD.
2
3
1
2 x ( x - 1) +
2 x ( x - 1) =
2 x ( x - 1)
x
2x
x -1
Expand the brackets on the LHS of the

equation.
Collect like terms onto the LHS by

subtracting 2x from both sides of the
equation.
7x - 2x - 7 = 2x - 2x
5x - 7 = 0
5x - 7 + 7 = 0 + 7
5x = 7
10
Simplify.
Note: The value of 1.4 is a valid solution.
4 x ( x - 1) 6 x ( x - 1) 2 x ( x - 1)
+
=
x
2x
x -1
4(x 1) + 3(x - 1) = 2x
4x - 4 + 3x - 3 = 2x
7x - 7 = 2x
5x 7
=
5 5
2
x = 1 5 (or 1.4)
Chapter 4
Algebra
105

1

Action
Advanced
solve
1
2 3
solve +
,x
=
x 2 x x - 1
Then press E.
Write the answer.
Solving
7
2 3
1
2
for x, gives x = or 1 5 .
+
=
5
x 2x x - 1
Simultaneous equations
It is impossible to solve one linear equation with two unknowns. There must be two equations
with the same two unknowns for a solution to be found.
Such equations are called simultaneous equations.
Graphical solution of simultaneous equations

If two straight lines intersect, the point of their intersection belongs to both lines and hence the
coordinates of that point (x, y) will represent the solution of two simultaneous equations that
define the lines.
When we are solving simultaneous equations graphically, the accuracy of the solution is
highly dependent on the quality of the graph. Therefore, all graphs must be drawn on graph
paper as accurately as possible.
It is good practice to verify any answer obtained from a graph by substituting it into the
original equations, or to check using a CAS calculator.
Worked Example 15
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations graphically:

a x + 2y = 4
b y + 3x = 17
x - y = 1 2x - 3y = 4
Think
a
1
2
106
Write
Rule up a set of axes. Label the

origin and the x and y axes.
Find the x-intercept for the
equation x + 2y = 4, by making
y = 0.
Find the y-intercept for the

equation x + 2y = 4, by making
x = 0. Divide both sides of the
equation by 2.
a (See graph at step 7 on page 107.)
x-intercept: when y = 0,

x + 2y = 4

x+20=4

x=4
The x-intercept is at (4, 0).
y-intercept: when x = 0,

x + 2y = 4

0 + 2y = 4

2y = 4

y=2
The y-intercept is at (0, 2).
Plot the points on graph paper and

join them with the straight line.
Label the graph.
(Refer to the graph at step 7.)
Find the x-intercept for the

equation x y = 1, by making
y = 0.
x-intercept: when y = 0,

xy=1

x0=1

x=1
The x-intercept is at (1, 0).
Find the y-intercept for the

equation x y = 1, by making
x = 0. Multiply both sides of the
equation by 1.
y-intercept: when x = 0,

xy=1

0y=1
y = 1

y 1 = 1 1

y = 1
The y-intercept is at (0, 1).
Plot the points on graph paper and

join them with the straight line.
Label the graph.
y
xy=1
2
1
0
1
x + 2y = 4
(2, 1)
1
From the graph, read the coordinates

of the point of intersection.
The point of intersection between the two graphs is

(2, 1).
Verify the answer by substituting

the point of intersection into the
original equations.
Substitute x = 2 and y = 1 into x + 2y = 4.

LHS = 2 + 2 1
RHS = 4

=2+2

=4
LHS = RHS
Substitute x = 2 and y = 1 into x y = 1

LHS = 2 1
RHS = 1

=1
LHS = RHS
In both cases LHS = RHS; therefore, the solution set
(2, 1) is correct.
Rearrange both equations to make y

the subject. To do this, on the Main
screen, complete the entry lines as:
solve(y + 3x = 17, y)
solve(2x - 3y = 4, y)
Chapter 4 Algebra
107
On the Graph & Tab screen,

complete the function entry lines as:
y1 = 2( x - 2)
3
y2 = 17 - 3x
Tick the equation boxes and tap $.
To find the point of intersection, tap:

Analysis
G-Solve
Intersect
Write the answer.
The point of intersection between the two graphs is

(5, 2).
Parallel lines
If two equations have the same gradient, they represent parallel lines. Such lines will never meet
and so never have a point of intersection (that is, there is no solution).
y
The following pair of equations, y = 2x + 3 and y = 2x + 5 define two
5
parallel lines; hence, there is no solution. The graph at right demonstrates
5
that the straight lines never intersect.
+
y=
2x
y=
Coincidental lines
If two lines coincide, then there are an infinite number of solutions.
For example, consider the two straight lines given by the equations
y = 2x + 1 and 4x 2y = 2.
Rearranging the second equation
we obtain the same line.

108
4x 2y = 2
4x 4x 2y = 4x 2
2y = 4x 2
-2y
-4 x
2
=
--2
-2
2
y = 2x + 1
+
2x
3
3
0
y
1
+
2x 2
y= y=
2
4x
The two equations when graphed represent the same line they coincide. Therefore, every
point on the line will represent the solution as there is not one unique point that satisfies both
equations.
Algebraic solution of simultaneous equations

When using algebra to solve simultaneous equations, the aim is to obtain one equation with one
unknown from two equations with two unknowns by various algebraic manipulations. This can
be done in two ways substitution and elimination as outlined below.
Substitution method
The method of substitution is easy to use when at least one of the equations represents one
unknown in terms of the other.
To solve simultaneous equations using the method of substitution:
1. Check that one of the equations is transposed so that one of the unknowns is expressed in
terms of the other.
2. Substitute the transposed equation into the second equation.
3. Solve for the unknown variable.
Worked Example 16
Use the method of substitution to solve the simultaneous equations y = 2x + 3 and 4x - y = 5.

Think
Write
y = 2x + 3
4x y = 5
Write the equations one under the other, and number

them.
Substituting (2x + 3) into [2]:

4x (2x + 3) = 5
Substitute the expression for y (2x + 3) from

equation [1] into equation [2].
Note: By substituting one equation into the other, we
are left with one equation and one unknown.
Solve for x.
(a) Expand the brackets on the LHS of the equation.
(b)Simplify the LHS of the equation by collecting like
terms.
(c) Add 3 to both sides of the equation.
(d) Divide both sides of the equation by 2.
Substitute 4 in place of x into [1] to find the value of y.
Substituting x = 4 into [1]:

y=24+3
Evaluate.
Answer the question.
Solution: x = 4, y = 11 or solution
set (4, 11).
Verify the answer by substituting the point of

intersection into the original equations or use a CAS
calculator.
The answer was checked using a CAS

calculator and found to be correct.
[1]
[2]
4x 2x 3 = 5

2x 3 = 5
2x 3 + 3 = 5 + 3

2x = 8
2x 8
=
2 2

x=4
=8+3
= 11
If neither of the equations give one unknown in terms of the other, we can still use a method of
substitution by first transposing one of the equations.
Chapter 4 Algebra
109
Elimination method
As the name suggests, the idea of the elimination method is to eliminate one of the variables.
This is done in the following way.
1. Choose the variable you want to eliminate.
2. Make the coefficients of that variable equal in both equations.
3. Eliminate the variable by either adding or subtracting the two equations.
Once this is done, the resulting equation will contain only one unknown which then can be
easily found.
Worked Example 17
Use the elimination method to solve the following simultaneous equations.

2x + 3y = 4

x - 3y = 2
Think
Write
2x + 3y = 4
x 3y = 2
Write the equations one under the other, and number

them.
Add equations [1] and [2] to eliminate y.

Note: y is eliminated since the coefficients of y in both
equations are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.
[1] + [2]:

2x + 3y = 4

+ (x 3y = 2)

3x = 6
Substitute the value of x into equation [2].

Note: x = 2 may be substituted in either equation.
Solve for y.
(a) Subtract 2 from both sides of the equation.
(b) Divide both sides of the equation by 3.
[1]
[2]
3x 6
=
3 3
x=2
x 3y = 2
2 3y = 2
2 2 3y = 2 2
3y = 0
-3y
0
= -3
3
y=0
Solution: x = 2, y = 0 or solution
set (2, 0).
Verify the answer by substituting the point of

intersection into the original equations or using a CAS
calculator.
The answer was checked using a CAS

calculator and found to be correct.
If there is no pair of equal coefficients, we can make them the same by multiplying or dividing
one or both equations by an appropriate number.
Worked Example 18
Solve the following simultaneous equations using a CAS calculator.

2x + 3y = 4

3x + 2y = 10
110
Think
Write

)
{N
Complete the entry line as shown.
Then press E.
Solution: x =
22
,
5
y=
-8
5
22 - 8
,
.
5
5
or
REMEMBER
1. A linear equation is an equation that contains a pronumeral raised to the power of 1. It

may also be called an equation of the first degree.
2. Linear equations are solved by using inverse operations. When solving linear equations
the order of operations process, BODMAS, is reversed.
3. If the pronumeral appears more than once, the terms containing the unknown are
collected onto one side of the equation and the numbers onto the other.
4. If the equation contains brackets, either expand, or divide both sides by the coefficient
in front of the bracket.
5. If an equation contains fractions, multiply each term of the equation by the LCD.
Simultaneous linear equations can be solved either graphically or algebraically.
6. Graphical method:
Draw the straight lines representing the equations and find the coordinates of the
point of intersection.
7. Algebraic methods:
(a) Substitution: Transpose one of the equations so that one of the unknowns is
expressed in terms of the other and substitute into the second equation.
(b) Elimination: Equate the coefficients of one unknown and eliminate it by either
adding or subtracting the two equations.
Exercise
4d
Solving linear equations and simultaneous linear

equations
1 WE10 Solve the following equations.
a x + 3 = 16
b 3 2x = 10
- 6x
x 1
d
= -5
e =
4
2
7
c 0.2x = 10
3x
+ 11 = 20
f
4
Chapter 4 Algebra
111
- 2x
+3=-7
4
11x + 2
j
=7
5
2 WE11 Solve for x.

a 2x = 7 + 9x
d 3x + 4 = x 6
g 2x 7 = 2x + 1
j 13 3x = 4 6x
3 WE12 Solve for x.
a 4(x 20) = 16
c 2(2x 7) = 3x
e 4(x + 3) = 2(7 4x) + 5
x-9
=5
7
k 6 b
e
h
k
6- x
=5
13
2x l - 17 = 20
3
i
x
= 15
2
15x + 22 = 7x
+ 2 = 3x + 18
15x + 2 = 13x 10
9 + 11x = 3 x
5x
c 12 17x = 5x
f 5x 3 = 3 5x
i 8 3x = 4 x
b (5 + 6x) = 13
d 8(2x + 1) = 2(7 3x)
f 5(2x 4) 3 + 7(2 x) = 0
4 WE13 For each of the following, find the value of x that will make the statement true.
x + 4 2x + 1
x
a
b - x = 12
=
3
2
7
2x
7 x - 1 2 - 3x
c x +
-3= 0
d
=
6
4
5
7 x 3(2 - 3 x ) 5 x
3x - 2 7 - x 2 x + 1 1
e
f
=
+
+
=
3
2
8
4
3
2
6
7- x
2(3 x - 6)
4(6 - 2 x )
3( x + 7)
g
h
-4=
= 55
3
9
6
5 WE14 For each of the following:
a state which value (or values) of x will cause the equation to be undefined
b solve for x.
2
1 4
3
4 2

i
ii
- =
+ =
x +1 x x
x - 1 x 3x
2(3 x - 6)
1
4
5
7
iv
=1
iii ( x - 1)( x + 1) + x + 1 = x - 1
2x 4 x

3(7 x - 4) = 4
x-2
vi
-3
15 11
- =
4 x 8x x - 3
6 WE15 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations graphically. Verify your answer
with a CAS calculator.
a 3x + y = 6, x 2y = 2
b x + 3y = 3, 2x + 3y = 12
c x = y + 2, 2y x = 0
d 3x + 2y = 6, y = 1 x
7 MC The pair of simultaneous equations y = 5 x and y = x 1 has:
A 1 solution
B 2 solutions
C no solutions
D an infinite number of solutions
E none of these
8 MC The pair of simultaneous equations 2x 2y = 4 and y x + 2 = 0 has:
A 1 solution
B 2 solutions
C no solutions
D an infinite number of solutions
E none of these
9 Complete the following statements.
a If two lines with different gradients go through the origin, then the solution to the
pair of simultaneous equations defining those lines is _______________
(give coordinates).
b If two lines have the same gradients but different y-intercepts, then the pair of
simultaneous equations defining such lines will have _______________ solution(s).
112
c If two lines are defined by the equation y = mx + c and have the same value of c but
different values of m, then the solution to the pair of simultaneous equations will be
_______________ (give coordinates).
10 WE16
Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations by the method of substitution.
a y = 2x + 3
b x = y
c y = 3x 6
6x + y = 11
6x 2y = 10
y = 16 + 5x
d x = y
e 2y 6 = x
f x = 5 4y
3x 6y = 36
7x + 3y = 25
2y 3x = 13
Use the method of elimination to solve each of the following:
11 WE17
a 2x + y = 3
b x y = 7
c 3x 2y = 1
4x y = 9
y+x= 1
3x 6y = 9
e 2x + 4y = 24
f 2x y = 0
d x + 3y = 7
6x + 4y = 8
2x 4y = 9
5x 3y = 19
12 MC Nathan is solving a pair of simultaneous equations 2x 3y = 5 [1] and 3x + 4y = 10 [2]
using the elimination method. To eliminate one of the variables, he could multiply equation [1]
and equation [2] by:
A 2 and 3 respectively
B 3 and 4 respectively
C 3 and 2 respectively
D 5 and 10 respectively
E 4 and 2 respectively
13 WE18 Solve each of the following pairs of equations using the elimination method.
b x 2y = 4
a 2x 3y = 8
3x + 4y = 5
e 5y 2x = 4
x + 3y = 5
6x + y = 4
2x y = -3
3x + y = 9
d 2y x = 10
1
x
5
+ 5y = 5
2y + x = 20
4
2
1
+
= we know that x will not be equal to:
x - 3 x +1 x
14 MC Without solving the equation

B 1
A 3
c 3 x + 3y = 5
C 0
D 0 or 1
E 1 or 3 or 0
3( x - 1)
4 - 2x
, each term of the equation could be multiplied by:
-5=
2
3
A 2
B 3
C 4
D 5
E 6
2x
16 MC To solve the equation
= 4, the operations that must be performed are:
3
2
A both sides by 2, then by 3
B both sides by 3
15 MC To solve
C both sides by 3
D both sides by 3, then by 4
E both sides by 4, then by 2

Question 17 refers to the diagram at right.
[1]
[2]
2
1
0
1
2
17 MC a The equation of line [1] is:

2
A y = 3 x 2
B y = 2x 2
D y = 2x + 1
E y = 2 + 2x
C y = 2 x 2
Chapter 4 Algebra
113
b The equation of line [2] is:

2
a y = 3x + 2
b y = 3x + 3
c y=
-2
3
x-2
d 3y = 2x + 6
e 3y + 2x = 6
c The point of intersection of the two lines has the coordinates:
a
(, )
3
2
1
2
b 2, 2
c (2, 1)
3
, 1
2
2,
2
18 Find the value of z, such that the solution to the following equation is x = 1.
3
z
8x
=
x - 2 x + 1 ( x - 2)( x + 1)
19 Solve the following equation.
5
4
6
=
+
2x - 2 x - 1 x - 2
20 Find the values of x, y and z in the following three simultaneous equations with three
unknowns.
2x + 3y - z = -7
3x + 2y + z = 2
x - 4y + 2z = 15
eBook plus
Digital doc
Investigation
Comparing production costs
4e
Applications
Linear equations can often be used to help us in problem solving. This is usually done in the
following way.
1. Identify the unknown and choose any convenient pronumeral (usually x) to represent it.
2. Use the information given in the problem to compose an equation in terms of the pronumeral.
3. Solve the equation to find the value of the pronumeral.
4. Interpret your result by relating the answer back to the problem.
Worked exAmple 19
If the sum of twice a certain number and 5 is multiplied by 3 and then divided by 7, the result is 9.
Find the number.
Think
WriTe
Assign the pronumeral x to the unknown value.
Build the equation according to the information given.

(a) Twice the number this means 2, so write this.
2x
(b) The sum of twice the number and 5 this means

2x + 5, so add this on.
2x + 5
(c) The sum is multiplied by 3 this means 3(2x + 5).

Add this on.
Note: We include brackets to indicate the order of
operations.
3(2x + 5)
(d) The result is divided by 7 this means

Add this on.
3(2 x + 5)
.
7
(e) The result is 9 which means that all of the

previous computations will equal 9. Write this.
114
Let x = the unknown number.
3(2 x + 5)
7
3(2 x + 5)
=9
7
Solve for x.
(a) Multiply both sides of the equation by 7.
(b)Divide both sides of the equation by 3 since they

are both divisible by 3.
(c) Subtract 5 from both sides of the equation.
3(2 x + 5)
7= 97
7
3(2x + 5) = 63
3(2 x + 5) 63
=
3
3
2x + 5 = 21
2x + 5 5 = 21 5
2x = 16
2 x 16
=
2
2
(d) Divide both sides of the equation by 2.
x=8
(e) Simplify.
4
The unknown number is 8.
Sometimes the problem contains more than one unknown. In such cases one of the unknowns is
called x and the other unknowns are then expressed in terms of x.
Worked Example 20
Sarah is buying tulip bulbs. Red tulip bulbs cost $5.20 each, while yellow tulip bulbs cost $4.70 each.
If 22 bulbs cost Sarah $107.40, how many of each type did she buy?
Think
Write
Define the variables.

Note: Since there are 22 bulbs altogether, the number of
yellow tulip bulbs is 22 the number of red tulip bulbs;
that is, 22 x.
Let x = the number of red tulip bulbs.

Let 22 x = the number of yellow tulip
bulbs.
Write an expression for the cost of the red tulips.

Note: One red tulip costs $5.20; therefore x red tulips
cost 5.20 x.
Total cost of red tulip bulbs

= 5.20 x

= 5.2x
Chapter 4 Algebra
115
Write an expression for the cost of the yellow tulips.

Note: One yellow tulip costs $4.70; therefore 22 x
tulips cost 4.70 (22 x).
Total cost of yellow tulip bulbs

= 4.70 (22 x)

= 4.7(22 x)
Formulate an equation relating the total cost of the red

and yellow tulips and the expressions obtained in steps
2 and 3.
The total cost of the red and yellow tulip

bulbs is $107.40.
Also the total cost of red and yellow tulip
bulbs is 5.2x + 4.7(22 x).
Therefore, 5.2x + 4.7(22 x) = 107.4
Solve the equation.

(a) Expand the brackets on the LHS of the equation.
5.2x + 103.4 4.7x = 107.4

0.5x + 103.4 = 107.4
(b) Collect the like terms on the LHS of the equation.

(c) Subtract 103.4 from both sides of the equation.
0.5x + 103.4 103.4 = 107.4 103.4

0.5x = 4
(d) Divide both sides of the equation by 0.5.
0.5 x
4
=
0.5 0.5
x=8
There are 8 red and 14 (that is, 22 8)
yellow tulip bulbs.
(e) Simplify.
Interpret the answer obtained.
Sarah purchased 8 red and 14 yellow tulip

bulbs.
Worked Example 21
A train (denoted as train 1) leaves station A and moves in the direction of station B with an average
speed of 60 km/h. Half an hour later another train (denoted as train 2) leaves station A and moves in
the direction of the first train with an average speed of 70 km/h. Find:
a the time needed for the second train to catch up with the first train
b the distance of both trains from station A at that time.
Think
116
Write

Note: Since the first train left half an hour
earlier, the time taken for it to reach the
meeting point will be x + 0.5.
Let x = the time taken for train 2 to reach train 1.

Therefore, the travelling time, t, for each
train is:
Train 1:
t1 = x + 0.5
Train 2:
t2 = x
Write the speed of each train.
Train 1:
Train 2:
v1 = 60
v2 = 70
Write the distance travelled by each of the

trains from station A to the point of the
meeting.
(Distance = speed time.)
Train 1:
Train 2:
d1 = 60(x + 0.5)
d2 = 70x
Equate the two expressions for distance.

Note: When the second train catches up with
the first train, they are the same distance from
station A that is, d1 = d2.
When the second train catches up with the first train,

d1 = d2.
Solve the equation. On the Main screen, tap:

Action
Advanced
solve
Then complete the entry line as:
solve(60(x + 0.5) = 70x, x)
Then press E.
Substitute 3 in place of x into either of the

two expressions for distance, say into d2.
Substitute x = 3 into d2 = 70x

d2 = 70 3
Evaluate.
Answer the questions.
a The second train will catch up with the first train
= 210
3 hours after leaving station A.
b Both trains will be 210 km from station A.
Simultaneous equations are used to solve a variety of problems containing more than one
unknown. Here is a simple algorithm that can be applied to any of them:
1. Identify the variables.
2. Set up simultaneous equations by transforming written information into algebraic sentences.
3. Solve the equations by using the substitution, elimination or graphical methods.
4. Interpret your answer by referring back to the original problem.
Worked Example 22
Find two consecutive numbers that add up to 99.

Think
1
Define the two variables.
Formulate two equations from the information given

and number them.
Note: Consecutive numbers follow one another and
differ by 1. Hence, if x is the first number, the next
number will be x + 1 that is, y = x + 1.
Substitute the expression (x + 1) from equation [2] for y
into equation [1].
3
4
Solve for x.
(a)Simplify the LHS of the equation by collecting like
terms.
(b) Subtract 1 from both sides of the equation.
(c) Divide both sides of the equation by 2.
Write
Let x = the first number.

Let y = the second number.

x + y = 99

y = x + 1
[1]
[2]
Substituting (x + 1) into [1]:

x + x + 1 = 99
2x + 1 = 99
2x + 1 1 = 99 1
2x = 98
2 x 98
=
2
2
x = 49
Chapter 4 Algebra
117
Substitute 49 in place of x into equation [1] to find the

value of y.
Substituting x = 49 into equation [2]:

y=x+1
Evaluate.
Verify the answer by checking that the two values are

consecutive and that they sum 99.
y = 49 + 1
= 50
49 and 50 are consecutive numbers.
49 + 50 = 99
The obtained values satisfy the problem.
The two consecutive numbers that add up
to 99 are 49 and 50.
Worked Example 23
Two hamburgers and a packet of chips cost $8.20, while one hamburger and two packets of chips
cost $5.90. Find the cost of a packet of chips and a hamburger.
Think
Write
Define the two variables.
Formulate an equation from the first sentence

and call it [1].
Note: One hamburger costs $x, two
hamburgers cost $2x. Thus, the total cost of
cost of two hamburgers and one packet of
chips is 2x + y and it is equal to $8.20.
Formulate an equation from the second
sentence and call it [2].
Note: One packet of chips costs $y, two
packets cost $2y. Thus, the total cost of two
packets of chips and one hamburger is x + 2y
and it is equal to $5.90.
Solve for the simultaneous equations. On the

Main screen, tap:
)
{N
Then press E.
Answer the question and include appropriate

units.
Let x = the cost of one hamburger.

Let y = the cost of a packet of chips.
2x + y = 8.20
[1]
x + 2y = 5.90
[2]
A hamburger costs $3.50 and a packet of chips costs

$1.20.
It is extremely important to be consistent with the use of units while setting up equations.
For example, if the cost of each item is expressed in cents, then the total cost must also be
expressed in cents.
118
REMEMBER
To solve worded problems using linear equations, follow these steps:

2. Set up an equation by transforming the written information into an algebraic statement
or statements.
3. Solve the equation.
4. Interpret the result by relating the answer back to the original problem.
To solve problems involving simultaneous equations, follow these steps:
5. Identify and define the variables.
6. Transform written information into algebraic statements.
7. Solve the pair of equations graphically or algebraically using the methods of
substitution or elimination.
8. Interpret the result by relating the answer back to the problem.
9. Always make sure the numbers in the equations are in the same units.
Exercise
4e
Applications
1 WE19 The average of three consecutive odd numbers is 3. Find the largest number.
2 Half of a certain number is subtracted from 26 and the result is then tripled, and the answer
is 18. Find the number.
3 The sum of one-third of a number and 5 is 27. Find the number.
4 WE20 Fiona is buying tulip bulbs. Red tulip bulbs cost $6.40 each, while yellow tulip bulbs
cost $5.20 each. If 28 bulbs cost Fiona $167.20, how many of each type did she buy?
5 A rectangle is 2.5 times as long as it is wide. Find the dimensions of the rectangle if its
perimeter is 56 cm.
6 In an isosceles triangle, two sides of equal length are together 8 cm longer than the third side.
If the perimeter of the triangle is 32 cm, what is the length of each side?
7 In a scalene triangle the first angle is 3 times as large as the second, while the third angle is 20
smaller than the second. Find the size of each angle; hence, name the triangle according to its
angles sizes.
8 All items at a clothing store have been reduced by 15%. If Stephanie purchased a shirt at the
reduced price of $84.15, what was its original price?
Chapter 4 Algebra
119
9 MC a If 7 times a number subtracted from 52 gives 3, then the number is:

6
A 7
B 7
C 8
D 6
E 7 7
b The sum of one-quarter of a number and 10 is 15. The value of the number is:
A 100
B 50
C 40
D 20
E 10
1
10 a I am 3 times as old as my cousin Carla, who is 33 times as old as my daughter Nina. If our
total ages are 43 years, how old is my cousin?
b Another cousin, Zara, is Carlas older sister. Zara is as many times as old as my daughter
Nina as the number of years that she is older than Carla. How old is my other cousin?
11 Simon is only 16 years old, but he has already lived in four different countries because of his
fathers job. He was born and spent a few years of his early childhood in the USA, then the
family moved to Germany, where he stayed one year longer than he had in the USA. After
that, he lived in London for twice as long as he had in Germany. Finally, they came to live in
Melbourne. So far, he has been in Australia for 2 years less than he lived in America.
a At what age did Simon leave his country of birth?
b For how long did Simon live in each country?
12 In the storeroom of a fruit shop there were two boxes of apples, one of Golden Delicious and
the other of Jonathans, which were to be sold at $2.80 and $3.50/kg, respectively. The apples,
however, were accidentally mixed together and, instead of sorting them out, the owner decided
to sell them as they were. So as not to make a loss, he sold the mixed apples at $3.10/kg. How
many kilograms of each type of apple were there if together they weighed 35 kg?
13 WE21 Alex and Nat are going for a bike ride.
Nat can ride at 10 km/h, while Alex can
develop a maximum speed of 12 km/h if he
needs to. Nat leaves home at 10 am, while
Alex stays behind for 15 minutes and then
sets out to catch up with Nat. When will
Alex reach Nat, assuming that both of them
are riding at their maximum speed?
14 Samuel is paddling with a constant speed towards a

certain place he has marked on his map. With the
aid of a current (which has a speed of 2 km/h) it
takes him only 1 h 20 min to reach his destination.
However, on the way back he has to paddle against the
current and it then takes him 4 h to reach his starting
point. Find Samuels speed on the still water.
15 One administrative assistant can type 1.5 times as fast

as another. If they both work together, they can finish
a certain job in 6 hours. However, the slower one
working alone will need 15 hours to finish the same
job. How many hours will the quicker assistant alone
need to complete the job?
120
16 Maya needs to renovate her house. She has enough money to pay a plumber for 28 days or
a carpenter for 21 days. For how many days can she pay the renovators if they both work at
the same time? If Mayas next pay cheque will come in 2 weeks, can she afford to hire both
specialists until then?
17 In a particular school a number of VCE students obtained a tertiary entrance score higher than
99.4 and 15% more students obtained a score higher than 99.0, but lower than 99.4. If there
were 43 students whose tertiary entrance scores were above 99.0, how many of those obtained
a score above 99.4?
18 WE22 Find two consecutive numbers that add up to 89.
19 When three times the first number is added to twice the second number, the result is 13. Four
times the difference of those numbers is 44. Find the numbers.
20 Half of the sum of two numbers is 6 less than the first number. One-third of their difference is
one less than the second number. Find the numbers.
21 Five times the first number is twice as large as four times the second number. When the
difference of the two numbers is multiplied by 20, the result is 3. Find the numbers.
22 A rectangles length is 2 cm more than its width. If the perimeter of a rectangle is 24 cm, find
its dimensions and, hence, its area.
(2x 1) cm
23 In the rectangle at right, find the values of x and y.
Hence, determine the perimeter.
(x + 2) cm
10 cm
(5 + y) cm
24 The sides of an equilateral triangle have the following lengths: (x + y) cm, (2x 3) cm and
(3y 1) cm. Find the perimeter of the triangle.
25 The perimeter of a rhombus ABCD is 10 cm longer than the perimeter of an isosceles triangle
ABC. Find the length of AC, the diagonal of a rhombus, if it is 2 cm smaller than its side.
26 A table consists of 2 columns and 5 rows. Each of its cells is a rectangle with length x cm and
width y cm. The perimeter of the table is 70 cm and the total length of interior lines is 65 cm.
a Draw a diagram to represent the above information.
b Find the dimensions of each cell and comment on its shape.
27 Phuong conducts a survey. She asks 72 people whether or not they use the internet at home.
There were three times as many people who answered Yes as those who answered No.
Find the number of people in each category and hence help Phuong to complete the following
statement: According to the survey _______________ (insert fraction) of the population uses
the internet at home.
28 WE23 At the end of the day, two shop assistants compare their sales. One sold 5 toasters and
2 sandwich-makers for a total of $149.65, while the other sold 3 of each for a total value of
$134.70. Find the price of each item.
29 In an aquatic centre, pool and spa entry is $3.50, while pool, spa, sauna and steam room
entry is $5.20. At the end of the day, a cashier finds that she sold 193 tickets altogether and her
takings are 40c short of $800. How many of each type of ticket were sold?
30 Spiro empties his piggy bank. He has 42 coins, some of which are 5c coins and some of which
are 10c coins, to the total value of $2.50. How many 5c coins and how many 10c coins does he
have?
31 Maya and Rose are buying meat for a picnic. Mayas family likes lamb more than pork, so she
buys 3 kg of lamb and only half as much pork. Roses family have different tastes, so she buys
4.5 kg of pork and one-third as much lamb. If Maya spends $13.50, which is $8.25 less than
Rose spends, what is the cost of 1 kg of each type of meat?
Chapter 4 Algebra
121
32 Bella and Boris are celebrating their 25th wedding anniversary. Today, their combined age
is exactly 100. If Boris is 4 years older than Bella, how old was his bride on the day of their
wedding?
33 Interpreting Pty Ltd translates each English text into both French and Japanese. It takes a
French interpreter 0.6 hours to translate a page of any scientific text and 1 hour to translate a
page of fiction. A Japanese interpreter needs 0.95 hours to translate scientific text and 1.5 hours
for fiction. If the French interpreter works 8 hours a day, while the Japanese interpreter is
prepared to take some of her work home and spend up to 12.5 hours per day altogether, what
is the maximum number of pages of each type of text that can be translated each day by
Interpreting Pty Ltd?
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 4.2
34 Sasha is making dim sims and spring rolls for his guests. He is going to prepare everything first
and then cook. On average it takes 0.2 hours to prepare one portion of dim sims and 0.25 hours
to prepare one portion of spring rolls. He needs 0.05 hours and 0.15 hours to cook each portion
of dim sims and spring rolls respectively. If he spends 2 hours on preparation and 51 minutes
on cooking, how many portions of dim sims and spring rolls does Sasha make?
Algebraic fractions
4f
Algebraic fractions are fractions that contain a pronumeral. Performing operations involving
these fractions involves the same rules as those for numerical fractions.
Addition and subtraction

Fractions can only be added or subtracted when they have a common denominator.
Worked exAmple 24
Simplify
x x
a
+
2 5
x 3
+ .
2 x
Think
a
WriTe
Find the lowest common denominator.

5
Multiply the first term by 5 and the second

2
term by 2 .
Add the numerators.
Multiply the first term by

2
122
Add the numerators.
Lowest common denominator = 10

5 x 2 x
+
5 2 2 5
5x 2 x
=
+
10 10
7x
10
term by 2 .
a 2 5 = 10
x
and the second
x
b Lowest common denominator = 2x
x2 6
+
2x 2x
x2 + 6
2x
Worked exAmple 25
Simplify
3
2
a
x x-1
eBook plus
Tutorial
2a
2 .
x+3 x-3
Think
int-1043
Worked example 25
WriTe

a

the second term by x .
x
a Lowest common denominator = x(x - 1)
x -1
and
x -1
3( x - 1)
2x
x ( x - 1) x ( x - 1)
Add the numerators.
3( x - 1) - 2 x
x ( x - 1)
Expand and simplify the numerator.
x-3
x ( x - 1)
Find the lowest common

denominator.

the second term by x + 3 .
x+3
b Lowest common denominator = (x + 3)(x - 3), or
x2 - 9
2a( x - 3) 2( x + 3)
+ 2
x2 - 9
x -9
x-3
and
x-3
Add the numerators.
2a( x - 3) + 2( x + 3)
x2 - 9
Expand the numerator.
2ax - 6a + 2 x + 6
x2 - 9

a
&
b

Action
Transformation
combine
combine 3 - 2
x x - 1
a
&
b
combine 2a - 2
x + 3 x - 3
Write the answer.
3
2
x-3
= 2
x x -1 x - x
2a
2
2ax - 2 x - 6a - 6
b
=
x+3 x-3
x2 - 9
a
Chapter 4
Algebra
123
Multiplication and division

When multiplying, cancelling vertically or diagonally helps to simplify expressions before
multiplying top and bottom. This may involve factorising expressions to identify common
factors.
Worked Example 26
Simplify
a
3 x 2 20
4
9x
x2 + 4
2y
.
2
6 y2
5 x + 20
Think
Write

a
Cancel common factors between

numerators and denominators then
simplify.
a Common factors: 3, x, 4
3 x 2 20 x 5
=
4
9x 1 3
5x
=
3
Multiply numerators together and

denominators together.
Factorise the denominator.
Cancel common factors and

simplify.
1 1
3y 5
Multiply numerators together and

1
15y
x2 + 4
2y
2
6y
5( x 2 + 4)

a
&
b
124
On the Main screen, complete the

entry lines as:
3 x 2 20
4
9x
2
x +4
2y
2
6y2
5 x + 20
Write the answers.
a
&
b
3 x 2 20 5 x
=
4
9x 3
x2 + 4
2y
1
b
2
=
2
6y
5 x + 20 15 y
a
REMEMBER
1. To add or subtract algebraic fractions, first find a common denominator and solve by
adding or subtracting the numerator.
2. If the pronumeral is in the denominator, you can generally find the common
denominator by multiplying the denominators together.
3. When multiplying or dividing, cancel down before multiplying through numerators
and denominators.
Exercise
4f
Algebraic fractions
a 3a
2b 5b
a +
b
+
7 4
3
4
d
3g 4 g
2
3
h 4
+
5 h
m 2
7 m
1 2n
3n 3
d 4d
5 3
2k 5
+
3 2

a
2
3
+
p ( p + 2)
3
5
+
2q (q + 5)
4
3
+
(r + 1) (r - 2)
1
7
(s - 3) (s + 4)
3
2
(2t + 3) (t - 1)
3
5v
+
(2v - 3) 8
3w
5
2 ( w - 2)
5( x - 1) ( x + 3)
+
3
2

a
3
7
( y + 3) ( y - 3)
1
5
+
( z + 2) ( z - 2)
1
4
+
(3 - 2 x ) ( x - 2)
3
2
+
(1 - y ) ( y + 3)
2
5
+
(a + 3)2 (a + 3)
1
7
(3b - 2) (3b - 2)2
2
2
4 MC When simplifying the expression
, the lowest common denominator
2
3( x - 3)
( x - 3)
is:
a x - 3
b 3(x - 3)
c (x - 3)2
2
3
d 3(x - 3)
e 3(x - 3)
5 MC Simplifying
2a 2 - a 4 a 2 - 4 a + 1
gives:
2a 3 b 3
(2a 2 b) 2
2a 2
b(2a - 1)
a
d
- 2a 2
b(2a - 1)
4a2
b(2a - 1)
2a 2 b
(2a - 1)
- 2a 2
b(2a + 1)
Chapter 4 Algebra
125
9 - e 2 2(e + 3)
gives:
e2
e3
3- e
3- e
e(3 - e)
3+ e
a
b
c
d
2
2e
2
2
7 We26 Simplify the following expressions.
3b
2(b + 5)
2 x 3 2( x + 2)
a
b
2
3(b + 5)
8b 2
x+2
10 x
6
mC Simplifying
d
8
9 - e2
2e
(3 + e)
e2
3+ e
2e
d2 + 5
12d
2
3
3d
2d + 10
7h(h + 2)
12h 2
f
3
2
7h + 14 h 2
c
g 2 (2 - g)
3g
6
4 - g2

a
( j - 3)( j + 2) 12( j - 3)( j + 7)

3( j + 7)2
2( j + 2)2
2m 2 - m - 3
3m
6(m - 1)
2m(2m - 3)2
p + 3 3( p + 3)
e
7
21 p
c
4G
2(3r 2
3r 2
15r 3
+ 5r + 2)
(3r + 2)
2(k + 1)2 (k - 2) 15(k + 5)(k - 2)
5(k + 5)3
3(k + 1)3
- ( n + 1) 2
9n
-1
(q - 2)(q + 3) (q - 2)2
f
q+5
3q + 15
d
6 n2
n2
3(s 2 - 4)
2s - 4
18s - 27 - (4 s 2 - 9)
linear literal equations
eBook plus
Interactivity
Literal equations are those that are written in terms of pronumerals

int-0971
such that no unique numerical solution will be possible, but rather
Linear literal equations
an expression containing these pronumerals. An equation such
as mx - n = p could be described as a linear literal equation in x, as it is linear and contains
pronumerals rather than numbers. (Note, that in this case x is defined as the variable.)
A solution to a literal equation can be determined algebraically by the use of inverse operations
just as a numerical equation can. The difference is that the solution will be a general one that
is, in terms of the pronumerals.
In the example above, the solution to this equation will be obtained by isolating x as the subject
as follows:
mx - n = p
(add n to both sides of the equation)
mx = p + n
(divide by m on both sides of the equation)
p+ n
x=
m
Note that literal equations always contain at least one pronumeral (apart from the variable), but
they may also contain numerals.
Worked exAmple 27
Solve for x.
ax
a
-c= d
b
m
3n
=
( x - a) x
Think
a
126
WriTe
Add c to both sides.
ax
-c = d
b
ax
=d+c
b
ax = b(d + c)
Multiply both sides by b.
Divide both sides by a.
Multiply both sides by x - a.
Multiply both sides by x.
3
5
Expand.
Collect x terms.
Factorise.
mx = 3nx - 3na
3nx - mx = 3na
x(3n - m) = 3na
Divide both sides by 3n - m.
x=
b ( d + c)
a
m
3n
b ( x - a) = x
3n( x - a)
m=
x
mx = 3n(x - a)
x=
3na
3n - m
Solving simultaneous literal equations requires the same method as numerical linear equations,
namely, substitution or elimination methods. The solutions will be in terms of the pronumerals.
Worked exAmple 28
Solve for x and y.
eBook plus
Tutorial
ax - by = -4
2ax - 3by = 6
Think
int-1044
Worked example 28
WriTe
Assign a number to each equation.
ax - by = -4
2ax - 3by = 6
[1]
[2]
Multiply equation [1] by 2. Assign a number to the new

equation.
Subtract equation [2] from equation [3] to eliminate the
x term.
2ax - 2by = -8
[3]
3
4
Solve for y.
Substitute this value of y into equation [1] and solve for x.
State the solution.
by = -14
y=
14
b
ax + 14 = -4
ax = -18
18
x=
a
x=
18
14
, y=
a
b
rememBer
1. Solve linear literal equations by using inverse operations to obtain an equation with the
variable as the subject.
2. Solve simultaneous literal equations using elimination or substitution methods.
3. The solutions for literal equations will be in terms of the pronumerals.
Chapter 4
Algebra
127
Exercise
4g

1 WE27
Solve for x.
x
=c
b
x+r
d
= 3t
s
1
g ax + b =
c
1 m
- =m
x n
1
1
+e=
m
x+d
f (x + d )
j
p x -
2( x - m)
=p
n
3k
f
+l = 4
x+l
2x
=y
w
d
e - f = g
x
h 2bx - c = 4a
i a(b - x) = b - a
k r ( x - s) =
1
b
l nx - p(x - q) = n(x + p)
bx cx
+ =n
n m
c+ x d
e
+
=
x
2 x 3x
x y
- = c in terms of x is:
a b
a(c - a)
b
b
ac(c + ay )
e
b
ac(c - ay )
b
dx
= x- f
e
2 MC The solution to
abc - ya
b
a(cb + y )
d
b
a
3 WE28
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
a ax + by = a2 + b2
b ax + by = a2 - ab + 2b2
2
2
ax - by = a - b
ax - by = a2 - ab - 2b2
c
x y
+ =1
a b
x y
- =3
a b
x
a + b2
+ by =
a
a
x
a2 + b2
+y=
b
ab
g a 2 x + by = ab - 2b 2
y b 2 - 2b
bx + =
a
a
x y a+b
+ =
+1
a b
a
x y a+b
+ =
2a b
2a
y
=4
b
y
(b - a) x +
=0
3b
f (a - b) x +
x
b
- by =
a
a
x
a-b
+ ay =
b
b
n
4 The sum of n terms of an arithmetic sequence is given by the formula S = [2a + ( n - 1)d ],
2
where a is the first number of the sequence and d is the common difference.
a Transpose the formula to make a the subject and hence find the first term in a sequence
which has n = 26, d = 3 and S = 1079.
b Transpose the formula to make d the subject and hence find the common difference of an
arithmetic sequence with 20 terms, a = 18 and S = 20.
128
Summary
a0 = 1
a1 = a
a- m =
1
am
am an = am + n
am an =
am
= am - n
an
(am)n = am n
m
a n = n am = ( n a )
(a b)m = am bm
The number of significant figures in a number can be determined by considering each of the following
rules:
1. Significant figures are counted from the first non-zero digit (19).
2. Any zeros at the end of the number after the decimal point are considered to be significant.
3. The trailing zeros at the end of a number are not considered significant.
4. All zeros between two non-zero digits are always significant.
When performing calculations associated with significant figures, the following rules apply:
1. When adding or subtracting numbers, count the number of decimal places to determine the number of
significant figures. The answer cannot contain more places after the decimal point than the least number
of decimal places in the numbers being added or subtracted.
2. When multiplying or dividing numbers, count the number of significant figures. The answer cannot
contain more significant figures than the number being multiplied or divided with the least number of
Transposition
Transposition is the rearrangement of terms within a formula.

The subject of the formula is the variable that is by itself on one side of the equation, while all other
variables are on the other side.
Solving linear equations and simultaneous linear equations
Linear equations can be solved by using inverse operations. When solving linear equations, the order of
operations process, BODMAS, is reversed.
Simultaneous linear equations can be solved either graphically or algebraically.
1. Graphical method:
Draw the straight lines representing the equations and find the coordinates of the point of intersection.
2. Algebraic methods:
(a) Substitution: Transpose one of the equations so that one of the unknowns is expressed in terms of the
other and substitute into the second equation.
(b) Elimination: Equate the coefficients of one unknown and eliminate it by either adding or subtracting
the two equations.
Chapter 4 Algebra
129
Applications using linear equations
To solve worded problems using linear equations, follow these steps:

2. Set up an equation by transforming the written information into an algebraic statement or statements.
3. Solve the equation.
4. Interpret the result by relating the answer back to the original problem.
Applications using simultaneous equations
1. Identify and define the variables.

2. Transform written information into algebraic statements.
3. Solve the pair of equations graphically or algebraically using the methods of substitution or elimination.
4. Interpret the result by relating the answer back to the problem.
5. Always make sure the numbers in the equations are in the same units.
Algebraic fractions
To add or subtract algebraic fractions, first find a common denominator and solve by adding or subtracting
the numerator.
If the pronumeral is in the denominator, you can generally find the common denominator by multiplying the
When multiplying or dividing, cancel down before multiplying through numerators and denominators.
Linear literal equations are equations that have a variable, such as x, with constants and coefficients that are
either numbers or pronumerals.
To solve linear literal equations, use the inverse operations to obtain an equation with the variable as the
subject in terms of the other pronumerals.
The solution will be in terms of the pronumerals.
Simultaneous linear literal equations can be solved using elimination or substitution methods. The solutions
will be in terms of the pronumerals.
130
chapter review
Short answer
2 -4
3
1 Simplify 5 x 5 y
(3 x
-1
3 y 2 )2 .
2 Write the following in standard form and simplify:

a 450000 120000000
b 0.000012 0.34
c 245 17000
3 Calculate the following to the correct number of
a 3.2418 + 103.27
b 1.0065 1200
4 Transpose each of the following formulas to make
the pronumeral, indicated in brackets, the subject.
(If two pronumerals are indicated, make a separate
transposition for each.)
a 6x 12y + 15 = 0
(x)
7(3 - 4 d ) 8(e + 7)
b
(d, e)
=
- 3
5
3
5 Solve for x.
2 x - 3 6 - 3x 7x
= 2+
5
4
3
6 a Find the equations of the two lines shown on the
diagram.
y
4
2
1 0
b Find the coordinates of the point of intersection

(the diagram is not drawn to scale).
7 Solve the following simultaneous equations.
a 6x + 2y = 12
x 2y = 2
b 8y 24 = 4x
7x + 3y = 25
c 15 3x 3y = 30
2x + y = 4
8 Before opening the store, a cashier makes sure
that his register contains at least $5 in change. He
counts a number of 10c coins, twice as many 5c
coins and 4 times as many 20c coins to the total
value of exactly $5. How many coins of each type
does he count?
9 A building company charges a $2300 set fee plus

$500 a day while it is working on a project within
the time limits that are specified by a contract.
If the project is completed earlier than the set time,
the company will still charge $500 for each of
the remaining days. However, if the project is not
completed by the due date, the company will pay
a $135 penalty for each extra day until the work is
done. From the given information, construct a set of
formulas for the total cost of work, T, the number
of days it takes to complete the job according to the
contract, n, and the number of extra days, e.
10 Jessica is 3 years older than Rebecca. In 5 years she
will be 3 times as old as Rebecca was 2 years ago.
Find the girls present ages.
11 Simplify the following:
5m - 4 m + 6
1
4
a
b
2
3
3x - 4 x
3
2
+
c
( x + 1)( x - 2) ( x - 3)( x + 1)
12 Simplify
3( g - 2)( g + 3)2 12( g - 1)2 ( g + 3)5
.
( g - 2)
4( g - 1)4
25w - 15
w2 - 9
.
2w - 8
4( w 2 - 16)
14 Solve for x.
b - ax
a
b px - w + x = pk
= mn
g
3
k
13 Simplify
15 Solve the following simultaneous equations for x

and y:
y 5b
a 2ax - by = 1 + 2b2
b bx - =
a 2a
Multiple choice
3
3m 2
1
is equal to:
n4
a
9m 5
n7
27m6
n12
6m 5
n7
9m6
n12
3m3
n3
2 The number of significant figures in 20.034 is:

a 2
b 3
c 4
D 5
E 6
Chapter 4 Algebra
131
3 The solution to 1303.45 + 23000 with the correct

number of significant figures is:
a 24303.5
b 24303.50
c 24300
D 24303
E 24000
4 The solution to 25.69 2.5040 with the correct
number of significant figures is:
a 64.3
b 64.33
c 64
D 64.373
E 64.3730
2B + 3
5 If A =
is transposed to make B the subject,
4
then:
4A + 3
3
a B = 2A 2
b B =
2
c B = 2A 3
E B = 4A +
D B = 4A
3
2
3
2
Questions 6 and 7 refer to the shape

at right.
22
, the perimeter of a certain shape is
7
11x
given by P = x + x + x +
. When transposed
7
to make x the subject, x is:
7P
32
a
b
32
7P
7P
c 7P 14
D
14
7( P - 3)
E
11
6 Using =
7 If the perimeter of the above shape is 8 cm, then x

is equal to:
a
4
7
D 3
cm
b 42 cm
2
11
E 1.75 cm
cm
c 4 cm
2x
8 The solution to the equation
- 5 = - 1 is:
3
a 1
b 2
c 3
D 5
E 6
3x
= 6, the following operations
4
could be performed to both sides of the equation:
A Add 12; multiply by 4; divide by 3
B Multiply by 4; divide by 3; subtract 12
C Multiply by 4; divide by 3; subtract 12
9 To solve 12 -
132
D Subtract 12; multiply by 4; divide by 3

E Multiply by 4; subtract 12; divide by 3
10 An equation that is the same as 2(3x 1) = 5x + 3
is:
a 6x = 5x + 1
b 11x = 5
c x 2 = 3
D 2 = 11x + 3
E 11x 2 = 3
11 The value for x that satisfies the equation
1 - 2x x
+ = 2 is:
3
4
a 4
b 3
D 4
E 3
3
4
12 The value for x that satisfies the equation

6
8 4
- = is:
x +1 x x
a 12
b 6
c 2
D 2
E 6
13 The sum of solutions of the pair of simultaneous
equations y + x = 12 and 2y x = 6 is:
a 36
b 12
c 20
D 24
E 18
14 If y = 3x 4 and y = 5 + 4x, then the values of x and
y, respectively, are:
b 9 and 31
c 31 and 9
a 9 and 31
E 9 and -31
D 9 and 31
15 The point of intersection
of the two lines in the
graph at right is:
y
4
2
2 10
a (1, 3)
1
b (1 2 , 32)
1
D (1 9 , 3 9 )
c (1 5 , 3 5 )
E (2, 3)
16 Which statement below is not true for the pair of

simultaneous equations y + x = 22 and 3x y = 26?
A The sum of the numbers is 22.
B Three times the first number is 26 larger than
the second number.
C Three times one number is 26 smaller than the
other number.
D The difference between 3 times one number
and the other is 26.
E When one number is subtracted from 22, the
other number is obtained.
17 If 3 times a number subtracted from 6 gives 9, then

the number is:
c 1
a 5
b 1
D
1
3
E 3
18 The perimeter of a regular hexagon is 12.6 cm

more than the perimeter of a square with the same
side length. The length of the side of a hexagon is:
a 2.1 cm
b 3.15 cm
c 1.26 cm
D 12.6 cm
E 6.3 cm
19 When half a number is subtracted from 8, the result
is the same as adding double that number to 2. The
equation that matches this information is:
x
x
a 2 x - 8 = + 2
b 8 - 2 x = 2 +
2
2
x
x
c 8 - = 2 + 2 x
D + 8 = 2 x + 2
2
2
x
E - 8 = 2 x + 2
2
20 The sum of two numbers is 42 and their difference
is 4. The smaller of the numbers is:
a 23
b 17
c 18
D 19
E 24
21 Ben is 1 year short of being twice as old as Esther.

If their ages total 20 years, Ben is:
a 11
b 12
c 13
D 14
E 15
5( x - 1) ( x + 3)
22 When
is expressed as
3
2x
ax 2 + bx + c
, then a, b and c, respectively, are:
6x
b 10, 13 and 9
D 10, 13 and 9
a 10, 13 and 9
c 10, 13 and 9
E 10, 13 and 9
23 Simplifying
a
3- e
2
9 - e 2 2(e + 3)
gives:
e2
e3
3- e
e(3 - e)
b
c
2e
2
3+ e
2
3+ e
2e
mx
24 The solution to x = x - 3 p in terms of x is:
2
a
6
m
-6p
6p
m
6
E
p
-6
Extended response
1 Adrian has begun a new job as a car salesperson. His fortnightly wage is calculated in two parts: a set amount
of $600 plus 2% of sales made each fortnight.
a Write the rule describing Adrians fortnightly wage.
b How much can Adrian expect to earn if his sales in a particular fortnight are:
i $20 000
ii $65 000
iii $100 000?
c How much must Adrian make in sales to obtain a fortnightly wage of:
i $1300
ii $1800
iii $2400?
Brett, also a salesperson in the motor vehicle industry, is paid a fortnightly salary of $860 regardless of
sales made.
d Compare Adrians fortnightly wage to Bretts fortnightly salary.
e Write the rule describing Bretts fortnightly salary.
f How much would Adrian have to make in sales in one fortnight to obtain the same amount as Brett
earns?
2 Joseph has $15 000 to invest. He does not want to keep all of his eggs in the one basket, so he decides to split
the money in the following ways. He puts some of his money in the bank, which offers an interest rate of 6%
p.a., and the remainder into a building society, which offers an interest rate of 11% p.a. If Joseph plans to take
a trip to Queensland, costing $1200, and he wants to pay for the trip using only the interest earned from his
investments after 1 year, how must he split his $15 000?
Chapter 4 Algebra
133
3 Michael wishes to rent a car for a long weekend. The cost, C, of renting a Toyota Corolla from company A is
given by
C = 25 + 0.08n, and the cost of renting from company B
C = 40 + 0.05n, where n is the number of kilometres travelled.
Cost ($)
[1]
40
25
0
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
[2]
Number of km
Which company, A or B, does line [1] represent?

What could the numbers 25 and 40 represent?
What does the point of intersection of lines [1] and [2] represent?
Find the coordinates of the point of intersection.
If Michael decides to travel along the Great Ocean Road, which is about 350 km each way, from which
company, A or B, should he rent so that he pays less?
Next long weekend, Michael is planning to go to Phillip Island, which is about 150 km each way. From
which company should he rent this time?
Explain to Michael how he can decide from which company to rent, if he knows the approximate
distance he intends to travel, without doing any calculations.
Write the formula for d, the difference between the cost of renting the car from the two companies
(A or B).
Write the difference equation which corresponds to the equation in part h.
Use the difference equation to generate a table of values for distances from 0 to 1000 km inclusive,
with increments of 100 km. Hence, find the distance for which the cost of renting from company A will
exceed the cost of renting from company B by more than $10.
4 NovakNoveltiesmanufacturesavarietyofchildrens3-Dpuzzles.Thedirectorofthecompanyhasasked
his assistants Caitlin, Bridget and Emese to prepare a report on production costs, expenses and returns on the
puzzles. Each puzzle costs the company $15 to produce. In addition, the company has monthly overheads of
$21 000. The selling price of each puzzle is $45.
a Write an equation describing the expenses; that is, the total cost, C, of producing n puzzles each month.
b Write an equation describing the selling price of n puzzles.
c Plot and label the graph of the equation obtained in part a. Does it commence at the origin? Explain.
d Plot and label the graph of the equation obtained in part b on the same axis. Does it commence at the
origin? Explain.
e The point of intersection of the two lines on your graph is called the break-even point. Explain what this
means in terms of the given problem.
f Findthecoordinatesofthebreak-evenpoint(pointofintersection).
g Shadetheportionbetweenthetwolinestotheleftofthebreak-evenpoint.Explainwhatthisportion
represents.
h Shadetheportionbetweenthetwolinestotherightofthebreak-evenpoint.Explainwhatthisportion
represents.
Profit may be defined as the selling price minus the total cost.
i Write an equation describing the profit obtained, P, after selling n puzzles.
j Determine whether a profit or loss is made when:
i 400
ii 600
iii 800
iv 1000 puzzles are sold in a particular month.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 4
134
eBook plus
ACTiviTies
chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on algebra. (page 88)
4a
Tutorial
We3 int-1039: Watch how to simplify expressions

involving indices. (page 90)
4b
Tutorial
We5 int-1040: Watch how to simplify an expression

involving the product and quotient of numbers in
standard form. (page 92)
4c
Transposition
Tutorial
We9 int-1041: Watch how to solve equations for

specific pronumerals. (page 97)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 4.1: Transpose simple equations, and

use transposition to solve worded problems.
(page 101)
4d
Solving linear equations and simultaneous

linear equations
Tutorial
We14 int-1042: Watch how to solve equations

involving fractions. (page 105)
Digital doc
Investigation: Comparing production costs.

(page 114)
4e
applications
4F
algebraic fractions
Tutorial
We25 int-1043: Watch how to simplify algebraic

expressions involving fractions. (page 123)
4G
Interactivity
Linear literal equations int-0971: Consolidate your

understanding of how to solve linear literal
equations. (page 126)
Tutorial
We28 int-1044: Watch how to solve literal

simultaneous equations. (page 127)
chapter review
Digital doc
TestYourself:Taketheend-of-chaptertesttotest
www.jacplus.com.au
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 4.2: Transpose equations with

algebraic fractions and apply this method to more
complex worded problems. (page 122)
Chapter 4
Algebra
135
5
Trigonometric
ratios and their
applications
areas oF sTudy
Right-angled triangles and solutions to problems

involving right-angled triangles using sine,
cosine and tangent
The relationships sin2 () + cos2 () = 1,
cos () = sin (90 ) and sin () = cos (90 )
Two-dimensional applications including angles
of depression and elevation
Exact values of sine, cosine and tangent for 30,
45 and 60
5A
5B
5C
5D
5E
5F
5G
5H
Trigonometry of right-angled triangles

Elevation, depression and bearings
The sine rule
The cosine rule
Area of triangles
Trigonometric identities
Radian measurement
Arcs, sectors and segments
Solution of triangles by the sine and cosine

rules
Areas of triangles, including the formula
A = s ( s a ) ( s b ) ( s c)
Circle mensuration: radian measure, arc length,
areas of sectors and segments
Applications, for example, navigation and
surveying in simple contexts
eBook plus
Digital doc
5a
10 Quick Questions
Trigonometry of right-angled
triangles
Trigonometry, derived from the Greek words trigon (triangle) and metron (measurement), is
the branch of mathematics that deals with the relationship between the sides and angles of a
triangle. It involves finding unknown angles, side lengths and areas of triangles. The principles
of trigonometry are used in many practical situations such as building, surveying, navigation and
engineering. In previous years you will have studied the trigonometry of right-angled triangles.
We will review this material before considering nonright-angled triangles.
sin () =
cos () =
opposite side
O
hypotenuse which is abbreviated to sin () = H
adjacent side
A
hypotenuse which is abbreviated to cos () = H
opposite side
O
tan () =
adjacent side which is abbreviated to tan () = A
B
Opposite
(O)
C
Hypotenuse
(H )
(A)
Adjacent
The symbol (theta) is one of the many letters of the Greek alphabet used to represent the
angle. Other symbols include (alpha), (beta) and (gamma). Non-Greek letters may also be
used.
136
Writing the mnemonic SOHCAHTOA each time we perform trigonometric calculations

will help us to remember the ratios and solve the problem.
Pythagoras theorem
For specific problems it may be necessary to determine the side lengths of a right-angled
triangle before calculating the trigonometric ratios. In this situation, Pythagoras theorem is
used. Pythagoras theorem states:
In any right-angled triangle, c2 = a2 + b2.
a
b
Worked Example 1
Determine the value of the pronumerals, correct

to 2 decimal places.
b
4
50
Think
a
Write
Label the sides, relative to the marked

angles.
x
O
24 25
h
50
Write what is given.
Have: angle and hypotenuse (H)
Write what is needed.
Need: opposite (O) side
Determine which of the trigonometric

ratios is required, using SOHCAHTOA.
Substitute the given values into the

appropriate ratio.
Transpose the equation and solve for x.
Round the answer to 2 decimal places.
Label the sides, relative to the marked

angle.
sin () =
O
H
sin (50) =
x
4
4 sin (50) = x
x = 4 sin (50)
= 3.06
b
A
7
24 25
h H
Have: angle and adjacent (A) side
Need: hypotenuse (H)
Determine which of the trigonometric

ratios is required, using SOHCAHTOA.
cos () =
A
H
Substitute the given values into the

appropriate ratio.
cos (2425) =
7
h
Chapter 5 Trigonometric ratios and their applications
137
Solve for h. On the Main screen,

7
solve cos(dms(24, 25) = , h
h
Then press E.
= 7.69
Worked Example 2
Find the angle , giving the answer in degrees and minutes.
12
18
Think
1
Write
Label the sides, relative to the marked angles.
A
12
O 18
2
Determine which of the trigonometric ratios is

required, using SOHCAHTOA.
tan () = O
Substitute the given values into the appropriate

ratio.
tan () =
To calculate tan1, on the Main screen, complete

the entry lines as:
Have: opposite (O) and adjacent (A) sides

Need: angle
A
18
12
1 18
tan 12
toDMS(
Press E after each entry line.
Note: toDMS can be located by tapping:
Action
Transformation
toDMS
138
q = tan
Write the answer to the nearest minute.
= 5619
18
12
Exact values
Most of the trigonometric values that we will deal with in this
chapter are only approximations. However, angles of 30, 45 and
60 have exact values of sine, cosine and tangent. Consider an
equilateral triangle, ABC, of side length 2 units.
If the triangle is perpendicularly bisected, then two congruent
triangles, ABD and CBD, are obtained. From triangle ABD it
can be seen that BD creates a right-angled triangle with angles of
60 and 30 and base length (AD) of 1 unit. The length of BD is
obtained using Pythagoras theorem.
Using triangle ABD and the three trigonometric ratios the
following exact values are obtained:

1
sin (30) =
2
3
cos (30) =

2
tan (30) =
1
3
cos (45) =
60
A
D
2
3
2
1
cos (60) =
2
sin (60) =
or
3

3
tan (60) =
3
or 3
1
Consider a right-angled isosceles triangle EFG whose equal sides are of

1 unit. The hypotenuse EG is obtained by using Pythagoras theorem.

(EG)2 = (EF)2 + (FG)2

= 12 + 12

=2

EG = 2
Using triangle EFG and the three trigonometric ratios, the following exact
values are obtained:
1
2
or

sin (45) =
2
2

30
or
45
1
2
2
1
tan (45) = or 1
1
Worked Example 3
Determine the height of the triangle shown in surd form.

h
60
8 cm
139
Think
1
Write
Label the sides relative to the marked angle.

h
O
60
A
8 cm
Have: angle and adjacent (A) side

required, using SOHCAHTOA.
Need: opposite (O) side

O
tan () =
A

ratio.
tan (60) =
h
8
Substitute exact values where appropriate.
3=
h
8
Transpose the equation to find the required value.
h=8 3
State the answer.
The triangles height is 8 3 cm.
REMEMBER
B
1. For any right-angled triangle:
O
A
O
Opposite
cos () = tan () =
(O)
H
H
H
2. To determine which trigonometric ratio to use when
C
solving a right-angled triangle, follow these steps:
(a) Label the diagram using the symbols , O, A, H.
(b) Write what is given.
(c) Write what is needed.
(d) Determine which of the trigonometric ratios is required,
using SOHCAHTOA.
a
(e) Substitute the given values into the rule and solve.
3. Pythagoras theorem, c2 = a2 + b2, may also be used to solve
right-angled triangles.
4. Angles of 30, 45 and 60 have exact values for sine, cosine
and tangent.
sin () =
45
sin ()
1
2
cos ()
3
2
tan ()
140
30
1
3
2
2
3
3
60
2
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
Hypotenuse
(H )
(A)
Adjacent
exerCise
5a

1
Copy and label the sides of the following right-angled triangles using the words
eBook plus
hypotenuse, adjacent, opposite and the symbol .
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 5.1
Adjacent
Opposite
Labelling rightangled triangles
eBook plus
2 We 1 Find the value of the pronumerals, correct to 2 decimal places.

a
10
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 5.2
7.5
478'
17
40
Using trigonometric ratios
684
3214'
6238'
x
eBook plus
1.03
g
78
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 5.3
504
3.85
1425'
Degrees and
minutes
2747'
17
x
y
3848'
3 We 2 Find the angle , giving the answer in degrees and minutes.

a
b
c
5
10
28
20
12
2.1
4.2
30
11.7
48
6.8
h
53.2
1.74
3.26
78.1
Chapter 5
Trigonometric ratios and their applications
141
Digital doc
Composite
shapes 1
An isosceles triangle has a base of 12 cm and equal angles
of 30. Find, in surd form:

30
30
a the height of the triangle
12 cm
b the area of the triangle
c the perimeter of the triangle, giving your answers in simplest surd form.
eBook plus
SkillSHEET 5.4
We 3
14
Find the perimeter of the composite shape at right,

in surd form. The length measurements are in metres.
26
60
6 A ladder 6.5 m long rests against a vertical wall and makes an angle of 50 to the horizontal
ground.
a How high up the wall does the ladder reach?
b If the ladder needs to reach 1 m higher, to the nearest minute, what angle should it make
to the ground?
7 A 400-m-long road goes straight up a slope. If the road rises 50 m vertically, what is the angle
that the road makes with the horizontal?
8 An ice-cream cone has a diameter of 6 cm and a sloping edge of 15 cm. Find the angle at the
bottom of the cone.
9 A vertical flagpole is supported by a wire attached from the top of the pole to the horizontal
ground, 4 m from the base of the pole. Joanne measures the angle the wire makes with the
ground and finds this is 65. How tall is the flagpole?
10 A stepladder stands on a floor, with its feet 1.5 m apart. If the angle formed by the legs is 55,
how high above the floor is the top of the ladder?
eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 5.5
Composite
shapes 2
11
The angle formed by the diagonal of a rectangle and one of its shorter sides is 60. If the
diagonal is 8 cm long, find the dimensions of the rectangle, in surd form.
12 In the figure at right, find the value of the pronumerals,

correct to 2 decimal places.
d
a
7
b
50
13 In the figure at right, find the value of the pronumerals,

30
c
48
b
a
14
14 In the figure at right, find the value of the pronumeral x,

33
15 An advertising balloon is attached to a rope 120 m long. The rope

makes an angle of 75 to level ground. How high above the ground is
the balloon?
58
6
x
16 An isosceles triangle has sides of 17 cm, 20 cm and 20 cm. Find the magnitude of
the angles.
142
70
17 A garden bed at right is in the shape of a trapezium. What

volume of garden mulch is needed to cover it to a depth of
15 cm?
12 m
120
4m
18 A gable roof has sloping sides of 8.3 m. It rises to a height

of 2.7 m at the centre.
a What is the angle of slope of the two sides?
b How wide is the roof at its base?
8.3 m
8.3 m
2.7 m
19 A ladder 10 m long rests against a vertical wall at an angle of 55 to the horizontal. It slides
down the wall, so that it now makes an angle of 48 with the horizontal.
a Through what vertical distance did the top of the ladder slide?
b Does the foot of the ladder move through the same distance? Justify your answer.

Trigonometry is especially useful for measuring distances and heights which are difficult or
impractical to access. For example, two important applications of right-angled triangles involve:
1. angles of elevation and depression, and
2. bearings.
Angles of elevation and depression
ne
of
sig
ht
Angles of elevation and depression are employed when dealing with directions which require us
to look up and down respectively.
An angle of elevation is the angle between the horizontal and an
object which is higher than the observer (for example, the top of a
mountain or flagpole).
Li
5B
Angle of elevation
An angle of depression is the angle between the horizontal and

an object which is lower than the observer (for example, a boat at
sea when the observer is on a cliff).
Angle of depression
ne
Li
of
h
sig
Unless otherwise stated, the angle of elevation or depression is measured and drawn from the
horizontal.
Angles of elevation and depression are each measured
from the horizontal.
When solving problems involving angles of elevation and
depression, it is best always to draw a diagram.
The angle of elevation is equal to the angle of depression since
they are alternate Z angles.
E
D and E are alternate angles
D=E
143
Worked Example 4
From a cliff 50 metres high, the angle of depression of a boat at sea is 12. How far is the boat from
the base of the cliff?
Think
1
Write
Draw a diagram and label all the given

information.
Include the unknown length, x, and the angle of
elevation, 12.
12
50 m
12
Have: angle and opposite side

required (SOHCAHTOA).
Need: adjacent side

O
tan () =
A

ratio.
tan (12) =
x tan (12) = 50
x=
50
x
50
tan (12)
= 235.23
The boat is 235.23 m away from the base of
the cliff.
N
Bearings
Bearings measure the direction of one object from another.
There are two systems used for describing bearings.
True bearings are measured in a clockwise direction,
starting from north (0 T).
150 T
Compass bearing
equivalent is S30E
N
Conventional or compass bearings are

measured:
first, relative to north or south, and
second, relative to east or west.
20
W
20
S
S
N20W
S70E
True bearing equivalent True bearing equivalent
is 340 T
is 110 T
The two systems are interchangeable.

For example, a bearing of 240 T is the same
as S60W.
When solving questions involving direction,
always start with a diagram showing the basic
compass points: north, south, east and west.
144
N
W
240 T
S
E
60
S
S60W
Worked examPle 5
A ship sails 40 km in a direction of N52W. How far west of the starting point is it?
Think
1
WriTe/draW
Draw a diagram of the situation, labelling each of

the compass points and the given information.
N
x
40
km 52
E
S
Write what is given for the triangle.
Have: angle and hypotenuse
Write what is needed for the triangle.


ratio.
Need: opposite side

O
sin () =
H
x
sin (52) =
40
40 sin (52) = x
x = 40 sin (52)
= 31.52
The ship is 31.52 km west of the starting point.
Worked examPle 6
eBook plus
A ship sails 10 km east, then 4 km south. What is its bearing from

its starting point?
Think
1
Tutorial
int-1045
Worked example 6
WriTe
Draw a diagram of the situation, labelling

each of the compass points and the given
information.
N
10 km
4 km
S
2
Write what is given for the triangle.
Have: adjacent and opposite sides
Write what is needed for the triangle.

Need: angle
O
tan () =
A

ratio.
Transpose the equation and solve for , using the

inverse tan function.
Convert the angle to degrees and minutes.
tan () =
4
10
4
= tan 1
10
= 21.801 409 49
= 2148
Chapter 5
145
Express the angle in bearings form. The bearing

of the ship was initially 0 T; it has since rotated
through an angle of 90 and an additional angle
of 2148. To obtain the final bearing these values
are added.
earing = 90 + 2148
B

= 11148 T
The bearing of the ship from its starting point is

11148 T.
REMEMBER
1. Angles of elevation and depression are each measured from the horizontal.
2. The angle of elevation is equal to the angle of depression since they are alternate Z
angles.
3. True bearings are measured in a clockwise direction, starting from north (0 T).
4. Conventional or compass bearings are measured first, relative to north or south, and
second, relative to east or west.
5. Whenever solving problems involving angles of elevation and depression or bearings,
you should always draw a diagram and label all the given information.
6. Set up a compass as the basis of your diagram for bearings questions.
Exercise
5B

1 WE4 From a vertical fire tower 60 m high, the angle of depression to a fire is 6. How far
away, to the nearest metre, is the fire?
2 A person stands 20 m from the base of a building, and measures the angle of elevation to the top
of the building as 55. If the person is 1.7 m tall, how high, to the nearest metre, is the building?
3 An observer on a cliff top 57 m high observes a ship at sea. The angle of depression to the ship
is 15. The ship sails towards the cliff, and the angle of depression is then 25. How far, to the
nearest metre, did the ship sail between sightings?
4 Two vertical buildings, 40 m and 62 m high, are directly opposite each other across a river. The
angle of elevation of the top of the taller building from the top of the smaller building is 27.
How wide is the river? (Give the answer to 2 decimal places.)
5 To calculate the height of a crane which is on top of a building, Denis measures the angle
of elevation to the bottom and top of the crane. These were 62 and 68 respectively. If the
building is 42 m high find, to 2 decimal places:
a how far Denis is from the building
b the height of the crane.
6 A new skyscraper is proposed for the Melbourne Docklands region. It is to be 500 m tall. What
would be the angle of depression, in degrees and minutes, from the top of the building to the
island on Albert Park Lake, which is 4.2 km away?
7 From a rescue helicopter 2500 m above the ocean, the angles of depression of two shipwreck
survivors are 48 (survivor 1) and 35 (survivor 2).
a Draw a labelled diagram which represents the situation.
b Calculate how far apart the two survivors are.
8 A lookout tower has been erected on top of a mountain. At a distance of 5.8 km, the angle
of elevation from the ground to the base of the tower is 15.7 and the angle of elevation to
the observation deck (on the top of the tower) is 15.9. How high, to the nearest metre, is the
observation deck above the top of the mountain?
146
From a point A on level ground, the angle of elevation of the top of a building 50 m high
is 45. From a point B on the ground and in line with A and the foot of the building, the
angle of elevation of the top of the building is 60. Find, in simplest surd form, the distance
from A to B.
10 Express the following conventional bearings as true bearings.

a N35W
b S47W
c N58E
d S17E
11 Express the following true bearings in conventional form.

a 246 T
b 107 T
c 321 T
d 074 T
12 mC a A bearing of S30E is the same as:

A 030 T
B 120 T
C 150 T
b A bearing of 280 T is the same as:
A N10W
B S10W
C S80W
D 210 T
E 240 T
D N80W
E N10E
13 We 5 A pair of canoeists paddle 1800 m on a

bearing of N20E. How far north of their
starting point are they, to the nearest metre?
14 A yacht race consists of four legs. The first
three legs are 4 km due east, then 5 km south,
followed by 2 km due west.
a How long is the final leg, if the race
finishes at the starting point?
b On what bearing must the final leg be
sailed?
15 We 6 A ship sails 20 km south, then 8 km
west. What is its bearing from the starting
point?
16 A cross-country competitor runs on a bearing
of N60W for 2 km, then due north for 3 km.
a How far is he from the starting point?
b What is the true bearing of the starting point from the runner?
17 Two hikers set out from the same campsite. One walks 7 km in the direction 043T and the
other walks 10 km in the direction 133T.
a What is the distance between the two hikers?
b What is the bearing of the first hiker from the second?
18 A ship sails 30 km on a bearing of 220, then 20 km on a bearing of 250. Find:
a how far south of the original position it is
b how far west of the original position it is
c the true bearing of the ship from its original position, to the nearest degree.
19 The town of Bracknaw is due west of Arley. Chris, in an ultralight plane, starts at a third town,
Champton, which is due north of Bracknaw, and flies directly towards Arley at a speed of
40 km/h in a direction of 110 T. She reaches Arley in 3 hours. Find:
a the distance between Arley and Bracknaw
b the time to complete the journey from Champton to Bracknaw, via Arley, if she increases
her speed to 45 km/h between Arley and Bracknaw.
20 From a point, A, on the ground, the angle of elevation of the top of a vertical tower due north
of A is 46. From a point B, due east of A, the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 32.
If the tower is 85 m high, find:
a the distance from A to the foot of the tower
b the distance from B to the foot of the tower
c the true bearing of the tower from B.
Chapter 5
147
21 A bird flying at 50 m above the ground was observed at noon from my front door at an angle
of elevation of 5. Two minutes later its angle of elevation was 4.
a If the bird was flying straight and level, find the horizontal distance of the bird:
i from my doorway at noon
ii from my doorway at 12.02 pm.
b Hence, find:
i the distance travelled by the bird
in the two minutes
ii its speed of flight in km/h.
5C
The sine rule

When working with nonright-angled triangles, it is usual
B
to label the angles A, B and C, and the sides a, b and c, so that side a
c
a
is the side opposite angle A, side b is the side opposite angle B and
side c is the side opposite angle C.
A
C
b
In a nonright-angled triangle, a perpendicular line, h, can be drawn
from the angle B to side b.
B
h
Using triangle ABD we obtain sin (A) = . Using triangle CBD
c
h
we obtain sin (C) = .
c
a
h
a
Transposing each equation to make h the subject, we
A
C
obtain: h = c sin (A) and h = a sin (C). Equate to get
D b
c sin (A) = a sin (C).
h
h
c = sin (A) and a = sin (C)
Transpose to get
c
a
=
sin (C ) sin ( A)
In a similar way, if a perpendicular line is drawn from angle A to side a, we get
b
c
=
sin (B ) sin (C )
From this, the sine rule can be stated.
In any triangle ABC:
B
c
a
b
c
=
=
sin ( A) sin ( B) sin (C )
a
b
Notes
1. When using this rule, depending on the values given, any combination of the two equalities
may be used to solve a particular triangle.
2. To solve a triangle means to find all unknown side lengths and angles.
The sine rule can be used to solve nonright-angled triangles if we are given:
1. two angles and one side length
2. two side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths.
Worked Example 7
In the triangle ABC, a = 4 m, b = 7 m and B = 80. Find A, C and c.

Think
1
Write
B
Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle ABC and

fill in the given information.
c
A
148
b=7
80 a = 4
C
Check that one of the criteria for the sine rule has
been satisfied.
The sine rule can be used since two side lengths

and an angle opposite one of these side lengths
have been given.
Write the sine rule to find A.
To find angle A:
a
b
=
sin ( A) sin (B )
4
7
=
sin ( A) sin (80)
Substitute the known values into the rule.
Transpose the equation to make sin (A) the

subject.
4 sin (80) = 7 sin (A)

4 sin (80)
= sin ( A)
7
4 sin (80)
sin ( A) =
7
Evaluate.
4 sin (80 )
A = sin 1
7
1
= sin (0.562 747 287)
= 34.24600471
Round the answer to degrees and minutes.

Determine the value of angle C using the fact that
the angle sum of any triangle is 180.

= 3415
C = 180 (80 + 3415)
= 6545
Write the sine rule to find c.
To find side length c:

c
b
=
sin (C ) sin (B )
10
c
7
=
sin (65 45 ) sin (80 )
11
Transpose the equation to make c the subject.
12
Evaluate. Round the answer to 2 decimal places

and include the appropriate unit.
c=
7 sin (65 45 )
sin (80 )
7 0.911762 043
0.984 807 753
6.382 334 305
=
0.984 807 753
= 6.480 792 099
= 6.48 m
=
The ambiguous case

When using the sine rule there is one important issue to consider. If we are given two
side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths, then two different triangles
may be drawn. For example, if a = 10, c = 6 and C = 30, two possible triangles could be
created.
B
B
c=6
A
a = 10
30
a = 10
c=6
C
30
149
In the first case, angle A is an acute angle, while in the second case, angle A is an obtuse
angle. The two values for A will add to 180.
The ambiguous case does not work for each example. It would be useful to know, before
commencing a question, whether or not the ambiguous case exists and, if so, to then find both
sets of solutions.
The ambiguous case exists if C is an acute angle and a > c > a sin (C), or any equivalent
statement; for example, if B is an acute angle and a >b >a sin (B), and so on.
Worked examPle 8
eBook plus
In the triangle ABC, a = 10 m, c = 6 m and C = 30.

a Show that the ambiguous case exists.
b Find two possible values of A, and hence two possible values of B and b.
Think
Tutorial
int-1046
Worked example 8
WriTe
Method1:Usingtherules
a
Check that the conditions for an

ambiguous case exist, i.e. that C is an
acute angle and that a > c > a sin (C).
a C = 30 so C is an acute angle.
sin (C) = sin (30) = 0.5

a > c > a sin (C)
10 > 6 > 10 sin (30)
10 > 6 > 5
This is correct.
This is an ambiguous case of the sine rule.
State the answer.
Case 1
b
Draw a labelled diagram of the

triangle ABC and fill in the given
information.
B
a = 10
c=6
30
150
Substitute the known values into the

rule.
Transpose the equation to make

sin (A) the subject.
Evaluate angle A, in degrees and

minutes.
Determine the value of angle B, using

the fact that the angle sum of any
triangle is 180.
Write the sine rule to find b.
To find angle A:
a
c
=
sin ( A) sin (C )
10
6
=
sin ( A) sin (30)
10 sin (30) = 6 sin (A)
10 sin (30)
= sin ( A)
6
10 sin (30)
sin ( A) =
6
10 sin (30 )
A = sin 1
6
A = 5627
B = 180 (30 + 5627)
= 9333
To find side length b:
b
c
=
sin (B) sin (C )

rule.
Transpose the equation to make b the

subject and evaluate.
b
6
=
sin (93 33) sin (30 )

6 sin (93 33)
sin (30 )
= 11.98 m
b=
Case 2
b
Draw a labelled diagram of the

triangle ABC and fill in the given
information.
B
a = 10
c=6
A
30
Write the alternative value for angle

A. Subtract the value obtained for A in
Case 1 from 180.
To find the alternative angle A:

If sin (A) = 0.8333, then A could also be:
A = 180 5627
= 12333
Determine the alternative value of

angle B, using the fact that the angle
sum of any triangle is 180.
B = 180 (30 + 12333)

= 2627
Write the sine rule to find the

alternative b.
To find side length b:

b
c
=
sin (B) sin (C )

rule.
b
6
=
sin (26 27 ) sin (30 )
Transpose the equation to make b the

b=
6 sin (26 27 )
sin (30 )
= 5.35 m

1
Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle ABC

and fill in the given information.
B
c=6
A
In part a it was shown that the ambiguous

case of the sine rule exists. Therefore, on the
Main screen, complete the entry line as:
6
10
=
, a | 0 a 180
solve
sin(a) sin(30)
Then press E.
Convert the angles to degrees and minutes.
a = 10
30
A = 5627 or A = 12333
151
If A = 5627, B = 180 - (30 + 5627)

= 9333
If A = 12333, B = 180 - (30 + 12333)

= 2627
Calculate the size of the angle B given each

angle A.
To find the side length b, on the Main screen,

b
6
solve
sin(dms(93, 33)) = sin(30) , b
b
6
solve
sin(dms(26, 27)) = sin(30) , b
If B = 9333, b = 11.98 m
If B = 2627, b = 5.35 m
Write the answers.
Hence, for this example there were two possible solutions as shown by the diagram below.
B
B
a = 10
c=6
A
30
c=6
C
a = 10
30
REMEMBER
1. The sine rule states that for any triangle ABC:

a
b
c
=
=
2. When using this rule it is important to note that, depending on the values given, any
combination of the two equalities may be used to solve a particular triangle.
3. The sine rule can be used to solve nonright-angled triangles if we are given:
(a) two angles and one side length
(b) two side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths.
4. The ambiguous case exists if C is an acute angle and a > c > a sin (C).
Exercise
5C
The sine rule

1 WE7 In the triangle ABC, a = 10, b = 12 and B = 58. Find A, C and c.
2 In the triangle ABC, c = 17.35, a = 26.82 and A = 10147. Find C, B and b.
3 In the triangle ABC, a = 5, A = 30 and B = 80. Find C, b and c.
4 In the triangle ABC, c = 27, C = 42 and A = 105. Find B, a and b.
152
5 In the triangle ABC, a = 7, c = 5 and A = 68. Find the perimeter of the triangle.
6 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 57, B = 72 and a = 48.2.
7 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given a = 105, B = 105 and C = 15.
8 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given a = 32, b = 51 and A = 28.
9 Find the perimeter of the triangle ABC if a = 7.8, b = 6.2 and A = 50.
10 MC In a triangle ABC, A = 40, C = 80 and c = 3. The value of b is:
A 2.64
B 2.86
C 14
D 4.38
E 4.60
11 WE8 In the triangle ABC, a = 10, c = 8 and C = 50. Find two possible values of A, and
hence two possible values of b.
12 In the triangle ABC, a = 20, b = 12 and B = 35. Find two possible values for the perimeter of
the triangle.
13 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 27, B = 43 and c = 6.4.
14 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 100, b = 2.1 and C = 42.
15 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 25, b = 17 and a = 13.
16 To calculate the height of a building, Kevin measures the angle of elevation to the top as 48.
He then walks 18 m closer to the building and measures the angle of elevation as 64. How
high is the building?
17 A river has parallel banks which run directly eastwest. Kylie takes a bearing to a tree on the
opposite side. The bearing is 047 T. She then walks 10 m due east, and takes a second bearing
to the tree. This is 305 T. Find:
a her distance from the second measuring point to the tree
b the width of the river, to the nearest metre.
18 A ship sails on a bearing of S20W for 14 km, then changes direction and sails for 20 km and
drops anchor. Its bearing from the starting point is now N65W.
a How far is it from the starting point?
b On what bearing did it sail the 20 km leg?
19 A cross-country runner runs at 8 km/h on a bearing of 150 T for 45 mins, then changes
direction to a bearing of 053 T and runs for 80 mins until he is due east of the starting point.
a How far was the second part of the run?
b What was his speed for this section?
c How far does he need to run to get back to the starting point?
20 From a fire tower, A, a fire is spotted on a bearing of N42E. From a second tower, B, the fire
is on a bearing of N12W. The two fire towers are 23 km apart, and A is N63W of B. How far
is the fire from each tower?
21 MC A boat sails on a bearing of N15E for 10 km, then on a bearing of S85E until it is due
east of the starting point. The distance from the starting point to the nearest kilometre is, then:
A 10 km
B 38 km
C 110 km
D 113 km
E 114 km
22 MC A hill slopes at an angle of 30 to the horizontal. A tree which is 8 m tall is growing at
an angle of 10 to the vertical and is part-way up the slope. The vertical height of the top of
the tree above the slope is:
A 7.37 m
B 8.68 m
C 10.84 m
D 15.04 m
E 39.89 m
153
23 A cliff is 37 m high. The rock slopes outward at an angle of 50 to the horizontal, then cuts
back at an angle of 25 to the vertical, meeting the ground directly below the top of the cliff.
Carol wishes to abseil from the top of the cliff to the ground as shown in the diagram. Her
climbing rope is 45 m long, and she needs 2 m to secure it to a tree at the top of the cliff.
Will the rope be long enough to allow her to reach the ground?
50
25
rope
rock
37 m
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 5.1
5d
The cosine rule

In any nonright-angled triangle ABC, a perpendicular line can be drawn from angle B to side b.
Let D be the point where the perpendicular line meets side b, and the length of the perpendicular
line be h. Let the length AD = x units. The perpendicular line creates two right-angled triangles,
ADB and CDB.
B
Using triangle ADB and Pythagoras theorem, we obtain:
c2 = h2 + x2
[1]
a
c
h
Using triangle CDB and Pythagoras theorem, we obtain:
a2 = h2 + (b x)2
[2]
A
C
D
Expanding the brackets in equation [2]:
bx
x
b
a2 = h2 + b2 2bx + x2
Rearranging equation [2] and using c2 = h2 + x2 from equation [1]:
a2 = h2 + x2 + b2 2bx
= c2 + b2 2bx
= b2 + c2 2bx
From triangle ABD, x = c cos (A), therefore a2 = b2 + c2 2bx becomes
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos (A)
This is called the cosine rule and is a generalisation of Pythagoras theorem.
In a similar way, if the perpendicular line was drawn from angle A to side a or from angle C
to side c, the two right-angled triangles would give c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos (C) and
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos (B) respectively. From this, the cosine rule can be stated:
In any triangle ABC
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos (A)
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos (B)
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos (C)
154
B
c
A
a
b
The cosine rule can be used to solve nonright-angled triangles if we are given:
1. three sides of the triangle
2. two sides of the triangle and the included angle (the angle between the given sides).
Worked Example 9
Find the third side of triangle ABC given a = 6, c = 10 and B = 76, correct to 2 decimal places.
Think
Write

1

B
c = 10
A
76
a=6
C
Check that one of the criteria for the cosine

rule has been satisfied.
Yes, the cosine rule can be used since two

side lengths and the included angle have been
given.
Write the appropriate cosine rule to find

side b.
To find side b:
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos (B)
Substitute the given values into the rule.
Evaluate.
= 62 + 102 2 6 10 cos (76)

= 36 + 100 120 0.241921895
= 106.9693725
b = 106.969 372 5
= 10.34 correct to 2 decimal places

1

B
c = 10
A
Write the appropriate cosine rule to find side b.
On the Main screen, complete the entry line

as:
solve(b2 = 62 + 102 - 2610cos(76), b)
Then press E.
Since b represents the side length of a triangle,

then b > 0.
76
b
a=6
C
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos (B)
b = 10.34, correct to 2 decimal places.
155
Note: Once the third side has been found, the sine rule could be used to find other angles if
necessary.
If three sides of a triangle are known, an angle could be found by transposing the cosine rule
to make cos A, cos B or cos C the subject.
b2 + c 2 a 2
cos (A) =
2 bc
a 2 + c 2 b2
cos (B) =
2 ac
a 2 + b2 c 2
cos (C) =
2 ab
Worked examPle 10
eBook plus
Find the smallest angle in the triangle with sides 4 cm, 7 cm and 9 cm.
Think
Tutorial
int-1213
WriTe
Worked example 10
Method1:Usingtherule
1
Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call it

ABC and fill in the given information.
Note: The smallest angle will be opposite the
smallest side.
B
c=7
A
a=4
C
b=9
Let a = 4
b=7
c=9
2
Check that one of the criteria for the cosine

rule has been satisfied.
Write the appropriate cosine rule to find

angle A.
Substitute the given values into the rearranged

rule.
Evaluate.
Transpose the equation to make A the subject

by taking the inverse cos of both sides.
The cosine rule can be used since three side lengths

have been given.
b2 + c2 a2
cos (A) =
2bc
72 + 92 4 2
279
49 + 81 16
=
126
114
=
126
114
A = cos1
126
= 25.208 765 3
=
= 2513
Method2:UsingaCAScalculator
1

B
c=7
A
156
Write the appropriate cosine rule to find the

angle A.
a=4
b=9
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos (A)
On the Main screen, complete the entry line as:

solve(42 = 92 + 72 497cos(a), a)
| 0 a 180
Then press E.
A = 25.2088
= 2513
Worked examPle 11
eBook plus
Two rowers set out from the same point. One rows N70E for 2000 m and
the other rows S15W for 1800 m. How far apart are the two rowers?
Think
1
Tutorial
int-1047
WriTe
Worked example 11

2000 m
70
C
15
1800 m
B
2
3
Check that one of the criteria for the cosine rule

has been satisfied.
Write the appropriate cosine rule to find side c.
The cosine rule can be used since two side lengths

and the included angle have been given.
To find side c:
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos (C)
= 20002 + 18002 2 2000 1800 cos (125)
Substitute the given values into the rule.
Evaluate.
= 40 000 000 + 3 240 000 7 200 000

0.573 576 436
= 11 369 750.342
c = 11 369 750.342
= 3371.906 04
=3371.91
The rowers are 3371.91 m apart.
rememBer
1. In any triangle ABC:
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos (A)

b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos (B)
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos (C)
Chapter 5
157
2. The cosine rule can be used to solve nonright-angled triangles if we are given:
(a) three sides of the triangle
(b) two sides of the triangle and the included angle (that is, the angle between the two
given sides).
3. If three sides of a triangle are known, an angle could be found by transposing the cosine
rule to make cos A, cos B or cos C the subject.
b2 + c2 a2
cos (A) =
2bc
a2 + c2 b2
cos (B) =
2ac
2
a + b2 c2
cos (C) =
2ab
Exercise
5D
The cosine rule

1 WE9 Find the third side of triangle ABC given a = 3.4, b = 7.8 and C = 80.
2 In triangle ABC, b = 64.5 cm, c = 38.1 cm and A = 5834. Find a.
3 In triangle ABC, a = 17, c = 10 and B = 115. Find b, and hence find A and C.
4 WE10 Find the smallest angle in the triangle with sides 6 cm, 4 cm and 8 cm.
5 In triangle ABC, a = 356, b = 207 and c = 296. Find the largest angle.
6 In triangle ABC, a = 23.6, b = 17.3 and c = 26.4. Find the size of all the angles.
7
In triangle DEF, d = 3 cm, e = 7 cm and F = 60. Find f in exact form.
8 WE11 Two rowers set out from the same point. One rows N30E for 1500 m and the other
rows S40E for 1200 m. How far apart are the two rowers?
9 Maria cycles 12 km in a direction N68W, then 7 km in a direction of N34E.
a How far is she from her starting point?
b What is the bearing of the starting point from her finishing point?
10 A garden bed is in the shape of a triangle, with sides of length 3 m, 4.5 m and 5.2 m.
a Calculate the smallest angle.
b Hence, find the area of the garden. (Hint: Draw a diagram, with the longest length as the
base of the triangle.)
11 A hockey goal is 3 m wide. When Sophie is 7 m from one post and 5.2 m from the other, she
shoots for goal. Within what angle, to the nearest degree, must the shot be made if it is to score
a goal?
12 An advertising balloon is attached to two ropes 120 m and 100 m long. The ropes are anchored
to level ground 35 m apart. How high can the balloon fly?
13 A plane flies in a direction of N70E for 80 km, then on a bearing of S10W for 150 km.
a How far is the plane from its starting point?
b What direction is the plane from its starting point?
14 Ship A is 16.2 km from port on a bearing of 053 T and ship B is 31.6 km from the same port
on a bearing of 117 T. Calculate the distance between the two ships.
15 A plane takes off at 10.00 am from an airfield, and flies at 120 km/h on a bearing of N35W. A
second plane takes off at 10.05 am from the same airfield, and flies on a bearing of S80E at a
speed of 90 km/h. How far apart are the planes at 10.25 am?
158
16 Three circles of radii 5 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm are positioned so that

they just touch one another. Their centres form the vertices of a triangle.
Find the largest angle in the triangle.
8
17 For the given shape at near right, determine:

a the length of the diagonal
b the magnitude (size) of angle B
c the length of x.
5 cm
6 cm
150
B
7
60
10
8 cm
18 From the top of a vertical cliff 68 m high, an observer notices a yacht at sea. The angle of
depression to the yacht is 47. The yacht sails directly away from the cliff, and after 10 minutes
the angle of depression is 15. How fast does the yacht sail?
5E
Area of triangles
The area of any triangle is given by the rule Area = 2 bh where b is the
base length and h is the perpendicular height of the triangle.
h
b
However, often the perpendicular height is not given directly and

needs to be calculated first. In the triangle ABC, b is the base length
and h is the perpendicular height of the triangle.
B
c
Using the trigonometric ratio for sine:

sin (A) =
h
c
Transposing the equation to make h the subject, we obtain:

h = c sin (A)
Therefore, the area of triangle ABC becomes:
1
Area = 2 bc sin (A)

Depending on how the triangle is labelled, the formula could read:
1
Area = 2 ab sin (C) Area = 2 ac sin (B) Area = 2 bc sin (A)

The area formula may be used on any triangle provided that two sides of the triangle and the
included angle (that is, the angle between the two given sides) are known.
Worked Example 12
Find the area of the triangle shown.
Think
1

7 cm
120
9 cm
Write/draw
B
c = 7 cm 120
A
a = 9 cm
C
Let a = 9 cm, c = 7 cm, B = 120

2
Check that the criterion for the area rule has

been satisfied.
The area rule can be used since two side lengths

and the included angle are known.
159
3
4
5
Write the appropriate rule for the area.

Area = 2 ac sin (B)

1
= 2 9 7 sin (120)
= 27.28 cm2

Note: If you are not given the included angle, you will need to find it in order to calculate the
area. This may involve using either the sine or cosine rule.
Worked examPle 13
eBook plus
A triangle has known dimensions of a = 5 cm, b = 7 cm and B = 52.

Find A and C and hence the area.
Think
1
Tutorial
int-1048
Worked example 13
WriTe

B
a=5
52
A
b=7
Let a = 5, b = 7, B = 52
2
Check whether the criterion for the area rule

has been satisfied.
The area rule cannot be used since the included

angle has not been given.
To find angle A:
a
b
=
sin ( A) sin ( B)
Transpose the equation to make sin (A) the

subject.
Evaluate.
Determine the value of the included angle, C,

using the fact that the angle sum of any triangle
is 180.
Write the appropriate rule for the area.
10
11
5
7
=
sin ( A) sin (52)
5 sin (52) = 7 sin (A)
5 sin (52)
= sin ( A)
7
5 sin (52)
sin ( A) =
7
1
A = sin
5 sin (52)
= 34.254 151 87
160
= 3415
C = 180 (52 + 3415)
= 9345
Area =
1
2
ab sin (C)
1
2
5 7 sin (9345)

= 17.46 cm2.
Herons formula
If we know the lengths of all the sides of the triangle but none of the angles, we could use the
1
cosine rule to find an angle, then use 2 bc sin (A) to find the area. Alternatively, we could use
Herons formula to find the area.
Herons formula states that the area of a triangle is:
Area = s( s a)( s b)( s c)
where s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle; that is,
1
s = 2 (a + b + c)
The proof of this formula is beyond the scope of this course.
Worked Example 14
Find the area of the triangle with sides of 4 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm.
Think
1
Write

C
4 cm
6 cm
8 cm
Let a = 4, b = 6, c = 8
2
Determine which area rule will be used.
Since three side lengths have been given, use

Herons formula.
Write the rule for Herons formula.
Area = s(s a)(s b)(s c)
Write the rule for s, the semi-perimeter of the

triangle.
Substitute the given values into the rule for the
semi-perimeter.
s = 2 (a + b + c)
=
1
2
(4 + 6 + 8)
= 2 (18)
=9
Substitute all of the known values into Herons

formula.
Evaluate.
Area = 9(9 4)(9 6)(9 8)

= 9 5 3 1
= 135
= 11.618 950 04
Round the answer to 2 decimal places and

include the appropriate unit.
= 11.62 cm2
REMEMBER
1. If two sides of any triangle and the included angle (that is, the angle between the two
given sides) are known, the following rules may be used to determine the area of that
triangle.
1
1
1
Area = 2 ab sin (C) Area = 2 ac sin (B) Area = 2 bc sin (A)
161
2. Alternatively, if the lengths of three sides of a triangle are known, Herons formula may
be used to find the area of the triangle:
Area = s(s a) (s b) (s c)
1
s = 2 (a + b + c)
Exercise
5E
Area of triangles
1 WE12 Find the area of the triangle ABC with a = 7 cm, b = 4 cm and C = 68.
2 Find the area of the triangle ABC with a = 7.3 cm, c = 10.8 cm and B = 10440.
3 Find the area of the triangle ABC with b = 23.1 m, c = 18.6 m and A = 8217.
4 Find the exact area of the triangle DEF with d = 6, e = 9 and F = 60.
5 Find the exact area of the triangle QPR with p = 12, r = 10 and Q = 45.
6 WE13 MC In a triangle, a = 15 m, b = 20 m and B = 50. The area of the triangle is:
A 86.2 m2
B 114.9 m2
C 149.4 m2
2
2
D 172.4 m
E 181.7 m
7 WE14 Find the area of the triangle with sides of 5 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm.
8 Find the area of the triangle with sides of 40 mm, 30 mm and 5.7 cm.
9 Find the area of the triangle with sides of 16 mm, 3 cm and 2.7 cm.
10 Find the area of the equilateral triangle with sides 4 cm. Leave your answer in simplified surd
form.
11 MC A triangle has sides of length 10 cm, 14 cm and 20 cm. The area of the triangle is:
B 65 cm2
C 106 cm2
A 41 cm2
2
2
D 137 cm
E 1038 cm
12 A triangle has a = 10 cm, c = 14 cm and C = 48. Find A and B and hence the area.
13 A triangle has a = 17 m, c = 22 m and C = 56. Find A and B and hence the area.
14 A triangle has b = 32 mm, c = 15 mm and B = 38. Find A and C and hence the area.
15 A piece of metal is in the shape of a triangle with sides of length 114 mm, 72 mm and 87 mm.
Find its area using Herons formula.
16 A triangle has the largest angle of 115. The longest side is 62 cm and another side is 35 cm.
Find the area of the triangle.
17 A triangle has two sides of 25 cm and 30 cm. The angle between the two sides is 30. Find:
a its area
b the length of its third side
c its area using Herons formula.
18 The surface of a fish pond has the shape shown in the diagram at right.
How many goldfish can the pond support if each fish requires
0.3 m2 surface area of water?
19 Find the area of this quadrilateral.
3.5 m
2m
5m
4m
8m
4m
60
5m
162
1m
20 A parallelogram has diagonals of length 10 cm and 17 cm. An angle between them is 125. Find:
a the area of the parallelogram
b the dimensions of the parallelogram.
21 A lawn is to be made in the shape of a triangle, with sides of length 11 m, 15 m and 17.2 m. How
much grass seed, to the nearest kilogram, is needed if it is sown at the rate of 1 kg per 5 m2?
22 A bushfire burns out an area of level grassland shown
in the diagram. What is the area, in hectares,
of the land that is burnt?
400 m
23 An earth embankment is 27 m long, and has a cross-section

shown in the diagram. Find the volume of earth needed to
build the embankment.
24 mC A parallelogram has sides of 14 cm and 18 cm, and an angle
between them of 72. The area of the parallelogram is:
A 86.2 cm2
B 118.4 cm2
C 172.4 cm2
D 239.7 cm2
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 5.2
5F
km
2 km
River
1.8
200 m
Road
100
2m
130
50
5m
80
E 252 cm2
25 mC An advertising hoarding is in the shape of an isosceles triangle, with sides of length

15 m, 15 m and 18 m. It is to be painted with two coats of purple paint. If the paint covers
12 m2 per litre, the amount of paint needed, to the nearest litre, would be:
A 9L
B 18 L
C 24 L
D 36 L
E 42 L
An identity is a relationship that holds true for all values of a pronumeral or pronumerals.
The sine and cosine functions are related functions and the following identities exist between them.
The Pythagorean identity

Think of a triangle within the unit circle. We know that the hypotenuse
is 1 unit.
y
1
a
1
a = sin ( )
sin ( ) =
0 b
b
1
b = cos ( )
cos ( ) =
Chapter 5
163
So the triangle formed has a height of sin () and a base length of cos ().
Pythagoras theorem then tells us that
a2 + b2 = 12
sin2 () + cos2 () = 1
Note: sin2 () = (sin ())2 and cos2 () = (cos ())2
The Pythagorean identity is sin2 () + cos2 () = 1.
Worked Example 15
Find the value of sin () given cos () =
5
and 0 < < 90.
13
Think
Write
Write the Pythagorean identity.
Substitute the known value cos () =
Solve to find the required value.
Write the final answer.
sin2 () + cos2 () = 1
5
.
13
5
sin2 () + = 1
13
25
=1
169
144
sin2 () =
169
12
sin () =
13
sin2 () +
As is in the first quadrant sin () =
Complementary angles
12
.
13
In the diagram at right we can see that:

b
a
a
c
cos () =
sin () =
c
c
a
b
cos () =
sin () =
c
c
b
So for our diagram cos () = sin () and sin () = cos ().
We also know that + = 90, so = 90 - .
By substituting this into cos () = sin () and cos () = sin () we get cos () = sin (90 - )
and sin () = cos (90 - ).
Worked Example 16
Find the value of cos (70) given sin (20) = 0.342.

Think
1
2
3
164
Write the equation with the required

complementary angle formula.
Identify the value of .
Substitute the angle into the equation and
simplify.
Write
cos () = sin (90 - )
= 70
cos (70) = sin (90 - 70)
= sin (20)
= 0.342
REMEMBER
1. The Pythagorean identity is sin2 () + cos2 () = 1.

2. cos () = sin (90 - ) and sin () = cos (90 - ).
Exercise
5F
1
4
and 0 < < 90.
5
12
and 0 < < 90.
13
6
Find the value of cos () given sin () =
and 0 < < 90.
10
2
Find the value of sin () given cos () = and 0 < < 90.
7
Use your knowledge of exact values to show that the Pythagorean identity is true for = 30.
WE16 Find the value of sin (12) given cos (78) = 0.208.
Find the value of cos (42) given sin (48) = 0.743.
2
3
4
5G
WE15 Find the value of sin () given cos () =
Find the value of cos () given sin () =
Radian measurement
In all of the trigonometry tasks covered so far, the unit for measuring
angles has been the degree. There is another commonly used
measurement for angles, the radian. This is used in situations
involving length and areas associated with circles.
Consider the unit circle, a circle with a radius of 1 unit. OP is the
radius.
If OP is rotated anticlockwise, the point P traces a path along
the circumference of the circle to a new point, P1.
The arc length PP1 is a radian measurement, symbolised by c.
Note: 1c is equivalent to the angle in degrees formed when the
length of PP1 is 1 unit; in other words, when the arc is the same
length as the radius.
If the length OP is rotated 180, the point P traces out half the
circumference. Since the circle has a radius of 1 unit, and C = 2r, the arc
PP1 has a length of .
The relationship between degrees and radians is thus established.
180 = c
This relationship will be used to convert from one system to another.
Rearranging the basic conversion factor gives:

180 =
1 =
180
P
OP = 1 unit
P1
OP = 1 unit
1
2
circumference
180
P1
To convert an angle in degrees to radian measure, multiply by

.
180
180
Also, since = 180, it follows that 1c =
.
180
To convert an angle in radian measure to degrees, multiply by
.
165
Where possible, it is common to have radian values with in them. It is usual to write radians
without any symbol, but degrees must always have a symbol. For example, an angle of 25 must
have the degree symbol written, but an angle of 1.5 is understood to be 1.5 radians.
Worked examPle 17
Convert 135 to radian measure, expressing the answer in terms of .

Think
1
WriTe
To convert an angle in degrees to radian measure,
multiply the angle by

.
180
135 = 135
180
135
180
3
=
4
Simplify, leaving the answer in terms of .
Worked examPle 18
Convert the radian measurement
4
to degrees.
5
Think
WriTe
To convert radian measure to an angle in degrees,

180
multiply the angle by
.
Simplify.
Note: The cancels out.
4 4 180
=
5
5
720
=
5
= 144
If the calculation does not simplify easily, write the answers in degrees and minutes, or radians
to 4 decimal places. If angles are given in degrees and minutes, convert to degrees only before
converting to radians.
rememBer
1. 180= c
2. To convert an angle in degrees to radian measure, multiply by

.
180
180
3. To convert an angle in radian measure to degrees, multiply by
.
exerCise
5G
radian measurement
1
answers in terms of .
a 30
b 60
e 225
f 270
i 72
j 200
166
eBook plus
We 17 Convert the following angles to radian measure, expressing
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 5.6
c 120
g 315
d 150
h 480
Changing
degrees to
radians
We 18 Convert the following radian measurements into degrees.
4
17
f
6
a
3
2
g
12
b
7
6
13
h
10
5
3
11
i
8
7
12
j 8
3 Convert the following angles in degrees to radians, giving answers to 4 decimal places.
a 27
b 109
c 243
d 351
e 7
f 6342
g 13821
h 2748
i 32653
j 472
4 Convert the following radian measurements into degrees and minutes.
a 2.345
b 0.6103
c 1
d 1.61
e 3.592
f 7.25
g 0.182
h 5.8402
i 4.073
j 6.167
5h
arcs, sectors and segments
eBook plus
arc length
Interactivity
An arc is a section of the circumference of a circle. The length of the arc

is proportional to the angle subtended at the centre. For example, an
1
angle of 90 will create an arc which is 4 the circumference.
We have already defined an arc length as equivalent to radians if the circle
has a radius of 1 unit.
Therefore, a simple dilation of the unit circle will enable us

to calculate the arc length for any sized circle, as long as
the angle is expressed in radians.
If the radius is dilated by a factor of r, the arc length is also dilated by a
factor of r.
int-0972
Sectors
r=1
Dilation by factor of r
Therefore, l = r, where l represents the arc length, r represents the radius and represents
an angle measured in radians.
Worked examPle 19
Find the length of the arc which subtends an angle of 75 at the centre of a circle with radius 8 cm.
Think
1
WriTe/draW
Draw a diagram representing the situation and

label with the given values.
75
r=8
Convert the angle from 75 to radian measure by
multiplying the angle by

.
180
75 = 75
Chapter 5
l = r
180
75
180
167
= 1.3090
Evaluate to 4 decimal places.
Write the rule for the length of the arc.
Substitute the values into the formula.
= 8 1.3090
Evaluate to 2 decimal places and include the

appropriate unit.
= 10.4720
= 10.47 cm
l = r
Note: In order to use the formula for the length of the arc, the angle must be in radian measure.
Worked Example 20
Find the angle subtended by a 17 cm arc in a circle of radius 14 cm:

a in radians b in degrees.
Think
a
Write
Write the rule for the length of the arc.
Transpose the equation to make the

subject.
Evaluate to 4 decimal places and include

the appropriate unit.
To convert radian measure to an angle in

180
degrees, multiply the angle by
.
Evaluate.
2
3
l = r
17 = 14
17
14
= 1.214 285 714

= 1.2143c
180
b 1.2143c = 1.2143
Convert the angle to degrees and

minutes.
= 69.573 446 55
= 6934
Area of a sector
In the diagram at right, the shaded area is the minor sector AOB, and
the unshaded area is the major sector AOB.
The area of the sector is proportional to the arc length. For
1
1
example, an area of 4 of the circle contains an arc which is 4 of the
circumference.
area of sector
arc length
Thus, in any circle:
=
area of circle circumference of circle
A
r
where is measured in radians.
=
2
r
2
r
r r 2
A=
2 r
1
= 2 r2
The area of a sector is:
168
A = 2 r2
Major
sector
O
B
Minor
sector
Worked examPle 21
A sector has an area of 157 cm2, and subtends an angle of 107. What is the radius of the circle?
Think
1
WriTe
107 = 107
Convert the angle from 107 to radian measure by
multiplying the angle by 180 .
107
180
= 1.8675
180
Write the rule for the area of a sector.
A=
1
2
r2
157=
1
2
r2 1.8675
Transpose the equation to make r 2 the subject.
Take the square root of both sides of the equation.

Evaluate to 2 decimal places and include the
appropriate unit.
2 157
= r2
1.8675
r2 = 168.139 016 5
r = 12.966 842 97
= 12.97 cm
area of a segment
A segment is that part of a sector bounded by the arc and the chord.
As can be seen from the diagram at right:
Area of segment = area of sector area of triangle
1
A = 2 r2 2 r 2 sin ()
= 2 r2 ( sin ())
Note: is in radians and is in degrees.
The area of a segment:
Segment
A = 2 r2 ( sin ())
Worked examPle 22
eBook plus
Find the area of the segment in a circle of radius 5 cm, subtended by an angle of 40.
Think
WriTe
40 = 40
180
40
=
180
= 0.6981
Tutorial
int-1049
Worked example 22
Convert the angle from 40 to radian measure
by multiplying the angle by

.
180
Write the rule for the area of a segment.
A = 2 r2 ( sin ())
Identify each of the variables.
r = 5, = 0.6981, = 40
A = 2 52 (0.6981 sin (40))
Evaluate.
1
1
= 2 25 0.0553
= 0.691 25
Round to 2 decimal places and include the

appropriate unit.
= 0.69 cm2
Chapter 5
169
rememBer
1. Arc length:
2. Area of a sector:
l = r
1
A = 2 r2
1
3. Area of a segment:
A = 2 r2 ( sin (())
where r = radius, = angle (measured in radians) and = angle (measured in degrees).
exerCise
5h
arcs, sectors and segments

1 We 19 Find the length of the arc which subtends an angle of 65 at the centre of a circle of
radius 14 cm.
2 Find the length of the arc which subtends an angle of 153 at the centre of a circle of radius 75 mm.
3
Find the length of the arc which subtends an angle of 135 at the centre of a circle of
radius 10 cm. Leave answer in terms of .

4 An arc of a circle is 3.5 cm long, and subtends an angle of 41 at the centre of the circle. What
is the radius of the circle?
5 An arc of a circle is 27.8 cm long, and subtends an angle of 205 at the centre of the circle.
What is the radius of the circle?
6
An arc of a circle is 4 cm long and subtends an angle of 60 at the centre of the circle.
What is the radius of the circle? Write your answer in terms of .
7 We 20 Find the angle subtended by a 20 cm arc in a circle of radius 75 cm:

a in radians
b in degrees.
8 Find the angle subtended by an 8 cm arc in a circle of radius 5 cm:
a in radians
b in degrees.
9 An arc of length 8 cm is marked out on the circumference of a circle of radius 13 cm. What
angle does the arc subtend at the centre of the circle?
10 An arc of length 245 mm is marked out on the circumference of a circle of radius 18 cm. Find
the angle that the arc subtends at the centre of the circle.
11 The minute hand of a clock is 35 cm long. How far does the tip of the hand travel in
20 minutes?
12 A childs swing is suspended by a rope 3 m
long. What is the length of the arc it travels if it
swings through an angle of 42?
13 Find the area of the sector of a circle of radius
17 cm with an angle of 56.
14 Find the area of the sector of a circle of radius
6.2 cm with an angle of 256.
15
Find the area of a sector of a circle of

radius 6 cm with an angle of 100. Write your
answer in terms of .
16 We21 A sector has an area of 825 cm2, and subtends an angle of 70. What is the radius of the
circle?
17 A sector with an area of 309 cm2 is part of a circle of radius 18.2 cm. Find the angle in the sector.
170
18 Find the area of a sector of a circle of radius 30 cm if the sector has an arc length of 18 cm.
19 A garden bed is in the form of a sector of a circle of radius 4 m. The arc of the sector is 5 m
long. Find:
a the area of the garden bed
b the volume of mulch needed to cover the bed to a depth of 10 cm.
20 The minute hand on a clock is 62 cm long. What area does the hand sweep through in
40 minutes?
21 A sector whose angle is 150 is cut from a circular piece of cardboard whose radius is 12 cm.
The two straight edges of the sector are joined so as to form a cone.
a What is the surface area of the cone?
b What is the radius of the cone?
22 WE22 Find the area of the segment in a circle of radius 25 cm subtended by an angle of 100.
23 Find the area of the segment of a circle of radius 4.7 m that subtends an angle of 8520 at the
centre.
24 A segment of a circle subtends an angle of 75 at the centre. The area of the segment is
100 cm2. Find the radius of the circle.
25 In a circle of radius 15 cm, a sector has an area of 100 cm2. Find the angle subtended by the sector.
26 Two circles of radii 3 cm and 4 cm have their centres 5 cm apart. Find the area of the
intersection of the two circles.
27 MC The angle subtended by a 28 cm arc in a circle of radius 20 cm in radians is:
A 0.71
B 40.93
C 80.21
D 1.4
E 0.4
28 MC The area of the segment in a circle of radius 12 cm, subtended by an angle of 60 is:
A 6.52 cm2
B 30.31 cm2
C 26.08 cm2
D 15.24 cm2
E 13.04 cm2
29 Two irrigation sprinklers spread water in circular paths with radii of 7 m and 4 m. If the
sprinklers are 10 m apart, find the area of crop that receives water from both sprinklers.
30 MC The length of the arc which subtends an angle of 50 at the centre of a circle with
radius 10 cm is:
A 8.73 cm
B 0.87 cm
C 10.43 cm
D 6.25 cm
E 0.63 cm
171
Summary
For any right-angled triangle:

O
A
O
sin () =
cos () =
tan () =
H
H
A
Pythagoras theorem, c2 = a2 + b2 may also be used to solve right-angled
triangles.
c
B
Hypotenuse
(H )
Opposite
(O)
C
(A)
Adjacent
Angles of 30, 45 and 60 have exact values of sine, cosine and tangent.
30
45
sin ()
1
2
cos ()
3
2
tan ()
1
3
2
2
3
3
60
2
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
Angles of elevation and depression are each measured from the horizontal.
The angle of elevation is equal to the angle of depression since they are alternate Z angles.
True bearings are measured in a clockwise direction, starting from north (0 T).
The sine rule
The sine rule states that for any triangle ABC:

a
b
c
=
=
When using this rule, it is important to note that, depending on the values given, any combination of the two
equalities may be used to solve a particular triangle.
The sine rule may be used to solve nonright-angled triangles if we are given:
(a) two angles and one side length
(b) two side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths.
The ambiguous case exists if C is an acute angle and a > c > a sin (C).
The cosine rule
In any triangle ABC:

a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos (A)

b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos (B)

c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos (C)
The cosine rule can be used to solve nonright-angled triangles if we are given:
(a) three sides of the triangle
(b) two sides of the triangle and the included angle (that is, the angle between the two given sides).
172
If three sides of a triangle are known, an angle could be found by transposing the cosine rule to make cos A,
cos B or cos C the subject.
b2 + c2 a2
cos (A) =
2bc
a2 + c2 b2
cos (B) =
2ac
a2 + b2 c2
cos (C) =
2ab
Area of triangles
If two sides of any triangle and the included angle (that is, the angle between the two given sides) are known,
the following rules may be used to determine the area of that triangle.
Area =
1
2
ab sin (C)
Area = 2 ac sin (B)

1
Area = 2 bc sin (A)

Alternatively, if three side lengths of a triangle are known, Herons formula may be used to find the area of a
triangle:
Area = s(s a)(s b)(s c)
1
s = 2 (a + b + c)
An identity is a relationship that holds true for all values of a pronumeral or pronumerals.
The Pythagorean Identity states that sin2 () + cos2 () = 1.
Sine and cosine are called complementary functions since:

cos () = sin (90 ) and

sin () = cos (90 )
Radian measurement
180 = c
To convert an angle in degrees to radian measure, multiply by

.
180
180
To convert an angle in radian measure to degrees, multiply by
.
Arc length:
l = r
Area of a sector:
A = 2 r2
Area of a segment:
A = 2 r2 ( sin ())
Where r = radius, = angle (measured in radians) and = angle (measured in degrees).
173
chapter review
Short answer
1 A stepladder stands on a floor with its feet 2 m

apart. If the angle formed by the legs with the floor
is 60, how high above the floor is the top of the
ladder?
2 Two buildings, 15 m and 27 m high, are directly
opposite each other across a river. The angle of
depression of the top of the smaller building from
the top of the taller one is 30. How wide is the
river?
3 In the triangle shown at right
find the exact length of side m.
12 cm
30
45
4 A triangle has sides of length 12 m, 15 m and 20 m.

If Q is the largest angle find cos (q).
5 A triangle has two sides of 20 cm and 25 cm. The
angle between the two sides is 45. Find its area.
6 A triangular garden area is bound by three straight
edges of lengths 4 m, 5 m and 7 m. Find the exact
area of the garden.
3
7 Find the value of cos () given sin () = and
8
0 < < 90.
8 a Convert the following angles to radian measure,
expressing answers in terms of .

i 80
ii 125
iii 640
b Convert the following radian measurement into
degrees.

20
ii
15
8
iii 7
9 A paddock is in the shape of a sector with radius of

75 m and an angle of 60. Find:
a the amount of fencing needed to enclose the
paddock
b the area enclosed by the paddock.
Multiple choice
1 In the triangle, the value of , to the

nearest degree, is:
A 37
B 39
C 51
D 52
E 53
174
2 A ladder 4.5 m long rests against a vertical wall,

with the foot of the ladder 2 m from the base of the
wall. The angle the ladder makes with the wall, to
the nearest degree, is:
A 24
B 26
C 35
D 64
E 66
3 A person stands 18 m from the base of a building,
and measures the angle of elevation to the top of
the building as 62. If the person is 1.8 m tall, how
high is the building, to the nearest metre?
A 11 m
B 18 m
C 36 m
D 22 m
E 34 m
4 A bearing of 310 T is the same as:
A N40W
B N50W
C S50W
D S50E
E N50E
5 In triangle ABC, a = 10, b = 7 and B = 40. A
possible value for C, to the nearest degree, is:
A 37
B 52
C 68
D 73
E 113
6 Two boats start from the same point. One sails due
north for 10 km and the other sails south east for
15 km. Their distance apart is:
A 10.62 km
B 14.83 km
C 17.35 km
D 21.38 km
E 23.18 km
7 A triangle has sides measuring 5 cm, 8 cm and
10 cm. The largest angle in the triangle, to the
nearest degree, is:
A 52
B 82
C 98
D 128
E 140
8 The area of the triangle with a = 10 m, b = 8 m and
C = 72 is:
B 76.08 m2
C 10.15 m2
A 12.36 m2
2
2
D 38.04 m
E 123.10 m
9 A garden bed is in the shape of a triangle, with
sides of length 4 m, 5.2 m and 7 m. The volume of
topsoil needed to cover the garden to a depth of
250 mm is:
A 2.32 m3
B 2.57 m3
C 2.81 m3
3
3
D 3.17 m
E 3.76 m
10 When 75 is converted to radian measure, the value
of the angle, expressed in terms of , is:
12
5
A
B
C
5
24
12
5
7
D
E
12
12
11 When 5.321 is converted to degrees and minutes,

the value of the angle is:
A 30527
B 30452
C 519
D 142
E 15226
12 An arc in a circle of radius 5 cm is 3.5 cm long.
The angle, to the nearest degree, subtended at the
centre by the arc is:
A 35
B 40
C 50
D 68
E 82
13 A sector has an area of 40 cm2, and an angle of 30.
The arc length of the sector, to 2 decimal places, is:
A 1.64 cm
B 2.66 cm
C 4.83 cm
D 6.47 cm
E 12.36 cm
14 The area of the shaded region

in the figure at right to the
nearest cm2 is:
B 846 cm2
A 800 cm2
2
C 898 cm
D 952 cm2
2
E 983 cm
40 cm 120
15 A clock has a minute hand 75 cm long. The area

that it sweeps when passing through 48 minutes, to
2 decimal places, is:
B 1.35 m2
A 0.90 m2
2
C 1.41 m
D 1.88 m2
E 2.01 m2
exTended resPonse
1 Three circles of radii 2 cm, 3 cm and 4 cm are placed so that they just touch each other.
A triangle is formed by joining their three centres. Find:
a the three angles of the triangle
b the area of the triangle, correct to 3 decimal places
c the shaded area correct to 3 decimal places.
2 A farmer owns a large triangular area of flat land, bounded on one side by an
embankment to a river flowing NE, on a second side by a road which meets the
river at a bridge where the angle between river and road is 105, and on the third
side by a long fence. Find:
a the length of the river frontage, correct to 3 decimal places
b the area of the land correct to 3 decimal places.
The farmer decides to divide the land into two sections of equal area, by
running a fence from the bridge to a point on the opposite side.
c On what bearing must the fence be built?
d What is the length of the fence, correct to 3 decimal places?
Chapter 5
N
River
45
33
Fence
105
Road
42
3.2 km
175
3 a A four-wheel-drive vehicle leaves a camp site and travels across a flat sandy plain in a direction of S65E,
for a distance of 8.2 km. It then heads due south for 6.7 km to reach a waterhole.
i How far is the waterhole from the camp site?
ii What is the bearing of the waterhole from the camp site?
b A search plane sets off to find the vehicle. It is on a course that takes it over points A and B, two
locations on level ground. At a certain time, from point A, the angle of elevation to the plane is 72.
From point B, the angle of elevation is 47. If A and B are 3500 m apart, find the height of the plane off
the ground.
4 Christopher lives on a farm. He has decided that this year
B
he will plant a variety of crops in his large but unusually
124 m
shaped vegetable garden. He has divided the vegetable garden
56 m
into six triangular regions, which he will fence off as shown in
2
1
the diagram at right. Christopher needs to calculate the
C
A
52 m
perimeter and area of each region so he can purchase the
95 64
38
correct amount of fencing material and seedlings.
80
6
58
a Separate each of the regions into single triangles and label
3
85 m
each with the information provided.
68 m
b Use the appropriate rules to determine all unknown
5
43 m
lengths and relevant angles.
F
c How much fencing material is required to section off the
4
six regions?
d If fencing material is $4.50 per metre (and only sold by
D
the metre) what will the cost be?
E
e Calculate the area of each region and hence determine the
total area available for planting.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 5
176
eBook plus
aCTiviTies
Chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on trigonometric ratios and their
applications. (page 136)
5A
Digital docs
SkillSHEET 5.1: Practise labelling right-angled

triangles. (page 141)
SkillSHEET 5.2: Practise using trigonometric ratios.
(page 141)
SkillSHEET 5.3: Practise degrees and minutes.
(page 141)
SkillSHEET 5.4: Practise composite shapes 1.
(page 142)
SkillSHEET 5.5: Practise composite shapes 2.
(page 142)
5B
Tutorial
We6 int-1045: Watch how to determine the bearing

of a ship from its starting point. (page 145)
5C
The sine rule
Tutorial
We8 int-1046: Watch how to show the ambiguous

case of the sine rule exists and apply it. (page 150)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 5.1: Use trigonometry to find two

unknowns in right-angled triangles; solve worded
problems of elevation, depression and bearings.
(page 154)
5D
The cosine rule
Tutorials
We 10 int-1213: Watch how to find the smallest angle

in a triangle. (page 156)
We 11 int-1047: Watch how to calculate the distance
between two rowers. (page 157)
5E
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 5.2: Solve more complex right-angled

triangle problems with two unknowns, worded
problems of elevation and depression and apply the
sine and cosine rules to non-right angled triangles.
(page 163)
5G
Radian measurement
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 5.6: Practise changing degrees to

radians. (page 166)
5H
Interactivity
Sectors int-0972: Consolidate your understanding of

how to calculate the area of a sector. (page 167)
Tutorial
We 22 int-1049: Watch how to find the area of a

segment. (page 169)
Chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Area of triangles
Tutorial
We 13 int-1048: Watch how to find the area of a

triangle given two side lengths and an angle.
(page 160)
Chapter 5
177
6A
6b
6c
6D
6E
6F
Describing sequences
Arithmetic sequences
Arithmetic series
Geometric sequences
Geometric series
Applications of sequences and series
Sequences
and series
areaS oF STudy
Sequences and series as maps between the

natural numbers and the real numbers, and the
use of technology to generate sequences and
series and their graphs
Sequences generated by recursion: arithmetic
(tn + 1 = tn + d ), geometric (tn + 1 = rtn) and fixed
point iteration (for example, t1 = 2, tn + 1 = tn 2,

t1 = 0.5, tn + 1 = 0.8tn(1 tn))
Practical applications of sequences and series,
such as financial arithmetic, population
modelling and musical scales
eBook plus
6a
describing sequences
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
Sequences of numbers play an important part in our everyday life. For example, the following
sequence:
2.25, 2.37, 2.58, 2.57, 2.63, . . .
gives the end-of-day trading price (for 5 consecutive days) of a share
in an electronics company. It looks like the price is on the rise, but is it
possible to accurately predict the future price per share of the company?
The following sequence is more predictable:
10 000, 9000, 8100, . . .
This is the estimated number of radioactive decays of a medical
compound each minute after administration to a patient. The compound
is used to diagnose tumours. In the first minute, 10 000 radioactive decays
are predicted; during the second minute, 9000, and so on. Can you predict
the next number in the sequence? Youre correct if you said 7290. Each
successive term here is 90% of, or 0.90 times, the previous term.
Sequences are strings of numbers. They may be finite in number or
infinite. Number sequences may follow an easily recognisable pattern
or they may not. A great deal of recent mathematical work has gone
into deciding whether certain strings follow a pattern (in which case
subsequent terms could be predicted) or whether they are random (in
which case subsequent terms cannot be predicted). This work forms
the basis of chaos theory, speech recognition software for computers,
weather prediction and stock market forecasting, to name but a few
uses. The list is almost endless.
178
Sequences which follow a pattern can be described in a number of different ways. They may
be listed in sequential order, they may be described as a functional definition, or they may be
described in an iterative definition.
1 Listing in sequential order

Consider the sequence of numbers t: {5, 7, 9, . . .}. The numbers in sequential order are firstly
5 then 7 and 9 with the indication that there are more numbers to follow. The symbol t is the
name of the sequence and the first three terms in the sequence shown are t1 = 5, t2 = 7 and t3 = 9.
The fourth term, t4 if the pattern were to continue, would be the number 11. In general, tn is the
nth term in the sequence. In this example, the next term is simply the previous term with the
number 2 added to it, with the first term being the number 5.
Another possible sequence is t: {5, 10, 20, 40, . . .}. In this case it appears that the next term is
twice the previous term. The fifth term here, if the pattern continued, would be t5 = 80. It can be
difficult to determine whether or not a pattern exists in some sequences. Can you find the next
term in the following sequence?
t: {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . .}
Here the next term is the sum of the previous two terms, hence the next term would be 5 + 8
which is equal to 13, and so on. This sequence is called the Fibonacci sequence and is named
after its discoverer, Leonardo Fibonacci, a thirteenth century mathematician.
Here is another sequence; can you find the next term here?
t: {7, 11, 16, 22, 29, . . .}
In this sequence the difference between successive terms increases by 1 for each pair. The
first difference is 4, the next difference is 5 and so on. The sixth term is thus 37 which is 8 more
than 29.
2 Functional definition
A functional definition is expressed in the form:
tn = 2n 7, n {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}
Using this definition the nth term can be readily calculated. For this example t1=21 7= 5,
t2 = 2 2 7 = 3, t3 = 2 3 7 = 1 and so on. We can readily calculate the 100th term,
t100 = 2 100 7 = 193, simply by substituting the value n=100 into the expression for tn.
Look at the following example:
dn = 4.9n2, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
For this example, in which the sequence is given the name d, d1 = 4.9 12 = 4.9,
d2=4.9 22 = 19.6. Listing the sequence would yield d: {4.9, 19.6, 44.1, 78.4, . . .}.
The 10th term would be 4.9 102 = 490.
Here is another example:
cn = cos (n) + 1, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
Here the sequence would be c: {0, 2, 0, 2, . . .}.
3 Iterative definition
An iterative definition is expressed in the form:
tn + 1 = 3tn 2; t1 = 6
This definition looks complicated, but is actually straightforward. You may have already come
across this idea on a spreadsheet. The word iteration means the calculation of the next term from
the previous term using the same procedure. The symbol tn+1 simply means the next term after
the term tn. In the above example the first term, t1, is 6 (this is given in the definition) and so the
next term, t2, is 3 6 2 = 16, and the following term is 3 16 2 = 46. In each and all cases
the next term is found by multiplying the previous term by 3 and then subtracting 2. We could
write the sequence out as a table:
Chapter 6 Sequences and series
179
n
1
Comment
tn
t1 = 6
Given in the definition
t2 = 3t1 2
Using t1 to find the next term, t2
= 3 6 2
= 16
2
t3 = 3t2 2
= 3 16 2
= 46
3
t4 = 3t3 2
= 3 46 2
= 136
An example of this sequence using notation found in a spreadsheet would be:
A1 = 6 (the first term is equal to 6)
A2 = 3 A1 2 (the next term is 3 times the previous term minus 2).
You could then apply the Fill Down option in the Edit menu of the spreadsheet from cell A2
downwards to generate as many terms in the sequence as required. This would result in the next
cell down being three times the previous cell, less 2. The iterative definition finds a natural use
in a spreadsheet environment and consequently much use is made of it. A drawback is that you
cannot find the nth term directly as in the functional definition, but the advantage is that more
complicated systems can be successfully modelled using iterative descriptions and hence are
more interesting and relevant.
Worked Example 1
7
a Find the next three terms in the sequence, b: {14, 7, 2 , . . .}.

b Find the 4th, 8th and 12th terms in the following sequence: en = n2 3n, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}.
c Find the 2nd, 3rd and 5th terms for the following sequence: kn + 1 = 2kn + 1, k1 = 0.50.
Think
a
180
Write
In this example the sequence

is listed and a simple pattern is
evident. From inspection, the next
term is half the previous term and
so the sequence would be
7 7 7 7
14, 7, 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 .
On the Main screen, complete the

entry lines as:
14
ans 0.5
Press E repeatedly to generate the
sequence.
a The next three terms are 7 , 7 , 7 .

4 8 16
b en = n2 3n
This is an example of a functional

definition. The nth term of the
sequence is found simply by
substitution into the expression
en = n2 3n.
Find the 4th term by substituting

n = 4.
e4 = 42 3 4
=4

n = 8.
e8 = 82 3 8
= 40

n = 12.
e12 = 122 3 12
= 108

Action
List Create
seq
seq(n2 - 3n, n, 1, 12, 1)
Then press E.
Note: Scroll through the numbers in
the sequence to find the 4th, 8th and
12th terms.
An alternative method to the one

above for generating a sequence is
shown.
On the Sequence screen, complete
the sequence as shown.
To create the table, tap #.
To find the required terms, tap r.
181
c kn + 1 = 2kn + 1,
This is an example of an iterative

definition. We can find the 2nd, 3rd
and 5th terms for the sequence
kn + 1 = 2kn +1, k1 = 0.50 by
iteration.
Substitute k1 = 0.50 into the

formula to find k2.
k2 = 2 0.50 + 1

=0
Continue the process until the value

of k5 is found.
k3 = 2 0 + 1

=1
k4 = 2 1 + 1

=3
k5 = 2 3 + 1

=7
Write the answer.
Thus k2 = 0, k3 = 1 and k5 = 7.
Again, on the Sequence screen,

complete the sequence as shown,
tapping V to type the sequence.
k1 = 0.50
To enlarge the table, tap r.
Logistic equation
The logistic equation is a model of population growth. It gives the rule for determining the
population in any year, based on the population in the previous year. Since we need the previous
term in order to be able to generate the next term of the sequence, then the logistic equation is an
example of an iterative definition. It is of the general form:
tn + 1 = atn(1 - tn),
where 0 < t0 < 1 and a is a constant.
182
Depending on the value of a, sequences generated by use of the logistic equation could be
convergent, divergent, or oscillating. A string of numbers that converges to (settles at) a certain
fixed value is called a convergent sequence. Sequence tn can converge to only one possible
number, x, called the limit of the sequence. This can be written as tn x. (The symbol is read
as tends to, or approaches.) A sequence whose terms grow further and further apart is called
divergent. That is, a sequence is divergent if tn , or tn as n . Finally, a sequence
whose terms tend to fluctuate between two (or more) values is called oscillating. An oscillating
sequence is neither convergent nor divergent.
Worked exampLe 2
eBook plus
Given that a = 2 and t0 = 0.7, use the logistic equation to generate a sequence
Tutorial
of 6 terms, and state whether the sequence is convergent, divergent, or oscillating.
int-1051
If the sequence is convergent, state its limit.
Worked example 2
ThInk
WrITe

tn + 1 = atn(1 tn)
= 2tn(1 tn)
Write the logistic equation, replacing a with

its given value (that is, 2).
To find t1, substitute the value of t0 (that is,

0.7) in place of tn and evaluate.
t1 = 2t0(1 t0)
= 2 0.7 (1 0.7) = 0.42
To find the next term, t2, substitute the value

of t1 (that is, 0.42) in place of tn and evaluate.
t2 = 2t1(1 t1)
= 2 0.42 (1 0.42)
= 0.4872
Continue the iterative process four more

times, each time substituting the value of the
previous term into the logistic equation to
find the next term.
t3 = 2t2(1 t2)
= 2 0.4872 (1 0.4872)
= 0.499 672 3
t4 = 2t3(1 t3)
= 2 0.499 672 3 (1 0.499 672 3)
= 0.499 999 8
t5 = 2t4(1 t4)
= 2 0.499 999 8 (1 0.499 999 8) = 0.5
t6 = 2t5(1 t5)
= 2 0.5 (1 0.5) = 0.5
The terms of the sequence are growing closer

and closer to each other, finally settling at 0.5.
The sequence is convergent; the limit of the sequence

is 0.5.
Method 2: Using technology

1
On the Sequence screen, complete the

sequence as shown, tapping V to type the
sequence.
Chapter 6
Sequences and series
183

Note: The first term is when n = 2, thus the
terms are n - 1.
Note that instead of saying the limit of the sequence is 0.5 in the previous example, we could
simply write tn 0.5.
REMEMBER
1. A sequence is a string of numbers or expressions which may follow a recognisable

pattern.
2. A sequence can be described in a number of ways.
(a) As a list for example: tn: {1, 7, 2, 6, . . .}
(Note: t3 = 2)
(b) As a function for example: tn = 2n n2, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
(Note: t5 = 2 5 52 = 15)
(c) As a recursive or iterative formula for example: tn + 1 = 2tn 3, t1 = 6
(Note: t2 = 2 6 3 = 9)
3. The logistic equation is a model of population growth and is an example of an iterative
definition. It is of the general form:
tn + 1 = atn(1 tn),
4. A sequence that converges to (settles at) a certain fixed number, x (the limit of the
sequence) is called convergent. This can be written as tn x. A sequence whose terms
grow further and further apart is called divergent. That is, a sequence is divergent if
tn , or tn as n . A sequence whose terms fluctuate between two (or
more) values is called oscillating. An oscillating sequence is neither convergent nor
divergent.
Exercise
6A
1 WE1a For each of the following sequences, write a rule for obtaining the next term in the
sequence and hence evaluate the next three terms.
a {1, 4, 7, . . .}
b {1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}
c {1, 4, 16, 64, . . .}
e
g
i
k
184
{2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . .}

{3, 4, 7, 11, 18, . . .}
{1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . .}
{1024, 512, 256, 128, . . .}
3 3
d {3, 2 , 4 , . . .}
f {2, 5, 9, 14, 20, . . .}
h {2a 5b, a 2b, b, a + 4b, . . .}
j {1.0, 1.1, 1.11, . . .}
2 WE1b Find the first, fifth and tenth terms in the following sequences.
a tn = 2n 5, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
b tn = 4 3n 2, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
n
c tn =
, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
d tn = 17 3.7n, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
n +1
e tn = 5
1

2
, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
f tn = 5 1
2
3n2 n,
(1)n
(3 n)
, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
g tn =
+ n, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
h tn =
n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
i tn = n2 n + 41, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
j tn = a + (n 1)d, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
k tn = arn 1, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
3 WE1c Using a CAS calculator, or other method, find the third, eighth and tenth terms in the
following sequences.
a un + 1 = un + 2, u1 = 3
b un + 1 = un 2, u1 =
c un + 1 = 3un, u1 = 0.85
d un + 1 = 2un, u1 = 3
e un + 1 = 4 un, u1 =
4
3
1
2
f un + 1 = un 7, u1 = 14
g un + 1 = un + 2, u1 = 3
h un + 1 = un + (1)nun, u1 = 3
i un = 2un 1, u1 =
j un + 1 = aun + a, u1 = a
1
4
k un + 2 = un + 1 + un, u1 = 1, u2 = 1
l un + 1 = un2 2, u1 = 3
4 WE2 Given the following values of a and t0, use the logistic equation to generate a sequence
of six terms. State whether the sequence is convergent, divergent, or oscillating. If the sequence
is convergent, state its limit.
a a = 0.8, t0 = 0.5
b a = 0.4, t0 = 0.6
c a = 1.1, t0 = 0.9
d a = 1.9, t0 = 0.4
e a = 2.1, t0 = 0.5
f a = 2.5, t0 = 0.3
g a = 3, t0 = 0.2
h a = 3.4, t0 = 0.7
i a = 4.2, t0 = 0.1
j a = 4.5, t0 = 0.8
5 Study the pattern in each of the following sequences and where possible write the next two
terms in the sequence, describing the pattern that you use.
a 5, 6, 8, 11, . . .
b 4, 9, 12, 13, 12, 9, . . .
c 9, 8, 9, 0, . . .
1
d 6, 12, 12, 6, 1 2 , . . .
e 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .
f 1, 3, 7, 15, . . .
g 1, 3, 2, 4, 3, . . .
6
MC a Which of the following functional definitions could be used to describe a
sequence {3,1, 1, . . .}?

A tn = n 2, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
b tn = 2n 5, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
c tn = 5n 2, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
d tn = 5 2n, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
e tn = 2(5 n), n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
b Which of the following recursive definitions could be used to describe a sequence
{20,10, 5, . . .}?
t
t
A tn + 1 = tn 30, t1 = 20
B tn + 1 = n , t1 = 20
C tn + 1 = tn n , t1 = 20
2
2
tn
D tn + 1 = tn 10, t1 = 20
E tn + 1 =
, t1 = 20
2
6 n2 12
c Which of the following sequences is generated by the definition tn =
,
2
n{1, 2, 3, . . .}?
A {3, 6, 15, . . .}
D {3, 6, 12, . . .}
B {3, 6, 12, . . .}
E {3, 6, 18, . . .}
C {3, 6, 21, . . .}
7 Write the iterative definition for each of the following sequences.

a {7, 5, 3, 1, 1, . . .}
b {12, 6, 3, 1.5, . . .}
c {12, 12.6, 13.2, . . .}
f {2, 4, 16, 256, . . .}
d {2, 11, 56, 281, . . .}
e {4, 12, 36, . . .}
185
8 In the township of Grizabella, the population of stray cats in any given year is given as pn + 1.
This can be calculated using the formula pn + 1 = 1.3pn(1 pn), where pn is the number of cats
(in hundreds) in the preceding
year. If in 2005 there were 28 stray
cats in Grizabella township,
calculate:
a the expected number of stray
cats for 2006 and 2007
b the limiting number of stray
cats that Grizabella township
can sustain.
eBook plus
Digital doc
History of mathematics
Leonardo
Fibonacci
6B
9 In the neighbouring township of

Macavity, the size of the population
of stray cats follows the logistic
equation
pn + 1 = 0.3pn(1 pn),
where pn + 1 and pn refer to the
population size (in hundreds) in
any given year and in the preceding
year respectively. It is known that
in 2005, there were 62 stray cats in
the township. By generating and
examining the sequence of numbers
using the above equation, decide
what will happen in the long run
to the population size of stray cats
in Macavity township. (That is,
will the population of cats keep
increasing, decreasing, or settle at a
particular value?)
arithmetic sequences
At a racetrack a new prototype racing
car unfortunately develops an oil
leak. Each second, a drop of oil hits
the road. The driver of the car puts
her foot on the accelerator and the
car increases speed at a steady rate
as it hurtles down the straight. The
diagram below shows the pattern
of oil drops on the road with the
distances between the drops labelled.
10 metres
18 metres
186
26 metres
42 metres
34 metres
The sequence of distances travelled in metres each second is {10, 18, 26, 34, 42,. . .}. The
first term in the sequence, t1, is 10 and as you can see, each subsequent term is 8 more than the
previous term. This type of sequence is given a special name an arithmetic sequence.
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence where there is a common difference between
any two successive terms.
We can list the sequence in a table as in table A. From this table we can see that it is possible
to write a functional definition for the sequence in terms of the first term, 10, and the common
difference, 8, and thus:

tn = 10 + (n 1) 8
= 2 + 8n, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
We can readily get a general formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence whose first
term is a and whose common difference is d (see table B).
Table A
n
1
2
3
4
n
tn
10 + 0 8
10 + 1 8
10 + 2 8
10 + 3 8
10 + (n 1) 8
= 10 + 8n 8
= 2 + 8n
Table B
n
1
2
3
4
n
tn
10
18
26
34
2 + 8n
tn
a+0d
a+1d
a+2d
a+3d
a + (n 1) d
= (a d) + dn
In general then:
The nth term of an arithmetic sequence is given by
tn = a + (n 1) d = (a d) + nd, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
where a is the first term and d is the common difference.
If we consider three successive terms in an arithmetic sequence, namely x, y and z, then since
y x = the common difference, d, and z y = d, it follows that:
z+x
yx=zyy=
2
The middle term of any three consecutive terms in an arithmetic sequence is called an
arithmetic mean and is the average of the outer two.
z+ x
That is, y =
for any 3 consecutive terms, x, y, z of the arithmetic sequence.
2
Worked Example 3
Show that the following sequences are arithmetic.

7 11
a 4 , 8 , 1, . . .
b x2 4x, 3x2 7x, 5x2 10x, . . .
Think
a
Write
To show that a sequence is arithmetic you

need to show that the difference between any
two successive terms is a constant. Find the
difference between the first and the second
terms.
a t2 t1
=
=
=
11
8
11 + 14
8
3
8
187
Find the difference between the second and the

third terms.
Compare the differences and draw your

conclusion.
t3 t2

= -1 -
=3
11
t2 t1 = t3 t2 =
3
8
The sequence is arithmetic.
Find the difference between the first two terms.
b t2 t1
= 3x2 7x (x2 4x)

= 2x2 3x
Find the difference between the second and the

third terms.
t3 t2

= 5x2 10x (3x2 7x)

= 2x2 3x
Compare the differences and draw your

conclusion.
t2 t1 = t3 t2 = 2x2 3x
The sequence is arithmetic.
Worked Example 4
State which of the following are arithmetic sequences by finding the difference between successive
terms. For those which are arithmetic, find the next term in the sequence, t4, and consequently find
the functional definition for the nth term for the sequence, tn.
a t: {4, 9, 15, . . .}
b t: {2, 1, 4, . . .}
Think
a
To check that a sequence is arithmetic, see if a

common difference exists.
There is no common difference, as 5 6.
To check that a sequence is arithmetic, see if a

common difference exists.
a 94=5
15 9 = 6
Since there is no common difference the
sequence is not arithmetic.
b 1 2 = 3
4 1 = 3
The common difference is 3.
The sequence is arithmetic with the

common difference d = 3.
The next term in the sequence, t4, can be found

by adding 3 to the previous term, t3.
t4 = t3 + 3
=4+3
=7
To find the functional definition, write the

formula for the nth term of the arithmetic
sequence.
tn = a + (n 1) d
= (a d) + nd
Identify the values of a and d.
a = 2 and d = 3
tn = (2 3) + n 3
tn = 3n 5
188
Write
Substitute a =
and simplify.
and d = 3 into the formula
Worked exampLe 5
eBook plus
Find the missing terms in this arithmetic sequence: {41, a, 55, b, . . .}.
ThInk
Tutorial
int-1052
WrITe
Worked example 5
x+z
2
The first three successive terms are 41, a, 55. Write the
rule for the middle term of the three successive terms of
an arithmetic sequence.
For x, y, z: y =
Identify the variables.
x = 41; y = a; z = 55
Substitute the values of x, y and z into the formula in

step 1 and evaluate.
a=
Find the common difference. (The second term is now

known.)
d = t2 t1
= 48 41
=7
Find the value of b by adding the common difference to

the preceding term.
b = 55 + 7
= 62
State your answer.
So a = 48, b = 62
41 + 55
2
= 48
Worked exampLe 6
Find the 16th and nth terms in an arithmetic sequence with the 4th term 15 and 8th term 37.
ThInk
WrITe

1
Write the formula for the nth term of the

arithmetic sequence.
tn = a + (n 1) d
Substitute n = 4 and t4 = 15 into the formula

and label it equation [1].
t4: a + 3d = 15
[1]
Substitute n = 8 and t8 = 37 into the formula

and label it equation [2].
t8: a + 7d = 37
[2]
Solve the simultaneous equations: subtract

equation [1] from equation [2] to eliminate a.
Divide both sides by 4.
[2] [1]:
a + 7d a 3d = 37 15
4d = 22
22
d= 4
1
= 52
6
Substitute d = 5 2 into equation [1], and solve

for a.
Substituting d = 5 2 into [1]:

1
a + 3 5 2 = 15
1
a = 1 2
Chapter 6
189
To find the nth term of the arithmetic

sequence, substitute the values of a and d into
the general formula and simplify.
=
=
To find the 16th term, substitute n = 16 into

the formula, established in the previous step
and evaluate.
tn = 1 2 + (n 1) 5 2
3
2
+ (n - 1)
11
2
3 + 11n 11
2
11n 14
tn =
, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
2
11 16 14
If n = 16, t16 =
2

= 81

1
Write the two equations that represent t4 and t8.
To solve equations [1] and [2] simultaneously,

on the Main screen complete the entry line as
shown.
Then press E.
Write the answer.
t4: a + 3d = 15
t8: a + 7d = 37
[1]
[2]
11
and d = ,
2
2
11n 14
tn =
2
If a =
t16 = 81
REMEMBER
1. An arithmetic sequence is one where successive terms have a common difference. This
common difference is given the symbol d. Thus tn + 1 tn = d for all values of n. The
first term in the sequence is given the symbol a.
2. If x, y, z are successive terms in an arithmetic sequence then y is called an arithmetic
x+z
.
mean and is given by y =
2
That is, the middle term is the average of the outer two terms.
3. An arithmetic sequence can be written as a, a + d, a + 2d, . . . and so the nth term tn is:
tn = a + (n 1)d using the function notation, or
tn + 1 = tn + d, t1 = a using the iterative notation.
190
exerCISe
6B
arithmetic sequences
1 We3 Show that the following sequences are arithmetic.
a {12, 7, 2, . . .}
b {0.12, 3.48, 7.08, . . .}
3 3 9
d {2.3, 1.7, 5.7, . . .}
c { 8 , 8 , 8 , . . .}
5 1 7
, 9,
9
. . .}
f {18, 18, 54, . . .}
13
h {x + 9, 2x + 7, 3x + 5, . . .}
e {9,
g {5 3 , 715, 815, . . .}
i {3x2 4x, 5x2 2x, 7x2, . . .}

j {3(2 x), 2(2 x), 2 x, . . .}
2 We4 State which of the following are arithmetic sequences by finding the difference between
successive terms. For those which are arithmetic, find the next term in the sequence, t4, and
consequently find the functional definition for the nth term for the sequence, tn.
a tn: {3, 5, 7, . . .}
b tn: {4, 7, 11, . . .}
d tn: {3, 0, 3, . . .}
c tn: {3, 6, 12, . . .}
e tn: {2, 6, 10, . . .}
3 3 3
3 3 9
g tn: { 4 , 2 , 1 , . . .}
1 3 13
, 4,
2
i tn: { 4 ,
2 11 9
f tn: { 7 , 14 , 7 , . . .}
. . .}
h tn: { 4 , 2 , 4 , . . .}
j tn: {2 + 3, 4 + 1, 6 1, . . .}
3 Find the term given in brackets for each of the following arithmetic sequences.
a {4, 9, 14, . . .}, (t21)
b {2, 10, 22, . . .}, (t58)
c { 27, 12, 3, . . .} (t100)

d {2, 11, 24, . . .} (t2025)
4
Find the functional definition for the nth term of the following arithmetic sequences:
a where the first term is 5 and the common difference is 3
1
b where the first term is 2.5 and the common difference is 2
c where the first term is 3 and the common difference is 3

d where the first term is 2x and the common difference is 5x.
5 Find the nth term in the arithmetic sequence where the first term is 6 and the third term is 10.
6 Find the nth term in the arithmetic sequence where the first term is 3 and the third term is 13.
7 We5 Find the missing terms in this arithmetic sequence: {16, m, 27, n}
8 Find the missing terms in the arithmetic sequence below.
x 3y, _______________, 3x + 5y, _______________, . . .
9 We6 Find the 4th term and nth term in the arithmetic sequence whose first term is 6 and
whose 7th term is 10.
10 If t10 = 100 and t15 = 175, find the first term, the common difference and
hence the nth term for the arithmetic sequence.
1
11 If t10 = 2 and t13 = 4, find the first term, the common difference and
hence the nth term for the arithmetic sequence.
eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.1
Using elimination to
solve simultaneous
equations
12 Insert four evenly spaced numbers between 8 and 36.
13 For the arithmetic sequence {22, m, n, 37, . . .}, find the values for m and n.
14 For the following arithmetic sequences, find the iterative definition and use it in a CAS
calculator to generate the first 50 numbers in the sequence.
a tn: {3, 7, 11, . . .}
b tn: {3, 0, 3, . . .}
c tn: {2, 6, 10 . . .}
3 3 9
e tn: { 4 , 2 , 4 , . . .}
2 11 9
d tn: { 7 , 14 , 7 , . . .}
1 3 13
, 4,
2
f tn: { 4 ,
. . .}
g tn: {2 + 3, 4 + 1, 6 1, . . .}
Chapter 6
191
15 The first three terms in an arithmetic sequence are 37, 32, 27 and the kth term is 3. Find the
value for k.
16 Find the value of x such that the following forms an arithmetic progression:
. . . x, 3x + 4, 10x 7 . . .
17 MC For the following sequence t: {4, 11, 18, . . .}, the difference between the 4th and the
10th term is:
A 35
B 42
C 49
D 56
E 63
18 MC The tenth term in an arithmetic sequence is 12 and the third term is 2. The first term in
the sequence is:
A 7
B 3
C 5
D 8
E 6
3
19 The ratio between the first term and the second term in an arithmetic sequence is 4 . The ratio
between the second term and the third term is 4 .
5
a Calculate the ratio of the third term to the fourth term.
b Find the ratio of the nth and the nth + 1 term in the sequence.
6c
Arithmetic series
Often we have a sequence of numbers and we wish to know their sum. For an example, we return
to the oil drops on the racetrack from the start of the previous section on arithmetic sequences.
The distance covered by the car each second illustrated the concept of an arithmetic sequence.
The total distance covered by the car is the sum of the individual distances covered
each second. So after one second the car has travelled 10m, after 2 seconds the car has
travelled 10+18m = 28 m, after three seconds the car has travelled a total distance of
10+18 + 26 m = 54 m, and so on.
10 metres
18 metres
28 m
26 metres
54 m
34 metres
42 metres
88 m
130 m
A series, Sn, is the sum of a sequence of n terms t1 + t2 + t3 + . . . + tn.

Thus:

S1 = t1
S2 = t1 + t2
S3 = t1 + t2 + t3
Sn = t1 + t2 + t3 + . . . + tn 2 + tn 1 + tn.
For an arithmetic sequence, the sum of the first n terms, Sn, can be written in two ways:
1. The first term in the arithmetic sequence is a, the common difference is d, and the last term
that is, the nth term in the sequence is l.

Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . (a + (n 3)d) + (a + (n 2)d + a + (n 1)d

= a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . (l 3d) + (l 2d) + (l d) + l
[1]
2. We can write the sum Sn in reverse order starting with the nth term and summing back to the
first term a:

Sn = l + (l d) + (l 2d) + . . . + (a + 2d) + (a + d) + a.
[2]
192
If we add equation [1] and equation [2] together and recognise that there are n terms each of
which equal (a + l ) we get:
2Sn = (a + l ) + (a + l ) + . . . n times
= n(a + l )
n
and so:
S n = (a + l )
2
n
or since l is the nth term, l = a + (n 1)d, so Sn = [a + a + ( n 1)d ]
2
n
Sn = [2a + ( n 1)d ]
2
The sum of the first ntermsinthearithmeticsequenceisgivenby
n
Sn = ( a + l )
2
where a is the first term and l is the last term; or alternatively, since l = a + (n 1)d,by
n
Sn = ( 2 a + ( n 1) d )
2
where a is the first term and d is the common difference.
If we know the first term, a, the common difference, d, and the number of terms, n, that
we wish to add together we can calculate the sum directly without having to add up all the
individual terms.
It is worthwhile also to note that Sn + 1 = Sn + tn + 1. This tells us that the next term in the series Sn + 1
is the present sum Sn plus the next term in the sequence tn + 1. This result is useful in spreadsheets
where one column gives the sequence and an adjacent column is used to give the series.
Worked exampLe 7
eBook plus
Find the sum of the first 20 terms in the sequence tn: {12, 25, 38, . . .}.
ThInk
Write the formula for the sum of the first n

terms in the arithmetic sequence.
Identify the variables.
Substitute values of a, d and n into the

formula and evaluate.
int-1053
WrITe

1
Tutorial
Sn =
Worked example 7
n
(2a + ( n 1)d )
2
a = 12, d = 25 12 = 13, n = 20
20
(2 12 + 19 13)
2
S20 = 2710
S20 =

1
On the Sequence screen, complete the

sequence as shown, tapping V to type the
sequence.
Chapter 6
193
Write the answer.
S20 = 2710
REMEMBER
n
(2a + ( n 1)d ) and
2
so to find Sn the values for a and d need to be found for the sequence whose series is
required.
2. In general, tn + 1 = Sn + 1 Sn.
1. The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence is Sn =
Exercise
6C
Arithmetic series
1 WE7 Consider the following sequences and find the sums of the terms as indicated.
a tn: {1, 2, 3, . . .}. Find S10, S50, S100.
b tn: {1, 3, 5, . . .}. Find S5, S10, S20.
c tn = 3n + 7, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}. Find S5, S10, Sn.
d tn = 4n + 15, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}. Find S5, S10, Sn.
e tn + 1 = tn + 5.5, t1 = 2.5. Find S5, S10, S20.
f tn + 1 = tn + , t1 = 2. Find S5, S10, S20.
g The first term is 4 and the common difference is 3. Find S4, S16, S64.
1
h The first term is 14 and the common difference is 3 2 . Find S4, S9, S14.
i The first term is 50 and the 10th term is 40. Find S10.
j The 5th term is 10 and the 8th term is 16. Find S5, S50, S500.
2 a Find the sum of the first 50 positive integers.
b Find the sum of the first 100 positive integers.
3 a Find the sum of all the half-integers between 0 and 100.
1 1
1
1
Note: The sequence of half-integers is { 2 , 12 , 2 2 , 3 2 , . . .}
b Compare your answer with that for question 2b.
4 Find the sum of the first 12 terms of an arithmetic sequence in which the second term is 8 and
thirteenth term is 41.
5 A sequence of numbers is defined by tn: {15, 9, 3, 3, . . .}.
a Find the sum of the first 13, 16 and 19 terms in the sequence.
b Find the sum of all the terms between and including t10 and t15.
194
6 A sequence of numbers is defined by tn = 2n 7, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}. Find

a the sum of the first 20 terms
b the sum of all the terms between and including t21 and t40
c the average of the first 40 terms.
Hint: You need to find the sum first.
7 Find the equation that gives the sum of the first n positive integers.
8 a Show that the sum of the first n odd integers is equal to the perfect square n2.
b Show that the sum of the first n even integers is equal to n2 + n.
9 A sequence is 5, 7, 9, 11, . . . How many consecutive terms need to be added to obtain 357?
10 Consider the sum of the first n integers. For what value of n will the sum first exceed 1000?
11 a Find the sum of all integers divisible by 3 which lie between 200 and 400.
b Find the sum of all integers divisible by 6 which lie between 200 and 400.
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 6.1
6d
12 The first term in an arithmetic sequence is 5 and the sum of the first 20 terms is 1240. Find the
common difference, d.
13 The sum of the first four terms of an arithmetic sequence is 58, and the sum of the next four
terms is twice that number. Find the sum of the following four terms.
14 The sum of a series is given by Sn = 4n2 + 3n. Use the result that tn + 1 = Sn + 1 Sn to prove
that the sequence of numbers, tn, whose series is Sn = 4n2 + 3n is arithmetic. Find both the
functional and iterative equations for the sequence, tn.
Geometric sequences
A farmer is breeding worms
which he hopes to sell to
local shire councils for use in
the decomposition of waste
at rubbish dumps. Worms
reproduce readily and the
farmer expects a 10% increase
per week in the mass of worms
that he is farming. A 10%
increase per week would mean
that the mass of worms would
increase by a constant factor of
10
(1 + 100 ) or 1.1.
He starts off with 10 kg of
worms. By the beginning of
the second week he will expect
10 1.1 = 11 kg of worms,
by the start of the third week
he would expect
11 1.1 = 10 (1.1)2 = 12.1 kg
of worms, and so on. This is
an example of a geometric
sequence.
Ageometricsequenceisthesequencewhereeachtermisobtainedbymultiplyingthe
precedingtermbyacertainconstantfactor.
The first term is 10 and the common factor here is 1.10 which represents a 10% increase on
the previous term. We can put the results of the above example into a table.
Chapter 6
195
From this table we can see that

t2 = 1.1 t1, t3 = 1.1 t2
1
10 (1.1)0
10
and so on. In general:
2
10 (1.1)1
11
tn + 1 = 1.1 tn
The
common
factor
or common ratio
12.1
3
10 (1.1)2
whose
value
is
1.1
for
this example can be
4
10 (1.1)3
13.31
found by dividing any two successive
tn +1
10 (1.1)n 1
n
10 (1.1)n 1
terms:
.
tn
A geometric sequence, t, can be written in terms of the first term, a, and the common ratio, r.
Thus:
t: {a, ar, ar2, ar3, . . . , arn 1, . . .}
The first term t1 = a, the second term t2 = ar, the third term t3 = ar2 and consequently the nth
term, tn is arn 1.
n
tn
tn
For a geometric sequence:

tn = arn 1
where a is the first term and r the common ratio, given by
tn + 1
r=
tn
If we consider three consecutive terms in a geometric sequence, x, y and z, then
y
z
=r=
x
y
where r is the common factor.
Thus the middle term, y, called the geometric mean, can be calculated in terms of the outer
two terms, x and z.
For a geometric sequence . . . , x, y, z, . . . :
y2 = xz
Worked Example 8
State whether the sequence is geometric by finding the ratio of successive terms: tn: {2, 6, 18, . . .}. If
it is geometric, find the next term in the sequence, t4, and the nth term for the sequence, tn.
Think
196
Write
Find the ratio
t2
.
t1
t2 6
=
t1 2
=3
Find the ratio
t3
.
t2
t3 18
=
t2 6
=3
Compare the ratios and make your conclusion.
Since the sequence is geometric, to find the fourth term,

multiply the preceding (third) term by the common
ratio.
t4 = t3 r
= 18 3
= 54
Write the general formula for the nth term of the

geometric sequence.
tn = arn 1
t 2 t3
= = 3, the sequence is
t1 t2
geometric with the common ratio r = 3.
Since
Identify the values of a and r.
a = 2; r = 3
Substitute the values of a and r into the general

formula.
tn = 2 3n 1
Worked exampLe 9
Find the nth term and the 10th term in the geometric sequence, where the first term is 3 and the
third term is 12.
ThInk
WrITe
Write the general formula for the nth term in the

geometric sequence.
tn = arn 1
State the value of a (the first term in the sequence) and

the value of the third term.
a = 3; t3 = 12
Substitute all known values into the general formula.
12 = 3 r3 1
= 3 r2
Solve for r (note that there are two possible solutions).
r2 = 3
=4
r= 4
= 2
Substitute the values of a and r into the general

equation. Since there are two possible values for r, you
must show both expressions for the nth term of the
sequence.
So tn = 3 2n 1, or tn = 3 (2)n 1
Find the 10th term by substituting n = 10 into each of

the two expressions for the nth term.
When n = 10, t10 = 3 210 1 (using r = 2)

= 3 29
= 1536
or t10 = 3 (2)10 1 (using r = 2)
= 3 (2)9
= 1536
12
Worked exampLe 10
eBook plus
The fifth term in a geometric sequence is 14 and the seventh term is 0.56.
Find the common ratio, r, the first term, a, and the nth term for the sequence.
ThInk
Tutorial
int-1054
Worked example 10
WrITe
Write the general rule for the nth term of the

geometric sequence.
tn = arn 1
Use the information about the 5th term to

form an equation. Label it [1].
When n = 5, tn = 14
14 = a r5 1
14 = a r4
[1]
When n = 7, tn = 0.56
0.56 = a r 7 1
0.56 = a r6
[2]
Similarly, use information about the 7th term

to form an equation. Label it [2].
Chapter 6
197
Solve equations simultaneously: Divide

equation [2] by equation [1] to eliminate a.
[2]
ar 6 0.56
gives
=
[1]
14
ar 4
Solve for r.
r2 = 0.04
r = 0.04
= 0.2
Since there are two solutions, we have to

perform two sets of computations. Consider
the positive value of r first. Substitute the
value of r into either of the two equations, say
equation [1], and solve for a.
If r = 0.2
Substitute r into [1]:
a (0.2)4 = 14
0.0016a = 14

a = 14 0.0016

= 8750
Substitute the values of r and a into the

general equation to find the expression for the
nth term.
The nth term is:

tn = 8750 (0.2)n 1
Now consider the negative value of r.
If r = 0.2
Substitute the value of r into either of the two

equations, say equation [1], and solve for a.
(Note that the value of a is the same for both
values of r.)
Substitute r into [1]

a = (-0.2)4 = 14
0.0016a = 14

a = 14 0.0016

= 8750
10
Substitute the values of r and a into the

general formula to find the second expression
for the nth term of the sequence.
The nth term is:

tn = 8750 (0.2)n 1
11
Write the two equations that represent

t5 and t7.
t5: 14 = a r4
t7: 0.56 = a r6
12
To solve equations [1] and [2] simultaneously,

on the Main screen complete the entry line as
shown.
Then press E.
13
Write the answer.
When r = -0.2 and a = 8750,

tn = 8750 (-0.2)n 1
When r = 0.2 and a = 8750,
tn = 8750 (0.2)n 1
198
[1]
[2]
rememBer
1. A geometric sequence is one where each successive term is obtained by multiplying

the preceding term by the constant number. This number is called the common ratio
t
and is given the symbol r. Thus n + 1 = r for all values of n.
tn
The first term in the sequence is given the symbol a.
2. If x, y, z are successive terms in the geometric sequence then y is called a geometric
mean and is given by y2 = xz.
3. A geometric sequence can be written as a, ar, ar2, . . . and so the nth term tn is:
tn = ar n 1 using the function notation, or
tn + 1 = rtn, t1 = a using the iterative notation.
exerCISe
6d
Geometric sequences
eBook plus
1 We8 State which of the following are geometric sequences by finding

Digital doc
the ratio of successive terms. For those which are geometric, find the
Spreadsheet 036
next term in the sequence, t4 and the nth term for the sequence, tn.
Fibonacci sequences
a tn: {3, 6, 9, . . .}
b tn: {4, 12, 36, . . .}
c tn: {3, 6, 12, . . .}
d tn: {4, 6, 9, . . .}
f tn: {2, 6, 18, . . .}
g tn: { 7 , 14 , 14 , . . .}
3 3 9
i tn: { 4 , 2 , 4 , . . .}
1 3
,
2
j tn: { 4 ,
e tn: {3, 1,
, . . .}
h tn: { 4 , 2 , 1, . . .}
3 3 3
9, . . .}
k tn: {2, 4 2, 8 3, . . .}
2 For each of the following:

i show that the sequence is geometric
ii find the nth term and consequently the 6th and the 10th terms.
a t: {5, 10, 20, . . .}
b t: {2, 5, 12.5, . . .}
c t: {1, 3, 9, . . .}
d t: {2, 4, 8, . . .}
e t: {2.3, 3.45, 5.175, . . .}
1
g t: {3 , 12,
1
,
48
. . .}
f t: { 2 , 1, 2, . . .}
3 1 1
, ,
5 15
h t: { 5,
. . .}
1 2 4
j t : { , 2 , 3 , . . .}
x x x
3 We9 Find the nth term and the 10th term in the geometric sequence where:
a the first term is 2 and the third term is 18 (Why are there two possible answers?)
b the first term is 1 and the third term is 4 (Why are there two possible answers?)
c the first term is 5 and the fourth term is 40
d the first term is 1 and the second term is 2
1
e the first term is 9 and the third term is 81. (Why are there two possible answers?)
i t: {x, 3x4, 9x7, . . .}
4 Find the 4th term in the geometric sequence where the first term is 6 and the 7th term is 3 .
32
5 Find the nth term in the geometric sequence where the first term is 3 and the fourth term
is 6 2.
6 For the geometric sequence 3, m, n, 192, . . . , find the values for m and n.
7 Consider the geometric sequence t: {16, m, 81, n, . . .}. Find the values of m and n, if it is
known that both are positive numbers.
Chapter 6
199
8 For the geometric sequence a, 15, b, 0.0375, . . . , find the values of a and b, given that they are
positive numbers.
9 WE10 The third term in a geometric sequence is 100 and the fifth term is 400. Find the
common ratio, r, the first term, a, and the nth term for the sequence.
1
27
10 If t2 = 2 and t5 = 16 , find the first term, a, the common factor, r, and hence the nth term for the
geometric sequence.
11 Find the value of x such that the following sequence forms a geometric progression:
x 1, 3x + 4, 6x + 8.
12 Insert three terms in between 8, _, _, _,
1
32
such that the sequence of numbers is geometric.
13 The difference between the first term and the second term in a geometric sequence is6. The
difference between the second term and the third term is 3.
a Calculate the difference between the third term and the fourth term.
b Find the nth term in the sequence.
14 The first two terms in a geometric sequence are 120, 24, and the kth term is 0.0384. Find the
value for k.
6e
Geometric series
When we add up or sum the terms in a sequence we get the series for that sequence. If we look
at the geometric sequence {2, 6, 18, 54, . . .} where the first term t1 = a = 2 and the common
ratio is 3 we can quickly calculate the first few terms in the series of this sequence.

S1 = t1 = 2
S2 = t1 + t2 = 2 + 6 = 8
S3 = t1 + t2 + t3 = 2 + 6 + 18 = 26
S4 = t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 = 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 = 80
In general the sum of the first n terms is:

Sn = t1 + t2 + t3 + . . . + tn 2 + tn 1 + tn.
For a geometric sequence the first term is a, the second term is ar, the third term is ar2 and so
on up to the nth term which is arn 1. Thus:

Sn = a + ar + ar2 + . . . + arn 3 + arn 2 + arn 1
[1]
If we multiply equation [1] by r we get:

rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + . . . arn 2 + arn 1 + arn
Note that on the right-hand side of equations [1] and [2] all but two terms are common,
namely the first term in equation [1], a, and the last term in equation [2], arn. If we take the
difference between equation [2] and equation [1] we get:

rSn Sn = arn a
[2] [1]

(r 1)Sn = a(rn 1)
a(r n 1)

Sn =
; r 1
(r cannot equal 1)
r 1
We now have an equation which allows us to calculate the sum of the first n terms of a
geometric sequence.
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence is given by:
a( r n 1)
Sn =
;r 1
r 1
where a is the first term of the sequence and r is the common ratio.
200
[2]
Worked Example 11
Find the sum of the first 5 terms (S5) of these geometric sequences.
1
1
a tn: {1, 4, 16, . . .} b tn = 2 (2)n 1, n {1, 2, 3, . . .} c tn + 1 = 4 tn, t1 = 2
Write
Think

a
a Sn =
a(r n 1)
r 1
Write the general formula for the

sum of the first n terms of the
geometric sequence.
Write the sequence.
tn: {1, 4, 16, . . .}
Identify the variables: a is the

first term; r can be established by
finding the ratio; n is known from
the question.
a = 1; r = 1 = 4; n = 5
Substitute the values of a, r and n

into the formula and evaluate.
S5 =
1(4 5 1)
4 1
1024 1
=
3
= 341

a
On the Spreadsheet screen, type the

initial value of 1 in cell A1.
Complete the entry line in cell A2
as:
= 4 A1
Then press E.
To find the terms in the sequence

highlight A2 to A5 and tap:
Edit
Fill Range
201
Tap OK.
To sum the sequence, in cell B1,

tap:
Action
List-Calculation
sum
Highlight cells A1 to A5 and then

press E.
The answer will appear in cell B1.
Write the answer.

Write the sequence.
Compare the given rule with the
general formula for the nth term of
the geometric sequence tn = arn 1 and
identify values of a and r; the value of
n is known from the question.
1
2
202
Substitute values of a, r and n into

the general formula for the sum and
evaluate.
If tn: {1, 4, 16, . . .} then, S5 = 341.
b tn = 2(2)n 1, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
a = 2; r = 2; n = 5
2(25 1)
2 1
2(32 1)
=
1
= 62
S5 =
c tn + 1 = 4 tn, t1 =
Write the sequence.
This is an iterative formula, so the

coefficient of tn is our r; a = t1; n is
known from the question.
r = 4; a =
S5 =
Substitute values of a, r and n into

the general formula for the sum and
evaluate.
=
=
1
2
1
2
;n=5
1 1 5
1
2 4
1
1
4
1 1
1
2 1024
3
4
341
512
The infinite sum of a geometric sequence where r < 1

When the constant ratio, r, is less than 1 or greater than 1, that is, {r: 1 < r < 1}, each
successive term in the sequence gets closer to zero. This can readily be shown with the
following two examples.
1 1
,
4
g: {2, 1, 2 ,
1
. . .} where a = 2 and r =
1
2
1
h: {40, 2 , 160 , . . .} where a = 40 and r = 80

In both the examples, successive terms approach zero as n increases. In the second case
the approach is more rapid than in the first and the first sequence alternates positive and
negative. A simple investigation with a spreadsheet will quickly reveal that for geometric
sequences with the size or magnitude of r < 1 the series eventually settles down to a near
constant value. We say that the series converges to a value S which is the sum to infinity of
all terms in the geometric sequence. We can find the value S by recognising that as n
the term rn 0, provided r is between 1 and 1. We write this technically as 1 < r < 1 or
|r| < 1. The symbol |r| means the magnitude or size of r. Using our equation for the sum of
the first n terms:
a(r n 1)
Sn =
;r 1
r 1
Taking 1 as a common factor from the numerator and denominator:
a(1 r n )
Sn =
1 r
n
n
As n , r 0 and hence 1 r 1. Thus the top line or numerator will equal a when
n :
a
S =
; |r | < 1
1 r
We now have an equation which allows us to calculate the sum to infinity, S of a geometric
sequence.
The sum to infinity S of the geometric sequence is given by:
a
; | r| < 1
1 r
where a is the first term of the sequence and r is the common ratio whose magnitude is
less than one.
S =
203
Worked exampLe 12
eBook plus
a Find the sum to infinity for the sequence tn: {10, 1, 0.1, . . .}.
b Find the fourth term in the geometric sequence whose first term is 6
Tutorial
int-1055
and whose sum to infinity is 10.
Worked example 12
ThInk
a
WrITe
a tn = ar n 1
Write the formula for the nth term of the

geometric sequence.
From the question we know that the first term,

a, is 10 and r = 0.1.
a = 10,
Write the formula for the sum to infinity.
S =
a
; |r | < 1
1 r
Substitute a = 10 and r = 0.10 into the formula

and evaluate.
S =
10
1 0.1
S =
10
0.9
b S =
r = 0.1
100
9
= 11 9
a
; |r| < 1
1 r
From the question it is known that the infinite

sum is equal to 10 and that the first term a is 6.
Write down this information.
a = 6; S = 10
Substitute known values into the formula.
10 =
Solve for r.
10(1 r) = 6
10 10r = 6
10r = 4
r = 0.4
Write the general formula for the nth term of

the geometric sequence.
tn = ar n 1
To find the 4th term substitute a = 6, n = 4 and

r = 0.4 into the formula and evaluate.
t4 = 6 (0.4)3
= 0.384
6
1 r
rememBer
1. The sum of the first n terms in a geometric sequence is:
or
Sn =
a(1 r n )
with r 1
1 r
Sn =
a(r n 1)
with r 1
r 1
2. When the magnitude of r is less than one, that is, 1 < r < 1, the sum of a geometric
sequence to infinity, S is given by:
a
S =
1 r
204
exerCISe
6e
Geometric series
eBook plus
1 We 11 Consider the following sequences and find the terms indicated.

a tn: {1, 2, 4, . . .}. Find S5, S10, S20.
b tn: {1, 3, 9, . . .}. Find S5, S10, S20.
c tn = 3(2)n 1, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}. Find S5, S10, S20.
d tn = 4(1.2)n 1, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}. Find S1, S10, S20.
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 036
Fibonacci series
e tn + 1 = 2tn, t1 = 2 . Find S1, S5, S10.

1
f tn + 1 = 2 tn, t1 =
2
3
. Find S1, S5, S10.
g The first term is 3000 and the common ratio is 1.05. Find S4, S16, S64.
h The first term is 1400 and the common ratio is 1.1. Find S4, S9, S14.
i The first term is 20; every other term is obtained by multiplying the preceding term by 5.
Find S5, S10.
1
j The first term is 2; every other term is obtained by multiplying the preceding term by 2 .
Find S5, S10.
2 Consider the following geometric sequences and find the terms indicated.
a The first term is 440 and the 12th term is 880. Find S6.
b The 5th term is 1 and the 8th term is 8. Find S1, S10, S20.
3 Find the sum of the first 12 terms of a geometric sequence in which the
8
second term is 3 and the fifth term is 9.
1
4 What minimum number of terms of the series 2 + 3 + 4 2 + . . . must be taken to give a sum in
excess of 100?
5 The sum of the first four terms of a geometric sequence is 312, and the sum of the next four
terms is 625 times that number. Find the sum of the following four terms.
6 Find the sum of all powers of 2 between 500 and 50 000.
7 Find the sum of all powers of 4 between 500 and 50 000.
8 We 12a
Find the sum to infinity for the following geometric sequences.

b tn: {1,
1 1
d tn: {1, 3, 9 , . . .}
2 4 8
, , 9,
3 9
. . .}
2 4
c tn: {1, 3, 9 , . . .}
e tn: {1,
1 1 1
, , ,
2 4 8
1 1
a tn: {1, 2 , 4 , . . .}
. . .}
1 1 1
9 For the infinite geometric sequence { 2 , 4 , 8 , . . .}, find the sum to infinity. Consequently, find
what proportion each of the first three terms contributes to this sum as a percentage.
1
10 For the infinite geometric sequence {1, 4 , 16 , . . .}, find the sum to infinity. Consequently, find
11 For the infinite geometric sequence {1, 4 , 16 , . . .}, find the sum to infinity. Consequently, find
1
n 1
12 A sequence of numbers is defined by tn = 3 2 , n {1, 2, 3, . . .}.

a Find the sum of the first 20 terms.
c Find the sum to infinity, S.
13 A sequence of numbers is defined by tn: {9, 3, 1, . . .}.
a Find the sum of the first 9 terms.
c Find the sum to infinity, S.
Chapter 6
205
14 The first term of the geometric sequence is 5 and the fourth term is 0.078 125. Find the sum to
infinity.
15 The sum of the first four terms of a geometric sequence is 30 and the sum to infinity is 32. Find
the first three terms of the sequence.
16 For the geometric sequence 5 + 3 , 5 3, . . ., find the common factor, r, and the sum of
the infinite series, S.
2
eBook plus
17 If 1 + 3x + 9x2 + . . . = 3 , find the value of x.
Digital doc
18 We 12b The first term in a geometric sequence is 4 and S = 6. Find

the common factor, r.
WorkSHEET 6.2
19 If the common ratio for a geometric sequence is 0.99 and the sum to infinity
is 100, what is the value of the first and second terms in the sequence?
20 Show that xn 1 always has a factor (x 1) for n {1, 2, 3, . . .}.
21 A student stands at one side of a road 10 metres wide, and walks
half-way across. The student then walks half of the remaining
distance across the road, then half the remaining distance again
and so on.
a Will the student ever make it past the other side of the road?
b Does the width of the road affect your answer?
6F
applications of sequences
and series
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0973
Applications of
sequences and series
eLesson
This section consists of a mixture of problems where the work

covered in the first five exercises is applied to a variety of situations.
eles-0080
The following general guidelines can assist you in solving the
The Fibonacci sequence
problems.
1. Read the question carefully.
2. Decide whether the information suggests an arithmetic or geometric sequence. Check to see if
there is a constant difference between successive terms or a constant ratio. If there is neither,
look for a simple number pattern such as the difference between successive terms changing in
a regular way.
3. Write the information from the problem using appropriate notation. For example, if you are told
that the 5th term is 12, write t5 = 12. If the sequence is arithmetic, you then have an equation to
work with, namely: a + 4d = 12. If you know the sequence is geometric, then ar4 = 12.
4. Define what you have to calculate and write an appropriate formula or formulas. For example,
if you have to find the 10th number in a sequence which you know is geometric, you have an
equation: t10 = ar9. This can be calculated if a and r are known or can be established.
5. Use algebra to find what is required in the problem.
Worked exampLe 13
In1970thecostof1megabyteofcomputermemorywas$2025.In1980thecostforthesame
amountofmemoryhadreducedto$45andby1990thecosthaddroppedto$1.
a Whatwasthecostof1megabyteofmemoryintheyear2000?
b Howmuchmemory,inmegabytes,couldyoubuyfor$10intheyear2010basedonthecurrent
trend?
206
ThInk
a
WrITe
Present the given information in a table.
Year
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Cost
($)
2025
45
Study the table. The information suggests

a geometric sequence for the cost at each
ten-year interval. Verify this by checking
for a constant ratio between successive
terms.
45 2025 = 45 and 1 45 = 45 so the three

terms form a geometric sequence with
To find the cost in the year 2000, find

the fourth term in the sequence by
multiplying the preceding (third) term by
the common ratio.
t4 = t3 r
common ratio r =
t4 = 1
=
1
.
45
1
45
1
45
= 0.022 . . .
Interpret the result and clearly answer the

question.
If the cost of 1 megabyte can be found in

the year 2010 then the amount of memory
purchased for $10 can be determined. To
find the predicted cost in the year 2010
the fifth term in the sequence needs to be
determined.
In the year 2000 one would have paid about

2 cents for a megabyte of memory.
b t5 = t4 r
1
45
1
2025
1
45
of a dollar per megabyte
Take the reciprocal of t5 to get the amount

of memory per dollar.
The amount of memory per dollar is

2025 megabytes.
Find the amount of memory that can be

purchased for $10.
So $10 would buy 10 2025

= 20 250 megabytes.
Worked exampLe 14
eBook plus
Expresstherecurringdecimal0.131 313 13...asaproperfraction.
Tutorial
int-1056
ThInk
1
Express the given number as a geometric series.
State the values of a and r.
Find the sum to infinity, S.

Substitute values of a and r into the formula and
simplify.
Multiply both numerator and denominator by 100

to get rid of the decimal point.
Worked example 14
WrITe
0.131 313 . . . = 0.13 + 0.001 3 + 0.000 013 . . .

a = 0.13 and r =
0.0013
0.13
= 0.01
a
1 r
0.13
S =
1 0.01
0.13
S =
0.99
13
S =
99
S =
Chapter 6
207
rememBer
To solve problems, use the following guidelines.

1. Identify the type of the sequence by checking whether there is a common difference, or
a common ratio.
2. Translate given information into mathematical statements, using appropriate notation.
3. Define what you have to find and write appropriate formula(s).
4. Use algebra to find what is required.
exerCISe
6F
applications of sequences and series

1 We 13 In 1970 the Smith family purchased a small house for $60 000. Over the following
years, the value of their property rose steadily. In 1975 the value of the house was $69 000 and
in 1980 it reached $79 350.
a Assuming that the pattern continues through the years, find (to the nearest dollar) the
value of the Smiths house in i 1985, ii 1995.
b By what factor will the value of the house have increased by the year 2010, compared to
the original value?
2 An accountant has been working with the same company for 15 years. She commenced on a
salary of $28 000 dollars and has received a $2500 increase each year.
a What type of sequence of numbers does her annual income follow?
b How much did she earn in her 15th year of employment?
c How much has she earned from the company altogether?
d What was her percentage increase at the end of i her first and ii her fourteenth year of
employment?
3 A chemist has been working with the same company for 15 years. He commenced on a salary
of $28 000 dollars and has received a 4% increase each year.
a What type of sequence of numbers does his annual income follow?
b How much did he earn in his 15th year of employment?
c How much has he earned from the company altogether?
d What was his increase in salary at the end of i his first and ii his fourteenth year of
employment?
4 A biologist is growing a tissue culture in a Petri dish.
The initial mass of the culture was 20 milligrams.
By the end of the first day the culture was a mass of
28 milligrams.
a Assuming that the daily growth is arithmetic, find
the mass of the culture after the second, third,
tenth and nth day.
b On what day will the culture mass first exceed
200 milligrams?
c Assuming that the daily growth is geometric, find
the mass of the culture after the second, third,
tenth and nth day.
d On what day will the culture mass first exceed
200 milligrams?
5 Logs of wood can be stacked so that there is one more log on each descending layer than on
the previous layer. The top row has 6 logs and there are 20 rows.
a How many logs are in the stack altogether?
208
b The logs are to be separated into two equal piles. They are separated by removing logs
from the top of the pile. How many rows down will workers take away before they
remove half the stack?
6 As I was going to St Ives
I met a man with seven wives.
Every wife had seven sacks,
Every sack had seven cats,
Note: This is a variation on the original
Every cat had seven kits.
riddle, which asks How many were
Kits, cats, sacks and wives,
going to St Ives.
How many were coming from St Ives?
7 Thoughtful Frank has 100 movie tickets to give away to people at a local shopping centre. He
gives the first person one ticket, the next person two tickets, the third person three tickets and
so on until he can no longer give the nth person n tickets. How many tickets did the last lucky
person receive? How many tickets did Frank have left?
8 Kind-hearted Kate has 200 movie tickets to give away to people at the shopping centre. She
gives the first person one ticket, the next person two tickets, the third person four tickets and so
on following a geometric progression until she can no longer give the nth person 2(n 1) tickets.
How many tickets did the last lucky person receive? How many tickets did Kate have left?
9 The King of Persia, so the story goes, offered Xanadu any reward to secure the safety of his
kingdom. As his reward, Xanadu requested a chessboard with one grain of rice on the first
square, two grains on the second, four on the third and so on until the 64th square had its share
of rice deposited.
a Find the total number of grains of rice that the king needed to supply.
b If each grain of rice weighs 0.10 grams, how many kilograms of rice does this represent?
(Note: There are 103 grams in 1 kilogram.)
10 As legend has it, the King of Constantinople offered Xanadus cousin Yittrius any reward to
secure the safety of his city. This Yittrius accepted: she requested a chessboard with one grain
of rice on the first square, three grains of rice on the second square, five grains of rice on the
third square and so on until the 64th square had its share of rice deposited.
a Find the total number of grains of rice that the king needed to supply.
b If each grain of rice weighs 0.10 gram, how many kilograms of rice does this represent?
(Note: There are 103 grams in 1 kilogram.)
11 A student is 3.0 m from the door to a classroom and decides that he will take a 1.0m step
followed by a step of half that distance, and half again and so on until he gets to the classroom
door. Show that he will never get any closer than one metre from the door.
2
12 A hiker walks 36 km on the first day and 3 that distance on the second. Every day thereafter
2
she walks 3 of the distance she walked on the day before. Will the hiker cover the distance of
100km to complete the walk and on what day will she complete the task?
13 WE14 Recurring decimals can be expressed as rational numbers. Find the fraction equivalent
of the following recurring decimal numbers by writing the decimal number as a sum of infinite
terms.
a 0.1111 . . . = 0.1 + 0.01 + 0.001 + . . .
b 0.333333333 . . .
c 0.5757 . . .
d 2.343434 . . .
e 3.142142142 . . .
f 21.2121 . . .
g 16.666 . . .
14 In 1990, 100 students enrolled for a hypocorisma subject at a local university. Each subsequent
year for the next decade the enrolment increased by 20%.
a Find the number of students enrolled in hypocorisma in 1995.
b Over the course of the decade find the total number of students who had enrolled in
hypocorisma.
209
15 For tax purposes, the value of a computer used for a business depreciates by 8.5% of the initial
cost each year. For economic reasons the business sells its computers when they first depreciate
to less than half their initial value. After how many years will a computer used by this business
be sold?
16 The side lengths of a right-angled triangle form the successive terms of an arithmetic sequence.
The perimeter of the triangle is 72 m. What are the side lengths of the triangle?
17 A circular board is divided into a series of concentric
circles of radius 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm and 4 cm as shown at
right.
a Find the areas of each of the successive shaded
regions and show that they form an arithmetic
progression.
b A dart is fired at the board at random and hits the
board. What is the probability of striking each of the
four regions of the board?
(Note: The probability of striking a region = area of
region total area.)
4 cm
3 cm
1 cm
2 cm
18 A bullet is fired vertically up into the air. In the first second it has an average speed of 180 m/s;
that is, it travels 180 m up into the air during the first second. Each second its speed diminishes
by 12 m/s. Thus during the 2nd second the bullet has an average speed only 168 m/s and
accordingly travels 168 m further up into the air.
a Find an equation for the average speed of the bullet for the nth second that it is in the air.
b Find the time when the average speed of the bullet is equal to zero.
c Find the maximum height of the bullet above where it was fired.
19 Coffee cools according to Newtons Law of Cooling in which the temperature of the coffee
above room temperature drops by a constant fraction each unit of time. The table below shows
the temperature of a cup of coffee in a room at 20 C each minute after it was made.
Remember to subtract the room temperature from the
temperature of the coffee before you do your calculations.
Time (min)
Temperature(C)
80.0
74.0
68.6
The person who made the coffee will drink it only if it has a
temperature in excess of 50 C. What is the minimum time after
the cup of coffee has been made before it becomes undrinkable?
20 Two arithmetic sequences, tn and un, are multiplied together. That is, each term is multiplied by
the other to form a new term.
tn = 2n 3, n {1, 2, 3, . . .} and
un = 3n, n {1, 2, 3, . . .}
Show that the new sequence of numbers t1 u1, t2 u2, t3 u3, . . . is an arithmetic series
and hence find the arithmetic sequence for that new series.
(Hint: For a sequence, an, with a series An, an = An An 1)
210
Summary
A sequence is a string of numbers or expressions. It may contain a finite or infinite number of terms and may
or may not follow a recognisable pattern.
A sequence can be described in a number of ways.
1. As a list tn: {1, 7, 2, 6, . . .} (note that t3 = 2)
2. As a function: tn = 2n n2, n {1, 2, 3, . . .} (note that t5 = 2 5 52 = 15)
3. As a recursive or iterative formula: tn + 1 = 2tn 3, t1 = 6 (note that t2 = 2 6 3 = 9)
The logistic equation is a model of population growth of the general form:
tn + 1 = atn(1 - tn),
A convergent sequence is a sequence whose terms settle at a certain fixed number, x, called the limit of the
sequence. This can be written as tn x. A sequence whose terms grow further and further apart is called
divergent. That is, a sequence is divergent if tn , or tn as n . A sequence whose terms fluctuate
between two (or more) values is called oscillating.
An arithmetic sequence is one whose successive terms have a common difference. This common difference
is given the symbol d. Thus tn + 1 tn = d for all values of n. The first term in the sequence is given the
symbol a.
If x, y, z are successive terms in an arithmetic sequence then the middle term (y) is called an arithmetic mean
and is equal to the average of the two outer terms (x and z):
x+z
y=
2
An arithmetic sequence can be written as a, a + d, a + 2d, ... and so the nth term, tn, is:
tn = a + (n 1)d using the function notation, or
tn + 1 = tn + d, t1 = a using the iterative notation.
Arithmetic series
The sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic sequence is given by

n
Sn = (2a + ( n 1)d )
2
In general, tn + 1 = Sn + 1 Sn.
Geometric sequences
A geometric sequence is one in which each successive term is obtained by multiplying the preceding term by
t
a constant number. This number is called the common ratio and is given the symbol r. Thus n + 1 = r for all
tn
values of n. The first term in the sequence is given the symbol a.
If x, y, z are successive terms in an arithmetic sequence then y is called a geometric mean and is given by
y2 = xz.
A geometric sequence can be written as a, ar, ar2, ... and so the nth term, tn, is
tn = arn 1 using the function notation, or
tn + 1 = rtn, t1 = a using the iterative notation.
211
Geometric series
The sum of the first n terms in a geometric sequence is given by

a(1 r n )
with r 1
1 r
a(r n 1)

or Sn =
with r 1
r 1
When the magnitude of r is less than one, that is, 1 < r < 1, the sum of a geometric sequence to infinity S is
a
given by S =
.
1 r

Sn =
To solve problems, use the following guidelines.

1. Identify the type of sequence by checking whether there is a common difference, or a common ratio.
2. Translate given information into mathematical statements, using appropriate notation.
3. Define what you have to find and write appropriate formula(s).
4. Use algebra to find what is required.
212
chapter review
Short answer
1 Write the iterative definition for each of the

following sequences:
a {7, 11, 19, 35, 67, ...}
b {2, 5, 26, 677, ...}
2 For the arithmetic sequence where t3 = 10 and
t6 = 478, find
a the functional rule for the nth term in the
sequence
b the iterative rule for the sequence.
3 A car at a racetrack starts from rest and travels
0.5 m in the 1st second and 1.0 m in the 2nd second
following an arithmetic progression in the distances
covered each subsequent second.
a How far will it travel during the 10th second?
b After 10 seconds of motion, how far will it
have travelled in total?
c To the nearest whole second, how long will it
take to travel 1000 m (1 km)?
4 At Bugas Heights a radiation leak in a waste
disposal tank potentially exposes staff to a
1000 milli-rem h dose on the first day of the
accident, a 800 milli-rem h dose on the second day
after the accident and a 640 milli-rem h dose on the
third day following the accident.
a Assuming a geometric sequence, find the amount
of potential exposure dose by the 10th day.
b Find the total potential exposure dose in the
first 5 days.
5 The infinite sum of a geometric sequence is 99 and
the first term is 10. Find the common ratio for the
sequence.
6 Find the sum of the following expressions:
1
4
a 1 + +
1
16
1
64
...
2
3
4
9
b 1 + -
8
27
...
7 Find the fraction equivalent of the following

recurring decimals:
a 0.222222
b 2.454545454
Multiple choice
1 Consider the sequence tn + 1 = 2tn + 4; t3 = 12. The

second term in the sequence is:
A 10
B 6
C 28
D 4
E 8
2 A series is listed as 3, 10, 21, 36, ... The next term

in the series is:
A 51
B 52
C 53
D 54
E 55
3 The 23rd term in the sequence of numbers
{7, 3, 1, ...} is:
A 88
B 81
C 74
83
E 90
D
4 Consider the arithmetic sequence 52, a, 41, b. The
numerical value of the expression a 3b is:
A 60
D
71
B 64 12
E
C 67 1
72 12
5 Consider the arithmetic sequence x 2y, 3x 4y,

4x 7y, ... An expression for y in terms of x is:
A y = x
B y = x
C y = 2x
D y = 2x
E y = 3x
6 A car is accelerating such that in the 1st second
it travels 2.0 metres, in the 2nd second it travels
3.5 metres, in the 3rd second it travels 5.0 metres,
and so on for a total of 15 seconds. The total
distance travelled by the car is:
A 630 m
B 93.75 m
C 187.5 m
D 375 m
E 315 m
7 The sum of the first four terms in an arithmetic
sequence is 70. The sum of the first six terms is 63.
The sixth term of the sequence is equal to:
B 7
A 14
C 0
D 7
E 14
8 For a geometric sequence, the 4th term is 5 and
the 7th term is 625. The second term in the
sequence is:
A 2.5
B 1.25
C 0.25
D 0.25
E 0.20
9 The sum of an infinite geometric sequence is 5.6
with the common ratio equal to 0.20. The sum of
the first four terms of the geometric sequence is
closest to:
A 5.0
B 5.2
C 5.4
D 5.6
E 5.8
213
10 The sum of the first 10 terms of a geometric

sequence is 400. The next term in the sequence
is 3 times the previous term. The first term in the
sequence is:
11 The sequence tn = 81 1
3
n1
and the series
t
Sn = 1 0.1n are combined to form the ratio n .
sn
When n = 9 the value of the ratio is:
17
731
1
27
400
1473
1
270
100
7381
1
243
200
781
1
D 81
10
387
10

81
EXtended response
1 Consider a square of side length 2 units.

a What is the perimeter of the square?
b Each of the four midpoints form the vertices of a new square inscribed within the original square. Find
the perimeter of this new square.
c Repeat the process to find the perimeter of a third square inscribed within the second.
d Give an expression for the perimeter of the nth square.
2 Consider the following iterative definitions:
a tn + 1 = tn - 3 , t1 = 1
4
8
b tn + 1 = atn, t1 = b2
c tn + 1 = 3tn2 - 1.5, t1 = 0.5
If each of these definitions is used to generate a sequence of numbers:

i decide whether the sequence is arithmetic, geometric or neither, and
ii find its fourth term.
3 In January 2004, Rachel and Nathan inherited a small trout farm from their Uncle Michael. They were told
that in any given year the trout population, pn + 1, could be easily calculated using the formula
pn + 1 = 0.5pn(1 pn), where pn is the number of trout (in thousands) in the preceding year. They were also told
that on the day of their inheritance the farm housed 800 fish.
a Use the above formula to predict (to the nearest whole number) the size of the fish population on Rachel
and Nathans farm for the next three years; that is, for

i January 2005
ii January 2006
iii January 2007.
b What will happen to the size of the fish population if it continues to change according to the above
formula? How long will it take?
After extensive research, Rachel and Nathan decided to modernise their newly acquired farm. A new
feeding system and other improvements were installed, and were completed within the first two years
(that is, by January 2006). As a result, in any given year the trout population, pn + 1, could now be
calculated using the formula pn + 1 = 1.6pn(1 pn), where pn is the number of trout (in thousands) in the
preceding year.
c Use this new formula, and the figure obtained in part a ii (that is, the trout population in January 2006) as
your starting point to predict the size of the trout population for January 2007 and January 2008.
d Do Rachel and Nathan still run the risk of losing all of their trout stock? Explain your answer.
e Will the size of the trout population ever reach and increase beyond the initial number of 800 fish? Give
reasons for your answer.
214
4 On an island in the Pacific Ocean the population of a

species of insect (species A) is increasing geometrically
with a population of 10 000 in 1990 and an annual
growth rate of 12.0%. Another species of insect
(species B) is also increasing its population, but
arithmetically with numbers 15 000 in 1990 and an
annual increment of 1000 per annum.
a Using a spreadsheet or other method, determine the
difference in the numbers of the two species during
the last decade of the twentieth century (that is, up
to 1999).
b In what year will the first species be greater in
number than the second species, assuming that
growth rates remain fixed?
A scientist has a mathematical model where the species
can cohabit provided that they have equal numbers in
the year 2000.
c If the growth rate in species A is to remain
unchanged, what would the annual increment in
species B need to be to achieve this?
d If the annual increment in species B is to remain
unchanged, what would the growth rate in
species A need to be to achieve this?
5 a A series is given by the equation
Sn = 2n2 + 3n.
Show that the sequence is arithmetic and give the
expression for the nth term in the sequence, tn.
b A series is given by the equation Sn = an2 + bn. Show that the sequence is arithmetic and give the
expression for the nth term in the sequence, tn, in terms of a and b.
6 a Australian Heating is a company that produces heating systems. The number of heating systems produced
annually is modelled by an increasing geometric sequence. The number of heating systems produced in
each of the first 3 years is shown in Table 1.
Table1:Annualproductionofheatingsystems.
Year
Numberofheatingsystemsproduced
2000
2200
2420
i
ii
iii
iv
Show that the common ratio r of this sequence is 1.1.

What is the annual percentage increase in the number of heating systems produced each year?
How many heating systems will be produced in year 5?
The number of heating systems produced annually continues to follow this pattern. In total, how
many heating systems will they produce in the first 10 years of operation?
v The geometric sequence in Table 1 can also be produced using an iterative definition of the form
Pn + 1 = bPn + c, where P1 = 2000 and Pn is the number of heating systems produced in the nth year.
Determine the values of b and c.
b The purchase and installation of a basic heating system with five outlets costs $3500. Each additional
outlet costs an extra $80.
i Determine the cost of installing a heating system with eight outlets.
ii A customer has $4400 to spend on a heating system and outlets. Determine the greatest number of
outlets that can be bought with this heating system.
Chapter 6
215
iii Australian Heating recommends that a house with 20 squares of living area should have 12 heating
outlets. Using this recommended ratio, determine the cost of installing a heating system for a house
having 35 squares of living area.
c The number, Sn, of heating systems sold in the nth year is defined by the iterative definition:
Sn = 1.2Sn 1 200, where n 5 and S3 = 2224
i Use this definition to determine how many heating systems were sold in the first year.
ii What percentage (correct to 1 decimal place) of heating systems produced during the first three years
was sold within the three years?
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
exam TIp
Remember an iterative formula of the form:
Tn = aTn 1 + b will have a value of b = 0 if the sequence
is geometric and a = 1 if the sequence is arithmetic.
Chapter 6
[Assessment report 2004]
[VcAA 2004]
216
eBook plus
aCTIvITIeS
chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on sequences and series. (page 178)
6A
Tutorial
We 2 int-1051: Watch how to determine the

behaviour of the sequence using a CAS calculator.
(page 183)
Digital doc
History of mathematics: Learn about the

mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci. (page 186)
6b
Tutorial
We 5 int-1052: Watch how to find the missing terms

in an arithmetic sequence. (page 189)
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.1: Practise using elimination to solve

6c
Arithmetic series
Tutorial
We 7 int-1053: Watch how to find the sum of the first

20 terms in an arithmetic sequence. (page 193)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 6.1: Complete and determine

arithmetic series. (page 195)
6D
Geometric sequences
Spreadsheet 036: Investigate Fibonacci series.

(page 205)
WorkSHEET 6.2: Solve more complex problems
with arithmetic series, complete and determine
geometric series and apply geometric series theory
to a worded problem. (page 206)
6F
Interactivity
Applications of sequences and series int-0973:

Consolidate your understanding of sequences and
series. (page 206)
eLesson
eles-0080: The
Fibonacci sequence (page 206)
Tutorial
We 14 int-1056: Watch how to express a recurring

decimal as a proper fraction. (page 207)
chapter review
Tutorial
We 10 int-1054: Watch how to find a specific term in

a geometric sequence. (page 197)
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 036: Investigate Fibonacci sequences.

(page 199)
6E
Digital docs
Geometric series
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Tutorial
We 12 int-1055: Watch how to find the sum to infinity

of a geometric sequence and a term given the sum to
infinity and the first term. (page 204)
Chapter 6
217
7A
7B
7C
7D
7E
7F
7G
Direct variation
Further direct variation
Inverse variation
Further inverse variation
Joint variation
Part variation
Transformation of data
Variation
areas oF sTudY
Numerical, graphical and algebraic approaches

to direct, inverse and joint variation
Transformation of data to establish relationships
1
between variables, for example, x2, to linear
x
Modelling of given nonlinear data using the

relationships y = kkxx 2 + c,
c, y =
k
+ c, where k is a
x
positive real number

eBook plus
Digital doc
7a
10 Quick Questions
direct variation
We often need to look at variables related to an everyday situation, and then work out the
relationship between them. This is called mathematical modelling. The variables may be
recorded in a table or illustrated graphically. Once a relationship has been formulated, it is
interesting to see how one variable changes with respect to changes in the other.
This change is called a variation and depends on the relationship that exists between
the variables.
In this chapter we shall consider four types of variation: direct, inverse, joint and part
variation. We shall also look at the transformation of data in order to establish relationships
between variables.
Consider the following example. Leon has agreed to sponsor his friend who is participating
in the 40-hour famine. He will sponsor his friend $1.20 per hour. The amount Leon has to
pay depends on the number of hours his friend goes without food. This information may be
represented graphically, or placed in a table, as shown.
n, number of hours without food
C, total cost of sponsorship ($)
1.20
2.40
3.60
4.80
6.00
The table shows the amount to be paid for up to 5 hours. (If necessary, it could be extended to
40 hours, assuming that Leon can pay for each hour his friend goes without food and his friend
can go without food for the specified time.)
From the table, we can see that as the number of hours increases, the total cost of sponsorship
also increases (as expected). The ratio between the cost, C, and the number of hours, n, is the
218
same for each pair of values, that is:

1.20 2.40 3.60 4.80 6.00
=
=
=
=
= 1.20.
1
2
3
4
5
Hence, the relationship between the two variables can be written as:
C
= 1.20 or C = 1.20 n
n
C = 1.20n is an equation of a straight line with gradient 1.20.
The line passes through the origin. Graphically, the relationship
can be represented as shown at right.
Summarising our observations, we can say that the following
is true for the given information.
C($)
6.00
4.80
3.60
2.40
1.20
1. The ratio between any pair of corresponding values is

0 1 2 3 4 5 n (hours)
constant.
2. The graph which represents the data is a straight line passing through the origin.
3. The gradient of the line is equal to the ratio between the variables.
4. As one variable increases, the other variable also increases.
In cases like this, we can say that one of the variables is directly proportional to (or varies
directly as) the other. The ratio between any two corresponding variables is constant and is
called the constant of proportionality (or constant of variation) and is denoted by the symbol k.
Hence, for the example on the previous page:
C is directly proportional to n
or C varies directly as n
Using mathematical notation this is written as:
Cn
where the symbol means is directly proportional to or varies directly as.
The ratio between corresponding values of C and n is constant and in our example is equal
C
to 1.20 = 1.20 . So the constant of proportionality (or constant of variation), k, is 1.20. The
n
relationship between variables can be expressed as C = 1.20n.

Generally, for any two variables x and y, where y varies directly as x, (that is, y x), there
y
exists a relationship between them such that = k or y = kx, where k is a constant. The graph
x
of the relationship is a straight line passing through the origin with the gradient k the constant
of variation.
If
yx
then
y = kx
where k is the constant of variation and k R.
From the definition, it follows that the existence of the direct variation between two variables
can be established either numerically or graphically, as shown in the following example.
Worked Example 1
For the given data, establish whether direct variation exists between x and y using:
a a numerical approach (clearly specify k, the constant of variation, if applicable) and
b a graphical approach.
Chapter 7 Variation
219
c Confirm your result using a CAS calculator.
10
y
y
x
5.2
9.1
10.4
13
THINK
a
WRITE/Draw
y
for each of the
x
four pairs of values.
One variable varies directly as the
other if the ratio between any two
corresponding values is constant.
Find the ratio
a Ratio =
y
x
5.2
= 1.3
4
9.1
= 1.3
7
10.4
= 1.3
8
13
= 1.3
10
First pair:
Second pair:
Third pair:
Fourth pair:
Compare each of the four ratios and

Copy and complete the table.
1
2
220
Plot the information from the table

onto a set of axes.
Join the given points and see if a
straight line is obtained.
Note: For a direct variation to exist
between two variables x and y, a
straight line passing through the
origin (0, 0) must be obtained.
Calculate the gradient using any two

points on the straight line. Answer the
question.
Note: The gradient of the straight line
will equal k, the constant of variation,
if direct variation exists between the
variables x and y.
Since all four ratios are the same (that is, 1.3),
y varies directly as x.
10
y
y
x
5.2
9.1
10.4
13
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
y
13
10.4
9.1
5.2
0
7 8 10
The given points fit perfectly on a straight line. If

the straight line is extended it will pass through the
origin. Therefore y varies directly as x.
Let (x1, y1) = (4, 5.2) and let
(x2, y2) = (10, 13)
y -y
m= 2 1
x2 - x1
13 - 5.2
10 - 4
7.8
=
6
= 1.3
The gradient of the straight line is equal to k, the
constant of variation.
=
On the Statistics screen, enter the

data into the table. Label the
columns x and y.
To draw the scatterplot of the data,

tap:
SetGraph
Settings
Set:
Type: Scatter
XList: main\x
YList: main\y
Freq: 1
Mark: square
Set
y
To check the linear relationship, tap:

Calc
Linear Reg
Set:
XList: main\x
YList: main\y
Freq: 1
OK
The relationship is one of direct variation.
If we know that one variable varies directly as the other, it is possible to establish the value of k,
the constant of variation, and hence determine the value of any variable given its corresponding
value.
Chapter 7 Variation
221
Worked Example 2
If it is known that m n, find: a the constant of variation b the missing values.

n
6
10
THINK
a
222
9
18
20
WRITE
m
n
Write the rule for k. Since m n, then

m
m = kn and hence k = .
n
Obtain a pair of values where both m and

n are known.
Select n = 9, m = 18
Substitute these values into the given

equation and obtain a value for k.
k=

Note: To obtain k, we can use only
corresponding values; that is, those in
which one value is underneath the other in
the table.
The constant of variation is 2. Therefore

m
= 2 or m = 2n.
n
Find the unknown value by substituting

its given corresponding pair into the
m
equation = 2.
n
First pair: substitute n = 3.

Transpose the equation to make m the
subject.
Second pair: substitute m = 10.

Transpose the equation to make n the
subject.
Third pair: substitute n = 6.

Transpose the equation to make m the
subject.
Final pair: substitute m = 10.

Transpose the equation to make n the
subject.
a k=
18
9
=2
b From part a
m
=2
n
m
First pair = 2
3
m=23
=6
10
Second pair = 2
n
10 = 2 n
2n = 10
10
n=
2
=5
m
Third pair = 2
6
m=26
= 12
20
Final pair = 2
n
20 = 2 n
2n = 20
20
n=
2
= 10
10
10
12
18
20
A similar approach may be applied to solving worded problems which involve direct variation.
Worked example 3
eBook plus
If the distance, d km, travelled by a person varies directly as the time, t hours, and
Tutorial
it is known that the person travelled 12 km while walking for 2.5 hours, find:
int-1057
Worked example 3
a how far he will travel in 3 hours
b how long he must walk in order to travel 6.72 km.
THINk
a
WrITe
Write the rule for k. Since d t, then

d
d = kt and hence k = .
t
Substitute the given values for d and t into

the equation and solve for k.
Substitute t = 3 into the equation

d
= 4.8.
t
Transpose the equation to make d the

subject.
Answer the question and include the

appropriate unit.
Substitute d = 6.72 into the equation

d
obtained in part a ; that is, = 4.8.
t
k=
d
t
12
2.5
= 4.8
The constant of variation is 4.8. Therefore,
d
= 4.8
t
d
= 4.8
When t = 3,
3
k=
d = 4.8 3
= 14.4
He will travel 14.4 km in three hours.
b From part a :
When d = 6.72,
d
= 4.8
t
6.72
= 4.8
t
6.72 = 4.8 t
4.8t = 6.72
6.72
t=
4.8
= 1.4
Transpose the equation to make t the

subject.
Convert the answer to hours and minutes

by multiplying the decimal part of the
answer by 60.
1.4 hours = 1 h + (0.4 60) min

= 1 h 24 min
In order to travel 6.72 km, he must walk

for 1 h 24 min.
Although we were not actually asked to find the constant of variation, k, it was a necessary step
in order to solve the problem.
Chapter 7
Variation
223
REMEMBER
1. For any two variables x and y, where y varies directly as x (or y is directly proportional
to x), the following properties exist:
(a) the ratio between any pair of corresponding values is constant and equal to k, the
constant of proportionality (or constant of variation)
(b) the graph, which represents the variables x and y, is a straight line passing through
the origin with the gradient equal to k
(c) as one variable increases, the other variable also increases.
2. The notation used to express y varies directly as x is given by:

yx

or
y = kx
where k R
3. When solving problems involving direct variation follow these steps:
(a) establish a ratio relating the given variables and determine the value of k, the
constant of proportionality
(b) use the ratio and k to determine the value of any variable given its corresponding
value.
Exercise
7A
Direct variation
1 WE1
For the given data in each of the following tables, establish whether direct variation
exists using:
i a numerical approach (clearly specify k, the constant of variation, if applicable) and
ii a graphical approach.
a
y
y
x
4.5
7.5
r
r
p
14
16
t
t
s
-3
-6
-15
-18
b
b
a
4
3
2
13
10
n
n
m
1.5
-5
-4
v
v
u
-10
-8
14
16
2 MC Which of the following represents direct variation between x and y?

i y
224
ii y
iii y
iv y
v y
A ii only
3
vi y
B ii and iv
C iii only
D i, v and vi
E None of the above
Sam and Nicholas collected some data for their statistics project and arranged them in a
table as follows.
n
10
18
19
20
20
35
50
125
170
290
305
320
Nicholas wants to see if direct variation exists between the two variables n and C and
suggests using either a numerical or graphical method. However, Sam argues that by simple
inspection of the table, he knows that C is not directly proportional to n.
a Is Sam right about his conclusion?
b Explain how he could arrive at his conclusion without plotting the data, or without finding
ratios of corresponding values of C and n.
4 WE2 For each of the following, it is known that y x. Find:
a the constant of variation
b the missing values.
i x
ii x
4
5
10
4
y
iii
2.2
x
y
vii
23
iv
9.9
vi
10.4 20.8
41.6 72.8
2
1
viii
27.6
1.1
x
y
18.4
18
7.5
36
y
x
2.5 12.5 30
5
10
3
4.5
45
1
2.5
3
2
3
40
1.5
7
4

Given that n m:
m
9
1
23
12
5 MC The gradient of the line which represents the relationship between m and n is:
A 2 1
3
B 3
1
3
D 4
6 MC The relationship between m and n cannot be written as:

1
m
n 1
A = 3
B =
C 3n = m
D m = n
3
n
m 3
7 MC The missing values of n when m = 4 and m = 12 are:
A 12, 36 respectively
B 4 , 4 respectively
D 16, 48 respectively
16
,
3
4
3
1
E n = m
3
C 1, 3 respectively
16 respectively
Chapter 7 Variation
225
8 mC a b and a = 21 when b = 15. When a = 49, b is equal to:

A 68.6
B 70
C 34.3
D 35
E 17.5
9 We3 A long-distance truck driver finds that when he is driving from Melbourne to Sydney,
the distance he travels is directly proportional to time. It takes him 2 hours and 36 minutes to
travel 234 km. Find:
a how far he will travel in 3 hours
b the time taken to travel 117 km
c the speed of the truck.
10 The directions on the Anti-Bacterial Clean & More bottle recommend that you dilute half a
cup of the cleaner in 5 litres of warm water.
a Complete the following table.
Volumeofwater(L)
10
15
20
30
1
2
Amount of cleaner (cups)
b The cup on the bottle has only one graduation (at 1 cup). Explain which amounts of water
2
will be convenient to use with this detergent.
11 The perimeter, P, of a certain shape is directly proportional to the side length, s, and P = 12 cm
when s = 4 cm.
a Find the perimeter of the shape when its side length is 12.3 cm.
b Find the length of the side when the perimeter of the shape is 88.2 cm.
c Name the shape.
226
rri
do
r
Bathroom
Bedroom
2
Bedroom
1
2m
Laundry
Backyard
2m
3m
Co
12 Mila is going to polish all the floors in her unit,

except for the kitchen, laundry and bathroom,
where she has tiles. The plan of Milas unit is
shown.
a Find the area of the oor that is to be polished.
b A particular type of varnish is sold in 3 L cans.
If one can covers 34.5 square metres of oor,
how many litres are necessary to polish the
oors twice? How many 3 L cans should Mila
purchase?
c If each can of varnish costs $12.60, how much
money will be wasted? (That is, find the cost of
the left-over varnish.)
Living
Entrance
10 m
3m
Kitchen
Dining
4m
3m
13 The graph at right shows the relationship between the acceleration,

F (N)
a (in m/s2), of a certain body and the force, F (in newtons), acting on 1600
that body.
a Show that force varies directly as acceleration.
b Find the constant of proportionality of the two variables.
c Write the equation of the relationship.
d Find the force necessary to produce an acceleration of 4 m/s2.
e Find the acceleration which is produced when a force of
1000 newtons is acting on the body.
(2,1600)
a (m/s2)
14 Mark is reading a book about world famous explorers and travellers. In one of the chapters, he
comes across a distance shown as 26 miles and wishes to convert this distance to kilometres.
Mark remembers that 5 miles is approximately equivalent to 8 km.
a Find the appropriate equivalent of 26 miles in kilometres. In reality, 5 miles is equivalent
to 8.045 km.
b Now, find the new equivalent of 26 miles in kilometres.
c Compare the difference between the two values.
d Express the difference as a percentage of the real distance.
15 If (2, a) and (a, 12.5) belong to a direct proportional relationship, what are the values of a and
hence what is the constant of proportionality.
7B

In the previous section, we considered cases of direct variation between two variables raised
to the power of 1. Graphically, those relationships were represented by straight lines. In other
words, we dealt only with examples of direct linear variation.
However, variation is not necessarily linear. There are many cases of direct variation where
variables are raised to powers other than 1.
In such cases, instead of writing y x we write the variation statement according to the
information providedin the given problem. For example, if it is known that y varies directly as
the square of x, we writeyx2. If y varies directly as the square root of x, we write y x .
After the variation statement is written, we proceed in the same manner as with cases of direct
linear variation.
1. Write the equation of variation.
2. Substitute known values to find the constant of proportionality, k.
3. Find all unknown values as required in the given problem.
Worked Example 4
For the following:

a fill in the x values of the table
b establish whether y varies directly as the square
root of x by:
y
i calculating the ratio
x
ii plotting the graph of y versus x.
16
2.5
7.5
10
x
y
y
x
THINK
a
WRITE
Evaluate each of the x values.
1 =1
4=2
9=3
16 = 4
Chapter 7 Variation
227
Substitute the x values into the table.
x
x
y
16
2.5
7.5
10
y
x
b
Find the ratio
x
4 pairs of values.
for each of the
i Ratio =
x
First pair:
2.5
1
= 2.5
5
2
= 2.5
Third pair:
7.5
3
= 2.5
Fourth pair:
10
4
= 2.5
Second pair:
Compare each of the 4 ratios and

Since all 4 ratios are the same (that is,

2.5) y varies directly as x.
x
16
2.5
7.5
10
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
x
y
y
x
ii
ii
Plot the information from the table

onto a set of axes.
Join the given points and see if a
straight line is obtained. Answer the
question.
Note: For a direct variation to exist
between two variables x and y,
a straight line passing through the
origin (0, 0) must be obtained.
y
10
7.5
5
2.5
0 1 2 3 4
The given points fit perfectly on a straight

line. If the straight line is extended it will
pass through the origin.
Therefore y varies directly as x.
Worked Example 5
For the given data, establish the rule relating the variables x and y then graph the relationship using
a CAS calculator.
228
10
28.8
115.2
156.8
320
THINK
1
On the Statistics screen, enter the data into the

table. Label the columns x and y.
Find the rule that fits the data. To do this, tap:

Calc
Power Reg
Set:
XList: main\x
YList: main\y
Freq: 1
Copy Formula: y1
OK
Write down the rule for x and y.
Graph the rule. On the Graph & Tab screen,

equate the rule to y1, and tap $.
Adjust the window accordingly.
WRITE/DISPLAY
y = 3.2x2
Worked Example 6
The volume of a sphere, V, is directly proportional to the cube of its radius, r. If a sphere with radius
3 cm has volume 113.04 cm3, find:
a the constant of proportionality, to 3 decimal places
b the volume of a sphere with radius 10 cm
c the radius of a sphere which has a volume of 33.493 cm3, to 3 decimal places.
Chapter 7 Variation
229
THINk
a
WrITe
V r3
Write the variation statement.
Write the equation of variation.
Substitute V = 113.04 and r = 3 into

the equation to find the constant of
proportionality, k.
Transpose the equation to make k the subject.
Evaluate. Round the answer to 3 decimal

places.
Rewrite the equation of variation by

substituting the value for k.
Write the equation obtained in part a .
Substitute r = 10 into the equation.
V = 4.187 103
Evaluate and include the appropriate unit.
V = 4.187 1000
= 4187 cm3
Substitute V = 33.493 into the equation.
Transpose the equation to make r3 the

subject.
Solve for r.
r=
Evaluate. Round your answer to 3 decimal

places and include the appropriate unit.
r = 2.000 cm
V = kr3
113.04 = k (3)3
113.04 = 27k
k=
113.04
27
= 4.187
V = 4.187r3
b
V = 4.187r3
When r = 10,
V = 4.187r3
When V = 33.493,
33.493 = 4.187r3
33.493
r3 =
4.187
3
33.493
4.187
Sometimes we are interested in knowing how the change in one variable (for example doubling
or tripling) will affect the other.
Worked example 7
eBook plus
The area, A, of a square varies directly as the square of its side, s. Find the effect
on the area when the side of the square is:
a doubled
b halved.
THINk
a
230
WrITe
If we double the side of the square, it will

be twice as large as the original size (that
is 2s). Therefore, substitute 2s into the
equation in place of s and simplify.
Note: Anew is used to make it distinct from
the original A.
A s2
A = ks2
Anew = k(2s)2
= k 4s2
= 4ks2
Tutorial
int-1058
Worked example 7
Anew = 4A
Rewrite the equation in terms of the

original area A.
Interpret the result.
Repeat steps 1 and 2 from part a .
If we halve the side of the square, the
When the side of a square is doubled, the area

is quadrupled.
A s2
A = ks2
Anew = k
2
S
new side will be . Substitute into the

2
2
equation of variation in place of s.
Note: Anew is used to make it distinct from
the original A.
3
Simplify.
=k
S2
1
4
= ks2
4
5
Rewrite the equation in terms of the

original area A.
Anew = 1 A
4
When the side of a square is halved, the area

is divided by 4 (that is, one quarter of the
original area).
rememBer
There are many cases of direct variation, where variables are raised to powers other than 1.
To solve these problems, follow these steps:
1. Write the statement of variation.
exerCIse
7B
eBook plus
1 We4 For each of the following:
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 133
a Fill in the x values of the table.
Transforming data
b Establish whether y varies directly as the square root of x by

y
calculating the ratio
and plotting the graph of y versus x.
x
i
x
1
4
9
16
x
y
y
x
12
Chapter 7
Variation
231
ii
25
49
15
25
35
16
36
64
x
y
y
x
iii
x
x
y
y
x
For each of the following:

a Fill in the x2 values of the table.
y
b Establish whether y varies directly as the square of x by calculating the ratio 2 and
x
plotting the graph of y versus x2.
i
y
y
x2
18
32
y
y
x2
0.5
4.5
12.5
18
y
y
x2
12
1
6
2
3
8
3
ii
x2
iii
x2
iv
x2
y
y
x2
3 For each of the following:

a Fill in the x3 values of the table.
b Find the ratio of y and hence deduce whether or not y x3.
x3
232
y
y
x3
1
4
16
32
y
y
x3
24
81
375
2
3
16
3
18
40
300
1080
x3
ii
x3
iii
x3
y
y
x3
iv
x
x3
y
y
x3
4 WE5 Determine whether y varies directly as x, square of x or square root of x using a CAS
calculator:
x
16
36
0.3
0.6
1.2
1.8
5 If n m :
m
1
2
25
3
4
a find the constant of variation

b write the relationship as an equation
c find the missing values.
6 MC a b2 and a = 16 when b = 8. When a = 1, b =
A 1
B 2
C 4
D 4
E 16
7 MC m n and m = 3 when n = 4. When n = 64, m =

A 32
B 24
C 16
D 12
E 8
8 MC p s3 and s = 6 when p = 72. When p = 9, s =

A 1
B 2
C 3
D 4
E 5
Chapter 7 Variation
233
9 For each of the following write:

a the variation statement
b the equation of variation (use k as the constant of proportionality).
i The total surface area of a sphere, A, varies directly as the square of its radius, r.
ii The volume of a cube, V, is directly proportional to the cube of the length of its side, s.
iii The kinetic energy, E, of a moving body is directly proportional to the square of its
velocity, v.
iv The radius of a circle, r, varies directly as the square root of its area, A.
v The distance to the horizon, d, varies directly as the square root of the height, h, above
the sea level.
10 We 6 The total surface area of a spherical balloon is directly proportional to its radius
squared. If a balloon with a radius of 10 cm has a total surface area of 1256 cm2, what is:
a the constant of proportionality, to 2 decimal places?
b the total surface area of the balloon when it has a radius of 12.5 cm?
c the radius of the balloon when it has a total surface area of 2826 cm2? 5 mm
5 mm
11 A set of measuring cups consists of 4 cylindrical cups that nestle
inside each other. The height of all 4 cups is the same and their radii
6 cm
differ by 5 mm. The capacity of each cup is directly proportional to
the square of its radius. The smallest cup has a radius of 3 cm and
holds 113.04 mL of water. Find:
a the constant of proportionality
5 mm
b the capacities of the other 3 cups.
(Note: 1 mL is equivalent to 1 cm3.)
12 In a clock, the period, T, of the motion of the pendulum
that is, the time the pendulum takes to swing back and forth is
directly proportional to the square root of its length, l. If a 0.9 m long
pendulum completes one full cycle of motion in 1.9 seconds, what is the
length of the pendulum with a period of 2.5 seconds? What is the period
of the motion of a pendulum which is exactly 2 m long? (Express the
answers correct to 2 decimal places.)
13 For a particular type of square-based pyramid, its volume, V, varies
directly as the cube of the side of its base, s. A square-based pyramid has
a volume of 9 cm3 and the side of its base is 3 cm. Find:
a the formula connecting the two variables
b the volume of a pyramid with a base area of 25 cm2, correct to
2 decimal places
c the length of the side of its base,
if the volume is 576 cm3.
d From studying measurement
we know that the volume of any
square-based pyramid with a
base of size s and a height h is
given by the formula
1
V = 3 s2h. Compare this formula
with the one obtained in part a
and comment on a particular
feature of the pyramids in
question.
234
14 WE7 For a constant resistance, R, the voltage of an electric circuit, V, is directly proportional
to current, I. Find the effect on the voltage when the current is:
a doubled
b tripled
c halved.
15 For each of the following, find the effect on m, when n is:
i doubled
ii tripled
iii quadrupled
iv halved.
a m n2
b m n3
c m n
16 For each of the following, determine the effect on x when y is:
i quadrupled
ii divided by 4.
a y x2
b y x
(Hint: In each case write the equation of variation and transpose it to make x the subject first.)
17 The area of a circle varies directly as the square of its radius.
a Find the effect on the area if the radius is:

i doubled
ii tripled
iii multiplied by 8
iv multiplied by 10
v halved
vi divided by 3.
b If a circle with radius 7 cm has an area of 154 cm2, use your answers to part a to find the
area of the circles with the following radii: 56 cm, 70 cm, 2 1 cm, 14 cm, 3.5 cm, 21 cm.
3
18 Copy and complete the following statements:
a If y x, when x is multiplied by any number n, y is
b If y x2, when x is multiplied by any number n, y is
c If y x , when x is multiplied by any number n, y is
d If y x3, when x is multiplied by any number n, y is
b
19 (2, b) and , 4 b belong to the same relation in which the second element varies directly as
3
the square of the first.

a Find the value of b, a positive real number.
b Find the constant of variation.
c Find the value of a in a pair (3, a) which belongs to the same relation.
7C
Inverse variation
Consider the following example. Stan used to collect basketball cards. Eventually he became
bored with this hobby and decided to give all of his 120 cards to his classmates. If Stan
distributed the whole collection between his 2 best friends, Mark and Eugene, they would each
receive 60 cards. If he included another friend, Ashley, they would each receive 40 cards and
so on. The more people who shared Stans collection, the fewer cards each person received.
There are 25 people in Stans class, including himself. If he were to distribute 120 cards between
all of his classmates, each student would receive 5 cards. This information can be represented
graphically or as shown in the table.
n
C
1
120
2
60
3
40
4
30
5
24
6
20
8
15
10
12
12
10
15
8
20
6
24
5
(Note that only factors of 120 are included in order to avoid

fractional answers).
It is obvious that as the number of students, n, who are to
share the collection increases, the number of cards, C, that each
student receives, decreases.
The product of the two variables is constant for each pair and
equal to 120 the size of the collection. That is: 1 120 =
2 60 = 3 40 = 4 30 = 5 24 = 6 20 = 8 15 = 10 12 =
120 and so on.
120
60
40
30
20
10
123456 8 10 12 15
20 24 n
Chapter 7 Variation
235
Hence, the relationship between two variables can be written as:

C n = 120, or
120 .

C=
n
The graph of the relation is a hyperbola which has the C and n axes as its asymptotes.
Summarising our observations, we can say that the following is true for the given information:
1. An increase in one variable causes a decrease in the other.
2. The product of the two corresponding variables is a constant.
3. Neither variable is equal to 0.
4. The graph which represents the data is a hyperbola.
1
If we calculate the values of for each of the values in our table, we will then be able to draw
n
1
a graph of C against .
n
n
1
n
C
10
12
15
20
24
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
8
1
10
1
12
1
15
1
20
1
24
120
60
40
30
24
20
15
12
10
1
is a straight line
n
directed from, but not passing through, the origin. (Note that
we exclude the origin itself, hence the open circle at (0, 0),
since the number of cards per person when shared between
0 students is undefined.)
1
Hence, we can deduce that C varies directly as , that is, as
n
the reciprocal of n.
As you can see, the graph of C versus
C
120
60
30
In cases like this, we say that one variable varies inversely as

5
(or is inversely proportional to) the other. The product of any
1
1
1
1
0
1 n
24
4
2
two corresponding variables is constant and is called a constant
of proportionality, k.
Hence, C is inversely proportional to n (or C varies inversely as n, or directly as the reciprocal
1
of n). It is written as C .
n
The product of any two corresponding values of C and n is constant and equal to 120, that is
Cn = 120. Therefore the constant of variation k = 120.
120
Therefore, the relationship between the two variables can be written as C =
.
n
1
Generally, for any two variables x and y, where y varies inversely as x, that is, y , there
x
k
exists a relationship between them such that y = or yx = k, where k is a constant, called
x
the constant of proportionality (or the constant of variation). The graph of the relationship is a
1
hyperbola whereas the graph of y against is a straight line directed from, but not passing
x
through, the origin, and having the gradient k (where x 0). As with direct variation
(Section 7A), the existence of inverse variation can be established either numerically, or
graphically.
Summarising this:
1
If
y
x
236
k
x
where k is the constant of variation and k R\{0}, x R\{0}.
y=
then
Worked Example 8
For the data represented in the table below, establish whether an inverse variation exists between x
and y using:
a a numerical approach (clearly specify k, the constant of variation, if applicable)
b a graphical approach.
x
y
1
20
10
2
63
xy
THINK
a
WRITE/display
Find the product of xy for each of the

5 pairs of values.
Note: One variable varies inversely as
the other if the product between any
2 corresponding values is constant.
Compare each of the five products

and answer the question.
1
Calculate the values of .
x
Place these values into a table.
a Product = xy
First pair:
Second pair:
Third pair:
Fourth pair:
Fifth pair:
1 20 = 20
2 10 = 20
3 6 23 = 20
4 5 = 20
5 4 = 20
Since the product of the corresponding values

is the same in each case (that is 20), y varies
inversely as x.
20
10
6 23
xy
20
20
20
20
20
1
x
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
20
10
63
1
x
and y values into the table. Label the
columns x and y.
On the Statistics screen, enter the
Chapter 7 Variation
237
To find the rule that fits the data, tap:

Calc
Linear Reg
Set:
XList: main\x
YList: main\y
Freq: 1
Copy Formula: y1
OK
To graph the rule, open the Graph &

Tab screen. Enter the rule as y1.
Tap $.
Adjust the window accordingly.
1
is a straight line
x
directed from, but not passing through, the
origin, hence an open circle at the point (0, 0).
1
Therefore y .
x
The graph of y against
As for cases involving direct variation, if we know that one variable varies inversely (or
indirectly) as the other, it is possible to establish the value of k, the constant of variation, and
hence determine the value of any variable given its corresponding value.
Worked Example 9
1
For the data in the table below given that y , find:
x
x
y
THINK
a
238
2
24
4
8
WRITE
a y
1
x
k
x
y=
Hence, write down the rule for k. Obtain

a pair of values where both x and y are
known. Substitute these values into the
given equation and obtain a value for k.
Note: To obtain k, we can use only
corresponding values; that is, those in
which one value is underneath the other in
the table.
k = xy
When x = 4, y = 6.
k=46
= 24
Find the unknown value by substituting its

given corresponding pair into the equation
xy = 24.
First pair: substitute y = 24.
Transpose the equation to make x the
subject.
b From part a xy = 24
The constant of variation is 24.

24
Therefore, xy = 24 or y = .
x
x 24 = 24
24x = 24
24
x=
24
x=1
First pair:
Second pair: substitute x = 2.

Transpose the equation to make y the
subject.
Second pair:
Third pair: substitute y = 8.

Transpose the equation to make x the
subject.
Third pair:
2 y = 24
2y = 24
24
2
y = 12
y=
x 8 = 24
8x = 24
24
8
x=3
x=
24
12
Inverse variation can be applied in many practical situations. The approach to solving word
problems involving inverse variation is similar to that for direct variation.
Steps to solve word problems involving inverse variation.
3. Use any pair of variables whose values are known to establish the constant of variation.
4. Find all other required values.
Worked example 10
Marina is buying prizes for the competitions which are to be held during
Maths Week. She has enough money to buy 24 pens valued at $2.50 each.
a Pensofbetterqualityaresoldat$4each.Howmanyofthese
can she buy?
b If she wishes to buy enough identical prizes for 100 students, what would be
the maximum cost of each prize?
eBook plus
Tutorial
int-1059
Worked example 10
Chapter 7
Variation
239
THINK
a
WRITE
Define the variables. Write the statement

of variation. This is an example of inverse
variation since the amount of money
is fixed and as the price increases, the
number of prizes which can be bought
decreases.
a Let p = the price of each prize.
Let n = the number of prizes.

1
n
p
k
p
n=
Obtain a pair of values where both p and

n are known. Substitute these values into
the given equation. Transpose the equation
and solve for k.

substituting the value of k.
When p = 2.5, n = 24
k
24 =
2.5
24 2.5 = k
k = 60
60
n=
p
Substitute p = 4 to find the corresponding

value of n.
When p = 4, n =
Marina may purchase 15 pens at $4 each.
Write down the equation obtained in part a .
Substitute n = 100 to find the

corresponding value of p.
When n = 100, 100 =
Transpose the equation to make p the

subject.
Evaluate.
100 p = 60
100p = 60
60
p=
100
= 0.60
60
4
= 15
b n = 60
60
p
The maximum cost of each item would have to

be $0.60 or 60c.
REMEMBER
1. For any variables x and y, where y varies inversely (or indirectly) as x, the following
properties exist:
(a) one variable increases as the other decreases
(b) neither variable is equal to 0
(c) the product of any pair of corresponding values is constant and equal to k
(d) the graph which represents the relationship is a hyperbola.
2. The notation used to express y varies inversely as x is given by:
1

y
x
k

or
y = where k R\{0} and where x R\{0}
x
240
Exercise
7c
Inverse variation
1 WE8a
For the data represented in the tables below, establish whether an inverse variation
exists between x and y using a numerical method and give the constant of proportionality.
a
12
xy
c
1
28
14
1
93
xy
e
18
2.5
13
xy
x
y
xy
10
12
15
12
10
xy
4
5
2
3
1
2
1
4
2
10
16
25
xy
2 WE8b For the data represented in the tables below, establish whether an inverse variation
exists between x and y using a graphical method.
a
10
60
30
15
12
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
7.5
10
12.5
10
13
40
10
1
4
1
2
20
10
2.5
2
3
3
5
1
4
18
20
48
12
1
1
3 MC If the relationship between m and n is such that m and m = 6 when n = , then
n
2
which of the following belongs to the same relationship?
1
A (3, 4 )
B (12, 1)
C (3, 1)
1
4 MC The expression y could be represented by:
x
i y
ii y
x
iv y
A i and iii
iii y
B iii only
vi y
v y
1
E (12
, 1)
D (3, 6)
C ii and vi
D iii and v
E iii and iv
Chapter 7 Variation
241
1
5 WE9 Given that y , for each of the following find:
x
i
iii
2.5
2.4
4
y
v
1
5
1
4
1
53
1
2
20
vi
20
viii
30
1
60
1
10
30
10
15
12
3
5
8
1
4
iv
16
y
vii
ii
13
16
62
3
83
62
32
48
4
30
4
3
1
Questions 6 to 8 refer to the following table, representing the relationship u .
v
v
15
8
10
7.5
6 MC To obtain a straight line graph directed from, but not passing through, the origin, we
should plot the values from the table with:
A v on the horizontal axis and u on the vertical axis
B u on the horizontal axis and v on the vertical axis
1
C v on the horizontal axis and on the vertical axis
u
1
D on the horizontal axis and v on the vertical axis
u
1
E on the horizontal axis and u on the vertical axis.
v
7 MC The gradient of the straight line is:
A 4
4
D 15
B 15
E 4 15
15
4
8 MC Consider the second and third pairs of the relationship and complete the following
statement: Compared to the value of v in the third pair, the value of u in the second pair is:
A twice as large
B twice as small
C 4 times as large
D 15 times as small
E 60 times as large
9 WE10 Annette is buying prizes for the competitions which are to be held during Science
Week. She has enough money to buy 40 items valued at $3.20 each.
a Items of better quality are sold at $4.00 each. How many of these can she buy?
b If Annette wishes to buy sufficient identical prizes for 80 students, what would be the
maximum cost of each prize?
242
10 A team of 5 bricklayers is about

to start on a new project.
According to the schedule,
they have 12 days to
complete their job.
a If one of the bricklayers
gets sick just before they
start, how many days
would the remaining
4 bricklayers need to
complete the job?
b It takes the sick
bricklayer 5 days to get
better. He then goes
back to work. In how
many days will the team
complete their job under
these circumstances?
c Now imagine that when
the bricklayer got sick,
his mates invited another
workman to help. When
the sick bricklayer
returned to work 5 days
later, they decided to
keep working as a team
of 6. How long, to
the nearest day, will it
take to complete the job
in this case?
11 A gardener has enough fertiliser to use on a rectangular flower bed measuring 4 m by 9 m.
a Would there be enough fertiliser to use on another bed if it is 3 m longer, and 3 m
narrower?
b Would there be enough fertiliser to use on a bed which is twice as short and twice as wide
as the first one?
c What is the side length of the square bed which requires exactly the same amount of
fertiliser as the first one?
12 The frequency of sound, f, is inversely proportional to the wavelength, l.
a A signal generator emits waves of frequency 1000 Hz and wavelength 0.34 m. Find the
frequency of waves whose wavelength is:

i 200 m
ii 800 m.
b If the constant of proportionality is the speed of sound, v, state the value of the speed
of sound and write the equation which relates the frequency, speed and wavelength of
sound.
13 When a force is applied to an object, its acceleration, a, varies inversely with its mass, m.
When the mass of the object is 20 kg, the corresponding acceleration is 5m/s2.
a Find the effect on the acceleration when the mass of the object is:

i doubled
ii tripled
iii halved.
b The constant of variation is the force, F newtons. Find the magnitude of the force applied
to the object in question.
Chapter 7 Variation
243
14 From Physics, we know that the work done, Wd, when a certain object is pushed can be
calculated by multiplying the force, F, applied to it by the distance, d, it was pushed; that is,
Wd = Fd. Which of the three variables should be fixed as a constant so that the other two would
vary inversely?
15 Before use, 1 mL of Betadine sore throat mouthwash must be diluted with water to produce
20 mL of ready-to-use solution.
a How many millilitres of water are required?
Instead of diluting the mouthwash each time it is needed, Irene decided to prepare a large jar
of the solution using the whole bottle.
b If a bottle contains 15 mL of concentrated Betadine, how much water is required?
c What is the total volume of the solution?
At a certain stage the solution contains 190 mL of water.
d How many millilitres of Betadine are there in the solution at that stage?
e What percentage of the solution is used?
16 In a tape recorder, the speed of rotation of a reel varies inversely
as its diameter; that is, the reel with a lot of tape on it rotates
slower than the one with the small amount of tape.
If the reel with the large amount of tape has a speed of
70 revolutions per minute, what is the speed of the other reel at
that moment?
17 The speed of a gear wheel, s, varies directly as the reciprocal
of its number of teeth, t.
a In the gear train shown, the first gear drives all the others.
It has 20 teeth and makes 300 revolutions per minute.
Gears 2 and 4 are the same and have 8 teeth each while
gear 3 has 40 teeth. Find the speed with which gears 2, 3
and 4 rotate.
b If the process were reversed and the fourth gear became the
driving one, what would be the speeds of gears 1, 2 and 3,
given that the new driving gear rotated with the same speed
as the old one; that is, 300 revolutions per minute?
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 7.1
7d

In the section on further direct variation, we saw that direct variation exists between variables
raised to powers other than 1. The same is true for inverse variation. We will concern ourselves
mainly with powers of 2, 3 and 1 (square roots). It should be understood that there could be
2
inverse variation relationships with variables raised to any other power.
Worked example 11
The electrical resistance, R, of a wire varies inversely as the square of its diameter, d. If a wire with
diameter of 4 mm has the resistance of 4 ohms, find:
a the resistance of a wire with diameter 1.2 cm in exact form
b the diameter of the wire, correct to 2 decimal places, when the resistance is 8 ohms.
THINk
a
244
WrITe
1
d2
Substitute R = 4 and d = 4 into

the equation to find constant of
proportionality, k.
Transpose the equation to make k the


substituting the value for k.
Convert d = 1.2 cm into mm.
Substitute 12 mm into the equation in

place of d.
Simplify and include the appropriate unit.
Rewrite the equation obtained in part a .
Substitute R = 8 into the equation.
Transpose the equation to make d2 the

subject.
Solve for d by taking the positive square

root of both sides.
Simplify and include the appropriate unit.
R=
k
d2
When d = 4 and R = 4,
k
4= 2
4
k
4=
16
4 16 = k
k = 64
R=
64
d2
1.2 cm = 1.2 10
= 12 mm
When d = 12, R =
64
122
4
ohms
9
64
b From part a , R = 2
d
=
8=
64
d2
8d2 = 64
64
d2 =
8
=8
d= 8
=2 2
= 2.83 mm
When two variables are inversely proportional, an increase in one variable causes a decrease in
the other. The size of the increase/decrease depends on the type of relationship.
Worked example 12
If y
1
x
, m
eBook plus
1
1
, p
, find the effect on y, m and p, when x is doubled.
x2
x
Tutorial
int-1060
Worked example 12
THINk
1
Write the given variation statement for each.
WrITe
1
1
1
y , m 2, p
x
x
x
Chapter 7
Variation
245
Write the equation of variation for each.

Note: k does not necessarily represent the
same numerical value. It is just conventional
to denote the constant of variation with k.
Substitute 2x into the equations in place of x

to find the new values of y, m and p.
Rewrite the equations in terms of the original

y, m and p.
k
x
k
m= 2
x
k
p=
x
y=
k
2x
1 k
=
2 x
k
mnew =
(2 x ) 2
k
= 2
4x
1
k
= 2
4 x
k
pnew =
2x
k
1
=
x
2
ynew =
1
y
2
1
mnew = m
4
1
pnew =
p
2
ynew =
When x is doubled, y is halved, m is divided by 4

(a quarter of the original or is decreased by a factor
of 4) and p is divided by 2 (or is decreased by a
factor of 2 ).
REMEMBER
1. Inverse variation exists between variables, raised to powers other than 1.

2. When two variables are inversely proportional, an increase in one variable causes
a decrease in the other. The size of the increase/decrease depends on the type of
relationship.
Exercise
7D

1
246
Copy and complete the given tables and hence deduce whether inverse variation exists for
each of the following.
x3
y
60
20
9
7.5
15
16
x3y
c
15
4.4
1.875
0.96
343
12 19
2 93
x3
x3y
x3
x
x3
130
41
16
22
25
111
64
x3y
27
125
x3y
2 For each of the following, plot y against x and decide whether inverse variation exists
between y and the square root of x.
a
25
60
30
20
12
16
36
45
30
20
15
16
30
15
10
7.5
16
25
49
10
27
3 Determine whether m varies inversely as n , n, n2 or n3 by plotting corresponding graphs.

A CAS calculator may be used to create appropriate tables of values and then to plot the data.
n
16
36
64
1296
256
81
4 If p is inversely proportional to the cube of q, find:

q
p
6
5
15 8
17
4 27
5 Write each of the following as:

a a variation statement
b an equation with the constant of variation p.

i The current, I, is inversely proportional to the resistance, R.
ii The force, F, varies inversely as the square of the distance, d, between 2 magnetic poles.
iii The resistance, R, varies inversely as the square of the diameter of the wire, d.
iv The number, n, of oscillations of a pendulum is inversely proportional to the square
root of its length, l.
v The time of a journey, t, varies directly as the reciprocal of an average speed, v.
vi The light intensity, I, is directly proportional to the reciprocal of the square of the
distance from the source of light, d.
6 WE11 The intensity of the light, I, varies inversely as the square of the distance between the
observer and the source of light, d. If I = 5.5 units when d = 7 m, find:
a the distance of the observer from the source of light, correct to 2 decimal places, when its
intensity is 12 units
Chapter 7 Variation
247
b the intensity of light observed from a distance of 1.75 m.
7 The intensity of sound, I, is inversely proportional to the area of the source of sound. If I = 0.5 W/m2
when the sound passes through the rectangular opening measuring 2 m by 5 m, what is:
a the intensity of the sound for
i a square opening with a side length of 70 cm?
ii a rectangular opening with a length of 3 m and a width that is half of its length?
b the length of the side of a square opening if the sound passing through it has an intensity
5
of 9 W/m2?
IB
I
(or B ), where IA, IB, IC is the intensity of sound
IA
IC
perceived by A, B and C respectively.
2m
b the ratio
2m
8 The period, T, of the motion of the particle oscillating on the end of an elastic string is
inversely proportional to the square root of the stiffness of the string, k. When an object of
mass 2 kg is suspended from a string with the stiffness of 10 N/m, it oscillates with the period
2
of
seconds. Find:
7
a the period when the same object oscillates on the end of the elastic string with the
stiffness of 25 N/m
32
b the stiffness of the string, if the time needed for one oscillation is
.
7
9 Three friends A, B and C stand in a straight line
1 m apart from each other. A and C are both 2 m from the speaker.
If the intensity of sound varies inversely as the square of the distance
of the person from the source of sound, find:
a the distance of person B from the sound
1m
A
1m
B
10 We12 For a certain type of prism with a fixed volume, the height, H,
varies inversely as the square of the side of the base, s.
Find the effect on the height of the prism if the side of its base is:
a doubled
b halved
c quadrupled
d divided by 4.
248
1
and y = 12 when x = 4, what is the effect on y when x is tripled?
x
A y is tripled.
B y is divided by 3.
C y is quadrupled.
D y is divided by 4.
E y is unchanged.
b The value m varies inversely as the square root of n, and m = 10 when n = 4. When n is
halved, m will be:
A halved
B doubled
C multiplied by 2
D divided by 2
E none of these answers.
c If p is inversely proportional to the square of s, then for the value of p to be divided by 4,
the corresponding value of s should be:
A quadrupled
B divided by 4
C doubled
D halved
E squared
11 mC a If y
eBook plus
Digital doc
Investigation
The effect of
changing one
variable on
another
7e
Joint variation
Up to now, we have considered relationships between two variable quantities. However, in real
life there are many situations that involve more than two variables. In such situations, where one
variable is directly proportional to the product or quotient of other variables, we say that joint
variation takes place. The variation statement is written as before, except that there will be more
than one variable on the right-hand side of the statement. For example, if one quantity, x, varies
directly as the product of two other quantities, y and z, it is said that x varies jointly as y and z
and is written as x yz, or x = kyz, where k is a constant.
Worked example 13
a From the table below, state whether x varies
jointly as y and z.
b Establish whether x
below.
10
30
60
100
THINk
a
y
from the table
z
WrITe
Write the statement of variation.

subject.
Substitute the values x, y and z into

proportionality, k.
Evaluate k for each corresponding value of

x, y and z.
Compare each k value.
x yz
x = kyz
x kyz
=
yz yz
x
k=
yz
k=
10
30
k=
2 1
32
10
2
=5
30
6
=5
k=
60
34
60
12
=5
k=
100
45
100
20
=5
k = 5 for each corresponding value of

x, y and z.
Chapter 7
Variation
249

subject.
Substitute the values of x, y and z into

proportionality, k.
Evaluate k for each corresponding value of

x, y and z.
Compare each k value.
x varies jointly as y and z, that is x = 5yz.

y
b
x
x
ky
x=
z
z
ky z
x=
y
z y
xz
=k
y
xz
k=
y
k=
5 1
62
k=
1
1
k=
83
94
k=
2
3
5
12
24
36
=
=
=
=
1
1
2
3
= 5
= 12
= 12
= 12
k is not consistent for each corresponding
value of x, y and z.
y
x is not .
z
Worked Example 14
The volume of a cone, V cm3, varies jointly as the square of its radius, r cm, and the height, h cm.
When r = 5 cm and h = 10 cm, V = 261.8 cm3, find:
a the volume of a cone, when the radius is doubled and the height remains unchanged, to 2 decimal
places
b the height of the cone, when r = 12 cm and V = 2714.3 cm3, to 2 decimal places.
THINK
a
250
WRITE
a
V r2h
2
3

Substitute the known values of V, r and h
into the equation.
V = kr2h
261.8 = k 52 10
= k 25 10
Simplify the RHS of the equation.

subject.
261.8 = 250k
261.8 250 k
=
250
250
Evaluate.
Rewrite the equation of variation with

1.0472 in place of k.
V = 1.0472r2h
Write the values of r and h to be used and

substitute them into the given equation.
Substitute r = 10, h = 10 into V.

V = 1.0472 102 10
261.8
250
= 1.0472
k=
= 1.0472 100 10
= 1047.2
Evaluate.
10
Give the answer to 2 decimal places and

Write the equation found in part a .
Write the values of r and V to be used and

substitute them into the given equation.
When r = 12 and V = 2714.3, h = ?

2714.3 = 1.0472 122 h
Transpose the equation to make h the

subject. Evaluate.
2714.3 = 1.0472 144h

= 150.797h
2714.3 150.797h
=
150.79 150.797
2714.3
h=
150.797
= 17.999 7
Round the answer to 2 decimal places and

V = 1047.20 cm3
b V = 1.0472r2h
h = 18.00 cm
Worked example 15
eBook plus
The electrical resistance, R, of a wire varies jointly as its length, l, and the
reciprocal of the square of its diameter, d. Find the percentage change in the
resistance if the length of the wire is increased by 25% and its diameter is
decreased by 20%.
THINk
Tutorial
int-1061
Worked example 15
WrITe
1
d2
R=
kl
d2
Write the values of the new length and

diameter.
Note: If we treat the original l and d as one
(1), then an increase of 25% (that is, 0.25)
would make the new value 1.25, whereas a
decrease of 20% (that is, 0.20) would make
the new value 0.80.
Substitute the new values of l and d into the

given equation and call the new resistance Rnew.
Replace
kl
with R.
d2
lnew = l + 25%l
= l + 0.25l
= 1.25l
Rnew =
dnew = d - 20%d
= d - 0.20d
= 0.80d
k 1.25l
(0.80 d )2
k 1.25l
= 0.64 d 2
1.953 125kl
=
d2
Rnew = 1.953 125R
Chapter 7
Variation
251
Convert the decimal to a percentage by

multiplying it by 100%.
Rnew = 195.3125% of R
The resistance has increased by 95.3125%, which is

almost double the original R.
rememBer
1. Joint variation occurs when one variable is directly proportional to the product, or
quotient, of other variables.
2. Regardless of the number of variables in the joint variation relationship, there is only
one constant of variation, k.
exerCIse
7e
eBook plus
Joint variation
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 060
1 We 13a For each of the following state whether x varies jointly as y and z.
a
12
z
x
24
40
36
48
75
10
12
10
15
z
x
10
20
40
3 If it is known that m n2p:

a find the constant of variation
b fill in the table at right.
4 If v
Joint variation
y
For each of the following establish whether x .
z
2 We 13b
a
and v = 2, when u = 4 and

w
w = 36, what is k, the constant of variation?
Hence, fill in the table.
18
w
v
5
6
10
9
126
5
4
9
450
10
16
5
5 Write the equation of variation for each of the following.

a Power, P, varies directly as the square of the voltage, V, and inversely as the resistance, R.
b Power, P, varies jointly as the resistance, R, and the square of the current, I.
252
c Kinetic energy, E, is directly proportional to the square of the velocity, v, and the mass, m.
d Force of a circular motion, F, varies directly as the mass, m, and inversely as the radius, R.
e Frequency of a sound, f, varies directly as the square root of the tension, t, and inversely
as the square root of the mass per unit length, m.
6 We14 The volume of a cylinder, V cm3, varies jointly as the square of its radius, r cm, and the
height, h cm. When r = 12 cm and h = 15 cm, V = 6785.84 cm3, find:
a the volume of the cylinder, when the radius is tripled and the height remains unchanged,
to 2 decimal places
b the height of the cylinder, when r = 7 cm and V = 1328.7 cm3, to 2 decimal places.
7 The change in potential energy,
U, varies jointly as the mass of
the object, m, and the change in
the height, h. When an object
which weighs 10 kg is lifted from
the floor to a vertical distance of
1.4 m, the object gains 140 J of
potential energy.
a Find the gain in the potential
energy when an object twice
as heavy is lifted to the height
of 1 m.
b Find the mass of the object
which gains 220.5 J of
potential energy when lifted to the height of 3.5 m.
c To what height should an object of mass 250 g be lifted, so that the change in its potential
energy reaches 75 J?
8 The energy expenditure, in joules, for various activities varies jointly as the weight, in
kilograms, of the person partaking in the activity and the time, in minutes, spent on the activity.
For instance, a girl weighing 52 kg will expend 615 J of energy when playing badminton for
half an hour.
a Alex weighs 102 kg. If he plays badminton for 2 hours, how much energy will he use?
b If Alex wants to expend 2091 J of energy, what length of time must he play for?
c Alex diets for a few months and as a result weighs considerably less. If he still wishes to
expend the same amount of energy as in part b, should his play time be longer or shorter
than before?
d Select the correct alternative in the following sentences.
i If two people engage in the same activity for the same period of time, the heavier
person will expend (more/less) energy.
ii If two people of different weight expend the same amount of energy while playing
badminton, the heavier person must play for a (longer/shorter) time.
9 We15 The variable m varies directly as the square root of n and inversely as the square of p.
When n = 16 and p = 3, then m = 2.4.
a Write the equation which describes the
relationship between m, n and p.
b Find the value of m when n = 9 and p = 6.
c Find the value of p, which is a positive
number, when n = 441 and m = 4.536.
10 The resistance of any wire, R ohms, is directly
proportional to its length, l m, and inversely
proportional to its cross-section area, A m2. A
copper cable which is 800 m long and has a
Chapter 7
Variation
253
cross-section area of 5 mm2 (5 10 6 m2), has a resistance of 2.848 ohms.

a The constant of proportionality is called the resistivity of the material. Find the resistivity
of the copper cable.
b Find the resistance of a 4 km long copper cable which has a cross-section area of 16 mm2.
The volume of a right cone, V, varies jointly as the square of its radius, r, and its height, h.
The original cone has r = 10 cm and h = 20 cm.
11 mC A second cone has a radius which is double that of the first cone and a height which is
half that of the first cone. The volume of the second cone compared to the volume of the first
cone will be:
A the same
B halved
C doubled
D divided by 4
E quadrupled
12 mC If the volume of the original cone is approximately 2094 cubic units, then the constant
of variation is close to:
A but less than 1
B but greater than 1
C 10
D but less than 10
E but greater than 100
13 mC If the radius of the original cone is halved, what should the height be, so that the
volume remains unchanged?
A 5 cm
B 10 cm
C 20 cm
D 40 cm
E 80 cm
14 mC The frequency of a string of a musical instrument,
F, varies jointly as the square root of the tension, t, in the
string, the reciprocal of the length of the string, l, and the
reciprocal of the square root of the mass per unit length,
m. The equation that describes the relationship between
the 4 variables could not be written as:
A F=
k
l
F
=
k l
Fl
E
=
k
C
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SkillSHEET 7.1
Percentage
increase and
decrease
254
t
m
t
B Fl = k
D
Fk
=
l
t
m
t
m
m
t
m
15 We 15 The electrical resistance, R, of a wire varies
jointly as its length, l, and the reciprocal of the square
of its diameter, d. Find the percentage change in the
resistance if the length of the wire is increased by 30%
and its diameter is decreased by 15%.
16 When Casey rides his motorbike in
circles, the force of circular motion,
F, varies directly as the square of its
velocity, v, and inversely as R, the
radius of the circle. Find:
a the percentage change in force
when, while riding along the
same track, Casey:
i increases his velocity by 10%
ii decreases his velocity by 10%
b the percentage change in force
when Casey is riding around a
circle whose radius is 25% larger than that of the original
c the percentage increase in the radius, required to maintain the size of the original force,
when the velocity is increased by 15%.
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 7.2
7F
17 Coulombs Law states that the force between two charges at rest, F, is directly proportional to
the product of the charges, q1 and q2, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the charges, r.
a Write the equation which represents this relationship.
b What effect will the following changes have on the size of the force, F?
i The distance between the charges is doubled.
ii The distance between the charges is halved.
iii One of the charges is doubled.
iv Both charges are doubled.
part variation
So far in this chapter, we have considered relationships in which one quantity varied as a
product or quotient of other quantities. However, relationships may also consist of two or
more parts added together. In this situation, we say that part variation takes place. When part
variation occurs, each of the parts will have its own constant of variation.
If the relationship between two variables x and y is such that y varies partly as x and is
partly constant, it is written as y = ax + b and is called part linear variation.
Worked example 16
My telephone bill consists of 2 parts: a fixed charge of $32 (paid whether any calls are made or not)
andachargeproportionaltothenumberofcallsmade.LastquarterImade296callsandmybill
was $106.
a Find the equation of variation.
b Find the amount to be paid when 300 calls are made.
THINk
a
WrITe/dIsplaY
Define each variable to be used.
Substitute the values for A and n into

the equation.
To solve the equation for k, on the

Main screen, tap:
Action
Advanced
solve
solve(106 = 296k + 32, k)
Then press E.
Rewrite the equation substituting 1 in

4
place of k.
a Let A = the total amount to be paid, in dollars
Let n = the number of calls

A = k n + 32
When n = 296 and A = 106,

106 = 296k + 32
So
A = 1 n + 32
4
Chapter 7
Variation
255
Substitute n = 300 into the given

equation.
When n = 300,
A = 1 (300) + 32
4
= 1 300 + 32
Evaluate.
= 75 + 32
= 107
3
Answer the question and include the

appropriate unit.
The amount to be paid when 300 calls are made

is $107.
Worked example 17
eBook plus
The variable y varies as the sum of two quantities, one of which varies directly
as x and the other inversely as x2. When x = 1, y = -17 and when x = 2, y = 1.
a Find the equation for y in terms of x. b Find y when x = 5.
THINk
a
yx+
Write the equation of variation. Let a

represent the constant of variation of x
and let b represent the constant of
1
variation of 2 .
x
Substitute the first set of values for x and y

into the equation and label it [1].
When x = 1, y = -17.
-17 = a + b
Substitute the second set of values for x

and y into the equation and label it [2].
When x = 2, y = 1.
b
1 = 2a +
4
To obtain the values of a and b, solve the

equations simultaneously.
y = ax +
b
x2
(a) Multiply equation [2] by 4 and label it

equation [3].
[2] 4:
4 = 8a + b
(b) Subtract equation [1] from equation [3].
[3] - [1]:
4 = 8a + b
-(-17 = a + b)
21 = 7a
21 7a
=
7
7
3=a
a=3
(c) Divide both sides of the equation by 7.
256
1
x2
int-1062
Worked example 17
WrITe
Tutorial
Substitute a = 3 into equation [1].
Substituting a = 3 into [1]:

-17 = 3 + b
Solve for b. Subtract 3 from both sides of

the equation.
-17
3=33+b
=b
b = -20
-20
[1]
[2]
[3]
Substitute the values of a and b into the

equation of variation.
Verify the answer obtained using a

CAS calculator.
Substitute x = 5 into the given equation.
Evaluate.
y = 3x
20
x2
y = 3x
20
x2
When x = 5, y = 3(5)
20
52
20
25
= 15 0.8
= 14.2
= 15
When x = 5, y = 14.2.
REMEMBER
1. Part variation occurs if the relationship consists of two or more parts, added together.
When part variation occurs, each of the parts will have its own constant of variation.
2. If the relationship between two variables x and y is such that y varies partly as x and is
partly constant, it is written as y = ax + b and is called linear variation.
Exercise
7F
Part variation
1 Write an equation defining each of the following relationships.
a y varies as the sum of two quantities, the square of x and a constant.
b l varies partly as the square root of m and partly as the cube root of n.
c y varies partly as the reciprocal of x and partly as a constant.
d y varies as the sum of two quantities, the cube of x and the square of z.
2 WE16 My telephone bill consists of two parts: a fixed charge of $48 (paid whether any calls
are made or not) and a charge proportional to the number of calls made. Last quarter I made
400 calls and my bill was $232.
a Find the equation of variation
b Find the amount to be paid when 440 calls are made.
3 Lana and Michael are planning their engagement party. They found that the cost of the party
consists of two parts: a fixed charge for renting the reception hall and hiring the band, and a
charge for food proportional to the number of people who are invited. They were told that if
100 people were invited, the cost would be $4500, while if 150 people were invited, the cost
would be $5750.
a Determine the cost of the fixed charge.
b Find the equation which relates the total cost of the party, C, and the number of people, n.
c Find the cost if 120 people are invited.
d Represent the situation graphically.
4 Janus knows that the cost of producing French bread at home (using a breadmaker) consists
of two parts: a fixed part, which represents the cost of the breadmaker, and the cost of the
ingredients, which is proportional to the number of loaves made. It costs him $243 to make
20 loaves and $299 to make 100 loaves.
Chapter 7 Variation
257
a
b
c
d
Find the cost of the breadmaker.

Find the cost of our and other ingredients necessary to produce each loaf.
Find the cost of making 500 loaves.
If Janus sells the French bread to the local cafe at $2.50 per loaf, find the number of
loaves that he must produce in order to make a profit.
5 The cost of a health program, not including the cost of vitamins and other supplements, is
partly constant and partly varies with the number of weeks a customer wishes to stay on the
program. It costs $501 for 12 weeks and $633 for 18 weeks.
a Find the cost of being on the program for 16 weeks.
b Find the number of weeks a customer was on the program, if she paid a total of $721.
c If every new client must pay an initial joining fee and then pay a health consultant for
each weekly visit, state the amount of the joining fee and the amount charged by the
consultant for each visit.
6 mC The relationship between two variables, m and n, is described by a linear variation. If
m = 10.5 when n = 3, such a relationship could be represented by:
9
1
1
1
A m = n2 + 1 2
B m= +72
C m = n2 + 2 n
n
2
D n= 5m+ 5
E m - 3 = 2.5n
7 The relationship between the velocity of the body, v, and the time, t, is described by part linear
variation. The velocity of the body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration is
20 m/s after 5 seconds and is 26 m/s 3 seconds later. Find:
a the equation of linear variation
b the initial velocity
c the velocity when t = 28
d the time when the velocity is 34 m/s.
8 We17 The variable y varies as the sum of two quantities, one of which varies directly as the
square of x and the other inversely as x. When x = 2, y = 11, and when x = 4, y = 47.5.
a Find the equation for y in terms of x.
b Find y when i x = 5 ii x = 1 .
eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 7.2
Removing a
fraction
from a linear
equation
9 The variable y varies as the sum of two quantities, x2 and a constant. When x = 2, y = 5 and
when x = 1, y = 2.
a Find the equation for y in terms of x by first finding the values of the two constants.
b Find y when x = 1 .
3
10 The variable m varies partly as n and partly as the cube of n. When n = 2, m = 14 and when n = -1,
m = -5.5. Find the equation defining this relation and hence find the value of m when n = 4.
11 The variable y varies partly as the reciprocal of x and partly as a constant. When x = 5, y = 6
and when x = 10, y = 4.5.
a Find the equation for y in terms of x.
b Find y when x = 12.
c Find x when y = 30.
12 mC The relationship between two variables p and r is given by the following formula:
b
. The variable r = 6.25 when p = 4 and r = -17 when p = 1.
p
a The value of a is:
C 20
A 6
B -20
3
D 23
E 3
b The value of b is:
A 6
B -20
C 20
3
D 23
E 3
r=a p+
258
c When p = 25, r is equal to:

A 30.92
B 32
C 29.08
D 34
E 30
d If r is equal to 59.77, p is equal to:
A 36
B 49
C 64
D 81
E 100
13 The owner of a fancy dress store is making Halloween hats of a conical
shape. The area of the material needed varies partly as radius of the hat
and partly as the square of the radius. To make a hat with a radius of
8 cm, 703.36 cm2 of cardboard is needed, while for a hat of radius
10 cm, 942 cm2 of cardboard is needed.
a Find the equation which connects the two variables.
b Find the area of the cardboard required to make a Halloween hat of
radius:
i 9 cm
ii 11 cm.
7G
eBook plus
As shown in the first section of this chapter, when one quantity varies
Interactivity
directly as the other, the graph representing the relationship is a straight
int-0974
Transformation
line passing through the origin. We also observed that when graphed,
of data
the data may sometimes give the curves of a parabola, hyperbola,
cubic and so on. However, when data are transformed appropriately,
they will produce the graph of a straight line. By analysing the transformation which the
values undergo, in order to produce a straight line graph, it is possible to establish relationships
between the variables.
Worked example 18
The following table shows the values of the total surface area, TSA, of spheres and their
corresponding radii, r.
Radius(r) (cm)
(cm2)
12.57
50.27
113.1
201.06
314.16
TSA
Graphthevaluesgiveninthetableandcommentontheshapeofthegraph.Usingthegraph,or
otherwise, find the equation which relates total surface area of the sphere, TSA, and its radius r.
THINk
1
WrITe/dIsplaY
On the Statistics screen, enter values and

label list1: radius and list2: tsa.
Chapter 7
Variation
259
260
To find the rule of the data and to graph it,

tap:
Calc
Power Reg
Set:
XList: main\radius
YList: main\tsa
Freq: 1
Copy Formula: y1
OK
Open the Graph & Tab screen and tap $.
Comment on the graph obtained.
The graph is not a straight line, passing through the

origin, so direct variation does not exist between
the two variables. Hence, there is no direct variation
between the radius and the total surface area of the
sphere.
Make assumptions about the graph obtained.
The graph resembles a parabola, so it is reasonable

to assume that area is directly proportional to the
square of the radius.
Write the variation statement for the

assumption made.
TSA r2
Write the variation equation.
Transpose the equation to make k the subject.
TSA = kr2
TSA
k= 2
r
Test the assumption by finding the values of r2

TSA
and check that the ratio 2 is constant.
r
On the Spreadsheet screen, label column A: r,
column B: tsa and column C: tsa / r2.
Enter the data in columns A and B.
In cell C2, complete the entry line:
= B2/(A2)^2
Then press E.
To fill down, highlight C2 to C6 and tap:
Edit
Fill Range
OK
Comment on the result obtained.
10
Alternatively, once the values of r2 have been

calculated, rule up a table of values and plot
TSA versus r2.
The ratio is constant for each corresponding pair

(when rounded to 2 decimal places).
Hence, TSA r2

TSA = kr2

TSA = 12.57r2
r2
TSA
12.57
50.27
113.1
16
25
201.06 314.16
TSA
300
200
100
0 14 9 16 25 r2
11
Comment on the graph obtained.
The graph is a straight line, passing through the

origin.
12
Establish the value of k by substituting

any pair of values from the table into the
equation of variation and write the equation
relating the two variables.
TSA = kr2
When r = 1, TSA = 12.57, k = ?
12.57 = k 1
12.57 = k
k = 12.57
TSA = 12.57r2
rememBer
1. If the data when plotted give a curve, aim to transform them in such a way that a
straight line is produced.
2. Once this has been achieved, establish the relationship between the variables by
analysing the transformation.
exerCIse
7G
1
We 18 The data in the table at right follow a

x
1
2
3
4
5
particular variation relationship.
y
1.76 7.04 15.84 28.16 44
a Graph the values given in the table and
comment on the shape of the graph.
b Using the graph, or otherwise, find the equation which relates the two variables, x and y.
The data in the table below follow a particular variation relationship.

x
10
12.5
100
50
25
20
10
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 133
a Plot the graph of y versus x and comment on its shape.

1
1
b Plot the graph of y versus and 2 and hence establish
x
x
the relationship between the two variables.
c Find the equation which relates the two variables, x and y.
3
eBook plus
The following table shows the volumes, V, of 6 spheres, to the nearest cm3, with various
diameters, D.
D (cm)
V
(cm3)
22
26
30
34
38
42
5575
9203
14 137
20 580
28 731
38 792
a Graph the values given in the table and comment on the shape of the graph.
Chapter 7
Variation
261
b Using the graph, or otherwise, find the equation which relates the volume of a sphere,
V, to its diameter, D. (Give the value of the constant of variation correct to 4decimal
places.)
4 The data in the table below follows a particular variation relationship.
x
10
5.60
5.95
6.20
6.40
6.56
6.69
6.81
6.91
a Graph the values given in the table and comment on its shape.
b If the relationship between the two variables x and y is given by the formula
y = a log10 (x) + b, determine the values of the constants a and b.
5 MC The graph represents the relationship between m and n. It is
likely that:
A n m
B n m2
C n m3
1
D n
E n m
m
6 MC If s t2, the relationship between s and t could be shown by:
A s
B s

C t
D s
E s
7 As part of her Science project, Julia tested the reaction

times of 10 people (the subjects), using the experiment
outlined below.
Julia holds a 30-cm ruler from the end labelled 30 cm.
The subject, whose reaction time is being recorded, keeps
his or her fingers open at the other end of the ruler, level
with the 0-cm mark of the scale. Subjects close their
fingers on the ruler as soon as they see that it has been
released. The distance, d cm, that the ruler falls is noted
and the reaction time, t, is calculated according to a certain
formula. The table shows the reaction times calculated for
the 10 subjects, using the distances the ruler fell before
each had closed their fingers on it.
Person
10
d (cm)
15
5.5
12
21
4.5
11
17
t (s)
0.0779 0.1191 0.1743 0.1055 0.1559 0.2062 0.0955 0.1102 0.1492 0.1855
a Use a CAS calculator to plot values of t against d and comment on the result.
b Use a CAS calculator to plot the graphs of t versus d2 and t versus d and comment on
the results.
c Analyse the graphs obtained in part b and hence find the rule which relates reaction time,
t, with the distance, d.
d Use the equation from part c to calculate the reaction time if the distance the ruler falls is
20 cm.
262
Summary
Direct variation
For any two variables x and y, where y varies directly as x:

y
1. The ratio between any pair of corresponding values, , is constant and equal to k, the constant of
k
proportionality (or constant of variation).
2. The graph, which represents the variables x and y, is a straight line passing through the origin with the
gradient equal to k.
3. As one variable increases, the other variable also increases.
The notation used to express y varies directly as x is given by: y x.
There are many cases of direct variation, where variables are raised to powers other than one, that is, y xn.
Inverse variation
For any two variables x and y, where y varies inversely as x:

1. One variable increases as the other decreases.
2. Neither variable is equal to 0.
3. The product of any pair of corresponding values, xy, is constant and equal to k.
4. The graph which represents the relationship is a hyperbola.
k
The notation used to express y varies inversely as x is given by y = , where k R\{0} and x R\{0}.
x
1
Inverse variation exists between variables raised to powers other than one, y .
xn
Joint variation
Joint variation occurs when one variable is directly proportional to the product, or quotient, of other
variables.
Regardless of the number of variables in the joint variation relationship, there is only one constant of
variation, k.
Part variation
Part variation occurs if the relationship consists of two or more parts, added together. When part variation
b
occurs, each of the parts will have its own constant of variation. For example, y = ax 2 + , where a and b
x
are constants.
If the relationship between two variables x and y is such that y varies partly as x and is partly constant, it is
written as y = ax + b, where a and b are constants and is called a part linear variation.
Solving variation problems
To solve any type of variation problem, follow these steps:

If data when plotted give a curve, aim to transform them in such a way that a straight line is produced. Once
this is achieved, establish the relationship between the variables by analysing the transformation.
Chapter 7 Variation
263
chapter review
Short answer
1 Work done, W joules, on a mass by a certain force

is directly proportional to the distance, d m, the
mass is moved. When a 3 kg mass is moved a
distance of 4 m, the work done is equal to
84 joules. Find:
b the work done, when the same mass is moved a
distance of 12 m
c the distance the mass was moved, if the work
done on the 3 kg mass is 136.5 joules.
2 The total surface area, TSA cm2, of a cube is
directly proportional to the square of its length, l m.
If a cube of length 4 cm has a total surface area of
96 cm2, find:
b the total surface area of a cube of length 12 cm
c the length of a cube which has a total surface
area of 384 cm2.
1
3 The table below represents the relationship y .
x
Find:
x
y
5
19.2
12

4 The intensity of sound, I, is inversely proportional
to the area of the source of sound. If I = 0.6 W/m2
when the sound passes through the rectangular
opening measuring 4 m by 8 m, find:
a the intensity of the sound for:
i a square opening with a side length of 2 m
iia rectangular opening with a length of 7 m
by 3 m
b the length of the side of a square opening, if
the sound passing through it has an intensity of
1.2 W/m2.
5 Power, P, is the rate of doing work. It varies directly
as the work done, W, and inversely as time, t.
a What type of variation is involved?
b Write the statement of variation.
c What will be the effect on P, when time during
which the work is done, is:
i doubled?
ii tripled?
264
d From question 1 we know that W varies

directly as the distance, d. What would be the
effect on P if the mass is moved over twice the
distance in:
i twice the time? ii half the time?
Multiple choice
1 If m n and (n1, m1) and (n2, m2) represent

corresponding values, which of the following
equalities is not true?
m1 m2
=
A n1m1 = n2m2 B n1m2 = n2m1
C
n1 n2
n1 m1
m2 n2
=
=
E
D
n2 m2
m1 n1
2 Variable a is directly proportional to b, and a = 12
when b = 48. When b = 10, a will equal:
A 40
B 5
C 2.5
D 2
E 1
3 If y is directly proportional to x and x is quadrupled,
then the value of y is:
A doubled
B tripled
C quadrupled
D halved
E divided by 4
4 Which of the following tables represent the
relationship between x and y, such that y x ?
A
12
16
12
16
25
20
16
16
25
10
5 Which of the following relationships could be

represented by this graph?
m
A m n B m n C m n2
D m n and m n2E none of these
6 The total surface area, TSA, of a particular

3-dimensional shape is directly proportional to the
square of the side, s, and TSA = 24 when s = 2.
When s = 11, the total surface area is:
A 66
B 726
C 132
D 121
E 847
7 If a b3 and b is doubled, then the value
of a will be:
1
A multiplied by 2 B unchanged
C multiplied by 2 D multiplied by 4
E multiplied by 8
8 The graphs which show an inverse variation
between the variables a and b are:
ii b
i b
B s2
A s
1
s
1
1
E
s2
s
Questions 12 and 13 refer to the table below.
D
16
12 The table of values represents the variation

relationship:
1
A p m
B p
C p m2
m
1
1
D p 2
E p
m
m
13 The gradient of the straight line shown in the
diagram is equal to:
p
iii b
A i only Bii only C i and ii

D ii and iiiE iii only
9 If m varies inversely as n, which of the following
statements is false?
A The graph of m versus n is a hyperbola.
B The product of any 2 corresponding values of
m and n is constant.
m
C The quotient of any two corresponding
n
values is constant.
1
D The graph of m against is a straight line.
n
n
m
E For any corresponding values 1 = 2 .
n2 m1
10 If y varies inversely as x and x is tripled, then the
value of y is:
A multiplied by 3
B divided by 3
C divided by 1
D multiplied by 9
3
E divided by 9
11 The variable r varies inversely as the square of s and
is represented by the vertical axis. For the resulting
graph to be a straight line, directed from the origin,
the horizontal axis must be represented by:
3
A 3 16 B 3 4 C
16
3
D E none of these
4
14 The variable y varies jointly as x, the square root
of z and as the reciprocal of the square of w.
The equation which does not describe the above
variation relationship is:
kx z
B kx z = w 2 y
w2
yw 2
yw 2
C kx =
D z =
kx
z
A y =
E w 2 = kxy z
15 The variable x varies jointly as the square of b and
the cube of c. When b is doubled and c is halved, x is:
A halved
B doubled
C divided by 8
D quadrupled
E multiplied by 8
16 The height of a cylinder, h, is directly proportional
to its volume, V, and inversely proportional to the
square of its radius, r. When V = 15.7 and r = 1, the
height is equal to 5. The constant of proportionality
k is closest to:
A 3
D
1
9
1
3
C 9
E 5
Chapter 7 Variation
265
17 Which of the following graphs represents a part

linear variation between x and y?
i
should be applied to the data, in order to produce a

straight line passing through the origin is:
ii y
iii y
A i only
B ii only
C iii only
D i and iii
E i, ii and iii
18 m and n are related by a part nonlinear variation.
The equation which could represent such a
relationship is:
A m = 2 - 3n
B m = 6 + n + 2n
C m + n = 12.5
D m = n - 0.5n2
3n 2
+n
E m=
n
19 The table below shows the corresponding values
b
of x and y, such that y = ax + 2 .
x
x
-11
The respective values of a and b are:

A 3, -20
B 20, -3
C 5, -16
D 5, 16
E 16, 5
20
A
B
C
D
E
squaring each value of p

squaring each value of t
taking the square root of each value of p
taking the reciprocal of each value of p
none of the above transformations
21 For a particular set of data, plotting y against x

produced a straight line passing through the origin.
Before the transformation, the graph representing
the data would have been:
A
10
12
147
300
75
exTeNded respoNse
1 A compound microscope contains 2 lenses: an objective lens and

an eyepiece lens. The angular magnification, M, of such a microscope
varies directly as the distance between the two lenses, L, and
inversely as the product of the focal length of the objective lens, fo
and focal length of the eyepiece lens, fe. M = 2.508
when L = 12 cm, fo = 52 cm and fe = 2.3 cm.
a Find, correct to the nearest whole number, the constant of
variation, k, and hence deduce the formula which relates the
4 variables.
b Use the formula to find the angular magnification of a
microscope with L = 10 cm, fo = 48 cm and fe = 3.5 cm, correct
to 3 decimal places.
When plotted, the data from this table produce the

graph shown above right. The transformation which
266
2 Solids expand when they are heated. The length of a steel rod, l, after it has been heated is partly constant and
partly varies directly as the change in temperature, T , that took place during the heating process. A 20 m
long rod expands by 4.8 mm after it has been exposed to a 20 degrees change in temperature.
a State the length of the rod, in metres, after it has been heated.
b Find the equation which relates the length of the expanded steel rod, l, to the change in temperature, T.
c If the constant of variation represents the product of the length of the rod before it has been heated and
the coefficient of thermal expansion, , find the value of for the steel. Write the value obtained in
scientific notation.
3
3
20
25
3
12 20
16
25
38 25
93 43
For the data in the above table, plot:

i y versus x
ii y versus x2
iii y versus x .
a From the plotted data determine which variation is being represented.
b Use the table of values or the appropriate graph from part a to find the relationship between x and y.
4 The data in the table below follow a particular variation relationship.
p
10
114
57
28.5
19
14.25
11.4
a Plot the graph of V versus p and comment on its shape.

b Using the graph or otherwise, find the equation which relates the two variables p and V.
c Use the result obtained in part b to complete the following sentence which describes this particular
variation relationship, also known as Boyles Law.
For a given mass of gas at constant temperature, the volume, V, varies _____________ with the
pressure, p.
5 The magnification, M, produced by a lens is related jointly to the distance of the object from the lens, u cm,
and the distance of the image from the lens, v cm.
Table A shows the values of magnification of the image of the object, when u varies and v is fixed.
Table B shows the values of magnification of the image of the object, when v varies and u is fixed.
Table A
u
40
20
10
Table B
v
10
12
-1
2
-5
6
20
-
13
24
2
a Plot the values from table A and comment on the shape of the graph.
b Use the graph to select the most appropriate relationship between the variables M and u, from the
1
following: M u2, M u or M .
u
c Test your assumption either numerically or graphically.
If your assumption proved to be incorrect, repeat b and c; otherwise proceed to d.
d Plot the values from table B and comment on the shape of the graph.
Chapter 7 Variation
267
e Complete the following statement: M varies ______ as v.

f If it is known that M, u and v are related by joint variation and the constant of variation is -1, deduce the
formula which connects the 3 variables. (Hint: Make magnification, M, the subject.)
6 The kinetic energy, E, of a car is related to the speed, v, the car travels and the mass, m. Table A shows values
of kinetic energy, E, for several cars of different mass for a certain fixed value of speed.
Table A
E (joules)
m (kg)
695 556
772 840
850 124
927 408
1 000 692
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
1
.
E
From your graphs decide on the type of variation that exists between E and m.
b Prove your answer to part a using a numerical method.
Table B shows values of speed, v, for the cars with different mass, m, for a certain fixed value of kinetic
energy.
a Plot the graphs of m versus E, m versus E2 and m versus
Table B
v (m/s)
29.3
27.8
26.5
25.4
24.4
m (kg)
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
c Plot the graph of m versus v. What type of variation does the shape of the graph suggest?
1
1
1
d Plot the graphs of m versus , m versus 2 , m versus
.
v
v
v
From your graphs, write the variation statement for the relationship between m and v.
e Complete the following statement: E varies _____ as m and _____ as _____ of v.
f If m = 2000 kg when v = 30.2 m/s and E = 912 040 J, find the constant of variation, k, and hence write
the formula relating m, v and E.
g Use your formula to find the value of kinetic energy when the car weighing 2100 kg travels with the
speed of 135 km/h. (Hint: Convert the speed into metres per second first.)
7 The electrical resistance, R, of a wire varies jointly as its length, l, and the reciprocal of the square of its
diameter, d.
a Write the statement of variation.
b Find the constant of proportionality and complete the table of values below.
R
12
0.8
15
20
0.5
3.75
k
c Use the results obtained in parts a and b to find the equation which relates the electrical resistance of the
wire to its length and diameter.
d i If l is doubled and d remains the same, what happens to the value of R?
ii If l remains the same and d is doubled, what happens to the value of R?
iii If both l and d are doubled, what happens to the value of R?
e i If l is decreased by 20% and d is decreased by 60%, determine whether the value
of R increases or decreases and by what amount.
eBook plus
ii If l is decreased by 10% and d is increased by 20%, determine whether the value
Digital doc
of R increases or decreases and by what amount.
Test Yourself
f If l is decreased by 75%, what change must be made to d for R to remain unchanged?
Chapter 7
268
eBook plus
aCTIVITIes
Chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on variation. (page 218)
7A
Direct variation
Tutorial
We3 int-1057: Watch how to calculate distance

travelled and the travel time of a person whose
distance travelled varies directly with time.
(page 223)
7B
Tutorial
We7 int-1058: Watch how to calculate the effect on

the area of a square when the sides are doubled and
halved. (page 230)
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 133: Investigate transforming data.

(page 231)
7C
Inverse variation
Tutorial
We10 int-1059: Watch how to use variation to

determine costs of prizes. (page 239)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 7.1: Use provided data to establish

direct variation, provide data from a proposed direct
variation, solve worded problems, establish direct
variation graphically, use provided data to establish
inverse variation and provide data from a proposed
inverse variation. (page 244)
7D
Digital docs
Spreadsheet 060: Investigate joint variation.

(page 252)
SkillSHEET 7.1: Practise percentage increase and
decrease. (page 254)
WorkSHEET 7.2: Determine both direct and inverse
variation numerically and graphically and solve
more complex worded problems. (page 255)
7F
Part variation
Tutorial
We17 int-1062: Watch how to find the equation given

how one variable varies with another. (page 256)
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 7.2: Practise removing a fraction from

a linear equation. (page 258)
7G
Interactivity
Transformation of data int-0974: Consolidate your

understanding of transformation of data. (page 259)
Digital doc
Tutorial
Spreadsheet 133: Investigate transforming data.

(page 261)
Digital doc
Digital doc
We12 int-1060: Watch how to find the effect on

dependent variables when independent variables are
doubled. (page 245)
Investigation: The effect of changing one variable on
another. (page 249)
7E
Tutorial
Joint variation
We15 int-1061: Watch how to find the percentage

change in resistance if wire length is varied.
(page 251)
Chapter review

www.jacplus.com.au
Chapter 7
Variation
269
EXAM PRACTICE 2
SHORT ANSWER
1 Simplify
20 minutes
2
5
.
(3 x - 1) (2 x + 1)
3 marks
2 Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations

for x and y.

ax + by = c

x y = d
3 marks
1
1
3
and
are the first two terms in an
( 2) - 1
( 2) + 2
arithmetic sequence. Determine the value of the
common difference.
3 marks
4 A circular pendant is being made for a necklace. It
is to be made using two different materials.
Copper plate
Gold metal
The diagram above shows the two different

sections for the pendant. If the area of gold metal
is A = 2 - 3 3 cm2 and the angle = and

3
3
sin () =
, show that the radius is 2 3 .
2

4 marks
MULTIPLE CHOICE
10 minutes

1
2x
3.4
5.2
The value of x in the triangle above is closest to:

A 20.42
B 24.58
C 40.83
D 49.17
E 98.34
270
Chapters 4 TO 7
2 The relationship between m and n is such that

1
1
m , when n = the value of m = 7.2. If
n
3
m = 9.8, the value of n will be closest to:
A 0.245
B 0.454
C 2.204
D 3.267
E 4.083
3
25 cm
7
6
The diagram above shows the dimensions of a

decorative glass insert for a door. The glass panel
is divided into four equal sections. Each section
of glass is stained a different colour. The area, in
cm2, of each section is closest to:
A 204.53
B 286.34
C 490.87
D 818.12
E 1145.37
4 Tina starts her new fitness schedule. On the first
day she walks 2 km. The next day she walks 3 km.
On day 3, she walks 4.5 km and on day 4 she walks
6 km. If Tina continues to increase the distance
she walks in this pattern for 7 more days, the total
distance, in km, she would have walked would be:
A 54.5
B 87.5
C 97.5
D 99.5
E 104.5
5 During her weekly grocery shopping, Sian buys
2 loaves of bread and 3 litres of milk for $10.50. The
next week she buys 3 loaves of bread and 4 litres
of milk for $14.95. The next week, Sian is having
a barbecue for her friends. The amount of money it
will cost Sian to buy 5 loaves of bread will be:
A $8.00
B $10.50
C $10.60
D $14.25
E $22.25
6 The volume of a cylinder varies jointly as the
square of the radius and the height. The radius is
decreased by 20% and the height is increased by
10%. The percentage change in the volume is a:
A 4.4% increase
B 12.0% decrease
C 29.6% decrease
D 70.4% increase
E 88.0% increase
exTeNded respoNse
30 minutes
1 Theo is raising money for a childrens charity. He plans to cycle from Melbourne to Sydney along the coastal
road, a total distance of 1110 km.
Before he begins, Theo plans his rest stops each day. On the first day he plans to cycle for 50 km before
stopping for a rest. He then plans to stop for a rest after every 25 km he cycles.
a If he continues to follow this plan for the total distance between Melbourne and Sydney, determine the
number of rest stops he will need.
2 marks
Theo plans to cycle 100 km each day. After 500 km, he suffers an injury to his foot and can only manage to
cycle 85% of the previous days total distance.
b If the daily distance cycled by Theo continues to follow this pattern, will he reach Sydney? Justify your
answer with appropriate calculations.
3 marks
2 After his first 300 km, Theo has a rest day. He decides to walk to the lookout on top of the hill behind
the hotel he is staying in. He leaves his hotel and sets out on a bearing of 030T and walks the 3.5 km to
the lookout.
a Determine how far north Theo is from the hotel. Write your answer in exact form.
2 marks
After walking 3.5 km to the lookout, Theo decides to follow another path down the hill. He sets out on a
bearing of 135T and walks 4.5 km to the road.
Lookout 135
3.5 km
4.5 km
30
Hotel
b Show that equals 75.

1 mark
c Determine the minimum distance, in km, Theo has to walk to return to the hotel. Write your answer
2 marks
Theo would like to determine the vertical distance the lookout is from the hotel. He takes some
measurements during his hike. He determines the angle of elevation from his point A to the top of the
lookout is 15.20. He walks 2 km towards the hill to point B and determines the angle of elevation to the
top of the lookout to be 32.35. The diagram below represents Theos measurements.
Lookout
y km
A
32.35
15.20
2 km
x km
d If the distance from point B to the vertical base of the lookout is defined as x and the vertical height of
the lookout is defined as y, show that y = 2 tan (15.2) + x tan (15.2).
2 marks
e Determine the height, in m, of the lookout. Write your answer correct to the nearest metre.
3 marks
eBook plus
Digital doc
Solutions
Exam practice 2
exam practice 2
271
8A Polynomial identities
8B Partial fractions
8C Simultaneous equations
Further algebra
areas oF sTudy
The solution of simultaneous equations arising from the intersection of a line with a parabola, circle or
rectangular hyperbola using algebra
eBook plus
8a
polynomial identities
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
Before discussing the definition of a polynomial identity, it is important to remember some basic
definitions.
An algebraic expression is made up of terms.
In the term axn, a is referred to as the coefficient of xn.
A constant is a term with no variable beside it.
For example 2x3 + 3 is an algebraic expression made up of two terms. The coefficient of
3
x is 2. The constant is 3.
A polynomial identity is an identity of the form:
kn xn + kn - 1xn - 1 + kn - 2x n - 2 + . . . . . + k1x + k0, n N
where kn , kn - 1. . . are constants and n is an element of the set of natural numbers N.
The degree of a polynomial is given by the highest value of n. Hence a polynomial of degree 1
is linear, of degree 2 is a quadratic, of degree 3 is a cubic, of degree 4 is a quartic and so on.
Worked example 1
Which of the following are polynomials? Give reasons for your answers.
1
a x3 + 2x2 + 1
b x+
c (2x + 6)5
x
Think
a In order for x3 + 2x2 + 1 to be a polynomial,
the powers must all be greater than or equal to

0, which they are. The highest power of x is 3.
1
b In order for x + to be a polynomial, the
x
powers must all be greater than or equal to 0,
which they are not.
272
WriTe
a x3 + 2x2 + 1 is a polynomial of degree 3 since it has
descending powers of x and these powers are all

greater than or equal to zero, i.e. n N.
b This is not a polynomial since the second term has
a power of -1.
c In order for (2x + 6)5 to be a polynomial, the
powers must all be greater than or equal to 0,

which they are. The highest power of x is 5.
c This is a polynomial of degree 5, since when
expanded, it has n N.
Two polynomials are said to be equal if each x-value generates the same y-value. Polynomials are
identical if they are of the same degree and corresponding coefficients are equal. Therefore, if:
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 2x3 - 4x + 8
then a = 2, b = 0, c = -4 and d = 8.
If two polynomials are known to be equal, then the process of equating coefficients can be
used to solve problems.
Worked Example 2
If 5x3 + 2x2- 7x + 1 = (2a + b)x3 - ax2 -(b - c)x + 1, then find the values of a, b and c.
Think
Write
Method 1: Technology-free
1
If 5x3 + 2x2- 7x + 1 =
(2a + b)x3 - ax2 - (b - c)x + 1, then the each
corresponding term must be equal. Equate the
terms.
5x3 = (2a + b)x3

5 = 2a + b
[1]
2x2 = -ax2
2 = -a
-2 = a
[2]
-7x
= -(b - c)x
= -(b - c)
7 = b - c
-7
[3]
-2
Solve these equations using substitution.
Substituting a = into equation [1] gives

2(-2) + b = 5
b=9
Substituting b = 9 into equation [3] gives
9-c=7
c=2
Write the answer.
a = -2, b = 9 and c = 2
Method 2: Technology-enabled
1
On the Main screen, using the soft keyboard, tap:

)
{N
Enter the equations as shown.
Then press E.
Write the answer.
a = -2, b = 9 and c = 2
Chapter 8 Further algebra
273
Worked example 3
Determine values of a and b if m4 + 4 = (m2 + am + 2)(m2 + bm + 2).

Think
1
The right-hand side must first be expanded.
Equate the coefficients.

The coefficients of m3, m2,
and m are zero.
Solve for a and b.
Write the answer.
WriTe
m4 + 4 = m4 + bm3 + 2m2 + am2 + abm2 + 2am +

2m2 + 2bm + 4
= m4 + (b + a)m3 + (4 + ab)m2 + (2a + 2b)m + 4
3
0m = (b + a)m3
0=b+a
[1]
0m2 = (4 + ab)m2
0 = 4 + ab
[2]
0m = (2a +2b)m
0 = 2a + 2b
From equation [1],
b = -a
Substitute b = -a into equation [2]
0 = 4 - a2
a2 = 4
a = 2
a=2
or a = -2
and
b = -2
b=2
When a = 2, b = -2 and when a = -2, b = 2.
Worked example 4
eBook plus
If x - 4 is a factor of x3 - 6x2 + 2x + 24, find the other factor.

Think
[3]
Tutorial
WriTe
int-1063
Worked example 4
1
Since the expression x3 - 6x2 + 2x + 24 is

cubic, the other factor must be a quadratic,
hence it is of the form ax2 + bx + c.
x3 - 6x2 + 2x + 24 = (x - 4)(ax2 + bx + c)
RHS = ax3 + bx2 + cx - 4ax2 - 4bx - 4c
= ax3 + (b - 4a)x2 + (c - 4b)x - 4c
Equate the coefficients.
x3 = ax3
1=a
[1]
-6x2
= (b - 4a)x2
= b - 4a
[2]
2x = (c - 4b)x
2 = c - 4b
[3]
-6
274
Solve for a, b and c.
Substitute a = 1 into equation [2]

= b - 4a
b = -2
Substitute b = -2 into equation [3]
2 = c - 4b
c = -6
-6
Substitute the values for a, b and c into

ax2 + bx + c and write the answer.
When a = 1, b = -2 and c = -6 then the quadratic factor

of x3 - 6x2 + 2x + 24 is x2 - 2x - 6.
1

Action
Transformation
factor
factor(x3 - 6x2 + 2x + 24)
Then press E.
Write the answer.
The quadratic factor of x3 - 6x2 + 2x + 24 is x2 - 2x - 6.
REMEMBER
1. A polynomial identity is an identity of the form

knxn + kn - 1 xn - 1 + kn - 2 xn - 2 + ..... + k1x + k0, n N
where kn, kn - 1 ... are constants and n is an element of the set of natural numbers N.
2. The degree of a polynomial is given by the highest value of n.
3. Polynomials are identical if they are of the same degree and corresponding coefficients
are equal.
4. If two polynomials are known to be equal, then the process of equating coefficients can
be used to solve problems.
Exercise
8A
Polynomial identities
1 WE1
For each of the following expressions:
i state whether or not it is a polynomial
ii if yes to i then give its degree.
2
x3 + 2x
a 2x4 + 1
b
+ x2 + 3
c (3x2 + 2)3
d
3
x
x
2 WE2 Find the values of a, b and c if
(2a + b)x3 + (b - c)x2 + (a + 2c)x + 5 = 3x3 - 5x2 + 10x + 5.
3
Find the values of a, b and c if

x3 + 2x2 - 13x + 16 = (x - 2)(ax2 + bx + c) + 6.
Find constants a, b given that

2x3- 5x2 + 10 = (x - 2)2 (2x + a) + bx + c.
5 WE3 Determine the values of a and b if

m4 + 25 = (m2 + am + 5)(m2 + bm + 5).
6
If x2 = a(x + 1)2 + b(x + 1) + c, find the values of a, b and c.
If ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = (2x - 1)2 (mx + n), express b in terms of c and d.
275
8 We 4 If x - 2 is a factor of x3 + 3x2 - 16x + 12, find the other factor.

9
10
8B
If x + 1 is a factor of x3 - x2 + x + 3, find the other factor.

If 2x + 1 is a factor of 2x3 + 7x2 - 7x - 5, find the other factor.
partial fractions
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0975
When a function is expressed as one polynomial divided by another,
Partial fractions
g
(
x
)
f(x) =
, it is often desirable to express this using partial fractions.
h( x )
This enables the function to be graphed more easily and also helps with the process of
integration (which you will learn about in Mathematical Methods CAS).
proper fractions
If g(x)and h(x) are both linear functions, then the function can be expressed as a proper fraction
in the form:
b
f(x) = A +
.
h( x )
Worked example 5
Express
b
4x + 5
in the form A +
.
x-3
x-3
Think
WriTe
1
Express the numerator as 4(x - 3) + b; the

value of b must be 17.
Write the answer in the form

A+
b .
x-3
4 x + 5 4( x - 3) + 17
=
x-3
x-3
17
= 4+
x-3
276

Action
Transformation
propFrac
4 x + 5
propFrac
x - 3
Then press E.

b .
A+
x-3
4x + 5
17
= 4+
x-3
x-3
Consider the case where g(x) is a polynomial of degree 1 and h(x) is a polynomial of degree 2.
g( x )
In this case the function, f ( x ) =
, is a proper fraction, since the numerator has a smaller
h( x )
power than the denominator.
For every linear factor (ax + b) in the denominator, there will be a partial fraction of the form
A
.
f ( x) =
ax + b
For every repeated linear factor of the form (ax + b)2 in the denominator, then the partial
A
B
fractions will be of the form f ( x ) =
. On occasions when it is impossible
+
(ax + b) (ax + b)2
A
B
to express the partial fractions in the form f ( x ) =
, they can be written as
+
(ax + b) (ax + b)2
A
B
C
.
f ( x) =
+
+
(ax + b) (ax + b) (ax + b)2
Worked Example 6
Express
x+3
in partial fraction form.
x 2 - 3 x - 40
Think
Write
x+3
x+3
, x R\{-5, 8}
=
- 3 x - 40 ( x - 8)( x + 5)
x+3
A
B
=
+
( x - 8)( x + 5) x - 8 x + 5
Factorise the denominator x2 - 3x - 40.
The denominator has two linear factors so

there will be two partial fractions of the
A
B
form
+
.
( x - 8) ( x + 5)
Express the sum of the two fractions on the

right as a single fraction.
x+3
A( x + 5) + B( x - 8)
=
( x - 8)( x + 5)
( x - 8)( x + 5)
Equate the numerators and simplify.
x + 3 = A(x + 5) + B(x - 8)
x + 3 = Ax + 5A + Bx - 8B
x + 3 = (A + B)x + 5A - 8B
Equate the coefficients to solve for A and B.
x = (A + B)x
1=A+B
1 - B = A
[1]
3 = 5A - 8B
[2]
x2
Substitute equation [1] into equation [2].

3 = 5(1 - B) - 8B
13B = 2
2
B=
13
11
A=
13
6
Substitute the values for A and B and

writethe answer in the form
A
B .
+
( x - 8) ( x + 5)
x+3
11
2
,
=
+
- 3 x - 40 13( x - 8) 13( x + 5)
x R\{-5, 8}
x2
277
1

as:
x+3
2
x - 3 x - 40
Highlight the equation and tap:
Interactive
Transformation
expand
PartialFraction
OK

A
B
+
.
( x - 8) ( x + 5)
x2
x+3
11
2
=
+
,
- 3 x - 40 13( x - 8) 13( x + 5)
x R \ {-5, 8}
Worked example 7
eBook plus
2x - 1
Express
in partial fractions.
( x - 2 )( x + 1)2
Think
Tutorial
int-1064
WriTe
Worked example 7
1
2x - 1
A
B
C
,
=
+
+
2
(
x
2
)
(
x
+
1
)
( x - 2)( x + 1)
( x + 1)2
The denominator has one linear factor and

one repeated linear factor so there will be
three partial fractions of the form
A
B
C
+
+
.
( x - 2) ( x + 1) ( x + 1)2
x R\{-1, 2}.
Express the sum of the three fractions on

the right as a single fraction.
2x - 1
=
( x - 2)( x + 1)2
A( x + 1)2 + B( x - 2)( x + 1) + C ( x - 2)
( x - 2)( x + 1)2
2x -1 = A(x2 + 2x + 1) + B (x2 - x - 2) + C (x - 2)
2x -1 = Ax2 + 2Ax + A + Bx2 - Bx - 2B + Cx - 2C
2x -1 = (A + B)x2 + (2A - B + C)x + A - 2B - 2C
Equate the coefficients to solve for A, B

and C.
0x2 = (A + B)x2
0=A+B
A = -B
[1]
2x = (2A - B + C)x
2 = 2A - B + C
[2]
-1
278
= A - 2B - 2C
[3]
Substitute equation [1] into equations [2]

and [3].
-3B
Solve these equations simultaneously.
Substitute the values for A, B and C and

write the answer in the form
A
B
C
+
+
.
( x - 2) ( x + 1) ( x + 1)2
3C = 3
C=1
Hence, -3B + 1 = 2
-3B = 1
B= 1
3
1
A=
3
2x - 1
1
1
1
=
+
,
2
3
(
x
2
)
3
(
x
+
1
)
( x - 2)( x + 1)
( x + 1)2
-3B
+C=2
- 2C = -1
x R\{-1, 2}
1

as:
2x - 1
( x - 2)( x + 1)2
Interactive
Transformation
expand
Partial Fraction
OK
2x - 1
1
1
1
=
+
,
2
3
(
x
2
)
3
(
x
+
1
)
( x - 2)( x + 1)
( x + 1)2
A
B
C
.
+
+
( x - 2) ( x + 1) ( x + 1)2
x R\{-1, 2}
Sometimes the denominator may consist of an irreducible quadratic (a quadratic which cannot
be factorised using real numbers). These types of functions need to be expressed in partial
fractions of the form:
f ( x) =
A
Bx + C
.
+ 2
ax + b cx + dx + e
Worked Example 8
2
Express 5 x + 9 x + 10 in partial fractions.
x3 - 8
Think
1
Factorise the denominator.
Write
5 x 2 + 9 x + 10
5 x 2 + 9 x + 10
=
x3 - 8
( x - 2)( x 2 + 2 x + 4)
279
5 x 2 + 9 x + 10
A
Bx + C
=
+
x - 2 x2 + 2x + 4
x3 - 8
The denominator has a linear factor and

an irreducible quadratic factor so the
partial fractions will be of the form
A
Bx + C
.
+ 2
x - 2 x + 2x + 4
x R\{2}.
Express the sum of the two fractions on

the right as a single fraction.
5 x 2 + 9 x + 10
=
x3 - 8
A( x 2 + 2 x + 4) + ( Bx + C )( x - 2)
( x - 2)( x 2 + 2 x + 4)
5x2 + 9x + 10 = A(x2 + 2x + 4) + (Bx + C) (x - 2)

= Ax2 + 2Ax + 4A + Bx2 - 2Bx + Cx - 2C)

= (A + B)x2 + (2A - 2B + C)x + 4A -2C
Equate the coefficients to solve for A, B

and C.
5x2 = (A + B)x
A+B=5
B = 5 - A
[1]
9x = (2A - 2B + C)x
9 = 2A - 2B + C
[2]
10 = 4A - 2C
[3]
Substitute equation [1] into equation [2]

and then subtract equation [3] to solve for
A, B and C.
Substitute the values for A, B and C and

write the answer in the form
A
Bx + C
.
+
x - 2 x2 + 2x + 4
Substituting [1] into [2]

2A - 2(5 - A) + C = 9

4A - 10 + C = 9

4A + C = 9
Subtracting equation [3]

3C = 9

C=3

A=4

B=1
5 x 2 + 9 x + 10
4
x+3
=
+
, x R \{2}
x - 2 x2 + 2x + 4
x3 - 8
1
280
On the Main screen, complete the entry

line as:
5 x 2 + 9 x + 10
x3 - 8
Interactive
Transformation
expand
Partial Fraction
OK

A
Bx + C
.
+
x - 2 x2 + 2x + 4
5 x 2 + 9 x + 10
4
x+3
=
+
, x R \{2}
x - 2 x2 + 2x + 4
x3 - 8
improper fractions
g( x )
is an improper
h( x )
fraction. In this case, division of polynomials needs to be performed first either by long division
or synthetic division.
In the case where g(x) has a higher power than h(x) the function f ( x ) =
Worked example 9
eBook plus
2
Express x + 5 x - 2 as a partial fraction.
x-1
Think
Tutorial
int-1065
WriTe
Worked example 9
1
The degree of the denominator is less than

the degree of the numerator, so division
must be performed first.
Divide the numerator by the denominator

using long division.
Express the answer as partial fractions.
x - 1 is the divisor.
x+6
x - 1 x 2 + 5x - 2
x2 - x
6x - 2
6x - 6
4
2
x + 5x - 2
4
= x+6+
, x R \{1}
x -1
x -1
1

as:
x 2 + 5x - 2
x -1
Interactive
Transformation
expand
PartialFraction
OK
Write the answer.
x 2 + 5x - 2
4
=
+ x + 6, x R\{1}
x -1
x -1
Chapter 8
Further algebra
281
rememBer
g( x )
:
h( x )
If g (x) and h (x) are both linear functions, then the function can be expressed in the
For rational functions of the form f ( x ) =
b
.
h( x )
Where the numerator is a linear function and the denominator is a quadratic which can
A
B
be factorised, then the partial fraction will be of the form f ( x) =
.
+
ax + b cx + d
When the denominator has repeated linear factors of the form (ax + b)2 then the partial
A
B
fractions will be of the form f ( x ) =
+
.
(ax + b) (ax + b)2
On occasions when it is impossible to express the partial fractions in the form
A
B
f ( x) =
+
, they can be written as
(ax + b) (ax + b)2
A
B
C
f ( x) =
+
+
.
(ax + b) (ax + b) (ax + b)2
When the denominator contains an irreducible quadratic then the partial fractions will
form f ( x ) = A +
A
Bx + C
.
+ 2
ax + b cx + dx + e
In the case where g (x) has a higher power than h (x) the function is an improper
fraction so division of polynomials needs to be performed either by long division or
synthetic division.
be of the form f ( x ) =
exerCise
8B
partial fractions
1
a
2
Digital doc
We8
4x + 7
x-2
x-5
x 2 - 5x + 6
x2
x+7
2x - 1
2x - 1
x 2 + 8x - 9
Express each of the following as partial fractions.

2 x + 14
x-4
b
c
2
( x - 1)( x + 3)2
x - 6x + 9
3x - 4
2x + 2
3x + 2
2x2 - 9x + 7
3x - 5
( x - 2)( x + 1)2
x 2 + 3 x + 18
x2 + 5
b
2
2
( x + 1)( x - 2 x + 5)
x ( x + 3 x + 1)
We9
282
x+6
( x + 1)( x - 4)
We7
x -1
a
( x + 2)2
eBook plus
WorkSHEET 8.1
2x - 3
x +1
We6
a
3
Express each of the following as the sum of two terms.
We5
(x2
2
2
d x + 5x - 1
- 5 x + 5)( x - 2)
x 3 - 27

+ 3x + 1
x+2
3
b x + 2x - 3
x-4
3
2
c 3x + 2 x - 4 x + 5
x2 + x + 6
3
d x +3
2x - 1
8c
It is impossible to solve one linear equation with two unknown variables. There must be two
equations with the same two unknowns for a solution to be found. Such equations are called
simultaneous equations.
There are several different ways to solve simultaneous equations. In this section we consider
algebraic solutions of simultaneous equations arising from the intersection of a line with a
parabola, circle or rectangular hyperbola.
Worked Example 10
Solve simultaneously: y = x and y = x2 + 3x + 1.

Think
Write
1
Write the equations and label them [1]

and [2].
y = x
y = x2 + 3x + 1
Substituting [1] into [2]:

x2 + 3x + 1 = x
Transpose to make the RHS equal 0 and

simplify.
x2 + 3x + 1 x = 0
x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
Factorise.
Solve for x.
Substitute 1 instead of x into equation [1].
Substituting 1 into [1]:

y = 1
Write the answer.
Solution set: (1, 1)
[1]
[2]
(x + 1)2 = 0
x+1=0
x = 1
1
On the Main screen, using the soft

keyboard, tap:
)
{N
Then press E.
Write the answer.
Solving y = x and y = x2 + 3x +1 for x

and y gives x = -1 and y = -1.
That is, (-1, -1).
283
Worked example 11
eBook plus
Solve simultaneously: y = x + 1 and x2 + y2 = 4.

Think
Tutorial
WriTe
int-1066
Worked example 11
1
Write the equations and label them [1]

and [2].
y=x+1
x2 + y2 = 4

x2 + (x + 1)2 = 4
Expand (x + 1)2, using the perfect square

identity and transpose to make the RHS = 0.
x2 + x2 + 2x + 1 - 4 = 0
2x2 + 2x - 3 = 0
Solve for x, using the quadratic formula.
a = 2, b = 2, c = -3
x=
=
=
=
=
Write the two values of x separately.
Substitute
Substitute
-1 +
-1 -
x1 =
y1 =
instead of x into
y2 =
2
equation [1] and simplify.
22 - 4 2 (-3)
22
-
2
4 + 24
4
2 28
4
22 7
4
-1 7
2
-1 +
, x2 =
-1 +
-1 -
+1
2
1- 7 2
=
+
2
2
1- 7 + 2
=
2
=
284
-2
7
+1
2
1+ 7 2
=
+
2
2
1+ 7 + 2
=
2
1+ 7
=
2
instead of x into
2
equation [1] and simplify.
[1]
[2]
1- 7
2
-1 -
Write the answer. (Make sure the values of

x and y are matched properly; that is, x1 is
placed with y1 and x2 with y2.)
-1 + 7 1 + 7
Solution set: 2 , 2 ,
-1 - 7 1 - 7
2 , 2
1

keyboard, tap:
)
{N
Then press E.
Write the answer.
Solving y = x + 1 and x2 + y2 = 4 for x and y gives

x=
x=
-(
7 + 1) and y = ( 7 - 1) or
2
2
7 -1
and y =
2
7 +1
2
That is,
- ( 7 + 1) - ( 7 - 1) 7 - 1 7 + 1
,
or 2 , 2 .
2
2
Worked Example 12
Solve simultaneously: y = 2x 1 and y =
2
.
x-3
Think
Write
1
Write the equations and label them [1] and

[2].
y = 2x - 1
2
y=
x-3

2
2x - 1 =
x-3
[1]
[2]
285
Solve for x:
(a)Multiply both sides of the equation by
(x 3).
(b) Expand and make the RHS = 0.
(c) Identify the values of a, b and c.
(d)Substitute the values of a, b and c into the
quadratic formula and simplify.
(2x 1)(x 3) = 2
2x2 7x + 1 = 0
a = 2, b = 7, c = 1
7 (-7)2 - 4 2 1
22
7 49 - 8
=
4
7 41
=
4
x=
7 + 41
7 - 41
, x2 =
4
4
Write the two values of x separately.
x1 =
Substitute 7 + 41 into [1] and simplify.

4
7 + 41
y1 = 2
-1
4
7 + 41 2
2
2
5 + 41
=
2
=
Substitute
7 - 41
into [1] and simplify.
4
7 - 41
y2 = 2
-1
4
7 - 41 2
2
2
5 - 41
=
2
=
Write the answer (leave it in surd form).
7 + 41 5 + 41
,
Solution set:
,
4
2
7 - 41 5 - 41
,
4
2
1
286
On the Main screen, using the soft keyboard,

tap:
)
{N
Then press E.
Solving y = 2 x - 1 and y =
Write the answer.
x=
2
for x and y gives
x-3
-(
or x =
-( 41 - 5)
41 - 7)
and y =
4
4
41 + 5
41 + 7
and y =
4
4
That is,
- ( 41 - 7) - ( 41 - 5)
41 + 7 41 + 5
.
or
,
,
4
4
4
4
rememBer
Simultaneous equations, arising from the intersection of a line with a parabola, circle or a
rectangular hyperbola, can be solved using algebra as follows:
1. Transpose one of the equations (it is better to choose a linear equation) to make either
x or y the subject and substitute into the other equation.
2. Simplify the resulting equation (if properly simplified, it will result in a quadratic
equation).
3. Solve the quadratic equation to find the value(s) of one variable.
4. Substitute the value(s) of the first variable into either of the two equations (preferably
into the transposed one) and solve for the second variable.
5. Write the solution set.
exerCise
8C
eBook plus
simultaneous equations
1
a y = x, y = x2 + 5x + 4
c y = 2x, y = x2 + 4x + 1
e y = -2x, y = x2 - 2x - 1
g y + x = 1, y = 3x2 + 2x - 1
i 2x - 4y = 12, y = -2x2 + x + 6
2
Digital doc
We 10 Solve each of the following simultaneously.
SkillSHEET 8.1
Using substitution
b y = -x, y = x2 + 3x + 4
to solve simultaneous
2
d y = 3x, y = x + 8x + 6
equations
f y = x + 5, y = x2 4x + 11
x2
-4
h 2x + 3y = 6, y =
2
j 2y + 6x = 4, y = 4 - 3x2

a y = x, y2 + x2 = 1
b y = -x, y2 + x2 = 1
2 + y2 = 4
d y = 1 - x, 4 = y2 + x2
c y = 2x, x
2
2
e x + y = 2, x + y - 9 = 0
f y - x - 3 = 0, (x + 3)2 + y2 = 16
x
h y + 2 = 3x, (x - 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 4
g y = 1 - , (x - 2)2 + y2 - 1 = 0
2
i 2 x + 4y = 4, x2 + (y + 1)2 = 25
j 6x - 3y = 12, (x - 2)2 + (y - 1)2 - 36 = 0
a y = 2x, y =
2
x -1
c y = 3x - 4, y =
4
1 - 2x
4
2- x
1
d y = 1 - 2x, y =
-1
x+2
b y = x + 1, y =
Chapter 8
Further algebra
287
e 2y - x = 6, y - 3 =
2
x -1
f 2x + 4y - 8 = 0, y + 1 =
3
2- x
2
-1 - y = 0
3x
1
1
=y+2
j x + y = 5,
=y
i 4x - 3y = 12, 4 4 - 3x
3x - 2
4 mC Which of the following represent the solution to the pair of simultaneous equations
x + y = 6 and y = 3x2 + 12x + 10?
g x - 3 = 2y, y =
-1
3
,63
A i only
2
x -1
ii (-1, 7)
B i and ii
h x = 2y - 4,
iii (-1, 1)
iv (-4, 10)
C ii and iv
D ii and iii
5 Buttons are to be attached to a shirt as shown on the diagram

at right.
If we draw a set of axes through the centre of the button,
the position of the two holes can be described as the points of
intersection of the line y = x with the circle x2 + y2 = 1. The
other two holes are positioned at the points of intersection of
the line y = -x with the same circle. Find the coordinates of the
four holes. Give the answer correct to 2 decimal places.
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 8.2
288
E i and iv
y = x
y2 + x2 = 1
y=x
Summary
Polynomials
A polynomial identity is an identity of the form:

kn xn + kn - 1xn - 1 + kn - 2 x n - 2 + ..... + k1x + k0, n N
where kn , kn - 1... are constants and n is contained within the set of natural numbers N.
The degree of a polynomial is given by the highest value of n.
Polynomials are identical if they are of the same degree and corresponding coefficients are equal.
If two polynomials are known to be equal, then the process of equating coefficients can be used.
Partial fractions
g( x )
:
h( x )
b
If g(x) and h(x) are both linear functions, then the function can be expressed in the form f ( x ) = A +
.
h( x )
For rational functions of the form f ( x ) =
Where the numerator is a linear function and the denominator is a quadratic which can be factorised, then the
A
B
partial fraction will be of the form f ( x ) =
+
.
ax + b cx + d
When the denominator has repeated linear factors of the form (ax + b)2 then the partial fractions will be of
A
B
the form f ( x ) =
+
. On occasions when it is impossible to express the partial fractions in
(ax + b) (ax + b)2
the form f ( x ) =
A
B
A
B
C
+
+
+
, they can be written as f ( x ) =
.
(ax + b) (ax + b)2
(ax + b) (ax + b) (ax + b)2
When the denominator contains an irreducible quadratic then the partial fractions will be of the form
A
Bx + C
f ( x) =
+
.
(ax + b) cx 2 + dx + e
In the case where g(x) has a higher power than h(x), the function is then an improper fraction so division of
polynomials needs to be performed either by long division or synthetic division.
Simultaneous equations, arising from the intersection of a line with a parabola, circle or a rectangular
hyperbola, can be solved using algebra as follows:
Transpose one of the equations (it is better to choose a linear equation) to make either x or y the subject and
substitute into the other equation.
Simplify the resulting equation (if properly simplified, it will result in a quadratic equation).
Solve the quadratic equation to find the value(s) of one variable.
Substitute the value(s) of the first variable into either of the two equations (preferably into the transposed
one) and solve for the second variable.
Write the solution set.
289
chapter review
Short answer
1 Determine the values of a and b where

x4 + 7x3 +12x2 + x - 1 = (x2 + ax + 1)(x2 + bx - 1).
2 x - 2 is a factor of x3 + x2 - 11x + 10; find the other
factor.
x - 22
3 Express
as partial fractions.
x 2 - 8 x - 20
x3 - 2x 2 + x - 1
4 Express
as partial fractions.
x2 - 2
5 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of
15
.
the line y = 5x with the hyperbola y =
x-2
6 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of
the line y = x with the parabola y = 4 - x2.
Multiple choice
1 If 2x3 + 7x2 - 16x + 6 = (2x - 1)(ax2 + bx + c), then

the values of a, b and c are:
A a = 1, b = 4, c = 6
B a = -1, b = -4, c = 6
C a = 1, b = 4, c = -6
D a = 1, b = -4, c = 6
E a = 1, b = 4, c = -5
2 If 2x2 - 5x - 3 = a(x - b)(x - c) then the values of
a, b and c are
A a = 2, b = 3, c = 1
B a = 1, b = 3, c = 1
1
D a = 2, b = 3, c = 1
C a = 2, b = 3, c =
2
2
1
E a = 1, b = 3, c =
2
3 If
4x + 2
A
B
, then:
=
+
( x + 2)( x - 4) x + 2 x - 4
A A = 1, B = 3
C A = 1, B = 4
E A = 2, B = 3
B A = 3, B = 1
D A = 4, B = 1
5 x 2 + x + 12
A
Bx + C
, then the
= +
x3 + 2x 2 + 4 x x x 2 + 2x + 4
values of A, B and C would be:
A A = 1, B = 2, C = 3
B A = 1, B = 3, C = 2
C A = 1, B = 2, C = 5
D A = -3, B = 2, C = 5
E A = 3, B = 2, C = 5
4 If
5 A solution to the pair of simultaneous equations

23
y = 1.5x and y =
+ 2.71 is:
20( x - 4)
A 5 , 3
2 2
3 9
,
2 4
C 3 , 15
5 9
,
2 4
2 4
E none of these
x
and (y 1)2 + (x 3)2 = 9
4
are solved simultaneously. When one of the
equations is substituted into the other and the
resultant equation is transposed to the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0, the values of a, b and c are:
6 The equation y = 1 -
17 , 6,
6
18
D 16, -6, 9
17 , 6,
6
17 , 6,
16
1 , 6,
16
extended response
1 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line y = x with:

2
a the hyperbola y =
+6
3x - 1
b the circle (y + 1)2 + x2 4 = 0.
In each case give the answer correct to 2 decimal places.
2 Consider the design, shown on the diagram at right:
If we take the point of intersection of the straight lines to be an origin, the design
can be described by the following system of equations:
y=x
y = x
1
y =
x
-1
y =
x
y=0
x=0
x2 + y2 = 4
290
C
B
A
T
QP O
J
K
L
As can be seen from the diagram, there are 20 points of intersection (not counting the centre point).
a What is the radius of a circle described by the equation x2 + y2 = 4?
b Using the answer to a, state the coordinates of points A, F, K and P.
c Find the coordinates of point I by solving an appropriate pair of simultaneous equations algebraically.
Leave the answer in a surd form.
d State the coordinates of points C, R and N using symmetry.
e Find the coordinates of point H by solving algebraically an appropriate pair of simultaneous equations.
f Using the symmetry of the design and your answer to part e, write the coordinates of points D, S and M.
1
g State the points of intersection of the hyperbola y = and the circle.
x
h Find the coordinates of the points in question g by solving an appropriate pair of equations graphically,
using a table of values or one of the iteration methods. Give the answer correct to 2 decimal places.
-1
i State the points of intersection of the hyperbola y =
and the circle.
x
j Choose a method and use it to find the coordinates of the points in question i. Give the answer correct to
2 decimal places.
3 A section of a roller coaster track is shown at right. It consists
of three parts with the following equations:
3 2
d
16
AB:
h=-
+ 10
BC:
h = 163 d 2 - 3d + 16
Height (m)
CDE: h = 0.02d 3 - 1.25d 2 + 25d - 147.56

where h is the height of the track above the ground level and
d is the horizontal distance from A.
a Find the coordinates of point B, by solving a pair of
simultaneous equations algebraically.
b The track is closest to the ground when it is 8 metres horizontally from A. What is its height at that
point?
c Find the horizontal distance(s) from A, when the car is 6 metres above ground level.
d Use a CAS calculator to find the coordinates of point C.
h
e By using a table of values or otherwise, find the
E
coordinates of point D.
D
f Point E is 30 metres horizontally from A and is the
highest point of this section of the track. Find the
A
maximum height of the track.
B
g The track runs alongside the amusements pavilion. The
C
roof of the pavilion follows the rule h = 0.4d + 4. As seen
from the diagram, the car, while on this section of the
track, will be level with the roof four times. Find the
d
Distance
height of the car above the ground at each of these four
points.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 8
Chapter 8
Further algebra
291
eBook plus
aCTiviTies
Chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on further algebra. (page 272)
8A
Polynomial identities
Tutorial
We4 int-1063: Watch how to find the quadratic factor

of a cubic given the linear factor. (page 274)
8B
Partial fractions
Tutorials
We7 int-1064: Watch how to express a linear

function divided by a cubic as a partial fraction.
(page 278)
We9 int-1065: Watch how to express a cubic divided
by a linear function as a partial fraction. (page 281)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 8.1: Use the bisection and secant

methods as well as the null factor law to solve
simple and complex simultaneous equations, and
apply learning to worded problems. (page 282)
Chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Interactivity
Partial fractions int-0975: Consolidate your

understanding of how to determine partial fractions.
(page 276)
8C
Tutorial
We11 int-1066: Watch how to solve simultaneously a

linear and an elliptical equation. (page 284)
Digital docs
SkillSHEET 8.1: Practise using substitution to solve

WorkSHEET 8.2: Practise finding solutions to linear
and non-linear simultaneous equations. (page 288)
292
9A Statements (propositions), connectives

and truth tables
9B Valid and invalid arguments
9C Techniques of proof
9D Sets and Boolean algebra
9E Digital logic
algebra
and logic
areaS oF STudy
Propositions, connectives and truth tables

Tautologies, validity and proof patterns
The application of proof to number patterns and
algebra
Electronic gates and circuits

Laws and properties of Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra and its application to circuit
simplification
eBook plus
9a
Statements (propositions),
connectives and truth tables
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
Older than calculus (17th century), algebra (9th century) and even geometry
(300 years before Christ) is the study of logic. Some of the material
described in this section was developed by Aristotle, one of the most famous
of the ancient Greek philosophers, yet it is still used today by people as
diverse as mathematicians, lawyers, engineers and computer scientists. All of
our modern digital technology owes its birth to the application of the
principles of logic; every meaningful computer program ever written has
relied on the principles you will learn in this chapter.
Furthermore, logic can be seen as the study of argument. You will
be able to analyse logically the arguments of teachers, politicians and
advertisers to determine if they should convince you of their ideas,
programs and products.
Statements
A statement is a sentence which is either true or false. For example, This book is about
Mathematics is a true (T) statement, while The capital of Australia is Perth is a false (F)
statement.
Some sentences are not statements at all. Go to the store is an instruction, How old are
you? is a question, See you later! is an exclamation, You should see the latest Spielberg
movie is a suggestion.
To determine whether a sentence is a statement, put the expression It is true that ... (or It is
false that ...) at the front of the sentence. If it still makes sense, then it is a statement.
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
293
Beware of some near-statements such as I am tall, or She is rich, because these are
relative sentences; they require more information to be complete. They can be turned into
statements by saying I am tall compared to Mary or She is rich compared to Peter.
In some books, statements are called propositions.
Worked Example 1
Classify the following sentences as either statements, instructions, suggestions, questions,

exclamations or near-statements.
a Germany won World War II.
b Would you like to read my new book?
c The most money that Mary can earn in one day is $400.
d When it rains, I wear rubber boots.
e Hello!
f You will need to purchase a calculator in order to survive Year 11 Mathematics.
g Do not run in the hallways.
h You should read this book.
i I am short.
Think
a Put the phrase It is true that ... in front of the
Write
a This is a (false) statement.
sentence. If the new sentence makes sense, it is

classed as a statement.
b Put the phrase It is true that ... in front of the
b This is a question.

c Put the phrase It is true that ... in front of the
c This is a statement. We cannot at this time

determine if it is true or false without

further information.
d Put the phrase It is true that ... in front of the
d This is a (presumably true) statement.

e Put the phrase It is true that ... in front of the
e This is an exclamation.

f Put the phrase It is true that ... in front of the
f This is a (true) statement.

g Put the phrase It is true that ... in front of the
g This is an instruction.

h Put the phrase It is true that ... in front of the
h This is a suggestion.

i Put the phrase It is true that ... in front of the

294
i This is a near-statement because it
requires additional information to

be complete. It can be turned into a
statement by saying I am shorter than
Karen.
Connectives and truth tables

Two (or more) statements can be combined into compound statements using a connective. For
example, the statement The book is new and about Mathematics is a compound of the single
statements The book is new, The book is about Mathematics.
Notice the connective and which is used to join them. Two main connectives and and
or are used in compound sentences. Other connectives are not, if ... then ..., if ... and
only if ....
The truth of a compound statement is determined by the truth of the separate single
statements.
Considering this example, there are 4 cases;
Case 1: The book is new is true. The book is about Mathematics is true.
Case 2: The book is new is true. The book is about Mathematics is false.
Case 3: The book is new is false. The book is about Mathematics is true.
Case 4: The book is new is false. The book is about Mathematics is false.
This list can be summarised using a truth table.
Let p = The book is new and
q = The book is about Mathematics.
What about the third column? This represents the truth
value of the compound statement p and q. To determine this
truth value we need to examine the logical definition of the
connective and. For the compound statement to be true, both
single statements must be true. If either is false then the whole
statement is false. Therefore, we can complete the truth table for
and (using the common symbol to represent and).
Similarly, the truth table for or, using the symbol , is
shown.
The implication here is that it takes only one (or both) of
the statements to be true for a statement such as Mary went to
the store or the library to be true. If she went to the store then
certainly she went to the store or the library. Similarly, if she
went to the library in this example she could have gone to both.
p and q
pq
pq
Chapter 9 Algebra and logic
295
There are some compound statements where it is not possible for both statements to be true
at the same time. For example: John is fifteen or sixteen years old. Clearly, in this case John
cannot be both 15 and 16. This is an example of exclusive-or.
Also be careful not to confuse the logical use of and with the English common usage. For
example, the sentence Boys and girls are allowed in the swimming pool after 6.00 pm is made
up of the compound sentences Boys are allowed ... and Girls are allowed .... In reality, what
is being said is that either boys or girls or both are allowed, so logically, the sentence should be
Both boys and girls are allowed in the swimming pool after 6.00 pm.
In some textbooks and is called the conjunction and or is called the disjunction.
Worked Example 2
Determine the truth table for the compound statement:

The suspect wore black shoes or was a female wearing a skirt.
Think
Write
Identify and label the individual statements.
p = The suspect wore black shoes.

q = The suspect was female.
r = The suspect wore a skirt.
Form a compound statement. Clearly p is separate

from q and r.
p or (q and r)
p (q r)
Create a truth table. Since there are three

statements and each can have two values (T or F),
there are 2 2 2 = 8 rows in the table. The
(q r) column is completed by looking at the q
and r columns.
(q r)
p (q r)
The last column is completed by just looking at the

p column and at the (q r) column.
Note: Use brackets to

indicate the separation.
As can be observed in the last column, p dominates the table. Regardless of the truth of q
and r, the entire statement is true if p is true (rows 14). Otherwise, if p is false then both q
and r must be true (row 5).
Negation
Another connective is the negation, or not, and is denoted by the symbol ~. This is merely the
opposite of the original statement.
If p = It is raining, then ~p = It is not raining.
Be careful when negating English sentences. For example, the negation of I am over 21 isnt
I am under 21, but I am not over 21. Can you see the difference?
Worked Example 3
Complete the truth table for the compound statement p ~p.

Think
296
Write
Set up a truth table. Since there is only one statement here

(p), we need only two rows, either p or not p.
~p
p ~p
Note: The compound statement in worked example 3 is always true! An English sentence
equivalent to this statement could be I will be there on Monday or I will not be there on
Monday.
Equivalent statements
Two statements are equivalent if their truth tables are identical. Each row of the truth tables must
match. If there is even one difference then the statements are not equivalent. The symbol is
used to indicate equivalence, as in p q. This is read as p is true if and only if q is true.
Worked example 4
eBook plus
By completing truth tables, show that ~( p q) (~p ~q).
Tutorial
int-1067
Think
1
Worked example 4
WriTe
Set up a truth table. Since there

are two statements, we need
2 2 = 4 rows.
~p
~q
( p q)
Complete the ~p, ~q columns by

negating p and q separately.
Complete the (p q) column.
Negate the (p q) column.
Find (~p ~q) using columns 3

and 4.
Observe that the final two

columns are equal in every row.
Note that the equivalence operators, p & q, have a truth

table of their own, as shown at right.
This clearly demonstrates that p q is true when the truth value
of p equals the truth value of q.
i.e. if both p & q are true or
if both p & q are false
~( p q) (~p ~q)
pq
rememBer
1. A statement (sometimes called a proposition) is a sentence which is either true or false.

2. Logical connectives are and, or, not, if . . . then, and equals (see the table at the
end of the chapter).
3. Each logical connective has a truth table (see the table at the end of the chapter).
4. A compound statement is made up of two or more statements connected with logical
connectives.
5. Two (compound) statements are equivalent if they have identical truth tables.
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
297
Exercise
9a
Statements (propositions), connectives

and truth tables
1 WE1 Classify the following sentences as statements (propositions), instructions, suggestions,
exclamations, opinions or near-statements. If they are statements, then indicate whether they
are true (T), false (F) or indeterminate without further information (T/F).
a That was the best Hollywood movie of 2009.
b That movie won the most Oscar nominations in 2009.
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
2
When the power fails, candles are a good source of light and heat.
Why did you use that candle?
Collingwood hasnt won a Grand Final for almost 15 years.
Collingwood hasnt won a Grand Final because they have too few good players.
Please go to the store before it closes.
The store closes at 6.00 pm.
A dingo is considered to be a native Australian mammal.
Mary is tall for her age.
Break up the following compound statements into individual single statements.
a
b
c
d
e
f
The car has 4 seats and airconditioning.

The Departments of Finance and Defence were both over budget in 2006.
Bob, Carol, Ted and Alice went to the hotel.
To be a best-seller a novel must be interesting and relevant to the reader.
Either Sam or Nancy will win the trophy.
You can choose from ice-cream or fruit for dessert. We have vanilla or strawberry
ice-cream.
g There are some statements which cannot be proved to be true or false.
h Most of my friends studied Mathematics, Physics, Engineering or Law and Arts.
298
Convert the following pairs of simple sentences into a compound sentence. Be sure to use
and and or carefully.
a John rode his bicycle to school. Mary rode her bicycle to school.
b The book you want is in row 3. The book you want is in row 4.
c The weather is cold. The weather is cloudy.
d Many people read novels. Many people read history.
e In a recent poll, 45% preferred jazz. In a recent poll, 35% preferred classical music.
f Two is an even number. Two is a prime number.

4 mC For the compound statement p q (p and q), the number of different ways for this
statement to be true is:
A 0
B 1
C 2
D 3
E 4
5 mC For the compound statement p q (p or q), the number of different ways for this
statement to be true is:
A 0
B 1
C 2
D 3
E 4
6
As you saw in worked example 4, if there is a compound statement with two single
statements, p and q, then there are 2 2 = 4 rows in the truth table. List all the different rows
for compound statements made up of:
a 3 single statements
b 4 single statements
c 5 single statements.
You should be able to develop a pattern of
completing the Ts and Fs in a logical sequence.
7 We2 Write the following compound sentences

in symbolic form (p, q, r), and determine the truth
table.
a The Sydney flight was on time; the Perth flight
was fully booked.
b John, Zia and David passed General
Mathematics.
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algebra and logic
299
c Either Alice and Renzo, or Carla, will have to do the dishes. (Note use of commas.)
d The committee requires two new members. One must be a female, the other must be
either a student or a professor.
8
Find the truth table for the compound statement p ~p.
9 We3 Complete the truth tables for the following compound statements.
a p ~q
b ~p ~q
c ( p q) r
d p ~q
e ~p ~q
f ( p q) r
10
Let p = It is raining, q = I bring my umbrella. Write a sentence for the following

compound statements.
a pq
b pq
c ~p q
11
Let p = Peter likes football, and q = Quentin likes football. Write a sentence for the
following compound statements.
a pq
b pq
c p ~q
12 We4 By completing truth tables show that ~( p q) (~p ~q).

13
9B
Determine if the compound statement ~( p q) is equivalent to ~p ~q.
14
Determine if the following compound statement pairs are equivalent.

a ( p q) ~p
b ( p q) ~p
( p q) ~p
p ~p
15
Determine if the brackets in an expression alter the truth table by comparing:

( p q) r with p (q r ).
16
Repeat question 15 with the following statement pairs.

a Compare ( p q) r with p (q r).
b Compare ( p q) r with p (q r).
c Based upon the results of questions 15 and 16, what might you conclude about the effect
of brackets on a compound expression?
Valid and invalid arguments

The purpose of the logical connectives and, or, and not is to form statements, true or false,
in order to evaluate the truth, or otherwise, of something called an argument. An argument is a
set of one or more propositions (statements). Before we can evaluate arguments we need one
more connective: the implication (or conditional) statement.
implication
Consider the following classical statement: If it is raining
then I bring my umbrella. This is the combination of the two
statements It is raining and I bring my umbrella, connected by
two words: If and then. Each of the two statements has individual
truth values; either could be true or false. The first statement is
called the antecedent, the second is called the consequent, and in
symbolic form this is written as p q.
This is called implication because the first statement implies the
second; it is also called conditional, because the outcome of the
second statement is conditional on the first.
How can we determine the truth table of p q? This is not as
simple as employing a mere definition.
300
Referring to our example, consider the question Under what conditions would p q be a lie?.
1. If it is indeed raining and I bring my umbrella then, clearly p q is true.
2. If it is raining and I dont bring my umbrella, then I lied to you! Thus, p q is false.
3. What if it is not raining? I have told you nothing about what
p
q
pq
I would do in that case. I might either bring my umbrella,
T
T
T
or I might not. In either case you cannot say I lied to you,
so p q is true.
T
F
F
To summarise, then, the truth table at right may be constructed:
F
T
T
This leads us immediately to ask the question: Is p q the same
F
F
F
as q p?
Worked Example 5
Determine by using truth tables if (p q) (q p).

Think
Write
Set up a truth table for p, q and p q. This is shown in

the 3rd column.
Exchange the roles of p and q to determine the truth

table for q p. This is shown in the last column.
Clearly, they are not equivalent.
pq
qp
This is a most important result; it is a result that people (who think they are arguing logically)
often mistake for a valid statement. Again, referring to the original implication; If I bring my
umbrella, then it is raining says a much different thing from the original statement and is called
its converse. In this example, it seems to be making the argument that my bringing the umbrella
can control the weather!
Converse, contrapositive and inverse

As we have just seen, there are alternative forms of p q, such as the converse. These, and their
relationship to p q are shown in the table below.
Symbol
Relationship to p q
Implication
pq
(assumed) True
Converse
qp
False
Contrapositive
~q ~p
True
Inverse
~p ~q
False
Name
Often the contrapositive is a more realistic way of stating an implication than the original
statement is. Be careful, however, not to use the converse or inverse as they are (generally) false
when p q is true.
Arguments
An argument is a series of statements divided into two parts the premises and the conclusion.
The premises are a series of statements intended to justify the conclusion. For example, consider
the following argument:

A terrier is a breed of dog.
Premise

Rover is a terrier.
Premise

Therefore, Rover is a dog.
Conclusion
Generally, an argument will have only one conclusion and (usually) two premises.
301
Conclusion and premise indicators

To help identify the conclusion, look for words or phrases like:

therefore, accordingly, hence, thus, consequently,

it must be so that, so, it follows that, implies that
What follows one of these conclusion indicators is the conclusion; by default everything else is a
premise. There are also premise indicators:

because, given that, since, seeing that,

may be inferred from, owing to, for, in that
Worked Example 6
Identify the premises and conclusions for each of these arguments.

a A Commodore is a model of a Holden car.
My car is a white Commodore.
Therefore, my car is a Holden.
b Military defence depends upon adequate government funding.
Adequate government funding depends on a healthy economy.
A healthy economy depends upon an intelligent fiscal policy.
Military defence depends upon an intelligent fiscal policy.
c Pregnant mothers should not smoke.
Cigarettes can harm the foetus.
d The weather report on Channel 9 is accurate.
I will bring an umbrella tomorrow, because the weather report on Channel 9 predicts
rain for tomorrow.
Think
Write
a Examine each sentence looking for
the conclusion indicators, or examine

the sequence of the sentences.
b Note how the sequence of statements
connects one with the next.
The last is therefore the conclusion.
c In this case the sentences have been
reversed. This is a common mistake.

d Again, the order of statements
is somewhat confused. Can you

re-write this argument in a more
logical fashion?
a A Commodore is a model of a Holden car.
My car is a white Commodore.

Therefore, my car is a Holden.
b Military defence depends upon adequate
government funding.
Adequate government funding depends on
a healthy economy.
A healthy economy depends upon an
intelligent fiscal policy.
Military defence depends upon an
intelligent fiscal policy.
c Pregnant mothers should not smoke.
Cigarettes can harm the foetus.
d The weather report on Channel 9 is
accurate.
I will bring an umbrella tomorrow.
The weather report on Channel 9 predicts
rain for tomorrow.
Premise
Premise
Conclusion
Premise
Premise
Premise
Conclusion
Conclusion
Premise
Premise
Conclusion
Premise
In some books, statements are called propositions and arguments are called inferences.
Categorical propositions and the deductive argument

The standard argument consists of two premises and a conclusion:

All dogs are mammals.
Premise

Rover is a dog.
Premise

Therefore, Rover is a mammal.
Conclusion
302
Note: Observe the use of the key word All. (Beware of arguments that use the key word
some, as in Some journalists are hard-working. This is a weaker form of argument, the study
of which is beyond the scope of this course.)
The first premise is called a categorical statement or proposition, and this form of argument
can be called the classical deductive argument. However, as we shall see, there are many cases
where we will not have a valid deductive argument, even if everything looks correct: these
situations are called fallacies. As an example, consider the following argument:

All dogs are mammals.
Premise

Rover is a mammal.
Premise

Therefore, Rover is a dog.
Conclusion
Clearly, no one should be convinced by this argument. Both premises might be true, but
the conclusion does not follow logically from them and we would say that this is an invalid
argument. This is an example of a formal, or structural fallacy.
Some categorical propositions can be turned into implications. For instance, the statement
All dogs are mammals can be written as If it is a dog, then it is a mammal. This says exactly
the same thing.
Beware of certain statements such as If it is sunny tomorrow, I will go to the beach. This
is not the same as saying On all sunny days I will go to the beach. The key word here is
tomorrow this restricts the statement so that the key word all cannot be used. However, the
implication can still be used in a valid argument:
If it is sunny tomorrow, I will go to the beach (after checking the weather tomorrow).
It is sunny.
I will go to the beach.
This is certainly a valid argument. At this point,
we can define a symbolic form for this kind of deductive
argument:
pq
p

q
In other words, we start with an implication, which we assert to be true, then follow by stating
that the antecedent is true, and argue that the conclusion is true. Can you see how the Rover
argument fits into this pattern? Note that this is only one form of (potentially) valid argument.
Worked Example 7
Determine if the following arguments are valid.

a All mathematics books are interesting.
b
This is a book about mathematics.
Therefore, this book is interesting.
c Some history books are boring.
d
This book is about history.
Therefore, this book is boring.
Think
a
If I study hard, I will pass Physics.

I passed Physics.
I must have studied hard.
If I dont study, I will fail Physics.
I didnt study.
I will fail Physics.
Write
Change the first statement to: If ... then ....
a If it is a mathematics book, then it is
interesting.
2
(b) Put the argument into symbolic form.
p = It is a mathematics book.
q = It is interesting.
pq
p
q
Determine if it is a valid form.
Yes, this is a valid form for an argument.
(a) Assign each statement a symbol.
303

some.
c The use of the word some means that
the statement cannot be put into this

form.
Thus, the entire argument is not valid.

q = I will pass Physics.

pq
q
p
No, this is not a valid form for an
argument.
c Consider the first statement. Note the use of the word
b p = I study hard.
d p = I dont study.
q = I will fail Physics.

pq
p
q
Yes, this is a valid form for an argument.
Note: Even if the statements are expressed in negative form; I dont study I will fail
Physics, it is still possible to have a valid argument. Can you devise a positive argument which
is the equivalent to the one in part d?
It is important to note that an argument may be valid even if the truth of the component
statements cannot be established. Consider the following (nonsense) argument:

All fribbles are granches.

An hommie is a fribble.

Therefore, an hommie is a granch.
We certainly cannot establish the truth of the two premises (let alone know what fribbles,
granches or hommies are), but presuming they are true, the argument is valid. Furthermore,
consider the argument:

If it is a dog then it can do algebra.

Rover is a dog.

Therefore Rover can do algebra.
This is a valid form of argument, but one (or more) of the premises is (are) false. In this case
we do not have a sound argument and would certainly not use it to convince anyone of the
mathematical ability of dogs. In other words, All sound arguments are valid, but all valid
arguments are not necessarily sound.
Valid forms of argument

There are many valid forms of argument. We shall limit our discussion to the most important
ones, tabulating five of them below.
Argument form and name
304
Example
pq
p
q
If Mary is elected, then she must be honest.

Mary was elected.
Mary must be honest.
Modus ponens
This is our standard form.
Argument form and name
Example
p q
p
q
Either John or Jemma was born in Canada.

John was not born in Canada.
Jemma was born in Canada.
Disjunctive syllogism
Note that the roles of p and q can be interchanged here.
pq
qr
pr
If it is raining I will bring my umbrella.

If I bring my umbrella then I will not get wet.
If it is raining I will not get wet.
Hypothetical syllogism
Many statements (p, q, r, ) can be linked together this way to

form a valid argument.
pq
q
p
If I study hard I will pass Physics.

I did not pass Physics.
I did not study hard.
Modus tollens
This is a valid form of a negative argument.
pqr s
pr
qs
If we holiday in France we will have to practise speaking

French, and if we holiday in Germany, we will have to practise
German.
We will holiday in France and Germany.
We will have to practise speaking French and German.
Constructive dilemma
There are several other forms more complex than these which are beyond the scope of this course.
Proving the validity of an argument form

It may not be satisfactory to merely declare that the five arguments in the previous table are
automatically valid. There is a way to mathematically establish their validity using a truth table.
The procedure is as follows.
Step 1. Set up a single truth table for all the premises and for the conclusion.
Step 2. Examine the row (or rows) in the table where all the premises are true.
Step 3.If the conclusion is true in each of the cases of step 2, then the argument is valid.
Otherwise it is invalid.
Worked Example 8
Establish the validity of the modus ponens argument, namely: p q

p
q
Think
1
Set up a truth table for each of the premises, namely

p and p q and the conclusion q. Note that p and
q are set up first, in the usual way, and that p q is
completed from them in the usual way.
Write
pq
305
Find the rows where all the premises are true.
The premises are all true in the 1st row

only.
Compare with the conclusion column (q).
The conclusion is also true, so the

argument is valid.
Worked example 9
eBook plus
Show that the following argument is invalid.

pq
q
p
Think
1
Tutorial
int-1068
Worked example 9
WriTe
Set up a truth table, for each of the premises, namely

q and p q and the conclusion p. Note that p and
q are set up first, in the usual way, and that p q is
completed from them in the usual way.
pq
Find the rows where all the premises are true.
The premises are all true in the 1st row

and 3rd row.
Compare with the conclusion column ( p).
The conclusion is true in the 1st row, but

false in the 3rd, so the argument is invalid.
This is a common error in logical argument, and is called afrming the consequent.
In conclusion, if an argument fits exactly one of the five given forms, then it is immediately
assumed to be valid; otherwise it must be established to be valid using truth tables.
rememBer
1. The implication p q has the following alternative forms:

(a) implication (assumed true)
(b) converse (False)
(c) contrapositive (True)
(d) inverse (False).
2. An argument consists of one or more statements called premises and a statement called
a conclusion.
3. An argument is valid if the conclusion is true when all the premises are true.
4. A valid argument is sound if all the premises are true.
5. An invalid argument (sometimes referred to as a fallacy) occurs when the premises
might be true but the conclusion does not follow logically from them.
6. Among others, there are five valid deductive argument forms:
(a) modus ponens
(b) disjunctive syllogism
(c) hypothetical syllogism
(d) modus tollens
(e) constructive dilemma.
306
exerCiSe
9B

1
We5 Establish the validity of the contrapositive; namely, determine using truth tables if
( p q) (~q ~p).
Establish the truth table for the inverse; namely, show that (p q) is not equivalent to
(~p ~q).
Let p = It is bread and q = It is made with flour. Write out the implication, converse,
contrapositive and inverse in sentences.
4 mC The contrapositive of the statement If a child is playing quietly, then it is doing
something bad is:
A If a child is playing quietly then it is not doing something bad.
B If a child is not playing quietly then it is not doing something bad.
C If a child is not doing something bad then it is not playing quietly.
D If a child is doing something bad then it is not playing quietly.
E If a child is doing something bad then it is playing quietly.
5 mC The inverse of the statement If you are not careful, then you will get hurt is:
A If you are careful, then you will not get hurt.
B If you do not get hurt, then you are careful.
C If you get hurt then you are not careful.
D If you do not get hurt then you are not careful.
E If you are not careful, then you will not get hurt.
3
We6 Identify the premises and conclusion in the following arguments.

a All cats are fluffy.
My pet is a cat.
My pet is fluffy.
b Two is the only even prime number.
Prime numbers are divisible by themselves and 1.
All even numbers are divisible by themselves and by 2.
c Growing apples depends on good water.
Growing apples depends on good irrigation.
Good water depends on good irrigation.
We7 Determine which of the following are valid arguments.
a If you are a mathematician, you can do algebra.

b
You are a mathematician.
You can do algebra.
c If it is a native Australian mammal, then it is a marsupial.
A wombat is a native Australian mammal.
A wombat is a marsupial.
e
d Some TV shows are boring.
Neighbours is a TV show.
Neighbours is boring.
8
All footballers are fit.

David is not a footballer.
David is not fit.
All musicians can read music.

Louise can read music.
Louise is a musician.
Look again at the arguments in question 7 which were not valid. If possible, turn them
into valid arguments. Assume that the first statement in each argument is always correct.
9 mC Which of the following statements about logic is false?

A An argument must have a conclusion.
B An argument consists of premises and a conclusion.
C An If . . . then . . . compound statement is called a conditional statement.
D A, B and C are all false.
E A, B and C are all true.
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
307
10 WE8 Establish the validity of the disjunctive syllogism argument, namely p q

p

q
11
Establish the validity of the three remaining valid forms of argument, namely:
a hypothetical syllogism
b modus tollens
c constructive dilemma
12
pq
qr
pr
pq
q
p
pqr s
pr
qs
The following are valid arguments. Determine which of the five forms of argument were
used.
a Either you clean up your room or you will not watch any television tonight.
You did not clean up your room.
Therefore you will not watch any television tonight.
b If you help your mother with the dishes, I will take you to the football game tomorrow.
I didnt take you to the football game.
Therefore you didnt help your mother with the dishes.
c If you study statistics, then you will understand what standard deviation means.
You studied statistics.
Therefore you will understand what standard deviation means.
13 MC Consider the following valid argument.

If John plays for us on Saturday, then we will win.
If we win on Saturday, then we will come in first place on the ladder.
If we come in first place on the ladder, then we play our first final at home.
Therefore, if John plays for us on Saturday, then we play our first final at home.
308
This is an example of:

A modus ponens
C hypothetical syllogism
E constructive dilemma
B disjunctive syllogism
D modus tollens
14 We9 a Determine the validity of the following argument, using truth tables.
pq
p
q
b Show that the following is an example of this argument.
If elected with a majority, my government will introduce new tax laws.
My government was not elected with a majority.
Therefore, my government will not introduce new tax laws.
15
A common argument is of the form:

If you work hard, then you will become rich.
You dont work hard.
Therefore, you will not become rich.
a Put this argument in symbolic form.
b Show that it is an invalid form of argument. (This is called denying the antecedent.)
16
Determine the validity of the following arguments.

b p q
a pq
rp
r q
r
p r
17
c p q
p
q
Determine the validity of the following

arguments.
a All dogs have five legs.
All five-legged creatures are called chickens
Therefore, all dogs are chickens.
b All dogs have five legs.
All chickens have five legs.
Therefore, all dogs are chickens.
c If you deposit money in the bank, then you
will earn interest.
You didnt earn any interest.
Therefore, you didnt deposit any money in
the bank.
d If I wanted an easy course to study, I would
choose Human Development and if I wanted
an interesting course to study, I would choose
General Mathematics.
I can choose an easy course, and an
interesting one.
Therefore, I will study Human Development and General Mathematics.
e If the team plays well, either the offence was good or the defence was good.
The defence wasnt good and the team did not play
well.
eBook plus
Therefore, the offence wasnt good.
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 9.1
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
309
9c
Techniques of proof
As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, logic is not only used to establish the validity
of arguments, but its techniques are used to establish the truth (or otherwise) of mathematical
statements. For example, it is not satisfactory to say that Pythagoras theorem is true; it must be
proved to be true as well. The tools of logic are also the tools of proof.
Tautologies
A tautology is a compound statement which is always true. While this might seem like a useful
thing, in arguments such statements are to be avoided, as they contribute nothing towards an
argument. An example of a tautology is:
The game will be won or lost in the last 30 minutes.
A statement like this, while perhaps favoured by sports announcers, is of no value in
establishing the truth of whether a particular team will win. A tautology is more useful as a
technique of proof.
To establish if a compound statement is a tautology, construct a truth table from its component
parts. If the compound statement is always true, then it is a tautology.
Worked Example 10
Consider the statement:

If John and Jim are qualified lawyers, then John is a qualified lawyer.
Establish whether or not this statement is a tautology.
Think
Write
Define symbols for each part of the statement.
Let p = John is a qualified lawyer.

Let q = Jim is a qualified lawyer.
Convert the statement to its symbolic form.
(p q) p
Set up a truth table.
Establish whether or not the statement is a tautology.
pq
(p q) p
The last column shows all T, therefore

the statement is a tautology.
As can be seen, the original statement would contribute very little to any argument as to
the qualifications of either John or Jim as lawyers. The opposite of a tautology is a selfcontradictory statement; one which is always false. It too has little use in arguments. However,
the concept of a tautology can be used in establishing validity or, in mathematical language,
proving arguments.
Proof using tautologies

An argument is valid under the following condition: If all the premises are true then the
conclusion is true. Let p and q be the premises of an argument and r be the conclusion. If
(p q) r is a tautology, then the argument is valid, or proved.
Note that p, q and r can be, themselves, compound statements. In fact, this method is exactly
the same as that presented in the previous section, but is a more mechanical technique.
310
Worked Example 11
Establish the validity of the modus tollens argument, namely p q

~q

~p
Think
Write
Set up a standard truth table for

p and q.
Determine the truth table for p q.
Form the truth table of the and

of both statements, namely;
p q ~q (column 4).
Form the truth table of the

implication using the 1st
two statements along with
the conclusion, namely:
(p q ~q) ~p (column 5).
Determine the validity of the
argument.
pq
p q ~q
(p q ~q) ~p
Since the last column is always true, this is a tautology and the
original argument is valid.
The other valid forms of argument can also be established using the same technique. This is left
as an exercise.
Mathematical proofs using valid argument forms

Any of the valid forms of argument can be used to prove theorems in mathematics. While this
can be a tedious way of proving things, it certainly will establish them beyond doubt.
Worked Example 12
Prove the following: If two straight lines have equal gradients, then they do not intersect.
Think
Write
Find a property of lines with equal gradients.
If lines have equal gradient then they are

parallel.
This is a well-known result from linear
graphs.
Find a property of parallel lines.
If lines are parallel then they do not

intersect.
This is a well-known result from geometry.
Define p, q and r from compound statements.
Let p = Two lines have equal gradients.

Let q = Two lines are parallel.
Let r = Two lines do not intersect.
Step 1: If p then q, or p q.
Step 2: If q then r, or q r.
Create a symbolic form of steps 1 and 2.

4
Determine a conclusion from the valid argument form

(hypothetical syllogism).
pq
qr
pr
311
Write the conclusion.
If two straight lines have equal gradients,

then they do not intersect.
QED
Whenever a theorem is proved, state quod erat demonstrandum (QED). This means It is
demonstrated, but could also mean quite easily done!
proof by contrapositive
As mentioned in the section on logical connectives, an alternative to p q is its contrapositive
~q ~p. If we can establish that the contrapositive statement is true, then the original
implication is true.
Worked example 13
Prove, using the contrapositive, that: If n3 is odd, then n is odd (where n is any integer).
Think
WriTe
Write the statement in symbolic form.
Let p = n3 is odd; q = n is odd.
Write the contrapositve as a statement.
~q ~p; If n is not odd then n3 is not

odd.
Prove the truth of the contrapositive.
If n is not odd, it is even (or 0) and can be

represented by 2x, where x is any integer.
Let
n = 2x
then n3 = (2x)3 = 8x3.
This relies on the fact that multiplying anything by 2

results in an even number.
But 8x3 = 2 2 2 x3 and, hence, must

be even.
Since 8x3 = n3 is even it is not odd.
Since the contrapositive statement is
shown to be true, the original argument,
namely that if n3 is odd, then n is odd, is
also proved.
QED
proof by contradiction
Another method of proof involves assuming the statement that we are trying to prove is false.
Then this leads to an apparent contradiction, so we assume that the statement is true.
Worked example 14
eBook plus
Prove, by contradiction, that the product of two negative numbers (non-zero)

is positive.
Think
312
WriTe
Tutorial
int-1069
Worked example 14
Assume that the statement is false.
Let a and b be two negative numbers.

Assume that a b is negative.
Determine the magnitude of the product. Invoke the

assumption that the product is negative.
The magnitude of a b = |ab |
= |a | |b |
ab = |a | |b |
Consider the case c = a, so that c is positive, and

a positive number is being multiplied by a negative
number.
cb = |c| |b|
|c| = |a|
cb = |a| |b|
Now from steps 2 and 3, the two expressions are equal.
|a|
This is a contradiction, since c = a.
Contradiction implies that the original

statement is true.
QED
since c is < 0 and b > 0

since c = a
substitution
|b| = ab = cb from steps 2 and 3

a = c
divide both sides by b
The contradiction must be as a direct result of the assumption of the original statement being
false. In the above case, this occurred in steps 2 and 3, leading to two different expressions for
the same thing (|a| |b|). This proof technique is based upon the logical argument form:
(p ~q) (r ~r) (p q)
where p q (or more specifically q) is the statement you are trying to prove, and (r ~r) is
the contradiction that arises by assuming q was false (~q). This method of proof is also called
indirect proof, or reductio ad absurdum (reducing to an absurdity).
Proof by counter-example
Perhaps the simplest method of proof is that by assuming the statement to be true, an example
arises which shows that the statement is false. Therefore the original statement cannot be true.
Worked Example 15
Prove, by counter-example, that the statement the square root of x2 is x is false.

Think
Write
Consider a single case; let x = 8.
x2 = 64
Invoke the rule for square roots.
The square root of 64 is 8.
Substitute back.
The square root of x2 is x, thus the

original statement is false.
Remember, you need only a single example where the statement is false and hence, by
extension, the entire statement is false. In the above example, the proof relied on the fact that
there were two answers, not one as implied in the statement.
There are many other methods of proof, but the ones you have seen in this chapter will provide
you with a toolbox of techniques for proving a large number of mathematical statements.
Proof by mathematical induction

Mathematical induction is a method of proof, although it is considered less effective than the
ones you have already learned. It is used to prove formulas, results and similar things where
there is a sequence of results for different values.
( n)( n + 1)
For example, the sum of the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
has different results depending
2
on the value of n.
We will use the method of induction on the above proof.
Step 1
Show that the result is true for n = 1 (or in
some proofs n = 0).
If n = 1, then the sum = 1 and

( n)( n + 1) 1 2
=
=1
2
2
313
Step 2
Assume it is true for any value n.
Step 3
Prove it true for n + 1 (add one more term
to the series).
This step is as a result of adding with
common denominators.
This step is as a result of the common
factor of (n + 1) in the numerator.
Let m = n + 1, so m + 1 = n + 2
Step 4
Clearly, this is the same formula as the one
we assumed true.
Assume: 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =
( n)( n + 1)
2
(1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n) + (n + 1)
= ( n)( n + 1) + ( n + 1)
2
(
n
)(
n + 1) + 2( n + 1)
=
2
(
n
+
1
)(
n
+ 2)
=
2
= (m)(m + 1)
2
(m)(m + 1)
2
= 1 + 2 + 3 + ... m
= 1 + 2 + 3 + ... (n + 1)
The logic behind induction is that we can keep on increasing the value of n by one at a time,
until all (possible) values have been proved. Thus the statement is proved for all values!
REMEMBER
1. A tautology is a compound statement which is always true.

2. An argument with premises p, q, r and conclusion c is valid if the compound
statement p q r ... c is a tautology (that is, is always true).
3. A mathematical argument can be proved using (among others):
(a) a valid deductive argument form
(b) contrapositive (prove ~q ~p, which proves p q)
(c) contradiction (prove that the opposite statement is false)
(d) counter-example (prove false by finding an example)
(e) mathematical induction.
Exercise
9c
Techniques of proof
1 WE10 Determine if the following statement is a tautology.
If she plays well she will win, or she will lose.
2
Modify the sentence in question 1 to:

If she plays well she will win, or if she plays poorly she will lose.
Determine if this sentence is a tautology.
Modify the sentence in question 1 to:

Either she plays well and wins or she will lose.
Determine if this sentence is a tautology.
4 WE11 Using tautology, establish the validity of the hypothetical syllogism argument, namely:
pq
qr
pr
314
Using tautology, establish the validity or otherwise of the following arguments.

b p q
c p q
d p q
a p q
p
q r
q r
q
q
p r
p r
p
6
a
b
c
Express the following arguments in symbolic form.

If you are a loser, then you didnt train hard
enough.
If you didnt train hard enough, you were
distracted.
Therefore, if you are a loser, then you were
distracted.
If it is not raining, then I will wash my car.
It is raining.
Therefore, I will not wash my car.
If it is cloudy, then I do not bring my
umbrella.
I did bring my umbrella.
Therefore, it is not cloudy.
If the hard drive isnt working, then the
program will not work.
If the program is not working, then the printer will not work.
Therefore, if the hard drive isnt working the printer will not work.
7 mC The missing truth values in each column in the following table are (from left to right):
p
pq
qp
~p ~q
~q ~p
A F, T, T, F
T
B F, F, T, T
C T, F, T, F
D T, T, T, T
T
E T, T, F, T
8 We12 Using a valid argument, prove the following mathematical result.

If a number, x, is even, then x2 is even.
9
Using a valid argument, prove that 242 is even.
10 We13 Prove, using the contrapositive, that:

If n2 is odd then n is odd.
11
Prove the following results using the contrapositive.

a If ax = bx and x 0, then a = b.
b If n2 > 4, then n > 2.
c If n2 is divisible by 2, then n is divisible by 2.
12 We14 Prove, by contradiction, that the product of a negative number and a positive number
is negative.
13
Prove, by contradiction, that there is no smallest positive real number (a, such that a > 0).
14
Prove, by contradiction, that 2 is irrational.
15
Prove, by contradiction, that there is no largest positive integer (n, such that n > 0).
16 We15
Prove, by counter-example, the statement that x2 = 4 has only one solution is false.
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
315
17 Prove, by counter-example, the fact that all prime numbers are odd.
18
19
Consider the formula p = n2 + n + 11. Let n = 1, 2...

n = 1, p = 13
n = 2, p = 17
n = 3, p = 23
n = 4, p = 31
It seems that: If n is a positive integer, then p is a prime number.
Prove, or disprove, this statement.
Consider the two lines PQ, and RS shown below. A third line crossing both of them,
called a transversal, forms two angles a and b. Investigate a proof for the statement that:
If a + b = 180, then PQ is parallel to RS.
P
a
b
20
n = 5, p = 41
Consider any triangle ABC as shown in the figure below. Let the longest side of the
triangle be labelled x and the other two sides be labelled y and z. Investigate a proof for the
statement that:
x y + z.
B
y
A
z
x
21 Examine some well-known results in mathematics. Can you prove them by induction? Here
are some ideas to get you started. Some will work, some wont.
a The odd number series 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n 1) = n2.
Hint: How many odd numbers are there in this series?
b (1 + x)n (1 + xn) for n 1 and x > 0
c Pythagoras theorem
d Prove (n)(n + 1) is an even number for any integer value of n.
e 2n n2 for all integers 4
f Let a, b and c be three consecutive integers. Prove (a + b + c)3 is always divisible by 3.
g Prove the quadratic formula. Given ax2 + bx + c = 0, prove that the roots are
b
b 2 4 ac .
2a
h Prove that a polygon of n sides can be composed of n 2 triangles.
Hint: Start with n = 3.
i 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ... + 2n = 2n + 1 1
j 4n n4 for all integers 2
x=
22 a Can you (reasonably) predict what type of

proof is likely to be solvable by induction?
b What are the limitations of the proofs, in
terms of values of n which can be used?
c In some scientific research,
particularly medicine, the concept of induction
is used as follows:
If I treat Patient 1 with Drug X, she is cured.
If I treat Patient 2 with Drug X, she is cured.
If I treat Patient n with Drug X, she is cured.
d What conclusion(s) is the researcher trying to draw? Comment on its (their) validity.
316
23 Express your thoughts on the usefulness or otherwise of proof by induction, paying attention
not only to mathematical proofs but those used in areas such as science, commerce and
politics.
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9d
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Sets and Boolean algebra
WorkSHEET 9.2
Many of the rules of logic that we have seen thus far can be collected
into a single set of rules and procedures called Boolean algebra, named after the 19th century
English mathematician, George Boole. Boole is also responsible for the introduction of sets into
mathematics.
Sets and their properties

A set is a collection of objects (or members) that have something in common. Sets can be
numbers, such as the set of integers from 1 to 10,
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
or people, such as the set of Australian Prime Ministers,
B = {Barton, Deakin, . . ., Keating, Howard, Rudd}
or things, such as the set of suits in a deck of cards,
C = {Diamonds, Hearts, Clubs, Spades}
Sets can be nite, containing a fixed number of members, such as set A above, with
10 members, or innite, such as the set of positive integers, N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}. Finally, a set with
no members is called a null set. An example is the set of female Australian Prime Ministers,
F = { } or .
Implicit in sets is the concept that there are objects in the set and objects not in the set. If an
object x is in set A, we could write x A, while if object y is not in set A we would write y A.
Sets can be displayed visually using a Venn diagram as

shown at right. The area inside the circle represents the set
A
with its members A = {2, 4, 6, 8}. The white area outside the
2 6
circle represents all objects not in the set. In future we will not
8 4
generally show the members in the set, but state its rule. What
could be the rule for the set in this figure?
The rectangle itself represents the universal set, the set of all possible members (some are in
A, some are not) and is denoted by the symbol . In this example the universal set could be all
the integers.
As in arithmetic, there are a series of operations and properties which enable us to manipulate
sets. Consider two sets, A and B, and the possible operations on them.
Intersection: The area in common between two sets is
known as the intersection and is shown
here in grey.
Symbol:
AB
A intersection B or in both A and B
Union:
The area in either A or B is the union, and

is shown here in red.
Symbol:
AB
A union B or in either A or B or both
(Continued )
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
317
Negation:
The area not in A is the negation or

complement, and is shown here in blue.
Symbol:
A
Complement of A or A-prime or not
in A
Given these operations, we can now look at the rules of sets, comparing them to the rules of
arithmetic. For some laws we will need three sets.
Name
Symbolic form
Commutative
Law
1. A B = B A
Identity sets
1. A = A
a+b=b+a
a+0=a
2. A = A
The null set has no effect on

union; the universal set has no
effect on intersection.
1. A A =
Inverse
a + (a) = 0
1
a =1
a
The placement of brackets has no

effect on the final result when the
operations are the same.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Bracketed expressions can

be expanded when different
operations are involved.
a (b + c) = a b + a c
(Note that there is only
one of these laws in
arithmetic.)
Performing operations on a set

will create a result which still
belongs to the same class of
sets (S).
If a and b are real

numbers, then:
a + b is a real number
a b is a real number.
2. A A =
Associative Law
1. A (B C)
= (A B) C
2. A (B C)
= (A B) C
Distributive Law
1. A (B C)
= (A B) (A C)
2. A (B C)
= (A B) (A C)
Closure
Corresponding
arithmetic
Order of a single operation is not

important.
2. A B = B A
Complements
Description
Consider sets A, B and S.

If A, B S, then
ABS
ABS
ab=ba
a1=a
a (b c) = (a b) c
It is important to note that union () acts similarly to addition, while intersection () is

similar to multiplication, except in the complements, where their roles are reversed.
While the commutative laws are self-evident, the remaining laws can be demonstrated using
Venn diagrams. Closure is a concept which, for now, will have to be taken for granted. For
example, closure applies for integers with the operations of addition and multiplication. It
1
does not apply for division (for example 2 ), as the result (0.5) is not an integer even though 1
and 2 are.
Worked Example 16
Using Venn diagrams, establish the complements rules, namely:

a A A = b A A =
Think
318
Write
Draw a Venn diagram, indicating A and A.
A'
Demonstrate A A = .
Refer to the Venn diagram in part a
Demonstrate A A = .
Since means either, it is clear that a

member is either in A or in A which is by
definition equal to .
1
b Since means both, it is clear that there
are no members in both A and A, so the

set is null or .
eBook plus
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History of mathematics
George Boole
Boolean algebra
By replacing the set symbols with Boolean ones, we get the laws of Boolean algebra, which are
exactly the same as those for sets.
Set name
Set symbol
Boolean name
Boolean symbol
Intersection
and
Union
or
Complement
not
Universal set
everything
Null set
nothing
Thus the set laws become:

Name
Set law
Boolean law
Commutative
Laws
1. A B = B A
2. A B = B A
A+B=B+A
AB=BA
Identity
1. A = A
2. A = A
A+O=A
AI=A
Complements
1. A A =
2. A A =
A + A = I
A A = O
Associative
1. A (B C) = (A B) C
2. A (B C) = (A B) C
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A (B C) = (A B) C
Distributive
1. A (B C)
= (A B) (A C)
2. A (B C)
= (A B) (A C)
A + (B C) = (A + B) (A + C)
Closure
A (B + C) = A B + A C
Whatever applies to sets also applies to Boolean algebra.
Only the first distributive law may require some explanation. Do not confuse the Boolean +
sign with addition!
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
319
Worked Example 17
Establish the distributive law, namely, A + (B C) = (A + B) (A + C), using a Venn diagram.

Think
1
Write
Consider the left-hand side term (B C ), which is the

intersection of B and C.
C
2
Now, create the union with A, namely A + (B C). In

this figure, the red shading shows the new area added.
The final result is the region which has either colour.
C
3
Now, consider the 1st term of the right-hand side,

namely (A + B).
C
4
Now, consider the 2nd term of the right-hand side,

namely (A + C).
C
5
Now, consider the intersection of the two regions

in steps 3 and 4, which produces the region
(A + B) (A + C). The purple area is the resultant
region.
C
6
Compare the two results.
Clearly the area in step 2 equals the area in

step 5, thus A + (B C) = (A + B) (A + C).
deMorgans Laws and additional results

There are two further important results in Boolean algebra involving the negation of the union
and intersection operations. These rules, called deMorgans Laws, can be proved using the
results from Boolean algebra, or can be demonstrated using Venn diagrams.
320
deMorgans First Law states:

(A + B) = A B
deMorgans Second Law states:
(A B) = A + B
These laws can be interpreted as saying that the complement of union is intersection and the
complement of intersection is union.
Worked example 18
eBook plus
Prove the first of deMorgans Laws; namely, that the complement of the union
of 2 sets is the intersection of their complements using:
a the rules of Boolean algebra and
b Venn diagrams.
Think
a
Tutorial
int-1070
Worked example 18
WriTe
State the requirements of proof in Boolean

algebra terms. Since (A + B) is the
complement of (A + B), then A B must
satisfy both the Complement Laws.
Simplify the left side of equation [1].

(a) This is as a result of the 1st Distributive
Law.
(b) This is as a result of the 1st Commutative
Law.
(c) This is as a result of the 1st Complement
Law.
Note: The term (I + B) represents the union of
B with I, which is everything. Similarly, the
term (A + I ) represents the union of A with I,
which is everything.
a If (A + B) = A B then the two
complement laws must be satisfied.

Therefore, we must show that:
(A + B) + (A B) = I 1st Complement
Law [1]
(A + B) . (A B) = O 2nd Complement
Law [2]
1st Complement Law
LHS = (A + B) + (A B)
= (A + B + A) (A + B + B)
= (A + A + B) (A + B + B)
= (I + B) (A + I )
=II
=I
= RHS
QED
Complete the simplification.
Simplify the left side of equation [2].

(a) This is as a result of the 2nd Commutative
Law.
(b) This is as a result of the 2nd Distributive
Law.
(c) This is as a result of the 2nd Commutative
Law.
Note: The term A A is the intersection of A
and its complement, which is nothing or O.
Similarly, B B = O.
2nd Complement Law

LHS = (A + B) (A B)
= (A B) (A + B)
= A B A + A B B
Complete the simplification. Note that the

intersection and the union of O with any set
must be O, since there is nothing in O.
= A A B + A B B
= O B + A O
=O+O
=O
= RHS
Chapter 9
QED
algebra and logic
321
Draw a Venn diagram representing the lefthand side of the equation; that is (A + B).
(a)Draw a rectangle with two large, partly
intersecting circles. Label one of the circles
as A the other as B.
(b)Identify the portion required.
Note: A + B, that is, A B, represents the
portion inside the two circles. Therefore,
its complement (A + B) is represented by
the portion outside the two circles.
(c) Shade the required portion.
b (A+B)'
A
Comment on the Venn diagrams obtained.
Draw a Venn diagram representing the righthand side of the equation; that is, A B.
(a)Draw a rectangle with two large partly
intersecting circles. Label one of the circles
as A the other as B.
(b)Identify the portion required.
Note: A, the complement of A, represents
the portion outside the two circles and the
non-intersecting part of circle B B, the
complement of B, represents the portion
outside the two circles and the nonintersecting part of circle A.
A B (that is A B), is represented
by the common shaded portion. A B is
represented by the portion outside the two
circles.
(c) Shade the required portion.
A
B
The Venn diagrams obtained are identical,

therefore, deMorgans first Law,
(A + B) = A B, holds true.
The results above establish the first of deMorgans Laws. The 2nd Law can be proved in a
similar fashion.
Based upon the rules for Boolean algebra, some important additional results can be tabulated.
Rule
322
Explanation
A+A=A
The union of any set with itself must still be itself.
AA=A
The intersection of any set with itself must still be itself.
A+I=I
The union of any set with everything must be everything I.
AO=O
The intersection of any set with nothing must be nothing O.
Rule
Explanation
A (A + B) = A
Consider that only the part of (A + B) which intersects with A must be just
A itself.
A + (A B) = A
Consider the fact that A B is within A, if B A, or is A if A B so that its

union with A must be just A itself.
These results are easily established with Venn diagrams, and are left as an exercise.
At this point it is worth noting that the key operations of sets and Boolean algebra are intimately
related to those of deductive logic. These can be summarised by adding columns to an earlier table.
Set symbol
Logic name
Logic
symbol
Boolean
name
Boolean
symbol
Intersection
and
and
Union
or
or
Complement
not
not
Universal set
everything
Null set
nothing
Set name
There are no logical equivalents to everything or nothing.

Let us use the rules of Boolean algebra to prove an earlier result.
Worked Example 19
The following pair of logical statements were established to be equivalent:

(p q) ~p

p ~p
Establish this fact using Boolean algebra.
Think
Write
Write the first logic statement and equate

it with its corresponding statement using
Boolean algebra.
(p q) ~p = (P + Q) + P
Simplify the right-hand side of the equation.
Write the second logic statement and equate

it with its corresponding statement using
Boolean algebra.
p ~p = P + P
Simplify the right-hand side of the equation.
Comment on the results obtained.
The two statements are both equal to I and therefore

equivalent to each other.
QED
= (P + P) + Q 1st Commutative Law

= (I) + Q
= I + Q
Identity Law
=I
Complements
=I
323
REMEMBER
1. A set is a collection of objects with some attribute in common.

2. Sets can be related using intersection, union, and complement (see the table at the
end of the chapter).
3. Sets follow the following mathematical laws (see the table on page 319):
(a) Commutative
(b) Identity and complements
(c) Associative
(d) Distributive
(e) Closure.
4. Boolean algebra uses all the rules and properties of sets, but replaces the symbols (see
the table at the end of the chapter).
5. deMorgans Laws relate various operations as follows:
(A + B) = A B
(A B) = A + B
Exercise
9D

1 WE16 Demonstrate the 2nd Associative Law, namely:
A (B C) = (A B) C
using Venn diagrams.
2 WE17 Demonstrate the 2nd Distributive Law, namely:
A (B C) = (A B) (A C) or A (B + C) = A B + A C
using Venn diagrams.
3 MC Which of the following statements about sets is false?
A The symbol represents the union of two or more sets.
B All sets must have at least one member.
C Some sets can have an infinite number of members.
D A member cannot be in both set A and set A at the same time.
E The set represented by the symbol has no members.
4
a
b
c
d
e
f
5
324
Write the following sets using the notation A = {...}.

A = the set of all even positive integers less than 20
B = the set of all positive integers divisible by 4
C = the set of all even prime numbers
D = the set of court cards in a deck of playing cards
E = the set of integers, less than 0, which are square numbers
F = the set of integers less than 10
Which of the sets in question 4 are finite?
Demonstrate, using a Venn diagram, the intersection of the following two sets:
A = the set of two-digit positive odd numbers
B = the set of two-digit square numbers.
List the members of the intersection on the diagram.
Demonstrate, using a Venn diagram, the intersection of the following two sets:
A = the set of two-digit positive even numbers
B = the set of two-digit palindromes (numbers which are the same backwards and forwards).
List the members of the intersection on the diagram.
Demonstrate on a Venn diagram the regions defined by:

a A B
b A B
c A (B C ).
The laws of sets can be demonstrated with specific sets.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, C = {1, 4, 9}
Consider the 1st Distributive Law: A (B C ) = (A B) (A C ).
a Find the set represented by the expression (B C).
b Find the set represented by A (B C ).
c Find the set represented by (A B).
d Find the set represented by (A C ).
e Find the set represented by (A B) (A C ) and show that this is the same set as that
in the answer to part b.
10
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, C = {1, 4, 9}
a Find the set represented by the expression (B C ).
b Find the set represented by A (B C ).
c Find the set represented by (A C ).
d Find the set represented by (A B).
e Find the set represented by (A B) (A C ) and show that this is the same set as that
in the answer to part b.
11 We18a Using the rules for Boolean algebra, prove the 2nd of deMorgans Laws:
(A B) = A + B
12
Simplify the following logical expressions, using the rules of Boolean algebra.
a A + A B + A B
b (A + B + A) + B
c A + A B
d A B (A + C)
13 We18b Show, using Venn diagrams, that:

a (A + B) A = A
b (A + B) B = A
c A + B A = A + B.
14 We19 Determine, using Boolean algebra, if the following two statements are equivalent.
( p q) ~p
p ~p
15
Prove the following using Boolean algebra or Venn diagrams.
a A + B + A + B = I
b (A + B) A B = O
c (A + B) (A + B) = A
d A B + C (A + B) = A B + C
Hint: Use the results from question 13 to shorten your proofs.
9e
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0976
Truth tables
digital logic
The contribution of logic and Boolean algebra to the design of
digital computers is immense. All digital circuits rely on the application
of the basic principles we have learned in this chapter. Computer
software is constructed using logic gates based on some of the rules
of logic laid down by Aristotle.
digital truth values

Digital circuits consist of electrical current flowing through wires which
connect the various components. The computer recognises the presence
of electricity as True and the absence of electricity as False.
Furthermore, it is the accepted convention that we denote the presence
of electricity by 1 and the absence by 0. (In some systems the value of
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
325
1 is given to positive electricity and 0 to negative

electricity.) Thus we have the basic conversion rule
which we will apply here as shown in the table.
The so-called onoff values come from the notion
of a switch: if the current flows through, the switch is
on; otherwise it is off as with a light switch.
Logical
value
Digital
value
Spoken
value
False
Off
True
On
Gates
A gate is an electrical component that controls the flow of
On
electricity in some way. It is similar to a gate on a farm, which
sometimes lets the sheep through and sometimes doesnt. The
simplest possible gate is the switch itself. It has two states, on
Off
and off, as shown in the figures at right. When drawing a switch
on a diagram it is conventional to show the off position. By combining switches in certain
configurations, we can create simple logic circuits.
Worked Example 20
Consider the pair of switches arranged (in parallel) as

shown in the figure at right. Assume there is electricity at P.
What positions of the two switches, x and y, will allow a
current to flow through?
x
P
y
Think
1
Write
List the possible positions for each switch. Switch x can

be either off or on (0 or 1) independently of y, so there
are 2 2 = 4 possible positions.
Consider x = 0, y = 0. There will be no current at
Q. Otherwise, if x = 1 there will be a current at Q.
Similarly, if y = 1 there will be a current at Q. If both
x = 1 and y = 1 there will be a current at Q.
Note: We can consider this as the truth table for this
circuit.
Because of the similarity of this truth table to the Boolean operator + (or), we can symbolise
this circuit as Q = x + y.
In theory, a computer could be constructed from nothing more than thousands (millions,
billions ...) of switches. However, the design of a logic circuit would be a long, time-consuming
process. Furthermore, it is not clear who turns the switches on or off. Hence, logic gates were
constructed as black box components which could be combined, quickly, to perform relatively
complex operations.
A gate consists of one or two inputs and one output. The inputs are wires which are either
off (0) or on (1). Similarly, the output is either 0 or 1. Inputs require a continuous source of
electricity in order to remain at either 0 or 1.
The following table shows the gates we will use. Note that inputs are always on the left,
output on the right.
Name
NOT
326
Symbol
Truth table
Input
Output
Comments
Equivalent to
Boolean not.
Name
OR
NOR
AND
NAND
Symbol
Truth table
Comments
Input A
Input B
Output
Input A
Input B
Output
Input A
Input B
Output
Input A
Input B
Output
Equivalent to
Boolean or.
Equivalent to
Boolean or
followed by a
not.
Equivalent to
Boolean and.
Equivalent to
Boolean and
followed by a
not.
NAND and NOR gates, although without equivalent Boolean

expressions, are convenient ways of combining AND (or OR)
with NOT. For example, a NAND gate is equivalent to the
combination shown at right.
Very sophisticated circuits can be constructed from combinations of these 5 gates, and the
truth table of the output for all possible inputs can be determined.
Worked Example 21
Determine the truth table for the output Q, in terms of the

inputs a, b and c.
Think
1
Working from left to right, determine the truth table for

the output d in terms of inputs a and b.
a
b
c
Write
a
b
c
d
Q
327
Use the truth table for an AND gate.
Now consider the output d to be the input to the OR

gate, combined with c to determine the truth table at Q.
Note that the 1st four rows correspond to step 2 for the
case of c = 0, while the 2nd four rows correspond to
step 2 for the case of c = 1.
An alternative approach is to start with all inputs (a, b and c) and lay out a blank truth table for
these three inputs.
Add columns for each gate as required.
A blank truth table

for three inputs.
The completed truth

table.
It should be clear that this truth table is equivalent to the one in step 3 of worked example 21,
with the rows in different order. Furthermore, this circuit of an AND and an OR gate is logically
equivalent to the statement (a b) c, or in Boolean algebra terms (a b) + c.
An application Burglar alarms

Logic circuits can be used to design a burglar alarm. Typically, the owner turns a switch on to
arm the alarm and a burglar entering the building effectively turns another switch on or off
setting the alarm ringing.
Consider the alarm circuit in the figure at right. The first
s1
a
switch (S1) is set by the owner, while the second (S2) is
Q
accidentally set by the burglar.
s2
b
328
Worked example 22
eBook plus
Determine the truth table for the burglar alarm above, and describe the alarms
mechanism.
Think
Define the inputs, S1 and S2. Both

switches are shown in the off position in
the figure.
Set up the truth table for S1, S2, a, b and Q.

Note that a = S1 and b = ~S2.
Describe the mechanism by examining

each row of the truth table.
Note that the logical equivalent of this
circuit is S1 ~S2 or, in Boolean terms,
S1 S2.
int-1071
Worked example 22
WriTe
Tutorial
S1: off = 0, on = 1
S2: off = 0, on = 1
S1 S2
1st row: S1 = 0 implies that the

alarm is off or disabled.
2nd row: S1 = 0, the alarm is still disabled.
3rd row: S1 = 1 and S2 = 0 sets off the alarm (Q = 1).
4th row: S1 = 1 and S2 = 1, the alarm is on or enabled.
The owner sets the alarm mechanism by closing S1; the
burglar sets off the alarm by opening S2.
This is the most common form of burglar alarm, with a wire running through, say, a window.
When the burglar opens or breaks the window, current stops flowing through the wire effectively
turning off S2. Several windows can be protected with a single wire going from window to
window, or with a separate mechanism for each window.
Simplifying logic circuits

In some cases an apparently complex circuit can be reduced to a simpler one.
Worked example 23
Find a circuit equivalent to the one shown at right.
Think
1
Determine the truth table of the circuit.

Start by determining the output at c.
Note that the inputs to the AND gate are
inverted by the two NOT gates.
WriTe
Boolean expression = (a b)
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
329
Complete the truth table by determining the

output at Q. This is just the negation of c.
Write out the Boolean expression for Q, by

working backwards from Q.
Q = c (but c = a b)
= (a b)
Simplify, using the rules for Boolean

algebra.
Q = a + b
= a + b
Create the equivalent circuit. In this case it

is a single OR gate.
2nd deMorgans Law

double negative
The original, more complicated circuit might have been used because of availability or cost of
components. Otherwise, it would be advantageous to use the circuit in step 5.
Often, one has to design the logic circuit, given a Boolean expression.
Worked Example 24
Determine the logic circuit for the Boolean expression Q = (a + b) (a + c).

Think
Write
Determine the number of independent inputs.
There are three inputs: a, b and c.
Reduce the original Boolean expression to simpler,

component parts.
Let u = b and v = c
Q = (a + u) (a + v)
This last expression is as simple as possible.
Let w = a + u
Let x = a + v
Q=wx
Begin with the last, simplest expression.

This is an AND gate with w and x as inputs, Q
as output.
(a)Using w = a + u, add an OR gate with a and u as
inputs, w as output.
(b)Using x = a + v, add an OR gate with a and v as

inputs, x as output.
Note that input a has been duplicated for each OR gate.

(a)Using u = b, and v = c, add two NOT gates to
complete the circuit.
(b) The two a inputs must be connected.
w
x
a
a
u
w
x
What would be the truth table for Q?
330
rememBer
1. In digital logic, the truth values are replaced with the presence or absence of electricity.
2. The presence of electricity = 1 = True; the absence of electricity = 0 = False.
3. Gates implement the logical connectives AND, OR, NOT as well as NOR, NAND (see
the table in the summary at the end of the chapter).
4. All the rules of logic, sets and Boolean algebra can be used to design and simplify
digital circuits.
exerCiSe
9e
digital logic
1
We20 Consider the pair of switches arranged (in series) as

shown at right. Assuming that there is electricity at P, when
is there current at Q for various positions of the switches
x and y?
mC The Boolean equivalent of the circuit in question 1 is:
A Q=x+y
D Q = x + y
3
B Q=xy
E Q = (x y)
C Q=xy
Consider the three switches arranged as shown at right.

a Assuming that there is electricity at P, when is there
current at Q, for various positions of the switches x, y
and z?
b Write a Boolean expression equivalent to this circuit.
x
z
Consider the circuit depicted at right which represents

a light fixture in a hallway connected to two switches,
x and y. The light is on whenever there is a direct connection
between P and Q.
a Determine the truth table for this circuit.
b What would be an application for this?
mC A Boolean expression for Q in question 4 in terms of x and y is:

A x+y
B xy
C (x + y) (x + y)
D x y + x y
E (x + y) (x + y)
Modify the circuit in question 4 so that the light comes on only when either (or both) of
the two switches is in the on position.
a
eBook plus
Truth tables
Determine the truth table for the output Q, in
terms of the inputs a, b and c for thecircuit at right.
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 137
We21
Determine the truth table for the output Q, in terms of the

inputs a, b and c for the circuit at right.
9 mC The Boolean equivalent to the circuit in question 8 is:

A [a ( b + c)]
B a + (b c)
D Both A and B are connect
E A, B and C are all connect
10 We22 a Determine the truth table for the output Q, in terms
of the inputs a, b and c.
b Hence, show that this circuit is equivalent to the one in
question 8.
b
c
a
b
c
C (a + b) (a + c)
b
a
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
331
11
12
Determine the truth table for the output Q, in terms of

the inputs a, b, c and d.
Burglar alarms revisited: Consider the modification to

the alarm system in worked example 22, used to protect a safe.
If there is a 1 at R, the alarm rings.
If there is a 1 at Q, the safe can be unlocked.
a Determine the truth table for this circuit.
b Hence, describe the operation of this circuit.
a
b
c
d
s1
a
b
a
s2
13 We23 a Use deMorgans laws to show that a b = (a + b).

b Hence, construct a logic circuit equivalent to an AND gate.
14
Show how a single NAND gate can be the equivalent of a NOT gate.
15 We24 Determine the logic circuit for the Boolean expression Q = a (b + c).
332
16
The designer of the circuit in question 15 does not have any NOT gates available.
Re-design the circuit using NOR and/or NAND gates to replace the NOT gate.
17
Design a logic circuit for the Boolean expression Q = a b + a c, without using any
NOT gates.
18
A conditional circuit: Up until now, we have not seen

a
b
ab
a digital equivalent, or even a Boolean equivalent, of the
0
0
1
important logical expression a b. The truth table for
the conditional statement is shown at right.
0
1
1
a From the following list of statements, find the one which
1
0
0
has the same truth table as a b.
1
1
1
i a b
ii a b
iii a + b
iv a + b a b b
b Design a logic circuit equivalent to a b.
c Design a logic circuit equivalent to b a.
d Find a Boolean statement equivalent to (a b) a.
e Find a Boolean statement equivalent to the modus ponens argument, namely:
ab
eBook plus
a
Digital docs
b
Investigation
and simplify, as much as possible, using the result
A computer storage device
from part d.
Investigation
Binary addition
f Design a circuit equivalent to the Boolean statement
from part e, and show that the output is always 1.
Thus you have established the validity of the modus
ponens argument.
Q
R
Summary
Statements (propositions), connectives and truth tables
A statement (sometimes called a proposition) is a sentence which is either true or false.

Logical connectives are and, or, not, If ... then, and equals (see the table at the end of this summary).
Each logical connective has a truth table (see the table at the end of the chapter).
A compound statement is made up of two or more statements connected with logical connectives.
Two (compound) statements are equivalent if they have identical truth tables.
The implication p q has the following alternative forms:

1. Implication (assumed true)
2. Converse (False)
3. Contrapositive (True)
4. Inverse (False)
An argument consists of one or more statements called premises and a statement called a conclusion.
An argument is valid if the conclusion is true when all the premises are true.
A valid argument is sound if all the premises are true.
An invalid argument (sometimes referred to as a fallacy) occurs when the premises might be true but the
conclusion does not follow logically from them.
Among others, there are 5 valid deductive argument forms:
1. Modus ponens
2. Disjunctive syllogism
3. Hypothetical syllogism
4. Modus tollens
5. Constructive dilemma.
Techniques of proof
A tautology is a compound statement which is always true.

An argument with premises p, q, r... and conclusion c is valid if the compound statement p q r ... c
is a tautology (that is, is always true).
A mathematical argument can be proved using (among others):
1. A valid deductive argument form
2. Contrapositive (prove ~q ~p, which proves p q)
3. Contradiction (prove that the opposite statement is false)
4. Counter-example (prove false by finding an example)
5. Mathematical induction.
A set is a collection of objects with some attribute in common.

Sets can be related using intersection, union, complement (see the table on the next page).
Sets follow the following mathematical laws (see also, the table on page 319):
1. Commutative
2. Identity and Complements
3. Associative
4. Distributive
5. Closure.
Boolean algebra uses all the rules and properties of sets, but replaces the symbols (see the table on page 334).
deMorgans Laws relate various operations as follows:
(A + B) = A B
(A B) = A + B
333
Digital logic
In digital logic, the truth values are replaced with the presence or absence of electricity.
The presence of electricity = 1 = True; the absence of electricity = 0 = False.
Gates implement the logical connectives AND, OR, NOT as well as NOR, NAND, XOR (see the table
below).
All the rules of logic, sets and Boolean algebra can be used to design and simplify digital circuits.
Logic name
And
Or
Not
If ...
then ...
Equal
NAND
334
Logic
Set
symbol symbol
n/a
n/a
n/a
Set
name
Boolean
symbol
Intersection
Union
Complement
n/a
Equivalent
n/a
n/a
n/a
Truth table
p
pq
pq
~p
pq
pq
p NAND q
Digital gate
n/a
n/a
Logic name
NOR
XOR
Logic
Set
symbol symbol
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Set
name
Boolean
symbol
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Truth table
Digital gate
p NOR q
p XOR q
335
chapter review
Short answer
1 Write the following compound statements in

symbolic form.
a Melpomeni and Jacques purchased new
bicycles.
b Either it is cold or it is warm and sunny.
c The dinner was late, expensive and poorly
cooked.
Multiple choice
1 The sentences The capital of Australia is

Canberra, Australia is part of the Southern
Hemisphere and Australias population is over
20 million are examples of:
A statements
B instructions
C suggestions
D exclamations
E near-statements
2 Determine the truth table for (p q) (~p ~q).

3 Write the converse, contrapositive and inverse of
the following statement:
If a politician is intelligent, she sends her
children to good schools.
4 Establish the validity of the following argument:
If the bicycle is not red then it is an Italian
bicycle.
If a bicycle is not an Italian bicycle then it is
green.
My bicycle is red.
Therefore the bicycle is not Italian.
5 Prove that x 1 =
1
, provided x 0.
x
6 Prove, by contradiction, that x > x, when

0 < x < 1.
7 Let A = the set of all positive prime numbers less
than 100.
Let B = the set of all positive two-digit numbers
with the digit 1 in them.
Let C = the set of all positive two-digit numbers
whose sum of digits = 7.
List the following sets:
a A B
b A (B C)
c A B C.
8 Prove, using the rules of Boolean algebra, that
(A + A B) (B + B C) = B.
9 Design a logic circuit equivalent to the Boolean
expression Q = [A (B C)] + [A (B C)].
10 By simplifying the expression for Q in
question 9, design a circuit with fewer components.
(Hint: Consider using NAND or NOR gates.)
336
2 If there is a compound statement with 6 single

statements; p, q, r, s, t and v, then how many rows
will there be in the truth table?
A 6
B 8
C 12
D 36
E 64
3 The truth table at right
represents
A p q
B p q
C p ~q
D ~p q
E p ~q
4 The sentence I like either ham or steak with eggs

for breakfast can be symbolised as:
A h (s e)
B h (s e)
C h (s e)
D h (s e)
E h (s e)
5 The inverse statement to: If I buy a new coat then
I am happy is:
A If I dont buy a new coat then I am not happy.
B If I am not happy then I wont buy a new coat.
C If I am happy then I will buy a new coat.
D If I dont buy a new coat then I am happy.
E If I am happy then I wont buy a new coat.
6 The following argument:

If a lawyer is honest then you should hire him.
You shouldnt hire John Smith.
John Smith is not honest.
is an example of which valid form?
A Modus ponens
B Disjunctive syllogism
C Hypothetical syllogism
D Modus tollens
E Constructive dilemma
10 The shaded area in

the figure at right
represents:
A A
B A
C A
D A
E (A )
11 If I = the universal set, O = the empty set and

A = any set, then A I is:
A A
B I
C O
E none of these
D A
7 The following argument is an example of which

valid form?
If I study hard I will pass my exams.
a
12 The Boolean
I did not pass my exams.
expression equivalent bc
Q
I did not study hard.
to the circuit at right is: d
B Disjunctive syllogism
A Modus ponens
A Q = (a b ) + (c d) B Q = (a b) (c + d)
C Hypothetical syllogism D Modus tollens
C Q = [(a + b) c + d] D Q = [(a b) + c] + d
E Constructive dilemma
E Q = a [b + (c + d)]
8 The statement If she sinks that putt she will either
13 The Boolean equivalent to the circuit shown below
win or lose the tournament is a tautology because:
is:
A it makes no sense B it is always true
A (x + y) + z
x
C it is always false D it is no use in an argument
B (x + y) z
z
E none of these
C x (y + z)
y
9 By proving ~q ~p, you have proved p q is an

example of proof by:
A counter-example
B contradiction
C contrapositive
D deduction
E induction
D x (y z)
E x (y + z)
exTended reSponSe
1 Other valid argument forms: In exercise 9B you learned five

valid forms of argument. There are several others, including the destructive
dilemma. Consider the following argument.
If we want to reduce greenhouse gases, we should use more nuclear power,
and if we wish to reduce nuclear accidents we should use conventional
power.
We will either not use nuclear power or not use conventional power.
Therefore, we will either not reduce greenhouse gases or we will not reduce
the risk of nuclear accidents.
a Put each statement into symbolic form.
b Set up the truth table for the three statements.
c Determine if the argument is valid by finding the rows in the truth table
where all premises are true and comparing them with the conclusion.
d Use this technique to determine the validity of the following argument.
ab
bc
d a
c
d
e Can you devise an example of this argument form?
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
337
2 Implication versus equivalence: The statements a b (implication) and a b (equivalence) are quite
different logically. Implication is If . . . then . . ., while equivalence is If and only if . . . then . . ..
a Write the truth tables for each of the statements.
b Determine the two implications that must be true for the equivalence to be true.
c Consider the following implication: If a positive integer is even, then it is divisible by 2. Determine if
this is also an equivalence.
d Determine if all equivalences are also implications.
e Consider the following implications. Determine if they are also equivalences.
i If a positive integer is odd, then it is not divisible by 2.
ii If a number is positive then its square root is also positive.
iii If a number is positive then its square is also positive.
iv If a triangle has three equal sides, then it has three equal angles of 60 each.
v If a polygon is a square then it is a rectangle.
vi If x is odd, then x3 is also odd.
vii If two statements p and q are true, then p q is true.
viii If two statements p and q are true, then p q is true.
ix If two statements p and q are true, then p q is true.
x If an argument is sound then it is also valid.
3 Consider the logic circuit at right.
w
a How many inputs are there? Name them.
x
b How many outputs are there? Name them.
c Write a truth table for the given logic circuit.
d i What occurs when w = 1, x = 0 and y = 1?
y
ii What occurs when w = 0, x = 0, y = 1 and z = 0?
e Does input z have any effect on the other inputs?
z
f i Write the Boolean expression for Q.
ii Simplify the expression obtained in part i using the rules for Boolean algebra.
g i Write the Boolean expression for R.
ii Simplify the expression obtained in part i using the rules for Boolean algebra.
h Use parts f and g to find a simplified circuit to the original one given.
4 Consider the logic circuit at right. It consists of two inputs,

a
Q
a and b, and four outputs, Q, R, S, and T.
a Determine the outputs when a = b = 0.
R
b
b Determine the outputs when a = 0 and b = 1.
S
c Repeat for the remaining possible values of a and b.
d Show that Q = 1 only when a = b = 0.
T
e Can you describe the pattern for this circuit, which is called a 2-bit decoder?
f The circuit has two NOT gates and four AND gates for the 2-bit decoding of a and b. How many gates
would be required for a 3-bit, 4-bit and n-bit decoder?
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 9
338
eBook plus
aCTiViTieS
Chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on algebra and logic. (page 293)
9A
Statements (propositions), connectives

and truth tables
Tutorial
We4 int-1067: Watch how to complete the truth

table. (page 297)
9B
Tutorial
We9 int-1068: Watch how to use a truth table to

show an argument is valid. (page 306)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 9.1: Draw truth tables, explain and

establish valid and invalid arguments and solve a
worded problem. (page 309)
9C
Techniques of proof
Tutorial
We14 int-1069: Watch how to prove by contradiction

that the product of two negative numbers is positive.
(page 312)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 9.2: Complete more complex

truth tables, solve worded problems and apply
understanding of tautologies, valid and invalid
arguments. (page 317)
9D
Digital doc
History of mathematics: Learn about mathematician

George Boole. (page 319)
9E
Digital logic
Interactivity
Truth tables int-0976: Consolidate your understanding

of truth tables using logic. (page 325)
Tutorial
We22 int-1071: Watch how to determine a truth table

for a burglar alarm. (page 329)
Digital docs
Spreadsheet 137: Investigate truth tables. (page 331)

Investigation: A computer storage device.
(page 332)
Investigation: Binary addition. (page 332)
Chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Tutorial
We18 int-1070: Watch how to prove the first of

deMorgans laws. (page 321)
Chapter 9
algebra and logic
339
10
Linear and
non-linear
graphs
areas oF sTudy

Sketching relations in the Cartesian plane from
rules and tables of values
Polar coordinates and polar graphs
10a
10b
10C
10D
10E
10F
10G
10H
The circle
The ellipse
The parabola
The hyperbola
Polar coordinates
Polar equations
Polar graphs
Review of complex numbers and polar
form of complex numbers
10I Addition of ordinates, reciprocals and
squares of simple graphs
Graphical representation of circles, ellipses,

parabolas and hyperbolas; sketching graphs,
including focus-directrix properties
Sketching graphs by addition of ordinates;
identifying asymptotes
Sketching the graph of reciprocal and square
relations from the graph of a simple relation
eBook plus
10a
Digital doc
The circle
10 Quick Questions
The circle belongs to the family of conics. That is, a circle is a curve
produced by the intersection of a plane with a cone.
A circle is the path traced out by a point at a constant distance
(the radius) from a fixed point (the centre).
Consider the circles shown below right. The first circle has its centre at
the origin and radius r.
Let P (x, y) be a point on the circle.
By Pythagoras: x2 + y2 = r2.
y
The equation of a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r is:

x2 + y2 = r 2
If the circle is translated h units to the right, parallel to the x-axis

and k units upwards, parallel to the y-axis, then:
The equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r is:
(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r 2
y
y
k
P(x, y)
(y k)
(x h)
h
340
P(x, y)
y
x x
Worked Example 1
Sketch the graph of 4x2 + 4y2 = 25, stating the centre and radius.
Think
1
Express the equation in standard form by dividing both

sides by 4.
Write
x2 + y 2 = r2
4x2 + 4y2 = 25
x2 + y2 =
25
4
5
x2 + y2 = 2
2
State the coordinates of the centre.
Find the length of the radius by taking the square root

of both sides.
Centre (0, 0)
r2 = 5
r=
5
2
Radius = 2.5 units

4
Sketch the graph.
y
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
Worked Example 2
Sketch the graph of (x 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 16, clearly showing the centre and radius.
Think
Write
Express the equation in standard form by expressing

16 as 42.
(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2
(x 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 42
Centre (2, 3)
State the length of the radius.

r2 = 42

r=4
Radius = 4 units
Sketch the graph.
y
1
2
3
6 x
Chapter 10 Linear and non-linear graphs
341
Worked exampLe 3
Sketch the graph of the circle x2 + 2x + y2 6y + 6 = 0.

Think
WriTe
Express the equation in standard form using the

completing the square method twice.
(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2
+ 2x + y2 6y + 6 = 0
2
(x + 2x + 1) 1 + (y2 6y + 9) 9 + 6 = 0
(x + 1)2 + (y 3)2 4 = 0
(x + 1)2 + (y 3)2 = 4
(x + 1)2 + (y 3)2 = 22
Centre (1, 3)
State the length of the radius.
r2 = 22
r=2
Radius = 2 units
Sketch the graph.
x2
y
5
3
1
3 1 1
rememBer
Circle graphs:
1. x2 + y2 = r2
2. (x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2
exerCise
10a
a
+ = 49
c x2 + y2 = 36
e 2x2 + 2y2 = 50
Digital doc
y2
b x2 + y2 = 42
d x2 + y2 = 81
f 9x2 + 9y2 = 100
Sketch the graphs of the following, clearly showing the centre and the radius.
We2
a (x
+ (y 2)2 = 52
2
c (x + 3) + (y 1)2 = 49
e x2 + (y + 3)2 = 4
1)2
b (x + 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 62
d (x 4)2 + (y + 5)2 = 64
f (x 5)2 + y2 = 100
We3 Sketch the graphs of the following circles.
a
b
c
d
e
f
342
Sketch the graphs of the following, stating the centre and radius of each.
We1
x2
eBook plus
Completing
the square
radius r
radius r
The circle
1
SkillSHEET 10.1
centre (0, 0)
centre (h, k)
x2 + 4x + y2 + 8y + 16 = 0
x2 10x + y2 2y + 10 = 0
x2 14x + y2 + 6y + 9 = 0
x2 + 8x + y2 12y 12 = 0
x2 + y2 18y 19 = 0
2x2 4x + 2y2 + 8y 8 = 0
The graph of (x 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 4 is:

b
y
y
mC
5
5
y
2
y
2
x
5
mC The centre and radius of the

circle (x + 1)2 + (y 3)2 = 4 is:
a (1, 3), 4
b (1, 3), 2
C (3, 1), 4
D (1, 3), 2
E (1, 3), 16
6 Find the equation representing

the outer edge of the galaxy as
shown in the photo at right, using
the astronomical units provided.
10B
eBook plus
eLesson
eles-0079
Elliptical paths
The ellipse
Another member of the family of conics is the ellipse.
A conic may be generally defined as a curve, where the ratio of the
distance from any point, P (x, y) on the curve to a fixed point (the focus,
F), to its distance from a fixed straight line (the directrix) is a constant
(the eccentricity, e).
The ellipse opposite has:
1. a centre (0, 0)
2. eccentricity: 0 < e < 1
y
3. two foci at F (ae, 0) and F(ae, 0)
b
a
a
4. two directrices with equations x = and x =
e
F'
e
a
a
ae
5. a semi-major axis, a
e
6. a semi-minor axis, b (when a > b).
b
From the definition:
FP = e
PD
FP = ePD
(FP)2 = e2 (PD)2 (square both sides)
Chapter 10
P(x, y)
F
ae
a
e
D
x
Linear and non-linear graphs
343
(ae x)2 + (0 y)2 = e 2 x

e
2
a
a
2
x
+
e
2aex + + =
e
a2e2 2aex + x2 + y2 = e2x2 2aex + a2

x2 e2x2 + y2 = a2 a2e2
x2(1 e2) + y2 = a2(1 e2)
a2e2
x2
x2 +
y2
e2 x
y2
= a2
1 e2
x2
y2
=1
=
a 2 a 2 (1 e 2 )
x2 y2
+
= 1 where b2 = a2(1 e2)
a2 b2
The equation of an ellipse with centre (0, 0), foci (ae, 0), directrices, x = a and 0<e<1 is:
e
x 2 y2
where b2 = a2 (1 e2)
+
=
1
a 2 b2
If the ellipse is translated h units to the right, parallel to the x-axis, and k units upwards,
parallel to the y-axis, then:
The equation of an ellipse with centre (h, k),
foci (ae + h, k), directrices
a
x=
+ h and 0 < e < 1 is:
e
y
k+b
k
F'
kb ha
h
h+a x
(ae+h, k)
(ae+h, k)
x = ae + h
x = ae + h
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
=
= 1 where b2 = a2 (1 e2)
a2
b2
Worked Example 4
Sketch the ellipse

directrices.
( x + 1)2 ( y 2 )2
+
= 1, giving the coordinates of the foci and the equations of the
25
16
Think
1
Express the equation in standard form.
Write
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
+
=1
a2
b2
( x + 1)2 ( y 2)2
+
=1
25
16
( x + 1)2 ( y 2)2
+
=1
52
42
344
Centre (h, k)
h = 1 and k = 2
Hence, centre is (1, 2).
State the values of a and b.
a = 5 and b = 4
Calculate the eccentricity.
Since b2 = a2(1 e2)

then 42 = 52(1 e2)
16 = 25(1 e2)
16 = 25 25e2
25e2 = 9
9
e2 =
25
3
5
e=
5
Find the coordinates of the foci.
Foci (ae + h, k)
ae = 5 3
5

ae = 3
ae + h = 3 + (1)

=2
ae + h = 3 + (1)

= 4
Hence, foci are (2, 2) and (4, 2).
a
+h
Directrices are x =
e

Find the equations of the directrices.
a
3
= 5
e
5
a 25
=
e 3
25
a
+h=
+ ( 1)
e
3
22
=
3
and a + h =
e
25
+ (1)
28
3
Hence, equations of directrices are
x=
and x =
7
22
1
or 7 3
3
28
or 9 3 .
y
6
Sketch the graph.

F'
9 13
6 4 1
2
F
2 4
7 13 x
345
REMEMBER
Equations
Ellipse (0 < e < 1)
x2 y2
+
=1
a2 b2
where b2 = a2(1 e2)
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
+
=1
a2
b2
where b2 = a2(1 e2)
Exercise
10b
Features
Major axis length 2a
Minor axis length 2b
Centre (0, 0)
Foci (ae, 0)
Directrices
a
x=
e
Centre (h, k)
Foci (ae + h, k)
Directrices
a
x=
+h
e
Graph
y
b
ae
F'
ae
P(x, y)
F
ae
a
e
D
x
b
y
k+b
F'
kb ha
h
h+a x
(ae+h, k)
(ae+h, k)
x = ae + h
x = ae + h
The ellipse
1 Sketch the following ellipses, showing the coordinates of the foci and the equations of the
directrices.
2
2
a x + y = 1
100 49
2
2
b x + y = 1
25 4
2
2
c x + y = 1
64 36
2
2
d x + y = 1
121 81
2
e x + y 2 = 1
16
f x2 + 4y2 = 4
2 WE4 Sketch the following ellipses, showing the coordinates of the foci and the equations of
the directrices.
2
2
a ( x 1) + ( y + 2) = 1
9
4
2
2
b ( x + 5) + ( y 2) = 1
25
16
2
2
c ( x + 5) + ( y + 1) = 1
49
25
( x 5)2
+ y2 = 1
36
( x 2)2 ( y 3)2
+
=1
169
25
f x2 + 9(y + 2)2 = 9
3 MC Which of the following statements is not true of the graph of

a The centre is at (0, 0).
b a = 2, b = 1
346
x2
+ y 2 = 1?
4
C e=
3
2
D The foci are ( 3 , 0) and (
3, 0).
4 3
4 3
and y =
3
3
4 mC The equation of the ellipse at right is:
E The directrices are y =
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 10.1
10C
y
2
( x + 3)2
+ ( y 2)2 = 1
9
( x + 3)2 y 2
+
=1
9
2
( x + 3)2 y 2
+
=1
9
4
( x 3)2
+ y2 = 1
9
( x + 3)2 y 2
=1
9
4
3
y
5 In order to program a gemstone cutting machine, a jeweller

requires an equation for the edge of the stone based on the
coordinate system shown at right (centred at the stones
centre). What is the equation required?
1.4
x
1.0
The parabola
The parabola is also a conic, as shown at right. The eccentricity, e, for a
parabola is equal to one. Hence, the distance from any point P (x, y) on the
curve to the focus is equal to the distance of that point from the directrix.
The parabola opposite has:
1. a vertex (0, 0)
y
2. eccentricity: e = 1
D
3. focus at F (a, 0)
P(x, y)
4. directrix with equation x = a
F
FP = e
PD
FP = 1
PD
FP = PD
(FP)2 = (PD)2 (Square both sides.)
(a x)2 + (0 y)2 = (x a)2
(a x)2 + (0 y)2 = (x + a)2
a2 2ax + x2 + y2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
2ax2 + y2 = 2ax
y2 = 4ax
The equation of a parabola with vertex (0, 0), focus (a, 0),
directrix, x = a and e = 1 is:
y2 = 4ax
F(h + a, k)
hah h+a
Chapter 10
347
If the parabola is translated h units

to the right (parallel to the x-axis)
and k units upwards (parallel to the
y-axis), then:
The equation of a parabola with
vertex (h, k), foci (a + h, k),
directrix, x = a + h and e = 1 is:
(y k)2 = 4a(x h)
Worked exampLe 5
Sketch the parabola y2 = 8x showing the vertex, the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the
directrix.
Think
WriTe
y2 = 4ax
y2 = 8x
Give the coordinates of the vertex.
Vertex (0, 0)
Find the value of a.
4a = 8
a=2
Find the coordinates of the focus.
Focus (a, 0)
Focus at (2, 0)
Find the equation of the directrix.
Directrix at x = a
x = 2
Sketch the graph.
2
x = 2
F
2
(2, 0)
x
Worked exampLe 6
Sketch the parabola (y 1)2 = 12 (x + 2) showing the vertex, the coordinates of the focus and the
equation of the directrix.
Think
1
348
WriTe
(y k)2 = 4a(x h)
(y 1)2 = 12 (x + 2)
Hence h = 2 and k = 1.
Focus (a + h, k)
a + h = 3 + (2)
=1
Focus at (1, 1)
Directrix at x = a + h
a + h = 3 + (2)
= 5
x = 5
Sketch the graph.
Vertex (h, k)
Hence, vertex is (2, 1)
4a = 12
a=3
y
F(1, 1)
(2, 1)
5
2 1
x = 5
Worked exampLe 7
eBook plus
12
Sketch the parabola =

(x 5) showing the vertex, the coordinates of
the focus and the equation of the directrix.
y2
Think
Tutorial
int-1072
Worked example 7
WriTe
Write the equation.
y2 = 12(x 5)
(y k)2 = 4a(x h)
Hence h = 5 and k = 0.
Vertex (h, k)
Hence, the vertex is (5, 0).
4a = 12
a = 3
Focus (a + h, k)
a + h = 3 + 5
=2
Focus at (2, 0).
Directrix at x = a + h
a + h = 3 + 5
=8
x=8
F
(2, 0)
5 8x
x=8
Sketch the graph.
Note: The parabola is facing in the opposite direction to that in the previous worked example. Why?
Chapter 10
349
REMEMBER
Equations
Parabola (e = 1)
y2 = 4ax
(y k)2 = 4a(x h)
Features
Graph
y
Vertex (0, 0)
Focus (a, 0)
Directrix x = a
D
a
P(x, y)
F
a
Vertex (h, k)
Focus (a + h, k)
Directrix x = a + h
F(h + a, k)
hah h+a
The distance between the vertex and the focus = a. The distance between the focus and
the directrix = 2a.
Exercise
10C
The parabola
1 WE5 Sketch the following parabolas, showing the vertex, the coordinates of the focus and the
equation of the directrix.
a y2 = 4x
d y2 = 24x
g y2 = 9x
b y2 = 16x
e y2 = 6x
h y2 = 7x
c y2 = 20x
f y2 = 10x
2 WE6 Sketch the following parabolas, showing the vertex, the coordinates of the focus, and
the equation of the directrix.
a
d
g
j
y2 = 8(x 3)
y2 = 16(x + 4)
(y + 3)2 = 20(x + 1)
(y 7)2 = 12x
b
e
h
k
y2 = 4(x 1)
(y 1)2 = 4(x 2)
(y + 6)2 = 8(x + 3)
(y + 5)2 = 6x
c
f
i
l
y2 = 12 (x + 1)
(y 3)2 = 12 (x 5)
(y 2)2 = 4x
(y + 4)2 = 10x
3 WE7 Sketch the following parabolas, showing the vertex, the coordinates of the focus, and
the equation of the directrix.
a
c
e
g
i
k
y2 = 4x
y2 = 10x
y2 = 12 (x + 1)
y2 = 14(x 2)
(y 1)2 = 8(x + 3)
(y + 2)2 = 18(x 1)
b
d
f
h
j
l
y2 = 8x
y2 = 6x
y2 = 20(x + 3)
y2 = 2 (x 4)
(y 2)2 = 16(x + 5)
(y + 5)2 = 10(x + 2)
4 MC The equation of the parabola at right is:

A y2 = 4x
B y2 = 4(x 1)
2
C y = 4(x + 1)
D y2 = 8(x + 1)
2
E y = 12 (x 1)
350
F
46
5 MC Which one of the following statements is not true of the graph of the parabola
(y + 1)2 = 4x?
B The vertex is at (0, 1).
A The focus is to the left of the y-axis.
C The focus has coordinates (1, 0).
D The directrix is at x = 1.
E It has the same directrix as y2 = 4x.
6 Match each of the following graphs with its equation.
a
y
y
c
b
y
F
2
3
6 3
iy2 = 12(x 2)
iiy2 = 12x
F
1

iii(y 2)2 = 12x
iv(y 2)2 = 12(x + 3)
7 Find the Cartesian equation of each of the following parabolas and sketch each graph.
a Focus at (2, 0)
Directrix x = 2
b Focus at (2, 0)
Directrix x = 3
c Focus at (4, 0)
Directrix x = 2
d Focus at (6, 0)
Directrix x = 2
e Focus at ( 2, 0)
Directrix x = 4
f Focus at ( 4, 0)
Directrix x = 1
g Focus at (1, 2)
Directrix x = 1
h Focus at ( 2, 3)
Directrix x = 2
10d
The hyperbola
Another member of the family of conics is the hyperbola. However, its eccentricity is greater
than 1 (see the diagram below).
y
b
F' a
ae ae
y = ba x
a
e
F
ae
P(x, y)
b
x=
ae
x = ae
y = ba x
The hyperbola above has:

1. a centre (0, 0) and vertices at (a, 0)
2. eccentricity: e > 1
3. two foci at F (ae, 0) and F (ae, 0)
a
a
4. two directrices with equations x = and x =
e
e
bx
bx
5. two asymptotes with equations y =
and y =
where b2 = a2(e2 1).
a
a

FP
=e
PD
FP = ePD
(FP)2 = e2(PD)2 [Square both sides]
a
(ae x)2 + (0 y)2 = e 2 x
351
2aex +
x2
y2
2 x2 2 a x + a
e
=
e
e
a2e2
a2e2 2aex + x2 + y2 = e2x2 2aex + a2

a2e2 a2 = e2x2 x2 y2
a2(e2 1) = x2(e2 1) y2
a2 = x 2
y2
[Divide both sides by (e2 1)]
1
e2
x2
y2
= 1 [Divide both sides by a2]
a 2 a 2 (e 2 1)
x2 y2
= 1 where b2 = a2(e2 1)
a2 b2
The equation of a hyperbola with centre (0, 0), vertices (a, 0), foci (ae, 0), vertices (a, 0),
b
directrices, x = a , asymptotes, y = x and e>1 is:

a
e

x 2 y2
2 = 1 where b2 = a2(e2 1)
2
a
b
If the hyperbola is translated h units to the right, parallel to the x-axis, and k units upwards,
parallel to the y-axis, then:
y
The equation of a hyperbola with centre (h, k),

vertices at (a + h, k), foci (ae + h, k), directrices,
x=
+ h, asymptotes, y k =
x = ae + h
y = ba(x h) + k
a
x = e + h
k+b
( x h) and
k
kb
e > 1 is:
F'
F
h a
h ae
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
= 1 where b2 = a2 (e2 1)
a2
b2
h+a
h + ae
y = ba(x h) + k
Worked Example 8
x 2 y2
= 1 indicating the coordinates of the centre, vertices and foci,

9
4
the equations of the directrices, and the equations of the asymptotes.
Sketch the hyperbola
Think
352
Express the equation in standard form by expressing 9

and 4 as perfect squares.
Write
x2 y2
=1
a2 b2
x2 y2
=1
9
4
x2 y2
=1
32 2 2
Centre (0, 0)
3
4
State the values of a and b and give the coordinates of

the vertices.
Calculate the eccentricity by using
b2 = a2(e2 1).
a = 3 and b = 2, vertices (3, 0)

Since b2 = a2(e2 1)
then 22 = 32(e2 1)
4 = 9(e2 1)
4 = 9e2 9
9e2 = 13
e2 =
13
9
13
3
e=
5
Find the coordinates of the foci.
Foci are (ae, 0)

13
3
ae = 3
= 13
Hence, foci are ( 13, 0).
6
Find the equations of the directrices.
Directrices are at x =
13
a
= 3
e
3
=
9
13
9 13
13
Hence, the equations of the directrices are
=
x=
7
Find the equations of the asymptotes.
13 .
13
Asymptotes
y=
x
a
2
=
x
3
Hence, the equations of the asymptotes are
y=
8
2
2 and
x
y=
x.
3
3
Sketch the graph.
y = 23 x
2
F'
13 3
F
13
2
x=
9 13

13
9 13
x =
13
y = 23 x
353
eBook plus
Worked exampLe 9
Sketch the hyperbola
( x + 1)2 ( y 2 )2
= 1.
16
9
Think
1
State the values of a and b and give the coordinates of

the vertices.
Calculate the eccentricity by using

b2 = a2(e2 1).
Find the coordinates of the foci by substituting

a, e, h and k into ( ae + h, k).
Find the equations of the directrices by substituting

a
a, e and h into x =
= h.
e
Tutorial
int-1073
Worked example 9
WriTe
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
=1
a2
b2
( x + 1)2 ( y 2)2
=1
16
9
( x + 1)2 ( y 2)2
=1
42
32
Centre (h, k)
h = 1 and k = 2
Hence, the centre is (1, 2).
a = 4 and b = 3, vertices (5, 2) and (3, 2)
Since b2 = a2(e2 1)
then 32 = 42(e2 1)
9 = 16(e2 1)
9 = 16e2 16
16e2 = 25
25
e2 =
16
5
e=
4
Foci ( ae + h, k)
5
ae = 4
4
=5
ae + h = 5 + (1) and ae + h = 5 + (1)
=4
= 6
Hence, the foci are (4, 2) ( 6, 2).

Directrices, x = a + h
e
a
5 16
= 4 =
4 5
e
11
16
a
+ h = + ( 1) =
5
5
e
21
16
+ ( 1) =
5
e
5
Hence, the equations of the directrices are
21
11
x=
and x =
.
5
5
Equations of asymptotes:
b
yk =
( x h)
a
and
354
Find the equations of the asymptotes by substituting

b
a, e, h and k into y k =
( x h) .
a
+h=
[ x ( 1)]
4
3
=
( x + 1)
4
3
y 2 = ( x + 1) and
4
3
y2=
( x + 1)
4
4(y 2) = 3(x + 1) and
4(y 2) = 3(x + 1)
4y 8 = 3x + 3 and
4y 8 = 3x 3
3x 4y + 11 = 0 and
3x + 4y 5 = 0
Hence, the equations of the asymptotes are
3x 4y + 11 = 0 and 3x + 4y 5 = 0.
y2=
Sketch the graph.
3x 4y + 11 = 0
y
5
2
F'
x
1 1 3 4
1
x = 215
x = 215 3x + 4y 5 = 0
6 5
rememBer
Equations
Hyperbola (e > 1)
x2 y2
=1
a2 b2
where b2 = a2(e2 1)
Features
Vertices ( a, 0)
Foci ( ae, 0)
Directrices
a
x=
e
Asymptotes
b
y=
x
a
Graph
y
b
F' a
ae ae
Vertices ( a + h, k)
Foci ( ae + h, k)
Directrices
a
x=
+h
e
Asymptotes
b
yk =
( x h)
a
a
e
F
ae
P(x, y)
b
x=
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
=1
a2
b2
where b2 = a2(e2 1)
y = ba x
ae
y = ba x
x = ae
x = ae + h
y = ba (x h) + k
a
x = e + h
k+b
k
F'
F
ha
kb
h ae
h+a
h + ae
y = ba (x h) + k
a = distance between vertices 2
Chapter 10
355
Exercise
10D
The hyperbola
1 WE8 Sketch the following hyperbolas, showing the coordinates of the centre, vertices and
foci, the equations of the directrices and asymptotes.
2
2
a x y = 1
16 9
2
2
b x y = 1
144 25
x2 y2
=1
9
9
2
2
c x y = 1
4
4
x2 y2
=1
64 36
f 4x2 9y2 = 36
2 WE9 Sketch the following hyperbolas.

2
2
a ( x 1) y = 1
16
9
2
2
b ( x + 3) y = 1
144
25
2
2
c x ( y + 2) = 1
9
9
d x2 (y 3)2 = 4
2
2
e ( x + 1) ( y 2) = 1
64
36
f 4(x 5)2 9(y + 3)2 = 36
3 For the following hyperbolas, find:

i the eccentricity
ii the foci
iii the equations of the directrices
iv the equations of the asymptotes.
a
2
3
5
1
5
2
4 MC Given that a hyperbola has vertex points of (4, 0) and (4, 0), with asymptotes of y = 2 x
and y = 1 x, the equation of the hyperbola is:

2
2
2
A x y = 1
4
2
2
2
b x + y = 1
4
2
2
2
D x y = 1
16 4
2
2
e y x = 1
2
4
2
2
c x y = 1
64 16
5 MC The equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbola with foci (2.5, 0) and a distance of
4 units between the two vertices are:
A y =
1
4
B y =
3
4
D y =
5
4
E y = x
C y =
6 MC The equation of the graph at right is:

2
2
A x y = 1
64 9
2
2
B x y = 1
16 12
2
2
C x y = 1
16 9
2
2
D x + y = 1
16 9
e 3x2 4y2 = 12
356
8
5x
F'
5 4
F
4 5
2 and foci ( 3 2 , 0).
7 Find the equation of the hyperbola with eccentricity
8 Find the equation of the hyperbola with vertices (5, 0) and directrices at x = 4.
9 A boomerang manufacturers
specifications for a particular model
of boomerang appear at right. Find an
equation for the dashed curve drawn
through the boomerangs.
F'
F
20
30
10E
20
Polar coordinates
In the Cartesian coordinate system, a point, P, is located by using

(x, y) coordinates. The same point can be located by stating the
distance of the point from the origin, the radius, r, and the angle,
, it makes with the positive x direction. These are known as polar
coordinates. We write the polar coordinates of point P as [r, ].
Note: may be given in degrees or radians.
30
P(x, y)
r
y
x
Worked Example 10
Plot the following polar coordinates.

a [2, 60] b [ 3,
2
]
3
Think
a
Write
Draw the positive x direction.
Rotate 60 anticlockwise.
Extend the line 2 units.
[2, 60]
y
2
60
x
Draw the positive x direction.
2
Rotate
anticlockwise.
3
Extend the line 3 units in the opposite

direction.
2
3
x
2
[3, 3 ]
Note: [3, 2 ] is the same as [3, 5 ]. Why?

3
3
Can you find another set of coordinates for the
same point?
357
From the initial polar coordinates diagram, by trigonometry:

x = r cos ()
y = r sin ()
Hence, we can convert polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates.
Worked Example 11
Convert [2, 2 ] to Cartesian coordinates.

3
Think
1
Write
Find the x-coordinate.
x = r cos ()
2
= 2 cos
3
=2
x = 1
Find the y-coordinate.
1
2
y = r sin ()
2
= 2 sin
3
[2, 2 ]
=2 3
2
y = 3
3
State the Cartesian coordinates.
Hence, the Cartesian coordinates are

(1, 3).
Alternatively, on the Main screen, using the

soft keyboard, tap:
)
Then press E.
Note: The angle symbol can be found
in 9 K.
From the initial polar coordinates diagram, by trigonometry:

y

tan () =
x
By applying Pythagoras theorem:

r = x 2 + y 2
Hence, we can convert Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates.
358
y
2
3
2
Worked exampLe 12
eBook plus
Convert (3, 4) to polar coordinates.
Tutorial
Think
1
Find .
32 + ( 4 ) 2
9 + 16
25
y
x
4
=
( in 4th quadrant)
3
tan ( ) =
Note that as tan ( ) is negative, is in the fourth

quadrant.
Worked example 12
x2 + y2
r =
Find r.
r =5
2
int-1074
WriTe
State the polar coordinates (choose = 30652

in this case).
= tan
1 4

3
so = 538 or (360 538)

= 538 or 30652
Hence, the polar coordinates are [5, 30652].
y
rememBer
Cartesian coordinates (x, y)

Polar coordinates [r, ]
where x = r cos ( ) and y = r sin ( )
y
and r = x 2 + y 2 and tan ( ) = .
x
P(x, y)
r
exerCise
10e
eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 10.2
Converting
radians to
degrees
y
x
polar coordinates
1
We 10 Plot the following polar coordinates on the same graph.

a [2, 0]
b [5, 180]
c [0.5, 270]
d [3, 90]
2 Plot the following polar coordinates on the same graph.

a 1,
3

b 1,
3
2
c 1,
3
3 Locate each of the following points on the same graph.

a [3, 45]
b [4, 100]
c [1, 300]
Chapter 10
5
d 1,
3
d [2.5, 30]
359
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 10.2
10F
We11 Convert the following to Cartesian coordinates. (See below for a graphics calculator
approach.)
a [2, 45]
b [5, 30]
c [3, 60]
d [2.7, 90]
h [7.8, ]
e [1.5, 120]
f [12, 210]
g 2.6,
2
k [25, 5.8c]
l [1.6, 4c]
i 10,
j 9.1,
3
3
We12 Convert the following Cartesian coordinates into polar coordinates. (See below for a
CAS calculator approach.) Express in parts ae in degrees and the rest in radians.
a (5, 0)
b (0, 4.3)
c (30, 0)
d (0, 9)
e (6, 6)
f (4, 3)
g (5, 12)
h (6, 8)
i (1,
3)
j (2, 2)
k (2, 3, 2)
l (5, 6)
polar equations
A polar equation is an equation written in terms of r and/or .
Using the conversions for x and y into polar coordinates,
x = r cos ( )
y = r sin ( )
we can change Cartesian equations into polar equations.
Worked exampLe 13
Convert the following Cartesian equations into polar equations.

a x2 + y2 = 25
b y + 2x
c 2x 3y = 5
d x2 + y2 + 6x 8y = 0
Think
a
2
2
e x + y =1
16 9
WriTe
Substitute the polar expressions for

x and y.
Expand and simplify.

(Use the identity cos2 ( ) + sin2 ( ) = 1.)
Alternatively, since x2 + y2 = 25
represents a circle of radius 5 units
then the polar equation must be r = 5.
a x2 + y2 = 25
Since x = r cos ( )
and
y = r sin ( )
(r cos ( ))2 + (r sin ( ))2 = 25
r2 cos2 ( ) + r2 sin2 ( ) = 25
r2 (cos2 ( ) + sin2 ( )) = 25
r2 = 25
r=5
y
5
5 x
5
5
b
360

x and y.
Divide both sides by r cos ( ) and

sin ( )
recall the identity
= tan ( ) .
cos ( )
b y = 2x
Since x = r cos ( )
and y = r sin ( )
then r sin ( ) = 2r cos ( )
sin ( )
=2
cos ( )
tan ( ) = 2 since sin ( ) = tan ( )
cos ( )
Isolate .

x and y.
Simplify.
Substitute the polar expressions

for x and y.
= tan 1(2)
= 6326 or 1.107
c 2x 3y = 5
Since x = r cos ()
And
y = r sin ()
then 2r cos () 3r sin () = 5
r(2 cos () 3 sin ()) = 5
5
r=
2 cos ( ) 3 sin ( )
d x2 + y2 + 6x 8y = 0
Since x = r cos ()
and
y = r sin ()
r2 cos2 () + r2 sin2 () + 6r cos () 8r sin () = 0
r2 (cos2 () + sin2 ()) + r(6 cos () 8 sin ()) = 0
Note that cos2 () + sin2 () = 1.
r2 + r(6 cos () 8 sin ()) = 0
Divide both sides by r.
r + 6 cos () 8 sin () = 0
Hence, r = 8 sin () 6 cos ().
Substitute the polar expressions

for x and y.
Simplify.
x2 y2
+
=1
16 9
Since x = r cos ()
and
y = r sin ()
(r cos ( ))2 (r sin ( ))2
+
=1
16
9
r 2 cos2 ( ) r 2 sin 2 ( )
+
=1
16
9
9r 2 cos2 ( ) + 16r 2 sin 2 ( )
=1
144
r2 (9 cos2 () + 16 sin2 ()) = 144
144
r2 =
2
9 cos ( ) + 16 sin 2 ( )
Similarly, polar equations can be changed to Cartesian form.
Worked Example 14
Convert the following polar equations into Cartesian equations.

2
a r = 4 cos () b tan () = 2 c r =
1 + sin ( )
Think
a
Write
Find r2 by multiplying both sides of the

equation by r.
Substitute the Cartesian expressions

for r and .
a r = 4 cos ()
r2 = 4r cos ()
Since
r2 = x2 + y2
and
x = r cos ()
then
x2 + y2 = 4x
361
Simplify by completing the square.
Note: This is the equation of a circle of radius

2 units and centre (2, 0).
b 1 Substitute tan ( ) = y .
x

x2 4x + y2 = 0
2
x 4x + 4 4 + y2 = 0

(x 2)2 + y2 = 4
b tan () = 2
As tan () = y , y = 2
x x
y = 2x
Simplify by making y the subject.
Simplify the equation by multiplying

both sides of the equation by
(1 + sin ()).
Substitute the Cartesian expressions

for r and .
Since
y = r sin ()

r+y=2
Make r the subject.
Find r2 by squaring both sides.
Substitute for r2.
Expand and simplify.
Since
r2 = x2 + y2
2

x + y2 = (2 y)2

= 4 4y + y2
2

x = 4 4y

4y = 4 x2
x2
y = 1
4
Note: This is the equation of a parabola.
2
1
+
sin
( )

r(1 + sin ()) = 2
r + r sin () = 2
r=
r=2y
r2 = (2 y)2
REMEMBER

Polar coordinates [r, ]
where x = r cos () and y = r sin ()
y
also r = x 2 + y 2 and tan ( ) = .
x
P(x, y)
r
Exercise
10F
Polar equations
1 WE13 Convert the following Cartesian equations into polar equations.
a x = 3
b y = 2
c x2 + y2 = 9
d x2 + y2 = 36
e y = 5x
f y = x
g 3x 4y = 1
h 5x + y = 7
i x2 + y2 10x + 6y = 0
j x2 + y2 + 6x + 8y = 0
2
2
k x + y 12y = 0
l x2 + y2 2x = 0
2
2
2
2
m x + y = 1
n x + y = 1
9
4
4 25
362
y
x
2 WE14 Convert the following polar equations into Cartesian equations.

a r = 2
b r = 5
c r = 6 sin ()
d r = 2 cos ()
f tan () = -4
e tan () = 3
3
g =
h =
4
4
i r cos () = 4
j r sin () = -1
k r = 4 sin () 2 cos ()
l r = 6 sin () + 8 cos ()
m r =
10G
3
1 + sin ( )
n r =
4
1 cos ( )
Polar graphs
Polar equations can be graphed using polar coordinates. This is often a better alternative
than converting polar equations to the sometimes more complicated Cartesian equation
form.
When using polar equations, is assumed to be measured in radians.
Worked Example 15
Sketch the graph of the Spiral of Archimedes, r = for 0 2. The Spiral of Archimedes curve
is named after the Greek mathematician who first investigated its properties.
Think
1
Write
Construct a table of values for 0 2
using increments of and find the

6
corresponding r values to 2 decimal places.
Sketch the graph using a protractor and

ruler to plot each of the points from the
table. Remember r is the distance from the
centre (the origin).
The circular protractor on a Mathomat is
ideal for this.
5
6
2
3
5
6
0.52 1.05 10.57 2.09 2.62
7
6
2
3
3
4
4
3
3
2
5
3
11
6
3.14 3.67 4.19 4.71 5.24 5.76 6.28
r
2
4 4
3
3
2
7
4
5
3
11
363
Worked exampLe 16
Sketch the graph of r = for 0 < < 4 using a CAS calculator.

Think
WriTe
On the Geometry screen, tap:

Function
Polar
r:
min = 0
max = 4
OK
Adjust the window size if required.
Compare the graphs of worked examples 15
and 16.
Worked exampLe 17
eBook plus
Sketch the graph of r = 8 for 0 2.
Tutorial
int-1076
Worked example 17
Think
1
Construct a table of values for 0 2

and find the corresponding r values to
2 decimal places.
WriTe/dispLay
2
8
7
6
4
3
3
2
5
3
11
6
3
2
364
5
6
8
3
8
Sketch the graph using a protractor and

ruler to plot each of the points from the
table. Remember r is the distance from the
centre (the origin).
2
3
6
8
On the Graph & Tab screen, tap:

Type
r = Type
r1 = 8 | 0 2
Tick the r1 box and then tap $.
Worked Example 18
Sketch the graph of r = 2 sin () for 0 2 using a CAS calculator.

Think
Write

Type
r = Type
r1 = 2sin() | 0 2
Tick the r1 box and then tap $.
REMEMBER
Polar graphs may be plotted by using a table of values and sketching by hand, or by using a
CAS calculator.
Exercise
10G
Polar graphs
1 WE15, 16 Using a graphics calculator or other method, sketch the graph of each of the
following polar equations for 0 4.
a r =
b r =
c r = 2
d r = 12
2 WE17 Using a graphics calculator or other method, sketch the graph of each of the following
polar equations for 0 2.
d r = -2
a r = 2
b r = 4
c r = 1.5
365
3 WE18 Using a CAS calculator or other method, sketch the graph of each of the following
polar equations for 0 2.
a r = sin ()
b r = 1.5 sin ()
c r = -3 sin ()
d r = 4 sin ()
e Hence, predict the graph of r = 5 sin (). Check your prediction on the
CAS calculator.
4 Using a CAS calculator or other method, sketch the following polar equations
for 0 2.
d r = -4 cos ()
a r = cos ()
b r = 2 cos ()
c r = 3 cos ()
e Hence, predict the graph of r = 0.5 cos (). Check your prediction on the
CAS calculator.
5 Using a CAS calculator or other method, sketch

r = 3 sin () + 4 cos ()
for 0 2.
a Comment on the shape of the curve.
b State:

i the y-intercepts
ii the x-intercepts
iii the length of the diameter
iv the length of the radius
v the coordinates of the centre
vi the Cartesian equation of the curve.
6 Using a CAS calculator or other method, sketch

r = 5 sin () + 12 cos ()
for 0 2.
a Comment on the shape of the curve.
b State:

i the y-intercept(s)
ii the x-intercept(s)
iii the length of the diameter
iv the length of the radius
v the coordinates of the centre
vi the Cartesian equation of the curve.
7 Using a CAS calculator, plot the graph of r = 1 cos () for 0 () 2. Hence, investigate
the graphs:
a r = cos () 1
b r = 1 sin ()
c r = 4(sin () 1).
8 Using a CAS calculator, plot the graph of r = 1 + 2 sin () for 0 2. Hence, investigate
the graphs of the type r = b + a sin () where a > b.
a r = 1 + 3 sin ()
b r = 1 + 6 sin ()
c r = 2 + 6 sin ()
d r = 1 + 2 cos ()
e r = 1 2 sin ()
f Hence, predict the graph of r = 1 3 cos ()
9 Using a CAS calculator, plot the graph r = sin (2) for 0 2. Hence, investigate the
graphs:
a r = sin (3)
b r = sin (4)
c r = cos (2)
e r =
sin (3)
d r = 2 sin (3)
f Hence, predict the graph of r = 4 cos (3)
10 Compare and comment on the graphs of the polar equations

r = 2 4 sin ()
and
r = 2 4 sin ()
366
11 Use a graphing program (or CAS calculator) to investigate graphs of the following polar
equations. Replace a and b with actual values (such as 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on) and hence comment
on the effect of a and b on each graph.
Equations
Name of graph
a r = a + b sin ()
Limacon
b r = a sin (b)
Four leaf rose
c r = 2a(1 + cos ())

a
d r =
a cos (2 )
e r =
cos ( )
Cardioid
fr2 = a2 cos (2)

You may need to plot two graphs here,
namely
Hyperbolic spiral
Right strophoid
Lemniscate of Bernoulli
r = a cos (2 ) and r = a cos (2 )

g r =
10h
2a
sin ( )
Quadratix of Hippias
Review of complex numbers and

polar form of complex numbers
Review of complex numbers
Points to remember
A complex number is made up of real and imaginary parts.
Addition and subtraction is performed by adding or subtracting the real and imaginary parts
separately.
Multiplication and division by a constant is performed by multiplying or dividing the real
and imaginary parts by that constant.
When multiplying two complex numbers, proceed as if you were multiplying two binomial
brackets; to square a complex number, use the perfect square identity.
The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign of the imaginary
component; the product of a conjugate pair is a real number.
Worked Example 19
If w = 1 - 3i and z = 2 + 4i write down

1
a w + z b z - w c 2w d z e wz f z2 g z h w w.
2
Think
Write
a Add the real and imaginary parts separately.
a w + z = 1 - 3i + 2 + 4i
b Simplify and add the real and imaginary parts
b z - w = 2 + 4i - (1 - 3i)
separately.
=3+i
= 1 + 7i
367
c When multiplying complex numbers by a constant,
multiply the real and imaginary parts by that

constant.
d Simplify by multiplying the real and imaginary parts
c 2w = 2(1 - 3i)
= 2 - 6i
by the constant.
e When multiplying two complex numbers, proceed as
if you were multiplying two binomial brackets.
e wz = (1 - 3i)(2 + 4i)
= 2 + 4i - 6i + 12
= 14 - 2i
f z2 = (2 + 4i)2
f To square a complex number, use the perfect square
= 4 + 16i - 16
= -12 + 16i
identity.
g The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by
1
1
z = (2 + 4i )
2
2
= 1 + 2i
g z = 2 4i
changing the sign of the imaginary component.

h The product of a conjugate pair is a real number.
h w w = (1 3i )(1 + 3i )
= 1+ 9
= 10
Polar form of complex numbers

As seen previously, for the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) the polar coordinates are [r, ] where
x = r cos () and y = r sin ()
Hence, for the complex number in Cartesian form z = x + yi, then
z = r cos () + r sin ()i
or
z = r(cos () + i sin ())
This is abbreviated to z = rcis ().
I
P(x + iy)
This can be represented on the complex number plane as shown at right.
By Pythagoras theorem, r = x 2 + y 2 ; this is represented by z which is
the absolute value or the modulus of z.
Worked Example 20
Find z for each of the following.

a z = 3 + i b z = 2 - 3i c z = -1 - i
Think
368
Write
z = x2 + y2
z = 32 + 12 = 10
z = x2 + y2
z = 22 + ( 3)2 = 13
z = x2 + y2
z = ( 1)2 + ( 1)2 = 2
y
x
Worked Example 21
Express the following complex numbers in polar form.

a z = 1 + i
b z =
3+i
Think
Write
a
z is in the first quadrant
a =
(1, 1)
So, z = 2 cis
4
and z = 2
4
z is in the second quadrant

I
i
( 3 , i)
b z =
( 3) +1
= 3+1
=2
5
= + =
2 3
6

5
z = 2 cis
6
a
&
b

Action
Vector
toPol
toPol([1 1])
toPol( [ 3 1] )
Write the answers.
a
&
b
a z = 1 + i in polar form is z = 2 cis .

4
bz=
3 + i in polar form is
5
z = 2 cis .
6
369
Worked Example 22
5
Express 3 cis in Cartesian form.
6
Think
Write
Use the rule
r cis () = r(cos () + i sin ()).
5
5
5
3 cis = 3 (cos + i sin )
6
6
6
3 1
= 3
+ i
2
2
=
3
3
+
i
2 2
1

keyboard, tap:
)
Then press E.
Note: The angle symbol can be found
in 9 K.
Write the answer.
3
5 3
+
3 cis =
i
6 2
2
Multiplying and dividing in polar form

It can be easily proved by expansion that cis () cis () = cis ( + ). That is,
(cos ( ) + i sin ( ))(cos ( ) + i sin ( ))
= cos ( ) cos ( ) sin ( )sin ( ) + i sin ( ) cos ( ) + i cos ( )sin ( )
= cos ( ) cos ( ) sin ( )sin ( ) + i(sin ( ) cos ( ) + cos ( )sin ( ))
= cos ( + ) + i sin ( + )
= cis ( + )
Hence, r1cis () r2cis () = r1r2cis ( + )
It can similarly be proved that
370
r1cis ( ) r1
= cis ( )
r2 cis ( ) r2
Worked Example 23
Simplify
2
6 cis b
a 3 cis
3
3
4
8 cis
3
.
2
2 cis
3
Think
Write
a Use the rule
r1cis () r2cis () = r1r2cis ( + ).
2
+
3 cis 6 cis = 18 cis
3
3
3 3
= 18 cis ( )
= 18(cos ( ) + i sin ( ))
= 18(1 + 0)
= 18
Use the rule

r1cis ( ) r1
= cis ( ).
r2 cis ( ) r2
4
8 cis
3
4 2
= 4 cis
3
3
2
2 cis
3
2
= 4 cis
3
2
2
= 4 cos + i sin
3
3
1
3
= 4 + i
2
2
= 2 + 2 3i
REMEMBER
1. For the complex number in Cartesian form, z = x + yi, then

z = r cos () + r sin ()i
or
z = r (cos () + i sin ())
This is abbreviated to z = rcis ().
2. r = x 2 + y 2 and is represented by |z| which is the absolute value or modulus of z.
3. r1cis () r2cis () = r1r2cis ( + a)
4. r1cis ( ) = r1 cis ( )
r2 cis ( ) r2
371
exerCise
10h
review of complex numbers and polar form

of complex numbers
1
We 19 If w = 3 + i and z = 2 3i find:
a 3w
b 2z
e w 4z
i ww
f wz
j zz
d 2w + z
c w = 3(2 i)
d w=
h w
We 20 Find | w | for each of the following:
a w = 2 + 2i
3
c 1w
3
g w2
b w=3i
We 21 Express each of the following complex numbers in polar form.
a 1i
b 2i
1 1
e 2 3 + 2i
d + i
2 2
4 We 22 Express each of the following in Cartesian form.
b 3 cis ()
a 2 cis
4
d
5
3 cis
6
f 1 3i
2
c 3 cis
3
e cis
2
5
6
2 cis
We 23 Express each of the following in Cartesian form.
a 2 cis 3 cis
5
10

d cis
6
10i
1
(1 + i)
3
5
12 cis
3
20 cis
6
b 2 cis 4 cis
6
12
2
3 cis
5
e
9
2 cis
10
h
4 cis 3
7
5 3 cis 5
8 cis
6
5
32 cis
6

6 cis
4

18 cis
2
addition of ordinates,
reciprocals and squares
of simple graphs
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0977
Addition of ordinates
addition of ordinates
Addition of ordinates is a method that can be used to sketch the graph of a function whose rule
can be thought of as the sum of two functions. For example, by selecting suitable x-values, the
1
graph of y = x + x can be sketched by adding the ordinates (y-values) of the graph y = x with
1
those of the graph y = . Suitable x-values would include:
x
372
1. the endpoints of the two graphs

2. the points of intersection of the two graphs
3. the x-intercepts of either of the two graphs.
Of course, if the rules of the two functions are known, additional points can be obtained by
direct substitution.
Worked Example 24
Sketch the graph that results from the addition

1
of ordinates of the functions y = x and y = ,
x
whose graphs are shown at right.
y
3
y = 1x
y=x
2
1
3 2 1 0
1
2
3
Think
1
Add the ordinates at the LHS end points of

the graph: A small negative value and a large
negative value should give a slightly larger
negative value. Mark this point on the set
ofaxes.
Write
y
3
y = 1x
y=x
2
1
3 2 1 0
1
2
3
Add the ordinates at the first point of

intersection. Because they are the same
we simply double the y-value of this point.
Mark the point on the set of axes.
1
y y = x
3
y=x
2
1
3 2 1 0
1
2
3
At its x-intercept, the straight line graph

y = x has an ordinate of zero while the
non-linear graph has an undefined ordinate.
This indicates that our graph will also be
undefined at the point where x = 0, giving a
vertical asymptote.
Vertical asymptote at x = 0
373
Add the ordinates at the second point of

intersection. Mark the point on the set
ofaxes.
1
y y = x
3
y=x
2
1
3 2 1 0
1
2
3
5
Add the ordinates at the RHS end points of

the graph: A small positive value and a large
positive value should give a slightly larger
positive value. Mark this point on the set
ofaxes.
1
y y = x y = x
3
2
1
3 2 1 0
1
2
3
6
Join the points with a smooth curve noting

that the graph will asymptote toward the
y-axis as x approaches zero, and toward
the line y = x as x approaches positive or
negative infinity.
y
3
y = x + 1x
2
1
3 2 1 0
1
2
3
7
To perform the addition of ordinates on a CAS

calculator, open the Graph & Tab screen.
y1 = x
1
y2 =
x
1
y3 = x +
x
Tick the y1, y2 and y3 boxes and then tap $.
Note: When we are merely sketching, we judge the distances by eye, so the values of y obtained
by adding ordinates are approximate rather than exact. In addition we recognise that as the
ordinates of one graph approach zero, the y-values obtained approach those of the second graph
374
and an asymptote results. Likewise, as the ordinates of one graph approach infinity, the y-values
obtained through addition of ordinates also approach infinity resulting in a vertical asymptote.
Reciprocals and squares of simple graphs
1
When finding the square or reciprocal of simple graphs such as y = x2, y = x and y = , we obtain
x
a new graph that is distorted or transformed in a predictable way.
Sketching the reciprocal of a graph

A graph of the reciprocal of a function can be drawn by sketching the original function and
marking the reciprocal of the ordinates for each x-value. For reciprocal graphs, points with an
ordinate of 1 will be unchanged as the reciprocal of 1 is 11 , which of course equals 1. Points with
an ordinate of 1 will be unchanged for the same reason. The reciprocal of each ordinate remains
on the same side of the x-axis. For ordinates greater than 1, the reciprocal will be smaller than
1. The larger the ordinate, the closer its reciprocal will be to the x-axis (approaches0). For
ordinates between 0 and 1, the reciprocals will be greater than 1. The same also applies for
ordinates that are negative. In general, the further an ordinate is from the x-axis, the closer its
reciprocal will be to the x-axis; the closer the ordinate is to the x-axis, the further its reciprocal
will be from the x-axis.
Worked Example 25
y y = x2
3
Sketch the reciprocal of the graph of the function y = x2

shown at right.
2
1
2 1 0
1
Think
1
Write
y
Sketch the given function and draw the

horizontal line y = 1 on the same axes.
Mark any points where the ordinates of the

graph are equal to 1.
Select several points on the original graph

with ordinates greater than 1 (above the
line). Estimate their value and mark their
reciprocals below the line.
2 x
2
1
1
1 2
3
2 1
3
0
1
2
4
Select several points on the original graph

with ordinates between 0 and 1 (between the
line and the x-axis). Estimate their value and
mark their reciprocals above the line.
y
3
3 3
2 2 2
1
1 2
3
1 1
2
3
0
1
22
1
1 2
3
1
2 1
3
375

y-axis as x approaches zero, and toward the
x-axis as x approaches positive or negative
infinity.
y
3
3 3
2 2 2
1
1 1
2
3
1
1 2
3
0
1
y = x12
3
22
1
1 2
3
1
2 1
3
Alternatively, on the Graph & Tab screen,

y1 = x2
1
y2 = 2
x
Tick the y1 and y2 boxes and then tap $.
Sketching the square of a graph

The graph of the square of a function can be drawn by sketching the original function, and
marking the square of the ordinates for each x-value. Squaring the ordinates of a graph will have
two effects. Firstly, the resulting values are always positive so we need to consider marking only
the new points above the x-axis. Secondly, the new points become further away from the x-axis
in the case of ordinates greater than 1 or less than 1, and closer to the x-axis in the case of
ordinates between 1 and 1. Of course, ordinates with a value of 1 or 1 will become equal to 1
when they are squared.
Worked Example 26
Sketch the square of the graph of the function y = 2 shown below.

x
y
3
2
1
3 2 1 0
1
2
3
376
y = 2x
3 x
Think
1
Sketch the given function and draw the

horizontal lines y = 1 and y = 1 on the
sameaxes
Mark any points where the ordinates of
the graph are equal to 1 and change any
ordinates of 1 to 1. (Squaring 1 results
in1.)
Write
y
3
2
1 1
3 2 1
1
2
3
Select, estimate, and square several

ordinates between the horizontal lines
y = 1 and y = 1 marking these positive
values closer to the x-axis.
y
4
3
2
1 1
1
4
4 3 2 1
1
1
1 1
2
4
2
3
Select, estimate, and square several

ordinates outside the horizontal lines
y = 1 and y = 1 marking these positive
values further away from the x-axis.
1
1
4
9 9
9
8
7
6
5
4 4
4
3 3
2 2
1
1
4 3 2 1 0
1
1
2
2 2
3 3
4
5
1 1
2
4

y-axis as x approaches zero.
1
4
9 9
9
4
y =
8
x2
7
6
5
4 4
4
3 3
2
2
1
1
1
4 3 2 1 0
1
1
2
2 2
3 3
4
1
1 2
4
377
Alternatively, on the Graph & Tab screen,

2
y1 =
x
2
2
y2 =
x
Tick the y1 and y2 boxes and then tap $.
REMEMBER
1. Addition of ordinates is a method that can be used to sketch the graph of a function
whose rule can be thought of as the sum of two functions. It involves adding the
ordinates (y-values) of the two functions for each value of x.
2. Suitable points at which to add ordinates are:
(a) the LHS and RHS end points
(b) the points of intersection of the two graphs
(c) the x-intercepts of either of the two functions.
3. A graph of the reciprocal of a function can be drawn by sketching the original function
and marking the reciprocal of the ordinates for each x-value.
4. The graph of the square of a function can be drawn by sketching the original function
and marking the square of the ordinates for each x-value.
Exercise
10i
Addition of ordinates, reciprocals and squares

ofsimple graphs
y
1 WE24 Sketch the graph that results from
the addition of ordinates of the functions y = 2x
1
and y = , whose graphs are shown at right.
x
2 Sketch the graph that results from the addition of ordinates of
the functions y = x2 and y = 3x.
3 Sketch the graph that results from the addition of ordinates of
1
the functions y = 2x 4 and y = .
x
4 WE25 Sketch the reciprocal of the graph of the function
y = 3x2 shown at right.
y = 2x
2
y = 1x
1
3 2 1 0
1
3 x
2
3
y
y = 3x 2
1 0
378
5 Sketch the reciprocal of the graph of the function y = 2x 3.

6 Sketch the reciprocal of the graph of the function
1
y= .
2x
7 WE26 Sketch the square of the graph of the
1
function y = shown at right.
x
8 Sketch the square of the graph of the function y = x2.
9 Sketch the square of the graph of the function y = x.
y = 1x
1
1 0
1
379
Summary
y

Polar coordinates [r, ()]
where x = r cos () and y = r sin ()
y
and r = x 2 + y 2 and tan () = .
x
P(x, y)
r
Equations
Features
Circle
x2 + y2 = r2
Graph
y
Centre (0, 0), radius r
P(x, y)
y
x
(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2
y
y
Centre (h, k), radius r
P(x, y)
(y k)
(x h)
h
Ellipse (0 < e < 1)

x2 y2
+
=1
a2 b2
where
b2
a2(1
e2)
Major axis length 2a

Minor axis length 2b
Centre (0, 0)
Foci (ae, 0)
a
Directrices x =
e
x x
y
b
ae
F'
ae
P(x, y)
F
ae
a
e
D
x
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
+
=1
a2
b2
Centre (h, k)
Foci (ae + h, k)
where b2 = a2(1 e2)
Directrices x =
Parabola (e = 1)
y2 = 4ax
380
y
k+b
F'
+h
kb ha
h
h+a x
(ae+h, k)
(ae+h, k)
x = ae + h
x = ae + h
Vertex (0, 0)
Focus (a, 0)
Directrix x = a
y
D
a
P(x, y)
F
a
y
x
Equations
(y k)2 = 4a(x h)
Features
Graph
y
Vertex (h, k)
Focus (a + h, k)
Directrix x = a + h
F(h + a, k)
hah h+a
Hyperbola (e > 1)
b2 = a2(e2 1)
x2 y2
=1
a2 b2
Vertices (a, 0)
Foci (ae, 0)
where b2 = a2(e2 1)
Directrices x =
y
b
Asymptotes y =
e
b
F' a
ae ae
y = ba x
a
e
F
ae
P(x, y)
b
x = ae
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
=1
a2
b2
where b2 = a2(e2 1)
Vertices (a + h, k)
Foci (ae + h, k)
a
Directrices x =
+h
e
Asymptotes
b
yk =
( x h)
a
y = ba x
x = ae
x = ae + h
y = ba (x h) + k
x = ae + h
k+b
k
kb
F'
F
ha
h ae
h+a
h + ae
y = ba (x h) + k
Polar graphs
Polar graphs may be plotted by using a table of values and sketching by hand, or by using a
CAS calculator.
Polar form of complex numbers
For the complex number in Cartesian form z = x + yi:

z = (r cos (q) + i sin (q))
= r cis (q)
r = x 2 + y 2 = |z| which is the absolute value or modulus of z.
r1 cis (q) r2 cis (a) = r1r2 cis (q + a)

r1cis ( ) r1
= cis ( )
r2 cis ( ) r2
Addition of ordinates, reciprocals and squares of simple graphs
Addition of ordinates is a method that can be used to sketch the graph of a function whose rule can be
thought of as the sum of two functions. It involves adding the ordinates (y-values) of the two functions for
each value of x.
381
Suitable points at which to add ordinates are:

1. the LHS and RHS end points
2. the points of intersection of the two graphs
3. the x-intercepts of either of the two functions.
A graph of the reciprocal of a function can be drawn by sketching the original function and marking the
reciprocal of the ordinates for each x-value.
The graph of the square of a function can be drawn by sketching the original function and marking the
square of the ordinates for each x-value.
382
chapter review
Short answer
1 Sketch graphs of the following, clearly showing the

key features.
a x2 + y2 = 9
b (x 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 16
c
x2
+ y2 = 1
4
e y2 = 8x
g
x2 y2
=1
64 36
( x + 3)2 ( y + 1)2
+
=1
9
4
f (y + 2)2 = 16(x 5)
d
( x 4)2 ( y 1)2
=1
32
18
x2 y2
+
= 1, find:
25 16
i the length of the major axis
ii the length of the minor axis
iii the coordinates of the x- and y-intercepts
iv the eccentricity
v the coordinates of the foci
vi the equation of the directrices.
Hence, sketch the graph.
2 a For the equation

b
3 a For the equation y2 = 4(x + 1), find:

i the coordinates of the vertex
ii the coordinates of the focus
iii the equation of the directrix.
b Sketch the graph.
x2 y2
4 a For the equation
= 1, find:
144 25

i the eccentricity
ii the coordinates of the vertices
iii the coordinates of the foci
iv the equations of the directrices
v the equations of the asymptotes
b Hence, sketch the graph.
5 Plot the following polar coordinates.
a [2, ]
b [3, 120]
c [1, ]
6
5
d [5, 50]
e [1,
]
4
6 Convert the following Cartesian coordinates to
polar coordinates.
a (1, 1)
b (0, 3)
c ( 3 , 1)
d (2, 1)
e (5, 12)
7 Transform the following polar equations into

Cartesian equations.
a r = 2
b =
4
3
c r cos () = 6
d r =
1 + sin ( )
8 Transform the following Cartesian equations into
polar form.
a x2 + y2 = 25
b x = 2
c y = 2x
d 2x 3y = 5
9 Sketch the graphs of the following polar equations.
a r = 3
b =
6
1
2
c r = 3 3 cos ()
d r =
sin (3)
e r = 3 cos (2)
g r =
2
f r = 1 + 4 sin ()
h r = 5 cos ()

10 Convert to 2 cis
to Cartesian form.
4
11 Express z1 =
3 + i in polar form
Exam tip Note that this is a second quadrant
angle not a fourth quadrant angle.

incorrect answer here for q.

is a common
[Assessment report 2007]
[ VCAA 2007]
12 For the equation y = 4 x, sketch the graph on the

same set of axes as:
a its reciprocal
b its square.
Multiple choice
1 The centre of the circle with equation

(x 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 25 is:
A (1, 3)
B (3, 1)
C (1, 3)
D (1, 3)
E ( 3, 1)
2 The equation of the
y
circle at right is:
A x2 + y2 = 16
B (x 1)2 + y2 = 9
3 x
1
C x2 + (y 1)2 = 9
2
2
D (x + 1) + y = 16
E (x + 1)2 + y2 = 9
383
3 The eccentricity of the ellipse with equation

x2 y2
+
= 1 is equal to:
16 4
A
3
4
3
2
1
4
5
2
A y =
25
x
9
B y =
9
x
25
D y =
3
x
5
E y =
5
x
3
8 The graph of
C y =
x2 y2
= 1 is:
16 9
y
9
A
16
16 x
9
y
9
16 9
16
y
3
C
4
4 x
3
y
4
3
384
3
4
3
4
E 4
x2 y2
4 The foci of the ellipse with equation
+
=1
25 9
are located at:
B (5, 0)
C (4, 3)
A (4, 0)
D (5, 3)
E (0, 3)
5 The vertex of the parabola with equation
(y 1)2 = 12x is at:
A (1, 3)
B (0, 1)
C (0, 1)
D (1, 0)
E (3, 1)
6 The equation of the
y
parabola shown at right is:
A (y + 2)2 = 4(x + 2)
3
B (y 3)2 = 8(x 2)
C (y 3)2 = 4(x 2)
2 4 x
2
D (y 3) = 8(x 2)
E (y 3)2 = 4(x 2)2
x2 y2
7 The hyperbola with equation
= 1 has
asymptotes with equations: 25 9
4
5
x2 y2
9 The hyperbola with equation
= 1 has
directrices with equations: 16 9
A x =
D x =
16
5
4
B x =
E x =
9
5
5
10 The Cartesian coordinates of [6,

A (3 3 , 3)
D
1 3
,
2 2
B (3, 3 3 )
C x =
16
9
] are:
3
C (1, 3 )
E (3 2 , 3 2 )
11 The polar coordinates of (3, 0) are:

3
A [3, ]
B [3, ]
C [3, ]
2
D [ 3, 2]
E [3, 0]
12 The polar equation r = 3 sin () can be expressed in
Cartesian form as:
A x2 + y2 = 9
B x2 + y2 3x = 0
2
2
C x + y + 3y = 0
D x2 + y2 3y = 0
E y = 3
13 The Cartesian equation x + y = 0 can be expressed
in polar form as:
A r = 1
B =
C =
4
4
D r = 45
E r =
14 The graph of the polar equation r = 3 cos (4) is a
rose. The number of leaves is:
A 4
B 3
C 2
D 12
E 8
15 The maximum value of r when r = 2 + 3 sin () is:
A 1
B 5
C 2
D 3
E 6
16 If z = 2 - 3i then |z| =
C 13
A 2
B -3
E
1
D 13
17 Let u = 7cis and v = acis (b) where a and b are

4
real constants.
If uv = 42cis , then
20
B a = 35 and b =
A a = 6 and b =
5
5
1
D a = 35 and b =
C a = 6 and b =
5
5
1
E a = 6 and b =
5
[ VCAA 2005]
18 Which of the following graphs results from the

addition of ordinates of the functions y = x and
1
y = whose graphs are shown below?
x
y
y = 1x
y = x
x
x
x
x
Extended response
1 Find the exact coordinates of the points of intersection of the parabolas shown.
y
A
_ _9
2
1
2
385
2 For the hyperbola shown in the figure at right:

a state the gradient of each asymptote
b find the equations of each asymptote
x2 y2
c given that the equation of the hyperbola is
= 1,
a2 b2
state the relationship between a and b
d find the eccentricity
e find the equation of the hyperbola.
y
(1, 1)
3 A rectangle is bounded by the straight lines with equations

x = 2, x = 2a, y = b, and y = b, where a > b + 1.
a Sketch the rectangle on the Cartesian plane.
b Find the equation of the largest ellipse that can be enclosed within
the rectangle.
c Find the value of the eccentricity of the enclosed ellipse.
4 A football field designed in the shape of an ellipse (e = 0.8) has a semi-major axis of 100metres. Player P
is located on the boundary line level with the goalposts and kicks to his teammate F, a distance of 30 metres
away who happens to mark the ball directly in front of goal at the focal point.
y
P
B
F
Goalposts
a Find the distance of player P from the closest directrix D.

b Find the distance of player F from the boundary line B, directly in front of him.
c Hence, find the minimum distance player F must kick the ball in order to score.
5 A racetrack is to be designed so that its inner and outer boundaries are elliptical. The directrices of the inner
ellipse (e = 0.6) touch the ellipse that forms the outer edge of the track, while its foci are 300 metres apart.
y
Q
300 metres
D
Find the width of the track PD given that FP = 30 metres.

Find the length of the semi-major axis OP.
Find the length of the semi-minor axis OQ.
Find the equation of the inner ellipse (assuming it is centred at the origin).
Given that the track has a constant width of 50 metres, will the eccentricity of the outer ellipse be greater
than, less than, or equal to 0.6?
f Find the eccentricity of the outer ellipse.
g Find the equation of the outer ellipse.
a
b
c
d
e
386
6 Use a CAS calculator to plot the graph of the polar equation r = 3 sin () where 0 () 2.
a Explain why the graph is the same when 0 ( ) .
b By experimenting with different values for step, develop and justify an argument that polar graphs
with the general equation r = a sin ( ) are not circular.
c Determine the relationship between step and the shape of the graph obtained.
d Given that polar graphs with the general equation r = a sin ( ) are in fact circular, what assumptions are
made when an equation is determined only by inspection of its graph?
7 Find the Cartesian equation, and sketch the graph, of the smallest ellipse that passes through the point (6, 0)
and encloses the circle with the polar equation r = 4 cos (). Indicate the coordinates of the foci and the
equations of the directrices. It may be helpful to use a CAS calculator to first plot the graph of the circle.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 10
Chapter 10
387
eBook plus
aCTiviTies
Chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on linear and nonlinear graphs. (page 340)
10a
The circle
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 10.1: Practise completing the square.

(page 342)
10b
The ellipse
eLesson
Elliptical paths eles-0079: Watch an eLesson on objects

that travel in elliptical paths. (page 343)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 10.1: Sketch graphs of circles and

ellipses, noting important features. (page 347)
10C
The parabola
Tutorial
We 7 int-1072: Watch how to sketch a conical

parabola. (page 349)
10D
The hyperbola
Tutorial
We 9 int-1073: Watch how to sketch a conical

hyperbola. (page 354)
10E
Polar coordinates
Tutorial
We 12 int-1074: Watch how to convert Cartesian

coordinates to polar coordinates. (page 359)
Digital docs
SkillSHEET 10.2: Practise converting radians to

degrees. (page 359)
WorkSHEET 10.2: Sketch graphs of circles,
ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas; noting important
features. Convert between polar and Cartesian
coordinates. (page 360)
388
10G
Polar graphs
Tutorial
We 17 int-1076: Watch how to sketch a polar graph on

the calculator. (page 364)
10I
addition of ordinates, reciprocals and

squares of simple graphs
Interactivity
Addition of ordinates int-0977: Consolidate your

understanding of the technique of addition of
ordinates. (page 372)
Chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
11
11A Graphs of linear inequations

11B Graphs of simultaneous linear
inequations
11C Graphs of systems of linear inequations
11D Maximising and minimising linear
functions
11E Solving linear programming problems
11F Further applications of linear
programming
Linear
programming
AreAs oF sTudy
Graphs of linear equations and linear

inequalities
The solution of simultaneous equations by
algebraic, numerical and graphical methods
Graphical approach to solving simple

optimisation problems using linear
programming
eBook plus
11A
Graphs of linear inequations
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
What is linear programming?

Linear programming was developed during the late 1940s to assist in the organisation of military
supplies. Today it is extensively used in fields such as business, engineering, industry and social
sciences.
Linear programming is a mathematical technique used to solve real-life situations in which
a particular quantity is to be maximised or minimised for example time, money, profit
subject to given constraints or restrictions. A specific example would be maximising the profit a
company makes, subject to:
1. the number of employees
2. the number of hours they can work
3. the cost of producing goods and so on.
Linear implies that the restrictions and the quantity to be maximised or minimised follow
linear patterns. Programming means that it follows a systematic plan.
The problem below is an example of a linear programming problem.
Problem
A local manufacturer makes two types of deck chair: the deluxe and the standard.
Each chair goes through two processes: assembling and finishing. It takes 4 hours to
assemble each deluxe chair and 3 hours for each standard chair. The
finishing process takes 2 hours for each chair. The profit on
each deluxe chair is $15 and on each standard chair, $12.
If employees spend at most 48 hours on assembling
and 28 hours on finishing each week, how many
chairs of each type should be made weekly to maximise
the manufacturers profit?
Chapter 11
Linear programming
389
Mathematical formulation of the problem

1. Define the variables:
(a) Let d represent the number of deluxe chairs.
(b) Let s represent the number of standard chairs.
(c) Let P represent the profit.
2. Write the constraints as inequations in terms of the variables:
4d + 3s 48 time available for assembling chairs
2d + 2s 28 time available for finishing chairs
d 0 Since the number of chairs can not be negative

s 0 the variables d and s must be positive or zero.

3. Determine what must be maximised: the maximum profit needs to be obtained.
4. Write the function that needs to be maximised in terms of the variables:
P = 15d + 12s
From this point the problem can be solved by graphical methods, which we use later in the
chapter.
To solve linear programming problems, it is important to be able to sketch graphs of
inequalities and determine points of intersection between graphs. Once we understand this, we
can then begin to maximise and minimise linear functions and start to solve linear programming
problems like the one above.
y=
When a straight line is drawn on a plane, it divides the plane into three sets of points: the points
above the line, on the line and below the line.
The diagram on the right shows the graph of y = x. The points on
y
y>x
the line itself satisfy the equation y = x. The region above the
line represents the points that satisfy the inequation y > x, while
the region below the line represents the points that satisfy the
x
inequation y < x.
y< x
To indicate which part of the plane we want, shading is used.
Note: Throughout this chapter the following format will be used:
1. The area that is not required will be shaded.
2. The area that is required (region required) will remain unshaded.
To sketch the graph of an inequation, the following algorithm can be used:
1. For the boundary, replace the inequality sign with an equals sign and sketch the graph of the
equation thus formed.
(a)If the inequality sign was < or >, use a dotted line (to indicate that the points on the line
itself are not included).
(b)If the inequality sign was or , use a solid line (to indicate that the points on the line are
included in the region required).
2. To determine the side of the line where the required region lies:
(a) Choose any point on one side of the line (a test point).
(b) Substitute the coordinates of the test point into the inequation.
(c)If the result is a true statement, the point that was chosen belongs to the required region.
(d)If the result is not a true statement, the selected point belongs to the region that is not
required.
3. Shade the region that is not required.
4. Add the legend to your graph:
Region required
The following worked examples illustrate this concept.
390
Worked Example 1
Sketch the graph of

a y 0 b x < 6
and leave the region required unshaded.
Think
a
Write/DRAW
a
Rule a labelled set of axes including

the origin.
For the boundary, replace with = and sketch

the equation y = 0 (this is a horizontal line
which coincides with the x-axis). Since the
inequation contains , a solid line must be
drawn.
Boundary equation is y = 0.
Choose a test point on the y-axis, say

y = 6.
Test point: (0, 6)
Substitute 6 into y 0 to see if it satisfies the

inequation; that is, is 6 0? (Correct.)
Is 6 0? Yes
Since the inequation is correct, shade the side

of the line that does not contain the point.
Add the legend to the graph, indicating that the

region required is not shaded.
Region
required
Rule a labelled set of axes, including the

origin.
Sketch the equation x = 6 (a vertical line that

passes through 6 on the x-axis). Since the
inequation contains <, a broken line must be
drawn.
Boundary equation is x = 6.
Choose a test point on the x-axis, say

x = 0.
Test point: (0, 0)
Substitute 0 into x < 6 to see if it satisfies the

inequation; that is, is 0 < 6? (Correct.)
Since the inequation is correct, shade the

side of the line that does not contain the
point.
6 x
Region
required
Add the legend.

The graph in part a above is a closed half-plane defined by y 0. It is called closed since it
includes the equation y = 0. It includes the points on or above the line y = 0.
The graph in part b is an open half-plane defined by x < 6 (open since it excludes the
equation x = 6). It is the set of points to the left of the line x = 6.
Sometimes the inequation has to be transposed before sketching to make x (or y) the subject.
While transposing, keep in mind that multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequation by a
negative number changes the direction of the sign of inequality to its opposite.
Chapter 11 Linear programming
391
Worked Example 2
Sketch the graph of y + 3 < 5 and leave the required region unshaded.
Think
1
Write/DRAW
To make y the subject, subtract 3 from both sides of the

inequation.
+3<5
+33<53
y < 2
Multiply both sides of the inequation by 1.
Change the direction of the inequality sign.
Rule a labelled set of axes, including the origin.
For the boundary, sketch the equation y = 2 (a horizontal

line, passing through 2 on the y-axis). Since the
inequation contains >, a broken line must be drawn.
Boundary equation is y = 2.
Choose a point on the y-axis, say y = 0.
Test point: (0, 0)
y < 1 2
y > 2
Is 0 > 2? Yes
Substitute 0 into + 3 < 5 to see if it satisfies the

inequation; that is, is 0 > 2? (Correct.)
Since the inequation is correct, shade the side of the

line that does not contain the point.
Add the legend.
0
2
Region
required
In the following worked example, we consider the graphing of linear inequations with two
variables, x and y.
Worked Example 3
Sketch the graph of the inequation y 4x 8 and indicate the required region.
Think
Write/Draw

1
Replace with = to find the x- and y-intercepts

of the boundary.
Boundary equation is

y 4x = 8
x-intercept: y = 0
To determine the x-intercept, let y = 0.
Rule a labelled set of axes, including the origin.
To sketch the graph of the equation y 4x = 8,

mark the x- and y-intercepts on the set of axes
and join them with the straight line. Since the
inequation contains , a solid line must be drawn.
392
To determine the y-intercept, let x = 0.
To determine the region required, choose a test

point on one side of the line, say (0, 0).
0 4x = 8
4x = 8
x = 2
(2, 0)
y-intercept: x = 0
y40=8

y = 8
Test point: (0, 0)
Is 0 8? Yes
y
8
2 0
(0, 8)
8
9
Substitute the coordinates of the test point into

the inequation to see if (0, 0) satisfies it; that
is, is 0 8?
Since the inequation is correct, shade the side
of the line that does not contain the point.
y
Region
required
2 0
Add the legend.

1
Make y the subject of the inequation by adding

4x to both sides.

d
X (to select the inequality symbol)
y1 8 + 4x
Tick the box and tap $.
Indicate the required region.

Note: The calculator shades the required region.
y 4x 8
y 8 + 4x
The required region.
reMeMber
1. The graph of an inequation containing or is a closed half-plane; or indicates

that a solid line is drawn and it is included in the required region.
2. The graph of an inequation containing < or > is the open half-plane; < or > indicates
that a dotted line is drawn and it is excluded from the region required.
3. The required region is normally left unshaded; this is stated by adding the legend to the
graph:
Region required. Calculators tend to shade the required region.
4. Before sketching the inequation, it must be transposed to make the pronumeral the
subject.
5. Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequation by a negative number changes the
direction of the sign of inequality to its opposite.
6. The origin (0, 0) is the most convenient test point to use when determining the region
required, unless the straight line passes through it.
exerCise
11A
eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 11.1
Solving linear
inequations

1
We 1
unshaded.
a y2
e y>0
i x > 2
Sketch graphs to represent the following inequations. Leave the required region
b y0
f y 6
j x<1
c y > 1
g x4
k x>0
d y<6
h x0
l x 1
Chapter 11
Linear programming
393
2 WE2
Sketch graphs to represent the following inequations. Leave the required region
unshaded.
b y 2
c x > 3
d x 5
a x < 7
e y > 4
f y 3
g x + 2 > 0
h y 3 0
i x 8 < 0
j x + 4 0
k y 2 < 3
l y 6 2
3 MC The expression y > 8 is best represented by the following graph:
y
y
y
y
y
B
C
D
E
A
Region
required
Region required
8 x
0 x
Region required
Region required
Region required
4 WE3 Sketch graphs to represent these inequations. Leave the required region unshaded.
a y 2x 4
b y + x 1
c 4x + 4y 16
d y x 0
e y x + 2
f y > 2x 14
g y < 6x 24
h y 7x + 21
i x + y > 0
j y x + 7
k x > y 2
l y > 12x 24
m 3y x + 12
n 2y 4x + 6
o x y < 10
p y < x 4
q 2y > 4x 8
r 4x 2y 8
s 2x y > 1
t y x 4 < 0
u y + 2x 6 0
v 2y + 8x + 4 0
w 9x + 9y + 9 0
x 5x + 2y 10 > 0
The expression y 2x is best represented by the following graph:
5 MC
A
Region required
11b
12x
y
0
Region required
Region required
6 MC The expression
B
A y
y
x
Region required
Region required
Region required
+ 10y 60 < 0 is best represented by the following graph:

y
y
C
D
E y
6
6 x
Region required
6
x
Region required
0
x
Region required
6 x
5
Region required
Graphs of simultaneous linear

inequations
The graph of a linear equation is a straight line and the solution to a pair of simultaneous linear
equations is a point of intersection of the two lines.
The graph of a linear inequation is a half plane and the solution to a pair of simultaneous linear
inequations is the area that is common to both half planes; that is, the area of their intersection.
To find the graphical solution to a pair of simultaneous linear inequations, the following
algorithm can be used:
1. On the same set of axes sketch each of the inequations, shading the regions that are not
required.
2. The solution is represented by the area that remains unshaded, so specify this by adding a
legend to the graph (that is,
Region required).
394
Worked Example 4
Sketch the following pair of simultaneous linear inequations, determine the point of intersection and
leave the required region (that is, the solution) unshaded.
x 2, x + 2y 0
Think
1
Sketch the graph of x 2.

(a)The graph of the equation x = 2 is a vertical
line which intersects the x-axis at 2 (there is no
y-intercept). Since the inequation contains , draw
a solid line.
(b)Substitute x = 3 into x 2 to see if it satisfies the
inequation; that is, is 3 2?
(c)Since the inequation is correct, shade the side of the
line that does not contain the test point.
Write/DRAW
Boundary equation for x 2 is

x=2
Test point: (3, 0)
Is 3 2? Yes
y
0
Sketch the graph of x + 2y 0.
Boundary equation for x + 2y 0 is
(a)To sketch the graph of x + 2y = 0, first determine the

x-intercept by letting y = 0.

x + 2y = 0
x-intercept: y = 0

x+0=0

x = 0
y-intercept: x = 0

0 + 2y = 0

y = 0
If x = 4,

4 + 2y = 0

2y = 4

y = 2
(b) Determine the y-intercept by letting x = 0.

(c)Since x- and y-intercepts coincide, an alternative
point must be chosen. To obtain the alternative
point, let x or y equal any number other than 0. Say,
let x = 4.
(d)To sketch the graph of x + 2y = 0, mark the points
(0, 0) and (4, 2) on the set of axes and join them
with a straight line. (Use a solid line, since the
inequation contains the sign.)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(4, 2)
y
0
4x
(4, 2)
(e)Select any point on one side of the line, say (1, 1)

and substitute its coordinates into x + 2y 0 to see
if it satisfies the inequation; that is, is 3 0?
(f)Since the inequation is false, shade the side of the
line that contains the test point.
3
Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the

two lines.
(a)Write the given inequations as equations and label
them [1] and [2].
(b)Substitute x = 2 into equation [2].
(c) Solve for y.
Test point: (1, 1)

Is 3 0? No
y
0
4x
(4, 2)

x = 2

x + 2y = 0
2 + 2y = 0
2y = 2
y = 1
[1]
[2]
395
The solution set is (2, 1).
(d) State the coordinates of the point of intersection.

4
Write the coordinates of the point of intersection on the

graph and add the legend.
y
Region
required
0
1
(2, 1)
4x
(4, 2)
Worked exAMPLe 5
eBook plus
Sketch the following pair of simultaneous linear inequations, determine

the point of intersection and indicate the required region.
2x + 3y 6
xy3
Think
Tutorial
int-1159
Worked example 5
WriTe/drAW

1
Sketch the graph of 2x + 3y 6.
Boundary of 2x + 3y 6 is
(a) To sketch the graph of 2x + 3y = 6, first

determine the x-intercept by letting y = 0.
2x + 3y = 6
x-intercept: y = 0
2x + 0 = 6
x=3
y-intercept: x = 0
0 + 3y = 6
y=2
(c) On the set of axes mark x- and y-intercepts

and join them with a solid straight line
(since the inequation contains the sign).
(d) Substitute the coordinates of the point
(0, 0) into 2x + 3y 6 to see if it satisfies
the inequation; that is, is 0 6?
(e) Since the inequation is correct, shade the
test point.
(0, 2)
Test point: (0, 0)

Is 0 6? Yes
y
2
0
Sketch the graph of x y 3.
Boundary of x y 3 is
(a) To sketch x y = 3, first determine the

x-intercept by letting y = 0.
xy=3
x-intercept: y = 0
x0=3
x=3
(3, 0)
y-intercept: x = 0
0y=3
y = 3
(0, 3)
(c) Mark the x- and y-intercepts and join them

with a solid straight line.
396
(3, 0)
Test point: (0, 0)

Is 0 3? No
(d)Substitute the coordinates of the point

(0, 0) into x y 3 to see if it satisfies the
(e)Since the inequation is false, shade the side

of the line that contains the test point.
3
To find the point of intersection of the two lines.

(a)Write the given inequations as equations
and label them [1] and [2].
(b)To equate the coefficients of y, multiply
equation [2] by 3 and label the resulting
equation [3].
2x + 3y = 6
x y = 3
[2] 3:
3x 3y = 9
(c) Eliminate y by adding equations [1] and [3].
[1] + [3]:
2x + 3y + 3x 3y = 6 + 9
(d) Solve for x.
(e)Substitute x = 3 into either equation, say

[2], and solve for y.

3y=3
y=0
(f)State the coordinates of the point of

intersection.
Solution set is (3, 0).
[1]
[2]
[3]
5x = 15
x=3
Add to the graph the coordinates of the point

of intersection and the legend.
y
Region
required
(3, 0)

1
Make y the subject of the inequations.

d
X (to select the inequality symbol)
6 2x
y1
3
y2 x 3
Tick the boxes and tap $.
2x + 3y 6

3y 6 - 2x
6 2x

y

3
x-y3
-y 3 - x
y x - 3
[1]
[2]
397
To determine the point of intersection between

the lines, tap:
Analysis
G-Solve
Intersect
State the point of intersection.
The point of intersection between y
6 2x
and
3
y x 3 is (3, 0).
reMeMber
1. The graphical solution to a pair of simultaneous linear inequations is the region

common to both inequations.
2. To find the graphical solution of simultaneous linear inequations:
(a) Sketch each of the inequations on the same set of axes.
(b) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the two lines that form the
boundaries and add it to the graph.
(c) Add the legend to the graph to indicate that the solution (region required) is the
area that remains either unshaded or is shaded.
exerCise
11b
eBook plus
Graphs of simultaneous linear inequations

1
Sketch the graphs of the following pairs of simultaneous inequations, determine

the point of intersection and leave the required region unshaded.
a
x0
b
y2
c
x1
x + 4y 0
x+y1
xy2
d y 2x
e
y6
f
y 3
y 3x
5x + 10y 20
3x 4y 24
We5 Sketch the graphs of the following pairs of simultaneous inequations, determine the
point of intersection and leave the required region unshaded.
a 2x 3y 0
b 2x + 4y 8
c 4x + 3y 12
x + 2y 0
3x + y 3
x + 4y 4
d x + y 10
e 5x + 4y 20
f 3x + 2y 6
x y 10
xy5
3x 2y 6
g 5x + 2y 15
h 4x 6y 12
i 7x y 14
3x + 6y 18
2x + 2y 10
3x + 4y 9
j
4x y 8
k 2x + 2y 6
l 6x + y 12
14x + 2y 14
x y 4
6x 3y 6
m 4x y 2
n 3x + 3y 3
o x 5y 10
4x + y 2
2x + y 1
4x + 2y 12
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 11.2
Simultaneous
equations
398
We4
x y
2
2 3
x y
+ 2
3 2
3 MC a For the simultaneous inequations y 3 and x + 2y 6, the figure showing the correct
graphs and required region (unshaded) is:
y
y
B
C y
D y
E
A y
p 6x 3y 3
3x + 4y 4
q 8x + 4y 8
y
x 1
2
0
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 11.1
Region required
Region required
3
6
Region required
Region required
Region required
b For the simultaneous inequations 24x 12y 12 and 12x + 16y 10, the figure showing
the correct graphs and required region (unshaded) is:
y
y
y
y
y
B
C
D
E
A
5
8
1
2
5
8
5
6
Region required
11C
1
2
5
8
1
2
Region required
5
8
5
6
Region required
1
2
5
8
5
6
Region required
1
2
1
0
5
6
Region required
Graphs of systems of linear

inequations
In the previous section we discussed how to sketch the graphs of pairs of simultaneous linear
inequations. The number of inequations to be graphed simultaneously can be extended. We refer
to the groups that contain more than two inequations as systems.
The solution to a system of linear inequations is the area, common to all half-planes,
representing those inequations. Graphically, the solution is given by the region that remains
unshaded.
Worked exAMPLe 6
Sketch the following system of linear inequations and leave the required region unshaded. (Do not
calculate the coordinates of the points of intersection of the straight lines.)
x + 2y 4
[1]
2x y 3
[2]
x5
[3]
y1
[4]
Think
1
Sketch the graph of x + 2y 4.

(a) To sketch x + 2y = 4, first determine the x-intercept
by letting y = 0.
WriTe/drAW
Boundary equation for x + 2y 4 is

x + 2y = 4
x-intercept: y = 0
x+20=4
x=4
(4, 0)
y-intercept: x = 0
1 0 + 2y = 4
2y = 4
y=2
(0, 2)
Chapter 11
Linear programming
399
(c)On the set of axes mark the x- and y-intercepts

and join them with a solid straight line (since the
inequation contains a sign).
(d)Substitute the coordinates of the point (0, 0) into
x + 2y 4 to see if it satisfies the inequation; that is,
is 0 4?
Test point: (0, 0)

Is 0 4? No
2
1
x
(e)Since the inequation is false, shade the side of the

2
Sketch the graph of 2x y 3.

(a)To sketch 2x y = 3, first determine the x-intercept
by letting y = 0.
(c)Mark the x- and y-intercepts on the set of axes

and join them with a solid straight line (since the
inequation contains a sign).
(d)Substitute the coordinates of the point (0, 0) into
2x y 3 to see if it satisfies the inequation; that is,
is 0 3?
(e)Since the inequation is false, shade the side of the
(a)Sketch the graph of x = 5 (a vertical straight line
passing through 5 on the x-axis). Use a solid line, as
the inequation contains a sign.
(b)Substitute x = 0 into x 5 to see if it satisfies the
(c)Since the inequation is correct, shade the side of the
line that does not contain the test point.
Sketch the graph of y 1.
(a)Sketch the graph of y = 1 (a horizontal line, passing
through 1 on the y-axis). Use a solid line, as the
inequation contains the sign.
(b)Substitute y = 0 into y 1 to see if it satisfies the
(c)Since the inequation is false, shade the side of the
The unshaded polygon is the region required. Label the
vertices of the polygon A, B and C and add the legend
to the graph.
Boundary equation for 2x y 3 is

2x y = 3
x-intercept: y = 0

2x 0 = 3

2x = 3

x = 1.5
(1.5, 0)
y-intercept: x = 0

0y=3

y = 3
(0, 3)
Test point: (0, 0)

Is 0 3?
2
1
3
112
Boundary equation for x 5 is x = 5

y
Test point: (0, 0)

Is 0 5? Yes
2
1
3
112
5 x
Boundary equation for y 1 is y = 1

y
Test point: (0, 0)

Is 0 1?
2
1
3
112
1
3
112
5 x
Region
required
400
B
5 x
In worked example 6 a boundary polygon, ABC, has been formed.

The terminology below will be used in the sections that follow.
1. The unshaded region and the polygon are together called the feasible region. They
represent all the points that satisfy the system of linear inequalities.
2. Points A, B and C are vertices of the feasible region and can be determined by finding
the points of intersection of the relevant lines (that is, solving simultaneous equations
where necessary). The vertices are also referred to as feasible points or corner points.
REMEMBER
1. A group of simultaneous linear inequations is referred to as a system.

2. The graphical solution to the system of linear inequations is the area, common to all
half-planes, representing those inequalities. It is the region that remains unshaded.
3. The unshaded area together with the boundary polygon, formed as a result of sketching
the system of simultaneous linear inequations, is called a feasible region.
4. The vertices of the polygon are called feasible (or corner) points.
Exercise
11c
Graphs of systems of linear inequations

1 WE6 Sketch the graphs of the following systems of inequations and leave the required region
unshaded. (Do not calculate the coordinates of the points of intersection of the straight lines.)
a x 0
b x 0
c x 0
d 2x + 3y 3
y0
y0
y0
x2
x3
x2
x5
y2
y4
y6
y 7
e 6x + 5y 30
f 2x 4y 8
g 4x + y 4
h 4x + 6y 12
x 1
x4
2x + y 4
3x + y 9
y 3
y 2
y0
x0
i 8x 4y 4
j x + y 1
k 2x y 2
l x 3y 1
yx
xy1
x + 2y 1
2x y
x0
x2
x3
x 12
y6
m 4x + 3y 12
2x + 5y 10
x1
y1
q 3x + 3y 3
2x + y 1
x1
y1
y2
n 2x 3y 0
x + 2y 0
x5
y0
r 6x + 3y 12
4x + 2y 16
x0
y0
y1
o 3x + 2y 6
3x 2y 6
x0
y0
s 5x + 10y 15
6x 2y 9
x0
y0
u 3x + 5y 15
x+y8
v 6x + 3y 18
3x y 6
w x + y 9
8x 3y 24
x5
x4
x0
y0
x0
y0
y 12 x
x0
y0
y0
p 4x 2y 2
4x + y 2
x2
y2
t x + 2y 16
2x + 5y 15
x5
x0
y0
x 7x + 3y 21
y 3x
y7
x0
y0
401
MC The required region for the system of inequations x 0, y 0, 7x + 5y 35 and

2x + y 8 is:
8
7
45
Region required
8
7
45
8
7
Region required
45
8
7
Region required
8
7
45
Region required
45
Region required
MC The required region for the system of inequations x 0, y 0, 3x 8y 35 and
x + 12 y 4 is:
A
438
0 4
113 x
2
Region required
11d
48
0 4
2x
113
48
Region required
0 4
2x
113
Region required
48
0 4
2x
113
48
Region required
Region required
MC The system of inequations which best describes the graph at right is:
A
B
C
D
E
x 0, y 0, x + y 9, x + 2y 12
x 0, y 0, x + y 9, x + 2y 12
x 0, y 0, x + y 12, 2x + y 9
x 0, y 0, x + y 9, x + 2y 12
x 0, y 0, x + y 9, 2x + y 12
MC The system of inequations which best describes the graph at right is:
A
B
C
D
E
x 0, y 0, 2x + 3y 24, 2x 2y 12
x 0, y 0, 2x + 3y 24, 2x 2y 12
x 0, y 0, 2x + 3y 24, 2x 2y 12
x 0, y 0, 2x + 3y 24, 2x 2y 12
x 0, y 0, 3x + 2y 24, 2x 2y 12
Maximising and minimising

linear functions
0 4 112
3
y
9
6
x
9 12
Region required
y
8
6
6
x
12
Region required
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0978
Maximising and minimising

Linear programming is employed to maximise or minimise
linear functions
linear functions subject to the constraints given by a system of
linear inequations.
In this section we learn to maximise and minimise linear
functions using two methods: the sliding-line method and the corner-point method.
sliding-line method
To maximise/minimise linear functions using the sliding-line method:
1. Sketch the feasible region.
2. Determine the coordinates of all corner points.
3. Graph the linear function to be maximised or minimised.
4. (a) To maximise the linear function, slide the line up and find the last point the line touches in
the feasible region.
(b) To minimise the linear function, slide the line down and find the last point the line
touches in the feasible region.
402
While maximising/minimising a linear function, you will at one stage need to graph it. The
function is usually expressed in terms of x and y and needs to be transposed first to make y the
subject.
Consider the function c = 4x + 2y.
c
When transposed, it will give: y = 2 x + .
2
c
The linear function has a gradient of 2 and a y-intercept of .
2
y
c
3
If values of 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... are assigned to c, a series of parallel
y = 2x + 2
2
lines will be formed (that is, lines with the same gradient, but
1
different y-intercepts), as shown in the diagram at right.
1
2
For maximising/minimising linear functions using the sliding-line
0
method, any one of the lines shown in the diagram at right can be
c=3 x
1
c=2
2
selected to be the sliding line. The following example illustrates
c=1
c=0
the concept.
c = 1
Worked Example 7
a Sketch the system of linear inequations given by:
6x + 8y 24, x 2, x 0, y 0
and leave the required region unshaded.
b Determine the coordinates of the vertices of the feasible region.
c Determine the maximum and minimum values of R = 2x + 2y subject to the constraints above,
using the sliding-line method.
Think
a
Write/DRAW
Sketch the graph of 6x + 8y 24.

(a)To sketch the graph of 6x + 8y = 24, first
determine the x-intercept by letting y = 0.
(c)Mark the x- and y-intercepts on the set of

axes and join them with a straight line.
Since the inequation contains the sign, a
solid line must be drawn.
(d)Substitute the coordinates of the point
(0, 0) into 6x + 8y 24 to see if it satisfies
(e)Since the inequation is correct, shade the
test point.
2
a Boundary equation of 6x + 8y 24
is 6x + 8y = 24
x-intercept: y = 0
6x + 8 0 = 24
6x = 24

x = 4
y-intercept: x = 0
6 0 + 8y = 24

8y = 24

y = 3
Test point: (0, 0)
Is 0 24? Yes
y
(4, 0)
(0, 3)
Region required

(a)Sketch the graph of x = 2 (a vertical
straight line, passing through the 2 on
the x-axis). Use a solid line, since the
inequation contains a sign.
Boundary equation of x 2 is x = 2
403
(b)Substitute x = 0 into x 2 to see if it

satisfies the inequation; that is, is 0 2?
(c)Since the inequation is correct, shade the
test point.
3
Sketch the graph of y 0.

(a)Sketch y = 0 (which is actually the x-axis),
using a solid line, as the inequation
contains a sign.
(b)Choose a point on the y-axis, say y = 1, and
check that it satisfies y 0; that is, is 1 0?
test point.
Boundary equation for x 0

is x = 0
Test point: (1, 0)
Is 1 0? Yes
Boundary equation of y 0 is y = 0
y
Region required Test point: (0, 1)
Is 1 0? Yes
3
C
O
B (2, 1.5)
A
2
Transfer all of the above information onto a

graph. Label the vertices of the feasible region
A, B, C and O.
Determine the coordinates of the corner points:

read the coordinates of points O, A and C from
the graph.
The coordinates of point B can be determined

by finding the point of intersection of the lines
6x + 8y = 24 and x = 2.
Substitute x = 2 into 6x + 8y = 24 and solve
for y.
6x + 8y = 24
x = 2
State the coordinates of point B.
The solution set is B (2, 1.5).
Transpose the equation that needs to be

maximised or minimised, to make y the
subject.
404

(a)Sketch x = 0 (which is actually the y-axis),
using a solid line, since the inequation
contains a sign.
(b)Choose a point on the x-axis, say x = 1,
and check that it satisfies the inequation
x 0. That is, is 1 0?
test point.
Test point: (0, 0)

Is 0 2? Yes
Select any value of R, say, 0.
b O (0, 0), A (2, 0) and C (0, 3)
[1]
[2]

6 2 + 8y = 24
12 + 8y = 24

8y = 12

y = 1.5
R = 2x + 2y
2y = 2x + R
y = x + R
2
Let R = 0.

y = x +
y = x
0
2
Sketch the linear function y = x.
y
3
Region required
B (2, 1.5)
O A
0
2
y = x
Treat the linear function as a sliding line.

(a)To maximise the linear function, slide the
line up and find the last corner point the
line touches in the feasible region. (This
can be done easily by placing a ruler along
the line and sliding it up, parallel to the
line, until it touches the last corner
point.)
(b)To minimise the linear function, slide the
line down and find the last corner point the
line touches in the feasible corner.
y
3
Region required
Maximum
C
O
B (2, 1.5)
A
2
Minimum
Observe from the graph at which point the

maximum and minimum intercepts occur
within the feasible region.
Maximum occurs at B (2, 1.5).

Minimum occurs at O (0, 0).
Substitute the coordinates of point B into

equation R = 2x + 2y, to determine the
maximum value of R.
Rmax = 2 2 + 2 1.5
=4+3
=7
Substitute the coordinates of point O into

R = 2x + 2y to find the minimum value of R.
Rmin = 2 0 + 2 0
=0+0
=0
Corner-point method
To maximise/minimise linear functions using the corner-point method:
1. Sketch the feasible region.
2. Determine the coordinates of all corner points.
3. Apply the corner point method by substituting coordinates of each corner point into the linear
function which is to be maximised or minimised.
4. Select maximum and minimum values.
Using worked example 9, substitute the values of each corner point into the equation
R = 2x + 2y and then select the maximum and minimum values.
Corner point
R = 2x + 2y
O (0, 0)
20+20
A (2, 0)
22+20
2 2 + 2 1.5
20+23
B (2, 1.5)
C (0, 3)
(Minimum)
(Maximum)
405
Worked exAMPLe 8
eBook plus
a Sketch the following system of linear inequations and indicate the required region.
x + y 10, y x 4, y 2x + 1, x 0, y 0
b Determine the coordinates of the vertices of the feasible region.
c Determine the maximum and minimum values of z = 3x y subject to the
above constraints, using the corner-point method.
Think
Tutorial
int-1160
Worked example 8
WriTe

a
Determine the intercepts for [1], [2]

and [3].
Sketch all graphs.
Find the required region for each

inequation by using a test point.
Transfer all of the information onto
the graph. Label the vertices of the
feasible region A, B, C, D and O.
For the boundary equations, replace

the inequality signs with an = sign in
each inequation and label the resulting
equations [1], [2], [3], [4] and [5].
Read the coordinates of points O, A

and D from the graph.
Find point B.
(a) The coordinates of point B can be
determined by solving equations [1]
and [3] simultaneously: substitute [3]
into [1].
(b) Solve for x.
(c) Substitute x = 3 into equation [3]
to find the value of y.
(d) State the coordinates of the point B.
406
Find point C.
(a) To obtain the coordinates of the
point C, solve equations [1] and [2]
simultaneously.
(b) Substitute [2] into [1].
a x + y = 10
y=x4
y = 2x + 1
x=0
y=0
x + y = 10
x-intercept: y = 0, x = 10
y-intercept: x = 0, y = 10
y=x4
y = 2x + 1
x-intercept: y = 0, x = 0.5
y
10
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
(10, 0)
(0, 10)
(4, 0)
(0, 4)
(0.5, 0)
(0, 1)
Region
B required
1 A D
12 O 4
4
C
10 x
b O (0, 0), A (0, 1) and D (4, 0)
x + y = 10
y = 2x + 1
x + 2x + 1 = 10
3x + 1 = 10
3x = 9
x=3
y=23+1
y=7
The solution set is B (3, 7).
x + y = 10
y=x4
x + x 4 = 10
[1]
[3]
[1]
[2]
(d)Substitute x = 7 into equation [2]

to find the value of y.

y=74

y=3
The solution set is C (7, 3).
(e)State the coordinates of the

point C.
c
2x 4 = 10
2x = 14
x=7
(c) Solve for x.
Substitute the coordinates of each corner

point into the linear function, z, to
determine its maximum and minimum
values.
Select maximum and minimum

values of z.
zmin = 1
zmax = 18

a 1 Make y the subject of the first
inequation and write the others.
a x + y 10

d (to change to the appropriate
inequality)
y1 10 x
y2 x - 4
y3 2x + 1
x4 0
y5 0
Tick the boxes and tap $.
To determine the points of

intersection between the lines, tap:
Analysis
G-Solve
Intersect
Select the required equations by using
the arrow up/down and then E.
Repeat for each pair of lines and state
the points of intersection.
Corner point
O (0, 0)
A (0, 1)
B (3, 7)
C (7, 3)
D (4, 0)
z = 3x y
300
301
337
373
340
z
0
1
2
18
12
(vertex A)
(vertex C)
y 10 - x[1] x 0 [4]
y x - 4[2] y 0 [5]
y 2x + 1[3]

b
The points of intersection are: (3, 7), (7, 3), (4, 0).
407
To determine the points of

intersection between the line x = 0
and y = 2x + 1, substitute the value
x = 0 into the equation y = 2x + 1.
To determine the maximum and

minimum values, on the Main screen,
3x y W z
z|x=0|y=0
z|x=0|y=1
z|x=3|y=7
z|x=7|y=3
z|x=4|y=0
Write the maximum and minimum

values of z.
y = 2x + 1
x = 0 y = 2(0) + 1
y=1
That is the point (0, 1).
From the graph, (0, 0) is also a corner point.
c
zmin = 1
zmax = 18
at (0, 1)
at (7, 3)
The linear function to be maximised or minimised is often referred to as the objective function.
The maximum or minimum values of the objective function always occur at a corner point
(vertex) of the feasible region.
reMeMber
1. To maximise/minimise a linear (objective) function:

(a) Sketch the feasible region.
(b) Determine the coordinates of all corner points.
(c) Apply the sliding-rule method by drawing a graph of the objective function and
moving a ruler up or down along it. The last corner point of the feasible region to
be passed gives the maximum or minimum value of the objective function.
2. Alternatively, apply the corner-point method by substituting the coordinates of each
corner point into the objective function and selecting minimum and/or maximum value(s).
exerCise
11d
eBook plus
Digital docs
SkillSHEET 11.3
Vertices of
feasible regions
SkillSHEET 11.4
Sliding-line
method
408
Maximising and minimising linear functions

1
We7 For each of the following systems of inequations:
i Sketch the system of inequations and indicate the required region.

ii Determine the coordinates of the vertices (corner points) of the feasible region.
iii Determine the maximum or minimum value (as specified) of the objective function for
the given constraints, using the sliding-line method.
a Maximise z = x y subject to x 0, y 0, x 4, y 6.
b Minimise z = x + 3y subject to x 0, y 0, y x, y 7.
c Maximise z = x + 2y subject to x 0, y 0, y x, x 5.
d Maximise z = 4x + 6y subject to x 0, y 0, x + y 4, 3x + 8y 24.
e Minimise z = 3x 6y subject to x 0, y 0, 2x + 2y 8, 6x + 8y 30.
f
g
h
i
j
eBook plus
Digital docs
Spreadsheet 068
Linear
programming
SkillSHEET 11.5
Corner-point
method
Maximise z = 0.8x + 1.2y subject to x 0, y 0, x 4y 10, 2x + 7y 28.

Minimise z = 9x + 3y subject to x 0, y 0, 2x + 3y 18, 3x + 4y 30.
Maximise z = 3x + y subject to x 0, y 0, 5x + 2y 20, x 3, y 9.
Minimise z = x + y subject to x 0, y 0, 2x + y 3, 6x 3y 12, 3x + 3y 15.
Maximise z = 3x + 4y subject to x 0, y 0, 2x + y 9, 3x 5y 12, x 6, y 10.
We8 For each of the following systems of inequations:
i Sketch the system of inequations and indicate the required region.

ii Determine the coordinates of the vertices (corner points) of the feasible region.
iii Determine the maximum or minimum value (as specified) of the objective function for
the given constraints, using the corner-point method.
a Minimise z = 2x + y subject to x 0, y 0, x + y 3, 4x + 7y 28, 2x + 8y 0, x 6.
b Maximise z = 2x + y subject to x 0, y 0, x + y 8, y 2.
c Minimise z = 5x y subject to x 0, y 0, x 6, x y 8.
d Minimise z = 3x + 4y subject to x 0, y 0, x + y 4, x y 4, x 8.
e Maximise z = 1.8x + 2.2y subject to x 0, y 0, x 10, y 7, 1 x + y 8.
2
f
g
h
i
j
3
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 11.2
11e
Minimise z = 0.7x 0.3y subject to x 0, y 0, 2x y 4, 3x + 4y 36, y 5.

Maximise z = 1.5x + 2.7y subject to x 0, y 0, 5x 6y 30, x + y 10, y 6.
Minimise z = 3.2x 1.4y subject to x 0, y 0, 7x + 4y 28, 4x + 2y 16, x + y 14.
Maximise z = 7x 3y subject to x 0, y 0, 2x + y 9, 2x + 6y 18, x y 3.
Minimise z = 9.2x 5.1y subject to x 0, y 0, 15x + 6y 30, 6x 4y 36,
y 7, x 4.
a The minimum value of the equation z = x y subject to x 0, y 0, x 7, y 8 is:

D 1
E 1
A 0
B 7
C 8
b The maximum value of the equation z = 2x + 5y subject to x 0, y 0, y 4,
2x + 4y 24 is:
A 40
B 16
C 28
D 20
E 0
c The maximum value of the equation z = 5x 7y subject to x 0, y 0, x + y 4, 3x + 9y
24 is:
A 18.9
B 28
C 4
D 20
E 32
d The minimum value of the equation z = 10x 4y subject to x 0, y 0, 7x + 4y 14,

8x 8y 16, x 3 is:
A 5
B 14
C 28
D 20
E 20
MC
solving linear programming

problems
The techniques developed earlier in this chapter can now be employed to solve linear
programming problems. For the purpose of this course, all problems will involve exactly two
variables. It is important to note that linear programming problems involve only and signs;
therefore, when graphing inequalities, only solid lines will be used.
To solve linear programming problems, use the following algorithm:
1. Define the variables.
2. Write the inequations (constraints) in terms of the variables.
3. Determine what must be maximised or minimised. This is called the objective function.
4. Write the objective function in terms of the variables.
5. Draw the graph of each constraint and obtain the feasible region (unshaded region).
6. Obtain the coordinates of the corner points.
7. Employ the sliding-line method or the corner point method to obtain the maximum or
minimum value of the objective function.
Chapter 11
Linear programming
409
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
eBook plus
Bright Spark Enterprises Pty Ltd

produces two types of computer games,
A and B. The company is contracted to
produce at least 20 type-A games and at
least 60 type-B games each week.
The factory can produce a maximum
of 120 games per week. The profit on
type-A games is $10 and the profit on
type-B games is $15. How many of each
game should be produced each week so
as to make the greatest weekly profit,
assuming all games produced can be sold?
THINK
1
Write the inequations (constraints) in terms of

the variables:
(a) The number of type-A games produced
should be 20 or more.
(b) The number of type-B games produced
should be 60 or more.
(c) The total production can not exceed
120 games.
Tutorial
int-1161
Worked example 9
WRITE
Let x = number of type-A computer games produced.

Let y = number of type-B computer games produced.
x 20
y 60
x + y 120
Determine what must be maximised or

minimised.
Express the objective function in terms of the

variables x and y.
Find the required region for x + y 120.

(a) To sketch the graph of x + y = 120,
determine the x-intercept and the
y-intercept.
(b) Substitute the coordinates of the point
(0, 0) into x + y 120 to see if it satisfies
Boundary for x + y 120

is x + y = 120
Test point: (0, 0)
Is 0 120? Yes
Find the required region for x 20.
Test point for x 20: (0, 0)

Is 0 20? No
Find the required region for y 60.
Test point for y 60: (0, 0)

Is 0 60? No
Transfer all of the above information onto the

graph. Label the corner points.
Maximum profit (P) required.

P = 10x + 15y
y
120
60
Region
required
B
0 20
410
120 x
(120, 0)
(0, 120)
Determine the points of the feasible region.

(a) Point A: Read the coordinates of the
point of intersection of the horizontal and
vertical lines from the graph.
A (20, 60)
(b) Point B: Solve x + y = 120 and y = 60

simultaneously; substitute y = 60 into
x + y = 120 and solve for x.
x + y = 120
y = 60
x + 60 = 120
x = 60
B (60, 60)
x + y = 120
x = 20
20 + y = 120
y = 100
(c) State the coordinates of point B.

(d) Point C: solve x + y = 120 and x = 20
simultaneously; substitute x = 20 into
x + y = 120 and solve for y.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
(e) State the coordinates of point C.
C (20, 100)
10
Employing the corner-point method,

substitute the coordinates of the corner points
into the objective function P.
P = 10x + 15y
At A (20, 60)
At B (60, 60)
At C (20, 100)
11
Select the maximum value of P.
Pmax = 1700 at C (20, 100)
12
Relate the answer to the original question.
A maximum profit of $1700 will be obtained when

20 type-A and 100 type-B games are produced.
P = 10 20 + 15 60 = 1100
P = 10 60 + 15 60 = 1500
P = 10 20 + 15 100 = 1700
reMeMber
To solve linear programming problems:

1. define the variables
2. write the constraints in terms of the variables
3. define the objective function
4. draw the graphs of the constraints to obtain the feasible region (use solid lines only)
5. find the coordinates of the corner points
6. use either the sliding-line or the corner-point method to find the maximum or
minimum value of the objective function.
exerCise
11e
eBook plus
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 068
Linear
programming
solving linear programming problems

1
We9 For a semester project, Cathys Business Management Team produces two styles of
sundial clock. Each clock is made from an old vinyl record. The team is able to produce up to
24 clocks weekly. A minimum of 5 style-A and 3 style-B clocks are ordered each week. The
profit on style-A clocks is $2 and the profit on style-B clocks is $3.
a To obtain a maximum weekly profit, how many of each style of clock should be produced
each week?
b Assume all clocks produced can be sold. What is the maximum weekly profit?
Chapter 11
Linear programming
411
2 Katrina and Erin design two types of

tracksuit for Right-on-Track sportswear.
Design A requires 2 m of material while
design B requires 3 m of material. The
total amount of material available each
day is 60 m. At least 3 of design-A and at
least 4 of design-B tracksuits must be
produced each day to satisfy orders.
Design-A tracksuits are sold at a profit of
$5 while design-B tracksuits are sold at a
profit of $6.50.
a To obtain a maximum daily profit,
how many tracksuits of each design
should be produced each day?
b Assume all tracksuits produced can be sold. What is the maximum daily profit?
3 Active-8 Enterprises hires out rollerblades and bicycles along the bay. Each day the company
supplies at least 15 pairs of rollerblades, and a minimum of 5 but no more than 25 bicycles. No
more than 40 pairs of rollerblades and bicycles are hired on any particular day. The profit on
hiring out a pair of roller-blades is $4 and the profit on hiring out a bicycle is $3.
a To obtain a maximum daily profit, how many pairs of rollerblades and how many bicycles
should be hired out each day?
b What is the maximum daily profit?
4 Squeaky Clean soap manufacturers produce two brands of liquid soap. To meet demand, at
least 20 litres of brand A and at least 14 litres of brand B must be produced. Due to other
factors the manufacturers are able to produce a maximum of 80 litres. The profit on brand A is
$20 and the profit on brand B is $24.
a To obtain a maximum profit, how much of brand A and B should be produced?
b What is the maximum profit?
5 The Sweat It Out Gymnasium offers its participants aerobic classes and circuit classes. At least
25 aerobic classes and at least 9 circuit classes must be held each week. The gym is able to
offer a maximum of 45 classes per week. Aerobic classes produce a profit of $6 while circuit
classes produce a profit of $4.
a In order to obtain a maximum profit, how many aerobic and circuit classes should be held
each week?
6 Jillaroos Adventures factory manufactures two types of tent: a 2-person tent and a 3-person
tent. To meet demand, the factory manufactures at least eighteen 2-person and at least eighteen
1
3-person tents each week. The 2-person tent takes 1 2 hours and the 3-person tent takes
1
2 2 hours to make. The equipment needed to produce the tents can be used for a maximum
of 75 hours per week. Two-person tents return a profit of $24 while 3-person tents return a
profit of $28.
a How many of each type of tent should be produced weekly to obtain the maximum profit?
7 It-Will-Print manufactures bubble jet and laser printers. To meet demand the company must
produce a minimum of 5 laser printers, and the total of printers must be, at most, 25 each week.
A bubble jet printer takes 2 hours to make and a laser printer takes 3 hours. Due to power
restrictions the manufacturing plant can operate for only 60 hours per week. Bubble jet printers
return a profit of $12 while laser printers return a profit of $15.
a How many of each type of printer should be produced weekly to obtain the maximum
profit?
412
8 A farmer decides to divide his

land into two sections and plant
corn and peas. He has 80 hectares
of land available and must devote
at least 10 hectares to peas and at
least 10 hectares to corn. At
harvest time it takes 1 hour per
hectare to collect the corn and
3 hours per hectare to collect the
peas. The maximum time
available for collecting the crops
is 120 hours. He can make a
profit of $180 per hectare of corn
and $160 per hectare of peas.
a How much of each crop should be sown to obtain a maximum profit?
9 Peters task as the new assistant manager at Sureway supermarket is to decide how to achieve
maximum profit from sales on two brands of fruit juice. He notes that, on any given day, fruit
juice sales are greater than 70 litres but less than 90 litres. Peter also notices that Natures Own
fruit juice sales are equal to or greater than generic brand sales, and that at least 10 litres of
generic brand juice is sold daily.
a How many litres of each type of juice should be sold for maximum profit if the profit on
Natures Own fruit juice is $2.50/L while the profit on the generic brand is $1.20/L?
10 Sandra and Loretas Shantai resort has been redesigned specifically to cater for tourists and
people attending business conventions. It is able to cater for a minimum of 360 guests and a
maximum of 510 on a monthly basis. The number of tourists is always greater than the number
of people at the conventions but never double the people attending the conventions. The profit
made per tourist per month is $15 while the profit made per businessperson per month is $18.
a How many tourists and businesspeople should the hotel cater for each month to make a
maximum profit?
11 Mathematically Minded Limited produces 3-D puzzles and logic games. It takes 3 hours to
produce the parts of a batch of twenty 3-D puzzles and 2 hours to produce the parts of a batch
of twenty logic games. The minimum time available for production of these items is 12 hours.
A batch of 3-D puzzles takes 1 hour to assemble while a batch of logic puzzles takes 2 hours
to assemble. A maximum of 10 hours is allocated to assembling the games. The packaging
of a batch of 3-D puzzles and a batch of logic games requires 1 and 2 hours respectively. The
minimum time allocated for the packing of these items is 8 hours.
a How many of each item should be made to minimise costs if the overhead cost of each
3-D puzzle is $1.80 while the overhead cost of each logic game is $1.25?
b What is the minimum cost?
12 A refrigerator manufacturer makes two models of refrigerator: Arctic Snow and Cool Breeze.
The manufacturers are able to produce up to 40 Arctic Snow and 50 Cool Breeze models per
fortnight, and production must not exceed 80 models (per fortnight). Each Arctic Snow model
requires 12 hours to make and each Cool Breeze model takes 10 hours. The factory is able to
operate for a maximum of 840 production hours per fortnight. Arctic Snow is able to generate
a profit of $200 and Cool Breeze is able to generate a profit of $110.
a How many of each model should be manufactured to obtain a maximum profit?
c If the profit generated by Arctic Snow was $140 (and the profit on Cool Breeze remained
the same), would the number of each model made still produce the maximum profit?
413
13 Zorko Industries has produced two new cement products: CP1 and CP2. Each 50-kg bag of
the cement products consists of specific amounts of substances a, b and c (in units per bag)
according to the table shown below:
Product
CP1
20
20
15
CP2
25
15
10
The amounts of substances a, b and c available are 400, 300 and 210 units, respectively. Each
50-kg bag of CP1 yields a profit of $45 and each 50-kg bag of CP2 yields a profit of $50.
a Let x represent the number of bags of CP1 and let y represent the number of bags of CP2.
Explain why.
b Given that 20x + 25y 400, write two similar constraints on x and y.
c There are two other constraints. What are they?
d What is the objective function?
e What is the maximum profit (to the nearest dollar)?
14 MC Elio is commissioned to paint still-lifes and abstracts for the local gallery. He must
produce a minimum of 20 pieces for an upcoming exhibition. It takes him on average 10 hours
to paint a still-life and 6 hours to paint an abstract, and the maximum time he has to spend on
his paintings is 180 hours.
If s represents still-lifes and a represents abstracts, the inequations for this information are:
A a 0, s 0, s + a 20, 10s + 6a 180
B a 0, s 0, s + a 20, s 10, a 6, s + a 180
C a 0, s 0, s + a 180, 10s + 6a 20
D s 10, a 6, s + a 180, 10s + 6a 20
E s 10, a 6, s + a 20, 10s + 6a 180
15 MC The feasible region (unshaded region) for the previous problem can best be defined by
the graph:
A
B a
a
30
20
20
0 18
30
20
Region required
30
Region required
30
20
6
0 10 18 20 s
30
20
20
0 18
Region required
20
0 18
20
s
Region required
20
0 18
Region required
16 Sonic Boom Sound Systems has developed a new product and needs to organise a research
team to run a series of tests.
The team is to comprise experienced engineers (e) and
training technicians (t). The team is to consist of no more
than 8 people, and at least 2 engineers but no more than
6 engineers, and at least 1 but no more than 5 technicians.
The number of engineers must be greater than the number
of technicians.
A minimum of 18 tests need to be conducted on the
product in a week. Engineers are able to conduct 5 tests
per week and technicians 3. Engineers are paid $450 per
week while technicians are paid $250.
a How many engineers and technicians should be chosen
to keep wages to a minimum?
b What is the minimum weekly wage bill?
414
11f
Further applications of linear

programming
In this section we consider more-complex linear programming problems. Although you might
find it harder to write the constraints and to define the objective function, the technique of
solving these problems is exactly the same as the one discussed in the previous section.
Worked Example 10
The dietitian of the local football club purchases two types of powdered food products for her team.
The nutritional contents of the two products per 250 g are listed in the table below:
Component
Product A
Product B
Carbohydrates
25 g
30 g
Fat
2g
4g
Protein
15 g
10 g
The teams minimum daily requirements of carbohydrates, fat and protein are 30 g, 4 g and 15 g
respectively. If product A costs 50 cents per 250 g and product B costs 60 cents per 250 g, how much
of each type should be used to supply the teams daily nutritional requirements at the least cost?
Think
Write
Let x = the amount of product A

(in units of 250 g)
y = the amount of product B
(in units of 250 g)
Write the inequations (constraints) in terms of the

variables.
25x + 30y 30
2x + 4y 4
15x + 10y 15

x0

y0
Determine what must be maximised or minimised.

Express the objective function in terms of the
variables.
Minimum cost required.

C = 0.50x + 0.60y
For boundary equations, replace the sign in the

constraints with the = sign and label the resulting
equations [1] to [5].
Boundary equations:
25x + 30y = 30
2x + 4y = 4
15x + 10y = 15

x = 0

y = 0
Determine the intercepts for [1], [2] and [3].
25x + 30y = 30
x-intercept: y = 0, x = 1.2
2x + 4y = 4
15x + 10y = 15
y-intercept: x = 0, y = 1.5
4
5
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
(1.2, 0)
(0, 1)
(2, 0)
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(0, 1.5)
415
Sketch all graphs.

(a)Sketch the graphs of the equations [1], [2]
and [3] by marking their respective x- and
y-intercepts on the set of axes and joining them
with a straight line.
(b)Sketch the graphs of the equations [4] and [5]
these are the x- and y-axes.
Find the required region for 25x + 30y 30.
(a)Substitute the coordinates of the point (0, 0)
into 25x + 30y 30 to see if it satisfies the
For 25x + 30y 30,

Test point: (0, 0)
Is 0 30? No
(b)Since the inequation is incorrect, shade the

side of the line that contains the test point.
9

(a)Substitute the coordinates of the point
(0, 0) into 2x + 4y 4 to see if it satisfies the
For 2x + 4y 4,
Test point: (0, 0)
Is 0 4?

10
For 15x + 10y 15,
(a)Substitute the coordinates of the point (0, 0)

into 15x + 10y 15 to see if it satisfies the
Test point: (0, 0)

Is 0 15?

11
12
Find the required region for x 0.
For x 0,
(a)Choose a point on the x-axis, say x = 1, and

check that it satisfies the inequation x 0. That
is, is 1 0?
Test point: (1, 0)

Is 1 0? Yes
(b)Since the inequation is correct, shade the side

of the line that does not contain the test point.
Find the required region for y 0.
(a)Choose a point on the y-axis, say y = 1, and
check that it satisfies the inequation y 0.
That is, is 1 0?
(b)Since the inequation is correct, shade the side
of the line that does not contain the test point.
13
Transfer all of the above information onto a graph.

Label the corner points.
14
Determine the coordinates of the corner points of

the feasible region.
(a)Read the coordinates of the points A and C
from the graph.
(b)The coordinates of point B can be
determined by solving equations [2] and [3]
simultaneously. Write equations [2] and [3].
416
For y 0,
Region
required Test point: (0, 1)
1.5 A
B
1
Is 1 0? Yes
C
0
1 1.2 2
A (0, 1.5) and C (2, 0)

2x + 4y = 4
15x + 10y = 15
[2]
[3]
Multiply equation [2] by 2.5 and call the

resultant equation [6].
Subtract equation [6] from [3] and solve for x.
Substitute x = 0.5 into equation [2] and

solve for y.
[2] 2.5:
(2x + 4y = 4) 2.5
5x + 10y = 10
[6]
[3] [6]:
15x + 10y (5x + 10y) = 15 10
10x = 5
x = 0.5
Substituting x = 0.5 into [2]:
2 0.5 + 4y = 4
1 + 4y = 4
4y = 3
y = 0.75
Write the coordinates of point B.
(0.5, 0.75)
15
Employing the corner point method, substitute the

coordinates of the corner points into the objective
function C.
C = 0.50x + 0.60y
At A (0, 1.5)
C = 0.50 0 + 0.60 1.5
= 0.90
At B (0.5, 0.75) C = 0.50 0.5 + 0.60 0.75
= 0.70
At C (2, 0)
C = 0.50 2 + 0.60 0
= 1.00
16
Select the minimum value of C.
Cmin. = 0.70 at B (0.5, 0.75)
17
Relate the answer to the original question:

(a) We used x to denote the amount of product A
in 250 g units. Find the amount of product A
in grams.
(b) We used y to denote the amount of product B
in 250 g units. Find the amount of product B
in grams.
(c) Write the answer to the problem in words.
Amount of product A = 0.5 250

= 125 g
Amount of product B = 0.75 250
= 187.5 g
A minimum cost of $0.70 will be spent by
using 125 grams of product A and 187.5 grams
of product B.
reMeMber
In practical problems involving time, number of items and so on, variables cannot take
negative values. Therefore, in linear programming, variables such as x and y are always
positive or 0; that is, x 0 and y 0.
exerCise
11F
eBook plus
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 068
Linear
programming
Further applications of linear programming

Solve the following linear programming problems, applying skills learned in the previous
exercises.
1
We10 A rug cleaning service has designed a revolutionary treatment which involves two
chemicals, A and B. Each of these chemicals contains (among other components) different
amounts (in units per kg) of substances a, b and c as shown in the table on the next page.
Chapter 11
Linear programming
417
Number of units (per kg)

Substance
Chemical A
Chemical B
10
12
The minimum amounts of substances a, b and c required are 20, 6 and 18 units, respectively.
One kilogram of chemical A costs the company $16, while 1 kg of chemical B costs the
company $22. What is the minimum possible cost (to the nearest dollar) of the treatment if
both chemicals must be used?
2 Smelters Steel Works manufactures two types of steel
rod: type A and type B. Steel rod A takes 2 hours to make
while steel rod B takes 4 hours to make. For optimal plant
utilisation, the machine press used to make the rods must
operate for a minimum of 56 hours over a 1-week period.
At least 6 of each type of rod must be made weekly but no
more than 16 of steel rod A and no more than 10 of steel
rod B can be made per week.
a If the profit on steel rod A is $300 and the profit on
steel rod B is $900, how many rods of each type must
be manufactured to obtain a maximum profit?
b What will be the maximum profit?
3 A clothing manufacturer makes two styles of uniform:
style A and style B. Each uniform needs to be sewn,
pressed and packaged. Each style-A uniform requires
5 minutes for sewing, 6 minutes for pressing and
3 minutes for packaging. Each style-B uniform requires 8 minutes for sewing, 12 minutes for
pressing and 3 minutes for packaging. The profit on each style-A uniform is $7 and $12 on
each style-B uniform. The times required for the sewing, pressing and packaging, at most, are
480, 600 and 450 minutes respectively.
a Specify the variables.
b Write the 5 constraints.
c Specify the objective function.
d Determine how many uniforms of each style should be made each day to maximise the
manufacturers daily profit.
e What is the maximum daily profit?
4 The members of a local football team require a diet which provides them with the daily
minimum requirements of essential vitamins A, B and C. The daily minimum requirements
are 36 units of A, 12 units of B and 8 units of C (per kilogram). These requirements could
be met if two products, Zest and Boom, were combined. The amounts of vitamins (in units
per kilogram) are shown in the table below:
Product
Zest
12
Boom
a How many kilograms of products Zest and Boom should be used to keep costs to a
minimum, given that product Zest costs $4.80 per kilogram and product Boom costs
$3.50 per kilogram?
b What is the minimum cost?
418
5 Luxurious Limousine Services offer two types of chauffeured limousine package: the Gold
Pass and the Classic. The number of Gold Pass packages ranges from 140 to 200 while the
number of Classic packages ranges from 80 to 120. Gold Pass packages are at least twice as
popular as Classic packages. A profit of $20 is made on each Gold Pass ride while a profit of
$10 is made on each Classic ride.
a Which combination of chauffeur-driven rides will yield a maximum profit?
6 Let It Grow industries have been developing a new type of fertiliser in their two production
plants. The fertiliser requires 3 ingredients: I1, I2 and I3. The amounts of these ingredients
(in units per tonne) available at each plant are provided in the table below:
Production plant
I1
I2
I3
Plant A
Plant B
10
A minimum amount of 15 units of I1 is available while a maximum of 27 and 50 units

of I2 and I3, respectively, are available. Plant A yields a profit of $270 per day and plant B
yields a profit of $500.
a How many tonnes of fertiliser should be produced daily at each plant to yield a maximum
profit?
419
Summary
The graph of an inequation containing a or sign is a closed half-plane; a solid line indicates that the
points on the line are included in the region required.
The graph of an inequation containing a < or > sign is an open half-plane. The points on the line are not
included in the region required. This is indicated by using a dotted line.
To find which side of the line contains points that make the inequation a true statement, a test point is used.
The required region may be shaded or unshaded and each graph must include a legend.
The graphical solution to a pair of simultaneous linear inequations is given by the intersection of the two
half-planes which represent those inequations.
Graphs of systems of linear inequations
A group of simultaneous linear inequations is called a system.

The graphical solution to the systems of linear inequations is given by the area common to all half-planes
representing those inequations.
The region required together with the boundary polygon is called the feasible region.
The vertices of the polygon (feasible region) are referred to as feasible points or corner points.
Solving linear programming problems
To solve linear programming problems:

1. Define the variables.
2. Write the constraints (inequations) in terms of the variables.
3. Define the objective function (the linear function to be minimised or maximised).
4. Obtain the feasible region by sketching graphs of the constraints.
5. Find the coordinates of the corner points.
6. Use either the sliding-line or corner-point method to find the maximum/minimum value of the objective
function.
Only solid lines are used when sketching the constraints.
In linear programming, variables always take positive values or 0.
420
chapter review
Short answer
1 Sketch the graphs to represent the following

inequations. Leave the required region unshaded.
a 3 x 0
b y + 1 < 2
c 3x 2y 6
Exam tip Use a point either side of the line to
find the required region.
2 Sketch the graphs of the following pair of

simultaneous inequations and leave the required
region unshaded.
2y + 5x 6
1

x 2y 4
3 The unshaded region ABC on the graph below is
the solution set for a system of three simultaneous
linear inequations. Find the three inequations.
y
A
400
7 a Maximise the objective function D = 4x + 5y,

subject to the system of inequations shown in
the graph below.
y
A
(0, 3)
0
400
200
Region required
4 The unshaded region OABCD on the graph below

is the solution set for a system of five simultaneous
linear inequations. Find the five inequations.
y
600
B
400 A
C
O D
400 0 300 600x
300
Region required
5 Graph the region required for the following systems

of inequations and specify all corner points.
a x 0, y 0, 3y 2x 7 and 2y + 5x 10
b x 0, y 0, 6x + 8y 24 and 8x + 12y 48
6 Graph the region required for the following system
of inequations:
x 0, y 0, 2y 6x 12, 2y + 4x 14 and
2y 2x 2
a Specify each of the corner points.
b If the profit is given by P = 5x + 4y, determine the
maximum profit subject to the above constraints.
(8, 2)
C
x
Region required
Exam tip Use the outer points to substitute into
the equation D = 4x + 5y to find the maximum value.
b Minimise the objective function C = 6x 2y,

subject to the system of inequations shown in
the graph below.
y
B
C
B
(6, 6)
(2, 6)
B
A
(1, 5)
(6, 2)
D
(4, 0)
Region required
8 For which values of x and y will the objective

function P = 10x + 12y be a minimum, subject to:

2x + 6y 24

2x + 4y 18

x0

y 0?
9 For which values of x and y will the objective
function C = 100x + 1200y be a maximum, subject to:

7x + 5y 35

5x + 10y 34

x2

x0

y 0?
10 A local factory produces runners and walking
shoes. It is able to produce a minimum of 400 pairs
of runners and 350 pairs of walking shoes and
must meet the weekly demand of up to 900 pairs of
shoes altogether. The profit on a pair of runners is
$12.50 and on a pair of walking shoes, $10.
a Specify the variables.
b Write the three constraints.
c If we need to maximise profit, what is the
objective function?
421
Multiple choice
1 The region required (unshaded region) for the

inequation x > 6 is represented by:
y
y
B
A
Region required
Region required
Region required

inequation y < x is represented by:
y
y
A
B
x
Region required
y
0
Region required
6
Region required

graph at right can be defined by the inequation:
y
A y < 2x + 4
B y 2x + 4
4
C y > 2x + 4
D y > 2x + 4
E y 2x + 4
0
2
Region required
Region required
5 9 x
Region required
y
1
72
6
0
7 2
7 2
Region required
Region required
72
1
72
y
5
Region required
Region required
5 9 x
Region required
Region required

inequation 2x + y 6 is represented by:
y
y
B
A
6
Region required
422
5 The graph which best displays the required

(unshaded) region of the simultaneous inequations
3x + 2y 18, 4x + 6y 30 is shown in:
y
A
B y
5
Region required
0 x
0 x
y
6
Region required
e y
Region required
Region required
Region required
6 The unshaded region which best represents the

system of inequations x 0, y 0, x + y 8 and
y 2x 4 is shown in:
A y
B y
8
2 0
8 x
Region required
2 0
8 x
Region required
y
8
4
8 x
2 0
Region required
y
8
D x 300, y 500, x + y 900, x + y 1400

E x 300, y 500, x + y 900, x + y 1400
11 The unshaded region which best represents the

system of inequations is shown in:
y
B 1400 y
A
8 x
2 0
1400
Region required
500
500
2
4
900
900
y
8
x
0
Region required
7 The region required for a system of inequations is

y
given by the graph at right.
8
If the revenue (in dollars) is
(6, 4)
given by R = 4x + 3y, the
maximum revenue will be:
2
x
A $8
B $32
0 2
8
C $34
D $36
E $38
Region required
9 The minimum value of the

objective function C, where
C = 3x 2y, for the feasible
region is:
A 6
B 2
C 10
D 4.5
E 5
(0, 1)
(3, 3 12 )
(4, 1)
x
0
Region required
y
(2, 6) (8, 7)
(9, 4)
(1, 2) (8, 2)
x
0
Region required
Questions 1012 refer to the following

information. A drink manufacturer produces
two types of sports drink. Each month, at least
300 litres of type A sports drink and 500 litres
of type B sports drink must be produced to
meet demand. The factory must produce at
least 900 litres of sports drink but no more than
1400 litres.
10 If x represents the amount in litres of sports drink
A, and y represents the amount in litres of sports
drink B, then the system of inequations for the
above information is:
A x 300, y 500, x + y 900, x + y 1400
B x 300, y 500, x + y 900, x + y 1400
C x 300, y 500, x + y 900, x + y 1400
1400
Region required
d 1400 y
900
900
500
x
300 900 1400
Region required
1400
x
300 900 1400
Region required
8 The maximum value of the

objective function S, where
S = 5y x, for the feasible
region is:
A 9
B 14.5
C 27
D 11
E 2
x
300 900 1400
500
0
x
300 900 1400
Region required
900
500
0
x
300 900 1400
Region required
12 Given that the profit on a litre of sports drink A is

$1.20 and the profit on a litre of sports drink B is
$1.00, the maximum profit possible is:
A $1580
B $1500
C $1460
D $1620
E $960
13 In a linear programming problem involving animal
management on a farm:
x represents the number of cows on the farm
y represents the number of sheep on the farm.
The feasible region (with boundaries included) for
the problem is indicated by the shaded region on
the diagram below.
y
100
80
60
40
20
0
20 40 60 80 100
One of the constraints defining the feasible region

indicates that:
A there must be 20 cows and 60 sheep.
B there must be 40 cows and 40 sheep.
C the number of sheep cannot exceed 40.
423
D the number of cows must be at least 60.

E the total number of cows and sheep cannot
exceed 80.

[ VCAA 2006]
14 The cost of manufacturing a number of frying pans
consists of a fixed cost of $400 plus a cost of $50
per frying pan.
The manufacturer could break even by selling:
A 10 frying pans at $90 each.
B 10 frying pans at $45 each.
C 15 frying pans at $60 each.
D 15 frying pans at $30 each.
E 20 frying pans at $50 each.

[ VCAA 2006]
15 The four inequalities below were used to construct
the feasible region for a linear programming
problem.

x0

y0

x+y9
1

y x
2
A point that lies within this feasible region is:
A (4, 4)
B (5, 3)
C (6, 2)
D (6, 4)
E (7, 3)
[ VCAA 2006]
16 Russell is a wine producer. He makes both red and
white wine.
Let x represent the number of bottles of red wine
he makes and y represent the number of bottles of
white wine he makes.
This year he plans to make at least twice as many

bottles of red wine as white wine.
An inequality representing this situation is:
A y x + 2
B y 2x
C y 2x
D x 2y
E x 2y
[ VCAA 2007]
17 The following five constraints apply to a linear
programming problem.
x 0, y 0, x + y 50, x + y 100, y x
In the diagram below, the shaded region (with
boundaries included) represents the feasible
region for this linear programming problem.
y
(50, 50)
(25, 25)
0
(50, 0)
(100, 0)
The aim is to maximise the objective function

Z = 2x + ky.
If the maximum value of Z occurs only at the
point (100, 0), then a possible value for k is:
A 1
B 2
C 3
D 4
E 5
[ VCAA 2007]
Extended response
1 Nick intends to sow o hectares of oats and w hectares of wheat on his farm. He has 35 hectares of land
available on which to sow crops. Oats requires 3 hours of labour and wheat requires 4 hours of labour per
hectare, and a total of 120 hours of labour is available.
a If the profit on oats per hectare is $200 and on wheat $240, how much of each crop must be sown to
obtain the maximum profit?
b What is the maximum profit Nick can make?
c Would this change if the profit on oats per hectare became $250 and the profit on wheat remained
unchanged?
2 A company manufactures two products, A and B. Each product must undergo three chemical processes for the
number of hours specified in the table at right:
Process
A
B
The minimum amount of time required for processes 1, 2 and 3 is
P1
10
5
70, 28 and 36 hours respectively.
a Using this information, construct the three constraints.
P2
2
4
Let x represent the number of items of product A produced.
P3
3
3
Let y represent the number of items of product B produced.
424
b Are any other constraints assumed in this situation?

c Sketch the 5 constraints, leaving the region required (feasible region) unshaded.
The costs associated with the chemical processes on product A and product B are $300 and $200
per item respectively.
d If we want to minimise cost, what is the objective function?
e Find the minimum cost of the chemical processes associated with manufacturing the products in question.
3 Vickis Vitamin Company sells two Vitamin C products, C1
Macro-nutrients
and C2, each boosted with a certain amount of macronutrients
a
, and (units per kilogram) as shown in the table at right.
Scott Scurvy has been advised by his dietitian to combine the
b
2 products so that the resulting mixture provides at least 50 units
of , 28 units of and 60 units of .

If C1 costs $3.50 per kilogram and C2 costs $5.00 per kilogram,
a find how Scott should combine the products to achieve minimum cost, and
b state this minimum.
C1
C2
10
15
4 Sklo, a glass and crystalware company, is about to launch

a new line of products called Spring Blooms. All products in this
line (cake platters, cheese platters and fruit bowls) feature the
same flower design. The company plans to produce a trial batch
of 2100 items. Based on previous experience, they know that the
number of cake platters should be at least double the number of
cheese platters and that the demand for fruit bowls will not exceed
600. They also need to produce at least 200 cheese platters and no
more than 1600 cake platters.
a Let x be the number of cake platters and let y be the number
of cheese platters produced. Write the constraints to represent
the information.
b Sketch the constraints on a set of axes. Leave the feasible
region unshaded.
c Find the coordinates of the corner points of the feasible
region.
Assuming that every item produced will be sold, the company
can make a profit of $24 on every cake platter, $18 on every
cheese platter and $21.50 on every fruit bowl sold.
d If the Sklo company wishes to maximise their profit, write the objective function.
e Find the quantities of each type of merchandise that need to be produced and sold in order to maximise
the profit.
f State the maximum profit.
5 Chantelle, a discerning cat, likes two types of dry food produced by the Superior Cat Food company: Chicken
Bites and Fish Bites. Each of these two products contains three main nutrients (A, B and C), essential for healthy
teeth and shiny fur. Chicken Bites contain 3% of nutrient A, 5% of nutrient B and 5% of nutrient C; Fish Bites
contain 5% of nutrient A, 8% of nutrient B and 2.5% of nutrient C. Chantelle needs at least 80 g of dry food
every day, and her minimum daily requirements of the A, B and C nutrients are 2.5 g, 4.5 g and 3 g respectively.
a Let x represent the quantity (in grams) of Chicken Bites and let y represent the quantity (in grams) of
Fish Bites fed to Chantelle on a daily basis. Write 6 constraints to represent the information.
b Sketch the constraints, leaving the feasible region unshaded.
c Find the coordinates of the corner points of the feasible region.
Alan, the local vet, sells both of Chantelles favourite Superior Cat Food products at the following prices:
$12 for a 1-kg packet of Chicken Bites and $16 for a 1-kg packet of Fish Bites.
425
d Elena, Chantelles owner, wants to minimise the cost of her cats food. Write the objective function that
can be used to help Elena achieve her goal.
e Use the objective function from part d to find the daily quantities of each type of food that Chantelle
needs to be fed in order to minimise the cost.
f What is the minimum cost?
During Chantelles annual health-check, Alan told Elena that Fish Bites are now available in 1.5-kg packets
and can be purchased from him at $21 per packet. Elena quickly calculated that it would be cheaper to buy
these new, larger packets of Fish Bites.
g Construct a new function for the cost of pet food.
h Calculate the new amounts of each type of food needed to minimise the cost.
i Find the new minimum daily cost of Chantelles food.
6 Harry offers dog washing and dog clipping services. Let x be the number of dogs washed in one day and y be
the number of dogs clipped in one day.
It takes 20 minutes to wash a dog and 25 minutes to clip a dog.
There are 200 minutes available each day to wash and clip dogs.
This information can be written as Inequalities 1 to 3.
Inequality 1: x 0
Inequality 2: y 0
Inequality 3: 20x + 25y 200
a Draw the line that represents 20x + 25y = 200.
In any one day the number of dogs clipped is at least twice the number of dogs washed.
b Write an inequality to describe this information in terms of x and y.
Inequality 4:
c i On the previous graph, draw and clearly indicate the boundaries of the region represented by
Inequalities 1 to 4.
ii On a day when exactly five dogs are clipped, what is the maximum number of dogs that could be
washed?
The profit from washing one dog is $40 and the profit from clipping one dog is $30.
Let P be the total profit obtained in one day from washing and clipping dogs.
d Write an equation for the total profit, P, in terms of x and y.
e i Determine the number of dogs that should be washed and the number of dogs that should be clipped in
one day in order to maximise the total profit.
426
ii What is the maximum total profit that can be obtained from washing and clipping dogs in one day?
[ VCAA 2006]
7 Gas is generally cheaper than petrol. The car must run on petrol for some of the driving time. Let x be the
number of hours driving using gas and y be the number of hours driving using petrol.
Inequalities 1 to 5 below represent the constraints on driving a car over a 24-hour period.
Explanations are given for Inequalities 3 and 4.
Inequality 1: x 0
Inequality 2: y 0
1
Inequality 3: y x
The number of hours driving using petrol must not
2
exceed half the number of hours driving using gas.
1
Inequality 4: y x
The number of hours driving using petrol must be at
3
least one third the number of hours driving using gas.
Inequality 5: x + y 24
a Explain the meaning of Inequality 5 in terms of the context of this problem.
The lines x + y = 24 and y =
1
x are drawn on the graph below.
2
y
25
24
20
15
10
5
0
10 1516 20
24
25
b On the graph above:

1
x
3
ii clearly shade the feasible region represented by Inequalities 1 to 5.
On a particular day, the Goldsmiths plan to drive for 15 hours. They will use gas for 10 of these hours.
c Will the Goldsmiths comply with all constraints? Justify your answer.
On another day, the Goldsmiths plan to drive for 24 hours. Their car carries enough fuel to drive for
20 hours using gas and 7 hours using petrol.
d Determine the maximum and minimum number of hours they can drive using gas while satisfying all
constraints.
Maximum = __________ hours
Minimum = __________ hours
i draw the line y =
[ VCAA 2007]
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 11
Chapter 11
Linear programming
427
eBook plus
ACTiviTies
Chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on linear programming. (page 389)
11A
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 11.1: Practise solving linear

inequations. (page 393)
11B
Tutorial
We5 int-1159: Watch how to sketch a pair of

inequations and indicate the region required.
(page 396)
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 11.2: Practise simultaneous equations.

(page 398)
WorkSHEET 11.1: Sketch linear inequations and
simultaneous linear inequations, showing the
required regions. (page 399)
11D
Maximising and minimising linear functions
Interactivity
Maximising and minimising linear functions int-0978:

Consolidate your understanding of how to maximise
and minimise linear functions. (page 402)
Tutorial
We8 int-1160: Watch how to sketch a system of

linear equations and determine the feasible region
and maximise the objective function. (page 406)
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 11.3: Practise vertices of feasible

regions. (page 408)
SkillSHEET 11.4: Practise the sliding-line method.
(page 408)
Spreadsheet 068: Investigate linear programming.
(page 409)
SkillSHEET 11.5: Practise the corner-point method.
(page 409)
428
WorkSHEET 11.2: Sketch linear inequations, solve

linear equations graphically and algebraically,
sketch systems of linear inequations and determine
maximum and minimum values of the objective
function. (page 409)
11E
Solving linear programming problems
Tutorial
We9 int-1161: Watch how to determine the number

of two types of games to produced to maximise
profit. (page 410)
Digital doc

(page 411)
11F
Further applications of linear programming
Digital doc

(page 417)
Chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
12
12a Distance between two points

12b Midpoint of a line segment
12c Dividing a line segment internally in the
ratio a :b
12d Dividing a line segment externally in the
ratio a :b
12e Parallel lines
12F Perpendicular lines
12G Applications
Coordinate
geometry
areaS oF STudy
Finding equations of straight lines (including

vertical lines) from given information
Cutting a line segment internally and externally
in a given ratio
Application of coordinate geometry: for
example, design, orienteering, navigation and
geometrical proofs
Pythagoras theorem and its application

to finding the distance between two
points
Calculation of coordinates of the midpoint of a
line segment
Gradients of parallel and perpendicular lines
eBook plus
12a
Digital doc
distance between two points

A
B
AC = x2 x1
BC = y2 y1
By Pythagoras theorem:
AB2 = AC2 + BC2
= (x2 x1)2 + (y2 y1)2
Hence
10 Quick Questions
Coordinate geometry is a branch of

Mathematics with many practical applications.
The distance between two points can be
calculated easily using Pythagoras theorem.
It is particularly useful when trying to find a
distance that is difficult to measure directly.
For example, finding the distance from
a point on one side of a lake to a point on the
other side.
Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be two points on the
Cartesian plane as shown below.
Triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle.
y
y2
y1
B(x2, y2)
A
(x1, y1)
AB = ( x2 x1 )2 + ( y 2 y1 )2
x1
x2
The distance between two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is:
AB = ( x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2
Chapter 12
Coordinate geometry
429
Worked exaMple 1
Find the distance between the points A and B in the

figure at right.
y
4
A
Think
WriTe
From the graph find points A and B.
A(3, 1) and B(3, 4)
Let A have coordinates (x1, y1).
Let (x1, y1) = (3, 1)
Let B have coordinates (x2, y2).
Let (x2, y2) = (3, 4)
Find the length AB by applying the formula

for the distance between two points.
AB = ( x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2
= [3 ( 3)]2 + (4 1)2
= (6)2 + (3)2
= 36 + 9
= 45
=3 5
= 6.71 (correct to 2 decimal places)
Worked exaMple 2
Find the distance between the points P(1, 5) and Q(3, 2).
Think
WriTe
Let P have coordinates (x1, y1).
Let (x1, y1) = (1, 5)
Let Q have coordinates (x2, y2).
Let (x2, y2) = (3, 2)
Find the length PQ by applying the formula

for the distance between two points.
PQ = ( x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2
= [3 ( 1)]2 + ( 2 5)2
= (4)2 + ( 7)2
= 16 + 49
= 65
= 8.06 (correct to 2 decimal places)
Worked exaMple 3
Prove that the points A(1, 1), B(3,

isosceles triangle.
eBook plus
1)
and
C(1, 3)
Think
1
Plot the points.

Note: For triangle ABC to be isosceles, two
sides must have the same magnitude.
are the vertices of an
int-1162
Worked example 3
WriTe
y
1
1
C
430
Tutorial
Maths Quest 11 advanced General Mathematics for the Casio Classpad
3
B
From the diagram, AC

appears to have the same
x length as BC.
Find the length AC.
AC = [1 ( 1)]2 + [1 ( 3)]2
= (2)2 + (4)2
= 20
Find the length BC.
BC = [3 ( 1)]2 + [ 1 ( 3)]2
= (4)2 + (2)2
= 20
Find the length AB.
AB = [3 (1)]2 + [ 1 (1)]2
= (2)2 + ( 2)2
= 4+4
= 8
=2 2
State your proof.
Since AC = C, triangle ABC is an isosceles triangle.
reMeMBer
AB = ( x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2
exerCiSe
12a

1
2
eBook plus
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 021
Distance
between two
points
We 1
Find the distance between each pair of points shown
at right.
We2
Find the distance between the following pairs of
points.
a (2, 5), (6, 8)
b (1, 2), (4, 14)
c ( 1, 3), ( 7, 5)
d (5, 1), (10, 4)
e (4, 5), (1, 1)
f (3, 1), (5, 13)
g (5, 0), ( 8, 0)
h (1, 7), (1, 6)
j (a, 2b), (2a, b)

i (a, b), (2a, b)
O
6
B
5
4
P
3
C
2A
E H
N
L 1
6 5 4321 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
1
F 2
M 3
I
J
4
D
5
6
G
3 We3
Prove that the points A(0, 3), B(2, 1) and C(4, 3) are the vertices of an
isosceles triangle.
4
The points P(2, 1), Q(4, 1) and R(1, 3 3 1) are joined to form a triangle. Prove that
triangle PQR is equilateral.
5 Prove that the quadrilateral with vertices A(1, 3), B(5, 3), C(1, 0) and D(5, 0) is a
parallelogram.
6 Prove that the triangle with vertices D(5, 6), E(9, 3) and F(5, 3) is a right-angled triangle.
7
The vertices of a quadrilateral are A(1, 4), B(1, 8), C(1, 9) and D(3, 5).
a Find the lengths of the sides.
b Find the lengths of the diagonals.
c What type of quadrilateral is it?
Chapter 12
Coordinate geometry
431
8 MC If the distance between the points (3, b) and (5, 2) is 10 units, then the value of b is:
b 4
c 4
a 8
d 0
e 2
9 MC A rhombus has vertices A(1, 6), B(6, 6), C(2, 2) and D(x, y). The coordinates of D are:
b (2, 3)
c (2, 3)
a (2, 3)
d (3, 2)
e (3, 2)
10 A rectangle has vertices A(1, 5), B(10.6, z), C(7.6, 6.2) and D(2, 1). Find:
a the length of CD
b the length of AD
c the length of the diagonal AC
d the value of z.
11 Show that the triangle ABC with coordinates A(a, a), B(m, a) and C(a, m) is isosceles.
12B
Midpoint of a line segment

We can determine the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment by applying the midpoint
formula shown below.
Midpoint formula
y
Consider the line segment connecting the points
B(x2, y2)
A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2).
(y2 y)
Let P(x, y) be the midpoint of AB.
AC is parallel to PD.
P(x, y)
(x2 x) D
PC is parallel to BD.
(y
y1)
AP is parallel to PB (collinear).
A
Hence triangle APC is similar to triangle PBD.
(x1, y1) (x x1) C
But AP = PB (since P is the midpoint of AB).
x
Hence, triangle APC is congruent to triangle PBD.
Therefore x x1 = x2 x
2x = x1 + x2
x + x2
x= 1
2
y + y2
Similarly it can be shown that y = 1
.
2
In general, the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment joining
the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can be found by averaging the x-and
y
y-coordinates of the end points, respectively.
(x2, y2)
M
The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining

x + x2 y1 + y2
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are: 1
,
2
2
(x1, y1)
Worked Example 4
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining (2, 5) and (7, 1).
Think
1
432
Label the given points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
Write
Let (x1, y1) = (2, 5) and (x2, y2) = (7, 1)
+ x _____
y +y
(x_____,
2
2 )
2
Find the x-coordinate of the midpoint.
x=
=
=
x1 + x2
2
2+7
2
5
2
1
=22
3
Find the y-coordinate of the midpoint.
y=
y1 + y2
2
5+1
2
6
2
=3
4
Give the coordinates of the midpoint.
Hence, the coordinates of the midpoint are (2 2 , 3).
Worked Example 5
The coordinates of the midpoint, M, of the line segment AB are (7, 2). If the coordinates of A are
(1, 4), find the coordinates of B.
Think
1
Label the start of the line segment (x1, y1)

and the midpoint (x, y).
Find the x-coordinate of the end point.
Find the y-coordinate of the end point.
Give the coordinates of the end point.
Check that the coordinates are feasible.
Write
Let (x1, y1) = (1, 4) and (x, y) = (7, 2)

x1 + x2
2
1 + x2
7=
2
14 = 1 + x2
x2 = 13
y +y
y= 1 2
2
4+ y
2
2=
2
4 = -4 + y2
y2 = 8
x=
Hence, the coordinates of the point B are (13, 8).

y
8
2
4
B (13, 8)
M (7, 2)
1
7
A (1, 4)
13
Chapter 12 Coordinate geometry
433
reMeMBer
The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment

joining (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are:
y
(x2, y2)
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
2 , 2
(x1, y1)
exerCiSe
12B
eBook plus
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 075
Midpoint
of a segment
+ x _____
y +y
(x_____,
2
2 )
2

1 We4
Use the formula method to find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment
joining the following pairs of points.
a (5, 1), (1, 8)
b (4, 2), (11, 2)
c (0, 4), (2, 2)
d (3, 4), ( 3, 1)
e (a, 2b), (3a, b)
f (a + 3b, b), (a b, a b)
2 We5 The coordinates of the midpoint, M, of the line segment AB are (2, 3). If the
coordinates of A are (7, 4), find the coordinates of B.
3
Find:
a the coordinates of the centre of a square with vertices A(0, 0), B(2, 4), C(6, 2) and D(4, 2)
b the side length
c the length of the diagonals.
4 MC The midpoint of the line segment joining the points (2, 1) and (8, 3) is:
a (6, 2)
b (5, 2)
c (6, 2)
d (3, 1)
e (5, 2)
5 MC
If the midpoint of AB is (1, 5) and the coordinates of B are (3, 8), then A has
coordinates:
a (1, 6.5)
b (2, 13)
c (5, 2)
d (4, 3)
e (7, 11)
6 a The vertices of a triangle are A(2, 5), B(1, 3) and C(4, 3). Find:
i the coordinates of P, the midpoint of AC
ii the coordinates of Q, the midpoint of AB
iii the length of PQ
iv the length of BC.
b Hence show that BC = 2PQ.
7
a A quadrilateral has vertices A(6, 2), B(4, 3), C(4, 3) and D(2, 2). Find:
i the midpoint of the diagonal AC
ii the midpoint of the diagonal BD.
b Comment on your finding.
8 a The points A(5, 3.5), B(1, 0.5) and C(6, 6) are the vertices of a triangle. Find:
i the midpoint, P, of AB
ii the length of PC
iii the length of AC
iv the length of BC.
b Describe the triangle. What could PC represent?
9 Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the midpoint of A(2, 5) and
B(2, 3), and has a gradient of 3.
10 Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the midpoint of A(1, 3) and
2
B(3, 5), and has a gradient of 3.
434
12C
Dividing a line segment internally

in the ratio a:b
We can also determine the coordinates of a point dividing a line segment internally in a given
ratio either by plotting the given coordinates and using a first-principles approach or by applying
a given formula.
Worked Example 6
First-principles method
Find the coordinates of the point, P, that divides the line segment joining the points A(2, 3) and
B(6, 11) internally in the ratio 3:1.
Think
1
Write
Show the end points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)

on a sketch graph and show an estimated
position of the internal point, P.
y
11
3
1 B(6, 11)
P
A(2, 3)
3
2
2
x
3
Find the x-coordinate of P.

Since P divides AB in the ratio 3:1 then
3
P is located 4 of the length of the line
segment AB from A, (P is 3 parts from A
and B is 4 parts from A).
The x-coordinate of P is 4 of the way between where

x = 2 and x = 6.
3
x = 2 + 4 (6 2)
Find the y-coordinate of P.
Similarly, the y-coordinate of P is 4 of the way between

y = 3 and y = 11.
3
y = 3 + 4(11 3)
=2+44
=2+3
=5
3
=3+48
=3+6
=9
4
Give the coordinates of the point.
Hence, the coordinates of the point P are (5, 9).
General formula
Consider the line segment connecting the points A(x1, y1)
and B(x2, y2).
Let P(x, y) be the point on AB that divides it in the ratio a:b
as shown at right.
AC is parallel to PD.
PC is parallel to BD.
AP is parallel to PB (collinear).
Hence, triangle APC is similar to triangle PBD.
B(x2, y2)
b
P(x, y)
a
(y2 y)
(x2 x) D
(y y1)
A
(x1, y1) (x x1) C
435
AB
=
PB
AC
=
PD
AC
=
PD
x x1
=
x2 x
Given that
then
but
so

a
a a
Note: The ratio a:b may be written in fractional form as .
b
b b
PC AP a
=
=
BD PB b
x x1
x2 x
a
b
b(x x1) = a(x2 x)

bx bx1 = ax2 ax
ax + bx = ax2 + bx1
x(a + b) = ax2 + bx1
ax2 + bx1
a+b
Similarly it can be shown that

x=
ay2 + by1
a+b
The coordinates of the point that divides the line segment joining the points (x1, y1) and
(x2, y2) internally in the ratio a:b are:

y=
ax2 + bx1 ay2 + by1

a + b , a + b
Note: When a = b the formula simplifies to that for the midpoint of a line segment as described
earlier.
Worked Example 7
Formula method
Find the coordinates of the point, P, that divides the line segment joining A(2, 3) and B(6, 11)
internally in the ratio 3:1.
Think
436
Write
Label the end points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
Let (x1, y1) = (2, 3) and (x2, y2) = (6, 11)
Find a and b.
Use the formula to find the x-coordinate

and the y-coordinate of P.
a:b = 3:1
Hence a = 3, b = 1
ax + bx1
x= 2
a+b
3(6) + 1(2)
=
3+1
18 + 2
=
4
20
=
4
= 5
ay2 + by1
a+b
3(11) + 1(3)
=
3+1
33 + 3
=
4
36
=
4
=9
y=
Hence, the coordinates of the point dividing the line

segment in the ratio 3:1 are (5, 9).
Worked exaMple 8
eBook plus
4)
If P(3,
is the point that divides the line segment AB internally in the
ratio 1 : 2, find the coordinates of point A if the coordinates of point B are (5, 8).
Think
Tutorial
int-1163
Worked example 8
WriTe
Label the end point (x2, y2) and the point

P(x, y).
Let (x2, y2) = (5, 8) and (x, y) = (3, 4)
Find a and b.
a:b = 1:2
Hence a = 1, b = 2
Find the x1-coordinate.
Find the y1-coordinate.
Let A be (x1, y1).

Hence, if:
ax + bx1
x= 2
a+b
then
1(5) + 2 x1 5 + 2 x1
3=
=
1+ 2
3
9 = 5 + 2x1
2x1 = 4
x1 = 2
ay + by1
y= 2
a+b
4=
1(8) + 2 y1
1+ 2
8 + 2 y1
3
12 = 8 + 2y
1
2y1 = 20
y1 = 10
=
Hence, the coordinates of the point A are (2, 10).
Give the coordinates of A.
y
8
4
10
B
2
2
3 5 x
P
1
A
reMeMBer
The coordinates of the point P that divides the line segment

joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) internally in the
ratio a:b are:
ax2 + bx1 ay2 + by1

a + b , a + b
b
a
B (x2, y2)
P (x, y)
A (x1, y1)
x
Chapter 12
Coordinate geometry
437
exerCiSe
12C
eBook plus
dividing a line segment internally in the ratio a : b

1
line segment joining the following pairs of points internally in the given ratio.
a (1, 7), (4, 1) 1:2
b (1, 7), (4, 1) 2:1
c (5, 1), (3, 3) 1:1
d (2, 13), (6, 9) 1:1
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 022
Dividing a
segment
internally
We 7 Use the formula method to find the coordinates of the point that divides the line
segment joining the following pairs of points internally in the given ratio.
a (3, 5), (1, 5) 3:1 b (3, 5), (1, 5) 1:3
c (2, 8), (7, 3) 2:3
d (2, 8), (7, 3) 3:2
e (2, 9), (2, 5) 5:3
f (2, 9), (2, 5) 3:5
If P(6, 1) is the point that divides the line segment AB internally in the ratio 2:5,
find the coordinates of A if the coordinates of B are (1, 7).
eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 12.1
Dividing
a line in a
given ratio
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 12.1
We 8
4 The point P(5, 4) divides the line segment joining A(2, 5) and B(c, d) in the ratio 3:2. Find c
and d.
5
eBook plus
Use the first-principles method to find the coordinates of the point that divides the
We 6
MC a The point, P, divides the line segment AB internally in the ratio 1:4. If A is (3, 2) and
B is (7, 3), then the coordinates of P are:

b (1, 1)
c (4, 1)
a (5, 2)
d (10, 5)
e (2, 0.5)
b Point Q(3, 10) divides the line segment joining the points A(7, 4) and B(1, 13) internally
in the ratio:
a 1:2
b 1:1
c 2:1
d 3:1
e 1:3
y
c Points P and Q are the points of trisection of AB in the diagram
5
at right. The coordinates P and Q respectively are:
B
Q
a (0, 1), (2, 3)

1
b (1, 0), (3, 4)

2
c (0, 1 3), (6 3, 3 3)
d(0, 1), (4, 3)
4
A
P
1
8 x
e (0, 2), (5, 3 2 )

6 a Triangle ABC has vertices A(3, 15), B(6, 9) and C(3, 6). Find:
i the coordinates of L, the midpoint of BC
ii the coordinates of M, the midpoint of AC
iii the coordinates of N, the midpoint of AB.
b AL, BM and CN are the medians of triangle ABC. A median is a line drawn from the
vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of the opposite side. Find:
i the coordinates of the point on AL that divides it in the ratio 2:1
ii the coordinates of the point on BM that divides it in the ratio 2:1
iii the coordinates of the point on CN that divides it in the ratio 2:1.
c Comment on your findings from b i, ii and iii.
d The three medians are concurrent. Their common point, usually labelled G, is called the
centroid of the triangle.
Graph the triangle ABC and draw the medians AL, BM and CN. Mark the centroid.
7 Triangle PQR has vertices P(6, 3), Q(3, 9) and R(3, 12). Find:
a the midpoints U, V and W of QR, PR and PQ respectively
b the coordinates of the centroid, G
c the ratio PG:GU and PG:PU.
438
12D
Dividing a line segment externally

in the ratio a:b
We can also determine the coordinates of a point dividing a line segment externally in a given
ratio either by plotting the given coordinates and using a first principles approach, or by
applying a given formula.
Worked Example 9
First-principles method
Find the coordinates of the point, P, that divides the line segment joining A(2, 3) and B(6, 11)
externally in the ratio 3:1.
Think
1
Write
Show the end points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2)

on a sketch graph and an estimated position
of the external point P(x, y).
y
1
11
B(6, 11)
A(2, 3)
3
2
2
P(x, y)
3
2
Find the x-coordinate of P.

Since P divides AB externally in the ratio
3
3:1 then P is located 2 of the length of the
line segment AB from A. (P is 3 parts from
A and B is 2 parts from A.)
The x-coordinate of P is
x = 2 and where x = 6.
3
x = 2 + 2 (6 2)
Find the y-coordinate of P.
Similarly, the y-coordinate of P is

y = 3 and y = 11.
of the way between where
=2+ 24
=2+6
=8
3
2
of the way between
y = 3 + 2 (11 3)
=3+
3
2
= 3 + 12
= 15
4
Hence, the coordinates of the point P are (8, 15).
y
15
3
11
P(8, 15)
B(6, 11)
A(2, 3)
3
2
6 8
General formula
Consider the line segment connecting the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2).
439
Let P(x, y) be an external point on the extension of AB that divides

it in the ratio a:b as shown at right.
AD is parallel to BC.
PD is parallel to PC (collinear).
AP is parallel to BP (collinear).
Hence, triangle APD is similar to triangle BPC.
Given thatAP = a
BP b
AD PD AP a
then
=
=
=
BC PC BP b
AD x x1
but
=
BC x x2
a x x1
so =
b x x2
a(x x2) = b(x x1)
ax ax2 = bx bx1
ax bx = ax2 bx1
x(a b) = ax2 bx1
ax bx1
x= 2
ab
Similarly it can be shown that:
ay by1
y= 2
ab
The coordinates of the point P that divides the line segment joining
the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) externally in the ratio a:b are:
ax2 bx1 ay2 by1
a b , a b
P(x, y)
(x2, y2)B x x
2
A
(x1, y1)
x x1
y y2
C
y y1
D
x
P(x, y)
a
b
B(x2, y2)
A(x1, y1)
Worked Example 10
Formula method
Find the coordinates of the point that divides the line segment joining the points (2, 3) and (6, 11)
externally in the ratio 3:1.
Think
1
2
440
Label the end points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2).

Find a and b.
Use the formula to find the x-coordinate

and the y-coordinate of the required point.
Write
Let (x1, y1) = (2, 3) and (x2, y2) = (6, 11)

a:b = 3:1
Hence a = 3, b = 1
ax bx1
ay by1
x= 2
y= 2
ab
ab
3(6) 1(2)
3(11) 1(3)
=
=
31
31
18 2
33 3
=
=
2
2
16
30
=
=
2
2
= 8
= 15
Hence, the coordinates of the point dividing the line
externally in the ratio 3:1 are (8, 15).
Worked exaMple 11
eBook plus
If P(3, 4) is the point that divides the line segment AB externally in the ratio
1:2, find the coordinates of A if the coordinates of B are (5, 8).
Think
Tutorial
int-1164
Worked example 11
WriTe
Label the end point (x2, y2) and the point

P(x, y).
Let (x2, y2) = (5, 8) and (x, y) = (3, 4)
Find a and b.
a:b = 1:2
Hence a = 1, b = 2
Find the x1-coordinate.
Let A be (x1, y1).

Hence, if:
ax bx1
x= 2
ab
1(5) 2 x1
then 3 =
1 2
5 2x
3= 1
1
3
= 5 2x1
2x1 = 5 + 3
=8
x1 = 4
4
Find the y1-coordinate.
Give the coordinates of A.
ay2 by1
ab
4 = 1(8) 2 y1
1 2
8 2 y1
=
1
4 = 8 2y1
2y1 = 8 4
=4
y1 = 2
y=
Hence, the coordinates of the point A are (4, 2).
reMeMBer
The coordinates of the point, P, that divides the line segment joining y
the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) externally in the ratio a:b are:
ax2 bx1 ay2 by1
a b , a b
P(x, y)
a
b
B(x2, y2)
A(x1, y1)
x
Chapter 12
Coordinate geometry
441
exerCiSe
12d
eBook plus
dividing a line segment externally in the ratio a :b

1
We 9
Use the first-principles method to find the coordinates of the point that divides the
line segment joining the following pairs of points externally in the given ratio.
a (1, 7), (4, 1) 1:2
b (1, 7), (4, 1) 2:1
c (3, 5), (1, 5) 3:1
d (3, 5), (1, 5) 1:3
We 10 Use the formula method to find the coordinates of the point that divides the line
segment joining the following pairs of points externally in the given ratio.
a (2, 8), (7, 3) 2:3
b (2, 8), (7, 3) 3:2
c (2, 9), (2, 5) 5:3
d (2, 9), (2, 5) 3:5
e (5, 1), (3, 3) 4:1

f (5, 1), (3, 3) 1:4
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 023
Dividing a
segment
externally
We 11 The point P(6, 1) is the point that divides the line segment AB externally in the ratio
2:5. Find the coordinates of A if the coordinates of B are (1, 7).
4 The point P(5, 4) divides the line segment joining A(2, 5) and B(c, d) externally in the ratio
3:2. Find c and d.
5 MC P is the point that divides the line segment AB externally in the ratio 4:1. If A is (2, 3)
and B is (7, 3) then the coordinates of P are:
2
a (10, 5)
b (5, 5)
c (8 3 , 3)
d ( 1 , 3)
3
e (6, 3)
MC Point Q(5, 22) divides the line segment joining the points A(7, 4) and B(1, 13)
externally in the ratio:

a 1:2
b 2:1
d 1:1
e 1:3
7 A give way sign has the shape of an equilateral triangle with
a side length of 87 cm. The sign is attached in two places to a
metal pole.
a How far from the top of the sign should the holes be
drilled if the top hole divides the vertical height of the sign
in the ratio 1:9 and the bottom hole in the ratio 8:9?
b How high is the top of the sign from the ground if the
distance to the base of the pole from the top and bottom of
the sign is in the ratio 7:6?
12e
c 3:1
87 cm
parallel lines
In a previous chapter, Linear and non-linear graphs (Chapter 10), we investigated linear graphs
and equations. We are now going to investigate further properties of straight lines.
The equation of a straight line may be expressed in the form:
y = mx + c
where m is the gradient of the line, and c is the y-intercept.
The gradient can be calculated if two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are given.
y y
m= 2 1
x2 x1
An alternative form for the equation of a straight line is:
ax + by + c = 0
where a, b and c are constants.
Another alternative form is:
y y1 = m(x x1)
where m is the gradient and (x1, y1) is a point on the line.
442
Worked exaMple 12
Show that AB is parallel to CD given that A has coordinates (1, 5), B has coordinates (5, 7), C has
coordinates (3, 1), and D has coordinates (4, 15).
Think
WriTe
Find the gradient of AB.
Find the gradient of CD.
Let A(1, 5) = (x1, y1) and B(5, 7) = (x2, y2)

y y
m= 2 1
Since
x2 x1
7 ( 5)
mAB =
5 ( 1)
12
= 6
=2
Let C(3, 1) = (x1, y1) and D(4, 15) = (x2, y2)
15 1
mCD =
4 ( 3)
=
14
7
=2
3
Compare the gradients to determine if they

are parallel. (Note: || means is parallel to.)
Since parallel lines have the same gradient and

mAB = mCD = 2, then AB||CD.
Collinear points lie on the same straight line.

Worked exaMple 13
eBook plus
Show that the points A(2, 0), B(4, 1) and C(10, 4) are collinear.
Think
1
Tutorial
int-1165
WriTe
Let A(2, 0) = (x1, y1)

and B(4, 1) = (x2, y2)
y y
Since
m= 2 1
x2 x1
1 0
mAB =
42
=
Find the gradient of BC.
Worked example 13
1
2
Let B(4, 1) = (x1, y1)

and C(10, 4) = (x2, y2)
mBC = 4 1
10 4
Show that A, B and C are collinear.
3
6
1
2
Since mAB = mBC =
1
2
then AB||BC
Since B is common to both line segments, A, B and C
must lie on the same straight line. That is, A, B and C
are collinear.
Chapter 12
Coordinate geometry
443
Worked exaMple 14
Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the point (2, 6) and is parallel to the
line y = 3x + 1.
Think
1
WriTe
In order to find the equation of a straight

line, we need to know the gradient and a
point on the line. One point is given and
since the line is parallel to y = 3x + 1, the
gradients will be the same.
Use the formula y y1 = m(x x1) and
substitute the coordinates of the point and
the gradient to find the equation of the line.
Point on the line: (2, 5)

Gradient: m = 3.
y y1 = m(x x1)
y 5 = 3(x 2)
y 5 = 3x 6
y = 3x 1
reMeMBer
1. The equation of a straight line may be expressed in the form:

y = mx + c
where m is the gradient of the line and c is the y-intercept, or
y y1 = m(x x1)
where m is the gradient and (x1, y1) is a point on the line.
2. The gradient can be calculated if two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are given by using
y y
m= 2 1
x2 x1
3. Parallel lines have the same gradient.
4. Collinear points lie on the same straight line.
exerCiSe
12e
eBook plus
parallel lines
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 046
Gradient
eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 12.2
Find if AB is parallel to CD given the following coordinates.
A(4, 13), B(2, 9), C(0, 10), D(15, 0).

A(2, 4), B(8, 1), C(6, 2), D(2, 6).
A(3, 10), B(1, 2), C(1, 10), D(8, 16).
A(1, 1), B(4, 11), C(2, 10), D(1, 5).
A(1, 0), B(2, 5), C(3, 15), D(7, 35).
A(1, 6), B(5, 0), C(0, 0), D(5, 4).
Which pairs of the following straight lines are parallel?
a 2x + y + 1 = 0
c 2y x = 3
x
e y = 1
2
g 3y = x + 4
Expressing the
equation of a
straight line in
the form
y = mx + c
444
We 12
We 13
b y = 3x 1
d y = 4x + 3
f 6x 2y = 0
h 2y = 5 x
Show that the points A(0, 2), B(5, 1) and C(5, 5) are collinear.
4 Show that the line that passes through the points (4, 9) and (0, 3) also passes through
the point (6, 6).
5 In each of the following, show that ABCD is a parallelogram.
a A(2, 0), B(4, 3), C(2, 4), D(0, 1)
b A(2, 2), B(0, 2), C(2, 3), D(0, 1)
c A(2.5, 3.5), B(10, 4), C(2.5, 2.5), D(5, 5)
eBook plus
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 085
6 In each of the following, show that ABCD is a trapezium.

a A(0, 6), B(2, 2), C(0, 4), D(5, 9)
b A(26, 32), B(18, 16), C(1, 1), D(3, 3)
c A(2, 7), B(1, 1), C(0.6, 2.6), D(2, 3)
7
a (4, 3)
Parallel checker
8
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 12.2
12F
MC The line that passes through the points (0, 6) and (7, 8) also passes through:
b (5, 4)
MC The point
as (1, 5) is:
a (2, 9)
(1,
c (2, 10)
d (1, 8)
e (1, 4)
5) lies on a line parallel to 4x + y + 5 = 0. Another point on the same line

b (4, 2)
d (2, 3)
c (4, 0)
e (3, 11)
We 14 Find the equation of the straight line given the following conditions:
a passes through the point (1, 3) and parallel to y = 2x + 5.
b passes through the point (4, 3) and parallel to 3y + 2x = 3.
perpendicular lines
In this section, we shall examine some of the properties of perpendicular lines. Observing the
graphs can be very useful in investigating these properties.
Consider the diagram below, where the line segment AB is perpendicular to the line segment
BC. Line AC is parallel to the x-axis. Line BD is the height of the resulting triangle ABC.
Let
mAB = m1
Let
=a
b
= tan( )
mBC = m2
= a
c
= tan()
= b
a
=
Hence
1
m1
m2 =
m1
1
or
m1m2 =
Hence, if two lines are perpendicular to each other, then the product of their gradients is 1.
Two lines are perpendicular if and only if:
m1m2 = 1
1
m2 =
or
m1
Chapter 12
Coordinate geometry
445
Worked exaMple 15
Show that the lines y =

to one another.
eBook plus
5x
+ 2 and 5y x + 15 = 0 are perpendicular
Tutorial
int-1166
Worked example 15
Think
1
WriTe
Find the gradient of equation 1.

Hence
Find the gradient of equation 2.
5y x + 15 = 0
Rewrite in the form y = mx + c
5y = x 15
y= x 3
5
Hence
Test for perpendicularity. (The two lines

are perpendicular if the product of their
gradients is 1.)
y = 5x + 2
m1 = 5
m2 =
1
5
1
m1m2 = 5 5
= 1
Hence, the two lines are perpendicular to each other.
reMeMBer

m1m2 = 1
1
.
or
m2 =
m1
exerCiSe
12F
eBook plus
perpendicular lines
1 We 15 Show that the lines y = 6x 3 and x + 6y 6 = 0 are perpendicular to one another.
2
Digital doc
Determine if AB is perpendicular to CD, given the following coordinates.

a
b
c
d
e
f
Spreadsheet 085
Perpendicular
checker
A(1, 6), B(3, 8), C(4, 6), D(3, 1)

A(2, 12), B(1, 9), C(0, 2), D(7, 1)
A(1, 3), B(4, 18), C(5, 4), D(5, 0)
A(1, 5), B(0, 0), C(5, 11), D(10, 8)
A(4, 9), B(2, 6), C(5, 8), D(10, 14)
A(4, 4), B(8, 5), C(6, 2), D(3, 11)
Determine which pairs of the following straight lines are perpendicular.
a
c
e
g
x + 3y 5 = 0
y=x
y = 3x + 2
2x + y = 6
b
d
f
h
y = 4x 7
2y = x + 1
x + 4y 9 = 0
x+y=0
4 Show that the following sets of points form the vertices of a right-angled triangle.
a A(1, 4), B(2, 3), C(4, 7)
b A(3, 13), B(1, 3), C(4, 4)
c A(0, 5), B(9, 12), C(3, 14)
5 Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a rectangle when A is (2, 5), B(6, 1), C(3, 2) and
D(1, 2).
446
6 Find the equation of the straight line that cuts the x-axis at 3 and is perpendicular to the
equation 3y 6x = 12.
7 Calculate the value of m for which the following pairs of equations are perpendicular to each
other.
a 2y 5x = 7 and 4y + 12 = mx
b 5x 6y = 27 and 15 + mx = 3y
8 Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus, given A(2, 3), B(3, 5), C(5, 6) and D(4, 4).
Hint: The diagonals of a rhombus intersect at right angles.
9 MC The gradient of the line perpendicular to the line with equation 3x 6y = 2 is:
a 3
c 2
10 MC Triangle ABC has a right angle at B. The vertices

value of z is:
1
a 84
12G
b 4
1
2
are A(2,
9), B(2, 8) and C(1, z). The
c 12
d 74
applications
eBook plus
Interactivity
In this section we look at two important applications: the equation of

a straight line, and equations of horizontal and vertical lines.
int-0979
Applications
of coordinate
geometry
The equation of a straight line
The equation of a straight line can be determined by two methods.

The y = mx + c method requires the gradient, m, and a given point to be known, in order to
establish the value of c.
Note: Since the value of c represents the y-intercept, it can be substituted directly if known.
Worked exaMple 16
Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the point (3, 1) and is parallel to the
straight line with equation y = 2x + 1.
Think
WriTe
Write the general equation.
Find the gradient of the given line.
Substitute for m in the general equation.
Substitute the given point to find c.
Substitute for c in the general equation.
y = mx + c
y = 2x + 1 has a gradient of 2
Hence m = 2
so
y = 2x + c
(x, y) = (3, 1)
1 = 2(3) + c
=6+c
c = 7
y = 2x 7
or
2x y 7 = 0
The alternative method comes from the gradient definition.

y y1
m= 2
x2 x1
Hence
m(x2 x1) = y2 y1
Chapter 12
Coordinate geometry
447
Using the general point (x, y) instead of the specific point (x2, y2) gives the general equation:
y y1 = m(x x1)
This requires the gradient, m, and a given point (x1, y1) to be known.
Worked Example 17
Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (0, 3) and is perpendicular to a straight
line with a gradient of 5.
Think
Write
m=5
1
m1 = 5
Find the gradient of the perpendicular line.
Given

Substitute for m and (x1, y1) in the general

equation.
Since y y1 = m(x x1)

and (x1, y1) = (0, 3)
then y 3 =
1
5
(x 0)
= x
5
5(y 3) = x
5y 15 = x
x + 5y 15 = 0
Horizontal and vertical lines

For horizontal lines the gradient is equal to zero, and so the equation y = mx + c becomes y = c.
Notice that x does not appear in the equation because there is no x-intercept. Horizontal lines
are parallel with the x-axis. In the case of vertical lines, the gradient is infinite or undefined. The
general equation for a vertical line is given by x = a. In this case, just as the equation suggests,
a represents the x-intercept. Notice that y does not appear in the equation because there is no
y-intercept. Vertical lines are parallel with the y-axis. The graphs of y = 4 and x = 3 are shown
below to highlight this information.
y
y=4
x = 3
Worked Example 18
Find the equation of:

a the vertical line that passes through the point (2, 3)
b the horizontal line that passes through the point (2, 6).
Think
a For a vertical line, there is no y-intercept so y does not
appear in the equation. The x-coordinate of the point is 2.

b For a horizontal line, there is no x-intercept so x does not
appear in the equation. The y-coordinate of the point is 6.
448
Write
a x=2
b y=6
Worked Example 19
Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (0, 4)
and (6, 5).
Think
1
Find the gradient of the line joining the

given points using the general equation.
Write
Let (0, 4) = (x1, y1)

Let(6, 5) = (x2, y2)
y y1
m= 2
x2 x1
m=
Find the gradient of the perpendicular line.
Find the midpoint of the line joining the

given points.
9
6
3
2
For lines to be perpendicular, m2 =

2
m1 =
3
5 ( 4)
60
1
m1
x1 + x2
2
0+6
=
2
x=
=3
y + y2
y= 1
2
=
=
+5
2
1
2
1
Hence (3, 2 ) are the coordinates of the midpoint.

4
Substitute for m and (x1, y1) in the general

equation.
Since y y1 = m(x x1)

2
1
and (x1, y1) = (3, 2 ) and m1 = 3
Simplify by removing the fractions.
then y
(a) Multiply both sides by 3.
3(y
3
2
(b) Multiply both sides by 2.
1
2
3
1
) = 2(x
2
2x + 6
(x 3)
3)
3y =
6y 3 = 4x + 12
4x + 6y 15 = 0
y
5
Note: The diagram at right shows the geometric

situation.
(6, 5)
2 2
1
2
6 x
449
Worked exaMple 20
eBook plus
ABCD is a parallelogram. The coordinates of A, B and C are (1, 5), (4, 2) and
(2, 2) respectively. Find:
a the equation of AD
b the equation of DC
c the coordinates of D.
Think
a
int-1167
Worked example 20
WriTe
Draw the parallelogram ABCD.

Note: The order of the lettering of the
geometric shape determines the links in the
diagram. For example: ABCD means join A to
B to C to D to A. This avoids any ambiguity.
Find the gradient of BC.
State the gradient of AD.
Using the given coordinates of A and the

gradient of AD find the equation of AD.
State the gradient of DC.
Using the given coordinates of C and the

gradient of DC find the equation of DC.
c Solve simultaneously to find D, the point of intersection
of the equations AD and DC.
Note: Alternatively, a CAS calculator could be used to

determine the point of intersection of AD.
450
Tutorial
y
5
2
B
D
x
1 1 2 4
2
C
22
24
4
=
2
=2
Since mBC = 2
and AD||BC
then mAD = 2
y = 2x + c
Let (x, y) = (1, 5)
5 = 2(1) + c
c=3
Hence, the equation of AD is y = 2x + 3.
25
b mAB =
4 1
3
=
3
= 1
Since mAB = 1
and DC||AB
then mDC = 1
mBC =
y = x + c
Let (x, y) = (2, 2)
2 = (2) + c
c=0
Hence, the equation of DC is y = x.
y = 2x + 3
[1]
Equation of DC: y = x
[2]
[1] [2]:
0 = 3x + 3
3x = 3
x = 1
Substituting
x = 1 in [2]:
y = (1)
=1
Hence, the coordinates of D are (1, 1).
c Equation of AD:
reMeMBer
The equation of a straight line can be determined by two methods:

1. The y = mx + c method.
This requires the gradient, m, and a given point to be known, in order to establish the
value of c.
If the y-intercept is known, then this can be directly substituted for c.
2. Alternative method: y y1 = m(x x1)
This requires the gradient, m, and a given point (x1, y1) to be known.
3. The general equation for a vertical line is given by x = a and a horizontal line is given
by y = c.
exerCiSe
12G
eBook plus
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 029
Equation of a
straight line
applications
1
2
We 16 Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the point (4, 1) and is parallel
to the straight line with equation y = 2x 5.
We 17 Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (2, 7) and is perpendicular
2
to a line with a gradient of 3.

3 Find the equations of the following straight lines.
a Gradient 3 and passing through the point (1, 5).
b Gradient 4 and passing through the point (2, 1).
c Passing through the points (2, 1) and (4, 2).
d Passing through the points (1, 3) and (6, 5).
e Passing through the point (5, 2) and parallel to x + 5y + 5 = 0.
f Passing through the point (1, 6) and parallel to x 3y 2 = 0.
g Passing through the point (1, 5) and perpendicular to 3x + y + 2 = 0.
4 Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (2, 1) and is:
a parallel to the straight line with equation 2x y 3 = 0
b perpendicular to the straight line with equation 2x y 3 = 0.
5 Find the equation of the line that contains the point (1, 1) and is:
a parallel to the straight line with equation 3x 5y = 0
b perpendicular to the straight line with equation 3x 5y = 0.
6
We 18 Find the equation of:

a the vertical line that passes through the point (1, 8)
b the horizontal line that passes through the point (5, 7).
MC a The vertical line passing through the point (3, 4) is given by:
a y = 4
b x=3
c y = 3x 4
d y = 4x + 3
e x = 4
b Which of the following points does the horizontal line given by the equation y = 5 pass
through?
a (5, 4)
b (4, 5)
c (3, 5)
d (5, 4)
e (5, 5)
c Which of the following statements is true?
a Vertical lines have a gradient of zero.
b The y-coordinates of all points on a vertical line are the same.
c Horizontal lines have an undefined gradient.
d The x-coordinates of all points on a vertical line are the same.
e A horizontal line has the general equation x = a.
Chapter 12
Coordinate geometry
451
d Which of the following statements is false?

A Horizontal lines have a gradient of zero.
B The straight line joining the points (1, 1) and (7, 1) is vertical.
C Vertical lines have an undefined gradient.
D The straight line joining the points (1, 1) and (7, 1) is horizontal.
E A horizontal line has the general equation y = c.
8 The triangle ABC has vertices A(9, 2), B(3, 6) and C(1, 4).
a Find the midpoint, M, of BC.
b Find the gradient of BC.
c Show that AM is the perpendicular bisector of BC.
d Describe triangle ABC.
9 WE19 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (1, 2)
and (5, 4).
10 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (2, 9) and (4, 0).
11 WE20 ABCD is a parallelogram. The coordinates of A, B and C are (4, 1), (1, 2) and (2, 1)
respectively. Find:
a the equation of AD
b the equation of DC
c the coordinates of D.
12 The map shows the proposed course for a yacht race. Buoys y
Scale: 1 unit 1 km
N
have been positioned at A(1, 5), B(8, 8) and C(12, 6), but
11
the last buoys placement, D(10, w), is yet to be finalised.
10
9
a How far is the first stage of the race, that is, from the
Buoy B
8
start, O, to buoy A?
7
Buoy
b The race marshall boat, M, is situated halfway between
6 A
Buoy C
M
5
buoys A and C. What are the coordinates of the boat?
4
c Stage 4 of the race (from C to D) is perpendicular to
E
3
stage 3 (from B to C). What is the gradient of CD?
Buoy D
2 H
1
d Find the linear equation that describes stage 4.
O
(Start) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
e Hence determine the exact position of buoy D.
2
f An emergency boat is to be placed at point E, 3 of the way from buoy A to buoy D. Into
what internal ratio does point E divide the distance from A to D?
g Determine the coordinates of the emergency boat.
h How far is the emergency boat from the hospital, located at H, 2km North of the start?
13 MC a The equation of the line passing through the point (4, 3) and parallel to the line
2x 4y + 1 = 0 is:
A x 2y + 2 = 0
B 2x y 5 = 0
C 2x y 10 = 0
D 2x y 11 = 0
E 2y + x + 2 = 0
b The equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB where A is (3, 5) and
B is (1, 7) is:
A 2y = x + 13
B y = 2x 8
C 2y = x + 11
D y = 2x + 4
E y = 2x 4
c The coordinates of the centroid of triangle ABC with vertices A(1, 8), B(9, 6) and
C(1, 4) are:
A (4, 5)
B (0, 6)
C (3, 6)
D (5, 7)
E (2, 7)
14 To supply cities with water when the source is a long distance away, artificial channels, called
aqueducts, may be built. More than 2000 years after it was built, a Roman aqueduct still stands
in southern France. It brought water from a source in Uzs to the city of Nmes. The aqueduct
does not follow a direct route between these two locations as there is a mountain range
452
between them. The table shows the approximate distance from Uzs along the aqueduct to
each town (or in the case of Pont du Gard, a bridge) and the aqueducts height above sea level
at each location.
Distance from
Uzs (km)
Height of aqueduct above

sea level (m)
Uzs
76
Pont du Gard (bridge)
16
65
St. Bonnet
25
64
St. Gervasy
40
61.5
Nmes
50
59
Location
a Show the information in the table as a graph with the distance from Uzs along the
horizontal axis. Join the plotted points with straight lines.
b Calculate the gradient of the steepest part of the aqueduct (in m/km).
c Suppose the aqueduct started at Uzs and ended at Nmes, but had a constant gradient.
Write a linear equation to describe its course.
d Using the equation found in part 3, calculate the height of the aqueduct at the Pont du
Gard. This calculated height is higher than the actual height. How much higher?
e Why do you think the Romans made the first part of the aqueduct steeper than the rest?
453
Summary
Distance between two points
AB = ( x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2
The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2) are:
y
(x2, y2)
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
2 , 2
+ x _____
y +y
(x_____,
2
2 )
1
(x1, y1)
Dividing a line segment internally in the ratio a:b
The coordinates of the point that divides the line segment joining the
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) internally in the ratio a:b are:

B(x2, y2)
P(x, y)
ax2 + bx1 ay2 + by1

a + b , a + b
A(x1, y1)
x
Dividing a line segment externally in the ratio a:b
The coordinates of the point that divides the line segment joining the points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) externally in the ratio a:b are:

ax2 bx1 ay2 by1

a b , a b
P(x, y)
a
b
B(x2, y2)
A(x1, y1)
x
Parallel lines
Parallel lines have the same gradient.

Collinear points lie on the same straight line.
Perpendicular lines

m1m2 = 1 or m2 =
1
m1
Applications
Equations of a straight line:

1. Gradient and y-intercept form:
y = mx + c
y2 y1
where m (the gradient) =
and c is the y-intercept
x2 x1
2. General form: ax + by + c = 0
454
To find the equation of a straight line:

1. Given gradient and y-intercept
y = mx + c
2. Given gradient and a point
y y1 = m(x x1) or

y = mx + c method
3. Given two points Find m, then use: y y1 = m(x x1) or

y = mx + c method
The general equation for a vertical line is given by x = a and a horizontal line is given by y = c.
455
chapter review
Short answer
1 Find the distance between the points (1, 3) and

(7, 2).
2 Prove that triangle ABC is isosceles given A(3, 1),
B(3, 7) and C(1, 3).
3 Show that the points A(1, 1), B(2, 3) and C(8, 0)
are the vertices of a right-angled triangle.
4 The midpoint of the line segment AB is (6, 4). If B
has coordinates (12, 10), find the coordinates of A.
5 Find the coordinates of the point which divides the
line joining the point A(2, 6) and the point B(2, 4)
internally in the ratio 3:1.
6 Find the coordinates of the point which divides the
line joining the points (2, 8) and (5, 2) externally in
the ratio 1:2.
7 Show that the points A(3, 1), B(5, 2) and C(11, 5)
are collinear.
8 Show that the lines y = 2x 4 and x + 2y 10 = 0
are perpendicular to one another.
9 Find the equation of the straight line passing
through the point (6, 2) and parallel to the line
x + 2y 1 = 0.
Exam tip To find the straight line you need a
point on the line and its gradient.
10 Find the equation of the line perpendicular to

3x 2y + 6 = 0 and having the same y-intercept.
11 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of
the line joining the points (2, 7) and (4,11).
12 Find the equation of the straight line joining
the point (2, 5) and the point of intersection of
the straight lines with equations y = 3x 1 and
y = 2x + 5.
13 Using the information given in the diagram.
a Find:
y

i the gradient of AD
B(4, 9)
ii the gradient of AB
9
iii the equation of BC
C
4 A
iv the equation of DC
O D
v the coordinates of C.
x
b Describe quadrilateral
45 9
ABCD.
456
14 In triangle ABC, A is (1, 5), B is (2, 3) and C is

(8, 2).
a Find:

i the gradient of BC
ii the midpoint, P, of AB
iii the midpoint, Q, of AC.
b Hence show that:

i PQ is parallel to BC
ii PQ is half the length of BC.
15 Triangle ABC has vertices A(a, b), B(3, 6) and
C(5, 2). The centroid, G, of the triangle has
coordinates (2, 1).
a Find:

i the midpoint, M, of BC
ii the coordinates of A
iii the gradient of BC
iv the gradient of AM
v the length of AB
vi the length of AC.
b Describe triangle ABC.
Multiple choice
1 The distance between the points (1, 5) and

(6, 7) is:
A 53
29
C 13
E 12
D 193
2 The midpoint of the line segment joining the points
(4, 3) and (2, 7) is:
B (2, 10)
C (6, 4)
A (1, 5)
D ( 2, 4)
E ( 1, 2)
3 If the midpoint of the line segment joining the
points A(3, 7) and B(x, y) has coordinates (6, 2),
then the coordinates of B are:
A (15, 3)
B (0, 6)
C (9, 3)
D (4.5, 4.5)
E ( 9, 3)
4 C is a point that divides the line segment AB
internally in the ratio 1:2. If A is the point (4, 1) and
B is the point (2, 5), then the coordinates of C are:
1 1
B (2, 1)
A (0, 3)
C (33, 23)
2
2
E (1, 2)
D (2 3 , 3 3 )
The following information refers to questions 5, 6,
7 and 8.
Triangle ABC has vertices A(1, 5), B(4, 1) and
C(6, 3).
5 The median from A meets the line segment, BC, at

M. The coordinates of M are:
1
A (2 2 , 2)
4)
B (3 2 , 1)
C (1, 2)
E (10, 2)
D (2,
6 The centroid divides a median in the ratio 2:1. The
coordinates of the centroid are:
1
A (0, 1 2 )
B (3, 2 3 )
E ( 2 , 1)
1 1
( 3 , 3)
C (0, 3)
7 The gradient of the median, AM, is:

1
A 3 2
B 7
C undefined
2
D 2
E
8 The equation of the median, AM, is:
A 2x 7y 12 = 0
B 7x 2y + 3 = 0
C 7x 2y 3 = 0
D x + 1 = 0
E 2x 7y + 12 = 0
9 D is a point that divides the line segment AB
externally in the ratio 2 : 3. If A is the point (2, 3) and
B is the point (7, 6), then the coordinates of D are:
1
A (8, 3)
B (8, 3)
C (4, 4 5 )
D (17, 12)
E (8, 3)
10 The gradient of the line joining the points (2, 7) and
(5, 8) is:
A 5
B 1
C 5
3
E 1
D 7
11 If the points (6, 11), (2, 1) and (x, 4) are collinear,
then the value of x is:
1
A 4
B 3.2
C 4
5
D 16
E 3
12 The gradient of the line perpendicular to

3x 4y + 7 = 0 is:
4
3
4
C 3
A 4
B 3
D 3
E 4
13 The equation of the line perpendicular to

2x + y 1 = 0 and passing through the point
(1, 4) is:
A 2x + y 6 = 0
B 2x + y 2 = 0
C x 2y + 7 = 0
D x + 2y + 9 = 0
E x 2y = 0
The following information refers to questions 14,
15, 16 and 17.
The diagram at
y
right shows a square
inscribed in a circle. (a, b)
A (1, 4)
D
The square has
coordinates A(1, 4),
x
B(2, 3), C(5, -4)
and D(a, b).
B
C
(2, 3)
(5, 4)
14 The circle has a radius of:

A 10 units
B 7.07 units
C 6 units
D 5 units
E 12 units
15 The coordinates of the centre are:
A (4, 0)
B (2, 0)
C (0, 2)
D (1, 1)
4)
E (0,
16 The gradient of the diagonal, BD, is:
3
A 1
C 1
B 4
D
4
3
17 The coordinates of the point D are:

A (3, 6)
B (3, 6)
C ( 6, 2)
D (2, 4)
E ( 6, 3)
Extended response
1 ABCD is a quadrilateral with vertices A(4, 9), B(7, 4), C(1, 2) and D(a, 10). Given that the diagonals are
perpendicular to each other, find:
a the equation of the diagonal AC
b the equation of the diagonal BD
B
c the value of a.
2 The centroid, G, of a triangle ABC divides the medians internally in the ratio
2:1. For example:
AG:GD = 2:1 where D is the midpoint of BC.
ABC is a triangle with coordinates A(5, 4), B(2, 5) and C(6, 9). Find the
coordinates of the centroid, G.
D
1
2
A
457
3 The course for a car rally is planned so that each participating team must
y
pass four checkpoints in order to complete the course at the point where it North
first begins. The first checkpoint, A, is located 8 km south and 5 km east
of the start, while the third checkpoint, C, is 15 km north of A and 8 km
east of the start.
Start
a Find the distance to checkpoint A.
b Find the coordinates of checkpoint C.
C
B
5
D
m
A
c Checkpoint B is located 3 of the way from A to C. Find the
coordinates of B.
d Find the distance from A to C.
e Checkpoint D is located m km directly east of the start. One of the teams realises that their car is very
low on fuel and decides to drive directly from B to a service station at D. They know that this will save
them 5.10 km of travel. Write an expression for the distance from B to D.
f Write an expression for the distance from B to D travelling via checkpoint C.
y
g Find the coordinates of checkpoint D.
h Find the total distance of the course (without taking any shortcut).
8m
2
C
T
4 An architect decides to design a building with a 14-metre-square base such

that the external walls are initially vertical to a height of 50 metres, but taper
so that their separation is 8 metres at its peak height of 90 metres. A profile of
the building is shown with the point (0, 0) marked as a reference at the centre
of the base.
a Write the equation of the vertical line connecting A and B.
b Write the coordinates of B and C.
c Find the length of the tapered section of wall from B to C.
d The top oor of the building is on a level with point T that divides BC
internally in the ratio 9:1. Find the height of the top oor of the building.
5 In a game of lawn bowls, the object is to bowl a biased ball so that it
gets as close as possible to a smaller white ball called a jack. During
a game, a player will sometimes bowl a ball quite quickly so that it
travels in a straight line in order to displace an opponents guard balls.
In a particular game, player X has 2 guard balls close to the jack. The
coordinates of the jack are (0, 0) and the coordinates of the guard balls
4
B
90 m
50 m
0
14 m
x
y
S(30, 24)
24
)
B(12 , 57
40
57
40
1 57
are A(1, 5 ) and B( 2, 40 ). Player Y bowls a ball so that it travels in

a straight line toward the jack. The ball is bowled from the position S,
with the coordinates (30, 24).
30
a Will player Y displace one of the guard balls? If so, which one?
b Due to bias, the displaced guard ball is knocked so that it begins to
travel in a straight line (at right angles to the path found in part a).
Find the equation of the line of the guard ball.
c Show that guard ball A is initially heading directly toward guard ball B.
d Given its initial velocity, guard ball A can travel in a straight line for
1 metre before its bias affects it path. Calculate and explain whether
guard ball A will collide with guard ball B.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 12
458
A(1, 45 )
4
5
1 1
2
(Not to scale)
eBook plus
aCTiviTieS
chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on coordinate geometry. (page 429)
12a
Tutorial
We3 int-1162: Watch how to prove that three points

are vertices of an isosceles triangle. (page 430)
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 021: Investigate the distance between

two points. (page 431)
12b
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 075: Investigate the midpoint of a

segment. (page 434)
12c
dividing a line segment internally in

the ratio a:b
Tutorial
We8 int-1163: Watch how to find the coordinates of a

point of a line segment given it is divided internally
in a ratio 1:2. (page 437)
Digital docs
Spreadsheet 022: Investigate dividing a segment

internally. (page 438)
SkillSHEET 12.1: Practise dividing a line in a given
ratio. (page 438)
WorkSHEET 12.1: Solve problems of distance
between two points, locate the coordinates of the
midpoint of a segment and determine coordinates of
the segment internally by dividing a line using first
principles and ratios. (page 438)
12d
dividing a line segment externally in

the ratio a:b
Tutorial
We11 int-1164: Watch how to find the coordinates of a

point of a line segment given it is divided externally
in a ratio 1:2. (page 441)
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 023: Investigate dividing a segment

externally. (page 442)
12e
Parallel lines
Tutorial
We13 int-1165: Watch how to show that three points

are collinear. (page 443)
Digital docs
Spreadsheet 046: Investigate gradients. (page 444)
SkillSHEET 12.2: Practise expressing the equation

of a straight line in the form y = mx + c. (page 444)
Spreadsheet 085: Investigate parallel lines. (page 445)
WorkSHEET 12.2: Solve more complex problems of
distance between two points, locate the coordinates
of the midpoint of a segment, determine coordinates
of the segment by internally and externally dividing
a line using ratios and demonstrate understanding of
parallel lines and collinear points. (page 445)
12F
Perpendicular lines
Tutorial
We15 int-1166: Watch how to show that two straight

lines are perpendicular. (page 446)
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 085: Investigate perpendicular lines.

(page 446)
12G
applications
Interactivity
Applications of coordinate geometry int-0979: Apply

your knowledge of coordinate geometry by using
the interactivity. (page 447)
Tutorial
We20 int-1167: Watch how to determine equations

of two sides of a parallelogram and find the
coordinates of a vertex. (page 450)
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 029: Investigate the equation of a

straight line. (page 451)
chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Chapter 12
Coordinate geometry
459
EXAM PRACTICE 3
Chapters 8 TO 12
4
p
Truth
value
3 marks
3 The partial fraction can be resolved as follows:

3x + 4
A
B
C
+
+
( x 1)( x 2 2 x + 1) x 2 ax + b (ax + b)2
a Determine the values of a and b.
2 marks
b Show that C = -7.
2 marks
c Hence, determine the values of A and B.

3 marks
SHORT ANSWER
20 minutes
4
1 Convert 2 3 cis to exact Cartesian
3
coordinates.
2 Prove by induction that n (n + 1) is always
divisible by 2 for all integer values of n.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
3 marks
10 minutes

1 When converted to polar form the circle with
equation (x - 3)2 + (y + 1)2 = 10 would become
which one of the following:
A r = 18
B r = 2(3 cos () - sin ())
C r = 2(sin () - 3 cos ())
10
sin ( ) + cos ( )
2 + 10
E r =
cos ( ) + sin ( )
D r =
2 A perpendicular line PQ is drawn so that is cuts

the line segment AB in the ratio of 1:3. The
coordinates of A and B are respectively (1, 3) and
(5, 11). The equation PQ would be:
A y - 2x = 1
B y + 2x = 17
C 2y + x = 12
D 2y + x = 21
E 2y + x = 22
3 Expressed in the form x + yi the polar equation
5
z = 4 cis
would be which one of the
6
Which one of the following compound statements

represents the truth value for the truth table
above?
A (p q) r
B p (r q)
C (p q) r
D (p r) q
E p (r q)
5 y
6
4
2
O
C 2 + 2 3i D 2 3 2i
E
460
3 2i
The graph above shows the feasible region of a

set of linear inequalities. If the objective function
z = 2y - ax is maximised at the point (3, 4) then
the value of a could be:
A -2 B -1 c 0
D 1E 2
6 The line y = -3x + 4 intersects the parabola
(y + 2)2 - 3(x + 1) = 0 at points P and Q. If the
coordinates of P are (2a, 4b) then the values of a
and b would be respectively:
A
13 + 37
( 37 ) 5
and
12
8
13 + 37
( 37 ) 5
and
12
8
13 + 37
( 37 ) 5
and
6
2
13 + 37
( 37 ) 5
and
6
2
13 + 37
and 2
3
following?
A 2 2 3iB 2 2 3i
37 ) 5
exTended reSponSe
35 minutes
1 The shape of a shade sail can be modelled using part of a rectangular hyperbola and two linear equations.
a If the equation of the rectangular hyperbola is given by 8x2 y2 16 = 0,
y
show that e = 3.
2 marks
To model the shape of the shade sail, the domain is restricted to R+ {0}. The
rectangular hyperbola that follows this constraint is shown on the set of axes
at right.
0
b On the graph above right, clearly label the foci point and the asymptotes.
3 marks
y1
To complete the shape of the shade sail, two line segments (y1 and y2) are
drawn as shown on the graph at right. The line segments begin at (0, 0) and end
at the point of intersections with the hyperbola. Line y2 is found by reecting
y1 in the x-axis.
4
c Explain why the gradient of y1 must lie between 0 and
.
2 marks
2
d If the length of y1 is 2 5 , show that the point of intersection of y1 and the
rectangular hyperbola is (2, 4).
e If the length of y2 is also 2 5 , determine the equation of y2.
0
y2
3 marks
2 marks
2 The shade sails are made by Cover All Shades. There are two types of material that shade sails can be made
from. Each type of material is described by the amount of ultraviolet (UV) rays that can penetrate through the
fibres. The two materials are defined as light protection (l) and maximum protection (m). The cost per metre
of the light protection fabric is $12.75 and the cost per metre of the maximum protection fabric is $21.50.
Cover All Shades keeps 100 metres of light protection material and 100 metres of maximum protection
material in stock. Each sail requires 15 metres of material to construct. A maximum of 14 sails are made
each week. At least 4 light protection sails are made each week. The information above can be represented
by the following inequalities:
Inequality 1: l 0
Inequality 2: m 0
Inequality 3: l + m 210
Inequality 4: l 60
a An additional Inequality 5 is described as m 2l. In the context of this problem, explain Inequality 5.
b Lines 1 to 5 are shown on the graph at right. Clearly show the
1 mark
feasible region.
c Write down the coordinates of all boundary points for the feasible
region found in part b.
2 marks
d Determine the objective function, S, for this problem. Write your
answer as an equation in terms of S, l and m.
2 marks
e Determine the maximum weekly sales, in dollars, that Cover All
Shades can expect. Write your answer to the nearest cent. 2 marks
f Outdoors Living places an order for 6 light protection and
9 maximum protection sails. Explain, in the context of this
problem, if Cover All Shades is able to deliver this order within a
week.
2 marks
m
210
120
60
210
l
2 marks
eBook plus
Digital doc
Solutions
Exam practice 3
exam practice 3
461
13
13A Introduction to vectors

13B Operations on vectors
13C Magnitude, direction and components
of vectors
13D i , j notation
13E Applications
of vectors
Vectors
aReaS oF STudy
Concept of the position vector of a point in the

Cartesian plane
The representation of plane vectors as ordered
pairs (a, b)
Plane vectors as directed line segments
The representation of a vector (a, b) in the
form ai + bj where i and j are the standard
unit vectors
orthogonal
The magnitude of a plane vector (a, b) and its

calculation
Addition of plane vectors, using components or
the parallelogram rule
Simple vector algebra (addition, subtraction,
multiplication by a scalar)
Applications of vectors: for example, geometric
proofs, orienteering, navigation and statics
eBook plus
13a
introduction to vectors
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
A scalar quantity is one which is specified by size, or magnitude, only.

Distance is an example of a scalar quantity; it needs only a number to specify its size or
magnitude. Time, length, volume, temperature and mass are scalars.
A vector quantity is specified by both magnitude and direction.
Displacement measures the final position compared to the starting position and requires both
a magnitude (eg. distance 800 m) and a direction (eg. 230T). Displacement is an example of a
vector quantity. Force, velocity and acceleration are also vectors. They all require a size and a
direction to be specified completely.
Representation of vectors
Vectors can be represented by directed line segments.
For example, if north is straight up the page and a scale of 1 cm = 20 m
is used, then a displacement of 100 m south is represented by a 5 cm
line straight down the page. We place an arrow on the line to indicate the
direction of the vector, as shown at right.
The start and end points of a vector can be labelled with capital letters.
For example, the vector shown at right can have the starting point, or
tail, labelled S and the end point, or head, labelled F:
This vector can then be referred to as SF.

The vector can also be represented by a lower-case letter over a tilde, for
example, s~ .
462
N
W
E
S
100 m
1 cm = 20 m
Representing vectors as ordered pairs (a, b)

A vector in the xy plane can be described by an ordered
pair (a, b).
The values a and b are called components where a gives the
change of position relative to the positive x-axis and b gives the
change of position relative to the positive y-axis, of the end of
the vector compared to the start.
For example (2, 4) represents a change of position of 2 units in
the positive x direction and 4 units in the positive y direction.
Note, the vector represented by (2, 4) doesnt necessarily start
at the origin. It can be in any position on the Cartesian plane.
y
4
3
2
1
2 1 0
1
3 x
2
3
Position vectors
A position vector describes a point in the Cartesian
plane. Position vectors start at the origin O(0, 0). For
example, for A(3, 1) the position vector OA is shown.

Note we can also use (3, 1) to describe any vector that travels three
units across and one up, but it is only a position vector if it starts at (0, 0).
y
2
A
1
0O 1
3 x
Worked Example 1
y
Write the following vectors in the form (a, b).
a OC b DA
C
x
O
D
Think
Write
a From O to C, we travel +4 units in the positive x
a OC = (4, 1)
b From D to A, we travel 5 units in the positive x
b DA = ( 5, 3)
direction and +1 unit in the positive y direction.
direction and +3 units in the positive y direction.
Worked Example 2
If we started at (5, 2) where would we end up after a displacement of (3, 2)?

Think
Write
Write (5, 2) + (3, 2).
(5, 2) + (3, 2)
We start at (5, 2) and move +3 units in the

positive x direction and +2 units in the positive
y direction.
= (8, 0)
Write the answer.
We would end up at the point (8, 0).
Chapter 13 Vectors
463
WoRked examPle 3
Draw d, the position vector of (2, 3), on a set of axes.
Think
A position vector must start at (0, 0) and end

at the point specified. Make sure the arrow is
pointing away from the origin.
Label the vector.
dRaW
y
3
(2, 3)
~d
x
equality of vectors
Two vectors are equal if they are:
1. equal in magnitude
2. parallel, and
3. point in the same direction.
WoRked examPle 4
y
Which of the following vectors are equal?

Think
1
Vectors a and e are of equal length, parallel

same direction.
and point in the
a=e

Vectors b and g are of equal length, parallel

and point in the same direction.
b=g

~b
~a
WRiTe
~c
f
~
g
~
WoRked examPle 5
~e
eBook plus
An aircraft ies 200 km north, then 400 km east.

Tutorial
Draw a vector diagram to represent the path taken by the aircraft and also the
int-1168
displacement of the aircraft from its starting point to its finishing point.
Worked example 5
Think
1
Take north as vertically up the page and east

to the right.
Draw a short, vertical directed line segment to

represent a displacement of 200 km north.
Draw a horizontal directed line segment with

its tail joined to the head of the first. This
represents a displacement of 400 km east.
dRaW
N
E
200 km
S
400 km
200 km
464
~d
Draw a directed line segment from the tail of

the north vector (point S) to the head of the
east vector (point F). This represents the
displacement of the aircraft from its starting
point to its finishing point.
400 km
200 km
S
RememBeR
1. A scalar quantity is specified by magnitude or size only.

2. A vector quantity is specified by both magnitude and direction.
3. Vectors can be represented by directed line segments,
as in this diagram.
A vector can also be denoted by AB or a.
4. A vector can be represented by an ordered pair (a, b).

5. Position vectors start at the origin.
6. Two vectors are equal if they are:
(a) equal in magnitude
(b) parallel and
(c) point in the same direction.
exeRCiSe
13a
eBook plus
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 144
Vectors
introduction
~a
A
introduction to vectors
1 We 1
Represent the following vectors as a displacement
in the form (a, b).
a AB
b AC
c AF
d BC
e BD
f CD
g CA
h ED
i EF
j FE
3 2 1 O
1
E
2
F
2 We2
If we started at the point (2, 5) where would we
end up after each of these displacements?
b (3, 5)
c (0, 4)
d (2, 5)
a (3, 2)
3
Examine the diagram at right. Represent the

change of position of each of the vectors shown in the
form (a, b).
4 We3
Draw the position vector for each of the
following points on the same set of axes.
(4, 1) (3, 2) (0, 3) (2, 2)
5 We4
Which of the vectors shown in question 3
are equal?
6
3
2
1
e (2, 5)
B
A
1 2 3 4 x
C
f (6, 3)
g
~
~c
~b
~a
f
~
~h
~d
~e
x
Represent each of the following vectors on

separate diagrams.
a the position vector of (2, 3)
b the position vector of (0, 5)
c the position vector of (3, 2)
Chapter 13
Vectors
465
d
e
f
g
a displacement of (2, 8) starting from the point (4, 4)

the position vector of (4, 2) followed by (3, 5)
7 mC
A vector which starts at the point (2, 1) and finishes at the point (3, 3) is
represented by a displacement of:
A (4, 5)
B (5, 4)
C (1, 2)
D (5, 4)
E (3, 2)
In questions 8 to 11, draw vector diagrams to represent the paths described and the
displacement of the finishing point from the starting point.
8 We5
An aeroplane flies 1000 km north from airport A to airport B.
It then travels to airport C, which is 1200 km north-east of B.
9
Marcus cycles 20 km in an easterly direction and then travels

30 km due south.
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SkillSHEET 13.1
Bearings
10
Bianca rows straight across a river in which a current is flowing at

3.5 km/h. Bianca can row at 11.5 km/h.
11
An aeroplane takes off and flies at an angle of elevation of 25 for 25 km. It then ies
horizontally for 300 km.
eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 13.2
Angles of
elevation and
depression
13B
operations on vectors
addition of vectors
If we travel from A to B and then from B to C, the combined
B
effect is to start from A and finish at C. We write
AB + BC = AC
A
Notice that the tail of the second vector BC is joined to the
head of the first vector AB.

If the addition is reversed, so that the tail of the first vector is
joined to the head of the second vector, the combined effect is
also a vector equal to AC . So AB + BC = BC + AB

This shows that changing the order in which vectors are added
does not alter the combined effect of the vectors.
This method for adding two vectors is called the triangle rule for vectors.
The addition of vectors a and b can be shown by forming a
vector from the tail of a to the head of b.
466
~b
~a
~a + ~b
Negative vectors
Just as moving 2 units on the x-axis is opposite in direction to moving
2 units along the x-axis, the negative of a given vector is opposite in
direction to the original vector.
~b
b
~
The vector b has the same magnitude as b but is in the opposite
direction.
Subtraction of vectors
Subtraction of vectors can be performed by combining vector addition and negative vectors.
a b = a + ( b)

For example, if a and b are vectors as shown at right, then we can
find a b by:

1. expressing it as an addition:
a b = a + ( b)

~b
~a
2. reversing the arrow on vector b so that it becomes b
b
~
~a
3. adding b to a as shown to form a b.

b
~
~a
~a ~b
Worked Example 6
Using d , e and f as shown in the diagram, draw vector diagrams to show:

a d + e b d + e + f c e f .

Think
a
1
2
1
2
f
~
~d
Draw
Draw the vector d and join the tail of e to
the head of d .
d + e is shown by the vector drawn from

tail
of d to the head of e.
the
d + e + f is obtained by joining the head

d + e (from part a ) with the tail of f .
of

d + e + f is shown by the vector drawn

from the tail of d (or d + e) to the head

of f .
Reverse the arrow on f to obtain f and

tail of - f .
join the head of e to the
~e
~e
~d + ~e
~d
~d
~e
~e
~e
f
~
~d
~d
f
~
~d + ~e +~f
f
~
~e
Chapter 13 Vectors
467
f
~
e f is shown by the vector drawn from

tail
of e to the head of f .
the
~e
~e ~f
WoRked examPle 7
(5,
eBook plus
(2,
If a = (1, 4), b =
2) and c =
3) , find each of the following:
b a c
c a + b + c.
a a + b

Think
Tutorial
int-1169
Worked example 7
WRiTe
a Add the corresponding components of each
vector to give the answer for a + b.

b Subtract the corresponding components of each
vector to give the answer for a c .

c a + b + c may be calculated by adding the

corresponding
components of a and b and c.
a a + b = (1, 4) + (5, 2)
= (4, 6)
b a c = (1, 4) (2, 3)
= (3, 1)
c a + b + c = (1, 4) + (5, 2) + (2, 3)
= (6, 9)
Scalar multiplication
A displacement of (2, 3) followed by another displacement of (2, 3) equals a displacement of (4, 6).
We could write this as 2(2, 3) = (4, 6).
The vector represented by (2, 3) has been multiplied by the number 2 to give the vector
represented by (4, 6).
This process is called multiplication by a scalar or scalar multiplication. Scalar multiplication
means that the vector is made larger or smaller by a scale factor. In the case above, the scalar is 2.
In general, we can say that if k R:
1. ka is a vector k times as big as a and in the same direction as
a for k > 0.
2. ka is in the opposite direction to a for k < 0.
~a
WoRked examPle 8
If a = (5, 4) and b = (3, 2) calculate:
a 2a+ b
b 3(b a ).

Think
1
2
468
Multiply each component of a by 2 to
obtain 2a.
Add the components of 2a and b to obtain
2a + b.

Subtract the components of a from b to
obtain b a.

Multiply the components of a b by 3 to

obtain 3(b a).

WRiTe
a
2a = 2(5, 4)
= (10, 8)
2a + b = (10, 8) + (3, 2)
= (7, 6)
b a = (3, 2) (5, 4)
= (8, 6)
3(b a) = 3(8, 6)
= (24, 18)
2a
~
3a
~
a
~
2.5a
~
Worked Example 9
ABEF and BCDE are parallelograms with AB represented by a and
AF represented by b. The length of BC is twice the length of AB. Express

in terms of a and b.
the following vectors

a BC b AC c BD
Think
a
1
2
3
BC and AB are in the same direction and
BC is twice as big as AB.
Replace AB by a

AC = AB + BC using vector addition.
Replace AB and BC by a and 2a
respectively.
Simplify.

CD = AF since opposite sides of a
parallelogram are parallel and the same
size.
BD = BC + CD using the triangle rule to

add vectors.
Replace BC and CD by 2a and b
respectively.
Write
~b
A
~a B
a BC = 2AB
= 2a
b AC = AB + BC
= a + 2a
= 3a
c CD = b
BD = BC + CD
= 2a + b

Worked Example 10
Simplify the expression AB + BC EC .

Think
1
AB + BC represents a vector from

A to B with the vector from B to C
added on.
This is the same as the vector from
A to C.
EC is the same as vector CE since

the negative of a vector reverses the
direction.
AC + CE represents a vector starting at A

going to C and then from C to E. This is the
same as AE.
Write
AB + BC EC
= AC EC
= AC + CE
= AE
Chapter 13 Vectors
469
RememBeR
1. Vectors are added using the triangle rule, AB + BC = AC.

2. Subtraction of vectors is performed by using a b = a + ( b) (b is a vector which has
to b.)
the same magnitude as b but is in the opposite direction
3. Multiplication of a vector by a scalar means that the vector is made larger or smaller
by a scale factor.
4. ka is a vector k times as big as a and in the same direction as a, if k > 0; if k < 0,
ka is in the opposite direction
to a, where k R.
then
exeRCiSe
13B
eBook plus
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 143
Vectors
operations on vectors
1 We6
Using vectors a, b and c as shown, sketch:

c c
b 2b
a 3a
d a+b
e a+c
f b+c
~a

g a + 2b
h 2a + 3c
i ac

j bc
k a+b+c
l abc
~b

2
Draw two vectors u and v such that u + v = (0, 0).

~c
3
a Draw two possible representations of u + v = (3, 5).

b Draw two possible representations of u + v = (3, 2).

4 We 7
If m = (2, 3), n = (4, 0) and p = (1, 5), find each of the following.
c n p
d m n p
a m+n
b m+ n+ p

5 We8
Using m, n and p from question 4, calculate the following.

c 2(m + n)
a 3n p
b 2m + n p
d 4 p 3n

F
G
6
The figure shows a cube. Write all the vectors that are equal to
the following vectors.
C
a OA
b OC
c OD
E
D
d GF
e OB
f AD
A
O
Refer to the cube shown in question 6.
Let a = OA, c = OC and d = OD. Write, in terms of a, c and d , the vectors representing:
a DE
b OB
c AC
d AE
e EA
f EG
g DF
h OF
i AG
j DB
C
B
8
ABCDEF is a regular hexagon with vectors OA and OB
represented by a and b respectively. Write, in terms of a and b, the
~b
vectors.
D
A
a
a DO
b DA
c AD
d AB
O ~
e BC
f AC
g CD
h ED
E
F
i EA
j DF
9 We10
Show that OA + AB + BC = OC .
7 We9
470
Express in simplest form AB + BC + DE DC .
11
Show that EF + GH GF EH = 0.
12 mC
In simplest form, MN QP + NP + QR equals:
A 0
B MR
C MQ
D QN
10
eBook plus
Digital doc
E NR
WorkSHEET 13.1
13C
magnitude, direction and

components of vectors
magnitude
eBook plus
Digital doc
The magnitude of a vector can be calculated from the length of the line segment representing the
vector.
The magnitude of a vector a is denoted by a or a.
direction
The direction of a vector can be found by applying appropriate trigonometric ratios to find a
relevant angle.
This angle is usually the angle that the vector makes with a given direction such as north, the
positive x-axis, the horizontal or vertical and so on.
SkillSHEET 13.3
Using
trigonometric
ratios
WoRked examPle 11
Find the magnitude and direction, relative to the positive x-axis, of the vector (3, 2).
Think
1
dRaW/WRiTe
Draw a diagram of the vector and denote it as

a with the angle between a and the positive
x-axis
as q.
The magnitude of a is the length of the line

the vector.
segment representing
Use Pythagoras theorem to calculate this

length.
Calculate the angle q using trigonometry.
State the solution with the angle down from

the positive x-axis given as a negative.
~a
x
2
a = 32 + 2 2
= 13
2
tan (q ) =
3
q = 33.7
The vector (3, 2) has a magnitude of 13 units and
makes an angle of 33.7 with the positive x-axis.
The angle that a vector makes with the positive x-axis can be
found using trigonometry. If the vector points in the negative
x direction then you will need to add your found angle q to 90 or
subtract it from 180 to find the required angle. See the diagram.
y
3
(3, 3)
180
Chapter 13
Vectors
471
Upward vectors are expressed as positive angles anticlockwise from the positive x-axis.
Downward vectors are expressed as negative angles clockwise from the positive x-axis.
In general, if r = (a, b) then the direction of r compared to the positive x-axis is found by
b
appropriately adjusting q where tan (q) = .
a
Vector components
We have seen that two vectors may be added to give one resultant vector. The reverse process
may be used to express one vector as the sum of two other vectors. This process is called
breaking the vector into two components.
A vector can be broken into two perpendicular components such as x and y or north and
east.
It may be convenient to find the effect of a vector in a particular direction.
We do this by breaking the vector into two components.
~F
V
A force F acting as shown will move an object to the right and upwards.
~
The force F can be separated into two component parts; one in the
H, and the other in the vertical direction, V .

horizontal direction,
H
~
F = H +V

The effect of the force in the horizontal direction is given entirely by H and the effect in the
vertical direction is given by V .
By breaking F into component parts in two perpendicular directions we can analyse the effect
or both of these directions.
of the vector in one
Worked Example 12
Write the horizontal and vertical components of a vector of magnitude 5 and angle of 120 with the
positive x-axis.
Think
1
Represent the vector on the Cartesian plane.
Draw/Write
y
120
x
0
2
Construct a right-angled triangle with the

vector as the hypotenuse and the other sides
H for horizontal and V for vertical.
5
120
x
H 0
3
Calculate the angle between the vector and the

x-axis and indicate it on the graph.
y
5
V
60
H 0
472
Calculate V using the sine ratio.
V
5
V = 5 sin (60)
sin (60) =
5 3
(or 4.33)
2
H
cos (60) =
5
H = 5 cos (60)
5
= (or 2.5)
2
=
Calculate H using the cosine ratio.
State the solution, adding negative signs

where necessary.
The vector has a horizontal component of

and a vertical component of
5 3
.
2
WoRked examPle 13
5
2
eBook plus
A car travels 12 km in
a direction N30E.
How far:
a north
b east
of its starting point has
it travelled?
Think
Tutorial
int-1170
Worked example 13
dRaW/WRiTe
Draw a vector diagram representing the

motion of the car. Call the vector a and its
eastern and northern components e and
n, respectively.
N
~e
~n 30 ~a
E
Calculate n (the magnitude of n) using the
cosine ratio.
State the distance travelled by the car to

the north.
Calculate e (the magnitude of e) using the
sine ratio.
State the distance travelled by the car to the

east.
n
12
n = 12 cos (30)
= 10.4
cos (30) =
The car has travelled to approximately 10.4 km

north of its starting point.
e
b sin (30) =
12
e = 12 sin (30)
=6
The car has travelled to 6 km east of its starting
point.
Chapter 13
Vectors
473
RememBeR
1. The magnitude of a vector r is denoted by r or r.
2. A vector represented by (a, b) has a magnitude equal to a 2 + b 2 and a direction with

b
the positive x-axis given by the appropriate adjustment to q, where tan (q ) = .
a
3. A vector may be broken into two component parts, usually in perpendicular
directions.
exeRCiSe
13C
eBook plus
magnitude, direction and components of vectors

1
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 13.3
Using
trigonometric
ratios
474
We11 Calculate the magnitude and direction, relative to the positive x-axis, of the following
displacements.
c (2, 4)
d (1, 1)
a (6, 2)
b (4, 1)
e ( 2, 1)
f ( 1, 4)
g (1, 0)
h (2, 2)
Refer to the diagram of the cube shown. If the sides of the

F
G
cube are 1 unit in length, write the magnitudes of these vectors in
B
C
exact form:
E
a OA
b AB
c OB
d OD
D
e AD
f DF
g OE
h EF
A
O
i OF
j AG
3 We12 Write the horizontal and vertical components of these vectors. Write your answers in
exact form where possible.
a Magnitude 2, angle of 60 with the x-axis
b Magnitude 3, angle of 150 with the x-axis
c Magnitude 10, angle of 60 with the x-axis
d Magnitude 2, angle of 120 with the x-axis
e Magnitude 20, angle of 45 with the x-axis
f Magnitude 4, parallel to the y-axis
g Magnitude 12, parallel to the x-axis
h A speed of 30 m/s vertically downwards
i A move of 10 m to the left at an angle of 30 downwards from the x-axis
j A move of 20 m to the right at an angle of 30 upwards
from the x-axis
k A speed of 50 m/s horizontally to the right
l A force of 40 N at an angle of 20 to the horizontal
m A force of 98 N vertically downwards
n A force of 1250 N at an angle of 15 to the horizontal.
4
A vector has a horizontal component of x (< 0)

and a vertical component of y (> 0). Write the magnitude and
direction from the positive x-axis of the vector.
We13 A yacht sails 32 km in a direction S25E. How far

a south
b east
of its starting point has it travelled?
6 Justine cycles 8 km in a northerly direction. She then travels 6 km in an easterly direction.

Calculate the magnitude and direction of her displacement.
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 13.2
13d
7 For the following pairs of vectors, calculate the magnitude and direction of a + b and a b.

a a = 10 km north and b = 6 km north-east
b a = 25 units east and b = 20 units S30W
c a = 10 units and b = 8 units in the opposite direction
d a = 12 km west and b = 12 km south
e a = 20 km and b = 15 km in the same direction
f a = 50 units in a direction 300 T and b = 40 units in a direction 30 T
i , j notation
unitvectors
1. A unit vector is any vector with a magnitude or length of 1 unit.
y
2. The vector i is defined as the unit vector in the positive x direction.
3. The vector j is defined as the unit vector in the positive y direction.

a displacement of d = (2, 5) represents a move of 2 units in the
For example,
j
~
positive y direction.
positive x direction and 5 units in the
x
O ~i
An alternative way of representing this is
d = 2i + 5 j

Any vector in two dimensions can be represented as
a combination of i and j vectors, the
the coefficient of j
coefficient of i representing the magnitude of the horizontal component and
representing the magnitude of the vertical component.

y
In general we may represent any two-dimensional vector r as:
y
r = xi + yj where x, y R

~r
O
x x
WoRked examPle 14
a Draw a vector to represent a = 3 i j .
b Find the magnitude and direction of the vector a.

Think
a
Draw axes with i and j as unit vectors in the
x and y directions respectively.
dRaW/WRiTe
a
y
2
j
~
1
2 1 O
1
2
Represent 3i j as a vector from 0 that is
3 units in the positive

x direction and 1 unit
in the negative y direction and mark the angle
between a and the x-axis as q.
~i
y
2
1
2 1 O
1
j
~
~a
~i
Chapter 13
Vectors
475
a = 32 + ( 1)2
= 10
The magnitude of a (that is, a ) may be found
using Pythagoras theorem.
Find the value of angle q using the tangent

ratio.
tan (q) =
Give the direction of vector a relative to the
positive x-axis.
Vector a makes an angle of 18.4 from
the positive
x-axis.
1
3
q = 18.4
As we have seen, angles are usually given with respect to the positive x direction.
We may generalise this procedure:
y
For any vector, r:
1. r = xi + yj
~r

yj
2. Magnitude r , r = x 2 + y2
~
3.The direction from the positive x-axis is given by appropriately

x
xi~
O
y
adjusting q where tan (q) = .
x
Addition, subtraction and multiplication by a scalar for a vector in i , j form follows the rules

of normal arithmetic with each component treated separately.
If a = x1 i + y1 j and b = x2 i + y2 j
a + b = ( x1 + x2 ) i + ( y1 + y2 ) j

a b = ( x1 x2 ) i + ( y1 y2 ) j

ka = k x1 i + k y1 j
Worked Example 15
If a = 3 i + j and b = 2 i + 5 j, express in i , j form
a a + b b 2 a b.

Think
a Add the i components and j components separately.
2 a is calculated by multiplying the i and j
components
of a by 2.
2a b is calculated by subtracting the i and j

components
of b respectively from 2a.
Write
a a + b = (3 i + j ) + ( 2 i + 5 j )

= 3i 2 i + j + 5 j

= i +6j

2a = 2(3i + j)
b

= 6 i + 2 j.
2a b = 6 i + 2 j ( 2 i + 5 j )

= 6i + 2 j + 2i 5 j
= 8i 3 j

Worked Example 16
OA = 3 i + j and OB = i + 4 j.

a Represent OA and OB on a diagram.
476
b Find, in terms of i and j , the vector AB .
c If M is the midpoint of AB, find the vector OM in terms of i and j .
Think
a
draw/Write
Draw axes with i and j as unit vectors in the
x and y directions respectively.
Represent OA as 3i + j and OB as i + 4 j on

the axes.
1 O
1
b

may be expressed as AO
+ OB using the
AB
triangle rule for adding vectors.
Change AO to negative OA .
Express this in i , j form.

Simplify.
Mark the point M in the middle of AB.
= OA + OB
AB = (3i + j) + ( i + 4 j)

= 4i + 3 j

y
4
3
2
1
1 O
1
Express OM as the sum of OA + 12 AB .
Express this in i , j form.

Simplify.
1 2 3
b AB = AO + OB
OA = 3i + j

OB = i + 4 j
y
B
4
3
2
M
A
x
1 2 3
1
OM = OA + AB
2
1
= (3i + j) + 2 ( 4 i + 3 j)

= i + 2.5 j
REMEMBER
1. Any two-dimensional vector may be written in the form r = xi + y j, where i and j are
unit vectors in the x and y directions, respectively.

2. r = x 2 + y 2
3. The angle made by r with the positive x-axis is given by appropriately adjusting ,
y
where tan () = .
x
4. Vectors may be added, subtracted or multiplied by a scalar in i , j form by adding,
subtracting or multiplying the i and j components separately.
Chapter 13 Vectors
477
exeRCiSe
13d
eBook plus
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 143
Vectors
i , j notation
1 We
14a Draw a vector to represent each of the following.
a 4i + 3 j
b 4i 3 j
c 2i + 2 j

d i j
e 4i + j
f 5i

g 6j
h 2i
i 8i 6 j
j
5i + 12 j
2 We 14b Calculate the magnitude and direction of each of the vectors in question 1.
3
a
d
g
j
If a = 3i + 2 j, b = i j and c = 2 j, find the following in i , j form.

3a
b a+b
c ac

2b
e a+b+c
f 2b c

3a + 2b + c
h 4c
i 4c a

3c a b

4 We 15
a u
d uv

5
If u = 2 i 3 j and v = 3i + j, find the following in exact form.

b u+v
c 3v
Represent the following position vectors in the form xi + y j.

y
4
(1, 3)
3
(2, 3)
2 ~b ~a
~h
1
(4, 3)
~c
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1
d
e
~
~ 2
(6, 2)
3
(2, 3)
4
6 We 16
(5, 1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 x
f
~
(1, 3)
g
~
(6, 4)
OA = 2 i j and OB = 4 i + 3 j

a Represent OA and OB on a diagram.
b Find, in terms of i and j, the vector AB .
c If M is the midpoint of AB, find the vector OM in terms of i and j .
c AC
d ON where N is the midpoint of OB
e AB
f MN
478
OACB is a rectangle in which the vector OA = 4 i and OB = 6 j. Express the following in
terms of i and j .
a OC
b OM where M is the midpoint of OA
The position of the points A, B and C is defined by:
OA = 4 i , OB = 10 i + 2 j and OC = 4 i + 4 j
a Find the vectors representing the three sides of the triangle ABC (that is, find in i , j

form the vectors AB, AC and BC ).

b Calculate the magnitude of these three sides. Leave answers in exact form.
c What type of triangle is ABC?
9
M, N and P are three points defined by: OM = i + j, ON = i + 4 j and OP = 5i + 10 j

a Find MN and NP .
b Show that MN and NP are parallel vectors.

a = 4 i 2 j and b = 3i + j
a Find 3a 2b and 3a + 4 b.
b Explain why 3a + 4 b is parallel to the y-axis.
11 mC The magnitude of the vector 2 i + 2 j is:
A 2+2
B 2 2
10
D 2
2+2
12 mC If a = 3i 5 j and b = 3i 2 j, then a 2b equals:
A 9i j
B 9i + j
C 3i j

D 3i + j
E 4i 9 j

13 mC The vectors u = 2 i and v = 6 i 2 j. The magnitude of u + v is:
A 68
B 60
C 40 + 4
D
32 + 2
E 6
14 mC The angle the vector 3i 4 j makes with the positive x-axis is nearest to:
53
A 37
B
C 53
D 37
E 127
15
Find the vector a + b, which represents the planned shot of a pool player.

~b = 1.
6i
~ 0.4
~j
~a =
2.3
~i +
3.1
~j
eBook plus
Digital doc
Investigation
Angle between
two vectors
in i, j notation

16
Vector m = 12 i + x j . The magnitude of m is 13. Find the value of x.
Chapter 13
Vectors
479
13e
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0980
Applications
of vectors
applications of vectors
Vectors have a wide range of applications such as in orienteering, navigation, mechanics and
engineering. Vectors are applied whenever quantities specified by both magnitude and direction
are involved.
When solving problems involving vectors:
1. Draw a vector diagram depicting the situation described.
2. Use the appropriate skills to answer the question being asked.
WoRked examPle 17
A boat is being rowed straight across a river at a speed of 6 km/h. The river is owing at 2 km/h. If
i is the unit vector in the direction that the river is owing and j is the unit vector in the direction
of i and j. Hence, find the

straight
across the river, represent the velocity of the boat in terms
place
magnitude and direction of the velocity of the boat correct to 1 decimal
Think
1
dRaW/WRiTe
y
Draw a set of axes with i in the direction of

the positive x-axis and j in the direction of the
positive y-axis.
j
~
O
2
3
Indicate the velocity vector of the boat, v,

6).
starting at O and finishing at the point (2,
~i
v = 2i + 6 j
j
~
~i
Represent the velocity of the boat in terms of

i and j.
~v
O
4
5
6
The magnitude of v is 22 + 62 .
Evaluate the magnitude correct to 1 decimal

place.
Draw a right-angled triangle with v as the
hypotenuse and q as the angle between

v and
the i direction.
Express q using the tangent ratio.
v = 22 + 62
= 40
6.3
y
6
~v
O
7
tan (q ) =
6
2
=3
8
Evaluate q correct to 1 decimal place.
State the magnitude and direction of the

velocity of the boat.
q = 71.6
The velocity of the boat has a magnitude of
approximately 6.3 km/h and is directed at
approximately 71.6 from the riverbank.
Note: The magnitude of velocity is referred to as speed.
480
WoRked examPle 18
eBook plus
An aircraft is heading north with an airspeed of 500 km/h.

Tutorial
A wind of 80 km/h is blowing from the south-west. Using i and
int-1171
Worked example 18
j as unit vectors in the directions east and north respectively:
Represent the aircrafts air velocity in terms of i and j.
a
b Represent the aircrafts exact ground velocity in terms of i and j.
its ground speed.
c Hence, find the direction in which the aircraft is heading and
Think
dRaW/WRiTe
a Express a in terms of i and j.
a a = 500 j
Indicate the vector representing the wind

speed, w, by placing its tail at the head of
the firstvector, directed in a direction 45
from the north with a magnitude of 80,
since the wind speed is 80 km/h from the
south-west.
Represent the combined effect of the two

speeds with a vector v using the triangle
rule.
Express w, exactly, in terms of i and j

trigonometry.
using basic
Express the aircrafts ground velocity, v,
as the sum of a and w.
Express in terms of i and j.
Indicate the angle between v and the
y-axis as q.
1
2
Use the tangent ratio to evaluate q

to 1 decimal place. The length of the
horizontal component of v is 40 2 . The
length of the vertical component

of v is
500 + 40 2 .
80
45
w
~
500
W
S
Indicate the vector representing the

aircrafts airspeed, a, starting at O and
(0, 500).
finishing at the point
Draw a set of axes with i in the direction

of the positive x-axis and j in the
direction of the positive y-axis.
~a
j
~
~i
~v
w = 80 sin (45) i + 80 cos (45) j
= 40 2 i + 40 2 j
v = a+w

= 40 2 i + (500 + 40 2 ) j
tan (q ) =
500 + 40 2
0.1016
q = 5.8
w
~
~a
O
40 2
~v
Calculate the magnitude of v correct to
1 decimal place.
v = (40 2 )2 + (500 + 40 2 )2
559.4
State the direction and magnitude of the

ground speed of the aircraft.
The aircraft is ying with a ground speed

of approximately 559.4 km/h in a N5.8E
direction.
Chapter 13
Vectors
481
Statics
When the vector sum of the forces acting on a stationary particle is zero, then the situation is
said to be static and the particle will remain stationary. The particle is also said to be in
equilibrium. In the case of two forces, we have the situation shown at right.
In the case of three forces, we have the situation shown in the diagram P
F
~
~
below, left. Where the three forces are acting so that the particle is in
equilibrium, the lines representing the forces can be rearranged into a triangle of forces (diagram
below, right) since their vector sum is zero. Hence, problems can be solved using trigonometry
(including the sine rule and cosine rule) and sometimes Pythagoras theorem.
~F
R
~
R
~
~P
~F
~P
+ + =O
~F ~P R
~ ~
Note: The three forces are still acting in the same direction and have the same magnitudes (or
lengths) as they did in the real situation.
Worked Example 19
Three forces are acting on the particle P as shown

in the diagram. Force A is vertically up and has a magnitude
of 20 N (20 newtons) while

Force B is horizontally to the right
particle is in equilibrium,
and has a magnitude of 40 N. If the
find the magnitude of the Force C to the nearest tenth of a
nearest tenth of a degree.
newton and give its direction to the
Think
1
Draw the three forces as a triangle of forces.
Label the angle between the forces A and C
as .
4
5
Calculate C using Pythagoras theorem.
Evaluate C correct to 1 decimal place.
Evaluate using the tangent ratio.
A
~
20 N
P
40 N
~B
C
~
Write
A
~
20
C
~
~B
40
2
C = A +B
= 20 2 + 40 2
= 400 + 1600
= 2000
C = 2000
C = 44.7 newtons
40
tan (q ) = 20
q = tan 1 (2)
q = 63.4
6
482
State the answer to the question.
The force has a magnitude of 44.7 N and it is acting

downwards at an angle of 63.4 from the vertical.
Geometric proofs
Vectors can also be used to prove a range of geometric theorems. From earlier in the chapter,
you will remember that two vectors are equal if they are equal in magnitude, are parallel and
point in the same direction. One important vector property that is useful in geometric proofs is
that if a = kb , where k R (k 0), then the two vectors, a and b are parallel.
WoRked examPle 20
eBook plus
Show that the line joining the midpoint of

two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side
and equal to half of its length.
Tutorial
int-1172
M
A
Think
1
WRiTe
Let side AB represent vector AB and side BC
represent vector BC . Use the symbol a for
vector AB, and b for vector BC.
Let side AC represent vector AC. Express AC

in terms of a and b.
Express MN in terms of a and b.
AB = a and BC = b
AC = a + b

MN = MB + BN
1
1
= 2 AB + 2 BC
1
5
6
Worked example 20
Simplify the expression by taking out 2 as a

common factor.
= 2a+ 2b
1
= 2 (a + b)

Express MN in terms of AC.
1
= 2 AC
MN is parallel to AC since AC is a
multiple of MN.
Therefore, MN is parallel to AC and its length
is half the length of AC.
RememBeR

exeRCiSe
13e
applications of vectors
1 We17 A boat is being rowed straight across a river at a speed of 7 km/h. The river is flowing
at 2.5 km/h. If i is the unit vector in the direction that the river is flowing and j is the unit
in terms of i
vector in the direction
straight across the river, represent the velocity of the boat
and j. Hence, find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the boat.
Chapter 13
Vectors
483
2 A boat is being rowed straight across a river at a speed of 10 km/h. The river is flowing at
3.4 km/h. Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the boat.
3 WE18 An aircraft is heading north with an airspeed of 650 km/h. A wind of 60 km/h is
blowing from the south-west. Using i and j as unit vectors in the directions east and north
respectively:
a represent the aircrafts airspeed.
b represent the aircrafts ground speed in terms of i and j.
and its ground speed.

c hence, find the direction in which the aircraft is heading
4 An aircraft is heading south with an airspeed of 600 km/h. A wind of 50 km/h is blowing in a
S30W direction. Find the direction in which the aircraft is heading and the ground speed.
5 Forces of 3i + 4 j and 2 i + 2 j act simultaneously on an object.
and direction
Find the magnitude

of the resultant of the two forces.
6 Forces of 5i 4 j, 3i j and 2 i + 3 j act simultaneously on an object.
of the resultant of the three forces.

and direction
Find the magnitude
7 A hiker is located at a position given
by (8, 6) where the coordinates
represent the distances in kilometres
east and north of O respectively. If
a campsite is at a position given by
(3,2), find the distance and direction
of the hiker from the campsite.
8 A hiker is located at a position given
by (5, 3) where the coordinates
represent the distances in kilometres
east and north of O respectively.
If a campsite is at a position given
by (3, 2), find the distance and
direction of the hiker from the
campsite.
9 A bushwalker starts walking at 8.00 am from
a campsite at (4, 8), where the coordinates
represent the distances in kilometres east and north
of O respectively. After 1 hour she is at (2, 6.5).
Take i and j as unit vectors along OX and OY .
a Write, in terms of i and j, her position at the
start and after 1 hour.

b Calculate the distance travelled in 1 hour.
c She then continues at the same rate and in the
same direction. What is her position vector
after:

i 2 hours? ii3 hours?
d Show that her position t hours after 8.00 am is
given by:
r 1 = ( 4 + 2t ) i + (8 1.5t ) j
Another bushwalker commences walking from

his campsite also at 8.00 am. His position is given by:
r 2 = (7.4 1.8t ) i + (2 + 0.5t ) j
e What are the coordinates of this bushwalkers

campsite?
484
f What is his position after 2 hours of walking?

g By equating i and j components, show that the two bushwalkers meet.
each campsite that each bushwalker has travelled when they meet.
h Find the distance
from
10 The i , j system may be extended to three dimensions
vector k in the z direction.
witha unit
Take i , j and k as unit vectors in the directions east,
vertically
up respectively.
north and
z
~i
~k
O
j
~
Frank travels 2 km in a direction N30E from

O to a point A. He then climbs a 100 m high cliff.
a Write the vector OA in i , j form.

b Calculate how far Frank has
travelled to the north
of his starting point.
c If T represents the top of the cliff, write down the vectors AT and OT using i , j, k

components.
d Calculate the magnitude of OT.
(1
2t
10
t 2)
~j
t
~i +
The position vectors for an arrow and a

moving target are shown at right, where t is the time
in seconds since the target began to move, and h is
the height of the target. If the arrow is to hit the
target, when must this happen and what must the
value of h be for this to occur?
40
11
hj
5)i~+ ~
3
+
(5t
h
x
12
Forces of 2 i + 3 j, 4 i 5 j, xi + j and 3i yj act on a particle which is in equilibrium.

Find the values of x and y.
13 WE19 Three forces are acting on the particle P shown. Force A is vertically up and has
magnitude of 16 N while force B is horizontally to the right and has a magnitude of 28 N. If
the magnitude of the force C to the nearest tenth of a newton
the particle is in equilibrium, find
and give its direction to the nearest tenth of a degree.

A
~
16 N
P
28 N
~B
C
~
Chapter 13 Vectors
485
14 Three forces are acting on the particle P shown. Force A has a magnitude of 35 N while force
B has a magnitude of 40 N. If the particle is in equilibrium,

find the magnitude of the force C
to the nearest tenth of a newton and give its direction to the nearest tenth of a degree.
C
~
A
~
35 N
P
120
40 N
~B
15
WE20 PQR is a triangle in which M is the midpoint of QR. Prove that
1
PM = 2 (PR QP).
16
486
Prove that if the midpoints E, F, G and H of a rhombus ABCD are joined, then a
parallelogram EFGH is formed.
(Extension: Show that the parallelogram is, in fact, a rectangle.)
Summary
Introduction to vectors
A scalar quantity is specified by magnitude or size only.

A vector quantity is specified by both magnitude and direction.
Vectors can be represented by directed line segments, as in this diagram.
A vector can also be denoted by AB or a.

pair (a, b).
A vector can be represented by an ordered
Position vectors start at the origin.
Two vectors are equal if they are:
(a) equal in magnitude (b) parallel (c) point in the same direction.
~a
A
Operations on vectors
Vectors are added using the triangle rule.

Subtraction of vectors is performed by using a b = a + ( b).
isin the
opposite
The vector b has the same magnitude as b but
direction to b.
of a vector by a scalar means that the vector is made larger or
Multiplication
smaller by a scale factor.
The vector ka is k times as big as a and in the same direction as a
if k > 0; if k < 0, then ka is in the opposite

direction to a.
~b
~a
~a + ~b
b
~
~a
~a ~b
Magnitude, direction and components of vectors
The magnitude of a vector r is denoted by r or r.
A vector represented by (a, b) has a magnitude equal to a 2 + b 2 and a direction with the positive x-axis
b
given by appropriately adjusting where tan (q ) = .
a
A vector may be broken into two component parts, usually in perpendicular directions.
i , j notation

Any two-dimensional vector may be written in the form r = xi + yj , where i and j
are unit vectors in the x and y directions respectively.

r = x 2 + y 2
y
~r
0
xi~
yj
~
x
The angle made by r with the positive x-axis is given by appropriately adjusting ,
y
where tan (q ) = .
x
Vectors may be added, subtracted or multiplied by a scalar in i , j form by adding, subtracting or multiplying

the i and j components separately.
Applications of vectors

Chapter 13 Vectors
487
chapter review
Short answer
1 On the same set of axes draw the following vectors:

a = (3, 2), b = (0, 4) and c = (2, 5). Calculate:
a+b
b 3c 2b
c c
2 Show that CA + EB ED + DC DA = DB.

3 Write the horizontal and vertical components of
a vector of magnitude 4 which makes an angle of
120 with the positive x-axis.
4 Let d = i + 4 j, e = 2i 3 j and f = 4 i .

a Calculate the following.

ii 3e
iii 2e + f

i d e

b Write the magnitude and direction of d , e

and f .
5 OG = 8i + 2 j and OH = 4 i 6 j

a Represent the vectors OG and OH on a
diagram.
b Find, in terms of i and j, the vector GH.
c Calculate the magnitude of GH.
6 aIf M is the midpoint of OG = 8i + 2 j and N is
the midpoint of OH = 4 i 6 j, what are the

vectors OM and ON in terms of i and j?
b Show that MN = 6 i 4 j.
c How are MN and GH related?

7 A distressed yacht is located at a position given
by (43, 36) where the coordinates represent the
distances in kilometres east and north of a port
respectively. If a ship is at a position given by
(50, 32), find the distance and direction of the yacht
from the ship.
8 A boat is being rowed straight across a river at a
speed of 9 km/h. The river is flowing at 3.2 km/h.
Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of
the boat.
488
Multiple choice
Questions 1 to 4 refer to the figure below.

1 Start at the point (4, 2). The coordinates of the
point at which we
finish after a
~b
displacement equal
to d is:
A (1, 2)
~a
~c
B (1, 2)
C (1, 2)
~d
D (1, 1)
E (1, 2)
2 a b is equal to:

A (3, 1)
B (5, 1)
C (5, 5)
D (1, 5)
E (1, 3)
3 A vector parallel to c:
A (2, 0)
B (2, 2)
C (10, 5)
D (0, 8)
E (1, 1)
4 Compared to c the vector -2c would be represented
segment of:
by a directed line
A equal length with the arrow pointing up
B equal length with the arrow pointing down
C equal length with the arrow pointing to the
right
D double the length with the arrow pointing up
E double the length with the arrow pointing down
5 Using the figure at right,
y
~
choose the correct statement.
B x y = z x
A x + y = z

~

~z
C x + y = z D x + y = z
E x y = z

6 Expressed in simplest form, DE + FH FG + EG

equals:
A 0
B DF
C FE
D DH
E DG
For questions 7 and 8 consider the position vector of
(4, 8).
7 The magnitude of this vector is:
A 4
B 4
D 4 3
E 4 5
C 4 3
8 The angle between this vector and the positive

x-axis is nearest to:
A 63.4
B 26.6
C 63.4
D 116.6
E 116.6
Questions 9 to 12 refer to:
a = 2 i j, b = i j and c = 4 i + 2 j
9 The magnitude of a is:
A 1
B 3
C 5
D 3
E 2
13 The magnitude of the resultant force is:

A 101
B 7
C 109
D 17
E 5
10 The angle vector c makes with the positive x-axis,
, is found by solving:
1
A tan () = 2
B tan () = 2
D cos () = 2
E tan () =
C sin () = 2
1
2
11 The vector 2b + c is:

A 0
B parallel to the x-axis
C parallel to the y-axis
D equal in magnitude to a
E a unit vector
12 a b + c equals:

A 7 i + 2 j
B 5i
C 5i + 2 j
D 7 i
E 7 i + 4 j
The following information applies to questions 13

and 14.
Two forces, i 3 j and 2 i + 7 j , act simultaneously on
an object.
14 The direction of the resultant force is:

A 53.1 clockwise from j
B 73.3 anticlockwise from i
C 53.1 anticlockwise from i
D 73.3 clockwise from j
E 53.1 clockwise from i .
15 A force of magnitude 18 newtons acts on a body at

an angle of 150 in the anticlockwise direction to
the vector i.
A vector representation
of this force could be:
A 9 3i + 9 j B 9 i + 9 3 j C 9 3i + 9 j
D 9 i 9 3 j E 9 3i 9 j
Extended response
1 A triangular course has been planned for a yacht race. Point O is the start and
y
A
finish of the race. The race goes from O to A to B to O with the coordinates of
A and B being (24, 16) and (36, 10) respectively. The coordinates represent
B
distances in kilometres east and north of O.
Take i and j as unit vectors along the x- and y-axes.
a Write (in terms of i and j) the vectors OA and OB.

O Land
b Hence, show that AB = 12 i 6 j.

c Calculate the magnitudes of OA, AB and OB.

d State the distance of the race.
e Write the angle that OA makes with the x-axis.
f Calculate the angle that AB makes with the x-axis and hence show that the bearing of B from A is
116.6T.
Chapter 13 Vectors
489
g While travelling along the third leg of the race (from B to O), the yacht is subjected to a sudden gust of
wind of 20 km/h from the north. If the yacht was travelling at 25 km/h towards O, draw a vector diagram
to show the velocity, v, of the yacht.
2 Use a vector method to show that the diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other.
3 A mass of 9.8 kg exerts a force of 98 N vertically down. It is suspended in equilibrium
by a 50-cm piece of inextensible string with the ends fixed on the same horizontal level
40 cm apart. Determine the magnitude of the tension force, T, in the string and the
angle the string makes with the vertical.

eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 13
490
40 cm
T
~
T
~
98 N
eBook plus
aCTiViTieS
Chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on vectors. (page 462)
13A
Introduction to vectors
Tutorial
We5 int-1168: Watch how to draw a vector diagram

to represent the path take by an aircraft. (page 464)
Digital docs
Spreadsheet 144: Introduction to vectors. (page 465)

SkillSHEET 13.1: Practise bearings. (page 466)
SkillSHEET 13.2: Practise angles of elevation and
depression. (page 466)
13B
Operations on vectors
Tutorial
We7 int-1169: Watch how to perform vector addition

and subtraction. (page 468)
Digital docs
Spreadsheet 143: Investigate vectors. (page 470)

WorkSHEET 13.1: Use graphs to find vectors,
represent vectors diagrammatically, solve worded
problems, and use provided diagrams to create
diagrams of vectors. (page 471)
13C
Magnitude, direction and components

of vectors
Tutorial
We13 int-1170: Watch how to calculate the distance

north and east from a cars starting point. (page 473)
Digital docs
SkillSHEET 13.3: Practise using trigonometric

ratios. (pages 471 and 474)
WorkSHEET 13.2: Revision of solving and
representing vectors, solve problems of magnitude
and direction of vectors; apply knowledge of vectors
to worded problem. (page 475)
13D
i , j notation

Digital docs
Spreadsheet 143: Investigate vectors. (page 478)

Investigation: Angle between two vectors in i, j
notation. (page 479)
13E
Applications of vectors
Interactivity
Applications of vectors int-0980: Apply your

knowledge of vectors by using the interactivity.
(page 480)
Tutorials
We18 int-1171: Watch how to determine the air and

ground velocity, direction and speed of an aircraft.
(page 481)
We20 int-1172: Watch how to show properties of a
line joining the two midpoints of sides of a triangle.
(page 483)
Chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Chapter 13
Vectors
491
14
14A
14B
14C
14D
Force and tension

Newtons first law of motion
Equilibrium forces at an angle
Connected bodies in equilibrium
statics of
a particle
AREAs oF sTudy
Inertial mass, momentum, force and weight

Equations of motion using absolute units
Description of equations of motion from a

diagram showing all the forces acting on a body
eBook plus
Note: Students should have completed the unit on vectors (Chapter 13)
before attempting this chapter.
14A
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
Force and tension
A force is the measure of the strength of a push or pull exerted on, or by, a body. Most forces are
contact forces; that is, to push we must touch; to pull we usually touch or have a connecting string.
However, gravitational and magnetic forces etc. act through space and thus are not contact forces.
Mass is the amount of inertia a body possesses. Inertia is the tendency of an object in motion
to remain in motion, or an object at rest to remain at rest, unless acted upon by a force. A sack
of potatoes has greater inertia than a tomato, hence it has a greater mass, and, by denition, a
greater weight.
Weight is the gravitational force exerted on a body downwards by the Earth at the Earths
surface. Weight W (measured in newtons) is calculated as the product of mass m (in kilograms) and
gravitational acceleration g (in m/s2), where the value g = 9.8 m/s2 is the acceleration due to gravity.
Be aware of the difference between weight and mass. Weight is the force acting on a mass at
or near the Earths surface. As a body moves away from the Earth, mass remains constant but
weight decreases. Thus, a tomato will weigh less at the summit of Mount Everest than at Bondi
Beach. Mass is measured in kilograms; weight is measured in kilograms-weight (kg-wt) or
newtons (N). (1 newton is the force that accelerates 1 kg at 1 metre per second per second).
TN
m kg-wt
mg newtons
It follows that a body of mass m kg has a weight of mg newtons (on or near

the Earths surface).
mg N
492
Tension is the force exerted by a connecting string or cord when taut. For a vertical string
suspending a mass, the tension in the string is equal to the weight (downward force) created by
the mass.
WoRkEd ExAMPlE 1
What is the weight of a mass of 3 kg?

ThiNk
WRiTE
Mass is inertia.
Mass = 3 kg
Weight is mass multiplied by g.
Weight = 3g N
WoRkEd ExAMPlE 2
A mass of 0.5 kg is added to a mass of 200 mg. What is the total weight?
ThiNk
WRiTE
Mass is inertia.
Mass = 0.5 kg + 0.2 kg = 0.7 kg
Weight is mass multiplied by g.
Weight = 0.7g N
Resolving a force
Consider a force F making an angle of with the positive x-axis.
y
j
F
F
F sin ( )
F cos ( )
Just as with a vector, a force can be resolved into components. Resolving a force means
splitting the force up into horizontal and vertical components.
F = F cos ()i + F sin () j
or x =F cos (), y =F sin ()
WoRkEd ExAMPlE 3
eBook plus
Resolve a force of 5 N into two perpendicular components

at angles of 30 and 60.
ThiNk
1
Draw a diagram to represent the situation.

The two perpendicular components are the
horizontal and vertical components.
Tutorial
int-1173
Worked example 3
WRiTE/dRAW
j
Force = 5 N
60
30
5 cos(30)
5 sin(30)
i
Chapter 14
statics of a particle
493
The horizontal component can be calculated.
5 cos (30)i = 4.330 N
The vertical component can be calculated.
5 sin (30)j = 2.5 N
State the answer.
A force of 5 N of two perpendicular components,

a horizontal component of 4.330 N and a vertical
component of 2.5 N.
REMEMBER
1. A force is the measure of the strength of a push or pull exerted on, or by, a body.
2. Mass is the amount of inertia a body possesses.
3. Weight is the gravitational force exerted on a body downwards by the Earth at the
Earths surface. Weight W (in newtons) is calculated as the product of mass m (in
kilograms) and gravitational acceleration g (in m/s2).
4. Tension is the force exerted by a connecting string or cord when taut. For a vertical
string suspending a mass, the tension in the string is equal to the weight (downward
force) created by the mass.
Exercise
14A
Force and tension

1
Define mass? In which units is it measured?
Define weight? In which units is it measured?
Define tension? In which units is it measured?
4 WE1
What is the weight of a mass of 10 kg?
A mass of 0.7 kg is suspended from a string. What is the tension in the string?
What is the mass of a stone which weighs 25 N?
7 WE3 A force of 3 N acts at 20 to the horizontal. Resolve the force into horizontal and
vertical components.
8 A force of 10 N acts at an angle to the horizontal. Its vertical component is 8 N. Find the angle.
9 What is the horizontal component in question 8?
10 If v = 3i - 4 j represents a force, find its magnitude and the acute angle that the force makes
with the vertical.

11 Use trigonometry in question 10 to prove that the horizontal component of v is 3 and the
vertical component is -4.

12 If p = 2 i + 5 j represents one force and q = - 4 i - j represents a second force, use a vector
to find

p - q. Find the angle that this combined

method
force makes with the horizontal.

13 MC
A stone is suspended from a string. The tension in the string is 5 N. The mass of the
stone is:
5
5
C N
E kg
A 5 N
D 5 kg
B 5g N
g
g
494
14 MC
A force of 20 N acts at an angle to the horizontal. Its horizontal component is 3 N.
The angle is:
A sin 1 (0.3)
B cos 1 (0.3)
C tan 1 (0.3)
D sin 1 (0.15)
E cos 1 (0.15)
15 MC
A
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 14.1
14B
13
If v = 2 i - 3 j represents a force, the magnitude of the force is:

C -1
D 25
B 5
E 5
16 MC
If p = - i + 3 j represents a force and q = - 6 i - 4 j represents a second force,

-5p - q
equals:

A -11i - 11 j
B 11i - 11 j
C 11i + 11 j
D -11i + 5 j
E - 7i - j

Newtons rst law of motion applies to both stationary bodies and to bodies moving with
constant speed. In this chapter, which deals with statics only, it is appropriate only to consider
the former, that is, stationary bodies.
A stationary body will remain at rest unless it is acted on by an external force.
Thus, if the vector total of all forces acting on a body is zero, the body will remain static
(stationary). It follows then that:
If a body is stationary, the vector total of all forces acting on the body is zero.
Or expressed another way, for a body to be stationary:
To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.
This statement implies that the equal but opposite reaction acts along exactly the same line
but in the opposite direction. This means that for every shove there is a push back in return.
For a particle to be in equilibrium, all forces acting on a body or on a system of bodies are in
balance. The body or system of bodies is static (or moving with constant speed).
For the studies covered in this chapter the body or system of bodies is stationary.
What are the weaknesses in the system at right?
Beam
Hook
Consider what might happen:

(a) Nothing.
(a) In balance, forces are equal.
Tension equals weight.
Horizontal forces (not
shown) are equal.
Light string
Weight
(b) The weight falls

(b)
because:
(i) the string breaks (i) If the string breaks, the weight must be too great for the strength
of the string.
Just as the Earth pulls down on the body, the string balances this
by pulling up on the body. This creates a tension in the string.
If the weight is greater than the physical ability of the string to
create sufcient tension bear this weight, the string must break.
A thick string is presumably stronger, certainly visually, than
a thin string. A rope is stronger than a thick string, etc. The
maximum tension a string can carry before breaking is known as
its tensile strength.
Chapter 14
495
(ii) the hook comes

out of the beam
(ii) This will happen if the upward force holding the hook into
the beam, created by a combination of screw length and
thread radius, is less than the downward tension in the string.
Note that there must be a downward tension to balance the
upward tension to hold the weight of the mass. Since these
tensions are equal but opposite forces, they cancel each other
out in the big picture.
Consider the big picture force diagram below:
If the force, F, exerted by the hook is F = mg N, the system
will hold. Be aware that the hook may be capable of holding
a larger weight but only requires to apply enough force to
balance the weight.
For the hook itself in isolation F = T2
For the mass itself in isolation T1 = mg N
C
Beam
F = mg N
T2 = mg N
T1 = mg N
Mass of m kg
W = mg N
(iii) the beam falls.
(iii) The beam will fall if the string doesnt break, the hook
doesnt fall out and the combined forces, C, supporting the
beam are less than the weight. i.e. if C mg
WoRkEd ExAMPlE 4
eBook plus
a Find a force P that is equal but opposite to the force F = 2 i - 5 j .
b Find the magnitude of P.
c Find a force M such that | M| = 2| P|.
ThiNk
a P is in the same line but acting in
opposite direction to F. This

the
implies that there is a rotation

of 180
anticlockwise. Use a graph or another
method to nd P.
Tutorial
int-1174
Worked example 4
WRiTE
a P=
- 2i
+ 5j
P
~
2i + 5j
180
i
2i 5j
F
~
496
b
c
The magnitude of P is the absolute

value of P, |P|.

We know that |P| = 29. Use this
information to determine
a force M .
b P =
((- 22 ) + 52 = 29
P = 29
2 P = 2 29
2 P = 116
M = 116 = 16 + 100
M = - 4 i + 10 j
REMEMBER
1. A stationary body will remain at rest unless it is acted on by an external force.

2. If a body is stationary the vector total of all forces acting on a body is zero.
3. To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction. This means that for every
shove there is a push back in return.
Exercise
14B

1
What is a force?
In what units is force measured?
a What is an equal force?

b What happens if an equal force acts in the opposite direction:
i in the same line of action
ii in a different line of action?
A woman is standing on a surface. Explain the three scenarios that may occur. Namely:
a she rises from the surface
b she falls through the surface
c she remains standing on the surface.
Mary-Alice is trying to prevent the evil burglar black-hearted Ned from entering her house.
Ned is pushing the front door to open it, Mary-Alice is pushing against the door to keep it shut.
Describe what might happen to the door using such words as force, equal, opposite, greater
than, less than, etc.
The following information relates to questions 69.
A stone hangs from an light inextensible string (it cannot stretch) suspended from a beam by
a hook. The stone has a mass of 2 kg.
What is the tension in the string in Newtons?
If the string in has a tensile strength (breaking tension) of 35 N, how many more
kilograms of stone can be added to the existing stone before the string breaks?
If the hook can exert a maximum force of 30 N, what is the maximum mass of stone that
it can hold? Will this weight break the string? Explain.
The beam in question is not well supported and it will fall from its position if a
force greater than 27 N is applied to it. A total weight of 37 N is suspended from the string.
Describe what happens.
Chapter 14 Statics of a particle
497
10
Draw a force diagram for the following situation: a force of 10 N from the left comes up
against a force of 9 N from the right. What is the resultant force and in what direction?
11
Mary-Alice is pushing against a door with a force of 160 N. Ned, the burglar, is pushing
in the opposite direction with a force of 280 N. Mary-Alices niece Christine is able to assist
with a force of up to 130 N. What will happen? Write down a suitable inequation showing this.
12
MC A stone is suspended from a string. The tensile strength of the string is g N. The
maximum mass of the stone is:

B g2 N
A 1 N
13
14
1
N
g
D g kg
E 1 kg
A mass of 12 kg is suspended from a string hanging from a hook. What is the tension in
the string?
MC A mass of g kg is suspended from a string hanging from a hook. The tension in the
string is:
B g2 N
A 1 N
15
1
N
g
D g kg
E 1 kg
What is wrong with the diagram below showing a mass resting on a surface?
10 N
25 N
16
WE4 Draw the vector u = 4 i - 3 j . If this vector represents a force, state the equal but
opposite force in terms of u. Find the magnitude

of u in newtons and state the magnitude of
the equal but opposite force.
17 MC In question 16, the acute angle that u makes with the i axis is:
A 143.13
B 53.13
C 126.87
D 36.87
E -53.13
18 MC A body hangs from a light inextensible cord. If its mass is m then the tension (T) in the
cord is:
A T = m
B T m
C T mg
D T = mg
E T + mg = 0
The following information relates to questions 19 and 20.
A force is represented by the vector u = 3i - 2 j N.
19 MC The acute angle that this force makes with the i axis is:
-1 2
-1 2
-1 - 2
- -2
- -3
A tan 3
B sin 3
C cos
D sin 1 3
E tan 1 2
3
()
()
( )
( )
( )
20 MC The magnitude of the force is:

A 13 kg
14C
13 kg
C 13 N
D - 13 N
E 1 N

A body is in equilibrium when the forces acting on it are in balance. If the forces act along
different lines of action it is usual to resolve the forces along two suitable perpendicular axes.
This is done by using simple trigonometric ratios and the sine or cosine rules.
498
WoRkEd ExAMPlE 5
A mass of 10 kg is suspended from a string. The string is pulled horizontally by a force of 150 N.
Find the angle this force makes with the angled part of the string.
ThiNk
1
WRiTE/dRAW
Draw a diagram to represent the situation

described.
150 N
10g N
2
Resolve the tension horizontally and vertically

(i - j) using the acute angle for convenience.
T sin()
j

T cos()
150 N
i
10g N
3
Equate forces acting opposite to each other in

the same line of action.
Solve for a. The angle required, , is the
supplement of a.
T cos (a)i = 150i

T sin (a)j = 10g j
T sin (a ) 10 g
=
T cos (a ) 150
10 g
tan (a ) =
150
- 10 g
a = tan 1
150
a = 33.16
Required angle, = 180 33.16
= 166.84
WoRkEd ExAMPlE 6
eBook plus
A mass of 5 kg is suspended from a beam by two

strings as shown in the diagram. Find the tension
in each string.
10 cm
Tutorial
int-1175
Worked example 6
5 cm T2
T1
Mass of 5 kg
Chapter 14
499
Think
1
Re-draw the right angled triangle and use

trigonometric ratios to determine the angles a
and b.
Write/draw
10
cos (a ) =
5
10
- 5
a = cos 1
10
cos () = 0.5, thus = 60

b = 90 - 60 = 30
2
Resolve the tension horizontally and vertically

using the acute angles found in the previous
step.
T2 sin(60)
T1 sin(30)
T2 cos(60)
T1 cos(30)
5g
3
Equate forces acting opposite to each other in

the same line of action.
T1 cos (30) = T2 cos (60)

3
1
T1 = T2
2
2
3T1 = T2
[1]
T1 sin (30) + T2 sin (60) = 5g
1
3
T1 +
T = 5g
2
2 2
T1 + 3T2 = 10 g
4
Solve the simultaneous equations [1] and [2]

to determine the tension in each string.

T2 = 3T1
T1 + 3 ( 3T1 ) = 10 g
4T1 = 10 g
5
g
2
5
T1 = 9.8 N
2
T1 = 24.50 N
T1 =
T2 = 3T1
T2 = 3 24.50
T2 = 42.44 N
500
[2]
REMEMBER
1. A body is in equilibrium when the forces acting on it are in balance.

2. If the forces act along different lines of action it is usual to resolve the forces along two
suitable perpendicular axes. This can be done using simple trigonometry ratios or the
sine and cosine rules.
Exercise
14C

1
What is equilibrium?
A bullet is fired from a gun. Is it in equilibrium? Explain.
A ball falls off the roof of a tall building. Is it in equilibrium? Explain.
A door is pushed with a force of 150 N from the left. What additional force is required to
establish equilibrium?
5 WE5 A ball of mass 10 kg suspended from a beam experiences a horizontal pulling force of
2 N to the right. Find the new tension in the string and the angle at which the string makes with
the beam.
6 WE6 A mass of 3 kg is suspended from a beam by two strings, 5 cm and 12 cm long. If the
strings are perpendicular to each other, find the tension in each string.
7 Two strings 3 metres and 6 metres long are attached to two points on a beam 7 metres apart.
The two strings are knotted together and a third string carrying a bob is attached to the knot. If
the tension in the 3-metre string is 5 newtons, find the mass of the bob.
8 Two strings 5 metres and 9 metres long are attached to two points. The two strings are knotted
together making an angle of 120. A third string carrying a ball is attached to the knot. If the
mass of the ball if 2 kg, find the tensions in the strings.
9 A stone of weight M newtons suspended by a string is pulled sideways by a force of 3 newtons
acting horizontally. If the tension in the string is 4 newtons, find M.
10 In the diagram below, the three forces are in equilibrium. Find P.
5N
PN
30
38.68
4N
11
A stone of weight M newtons, suspended by a string, is pulled sideways by a force,

v = 3i newtons. If the tension in the string is t = - ai + 3 j newtons, find a and M.
12
A stone of weight M newtons, suspended by a string, is pulled sideways by a force,
v = 2 i - 5 j newtons. If the tension in the string is t = -bi + 9j newtons, find M and b.
13 Two perpendicular strings are attached to two points on a beam. The two strings are knotted
together and a third string carrying a bob is attached to the knot. If the tension in the string is
t = - 5i + 6 j newtons, find the mass of the bob.

14 A mass of 3 kg is suspended from a beam by two strings, 5 cm and 10 cm long. If the strings
are perpendicular to each other find the tension in each string.
501
Find the single force that must be added to balance the forces t = 5i + 3 j newtons and

d = - 4 i - 7 j newtons, which act at the same point.
16 In question 15, what is the magnitude of the single force and in which direction does it act?
15
17 Find P and Q in the diagram below, which represents forces acting on a body in equilibrium.
7N
30
QN
60
PN
The diagram below relates to questions 1820. The gure shows a body in equilibrium
under the actions of three forces.
RN
PN
MN
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 14.2
14d
18 MC Which one of the following is true?

A P + M sin () = R cos (a)
B P + M cos () = R sin (a)
C R = M cos ()
D P+R+M=0
E P + M cos () = R cos (a)
A P+M +R=0
B P-M +R=0
C P+M -R=0

D P-M -R=0
E P+M = R

A a =
B a + = 90
C a - = 90
D a + =180
E none of these
Connected bodies in
equilibrium
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0981
A complete system in equilibrium may contain more than one body. In

these cases, it is often easier to deal with each body separately before
looking at the total picture.
Connected bodies
in equilibrium
WoRkEd ExAMPlE 7
The forces acting on two bobs suspended from light

inextensible strings are shown in the diagram at right.
Find T and m.
30
TN
mg N
502
T1 N
T2 N
60
TN
5g N
ThiNk
1
WRiTE/dRAW
Separate the two bobs. Draw a diagram

representing the forces applied to the
right bob.
T1 sin (30) N
TN
T1 cos (30) N
5g N
2
T1 sin (30) = 5 g ( j direction)
Calculate the force T.
T1 = 10 g
T = T1 cos (30) (i direction)
= 5 3g
3
Draw a diagram representing the forces

applied to the left bob.
T2 sin (60) N
T2 cos (60) N
TN
mg N
4
T2 cos (60) = T (i-direction)
Calculate the value of m given T = 5 3g.
Since, T = 5 3g
T2 = 10 3g
But, T2 sin (60) = mg (j direction)
10 3g
3
= mg
2
m = 15
5
T = 5 3g and m = 15
State the answers.
WoRkEd ExAMPlE 8
The forces acting on two

bobs suspended from light
inextensible strings are
shown in the diagram at
right. If the connecting
string is at an angle of 10
to the horizontal find T
and m.
eBook plus
T2 N
60
10
Tutorial
T1 N
30
TN
int-1177
Worked example 8
TN
mg N
5g N
Chapter 14
503
Think
1
Write/draw
Separate the two bobs. Draw a diagram

representing the forces applied to the
right bob.
T1 sin (30)
T cos (10)
T1 cos (30)
T sin (10) 5g
2
Calculate the force, T. Set up two equations.

To solve these equations simultaneously, using
a CAS calculator, let T1 = x and T = y.
On the Main screen, using the soft keyboard,
tap:
)
{N
Then press E.
Note: Remember to multiply the answer
12.660 by g = 9.8 to get the answer shown
at right.
T1 sin (30) = 5g + T sin (10)

T cos (10) = T1 cos (30)
T = 124.1 N
3
Draw a diagram representing the forces

applied to the left bob.
T2 sin (60) T sin (10)
T cos (10)
T2 cos (60)
mg
504
Calculate the value of m given T = 124.1 N.
T cos (10) = T2 cos (60)

Given T = 124.1 N
124.1 cos (10)
T2 =
cos (60)
T2 = 244.4 N
T2 sin (60) + T sin (10) = mg
244.4 sin (60) + 124.1sin (10)
m=
9.8
m = 23.80 kg
State the answers.
T = 124.1 N
m = 23.80 kg
[1]
[2]
REMEMBER
A complete system in equilibrium may contain more than one body. In these cases it is
often easier to deal with each body separately before looking at the total picture.
Exercise
14d

1
WE7 Two masses of 3 kg and 7 kg are suspended from two points on a beam by light
inextensible cords, which are themselves connected by a third inextensible horizontal cord.
Write the weights of these masses as forces in vector form. What is the total upward vertical
force required to maintain the system in equilibrium? Write your answer in vector form.
2
In question 1, the cord from the beam to the 3 kg makes an angle of 30 with the
horizontal. What is the tension in each of the strings?
For the situation described in question 1, write the tension in the cord holding the 3 kg
mass in vector form.
4 WE8 Two masses of 4 kg and 10 kg are suspended (10 kg lower) from two points on a beam
by light inextensible cords which are themselves connected by a third inextensible cord, which
makes an angle of 60 to the vertical. Write the weights of these masses as forces in vector
form. What is the total upward vertical force required to maintain the system in equilibrium?
Write this in vector form.
5 For the situation in question 4, if the cord from the beam to the smaller mass makes an angle of
45 to the vertical, find the tension in each string and the angle that the other cord makes with
the vertical.
6 Write the tension in the cord suspending the smaller
mass in question 5 in vector form.
For questions 712, use the diagram at right showing
two connected masses of 2 kg and p kg:
7
60
8 MC
2 kg
B T1 = pg
E T1 sin (60) = pg
C T1 cos (30) = p
Which one of the following statements is true?

B T1 cos (30) = T2 cos (60)
E T1 + T2 = T
C T1 = T
4 3
3
D T2 = 4g
A T2 =
p kg
A T1 = T2
D T1 sin (30) = T2 cos (60)
10 MC
B T2 = 2g
D T2 cos (60) = 2g
A T1 = p
D T1 cos (60) = pg
9 MC
30
T
MC Which one of the following statements is true?
A T2 = 2
C T2 cos (60) = 2
E T2 sin (60) = 2g
T1
T2
4 3
g
3
E 2g + T2 = T
B T2 =
C T2 = 4
505
11 MC
2 3
4g
B T =
3
3
2 3
D T =
g
E pg + T1 = T
3
12 MC
A T =
2
3
2 3
D p =
g
3
A p =
13
C T1 =
2
B p = g
3
C p =
2
3g
E pg T1 = T
The diagram at right shows two connected

weights of 6 N and rg N. Find the value of r.
T2 N
T1 N
20
TN
50
15
TN
rg N
6N
14
4
3
Use the diagram at right, in which the connecting

string is horizontal, to find M in terms of a and b and m.
T1
T2
M kg
m kg
15 In the diagram in question 14, if T1 = 3i + 4 j and T2 = - 3i + 5 j find the values of M, m,
a and b.
16 Two masses are suspended between two walls
by light inextensible strings as shown at right.
Express both weights and all tensions in vector
form. Use vectors to establish a relationship
between M and m.
Wall
T1
T
M kg
506
T
2
T
m kg
Wall
Summary
Force and tension
A force is the measure of the strength of a push or pull exerted on, or by, a body.
Mass is the amount of inertia a body possesses.
Inertia is the tendency of an object in motion to remain in motion, or an object at rest to remain at rest,
unless acted upon by a force.
Weight is the gravitational force exerted on a body downwards by the Earth at the Earths surface. Weight W
(in newtons) is calculated as the product of mass m (in kilograms) and gravitational acceleration g, (in m/s2).
Tension is the force exerted by a connecting string or cord when taut. For a vertical string suspending a mass,
the tension in the string is equal to the weight (downward force) created by the mass.
A stationary body will remain at rest unless it is acted on by an external force.

If a body is stationary the vector total of all forces acting on a body is zero.
To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction. This means that for every shove there is a push
back in return.
A body is in equilibrium when the forces acting on it are in balance.

If the forces act along different lines of action it is usual to resolve the forces along two suitable
perpendicular axes. This is done using simple trigonometry ratios or the sine and cosine rules.
A complete system in equilibrium may contain more than one body. In these cases it is often easier to deal
with each body separately before looking at the total picture.
507
chapter review
Short Answer
1 If v = 6 i - 2 j represents a force, find its magnitude

and theacute angle that the force makes with the
vertical.
2 A mass of 15 kg is suspended from a string hanging
from a hook. What is the tension in the string?
3 A mass of 7 kg is suspended from a beam by two
strings, 7 cm and 24 cm long. If the strings are
perpendicular to each other, find the tension in each
string.
4 Two masses of 2 kg and 5 kg are suspended
from two points on a beam by light inextensible
cords, which are themselves connected by a third
inextensible horizontal cord. Write the weights of
these masses as forces in vector form. What is the
total upward vertical force required to maintain the
system in equilibrium? Write this in vector form.
Multiple Choice
1 A stone is suspended from a string. The tension in

the string is 3 N. The mass of the stone is:
3
A 3 N
B 3g N
C g N
3
D 3 kg
E g kg
2 A force of 200 N acts at an angle to the horizontal.
Its horizontal component is 60 N. The angle is:
A sin 1 (0.6)
B cos 1 (0.6)
C tan 1 (0.6)
-1
-1
D sin (0.3)
E cos (0.3)
3 If v = 5i - 2 j represents a force, the magnitude of
the force is:
A 29
B 29
C 21
D 21
E -7
4 A stone is suspended from a string. The tensile
strength of the string is 3g N. The maximum mass
of the stone is:
3
A 3 N
B 3g2 N
C g N
D 3g kg
E 3 kg
5 A body hangs from a light inextensible cord. If its

mass is 2m then the tension (T) in the cord is:
A T = 2m
B T 2m
C T 2mg
D T = 2 mg
E T + 2 mg = 0
508
6 A mass of
kg is suspended from a string hanging

4
from a hook. The tension in the string is:
1
1
1
A N
B g2 N
C
N
4g
4
4
g
1
D kg
E kg
4
4
7 Two strings are attached to two points on a beam.
The two strings are knotted together and a third
string carrying a bob is attached to the knot. If the
tension in the shorter string is t = - 5i + 6 j newtons
and the tension in the longer string

isT = 5i + aj
newtons, the mass of the bob is:

(6 + a)
A
kg
B 10g N
C 10 kg
g
10
D
kg
E (6 + a) kg
g
8 A mass of 1 kg is suspended from a beam by two
strings, 5 cm and 12 cm long, knotted together. If
the strings are perpendicular to each other, then the
total upward force acting to balance the weight of
the mass is:
A 17 N
B 17 kg
C 1 kg
D g N
E g kg
9 Find the single force that must be added to balance
the forces t = 2 i - 3 j newtons and d = - 5i - 2 j
newtons, which act at

the same point.
A F = 3i + 5 j
B F = - 3i - 5 j
c F = 3i - 5 j
D F = - 3i - 5 j
E F = 7 i - j

10 A particle is held in equilibrium by three
concurrent coplanar forces P, Q and R. P has
magnitude 5 newtons and acts in the east
direction. Q has magnitude 5 newtons and acts in
the north direction.
The magnitude and direction of R are,
respectively:
A 5 newtons, south-east
B 5 2 newtons, north-east
C 5 2 newtons, south-west
D 10 newtons, south-west
E 10 newtons, north-east

[ VCAA 2005]
12 Which of the following statements is true?

A T1 = m
B T1 = mg
C T1 = m cos (a)
D T1 cos (90 a) = mg
E T1 sin (90 a) = mg
Questions 1113 relate to the diagram below.

T2
M kg
T1
m kg

A T1 = T2
B T1 cos (a) = T2 cos (b)
C T1 mg = 0
D T1 sin (a) = T2 sin (b)
E T1 + T2 = Mg + mg

A T2 = M
B T2 = Mg
C T2 cos (b) = M
D T2 cos (b) = Mg
E T2 sin (b) = Mg
ExTENdEd REsPoNsE
1 Two strings 2 metres and 5 metres long are attached to two points. The two strings are knotted together
making an angle of 100. A third string carrying a ball is attached to the knot. If the mass of the ball if 20 kg,
find the tensions in the strings.
2 A stone of weight P newtons suspended by a string is pulled sideways by a force of 10 newtons acting
horizontally. If the tension in the string is 18 newtons, find P.
3 The three forces in the diagram below are in equilibrium. Find P.
7N
20
3N
52.94
PN
4 A stone of weight M newtons, suspended by a string, is pulled sideways by a force, v = ai - bj newtons. If the
the string
makes with
tension in the string is t = - bi + aj newtons, find M in terms of a. Find the angle that
the vertical.
5 Two perpendicular strings are attached to two points on a beam. The two strings are knotted together and a
third string carrying a bob is attached to the knot. If the tension in one string is t = 7 i + j newtons, find the

mass of the bob.
6 Two masses of 2 kg and 5 kg are suspended (5 kg lower) from two points on a beam by light inextensible
cords, which are themselves connected by a third inextensible cord that makes an angle of 30 to the
horizontal. If the cord from the beam to the smaller mass makes an angle of 15 to the vertical, find the tension
in each string and the angle that the other cord makes with the vertical.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 14
Chapter 14
509
eBook plus
ACTiviTiEs
Chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on statics of a particle. (page 492)
14A
Force and tension
Tutorial
WE 3 int-1173: Watch how to resolve a force into two

perpendicular components. (page 493)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 14.1: Calculate mass and force of

static objects and resolve forces into perpendicular
components. (page 495)
14B
Tutorial
WE 4 int-1174: Watch how to determine an opposing

force and its magnitude and multiply it by a scalar
quantity. (page 496)
14C
Tutorial
WE 6 int-1175: Watch how to nd the tension in two

strings suspending a mass. (page 499)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 14.2: Calculate mass and force of

static objects, tension in a string suspending them
and the angles made with the horizontal. (page 502)
510
14D
Interactivity
Connected bodies in equilibrium int-0981: Consolidate

your understanding of the forces in connected
bodies in equilibrium. (page 502)
Tutorial
WE 8 int-1177: Watch how to nd the tension of a

string and the mass of a suspended body. (page 503)
Chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
15
15A Introduction to kinematics

15B Velocitytime graphs and
accelerationtime graphs
15C Constant acceleration formulas
15D Instantaneous rates of change
Kinematics
AreAS oF STuDy
Diagrammatic and graphical representation

of empirical positiontime data for a single
particle in rectilinear motion, including
examples with variable velocity (data may be
obtained by a student moving along a 100 metre
tape according to a given set of instructions,
data logging or previous experimental data)
Graphical modelling and numerical analysis of
positiontime and velocitytime relationships
based on continuous hybrid functions formed by
straightline segments, including consideration
of average velocity and distance travelled over
an interval
Modelling and analysis of rectilinear motion
under constant acceleration, including use of
constant acceleration formulas: v = u + at,
1
1
v2 = u2 + 2as, s = (u + v)t and s = ut + at2
2
2
Qualitative graphical analysis of the relationship
between positiontime, velocitytime and
accelerationtime graphs for simple cases

of rectilinear motion involving variable
acceleration
Numerical approximation to instantaneous
rate of change of a function f at time t = a by
evaluation of the central difference
f (a + h) - f (a - h) for small values of h using
2h
technology and its application to approximate
evaluation of instantaneous velocity and
instantaneous acceleration in simple cases of
rectilinear motion involving variable velocity
and variable acceleration
Approximation of velocitytime relationships
by step functions and its application to
approximate evaluation of distance travelled
in simple cases of rectilinear motion
involving variable velocity and variable
acceleration, as a sum of areas of rectangles,
using technology
eBook plus
Digital doc
15A
introduction to kinematics
10 Quick Questions
Our lives are perpetually involved in movement. Walking around the house, being transported
to school, throwing a ball, riding a bicycle, picking up a pen, climbing stairs, going on a holiday
are just a few examples. Most of our movements are routine, and we dont give them a second
thought. However, sometimes we do need to think about what we are doing; for example,
understanding motion can be a matter of life and death in situations such as crossing a road
safely, deciding when it is prudent to overtake when driving, or calculating where a cyclone is
heading. Even in less-dramatic situations like keeping an appointment on time, or judging how
and when to throw a ball while playing sport, we give more thought to motion. Then we start to
employ questions of judgement: How far is it? How long will it take? How will I get there?
Chapter 15
Kinematics
511
Our interest in analysing motion extends far beyond these examples taken from our daily
lives. People have long been fascinated by movement in the world about them: by the motion of
the planets and stars, by the flight of birds, by the oscillations of pendulums and by the growth
of plants, to name a few. The study of motion is fundamental in all branches of science.
The name kinematics is given to the study of the motion of bodies, objects or particles.
In this chapter, we consider motion that is only one-dimensional; that is, straight-line motion.
This is called rectilinear motion (to distinguish it from curvilinear motion, which deals with
curves). Examples of rectilinear motion include a ball travelling along a pool table in a single
direction, or an ice-hockey puck that has been hit along the ice.
For mathematical convenience, all moving objects that we consider in this chapter will be
treated as points; that is, the objects do not rotate or change shape. To look at how we might
analyse motion, lets consider the latest jump by Bill the Bungy jumper. Bill jumps from a
bridge that is 120 metres above the ground and is attached to an 80-metre elastic rubber rope.
He falls vertically towards the ground. In the first 2 seconds he falls 20 metres and in the next
2 seconds he falls a further 60 metres. After 80 metres the bungy rope starts to stretch, and
therefore slows the fall so that Bill travels a further 20 metres in 2 seconds. The stretched
bungy rope then pulls him up a distance of 15 metres in 2 seconds, passing what is called
the equilibrium position. (This is the position that Bill would eventually remain in, once he
stopped bouncing on the rope.) He continues travelling up a further 10 metres in 2 seconds. Bill
continues bouncing until he is lowered safely to ground level.
100 metres
25 metres
512
If we take the starting point, S, to be 0 metres, then the first 10 seconds of Bills jump can be
displayed as follows.
Stage 1
S
0 metres
at t = 0 s
20 metres
at t = 2 s
80 metres
at t = 4 s
Stage 2
Stage 3
75 metres
at t = 10 s
85 metres
at t = 8 s
100 metres
at t = 6 s
Position
The position of a particle moving in a straight line
Q
P
is established by its distance from a fixed reference
6 54 3 2 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 x
point on the line. This is usually the origin, O, with
positions to the right of O normally being taken as positive.
Consider the particles, P and Q which both start from the origin, O. The position of particle P is
4 units to the right, therefore x = 4. Particle Q is 3 units to the left of the origin and therefore has
a position of x = -3.
We could describe Bills motion by noting his
S
A
B
position at various times.
We show this on a straight line (vertical or
O
20
80 x (m)
horizontal) by indicating his location relative to a
Positive
reference point, usually the origin, O. Positions to
direction
the right of O are normally taken as positive.
Point S, at the origin, (actually 120 metres above the ground), shows Bills starting position.
Taking downwards as positive, point A is at 20 and point B is at 80.
Displacement
The displacement of a moving particle is its change in position relative to a fixed point.
Displacement gives both the distance
and direction that a particle is from
E D t=8
a point.
t = 10
S
A
C
This can be represented on a
t=6
t
=
0
t
=
2
t
=
4
B
positiontime line (or displacement
time line), as shown at right, for the
O
20
75 80 85 100 x (m)
first 10 seconds of Bill the bungy
jumpers path.
Note: The direction of the motion is indicated by the arrows.
Chapter 15 Kinematics
513
Bill travels from C (100 metres) to E (75 metres). The displacement from C to E is the change in
position from C to E.
Displacement = final position initial position
= 75 100
= 25 metres
The distance from C to E is 25 metres but the displacement is 25 metres. Displacement is a
vector quantity and has both magnitude and direction. (In this case the magnitude is 25 metres
and the direction is negative.) Distance is a scalar quantity and has magnitude only.
For the first 10 seconds of Bills jump, his displacement is 75 metres (75 0). However, the
distance Bill has moved is 125 metres.
Note: At point C, Bill is momentarily at a stop (his velocity is 0) and his motion changes
direction from down to up.
Velocity
Average velocity = change in position

change in time
final
position - initial position
=
change in time
x2 - x1
=
t2 - t1
x
Position
Velocity is also a vector quantity.

The average velocity of a particle is the rate of change of its
position with respect to time. This can be shown on a position
time graph. The red line shows the position of the particle, x, at
time, t.
x2
x1
Change in
position x
Change in time t
t1
Time
t2
x
t
Bills average velocity over the first 10 seconds of his jump can be calculated as follows:
x -x
Average velocity = 2 1
t2 - t1
=
75 - 0
10 - 0
75
=
10
= 7.5 m/s
The commonly used units of velocity are cm/s, m/s or km/h.
Note: 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h.
The instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a given point of time. That is, it is the gradient of
the displacementtime graph at a given point.
=
Speed
Speed is the magnitude of velocity and so it is a scalar quantity.
Average speed = distance travelled
time taken
Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity and is always positive.
Bills average speed over the first 10 seconds of his jump can be calculated as follows:
Average speed =
125
10
= 12.5 m/s (compared to the average velocity of 7.5 m/s).

514
WorKeD exAMPle 1
The following positiontime line shows a particle that moves from S to A in 2 seconds then from A to
F in 3 seconds. Find:
a the starting position, S
F
b the final position, F
S
A
c the displacement of F from S
d the distance travelled from S to F
12 x
4
6
8
10
2
0
2
e the average velocity from S to F
f the average speed from S to F.
ThinK
WriTe
a Read the position of point S.
a The position of point S is -2.
b Read the position of point F.
b The position of point F is 2.
c Displacement = final position - initial position
c Displacement = 2 - -2
d Add the distance from S to A to the distance from A to F.
d Distance = 12 + 8 = 20 units
e Average velocity = change in position

change in time
= 4 units to the right of S
e Average velocity =
x2 - x1
t2 - t1
2 - -2
5- 0
4
f Average speed =
distance travelled
time taken
=5
= 0.8 units/second in the
positive direction
f Average speed =
20
5
= 4 units/second
Constant velocity
The velocity is
constant from
t = 0 to t = 4.
Velocity can be determined by the gradient of a position

time graph. If the positiontime graph is a series of
connected straight-line sections, then the velocity is
constant over the duration of each straight-line section.
WorKeD exAMPle 2
The velocity is
constant from
t = 4 to t = 10.
10
eBook plus
Tutorial
int-1178
Worked example 2
Position (cm)
At Luna Park there is a new game called Hit the duck. To win, you must
knock down a mobile duck that moves back and forth in a straight line on
a 5-metre track. You have three shots with small sandbags.
The positiontime graph shows the position of the duck,
x centimetres to the right of its starting point, along the track at
x
various times, t seconds.
500
a What is the initial position of the duck?
400
b How long did the game last?
300
c What is the final displacement of the duck from its starting
position?
200
d Write the times for which the velocity is:
100
i positive
ii negative
iii zero.
0
e Hence, find the velocity for each of the three time intervals in
part d.
f What was the average speed of the duck during this game?
5 6
10
Time (s)
Chapter 15
Kinematics
515
Think
Write
a The initial position of the duck is when t = 0.
a When t = 0, the initial position of the duck
b The graph finishes when t = 10.
b The game lasted for 10 seconds.
c Displacement = final position initial position.
i Look for where the gradient slopes upwards
is 200 cm to the right of its starting point.
to the right.
t = 5.
t = 10.
downwards to the right.
iii The gradient is zero from t = 5 to t = 6.
iii Look for where the gradient is horizontal.
change in time
i The gradient is positive from t = 0 to

ii The gradient is negative from t = 6 to
ii Look for where the gradient slopes
e Velocity = change in position
Displacement = 100 200

= 100 cm
i Velocity =
x2 - x1
t2 - t1
400 - 200
5- 0
200
=
5
= 40 cm/s
x2 - x1
ii Velocity =
t2 - t1
100 - 400
=
10 - 6
- 300
=
4
= 75 cm/s
x - x1
iii Velocity = 2
t2 - t1
400 - 400
=
6-5
0
=
1
= 0 cm/s
=
f Average speed = distance travelled
time taken
f Average speed =
500
10
= 50 cm/s
Position expressed as a function of time

When the position is expressed as a function of time, the positiontime graph can be sketched
and the motion then analysed. If the positiontime graph is curved, then the velocity (or
gradient) is always changing and never constant.
Worked Example 3
A particle moves in a straight line so that its position, x cm, from a fixed point, O, on the line, at time,
t, seconds, is given by the rule:
1
x = 2 (t 1)2, t [0, 5]
516
The positiontime graph is shown:

a Copy and complete the table below.
1
Position (cm)
x
b What is the initial position of the particle?
c What is the significance of the position at t = 1?
d Show the movement of the particle on a positiontime line.
e i What is the displacement of the particle?
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2 3 4
Time (s)
5 t
ii Hence, determine the average velocity of the particle.

f i What is the distance travelled by the particle?
ii Hence, determine the particles average speed.
Think
a
Write
Substitute each value of t into the rule

1
x = 2 (t 1)2 and evaluate for x.
a When t = 0, x = 2 (0 1)2
1
= 2(1)2
= 0.5
1
When t = 1, x = 2(1 1)2
1
= 2 (0)2
=0
1
When t = 2, x = 2 (2 1)2
1
= 2 (1)2
= 0.5
1
When t = 3, x = 2 (3 1)2
1
= 2 (2)2
=2
1
When t = 4, x = 2(4 1)2
1
= 2 (3)2
= 4.5
1
When t = 5, x = 2 (5 1)2
1
= 2 (4)2
=8
2
Complete the table.
0.5
0.5
4.5
b State the position of the particle when t = 0.
b The initial position is 0.5 cm from O.
c At t = 1 the particle is at the position x = 0 and
c At t = 1 the particle is changing direction.
d The particle starts at x = 0.5, moves to x = 0
the positiontime graph shows that the particle

is changing direction.
then turns and finishes at x = 8.
t=5
t=2
t=1
t=0
0
4 5
cm
517
i Displacement =
final position initial position
ii Average velocity =
change in position
change in time
Displacement = 8 0.5
= 7.5 cm
x2 - x1
ii Average velocity =
t2 - t1
= 8 - 0.5
5- 0
i
7.5
5
= 1.5 cm/s
f
i Add the distance travelled from t = 0
to t = 1, to the distance travelled from

t = 1 to t = 5.
ii Average speed = distance travelled
time taken
The distance from t = 0 to t = 1 is 0.5 cm and

the distance from t = 1 to t = 5 is 8cm. The
total distance is 8.5 cm.
ii
Average speed =
8.5
5
= 1.7 cm/s
REMEMBER
1. A particles position gives its location relative to a reference point, usually the
origin, O.
2. A particles displacement is the change in its position relative to a fixed point.
Displacement gives both the distance and direction that the particle is from a point.
3. The average velocity of a particle is the rate of change of its position with
respect to time.
change in position
Average velocity =
change in time
final position - initial position

=
change in time
distance travelled
4. Average speed =
time taken
Exercise
15A
Introduction to kinematics
1 WE1
Each of the following positiontime lines shows a particle which moves from S to
A in 2 seconds, then from A to F in 3 seconds. In each case, find:

i the starting position, S
ii the final position, F
iii the displacement of F from S
iv the distance travelled from S to F
v the average velocity from S to F
vi the average speed from S to F.
F
F
b
a
A
A
S
21 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
d A
84 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 x
4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
S
4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
518
Represent each of the following situations on a positiontime line.

a A particle starts at S, 2 units to the left of the origin. It is then displaced 10 units to A and
undergoes a final displacement of 5 units to F.
b A particle starts at S, 3 units to the left of the origin. It is then displaced 10 units to A
and undergoes a final displacement of 8 units to F.
c A particle starts at S, 6 units to the right of the origin. It is then displaced 8 units to A
d A particle starts at S, 4 units to the left of the origin. It is then displaced 11 units to A
e A particle starts at S, 3 units to the left of the origin. It is then displaced 8 units to
A, followed by a displacement of 7 units to B and undergoes a final displacement
of 5 units to F.
f A particle starts at S, 8 units to the right of the origin. It is then displaced 3 units to A,
followed by a displacement of 4 units to B and undergoes a final displacement of 2 units
to F.
Each movement from S to F described in question 2 takes 6 seconds and the
measurements are in centimetres. In each case determine:
i the displacement of F from S
ii the total distance travelled by the particle
iii the average velocity
iv the average speed.
C t= 5
Use the positiontime line at right to
answer questions 4 to 7.
S t= 0
B t= 4
4 MC
The displacement of F from S,
in cm, is:
A -24
5 MC
A 24
6 MC
A 4.25
7 MC
A 2
B 24
F t= 8
A t= 3
108642 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 x
C 32
D 14
E 56
The distance travelled in moving from S to F, in cm is:

B 34
C 44
D -34
E 56
The average speed in moving from S to F, in cm/s is:

B 7
C 5.5
D -6.8
E 3
The average velocity in moving from A to C, in cm/s is:

B 10
C -10
8 WE2 The positiontime graph shows the position

of a moving particle, x centimetres to the right of
the origin, O, at various times, t seconds.
a What is the initial position of the particle?
b What is the final displacement of the particle
from its starting position?
c Write the times for which the velocity is:

i positive ii negative iii zero.
d Hence, find the velocity for each of the three
time intervals in part c.
e What was the average speed of the particle?
D -2
E -0.5
x
500
Position (cm)
400
300
200
100
0
6
Time (s)
12
519
x
600
500
Position (cm)
9 The positiontime graph shows the position of

a moving particle, x centimetres to the right of
the origin, O, at various times, t seconds.
b What is the final displacement of the
particle from its starting position?

i positive ii negative iii zero.
d Hence, find the velocity for each of the
three time intervals in part c.
e What was the average speed of the particle?
400
300
200
100
0
45
8
Time (s)
13
10 WE3 A particle moves in a straight line so that its position, x cm, from a fixed point, O, on
the line at time, t seconds, is given by the rule:
1
x = 2 (t 2)2, t [0, 8]
Position (cm)
The positiontime graph is shown below:

x
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 12345 678 t
Time (s)

t
x
b What is the significance of the position at t = 2?

c Show the movement of the particle on a positiontime line.
d Determine the average velocity of the particle.
e What is the particles average speed?
11 A particle moves in a straight line so that its position, x cm, from a fixed point, O, on the line at
time t seconds is given by the rule:
x = t2 8t + 12, t [0, 8]
t
x
b Sketch the positiontime graph for the particle. Check your answer using a CAS calculator.
c What is the significance of the position at t = 4?
d Show the movement of the particle on a positiontime line.
e Determine the average velocity of the particle.
f What is the particles average speed?
time t seconds is given by the rule:
x = t2 4t 5, t [0, 6]
a Sketch the positiontime graph for the particle. Check your answer using a CAS calculator.
b Show the movement of the particle on a positiontime line.
520
c Determine the average velocity of the particle.

d What is the particles average speed?
time, t seconds, is given by the rule:
x = -t2 + 2t + 8, t [0, 6]
a
b
c
d
Velocitytime graphs and

eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0267
Motion graphs
(kinematics)
Velocitytime graphs
Let us take another look at the positiontime line for the bungy jump
performed by Bill that was described at the start of the chapter.
S
t=0
t=2
t = 10
D t=8
C
t=6
B t=4
20
75 80 85
100
Metres
This situation can be represented on a positiontime

graph shown at right. The curve reflects the fact that the
change of position over time (velocity) is not constant.
We can calculate the average velocity in each of the

stages as follows:
Position (m)
15B
Sketch the positiontime graph for the particle. Check your answer using a CAS calculator.
Show the movement of the particle on a positiontime line.
Determine the average velocity of the particle.
What is the particles average speed?
x
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
(6, 100)
B
(8, 85)
D
(10, 75)
(4, 80)
E
C
(2, 20)
S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t
Time (s)
From S to A: Average velocity =
x2 - x1
t2 - t1
From A to B: Average velocity =
x2 - x1
t2 - t1
20 - 0
2-0
80 - 20
4-2
20
2
60
2
= 10 m/s
From B to C: Average velocity =
x2 - x1
t2 - t1
= 30 m/s
From C to D: Average velocity =
100 - 80
6-4
20
2
= 10 m/s
x2 - x1
t2 - t1
85 - 100
8-6
- 15
2
= -7.5 m/s
Chapter 15
Kinematics
521
From D to E: Average velocity =
x2 - x1
t2 - t1
= 75 - 85
10 - 8
=
- 10
2
5
Average velocity (m/s)
= m/s
Note: The negative velocities occur when the motion is upwards, since we decided to define
downwards as positive.
vav
We can now represent the motion of Bills bungy jump
30
during each stage on a velocitytime graph (or more
20
particularly, an average velocitytime graph).
Notice that the graph shows that the velocity is constant
10
during each of the stages (shown as the step formation of
0
the graph). This is because we have calculated the average
2 4 6 8 10 t
10
velocity of each stage. If we were to analyse the average
velocity over smaller time intervals, we would get more steps
Time (s)
with smaller widths, as is displayed in the second graph.
vav
If we allowed these time intervals (step widths) to get
40
closer and closer to zero, then the associated average
30
velocities would effectively become a series of connected
points that would collectively produce a velocitytime graph
20
something like the one displayed at right.
10
This is a velocitytime graph as it shows Bills velocity at
0
every instance of the first 10 seconds of motion during his
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t
bungy jump. There are no horizontal lines (steps) because
10
the velocity is changing every instant over the course of the
20
motion. This change in velocity over time is called
Time (s)
acceleration. Acceleration is also a vector quantity.
v
For the first 4 seconds of motion, the graph is a straight
40
line because Bill is subjected only to acceleration due to
gravity, which is constant at 9.8 m/s2. This means that every
30
second, Bills velocity increases by 9.8 m/s while he is
20
moving downwards.
10
For the period of time where the bungy rope is stretched,
0
(greater than 80 m) from t = 4 seconds to about t = 9 seconds,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t
the elasticity of the rope causes the acceleration to continually
10
change according to the tension in the bungy rope. That is
20
why the velocitytime graph is curved during this time.
Time (s)
From about t = 9 seconds to t = 10 seconds, (where the
bungy rope is less than 80 m) the rope is again slack and Bill is subject to acceleration due only
to gravity again. At this stage the motion is upwards, but since acceleration due to gravity acts
downwards, Bill is slowing down or decelerating.
Average acceleration = change in velocity
change in time
=
v2 - v1
t2 - t1
= v
t
The most common units of acceleration are cm/s2 or m/s2.
For the moment we will consider only examples that involve constant acceleration.
522
Worked Example 4
Draw a velocitytime graph to match the following description.

An object that is moving in a straight line has an initial velocity of 5 m/s. It accelerates at a constant
rate until it reaches a velocity of 10 m/s after 6 seconds. It maintains this velocity for 8 seconds and
then decelerates at a constant rate for a further 4 seconds when it comes to rest.
Write/Draw
The velocity ranges from 0 m/s to 10 m/s.
The total time is 6 + 8 + 4 = 18 seconds.
Draw a set of axes with velocity on the vertical axis

and time on the horizontal axis. Label each axis
appropriately.
Sketch a straight line from (0, 5) to (6, 10) to show the
acceleration in the first stage.
Draw a horizontal line from (6, 10) to (14, 10) to show
the constant velocity during the second stage.
Draw a straight line from (14, 10) to (18, 0) to show the
final stage of deceleration.
5
6
2 4 6 8 1012141618 t
Time (s)
Notice that the gradient of each straight-line section of the velocitytime graph gives the
acceleration of the object.
Analysing the velocitytime graph

The gradient of a velocitytime graph allows us to calculate the acceleration of an object
moving in a straight line. In addition to this, the area between the velocitytime graph and the
time axis also provides useful information relating to displacement and distance.
Earlier, it was shown that:
Average velocity = change in position
change in time
x
or
vav =
t
where v represents average velocity.
av
Rearranging this results in:

x = vav t
In other words, the signed area between a velocitytime graph and the time axis is equal to the
change in position or displacement.
When we calculate the signed area, we take the area above the time axis as positive
displacement and the area below the time axis as negative displacement.
If the distance (rather than the displacement that the particle has travelled) is required, then
there is no need to sign the areas. That is, the distance travelled is the total area between the
velocitytime graph and the time axis.
vav
Using the average velocitytime graph describing Bills
40
bungy jump from earlier, the information described above
30
can be highlighted as follows.
20
The displacement is equal to the sum of the signed areas
of the rectangles.
10
Displacement = 10 2 + 30 2 + 10 2 7.5 2 5 2
0

= 20 + 60 + 20 15 10
2 4 6 8 10 t
10

= 75 metres
v
10
Velocity (m/s)
Think
Time (s)
523
Velocity (m/s)
The distance is equal to the sum of all the unsigned area

v
of the rectangles.
5
Distance = 10 2 + 30 2 + 10 2 + 7.5 2 + 5 2
= 20 + 60 + 20 + 15 + 10
Area 1
= 125 metres
9 10
The following can be obtained from the figure shown at
Area
2
t
5 7
right.
1. The object is travelling at a constant velocity of 5 m/s until
t = 5 s. It slows down until it stops at t = 7 s, before it
5
changes direction and increases its speed to 5 m/s at t = 9 s.
Time (s)
The object then slows down and stops when t = 10 s.
2. The gradient of the line between t = 0 s and t = 5 s is zero, so the acceleration is 0 m/s2.
10
10
Between t = 5 s and t = 9 s, the gradient is 4 , so the acceleration is 4 m/s2.
Between t = 9 s and t = 10 s the gradient is 5, so the acceleration is 5 m/s2.
3. Total displacement = Area 1 - Area 2.
4. Total distance = Area 1 + Area 2.
Note: When appropriate, break the area between the velocitytime graph and the time axis into
simple shapes; for example rectangles, triangles or trapeziums.
Area of a rectangle = L W
-
Area of a triangle = 2 bh
1
Area of a trapezium = 2 (a + b)h

WorKeD exAMPle 5
eBook plus
v
10
Velocity (m/s)
Consider the velocitytime graph obtained in

worked example 4 to find:
a the acceleration in the first 6 seconds
b the acceleration in the last 4 seconds
c the total displacement
d the total distance travelled.
a Average acceleration =
int-1179
Worked example 5
ThinK
Tutorial
2 4 6 8 1012141618 t
Time (s)
WriTe/DrAW
change in velocity
change in time
a Average acceleration =
v2 - v1
t2 - t1
= 10 - 5
6-0
=
b Average acceleration =
change in velocity
change in time
m/s2
v2 - v1
t2 - t1
= 0 - 10
18 - 14
=
=
524
5
6
- 10
4
-2.5
m/s2
The displacement is equal to the total

signed area under the velocitytime graph.
Divide the given graph into two

trapeziums, one from t = 0 to t = 6 and the
other from t = 6 to t = 18.
c
v
10
Velocity (m/s)
5
5
10
Area 1
6
2
10
Area 2
12
6
10 12 14 16 18 t
Time (s)
Area 1 = 2(5 + 10) 6
Calculate the area of each trapezium.
= 2 15 6
= 45 units2
1
Area 2 = 2 (8 + 12) 10
1
= 2 20 10
= 100 units2
Displacement = Area 1 + Area 2
= 45 + 100
= 145 m
Find the displacement.
d The distance is equal to the total unsigned area
under the velocitytime graph.
d The distance is equal to 145 m.
Note: Since the velocity is always positive

in this example, the distance is equal to the
displacement.
Accelerationtime graphs
Just as the gradient of a positiontime graph gives the rate of change of position or velocity, the
gradient of a velocitytime graph gives the rate of change of velocity or acceleration.
Where the velocity is increasing the acceleration is positive.
Where the velocity is decreasing the acceleration is negative.
Where the velocity is not changing the acceleration is zero.
Consider a modified velocitytime graph of the first 10 seconds of motion of Bills bungy
jump. We will assume the acceleration is constant, but
v
different through each of the stages of the jump.
B
40
change
in
velocity
Since average acceleration =
, the
30
change in time
acceleration for each stage is:
20
v -v
From S to B: Average acceleration = 2 1
t2 - t1
10

= 40 - 0
4-0
40
4
= 10 m/s2
Velocity (m/s)
0
10
20
S 2
C
6 8
E
10 t
D
Time (s)
525
From B to C: Average acceleration =
v2 - v1
t2 - t1
= 0 - 40
6-4
=
=
- 40
2
-20
m/s2
v2 - v1
From C to D: Average acceleration =
t2 - t1
= 15 - 0
8-6
- 15
2
Acceleration (m/s2)
= -7.5 m/s2
v -v
From D to E: Average acceleration = 2 1
t2 - t1
= 0 - 15
10 - 8
15
2
a
10
0
10
10 t
20
Time (s)
= 7.5 m/s2
Therefore, the accelerationtime graph would look like the graph above.
Note: The signed area under the accelerationtime graph gives the change in velocity. In the
graph on the previous page, the area between the graph and the time axis from t = 0 s to t = 4 s is
40, which is verified on the previous velocitytime graph.
WorKeD exAMPle 6
eBook plus
Velocity (m/s)
Consider the motion of an elevator, which has its velocitytime graph as shown.
Tutorial
Take positive values to represent upward motion.
int-1180
a In what sections OA, AB, BC, etc. is the lift:
Worked example 6
i accelerating positively?
ii accelerating negatively?
v
iii travelling at a constant velocity?
A
B
8
b Determine the acceleration for each section of
4
the lifts journey.
35 40
C 25 27
c Sketch the accelerationtime graph.
O
G t
D
5
18 20
d If the lift started at ground level, 0 metres,
4
determine its position at:
8
i C
ii G.
e Determine the average velocity of the lift.
12
E
F
f How far did the lift travel?
Time (s)
g What was the lifts average speed?
ThinK
a
i Acceleration is positive where the
velocity is increasing.
i The acceleration is positive from O to A and
from F to G.
ii Acceleration is negative where the
ii The acceleration is negative from B to C
iii Acceleration is zero where the velocity
iii The acceleration is zero from A to B, from
velocity is decreasing.
is not changing.
526
WriTe
and from D to E.
C to D and from E to F.
change in velocity
change in time
v -v
= 2 1
t2 - t1
b From O to A, average acceleration =
v2 - v1
t2 - t1
8- 0
5- 0
8
=5
= 1.6 m/s2
From A to B, average acceleration =
8-8
18 - 5
0
= 13
= 0 m/s2
From B to C, average acceleration =
0-8
20 - 18
-8
From C to D, average acceleration =

=
m/s2
0-0
25 - 20
0
5
= 0 m/s2
From D to E, average acceleration = 12 - 0
27 - 25
- 12
2
= 6 m/s2
- 12 - -12
From E to F, average acceleration = 35 - 27
=
0
8
= 0 m/s2
From F to G, average acceleration = 0 - 12
40 - 35
12
5
= 2.4 m/s2
so the accelerationtime graph is a series of
horizontal lines (steps).
c
Acceleration (m/s2)
c The acceleration is constant in each section,
4
2
0
2
18 20 25 27
35 40
4
6
Time (s)
527
Since the lift started at position 0

metres, the position at point C is the
signed area under the trapezium OABC.
The position at C is the area of trapezium

OABC
1
= 2 (13 + 20) 8
1
= 2 33 8
= 132 metres
ii
The position at point G is the signed

area under the trapezium DEFG plus
position at point C.
ii
The position at G is the signed area under the

trapezium DEFG plus position at point C
=
=
1
2
1
2
(8 + 15) 12 + 132
23 12 + 132
= 138 + 132
= 6 metres (that is, the lift ends up 6 metres
below ground level).
change in position
change in time
x2 - x1
t2 - t1
-6 - 0
40 - 0
-6
40
= 0.15 m/s
f The total distance travelled by the lift is the
total area between the velocitytime graph and

the time axis.
g Average speed = distance travelled
time taken
f The total distance travelled by the lift is
132 + 138 = 270 metres.
g Average speed =
270
40
= 6.75 m/s
REMEMBER
1. Average velocity =
2. Average speed =
change in position
change in time
distance travelled
time taken
3. Average acceleration =
change in velocity
change in time
4. The signed area between a velocitytime graph and the time axis is equal to the change
in position or displacement. The area above the time axis is positive displacement and
the area below the time axis is negative displacement.
5. The unsigned area between a velocitytime graph and the time axis is equal to the
distance travelled.
6. Final position = displacement + initial position
528
Velocitytime graphs and accelerationtime

graphs
1 WE4
Draw a velocitytime graph to match each of the following descriptions.
a An object, which is moving in a straight line, has an initial velocity of 4 m/s. It
accelerates at a constant rate until, after 5 seconds, it reaches a velocity of 9 m/s. It
maintains this velocity for 10 seconds and then decelerates at a constant rate for a further
5 seconds, when it comes to rest.
b An object, which is moving in a straight line, has an initial velocity of 6 m/s. It
5 seconds until it reaches a velocity of 8 m/s.
c An object, which is moving in a straight line, has an initial velocity of 5 m/s. It
d An object, which is moving in a straight line, has an initial velocity of 5 m/s. It
decelerates at a constant rate until, after 6 seconds, it reaches a velocity of 5 m/s. It
maintains this velocity for 4 seconds and then accelerates at a constant rate for a further
e An object, which is moving in a straight line, has an initial velocity of 8 m/s. It maintains
this velocity for 10 seconds and then accelerates at a constant rate until, after 8 seconds, it
reaches a velocity of 4 m/s. It maintains this velocity for 12 seconds and then decelerates
at a constant rate for a further 4 seconds, when it reaches a velocity of 2 m/s, which it
maintains.
2 WE5
Consider the velocitytime graph shown to find: v
a the acceleration in the first 5 seconds
12
b the acceleration in the last 5 seconds
c the total displacement
d the total distance travelled.
Velocity (m/s)
15B
8
4
10
15
20 t
Time (s)
3
a
b
c
d
Consider the velocitytime graph shown to find:

the acceleration in the first 6 seconds
the acceleration in the last 6 seconds
the total displacement
the total distance travelled.
v
16
12
Velocity (m/s)
Exercise
8
4
0
16
22 t
Time (s)
529
a
b
c
d
v
9
Consider the velocitytime graph shown to find:

Velocity (m/s)
Time (s)
Use the velocitytime graph at right to answer

questions 5 to 7.
MC The magnitude of the acceleration

is greatest between the points:
A A and B
B B and C
C A and B and D and E
D D and E
E E and F
MC The average velocity from A to
F is equal to:
A 3.3 m/s
C 4 m/s
E 4 m/s
7
v
8
B 2.3 m/s
D 2.8 m/s
B
D
Velocity (m/s)
E
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 t
F
Time (s)
MC The average speed from A to F is equal to:
A 3.3 m/s
B 2.3 m/s
C 4 m/s
E 4 m/s
D 2.8 m/s
9 Consider the motion of a lift in a high-rise building.

The lifts velocitytime graph is as shown. The
lift starts from the twenty-fifth floor, which is
100 metres above ground level. Take positive
values to represent upward motion.
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)
8 WE6 Consider the motion of an elevator, whose

v
velocitytime graph is as shown. Take positive
A
6
values to represent upward motion.
a In what sections, OA, AB, BC, etc. is the lift:
O 4
b Determine the acceleration for each section of
8
the lifts journey.
d If the lift started at ground level, 0 metres, determine
its position at:

i C iiG.
v
e Determine the average velocity of the lift.
6
530
25 t
13
B
C
16 19
27 31 38 41
D
G t
Time (s)
14
C D
G
24 30 36 40 45 t
Time (s)
a In what sections, OA, AB, BC, etc.

is the lift:

b Determine the acceleration for each
section of the lifts journey.
d Determine the lifts position at:

i C iiG.
e Determine the average velocity of
the lift.
10 A car is travelling at a constant speed of

108 km/h when it passes a stationary
police motorcycle. Four seconds later
the motorcycle sets off in pursuit with a
constant acceleration of 5 m/s2 until it
reaches a speed of 126 km/h, which it
then maintains. (1 m/s = 3.6 km/h)
a For how long does the motorcycle
accelerate?
b Sketch a velocitytime graph which
represents the motion of both the
car and the motorcycle.
c How long after the car first passes
the motorcycle does it take for the motorcycle to catch up to the car?
d How far have they travelled?
11 Polly is leading a 50-kilometre bicycle race when her bicycle gets a puncture 360 metres from
the finish line. She changes her tyre, and the instant she takes off again, Molly passes her,
travelling at a constant speed of 14 m/s. Polly accelerates at a constant rate for 5 seconds, when
she reaches a speed of 16 m/s, which she maintains until the finish.
a Sketch a velocitytime graph that represents the motion of both Polly and Molly.
b Verify that Polly still wins the race.
c How far from the finish line are they when Polly catches up to Molly?
d If Molly started to accelerate at a constant rate from the moment that Polly caught up to
her, what would her acceleration be if they were to dead heat?
531
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WorkSHEET 15.1
15C
12 Max the monkey is climbing a coconut tree in a straight line, to find a coconut for lunch. His
motion is described as follows.
Max starts from rest at ground level with constant acceleration until he reaches a speed
of 1.5 m/s after 4 seconds. He maintains this speed for 8 seconds, when he decelerates to a
stop after another 2 seconds. After a further 9 seconds, Max heads back down the tree with
constant acceleration, reaching a speed of 2.5 m/s in 2 seconds. He maintains this speed for
5 seconds, when he jumps from the tree. (Take positive as up.)
a Draw a velocitytime graph representing the motion of the monkey until he leaves the tree.
b At what height did Max leap off the tree?
c What was the total distance travelled by Max on the tree?
d What was Max the monkeys average speed:
i while on the tree?
ii while in motion on the tree?
Challenge: When Max begins his descent, a palm leaf falls from the tree at a height of
25 metres. It falls with a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2.
e Verify that Max the monkey is still on the tree when the palm leaf hits the ground and
determine where Max is at this time.
Constant acceleration formulas
Velocity (m/s)
Acceleration due to gravity is usually 9.8 m/s2. It can vary slightly depending on the distance
from the centre of the Earth.
This means that a falling object or an object thrown into the air is subject to a constant (or
uniform) downward acceleration of 9.8 m/s2. Since acceleration is a vector quantity, when the object
is moving upwards, it is subject to an acceleration of -9.8 m/s2; that is, a deceleration or retardation.
Consider an object moving in a straight line, which has an initial velocity of u. It accelerates
constantly until it reaches a velocity of v after t seconds.
v
Its velocitytime graph is shown at right.
We can use this graph to derive various formulas, which can
v
be applied to problems involving constant acceleration.
Since acceleration, a, is the change in velocity over time,
u
v
a=
t
t
0
t
v-u
=
Time (s)
t
Multiply both sides by t:
at = v u
Make v the subject, so:
v = u + at
[1]
Furthermore, since average velocity is the change in position, s, over time,
s
u+v
average velocity =
or
t
2
s u+v
=
So,
t
2
1
Therefore,
s = 2 (u + v)t
[2]
Substituting v = u + at (equation [1]) into equation [2]
1
s = 2 (u + u + at)t
1
= 2 (2u + at)t
1
= 2 (2ut + at2)
532
Therefore, s = ut + 2 at2
From [1], t =
Substituting t =
[3]
v-u
a
v-u
into equation [2]:
a
1
v - u
s = 2 (u + v)
a
2
2
1v -u
= 2
a
2as = v2 u2
Therefore, v2 = u2 + 2as[4]
In summary, if u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity, s is the displacement, a is the constant
acceleration and t is the time interval, then the following formulas apply for straight line motion:
v = u + at
s=
1
(u
2
+ v)t
[2]
1 2
at
2
[3]
+ 2as
[4]
s = ut +
v2
u2
[1]
Notes
1. At rest means the velocity is zero.
2. 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h. (Verify this.)
3. When an object is travelling in one direction, u can be treated as the initial speed, v as the
final speed and s as the distance travelled.
Worked Example 7
A stone is dropped from a bridge that is 150 metres above a river. Find:
a the time taken for the stone to reach the river
b the stones speed on impact. Give answers to the nearest tenth.
Think
a
Write
List the given information and what has to be

found.
1
Find t using s = ut + 2 at2 by

substituting in s = 150, a = 9.8 and u = 0.
a Given: s = 150, a = 9.8 and u = 0
Require: t = ?
1
s = ut + 2 at2
1
150 = 0 t + 2 9.8 t2
Solve the equation for t.
150 = 4.9 t2
30.6122 = t2
t = 30.6122
= 5.533
State the solution.
The stone reaches the river after

approximately 5.5 seconds.

found.
Find v using = + 2as by

substituting u = 0, a = 9.8 and s = 150.
v2
u2
b Given: s = 150, a = 9.8 and u = 0
Require: v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 02 + 2 9.8 150
533
Solve the equation for v.
v2 = 2940
v = 2940
= 54.22
State the solution.
The stone reaches the river at a speed of

54.2 m/s.
Worked Example 8
A driver is forced to suddenly apply the brakes of his car when a dog appears in front of it. The car
skids in a straight line, stopping 2 centimetres short of the startled dog. The car skidded a distance
of 12 metres for 2 seconds.
a At what speed was the car travelling as it began to skid?
b What was the acceleration of the car during the skid?
Think
a
Write

found.
a Given: s = 12, t = 2 and v = 0
Require: u = ?
1
(u
2
Find u using s =
+ v)t by
substituting s = 12, t = 2 and v = 0.
s = 2 (u + v)t
1
12 = 2 (u + 0) 2
1
Solve the equation for u.
12 = 2 u 2
u = 12
State the solution.
The initial speed of the car was 12 m/s.

found.
b Given: v = 0, u = 12 and t = 2
Require: a = ?
Find a using v = u + at by substituting

v = 0, u = 12 and t = 2.
v = u + at
0 = 12 + a 2
Solve the equation for a.
-12
State the solution.
The acceleration of the car was -6 m/s2.
= 2a
a = 6
Worked Example 9
A ball is thrown upwards at 14.7 m/s from a tower that is 50 metres above the ground.
a Determine the total time that the ball is in the air before it reaches the ground.
b Find the balls speed when it first strikes the ground.
(Give answers to the nearest tenth.)
Think
a
Let u be up as the positive direction.

found.
1
Find t using s = ut + at2 by substituting
2
u = 14.7, a = -9.8, s = -50.
534
Write
a
Given: u = 14.7, a = -9.8, s = -50

Require: t = ?
1
s = ut + at2
2
-50 = 14.7t + 1 (-9.8)t2
2
50 = 14.7t - 4.9t2
4.9t2 - 14.7t - 50 = 0
Solve the quadratic equation by using the

quadratic formula.
t=
t=
-b
b 2 - 4 ac
2a
14.7 (14.7)2 - 4(4.9)(- 50)

2(4.99)
t = -2.0 and 5.0

t = 5.0 seconds, since time can not be
negative
b

found.
Find v using v2 = u2 + 2as by

substituting in u = 0, a = 9.8 and s = 61.025.
Solve the equation for v.
State the solution.
b Given: u = 0, a = 9.8 and s = 61.025
Require: v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 02 + 2 9.8 61.025
= 1196.09
v = 1196.09
= 34.5845
The ball first strikes the ground at a speed
of 34.6 m/s.
REMEMBER
1. If u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity, s is the displacement, a is the constant
acceleration and t is the time interval, then the following formulas apply for straight
line motion:
(a) v = u + at
1
(b) s = 2 (u + v)t
1
(c) s = ut + 2at2
(d) v2 = u2 + 2as
2. When an object is travelling in one direction, u can be treated as the initial speed, v as
the final speed and s as the distance travelled.
3. At rest means that the velocity is zero.
4. 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h
5. Acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2 for falling objects and -9.8 m/s2 for objects
travelling upwards.
Exercise
15c

1 WE7
A stone is dropped from a bridge that is 98 metres above a river. Giving answers to
the nearest tenth, find:
a the time taken for the stone to reach the river
b the stones speed on impact.
2
A particle moving from rest with constant acceleration reaches a speed of 16 m/s in
4 seconds. Find:
a the acceleration
b the distance travelled.
535
An object travelling at 8 m/s accelerates uniformly over a distance of 20 metres until it

reaches a speed of 18 m/s. Find:
a the acceleration
b the time taken.
4 A parachutist free-falls from an aircraft

for 6 seconds. Find:
a the speed of the parachutist after
6 seconds
b the distance travelled after
6 seconds.
5 A ball is dropped from a tower and
reaches the ground in 4 seconds. Find:
a the height of the tower
b the speed of the ball when it hits the
ground.
6 We 8 A driver is forced to suddenly
apply the brakes of his car when a cat
appears in front of it. The car skids in a
straight line stopping 8 cm short of the
startled cat. The car skidded a distance
of 15 metres for 3 seconds.
a At what speed was the car travelling
as it began to skid?
b What was the acceleration of the car
during the skid?
7 How long does it take for:
a a car to accelerate on a straight road
at a constant 6 m/s2 from an initial
speed of 17 m/s to a final speed of
28 m/s?
b a downhill skier to accelerate from rest at a constant 2 m/s2 to a speed of 10 m/s?
8 A skateboarder is travelling down a gently sloping path at a speed of 10 m/s when he stops
skating. He rolls a further 60 metres before coming to a stop. Assuming the acceleration is
uniform, find:
a the acceleration
b the time it takes to come to a stop.
9 A falcon is hovering in the air when it suddenly dives vertically down to swoop on its prey,
which is 150 metres directly below it. If the acceleration is uniform and it takes the falcon
5 seconds to reach its prey, find:
a the final speed of the falcon in m/s and km/h
b the acceleration of the falcon.
10 A tram is travelling at 16 m/s when the brakes are applied, reducing the speed to 6 m/s in
2 seconds. Assuming the retardation is constant, find:
a the acceleration
b the distance travelled 2 seconds after the brakes are applied
c the braking distance of the tram.
11 MC A train travels a distance of 1800 metres in 90 seconds while accelerating uniformly
from rest.
536
a The speed of the train after 90 seconds can be determined using the formula:
A v = u + at
D s = ut +
1
2
B s=
at2
1
2
(u + v)t
C C = 2r
E v2 = u2 + 2as
b The speed in km/h after 90 seconds is:

A 2
B 36
C 144
c The speed in km/h after 45 seconds is:
A 72
B 36
C 144
d The distance travelled after 45 seconds is:
A 225 m
B 900 m
C 675 m
D 216
E 40
D 216
E 20
D 1350 m
E 450 m
12 We 9 A ball is thrown upwards at 9.8 m/s from a tower that is 30 metres above the ground.
13 A ball is thrown upwards at 20 m/s from a tower that is 80 metres above the ground.
14 An object is projected vertically upwards from the top of a building that is 50 metres above the
ground. Its initial speed is 28 m/s. If the object then falls to the ground, find:
a its maximum height above the ground
b the total time taken to reach the ground
c the speed of the object when it reaches the ground.
15 A car moving from rest with uniform acceleration takes 12 seconds to travel 144 metres. What
is its speed after 6 seconds?
16 A birds egg falls from a nest in a tree. If it is initially 39.2 metres above the ground, calculate:
a its speed when it is halfway to the ground
b its speed on striking the ground
c the time taken to reach the ground.
Chapter 15
Kinematics
537
17 A cage is descending into a well at a constant speed of 2 m/s when a stone falls through the
wire in the cage. If the stone reaches the water at the bottom of the well 10 seconds before the
cage, find the height above the water at which the stone fell out of the cage.
18 A balloon is rising with a speed of 19.6 m/s when a gas cylinder falls off the balloon. If the
balloon is 80 metres above the ground when the cylinder falls off, how long will it take the
cylinder to reach the ground and what will its speed be then?
15D
Instantaneous rates of change

Instantaneous velocity
27
The positiontime graph is shown at right.
Position (cm)
As we have discussed previously, the instantaneous velocity at a given time is in fact the
gradient of the positiontime graph at that time. We have also seen that when the velocity is
variable the positiontime graph will be curved.
Consider a particle moving in a straight line such that its position, x cm, at any time, t
seconds, is described by the rule:
x(t) = t3, t [0, 3]
x
Completing a table of values will give:
30
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
x(t) = t3
538
2
3
Time (s)
Instead, we can apply the rule:

x

Average velocity =
t
to estimate the gradient (velocity).
This involves taking two points on the curve on either side
of t = 2. To ensure that the point at t = 2 is in the middle of
the two points chosen, each point must be the same distance,
h, either side of t = 2.
The gradient of the line that joins the two points on the
curve at t = 2 - h and t = 2 + h estimates the gradient at
t = 2.
Finding the rise and the run between the two points allows
us to calculate the gradient as
v (2) =
( 2 + h )3 - ( 2 - h )3
.
2h
Position (cm)
30
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
Tangent at
t=2
0
2
3
Time (s)
Position (cm)
The velocity at any given time, say at t = 2 seconds, is equal

to the gradient of the curve at t = 2. The gradient of a curve at
any given point is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at
that point. So, the velocity at t = 2 is equal to the gradient of
the tangent to the curve at t = 2.
To physically determine the gradient of the tangent often
leads to inaccurate results. Care needs to be taken, firstly to
draw an accurate and smooth curve, then to place the tangent
at exactly the right position. There is too much room for error
with this process.
30
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
[(2 + h),
3
(2 + h) ]
(2, 8)
h h
0
[(2 h),
3
(2 h) ]
2
3
Time (s)
The smaller the value of h, the closer this gradient will be

to the true gradient of the tangent.
1
0.1
0.01
h
For example, using a calculator to find v(2)
when h = 1, 0.1 and 0.01 produces the results
13 12.01 12.0001
v(2)
shown in the table.
It is quite clear from this table that as h gets smaller
and smaller the value of v(2) is approaching 12. If it is not already obvious it becomes even
more so if h = 0.001 or 0.0001 and so on.
In summary, the instantaneous velocity at t = t0, v(t0), (of a particle moving in a straight line)
with its position described as x(t) is found by evaluating:
v (t0 ) =
x (t0 + h) - x (t0 - h)
2h
for very small values of h (h > 0).

This technique uses the same process to that of differentiating from first principles which was
covered in Mathematical Methods (CAS) Units 1 & 2, and thus we can say:
dx the derivative of x with respect to t.
dt
v(t) = x(t)
v (t ) =
or
Worked Example 10
A particle is travelling in a straight line with its position, x cm, at any time, t seconds, given as
x(t) = t3 - t, t [0, 3].
Find the velocity of the particle after 1.5 seconds.
539
Think
Write
Given the expression x(t) = t3 - t, we want v(1.5).
x(t) = t3 - t
Find the velocity equation by differentiating position, x,

with respect to time, t (v(t) = x(t)).
v(t) = x(t)
v(t) = 3t2 - 1
Substitute t = 1.5 seconds.
v(1.5) = 3(1.5)2 - 1
v(1.5) = 5.75
State the solution.
The velocity of the particle at t = 1.5

seconds is 5.75 cm/s.
Instantaneous acceleration
When the acceleration is variable, then the velocitytime graph is curved. The instantaneous
acceleration at a given time is the gradient of the velocitytime graph at that time. So, like the
instantaneous velocity:
The instantaneous acceleration at t = t0, a(t0), (of a particle moving in a straight line) with its
velocity described as v(t) is found by evaluating:
a(t0 ) =
v (t0 + h) - v (t0 - h)
2h

Again the technique uses the same process to that of differentiating from first principles, and
we can say:
dv
a(t ) =
the derivative of v with respect to t.
dt
or
a(t) = v(t)
Worked Example 11
A particle is travelling in a straight line with its velocity, v cm/s, at any time, t seconds, given as
8
v( t ) =
, t 0.
t+1
Find the acceleration of the particle after 1 second.
Think
1
540
8
Given the expression, v (t ) =
we want
t +1
a(1).
Write/display
v (t ) =
8
t +1
Find the acceleration equation by

differentiating velocity with respect to time
(a(t) = v(t)). To do this, on the Main screen,
8
Define v(t) =
t +1
d
(v (t ))
dt
8
Define a(t) =
(t + 1)2
Substitute t = 1 second into the formula

for a(t).
State the solution.
The acceleration of the particle at t = 1 seconds

is -2 cm/s2.
Approximating velocitytime graphs

We have already seen that the distance travelled by a
particle travelling in a straight line is the unsigned area
between the velocitytime graph and the time axis.
When the acceleration is constant, we calculate the
areas of rectangles, triangles or trapeziums.
v
The area of the
trapezium gives the
distance travelled.
t
If the acceleration is variable, the velocitytime graph is curved

v
and so it needs to be approximated by straight-line functions.
This will result in the area under the graph comprising either
rectangles, triangles or trapeziums. Then the distance travelled can
be estimated.
One way to approximate the velocitytime curve is to use a
series of horizontal steps over the required domain or time values.
t
This can be achieved by first dividing the domain interval into
n equally sized time intervals, each h units long. Next, evaluate the velocity at the midpoint
of each of these intervals. Each of these velocities can be treated as the average velocity over
its corresponding interval. The result will be a step function graph something like the figure
following.
v
v4
Note: t4 t3
= t3 t2
= t2 t1
= t1 0
= h units
v3
v2
v1
0
t1
t2
t3
t4
The unsigned area under this velocitytime graph can be found by determining the sum of
each rectangular area (h vn). This gives an estimate for the distance travelled over a given
period of time.
As the rectangle width (or interval width), h, gets smaller and smaller, the number of
rectangles, n, increases and therefore the estimate gets closer and closer to the exact distance.
541
The following worked example will outline the steps involved, with the aid of graphs.
WorKeD exAMPle 12
eBook plus
A particle is travelling in a straight line with its velocity, v (in m/s), at any time
t seconds, given as:
v(t) = t2 + t, t 0
Estimate the distance travelled during the first 4 seconds of its motion by
approximating the velocity with step functions each 1 unit wide.
Sketch the graph of v(t) = t2 + t over

the domain [0, 4].
Since h is 1 and the domain is

[0, 4], then the intervals are from
0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3 and 3 to 4.
The midpoints of each interval are

0.5, 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5.
int-1181
Worked example 12
WriTe/DrAW
v
Velocity (m/s)
ThinK
Tutorial
20
16
12
v(t) = t2 + t
8
4
0
Time (s)
Evaluate v(0.5), v(1.5), v(2.5) and

v(3.5). These represent the height of
each rectangle.
Sketch the step function graph

over the domain [0, 4] as an
approximation of the velocitytime
relationship.
v(0.5) = 0.52 + 0.5

= 0.75
v(1.5) = 1.52 + 1.5
= 3.75
v(2.5) = 2.52 + 2.5
= 8.75
v(3.5) = 3.52 + 3.5
= 15.75
v
Velocity (m/s)
20
16
12
8
4
0
Time (s)
542
Determine the sum of each

rectangular area under the step
function.
Area of each rectangle = length width

Total area = (0.75 1) + (3.75 1) + (8.75 1) + (15.75 1)
= 1(0.75 + 3.75 + 8.75 + 15.75)
= 29
State the unsigned area as the

approximate distance travelled.
The particle travels approximately 29 metres during the first

1
4 seconds. (Compared to the exact distance of 29 3 metres.)
In summary, if the acceleration is variable, then the distance, d, travelled by a particle can be
estimated from a velocitytime function by evaluating:
d = h[v(t1) + v(t2) + v(t3) + + v(tn)]
where h = step function width (time interval width)
n = the number of intervals
tn = midpoint of time interval, n
v(tn) = velocity at time, tn.
The method shown above is an approximation of the displacement (area under the curve),
that can be improved by reducing the step function width. However, to calculate the exact
displacement (area under the curve), calculus is used. Using your knowledge from Mathematical
Methods (CAS) Units 1 & 2, this can be achieved as shown in worked example 13.
That is, a formula for the distance travelled by an object, d(t), can be found by finding the
antiderivative of the formula for its velocity, v(t), with respect to time. A formula for its velocity,
v(t) can be found by finding the antiderivative of its acceleration, a(t), with respect to time.
d (t ) = v (t )dt
v (t ) = a(t )dt
Displacement
x(t)
Differentiate
Antidifferentiate
Velocity
v(t)
Differentiate
Antidifferentiate
Acceleration
a(t)
Notes
1. The signed area between a velocitytime curve and the t-axis gives the displacement.
2. If the velocity is positive over the given time interval then the displacement is equal to the
distance.
WorKeD exAMPle 13
eBook plus
A particle is travelling in a straight line with its velocity, v (in m/s), at any time,
t seconds, given as:
v(t) = t2 + t, t 0
Calculate the exact distance travelled during the first 4 seconds of its motion.
ThinK
Tutorial
int-1182
Worked example 13
WriTe/DiSPlAy

1
In order to calculate the distance, d(t),

travelled during the first 4 seconds
of motion, the antiderivative of the
expression, v(t) = t2 + t, from t = 0 to
t = 4 needs to be found.
d (t ) = v (t )dt
4
d (t ) = (t 2 + t )dt
0
Chapter 15
Kinematics
543
Antidifferentiate the expression.
Substitute the limits and solve.
t3 t2
d (t ) = +
3 2 0
43 4 2 03 0 2
d (t ) =
+ -
+
2 3
2
3
64 16
d (t ) = + - 0
3
2
d (t ) = 29 13
State the exact distance travelled.
The exact distance travelled during the first 4 seconds of its

1
motion, is 29 3 metres.

1

keyboard, tap:
)
P
4
(t 2 + t )dt
0
Then press E.
State the exact distance travelled.
The exact distance travelled during the first 4 seconds of its

1
motion, is 29 3 metres.
WorKeD exAMPle 14
eBook plus
m/s2
A car accelerates from rest at 2

for 5 seconds.
a Write an equation for the acceleration.
b Write the equation for the velocity.
c Calculate the distance covered in the first 5 seconds.
ThinK
WriTe

a
The acceleration is 2 m/s2.
a a(t) = 2
The velocity equation is produced

by antidifferentiating the formula for
acceleration.
b a(t) = 2
544
It is given that v = 0 when t = 0.

Calculate the constant, c, using this
information.
v(t) = 2 dt
v(t) = 2t + c
0 = 2(0) + c
c=0
v(t) = 2t, 0 t 5
Tutorial
int-1183
Worked example 14
To calculate the distance, d(t),

covered in the first 5 seconds,
antidifferentiate the velocity equation
with limits 0 and 5.
c d(t) =
4 (2t)dt
5
d(t) = [t2]0
d(t) = [52 - 02]
d(t) = 25
State the distance covered in the first

5 seconds.
The distance travelled in the first 5 seconds is

25 metres.

a
The acceleration is 2 m/s2.
a a(t) = 2
To determine the equation for

velocity, given a(t) = 2, on the Main
screen, using the soft keyboard, tap:
)
P
(2)dt + c
Then press E.
Write the equation for velocity.
v(t) = 2t + c
It is given that v = 0 when t = 0.

Calculate the constant, c, using this
information.
0 = 2(0) + c
c=0
v(t) = 2t, 0 t 5
To calculate the distance, d(t),

covered in the first 5 seconds, on the
Main screen, complete the entry line
as:
(2t )dt
0
Then press E.
State the distance covered in the first

5 seconds.
The distance travelled in the first 5 seconds is

25 metres.
545
REMEMBER
1. The instantaneous velocity at t = t0, v(t0), (of a particle moving in a straight line) with
its position described as x(t) is found by evaluating:
x (t + h) - x (t0 - h)
v (t0 ) = 0

, for very small values of h (h > 0).
2h
2. The instantaneous acceleration at t = t0, a(t0), (of a particle moving in a straight line)
with its velocity described as v(t) is found by evaluating:
v (t + h) - v (t0 - h)
a(t0 ) = 0

, for very small values of h (h > 0).
2h
3. If the acceleration is variable, then the distance, d, travelled by a particle can be
estimated from a velocitytime function by evaluating:
d = h[v(t1) + v(t2) + v(t3) + ... + v(tn)]


tn = midpoint of time interval n
v(tn) = velocity at time tn.
4.
Displacement
x(t)
Differentiate
Antidifferentiate
Velocity
v(t)
Differentiate
Antidifferentiate
Acceleration
a(t)
Exercise
15D

1 WE10
A particle is travelling in a straight line with its position, x cm, at any time,
t seconds, given as x(t) = t3 + t, t [0, 5]. Find the velocity of the particle after 2 seconds.
2
A particle is accelerating in a straight line with its position, x cm, at any time, t seconds,
given as x(t) = t4, t [0, 4]. Find the velocity of the particle after 3.5 seconds.
3 A missile travelling in a straight line has its position, x m, at any time, t seconds, given by
x(t) = 2t3 4t, t [0, 6]. Find the velocity of the missile after 4 seconds.
4 A particle is travelling in a straight line with its position, x cm, at any time, t seconds, given as
x (t ) =
8
, t 0. Find the velocity of the particle after 3 seconds.
t +1
1
5 The position of a lift, x m, at any time, t seconds, is given as x (t ) =
- t 2, t [0, 8].
t
+
2
Find the velocity of the lift after 1.5 seconds.
546
6 WE11 A particle is travelling in a straight line with its velocity, v (in m/s), at any time,
t seconds, given as v (t ) =
16
, t 0. Find the acceleration of the particle after 2 seconds.
t+2
7 An ant is travelling in a straight line with its velocity, v (in cm/s), at any time, t seconds, given
as v (t ) =
8
, t 0. Find the acceleration of the ant after 3.5 seconds.
(t + 1)2
8 A lift moves with its velocity, v (in m/s), at any time

t seconds, given as v (t ) = t 2 -
4
t [0, 4].
t +1
Find the acceleration of the lift after 1 second.

9 An object is accelerating in a straight line such that its
velocity, v (in cm/s), at any time, t seconds, is given as
v(t) = t3 + 2t2 - 3t, t [0, 6].
Find the acceleration of the object after 2 seconds.
Questions 10 and 11 refer to the following information:
The position of an object travelling in a straight line is
given by x m. At any time, t seconds, its position is
x(t) = 2loge (t + 1), t 0.
10 MC The velocity at t = 3 is nearest to:
A 0.92 m/s
B 2.77 m/s
C 0.51 m/s
D 1.37 m/s
E 0.50 m/s
11 MC The velocity at t = 6 is nearest to:

A 1 m/s
B 0.29 m/s
C 3.74 m/s
D 1.84 m/s
E 5.0 m/s
Questions 12 and 13 refer to the following information:

An object is travelling in a straight line such that its velocity, v (in m/s), at any time,
t seconds, is given as: v(t) = 3e2 t, t 0.
12 MC The acceleration, in m/s2, after 2 seconds is equal to:
B 3
C 1.5
D 3
A 1.5
E 6
13 MC Using a step function 0.2 seconds wide to approximate the velocity, the distance travelled
after 2 seconds is nearest to:
A 10.57 m
B 9 m
C 18 m
D 19.14 m
E 16.8 m
t seconds, given as: v(t) = t2 + 3t, t 0. Estimate the distance travelled during the first
6 seconds of its motion by approximating the velocity with step functions each 1 unit wide.
15 An object is travelling in a straight line with its velocity, v (in m/s), at any time, t seconds,
given as v(t) = t3 + t, t 0. Calculate the exact distance travelled during the first 3 seconds of its
motion.
t seconds, given as v(t) = t2 + 3t, t 0. Calculate the exact distance travelled during the first
6 seconds of its motion.
17 A particle starts at rest and travels in a straight line with its velocity, v (in m/s), at any time
t seconds, given as v(t) = t3 + t, t 0.
a Find the equation for the position of the particle with respect to time.
b Calculate the distance covered in the first 3 seconds.
547
18 We14 An object initially starts from rest and accelerates in a straight line, a (in m/s2), at any
time, t seconds, given as a(t) = 2t + 1, t 0.
a Find the equation for the velocity of the object with respect to time.
b Find the equation for the position of the object with respect to time.
c Calculate the distance travelled in the first 4 seconds.
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WorkSHEET 15.2
548
19 An object initially travelling at 15 m/s accelerates in a straight line, a (in m/s2), at any time,
t seconds, given as a(t) = 12t2 - 4t + 4, t 0.
a Find the equation for the velocity of the object with respect to time.
b Find the equation for the position of the object with respect to time.
c Calculate the distance travelled in the first 2 seconds.
Summary
Position and velocity
A particles position gives its location relative to a reference point, usually the origin, O.
A particles displacement is the change in its position relative to a fixed point. Displacement gives both the
distance and direction that a particle is from a point.
The average velocity of a particle is the rate of change of its position with respect to time.
Average velocity =
=
Average speed =
change in position
change in time
final position - initial position
change in time
distance travelled
time taken
Velocitytime graphs and accelerationtime graphs
change in velocity
change in time
The signed area between a velocitytime graph and the time axis is equal to the change in position or
displacement. The area above the time axis is positive displacement and the area below the time axis is
negative displacement.
The unsigned area between a velocitytime graph and the time axis is equal to the distance travelled.
Final position = displacement + initial position
Average acceleration =
If u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity, s is the displacement, a is the constant acceleration and t is
the time interval, then the following formulas apply for straight line motion:
1
v = u + at s = 2 (u + v)t
1
s = ut + 2 at2 v2 = u2 + 2as
When an object is travelling in one direction, u can be treated as the initial speed, v as the final speed and s as
the distance travelled.
At rest means that the velocity is zero
1 m/s = 3.6 km/h.
Acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2 for falling objects and -9.8 m/s2 for objects travelling up.
The instantaneous velocity at t = t0, v(t0), (of a particle moving in a straight line) with its position described
as x(t) is found by evaluating:
v (t0 ) =
x (t0 + h) - x (t0 - h)
2h

The instantaneous acceleration at t = t0, a(t0), (of a particle moving in a straight line) with its velocity
described as v(t) is found by evaluating:
a(t0 ) =
v (t0 + h) - v (t0 - h)
2h
549
If the acceleration is variable, then the distance, d, travelled by a particle can be estimated
from a velocitytime function by evaluating:
d = h[v(t1) + v(t2) + v(t3) + + v(tn)]
tn = midpoint of time interval, n

v(tn) = velocity at time, tn.
Displacement
x(t)
Differentiate
Antidifferentiate
Velocity
v(t)
Differentiate
Antidifferentiate
Acceleration
a(t)
550
chapter review
4 Consider the velocitytime graph shown to find:
Short answer
1 aRepresent the following situation on a position

time line.
A particle starts at S, 5 units to the left of the
origin. It is then displaced 6 units to A, followed
by a displacement of -4 units to B. It undergoes
a final displacement of 10 units to F.
b If the movement described above takes
4 seconds and the measurements are in
centimetres, determine:

i the displacement of F from S
ii the total distance travelled by the particle
iii the average velocity
iv the average speed.
Velocity (m/s)
15
a
b
c
d
3
5
15 t
10

5 Consider the motion of an elevator, which has its

velocitytime graph as shown. Take positive values
to represent upward motion.
50
Position (cm)
Time (s)
40
30
20
12
10
8
2
10 12 14 16 18
Time (s)

b What is the final displacement of the particle
from its starting position?

i positive
ii negative
iii zero.
d Hence, find the velocity for each of the three
time intervals in part c.
3 Draw a velocitytime graph to match the following
description.
An object, which is moving in a straight line, has
an initial velocity of -6 m/s. It accelerates at a
constant rate until it reaches a velocity of 6 m/s
after 12 seconds. It maintains this velocity for
6 seconds and then decelerates at a constant rate
for a further 3 seconds, when it comes to rest.
Velocity (m/s)
2 The positiontime graph shows the position of a

moving particle, x centimetres to the right of the
origin, O, at various times, t seconds.
60
12
4
20 22 24 26 28 30
D
Gt
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
C
O
4
8
12
Time (s)
a Determine the acceleration for each section of

the lifts journey.
b Sketch the accelerationtime graph.
c If the lift started at ground level, 0 metres,
determine its position at:
i C
ii G.
d Determine the average velocity of the lift.
e How far did the lift travel?
551
6 An object travelling at 5 m/s accelerates uniformly

over a distance of 60 metres until it reaches a speed
of 20 m/s. Find:
a the acceleration
b the time taken.
Multiple choice
Use the positiontime line below to answer questions

1 to 4.
Ct=6
Ft=8
Bt=4
St=0
7 A ball is dropped from a tower and reaches the

At=2
ground in 3 seconds, using a = 10 m/s2. Find:
a the height of the tower
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
b the speed of the ball when it hits the ground.
1 The displacement of F from S, in cm, is:
8 A tram is travelling at
B 24
C 60
A 20
12 m/s when the
D 20
E 12
brakes are applied,
2 The distance travelled in moving from S to F, in
reducing the speed to
cm, is:
4 m/s in 3 seconds.
A 20
B 60
C 48
Assuming the
20
E
28
D
retardation is constant,
3 The average speed in moving from S to F, in cm/s,
find:
is:
a the acceleration
A 2.5
B 20
c -2.5
b the distance
D 4
E 7.5
travelled
4 The average velocity in moving from B to C, in
2 seconds after the
cm/s, is:
brakes are applied
A 10
B 5
C -10
c how long it takes the tram to stop after the
-5
E 0.1
D
brakes are applied
Questions 5 to 7 refer to the following velocitytime
d the braking distance of the tram.
graph.
v
9 The position of a lift, x m, at any time, t seconds, is
Find the velocity of the lift after 5 seconds.

10 A particle is travelling in a straight line with its
velocity, v (in m/s), at any time, t seconds, given as
v(t) = (2t + 3)2, t 0.
a Find the acceleration of the particle after
2 seconds.
b Find the distance travelled during the first
4 seconds of its motion.
11 A passenger jet of mass 48 000 kg moves from
rest with constant acceleration along a runway due
to a total thrust of 105 600 newtons supplied by
its engines. Assume that air resistance and other
frictional forces are negligible.
The magnitude of the acceleration of the jet is
2.2 m/s2.
a How many seconds, correct to one decimal
place, does it take the jet to reach its lift-off
speed of 70 m/s?
b What distance is needed, correct to the nearest
metre, for the jet to take off?

552
10
x(t) = (t + 3)2 + 5, t [0, 8]
[VCAA 2006]
8
Velocity (m/s)
given as:
6
4 A
2
0
2
4
E
8 10 12 t
Time (s)
5 The magnitude of the acceleration is greatest

between the points:
A A and B
B B and C
C C and D
D D and E
E E and F
6 The average velocity from A to F is equal to:
A 14 m/s
B -4 m/s
C 4.25 m/s
-4.25 m/s
E 6 m/s
D
7 The average speed is equal to:
A 5.25 m/s
B -5.25 m/s
C 4.25 m/s
-4.25 m/s
E 6 m/s
D
Questions 8 to 11 refer to the following information:

A drag car travels a distance of 600 metres in
12 seconds while accelerating uniformly from rest.
8 The acceleration of the drag car can be determined

using the formula:
A v = u + at
1
B s = 2 (u + v)t
C C = 2r
1
D s = ut + 2 at2
E v2 = u2 + 2as
9 The speed, in km/h, after 12 seconds is:
A 72
B 360
C 180
D 480
E 320
10 The speed, in km/h, after 6 seconds is:
A 36
B 90
C 240
D 180
E 160
11 The distance travelled after 6 seconds is:
A 300 m
B 200 m
C 150 m
D 500 m
E 450 m
Questions 12 and 13 refer to the following:

A particle is travelling in a straight line with its
position, x m, at any time, t seconds, given as
x(t) = t3 4t2, t 0.
12 The velocity at t = 3 is:
B 4.5 m/s
C 3 m/s
A 3 m/s
D 1.5 m/s
E 5 m/s
13 The acceleration at t = 3 is:
A 9 m/s2
B 10 m/s
C 3 m/s2
2
2
D 9 m/s
E 10 m/s
Questions 14 and 15 relate to the following
information:
An object is travelling in a straight line such that its
velocity, v (in m/s), at any time, t seconds, is given as
v(t) = (t + 1)2, t 0.
14 The acceleration, in m/s2, after 2 seconds is equal
to:
A 9
B -3
C 6
D 3
E -6
15 The distance travelled from t = 2 to t = 4:
A 8 2 m
B 32 2 m
D 16 1 m
3
17 1
3
C 411 m
3
Extended response
1 An object moves in a straight line so that its position, x cm, from a fixed point, O, on the line at time,
t seconds, is given by the rule: x(t) = t2 + 4t + 12, t [0, 6]
a Sketch the positiontime graph for the particle.
b Determine the average velocity of the particle.
c Show the movement of the particle on a positiontime line.
d What is the particles average speed?
e Find the velocity of the particle at: i t = 1 and ii t = 3 seconds.
f During what times is the particle travelling faster than it is at t = 1 and t = 3 seconds?
Stuntman
Bus
Velocity (m/s)
2 During the filming of a movie, a stuntman has to chase a moving bus

v
and jump into it. The stuntman is required to stand still until the bus
10
passes him. He must then start chasing it. The velocitytime graph at
8
right describes the motion of the stuntman and the bus from the instant
6
the bus door passes the stuntman.
a At what instant did the stuntman reach the same speed as the bus?
4
b What is the acceleration of the stuntman during the first 4 seconds?
2
c At what instant did the stuntman catch up to the bus?
d How far did the stuntman run to reach the door of the bus?
0
2
Suppose the bus accelerates after 8 seconds at 1 m/s2 until it reaches
11 m/s and the stuntman maintains his speed of 10 m/s.
e How far behind the bus is the stuntman after 8 seconds?
f Verify that the stuntman is still behind the bus when the bus stops accelerating.
g Explain why the stuntman will never catch the bus.
10 12
Time (s)
553
3 A girl at the bottom of a 100-m high cliff throws a tennis ball vertically upwards. At the same instant, a boy
at the very top of the cliff drops a golf ball so that it hits the tennis ball while both balls are still in the air. The
acceleration of both balls can be taken as 10.0 m/s2 downwards.
a If the balls collide when the tennis ball is at the top of its path, what is the position of the tennis ball
when it strikes the golf ball?
b With what speed is the tennis ball thrown for this to occur?
c What is the speed of the golf ball when it strikes the tennis ball?
d How long has each ball been in motion when they collide?
4 Alana can accelerate to her maximum speed of 8 m/s in 1.6 seconds. Her
sister Lily can accelerate to her maximum speed of 8.2 m/s in 2 seconds.
Assume that they both accelerate uniformly and they can maintain their
maximum speed once they reach it. Alana challenges Lily to a 100-metre
race.
a Who will win the race?
b What is the winning margin?
The girls brother Blake has a strong interest in handicap racing. He works out two variations of a handicap
that will result in a dead heat.
c If both girls run the full distance, how much earlier should the loser have started for a dead heat to
result?
d If they start at the same time, how much less distance should the loser have to cover for a dead heat to
result?
Blake trains the loser to accelerate fast enough for a dead heat to result.
e Find this acceleration.
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Test Yourself
Chapter 15
554
eBook plus
ACTiViTieS
Chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on kinematics. (page 511)
15A
Introduction to kinematics
Tutorial
We 2 int-1178: Watch how to use a positiontime

graph to determine values for time, displacement,
velocity and average speed. (page 515)
15B
Velocitytime graphs and acceleration

time graphs
Interactivity
Motion graphs (kinematics) int-0267: Consolidate

your understanding of motion graphs using the
interactivity. (page 521)
Tutorials
We 5 int-1179: Watch how to use a velocitytime

graph to determine values for acceleration,
displacement and the distance travelled of an object.
(page 524)
We 6 int-1180: Watch how to use a velocitytime
graph to determine values for acceleration,
displacement and the distance travelled of an object.
(page 526)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 15.1: Interpret and create position

time lines, interpret and create position-time and
velocity-time graphs to aid in solving worded
problems. (page 532)
15D
Tutorials
We 12 int-1181: Watch how to estimate the distance

travelled of a particle moving in a straight line using
a velocitytime graph. (page 542)
We 13 int-1182: Watch how to calculate the exact
distance travelled of a particle given its velocity as a
function of time. (page 543)
We 14 int-1183: Watch how to write the equations for
acceleration and velocity of a car. (page 544)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 15.2: Calculate duration, speed, velocity

and acceleration of bodies in motion. (page 548)
Chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Chapter 15
Kinematics
555
i6
Geometry in
two and three
dimensions
areas oF sTudy
Angle sum of a triangle and of polygons

Straight edge and compass constructions such
as:
construction of a line parallel to a given line
bisecting a given angle
perpendicularly bisecting a line segment
construction of a perpendicular to a given line
from a point not on the line
construction of exact angles of 60, 30
and 45
Construction and investigation of various
regular and star polygons
Construction and investigation of polyhedra,
Platonic solids
16a
16b
16c
16D
16e
16F
16G
Review of basic geometry

Geometric constructions
Polygons
Three-dimensional geometry
Circle geometry
Tangents, chords and circles
Geometry in architecture, design and art
Geometry in art and design, tessellations,

patterns, perspective
Theorems relating to angles in a circle, such as:
the angle subtended at the circumference is
half the angle subtended at the centre by the
same arc
angles in the same segment of a circle are
equal (and converse)
opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are
supplementary
the alternate segment theorem
Theorems on intersecting chords where the
chords intersect inside or outside the circle (as
secants), as well as limiting case, where one of
the lines is a tangent
eBoo
k plus
eBook
16a
review of basic geometry
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
Although many of the facts, definitions and theorems that we will use in this chapter may
be familiar to you, it is worthwhile to collect them here in one place. We can start with the
understanding that a point in space is a location with no dimensions; that is, it is a concept
that helps us determine the location of real objects. A point is often labelled with a capital
letter.
lines and angles

A line segment joins two points. It is a basic postulate (or principal) that only one straight line
segment can join two given points.
In the figure at right, there is exactly one straight line segment that can
A
B
join points A and B.
If we extend the line segment to infinity in both directions,
B
A
we have what is properly called a line.
If we extend the line segment to infinity in one direction only, we have a ray.
556
In the figure at right we have a ray extending from point A. Often

A
B
the terms line segment, line and ray are used interchangeably.
The context should help you determine which of the three kinds of line is really being used.
Three points can determine an angle. In Figure 1, the angle, as indicated
A
B
by the arc of a circle, is named BAC or CAB. The vertex of the angle
is at point A and is placed in the middle of the name, so we do not write
ABC, or BCA in this example.
C
A straight angle is formed
when the three points of the
Figure 1
previous example are all in a
D
line. In Figure 2, the straight
angle is ACB, with the vertex
at C. Note that another line
C
A
B
segment can be drawn to
point D. By convention, a
Figure 2
straight angle equals
180 degrees and is written as ACB = 180.
Therefore, it can be seen that
ACD + DCB = ACB = 180.
These two angles are called
supplementary angles.
D
If the point D is moved
so that ACD = DCB,
then we have created a right
C
A
B
angle. In Figure 3, both
Figure 3
ACD and DCB are right
angles. From the previous equation, since
ACD = DCB, we can rewrite
ACD + DCB = ACB = 180
to ACD + ACD = 180
2(ACD) = 180
ACD = 90
So a right angle = 90. A small box at the vertex is used to indicate a right angle. See the
figure in worked example 1.
Worked Example 1
Find the value of x in the given diagram.
E
32
A
Think
1
Write an equation involving the required

angle. ACB is a straight angle.
Replace angles with known values.

BCD = 90 (right angle).
Solve for the missing angle.
x
B
Write
BCD + x + ECA = 180

90 + x + 32 = 180
122 + x = 180
122 122 + x = 180 122
x = 58
Chapter 16 Geometry in two and three dimensions
557
Parallel lines and angles

It is a basic postulate of geometry that parallel lines never meet. When parallel lines are
intersected (cut) by a transversal (straight line), special angles are formed. We shall now look at
the properties of several of these angles.
Consider the pair of parallel lines in the figure at right. Note
Transversal
the use of arrows to indicate that they are parallel. Now consider
D
E
the two angles ABC and BDE, marked with arcs. Since the
parallel lines (Eand C) never meet, we could easily move one
B
C
A
on top of the other without affecting the angles. Thus it stands
to reason that the angles are equal. These equal angles are called
D
E
corresponding angles.
B
Now, consider the two crossing lines shown in the figure at
C
A
right. Since EBD and ABC are both straight angles (180)
we can write:
C
EBC + CBD = CBD + ABD
EBC = ABD
B
A
(the two angles indicated with arcs).

These angles are called vertically opposite angles.
Next, consider the parallel lines at right, and the two angles
D
CBD and EDB (indicated with arcs). They are positioned
B
A
inside the parallel lines, on the same side (to the right) of the
transversal. These angles are called co-interior angles and sum
to 180.
D
Finally, consider the pair of parallel lines on the right and the
B
two angles EDB and FBD.
F
A
From the earlier result about parallel lines we know that
EDB = CBA, and from the result about crossing lines, that
CBA = FBD. Therefore, EDB = FBD (the two angles indicated with arcs). These are
called alternate angles.
From the above results, we are in a position to perform our first proof.
Worked Example 2
Prove that the sum of the (interior) angles of any triangle

is 180 degrees. In other words, prove that:
a + b + c = 180.
Think
1
b
a
Draw/write
Construct a line parallel to one of the sides.
b
a
558
Label some additional angles (d and e) which

will be needed.
The upper parallel line is also a straight angle.
But we have some alternate angles.
Substitute into the equation in step 3.
c
d
e
c
d + b + e = 180
d=a
e=c
a + b + c = 180 ... QED
E
C
E
C
QED is Latin for quod erat demonstrandum (as has been demonstrated), but could just as well
be thought of as Quite Easily Done! Remember that, when proving something, you are allowed
to use other facts which have already been established, without having to prove them each time.
For worked example 2, step 4 we relied on the previous result about alternate angles.
angles in polygons
A polygon is a closed figure made up of three or more straight line segments.
This figure is not a

polygon because it is
not closed.
This figure is not a

polygon because it
has a curved line.
This figure is a polygon

because it is closed and
has four (more than two)
line segments, all straight.
Now that we know that the sum of angles in a triangle is 180, we can find the sum of angles
in any polygon by dividing it into triangles as shown.
A
F q
m n o
r
u
D
B
w
v
The sum of the angles in a hexagon

= 4 180 (since it contains 4 triangles)
= 720
m + q + r = 180
n + s + t = 180
o + u + v = 180
p + w + x = 180
Note that there is a general formula used to determine the sum of the angles in any polygon. The
development of this formula is discussed in the exercises that follow.
loci
The locus (plural loci) of a point is the path traced out by a point when it moves according to a
given rule.
For example, a circle is formed by the locus of points in a plane that are equidistant from a
fixed point.
Worked example 3
eBook plus
A sprinkler is placed 3 m east and 1 m north of a tap. If the sprinkler can

reach a maximum distance of 5 m, write an equation for the outmost
edge of the watering distance if the tap is considered to be the origin.
Think
1
The sprinkler will water a circular area.

Hence, the equation will be of the form
(x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = r2.
Tutorial
int-1184
Worked example 3
WriTe
The centre of the circle is at (3, 1) and the radius

is 5.
Hence, the equation must be
(x - 3)2 + (y - 1)2 = 25.
Chapter 16
Geometry in two and three dimensions
559
rememBer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
exerCise
16a
A point is a marker for a location in space.

Two points connected make a line segment.
Extend the line segment to infinity in one direction to construct a ray.
Extend the line segment to infinity in both directions to construct a line.
Where two lines meet, an angle is formed.
Two lines which never meet are parallel.
A line intersecting a pair of parallel lines is called a transversal and creates a number
of special angles.
(i) Corresponding angles are equal in magnitude (size).
(ii) Co-interior angles add up to 180.
(iii) Alternate angles are equal in magnitude (size).
Vertically opposite angles are equal in magnitude (size).
Supplementary angles add up to 180.
Complementary angles add up to 90.
The sum of interior angles in a triangle is 180.
The locus of a point is the path traced out by a point when it moves according to a
given rule.
review of basic geometry

1 We 1
Find the values of the pronumerals in the following figures.
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34
SkillSHEET 16.1
2 mC
int-0997
122
128
b isosceles
e right-angled
c complementary
3 mC
Which of the following statements is false?
a An angle is always formed when two lines meet.
b The sum of angles in a right-angled triangle is 180 degrees.
c A line segment extended to infinity in both directions is called a ray.
D Parallel lines never meet.
e Reflex angles are bigger than acute angles.
4
560
45 x x
Angles which add up to 180 degrees are called:
a parallel
D supplementary
Interactivity
Bisecting a
line segment
xy
Geometry review
eBook plus
We 2 Prove that the co-interior (or allied) angles marked with

arcs in the figure at right are supplementary. In other words,
prove that EDB + DBC = 180.
From the result in worked example 2 and question 4, show

that there are only two different angle values: all angles in that
figure must take on one or the other of these values.
Furthermore, show that if you know only one of these angles,
then all other angles can be determined. Demonstrate this
using the value in the figure at right.
D
F
B
A
101
D
B
E
A
Prove the following theorem: The value of the exterior angle of a

triangle equals the sum of the other two interior angles. In other
words, in referring to the figure at right: d = a + b.
b
a
c d
Find the values of the unknown angles in the following figures.

a x
2x
47
66
55
z
y z
x
31
8 Find the values of the unknown angles in the following figures.

a
75
y
x
30
3x
20
x
40
x + 3
9 Show that the sum of the interior angles of the pentagon at right
equals 540 degrees. In other words, show that:
AED + EDC + DCB + CBA + BAE = 540
B
C
E
D
10 Find the value of x in the figure at right.
x 22
x
x + 15
x 20
x + 10 x + 5
A
11 Prove that the diagonals of a square form a right angle; that is, that
angle a in the figure at right equals 90 degrees.
B
a
D
12 a Copy and complete the following table relating the sum of the interior
angles to the number of sides of the polygon.
b Can you establish a general formula for the sum in terms of n, the number of sides?
Number of sides (n)

Sum of interior angles
180
10
20
540
13 What shape is the locus of points 3 cm from Point A?

14 Write the equation for the locus of points that are 1 unit from the origin.
15 WE3 A television broadcasting centre has its location at (-1, 3) on a grid. If the broadcasting
range is 50 km, write an equation to represent the outer edge of the broadcast region.
16 What path is formed by the locus of points equidistant from two points P and Q?
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16B
A traditional part of any study of geometry includes the skill of producing constructions. In this
section, you are to use only a straight edge (you can use a ruler, but no measuring!) and a pair of
compasses.
Note: The correct term for this instrument is a pair of compasses (not to be confused with the
compass used in navigation). For convenience, the pair of compasses will sometimes be referred
to only as compasses, and the point as a compass point.
Armed with our straight edge and compasses, we are able to construct a variety of geometric
figures. We shall now look at constructions that show us how to bisect lines, bisect angles, and
draw special angles (for example, 60).
The only new definition required here is bisection. You can bisect a line by dividing it in half,
or bisect an angle so that its measure is halved.
Bisecting lines
In the following examples, constructions drawn with a ruler and a pair of compasses are shown
in grey.
Worked Example 4
a Use a ruler and a pair of compasses to bisect a line, AB.
b Use a CAS calculator to bisect a line segment.
Think
a
562
Draw/display
(a) Draw a line AB.

(b) Place the compass point at A, with
any radius (more than half the
length of the line).
(c) Draw a circle.
With the same radius as in step 1,

repeat for point B.
The two circles will intersect at two

points. Join these points with a straight
line.
On the Geometry screen, select the line

segment by tapping:
Draw
Line Segment
(or from the drop down menu as shown)
To draw a line segment, tap the

screen to set your first point and then
tap the screen again for your second
point. A line segment will be drawn
between the two points.
To bisect the line, tap G.

Then tap on the line AB, to select it
and tap:
Draw
Construct
Perp. Bisector
With this construction, not only have you divided the original line (AB) in half, but the line
that you drew in step 3 is perpendicular (at a 90 angle) to AB. Therefore, this line is called the
perpendicular bisector of AB.
Why does it work? It is useful to examine the geometry of the construction to help understand
why it provides the correct result.
The figure at right shows the essential part of the construction.
C
Points C and D are the intersections of the two circles.
Join points A to C and B to C to create two triangles, as shown
A
E
B
in the next figure.
D
Because the two circles had the same radius, AC = BC. The
two triangles also share the common side CE. By symmetry,
ACE = BCE and CAE = CBE.
Therefore, since two of the angles are equal; the third angles are also equal;
that AEC = BEC.
C
From all this it is clear that the two triangles are identical.
Therefore, AE = EB and we have effectively bisected AB
A
E
B
(divided it into two equal parts).
Worked Example 5
a Use a ruler and compasses to construct a line parallel to a given line.
b Use a CAS calculator to construct a line parallel to a given line.
563
Think
a
Draw/display
Pick any two points, A and B, on the

given line.
From point A, draw a circle of any

radius (more than half the distance from
A to B).
With the same radius repeat step 1 at

point B.
Join the highest points (or lowest

points) of the circles with a straight line.
This will be parallel to AB.
b
Construct a straight line segment in the
same manner as for worked example 4.
To construct a parallel line, tap [ and
touch the screen to place point C. Tap G.
Then tap the line AB and point C to select
them.
Then tap:
Draw
Construct
Parallel
Note: The radius is the distance between the compass points, and this determines the distance
between the parallel lines.
Bisecting angles
Another important construction is that employed to bisect angles.
Worked Example 6
a Use a ruler and compasses to bisect any angle.
b Use a CAS calculator to bisect any angle.
564
Think
a
draw/display
With any radius, and the point of the

compass at the vertex V, draw an arc of
a circle which crosses both arms of the
angle. The crossings are labelled A
and B.
With any radius and the point of the

compass at A, draw an arc inside the
angle. This arc should be long enough so
that the line representing half the angle
would cross it.
With the same radius, repeat step 2,

putting the point of the compass at B.
The two arcs will cross at point C.
Join the vertex V to C. This line bisects

the angle, namely:
AVB
AVC =
2
V
b
On the Geometry screen, construct a

straight line segment in the same manner
as for worked example 4. Then make
another line segment from B to C.
To construct an angle bisector, tap G
and select lines AB and BC.
Then tap:
Draw
Construct
Angle Bisector
B
A
B
A
B
A
565
When drawn carefully, this construction is an accurate way of halving an angle; it is even more
accurate than with a protractor. For example, if the original angle was 68.3, it would be difficult
with a protractor to obtain an angle of 34.15.
Constructing angles
The last group of constructions involves the special angles of 30, 45, 60 and 90. You
have already seen how to construct a 90 angle (see page 567), so bisecting this will produce a
45 angle.
Worked Example 7
Use a ruler and compasses to construct a 60 angle.

Think
1
Draw
Draw a line as the base of the angle. Select

a point for the vertex, A; put the compass
point there and draw a circle of any radius,
crossing the line at B.
A
With the same radius as in step 1, put the

compass point at B and draw an arc, crossing
the other circle at two places, C and D.
D
A
B
C
Join A to C. Angle CAB = 60.
B
C
There are several other 60 angles in the construction above. Can you find them? (Hint: Use the
symmetry of the construction.) A 30 angle can be constructed by bisecting a 60 angle.
REMEMBER
1. Geometric constructions are made with a pair of compasses and straight edge only.
2. The perpendicular bisector of a line divides the line in half and generates a single
angle.
3. For a line parallel to any given line, the radius (the distance between the compass
points) determines the distance between them.
4. The angle bisector divides any angle in half.
5. From a 60 angle and a perpendicular bisector, 30 and 45 angles can be made.
566
exerCise
16B
eBook plus
Interactivities
int-0998
Bisecting
an angle
int-0999
Circumcentre
C
1 We 4 Using a ruler and compasses, construct perpendiculars AC

and BD to the line AB.
2 a Consider the isosceles triangle in the figure at right. Construct
perpendicular bisectors of each of the three lines AB, BC, and CA.
b What do you notice about these bisectors?
3 a Repeat question 2 for any scalene triangle.
b What do you notice?
A
A
4 We 5 A pair of circular pulleys of the same radius is connected by a closed band of rubber.
The distance between the pulleys is equal to their diameter. Make a straight-edge-and-compass
construction of this system.
5 Three circular pulleys of the same radius are arranged as follows: Pulley A is directly above
Pulley B, at a distance equal to twice the diameter. Pulley C is to the right of Pulley B at
a distance equal to three times the diameter. The rubber band connecting them runs on the
outside of the system. Make a straight-edge-and-compass construction.
6 Sometimes it may be necessary to use a ruler to help with the construction. Make two parallel lines
exactly 20 cm apart. (Hint: How can you do this if the compasses wont open wide enough?)
7 We 4, 6 Using a ruler and compasses only, construct a 45 angle.
8 Using a ruler and compasses only, construct a 30 and then a 15 angle.
9 We 6, 7 Use the following set of instructions to duplicate the angle ABC.
Step 1. With your compass point at B, trace an arc cutting AB and BC at D and E respectively.
Step 2. Draw a line similar to line BC on another sheet of paper.
A
Step 3. With the same radius as in step 1, draw an arc on the new line.
Step 4. Use your compass to measure the distance from D to E.
Step 5. Use this radius to draw an arc on the new line, putting the
B
C
compass point where the first arc cut the line.
Step 6. Join the vertex of the new line with the point where the two arcs cross.
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WorkSHEET 16.1
16C
10 In worked example 3, a perpendicular line was constructed from

a point not on the line. Devise a method of constructing a
perpendicular from a point on the line.
polygons
As we have seen, a polygon is a closed figure with straight sides. In this section, we look at the
following aspects of polygons:
1. triangle constructions
2. quadrilaterals
3. regular polygons
4. star polygons.
Triangle constructions
Let us investigate the properties of the perpendicular bisectors of each side of any triangle.
Worked example 8
eBook plus
Construct the perpendicular bisectors and median bisectors of

each side of any triangle and investigate their properties.
Tutorial
int-1185
Worked example 8
Chapter 16
567
Think
568
Draw any triangle and add circles centred

at each vertex. The radius should be large
enough so that perpendicular bisectors can be
drawn.
Use the construction circles to draw

perpendicular bisectors. The black lines join
pairs of intersecting arcs. It should be clear
that the bisectors all meet at a point. This
point is called the circumcentre.
Use this point as a centre and draw a circle which

just touches each vertex. To do this, put the
compass point at the point where the bisectors
met and the pencil point at any vertex. You
should observe that the resultant circumcircle (or
outcircle) just touches each vertex.
Alternatively, on the Geometry screen

construct a triangle by tapping P.
Then tap the screen to draw the triangle. You
can adjust the size and position of the triangle
by tapping and dragging.
Then tap G.
Select the line you want the perpendicular
bisector to pass through and tap:
Draw
Construct
Perp. Bisector
Repeat these steps for the other two sides of
the triangle.
DRAW/display
To draw the circumcircle, tap U.

Then tap the intersection point (circumcentre)
and one of the vertices of the triangle.
Furthermore, from step 2, we can determine

the midpoint of each side from the
perpendicular bisectors. Note the use of short
bars to indicate the bisection of the sides, at
points P, Q and R.
R
P
Join each midpoint to its opposite vertex.

These lines also meet at a single point,
called the centroid, which has applications in
physics and engineering, as it is effectively
the point of symmetry of the triangle.
R
P
Imagine that the triangle in the previous example is made out of a thick piece of cardboard. The
centroid is the point where you could place a finger and balance the triangle. The reason for
this is that the median bisectors in step 5 are the three axes of symmetry of the triangle, each
axis dividing the triangle into two equal areas. Since they all meet, the centroid is the point of
symmetry.
The incentre is the intersection of the angle bisectors of a triangle.
Worked Example 9
B
Construct the incentre of the triangle shown at right:

a by hand
b using a CAS calculator.
C
Think
a
Draw/display
(a)Construct the angle bisectors

by drawing arcs centred at each
vertex (A, B and C).
(b)From the intersection of these
arcs and the sides of the triangles,
draw intersecting arcs between
pairs of sides. In the figure at
right this has been done to vertex
A only, to keep the drawing
uncluttered.
569
Complete the construction of the

angle bisectors and observe that they,
too, meet at a point the incentre.
By placing the compass point at the

incentre and carefully drawing a circle, it
is possible to construct the incircle, which
just touches each side of the triangle.
C
B
C
b
570
Construct a triangle using the method

set out in worked example 8. Tap G
and select the two lines you want the
angle bisector to go through.
Then tap:
Draw
Construct
Angle Bisector
Repeat this process for each of the

other angles of the triangle.
To draw the incircle, tap U.

Then tap the intersection point (incentre)
and a point to allow the circle to fit inside
the triangle.
Quadrilaterals
There are many names for the various kinds of quadrilaterals and it is useful to look at their
definitions in terms of their features.
Square
The square has:
1. four equal sides
2. four right angles.
A square can be constructed easily from a circle by finding
perpendicular bisector of the diameter.
Rectangle
The rectangle has:
1. opposite sides equal
2. four right angles.
A rectangle can be constructed from a circle by using the
construction shown to draw two lines parallel to a diameter. The rectangle is formed from the
intersection of the parallel lines with the circle.
Parallelogram
A parallelogram has:
1. opposite sides equal in length
2. opposite sides parallel
3. opposite angles equal.
Rhombus
A rhombus has:
1. all four sides equal in length
2. opposite sides parallel
3. opposite angles equal.
Trapezium
A trapezium (or trapezoid) has one pair of opposite sides parallel.
Other
All other four-sided figures are generally just called quadrilaterals, even
though the above figures are also quadrilaterals.
Obviously there is some overlap between these definitions; for example, a
square is a kind of rectangle, just as a rhombus is a kind of parallelogram.
Worked Example 10
Construct a rhombus using compasses and a straight edge.

Think
1
(a)Construct a pair of parallel lines.

(b)From any point on one line (A) draw an
arc of radius equal to the length of the
side of the rhombus. This arc cuts the
first line at B and the second line at C.
Draw
B
C
571
Using the same radius as in step 1, put the

compass point at C and draw an arc cutting
the same line at D.
A
C
Join points A to C and B to D to form the

rhombus ABDC.
D
B
It is easy to extend this kind of construction for other types of quadrilaterals.
Regular polygons
A regular polygon is one with each side the same length and with each interior angle the same
size. For triangles, the regular polygon is the equilateral triangle; for quadrilaterals, it is the
square. Worked example 7 should give you an idea of how to construct an equilateral triangle;
worked example 10 should help you construct a square. The construction of a regular hexagon
(6 sides) is particularly easy.
Worked Example 11
Construct a regular hexagon using a straight edge and compasses.

Think
1
Draw
Draw a circle whose radius is equal to the length of one

side of the hexagon.
A
Using the same radius as in step 1, and with the compass

point anywhere on the circle (A), draw an arc which cuts
the circle at point B.
A
A
B
572
Repeat step 2 by:

(a)putting the compass at B and cutting the circle at C
(b)putting the compass at C and cutting the circle at D
(c)putting the compass at D and cutting the circle at E
(d)putting the compass at E and cutting the circle at F
A
C
Join points ABCDEF to form a hexagon.
Several regular polygons, such as those with 7, 9, 11 and 13 sides, cannot be drawn using just
a straight edge and ruler. By dividing up the circles 360 degrees, it is possible to work out the
360
angle between each side. For example, the hexagons 6 sides must be
= 60 apart. Since
6
construction of a 60 angle is easy, the hexagon can be constructed. This does not occur with
360
regular polygons such as the heptagon, where the angle would be
= 51.428 .... In cases
7
like this, a protractor may be used.
Star polygons
The last step of worked example 10 was to join the points, in order, to form the regular polygon.
What would happen if you joined points by skipping others?
Consider the figure at right. Point A has been joined to E and then to C
E
F
and back to A again. A similar pattern has been used starting at point
B. In other words one point was skipped for each line. In this case,
D
the polygon formed (after removing the central lines) is the only one
A
possible with 6 points: the Star of David. These types of polygon are
called star polygons because of the obvious resemblance.
C
Star polygons can be constructed with the aid of a protractor,
B
as polygons which are 7-sided, 9-sided and so on have no exact
construction method.
Worked Example 12
Construct all the star polygons from a regular nonagon (9 sides), using a straight edge, compasses
and protractor.
Think
1
Draw
(a)Draw a circle of any radius, and draw a line

from the centre to the circumference (point A).
Since there are to be 9 sides, the interior angle
360
will be
= 40.
9
(b)Using a protractor, measure a 40 angle from
A to cross the circle at B.
Measure a 40 angle from B to cross the circle at
C. Repeat for the remaining 7angles.
B
40
B
40 40
E 40
40 A
40
40
40 40
J
40
F
D
G
3
Instead of joining ABCDEFGHJA, try

skipping one point, joining:
ACEGJBDFHA.
H
C
J
G
573
Remove the construction lines to form the star

polygon.
B
A
E
J
F
G
5
Repeat steps 3 and 4, but skip two points, joining:

ADGA and BEHB and CFJC.
H
C
A
J
F
G
6
Repeat steps 3 and 4, but skip three points,

joining: AEJDHCGBFA.
H
C
A
J
F
G
7
Repeat steps 3 and 4, but skip four points, joining:

AFBGCHDJEA. Since this is the same
figure as in step 6 with the order of the points reversed,
there are no more different star polygons to be drawn.
Note: The greater the number of points that are skipped, the sharper the points of the star
polygon become. Furthermore, if we skip too many points (as in step 7) the same star polygon is
produced; thus, there is a limited number of star polygons for a given regular polygon.
REMEMBER
1. The perpendicular bisectors of any triangle meet at a point called the circumcentre.
From this centre a circle (the circumcircle) that just touches each vertex of the triangle
can be drawn.
2. The centroid is the point where the lines connecting each vertex with the midpoint of
the opposite side meet.
3. The incentre is the point where the angle bisectors of each vertex meet. From this
centre a circle (the incircle) that just touches each side can be drawn.
4. A quadrilateral can be a square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram or trapezium. All
these can be constructed using a straight edge and compasses only.
5. A regular polygon has equal sides and equal interior angles. Regular polygons of 3, 4,
5, 6, 8 and 12 sides can be constructed easily. Other regular polygons may require the
assistance of a protractor.
6. A star polygon is formed by joining alternate vertices of a regular polygon in a regular
pattern. Each regular polygon may have 0 (triangle, quadrilateral), 1(pentagon,
hexagon) or more different star polygons.
574
Exercise
16C
Polygons
1 WE8 Construct a scalene triangle with one angle greater than 90 degrees. Investigate the
properties of perpendicular bisectors and side length bisectors.
2 Construct a right-angled triangle (one with an angle of 90 degrees). Investigate the properties
of the circumcentre and centroid.
3 Which of the basic constructions of the previous sections might be used to construct an
isosceles triangle?
4 An ancient method of getting a right angle is to use the Pythagorean triple: a triangle with
sides of 3, 4 and 5 units. Devise a method of constructing such a triangle with compasses and a
straight edge only.
5 WE9 Construct the following triangle. Start with a base side of 6cm. From the left-hand
endpoint of the line draw a circle of radius 7cm and from the right-hand endpoint draw a circle
of 5cm. Join the two endpoints to the place where the two arcs meet, above the line, to form
the triangle. Construct the incentre of this triangle.
6 Construct a scalene triangle and determine the incentre. What did you observe about the
properties of the incentre?
7 WE10 Devise a method of constructing a parallelogram (with unequal sides) similar to that of
worked example 9.
8 WE11 Begin the construction of a regular dodecagon (12-sided polygon) using the following
steps:
a Construct a regular hexagon.
bJoin the vertices of the hexagon to the centre of the circle first used in the construction.
What should the final three steps be?
9 The construction of a regular pentagon is quite difficult. Use the
D
following instructions to help in the compass-and-straight-edge
construction. The various points defined in the steps are shown
below.
B
Step 1.Draw a circle of any radius, and mark the centre C and the A
F C
M
diameter AB.
Step 2.Find the perpendicular bisector of AB meeting the circle
at D and E.
E
Step 3.Find the midpoint (M) of CB and with radius MD draw an
arc cutting AB at F.
The side length of the pentagon is equal to the distance DF. Using this information,
complete the construction of the pentagon. (Hint: This step is similar to the construction of a
hexagon.)
10 WE12 The stars on the Australian flag
are 7-pointed (the points represent the
6 states and the Northern Territory).
There is no compass- and straight-edge
construction, so use a protractor to
help you construct the 7-pointed star
polygon.
11 Construct all the different star polygons
possible from an octagon. What is
an easy compass-and-straight-edge
construction of the octagon?
575
16D
In this section we shall investigate some facets of solids, as opposed to two-dimensional or
plane objects that we have studied thus far. However, we shall limit ourselves to polyhedrons.
Nets of polyhedrons
A polyhedron is a solid object made up of plane (flat) polygons. So a cube and a pyramid
are examples of polyhedrons, but a cylinder is not. A net of a polyhedron is a flattened
representation of a solid. Since each face of the polyhedron is itself a polygon, the net (or
collection of all faces) must be a collection of polygons, such that, when folded correctly, the
solid can be constructed. The place where two faces meet is called an edge, while the place
where three or more faces meet is called a vertex.
Worked Example 13
Construct a net for the triangular pyramid depicted at right (base is shaded).
Note: The diagram is in three dimensions, so is in perspective.
Consequently, your two-dimensional net will have sides and shapes
which look slightly different.
Think
Count the number of faces.
Count the number of edges. Edges occur

where two faces meet.
Count the number of vertices. Vertices occur

where three or more faces meet.
Use the information from steps 1 to 3 to
help construct the net. Since there are four
triangular faces, the net must have four
triangles. If you folded the net along the lines
BC, BD and CD so that the three A points met,
you would be able to construct the pyramid.
B
C
write/Draw
The faces are:

base, or polygon BCD (shaded)
front, or polygon ACD
left, or polygon ABC
right, or polygon ABD.
There are four faces.
The edges are represented by the lines: BC, BD, CD,
AC, AD, AB.
There are six edges.
The vertices (or corners) are A, B, C, D.
There are four vertices.
A
A
B
Note: There are several possible nets for the same object, but all of them require that one or
more vertices are shown more than once. In the above example, vertex A was triplicated. Can
you construct another net for the above figure where a different vertex is triplicated?
There is a mathematical relationship between the numbers of vertices, edges and faces. This is
known as Eulers formula. Let V be the number of vertices, E be the number of edges and F the
number of faces or regions. Then: V = E F + 2.
In worked example 13, we can confirm this: as V = 4, E = 6, F = 4, so substituting in Eulers
formula gives 4 = 6 4 + 2. This formula can be used to determine, say, the number of edges, if
you know the number of vertices and faces.
576
The Platonic solids

A Platonic solid (named after the Greek philosopher Plato) is one where all the faces are regular
polygons. It turns out there are only five Platonic solids in all.
2. The cube is made
up of 6 faces of
squares.
1. The tetrahedron is
made up of 4 faces
of equilateral
triangles. This is
the same basic
object as in worked
example 12.
3. The octahedron is
made up of 8 faces
of equilateral
triangles.
4. The dodecahedron
is made up of
12 faces of
pentagons.
108
5. The icosahedron
is made up
of 20 faces
of equilateral
triangles.
Worked Example 14
Confirm Eulers formula for the octahedron.
C
A
Think
Write
Count the number of faces.
There are 8 faces, determined by the triangles:

ABE, ABC, ACD, ADE, FED, FDC, FCB, FBE.
Count the number of edges.
The edges are represented by the lines:

AB, AC, AD, AE, BC, CD, DE, EB, FB, FC, FD, FE.
There are 12 edges.
Count the number of vertices.
There are 6 vertices: A, B, C, D, E, F.
Write Eulers formula.
V=EF+2
Confirm Eulers formula.
V = 6, E = 12, F = 8
6 = 12 8 + 2
REMEMBER
1. A polyhedron is a solid made up of flat polygonal faces.

2. The net of a polyhedron is a two-dimensional representation of the solid, showing
connected edges.
577
3. The place where two faces meet is called an edge; the place where three or more faces
meet is called a vertex.
4. For any solid, Eulers formula applies: Vertices = Edges Faces + 2.
5. A Platonic solid is a polyhedron made from a single regular polygon. There are only
five different Platonic solids.
Exercise
16d
1 WE13 Construct a net for a rectangular box of dimensions 40 cm by 30 cm by 20 cm.
2 Confirm Eulers formula for the solid in question 1.
3 WE14 List the faces, edges and vertices for the solid drawn at
right. Confirm Eulers formula for this solid.
H
F
E
M
4 MC A cylinder is not a polyhedron because:

a it has only 3 faces.
b it is not Platonic.
D it has faces that are not plane polygons.
K
D
c it has no edges.
e none of the above.
5 MC A polyhedron has 6 faces and 5 vertices. The number of edges of this solid is:
a 3
b 5
c 7
D 9
e 11
6 Draw a pyramid with a square base (similar to those in Egypt). Find the numbers of vertices,
edges and faces. Confirm Eulers formula.
7 MC Which of the following is not a net for a cube?
a
8 Draw a net for the Platonic solid, the tetrahedron.

9 Draw a net for the Platonic solid, the octahedron.
10 Draw the net for the object in question 3.
11 Consider the Platonic solid, the octahedron, shown at right.
Imagine that the bottom gets sliced off horizontally along AB, which
is parallel to the plane of PQRS. What would be the shape of the
new exposed surface?
12 Construct, with compasses and a straight edge (and scissors and glue),
the Platonic solid, the octahedron.
13 Given a cube whose side length is a, as shown at right, determine the
length of the diagonal of the base (the line AB), using Pythagoras theorem.
Similarly, show that the so-called major diagonal (AC) has a length of 3a.
578
B
C
B
a
14 Consider the cube shown at near right. Use the

midpoints of the lines AB, BC and BD, to cut an
imaginary subcube out of the original. How many
of these little cubes fit inside the big one?
15 Now consider the cube being cut in the way
shown far right, again by finding the midpoints
of AB, BC and BD. What fraction of the original
cube is this object?
16e
D
A
Circle geometry
Until now, we have avoided the most perfect form in geometry, the circle. There are several
important properties and theorems of circles which form part of the classical study of geometry.
Review of circle definitions

A circle is formed by drawing the curved line which is at a given
D
E
distance from a single point (O). This distance is called the radius.
The line itself is called the circumference. A line from a point on the
circumference (A), through the centre (O), to another point (B) on the A
B
O
circumference is called a diameter. A similar line (DE) which does
not pass through the centre is called a chord. OC is a radius.
C
Mathematically, it is easy to see that the length of AB is twice
that of OC.
D
E
In other words, diameter = 2 radius.
The length of any chord is less than that of the diameter (DE < AB).
A chord divides the circle into two regions. In the figure at right, the
A
B
O
shaded area is called the minor segment. The rest of the circles area is
called the major segment. A minor segments area is always less than
half the area of the circle. The part of the circumference joining points
D and E is called an arc. The shorter arc (in the shaded region) is the
minor arc; the longer one is the major arc.
D
E
A chord can define (or subtend) certain angles. The angle formed by
joining the chord to the centre (DOE) is called the angle subtended by
OO
B
the chord at the centre. The angle formed by joining the chord to a third
point on the circumference (DFE) is called the angle subtended by the
C
chord at the circumference.
F
Obviously for a given chord (DE) there is only one angle subtended
at the centre, but there are different angles subtended at the
circumference as the point F is moved around the circle.
A tangent line is one that just touches the circumference at a single point (C) and is always
perpendicular to the radius (OC). There is a close connection between this tangent and the one
defined in trigonometry.
Circle theorems
Circle theorem 1
Consider the figure at right. A chord AB is drawn and a third point on the
circumference (C) defines the angle ACB (marked angle y in the figure).
From the same chord, lines are drawn to the centre (O), defining the angle
x. It can be proven that x = 2y.
Circle theorem 1: The angle subtended by the chord at the centre is twice
the value of the angle subtended by the same chord at the circumference.
B
x
O
y
C
579
Circle theorem 2
A
Now, imagine moving the point C in the figure anywhere along the
circumference to, say, points C1 or C2. In each case new angles (y1, y2)
are subtended by the same chord.
But from Circle theorem 1: x = 2y2 and x = 2y1, therefore y2 = y1
This is true as long as C1 and C2 stay on the same side of AB as C (that
is, in the same segment as C).
B
x
O
y2 y y1
C2 C
Circle theorem 2: Angles subtended at the circumference, in the same

segment, by the same chord, are equal.
Worked example 15
eBook plus
Find the values of the angles x, y and z.

Think
1
Tutorial
int-1186
WriTe
The angles x and 62 are subtended by the

same chord at the circumference. The angle
at the centre (62) is twice the angle at the
circumference (x).
AOB = 2ADB
62 = 2x
x = 31
The angles x and y are subtended by the same

chord at the circumference, so they are equal.
ADB = ACB
x=y
31 = y
y = 31
Triangle ADO is isosceles, and angles on the base

of an isosceles triangle are equal, so x = z.
Worked example 15
C
y
D
62
O
x=z
31 = z
z = 31
eBook plus
580
Use Circle theorem 1 to find x.
Worked example 16
Think
C1
Tutorial
WriTe
int-1187
Worked example 16
x = AOB = 2ACB
(Circle theorem 1)
x = 2(46)
= 92
Use Circle theorem 2 to find y.
y = ADB = ACB
(Circle theorem 2)
y = 46
Use properties of isosceles triangle AOB to find z.
x + z + OAB = 180
x + z + z = 180
x + 2z = 180
2z = 180 - 92
= 88
z = 44
z
x
O
46
C
B
y
D
Circle theorem 3
B1
A1
Now, imagine moving the chord AB to
x
x
the point A1B1 as shown in Figure 1.
B1
A1
Notice that the values of both angles x
O
O
and y are increasing.
y
y
What would happen if A1 and B1
C
were moved even further, so that the
C
chord became a diameter?
Figure 2
Figure 1
This is shown in Figure 2. Now, x is a
straight angle (180), and from Circle theorem 1, x = 2y. Therefore, y = 90. This special case of
the theorem can be stated as circle theorem 3:
Circle theorem 3: The angle subtended by a diameter is a right angle (90).
Circle theorem 4
The figure at right is called a cyclic quadrilateral, because all four
vertices touch the circumference, and it encloses the centre. It can be
proven that the sum of opposite angles is always 180; that is,
a + c = 180 and b + d = 180.
Circle theorem 4: Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral add up to
180degrees.
a
O
c C
b
B
Worked Example 17
Find the values of x and y.

Think
1
Write
D
ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral and opposite

angles in such a shape add up to 180.
89
A x
103 C
y
B
Angles x and 103 are opposite angles.
x + 103 = 180

x = 77
Angles y and 89 are opposite angles.
y + 89 = 180

y = 91
REMEMBER
1. A chord is a line drawn connecting any two points on the circumference of a circle.
2. Joining the end points of a chord to a third point creates an angle, subtended by that
chord (or arc).
3. A line just touching the circumference and perpendicular to the radius is a tangent line.
4. Joining four points on the circumference with straight lines between neighbouring
points forms a cyclic quadrilateral.
581
5. Circle theorem 1: The angle subtended by a chord at the centre of a circle is twice the
angle subtended by the same chord (or arc) at the circumference.
6. Circle theorem 2: Angles subtended by the same chord (or arc) are equal.
7. Circle theorem 3: The angle subtended by the diameter is a right angle (90).
8. Circle theorem 4: The sum of opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral equals 180.
exerCise
16e
eBook plus
Interactivities
int-1002
Circle theorem 1
int-1003
Circle theorem 2
int-1004
Circle theorem 3
int-1005
Circle theorem 4
int-1006
Centrecircumference
angles
int-1007
Angles on the
same arc
int-1008
Circle geometry
1 We15 Find the values of the angles x, y and z in the figure at right.
2 mC The angle subtended by a chord at the centre is _____________ the
angle subtended by the same chord at the _____________.
The above sentence can be completed using the words:
a half, circumference
D equal, circumference
b twice, diameter
e twice, edge
88
O
c twice, circumference
3 Find the value of the angle x in Figure 1, below.

4 mC In question 3, if angle OAC = 20, then OBC equals:
a 37
b 57
c 59
D 94
e 131
5 We16 Find the values of the angles x, y and z in Figure 2, below.

6 Using the result from Circle theorem 2, prove the additional result that x = z in Figure 3, below.
A
B
Cyclic
quadrilaterals
x
O
x 80 z
37 C
x
y
34 O
z
E
O
y
C
D
Figure 2
Figure 1
Figure 3
7 mC In Figure 4 (below), the angle (or angles) which is (are) half of AOC is (are):
a ABC only
b ADC only
c ABC and ADC
D ADC and ACD
e ACD only
8 The angle subtended at the circumference by a diameter is ________ degrees.
9 Find the values of x and y in Figure 5, below.
10 We17 Find the values of x and y in Figure 6, below.
B
A
C
50
O
O
D
Figure 4
582
54
O
30
y
Figure 5
84
Figure 6
11 In the following 5 figures, identify the circle theorem that helps you find the value of the angle
labelled x. Then find the actual value of x.
a
111
102
x
51
81
120
81
O
x
41
22
O
x
O 110
51
12 In Figure 7 (below) find the value of angle y in terms of angle x. (Hint: Use Circle theorems 2
and 4 combined.)
13 Find the values of the angles x, y and z in Figure 8 (below).
14 Prove the general case of the result of question 13, namely that:
x=y=z
15 In Figure 9 (below), chords AB and CD are parallel. Find the values of the angles x, y and z.
y
A
y
x
O
40
42
x
D
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
16 Prove the general case of the result of question 15, namely that:
x=y=z
17 The proof of Circle theorem 1 relied on a result about the external angle
of any triangle, as shown in the figure at right. The result is that
d = a + b. Prove this result.
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 16.2
18 The proof of Circle theorem 1 also relied on a particular construction

whereby a line joining the vertices of the two angles in question were
joined and extended towards the circumference.
This is the line COD in worked example 15 and in the figure at
right. Go back and refer to this now. Imagine the point C being
moved so that it was much closer to B as in the figure. Clearly,
it is not possible to form the line COD, so how can we prove the
theorem in this case?
Step 1. Draw a line from C to O (see the figure at right).
Step 2. Using the result about equal angles in isosceles triangles,
find some equal angles. There are three isosceles triangles in the
diagram.
To get you started, EBC = y + ECO. (Why?)
Complete the proof, namely that x = 2y.
b
c d
a
D
x
O
y
E
y
C
A
z
x
O
B
y
C
Chapter 16
583
16F

There are many geometric problems which use the four circle theorems to help in their solution.
To begin, we need to recall the definition of a tangent to a circle as a line which just touches the
circumference and forms a right angle to the radius at the point of contact. The last figure in the
section on reviewing circle definitions shows an example of a tangent line.
Worked Example 18
Construct, with a straight edge and compasses, a tangent to a circle at any point
a by hand
b using a CAS calculator.
This task is relatively easy, relying on the earlier construction of a perpendicular bisector.
Think
a
584
Draw/Display
(a)Given the circle centred at O, and

any point A on the circumference,
extend the radius outward.
(b)Using the same radius as the circle
(OA), draw an arc crossing the
extended line at B. The result is that
A is the midpoint of OB.
Construct the perpendicular bisector of

the line OB.
You will need a larger radius for the
compass than in step 1. Draw arcs above
and below the line OB by first placing
the compass point at B, then at O. The
arcs should cross at C and D.
Join the points C and D. Since the
line CD is perpendicular to OB, it is
also perpendicular to OA. Since it just
touches the circle at A, it must also be
the tangent.
B
A
O
B
A
B
A
b
To construct a circle, on the Geometry
screen, tap U.
Then tap the screen to select the centre of
the circle and again to select a point on the
circumference.
To draw a tangent to the circle, tap:

Draw
Construct
Tangent to Curve
Tap the point on the screen where you
want the tangent to the curve to be drawn.
To add the line AB, tap:

Draw
Infinite Line
Tap the centre of the circle and the
point of intersection of the tangent
and the circle.
The alternate segment theorem

Consider the figure shown. Line BC is a tangent to the circle at the
point A.
A line is drawn from A to anywhere on the circle, point D.
The angle BAD defines a segment (the shaded area).
The unshaded part of the circle is called the alternate segment
to BAD.
Now consider angles subtended by the chord AD in the alternate
segment such as the angles marked in red and blue.
The alternate segment theorem states that these are equal to the
angle which made the segment, namely:
BAD = AED and BAD = AFD
O
F
Proof of the alternate segment theorem

We are required to prove that BAD = AFD.
1. Construct the diameter from A through O, meeting the circle at G.
This can be done simply with a straight edge, as both points A and
O are known. Join G to the points D and F.
2. Use Circle theorem 3 to find some right angles. This refers to the
property that angles subtended at the circumference by a diameter
are right angles.
BAG = CAG = 90 (property of tangents)
GFA = 90 (Circle theorem 3)
GDA = 90 (Circle theorem 3)
O
F
585
3. Consider triangle GDA. We know that GDA = 90. Solve.

GDA + DAG + AGD = 180
90 + DAG + AGD = 180
DAG + AGD = 90
4. (a) BAG is also a right angle.
BAG = BAD + DAG = 90
(b) Equate the two results.
DAG + AGD = BAD + DAG
(c) Cancel the equal angles on both sides.
AGD = BAD
5. Now consider the fact that both triangles DAG and DAF are subtended from the same
chord (DA).
AGD = AFD
(Circle theorem 2)
Equate the two equations.
AFD = BAD
QED
Chords and tangents in circles

We shall now consider three situations: where chords intersect inside a circle, where they meet
outside a circle and where one of the chords is a tangent. First, let us consider the case of two
chords which meet inside a circle.
Chords meeting inside a circle

Worked Example 19
Two chords, AB and CD, meet at a 50 angle at point E.

Think
1
Find the value of x using the sum of angles

in a triangle.
Write/draw
x + 50 + 44 = 180

x = 180 50 44
= 86
(a) Construct a line joining B to D.

(b)Now the angle y and the 44 angle
(DCB) are subtended at the
circumference by the same chord (BD).
C
44 x B
50
E
A y
z
D
C
44 x B
50
E
A y
z
D
(c) Apply Circle theorem 2.

3
y = 44
(a) Now, construct a line joining C to A.
(Circle theorem 2)
C
44 x B
50
E
(b)This time the angles x and z are

subtended by the same chord (AC).
A y
z
D
(c) Apply Circle theorem 2.
586
z = x = 86
(Circle theorem 2)
As a consequence of this example, the two triangles AED and CEB have all three angles equal
and are therefore similar triangles. This can be stated as a theorem:
Two chords which meet inside a circle form two similar triangles.
Chords meeting outside a circle

Let us now consider the case where the two chords meet outside the circle.
Worked Example 20
Two chords, PA and PB, meeting at P, intersect the circumference

of a circle at C and D. Find the values of the angles x, y and z.
y
C
Think
Write
88
x
28
D
Use the sum of angles in a triangle to find x.
x + 88 + 28 = 180 (sum of angles in a

triangle)

x = 180 88 28
= 64
(a) Find z. Consider the straight angle ACP.
DCA + 88 = 180 (straight angle = 180)

DCA = 92
DCA + z = 180 (Circle theorem 4)

92 + z = 180

z = 88
(b)Consider the cyclic quadrilateral ABDC. Use

Circle theorem 4 to find z.
(Note: z will always equal DCP.)
3
(a) Consider the straight angle BDP.

(b) Use Circle theorem 4 to find y.
(Note: y will always equal x (CDP).)
BDC + x = 180 (straight angle = 180)

BDC + 64 = 180 (from step 1)

BDC = 116
y + BDC = 180 (Circle theorem 4)

y + 116 = 180

y = 64
A chord meeting a tangent

Finally, consider what happens when one of the chords becomes a tangent.
Worked Example 21
A chord (BD) meets a tangent (AD) at point D. The chord crosses

the circumference at C. Construct a pair of similar triangles
based on the diagram shown.
Think
1
Join points A to B and A to C and label angles

a, b, c, d, e, x, y.
To find similar triangles, attempt to find equal
angles.
Write/DRAW
B
e
x C
c
y ab d
A
D
587
Since AD is a tangent, and AB and AC are

chords, the alternate segment theorem can apply.
y=x
b=e
There are two straight angles along lines BD and

AD.
x + c = 180 (straight angle along AD)

y + a + b = 180 (straight angle along BD)
x+c=y+a+b
(equate two straight angles)
c = a + b (result from step 2, x = y)
Consider the angles in small triangle ACD and

the largest triangle BAD.
ACD angles: b, c, d
BAD angles: e, (a + b), d
Use the results from steps 2 and 3 (b = e and

c = a + b).
Since three angles are equal, the triangles are

similar.
(alternate segment theorem on AB)

(alternate segment theorem on AC)
= b, c, d
Hence, triangle ACD and triangle BAD are
similar.
So, no matter what the geometry of the two chords (even where one is a tangent), a pair of
similar triangles is always formed.
Worked example 22
eBook plus
A plank rests on two cylindrical rollers, as shown in the

diagram. The radii of the rollers are 40 cm and 50 cm
and their distance apart on the ground is 120 cm. Find
the value of the angle x.
Tutorial
int-1188
Worked example 22
50 cm
x
40 cm
120 cm
Think
1
WriTe/draW
Redraw the diagram as a similar triangle problem. Label

the triangle and transfer all the relevant information onto
the diagram.
A
C
50 cm
40 cm
x
2
120 cm
Write a similarity statement.

Note: With any similar figures, the corresponding angles are
equal and their corresponding sides are in equal ratio.
CED is similar to AEB

CED AEB
To find missing side lengths, establish the scale factor by

calculating the ratio of two corresponding sides whose
lengths are given.
Scale factor =
AB
CD
50
40
5
4
= 1.25
588
Use the scale factor to find the length of side ED.

EB = 1.25ED
y + 120 = 1.25y
y y + 120 = 1.25y y

120 = 0.25y

0.25y = 120
0.25y 120

=
0.25 0.25
(a) Write the relationship between EB and ED.

(b)Substitute the known values into the equation.
(c)Transpose the equation to make the letter y the
subject.
(d) Divide both sides by 0.25.
5
Use triangle CED to find the magnitude of the angle

required.
(a) Identify the appropriate ratio to use.
Note: The opposite and adjacent sides are known;
therefore, choose the tangent ratio.
(b)Substitute the known values into the ratio and
evaluate.
(c)Transpose the equation to make the angle
x
the subject, using the inverse tangent function.
2
(d)Evaluate for x and round the answer correct to
2 decimal places.
y = 480
C
x
2
480 cm
40 cm
D
O
A
x
40
tan =
2 480
tan () =
x
1
tan =
2 12
x
1
= tan 1
2
12
x
= 4.7636
2
x = 2 4.7636
= 9.5272
= 9.53
The required angle is 9.53.
REMEMBER
1. The tangent line to a circle from either a point on the circumference or a point outside
the circle can be constructed with a compass and straight edge only.
2. The angle formed by a tangent line and a chord divides the circle into two segments.
Angles subtended by the chord in the alternate segment equal the angle formed by the
tangent line and chord. This is called the alternate segment theorem.
3. Similar triangles have all three angles equal. Their corresponding sides are in equal ratio.
4. Two chords can meet inside the circle or be extended to meet outside the circle. In both
cases similar triangles are formed.
5. An extended chord meeting a tangent line outside the circle also forms similar
triangles.
Exercise
16F

1 WE18 Draw a circle of any radius. Construct a radius which points to the right (that is, due
east). Construct a tangent to the circle at the point where this radius touches the circle.
589
2 Line AB is a tangent to the circle, as shown in Figure 1,

on the right. Find the values of the angles labelled x and y.
B y
O
21
Figure 1
Questions 3, 4 and 5 refer to Figure 2 on the right. The line

MN is a tangent to the circle and EA is a straight line. The
circles have the same radius.
3 Find 6 different right angles.
F
O
G
C
B
eBook plus
mC If DAC = 20, then CFD and FDG are respectively:

a 70 and 50
b 70 and 40
D 70 and 70
e 50 and 50
c 40 and 70
mC A triangle similar to FDA is:

a FDG
b FGB
D GDE
e none of the above
c EDA
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 16.2
Similar
triangles
Figure 2
A
y
6 Find the values of the angles x and y in Figure 3.

(Hint: Use the alternate segment theorem.)
7 Show that if the sum of the two
given angles in question 6 is 90,
then the line AB must be a diameter.
O
B
8 Find the value of x in Figure 4, given

that the line underneath the circle
is a tangent.
42
62
Figure 3
x
9 In Figure 5, express x in terms of

a and b.
100
x
a
20
b
Figure 4
Figure 5
10 Two tangent lines to a circle meet at an angle y, as shown in Figure 6 below. Find the values of
the angles x, y and z.
11 Solve question 10 in the general case (see Figure 7) and show that y = 2a. This result is
important for space navigation (imagine the circle to be the earth) in that an object at y can be
seen by people at x and z at the same time.
12 We19 In Figure 8, find the values of the angles x, y and z.
a
10
z
Figure 6
590
z
75
z
O
O
x
x
Figure 7
O
y
20
Figure 8
13 a Find two pairs of similar triangles in Figure 9.

bSince similar triangles are formed, find the
lengths of the sides labelled x and y, as shown
in Figure 10 at right.
B
E
2.5
Ey
x
5
O
Figure 9
A
14 WE20 a Identify a pair of similar triangles in Figure 11.

b Find the values of the angles x and y.
c If AC = 10 cm, BC = 4 cm and EC = 11 cm, find ED.
Figure 10
B
70
25
Figure 11
15 MC Examine Figure 12 at right. The angles x and y

(in degrees) are respectively:
a 51 and 99
b 51 and 129
c 39 and 122
D 51 and 122
e 51 and 110
19
x
51
y
Figure 12
S
16 WE21 In Figure 13, chord SQ meets a tangent PQ

at point Q. Construct a pair of similar triangles based
on the diagram shown.
R
P
Figure 13
Questions 17, 18 and 19 refer to Figure 14, at right. The line BA

is a tangent to the circle at point B. Chord CD is extended to meet
the tangent at A.
C
x
y D
17 Find the values of the angles x and y.
z 50 45 A
B
Figure 14
18 MC The triangle which is similar to triangle BAD is:

A COD
B CAB
C BCD
D BDC
E AOB
19 MC The value of the angle z is:

A 50
B 85
E 130
C 95
D 100
20 Find the values of the angles x, y and z in Figure 15 (at right).

The line AB is tangent to the circle at B.
33
y
92
x
B
Figure 15
591
21 Find the values of the angles x, y and z in Figure 16 (at right).

The line AB is tangent to the circle at B. The line CD is
a diameter.
y D
25
B
Figure 16
22 Solve question 21 in the general case; that is, express

angles x, y and z in terms of a (see Figure 17).
C
x
y D
a
B
Figure 17
23 We22 A plank rests on two cylindrical rollers, as shown.

The radii of the rollers are 10 cm and 25 cm and their
distance apart on the ground is 90 cm. Find the value
of the angle x.
25 cm
x
10 cm
90 cm
eBook plus
24 A plank rests on two cylindrical rollers, as shown.

The radii of the rollers are 18 cm and 24 cm. The plank makes
an angle of 30 with the horizontal ground. Find the
distance, x cm, between the rollers.
Digital doc
Investigation
24 cm
Circle
constructions
16G
14
18 cm
x
Geometry in architecture,
design and art
The most powerful tool in the architects arsenal and a crucial one for artists is geometry. Both
groups rely on rendering real three-dimensional objects onto (usually) a two-dimensional sheet
(or canvas). Furthermore, the designs of buildings, sculpture, packaging and even automobiles
rely on geometrical constructions. This topic could fill an entire chapter (if not a course) on its
own, so we will restrict ourselves to only a small part of it.
perspective
Architects often render (construct) a view of a three-dimensional space on a sheet of paper. This
gives the viewer some idea of how the object being designed fits into that space. Perspective
drawing, although a relatively new technique (about 400 years old), is crucial to forming an
accurate understanding of the object.
592
To construct a simple perspective drawing we need to understand a few basic concepts: centre
of vision, horizon and vanishing point. The horizon is a horizontal line which represents the
boundary between earth and sky, as far as the observer (you) can see. The centre of vision
is the distant horizontal line level where your eyes are looking. The line joining your eyeball to
your centre of vision meets it at the vanishing point.
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Rachel Nolan
Worked example 23
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Construct a perspective drawing of a road, telegraph

poles and some posts.
Think
1
Tutorial
int-1189
Worked example 23
WriTe/draW
On a sheet of paper, lightly draw in a centre

of vision line. Using the tip of your pencil,
mark a selected vanishing point somewhere
near the middle of this line.
VP
Chapter 16
CV
593
Use your ruler to draw a converging line

from each bottom corner of your page to
the vanishing point to create a road.
(a)Using free hand, draw in a mountain

range along the centre of vision line.
(b)Using a ruler draw a large vertical line
on the left-hand side of the road, near
the bottom corner of the page. Use this
line to draw the closest telegraph pole.
(a)Draw faint lines from the top and

bottom of the telegraph pole to the
vanishing point.
(b)Using these lines as a guide, draw
in another five vertical lines (these
will become other telegraph poles),
becoming closer together as they move
towards the vanishing point. Add detail
to the telegraph poles.
(c)Using the same process, draw in a
number of white road side posts on the
other side of the road.
H
VP
CV
H
VP
CV
There are computer programs (for example, AutoCad) which will, when given a mathematical
model of a three-dimensional object, produce a perspective drawing, allowing you to move both
the horizon and vanishing points and to observe the resulting perspective.
The Golden Ratio

The ancient Greeks designed many beautiful structures. One reason for this beauty was the
proportions used in such structures in the columns, arches and windows. It was discovered that
rectangles in a particular ratio were particularly pleasing to the eye. These rectangles are called
Golden Rectangles and the ratio is known as the Golden Ratio. Even today, this ratio can be
found in nature, in certain windows, in the framing of photographs (only approximately Golden)
and in many other architectural elements.
Consider the rectangle ABCD at right. Draw a line EF, which
A
E
B
creates a square AEFD. If the remaining rectangle (shaded)
EBCF has side lengths in the same ratio as the original ABCD,
then both are Golden Rectangles. In other words,
AB:BC = BC:CF, or expressing it as a fraction,
AB BC
.
=
BC CF
D
F
C
Furthermore, since EBCF is now itself a Golden Rectangle,
A
E
B
it too can be subdivided into a square and another Golden
Rectangle (EBGH). This process can be repeated infinitely,
creating smaller and smaller Golden Rectangles. How many are
H
G
there in the figure at right?
D
594
Worked example 24
Using a straight edge and compasses, construct a Golden Rectangle.

Think
1
WriTe/draW
Construct a square, starting from two points,

A and B.
(a) From points A and B, construct
perpendicular lines (AM and BN).
(b) Draw a circle with radius AB and centre
A, crossing line AM at D.
(c) Draw another circle, with radius AB and
centre B, crossing BN at C. Join CD.
The line AD will be the short side of the
golden rectangle.
(d) Find the midpoint, E of AB, by finding
the perpendicular bisector of line AB.
Put your compass point at E and pencil at

C. Draw the circle passing through points
C and D.
(a) Extend lines DC and AB horizontally
until they are both outside the circle.
(b) Construct the perpendicular to AF at
point F and extend this line until it
meets DC at G.
The rectangle AFGD is a Golden Rectangle.
Can you identify the other Golden Rectangle
in this drawing?
B
N
B
C
A
A
Tessellations
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Another important element in design and architecture is a tessellation:

a repeated series of a polygon or polygons which exactly cover the
Digital doc
Investigation
plane, without leaving gaps. A simple tessellation is the chequerboard,
The Golden Ratio
comprising 64 squares. The board can be extended infinitely in both
horizontal and vertical directions, so it is a tessellation.
There are three types of tessellation: regular tessellations, semiregular tessellations and
irregular tessellations.
regular tessellations
A regular tessellation is built up from copies of a single regular polygon. The tessellation at
right is made up of regular hexagons.
Note that although the plane is filled, the edges are ragged
(look down the left side).
The point where the three polygons meet (black dot) is called a
vertex.
There are only three regular tessellations: equilateral triangles,
squares and hexagons.
Chapter 16
595
semiregular tessellations
The figure at right is called a semiregular tessellation because:
1. it is made up of two (or more) regular polygons
2. the arrangement of polygons at each vertex is the same.
At each vertex there are three triangles and two squares. This vertex
can be written as {3, 3, 3, 4, 4} and is called the order of the vertex.
The order of a vertex can be determined by closely examining
the polygons which surround the vertex. Consider the enlarged version
of one vertex of the above tessellation. Determine the number of sides
of each polygon and list this number of sides in a clockwise fashion,
starting with a polygon of the smallest number. So the order {3, 3, 3, 4,
4} can just as easily be {3, 4, 4, 3, 3} or {3, 3, 4, 4, 3}.
33 3
4 4
irregular tessellations
The figure at left may appear to be a
semiregular tessellation, made up of
triangles and squares, but examine
carefully the vertex marked in blue. It
has 3 triangles and 2 squares {3, 3, 3, 4,
4} while the vertex marked in red would
be {3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3}.
Therefore this is an irregular tessellation.
In fact, there are only 8 different semiregular
tessellations, so that almost all tessellations are irregular.
Irregular tessellations can be as simple as the figure at
left or as complex as the one below. A famous artist, M.
C. Escher, specialised in extremely complex tessellations.
Worked example 25
Consider the tessellation shown.

a Name the polygons making up the tessellation.
b Determine the order of all the different vertices and, hence, the
type of tessellation.
Think
WriTe
a Carefully examine the tessellation.
a The polygon types are regular triangle, quadrilateral
and hexagon. This could possibly be a semiregular

tessellation.
b
596
Examine the tessellation, looking

for different vertex arrangements.
It appears that there are three types,
marked red, green and purple in the
figure.
Evaluate the vertices.
b Red vertex: triangle, square, hexagon, square or
3, 4, 6, 4
Green vertex: triangle, triangle, square, triangle,
square or 3, 3, 4, 3, 4
Purple vertex: triangle, square, triangle, triangle,
square or 3, 4, 3, 3, 4
Although the green and purple vertices appear different,
their order is the same. Thus, there are only two vertex
types, making this an irregular tessellation.
rules for creating tessellations

A multitude of techniques can be used to generate
tessellations; here are a few important ones to get
you started:
1. All triangles tessellate.
2. All quadrilaterals tessellate.
3. Pentagons will tessellate if the sum of two nonadjacent angles equals 180 or if two sides are
parallel.
4. To create the tessellation from a single polygon
you can perform the following transformations:
(a) translation moving the polygon left, right,
up, down
(b) rotation rotating the polygon through any
angle (usually a multiple of 60)
(c) glide reflection a mirror image followed by
a translation.
5. The sum of the angles of each polygon at any
vertex must equal 360.
rememBer
1. Perspective involves rendering three-dimensional scenes on a two-dimensional surface

(paper).
(a) The horizon is the farthest visible horizontal line.
(b) The vanishing point is the farthest visible point on the centre of vision (usually the
horizon) in the direction in which the viewer is looking.
(c) All horizontal lines in the direction of the viewers eyes meet at the vanishing
point.
2. (a) A Golden Rectangle has dimensions such that, when the largest possible square
is removed, the remaining rectangle has sides in the same ratio as the original
rectangle.
(b) The ratio of the longest to shortest side of a Golden Rectangle is called the Golden
Ratio.
3. Tessellations are patterns constructed from polygons which completely cover a flat
surface without gaps.
(a) There are regular (only 3), semiregular (only 8) and irregular tessellations (all
others).
(b) The order of a vertex in a tessellation indicates the type of polygon used and the
number of each type.
(c) All triangles and quadrilaterals will tessellate; many other polygons will also
tessellate.
exerCise
16G

1
We23 Construct a perspective drawing that shows a railway line running from the observer to
the horizon. There is a series of telegraph poles next to the track.
Chapter 16
597
2 MC The vanishing point is:

A the place where all straight lines meet
B the place where the horizon meets your position
C the place where the horizon meets straight lines extending away from your position
D the place where all horizontal lines meet
E the place where all parallel lines meet
Questions 3 and 4 relate to the two figures at right.
They represent perspective drawings of a cube of
1 m on each side.
The top of the box is shaded blue, the front is
shaded red.
3 MC Compare the two boxes. Which of the

following statements is true?
A The viewer is below the cube in figure a.
B The viewer is above the cube in figure b.
C The viewer is taller in figure b.
D The viewer is taller in figure a.
E The viewers are of the same height.
4 From the following list, suggest the nature of the viewers: short child, tall adult, baby, ant, eagle.
5 WE24 Construct a Golden Rectangle whose short side is 5 cm.
6 Estimate the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side for your figure in question 5.
7 Calculating the Golden Ratio
C
G
D
The figure AFGD is a golden rectangle. Its longest side is b and its
shortest side is a.
a
a Since ABCD is a square, find the length of CG.
b Express the ratio, as a fraction, of the longest to shortest side of
B
F
A
AFGD in terms of a and b.
c Since BCGF is also a Golden Rectangle, express the ratio, as a
b
fraction, of its longest to shortest sides.
d Equate these two fractions (they are both Golden Ratios), and find an equation involving
b and a on the left-hand side and 0 on the right-hand side.
e Solve this equation for b in terms of a. (Hint: Use the quadratic formula.)
f Now, since a could be anything, set a = 1 to find the Golden Ratio.
8 Giovanni has constructed four Golden Rectangles a, b, c and d. He measures one side of each
of them, and finds that they have the following dimensions.
a Short side = 4
bLong side = 4
c Short side = 11.23
dLong side = 500.5
Find the other dimensions to 3decimal places.
9 WE25 Consider the tessellation shown at right.
a Name the polygons making up the tessellation.
b Determine the order of all the different vertices and hence state
the type of tessellation.
10 Make a copy of each shape below on a piece of stiff paper. Use each as a template to produce a
tessellation.
598
Summary
A point is a marker for a location in space.

Two points connected make a line segment.
Extend the line segment to infinity in one direction to construct a ray.
Extend the line segment to infinity in both directions to construct a line.
Where two lines meet, an angle is formed.
Two lines which never meet are parallel.
A line intersecting a pair of parallel lines is called a transversal and creates a number of special angles.
1. Corresponding angles are equal in magnitude (size).
2. Co-interior angles add up to 180.
3. Alternate angles are equal in magnitude (size).
Vertically opposite angles are equal in magnitude (size).
Supplementary angles add up to 180.
Complementary angles add up to 90.
The sum of interior angles in a triangle is 180.
The locus of a point is the path traced out by a point when it moves according to a given rule.
Geometric constructions are made with a pair of compasses and a straight edge only.
The perpendicular bisector of a line divides the line in half and generates a right angle.
For a line parallel to any given line, the radius of the compasses determines the distance between them.
The angle bisector divides any angle in half.
From the 60 angle and the perpendicular bisector, the 30 and 45 angles can be made.
Polygons
The perpendicular bisectors of any triangle meet at a point called the circumcentre. From this centre a circle
(the circumcircle) which just touches each vertex of the triangle can be drawn.
The centroid is the point where the lines connecting each vertex with the midpoint of the opposite side meet.
The incentre is the point where the angle bisectors of each vertex meet. From this centre a circle (the
incircle) which just touches each side can be drawn.
A quadrilateral can be a square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram or trapezium. All these can be
constructed using a straight edge and compasses only.
A regular polygon has equal sides and equal interior angles. Regular polygons of 3,4, 5, 6, 8 and 12 sides
can be constructed easily. To construct other regular polygons, you may also need to use a protractor.
A star polygon is formed by joining alternate vertices of a regular polygon in a regular pattern. Each regular
polygon may have 0 (triangle, quadrilateral), 1(pentagon, hexagon) or more different star polygons.
A polyhedron is a solid made up of flat polygon faces.

The net of a polyhedron is a two-dimensional representation of the solid, showing connected edges.
The line where two faces meet is called an edge; the point where three or more faces meet is called a vertex.
For any solid, Eulers formula applies: Vertices = Edges Faces + 2.
A Platonic solid is a polyhedron made from a single regular polygon. There are only five different Platonic
solids.
599
Circle geometry
A chord is a line that connects any two points on the circumference of a circle.
Joining the end points of a chord to a third point creates an angle, subtended by that chord (or arc).
A line just touching the circumference and perpendicular to the radius is the tangent line.
Joining four points on the circumference with straight lines between neighbouring points forms a cyclic
quadrilateral.
Circle theorem 1: The angle subtended by a chord at the centre of a circle is twice the angle subtended by the
same chord (or arc) at the circumference.
Circle theorem 2: Angles subtended by the same chord (or arc) are equal.
Circle theorem 3: The angle subtended by the diameter is a right angle (90).
Circle theorem 4: The sum of opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral equals 180.
The tangent line to a circle from either a point on the circumference or a point outside the circle can be
constructed with compasses and a straight edge only.
The angle formed by a tangent line and a chord divides the circle into two segments. Angles subtended by
the chord in the alternate segment equal the angle formed by the tangent line and chord. This is called the
alternate segment theorem.
Similar triangles have all three angles equal. Their corresponding sides are in equal ratio.
Two chords can meet inside the circle or outside the circle. In both cases similar triangles are formed.
A chord meeting a tangent line outside the circle also forms similar triangles.
Perspective involves rendering three-dimensional scenes on a two-dimensional surface (paper).

1. The horizon is the farthest visible horizontal line.
2. The vanishing point is the farthest visible point on the horizon in the direction in which the viewer is
looking.
3. All horizontal lines (in the direction that the viewer is looking) meet at the vanishing point.
A Golden Rectangle has dimensions such that, when the largest possible square is removed, the remaining
rectangle has sides in the same ratio as the original rectangle.
The ratio of the longest to the shortest side of a Golden Rectangle is called the Golden Ratio.
Tessellations are patterns constructed from polygons which completely cover a flat surface without gaps.
1. There are regular (only 3), semiregular (only 8) and irregular tessellations (all others).
2. The order of a vertex in a tessellation indicates the types of polygon used and the number of each type.
3. All triangles and quadrilaterals will tessellate; many other polygons will also tessellate.
600
chapter review
9 Find the values of the lengths marked x and y in
Figure 1, below.
Short answer
1 a If x = 40, find y.

b Express the angle y
in terms of x.
10 Find the value of x in Figure 2, below.
x y
x + 3
2 Using compasses and

a straight edge only, construct a 15 angle. List the
steps involved.
3 Using compasses and a straight edge only,
construct a 150 angle. List the steps involved.
Tetrahedron
Cube
Octahedron
Dodecahedron
12
Isosahedron
20
8 Find the values of the pronumerals in each diagram

below.
a
b
x
x
2x + 6
Figure 2
Verification of Eulers formula
Multiple choice
1 The sum of angles in an 11-sided polygon is:

A 360
B 1620
C 1980
D 3240
E 3960
2 The value of x in the figure below is:
x + 4
15
O
10
12 Write down the equation of the locus of points that

are 3 units from the point (2, -3).
Vertices
7 Three-dimensional objects which are not

polyhedrons also have nets. Determine the net for
the:
a cylinder
b cone.
36
11 Which of the following vertex orders can form part

of a tessellation? All polygons are regular.
a 3, 3, 3, 4, 4
b 4, 4, 5, 5
c 3, 3, 6
d 3, 4, 4, 4
e 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3
f 3, 4, 3, 4
6 Copy and complete the following table of vertices,

edges and faces for the five Platonic solids.
Edges
Figure 1
5 Consider the hexagon at right,

where all the vertices are
joined to all other vertices.
How many triangles of
different shapes can you find?
One is shown shaded.
Faces
x
O
4 a Using compasses, a protractor and a straight

edge, construct all the different star polygons
from a regular decagon.
b What angle is subtended by each side at the
centre?
Name
62
88
y
A 42
B 43
C 45
D 47
E unable to be determined from the given
information
601
3 Which of the following angles cannot be obtained

from compass-and-straight-edge constructions of
60 and 90 angles?
A 15
B 22.5
C 75
D 100
E 120
4 Which of the following regular polygons cannot
be constructed with just compasses and a straight
edge?
A Equilateral triangle
B Square
C Pentagon
D Hexagon
E Heptagon
5 A regular heptagon has how many different star
polygons?
A None
B 1
C 2
D 3
E 7
6 A polyhedron has 7 vertices and 9 edges. How
many faces does it have?
A 2
B 4
C 5
D 14
E 16
7 In Figure 1, the values of x and y respectively are:
A 30 and 50
B 50 and 30
C 50 and 50
D 70 and 30
E 70 and 70
x
O
30
100
y
Figure 1
30 z y B
O 110
4 x
8 O
60
40
Figure 2
Figure 3
8 In Figure 2, line AB is a diameter. The values of x,

y and z respectively are:
A 60, 60 and 60
B 60, 60 and 70
C 60, 50 and 70
D 90, 20 and 70
E 50, 60 and 70
9 In Figure 3, the values of angle x and side y
respectively are:
A 60 and 3
B 60 and 5.33
C 60 and 12
D 40 and 5.33
E 40 and 12
10 A Golden Rectangle has a short side of 56.44 cm.
The longest side is:
A 34.9 cm
B 90.8 cm
C 91.2 cm
D 91.3 cm
E 91.4 cm
extended response
1 The curved figure at right represents part of an athletics track. It shows an arc
derived from two concentric circles (circles having the same centre). It is used to
mark a curved line for an athletics event. The sports master wishes to find the
radius of the inner arc. (You should approach this problem by first tracing the arc
onto a piece of paper.
a Join the ends of the arc with the line AB and find its perpendicular
bisector, DE.
b What kind of line is DE?
c Let the distance AC = x and DC = y. Express CE in terms of x and y and the
unknown radiusr.
d Since AB and DE are intersecting chords, write an expression showing the
appropriate sides of similar triangles having equal ratios.
e Modify the expression in part d to obtain an expression for r in terms of y.
2 Use the diagrams in question 1 to calculate the inner radius of a wooden arch over
a doorway. The arch has measurements of x = 30cm and y = 12cm. Find the radius.
D
A
3 A tunnel 500 m long has a semicircular cross-section. It requires temporary

supports, AB and BC, as shown.
Point B is vertically above D.
B
a What is the relationship between ABC and DBC?
If AB = 24 m and BC = 7 m, find:
b the diameter of the tunnel
A
C
D
c the height of B above the floor of the tunnel
d i the distance of D from the wall at C ii the distance of D from the wall at A.
e While the temporary supports are in place, what should drivers of large trucks entering the tunnel take
into account?
602
f What is the maximum height of a 3 m wide truck, so that it can pass under the supports?
g Determine whether a truck that is 4 m wide and 5.2 m high will pass through the tunnel safely.
4 Construct a dodecahedron.
a Construct a regular pentagon (about 10cm on each side).
b Construct the net of the solid. The figure on the right is a model of a net.
Use your pentagon from a as your model.
c By folding and taping, you can construct the solid.
d A construction model is easier to work with if you add tabs to certain
edges so that, when folded, the tabs can be connected more easily than the
actual edges. Determine where the tabs need to go in your net.
5 Determine the size of z in the figure below right.
Tab
57
z
6 Find the lengths of the pronumerals in the diagram below.
12.5
8.5
6.5
7.5
y
x
7 Determine the values of the unknown angles shown below.
86
34
8 Find the value of the pronumerals in the diagram below.
58
b
d
e
603
9 Calculate the magnitude of x.

D
C
43
3x 5
E
A
10 A plank rests on two cylindrical rollers, as shown. The radii of the rollers are 30 cm and 40 cm. The plank
makes an angle of 10 with the horizontal ground. Find the distance, x cm, between the rollers.
30 cm
10
40 cm
11 A tunnel 300 m long has a semicircular cross-section. It requires temporary supports, AB and BC, as shown.
B
Point B is vertically above D. If AB = 12 m and BC = 5 m, find:

a the diameter of the tunnel
b the height of B above the floor of the tunnel
c the distance D is from the wall at C
d the maximum height a 3-m-wide truck could be, so that it can pass under the supports.
12 Research investigations. Geometry is used in a wide variety of professions and activities. Here are a few
research topics where the kind of geometry in this chapter has been useful. You may wish to investigate one or
more of these, using your library as a resource.
a Navigation at sea, over land or in space
b Drafting and industrial design
c Perspective in painting and drawing
d Architecture and building construction
e Aeroplane wing design
f Tiling floors, walls and ceilings
g Computer graphics
Which particular aspects of geometry are used in each of these activities?
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Test Yourself
Chapter 16
604
eBook plus
aCTiviTies
chapter opener
Digital doc

questions on geometry in two and three dimensions.
(page 556)
16a
Tutorial
We 3 int-1184: Watch how to write an equation

modelling the outer most edge of water from a
sprinkler. (page 559)
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 16.1: Practise basic geometry.

(page 560)
Interactivity
Bisecting a line segment int-0997: Consolidate

your understanding of bisecting a line segment.
(page 560)
16b
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 16.1: Determine the value of angles

on parallel lines cut by a transversal, complete
and table of sum of interior values, and construct
bisectors and parallel lines, labelling important
features. (page 567)
Interactivities
Bisecting an angle int-0998: Consolidate your

understanding of bisecting an angle. (page 567)
Circumcentre int-0999: Consolidate your
understanding of circumcentre. (page 567)
16c
Polygons
Tutorial
We 8 int-1185: Watch how to construct the

perpendicular bisectors and median bisectors of
each triangle. (page 567)
16e
circle geometry
Tutorials
We 15 int-1186: Watch how to use circle theorem 2;

determine the magnitude of angles. (page 580)
We 16 int-1187: Watch how to use circle theorems
1 and 2; determine the magnitude of angles.
(page 580)
Interactivities
Circle theorem 1 int-1002: Consolidate your

understanding of circle theorem 1. (page 582)
Centre-circumference angles int-1006: Consolidate

your understanding of centre-circumference angles.
(page 582)
Angles on the same arc int-1007: Consolidate your
understanding of angles on the same arc. (page 582)
Cyclic quadrilateral int1-1008: Consolidate your
understanding of cyclic quadrilaterals. (page 582)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 16.2: Review basic geometry,

construct more complex shapes such as the hexagon,
draw a possible net for a cube and use a provided
3D diagram to prove Eulers rule. (page 583)
16F
Targets, chords and circles
Tutorial
We 22 int-1188: Watch how to use similar figures

to determine the value of an unknown length.
(page 588)
Digital docs
SkillSHEET 16.2: Practise similar triangles.

(page 590)
Investigation: Circle constructions. (page 592)
16G
Geometry in architechure, design and art
Digital docs
Career profile: Learn how Rachel Nolan, an

architect, uses mathematics. (page 593)
Investigation: The Golden Ratio. (page 595)
Tutorial
We 23 int-1189: Watch how to construct a perspective

drawing. (page 593)
chapter review
Digital doc

www.jacplus.com.au
Chapter 16
605
EXAM PRACTICE 4
SHORT ANSWER
10
5
10
35 t (s)
A cars motion is represented by the velocitytime

graph shown above.
a Determine the average acceleration, in m/s2,
between 20 and 35 seconds.
2 marks
b Describe the cars motion during the time
interval 10 to a seconds.
1 mark
c If the total area travelled by the car is 9545 m:

i write an expression for the area in terms of
a and b.
3 marks
9095
ii Hence, show that b =
. 2 marks
(595 - 29a)
3 Tracy is going to swim from Point A to Point B
across a narrow river. She can swim at a speed of
3 km/h. The river is flowing at a rate of 1 km/h.
Point B
2 + 2 = 4 marks
MULTIPLE CHOICE
10 minutes

1 If u = 4i - 3 j then the unit vector in the direction of
be which
u would
one of the following:
A 5(4 i - 3 j)
B 1(4 i - 3 j)
5
1
D 4 i - 3 j
C 7 ( i - j)
4i - 3 j
E
7
2 PQR is a triangle. M is the midpoint of PR. If

PQ = PR = p and RQ = q, then in terms of p and q,
RM equals:
1
1
A 2 p + q
B 2 p - q

1
D q - p
C q - 2 p

E p + q

3 A particle moves in a straight line with acceleration
20t - 3t2 at time t seconds. The particle has initial
velocity 1 m/s from a fixed point O. The velocity of
the particle, in m/s, when t = 3 seconds is:
A 2
B 3
C 34
D 63
E 64
4
r
y
x
1 km/h
(river flow)
Point A
a If i is the unit vector in the direction that the

is flowing and j is the unit vector in the
river
the river, represent
direction straight across
velocity of Tracys swimming in terms of
2 marks
i and j.
606
b On the diagram below left, draw the vectors

that represent this situation.
2 marks
c Determine the:

i exact direction
ii exact magnitude of her velocity, in km/h.
30 minutes
1 PRST is a parallelogram. M is the point on PR such

that 2PM = MR, and N is the midpoint of ST.
PR = p and RS = r.

a Find MR in terms of p.
1 mark
1
b Show that MN = r + 6 p.

3 marks
v (m/s)
2
Chapters 13 TO 16
Using the circle above, establish which one of the

following values of the pronumerals is false:
x
and y = 2p
A r =
2
r+p
B r + p = 180 and y + x =
2
C y + 2r = 360 and p = (180 - r)
D y + p = 180 and r + x = 180
E 2p = (360 - x) and y = (360 - 2r)
45
4 kg
-1 4
c cos
2
T2 kg
- 5( 2 ) - 4
e sin 1
Two strings attached to two points in the same

horizontal plane suspend a ball of mass 5 kg. The two
strings make angles of 45 and to the horizontal
respectively. If the strings have respective tensions of
4 kg wt and T2 kg wt, then the value of is:
- 5( 2) - 4
a tan 1
- 5 2
D sin 1
- 5( 2)
b tan 1
6 A hot-air balloon is travelling upward at a constant

speed of 21.2 m/s. When the balloon is 70 metres
from the ground, a camera lens that was placed
on the edge accidentally falls off. Ignoring air
resistance and assuming acceleration due to gravity
is -9.8 m/s2, then the time taken, in seconds, for the
camera lens to hit the ground would be closest to:
a 2.19
b 3.78
c 4.35
D 6.52
e 6.60
exTended response
30 minutes
1 Rhonda and Yorak are travelling along a highway in their car. The car they are in is travelling at a constant
speed of 102 km/h.
a Convert 102 km/h to km/min.
1 mark
They pass a sign informing them that there are road works ahead. They need to slow down to 40 km/h.
b If Rhonda and Yorak are travelling exactly at 102km/h before uniformly decelerating to 40 km/h and it
takes 50 metres for their car to reach 40 km/h:
i determine the time, in seconds, it takes their car to slow down to 40km/h. Write your answer to the
nearest second.
ii Hence, determine the rate of deceleration, in m/s2. Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
3 + 2 = 5 marks
Rhonda and Yorak stop at a roadside store to buy drinks. At the store they meet friends, Beth and Derek,
who are travelling on a motorbike. They all decide to meet for lunch at the next town, Remark, which is
204 km down the road. Rhonda and Yorak leave 5 minutes before their friends and accelerate uniformly for
30 seconds until they reach a speed of 95 km/h. Beth and Derek leave and accelerate uniformly until they
reach a speed of 105 km/h.
v (km/min)
19
12
Rhonda and Yorak
1
2
t (min)
The graph above represents the motion of the car Rhonda and Yorak are travelling in.
c On the graph above, represent the motion of the motorbike Beth and Derek are travelling on.
3 marks
d If it takes Beth and Derek 1 hour and 57 minutes to reach Remark, determine the time, in seconds,
for their motorbike to accelerate from rest to 105 km/h. Write your answer to the nearest second. 3 marks
e Determine the amount of time, in minutes, it takes Beth and Derek
eBook plus
to pass Rhonda and Yorak? Write your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
4 marks
Digital doc
f Determine the time, in minutes, Beth and Derek have to wait until
Solutions
Exam practice 4
Rhonda and Yorak arrive at Remark for their planned lunch stop.
Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
3 marks
exam practice 4
607
Answers
d (A B) / (A B)
CHAPTER 1
Number systems: real and complex

Exercise 1A Review of set notation
1
a {3, 4, 5, 6}
A
B
b {1, 2, 3}
c {2}
4
1 2 3
d {1}
e {1, 2, 4, 5, 6}
5
6
f {1, 3, 4, 5, 6}
g {1, 3, 4, 5, 6}
769
c 1.230
2 a 3.328125
b 0.3409
e A B
3 -2 Integer: Z, Q, R
16
8 Natural number: N, Z, Q, R

21
Rational: Q, R
16
- 3 2 Rational: Q, R
7
f A B
6 3 Irrational: I, R
1
16 4 Natural number: N, Z, Q, R
1
5 5 Irrational: I, R
Irrational: I, R
-21.72 Rational: Q, R
Rational: Q, R
2.567
4.135218976 Irrational: I, R
4.232332333 Irrational: I, R
4 a
8

33
5

6
True
True
False
True
A
e.g.
a
b
c
d
a
374

333
2 - 2 = 0.
b A B
A
c A B
61

495
g (A B)
3517
1665
3 Sig.
4 Sig.
Number
fig.
fig.
2 D.P.
3 D.P.
1267.1066
1270
1267
1267.11 1267.107
7.6699
7.67
7.670
7.67
7.670
8.00056
8.00
8.001
8.00
8.001
0.99987
1.00
1.000
1.00
1.000
0.076768
0.0768
0.07677
0.08
0.077
0.00017495 0.000175 0.0001750 0.00
0.000
8 a 6 1028
b 4 1014
c 6 1040
d 6 107
e 2 1027
f 4 10 3
30
9 a 5.35 10
b 7.64 1018
c 1.23 107
d 3.60 10 7
10 B11 E 12 D
13 D 14 B
Exercise 1B Subsets of the set of real numbers
1 a {x : x Z, -6 < x < 1}
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 x
b {x : x Z, -3 x 4}
c {x : x Z, -6 < x 4}
d {x : x Z, 0 < x < 5}
608
Answers
0
0
4 x
x
4
5
e {x : x Z, x < 5}
f {x : x Z, x > 2}
g {x : x Z, -5 < x < 0}
2

3
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
a
5
3
5 4 3 2 1
c {x : -2 < x < 1}
e 5 - 10 - 15 + 6
f 6 15 + 9 3 - 4 5 - 6
g 7 6 - 18
h 2(4 - 15 )
i 2(6 + 35)
j 4(5 - 3 6 )
k 2(105 + 36 6 )
m 17
o 25
l 2
n -6
Interval notation (-2, 1)
Interval notation
[2, 5) [4, 6) = [2, 6)
2 0 2 4 6
f {x : x < 5}
{x : 4 x < 6}
g {x : 2 x < 5}
{x : 4 < x 6}
Interval notation
(-, 5) [4, 6) = (-, 6)
4 2 0 2 4 6
4 2
3
c 6
15
3
4 15
35
5 2
8
Interval notation
[2, 5) (4, 6] = [2, 6]\{4, 5}
k 4 - 15
m 5 - 2 6
Interval notation
(5, ) (4, 6] = (5, 6]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
4 E
5 C
Exercise 1C Properties of surds
4 - 3 15
7
2 6
9
i 3 + 6
l
14 + 5 3
11
16 5 - 31
11
- 3(6 + 5
6+2 3
3
6 a 4 2
5(9 2 + 4 3 )
114
195 10 + 78 15 - 12 2 + 18 3
114
1794 - 464 15 - 42 3
231
35 - 7 6
15
2 0 2 4 5 6 8 x
h {x : x > 5}
{x : 4 < x 6}
5+ 3
2
j 2 10 - 6
2 1 0 1 2
e {x : 2 x < 5}
{x : 4 x < 6}
Interval notation [2, )
d {x : x 2}
6 - 9)
5 a
2 1 0 1 2
14 + 2 3
-8(2
2 1 0 1 2
c 18 + 2 6
Interval notation (-, 2)
b {x : x < 2}
{x : x Q, x > 5}
{x : x Q, 5 < x 20}
{x : x Q+, x < 20}
{x : x Z, 5 < x < 20}\{8, 9}
{x : x Z+, x < 100}\{40, 50}
{x : 2 x < 5}
{x : 3 < x < 5}
{x : x < 3} {x : x > 7}
{x : x R+, x < 3} {x : x R, x > 7}
Interval notation [ -3, 1]
{x : -3 x 1}
3 2 1 0 1 2
15 - 6
4 a
47 - 12 15
3
7 a
26 - 45 2
14
30 - 39 2
14
2 - 24 2
7
e 0
2)
f 31 - 18 2
b 2 14
c 5 5
d 7 2
e 4 3
f 10 3
g 28 5
h 2 2
g x = 2 - 3 2 is a solution to x2 - 4x - 14. However,

since there was no remainder, it is not a solution to
2x2 - 2x - 9.
8 Answers will vary.
10 B
11 A
12 A
13 D
14 A
15 E
6 2

5
3 2
2
2 a 2 2 - 2 3
- 2(3
c
3 + 2 2)
e 7 5 - 2
g
9 3 13 2
8
8
3 a 3 10
b 10 21
7-4
d 3( 2 + 2 3 )
f 2(9 3 + 10 2 )
h
118 3 49 2
15
10
c 84 2
5 3
6
Exercise 1D The set of complex numbers

c
b
1 a 4i
7i
2 2 5i
d
10 10i
1 2 7
2
Answers
Answers 1A 1D
1 a 2 6
609
2 a Re (3 + 4i) = 3
b Re (- 2 + 2i ) = - 2
Im (3 + 4i) = 4
Im (- 2 + 2i) = 2
c Re (z) = 2 - 1
Exercise 1F Representing complex numbers on

an Argand diagram
1 a
b
Im (z)
Im (z)
d Re (z) = 2 2
Im (z) = 2 + 1
e Re (z) = -6
Im (z) = 0
3 a x = 1
b
y=4
d x = 1
y=3
f x = 2
1
y=2
y=7
x=
y=
c 12 - 17i
-1
4
13
- 5i
4
5
3
13
-5
+ 5i
-7
25
5 + 12 i
119
119
16
16 8 3i
7
7
- 13 i
63
m 25 - 25 i
-9
24
i
25
2 a 4 + 3i
b 24 - 7i
c 24 + 7i
e -8 + 6i
f 28i
4 a x =
5 a z = 5 + 5 i
z
6 a z 1 =
41
7 B8 A
9 E 10 B
Answers
Re (z)
Re (z)
Im (z)
4
5
0
2
b i
e -64
+ 5i
3 2i
13 13
-256
c 1
d i
g -512i
104
25
d 7 + 24i
h -i
78
i
25
b z = -i
z
a2 + b2
z
or z 1 =
zz
b z
-1
-i
512
Im (z)
z
Re (z)
z
+ 25 i
Re (z)
0 z1
20
4
25
3i
2 a -i
3 a
Re (z)
c Dilated by a factor of 13 from the Real and

Imaginary axis.
Reflected about the Real axis
y - 2x
=1
b
5
y=3
x = -1
y=5
1
d -5 - 12i
- 13 i
12
5
527
336
i 24 + 7i j 625 - 625 i k
25 25
3 a Answers will vary.
b Answers will vary.
c Answers will vary.
610
+ 5i
o 1
13
d - 2( 2 + 3 )
c 0
Im (z)
6 D
7 B
8 A
Exercise 1E Multiplication and division of
complex numbers
e 85
2 3i
Im (z)
f (3 2 + 2 3 ) - (4 2 + 3 3 )i
b 5 - i
Im (z)
Re (z)
2 3i
e 7 2 - 10 2i
1 a -6 + 4i
d i
3-3 2
Re (z)
2 + 3i 2
2
b 1 - i
6
5
12
5
4 a 5 - 7i
5 a 14
f x = 2
1
y=2
x=4
2 + 3i
Im (z) = 2 10
f Re (z) = 0
Im (z) = 13
c x = -3
x=1
y = -5
y = -1
14
25
d z 1 is 13 of the distance of z from the origin.

4 a
b
z = 2 + 3i
iz = i(2 + 3i) = -3 + 2i
i2z = i(-3 + 2i) = -2 - 3i
i3z = i(-2 - 3i) = 3 - 2i
i4z = i(3 - 2i) = 2 + 3i
Im (z)
iz
0
i 2z
z, i 4z
Re (z)
i 3z
c The distance from the origin remains the same with a

90 anticlockwise rotation.
1
1
1 2i - 1
=
= =- =
i
5 a z 2 =
2
1 + 2i - 1 2i
4
2
(1 + i )
1
1- i 1- i 1- i 1 i
=
=
= 1+ i 1- i 1+1
2
2 2
z0 = (1 + i)0 = 1
z1 = 1 + i
z2 = (1 + i)2 = 1 + 2i - 1 = 2i
z3 = (1 + i)3 = 2i(1 + i) = 2i - 2 = -2 + 2i
z4 = (1 + i)4 = (-2 + 2i)(1 + i) = -2 - 2i + 2i - 2 = -4
z
-1
e (z - 3)(z - 2) = 0
z = 3, z = 2
Im (z)
z3
z2
z4
z2
g ( z - 2 - 2 )( z - 2 + 2 ) = 0
z1
z0
z1
z = 2 2
Re (z)
5
7
5
7
h 2 z + z + +
=0
4 4
4 4
c Plotting zn compared to zn + 1 where n Z, undergoes

a rotation 45 anticlockwise and its distance from the
origin is increased by a factor of 2.
n
d Rotated n 45 or
anticlockwise
4
Distance from the origin increased by n 2
e i -4 - 4i
ii
iv 256 + 256i
-1
4
-1
128
- 4 i
+
1
i
128
1 a 2( z - 3 )( z + 3 )
b ( 2 z - 3 )( 2 z + 3 )
c 3( z - 2i)( z + 2i)
e z(z - 4)
f 2z(3z - 1)
2 z (2 z - 1)
2 a (z +
c (2z - 1)(z + 2)
e (2z + 6)(z - 4)
4)2
1
2
(2z - i)(2z + i)
h -z(4z + 3)
b (2z - 4)(z - 2)
d (z + 3)(z - 1)
f -(4z - 6)(3z + 2)
3 a ( z + 2 - 10i)( z + 2 + 10i)
b (z + 2)(z + 8)
( )
c 2 z - 12 ( z + 3)
d z + 1 - 13 z + 1 + 13
2
2
2
2
e (z + 4)2
f ( z + 1 - 2i)( z + 1 + 2i)
( )
h 2(z + 2)2
5
57
5
57
i - 2 z - z - +
4
4
4
4
( )
4 z - 12
4 a ( 3z - 2 )( 3z + 2 ) = 0
6
2
b ( 2 z - 5i)( 2 z + 5i) = 0
z=
z=
c z(2z - 7) = 0
7
z = 0, z = 2
d (z - 5)(z - 1) = 0
z = 5, z = 1
1
2
1
2
z + z + +
=0
3
3
3
3
-1
z=
2
3
5 a z = 5
b z = 5 2 5
c z = - 2 i 3
d z = 2, z = 2
7 i 35
6
f z = 1 i 2
e z =
6 a z2 - 2(2 - 3i)z + 13
b z2 + 6i - 9
c z2 - 5z + iz - 5i + 12
7 a z = - 3i i 14
b z =
1 2 19 + i(2 + 19 )
10
c z =
(i - 1) i 2(i - 30)
6
8 A
9 A
Chapter review
Short answer
1 a -4 Z, Q, R, C
-2 7
8
-16
3
Q, R, C
d 3 3 I, R, C
Q, R, C
e 27 3 N, Z, Q, R, C
g 2 I, R, C
4
f 5 I, R, C
h 3.221 Q, R, C
i 3.21683947... I, R, C
Q, R, C
k 1.1234
-3 + 2
5 I, R, C
l i2 Z, Q, R, C
m 2 + - 5 C
n 0.172117722111777222 I, R, C
o 3 - 3 I, R, C
p 4i C
q 3 + 7i C
r 4 + 0i Z, Q, R, C
b 374
c 556
a 8
3 2
4 a
10i
2
-3
33
333
495
1018
0 1 2 3 x
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
b
d
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
Answers 1E 1G
g 2( z - 2) z - 12
-5
4 4
i (z - 5)(z - 1) = 0
z = 5, z = 1
z=
iii 32i
Exercise 1G Factorising quadratic expressions

and solving quadratic equations over the complex
number field
f (2z - 3)(z - 1) = 0
3
z = 2, z = 1
6 8 10 12 14 x
Answers
611
5 a
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 x
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
10i
10i
,z=
2
2
b (z + 2 - i)(z + 2 + i) = 0
z = -2 + i, z = -2 - i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x Q
3 4 5 6 7 x
5+ 2
d 35 - 12 6
2 3 4 5 6 7 x
z=
-2
3,
z = -1
c 19
15 a z = -3 i
e 13 - 3 6
5
f 9 + 2 6
b z =
c z =
8 a 2 2
9 a y = 1, x = 4
b 2 + 3
c 6 2
b x = 1, y = 4
10 a 10 + i
b 2 + 4i
1
20
( )
2
c 3 z + 3 ( z + 1) = 0
b 5(2 + 2 )
14 a ( 2 z - 5i)( 2 z + 5i) = 0
z=
0 1 2 3 xQ
6 a
21 - 38i
10
11 a 3(1 - 3i)
12 a
Im (z)
-8
+ 14i
28 - 231i
130
3+i
9
2i 6
2
5 i 23
6
Multiple choice
1 A
2 A
6 C
7 E
11 D
12 C
16 D
Extended response
1 a
Im (z)
2
1
Im (z)
3 E
8 D
13 A
4 C
9 E
14 C
5 C
10 B
15 D
1 + 3i
0
2 1
1
Re (z)
1 2
Re (z)
Re (z)

c OZ = 2
d z 0 = 1, z = 1 + 3 i, z r = - 2(1 - 3 i), z 3 = -8

Im (z)
2 3i
Im (z)
Im (z)
3
+ 2i
z2
Re (z)
Im (z)
Re (z)
3 2i
13 a ( z - 7i)( z + 7i)
b ( 2 z - 3i)( 2 z + 3i)
c z(4z + 5)
d 2(4z + 3)(2z - 1)
e ( z + 2 - 6 )( z + 2 + 6 )
3
3i
3
3i
f z + z + +
2
2
2
2
( )( )
g 2 z + 14 z + 45
Answers
Re (z)
z1
z0
z1
Re (z)
anticlockwise
3
2. Distance from origin doubles.
f zn would
n
1. Be rotated n 60 or
anticlockwise
3
2. Distance from the origin 1 (2)n.
g i - 8(1 + 3i)
ii 64
e 1. Rotate 60 or
612
z3
1 - 3i
iii -512
iv
8
1
v
512
2 a 4z2 - 4z - 8, n2z2 - n2z - 2n2, n Z
b i z2 - z - 6
ii z2 - 8z + 13
iii z2 - 8z + 20
v z2 - (5 + i)z + 8 + i
iv z 2 - (5 + 3 ) z + 3
ii z = a - bi
c i z = a - b 3
d i z = 2 - 3i
ii b = 4
b = 4 and c = 13 c = 13
5 a
e z = 1 i 2

( z - 1 - i 2 )( z - 1 + i 2 ) = 0
f z = - 1
i 2
2
2i
2i
z +1 z +1+
2
2
(x 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 4
CHAPTER 2
Transformations
Exercise 2A Translations of points and graphs
1 a A(4, 6)
b A(-2, 2)
d A(-4, -6)
c A(2, -2)
b T2, 1
2 a T2, 2
Translated 2 right and
2 upward.
1 upward.
d T1, -3
c T-2, 5
Translated 2 left and
5 upward.
3 downward.
3 a A(2, -2)
b A(-1, -1)
d A(-3, 1)
c A(-5, -1)
b y = 2x - 4
4 a y = x - 4
6 a T0, 3
b T-4, -3
7 a T-1, -3
b T2, -3
8 a Translated: Up 3
T0, 3
b Translated: Up 7 and left 1
T-1, 7
c Translated: Down 6 and left 3
T-3, 6
d Translated: Up 5 and right 5
T-5, 5
y = 2x 4
4
c y = -x
9
10
11
12
d y = 2x + 1
y = x
y
y = 2x + 1
y = 2x + 1
y = x
1
x
y =0
Original asymptotes: x = 0, y = 0
Image asymptotes: x = 2, y = -1
x
y = 1
x =0 x =2
y y = 2x
y = x 12 1
0
1.5
y=x4
0
y
y = 1x
y=x
0 (1, 1) 2
x2 + y2 = 4
c T-1, -5
c T1, 2
A
A
C
B
Exercise 2B Reflections of points and graphs

b (2, 4)
1 a (-2, -4)
c (4, -2)
d (-4, 2)
2 a
y
y = 3x
(1, 3)
y=x
e y = (x +
1)2
f y = 2(x -
+2
y = (x + 1)2 + 2
-1
y = x2
Answers 2A 2B
2)2
(3, 1)
x
y = 2x
(1, 2)
g y = (x + 3)2 + 6
i y = f(x + 3) + 2
k y = -2(x - h)2 + k
h y = -2(x + 2)2 + 3
j y = f(x + 1) - 2
l y = -3(x - h) + k
(2, 1)x
y= x
Answers
613
y = 2x + 3
3
y = x +1 1
1
x
y = 1
y = 1x 1
y = 2x 3
x = 1
y = 2x2
y
1
y = x1 + 1
y= x + 1
y = 1
y = 2x2
y = x 1 1 + 1
y= 1
y = 3x2
y = 3x2
x= 1
y = 4x y
y= 2 + 3
x1
y= 3
0
y= 2 1
x+3
y=
y
1 2
x
x = 3
x= 1
y = 2x
y = x2 + 1
1
0
1
1 0
y = 2x
y = x 1
n
h
y = x1
y
y = 1x
614
Answers
y = 2x + 3 y = 2x + 3
y
y=3
y = 1
Exercise 2D The ellipse and the hyperbola

1 a
b
y
y
y = x2
y = x
3
(0, 0)
(1, 1)
0
5 x
(5, 3)
3
6
9
y
6
y = x + 2
2 a
y = x
x
+1
2
e y = 0
g x = 2
x
i y =
4
f x = 4
h x = 0
3x 2
k y =
-3
4
l y = 2 2x
d y1 = 0
2
x
n y =
4
o y =
x
3
p y = ( x - 2)2
4
1
q y = ( x + 4)2 + 2
2
2
r y = ( x - 3)2 + 4
3
s y =
(3, )
( 1, )
5
2
3
2
4 a y = 2x
c y =
5 B
6 A
1
22 x
2
y=x
y = 12 x
y = 2x
y = 2x + 8
y = x + 1
y
y= x 5
3
(4, 2)
y = 43 x + 52
(2, 4)
(4, 4)
y = 43 x
(2, 2)
2
y = 43 x
y = 12 x
0
2
y = 34 x + 92
y
(2, 4)
(0, 4)
(2, 4)
(6, 4)
x
t y = bf
a
b
( , 5)
3
2
d (-1, -1)
y = x
1
6x
y = 34 x
y = 43 x
(0, 4)
(0, 1)
x2
b y =
2
d y =
y=x
0
(0, 1)
x
(0, 4)
Answers
Answers 2c 2D
3 a
1 0
j y = 2x2
m y = 3 2 2
x
3 22
Exercise 2C Dilations from axes

1 a (4, 3)
b (-2, 15)
d (-1, -12)
c (8, -9)
e ( 4, 3)
x
2 a y =
b y = 2x + 2
2
c y =
3 A
4 B
(2, 2)
(0, 0)
1 0
10 x
615
4 a
y = 34 x
(0, 3)
y = 43 x
(4, 2) (1, 2)
0
x
3
y = 2x + 4
y=x+6
y = 2x
y = 3x
y = 3x
(4, 2)
x
y = x 2
5 a = 3, b = 2
6 A
7 A
Exercise 2E Successive transformations
1 a (2x + 3, y + 4)
b (2x + 6, y + 4)
c (y + 4, x + 3)
d (y + 4, x + 3)
e (2x + 3, 3y + 4)
f (2x + 6, 3y + 12)
g (x - 1, y + 7)
h (6x, 2y)
j (-x, -y)
i (y, -x)
k (2x + 4, -3y + 9)
l (3x + 6, -2y - 6)
m (3x + 2, -2y - 3)
y = 2x + 8
y = 2x
(2, 8)
(2, 4)
(2, 0)
x
y = x2 + 5
y
(2, 6)
(2, 4)
y = 2x + 3
x
(2, 2)
2 a (9y - 4, -4x - 1)
c (4x + 3, 9y - 4)
b (6y + 4, -6x + 5)
d (9x - 4, 4y - 2)
3 a (-2, 13)
c (-8, 0)
6
+ 12
4 a y =
x-4
b (3, 1)
d (-2, 2)
1
b y =
-2
x +1
c
y
3 a
5 a
b
c
(0, 0)
0
3
4
(2, 4)
d
e
f
6
4
d y =
-3
-1
x+2
x-2
T2, 3
Translated 2 right and 3 upward.
D1, 4
Dilation factor 4 from x-axis.
My = 0
Reflected about x-axis.
Mx = 0
Reflected about y-axis.
T4, 0
Translated 4 right.
T- 1
2
, -2
Translated 2 left and 2 downward.

1
8
0
1
8x
g My = 0
h T5
2
,0
5
Translated 2 right.
616
Answers
y = x
2
(2, 2)
(0, 3)
(4, 3)
(4, 1)
y
y = x
i T-1, 0
Translated 1 left.
j D2, 5
Dilation factor 2 from y-axis and 5 from x-axis.
k D1 1
h Mx = 0, D1 , T- 1
2
i My = 0, x = 0, D1 , T2, 7
2
,1
Reflected about x and y-axis. Dilation factor of 2 from

y-axis and translated 2 right and 7 upward.
,
3 4
8 a
y = x2
Dilation factor of 3 from y-axis and 4 from x-axis.

2
y-axis and 2 from x-axis. Translated left and 4

downward.
l T-4, 3
Translated 4 left and 3 upward.
m D1 1
n T1
, -4
1
2
Dilation factor 2 from y-axis and 5 from x-axis.
Reflected about y-axis, dilation factor of 2 from
,
2 5
,2
(2, 1)
,0
x
y = 2(x 2)2 1
1
2
Translated right.
o D 3
2
,2

6 a My = 0
b Mx = 0
Reflected about y-axis.
c T1, 0
Translated 1 right.
d D1, 2
Dilation factor of 2 from x-axis.
e T1
2
y = x2
1
2
,0
Translated 2 right.
f T3
2
y = (2x 1)2
y
y = 2x 2 3 + 4
y= 4
,4
Translated 2 right and 4 upward.
y = 1x
7 a My = 0, D1 , T0, 4
2
,1
,1
x = 3
Reflected about x-axis, dilation factor of 2 from y-axis

and translated 4 upward.
b My = 0, D1, 2, T-1, -3
Reflected about x-axis, dilation factor of 2 from x-axis
and translated 1 left and 3 downward.
c T3, 4, D1, 2
Translated 3 right and 4 upward, dilation factor of 2
from x-axis.
d D1 , T- 3
y = 2x
y= 4
1
x
,0
e Mx = 0, y = 0, D 1 , T3
,1
,0
Reflected about the x and y-axis, dilation factor of 4
24
y = 2x
from y-axis and translated 4 right.

f D1 , T5
3
,3
Answers 2E 2E
y = 2x+3 + 4
Dilation factor of 2 from y-axis and translated 2 left.
,0
y = 3(22x+3)
5
3
Translated right.
g My = 0, D1 , T1
2
,4
,3
1
Reflected about x-axis and dilation 2 from y-axis and
1
2
4 from x-axis. Translated by right and 3 upward.
Answers
617
f
y= 1
y = 2x
y
y = x 1+ 1
y = 1x + 1
y=1
1
x
x = 1
23 y = 3(22x+3) + 1
2
y=1
9 C
10 C
Chapter review
Short answer
1 y = (x - 6)2 - 2
2 a T-2, -4
b T-1, 1
Translated 1 left and 1 upward.
c T-2, 0
Translated 2 left.
d T2, -5
Translated 2 right and 5 downward.
e T-3, -4
f T-2, -6
3 a (2, 0)
b (0, 3)
d (-2, 3)
c (-3, 2)
4 a
y
y = 2x
x2 + (y + 1)2 = 9
(0, 1)
0 (0, 1)
x2 + (y + 1)2 = 9
y = x2, x 0
y = x
(1, 1)
x
y = 2x
y
h
x
0
y = x
x
y = x
y = 2x2
b (-6, 1)
5 a (1, 3)
c (-8, 16)
x
y = 2x2
x2
2
c y =
x
2
b y =
6
x
2
x
d y = 2 + 1 + 4
3
b
1
x
y = + x
2
Answers
6 a y =
7 a
y = 4x2
(1, 1)
618
y = 1
2 10
0
1
2
6
5x
1
(2, 4)
2
0 2
6
8 a
6
(4, 2)
(1, 2)
y = 2x
y =2x
y = 2x + 5 y
, -1
c 1. D1, 2 Dilation factor of 2 from x-axis

(parallel to y-axis).
2. My = 0
Reflection in the x-axis.
1
3. D1 Dilation factor of 3 from y-axis
,1
3
(parallel to x-axis).
4. Mx = 0
Reflection in the y-axis.
2
5. T2 Translation 3 of a unit right and 2 units
,2
up.
3
12 a y = 2x + 3 y
y = 2x 3
(2, 1)
(1, 1)
11 a 1. Mx = 0
Reflection in the y-axis.
2. My = 0
Reflection in the x-axis.
3. D1, 7 Dilation factor of 7 from x-axis
(parallel to y-axis).
1
4. D1 Dilation factor of 2 from y-axis
,1
2
5. T1, 0 Translation 1 right (positive
x direction).
b
Mx = 0 or
1. My = 0
Reflection in the y-axis or (x-axis).
1
D
2. 1 Dilation factor of 2 from y-axis
,1
2
Translation 12 unit left and 1 unit down.
3. T- 1
(3, 1)
x
y=x
y = 2x y
y = 2x
(4, 0)
y (1, 6)
y = x2
x
(4, 0)
x
y = x 3
y=x+3
(3, 2)
y = 2(x 1)2 + 6
(3, 0)
( 12 , 2)
0
(3, 2)
0 a y = f + 2 + 3
1
2
x + 2
+3
b y = f
2
y - 2
c x = 2 f
-3
2
y + 3
d x = 2 f
+2
2
1
0
y = 3x
Answers 2E 2E
3( x + 3)2
3( x - 3)2
- 2 b (-8, 9) y =
-2
2
2
6
2
c (6, 0) y =
d (-1, 8) y =
-3
+4
x-2
x+2
9 a (2, -12) y =
e x = 2 f - 2 - 3
2
y = x
x
y = 2(3
2x
+ 2)
18
Answers
619
j Domain: (-1, 1)
Range: (0, 1)
k Domain: (-2, -1)
Range: (1, 4)
l Domain: R
Range: [3, )
m Domain: R
Range: (-, 3]
n Domain: [-3, 3]
Range: [-3, 3]
o Domain: [0, 4]
Range: [-2, 2]
p Domain: [0, 3)
Range: [-3, 0) (0, 3]
y
2 a
(x +1)2 (y 2)2
+
=1
9
4
x2 + y2 = 1
y = x
y = 32 x + 2 y = 32 x + 2
(2, 2)
(2, 2)
1 0
1 2 3x
0
3 2 1
1
Multiple choice
1 B
2 D
3 D
6 B
7 C
8 E
11 B
12 E
13 B
Extended response
1 a T1, -2
Translated 1 right and 2 down.
b Centre (-1, -2)
2
3
4 E
9 D
14 C
5 A
10 A
15 E
Radius = 18 = 3 2
c T-1, 1 and D3, 3
Translated 1 unit left and 1 unit up. Dilation factor
of 3 from the x and y axis.
2 a T-1, 3
Translated 1 unit left and 3 units up.
b Centre: (-1, -1)
Semi-major = 3
Semi-minor = 2
c T1, 1
Translated 1 right and 1 up.
Answers
0
1 2 3 4 5 xZ
0
2 1
1
y = x2
2
3
4
(2, 4)
(3, 9)
y = (x 1)2 + 3
y
y = 2(x 1)2 2
x
0
(1, 2)
4
(1, 3)
Relations and functions
620
1 2 3x
2
3
4
y
4
3
2
1
y
5
4
3
2
1
0
3 2 1
1
CHAPTER 3
Exercise 3A Relations
1 a Domain: {2, 4, 6}
Range: {3, 7, 8}
b Domain: {2, 3, 4}
Range: {1}
c Domain: {2}
Range: {2, 3, 5}
d Domain: {1, 2, 3}
Range: {2, 3}
e Domain: {x : x Z+}
Range: {y : y Z, y 1}
f Domain: {x : x Z, x 5}
Range: {y : y Z, y -5}
g Domain: {x : x Z, 4 x 21}
Range: {y : y Z, 0 y 17}
h Domain: [2, 7)
Range: [3, 8)
i Domain: [2, 4)
Range: [4, 16)
3
2
1
(1, 3) y
(2, 1)
y = 2(x + 1)2 + 3
x
(1, 5)
y
2
1
(x 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 9
(2, 1)
5 x
(2, 2 + 5) y
(x + 2)2 + (y 2)2 = 5
(2, 2)
(2 5, 2)
(2 + 5, 2 )
(2, 2 5)
x2 + y2 = 9
3
5
0
5
3
4 B
(x 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 9
y
5 1
5 1
(1, 22 1)
y
3 a Factors: 0 = (x - 3)(x - 2)
Solutions: x = 3, x = 2
b Factors: 0 = (x2 - 4)(x2 - 3)
y
3
5 A
Exercise 3B Functions
1 a Domain: [-5, ) not R.
b Function not defined when x = 0.
c The range [-1, 3] Co-domain R+.
d Not a function since 1-many.
e The range R- {0} Co-domain R+.
f Not a function since 1-many.
2 a Range: [4, 13)
b Range: [2, )
c Range: (2, )
d Range: [-5, -1)
e Range: (-, 9]
f Range: (-, 4)
g Range: (7, 23)
h Range: [-2, -1)
i Range: (-6, 0]
j Range: (2, )
k Range: [3, )
l Range: R\{0}
m Range: R+
n Range: (-1, 0)
o Range: R\{1}
(1, 22 1)
0
d Domain: R\{-5}
Range: R \{5}
e Domain: R\{-5, -1}
Range: R \{0}
f Domain: R
Range: [-2.5, 0)
g Domain: (-, -5) (0, )
Range: R h Domain: [-8, 8]
Range: [-5, 5]
i Domain: (-, -5) (5, )
Range: R+ {0}
j Domain: R\{-5}
Range: R\{0}
k Domain: R
Range: (-, -2) (2, )
l Domain: R\{-4, 4}
Range: (4, )
Solutions: x = 2, x = 3
4 a x = 2, x = -1, x = 3, x = -2
b x = 2, x = 3
(2, 5)
5 E
6 A
Exercise 3C Inverse functions

y
1 a
b
f(x)
(2, 5) y
5
(22 2, 3)
f (x)
f(x)
0 2
3
4
y
6
f(x)
c
3 a Domain: [-2, )
Range: R
b Domain: R
Range: R
c Domain: R\{0}
Range: R \{0}
4x
0
6
y
6
f 1(x)
6x
6x
Answers 3A 3c
(22 2, 3)
f 1(x)
2
3
y
4
Answers
621
y
4
2
4x
f (x)
y
f(x)
2
f (x)
f(x)
f 1(x)
f(x)
3
f(x)
f 1(x)
0
f 1(x)
4x
2 a
f(x)
y
5
f(x)
f
f
f 1(x)
f(x) 3
f(x)
f 1(x)
2
2
f 1(x)
y
4
f 1(x)
4x
f(x)
f(x)
f (x)
0
3
f(x)
f 1(x)
f(x)
4 E
622
Answers
1
2
R\{0}
f (x)
d Inverse function
f 1 ( x) =
{}
R\
-1
3 a Inverse function
Domain
Range
f(x)
R\{0}
R\{0}
R\{0}
R\{0}
f 1(x)
1
f 1 ( x ) = , x R \{0}
x
b The inverse function does not exist.
c Inverse function
1 1
f 1 ( x) =
+ , x R \{0}
2x 2
Domain
Range
x
+ 2, x R +
x
Domain
(2, )
R+
R\{0}
{}
R\
1
2
Range
R+
(2, )
Chapter review
Short answer
y
1 a
4
b
y
(2, 5)
(1, 4)
y
4
f 1(x)
3
2
1
1
0
1 2 3 4x
xZ
4x
-x
1
+ , -7 x 2
2

Domain Range

f(x) (-2, 4] [-7, 5)

f 1(x) [-7, 5) (-2, 4]
-
f 1(x) =
(5, 2)
4
y
8
6
4
2
f (x)
y
4
(4, 7)
(1, 2)
c
+
1 2 3 xZ
y
6
f
(1, 2)
(1, 2)
1 0
f(x)
f 1(x) = x + 2 + 1, x > -1

Domain Range
f(x)
(-, 0)
(-1, )
-1

f (x) ( 1, )
(-, 0)
3x
f 1(x)
0
1
1
f 1(x)
f(x)
f 1(x) = x2 + 2, x 0

Domain
Range
f(x)
[2, )
[0, )
f 1(x) [0, )
[2, )
2
-
f 1(x) = 1 - x2, x 0

Domain Range
f(x)
(-, 1]
(-, 0]
-1

f (x) ( , 0]
(-, 1]
1
0
1
1
f(x)
f 1(x)
y
f 1(x) =
2
f(x)
0
f 1(x)
f 1(x)

f(x)
f 1(x)
f(x)
f 1(x) =

f(x)
f 1(x)
x2
,0x2
4
Domain
Range
[-3, 0]
[0, 2]
[0, 2]
[-3, 0]
3 1-
x2
+ 1, x 0
4
Domain
Range
[3, )
[0, )
[0, )
[3, )
Answers 3C 3C
c 2 3 is not a function of x, and not a function.

b Range: [-1, )
4 a Range: [-1, 0)
d Range: [3, )
c Range: (-4, )
e Range: [0, 2]
f Range: (-, 1]
g Range: R\{1}
h Range: (1, )
i Range: (0, 1]
5 a (x - 2) (x - 1) Factors b x4 - x2
x = 2, x = 1Solutions
0 = (x2 - 1) (x2) Factors
x = 1, x = 0 Solutions
Multiple choice
1 B
2 A
3 E
4 E
5 C
6 E
7 C
Extended response
y
f (x)
1 a
x 1
f 1(x) = - , x 1
2 2
1
f (x)

Domain
Range
1
f(x)
[0, )
[1, )
x
0 1
f 1(x) [1, )
[0, )
2
1
2 a Domain: x R
Range: y R
b Domain: x R\{-4, 2}
Range: y R \{0}
c Domain: x R
Range: (-, -6] [2, )
d Domain: x R
Range: y R
e Domain: x R
Range: y R
f Domain: (-, -3] (0, )
Range: (-, -3] (0, )
3 a Incorrect domain
b [-1, ) R+ (Co-domain)
(3, 2)
0
f 1(x) = x + 4 + 1, x -4

Domain Range
f(x) [1, )
[-4, )
f 1(x) [-4, )
[1, )
f 1(x)
1 2 3 4x
2 1 0
f(x)
Answers
623
2 a
b
c
d
e
f
g
b Reflection in the y-axis

c {(x, y) : y = |-2x - 3|
d Domain =
2x
P(x) = 6x
The largest value of x is 8.
4
Domain: [0, 3 ]; range: [0, 8]
4
{p: [0, 3 ] R, p(x) = 6x}
A(x) = 2x2
Length is 3 m, width is 6 m
Range = [0, 4]
2 a Dilation by a factor of
2
1
3
from the x-axis
b y = 3 x + 1
c x =
d
Exam practice 1
Short answer
1
2
- 1

2
CHAPTER 4
Algebra
1 = 18 2 2 3
2
Exercise 4A Review of index laws
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
b 4a2b3
1 a 4ab
x
0
32.521.510.5
1 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
2
3
4
5
6
- 5
a b
2 a
1
2
y3
4 x3
25m9
9 n5
- 7 7
,
2 2
5
ba 2
1
b4
b 2xy3
x2y2
1
2m 7 n5
- 16 w 6
125v17
-a
2b 7
f 2 a3b
9
4 x2y4
n14
16m5
8v 2 m6
27 w 2 n6
-1
3888v13 w6
3 E
4 a 27n + 1
0
2
b 33n + 3
3n + 2
22 n + 8
7
a + bi c + di
4 LHS =
c - di c + di
=
(a + bi )(c + di )
(c - di )(c + di )
= RHS
1

2

3
1 a i ( 2 ,0)
ii (3, 0)

624
iii ( 2 , 4)
Answers
y2
x3
g x
ac + bdi 2 + adi + bci

=
c 2 - di 2
ac - bd + adi + bci

=
c2 + d 2
Multiple choice
1 D 2 B 3 A 4 E 5 D
Extended response
b x 6
4
5
5 a 3 3
x=2
32n
( x + 1) 2
1
7
24
h 64m10
2( x + 1)
1
k
( x + 2) 2
c 3 5-n - 3
f 34m - 4 23m - 4
c
f
x6
1
2
33
i x2
l
( y - 4) 2
Exercise 4B Standard form and significant

figures
a 3.604 105
-
d 3.24 10 2
a 80
d 5000
g 0.0008
j 0.4
m 6 10 7
p 0.245
A
b
e
b
e
h
k
n
q
2.13457 102
1.0031 10 4
300
2000
0.0003
2.9 108
5 10 10
1.5
c 1.029398 103
f 5.70201009 108
c 4000
f 5000
i 0.0016
l 5 107
o 0.09
r 16
4

5

a
e
i
a
e
b
f
j
b
f
2sf
4sf
4sf
3
438.8
c
g
k
c
g
4sf
8sf
1sf
13.4
59.1
d
h
l
d
h
4sf
5sf
6sf
118
79
5sf
3sf
2sf
0.131
39.6
c a = 3 m +
x + 4 b y = 4 x + 3
5
14
3
d k = 3 - 3 p
1
e a = 2 b or b = 3 a
f a = 2 + 5 b or b = 5a - 10
g c = -2a + 6b
h a = 2 b + 3
k a =
-4
b
21
or b =
2
- 7 or b =
l x = 60 - 6y or y =
-2
x + 10
S
4
v -u
, u = v 2 - as b r =
s
c R =
RR2
R1R2
- 1
d 100
, R1 =
A
0
R2 + R1
R2 - R
e t =
2s
2s
,u=
-v
u+v
t
g b = C 2 - a 2
i I =
P
P
, R= 2
R
I
k -18
l 4 1
2
2 a -1
e 2
b -1
f 12
c 1
g 2
d -5
h -6
i 2
3 a 24
b -3
7
12
-3
T
2
f L = g , g = L
2
T
h a =
2(s - ut )
t2
j m =
tR
tR
, v1 = v2 v2 - v1
m
3 D 4 C 5 E 6 B 7 E 8 B 9 E 10 C
S
11 a n =
+2
180
b
Number of
Sum of interior
Polygon
sides (n)
angles (S)
3
180
Hexagon
720
Dodecagon
12
1800
Nonagon
1260
Heptagon
900
Octagon
1080
Pentagon
540
Quadrilateral
360
Decagon
10
1440
1
2
d -2.2
b -14
c 2 14
f 2
f 3
72
149
7
11
h 3
i ii 1, -1
vi 0, 3
i i 0, 1
v 2
b i
-1 2
3
ii
10
19
iii 5 23
iv
3
4
4
5
vi
6 a
7 C
8 D
9 a
10 a
e
11 a
e
12 C
13 a
e
14 E
15 E
16 C
17 a
18 2
19
6
5
13
47
(2, 0)
b (3, 2)
c (4, 2)
(0, 0)
(1, 5)
(-4, 1)
(-1, 5)
(2, 5)
b
b
f
b
f
(1, -2)
(0.5, 1)
b (2, 3)
f (10, 5)
c (3, 9)
b E
c D
57
43
d (-8, 9)
c (0, c)
No
(2.5, 2.5) c (-11, -39) d (4, -4)
(-3, 2)
c (1, 2)
d (-2, 3)
(3, -4)
(1.5, 3)
d (4, -3)
or 1 15
Answers 4A 4E
Triangle
c 2
5 a i 0, 1
iv 0
2 a a =
j 3
-59
- 21
a
4
-1
d 5 6
h 44
58
a
127
c -50
g 25
4 a 1 14
6f -9
10 d - 9
i d =
or f =
10
6
j a =
b - 3 2
f 12
127
b
58
2s - 2 na
, d = -2
n( n - 1)
Exercise 4C Transposition
-4
b d =
1 a -19
e 2
9 0.002 10 4.0 103 days 11 1.23%

5
2s - n( n - 1)d
,a=4
2n
Exercise 4D Solving linear equations and

6 A 7 D
8 a 2000 steps
b 77 sugar cubes
1 a x = 5 - 4 y y =
12 a a =
0 x = 1, y = -2, z = 3
2
Exercise 4E Applications
1 -1
2 40
3 66
4 18 red, 10 yellow tulips
5 Width = 8 cm
Length = 20 cm
6 10 cm, 10 cm, 12 cm
7 40, 120, 20, obtuse angled
8 $99
Answers
625
9 a B b D
10 a 10 b 15
11 a 3
b 3 years in America,
4 years in Germany,
8 years in London,
1 year in Australia.
12 15 Jonathan
20 Golden Delicious
13 Alex will reach Nat in 1.25 h; that is, at 11.30 am.
14 4 km/h
15 10 h
16 12 days, No
17 20
18 44, 45
19 7, -4
20
2
2

23

24
26
17, 5
l = 7 cm
w = 5 cm
A = 35 cm2
x = 8 cm
y = 10 cm
P = 50 cm
33 cm
a
21
2 1
,
5 4
25
6 cm
x
y
-9
(2t + 3)(t - 1)
3w 2 - 6 w - 20
2( w - 2)
( y + 3)( y - 3)
- 7 x + 10
c
(3 - 2 x )( x - 2)
5a + 17
e
(a + 3)2
4 D
5 A
6 C
2x
7 a
5
2
c 2
d
e
- 2( j - 3)2
( j + 7)( j + 2)
m +1
4(m - 1)(2m - 3)
23b
12
g
d
6
4 k + 15
f
6
b
-1
10r (r + 1)
1 b
ac a
a-b
i x = b +
a
1
k x =
+s
br
g x =
m2 - 14
7m
1 - 2 n2
3n
2 a
5p + 4
p( p + 2)
13q + 15
2q(q + 5)
c x = 2a
y = -b
-17d
15
h 2 + 20
e
5h
Answers
- 6s + 25
(s - 3)(s + 4)
9 + 10 v 2
8(2v - 3)
13 x - 1
h
6
f
6z + 8
( z + 2)( z - 2)
y + 11
d
(1 - y )( y + 3)
b
(3b - 9)
(3b - 2)2
1
4b
2(3 - e)
d
e
b
f 6h
b
d
2(k - 2)2
(k + 5)2 (k + 1)
- 3( n + 1)
2 n( n - 1)
3(q + 3)
f
q-2
- (s + 2)(2s + 3)
h
6
Exercise 4G Linear literal equations

wy
1 a x = 6c
b x =
z
np
c x =
d x = 3st - r
+m
2
d
3k
f x =
e x =
-l
f +g
4-l
1- f
-d
ef
e d
o x = - - c
3 2
2 D
3 a x = a, y = b
626
3g 3
6(2 + g)
e p
8 Toaster: $19.95
2
Sandwich maker: $24.95
29 Pool & Spa: 120
Pool, spa, sauna & steam room: 73
30 5c coins: 34
10c coins: 8
31 Lamb: $2.50
Pork: $4.00
32 23
33 10 science text pages and 2 fiction text pages
34 Dim sims: 5
Spring rolls: 4
Exercise 4F Algebraic fractions
25a
28
- 4 y - 30
3 a
1 a
-t
8 a
b 5 cm 5 cm; square
7 54; Yes
2
3
18; No; 4
7r - 5
(r + 1)(r - 2)
4a + c
2b
n
j x =
m( n + 1)
h x =
l x = q - n
n2 m
mb + cn
ef
p x =
d
m x =
n x =
b x = a - b
y = 2b
d x = 3a + b
y = -b
1
2(b - a)
3b
y=
2
b
a - 2b
g x = h x =
z
a
a - 2b
y = 2a - 2b
y=
2ab
4 a 4 b -2
Extended response
1 a W = 600 + 0.02s
b i $1000
ii $1900
iii $2600
c i $35000
ii $60000
iii $90000
d Brett is paid $860 each fortnight regardless of
whether or not he makes any sales. However, the
amount Adrain takes home depends on how many
sales he can make. He will take home a minimum of
$600 each fortnight but must continue to make sales if
he wishes to increase this amount.
e S = 860
f $13000
2 9000 for 6%, 6000 for 11%
3 a B
b Fixed fee
c Same cost
d (500, 65)
e B
f A
g Under 500 km choose A, over 500 km choose
B; = 500 km either
h d = 0.03n - 15
i dn - dn - 1 = 0.03, d0 = -15
j Between 800 and 900
4 a C = 15n + 21000
b SP = 45n
c
($)
Chapter review
Short answer
-4
-16
45 x 15 y 3
a 0.00375 b 0.00000408
c 4165000
a 106.51 b 1200
5
a x = 2y - 2
b d =

5 x =
e=
- 43
21
- 43
10
10
- 21 e
21
- 10 d
-6
Expenses/selling price ($000)
1
2

3
4
71
6 a y = 2x + 2 [1]
y = -0.5x + 4 [2]
b (0.8, 3.6)
7 a (2, 0) b (-4, 1) c (1, -6)
8 20 of 20c
5 of 10c
10 of 5c
9 T = 2300 + 500n - 135e
T - 2300 + 135e
n =
500
2300 + 500 n - T
e =
135
10 Rebecca: 7 years old
Jessica: 10 years old
- 11x + 16
13m - 24
b
11 a
x (3 x - 4)
6
5x - 5
c
( x + 1)( x + 2)( x - 3)
12
tC
s
Co
=1
(700, 31 500)
P = 45n
A
C
D
D
No, the graph does not commence at the origin, but

at 21000. This occurs because of initial costs relating
to electricity, materials, rent and so on, prior to any
products being manufactured.
d Refer to graph in part c.
Yes, the graph does commence at the origin. This
occurs because if there are no sales, no money is
received.
e The break-even point occurs when expenses (total
cost of manufacturing the puzzles) equal the selling
price (money received from sale of puzzles).
Therefore, the company is neither making a profit nor
running at a loss.
f (700, 31500)
g Refer to the graph in part c. This portion (the blue
portion) of the graph represents expenses (total cost
of manufacturing the puzzles) being greater than the
selling price (money received from sale of puzzles).
Therefore, the company is making a loss.
h Refer to the graph in part c. This portion (the yellow
portion) of the graph represents the selling price
(money received from sale of puzzles) being greater
than the expenses (total cost of manufacturing the
puzzles). Therefore, the company is making a profit.
i P = 30n - 21000
j i -9000 (a loss of $9000)
ii -3000 (a loss of $3000)
iii 3000 (a profit of $3000)
iv 9000 (a profit of $9000)
Answers
Answers 4F 4G
13
5
10
15
20
00
10
2
n+
No. of puzzles
9( g + 3)5
( g - 1)2
10(5w - 3)( w + 4)
( w + 3)( w - 3)
3 pk 2 + kw
b - gmn
14 a x =
b x =
kp+3
a
1
15 x =
2a
y = -2b
Multiple choice
1 B
2 D
3 E
4 B
6 A
7 E
8 E
9 D
11 D
12 D
13 B
14 A
16 C
17 B
18 E
19 C
21 C
22 D
23 C
24 B
35
33
31
29
27
25
23
21
1
10
0
20
0
30
0
40
0
50
0
60
0
70
0
80
0
90
0
f x =
e x = a
b
y=
a
627
CHAPTER 5
Trigonometric ratios and their

applications
Exercise 5A Trigonometry of right-angled
triangles
1 a
b Adjacent
Opposite
Adjacent
Hypotenuse
Hypotenuse
Opposite
Opposite
Hypotenuse
Adjacent
Hypotenuse
Adjacent
Opposite
2 a 6.43
b 11.89
c 24.99
d 354.05 e 4.14
f 18.11
g 445.90 h x = 21.14, y = 27.13
3 a 4426 b 6723 c 4425
d 1710 e 6858 f 3841
g 474 h 6155
4 a 2 3 cm b 12 3 cm 2 c 12 + 8 3 cm
5 26 3 + 54 m
6 a 4.98 m
b 6656
7 711
8 234
9 8.58 m
10 1.44 m
11 4 and 4 3
12 a = 5.36, b = 4.50, c = 4.78, d = 10.72
13 a = 14.90, b = 20.05
14 x = 13.39
15 115.91 m
16 6451, 6451, 5018
17 10.91 m3
18 a 1859
b 15.7 m
19 a 0.76 m
b No, the foot of the ladder moves through a distance
of0.96 m.
Exercise 5B Elevation, depression and bearings
1 571 m
2 30 m
3 91 m
4 43.18 m
5 a 22.33 m b 13.27 m
6 647
7 a
b 1319.36 m
Helicopter
35
S2
48
2500 m
S1
8 22 m
50 3
9 50 m
3
10 a 325 T
b 227 T
628
Answers
c 058 T
d 163 T
11 a S66W b S73E
c N39W d N74E
2 a C
1
b D
13 1691 m
14 a 5.39 km
b N2148W
15 20148 T
16 a 4.36 km
b 15635 T
17 a 12.2 km
b 348 T or N12W
18 a 29.82 km
b 38.08 km
c 232 T
19 a 112.76 km
b 5 hours 30 minutes
20 a 82.08 m
b 136.03 m
c 3017 T
21 a i 571.5 m
ii 715 m
b i 143.5 m
ii 4.31 km/h
Exercise 5C The sine rule
1 4458, 772, 13.79
2 3918, 3855, 17.21
3 70, 9.85, 9.4
4 33, 38.98, 21.98
5 19.12
6 C = 51, b = 54.66, c = 44.66
7 A = 60, b = 117.11, c = 31.38
8 B = 4826, C = 10334, c = 66.26; or B = 13134,
C = 2026, c = 23.8
9 24.17
10 A
11 A = 7315, b = 8.73; or A = 10645, b = 4.12
12 51.9 or 44.86
13 C = 110, a = 3.09, b = 4.64
14 B = 38, a = 3.36, c = 2.28
15 B = 3333, C = 12127, c = 26.24; or B = 14627,
C = 833, c = 4.57
16 43.62 m
17 a 6.97 m
b 4 m
18 a 13.11 km
b N2047W
19 a 8.63 km
b 6.48 km/h
c 9.90 km
20 22.09 km from A and 27.46 km from B.
21 D
22 B
23 Yes, she needs 43 m altogether.
Exercise 5D The cosine rule
1 7.95
2 55.22 cm
3 23.08, 4153, 237
4 2857
5 8815
6 A = 6115, B = 40, C = 7845
7 37 cm
8 2218 m
9 a 12.57 km
b S351E
10 a 356
b 6.73 m2
11 23
12 89.12 m
13 a 130 km
b S2212E
14 28.5 km
15 74.3 km
16 7049
17 a 8.89 m
b 7659
c x = 10.07 m
18 1.14 km/h
Exercise 5E Area of triangles

1 12.98 cm2
2 38.14 cm2
27 3
2
6 C
8 570.03 mm2
10 4 3
3 212.88 m2
5 30 2
7 14.98 cm2

9 2.15 cm2
11 B
12 A = 324, B = 9956, area = 68.95 cm2
13 A = 3950, B = 8410, area = 186.03 m2
14 A = 12514, C = 1646, area = 196.03 mm2
15 3131.41 mm2
16 610.38 cm2
17 a 187.5 cm2
b 15.03 cm
c 187.47 cm2

18 17 goldfish
19 22.02 m2
2
20 a Area = 69.63 cm
b Dimensions are 12.08 cm and 6.96 cm.
21 17 kg
22 52.2 hectares
24 D
23 174.5 m3
25 B
Exercise 5F Trigonometric identities
3
2 5
1 5
13
4
5
3 5
7
6 0.208

7 0.743
Exercise 5G Radian measurement
6
5
e
4
2
i
5
1 a
2

3

4

a
e
i
a
e
i
a
e
i
45
105
247.5
0.4712
0.1222
5.7052
13422
20548
23322
3
3
f
2
10
j
9
b
f
j
b
f
j
b
f
j
270
510
1440
1.9024
1.1118
0.8209
3458
41524
35321
2
3
7
g
4
5
6
8
h
3
c 210
g 15
d 300
h 234
c 4.2412
g 2.4147
d 6.1261
h 4.7845
c 5718
g 1026
d 9215
h 33437
57.33 m
124 m
56 m
105.86 m
2
C
95
64
52 m
52 m
O
56 m
80
3
25
78.10 m
68 m
68 m
43 m
D
34.25 m
105.86 m
58
85 m
65.19 m
5
38
85 m
43 m
F
72.11 m
Answers 5A 5H
Exercise 5H Arcs, sectors and segments

1 15.88 cm
2 200.28 mm
15
4 4.89 cm
3
2
12
cm
5 7.77 cm
6 r =
7 a 0.2667c
b 1517
c
b 9140
8 a 1.6
9 3516
10 7759
11 73.3 cm
12 2.20 m
14 85.88 cm2
13 141.23 cm2
15 A = 10 cm2
16 36.75 cm
17 10654
18 270 cm2
9 a 10 m2
1
b 1 m3
2
20 8050.85 cm
21 a 188.5 cm2
b 5 cm
2
22 237.66 cm
23 5.44 m2
24 24.14 cm
25 5056
27 D
26 6.64 cm2
28 E
29 2.95 m2
30 A
Chapter review
Short answer
1 1.73 m
2 20.8 m
3 m =12 2 cm
4 -0.08611
5 125 2 m 2
6 4 3 m 2
55
7
8
4
25
32
8 a i 9
ii 36
iii 9
b i 9
ii 337.5
iii 1260
9 a 228.54 m
b 2945.25 m2
Multiple choice
1 C
2 B
3 C
4 B
5 D
6 E
7 C
8 D
9 B
10 D
11 B
12 B
13 D
14 E
15 C
Extended response
1 a 4425, 577, 7828
b 14.697 cm2
2
c 1.270 cm
2 a 3.931 km
b 6.075 km2
c N8953E
d 2.190 km
3 a i 12.59 km
ii S3610E
b 2783 m
4 a and b
B
B

Answers
629
c 840.84 m
d $3784.50
e Area 1 = 2952.80 m2
(Note: Due to rounding, this answer may vary
slightly depending on which side lengths and
angles were used.)
Area 2 = 1308.64 m2
Area 3 = 1741.14 m2
Area 4 = 617.87 m2
Area 5 = 1549.81 m2
Area 6 = 2769.89 m2
Total area = 10 940.15 m2
CHAPTER 6

Exercise 6A Describing sequences
1 a Add 3 (to the previous term); 10, 13, 16
b Subtract 1 (from the previous term); 3, 4, 5
c Multiply by 4; 256, 1024, 4096
d Divide by 2; 3, 3 , 3
8 16 32
e Add three to the magnitude then change the sign;
17, 20, 23
f The difference between the terms increases by 1 for
each pair; 27, 35, 44
g Add the preceding two terms; 29, 47, 76
h Add 3b a; 2a + 7b, 3a + 10b, 4a + 13b
i Many possible answers assume the sequence
repeats; 0, 1, 0
j Append 1 to the decimal expansion of the preceding
term; 1.111, 1.1111, 1.111 11
k Divide by 2; 64, 32, 16
4
2 a -3, 5, 15
b , 108, 26244
3
1 5 10
, ,
2 6 11
d 13.3, -1.5, -20
5 5
, , 5
2 32 1024
5
,
4
g 0, 4, 11
3 243 59049
, ,
2 32 1024
i 41, 61, 131

k a, ar4, ar9
j a, a + 4d, a + 9d
20, 640
3 a 7, 17, 21
b -3 12 , -13 12 , -17 12
c 7.65, 1858.95, 16 730.55
d 12, 384, 1536
e
11
d 0.456, 0.471 321, 0.473 437, 0.473 659, 0.473 682,

0.473 684; sequence converges to 9
19
630
Answers
g 0.48, 0.749, 0.564, 0.738, 0.581, 0.73; oscillates

h 0.714, 0.694, 0.722, 0.683, 0.736, 0.66; oscillates
i 0.378, 0.987, 0.052, 0.207, 0.689, 0.901; diverging
j 0.72, 0.907, 0.379, 1.059, -0.281, 1.619; diverging
a 15, 20; difference between subsequent terms increases
by 1.
b There are many possible answers. A possible pattern
is the addition of 5 then 3 then 1 then 1. The next
two terms are 4, 3. Here the difference between
successive terms follows an arithmetic sequence.
c Many possible answers since there is no obvious
pattern. It could be the start of a telephone number.
d Each successive term is multiplied by an increasing
1 -1
10
1
1
factor of 2 starting 2 = 2 then 2 = 1 and then 2

6
7

8
9
followed by 4 ; 16 , 256 .
e 34, 55; Each subsequent term is the sum of the
preceding two terms.
f 31, 63; Terms are 1 less than powers of 2.
g 5, 4; Add 2 to find the next term and then subtract 1 to
find the subsequent term and repeat.
a D
b E
c C
a tn + 1 = tn 2, t1 = 7
b tn + 1 = tn 2, t1 = 12
c tn + 1 = tn + 0.6, t1 = 12
d tn + 1 = tn 5 + 1, t1 = 2
e tn + 1 = 3tn, t1 = 4
f tn + 1 = (tn)2, t1 = 2
a 26 and 25
b 23 cats
The population size will rapidly decrease and by 2009,
the stray cat population will be gone. (Happily, they were
all taken in by good and loving households.)
Exercise 6B Arithmetic sequences

2 a Arithmetic, difference = 2; t4 = 9; tn = 1 + 2n
b Not arithmetic
c Not arithmetic
d Arithmetic, difference = 3; t4 = 6; tn = 6 + 3n
e Arithmetic, difference = 4; t4 = 14; tn = 2 4n
1
3 729 6561
,
,
4 4096 65536
0, 35, 49
f
g 3, 1, 1
h 0, 0, 0
i 1, 32, 128
j a3 + a2 + a, a8 + a7 +...+ a, a10 + a9 +...+ a
k 2, 21, 55
l 123, 7.55 1066, 3.2 10267
a 0.2, 0.128, 0.089, 0.065, 0.049, 0.037; sequence
converges to 0
b 0.096, 0.0347, 0.0134, 0.0053, 0.0021, 0.0008;
sequence converges to 0
c 0.099, 0.0981, 0.0973, 0.0967, 0.096, 0.0955;
sequence converges to 1
e 0.525, 0.523 687 5, 0.523 821 7, 0.523 808 3,

0.523 809 6, 0.523 809 5; sequence converges to 11
21
f 0.525, 0.623, 0.587, 0.606, 0.597, 0.602; sequence
3
converges to 5
25
-3
f Arithmetic, difference = 2 ; t4 = 14 ; tn = 14 + 2 n
g Not arithmetic
3
3
h Arithmetic, difference = 4 ; t4 = 3; tn = 4 n
-7
i Arithmetic, difference = 4 ; t4 = 5; tn = 2 4 n
j Arithmetic, difference = 2( 1); t4 = 8 3;
tn = 5 + 2( 1)n
3 a 104
b 682
c 1458
d 26 310
4 a tn = 8 3n, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
n
b tn = 2 + , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2
c tn = 6 + 3n, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
d tn = 3x + 5nx, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
5 tn = 4 + 2n, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
6 5n 2
7 m = 21.5, n = 32.5
9 2
8 x + y, 5x + 9y
2
1
14

d tn + 1 = tn +
13 m = 27, n = 32
13.6, 19.2, 24.8, 30.4

a tn + 1 = tn + 4; t1 = 3
b tn + 1 = tn + 3; t1 = 3
c tn + 1 = tn 4; t1 = 2
1
;t
2 1
11 - 4 14 ; 12 ; - 4 3 + 12 n
10 35; 15; 15n 50
2
7
e tn + 1 = tn +
3
;t
4 1
3
4
f tn + 1 = tn
7
;t
4 1
=4
- 1

3
, t6 = 3072 , t10 = 7 86 432
n -1
, t6 =
- 1
,t
405 10
1
32 805
i tn = x (3x3)n 1, t6 = 243x16, t10 = 19 683x28

n -1
i 50 j 30, 2550, 250 500

2 a 1275 b 5050
3 a 5000
1
b Each of the 100 terms is 2 less than its corresponding
term in question 3. There are 100 terms and so the
answer to this question is 50 less than in question 2.
4 258
b 324
5 a 273, 480, 741
b 1080
c 34
6 a 280
n( n + 1)
2
8 a Various answers b Various answers
9 17
10 45
11 a 20100
b 9900
12 6
13 174
14 The iterative equation is tn + 1 = tn + 8, t1 = 7. The
functional equation is t(n) = 8n 1, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
Exercise 6D Geometric sequences
1 a Not geometric
b Geometric, ratio = 3; t4 = 108; tn = 4 3n 1
c Geometric, ratio = 2; t4 = 24; tn = 3 2n 1
7
d Geometric, ratio = 2 ; t4 = 13 2 ; tn = 3n 123 n

3
; t4 = 9 ; tn = (3)2 n
f Geometric, ratio = 3; t4 = 54; tn = 2 (3)n 1

3
;t
2 4
27
;t
28 n
2
7
n -1
3
2
2n 3
h Geometric, ratio = 2; t4 = 6; tn = 3
i Not geometric
1
j Geometric, ratio = 6; t4 = 54; tn = 4 (6)n 1
Geometric, ratio = 2; t4 = 164; tn = (2)n
tn = 5 2n 1, t6 = 160, t10 = 2560
tn = 2 2.5n 1, t6 = 195.31, t10 = 7629.39
tn = 1 (3)n 1, t6 = 243, t10 = 19683
-1
1
or 27 . The nth
27
(3)5 3n, t10 = 3 25.
could be
tn =
4
3
4
term is tn = 35 3n or
5 3 2
( n - 1)
2
729
6 m = 12, n = 48
7 m = 36, n = 4
8 a = 300, b = 0.75
9 t1 = 25, r = 2, tn = 25 2n 1 or tn = 25 (2)n 1
1
10 t1 = 3 , r = 2 , tn = 3n 221 n
13 a
1 -1
8
1 1
11 6
12 2, 2 , 8 , or 2, 2 ,
3
2
24
2n
4 k = 6
1
Exercise 6E Geometric series
b 121, 29524, 1.74 109
1 a 31, 1023, 1048575
c 33, 1023, 1048575
d 4, 103.8, 746.8
e
3
,
2
12930, 70972, 1302280

309, 2239, 1865
15620, 48828120
1.375, 1.332
g
h
i
j
46.5, 1534.5
2 a 3108
1
,
16
- 2 - 31 - 341
15
24
256
15
6316 , 6653516
3 458
6 65024
4 9
7 21504
8 a 2
2
3
5 121875000
3
2
d 3
3
5
9 1.0; 50%, 25%, 12.5%

4
10 3 ; 75%, 18.75%, 4.6875%

11 4; 25%, 18.75%, 14.06%
20
12 a 6 1 - 1 = 5.999 994 278

2
b 5.722 10 6
c 6
()
Answers
Answers 6A 6E
-1
1 2
32
512
, t6 = 6 , t10 = 10
x x
x
x
a There are two possible answers because the ratio
could be 3 or 3. The nth term is tn = 2 3n 1 or
tn = 2 (3)n 1, t10 = 39 366.
b There are two possible answers because the ratio
could be 2 or 2. The nth term is tn = 2n 1 or
tn = (2)n 1, t10 = 512.
c The nth term is tn = 5 2n 1, t10 = 2560.
d The nth term is tn = 1 (2)n 1, t10 = 512.
e There are two possible answers because the ratio
j tn =
18 E
n+2
b
19 a
n+3
Exercise 6C Arithmetic series
1 a 55, 1275, 5050 b 25, 100, 400
17 n + 3n2
c 80, 235,
d 15, 70, n(13 2n)
2
e 67.5, 272.5, 1095 f 20, 65, 230
g 34, 424, 6304 h 35, 0, 122 12
k
a
b
c
h tn = 5
5
6
n -1
g tn = 3 4
g tn + 1 = tn + 2 2; t1 = 2 + 3
15 9
16 3
17 B
g Geometric, ratio =
f tn = 2 2n 1, t6 = 16, t10 = 256
e Geometric, ratio =
d tn = 2 (2)n 1, t6 = 64, t10 = 1024

e tn = 2.3 (1.5)n 1, t6 = 17.47, t10 = 88.42
631
3
13 a 6 1 4
( ) = 6.750 343
3
b 3.425 104
3
c 6 4
2
14 6 3
15 16, 8, 4
16 4 - 15 ,
17
( 3 + 5)
( 15 - 3)
-1
(4 3 + 3 5 )
3
18
19 1, 0.99
1
3
20 Various answers
21 a Mathematically, the student will never make it past

the other side of the road. After each attempt, the
distance remaining is halved and this result is the
extra distance walked at the next attempt. Thus the
distance travelled across the road approaches, but
never reaches 10 metres.
b As shown in part a, the extra distance travelled at
each attempt is equal to half the remaining distance
from the previous attempt. Given that there will
always be an amount remaining to travel, only half
this amount can be achieved on the next attempt,
regardless of the width of the road.
Exercise 6F Applications of sequences and
series
ii $120681
1 a i $91253
b 3.059 times
b $63000
c $682500
2 a Arithmetic
d i 8.9%
ii 4.1%
b $48487
c $560660
3 a Geometric
d i $1120
ii $1865
4 a 36 mg, 44 mg, 100 mg, 20 + 8n mg
b 23rd day
c 39 mg, 55 mg, 579 mg, 28 (1.4)n 1 or 20 1.4n
d 7th day
5 a 310
b The workers must remove 12 full rows and 17 logs
from the 13th row.
6 2801
7 The last person received 13 tickets and Frank had 9 left.
8 The last person received 64 tickets and Kate had 73 left.
9 a 1.8 1019 grains of rice b 1.8 1015 kg
10 a 4096 grains of rice
b 0.41 kg
11 The student will cover a distance of 2 m and thus will
never get closer than 1 m from door.
12 Yes, 7th day
13 a
1
9
1
3
57
99
3139
999
700
33
50
3
232
99
14 a 249
b 2596
5 After 8 years, that is, at the start of the ninth year.
1
16 18 m, 24 m, 30 m
17 a , 3, 5, 7 arithmetic progression with a = and
d = 2
b
632
1 3 5 7
, , ,
16 16 16 16
Answers
a 192 12n m/s

b During the 16th second
c 1440 m
After 8 minutes, the coffee has cooled to below 50 C.
The sequence for the arithmetic series tnun is 12n 15,
n {1, 2, 3, ...}
Chapter review
Short answer
1 a tn + 1 = 2tn 3; t1 = 7
b tn + 1 = (tn)2 + 1; t1 = 2
2 a Functional rule: t(n) = 156n 458
b Iterative rule: tn + 1 = tn + 156; t1 = 302
3 a 5.0 m
b 27.5 m
c 63 s
4 a 134.2 milli-rem
b 3361.6 milli-rem
18

19
20
-1 9
89
99
6 a
4
3
3
5
7 a
2
9
b 211
Multiple choice
1 D
2 E
6 C
7 B
11 E
Extended response
3 B
8 E
4 A
9 D
1 a 8
b 4 2
c 4
d Pn = 8
2 a i Arithmetic

3

ii t4 = 28
( )
2
2
5 B
10 C
n-1
b i Geometric
ii t4 = a3b2
c i Neither
ii t4 = 1.39453125
a i 80
ii 37
iii 18
b The trout population will reach 0 in 9 years.
c 57 and 86
d No, as the terms in the sequence will keep increasing
e No, the sequence will converge to 0.375, that is, the
limiting number is 375 fish.
4 a
Pop B
Pop A
Annual
Growth
increment
rate
= 1000
Difference
= 1.12
Year
1990
10000
15000
5000
1991
11200
16000
4800
1992
12544
17000
4456
1993
14049
18000
3951
1994
15735
19000
3265
1995
17623
20000
2377
1996
19738
21000
1262
1997
22107
22000
107
1998
24760
23000
1760
1999
10
27731
24000
3731
2000
11
31058
25000
6058
2001
12
34785
26000
8785
b During 1997
c Annual increment of 1606 insects
d Annual growth rate of 1.095 96
a The common difference is 4, which is a constant;
therefore, the sequence is arithmetic with definition
tn = 4n + 1.
b The common difference is 2a, which is a constant;
therefore, the sequence is arithmetic with definition
tn = 2an + b a.
6 a i Answers will vary.
ii 10%
iii 2928
iv 31784
v b = 1.1, c = 0
b i $3740
ii 16
iii $4780
c i 1850
ii 92.1%
Variation
Exercise 7A Direct variation
3
d i Yes, k = 2
e i No
f i Yes, k = 2
af ii Check graphs with your teacher.
2 C
3 a Yes
b When n = 0, C = 20. Since the graph does not pass
through the origin, a direct variation relationship does
not exist.
ii k = 2
4 a i k = 2.3
iii k = 1.1
iv k = 2.5
v k = 5.2
vi k =
1
2
viii k =
2
3
1
4
b i x: 8, 12; y: 9.2, 11.5

ii x: 18, 20, 22.5; y: 8, 14
iii x: 1, 9; y: 3.3, 5.5
iv x: 1, 5, 12; y: 5
v x: 2, 8, 14; y: 31.2
vi x: 1, 12; y: 2, 4
vii x: 2, 4; y: 1, 2.5
1 3
viii x: 6, 7; y: 2 , 4
1, 1.5, 2, 3
iii No
ii x2 = 1, 9, 25, 36
2 a i x2 = 1, 4, 9, 16
2
iii x = 4, 16, 36, 64 iv x2 = 1, 4, 16, 36
b i Yes, k = 2
ii Yes, k = 12
iii No
iv Yes, k = 16
x3 = 1, 8, 27, 64, 125

x3 = 8, 64, 216
No
1
Yes, k = 12
ii
iv
ii
iv
x3 = 8, 27, 125
x3 = 1, 8, 64, 216
Yes, k = 3
No
1
4
9 a i
iv
b i
iv
b n =
1
4
c m: 9, 16; n: 14 , 1 14
7 D
A r2
r A
A = kr2
r=k A
ii
v
ii
v
8 C
V s3
d h
V = ks3
d=k h
iii E v2
iii E = kv2
10 a 12.56
b 1962.5 cm2
11 a 12.56
b 153.86 mL, 200.96 mL, 254.34 mL
12 1.56 m, 2 2 ( 2.83) s
13 a V = 1 s 3 b 41.67 cm3
3
b Multiples of 5
b 29.4 cm
36.9 cm
Equilateral triangle
b 8 L, 3 cans
46 sq. m
$4.20
The graph is a straight line passing through the
origin.
b 800
c F = 800a
d 3200 newtons
e 1.25 m/s2
d h = s
c 12 cm
14 a Doubled
5 a i 4
1
b Tripled
c Halved
ii 9
iii 16
iv 1
b i 8
ii 27
iii 64
c i 2
ii 3
iii 2
17 a i 4
iv 100
iv 616 cm2
ii 9
v 1
iv
1
2
iii 64
vi 19
v 38.5cm2
8 a Multiplied by n
1
c Multiplied by n
19 a b = 12
4
1
iv 8
ii alved
1
ii 16
16 a i Doubled
b i 16
b i 9856 cm2 ii 15 400 cm2

7 B
8 D
b 1.3 h or 1 h 18 min
c 15 cm
iii 17 9 cm2
vi 1386 cm2
b Multiplied by n2
d Multiplied by n3
b k = 3
c a = 27
Exercise 7C Inverse variation

1 a Yes, k = 12
c Yes, k = 28
e No
2 a Yes
d No
3 C
b Yes, k = 18
d Yes, k = 10
f No
b No
e No
c Yes
f Yes
Answers 6F 7C
1 a
1
c
12 a
c
13 a
1 1 3 2
, , , ,
10 5 10 5
iii x = 2, 4, 6, 8
b i Yes, k = 3
ii Yes, k = 5
6 B
c i No
5 C
6 D
9 a 270 km
c 90 km/h
x = 1, 3, 5, 7
x = 1, 2, 3, 4 ii
1 a i
5 a k =
b i Yes, k = 3
10 a
Exercise 7B Further direct variation
4 y varies as the square root of x.
1 a i Yes, k = 2 or 1.5
vii k =
b 41.834 km
d 0.56%
15 a = 5, k = 2.5
3 a i
iii
b i
iii
CHAPTER 7
14 a 41.6 km
c 0.234 km
4 D
Answers
633
5 a i k = 12

iii k = 32

v k = 5
ii k = 60
iv k = 26
vi k = 16
vii k = 1
viii k = 20
b i x: 5; y: 4.8, 4
ii x: 2, 5; y: 6
iii x: 2; y: 32, 8
iv x: 2, 4; y: 26
v x: 1; y: 25, 10, 2.5 vi x: 1, 2; y: 1 , 1
2
vii x: 2, 5; y:
1 1
,
16 40
2
3
6 E
9 a
10 a
11 a
12 a
7 E
8 A
b $1.60
32
b 13
c 11
15
b Yes
c 6 m
No
i 1.7
ii 0.425
v
340
b k = v = 340, f = or f =
13 a i Halved
ii Divided by 3

iii Multiplied by 2
b 100 N
14 Wd
15 a 19 mL
b 285 mL
c 300 mL
d 10 mL
e 1 or 33.33%
3
6 280 revolutions per minute

1
17 a 2 and 4: 750 rev per min; 3: 150 rev per min
b s1 = 120, s2 = 300, s3 = 60
4 a 1000
b q: 4, 5; p: 125, 37 27
1
R
1
iii R 2
d
1
v
p
b i I =
R
p
iii R = 2
d

v t
v t =
6
7

8
4.74 m
i 10.20 W/m2
3m
0.57
a
a
b
a
p
v
iv n
b 0.0390625
4
3
1
10 a 4
b 4
c 16
11 a B
b C
c C
27
64
3 a
15
16
4 k = 3, u = 8, w = 1, 9, 25, v = 6
60
5 a P =
60
7.5
x3y
60
60
60
b No
1
2
x3
27
64
125
15
4.4
1.875
0.96
x3y
120
118.8
120
120
kv 2
R
x3
64
125
216
130
1
416
2
2 25
11
1 64
c No
y
x3y
1040
65
260
2531
8
d Yes
x
x3
27
125
343
343
12 19
2 93
x3y
343
343
343
343
27
125
e F = k
6
7

8

a
a
c
a
c
d
d 16
d Yes
d No
b n = 2, p = 4, 7, m = 75
c E = kmv2
x
1
d2
p
ii F = 2
d
p
iv n =
l
p
vi I = 2
d
b 88 units
ii 1.11 W/m2
9 a 1.732
1
d2
1
vi I
x
y
Answers
ii F
x3
20
9
d Yes
1
Exercise 7E Joint variation

b Yes
c No
1 a Yes
b Yes
c No
2 a Yes
Exercise 7D Further inverse variation

1 a Yes
634
c No
5 a i I
viii x: 10, 15; y: 5,
2 a Yes
b Yes
3 m varies inversely as n2.
b P = kRI2
d F =
km
R
t
m
61072.70 cm3
200 J
30 m
4825.4 J
Longer
i More
5.4 n
9 a m =
p2
c 5
10 a 1.78 10 8
11 C
12 B
13 E
14 D
15 R increased by 79.93%
16 a i Increase by 21%
b Decrease by 20%
b 8.63 cm
b 6.3 kg
b 52 min
ii Shorter
b 0.45
b 4.45 ohm
ii Decrease by 19%
c 32.25%
17 a F =
Chapter review
Short answer
kq1q2
r2
b l = a m + b3 n
1
2
3
4

d y = ax3 + bz2
5 a Joint
b P
23
2 a A = 50
n + 48 or A = 0.46n + 48
c i Halved
ii 3
b $250.40
3 a 2000
c $5000
d i No effect
ii 4
ii 4
iii 2
iv 4
b i 4

Exercise 7F Part variation

1 a y = ax2 + b
a
c y = + b
x
b C = 2000 + 25n
d
C
5000
2000
120
4

5

6
7

a
c
a
c
E
a
c
$229
$579
$589
$237, $22
V = 10 + 2t
66 m/s
2
8 a y = 3 x 2 x
b 10 m/s
d 12 s
1
19
n
, 52
2
15
5
b 4.25
c 9
y = +3
x
b D
c C
d E
A
2 + 62.8r
A = 3.14r
ii 1070.74 cm2
i 819.54 cm2
10 m = 5n +
Exercise 7G Transformation of data
t varies directly as d
c t = 0.045 d
d t = 0.2012 seconds
Multiple choice
1 A
2
6 B
7
11 D
12
16 B
17
21 B
W
t
3
8
13
18
C
E
E
C
4
9
14
19
C
C
B
D
5
10
15
20
C
C
E
C
C
B
A
A
Extended response
1 a k = 25, M =
25 L
fo f c
b 1.488
2 a 20.0048 m
b l = 20 + 0.00024 T
c 1.2 10 5
3 a y varies as the square of x; that is, y x2.
3
b y = 20 x2
b V =
114
p
c Inversely
5 a The graph has a hyperbolic shape; there is no direct
variation present.
1
b Select M .
u
c Mu = 40, 40, 40, 40
d The graph is a straight line through the origin.
e Directly
-v
f M =
u
6 a E varies directly with m.
1800
2000
2200
2400
=
=
=
b
695 556 772 840 850 124 927 408
2600
= 2.59 10 -3
=
1 004 692
1
c Inverse d m 2
v
e Directly, inversely, the square
2E
f k = 2, m = 2 g 1476562.5 J
v
l
7 a R 2
d
b
12
15
18
20
0.8
0.9
0.5
3.75
120
120
120
120
120
Answers
Answers 7D 7G
1 a Parabola
b y = 1.76x2
2 a Hyperbola
b y varies inversely as x.
100
c y =
x
3 a There is no direct variation present.
b V = 0.5236D3
4 a Logarithmic graph
b a = 2, b = 5, y = 2 log10 (x) + 5
5 D
6 B
7 a The calculator shows that t does not vary directly as d.
b The calculator shows that:
t does not vary directly as d2

b 252 J
c 6.5 m
2
c 8 cm
b 864 cm
b x = 2.5, 5; y = 9.6, 4
ii 0.91 W/m2
21
6
48
i 4.8 W/m2
4m
4 a Hyperbola
2
9 a y = x2 + 1
2 a
1
13 a
b
b 70 cents
d 128 loaves
b 22 weeks
ii -5 3
b i 74.6
11 a
a
a
a
a
b
635
c R =
120l
d2
Exercise 8B Partial fractions

5
15
1 a 2 b 4 +
x +1
x-2
d i R is doubled.
1
15
+
2 2(2 x - 1)
3
7
2 2x + 2
2 a
2
1
x - 4 x +1
3
2
x-2 x-3
f d must be halved.
19
1
+
10( x + 9) 10( x - 1)
5
1
2x - 7 x - 1
Exam practice 2
3 a
1
3
x + 2 ( x + 2)2
1
1
x - 3 ( x - 3)2
1
1
2
x - 1 x + 3 ( x + 3)2
ii R is 4 of its original value.

iii R is halved.
e i Increase, R is 5 times as large.
5
ii Decrease, R is 8 of its original value.
Short answer
7 - 11x
1
(2 x + 1)(3 x - 1)
2 x =
bd + c
b+a
1
1
8
+
9( x - 2) 9( x + 1) 3( x + 1)2
y =
c - da
b+a
4 a
2
8- x
+
x + 1 x2 - 2x + 5
3
c
4 r = 2 3
Multiple choice
1 B 2 A 3 A
4 D 5 D 6 C
Extended response
1 a n = 43
b S = 566.67
After the injury + 500 before the injury.
1066.7 km; Theo will not reach Sydney.
7 3
4
q = 30 + 45
Distance is 4.93 km.
y = 2 tan (15.2) + x tan (15.2)
The vertical height of lookout from the hotel is 952 m.
2 a x =

b
c
d
e
CHAPTER 8
Exercise 8A Polynomial identities
i
i
i
i
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
ii 4
ii 6
ii 2
2 a = 2, b = -1, c = 4
3 a = 1, b = 4, c = -5
4 a = 3, b = 4, c = -2
5 a = 10 , b = - 10 or a = - 10 , b = 10
6
7
8
9
10
636
a = 1, b = -2, c = 1
b = -12d - 4c
x2 + 5x - 6
x2 - 2x + 3
x2 + 3x - 5
Answers
5 4 x + 15
x x 2 + 3 x + 1
2
2x - 6
+
x - 2 x 2 - 5x + 5
23
4x
26
+
+
d 27( x - 3) 27( x 2 + 3 x + 9) 9( x 2 + 3 x + 9)
5 a x + 1 -
1
x+2
c 3 x - 1 +
b x 2 + 4 x + 18 +
11 - 21x
x2 + x + 6
69
x-4
x2 x 1
25
+ + +
2 4 8 8(2 x - 1)
Exercise 8C Simultaneous equations

1 a (2, 2)
c (1, 2)
e (1, 2), (1, 2)
b (2, 2)
d (2, 6), (3, 9)
f (2, 7), (3, 8)
- 3 + 33 9 - 33 - 3 - 33 9 + 33
,
,
g
,
6
6
6
6
- 2 + 4 7 22 - 8 7 - 2 - 4 7 22 + 8 7
,
,
h
,
3
9
3
9
Further algebra
1 a
b
c
d
i (-2, -4),
9 - 15
,
4
8
3 + 33 1 - 33 3 - 33 1 + 33
,
,
j
,
2 6
2
6
2
2
2 a
,
,

2
2
2
b
,
2
2
,

2
2
,
2
-
2
2
,
2
2
2 5 4 5 -2 5 -4 5
c
,
,
,
5 5
5
5
1+ 7 1- 7 1- 7 1+ 7
d
,
,
,
2 2
2
2
2 + 14 2 - 14 2 - 14 2 + 14
e
,
,
,
2
2
2
2
f (- 3 + 2 2 , 2 2 ), (- 3 - 2 2 , - 2 2 )
10 + 2 5
,
g
5
5 10 - 2 5
5
,
,
5
5
5
-1 + 6 -13 + 3 6 -1 - 6 -13 - 3 6
h
,
,
,
5
5
5
5
4 + 2 109 3 - 109 4 - 2 109 3 + 109

i
,
,
,
5
5
5
5
12 + 179 4 + 2 179
,
j
,
5
5
12 - 179 4 - 2 179
,
5
5
1+ 5
1- 5
3 a
, 1 + 5 ,
, 1 - 5
2
2
b No real solutions
c No real solutions
-1 + 7
-1 - 7
, 2 - 7 ,
, 2 + 7
d
2
2
1 + 17 13 + 17 1 - 17 13 - 17
,
,
e
,
4
4
2
2
f 10 + 4,
10
10 , 10 + 4,
2
2
1+ 5
1- 5
g 2 + 5 ,
, 2 - 5,
2
2
- 9 + 93 3 + 93 - 9 - 93 3 - 93
,
,
h
,
3
6
3
6
20 - 247 4 - 2 247
,
6
9
25 + 301 5 - 301 25 - 301 5 + 301

,
,
j
,
6
6
6
6
4 E
5 (0.71, 0.71), (0.71, 0.71), (0.71, 0.71), (0.71, 0.71)
-1 + 17 -1 + 17 -1 - 17 -1 - 17
,
,
6
or
2
2
2
2
Multiple choice
1 C
2 D
3 A
4 E
5 D
6 B
Extended response
1 a (0.22, 0.22), (6.12, 6.12)
b (0.82, 0.82), (1.82, 1.82)
2 a 2
b A(2, 0), F(0, 2), K(2, 0), P(0, 2)
c I( 2 , 2 )
d C(- 2 , 2 ), R(- 2 , - 2 ), N( 2 , - 2 )
e H(1, 1)
f D(1, 1), S(1, 1), M(1, 1)
g G, J, T, Q
h G(0.52, 1.93), J(1.93, 0.52), T(1.93, 0.52),
Q(0.52, 1.93)
i B, E, O, L
j B(1.93, 0.52), E(0.52, 1.93), L(1.93, 0.52),
O(0.52, 1.93)
a
c
e
g
b 4 m
B = (4, 7)
d C = (12, 7)
4.73 m and 11.27 m
f 17.44 m
D = (16.67, 14.48)
5.92 m, 9.05 m, 12.12 m and 15.83 m
CHAPTER 9
Algebra and logic

Exercise 9A Statements (propositions),
connectives and truth tables
1 a Opinion
b T/F
c T
d Question
e T
f Opinion
g Instruction
h T/F
i F
j Near-statement
2 a The car has 4 seats.
The car has airconditioning.
b The Department of Finance was over budget in 2006.
The Department of Defence was over budget in 2006.
c Bob went to the hotel.
Carol went to the hotel.
Ted went to the hotel.
Alice went to the hotel.
d To be a best-seller a novel must be interesting to the
reader.
To be a best-seller a novel must be relevant to the reader.
e Sam will win the trophy.
Nancy will win the trophy
f You can choose vanilla ice-cream for dessert.
You can choose strawberry ice-cream for dessert.
You can choose fruit for dessert.
Answers
Answers 8A 9A
20 + 247 4 + 2 247
i
,
,
6
9
Chapter review
Short answer
1 a = 3, b = 4
2 x2 + 3x - 5
2
1
3
x + 2 x - 10
3x - 5
4 x - 2 + 2
x -2
5 (3, 15), (-1, -5)
637
g There are some statements which cannot be proved to

be true.
There are some statements which cannot be proved to
be false.
h Most of my friends studied Mathematics.
Most of my friends studied Physics.
Most of my friends studied Engineering.
Most of my friends studied Law.
Most of my friends studied Arts.
3 a John and Mary rode their bicycles to school.
b The book you want is in row 3 or 4.
c The weather is cold and cloudy.
d Many people read novels or history.
e In a recent poll 80% preferred jazz or classical music.
f Two is an even prime number.
Two is the only even prime number (alternative
answer).
4 B
5 D
6 a
pq
p = Sydney on time
q = Perth fully booked
pq
2 = 4 rows
7 a
pqr
p = John passed
q = Zia passed
r = David passed
pqr
23 = 8 rows
8 ways
(p q) r
p = Alice does dishes
q = Renzo does dishes
r = Carla does dishes
(p q) r
2 = 8 rows
3
Answers
p (q r)
p = female member
r = professor
p (q r)
23
= 8 rows
32 ways
638
q = student
16 ways
6 c
F
F
~p
p ~p
9 a
14 a
p ~q
~p ~q
r (p q) r
(p q) r
T T
Not equivalent
b p
q (p q)
T
~p
(p q) ~p
(p ~p)
Equivalent
15
(p q) r
p (q r)
~p ~q
p ~q
r (p q) r
r (p q) r
(p q) r
p (q r)
It is raining and I bring my umbrella.

It is raining or I bring my umbrella.
It is not raining and I bring my umbrella.
Peter and Quentin like football.
Peter or Quentin like football.
Peter likes football or Quentin does not like football.
12
~(p q)
(~p ~q)
Not equivalent
16 a
Equivalent
b
(p q) r
p (q r)
~(p q)
~p ~q
Not equivalent
Answers 9A 9A
10 a
b
c
11 a
b
c
13
q (p q) ~p (p q) ~p (p q) (p q) ~p
Equivalent
Answers
639
c Brackets have no effect on expressions with a single

or operator, but have an effect if they are mixed up
together.
Exercise 9B Valid and invalid arguments
1
p
q
~p
~q
(p q)
(~q ~p)
pq
~p
Conclusion is true whenever all premises are true

(3rd row), thus a valid argument.
11 a
p
q
r
pq
qr
pr
~p
~q
(p q)
(~p ~q)
F
F
3 If it is bread then it is made with flour;

If it is made with flour then it is bread;
If it is not made with flour then it is not bread;
If it is not bread then it is not made with flour.
4 C
5 A
6 a Conclusion: My pet is fluffy.
b Conclusion: Two is the only even prime number.
c Conclusion: Growing apples depends on good
irrigation.
7 a and c are valid.
8 b All footballers are fit.
David is not fit.
David is not a footballer.
d Cannot be made into a valid argument.
e All musicians can read music.
Louise is a musician.
Louise can read music.
*11 c
9 D
10
p

(4th row), thus a valid argument.
c See table at foot of page*.
pq
rs
pqrs
pr
qs
Answers

(1st, 5th, 7th and 8th rows).
b
p
q
pq
~q
~p
Conclusion is true whenever all premises are true (1st row).
640
17 a
b
c
d
e

12 a Disjunctive syllogism b Modus tollens

c Modus ponens
13 C
14 a
b pq
p
q p q ~p ~q
p
T T
T
F
F
q
T F
F
F T
F
Valid hypothetical syllogism

p q; r q; p r, invalid
Valid modus tollens
Valid constructive dilemma
p = The team plays well
q = The offence was good
r = The defence was good
p (q r)
p p
r
p = If elected with a majority

q = My government will introduce new tax laws
Conclusion is false whenever all premises are true
(3rd and 4th rows), thus an invalid argument.
15 a p q b
p
q
~p
~q
pq
p
T
T
F
F
T
q
T
F
F
T
F
F
onclusion false when premises true

C
(3rd row), therefore invalid.
16 a
pq
r ~q
p ~r
Valid argument
b
p
q
r
Invalid argument
Invalid argument
Exercise 9C Techniques of proof

1 p = She plays well
q = She wins
pq
(p q) ~q
Therefore, this is a tautology.

2
pq
~p ~q (p q) ~p ~q
Therefore, this is a tautology.

3
pq
(p q) ~q
~p ~q
Invalid argument
~r
Answers 9b 9c
rp
~p ~q
(q r) p (q r) ~q ~p
Therefore, this is not a tautology.
Answers
641
pq
qr
(p q) (q r) p r
(p q) (q r) (p r)
The last column is always true. Thus, this is a tautology and the argument is valid.
5 a
642
~p ~q
~q r
(~p ~q) (~q r)
~p r
(~p ~q) (~q r) (~p r)
Hence, this is a valid argument.

p
p ~q
q ~r
(~p ~q) (q ~r)
p ~r
(~p ~q) (q ~r) (p ~r)
Hence, this is an invalid argument (row 3).

q
T
~p ~q
T
(~p ~q) q
T
(~p ~q) q p
T
p
T
Hence, this is a valid argument.

q
T
~p q
T
(~p q) p
T
(~p q) p ~q
F
p
T
Hence, this is an invalid argument (row 1).
Answers
3 B
4 a A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
b B = {4, 8, 12, 16, . . .}
c C = {2}
d D = {Jack, Queen, King}
e E =
f F = {9, 8, 7, 6, }
5 A, C, D, E
6
A
25
49
81
7
A
22
44
66
88
8 a
b
A
9 a {4}
b {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
c {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
d {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
e {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
10 a (B C) = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}
b A (B C) = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}
c (A C) = {1, 4, 9}
d (A B) = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
e (A B) (A C) = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}
11 Part 1: Show that (A B) + (A + B) = I
(A B) + (A + B) = (A + A + B) (B + A + B)

= (I + B) (A + I)

= (I) (I)

=I
QED
art 2: Show that (A B) (A + B) = O
P
(A B) (A + B) = A B A + A B B

=OB+AO

=O+O

= O
QED
12 a A + B
b I
c A + B
d A B
14 (p q) ~p = (p q) p = (p p) q = O q = O
QED
p ~p = p p = O
Answers
Answers 9D 9D
6 a p ~q
b ~p q
~q r p
p r ~q
c p ~q
d ~p ~q
q ~q ~r
~p ~p ~r
7 D
8 If x2 is even, then write it as 2n.
(2n)2 = 4n2
If a number is multiplied by 4 then it is even.
Therefore 4n2 is even.
9 If a number, x, is even, then x2 is even.
24 is even, therefore 242 is even.
10 Assume n is not odd, show that n2 is even.
11 a Assume a b, multiply both sides by x.
b Assume n < 2, write it as 2 - x and square it.
c Assume n is not divisible by 2, therefore it is odd,
therefore write it as (2x + 1), then square it.
12 Assume it is positive and compare it with the product of
2 positive numbers of the same magnitude.
13 Assume that a is the smallest positive real number.
a
Let x =
2
Since a > 0, then x > 0 and x < a (property of division).
This contradicts the assumption that a is the smallest
positive number.
a
14 Assume 2 is rational, so that 2 = , where a and b
b
are integers that have no common factors.
a2
Therefore 2 = 2 , or a2 = 2b2.
b
Therefore a2 is a multiple of 2 and therefore a is a
multiple of 2 (from a2 = a a)
Since it is a multiple of 2, write a = 2x.
Therefore a2 = 4x2 = 2b2.
Therefore b2 = 2x2 and is thus a multiple of 2.
Therefore both a and b are multiples of 2 and have a
common factor of 2.
This contradicts our initial statement, so it must be false.
15 Assume n is the largest possible integer.
Let x = n + 1.
Therefore x > n, which contradicts our initial statement.
16 Let x = 2, then x2 = 4, let x = 2 , then x2 = 4.
17 Demonstrate that 2 is both a prime number and is even.
18 Prove by counter-example.
19 Consider the contrapositive statement.
20 Consider what would happen if x > y + z. This would
imply that the shortest distance from A to C is not a
straight line!
22 a Mathematical induction is used particularly for sums
of series.
b The values of n are restricted to integer values.
Exercise 9D Sets and Boolean algebra
1
643
15 a A + B + A + B = A + A + B + B = I + I = I
b (A + B) A B = A A B + B A B

= OB + OA = O + O = O
c (A + B) (A + B) = (A + B) A + (A + B) B

=A+A=A
d A B + C (A + B) = A B + C (A B)

=AB+C
Exercise 9E Digital logic

1
x
y
Q
Output
4 a
9 E
10 a
b Q = (x y) + z
Output
Answers
Output
b Same truth table as question 8.

11
a
b
c
d
Output
b Used where there are 2 people who can activate the

light separately.
5 D
6
644
2 C
3 a
12 a
S1
S2
b When S1 = 0, the system is disabled; the safe cant be

opened.
When S1 = 1 and S2 = 0, the alarm rings.
When S1 = 1 and S2 = 1, the safe can be opened.
13 a a b = [(a b)]
a b = (a + b)
b
14
15
a
b
c
16
17
b
a
a'
c
18 a iii a + b
b
a
d a b
e (a b) + b
f a
Q
(a b)
(a b) + b
~r I
~I g
~I
*
*
b
a
10 Q = A [(B + C) + B C]
Chapter review
Short answer
b
c
b c (w s)
c l e p
(p q) (~p ~q) (p q) (~p ~q)
3 Converse = If she sends her children to good schools, the

politician is intelligent.
Contrapositive = If she doesnt send her children to good
schools, the politician is not intelligent.
Inverse = If a politician isnt intelligent she doesnt send
her children to good schools.
Multiple choice
1 A
2 E
3 C
4 D
5 A
6 D
7 D
8 B
9 C
10 C
11 A
12 D
13 B
Extended response
1 a S1 = (g n) (a c)
S2 = ~n ~c
S3 = ~g ~a
Premises (S1, S2) are all true in rows 4, 12, 13, 15, 16
Conclusion (S3) is true in rows 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14, 15, 16
Conclusion is true when premises are true, so this is a
valid argument.
Answers
Answers 9E 9E
1 a m j
2
p
q
The conclusion (column 7) is false when the premises

(columns 4, 5, 6) are all true (*). Invalid argument
1
5 Let: a = ; multiply both sides by x.
x
ax = 1
a(x1) = 1 = x0 (Definition of x0)
x0
a = 1 = x -1 (Definition of division of indices)
x
6 Assume x < x
x < x2 (Square both sides)
1 < x (Divide both sides by x)
This contradicts the initial condition, so the assumption is
wrong.
7 a {11, 13, 17, 19, 31, 41, 61, 71, 91}
b {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 16, 17, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47,
53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 91, 97}
c {61}
8 (A + A B) (B + B C)
= (A + A B) (B I + B C) {B I = B}
= (A + A B) B(I + C) {Distributive Law}
{I + C = I}
= (A + A B) B I
= A B I + A B B I {Distributive Law}
{B I = B, B B = B}
= A B + A B
{Distributive Law}
= (A + A) B
{A + A = I}
= I B
= B
QED
9 c
a
b
645
b, c
gn
ac
S1
S2 = ~n ~c
S3 = ~g ~a
S3 = ~g ~a
Premises S1 and S2 are all true in rows 4, 12, 13, 15 and 16. Conclusion is true when premises are true. Therefore a
valid argument.
d
ab
bc
~d a
~c
Argument is valid because conclusion is true when all premises are true (row 15).
e Answers will vary.
646
Answers
2 a
b
c
d
e
3 a
b
c
CHAPTER 10
ab
ab
Exercise 10A The circle

b
1 a
y
a b and b a
Yes
Yes, because a b implies both a b and b a.
Equivalences: i, iv, vi, viii
4 inputs; w, x, y, z
2 outputs; Q, R
w
d i Q = 0 and R = 1
ii Q = 0 and R = 0
e No, input z is independent of w, x, y.
f i Q = (w x + x y) (w y + x y)
ii Q = x y
g i R = w y + x y + z
ii R = w x y + z
h x
Centre (0, 0); radius 7

y
6
6 x

y
9
9 x

y
5
y
1
3
5 x

2 a
Centre (0, 0); radius
5
(1, 2)
y
8
1
3
12 x
10
15 x
10
3 a (x + 2)2 + (y + 4)2 = 22
4 2 2
b (x 5)2 + (y 1)2 = 42
y
5
1
3 1
c (x 7)2 + (y + 3)2 = 72
10
y
10
2 x
13
1
3
y
4
5
4 x
y
4
2
6 3
10
3
y
3
6 x
1
3
3
y
7
1
3 x
1
3

3
e This circuit decodes or distinguishes the inputs,

which are 00, 01, 10 and 11.
Only one of the outputs = 1 for each of the 4 possible
inputs.
f 3-bit: 3 NOT, 8 AND
4-bit: 4 NOT and 16 AND
n-bit: n NOT and 2n AND
4 x
d (x + 4)2 + (y 6)2 = 82
y
14
7
14
6
12
4 2 4
Answers 10A 10A
4 ad
7 x
10
y
w
z
y
4
Answers
647
f (x 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 32
e x2 + (y 9)2 = 102
y
19
1
2
9
10 1
y
1
4 D
5 B
6 (x 5)2 + (y 3)2 = 16
25 21

21
y
6
36 35
x = 175 35
f
3
6
32 7
x=
x=
y
9
121
10
20
F
F'
11 2 10 2 10 11
x=
x =1212010
x=
y
1
43
3
x=
2 a
F
3 2
43
3
(2 2, 2)
x = 942
4 C
y
F
(1, 0) x
F'
4
(1 + 5, 2)
x=
x = 4
F
(5, 0) x
5+9 5
F
(6, 0) x
F
1
(12 , 0) x
1
x = 2 2
y
1
24
1
x = 2 4
y
1
22
x = 1 2
x = 6
1
12
5+9 5
F
(4, 0) x
x = 5
= 433
(1 5, 2)
Answers
648
x = 1
F'
2 3
59 5
1 a
15
x = 16
15
y
1
= 5 595
3 E
y2
5 x 2 + 2 = 1
1.4
16 15
15
4 3
= 942
3
F
Exercise 10C The parabola
1615
15
F
15 4
F'
4 15
121 10
20
1615
15
121
10
20
x = 175 +3536 35
F'
(2 2, 2)
32 7
7
11
F' 5 35
F
1
5
1
5 + 35
32 7
7
F
2 7
F'
8 2 7
1
x = 1612
21
x = 25
21
c
32 7
7
1
x = 1212
2521
21
F
21
25 21
21
x=
F
(14, 3)
1110
14 15
2 2
y
2
F'
5 21
2
1612
F'
1 (10, 3) 3
1212
51
x = 100
51
y
8
F
51 10
100 51
51
x=
15
5 2 6 5 + 2 6
x
F' 5 F 2
(5 2 6, 1) (5 + 2 6, 1)
6
x = 15
x=5
y
F'
10 51
7
x = 10
3
Exercise 10B The ellipse

1 a
40
x=
3 3
F'
F
2
(8, 2) (2, 2)
10
5 2
4 x
2
4 10
y
6
13 3
F
1
(24 , 0) x
F
1
(22 , 0) x
y
3
14
3
x = 1 4
F
3
(14 , 0) x
2 a
F
1 (2, 0) x
F
1 3 (5, 0) x
x=1
y
F
(2, 0) x
F (3, 1)
y
1
6
x = 6
y
2
1
11
2
3 a
F
(1, 0)
y
F
1
(22, 0)
1
x = 2 2
F
(4, 0) 1
1
1 F
(32, 2)
e
x
1
2 2
1
(4 2, 5) 5
13
12
x
y =12
F
13
5
x
y = 12
2 y x= 2
y=x
x = 6 5
x = 32 y x = 32 y = x
2
2
3
2F
2 2 2
3F
3 2
F'3
3 2
y = x
x = 6 2 y = 3 x
5
4
x = 2
F'8
2
10 6 5
x = 913
13
x = 144
y = x
2
5 2
x
2
1
x = 5 2
5 1
x = 1
x=
y
F
(9, 2)
x = 144
2
F'2
2
2 2
2
x = 4 2
3
x = 1
4 2
x = 913 y = 2 x
13
2
8F
6 2 10
5
F'
13 3
3
2
y = 3 x
4
13 x
Answers 10B 10D
x = 5 2
F
(5, 1)
2 x
4
1
F
4 5
12
F'
13
1 F
(32 , 0)
2 5 2 x
y = 4 x
3.2
13
1
x = 1 2
x=2
F
1
(12 , 0)
x=2
2 x
x = 3.2 x = 3.2
1
F
(8, 0)
3
y = 4 x
1 2 x
F
(2, 3) 3
3
F'
54
3
2 x
F
1
(12, 0)
2 2 x
h (y 3)2 = 8x
Exercise 10D The hyperbola
x=2
3.2
F
(2, 0)
1y
22
F
4 1
1 4 x
2
1 1
1 a
x=1
x
F 1
(2 2, 4)
x = 2 2
F (1, 2)
f y2 = 6(x + 2 2 )
F
6
2 2
g (y 2)2 = 4x
21
(3, 7)
x
x
F 1
(12 , 5)
1
x = 12
d y2 = 16(x 2)
e y2 = 12(x 1)
x = 3
F
3 4
x = 1
x
F 6
(1, 6)
F
2
3 1
y
2
(1, 2)
x = 5
(8, 3)
y
5
F x
(4, 3)
F
2
c y2 = 4(x 3)
2 58
x=2
x=1
y
3
b y2 = 10(x + 2 )
y
F
(0, 0) x
8 4
x = 8
5 C
b iv
d i
7 a y2 = 8x
x=0
4 1
x = 4
4 E
6 a ii
c iii
y = 2 x
3
Answers
649
2 a
Exercise 10E Polar coordinates

1
2
y
3x 4y 3 = 0
3
4
11
x = 21
x=
5
5
3x + 4y 3 = 0
y 5x 12y + 15 = 0
300
xy2=0
x+y+2=0
xy+3=0
( 2 2, 3)
( 2 2, 3)
3
1
2
x+y3=0
x= 2
x= 2
3x 4y + 11 = 0
8
(11, 2)
37
x=
5
1
4
3x + 4y 5 = 0
x = 27
5
9 13 + 5
x =
13
2
1
2x 3y 19 = 0
8
x
3
( 13 + 5, 3)
5
( 13 + 5, 3)
9 13 + 5
x =
13
2x + 3y 1 = 0
9 13
13
ii ( 13 , 0) iii x =
3
13
iv y =
b i
25 26
26
ii ( 26 , 0) iii x =
iv y =
5
26
1
x
5
c i
25 29
29
ii ( 29 , 0) iii x =
iv y =
5
29
2
x
5
4 D
x2
y2
7
= 1
9
9
Answers
5 B
(b), (d)
5 3 1
, 2 2
b
2
d (0, 2.7)
3 3
)
4
f ( 6 3 , -6)
g (0, 2.6)
h (7.8, 0)
i ( 5, 5 3 )
j (4.55,
k (22.14, 11.62)
l (1.05, 1.21)
91 3
20 )
5 a [5, 0]
d [9, 270]
b [4.3, 90]
e [6, 2 , 45]
c
f
g [13, 4.32c]
5
]
j [2 2 ,
4
h [10, 5.36c]
11
k [4,
]
6
i
l
[30, 180]
[5, 2.5c]
2
[2,
]
3
[7.81, 0.88c]
Exercise 10F Polar equations

3
2
1 a r =
b r =
cos (q )
sin (q )
c r = 3
d r = 6
f q =
e = 7841
4
1
7
g r =
h r =
3 cos (q ) - 4 sin (q )
5cos (q ) + sin (q )
i r = 10 cos () 6 sin () j r = 6 cos () 8 sin ()
l r = 2 cos ()
k r = 12 sin ()
(9, 2)
2
9
(a)
3 3
)
2
e (0.75,
x = 32 x = 32
30 x
1 2.5 (d)
(c)
c (1.5,
x
(3 2, 2)
( 3 2, 2)
650
4 a ( 2 , 2 )
3 a i
x = 105
13
(a)
1
45
10
5x + 12y + 15 = 0
x = 183
13
(a)
2 x
100
3
5
2
3
(b) y
5
16
(d)
(b)
5 0.5
(c)
(c)
6 C
x2
y2
8 9x2 16y2 = 225 9
=1
400 500
m r 2 =
36
4 cos 2 (q ) + 9 sin2 (q )
n r 2 =
100
25 cos2 (q ) + 4 sin2 (q )
a
c
e
g
i
k
x2 + y2 = 4
x2 + (y 3)2 = 9
y = 3x
y = x
x = 4
x2 + y2 + 2x 4y = 0
m y =
9 - x2

6
x2 + y2 = 25
(x 1)2 + y2 = 1
y = 4x
y = x
y = 1
x2 + y2 8x 6y = 0
y 2 - 16
n x =
8
b
d
f
h
j
l
2
2
7
2
y
20
10
10
0
20 10
5 20
20
2 a
0
5
2 x
2 x
b i 0, 5
ii 0, 12
iv 6.5
v (6, 2.5)
vi (x 6)2 + (y 2.5)2 = 42.25
7
1 x
1 x
1
y
0
1
iii 13
y
1
0
c
1
2 x
y
1
2 x
y
1
1
0
10
A circle
y
1
y
10
1.5
iii 5
4 x
y
2
1.5 x
4 x
b i 0, 3
ii 0, 4
iv 2.5
v (2, 1.5)
vi (x 2)2 + (y 1.5)2 = 6.25
6 a
1.5
3 a
5x
1.5
A circle
5 10
5
x
y
2
y
2
5 a
y
10
5
0
10 5 5
Exercise 10G Polar graphs

1 a
b
y
2
0
b
4 a
y
1
1
1 x
y
1
1 0
1
3x
1 2
0
1
y
0.5
0.5
y
8
4
2 0
1 1
1 0 1
0
2 3 x
y
1
0 1
1
3
y
2
2 0 x
2
Answers 10E 10G
1 0
1
y
7
5
y
4
2
0.5
Answers
651
y
1
1
0
1x
2 x
y
2
b=2
c Increasing the a value increases the size of the

resulting cardioid in all directions.

2 x
d The graph centres a spiral about the centre from the

chosen a value. Horizontal asymptote at a value.

y
4
y
1
1
y
y
1
4 x
10
r = 2 4 sin ()
y
r = 2 4 sin ()
y
0
x
he graphs are identical.

T
11 a If a = b cardioid results. If a < b, the limacon contains
an inner loop. If a > b, there is no inner loop (a dimple
results).

f The value of a is the length of one petal (lie on the

horizontal axis).

a
0
a<b
0
a=b
e The loop passes through the horizontal axis at the

chosen a value.

g The a value helps to determine the position of the

horizontal asymptote.

4a
0
2a
a>b
b a is the radius of each petal b is the number of petals

if b is odd. (If b is even, then there will be 2b petals)

b=3
Exercise 10H Review of complex numbers and

polar form of complex numbers
1 a 9 + 3i
b 4 - 6i
1
c 1 + 3 i
-5
e
+ 13i
g 8 + 6i
i 10
652
Answers
d 8 - i
f 9 - 7i
h 3 - i
j 13
2 a 2 2
-

2cis
4
3 a
-3cis
(p)
3 3 3
+
i
2
2
d
f
12
3
i
2
Short answer
1 a
15
i
5
3
3
+
i
2 2
_3 _2 _1
_1
_2
_3
y
3
2
1
_3 _2 __1 0
1
_2
_3
_3 _2 __1 0
1
_2
_3
7
y = 1x 2
y
3
6
2 x
y
F
2
2 1 5
x = 2
F
(9, 2)x
x=1
2
x = 6 5
y = 3x 2
y=x
x = 6 2
5
y = 3 x
4
6
8F
10
F'8
10
1 2 3 x
y = 3 x
4
h
y = 2x _ 4 + _x1
y
3
2
1
y = 2x _ 4
y = _x1
x
1 2 3
y = 2x _ 3
_3 _2 __1 0
1
_2
_3
y = 2x
y
16 2
x = 20
x = 16 2+ 20
5
y = 3 x 2
y = 3x2
1
y=
2
F'
3x
1 2 3 x
45 2
5 2+4x
3
y = 4 x + 4
2 a i 10
y
3
2
1
y = 2x
_3 _2 __1 0
1
_2
_3
1 2 3 x
1 2 3 x
_1
y = 2x 1_ 3
y
3
2
1
_3 _2 __1 0
1
y = x1 _2
_3

1 2 3 x
y = (x2 )2
y
3
y = x2
2
1
_3 _2 __1 0 1 2 3 x
_12
iv
3
5
ii 8
iii (5, 0), (0, 4)
v (3, 0)
vi x =
25
3
y
4
F'
5 3
25
3
4
F
3 5
3 a i (1, 0)
b
y
1 F
2
x
25
ii (0, 0)
iii x = 2
Answers
Answers 10h 10I
y
3
2
1
6 x
_3 _2 __1 0
1
_2
_3
2 3
3
2
1
y = x1
2
1
y = 2x
3-i
Exercise 10I Addition of ordinates, reciprocals

and squares of simple graphs
2
1
y = 2x + x1
y y = x2+3x
y
3
h 1 + i
3
2
y
3
1
3
d +
i
2 2
1
f
2
1 2 3 x
Chapter review
b 4 2 (1 + i)
5 a 6i
cis
4
2
b 3
y = x2
_3 _2 __1 0
1
_2
2 (1 + i)
y
3
2
1
y = _x
-
f 2cis
3
e i
2
3
b 2cis
2
e 4 cis
6
4 a
b 10
c 3 5
653
13
12
4 a i
ii (12, 0)
iv x =
144
v y =
13
x = 144
13
144
x=
13
12
F'
13
12
5
12
11
12 a
(b)
y
4
3
2
1
y= 4_x
_3 _2 __1 0
1
_2
_3
x
y = 12
3+i
5 x
y = 12
F
13
10 1 - i
iii (13, 0)
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
y =4 _ x
3
1
(e)
(c)
(a)
x
1
5
__1 0
1
(d)
b y = x
c x = 6
d y =
1 C
6 D
11 C
16 D

b 3,
2
d [ 5, 3.61c]
8 a r = 5
9 - x2
6
b r cos () = 2
c = 1.11
d r =
9 a
2 x
0.5 x
y
5
y
5
654
Answers
5 x
6 4 2
5
2 4 6
4 A
9 A
14 E
c a = b
d e =
5 C
10 B
15 B
y
2
2
2
2a x
b Equation is
( x - a - 1)2 y 2
+ 2 =1
(a - 1)2
b
b2
(a - 1)2
4 a PD = 37.5 metres
b 20 metres
c 7.5 metres
5 a 50 metres
b 180 metres
c 144 metres
x2
y2
+
=1
d
32 400 20 736
e Less than 0.6 since the outer ellipse becomes more
circular (less eccentric)
x2
y2
f e = 0.537
g
+
=1
52 900 37 636
c e = 1 -
0.5
B
E
C
C
_b
0.5
3
8
13
18
2 a Gradients are 1 and 1 b y = x and y = x
y
0.5
D
D
D
A
2
7
12
17
x2 y2
e Equation:
=1
2
2
3 a
y
1 2 3 4 5 x
- 11 - 5 3
B
,
2
8
y
4
2
6 4 2
y = (4 _ x)
Extended response
- 11 5 3
1 Points of intersection are: A
,
2
8
5
2 cos (q ) - 3 sin (q )
1 2 3 4 5 x
Multiple choice
6 a 2 ,
4
c 2,
6
e [13, 1.97c]
7 a x2 + y2 = 4
1
y =
4_x
6 x
6 a The graph is confined to the first 2 quadrants.

b Various answers.
c The graph consists of an n-sided figure where
step = and n > 2.

n
d step is infinitely small ( step 0).
7
( x - 2)2
16
y2
Region required
2 a
8 3+6
6-8 3
x=
3
3
x = 8 3+ 6
8 3
x = 6
x < 7
Region required
y
1 a
y
y 3
Region required
y0
y2
Region required
Region required
Region required
y > 1
x
0
1
0
3
y > 4
Region required
Region required
Exercise 11A Graphs of linear inequations
x 5
CHAPTER 11
Linear programming
y 2
Region required
y
x > 3
0
2
Region required
2
F'
x>0
Foci (2 3 + 2, 0); (2 2 3, 0)
Directrices x =
y
x 1
=1
0
y30
x+2>0
x
Region required
Region required
y<6
Region required
y
y>0
y
y
0
6
Region required
x
x + 4 0
Region required
y 6 2
Region required
Region required
x0
Region required
3 E
Region required
4 a
y
y + x 1
4
2
x
x > 2
Region required
0
x<1
Region required
0
y 2x 4
Region required
0
1
Answers 11A 11A
x4
y2<3
0
Region required
Region required
x8<0
Region required
Answers
655
2
x
yx+2
Region required
n
x
x y < 10
10
4
Region required
Region required
Region required
1
0
y
3
9
(2,
3 5)
2
0 1
4
d
4
,
(36
13 13)
3 4
y
10
(10, 0)
10
10
Region required
Region required
y
4
0
3
(0, 0)
y
6
Region required
Region required
y
2
1
4x 2y 8
2y > 4x 8
2 a
Region required
(0, 0)
0
(12, 3)
Region required
Answers
(8, 6)
10
656
Region required
y<x 4
2
(1, 1)
Region required
Region required
Region required
Region required
0 1
1.5
3y x + 12
2y 4x +6
(1, 2)
Region required
Region required
(0, 0)
1 0 1
24
Region required
Region required
0 2
x > y 2
12
1 a
6 D
y x +7
y > 12x 24
0
Region required
Region required
y
5
5x + 2y 10 > 0
Exercise 11B Graphs of simultaneous linear

inequations
5 B
x+y> 0
2y + 8x + 4 0
Region required
Region required
y 7x +21
Region required
9x + 9y + 9 0
0
Region required
y
y
3
24
21
0 4
Region required
v
y + 2x 6 0
14
y < 6x 2 4
yx 4<0
Region required
y
6
Region required
2x y > 1
Region required
y > 2x 14
0
Region required
yx0
Region required
0
4x + 4y 16
Region required
5
45
15
( 9,
4 8)
3
0
0
2
1 0
0
2
Region required
y
Region required
y
7
, 21
( 65
31 31) x
0 23
0 1 2
14
Region required
1)
( 1,
2 32
(3 1,
2 9)
0 1
(1,
2 0)
p
3
10
, 14
( 40
11 11)
Region required
y
1
(0, 1)
0
1
2
4
3
x
6
Region required
y
2
1
x
0
1
Region required
x
0
Region required
y
8
6
x
Region required
1
2
Region required
1
1 0 1
2 1
Region required
4
4
x
2
Answers 11B 11C
x
2
Exercise 11C Graphs of systems of linear

inequations
b
1 a
y
y
Region required
b A
x
0
1
2
Region required
Region required
3 a B
1 1
2
2 (0, 2)
Region required
x
0
2
1
0 1 3 5
4 0
y
, 60
)
( 12
13 13
x
0
Region required
Region required
y
1
2
Region required
0
1
01
Region required
x
2
1
1
2
Region required
0 1
1
Region required
1
2
Region required
(2, 3)
Region required
Region required
y
2
12
Region required
x
1 0
Region required
y
4
y
9
,28
( 15
11 11)
Region required
Region required
24
3
2
Region required
Region required
, 4)
(21
5 5
3 6
y
2
Region required
Region required
72
(2, 0)
, 5
( 40
9 9)
Region required
Answers
657
y
1.5
0
16
10
1
2 2
iii Maximum
value 10.35
x
14
Region required
Region required
y
g i, ii
iii Minimum
value 18
7 1
2
3 4
3 0 1
3
h i, ii
y
2
10 (5 , 9)
9
2 B 3 E 4 D 5 B
Exercise 11D Maximising and minimising linear
functions
(4, 6)
3 4
Region required
i i, ii
iii Minimum
value 0
y
(2 ,13
)
5
3
iii Maximum
value 4
iii Maximum
4
value 7 5
(3, 9)
(3, 5)
Region required
Region required
Region required
1 a i, ii
10 x
0
1
023
Region required
Region required
5 71
2
Region required
y
8
(182
15 , 15)
4.5
f i, ii
8
3
1.5 3
3 3
(3, 2)
x
0 2 5
3
2
4
Region required
j i, ii
Region required
b i, ii
iii Minimum
value 0
y
7
(7, 7)
iii Maximum
value 15
(5, 5)
(6, 65 )
12 0
4 6
Region required
Region required
y
iii Maximum
value 58
4 2
c i, ii
y
(6, 10)
10
9 (1 , 10)
2 a i, ii
y
4
3
iii Minimum
value 0
( 7, 40
)
11 11
(6, 4 )
7
Region required
Region required
d i, ii
iii Maximum
value 204
y
4
3
( 8, 12
)
b i, ii
(6, 2)
2
0
3 3
Region required
iii Minimum
1
value -222
y
4
iii Maximum
value 16
Region required
e i, ii
6 7 x
c i, ii
(6, 14)
(1, 3)
x
8
Region required
658
Answers
Region required
iii Minimum
value -8
d i, ii
(8, 12)
iii Minimum
value 12
4
4 0
Region required
e i, ii
iii Maximum
value 33.4
y
8
7
(2, 7)
(10, 7)
(10, 3)
10 16
Region required
f i, ii
y
9
5
4
iii Minimum
value -1.15
20 84
,)
( 11
11
( 1 , 5)
2 0
(5 3, 5)
12 x
Region required
g i, ii
y
10
6
5
iii Maximum
value 23.72
30 80
,)
( 11
11
( 6 , 6)
6 0
(4, 6)
10 x
Region required
h i, ii
14
iii Minimum
value -9.6
y
6
, 11 )
(211
11
8
7
, 7 )
( 15
15
4 0
4
14
Region required
i i, ii
iii Maximum
value 25
y
9
3
0
3
18 27
( 7 , 7 )
(4, 1)
3 4 1
2
a Brand A = 20, Brand B = 260

b $1840
a 36 aerobic classes, 9 circuit classes
b $252
a 20 2-person tents, 18 3-person tents
b $984
a 15 bubble jet printers, 10 laser printers
b $330
a 70 hectares of corn, 10 hectares of peas
b $14 200
a Natures Own = 80 litres, generic brand = 10 litres
b $212
a 255 tourists, 255 businesspeople
b $8415
a 2 batches of 3-D puzzles, 3 batches of logic games
b $147
a 40 Arctic and 40 Cool Breeze
b $11 960
c Yes ($9560)
a Variables need to be defined in order to determine
how many bags of CP1 and CP2 will produce maximum
profit.
b 20x + 15y 300, 15x + 10y 210
c x 0, y 0
d P = 45x + 50y
e $836
14 A
15A
16 a 3 engineers and 1 technician b $1600
Exercise 11F Further applications of linear
programming
1 $69
2 a Rod A = 16, rod B = 10
b $13800
3 a x = the number of type A uniforms produced;
y = the number of type B uniforms produced.
b 5x + 8y 480, 6x + 12y 600, 3x + 3y 450, x 0, y
0
c P = 7x + 12y
d 80 type A uniforms and 10 type B uniforms
e $680
2
1
4 a 25 kg of Zest, 1 5 kg of Boom
b $15.72 (rounded down $15.70)
5 a 200 Gold Pass packages, 100 Classic packages
b $5000
6 a 1.6 tonnes at plant A, 4.2 tonnes at plant B
b $2532
Chapter review
Short answer
1 a
b
y
y
4
5
6
7
8
9

10
11

12

13
Region required
j i, ii
9
7
5
3 a C
b C
Region required
c D
0
3
d B
Exercise 11E Solving linear programming

problems
1 a Style A = 5, Style B = 19
b $67
2 a Design A = 24, Design B = 4
b $146
3 a 35 rollerblades, 5 bicycles
b $155
Answers 11D 11F
2
4 6
Region required
Region required
(4, 3)
iii Minimum
value -35.7
y
( 43 , 7)
Region required
y
3
0 6
5
8
Region required
Answers
659
3 x + y 400, y 400, x 2y 400

4 x 0, y 0, x + y 300, x + y 600, x y 400
5 a
b
y
y
1
(0, 23)
2 13
(4, 5)
3
A (0, 3)
(0, 0)O C (2, 0)

0
2
1
3 2
4 B (0, 4)
5
Region required
6 a
y
7 B
6 A
(6, 0)
C
4 6 x
D (4, 0)
e 1600 cake platters, 200 cheese platters and 300 fruit

bowls
f $48 450
5 a x 0; y 0; x + y 80; 0.03x + 0.05y 2.5;
0.05x + 0.08y 4.5; 0.05x + 0.025y 3
b y
A (0, 120)
Region required
b $27.40
O (0, 0)
A (0, 6)
B ( 15 , 6 3)
B (40, 40)
2
1
C (63 3, 16 3)
2 2
C
2
O D C (2 3, 13 )
0
1 31 D(1, 0) x
1
2
(8313 , 0)
a 54
b 4
x = 0, y = 0, minimum = 0
x = 0, y = 3.4, maximum = 4080
a x = the number of runners produced,
y = the number of walking shoes produced.
b x 400, y 350, x + y 900
c P = 12.5x + 10y
7
8
9
10
4 E
11 B
5 B
12 A
6 C
13 E
7 D
14 A
Extended response
1 a 20 hectares of oats, 15 hectares of wheat
b $7600
c Yes
2 a 10x + 5y 70, 2x + 4y 28, 3x + 3y 36
b Yes, x 0 and y 0
We are dealing with items produced; therefore x 0
and y 0.
y
c
14 A (0, 14)
12 B (2, 10)
C (10, 2)
7
D (14, 0)
0
7 12 14 x
Region required
d C = 300x + 200y
e $2600
3 a 5 kg C1, 2 kg C2
b $27.50
4 a x 0; y 0; x 1600; y 200; x 2y; x + y 1500;
x + y 2100
b
y
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
2200
(0, 2100)
2000
1800
1600
(0, 1500)
1400
1200
(1400, 700)
1000
B
800
(1000, 500)
C (1600, 500)
600
A
400
D (1600, 200)
200 (1300, 200) E
x
Region required
c A(1000, 500) B(1400, 700) C(1600, 500)

D(1600, 200) E(1300, 200)
d P = 2.5x 3.5y + 45 150
660
Answers
Region required
Region required
Multiple choice
1 D 2 D 3 D
8 B 9 A 10 B
15 C 16 E 17 A
D (90, 0)
c
d
e
f
h
i
a
A(0, 120) B(40, 40) C(633 , 16 3 ) D(90, 0)

C = 0.012x + 0.016y
1
2
633 g of Chicken Bites and 16 3 g of Fish Bites per day
$1.03 per day
g C = 0.012x + 0.014y
1
2
633 g of Chicken Bites and 16 3 g of Fish Bites per day
$0.99 per day
y
8
(0, 8)
6
4
2
(0, 0)
10
b y 2x ci Refer to diagram. ii2

d P = 40x + 30y
e i 2 dogs washed and 6 dogs clipped
ii $260
a Total number of driving hours with either petrol or
gas can not exceed 24 hours.
b i &
y
ii
25

7
20
15
10
1x
y=
3
5
0
10
15
20
25
c Yes, they do comply with all constraints since (10, 5)

fits within the feasible region.
d The maximum number of hours using gas is 18 and
the minimum is 17.
CHAPTER 12
Coordinate geometry
Exercise 12A Distance between two points
1 AB = 5, CD = 2 10 or 6.32, EF = 3 2 or 4.24,
GH = 2 5 or 4.47, IJ = 5, KL = 26 or 5.10,
MN = 4 2 or 5.66, OP = 10 or 3.16
2 a 5
d 7.07
b 13
e 6.71
c 10
f 14.42
a2 + 4b2
g 13
h 13
i
2
2
j 3 a + b
3, 4, 5 and 6 Answers will vary.
7 a AB = 4.47, BC = 2.24, CD = 4.47, DA = 2.24
b AC = 5, BD = 5
c Rectangle
8 B
9 D
10 a 12
b 5
c 13
d 2.2
Exercise 12B Midpoint of a line segment
1
1 a (3, 3 2 )
1
d (0, 1 2 )
2 (3, 10)
3 a (3, 1)
4 D
e (2a, 2 b)
f (a + b, 2 a)
b 4.47
c 6.32
5 C
6 a i (1, 4)

7

8

9
10
c (1, 1)
b (7 2 , 0)
ii (1 2 , 1)
iii 3.9
iv 7.8

a i (1, 0.5)
ii (1, 0.5)
iii 9.55
a i (2, 2) ii 8.94
b Isosceles triangle, height.
y = -3x - 2
3y - 2x + 14 = 0
iv 9.55
Exercise 12C Dividing a line segment internally

in the ratio a: b
1 a (2, 5)
b (3, 3)
c (4, 1)
d (4, 11)
1
1
d (5, 5)
2 a (0, 2 2 ) b (2, 2 2 ) c (4, 6)
1
e ( 2 , 6 2 ) f ( 1 , 7 1 )
2
2
2
3 (8, 1 5 )
4 c = 7, d = 10
5 a B
1
1
6 a i (1 2 , 1 2 )
b C
1
ii (0, 4 2 )
c D
1
iii (4 2 , 12)
b i (2, 6)
ii (2, 6)
iii (2, 6)
c The medians of the triangle are concurrent and divide
themselves in the ratio 2:1.
d
y
18
A (3, 15)
15
70
G (2, 6)
60
L (12 , 1 2)
1 2 3 4 5 6
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
Distance from Uzes (km)
9
1
7 a U: (0, 10 2 ), V: (-1 2 , 7 2 ), W: (-4 2 , 6)

b (-2, 8)
c 2 : 3
b -0.69 m/km
c y = -0.34x + 76, where 76 is the height in metres
above sea level and x is the distance in km from Uzs
d 5.56 m
e Check with teacher.
Answers
Answers 12A 12G
C (3, 6)
- 18
80
5 4 3 2 1
3
-8
7 a m = 5
b m = 5
9 E
10 B
Exercise 12G Applications
1 y = 2x 9
2 3x + 2y 8 = 0
3 a y = 3x + 2
b y = 4x + 9
c 3x 2y 8 = 0
d 2x + 5y + 13 = 0
e x + 5y + 5 = 0
f x 3y + 17 = 0
g x 3y 14 = 0
4 a 2x y + 5 = 0
b x + 2y = 0
5 a 3x 5y + 2 = 0
b 5x + 3y 8 = 0
6 a x = 1
b y = -7
7 a B b C c D d B
8 a (2, 5)
b 1
d Isosceles triangle
9 y = x 3
10 4x 6y + 23 = 0
b y = x + 3
c (1, 4)
11 a y = x + 5
b (6.5, 5.5)
c 2
12 a 5.10 km
e (10, 2)
f 2:1
d y = 2x 18
g (7, 3)
h 7.071 km
b D
c C
13 a A
Height of aqueduct above sea level (m)
14 a
B (6, 9)
9
1
3 (4, 3 5 )
4 c = 3, d = 2
5 A
6 B
7 a 7.53 cm; 35.46 cm
b 139.925 m
Exercise 12E Parallel lines
1 a No
b Yes
c No
d No
e Yes
f No
2 b, f; c, e
3, 4, 5 and 6 Answers will vary.
7 B
8 E
9 a y = -2x + 1
b 3y + 2x +5 = 0
Exercise 12F Perpendicular lines
2 a Yes
b Yes
c No
d Yes
e Yes
f No
3 a, e;- b, f; c, h; d, g
1
3
6 y = 2 x + 2
N (4 12, 12)
12
M (0, 4 2 )
Exercise 12D Dividing a line segment externally

in the ratio a: b
1 a (2, 13)
b (7, 5)
c (3, 10)
d (5, 10)
b (17, 7)
c (8, 1)
2 a (8, 18)
1
1
2
1
e (23 , 43 )
f (5 3 , 23 )
d (8, 15)
661
Chapter review
Short answer
1 61
2 and 3 Answers will vary.
4 (0, 18)
6 (1, 14)
9 x + 2y 2 = 0
11 3x + 2y 21 = 0
13 a i 4
5
-3
5 (1, 2 )
10 2x + 3y 9 = 0
12 3x 2y + 16 = 0
ii 45
iii 4x + 5y 61 = 0
v (9, 5)
b Square
1
14 a i 10

iv 5x 4y 25 = 0
ii ( 1 , 1)
2
iii (4 2 , 1 2 )
c The asymptote lines gradient is

15 a i (1, 2)
iii 1
v 194
b Isosceles triangle
ii ( 8, 7)
iv 1
vi 194
2
7
12
17
C
D
A
B
A
A
C
E
Extended response
1 a 7x 3y 1 = 0
c 7
2 (3, 6)
3 a 9.43 km
c B(7, 2)
d 15.30 km

4

5
3 C
8 B
13 C
4 B
9 A
14 D
5 C
10 A
15 B
b C(8, 7)
120
e (m - 7)2 + 4
41
Exam Practice 3
Short answer
3 , -3)
(-
2
3

n(n + 1) is divisible by 2 by proof

a a = 1 b = -1
b C = -7
-3
c A = 7 B = 2
Answers
b 3x + 7y 49 = 0
b y = 4 x + 20 or 25x 20y + 41 = 0
5
c Since the gradient of the path AB is 4 , which is
the same as the gradient of the known path of travel
from the common point A, the direction of travel is
toward B.
d dAB = 0.8 metres. Yes, guard ball A will collide with
guard ball B as it will not be deviated from its linear
path under 1 metre of travel.
662
210
f 5.10 + (m - 8)2 + 49 g m = 30 km.

h Total distance = 77.82 km.
a x = 7
b B(7, 50) C(4, 90)
c 40.1 metres
d 86 metres
a Since the gradient of SA = the gradient of SO = -0.8,
the points S, A and O are collinear. Player Y will
displace guard ball A.
5
b
4
=
a
2
It needs to have a gradient of greater than 0 because it
has a positive slope.
d (2,4) must be a point on the line if the distance is the
same from (0,0).
e y2 = -2x
2 a There are at least twice as many maximum protection
sails made than light protection.

Multiple choice
1
6
11
16
Multiple choice
1 B 2 C 3 E
4 D 5 A 6 B
Extended response
1 a 3
b
y
60
210
c (70, 140)
(60, 120) (60, 190)
d S = 12.75 l + 21.50 m
e $ 4850.00
f No they could not deliver this order because the point
(90, 135) is outside the feasible region.
CHAPTER 13
Vectors
Exercise 13A Introduction to vectors
1 a (2, 2)
b (1, 2)
c (4, 3)
d (1, 4)
e (6, 2)
f (5, 2)
g (1, 2)
h (1, 2)
i (1, 1)
j (1, 1)
2 a (5, 7)
b (1, 0)
c (2, 1)
d (4, 10)
e (0, 0)
f (8, 2)
3 a a = (1, 1)
b b = (0, 3)
c c = ( 1, 2)
d d = (- 1, 2)
e e = (- 1, -1)
f f = (2, 4)
g g = (1, 0)
h h = (1, 1)
10
y
2
1
11.5 km/h
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
1
D 2
3 C
5 a = h, c = d

6 a y
11
Exercise 13B Operations on vectors

1 a
b
5 (0, 5)
4
3
2
1
1 2
3a
~
2b
~
1 2
3 2 1
y
5
4
3
2
1
(7, 3)
E
S
A
N
20 km
W
30 km
F
~c
a~
~c
~b + ~c
~b
h
a~ + 2b~
a~
a~
a~ ~c
~v
3 a
2a
~
c
~
c
~
~b
~b ~c
~c
a~ + ~b + ~c
~u
3c
~
2a
~ + 3c~
2b
~
~b
~a
c
~
b
~
~a ~b ~c
or any two vectors equal

in length but opposite in
direction
y
(3, 5)
5
v
4
~
3
2 u
1 ~
y
~v 2
(3, 2) u
~
3 2 1 O x
E
S
or any similar result or any similar result

4 a (2, 3)
b (1, 8)
c (5, 5)
d (5, 2)
c (4, 6)
d (16, 20)
5 a (13, -5) b (1, 1)

6 a CB, DE, GF
b AB, DG, EF

c AE, CG, BF
d DE, CB, OA
e DF
f BG
7 a a
b a + c

- a + c
c

d d

-d
- a + c
e

f

g a + c
h a + c + d

- a + c + d
i

j a + c - d

Answers
Answers 13A 13B
1000
km
a~ + ~c
O 12 3 x
C
1200
km
(0, 3)
(2, 5)
~b
~a
(2, 8)
3 4 5
~a + ~b
(4, 4)
(3, 5)
7 B
B 45
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 12
c
~
~a
321
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
2
3 (4, 2)
4
654321
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
(2, 8)
2
3
4
5
(6, 4)
6
f
y
6
5
4
3
2
1 12 3 4 5 6
x
654321
1 (1, 1)
2
3
(2, 5)
4
5
(3, 6)
6
x
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
3
2
1
(3, 2)
300 km
25 km
25
(2, 3)
3
2
1
3.5 km/h
663
a a
b 2a
- 2a
-
c

d a + b
-
e a
f 2a + b
-
-
g b
h a + b

i a + b
j 2a - b

10 AE
12 B
Exercise 13C Magnitude, direction and
components of vectors
Magnitude
Direction
2 10
18.4
17
14.0
2 5
63.4
45
153.4
17
104.0
Parallel to x-axis
2 2
-135
a 1
c
2
e 2
g 2
i
3
3 a 1,
c 5, - 5 3

-3
f
h
j
l
n
664
Answers
O
4 x
5 x
y
x
2 O
y
O
8
y
12
O
5
, 1.5
4 x 2 + y 2 , angle from the positive direction of the

y
x-axis where tan (180 - q) =
x
5 a 29
b 13.5 km
6 10 km, N36.9E
7 a 14.86 km, N16.6E and 7.15 km, N36.4W
b 22.91 units, S40.9E and 39.05 units, N63.7E
c 2 units in direction of a and 18 units in direction
of a
d 16.97 km, SW and 16.97 km, NW

e 35 km in direction of a and 5 km in direction of a
f 64.03 units, 338.7T and 64.03 units, 261.3T
y
O
0, 4
0, 30
10 3, 10
37.6, 13.7
1207.4, 323.5
Exercise 13D i , j notation

b
1 a
y
O
1
d 1, - 3
e 10 2 , 10 2
g 12, 0
i - 5 3, 5
k 50, 0
m 0, 98
b 1
d 1
f 2
h 1
j
3
y
2
4
x
2 a 5, 36.9
c 2 2, 45
b 5, 36.9
d 2 , -45
e 17, 14
g 6, 90
i 10, 143.1
f 5, 0
h 2, 180
j 13, 112.6
3 a 9 i + 6 j
c 3i + 4 j
e 4 i - j

g 11i + 2 j
i - 3i - 10 j
4 a 13
c 3 10
b 4 i + j

d 2 i - 2 j
f 2 i
h - 8 j
j - 4 i - 7 j
b 29
d 17
5 a 2 i + 3 j

c - 4 i + 3 j

e - 2 i - 3 j

g 6 i - 4 j
y
6 a
4
3

b i + 3 j

d - 6 i - 2 j
f i - 3 j

h 5i + j

b 2 i + 4 j
c 3i + j

2
1
O
1
2
3 4 5 x ~j
~i
7 a 4 i + 6 j
b
c 6 j
d
e - 4 i + 6 j
f
8 a 6 i + 2 j, 4 j, 6 i + 2 j b
c Isosceles
9 a MN, 2 i + 3 j, NP, 4 i + 6 j

10 a 18i - 8 j, - 2 j
b

11 C
12 A
13 A
2i
3j
- 2 i + 3 j

2 10 , 4, 2 10
i component is zero
14 C
15 3.9 i + 2.7 j
16 x = 5
Exercise 13E Applications of vectors

1 2.5i + 7 j; 7.43 km/h; 70.3 from the river bank
71.2 from the river bank

2 10.6 km/h,
3 a 650 j
b 30 2 i + (650 + 30 2 ) j
693.7 km/h
c N3.5E,
4 S2.2W, 643.8 km/h
5 7.8 units, 50.2 from positive x-axis
6 6.3 units, 18.4 from positive x-axis
7 6.4 km, N51.3E or 51.3T
8 9.4 km, N58W or 302T
9 a - 4 i + 8 j, - 2 i + 6.5 j
b 2.5 km

c i 5 j ii 2 i + 3.5 j
e (7.4, 2)
3)
h First 7.5 km, second 5.6 km
f (3.8,
10 a i + 3 j
b 3 km
c 0.1k , i + 3 j + 0.1k d 2.002

11 1 s, 2 m
12 x = 5, y = 1
13 32.3 N, 60.3 from the vertical
14 37.8 N, 53.4 from the vertical
15 and 16 Teacher to check student proofs
Chapter review
Short answer
1 (2, 5) y
5
4 (0, 4)
3
2
O
3 2 1
1
2
2 3 x
(3, 2)
3 2, 2 3
4 a i 3i + 7 j
ii
5 a
6i - 9 j
iii - 6 j
Magnitude
Direction
17
76.0
13
123.7
G
2 4 6 8 x
j
~
~i
12 i - 8 j
c 14.4

1
6 a 4 i + j, - 2 i - 3 j
c MN = 2 GH

7 8.1 km, N60.3W or 299.7T
8 9.6 km/h, 70.4 from the river bank
b
Multiple choice
1 A
2 B
6 D
7 E
11 B
12 A
3 D
8 C
13 E
E
S
20 km/h
~v
10
O
25 km/h
36 x
(East)
15.5
2 Teacher to check
3 81.7 N, 53.1 with the vertical
CHAPTER 14
Statics of a particle
Exercise 14A Force and tension
1 Mass is the amount of inertia a body possesses. kg
2 Weight is the force which attracts a mass to the Earth.
Newtons
3 The force in a connector, often a string. Newtons
4 10g N
5 0.7g N
25
6
kg = 2.55/kg
7 2.819 N; 1.026 N
g
4 E
9 C
14 C
5 D
10 A
15 C
Exercise 14B Newtons first law of motion

1 Force is push or pull.
2 Newtons
3 a A force with exactly the same number of newtons.
b i Nothing. The forces are balanced.
ii Rotation.
4 a The force pushing up from the surface is greater than
her weight.
b The force pushing up from the surface is less than her
weight.
c The force pushing up from the surface equals her
weight.
5 If the force Ned is using is greater than the force MaryAlice is using the door will open and vice-versa. If the
forces are equal the door will not open.
6 2g N
7 1.571 kg
8 3.061 kg.
No. The string can hold 3.571 kg.
9 Any weight over 35 N will break the string. Thus the
hook and beam stay where they are.
9N
10 N
10
Resultant 1 N to the right
1
1

12
13
14
15
16
17
19
The door will remain closed if

160 + C 280. Christines force is 120 C 130.
E
12g N
B
The body will fall through the surface.
-U = - 4 i + 3 j; 5 N; 5 N

E
18 D
A
20 C
Answers
Answers 13C 14B
y
2
O
4 2
2
4
6
H
8 53.13
9 6 N
10 5 N; 36.87
11 5 cos(-53.13) = 3; 5 sin(-53.13) = -4
12 6 i + 6 j; 45
13 E
14 E
15 A
16 B
a (3, 2)
b (6, 7)
c (2, 5)
Extended response
1 a 24 i + 16 j, 36 i + 10 j c 28.84, 13.42, 37.36
d Approx. 80 km e 33.7
f 26.6
g
N
y
665
Exercise 14C Equilibrium forces at an angle

1 All forces are balanced. Vector sum = 0.
2 No. The forces acting on it cause it to slow down.
3 No. Gravitational forces cause it to accelerate.
4 150 N from the right
5 88.83; 98.02 N
6 11.31 N; 27.14 N
7 0.5604 kg
8 21.18 N; 17.50 N; 2g N
9 2.646 N
10 7.453 N
11 3; 3 N
12 4 N, 2
13 1.037 kg
14 26.30 N; 13.15 N
15 - i + 4 j
16 17 N; 104.04 from the positive i axis

17 12.12 N; 7 N
18 E
19 A
20 E
Exercise 14D Connected bodies in equilibrium
1 w1 = - 3g j; w2 = - 7 g j; 10 g N; f = 10 g j
N; 50.92 N
2 58.8 N; 85.43
3 t = - 3 3gi + 3g j
4 w1 = - 4 gj; w2 = - 10 g j; 14 g N; f = 14 g j
N; 64.39
5 131.2 N; 102.9
N; 107.1
6 t = 92.75 i + 92.75 j
7 E
8 D
9 B
10 B
11 D
12 A
13 0.0403 kg
14 M = m tan (a) cot (b)
5 4
15 ; ; 36.87; 30.96
g g
Exercise 15A Introduction to kinematics

ii 1
iii 2 units
1 a i -1
2
iv 10 units
v units/second
5
vi 2 units/second
b i 4
ii 0
iii -4 units
-4
iv 24 units
v
units/second
5
4
vi 4 5 units/second
ii 12
iii 20 units
c i -8
iv 52 units
v 4 units/second
2
vi 10 5 units/second
d i 12
ii 6
iii -6 units
1
iv 26 units
v 1 5 units/second
1
vi 5 5 units/second
e i 10
ii 16
iii 6 units
1
iv 30 units
v 1 5 units/second
vi 6 units/second
2 a
F
x
F
1413121110 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 x
F
S
2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x
F
A
16 14
S
12
10
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 x
B
S
1 2 10 ; 71.57
2 15g N
3 19.21 N; 65.86 N
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
- 5g
j; w2 =
j; 7 g N; f = 7 gj
4 w1 =
Multiple choice
1 E
2 E
3 B
4 E
6 B
7 A
8 D
9 A
11 D
12 E
13 D
Extended response
1 100.2 N; 186.8 N
2 14.97
3 8.386 4 2a; 45
Answers
Kinematics
2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Chapter review
Short answer
666
CHAPTER 15
16 w1 = - mg i ; w2 = - mg i ; T1 = - T1 sin (a ) i + T1 cos (a ) j;
T2 = T2 sin (b ) i + T2 cos (b ) j;
T cos (a ) + T2 cos (b )
M = -m+ 1
g
- 2g
5 5.102 kg
6 24.01 N; 7.174 N; 45.84 N; 7.79
5 D
10 C
3 a i 5 cm
1
iv 2 2 cm/s
ii 15 cm
iii
b i -2 cm
iv 4 cm/s
ii 24 cm
iii
c i -1 cm
1
iv 2 2 cm/s
ii 15 cm
iii
d i -5 cm
5
iv 2 6 cm/s
ii 17 cm
iii
5
6
cm/s
-1
3
-1
6
-5
6
cm/s
cm/s
cm/s
e i -4 cm
1
iv 3 3 cm/s
ii 20 cm
iii
-2
3
cm/s
9 7 5 3 1 1 3 5 7 x (cm)
-50
d i 66 cm/s
ii
cm/s
e 50 cm/s
a 600 cm
b -400 cm
c i t = 5 to t = 8
ii t = 0 to t = 4 and t = 8 to t = 13
iii t = 4 to t = 5
d i 100 cm/s
ii -125 cm/s and -40 cm/s
iii 0 cm/s
e 76.9 cm/s
a
t
0
2
4
x
iii t = 4 to t = 6
iii 0 cm/s
b
6
18
x
b
e 2.5 cm/s
12
t= 2
t= 1
t= 0
1612 8 4 0 4 8 12 x
-4
-4
12
v
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Velocity (m/s)
1 2 3 4 5678
12
6
23 28 t
v
4
Velocity (m/s)
4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x (cm)
f 4 cm/s
x = t2 4t 5
1 2 3 4 56
2
0
2
10
31
4
6
22
Answers 14C 15B
t= 0
t= 2
Position (cm)
20
Time (s)
t= 4
10 15
Time (s)
v
5
Velocity (m/s)
Position (cm)
x = t 8t + 12
c The particle changes direction or turns.

d
t= 6
t= 8
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
Time (s)
Time (s)
e 0 cm/s
12 a
d 4 3 cm/s
cm/s
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
t= 6
1 a
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 x (cm)
1 2 3 4 56
Exercise 15B Velocitytime graphs and

t=0s
d 2 cm/s
11 a
t
x = t2+ 2t + 8
Time (s)
b The particle changes direction or turns.

c
t=8s
t=2s
d 3 3 cm/s
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Position (cm)
2
3
c 2 cm/s
13 a
Velocity (m/s)
c i t = 6 to t = 12 ii t = 0 to t = 4
t= 6
t= 0
f i 1 cm
ii 9 cm
iii 6 cm/s
1
iv 1 2 cm/s
4 C 5 E 6 B 7 D
8 a 300 cm
b 200 cm

9

10
t= 4
t= 2
10
16 t
5
Time (s)
Time (s)
Answers
667
d i 44 metres below ground level
Velocity (m/s)
v
8
ii 13 metres above ground level

e -1.93 m/s
f 201 metres
10 a 7 seconds
b
v
4
0
10
18
30 34
Velocity (m/s)
8
Time (s)
2 a 1.6 m/s2
b -2.4 m/s2
c 190 m
d 190 m
3 a -2 m/s2
b 1 3 m/s2
c 148 m
d 148 m
4 a 0.5
b 0.25
c 159 m
d 159 m
5 C 6 D 7 C
Acceleration (m/s2)
a
2
O
1.5
A
0 4
B C
16 19
D E
27 31
B C
D E
12 14 23 25
30
t (s)
2.5
b 1.5 m
c 31.5 m
d i 1.05 m/s

f 177 metres
m/s
F G
38 41 t
d i 93 metres above ground level

9
41
Time (s)
b Polly takes 25 seconds and Molly takes 25.7 seconds.

c 80 m
d 0.8 m/s2
12 a v (m/s)
Time (s)
F G
Polly
Molly
b OA: 1.5 m/s2 AB: 0 m/s2 BC: -2 m/s2

CD: 0 m/s2 DE: -2 m/s2 EF: 0 m/s2
2
FG: 2 3 m/s2
d 1575 m
16
14
iii From A to B, C to D and E to F
11
c 52.5 seconds
11 a
v
m/s2
8 a i From O to A and F to G ii From B to C and D to E

Time (s)
Velocity (m/s)
m/s2
Motorcycle
Car
35
30
g 4.47 m/s
13
g 4 41 m/s
ii 1.5 m/s
e Yes, the Monkey is 6.5 m above the ground.
9 a i From B to C and D to E ii From O to A and F to G

iii From A to B, C to D and E to F
b OA: -1.5 m/s2 AB: 0 m/s2 BC: 0.9 m/s2
CD: 0 m/s2 DE: 1 m/s2 EF: 0 m/s2
FG: -1.2 m/s2
c
Acceleration (m/s2)
a
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Answers
1
2
3
4
5
a
a
a
a
a
b
b
b
b
b
4.5 seconds
4 m/s2
6.5 m/s2
58.8 m/s
78.4 m
14
24
30
36
40 45 t
7 a 1 6 m/s
b 5 seconds
-5
8 a 6 m/s2
9 a 60 m/s and 216 km/h
10 a -5 m/s2
11 a B
43.8 m/s
32 m
1.54 seconds
176.4 m
39.2 m/s
b -3 3 m/s
6 a 10 m/s
Time (s)
668
Exercise 15C Constant acceleration formulas
b 12 seconds
b 12 m/s2
b 22 m
b C
12 a 3.7 seconds
c 25.6 m
c A
b 26.2 m/s
d E
13 a 6.6 seconds
b 44.4 m/s
4 a 90 m
1
b 7.1 seconds
15 12 m/s
16 a 19.6 m/s
b 27.7 m/s
17 24.04 m
18 6.5 seconds; 44.2 m/s
c i 95 metres above ground level
c 70.0 m/s
c 2.8 seconds
t4 t2
+
4 2
b d = 24 4 m
t3 t2
b x(t) = +
18 a v(t) = t2 + t
3 2
19 a v(t) = 6t3 - 2t2 + 4t + 15
c d = 29 3 m
3t 4 2t 3
+ 2t2 + 15t
2
3
b x(t) =
11
30
0 a 28 m/s2
1
11 a 31.8 seconds
b 217 3 m
b 1114 metres
b i 12 cm ii 20 cm iii 3 cm/s iv 5 cm/s

b -10 cm
Multiple choice
1 D
2 B
6 C
7 A
11 C
12 C
Extended response
x
1 a
iii t = 8 to t = 12
iii 0 cm/s
Velocity (m/s)
3 6
9 12 15 18 21 t
Time (s)
b -5 m/s2
4 a 1.5 m/s2
c 190.5 m
d 190.5 m
Acceleration (m/s2)
5 a OA:
AB: 0
BC:
CD: 0 m/s2 DE: -4 m/s2 EF: 0 m/s2
FG: 4 m/s2
b
a
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
m/s2
-5
m/s2
4 C
9 B
14 C
5 D
10 D
15 B
x(t) = t2 + 4t + 12
1 2 3 4 56
b -2 cm/s
c
t= 4
t= 6
m/s2
t= 2
2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 x
1
d 3 3 m/s
i 2 cm/s
e
ii -2 cm/s
f 0 t < 1 and 3 < t 6
2 a 3.2 seconds
b 2.5 m/s2
c 10 seconds
d 80 m
e 4 m

f Stuntman has travelled 90 m and bus has travelled
92.5 m (stuntman is still 2.5 m behind the bus)
g After t = 11, the bus is travelling faster and since it is
already in front of the stuntman, the stuntman cannot
catch the bus.
3 a 50 metres above the ground

b 10 10 m/s
c 10 10 m/s
d 10 seconds
4 a Lily
b 0.84 m
c 0.105 seconds
d 0.84 m
e 5.76 m/s2
CHAPTER 16
3
10 12
20 23
27 30 t

Exercise 16A Review of basic geometry
Time (s)
1 a 56
2 D
b 67.5
3 C
c x = 38, y = 32
Answers
Answers 15C 16A
1
33
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
3 E
8 D
13 E
t= 0
c i t = 12 to t = 18 ii t = 0 to t = 8
1
d i 3 3 cm/s
ii -3.75 cm/s
3
v
Time (s)
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
2 a 40 cm
b 18 3 m
d 27 m
b 4 5 seconds
b 30 m/s
8 a -2 3 m/s2
c 4.5 seconds
9 16 m/s
Position (cm)
6 a 3 8 m/s2
7 a 45 m
c d = 56 3 m
Chapter review
Short answer
1 a
e 179 metres
m/s
Exercise 15D Instantaneous rates of change

1 13 cm/s
2 171.5 cm/s
3 92 m/s
5 -3.082 m/s
6 -1 m/s2
4 -0.5 cm/s
2
2
7 0.176 cm/s
8 3 m/s
9 17 cm/s2
10 E
11 B
12 B
3
13 D
14 125.5 m
15 24 4 m
16 126 m
17 a x(t) =
669
4, 5 and 6 Answers will vary.

7 a x = 60, y = 114
b x = 47, y = 55, z = 78
c x = 59, y = 121, z = 59
8 a x = 75, y = 30, z = 150
b x = 45, y = 42
c 60
10 122
11 AB = BC, therefore ABC is isosceles.
BAC = BCA = 45 (property of isosceles triangles).
In triangle OAB, OAB + ABO + BOA = 180 (sum
of angles in a triangle).
OAB = ABO = 45, so BOA = 90.
12 a
Number of sides
Sum of interior angles
3
180
360
540
720
900
1080
1260
10
1440
20
3240
b General formula: 180(n - 2

13 Circle with radius 3 cm
14 x2 + y2 = 1
15 (x + 1)2 + (y - 3)2 = 2500
16 The perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two
points P and Q.
Exercise 16B Geometric constructions
1, 2a and 3a Constructions. Check with your teacher.
2 b The bisectors meet at the same point.
3 b The bisectors still meet at a point.
4
r 2r r
5
A
r
4r
B r
6r
r C
69 Constructions. Check with your teacher.

10 Draw an arc with A as the centre, crossing the line at
B and C.
With B as the centre, draw an arc above the line.
Repeat with the same radius at C.
Join the points where the arcs meet to point A.
Exercise 16C Polygons
1 Perpendicular bisectors meet outside the triangle.
2 Perpendicular bisectors meet on the hypotenuse.
3 Construct the perpendicular bisector of the base; vary the
radius to get different triangles.
670
Answers

8 Find the angle bisectors of the angles formed at the centre
of the circle. Join them to the circumference to create 12
vertices. Join the 12 vertices to create the dodecagon.
9 and 10 Constructions
11 Create perpendicular bisectors, then angle bisectors
to create 45 angles from the centre of circle, and a
diameter.
Exercise 16D Three-dimensional geometry

3 Faces = ABCDEF, GHJKLM, ABGM, EFHJ, CDKL,
AFHG, DEJK, BCLM.
Edges = AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FA, GM, ML, LK, KJ, JH,
HG, AG, FH, EJ, DK, CL, BM.
Vertices = A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, K, L, M.
V = 12, E = 18, F = 8; 12 = 18 - 8 + 2
4 D
5 D
6 V = 5, E = 8, F = 5
7 C
8
10
G H
J K
H G M
LK J H
F A B
CD E F
ED
A F
11 Square
12 Construction
13 2a
14 8
1
15 32
Exercise 16E Circle geometry
1 x = 44, y = 44, z = 44
2 C
3 74
4 B
5 x = 46, y = 34, z = 46
6 AED = BEC (opposite angles) ADE = BCE (Circle

theorem 2)
Thus, similar triangles, so x = z.
7 B 8 90
9 x = 30, y = 60
10 x = 126, y = 96
11 a Theorem 3, 90
b Theorem 1, 25.5
c Theorem 4, 99
d Theorem 2, 51
e Theorem 1, 58
x
13 x = y = z = 20
12 y = 180 -
2
15 x = y = z = 42
17 a + b + c = 180 sum of angles in a triangle
c + d = 180 straight angle
a + b + c = c + d equating the two equations
a + b = d QED
18 y + ECO = EBC isosceles triangle
BEC + EBC + y = 180 sum of angles in triangle EBC
BEC + y + ECO + y = 180 substitution
2y + ECO = 180 - BEC rearranging
x + OAE + AEO = 180 sum of angles in triangle OAE
AEO = BEC opposite angles
x + OAE = 180 - BEC rearranging
2y + ECO = x + OAE equating two equations
involving 180 - BEC
ECO = OAE isosceles triangle
2y = x QED
Exercise 16F Tangents, chords and circles
1 Construction
2 x = 42, y = 132
3 MAC, NAC, FDA, FBA, EDG, EBG
4 B 5 D 6 x = 42, y = 62
8 60
9 x = 180 - a - b
10 x = 80, y = 20, z = 80
12 x = 85, y = 20, z = 85
13 a ABE, DCE and ADE, BCE
b 4.17, 5.83
14 a CBD, CEA
b 85, 70
c 7.36 cm
15 D
16
S
R
Q
a
b-a
e b =
8

9

10
b
a
d b2 - ab - a2 = 0
a 5a
2
1+ 5
, approximately 1.618
2
Long side = 6.472

b Short side = 2.472
Long side = 18.170 d Short side = 309.333
Equilateral triangle, square
3, 3, 3, 4, 4 and 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3; irregular
a
c
a
b
Chapter review
Short answer
1 a 97
b y = 177 - 2x
2 Make a 60 angle, bisect it, then bisect one of the smaller
(30) angles.
3 Make a straight angle, then a 60 angle, then bisect the
60 angle. Its supplement is 150.
4 a
b Angle subtended by each side at centre = 36

5 There are 10 differently shaped triangles.
Five different
triangles
Three different
triangles
6
Name
Verification of
Faces Edges Vertices Eulers formula
Tetrahedron
4=6-4+2
Cube
12
8 = 12 - 6 + 2
Octahedron
12
6 = 12 - 8 + 2
Dodecahedron
12
30
20
20 = 30 - 12 + 2
Isosahedron
20
30
12
12 = 30 - 20 + 2
7 a
Answers 16B 16G
7 x = 50, y = 95 18 B 19 C
1
20 x = 33, y = 55, z = 2221 x = 25, y = 65, z = 40
22 x = a, y = 90 - a, z = 90 - 2a
23 18.92
24 48.87 cm
Exercise 16G Geometry in architecture, design
and art
1
2 C
3 D
7 a b - a
4 Figure a, tall adult; figure b, short child

5 Construction
6 Approximately 1.6 to 1
Answers
671
8 a x = 15, y = 75
b x = 30, y = 92, z = 90
9 x = 28, y = 15.7
10 24
11 a, e
12 (x - 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 9
Multiple choice
1 B
2 B
3 D
6 B
7 B
8 E
Extended response
1 b Diameter
2r - y x
d
= or an equivalent ratio
x
y
Exam practice 4
Short answer
1 a MR = 23 p
4 E
9 B
5 C
10 D
c 2r - y
e
x2 + y2
2y
2 43.5 cm
3 a ABC and DBC are similar triangles as they both
contain a right angle and share C. Therefore the
third angle is the same.
b 25 m
c 6.72 m
d i 1.96 m ii 23.04 m
e Drivers must take into account that the height and
width of the tunnel space will have decreased and
therefore larger trucks may not be able to pass
through safely.
f 5.91 m
g Yes, the maximum height is 5.64 m.
4 Constructions. Check with your teacher.
5 z = 16.5
6 x = 10.4
y = 5.1
7 x = 86 (alternate segment)
y = 34 (alternate segment)
w = 60
z = 52
8 a = 90 (tangent to circle)
b = 32 (complement)
c = 32 (isosceles triangle)
d = 60 (equilateral triangle)
e = 184 (angle at centre)
9 x = 33
10 The distance between the rollers is x = 114.3 cm.
11 a Diameter of tunnel is 13 m.
b B is 4.62 m above the floor of the tunnel.
672
Answers
c D is 1.92 m from C.
d Maximum height of truck is 3.55 m.
b MN = r + 16 p
2 a a = -4m/s2
b Constant speed/ velocity
c i A = 5b + (a - 10) b + 30b(20 - a) + 450
9095
ii b =
(595 - 29a)
3 a v = i + 3 j

b
i
3 j
c i N 30 W
ii 2 km/h
Multiple choice
1 B 2 C 3 E 4 D 5 A 6 D
Extended response
17
1 a =
10
b i t = 3 seconds
ii a = -6.79 m/s2
c km/min
Rhonda and Yorak
19
12
1
2
d
e
f

t min
51 seconds
Time to pass 54.62 minutes
Area under graph = 204. Let time taken be T.
129.092 min
12.09 min
Index
acceleration
instantaneous 54041
variable 538546
accelerationtime graphs 52528
change in velocity 526
gradient 525
signed area calculation 526
acceleration, constant
average velocity 532
formulas 53235
straight-line motion 533
algebra
algebraic fractions 12225
applications 11419
Boolean 317, 31920
degree of polynomial 272
deMorgans Laws 32023
improper fractions 281
index laws 8891
linear literal equations 12627
partial fractions 27682
polynomial identities 27275
proper fractions 27681
significant figures 934
simultaneous equations 10911, 28387
standard form 923
transposition 968
algebraic fractions
addition 12223
division 124
multiplication 124
subtraction 12223
alternate segment theorem 58586
angles
alternate 558
bisecting 56466
co-interior 558
complementary 164
constructing 566
corresponding 558
depression 14344
elevation 143
geometry 55657
loci/locus 559
parallel lines and 55859
polygons, in 559
subtended by chords in circles 579
vertically opposite 558
arc
length 16768
major and minor 579
area
sector 16869
segment 169
triangle 15962
Argand diagram representation
complex numbers 2931
arguments 30102
affirming the consequent 306
antecedent statement 300
categorical propositions 30204
conclusion 301
conclusion indicators 302
constructive dilemma 305
contradiction 31213
contrapositive 301, 312
converse 301
deductive 30204
implication 30001
indirect proof 313
inverse 301
mathematical induction 31314
modus tollens 305
premise 301
syllogism 305
techniques of proof 31014
valid 30406, 310
arithmetic
sequences 18690
series 19294
axes
dilations from 535
bearings 14446
Boolean algebra 317, 31920
table of laws 319
centre of vision 593
centroid 569
chords 579
circles, in 58489
major and minor segment 579
circle
angles subtended by chords 579
arc 579
chords 579, 58689
circumference 579
conic form 340
diameter 579
geometry 57982
graphs 34042
relations 45
tangents 579, 58689
circle theorems 57981
circumcentre 568
closed half-plane 391
collinear points 443
complementary angles 164
addition 23
Argand diagram representation 2931
conjugate 256
Index
673
complex numbers (contd.)

division 267
equality 22
multiplication 245
multiplication by a real constant 23
notation 22
polar form 36771
quadratic equations, solving 312, 345
quadratic expressions, factorising 3134
set 223
subtraction 23
components of vectors 47273
conics
circle 34042
ellipse 34346
hyperbola 35155
parabola 34750
conjugate surds 16
connected bodies in equilibrium 50205
connectives 29597
negation 29697
constant acceleration formulas 53235
average velocity 532
straight-line motion 533
constant of proportionality 219, 236
constant velocity 51516
constructive dilemma 305
convergent sequence 183
coordinate geometry
distance between two points 42931
division of line segment in
ratio a:b 43541
equation of straight line 44748
horizontal line 448
line segment midpoint 43234
midpoint formula 43233
parallel line 44244
perpendicular line 44546
vertical line 448
x = a 448
y = c 448
y = mx + c 447
y - y1 = m(x - x1) 448
corner-point method 40508
cosine rule 15458
cube 577
data transformation 25961
deductive arguments 30204
depression, angle of 14344
digital logic
digital truth values 32526
gates 32628
digital truth values 32526
dilations from axes 535
direct variation 21824
variables raised to powers other than 1 22731
direction of vectors 47172
displacement
moving particle, of 51314
divergent sequence 183
dodecahedron 577
674
Index
elevation, angle of 143

ellipse 56
conic form 343
graphs 34346
equations
linear 10106
linear literal 12627
logistic equation 18284
polar 36062
quadratic and complex numbers 345
simultaneous 10611, 28387
simultaneous linear 39498
straight-line 442, 44748
equilibrium 498501
connected bodies 50205
equivalent statements 297
Eulers formula 576
exact values 13940
final image rule
successive transformations 62
force
equilibrium 498501
inertia 492
mass 492
resolving into components 49394
tension 493
weight 492
fractions
algebraic 12225
improper 281
non-signed numbers, as 3
partial 27682
proper 27681
functional definition 179
functions 747
inverse 7780
linear 40208
position as a function of time 51618
gates
logic 326
table of NAND and NOR gates 32627
geometric
constructions 56266
mean 196
proofs 483
sequences 19599
series 20004
sum to infinity S of geometric sequence 203
geometric constructions
bisecting angles 56466
bisecting lines 56264
centroid 569
circumcentre 569
constructing angles 566
incentre 569
geometric mean 196
geometric proofs 483
geometric series
infinite sum of sequence where r < 1 20304
geometry
angles 55657, 55859
architecture, design and art, in 59297

chords 58489
circle 57982, 58489
Golden Ratio 59495
lines 556558
parallel lines 55859
perspective 59294
tangents 58489
tessellations 59597
three-dimensional 57678
two-dimensional 55674
Golden Ratio 59495
Golden Rectangles 594
graphs
accelerationtime 52528
circle 34042
ellipse 34346
hyperbola 35155
linear 34082
linear inequations 39093
non-linear 34082
parabola 34750
polar 36365
positiontime graph 538
reflections 502
relations 445, 712, 74
simultaneous equations 10609
simultaneous linear equations 10609
simultaneous linear inequations 39498
systems of linear inequations 399401
translations 448
velocitytime 52125, 54145
Herons formula 161
horizon 593
hyperbola
conic form 351
graph 35155
transformations 567, 5860
icosahedron 577
i, j notation 47577
angles 47677
unit vectors 475
incentre 569
index laws
fractional powers 89
negative power 89
products 89
quotient 89
raising to a power 88
infinite sum of geometric sequence where r < 1 20304
instantaneous acceleration 54041
instantaneous rates of change 53846
acceleration 54041
approximating velocitytime graphs 54145
unsigned area calculation 52324
velocitytime 52125, 54145
instantaneous velocity 514, 53840
integers
signed numbers, as 3
inverse functions 7780
inverse relations 78
inverse variation 23540
variables raised to powers other than 1 24446
irrational numbers 45
irreducible quadratic 279
iterative definition 17980
joint variation 24952
kinematics 51118
accelerationtime graphs 52528
constant acceleration formulas 53235
constant velocity 51516
curvilinear motion 512
displacement 51314
instantaneous acceleration 54041
instantaneous rates of change 53846
instantaneous velocity 514, 53840
position 513
position as a function of time 51618
rectilinear motion 512
speed 51415
straight-line motion 512, 533
velocity 514
velocitytime graphs 52125, 54145
line segment 556
external division in ratio a:b 43941
internal division in ratio a:b 43537
midpoint 43234
linear equations 10106
literal 12627
simultaneous 10611
linear functions
maximising and minimising 40208
sliding-line method 40205
linear graphs 34082
linear inequations
graphs 39093
simultaneous, graphs of 39498
systems of, graphs of 399401
linear programming 38990
applications 41517
closed half-plane 391
graphs of linear inequations 39093
maximising and minimising linear functions 40208
open half-plane 391
problem solving methods 40911
lines
bisecting 56264
coincidental 108
horizontal 448
parallel 10809, 44244, 55859
perpendicular 44546
vertical 448
x = a 448
y = c 448
y = mx + c 447
y - y1 = m(x - x1) 448
loci/locus 559
Index
675
logic
arguments 30006
circuits 32830
digital 32531
gates 32628
proof 31014
logic circuits
burglar alarms 32829
simplification 32930
magnitude of vectors 471
mathematical proof methods
contradiction 31213
contrapositive 312
counter-example 31314
valid argument forms 31112
midpoint formula 43233
modus tollens 305
motion
kinematics 512
negation 29697
nets of polyhedrons 576
Newtons first law of motion 49597
tensile strength 495
non-linear graphs 34082
notation
interval 11
set builder notation 11
standard/scientific form 79
number systems
division by zero 4
fractions 3
integers 3
irrational numbers 45
natural numbers 3
non-signed numbers 3
notations for subsets of set of real
numbers 113
rational numbers 34
real numbers 57
set of complex numbers 223
set of real numbers 37
signed numbers 34
subsets of set of real numbers 1014
surds 1421
octahedron 577
open half-plane 391
ordinates
addition 37275
oscillating sequence 183
parabola
conic form 347
graph 34750
relations 44
angles and 55859
676
Index
parallelogram
quadrilateral form 571
part linear variation 255
part variation 25557
partial fractions
particle statics
connected bodies in equilibrium 50205
equilibrium 498501
force 49294
Newtons first law of motion 49597
tension 493
perpendicular line
bisector 563
line 44546
perspective 59294
centre of vision 593
horizon 593
vanishing point 593
Platonic solids 577
points
reflections 502
translations 448
polar
coordinates 35759
division in polar form 37071
equations 36063
graphs 36365
polar form
multiplication in polar
form 37071
polygons
angles 559
parallelogram 571
quadrilaterals 57172
rectangle 571
regular 57273
rhombus 571
square 571
star 57374
trapezium 571
triangle construction 56770
polyhedrons
Eulers formula 576
nets 576
polynomial identities 27275
degree of polynomial 272
identical 273
position
function of time, as 51618
moving particle 513
premise of argument 301
indicators 302
proof techniques
contradiction 31213
contrapositive 312
counter-example 313
tautology 31011
valid argument forms 31112

irreducible quadratic 279
Pythagoras theorem 13738
Pythagorean identity 16364
quadrilaterals 57172
radian measurement 16566
rational numbers
signed numbers, as 34
real number systems
notation forms 113
subsets of the set of real numbers 103
real numbers 57
reciprocals
sketching in simple graphs 37576
rectangle
relations 712
circle 45
domain 71
exponential 45
inverse/hyperbolas 45, 78
linear 44
quadratic/parabolas 44
range 71
rhombus
right-angled triangles
exact values 13940
Pythagoras theorem 13739
trigonometry 13640
scalar multiplication
vectors 46869
sectors
area 16869
segments
alternate theorem 58586
area 169
major and minor 579
sequences 17884
applications 20608
arithmetic 18690
convergent 183
divergent 183
functional definition 179
geometric 19599
infinite sum of geometric sequence where r < 1 20304
iterative definition 17980
limit 183
oscillating 183
sequential order 179
sum to infinity S of geometric sequence 203
sequential order 179
series
applications 20608
arithmetic 19294
common difference 193
geometric 20004
set notation 19
non-signed numbers 3
signed numbers 34
standard/scientific form notation 79
sets 317
intersection 317
negation 318
real numbers 37
table of laws 319
table of rules 318
union 317
significant figures 78, 934
calculations 934
simultaneous equations 10611, 28387
algebraic solution 10911
elimination 11011
graphs 10609
substitution 109
coincidental lines 108
graphical solution 10609
simultaneous linear inequations
graphs 39498
sine rule 14852
ambiguous case 14952
speed 51415
square
sketching in simple graphs 37678
standard form 923
decimal places 78
set notation 79
significant figures 78
statements/propositions 29394
antecedent 300
conditional 300
consequent 300
equivalent 297
implication 30001
statics 482
surds
addition 15
definition of conjugate 16
division 189
multiplication 167
simplifying 145
subtraction 15
syllogistic argument
disjunctive 305
hypothetical 305
systems of linear inequations
graphs 399401
tangents 579
circles, in 58489
tautologies 310
proof of arguments 31011
techniques of proof
tautology 31011
tension 493
tessellations 59597
irregular 596
regular 595
rules for creation 597
semi regular 596
Index
677
tetrahedron 577
three-dimensional geometry
nets of polyhedrons 576
platonic solids 577
transformation of data 25961
transformations
dilations from axes 535
ellipse 56, 57
final image rule 62
hyperbola 567, 5860
reflections of graphs and points 502
relations 445
successive 62
translations of graphs 448
translations of points 456
translations
graphs 445
points 456
rules 468
transposition of formulas 968
trapezium
triangles
area 15962
geometric construction 56770
Herons formula 161
right-angled 13740
trigonometric identities 16365
complementary angles 164
Pythagorean identity 16364
trigonometric ratios
ambiguous case 14952
angle of depression 14344
angle of elevation 143
arc length 167
area of sector 16869
area of segment 169
area of triangle 15962
bearings 14446
cosine rule 15458
Herons formula 161
identities 16365
radian measurement 16566
sine rule 14852
trigonometry of right-angled
triangles 13640
678
Index
truth tables 29597

truth value 295
unit vectors 475
valid arguments 310
proving 30506
vanishing point 593
variable acceleration 538546
variation
constant of proportionality 219, 236
direct 21824, 22731
inverse 23540, 24446
joint 24952
part 25557
part linear variation 255
transformation of data 25961
variables raised to powers other
than 1 22731, 24446
vectors
addition 466
applications 48083
components 47273
directed line segments 462
direction 47172
equality 464
geometric proofs 483
i, j notation 47577
magnitude 471
negative 467
operations 46670
ordered pairs, as 463
position 463
scalar multiplication 46869
statics 482
subtraction 467
unit 475
velocity 514
velocity
constant 51516
instantaneous 514, 53840
moving particle 514
velocitytime graphs 52125
approximating 54145
gradient 523
signed area calculation 52324
unsigned area calculation 541

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VCE mATHEmATiCS

mARK BARNES RUTH BAKOGiANiS KYLiE BOUCHER

First published 2010 by

Maths Quest 11 Advanced General

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

Relations and functions 71

Number systems: real and complex 1

Trigonometric ratios and their

5C The sine rule 148

7G Transformation of data 259

Further algebra 272

Sequences and series 178

8c Simultaneous equations 283

Algebra and logic 293

truth tables 293

Linear and non-linear graphs 340

Exercise 10A 342

Exercise 10B 346

Exercise 10C 350

10E Polar coordinates 357

Exercise 10E 359

Linear programming 389

Exercise 11A 393

Coordinate geometry 429

Exercise 12A 431

12e Parallel lines 442

Exercise 12E 444

Exercise 13A 465

Exercise 13B 470

Statics of a particle 492

Exercise 14A 494

Exercise 14B 497

Exercise 14C 501

Exercise 14D 505

Exercise 15A 518

15B Velocitytime graphs and accelerationtime

Geometry in two and three

Exercise 16A 560

16e Circle geometry 579

Exercise 16E 582

Univariate data Available on eBookPlus

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Searchlight IDs (e.g. int-0001) give you instant

Review of properties and computation with

Review of set notation

Irrational numbers and complex numbers as

review of set notation

number systems: real and complex

= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}. C = {4, 8, 12}. D = {2, 6, 10, 12}.

b The set C is the complement of C and contains all

elements not in the set C.

c The set C D is the union of C and D and contains

c C D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}

d The set C D is the intersection of C and D and

e The set (C D) is the complement of the union of

all elements in sets C and D.

contains elements common to sets C and D.