ICCCI Proceedings

VelammalSilverJubileeCelebrations19862010
Proceedings of the
International Conference On
COMPUTERS, COMMUNICATION &
INTELLIGENCE
22nd & 23rd July 2010

Organised by
Velammal College of Engineering & Technology
Viraganoor, Madurai 625 009, India
International Conference on
Computers, Communication & Intelligence
22nd & 23rd July 2010
CONFERENCE ORGANIZATION
Chief Patron : Shri. M.V. Muthuramalingam, Chairman
Organising Chair : Dr. N. Suresh Kumar, Principal
Organising Secretaries : Dr. P. Alli and Dr. G. Manikandan
INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Dr. Kimmo Salmenjoki, Seinajoki University of Applied Sciences, Finland
Dr. Fiorenzo Fianceschini, Polytechnico di Torino, Italy
Dr. Namudri Kamesh, University of North Texas, USA
Dr. Henry Selvaraj, University of Nevada, USA
Dr. Kasim Mousa Al Aubidy, Philadelphia University, Jordan
Dr. Jiju Antony, University of Strathclyde, UK
Dr. Lorno Uden, University of Staffordshire, UK
Dr. A. Vallavaraj, Caledonian College of Engineering, Sultanate of Oman
Dr. Paulraj Murugesa Pandiyan, University of Malaysia, Perlis
Dr. Arunagiri, Yanbu Industrial College, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Dr. Raja Sooriya Moorthi, Carnegie Melon University, USA
Dr. Angappa Gunasekaran, University of Massachusetts, USA
Dr. Sridhar Arjunan, RMIT University , Australia,
NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Cmdr. Suresh Kumar Thakur, NRB, DRDO, India
Dr. M. Mathirajan, Anna University, India
Dr. Chitra T. Rajan, PSG Tech, India
Dr. G. Arumugam, MKU, India
Dr. S. Ibrahim Sadhar, Wins Infotech Pvt,. Ltd, India
Dr. T. Devi, Bharathiar University, India
Dr. L. Ganesan, AC Tech, India
Dr. T. Purushothaman, GCT, India
Dr. R. Murugesan, MKU, India
Dr. B. Ramadoss, NIT, India
Dr. S. Mercy Shalini, TCE, India
Dr. Kannan Balasubramanian, MSEC, India
Dr. K. Muneeswaran, MSEC, India
Dr. K. Ramar, NEC, India
Mr. Jegan Jothivel, Cisco Networking Academy, India
PAPER ID
PAPER TITLE
SESSION
ID
PAGE NO.
IN
PROCEEDINGS
SESSION 1
AI002
Study of similarity metrics for genomic data using go-ontology
S1-01
87 - 94
AI005
Hybrid PSO based neural network classifier and decision tree for
brain MRI mining
Gap: genetic algorithm based power estimation technique for
behavioral circuits
Human action classification using 3d star skeletonization and rvm
classifier
Enhanced knowledge base representation technique for intelligent
storage and efficient retrieval using knowledge based markup
lFace detection using wavelet transform and rbf neural network
S1-02
95 - 100
S1-03
101 - 107
S1-04
108 - 115
S1-05
154 - 157
S1-06
303 - 306
Automated test case generation and performance analysis for GUI

application
The need of the hour nosql technology for next generation data
storage
Intelligent Agent based Data Cleaning to improve the Accuracy of
WiFi Positioning System Using Geographical Information System
(GIS)
Designing
Health Care Forum using Semantic
Search Engine & Diagnostic Ontology
Optimization of Tool Wear in Shaping Process by Machine vision
system Using Genetic Algorithm
Framework for Comparison of Association Rule Mining using
Genetic Algorithm
A New Method For Solving Fuzzy Linear Programming With
TORA
S1-07
178 - 187
S1-08
188 - 192
S1-09
24 - 30
S1-10
77 - 81
S1-11
453 - 456
S1-12
14 - 20
S1-13
237 - 239
S2-01
116 - 122
S2-02
316 - 319
COMN018
Relevance vector machine based gender classification using gait

appearance features
An energy efficient advanced data compression and decompression
schemes for wsn
Active noise control: a simulation study
S2-03
320 - 325
AI013
A survey on gait recognition using hmm model
S2-04
123 - 126
COMN022
Human motion tracking and behavior classification using multiple

cameras
S2-05
131 - 134
AI006
AI007
COMP002
AI009
COMP016
COMP017
COMP115
COMP102
COMP135
COMP111
COMP114
SESSION 2
AI008
COMN013
COMP007
Adaptive visible watermarking and copy protection of reverted

multimedia data
S2-06
168 - 173
COMP026
Hiding sensitive frequent item set by database extension
S2-07
357 - 362
COMP027
Integrated biometric authentication using finger print and iris

matching
Improvement towards efficient OPFET detector
S2-08
436 - 441
S2-09
417 - 420
S2-10
326 - 329
S2-11
369 - 376
COMN034
Texture segmentation method based on combinatorial of

morphological and statistical operations using wavelets
High Performance Evaluation of 600-1200V, 1-40A Silicon
Carbide Schottky Barrier Diodes and Their Applications Using Mat
L b based shape matching for trademarks retrieval
Phase
S2-12
149 - 153
COMP146
The Medical Image segmentation
S2-13
212 - 215
S3-01
307 - 315
S3-02
158 - 167
S3-03
464 - 467
S3-04
174 - 177
S3-05
334 - 336
S3-06
442 - 452
Secure Multiparty Computation Based Privacy Preserving

Collaborative Data Mining
Towards Energy Efficient Protocols For Wireless Body Area
Networks
A cascade data mining approach for network anomaly Detection
system
Rule Analysis Based On Rough Set Data Mining Technique
S3-07
66 - 70
S3-08
207 - 211
S3-09
377 - 384
S3-10
291 - 296
On the Investigations of Design, Implementation, Performance and

Evaluation issues of a Novel BD-SIIT Stateless IPv4/IPv6
T Role
l of IPv6 over Fiber (FIPv6): Issues, Challenges and its
The
Impact on Hardware and Software.
Entrustment based authentication protocol for mobile systems.
S3-11
260 - 269
S3-12
270 - 277
S3-13
389 - 392
COMP103
COMN028
COMP118
SESSION 3
AI014
COMP006
COMP142
COMP008
COMP013
COMP032
COMP038
COMP133
COMP119
COMP124
COMP128
COMP129
COMP137
An clustering approach based on functionality of genes for

microarray data to find meaningful associations
i i web based personalization of e-learning courseware using
Semantic
concept maps and clustering
Modeling of Cutting Parameters for Surface Roughness in
Machining
A web personalization system for evolving user profiles in dynamic
web sites based on web usage mining techniques and agent
h l actionable knowledge within the organization using rough
Creating
set computing
A new frame work for analyzing document clustering algorithms
SESSION 4
COMP022
Exploiting parallelism in bidirectional dijkstra for shortest-path

computation
Cld for improving overall throughput in wireless networks
S4-01
351 - 356
S4-02
46 - 49
S4-03
127 - 130
S4-04
6 - 13
S4-05
135 - 138
S4-06
139 - 148
S4-07
421 - 425
COMN027
Congestion management routing protocol in mobile adhoc

networks
Performance improvement in ad hoc networks using dynamic
addressing
Hierarchical zone based intrusion detection system for mobile
adhoc networks.
Implementing High Performance Hybrid Search Using CELL
Processor
Enhancing temporal privacy and source-location privacy in wsn
routing by fft based data perturbation method
Mixed-radix 4-2 butterfly fft/ifft for wireless communication
S4-08
203 - 206
COMP035
NTRU - public key cryptosystem for constrained memory devices
S4-09
55 - 59
COMP036
A novel randomized key multimedia encryption algorithm secure

against several attacks
Denial Of Service: New Metrics And Their Measurement
S4-10
60 - 65
S4-11
363 - 368
Fpga design of application specific routing algorithms for network

on chip
Selection of checkpoint interval in coordinated checkpointing
protocol for fault tolerant open-mpi
S4-12
330 - 333
S4-13
216 - 223
S5-01
240 - 245
S5-02
343 - 350
S5-03
21 - 23
COMP024
Latest Trends and Technologies in Enterprise Resource Planning

ERP
Integrating the static and dynamic processes in software
development
Content management through electronic document management
system
A Multi-Agent Based Personalized e-Learning Environment
S5-04
397 - 401
COMP109
Architecture Evaluation for Web Service Security Policy
S5-05
284 - 290
COMP110
Harmonics In Single Phase Motor Drives And Power Conservation.
S5-06
412 - 416
COMP030
Identification in the e-health information systems
S5-07
402 - 405
COMP138
COMN005
COMN020
COMN023
COMN024
COMN026
COMP037
COMP012
COMP019
SESSION 5
COMP116
COMP020
COMP023
COMP033
S5-08
297 - 302
S5-09
426 - 431
COMN033
A Robust Security metrics for the e-Healthcare Information

Systems
Theoretical Investigation Of Size Effect On The Thermal Properties
Of Nanoparticles
An efficient turbo coded ofdm system
S5-10
193 - 198
COMP018
Compval a system to mitigate sqlia
S5-11
337 - 342
COMP126
Fault Prediction Using Conceptual Cohesion in Object Oriented

System
A Framework for Multiple Classifier Systems Comparison
(MCSCF)
A Comparative Study of Various Topologies and its performance
analysis using WDM Networks
S5-12
256 - 259
S5-13
31 - 40
S5-14
457 - 463
S6-01
246 - 255
S6-02
224 - 229
S6-03
41 - 45
S6-04
1-5
COMP130
MRI Mammogram Image Segmentation using N Cut method and

Genetic Algorithm with partial filters
Localized Cbir for indexing image database
S6-05
278 - 283
COMP021
Particle swarm optimization algorithm in grid computing
S6-06
50 - 54
COMP149
Advancement in mobile technology

Using BADA
Enhancing the Life Time of Wireless Sensor Networks Using Mean
Measure Mechanism
Cloud Computing And Virtualization
S6-07
199 - 202
S6-08
82 - 86
S6-09
230 - 236
S6-10
432 - 435
COMP101
Dynamic Key Management to minimize communication latency for

efficient group communication
Towards Customer Churning Prevention through Class Imbalance
S6-11
71 - 76
COMP120
Membrane Computing - an Overview
S6-12
385 - 388
COMP148
Privacy Preserving Distributed Data Mining Using Elliptic Curve

Cryptography
Modeling A Frequency Selective Wall For Indoor Wireless
Environment
S6-13
406 - 411
S6-14
393 - 396
COMP147
COMP127
COMP150
SESSION 6
COMP117
COMP112
COMP123
COMP125
COMP107
COMP113
COMP121
COMP149
A New Semantic Similarity Metric for Handling all Relations in

WordNet Ontology
Simplification of diagnosing disease through
microscopic images of blood cells
Efficient Apriori Hybrid Algorithm For Pattern Extraction Process
Paper Index
Sl. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Title
MRI Mammogram Image Segmentation using NCut method and Genetic Algorithm with
partial filters
A.Pitchumani Angayarkanni
Performance Improvement in Ad Hoc Networks Using Dynamic Addressing
S.Jeyanthi & N.Uma Maheswari
Framework for Comparison of Association Rule Mining using Genetic Algorithm
K.Indira & S.Kanmani
Content Management through Electronic Document Management System
T.Vengattaraman, A.Ramalingam & P.Dhavachelvan
Intelligent Agent based Data Cleaning to improve the Accuracy of WiFiPositioning System
Using Geographical Information System (GIS)
T.Joshva Devadas
A Framework for Multiple Classifier Systems Comparison (MCSCF)
P.Shanmugapriya & S.Kanmani
Efficient Apriori Hybrid Algorithm For Pattern Extraction Process
J.Kavitha, D.Magdalene Delighta Angeline & P.Ramasubramanian
CLD for Improving Overall Throughput in Wireless Networks
Dr. P. Seethalakshmi & Ms. A. Subasri
Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm In Grid Computing
Mrs.R.Aghila, M.Harine & G.Priyadharshini
NTRU - Public Key Cryptosystem For Constrained Memory Devices
V.Pushparani & Kannan Balasubramaniam
A Novel Randomized Key Multimedia Encryption Algorithm Security Against Several
Attacks
S. Arul Jothi
Secure Multiparty Computation Based Privacy Preserving Collaborative Data Mining
J.Bhuvana & Dr.T.Devi
Towards Customer Churning Prevention through Class Imbalance
M.Rajeswari & Dr.T.Devi
Designing Health Care Forum Using Semantic Search Engine & Diagnostic Ontology
Prof.Mr.V.Shunmughavel & Dr.P.Jaganathan
An Enhancing the Life Time of Wireless Sensor Networks Using Mean Measure
Mechanism
P.Ponnu Rajan & D.Bommudurai
Study of Similarity Metrics for Genomic Data Using GO-Ontology
V.Annalakshmi,R. Priyadarshini &V. Bhuvaneshwari
Hybrid PSO based neural network classifier and decision tree
for brain MRI mining
Dr.V.Saravanan & T.R.Sivapriya
GAP: Genetic Algorithm based Power Estimation Technique for Behavioral Circuits
Johnpaul C. I, Elson Paul & Dr. K. Najeeb
Human Action Classification Using 3D Star Skeletonization and RVM Classifier
Mrs. B. Yogameena, M. Archana & Dr. (Mrs) S. Raju Abhaikumar
Relevance Vector Machine Based Gender Classification using Gait Appearance Features
Mrs. B. Yogameena, M. Archana & Dr. (Mrs) S. Raju Abhaikumar
Page No.
1-5
6-13
14-20
21-23
24-30
31-40
41-45
46-49
50-54
55-59
60-65
66-70
71-76
77-81
82-86
87-94
95-100
101-107
108-115
116-122
21. A Survey on Gait Recognition Using HMM Model

M.Siva Sangari & M.Yuvaraju
22. Congestion Management Routing Protocol In Mobile ADHOC Networks
A. Valarmathi1 & RM. Chandrasekaran
23. Human Motion Tracking And Behaviour Classification Using Multiple Cameras
M.P.Jancy & B.Yogameena
24. Hierarchical Zone Based Intrusion Detection System for Mobile Adhoc Networks.
D G Jyothi & S.N Chandra shekara
25. Implementing High Performance Hybrid Search Using CELL Processor
Mrs.Umarani Srikanth
26. Phase Based Shape Matching For Trademarks Retrieval
B.Sathya Bama, M.Anitha & Dr.S.Raju
27. Enhanced Knowledge Base Representation Technique for Intelligent Storage and Efficient
Retrieval Using Knowledge Based Markup Language
A. Meenakshi, V.Thirunageswaran & M.G. Avenash
28. Semantic Web Based Personalization Of E-Learning Courseware Using Concept Maps And
Clustering
D.Anitha
29. Adaptive visible watermarking and copy protection of reverted multimedia data
S.T.Veena & Dr.K.Muneeswaran
30. A Web Personalization System for evolving user profiles in Dynamic Web Sites based on
Web Usage Mining Techniques and Agent Technology
G.Karthik, R.Vivekanandam & P.Rupa Ezhil Arasi
31. Automated Test Case Generation and Performance Analysis for GUI Application
Ms. A.Askarunisa & Ms. D. Thangamari
32. The Need Of The Hour - NOSQL Technology for Next Generation Data Storage
123-126
127-130
131-134
135-138
139-148
149-153
154-157
158-167
168-173
174-177
178-187
188-192
K.Chitra & Sherin M John
33. An Efficient Turbo Coded ofdm system

Prof. Vikas Dhere
34. Advancement In Mobile Technologyusing Bada
V.Aishwarya, J.Manibharathi & Dr.S.Durai Raj
35. Mixed-Radix 4-2 Butterfly FFT/IFFT For Wireless communication
A.Umasankar & S.Vinayagakarthikeyan
36. Towards Energy Efficient Protocols For Wireless Body Area Networks
Shajahan Kutty & J.A. Laxminarayana
37. The Medical Image Segmentation
Hemalatha & R.Kalaivani
38. Selection of a Checkpoint Interval in Coordinated Checkpointing Protocol for Fault
TolerantOpen MPI
P.M.Mallikarjuna Shastry & K. Venkatesh
39. Simplification Of Diagnosing Disease Through Microscopic Images Of Blood Cells
Benazir Fathima, K.V.Gayathiri Devi, M.Arunachalam & M.K.Hema
40. Cloud Computing And Virtualization
R. Nilesh Madhukar Patil & Mr. Shailesh Somnath Sangle
41. A New Method For Solving Fuzzy Linear Programming With TORA
S. Sagaya Roseline , A. Faritha Asma & E.C. Henry Amirtharaj
42. Latest Trends And Technologies In Enterprise Resource Planning Erp
B.S.Dakshayani
193-198
199-202
203-206
207-211
212-215
216-223
224-229
230-236
237-239
240-245
43. A New Semantic Similarity Metric for Handling all Relations in WordNet Ontology
K.Saruladha, Dr.G.Aghila & Sajina Raj
44. Fault Prediction Using Conceptual Cohesion in Object Oriented System
V.Lakshmi, P.V.Eswaripriya, C.Kiruthika & M.Shanmugapriya
45. On the Investigations of Design,Implementation, Performance and Evaluation issues of a
Novel BD-SIIT Stateless IPv4/IPv6 Translator
J.Hanumanthappa, D.H.Manjaiah & C.V.Aravinda
46. The Role of IPv6 over Fiber (FIPv6): Issues, Challenges and its Impact on Hardware and
Software.
J.Hanumanthappa, D.H.Manjaiah & C.V.Aravinda
47. Localized CBIR for Indexing Image Databases
D.Vijayalakshmi & P. Vijayalakshmi
48. Architecture Evaluation for Web Service Security Policy
B.Joshi.vinayak ,Dr.D.H. Manjaiah ,J. Hanumathappa & Nayak.Ramesh.Sunder
49. Rule Analysis Based On Rough Set Data Mining Technique
P.Ramasubramanian, V.Sureshkumar & P.Alli
50. A Robust Security metrics for the e-Healthcare Information Systems
Said Jafari, Fredrick Mtenzi, Ronan Fitzpatrick & Brendan OShea
51. Face Detection Using Wavelet Transform And Rbf Neural Network
M.Madhu, M.Moorthi, S.Sathish Kumar & Dr.R.Amutha
52. An Clustering approach based on Functionality of Genes for Microarray data to find
meaningful associations
M.Selvanayaki & V.Bhuvaneshwari
53. An Energy Efficient Adavanced Data Compression And Decompression Schemes For Wsn
G.Mohanbabu#1, Dr.P.Renuga#2
54. Active Noise Control: A Simulation Study
Sivadasan Kottayi & N.K. Narayanan
55. Texture Segmentation Method Based On Combinatorial Of Morphological And Statistical
Operations Using Wavelets
V.Vijayapriya & Prof.K.R.Krishnamoorthy
56. FPGA Design Of Routing Algorithms For Network On Chip
R.Anitha & Dr.P.Renuga
57. Creating Actionable Knowledge within the Organization using Rough set computing
Mr.R.Rameshkumar, Dr.A.Arunagiri, Dr.V.Khanaa & Mr.C.Poornachandran
58. COMPVAL A system to mitigate SQLIA
S. Fouzul Hidhaya & Dr. Angelina Geetha
59. Integrating the Static and Dynamic Processes in Software Development
V. Hepsiba Mabel, K. Alagarsamy & S. Justus
60. Exploiting Parallelism in Bidirectional Dijkstra for Shortest-Path Computation
R.Kalpana, Dr. P.Thambidurai, R. Arvind kumar, S. Parthasarathi & Praful Ravi
61. Hiding Sensitive Frequent Item Set by Database Extension
B. Mullaikodi & Dr. S.Sujatha
62. Denial Of Service:New Metrics And Their Measurement
Dr.KannanBalasubramanian & P.Kavithapandian
63. High Performance Evaluation of 600-1200V, 1-40A Silicon Carbide Schottky Barrier
Diodes and Their Applications Using Mat Lab
K.Manickavasagan
64. A Cascade Data Mining Approach for Network Anomaly Detection System
C. Seelammal
246-255
256-259
260-269
270-277
278-283
284-290
291-296
297-302
303-306
307-315
316-319
320-325
326-329
330-333
334-336
337-342
343-350
351-356
357-362
363-368
369-376
377-384
65. Membrane Computing - an Overview

R.Raja Rajeswari & Devi Thirupathi
66. Entrustment Based Authentication Protocol For Mobile Systems.
R.Rajalakshmi & R.S.Ponmagal
67. Modeling A Frequency Selective Wall For Indoor Wireless Environment.
Mrs. K.Suganya, Dr.N.Suresh Kumar & P.Senthil Kumar
68. A Multi-Agent Based Personalized e-Learning Environment
T. Vengattaraman, A. Ramalingam, P. Dhavachelvan & R.Baskaran
69. Identification in the E-Health Information Systems
Ales Zivkovic
70. Privacy Preserving Distributed Data Mining Using Elliptic Curve Cryptography
M.Rajalakshmi & T.Purusothaman
71. Harmonics In Single Phase Motor Drives And Energy Conservation
Mustajab Ahmed Khan & Dr.A.Arunagiri
72. Improvement towards efficient OPFET detector
Jaya V. Gaitonde & Rajesh B. Lohani
73. Enhancing Temporal Privacy and Source-Location Privacy in WSN Routing by FFT
Based Data Perturbation Method
R.Prasanna Kumar & T.Ravi
74. Theoretical nvestigation of size effect on the thermal properties of nanoparticles
K.Sadaiyandi & M.A.Zafrulla Khan
75. Dynamic Key Management to minimize communication latency for efficient group
communication
Dr.P.Alli ,G.Vinoth Chakkaravarthy & R.Deepalakshmi
76. Integrated Biometric AuthenticationUsing Fingerprint and IRIS Matching
A.Muthukumar & S.Kannan
77. New Framework for Analyzing Document Clustering Algorithms
Mrs. J. Jayabharathy & Dr. S. Kanmani
78. Optimization of Tool Wear in Shaping Process by Machine vision system
Using Genetic Algorithm
S.Palani, G.Senthilkumar, S.Saravanan & J.Ragunesan
A
Comparative Study of Various Topologies and its performance analysis using WDM Networks
79.
P. Poothathan, S. Devipriya & S. John Ethilton
80. Modeling of Cutting Parameters for Surface Roughness in Machining
M. Aruna & P. Ramesh Kumar
385-388
389-392
393-396
397-401
402-405
406-411
412-416
417-420
421-425
426-431
432-435
436-441
442-452
453-456
457-463
464-467
Proceedings of International Conference on Computers, Communication & Intelligence, July 22nd & 23rd 2010
MRI Mammogram Image Segmentation Using

Ncut Method And Genetic Algorithm With Partial
Filters
(1)
S.Pitchumani Angayarkanni M.C.A,M.Phil,Ph.d

Lecturer,Department of Computer Science,
Lady Doak College, Madurai
pitchu_mca@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT:
Cancer is one of the most common leading deadly diseases
which affect men and women around the world. Among the
cancer diseases, breast cancer is especially a concern in women.
It has become a major health problem in developed and
developing countries over the past 50 years and the incidence
has increased in recent years. Recent trends in digital image
processing are CAD systems, which are computerized tools
designed to assist radiologists. Most of these systems are used
for automatic detection of abnormalities. However, recent
studies have shown that their sensitivity is significantly
decreased as the density of breast increases. In this paper , the
proposed algorithm uses partial filters to enhance the images
and the Ncut method is applied to segment the malignant and
benign regions , futher genetic algorithm is applied to identify
the nipple position followed by bilateral subtraction of the left
and the right breast image to cluster the cancerous and non
cancerous regions. The system is trained using Back
Propagation Neural Network algorithm.
Computational efficiency and accuracy of the proposed system
are evaluated based on the Frequency Receiver Operating
Characteristic curve(FROC). The algorithm are tested on 161
pairs of digitized mammograms from MIAS database. The
Receiver Operating Characteristic curve leads to 99.987%
accuracy in detection of cancerous masses.
Keywords: Filters, Normalized Cut, Segmentation, BPN, Genetic
Algorithm and FROC.
INTRODUCTION:
Breast cancer is one of the major causes for the increased
mortality among women especially in developed countries. It
is second most common cancer in women. The World Health
Organizations International estimated that more than
1,50,000 women worldwide die of breast cancer in year. In
India, breast cancer accounts for 23% of all the female cancer
death followed by cervical cancer which accounts to 17.5%
in India. Early detection of cancer leads to significant
improvements in conservation treatment. However, recent
studies have shown that the sensitivity of these systems is
significantly decreased as the density of the breast increased
Velammal College of Engineering and Technology, Madurai
while the specificity of the systems remained relatively

constant. In this work we have developed automatic neuron
genetic algorithmic approach to automatically detect the
suspicious regions on digital mammograms based on
asymmetries between left and right breast image.
One of the major tool used for early detection of breast
cancer is mammography. Mammography offers high quality
images at low radiation doses and is the only widely accepted
imaging method for routine breast cancer screening.
Although mammography is widely used around the world for
breast cancer detection, there are some difficulties when
mammography is used for diagnosing breast cancer. One of
the difficulties with mammography is that mammograms
generally have low contrast compared with normal breast
structure, and thus make it difficult for radiologists to
interpret them. Studies show that the interpretation of
mmaograms by radiologists could result in high rate of falsepositive and false-negative. This difficulty has caused high
proportion of women without cancers to undergo breast
biopsies and miss the breast treatment time.
Several solutions were proposed in the past to increase
accuracy and sensitivity of mammography and reduce
unnecessary biopsies. Double reading of mmamograms is
one of the solutions and has been advocated to reduce the
proportion of missed cancers. The basic idea for double
reading is to read the mammograms by two radiologists.
However this solution is both costly and time
consuming.Instead CAD has drawn attention from both
computer scientists and radiologists in the interpretation of
mammograms.
CAD which integrates computer science, image
processing , pattern recognition and artificial intelligence
technologies can be defined as a diagnosis that is made by a
radiologist who uses the output from a computerized analysis
of medical images as a second opinion in detecting lesions
and in making diagnostic decisions. It has been proven that
this kind of system can improve the accuracy of breast
diagnosis for early prediction of breast cancer. Computer
aided breast cancer detection system is especially useful
Page 1
when the radiologist become tired of screening

mammograms.
In the CAD System for breast cancer, the detection of
abnormal regions , such as calcification, mass and
architectural distortion is the central task and the performance
of a CAD system will depend on the performance of the
detection of these abnormalities. There have been many
proposed algorithms for detection of these abnormalities.
In this paper we have introduced the detection of
microcalcifications. As one of the early signs of breast cancer
, mirocalcifications are tiny granule like deposits of calcium,
which appear as small bright spots of mmaograms. Their size
varies from 0.1 mm to 1mm. Cluster: of MCs is defines as a
group of three to five MCs within regions. Generally
microcalcification clusters are important indication of
possible cancer. This algorithm effectively and automatically
detect MCs .
2. ALGORITHM DESIGN:
There are four steps involved in the algorithm for the
detection MCCs which is shown in the figure.
Thus, the product of the image matrix, which is usually very

large because it represents the initial image (pixel table), by
the filter yields a matrix corresponding to the processed
image.
2.1.1 HIGH PASS FILTER:
It allow high frequency areas to pass with the
resulting image having greater detail resulting in a sharpened
image. The boundary information of the enhanced image was
extracted for visual evaluation. A high-pass (laplacian) filter
was used for this purpose.
Figure 2: Mammogram Image enhanced using high pass filter
The table coefficients determine the properties of the filter.

The following is an example of a 3 X 3 filter:
2.1.2) LOW PASS FILTER:

Low pass filtering, otherwise known as "smoothing", is
employed to remove high noise from a digital image. Noise
is often introduced during the analog-to-digital conversion
process as a side-effect of the physical conversion of patterns
of light energy into electrical patterns .
There are several common approaches to removing this
noise:
If several copies of an image have been obtained from the
source, some static image, then it may be possible to sum the
values for each pixel from each image and compute an
average. This is not possible, however, if the image is from a
moving source or there are other time or size restrictions.
If such averaging is not possible, or if it is insufficient,
some form of low pass spatial filtering may be required.
There are two main types:
reconstruction filtering, where an image is

restored based on some knowledge of the type of degradation
it has undergone. Filters that do this are often called "optimal
filters".
enhancement filtering, which attempts to

improve the (subjectively measured) quality of an image for
human or machine interpretability. Enhancement filters are
generally heuristic and problem oriented
One of the most important problems in image processing is
denoising. Usually the procedure used for denoising, is
dependent on the features of the image, aim of processing
and also post-processing algorithms [5]. Denoising by lowpass filtering not only reduces the noise but also blurs the
edges.
Page 2
Parti
al
Filter
Feature
Extraction
using NCut
Segmentation
Genetic
Algorith
m
Multilay
ered
BPN
Fig 1: Flow Chart of Algorithm
2.1 PARTIAL FILTER FOR IMAGE ENHANCEMENT:

A filter is a mathematical transformation (called a
convolution product) which allows the value of a pixel to be
modified according to the values of neighbouring pixels, with
coefficients, for each pixel of the region to which it is
applied. The filter is represented by a table (matrix), which is
characterized by its dimensions and its coefficients, whose
centre corresponds to the pixel concerned.
1
Spatial and frequency domain filters are widely used as tools

for image enhancement. Low pass filters smooth the image
by blocking detail information. Mass detection aims to
extract the edge of the tumor from surrounding normal
tissues and background, high pass filters (sharpening filters)
could be used to enhance the details of images.
method
the
Microcalcifications
are
clustered.
Figure 4: After Normalized Cut Segmentation
Figure 3: Mammogram Image Enhanced Using Low Pass filter
2.2 IMAGE SEGMENTATION:

The goal of image segmentation is to cluster pixels into
salient image regions, i.e., regions corresponding to
individual surfaces, objects, or natural parts of objects. In this
we apply Normalized Cut method of segmentation to cluster
microcalcification regions.
Finally we outline the normalized cut approach of Shi and
Malik [13].Here we seek a partition F and G = V F of the
affinity weighted,undirected graph (without source and sink
nodes). In order to avoid partitions where one of F or G is a
tiny region, Shi and Malik propose
the normalized cut criterion, namely that F and G should
minimize.
The computational efficiency 12.563 seconds on the

160x160 image.
2.3 GENETIC ALGORITHM:
A partial filtering absed normalized cut method is used to
generate a image to separate the breast and the non breast
region . The GA enhances the breast border . Border detector
detects the edges in the binary images , where each pixel
takes on either the intensity value of zero for a non border
pixel or one for border pixel. Each pixel in the binary map
corresponds to an underlying pixel in the original image . In
this proposed system , kernel is extracted from border points
as a neighborhood array of pixels of the size 3*3 window of
binary image. The binary kernels are considered population
strings for GA. The corresponding kernels are extracted from
gray level mammogram image using spatial coordinate points
and the sum of the intensity values are considered as the
fitness value . After identifying initial population and the
fitness value , the genetic operator can be applied to generate
a new population. Reproduction operator produces new string
for crossover. Reproduction is implemented as linear search
through roulette wheel with slots weighted in proportion to
kernel fitness values. In this function, a random number
multiplies the sum of population fitness called as stopping
point.
Figure 5: GA
Note any segmentation technique can be used for generating

proposals for suitable regions F, for which N(F, V F) could
be evaluated. Indeed, the SMC approach above can be
viewed as using S and T to provide lower bounds on the
terms L(F, V ) and L(G, V ) (namely L(S, V ) and L(T, V ),
respectively), and then using the S-T min cut to globally
minimize L(F,G) subject to S C F and T C G. Using this
Page 3
2.4 GENERATING THE ASYMMETRIC IMAGE:

After the images were aligned, bilateral subtraction was
performed [47,48] by subtraction was performed by
subtracting the digital matrix of the left breast image from
the digital matrix of the
right breast image.
Microcalcification in the right breast image have positive
pixel values in the image obtained after subtraction, while
microcalcification in the left breast image have negative pixel
values in the subtracted image. As a result, two new images
were generated: one with positive values and the other with
negative values. The most common gray level was zero,
which indicated no difference between the left and right
images. Simple linear stretching of the two generated images
to cover the entire available range of 1024 gray levels was
then calculated. The difference between corresponding pixels
contains important information that can be used to
discriminate between normal and abnormal tissue. The
asymmetry image can be thresholded to extract suspicious
regions. To generate FROC curve, the asymmetry image is
thresholded using ten different intensity values ranges from
50-150. Figure 6 shows a asymmetry image and connected
regions extracted based on thresholding to obtain a
progressively larger number of high difference pixels.
Figure 6
Figure 7a) Steps involved in automated Classification using Ant Colony

Optimization
2.6. ROC CURVE:

Finally the technique was evaluated on the mammograms
randomly selected from the non-suspicious section of the
data base. The method outlined small regions in 5 out of the
15 non suspicious mammograms. The areas identified were
generally very small compared to those in abnormal
mammograms
Asymmetric images
Two different techniques are used in the

interpretation of mammogram. The first technique consists of
systematic search of each mammogram for visual pattern
symptomatic tumors. Such as, a bright, approximately
circular blob with hazy boundary might indicate the presence
of a circumscribed mass. The second technique, the
asymmetric approach , consists of systematic comparison of
corresponding regions in the left and the right breast.
2.5. BPN TRAINING:
In addition, a backpropagation artificial neural network (BPANN) was also developed and evaluated on the same data.
The parameters for ANN training were published before.
Figure 5 compare the ROC curves for the LGP and the BPANN algorithms respectively. The BP-ANN yielded an ROC
area index of Az=0.880.01. Our GP approach achieved a
statistically
significantly
better
performance
with
Az=0.910.01.
Figure 8 Lesion Areas detected for Abnormal and Non-Suspicious cases

(large image extracts). [Figures (a) and (b) are presented at different
ordinate scales]
Fig 8(a) shows the extracted areas for the abnormal lesions.
(Image sequence 54 - 87 are stellate lesions and 74 to 100 are
regular masses). We first establish whether these represent
two different populations, by applying a Mann-Whitney
(Wilcoxon rank sum) non-parametric test, since it is
unrealistic to presume any specific underlying distribution.
Median values are 450 and 1450 pixels respectively which
produce a confidence level of 85% that the two data
sequences emanate from distinct populations. Since this is
not significant at normally acceptable levels we can compare
the abnormals as a single distribution against the nonsuspicious set, Fig 8(b). Using the same test, median values
of 5500 and 10 pixels for the two distributions are
established, giving a confidence level of greater than 97.5%
Page 4
that the two distributions are different, suggesting that our

PROTOCOLS ARE AN EFFECTIVE METHOD OF AREA
DETECTION.
CONCLUSION:
The proposed algorithms are tested on 161 pairs of digitized
mammograms from Mammographic Image analysis
Society(MIAS) database. A free response receiver operating
characteristic (FROC) curve is generated for the mean value
of the detection rate for all the 161 pairs of mammograms in
the MIAS database, to evaluate the performance of the
proposed method. There is no doubt that for the immediate
future mammography will continue to play a major role in
the detection of breast cancer. The ultimate objective of this
thesis was to identify tumor or masses in breast tissue. Since
hamartomas consists of normal breast tissue with abnormal
proportions and the first step was try to identify the different
tissue type in mammography with normal breast tissue. The
important features have been extracted from the Normalized
cut method of the each sub image using various statistical
techniques. The Genetic algorithm has been implemented and
the breast border was identified from the clustered image.
The tests that were carried out using a set of 117 tissues
samples, 67 benign and 50 malignant. The result analysis has
given a sensitivity of 99.8%, a specificity of 99.9% and an
accuracy above 99.9%, which means encouraging results.
The preliminary results of this approach are very promising
in characterizing breast tissue.
REFERENCES:
[1]
Bosch. A.; Munoz, X.; Oliver.A.; Marti. J.,
Modeling and Classifying Breast Tissue Density in
Mammograms, Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition,
2006 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Volume 2,
Issue , 2006 Page(s): 1552 15582.
[2]
Dar-Ren Chena,
Ruey-Feng Changb,
ChiiJen Chenb,
Ming-Feng Hob,
Shou-Jen Kuoa,
ShouTung Chena, Shin-Jer Hungc, Woo Kyung Moond,
Classification of breast ultrasound images using fractal
feature, ClinicalImage, Volume 29, Issue4, Pages 234-245.
[3]
Suri, J.S., Rangayyan, R.M.: Recent Advances in
Breast Imaging,
Mammography,and Computer-Aided Diagnosis of Breast
Cancer. 1st edn. SPIE (2006)
[4]
Hoos, A., Cordon-Cardo, C.: Tissue microarray
pro.ling of cancer specimens and cell lines: Opportunities
and limitations. Mod. Pathol. 81(10), 13311338 (2001)
[5]
Lekadir, K., Elson, D.S., Requejo-Isidro, J., Dunsby,
C., McGinty, J., Galletly, N.,Stamp, G., French, P.M., Yang,
G.Z.: Tissue characterization using dimensionality
reduction and .uorescence imaging. In: Larsen, R., Nielsen,
M., Sporring, J. (eds.) MICCAI 2006. LNCS, vol. 4191, pp.
586593. Springer, Heidelberg (2006).
[6]
A. Papadopoulos, D. I. Fotiadis, and A. Likas,An
Automatic
microcacalcification Detection System Based On a Hybrid
Neural Network Classifier, Artificial Intelligence in
Medicine,vol. 25, pp. 149-167, 2002.
[7]
A. Papadopoulos, D. I. Fotiadis, and A. Likas,
Characterization of Clustered
microcalcifications in Digitized Mammograms Using
Neural Networks and Support Vector Machine, Artificial
Intelligence in Medicine,vol. 34, pp. 141-150, 2005.
[8]
R. Mousa, Q. Munib, and A. Moussa, Breast
Cancer Diagnosis System based in Wavelet Analysis and
Fuzzy-Neural, Expert Systems with Applications, vol. 28,
pp. 713-723, 2005.
Page 5
Performance Improvement in Ad Hoc Networks

Using Dynamic Addressing
S.Jeyanthi#1, N.Uma Maheswari*2
#
Lecturer, Computer Science Department

PSNA College of Engg & Tech,Dindigul,Tamilnadu,India
1
sk.jeya@gmail.com
Assistant Professor
PSNA College of Engg & Tech,Dindigul,Tamilnadu,India
2
numamahi@gmail.com
Abstract
Dynamic addressing refers to the assignment of IP addresses
automatically. In this paper we propose the scalable routing
in ad hoc networks. It is well known that the current ad hoc
protocol do not scale to work efficiently in networks of more
than a few hundred nodes. Most current adhoc routing
architectures use flat static addressing and thus, need to keep
track of each node individually, creating a massive overhead
problem as the network grows. In this paper, we propose that
the use of dynamic addressing can enable scalable routing in
adhoc networks. We provide an initial design of a routing layer
based on dynamic addressing, and evaluate its performance.
Each node has a unique permanent identifier and a transient
routing address, which indicates its location in the network at
any given time. The main challenge is dynamic address
allocation in the face of node mobility. We propose
mechanisms to implement dynamic addressing efficiently. Our
initial evaluation suggests that dynamic addressing is a
promising approach for achieving scalable routing in large
adhoc and mesh networks.
Keywords Adhoc networks, Flat static addressing,

Dynamic addressing, Unique permanent identifier.
I. Introduction
Adhoc
networking
technology
has
advanced
tremendously but it has yet to become a widely deployed
technology. Ad hoc networks research seems to have
downplayed the importance of scalability. In fact, current ad
hoc architectures do not scale well beyond a few hundred
nodes. Existing Ad Hoc Routing Layers do not support
several hundred nodes and lack of scalability. It uses flat
static addressing. It creates a massive Routing overhead. It
increases searching time (not optimal solution). The easy-touse, self-organizing nature of ad hoc networks make them
attractive to a diverse set of applications. Today, these are
usually limited to smaller deployments, but if we can solve
the scalability problem, and provide support for heterogeneous

means of connectivity, including directional antennas,
communication lasers, even satellites and wires, ad hoc and
mesh-style networking is likely to see adoption in very large
networks as well. Large-scale events such as disaster relief or
rescue efforts are highly dependent on effective
communication capabilities. Such efforts could benefit
tremendously from the use of self-organizing networks to
improve the communications and monitoring capabilities
available. Other interesting candidate scenarios are community
networks in dense residential areas, large scale, long-range
networks in developing regions, and others, where no central
administrator exists, or where administration would prove too
costly. The current routing protocols and architectures work
well only up to a few hundred nodes. Most current research in
ad hoc networks focus more on performance and power
consumption related issues in relatively small networks, and
less on scalability. The main reason behind the lack of
scalability is that these protocols rely on flat and static
addressing. With scalability as a partial goal, some efforts
have been made in the direction of hierarchical routing and
clustering [1] [2] [3]. These approaches do hold promise, but
they do not seem to be actively pursued. It appears to us as if
these protocols would work well in scenarios with group
mobility [4], which is also a common assumption among
cluster based routing protocols. We examine that whether
dynamic addressing is a feasible way to achieve scalable
adhoc routing. Byscalable we mean thousands up to millions
of nodes in an ad hoc or mesh network. With dynamic
addressing, nodes change addresses as they move, so that their
addresses have a topological meaning. Dynamic addressing
simplifies routing but introduces two new problems: address
allocation, and address lookup. As a guideline, we identify a
set of properties that a scalable and efficient solution must
have:
Localization of overhead: a local change should affect only
the immediate neighborhood, thus limiting the overall
overhead incurred due to the change.
Page 6
Lightweight, decentralized protocols: To avoid the

responsibility at any individual node, and to keep the
necessary state to be maintained at each node as small as
possible.
Zero-configuration: To remove the need for manual
configuration beyond what can be done at the time of
manufacture.
Minimal restrictions on hardware: Omni directional link
layers do not scale to large networks. Localization
technologies, such as GPS, may limit protocol applicability.
We present a complete design including address allocation,
routing and address lookup mechanisms, and provide
thorough evaluation results for the address allocation and
routing components. First, we develop a dynamic addressing
scheme, which has the necessary properties mentioned
above. Our scheme separates node identity from node
address, and uses the address to indicate the nodes current
location in the network. Second, we study the performance
of a new routing protocol, based on dynamic addressing,
through analysis and simulations. The address allocation
scheme uses the address space efficiently on topologies of
randomly and uniformly distributed nodes, empirically
resulting in
Average routing table size< 2 log2 n
Where n is the number of nodes in the network. We describe
a new approach to routing in ad hoc networks, and compare
it to the current routing architectures. However, the goal is
to show the potential of this approach and not to provide an
optimized protocol. We believe that the dynamic addressing
approach is a viable strategy for scalable routing in ad hoc
networks.
II. Related Work
In most common IP-based ad hoc routing protocols [5] [7]
[8], addresses are used as pure identifiers. Without any
structure in the address space, there are two choices: either
keep routing entries for every node in the network, or resort
to flooding route requests throughout the network upon
connection setup. However, this approach can be severely
limiting as location information is not always available and
can be misleading in, among others, non-planar networks.
For a survey of ad hoc routing, see [9]. In the Zone Routing
Protocol (ZRP) [10] and Fisheye State Routing (FSR) [11],
nodes are treated differently depending on their distance
from the destination. In FSR, link updates are propagated
more slowly the further away they travel from their origin,
with the motivation that changes far away are unlikely to
affect local routing decisions. In ZRP is a hybrid reactive/
proactive protocol, where a technique called border casting
is used to limit the damaging effects of global broadcasts. In
multilevel-clustering approaches such as Landmark [12],
LANMAR [3], L+ [13], MMWN [1] and Hierarchical State
Routing (HSR) [2], certain nodes are elected as cluster
heads. These cluster heads in turn select higher level cluster

heads, up to some desired level. A nodes address is defined as
a sequence of cluster head identifiers, one per level, allowing
the size of routing tables to be logarithmic in the size of the
network, but easily resulting in long hierarchical addresses. In
HSR, for example, the hierarchical address is a sequence of
MAC addresses, each of which is 6 bytes long. A problem
with having explicit cluster heads is that routing through
cluster heads creates traffic bottlenecks. In Landmark,
LANMAR and L+, this is partially solved by allowing nearby
nodes route packets instead of the cluster head, if they know a
route to the destination. Our work is, as far as we know, the
first attempt to use this type of addressing in ad hoc networks.
Tribe [14] is similar to DART at a high level, in that it uses a
two phase process for routing: first address lookup, and then
routing to the address discovered. However, the tree-based
routing strategy used in Tribe bears little or no resemblance to
the area based approach in DART. Tree-based routing may
under many circumstances suffer from severe traffic
concentration at nodes high up in the tree, and a high
sensitivity to node failure.
III. Overview of Network Architecture
In this section, we present sketch of network architecture
shown in figure 1, which could utilize the new addressing
scheme effectively. In our approach, we separate the routing
address and the identity of a node. The routing address of a
node is dynamic and changes with node movement to reflect
the nodes location in the network topology.
DART
Cluster creation
Address allocation
Mapping
Distributed lookup table
Routing
Figure.1 Overall system design
Page 7
The identifier is a globally unique number that stays the

same throughout the lifetime of the node. For ease of
presentation, we can assume for now that each node has a
single identifier. When a node joins the network, it listens to
the periodic routing updates of its neighboring nodes, and
uses these to identify an unoccupied address. The joining
node registers its unique identifier and the newly obtained
address in the distributed node lookup table. Due to
mobility, the address may subsequently be changed and then
the lookup table needs to be updated. When a node wants to
send packets to a node known only by its identifier, it will
use the lookup table to find its current address. Once the
destination address is known the routing function takes care
of the communication. The routing function should make
use of the topological meaning that our routing addresses
possess. We start by presenting two views of the network
that we use to describe our approach: a) the address tree,
and b) the network topology.
Address Tree: In this abstraction, we visualize the network
from the address space point of view. Addresses are l bit
binary numbers, al-1, . . . , a0. The address space can be
thought of as a binary address tree of l + 1 level, as shown in
figure 2. The leaves of the address tree represent actual node
addresses; each inner node represents an address sub tree a
range of addresses with a common prefix.
Level 0 sub tree is a single address.
Level 1 sub tree has a 2 bit prefix and can

contain up to two leaf nodes.
Level 2 sub tree containing addresses [100]

through [111].
each sub tree of the address tree are enclosed with dotted lines.
Note that the set of nodes from any sub tree in figure 2 induces
a connected sub graph in the network topology in figure 3.
Figure.3 A network topology with node addresses assigned.
The nodes that are close to each other in the address space
should be relatively close in the network topology. More
formally, we can state the following constraint.
Prefix Sub graph Constraint: The set of nodes that share a
given address prefix form a connected sub graph in the
network topology. This constraint is fundamental to the
scalability of our approach. Intuitively, this constraint helps us
map the virtual hierarchy of the address space onto the
network topology. The longer the shared address prefix
between two nodes, the shorter the expected distance in the
network topology. Finally, let us define two new terms that
will facilitate the discussion in the following sections. A
Level-k sub tree of the address tree is defined by an address
prefix of (l-k) bits, as shown in figure 2. For example, a Level0 sub tree is a single address or one leaf node in the address
tree. A Level-1 sub tree has a (l-1)-bit prefix and can contain
up to two leaf nodes. In figure 1, [0xx] is a Level-2 sub tree
containing addresses [000] through [011]. Note that every
Level-k sub tree consists of exactly two Level-(k - 1) sub
trees. We define the term Level-k sibling of a given address to
be the sibling of the Level-k sub tree to which a given address
belongs. By drawing entire sibling sub trees as triangles, we
can create abstracted views of the address tree, as shown in
figure 4.
Figure.2 Address tree of 3-bit binary address space.
For presentation purposes, nodes are sorted in increasing

address order, from left to right. The actual physical links
are represented by dotted lines connecting leaves in fig 3.
Network Topology: This view represents the connectivity
between nodes. In figure 3, the network from figure 2 is
presented as a set of nodes and the physical connections
between them. Each solid line is an actual physical
connection, wired or wireless, and the sets of nodes from
Figure.4 Routing entries corresponding to figure 2. Node 100 has entries

for sub trees 0xx, 11x (null entry) and 101.
Here, we show the siblings of all levels for the address [100]
as triangles: the Level-0 sibling is [101], Level-1 is [11x], and
the Level-2 sibling is [0xx]. Note that each address has exactly
one Level-k sibling, and thus at most l siblings in total.
Page 8
Finally, we define the identifier of a sub tree to be the min

of the identifiers of all nodes that have addresses from that
sub tree. In cases where the prefix sub graph constraint is
temporarily violated, two disconnected instances of the
address sub tree exist in the network. In this case, each
instance is uniquely identified by the min of the subset of
identifiers that belongs to its connected sub graph. Our
addressing and routing schemes have several attractive
properties. First, they can work with omni directional and
directional antennas as well as wires. Second, we do not
need to assume the existence of central servers or any other
infrastructure, nor do we need to assume any geographical
location information, such as GPS coordinates. However, if
infrastructure and wires exist, they can, and will, be used to
improve the performance. Third, we make no assumptions
about mobility patterns, although high mobility will
certainly lead to increased overhead and decreased
throughput. Finally, since our approach was designed
primarily for scalability, we do not need to limit the size of
the network; most popular ad hoc routing protocols today
implicitly impose network size restrictions.
IV. Routing
In this work, we use a form of proactive distance-vector
routing, made scalable due to the hierarchical nature of the
address space. Although we have chosen to use distance
vector routing, we would like to point out that many of the
advantages of dynamic addressing can be utilized by a linkstate protocol as well. Each node keeps some routing state,
routing state about a nodes Level-i sibling is stored at
position i in each of the respective arrays. The routing state
for a sibling contains the information necessary to maintain
a route toward a node (any node) in that sub tree. The
address field contains the current address of the node, and
bit i of the address is referred to as address[i], where i = 0
for the least significant bit of the address. Arrays next hop
and cost are self-explanatory. The id array contains the
identifier of the sub tree in question. As described earlier,
the identifier of a sub tree is equal to the lowest out of all
the identifiers of the nodes that constitute that sub tree.
Finally, route log[i] contains the log of the current route to
the sibling at level i, where bit b of log i is referenced by the
syntax route log[i][b]. To identify the most significant bit
that differs between the current nodes address and the
destination address. In this case, the most significant
differing bit is bit number 2. The node then looks up the
entry with index two in the next hop table, and then sends
the packet there. In our example, this is the neighbor with
address [011]. The process is repeated until the packet has
reached the given destination address. The hierarchical
technique of only keeping track of sibling sub trees rather
than complete addresses has three immediate benefits. One,
the amount of routing state kept at each node is drastically

reduced. Two, the size of the routing updates is similarly
reduced. Three, it provides an efficient routing abstraction
such that routing entries for distant nodes can remain valid
despite local topology changes in the vicinity of these nodes.
A. Loop Avoidance
DART uses a novel scheme for detecting and avoiding routing
loops, which leverages the hierarchical nature of the address
space to improve scalability. A simple way of implementing
this is to concatenate a list of all visited nodes in the routing
update, and to have nodes check this list before accepting an
update. However, this approach has a scalability problem, in
that routing updates will quickly grow to unwieldy sizes.
Instead, DART makes use of the structured address space to
create a new kind of loop avoidance scheme. In order to
preserve scalability, we generalize the loop freedom rule
above. For each sub tree, once a routing entry has left the sub
tree, it is not allowed to re-enter. This effectively prevents
loops, and can be implemented in a highly scalable manner.
V. Node Lookup
We propose to use a distributed node lookup table, which
maps each identifier to an address, similar to what we
proposed in [5]. Here, we assume that all nodes take part in the
lookup table, each storing a few7 <identifier, address> entries.
However, this node lookup scheme is only one possibility
among many, and more work is needed to determine the best
lookup scheme to deploy. For our proposed distributed lookup
table, the question now arises: which node stores a given
<identifier, address> entry? Let us call this node the anchor
node of the identifier. We use a globally, and a priori, known
hash function that takes an identifier as argument and returns
an address where the entry can be found. If there exists a node
that occupies this address, then that node is the anchor node.
If there is no node with that address, then the node with the
least edit distance between its own address and the destination
address is the anchor node. To route packets to an anchor
node, we use a slightly modified routing algorithm: If no route
can be found to a sibling sub tree indicated by a bit in the
address, that bit of the address is ignored, and the packet is
routed to the sub tree indicated by the next (less significant)
bit. When the last bit has been processed, the packet has
reached its destination. This method effectively finds the node
with the address minimum edit distance to the address
returned by the hash function. For example, using figure 3 for
reference, lets assume a node with identifier ID1 has a current
routing address of [010]. This node will periodically send an
updated entry to the lookup table, namely <ID1, 010>. To
figure out where to send the entry, the node uses the hash
function to calculate an address, like so: hash (ID1). If the
returned address is [100], the packet will simply be routed to
the node with that address. However, if the returned address
Page 9
was instead [111], the packet could not be routed to the

node with address [111] because there is no such node. In
such a situation, the packet gets automatically routed to the
node with the most similar address, which in this case would
be [101]
A. Improved Scalability
We would like to stress that all node lookup operations use
unicast only: no broadcasting or flooding is required. This
maintains the advantage of proactive and distance vector
based protocols over on-demand protocols: the routing
overhead is independent of how many connections are
active. When compared with other distance vector protocols,
our scheme provides improved scalability by drastically
reducing the size of the routing tables, as we described
earlier. In addition, updates due to a topology change are in
most cases contained within a lower level sub tree and do
not affect distant nodes. This is efficient in terms of routing
overhead. To further improve the performance of our node
lookup operations, we envision using the locality
optimization technique described in [5]. Here, each lookup
entry is stored in several locations, at increasing distance
from the node in question. By starting with a small, local
lookup and gradually going to further away locations, we
can avoid sending lookup requests across long distances to
find a node that is nearby.
B. Coping with Temporary Route
Failures On occasion, due to link or node failure, a node will
not have a completely accurate routing table. This could
potentially lead to lookup packets, both updates and
requests, terminating at the wrong node. The end result of
this is that requests cannot be promptly served. In an effort
to reduce the effect of such intermittent errors, a node can
periodically check the lookup entries it stores, to see if a
route to a more suitable host has been found. If this should
be the case, the entry is forwarded in the direction of this
more suitable host. Requests are handled in a similar
manner: if the request could not be answered with an
address, it is kept in a buffer awaiting either the arrival of
the requested information, or the appearance of a route to a
node which more closely matches the key requested. This
way, even if a request packet arrives at the anchor node
before the update has reached it; the request will be buffered
and served as soon as the update information is available.
C. Practical Considerations
Due to the possibility of network partitioning and node
failure, it is necessary to have some sort of redundancy
mechanism built-in. We have opted for a method of periodic
refresh, where every node periodically sends its information
to its anchor node. By doing so, the node ensures that if its
anchor node should become unavailable, the lookup
information will be available once again within one refresh
period. Similarly, without a mechanism of expiry, outdated
information may linger even after a node has left the network.
Therefore, we set all lookup table entries to expire
automatically after a period twice as long as the periodic
refresh interval.
VI. Dynamic Address Allocation
To assess the feasibility of dynamic addressing, we develop a
suite of protocols that implement such an approach. Our work
effectively solves the main algorithmic problems, and forms a
stable framework for further dynamic addressing research.
When a node joins an existing network, it uses the periodic
routing updates of its neighbors to identify and select an
unoccupied and legitimate address. It starts out by selecting
which neighbor to get an address from the neighbor with the
highest level insertion point is selected as the best neighbor.
The insertion point is defined as the highest level for which no
routing entry exists in a given neighbors routing table.
However, the fact that a routing entry happens to be
unoccupied in one neighbors routing table does not guarantee
that it represents a valid address choice. We discuss how the
validity of an address is verified in the next subsection. The
new node picks an address out of a possibly large set of
available addresses. In our current implementation, we make
nodes pick an address in the largest unoccupied address block.
For example, in figure 4, a joining node connecting to the
node with address [100] will pick an address in the [11x] sub
tree. Figure 5 illustrates the address allocation procedure for a
3-bit address space.
Figure.5 Address allocation procedure for a 3-bit address space
There are several ways to choose among the available

addresses, and we have presented only one such method.
However, it has turned out that this method of address
selection works well in simulation trials. Under steady-state,
and discounting concurrency, the presented address selection
technique leads to a legitimate address allocation: the joining
node is by definition connected to neighbor it got its new
address from, and the new address is taken from one of the
neighbors empty sibling sub trees, so the prefix sub graph
constraint is satisfied. Node A starts out alone with address
[000]. When node B joins the network, it observes that A has a
null routing entry corresponding to the sub tree [1xx], and
Page 10
picks the address [100]. Similarly when C joins the network

by connecting to B, C picks the address [110]. Finally, when
D joins via A, As [1xx] routing entry is now occupied.
However, the entry corresponding to sibling [01x] is still
empty, and so, D takes the address [010].
Merging Networks Efficiently - DART handles the merging
of two initially separate networks as part of normal
operations. In a nutshell, the nodes in the network with the
higher identifier join the other network one by one8. The
lower id network absorbs the other network slowly: the
nodes at the border will first join the other network, and
then their neighbors join them recursively.
Dealing with Split Networks - Here, we describe how we
deal with network partitioning. Intuitively, each partition
can keep its addresses, but one of the partitions will need to
change its network identifier. In this situation, there are
generally no constraint violations. This reduces to the case
where the node with the lowest identifier leaves the
network. Since the previous lowest identifier node is no
longer part of the network, the routing update from the new
lowest identifier node can propagate through the network
until all nodes are aware of the new network identifier.
VII. Maintaining the Dynamic Routing Table
While packet forwarding is a simple matter of looking up a
next hop in a routing table, maintaining a consistent routing
state does involve a moderate amount of sophistication. In
addition to address allocation, loop detection and avoidance
is crucial to correct protocol operation. DART nodes use
periodic routing updates to notify their neighbors of the
current state of their routing table. If, within a constant
number of update periods, a node does not hear an update
from a neighbor, it is removed from the list of neighbors,
and its last update discarded. Every period, each node
executes Refresh() function. Refresh() checks the validity of
its current address, populates a routing table using the
information received from its neighbors, and broadcasts a
routing update.
When populating the routing table, the entry for each level,
i, in the received routing update is inspected is sequence,
starting at the top level. For neighbors where the address
prefix differs at bit i, we create a new routing entry, with a
one-hop distance. It also has an empty route log, with the
exception of bit i, which represents the level-i sub tree
boundary that was just crossed. The sub tree identifier is
computed using the id array. After this, the procedure
returns, as the remaining routing information is internal to
the neighbors sub tree, and irrelevant to the current node.
For nodes with the same address prefix as the current node,
we go on to inspect their routing entry for level i. First, we
ensure that the entry is loop free. If so, then keep the routing
entry as long as the identifier of the entry is the same or
smaller than what is already in the routing table, and as long as

the distance is smaller.
VIII. Simulation Results
We conduct our experiments using two simulators. One is the
well known ns-2 network simulator. In ns-2, we used the
standard distribution; version 2.26 used the standard values for
the Lucent Wave LAN physical layer, and the IEEE 802.11
MAC layer code, together with patch for a retry counter bug
recently identified by Dan Berger at UC Riverside9. For all of
the ns-2 simulations, we used the Random Waypoint mobility
model with up to 800 nodes and a maximum speed of 5 m/s, a
minimum speed of 0.5 m/ s, a maximum pause time of 100
seconds and a warm-up period of 3600 seconds10. The
duration of all the ns-2 simulations was 300 seconds11,
wherein the first 60 seconds are free of data traffic, allowing
the initial address allocation to take place and for the network
to thereby organize itself. The size of the simulation area was
chosen to keep average node degree close to 9. For example,
for a 400-node network, the size of the simulation area was
2800x2800 meters. This was done in order to maintain a
mostly connected topology. Mobility parameters were chosen
to simulate a moderately mobile network. DART is not
suitable for networks with very high levels of mobility, as
little route aggregation benefits are to be had when the current
location of most nodes bear little relation to where these nodes
were a few seconds ago. Our simulations focus on the address
allocation and routing aspects of our protocol, not including
the node lookup layer, which is replaced by a global lookup
table accessible by all nodes in the simulation.
The choice of lookup mechanism (for example distributed,
hierarchical, replicated, centralized, or out-of-band) should be
determined by network characteristics, and performance may
vary depending on what mechanism is used. Here follows a
summary of our findings. DSDV, due to its periodic updates
and flat routing tables, experiences very high overhead growth
as the network grows beyond 100 nodes, but nevertheless
performs well in comparison with other protocols in the size
ranges studied. AODV, due to its reactive nature, suffers from
high overhead growth both as the size of the network, and the
number of flows, grows. While AODV performs very well in
small networks, the trend suggests that it is not
recommendable for larger networks .DSR, in our simulations,
performed well in small networks, and never experienced high
overhead growth, likely due to its route caching functionality.
However, due to excessive routing failures, DSR demonstrated
unacceptable performance in larger networks. Finally, DART,
demonstrated its scalability benefits in terms of no overhead
growth with the number of flows, and logarithmic overhead
growth with network size. The simulation results shown in
Figure 6, 7, 8.
Page 11
IX. Performance Evaluation

We compare our protocol to reactive protocols (AODV, DSR)
and a proactive protocol (DSDV). Our results shown in table.1
suggest that dynamic addressing and proactive routing
together provide significant scalability advantages and high
level addressing. DART reduces the overhead growth with the
number of flows, and logarithmic overhead growth with
network size shown in figure 1.
No of
Transmitted
packets
No of Lost
packets
Figure.6 Communication between source and destination
DSDV DSR AODV DART

10726 5138 23349 42661
82
234
1003
1654
Table.1 DART performance
Figure.7 Destination became member in group 3

Figure.9 Throughput vs. Network Size (Nodes)
Figure.8 Destination leaving group3 and move towards group4
X. Conclusion
We proposed Dynamic address routing, an initial design
toward scalable ad hoc routing. We outline the novel
challenges involved in a dynamic addressing scheme, and
proceeded to describe efficient algorithmic solutions. We
show how our dynamic addressing can support scalable
routing. We demonstrate, through simulation and analysis, that
our approach has promising scalability properties and is a
viable alternative to current ad hoc routing protocols. First, we
qualitatively compare proactive and reactive overhead and
determine the regime in which proactive routing exhibits less
overhead that its reactive counterpart. Large scale simulations
show that the average routing table size with DART grows
logarithmically with the size of the network. Second, using the
ns-2 simulator, we compare our routing scheme to AODV,
Page 12
DSR and DSDV, and observe that our approach achieves

superior throughput, and with considerably smaller
overhead, in networks larger than 400 nodes. The trend in
simulated overhead, together with the analysis provided,
strongly indicate that DART is the only feasible routing
protocol for large networks. We believe that dynamic
addressing can be the basis for ad hoc routing protocols that
for massive adhoc and mesh networks.
REFERENCES
[1] Ram Ramanathan and Martha Steenstrup, Hierarchically-organized,
multihop mobile wireless networks for quality-of-service support, Mobile
Networks and Applications, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 101119, 1998.
[2] Guangyu Pei, Mario Gerla, Xiaoyan Hong, and Ching-Chuan Chiang,
A wireless hierarchical routing protocol with group mobility, in WCNC,
1999.
[3] G. Pei, M. Gerla, and X. Hong, Lanmar: Landmark routing for large
scale wireless ad hoc networks with group mobility, in ACM
MobiHOC00, 2000.
[4] X. Hong, M. Gerla, G. Pei, and C. Chiang, A group mobility model for
ad hoc wireless networks, 1999.
[5] J. Eriksson, M. Faloutsos, and S. Krishnamurthy, Peernet: Pushing
peer-2-peer down the stack., in IPTPS, 2003.
[6] C. Perkins, Ad hoc on demand distance vector routing, 1997.
[7] Charles Perkins and Pravin Bhagwat, Highly dynamic
destinationsequenced distance-vector routing (DSDV) for mobile
computers, in ACM SIGCOMM94, 1994.
[8] David B Johnson and David A Maltz, Dynamic source routing in ad
hoc wireless networks, in Mobile Computing, vol. 353. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1996.
[9] Xiaoyan Hong, Kaixin Xu, and Mario Gerla, Scalable routing
protocols for mobile ad hoc networks, IEEE NETWORK, vol. 16, no. 4,
2002.
[10] Z. Haas, A new routing protocol for the reconfigurable wireless
networks, 1997.
[11] Guangyu Pei, Mario Gerla, and Tsu-Wei Chen, Fisheye state routing:
A routing scheme for ad hoc wireless networks, in ICC (1), 2000, pp. 70
74.
[12] Paul F. Tsuchiya, The landmark hierarchy : A new hierarchy for
routing in very large networks, in SIGCOMM. 1988, ACM.
[13] Benjie Chen and Robert Morris, L+: Scalable landmark routing and
address lookup for multi-hop wireless networks, 2002.
[14] Aline C. Viana, Marcelo D. de Amorim, Serge Fdida, and Jos F. de
Rezende, Indirect routing using distributed location information, ACM
Mobile Networks Applications, Special Issue on Mobile and Pervasive
Computing, 2003.
[15] Jakob Eriksson, Michalis Faloutsos, and Srikanth Krishnamurthy,
Scalable ad hoc routing: The case for dynamic addressing, in IEEE
InfoCom, 2004.
Page 13
Framework for Comparison of

Association Rule Mining using Genetic Algorithm
K.Indira,
Research Scholar,
Department of CSE,
Pondicherry Engineering College,
Pondicherry, India
S.Kanmani
Professor & Head
Department of IT
Pondicherry, India
induharini@gmail.com
kanmani@pec.edu
Abstract A new framework for comparing the literature on

Genetic Algorithm for Association Rule Mining is proposed in
this paper. Genetic Algorithms have emerged as practical,
robust optimization and search methods to generate accurate
and reliable Association Rules. The main motivation for using
GAs in the discovery of high-level prediction rules is that they
perform a global search and cope better with attribute
interaction than the greedy rule induction algorithms often used
in data mining. The objective of the paper is to compare the
performance of different methods based on the methodology,
datasets used and results achieved. It is shown that the
modification introduced in GAs increases the prediction
accuracy and also reduces the error rate in mining effective
association rules. The time required for mining is also reduced.
Keywords - Data Mining, Genetic Algorithm, Association Rule
Mining,
I.
INTRODUCTION
Data selection: at this step, the data relevant to the

analysis is decided on and retrieved from the data collection.
Data transformation: also known as data

consolidation, it is a phase in which the selected data is
transformed into forms appropriate for the mining procedure.
Data mining: it is the crucial step in which clever

techniques are applied to extract patterns potentially useful.
Pattern evaluation: in this step, strictly interesting

patterns representing knowledge are identified based on
given measures.
Knowledge representation: is the final phase in

which the discovered knowledge is visually represented to
the user. This essential step uses visualization techniques to
help users understand and interpret the data mining results.
The architecture of Data mining system is depicted in
figure.1
In todays jargon enormous amount of data are stored in

files, databases, and other repositories. Hence it becomes
necessary, to develop powerful means for analysis and
interpretation of such data and for the extraction of
interesting knowledge to help in decision-making. Thus,
there is a clear need for (semi-) automatic methods for
extracting knowledge from data. This need has led to the
emergence of a field called data mining and knowledge
discovery.
Data Mining, also popularly known as Knowledge Discovery
in Databases (KDD), refers to the nontrivial extraction of
implicit, previously unknown and potentially useful
information from data in databases. The Knowledge
Discovery in Databases process comprises of a few steps
starting from raw data collections to formation of new
knowledge. The iterative process consists of the following
steps:
Data cleaning: also known as data cleansing, is a

phase in which noise data and irrelevant data are removed
from the collection.
Data integration: at this stage, multiple data sources,

often heterogeneous, may be combined in a common source.
Figure 1. Architecture of typical Data mining System.
Page 14
This paper reviews the works published in the literature,

where basic Genetic Algorithm is modified in some form to
address Association Rule Mining. The rest of the paper is
organized as follows. Section II briefly explains Association
Analysis. Section III gives a preliminary overview of
Genetic Algorithm for Rule Mining. Section IV Reviews the
different approaches reported in the literature based on
Genetic Algorithm for Mining Association Rules. Section V
lists the inferences attained from the comparison. Section VI
presents the concluding remarks and suggestions for further
research.
I.
new population. The flowchart of the Basic Genetic

Algorithm is given in figure 2.
ASSOCIATION ANALYSIS
Association analysis is the discovery of what are commonly

called association rules. It studies the frequency of items
occurring together in transactional databases, and based on a
threshold called support, identifies the frequent item sets.
Another threshold, confidence, which is the conditional
probability that an item appears in a transaction when
another item appears, is used to pinpoint association rules.
The discovered association rules are of the form: P Q [s,c],
where P and Q are conjunctions of attribute value-pairs, and
s (for support) is the probability that P and Q appear together
in a transaction and c (for confidence) is the conditional
probability that Q appears in a transaction when P is present.
III. GENETIC ALGORITHM
A Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a procedure used to find
approximate solutions to search problems through the
application of the principles of evolutionary biology. Genetic
algorithms use biologically inspired techniques such as
genetic inheritance, natural selection, mutation, and sexual
reproduction (recombination, or crossover).
Genetic algorithms are typically implemented using
computer simulations in which an optimization problem is
specified. For this problem, members of a space of candidate
solutions, called individuals, are represented using abstract
representations called chromosomes. The GA consists of an
iterative process that evolves a working set of individuals
called a population toward an objective function, or fitness
function. Traditionally, solutions are represented using fixed
length strings, especially binary strings, but alternative
encodings have been developed.
The evolutionary process of a GA is a highly simplified and
stylized simulation of the biological version. It starts from a
population of individuals randomly generated according to
some probability distribution, usually uniform and updates
this population in steps called generations. Each generation,
multiple individuals are randomly selected from the current
population based upon some application of fitness, bred
using crossover, and modified through mutation to form a
Figure 2. Basic Genetic Algorithm.
A.
[Start] Generate random population of n
chromosomes (suitable solutions for the problem)
B.
[Fitness] Evaluate the fitness f(x) of each
chromosome x in the population
C.
[New population] Create a new population by
repeating the following steps until the new population is
complete
i.
[Selection] Select two parent chromosomes from a
population according to their fitness (the better fitness, the
bigger chance to be selected)
ii.
[Crossover] With a crossover probability cross over
the parents to form a new offspring (children). If no
crossover was performed, offspring is an exact copy of
parents.
iii.
[Mutation] With a mutation probability mutate new
offspring at each locus (position in chromosome).
iv.
[Accepting] Place new offspring in a new
population
D.
[Replace] Use new generated population for a
further run of algorithm
E.
[Test] If the end condition is satisfied, stop, and
return the best solution in current population
F.
[Loop] Go to step 2
Page 15
IV. ANALYSIS ON GENETIC ALGORITHM FOR

MINING ASSOCIATION RULES
Among the Genetic algorithms designed for the purpose
of Association rule mining is discussed based on the
following criteria
1. Genetic Operations
2. Encoding
I. Initial Population
II. Crossover
III. Mutation
IV. Fitness Threshold
3. Methodology.
4. Application areas.
5. Evaluation Parameters
The various methodologies are listed in Table A1. given in
Annexure.
1. Genetic Operations
The basic steps in the traditional Genetic algorithm
implementations are discussed in the previous section.
Modifications are carried out in the traditional GA to
increase the prediction accuracy thereby reducing error rate
in mining association rules.
The variations have been
carried out in various steps of GA.
2. Encoding : Encoding is the process of representing the
entities in datasets for mining. Rules or chromosomes can be
represented either with fixed length data [2..18] or by
varying length chromosomes[1], Fuzzy rules are
implemented for encoding data in [10], In [4] and [6] coding
is done using natural numbers, In [17] Gene expressions are
used for representation of chromosomes and encoding is
carried out using arrays in [7] .
Initial Population: The initial population could be generated
by random selection, seeded by users [1], single rule set
generation [5] and Fuzzy Rules [10].
Crossover: The Crossover operator which produces new
offspring and hence new population plays a vital role in
enhancing the efficiency of the algorithms. The changes are
carried out as discussed in Table A1. Saggar. M et. Al [2]
describes whether crossover is to be performed or not and if
required the locus point where the crossover begins is of
prime importance. Crossover on same attributes of both
offspring if present or random attributes in absence of similar
attributes is carried out in [11]. In [12] setting the crossover
rate dynamically for each generations are presented. The
concept of Symbiotic combination, where instead of
crossover the combination of chromosomes to generate a
new chromosome based on Symbiogenesis in Ramin
Halavathy et. Al [5] has proved to increase the speed of the
rule generation system.
Mutation: Mutation is the process where attributes of

selected entities are changed to from a new offspring. The
Mutation Operator is altered based on the application domain
into macro mutation in [1], changing locus points of
mutation in [2]. The weight factor is taken into consideration
for locus point of mutation in [5] so as to generate a better
offspring, Dynamic mutation where the mutation point is
decided on the particular entity and generation selected
enhances the diversity of colony is introduced in [12],
mutation 1 & mutation 2 where mutation is performed twice
to generate offspring is performed in [16]. Adaptive mutation
where the mutation rate differs for each generation is found
to produce better offsprings in [17].
Fitness Threshold: The passing of chromosomes from a
population to new population for the succeeding generation
depends on the fitness criteria. Changes to the fitness
functions or threshold values alter the population and hence
the effective fitness values lead to the efficiency of the rules
generated. The negation of the attributes are taken into
consideration while generating rules by including criteria
like True Positive, True Negative, False Positive and False
Negative[2]. By these criteria rules with negated conditions
of attributes are also generated. By varying the fitness values
dynamically in each generation, the speed of the system can
be improved [4]. Factors like strength of implication of rules
when considered while calculating fitness threshold proves
to generate more interesting rules [6]. The Sustainability
index, creditable index and inclusive index when considered
for fitness threshold results in better predictive accuracy [7].
When the real values of confidence and support derived and
applied in threshold rate found to generate faster than
traditional methods [8].
The predictability and
comprehensibility factors of rules tends to provide better
classification performance[11].
3. Methodology
Rather than altering the operations in basic GA
algorithm the changes made in the methodology has also
proved to increase the performance. In [5] the crossover
operation is replaced by symbiotic recombination techniques.
Wenxiang Dou et. Al [8] describes the generation of rules
and displayed to the user. The user decides the interesting
rules thereby seeding the population by the user. Here
instead of searching the whole database for support the
system searches K- itemset alone and hence is faster than
other methodologies. The real values of support and
confidence are taken into account while generating threshold
values. If user is not satisfied then more rules with next level
of support could be generated. The response time of the
system is found to be increased dramatically.
Antonio Peregrin et. Al [9] states the distributed genetic
algorithm where the Elit data pool is the central node. Each
node connected are considered as Intercommunicating
Page 16
Subpopulations. The Data Learning Flow (DLF) Copies the

Training Example with Low Fitness to neighborhood and
each node is assigned with different partitions of learning
data. In [18] the concept of Dynamic Immune Evolution and
Biometric Mechanism
is introduced. The immune
recognition, immune memory and immune regulation is
applied to GA and thereby making the system faster and
discovering interesting rules though support might be low.
Predictive Accuracy of more than 95 percentage was

seen in 55 % of datasets.
Predictive Accuracy between 80 - 94 percentage was

Predictive Accuracy between 75 79 percentage

was seen in 10 % of datasets.
Predictive Accuracy of less than 75 percentage was

4. Application Areas
Predictive accuracy of 100 % is achieved with methodology

[1] and [14]. The error rate is seen maximum in Pima dataset
under UCI repository by SGERD method [10].
From the dataset in Table A1 it is derived that the

Genetic Algorithm is flexible in nature and could be applied
to varying data sets. Different areas of applications as
Biology, biometrics, Education, Manufacturing Information
System, Application Protocol interface records from
Computers for Intrusion Detection, Software Engineering,
Virus information from Computer data, Image data base,
Finance information, Students Information etc. are taken up
for study. It is seen that by altering representations and
operators the Genetic algorithm could be applied for any
fields without compromising the efficiency.
5. Evaluation Parameters
To achieve the best performance from any system
setting of the evaluation parameters are vital. For mining
efficient association rules using the evolutionary Genetic
Algorithm the parameters that affects the functioning of the
system are representation of chromosomes and their length,
population Size, Mutation probability, Crossover probability
and the Fitness threshold values. The use of support and
confidence factor in deciding the threshold values also
increases the performance of the system.
It is seen form the Table A1 that parameters dont
have predefined boundaries. The values of the parameters are
based upon the methodology applied and the dataset. It is
found that the mutation rate differs from 0.005 to 0.6.
Similarly the Crossover probability ranges from 0.1 to 0.9.
The fitness function is found to be the most crucial
parameter. The optimum method for the fitness threshold
evaluation has to be arrived in order to achieve the highest
performance. The carrying over of offspring from one
generation to other is based on fitness function the
population. Different factors of the system are takem into
consideration while generating fitness function. Efficient the
fitness function, efficient and accurate are the association
rule that are generated by the system
V.
INFERENCES
The study of the different system using Genetic

Algorithm for Association rule mining was carried out. The
predictive accuracy based on the methods under comparison
is noted that
Based on the time for mining association rules as low as 5

and 9.81 seconds were achieved in SGERD [10] and Quick
response data mining model [8] respectively and maximum
of 7012 seconds is taken up for mining KDDCUP99 dataset
using Genetic algorithm with symbiogenesis [5].
The tools used for mining are GA Toolbox from Mat lab,
Java, C++ and Weka for training the datasets.
From the Study it could be inferred that
The system is flexible and could be applied to varying
datasets and applications.
The performance of the system is improved when
compared to other existing methods like Apriori, C4.5,
REGAL, Data-miner etc.
The Genetic operators are the key in achieving increased
performance.
The speed of the system increases rapidly when
compared with other methods.
The optimum values for the mutation, crossover and
threshold decide on the performance of the system.
Better and precise rules are generated.

Classification error rates are reduced in comparison..
Negated attributes could be derived in rules.
Critical rules could be generated even if support is low.
VI. CONCLUSION
The framework for comparing the effectiveness of
Genetic Algorithm in mining Association rules is taken up
for study. Various systems applying GA for mining
Association rules are considered and the tabulation was done
with the data chosen. From the analysis it could be derived
that the classification performance of the system was found
to be robust. Genetic Algorithm based implementation
Outperforms Conventional Methods. The speedup achieved
is remarkable. For future work the combination of one or two
methodologies could be carried out for basic GA operators.
The given system for a particular domain can be further
modified for other domains.
Page 17
Table A1 : Genetic Algorithms For Association Rule Mining: A Comparative Study

Data Set
Ref
.No
Methodology
Steps In Genetic Algorithm
Represen
-tation
[1]
Varying
Length
Selectio
n
Seeded
Populati
on
Mutation
Macro
Mutations
Cross
Over
As GA
As GA
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Binary
Coding
As GA
Using
Natural
Numbers
As GA
Using
Natural
Numbers
Roulette
Wheel
Selection
As GA
Roulette
Wheel
Selection
As GA
Optimum
Value
Whether
Required
Or Not
And If
Point Of
Crossove
r
As GA
Optimum
Value
Changes
In Weight Symbiotic
Generate
Of
Combinati
Single
Membersh
on
Rule Sets
ip
Operator
Function
As GA
As GA
As GA
TP,TN,FP, FN
Used
As GA
As GA
Grilled
Mushrooms
in Agaricus
and Lepiota
Family.
Synthetic
Database for
the Selection
of Electives
for a Course
Data Set from

MIS
Synthetic
Image
Database
KDDCUP99
Classes 2
CRX
Classes 2
As GA
Individual
Evaluation
Using Strength
Of Implication
[7]
Array
Represent
a -Tion
As GA
As GA
As GA
Based On
Sustaining,
Creditable
And Inclusive
Index
[8]
As GA
Done By
As GA
As GA
Based On Real
Evaluated By / Parameters
Size /
Pc/
Suppor Confi
t
dence
Fitness
Vehicle
Silhouette
Dataset
Whether
Required
Or Not
And If
Point Of
Mutation
Sample
Size
Fitness
Gen
er atio
ns
8128 Of 23
Species
22
Attributes
846
Records
18
Attributes
100
0.1
0.005
5%
User
define
d
5%
*
.25%
To
2%
4 To
14
Completen
ess
consider
-red
User
defined
Features 15
Size 690
Features 4
Size 150
Vote
Classes 2
Features 16
Size 435
Wine
Classes 3
Features 13
Size 178
10000
0.4
10
0.85
0.4
0.2
0.8
0.6
0.6
50
Six Datasets
from Irvine
Repository
S.I 1.0
C I 1.0
I.I 1.0
10
*
Single Table
Accuracy On
Training
Dataset
Between 95 To
100. On Test
Data Between
62 And 71
Rules With
Negation Of
Attributes As
Well As
General Rules
Generated
Based On
Time And
Fetching
Knowledge
GA Is Faster
Than Apriori.
Runs 2 To 5
Times Faster
Than Apriori
Features 41
Size 494021
IRIS
Classes 3
Car
Test Results
Dataset
Pm
Results
40
10%
50%
50
SEA Has
Better Or
Similar
Results When
Compared
With GA
SEA Much
Faster Than
GA
During
Generation
Between 1 To
200
Interesting
Rules For
Whatever Be
The
Threshold.
Predictive
Accuracy
Better Than
CN2 And AntMiner
Methods
Response Got
Page 18
Users
From
Rules
Generate
d
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
Support And
Confidence
Produced
Randomly
with 100
Transactions
Multiple Intercommunicating Subpopulations

Distributed Data And DLF
Central Elite Pool

UCI : Nursery
The Data Learning Flow (DLF) Copies The

Training Example With Low Fitness To Neighborhood
Each Node Is Assigned With Different Partitions Of

Learning Data
Fuzzy
Rules
As GA
As GA
As GA
As GA
Gene
String
Struct
ure
0
*
0.01
0.9
As GA
Elitist
As GA Recombinat
ion Method
As GA
Attributes
As GA
As GA
As GA
As GA
As GA
As GA
As GA
As GA
Dynamic
Adaptive
As GA
As GA
Mutation1
&
Mutation
2
Adaptive
As GA
Done On
Same
Attributes
If Present
Or
Random
Dynamic
As GA
As GA
As GA
As GA
Predictive
Accuracy
11 Data Sets
from Irvine
Machine
Learning
Repository
Adult
Nursery
Datasets
from UCI
Based On Last
Generation
Finance
Service Data
of Certain
City
Individual
Based
Database Of
Student
Achievement
in Schools in
Recent Years
Modified To
Decide
KDD CUP99
Whether A
Dataset
Chromosome
Is Right Or Not
Feature
Selection Is
Applied
CM1, KC1,
KC2, PC1
From UCI
Repository
Vehicle
Dataset And
As GA
Adaptive
Based On
Distance
Between Rules Lympography
Dataset From
UCI ML
Measure Of
Overall
Performance
Dynamic Immune Evolution And Biometric
Real Case
Data
Computers
12960
Instances
optimu
m
48842
Instances
15attributes
40
Optimu
m
0.3
200
Optimu
m
0.6
0.9
0.01
0.7
148 Records
18 Attributes
4 Classes
Varie
s
240
Length Of Chromosome 41
Generations 100
Generation Gap 0.9
Varie
s
Varie
s
0.1
0.01
0.01
846 Records,
18 Attributes
4 Classes
50
22
0.05
*
12960 With
9 Attributes
2050
Groups
optimu
m
50
0
600
0.6
0.8
0.005
Varies
*
In Ten
Seconds
Whereas For
Apriori It Is
More Than
3000 Seconds
Faster And
Better
Behavior
Number Of
Rules
Generated Is
Between 60%80% Smaller
Classification
Error Rates
Are Low
Outperforms
C4.5
Better
Classification
Performance
Produces Partial
Association
Rules After 252
Generations
Whereas It Is
850 In
traditional GA
The
Algorithm
Based On 0.1
Support And
0.7
Confidence Is
Close To
Actual
Situation
Rules
Generated Are
Useful In
Detecting
Intrusion
Generated
Rules That
Provide Better
Estimation
And
Explanation
Of Defective
Modules
10
0
GRA
Outperforms
Conventional
Methods
50
Performance
And
Effectiveness
Of Proposed
Model Is Close
With Real
World Analysis
Faster &
Page 19
Mechanism Is Introduced
Immune Recognition, Immune Memory And
Immune Regulation Is Applied To GA
Daily Records
Of API
0.26
*
Discovers
New Critical
Rules Though
Support Not
High
Note : *- not defined in literature

REFERENCES
[1].
Cattral, R., Oppacher, F., Deugo, D.,Rule
Acquisition with a Genetic Algorithm, Proceedings of the
1999 Congress on Evolutionary Computation,. CEC 99,
1999.
[2].
Saggar, M., Agrawal, A.K., Lad, A.,
Optimization
of
Association
Rule
Mining,
IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and
Cybernetics, Vol. 4, Page(s): 3725 3729, 2004
[3].
Cunrong li, Mingzhong Yang, Association Rules
Data
mining
in
Manufacturing,
3rd International Conference on Computational
Electromagnetics and Its Applications, Page(s): 153 156,
2004.
[4].
Shangping Dai, Li Gao, Qiang Zhu, Changwu
Zhu, A Novel Genetic Algorithm Based on Image
Databases for Mining Association Rules, 6th IEEE/ACIS
International Conference on Computer and Information
Science, Page(s): 977 980, 2007
[5].
Halavati, R., Shouraki, S.B., Esfandiar, P., Lotfi,
S., Rule Based Classifier Generation Using Symbiotic
Evolutionary Algorithm , 19th IEEE International
Conference on Tools with Artificial Intelligence, Volume:
1, Page(s): 458 464, 2007.
[6].
Zhou Jun, Li Shu-you, Mei Hong-yan, Liu Haixia, A Method for Finding Implicating Rules Based on the
Genetic Algorithm, Third International Conference on
Natural Computation, Volume: 3, Page(s): 400 405,
2007.
[7].
Hua Tang, Jun Lu, A Hybrid Algorithm
Combined Genetic Algorithm with Information Entropy for
Data Mining, 2nd IEEE Conference on Industrial
Electronics and Applications, Page(s): 753 757, 2007.
[8].
Wenxiang Dou, Jinglu Hu, Hirasawa, K.,
Gengfeng Wu, Quick Response Data Mining Model using
Genetic Algorithm, SICE Annual Conference, Page(s):
1214 1219, 2008
[9].
Peregrin, A., Rodriguez, M.A., Efficient
Distributed Genetic Algorithm for Rule Extraction,.
Eighth International Conference on Hybrid Intelligent
Systems, HIS '08. Page(s): 531 536, 2008
[10].
Mansoori, E.G., Zolghadri, M.J., Katebi, S.D.,
SGERD: A Steady-State Genetic Algorithm for Extracting
Fuzzy Classification Rules From Data, IEEE Transactions
on Fuzzy Systems, Volume: 16 , Issue: 4 , Page(s): 1061
1071, 2008.
[11].
Xian-Jun Shi, Hong Lei, A Genetic AlgorithmBased Approach for Classification Rule Discovery,
International Conference on Information Management,

Innovation Management and Industrial Engineering, ICIII
'08, Volume: 1 , Page(s): 175 178, 2008.
[12].
Xiaoyuan Zhu, Yongquan Yu, Xueyan Guo,
Genetic Algorithm Based on Evolution Strategy and the
Application in Data Mining, First International Workshop
on Education Technology and Computer Science, ETCS
'09, Volume: 1 , Page(s): 848 852, 2009
[13].
Hong Guo, Ya Zhou, An Algorithm for Mining
Association Rules Based on Improved Genetic Algorithm
and its Application, 3rd International Conference on
Genetic and Evolutionary Computing, WGEC '09, Page(s):
117 120, 2009
[14].
Yong Wang, Dawu Gu, Xiuxia Tian, Jing Li,
Genetic Algorithm Rule Definition for Denial of Services
Network Intrusion Detection, International Conference on
Computational Intelligence and Natural Computing, CINC
'09, Volume: 1 , Page(s): 99 102, 2009
[15].
Rodriguez, D., Riquelme, J.C., Ruiz, R., AguilarRuiz, J.S., Searching for Rules to find Defective Modules
in Unbalanced Data Sets, 1st International Symposium on
Search Based Software Engineering, Page(s): 89 92,
2009
[16].
Gonzales, E., Mabu, S., Taboada, K., Shimada,
K., Hirasawa, K., Mining Multi-class Datasets using
Genetic Relation Algorithm for Rule Reduction, IEEE
Congress on Evolutionary Computation, CEC '09, Page(s):
3249 3255, 2009
[17].
Haiying Ma, Xin Li, Application of Data Mining
in
Preventing
Credit
Card
Fraud,
International Conference on Management and Service
Science, MASS '09, Page(s): 1 6, 2009
[18].
Genxiang Zhang, Haishan Chen, Immune
Optimization Based Genetic Algorithm for Incremental
Association Rules Mining, International Conference on
Artificial Intelligence and Computational Intelligence,
AICI '09, Volume: 4, Page(s): 341 345, 2009
Page 20
Content Management through Electronic Document

Management System
T.Vengattaraman#1, A.Ramalingam*2, P.Dhavachelvan#3
#
Department of Computer Science, Pondicherry University
Puducherry, India.
1
vengat.mailbox@gmail.com
3
dhavachelvan@gmail.com
Department of Master in Computer Applications, Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College
Puducherry, India.
2
a.ramalingam1972@gmail.com
Abstract This paper presents Electronic Document

Management System which is to develop a web based
application which can be used to manage the contents
hosted on a web site. Electronic document management
system provides services in the areas of providing
information to the different areas such as Development,
Business, Management, Technology etc. The main
functionality of this system is Content Creation/Hosting,
which is the administration section of the system in which
the content is created by a group of professional possessing
different specialization. This section is divided into four
stages such as authoring, editing, approving and deploying.
After going through these four phases of content
management the content is available to the users. Each
content is placed in one of the three different categories.
And content View is the one where the content to be viewed
is divided into three halves as developer Content, manager
Content and protected Content. The Protected content is
login protected where as the other two are open to all. The
developer content is used by the all for content/information
modification that helps in the dynamic display of different
information for providing services to the Business,
Management, etc whereas the manager content is also used
by all but the contents are used for customization purpose.
Keywords Electronic document management system,
Content management, Web publishing.
I. INTRODUCTION
To develop a web based interface for creating new content
for the site or manage existing content. The system should
provide help in managing different personnel capable of
working in different areas of content creation. To make the
best possible content available as an end result. Divide the
complex task of content creating into no of specialists. To
allow the floating of content with the system before being
hosted on site. Different levels of approval to make the
content very precise as per the requirements. To speed up
the processing with in the
Content Creation. The current system although semi

atomized required manual processing of approval and
editing before being approved for the deployment. Transfer
of information content between different sections of the
current system is in the form of documents. Selection of a
person for a task is done by manually approaching the
person and confirming the availability of the person. Due
to mismanagement the work is delayed to later date than
the due date. Although the current system is confined to
only one type of a website management. It can be
generalized a General Electronic Document Management
system with which any type of website can be managed.
The current system is interactive with the database
provides efforts can be made so that the system can adopt
the available database features of a new site to make is as a
part of content management.
II. LITERATURE SURVEY
As organizations increasingly move towards a paperless
environment due to an increasing need in storing more and
more documents, an Electronic Document Management
System (EDMS) must be in place to cope not only with the
increasing volume of these documents but also to make
sure that these documents are searchable for use in the
future. EDMS is proven to be an appropriate tool for
handling necessary documents of organizations around the
world. To aid the researchers pursue this study, they have
gathered some studies related to their proposed system.
Electronic Document Management System (EDMS)
seemed to be the answer in organizing business
information for easy access and quick retrieval and
archiving important electronic records in a secure and
stable environment. EDMS might just provide the tool to
effectively manage electronic documents and records
throughout its life cycle. After implementing the EDMS
with Accounts Payable application and Electronic Reports
Management technology to AEC, access and retrieval of
documents is more efficient and there have been no
reported lost or misfiled documents. Employees in
Page 21
remote locations can quickly retrieve and view records not

requiring much time and effort, and more paper. Since
EDMS provides a secure and stable environment, records
cannot be altered, and any document access or action can
be tracked through audit history. Vital records stored in
EDMS are secured and backed up daily[1-3].
To implement an automated document analyzer that will
provide the file organization, searching, retrieval and
segmentation of files is the main objective of the thesis by
Revano [7]. To achieve his goal, he used three data mining
algorithms such as the Aho-Corasick algorithm for exact
set matching, the Segmentation algorithm which generates
a series of cluster based on the identified relationships in a
dataset, and the Text mining algorithm or automatic text
categorization. Based from findings of the study, the
researchers had proven that there was a significant
difference between the proposed system and the existing
system being implemented in CITE department.
Based from the gathered related studies, the researchers
have come up with the idea of developing an electronic
document management system. Organizing documents,
paper and electronic, is now a concern in any organization.
In relation with the studies mentioned, the researchers
agreed that exhibiting the basic components of electronic
document management systems such as capturing, storage
and archiving, indexing and retrieval, distribution, and
security will produce a good EDMS.
III. SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The complete system can be divided into six halves on
basis of access levels. The system architecture is given in
the figure 1.
A. Account management:
Using this part of an application the administrator can
view the list of users and their area of specialization. The
administrator can create a new users, modify existing user.
An administrator provides permission to the newly created
user by placing the new user into set of roles such as an
author, approver, and editor or deploy. This part of the
application is only accessible to the administrator.
Login
Area
Processing Area
Database
Approving
User
Name
Account
Login
Deploy
Database
Editing
Password
Authorizing
B. Utilities:
Utilities section of the application is used to shut down
the site for the normal person to browse as well as to up the
site back for its use.
C. Authoring:
An administrator or a person with the author privileges
can access this part of the application. This part of the
application includes creating new content in the form of
stories which is normally done by the developers or content
writers. The newly created content may include no of notes
which will guide the editor at the time of editing the
content. The newly created content then can be posted to
editor for editing.
D. Editor:
An editor receives the content posted by the author. An
editor can view the content and later post the content to a
new revision or to an existing revision. If content is found
unsuitable to the cause the content is returned back to the
author. This part of the application can be explored only
by an administrator or the users who possess an editor
privilege. The editor can withdraw the content from being
hosted if found unfit for hosting.
E. Approver:
An approver is a person who will approve the contents
to be hosted on the site. An approver can approve the
content to the deploy section or Discontinue the content
usage or return the content back to the editor for revision.
The returned content should accompany with a message to
the editor regarding the revision in the content. This part of
the application can be accessed by the administrator of the
person who possesses an Approver privilege.
F. Deploy:
This area of the application includes the deployment
part of an application. A deploy person can view the
content before deploying it. The person can also return the
content if found unfit to be hosted on the site. The returned
content is sent back to the approver. The deployment of the
content includes the content to be placed in specific area of
the hosting environment. The hosting environment is
divided into three categories. The Deploy content, the
manager content, the protected content. These categories
are subdivided into no of sections.
G. Administrator:
An administrator has all the privileges that of the
guest as well as the normal registered user. Along with
these common features an administrator has the
administrator related features such as creating new users
and granting roles to those newly created users. The roles
granted by the administrator cannot be changes by the user.
An administrator can create new user as a guest or as a user
Fig 1 General Architecture Diagram
Page 22
or an administrator. The access levels are as per the grants

done by the administrator.
An administrator can also be part of a team and could
lead a project team this is possible only if administrator
when building a team includes himself in the team section.
If included as a manager he is not a part of the team but
supervisor of the team. The register option on the
homepage of the application is provided only to register a
new user as a guest.
The information of the entire system will be
maintained at a centralized data base. Notifications
between sections is provides in terms of content list
notification in the users area. Provide Interactive interface
through which a user can interact with different areas of
application easily. Disapproved content is returned back to
the lower for redesign. Approved content is removed from
the user list and made as part of the users list to which the
content is being notified. Deploy the application on a single
system and make is available on all the systems within the
network, thereby reducing the maintenance cost of
software.
The system screen shots are shown in the figure 2 and
figure 3.
Fig. 2 The Contents are hosted in this area
IV. CONCLUSION
This system has been appreciated by all the users and
is easy to use, since it uses the GUI provided in the user
dialog. User friendly screens are provided. The usage of
software increases the efficiency, decreases the effort. It
has been efficiently employed as a Content management
mechanism.
It has been thoroughly tested and
implemented. The application is capable of managing only
the current site. It can be converted into general Electronic
Document Management system by providing a tight
integration of the existing database with the one the site
holds. The current database should be redesigned so that it
can adapt to the changes with respect to the site. The
current Electronic Document Management system manages
only the articles and there exists no provision for the new
categories to be added and placed into the content section.
This can be brought into the current on user request. The
application can be converted into a Mobile based using
ASP.net with which the deployment of application will be
done only on enterprises server and is accessible to all
other departments of the organization. The current
application is confined to only one enterprise.
REFERENCES
[1]
Adam, Fundamentals of EDRMS. Implementing Electronic
Document and Record Management Systems, CRC Press. Madison Ave.
New York, 2007
[2]
J. Feldman and E. Freuder, Integrating Business Rules and
Constraint Programming Technologies for EDM, Business Rules Forum
2008.
[3]
Georgia Archives, Electronic Document Management System
Technologies ,November 2008.
[4]
P. Immanuel, Basic Components of Electronic Document
Management System Essential Characteristics of an Effective Document
Management System, November 2008
[5]
Laserfiche, A guide to the benefits, technology, and
implementation of electronic document management solutions, Archival
and scanning services, Nov 2008.
[6]
D.P. Quiambao, Document Management System at the
Property Management Division of Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority,
2004
[7]
T.J. Revano, Development of Automated Document Analyzer
using Text Mining and Aho-Corasick Algorithm . TIP Manila:
Unpublished Thesis, 2008
[8]
Sire Technologies, A Guide to Understanding Electronic
Document Management Systems: The Future File Cabinets, 2006.
Fig. 3 To deploy the content.
Page 23
Intelligent Agent based Data Cleaning to improve

the Accuracy of WiFi Positioning System Using
Geographical Information System (GIS)
T.JOSHVA DEVADAS
Lecturer, Department of MCA,
The American College, Madurai
call_joshva@yahoo.com
Abstract Wifi positioning system uses GIS to achieve higher
accuracy by means of comparing the error distance. The objective
of this paper is to minimize the distance error generated during
the process of positioning. Wifi positioning system needs to have
a proper placement of those access points which are free from
error distance. Data cleaning is introduced in this concept to clean
the errors that are generated from the experimental results. An
agent is a Intelligent Processing system that is situated in the
environment and perform autonomous action in order to meet the
design objectives. Agents are introduced in this system uses its
intelligence during the data cleaning task by using its dynamic
and flexible characteristics. This paper aims at describing the
functionalities of such a data cleaning agent so as to improve the
performance of Wifi positioning system.
Keywords Wireless positioning, WiFi, GIS, Constraint
optimization, Data cleaning, Agents
1.
Introduction
WiFi stands for wireless fidelity which is one of the

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers or IEEE
standards for WLAN. Wifi is truly a freedom to make a
connection to Internet without the old-fashioned network
cable. WiFi or 802.11b is one of 802.11 specifications
family and it is also the first dominating standard in the
market. Nowadays new wireless networking devices are
adopting the new standard of IEEE 802.11g, which offers
higher data speed, namely driving from 11 Mbps to 54
Mbps, while sharing common operating frequency of 2.4
GHz.
WiFi technology is evolving technically and practically in

past four years leading WLAN to be a common sight at
universities, airports, coffee shops,
offices and organizations. That service point or access
point is often referred to as wireless hotspot or hotspot
in short. Incentives for developing and standardizing
WLAN are definitely mobility and flexibility. This
phenomenon stimulates the creation of supportive features
for new-age laptops.
Data preprocessing is a procedural activity which is to be
done at the first step of data mining process. Data
preprocessing is a process of requesting the data to be
cleaned. Data mining process need to analyze the possible

occurrence of the noisy data[14]. The noise will occur due
to faults generated during the data transmission. To resolve
this we need to develop a system which can produce an
error free data by identifying or removing the outliers
identified in the system. In this paper we consider only
those error positions which are to be eliminated during the
wifi positioning process.
Agents are intelligent autonomous computer
systems, which are capable of functioning autonomously
and react to the environment[1]. The intelligent agent
doesnt just react to the changes to its environment but
itself takes the initiative under specific circumstance. This
characteristics request the agent should have a well defined
goal. Agents incorporated in the data cleaning task have a
specific goal of removing the errors by identifying the
outliers.
In this paper section 2 deals about related work
and background details of wifi positioning system. Section
3 describes the positioning computation by describing radio
propagation model, free-space model and wall-attenuation
method. Section 4 explains data cleaning process along
with agent participation, section 5 describes performance
evaluation.
2. Related works and Background

Now days all the WLAN is the emerging research
area that varies from real-world application to pure
theoretical aspect. Major issue in wireless security is the
wireless positioning application. WEP and WPA are
encryption algorithms that are to be realized by the realworld globally. Hence the development for wireless
security turns to be the positioning technique.
Many researchers use the positioning technique to
improve the accuracy of their need with various platform
and architecture. The objective of this paper is to improve
the accuracy by the means of positioning the access points
in two areas with the aid of GIS. The experiment considers
the indoor environment with two access points.
Page 24
There are two types of computation to perform

this positioning process. One is location fingerprinting
model and the other one is the propagation based
computation model[8]. Location fingerprinting requires
site survey and to collect signal strength samples at every
single equally divided area of that building to build up a
signal strength database. Propagation based computation is
used to get the strength of signal but it dont have the
facility to store the database. These are the some of the
computation to do the mapping process. The following is
the test site for the system where we need to position the
access points
the corridor. Those fifteen markers are points of interest in

our experiment to be used for learning and testing
purposes. They are 1.25 meters apart from one another.
FIG. 2.PROCESS OF NETSTUMBLER

Multipath Fading Minimization:
Fig .1. Q5 floor plan with markers and access points

locations
In the test site we need to place the access points in two
different areas and the corridor is selected for our test
process and get the signal from two access points namely
NAL-Q51 and DSP-Q52. Triangulation is a basic
geometric concept for finding crossing point on the basis of
distance or angle [6][7]. Therefore it is radiating circularly
in horizontal direction and so the access point is in the
pattern of circle.
The existing system needs to be improved in order
to decrease the error distance between the two access
points and therefore it needs to perform the operation to
obtain the calculated signal strength and error distance[2].
The next step in this process is to place the access point in
an error free area.
The existing system makes use of the Netstumbler software
to detect the signal strength[10]. Signals are received from
the two access points with the help of PDA or laptop and
that are detected using the Netstumbler software.
Netstumbler imports the signal strengths and are mapped
into excel sheet to calculate the signal average. MATLAB
is used to find the erroneous data and later the positioning
is done by using the floor position and calculated positions.
Predetermined location of the access points named DSPQ52 and NAL-Q51 is included in Fig 1 with markers along
From all the four directions, the signal strength is collected

to minimize the multipath fading. The Netstumbler
software is used to detect the signal strength. Signal
strength samples directly reflect the multipath effect in
terms of direction sensitivity and angle of reception. In
principle, we should achieve higher resolution of sampling
and higher accuracy.
Experiment Methodology:
Equipments required for capturing signal strength, raw data
processing and position determination are listed in
categories of Hardware and Software accordingly.
i) Hardware
Access Point or Hotspot is functioning as a signal
transmitter. Wireless Network Interface Card (Wireless
NIC) or WiFi card is considered as wireless LAN signal
receiver in this application. Wireless NIC is available in
various interface types and it can operate on both laptop or
desktop computer and Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
correspondingly. Latest laptop computer and PDA are
equipped with internal Wireless NIC. Desktop computer is
not suitable due to obvious reason of mobility from point to
point around the floor.
ii) Software
NetStumbler is a freeware program and it is one of the
most widely used wireless network auditing tools allowing
the detection of 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g networks.
This software offers two versions for both Windows and
WindowsCE platform, which are Netstumbler 0.4.0 and
Page 25
Ministumbler 0.4.0 correspondingly. Signal strength

samples are saved into NS1 file and it can be further be
exported into Microsoft EXCEL for calculation, but
Ministumbler does not have that feature. EXCEL is used
to calculate the signal strength average for each particular
point on the floor plan. MATLAB Characterizes wireless
propagation model and minimize the error distance.
transmission model is described as PR = PTGTGR { / 4d

}2 where PR and PT are receiving and transmitting power
in unit of watts. GT and GR are receiving and transmitting
antenna gain. is a wavelength and d is a distance
between transmitter and receiver.
3. Position Computation
Our experiment considers this model because it is

considered to be more suitable for indoor environment.
This model represents a common and reliable in building
characteristics. Attenuation due to an intervening wall or
partition is described as
PR[dBm] = Po[dBm]- 10 log{d/d0}n WAF where n
is a path loss exponent and WAF is a Wall Attenuation
Factor. Building environment may have the different
electrical and physical characteristics which have
obstruction that varies from the place to place. These
values can be obtained by experiments.
Conceptual Overview
Our experiment considers first floor plan found in Fig 1. To
locate the access points position x-y coordinates is chosen.
Distance error is calculated with respect to the exact
location on the floor plan in hand. Signal strength should
be collected from the NAL-Q51 and DSP-Q52 will be
interpreted to any of the two models namely free-space
model and wall attenuation model.
Wall Attenuation Factor Model:
Learning Process
Position determination is based on free-space model and it
does not require learning process as universal relationship
is implied every environment considered. WAF model is
used to achieve more accurate result and to represent more
realistic indoor environment[9].
Before positioning
service WAF and n have been computed from experiment.
Once the measurement of signal strength at marking points
is done, linear regression is applied to those data sets
resulting in WAF and n parameters.
Fig.3. Position determination overview
Radio Propagation models
Basically the radio channel associates with reflection,
refraction, diffraction and scattering of radio waves that
influence propagating paths. Transmitted signal from direct
and indirect propagation path are combined either
constructively or destructively causing variation of
received signal strength at the receiving station. The
situation is even more severe for indoors communication.
The building may have different architectures, construction
material which results in receiving challenging and
unpredictable signal.
Free-space Model
This model is used for the worst case consideration. This
model can be implemented with GIS but it unveils a trend
for further improvement. This model is not suitable to
implement because this may disturb the other signals. Also,
this model is not appropriate for the indoor environment to
do the positioning system. Free-space model or Friis
Fig. 4. Line of sight for NAL access point

Line joining between the two access points to every single
point of interest on the floor plan can at least differentiate
amount of signal attenuation due to variety of obstructing
objects. Longer the range from a transmitter, the lower
signal strength from a receiver can perceive. Shorter range
from transmitter can yields lower signal strength only in
the case of presence of a large barrier between transmitter
and receiver. Regional division is essential for the case of
Page 26
NAL-Q51 access point as received signal strength does not

undergo common obstruction as the case of DSP-Q52
access point. Essentially, Geographical information is now
used to separate region under consideration.
System Simulation
Signal strength collected is translated into transmitterreceiver distance with the aid of two radio propagation
models. Transmitter-receiver distance is the separation
distance of access point from user and the distance are
visualized as a radius of antenna radiation circle with
center at that access point of signal reception. User can be
at any position on that antenna radiation circle. Signal
strength received from DSP-Q52 is translated into radius of
antenna radiation circle with the center at the access point
itself.
4. Data cleaning process
Data cleaning is a process of identifying and
removing the erroneous data[4]. Since the data is received
with poor quality, it is necessary to clean the data before
using it for processing. Poor quality of data is obtained due
to some noise. The noisy data may have erroneous data,
missing values, duplicate/ redundant data, and useless
information. The error occur in the collected data are more
common. One way of addressing this problem is to
painstakingly check through the data with the help of data
cleaning methods.
Data Cleaning Methods
Data cleaning is done by using either decision trees, or
filling the missing values, or removal of noisy data and
eliminate the redundancies. Decisions trees induced from
training data can often be simplified, without loss of
accuracy, by discarding misclassified instances from the
training set. Filling of the missing values is done by
replacing with a global constant, such as attribute mean
value, string constant, and numeric constants. A noise is
nothing but a random error which can be removed either by
binning method or clustering method or with the help of
human inspection [9]. We consider the clustering method is
more suitable for cleaning the data of a wifi positioning
system, because the formation of clusters clearly identifies
the outliers. Identification of the outlier will eliminate
irrelevant information by forming various clusters.
Need and strength of cleaning
Erroneous data is assumed to be the access points

coordinates which causes intersection with the signal
strength. Since the data collected may have many such
erroneous data items and the errors are removed by a data
cleaning process or method.
Agents
Agents are intelligent processing elements which
can work on behalf of others[13]. An intelligent agent may
be categorized as a human agent, or a hardware agent or a
software agent. A software agent may in turn be
categorized into information agent, cooperation agent and
transaction agent. The agents are categorized into two
major categories as internal and external properties.
Internal properties, describes the actions within the agent,
which includes the ability to learn, reactivity, autonomy
and goal-orientedness[11]. The external properties include
all those characteristics which are associated with other
agents for communication
I
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
I
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
Action
Information
fusion
Information
processing
Fig. 5.Workflow of the agent

Work process of intelligent agent
The functionality of the agent can be described as
a black box. Input is received through perceptions by the
agent. After receiving input, agent use the information
received for its intelligent processing and send the output
as action performed over the given input[5]. Intelligent
processing of the agent is done as a series of actions
performed over the input. Interaction component found in
this process is responsible of sending and receiving data
from or to the external components. Information fusion is
responsible for collecting the inputs from the interaction
component. The information processing component is
responsible of handling the input by carefully analyzing the
data to perform action on it. The action component is
capable of performing action on the data received and
sends the output to the interaction component.
In wifi positioning system access points PDA or

laptop detect the signal strength and export into excel sheet
is consider as primary data for data cleaning. At this stage
the data collected may have erroneous information.
Page 27
Need and the Role of Agents in Data Cleaning

Agents are introduced in the data cleaning process
are capable of reacting with the environment with their
intelligent behavior and is used to improve performance of
wifi positioning system. The Intelligent behavior is
achieved by systematically analyzing the data and store the
useful information alone in the knowledgebase. Intelligent
agents incorporated in the preprocessing phase of the data
cleaning task uses its flexible and dynamic characteristics
to clean the data. Agent uses its knowledge base in the
cleaning task reacts with the system by verifying the
existence of the required information. Use of agents in wifi
positioning system will improve the performance by not
repeating the same procedure for the access positions
which has intersection in signal strength. Intersection of
such signal strengths causes an error and the errors
positions are stored in the knowledge base of an agent.
When the agents receive the data,
it checks its
knowledgebase to verify the existence of erroneous data.
If an erroneous position was found then the agent filters
this information otherwise it sends the details to perform
action. Outliers are identified by using the domain of the
erroneous data.
Also, Agent based cleaning process
distinguishes the access points which do not have the
crossing point in their signal strength.
Functionality of Intelligent Agents in WiFi positioning
system
DSP
NAL
Excel sheet
Data cleaning
statergies
Cleaned data
Fig.6.Data cleaning process

Agents collect data from excel data sheet through the
interaction component and send it to the information fusion
component which is responsible of receiving data. Data
collected through excel data sheet may have some
erroneous signal coordinates where we cannot locate either
the DSP or NAL. These signal coordinates collected
through information fusion component are transferred to
information processing component.
Information
processing component is responsible of computing the
error distance between access points. If there is an error
between the access points then those access points are
transferred to the action component of the agent, which in

turn stores the details of the access point coordinates in its
knowledge base as action. The error free access point
coordinates alone be transferred as output of the action
component through the interaction component. At this
stage the data processing handles only those access points
which are error free causes improvement in average signal
strength computation. Ultimately the computation time
required to accomplish the MATLAB simulation will also
be greatly be reduced. Hence, the use of agents in the wifi
positioning system improves the performance in one or
more aspects.
Data cleaning Agent Procedure
PDA receives signals from the access points. The
netstumbler software detects the signal strength from the
PDA and explores the signals into the excel data sheet.
This data sheet is given as an input to the Data
Preprocessing component. The preprocessing component
is to clean the given data sheet with the help of intelligent
agents.
Agents are incorporated in the intelligence
component to improve the performance of the system.
Agents analyze the data access points carefully and
compute the error distance to each of the access points. If
agents encounters an erroneous data then agents learns to
update its knowledge base. Clusters are formed using the
erroneous data that are stored in the knowledge base.
Before sending the details of the access points to the action
component, agent stores all such erroneous coordinates of
the access points in its knowledge base.
Data cleaning is a treatment for decreasing possible
negative influence[3]. An outlier is an observation which
deviates so much from other observations as to arouse
suspicions that was generated by a different mechanism.
The goal of outlier detection is to uncover the different
mechanism. If samples of the different mechanism exist
in knowledge base, then build a classifier to learn from
samples. For fine classification, a function that designates
the distribution of samples is necessary.
Agents are intelligent systems that verify the input data
(access points) from its knowledge base to identify the
outlier. If the access point coordinates are error free then
the agent uses the access point coordinates to position the
laptop. Otherwise the agent filters the details of erroneous
access points by not sending them to the next layer. Use of
agents in this process eliminates the computation time
required to find the erroneous data using MATLAB. Agent
based data cleaning eliminates the computation time
associated with the detection of erroneous data which
causes performance improvement in the system.
Page 28
What makes the difference in the performance?

In the existing system the work process is done
manually and the errors are detected individually until the
positioning is done. Though the manual work progress
successfully, the work process is repeated for all the access
point signal strength. To overcome this repetition problem
and not go beyond the cross points intelligent agents are
introduced in the cleaning system. Agent makes use of the
error distances stored in its knowledge base to clean the
erroneous signals.
Fig.7. Agents (Intelligent Process) in positioning process

5. Results and Performance evaluation
What the existing system will do?
In the existing system, access points are positioned with
the help of GIS and the errors positions are to be ignored
are calculated with the help of MATLAB. All the
operations taken individually and the signals are
transformed into the excel sheet with the help of the
software Netstumbler.
Error distance is calculated for
each of the floor positions using MATLAB and the error
signal strengths are stored in the form of matrix. The next
step is to position the access point according to the
erroneous distance. This process to done manually and
every signal strength are stored separately requires more
time and makes the work process as a long one.
The process is done for all the areas and the agent stores
only the erroneous coordinates in the knowledgebase. Time
is saved by the use of agent while experimenting this
process. The accuracy of the positioning is improved when
agents are incorporated in the system with is the aid of
geographical information system. In the existing system
performance is measured by means of error distance which
requires the help of GIS but for the agent based system
error distance is calculated and stored in the
knowledgebase.
Fig. 8. Floor plan with corridor dimension

What Agent based system is doing?
The main objective to introduce the agents in the
positioning system improves the performance by cleaning
the erroneous data and to store it in the knowledge base for
further processing. The accuracy and the time required to
position the lap top is reduced. The signals are broadcasted
from the access point and the signals make use of the
Netstumbler to export the signal into excel sheet. Agent
reads the excel sheet and store only the error details in its
knowledge base. Agent makes use of its knowledge base
to verify the error details and quit the work process for
erroneous data. Reduction of processing time by the use of
agents not only improves the performance but also not
repeating the operations which are already done during the
cleaning task will also be considered as one of the
performance improvement factor. Thus Agents present the
data cleaning system enable the system with intelligent
behavior and improves positioning strategies.
The above Fig 7 displays a floor plan of our test site along
with specific x and y dimensions of corridor section. Now
the X and Y ranges from 0 and 19.125 and from 9.25 to
11.125 meters respectively. Use of agent in positioning
system improves the accuracy and reduces the working
time of the process. Also it scopes down and eliminates
unlikely intersection area from positioning algorithm in the
optimization phase.
6. Conclusion
In this paper, Intelligent Agents are introduced to clean the
erroneous access point coordinates for the wifi positioning
system that uses the knowledge of geographical
Information system. The performance variation of the wifi
positioning system is described in terms of agent based and
normal positioning. Agents are introduced between the
excel data sheet and the MATLAB simulation data
Page 29
processing component. Future enhancement of this paper

may introduce Multi-Agents to perform the cleaning task
with distinct functionality.
7.References
[13] Walter Brener,Rudiger Zarnekow, Software Agents

Foundation
&
Application,
Morgan
publishers,Elsevier,2002
[14]William E Winkler
Conference SIGKDD03
Data
Cleaning
Methods:,
[1] Ayse Yasemin SEYDIM Intelligent Agents: A Data

Mining Perpespective,CiteSeer .IST, Literature Digital
Library. 1999.
[2] Bahi,P , Padmanabhan V RADAR ; An In-building RF
based User Location and Tracking System, IEEE Infocom
,March 2000
[3] S.D.Bay and M.Schwabacher. Mining distance-based
Outliers in near linear time with randomization and a
simple pruning rule. In Proceedings of Ninth ACM
SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge
Discovery and Data Mining, Washington, D.C.USA,
pages2938, 2003.
[4]Erhard Rahm, Hong Hai Do, Data Cleaning : Problems
and Current approaches
[5] Gerhard Weiss , Multiagent Systems, A Modern
Approach to Distributed Artificial Intelligence, The MIT
Press, , 1999
[6]Hightower,J and Borriello G Location Systems for
Ubiquitous Computing, IEEE Communic. Mag. August
2001, 57-66
[7] Hightower J and Borriello G, Location Sensing
Techniques, IEEE Communic. Mag , August 2001
Technical Report
[8] Jan R H, Lee Y.R An Indoor Geolocation System for
wireless Lans Proceedings of the International Conference
Parallel Process Workshop (ICPPW03) 2003.
[9] Jiawei Han , Micheline Kamber Data mining:
Concepts and Techiniques , Morgan Kaufmann
Publishers, Elsevier, 2001
[10] http://www.netstumbler.com
[11] S.Russell, P. Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, A
Modern Approach, Printice-Hall,1995.
[12]Tussanai Parthornratt , Kittiphan Techakittiroj,
Improving Accuracy of WiFi positioning system by using
Geographical Information System , AU J.T. 10(1) : 38-44,
Jul 2006
Page 30
A Framework for Multiple Classifier Systems

Comparison (MCSCF)
P.Shunmugapriya ,
S.Kanmani
Research Scholar,
Department of CSE,
Pondicherry, India
Professor & Head

Department of IT
Pondicherry, India
pshunmugapriya@gmail.com
Abstract In this Paper, we propose a new framework for
comparing Multiple Classifier Systems in the literature. A
Classifier Ensemble or Multiple Classifier System combines a
finite number of classifiers of same kind or different types,
which are trained simultaneously for a common classification
task. The Ensemble is able to efficiently improve the
generalization ability of the classifier when compared with a
single classifier. The objective of this paper is to introduce a
framework MCSCF that analyses the existing research work on
Classifier Ensembles. Our framework compares the classifier
ensembles on the basis of Constituent classifiers of an ensemble
and Combination methods, Classifier selection basis, Standard
datasets, Evaluation criteria and Behavior of classifier ensemble
outcomes. It is observed that, different types of classifiers are
combined using a number of different fusion methods and
classification accuracy is highly improved in the ensembles
irrespective of the application domain.
Keywords - Data Mining, Pattern Classification, Classifier
Ensemble, Multiple classifier Systems
I. INTRODUCTION
Combining classifiers to get higher classification accuracy is
rapidly growing and enjoying a lot of attention from pattern
recognition and machine learning communities. For
ensembling, the classification capabilities of a single
classifier are not required to be very strong. What is
important is to use suitable combinative strategies to improve
the generalization of classifier ensembles. In order to speed
up the convergences and simplify structures, the combinative
components are often weak or simple [1].
Classifiers like Region Based Classifier ,Contour Based
Classifier, Enhanced Loci classifier, Histogram-based
classifier , Crossing Based Classifier, Neural Networks
classifier, K-nearest neighbor classifier, SVM, Anorm, KDE,
KMP(Kernel Matching Pursuit), Minimum Distance
Classifier, Maximum Likelihood Classifier, Mahalanobis
Classifier, Nave Bayesian, Decision tree, Fisher classifier,
Nearest Means classifier are often combined to form
classifier fusion or classifier ensemble as shown in [Table I].
kanmani@pec.edu
Also there are many classifier combination methods available. By

using different combination methods to a number of various
classifiers, classifier ensembles result with variations in their
performance and classification accuracy. So far, different
methods of classifier ensembles have been experimented on
different application domain. The important objective of this
paper is to provide a comparison framework of works on
classifier combination .i.e. what classifiers are used in ensembles,
what are the methods of combination that have been applied, what
application domain and datasets are considered.
[2] and [9] are classifier ensemble works carried out in context
aware framework using evolutionary algorithm and [2] on line
proposal. [3] uses voting method to form an ensemble that
classifies Hyper spectral data. [5] considers distribution
characteristic and diversity as the base features for classifier
selection and uses k-means algorithm, a new kernel based
probability c-means (KPCM) algorithm is designed for classifier
ensemble. [6] is double bagging, a variable method of bagging
.This uses SVM with 4 kernels and has shown enhanced
classification accuracy than bagging and boosting. A-priori
knowledge about classifiers is considered as an important
criterion in selecting the classifiers [7] and uses a number of
classifiers and ensemble methods to form an ensemble that has
always 90% accuracy of classification. Boosting method is
employed to obtain diversity among the classifiers and uses very
effective method of ensembling - stacked generalization [8]. In
[10] feature selection and GA are used and the ensemble performs
well in accurate prediction of cancer data. For the area of Remote
sensing, [11] considers diversity as an important feature and
works on satellite image. [12], [14], [18] and [19] are also works
carried out giving importance to diversity of classifiers. [16] is
based on feature selection that uses product rule for the ensemble.
Certain works are carried out in interest on looking at the
performance of classifier ensembles, by using several
combinations of classifiers and then look for the best combination
[17], [24] and [25].
Page 31
The text is organized as follows: Section II is about

data mining, pattern classifier and classifier ensemble.
Section III presents the comparative framework of works on
classifier ensemble. In section IV, we discuss the comparison
of ensemble results and our inference from the framework.
Section V is our conclusion.
II. DATA MINING
Data mining or Knowledge Discovery in Databases
(KDD) is a method for data analysis developed in recent
years. It is an interdisciplinary research focusing upon
methodologies for discovering and extracting implicit,
previously unknown and potentially useful knowledge (rules,
patterns, regularities as well as constraints) from data.
The mining task is mainly divided into 4 types:
Class/Concept
description,
Association
analysis,
Classification or Prediction and Clustering analysis. Among
them, the classification task has received more attention. In
the task of classification, the mining algorithm will generate
the exact class description for the classification of unknown
data by analyzing the existing data.
A. Pattern Classification
Classification is the action of assigning an object to a
category according to the characteristics of the object. In
Data Mining, Classification refers to a form of Data analysis
which can be used to extract models describing important
data classes or to predict future data trends. i.e. To classify
objects(or patterns) into categories(or classes).
Classification has 2 stages:
Model is determined from a set of data called

training data. i.e. classes have been established before hand.
The model is known as rules, decision trees or mathematical
formula.
Correctness of the evolved model is estimated. This is

done by studying the results of the evolved models function
on a set of data called test data. Classes of the test data are
determined before hand.
Classification techniques that are available are Decision Tree
Learning, Decision Rule Learning, Naive Bayesian
Classifier, Bayesian Belief Networks, Neural Networks, kNearest Neighbor Classifier, Support Vector classifier. These
techniques differ in the learning mechanism and in the
representation of the learned model.
Classification algorithms are Decision tree, Correlation
analysis, Bayesian classification, Neural networks, Nearest
neighbor, Genetic Algorithms, Rough sets and Fuzzy
technology. Also methods like Support Vector Machine (SVM),

Neural Networks, K Nearest Neighbor, K Means, and Boosting
and Quadratic classifiers exist.. SVM is the most preferred
method in many classification and machine learning tasks. Also
many standard tools like WEKA, KNIME, Rapid Miner, R
Project, MATLAB tools are available for classification. Several
frameworks like LIBLINEAR and LIBSVM are useful resources
available on the web for classification.
Many people and industries are interested in the decision
support system and prediction systems for the better choice and
risk. Classification forms the basis of these systems.
B. Multiple Classifier Combination
Though many classifiers exist and are widely used for
classification in different application areas, the classifiers are not
able to give a good accuracy of classification (Performance
accuracy). To enhance the performance of classification
algorithms, many works were carried out and there comes the
idea of combining different classifiers to perform the
classification task. Such a combination is called by names like
Combination of Multiple Classifiers, Committee Machine,
Classifier Ensemble and Classifier Fusion. The most popular
usage is Classifier Ensemble. Combining classifiers to get a
higher accuracy is an important research topic in the recent years.
Classifier Ensemble is a learning paradigm where several
classifiers are combined in order to generate a single
classification result with improved performance accuracy. There
are many methods available for combining the classifiers. Some
of the popular ensembling methods are Majority voting, Decision
templates, nave Bayesian, Boosting, Bagging etc.
There are many proposals for classifier ensembles and also
works are still under pursue. To have an idea about what are the
types of ensembles that have been proposed so far, we have given
a comparative framework of existing ensemble methods in section
III.
[1].3
COMPARATIVE FRAMEWORK OF WORKS ON

CLASSIFIER ENSEMBLE
The framework for comparing the existing classifier ensembles is

given in Table I. Features for classifier selection, types of
classifiers, combination methods, datasets, evaluation criteria are
the important features discussed in the framework.
Ensemble works are carried out in 2 perspectives:
a.
To look for the performance of ensemble, by combining
a number of different classifiers using various combination
methods. In certain works, the classifiers that are to be put into
combination are selected on the basis of several features like,
Page 32
diversity, accuracy, feature selection, feature subspaces,

random sampling etc..
b.
Application of different ensemble works to a
number of application domain and several standard datasets
and conclude the performance of the ensemble.
A. Classifier Selection Basis
Classifiers are selected for a particular ensemble, based on
several features as specified in the 3rd column of Table I. The
features are Prior knowledge about classifiers, Diversity of
classifiers, Feature selection, Reject option and Random
subspaces.
L.R.B.Schomaker et al. [7] considers Prior knowledge about
the behavior of classifiers as an important factor. A prior
knowledge about classifiers performing classification in
single or when put into combination the way they behave,
plays an important role in his work.
Another criterion for selection of classifiers is Diversity of
classifiers. The diversity of the classifier outputs is therefore
a vital requirement for the success of the ensemble. [1].
Diversity indirectly talks about the correctness of the
individual classifiers that are to be combined. [5], [8], [11],
[12], [14], [19] are some samples that say about ensemble
works in which, classifiers are selected on the basis of
diversity of classifiers. The diversity among the combination
of classifiers is defined as: if one classifier has some errors,
then for combination, we look for classifiers which have
errors on different objects [1]. There are two kinds of
diversity measures: pairwise and nonpairwise. Pairwise
measures are taken ,considering two classifiers at a time and
Non pairwise measures are taken considering all the
classifiers at one time [23]. Both these measures have
different evaluation criteria. Diverse classifiers for any work
are obtained by bootstrapping of the original dataset,
resampling of training set and adoption of different feature
set with Bagging [20], Boosting [21] and Random Subspace
method [22]. When classifiers are more diverse, it is likely to
expect very good classification accuracy from them. This is
because the more, the diversity of the classifiers, they are
very good finding different error conditions.
Feature Selection is another criterion for selecting the
classifiers. Data objects contain a number of features. There
may be some irrelevant features that are not helpful for
classification. In that case, features that are important in
identifying the uniqueness of an object are selected by using
several feature selection algorithms. After deciding the
features, classifiers that can work on this particular feature
subset are selected and combined [10], [15] discusses the
ensemble proposals on the basis of feature selection
Classifiers of an ensemble are also selected based on the

assumption that they are independent of each other and also has
some diversity [5]. Distribution characteristic is difference in
performance of classifiers in different region of characteristic
space.
Apart from performing the task of classification correctly,
classifiers should also be capable of identifying data objects that
do not belong to a particular class and capable of rejecting them.
When such classifiers are selected for the ensemble, it is called as
classifiers with Reject option.
Apart from the above features, classifiers are also selected related
to the type of application domain and the method of ensemble to
be applied. Certain ensembles are fit into context aware
framework and in most of such cases evolutionary algorithm is
used for classification leading to a very good classification
performance. [2] and [9] discusses such type of methodology. GA
plays a very important role in combining classifiers [11]. When
GA is the method of ensemble to be applied, classifiers that can
work well in GA framework are selected for the ensemble.
B. Classifiers for Ensemble
Different kinds of standard classifiers exist and most of
the classifiers perform well when put into an ensemble. Region
Based Classifier, Contour Based Classifier, Enhanced Loci
classifier, Histogram-based classifier, Crossing based classifier,
Nearest Neighbor, K- Nearest Neighbor ( K taking values 1,2,3
etc), Anorm, KDE, Minimum Distance classifier, Maximum
Likelihood Classifier, Mahalanobis Classifier , SVM,
KMP(Kernel Matching Pursuit), Decision Tree, Binary Decision
Tree, Nearest Mean Classifier, Maximum Entropy Model,
Heterogeneous Base Learner, Nave Bayesian classifier, Linear
Discriminant Analysis, Non-Linear Discriminant Analysis and
Rough Set Theory are the classifiers used in most of the ensemble
applications.
When diversity is the base feature considered, then by
using methods like Bagging, Boosting, Random Sampling, the
classifiers are trained and thereby the classifiers are diversified.
The diverse classifiers are then put into ensemble.
In case of Context Aware Framework, the classifiers are
trained with different context conditions before put into ensemble
[2], [9].
Cost sensitivity is considered as the important factor for
a classifier and in such cases the classifier is trained to possess
cost sensitivity [18]. SVM is one such classifier trained to have
cost sensitivity and it is CS-SVC.
Page 33
D. Datasets for Classifier Ensemble

SVM is used as such in many ensembles. There are
4 kernel functions with which SVM can combine and yield
very good classification accuracy: Linear Kernel, Polynomial
Kernel, Radial Basis Kernel and Sigmoid kernel. SVM with
Radial Basis Kernel yields a very good performance.
C. Classifier Combination Methods

Majority Voting, Weighted Majority Voting, Nave
Bayesian Combination, Multinomial Methods, Probabilistic
Approximation, Singular Value Decomposition, Trainable
Combiners, Non Trainable Combiners, Decision Templates,
Dempster-Shafer method, Bagging, Boosting and
Stacking(Stacked Generalization) are the methods available
for combining the classifiers according to Ludmila I
Kuncheva [1].
Datasets that are used for an individual classifier can

serve as the datasets for ensemble too. Same as classifiers,
ensembles have their usage in all most all the areas like Machine
Learning, Image processing, Bioinformatics, Geology, Chemistry,
Medicine, Robotics, Expert and Decision making systems,
Diagnosis systems, Remote sensing etc.
According to the type of application domain, datasets are
taken from various available standard Databases. UCI datasets
[12],[14],[16] and [17], ELENA database[5] and [8], EFERET,
EYALE, EINHA [2] and [9] are some of the benchmark datasets
that are used for experiments in most of the ensemble works. For
remote sensing and land cover classification, satellite images are
used.
Some Researchers collect datasets on their own for their works.
E. Evaluation Methods
Out of the available methods, Majority Voting,

Dempster-Shafer method, Boosting, Stacking and Bagging
are the popular methods which are used in most of the
ensemble works [6],[7],[8],[12],[14],[17],[18],[19].
Bayesian decision rules are another popular method of
ensembling. The rules are Product Rule, Sum rule, max rule,
min rule and median rule.[11]. Product Rule is the rule which
is most commonly used among the 5 rules. [16].
A multinomial method has two types: Behavior
Knowledge Space (BKS) Method and Werneckes Method.
Out of these 2 methods BKS is widely used [7].
In Boosting, Adaboost algorithm is the most commonly used
ensemble algorithm [12].
Apart from this, GA is used for forming the classifier
ensemble [2], [5], [9] and [10].
Classifiers are also fit into context aware framework for the
task of ensembling [2] and [9]. In several cases, a method
which is capable of integrating the advantages of existing
classifiers is used for combining the classifiers. Another way
is initially after classification is done by some classifiers, an
additional classifier either of the same type or of a different
kind is used finally for classification [3].
The performance of a classifier is a compound characteristic,

whose most important component is the classification accuracy
[1]. Some of the standard measures that are very often used for
evaluating the performance of classifiers and ensembles are Cross
validation(confusion matrix as a result of Cross validation),
Kappa statistics, McNemars test, Cochrans Q test, F-test,
OAO(One-Against-One)
approach,
OAA(One-Against-All)
approach, ROC(Receiver Operating Characteristic), AUC(Area
Under the ROC Curve), FAR, FRR, Multinomial Selection
Procedure for Comparing Classifiers [9], [10], [11]. [14], [16],
[17], [19],[24].
Cross-Validation is the most popular method for estimating the
classification accuracy. Some of the variants of Cross-Validation
obtained by varying the training and testing data are: K-Hold-Out
Paired t-Test, K-Fold Cross-Validation Paired t-Test, Diettterichs
5 x 2-Fold Cross-Validation Paired t-Test (5x2cv).
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Most of the works discussed here are carried out in order
to enhance the performance of multiple classifiers ensemble and
simplify the system design. Different classifiers are combined
using a number of different classifier combination methods and
has been experimented with standard datasets.
A new ensemble method is designed, a new

ensemble algorithm is proposed or modifications are made to
existing ensemble methods and algorithms in certain cases
without using the existing methods [12], [16] and [24].
It
is
seen
from
[2],
[3],[5],[6],[7],[8],[10],[12],[14],[16],[17][19] and [24] the new
methods designed are highly robust and show improved
classification accuracy than the existing ensemble methods and
the individual constituent classifier. Most of the new methods
show a better performance compared to individual classifiers and
Page 34
the ensembles Bagging, Boosting, Rotation Forest and

Random Forest. Not only that, the running time is improved
in [14] and the training time for the ensemble is reduced by
82% without any performance degradation [18]. Also the
new methods designed using Evolutionary algorithm in
Context aware framework has resulted in ensembles with
highest recognition rate and reduced error rates [2] and [9].
It could be inferred from the framework that:
Feature Selection and Diversity of classifiers play an

important role in selecting the classifiers for an ensemble.
75% of the ensemble works uses Cross-Validation

for evaluating the performance of classifier ensemble.
Bayesian Decision Rules, Bagging, Boosting,

Stacking and voting are the methods most commonly used
for combination of classifiers.
UCI datasets are taken for most of the applications.
80% of the works are on two-class classification

problem.
WEKA and MATLAB are the tools used for the

implementation of most of the classifier works.
100% Classification accuracy has not been achieved

in any ensemble work.
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

A classifier ensemble is a very successful technique where the
outputs of a set of separately trained classifiers are combined to
form one unified prediction. First it improves the generalization
performance of a classification system greatly. Second, it can be
viewed as an effective approach for classification as a result of its
variety of potential applications and validity. Although classifier
ensembles have been used widely, the key problem for
researchers is to effectively design the individual classifiers that
are highly correct, with diversities between them and thereby the
ensemble is also highly accurate. We have given a framework that
consolidates the types of existing ensemble methods. It uses
classifier selection features, types of classifiers and combination
methods for comparison. Any new work can easily fit into our
framework and will be useful to the researchers for making an
analysis of existing work.
As a Future work, Ensembles can be tried for 100%
classification accuracy and for many unexplored application
domain. Most of the works on binary classification can be
extended for multi class classification.
Table I: Comparative Framework of Works on Classifier Ensemble

Ref.
No
[7]
On the
Basis of
A-Priori
Knowledge
Classifiers Used
Method of
Ensembling
1.Region Based
Classifier
2.Contour Based
Classifier
3.Enhanced Loci
4.Histogrambased
5.Crossing based
1.Majority
Voting(MV)
2.Dempster
Shafer (DS)
3.Behavioral
Knowledge
Space(BKS)
Dataset
Hand
Written
Numerals
4 UCI datasets
:
1.Pima
[12]
Diversity
of
Classifiers
1.Knn (k=1)
2.Knn (k=3)
3.Svm (r=1)
4.Anorm
5.Kde.
Sample Size
764 patterns
8 features
2 classes
AdaBoosting
2.Spam
4016 patterns
54 features
2 classes
3.Haberman
2 classes
Evaluated
By
Comparing the
classification results
with that of
constituent
classifiers
Comparing the
with that of
constituent
classifiers
Results
1.Classificati
on Accuracy
90%
2.Better
Accuracy
than the
constituent
classifiers
Better
Performance
of
the new
method than
the
individual
classifiers of
the ensemble
Page 35
4.Horse-colic
[8]
[11]
[14]
[19]
Diversity
of
Classifiers
3 different
classifiers
diversified by
Boosting
1.Boosting
2.Stacked
Generalizati
on
SATIMAGE
Dataset
from ELENA
Database
Diversity
of
Classifiers
1.Minimum
Distance
Classifier
2.Maximum
Likelihood
Classifier
3.Mahalanobis
Classifier
4.K nearest
Neighbor
Classifier
Five
Bayesian
Decision
rules:
1.Product
rule
2. sum rule
3. max rule
4. min rule,
5. median
rule
Remote
Sensing
Image SPOT
IV
Satellite
Image
Diversity
of
Classifiers
1.Diversity
of
Classifiers
SVM
KMP(Kernel
Matching
Pursuit)
1.Maximum
Entropy Model
2.Heterogeneous
Bagging and
Majority
voting
L1
Regularized
maximum
Entropy
Model
I.UCI Datasets
1.Waveform
2.Shuttle
3.Sat
II. Image
Recognition6 Plane Class
Images
Customer
Relationship
Management
ORANGE A
French
Telecom
6435 pixels
36 attributes
6 classes
Comparing the
with that of
constituent
classifiers
6 Land Cover
classes
1.Overall Accuracy
2.Kappa statistics
3.McNemars Test
4.Cochrans Q Test
5.F-Test
614
Sheets
128 X 128
pixels
1.OAO Approach
2. Comparing the
with that of
constituent
classifiers
2 Versions
1.Larger
Version15,000 Feature
Variables
50,000
1.By Cross
Validation
2. Overall Accuracy
1.Boosting
generates
more
diverse
classifiers
than Cross
validation.
2.Highly
Robust
compared
to original
Boosting
and
Stacking
1. Diversity
is not
always
beneficial.
2.Increasing
the number
of Base
classifiers
in the
ensemble
will not
increase the
Classificati
on
accuracy.
1. A New
Ensemble
of SVM
and KMP is
designed.
2. High
Classificati
on
Accuracy of
SVM.
3. Quick
Running
Time of
KMP.
1. Good
Classificati
on
Accuracy.
2.Has won
3rd place in
Page 36
Base Learner
2.Best
Ensemble
Proposal KDD Cup
2009
3.Nave
Bayesian
Boosting
MODL
CriterionSelective
Nave
Bayesian
Companys
Dataset
3 tasks
(Churn,
Appetency,
Upselling)
examples
Ensemble
proposal of
KDD Cup
2009
2.Smaller
Version: 230
features
50,000
examples
Post
processing
the results of
3 methods
with SVM
[5]
[18]
[10]
[16]
1.Distrib
ution
Character
istics
2.Diversi
ty
1.Feature
Subspace
s
2.Diversi
ty
Feature
Selection
Feature
Selection
Classifiers
with Diversity
Cost Sensitive
SVC s
1.Fisher
classifier
2.Binary
Decision Tree
3. Nearest mean
Classifier
4.SVM
5.Nearest
Neighbor(1-nn)
n number
of SVM s
1. Kernel
Clustering
2. New
KPCM
Algorithm
Phenome
Dataset from
ELENA
Database
2 classes
5000 samples
5 features
Tr.Set
7931 positive
7869negative
In comparison
with Bagging
applied to the
same dataset.
Comparison with
Conventional
SVCs in terms of
Detection Rate
and Cost
Expectations
1.Random
Subspace
method
2.Bagging
Hidden Signal
DetectionHidden Signal
Dataset
Ensemble
Feature
Selection
based on GA
1.Colon
cancer data
Tr.Set 40
Tst.Set 22
1.10- Fold Cross

Validation and
2.Hepato
Cellular
Carcinoma
Data
Tr.Set 33
Tst.Set 27
2. Assigning
Weights
Tst.Set
9426 positive
179,528
negative
Tr.Set 21
Tst.Set 29
Better
Performance
than bagging
and any other
constituent
ensemble
classifier
1. SVC
parameter
optimizations
reduced by
89%.
2. Reduction
in overall
Training time
by 82%
without
performance
degradation.
Better
prediction
Accuracy
3.High grade
glioma dataset
Product
Rule
12 UCI
benchmark
Datasets
4- Fold CrossValidation
1.Simplifie
d Datasets
2.Reduced
time
complexity,
3.A new
FSCE
Page 37
[9]
[2]
[17]
1.Evoluti
onary
Fusion
2.Context
awarenes
s
1.Evoluti
onary
Fusion
2.Context
awarenes
s
Best classifiers
in each
ensemble
obtained by GA
1.K-Means
Algorithm
2.GA
n number of
different
classifiers
trained with
different context
conditions
Embedding
Classifier
Ensemble
into Context
Aware
Framework
1.Nave
Bayesian
2.K-Nearest
Neighbor
1.Static
Majority
Voting(SMV
)
2.Wighted
Majority
Voting(WM
V)
3.Dynamic
WMV(DW
MV)
1.Decision Tree
[6]
2. SVM
With 4 kernels:
1. linear,
2.polynomial
3.radial basis
4.sigmoid
1.Bagging
2. Double
Bagging
Face
Recognition
FERET
Dataset
4 Face
Recognition
Systems
1.E- FERET
2.E-YALE
3.E-INHA
4.IT
(All 4 datasets
are further
divided into 3
separate
datasets I,
II,III )
6 contexts
Nine data sets

Each
containing
10000 face
images under
100 kinds of
illumination
1.ROC
2.FAR
3.FRR
By creating similar
offline
system(without
Result
Evaluator)trained
and tested on the
same dataset
UCI DataSets
1.TicTacToe
EndGame
2.Chess
EndGame
1.Condition
Diagnosis of
Electric Power
ApparatusGIS dataset
2. 15 UCI
Benchmark
Datasets
958 Instances
9 features
2 classes
3196 Instances
36 features
2 classes
Each dataset
has different
number of
objects, classes
and features
Cross
Validation
In comparison with
Other ensembles
performance on the
same data.
algorithm is
proposed
4.Higher
Classificati
on
Accuracy
1.Reduced
Error Rates
2.Good
Recognition
Rate
1.Highest
Recognition
Rate than
the
individual
classifiers
2.Most
Stable
Performanc
e
1.Better
Classificati
on
Accuracy
than the
individual
Classifier.
2. DWMV
has
Higher
classificatio
n
Accuracy.
Better
performanc
e than
popular
ensemble
methods
like
Bagging,
boosting,
Random
forest and
Rotation
Page 38
Forest.
[3]
[24]
[25]
n number of
SVMs
Any classifier
capable of
classifying CSP
1.Rough Set
Theory
2.Decision Tree
3.SVM
Additional
SVM is used
to fusion the
outputs of all
SVMs
HyperSpectral
AVIRIS Data
1.Majority
Voting
2.Rejecting
the Outliers
BCIEEG signals
Integrating
the
advantages
of RST, DT
and
SVM
UCITeaching
Assistant
Evaluation
(TAE) Dataset
220 data
channels,
145 x 145
pixels,
6 land cover
classes
151 Instances
6 Features
2 classes
1.Overall
classification Results
compared to an
individual classifier.
2.By simple voting.
20 Cross
Validations
1. 102(68%)
Tr.Data
49(32%) -Tst.
Data
2. 6-Folds Cross
Validation
Good
Accuracy
than a
single
constituent
classifier in
the
Ensemble
1.A new
ensemble
CSPE is
designed
2.Better
performanc
e than LDA
, RLDA and
SVM
3.Average
accuracy of
83.02% in
BCI
(Comparitiv
ely a good
Accuracy)
1.Improved
Class
Prediction
with
Acceptable
Accuracy.
2.
Enhanced
Rule
Generation
Note: * - Undefined in the literature

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Efficient Apriori Hybrid Algorithm For Pattern

Extraction Process
1,2
J.Kavitha1,D.Magdalene Delighta Angeline2,P.Ramasubramanian3

Lecturers,Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Dr.G.U.Pope College of Engineering, Sawyerpuram-628251,
Tamilnadu, India.,3 Professor, Vellammal College of Engineering and Technology, Madurai
1
delighta22@yahoo.co.in
jc_kavitha@yahoo.co.in
3
prams_2k2@yahoo.co.in
2
Abstract Students placement in industry for the practicum

training is difficult due to the large number of students and
organizations involved. Further the matching process is complex
due to the various criteria set by the organization and students.
This paper will discuss the results of a pattern extraction
process using association rules of data mining technique where
Apriori Hybrid algorithm was chosen. The data use consists of
Bachelor of engineering students in the teaching organization
from the year 2009 till 2010.
Keywords Data mining, KDD, association rules, apriori
Algorithm, Knowledge Discovery
students majoring. Usually, organization will request student

with a specific majoring details. Other criterion is students
Percentage. Also, due to certain work prospect, some
organization request student based on the gender and race.
These criteria have been considered by the program
coordinator in the placement process to ensure the right
student being sent to the right organization.
This study aim to identify the patterns in matching
organization and student and to extract hidden information
from previously matched practicum placement datasets. This
paper discusses the application of data mining technique
particularly association rules to extract the historical
placement pattern. This pattern will be a useful guideline for
future organization and student matching. The data consist of
all engineering undergraduate students from the year 2009 till
2010.
We then discuss how the best features of Apriori
and AprioriTid can be combined into a hybrid algorithm,
called AprioriHybrid. The problem of finding association
rules falls within the purview of database mining, also called
knowledge discovery in databases.
VI. INTRODUCTION
The teaching organization is responsible with the placement
of students in the industry for the internship program. It is
experiencing difficulty in matching organizations
requirement with students profile for several reasons. This
situation could lead to a mismatched between organizations
requirement and students background. Hence, students will
face problems in giving good service to the company. On the
other hand, companies too could be facing difficulties in
training the students and assigning them with a project.
The placement must be based on certain criteria in order to
best serve the organization and student. For example, student
who lives in Chennai should not be sent to an organization
located in Bangalore. This is to avoid problems in terms of
accommodation, financial, and social. It has been decided
that practicum students should match the organizations
requirement.
However, due to the large number of students
registered every semester, matching the organization with the
students is a very tedious process. The current procedures in
matching organization and students involve several steps.
First, the registered city1 (is the first choice for students) and
city2 (is the second choice for students) will be examined. A
match between organizations location and students
hometown will be determined. The next criterion is the
VII.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Data mining have been applied in various research works.
One of the popular techniques used for mining data in KDD
for pattern discovery is the association rule [1]. According to
[2] an association rule implies certain association
relationships among a set of objects. It attracted a lot of
attention in current data mining research due to its capability
of discovering useful patterns for decision support, selective
marketing, financial forecast, medical diagnosis and many
other applications. The association rules technique works by
finding all rules in a database that satisfies the determined
minimum support and minimum confidence [3].
An algorithm for association rule induction is the Apriori
algorithm, proven to be one of the popular data mining
Page 41
techniques used to extract association rules [4], implemented

the Apriori algorithm to mine single-dimensional Boolean
association rules from transactional databases. The rules
produced by Apriori algorithm makes it easier for the user to
understand and further apply the result. [5] Employed the
association rule method specifically Apriori algorithm for
automatically identifying new, unexpected, and potentially
interesting patterns in hospital infection control. Another
study by employed Apriori algorithm to generate
the frequent item sets and designed the model for economic
forecasting, presented their methods on modelling and
inferring users intention via data.
VIII.
PATTERN EXTRACTION
All paragraphs must be indented. All paragraphs must be
justified, i.e. both left-justified and right-justified.
A. Selection
The data have been generated by different reports among
others Registered Students Report, Students Mark Report,
Students List Based on City Report. This data include all
2009 and 2010 Bachelor in Engineering students. The initial
data contains the performance profile gathered from a
number of 125 students with 20 listed attributes which
include Register Number, Programme, Duration, Program
Code, City1, City2, Address, Address State, Percentage,
Gender, Race Code, Race, Organization, Address1,
Address2, Postcode, City3 and State. The data contains
various types of values either string or numeric value. The
target is represented as Organizations name. The
Organizations name was grouped according to two
categories (Government and Private). Based on the
discussion with the program coordinator, all 125 data are
used in this study. The selected attributes are Majoring,
Percentage, Gender, City1, Race, Organization and City3
chosen based on the suitability of the condition of the
problems being discussed. The data were then processed for
generating rules.
B. Pre-processing
No Upon initial examination on the data, missing values of
the attributes City1, Percentage, Race, Gender, Organization
and City3 were found and removed according to the numbers
of missing values in one instance as part of the data cleansing
process.
C. Transformation
According to [9], after the cleansing process, data is
converted into a common format to make sure that the data
mining process can be easily performed besides ensuring a
meaningful result produced. The following rules are used to

transform the Percentage to string data.
1. If the Percentage = 81 Till 90 THEN Replace Percentage
by S1
by S2
by S3
by S4
Transformation has also been applied to attributes city1 and
city3 by grouping several cities together according to their
location or region, decoded into new region using code of
each state. For example, KODAMPAKAM and GUINDY
have the same code 02 then they were converted into one
Region (N_Region). Organizations name was also
transformed by into two categories (Government and
Private). After all pre-processing and transformation have
been implemented, the data was than ready to be mined using
association rules.
D. Pattern Extraction using Apriori Algorithm

In this study, the association rules using Apriori and Apriori
TID Algorithm was applied to the data for generating rules.
E. Apriori Algorithm
Fig.1 gives the Apriori algorithm. The first pass of the
algorithm simply counts item occurrences to determine the
large 1-itemsets. A subsequent pass, say pass k, consists of
two phases. First, the large itemsets Lk-1 found in the (k-1)th
pass are used to generate the candidate itemsets Ck, using the
apriori-gen function. Next, the database is scanned and the
support of candidates in Ck is counted. For fast counting, we
need to efficiently determine the candidates in Ck that are
contained in a given transaction t.
1)
L1 = {large 1-itemsets};
2) for ( k = 2; Lk-10; k++ ) do begin
3) Ck = apriori-gen(Lk-1 ); // New candidates
4) for all transactions t D do begin
5) Ct = subset(Ck , t); // Candidates contained in t
6) for all candidates c Ct do
7) c:count++;
8) end
9) Lk = {c Ck | c:count _ minsup}
10) end
11) Answer = n Lk;
Fig. 1 Algorithm Apriori
Page 42
F. Algorithm AprioriTid
The AprioriTid algorithm, shown in Fig. 2, also uses the
apriori-gen function to determine the candidate item sets
before the pass begins. The interesting feature of this
algorithm is that the database D is not used for counting
support after the first pass. Rather, the set Ck is used for this
purpose. Each member of the set Ck is of the form < TID;
fXkg >, where each Xk is a potentially large k-item set
present in the transaction with identifier TID. For k = 1, C1
corresponds to the database D, although conceptually each
item i is replaced by the item set fig. For k > 1, Ck is
generated by the algorithm (step 10). The member of Ck
corresponding to transaction t is <t:T ID, fc 2 Ckjc contained
in tg>. If a transaction does not contain any candidate k-item
set, then Ck will not have an entry for this transaction. Thus,
the number of entries in Ck may be smaller than the number
of transactions in the database, especially for large values of
k. In addition, for large values of k, each entry may be
smaller than the corresponding transaction because very few
candidates may be contained in the transaction. However, for
small values for k, each entry may be larger than the
corresponding transaction because an entry in Ck includes all
candidate k-item sets contained in the transaction.
earlier in the study while the degree of rules coverage was

shown through the value of support parameter.
IV EXPERIMENTS
In this experiment, the data has been grouped into three
groups based on the Organization category. Again, the
experiment was conducted using Apriori algorithm with the
same specifications. Table 1 shows the results generated by
Apriori for all two categories of organizations.
TABLE 1
EXTRACTED PATTERN BASED ON ORGANIZATION
CATEGORY
Organization
Region
Criteria (Apriori)
Major=Computer Science
and Engineering
Percentage=75-80
1) L1 = flarge 1-itemsetsg;
2) C1 = database D;
3) for ( k = 2; Lk-1 0; k++ ) do begin
4) Ck = apriori-gen(Lk-1 ); // New candidates
5) Ck =0;
6) for all entries t Ck-1 do begin
7) // determine candidate itemsets in Ck contained
// in the transaction with identi_er t.TID
Ct = {c Ck | (c - c[k]) t:set-of-itemsets ^
(c - c[k-1]) t.set-of-itemsets};
8) for all candidates c Ct do
9) c:count++;
10) if (Ct 0 ;) then Ck += < t:TID;Ct >;
11) end
12) Lk = {c Ck | c:count _ minsup}
13) end
14) Answer = k Lk;
Gender=Male
Race = Guindy
N_Region1
Major=Electronics
Communication
and Engineering
Percentage=75-80
Government
Gender=Male
Race = Guindy
Major=Electrical and
Electronics
W_Region2
Engineering
Percentage=75-80
Fig. 2 Algorithm AprioriTid
Gender=Male
Race = Guindy
G Interpretation/ Evaluation
During the process of pattern extraction, the acceptance of

the output produced was evaluated in terms of accuracy and
converge. This is to make sure that the generated rules are
reliable and accurate. The accuracy of rules was obtained
according to the value of confidence parameter determined
N_Region1
Major=Computer Science
and Engineering
Percentage=70-74 or 75-80
Gender=Female or Male
Page 43
Race = Guindy or
Kodambakam
W_Region2
Major=Electronics
Communication
and Engineering
Private
Percentage=70-74
Gender=Male
Race = Guindy
Major=Electrical and
Electronics
Engineering
Percentage=70-74
Gender=Male
Race = Guindy
A Discussion on the Apriori result

From the pattern extracted, it was found that Apriori
algorithm could generate patterns that are believed to be the
factors that affect the matching process. From the
experiment, extraction of the hidden information reveals that
organization requirement can be fulfilled based on only three
or four criteria. The best rules were selected where the
Organization was set as the target of the students. The rules
were evaluated based on the confidence and support. Upon
examining Table 1, example of pattern extracted is
IF students are from the Computer Science and Engineering
AND
Their Percentage is between 75-80 AND
They are Guindy
THEN
The students were placed in the Northern Region and
In an Government Organization
IF students are from the Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
and
Electronics
Communication
and
Engineering
Majoring AND
Their Percentage is between 70-74 AND
They are Guindy
THEN
The students were placed in the Western Region and
In a Private Organization
V CONCLUSIONS
This study has been implemented and conducted on existing
data from the teaching organization. In this study data mining
techniques namely association rule was used to achieve the
goal and extract the patterns from the large set of data. Using
organization category as the target, the patterns extracted can
provide information of the practicum placement and how the
matching of the organizations requirement and students
criteria was done previously. Further analysis can be done by
changing the target attributes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Magdalene Delighta Angeline is a

Lecturer in the Department of Computer
Science and Engineering in Dr.G.U.Pope
College of Engineering, Sawyerpuram,
Tamilnadu, India. She obtained her
Bachelor
degree
in
Information
Technology from Anna University,
Chennai in the year 2007 and she is doing Master degree in
Computer and Information Technology in Manonmaniam
Page 44
Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli. She has over 3 years of

Teaching Experience and published two paper in national
conferences. Her current area of research includes Image
Processing, Neural Networks, and Data Mining. Email:
delighta22@yahoo.co.in.
J.Kavitha is a Lecturer in the
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering in Dr.G.U.Pope College of
Engineering,
Sawyerpuram,
Tamilnadu, India. She obtained her
MCA from IGNOU and Master degree
in Engineering from Anna University,
Chennai in the year 2004 and 2007 respectively. She has over
3 years of Teaching Experience and published 2 papers in
National conferences. Her current area of research includes
Image Processing, Image Restoration and Data Mining.
Email: jc_kavitha@yahoo.co.in.
P.Ramasubramanian,
is
Professor and Head in the
Department of Computer Science
and Engineering in Dr.G.U.Pope
College
of
Engineering,
Sawyerpuram, Tamilnadu, India.
He obtained his Bachelor and
Master degree in Computer Science and Engineering from
M.K.University, Madurai in the year 1989 and 1996
respectively. He has submitted his Ph.D thesis to Madurai
Kamaraj University, Madurai. He has over 22 years of
Teaching Experience and authored 15 books and 22 research
papers in International, National Journals and Conferences.
His current area of research includes Data Mining, Data Ware
housing, Neural Networks and Fuzzy logic. He is a member
of various societies like ISTE, International Association of
Engineers, Computer Science Teachers Association,
International association of Computer Science and
Information Technology and Fellow in Institution of
Engineers
(India).
Email:
2005.rams@gmail.com,
prams_2k2@yahoo.co.in.
[4] Agrawal, R., C. Faloutsos, and A. N. Swami (1994). Efficient similarity

search in sequence databases. In D. Lomet (Ed.), Proceedings of the 4th
International Conference of Foundations of Data Organization and
Algorithms (FODO), Chicago, Illinois, pp. 69-84. Springer Verlag
[5] Ma, Y., Liu, B., Wong, C. K., Yu, .S., & Lee, S. M. (2000). Targeting
the
Right Student Using Data Mining , ACM, PP. 457-463.
[6] R. Agrawal, T. Imielinski, and A.Swami.Database mining: A
performance perspective.IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data
Engineering, 5(6):914{925, December 1993. Special Issue on Learning
and Discovery in Knowledge-Based Databases.
[7] Almahdi Mohammed Ahmed , Norita Md Norwawi , Wan Hussain Wan
Ishak(2009), Identifying Student and Organization Matching Pattern
Using Apriori Algorithm for Practicum Placement, International
Conference on Electrical Engineering and Informatics ,Selangor,
Malaysia.
[8] Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber. "Data Mining : Concepts and
Techniques " book: Data mining (2001).
[9] Zhigang Li, Margaret H. Dunham, Yongqiao Xiao: STIFF: A
Forecasting Framework for SpatioTemporal Data. Revised Papers from
MDM/KDD
and PAKDD/KDMCD 2002: 183-198.
[10] Rakesh Agrawal Ramakrishnan Srikant, Fast Algorithms for Mining
Association Rules, Proceedings of the 20th VLDB Conference
Santiago, Chile (1994).
REFERENCES
[1]
Hipp, J., Guntzer, U., Gholamreza, N. (2000). Algorithm for
Association
Rule Mining: A General Survey and Comparison, ACM SIGKDD,
volume 2 (Issue 1), p. 58.
[2] Fayyad, U. M., Shapiro, G. P., Smyth, P., and Uthurusamy, R. (1996).
Advances in Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, Cambridge,
AAAI/MIT press
[3] Liu, B., Hsu, W., Ma, Y. (1998). Integrating Classification and
Association Rule Mining, American Association for Artificial
Intelligence
Page 45
CLD for Improving Overall Throughput in Wireless

Networks
Dr. P. Seethalakshmi1, Ms. A. Subasri2
Professor,Department of Computer Science, Anna University,

Trichy, TamilNadu, India.
2
Student, Anna University, Trichy, TamilNadu, India
2
srisan3175@gmail.com
Abstract In this project a cross-layer design approach to

enhance throughput in multi-hop wireless network is proposed.
The lossy nature of wireless link decreases the data rate of a
given flow and the data flow becomes smaller and smaller along
its routing path. As a consequence, the data rate received
successfully at the destination node is typically lower than the
transmission rate at the source node. The losses are due to
interference and fading. These are to be minimized by adjusting
the rate of flow and maximum throughput is to be achieved. The
different types of interference at each layer are minimized
applying various techniques like modulation and coding
techniques at each layer. Maximum throughput is obtained by
devising throughput maximization algorithms, and Interference
aware algorithm.. The Received signal strength, quality of the
link, signal to interference noise ratio play an important role in
maximize overall throughput in the network.
Keywords Cross-layer design, Throughput , Interference,
multi-hop
IX. INTRODUCTION
In the past couple of decades, wireless communications have
gained dramatic development and have been recently
considered as an alternative to wire line networks in
providing the last-mile broadband services. Such
development further stimulates the emergence of multimedia
applications, which require wireless networks to support
broader bandwidth, higher transmission rate, and lower endto-end delay. For wireless communications, the challenge to
provide multimedia services stems from the hostile wireless
channel conditions. Besides channel noise, the time-variant
channel fluctuation(i.e., channel fading) severely affects the
transmission accuracy and the of quality of service(QoS).In
order to combat interference and channel fading various
diversity techniques, modulation and coding techniques are
used.
In the paper[1] the lossy feature of wireless links is
studied and a leaky pipe flow model is designed where the
flow rate changes per hop, which naturally points to hop-byhop rate control.
The effective network utility is
determined by considering two constraints, With link outage
constraints and with path outage constraints. Hop-by-hop rate
control algorithm that are jointly optimized are used. CSIchannel state information is used.
In the above work the interference considerations are not
analysed. For achieving throughput maximization only
estimations are done and analysed. Rayleigh fading model is
used.
II. RELATED WORKS
This scheme [8] is based on belief propagation, which is
capable of fully exploiting the statistics of interference.
Consider, the detection of a sequence of symbols of the
desired user with one strong interferer of the same signalling
format, where the fading processes of both the desired user
and the interference are Gauss-Markov in nature. Belief
propagation is an iterative message passing algorithm for
performing statistical inference on graphical models by
propagating locally computed beliefs.
Belief propagation algorithm has significant performance
gain over the traditional interference suppression schemes.
A. Local Balancing And Interference Aware Channel
Allocation:
This algorithm is used for reducing the overall interference in
the network. Several approaches have been proposed for
minimizing the Adjacent channel effects[5] ranging from coordinating the multiple radios in the wireless node and
adjusting antenna parameters and the filter characteristics to
using the channel overlaps for routing data across devices
operating on the non-overlapping
channels. One of the
popular approaches for mitigating the interference effects[4]
is to choose the transmission channels carefully by making
sure that nearby links are on channels that do not interfere
sufficiently. However, due to the dynamic nature of the links
in a wireless network, the interference characteristics may
vary, and therefore the channel allocation should be
adaptable to these variations.
Page 46
B. Analog Network Coding

Wireless networks strive to avoid scheduling multiple
transmissions at the
same time in order to prevent
interference. This paper[6] encourages strategically picked
senders to interfere instead of forwarding packets, routers
forward the interfering signals. The destination leverages
network level information to cancel the interference and
recover the signal destined to it, The result is analog network
coding because , signals are sent and not bits.
C. Interference Aware Load Balancing.
[4]Path weight function and routing schemes to provide
interference aware and multichannel aware load balancing for
mesh networks is done. The objective of load balancing is
essentially to distribute traffic among different paths to avoid
creating congested areas and improve network performance.
D. Co- Operative Diversity
To determine the optimal trade-off between the amount of
throughput gain obtained via co-operation and the amount of
interference introduced to the network. [2]Co-operative
regionfor each active node is maintained, The nodes lying in
such a region are allowed to co-operate with the source. They
adopt decode and forward scheme at the relays and use the
physical interference model to determine the probability that
a relay node correctly decodes its corresponding source.
Limitations Of Existing System
All the techniques have their own limitations according to the
design they have arrived. Tradeoffs between certain
parameters is made. Link quality varies drastically.
III. DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
In this project overall network throughput is to be enhanced
by considering all the performance metrics and analyzing the
parameters at each layer. The cross layer design is proposed
for interactions between different layers. Using cross layer
design the layers to be considered are Physical layer, MAC/
Data link layer.
S1
D1
Fig. 1 One source and one destination node
.
In the above scenario there is no interference as there is only
one source and one destination node.
Fig. 2 Nodes with two interfering sources

In this fig. 2 there are two interfering sources which causes
an adverse effect by introducing noise . As distance between
source and destination node increases the received signal
strength at the destination node decreases and interference
increases which leads to the degradation in the quality of the
signal.
Normally by setting a threshold value for the received signal
strength the packets are dropped or received. Here in this
project an additional information is included in terms of
interference which is to decide which packets are to be
dropped and which are to be passed based on the signal to
interference noise ratio calculation.
A. Architectural Design:
For each packet, a packet error rate(PER) can be computed as
a function of received power, interference from concurrent
transmissions. Here interference is of high importance. The
underlying modulation is BPSK(Binary Phase Shift Keying)
followed by a variable rate channel code. For each packet
received a signal to interference and noise ratio is calculated.
The bit error rate corresponding to this SINR is obtained by
lookup tables. Gaussian approximation is used for the multiuser interference and for computing the SINR. From the
computed BER the PER is obtained by standard
approximation. The PER is used as the parameter of a binary
random variable used to decide whether the packet is
properly received or not.
Page 47
The various interferences[3] are to be analysed at each layer

and their effects in increasing or reducing the throughput is
taken into account and the various qos metrics like
throughput, delay and jitter have to be improved by changing
the parameters that are in each layer which account for
various degradation.
The layers to be analysed are
Physical
layer
Received signal strength, bit error rate, Interference or signal

to Interference noise ratio, modulation techniques, Data link
layer- addressing or frame checking, reliability of link,
Network layer- path reliability, routing, hop count, Transport
packet delivery ratio. A rate adaptation scheme is to be
proposed.
B. Implementation
The impact of interference on the link from traffic on
neighbouring links is determined. Quality of link is measured
in terms of packet delivery ratio/loss rate. In the absence of
interference the link capacity would be the product of the
maximum sending rate of the sender and delivery ratio of the
link.
QoS - metrics in networks to be dealt with includes
Available bandwidth, Packet loss rate/bit error rate, delay.
Current routing protocols are AODV and DSR.
They select the shortest path between source and Destination.
The issue in shortest path selection is that intermediate nodes
having less battery power, more delay, less bandwidth, high
congestion, more noise ratio in such cases the path is not
optimal for long and bandwidth oriented transmissions such
as multimedia or real time applications, as such applications
need more bandwidth, less delay and more link life.
An adaptive and optimal route can only be designed
using cross layer approach in which the source and
destination select route on the basis of many parameters from
different layers.
Fig. 3 End-to-end- Latency
The fig. 4 shows the computed packet delivery ratio with

respect to the number of nodes active in the network . As
packet delivery ratio increases the overall network
throughput increases.
Fig. 4 Packet Delivery Ratio Vs Time
IV RESULTS
As distance between the source and destination increases the
delay increases due to interference. As delay increases
throughput decreases. As packet delivery ratio increases
delay decreases or end to end latency decreases. The fig. 3
shows the end to end latency with respect to time .
The fig. 5 represents the reporting node which are active

and listening to the transmission and the number of
packetsReceived reducing the interference and latency.
Page 48
[8]
Yan Zhu, Dongning Guo and Michael
L. Honig , Joint
Channel
Estimation and Co-Channel Interference Mitigation in
Wireless Networks Using Belief Propagation,
Department of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Northwestern
University, Evanston, Illinois 60208.
[9]
http://www.wirelesscommunication.nl/reference/chaptr04
/outage/compouta.htm
[10] http://www.wirelesscommunication.nl/reference/chaptr05/
spreadsp /ber.htm
[11] htttp://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns/tutorial/index.html
Fig. 5 No. Of Packets Received Vs Reporting Node
CONCLUSION
This project aims at reducing the different types of
interferences at each layer and improving the overall
throughput by introducing throughput maximization
algorithm and interference aware algorithm along with rate
adaptation. NS2 simulation environment is implemented to
test the results. By introducing the interference aware
algorithm the throughput has been improved to an increase
of 3% when compared to the standard existing system.
REFERENCES
[1]
Qinghai Gao, Junshan Zhang and Stephen V. Hanly, Cross
Layer rate control in wireless networks with lossy links: leaky
pipeflow, effective network utility maximization and hop by hop
algorithms, IEEE Transactions of wireless communications
vol8,no. 6,june 2000.
[2]
Kaveh Pahlavan,Prashant Krishnamurthy, Principles of
Wireless Networks, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited,
2006.
[3]
Jochen Schiller, Mobile Communication 2nd Edition,
Pearson Education 2003.
[4]
Yaling Yang, Jun Wang and Robin Kravets, Interference-aware
Load Balancing for Multi-hopWireless
Networks,
University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign.
[5]
Nitin H. Vaidya , Vijay Raman , Adjacent Channel Interference
Reduction in Multichannel Wireless NetworksUsing Intelligent
Channel Allocation, Technical Report (August 2009),University of
Illinois at Urbana Champaign.
[6]
Sachin
Katti
,Shyamnath
Gollakota,
Dina
Katabi,
EmbracingWireless Interference: Analog Network Coding, mit.edu.
[7]
David Tse, Pramod Viswanath , Fundamentals of Wireless
Communications , University of California, Berkeley,
August13, 2004.
Page 49
Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm In Grid

Computing
Mrs.R.Aghila1,
Assistant Professor,
aghila25481@rediffmail.com
Mr.R.Arun Kumar2
Lecturer
r.arunkumar.me@gmail.com
M.Harine3, G.Priyadharshini3
Final year student,
amutha.victory@gmail.com
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,

K.L.N College of Information Technology, Pottapalayam, Sivagangai district
AbstractComputational grid is a hardware and software
infrastructure that provides dependable, consistent, pervasive
and inexpensive access to high end computational capabilities.
Grid computing environment has coordinated resources, Open
Standard Protocols & frameworks, QOS (Quality of Service).
Grid is mainly to extract enormous power of network,
heterogeneous system. Grid can be applied in biomedicine, earth
science, a high energy physics, astronomy, weather forecasting
etc... The main need of grid computing application is
discovering and scheduling of tasks and workflows. Scheduling
plays an important role in load balancing and thus avoids
processing delays and over commitment of resources. An
effective task scheduling algorithm is necessary to satisfy the
above need. In this paper, weve implemented Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) algorithm for effective task scheduling
using gridsim tool in Java. Weve also compared its
performance with Genetic Algorithm (GA). We aim to generate
minimum completion time while executing the tasks using PSO
than that obtained using GA.
Keywords Genetic algorithm, Simulated annealing, Particle
Optimization algorithm
I.
A.
INTRODUCTION
GRID COMPUTING:
Grid [1] is defined as an infrastructure that couples

computers, software, databases, special instruments and
people across the internet and presents them as an unified
integrated resource. It is mainly used to extract enormous
power of network, heterogeneous system. Grids have
emerged as a global cyber-infrastructure for the nextgeneration of e-Science and e-business applications, by
integrating large-scale, distributed and heterogeneous
resources. Scientific communities in areas such as highenergy physics, gravitational-wave physics, geophysics,
astronomy and bioinformatics, are utilizing Grids to share,
manage and process large data sets.
B.
TASK SCHEDULING:
The need for task scheduling [1-2] arises from the

requirement for most modern systems to perform
multitasking (executing more than one process at a time) and
multiplexing (transmit multiple flows simultaneously). Task
scheduling is one of the NP-complete problems [5]. Heuristic
optimization algorithm is widely used to solve a variety of
NP-Complete problems. With the development of the
network technology, grid computing used to solve larger
scale complex problems becomes a focus technology. Task
scheduling is a challenging problem in grid computing
environment. If large numbers of tasks are computed on the
geographically distributed resources, a reasonable scheduling
algorithm must be adopted in order to get the minimum
completion time. So task scheduling which is one of NPComplete problems become a focus by many of scholars in
grid computing area. Abraham et al and Braun et al [6]
presented three basic heuristics implied by Nature for Grid
scheduling, namely Genetic Algorithm (GA) [3-5], Simulated
Annealing (SA) [5] and Tabu Search (TS) [11], and
heuristics derived by a combination of these three algorithms.
GA and SA are powerful stochastic optimization methods,
which are inspired form the nature.PSO [7-10] shares many
similarities with evolutionary computational techniques such
as Genetic Algorithms. The system is initialized with a
population of random solutions and searches for optima by
updating generations. However unlike GA, PSO has no
evolution operators such as cross over and mutation. In PSO,
the potential solutions, called particles, fly through the
problem space by following the current optimum particles.
This paper is organized as follows. In section 2, the mostly
used task scheduling algorithms in grid computing. In section
3, our proposed system Particle Swarm Optimization
algorithm is explained. Its implementation is also discussed
in this section. The section 4 and 5 deals with concluding
discussions and references respectively.
Page 50
II.
MOSTLY USED TASK SCHEDULING

ALGORITHMS IN GRID COMPUTING:
In this paper, we will discuss the problem that numt tasks

work on res computing resources with an objective of
minimizing the completion time and utilizing the resources
effectively. If the number of tasks is less than the number of
resources in grid environment, the tasks can be allocated on
the resources according to the first- come-first-serve rule. If
the number of task is more than the number of resources, the
allocation of tasks is to be made by some scheduling
schemes.
A.
SIMULATED ANNEALING (SA):
Simulated Annealing (SA) derives from the Monte

Carlo method for statistically searching the global. The
concept is originally from the way in which crystalline
structures can be formed into a more ordered state by use of
the annealing process, which repeats the heating and slowly
cooling a structure [5]. SA has been used to select a suitable
size of a set of machines for scheduling in a Grid
environment.
Genetic algorithms (GAs) provide robust search techniques

that allow a high-quality solution to be derived from a large
search space in polynomial time by applying the principle of
evolution [5]. A genetic algorithm combines exploitation of
best solutions from past searches with the exploration of new
regions of the solution space. Any solution in the search
space of the problem is represented by an individual. A
genetic algorithm maintains a population of individuals that
evolves over generations. The quality of an individual in the
population is determined by a fitness function. The fitness
value indicates how good the individual is compared to
others in the population. It first creates an initial population
consisting of randomly generated solutions. After applying
genetic operators, namely selection, crossover and mutation,
one after the other, new offspring are generated. Then the
evaluation of the fitness of each individual in the population
is conducted. The fittest individuals are selected to be carried
over next generation. The above steps are repeated until the
termination condition is satisfied. Typically, a GA is
terminated after a certain number of iterations, or if a certain
level of fitness value has been reached.
Figure 2. Flowchart Genetic Algorithm
III.
A.
PARTICLE
ALGORITHM:
Figure 1. Flowchart Simulated Annealing algorithm
B.
GENETIC ALGORITHMS (GA):
OUR PROPOSED WORK:

SWARM
OPTIMIZATION
PSO [7] is a robust stochastic optimization technique based

on the movement and intelligence of swarms. PSO applies
Page 51
the concept of social interaction to problem solving. It was

developed in 1995 by James Kennedy (social-psychologist)
and Russell Eberhart (electrical engineer). In PSO each single
solution is a bird in the search space. We call it particle.
All of particles have fitness values which are evaluated by the
fitness function to be optimized and have velocities which
direct the flying of particles.
Each particle keeps track of its coordinates in the solution
space which are associated with the best solution (fitness)
that has achieved so far by that particle. This value is called
personal best, pbest. Another best value that is tracked by the
PSO is the best value obtained so far by any particle in the
neighborhood of that particle. This value is called gbest. The
basic concept of PSO lies in accelerating each particle toward
its pbest and the gbest locations, with a random weighted
acceleration at each time
w: weighting function,
cj : weighting factor,
rand : uniformly distributed random number between 0 and
1,
sik : current
position of agent i at iteration k,
pbesti : pbest of agent i,
gbest: gbest of the group.
The following weighting function is usually utilized in (1)
w=wMax-[(wMax-wMin)xiter]/maxIter
(2)
Where wMax= initial weight,
wMin = final weight,
maxIter = maximum iteration number,
iter = current iteration number.
sik+1 = sik + Vik+1
(3)
3.2 FLOW CHART DEPICTING THE GENERAL PSO

ALGORITHM:
Figure 3.Basic concept of PSO
sk : current searching point.

sk+1: modified searching point.
vk: current velocity.
vk+1: modified velocity.
vpbest : velocity based on pbest,
vgbest : velocity based on gbest
Each particle tries to modify its position using the following
information:
)
the current positions,
)
the current velocities,
)
the distance between the current position and pbest,
)
The distance between the current position and the
gbest.
Figure 4. PSO-Flowchart
The modification of the particles position can be

mathematically modeled according the following equation:
B.
Vik+1 = wVik +c1 rand1 () x (pbesti-sik) + c2 rand2 () x

(gbest-sik) .. (1)
Unlike in genetic algorithms, evolutionary programming and

evolutionary strategies, in PSO, there is no selection
operation. All particles in PSO are kept as members of the
population through the course of the run PSO [8] are the only
where, vik : velocity of agent i at iteration k,
ADVANTAGES OF PSO OVER GA AND SA:
Page 52
algorithm that does not implement the survival of the fittest.

No crossover operation in PSO.
C.
IMPLEMENTATION:
Module 1: PSO Implementation

The number of processors i.e., the number of resources and
the number of jobs are obtained as input. From the obtained
input, gridlets are generated. The PSO algorithm is used to
allocate the jobs to correct resources so that the completion
time of the process will get minimized.
Module 2: Comparison with GA
The implementation is made to run for certain trials
and the output is obtained. It is then compared with that of
the results obtained using Genetic Algorithm and the graph is
drawn.
Figure 6. Example implementation Generation of completion time
Consider the number of resources is 3 and the number of

tasks is 10. The speed of three resources are 4,3 and 2
respectively. The results of GA algorithm running 10 times
were {26, 25.4, 25.8, 25.8, 25, 25, 25.8, 26, 25.4, 25}, with
an average value of 25.52.the best result based on PSO
algorithm for (3, 10) is shown in table 1.
Table 1. Example of the best result
Figure 5.Example implementation-Getting the user inputs
Task(T)/Resources(R)
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
R1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
R2
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
R3
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
The results of PSO algorithm running 10 times were {25, 25,

25.4, 25.4, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25.2}, with an average value of
25.1. PSO algorithm provided the best result 7 times, while
GA algorithm provided the best result 3 times.
Page 53
proposed approach and compared it with genetic algorithm

under the same condition. From the simulated experiment,
the result of PSO algorithm is better than GA. Simulation
results demonstrate that PSO algorithm can get better effect
for a large scale optimization problem. Task scheduling
algorithm based on PSO algorithm can be applied in the
computational grid environment.
REFERENCES:
Figure 7: Performance of PSO and GA scheduling algorithm about 5

processors and 100 tasks
Figure 8: The performance of curves of different numbers of processors

running different Number of tasks
It shows PSO usually spent the shorter time to complete the

scheduling than GA algorithm. It is to be noted that PSO
usually spent the shorter time to accomplish the various task
scheduling tasks and had the better result compared with GA
algorithm.
IV.
[9]
Foster and C. Kesselman (editors), The Grid: Blueprint for a Future
Computing Infrastructure,Morgan Kaufman Publishers, USA, 1999.
[10] Y. Gao, H.Q Rong and J.Z. Huang, Adaptive grid job scheduling with
genetic algorithms, Future Generation Computer Systems, pp.1510-161
Elsevier,21(2005).
[11] M. Aggarwal, R.D. Kent and A. Ngom, Genetic Algorithm Based
Scheduler for Computational Grids, in Proc. of the 19th Annual International
Symposium on High Performance Computing Systems and Application
(HPCS05), ,pp.209-215 Guelph, Ontario Canada, May 2005.
[12] S. Song, Y. Kwok, and K. Hwang, Security-Driven Heuristics and A
Fast Genetic Algorithm for Trusted Grid Job Scheduling, in Proc. of 19th
IEEE International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium
(IPDPS05), pp.65-74, Denver, Colorado USA, April 2005.
[13] Workflow scheduling algorithm for grid computing Jia Yu and
Rajkumar Buyya Grid computing and distributed system(GRIDS) laboratory
Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering The University
of Melbourne,Australia.
[14] Abraham, R. Buyya and B. Nath, Nature's Heuristics for Scheduling
Jobs on Computational Grids, The 8th IEEE International Conference on
Advanced Computing and Communications (ADCOM 2000), pp. 4552,Cochin, India, December 2000,.
[15] Kennedy J. and Eberhart R. Swarm interllignece,Morgan Kaufmann,
2001.
[16] J. Kennedy and R. C. Eberhard, Particle swarm optimization, Proc.
of IEEE Intl Conf. on Neural Networks, pp.1942-1948, Piscataway, NJ,
USA, ,1995.
[17] J.F. Schute and A.A. Groenwold, A study of global optimization using
particle swarms, Journal of Global Optimization, pp.93-108, Kluwer
Academic Publisher,31(2005).
[18] M. Fatih Tasgetiren, Yun-Chia Liang, MehmetSevkli, and Gunes
Gencyilmaz, Particle Swarm Optimization and Differential Evolution for
Single Machine Total Weighted Tardiness Problem, International Journal of
Production Research, pp. 4737-4754 , vol. 44, no. 22, 2006.
[19] R. Braun, H. Siegel, N. Beck, L. Boloni, M. Maheswaran, A. Reuther,
J. Robertson, M. Theys, B. Yao, D. Hensgen and R. Freund, A Comparison
of Eleven Static Heuristics for Mapping a Class of Independent Tasks onto
Heterogeneous Distributed Computing Systems, pp. 810-837, J. of Parallel
andDistributed Computing, vol.61, No. 6, 2001.
CONCLUSION:
In this paper, scheduling algorithm based on PSO is proposed

for task scheduling problem on computational grids. Each
particle represents a feasible solution. The position vector is
transformed from the continuous values to the discrete values
based on SPV rules, accordingly, a permutation formed. Our
approach is to generate an optimal schedule so as to complete
the tasks in a minimum time as well as utilizing the resources
in an efficient way. We evaluate the performance of our
Page 54
NTRU - Public Key Cryptosystem For Constrained

Memory Devices
V.Pushparani#1 and Kannan Balasubramaniam*2
#1
Faculty of Kamaraj College of Engg and Technology, Virudhunagar, Tamilnadu.

1
pushpavpr@yahoo.co.in
*2
Professor of Mepco Schlenk Engg College, Sivakasi. Tamilnadu.

2
kannanb6@gmail.com
ABSTRACT -- In many business sectors secure and efficient

data transfer is essential. To ensure the security to the
applications of business, the business sectors use Public Key
cryptographic Systems (PKCS).. Secure public key
authentication and digital signatures are increasingly important
for electronic communications, commerce and security. They
are required not only on high powered desktop computers, but
also on smart cards and wireless devices with severely
constrained memory and processing capabilities.
An RSA and NTRU system generally belongs to the category of
PKCS. The efficiency of a public key cryptographic system is
mainly measured in computational overheads, key size.
Although the security of RSA is beyond doubt, the evolution in
computing power has caused a growth in the necessary key
length. The fact that most chips on smart cards cannot process
keys extending 1024 bit shows that there is a need for
alternative.
NTRU is such an alternative and it is a collection of
mathematical algorithms based on manipulating lists of very
small integers and polynomials. NTRU is the secure public key
cryptosystem not based on factorization or discrete logarithm
problems. The security of the NTRU cryptosystem came from
the interaction of the polynomial mixing system with the
independence of reduction modulo two relatively prime
integers p and q.
KeyWords -- NTRU, patterns, encryption, decryption, digital
signature
I. INTRODUCTION
A. NTRU
NTRU (Number Theory Research Unit) is relatively new and
was conceived by Jeffrey Hoff stein, Jill Pipher and Joseph.
H. Silverman. NTRU uses polynomial algebra combined with
clustering principle based on elementary mathematical
theory. The security of NTRU comes from the interaction of
polynomial mixing system with the independence of
reduction modulo two relatively prime numbers. The basic
collection of objects used by the NTRU Public Key
Cryptosystem in the ring R that consists of all truncated
polynomials of degree N-1 having integer coefficients a =a
2
+ a 3X 3 + + a N-2X N-2 + a N-1X N-1.
0+ a 1X + a 2X
Polynomials are added in the usual way. They are also
multiplied more or less as usual, except that XN is replaced

by 1, XN+1 is replaced by X, X N+2 is replaced by X2 and so
on.
1)
Truncated Polynomial Rings:
The NTRU public-key algorithm, explained in chapter II,

uses random polynomials which are generated from a
[X]/(XN-1). The
polynomial ring of the form R[X] =
polynomials that form the ring R[X] have a degree smaller
than N. The polynomials in the truncated ring R[X] are added
in a regular way by adding their coefficients. The polynomial
XN 1. Said differently, the maximum degree of the resultant
polynomial of a multiplication between two polynomials of
the ring cannot be greater than N - 1. The product operation
of two polynomials in R[X], is defined as c(X) = a(X) * b(X)
where ck is the kth coefficient of c(X) and is computed as
ck=a0bk + aibk-1 + akb0 +.... + aN-1bk+1
The product of polynomials in R[X] is also called the star
multiplication.
II. RELATED WORKS
A. NTRU: A Ring Based Public Key Cryptosystem - J.
Hoffstein, J. Pipher, and J. H. Silverman
N 1
The polynomial is represented as a(X)=
aiXi R. When
i =0
NTRU was formally introduced in 1998, Silverman presented

the polynomial multiplication as the cyclic convolution of
two polynomials as
ck =
i= 0
a i .b k i +
N 1
a i .b N
i= k +1
+ k i
i + j = k (mod
a i .b
N )
Ultimately, this straightforward method requires N2

multiplications to perform a polynomial multiplication for
NTRU.
B. NTRU in Constrained Devices D. V. Bailey, D. Coffin,
A. Elbirt, J. H. Silverman, and A. D. Woodbury
Page 55
In 2001, Bailey et al. introduced a fast convolution algorithm,

to perform a polynomial multiplication for NTRU. This
algorithm makes the realization that almost every polynomial
multiplication involved with NTRU has one polynomial that
is random. The random polynomials are assumed to have
binary coefficients. In addition, the random polynomial is
assumed to consist of three smaller polynomials of low
Hamming weight(d), The product can be computed using
only additions over
and rotations of the coefficient vector
of a. For each non-zero coefficient bi of b, polynomials of the
form Xia are added in order to compute the product ab. The
multiplication of a polynomial a with a monomial Xi in R
corresponds to i right rotations of the coefficient vector of a,
where the right rotation is defined as the mapping
( a 0 ,..., a N 1 ) a ( a N 1 , a 0 ,..., a N 2 )
Fig.1 Multiplications of a, b using additions and rotations
The fast convolution algorithm reduces the complexity of

NTRU's polynomial multiplication to dN additions and no
multiplications.
C. Sliding Window Method for NTRU - M.-K. Lee1, J. W.
Kim, J. E. Song, and K. Park.
In 2007, Lee et al observed that it is possible to reduce the
number of additions needed to compute the product of
polynomial a, b by using bit patterns of the binary
polynomial b. By a bit pattern, we understand two 1s
separated by a (possibly empty) sequence of 0s. We say that
such a bit pattern has length l if the two 1s are separated by l
- 1 0s. More generally, it is possible to reduce the number of
additions needed to compute the product ab whenever a bit
(a0 ,...,
aN1more
) a (than
aN1 ,once
a0 ,...,
pattern
occurs
inab.
N 2It) is thus desirable to
choose bit patterns in a way that maximizes the number of
pattern occurrences and to efficiently identify the patterns in
b. The algorithm of Lee et al. only considers bit patterns of
length less than or equal to a parameter w. For each pattern
l
length l = 1..w, the polynomial a + X a is precomputed
and stored in a lookup table. The non-zero coefficients not
belonging to any such bit pattern are treated as in the
algorithm of Bailey et al. Binary polynomials are represented
as bit strings.
Fig.2 Multiplications of a, b using bit patterns
Considering bit strings containing more than two 1s does not

achieve any notable speedup because the probability that
these strings occur more than once in b is very low.
D. An Algorithm of Dynamic Patterns for NTRU - Bu Shan
Yue Zhang Han Yan Wang RuChuan
Bu Shan Yue et al proposed algorithm uses bit patterns, but
the patterns can be of arbitrary length, and only the patterns
actually occurring in b are considered. Thus, all non-zero
coefficients of b belong to a pattern, except for a single
coefficient in case that the hamming weight of b is odd. They
omit the precomputation step of the algorithm of Lee et al.
and instead compute the polynomials a+Xla when needed.
They also represent binary polynomials as the sequence of
the degrees of their monomials. It shows that pattern finding
can be performed much easier and faster in this
representation.
E. NSS: The NTRU Signature Scheme - Jeffrey Hoffstein, Jill
Pipher, Joseph H. Silverman
Secure public key authentication and digital signatures are
increasingly important for electronic communications and
commerce, and they are required not only on high powered
desktop computers, but also on Smart Cards and wireless
devices with severely constrained memory and processing
capabilities. Silverman et al introduced a NTRU signature
scheme in which the public and private keys are formed as
follows.
Choosing two polynomials f and g having the form
f = f0 + pf1 and g = g0 + pg1. Here f0 and g0 are fixed
universal polynomials (e.g., f0 = 1 and g0 = 1-X) and f1 and g1
are polynomials with small coefficients chosen from the sets
Ff and Fg, respectively. Next computes the inverse f-1 of f
modulo q, that is, f-1 satisfies f-1* f 1 (mod q). Public
verification key is the polynomial h * f-1 g (mod q). Private
signing key is the pair (f; g).
III. NTRU PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOSYSTEM
A. Parameters
The basic collection of objects used by the NTRU Public Key
Cryptosystem in the ring R that consists of all truncated
polynomials of degree N-1 having integer coefficients
Page 56
a =a 0+ a 1X + a 2X 2 + a 3X 3 +...+a N-2X N-2 +a N-1X N-1.

All computations are performed in the ring of convolution
modular polynomials R = Z [ X ] / ( X N 1 )
where polynomials of degree less than N are used as
representatives for the residue classes. Polynomials are added
in the usual way. They are also multiplied more or less as
usual, except that XN is replaced by 1, XN+1 is replaced by X,
X N+2 is replaced by X2 and so on.
The NTRU public-key algorithm is defined by the following
parameters:
N: The degree parameter. Defines the degree N - 1 of the
polynomials in R.
q: Large modulo. Polynomial coefficients are reduced
modulo q.
p: Small modulo. The coefficients of the message are
reduced modulo p in decryption.
dF: Private key space. Fixes the polynomial form
defining the number of positive ones for the private key f, the
negative ones are fixed by df - 1.
dg: Public key space. Fixes the polynomial form defining
the number of positive and negative ones for the random
polynomial g used to calculate the public key.
dr: Blinding value space. Fixes the polynomial form
defining the number of positive and negative ones of the
random polynomial r used in the encryption process.
D(d): The set of binary polynomials of degree less than
N with hamming weight d.
B. Key generation
1) Pattern Finding:
A binary polynomial b of hamming weight d is represented
by the sequence D0....Dd-1 of the degrees of its monomials in
ascending order. The polynomial is traversed once in reverse
order, starting at Dd-1. For each possible pattern length l
1...N - d+1 a list Ll of pattern locations is created. Every pair
of degrees (Di....Di-1) represents a bit pattern of length Di Di1. The degree Di is stored in the list LDi....Di-1 and i is decreased
by 2. In case that d is odd, the remaining single degree D0 is
stored separately in a list L0.
2) Pattern multiplication:
Each non-empty list Ll, , l > 0 represents a bit pattern of b
with length l. For each such Ll, the corresponding pattern
polynomial p = a + X l a is computed. For each element D
of the list Ll, this pattern polynomial is right rotated D times
and added to the resulting polynomial. A possibly remaining
single degree stored in L0 is treated separately without
computing a pattern polynomial.
During Key Generation the process Random

Polynomial is invoked to generate the polynomial f and g in
order to calculate the public key h. The polynomials are
generated with random coefficients from a truncated ring of
polynomials R. Random Polynomial receives the number of
positive and negative ones and generates the random
polynomial of N coefficients.
4) Inversion modulo q:
During Key Generation the polynomial fq, the
inverse of f modulo q, is also computed. The polynomial fq is
necessary, together with g, to calculate the public key h.
Inversion modulo q computes the inverse of a certain
polynomial f modulo q in fq, computing fq = f-1 (mod q)
which satisfies f* fq 1 (mod q).
5) Inversion modulo p:
Inversion modulo p computes the inverse of a polynomial f in
modulo p such that f * fp 1(mod p).
6) Key generation:
Choose
uniformly
at
random
and
polynomials
f . f 1 1(mod q )
pF. If the congruence
the
binary
Compute f = 1 +
has a solution,
calculate such a solution

Otherwise, start over.
= f 1 pg mod q
Compute the hpolynomial
.
The
notation a = b mod q stands for reducing the coefficients of b
modulo q and assigning the result to a. The private key is f,
the public key is h.
Fig. 3 Key Generation
3) Random Polynomial generation:
Page 57
C. Encryption
Encryption is the simplest part in the NTRU PKC.
Encryption only requires generating a random polynomial r
from the ring R that obscures the message. Then the
polynomial r is multiplied by the public key h. And finally
the product of r and h is added to the desired message to
encrypt. This means Encryption just needs to receive a
message in the polynomial form m and the public key h.
Dev(a; b) = #{i: Ai Bi}: Intuitively, Dev(a; b) is the

number of coefficients of a mod q and b mod q that differ
modulo p.
1) Key Generation:
Chooses two polynomials f and g. Compute the inverse f-1 of f
modulo q. Public verification key is the polynomial h * f-1 g
(mod q) and his private signing key is the pair (f; g).
2) Signing:
Users document is a polynomial m modulo p. Chooses a
polynomial w Fw of the form w = m + w1 + pw2; where w1
and w2 are small polynomials. Then computes s f* w (mod
q): Signed message is the pair (m; s).
Fig.4 Encryption specification

D. Decryption
The Decryption process requires the encrypted message e and

the private key set (f.. fp) to decrypt the encrypted message e
into the clear message c.
3) Verification:
In order to verify signature s on the message m, First checks
that s0 and then verifies the following two conditions:
1.
Compares s to f0*m by checking if their deviation
satisfies
Dmin Dev(s. f0 * m)Dmax
2.
Use public verification key h to compute the
polynomial th*s (mod q), putting the coefficients of t into
the range [-q=2; q=2] as usual. Then checks if the deviation
of t from g0*m satisfies
Dmin Dev(t. g0 * m)Dmax
If signature passes tests (A) and (B), then accepts it as valid.
IV. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
In order to grasp how well NTRU performs for different
applications, a timing analysis was conducted for the Key
generation, Encryption, and Decryption functions. The test
values for the parameters of NTRU used for this performance
analysis are listed in
Table ITABLE I
TEST VALUES USED for PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
Parameters
Fig.5 Decryption specification
E. The NTRU Signature Scheme

The key computation involves the deviation between two
polynomials. Let a(X) and b(X) be two polynomials in R. We
first reduce their coefficients modulo q to lie in the range
between -q=2 to q=2, then we reduce their coefficients
modulo p to lie in the range between -p=2 and p=2. Let A(X)
= A0+A1X+.....+AN-1XN-1 and B(X) = B0+.......+BN-1X N-1 be
these reduced polynomials. Then the deviation of a and b is
N
q
p
NumOnes f
NumNegOnes f
NumOnes g
NumNegOnes g
NumOnes r
NumNegOnes r
NumOnes m
NumNegOnes m
107 NTRU
107
64
3
15
14
12
12
5
5
25
25
503 NTRU
503
256
3
216
215
72
72
55
55
165
165
Page 58
The results of the timing analysis are shown in Table II.

TABLE II
TIMINGS for NTRU
Functions in
NTRU
Key
Generation
(ms)
Encryption
(ms)
Decryption
(ms)
107 NTRU
503 NTRU
16.2
699.5
0.6
15.0
1.4
29.4
Systems (CHES 01), volume 2162 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science,

pages 262272. Springer Verlag.
[3].
J. Hoffstein, J. Pipher, and J. H. Silverman. NTRU: A Ring-Based
Public Key Cryptosystem. 1998, In Proceedings of the Third International
Symposium on Algorithmic Number Theory, volume 1423 of Lecture Notes
in Computer Science, pages 267288.Springer Verlag.
[4].
Jeffrey Hoffstein, Jill Pipher, Joseph H. Silverman,2005,NSS:
The NTRU Signature Scheme.
[5].
R. Lindner, J. Buchmann, M. Doering, 2008, Efficiency
Improvements for NTRU, Sicherheit 2008, LNI vol. 128.
[6].
M.-K. Lee1, J. W. Kim, J. E. Song, and K. Park. 2007, Sliding
Window Method for NTRU. In Proceedings of ACNS 2007, volume 4521 of
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 432442. Springer Verlag.
[7].
Narasimham Challa and Jayaram Pradhan, 2008, Performance
Analysis and Public key cryptographic systems RSA and NTRU, IJCSNS
International Journal of computer science and Network security.
The Key Generation function takes the longest time because

it requires two polynomial inversions and a polynomial
multiplication. In addition, since the Decryption function
requires two polynomial multiplications, it takes over two
times as long as the Encryption functions. Since Encryption
requires only one polynomial multiplication, it is fair to use
Encryption's timing to estimate the time to perform a single
polynomial multiplication. Altogether, the timing analysis in
Table II shows that NTRU has potential in offering high
performance.
V. CONCLUSION
The NTRU is suitable for applications where it requires
security based on the environment. Because of the RSAs
time complexity O (n 3) and that of NTRUs O (n log (n)),
NTRU confirms its cryptography and delivers encryption,
decryption and authentication at speeds of multiple times
faster than RSA. NTRU is ideally suited for applications
where high performance, high security and low power
consumption are required.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the management of Kamaraj
College of Engineering and Technology, Virudhunagar, India
and Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, India for
granting permission to undertake this work. Our thanks are
due to the Head of the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering of Kamaraj College of Engineering and
Technology for allowing us the use of the laboratories and
computing facilities.
REFERENCES
[1].
Bu Shan Yue Zhang Han Yan Wang RuChuan Dept. of
Comput. Eng., Huaiyin Inst. of Technol., Huaiyin; 2008, An Algorithm of
Dynamic Patterns for NTRU Wireless communications, Networking and
Mobile computing,. WiCOM 08.
[2].
D. V. Bailey, D. Coffin, A. Elbirt, J. H. Silverman, and A. D.
Woodbury. 2001, NTRU in Constrained Devices. In Proceedings of the
Third International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded
Page 59
A Novel Randomized Key Multimedia Encryption

Algorithm Security Against Several Attacks
S. Arul Jothi
Department of Computer Science, NMS Sermathai Vasan College for Women
Madurai, Tamilnadu, India
s.aruljothi.p@gmail.com
Abstract Encryption is the science of changing data so that it
is unrecognisable and useless to an unauthorised person.
Decryption is changing it back to its original form. The wide
availability of digital multimedia contents as well as the
accelerated growth of wired and wireless communication
technologies have brought the multimedia content security
issue to the forefront. In particular, the problem of efficient
multimedia data encryption has recently gained more attention
in both academia and industry. Unlike ordinary computer
applications, multimedia applications generate large amounts
of data that has to be processed in real time. So, a number of
encryption schemes for multimedia applications have been
proposed in recent years. The most secure techniques use a
mathematical algorithm and a variable value known as a 'key'.
As the entire operation is dependent upon the security of the
keys, it is sometimes appropriate to devise a fairly complex
mechanism to manage them. With the rapid progress of
information technology, security becomes one of the key
factors in information storage, communication and processing.
For the reason of speed and security I develop a novel
encryption algorithm secure to several attacks. As opposed to
traditional key algorithms here the key is randomized.
Keywords Cryptanalysis, Algorithm, Cryptography, Block
cipher, Security, Encryption and Decryption.
I. INTRODUCTION
Information security deals with several different "trust"
aspects of information. Another common term is
information assurance. Information security is not confined
to computer systems, nor to information in an electronic or
machine-readable form. It applies to all aspects of
safeguarding or protecting information or data, in whatever
form.
Cryptography [3] [10]can also be defined as the science and
art of manipulating message to make them secure. In this the
original message to be transformed is called the plaintext
and resulting message after transformation is called the
cipher text. There are several ways of classifying
cryptographic algorithms. They will be categorized based on
the number of keys that are employed for encryption and
decryption, and further defined by their application and use.
The three types of algorithms that will be discussed are
secret key cryptography, public key cryptography and hash

functions.
With secret key cryptography[1] [7], a single key is used for
both encryption and decryption. As shown in figure below, the
sender uses the key to encrypt the plaintext and sends the
cipher text to the receiver. The receiver applies the same key
to decrypt the message and recover the plaintext. Because a
single key is used for both functions, secret key cryptography
is also called symmetric encryption
Public-key cryptography is based on the notion that encryption
keys are related pairs, private and public. The private key
remains concealed by the key owner; the public key is freely
disseminated to various partners. Data encrypted using the
public key can be decrypted only by using the associated
private key and vice versa. Because the key used to encrypt
plaintext is different from the key used to decrypt the
corresponding cipher text, public-key cryptography is also
known as asymmetric cryptography.
Cryptanalysis [21] is the study of methods for obtaining the
meaning of encrypted information, without access to the secret
information which is normally required to do so. Typically,
this involves finding the secret key. In non-technical language,
this is the practice of code breaking or cracking the code,
although these phrases also have a specialised technical
meaning.
Block ciphers [13] [14] encrypt blocks of data (typically 64 or
128 bits) in a fixed key-dependent way. The design of block
ciphers is a well-studied area of research. The best-known
block ciphers are the Data Encryption Standard (DES) and the
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). In the past decade,
many new attacks on block ciphers have emerged, the most
important ones being differential and linear cryptanalysis.
Differential cryptanalysis is an example of a chosen-plaintext
attack, while linear cryptanalysis is a known-plaintext attack.
A good design should at least be resistant to these attacks. This
algorithm can overcome this two attacks.
A randomized algorithm or probabilistic algorithm is an
algorithm which employs a degree of randomness as part of its
logic. The algorithm typically uses uniformly random bits as
an auxiliary input to guide its behaviour, in the hope of
Page 60
achieving good performance in the "average case" over all

possible choices of random bits [4] [5]. Formally, the
algorithm's performance will be a random variable
determined by the random bits; thus either the running time,
or the output (or both) are random variables. Here in this
algorithm the key is nothing but the random positions of the
given n n matrix..
II.
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF CRYPTOGRAPHY
The history of cryptography [3]begins thousands of years
ago. Until recent decades, it has been the story of what
might be called classic cryptography that is, of methods of
encryption that use pen and paper, or perhaps simple
mechanical aids. In the early 20th century, the invention of
complex mechanical and electromechanical machines, such
as the Enigma rotor machine, provided more sophisticated
and efficient means of encryption; and the subsequent
introduction of electronics and computing has allowed
elaborate schemes of still greater complexity, most of which
are entirely unsuited to pen and paper.
The development of cryptography has been paralleled by the
development of cryptanalysis of the "breaking" of codes
and ciphers. The discovery and application, early on, of
frequency analysis to the reading of encrypted
communications has on occasion altered the course of
history. Thus the Zimmermann Telegram triggered the
United States' entry into World War I; and Allied reading of
Nazi Germany's ciphers shortened World War II, in some
evaluations by as much as two years.
The Germans made heavy use (in several variants) of an
electromechanical rotor based cipher system known as
Enigma. The German military also deployed several
mechanical attempts at a one time pad. Bletchley Park
called them the Fish cipher's, and Max Newman and
colleagues designed and deployed the world's first
programmable digital electronic computer, the Colossus, to
help with their cryptanalysis. The German Foreign Office
began to use the one-time pad in 1919; some of this traffic
was read in WWII partly as the result of recovery of some
key material in South America that was insufficiently
carefully discarded by a German courier.
The era of modern cryptography [7] really begins with
Claude Shannon, arguably the father of mathematical
cryptography. In 1949 he published the paper
Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems in the Bell
System Technical Journal, and a little later the book
Mathematical Theory of Communication with Warren
Weaver. These, in addition to his other works on
information and communication theory established a solid
theoretical basis for cryptography and for cryptanalysis.
And with that, cryptography more or less disappeared into
secret government communications organizations such as
the NSA. Very little work was again made public until the mid
'70s, when everything changed.
In 1969[6] two major public (ie, non-secret) advances. First
was the DES (Data Encryption Standard) submitted
Cryptography/History by IBM , at the invitation of the
National Bureau of Standards (now NIST), in an effort to
develop secure electronic communication facilities for
businesses such as banks and other large financial
organizations. After 'advice' and modification by the NSA, it
was adopted and published as a FIPS Publication (Federal
Information Processing Standard) in 1977. It has been made
effectively obsolete by the adoption in 2001 of the Advanced
Encryption Standard, also a NIST competition, as FIPS 197.
DES was the first publicly accessible cipher algorithm to be
'blessed' by a national crypto agency such as NSA. The release
of its design details by NBS stimulated an explosion of public
and academic interest in cryptography. DES [19], and more
secure variants of it, are still used today, although DES was
officially supplanted by AES (Advanced Encryption
Standard)[18] in 2001 when NIST announced the selection of
Rijndael, by two Belgian cryptographers.
DES remains in wide use nonetheless, having been
incorporated into many national and organizational standards.
However, its 56-bit key-size has been shown to be insufficient
to guard against brute-force attacks (one such attack,
undertaken by cyber civil-rights group The Electronic Frontier
Foundation, succeeded in 56 hours the story is in Cracking
DES, published by O'Reilly and Associates). As a result, use
of straight DES encryption is now without doubt insecure for
use in new crypto system designs, and messages protected by
older crypto systems using DES[19] should also be regarded
as insecure. The DES key size (56-bits) was thought to be too
small by some even in 1976, perhaps most publicly Whitfield
Diffie. There was suspicion that government organizations
even then had sufficient computing power to break DES
messages and that there may be a back door due to the lack of
randomness in the 'S' boxes.
Second was the publication of the paper New Directions in
Cryptography by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman. This
paper introduced a radically new method of distributing
cryptographic keys, which went far toward solving one of the
fundamental problems of cryptography [8], key distribution. It
has become known as Diffie-Hellman key exchange. The
article also stimulated the almost immediate public
development of a new class of enciphering algorithms, the
asymmetric key algorithms.
In contrast, with asymmetric key encryption, there is a pair of
mathematically related keys for the algorithm, one of which is
used for encryption and the other for decryption. Some, but
not all, of these algorithms have the additional property that
one of the keys may be made public since the other cannot be
(by any currently known method) deduced from the 'public'
Page 61
key. The other key in these systems is kept secret and is

usually called, somewhat confusingly, the 'private' key[12].
An algorithm of this kind is known as a public key / private
key algorithm, although the term asymmetric key
cryptography is preferred by those who wish to avoid the
ambiguity of using that term for all such algorithms, and to
stress that there are two distinct keys with different secrecy
requirements.
III. SECURITY ANALYSIS
In this section we discuss the security strength of the
randomized encryption paradigm under five most common
cryptographic attack types: Brute force attack, cipher textonly attack, known plaintext attack, chosen plaintext attack
and chosen cipher text attack.
G. Brute Force attack
In cryptography, a brute force attack[15] is a strategy used
to break the encryption of data. It involves traversing the
search space of possible keys until the correct key is found.
The selection of an appropriate key length depends on the
practical feasibility of performing a brute force attack. By
obfuscating the data to be encoded, brute force attacks are
made less effective as it is more difficult to determine when
one has succeeded in breaking the code.
In my algorithm, If n is large, then the key space is of n2
dimension and it is impossible to search the key space.
H. Cipher text only
A known cipher text attack[16] is an attack where the
cryptanalyst only has access to encrypted cipher text. A
known cipher text attack is the easiest of the common
cryptanalysis attacks to mount, because is requires the least
amount of control over the encryption device. Conversely,
the known cipher text is the most difficult of the common
methods of cryptanalysis to execute successfully, because so
little knowledge is known to begin with.
Let the cipher text c be available. Since the key stores the bit
positions for both encryption and decryption, it is not
possible to obtain the key from the cipher text and the
encryption /decryption process.
I. Known plain text attack
The known-plaintext attack (KPA)[20] is an attack model
for cryptanalysis where the attacker has samples of both the
plaintext and its encrypted version (cipher text) and is at
liberty to make use of them to reveal further secret
information such as secret keys and code books.
Suppose a plain text_ cipher text pair (p, c) is available. The
ijth element of c, cij is obtained by the form
n l
cij= cil cmj-pij %2 --- > 1

i=1 j=1
where cil, cmj values are defined based on the of (i, l) and (m, j)
in the key. Since cil and cmj can take either 0 or 1, eqn1
involves 22n-2 possibilities. Hence, it is impossible to solve.
Therefore we cannot find the key k.
J. Chosen-plaintext attack
A chosen-plaintext attack (CPA) [11] is an attack model for
cryptanalysis which presumes that the attacker has the
capability to choose arbitrary plaintexts to be encrypted and
obtain the corresponding cipher texts. The goal of the attack is
to gain some further information which reduces the security of
the encryption scheme. In the worst case, a chosen-plaintext
attack could reveal the scheme's secret key.
Suppose we take a plaintext p as a n n block of zeros then
the encryption process yields the cipher text c as (n n) block
of zeros. If we take a plain text block p with 0 entry except
one, say(i, j) only equal to 1. Then the encryption process
spreads the value randomly (as per the key order) in the cipher
block c. from the pair (p-c) it is impossible to obtain the key k.
K. Chosen-cipher text attack
A chosen-cipher text attack (CCA)[2] is an attack model for
cryptanalysis in which the cryptanalyst gathers information, at
least in part, by choosing a cipher text and obtaining its
decryption under an unknown key.
Suppose a cipher text c is choosen. The decryption process
uses the key in the reverse order and yields the plain text. The
key spreads zeros & ones randomly in the plain text according
to the position order. Infact, there would be unbalanced
number of zeros and ones, as compared to the cipher text.
Therefore impossible to find the key.
IV ALGORITHM
Security is a major concern in an increasingly multimediadefined universe where the internet serves as an indispensable
resource for information and entertainment. This algorithm
protect and provide access to critical and time-sensitive
copyrighted material or personal information.
L. Step 1: Randomized key generation
Generate a pair of values (i,j) randomly, 1<=i<=m, 1<=j<=m,
such that no pair (i,j) is repeated more than once.
Let K denote the collection of pairs (i,j) stored as

per the order of generation.
M. Step 2: Encryption
Let p be a plaintext of size n.
Let a = n(mod m).
Page 62
If a = 0 set k = n/m else set k = n/m + 1.

The plaintext p is divided in to k blocks, say p1,p2,---,pk,
such that the first m entries of p form the first row of p1,
second m elements the second row of p1 and so on.
Similarly we define p2,p3,---,pk.
If a 0 then we add the require number of zeros at the end
of the plaintext, so that the last block pk is of order m m.
For l = 1,,k.
Let aij be the (i,j)th element of pl.
Change aij as per the generation order of the pair(i,j) as
follows,
n
n
aîj = arj+ ais -aij

r=1 s=1
If aîj (mod 2) = 0, set aij= 1 else set aij = 0.

Let cl be the m m matrix with the modified aij.
c1 is the ciphertext corresponding to p1.
N. Step 3: Decryption
For l = 1,---,k.
Let aij be the (ij)th element of cl.
Change aij as per the reverse order of generation of the pair
(i,j) as follows,
n
n
aîj = arj + ais -aij

r=1 s=1
If aîj (mod 2) = 0, set aij = 1 else set aij = 0.

The (aij) = pl, the original plaintext block.
The plaintext p = p1,p2,---,pk.
IV. EXPERIMENTS AND PERFORMANCE

EVALUATION
With the rapid development of communication techniques,
it becomes more and more practical to talk with anyone
anywhere. As an important aspect, multimedia (image,
video, audio, etc.) enriches humans daily life. Nowadays,
multimedia communication is in close relation with the
activities in entertainment, politics, economics, militaries,
industries, etc., which makes it urgent for protecting
multimedia security, e.g., confidentiality, integrity,
ownership or identity. Generally, multimedia security is
different from text/binary data security since multimedia
content is often of large volumes, with interactive
operations, and requires real-time responses.
As a result, the last decade has witnessed an explosive
advance in multimedia applications that are dramatically
changing every aspect of our modern life, from business,
manufacturing, transportation, medicine and finance to
education, research, entertainment and government.
Although encrypting the entire multimedia content by a
traditional cryptographic cipher (e.g., the block or stream

cipher) yields a satisfactory level of security, such an approach
does have several shortcomings. First, the computational cost
associated with encrypting the entire multimedia content is
often high due to the large data size. Second, the encryption
and decryption operations add another level of complexity to
the system. In most cases, additional hardware or software
functions are needed in order to implement it. Hence, I have
developed an efficient yet secure multimedia encryption
technique. The algorithm uses the experimental environment,
CPU: Intel(R) core(TM)2 DVOE7200 @ 2.53GHz, 0.99 GB
of RAM; Operating System: Windows XP Professional.
O.
Results:
Block size : 8 bits
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT FILE FORMATS
S.
NO.
FILE TYPE &

SIZE
TIME FOR
ENCRYPTION
TIME FOR
DECRYPTION
1.
Txt,1kb
78ms
63ms
2.
Doc,551kb
1secs 360 ms
1secs 47 ms
3.
Bmp,14.3kb
141 ms
143 ms
4.
Jpeg,1.69mb
3 secs 469 ms
3 secs 266ms
5.
Pdf,245kb
562 ms
531 ms
6.
Xls,29kb
141 ms
125 ms
7.
Mp3,50.3kb
171 ms
128 ms
8.
Wav,45.3mb
36 secs
35 secs
9.
Vob,62.8mb
47 secs
46 secs
Recent advances in the field of video communications have

emphasized the importance of delivering video contents to a
wide variety of devices, through different networks, and using
a growing number of codecs and standards. In addition to the
performance challenges behind video communications, the
security issues have received increasing attention from the
research community. Among the most relevant security
aspects of contemporary video communication systems are:
encryption, watermarking and authentication.
File format: video file
File size:62.8mb
Page 63
COMPARISON OF TIME FOR DIFFERENT BLOCK

SIZES OF A VIDEO FILE
BLOCK SIZE
TIME FOR
TIME FOR
(BITS)
ENCRYPTION
DECRYPTION
47 secs
46 secs
16
1 min 10 secs
1 min 9 secs
32
1 min 31 secs
1 min 30 secs
64
2 min 35 secs
2 min 34 secs
V. CONCLUSION
Since the development of cryptology in the industrial and
academic worlds in the seventies, public knowledge and
expertise have grown in a tremendous way, notably because
of the increasing presence of electronic communication
means in our lives. Block ciphers are inevitable building
blocks of the security of various electronic systems.
Recently, many advances have been published in the field of
public-key cryptography, being in the understanding of
involved security models or in the mathematical security
proofs applied to precise cryptosystems. Unfortunately, this
is still not the case in the world of symmetric-key
cryptography and the current state of knowledge is far from
reaching such a goal. In this paper we developed a novel
dynamic symmetric key generation scheme for multimedia
data encryption.
VI. REFERENCES
[1]
M. Bellare and P. Rogaway, Robust
computational secret sharing and a unified account of
classical secret-sharing goals, Proceedings of the 14th
ACM Conference on Computer and Communications
Security (CCS), ACM, 2007.
[2]
J. Zhou, Z. Liang, Y. Chen, and O. C. Au,
Security analysis of multimedia encryption schemes based
on multiple Huffman table, IEEE Signal Processing
Letters, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 201 204, 2007.
[3]
M. Bellare, A. Boldyreva and A. O'Neill,
Deterministic and efficiently searchable encryption,
Advances in Cryptology - Crypto 2007 Proceedings,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science Vol. 4622, A. Menezes
ed, Springer-Verlag, 2007.
[4]
Elaine Barker and John Kelsey, Recommendation
for Random Number Generation Using Deterministic
Random Bit Generators, NIST Special Publication 800-90.
Revised March 2007.
[5]
M. Grangetto, E. Magli and G. Olmo, Multimedia
selective encryption by means of randomized arithmetic
coding, IEEE Transactions on Multimedia, vol. 8, no. 5,

2006.
[6]
M. Abdalla, M. Bellare, D. Catalano, E. Kiltz, T.
Kohno, T. Lange, J. Malone-Lee, G. Neven, P. Paillier and H.
Shi, Searchable Encryption Revisited: Consistency
Properties, Relation to Anonymous IBE, and Extensions.
Advances in Cryptology - Crypto 2005 Proceedings, Lecture
Notes in Computer Science Vol. 3621, V. Shoup ed, SpringerVerlag, 2005.
[7]
K. Pietrzak, M. Bellare and P. Rogaway, Improved
Security Analyses for CBC MACs, Advances in Cryptology
- Crypto 2005 Proceedings, Lecture Notes in Computer
Science Vol. 3621, Springer-Verlag, 2005.
[8]
Y. Lu and S. Vaudenay, Faster correlation attack on
Bluetooth keystream generator E0. In M. Franklin, editor,
Advances in Cryptology - Crypto 2004, 24th Annual
International Cryptology Conference, Santa Barbara,
California, USA, August 15-19, 2004. Proceedings, volume
3152 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 407 - 425.
Springer-Verlag, 2004.
[9]
L. S. Choon, A. Samsudin, and R. Budiarto,
Lightweight and cost-effective MPEG video encryption, in
Proc. of Information and Communication Technologies,
From Theory to Applications, 2004, pp. 525526.
[10]
B. Canvel, A. Hiltgen, S. Vaudenay, and M.
Vuagnoux,Password interception in a SSL/TLS channel, In
D. Boneh, editor, Advances in Cryptology - Crypto 2003, 23rd
Annual International Cryptology Conference, Santa Barbara,
California, USA, August 17-21, 2003, Proceedings, volume
2729 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 583-599.
[11]
] M. Hellman, R.Merkle, R. Schroeppel,
L.Washington, W. Diffie, S. Pohlig, and P. Schweitzer,
Results of an initial attempt to cryptanalyze the NBS Data
Encryption Standard. Technical Report SEL 76-042,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University,
1976.
[12]
M. Bellare and B. Yee, Forward-Security in PrivateKey Cryptography, Topics in Cryptology - CT-RSA 03,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science Vol. 2612, M. Joye ed,
[13]
H. Gilbert and M. Minier, New results on the
pseudorandomness of some block cipher constructions, In M.
Matsui (Ed.) Fast Software Encryption - FSE 2001, Lecture
Notes in Computer Science 2355, Springer-Verlag, 2002, 248
266.
[14]
P. Rogaway, M. Bellare, J. Black and T. Krovetz,
OCB: A block-cipher mode of operation for efficient
authenticated encryption, Proceedings of the 8th ACM
Conference on Computer and Communications Security
(CCS), ACM, 2001.
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[15]
J. Kelsey, Bruce Schneier, David Wagner, and C.
Hall, Cryptanalytic Attacks on Pseudorandom Number
Generators, Fast Software Encryption, Fifth International
Workshop Proceedings (March 1998), Springer-Verlag,
1998, pp. 168-188.
[16]
Mitsuru Matsui, The First Experimental
Cryptanalysis
of the Data Encryption Standard. In
Advances in Cryptology Proceedings of CRYPTO 94,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 839, Springer-Verlag,
1994.
[17]
Alfred J.Menezes, Paul C. van Oorschot, and Scott
A. Vanstone, Handbook of Applied Cryptography, CRC
Press, 1997.
[18]
Christof Paar and Jan Pelzl, "The Advanced
Encryption Standard", Chapter 4 of "Understanding
Cryptography, A Textbook for Students and Practitioners".
Springer, 2009.
[19]
Diffie, Whitfield and Martin Hellman, "Exhaustive
Cryptanalysis of the NBS Data Encryption Standard" IEEE
Computer 10(6), June 1977, pp7484.
[20]
John Kelsey, Stefan Lucks, Bruce Schneier, Mike
Stay, David Wagner, and Doug Whiting, Improved
Cryptanalysis of Rijndael, Fast Software Encryption, 2000
pp213230.
Page 65
Secure Multiparty Computation Based

Privacy Preserving Collaborative Data Mining
J.Bhuvana#1,T.Devi#2
#
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Bharathiar University

Coimbatore-46, India
1
bhuvi.jayabalan@gmail.com
2
tdevi5@gmail.com
Abstract In todays competitive world, businesses are

competing to stay ahead of their competitors by predicting the
future based on intelligent analysis of available data in decision
making. Towards this, various techniques such as reporting,
online analytical processing, analytics, data mining, business
performance management, text mining and predictive
analytics are used. Data Mining is the process of processing
large volumes of data, searching for patterns and relationships
within that data. In case of voluminous business data being
analysed, collaborative data mining techniques are practised.
In collaborative data mining, preserving data privacy is a
biggest challenge. This paper gives a brief description of Data
Mining, Privacy Preserving in Data Mining (PPDM),
introduces Secure Multiparty Computation (SMC) based
Privacy Preserving Collaborative Data Mining (PPCDM).
Keywords Privacy, Security, Privacy Preserving Data
Mining, Privacy Preserving Collaborative Data Mining, Secure
Multiparty Computation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Recent advances in data collection, data dissemination and
related technologies have initiated a new era of research
where existing data mining algorithms should be
reconsidered from the point of view of privacy preservation.
Privacy refers to the right of users to conceal their personal
information and have some degree of control over the use of
any personal information disclosed to others. To conduct
data mining, one needs to collect data from various parties.
Privacy concerns may prevent the parties from directly
sharing the data and some types of information about the
data. The way in which multiple parties conduct data mining
collaboratively without breaching data privacy is a
challenge.
In recent years, the research community has developed
numerous technical solutions for the privacy preserving data
mining. However, Clifton has pointed out the notion of
privacy that satisfies both technical and societal concerns is
unknown [3]. Security is a necessary tool to build privacy,
but a communication or transaction environment can be
very secure, yet totally unprivate. Security and privacy are

closely related technologies, Privacy is about informational
self-determination, the ability to decide what information
about one goes where. Security offers the ability to be
confident that those decisions are respected.
Data Mining is an information extraction activity whose goal
is to discover hidden facts contained in databases. Using a
combination of machine learning, statistical analysis,
modeling techniques and database technology, data mining
finds patterns and relationships in data and infers rules that
allow the prediction of future results. Privacy preserving data
mining allows multiple data holders to collaborate to compute
important information while protecting the privacy of other
information using the technological tools such as
cryptography, data perturbation and sanitization, access
control, inference control and trusted platforms. To use the
data mining algorithms, all parties need to send their data to a
trusted central place to conduct the mining. However, in
situations with privacy concerns, the parties may not trust
anyone. This type of problem is called Privacy Preserving
Collaborative Data Mining (PPCDM) [10]. For each data
mining problem, there is a corresponding PPCDM problem.
Collaborative data mining is categorised into homogeneous
collaboration and heterogeneous collaboration.
In
homogeneous collaboration, each party has the same sets of
attributes and in heterogeneous collaboration, each party has
different sets of attributes. Fig.1 shows how a traditional data
mining problem could be transformed to PPCDM problem.
Security and privacy are related but different [11]. In the
privacy preserving data mining, the system needs secured
channels to protect network attackers. The system categorizes
the protection into two layers as shown in Fig.2. One is the
protection against the collaborative parties; the other is
protection against network attackers. Without loss of
generality, attacks from collaborative parties are considered
inside attacks, these parties are called inside attackers; attacks
outside the collaborative parties are considered outside attacks,
the attackers who conduct the attacks are called outside
attackers. To protect against outside attackers, the system need
Page 66
to rely on secure channels. The research work by Dolve et al

[5] assumes that the communications between collaborative
parties are encrypted by a non-malleable encryption scheme.
The focus of this research is to prevent inside attackers from

knowing private data in collaborative data mining. Prevention
of inside attackers is different from prevention of outside
attackers in that the inside attackers usually have more
knowledge about private data than outside attackers.
Furthermore, the goal of collaborative data mining is to obtain
valid data mining result. However, the result itself may
disclose the private data to inside attackers. Therefore, the
system cannot hope to achieve the same level of protection in
privacy preserving collaborative data mining as in general
secure communications which protect against the outside
attackers. However, the system would like to prevent the
private data from being disclosed during the mining stage [5].
Particularly, in this work, the privacy preservation means that
multiple parties collaboratively get valid data mining results
while disclosing no private data to each other or any party who
is not involved in the collaborative computations. The authors
are currently carrying out research on Secure Multiparty
Computation based Privacy Preserving Collaborative Data
Mining with the specific objectives of designing and
developing an algorithm for Secure Multiparty Computation
based Privacy Preserving Collaborative Data Mining and to
analyse efficiency of the algorithm by scaling up with various
factors such as number of parties involved in the computation,
encryption key size and size of data set.
Fig.1 Privacy Preserving Non-Collaborative and Collaborative

Data Mining .
Fig.2 Inside Attackers vs Outside Attackers
II. LITERATURE REVIEW

In privacy-preserving data mining, to protect actual data from
being disclosed, one approach is to alter the data in a way that
actual individual data values cannot be recovered, while
certain computations can still be applied to the data. This is the
core idea of randomization-based techniques. The random
perturbation technique is usually realised by adding noise or
uncertainty to actual data such that the actual values are
prevented from being discovered. Since the data no longer
contains the actual values, it cannot be misused to violate
individual privacy. Randomization approaches were first used
by Agrawal and Srikant [1] to solve the privacy-preserving
data mining problem. Following the idea of secure multiparty
computation [6], Lindell and Pinkas [7] introduced a secure
multi-party computation technique for classification using the
ID3 algorithm, over horizontally partitioned data. Encryption
is a well-known technique for preserving the confidentiality of
sensitive information.
Comparing with other techniques described, a strong
encryption scheme can be more effective in protecting the data
privacy. One of the encryption schemes is the Homo-morphic
encryption which allows certain computations performed on
encrypted data without preliminary decryption operations.
Homo-morphic encryption is a very powerful cryptographic
tool and has been applied in several research areas such as
Page 67
electronic voting and on-line auction. Privacy preserving

data mining has generated many research successes.
However, as Clifton [3] pointed out. The proposed system
present a definition of privacy and use Homo-morphic
encryption and digital envelope technique to achieve
collaborative data mining without sharing the private data
among the collaborative parties. In particular, the research
provides a solution for k-nearest neighbor classification
with vertical collaboration.
III. SECURED MULTIPARTY COMPUTATION MODEL
FOR COLLABORATIVE DATA MINING
i=1
Support A =
Tot. Nodes
Database Size (i)

i=1
Tot. Nodes
Support Count AB (i)

i=1
Support AB =
Tot. Nodes
Database Size (i)
P. Secured Multiparty Computation (SMC)

The basic idea of SMC is that a computation is secure if
at the end of the computation, no party knows anything
except its own input and the results. One way to view this is
to imagine a trusted third party; everyone gives their input
to the trusted third party, who performs the computation and
sends the results to the participants. The concept of SMC
was first introduced by Yao [13] and it has been proved that
for any function, there is a SMC solution [12]. The
approach used is: the function F to be computed is first
represented as a combinatorial circuit, and then the parties
run their private function in their node on the network.
Every participant gets corresponding input values and out
values for every node. SMC not only preserves individual
privacy, it also preserves leakage of any information other
than the final result. However, traditional SMC method
requires a high communication overhead; they do not scale
well with the network size.
Q. Association Rule Mining
Computing Association rules without disclosing individual
data items is straightforward. Distributed association rule
mining techniques can discover rules among multiple nodes
[14]. Mining association rules from vertically partitioned
data, where the items are partitioned and each itemset is
split between nodes, can be done by extending the apriori
algorithm. Most of the apriori algorithm can be done locally
at each of the nodes. The crucial step involves finding the
support count of an itemset. The support determines how
often a rule can be applied to a given data set and the
confidence determines how frequently items in B appear in
transactions that contain A. One can compute the global
support and confidence of an association rule AB
knowing only the local support of A, B and the size of each
nodes data using the following formulae [1]:
i=1
Support AB
Confidence
=
Support A
R. Privacy Formalization
A privacy-oriented scheme S preserves data privacy if for any
private data T; the following holds [11]:
|Pr (T |PPDMS) Pr(T )|
Where,
PPDMS: Privacy-Preserving data mining scheme.
Pr(T | PPDMS): The probability that the private data T is
disclosed after a Privacy-Preserving data mining scheme has
been applied.
Pr(T): The probability that the private data T is disclosed
without any Privacy-Preserving data mining scheme being
applied.
Pr(T | PPDMS) - Pr(T): The probability that private data T is
disclosed with and without Privacy-Preserving data mining
schemes being applied.
To achieve privacy-preserving data mining, reduce the whole
algorithm to a set of component privacy oriented protocols.
The privacy preserving data mining algorithm preserves
privacy if each component protocol preserves privacy and the
combination of the component protocols does not disclose
private data. In the secure multiparty computation literature, a
composition theorem describes a similar idea. A privacyoriented component protocol CP preserves data privacy if for
any private data T, the following is held:
Tot. Nodes
Support Count A (i)
AB
|Pr(T |CP) Pr(T )|

Where,
Page 68
CP: Component protocol.

Pr (T | CP): The probability that the private
data T is disclosed after a Privacy-Preserving
component protocol has been applied.
Pr(T | CP) - Pr(T): The probability that private
data T is disclosed with and without a
Privacy-Preserving component protocol.
S. Digital Envelope
A digital envelope is a random number (or a set of random
numbers) only known by the owner of private data[2] . To
hide the private data in a digital envelope, to conduct a set
of mathematical operations between a random number (or a
set of random numbers) and the private data. The
mathematical operations could be addition, subtraction,
multiplication, etc. For example, assume the private data
value is A. There is a random number R which is only
known by the owner of A. The owner can hide A by adding
this random number,
e.g., A + R.
T. Privacy-Preserving
Collaborative
Data
Mining
Problems
Multiple parties, each having a private data set which is
denoted by D1, D2, and Dn respectively, want to
collaboratively conduct a data mining task on the
concatenation of their data sets. Because they are concerned
about their data privacy or due to the legal privacy rules,
neither party is willing to disclose its actual data set to
others. P1 has a private data set D1, P2 has a private data
set D2, and Pn has a private data set Dn. The data set
[D1 D2 Dn] forms a dataset, which is actually the
concatenation of D1, D2, and Dn. The n parties want to
conduct k-nearest clustering over [D1 D2 Dn] to
obtain the mining results satisfying the given constraints.
There are two types of collaborative models. In the vertical
collaboration, diverse features of the same set of data are
collected by different parties. In the horizontal
collaboration, diverse sets of data, all sharing the same
features, are gathered by different parties.
U. Privacy-Preserving
(K-NN)Classification
K-Nearest
Neighbor
Classification introduces a privacy constraint that is not

easily addressed in the SMC model. If the target class in the
training data is private information, the classifier could be
used to scratch the privacy. One solution is not to build a
global classifier. Instead, the parties collaborate to classify
each instance. Therefore, the problem becomes how to
share a classifier among the various distributed nodes while
still supporting the classification function.
Currently many researchers developing methods for secure

distributed K-NN classification; two different solutions for
different level of security. One is security based on
cryptographic assumptions and another one is finding roots of
the large degree polynomials. The later ones is
computationally hard. The K-NN classification is an instance
based learning algorithm that has been shown to be very
effective for a variety of problem domains. The objective of
K-NN classification is to discover k nearest neighbors for a
given instance, then assign a class label to the given instance
according to the majority class of the k nearest neighbors. The
nearest neighbors of an instance are defined in terms of a
distance function such as the standard Euclidean distance.
IV. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
The proposed system discloses the support values for each
tested item set to all the participants. This discloses may cause
for full disclosure in some cases. The research presents a new
approach that does not disclose the support values during the
execution and discloses less amount of information in general.
In any site there is no external information about any other
database. The collusion between parties should not be beyond
a given threshold value. The various parties follow the
protocol honestly. However, any attempt to deviate from the
protocol will not result in disclosed information. They may try
to use a correct protocol to infer information, but shall show
that this will not be helpful for them. The parties may store
intermediate or final results.
The analysis of privacy is in terms of what can be inferred
from those stored results only done with the help of a third
untrusted party (this party is not trusted with the database, but
it is trusted with computations). The parties change roles at the
end of the phase. When information between the parties is
shared, then only information in which some attributes are real
(in one of the databases) is of use. That is, a fake transaction
whose corresponding Transaction Identification (TID) in the
other database is empty, is not considered at all. Its important
to note that when each site computes large itemsets it doesnt
know whether the attributes corresponding to his real
transaction, are real or not.
V. CONCLUSIONS
Worldwide markets are competitive and in order to capture
markets, businesses are practising business intelligence
techniques that involve team based data mining. Data mining
helps in decision making and future prediction of market. In
modern business world, collaboration is highly essential for
carrying out business successfully. In this paper, data mining,
privacy preserving data mining, secure multiparty computation
techniques and the privacy problem of privacy preserving
collaborative data mining are discussed. The authors are
currently working on design of privacy preserving
Page 69
collaborative data mining algorithms using the concepts of

secure multiparty computation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I record my sincere thanks to Bharathiar University for
providing necessary financial assistance to carry out my
research.
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1996, pp.929-969.
Page 70
Towards Customer Churning Prevention

through Class Imbalance
M.Rajeswari#1, Dr.T.Devi#2
#
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Bharathiar University,

Coimbatore, India
1
mraji2231@gmail.com
2
tdevi5@gmail.com
Abstract Technologies such as data warehousing, data mining,

and campaign management software have made Customer
Relationship Management (CRM) a new area where firms can
gain a competitive advantage. Particularly through data mining a
process of extracting hidden predictive information from large
databases, organisations can identify their valuable customers,
predict future behaviors, and enable firms to make proactive,
knowledge-driven decisions. Data Mining along with Customer
Relationship Management plays a vital role in todays business
environment. Customer churn, a process of retaining customer is a
major issue. Prevention of customer churn is a major problem
because acquiring new customer is more expensive than holding
existing customers. In order to prevent churn several data mining
techniques have been proposed. One among such method is solving
class imbalance which has not received much attention in the
context of data mining. This paper describes Customer
Relationship Management (CRM), customer churn and class
imbalance and proposes a methodology for preventing customer
churn through class imbalance.
Keywords Data Mining, Customer Relationship Management,
Churn, Class Imbalance.
I. INTRODUCTION
World-wide businesses are competing to capture and retain
customers and towards this Customer Relationship
Management (CRM) are practiced. Organisations turn to CRM
to enable them to be more effective in acquiring, growing and
retaining their profitable customers. Customer relationship
management has emerged as one of the demanding ways for the
firms and it provides an effective way for customer satisfaction
and retention [12]. In order to carry out CRM, the historical
data about customers and their behavior need to be analysed.
Towards such analysis, data mining techniques are used
nowadays. Due to increase in competition between the
companies they realized that customers are their valuable assets
and retaining existing customers is the best way to survive. But
it is analysed that it is more profitable to satisfy existing
customers than to look for a new one [3]. Customer attrition,
also known as customer churn, customer turnover, or customer

defection, is a business term used to describe loss of clients or
customers. Recent studies analysed the importance of
predicting as well as preventing customer churn in customer
relationship management.
Customer churn is often a rare event in service industries, but of
great interest and great value, until recently, however, class
imbalance has not received much attention in the context of
data mining. A class imbalance is a term where one class occurs
much more often than the other. Now, as increasingly complex
real-world problems are addressed, the problem of imbalanced
data is taking centre stage and class imbalance concept comes
under rarity. Many researchers are concentrating on rarity that
relates to rare classes, or, more generally, class imbalance.
This type of rarity requires labeled examples and is associated
with classification problems. The data set used to detect oil
spills from satellite images provides a good example of a rare
class. Because only 41 of the 937 satellite images contain oil
slicks, it can be said that oil slicks are rare (i.e., a rare class).
Several problems arise when mining rare classes and rare
cases. A case corresponds to a region in the instance space that
is meaningful with respect to the domain under study and the
rare case is a case that covers a small region of the instance
space and covers relatively few training examples, for example
if bird is taken as a class, non-flying bird is rare case because
only very few birds come under this category [22].
In order to prevent customer churn, researchers have proposed
number of problems that arise when mining rare classes and
rare cases. The problems include: improper evaluation metrics,
lack of data: absolute rarity, relative lack of data: relative
rarity, data fragmentation, inappropriate inductive bias and
noise. To overcome these problems, several methods such as
more appropriate evaluation metrics, non-greedy search
techniques, using a more appropriate inductive bias,
knowledge/human interaction, learn only the rare class,
segmenting the data, accounting for rare items, cost-sensitive
learning, sampling and other methods such as boosting, two
Page 71
phrase rule induction, place rare cases into separate classes

are followed [22].
Among these methods non-greedy search techniques, using a
more appropriate inductive bias, learn only the rare classes
are at conceptual stage only [5]. The rest of this paper is
organized as follows: In Section 2, an overview of Data Mining
is presented. Section 3 discusses about Customer Relationship
Management and particularly about Customer Churn. An
introduction to Class imbalance usage in predicting customer
churn is described in Section 4. Methods followed in order to
solve class imbalance are detailed in Section 5 and finally
Conclusions are given in Section 6.
II. DATA MINING (DM)
Organizations are implementing data warehousing technology,
which facilitates enormous enterprise-wide databases and the
amount of data that organizations possess is growing at a
phenomenal rate and the next challenge for these organizations
is how to transform it into useful information and knowledge.
Data Mining is one of the technologies used for meeting this
challenge; data mining is the exploration and analysis, by
automatic or semiautomatic means, of large quantities of data in
order to discover meaningful patterns and rules. Data mining is
defined as the process of extracting interesting and previously
unknown information from data, and it is widely accepted to be
a single phase in a complex process known as Knowledge
Discovery in Databases (KDD). This process consists of a
sequence of the following steps: data cleaning, data integration,
data selection, data transformation, data mining, pattern
evaluation and knowledge presentation [23]. Thus data mining
is the search of valuable information in large volumes of data.
This combines the efforts of human, who design the databases,
describe the problems and set the goals, and computers who
process the data looking for patterns that match this goal.
Data mining sits at the common frontiers of several fields
including database systems, artificial intelligence, statistics,
machine learning, and pattern recognition or data visualization.
In order to ensure that the extracted information generated by
the data mining algorithms is useful, additional activities are
required, like incorporating appropriate prior knowledge and
proper interpretation of the data mining results. The basic
objective is to construct a model for one situation in which the
answer or output is known and then apply that model to another
situation in which the answer or output is desired. The best
applications of the above techniques are integrated with data
warehouses and other interactive, flexible business analysis
tools. There are many reasons by which all business
environment started to analyze the performance of data mining
in order to recover from all problems [9].
Databases today are huge containing more than 1,000,000
entities/records/rows, from 10 to 10,000 fields/attributes/
variables, gigabytes and terabytes. Databases are growing at an

unprecedented rate and decisions must be made rapidly with
maximum knowledge.
Currently business to business
marketers and service retailers are the major users of data
mining [1]. Data mining involves many different algorithms to
accomplish different tasks. All these algorithms attempt to fit a
model to the data. The algorithms examine the data and
determine a model that is closest to the characteristics of the
data being examined. The created data mining model can be
either predictive or descriptive in nature (e.g. Fig. 1).
A Predictive Model makes a prediction about values of data
using known results found from different data. Predictive
modeling may be made based on the use of other historical
data. A Descriptive Model identifies patterns or relationships
in data. Unlike the predictive model, a descriptive model serves
as a way to explore the properties of the data examined, not to
predict new properties.
Fig. 1 Data Mining Models and Tasks [10]
Clustering, Summarization, Association rules, and Sequence

discovery are usually viewed as descriptive in nature. The
individual data mining tasks are combined to obtain more
sophisticated data mining applications. There are several data
mining techniques available and used. Mostly used techniques
are associations, classifications, sequential patterns and
clustering. The basic aim of an association is to find all
associations, such that the presence of one set of items in a
transaction implies the other items. Classification develops
profiles of different groups. Sequential patterns subject to a
userspecified minimum constraint. Clustering segments a
database into subsets or clusters. The classifications of the data
mining techniques are: userguided or verificationdriven data
mining and discoverydriven or automatic discovery of rules.
Most of the techniques of data mining have elements of both
the models.
Data mining is used in several applications such as retail,
banking, telecommunication and other relevant applications.
For example, when telecommunication companies around the
world face competition which is forcing them to aggressively
market special pricing programs aimed at retaining existing
Page 72
customers and attracting new ones. Knowledge discovery in

telecommunication includes Call detail record analysis and
Customer
loyalty,
Call
detail
record
analysis:
Telecommunication companies accumulate detailed call
records. By identifying customer segments with similar use
patterns, the companies can develop attractive pricing and
feature promotions and Customer loyalty: Some customers
repeatedly switch providers, or churn, to take advantage of
attractive incentives by competing companies. The companies
can use data mining to identify the characteristics of customers
who are likely to remain loyal once they switch, thus enabling
the companies to target their spending on customers who will
produce the most profit. Similarly knowledge discovery
applications are emerging in variety of industries such as
customer segmentation and manufacturing [8].
III. CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT (CRM)
The way in which companies interact with their customers has
changed dramatically over the past few years. A customers
continuing business is no longer guaranteed. As a result,
companies have found that they need to understand their
customer better, and to quickly respond to their needs.
Customer Relationship Management is the term used for the
business practice allowing businesses that have more than a few
customers to better serve and manage the interactions with
those customers. CRM is defined as a comprehensive strategy
and process of acquiring, retaining and partnering with
selective customers to create superior value for the company
and the customer. It involves the integration of marketing,
sales, customer service, and the supply chain functions of the
organization to achieve greater efficiencies and effectiveness in
delivering customer value [18].
CRM is defined by a framework consisting of four elements:
Know, Target, Sell, and Service. CRM requires the firm to
know and understand its markets and customers. This involves
detail customer intelligence in order to select the most
profitable customers and identify those longer worth targeting.
CRM also entails development of the offer: which product to
sell to which customers and through which channel. In selling,
firms use campaign management to increase the marketing
departments effectiveness. Finally, CRM seeks to retain its
customers through services such as call centers and help desks.
CRM is essentially a two-stage concept: the task of the first
stage is to master the basics of building customer focus. This
means moving from a product orientation to a customer
orientation and defining market strategy from outside-in and
not from inside-out. The focus should be on customer needs
rather than product features. Companies in the second stage are
moving beyond the basics; they do not rest on their laurels but
push their development of customer orientation by integrating
CRM across the entire customer experience chain, by
leveraging technology to achieve real-time customer
management, and by constantly innovating their value

proposition to customers [8].
CRM consists of four dimensions: Customer Identification,
Customer Attraction, Customer Retention/Churn, and Customer
Development. Customer Management System contains these
four dimensions in closed cycle and used to create a better
understanding of their customers and create a long term
relationship with the organization [2]. The three stages in
customer life cycle are acquiring customers, increasing the
value of the customer and retaining good customers. Data
mining can improve profitability in each stage through
integration with operational CRM systems or as independent
applications (e.g. Fig. 2). Data mining helps to accomplish such
a goal by extracting or detecting hidden customer
characteristics and behaviors from large databases. The
generative aspect of data mining consists of the building of a
model from data [7].
CRM is not only applicable for managing relationships between
businesses and consumers, but even more crucial for business
customers. In B2B environments, transactions are more
numerous, custom contracts are more diverse and pricing
schemes are more complicated. CRM strategies, such as
customised catalogues, personalised business portals, and
targeted product offers, can help smooth this process and
improve efficiencies for both companies [8].
Fig. 2 Three simple business goals for CRM [14]
From the perspective of customer behaviour, Reference [6]

suggests that B2B buyers choose a supplier with whom they
can develop a relationship; one they can go back to as required
and one on which they feel they can depend. Once they have
chosen a supplier, having invested this time and effort, they are
more likely to stay with that supplier for longer. This invokes
the equal importance of deploying CRM in both recruiting new
customers and maintaining existing customers.
V. Customer Churn
Attrition or churn is a growing problem in many industries and
is characterised by the art of customer switching companies,
Page 73
usually to take advantage of a better deal. One of the most

important issues for companies is customer retention. A
persistent change in both the cost and revenue sides is customer
churn, the movement of customers from provider to provider in
search of better and cheaper products and services. Specifically
churn is the gross rate of customer loss during a given period.
Churn is a term used to represent the loss of a customer, in
order to prevent churn one should acquire more loyal customers
initially and then identify customers who are most likely to
churn. This type of predictive churn modeling is applied in the
field of banking, mobile telecommunication and life insurances.
Churn can be shown as follows:
Monthly churn = (C0 + A1 - C1) / C0
C0 is the number of customers at the start of the month, A1 is the
number of customers at the end of the month, C1 is the gross
new customers during the month. There are several reasons for
a particular customer to churn such as Price, Service Quality,
Fraud, Lack of carrier responsiveness, Brand disloyalty,
Privacy concerns, Lack of features, new technology or product
introduced by competitors. Minimizing customer churn
provides a number of benefits, such as: Minor investment in
acquiring a new customer, higher efficiency in network usage,
Increase of added-value sales to long term customers, Decrease
of expenditure on help desk, Decrease of exposure to frauds
and bad debts and higher confidence of investors.
Churn can be defined and measured in different ways:
Absolute Churn is number of subscribers disconnected, as a
percentage of the subscriber base over a given period, Line or
Service Churn is number of lines or services disconnected, as
a percentage of the total amount of lines or services subscribed
by the customers, Primary Churn is number of defections and
Secondary Churn is drop in traffic volume, with respect to
different typology of calls. Measuring churn is getting more and
more difficult, growing tendency for Business users to split
their business between several competing fixed network
operators. Carrier selection enables Residential customers to
make different kind of calls with different operators, Carrier
pre-selection and Unbundling of the Local Loop makes it very
difficult to profile customers according to their
telecommunication needs.
IV. CHURN PREDICTION USING CLASS IMBALANCE
A dataset is imbalanced if the classification categories are not
approximately equally represented. Recent years brought
increased interest in applying machine learning techniques to
difficult "real-world" problems, many of which are
characterized by imbalanced data. Additionally the distribution
of the testing data may differ from that of the training data, and
the true misclassification costs may be unknown at learning
time. Predictive accuracy, a popular choice for evaluating
performance of a classifier, might not be appropriate when the

data is imbalanced and/or the costs of different errors vary
markedly [17]. The class imbalance problem corresponds to
domains for which one class is represented by a large number
of examples while the other is represented by only few. Class
imbalance falls under rarity which deals with both rare classes
(i.e. class imbalance) and rare cases. Fig. 3 shows an artificial
domain with two classes, A and B, where A is the rare
(minority) class and B is the common (majority) class. Holding
with established conventions, the rare class is designated the
positive class and the common class is designated the negative
class. The true decision boundaries are displayed with solid
lines while the learned boundaries are displayed with dashed
lines. The labeled examples are represented in the figure using
the + and - symbols.
The five subconcepts associated with class A are labeled A1A5. Subconcepts A2-A5 correspond to rare cases, whereas A1
corresponds to a fairly common case, covering a substantial
portion of the instance space. The majority class is comprised
of two subconcepts, B1 and B2. Subconcept B1 is a very
general case that covers most of the instance space. Subconcept
B2, on the other hand, corresponds to a rare case,
demonstrating that common classes may contain rare cases.
However, it is expected that rare classes, by their very nature, to
contain a greater proportion of rare cases (a very rare class
cannot contain any common cases). Fig. 3 also shows that rare
cases A3, A4, and A5 cause small disjuncts to be formed in the
learned classifier (rare case A2 is missed completely by the
classifier). Rare cases, like rare classes, can be considered the
result of a form of data imbalance and have in fact been
referred to as within-class imbalances [13].
Fig. 3 Graphical representation of rare classes and rare cases [22]
To predict customer churn many approaches are carried out and

one such approach is to handle imbalance classes, in order to
solve the problem of imbalance classes researchers have
introduced various methods such as: Improper evaluation
metrics, Lack of data: absolute rarity, Relative lack of data:
relative rarity, Data fragmentation, Inappropriate inductive bias,
Page 74
and Noise. Improper evaluation metrics: often, not the best

metrics are used to guide the data mining algorithms and to
evaluate the results of data mining, Lack of data: absolute
rarity: the number of examples associated with the rare class is
small in an absolute sense, which makes it difficult to detect
regularities within the rare class, Relative lack of data: relative
rarity : objects are not rare in absolute sense, but are rare
relative to other objects, which makes it hard for greedy search
heuristics, and more global methods are, in general, not
tractable, Data fragmentation : Many data mining algorithms,
like decision trees, employ a divide-and-conquer approach,
where the original problem is decomposed into smaller and
smaller problems, which results in the instance space being
partitioned into smaller and smaller pieces. This is a problem
because regularities can then only be found within each
individual partition, which will contain less data, Inappropriate
inductive bias: Generalizing from specific examples, or
induction, requires an extra-evidentiary bias. Without such a
bias inductive leaps are not possible and learning cannot
occur. The bias of a data mining system is therefore critical to
its performance. Many learners utilize a general bias in order to
foster generalization and avoid overfitting. This bias can
adversely impact the ability to learn rare cases and rare classes,
Noise: Noisy data will affect the way any data mining system
behaves, but interesting is that noise has a greater impact on
rare cases than on common cases [22].
V. PROPOSED WORK
Customer churn prevention as a part of customer relationship
management approach is high on the agenda, and it is found
that almost each and every company is forced to implement
churn prediction model to detect possible churners before they
effectively leave the company. In order to predict churn, more
and more data mining techniques are applied and fortunately
for the companies involved, churn is often a rare object, but of
great interest and great value, there is a need for understanding
how to model rare events. The models developed in marketing
are typically applied to situations where the events of interest
occur with some frequency (e.g., customer churn, customer
purchases). These models can break down when applied to
setting where the behaviour of interest is rare. For example,
when modelling the correlates of customer acquisition in a lowacquisition rate setting, the performance of the familiar logit
model is often unacceptable. There may be opportunity to gain
valuable insights from the statistics literature on the modelling
of rare events [11]. Due to the increase in complex real-world
problems, the problem of imbalance data is taking center stage
and many researchers are found to solve such problems using
various techniques and methods.
There are six data mining problems related to rarity, and lists
ten methods to address them, they are improper evaluation
metrics, lack of data: absolute rarity, relative lack of data:
relative rarity, data fragmentation, inappropriate inductive

bias and noise. To overcome these problems several methods
are followed to deal with rarity such as more appropriate
evaluation metrics, non-greedy search techniques, using a more
appropriate inductive bias, knowledge/human interaction, learn
only the rare class, segmenting the data, accounting for rare
items, cost-sensitive learning, sampling and other methods such
as boosting, two phrase rule induction, place rare cases into
separate classes [22]. Among those methods non-greedy
search techniques, using a more appropriate inductive bias,
learn only the rare classes are at conceptual stage.
Non-Greedy Search Techniques: Due to several disadvantages
in greedy method, Reference [22] has suggested carrying out
non-greedy techniques to handle imbalance classes, one among
such non-greedy techniques is genetic algorithm. To solve the
problem genetic algorithm makes use of candidate solution
instead of single solution and then employs stochastic
operators. It gives a conclusion that genetic algorithms work
better with attribute interaction and thus avoids getting stuck
into local maxima, which all together makes genetic algorithms
suitable finding rarity. This would give a clear idea that for
what reason genetic algorithms are being increasingly used for
data mining. Several systems have relied to the power of
genetic algorithms to handle rarity. Some of them used a
genetic algorithm to predict very rare events while and other
researches tried to use a genetic algorithm to discover small
disjunct rules [21].
Using a More Appropriate Inductive Bias: Several attempts
have been taken to improve the performance of data mining
systems with respect to rarity by choosing a more appropriate
bias. The simplest approach involves modifying existing
systems to eliminate some small disjuncts based on tests of
statistical significance or using error estimation techniques. The
hope is that these will remove only improperly learned
disjuncts [20]. Unfortunately, this approach was shown not only
to degrade performance with respect to rarity, but also to
degrade overall classification performance. Many researches
worked on this concept with some techniques and obtained
better results, like the usage of C4.5 algorithm. But fortunately
the result showed only mixed success, because they tried out
using only overall classification accuracy instead of small
disjuncts.
Learn Only The Rare Classes: When learning a set of
classification rule for all classes, it is found that several rare
classes are ignored and hence, the only solution is to predict
rare classes. This technique is proved using Support vector
machines and neural networks, and one data mining technique
that utilizes this recognition-based approach is Hippo. Ripper is
a rule induction system that utilizes a separate-and-conquer
approach to iteratively build rules to cover previously
uncovered training examples. Each rule is grown by adding
conditions until no negative examples are covered. It normally
Page 75
generates rules for each class from the most rare class to the
most common class. Given this architecture, it is quite
straightforward to learn rules only for the minority classa
capability that Ripper provides.
VI. CONCLUSION
Churn is often considered as a rare object and in order to handle
these rare objects, class imbalance (i.e. rare classes) have been
utilised by many researchers. This paper gives ideas about
various data mining techniques that have been applicable for
customer relationship management concept particularly in the
prevention of customer churn by using class imbalance. The
authors are currently designing a methodology for preventing
customer churn through class imbalance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I record my sincere thanks to Bharathiar University for
providing necessary financial assistance to carry out my
research.
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Page 76
Designing health care forum using semantic

Search engine & diagnostic ontology
#1
#2
Prof.Mr.V.Shunmughavel #1, Dr.P.Jaganathan #2,

Department of CSE, K.L.N. College of Information Tech.
Pottapalayam, 630611.
Professor& Head, Department of Computer Applications,
P.S.N.A. College of Engg & Tech,
Dindigul.
shuns@rediffmail.com, jaganathodc@gmail.com
Abstract. Healthcare Forum is a coalition of doctors, hospitals,

health plans and state associations, that have joined together to
improve the health care system. It should follow the best
practices and evidence-based guidelines, with a strong emphasis
on patient safety. Chronic diseases are on the rise and the
population is ageing. Added to this, advancing technologies, new
medications, and new procedures and providers have a wide
array of tools to manage in order to deliver high quality health
care. With the advent of semantic web, the fast dissemination of
ontologies to represent and solve information causes a deep
impact on knowledge retrieval as a whole. Ontology is
increasingly seen as a key factor for enabling interoperability
across heterogeneous systems and semantic web applications.
The main objective of this research paper is to develop an
effective functioning forum which integrates the unique
association thinking of humans with an intelligent diagnostic
Ontology to devise an automated semantic search engine which
provides recommended solutions for patients, doctors and
research activities in the medicine worldwide.
Keywords: Ontology, Semantic Search

1.
INTRODUCTION
In general any Forum is a group creativity technique

designed to generate a large number of ideas for the
solution to a problem. Although forum has become a
popular group technique, researchers have generally failed
to find evidence of its effectiveness for enhancing either
quantity or quality of ideas generated. Because of such
problems as distraction, social loafing, evaluation
apprehension, and production blocking, brainstorming
groups are little more effective than other types of groups,
and they are actually less effective than individuals
working independently. For this reason, there have been
numerous attempts to improve traditional forum design
techniques or replace it with more effective variations of the

basic technique.
A good example to quote for the current forum sessions
is the simple forum available over the internet. In these
forums questions will be posted by users and answers for
those questions will be posted by various users. Until now,
the best answer for a particular question will be judged by a
human. There is no guarantee that the answer selected as the
best answer to be the perfect solution always. The thinking
and decision making capability of human mind differs from
person to person. So on the whole, opinion differs.
In order to overcome the demerits in the current traditional
forum sessions, in this research a novel idea is proposed for
choosing the best recommended solution to a question. In
general in any forum, first a user posts a question. Now users
who are interested in that question can view that question
and cast their answers. It is not necessary that the answer
given by a user should be the perfect solution. Instead any
number of solutions can be posted by users for a particular
question. These solutions will now be available for everyone
to view. In addition to this, the research focuses on providing
a recommended solution using Ontology. With this aim, this
work is organized as follows: Section 2 discusses the related
work. Section 3 discusses the diagnostic ontology building
methodologies. Section 4 discusses the proposed architecture
of Health Care Forum. Finally Section 5 presents conclusion
and future scope of this work.
2.
RELATED WORK
The main objective of the website [9] is to deliver updated

knowledge for Practicing Anesthesiologists and extend
helping hand at the time of facing critical cases and also to
Page 77
create awareness amongst them. Semantically enhanced

information extraction system providing automatic
annotation with references to classes in the ontology and
instances in the knowledge base is presented. Based on
these annotations, we perform IR-like indexing and
retrieval, further extended by using the ontology and
knowledge about the specific entities [10]. Web Ontology
Language (OWL) is a language for defining and
instantiating web ontologies (a W3C Recommendation).
OWL is designed for use by applications that need to
process the content of information instead of just presenting
information to humans. This is used for knowledge
representation and also is useful to derive logical
consequences from OWL formal semantics [11].
Matthew Horridge[12]introduces the Protege-OWL plug-in
for creating OWL ontologies. It gives a brief overview of
the OWL ontology language and focuses on building OWLDL ontology and by using a description logic reasoner to
check the consistency of the ontology and automatically
compute the ontology class hierarchy. The vision of a
semantic Web is extremely ambitious and would require
solving many long-standing research problems in
knowledge representation and reasoning, databases,
computational linguistics, computer vision, and agent
systems [13]. In OWL Web Ontology Language Guide
[14], The OWL Web Ontology Language is intended to
provide a language that can be used to describe the classes
and relations between them that are inherent in Web
documents and applications. This document demonstrates
the use of the OWL language to 1. formalize a domain by
defining classes and properties of those classes, 2. define
individuals and assert properties about them, and 3. reason
about these classes and individuals to the degree permitted
by the formal semantics of the OWL language.
Oscar Corcho [7] presents how to build ontology in the legal
domain. Graciela Brusa [8] presents a discussion on the
process and product of an experience in developing
ontology for the Public Sector whose organization requires a
strong knowledge management. Particularly, this process
has been applied to develop ontology for Budget Domain.
Pablo Castells [15] assumes a knowledge base has been
built and associated to the information sources (the
document base), by using one or several domain ontologies
that describe concepts appearing in the document text. Our
system can work with any arbitrary domain ontology with
essentially no restrictions, except for some minimal
requirements, which basically consist of conforming to a set
of root ontology classes. The concepts and instances in the
KB are linked to the documents by means of explicit, non
embedded annotations to the documents.
3.
Building Diagnostic Ontology
This section describes the process of an experience in

developing a Diagnostic Ontology for Health Care Domain
(Fig.1) [7] [8].
3.1.
Specification: The Ontology Goal and Scope
Fig. 1. Specification
The scope limits the ontology, specifying what must be
included and what must not. It is an important step Fig. 1 for
minimizing the amount of data and concepts to be analyzed,
especially for the extent and complexity of the diagnostic
semantics. In successive iterations for verification process, it
will be adjusted if necessary.
3.2.
Specification: Domain Description
In this analysis, the application to formulating the diagnostic

ontology and its related documentations were studied and
revised. Furthermore, meetings with a group of experts were
carried out. This group was conformed by Doctors, and
software engineers who bring informatics supports for these
tasks. As it can be seen, the group of experts was very
heterogeneous. In addition, they do not have much time to
assign the meetings. This group was the support for
knowledge acquisition during the ontology development.
Then, we have to define different intermediate representations
to communicate the knowledge acquired to the experts
considering the background of each one and the time of
meetings. Then, a brief description of the domain is presented.
Page 78
3.3.
Specification: Motivating
Scenarios
The motivation scenarios show problems that arise when

people need information that the system does not provide.
Besides, the scenario description contains a set of solutions
to these problems that includes the semantic aspects to solve
them. In order to define motivation scenarios and
communicate them to the involved people, templates have
been used. These templates were based on those proposed to
specify case uses in object oriented methodology. The
template describes: the name of the scenario, people who
participate in the scenario, a brief scenario description, and a
list of possible terms related to the scenario. Since this
template shows the most important information in a concise
way, it is useful when the experts do not have a lot of time
to analyze the scenarios.
3.4.
Specification: Ontology
Granularity and Type
According to the level of conceptualization and granularity,
the ontology proposed here is domain ontology. Domain
ontology describes the vocabulary related to a specific
domain and, the ontology objective is to facilitate the
discussion among the Health Care Forum members.
3.5.
Conceptualization: Domain Conceptual Model
defined concepts. The UML class diagram can be used to

express concepts in terms of classes and relationships among
them. Although UML in its standard form is not suitable for
semantic representation, the information modeled in the UML
class diagram was the base for building the ontology term
glossary, trying to include other concepts by means of
generalization and specialization techniques.
3.5.
Conceptualization: Identification of Classes,
Relations and
Attributes
We used Concepts classifier trees to analyze
hierarchies and attributes, binary relations, axioms and
instances tables. For determining classes, we identified those
terms of independent existence from the key terms list and the
glossary. Once the conceptual model of the ontology has been
created, the next step is to define relevant instances
3.7.
Implementing the Diagnostic Ontology with
PROTEGE
Fig. 3. Implementation
Fig. 2. Conceptualization
In this step Fig. 2, a list of the most important terms was
elaborated. The core of basic terms is identified first and
then they are specified and generalized if necessary. Then
with these concepts as reference, the key term list was
defined. To properly understand the conceptual aspects in
the context, a Unified Modeling Language (UML) [5]
diagram was elaborated with the main relations among
In order to implement Fig. 3 the diagnostic ontology, Protege

tool is an opt tool because of the fact that it is extensible and
provides a plug-and-play environment that makes it a flexible
base for rapid prototyping and application development.
Protege ontologies can be exported into different formats
including Relational Description Framework Schema and
Web Ontology Language (OWL). Particularly, it is proposed
to implement the Diagnostic Ontology in OWL. To compare
the ontology implementation with its conceptualization,
graphics using the OWLViz and Ontoviz plug-ins will be
generated and compared with UML diagrams. On the one
hand, OWLViz enables the class hierarchies in OWL
Ontology to be viewed, allowing comparison of the asserted
class hierarchy and the inferred class hierarchy.
Page 79
4.HEALTH CARE FORUM ARCHITECTURE &

ENVIRONMENT
This system aims at constructing a new Health Care Forum
model, integrating semantic based diagnostic ontology
module using semantic search engine. As depicted in Fig. 4,
the architecture and the environment have several
components. It also provides an overall high-level
description of the interactions between the main components
of the system. These parts and their interactions are
described as follows:
concepts appearing in the document text. The concepts and

instances in the KB are linked to the documents by means of
annotations to the documents. Documents are annotated with
concept instances from the KB by creating instances. Weights
are computed automatically, based on the frequency of
occurrence of the instances in each document. The annotations
are used by the retrieval process. The Knowledge Base records
every clients domain knowledge, which comprises idea
instances and the relationships between these instances. That
is, this study assumes the existence of a given set of
participants and their relevant knowledge.
4.3.
Semantic Search Engine Module
Semantic Search Engine Module is the prime module which

acts like interface between the Data Module and Diagnostic
Ontology. In this module Jena framework has been used for
the implementation of RDF Data Query Language (RDQL)
[3]. Jena is a Java toolkit which provides an API for creating
and manipulating RDF models. Jena sources can be retrieved
at http://jena.sourceforge.net/.
RDQL is an implementation of an SQL-like query language
for RDF. The RDQL query is executed against the knowledge
base, which returns a list of instance tuples that satisfy the
query. The semantic search engine extracts recommended
solutions from the diagnostic ontology module with the help
of instance tuples. These recommended solutions will be sent
to the forum blackboard.
Fig. 4: Proposed Architecture of Health Care Forum
4.1.
User Interface Module
This module has two components: Open Problem and

Participants Component [1]. An open problem is an initial
topic or issue given to the system. Participants means the
registered users attending the Health Care Forum session.
Both the components represent the given open problem, the
registered users and posted questions with related topic.
4.2.
Data Module
This comprises two parts: Document Base and

Knowledge Base(KB). The document base stores
fundamental information about registered users, posted
questions and replies. A knowledge base has been built and
associated to the information sources (the document base),
by using one or several domain ontologies that describe
4.4.
Diagnostic Ontology Module
Diagnostic Ontology is already created with the help of

Domain Experts and implemented by using Protege tool and
kept for use. Very often the Diagnostic Ontology is updated
with recent findings and developments and used by Health
Care Forum.
5. CONCLUSION
Building domain ontologies is not a simple task when domain
experts have no background knowledge on engineering
techniques and/or they dont have much time to invest in
domain conceptualization. Sharing the best practice on
ontology building can be useful for the whole community. In
our work, we have also shown how ontologies could develop
merging different methodologies and software engineering.
Particularly this approach has been used to define Domain
ontology for Medical Diagnostic System which could be used
by Doctors and Experts of various domains belongs to
Medicine. The proposed architecture for Health Care forum
integrates the unique association thinking of humans with an
Page 80
intelligent diagnostic Ontology to devise an automated and

suitable solution for Patients, Doctors and Research
activities in the medicine worldwide.
As future work,
we plan to complete the implementation of our approach
with practical evaluation.
6.
REFERENCES
[1]
Soe-Tsyr Yuan and Yen-Chuan Chen (2008) Semantic
Ideation Learning for Agent-Based E-Brainstorming, IEEE
Transactions on Knowledge And Data Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 2.
[2]
A.R. Dennis, A. Pinsonneault, K.M. Hilmer, H. Barki,
R.B. Gallupe, M. Huber, and F.Bellavance (2005) Patterns in
Electronic Brainstorming: The Effects of Synergy and Social
Loafing on Group Idea Generation Intl J. e-Collaboration, vol. 1,
no. 4, pp. 38- 57.
[3]
W.-L.Chang and S.-T. Yuan (2004) iCare Home Portal:
A Quest for Quality Aging e-Service Delivery, Proc. First
Workshop Ubiquitous Seaborne A., RDQL - A Query Language
for
RDF,
W3C
Member
Submission.
http://www.w3.org/Submission/2004/SUBM-RDQL-20040109/
[4]
Smith,M., Welty.C., McGuinness.D. (2004) OWL Web
Ontology Language Guide, W3C Recommendation 10
http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-guide/
[5]
UML
(2006)
Unified
Modeling
Language.
http://www.uml.org/ Brickley, D., Guha, R.V. (2004) RDF
Vocabulary Description Language 1.0: RDF Schema. W3C
Recommendation. http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-schema/
[6]
Caliusco M. L. (2005), A Semantic Definition Support
of Electronic Business Documents in eColaboration, PhD thesis.
UTN - F.R.S.F. Santa Fe, Argentina.
[7]
Corcho O, Fernndez-Lpez M, Gmez-Prez A, LpezCima
A.
(2005),
Building
legal
ontologies
with
METHONTOLOGY and WebODE. Law and the Semantic Web,
Legal Ontologies, Methodologies, Legal Information Retrieval,
and Applications, Australian Computer Society, Inc. T
Australasian Ontology Workshop (AOW 2006), Hobart, Australia.
Conferences in Research and Practice in Information Technology,
Vol. 72.
[8]
Graciela Brusa, A Process for Building a Domain
Ontology: an Experience in Developing a Government Budgetary
Ontology Direccin Provincial de Informtica, San Martn 2466,
Santa Fe (Santa Fe), Argentina, gracielabrusa@santafe.gov.ar
[9]
www.isakanyakumari.com
[10]
www.ontotext.com/kim/
semanticannotation.html
[11]
Goutam Kumar Saha, ACM Ubiquity, v.8, 2007
[12]
Matthew Horridge, Holger Knublauch, Alan Rector,
Robert Stevens, Chris Wroe, A Practical Guide To Building OWL
Ontologies Using The Protege-OWL, Plugin and CO-ODE
Tools Edition 1.0, August 27, 2004.
[13]
Ian Horrocks, Ontologies and the Semantic Web,
communications of the acm|december 2008 | vol. 51| no. 12.
[14]
http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-guide/
[15]
Pablo Castells, Miriam Fernandez, and David Vallet An
Adaptation of the Vector-Space Model for Ontology-Based
Information Retrieval, IEEE Transactions On
Knowledge And
Data Engineering, sVol. 19, No. 2, February 2007.
Page 81
An Enhancing the Life Time of Wireless Sensor

Networks Using Mean Measure Mechanism
P.Ponnu Rajan #1, D.Bommudurai*2
#
Department of Computer Applications, K.L.N College of Information Technology,

Pottapalayam, Sivagangai District, Tamilnadu, India.
1
ponnu_svks@yahoo.co.in
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, K.L.N College of Information Technology,

Pottapalayam, Sivagangai District, Tamilnadu, India.
2
d_bommudurai@hotmail.com
Abstract Wireless sensor Network function with many routing

protocols from the LEACH to High power short distance routing
protocol. Still there are some unresolved issues in routing
protocol in wireless sensor networks. In this paper the proposed
algorithm is Distance based energy aware routing named as
DER. The distance based Energy aware routing protocol that
selects the route to the base station based on mean measure and
the node that is nearest to the base station with in the radius. The
energy of the node with in the range is calculated as mean
measures or threshold. By comparing the threshold with the
energy level of the node the transmission is take place to the base
station. The distance-based energy aware routing will efficiently
reduces the time delay, number of nodes and energy
consumption in WSN. The energy consumption of the node in the
network is well balanced and prolonging the survival time of the
wireless sensor network.
Keywords Wireless Sensor Networks; Mean measure; Energy
aware routing protocol
I. INTRODUCTION
In wireless sensor network [1, 2] the sensors are deployed
randomly or densely in deterministic or non-deterministic
environment. The sensors node is small in nature with limited
power. The energy is vital for wireless sensor network
because it is not easy to recharge the nodes because it has
been deployed in a hostile environment. So conservation of
the energy efficiently is the primary motive in a wireless
sensor networks. The sensor node consumes energy for
sensing the activity, processing and transmitting. The energy
required for transmitting the data is high compared to sensing
and processing the data. The energy [3,4] spent for
transmitting a single bit of data over 100 meters is equal to
processing 3000 instructions. WSNs have been widely
employed in several applications such as habitat monitoring,
disaster supervising, defence application, and commercial
application.
An important challenge in designing of a wireless sensor
network is very limited bandwidth and energy than in wired
network environment. The innovative techniques are needed
to eliminate energy inefficiency that shortens the lifetime of
the network and efficient use of the limited bandwidth. So it is
highly desirable to find new methods for energy efficient route
discovery and relaying of data from sensor node to the base

station.
DER is the significant energy aware routing mechanisms. In
this scheme, the sensed data are transmitted to the base station
based on assumed transmission range by the sensor nodes. In
the transmission range, the energy level of the sensor nodes
are aggregated together and mean measure is calculated. The
target node is finding based on the criteria such that the node
which one is nearest to the base station in the range. And the
energy level of the node is greater than the threshold level.
This scheme effectively reduces the delay and save network
energy compared to some of the previous schemes. This
protocol highly useful in military based application especially
in cross border terrorisms for detecting an object .The detected
events are it quickly to the base station for further processing
or actions.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In section
2, some previous related works, which motivate the research,
are briefly reviewed and discussed. The design of the
proposed protocol DER is detailed in section 3. The algorithm
specified in the section 4 and section5 shows the performance
evaluation of the protocol.
II. RELATED WORKS
Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy [5,6] (LEACH) is
operated on two phases, the setup phase and steady phase. In
the setup phase, the clusters are organized and cluster heads
are selected. In the steady phase, the actual transfer to the base
station takes place. LEACH randomly selects a few sensor
nodes as cluster heads and rotates its role to evenly distribute
the energy load among the sensor in the network life time. It
holds some of the weaknesses are lots of cluster heads are
selected and cluster heads are not selected in a distributed
manner leads to unbalanced energy consumption of the nodes
and prolonging lifetime of the network get shortly reduced.
HPSD [7,8] (High power short distance protocol) is a nodebased protocol that selects route to the base station based on
closest node that has the highest battery power relative to its
surrounding neighbours.
When an event occurs the source node sends the data to the
base station using the shortest path. It consists of 10 randomly
Page 82
deployed sensor nodes. The base station is fixed and located in

the left of middle corner. Initially, node N2 selects the next
neighboured node (Node N7) that has the shortest distance to
the base station, because all nodes have the same power level.
Hence the path will be N7, N6, N9, N11, N13, and N15. Later
on that node N7 changes its power level from high to medium
due to participating in some routing task. And let node N3 has
new data to send to the base station. Then this source node has
three possible neighbours to use (Node5, Node7 and node4).
That Node7 already participated in the previous routing and
power level is medium. Therefore the source node will select
either Node 5 or Node 4 because it posses high energy. The
process is repeated until it reaches the base station. It posses
some of the drawbacks are time delay and more number of
nodes required for transmission and energy consumption for
more node processing and additional overhead for sending
control packets to its neighbours.
N1
N4
N13
N11
N9
N6
N15
N7
the base station. Finally the base station calculates distance

based on time and speed .The summarized datas are
broadcast it again to all nodes in the network by the base
station.
Equation for calculating the Distance:
Distance= (Speed*Time)
Where
Distance=Distance between the Node and the Base

station.
Speed=Speed of wave in air.
Time=Time elapsed of a message to reach from the

base station to the node.
Constructing route table:
After identification of node position, the base station
broadcast the routing information. The routing table is
maintained at each node for taking routing strategy. The
routing table contains three fields such as Node-ID, energy
level of the node, distance from the base station. The routing
strategy is taken by analyzing the above fields in the routing
table. The Table I shows the routing table maintained at each
node in the sensor network.
N
2
TABLE I
ROUTING TABLE
Node-ID
N10
N1
4
N
12
N8
N5
N3
Base station
Sensor Field
Fig.1. HPSD Protocol operation
III. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

W. DER: Protocol Operation
The Distance based Energy Aware Routing protocol
operations are to increase the node lifetime by distributing
energy load among sensor nodes.
This protocol operated on three phases:
1)
Initialization phase
2)
Forwarding phase
3)
Updating phase
1) Initialization Phase: Once the sensors are deployed in the
environment, it is not so easy to re deploy the sensor in the
same field. The energy is vital for sensor to survive in the
environment. So the energy should be conserve efficiently in
the sensing field.
Identification of node position:
The sensor deployed in the environment randomly. To know
its position first the base station broadcast [7] the initialization
packet to all the nodes in the sensor network. On receiving
such packet, it calculates the time taken to reach every node in
the network. Each node in the network stored its time. Then
the node transmits its attributes (N_ID, Time and Energy) to
N1
N2
,,
,,
Nn
BS
Distance
25Meters
37Meters
,,
,,
NMeters
-
Energy
1Joules
0.97Joules
,,
,,
NJoules
High Energy
2) Forwarding Phase: After the event triggered by the sensor

nodes, the source node route the packet to the base station by
considering the routing table.
Successive Transmission:
In successive transmission, the energy level of the sensor
nodes gets changes in the sensor field. Here the source node
takes the transmission range of 50m.The target node is
predicted based on the criteria:
a) The node that is nearest to the base station from the nodes
with in the range.
b) The Energy level of the node should be greater than the
threshold level.
Calculation of Threshold level:
The energy level of the nodes with in the range is calculated
on the basis of mean measures.
n
EN (i ) + EN (i +1) + .......EN (n )
Th =
i =1 No. of nodes in the range
Where,
Th is the Threshold level.

EN(i) is the Energy level of node.
Page 83
If the energy level of the node greater than the threshold level,
then the data to be transmitted to the node. Suppose if the
energy level of the node lesser than the threshold level, then
previous least distance node from the routing table should be
taken and compared with its threshold level. If the condition is
met, then make transmission to the node. During the
successive transmission, the energy level of nodes gets
changed. Suppose the Node N2 act as source node after sense
the event. It takes the transmission range of 50 meters. The
Node N4, N5 and N7 are located with in the range and mean
threshold is calculated. Then Node N2 decided to take
transmission to N7 that is least distance to the base station but
the energy level is greater than the mean threshold level .so it
act as target node. Next the N7 take transmission range of
50mts.The Node N6, N8, N11, and N10 are located with in the
range and mean threshold is calculated. The Node N7
transmits the data to Node N10 that is least distance to the
base station, but the energy level of the node lesser than the
mean threshold. So it takes the previous least distance node
N11 and compares energy level with the mean threshold.
Suppose if the energy level is more than the mean threshold
takes it as target node N11. The same procedure is repeated by
N11 to transmit the data to Node 15 and finally to the base
station.
Sensor Field
N14
N4
N11
N9
N15
N2
N
7
N10
N1
N
6
N8
N12
Base
station
N5
N3
N13
Sensed Data
Node-ID
Target Node Energy
Fig.3. DER Updating Phase
IV. DER IN DETAIL

The proposed algorithm is Distance based Energy aware
routing Protocol. The procedure for forwarding phase is after
the event triggered the source node takes the transmission
range of 50 meters.
From the source node, the transmission range of 50 meters
should be taken. Within that range, find the node, which is
nearest to the base station, and compare that nodes energy
level with the threshold level. Suppose if energy of the node is
lesser than the threshold level, then the previous least distance
node from the routing table is taken and compared with the
threshold level until the node energy is greater than the
threshold level. If the energy of the node is greater than the
threshold level, then take that node as target node. The process
is repeated until the information reaches the base station.
1. Const Tr=50;
2. For each (Node n in Transmission range)
3. Loop beginning
4.
If (n. Energy level is not same)
//Node energy level is not uniform with in the range
4.
Get_least_distance_node ( );
5.
End If
6. Loop End
//If the node is least distance to the base station
7. Get_least_distance_node ( )
8. Begin
9.
For each (Node n in Transmission range)
10.
Loop Beginning
11.
Nn=Minimum_dist ();
12.
Get_target_node (Nn);
13.
Loop End
14. End
Fig.2. DER Forwarding phase
3) Updating Phase: After every transmission of information

from source to base station, the energy level of the node in the
sensor fields get changed. So it is essential for updating
routing information at each node after every transmission of
packets. Here the energy required for updating the routing
information at each node lies on the hands of the base station.
a) During transmission, the target nodes in every range not
only send the sensed data in addition to that it sends energy
level and Node-ID to the base station.
b) The base station broadcast the messages to all nodes in the
network.
c) After receiving such message the nodes updates its routing
information.
The above process is repeated after every transmission to
update the routing table at every node in the sensor network.
// If the Mean threshold greater than basic threshold and

// Energy level of node greater than the mean threshold
15. Get_target_node (Nn)
16. Begin
17.
18.
Loop Beginning
19.
EN= EN1+EN2 +ENn;
20.
MTh=EN/n;
21.
Const BTh=0.002j;
22.
Loop End
23. If ((MTh >= BTh) && (ENn >= MTh))
24.
target node=Nn
//Route to target node
25.
Else
26.
Get_next_minimum_dist ();
27.
If (target. BS==true)
Page 84
28.
//Route to base station
29.
End If
30. End If
31. End
//Finding the Minimum Distance Node
32. Minimum_dist ()
33. Begin
34.
35.
For each (Node m in Transmission range)
36.
Loop Beginning
37.
If (N [n] < M [n])
38.
t=N[n]
38.
N [n]=M [n]
39.
M [n]=t
40.
End If
41
Loop End
42. End
43. Get_next_minimum_dist ()
44. Begin
45.
For each (Node m in Transmission range)
46.
Loop Beginning
47.
Nn=M [n--]
48.
Get_target_node (Nn)
49.
Loop End
50. End
Y. B. Comparing HPSD with DER

Table IV shows the comparison between the High Power
Short Distance Protocol and Distance based Energy Aware
Routing Protocol.
TABLE III
PARAMETERS USED IN THE SIMULATION
Parameters
Number of nodes
Network dimension
Initial Energy
Dead node
Sense radius
Deployment
Base station location
Data packet size
Transmission Range
Topology
Values
50
50*50 m2
1 Joule
< 0.002 Joule
20 Meters
Random
Middle of left side
53 bytes (variable length)
50 Meters
Static topology
TABLE IV
S.No.
1)
HPSD
Source node selects the target
node from the nearest neighbor
nodes.
2)
Energy level mention as High,

Medium, and Low Energy
level.
More number of nodes required
for transmitting a packet
Fig. 3. Pseudo code of DER
In the fig.3, the pseudo code describes the forwarding phase in

DER. The Table II shows the variable used in the pseudo
code.
TABLE II
VARIABLE MEANING
Name
Tr
Nn
EN1... ENn
EN
BTh
MTh
BS
Usage
Transmission range
Minimum distance node
Energy level of nodes in the range
Total energy of the nodes in the range
Base Threshold
Mean Threshold
Base Station
4)
5)
Time delay is more for

transmitting a packet.
DER
Select the target node
based on the criteria:
a) In the range, Node
that nearest to base
station.
b) The node holds the
energy level greater than
the threshold level.
Threshold Energy level
is calculated based on
mean measure.
Less number of nodes
required for
transmission, due to
assumed transmission
range.
Time delay is less for
transmitting a packet.
HPSD VERSUS DER
X. A. Simulation environment and parameters

Using NS2 [Network Simulator] to simulate DER Protocol
from the following aspects: total energy consumption [9, 10,
11, and 12] of the node in the network and the Time delay in
data transmission. The parameters used in the simulation are
set as shown in Table III.
It is assumed that the transmission frequency range is set
dynamically in the applications
Z. C. Simulation Result
Fig.4 shows the simulation results for total energy
consumption for three compared schemes. The energy
consumption of DER protocol is the least among three
protocols (DER, LEACH and HPSD).
As LEACH protocol adopts one- hop communication, the
death of nodes will lead to the increasing of communication
distance, which causes the energy consumption of LEACH
protocol increase fast after 300s.The additional cost is
required by transferring of control packets to the
neighbourhood node leads to the energy cost of HPSD is more
than the DER protocol.
Figure.5 shows the simulation results of the time
consumption for two schemes. In the HPSD Protocol, the time
consumption for transmitting the packet is high compared to
DER. Because the number of nodes required for transmitting a
Page 85
V. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
In this section, it describes the simulation environment and its
parameter and simulation result.
packet is more compared to DER. In DER protocol by taking

the assumed transmission frequency the number of nodes
required to reach the base station is shortly reduced lead to
reduce the time delay in the sensor network.
Fig.4. Average Energy Consumption
Fig.5. Time Consumption
VI. CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK

The Distance based Energy Aware Routing protocol (DER)
selects routes based on energy aware of the nodes in the
network by mean measure approach. The distance based
energy aware routing efficiently reduces the time and energy
in WSN. The energy consumption of the node in the network
is well balanced and prolonging the survival time of the
wireless sensor network. The performance of DER is analyzed
through simulation, the result show that DER can increase the
lifetime of the network compared to other conventional
protocol.
For future work dynamic readjustment of the transmission
frequency of the target node, and it leads to reduce the time
and energy of the nodes in the sensor networks. In
broadcasting of packets to the nodes, DER needs improvement
in security aspects.
[22] Routing in wireless sensor networks. Mayank Saraogi.

www.cs.utk.edu/~saraogi/594paper.pdf by M Saraogi 2005.
[23] A survey of wireless sensor network, EURASIP Journal
on Wireless Communications and Networking 2005:5, pp
774788.
[24] Zheng, Yugui Qu, Baohua Zhao, Data Aware Clustering
for Data Gathering in Wireless Sensor Networks, International
Conference on Networks Security, Wireless Communications
and Trusted Computing, 2009, vol. 1, pp.192-195, 2009.
[25] Shemshaki, M.; Shahhoseini, H.S., Energy Efficient
Clustering Algorithm with Direct Path Supports 2009
International Conference on Signal Processing Systems
Volume, Issue, 15-17 May 2009 Page(s): 277 281.
[26] Al-Karaki, J.N.; Al-Malkawi, I.T, On energy efficient
routing for wireless sensor networks, International Conference
on Volume, Issue, 16-18 Dec. 2008 Page(s): 465-469.
[27] Hey, L.A.Power Aware Smart Routing in Wireless
Sensor Networks Next Generation Internet Networks, 2008.
NGI
2008
Date: 28-30, Apri2008, On page(s): 195-202.
[28] Weizheng Ren, Lianming Xu, Zhongliang Deng, A LowPower Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks Based
on Data Aggregation, International Symposium on Intelligent
Information Technology Application Workshops, 2008 IEEE.
[29] Fatma Bouabdallah, Nizar Bouabdallah, and Raouf
Boutaba, On Balancing Energy Consumption in Wireless
Sensor Networks, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR
TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 58,NO. 6, JULY 2009.
[30] Hong Luo; Luo, J.; Liu, Y.; Das, S.K, Adaptive Data
Fusion for Energy Efficient Routingin Wireless Sensor
Networks, IEEE Transactionson Volume 55, Issue 10, Oct.
2006 Page(s): 1286 1299.
[31] Asudeh, A, Movaghar, A., MEHR: Multi-Hop EnergyAware Hierarchical Routing for Wireless Sensor Network
Onpage(s): 1-6.
[32] Fariborzi, H.; Moghavvemi, M., EAMTR: energy aware
multi-tree
routing
for
wireless
sensor
networks
Communications, IET, Volume 3, Issue 5, May 2009 Page(s):
733-739.
[33] WeizhengRen, LianmingXu, ZhongliangDeng, A LowPower Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks Based
on
Data
Aggregation
Intelligent Information Technology Application Workshops,
2008. IITAW '08. Date: 21-22Dec.2008, Onpage(s): 661-664.
REFERENCES
[20] Routing Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks: A.
Survey. Jamal N. Al-Karaki. Ahmed E. Kamal. 2004.
[21] Energy Conservation in Wireless Sensor Networks: a
Survey. Giuseppe Anastasi, Marco Conti, Mario Di Francesco,
Andrea Passarella, Volume 7, Issue 3 (May 2009) Year of
Publication: 2009 Pages 537-568.
Page 86
Study of Similarity Metrics for Genomic Data Using

GO-Ontology
Annalakshmi V#1, Priyadarshini R#2, Bhuvaneshwari V#3
#

Coimbatore-641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
1
annalakshmivmca@gmail.com
darshini.rajendran@gmail.com
3
bhuvanesh_v@yahoo.com
Abstract Bioinformatics is the science of managing, mining and

interpreting information from biological sequences and structures.
The Gene Ontology (GO) is a major bioinformatics initiative to
unify the representation of gene and gene product attributes across
all species. Similarity is quantity that reflects the strength of
relationship between two objects or two features. In this paper, a
study on similarity metrics for genomic data is done. The modeling
of data for measuring the measure is explained in detail. The
comparison of traditional similarity and ontology based similarity
measures are discussed and compared.
Keywords Bioinformatics, Gene Ontology, Similarity Measures,
GO terms, genes.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Data mining, the extraction of hidden predictive information
from large databases, is a powerful new technology with great
potential to help companies focus on the most important
information in their data warehouses [1]. Data mining
techniques are the result of a long process of research and
product development. Data mining is a component of a wider
process called Knowledge discovery from databases.
Bioinformatics is the science of organizing and analyzing
biological data that involves collecting, manipulating,
analyzing, and transmitting huge quantities of data.
Bioinformatics and data mining provide exciting and
challenging researches in several application areas especially
in computer science. Bioinformatics is the science of
managing, mining and interpreting information from
biological sequences and structures [2]. Data are collected
from genome analysis, protein analysis, microarray data and
probes of gene function by genetic methods.
The Gene Ontology (GO) is a major bioinformatics initiative
to unify the representation of gene and gene product attributes
across all species. The ontology covers three domains such as,
cellular component, molecular function and biological
process. GO is used to explore and analyze the data by using
the GO term object. A gene is the basic unit of heredity in a
living organism. All living things depend on genes. Genes
hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells
and pass genetic traits to offspring. GO represents terms
within a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) consisting of a
number of terms, represented as nodes within the graph,
connected by relationships, represented as edges. Terms can

have multiple parents, as well as multiple children along the
\is-a' relationships, together with part-of relationships [6].
Similarity is defined as the ratio of the shared information
between the objects to the total information about both objects
[18]. Measure of semantic similarity for the knowledge
component of bioinformatics resources should afford a
biologist a new tool in their collection of analyses. The
similarity has been computed by four general approaches: the
set-based approach, the graph-based approach, the vectorbased approach and the term based approach. In the set-based
approach an annotation is viewed as a bag of words. Two
annotations are similar if there is a large overlap between their
sets of terms. A graph-based approach views similarity as a
graph-matching procedure. Vector-based methods embed
annotations in a vector space where each possible term in the
ontology forms a dimension. Term-based approaches compute
similarity between individual terms and then combine these
similarities to produce a measure of annotation similarity [19].
In this paper we have done a detailed study on the similarity
metrics using GO ontology for genomic and proteomic
databases using annotations. The paper is organized as
follows. Section 2 provides the literature study of the various
semantic similarity measures. Sections 3 describe similarity
metrics using gene ontology. In section 4 provides modeling
of dataset for similarity measure. The implemented results for
the yeast dataset are analyzed and validated within the go
ontology functionalities. The final section draws the
conclusion of the paper.
II.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The literature related to the various similarity measures based
on the GO ontology is discussed. Semantic Similarity
measures have been proposed for comparing concepts within
ontology. Lord [6] has proposed a semantic similarity
measure based on the information content of each term. This
is defined as the number of times each term, or any child term,
occurs in the corpus, which is expressed as a probability.
Resnik [3], [4] developed a measure of semantic similarity for
"is-a" ontology based on the information content of the lowest
common ancestor (LCA) of two terms. The more frequently a
term occurs, i.e., the higher its probability of occurring, the
Page 87
lower its information content [5]. One node based approach to

determine the conceptual similarity is called the information
content approach. If the LCA of two terms describes a generic
concept, these terms are not very similar and this is reflected
in a low information content of their LCA. This measure
considers how specific the LCA of the two terms is but
disregards how far away the two terms are from their LCA
[5]. Lin [Lin, 1998] has presented a semantic similarities of
two GO terms based on the annotation statistics of their
common ancestor terms [9]. Jiang and Conrath, [1997]
proposed a semantic similarity measure based on hybrid
approach, i.e. it combines information content and conceptual
distance [10]. Lord et al. Resnik, Lin, and Jiang's have
provided similarity methods based on the information content
of the GO terms. The two approaches target semantic
similarity from quite different angles. Jiang and Conrath have
proposed the edge-based distance method is more intuitive,
while the node-based information content approach is more
theoretically sound. Both have inherent strength and weakness
[7]. Similarity measures that satisfy the only condition of
reflexive, i.e., every object are most similar to it. Chabalier
and Mosser have presented the vector Space model measures,
they consider only m*n matrix representation, where m is the
total number of genes in the corpus and n is the total number
of GO terms. Each row in the matrix represents a gene vector
of its annotations. Each vector is binary valued, with 1
represents the presence of the GO term in the genes
annotation and 0 representing its absence [11]. The major
contribution of this approach is the possibility of using a
weighting scheme over the annotation.Chabalier and Mosser
have proposed the Cosine similarity; the measure can be
calculated by using the vector for each gene in the pair. This
similarity first generates a weight, for each GO term based on
the frequency of its occurrence in the corpus [20]. Huang et al
developed the Kappa statistics are used to measure cooccurrence of annotation between gene pairs. Kappa statistics
are used for continuous and non-categorical data. It can
specifically detect the gene-gene functional relationships [12].
Lee et al has proposed the Term Overlap (TO) Measure score
for two genes are calculated as the number of terms that occur
in the intersection set of the two gene product annotation sets.
The Normalized Term Overlap (NTO), in which the term
overlap score is divided by the annotation set size for the gene
with the lower number of GO annotations [13].
III.
SIMILARITY METRICS USING GENE ONTOLOGY
measures such as, Resnik, Lins, Jiang and Conrath measure.

These measures are fully focused on the Information Content
(IC). Group wise similarity is calculated among the group of
genes. This method consists of the following measures such
as, Cosine similarity, Kappa Statistics and Term Overlap
(TO). These measures consider only matrix representation of
gene products.
AA.
Node-based (Information Content) Approach
One node based approach to determine the conceptual
similarity is called the information content approach (Resnik
1992, 1995). This method contains the following measures
such as, Resnik, Lins, Jiang and Conrath measure.
1)
Lord Measure: Lord measure calculates the
similarity between two terms by using only the IC of the t1:
The information content of a GO term ti is:
Eq., (1)
Where p(ti) is the probability of a term occurring in the
corpus:
Eq., (2)
Where the corpus is the set of annotations for all genes under
consideration. "Root" represents one of the three root ontology
terms and freq (root) is the number of times a gene is
annotated with any term within that ontology. freq(ti) is given
by:
Eq., (3)
The Lord measure calculates the information content of
term ti.
2)
Resniks Measure: Resnik's measure calculates the
similarity between two terms by using only the IC of the
lowest common ancestor (LCA) shared between two terms t1
and t2:
Eq., (4)
Gene ontology is a collection of controlled vocabularies that

describes the biology of a gene product. It consists of
approximately 20,000 terms arranged in three independent
ontology: Biological Process, Cellular Component, and
Molecular Function. Similarity measures are used to find the
similarity between genes. We can measure the similarity in
two ways. There are Pair wise similarity and Group wise
similarity. The pair wise similarity measures are calculated by
using gene pairs. This method contains the following
Where LCA denotes the lowest common ancestor between

ontological terms T1 and T2. This measure only accounts for
the commonality between terms.
Page 88
3)
Lins Measure: Lin's measure of similarity takes into
consideration the IC values for each of terms t1 and t2 in
addition to the LCA shared between the two terms and is
defined as follows.
Eq., (5)
Which has the advantage that it maps onto values on the
interval [0, 1] unlike Resnik's measure which maps onto the
interval [0, ]. Lin's measure also accounts for both the
commonality and difference between terms. Resnik's
measure does have the desirable property that terms close to
the root of the ontology have a low similarity however. This is
not the case for Lin's measure.
4)
Jiang & Conrath Measure: Jiang and Conrath
proposed an IC based semantic distance, which can be
transformed into a similarity measure.
Eq., (6)
This measure considered probability of term t1, t2 and LCA
of the two terms. The highest score for Lin and Jiang is 1, and
Resnik's measure has no upper bound.
5)
Term Overlap: The term overlap score for two genes
is then calculated as the number of terms that occur in the
intersection set of the two gene product annotation sets.
Eq., (7)
Normalized term overlap (NTO), in which the term overlap
score is divided by the annotation set size for the gene with
the lower number of GO annotations.
Eq., (8)
Traditional cardinality-based similarity measures such as
Jaccard and Dice [21] are computed similarly to NTO, but use
the union or sum, respectively, of the two gene annotation set
sizes as the normalizing factor.
BB.
absence (resp. presence) of a term (along a particular

dimension) in an annotation. This has the advantage that
standard clustering techniques on vector spaces such as kmeans can be applied to group similar terms. What is required
is a means of measuring the size of vectors. This can be
achieved by embedding terms in a metric space (usually
Euclidean). The most common method of measuring
similarity between vectors of terms is the cosine similarity
Eq., (9)
Where vi represents a vector of terms constructed from an
annotation (group of terms) Gi. || corresponds to the size of
the vector and corresponds to the dot product between two
vectors. The source of descriptiveness, commonality and
difference is the same as the situation for set-based
approaches.
CC.
Edge-based (Distance) Approach
The edge based approach is a more natural and direct way of

evaluating semantic similarity in a Go Ontology. It estimates
the distance (e.g. edge length) between nodes which
correspond to the terms/genes being compared. Given the
multidimensional concept space, the conceptual distance can
conveniently be measured by the geometric distance between
the nodes representing the concepts. Obviously, the shorter the
path from one node to the other, the more similar they are.
In a more realistic scenario, the distances between any two
adjacent nodes are not necessarily equal. It is therefore
necessary to consider that the edge connecting the two nodes
should be weighted. Most of these are typically related to the
structural characteristics of a hierarchical network. Some
conceivable features are: local network density (the number of
child links that span out from a parent node), depth of a node
in the hierarchy, type of link, and finally, perhaps the most
important of all, the strength of an edge link. This method
contains the following measures.
Sussna (1993) considered the first three factors in the edge
weight determination scheme. The weight between two nodes
c1 and c2 is calculated as follows:
Eq., (10)
Given
Vector-based Approach
Vector-based methods embed ontological terms in a vector

space by associating each term with a dimension. Usually a
vector is binary consisting of 0's and 1's where 0 denotes the
Eq., (11)
Page 89
where r is a relation of type r, r' is its reverse, d is the

depth of the deeper one of the two, max and min are the
maximum and minimum weights possible for a specific
relation type r respectively, and nr(x) is the number of
relations of type r leaving node x.
In determining the overall edge based similarity, most
methods just simply sum up all the edge weights along the
shortest path. To convert the distance measure to a similarity
measure, one may simply subtract the path length from the
maximum possible path length (Resnik 1995):
Eq., (12)
Where dmax is the maximum depth of the taxonomy, and the
len function is the simple calculation of the shortest path
length (i.e. weight = 1 for each edge).
DD.
Set based Approach
Set based methods for measuring the similarity of annotations
are based on the Tversky ratio model of similarity, which is a
general model of distance between sets of terms. It is
represented by the formula
EE.
Graph based Approach
Ontology is a directed, acyclic graph (DAG) whose edges
correspond to relationships between terms. Thus it is natural
to compare terms using methods for graph matching and
graph similarity. We may consider the similarity between
annotations in terms of the sub-graph that connects terms
within each annotation. Annotation similarity is then
measured in terms of similarity between two graphs. Graph
matching has only a weak correlation with similarity between
terms. It is also computationally expensive to compute, graph
matching being an NP-complete problem on general graphs.
1)
Improving Similarity Measures by Weighting Terms:
Set, vector and graph-based methods for measuring similarity
between annotations can be improved by introducing a
weighting function into the similarity measure. For example,
the weighted Jaccard distance can be formulated as:
Eq., (16)
Where, as before, G1 and G2 are annotations or sets of terms
describing data (e.g. a gene product), Tx is the xth term from a
set of terms and m(Tx) denotes the weight of Tx.
Eq., (13)
Where G1 and G2 are sets of terms or annotations from the
same ontology and is an additive function on sets (usually
set cardinality). For ==1 we get the Jaccard distance
between sets:
Eq., (14)
And for ==1/2 we get the Dice distance between sets
Instance-Based Weights: One approach to assigning weight to

an ontological term is to measure how informative a term is in
describing data. A method of measuring information is to
analyze a term's use in a corpus against the general use of
ontological terms in the same corpus. Information is measured
using the surprisal function:
Eq., (17)
Where p(Ti) corresponds to the probability of a term Ti or its
taxonomic descendants occurring in a corpus.
Other Weighting Approaches: Other measures of information
can be used not necessarily relying on corpus data. One
measure [14] relies on the assumption that how the ontology is
constructed is semantically meaningful:
Eq., (15)
In this situation the source of descriptiveness of an annotation
is its set of terms. Each term and its set of associated instances
are considered independent of other terms. The commonality
and difference between annotations is modeled as set
intersection and difference of sets of terms respectively. Setbased approaches return a similarity of zero if they do not
share common terms ignoring the fact that terms may be
closely related. Because of the atomic nature of terms in the
set-based approach the monotonicity property does not apply
.
Where desc(Ti) returns the number of descendants of term Ti

and numTerms refers to the total number of terms in the
ontology.
Page 90
Eq., (18)
FF.
Term-based Approaches
In term-based approaches similarity between pairs of terms
from each annotation are computed. These weightings are
then combined in order to characterize the similarity between
annotations as a whole. There are several ways to combine
similarities of pairs of terms such as the min, max or average
operations. Term-based approaches depend on a function s(Ti,
Tj) where Ti and Tj are terms from two annotations G1 and G2
respectively. s(Ti, Tj) provides a measure of distance/similarity
between these two terms. Once distances has been measured
between all possible pairs of terms they are then aggregated
using an operation such as max or the average of all distances.
For example:
Graphical Measures of Term Similarity: The simplest

approach to measuring similarity between ontological terms
using the graph structure is to measure the shortest path
distance between terms in the graph [15, 16]. A more refined
use of graph distance as a basis for a measure of term
similarity is found in the Wu-Palmer measure of similarity
[17]. It uses the idea that the distance from the root to the
lowest common taxonomic ancestor (LCTA) measures the
commonality between two terms while the sum of the distance
between the LCTA and each term measures the difference
between two terms. Combining these aspects results in the
formula:
Eq., (20)
Eq., (19)
More sophisticated term based approaches combine multiple
measures of term similarity and aggregate similarity values
using more complex functions.
Where T1 and T2 are the two terms being compared, Tlcta is the
term that corresponds to the lowest common taxonomic
ancestor between T1 and T2. Troot denotes to root node of the
ontology (assuming that the ontology has only one root).
dist(Ti, Tj) denotes the graph distance between terms Ti and Tj.
The 2 * dist(Tlcta, Troot) component of the denominator serves
to normalize the measure.
The various approaches with author reference are given in Table 1.

TABLE I. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS APPROACHES AND MEASURES
Approach
Node-based Approach
Measures
The similarity value is defined as the information
content value of specific gene pairs.
Author
Resnik, Lins, Jiang and
Conrath. Meeta Mistry
and Paul Pavlidis
Edge-based Approach
This method estimates the distance between nodes

which correspond to the terms/genes being compared.
This method for measuring the similarity of
annotations is based on the Tversky ratio model of
similarity, which is a general model of distance
between sets of terms.
Jiang JJ, Conrath DW
Set-Based Approach
Graph-Based Approach
Term-Based Approach
Vector-Based Approach
This method is measuring in terms of similarity

between two graphs, and then measuring similarity
between annotations can be improved by introducing
a weighting function into the similarity measure
This method is measuring similarity of between pairs
of terms from each annotation are computed.
This method is measuring similarity of matrix
representation of genes.
Huang da W, Sherman
BT, Tan Q, Collins JR,
Alvord WG, Lempicki
RA, Jeffrey Hau,
William Lee, Brendan
Sheehan
Brendan Sheehan, Aaron
Quigley, Benoit Gaudin
and Simon Dobson, Lee
JH, Kim MH, Lee YJ
Rada R, Mili H, Bicknell
E, Bletner, Wu-Palmer,
Lee JH, Kim MH, Lee
YJ
Resnik P , Lord PW,
Stevens RD ,Meeta
Mistry and Paul Pavlidis,
Brendan Sheehan
Ref No
[6], [4],
[3],
[13],[19],
[21],[22]
[7],[8],
[10]
[12],[18],
[19]
[13],[16],
[19]
[15],[16],
[17]
[4],[6],
[13],[19]
Page 91
IV.
MODELING DATASET FOR SIMILARITY

MEASURE
GO annotation site contains various data sets. Yeast data set is

one of the types of data set. We can download the yeast data
set form the Go annotation website. Yeast microarray data
contains about 6400 Genes (e.g. YALO51W, YALO54C) with
their corresponding Yeast values (0.1650, 0.2720). The file
yeastgenes.sgd was obtained from the GO annotation site.
SGDann is a master structure of Yeast microarray data. It
contains the parameters namely SGDaspect, SGDgenes,
SGDgo. SGDaspect contains the corresponding functionality
for the SGDgenes. SGDgenes contains the whole genes.
Similarly SGDgo contains the corresponding Goid for
SGDgenes.
The entire microarray data are mapped with this structure
(SGDgenes) and the microarray data is splitted based on the
functionality of genes using GO ontology. For each gene the
corresponding functionality of genes are found (Biological
Process, Cellular Component, and Molecular Function). All
the genes with same functionality are grouped for the
corresponding Yeast values from the microarray dataset.
Yeast data set contains 6400 genes. The sample genes for
yeast data set can be shown in Fig. 1.
The similarity measure can be calculated based on the gene

pair. So we are taking the gene from the yeast micro array
data. Consider one gene name is YKL050C. This gene
contains the following Goids (3674, 5575, 8150). This can be
mapped from the entire SGDgenes and find out the goid
values. The gene and goid can be shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Gene for YKL050C & Goid values
Each descendant can have their own genes. The genes can
be finding out by using the goid values. Descendants contain
the corresponding goid for the genes. The respective genes
can be shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 1 Genes from the yeast data set

Fig. 4 Genes for the descendants goid
SGDann structure is the entire yeast micro array data set. It

contains the attributes such as, Database, DB_Object_ID,
DB_Object_Symbol, Goid, Aspect, and DB_Object_Type. It
can be shown in Fig. 2.
Descendant means children for the respective goid. We can

easily get the children (descendants) from the GO ontology
using the get descendant method. For example consider one
goid 3674. It contains 8675 descendants. The sample
descendants can be shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 2 SGDann Data Structure
Page 92
methods. Using this method we cant get the accurate result

for the semantic similarity for analyzing gene functionalities
for genes. The semantic measures calculated using traditional
approaches are shown in Table 2.
TABLE II. RESULTS OF TRADITIONAL METHODS
Genes
YKL050C
Fig. 5 Descendant for the goid 3674
Similarly we can get the genes from the yeast dataset and
can be arranged in the structure. For example we consider the
six genes namely YKL050C, YGL114W, YBR241C,
YIL166C, YBL095W, YOR390W. And the corresponding
goid, descendants can be shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 Multiple Genes & descendants structure
YGL114W
YBR241C
Euclidean
Jaccard
Cosine
Euclidean
Jaccard
Cosine
Euclidean
Jaccard
Cosine
YKL050C
YGL114W
YBR241C
0
0
0
21.1896
0.7143
0.0061
11.0905
0.7143
0.0020
21.1896
0.7143
0.0061
0
0
0
21.9089
0.8571
0.0065
11.0905
0.7143
0.0020
21.9089
0.8571
0.0065
0
0
0
For the above we consider the genes for YKL050C,

YGL114W, and YBR241C for traditional method. In this
table we calculated the values for the Euclidean, Jaccard and
Cosine similarity. The GO ontology based semantic similarity
measures are calculated using the discussed approaches above.
These measures identify the relation among genes based on
their children and parents. The Table 3 provides with the
result of the approaches based on ontology. In table3 we
consider the genes for YKL050C, YGL114W, and
YBR241C for calculating the semantic similarity measures
based on the genes functionality. In this table we are used Lin,
Jiang and Conrath measures.
TABLE III. RESULTS FOR GO ONTOLOGY FUNCTIONALITY
Genes
YKL050C
Lin
Jiang
YGL114W
Lin
Jiang
YBR241C
Lin
Jiang
YKL050C
0
0
1.5728
0.9039
1.5749
0.9037
V.
Fig. 7 Graphical representation for YKLO50C gene with 3 Go Terms
A.
Experimental Results
The traditional method for semantic similarity measure is
calculated based on the content comparison. The basic types
of traditional methods are Euclidean, Jaccard and Cosine
YGL114W
1.5728
0.9039
0
0
1.6721
0.8248
YBR241C
1.5749
0.9037
3.6721
0.8248
0
0
CONCLUSION
In this paper we have done a detailed study of the semantic

similarity measures for finding the relationships among genes.
The modeling of the dataset for the measure calculation is
provided in detail. The results on implementation we have
found that gene ontology based similarity measures finds the
accurate association of genes based on Go Ontology. And also
we compared the traditional measures and gene ontology
based similarity measures. We conclude from our study that
the gene ontology based semantic measures can be used for
accessing genes for various factors than traditional based
measures.
Page 93
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Page 94
Hybrid PSO based neural network classifier and

decision tree
for brain MRI mining
#
Dr.V.Saravanan#1 , T.R.Sivapriya*2
Dr.N.G.P Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India
*
tvsaran@hotmail.com
Lady Doak College, Madurai, India

sivapriya_tr@yahoo.com
Abstract
Artificial neural networks have been applied in a variety of realworld scenarios with remarkable success. In this paper, a hybrid
PSO based back propagation neural network for classifying
brain MRI is proposed. The results show that there is a marked
difference while training BPN with PSO. Also a customized PSO
is used to train the BPN which again results in better
performance compared to the conventional PSO used in training.
The Decision tree extracts rules from the trained network that
aids in medical diagnosis.
The neural model based on Particle Swarm
Optimisation was trained with 150 samples (including all patients
with mild and severe dementia). Additional hundred samples
have been used for validation. The proposed algorithm
outperforms the result of conventional training algorithms and is
found to have 95% sensitivity and 96% accuracy. The samples
were tested with a radiologist and psychiatrist by means of blind
folded study. When compared with the experts, the algorithm
achieved good accuracy with higher rate of reliability for the
assessment of mild and severe dementia.
Keywords --- Image mining, Neural networks, PSO, Decision tree
1.INTRODUCTION
There has been a growing number of research applying ANNs
for classification in a variety of real world applications. In
such applications, it is desirable to have a set of rules that
explains the classification process of a trained network The
classification concept represented as rules is certainly more
comprehensible to a human user than a collection of ANNs
weights . This paper proposes a fast hybrid PSO based BPN
classifier, whose results are mined by decision tree for the
diagnosis of dementia.
A neural network, by definition, is a massively parallel
distributed processor made up of simple processing units, each
of which has a natural propensity for storing experiential
knowledge and making the knowledge available for use [11].
Neural networks are fault tolerant and are good at pattern
recognition and trend prediction. In the case of limited
knowledge, artificial neutral network algorithms are
frequently used to construct a model of the data.
A. Artificial Neural Networks

In the last few years artificial neural networks have been
applied successfully to a variety of real-world problems. For
example, neural networks have been successfully applied in
the area of speech generation and recognition, vision and
robotics, handwritten character recognition , medical
diagnostics [9], and game playing.
Neural network method is used for classification, clustering,
feature mining, prediction and pattern recognition. It imitates
the neurons structure of animals, bases on the M-P model and
Hebbian learning rule, so in essence it is a distributed matrix
structure. Through training data mining, the neural network
method gradually calculates (including repeated iteration or
cumulative calculation) the weights the neural network
connected.
Knowledge can be more easily recognized when presented in
the form of images. For example, geophysical and
environmental data from satellite photos, Web pages
containing images, medical imaging including Computed
Tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), is
sources of useful information used in our daily life.
B. The Artificial Neural Network Models for Data Mining
The center piece of the analytic plan is modeling ANN
architectures. Artificial neural network (ANN) modeling has
been used for various tasks, including speech recognition,
stock market prediction, mine detection, cancerous cell
identification, and handwriting recognition. We use the ANN
as a computational modeling tool, the center piece of the datamining approaches taken in this application.
In practice, however, reports of ANNs ability to surpass
linear models for classification and prediction problems have
been inconsistent (Doig et al., 1993; Baxt, 1995; Dybowski et
al., 1996; Anderer et al., 1994; Duhet al., 1998), depending on
data complexity, evaluation measures, and the users
familiarity with the data as well as modeling.
Page 95
II. BACK PROPAGATION NEURAL NETWORKS

The backpropagation algorithm for estimating parameters in
neural networks has been the most popular in the medical
literature [Reggia, 1993. One of the problems encountered by
researchers utilizing the backpropagation algorithm is that
low-frequency patterns (or rare patterns) may take a long
training time to be recognized, because frequent patterns
dominate the error.This problem is overcome by faster
training using PSO.
A hidden layer is used for ANNs internal transformation:
hidden neurons transform the signals from the input layer
and generate signals to be sent to the next layer, so that MLP
is often called the feedforward neural network. The input
layer consists of input variables plus an input bias, which
adjusts the weighted mean of the input variables. All input
variables are regressed on the next layer, in the same fashion
as multiple regression estimation.
Fig. 1 Backpropagation Network
A. BPN architecture design

BPN architecture is selected based on testing and training of 7
different models.The steps are as follows:
1.
Create a customized bpn model n1.
2.
Train and test with new data
3.
Check for the efficiency and ability to recognize
new patterns
4.
If the model n1 has comparatively higher
efficiency and detects new patterns ,it is selected as the ideal
model for diagnosis.
III. PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMISATION
Particle Swarm Optimisers (PSO) are a new trend in
evolutionary algorithms, being inspired in group dynamics
and its synergy. PSO had their origins in computer simulations
of the coordinated motion in flocks of birds or schools of fish.
As these animals wander through a three dimensional space,
searching for food or evading predators, these algorithms
make use of particles moving in an n-dimensional space to
search for solutions for a variable function optimization
problem.
In PSO individuals are called particles and the population is
called a swarm [1]. PSO are inspired in the intelligent
behaviour of beings as part of an experience sharing
community as opposed to an isolated individual reactive
response to the environment
A. Training the BPN with PSO

A Neural Networks effectiveness is in its weights (assuming
the topology is correct) Other methods exist to train NNs, but
they can be slow and/or difficult to implement (GA,Simulated
Annealing. Every edge (or weight) in the network is an
element in our particle. The number of weights in the network
equalizes the number of dimensions of the particles in PSO.
The fitness value is how well the NN performs on the test
data. The algorithms is run for a given number of iterations or
until a minimum error is reached as follows:
1. Initialize a population size, positions and velocities of
agents, and the number of weights and biases.
2. The current best fitness achieved by particle p is set as
pbest. The pbest with best value is set as gbest and this value
is stored.
3. Evaluate the desired optimization fitness function fp for
each particle as the Mean Square Error (MSE) over a given
data set.
4. Compare the evaluated fitness value fp of each particle
withits pbest value. If fp < pbest then pbest = fp and
bestxp = xp, xp is the current coordinates of particle p, and
bestxp is thecoordinates corresponding to particle ps best
fitness so far.
5. The objective function value is calculated for new positions
of each particle. If a better position is achieved by an agent,
pbest value is replaced by the current value. if fp < gbest then
gbest = p, where gbest is the particle having the overall best
fitness over all particles in the swarm.
6. Change the velocity and location of the particle based on
random number assigned.
vid = vid + 1*rnd()*(pid-xid)
+
2*rnd()*(pgd-xid);
xid = xid + vid;
Where i is the particle,1,2 are learning rates

governing the cognition and social components
g represents the index of the particle with the best pfitness, and d is the dth dimension.
IV.
DECISION TREE
Decision tree induction is one of the simplest, and yet most
successful forms of learning algorithm. It serves as a good
introduction to the area of inductive learning, and is easy to
implement. A decision tree takes as input an object or
situation described by a set of attributes and returns a
decision-the predicted output value for the input. The input
attributes can be discrete or continuous. For now, we assume
discrete inputs. The output value can also be discrete or
continuous; learning a discrete-valued function is called
classification learning; learning a continuous function is called
regression.
A. Evaluation of Rule set
The constructed rule set is evaluated against the instance test
set. Each instance is sequentially tested with rules in the rule
set, until it matches one rule antecedent. The instance class is
then compared to the matching rule predicted class. When all
Page 96
instances have been tested, the reliability of the rule set is

computed regarding correctly classified instances and
presented in a percentage value.
CLASSIFY
MRI
CLASS I
CLASS II
4. Test the network

5.Train the same BPN network using PSO
6. Test the network
7.Compare the performance
8. Apply data mining algorithm to produce object association
rules from the weight vector of the trained Hybrid PSO based
BPN.
READ MRI IMAGE
PREPROCESSING
NORMAL
HIGLHLY
DEMENTED
LESS DEMENTED
Fig 2. Decision Tree for Mining

V. MRI DATASET
OASIS provides brain imaging data that are freely available
for distribution and data analysis. This data set consists of a
cross-sectional collection of 416 subjects covering the adult
life span aged 18 to 96 including individuals with early-stage
Alzheimers Disease (AD). For each subject, 3 or 4 individual
T1-weighted MRI scans obtained within a single imaging
session are included. The subjects are all right-handed and
include both men and women. 100 of the included subjects
over the age of 60 have been diagnosed with very mild to mild
AD. Additionally, for 20 of the non-demented subjects, images
from a subsequent scan session after a short delay (less than
90 days) are also included as a means of assessing acquisition
reliability in the proposed study.
FEATURE EXTRACTION
TRAINNG IN ANN
TESTING
CLASSIFY CC,VT,
EXTRACT RULES
Fig 2. System Overview
For each subject, a number of images are taken for analysis,

including:
1) images corresponding to multiple repetitions of the same
structural protocol within a single session to increase signalto-noise, 2) an average image that is a motion-corrected co
registered average of all available data, 3) a gain-field
corrected atlas-registered image to the 1988 atlas space of
Talairach and Tournoux (Buckner et al., 2004), 4) a masked
version of the atlas-registered image in which all non-brain
voxels have been assigned an intensity value of 0, and 5) a
gray/white/CSF segmented image (Zhang et al., 2001).
VI. HYBRID PSO BASED BPN
1. Feature extraction. Segment images into regions
identifiable by region descriptors This step is also called
segmentation.
a. extract cortex
b. extract hippocampus
c. ventricles
d. basal ganglia
2. Feature reduction by PCA
3. Train conventional BPN with features to generate desired
output
Fig 3. Brain MRI features

Initially
the
conventional
Particle
Swarm
Optimisation technique with 25 particles is used to train the
backpropagation algorithm. Although the convergence was
quick, performance improved further when the number of
particles is reduced to 10.
A. Training
Page 97
A multilayered back-propagation neural network was used

(37 inputs from each of the 150 adolescents, comprising the
input patterns, and the two binary outputs). The network was
exposed to the data, and the parameters (weights and biases)
were adjusted to minimize error, using a back-propagation

training algorithm.
. The input layer has 10 neurons, where each
neuron represents reduced pixel group.
The number of
neurons in the hidden layer is calculated based on the
following formula:
N3 =
((2/3)*(N1))+N2
Rules :
IF CC=+++ AND HIP=+++ AND
BG=+++ AND VT=++++
THEN DEMENTIA= HIGH
IF CC= +++ AND HIP=+ AND
BG=+ AND VT=+++
THEN DEMENTIA= MODERATE
N1 represents number of nodes in the input layer; N2

represents number of nodes in the output layer; N3
represents number of nodes in the hidden layer.
IF CC=+ AND HIP= -- AND

BG = -- AND VT=+
THEN DEMENTIA= MILD
B. Validation
IF CC= -- AND HIP= -- AND

BG = -- AND VT=-THEN DEMENTIA= NO
TABLE III
RESULTS OF CONVERGENCE
PSO-BPN
BPN
Iterati
ons
175
Iterati
ons
175
MRI
The ability of the neural network model (a 10 X 7 X 1

structure was used) to perform the classification was
examined by setting aside 20% of the patterns (or
observations) as validation (or testing) data. In this crossvalidation approach, the training involved repeatedly
exposing the network to the remaining 80% of the patterns
(training data) for several epochs, where an epoch is one
complete cycle through the network for all cases. (Data were
normalized before training.) A network trained in this
manner is considered generalizable, in the sense that it can
be used to make predictions.
VII. RESULTS
200
TABLE I
COMPARISON OF CONVERGENCE
225
575
BPN
Sensitivity %
85
HYBRID
PSOBPN
92
Accuracy %
83
90
Specificity %
87
93
CC- Cerebral cortex
HIP= Hippocampus
VT Ventricle
BG Basal Ganglia
+++ high increase ;+ less increase
-- no increase
275
300
175
200
TABLE 2
COMPARISON OF EFFICIENCY
MEASURE
250
NORMAL
ITERATIONS
>2000
800
CUSTOMISED
PSOBPN
95
96
97
HIGHLY DEMENTED
TECHNIQUE
BPN
BPN-PSO
WITH
25
PARTICLES
BPN
PSO
WITH
10
PARTICLES
225
250
275
300
GBest
0.247863299824
5176
0.247863290721
40684
0.247863290493
80179
0.247863290484
66602
0.247863290484
66071
0.247863290484
66071
0.247863299824
5176
200
0.247863290721
40684
0.247863290493
80179
0.247863290484
66602
0.247863290484
66071
0.247863290484
66071
200
225
250
275
300
175
225
250
275
300
MSE
0.003164
58/0
0.003122
28/0
0.003033
84/0
0.002969
5
0.002870
65
0.002763
27/0
0.003164
58/0
0.003122
28/0
0.003033
84/0
0.002969
5
0.002870
65
0.002763
27/0
Page 98
the weights of the BPN correlated with the diagnosis of the

experts.
All Data, Blue = known, Red = net

1
0.9
0.8
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0.7
0.6
out
0.5
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Fig. 3. Trained PSO-BPN
Fig 4. Converging speed of conventional BPN
HYBRID BPN VS BPN

35
30
TIME
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
10
NO. OF MRI IMAGES
Fig 5. Comparison of converging speed of Hybrid PSO-BPN and

conventional BPN
VII. CONCLUSION
The hybrid PSO based BPN effectively classifies the
brain MRI images of dementia patients. It appears to prove for
highly reliable for use by practitioners in the medical field.
Mining large database of images poses severe challenges.
However, the hybrid classifier is being offered s to overcome
difficulties in diagnosis and treatment. The rules mined from
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Page 100
GAP: Genetic Algorithm based Power Estimation

Technique for Behavioral Circuits
Johnpaul C. I1, Elson Paul2, Dr. K. Najeeb3
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Government Engineering College, Sreekrishnapuram
Palakkad, India-679517
1
ci.johnpaul@yahoo.com
elson_april88@yahoo.com
3
k.najeeb@gmail.com
Abstract The problem of peak power estimation in digital

circuits is essential for analyzing the reliability and performance
of circuits at extreme conditions. The power estimation problem
involves finding input vectors that cause maximum dynamic
power dissipation (maximum toggles) in circuits. In this paper,
an approach for power estimation for both combinational and
sequential circuits at behavioral level is presented. The basic
intuition behind the approach is to use the genetic algorithm
based approach to find the vector pairs for maximum toggling in
the circuit. Peak dynamic power consumption is strongly
dependent on the stream of inputs applied to the circuit. Without
any information about the input stream, it is impossible to
accurately estimate the power consumption of a design. Thus, for
a power estimation technique it is necessary to use
approximation methods. The proposed technique was employed
on the ISCAS'85, ISCAS'89 and ITC benchmark circuits.
Keywords CMOS circuits, power dissipation, power
estimation, automatic power vector generation, genetic
algorithms
VI.
INTRODUCTION
The high transistor density, together with the growing
importance of reliability as a design issue, has made early
estimation of worst case power dissipation (peak power
estimation) [1] in the design cycle of logic circuits an
important problem. High power dissipation may results in
decrease in performance or in extreme cases cause burn out
and damage to the circuit. The increased transistor density in
the processors can be well defined by Moore's law which
describes a long term trend in the computing hardware, in
which the number of transistors that can be placed
inexpensively on an integrated circuit has doubled
approximately in two years. Whenever technology advances
with new high performance processors, transistor density will
obey Moore's law. As more and more transistors are put on a
chip, the cost to make each transistor decreases, but the
chance that the chip will not work due to a defect increases.
Moreover due to the complexity of their operations their
interrelationship between the transistors increases. This will
increase the processor complexity both in its design and
complexity. In this context it is essential to formulate the
power estimation methods that will become more helpful in

the phase of designing complex digital circuits.
The power is an important factor in designing the circuits
[2]. In the case of processors containing billions and billions
of transistors, power dissipated is more. Hence power
management is essential in designing the circuits of a
processor to optimize its performance. As technology
advances, the bus width of transistor circuits evolves in the
order of 32nm, 22nm, 16nm, 11nm, the implementation of
power management techniques is a crucial part in the
production of complex hardware circuits. Moreover when the
bus width is reduced to 11nm range, the number of transistors
on a single die dramatically increases. Another impact due to
this phenomenon is that the clock frequency increases
exponentially with increase in the number of transistors.
Another dilemma due to increase in power is thermal run
away. The power in the circuit can be expressed in the form of
heat dissipated [3]. Due to increase in the heat, current in the
circuit increases which will further increase the heat. This will
cause destruction in the circuit. Parameter variations cause
many hurdles for the CPU designers. The most critical sources
of parameter variations are in process characteristics across
dies, supply voltage drop and temperature variation [4]. These
are generally known as PVT variations. Parameter variations
causes the worst case delay in flow of current and, hence
effects performance and power [5]. This will further increase
heat. In other words the peak power determines the thermal
and electrical limits of components and the system packaging
requirements [6].
The peak power consumption corresponds to the highest
switching activity generated in the circuit under the test during
one clock cycle [7]. The dynamic power dissipated in the
combinational portion of the sequential circuit [8] (PR ) can be
computed as shown in equation (1):
P R=
1
V 2DD f
2
[N
g C g
(1)
Page 101
where the summation is performed overall gates g, and

N(g) is the number of times gate g has switched from 0 to 1 or
vice versa within a given clock cycle, C(g) is the output
capacitance of gate g, VDD is the supply voltage and f is the
frequency of operation. In the proposed method the
assumption taken for power estimation is that the output
capacitance for each gate is equal to the number of fanouts.
Therefore, the total switching activity is the parameter that
needs to be maximized for maximum dynamic power
dissipation. Accurate estimation of maximum power
consumption involves finding a pair of input vectors which
when applied in sequence, maximize the value of PR given by
equation (1), among all possible input vector pairs.
power dissipation in the digital circuits. Rest of the paper is

organized as follows. Section 2 describes the related work
done in this field of power optimization. Section 3 describes
the frame work developed with genetic algorithm approach. It
includes algorithm used for optimization and toggle vector
generation. Section 4 includes the implementation details and
experimental results on ISCAS'85, ISCAS'89 and ITC
benchmark circuits. Section 5 concludes the whole work.
PREVIOUS WORK
There are different techniques that have been developed to
solve the problems related to peak power estimation. Each of
these methods have their own peculiarities and limitations.
Power estimation of digital circuits can be viewed under

various abstraction levels. By carefully analyzing complex
circuits under these abstractions [3], it will be more
convenient to determine the power dissipation in each stages.
The different abstraction levels includes system, behavioral,
RT level, gate level, circuit level and device level. Each of
these levels contains notable peculiarities of different
parameters which include estimation accuracy, speed,
estimation capacity, complexity, ease of abstraction etc. A
designer can choose any of these abstraction levels for
conducting a detailed study of power estimation in a
systematic pattern [7]. The figure 1 shows the complexity of
power estimation for different abstraction levels.
Fig. 2 Classification of Peak Dynamic Power Estimation

(PDPE) methods
The figure 2 shows different methods of peak dynamic power
estimation. The different models that are used for the power
estimation in circuits are SAT based approach, constraint
based approach, simulation based approach, ATPG based
approach, genetic algorithm based and macro-modeling.
Fig. 1 Power estimation vs. different abstraction levels

VII.
A. OUTLINE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THIS PAPER
This paper proposes a methodology for peak dynamic power

estimation in behavioral circuits using genetic algorithm [9].
The paper proposes the generation of an intermediate file from
Verilog input file which will finally fed into the proposed
algorithm for optimization process. This optimization process
is to obtain an optimized pair of input vectors that produce
maximum toggle in the corresponding circuits. This input
vectors can be otherwise called as Genetic Power Virus.
Power virus in the sense that it will result in the maximum
Recent advances in Boolean satisfiability (SAT) models [10]

and algorithms have made it tempting to use satisfiability
based techniques in solving various VLSI design related
problems such as verification and test generation [11]. Usually
SAT solvers are used to handle zero-one integer linear
programming problems [11]. The constraints are typically
expressed in conjunctive normal form (CNF) [12]. This
method works well for small and medium sized circuits. But
when the size of the circuit increases it will work slower.
Simulation based power estimation method can be applied
after completing the design of a circuit [13]. It provides an
accurate way to estimate power consumption of the design
because the power estimation based on the method which
reflects the actual design behavior. Since simulation happens
later in the design cycle, this power estimation is generally
used to verify the power consumption of a device on board.
This method is also used as a tool to estimate the power
Page 102
dissipation in the portions of a larger design when integrating

smaller designs into larger FPGAs. In the case of gate level
approach the simulation can be of the form that different gates
are simulated using the programming methods and the test
vectors are fed to the circuit as input to analyze the
functionality [14].
Automatic test pattern generation (ATPG) based techniques
try to generate an input vector pair that produces the largest
switched capacitance in the circuit [15]. The power
consumption by the vector pair is calculated by counting the
total number of circuit elements switched from one state to
another [14]. The ATPG based techniques are very efficient
and generate a tighter lower bound than that generated by
random vector generation. ATPG based techniques can handle
only simple delay models such as the zero-delay and unitdelay models [10].
Macro-modeling is a method of inclusion of large number of
desired properties into a model, there by the worst case
analysis of a complex system can be generated [16]. It can
also be used to analyze the possible outcomes form a model.
Several macro-modeling methodologies have been proposed
in the recent past. The majority of these approaches targets
specifically register-transfer level power estimation. The
fundamental requisites for a power macro-models are
evaluation efficiency and flexibility. In every macro-modeling
techniques evaluation efficiency is dictated by the need of
performing numerous power estimates while the synthesis tool
is used for evaluating design alternatives [16]. Flexibility is
imposed by the fact that the same macro can be instantiated in
completely different designs or operated under widely varying
conditions.
Genetic algorithm (GA) based approach of power estimation
is to determine the input vector pairs that can provide
maximum toggles in the digital circuits [9]. Different design
methodologies are considered in this approach. GA efficiently
produced promising results in circuit partitioning problem and
also the circuit element placement problem [9]. The prime aim
of GA is optimization of the results that causes power
dissipation and to find out the optimal pair of vectors that
produces the maximum toggles in digital circuits [2] [7]. GA
based approach is highly efficient in the design phase of
complex digital circuits such as processors, co-processors etc.
ALGORITHM FOR TOGGLE VECTOR GENERATION
A. PROBLEM DEFINITION
Given a description of circuit either in gate or behavioral
level abstraction. The problem is to find out an optimal input
test vector pairs v1 and v2 when applied in sequence, leads to
maximum switching activity in the circuit.
B. GENERATION OF INTERMEDIATE
FILE FROM VERILOG INPUT
The algorithm for the generation of intermediate file

from Verilog description described in algorithm 1. The
algorithm contains separate functions to isolate the input lines,
output lines, assign lines, wire lines from the Verilog file.
After the generation of corresponding arrays, the formatted
data in the arrays are used for generating the intermediate file.
For this, a function called tree() is used. The tree() function
will traverse the elements of the assign array and replaces the
various operations such as NEGATION, XOR, AND etc. to
numerical form. The conversion is on the basis that each
operations has given a specific number. The corresponding
output is written to an output file, which is further used in this
framework for the generation of test vectors.
Algorithm 1 (INTERMEDIATE FILE)
input: Verilog description of behavioral circuit.
output: Numerical representation.
assign: Assign statements.
queue: Enqueue the assignment statements in the order of
execution in the Verilog file.
repeat
Stmt= dequeue(Queue).
Tree(stmt).
Convert the statements to numerical representation.
until Queue= NULL
A typical module of the behavioral Verilog file is given
below. The algorithm for the generation of the intermediate
file scans the input in such a way that whenever it finds a
module call from the main module it will execute that module
functions and return to the main module. In this way the
modules are interconnected.
module PriorityA(E, A, PA, X11),
Input[8:0] E, A;
Output[8:0] X1;
Wire [8:0] Ab, EAb;
assign Ab = ~ A;
assign EAb = ~ (Ab & E);
assign PA = ~ EAb;
assign X1 = ~ EAb ^ (9(PA));
endmodule.
A behavioral level module of circuit 432b.v is shown
above. The algorithm 2 explains the procedure used by the
proposed approach. The core functions used in the approach
are crossover and mutation. These basic functions drive the
algorithm to produce the optimized results.
Algorithm 2 (GENETIC ALGORITHM)
Create initial population.
repeat
Select parent1 and parent2 from the population.
Offspring= crossover (parent1,parent2).
Page 103
are randomly complemented. Mutation may sometimes result

in the generation of vectors with better fitness value.
Mutation (offspring).
until Stopping criteria is reached.
C . EXPLANATION
OF GENETIC ALGORITHM FOR THE FRAMEWORK
Updation
Create Initial Population
A population of size P is generated randomly to create
the initial population. Here the population elements are the
strings of binary numbers containing zeros and ones which are
equal to the number of input lines in the circuit [9]. The size
of the population is to be large enough so that variance in the
strings can be easily formed. From this initial population
optimization process is performed for the production of the
toggle vectors.
Selection of parents
Each individual or a string has a fitness value, which is
a measure of quality of the solution represented by the
individual [18] [19]. The formula which is used to calculate
the fitness value of each individual
F i =T i
The creation of two offspring increases the size of the

population by two. Since it is necessary to maintain a constant
population size, two vectors will need to be eliminated from
the population [9]. For this elimination process fitness values
are used. In the population there are vectors with the lowest
fitness value. Two of such vectors are removed and the newly
generated offspring are added to the population.
Stopping Criteria
Stopping criteria uses a limit value W to determine when
the algorithm stops. If there is no improvement after W
generations, then the algorithm stops. No improvement means
that there are no changes in the maximum fitness value of the
population. The final solution is the individual with the
highest fitness value [9], [19].
T w T b
3
(2)
IMPLEMENTATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
where Fi represents the fitness value of the individual, Ti

represents the toggle count of individual i. Tw represents the
smallest toggle count in the population and Tb is the largest
toggle count in the population. The fitness values are used for
sorting the strings in the ascending order. From the middle of
the population size two individuals are selected for performing
crossover.
Crossover
After two parents are selected, crossover is performed on
the parents to create two offspring [9]. A string split point is
randomly selected, and is used to split each parent string into
two. The first offspring is created by concatenating the left
half of the first parent and the right half of the second parent,
while the second offspring is created by concatenating the left
half of the first parent and the complement of the right half of
the second parent.
Mutation
Mutation is the phenomenon that produces sudden change
in the bit sequence of each string [9]. The mutation operation
is performed on each string in such a way that a bit position is
selected randomly and that bit is complemented. Mutation can
be designed in another way that from the position say b bits
Fig. 3 Toggle vector generation

The implementation details can be visualized from figure 3.
The input to the test vector generator algorithm is in the form
of Verilog file. The genetic algorithm is applied over both gate
level circuits and behavioral level circuit. The proposed
intermediate file is generated from the Verilog input file. This
proposed intermediate file is the key file input to the GA. The
above mentioned intermediate file contains the information of
fanout and the output lines, input lines, wires etc. of circuit
elements. The intermediate file of behavioral level and gate
level circuits are entirely different from each other. A gatelevel intermediate file is shown in figure 3. The interpretation
Page 104
of this file is that the specific circuit described contains total

number of 1145 gates. Second line till end contains the
interconnection to different gates. The first number in each
line determines the type of the gate. A typical gate level
intermediate file is given below:
1145
2 333 45 -1
3 43 34 675 -1
7 23 56 763 -1
8 89 47 -1
2 44 231 673 89 -1
2 54 33 43 -1
2 22 66 332 90 -1
3 84 431 221 643 -1
7 432 123 243 745 -1
3 67 -1
2 87 336 89 -1
In the case of behavioral level intermediate file [20], it
contains the specific bit positions of each module and also the
total bit count in the output. Under genetic algorithm, various
operations of each module is simulated and record the changes
after a pair of input vector is fed into the genetic algorithm. By
calculating the number of bits changed due to the application
of second optimized input vector [11], toggle count is
obtained. Optimized in the sense that applying various steps of
the GA in a specified manner [11]. As toggle count is obtained
from this experiments, the power dissipation from each circuit
can be understood. From the different experiments conducted
on ISCAS'85, ISCAS'89 and ITC benchmark circuits, it can
infer that the toggle count in behavioral level circuit is better
promising result than the gate level [17].
31 135 36
3 1 70 56 -1 0 4 17
3 1 70 78 0 0 136 144 -1 0 70 78 -1 0 0 8
3 1 54 54 0 1 136 136 -1 0 79 87
2 0 46 44 -1 0 78 87 4 1 136 144 -1 0 54 54
3 1 88 96 -1 0 0 8
3 1 97 105 1 0 136 144 -1 0 88 96 -1 0 18 26
3 1 106 114 0 0 136 144 -1 0 36 44 -1 97 105
3 1 55 55 0 1 136 136 -1 0 106 114
2 0 45 53 -1 0 106 114 4 1 136 144 -1 0 55 55
3 1 88 96 -1 0 0 8
3 1 115 123 1 0 136 144 -1 0 88 96 -1 0 27 35
Toggling in the gate-level circuits are shown in the table I
contain
various
benchmark
circuits,
with
their
corresponding number of gates in the circuit. Genetic
algorithm is applied to all these circuits with a population size
P. The number of generations (iterations) is represented as W.
The number of gates in each circuit is also shown. The output
produced by the genetic algorithm will be the test vector pairs
that produces maximum toggling. The optimization of the test
vectors are done by the GA. The generation of test vector
pairs is shown in the figure below. The selection of the
optimal pair of vector pairs is based on the maximum toggle

count. The first two test vectors are the fittest solution that
produces the maximum toggling in a given circuit.
Since the maximum toggling is found out from this
experiments, the notion of maximum power dissipation can
also be known because they are directly proportional. Thus the
peak power can be estimated.
Fig. 4 Toggle vector generation

Circuit
No. of
gates
Toggle count
In lines
c17.v
10
100
c432.v
160
10
100
76
36
c7552.v
3513
10
100
1603
207
b01.v
70
10
100
37
b02.v
41
10
100
10
b03.v
312
10
100
96
b04.v
998
10
100
219
13
b05.v
1007
10
100
484
b06.v
73
10
100
37
b07.v
682
10
100
142
b08.v
261
10
100
109
11
b09.v
273
10
100
91
b10.v
288
10
100
103
13
b11.v
793
10
100
234
b11n.v
1145
10
100
284
b12.v
1084
10
100
537
b13.v
577
10
100
230
12
b14.v
6437
10
100
2398
34
b141.v
6934
10
100
2766
34
b15.v
12292
10
100
3649
38
b20.v
13980
10
100
5251
34
b211.v
14882
10
100
5646
34
b221.v
21671
10
100
7749
34
Page 105
boothG.v
1145
10
100
658
10
IdctG.v
7550
10
100
3086
41
TABLE I
TOGGLE COUNT OF GATE-LEVEL CIRCUITS
The results of toggling in behavioral circuits is also

represented as the number of bits toggled. The input vector
pair that produced maximum toggling is also calculated. In the
case of behavioral and gate level this input vector pair is in the
form of long sequences of binary strings which will be equal
to the number of input lines in gate level and it will be equal
to the number of bits in the input lines of behavioral circuits.
CIRCUIT
TOTAL BIT
TOGGLE
c432b.v
135
10
100
57
c74L85b.v
13
10
10
11
c74L81b.v
52
10
100
20
c6288.v
32
10
100
22
TABLE II
TOGGLE COUNT OF BEHAVIOR LEVEL CIRCUITS
Tables I and II show the experimental results conducted on

different ISCAS'85, ISCAS'89 and ITC benchmark circuits.
The programming language used for the implementation of
the proposed approach is C. It proved to be more flexible for
accessing hardware resources such as memory, file operations
etc. The intermediate file production is performed using
scripting language Perl. It is more convenient to use this
language in order to extract sufficient information from an
input file. The context of using this language is that the input
to the peak power estimation program [1] is a Verilog file.
Most of the cases the data extracted from the input file is with
the help of regular expressions.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
The proposed method of power estimation is a novel approach

in the field of power estimation. GA based power estimation
in digital circuits not only generates the required toggle
vectors but also optimizes it. Experimental results using the
ISCAS'85, ISCAS'89 and ITC benchmark circuits shows that
the proposed method could produce an optimized results on
behavioral circuits. The GA based power estimation can be
extended for power estimation in complex processors, for
analyzing their behavioral peculiarities. Future work shall
involve modification of this method for behavioral level
power estimation of many core architectures.
VIII.
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Page 107
Human Action Classification Using 3D Star

Skeletonization and RVM Classifier
Mrs. B. Yogameena#1, M. Archana*2, Dr. (Mrs) S. Raju Abhaikumar#3
#
Deptartment of Electronics and Communication, Affiliated to Anna University

Thiagarjar College of Engineering, Madurai 625015, Tamil Nadu, India.
1
ymece@tce.edu
rajuabhai@tce.edu

94/16, Irulandi st, Natraj nagar, Madurai 625016, Tamil Nadu, India.
2
archu_elen@yahoo.co.in
Abstract - This paper presents a real-time video surveillance

system which classifies normal and abnormal action in crowds.
Detection of individuals abnormal action has become a critical
problem in the events like terrorist attacks. The aim of this work
is to provide a system which can aid in monitoring human
actions, using 3D star skeleton technique, which is a suitable
skeletonization for human posture representation and it reflects
the 3D information of human posture. This 3D star skeleton
technique can offer more accurate skeleton of posture than the
existing star skeleton techniques as the 3D data of the object is
concerned. Using these 3D features as input to the Relevance
Vector Machine (RVM) classifier, the different human actions
from a stationary camera is classified as normal or abnormal for
a video surveillance application.
Keywords Video surveillance, Abnormal action, 3D star
skeletonization, Relevance Vector Machine.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Security of citizens in public places such as Hotels, Markets,
Airports and Train stations is increasingly becoming a crucial
issue. The fundamental problem in visual surveillance system
is detecting human presence, tracking human motion,
analysing the activity and asses abnormal situations
automatically. Based on this motivation, crowd modelling
technology has been under development to analyse the video
input which is constantly crowded with humans, as well as to
ready to act against abnormal activities emerge. The aim of
the paper is to classify human normal and abnormal actions in
crowds using 3D star skeletonization for a surveillance system
which is based on RVM.
Human action and posture recognition is a significant part on
human centred interface which is coming up to the resent
issues now-a-days. In posture recognition application, the
skeletal representation [1] captures the essential topology of
the underlying object in a compact form which is easy to
understand. There are three existing methods for skeletal
construction such as distance transformation [2]-[5], voronoi
diagram [6]-[8] and thinning [9]-[12]. These methods can
generate an accurate skeleton but are computationally
expensive and cannot be used in real time. To complement

these, a 2D star skeleton was proposed [13], [14], [15].
However it also has some limitations to describe the 3D
information of the posture. Hence the 3D star skeletonization
method is proposed for the feature extraction for the classifier.
Then the normal and abnormal human action is classified in
the real time surveillance applications to analyze the unusual
activity of an individual from the normal ones.
Many methods based on computer vision have been proposed
in the literature to classify peoples action earlier. Ardizzonee
et al. [16] has proposed a pose classification algorithm using
support vector machine to classify different poses of the
operator's arms as direction commands like turn-left, turnright, go-straight, and so on. In [17] the authors proposed a
method that describes a system which delivers robust
segmentation of the hands using a combination of colour and
motion analysis, and the implementation of a multi-class
classification of the hand gestures using a SVM ensemble.
Cipolla and Philip et al. [18] estimate the pose of an
articulated object from a single camera using relevance vector
machine. In [19] Hui-Cheng Lian et al. presented a novel
approach to multi-view gender classification considering both
shape and texture information to represent facial image and
the classification is performed using SVM. These papers dose
not concentrate on full body pose. Hence Relevance Vector
Machine is considered which utilizes only the relevance
vectors for the training [15].
In this paper, an improved 3D star skeleton [20] is proposed
which is based on the 3D information of the human posture
whose purpose is to recognize human action as normal or
abnormal. The 3D features are given as input to the Relevance
Vector Machine for classification of human action.
Experimental results demonstrate that the approach is robust
in classifying human abnormal action. The remainder of this
paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the
methodology. Section 3 describes the 3D star skeletonization.
Section 4 describes the RVM learning system for
classification. Section 5 describes the experimental results.
Finally, the conclusion is presented.
Page 108
Video Sequence
Background Subtraction
3D Star Skeletonization
Classification Using Relevance Vector Machine
Classified Poses
Fig 1: The block diagram of the Video Surveillance System
I.
METHODOLOGY
The overview of the system is shown in fig.1. In the
foreground detection stage, the blob detection system detects
the foreground pixels using a statistical background model.
Subsequently foreground pixels will be grouped into blobs.
The 3D star skeleton features are obtained for the foreground
image sequences. Using these features the Relevance Vector
Machine classification scheme classifies the given image
sequence into normal action or abnormal action sequence.
II.
BACKGROUND SUBTRACTION AND PROJECTION

In this work, background subtraction is accomplished in
real-time using the adaptive mixture of Gaussians method
proposed by Atev et al. [21]. There are some of the practical
issues concerning the use of the existing algorithm based on
mixtures of Gaussians for background segmentation in
outdoor scenes, including the choice of parameters [[22],
[15]]. The proposed system analyses the choice of different
parameter values and their performance impact is obtained to
get robust background model. In addition, the motivation for
dopting this method stems from its simplicity and efficiency in
meeting with sudden global illumination changes based on
the contrast changes over time.
Subsequently, the individual is to be identified for further
analysis leading to action classification. An extracted blob in a
frame, representing an individual is subjected to action
analysis described in subsequent sections. If there exists more
than one blob, but with connectivity, there is likelihood to be
considered as single entity. This results in the identification of
a group as individual. This makes recognition of
individuals action in a crowd more difficult. Therefore, a
geometric projection on the blob is proposed to separate an
individual from the group for analysing his or her actions. The
blob is projected to head and ground plane from the camera
view point leading to intersected area in world coordinates.
Such projection shown in Figure 2 eliminates the variation of
area with the distance from the camera so that it identifies
only humans [15]. The success of human identification lies on
segmentation of individual human in a given frame as a single
blob. However, there is a chance of multiple blobs
representing an individual human due to over segmentation.
But, since the projection of a blob is accomplished from head

plane to ground plane, any discontinuity in a blob representing
an individual is achieved by linking discontinuous blobs
covered by bounding rectangle.
III.
3D STAR SKELETONIZATION
Star skeleton, which is a star fashion, is a kind of
representative features to describe a human action. 3D star
skeleton technique extracts the 3D information of the image
sequence. It is simple, real-time and robust technique. There
are 4 steps involved id 3D star skeletonization as described
below.
A.
Projection Map Generation
The definition of a projection map is to project the 3D world
onto the 2D image plane orthographically. A pixel value on
the projection map generally contains 3D information of the
target object, such as nearest boundary, furthest boundary and
the thickness of the object.To generate the projection map, and
initially the 8 projection plane is created. Then a virtual
camera is set to the projection plane and perpendicular vectors
are drawn along the viewing direction. These hit points along
the viewing direction are obtained and is saved in a buffer.
From this the maximum hit points are obtained. The depth
information of the human posture is obtained from these
projection maps.
The 8 projection map is used as the input to construct the 3D
star skeleton. Each of the projection map used has a different
silhouette of human action according to where the projection
map is generated and each pixel value means a distance from
view point to a voxel of model surface, depth information.
Through these properties star skeleton can diminish the loss of
3D human posture information.
B.
Candidate Extraction
Candidate extraction means detection of gross extremities of
posture in the projection map. The extremities of boundary in
the projection map are called the candidate. Candidate is
likely to be the final extremity of 3D star skeleton as a feature.
As the existing star-skeleton is generated by the extremities
which are from 2D boundary points, there are some
limitations to describe a 3D human posture. To overcome
these limitations, the 3D information losses of human posture
is reduced by using the 3D boundary, in which depth, and x, y
co-ordinates data of the posture in the projection map are
included.Candidates are found from the distance from each
boundary trace in clockwise or counter-clockwise order. The
distance function has noise component of the boundary, which
can be reduced by the noise reduction process executed using
smoothing filters. Consequently, candidates are detected by
finding zero crossings in the smoothed distance function.
Page 109
1)
Candidate Extraction Process

Boundary of posture in the projection map is given as input
to the candidate extraction system. The centroid of the
candidate of the posture boundary in a projection map (xc, yc,
zc) are extracted using the following expressions.
xc =
1 N
xi
N j =1
1
Nb
(2)
Nb
z
i =1
M rotation
( xi xc ) + ( yi yc ) + ( zi zc )
2
(4)
Then the distance function is declared as a one dimensional

discrete function as d(i)=di. But this distance function is
corrupted by noise of the boundary. This noise is reduced by a
smoothing filter. The smoothed distance function is
.
C. dCoordinate
Transformation
(i )
In transformation phase, the candidates of each projection map
are transformed into one particular coordinate. This is done
because the coordinate systems of the extracted candidates are
not identical. All candidates exist in their own projection map
coordinate system. To construct 3D star skeleton, the
candidates should be in the same coordinate.
To transform all candidates into one particular coordinate, 3
phases are done: reflection, translation, rotation process.
Reflection is to fit the two opposite projection map
coordinates to one coordinate. The applied reflection matrix
is,
M reflection
0
=
0
0 0
w
1 0
0
0 1 255
0 0
1
(5)
Where, w is the width of projection map and maximum

values of z in the projection map is 255. To rotate the
candidates to one particular coordinate, the axis of all
candidates should be translated to one identical axis, which is
0
=
0
w
2
1 0
0
256
0 1
2
0 0
1
0
(6)
The rotation of the 4 couples of projection map coordinates,

which are fitted at reflection process, into one particular
coordinate is performed by the process of rotation. The
rotation matrix is given as,
(3)
Where, Nb is the number of boundary points. (xi, yi, zi) is a

boundary point of the projection map. The distance di from
each boundary point (xi, yi, zi) to the centroid (xc, yc, zc) is
obtained using,
di =
M translation
(1)
1 N
yc = yi
N j =1
zc =
performed by the translation process. Translation matrix

performs the axis shift operation which is given by,
cos
0
=
sin
0 sin
1
0
0 cos
0
0
0
0
(7)
Where,
is the variable which is changed according to the
projection map.
D. Clustering Candidates and 3D Star Skeleton Construction
To determine the extremities as features of the 3D star
skeleton, the transformed candidates should be classified.
After transformation process the transformed candidates are
scattered in one particular coordinate indicating the some part
of posture locates near others generated from the same part,
not exist at one specific position together due to the thickness
of human body. Hence, all the candidates are to be classified
into several groups. The mean of each cluster becomes the
extremities of star skeleton. K mean clustering algorithm is
used to classify the candidates. According to which the
candidates are divided into k groups, defining K as 5. The
centroid is the average of centroids on all the projection maps.
Finally, the 3D star skeleton is constructed by connecting the
extremities with the centroid. The features of 3D star skeleton
are generated by calculating the distance from extremities to
the centroid of 3D star skeleton.
In some cases the candidates might not locate at the landmark
points, such as feet or hands. For example, one knee point can
screw up the foot canter if it is included in that cluster leading
to error in clustering process. Hence K-Mean Clustering
Algorithm is modified for fitting to the proposed method. To
reduce the error candidates, noises are filtered from the cluster
by using standard deviation. After clustering process, if some
candidate is far from the mean of its cluster, it is removed and
the mean of that cluster is recalculated. Thus the 3D star
skeleton is constructed.
IV. RELEVANCE VECTOR MACHINE
Action classification is a key process for analyzing the human
action. Computer vision techniques are helpful in automating
this process, but cluttered environments and consequent
Page 110
occlusions often makes this task difficult [24]. There are

numerous methods for incremental model based pose
estimation where a model of an articulated structure (person)
is specified [25]-[26]. Many types of neural networks are used
for a binary classification problem like individuals activity
classification as normal or abnormal. By training the systems,
the difference between normal and abnormal human actions,
the computational action models built inside the trained
machines can automatically identify whether the action is
normal or abnormal. The action classification system
proposed in this paper is trained for both normal and abnormal
actions so that testing becomes a two class hypothesis
problem. SVM is classical training algorithm because it has
stronger theory-interpretation and better generalization than
the other neural networks mentioned earlier. The decision
function of the SVM classification system cannot be much
sparser i.e., the number of support vectors can be much larger.
This problem can be partially overcome by the state of the art
model RVM.
The proposed Relevance Vector Machine (RVM)
classification technique has been applied in many different
areas of pattern recognition, including functional neuro
images analysis [27], facial expressions recognition [28] and
pose estimation [29]. The RVM is a Bayesian regression
framework, in which the weights of each input vector are
governed by a set of hyper parameters. These hyper
parameters describe the posterior distribution of the weights
and are estimated iteratively during training. Most hyper
parameters approach infinity, causing the posterior
distributions of the corresponding weights to zero. The
remaining vectors with non-zero weights are called relevance
vectors. RVM does not need the tuning of a regularization
parameter and also the inversion of a large matrix is not
required during the training phase. This makes this
methodology appropriate for large datasets. In this paper,
Relevance Vector Machine technique is used for the
classification of human action such as normal or abnormal.
A.
Classification of poses using multi-class Relevance
Vector Machine
The extracted 3D features are inputted to Relevance Vector
machine for learning to classify poses. In our framework, we
are focused our attention on the pose of the whole human
body. This kind of gestures can be described very well
through the analysis of the body contour. Moreover, to
provide a detailed description of a shape, one has to take into
account the whole body contour. The image features were
shape-contexts descriptors of silhouette points and pose
estimation was formulated as a one-to-one mapping from the
feature space to pose space, as shown in Fig.4. The pose of an
articulated object, a full human body, is represented by a
parameter vector x given in eqn (8)
X = wk ( z ) + K
w - is the weight of the basis function

(z) - is the vector of the basis function
k
- is the Gaussian noise vector

In order to learn about the multiple RVM technique an
expectation maximization algorithm has been adopted. It is
used to minimize the cost function of the multiple RVM
regression shown in (9)
( )
Lk = C k( n ) Yk( n )
( )
S k Yk( n )
(9)
( )
Yk( n ) = x( n ) wk Z ( n )
Here, Y
(n)
(10)
-is the output with n sample points belongs to the
mapping function k.
k
W - is the weight of the basis function.

(n)
(z ) is the design matrix of vector of the basis

function.
k
S is the diagonal covariance matrix of the basis

function.
C
(n)
- is the probability that the sample point n belongs
to the mapping function k.

V.
RESULTS and DISCUSSION:
The efficiency of the proposed algorithm has been evaluated
by carrying out extensive work on the simulation of the
algorithm using Matlab7.9. The proposed method process
about 24 frames of any size each on PC with AVI file format.
The Weizmann dataset for walking, running, bending and
jumping are taken and CAVIAR dataset for a person lifting
his hand is taken. In order to test for complexity, IBM dataset
having multiple people walking and CMU database containing
two persons fighting with each other in one sequence and a
person pulling the hands of the other person in one sequence
are taken.
The video sequence is converted into frames and the
foreground frames are obtained using GMM. As mentioned in
Table.1. Dataset DS I, has a person bending down along with
two other foreground blobs is detected. In DS II, there are
multiple people with two groups, one group of people in the
cameras viewpoint and the other group of people away from
cameras viewpoint. Hence the people away from cameras
viewpoint are easily identified as individuals and the
remaining as group. In DS III five foreground blobs are
obtained including the running persons blob. In all the three
DS the car is considered to be a static background.
(8)
Where, x is the input for the system
Page 111
TABLE 1: DATASETS FROM DIFFERENT OUTDOOR SEQUENCES

Data set
College Campus
Benchmark
Dataset
IBM
Dataset
Weizmann
Dataset
CMU
Dataset
CAVIAR
Indoor/outdoor
Sequence Length
Frame Size
Indoor/outdoor
1628
240X320
Indoor/outdoor
864
240X320
Running human in a group-DS-III
outdoor
1320
240X320
A person carrying a bar in a group

DS- IV
Two persons Walking
outdoor
920
240X320
Indoor
781
240X320
Eli-Walk
Outdoor
645
240X320
Eli-Run
Outdoor
712
240X320
Moshe-Bend
Outdoor
786
240X320
Eli-Jump
Outdoor
855
240X320
Indoor
1234
240X320
An individual bends down while most of

walking-DS-I(DS represents Data Set)
A person waving hand in a group-DS-II
Person A fights with person B

Person A pulls the person B
Indoor
1065
240X320
An individual with his hand lifted up
Indoor
1187
240X320
Then the 3D star skeleton obtained for the different datasets

using the projection map system. For the individual blob like
walking, running and jumping the skeletal features are
obtained even more clearly than the 2D star skeleton. For the
bending action DS I, the skeleton features vary from the
Weizmann dataset in 2D star skeleton. In the Weizmann
dataset the skeleton points were depicted as a short human
walking, were as it is a skeleton of a man bending. This
problem is overcome in 3D star skeletonization. The bending
person is identified correctly. In 2D skeleton of the CMU
fighting datasets the person who holds the stool is
skeletonised including the stool. But in 3D star
skeletonization the stool is identified separately from the
person holding it. Similarly for the CMU pulling dataset also
the skeleton features are obtained clearly for the two
individuals than the 2D star skeleton. Finally, the skeleton
features are fed to the Relevance Vector Machine to classify
the abnormal action from the normal action which is
indicated in red color as shown in Figure (2.a.), Figure (2.b.)
& Figure (2.c.) and also for benchmark datasets as shown in
Figure (4).
a)One person bending down
b) One person waving hand
c) One person running in the crowd and another

person half bending
Fig.2. Results of classified abnormal actions for College Campus dataset
Relevance Vector Machine uses suitable kernel for the task of

classification. Gaussian kernels are used in this proposed
method. A ten-fold cross validation (CV) has been applied in
the training dataset, to determine the fine-tuning parameters
of the RVM classifier model for optimal performance. For
each dataset, 80% of the sequence has been used for training
and the remaining 20% for testing. A best error level of
6.89% is obtained by using the Gaussian Kernel. Gaussian
Kernel is the best with around 100% for training, 94% for CV
and 96% for testing the given feature vectors. The error rate
of the Gaussian Kernel is lower than that of other kernels in
terms of classification rate. The results of RVM classification
is shown in table.2.
Page 112
TABLE 2: THE RESULTS OF RVM CLASSIFICATION

Actions
Normal
Abnormal
Benchmark
Datasets
Running
Carrying
Bar
Bending
Waving
hand
IBM
Eli-Walk
Eli-Run
MosheBend
Eli-Jump
CMU1
CMU2
CAVIAR
Vectors
RVM
Multi class RVM with
skeleton Points
11
18
23
12
16
12
15
18
20
16
19
14
12
and false negative. Higher error level generally leads to poor

classification of actions. From Figure (3) it is inferred that, as
the number of iterations increases the better convergence of
relevance vector is achieved for the experimental database.
When the 2D star skeleton features were inputted to the RVM
classifier the abnormal actions except the Weizmann bending
and CMU pulling were classified. Weizmann bending was
classified as normal action and in CMU pulling dataset both
individuals were considered as walking. But this is overcome
by using 3D star skeleton features as input to the RVM
classifier. The Weizmann bending and CMU pulling datasets
are classified as abnormal actions as shown in Figure (4).
VI.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, a novel and real-time video surveillance system
for classifying human normal and abnormal action is
described. Initially, the foreground blobs are detected using
adaptive mixtures of Gaussians which is robust to
illumination changes and shadows. Then the projection map
system is generated to get the 3D information of the object in
the foreground image. Then the 3D star skeleton features are
extracted. These features reduce the training time and also
improve the classification accuracy. The features are then
learnt though a relevance vector machine to classify the
individuals actions into normal and abnormal behaviour. The
number of relevance vectors obtained is less and it does not
require the tuning of a regularization parameter during the
training phase. The error rate is also reduced by selecting the
appropriate Gaussian kernel which also reduces the
computational complexity. The distict contribution of this
proposed work is to classify the actions of individuals. The
proposed system is able to detect abnormal actions of
individuals such as running, bending down, waving hand
while others walk, and people fighting with each other with
high accuracy.
Fig 3: Relevance vector obtained after training input feature vectors
The percentage of error level considered for both training and

testing sequences of the dataset are in terms of true positive
Page 113
Dataset
Original Frame
Background
Subtracted
Image
Skeleton
Image
Classified Image
IBM dataset
Weizmann
dataset
Eli-Walking
Eli-Running
MosheBending
EliJumping
CMU
Fighting
CMU
Pulling
CAVIAR
Fig 4: Results for benchmark datasets
Page 114
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We sincerely thank our management and our respectful
principal for providing us with all the facilities we required for
carrying on our research. We also thank them for their support
and encouragement in all aspects for our research.
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Page 115
Relevance Vector Machine Based Gender

Classification using Gait Appearance Features
Mrs. B. Yogameena#1, M. Archana*2, Dr. (Mrs) S. Raju Abhaikumar#3
#

Thiagarjar College of Engineering, Madurai 625015, Tamil Nadu, India.
1
ymece@tce.edu
rajuabhai@tce.edu

94/16, Irulandi st, Natraj nagar, Madurai 625016, Tamil Nadu, India.
2
archu_elen@yahoo.co.in
Abstract - Automatic gait recognition is important task in

security surveillance, biomechanics, purloining behaviors and
biometrics. The background subtraction for detecting
foreground information, the reliable extraction of characteristic
gait features from image sequences and their classification are
three important issues in gait recognition. The person has to be
found in the image plane first, using robust background
subtraction by modifying the parameters in Gaussian Mixture
Model (GMM), assuming a static camera.This paper describes
the representation of consistent gait appearance features and
Relevance Vector Machine (RVM) based gender classification.
Experimental results on benchmark datasets demonstrate the
proposed gender classification method is robust and efficient. A
comparative study between RVM based classification and
Support Vector Machine (SVM) based classification is also
presented.
Keywords - Gait recognition, Relevance Vector Machine,
appearance features, background subtraction
I.
INTRODUCTION
Automatic visual surveillance systems could play an
important role in supporting and eventually replacing human
observers. To become practical, this system needs to
distinguish people from other objects and to recognize
individual persons with a sufficient degree of reliability,
depending on the specific application and security level.
These applications required the task of estimating the gait and
automatically recognising the gender for high level analysis.
The first step in the automatic gender classification system is
background subtraction. Piccardi et al. have reviewed a
number of background subtraction approaches [1]. Wren et
al. [2] have proposed a statistical method, in which a single
Gaussian function was used to model the distribution of
background. Later Mittal et al. have proposed a novel kernel
based multivariate density estimation technique that adapts
the bandwidth according to the uncertainties [3].Yet there are
issues like the robustness to illumination changes, the
effectiveness in suppressing shadows and the smoothness of
foregrounds boundary which need to be addressed in indoor
and outdoor environments [4].
There have been a number of appearance-based algorithms

for gait and activity recognition. Cutler and Davis [5] used
self-correlation of moving foreground objects to distinguish
walking humans from other moving objects such as cars. D.F.
Llorca et al., [6] proposed a method that describes a system
which delivers robust segmentation of the hands using a
combination of color and motion analysis, and the
implementation of a multi-class classification of the hand
gestures using a SVM ensemble. Cipolla and Philip have
been estimated the walking nature of an individual of an
articulated object from a single camera using relevance vector
machine [7]. In [8] Hui-Cheng Lian et al., presented a novel
approach to multi-view gender classification considering both
shape and texture information to represent facial image and
the classification is performed using SVM. Nixon, et al., [10]
used principal component analysis of images of a walking
person to identify the walker by gait. Shutler, et al., [11] used
higher-order moments summed over successive images of a
walking sequence as features in the task of identifying
persons by their gait. Johnson and Bobick [12] utilized static
parameters of the walking figure, such as height and stride
length, to identify individuals. However it has been reported
that the feature extraction is an important issue for
classification algorithm [9]. The consistency of the number of
features for a machine learning classification algorithm also
plays a vital role in gender classification.
There are many types of neural networks that can be used for
a binary classification problem, such as Support Vector
Machines, Radial Basis Function Networks, Nearest
Neighbor Algorithm, and Fisher Linear Discriminant and so
on. Machine learning techniques can be considered as linear
methods in a high dimensional feature space nonlinearly
related to the input space. Using appropriate kernel functions,
it is possible to compute the separating hyper plane which
classifies the two classes. An automated system based on
SVM classifier that classifies gender by utilizing a set of
human gait data has been described by Yoo et al. [9]. The
decision function of the SVM classification system can not be
much sparser i.e., the number of support vectors can be much
larger. SVM need the tuning of a regularization parameter
Page 116
during the training phase. Consequently a machine learning

technique which minimizes the number of active kernel
functions to reduce computation time is required ([18]-[20]).
The objective of this paper is to classify gender using
appropriate features and classification technique to improve
the classification accuracy. Hence a novel system is proposed
to classify the gender. First the foreground blobs are detected
using a background subtraction technique which is to be
robust to illumination changes and shadows. Then
appropriate features and RVM are used to classify the gender
and thereby reducing the computational complexity by
selecting an appropriate kernel also by improving the
classification accuracy. Experimental results demonstrated
that the proposed approach is robust in classifying gender.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2
describes the methodology. Section 3 describes background
subtraction, section 4 presents the formulation of centroid,
section 5 represents the elliptical view of body posture,
section 6 presents the extraction of feature and section 7
depicts the experimental results and the classification of
gender using the Relevance Vector Machine extraction
method. Finally, the conclusion is presented.
II.
METHODOLOGY
Figure 1 shows an outline of the proposed system. Each
image from the camera is forwarded to the pre-processing
module where the background subtracted image sequences
are obtained. Then consistent features have been selected
using silhouette segmentation and ellipse fitting. Finally, the
Relevance Vector Machine classification scheme classifies
the gender as male or female for the given image sequence.
III.BACKGROUND SUBTRACTION
The first stage of video surveillance systems seeks
background to automatically identify people, objects, or
events of interest in various changing environments. The
difficult part of background subtraction is not the differencing
itself, but maintenance of a background model and its
associated statistics. In this work, background substraction is
accomplished in real-time using the adaptive mixture of
Gaussians method proposed by Atev et al [22]. There are
some of the practical issues concerning the use of the existing
algorithm based on mixtures of Gaussians for background
segmentation in outdoor scenes, including the choice of
parameters [23]. The proposed system analyses the choice of
different parameter values and their performance impact are
obtained to get robust background model. In addition to that,
the notion for adapting this method is because of its
simplicity and also an efficient method for coping with
sudden global illumination changes based on the contrast
changes over time.
It describes K Gaussian distributions to model the surface
reflectance value and is represented by eqn (1).
k
P ( X t ) = i ,t * ( X t , i ,t , i, t )
Where
K is the number of distributions,
i,t is an estimate of the weight of the ith Gaussian,

is the mean,
i, t
is the covariance matrix of the ith Gaussian, and
is a Gaussian probability density function.

where,
(X , , i,t) =
t i,t
Background subtraction
Silhouette segmentation
using centroid
Ellipse Fitting
. (1)
i =1
1
n
1
(2) 2 || 2
1 (Xt t )T 1(Xt t )
l 2
..... (2)
Assume the covariance matrix is of the form
= k2 I
(3)
This means that the red, green and blue reflectance

components of the surface are independent and have the same
variances, which can reduce costly matrix computation.
The weight
is adjusted as shown in eqn (4)
t =(1 ) t 1 + ( M t )
i, t
Feature Extraction
.
Classification using RVM

III.
(4)
Where
is the learning rate and
M t is 1 for the model which is matched and 0 for others.

After ordering the Gaussians, the first B distributions are
chosen as the background model as shown in eqn (5)
Classified Gender
Page 117
B = arg min b ( k T )
.. (5)
k =1
Where,
T is a measure of minimum models for background. The
background subtracted image obtained using adaptive GMM
is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig.2.An example of the background subtracted image of weizmann dataset
IV. CENTROID
For each silhouette of a gait, the centroid (xc, yc) is
determined by using the following eqns (6 ),(7) and is shown
in Fig 3.
xc =
1
N
x
j =1
1
yc =
N
.. (6)
i
N
y
j =1
.. (7)
Where (xc, yc) represent the average contour pixel position,

(xi, yi) represent the points on the human blob contour and
there are a total of N number of points on the contour [16].
The frontal-parallel view of the silhouette is divided into the

front and back sections (except for the head region) by a
vertical line at the silhouette centroid. The parts above and
below the centroid are each equally divided in the horizontal
direction, resulting in 7 regions that roughly correspond to:
head/shoulder region, front of torso, back of torso, front
thigh; back thigh, front calf/foot, and back calf/foot [12].
These seven regions are chosen to be very easy to compute in
contrast to methods that locate the joints and segment the
body at those joints. These regions are by no means meant to
segment the body parts precisely.
V. ELLIPTICAL VIEW
After getting the centroid of the full body region and the
seven segments of a silhouette, for each of the 7 regions, an
ellipse is fitted to the portion of foreground object visible in
that region as shown in Figure 5. The fitting of an ellipse to
an image region involves computing the mean and the
covariance matrix for the foreground pixels in the region. Let
I(x, y) be the binary foreground image of a region to which
the ellipse is to be fitted [17]. Assume that the foreground
pixels are 1 and the background pixels are 0, then the centroid
of the region, is calculated using the following relations,
1
I ( x, y ) x
N x, y
1
y = I ( x, y ) y
N x, y
x=
.. (8)
. (9)
where N is the total number of foreground pixels:
N = I ( x, y )
......... (10)
x, y
The covariance matrix of the foreground region is then

obtained by,
Fig.3.An example figure for pointing the centroid of an weizmann dataset
Then the silhouette is proportionally divided into 7 parts as

shown in Fig 4.
( x x ) 2
( x x)( y y )
a c 1
b b = N . I ( x, y ).
2
x, y
( x x)( y y ) ( y y )
............(11)
The covariance matrix can be decomposed into eigenvalues 1, 2
and eigenvectors v1, v2 which indicate the length and orientation of
the major and minor axes of the ellipse which is obtained by eqn
(12).
1 0
a c
c b [v1 v 2 ]= [v1 v 2 ] 0
. (12)
Fig 4: An example figure for the segmented silhouette image of Weizmann

dataset
Page 118
The elongation of the ellipse, l, is given by
l=
1
2
. (13)
and the orientation of the major axis is given by the

following relation
v .x
= angle (v1 ) = arccos 1
v1
Frame 113
Frame 125
Frame 145
.. (14)
where x is the unit vector [1, 0].
Frame 124
Frame 132
Frame 129
Fig.6: Human gait image from Weizmann dataset
Fig 5: An elliptical view for the segmented silhouette image of Weizmann

dataset
I. FEATURE EXTRACTION
After calculating the orientation and elongation of the human
walking figure, an ellipse is fitted according to the features
extracted from each frame of a walking sequence consists of
features from each of the 7 regions. They are the relative
height of the centroid of the whole body [12], for his or her
body length which is taken as a single feature and then the
four ellipse parameter consist of the x, y coordinates of the
centroid, the orientation, and the elongation, which
correspond to head region, chest, back, centroid of the head,
orientation of the head, and finally, the mean and variance of
the back calf. These six features constitute about the
appearance of the gait and are shown in Table I.
In this proposed method, there are about six different image

sequences of walking of both genders in an outdoor
environment are taken from Weizmann dataset [16] for the
classification of the gender using machine learning technique
by analyzing their gait as shown in Figure 6.For this
experimentation, there are about five subjects are walking in
an outdoor environment consisting of three men and two
women taken from weizmann dataset [15]. Totally six
datasets have been taken for the classification of the gender
by analyzing their gait as shown in fig (6). The detection of
the moving objects from the foreground region, the
background subtracted images are shown in fig (7). As shown
in fig (3), the centroid has been taken for all the frames and
the ellipse is fitted for each frame as shown in fig (4). Using
the above information, the features which are used to classify
the subject as a men or women are given as follows: front
calf, back, head (centroid and orientation), mean and standard
deviation of the back calf. Then these feature vectors are
given for training and testing of the relevance vector machine.
Instead of using the twenty nine features, these primary six features
are used for the gender classification.
II. CLASSIFICATION OF GENDER USING

RELEVANCE VECTOR MACHINE
In recent years, machine learning methods have become
prevalent to examine the pattern of structural data. Kernel
methods such as Support Vector Machines (SVM) are widely
used to classify the poses of faces, hands, different human
body parts and Robots. Relevance Vector Machine Yields a
formulation similar to that of a Support Vector Machine and
it also uses hyper parameters instead of Margin/Costs. The
RVM is a Bayesian regression framework, in which the
weights of each input example are governed by a set of hyper
parameters [18]. These hyper parameters describe the
posterior distribution of the weights and are estimated
iteratively during training. Most hyper parameters approach
infinity, causing the posterior distributions of the effectively
setting the corresponding weights to zero. The remaining
vectors with non-zero weights are called relevance vectors. It
reduces the inappropriate parameters for the classification
than SVM [[6], [17]].
In this framework, the attention is focused to the nature of the
gait of a human to classify the subject as a man or woman.
Page 119
TABLE. I .TYPES OF FEATURES

S.NO
REGION
front calf
FEATURES
mean of orientation
2
3
Back
Head
4
5
Head
back calf
mean of orientation
mean of x coordinate of
centroid
mean of orientation
std of x of centroid
back calf
mean of x of centroid
x = Wk (z) +
. (15)
Where,
x is the input for the system
Wk - is the weight of the basis function
(z) - is the vector of the basis function
k - is the Gaussian noise vector
It is used to minimize the cost function of the RVM
regression using eqn (16)
( )
( )
LK = C K( n ) y k(n ) S k y k(n )
T
where,
(n )
. (16)
( )
y k = x (n ) W K Z (n )
(17)
Where,
yk(n)-is the output with n sample points belongs to the mapping
function k.
(z(n)) is the design matrix of vector of the basis function.
Sk is the diagonal covariance matrix of the basis function.
Ck(n) - is the probability that the sample point n belongs to the
mapping function k.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF RVM

CLASSIFICATION
The efficiency of the algorithm proposed has been evaluated
by carrying out extensive works on the simulation of the
algorithm .In this paper the video file used is Weizmann
dataset [21]. The proposed method processes about 24 frames
per second and the total number of frames is up to 460 at size
of 240x320 each.
Frame 113
Frame125
Frame 145
features and are given as input for the RVM for the gender
classification. The classification accuracy is measured with
two types of kernels in this proposed method. The two types
of feature vectors of each subject are used for testing, training
and cross validation (CV) for both SVM and RVM. The
experimental results are summarised in Table II. The
accuracy is the average by the number of SVs, RVs, and
classification rate. The test result of 6 selected features is a
little higher than that of 29 original features. Also the
numbers of relevant vectors are smaller when compared to
the support vectors. The average accuracy of linear kernel
was the best with around 100.0% for training, 94.0% for CV
and 96.0% for testing in the 6 features. The error rate of the
linear kernel was lower than that of other kernels in terms of
classification rate and computational cost.
The Fig.8 shows the initial stage of the training. The Fig. 9
show the result after the fifth iteration. It is to be noted that
the 3 colors (Indigo, red and yellow) represents the gender as
a male and the remaining 3 colors (Blue, pink and green)
indicates the gender as a female by setting the threshold
value. The color dots in the figure denote the relevance
vectors of the corresponding dataset which is obtained after
the fifth iteration. The maximum number of iterations used
here is ten. Figure.10 shows the comparative representation
of SVM and RVM vectors, for the gender classification. The
vectors used for gender classification is reduced for RVM
than in SVM. From the fig 10, the results for the benchmark
datasets have been shown with the corresponding step by step
procedure as explained by the proposed method. Finally the
classified image is obtained as, the male sequences are
identified through the green color rectangular bounding box
and the female sequences a recognized through the red color
bounding box.
Output (Z+ weight)
These kinds of gestures can be described very well through

the analysis of the gait. Moreover, to provide a detailed
description of a shape, one has to take into account the gait.
The walking pose of an articulated object, gait is represented
by a parameter vector x and is given in eqn (15)
Input feature vector (Z)

Fig.8.Initial Stage
Frame 124
Frame 132
Frame 129
Fig.7. background subtracted image of the weizmann dataset
The background subtracted images using GMM are shown in

Fig 7. After background subtraction, the centroid is obtained
and the silhouette is segmented into seven regions. Then
ellipse is fitted for each segment and is shown in Figures (35). Then six primary features are extracted from the total 29
Page 120
Output (Z+ weight)
Input feature vector (Z)

Fig.9.Result for Classification
XI. CONCLUSION
This paper has introduced the framework of relevance vector
machine to classify the gender for the application of video
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We sincerely thank our management and our respectful
principal for providing us with all the facilities we required
for carrying on our research. We also thank them for their
support and encouragement in all aspects for our research.
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Lily Lee, Gait analysis for classification AI Technical Report
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Page 121
TABLE II EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR CLASSIFICATION

Kernel
No. Of
SV
Classification Rate(%)
features
Training
SVM
Guassian
29
78
54
8
19
29
64
57
94.4
93.4
Cross Validation
RVM
SVM
Testing
RVM
SVM
RVM
94.6
96
92
91
92
92
93
94
94
96
34 100.0
100.0
95
96
94
95
28 100.0
100.0
95
96
95
97
Linear
Original image
Background
subtracted image
Segmented image
Elliptical view of an
image
Classified image
Denis
Eli walking
Ido
Daria
Lena_ walk1
Lena_ walk2
Page 122
A Survey on Gait Recognition Using

HMM Model
M.Siva Sangari
M.Yuvaraju
Lecturer / Dept of MCA
Lecturer / Dept of CSE
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College
Anna University Coimbatore
Coimbatore
ssangari.cbe@gmail.com
rajaucbe@gmail.com
serve as a useful filtering tool that allows us to narrow the
Abstract
Vision-based human identification at a distance in search down to a considerably smaller set of potential
surveillance systems has attracted more attention recently, and its candidates.
current focus is on face, gait or activity-specific recognition. The
Gait of each person is identified to be identical which can be used
for identification of a person. Potential sources for gait biometrics
are two important aspects namely gait dynamics and gait shape. So
set of individuals is being identified and their gaits are being stored
in the form of databases. There are different types of databases
available namely CMU Mobo Database set, UMD database set,
SOTON Large data set, Human ID gait challenge dataset etc. This
paper has concentrated on the aspects of various persons
experimental results on these databases based on Hidden Markov
Model.
Keywords: Gait Recognition, Hidden Markov Model (HMM),

Human ID
I
INTRODUCTION
Vision-based human identification at a distance in

surveillance applications has recently gained more interests,
e.g., the Human ID Program being supported by DARPA.
GAIT refers to the walking style of an individual. Studies in
psychophysics indicate that human have the capability of
recognizing people from even impoverished displays of gait,
indicating the presence of identity information of gait. A gait
cycle corresponds to one complete cycle from rest position toright-foot-forward-to-rest-to-left-foot-forward-to-rest position.
In comparison with other first-generation biometrics such as
fingerprints and iris, gait has the advantage of being noninvasive and non-contact, and it is also the only perceivable
biometric for personal identification at a distance.
Given the video of an unknown individual, we wish
to use gait as a cue to find who person is among the
individuals in the database. For a normal walk, gait
sequences are repetitive and exhibit nearly periodic behavior.
As gait databases continue to grow in size, it is conceivable
that identifying a person only by gait may be difficult.
However, gait can still
Furthermore, unlike faces, gait is also difficult to

conceal. Similar in principle to other biometrics, gait is
affected by some physical factors such as drunkenness,
pregnancy and injuries involving joints. Ideally, the
recognition features extracted from images should be
invariant to factors other than gait, such as color, texture, or
type of clothing. In most gait recognition approaches
recognition features are extracted from silhouette images.
Approaches in computer vision to the gait recognition
problem can be broadly classified as being either modelbased or model-free. Both methodologies follow the general
framework of feature extraction, feature correspondence and
high-level processing. The major difference is with regard to
feature correspondence between two consecutive frames.
Model based approach assumes a priori models that
match the two- dimensional (2-D) image sequences to the
model data. Feature correspondence is automatically achieved
once matching between the images and the model data is
established. Examples of this approach include the work of
Lee et al., where several ellipses are fitted to different parts of
the binarized silhouette of the person and the parameters of
these ellipses such as location of its centroid, eccentricity, etc.
are used as a feature to represent the gait of a person.
Recognition is achieved by template matching. Model-free
methods establish correspondence between successive frames
based upon the prediction or estimation of features related to
position, velocity, shape, texture, and color. Examples of this
approach include the work of Huang et al., whose optical flow
to derive a motion image sequence for a walk cycle. Principal
Components Analysis (PCA) is then applied to the binarized
silhouette to derive what are called Eigen gaits.
Alternatively, they assume some implicit notion of
what is being observed Little and Boyd describe the shape of
the human motion with the scale-independent features from
moments of the dense optical flow, recognized the individuals
by phase vectors estimated from the feature sequences.
Sundaresan et al proposed a Hidden Markov Model (HMM)
based on individual recognition by gait. We considered two
Page 123
The third aspect is the distance measure used, which can be

Euclidean simple dot product-based based on probabilistic
models. The second class of approaches opts for parameters
that can be used to characterize gait dynamics, such as stride
length, cadence, and stride speed. Sometimes static body
parameters, such as the ratio of sizes of various body parts are
considered in conjunction with these parameters. However,
these approaches have not reported high performances on
common databases, partly due to their need for 3D calibration
information. The third class of approaches emphasizes the
silhouette shape similarity and disregards or underplays

temporal information. While extracting the silhouette shape
there are two options. 1) To use the entire silhouette 2) To use
only the outer contour of the silhouette. The choice of using
either of the above features depends upon the quality of the
binarized silhouettes.
If the silhouettes are of good quality, the outer contour retains
all the information of the silhouette and allows a
representation, the dimension of which is an order of
magnitude lower than that of the binarized silhouette.
However, for low quality, low resolution data, the extraction
of the outer contour from the binarized silhouette may not be
reliable. In such situations, direct use of the binarized
silhouette may be more appropriate. When compared with
other two approaches the silhouette shape-based approaches
have been used by various researchers in determining the gait
of a person. Sundaresan et al proposed a HMM on individual
recognition by gait.
II. COMPARISON OF USE OF HMM
In this paper we compared how the HMM is used to
determine the Gait of each person and to recognize them.
Zongyi Liu and Sudeep Sarkar have used a generic walking
model as captures by a population Hidden Markov Model
(pHMM) defined for a set of individuals. The states of this
pHMM represent gait stances over one gait cycle and the
observations are the silhouettes of the corresponding gait
stances. For each sequence, they first used Viterbi decoding of
the gait dynamics to arrive at one dynamics-normalized,
averaged, gait cycle of fixed length. The distance between two
sequences is the distance between the two corresponding
dynamics-normalized gait cycles, which they quantify by the
sum of the distances between the corresponding gait stances.
Distances between two silhouettes from the same generic gait
stance are computed in the linear discriminant analysis space
so as to maximize the discrimination between persons, while
minimizing the variations of the same subject under different
conditions.
The distance computation is constructed so that it is invariant
to dilations and erosions of the silhouettes. Thus they handled
variations in silhouette shape that can occur with changing
imaging conditions. The results were presented on three
different, publicly available, data sets. First, the HumanID
Gait Challenge data set, which is the largest gait
benchmarking data set that is available (122 subjects),
exercising five different factors, i.e., viewpoint, shoe, surface,
carrying condition, and time. It was significantly improve the
performance across the hard experiments involving surface
change and briefcase carrying conditions. Second, improved
performance on the UMD gait data set that exercises time
variations for 55 subjects. Third, on the CMU Mobo data set,
we show results for matching across different walking speeds.
It is being concluded that worth noting that there was no
separate training for the UMD and CMU data sets.
Ju Han and Bir Bhanu, they have consider individual
recognition by activity specific human motion, i.e., regular
human walking, which is used in most current approaches of
Page 124
image features, one being the width of the outer contour of the
binarized silhouette, and the other being the binary silhouette
itself. A set of exemplars that occur during a gait cycle is
derived for each individual.
To obtain the observation vector from the image features we
employ two different methods. In the indirect approach the
high-dimensional image feature is transformed to a lower
dimensional space by generating the frame to exemplar (FED)
distance. The FED vector captures both structural and
dynamic traits of each individual. For compact and effective
gait representation and recognition, the gait information in the
FED vector sequences is captured using a HMM model for
each individual. In the direct approach, we work with the
feature vector directly and train an HMM for gait
representation.
The difference between the direct and indirect methods is that
in the former the feature vector is directly used as the
observation vector for the HMM whereas in the latter, the
FED is used as the observation vector. In the direct method,
we estimate the observation probability by an alternative
approach based on the distance between the exemplars and the
image features. In this way, we avoid learning highdimensional probability density functions. The performance of
the methods is tested on different databases.
II. HIDDEN MARKOV MODEL (HMM)
Gait recognition approaches are basically of
three types: 1) temporal alignment-based, 2) static parameterbased, and 3) silhouette shape-based approaches. Here we
have discussed the silhouette shape-based approach. The first
stage is the extraction of features such as whole silhouettes,
principal components of silhouette boundary vector variations,
silhouette width vectors, silhouette parts or Fourier
Descriptors. The gait research group at the University of
Southampton (Nixon et al.) has probably experimented with
the largest number of possible feature types for recognition.
This step also involves some normalization of size to impart
some invariance with respect to distance from camera. The
second step involves the alignment of sequences of these
features, corresponding to the given two sequences to be
matched. The alignment process can be based on simple
temporal correlation dynamic time warping hidden Markov
models phase locked-loops or Fourier analysis.
of images on the stance set creating a vector (Frame-to-Stance

Distance or FSD) representation for each frame and use these
samples to train an HMM model using the Baum-Welch
algorithm .The viterbi algorithm is used in the evaluation
phase to compute the forward probabilities. The absolute
values of the log probability values are recorded as the
similarity scores.
IV .CONCLUSIONS
This paper gives an analysis of how Hidden Markov
Model (HMM) used for gait identification by various
researcher. This provides the effectiveness and computational
efficiency for real world applications. Its being proved that
the HMM is mostly used to obtain the silhouette from the
images. Though there are different models are available,
HMM provides an efficient way to extract the silhouette.
individual recognition by gait. They have proposed a new

spatio-temporal gait representation, called Gait Energy Image
(GEI), to characterize human walking properties for individual
recognition by gait. To address the problem of the lack of
training templates, they also proposed a novel approach for
human recognition by combining statistical gait features from
real and synthetic templates. They directly compute the real
templates from training silhouette sequences, while generating
the synthetic templates from training sequences by simulating
silhouette distortion.
They have used a statistical approach for learning
effective features from real and synthetic templates. We
compare the proposed GEI-based gait recognition approach
with other gait recognition approaches on USF HumanID
Database. Experimental results show that the proposed GEI is
an effective and efficient gait representation for individual
recognition, and the proposed approach achieves highly
competitive performance with respect to the published gait
recognition approaches.
The fundamental assumptions made here are: 1) the
order of poses in human walking cycles is the same, i.e., limbs
move forward and backward in a similar way among normal
people, and 2) differences exist in the phase of poses in a
walking cycle, the extend of limbs, and the shape of the torso,
etc. Under these assumptions, it is possible to represent spatiotemporal information in a single 2D gait template instead of
an ordered image sequence.
Naresh Cuntoor, Amit Kale and Rama Chellappa has
analyzed three different sets of features are extracted from the
sequence of binarized images of the walking person. Firstly,
we investigate the swing in the hands and legs. Since gait is
not completely symmetric in that the extent of forward swing
of hands and legs is not equal to the extent of the backward
swing, we build the left and right projection vectors. To match
these time varying signals, dynamic time warping is
employed. Secondly, fusion of leg dynamics and height
combines results from dynamic and static sources.
A Hidden Markov model is used to represent the leg
dynamics. While the above two components consider the side
view, the third case explores frontal gait. We characterize the
performance of the recognition system using the cumulative
match scores computed using the aforesaid matrix of
similarity scores. As in any recognition system, we would like
to obtain the best possible performance in terms of recognition
rates. Combination of evidences obtained is not only logical
but also statistically meaningful.
We show that combining evidence using simple strategies
such as Sum, Product and MIN rules improves the overall
performance. To compare the truncated width vectors that
contain the information about leg dynamics, we use HMM,
which is a generalization of the DTW framework. There exists
Markovian dependence between frames since the way humans
go through the motion of walking has limited degrees of
freedom. K-means clustering is used to identify key frames
or stances during a half-cycle. We found that a choice of is
justified by the rate-distortion curve. We project the sequence
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[1]. Zongyi Liu and Sudeep Sarkar,Improved Gait
Recognition by Gait Dynamics normalization
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, Vol. 28, No. 6, June 2006.
[2]. Murat EK_INC_I, Human Identification Using
Gait, Turk J Elec Engin, VOL.14, NO.2 2006, c
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[3].Naresh Cuntoor, Amit Kale and Rama Chellappa,
Combining Multiple Evidences for Gait Recognition.
[4].
Rong Zhang, Christian Vogler, Dimitris Metaxas,
Human Gait Recognition
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S. Sarkar, P.J. Phillips, Z. Liu, I. Robledo-Vega, P.
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Z. Liu and S. Sarkar, Simplest Representation yet for
Gait Recognition: Averaged Silhouette, Proc. Intl Conf.
Pattern Recognition, vol. 4, pp. 211-214, 2004.
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D. Tolliver and R. Collins, Gait Shape Estimation for
Identification, Proc. Intl Conf. Audio and Video-Based
Biometric Person Authentication, pp. 734-742, 2003.
[8]. L. Wang, T. Tan, H. Ning, and W. Hu, Silhouette
Analysis-Based Gait Recognition for Human
Identification, IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 15051518, Dec. 2003
[9]. R. Collins, R. Gross, and J. Shi, Silhouette-Based Human
Identification from Body Shape and Gait, Proc. Intl Conf.
Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, pp. 366-371, 2002.
Page 125
V. FUTURE WORKS
HMM can be compared with the other models namely
Principal Component Analysis (PCA),Baseline Algorithm etc
their efficiency can be observed with respect with the other
two model which is being discussed here. Also efficiency of
the algorithm can be checked with various factors like time,
surface, carrying luckages, under various climate conditions
can be analyzed with the same Model (HMM).
[10].L. Lee and W. E. L. Grimson, Gait analysis for

recognition and classification, in Proc. IEEE Conf. Face and
Gesture Recognition, 2002, pp.155161.
[11]. J. Little and J. Boyd, Recognizing people by their gait:
The shape of motion, Videre, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 132, 1998.
[12]. J. Cutting and L. Kozlowski, Recognizing friends by
their walk: gait perception without familiarity cues, Bull.
Psycho. Soc., vol. 9, pp. 353356, 1977.
[13]. M. P. Murray, Gait as a total pattern of movement,
Amer. J. Phys. Med., vol. 46, pp. 290332, June 1967.
[14]. M. P. Murray, A. B. Drought, and R.C. Kory, Walking
patterns of normal men, J. Bone and Joint Surgery, vol. 46A, no. 2, pp.335360, 1964.
Page 126
Congestion Management Routing Protocol In

Mobile Adhoc Networks
A. Valarmathi1 and RM. Chandrasekaran2
1Department of Computer Applications, Anna University Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli -620 024, India
E-mail: valar1030@yahoo.com
2Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Anna University Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli-620 024, India
:rmc@sify.com
Abstract
Streaming multimedia applications over Mobile Ad hoc Networks
(MANETs) require a guaranteed or controlled load service.
Network congestion is the dominant reason for packet loss, longer
delay and jitter in streaming multimedia applications. Most of the
present routing protocols are not designed to adapt congestion. In
the present paper, the original DSR protocol was modified to
monitor the occurrence of congestion by using multiple resource
utilization thresholds as QoS attributes and trigger multi-pathrouting during the periods of congestion to improve QoS in
MANETs. This paper also deals with the effects of mobility on the
modified routing protocol. Simulation experiments are conducted
using NS-2 network simulator to evaluate the performance of the
modified DSR in terms of jitter and percentage packet loss and
compared with the original DSR. The results showed that a
significant improvement in performance of modified DSR was
achieved and decreases the network congestion with the use of
multi-path routing.
Keywords: Mobile ad hoc network, DSR, Congestion, Multi-path
routing, NS-2.
1. INTRODUCTION
Mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) are autonomous dynamic
networks which provide high flexibility. These networks uses
multi-hop radio relay that operate without the support of any
fixed infrastructure [1]. Streaming multimedia or CBR
applications over MANET require minimal delay and packet
loss. To meet these critical requirements, a MANET
inherently depends on the routing scheme employed. Routing
protocols for Ad hoc networks can be broadly classified as
proactive and reactive. Proactive (or) table-driven routing
algorithms employ distance vector based or link state based
routing strategies. However, the main drawback of these
algorithms is that the need for frequent table updation
consumes significant amount of memory, bandwidth and
battery power [2]. Example of such protocols is Optimized
Link State Routing (OLSR) [3] and Destination Sequenced
Distance Vector routing (DSDV) [4]. In reactive routing
protocols, a node searches and maintains a route to another

node only when it requires transmitting data to that particular
node. This on-demand reactive approach minimizes
bandwidth utilization
compared to proactive routing protocols. Ad-hoc On-Demand
Distance Vector (AODV) [5], Dynamic Source Routing
(DSR) [6], Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
[7] and Associatively-Based Routing (ABR) [8] are examples
of such protocols. Among these, DSR is a simple and efficient
routing protocol which is widely used in MANET. It operates
based on two mechanisms such as route discovery and route
maintenance. All these protocols rely on single-path routing
algorithms, where all traffic to a destination is required to be
routed through a single successor and when a link become
congested, the entire traffic has to be rerouted. Routing
protocols for MANET also have another dimension as
congestion-un-adaptive routing and congestion adaptive
routing. Existing routing protocols belong to the first group
where congestion nonadaptiveness in routing may result in
longer delay, higher overhead and many packet losses for
traffic intensive data like multimedia applications. DSR does
not make dynamic routing adjustments based on memory,
delay, number of service requests or battery utilization
information which often indicates certain levels of usage and
possible occurrences of congestion. Detection of undesired
paths enables the ability to implement route admission control
and to perform multi-path routing scheme which could further
improve the performance of the network in a significant
manner. In the present paper, a modified DSR protocol is
proposed to monitor congestion or multiple resource
utilization levels, notify the routing process of congestion and
invoke multi-path routing during the periods of congestion for
streaming multimedia applications. In addition, this paper also
determine the effects of various mobility(low, medium, high)
models on the modified routing protocol and compare the
performance metrics of jitter and percentage packet loss of
standard DSR protocol with modified version of DSR
protocol.
Page 127
2. RELATED WORK
The research on congestion for MANET is still in the early
stage and there is a need of new techniques. In this section, the
research work related to congestion control and multipath
routing is presented. Round trip time measurements are used
to distribute load between paths in Multi-path Source Routing
(MSR) [9]. A distributed multi-path DSR protocol (MP-DSR)
was developed to improve QoS with respect to end-to-end
reliability [10]. The protocol forwards outgoing packets along
multiple paths that are subjected to an end-to-end reliability
model. Split Multi-path Routing (SMR) utilized multiple
routes of maximally disjoint paths which minimize route
recovery process and control message overhead [11-12]. The
protocol uses a per-packet allocation scheme to distribute data
packets into multiple paths of active sessions which prevents
nodes from being congested in heavily loaded traffic
situations. Kui Wu and Janelle Harms [13] proposed a path
selection criteria and an on-demand multi-path calculation
method for DSR protocol. Peter Pham and Sylvie Perreau [14]
proposed a multi-path DSR protocol with a load balancing
policy which spreads the traffic equally into multiple paths
that are available for each source-destination pair. A dynamic
load-aware based load-balanced routing (DLBL) algorithm
was developed which considers intermediate node routing
load as the primary route selection metric [15]. This helps the
protocol to discover a route with less network congestion and
bottlenecks. When a link breaks because of the node mobility
or power off, DLBL provides efficient path maintenance to
patch up broken links to help to get a robust route from the
source to the destination. A simple Loop-Free Multi-Path
Routing (LFMPR) with QoS requirement was developed from
AODV and DSR protocol [16]. In the route request phase,
intermediate nodes record multi-reverse links which is applied
to construct multiple-paths during the route reply phase. Each
path is assigned unique flow identification in order to prevent
routing loop problems. Rashida Hashim et al [17] proposed an
adaptive multi-path QoS aware DSR Protocol. The protocol
collects information about QoS metrics during the route
discovery phase and uses them to choose a set of disjoint paths
for data transmission. De Rango et al [18] proposed an energy
aware multi-path routing protocol by considering minimum
drain rate as a metric. An update mechanism and a simple data
packet scheduling among the energy efficient paths have also
been implemented to update the source route cache and for
improving the traffic and energy load balancing. Raghavandra
et al [19] proposed Congestion Adaptive Routing in Mobile
Ad Hoc Networks (CRP). In CRP every node appearing on a
route warns its previous node when prone to be congested.
The previous node then uses a bypass route bypassing the
potential congestion to the first non-congested node on the
route. Traffic will be split probabilistically over these two
routes, primary and bypass, thus effectively lessening the
chance of congestion occurrence. Zhang XiangBo and Ki-Il
Kim [20] proposed a multi-path routing protocol based on
DSR which uses Multi-Probing and Round-Robin
mechanisms (MRDSR) for updating alternate multiple paths.
The different multi-path schemes proposed earlier

concentrates few of the performance aspects. For example, the
measurement of jitter is very scarce, which is a critical
performance metric for multimedia traffic. Moreover, the
performance of a multi-path routing scheme should be
quantitatively evaluated in different mobility scenarios to
completely assess the applicability.
3. CONGESTION MANAGEMENT
The existing DSR protocol was modified to perform multipath routing with congestion adaptive feature. In the proposed
protocol, the battery level and queue length are used as the
key resource utilization parameters. In the present paper, the
congestion was assumed to be in existence when queue length
was near capacity or when battery level fell below a predefined threshold. The proposed protocol works similar to
normal DSR protocol if the current energy level is between 10
to 100 % of initial energy level and queue length is less than
50. The modified DSR algorithm invokes multi-path routing
when it exceeds these threshold values.
4. SIMULATION SET-UP
NS-2 version 2.30 [23] was used to simulate the performance
of the modified DSR under different mobility scenarios. The
802.11 MAC protocol is defined to be the wireless channel.
Each mobile node used a Two-Ray Ground radio propagation
model with an Omni antenna. The initial battery capacity of
each node assumed to be 100%. The battery capacity of a
mobile node was decremented in a predefined manner by the
txPower and rxPower levels which remains constant
throughout the simulation. The CTS / RTS process used in
IEEE 802.11b within NS2 normally generate huge volumes of
data that made processing the trace files complicated. In order
to restrict the processing of unnecessary data, the
RTSThreshold_ variable was set to 3,000 bytes which restrict
the processing of packets that have a size greater than 3,000
bytes. The random topology consists of 800 x 800 meter grid
with 20 nodes. The packet sizes of CBR multimedia streams
were fixed at 512 bytes with each node had a maximum queue
size of 50 packets. The simulation time was set to be 400
seconds and the speed of the node is 10 m/s. Three different
simulation scenarios of high, medium and low were created by
varying pause times at 4, 10 and 20 seconds. The workload
and data rate was kept constant at 5 CBR and 200 PPS,
respectively.
5. PERFORMANCE METRICS
In the present paper, the performance metrics such as average
jitter and percentage packet loss was calculated and evaluated
for both normal DSR and modified DSR using the following
relationships.
Average Jitter
Jitter is a measure of variation in delay across multiple packets
associated with a given traffic flow. In streaming multimedia
applications, only a small and limited amount of jitter is
tolerable.
Page 128
Percentage Packet loss

% Packet loss = Number of packets sent - Number of packets
received / Number of packets sent *100
reduction in percentage packet loss in high mobility than in

low and medium mobility scenario further confirms the
effective usage of multi-path routing in high mobility
scenario.
6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1
AVERAGE JITTER
Durkin [22] stated that excessive jitter normally caused by

unavailable data may lead to discontinuity in streaming
multimedia applications. For example, an excessive jitter
might result a video application to experience frozen screens.
The computed average jitter values for different mobility
scenarios are shown in Figure 1. In low and high mobility
scenarios, the performance of modified DSR is only in
comparable with original DSR. In medium mobility scenario,
the measured jitter for modified DSR is higher than the
original DSR.
Fig. 2. Percentage packet loss of original and modified DSR

at different mobility scenarios.
7. CONCLUSION
In this paper, Multiple Thresholds based Congestion-adaptive
Multi-path Dynamic
Source Routing for MANET is proposed which avoids the
occurrence of congestion and effective distribution of data
traffic in an optimal manner. This protocol exhibits substantial
reduction in % packet loss and jitter than original DSR. For
original DSR, the percentage packet loss lies between 18 20% at low and medium mobility scenarios. This increases to
36.3 % at high mobility. In modified DSR, the percentage
packet loss for low and medium mobility scenarios are
approximately 13 %, 5 - 7 % lower than original DSR.
REFERENCES
The percentage packet loss of original and modified DSR at

different mobility scenarios is shown in Figure 2. For original
DSR, the percentage packet loss lies between 18 - 20% at low
and medium mobility scenarios. This increases to 36.3 % at
high mobility. This clearly indicates the effect of route failure
at high mobility which causes excessive packet loss. In
modified DSR, the percentage packet loss for low and
medium mobility scenarios are approximately 13 %, 5 - 7 %
lower than original DSR. In high mobility, the percentage
packet loss is 20 % lower than original DSR. This drastic
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[2] J. Macker, M. Corson and V. Park, Mobile and wireless
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CommunicationsMagazine.36, 2001, pp. 146-155.
[3] T. Clausen and P. Jacquet, Optimized link state routing
protocol, IETF RFC 3626, Network Working Group, October
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[5] C. Perkins, E. Belding-Royer and S. Das, Ad hoc ondemand Distance Vector Routing, RFC 3561, July 2003.
[6] D. B. Johnson, D. A. Maltz and J. Broch, DSR- The
dynamic source routing protocol for multi hop wireless ad hoc
networks, in: C. E. Perkins (Eds.), Ad hoc Network, Chapter
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Fig. 1. Average Jitter of original and modified DSR at

different mobility scenarios.
6.2
PERCENTAGE PACKET LOSS
[7] S. Corson and V. Park, Temporally-Ordered Routing

Algorithm (TORA) Version 1 Functional Specification,
Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) Working Group, IETF,
Oct. 1999.
[8] C. K. Toh, A novel distributed routing protocol to support
ad-hoc mobile computing, Proceeding of IEEE 15th Annual
International Phoenix Conference on Computers and
Communication, 1996, pp. 480-486.
[9] Lei Wang, Lianfang Zhang, Yantai Shu, Miao Dong,
Multi-path source routing in wireless ad hoc networks, 2000
Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer
Engineering. 1 (2000) 479-483.
[10] R. Leung, Jilei Liu, E. Poon, A.-L.C. Chan and Baochun
Li, MP-DSR: a QoS-aware multi-path dynamic source
routing protocol for wireless ad-hoc networks,
Proc. 2001 Local Computer Networks, 26th Annual IEEE
Conference, 2001, pp.132-141.
[11] Sung- Ju Lee and Mario Gerla, Dynamic load-aware
routing in ad hoc networks, IEEE Conference on
Communications. 10 ,2001,pp. 3206-3210.
[12] Sung- Ju Lee and Mario Gerla, Split Multi-path Routing
with Maximally Disjoint Paths in Ad Hoc Networks,
Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on
Communications, 2001, pp. 3201-3205.
[13] K. Wu and J. Harms, Performance Study of a Multi-path
Routing Method for Wireless Mobile Ad Hoc Network,
Proceedings of 9th IEEE International Symposium on
modeling, Analysis, and Simulation of Computer and
Telecommunication Systems MASCOTS'01),2001, PP. 1-7.
[14] Peter Pham and Sylvie Perreau, Multi-path routing
protocol with load balancing policy in mobile ad hoc
network, 4th International Workshop on Mobile and Wireless
Communications Network ,2002, pp. 48-52.
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Tian, A New Dynamic Loadaware Based Load-balanced
Routing for Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE, 2004, pp. 407-411.
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A Loop-Free Multi-Path Routing With QoS for Wireless Ad
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Page 130
Human Motion Tracking And Behaviour

Classification Using Multiple Cameras
M.P.Jancy#, B.Yogameena$
Research Scholar, $Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai.India
flytojancy@gmail.com, ymece@tce.edu
#
Abstract- This paper presents a framework for human behaviour

understanding using multi-camera system. The proposed
methodology classifies human behaviour as normal or abnormal,
by treating short-term behaviours such as walking, running,
standing still, etc. The analysis includes foreground
segmentation, tracking and feature extraction from the image
sequences followed by the classification of short term behaviours.
A set of calculated feature vectors are input to the Relevance
Vector Machine which works on human behaviour classification.
Experimental results demonstrate the proposed method to be
highly accurate, robust and efficient in the classification of
normal and abnormal human behaviours.
Keywords - surveillance, feature extraction,, relevance vector
machine, behaviour understanding.
I. INTRODUCTION
Multicamera surveillance system aims at tracking people or
object of interest. The fundamental problem in video
surveillance is automatic detection of human motion, tracking
human and classifying abnormal situations. Based on this
motivation, this paper proposes an efficient approach for
tracking people through multicamera system. It creates a
model for normal human behaviour and any deviation from
the basic model is analysed. Our methodology applies on short
term behaviour referring those that can be localized in a
spatio-temporal sense, i.e. brief and within a restricted space.
Examples of such behaviours are walking, standing still,
running, moving abruptly, waving hand etc. The algorithm
provides clear discrimination of such anomalies.
The paper is organized into five sections. Section II discusses
the algorithms available in the present day. Section III
describes the methodology Section IV describes background
subtraction, extraction of feature and RVM learning system
for classification are explained. Section V depicts the
experimental results and the classification of human using the
Relevance Vector Machine extraction method. Finally, the
conclusion is presented.
Machines [4], Radial Basis Function Networks, Nearest

Neighbor Algorithm, and Fisher Linear Discriminant and so
on. Machine learning techniques are linear methods in a high
dimensional feature space, nonlinearly related to the input
space. Using appropriate kernel functions, it is possible to
compute the hyper plane which classifies the two classes. An
automated system based on SVM classifying the human
activities as normal or abnormal, utilizes a set of feature
vector data has been described by Scholkopf [5]. SVM needs
the tuning of a regularization parameter during the training
phase, requiring a technique which minimizes the number of
active kernel functions to reduce computation time ([6]-[8]).
Appropriate features for RVM are used to classify and thereby
reduces the computational complexity by selecting an
appropriate kernel to improve the classification accuracy.
Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed approach
is robust in classifying human behaviour.
III. PROPOSED METHOD
Surveillance system is divided into low level and high
level process. The proposed methodology is shown in fig.1
based on the fusion of data collected from several cameras
with overlapping fields of view. The low level addresses the
problem of motion detection and blob analysis, whereas the
upper level addresses the feature vectors. Background
subtraction is applied for motion detection to obtain the
foreground blob and its corresponding bounding box is
extracted. Additional object information namely the objects
blob size, shape, centroid, edge, area, and skeleton are
obtained. From the object information the feature vectors are
calculated which are input to the Relevance Vector Machine
Classifier.Motion-based techniques are mostly used for shortterm activity classification. Examples are walking, running,
fighting. These techniques calculate features of the motion
itself and perform recognition of behaviours based on these
feature values.
II. EXISTING APPROACHES

There have been a number of video surveillance systems, for
multiple people detection and tracking [1], [2] in a crowded
Environment [3]. All these systems can detect and track
multiple people.
There are many types of neural networks that can be used for
binary classification problem, such as Support Vector
Page 131
Video
Segmentation
Frame 10
Foreground Blob
Frame 90
Frame 115
Fig.2 Background subtracted image for camera1
Low level
High level
Feature Vectors
Frame 05
A. FEATURE CALCULATION
Feature vectors are computed by taking into account both the
background subtraction and the ground plane information.
Objects centroid is determined by using the following
equations
Final Decision
[Normal/Abnormal]
Fig.1 System Overview
Motion-based techniques are mostly used for shortterm activity classification. Examples are walking, running,
fighting. These techniques calculate features of the motion
itself and perform recognition of
IV. BACKGROUND SUBTRACTION
The first stage of video surveillance system seeks background
to automatically identify people, objects, or events of interest
in various changing environments. Background substraction is
accomplished in real-time using the adaptive mixture of
Gaussians method proposed by Stauffer [9].
It describes K Gaussian distributions to model the surface
reflectance value.
k
P ( X t ) = i ,t * ( X t , i ,t , i, t )
(1)
where K is the number of distributions, i,t is an estimate of

Gaussian, is the mean,
th
i, t
is the
covariance matrix of the i Gaussian.

After ordering the Gaussians, the first B distributions are
chosen as the background model as shown in eqn (2)
b
B = arg min b ( k T )
xc =
yc =
1
N
1
N
x
j =1
j =1
(3)
yi
(4) where (xc,
yc) represent the average contour pixel position, (xi, yi)

represent the points on the human blob contour and there are a
total of N number of points on the contour [16].
Boundary extraction is the minimal rectangle that surrounds
the borderline. The rectangles height is expressed as
max
Y min
...(5)
And its width is expressed as
i =1
the weight of the i
Frame 15
Fig.3 Background subtracted image for camera2
Relevance Vector
Machine
th
Frame 85
...(2)
k =1
where, T is a measure of minimum models for background.

The background subtracted image obtained using adaptive
GMM is shown in Fig.2 and Fig.3.
...(6)
Skeleton feature is obtained by calculating the distance
max
min
di
from the centroid to contour points.

2
2
d i(7)
= ( xi xFrom
( yi d yplot
c ) +the
c ) the local maximum and
i
minimum points are collected and star skeletonization is

formed. These points are selected as features and fed into
RVM learning system to classify normal and abnormal
behaviour of human.
B. CLASSIFICATION USING RELEVANCE VECTOR
MACHINE
The RVM is a Bayesian regression framework, in which the
weights of each input example are governed by a set of hyper
parameters [8]. These hyper parameters describe the posterior
Page 132
distribution of the weights and are estimated iteratively during

training. Most hyper parameters approach infinity, causing the
posterior distributions of the effectively setting the
corresponding weights to zero. The remaining vectors with
non-zero weights are called relevance vectors. It reduces the
inappropriate parameters for the classification than SVM
[[11], [12]].
In this framework, the attention is focused to the nature of the
behaviour of a human to classify his activities as normal or
abnormal. The walking pose of a person is considered as an
articulated object, and is represented by a parameter vector x,
given in eqn (15)
x = Wk (z) + k
. (15)
where, x is the input for the system, Wk is the weight of the
basis function, (z) is the vector of the basis function and k
is the Gaussian noise vector.
It is used to minimize the cost function of the RVM regression
using eqn (16)
Fig.4 Edge image for camera1 and camera 2
Fig.5 Centroid and Bounding Box for camera1 and camera2.
LK = C K( n ) ( y k(n ) ) S k ( y k(n ) ) . (16)

T
( )
y k(n ) = x (n ) W K Z (n )
(17)
where, yk is the output with n sample points belonging to
the mapping function k. (z(n)) is the design matrix vector of
the basis function, Sk is the diagonal covariance matrix of the
basis function and Ck(n) is the probability that the sample
point n belongs to the mapping function k.
(n)
Fig.6 skeleton feature for human
V.EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR

CLASSIFICATION
In this work, the video is taken in Indoor and Outdoor . The
proposed method processes about 24 frames per second for
RGB images and the total number of frames is equal to 3600,
and the frame size is 152 172 on PC with a 2.5Ghz in a
Pentium IV CPU to demonstrate the performance of the
proposed method. It classifies the behaviour as normal or
abnormal efficiently, by considering the human postures or
actions that are explicitly visible over a larger field of view
with the multi-camera system. Thus it overcomes the
constraint of a single camera system where the human
postures or actions may be misinterpreted due to a single field
of view which leads to incorrect classification. In this
proposed method, the input video file is first converted into
frames. Then the Gaussian Mixture Model background
subtraction method is used to separate the foreground objects
from the background scenes. After extracting the background
image, the edges are extracted using the canny filter and its
shown in fig.4. The features such as boundary, centroid, area,
edge and skeleton are calculated and are shown in fig.5 and
fig.6. These features are input to the classifier. Finally the
RVM classifier distinguishes the normal and abnormal
behaviour.
Fig.7 Training stage
Fig.8 Classified RVM output
Page 133
The Fig.7 shows the initial stage of the training. Then the Fig
8 shows the result after the iteration. The circles in the figure
denote the relevance vector obtained after the iteration. The
maximum number of iterations used here is Twenty Five.
Thus the resultant vector obtained here is closer to the original
template and there is no probability of misclassification of
vectors. This is the main advantage in this proposed method.
Normal behaviour classification is shown in Fig 9. and the
datasets were taken from indoor and from caviar benchmark
dataset. The algorithm has been tested using 2100 samples.
Abnormal behaviour classification of a person bending down
and a person waving his hand are shown in Fig 10. .
VIII. CONCLUSION
This paper has introduced the framework of relevance vector
machine for the classification of different kind of human
activities for the application of video surveillance. To this end
we have classified the given image sequence as standing,
running and so on. Results demonstrate the proposed method
to be highly accurate, robust and efficient in the classification
of normal and abnormal human behaviours.
REFERENCES
1.
M. A. Ali, S. Indupalli and B. Boufama, Tracking Multiple
People for Video Surveillance, School of Computer Science, University of
Windsor,Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, 2004
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Mykhaylo Andriluka Stefan Roth Bernt Schiele,People-Trackingby-Detection and People-Detection-by-Tracking Computer Science
Department Technische Universitat Darmstadt,2007.
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Tao Zhao Ram Nevatia,Tracking Multiple Humans in Crowded
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Xinyu WU, Yongsheng OU, Huihuan QIAN, and Yangsheng XU,
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B. Scholkopf, J.C. Platt, J. Shawe-Taylor, A.J. Smola, and R.C.
Williamson.Estimating the Support of a High-Dimensional Distribution.
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Rong Zhang, Christian Vogler, Dimitris Metaxas , Human gait
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pp 321-330, March 2007.
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Carl Edward Rasmussen, The Infinite Gaussian Mixture Model
Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, pp. 554560, 2004.
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Prahlad Kilambi, Evan Ribnick, Ajay J. Joshi, Osama Masoud,
Nikolaos Papanikolopoulos, Estimating pedestrian counts in groups,
Computer Vision and Image Understanding, pp. 4359,2008.
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C. Stauffer, W. Eric L. Grimson. Learning patterns of activity
using real-time tracking. IEEE
Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence, Volume 22, Issue 8, pp.747-757, 2000.
10.
C. BenAbdelkader, R. Cutler, and L. Davis. Motion-based
recognition of people in eigengait space, Automatic Face and Gesture
Recognition Proceedings, Fifth IEEE International Conference, pp.267 272,
May 2002
11.
C.Chang, C.Lin, LIBSVM: a library for support vector machines,
Software available at: http://www.csie,ntu.edu.tw/cjlin/libsvmi, vol. 80, 2001,
pp.604611.
12.
D. Kosmopoulos, P. Antonakaki, K. Valasoulis, D. Katsoulas,
Monitoring human behavior in an assistive environment using multiple
views, in: 1st International Conference on Pervasive Technologies Related to
Assistive Environments PETRA 08, Athens, Greece, 2008.
Page 134
Hierarchical Zone Based Intrusion Detection

System for Mobile Adhoc Networks.
D G Jyothi #1, S.N Chandra shekara*2
#Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Bangalore Institute of Technology,
Visveswaraiah technological University, Bangalore, India.
1
Jyothi.bitcse@gmail.com
*Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SJC Institute of Technology ,

Visveswaraiah technological University, Chickballapur, India
2
Chandru_91@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT.
Intrusion Detection Systems (IDSs) for Mobile
Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) are indispensable since traditional
intrusion prevention based techniques are not strong enough to
protect MANETs. However, the dynamic environment of
MANETs makes the design and implementation of IDSs a very
challenging task. In this paper, we present a hierarchical ZoneBased Intrusion Detection System (HZBIDS) model that fits the
requirement of MANETs. The model utilizes intelligent light
weight mobile agent which collects data from the different
mobile nodes(Audit data), preprocess the data, alert and alarm
messages among HZBIDS local mobile agents and gateway
nodes. With alert information from a wider area, gateway nodes
IDS can effectively suppress many falsified alerts and provide
more diagnostic information about the occurring attacks. The
model can adjust itself dynamically to adapt to the change of the
external environmental. Also the model is robust and Scalable.
Keywords MANET, ADHOC network, Mobile agents,
MANET requirements which is efficient and flexible and

ensures scalability of the IDS. In our proposed model, we use
a Local IDA which are attached to every node in the zone and
global IDA to the gateway nodes of the zone.
The rest of this paper is organized as
follows: In the next section, we review some related work in
intrusion detection for mobile Ad Hoc networks. In Section 3,
we present and explain our intrusion detection scheme.
INTRODUCTION
The unique characteristics of Mobile Ad hoc
Networks (MANETs), such as arbitrary node movement and
lack of centralized control, make them vulnerable to a wide
variety of outside and inside attacks [1]. How to provide
effective security protection for MANETs has become one of
the main challenges in deploying MANET in reality. Intrusion
prevention techniques, such as encryption and authentication,
can determine attackers from malicious behavior. But
prevention based techniques alone cannot totally eliminate
intrusions. The security research in the Internet demonstrates
that sooner or later a smart and determined attacker can
exploit some security holes to break into a system no matter
how many intrusion prevention measures are deployed.
Therefore, intrusion detection systems (IDSs), serving as the
second line of defense, are indispensable for a reliable system.
IDSs for MANETs can complement and integrate with
existing MANET intrusion prevention methods to provide
highly survivable networks [1]. Nevertheless, it is very
difficult to design a once-for-all detection model.
Intrusion detection techniques used in wired
networks cannot be directly applied to mobile Ad Hoc
networks due to special characteristics of the networks.
In this paper, we are concerned with the design
of intrusion detection system for MANET. Our goal is to
design a new Hierarchical ZBIDS model, derived from
2.RELATED WORK.
An IDS for MANET
The
Intrusion
Detection
systems
architecture for a wireless ad-hoc network may depend on the
network infrastructure itself. Wireless ad-hoc networks may
be configured in either a flat or multi-layered network
infrastructure. In a flat network infrastructure, all nodes are
equal; therefore it may be suitable to civilian applications such
as virtual classrooms or conferences [5]. On the contrary, in
the multi-layered network some nodes considered different.
Nodes can be divided into clusters, with one cluster head in
each cluster.
In traditional wired networks, many
intrusion detection systems have been implemented where
switches, routers or gateways play key role to make IDS
implemented in these devices easily [3]. But on the other hand
these devices do not exist in MANET. For that reason several
intrusion detection architectures proposed for ad hoc network
which include stand-alone IDS architecture, distributed and
cooperative IDS architecture, and hierarchical IDS
architecture [4]. In a stand-alone Intrusion Detection System
architecture, each node runs an IDS independently to detects
malicious attacks and determine intrusions, Since stand-alone
IDS do not cooperate or share information with other
detection systems running on other nodes , all intrusion
detection decisions are based on information available to the
individual node. Furthermore nodes do not know anything
about the situation on other nodes in the same network [5].
Zhang and Lee [1], proposed a
distributed and cooperative intrusion detection architecture
that is shown in figure 1, in this architecture each node runs an
IDS agent and makes local detection decision independently,
by monitoring activities such as user and system activities and
the communication activities within the radio range. At the
same time, all the nodes cooperate in a global detection
Page 135
IDS, Gateway node.
1.
decision making. [7] In this architecture, if IDS agent on any

node detects an intrusion with weak or inconclusive evidence,
it can initiate a cooperative global intrusion detection
procedure or if a node detects locally an intrusion with strong
evidence, it can independently determine an attack on the
network. Similarly to stand-alone IDS architecture, distributed
and cooperative intrusion detection system architecture is
more suitable for flat network infrastructure and not
multilayered network. Although distributed and cooperative
IDS architecture can solve some limitations that exist in the
stand-alone IDS architecture, it has the following problems.
First, cooperative intrusion detection may lead to unnecessary
communication and calculation between nodes in MANET,
causing decrease in network performance. Second, the sharing
data between trusted nodes is not in general true since there
are a lot of possible threats in a wireless network environment
[8].
Figure 1: Distributed and Cooperative IDS in MANETs [1].
Hierarchical Intrusion Detection Systems

architectures have been designed for multi-layered ad hoc
network infrastructures where the network is divided into
clusters. Cluster heads (CH) of each cluster usually have more
functionality than other node in the clusters, for example
cluster-head nodes centralized routing for all nodes in the
cluster and routing packets across clusters. Therefore, these
cluster heads, act as manage points which are similar to
switches, routers, or gateways in traditional wired networks.
Each IDS agent runs on every node. Also it is responsible for
detecting intrusion locally by monitoring local activities. A
cluster head is responsible locally for its node as well as
globally for its cluster, e.g. monitoring network packets and
initiating a global response when network intrusion is detected
[2,6].
The two-level non overlapping Zone-Based
Intrusion Detection System (ZBIDS) is proposed to meet the
unique requirement of MANETs. With ZBIDS, the network is
divided into non overlapping zones and each IDS agent
broadcasts the locally generated alerts inside the zone.
Gateway nodes (also called inter zone nodes, which have
physical connections to nodes in different zones) are
responsible for the aggregation and correlation of locally
generated alerts. Furthermore, in MANET intrusion detection
system there are two types of decision making including
collaborative decision making and independent decision

making. In collaborative decision making, each node
participates actively in the intrusion detection procedure. Once
one node detects an intrusion with strong confidence, this
node can start a response to the intrusion by starting a majority
voting to determine whether attack happens, like in [1]. On the
other hand, in the independent decision making framework,
certain nodes are assigned for intrusion detection .These nodes
collect intrusion alerts from other nodes and decide whether
any node in the network is under attack [7, 5]. These nodes do
not need other nodes participation in decision making.
2.1
ZBIDS Framework
It is obvious that local detection alone cannot
guarantee satisfactory performance because of limited security
information obtained by each IDS agent. Whats more, we
may experience alert flooding problems given the distributed
nature of MANETs. Therefore, a suitable framework is
needed to integrate the alert information from a wider area.
Moreover, attacks are likely to generate multiple related alerts.
For example, because of the broadcast nature of radio channel,
there may exist many victims suffering from same falsified
routing control packets. The triggered alerts should have high
correlations correspondingly. Therefore, it is desirable to treat
them together.
Based on the above considerations, we adopt a non
overlapping zone based framework. The whole network is
divided into non overlapping zones. We assume the existence
of such a framework. This could be done easily based on
techniques like geographic partitioning [8]. As illustrated in
Fig. 2, there are two categories of nodes in ZBIDS: intra zone
nodes and gateway nodes (also called inter zone nodes). If one
node has a physical connection to a node in a different zone,
this node is called a gateway node, for example, node 4, 7, 8
in Fig. 2. Otherwise, it is called an intra zone node. An agent
is attached to each mobile node, and all agents collaboratively
perform the intrusion detection task. Each IDS agent runs
independently to monitor local nodes activities, such as the
user behavior, system behavior, radio
communication
activities, etc. and performs intrusion detection tasks locally.
Intra zone nodes will report their locally generated alerts to
the gateway nodes in the same zone, and the gateway nodes
will aggregate and correlate the received alerts. Gateway
nodes in neighboring zones can further collaborate in order to
perform intrusion detection tasks in a wider area. There may
Fig. 2. The Zone-Based Intrusion Detection System (ZBIDS) for
MANETs.
Page 136
exist many gateway nodes in a zone, thus avoiding the issue of

single point of failure.
2.2
) Mobile agents for IDS:
Mobile agents have been deployed in many
techniques for IDSs in MANETs. Due to its ability of moving
in network, each mobile agent is considered for performing
just one special task and then one or more mobile agents are
distributed amongst network nodes. This operation allows the
distributed intrusion detection in the system. Some
responsibilities are not delegated to every node, and so it helps
in reducing the energy consumption, which is also an
important factor in MANET network. It also provides for fault
tolerance in such a way that if the network is segmented or
some of the agents break down, they can still continue to
function. In addition, they can work in big and different
environments because mobile agents can work irrespective of
their architecture, but these systems require a secure module
that enables mobile agents to settle down. Moreover, Mobile
agents must be able to protect themselves from secure
modules on remote hosts.
3.Proposed Intrusion Detection System
In this section we describe the intrusion detection system
and procedure for intrusion detection.
Fig3. IDS for HZBIDS
To other GIDS
LID
S
Response Agent
GIDS
Global
Association
Agent
Data Association
Agent
Global Detection
Agent
Detection Agent
To illustrate the system structure in our design of the

HZBIDS, there are two major components for each IDS. Local
IDS (LIDS) and Global IDS (GIDS). The LIDS Data
collection module collects local data from the different mobile
nodes. Local Detection Agent (LDA), will preprocess the
audit data received, performs the intrusion detection locally.
When it detects the intrusion, it initiates the local alarm. Local
Data Association Agent (LDAA), aggregates the detection
result from different LDA.LRA (Local Response Agent) sends
aggregated results to the GIDS of that zone. Only gateway
nodes run the GIDS and they are organized in multiple layers
iDs GAA, GDA and GRA perform communication between
the LIDS and GIDS. GAA maintains the configuration and
status of each agent in the framework.
.1 Procedure for Intrusion Detection
1.
The local alarm is received by the GIDS as
an indication of attack which are recognized
and sent by the local agents.
2.
GDAA aggregates the detection results received from
all other mobile node in the same zone and send the combined
result to GDA.
3.
GDA will invoke some intrusion detection
procedures to know the type of intrusion and determine the
attacking node and sends intrusion detection result to GRA
and LRA.
4.
The GRA will keep the attacking node away from the
network with the identity based Cryptosystem scheme [9] and
broadcast it to all other nodes in the same zone and with the
neighboring gateway nodes.
4. Conclusion
We have proposed Hierarchical Zone Based Intrusion
Detection System for MANETS. Since it uses hierarchical
approach, it can be extended to deal with MANETS of any
sizes. This fits distributed feature of MANET. As this model
uses gateway nodes, it is supposed to make the adhoc network
more efficient limiting the resources.
The model represented in this paper represents the
effective effort for the development of a sophisticated
intrusion detection system for MANETS. As a future work,
we plan to develop and improve the model and implement it
using NS2 simulator to identify and eliminate the attacks
which are vulnerable in MANETS due to open medium.
5. References
Data Collection
Global Response
Agent
[1] Y. Zhang and W. Lee, Intrusion Detection in Wireless Ad Hoc

Networks, the 6th Annual International Conf. on Mobile Computing
andNetworking (ACM MobiCom00), Boston, MA, Aug., 2000, pp. 275-283.
[2] Fu, Yingfang; He, Jingsha; Li, Guorui,A Distributed Intrusion Detection
Scheme for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Computer Software and
Applications Conference, 2007.COMPSAC 2007 - Vol. 2. 31st Annual
International Volume 2, Issue, 24-27 July 2007 Page(s):75 80
[3] Y. Hu and A. Perrig, A Survey of Secure Wireless Ad Hoc routing,
IEEE Security and Privacy, IEEE press, pp: 28-39, 2004
Audit data
Page 137
[4]Li Y.,Wei J., Guidelines on Selecting Intrusion Detection Methods in

MANET Proc of ISECON 2004, v 21
[5]H.Deng, R. Xu, J. Li, F. Zhang, R. Levy, W. Lee, "Agentbased
Cooperative Anomaly Detection for Wireless Ad Hoc Networks," in Proc. the
IEEE Twelfth International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Systems
(ICPDS'06), 2006
[6] Y. Huang and W. Lee, A Cooperative Intrusion Detection System for Ad
Hoc Networks, Proc. 1st ACM Workshop Security of Ad Hoc and Sensor
Networks,Virginia, ACM press, pp:135-147, 2003.
[7] Anantvalee, Tiranuch and Wu, Jie, A survey on Intrusion detection in
mobile ad hoc networks. In: Xiao, Y., Shen, X., Du, D.-Z. (Eds.),
Wireless/Mobile Network Security, Springer. pp. 170-196.
[8] Fu, Yingfang; He, Jingsha; Li, Guorui,A Distributed Intrusion Detection
Scheme for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Computer Software and
Applications Conference, 2007. COMPSAC 2007 - Vol. 2. 31st Annual
International Volume 2, Issue, 24-27 July 2007 Page(s):75 80
[9] X. Lin and X. Zen, Mobile Ad Hoc Network -Self-Organization Wireless
Network Technology,Publishing House of Electronics Industry, Beijing,
China,2006.
Page 138
Implementing High Performance Hybrid Search

Using CELL Processor
Mrs.Umarani Srikanth
Assistant Professor, Computer Science and Engineering Department, S.A.Engineering College, Affiliated to Anna University
Thiruverkadu Post, Chennai, Tamilnadu State, India
gmurani@yahoo.com
Abstract The slowing pace of commodity microprocessor

performance improvements combined with ever-increasing chip
power demands has become of utmost concern to computational
scientists. As a result, the high performance computing
community is examining alternative architectures that address
the limitations of modern cache-based designs. Multicore
processors are an architectural paradigm shift that promises a
dramatic increase in performance. But they also bring of
complexity in algorithmic design and software development. In
this paper the challenges involved in designing the Hybrid Search
which is the combination of both Breadth-First-Search algorithm
(BFS) and Depth-First-Search (DFS) algorithm for the Cell/BE
processor is discussed. The proposed methodology combines a
high-level algorithmic design that captures the machineindependent aspects to guarantee portability with performance
to future processors. The Hybrid Search helps searching
terminology to be made simpler. There are a lot of searching
terminologies in practice, which have its own advantages and
disadvantages. The performance factor plays a key role in
searching algorithms. The Cell broadband engine uses one PPE
and eight SPEs thereby making the performance issues to be
resolved and helps in faster computations. The Hybrid-Searching
algorithm performs well on the multicore processor. This work
combines the logics of both breadth first search and depth first
search algorithms. It is proved that the parallelization improves
the performance of the hybrid searching.
Keywords Multicore Processor, Parallel Computing, Cell
Broadband Engine processor, Parallelization techniques, Depth
First Search algorithm(DFS)
and Breadth-First Search
Algorithm(BFS).
I. INTRODUCTION
Over the last decade, high-performance computing has ridden
the wave of commodity technology, building clusters that
could leverage the tremendous growth in processor
performance fuelled by the commercial world. As this pace
slows down, processor designers are facing complex problems
when increasing gate density, reducing power consumption
and designing efficient memory hierarchies. Traditionally,
performance gains in commodity processors have come
through higher clock frequencies, an exponential increase in
number of devices integrated on a chip, and other architectural
improvements. Power consumption is increasingly becoming
the driving constraint in processor design. Processors are
much more power limited rather than area limited. Current
general purpose processors are optimized for single-threaded
workloads and spend a significant amount of resources to

extract parallelism. Common techniques are out-of-order
execution, register renaming, dynamic schedulers, branch
prediction, and reorder buffers. Experiencing diminishing
returns, processor designers are turning their attention to
thread level, VLIW and SIMD parallelism [1]. Explicitly
parallel techniques, where a user or a compiler expresses the
available parallelism as a set of cooperating threads, offer a
more efficient means of converting power into performance
than techniques that speculatively discover the implicit and
often limited instruction-level parallelism hidden in a single
thread.
Another important trend in computer architectures is
the implementation of highly integrated chips. Several design
avenues have been explored such as AMD Opteron, IBM
Power5,
SunNiagara,
Intel
Montecito,
Itanium
etc[2],[3],[4][5]. The Cell Broadband Engine (Cell/BE)
processor, jointly developed by IBM, Sony, and Toshiba is a
heterogeneous chip with nine cores capable of massive
floating-point processing and is optimized for computationally
intensive workloads and broadband rich media applications.
The processing power of the single-precision Gflops/second
has not passed unobserved.[30],[36].
To fully exploit the potential of multicore processors, we need
a significant paradigm shift in the software development
process. Unfortunately, for some classes of applications, this
implies the radical redesign of algorithms. Together with the
initial excitement of early evaluations [6], several concerns
have emerged. More specifically, there is an interest in
understanding what the complexity is of developing new
applications and parallelizing compilers [9], whether there is a
clear migration path for existing legacy software [7],[8], and
what fraction of the peak performance can actually be
achieved by real applications. Several recent works provide
insight into these problems [10],[11],[12],[13]. In fact, to
develop efficient multicore algorithms, one must understand
in depth multiple algorithmic and architectural aspects. The
list includes the following:
identifying the available dimensions of parallelism,
mapping parallel threads of activity to a potentially

large pool of processing and functional units,
Page 139
using simple processing cores with limited

functionalities,
coping with the limited on-chip memory per core,
coping with the limited off-chip memory bandwidth

The programming landscape of these advanced multicore
processors is rather sophisticated. Many similarities appear
with cluster computing: in both fields, we need to extract
explicit parallelism, deal with communication, and take care
of how threads of computation are mapped onto the physical
machine [14],[15],[16]. There are also differences, mostly in
the data orchestration between processing cores and main
memory, which demand a fresh look at the problem and the
design of new algorithms.
1.2 .Graph Exploration Algorithms
By a graph search we mean some process that visits each node
of a graph (arcs are merely the highways by which we perform
the search). These algorithms known as breadth first search
(BFS) and depth first search (DFS) are polar opposites. BFS
is timid, it does not go ten yards from the den until it has
explored everything within five yards. DFS is adventurous, as
it goes as far as it can in any one direction before it tries a
different direction. Many areas of science demand techniques
for exploring large-scale data sets that are represented by
graphs. Among graph search algorithms, Breadth-First Search
(BFS) is probably the most common and the building block
for a wide range of graph applications. For example, in the
analysis of semantic graphs, the relationship between two
vertices is expressed by the properties of the shortest path
between them, given by a BFS search [17], [18], and [19].
BFS is also the basic building block for best-first search,
uniform-cost search, greedy search, and A*, which are
commonly used in motion planning for robotics [20], [21]. A
good amount of literature deals with the design of BFS or
dedicated hardware [22], [24]. But no studies have
investigated how effectively the Cell/BE can be employed to
perform BFS on large graphs and how it compares with other
commodity processors and supercomputers. The Cell/BE, with
its impressive amount of parallelism [36], [37] promises
interesting speedups in the BFS exploration of the many graph
topologies that can benefit from it. Searching large graphs
poses difficult challenges, because the vast search space is
combined with the lack of spatial and temporal locality in the
data access pattern. In fact, few parallel algorithms outperform
their best sequential implementations on clusters due to long
memory latencies and high synchronization costs. These
issues call for even more attention on multicores like the
Cell/BE because of the memory hierarchy, which must be
managed explicitly [38], [39], [40].
Breadth-first search is complete. Breadth-first Search (BFS)
[25] is a fundamental graph theory algorithm that is
extensively used to abstract various challenging computational
problems. Due to the fine-grained irregular memory accesses,
parallelization of BFS [41], [42] can exhibit limited
performance on cache-based systems. If the goal node is at
some finite depth say d, BFS will eventually find it after

expanding all shallower nodes. However the time taken to find
out a solution is large. Whereas, DFS progresses by
expanding the first child node of the search tree that appears
and thus going deeper and deeper until a goal node is found,
or until it hits a node that has no children. Then the search
backtracks, returning to the most recent node it hasn't finished
exploring. If the key to be found seems to reside at very high
depths, the DFS algorithm may run into infinite looping
whereby the searching process becomes incomplete. Breadthfirst search is ideal in situations where the answer is near the
top of the tree and Depth-first search works well when the
goal node is near the bottom of the tree. Depth-first search has
much lower memory requirements. The combination of these
two algorithms makes searching in an efficient manner in the
sense that it takes the only the merits of both the algorithms
and new parallelized algorithm is formulated called Hybrid
Search and it is implemented which works very fast in
searching the elements using the Cell Broadband Engine (Cell
BE) Processor.
As the modern processors moving more towards improving
parallelization and multithreading, it has become impossible
for performance gains in older compilers as technology
advances. Any multicore architecture relies on improving
parallelism than on improving single core performance. The
main advantage of Hybrid Searching is that combining both of
these traditional search strategies, one overcomes the
disadvantage faced by the other. Experiments show an almost
linear scaling over the number of used synergistic processing
elements in the Cell/BE platform and compares favourably
against other systems.
II. MULTICORE PROCESSORS
In computing, multi-core processor is a processing system
composed of two or more independent cores. One can
describe it as an integrated circuit to which two or more
individual processors (cores) have been attached. The cores
are typically integrated onto a single integrated circuit die [26]
(known as a chip multiprocessor or CMP), or they may be
integrated onto multiple dies in a single chip package. A
many-core processor is one in which the number of cores is
large enough that traditional multi-processor techniques are no
longer efficient. With so many different designs it is nearly
impossible to set any standard for cache coherence,
interconnections, and layout. The greatest difficulty remains in
teaching parallel programming techniques and in redesigning
current applications to run optimally on a multicore system.
Multicore processors are an important innovation in the
microprocessor timeline. With skilled programmers capable of
writing parallelized applications multicore efficiency could be
increased dramatically. In years to come we will see much in
the way of improvements to these systems. These
improvements will provide faster programs and a better
computing experience.
Page 140
As personal computers have become more prevalent and more

applications have been designed for them, the end-user has
seen the need for a faster, more capable system to keep up.
Speedup has been achieved by increasing clock speeds and,
more recently, adding multiple processing cores to the same
chip. Although chip speed has increased exponentially over
the years, that time is ending and manufacturers have shifted
toward multicore processing. However, by increasing the
number of cores on a single chip challenges arise with
memory and cache coherence as well as communication
between the cores. Coherence protocols and interconnection
networks have resolved some issues, but until programmers
learn to write parallel applications, the full benefit and
efficiency of multicore processors will not be
attained[28],[29].
The trend of increasing a processors speed to get a boost in
performance is a way of the past. Multicore processors are the
new direction manufacturers are focusing on. Using multiple
cores on a single chip is advantageous in raw processing
power, but nothing comes for free. With additional cores,
power consumption and heat dissipation become a concern
and must be simulated before lay-out to determine the best
floor plan which distributes heat across the chip, while being
careful not to form any hot spots. Distributed and shared
caches on the chip must adhere to coherence protocols to
make sure that when a core reads from memory it is reading
the current piece of data and not a value that has been updated
by a different core.
2.1.Moores Law
One of the guiding principles of computer architecture is
known as Moores Law. In 1965 Gordon Moore stated that the
number of transistors on a chip wills roughly double each year
and computer performance will double every 18 months [28].
The graph in Figure 1 plots many of the early microprocessors
briefly discussed against the number of transistors per chip.
instructions are pre-fetched, split into sub-components and

executed out-of-order. A major focus of computer architects is
the branch instruction. Branch instructions are the equivalent
of a fork in the road; the processor has to gather all necessary
information before making a decision. In order to speed up
this process, the processor predicts which path will be taken; if
the wrong path is chosen the processor must throw out any
data computed while taking the wrong path and backtrack to
take the correct path. Often even when an incorrect branch is
taken the effect is equivalent to having waited to take the
correct path. Branches are also removed using loop unrolling
and sophisticated neural network-based predictors are used to
minimize the misprediction rate. Other techniques used for
performance enhancement include register renaming, trace
caches, reorder buffers, dynamic/software scheduling, and
data value prediction
2.2 The Need for Multicore
Speeding up processor frequency had run its course in the
earlier part of this decade; computer architects needed a new
approach to improve performance. Adding an additional
processing core to the same chip would, in theory, result in
twice the performance and dissipate less heat, though in
practice the actual speed of each core is slower than the fastest
single core processor. Multicore is not a new concept, as the
idea has been used in embedded systems and for specialized
applications for some time, but recently the technology has
become mainstream with Intel and Advanced Micro Devices
(AMD) introducing many commercially available multicore
chips. In contrast to commercially available two and four core
machines in 2008, some experts believe that by 2017
embedded processors could sport 4,096 cores, server CPUs
might have 512 cores and desktop chips could use 128
cores[29]. This rate of growth is astounding considering that
current desktop chips are on the cusp of using four cores and a
single core has been used for the past 30 years[43].
2.3 . MultiCore Framework
The MultiCore Framework (MCF) is an API for programming
a heterogeneous multicore chip oriented toward n-dimensional
matrix computation. An MCF application consists of a
manager program (that runs on the Cells PPE) and one or
more workers (SPEs on the Cell).
MCFs most important features include the ability to:
To gain performance within a single core many techniques are

used. Superscalar processors with the ability to issue multiple
instructions concurrently are the standard. In these pipelines,
define teams of worker processes,

assign tasks to a team of workers,
load and unload functions (called plugins) by worker
programs,
synchronize between the manager and worker teams,
define the organization and distribution of n-dimensional
data sets through data distribution objects, and
Move blocks of data via channels.
Page 141
Fig(1) Moores law
This last feature is perhaps the most important. It facilitates

multi-buffered strip mining of data between a large memory
(XDR memory on the Cell) and small worker memories (SPE
local store on the Cell) in such a way as to insulate worker
code from the details of the data organization in main
memory.
III.CELL BROADBAND ENGINE ARCHITECTURE
The Cell architecture was patented by Ken Kuturagi (Sony) in
1999[30], [31], [32], [33], [34]. He differentiated between
software and hardware cells. A software cell is a program with
the associated data, and the hardware cell is an execution unit
with the capability to execute a software cell. A cell processor
consists of a so called PPE (PowerPC Processing Element)
which acts as the main processor to distribute tasks (software
cells), a MFC (Memory Flow Controller) which interfaces
between the computing and memory units, many SPEs
(Synergistic Processing Elements) which are the hardware
cells with their own memory. The Cell CPU is essentially a
combination of a Power Processor with 8 small Vector
Processors (cmp. Co-Processors). All these Units are
connected via an EIB (Element Interconnect Bus) and
communicate with peripheral devices or other CPUs via the
FlexIO Interface. Unfortunately, the Cell design incorporates
hardware DRM features, but the positive aspects outbalance
this easily. A single Cell, essentially a Network on Chip,
offers up to 256 GFlop single precision floating point
performance. A block-diagram of the processor is shown in
figure 2.
transistors where 2/3 of them are dedicated to the

SRAM(memory). The processor has no branch prediction or
scheduling logic, and relies on the programmer/compiler to
find parallelism in the code. As the PPE, it uses two
independent pipelines and issues two instructions per cycle,
one SIMD computation operation and one memory access
operation. All instructions are processed strictly in-order and
each instruction works with 128 Bit compound data items. 4
single precision floating point units and 4 integer units offer
up to 32GOps each. The single precision floating point units
are not IEEE754 compliant in terms of rounding and special
values. The single precision units can also be used to compute
double precision floating point numbers which are compliant
to the IEEE754 standard. But their computation is rather slow
(3-4GFlops). The memory layout of the SPE is also quite
special, each SPE has its own 256kB RAM which is called
Local Storage (LS). This SRAM storage can be accessed
extremely fast in 128 bit lines. Additionally, each SPE has a
large register file of 128, 128 bit registers which store all
available data types. There is no cache, virtual memory
support or coherency for the Local Storage, and the data can
be moved with DMA from/to main memory via the EIB. The
Memory Flow Controller (MFC) acts like a MMU in this
context and provides virtual memory translations for main
memory access.
3.3 .The Element Interconnect Bus
The SPE is essentially a full blown vector CPU with own

RAM. Its ISA is not compatible to VMX and has a fixed
length of 32 Bit. Current SPEs have about 21 million
The EIB is the central communication channel inside a Cell

processor, it consists of four 128 bit wide concentric rings.
The ring uses buffered point to point communication to
transfer the data and is therewith scalable. It can move 96
bytes per cycle and is optimized for 1024 bit data blocks.
Additional nodes (e.g. SPEs) can be added easily and increase
only the maximal latency of the ring. Each device has a
hardware guaranteed bandwidth of 1/numDevices to enhance
the suitability for real time computing. The I/O Interconnect
connects the Cell processor to other cell processors. It offers
12 unidirectional byte-lanes which are 96 wires. Each lane
may transport up to 6.4GB/s, which make 76.8 GB
accumulated bandwidth. 7 lanes are outgoing (44.8 GB/s) and
5 lanes incoming (32 GB/s). There are cache coherent, non
coherent links and two cell processors can be connected
glueless. The Memory Interface Controller (MIC) connects
the EIB to the main DRAM memory, which is in this case
Rambus XDR memory which offers a bandwidth of 25.2
GB/s.
IV CELL PROGRAMMING
The programming of the cell will be as special as the
architecture. The big advantage is that there is no abstraction
layer between an external ISA and the internal core (cmp.
x86) [8]. But the strict RISC design moves the effort to
generate optimal code up, to the programmer or compiler. And
the general problems of parallel or streaming application
development stay the same as for multi-core or multi
processor machines. The SPEs are programmed in a direct
Page 142
Fig 2. Cell Processor Architecture

3.1. The Power Processing Element
The Power Processing Element (PPE) [36] offers the normal

PowerPC (PPC) ISA. It is a dual threaded 64 bit power
processor which includes VMX. Its architecture is very simple
to guarantee high clock rates. Thus, it uses only in order
execution with a deep super scalar 2-way pipeline with more
than 20 stages. It offers a 2x32kB L1 split cache, a 512kB L2
cache and virtualization. Altogether the PPE can be seen as a
simplified Power processor
3.2 .The Synergistic Processing Element
manner, as own autonomous processors with their 256kB

Local Storage and 128 Registers. An Assembly language
specification is available from IBM but higher level languages
such as C/C++ are also supported for application
development. The task distribution and allocation of SPEs is
fully done in software. The operating system could use them
as a shared resource and virtualize them for many tasks (each
task sees their own SPEs, in the whole more than available).
The PPE is programmed like a standard PPC970 and Linux is
running as is (without SPE support, but a patch is available
from IBM). The SPEs can be used in different scenarios. A
job queue can be used to processes a fixed amount of
independent jobs as fast as possible, the SPEs could also be
used in a self multitasking manner, as if the cell were a multicore or multi CPU system. Stream processing (Pipelining) is
also supported and especially very reasonable for media data
(e.g. HDTV). The Local Storage could be used as a cache, but
has to be managed by the software for this task. Additionally,
MPI support is thinkable, where each SPE is a single node.
All these different programming models are just ideas, the
future will show which models will be used on the new Cell
processors.
V.SEQUENTIAL BREADTH-FIRST SEARCH
ALGORITHM
First the notation employed throughout the rest of this paper
and sequential version of BFS is introduced. Then a simplified
parallel algorithm as a collection of cooperating shared
memory threads is described. Finally the level of detail with a
second parallel algorithm that explicitly manages a hierarchy
of working sets is described. Given a graph G(V ,E) and a
root vertex r V , the BFS algorithm explores the edges of G
to discover all the vertices reachable from r, and it produces a
breadth-first tree rooted at r, containing all the vertices
reachable from r. Vertices are visited in levels: when a vertex
is visited at level l, it is also said to be at distance l from the
root. A graph G = (V, E) is composed by a set of vertices V
and a set of edges E. Define the size of a graph as the number
of vertices |V|. Given a vertex vV, we indicate with Ev the
set of neighboring vertices of v such that Ev = {wV:(v,w)
E}, and with dv the vertex degree, i.e. the number of elements
|Ev|. Denote D as the average degree of the vertices in a
graph, D = vV |Ev|/|V|. Given a graph G(V,E) and a root
vertex r V, the BFS algorithm explores the edges of G to
discover all the vertices reachable from r, and it produces a
breadth-first tree, rooted at r, containing all the vertices
reachable from r. Vertices are visited in levels: when a vertex
is visited at level l it is also said to be at distance l from the
root. The pseudo-code description of a sequential BFS
algorithm is given below. Breadth-first search (BFS) is
a graph search algorithm that begins at the root node and
explores all the neighboring nodes. Then for each of those
nearest nodes, it explores their unexplored neighbour nodes,
and so on, until it finds the goal node[35].
Breadth First Search (G, S)

Input : A graph G and a vertex.
Output: Edges labelled as discovery and cross edges in the
connected component.
Create a Queue Q.
ENQUEUE (Q, S) // Insert S into Q.
While Q is not empty do
for each vertex v in Q do
for all edges e incident on v do
if edge e is unexplored then
let w be the other endpoint of e.
if vertex w is unexpected then
mark e as a discovery edge
insert w into Q
else
mark e as a cross edge
VI. SEQUENTIAL DEPTH-FIRST SEARCH ALGORITHM
The algorithm starts at a specific vertex S in G, which
becomes current vertex. Then algorithm traverse graph by any
edge (u, v) incident to the current vertex u. If the edge (u, v)
leads to an already visited vertex v, then backtrack to current
vertex u. If, on other hand, edge (u, v) leads to an unvisited
vertex v, then go to v and v becomes the current vertex.
Proceed in this manner until reach to "deadend". At this point
start back tracking. The process terminates when backtracking
leads back to the start vertex. Edges leads to new vertex are
called discovery or tree edges and edges lead to already
visited are called back edges. Depth-first search (DFS) is
an algorithm for traversing or searching a tree, tree structure,
or graph. One starts at the root (selecting some node as the
root in the graph case) and explores as far as possible along
each branch before backtracking. DFS is an uninformed
search that progresses by expanding the first child node of the
search tree that appears and thus going deeper and deeper until
a goal node is found, or until it hits a node that has no
children. Then the search backtracks, returning to the most
recent node it hasn't finished exploring. In a non-recursive
implementation, all freshly expanded nodes are added to
a stack for exploration. We will separate the DFS algorithm
into four distinct procedures: Get Root, Go Forward, Go
Backward and DFS. Note that once the algorithm is underway,
there is a current node, C. If a node N has label (x,y) we write
V(N) = x and L(N) = y. At any given time the algorithm is
designed to go forward (that is further from the root). When it
cant go further it backs up to the prior node and tries to go
further down another path. When the algorithm cannot go
further and cannot back up then the algorithm looks for
another root. When the algorithm looks for another root and
fails to find one, it terminates. The DFS algorithm is as
follows:
Get Root {This procedure is only run when it is called from
DFS}
If there is a node labeled (0,0) with no antecedent
Page 143
Then make this node C {it is current} and set V(C)T; {T

for time}
Else If there is a node labeled (0,0) {and all such nodes have
antecedents}
Make it C and set V(C) T;
Else Stop {algorithm is finished};
TT+1. {end Get Root}
Go Forward {This procedure is only run when it is called
from DFS}
Iterate2 True; IterateFalse
While Iterate2
If an arc goes from C to a node labeled (0,0)
Then make it C and set V(C)T; IterateTrue; TT+1;
Else Iterate2 = False;
{end Go Forward}.
Go Backward {This procedure is only run when it is called
from DFS}
IterateFalse;
L(C)T
If there is an antecedent node
Then
Find an antecedent node, N, with V(N) = V(C)-1;
Set L(C)T;
CN; {make N current}
Else IterateFalse;
TT+1.{End Go Backward}.
for(i=1;i<spe count;i++)
{
Start:=spe[i]->thread[no of ele , key ,spe id]
//invoke other SPEs to search in DFS
}
Found:=spu_read_out_mbox();
// Read status from outbound mailbox of SPEs.
If(Found)
Print Key found
Else
Print Key not found
Terminate(spe[i]->thread)
exit(0)
end
DFS {This is the main procedure}

Mark each node (0,0);
Set T0
Repeat
Get Root {termination occurs in Get Root}
IterateTrue
While Iterate
Go Forward
Go Backward
{end DFS}.
algorithm for the SPEs doing DFS

create Tree(no of ele/7)
dfs search tree(node* root , int key)
if key found
Found =1
Spu_write_out_mbox(spe id, found);
// write the result to the ppe
algorithm for SPE doing BFS

create Tree(no of ele);
bfs search tree(node*root, int key)
If key found
// if key found , mark found as 1
Found=1
// write the result to the ppe
Else
Found =0
VII. PARALLELIZED HYBRID SEARCH ALGORITHM

Here it is proposed to combine two of the most popular
searching algorithms used. The disadvantage of one algorithm
is overcome by the other and thus making the searching
algorithm to be developed in a better way. Parallel algorithm
used on these searching techniques make them to run on the
different cores thereby making effective utilization of the
resources. And also the drawbacks of each of the algorithm
are overcome by the other thereby reducing the time taken for
the overall throughput.
Algorithm for PPU
No_of_ele:= read no of elements
Spe_count:=read no of spes to be used
Key:=key to be searched
Start: spe[0]->thread(no of file , key ,spe id)
//invoke first SPE to search in BFS
Fig3 pictorial representation of hybrid search
Page 144
VIII. IMPLEMENTATION OF PARALLEL HYBRID

SEARCH FOR CELL PROCESSOR
To implement the hybrid search The IBM Full System
simulator CELL SDK3.1 is used. The Cell Broadband Engine
is a generalized simulator that can be configured to simulate a
broad range of full-system configurations. It supports full
functional simulation, including the PPE, SPEs, MFCs, PPE
caches, bus, and memory controller. It can simulate and
capture many levels of operational details on instruction
execution, cache and memory subsystems, interrupt
subsystems, communications, and other important system
functions. It also supports some cycle-accurate simulation
(performance or timing simulation).
Where KEY is the element to be searched against the tree,
spe_count is the number of SPEs to be utilized in the
searching process, TREE SIZE is the total number of elements
to be searched. The PPE determines the tree size for the SPEs
performing DFS, depending on two factors namely, the input
tree size and the number of SPEs to be utilized. PPE initiates
the first SPE which is supposed to search its tree in BFS
fashion by sending the key element to be searched. The entire
tree is given as input to this SPE as this SPE will search the
entire set of elements in BFS fashion. The PPE then initiates
all other seven SPEs and it fixes the tree size for each SPE
which is the total number of elements to be processed divided
by the number of SPEs to be utilized. It then sends these trees
to the respective SPEs and it also sends the key element to be
searched to each SPE.
The number of SPEs invoked depends on the spe_count
entered by the user. The processing of the SPEs starts now.
Each SPE creates a binary tree with its own prescribed set of
elements. The creation of nodes in the binary tree takes place
in breadth first fashion. For the last SPE, the tree size differs
slightly as the relation mentioned above doesnt stand
perfectly divisible at all times. So for the last SPE, the
quotient obtained from the above relation is summed up with
the remainder left out after the division is carried out, so that
no element is left out within the tree_size prescribed. The
nodes are created and added to the tree in level order
fashion. Trees get constructed and stored in each of the SPEs
local store. As the SPEs local store memory is very limited,
this poses a limit on the number of elements that can be
processed by this cell BE architecture. The actual searching
process starts after the binary trees are created by all of the
SPEs.
The first SPE makes use of BFS strategy to search the
elements of
its tree. The rest of the SPEs search their own trees in Depth
first search fashion. This is pictorially represented in the fig 3.
Once a SPE finds the key, it immediately writes the key
status to its outbound mailbox. The PPE keeps listening to the
outbound mailbox of all of the SPEs continuously, The PPE
stalls until the outbound mailbox channel remains empty.

When this channel gets filled up with the key status reported
by any of the SPEs, the PPE immediately reads it and displays
the result to the user. Once the key is reported, the PPE
immediately terminates all SPE threads, to prevent them from
searching further and all resources held are freed up.
When the key element is not found by any of the SPEs, the
SPEs performing DFS terminates with no signal of response.
The responsibility of reporting that the key isnt found in the
tree prescribed is allotted to the SPE performing BFS. This is
because BFS is always complete by which there is 100%
guarantee of searching all the elements where DFS doesnt
stand complete, there is a possibility of this search running
into infinite depths.
So if the key to be searched is not found by the SPE
performing BFS, then it writes the KEY NOT FOUND
status to its outbound mailbox, which will be read by the PPE
and reported to the user. The main advantage of combining
both of these traditional search strategies is that, one
overcomes the disadvantage faced by the other. If the key to
be searched is found very deep in the tree, then it will be
searched and reported by the SPE performing DFS. Where as
if the key to be searched is found at very shallow depths, then
the SPE performing BFS reports it first, by which time taken
for searching the key element is greatly minimized
IX.PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
The overall process and control flow of the parallelized and
synchronized hybrid search is implemented by using cell sdk
3.1 simulator
Performance in parallel algorithms is
measured in terms of accuracy of the results and speed of
execution of the algorithm. In this case the key element is
searched parallely by all SPEs using both the graph searching
algorithms. Since each SPE is working on its own set of nodes
the result is obtained hardly within few seconds as soon as the
process is started. The performance graph shown in figure 4 is
meant for the key value 500, where the number of elements to
be searched is 7000. Here we could see SPE7 doing the BFS,
while all other SPEs doing DFS as shown in the figure.
X. CONCLUSION
Together with an unprecedented level of performance,
multicore processors are also bringing an unprecedented level
of complexity in terms of software development. A clear shift
of paradigm from classical parallel computing, where
parallelism is typically expressed in a single dimension, to the
complex multidimensional parallelization space of multicore
processors, where several levels of control and data
parallelism must be exploited in order to gain the expected
performance is seen. With this work, it is proved that for the
specific case of the Hybrid Search graph exploration, it is
possible to tame the algorithmic and software development
process and achieve, at the same time, an impressive level of
Performance. Thus the performance issues encountered using
the existing searching algorithms are overcome by the hybrid
search algorithm. The hybrid algorithms work fine and good
Page 145
with all the cores of the cell broadband engine. The accuracy
of the results is also greatly improved. We can select an
application for which this algorithm can be used to find
optimal solution and enhance the performance by reducing the
running time of the application. Also we can find paths from
the root to the solution. We can also add weight corresponding
to each edge.
[5]String Searching with Multicore Processors, Oreste Villa,

Politecnico di Milano/Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Daniele
Paolo Scarpazza and Fabrizio Petrini, IBM

T.J. Watson Research Center,2009 Published by the IEEE
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Fig.4 graph shows functioning of all SPEs
.
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Page 148
Phase Based Shape Matching For

Trademarks Retrieval
B.Sathya BamaLecturer, M.AnithaStudent, Dr.S.RajuProfessor
Electronics and Communication Engineering, Thiagarajar College of Engineering
Thiruparankundram, Tamil Nadu, India-625015
sbece@tce.edu,mmanitha@tce.edu,rajuabhai@tce.edu
Abstract:
This paper proposes a phase based method for shape matching
for retrieving trademarks in digital databases. The proposed
approach utilizes phase as a key to develop shape descriptors.
The phase combined with magnitude information improves the
recognition rate in terms of discrimination power. Experiments
were carried out with 30 samples of trademarks and results were
examined. Comparative study with existing algorithm shows that
the proposed method is highly efficient in elimination of
irrelevant matches.
KeywordsShape matching, Phase discrimination, Chord
distribution, Radon transform, Chamfer distance transform.
II. INTRODUCTION
SHAPE matching is a challenging problem particularly by
huge proliferation of images on the Internet, mainly in
computer databases containing thousands or millions of
images. Applications of shape recognition can be found in
Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing
(CAD/CAM), virtual reality (VR), medicine, molecular
biology, security, and entertainment [1].
Existing approaches can be divided into [1]: Statistical
descriptors, like for example geometric 3D moments
employed by [2] and the shape distribution [3]. Extensionbased descriptors, which are calculated from features sampled
along certain directions from a position within the object [4].
Volume-based descriptors use the volumetric representation of
a 3D object to extract features (examples are Shape
histograms [5], Model Voxelization [6] and point set methods
[7]). Descriptors using the surface geometry compute
curvature measures the distribution of surface normal vectors
[8]. Image based descriptors reduce the problem of 3D shape
matching to an image similarity problem by comparing2D
projections of the 3D objects [9]. Methods matching the
topology of the two objects (for example Reeb graphs, where
the topology of the 3D object is described by a graph structure
[10]). Skeletons are intuitive object descriptions and can be
obtained from a 3D object by applying a thinning algorithm
on the voxelization of a solid object like in [11].
Despite such a long history, interest in the problem has been
recently reignited [12] by the fantastic proliferation of
electronic imaging and digital color images Although many

typical image database algorithms, such as finding two
matching or cropped photographs, may rely on a variety of
shading, texture, and color attributes, there are significant
opportunities for the use of shape as a discriminator. The
problem of trademark infringement is a particularly fitting
example: most trademarks are high-contrast images from
which a shape is readily acquired, and where shading and
texture, play only a secondary role, or none at all.
Fourier shape descriptors have been studied extensively;
however the descriptor phases have been mostly neglected.
The phase has either been ignored entirely, leading to highly
ambiguous matches, or treated in a simple manner which is
reasonable for complex, natural shapes, but which fails for
simply-structured shapes common among trademarks [13].
We emphasize that the purpose of this paper is a theoretical
analysis of phase in the context of shape matching. We will
derive highly-robust phase tests, invariant to shift, rotation,
scale, and orientation. However this leaves us with a class of
tests, of which the optimum, found through detailed
experiments with other existing algorithms, is the subject of
ongoing research.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2
discusses about the background in the context of shape
matching. Section 3 describes the implementation of the
proposed work. Section 4 gives the experimental results.
Finally, Section 5 concludes this paper.
III. BACKGROUND IN SHAPE MATCHING
A.
Phase in Shape Descriptors
Given a huge number of binary images, which are to be tested
on the basis of shape, there are two, obvious criteria:
a)
Comparison Speed, and
b)
Compactness of Representation.
Considering two-dimensional shapes bounded by simple,
closed curve may be a much more compact description than
the huge two-dimensional array of pixels making up the
shape.
Page 149
Indeed, chain codes been developed for such a purpose, in

which x(t), y(t) clockwise trace the outline of a shape, where
parameter t measures the boundary length from some arbitrary
starting point t = 0. Since x(t) and y(t) are clearly periodic,
Fourier approaches have long been used in compacting and
analyzing shapes. In particular, let
z ( t ) = x ( t ) + iy ( t )
(1)
represent the shape outline in the two-dimensional, complex
domain where t is not a continuous variable.
Using the FFT, z(n) is easily converted to the Fourier domain
f ( k ) = F { z ( n )}
(2)
where the complex f(k) are known as the Fourier shape
descriptors. The entire challenge, then, of shape matching is
the interpretation and comparison of the Fourier descriptors
fm(k) from shape m with those of some other shape n.
Chamfer distance transform: The similarity between two

shapes can be measured using their chamfer distance [15].
U = {u }n andV = {v }m
i i =1
j j =1
.the
Given the two point sets
chamfer distance function is the mean of the distances
between each point, uiU and its closest point in V:
d cham (U , V ) =
1
n
min
u i U
|| u i v j ||
v j V
(4)
The symmetric chamfer distance is obtained by adding
d cham (U , V )
IV. PHASE BASED FOURIER SHAPE MATCHING

Figure 3.1 shows the complete Phase based shape matching
for trademark-matching problem. Given some model shape
outline z(n), we can consider four perturbations which do not
affect the inherent shape:
_
z ( n ) = + e i rz (( n ) mod N )
(5)
where r is scaling, is orientation, is rotation and is shift
and N is the length of the boundary in pixels.
Applying the Fourier transform, we find that
_
i 2 k / N
f (k ) = e
{ .( k = 0 ) + e rf ( k )}
(6)
Since z1(n), z2(n) are equivalent shapes, the goal is to
determine how to find descriptors invariant to r, , , and ,
and thus variant only to inherent changes in shape.
Fig 2.1. Sensitivity of shape to the phase information
Because of the sensitivity of the phase (the complex angle

component) of f (k) to image rotations and changes in the
shape origin (where we define our start point for tracing the
outline), often only the magnitude components are examined.
However the pitfalls of ignoring phase are long established in
image processing; indeed, each column in Figure 2.1 has
constant magnitude characteristics but with varying phase.
The situation becomes progressively worse for more complex
shapes, which would include many trademark images, where
wildly differing shapes may be naively matched by magnitude
comparators.
B.
Input trademark
Fourier spectrum using
FFT
Magnitude Normalization
Phase Discrimination
-Transform
The -Transform to represent a shape is based on the Radon

transform. The Radon transform is the projection of the image
intensity along a radial line oriented at a specific angle. We
assume that the function f is the domain of a shape and its
Radon transform is defined by:
TR ( , ) =
f ( x, y ) ( x cos + y sin )dxdy
(3)
Selecting
common
reference
Phase Comparison
Fig 3.1. Flow Chart for proposed work
First, the term f(0) is the only one sensitive to , so we ignore

it. Next, we normalize to f(1),
=
f (k ) =
f (k )
_
f (1)
= e i 2 ( k 1) / N
f (k )
(6)
f (1)
where (.) is the Dirac delta-function.
Page 150
which eliminates the effects of r and , leaving us with

magnitude independent of the perturbations r, , , leading
to the usual temptation to ignore the phase terms.
=
f (k )
| f ( k ) |=
Step 2: Separation of magnitude and phase is performed and

magnitude normalization is done.
(7)
f (1 )
But Phase component contributes more for shape information

and from Figure 2.1 with varying phase for complex shapes
results may be naively matched by using magnitude
comparators.
If we consider two shapes, z1(n), z2(n) which are identical
except for the phase in the qth Fourier coefficient
(8)
f ( q ) = a f ( q ) = a
1
1,
We have to work with phase differences other than those from

adjacent Fourier coefficients. So we generalize to normalize
out for all coefficients. Given a reference index j 1, we can
create _
=
| f (k ) |=| f (k ) |
_
f (k ) = f (k ) f ( j).
= f (k )
k j
j 1
(9)
k j
k 1
f ( j) +
f (1)
j 1
j 1
where j is selected to be a meaningful reference that is,

=
| f ( j ) | | is not small.
Thus we have constructed a -invariant phase sequence. Given
two shapes f1(k), f2(k), the phase comparison thus involves
selecting a good common reference j, typically by
_
f
maximizing | f1 ( j ). f 2 ( j ) | , computing
. f
and discriminating as
_
| f
Fig 4.1. Input datasets
Step 3: Phase discrimination is done by three steps which

involves selection of common reference j is by
Taking maximum value as Common reference.

Step 4: Phase Comparison with the query image by
minimizing the discrimination value representing relevant
match.
In Phase based Fourier Descriptors, a pixel with maximum
value in the image is taken as common reference. Results
obtained are compared with existing approaches of chord
distribution and randon transform. A sample of database and
query image with perturbations is shown in Figure 4.2.
( k ). f 2 ( k ) |( 2 2 cos( f 1 ( k ) f 2 ( k ))) (10)
Obtaining minimum values in objective function for

discrimination represent effective matching of two shapes.
4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Fig 4.2.Database image and perturbed query image
In the experimental activity, a database with 30 samples of

different trademarks from internet has been taken. Nine
samples in the database are shown in Figure 4.1. Matlab
software is used for simulation. The size of the trademark
images in database are of 50 X 50 pixels.
A.
Fig 4.3 shows the randon transformation of the two input

trademarks shown above. It is clearly seen that when the input
rotates there is an equivalent amount of difference in
frequency domain.
Algorithm
Step 1: Input trademark is read and its Fourier spectrum is

obtained using FFT.
Page 151
B.
Precision, Recall, Efficiency graph
Many different methods for measuring the performance of

shape matching algorithm have been created. This paper uses
the most common evaluation methods namely, Precision and
Recall usually presented as a Precision vs Recall graph. We
can always make recall value 1 just by retrieving all images.
In a similar way precision value can be kept in a higher value
by retrieving only few images or precision and recall should
either be used together or the number of images retrieved
should be specified. Thus we have plotted two graphs:
Precision vs No of retrievals; Recall vs No of retrievals.
Fig 4.3.Randon transforms for above images
Fig 4.6(a).Precision
Fig 4.4.Fourier transform. Magnitude normalization and phase comparison
Magnitude comparison shows similar results such that we

cannot have complete discrimination. But when we consider
the phase information there is a significant change while
discriminating inputs based on phase comparison shown in fig
4.4. The discrimination values for three approaches for six
sample trademarks have been compared in the Figure 4.5.
From the Figure we obtain minimum phase discrimination
value using Phase based shape matching compared to other
methods. The matching accuracy using phase has been
improved twofold times and outperforms existing method in
eliminating irrelevant matches.
Phase- F F T
R and o n t r ansf o r m
4
3
2
1
0
l ogo1
l ogo2
l o go 3
l ogo4
l o g o5
Phase-FFT
0.8
Randon transform
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
6
12
18
24
30
N o . o f R e t r i e v a l s
Fig 4.6(b).Recall
Comparision
Recall
1
l o go 6
l ogo7
l o g o8
l og o 9
I np u t t r a d e m a r k
Fig 4.5.Comparision of proposed method with

existing algorithm
As can be seen in the Fig 4.6 (a), (b) the precision and recall
values by Phase based shape matching for different number of
retrievals for all the database trademarks are greater than the
existing method. Thus it automatically improves the retrieval
efficiency and reduces the error rate.
V. CONCLUSION
A novel phase based shape descriptor for trademark-matching
problem has been proposed in this paper. The phase-based
discrimination has been implemented and proved to be
effective in recognition of trademarks from large databases.
The performance has been improved greatly, particularly in
the elimination of highly irrelevant matches which appeared in
earlier
Page 152
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the Management and
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
of Thiagarajar College of Engineering for their support and
assistance to carry out this work.
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Page 153
Enhanced Knowledge Base Representation

Technique for Intelligent Storage and Efficient
Retrieval Using Knowledge Based Markup
Language
A. Meenakshi1, V.Thirunageswaran2, M.G. Avenash3,
Dept of CSE, KLN College of Information Technology, Sivagangai Dist., Tamil Nadu.
mrniranjanaa@yahoo.com,thirunageswaran@hotmail.com
Abstract Knowledge Engineering is an engineering discipline

that involves integrating knowledge into computer systems in
order to solve complex problems normally requiring a high level
of human expertise. Knowledge Engineering is the technique
applied by knowledge engineers to build intelligent systems:
Expert Systems, Knowledge Based Systems, Knowledge based
Decision Support Systems, Expert Database Systems etc. This
system builds a Knowledge Base using Knowledge Base Markup
Language (KBML) which is derived from XML architecture. All
the Meta information is stored in a KBML file whereas the actual
data may be available in any data source. Knowledge sharing is
achieved, as this system can retrieve information from
heterogeneous data source through this KBML file. This system
also provides facilities to search/add the contents to and from the
Knowledge Base though mobile phones and Windows Mobile
phones without using GPRS.
Keywords Knowledge Knowledge Base Markup Language
Meta information data source.
I.
INTRODUCTION
IVING in a fast moving world, it is natural to expect
things faster. Similarly in our quest for data search we
need fast and efficient retrieving methodologies. With the
evolution of new technology and new products in various
domains, researchers are focusing more on exploring new
techniques of storage, managing and retrieval of data and
knowledge from a repository which has been acquired from
various sources. Only having a repository of data or efficiently
organizing the data cannot guide decision makers or
management to make accurate decisions as humans do. The
best approach is to integrate and manage the data in the form
of knowledge. Retrieving of exact knowledge through online
is increasing and it requires more amount of time to retrieve
from different data sources and creating knowledge from
information available. Knowledge searching through mobile
phones does not exist through SMS. To defeat these anomalies
we have built a Knowledge Base using Knowledge Base
Markup Language (KBML) which is derived from XML
architecture. This system also provides facilities to search/add
the contents to and from the Knowledge Base though mobile
phones and Windows Mobile phones without using GPRS.
The aim of our project is to build a secured intelligent storage
mechanism, which can store the information in the form of
knowledge using the knowledge
based representation technique with the help of KBML tags,

also the retrieval process is also simplified as it can just refer
the KBML file which contains the Meta information about the
Knowledge which is going to be stored in distributed data
sources.
1.1. EXISTING SYSTEM AND ITS LIMITATIONS
In any knowledge based system, the first step is to model the
domain knowledge collected from experts, so as to enable
effective retrieval of knowledge. Some of the existing
knowledge based systems have employed the data structure
termed as K-graphs, tree data structure for representing the
expert knowledge in their domain of interest. The K-graphs
was able to represent the expert knowledge about domains in
problem-solving, minimizing the semantic loss that would
occur if production rules were used instead. A tree data
structure very much resembles a graph, and it can also be
defined as an acyclic connected graph where each node has a
set of zero or more children nodes, and at most one parent
node.
Existing Data Structure suffers from the following limitations:
y
Ambiguous design in storage of data.
y
Slower performance.
y
Insecure data storage.
y
Complexity in retrieving the appropriate
data.
y
Increased Space and Time Complexity.
1 .2 CONVERSION OF META INFORMATION IN
KBML
This system performs the searching of knowledge across
several data sources. The searching facilitates the user to
select particular data sources from a list and to get the search
result.
During the search process, the existence of the search string is
first looked up into a KBML file. This KBML file has the
Meta information about all the knowledge in a particular data
source, the KBML file which is a feature, enabled with
derived XML architecture so that our goal of efficient retrieval
of exact data is achieved. Information is stored in form of
knowledge (KBML Tags).
Security is a factor of major concern in any mode of data
storage, so we take immense care of this stored information.
Here, each knowledgebase is provided with a unique ID,
which is stored in an encrypted format. When a search is
Page 154
made, the title is first picked and the corresponding IDs are
used to navigate for retrieving the description. If the search
keyword is not found in the KBML file, the control is passed
to search the knowledge in the database for retrieval.
End-users may wish to create knowledge when the particular
search is not present. In such cases, users should create an
account and enter the knowledge along with the title and
description. At this stage, a KBML file is created for this
newly created knowledge with all its constraints.
1.
ENHANCED KNOWLEDGE BASE

REPRESENTATION
Our vision of efficient retrieval comes true by the fast fetching
of information stored in the form of knowledge. This system
builds a Knowledge Base using Knowledge Base Markup
Language (KBML) which is derived from XML architecture.
All the Meta information is stored in a KBML file whereas the
actual data may be available in any data source. Knowledge
sharing is achieved, as this system can retrieve information
from heterogeneous data source through this KBML file. This
system also provides facilities to search/add the contents to
and from the Knowledge Base though mobile phones and
Windows Mobile phones without using GPRS.
2.1. DERIVATION OF KBML USING XML
Extensible markup language (XML) is a fast emerging
technical tool. It has several advantages to its name. The
limelight feature of user defined tags makes this technology
worth its salt. The sample structure of KBML is represented
below. We use the structure of XML and derive our KBML
file which is purely knowledge based. XML has a predefined
structure whereas KBML has exclusively user defined
structure, this is the major reason why we prefer KBML to
XML. Apart from this KBML has a hierarchical structure
which superimposes the characteristics of its predecessor
XML. The exciting feature that KBML possesses is user can
add his own information and by giving it with a unique id,
which serves as a Meta information. This forms a part of the
knowledge store that can be modified accordingly. Search of
information which is our ultimate aim is also made easy.
Fig.1 Structure of KBML
2.2. KBML IN EDAPHOLOGY

The KBML file is used to store the Meta information about
the soil corresponding to each plant. The edaphology deals
with the plant and its classification, here edaphology is a best
suited case where we can impart the Knowledge base to
represent the details of plants and its description as knowledge
and this process is enhanced by the use of KBML file which
contains the Meta information of the respective data stored in
it. In order to avoid the complexities in using the tree structure
we go for KBML.
2.
STORAGE
3.1. ADDING THE KNOWLEDGE
It is a key feature of the project that makes our database a
dynamic one. Knowledge can be represented in any form such
as text, documents etc. When a particular search is out of
reach of the data sources, users may create their own
knowledge to the data source. To facilitate the users, a wizard
is designed which contains the simple steps to add the
knowledge to the specified Knowledge base and the
corresponding data source, provided the users are already
registered. The system is also extended to add the users
knowledge to the knowledge base through Mobile phones.
Through the use of this feature our project seems to be userfriendly.
Fig. 2 Plant Data Source
3.2. UPDATING THE KNOWLEDGE

Day in and day out we have new information. Any knowledge
created is not constant, changes are mandatory so as to
maintain the efficiency. Changes or updating are done when
new techniques are introduced. To carry out these updates,
users are allowed to update the existing knowledge that helps
Page 155
other searchers to gain knowledge. Also we can comment/

question on the particular knowledge of the user.
4.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Users have the option of adding data in the already
existing data base. While adding data about a plant the fields
like name of the plant, taxonomy, geology should be filled in
the appropriate text boxes as given in the form.
Fig. 3 Adding Plant Data Source

Fig. 5Adding Description Source
3.
RETRIEVAL
4.1 SEARCHING THE KNOWLEDGE
it is the main part of the project, by which the data that a user
needs is retrieved unto him. It is easier for us to search the
relevant information which is available from the selected
knowledge base through windows/mobile applications. When
the user searches a particular knowledge, they are allowed to
select knowledge base and data sources from which they need
to search the knowledge from a varied variety of options. All
the relevant results are displayed as a list and the knowledge is
obtained by navigating to the specified data source.
6.1
CONCLUSION
Development of the Knowledge Base Markup Language

(KBML) is used to improve the performance of the search
process for a particular knowledge by selecting data sources.
Each data source contains a set of knowledge descriptions to
serve the requests. Using this, the search can be made efficient
through both Windows/ Mobile applications. With world
moving too fast all that a user expects is an efficient time
constraint and we have strived to impose the same and have
achieved a reasonable success.
6.2
FUTURE WORKS
Collaborate through mobile: Depending upon the number of
search results required, the user will get in their mobile
phones. And through mobile system, new users can be
connected to the knowledge base. Reception of updates
performed (for e.g., daily at the end of the day, the
subscribed user will get the updates in their mobile phones) in
the knowledge base. The boom of technology demands such
enhancements which if done would be a great success.
REFERENCES
[1]
Knowledge
Engineering
from
http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~kremer/courses/CG/.
[2] Jay Whittaker, Michelle Burns, John Van Beveren,
"Understanding and measuring the effect of social capital on
knowledge transfer within clusters of small-medium
enterprises" in proceedings of the 16th Annual Conference of
Small EnterpriseAssociation of Australia and New Zealand,
28 September 1 October 2003.
Fig. 4 Retrieval
Page 156
[3] Brian D. Newman, Kurt W. Conrad, A Framework for

Characterizing Knowledge Management Methods, Practices,
and Technologies" n Proc. of the Third Int. Conf. on Practical
Aspects of Knowledge Management (PAKM2000) Basel,
Switzerland, 30-31 Oct. 2000.
[4] Venkatesh Mahadevan, Robin Braun and Zenon Chaczko,
A Holistic approach of Knowledge management Initiative for
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Street,Melbourne, November 15-16, 2004.
[5] Kurt Conrad, Brian Newman, A Framework for
characterizing knowledge management methods, Practices &
Technologies, in proceedings of white paper published in
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[6] Minsoo shin, A framework for evaluating economics of
knowledge management systems in proceedings of
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[7] Thi Bich Ngoc Pham, Intra organizational knowledge
Transfer process In vietnams Information technology
companies.
[8] Gail-Joon Ahna, Badrinath Mohana, Seng-Phil Hongb,
Towards secure information sharing using role-based
delegation, Journal of Network and Computer Applications
archive, vol 30 , pp: 42-59, 2007.
[9]National Treatment Agency, Confidentiality and
information sharing, September 2003.
[10] Ravi Sandhu, Kumar Ranganathan, Xinwen Zhang,
Secure Information Sharing Enabled by Trusted Computing
and PEI Models, Ravi Sandhu and Kumar Ranganathan and
Xinwen Zhang, in the Proceedings of ACM Symposium on
Information, Computer, and Communication Security
(ASIACCS), Taipei, Taiwan, pp: 2-12, 2006.
[11] Ganesh Godavari, Edward Chow, Secure Information
Sharing Using Attribute Certificates and Role Based Access
Control, Security and Management, pp: 209-276,2005.
Page 157
Semantic Web Based Personalization Of E-Learning

Courseware Using Concept Maps And Clustering
Anitha D
Department of Computer Science, Lady Doak College,
Madurai, Tamilnadu, India 625002
anitha.dm07@gmail.com
Abstract:
E-learning has now been regarded as a global learning
system with its potential to reach the unreachable. Knowledge based
e-learning tools are the key areas of inventions in the present
educational scenario to improve the higher education. The recent
research works have realized the web services to be invincible in
providing the best services to e-learning. These web services are
now made more intelligent as Semantic web and have proved
themselves to be the best practices that can be adopted in e-learning
system and the development of the learning materials. This paper
proposes a systematic construction of e-learning courseware based
on the semantic web in three phases, domain knowledge base
representation, course delivery and evaluation of learners. The
approach recommends the conceptual representation of domain
knowledge and confirms the effectiveness of concept maps in
accessing and delivering it. The paper finds the application of k
means clustering and rule based inference to evaluate the learner
performance and redesign the course delivery to the learners pace.
Keywords -- E-learning, Semantic Web, Ontology, Concept Maps,
Clustering
I. INTRODUCTION
E-Learning, as a package of technology enhanced education tends
to replace the standard practices of learning of board teaching and
boring lectures. The concept of Study anywhere, anytime and at
anyones own pace has made it a generally acceptable learning
system. During the last decade, the introduction of information
technology in the educational domain has resulted in a
tremendous change in reshaping the method of delivery of
academic knowledge. The World Wide Web has increased the
intensity of technological play in the development of higher
education especially through e-learning by making very fast
access to relevant educational resource at any time and place.
The web enabled e-learning system enables socially excluded
communities to access higher education and connects different
societies, communities, resources and learners.
The very important resource of e-learning systems is the learning
materials and so the development of knowledge based educational
resources is the major area of research in the present educational
scenario. The e-learning courseware is always expected to satisfy
the knowledge needs of different types of learners and provide
personalized delivery of academic knowledge. Recent research
works in the field of e-learning shows that the main focus is on
developing intelligent e-learning systems i.e. Web based systems
that are more understandable by machines. The intelligent web
based services are now rendered through Semantic web [1][2][5],
which has been hottest topic of research now.
This paper proposes a method for intelligent semantic web

based e-learning courseware development using concept
maps and personalization based on clustering. The paper is
organized as follows: Section II presents an overview of
Semantic web and concept maps and their extensibility to
build knowledge base systems , Section III introduces the
semantic web model of e-learning courseware design using
concept maps and its performance evaluation and Section
IV pertains to the future issues regarding the work.
II. SEMANTIC WEB AND CONCEPT MAPS - OVERVIEW
A. Semantic Web
Semantic web is a web architecture i.e. (common-sharedmeaning and machine-process able metadata), enabled by a
set of suitable agents. The Semantic web is an extension of
the World Wide Web, where content is expressed in a
language with enough semantics so software tools can
locate exchange and interpret information more efficiently.
In the Semantic Web, machines will be able to navigate,
integrate and process information in a meaningful way.
The semantic retrieval of knowledge will focus searches in
a much more concise manner. The Semantic web
application will thrive through two key technologies,
ontology (formal, explicit specification of a shared
conceptualization) as well as reasoning and inference
services. Ontologies are introduced to construct, share and
reuse knowledge bases contextually which is the crucial
application of the Semantic web [1][2][6][7]. They provide
a common reference frame for communication. The
ontologies are defined and developed using some specific
languages among which OWL (Ontology Web Language)
[11] being the latest and standardized one.
OWL is a language for defining and instantiating Web
ontologies. It makes the Web resources more readily
accessible to automated processes by adding information
about the resources that describe or provide Web content. It
provides representation of classes and relationships with its
constituent elements class, instance, datatype property,
object property, value and type of values. OWL represents
a domain clearly by defining classes and properties of those
classes, defines instances and asserts properties about them,
and reasons about these classes and instances to the degree
permitted by the formal semantics of OWL. Data property
is the relation between instances of classes and the data
types of the individual members of the classes. Object
property is the specification of relations between instances
of two classes. It can assign value to a data property or
Page 158
represent an instance property with its syntactic structures. OWL

is suggested for defining the domain knowledge as it preserves
and enhances the conceptual modeling environment demanded by
. They also serve as an educational tool by demonstrating
the Semantic Web.
the subject concepts with a diagrammatic representation
thereby improving the learners ability to comprehend.
B. Concept Maps
Concept map is a flexible and informal form of knowledge Learner assessment could be made more efficient by
representation. It is a tool that helps to organize knowledge for mapping the learners acquired knowledge into concepts
meaningful learning. The concepts are represented in nodes on the and comparing them with the stored concept maps built by
map, and the relation between the concepts is represented with experts of the domain.
III. PROPOSED MODEL OF E-LEARNING COURSEWARE
linking words. The linking words that are used to connect
concepts provide meanings for the proposition and hence the
DESIGN
domain of knowledge. The fundamental components of concept The model is based on semantic construction of learning
maps are: nodes (internal and external concepts), categories with materials and meaningful navigation through them, enabled
which concepts are qualified (concept types), the graphic aspect with an ontological background. Semantic Web is a very
of these concept types, the relations between nodes, the relation suitable platform for implementing an e-learning system,
types that qualify those relations.
because it provides all means for (e-learning): ontology
Earlier studies on concept maps confirm their support for process development, ontology-based personalized and contextual
oriented learning and their suitability for context management of course delivery, and rule based learner evaluation. The
learning domain [3][7][8]. The reason is that the concept maps proposed e-learning system architecture for personalization
reconstruct the knowledge context and span their applicability in of e-learning component is illustrated in fig. 1.
representing the domain ontology. They also provide progressive
exploration of knowledge and structured placement of
documentary resources. Thus, concept maps support a systematic
assessment which leads to improving teaching-learning strategies
Fig. 1 Personalized e-learning system architecture
Page 159
This architecture identifies a user profile database and ontology

based courseware database. The implementation of Semantic web
based e-learning necessitates the construction of ontology based
design of the database. The Course delivery agent is responsible
for providing learner interface and contextual course delivery. It
is realized with the concept maps to represent the academic
knowledge conceptually. Test Agent is responsible for launching
intermediary assessment sequence and final testing of the
learners. It updates the user profile with their performance grades.
It also tests the correctness of the topic sequence in a course and
reconstructs the courseware if necessary. The Learner evaluation
agent with its rules to evaluate and classify the learners provides
the competence level of the learner and tends to update the
courseware design and the course delivery in tune with the
interest of the learner. Courseware modeling agent is responsible
for creating initial model of the course, analyzing the content and
selecting the course structure. The modeling agent is accountable
for structuring a course according to the current needs of learners.
The management agent defines the ontology and constructs the
knowledge base of the domain.
A. Courseware Ontology construction
The e-learning domain can be regarded as a knowledge
management system since it deals with academic knowledge and
requires its effective management [8]. Ontology construction is
always perceived as knowledge acquisition in any knowledge
management system. An important aspect of knowledge
acquisition is the use of knowledge modeling, as a way of
structuring of the acquired knowledge and storing knowledge for
future use. A model is often a formalized visual representation of
the acquired knowledge. Knowledge is perceived as a concept,
and it is strongly argued and agreed that a knowledge unit could
be represented in the notion of concepts, because knowledge itself
is a conceptual understanding of the human brain. Knowledge
models are structured representations of the identified concepts
and relationship between them.
Recent research works in ontology construction have proved the
concept model of domain ontology could be efficiently built up
by OWL (Web Ontology Language)[5][6][10][11]. OWL is the
recent update of the semantic web world. The representation
elements of OWL such as class, instance, datatype property,
object property, value and type of values provide suitable classes
and relationship for the identified domain concepts. Data property
is the relation between instances of classes and the data types of
the individual members of the classes while the object property is
the specification of relations between instances of two classes.
The rich syntactic structures of OWL represent a domain clearly
and enable the semantic web agents to explore the domain in all
its aspects. Protg, an ontology editor developed by Standford
University is chosen as a solution to enter the domain ontology
due to its user friendliness and free access.
In this regard, an initial attempt of ontology construction has been
made for a small topic in the computer science subject, Data
Structures: Stack Operation PUSH. The following concepts and
relationships are identified and listed out (Concepts are
represented in bold font and the relationships are represented in
italics style). The assumed ontology is realized with Protg and
the following OWL classes are created with RDF support.

Table I shows the preliminary Data Structures ontology of
stack push operation and the relevant OWL-RDF format of
the designed ontology.
B. Personalized Course delivery using Concept Maps
The very important feature that any learning environment
demands is that the coherence between the learners needs
and the learning content. An increase of coherence is
achieved through the use of concept maps as educational
aids that aim at interpreting, integrating and relating new
ideas to existing ones that are presented by the system
upon the request of the learner [7]. Concept maps are
proved to be the best implementation model of the
semantic web based e-learning systems [4][7][8][9]. Earlier
studies on concept maps confirm their support for process
oriented learning [8].
The teachers will be constructing concept maps from the
domain ontology and establishing relationship among
concept maps. Fig. 2 shows the initial mapping of the
ontology description to the concept maps. The class,
instance, data type, value attributes of the OWL
representation get mapped into concepts and the object
property gets mapped into links of the concept maps. For
example, Stack has top pointer with initial value 0
identifies the concepts Stack as class, Top pointer as
Datatype property, Initial value as Value property, has
toppointer and withinitialvalue as object properties..
So, in the concept maps, Stack, Toppointer, initial value
of 0 are mapped as concepts and has, with is mapped
as a link.
Fig. 2 OWL - Concept map Mapping
Page 160
TABLE I
A PARTIAL LOOK OF THE PRELIMINARY STACK ONTOLOGY AND OWL REPRESENTATION
GG.
HH.
JJ. Sample Ontology representation
Ontology Specification
KK.
(OWL RDF)
II.
LL.
WWW.
MM.
XXX.
NN.
Stack ->has: Definition -> is: Data structure in which items
are inserted and deleted at the same end(Definition type)
YYY.
<owl:versionInfo>$Id: datastructures.owl $
</owl:versionInfo>
OO.
Stack ->Characteristic : Homogenouselements
ZZZ.
PP.
->Characteristic: Last-in-First-out
AAAA.
QQ.
BBBB.
RR.
Homogenouselements -> characteristics : Elements ->has
same : Datatype
CCCC.
DDDD.
SS. Elements->are : operational data

TT. Datatype -> types: integer, character, float,
EEEE.
<owl:Ontology rdf:about="">
<rdfs:comment>OWL ontology for Data Structures

</rdfs:comment>
<rdfs:seeAlso rdf:resource="resource location" />
<owl:Class rdf:ID="Stack">
<rdfs:label>Stack</rdfs:label>
string, records
FFFF.
UU.
VV.
Stack -> has : MAXSIZE
GGGG. <rdfs:comment> Data structure in which items are inserted

and deleted at the same end
WW.
Stack -> has : Top pointer
HHHH.
XX.
Toppointer -> denotes: ArrayLocation ->of: Insertion
IIII.
YY.
->of: Deletion
</rdfs:comment>
</owl:Class>
JJJJ.
ZZ. Toppointer->initialvalue ->zero
KKKK.
AAA.
LLLL.
<owl:ObjecProperrty rdf:ID="hasMAXSIZE">
<rdfs:domain rdf:resource="#Stack" />
BBB.
Stack -> has: Operations
MMMM. </owl:ObjectProperty>
CCC.
Operations -> consists of : Push
NNNN.
DDD.
Operations -> consists of : Pop
OOOO.
EEE.
FFF.
GGG.
Stack: Push -> does : Insertion

Push->has : PushArgument
<owl:DatatypeProperty rdf:ID="MAXSIZE">
PPPP.
QQQQ.
</owl:DatatypeProperty>
RRRR.
Page 161
HHH.
PushArgument -> consists of : Elements
III.
JJJ.
Stack: Insertion -> adds : Elements
SSSS.
<owl:DatatypeProperty rdf:ID="toppointer">
TTTT.
UUUU.
KKK.
Insertion -> has: PushSteps
VVVV.
LLL.
PushSteps -> startwith : CheckOverflow
WWWW.<owl:FunctionalProperty rdf:ID="Operations">
MMM.
CheckOverflow ->check: overflow -> is : toppointer
XXXX.
YYYY.
<rdfs:range rdf:resource="#Operations" />
ZZZZ.
</owl:FunctionalProperty>
>= MAXSIZE
NNN.
CheckOverflow -> true : StackOverflowReport
OOO.
CheckOverflow->false: PushStep2
PPP.
PushStep2 -> increments: Top pointer
QQQ.
PushStep2 ->nextstep: PushStep3
RRR.
PushStep3 -> assigns : Pushargument ->
SSS.
AAAAA.
BBBBB. <owl:Class rdf:about="#Operations">
CCCCC.
arraylocationof :Toppointer
TTT.
UUU.
<rdfs:comment>Push operation inserts element into
stack
DDDDD.
</rdfs:comment>
EEEEE.
Stack : Push -> implemented by : Reference to C Program
FFFFF.
<rdfs:subClassOf>
code
VVV.
GGGGG.
<owl:type rdf:resource="#Push" />
HHHHH.
</rdfs:subClassOf>
IIIII.
</owl:Class>
JJJJJ.
KKKKK.<owl:DatatypeProperty rdf:ID="push argument">
LLLLL.
<rdfs:domain rdf:resource="#Push" />
MMMMM.
NNNNN.<owl:Class rdf:about="#Operations">
OOOOO.
<rdfs:comment>Stack has two operations
PPPPP. </rdfs:comment>
QQQQQ.
<rdfs:subClassOf>
RRRRR.
<owl:type rdf:resource="#Push" />
SSSSS.
</rdfs:subClassOf>
TTTTT.
</owl:Class>
Page 162
Fig 3. Partial Concept map for Stack Push operation
Fig. 3 shows a partial concept map for the Push operation in the
stack. The learners are listed with the concepts and their
relationships to other concepts by means of concept maps and
they are shown the parts of the concept map in which they are
interested in. They are made to extend their understandability by
showing indirectly related concepts on demand. For e.g. a concept
map which deals with the basic sorting algorithms may also have
a reference to the current applications of sorting along with their
efficiency considerations and also may have a reference to an
URL or a textbook reference related to Sorting. If the learner is
interested in moving to the advanced level of learning, he/she can
move through the advanced links of concept maps. Those
advanced links of concept maps may be programmed to display
only upon the demands of the learner i.e. based on learners
interest. Similarly, the students are given option to specify the
keywords of their concern to extract specific parts of the concept
maps. They are also encouraged to build their own concept maps
for any topic of their interest and explore the relationships
between unrelated concepts. The developed concept maps are
verified and added into the content knowledge base thus
transforming the learner capability into a reusable

knowledge entry.. The web-enabled courseware design also
demands interactive presentations and intermediary
assessments of the learner on completion of each topic.
C. Rule based learner evaluation and dynamic course
delivery using k means clustering
The learner assessment is based on his/her response for
intermediate test questions in each topic of the learning
content. The Test Agent of the proposed method prepares
the multi choice objective type test questionnaire with a
knowledge evaluation pattern which constitutes three levels
of knowledge evaluation:
1. Knowledge (Knowing and defining the concepts (i.e.)
what is what?),
2. Understanding (Identifying, classifying, interpreting
concepts) and
3. Application (Analyzing and applying existing concepts,
arriving and justifying at new concepts).
TABLE II
THREE LEVEL CLUSTERING FOR A LEARNER PERFORMANCE
UUUUU.
BBBBBB.
Level
Knowledge
VVVVV. Clusters
WWWWW.
ry High
Ve
XXXXX. Hig
h
YYYYY. Avera
ge
ZZZZZ. Lo
w
AAAAAA.
ry low
CCCCCC.
pic numbers
To
DDDDDD.
EEEEEE.
FFFFFF.
GGGGGG.
Ve
Page 163
HHHHHH.
ing
Understand
IIIIII.
JJJJJJ.
KKKKKK.
LLLLLL.
MMMMMM.
NNNNNN.
Application
OOOOOO.
PPPPPP.
QQQQQQ.
RRRRRR.
SSSSSS.
At the end of each topic, the learner is assessed with such a set of
questionnaire comprising a minimum of 20 multi choice objective
questions supporting all the levels of the given knowledge
evaluation pattern. If he/she answers correctly one mark is given,
otherwise zero mark is given for each question in a topic. The
learners response of correct answers is recorded as fraction of 1
in each of these three levels. Based on the fraction of the correct
answers scored in each of these 3 levels, the performance of the
learner in all the topics is clustered into five major clusters
Very high, High, Average, Low, Very low. The clustering is
applied to all the three levels of knowledge evaluation pattern.
Table II shows the initial clustering of the learner performance.
The learners will definitely fall into any one of these categories
for each topic and so the k means clustering algorithm is used to
determine the performance rate of a learner where k = 5
indicating the five clusters.
Given an initial set of k means m1(1),,m5(1), which may be
specified randomly or by some heuristic, and in this case, the
means chosen initially are 0.9, 0.7, 0.5, 0.3, 0.1 with an heuristic
approach based on the nature of the clusters respectively.
The algorithm proceeds by alternating between two steps:
1.
2.
Assignment step: Assign each observation to the cluster

with the closest mean
Si(t) = { xj : || xj mi(t) || ||xj mi*(t) ||
for all i* = 1,,k }
(1)
Update step: Calculate the new means to be the centroid of
the observations in the cluster.
(2)
The algorithm is deemed to have converged when the
assignments no longer change.
The clusters thus formed are then able to represent a single
learners behavior in each topic. The three level clusters
make the personalization of e-learning more powerful by
automatically classifying the learning capabilities of learner
in each topic. A set of rules are framed with these cluster
information and the rule based inference enables perfect
assessment of learner capabilities. Table III shows some of
the rules and the inferences made. The entries in the table
denote the following: K Knowledge, U- Understanding,
A- Application, VH Very High, H- High, M Average, L
Low, VL Very Low.
Assignment
Update
Page 164
TABLE III
FEW RULE BASED INFERENCE ON CLUSTERS AND THE ASSESSMENT OF LEARNER BEHAVIOR
TTTTTT.Rule
WWWWWW.
U x L)
Ti in{ K x VH
ZZZZZZ.Ti in{ U x VH A x
L)
UUUUUU.
Inference
XXXXXX.
Good in
knowledge but low in
Understanding level
AAAAAAA.
very high
Understanding
BBBBBBB.
Application - Low
VVVVVV.
Assessment
YYYYYY.Needs more presentations

and classification works
DDDDDDD.
Needs more realtime examples and problem solving
exercises
CCCCCCC.
EEEEEEE.
U x VL)
IIIIIII.
Ti in{ K x VL
Ti in{ K x M U x M)
FFFFFFF.
low
Knowledge Very
GGGGGGG.
Very low
Understanding
LLLLLLL.
i => j
MMMMMMM.
performance
Ti affects Tj
RRRRRRR.
i => j
JJJJJJJ. and
KKKKKKK.
U x L)
Tj in{ K x M
OOOOOOO.
U x L)
Ti in{ K x M
PPPPPPP.
and
QQQQQQQ.
U x H)
Tj in{ K x H
UUUUUUU.
T1..n in (K x H)
SSSSSSS.
Inspite of the
average performance in Tj , good
performance in Tj
VVVVVVV.
High performance
in all the topics for the knowledge
level
HHHHHHH.
A very dull learner.
Needs more attention. Need More
visualized presentations in Ti. Need
more worked examples.
NNNNNNN.
Learner
understanding of Ti must be improved
to improve his performance in Tj
TTTTTTT.
Swapping of the two
related topics suggested for the
learner
WWWWWWW.
A consistent learner
Page 165
These rules are to be well defined with the collaborative effort

of teachers and experts of the domain. Knowledge sharing is
needed between them to predict a learner behavior based on
the rules. An experimental study was made with 50 students of
computer science undergraduate discipline by conducting
intermediary tests in 10 basic topics of the data structure
subject. Their test results are analyzed and clustered with the k
means clustering technique and grouped into different
categories. Fig. 4 shows a sample cluster distribution of a
student performance in the subject. The cluster distribution
statistics of the entire set of 50 students for the knowledge
level is shown in fig. 5. From the graph shown, it is made
clear that the students could easily make up with definition
and introduction of new concepts but it is not easy to show the
same response when it comes to the next higher level of
applications based on the concepts.
Cluster Distribution
4
No. of 3
topics in
2
the
cluster 1
0
VH
VL
Knowledge
Understanding
Application
Identified level of learner

Fig. 3 Cluster distributions for a student test data
N o . o f s tu d e n ts o f th e s a m e
c l u s te r
Distribution of topics in the student clusters

20
Very high
15
High
Medium
10
Low
5
Very low
0
1
9 10
Topic No.
Fig. 5 Students performance organized in clusters
After finding out the clusters, the rule based approach of

assessing them was applied and the results are appreciable
fulfilling the intended purpose of this proposed method. For
example, topics 4 and 7 which are designed to be higher level

of application based on the defined concepts have low
performance of students. More detailed presentations and
solved problems are needed on such topics. This intended
method is sure to open a way to find out the learner
capabilities based on the test results and improve their
performance.
IV. IMPLICATIONS & FUTURE ISSUES
The present e-learning scenario demands an extensive
research to derive innovative practices in analyzing,
constructing and restructuring the e-learning management
systems. The system becomes more reliable when it is
designed to be intelligent and so the proposed solution
emphasizes the conceptual representation and access of the
domain knowledge. The learner evaluation, being an
inevitable and inseparable part of any courseware design, has
to be performed deliberately. Before the implementation of the
proposed solution, the rule based inference must be carefully
designed by the experts of learning domain.
The current study of the e-learning courseware design has
marked the courseware content sequencing to play an
important role in affecting learner behavior. A case study of
content sequencing [6] has shown the incorrect content
sequencing to be a reason for the decrease in performance of
learners during the intermediary assessment of the misplaced
topics. Recent research works in learner evaluation demands
the inclusion of the time spent by the learner in each topic, the
participation of the learner in discussion forums, the number
of suggestions or clarifications raised by the learner and the
assignment performance. The proposed solution may be
extended to study the impact of lesson sequencing on the
learners performance and the learner evaluation including the
identified factors and the future issues pertain to the specified
findings.
V. CONCLUSION
Effective technology is very important for the sustainable
development of education. This paper finds a machine
intelligent approach for constructing e-learning courseware. It
identifies three phases related to the courseware design and
discusses the need of conceptual representation to simulate the
human brain. It also explains the technical implementation of
the three phases along with a case study on the third phase of
learner evaluation. The knowledge gained during learning is
the most important factor for measuring the quality of
education and it can be measured with the intermediary tests.
This paper may be an opening for the realization of web
based intelligent educational tools for effective utilization of
academic knowledge.
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[1]
Alsultanny Y, E-Learning System Overview based on Semantic Web ,
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Fayed Ghaleb, Sameh Daoud, Ahmad Hasna, Jihad M. ALJaam,
Samir A. El-Seoud, and Hosam El-Sofany, E-Learning Model Based On
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Hsinchun Chen, Ann Lally, Byron Marshall, Yiwen Zhang,
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Page 167
Adaptive visible watermarking and copy protection

of reverted multimedia data
S.T.Veena#1, Dr.K.Muneeswaran*2
#
PG Graduate,
*
Professor & Head
Computer Science and Engineering Department,
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College
Sivakasi,
Tamilnadu,
India
1
sveekan@gmail.com
kmuni@mepcoeng.ac.in
Abstract Visible watermark is traditionally used to

authenticate the ownership of the media unambiguously and
is irreversible. However it is desirable in some applications
like medical imagery, remote sensing, to have a visible
watermark, to authenticate the media, at the same time hide
the important details from being accessible to outsiders. It is
also known that even small alternation to the media in such
applications may be disaster. So a reversible visible
watermarking scheme which combats copyright piracy, at the
same time losslessly recovers the originals back by authorized
person is proposed. It is not possible in such case to have
original watermark at the retrieval end. And thus it has to be
blind. In case of applications like artwork preserving and
press, the same can be used against piracy of the retrieved
media by embedding a buyer authentication code in the
retrieved media with negligible changes. In case of copy
protection violation, it can be used to track to the buyer
involved in piracy.
The digital media may be gray scale image, color image or a
video. The watermark is a binary image. The watermarking
application uses visible embedding method for embedding
watermark and reversible data embedding (invisible) method
for recovering the digital media (original and watermark)
losslessly and blindly. The visible watermark is embedded in
the spatial domain such that it is not so obtrusive of the
beneath host signal, while clearly authenticates the signal. So
an adaptive (host dependent) scaling factor found by
exploiting the HVS properties is used for embedding the
watermark in user-specified region of the host media. In
order to achieve reversibility, a reconstruction/ recovery
packet, is constructed, compressed and embedded in the nonwatermarked region of the host media using a reversible data
embedding technique. Buyer authentication is done by
generating the hash value and embedding it reversibly in the
watermark area. Retrieval and verifying against buyer
authentication code helps to track to that buyer.
Keywords Blind watermarking, Human visual system HVS,
reversible data embedding, visible watermarking, data
compression, Authentication code, Copyright piracy.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Conventional visible image watermarking
schemes [1],[2] impose strict irreversibility. However
certain applications like medical imagery, prepress

industry, image archival systems, precious artworks,
remotely sensed images require them to be removable and
lossless. Various reversible
schemes have been developed using the techniques of

modulo arithmetic, the circular interpretation of the
bijective transform, wavelets and sorting or difference
expansion [3]-[5].They are unsuitable to visible
watermarking, because the embedding distortion inflicted
by a visible watermark is often far greater. Achieving
lossless recovery of the original host signal from a visibly
watermarked signal is an acute challenge.
The prior works in this area [6]-[8], need the original
watermark for original image recovery. Moreover, all the
existing methods do not consider Human Visual System
(HVS) characteristics in the visible watermark embedding
process. As a result, they are less visually satisfactory and
more intrusive. In paper [9], the binary watermark is
embedded spatially in the host image in user specified
region using adaptive scaling factor. This factor utilizes
HVS characteristics of the host image and varies with
region. Reversibility is achieved by hiding a recovery
packet in the non-watermarked region of the host using
LSB hiding of pixels after applying simple integer
transform (Reversible contrast mapping). The recovery
packet is the difference between the watermarked image
and the approximated image in the watermarked region. To
reduce the payload data to be hidden, the packet is encoded
and compressed.
In this paper we extend the ideology of the prior work to
color images, video and authenticate it to buyer in case of
piracy. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In
Section II, the embedding process of the proposed
reversible visible watermarking algorithm for color image
is presented in detail. Section III briefly introduces the
watermark removal and lossless media recovery. Section
IV discuss the process of identifying the buyer to piracy.
Section V provides the experimental results for evaluating
Page 168
the performance of the algorithm. The conclusion is given

in Section VI.
II. WATERMARKING PROCESS

Here the embedding process involves separation
of the luminance part of the media and data embedding.
This is done because humans are more sensitive to the
black-and-white information than to other color
components (more cones than rods in our vision system)
A. Separating Luminance Part
To separate the luminance (luma) part of the image which
is a grayscale version of the image, it is converted from
RGB color space to YCbCr color space. The Red Green and
Blue components are converted to its respective
Luminance/luma (Y/Y), blue difference chroma and red
difference chroma components. Once luminance part is
separated, the watermark is translucently overlaid in the
spatial positions defined by the user in the ROI of it. The
watermarked luma component is again combined with Cb
and Cr components. Then the image from this color space
is converted back to RGB color space.
B. Data Embedding
The data embedding process involves two main
procedures: visible watermarking and invisible reversible
data hiding. The details of the processes are given in the
following section.
1) Visible Watermarking: Watermarking is either additive
or multiplicative. This is a multiplicative watermarking
scheme where the change is done in the host where the
corresponding overlaying watermark has a pixel value
zero. This is chosen because the binary mark is chosen
such that white represents 1 and black zero and the
watermark is in white backdrop.
Let
N = no of 8*8 blocks of Y component of image I
S {1, 2, . . . , N} be the set of block ID numbers
corresponding to the 88 blocks in ROI.
n Y n (i , j ), if W n ' = 0
Y nw (i , j ) =
if W n ' = 1
Y n (i , j ),
1 i, j 8
and
n S
(1)
and
Ynw(i, j) = Yn (i, j) , 1 i , j 8 and n{1,2 ,K, N } S

(2)
where Ynw and Yn is the (i,j) th spatial pixel value in the nth
8 8 block of Yth component of Image I and watermarked
Y component of Iw. is the represents the mathematical
floor function, In of the watermarked and n is the adaptive
scaling factor for the nth block of I. Wn is the nth position in
the watermark. It is given n for watermark since the

absolute spatial positions of both watermark and image are
different.
2) Finding Adaptive Scaling Factor: According to HVS,
the human eye is sensitive to mid luminance area while less
sensitive to textured region. Exploiting this fact, instead of
having a constant scaling factor for embedding, it can be
chosen in such a way that the scaling factor depends on the
underlying host image. Higher the texture, lower the
scaling factor and more of luminance, high the scaling
factor is selected. It is that discrete cosine transform
actively captures this information through its ac and dc
components. The dc coefficients of the DCT domain are
best represented by Gaussian distribution [11] and ac
coefficients by [12]. The adaptive scaling factor is
therefore determined as per equation 3 and values are
adjusted to be in the range [0.84 0.89]. This is done
because values >0.89 tend to move towards invisibility and
< 0.84 tend to be obtrusive.
[Y (1 , 1) ]2
exp n
2 + n 1 n N
2
2
1
n =
=
1
N
2 =
vn =
L(3)
Y (1 , 1)
n
is the mean of
dc coef
and
n =1
1
N
[Yn (1, 1) ] is
the variance
n =1
vn min n (vn )
max n (vn ) min n (vn )
is the normalised log arithm of vn
vn = ln(vn ), 1 n N
vn =
1
[Yn (i , j ) n ]2
63 (i , j )(1,1)
n =
Yn (i, j ),
63 (i , j )(1,1)
1 i, j 8 and 1 n N
2) .
3) Facilitating Recovery:The watermark and the Image

must be recovered blindly at the detection/extraction end.
To facilitate this, the difference information must be
provided along with the watermarked image. This will have
a great payload. Hence an approximate image is generated
of the original. This is done by first finding the
approximate adaptive scaling factor. The factor is
determined by generating an approximate original image
using prediction of pixels
4) Pixel Prediction : This prediction method uses
neighboring non-watermarked pixels to predict the original
Page 169
value of watermark pixel. It is an iterative process. It

involves choosing overlapping windows of size 33. The
window is chosen such that the pixel to be recovered
(watermarked pixel) is at the center. The new pixel
intensity of that center pixel of the window is the average
of non-watermarked pixels and recovered watermarked
pixels. The window is moved across the image in raster
scan and the recovered pixels are used in subsequent
windows for further recovery in that window.
5) Approximate Scaling factor and Image Generation :
With this approximated version of the image P, find the
adaptive scaling factor using equation 3 as described
above with the original image Y. Then use this to get an
approximate version of the original Ya by reversing the
embedding process.
P w (i, j )
n
, if Wn (i, j ) = 0
Yna (i, j ) = n
w
Pn (i, j ), if Wn (i, j ) = 1
1 i, j 8 and n S
L(4)
L (5 )
6) Construction of Recovery Packet : A recovery packet is

constructed as a difference between the watermarked image
and the approximated image of the watermarked area as in
(4)
D = (Y Ya)ROI
C. Invisible reversible data embedding

The invisible hiding process uses reverse contrast
mapping [10], an Integer transform, to embed the data in
the LSB using the transforms. It inverts exactly back even
when LSB is lost/ changed, except in case of odd pixels,
which is also taken care. This algorithm even though has
low embedding capacity (yet satisfies requirement) than
other reversible data embedding mechanisms has less
arithmetic complexity and is fast. The transform processes
are given as
Forward transform is
x = 2x y;
y = 2 y x
(8)
Reverse transform is
Yna (i , j ) = Pnw (i , j ),
1 i , j 8 and n {1, 2, K , N } S
After encoding, the packet is compressed using simple runlength encoding. For the purpose of security, the encoded
and compressed (De) is exclusively ored (XOR) with a
pseudo random numbers of a secret seed before inserted
into the non-ROI region.
(6)
7) Compression and encoding: Once the recovery packet D

is constructed, the values are compressed to reduce the
payload. The payload is then invisibly hidden in the nonwatermarked region. To facilitate compression, the values
of D are encoded in L bit 2s complement binary form
where L-1 is maximum number of bits needed to represent
D as per equation (7).
For example we have the difference in the range -4 to 2
pixel intensity. The maximum of the absolute value of
pixel intensity is 4. Therefore maximum bits needed for
coding this is 3 bits (100). Assign 4 bits(L) one for sign (ie)
MSB or Lth bit is 1 if the number is negative else 0. Thus in
example -4 is assigned as 1100 and +4 as 0100. This helps
in recovering signed number after decompression.
Similarly zeroes are specially coded as those belonging to
watermarked pixel (i , j) and those that do not (i , j)
. The former zero is represented with MSB 1 while the
latter with 0.
( L1) D(i, j ) where D (i, j )0 and (i, j )
= 2
(7)
De(i, j ) D (i, j )
otherwise
(i, j )
2
2 (9) 1
1
x =
y = x + y
3 x + 3 y
3
3
where (x,y), (x,y) are the chosen pixel values in the range
[0-255] to prevent overflow and underflow conditions.
III.
RECOVERY AND DECODING PROCESS

The process of recovery of original and watermark
extraction to prove ownership is the reverse of the
operations involved in embedding. The process is blind and
the keys used in reconstruction are the top-left position of
ROI, size of watermark, size of payload, auxiliary
information of compression, size of encoding length L,
secret key seed of pseudo-random generator.
First, transform the RGB to YCbCr color space. Second,
extract the invisibly embedded bits from LSB by using
inverse transform. Third, using secret key (seed) reproduce
the compressed payload back (recovery packet). Next,
decompress the payload to recover the encoded
reconstruction packet. The packet is decoded by taking the
2s complement of L-bit number.
2L1 D(i, j) if MSB is 1
D(i, j) =
where (i, j)
otherwise
D(i, j)
(10)
1 if MSB is 0 and D (i, j)=0

W(i, j) =
where (i, j)
0 otherwise
(11)
Apply pixel prediction method to the watermarked image
after payload is removed, as done previously to estimate a
scaling factor and use it to get an approximated version of
original image Y. Now to recover original pixel values in
Page 170
watermarked region add recovery packet to the

approximated version to get back the originals. Transform
back to RGB color space from YCbCr color space. In case
of video, the above process is repeated for each frame with
its correspondent keys to recover back the original video.
IV. BUYER AUTHENTICATION
The copy protection does not stop with recovery
of original and selling the media to an authorized buyer.
But it is in some applications necessary to keep track of
piracy even after sales. The following ideology helps to
track down to the buyer in case of piracy.
A. Embedding hash code
To accomplish this, first a hash value is generated for say
identifier code. Save the length of the digest, it serves as
the secret key. Secondly, the hash value is reversibly
hidden into the region of the media (decided by the seller)
using the RCM integer transform, a LSB technique, with
the modification that instead of using all pixels in the
selected region, embedding is done only on the odd pixels
belonging to the transform domain (Dc).This helps in
reverting both the pixel and the digest. The reverted digest
can be used to track to the buyer responsible for the piracy.
Let the identifier code be concatenation of sales
id, date and some other details. Apply hash can be SHA-1
or md5 as application demands and this can be kept as a
secret. The hash bits are then embedded into a region of the
recovered media by utilizing modified RCM technique.
B. Hash checking
Regenerate the hash code with the identifier code stored in
database with its key. Check it with the one retrieved. If it
matches then the corresponding buyer is involved in
copyright infringement else proceed with other identifier
code until it can be tracked to the buyer.
IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS
The proposed method has been implemented and
tested on various media (images (webber database) &
video) different formats & sizes with different watermarks
in different ROIs. The perceptually inspired metrics PSNR,
WPSNR, Structural Similarity (SSIM) are used to access
the scheme. Figures 3 and 4 shows the watermarking
results for image and video sequences. Table I and II show
the performance of watermarking of various images.
PSNR-1 is watermarked with original except ROI. PSNR-2
is for watermarked with original. PSNR-3 is for original
with retrieved.WPSNR-1 is weighted PSNR using CSF
function for watermarked with original.WPSNR-2 is that
with retrieved and original.WPSNR-3 is between original
and retrieved in ROI.SSIM-1,-2 are structural similarity
between original and watermarked & original and
retrieved.SSIM-3 is between original and retrieved in ROI
In embedding the visible watermark in different
ROIs, it was noted that there is a difference in watermark
visibility. The watermark is more visible in smooth image
areas. To access the visual quality of the visible watermark,

perceptually insipired merics WPSNR and SSIM are used
and results are tabulated in Table I. From PSNR-2 it can be
seen that image with large smooth regions (LENA & F-16)
has the lowest PSNR. This is because of the large the
embedding distortion caused by visible watermarking. The
same can be concluded from WPSNR-3 & SSIM-3.
Taking into consideration the size of the hidden
payload, which is invisibly embedded into the non-ROI
region, it can be inferred from PSNR-1 that the image with
smaller payload has high PSNR values. Difference (in F-16
& splash ) may occurs due to encoding length (L=4 or 3).
The prediction is more correct for smooth regions. In such
case the approximate image generated is very close to the
original image. This can be inferred from PSNR-3,SSIM2,WPSNR-2.
The value of SSIM that is closer to 1 infers that the image
quality is retained due to HVS exploitation.
Table-II shows the result of embedding watermark mark-3
of 4 sizes at upper-left of the image lena. It can be clearly
seen that larger the size of watermark implies larger
payload. As a result the PSNR of Non-ROI decreases
(PSNR -1). Also relatively low PSNR-2 demonstrates the
distortion in embedding in smooth region.
In addition it was noted that watermark complexity also
added to payload. Thus of all watermarks of same size
considered mark-3 was the one with larger payload.
In summary the watermarking process depends on
embedding area in host, watermark size and complexity
and encoding length.
Table III shows the results of embedding buyer digest
which suggests that the digest length contributes to PSNR
value. Higher the length, lower the PSNR value. However
it was authenticable in all cases.
Images of test:
V.
Fig.1a Lena
Fig.1b Peppers
Fig.1c Splash
Fig.1d Airplane
Watermarks used:
Fig.2a mark-1
Fig.2b mark-2
Fig.2c mark-3
Fig.2d mark-4
Page 171
Watermarked Images:
Fig.3a
Fig.3b
Fig.3c
Fig 4(a) 11thframeFig. 4(b) 61thframe Fig. 4(c) 200thframe Fig.4(d)

400thframe
Fig.3d
Watermarked Video Frames:
Sample Buyer id : abcd

Its Length : 107
Its Digest :
10011111000100000101000010100000110110000111111011011101110
100001111000111100110001101111011000110110111001
Fig.5a. Watermarked lena with mark-3
Fig.5c.Digest embedded lena
Fig.5b.Retrieved lena
Fig.5d.Extracted Lena
TABLE I: PERFORMANCE EVALUATION: WATERMARKING VARIOUS IMAGES WITH MARK-3 OF SIZE 128 128 AT VARIOUS ROI.
Images
Lena
F-16
Peppers
Splash
Payload
(in bits)
25372
25701
26143
25188
24515
25207
23473
25099
24832
24828
25246
24322
Position
PSNR-1
PSNR-2
PSNR-3
(0,0)
(160,160)
(352,272)
(0,0)
(160,160)
(352,272)
(0,0)
(160,160)
(352,272)
(0,0)
(160,160)
(352,272)
55.3490
42.8205
42.5805
66.8455
45.8896
45.7781
85.7012
50.6652
53.2093
65.2598
44.0934
44.0734
37.8900
39.0298
38.0277
39.1492
39.2714
39.5457
44.1700
40.1900
44.3139
42.2465
40.3683
38.6686
59.8601
65.0116
65.0359
65.2507
65.1645
64.9491
62.8522
65.0808
65.0948
65.2507
64.5645
64.6513
WPSNR
-1
30.2225
28.7887
28.7301
25.0714
24.9415
25.1664
37.6478
46.8588
50.4606
34.2956
33.6492
33.4906
WPSNR
-2
49.4495
49.2789
52.6813
62.4066
58.8382
57.0555
Inf
54.9316
Inf
Inf
Inf
47.0625
WPSNR
-3
33.2196
49.0391
32.6273
29.2657
46.0943
47.1568
53.9220
47.7934
52.3948
54.0074
50.4374
47.0983
SSIM-1
SSIM-2
0.9631
0.9735
0.9634
0.9681
0.9738
0.9799
0.9857
0.9807
0.9852
0.9770
0.9705
0.9643
0.9995
0.9998
0.9996
0.9996
0.9996
0.9998
0.9992
0.9997
0.9995
0.9996
0.9995
0.9995
SSIM3
0.9642
0.9873
0.9788
0.9686
0.9829
0.9895
0.9858
0.9850
0.9892
0.9777
0.9835
0.9773
TABLE II : PERFORMANCE EVALUATION : WATERMARKING LENA IMAGE WITH MARK-3 OF VARIOUS SIZE AT (0,0)
Watermark
size
32 32
64 64
128 128
256 256
Payload
(in bits)
2831
9319
25372
52700
PSNR-1
81.0282
81.0093
55.3490
40.2160
PSNR-2
PSNR-3
49.2997
43.5129
37.8900
33.2593
66.1034
61.2387
59.8601
61.1828
WPSNR1
58.0810
43.7084
30.2225
30.2871
WPSNR2
Inf
55.6605
49.4495
Inf
WPSNR3
58.9150
49.4605
33.2196
31.0454
SSIM-1
SSIM-2
SSIM-3
0.9973
0.9877
0.9631
0.9277
0.9998
0.9994
0.9995
0.9992
0.9973
0.9877
0.9642
0.9366
TABLE III : PERFORMANCE EVALUATION : BUYER AUTHENTICATION OF RETRIEVED IMAGE AT ROI STARTING FROM (0,0).
Page 172
Image
Authenticable
Digest
Length
Lena
F-16
Peppers
Splash
yes
yes
yes
yes
110
107
117
120
VI.
CONCLUSION
A reversible visible watermarking technique is presented in
this paper which can be applied to any visual media. The
paper proposes a method which considers HVS of the host to
watermark, to achieve the desired features of visible
watermarking. And at same time the image quality is retained
as shown by our results. Further the application being blind
makes it suitable for extraction of original at any place & time
As a key dependent method the scheme allows only authentic
users with correct key to retrieve the original. The buyer
authentication when embraced in the process, though a simple
technique, helps a lot in not only preventing piracy but also to
find the buyer involved in piracy.
PSNR of
retrieved
image
59.8601
65.2507
62.8522
65.2507
PSNR of
authentic
image
59.9861
65.2663
63.4003
66.0321
[12] F.Muller, Distribution shape of two dimensional DCT coefficients of

natural Images Electronics letters vol 29, no 22, pp 1935-1936, Oct 1993.
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Page 173
A Web Personalization System for evolving user

profiles in Dynamic Web Sites based on Web
Usage Mining Techniques and Agent Technology
G.Karthik)#1 B.E.,M.E.,(Ph.D), R.Vivekanandam*2 M.Sc., M.S.,(Ph.D), P.Rupa Ezhil Arasi#3 M.Sc., M.Phil.,M.E
1
Department of CSE,Vinayaka Mission Kirupananda Variyar Engineering College
Salem, Tamilnadu,India
2
Department of Applied Science, Muthayammal Engineering College
Raipuram, Namakkal Dt, TamilNadu,India
3
Department of CSE, Vinayaka Mission Kirupananda Variyar Engineering College
Salem, Tamilnadu,India
1
gkarthikme@gmail.com
2
s_svk@teacher.com
3
rupasharan@gmail.com
Abstract - Customer Relationship Management use data from
within and outside an organization to allow an understanding
of its customers on an individual basis or on a group basis
such as by forming customer profiles. These profiles can be
discovered using web usage mining techniques and can be
later personalized. Web personalization system captures and
models behavior and profiles of users interacting with the
web sites. Web personalization is the process of customizing a
web site to the needs of specific users taking advantage of the
knowledge acquired from the analysis of users navigational
behavior in correlation with the information collected namely
I.
structure, content and user profile data. The output of the

web usage mining process can be improved by using agent
technology.
Agent technology provides a dynamic
personalized guidance to the visitors of the web. This paper
describes the design of a web usage mining architecture for
web personalization system implemented using a multi-agent
platform.
Keywords-Customer Relationship Management, Web usage
Mining, Web personalization, Agent technology, Customer
profiles
INTRODUCTION
The output of the web usage mining process can be improved

by using agent technology. This creates a friendly
relationship between the web and its users.
In this paper, we are interested in the web usagemining domain, which is described as the process of
customizing the content and the structure of the web sites in
order to provide users with the information they are interested
in. Various personalization schemes have been suggested in
the literature. Lelizia [9] is perhaps the first system, which
takes into account the users navigation through the first
system. Yan et al. [2] propose a methodology for the
automatic classification of web users according to their access
patterns, using cluster analysis on the web logs. In [3],
Joachims et al. describe Web Watcher, and similarly the
Personal Web Watcher in [4], an intelligent agent system that
provides navigation hints to the user, on the basis of a
knowledge of the users interests, the location and relevance
of the many items in the site, and the way in which other users
interacted with the collection in the past.
We can finally conclude that most of the existing works try to
classify a user i) while she is browsing the web site or ii)
using registration information. The main criticism stands in

the fact that in some applications it is not possible to perform
an on line classification if the number of visited pages is not
sufficiently great. By the way using the registration form
alone may result inaccurate if the interests of user change over
time. The novelty of our approach is that we perform
clustering of the user sessions extracted from the web logs to
partition the users into several homogeneous groups with
similar activities and then extract user profiles from each
cluster as a set of relevant URLs. This procedure is repeated
in subsequent new periods of web logging then the Previously
discovered user profiles are tracked, and their evolution
pattern is categorized. In order to eliminate most sessions
from further analysis and to focus the mining on truly new
sessions FM model is used. The FM model is suitable for real
time matching of session to pre-generated cluster and it offers
scalable models of clusters.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: In Section 2,
we present an overview of web usage mining. In Section 3,
we describe our approach to profile discovery using web
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usage mining. In Section 4, we discuss our approach for

tracking evolving user profiles. In Section 5, we present the
overview of web personalization. In Section 6 we present the
personalization solution. In Section 7, we present the main
agents of our architecture along with their roles and
interactions among them. In Section 8, we present our results.
Finally in Section 9, we present our conclusions.
II. AN OVERVIEW OF WEB USAGE MINING
Web usage mining is a tool for web personalization, since it
captures and models behaviors and profiles of users
interacting with a web site. These models can be used by the
personalization systems to better understand the behavioral
characteristics of visitors, the content and structure of the web
sites and provide dynamic recommendation to visitors.
Web mining is performed in several stages [5], [6] to achieve
its goals
1)
Collection of Web data such as activities / click
streams recorded in web server logs.
2)
Preprocessing of Web data such as filtering,
crawlers requests, requests to graphics and identifying user
sessions.
3)
Analysis of web data, also known as web usage
mining [7], to discover interesting usage patterns of profiles
and
4)
Interpretation / evaluation of the discovered profiles
5)
Tracking the evolution of discovered profiles.Web
usage mining can use various data
mining or machine
learning techniques to model and understand web user
activity.
A. Handling Profile Evolution
Since dynamic aspects of Web usage have recently become
important it is desirable to study and discover Web usage
patterns. News Dude [8] is an intelligent agent built to adapt
to changing users interests by learning two separate user
models that represent short-term and long-term interests. In
[9], a user profiling system was developed based on
monitoring, the users Web browsing and e-mail habits. In
[9], as user-profiling system was developed based on
monitoring the users web browsing and e-mail habits. This
system used a clustering algorithm to group user interests into
several interest themes, and the user profiles had to adapt to
changing interests of the users over time. The above
approaches are based on supervised learning framework and
the present work is based on an unsupervised learning
framework that tries to learn mass anonymous user profiles on
the server side. In this work the web logs are fully mined for
each period and then the subsequent results are compared.
III.
PROFILE DISCOVERY BASED ON WEB
USAGE MINING
1) Preprocess Web log file to extract user sessions

2)
Cluster the user sessions by using Hierarchical
Unsupervised Niche Clustering
3)
Summarize session clusters / categories into user
profiles
4)
Enrich the user profiles with additional facets by
using additional web log data and external domain knowledge
5)
Track current profiles against existing profiles.
A. Preprocessing the Web Log File and Clustering sessions
into an optimal number of categories
Each log entry in the file consists of access time, IP address,
URL viewed, REFERRER etc.
The main step in
preprocessing is that it maps the URLs on a web site to
distinct indices. Sessions are implemented as lists instead of
vectors thus saving memory and computational costs. For
Clustering Unsupervised Niche Clustering algorithm is used.
H-UNC uses Genetic Algorithm and handles noise in the data
and automatically determines the number of clusters.
After grouping the sessions into clusters, session categories
are summarized in terms of user profile vectors [6] [7]. The
vector captures the relevant URL in the profile. The profiles
are then converted into binary vectors. Each profile is
discovered along with a measure that represents the amount of
variance or dispersion of user sessions in a given cluster
around the cluster representative. This measure is useful in
determining the boundary of each cluster and also determines
whether two profiles are compatible or not.
Fig. 1. Web usage mining process and discovered profile facets
IV. TRACKING EVOLVING USER PROFILES

Each profile is discovered along with an automatically
determined measure that determines the amount of variance or
dispersion of the user sessions in a given cluster around the
cluster representative. This measure determines the boundary
around each cluster and also determines whether two
boundaries overlap. This comparison leads to events such as
Persistence, Birth and Death. Aggregating these events helps
in tracking profiles over many periods. Profiles retrieved
should be as close as possible to the original session data.
The automatic identification of user profiles is a knowledge

discovery task consisting of periodically mining new contents
of the user access log files is summarized on the following
steps:
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V. WEB PERSONALIZATION
Web personalization is defined as any action that adapts the
information or services provided by a web site to the needs of
a particular user or set of users, taking advantage of the
knowledge gained from the users navigational behavior and
individual interests, in combination with the content and
structure of the web site.
The overall process of usage-based web
personalization consists of five modules, which correspond to
each step of the process. They are
1)
User Profiling-it is the process of gathering
information specific to each visitor either explicitly or
implicitly.
2)
Log analysis and Web usage mining- Information
stored in Web server logs is processed by applying data
mining techniques in order to
a.
Extract statistical information and discover
interesting usage patterns
b.
Cluster the users groups according to their
navigational behavior
c.
Discover potential correlations between the
web pages and user groups.
3)
Content Management- It is the
process of
classifying the content of a web site in semantic categories in
order to make information retrieval and presentation easier for
the users.
4)
Web site publishing- It is used to present the content
stored locally in a Web server and / or some information
retrieved from other Web resources in a uniform way to the
end-user.
5)
Information acquisition and searching-Since the users
are interested in information from various Web sources
searching and relevance ranking techniques must be employed
both in the process of acquisition of relevant information and
in the publishing of the appropriate data to each group of
users.
VI. THE PERSONALIZATION SOLUTION
Web usage mining techniques when combined with the multiagent architecture gives a personalization solution to web
sites. Multi-agent architecture consists of a set of autonomous
agents interacting together to fulfill the main goal of the
system. Agents taps into the communication stream between
a users web browser and the web itself. Agents observe the
data flowing along the stream, observe the data flowing along
the stream and alter the data as it flows past. These agents can
learn about the user, influence what the user sees by making
up pages before passing them on, and provide entirely new
functions to the user through the web browser.
Agents are divided into modules that have well defined tasks
and that are further divided into two working groups such as
data mining module and personalization module. The
personalization agent uses the user model knowledge along
with the previously discovered sequential patterns and applies
a set of personalization rules in order to deliver
personalization tasks or functions. The functions based upon

the personalization policy provide a complete personalization
solution .The multi-user personalization policy used is static
and are adjusted to the browsing context of the user.
VII.
INTERACTIONS AMONG AGENTS
Agents co-operate and co-ordinate their work by sending

messages among them. The interface agent captures the
navigational behavior of the user and informs the user data
agent and online classification agent about it. The user data
agent identifies the current user, creates and records a new
navigational session for him.
The classification agent
classifies the active session in one of the groups discovered by
the clustering agent using the information embedded in his or
her session.
The classification agent informs the evaluation agent about the
group. This is notified to the decision maker agent. The
decision maker agent informs the personalization agent about
the personalization functions to execute according to the
adaptation rules associated to that group of user. The
personalization agent sends the results to the interface agent,
which displays them to the user as response to his or her
request.
Page 176
Fig. 2. Functional structure of PWUM Architecture
VIII. RESULTS
H-UNC [10] was applied on a set of Web sessions
preprocessed from Web log data for several months. After
filtering, the data was segmented into sessions based on the
client IP address. After filtering the irrelevant URLs unique
sessions were obtained. H-UNC partitioned the web user
sessions of each period into several clusters and each cluster
was characterized by one of the profile vectors.
Web Usage Mining multi-agent system for web
personalization enhances the quality of discovered models and
hence optimizes the personalization process. The software
agents of PWUM have been implemented using multi agent
platform called JADE [11]. The results obtained by using
both of multi agents systems and WUM techniques were very
encouraging.
IX CONCLUSIONS
We presented our system and described the mechanism
necessary for Web Usage Mining and Personalization tasks.
The combination of more than one technique of WUM
enhances the quality of discovered models, so this optimizes
the personalization process. The use of multi-agent paradigm
reduces the time complexity. We are looking forward testing
our approach in tourism web sites as part of national research
projects.
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Page 177
Automated Test Case Generation and Performance

Analysis for GUI Application
Ms. A.Askarunisa#1, Ms. D. Thangamari*2
#
Assistant Proffessor,Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Affiliated to Anna University, Thirunelveli
Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai, Tamilnadu, India.
1
nishanazer@yahoo.com,
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Affiliated to Anna University, Thirunelveli

Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai, Tamilnadu, India.
2
thangam@tce.edu
Abstract A Common method for GUI testing is the Capture

and Replay (CR) technique.GUIs is complex pieces of software.
Testing their correctness is challenging for several reasons: 1.
Tests must be automated, but GUIs are designed for humans to
use.2. Conventional unit testing, involving tests of isolated
classes, is unsuitable for GUI Components. 3. GUIs respond to
user-generated events 4. Changes in the GUIs layout shouldnt
affect robust tests.5.Conventional test coverage criteria, such as
90 percent coverage of lines of code. This paper proposes GUI
Automation testing framework to test GUI-Based java programs
as an alternative to the CR technique. The framework develops
GUI-event test specification language for GUI application
written using java swing APIs, which initiates an automated test
engine. Visual editor helps in viewing the test runs. The test
engine generates GUI events and captures event responses to
automatically verify the results of the test cases. The testing
framework includes the test case generation, test case execution
and test case verification modules. The testing efficiency is
measured by determining coverage metric based on Code
coverage, Event coverage and Event Interaction coverage, while
may be useful during Regression Testing. The paper uses Abbot
and JUnit tools for test case generation and execution and Clover
tool for code coverage. We have performed testes on various GUI
applications and the efficiency of the framework is provided.
Keywords Automated testing, Coverage, GUI Testing, Test
Suite Reduction
I. INTRODUCTION
Test automation of GUI means mechanizing the testing
process where testers use software in controlling the
implementation of the test on the new products and comparing
the expected and the actual outcomes of the product
application. Scheduled testing tasks on a daily basis and
repeating the process without human supervision is one
advantage of automated testing. With all the mass production
of gadgets and electronic GUI devices, the testing period
seems quite demanding. Electronic companies must ensure
quality products to deliver excellent products and maintain
customer preferences over their products.
In running automatic tests for the GUI application, the tester
saves much time, especially when he is in a huge production
house and needs to be multi-tasking. There are actually four
strategies to test a GUI.1. Window mapping assigns certain
names to each element, so the test is more manageable and
understandable.2. Task libraries sort the step sequence of the

user task when they appear in multiple tests.3. The Datadriven type of test automation separates the limitation of the
test case and test script so the test script will be reusable.4.
Keyword-driven test automation converts tests as spreadsheets
or tables, as it creates parsers to decode and perform the
description of the test.
The reminder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2
covers the Background material for this proposal, Section 3
describes the proposed approach for GUI testing framework.
Section 4 briefly highlights the implementation details.
Section 5 gives the Conclusion and future enhancement.
II. BACKGROUND AND RELATED WORK
Existing works on GUI testing are mainly concerned
with test automation assisting tools supporting the
capture/replay technique. Researches have considered various
techniques for GUI application testing, and coverage metric
for test case.
White et al [2, 3] and Belli [4] developed
model based testing for GUI application under test. Each
responsibility is simply the desired response for the user and
can be specified as a complete interaction sequence (CIS)
between the user and the GUI application under test. Then a
finite-state machine is developed for each CIS, which
generates the required tests and materializes the CIS.
In the work of Memon et al [5], the GUI under test is
modelled as a finite-state machine with hierarchical structure.
The test case generation problem of GUI testing then follows
the goal-oriented philosophy and is treated as an AI(Artificial
Intelligence) planning problem. The approach can be viewed
as a global one in the sense that a single or global finite-state
machine is constructed for all test cases of interest. In the
work of Cai et al [6], a GUI test case is defined as a word
defined over a finite alphabet that comprises primitive GUI
actions or functions of concern as symbols.
Meyer [7] defined Capture/Replay Testing technique, a test
case as an input with its expected output. Binder [12] defined
a test case to consist of a pretest state of the software under
test (including its environment), a sequence of test inputs, and
a statement of expected test results. Memon et al [1,5] defined
a test case to consist of an initial state and a legal action
sequence. The problem here is how to define the state of the
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GUI. A few approaches have been proposed for GUI testing.

The most known one may be the so-called capture/replay
technique [8].
In the work of Sun [21] propose a specification-driven
approach to test automation for GUI based Java programs as
an alternative to the use of capture/replay. However the
rationale of existing test case definitions is rarely discussed.
An exception is the recent work of Rothermel et al [15], which
assesses the effects of test suite granularity and test input
grouping on savings in test execution time and costs in defectdetection effectiveness in the context of regression testing.
Test suite granularity pertains to the size of the test cases so
grouped or the number of inputs per test case, whereas test
suite grouping pertains to the content of test cases or the
degree of diversity among the inputs that compose a test case.
Memon, Pollack and Sofia [5, 11, 12] exploit planning
techniques developed and used extensively in artificial
intelligence to automate the generation of test cases for GUIs.
Given a set of operators, an initial state and a goal state, the
planner produces a sequence of the operators that will
transform the initial state to the goal state.
for extending the basic tester classes for new components, and
has a well defined method for naming those new actions so
they are automatically available at the scripting level. It also
provides extensibility for Converting strings from scripts into
arbitrary classes, and introducing new Individual steps into
scripts. Scripts can call directly into java code (the script is
actually just a thin veneer over method calls). Abbot provides
both a script environment and a JUnit [13] fixture, both of
which handle setup and teardown of the complete GUI
environment.
III. PROPOSED APPROACHES FOR TESTING GUI APPLICATION

In the Previous Existing methods, none of the tool does
not support both capture replay technique and programmatic
technique. Graphical user interface or GUI is the interactive
graphical representation of its underlying application. Front
end users find it easy to use this interface to operate the
software since it is not necessary for them to understand the
programming language used in the software. Testing such
software for its reliability becomes complex since the testers
have to test the software as well as the GUI for its design
functionality. The proposed testing is based on functionality
and in order to perform functional testing, different kinds of
automated tools are available in market which will be quite
hard for the tester to choose for satisfying his requirements.
In this paper represents Abbot tool that
supports both capture replay techniques (black box Testing)
and Glass box technique (White box Testing) is used for test
case narration and execution. This process is also called as
Gray Box Testing.
A.TestCase Generation Framework
Testing Framework [9] application Involves,
(Fig1) Test Case Generation, Testing Oracle, Automatic
Executions [21], Test Result and Performance Analysis.
Abbot uses a dedicated class to represent GUI components .It
stores a range of attributes to be used when looking for a
matching component in the hierarchy, and does a fuzzy
lookup to avoid spurious errors due to component movement
or minor changes to the GUI. The lookup mechanism is very
general due to the fact it is used by the scripting layer which
has no a priori knowledge of the GUI hierarchy or what needs
to be looked up.
The framework also provides a number of utilities to
facilitate inspecting the GUI hierarchy itself. Abbot provides
Fig 1 Testing Framework
1) Test Case Generation

Test case Generation and Execution is done using
Abbot Tool. Abbot is a framework for driving java UI
components programmatically. Costello is a script editor and a
launcher which accompanies Abbot. They are based on the
same capture/ playback/script principle that marathon uses,
but Abbot can also be used programmatically. The framework
can be invoked differently from Java code or accessed without
programming through the use of 20 scripts. It is suitable for
use both by developers for unit tests and QA for functional
testing. The framework easily integrates with the JUnit test
harness and therefore, during application development, the
functional GUI tests can become a part of the test suite. All
these features of Abbot make it an effective framework for
rapidly creating a comprehensive test framework. Collections
of test cases are generated by using Abbot and JUnit Tool.
The test cases contain the sequence of user Input Events.
GUI Model
Test Case
Generation
JAR Files
Page 179
Measurement is the process by which numbers or

symbols are assigned to attributes of entities in the real world
in such a way as to characterize them according to clearly
defined rules. Coverage of GUI applications Require various
tasks: Performance analysis and Coverage Report. Coverage
measurement also helps to avoid test entropy. As your code
goes through multiple release cycles, there can be a tendency
for unit tests to atrophy. As new code is added, it may not
meet the same testing standards you put in place when the
project was first released. Measuring code coverage can keep
your testing up to the standards you require. You can be
confident that when you go into production there will be
minimal problems because you know the code not only passes
its tests but that it is well tested.
1) Code Coverage
Code coverage analysis is sometimes called test coverage
analysis. The two terms are synonymous. The academic world
more often uses the term "test coverage" while practitioners
more often use "code coverage". Likewise, a coverage
analyser is sometimes called a coverage monitor. Code
coverage is not a panacea. Coverage generally follows an 8020 rule. Increasing coverage values becomes difficult, with
new tests delivering less and less incrementally. If you follow
defensive programming principles, where failure conditions
are often checked at many levels in your software, some code
can be very difficult to reach with practical levels of testing.
Coverage measurement is not a replacement for good code
review and good programming practices. In general you
should adopt a sensible coverage target and aim for even
coverage across all of the modules that make up your code.
Relying on a single overall coverage figure can hide large
gaps in coverage.
2) Code Coverage with Clover
Clover [24] uses source code instrumentation, because
although it requires developers to perform an instrumented
build; source code instrumentation produces the most accurate
coverage measurement for the least runtime performance
overhead. As the code under test executes, code coverage
systems collect information about which statements have been
executed. This information is then used as the basis of reports.
In addition to these basic mechanisms, coverage approaches
vary on what forms of coverage information they collect.
There are many forms of coverage beyond basic statement
coverage including conditional coverage, method entry and
path coverage. Clover is designed to measure code coverage
in a way that fits seamlessly with your current development
environment and practices, whatever they may be. Clover's
IDE Plug-in provide developers with a way to quickly
measure code coverage without having to leave the IDE.
Clover's Ant and Maven integrations allow coverage
measurement to be performed in Automated Build and
Continuous Integration systems, and reports generated to be
shared by the team.
The Clover Coverage Explorer:
The Coverage Explorer allows you to view and
control Clover's instrumentation of your Java projects, and
shows you the coverage statistics for each project based on
recent test runs or application runs. The main tree shows
coverage and metrics information for packages, files, class
and methods of any Clover-enabled project in your
workspace. Clover will auto-detect which classes are your
tests and which are your application classes - by using the
drop-down box above the tree you can then restrict the
coverage tree shown so that you only see coverage for
application classes, test classes or both. Summary metrics are
displayed alongside the tree for the selected project, package,
file, class or method in the tree.
The Clover Coverage Measurement:
Clover uses these measurements to produce a Total
Coverage Percentage for each class, file, and package and for
Page 180
Fig 2 Test Case Generation using Abbot Tool
This framework shown in Fig 2 chooses a specific

model of the GUI application. This model satisfies the GUI
application under test which is also the input of the Test Case
generation. Collections of test cases are generated by using
Abbot and JUnit Tool. The Test case contains the sequence of
user Input events. The test cases are run with test runner. A
test designer interacts with the GUI and generates mouse and
keyboard events.
2) Test Case Execution
Test cases from the repository are executed one by one
automatically using Abbot and JUnit Tools as shown in Fig 3.
Source Program
Jar files
Repository
Collection of test
cases
Test Execution
Automatically
Fig 3 Test Execution by JUnit Tool
3) Test case Verification:

The expected results of various test cases are manually
determined and stored in the GUI model of Testing Oracle.
The Testing Oracle contains the expected state of sequences
for each application. When the test cases start running, the
start timer is initialized. The events are generated
automatically and the actual results from the tool are verified
with the expected results as shown in Fig 4. Pass/Failure
testing report is generated accordingly.
Actual State
Expected State
Automated Verified
Verified
Fig 4 Test Case Verification
B. Performance Analysis
the project as a whole. The Total Coverage Percentage allows

entities to be ranked in reports. The Total Coverage
Percentage (TPC) is calculated as follows: TPC = (BT + BF +
SC +MC)/(2*B + S + M) where BT - branches that evaluated
to "true" at least once BF - branches that evaluated to "false"
at least once SC statements covered MC - methods entered
B - total number of branches S - total number of statements M
- total number of methods
3) Event Coverage
These coverage criteria use events and event sequences to
specify a measure of test adequacy. Since the total number of
permutations of event sequences in any non-trivial GUI is
extremely large, the GUI's hierarchical structure is exploited
to identify the important event sequences to be tested. A GUI
is decomposed into GUI components, each of which is used as
a basic unit of testing. A representation of a GUI component,
called an event flow graph [16], identifies the interaction of
events within a component and intra component criteria are
used to evaluate the adequacy of tests on these events. The
hierarchical relationship among components is represented by
an integration tree, and inter-component coverage criteria are
used to evaluate the adequacy of test sequences that cross
components.
4) Event Interaction Coverage
The sequence of possible Event Interacts with an other
Event. This type of event coverage is called as Event
Interaction Coverage [22]. The event interaction coverage is
consisting of 2 ways and 3 ways Combination.
C. Coverage Report
1) Coverage HTML Report
The clover html report task generates a full HTML
report with sensible default settings. It is also generated prior
to generation of the full report.
2) Coverage XML Report
The clover xml report task generates a full HTML
report with sensible default settings. It is also generated prior
to generation of the full report.
3) Coverage PDF Report
The clover pdf report task generates a PDF report with
sensible default settings. It is also generated prior to
generation of the full report.
D. Coverage Metric
The coverage metric CONTeSSi (n) (CONtext Test
Suite Similarity) [23] for each model value factor is calculated
and compared with the original pair of model. CONTeSSi (n)
(CONtext Test Suite Similarity) that explicitly considers the
context of n preceding events in test cases to develop a new
context-aware notion of test suite similarity. This metric is
an extension of the cosine similarity metric used in Natural
Language Processing and Information Retrieval for comparing
an item to a body of knowledge, e.g., finding a query string in
a collection of web pages or determining the likelihood of
finding a sentence in a text corpus (collection of
documents).We evaluate CONTeSSi (n) by comparing four
test suites, including suites reduced using conventional
criteria, for four open source applications. Our results show
that CONTeSSi (n) is a better indicator of the similarity of test

suites than existing metrics.
Page 181
This paper considers different models with varying

frequencies of events like all individual events, all two pair
events, all three pair events, etc. Coverage metric is calculated
for various factors like statement, branch, method, etc.
IV. IMPLEMENTATION
This paper uses the GUI model of Calculator
Application, which is written using Java Swing. A scientific
Calculator Application contains a Collection of Standard
Buttons, Control Buttons and Scientific Buttons. It is used to
calculate the Arithmetic and Scientific data values. It performs
several Basic operations such as Add, Sub, Mul and Div and
Also Scientific Operations Such as Sin, Cos, Tan, Log, sqrt
and etc,The Program also Contains Radio Buttons like
Hexadecimal, Octal, Decimal, and Binary, which enable the
The automatic execution of user input sequence is shown in
Fig 5. All the operations are performed by Click Events .For
this Application, the test cases are written by using java
Swing. The unit testing is done by Abbot and JUnit Tool.
Figure 5: Automatic Execute of User Input Sequence
A. Automation Testing with Abbot

The Specific Calculator Program written using Java
Swing is selected for testing. The Calculator program is run
with abbot and junit tool and the each action is performed
using the button click event. The Calculator Application, test
case generation makes use of the core components Component
Test Fixture () and Component Tester () in the Abbot and also
write the test cases are using action click (), Selectmen Item ()
, action Delay ().By making use of the components test cases
are created. The assert method compares data value obtained
from calculator program with data value automatically execute
one by one using the test case sequences. The click event for
Hexa Decimal option Button and the corresponding enabled
buttons are shown in Fig 6
1) Code Coverage
Code coverage and event based performance analysis
are done in the module. Clover coverage tool is used for
collecting the metrics for frames, methods and package. Code
coverage tool is used for statements, branches and loop.
Figure 6: Click Event for Hexa Decimal Button
B. Coverage View
Manual analysis is done for event interaction and events
and the relevant data is collected. Coverage metrics are
collected for different units of application.The different
explorer view of coverage report for all completed test cases is
show in fig 7,8,9
Fig 10: Coverage view of Code Cover tool for Calculator program
Figure 7: Coverage Explorer View for all Test cases
2) Event Coverage
Event Coverage is determined by the total number
of click events generated by the user. For Eg table3 shows that
Single event is generated for Basic button, 11 events are
generated for calculating the area of circle (pi*r*r).
3) Event Interaction Testing
It represents all possible sequences of events that can
be executed on the GUI. In that Calculator Application
contains as the collection Buttons such as standard, Control,
and Scientific. In Figure 11 represents that,
e1 represents the clicking in the file Menu
e2 represents the clicking in the Menu Selection event
e4 represents the clicking in the Basic button after
clicking the e2 event. It is similar to e5.
Fig 8: Project Coverage Report in XML Format
Fig 11 Shows that Event Based Sequences
Fig 9: Coverage Report in PDF Format
Table1 displays the report title and the time of the

coverage contained in the report. The header displays metrics
for the package files or project overview which is currently
selected. Depending on the current selection, the metrics
include all or a subset of: Number of Lines of Code
(LOC),Number of Non-commented Lines of Code
(NCLOC),Number of Methods, Number of Classes, Number
of Files, Number of Packages.
Page 182
In considering this context, the event pair

coverage suite in Table 4 is expected to be more similar to the
original suite than the event coverage suite, since the event
pair coverage suite is created based on the existence of event
pairs. Table 4(b) shows the count of each event pair for each
suite. This is the basis of CONTeSSi (n), for n = 1, since we
are looking at events in the context of one other (previous)
event. Now if we extend this example to compute CONTeSSi
(2), we obtain the frequencies shown in Table 4(C). In
general, as n increases, the frequencies for the event sequences
decrease, as they appear less frequently in the test suites.
Intuitively, comparing test suites on longer sequences will
make it harder for the test suites to be similar.
Therefore, if two test suites have a high similarity
score with a larger n, they are even more similar than two
suites being compared with a small n. By treating each row in
Table 4 (a), (b), or (c) as a vector, CONTeSSi is computed as
follows:CONTeSSi(A,B) =(A B) /(|A| |B|) (1)where A and

B are the vectors corresponding to the two test suites, A B is
the dot product of the two vectors, i.e.,Pj i=1(AiBi) where j
is the number of terms in the vector; and |A| = qPj i=1(Ai)2.
The value of CONTeSSi lies between 0 and 1, where a value
closer to 1 indicates more similarity. Hence, CONTeSSi (n) is
computed as shown in Equation 1, creating a vector for each
suite, representing the frequencies of all possible groups of
n + 1 events. The inclusion of n previous events will increase
the number of terms in the vector, thereby increasing j. The
values in Table 5 show the values of CONTeSSi(n) for all our
test suites, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3. From these values, we observe
that if we ignore context, i.e., use n = 0, most of the reduced
suites are quite similar to the original, as indicated by the high
(> 0.9) value of CONTeSSi (0). However, the similarity
between the test suites decreases as more context
TABLE:1 VIEW OF ALL TEST CASES VALUE USING CLOVER COVERAGE TOOL
Area
Test Case
State
ment
Bran
ches
Metho
ds
Classes
LOC
Circle
Rectangle
Parallelogram
Triangle
Trapezoid
Total
280
293
291
298
297
339
132
132
132
132
132
132
21
24
24
24
24
28
1
2
2
2
2
2
625
667
666
672
672
738
Rectangle
Prims
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
Total
312
304
303
300
294
373
132
132
132
132
132
132
25
25
25
25
24
28
2
2
2
2
2
2
690
681
676
671
668
775
Rectangle
Prims
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
Pyramid
291
293
296
297
299
295
132
132
132
132
132
132
24
24
24
24
24
24
2
2
2
2
2
2
666
669
671
672
677
671
Total
351
132
29
NCLOC
762
483
513
511
518
517
570
Surface
535
527
525
522
513
602
Volume
511
513
516
517
519
515
586
Total
Cmp
Cmp
Densit
y
Avg
method
Cmp
Stmt /
methods
Methods /
classes
Total
Coverage
(in %)
138
141
141
141
141
145
0.49
0.48
0.48
0.47
0.47
0.43
6.57
5.88
5.88
5.88
5.88
5.18
13.33
12.21
12.12
12.42
12.38
12.11
21
12
12
12
12
14
54.3
53.6
53.6
54.1
54.1
55
142
142
142
142
141
145
0.46
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.48
0.39
5.68
5.68
5.68
5.68
5.88
5.18
12.48
12.16
12.12
12
12.25
13.32
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
12
14
41.6
42.7
53.3
53.3
51.7
53.6
141
141
141
141
141
141
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.47
0.47
0.48
5.88
5.88
5.88
5.88
5.88
5.88
12.12
12.21
12.33
12.38
12.46
12.29
12
12
12
12
12
12
55
55
55
55
55.5
55
146
0.42
5.03
12.1
14.5
55
Page 183
TABLE: 2 VIEW OF ALL TEST CASES VALUE USING CODE COVERAGE TOOL
Test Case
Basic
Minus
Add
Mul
Div
Mod
Hex
Dec
Oct
Bin
Stmt
59.4
63.9
63.9
63.9
63.9
67.1
61.6
60.7
61.6
61.6
Circle
Rectangle
Parallelogram
Triangle
Trapezoid
68.9
63.9
63.9
65.3
65.8
Rectangle
Prims
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
64.4
65.3
68.9
68.9
67.6
Rectangle
Prims
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
Pyramid
Total
63.9
64.8
68.5
68.5
68.5
64.4
97.7
Branch
2.3
10.5
9.3
11.6
12.8
15.1
11.6
9.3
11.6
14
Area
36.0
12.8
12.8
17.4
18.6
Surface
14.0
16.3
34.9
34.9
30.2
Volume
11.6
15.1
34.9
34.9
33.7
15.1
93
Loop
10.1
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
10.1
14.5
13.0
14.5
13
Strict Con
6.0
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
9.4
19.7
7.7
15.4
9.4
10.1
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
14.5
11.1
10.3
13.7
15.4
8.7
8.7
10.1
10.1
10.1
13.7
13.7
16.2
15.4
9.4
8.7
8.7
10.1
10.1
10.1
8.7
34.8
8.5
10.3
14.5
12.8
12.8
11.1
94.9
TABLE: 3 VIEW OF ALL TEST CASE EVENT SEQUENCE
Test Plan
Event
Execution
(in sec)
Execution
Delay (1000 sec)
Basic
Scientific
Hex
Dec
Octal
Binary
1
1
1
1
1
1
View
1.684
1.763
1.342
1.295
2.262
1.342
2.699
2.714
2.371
2.309
2.356
2.324
Circle
Rectangle
Parallelogram
Triangle
Trapezoid
11
7
6
12
12
Area
3.588
2.434
2.262
3.447
3.401
4.555
3.463
3.26
4.446
4.415
Rectangle
Prism
Cylinder
Pyramid
Cones
Sphere
6
8
11
10
11
14
Volume
2.278
2.036
3.525
2.995
3.588
4.119
3.291
3.65
4.633
4.009
4.556
5.085
Rectangle
Prims
Cylinder
Cones
Sphere
26
18
17
13
9
Surface
6.006
4.524
4.68
3.916
3.183
6.989
5.506
5.647
4.898
4.165
Page 184
TABLE: 4 EXAMPLE TEST CASES YIELDED FROM SEVERAL REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

ORIGINAL PAIR
EVENT PAIR
EVENT
STATEMENT
METHOD
BRANCH
e2,e5
e2,e4,e6
e2,e4,e8
e2,e4,e7
e2,e4,e9,e10,e9
e2,e4,e9
e2,e5,e11,e9,e10,e9
e2,e5,e11,e9
e9,e10,e9
e6,e9,e10,e9
e8,e9
e7,e9,e10,e9
e11,e9,e10,e9
e11,e9,e10
e6,e12
e2,e5,e11,e10
e9,e10,e2,e5,e11,e9
e6,e9
e7,e9
e8,e9
e2,e5,e11,e9,e10,e9
e2,e4,e9,e10,e9
e9,e10,e2,e5,e11,e9
e2,e4,e6
e2,e4,e8
e2,e4,e7
e2,e5,e11,e10
e9,e12
e8,e9
e9,e10,e2,e5,e11,e9
e2,e5
e6,e9
e7,e9
e8,e9
e2,e5,e11,e9,e10,e9
e2,e5,e11,e9
e9,e10,e9
e6,e9
e7,e9
e8,e9
e2,e5,e11,e9
e2,e4,e9,e10,e9
Illustrative Tests
e2
e4
e5
e6
e7
e8
e9
e10
e11
e12
TABLE: 4(A) FREQUENCY OF UNIQUE EVENTS OCCURRING IN THE TEST SUITE (LENGTH=0)
TEST SUITE
E2
E4
E5
E6
E7
E8
E9
E10
E11
E12
ORIGINAL
10
18
EVENT PAIR
EVENT
STMT
METHOD
BRANCH
Illus. Suite
TABLE: 4( B) FREQUENCY OF ALL EVENTS PAIR OCCURRING IN THE TEST SUITE (LENGTH=1)
TEST SUITE
E2,E4
E2,E5
E4,E6
E4,E7
E4,E8
E4,E9
E5,E11
E6,E9
E6,E10
E6,E12
E7,E9
E8,E9
ORIGINAL
EVENT PAIR
EVENT
STMT
METHOD
BRANCH
TEST SUITE
E2,E4
E2,E5
E4,E6
E4,E7
E4,E8
E4,E9
E5,E11
E6,E9
E6,E10
E6,E12
E7,E9
E8,E9
ORIGINAL
EVENT PAIR
EVENT
STMT
METHOD
BRANCH
Illus. Suite
TABLE: 4(C) FREQUENCY OF ALL EVENTS PAIR OCCURRING IN THE TEST SUITE (LENGTH=2)
Illus. Suite
Page 185
TABLE: 5 CONTESSI (N) VALUES FOR SUITE COMPARED TO ORIGINAL FOR ALL BUTTONS IN CALCULATOR APPLICATION IN GUI EXAMPLE SUITES
n
EVENT PAIR
EVENT
STMT
METHOD
BRANCH
ILLUS. SUITE
0.97308
0.78513
0.95434
0.94405
0.94571
0.7816
0.9274
0.60669
0.788116
0.82365
0.685188
0.0000
0.9106
0.39509
0.79697
0.79018
0.79018
0.0000
0.9428
0.73786
0.82495
0.7071
0.68041
0.0000
0.9999
0.0000
0.8660
0.0000
0.5000
0.0000
0.9999
0.0000
0.9999
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
V. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

GUIs may introduce new types of error, increase
complexity and make testing more difficult. The Automation
testing reduces the work intensity of the developer and the
tester. The main advantage of test automation is that as a
result software developers can run tests more often, find and
fix bugs on the early stage of development, before end users
will face these
bugs. The framework suggested in this project simplifies the
creation and maintenance of robust GUI tests. Abbot is easy to
learn and use, and provides some unique features that can
make GUI development more productive.
This project developed the method for (i) automatic test case
generation, execution and verification (ii) performance
analysis by calculating the coverage based on statement,
method, branch, event and event interactions for GUI
applications. Our results showed that CONTeSSi (n) is a
better indicator of the similarity of Event Interaction test suites
than existing metrics. In that metric also describes Event pair
Coverage is the best Coverage Compared with Statement,
Method, and Branch and Loop coverage.
As a future enhancement is to conduct more intensive
testing with the candidate tools by creating additional test
cases and modifying default test settings to improve test
coverage and conducting Automation testing. We will also
further introduce the relationship between the test case lengths
and the value of n used in CONTeSSi(n) to draw some
Conclusions on how to pick the best value of n, starting with a
value of n which matches the length of the most test cases in
the input suite.
[4] F.Belli, "Finite State Testing and Analysis of Graphical

User Interfaces", Proc. the 12th International Symposium on
Software Reliability Engineering, 2001, pp34-43.
[5] A.M.Memon, M.E.Pollack, M.L.So_a, "Hierarchical GUI
Test Case Generation Using Automated Planning", IEEE
Transactions on Software Engineering, Vol.27, No.2, 2001,
pp144-155.
[6] K.Y.Cai, L.Zhao, H.Hu, C.H.Jiang, "On the Test Case
De_nition of GUI Testing", Proc. the 5th International
Conference on Quality Software, IEEE Computer Society
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[8] Capture-Replay Tool, 2003. http://soft.com.
[9] T.Wall. "Abbot Java gui test framework",
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[10] Tamas Daboci,Istvan Kollar,Tamas Megyeri,"How to
Graphical User Interfaces" IEEE Instrumentation and
Measurement Magazine,Sep 2003.
[11] A. M. Memon, M. E. Pollack, and M. L. Soffa."Using a
goal-driven approach to generate test cases for guis". In 10
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engineering, IEEE Computer Society Press, 1999.
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planning". IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng.,27(2):144-155, 2001.
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[14] Atif M Memon."Advances in GUI testing". In Advances
in Computers, ed. by Marvin V.Zelkowitz, volume 57.
Academic Press, 2003.
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[1] A. M. Memon."Gui testing: pitfalls and process". IEEE
Computer, 35(8):87-88, 2002.
[2] L.White, H.Almezen, "Generating Test Cases for GUI
Responsibilities Using Complete Interaction Sequences",
International Symposium on Software Reliability Engineering,
2001, pp54-63.Proc. the 11th International Symposium on
Software Reliability Engineering, 2000, pp110-121.
[3] L.White, H.Almezen, N.Alzeidi, "User-Based Testing of
GUI Sequences and Their Interactions", Proc. the
12thInternational Symposium on Software Reliability
Engineering,
[15] Monty L. Hammontree , Rothermel,Je_rey J.

Hendrickson , Billy W.Hensley,"Integrated data capture and
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Monterey,California, United States
[16] Atif M. Memon,"An Event-ow Model of GUI-Based
Application for Testing" STVR2007.
[17] Richard K. Shehady , Daniel P. Siewiorek," A Method to
Automate User Interface Testing Using Variable Finite State
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Machines, Proceedings of the 27th International Symposium

on Fault-Tolerant Computing (FTCS'97), June 25-27, 1997.
[18] Lee White , Husain Almezen,"Generating Test Cases for
GUI Responsibilities Using Complete Interaction Sequences",
Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Software
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[19] Atif M. Memon, Qing Xie."Studying the Fault Detection
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and Flexible Processes in Software Eng. May 2001.
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Page 187
THE NEED OF THE HOUR - NOSQL Technology

for Next Generation Data Storage
K.Chitra1, Sherin M John2
Dept of Computer Applications, Thiagarajar School of Management
Madurai, TN, India
1
chitra@tsm.ac.in
sherin@tsm.ac.in
Abstract A relational database is a table-based data system

where there is no scalability, minimal data duplication,
computationally expensive table joins and difficulty in dealing
with complex data. The problem with relations in relational
database is that complex operations with large data sets quickly
become prohibitively resource intense. Relational databases do
not lend themselves well to the kind of horizontal scalability
that's required for large-scale social networking or cloud
applications. NOSQL has emerged as a result of the demand for
relational database alternatives. The biggest motivation behind
NOSQL is scalability. NOSQL is meant for the current growing
breed of web applications that need to scale effectively. This
paper analyzes the need of the next generation data storage
which is the need of the current large-scale social networking or
cloud applications. We also analyze the capabilities of various
NOSQL models like BigTable, Cassandra, CouchDB, Dynamo
and MongoDB.
Keywords NOSQL, scalability, relational database alternatives,
Next Generation Data Storage.
VI. INTRODUCTION
A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a
database management system (DBMS) that is based on the
relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd. It supports a
tabular structure for the data, with enforced relationships
between the tables. Most popular commercial and open source
databases currently in use are based on the relational model.
The problem with RDBMS is not that they do not scale, its
that they are incredibly hard to scale. The most popular
RDBMS are Microsoft SQL Server, DB2, Oracle, MYSQL
etc.
Many Web applications simply do not need to represent data
as a set of related tables that means all applications need not
be a traditional relational database management system
(RDBMS) that uses SQL to perform operations on data.
Rather, data can be stored in the form of objects, graphs,
documents and retrieved using a key. For example, a user
profile can be represented as an object graph (such as
pojo) with a single key being the user id. Another example:
documents or media files can be stored with a
single key with indexing of metadata handling by a separate
search engine.
These forms of data storage are not relational and lack SQL,
but they may be faster than RDBMS because they do not have
to maintain indexes, relationships, constraints and parse SQL.
Technology like that has existed since the 1960s (consider, for
example, IBMs VSAM file system).
Relational databases are able to handle millions of products
and service very large sites. However, it is difficult to create
redundancy and parallelism with relational databases, so they
become a single point of failure. In particular, replication is
not trivial. To understand why, consider the problem of
having two database servers that need to have identical data.
Having both servers for reading and writing data makes it
difficult to synchronize changes. Having one master server
and another slave is bad too, because the master has to take all
the heat when users are writing information. So as a relational
database grows, it becomes a bottleneck and the point of
failure for the entire system. As mega e-commerce sites grew
over the past decade they became aware of this issue - adding
more web servers does not help because it is the database that
ends up being a problem.
Fig. 2 Scalability Issues with Relational Database
VII.
NEXT GENERATION DATA STORAGE MODEL
Page 188
Trends in computer architectures and modern web-scale

databases are pressing databases in a direction that requires:
storage of non-relational data, which are distributed to

be available even when the nodes are crashed
open-source
effective scalability (Horizontal & Vertical)
schema-free
replication support
easy API
eventual consistency
NOSQL-style data stores attempt to address these

requirements. It is the future of database technology that is
suitable particularly for web applications that need to scale
effectively. Many NOSQL products store data as BLOBs.
Actually, NOSQL is an offhand term for a collection of
technologies, some of which are DBMS (DataBase
Management Systems) and some of which are not. All they
have in common is:
They have something to do with managing data
They are not relational DBMS, if by Relational

DBMS you mean DBMS that want you to talk to them in
SQL.
select fun, profit from real_world where

relational=false;
XXXXXXX.
NOSQL (Not Only SQL)
The NoSQL movement is a combination of an architectural

approach for storing data and software products that can store
data without using SQL. Hence, the term NoSQL.
The NOSQL products that store data using keys are called
Key-Value (KV) stores. Because these KV stores are not
relational and lack SQL they may be faster than RDBMS. The
downside of NOSQL is that you cannot easily perform queries
against related data. Prominent closed-source examples are
Google's BigTable and Amazon's Dynamo. Several opensource variants exist including Facebook's Cassandra, Apache
HBase, CouchDB LinkedIn's Project Voldemort and many
others. Apache's open source CouchDB offers a new method
of storing data, in what is referred to as a schema-free
document-oriented database model.
4) The technology
There are three popular types of NoSQL databases.
Column-oriented databases: Rather than store sets of

information in a heavily structured table of columns and rows
with uniform sized fields for each record, as is the case with
relational databases, column-oriented databases contain one
extendable column of closely related data. Facebook created
the high-performance Cassandra to help power its website.
The Apache Software Foundation developed Hbase, a
distributed, open source database that emulates Googles Big
Table.
Document-based stores: These databases store and organize
data as collections of documents, rather than as structured
tables with uniform sized fields for each record. With these
databases, users can add any number of fields of any length to
a document.
VIII.
NOSQL MODELS FOR DATA STORAGE
Organizations that collect large amounts of unstructured data
are increasingly turning to non-relational databases, now
frequently called NoSQL databases.
YYYYYYY.
Bigtable: A Distributed Storage System for
Structured Data
Bigtable is Googles internal database system. Bigtable is a
distributed storage system for managing structured data that is
designed to scale to a very large size i.e. petabytes (1 petabyte
= 1.12589991 1015 bytes) of data across thousands of
commodity servers. Many projects at Google store data in
Bigtable, including web indexing, Google Earth, and Google
Finance. These applications place very different demands on
Bigtable, both in terms of data size (from URLs to web pages
to satellite images) and latency requirements (from backend
bulk processing to real-time data serving). Despite these
varied demands, Bigtable has successfully provided a flexible,
high-performance solution for all of these Google products.
A Bigtable is a sparse, distributed, persistent multidimensional
sorted map. The map is indexed by a row key, column key,
and a timestamp; each value in the map is an uninterpreted
array of bytes. Each cell in a Bigtable (like field in DBMS)
can contain multiple versions of the same data; these versions
are indexed by timestamp (Microseconds). Bigtable
timestamps are 64-bit integers. Different versions of a cell are
stored in decreasing timestamp order, so that the most recent
versions can be read first.
Bigtable depends on a cluster management system for
scheduling jobs, managing resources on shared machines,
dealing with machine failures, and monitoring machine status.
ZZZZZZZ.
Cassandra: A Decentralized, highly
scalable, eventually consistent DB
Key-value stores: As the name implies, a key-value store is a

system that stores values indexed for retrieval by keys. These
systems can hold structured or unstructured data. Amazons
SimpleDB is a Web service that provides core database
functions of information indexing and querying in the cloud. It
provides a simple API for storage and access. Users pay only
for the services they use.
Cassandra is highly scalable second-generation distributed

database. Cassandra was open sourced by Facebook in 2008
and is currently being developed as an Apache Incubator
project. The system offers a fault tolerant, high availability,
decentralized store for data which can be scaled up by adding
Page 189
hardware nodes to the system. Cassandra implements an

"eventually consistent" model which trades-off consistency of
data stores in the system for availability.
Data is automatically replicated to multiple nodes for faulttolerance. Replication across multiple data centers is
supported. Failed nodes can be replaced with no downtime.
Cassandra is in use at Rackspace, Digg, Facebook, Twitter,
Cisco, Mahalo, Ooyala, and more companies that have large,
active data sets. The largest production cluster has over 100
TB of data in over 150 machines.
AAAAAAAA.
CouchDB Extremely scalable, highly
available and reliable Storage System
CouchDB, is a free and open source document-oriented
database written in the Erlang programming language for its
emphasis on fault tolerance, accessible using a RESTful
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) API. The term "Couch" is
an acronym for "Cluster Of Unreliable Commodity
Hardware", reflecting the goal of CouchDB being extremely
scalable, offering high availability and reliability, even while
running on hardware that is typically prone to failure.
Hence CouchDB is:
A document database server
Ad-hoc and schema-free with a flat address space
Distributed, featuring robust, incremental replication
with bi-directional conflict detection and management.
Highly available even if hardware fails
Query-able and index-able, featuring a table oriented
reporting engine that uses Javascript as a query language

CouchDB is Not:
A relational database
A replacement for relational databases
An object-oriented database. Or more specifically,
meant to function as a seamless persistence layer for an OO

programming language
BBBBBBBB.
Dynamo - A Distributed Storage System for
Amazon website
Dynamo is an internal technology developed at Amazon to
address the need for an incrementally scalable, highlyavailable key-value storage system. The technology is
designed to give its users the ability to trade-off cost,
consistency, durability and performance, while maintaining
high-availability.
Amazon runs a world-wide e-commerce platform that serves

tens of millions customers at peak times using tens of
thousands of servers located in many data centers around the
world. Reliability is one of the most important requirements
because even the slightest outage has significant financial
consequences and impacts customer trust. In addition, to
support continuous growth, the platform needs to be highly
scalable.
Dynamo has a simple key/value interface, is highly available
with a clearly defined consistency window, is efficient in its
resource usage, and has a simple scale out scheme to address
growth in data set size or request rates. Each service that uses
Dynamo runs its own Dynamo instances.
CCCCCCCC.
MongoDB
MongoDB (humongous) is a document database designed to
be easy to work with, fast, and very scalable. It was also
designed to be ideal for website infrastructure. It is perfect for
user profiles, sessions, product information, and all forms of
Web content (blogs, wikis, comments, messages, and more).
Its not great for transactions or perfect durability, as required
by something like a banking system. Good fits for MongoDB
include applications with complex objects or real-time
reporting requirements, and agile projects where the
underlying database schema changes often. MongoDB does
not suit software with complex (multiple objects) transactions.
1) Inside MongoDB
MongoDB is an interesting combination of modern Web
usage semantics and proven database techniques. In some
ways MongoDB is closer to MySQL than to other so-called
NoSQL databases: It has a query optimizer, ad-hoc queries,
and a custom network layer. It also lets you organize
document into collections, similar to sql tables, for speed,
efficiency, and organization.
To get great performance and horizontal scalability however,
MongoDB gives something up: transactions. MongoDB does
not support transactions that span multiple collections. You
can do atomic operations on a single object, but you cant
modify objects from two collections atomically.
MongoDB stores BSON, essentially a JSON document in an
efficient binary representation with more data types. BSON
documents readily persist many data structures, including
maps, structs, associative arrays, and objects in any dynamic
language. Using MongoDB and BSON, you can just store
your class data directly in the database. MongoDB is also
schema-free. You can add fields whenever you need to
without performing an expensive change on your database.
Adding fields is also quick, which is ideal for agile
environments. You need not revise schemas from staging to
production or have scripts ready roll changes back.
Page 190
IX. ANALYSIS OF NOSQL

In this section we compare and analyze the nonfunctional
requirements of NOSQL databases named BigTable,
Cassandra, CouchDB, Dynamo, MongoDB, HBase.
Challenges of NOSQL
NOSQL databases face several challenges.
Overhead and complexity: NOSQL databases dont work with
SQL; they require manual query programming, which can be
fast for simple tasks but time-consuming for others. In
addition, complex query programming for the databases can
be difficult.
Reliability: NOSQL databases do not support ACID
properties which are natively supported by relational
databases. NOSQL databases thus do not natively offer the
degree of reliability that ACID provides. If users want
NOSQL databases to apply ACID restraints to a data set, they
must perform additional programming.
Consistency: Because NOSQL databases do not natively
support ACID transactions, they also could compromise
consistency, unless manual support is provided. Not providing
consistency enables better performance and scalability but is a
problem for certain types of applications and transactions,
such as those involved in banking.
Unfamiliarity with the technology: Most organizations are
unfamiliar with NOSQL databases and thus may not feel
knowledgeable enough to choose one or even to determine
that the approach might be better for their purposes.
Limited Eco structure: Unlike commercial relational
databases, many open source NOSQL applications do not yet
come with customer support or management tools.
DB Type
Bigtable
Cassandra
CouchDB
Dynamo
MongoDB
Scalability
Key-Value
store DB
Column
Oriented DB
Highly Scalable
JSON
Document
Oriented DB
Key-Value
store DB
Easily scalable
and readily
extensible
Incremental
BSON
Document
Oriented DB
Scalable
Highly Scalable
scalable. The original intention has been modern web-scale

databases. Often more characteristics apply as: schema-free,
replication support, easy API, eventually consistency, and
more. Hence the misleading term "NoSQL" is now translated
to "Not Only SQL (NOSQL)". NOSQL databases generally
process data faster than relational databases. Developers
usually do not have their NOSQL databases supporting ACID
properties, in order to increase performance, but this can cause
problems when used for applications that require great
precision. NOSQL databases are also often faster because
their data models are simpler. Theres a bit of a trade-off
between speed and model complexity, but it is frequently a
tradeoff worth making, Because they do not have all the
technical requirements that relational databases have. Major
NOSQL systems are flexible enough to better enable
developers to use the applications in ways that meet their
needs.
REFERENCES
[43]
Fay Chang, Jeffrey Dean, Sanjay Ghemawat, Wilson C. Hsieh,
Deborah A. Wallach, Mike Burrows, Tushar Chandra, Andrew Fikes, and
Robert E. Gruber, Bigtable: A Distributed Storage System for Structured
Data, OSDI'06: Seventh Symposium on Operating System Design and
Implementation, Seattle, WA, November, 2006.
[44]
Hamilton, James, "Perspectives: One Size Does Not Fit All", 13
November 2009.
Lakshman, Avinash; Malik, Prashant, Cassandra - A Decentralized
[45]
Structured Storage System. Cornell University, 13 November 2009.
Availability
Performance
Highly
Available
High availability
is achieved
using replication
Highly
Available
Highly
Available
High writeavailability
TABLE II
NONFUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS OF NOSQL DATABASES
X. CONCLUSION
Next Generation Databases mostly address some of the points:
being non-relational, distributed, open-source and horizontal
High performance
Low
Loading speeds are
better than retrieval
speeds
Performance at
massive scale is one
of the biggest
challenges
Excellent solution for
short read
Reliability
Provides reliability at
a massive scale.
At massive scale is a
very big challenge
Reliable and efficient
system
Reliability at massive
scale is one of the
biggest challenges
Low
[46]
Chang, Fay; Jeffrey Dean, Sanjay Ghemawat, Wilson C. Hsieh,
Deborah A. Wallach, Mike Burrows, Tushar Chandra, Andrew Fikes, and
Robert E. Gruber. Bigtable: A Distributed Storage System for Structured
Data. Google. 13 November 2009.
[47]
Kellerman, Jim. "HBase: structured storage of sparse data for
Hadoop", 13 November 2009.
[48]
Ian Eure, Looking to the future with Cassandra. Digg Technology
Blog, September 2009
Page 191
[49]
Zhou Wei, Guillaume Pierre and Chi-Hung Chi. CloudTPS:
Scalable Transactions for Web Applications in the Cloud. Technical report
IR-CS-53, VU University Amsterdam, February 2010.
[50]
http://www.allthingsdistributed.com/2007/12/eventually_consistent
.
[51]
http://s3.amzonaws.com/AllThings/Distributed/sosp/amazondynamo
[52]
http://labs.google.com/papers/bigtable.html
http://www.cs.brown.edu/~ugur/osfa.pdf
[53]
[54]
http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/amazon_dynamo.php
[55]
http://nosql-database.org/
[56]
http://couchdb.apache.org/
Page 192
AN EFFICIENT TURBO CODED ofdm system

Prof. Vikas Dhere
Hirasugar Institute of technology
Nidasoshi ( Belgam )
dherevb@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is

a promising technique for high data rate wireless
communications. In this paper, we propose An Efficient Turbo
Coded OFDM system that can improve the performance by
making all the Turbo coded symbols having the same reliability
for OFDM transmission.
We perform computer simulations using the Log-maximum-aposteriori (Log-Map) algorithm in order to access the
performance of the proposed system. The simulation results show
that, the Turbo coded OFDM system gives the best performance
compared to conventional coded systems.
Keywords: Turbo Codes, Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM).
invoking a longer interleaver size. We perform computer

simulation using the LOG_MAP algorithm for iterative
decoding to access the performance of the proposed system
because of its accuracy and simplicity. The rest of the paper is
organized as follows: section 2. Describes the OFDM
fundamental and OFDM system model used to obtain the
performance result presented in this paper. Section 3. Follows
with a description of the turbo encoding and decoding and
1.
Introduction
Error control systems concern themselves with practical ways
of achieving very low bit error rates after a transmission over
a noisy band limited channel. Several error correcting
techniques are deployed and their performances can be
measured by comparing them each other and to the theoretical
best performance given by Shannon channel information
capacity theory.
Following the invention of Turbo Codes in 1993, a number of
turbo coded systems exploiting the powerful error correction
capability have been developed. Many factors affect the
performance of Turbo codes. They include the interleaver size
and structure, the generator polynomial and constraint length,
the decoding algorithm, the number of iterations, and so on.
The presence of multipath with different time delays causes
inter-symbol interference (ISI) and degrades the performance
of the transmission system. To improve performance of the
system, complex adaptive equalization techniques are
required. Recently, OFDM systems have been attracting much
attention, because of its robustness against frequency-selective
fading. Some examples of existing systems, where OFDM is
used, are digital audio and video broadcasting, asymmetricdigital-subscriber line modems, and wireless local-areanetworks systems, such as IEEE 802.11 and HiperLan/2. In
mobile environment, since the radio channel is frequency
selective and time-varying, channel estimation is needed at the
receiver before demodulation process.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) could
be tracked to 1950s but it had become very popular at these
days, allowing high speeds at wireless communications.
Orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is
becoming the chosen modulation technique for wireless
communications.
In this paper, we propose a scheme that can improve greatly
the performance of turbo-coded OFDM systems without
2.
OFDM System
2.1
OFDM Fundamentals
turbo coded OFDM system. The computer simulation results

are shown and discussed in section4. While section 5.
Concludes the paper.
The basic principle of OFDM is to split a high rate data stream

into a number of lower rate streams that are transmitted
simultaneously over a number of sub-carriers. Because the
symbol duration increases for the lower rate parallel sub
carriers, the relative amount of dispersion in time caused by
multi-path delay spread is decreased. Inter symbol
interference (ISI) is eliminated almost completely by
introducing a guard time in every OFDM symbol. In the
guard time, the OFDM symbol is cyclically extended to avoid
inter carrier interference.
Fig. 1. OFDM Transmitter and Receiver channel
A basic OFDM system consists of a QAM or PSK

modulator/demodulator, a serial to parallel / parallel to serial
converter, and an IFFT/FFT module. OFDM is a special case
of multi-carrier transmission,
In Fig.1. a block diagram of the baseband model of OFDM
system is shown. The binary information is first mapped using
baseband modulation schemes such as QAM or PSK. Then the
serial-to-parallel conversion is applied to baseband modulated
signals. The serial-to parallel converted data is modulated
using Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT). This is one of
Page 193
the main principles of the OFDM systems. After IDFT, the

time domain signal is given as following equation;
where N is the length of FFT, S(k) is baseband data sequence.

After IFFT, the guard interval called as cyclic prefix is
inserted to prevent inter-symbol interference (ISI). This
interval should be chosen to be larger than the expected delay
spread of the multipath channel. The guard time includes the
cyclically extended part of the OFDM symbol in order to
eliminate the inter-carrier interference (ICI). The symbol
extended with the cyclic prefix is given as follows;
Otherwise
Where:
T Symbol length; time between two
consecutive OFDM symbols
Where Nc is the length of the cyclic prefix. The resultant

signal st(n) will be transmitted over frequency selective time
varying fading channel with additive white Gaussian noise
(AWGN). The received signal is given by following equation;
Where h(n) is the impulse response of the frequency selective

channel and w(n) is AWGN.
At the receiver, the cyclic prefix is first removed. Then the
signal y(n) without cyclic prefix is applied to FFT block in
order to obtain following equation;
After FFT
block, assuming there is no ISI, demodulated signal is given
by following equation;
Where H(k) is FFT[h(n)], I(k) is ICI and W(k) is
FFT [w(n)].
2.2. OFDM Modeling
Mathematically, the OFDM signal is
expressed as a sum of the prototype
pulses shifted in time- and frequency
and multiplied by the data symbols. In continuous-time
notation, the kth
OFDM symbol is written as
( 7)
(6)
Finally, continuous sequence of

transmitted OFDM symbols is
Page 194
expressed as
Fig. 3.
(8)
Turbo decoder block diagram
3.2 MAP
A map decoder chooses the most likely path so as to
maximize the a posteriori
probabilities and that can be mathematically presented as:
3. Turbo Encoding and Decoding

A rate recursive systematic convolutional code with
constraint length three is used as the component of a turbo
coding scheme. The encoder employs parallel concatenation
as illustrated in Fig. 2. The binary information to be encoded
is represented as uk, with ck,1 and ck,2 signifying the parity bits
of the first and second component encoders, and where D
stands for a bit delay. Symbol represents pseudo-random
interleaver, which accepts blocks of 8000 information bits.
which is the probability of the codeword

a particular sequence
conditioned on that
was received. The quantity
is known as a posteriori for a MAP decoder.
is the joint probability

3.3
Design Criteria
Binary information, uk, is fed to the component encoders in

order to generate the associated parity bits, ck,1 and ck,2,which
are selected alternately by the puncturing block. In other
words, for a binary input sequence of u1, u2, u3, u4, the
encoded sequence would be u1, , u2, C1 ,C2, U3,1, u4, c4,2.
The fact that the input sequence uk is retained at the output, is
due to the systematic nature of the encoder.
1. First, the constituent encoders were selected yielding good

performance at low signal-to noise ratios, with particular
attention to decoding complexity. The final choice was the
optimum 4-state recursive systematic encoder.
2. Next, the turbo-code interleaver was designed based on the
codeword weight distribution and on the achievable
performance on the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
channel, using a maximum likelihood approach.
3. Finally, the puncturing schemes were selected based again
on both the weight distribution and the achievable
performance on the AWGN channel .
3.1. Turbo Decoding
3.4 Turbo Coded OFDM System
The following Fig.3 shows the turbo decoder which contains

two component decoders concatenated in parallel, performing
the log-MAP algorithm. Let ki is the extrinsic information
related to the kth information symbol, rk, provided by the ith
decoder, and yk,i is the parity symbol associated with rk, and
fed into the ith component decoder.
The block Diagram of proposed Turbo coded OFDM system

is as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 2. Turbo encoder block diagram
Fig. 4 A block Diagram of Turbo coded OFDM System
Page 195
A generic turbo encoder first encodes the input data sequence

. We use the component code with the constraint length K=3
and the generator polynomilas ( 7,5). We chose a code rate of
by puncturing two redundancy bits alternatively. After
serial-to-parallel conversion for OFDM symbol stacking, each
coded symbol is assigned to a distinct orthogonal code with
the same length as the number of effective subcarriers to be
transmitted.
For the single turbo code adaptive OFDM scheme, the
information bits are firstly turbo coded by a single turbo code,
then modulated separately for each subband. In the same way,
at the receiver, the signal from the output of the FFT is
demodulated separately then decoded as a single turbo code
frame.
In the separate turbo code scheme , the OFDM frame is
divided into several subbands , and the turbo code frame
combines the same subband of several OFDM symbol. In the
single turbo code scheme, the OFDM frame is also divided
into several subbands, each subband using a different
modulation scheme.
4.
4.1.2 Effect of varying number of iterations on

performance
Frame size = 700
Number of Iterations = 1
Eb/N0(dB)
0.2
0.4
0.6
BER
0.1316
0.1519
0.1098
0.1081
Eb/N0(dB)
0.8
1.2
1.4
BER
0.0926
0.0719
0.0663
0.0503
Tab. 2. Performance with number of iteration 1

Number of iterations = 4
Eb/N0(dB)
0.2
0.4
0.6
BER
0.1616
0.1298
0.0602
0.0321
Eb/N0(dB)
BER
0.8
0.0106
1
0.0011
1.2
1.527e-4
1.4
2.6551e4
SIMULATION RESULTS
In this paper, we propose an efficient wireless transmission

method that can improve greatly the performance of turbocoded OFDM systems.
4.1 SIMULATION SETUP
4.1.1 Turbo codes
We are selecting the AWGN channel.
The turbo encoder used in our simulation is of rate by
puncturing two redundancy bits alternatively and constraint
length K =3 and generator polynomial GR ( D) = ( 7,5). The
Log-MAP map algorithm is used for decoding with 08
iterations. The recursive least square algorithm is used for
channel estimation.
Simulation results for a turbo code are based on bit error rate
(BER) performance over a range of Eb/No. The following
table shows the rate 1/2 component RSC codes used in the
simulation results.
The following Tab. 1 shows the configuration used for
simulations.
Channel
Component Encoders
RSC Parameters
Component Decoder
Iterations
Tab.3. Performance with number of iteration 4

Number of Iterations 8
Eb/N0(dB)
BER
Eb/N0(dB)
BER
0
0.1225
0.8
0.0034
0.2
0.0942
1
0.0014
0.4
0.0729
1.2
1.713e-4
0.6
0.0208
1.4
2.7042e4
Tab.4. Number of iterations = 8
Additive White Gaussian(

AWGN)
2 Identical Recursive
Convolutional codes ((RSC)
n=2,k=1,k=2, G 0 = 7,
G1 = 5
Log MAP
8
Tab. 1. Simulation parameters Turbo codes
Fig. 5 Performance comparison of different iteration times
Page 196
The results show that as we increase the number of iterations

for the same channel, the bit error rate decreases by increasing
the signal to noise ratio.
4.2 . OFDM
The following Tab.5 shows the configuration used for the
simulations performed on the OFDM signal.
QPSK
8-PSK
16-PSK
FFT size
Number of carrier used
Guard time
Guard Period Type
SNR = 10 dB
SNR = 15 dB
SNR = 25 dB
2048
800
512 samples
Half zero signal , half a cyclic
extension of the symbol
= 20 s . the sample rate is 16 MHz which corresponds to a

sample time of Ts= 0.0625 s. The channel model is AWGN.
The recurceive systematic encoder in the Turbo encoder is
rate with constraint length K = 3 and a generator
polynomial GR ( D) = ( 7,5).
In the simulation for both systems, we set the BER target to
10-2.
Fig.7 illustrates the BER performance of a Turbo coded
OFDM system with the optimal adaptation algorithm. The red
solid line with circle in figure shows the BER performance for
the separate turbo code system while the blue solid line with
square in Fig.6 is the BER performance for the single code
system.
Both of the systems fulfill the BER target, but the single turbo
code system is closer to it.
Tab.5. Simulation Parameters OFDM

The following Fig. 6 shows the simulation results and the
performance of different modulation scheme in an AWGN
channel.
Fig. 7 BER of separate turbo code system and single turbo

code system
5. CONCLUSION
Red
QPSK
Green
Blue
8-PSK
16-PSK
As shown in the numerical results the single turbo code

adaptive system provides better performance for longer turbo
codes.
Fig. 6 BER curves of different modulation schemes for

OFDM system in AWGN channel
6.Refernces.
The results show that the lower order modulation schemes has
low bit error rate as compared to higher order modulation at a
given SNR.
1..Irving Reed, Xuemin Chen, Error-control coding for Data

Networks,Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell,
Massachusetts, USA, 1999.
2. Hosein Nikopour, Amir K. Khandani and S. Hamidreza
Jamali, Turbo coded OFDM transmission over a nonlinear
channel, IEEE transactions on vehicular technology, vol.54,
no.4, (July 2005) 1361-1371.
4.3. TURBO CODED OFDM

The simulation system uses Turbo Code OFDM with N =
256 subcarriers out of which only 16 of them are pilot
subcarriers. In the simulated system we use a Cyclic Prefix
length of 65 samples , and OFDM symbol duration is TOFDM
Page 197
3. B. Bougard, L.van der Perre, B. Gyselinckx, M.

Engels,Comparison of several FEC schemes for wireless
OFDM transmission on frequency selective channels,.
4. E.R Berlekamap, Algebraic coding Theory, New York.
McGraw-Hill 1968.
5. C. Berrou and A. Flavieux, Near-optimum error correcting
coding and decoding. Turbo codes, IEEE Trans. Common,
Vol. 44, PP 1261-1271, Oct. 1996.
6. C. Kikkert, Digital Communication Systems and their
Modulation Techniques,James Cook University, October
1995.
7. J. G. Proakis, Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill, New York,
USA, 4th edition 2000.
8. Pyndiah, R.; Picart, A.; Glavieux, A., "Performance of
block turbo coded 16-QAM and 64-QAM modulations,"
GLOBECOM '95., IEEE , vol.2, no.pp.1039-1043 vol.2, 14-16
Nov 1995
9. S. Le Goff, A. Glavieux and C. Berrou, Turbo codes and high
spectral efficiency modulation, Proc. of the IEEE International
Conference on Communications, vol. 2, pp. 645-649, May 1994.
Page 198
Advancement in mobile technology

Using BADA
V.AISHWARYA*
UG STUDENT
DEPT OF ECE
KALASALINGAM UNIVERSITY
KRISHNAN KOIL
aish24.klu@gmail.com
J.MANIBHARATHI
UG STUDENT
DEPT OF ECE
KRISHNAN KOIL
mani.malarathi@gmail.com
Abstract :
Bada is a complete smart phone platform.
Bada runs high-performance native apps and services. With
this use of BADA inour mobile phone the compatibility
,accessibility
and the interface of the mobile phone
version onescan be considerably increased. The use of
Badaallows us to implement mobile with no control technology
and speech with gesture recognitionfacility in the mobile
devices. Also further the development of BADA allows us to
install hand tracking detection in our mobile phones.in this
paper ,feasibilities of using Bada in mobile is discussed indetail
Keywords: Software development kit(SDK),Application program interface(API),WII.
1.0 Introduction
There were nearly 2000 million cell phones sold each
year compared with fewer than 200 million PCs and the
gap was widening. Increasingly, phones were the way people
wanted to connect with each other and with everything else.
Phones were going to replace PCs as the main gateway to the
Internet, and they were going to do it soon. The cell phones
ran on different software, had less memory, and operated
under the constraints of pay-per-byte wireless networks, the
mobile Web was a stripped-down, mimeographed version of
the real thing. To avoid this, Bada had the solution. Bada is a
free, open source mobile platform that any coder could write
for and any handset maker could install It would be a global,
open operating system for the wireless future.
Bada, (bd, the Korean word for ocean,) is a new
smartphone platform that allows developers to create featurerich applications that elevate the user experience in mobile
spaces. The bada platform is kernel-configurable and it can
run either on the Linux kernel or real-time OS kernels and it
was first developed by Samsung.
1.1Building a better mobile phone
Dr.S.DURAI RAJ
PROFESSOR & HOD
DEPT OF ECE
KRISHNAN KOIL
rajsdr@rediffmail.com
To build a better mobile phone, a mobile must have the ability

to
record
and
watch
videos
with
the
camcordermode.Uploading videos to YouTube and pictures to
Picasa directly from the phone .A new soft keyboard with an
"Auto complete" feature. Ability to automatically connect to a
Bluetooth headset within a certain distance. New widgets and
folders that can populate the desktop. Animations between
screens and moving sensors to play WII games .Expanded
ability of Copy and paste to include web pages. Ability to
embed the ADOBE flash player and webkit internet browser
directly.
Bada enables developers to take full advantage of mobile
device capabilities to easily create compelling applications.
Different service applications can share information such as
personal profiles, social relations, schedules, and contents with
simple user confirmation, all in order to provide services with
greater personal relevance and cooperative service extensions.
For example, social networking applications can share user
information with commerce or location-aware applications,
and share photos from other content publishing applications.
The bada platform is kernel-configurable so that it can run
either on the Linux kernel or real-time OS kernels, which
makes bada applicable to a wider range of devices than any
other mobile operating system.
2. Bada Runtime
Bada run
on any platform . Java run timeand dalvik virtual machine and
other computing platform.
2.1 Dalvik Virtual Machine
Every bada application runs in its own process, with its own
instance of the Dalvik virtual machine. Dalvik has been
written so that a device can run multiple VMs efficiently. The
Dalvik VM executes files in the Dalvik Executable (.dex)
format which is optimized for minimal memory footprint. The
VM is register-based, and runs classes compiled by a Java
language compiler that have been transformed (as ByteCodes,
which is good for run fast) into the .dex format by the included
"dx" tool.
Page 199
2.2 Linux Kernel

Bada relies on Linux version 2.6 for core system services
such as security, memory management, process management,
network stack, and driver model. It also act as an abstraction
layer between the hardware and rest of the software stack.
3.0 Supported Operating Systems

1. Windows XP (32-bit) or Vista (32- or 64-bit)- 1.4 GB RAM
or higher .
2. 1.8
GB free disk space or higher. Simulator screen size is 480
x800, Mac os and linux.
3.1 Supported Development Environments 1.

Eclipse IDE , Eclipse 3.3 (Europa), 3.4 (Ganymede) .
Recommended Eclipse IDE packages: Eclipse IDE for Java
EE Developers, Eclipse IDE for Java Developers, Eclipse for
RCP/Plug-in
Developers.
Eclipse
JDT
plugin.
2. Eclipse Classic IDE package is not supported.
3.
4.
JDK 5 or JDK 6 (JRE alone is not sufficient).
JAVA FX 1.1 and HELIX.
3.2 Supported web browser environment Internet
Explorer 6.0 or higher, Firefox 3.0 or higher and Safari 3.2 or
higher.
4.0
Bada Architecture
Bada has a four-layer architecture: kernel, device,

service, and framework layers. The kernel layer can be the
Linux kernel or a real-time OS kernel, depending on the
hardware configuration. The device layer provides the core
functions as a device platform, such as system and security
management, graphics and windowing system, data protocols
and telephony, as well as audio-visual and multimedia
management. The service layer provides service-centric
functions that are provided by application engines and webservice components interconnecting with bada Server. Only
the framework layer can export the C++ open API. The
framework consists of an application framework and functions
exported by the underlying layers.
5.0 Software Development Kit (SDK)

It is a typically a set of development tools that allows
a engineer to create applications for a certain
software package, software framework, hardware
platform, computer system, video game console,
operating system or similar platform.
5.2
Basic data types
Object, String, Date Time, Byte Buffer, uid, and other base
types. It has Wrapper classes for C++ primitive types, such as
Integer, Short, Double, and Long. Its has certain condition for
run time. It is interms of timer thread and its Synchronization
with Mutex, Semaphore, and Monitor. The other basic data
types are Collection and its utility. The SDKfeatures in data
types are, ArrayList, HashMap, Stack, and other collection
types. Object-based collections and template-based
collections.. Math, StringUtil, StringTokenizer, and Uri with
Standard library support. C++ STL (Standard Template
Library)
5.3 Osp::Io
Namespace for input/output data handling. It contains file and
Directory. The database involves transaction such as begin,
commit and rollback. Its also Support of both SQL queries and
enumerations with DB statements. It has registry data IO
which involves system-provided
data store in which
applications store and retrieve settings.
5.4 Osp::Text and Osp::Locales

It has namespaces for internationalization and localization.
Conversion between the major character encoding schemes,
such as UTF8, UCS2, Latin1, GSM, and ASCII and it has
separate locale by Identifying a specific language code,
country code, and variant code and its Formatting localesensitive information, such as date, number, and currency and
it has the ability to
Convert a date, time, and number into a string Unicode.
5.5 Osp::System
Namespace for controlling devices and getting system
information. It has the separate device control with register an
alarm.
1.
Screen power management:
2.
It has Keep LCD on with or without dimming .
3.
Vibrator activation with level, on/off period, and
count
4.
System information:
5.
Getting uptime and current time in UTC, Standard,
and Wall time mode. The features of sdk in Bada relates with
all mobile phone applications like connection of networking
which is in the form of Osp::Net, and for multimedia purpose
in Osp::Media . It has separate security systems and it is
different from all other mobile phones.
6.
5.6 Osp::Security
5.1 Bada SDK features
The sdk features is represented in osp: base model. It has
several osp for each and every application. There are separate
Namespaces for basic types, execution environment, and
utilities.
It has separate namespace for cryptography keys, algorithms,

and certificate management. It has Cryptography keys and
PRNG
(Pseudo
Random
Number
Generator).The
Cryptographic algorithms, such as HMAC, Hash, AES, DES,
and RSA occur in basic bada. The X.509 certificate
information retrieval and certificate path validation.
Page 200
6.0 Future SDK Development In Bada

The bada system is going to deliver the SDK, which gives
compatible to bada powered handsets. The system has fully
comfort and include the map external library. The bada system
delivers an updated version of the frame work API after the
bada s8500 devices. As with previous sensors, the bada has
sensor bar with softwares of WII games and also sensor
software. The updated API is assigned an integer identifier
that is stored in the system itself. It is used to determine
whether the
application is compatible with the system, prior to installing
the applications.
7.0
InBuilt Applications
In the developer application the inbuilt of sensors with

software provide the best playment of WIIgames and other 3D
games. Some spare parts are software of wii games which is
installed through API and sensors to capture from the wii
remote. Other applications are as same as the previous bada
SDK. The spare parts are the includement of map external
library and other external libraries. The software of wii and
sensors are transferred through Bluetooth so it brings autopairing effect. The wii sensor is also effective in password
security, secret fixing of cameras, effective tool to speech and
hearing impaired people . Hacking can be avoided by these
sensors. It is applicable to WII 2 games also.
a.
Wii Remote
The main feature of wii remote is the

gesture recognition and pointing devices. The gesture
recognition detects motion and rotation in three dimension
through the use of accelerometer technology. By separating
the controller from the gaming console, the accelerometer data
can be used as an input for the gesture recognition. The
accelerating sensors represented the gestures by characteristic
patterns of incoming signals data ie. Vectors, representing the
current accelerations of controller in all three dimensions. By
filtering and quantizer technique the unwanted vector data can
be identified and cleared. This can be done by k-mean
algorithm. In this recognition all different size objects, and
other images in 3D can be recognized.
b.
Vector Quantization
Like other acceleration-sensors the one integrated into the

Wiimote delivers too much vector data to be put into a single
HMM. In order to cluster and abstract this data the common kmean algorithm is applied with k being the number of clusters
or codes in the so-called codebook. A codebook size
delivering satisfying results and Its empirically identified k = 8
for gestures in a two-dimensional plane. However, adopt the
idea of arranging the 8 cluster centres on a circle by extending
it to the 3D case. Instead of distributing the centres uniformly
on a two-dimensional circle its possible to put them on a threedimensional sphere, intersecting two circles orthogonal to
each other. Consequently this leads to
k = 8 + 6 = 14 centres. The radius of each circle/sphere
dynamically adapts itself to the incoming signal data.
9.0 Implementation In Bada

The implementation of the gesture recognition in Java using
the standardization of Java APIs for Bluetooth Wireless
Technology (JABWT) defined by the JSR-82 specification.
Using Java ensures platform independency, for developing
and testing purposes the use of GNU/Linux platform with the
Avetana Bluetooth implementation2
is needed. The
recognition process is realized as a reusable and extensible
gesture recognition library based on an event-driven design
pattern. The library provides an interface for basic functions,
e.g. acceleration readout with the Wii Listener interface, as
well as recognition functions using a Gesture-Listener
interface. Through its modularity it is easy to adapt the
prototype to other acceleration-based controllers.
9.1 Sensing
The wii remote has the ability to sense acceleration along
with three axes through the use of an ADXL 330
accelerometer. The wii remote also has the feature of pix art
optical sensors, allowing it to determine where the wii remote
is pointing. Unlike a light gun that senses light from a mobile
screen, the wii remote senses light from the sensor which is
inbuilted in the form of chip in the bada phones allows
consistent usage regardless of the mobile sizes. The infrared
LEDs in the sensor gives an accurate pointer. The sensor
allows the wii remote to be used as an accurate pointing
device 30 meters away from the mobile. The wii remotes
image sensor is used to locate the sensors points of light in
the wii remotes field of view. The inbuilted wii software in
the mobile devices calculates the distance between the wii
remote and sensor using triangulation. Games can be
programmed to sense whether the image sensor is covered,
which is demonstrated in a microgame of smooth moves,
where if the player does not uncover the sensor, the
champagne bottle that the remote represents will not open.
9.2 Map External Library

The map external library is made to add powerful
mapping capabilities to this sdk and the good application
programme interface add on includes a map external library.
The classes of the map library offer built in downloading,
rendering, caching of map files as well as the variety of
display options and controls. The key class in the maps library
is map view and a subclass of view group is in the bada
standard library.capture key presses and touch gestures to pan
and zoom the map automatically, including handling network
requests for additional map files. It also provides all of the UI
elements necessary for users to control the map.
Page 201
10.0 Summary
The implementation of Bada in the mobile phones leads to lot
of facilties in each and every applications. The introduction of
WII in Bada ensures gesture recognition and its sensing is
used as the basic technique for no control technology. Bada
has the special feature to have Bluetooth in the standardized
Java API, in which no other mobile phones have that features.
This analysis lead to the highest cost reduction in WII games
if it is implemented.
11.0 References
1.
Wii:
The
Total
Story
IGN.
http://wii.ign.com/launchguide/hardware1.html
Retrieved
2006-11-202
2. Consolidated Financial Highlights(PDF). Nintendo. 200907-30. p. 9.
http://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/pdf/2009/090730e.pdf#page=9,
Retrieved 2009-10-29.
3 Electronic Arts (2008-01-31). Supplemental Segment
Information
http://media.corporateir.net/media_files/IROL/88/88189/Q3FY08SupSeg.pdf#page=
4 Retrieved 2008 (PDF). Thomson Financial. p. 4. -02-09..
4.
Wii
Remote
Colors.
news.com.
http://news.cnet.com/i/ne/p/2005/0916nintendopic4_500x375.j
pg. Retrieved 2006-07-15.
5. http://badawave.com, what is bada, Retrieved 7 April
2010.
Page 202
Mixed-Radix 4-2 Butterfly FFT/IFFT

For Wireless communication
A.Umasankar, S.Vinayagakarthikeyan
EEET- Department, ECE-Department
Yanbu Industrial College, Yanbu, Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia,
Vels Srinivasa College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai, India
umashankar_j@hotmail.com
vinayagakarthikeyan@gmail.com
Abstract
The technique of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM) is famous for its robustness against frequency-selective
fading channel. In general, the fast Fourier transform (FFT)
and inverse FFT (IFFT) operations are used as the
modulation/demodulation kernel in the OFDM systems, and the
sizes of FFT/IFFT operations are varied in different
applications of OFDM systems. The modified Mixed Radix 4-2
Butterfly FFT with bit reversal for the output sequence derived
by index decomposition technique is our suggested VLSI system
architecture to design the prototype FFT/IFFT processor for
OFDM systems. In this paper the analysis of several FFT
algorithms such as radix-2, radix-4 and split radix were
designed using VHDL. The results show that the proposed
processor architecture can greatly save the area cost while
keeping a high-speed processing speed, which may be attractive
for many real-time systems.
Key words: OFDM, FFT/IFFT, VLSI, VHDL, Mixed Radix with
bit reversal.
I.
Introduction
Fast Fourier transform (FFT) are widely used in different

areas of applications such as communications, radars,
imaging, etc. One of the major concerns for researchers is the
enhancement of processing speed. However according to use
of portable systems working with limited power supplies,
low-power techniques are of great interest in implementation
of this block. FFT and FFT blocks are used in OFDM links
such as very high speed digital subscribe line (VDSL),
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) systems and microwave
portable links. Of course there are many ways to measure the
complexity and efficiency of an algorithm, and the final
assessment depends on both the available technology and the
intended application. Normally the number of arithmetic
multiplications and additions are used as a measure of
computational complexity. Several methods of for computing
FFT (and IFFT) are discussed in [1],[2],[3]. These are basic
algorithms for implementation of FFT and IFFT blocks.
ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLIXING
The FDM system above had been able to use a set of

subcarriers that were orthogonal to each other; a higher level
of spectral efficiency could have been achieved. The guard
bands that were necessary to allow individual demodulation
of sub carriers in an FDM system would no longer be
necessary. The use of orthogonal subcarriers would allow the
subcarriers spectra to overlap, thus increasing the spectral
efficiency. As long as orthogonality is maintained, it is still
possible to recover the individual subcarriers signals despite
their overlapping spectrums. If the dot product of two
deterministic signals is equal to zero, these signals are said to
be orthogonal to each other. Orthogonality can also be
viewed from the standpoint of stochastic processes. If two
random processes are uncorrelated, then they are orthogonal.
Given the random nature of signals in a communications
system, this probabilistic view of orthogonality provides an
intuitive understanding of the implications of orthogonality in
OFDM. Later in this article, we will discuss how OFDM is
implemented in practice using the Fast Fourier transform
(FFT) show fig 1. Recall from signals and systems theory
that the sinusoids of the FFT form an orthogonal basis set,
and a signal in the vector space of the FFT can be represented
as a linear combination of the orthogonal sinusoids. One
view of the FFT is that the transform essentially correlates its
input signal with each of the sinusoidal basis functions. If the
input signal has some energy at a certain frequency, there
will be a peak in the correlation of the input signal and the
basis sinusoid that is at that corresponding frequency. This
transform is used at the OFDM transmitter to map an input
signal onto a set of orthogonal subcarriers, i.e., the
orthogonal basis functions of the DFT. Similarly, the
transform is used again at the OFDM receiver to process the
received subcarriers show fig 2. The signals from the
subcarriers are then combined to form an estimate of the
source signal from the transmitter. The orthogonal and
uncorrelated nature of the subcarriers is exploited in OFDM
with powerful results. Since the basis functions of the FFT
are uncorrelated, the correlation performed in the FFT for a
given subcarrier only sees energy for that corresponding
Page 203
subcarrier. The energy from other subcarriers does not

contribute because it is uncorrelated. This separation of
signal energy is the reason that the OFDM subcarriers
spectrums can overlap without causing interference.
have different radices. For instance, a 64-point long FFT can

be computed in two stages using one stage with radix-8 PEs,
followed by a stage of radix-2 PEs. This adds a bit of
complexity to the algorithm compared to radix-r, but in
return it gives more options in choosing the transform length.
The Mixed-Radix FFT algorithm is based on sub-transform
modules with highly optimized small length FFT which are
combined to create large FFT. However, this algorithm does
not offer the simple bit reversing for ordering the output
sequences.
Mixed-Radix FFT Algorithms with Bit Reversing
The mixed-radix 4/2 [9] butterfly unit is shown in Figure 2. It
uses both the radix-2^2 and the radix-2 algorithms can
perform fast FFT computations and can process FFTs that are
not power of four. The mixed-radix 4/2, which calculates
four butterfly outputs based on X (0) ~X (3). The proposed
butterfly unit [10], [11] has three complex multipliers and
eight complex adders. Four multiplexers represented by the
solid box are used to select either the radix-4 calculation or
the radix-2 calculation.
Fig.1 OFDM Transmitter and Receiver
II. FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM

The Discrete Fourier Transfer (DFT) plays an important role
in many applications of digital signal processing including
linear filtering, correlation analysis and spectrum analysis
etc.
The DFT is defined as:
(1)
Fig 2: The basic butterfly for mixed-radix 4/2 DIF FFT algorithm.
is the DFT coefficient.

Where
Evaluating the Equation (1) directly requires N complex
multiplications and (N-1) complex additions for each value
of the DFT. To compute all N values therefore requires a
total of N^2 complex multiplications and N(N-1) complex
additions. Since the amount of computation, and thus the
computation time, is approximately proportional to N2, it
will cost a long computation time for large values of N. For
this reason, it is very important to reduce the number of
multiplications and additions. This algorithm is an efficient
algorithm to compute the DFT [4],[5], which is called Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm or radix-2 FFT
algorithm, and it reduce the computational complexity from
O(N) to O(N log(N ).
Mixed Radix 4-2
A mixed radix algorithm is a combination of different radix-r
algorithms. That is, different stages in the FFT computation
In order to verify the proposed scheme, 64-points FFT based

on the proposed Mixed-Radix 4-2 butterfly with simple bit
reversing for ordering the output sequences is exampled. As
shown in the Figure 2, the block diagram for 64-points FFT
is composed of total six-teen Mixed-Radix 4-2 Butterflies. In
the first stage, the 64 point input sequences are divided by the
8 groups which correspond to n3=0, n3=1, n3=2, n3=3, n3=4,
n3=5, n3=6, n3=7 respectively. Each group is input sequence
for each Mixed-Radix 4-2 Butterfly. After the input
sequences pass the first Mixed-Radix 4-2 Butterfly stage, the
order of output value is expressed with small number below
each butterfly output line in the figure 3. The proposed
Mixed-Radix 4-2 is composed of two radix-4 butterflies and
four radix-2 butterflies. In the first stage, the input data of
two radix-4 butterflies which are expressed with the equation
B4 (o, n3, kj) B4 (i, n3, k1), are grouped with the x(n3),
Page 204
x(N/4n3), x(N/2n3), x(3N/4n3) and x(N/ 8n3),

x(3N/8n3), x(5N/8n3), x(7N/8n3) respectively. After the
each input group data passes the first radix-4 butterflies, the
outputted data is multiplied by the special twiddle factors.
Then, these outputted sequences are inputted into the second
stage which is composed of the radix-2 butterflies. After
passing the second radix-2 butterflies, the outputted data are
multiplied by the twiddle factors. These twiddle factors WQ
(1+k) is the unique multiplier unit in the proposed MixedRadix 4-2 Butterfly with simple bit reversing the output
sequences. Finally, we can also show order of the output
sequences Fig above. The order of the output sequence is
0,4,2,6,1,5,3 and 7 which are exactly same at the simple
binary bit reversing of the pure radix butterfly structure.
Consequently, proposed mixed radix 4-2 butterfly with
simple bit reversing output sequence include two radix 4
butterflies, four radix 2 butterflies, one multiplier unit and
additional shift unit for special twiddle factors.
Fig.3 Proposed Mixed-Radix 4-2 Butterfly for 64 point FFT
III.
RESULT
Employing the parametric nature of this core, the OFDM

block is synthesized on one of Xilinxs Virtex-II Pro FPGAs
with different configurations. The results of logic synthesis
for 64 point FFT based orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) using Radix-2, Radix-4, split Radix
and mixed radix 4-2 are presented in Table 1. We analysis
the 64-point FFT based OFDM is chosen to compare the
number of CLB slices and Flip Flop for different FFT
architectures .
Table 1: Comparison of FFT Algorithm based on CLB Slices,

Function Generators.
IV.
DFF, and
Conclusion
In this paper, we design an OFDM for different algorithms

implemented in OFDM modem are identified. It was found
during the algorithm design that many blocks need complex
multipliers and adders and therefore special attention needs to
be given to optimize these circuits and maximize reusability.
In particular, the models have been applied to analyze the
performance of mixed-radix FFT architectures used in
OFDM. Actual hardware resource requirements were also
presented and simulation results were given for the
synthesized design. The 64-point Mixed Radix FFT based
OFDM architecture was found to have a good balance
between its performance and its hardware requirements and is
therefore suitable for use in OFDM systems.
V. References
[1] Shousheng. He and Mats Torkelson, "Design and
Implementation of a 1024-point Pipeline FFT Processor",
IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, May. 1998, pp.
131-134.
[2] Shousheng He and Mats Torkelson, "Designing Pipeline
FFT Processor for OFDM (de)Modulation", IEEE Signals,
Systems, and Electronics, Sep. 1998, pp. 257-262.
[3] Shousheng He and Mats Torkelson, "A New Approach to
Pipeline FFT Processor", IEEE Parallel Processing
Symposium, April. 1996, pp.776-780.
[4] C. Sidney Burrus, "Index Mapping for Multidimensional
Formulation of the DFT and Convolution", IEEE Trans.
Acoust., Speech, and Signal Processing, Vol. ASSP-25, June.
1977, pp. 239-242.
[5] Lihong Jia, Yonghong GAO, Jouni Isoaho, and Hannu
Tenhunen, "A New VLSI-Oriented FFT Algorithm and
Implementation", IEEE ASIC Conf., Sep. 1998, pp. 337-341.
Page 205
[6] Martin Vetterli and Pierre Duhamel, "Split-Radix

Algorithms for Length-ptmDFT's", IEEE Trans. Acoust,
Speech, and Signal Processing, Vol. 37, No. 1, Jan. 1989, pp.
57-64.
[7] Daisuke Takahashi, "An Extended Split-Radix FFT
Algorithm", IEEE Signal Processing Letters, Vol. 8, No. 5,
May. 2001, pp. 145-147.
[8]Y.T. Lin, P.Y. Tsai, and T.D. Chiueh, "Low-power

variable-length fast Fourier transform processor", IEE Proc
Comput. Digit. Tech, Vol. 152, No. 4, July. 2005, pp. 499506..
Page 206
Towards Energy Efficient Protocols For Wireless

Body Area Networks
Shajahan Kutty#1, Laxminarayana J.A*2
#
Departmen of E&TC Engineering, Goa College of Engineering

Farmagudi, Ponda, Goa , India
1
kuttygec@gmail.com
Department of Computer Engineering, Goa College of Engineering

Farmagudi, Ponda, Goa , India
2jal@gec.ac.in
Abstract The major medium access control (MAC) layer

protocol design challenges for wireless body area network
(WBAN) involve Quality of Service assurance for high
reliability and guaranteed latency requirement for real time
data, especially vital signs that needs a deterministic structure
with special care for emergency reaction alarm; flexibility since
it must support various types (periodic, non-periodic, medical,
entertainment) of traffic/data rate and importantly, energy
efficiency, since energy consumption especially for implanted
device must be limited. These requirements necessitate design of
efficient active/inactive scheduling. This paper evaluates the
needs and performance of energy efficient MAC protocols
proposed for wireless body area networks.
Keywords- body sensor nodes; BAN co-ordinator node; beacon;
preamble; superframe.
Introduction
The major sources of energy wastage in a typical sensor
network are due to consumptions occurring in three domains,
viz; sensing, data processing and communication [1]. Of
these, the energy communication wastage is a significant
contributor and occurs due to idle listening as dominant
factor in most applications, collision of packets, overhearing
and control packet overhead. Mainly design of energy
efficient MAC protocols target a reduction or elimination of
the energy communication waste in particular idle listening.
The central approach to reduce idle listening is through duty
cycling.
Suitable wake-up mechanisms can save significant amount of
energy in Wireless Body Area Networks (WBAN) and
increase the network lifetime. In these schemes, the device
wake-ups only when necessary, otherwise it sleeps thereby
saving energy. Coordinated and controlled data transmission
can therefore reduce energy consumption.
Data traffic in a WBAN is classified into [2]:
Normal traffic: Based on normal operation between

device and coordinator using a defined pattern.
On-demand traffic: Initiated by Coordinator to
know certain information.
Emergency traffic: In case of critical condition.
Fig (1) Data traffic in a WBAN

The various MAC issues that WBAN has to contend with are
[3]:
Heterogeneous traffic: due to normal, on-demand and
emergency traffic, Interoperability due to multiple frequency
bands and correspondingly multiple PHY techniques and
connecting different devices working on different
bands/PHYs
Scalability: due to variable data rate, kbps to Mbps and
variable number of devices
The options for implementing energy saving mechanisms
involve choosing between synchronous or asynchronous
transmission, beacon or preamble and different periods of
wake up and sleep.
The three main approaches adopted are:
1. Low power listening (LPL)
2. Scheduled contention
3. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Page 207
Low power listening (LPL) involves channel polling where

nodes wake up very briefly to check channel activity without
receiving data. If the channel is idle, the node goes back to
sleep, otherwise it stays awake to receive data. This action is
performed regularly but not synchronised among nodes. To
rendezvous with receivers, senders send a long preamble
before each message to intersect with polling . Since the
technique is asynchronous it is sensitive to tuning for
neighbourhood size and traffic rate. The result is poor
performance when traffic rates vary greatly and thus it is
effectively optimised for known periodic traffic.
As can be seen, the receiver and polling efficiency is gained
at the much greater cost of senders.
Scheduled contention involves schedule coordinated
transmission and listen periods. Here the nodes adopt
common schedule, synchronised with periodic control
messages. The receiver listens to brief contention periods
while senders contend. Only nodes participating in data
transfer remain awake after contention periods while others
can sleep. Since the method is synchronous it is sensitive to
clock drift. However, improved performance with traffic
increase results in similar cost incurred by sender and
receiver. As seen the technique is scalable, adaptive and
flexible.
TDMA is a contention-free/cluster based method where the
base station (BS)/cluster head (CH) allocates time slots to
every node. Only one node is allowed to transmit in a slot.
Timing and synchronisation provided by BS/CH. Normally
this requires nodes to form clusters with one node as CH/BS
Communication is only between nodes and cluster head; no
peer to peer communication exists. The advantage is low
duty cycle and fine grained time synchronisation. However
the system is very sensitive to clock drift and results in
limited throughput. Moreover, it requires clustering which
means the cost incurred more on cluster head. Limited
scalability and adaptivity to changes on number of nodes are
the other issues with this scheme.
A WBAN consists of low-power invasive and non-invasive
Body Sensor Nodes (BSN). BSNs can be full functional, eg
when dealing with multiple PHYs or reduced functional that
are mostly common in the in-body networks [4]. One WBAN
device is selected as a BAN Network Co-ordinator (BNC).
Traffic between BSNs and the BNC and On-Demand Traffic

between the BNC with BSNs and BSNs with BSNs.
The BNC can wake-up all the time and can support normal,
emergency, and on-demand traffics. On the battery power
supply side it has certain limitations and should adopt lowpower scavenging techniques. It should also calculate its own
wakeup pattern based on the BSNs wake-up patterns. This
necessitates maintenance of the pattern-based wake-up table.
The BSN devices operate on limited power and support a
default normal wake-up state. They wake-up and sleep
according to a pattern-based wake-up table. The BSN wakesup upon receiving an on demand request from a BNC.
The BSN also wakes-ups by itself to handle emergency
events.
.
Fig (2) Traffic characteristic in a WBAN

MAC LAYER FRAME FORMAT
A typical frame structure includes the advertisement which
specifies the synch, interval, address, the CAP specifying
reservation and non-periodic data, Beacon with synch, length
of slot, reservation status announcement, DTP (Data
Transmit Period), DTS (Data Transmit Slot) Continuous,
Periodic data, ETS (Emergency Data Transmit Slot)
Emergency data & Periodic data
Advertisement
DTS
ETS ( CAP )
Batch Ack
( Optional )
Inactive Period
Or
CAP Extension
(Optional )
CAP
The traffic characteristic in a WBAN varies from low to high

with periodic or non-periodic data and vice versa. The
dynamic natures of BSNs does not urge synchronized
periodic wake-up periods. Communication flows include
Normal Traffic between BSNs and the BNC, Emergency
Beacon
TDMA Data Transmit Period
Fig (3) A typical BAN superframe (BSF)
Page 208
BANs may be coordinated most of the time. The

coordinator can allocate a negotiated bandwidth to QoS
demanding nodes (data rate, BER, latency) with a beaconenabled mode including TDMA and Slotted-ALOHA (for
UWB) with relaying.
The inherent advantage of TDMA architecture for power
saving over non-TDMA structure is that the coordinator goes
into inactive mode if no activity is scheduled after CAP or
DTP Sensor (continuous data). Once DTS reservation is
done, the node stays inactive period except for beacon and its
reserved transmit time. Sensors (routine data) wakeup only
for report and transmit during CAP or CAP extension
whichever available first. Sensors (Alarm) wakeup only for
report and transmit during CAP, CAP extension or ETS
whichever is available first. Some applications imply a lower
channel load. A beacon-free mode is more efficient.
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
THE PRIMARY REQUIREMENT FOR WBAN IS TO COPE WITH
LOW-POWER EMISSION AND SEVERE NON LINE OF SIGHT
(NLOS) CONDITIONS MAINTAINING HIGH RELIABILITY
WITH HIGH LEVEL OF QOS FOR CRITICAL / VITAL TRAFFIC
FLOWS [5]. A SUITABLE ARCHITECTURE IS THE MESH
NETWORK CENTRALIZED ON THE GATEWAY. A FULL MESH
The Beacon-based MAC mode Superframe structure is

based on 802.15.4 with an inclusion of a control portion for
management messages. The control portion is large enough
to allow dynamic changes of topology. The CAP is
minimized, mostly used for association using slotted
ALOHA
Control portion
Beacon
period
Request
period
Topo mgmt
period
Data portion
CAP
CFP
Inactive
Fig (5) Beacon-based MAC mode Superframe structure

In the Fine structure the superframe is divided equally into
slots. Use of minislots in the control portion provides
flexibility and adaptation to different frame durations.
Guaranteed Time MiniSlot (GTMS) is introduced in CFP
TOPOLOGY BASED ON A SCHEDULING TREE WITH

GUARANTEED ACCESS FOR MANAGEMENT AND DATA
MESSAGES (REAL TDMA) IS PROPOSED.
111111111
000000000
000000000
111111111
Preamble
Packet source
DATA
111111
0
1
0
1
000000
1111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000
111111
0
1
0
1
000000
TCI
Node #1
Node #i
1
0
0
1
11
00
00
11
1111111
0000000
0000000
1111111
0
1
0
1
000
111
0
1
0
1
000
111
0000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111
0
1
0
1
000
111
0
1
0
1
1
0
Node #N
Receive mode
Transmit mode
Fig (4) Mesh network and scheduling tree structures
Fig (6) Fine superframe structure

In the Control portion structure beacon period, the beacons
are relayed along the scheduling tree. The beacon-frame
length is minimized and the beacon alignment procedure is
used
During the request period, a set of GTS dedicated to
allocation demands. In the topology management period,
Hello frames, for advanced link state procedure are
introduced with a scheduling tree based update
Beacon-free MAC mode is used in situations that might not
require a beacon-enabled MAC protocol. Examples are a
symmetric or asymmetric network, low communication rate
and small packets, network set-up, coordinator
disappearance, etc. In such conditions, the downlink is an
issue : nodes must be powered-up to receive data from the
coordinator (e.g. polling/by-invitation MAC scheme)
A Preamble Sampling MAC protocol for Ultrawideband
(UWB) involves nodes that periodically listen to the channel.
If it is clear, they go back to sleep; conversely, they keep on
listening until data. Nodes are not synchronized but share the
wake up period (TCI) and a packet is transmitted with a
preamble as long as TCI
Page 209
70
60
Fig (7) The Preamble Sampling Scheme

Preamble sampling protocols are known to be the most
energy efficient uncoordinated MAC protocols since TCI
depends on the traffic load and the TRX consumption
(TX/RX/listen modes). This can be of the order of 100 ms.
The preamble is a network specific sequence, either a typical
wake-up signal or a preamble with modulated fields (e.g. @,
time left to data)
Rate(%)
50
40
30
20
10
PrioritizedBackoffwithSlottedAloha
SlottedAloha
0
1
NumberofNodeperClass
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
A.. Beacon-free MAC mode :
The simulation is carried out for three setups viz ; Mode
when only one burst per device is emitted, Mode 1 when
burst is re-emitted by a device, under the LDC limit, until a
neighbor relays and Mode 2 which is same as Mode 1 plus
former relays, with emission credits left, can relay again.
Fig(9) Average number of acknowledged packets

Simulation Parameters: Simulation time: 60 sec, Inter-arrival
time: 1pkt/sec (Poisson), Packet size: 16byte, BO=6, SO=3,
CAP size = 8 slot, 1 to 5 node per each class
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The responsibilities of the upper layers are to enable/disable
beacons switching procedure as follows:
(i) from the beacon-free to beacon-based mode, BAN
formation (coordinator election), new coordinator election if
former coordinator leaves that, for example, can be triggered
by a user requesting a link with high QoS
(ii) from the beacon-based to beacon-free mode which is the
fallback mode if the coordinator leaves or if the required BW
(rate of GTS requests) is below a given threshold and
requested QoS is adequate. A combination of beacon-based
true TDMA mode including fast relaying and mesh support
and a beacon-free mode using preamble sampling and extra
features adapted to UWB is suitable for WBAN systems
Fig (8) PDP vs Wake up period plots for the three

modes
B. Access Policy in CAP for UWB PHY:
Since CCA or carrier sense is not feasible with UWB PHY
Aloha type of access is the only possible solution. While
Aloha is a non-beacon mode, Slotted Aloha (Beacon mode)
is better than Aloha but still the probability of collision is still
high. Slotted Aloha with Prioritized Back-off is a new
scheme.
References
[1] J.S Yoon, Gahng S. Ahn, Myung J Lee, Seong-soon Joo
Versatile MAC for BAN proposal responding to TG6 Call
for Proposals (15-08-0811-03-0006-tg6 call for proposals
[2] A. El-Hoiydi and J. D. Decotignie, WiseMAC: An
Ultra Low-Power MAC Protocol for Multi-hop Wireless
Sensor Networks, Proceeding of First International
Workshop on Algorithmic Aspects of Wireless Sensor
Networks (ALGOSENSOR), July 2004.
[3] E. A. Lin, J. M. Rabaey, and A. Wolisz, PowerEfficient Rendezvous Schemes for Dense Wireless Sensor
Networks, Proceedings of ICC, June 2004. TICER/RICER
[4] The French ANR "BANET" project
[5] M. J. Miller and N. H. Vaidya, A MAC Protocol to
Reduce Sensor Network Energy Consumption Using a
Wakeup Radio, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing,
4, 3, May/June 2005.
[6] 15-08-0644-09-0006-tg6-technical-requirementsdocument.doc
[7] Timmons, N.F. Scanlon, W.G. "Analysis of the
performance of IEEE 802.15.4 for medical sensor body area
Page 210
networking", IEEE SECON 2004, Santa Clara, Ca, October

2004
[8] European ICT SMART-Net project deliverables
[9] Jean Schwoerer , Laurent Ouvry , Arnaud Tonnerre,
PHY and MAC proposal based on UWB impulse radio for
the IEEE 802.15.6 CFP-Response to IEEE 802.15.6 call for
proposals
[10] J. Polastre, J. Hill and D. Culler, Versatile Low-Power
Media Access for Wireless Sensor Networks, in Proc. of
ACM Sensys, November 2004. B-MAC
[11] E. Shih, P. Bahl, and M. J. Sinclair, Wake On Wireless:
An Event Driven Energy Saving Strategy for Battery
Operated Devices, Proceedings of ACM MobiCom,
September 2002.
[12] HyungSoo Lee, Jaehwan Kim, et al; Merged Baseline
Proposal for TG6 -response to IEEE 802.15.6 call for
proposals
Page 211
The Medical Image Segmentation

R.Kalaivani
M.phil (final year)
Dr.N.G.P Arts and Science College
Coimbatore
ABSTRACT
The Medical Image Segmentation is developed to extract the
suspicious region from the patient image. The proposed system
design aim is to give second opinion for the radiologist in
tumor deduction. Image Acquisition is used to collect the image
from a specified location or database, then the image data is
converted to digital data or digital matrix. Image Preprocessing
removes the labels and unwanted areas from the image using
tracking algorithm. Image Enhancement covers the study
related the removal of film artifacts and noises from the image
using filters. Image Registration correlates the source and target
image at same position and place. It also crop unwanted image
from the original image by using the point mapping technique.
Image Blocking blocks existing registered source and target
images. Image Comparison compares the sources and average
intensity of each and every block of the source and target image.
Image segmentation the suspicious region is segmented from the
target image if comparing the difference from source and target
image.
KEYWORDS
Image acquisition, Image preprocessing Image
enhancement, Image registration, Image blocking, Image
comparison, Image segmentation, Performance evolution.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the clinical context, medical image processing is generally
equated to radiology or "clinical imaging" and the medical
practitioner responsible for interpreting (and sometimes
acquiring) the images are a radiologist. Diagnostic
radiography designates the technical aspects of medical
imaging and in particular the acquisition of medical images.
The radiographer is usually responsible for acquiring medical
images of diagnostic quality, although some radiological
Medical imaging is often perceived to designate the set of
techniques that no invasively produce images of the internal
aspect of the body. In this restricted sense, medical imaging
can be seen as the solution of mathematical inverse problems.
This means that cause (the properties of living tissue) is
inferred from effect (the observed signal). In the case of ultra
sonography the probe consists of ultrasonic pressure waves
and echoes inside the tissue show the internal structure. In the
case of projection radiography, the probe is X-ray radiation
Guided by,
Hemalatha, Lecturer
Dr N.G.P Arts and Science College
Coimbatore
which is absorbed at different rates in different tissue types
such as bone, muscle and fat.
Medical Image diagnosis is considered as one of the fields
taking advantage of high-technology and modern
instrumentation. Ultra sound, CT, MRI, PET etc., have
played an important role in diagnosis, research, and
treatment. Image registration is a process of overlaying two
or more images of the same scene taken at different times,
from different viewpoints, and/or by different sensors. The
present differences between images are introduced due to
different imaging conditions.
2. METHOD
Assuming that we have two images of the same Object, a
structural image and a functional image.
The Process of registration is composed of following steps:
Collect the image from a specified location or

database, then the image data is converted to digital data or
digital matrix.
Removes the labels and unwanted areas from the

image using tracking algorithm.
Removal of film artifacts and noises from the image

using filters.
Image Registration correlates the source and target

image at same position and place.
Crop unwanted image from the original image by

using the point mapping technique.
Blocks existing registered source and target images.
Compares the sources and average intensity of each

and every block of the source and target image
The suspicious region is segmented from the target

image if comparing the difference from source and target
image.
2.1 Image Acquisition
Image Capturing is a process to acquire the digital image into
the Mat lab.
In this module medical image was given as input and it is the
base input to the whole project. All types of medical images
can be acquired in this module. Images of a patient obtained
Page 212
are displayed as an array of pixels (a 2D unit based on the

matrix size and the field of view) and stored in memory.
In mat lab there are various formats of image encoding
Binary Images
Large matrix whose entries are one of the two
values will specify a black and white image.0 corresponds to
black, 1 to white.
Grey Scale/Intensity Images
A grey scale image can be specified by giving a
large matrix whose entries are numbers between 0 and 1.A
black and white image can also be specified by giving a large
matrix with integer entries. The lowest entry corresponds to
black, the highest to white. Fig shows typical Image Captured
in Mat lab from patient database
For removing the unwanted portions of the image we have

developed an algorithm named Tracking Algorithm.
Fig shows a typical preprocessed image after the removal of
film artifacts
2.3 Image Enhancement

Image enhancement methods inquire about how to improve
the visual appearance of images from Magnetic Resonance
Image (MRI), Computed Tomography (CT) scan; Positron
Emission Tomography (PET) and the contrast enhancing
brain volumes were linearly aligned.
Fig : Shows the Median Filter output images
2.2 Image Pre-processing

Preprocessing indicates that the same tissue type may have a
different scale of signal intensities for different images.
Processing functions involve those operations that are
normally required prior to the main data analysis and
Extraction of information, and are generally grouped as
geometric corrections. Radiometric corrections include
correcting the data for sensor irregularities and unwanted
sensor or atmospheric noise, removal of non-brain voxels and
converting the data so they accurately represent the reflected
or emitted radiation measured by the sensor.
Tracking Algorithm
In preprocessing module image acquired will be processed
for correct output. Medical images surely will have some
Film Artifacts like labels and marks which are detected and
removed for better result.Pre-processing was done by using
tracking algorithm. If these images are too noisy or blurred,
they should be filtered and sharpened.
(a).3*3filtered image (b).5*5 filtered image
(c). 11*11 filtered image

Fig : shows the enhanced output
Page 213
2.4 Image Registration

Image registration is the process of transforming the different
sets of data into one coordinate system. Registration is
necessary in order to be able to compare or integrate the data
obtained from different measurements.
In medical imaging (e.g. for data of the same patient taken at
different points in time or by different angles) registration
often additionally involves elastic (or non rigid) registration
to cope with elastic deformations of the body parts imaged.
Non rigid registration of medical images can also be used to
register a patient's data to an anatomical atlas, such as the
Talairach atlas for neuro-imaging.
Algorithm Classifications
Area-based vs. Feature-based.
Transformation model.
Search-based vs. direct methods.
Image nature.
Other classifications.
2.5.1 Block Based Method

In Block based method, both the original image and
the sensed image has been divided into several blocks. Then
block wise subtraction has been done between the two
images. This subtracted value is then checked with the
threshold value, Block Based method Image.
Fig shows the original image in blocks
Fig : shows the tumor image in blocks
Fig shows the image before Correlation

2.5 Image Blocking(Correlation)
Here, we have taken two reference points first, in front view
and second in the top view of the image. The enhanced image
has to be resized to the original image size by fixing the same
reference points as in the original image. Since in our
technique, the size of the original image is 256*256, the
enhanced image has been resized to (256-x)*(256-y) by
removing the extra portions in the image.
Fig shows the Correlated image
3.
And
Conclusions
future work
Relevance of these techniques is the direct clinical

application for registration. This provides a diagnosis and
preoperative planning surgery. Alternatively, it is a useful
tool in image processing training. Algorithms of finding a
transformation between two images is of importance in the
methodology, spatial and density resolution have to be
achieved to reduce geometric errors
In this survey paper various automatic detection methods of
brain tumor through MRI has been studied and compared for
the period of one year. This is used to focus on the future of
developments of medical image processing in medicine and
health care. We have described several methods in medical
Page 214
image processing and discussed requirements and properties

of techniques in brain tumor detection.
This paper are used to give more information about brain
tumor detection and registration. In this paper various step in
detection of automatic system (a) Image capturing (b) Image
preprocessing (c) Image Enhancement (d) Image
Registration.
The program needs to be compiled to run in an independent
environment and algorithms need to be optimized inorder to
reduce the time consuming and performing and increase in
accuracy. The program could be developed in ability of
access to host computer or hospital via intranet to get patients
information and images.
4. References
1. Amini L, Soltanian-Zadeh H, Lucass,:Automated
Segmentation of Brain
Structure from MRI, Proc. Intl.Soc.Mag.Reson.Med.11
(2003).
2. BrainTumors: Gd-DTPA-Enhanced, Emodynamic, and
Diffusion MR Imaging Compared with MRSpectroscopic
Imaging, Neuroradiol 23, February 2002.
3. Azadeh yazdan-shahmorad, Hesamoddin Jahanian, Suresh
Patel, Hammed Soltanian- Zadeh,:Automatic Brain Tumor
Segmentation .Using Diffusivity Characteristics, IEEE,
ISBI,2007.
4. Boada F.E, Davis.D, Walter.K, Torres- Trejo.A,
Kondziolka.D, Bartynski.W, Lieberman. Triple Quantum
Filtered Sodium MRI of Primary Brain Tumors, IEEE,
USA, 2004.
5. Dimitris N Metaxas, Zhen Qian, Xiaolei Huang and Rui
Huang,Ting Chameleon Axal.:Hybrid Deformable Models
for Medical Segmentation and Registration, IEEE
Transactions on Medical Image processing, ICARCV ,2006.
6 Gilbert Vezina:MR Imaging of Brain Tumors- Recent
Developments, Childhood Brain Tumor Foundation,
Germantown, Washington. Evaluating Image Segmentation
Algorithm, IEEE, Medical Image Processing.
7
Hideki yamamoto and Katsuhiko Sugita, Noriki
Kanzaki, Ikuo Johan and Yoshio Hiraki,Michiyoshi
Kuwahara , : Magnetic Resonance Image Enhancement
Using VFilter, IEEE AES Magazine, June 1990.
Page 215
Selection of a Checkpoint Interval in Coordinated

Checkpointing Protocol for Fault Tolerant
Open MPI
#
Mallikarjuna Shastry P.M.#1, K. Venkatesh #2
Research Center, Department of Computer Science & Engg.,

M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, M.S.R Nagar,
Bangalore-54, Karnataka, India.
1
pmmshastry@yahoo.com
2
vkoppa@yahoo.com
Abstract The goal of this paper is to address the selection of

efficient checkpoint interval which reduces the total overhead
cost due to the checkpointing and restarting of the
applications in a distributed system environment.
Coordinated checkpointing rollback recovery protocol is used
for making the application programs fault tolerant on a
stand-alone system under no load conditions using BLCR and
OPEN MPI at system level.
We have presented an experimental study in which we have
determined the optimum checkpoint interval and we have
used it to compare the performance of coordinated
checkpointing protocol using two types of checkpointing
intervals namely fixed and incremental checkpoint intervals.
We measured the checkpoint cost, rollback cost and total cost
of overheads caused by the above two methods of
checkpointing intervals
Failures are simulated using the Poisson distribution with one
failure per hour and the inter arrival time between the
failures follow exponential distribution.
We have observed from the results that, rollback overhead
and total cost of overheads due to checkpointing the
application are very high in incremental checkpoint interval
method than in fixed checkpoint interval method.
Hence, we conclude that fixed checkpointing interval method
is more efficient as it reduces the rollback overhead and also
total cost of overheads considerably.
Keywords: Checkpoint, Checkpoint Interval, Fault tolerance,

Marker, Checkpoint Overheads.
I. INTRODUCTION
Since, the recent trends in HPC and even stand alone
systems employ a very large number of processors to
execute the large size application programs in a distributed
system environment, it is required to provide the fault
tolerance to such applications.
As the complexity of the program increases, the number of

processors to be added to the cluster / HPC / Super
Computer also increases which in turn decreases the MTBF
(mean time between failures) of the processors or the
machines.
It means that the probability of failure of one or more
processors will be very high before the completion of the
execution of the long running application being executed
parallely on several processors.
When a processor fails, we need to restart the entire
application on all the processors from the beginning.
Hence, it is required to address the issues like the
scalability and fault tolerance.
Fault tolerance provides the reliability and availability to
the large size applications programs executed in a
distributed system environment.
Fault tolerance is
achieved using coordinated checkpointing rollback
recovery protocol in which an initiator takes a checkpoint
by synchronizing with all other processes of MPI
application [1].
For MPI applications, a cluster consisting of a group of
processes interacting with each other is formed and each
individual process in the cluster is checkpointed and a
global state is formed out of it.
The global state contains the set of checkpoints exactly
one from each processor. The global state is consistent if
and only if for each message received by a processor
(receiver), there is a corresponding sender. The latest
consistent global state is known as the recovery line [2].
The checkpoint / restart scheme has been widely used in
[3]-[9] to address the failure of execution of an application.
Checkpoints can be taken using either fixed checkpoint
interval or variable checkpoint interval [10]. In case of
Page 216
fixed checkpoint interval, checkpoint interval size remains

same between any two successive checkpoints. But, in case
of the incremental checkpoint interval method discussed in
this paper, the second checkpoint interval size is 2 times
the 1st one and third checkpoint interval is 3 times the 1st
one and so on in each cycle
A cycle is the execution time interval of the application
between two successive failures. Since, these two methods
of checkpoint intervals are not compared in the literature as
we understand; we have carried out an experiment to
determine the behaviour of the coordinated checkpointing
protocol using the fixed and incremental checkpoint
interval methods.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2
introduces the related works carried out in checkpoint and
restart schemes using different checkpoint intervals.
Section 3 presents the different notations used in this paper.
The implementation of the coordinated checkpointing
protocol, determination of optimum checkpoint interval,
complete description of fixed and incremental checkpoint
intervals are discussed in section 4. Computation of cost of
overheads is discussed in section 5. Section 6 presents the
experimental setup and the results. Section 7 presents the
conclusion.
3.
R - restart time required to resume the execution
of an application from the most recent checkpoint.
4.
F - the number of failures during the execution of
the application.
5.
TS - time required to save each checkpoint on to a
local disk.
6.
Ni - the number of checkpoints taken in ith cycle.
7.
tc - checkpoint interval without restart cost.
8.
TC - optimum checkpoint interval size and is used
as fixed checkpoint interval.
9.
TCi ith checkpoint interval which is incremental.
10.
CCi - the cost of checkpoints in ith cycle.
11.
CC total cost of checkpoints
12.
P - the number of processes / processors used for
parallelism.
13.
Number of failures per hour.
14.
TF time to failure.
15.
Ti - the time at which the ith failure occurs.
IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF COORDINATED CHECKPOINTING
PROTOCOL
A. Protocol
II. RELATED WORKS
Master MPI process with rank i=0 takes the tentative

checkpoint and then sends the marker to MPI process with
rank (i+1) % N. When MPI process i > 0 receives the
marker from (i + N-1) % N, takes its tentative checkpoint
and sends the marker to MPI process with rank (i + 1) % N.
Young [5] has presented an optimum checkpoint and restart

model and has shown that the total waste time due to
checkpointing can be reduced using fixed checkpoint
interval. But, this model [5] does not consider the restart
time required to resume the application from the most
recent checkpoint after a failure.
When the MPI process with rank 0 receives the marker

from MPI process N-1, a global consistent checkpoint is
formed out of all the local checkpoints and then sends the
checkpoint file to the local disk and then initiates the next
checkpoint cycle after the checkpoint interval as specified
by the user.
An optimal checkpoint / restart model presented by Yudun

liu [11] uses varying checkpoint interval with different
failure distributions. But, varying checkpoint interval does
not yield optimal rollback and checkpoint cost. R. Geist et.
Al [12] discusses the selection of checkpoint interval in a
critical task environment, but it does not present any
optimal solution for selecting the checkpoint interval.
The checkpoint period can be either fixed or incremental

which will be discussed in the following subsections.
J.T. Daly [6], [9] presents a method for determining the

optimum checkpoint interval but they do not discuss the
comparison of
the performance of the coordinated
checkpointing protocol with respect to fixed and
incremental checkpointing interval methods.
III. NOTATIONS USED
1.
2.
Rbi - the cost of rollback in ith cycle.

Rb - total rollback cost.
B. Computing Optimal Checkpoint Interval

Knowing the number of processors (P) used for
computation and the failure rate () of the processors, we
can compute the time to failure [14] of the application
during run time as follows.
TF = 1 / (P )
(1 )
Once, we determine the time to failure TF and the

checkpoint overhead TS
(time required to save each
checkpoint onto local disk), the checkpoint interval tC can
be computed [ 5] as follows.
Page 217
tC =
2 TS TF
(2)
Ci = TCK + (i 1) TS
(5)
k =1
But, the above equation does not consider the restart time
of the application after a failure. Hence, considering the
restart time (R) also, the above equation can be modified
by adding the restart time (R) multiplied by the number of
failures (F) to tC as follows to get the optimal checkpoint
interval TC.
TC =
2 TS T F + R F
(3)
And the ith checkpoint interval is computed as follows.
TC i = i TC
( 6)
C1
C2
TC1
TS
CNi
TC2
TS
TS
Fig. 2 Incremental Checkpoint Interval
C. Fixed Checkpoint Interval

The total execution time of the application program is
divided into n checkpoint intervals of length TC as
computed in the previous section. The first checkpoint is
initiated by the master MPI process after completion of Tc
minutes of execution of the application program and
second checkpoint is initiated after completion of 2 TC + TS
minutes and so on as shown in figure 1.
In general, the starting time of
computed as follows.
ith checkpoint Ci is
Ci = i TC +(i 1) TS
(4)
V. COST OF OVERHEADS DUE TO CHECKPOINTING AND

RESTARTING
During recovery from failure, the master MPI process
coordinates with all the other MPI processes and restarts by
rolling back the application to the most recent consistent
global checkpoint. The cost of rollback, cost of
checkpointing and the restart cost are the 3 components
which are used to determine the waste time in each cycle of
the application. If the application undergoes F failures, the
execution of the application will have F cycles. We present
in the following sections the determination of these costs
using two different methods of checkpoint intervals such as
fixed and incremental checkpoint intervals.
But, the length of each checkpoint interval is fixed.
A. Cost of Overheads in Fixed Checkpoint Interval
i.e., TC1 = TC, TC2 = Tc, TC3 = Tc and so on.
Failure of a fault tolerant application using fixed

checkpoint interval is shown in figure 3. Since, all the
checkpoint intervals have same length; the number of
checkpoints to be taken in ith cycle (before ith failure
occurs) is computed as follows.
In general, TCN = TC
C1
TC
TS
TC
C2
CNi
TS
TS
TC
Fig. 1 Fixed Checkpoint Interval
D. Incremental Checkpoint Interval

Figure 2 shows the checkpointing of the application with
an incremental checkpoint interval. In this case, in each
cycle, the first checkpoint is initiated after (Tc1) or TC
minutes of execution of the application and second
checkpoint is initiated after TC1 + TC2 + TS minutes and the
third checkpoint is initiated after TC1 + TC2 + TC3 + 2TS
and so on as shown in figure 2.
In general the starting time of ith checkpoint Ci is computed
as follows.
N i = Ti / (TC + TS )
(7 )
Then, the cost of checkpoint in ith cycle is computed as

follows.
CC i = N i TS
(8)
The cost of rollback in ith cycle is then computed as follows
Rbi = (Ti N i (TC + TS ))
(9)
The time lost in ith cycle TLi due to a failure can be

obtained by adding checkpoint cost, rollback cost, restart
cost together as follows.
Page 218
TLi = CC i + Rbi + R
(10)
The total waste time due to F failures is then computed as

follows.
F
TL = TLi
(11)
i =1
Suppose, if the first failure occurs at 40 minutes of

execution and checkpoint interval size TC is 4 minutes, time
to save a checkpoint is 35 seconds and number of
checkpoints taken before failure occurs is 8, The different
overhead costs are determined as follows.
i) Rollback cost: By applying equation (8), we can
determine the rollback cost as follows.
ii) Checkpoint cost = 8 checkpoints * cost of each

checkpoint = 6 * 35 = 280 seconds
iii) It was found from the experimental setup that the time
required to restart an application after a failure is just about
24 seconds. So, the total time lost due to a failure of
application in fixed checkpoint interval case is
TL1=cost of rollback (200 seconds) + cost of checkpoints
(280 seconds) + restart cost (24 seconds) = 504 seconds
(about 21 % of execution time of 1st cycle is wasted due to
checkpointing, rollback and restart). It was observed that,
the cost of rollback is dependent on the amount of time
elapsed since the last checkpoint.
Time required to restart
Restart
Application Failure
C2
TC
TS
CNi
TC
TS
a. .if T1 < (TC1 + TS ),

b . .if (
K
k =1
(12)
T C + n T S ) < T i and
Ti < (
for
N1 = 0
n +1
K
k =1
n = 1, 2 , 3 , ..
T C + ( n + 1) T s )
and
for
(13 )
i = 1, 2 , 3 , .. F
The number of checkpoints to be taken in ith cycle can be

computed as follows.
Rbi = (2400 8 * (240 +35)) = 200 seconds
C1
Failure of a fault tolerant application using incremental

checkpoint interval is shown in figure 4. In this, method,
size of first checkpoint interval is TC minutes and size of
other checkpoint intervals is TC minutes more than its
previous checkpoint interval in each cycle. Hence, the
number of checkpoints (Ni) to be taken in ith cycle will vary
in this method and it is computed as follows.
TS
TC
Execution time till a failure (Ti )

Cycle i
Fig. 3 Cost of Overheads in Fixed Checkpoint Interval
B. Cost of Overheads in Incremental Checkpoint Interval
Ni = n
(14)
Though, the checkpoint interval length keeps increasing,

from one checkpoint to another checkpoint, the per
checkpoint cost remains same as per the experimental
results that we have obtained. So, the total checkpoint cost
in ith cycle can be computed as follows.
CCi = Ni TS
(15)
The cost of rollback in ith cycle is then computed as

follows.
n
Rbi = (Ti ( N i TS + K TC ))
(16)
k =1
The time lost in ith cycle TLi due to a failure can be

obtained by adding checkpoint cost, rollback cost, and
restart cost together using equation (9). Total waste time
due to F failures is computed using equation (10). It was
observed that, the cost of rollback depends on two factors
like the time of failure and the checkpoint interval size.
This is because, in this method, the checkpoint interval size
varies from one checkpoint to another checkpoint.
Suppose, if the first failure occurs at 40 minutes of
execution and initial checkpoint interval TC is 4 minutes,2nd
checkpoint interval is 8 minutes and 3rd checkpoint interval
is 12 minutes and the 4th checkpoint interval is 16 minutes
(during which the failure occurs), time to save a checkpoint
is 35 seconds and number of checkpoints taken before
failure occurs is 3 after applying the equation (12) and (13).
Then, the different overhead costs are determined as
follows.
Page 219
i ) rollback cost : after applying the equation (15), we get

Rbi =(2400 (105 + 1440 )) = 855 seconds
ii) checkpoint cost is = 3 checkpoints * cost of each
checkpoint=3*35 = 105 seconds
iii) and it was found from the experimental setup that the
time required to restart an application after a failure is just
about 24 seconds.
So, the total time lost due to a failure of application in
incremental checkpoint interval case is
TL1 =cost of rollback + cost of checkpoints + restart cost
= 984 seconds
(41 % of execution time of 1st cycle is wasted due to
checkpointing, rollback and restart).
Time required to restart
Restart
Application Failure
C1
TC1
TS
C2
TC2
During the restart or recovery state, the MPI application

rolls back to the most recent checkpoint as discussed and
resumes the execution of the application from that point.
BLCR checkpoint and restart library [13] is used to
implement the blocking coordinated checkpointing
protocol to checkpoint the application. The application was
run 10 times for different number of processors varying
from 1 to 10. We observed that the checkpoint cost and the
restart cost increase linearly with the increase in the
number of processors.
The results obtained for 10 processors are presented in this
paper. The number of arrivals N (t) in a finite interval of
length t obeys the Poisson (t) distribution.
P { N (t ) = n} = ( t ) n e t / n !
The inter arrival times of the failures are independent and
obey the exponential distribution.
f ( x )
= e
= 0,
for
x >=
otherwise
CNi
TS
TS
TCNi
Execution time till a failure (Ti)

Cycle i
Fig. 4 Cost of Overheads in Incremental Checkpoint Interval
VI. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND RESULTS

We have taken the application program that multiplies 2
integer matrices of size 7000 * 7000. The above application
is written in C language and run on a standalone system
using scattered method of MPI under no load conditions.
In scattered method, one of the matrices, say the matrix B
is broadcasted across all the processors using MPI_Bcast().
The matrix A is divided equally among the number of
processors used for parallelism and each of the processors
gets only a portion of matrix A allocated for it for the
computation using MPI_Scatter().
The above application was run on a system with 6 GB of
RAM, Intel Core 2 Duo CPU,E7200 @ 2.53 GHz
and 110 GB of HDD and the execution time of the
application considered in our experimental setup on this
system is 67 minutes without checkpointing.
The monitor program is written in a shell script which runs
at the background and keeps monitoring whether the MPI
processes grouped under mpirun are running or not. Once,
monitor program learns that an MPI process has failed, it
calls the restart() routine of BLCR to restart the application.
We have used Poisson distribution with 1 failure per hour

( = 1) for 10 processors and generated the probability
distributions for the inter arrival times of failures. Failures
are simulated using these probability distributions and the
results are presented in the form of graphs.
Figures 5a and 5b present the comparison of total cost of
all the overheads due to checkpointing and restarting of the
application with different checkpoint interval sizes when
the application considered in our experimental setup fails at
different timings.
We have tested for 10 different failures (whose failure
timings are generated using Poisson arrival process) and
determined the total cost of overheads incurred due to
checkpointing and restarting using 5 different checkpoint
intervals of size 2,3,4,5 and 10 minutes as shown in figures
5a and 5b.
In 7 different cases out of 10 failures at different timings,
checkpoint interval size with 4 minutes was found to be
optimal as it yields minimum total cost of all the overheads
as shown in figures 5a and 5b when the application fails at
10,15,20,42,47,50 and 60 minutes of execution of the
application.
From our experiment, we determined that, per checkpoint
cost TS is 35 seconds for 10 processors and it remains same
for all the other checkpoints taken at different timings for
the same number of processors. Per checkpoint cost is
determined by taking the average value of checkpointing
the application at 20 different timings on 10 processors.
Restart cost is found to be only 24 seconds to resume the
execution of the application on 10 processors after a failure
occurs. This restart cost is determined by taking the
average of 20 different restart costs measured when the
application failed at different timings.
Page 220
Restart cost R is added only once because, we have

considered only one failure i.e F = 1 during the execution
of our application. This checkpoint interval value is almost
matching with the optimum checkpoint interval of 4
minutes obtained from the figures 5a and 5b based on our
experimental results.
The value of TC calculated should yield almost the exact
result, if the value of TF is quite large in which case R <<
TF. Hence, the equations (1), (2) and (3) are validated
based on our experimental results and discussion.
As, we have obtained 4 minutes as the optimum
checkpoint interval size from our experimental analysis, in
our further analysis and discussion (figures 6 to 9), fixed
checkpoint interval size taken is 4 minutes and in
incremental checkpoint interval method, the first
checkpoint interval size taken is 4 minutes, second
checkpoint interval size taken is 8 minutes and third
checkpoint interval size is 12 minutes and so on.
We have presented the results in the form of graphs for one
failure in an hour with = 1 using Poisson distribution for
arrival of failures. Figure 6 presents the comparison of
number of checkpoints taken in fixed and incremental
checkpoint interval methods. Figures 7, 8, and 9 present the
comparison of i ) cost of checkpoints, ii ) cost of rollback
and iii) total cost of overheads caused by fixed and
incremental checkpoint interval methods respectively.
2 Min.
34
4 Min.
5 Min.
Total Cost (Sec)
500
400
300
200
10 Min.
42
47
50
Failure Time (Min)
60
Incremental
Fixed
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Failure Time (Min)
Fig 6. Comparison of Number of Checkpoints of Fixed and Incremental
Checkpoint Intervals
Comparison of Checkpoint Cost

Fixed
Incremental
500
400
300
200
100
0
5
100
5 Min.
Comparison of Number of Checkpoints
10 Min.
600
4 Min.
Fig 5b. Comparison of Total Cost of Overheads with Different

Checkpoint Interval Size.
Checkpoint Cost (Sec)
3 Min.
3 Min.
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Comparison of Total Cost of Overheads with Different

Checkpoint Interval Size
2 Min.
700
Different
Comparison of total cost of overheads with different

Checkpoint Interval Size
Total Cost (Sec)
TF = 1 / (P * ) = 1 / ( 10 * (1/60)) minutes = 6 minutes

and TC = sqrt (2 TS TF ) + R F
= sqrt( 2 * (35 /60) * 6) + (24 seconds * 1)
= 3.2 minutes
Fig 5a. Comparison of Total Cost of Overheads with

Checkpoint Interval Size.
Number of Checkpoints
We have used the equations (1), (2) and (3) to determine

the optimum checkpoint interval size when the time to
failure TF and checkpoint cost TS and the restart cost R are
known. The value of TC obtained from equation (3) shows
that the optimum checkpoint interval size is 3.2 minutes as
shown below.
10 15 20
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Failure Time ( Min )
0
10
12
15
20
30
Fig 7. Comparison of Checkpoint Cost of Fixed and Incremental
Checkpoint Intervals
Page 221
Comparison of Rollback Cost

Fixed
Incremental
Rollback Cost ( Sec)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Failure time (Min)
Fig 8. Comparison of Rollback Cost of Fixed and Incremental Checkpoint

Intervals
Comparison of Total Cost

1400
Fixed
Incremental
Total Cost (Sec)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Failure Time (Min)
Fig 9. Comparison of Total Cost of overheads caused by Fixed and

Incremental Checkpoint Intervals
VII. CONCLUSIONS
Figures 5a and 5b show the comparison of total cost of
overheads with different checkpoint interval size. From
figures 5a and 5b, it is clear that the total cost of overheads
is quite minimum when checkpoint interval size is 4
minutes. We have even validated the model developed by
Young [5] to determine the optimum checkpoint interval.
But, the model [5] does not consider the restart cost
required to restart the application when it fails.
We have added the restart cost multiplied by the number of
times the application undergoes failures to Youngs model
[5] to get the optimum checkpoint interval which yields the
optimum overheads cost irrespective of number of failures
for any application. An approximate estimate of the
checkpoint interval can be calculated from equation (3).
From figure 6, we see that the fixed checkpoint interval
method causes more number of checkpoints than
incremental checkpoint interval method. So, the checkpoint

cost is also quite high in fixed checkpoint interval method
as compared to the incremental checkpoint interval method
when the application fails after first checkpoint as shown in
figure 7.
But, the rollback cost and the total cost of overheads
produced by fixed checkpoint interval are quite low as
compared to the incremental checkpoint interval when the
application fails after first checkpoint as shown in figure 8
and figure 9 respectively. Fixed checkpoint interval reduces
more than 50% of total overhead cost as compared to the
incremental checkpoint interval.
Hence, we conclude that using fixed checkpoint interval for
checkpointing an application would be more advantageous
than using incremental checkpoint interval because fixed
checkpoint interval reduces both rollback cost and the total
cost of overheads significantly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the Head of Research Centre, CSE dept.
and head of ISE dept M.S Ramaiah Institute of
Technology, Bangalore for their constant encouragement.
The Computer system on which the experimental analysis
has been carried out is acquired under the project
sanctioned by BRNS, INDIA, bearing sanction No.
2008/37/15/BRNS.
REFERENCES
[1]
Luis Moura Silva and Joao Gabriel Silva, The Performance of
Coordinated and Independent Checkpointing, IEEE Trans, 1999.
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G.E. Fagg, A. Bukovsky and J.J. Dongarra, Harness and
Fault Tolerant MPI, Parallel Computing, 27(11):1479-1495, 2001.
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K.M. Chandy, J.C. Browne, C. W. Dissly, and W. R. Uhrig,
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J.W. Young, A first order approximation to the optimum
checkpoint interval, Communications of ACM 17, 9(Sept 1974), 530531.
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J.T.Daly, A Higher Order Estimate of the Optimum
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A Look into the Future of Practical Rollback-Recovery, IEEE Trans.
Dependable Sec. Comput.1 (2):97-108(2004).
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techniques in parallel systems, Technical Report cs.DC / 0501002, ACM
computing Research Repository (CoRR), January 2005.
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Nichamon Naksinehaboon, Mihaels Paun, Stephen L. Scott, An Optimal
Checkpoint /Restart Model for a Large Scale High Performance
Computing System, IEEE Trans. 2008.
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Y. Liu, Reliability Aware Optimal Checkpoint / Restart
Model in High Performance Computing, PhD Thesis, Louisiana Tech
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checkpoint interval in a critical-task environment, IEEE Trans.
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James S. Plank and
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Availability of Parallel Checkpointing Systems and Its Importance in
th
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Page 223
Simplification Of Diagnosing Disease Through

Microscopic Images Of Blood Cells
T.Benazir Fathima#1
#1,2
K.V.Gayathiri Devi #2
M.Arunachalam*3
M.K.Hema*4
Final year Computer Science Engineering , K.L.N.College of Information Technology.

benazirfathima2009@yahoo.com,gayathiridevikv@gmail.com
*3,4
Computer Science Engineering Department, K.L.N.College of Information Technology

Pottapalayam,Sivagangai dt,TamilNadu,India
er_arun80@rediffmail.com,hemaviswanath21@rediffmail.com
Abstract This paper is the implementation of a simple, fast

and reliable method for automatically diagnosing diseases
through digitized images of blood. Hematopathology reveals
that there is an intrusion of the disease cell in the blood
having identical characteristics for each disease. Principal
effectors in the blood that are Erythrocyte, Leukocyte and
Platelets of the blood play a crucial role in supplying blood to
the various parts of the body, resisting foreign particles and in
clotting of blood respectively. The effectors are identified and
skipped for our observation. In microscopic images of the
diseased blood cells, the diagnosis is based on the evaluation of
some general features of the blood cells such as color, shape,
and border, and the presence and the aspect of characteristic
structures. Perception of these structures depends both on
magnification and image resolution. The introduction of
vision system associated with image processing techniques
enables the numerical and objective description of some
pattern cells features. Matlab image processing software is
used for the experimental work. A new algorithm is
introduced which will efficiently reduce the overall running
time of object recognition.
Keywords - Medical imaging,BPN,Pattern matching
I.INTRODUCTION
This project is the implementation of a simple, fast and
reliable method for automatically diagnosing diseases
through digitized images of blood. Hematopathology
reveals that there is an intrusion of the disease cell in the
blood having identical characteristics for each disease.
Principal effectors in the blood that are Erythrocyte,
Leukocyte and Platelets of the blood play a crucial role in
supplying blood to the various parts of the body, resisting
foreign particles and in clotting of blood respectively. The
effectors are identified and skipped for our observation. In
microscopic images of the diseased blood cells, the
diagnosis is based on the evaluation of some general
features of the blood cells such as color, shape, and border,
and the presence and the aspect of characteristic structures.
Perception of these structures depends both on
magnification and image resolution. The introduction of
vision system associated with image processing techniques

enables the numerical and objective description of some
pattern cells features. Matlab image processing software is
used for the experimental work. A new algorithm is
introduced which will efficiently reduce the overall running
time of object recognition. Concept of Back Propagation
network is used to set appropriate error values during
object recognition. Experimental results using proposed
technique gives a way for new research area in Bio
mechanics. Nevertheless, this would be an interesting
future investigation, since our approach is sufficiently
general to be applied to modeling tasks from other two
dimensional or three dimensional application domains. The
extension of this may open a new area of research in bio
mechanics (modeling and simulation).
II.IMPLEMENTATION
A.EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The technology used in solid state imaging sensors is based
principally on charged coupled devices (CCD), which can
convert the images from analog to digital format. Simple
strategies can be adapted to grab the images from the
Electron Microscope. The experiment apparatus consists of
structured light source, Electron Microscope, CCD camera
and vision system. The relative cells of the blood are first
measured. Before the actual diagnosis is made, the real
coordinates and world coordinates must be determined in
the camera coordinate system by a calibration process. The
camera acquisition requires the knowledge of calibration
analysis. The camera can be viewed simply as a device for
mapping a 3D image into a 2D image. A detailed
experimental study is carried out in diseased cell structure
with the normal one. The real time experiment is to
illustrate the actual implementation of the estimation
method developed by spatial encoding technique. The
innovative hardware and vision-processing algorithm with
menu driven user interface was used to analyze the
condition of the blood cells in the diseased cell structure.
The experiment is planned taking into consideration of the
Page 224
above requirements and detection of diseases through

microscopic images of the diseased cell structure. The
software facilities capturing of high resolution images in
color or in black and white, comparison of built up model
(Template) with that of subjected model and the images
can be sized and stored for future reference. The last stage
of the experimental setup in which only one of the diseases
would be activated from the output layer of the back
propagation algorithm denoting the disease that is to be
determined.
image is made to fix into the standard dimensions as shown

below.For example
INPUT SLIDE SIZE STANDARDIZATION
Color/
Grey
Image
Image
capturing
(Reduced)
(Enlarged)
Fig2.1.1inputslidesize Standardization
Segmentation
Binarized
Image
Analysis
(BP Algorithm)
Color/Gray image
The image is then passed to the above component from
which the color image is converted to gray scale using the
necessary formula. Weights of the Red, Blue and Green are
mixed in proper proportions and then we calculate a single
value as required in gray scale.
Segmentation
The image is then segmented according to the required
values of height and width. When there is some exceeding
part of the block they are filled with appropriate values of
padding.
Disease
Detection
Feed back to control (Vision System)

Figure 2.1 Experimental Setup
Image capturing
The blood strip taken from the patients body is placed in

the slide. This is viewed through the electron microscope.
A frame is retrieved using the frame grabber. From the
frame the region of interest is extracted according to the
height and width in number of pixels as required. Thus the
Binarized Image
The Image is then binarized into 0 and 1 using

necessary approximations.For example terms with values
0.65 are approximated to 1 and terms with 0.35 are
considered as 0.
Back propagation algorithm
Back propagation algorithm is explained in detail later

which possesses certain formula so that an image that
almost resembles a particular image of pattern is
considered to be that pattern. For example if the difference
between the two images is negligible or fixed to a certain
error rate is considered to have the same pattern.
Comparisons are made repeatedly so that the inputted slide
is found to either pattern matched or not pattern matched.
Disease detection
Page 225
The last stage of the experimental setup in which only one

of the diseases would be activated from the output layer of
the back propagation algorithm denoting the disease that is
to be determined.
Chronic Myeloid
Leukemia
Gaucher's Disease
Hypersplenism
Fig 2.2 Slides Containing Blood Cells

B. BLOOD: THE VITAL FLUID
Blood is a red fluid pumped by the heart to various parts of
the body through the circulatory system. No other artificial
fluid can replace the function of blood. Blood contains
hemoglobin which makes the blood appear red in color.
Blood contains 45% of solid content and the remaining
liquid.
Components of blood
Blood contains plasma that is 12% consisting of the solid
particles and the remaining liquid. The three major
components of blood is
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets
as shown in the below figure.
organs of the human body. The size of red blood cell is 7.5
microns in diameter. It is spherical in shape. In a human
body weighing 75 kg containing 5 litres of blood can have
about 1000 red blood cells in it. Red blood cells are almost
same in diameter.
Leukocytes
Leukocytes are also termed as White blood cells. The
function of Leukocytes is to fight against the foreign
organisms or the cells getting into the blood due to the
various diseases. When compared to Erythrocytes,
Leukocytes are large in number. The main way in
differencing Erythrocytes and Leukocytes is the nucleus
that is only possessed by the Leukocytes. The size of
Leukocytes is also bigger in diameter compared to that of
Erythrocytes.
Platelets
Platelets play a vital role in performing the clotting of
blood. Platelets do not have a definite structure.
Digital Image Processing
Digital image processing is the processing of the
image data for storage, transmission and representation for
autonomous machine perception. A digital image is
composed of a finite number of elements each of which has
a particular location and value. These elements are referred
to as picture elements, image elements and pixels. Pixels
is the term most widely used to denote the elements of the
digital image. Vision is the most advanced of our senses, so
it is not surprising that images play the single most
important role in human perception. Thus digital image
processing encompasses a wide and varied field of
applications. There are fields such as computer vision
whose ultimate goal is to use computers to emulate human
vision, including learning and being able to make
inferences and take actions based on visual inputs. This
area is itself a branch of artificial intelligence whose
objective is to emulate human intelligence. The area of
image analysis also called as Image understanding is in
between image processing and computer vision. Lets us
now discuss about Medical Imaging that is part of Digital
image processing.
C.MedicalImaging
Fig 2.2.1
Components Of Blood
Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes are also termed as Red blood cells. The
function of Erythrocytes is to carry oxygen to various
The parts of the digital image processing that are

exclusively used in medical related fields define Medical
Imaging. There are numerous applications of the Digital
image processing concepts used in medical fields like that
of Gamma ray and X-ray imaging.
D.Neural network concepts involved
The architecture of the human brain is
significantly different from the architecture of a
conventional computer. The conventional computers are
not suited to perform pattern recognitions problems. We
therefore borrow features from physiology of the brain as
the basis for our new process models. Hence the
technology has come to be known as Artificial Neural
Systems technology or simple Neural Networks. Thus we
Page 226
are going to a concept involved in the Neural Networks

termed as Back Propagation networks that plays a vital role
in our project in the pattern recognition problem.
Back propagation network
Back propagation network can be used to solve
complex pattern matching problems. The network learns a
predefined sets of input/output example pairs by using a
two phase propagate adapt cycle. After an input pattern has
been applied as a stimulus to the first layer of the network
units, it is propagated through each upper layer until an
output is generated. This output pattern in then compared
with the desired output and an error signal is computed for
each output unit.
In our project the input is shown in table
containing the input slides and the output is the table
containing the diseased cell pictures.
The significance of the process is that as the
network trains the nodes in the intermediate layers organize
themselves such that different nodes learn to recognize
different features of the total input space. After training
when presented with the arbitrary input pattern that is
noisy or incomplete, the units is the hidden layer of the
network will respond with the active output with the new
input contains the pattern that resembles the feature the
individual units learn to recognize during training.
The error term is calculated using the formula:
M
Ep = (1/2) 2pk
k=1
where pk is the error term for the output
activated indicated by 1. Else if the error difference is

exceeding Ep then the output is not activated and is
indicated by 0. As we know in the Back Propagation
network we fix the error value. Using the error value or the
threshold we could determine whether the inputted image
matched the already trained image. If the difference is
below the error or the threshold value then it is obvious that
the inputted image is one among the trained sample of the
blood. From the figures in the above table we could find
the following
When the obtained image is heavily blurred

exceeding the error value and thus the result is 0.
When the obtained image is less blurred

exceeding the error value and thus the result is 0.
E. PATTERN MATCHING
Basic principle of pattern matching:
Lets consider the following case in which the first
matrix in the top to be the slide containing only the
diseased cell.
Let the second matrix be considered as the slide
retrieved from the frame grabber containing the diseased
cell.
As shown below we can observe that the first
matrix is present in the second containing the values 53,
44, 67, 55. In ordinary or classic methods of pattern
matching we would obviously think of solving the problem
by sliding the first matrix with the second.
units.
The above error value Ep is set so that the difference
between the obtained and the actual image is fixed to a
certain quantity.
Result analysis of Error differences by BPN
Actual image
Obtained image
Result
Fig 2.4.1 Result Analysis Of Error Differences By BPN

Thus only if the obtained image has an error difference
within the allowed error term that is Ep the output is
53
67
12
22
54
22
44
55
11
33
76
44
13
53
67
88
14
44
55
55
So the step involved in the normal case is as below:

For i= 1 to m2
For j= 1 to n2
For k=1 to m1
For l= 1 to n1
{
Processing statements
}
Thus the running time is as below:
Runtime= O(m2*n2*m1*n1)
Where Odenotes the BIG O notation representing the
lower bound of any algorithm.
Page 227
Enhanced pattern matching

We now find a method from which we could obviously
reduce the running time of the pattern matching involved.
The steps involved is described as below
No of pixels of a sample and the slide for height

and width is collected for every sample
The first element of the sample is compared with

each and every element of the slide
Comparison is done along with the error value of

the BPN already prefixed
If at all the first element is equal (considering the

error value) to a element then the remaining m2 elements
in that row are found for match
If a row is matched a counter is set.
Now comparison is done simply by skipping m1

value thus saving runtime.
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
Pattern is matched if the counter value equals to

n2.
Depending upon the matched values that exceeds

the threshold value gives a true result.
Thus the Enhanced pattern matching analysis is done as
below.
Running time=O(m1*m2) that is comparatively less to
O(m2*n2*m1*n1)
Thus time saved =O(m2*n2*m1*n1) - O(m1*m2)
Pattern matching using selected points:
Cell of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia
Fig
2.5.3
Bloc
k
Extr
actio
n
In
orde
r to
still
reduce the running time of the algorithm we can select
some points may be in some fashion and find out
appropriate match. This is represented in the following
diagrams. This is represented as below:
Considering Slide dimensions as below the total no of
comparisons required are 100X100 =10000
TABLE 2.5 IMPROVED ALGORITHM ANALYSIS
Block
dimensions
NO of
Percentage of
Total no of
blocks
running time
comparisons
required in
saved
minimum
20X20
3200
68
10X10
16
1600
84
5X5
32
800
92
The above is graphically represented below:
Graph Representation
100
90
80
70
60
%
50
40
30
20
10
0
Time saved
50X50 20X20 10X10
5X5
Dimensions
Inappropriate
Less accuracy
Fig2.
5 Graphical Representation Of Algorithm Analysis
Thus improved running time considering dimensions
10X10 =
16% [O(m1*m2)]
Thus total time saved [Improved Technique]
O(m2*n2*m1*n1) - 16%[O(m1*m2)]
that is considerably more to that of
O(m2*n2*m1*n1) - O(m1*m2)
III.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Blood cell recognition, disease diagnosis and some of the
morphological methods are briefly reviewed in this section.
This includes experimental investigations and image
processing algorithms that have been developed to
diagnosis diseases. To overcome the problems associated
with blood cells, disease constituents and effectors during
the diagnosis process, the image processing technique have
been formulated with vision system to provide closed loop
control. Several experiments were carried out to
characterize the disease of the main modeling steps, i.e.,
establishing corresponding cells from a set of learning
shapes and deriving a statistical model.
We applied the modeling procedure to distinct the
incoming image with the normal one. We test our methods
on 15 images of healthy and 30 images with disease. In our
approach, we established the corresponding cells prior to
pose and scaling estimation during statistical modeling.
This assumes that the position of the cells does not change
significantly with different pose and scaling, which is
justified by the high accuracy of the model.
Page 228
To assess how well the statistical model generalizes to

unseen objects, we measured how close a shape not part of
the learning sample can be approximated with the
statistical shape model. To compute the robustness of the
method with respect to different parameter settings, the
entire modeling was carried out for a range of parameter at
a time while keeping the remaining parameters at their
optimal values. The images used are presented here, which
have exhibited a wide variety of lesions and confusing
manifestations. On this difficult data set, our methods
successfully detect the disease in most of the reliable cases.
IV.CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have presented a method to automatically
construct statistical blood cells from segmented
microscopical images. Standard models are used to
diagnosis the disease that can also be used for
haematological applications. Corresponding parameters on
the surface of the shape are established automatically by
the adaptation of back propagation algorithm to segmented
volumetric images. To assess the robustness of the method
with respect to the parameter settings, the entire statistical
model was carried out for range of parameter values,
varying one at a time while keeping the remaining
parameters at their optimal values. MS Visual C++ and
Matrox Inspector image processing software are used for
the experimental work. Nevertheless, this would be an
interesting future investigation, since our approach is
sufficiently general to be applied to modeling tasks from
other two dimensional or three dimensional application
domains. The extension of this may open a new area of
research in bio mechanics (modeling and simulation).
REFERENCES
cells, Science Direct, Pattern Recognition, Volume 16,

Issue 6, Pages 571-577, 1983.
5)Landeweerd.G.H, Timmers.T and Gelsema.E.S,
Classification of normal and abnormal samples of
peripheral blood by linear mapping of the feature space,
Science Direct, Pattern Recognition, Volume 16, Issue 3,
Pages 319-326, 1983.
6)Lester.J.M, Williams.H.A , Weintraub.B.A and
Brenner.J.F, " Two graph searching techniques for
boundary finding in white blood cell images, Science
Direct, Computers in Biology and Medicine Volume 8,
Issue 4, Pages 293-308, 1978.
7)Parthenis.K, Metaxaki-Kossionides.C and Dimitriadis.B,
"An automatic computer vision system for blood analysis
",Science Direct, Microprocessing and Microprogramming,
Volume 28, Issues 1-5, Pages 243-246, March 1990.
8)Philip E. Norgren Ashok V. Kulkarni and Marshall D,
Graham,Leukocyte image analysis in the diff3 system,
Science Direct, Pattern Recognition, Volume 13, Issue 4,
Pages 299-314, 1981.
9)Schnfeld.M
and
Grebe.R,Automatic
shape
quantification of freely suspended red blood cells by
isodensity contour tracing and tangent counting, Science
Direct, Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine,
Volume 28, Issue, Pages 217-224, April 1989.
10)Xubo B. Song, Yaser Abu-Mostafa, Joseph Sill, Harvey
Kasdan and Misha Pavel, Robust image recognition by
fusion of contextual information Information Fusion,
Science Direct, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages 277-287,
December 2002.
1)Artmann.G, Schneider.G and Henning, "Automated

image processing system for shape recognition of single
red blood cells based on out-of-focus images", Science
Direct, Biorheology, Volume 32, Issues 2-3, Pages 237238, March-June 1995.
2)Brenner.J.F, Selles.W.D and Zahniser.D.J, "Pattern
recognition of nucleated cells from the peripheral
blood, Science Direct, Pattern Recognition, Volume 16,
Issue 2, Pages 131-140, 1983.
3)Daniela Mayumi Ushizima Sabino, Luciano da Fontoura
Costa, Edgar Gil Rizzatti and Marco Antonio Zago "A
texture approach to leukocyte recognition, Science Direct,
Real imaging in Bioinformatics, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages
205-216, August 2004.
4)Ldeweerd.G.H, Timmers.T and Gelsema.E.S, Binary
tree versus single level tree classification of white blood
Page 229
Cloud Computing And Virtualization

Mr. Nilesh Madhukar Patil
Lecturer (IT Dept.), MCTs Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology, Mumbai,
State: Maharashtra, Country: India
Email: nileshdeep@gmail.com
Mr. Shailesh Somnath Sangle

Lecturer (IT Dept.), MCTs Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology, Mumbai,
State: Maharashtra, Country: India
Email: sss.sangle@gmail.com
Abstract
Cloud Computing is defined as a pool of virtualized computer
resources. Based on this Virtualization the Cloud Computing
paradigm allows workloads to be deployed and scaled-out
quickly through the rapid provisioning of virtual machines or
physical machines. A Cloud Computing platform supports
redundant, self-recovering, highly scalable programming
models that allow workloads to recover from many inevitable
hardware/software failures.
The paper throws light on how to use cloud computing as a
technical design center; how to take advantage of the
economics of cloud computing in building and operating cloud
services; and how to plan for the technical and operational
scale that cloud computing makes possible.
Keywords: SaaS, PaaS, IaaS
1. Cloud Computing Fundamentals

For an organization to execute its operations, it requires
components or hardware and software abided with it to
furnish them. For instance, consider that in a software
company each and every service is dependent upon other.
Starting from Data center, server requires uninterrupted
power supply, coolant solutions for its components to
deliver effectively, Redundant Servers, Wide Range of
Bandwidth to access them, complicated softwares to
manage or monitor them, Team of Expert Employees
monitoring or refurbishing them, development, production,
fail over network. Upon all that suppose a new version or
update is introduces than the whole system crashes down or
requires a reallocation of resources. Ultimately the
investment is found to be high but the results doesnt seem
stable or ever requires technical experts involvement.
The search was up for a service which is agile, could be
spread wider as time grows and could contract with the
same speed as it grew, automatic updates without any user
intervention, no knowledge or little requirement of
technical trouble shooting expertise.
Figure 1.1: Cloud Computation
Cloud computing is using virtualized resources as a

service over the internet with provision of scaling up
dynamically. The improvement is that the users need not
have to have knowledge of, expertise in, or control over the
technology infrastructure over the Cloud that supports
them. It operates through browsers while the software and
the data are stored in the servers.
A technical definition is "a computing capability that
provides an abstraction between the computing resource
and its underlying technical architecture (e.g., servers,
storage, networks), enabling convenient, on-demand
network access to a shared pool of configurable
computing resources that can be rapidly provisioned and
released with minimal management effort or service
provider interaction."
There have been many well known participants (ZOHO,
Microsoft,
Amazon,
Rackspace
Cloud,
SalesForce,
Sun)
to
the
Yahoo,
Cloud
Google,
Computing
technologies, blowing the trumpet at high peak by

introducing customary packages about the services offered
by the Cloud Computing.
Page 230
Figure 2.1: Virtualization Bundle

Figure 1.2: Cloud Hosters
2. Virtualization
Whenever an application or a service, is being developed
by a company, its reliability to deliver at the native
environment requires all its dependent services or resource
to be bundled together due to the reason that the
Application and Infrastructure are found to be dependent.
Here technologies advanced to find a solution like bundling
application with all it required services like Database,
subsequent immediate services as well as Operating
System into one, thereafter making Application
independent of the Infrastructure into which the application
is deployed.
Yes very close, fueling the application to work independent
of the Infrastructure is the architecture terms as
virtualization. It refers to the Abstraction of computer
resource. With the emergence of Virtualization, the internet
cloud gathered multiple resources to equip for the
Virtualization. Most of the time, servers don't run at full
capacity. That means there's unused processing power
going to waste. It's possible to fool a physical server into
thinking it's actually multiple servers, each running with its
own independent operating system. The technique is called
server virtualization. By maximizing the output of
individual servers, server virtualization reduces the need
for more physical machines.
Maneuvering virtualization technique according to the
demands of the vendors is the simplest definition for Cloud
Computing.
GMAIL is a Cloud Computing services. Now creating

GMAIL account does not takes much time rather than a
username and password. Thats it. This is the benefit of
cloud computing. No server restart, no software updated,
Just a simple username, password authentication, and then
the resource is ready to be accessed by the end user.
Cloud computing doesnt only help customer application
like Account, Web Sites but also support Business
Architecture As such. Thereby Entitling it self as
Enterprise Cloud Computing.
Business Associates could pay for the resources they use.
No additional cost/No wastage of Cost/Less cost.
Talking about scalability, the cloud computing is termed as
Elastic, enables customers to increase or decrease capacity
within minutes, not hours or days. You can commission
one, hundreds or even thousands of server instances
simultaneously. Of course, because this is all controlled
with web service APIs, your application can automatically
scale itself up and down depending on its needs.
To the End user, it is approached as a Multi-tenancy
architecture, where in each compartment is handled
individually without sharing resource for other
compartment, but the fact is it is a shared platform where in
individual Resource is being shared with all the available
vendors compartmented by policies and permissions.
Users have started rapidly using Cloud Computing
technologies, and its usage is being encouraged. Few of the
hosting service providers has prompted usage of Cloud
Computing to help its reach to the common people have
provided multiple shared services for free like Google
Document (Sharing / Storing Documents in the cloud) and
ZOHO Document (Sharing / Storing Documents in the
cloud) are few to be mentioned.
Page 231
3.1 Virtualized Infrastructure

Virtualized Infrastructure provides the abstraction
necessary to ensure that an application or business service
is not directly tied to the underlying hardware
infrastructure such as servers, storage, or networks. This
allows business services to move dynamically across
virtualized infrastructure resources in a very efficient
manner, based upon predefined policies that ensure specific
service level objectives are met for these business services.
3.2 Virtualized Applications
Virtualized applications decouple the application from the
underlying hardware, operating system, storage, and
network to enable flexibility in deployment. Virtualized
Application servers that can take advantage of grid
execution coupled with Service Oriented Architectures and
enable the greatest degree of scalability to meet the
business requirements.
3.3 Enterprise Management
Figure 2.2: Multitenancy Conceptual
Architecure
3. Cloud Building Blocks

The building blocks of cloud computing are rooted in
hardware and software architectures that enable innovative
infrastructure scaling and virtualization. Many data centers
deploy these capabilities today. However, the next
infrastructure innovations are around more dynamic
provisioning and management in larger clusters both within
and external to the conventional corporate data center.
There are also implications for next generation application
design to make optimum use of massively parallel
processing and fault tolerance.
The figure 3 below illustrates some common architectural
components:
Enterprise management provides top-down, end-to-end

management of the virtualized infrastructure and
applications for business solutions. The enterprise
management layer handles the full lifecycle of virtualized
resources and provides additional common infrastructure
elements for service level management, metered usage,
policy management, license management, and disaster
recovery. Mature cloud service management software
allows dynamic provisioning and resource allocation to
allow applications to scale on demand and minimize the
waste associated with underutilized and static computing
resources.
3.4 Security and Identity Management
Clouds must leverage a unified identity and security
infrastructure to enable flexible provisioning, yet enforce
security policies throughout the cloud. As clouds provision
resources outside the enterprises legal boundaries, it
becomes essential to implement an Information Asset
Management system to provide the necessary controls to
ensure sensitive information is protected and meets
compliance requirements.
3.5 Development tools
Figure 3: Cloud Components
Next generation development tools can leverage clouds

distributed computing capabilities. These tools not only
facilitate service orchestration that can leverage dynamic
provisioning, but also enable business processes to be
developed that can harness the parallel processing
capabilities available to clouds. The development tools
Page 232
must support dynamic provisioning and not rely on hard

coded dependencies such as servers and network resources.
4. Cloud Computing Infrastructure Models
There are many considerations for cloud computing
architects to make when moving from a standard enterprise
application deployment model to one based on cloud
computing. There are three basic service models to
consider:
Public, private, and hybrid clouds
IT organizations can choose to deploy applications on
public, private, or hybrid clouds, each of which has its
trade-offs. The terms public, private, and hybrid do not
dictate location. While public clouds are typically out
there on the Internet and private clouds are typically
located on premises, a private cloud might be hosted at a
colocation facility as well.
Companies may make a number of considerations with
regard to which cloud computing model they choose to
employ, and they might use more than one model to solve
different problems. An application needed on a temporary
basis might be best suited for deployment in a public cloud
because it helps to avoid the need to purchase additional
equipment to solve a temporary need. Likewise, a
permanent application, or one that has specific
requirements on quality of service or location of data,
might best be deployed in a private or hybrid cloud.
4.1 Public clouds
virtual machine images, but also servers, storage systems,

network devices, and network topology. Creating a virtual
private datacenter with all components located in the same
facility helps to lessen the issue of data locality because
bandwidth is abundant and typically free when connecting
resources within the same facility.
Figure 4.1: Public Cloud
4.2 Private clouds

Private clouds are built for the exclusive use of one client,
providing the utmost control over data, security, and
quality of service (Figure 4.2). The company owns the
infrastructure and has control over how applications are
deployed on it. Private clouds may be deployed in an
enterprise datacenter, and they also may be deployed at a
colocation facility.
Private clouds can be built and managed by a companys
own IT organization or by a cloud provider. In this hosted
private model, a company such as Sun can install,
configure, and operate the infrastructure to support a
private cloud within a companys enterprise datacenter.
This model gives companies a high level of control over
the use of cloud resources while bringing in the expertise
needed to establish and operate the environment.
Public clouds are run by third parties, and applications

from different customers are likely to be mixed together on
the clouds servers, storage systems, and networks (Figure
4.1). Public clouds are most often hosted away from
customer premises, and they provide a way to reduce
customer risk and cost by providing a flexible, even
temporary extension to enterprise infrastructure.
If a public cloud is implemented with performance,
security, and data locality in mind, the existence of other
applications running in the cloud should be transparent to
both cloud architects and end users. Indeed, one of the
benefits of public clouds is that they can be much larger
than a companys private cloud might be, offering the
ability to scale up and down on demand, and shifting
infrastructure risks from the enterprise to the cloud
provider, if even just temporarily.
Portions of a public cloud can be carved out for the
exclusive use of a single client, creating a virtual private
datacenter. Rather than being limited to deploying virtual
machine images in a public cloud, a virtual private
datacenter gives customers greater visibility into its
infrastructure. Now customers can manipulate not just
Figure 4.2: Private Cloud
4.3 Hybrid clouds

Hybrid clouds combine both public and private cloud
models (Figure 4.3). They can help to provide on-demand,
externally provisioned scale. The ability to augment a
private cloud with the resources of a public cloud can be
used to maintain service levels in the face of rapid
workload fluctuations. This is most often seen with the use
Page 233
of storage clouds to support Web 2.0 applications. A hybrid

cloud also can be used to handle planned workload spikes.
Sometimes called surge computing, a public cloud can be
used to perform periodic tasks that can be deployed easily
on a public cloud.
market, including the Google Apps offering of basic

business services including email and word processing.
Although salesforce.com preceded the definition of cloud
computing by a few years, it now operates by leveraging its
companion force.com, which can be defined as a platform
as a service.
Hybrid clouds introduce the complexity of determining

how to distribute applications across both a public and
private cloud. Among the issues that need to be considered
is the relationship between data and processing resources.
If the data is small, or the application is stateless, a hybrid
cloud can be much more successful than if large amounts
of data must be transferred into a public cloud for a small
amount of processing.
Figure 5: Cloud computing means using IT infrastructure

as a service
5.2 Platform as a service (PaaS)

Platform as a service encapsulates a layer of software and
provides it as a service that can be used to build higherlevel services. There are at least two perspectives on PaaS
depending on the perspective of the producer or consumer
of the services:
Figure 4.3: Hybrid Cloud
5. Architectural layers of cloud computing

In practice, cloud service providers tend to offer services
that can be grouped into three categories: software as a
service, platform as a service, and infrastructure as a
service. These categories group together the various layers
illustrated in Figure 5, with some overlap.
5.1 Software as a service (SaaS)
Software as a service features a complete application
offered as a service on demand. A single instance of the
software runs on the cloud and services multiple end users
or client organizations.
The most widely known example of SaaS is
salesforce.com, though many other examples have come to
Someone producing PaaS might produce a platform by

integrating an OS, middleware, application software, and
even a development environment that is then provided to a
customer as a service. For example, someone developing a
PaaS offering might base it on a set of Sun xVM
hypervisor virtual machines that include a NetBeans
integrated development environment, a Sun GlassFish
Web stack and support for additional programming
languages such as Perl or Ruby.
Someone using PaaS would see an encapsulated service
that is presented to them through an API. The customer
interacts with the platform through the API, and the
platform does what is necessary to manage and scale itself
to provide a given level of service. Virtual appliances can
be classified as instances of PaaS. A content switch
appliance, for example, would have all of its component
software hidden from the customer, and only an API or
GUI for configuring and deploying the service provided to
them.
Page 234
PaaS offerings can provide for every phase of software

development and testing, or they can be specialized around
a particular area such as content management.
Commercial examples of PaaS include the Google Apps
Engine, which serves applications on Googles
infrastructure. PaaS services such as these can provide a
powerful basis on which to deploy applications, however
they may be constrained by the capabilities that the cloud
provider chooses to deliver.
5.3 Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)
Infrastructure as a service delivers basic storage and
compute capabilities as standardized services over the
network. Servers, storage systems, switches, routers, and
other systems are pooled and made available to handle
workloads that range from application components to highperformance computing applications.
Commercial examples of IaaS include Joyent, whose main
product is a line of virtualized servers that provide a highly
available on-demand infrastructure.
6. Benefits of Cloud Computing
1.
Decoupling and separation of the business service
from the infrastructure needed to run it (virtualization)
2.
Flexibility to choose multiple vendors that provide
reliable and scalable business services, development
environments, and infrastructure that can be leveraged out
of the box and billed on a metered basiswith no long
term contracts.
3.
Elastic nature of the infrastructure to rapidly
allocate and de-allocate massively scalable resources to
business services on a demand basis.
4.
Cost allocation flexibility for customers wanting
to move Capital Expenditures (CapEx) into Operational
Expenditures (OpEx).
5.
Reduced costs due to operational efficiencies, and
more rapid deployment of new business services.
7.
Issues in Cloud Computing
The main concerns about cloud computing are security and

privacy. The thought of handing your important data over
to something called a cloud can be daunting. Nervous
corporate executives might hesitate to take advantage of a
cloud computing system because they feel like theyre
surrendering control of their companys information. Data
inside the cloud is outside a companys firewall and that
brings with it an intrinsic threat of risk, because services
that companies outsource evade the physical, logical and
personnel controls that I.T. shops wield over data

maintained in-house. Other fears include:
1.
Risk of data breaching
2.
Appeal to cyber crooks
3.
Lack of specific standards for security and data
privacy
4.
Questions about jurisdiction. European concern
about U.S. privacy laws led to creation of the U.S. Safe
Harbor Privacy Principles, which are intended to provide
European companies with a degree of insulation from U.S.
laws
5.
Data location. Cloud users probably do not know
exactly where their data is hostednot even the specific
country.
8.
Conclusion
Cloud computing offers real alternatives to IT business for

improved flexibility and lower cost. Markets are
developing for the delivery of software applications,
platforms, and infrastructure as a service to IT business
over the cloud. These services are readily accessible on a
pay-per-use basis and offer great alternatives to businesses
that need the flexibility to rent infrastructure on a
temporary basis or to reduce capital costs. Architects in
larger enterprises find that it may still be more cost
effective to provide the desired services in-house in the
form of private clouds to minimize cost and maximize
compatibility with internal standards and regulations. If so,
there are several options for future-state systems and
technical architectures that architects should consider to
find the right trade-off between cost and flexibility. Using
an architectural framework will help architects evaluate
these trade-offs within the context of the business
architecture and design a system that accomplishes the
business goal.
9. References
[1] Michael Miller, Cloud Computing: Web-Based
Applications That Change the Way You Work and
Collaborate Online, Que, 2008.
[2] David Linthicum, Cloud Computing and SOA
Convergence in Your Enterprise: A Step-by-Step Guide,
1st edition, Addison-Wesley Professional, 2009.
[3] Toby Velte, Anthony Velte, Robert Elsenpeter, Cloud
Computing, A Practical Approach, 1st edition, McGrawHill Osborne Media, 2009.
[4]http://www.exforsys.com/tutorials/cloudcomputing/cloud-computing-users-perspective.html
Page 235
[5]http://www.watblog.com/2008/03/25/yahoocomputational-research-laboratories-team-up-for-cloudcomputing-research/
[6]http://computersoftware.suite101.com/article.cfm/cloud
_computing_and_virtualization_impact
[7]http://www.microsoft.com/virtualization/en/us/privatecloud.aspx
Page 236
New Method For Solving Fuzzy Linear

Programming With TORA
S. Sagaya Roseline , A. Faritha Asma , E.C. Henry Amirtharaj,
Department of Mathematics , Bishop Heber College (Autonomous)
Tiruchirappalli -17, India.
Email: sagaya_rose@yahoo.co.in
asmafaritha@yahoo.in
Abstract - Since many real-world engineering systems are too

complex to be defined in precise terms, imprecision is often
involved in any engineering design process. Fuzzy linear
programming problems have an essential role in fuzzy modeling,
which can formulate uncertainty in actual environment. In this
study we present a new method for solving FLPP with TORA
software. Here the coefficient of objective function , constraint
coefficient matrix, and right hand side of the constraints are in
fuzzy nature. The coefficients of the objective function have
taken as trapezoidal fuzzy number, the coefficients of the
constraints and the right hand side of the constraints are
considered as a triangular fuzzy number. Here our main scope is
to find some non-negative vector x which maximizes the objective
function z = c x so that A x = b . Finally the defuzzified LPP is
solved by using TORA.
Keywords - Fuzzy sets, Fuzzy number, Trapezoidal fuzzy

number, Triangular fuzzy number, Fuzzy linear programming.
I. INTRODUCTION
Fuzzy set theory has been applied to many fields of
Operations Research.
The concept of fuzzy linear
programming (FLP) was first formulated by Zimmermann.
And then various types of the FLP problems are considered
by many authors and several approaches for solving these
problems are proposed. In this paper we consider a LPP in
which the coefficients of the objective function, constraint
coefficients and right hand side of the constraints are fuzzy.
Here we explain the concept of the comparison of fuzzy
numbers by introducing a linear ranking function. Our main
contribution here is the establishment of a new method for
solving the Fuzzy linear programming problems with TORA.
Moreover we illustrate our method with an example.
II. PRELIMINARY
henry23@refiffmail.com
A. FUZZY SETS
Definition
Let X be a classical set of objects called the universe whose
generic elements are denoted by x. The membership in a crisp
subset of X is often viewed as characteristic function A(x)
from X to {0, 1} such that
A(x) = 1 , if x A
= 0 , otherwise.
where {0, 1} is called valuation set.
If the valuation set is allowed to be the real interval [0, 1], A is
called a fuzzy set. A(x) is the degree of membership of x in
A. The closer the value of A(x) is to 1, the more x belong to
A. Therefore, A is completely characterized by the set of
ordered pairs:
A = { ( x, A(x)) / x X }
Definition
The support of a fuzzy set A is the crisp subset of X and is
presented as :
Supp A = { x X / A(x) > 0 }
Definition
The level ( cut ) set of a fuzzy set A is a crisp subset of
X and is denoted by
A = { x X / A(x) ) }
Definition
A fuzzy set A in X is convex if
A( x + (1-)y) min { A(x) , A(y) } x , y X and
[0, 1] . Alternatively, a fuzzy set is convex if all level
sets are convex .
Note that in this paper we suppose that X = R.
B. Fuzzy numbers
In this section we review some necessary backgrounds of the

fuzzy theory which will be used in this paper. Below we give
definitions and notations.
Definition
A fuzzy number A is a convex normalized fuzzy set on the
real line R such that
1) it exists atleast one x0 R with A(x0) = 1.
2) A(x) is piecewise continuous.
Page 237
Among the various types of fuzzy numbers, triangular and

trapezoidal fuzzy numbers are of the most important.
Definition
A fuzzy number is a trapezoidal fuzzy number if the
membership function of it be in the following form :
x > 0 , x a = ( xaL , x aU , x , x )
x < 0 , x a = ( xaU , xaL , - x , - x )
IV. RANKING FUNCTIONS
A convenient method for comparing of the fuzzy
numbers is by use of ranking functions. A ranking function is
a map from F(R) into the real line. Now , we define orders on
F(R) as following:
a b if and only if R (a) R (b)

R
x
1
x
0
aL -
aL
aU
aU +
We show that trapezoidal fuzzy number by a = (aL , aU , , )

where the support of a is ( aL - , aU + ) , and the modal set
of a is [aL , aU ] . Let F(R) be the set of trapezoidal fuzzy
numbers.
Definition
Triangular fuzzy number A can be represented by three real
numbers, s, l, r whose meanings are defined as
a > b if and only if R (a) > R (b)

R
a = b if and only if R (a) = R (b)
R
where a and b are in F(R). It is obvious that we may write
a b if and only if b a
R
R
Since there are many ranking function for comparing fuzzy
numbers we only apply linear ranking functions. So, it is
obvious that if we suppose that R be any linear ranking
function, then
i) a b if and only if a - b 0 if and only if - b - a
R
R
ii) a b and c d , then a + c b + d
R
R
R
One suggestion for a linear ranking function is following:
R (a) = aL + aU + ( - )
where a = ( aL , aU , , ) .
0
s-l
s+r
Using this representation we write A = (s, l, r )

Let F1 (R) be the set of all triangular fuzzy numbers.
III. ARITHMETIC ON TRAPEZOIDAL FUZZY NUMBERS
Let a = ( aL , aU , , ) and b = ( bL , bU , , ) be two
trapezoidal fuzzy numbers and x R. Then the results of
applying fuzzy arithmetic on the trapezoidal fuzzy numbers
are shown in the following :
U
Image of a : - a = (- a , - a , , )
Addition
: a + b = ( aL + bL , aU + bU , + , + )
Scalar Multiplication:
V. FUZZY LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEM

Consider Fuzzy linear programming problem in which
the coefficient of the objective function , the right hand side
numbers and the coefficients of the constraint matrix are fuzzy
numbers.
Max z =
xj
R
Sub to
xj Bi (i Nm)
xj 0 (j Nn)
According to [2] the problem can be rewritten as

Max z =
R
xj
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Sub to
( ti , ui, vi )
( i Nm )
Max z = ( 5, 8, 2, 5) x1 + ( 6, 10, 2, 6) x2
xj 0 ( j Nn )
Sub to 4x1 + 5x2 24

4x1 + x2 12
2x1 + 2x2 19
3x1 +0.5x2 6
5x1 + 6x2 32
6x1 + 2x2 15
x1 , x2 0
where Aij = ( sij , lij , rij ) and Bi = ( ti , ui, vi ) are triangular

fuzzy numbers.cj F(R)
Summation and multiplication are operations on fuzzy
numbers, and the partial order is defined by A B iff
MAX ( A, B) = B. For any two triangular fuzzy numbers
A = (s1, l1, r1) and B = (s2 , l2 , r2 ) A B iff s1 s2 ,
s1 - l1 s2 - l2 and s1 + r1 s2 + r2.
Moreover, (s1, l1, r1) + (s2 , l2 , r2 ) = (s1+s2 , l1+l2 , r1+r2 ) and
(s1, l1, r1)x = (s1x, l1x, r1x) for any non-negative real number x.
Then the problem can be rewritten as
Max z =
R
R(z) = 86.515
Defuzzifing the objective function using ranking function , the
FLPP becomes the following classical LPP.
xj
Sub to
Solving this problem we obtain,

x1 = 1.23, x2 = 3.82 max z = ( 29.04 , 48, 10.09 , 29.04)
Max z = 14.5 x1 + 18 x2
ti
Sub to 4x1 + 5x2 24

4x1 + x2 12
2x1 + 2x2 19
3x1 +0.5x2 6
5x1 + 6x2 32
6x1 + 2x2 15
x1 , x2 0
ti - ui
ti + vi (i Nm)
xj 0 ( j Nn )
Now the Fuzzy linear programming problem becomes
Max z = c x
R
Sub to A x b
Solving this LPP using TORA we obtain,

x1 = 1.23, x2 = 3.82 , max z = 86.52
(1)
x0
c T (F(R))n , b Rm , x Rn , R is a linear ranking
function. Then according to [1] , the problem can be solved
by using simplex method. By using ranking function ,
objective function of (1) can be defuzzified and then (1) is
equivalent to the classical LPP which can be solved by using
TORA.
VII. CONCLUSION
In this paper we proposed a new method for solving the FLP
problems with TORA. The significance of this paper is
providing a new method for solving the fuzzy linear
programming in which the coefficients of the objective
function are trapezoidal fuzzy number and the coefficients of
constraints, the right hand side of the constraints are triangular
fuzzy number. We compared the solution of FLPP with the
defuzzified LPP solution using TORA.
REFERENCES
VI. A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE

For an illustration of the above method we solve a FLP
problem with TORA.
[1]
[2]
Max z = ( 5, 8, 2, 5) x1 + ( 6, 10, 2, 6) x2
[3]
Sub to ( 4, 2, 1) x1 + ( 5, 3, 1) x2 ( 24, 5, 8)
( 4, 1, 2) x1 + ( 1, 0.5,1)x2 ( 12, 6, 3)
x1 , x2 0
[4]
[5]
S. H. Nasseri, E. Ardil, A. Yazdani and R. Zaefarian, Simplex method

for solving linear programming problems with fuzzy numbers, World
academy of science, engineering and technology,2005 .
George j. Klir / Bo Yuan, Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic Theory and
applications, 2006.
S.H. Nasseri, A new method for solving fuzzy linear programming by
solving linear programming, Applied mathematical sciences,vol.2,
2008.
H. Rommelfanger, R. Hanuscheck and J. Wolf, Linear programming
with fuzzy Objective funcion, Fuzzy sets and systems,1989.
H.J. Zimmermann, Fuzzy programming and linear programming with
several objective functions, Fuzy sets and systems, 1978.
we can rewrite it as
Page 239
Latest Trends And Technologies In Enterprise

Resource Planning ERP
AuthorDakshayani.B.S. Department of Computer Science,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Mysore Campus, Karnataka.
bsd_sujan@yahoo.com
AbstractThis article deals with, a) The Latest trends in ERP, b)

Recent technologies like Open Source, Web 2.0 services, SaaS,
Cloud Computing and Green ERP Systems, Compatibility with
dot net technologies c) Future of ERP
Key wordsGreen ERP, Cloud Computing, SaaS, Wireless
Technology, Web based ERP, Compatibility of ERP with Dot net
technology
I INTRODUCTION
ERP evolved from Manufacturing Resource Planning MRP
II (which originated from Material Resource Planning MRP
I). It has gained much prominence and utility with the
intervention of open source, web enabled and wireless
technologies.
ERP has undoubtedly become an important business
application to all industries. It has almost become a must for
all organizations irrespective of the type of business
manufacturing or service.
In this context it becomes important to analyze the direction in
which ERP is geared to progress or will ERP diminish in the
future, emerging technologies etc.
II LATEST TRENDS IN ERP
ERP calls for constant modifications and up gradations. ERP
developers are facing tremendous pressure both from vendors
and companies. In this context it becomes important to
analyze the ERPs trends and modalities. The following are
relevant issues in ERP.
A. Need based application
Organizations had to implement ERP throught their systems
irrespective of the fact whether they help in all the functions
or in one particular function. This was proving to be a big
hurdle to the firms. In addition this remained as the main
disadvantage or setback of ERP. They had to purchase the
whole applications even if it meant that most of them would
be idle except for the core function.
The latest ERP software programs have overcome this
menace. They offer need based applications.. They were given
the liberty to purchase and install software Programs
pertaining to that particular function. This advantage has
helped to increase the scope of ERP not only among large

firms but also small and medium business as well.
B. Expenditure
ERP was a very costly affair. Thanks to the intrusion of
internet and open source applications. This has helped
S.M.E.'S to enter the market of prospective buyers. This has
not only widened the horizon of S.M.E.'s but also increased
the usage among large firms.
These large firms were not able to invest huge money in spite
of adequate funds. Now that the spending on ERP gets
reduced there are no hesitations to show the green signal for
monetary outlay. It is encouraging to notice the improving IT
ERP trends.
C. Implementation Time
ERP was discouraged by companies because they took such a
long time to get installed and set the whole process into
action. Since this resource was spent excessively there were
chances for reduction in potential business and losing manhours.
The current day ERP applications are less complex to install
and train. This has reduced the amount of time spent on ERP.
Companies are thereby assured of spending lesser time for
ERP.
D. Open Source, Web enabled (Web 2.0 services), SaaS,
Cloud Computing, Green ERP and wireless technologies
These technologies are the results of finding solution to the
issues discussed above. They have been dealt in detail in the
following paragraphs. These technologies have helped in
rejuvenation of the functioning of ERP and also in creating
wide market base,
III RECENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ERP
A. Open Source ERP technologies
Open Source Technologies have made the job of ERP easier.
It has done away with the hassles of paying licence fee not
only during installation but also whenever a modification is
made. The company is relieved from depending even for
mince matters. Following issues relating to open source ERP
technology is worth discussing. 1) Influence of the cost
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factor: It is interesting to know the Price tag of Open Source

ERP technologies. It is literally available at free of cost. All
that the user has to do is to download the software and install
it. An unbelievable fact is that even the source code comes
freely. This in itself has encouraged lots of companies to go
for ERP, as they are not burdened with investments. Of late,
companies don't necessarily go for ERP because their attitude
towards spending on ERP has undergone a sea change in the
sense they don't mind to pay as long as they think ERP is
worth the costs. Open Source accounting ERP and open
source ERP payment are famous solutions.
2) Influence on the operational expenses: Open Source ERP
technologies largely influence operational expenses. The
company is relieved from paying the extra sum for facilities
provided in moving to a new system. Similarly the company
need not incur additional expenditures for renewal and
purchase of licenses as and when some components are added
in the framework. This gradually reduces the monetary outlay
that has to be otherwise incurred for every update. Open
Source accounting ERP has helped to simplify the financial
practices. Open source ERP payment has helped in facilitating
easy disbursement of cash.
3) Absence of Vendors help: Unlike the usual ERP
applications it is not possible to avail the services of a vendor
as the company handles everything independently. This has
many dimensions. Firstly the company enjoys a sole liability.
Secondly a simple error when not rectified (or the in-house
personnel does not know to) could prove to be a costly affair
for the company. Above all the company gets to learn from
mistakes and without any external assistance
4) Litigations: Open source ERP has resulted in many lawsuit
and incidental claims. There is still ambiguity in the copying
aspects. The question of infringement and indemnification
remains unanswered as seen from the previous cases.
5) Unsuitable for all applications: Open source has a limit
when it comes to the places where they can be put to use.
They don't find applicability in all areas especially for
conventional practices. It is not appropriate to introduce open
source in those areas without changing the way the systems
work. In fact it could be a risky option to do it. This drawback
discourages many functions from being Open source friendly
B. Web Based ERP

This Web Based ERP is usually less expensive than a fullblown ERP software package which is usually priced out of
the range for a small or medium company. Also with fullblown packages, there will probably be many modules that
will not be implemented, even though those modules have
been purchased. On the other hand, Web Based ERP can be
purchased and implemented in stages. You only buy what you
need. Since Web based ERP is based upon the web, it can be
used from anywhere you have access to the internet or even
through an intranet. This means that financial informations

available whenever it is needed, from wherever you happen to
be. This is an important criterion for people like Sales Reps to
corporate CEOs. Sales analysis, profitability, inventory,
production, pricing, credit history: these are just some the
information thats available just by using the web to securely
connect, in real-time, to a secure database
SaaS ERPshe Software as a Service (SaaS) model is a way
of providing the same software to different customers via a
network, usually the internet. In other words, the software is
not hosted on the customers individual computers. Under the
SaaS model, a vendor is responsible for the creation,
updation, and maintenance of software. Customers buy a
subscription to access it, which includes a separate license, or
seat, for each person that who use the software. This model
can add efficiency and cost savings for both the vendor and
customer. Customers save time and money since they do not
have to install and maintain programs. The customers do not
have to hire staff, or use existing staff to maintain the
software. They also generally do not have to buy any new
hardware. This allows a customer to focus more resources on
growing the business.Shifting the burden of software hosting
and development to the vendor can also speed up the time it
takes for the customer to see a return on the software
investment. Using the SaaS model, the number of seats can be
increased as the business grows. This is usually faster and
cheaper than purchasing another license and adding to
another computer, as with traditional software.Vendor usually
only have to update and maintain the software on the network,
versus updating different copies of the software on different
computers. This allows the vendor to provide the latest
updates and technology to each customer in a timely manner.
The drawback for the customer is that they do not control the
software and customization of programs may be limited.
If an update is requested by a customer, it will most likely
need to benefit other customers who are also using the same
software. If the customer completely outgrows the software,
however, the company can simply discontinue its
subscription at the end of the current contract. In such a
cancellation, applications typically do not have to be
removed from the customers computers. Generally, the
canceling customer maintains ownership of any proprietary
data entered into the SaaS applications.
SaaS model contracts may be terminated early with
sufficient cause. The vendor not delivering the software in a
timely manner, the software not working as specified in the
contract, are all typically grounds for termination of the
contract. With broadband technology more commonplace
throughout the workforce, however, customers have many
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choices when it comes to software delivered under the SaaS

model. Customers can research SaaS vendors thoroughly,
and request current references, to help avoid any nondelivery issues.
Plex Online Company utilizes SaaS model to deliver fullblown manufacturing ERP software functions in an ondemand mode. Plex online is a web based ERP solution,
requiring only a web browser to access all of the analysis
and management functions of a full-featured manufacturing
ERP system, designed to meet the requirements of all
departments within a quality-driven manufacturer, shop
floor to top floor.
Web 2.0 and SaaS software have captured a significant
portion of the market led by legacy ERP systems.
Even large enterprises (which only showered their love on
ERPs) are now accepting the value of SaaS application over
legacy ERPs.
A survey about SaaS conducted in August 2009 by Business
Week Research Service found that four out of five managers
and senior executives in North America are either interested
in, or in the process of, adopting the SaaS approach to IT. In
fact roughly a third of the 326 respondents companies have
already fully or partially adopted the SaaS approach for at
least the one application.
The key features of SaaS applications that are usually
missing in traditional ERP software usability, intuitive
Graphic User Interface, collaboration, global accessibility,
configurable, higher security levels and zero IT hassles for
clients.
D. Cloud Computing
Represents the next evolutionary step toward elastic IT. It
will transform the way your IT infrastructure is constituted
and managed, through consumable services for
infrastructure, platform and applications. This will convert
your IT infrastructure from a factory into a supply
chain.
Cloud computing is a general term for anything that
involves delivering hosted services over the Internet. These
services are broadly divided into three categories:
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS), Platform-as-a-Service
(PaaS) and Software-as-a-Service (SaaS). The name cloud
computing was inspired by the cloud symbol that's often
used to represent the Internet in flowcharts and diagrams.
Cloud Computing SaaS is the next generation ERP and
optimized for B2B/SMBs with built-in CRM and SFA to cut
costs and improve productivity.
The highest level of Cloud Computing is SaaS, BScaler

Cloud computing SaaS is a leader in SaaS, using Web 2.0,
Web Services, SOA, AJAX, XML, Java and SaaS 2.0
technologies to provide users with the highest security and
data access performance via internet browsers. With
BScaler ERM(Enterprise Resource Manager) SaaS, no
upfront investment in hardware or software is required,
customers do not have to operate their applications or IT
infrastructure and maintenance and updates are no longer
necessary! Furthermore, wherever you are in the world at
any time your business will be with you. All you need is
browser! This software also lets users focus on the
businesses instead of an over-loaded, quickly aging data
centers.
E. Green ERP
Scientists and intellectuals have become increasingly
concerned with the human impact on our environment.
Governments are now regulating businesses with strict
environmental restrictions. Software systems such as Green
ERP are gaining popularity as companies transform their
practices.
This concept is relatively new, so very few companies offer
ERP systems that integrate environmental goals into the
systems structure. The best option is tailored software.
Tailored ERP software utilizes the best features of both
generic (turn-key) and custom software while avoiding all of
the disadvantages. The concept, tailoring software was started
to allow flexibility in a software system while avoiding the pit
falls of a custom system such a high cost, having to rebuild
the system to upgrade and long development time.
The best tailored or configured software begins with an
existing software structure. Key individuals at the company
help to model the softwares functionality, but unlike custom
coding, the lengthy process of developing the software is
circumvented by high-end programming tools. Since the
basic architectures not altered, upgrades as simple as with a
generic, out-of-the-box software system.
F. Wireless technology in ER:
Wireless technology has helped enterprise operations in many
ways. Firstly it has facilitated the stakeholders in getting upto-date information on enterprise operations as and when
required through the use of modern communication devices
like mobile phones, laptops (all connected to the internet).
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1) Proper coordination with the organizational network: Wis

ERP will give the best results only if it falls in line with
proper communication channels. The communication
channels should be improved in the organization to make it
(Wireless) ERP friendly. The obsolete computers should be
replaced with the latest phones. Mobile and
telecommunication facilities should also be at par with the
industry standards.
It happens many a times that companies resort to wireless
ERP without improving the communication facilities. This
does not serve the purpose no matter whatsoever the money
spent in establishing ERP or the resource persons employed to
procure the same. In addition there is another major advantage
in improving communication facilities. Apart from
dissemination of information and inflating profits and
improving productivity it also helps the companies to rise to
professional standards in the market. This will also motivate
the companies to improve all other facilities that directly or
indirectly contribute to the working of ERP and make use of
facilities like image Enabled ERP system and ERP data
capture.
2) Privacy issues: Privacy is a burning issue that occupies
significance whenever there is a technological explosion and
ERP is no exception to this principle. These calls for more
attention due to the (further) improvement namely wireless
ERP (from ERP). Privacy always becomes a subject matter
of conflict whenever things are brought under public
domain.
The company is poised to lose valuable information or
prospective businesses when things are exposed unnecessarily
.In those cases wireless ERP will be a disaster to the company
(and not a boon). Wireless ERP should be provided with
maximum security. The scrutiny should prevent third party
access without prior permission and approval from the
company. This might look impossible practically but it is
strongly advocated to have them in force in order to safeguard
the interests of the company.
The security system will be successful if a department in the
company is able to have a track of the details communicated.
The viability of the company is also to be taken into account
in this regard. Bigger companies can go for such system
whereas the others should restrict depending on their capacity
and needs. If they are required unconditionally the companies
should resort to alternative arrangements .It should be kept in
mind that none of these arrangements should interfere with the
functioning of ERP. Image Enabled ERP system and ERP data
capture will help to achieve this.
improvement. This will automatically help wireless ERP to

succeed.
4)
Multiple applications and connectivity speed: Wireless
ERP should not depend on just one or two devices like
laptop or mobile phone but make use of maximum
appliances. This will help the companies to gain
technological edge. In additions alternatives will be of great
help especially in times of emergency and when a particular
system fails.
G. What makes dot net compatible to ERP?
What are the probable reasons for preferring Dot net platform?
They are supposed to be cheap when compared with J2EE.
Since dot net is from Microsoft Corporation it goes without
saying that they will be designed on application basis. Besides
there are some other features that make dot net compatible to
ERP. Some of the issues deserving attention are as follows:
1) Effectively checks for mistakes and procedural errors: Be
it enterprise resource planning or software programs the
chances of errors are often very high. These errors not only
undermine the working of the software but also disturb the
whole process in the company which even makes them to
sigh " If only computers were not invited".
No platform (including dot net and J2EE) can be guaranteed
for controlling errors. However the unique codes set in dot net
helps in knowing as and when errors occur and that too at the
early stage. This is an important issue especially for ERP the
functioning of which has to be constantly monitored to ensure
accountability and performance. Since the platform
immediately points out what is going wrong it is easier for the
company to freeze the whole process rectify the errors and set
back things to motion properly.
2) Flexibility to function simultaneously: Any platform or
application poses a major challenge to the company. The
more they are different and the larger are they in numbers
the greater is the trouble for the company. The reason is that
the simultaneous function leads to lot of collusions and
confusions. Even though they work separately the
functioning of one will clash with that of the other. This case
could be worse if one of them is dependent on the other for
one or more supportive function.
Dot net has been designed to overcome this drawback. Dot net
will neither have interference nor an influence with other
applications/platforms unless they are desired in the course of
work. Even in such cases dot net will only act as an inducer.
This explains the reason for preferring dot net platform.
3)
Message persistency: The frequency of message
transfer is referred as message persistency. This rate is
important in deciding the success of the communication
systems and ERP functions. The organization should ensure
that there is no slag in the systems or process or any other
procedures that is likely to affect this rate. Companies
should constantly monitor and suggest areas for
3) Safety and lesser risk: Computers and software programs

become vulnerable to hacking and all sort of mishaps and no
amount of technological advancements have helped to
resolve this trouble. The security features of dot net platform
are not only stringent but also a tough thing for the user
himself. Unlike from other software programs which award
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licenses directly to the user the special facility is that they

can have the liberty to award the license.
4) Communication, costs and other services: Dot Net
software offers these facilities at an unbelievable cost that is
predicted as low as 5% when compared with J2EE
platforms. This is good news to companies and especially
those who are unable to make use of the latest IT facilities
due to budgetary constraints. This would have otherwise
been a handicap to companies for not being able to serve
their own requirements.
Dot net also facilitates faster communication and renders
many additional services to companies availing them. Since
they are one among the latest the vendors take pains in
ensuring that the companies understand the entire system
and still continue preferring dot net platform.
Companies are now focusing on optimizing processes within

those functions. Aligning employee roles and responsibilities
with a process, as well as function, can reap big benefits by
giving employees visibility to the process from end to end.
Having a common picture of how a process works
"stimulates tremendous innovation and improvement,".
"It's a new way of looking at your business."
ERP has thrown open opportunities for many companies to
trade with foreign counter parts in the name of outsourcing,
implementation and deployment of the existing ones. It has
contributed lot to the economy. Academics also boast its own
share of ERP relations.
It has promoted lot of employment and educational
opportunities. India happens to be a key beneficiary in this
aspect.
IV FUTURE MARKET TRENDS OF ENTERPRISE

RESOURCE PLANNING.
V LEADING ERP GIANTS:
The dream of enterprise resource planning systems is that

a single application can track and monitor all of a
businesss functions. In a perfect world, a manager opens
a single ERP app to find data about any aspect of the
business, from financials to HR to distribution schedules.
Also, were not there yet or at least most companies
arent.
Moreover, there are still a lot of gaps in ERP systems,
particularly in industries where ERP functionality has grown
up from its historic origins in manufacturing. There are even
gaps in core ERP areas, Hamerman tells Datamation, Where
they just havent done a particularly good job, in areas like
budgeting, and recruitmentwhere the vast majority of
customer uses something other than their ERP vendor. But
despite the challenges, the movement toward a global ERP
system is a key factor shaping the future of enterprise resource
planning
Companies looking to "shift from a functional to a business
process orientation" will need a very long-term plan, and
possibly a therapist on hand.
This is a niche market where only the best gets to thrive.

Needless to mention the money involved and other factors
ensure a tug of war between the players. Some of the leading
ERP giants are as follows:
1) Microsoft: This software major holds a promising segment
in the Small and medium enterprises market. They have been
constantly upgrading the versions and are expert in
manufacturing the products from the vendor's point of view
(who knows all the practical difficulties of the stakeholders).
They have been taking a very liberal stand when it comes to
the market and competitors so as to be more compatible to the
users. More innovations will take the company to great
heights in the market around the globe. The biggest advantage
of this software is that many companies will prefer them for
one reason that they can be easily run in Microsoft application
and platforms.
2) Oracle: They have been in the limelight ever since they
have purchased People soft ERP software. Another
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encouraging fact for them is the mass campaign carried by

UNDP (United Nations Development Program) to create an
awareness of their products. They have also satisfies the
customers (of both people soft and oracle) by offering many
competitive features.
3) SAP: A specialized ERP product meant to solve technical
and managerial issues. SAP ERP continues to be the choice of
many companies around the world. It helps companies to
redefine their business operations. Some of the features and
advantages of this software program are at par with industry
standards though some others require to be improved in order
to make it compatible to the end user.
4) PeopleSoft: People soft ERP software program helps the
companies to streamline their HR functions in an easy and
effective manner. This software continues to be the
undisputed leader in the market when it comes to HR
operations anywhere in the globe. Oracles recent takeover of
People soft has only been a boon to its customers who are now
fable to access the e-Services of Oracle also as a result of this
merger.
5) UPS: This ERP software has an important feature. They
can work in combination with other applications like SAP,
Oracle. This will enable them to get the best features from
each software and put them in use as may be demanded. This
has also hogged the limelight due to this advantage.
VI CONCLUSION
The "soft" benefits of ERP provide good bottom-line savings
and sustainable top-line growth, lower inventory and
operating cost, more efficient production, improved quality
with less waste, higher customer acquisition retention and
better cash flow.
The future of ERP holds an undisputed demand not only in
the national level but also at the global level. If the
technology can be improvised to the desired extent.
ERP trends reflect positive signals for the ERP vendors and
companies availing their service. It is important to remember
the fact that both the vendor and the company will be able to
make use of any advantage (including the modern facilities)
only through proper coordination, teamwork and nurturing
a cordial atmosphere. Mere IT ERP trends will not help in
this aspect.
Industry consultant Reed sums it up this way: "'Empower
me. Give me the tools to create differentiating processes that
allow me to define myself from my competitors. And make
sure that it's easier for me to do, so I don't have to hire 100
programmers. Give me the building blocks to put that
together quickly, so that it's just humming in the
background, and leave me free to focus on what makes us
better than other companies.' That's what customers are
expecting now and really want.
REFERENCES
www.erpwire.com
www.whitepaper.techrepublic.com
www.olcsoft.com
www.eioupdate.com
www.sdn.sap.com
www.bscaler.com
[7] www.plex.com
[8] www.itmanagement.earthweb.com
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Page 245
A New Semantic Similarity Metric for Handling all

Relations in WordNet Ontology
K.Saruladha#1, Dr.G.Aghila*2, Sajina Raj#3
#
Research Scholar, 3Post Graduate Student,

Department of Computer Science & Engg.
Pondicherry 605 014, India.
1
charusanthaprasad@yahoo.com
3
sajinaraj@pec.edu
*
Head of the department

Department of Computer Science,
Pondicherry University,
Pondicherry 605 014, India.
2
aghilaa@yahoo.com
Abstract- Semantic similarity assessing methods play a central
role in many research areas such as Psychology, cognitive
science, information retrieval biomedicine and Artificial
intelligence. This paper discuss the
existing semantic
similarity assessing methods and identify how these could be
exploited to calculate accurately the semantic similarity of
WordNet concepts.
The semantic similarity approaches
could broadly be classified into three different categories:
Ontology
based
approaches
(structural
approach),
information theoretic approaches (corpus based approach)
and hybrid approaches. All of these similarity measures are
expected to preferably adhere to certain basic properties of
information. The survey revealed the following drawbacks
The information theoretic measures are dependent on the
corpus and the presence or absence of a concept in the corpus
affects the information content metric. For the concepts not
present in the corpus the value of information content tends to
become zero or infinity and hence the semantic similarity
measure calculated based on this metric do not reflect the
actual information content of the concept. Hence in this paper
we propose a new information content metric which provides
a solution to the sparse data problem prevalent in corpus
based approaches. The proposed measure is corpus
independent and takes into consideration hyponymy and
meronymy relations.
Further the information content metric used earlier by
Resnik, lin and Jiang and Cornath methods may produce
better results with alternate corpora other than brown
corpus. Hence the effect of corpus based information content
metric on alternate corpora is also investigated. The proposed
similarity function with noun pairs of R&G data set was
tested for Resnik method and the correlation coefficient with
human judgment were calculated.
The results were
promising.
Keywords-Ontology, similarity method, information retrieval,

conceptual similarity, taxonomy, corpus based
I . Introduction
The goal of Information retrieval process is to retrieve
Information relevant to a given query request. The aim is to
retrieve all the relevant information eliminating the nonrelevant information. An information retrieval system
comprises of document representation, semantic similarity
matching function and Query. Document representation
comprises the abstract description of documents in the
system. The semantic similarity matching function defines
how to compare query requests to the stored descriptions in
the representation.
The percentage of relevant information we get mainly
depends on the semantic similarity matching function we
used. So far, there are several semantic similarity methods
used which have certain limitations despite the advantages.
No one method replaces all the semantic similarity
methods. When a new information retrieval system is going
to be build, several questions arises related to the semantic
similarity matching function to be used. In the last few
decades, the number of semantic similarity methods
developed is high.
This paper discusses the overall view of different
existing similarity measuring methods used for ontology
concept comparison. We also discuss about the pros and
cons of existing similarity metrics. We have presented a
new approach which is independent of the corpora for
finding the semantic similarity between two concepts.
Page 246
Section II, discusses the basic qualitative properties that a

similarity measure is expected to satisfy. Section III
discusses various approaches used for similarity
computation and the limitations of those methods. In
Section IV, comparison among different semantic
similarity measures are discussed. In Section V we
introduce a new semantic similarity approach and an
algorithm for finding the similarity between all the
relations in the WordNet taxonomy. The results based on
new similarity measure is promising.
II. ONTOLOGY SIMILARITY

In this section, a set of intuitive and qualitative
properties that a similarity method should adhere to is
discussed.[20]
A. Basic Properties
Any similarity measure must be compatible with the
basic properties as they express the exact notion of
property.
o
CommonalityProperty
o
Difference Property
o
Identity Property
B. Retrieval Specific Properties
The similarity measure cannot be symmetrical in case of
ontology based information retrieval context.
The
similarity is directly proportional to specialization and
inversely proportional to generalization.
o
Generalization Property
C. Structure Specific Properties
The distance represented by an edge should be reduced
with an increasing depth.
o
Depth Property
o
Multiple Paths Property
III. APPROACHES USED FOR SIMILARITY
COMPUTATION
In this section, we discuss about various similarity
methods[20]. The similarity methods are
A.
B.
C.
D.
Path Length Approaches

Depth-Relative Approaches
Corpus-based Approaches
Multiple-Paths Approaches
A. Path Length Approach

The shortest path length and the weighted shortest
path are the two taxonomy based approaches for measuring
similarity through inclusion relation.
1) Shortest Path Length
A simple way to measure semantic similarity in a

taxonomy is to evaluate the distance between the nodes
corresponding to the items being compared. The shorter
distance results in high similarity.
In Rada et al. [1989][1][14], shortest path length
approach is followed assuming that the number of edges
between terms in a taxonomy is a measure of conceptual
distance between concepts.
distRada(ci; cj) = minimal number of edges in a path from
ci to cj
This method yields good results. since the paths are
restricted to ISA relation, the path lengths corresponds to
conceptual distance. Moreover, the experiment has been
conducted for specific domain ensuring the hierarchical
homogeneity.
The drawback with this approach is that, it is compatible
only with commonality and difference properties and not
with identity property.
2) Weighted Shortest Path Length
This is another simple edge-counting approach. In this
method, weights are assigned to edges. In brief, weighted
shortest path measure is a generalization of the shortest
path length. Obviously it supports commonality and
difference properties.
- Similarity of immediate specialisation
-Similarity of immediate generalisation
P=(p1,..,pn)
where,
Pi ISA pi+1 or Pi+1 ISA pi
For each I with x=p1 and y=pn
Given a path P=(p1,..pn), set s(P) to the number of
specializations and g(P) to the number of generalizations
along the path P as follows:
s(P)= |{i\pi ISA pi+1}|
(1)
g(P)=|{i|Pi+1 ISA pi}|
(2)
If p1,pm are all paths connecting x and y, then the
degree to which y is similar to x can be defined as follows:
simWSP(x,y)=max{ s(pj) s(pj)}
(3)
j=1,.m
The similarity between two concepts x and y, sim(x,y)
WSP(weighted Shortest Path) is calculated as the maximal
product of weights along the paths between x and y.
Similarity can be derived as the products of weights on the
paths.
s(pj)
g(Pj
s(P ) and g(P ) = 0

Hence the weighted shortest path length overcomes the
limitations of shortest path length wherein the measure is
based on generalization property and achieves identity
property.
B. Depth-Relative Approaches
Even though the edge counting method is simple, it limits
the representation of uniform distances on the edges in the
Page 247
taxonomy. This approach supports structure specific

property as the distance represented by an edge should be
reduced with an increasing depth. This approach includes
depth relative scaling method, conceptual similarity
method and normalization based length method.
1) Depth Relative Scaling
In his depth-relative scaling approach Sussna[1993][2]
defines two edges representing inverse relations for each
edge in a taxonomy. The weight attached to each relation r
is a value in the range [minr; maxr]. The point in the range
for a relation r from concept c1 to c2 depends on the
number nr of edges of the same type, leaving c1, which is
denoted as the type specifc fanout factor:
W(c1r c2)=maxr-{maxr--minr/nr(c1)}
The two inverse weights are averaged and scaled by
depth d of the edge in the overall taxonomy. The distance
between adjacent nodes c1 and c2 are computed as:
dist sussna(c1,c2)=w(c1 r c2)+ (c1 r c2)/2d
(4)
where r is the relation that holds between c1 and c2, and
r is its inverse. The semantic distance between two
arbitrary concepts c1 and c2 is computed as the sum of
distances between the pairs of adjacent concepts along the
shortest path connecting c1 and c2.
2) Conceptual Similarity
Wu and Palmer [1994][3], propose a measure of
semantic similarity on the semantic representation of verbs
in computer systems and its impact on lexical selection
problems in machine translation. Wu and Palmer define
conceptual similarity between a pair of concepts c1 and c2
as:
Sim wu&palmer(c1,c2)=
(5)
Where N1 is the number of nodes on the path from c1 to
a concept c3. , denoting the least upper bound of both c1
and c2. N2 is the number of nodes on a path from c2 to c3.
N3 is the number of nodes from c3 to the most general
concept.
3) Normalised Path Length
Leacock and Chodorow [1998][4], proposed an
approach for measuring semantic similarity as the shortest
path using is a hierarchies for nouns in WordNet. This
measure determines the semantic similarity between two
synsets (concepts) by finding the shortest path and by
scaling using the depth of the taxonomy:
Sim Leacock&Chaodorow(c1,c2)= -log(Np(c1,c2)/2D)
(6)
Np (c1,c2) denotes the shortest path between the synsets
(measured in nodes), and D is the maximum depth of the
taxonomy.
C. Corpus-based Approach
The knowledge disclosed by the corpus analysis is used to

intensify the information already present in the ontologies
or taxonomies. In this method, presents three approaches
viz information content method, J&C method and Lins
universal similarity measure is discussed. All these
methods incorporate corpus analysis as an additional, and
qualitatively different knowledge source.
1) Information Content
In this method rather than counting edges in the shortest
path, they select the maximum information content of the
least upper bound between two concepts. Resnik [1999]
[5], argued that a widely acknowledged problem with edgecounting approaches was that they typically rely on the
notion that edges represent uniform distances. According to
Resnik's measure, information content, uses knowledge
from a corpus about the use of senses to express nonuniform distances.
Let C denote the set of concepts in a taxonomy that
permits multiple inheritance and associates with each
concept c 2 C, the probability p(c) of encountering an
instance of concept c. For a pair of concepts c1 and c2,
their similarity can be defined as:
SimResnik
(7)
where,
S(c1,c2): Set of least upper bounds in the taxonomy of c1
and c2
p(c)
:Monotonically non-decreasing as one moves up
in the taxonomy,
p(c1) p(c2), if c1 is a c2.
The similarity between the two words w1 and w2 can be
computed as:
wsimResnik
(8)
Where,
s(wi): Set of possible senses for the word wi.
Resnik describes an implementation based on information
content using WordNet's [Miller, 1990][6], taxonomy of
noun concepts [1999]. The information content of each
concept is calculated using noun frequencies
Freq(c) =
where,
words(c): Set of words whose senses are subsumed by
concept c.
(c)=freq(c)/N
where ,
N: is the total number of nouns.
The major drawback of the information content
approach is that they fail to comply with the generalization
property, due to symmetry.
2) Jiang and Conrath's Approach(Hybrid Method)
Jiang and Conrath [1997][7]proposed a method to
synthesize edge-counting methods and information content
Page 248
into a combined model by adding the information content

as a corrective factor.
The edge weight between a child concept cc and a
parent concept cp can be calculated by considering factors
such as local density in the taxonomy, node depth, and link
type as,
Wt(cc,cp)=
(9)
Where,
d(cp)
: Depth of the concept cp in the taxonomy,
E(cp)
:Number of children of cp (the local density)
(E)
: Average density in the entire taxonomy,
LS(cc, cp) : Strength of the edge between cc and cp,
T(cc,cp) : Edge relation/type factor
The parameters
0 and ,0
1 control the
inuence of concept depth and density, respectively.
strength of a link LS(cc; cp) between parent and child
concepts is proportional to the conditional probability
p(cc|cp) of encountering an instance of the child concept,
cc, given an instance of the parent concept, cp:
LS(cc, cp) = -log p(cc|cp)
Resnik assigned probability to the concepts as p(cc \cp)
= p(cc), because any instance of a child concept cc is also
an instance of the parent concept cp. Then:
p(Cc|Cp) =
p(Cc|Cp) =
If IC(c) denotes the information content of concept c. then:
LS(Cc,Cp) = IC(Cc)-IC(Cp)
Jiang and Conrath then defined the semantic distance
between two nodes as the summation of edge weights
along the shortest path between them [J. Jiang, 1997]:
distjiang&conrath(C1,C2)=
(10)
Where,
path(c1, c2)
: the set of all nodes along the shortest path
between c1 and c2
parent(c)
: is the parent node of c
LSuper(c1, c2) : is the lowest superordinate (least upper
bound) on the path between c1 and c2..
Jiang and Conrath's approach made information content
compatible with the basic properties and the depth
property, but not to the generalization property.
3) Lin's Universal Similarity Measure
Lin [1997; 1998][8][13] defines a measure of similarity
claimed to be both universally applicable to arbitrary
objects and theoretically justified. He achieved generality
from a set of assumptions.
Lin's information-theoretic definition of similarity
builds on three basic properties, commonality, difference
and identity. In addition to these properties he assumed that
the commonality between A and B is measured by the

amount of information contained in the proposition that
states the commonalities between them, formally:
I(common(A,B)) = -log p(common(A,B)
where,
I(s): Negative logarithm of the probability of the
proposition, as described by Shannon[1949].
The difference between A and B is measured by:
I(description(A,B)) I(common(A,B))
Where,
description(A;B) : Proposition about what A and B are.
Lin proved that the similarity between A and B is
measured by,
simLin(A,B)=
(11)
The ratio between the amount of information needed to
state the commonality of A and B and the information
needed to describe them fully.
Lins similarity between two concepts in a taxonomy
ensures that:
SimLin(c1,c2)=
(12)
where,
LUB(c1, c2): Least upper bound of c1 and c2
p(x)
: Estimated based on statistics from a sense
tagged corpus.
This approach comply with the set of basic properties
and the depth property, but would fail to comply with the
generalization property as it is symmetric.
D. Multiple-Paths Approaches
This approach solves the problem with single path
approach. Single path as a measure for the similarity, fails
to truly express similarity whenever the ontologies allow
multiple
inheritance.
In
multiple-path
approach
measurement is made by taking into account all the
semantic relations in ontologies, considering more than one
path between concepts. Attributes should influence the
measure of similarity, thus allowing two concepts sharing
the same attribute to be considered as more similar,
compared to concepts not having this particular attribute.
This approach includes Hirst & St-Onge method,
generalized shortest path method, shared nodes and
weighted shared node methods.
1) Medium-Strong Relations
Hirst and St-Onge [Hirst and St-Onge, 1998; St-Onge,
1995] [9][15], distinguishes the nouns in the Wordnet as
extra-strong, strong and medium-strong relations. The
extra-strong relation is only between a word and its literal
repetition.
A strong relation between two words exists if:
1. They have a synset in common
Page 249
2. There is a horizontal link (antonymy, similarity) between

a synset of each word
3. There is any kind of link at all between a synset of each
word or if one word is a compound or phrase that includes
the other word.
Medium-strong exists between words when a member
of a set of allowable paths connects the two words. A path
is allowable if it contains no more than five edges and
conforms to one of the eight patterns described in Hirst and
St-Onge [1998].
2) Generalised Weighted Shortest Path
The principle of weighted path similarity can be
generalized by introducing similarity factors for the
semantic relations. However, there does not seem to be an
obvious way to differentiate based on direction. Thus, we
can generalize simply by introducing a single similarity
factor and simplify to bidirectional edges. This method
solves the symmetry problem by introducing weighted
edges.
3) Shared Nodes
This approach overcomes the limitation of single path
length approach. Multiple paths are considered for
measuring the similarity.
The shared nodes approach with similarity function
discussed above complies with all the defined properties.
4) Weighted Shared Nodes Similarity
It is found that when deriving similarity using the notion
of shared nodes, not all nodes are equally important.
Assigning weights to edges is very important, as it
generalizes the measure so that it can be make use for
different domains with different semantic relations. It also
allows differentiating between the key ordering relation,
ISA and the other semantic relations when calculating
similarity. The weighted shared nodes measure complies
with all the defined properties.
IV. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT SIMILARITY
MEASURES
In this section we discuss about the results of
comparison of the measures to human similarity
judgments. The first human similarity judgment was done
by Rubinstein and Goodenough [1965][11], using two
groups totaling 51 subjects to perform synonymy
judgments on 65 pairs of nouns and this in turn been the
basis of the comparison of similarity measures.
Miller and Charles [1991][12] repeated Rubinstein and

Goodenough's original experiment, they used a subset of 30
noun pairs from the original list of 65 pairs, where ten pairs
were from the high level of synonymy, ten from the middle
level and ten from the low level.
TABLE I
REPLICA OF THE RUBINSTEIN AND GOODENOUGH AND THE
MILLER AND CHARLES EXPERIMENTS
Word1
Word2
Replica
R&G
M&C
Car
Automobile
3.82
3.92
Gem
Jewel
3.86
3.84
3.92
3.94
Journey
Voyage
3.58
3.54
3.58
Boy
Lad
3.10
3.76
3.84
Coast
Shore
3.38
3.70
3.60
Asylum
madhouse
2.14
3.61
3.04
Magician
Wizard
3.68
3.50
3.21
Midday
Noon
3.45
3.42
3.94
Furnace
Stove
2.60
3.11
3.11
Food
Fruit
2.87
3.08
2.69
Bird
Cock
2.62
3.05
2.63
Bird
Crane
2.08
2.97
2.63
Tool
implement
1.70
2.95
3.66
Brother
Monk
2.38
2.82
2.74
Lad
Brother
1.39
1.66
2.41
Crane
Implement
1.26
1.68
2.37
Journey
Car
1.05
1.16
1.55
Monk
Oracle
0.90
1.10
0.91
Cemetery
Woodland
0.32
0.95
1.18
Food
Rooster
1.18
0.89
Coast
Hill
1.24
0.87
1.09
1.26
Forest
Graveyard
0.41
0.84
Shore
Woodland
0.81
0.63
0.90
Monk
Slave
0.36
0.55
0.57
Coast
Forest
0.70
0.42
0.85
Lad
Wizard
0.61
0.42
0.99
Chord
Smile
0.15
0.13
0.02
Glass
Magician
0.52
0.11
0.44
Rooster
Voyage
0.02
0.08
0.04
Noon
String
0.02
0.08
0.04
1.00
Page 250
The correlation between these two experiments is 0.97.

An experiment were performed by taking the replica of
the Miller and Charles experiment that included 30 concept
pairs and an additional ten new compound concepts pairs
and human judgment for all the 40 pairs has been
performed. The correlations for the measures done by
Resnik, Jiang and Conrath; Lin, Hirst and St-Onge; and
Leacock and Chodorow are shown in table given below.
[Budanitsky, 2001][18][19][20]
TABLE II
CORRELATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT SIMILARITY MEASURES
& HUMAN SIMILARITY JUDGMENTS FROM THE MILLER AND
CHARLES EXPERIMENT
The collection of more than 1 million words was manually

tagged with about 80 parts of speech. The presently
available list of WordNet concepts tagged in the brown
corpus includes approximately 420000 words. There are
more number of concepts in WordNet which are not
tagged in Brown Corpus. We ran a small experiment on
the brown corpus and found that the words soccer,
fruitcake, world trade centre, CPU etc are not found in the
Brown corpus.
Information content of a concept in corpus based
approaches is calculated using the formula
IC(C)=-log p(c)
For the nouns for which p(c) value is zero the IC value
becomes zero or infinity. This issue is addressed as sparse
data problem.
A concept (noun) other than non
informative words(stop words) is expected to have
information content value>0.
But the existing IC
calculation method returns a zero for a concept(noun)
which is unacceptable.
Approach
Correlation
Resnik
0.744
Jiang and Conrath
0.850
Lin
0.829
Hirst and St-Onge
0.744
BROWN CORPUS CATEGORIES

Press : reportage (Political Sports,Society,Spot
Leacock and Chodorow
0.816
News,Financial,Cultural
TABLE IV
Press: Editorial (Institutional Daily, Personal, Letters to the
The table given below shows the correlations between the

replica and the two previous experiments. The correlations
between the replica experiment and the previous
experiments are fairly good[20].
TABLE III
CORRELATION BETWEEN THE THREE HUMAN SIMILARITY
JUDGMENT EXPERIMENTS
Correlation
Rubinstein
Goodenough
Rubinstein &
Goodenough
Miller & Charles
Editor)
Press: Reviews (Theatre, Books, Music, Dance)
Religion (Books, Periodicals, Tracts)
Skill and Hobbies (Books, Periodicals)
Popular Lore (Books, Periodicals)
Belles-Lettres (Books, Periodicals)
Miller & Charles
0.97
Replica
0.93
Replica
0.95
Miscellaneous: US Government & House Organs (Government

Documents, Foundation Reports, College Catalog, Industry
House organ)
Learned (Natural Sciences, Medicine, Mathematics, Social and
Behavioral Sciences, Political Science, Law, Education,
A. Sparse Data Problem in Corpus based Approach

Following the standard definition from
Shannon and Weavers information theory [1949], the
information content of c is log p(c).
Information content in the context of WordNet is drawn
from the brown university standard corpus. This corpus
refers to a collection of documents of widely varying
genres collected in 1961 which was updated in 1971and
1979 to reflect new literatures shown in table IV.
Humanities, Technology and Engineering)

Fiction: General (Novels, Short Stories)
Fiction: Mystery and Detective Fiction (Novels, Short Stories)
Fiction: Adventure and Western (Novels, Short Stories)
Fiction: Romance and Love Story (Novels, Short Stories)
Humor (Novels, Essays)
B. Significance of the work

We have proposed an algorithm based on new information
content which takes into consideration the meronymy
Page 251
relations. The Information content metric proposed by

Pierro [2009] takes into concern the holonym relations that
a concept has with other concepts. All of the concepts of
the WordNet will not have all of the relation types. Some
of the concepts will have holonym relation and few with
meronym relations etc. The information content metric
which considers holonymy relation alone, if it ignores the
other type of relations and if it produces a zero value, it
means that the concept has no information which is not
correct. Hence we decided to consider both the meronym
and holonym relations. If a concept do not have holonymy
relation then the information imparted by meronomy is
taken into consideration and the information content will
become zero when the concept has no relations with other
concepts which is a very rare case.
2.
To investigate the existing IC metric on corpora
other than brown corpus.
TABLE V
WORDNET MERONYMY/HOLONYMY RELATION
Relation
Example
Meronym(Part-of)
Engine is a Meronym of Car
Holonym(Has-part)
Car is a Holonym of Engine
Meronym(Has-Member)
Team has member player
Holonym
Player is the member of Team
(Member-of)
V. PROPOSED WORK
The semantic similarity measures are mostly based on the
information content.
Most of the corpus based similarity methods like Lin[8],
Jiang Cornath[7] and Resnik[5] are IC based and the IC
calculation is done using Brown corpus. All concepts of
WordNet are not present in the Brown Corpus. The noun
such as autograph, serf and slave are not present in the
Brown Corpus.
Similarity measures that rely on information content can
produce a zero value for even the most intuitive pairs
because the majority of WordNet concepts occur with a
frequency of zero. This makes the Lin method and Jiang
cornath method to return zero or infinity in the continuous
domain and hence the similarity measure is not true or
reliable.
Hence the computation of Information content should be
computed in a different way so that the similarity measure
becomes reliable.
A. Proposed Corpora Independent

Measure to Solve Sparse Data Problem
Similarity
The objective of this work is twofold.

1.
To design a new information metric which solves
sparse data problem which is corpus independent and is
based on semantic information available in well known
information source like WordNet.
The Existing Similarity methods do not consider the

Holonymy/Meronymy relationships defined in Wordnet.
Hence we propose to devise a new similarity measure
which considers these relationships and experimentally
evaluate and compare it with the existing similarity
measures using R&G data set and extended data set.
The fig.1 shows
architecture.
Google
based
corpus
Reuters
Corpus
Brown
Corpus
the
semantic
Compute
Frequency of
Wordnet
Concepts
Semantic Similarity
computation
Resnik
Jiang & Conrath
Lin
Pirro&Seco
similarity
system
Human
Judgments for
Extended R&G
Data set
Compute
Correlation
Coefficient
WordNet
Taxonomy
Rubenstein &
Goodenough
Extended DataSet
Performance
Analysis
Fig. 1 Semantic Similarity System Architecture
Page 252
B. Proposed IC Calculation Involving Meronym
IC (LCS (c1,c2))--hyper
The intrinsic IC for a concept c is defined as:

IC(c) = 1- log(hypo(c)+mero(c)+1
---(16)
Log(maxcon)
where,
Hypo(c)-Function returns the number of hyponyms
Mero(c)-Function returns the number of meronyms
Maxcon- is a constant that indicates the total number of
concepts in the considered taxonomy
Note: Assume hypo(c), mero(c)>=0 & maxcon>0
The function hypo and mero returns the number of
hyponyms and meronyms of a given concept c. Note that
concepts representing leaves in the taxonomy will have an
IC of one, since they do not have hyponyms. The value of
one states that a concept is maximally expressed and
cannot be further differentiated. Moreover maxcon is a
constant that indicates the total number of concepts in the
considered taxonomy.
(c1 c2)
----(17)
where, the function LCS finds the lowest common

subsumer of the two concepts c1 and c2 and the function
hyper finds all the hypernyms of c1 and c2 upto the LCS
node. The Proposed IC formula will be used in existing
semantic similarity methods such as Resnik, Lin and Jiang
and cornath for computation of similarity measure using
R&G and M&C data sets. The influence of meronymy and
hyponymy relations in calculation of similarity measure
will be studied. We will test the existing Resnik, Lin and
Jiang cornath method using alternate corpora like reuters
and Google Based Corpora. Some researches have taken
this issue into consideration and have proposed corpus
independent information content calculation. But those
calculation takes into consideration only the holonymy
relations [21] excluding other semantic relations that exists
between concepts.
C. Proposed Similarity Function Based On Proposed IC

According to our new formula, the similarity between the
two concepts c1 and c2 can be defined as,
Simext(c1,c2) =
Page 253
Input (noun1, noun2), Output (similarity score)

Step 1: For each sense c1 and c2 in noun1 and noun2
If c1 and c2 are hyponyms
Calculate IC (c1) for hyponyms i.e
VI. Conclusion
This paper has discussed the various approaches that could
be used for finding similar concepts in an ontology and
between ontologies. We have done a survey to exploit the
similarity methods for ontology based query expansion to
aid better retrieval effectiveness of Information retrieval
models. The experiments conducted by early researches
provide better correlation values which gives promising
direction of using them in Ontology based retrieval models.
A new semantic similarity metric has been introduced
which overcomes the shortcomings of existing semantic
similarity methods mainly sparse data problem. We are
working with the new similarity function which will
combine the advantages of the similarity methods
discussed in this paper and we will test it with ontologies of
particular domain. Since we are considering all the
relationship present in the WordNet taxonomy, the new
metric gives accurate results.
IC(c) = 1- log(hypo(c)+1)
log(maxcon)
go to step 3
Else if c1 and c2 are meronyms
Calculate IC(c1) for meronyms i.e
IC(c) = 1- log(mero(c)+1)
log(maxcon)
go to step 3
Step 2: For IC value for both hyponyms and meronyms
using the proposed IC formula,
VII. REFERENCES
IC(c) = 1- log(hypo(c)+mero(c)+1)
[1]
Roy Rada, H. Mili, Ellen Bicknell, and M. Blettner.
Development and application of a metric on semantic nets IEEE
Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 19(1), 17{30}, January
1989.
[2]
Michael Sussna: Word sense disambiguation for tree-text
indexing using a massive semantic network In Bharat Bhargava
[3]
Zhibiao Wu and Martha Palmer. Verbs semantics and lexical
selection, In Proceedings of the 32nd annual meeting on Association for

Computational Linguistics, Association for Computational Linguistics,
1994. pages 133{138, Morristown, NJ, USA
[4]
Claudia Leacock and Martin Chodorow: Combining local
context and wordnet similarity for word sense identification. In
Christiane Fellbaum, editor, WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database.
MIT Press, 1998.
[5]
Philip Resnik.: Semantic similarity in a taxonomy: An
information-based measure and its application to problems of ambiguity in
natural language, 1999.
[6]
George A. Miller, Richard Beckwith, Christiane Fellbaum,
Derek Gross, and K.J. Miller.[Resnik, 1995] Philip Resnik. Using
information content to evaluate semantic similarity in a taxonomy. In
IJCAI, pages 448{453, 1995.
[7]
D. Conrath J. Jiang.: Semantic similarity based on
corpusstatistics and lexical taxonomy. In Proceedings on
International Conference on Research in Computational
Taiwan, pages 19{33, 1997.
Linguistics,
log(maxcon)
go to step 3
Step 3: Call the existing semantic similarity function
Simres(c1,c2), SimLin(c1,c2), SimJ&C(c1,c2)
And then go to step 4.
Step 4: Call the proposed semantic similarity function
for the given concepts c1 & c2
Simext(c1,c2) = IC(LCS(c1,c2))hyper(c1 c2)
Step 5: Collect human judgments and save it as a separate
table for the R&G and M&C data sets
Step 6: Calculate the correlation coefficients between
results of the similarity measures and human judgments
Step 7: Compare the similarity measures for R&G data set
using the proposed IC and proposed similarity existing
similarity measures.
Page 254
[8]
Dekang
Lin.:
An
information-theoretic
definition
of
similarity. In Jude W. Shavlik, editor, ICML, pages 296{304.

Morgan Kaufmann, 1998. ISBN 1-55860-556-8.
[9]
Graeme
Hirst and
David St-Onge: Lexical chains as

detection and correction
representation of context for the
malapropismsIn Christiane Fellbaum, editor, WordNet: An

Electronic Lexical Database. MIT Press, 1998.
[10] Troels Andreasen, Rasmus Knappe, and Henrik Bulskov:
Domain-specifiic similarity and retrieval. In Yingming Liu,
GuoqingChen, and Mingsheng Ying, editors, 11th International
FuzzySystems Association World Congress, volume 1, pages
496{502,Beijing,China, 2005. IFSA 2005, Tsinghua University
Press.
[11] Rubinstein and Goodenough,
H. Rubinstein and J. B.
a Goodenough: Contextual correlates of synonymy.
Communications of the ACM, 8(10), 1965.
[12] George A. Miller and W. G. Charles: Contextual correlates of
semantic similarity. Language and Cognitive Processes,
6(1):1{28, 1991.
[13] Dekang Lin: Using syntactic dependency as local context to
resolve word sense ambiguity. In ACL, pages 64{71, 1997.
[14] Roy Rada and Ellen Bicknell: Ranking documents with a
thesaurus.
JASIS, 40(5):304{310,1989.Timothy Finin, and
Yelena Yesha, editors, Proceedings of the 2nd International
Conference on Information and Knowledge Management, pages
67{74,New York, NY, USA, November 1993. ACM Press.
[15] Alexander Budanitsky: University of Toronto Graeme Hirst,
University of Toronto Evaluating WordNet-based Measus Of
Lexical Semantic Relatedness, Association for Computational
Linguistics,2006
[16] Philip Resnik: Using Information Content to Evaluate Semantic
Similarity in a Taxonomy, Sun Microsystems Laboratories, 1995
[17]
Henrik Bulskov Styltsvig: Ontology-based Information

Retrieval Computer Science Section Roskilde University, 1996
[18] A. Budanitsky. Lexical semantic relatedness and its application in

natural language processing, 1999.
[19] A. Budanitsky. Semantic distance in wordnet: An experimental,
application-oriented evaluation of ve measures, 2001.
[20] H. Bulskov: Ontology-based Information Retrieval, PhD Thesis
Andreasen, T., Bulskov, H., & Knappe, R. (2006).
[21] N. Seco, T. Veale, J. Hayes: An intrinsic information content
metric for semantic similarity in WordNet, in : Proceedings of
ECAI, 2004, pp. 10891090.
[22] Giuseppe Pirr: A semantic similarity metric combining features
and intrinsic information content, Data & Knowledge Engineering
68(2009) 12891308 2009.
Page 255
Fault Prediction Using Conceptual Cohesion in

Object Oriented System
V.Lakshmi#1,P.V.Eswaripriya*2 ,C.Kiruthika*3 and M.Shanmugapriya*4
#1
Faculty of Kamaraj College of Engg and Technology, Virudhunagar, Tamilnadu.

1
*2
vlak29@gmail.com
. Final Year CSE,Kamaraj College of Engg and Technology, Virudhunagar Tamilnadu.

2
*3
pveswaripriya@gmail.com
. Final Year CSE,Kamaraj College of Engg and Technology, Virudhunagar Tamilnadu

*4
. Final Year CSE,Kamaraj College of Engg and Technology, Virudhunagar Tamilnadu
Abstract-High cohesion is desirable property in software
systems to achieve reusability and maintainability. In this
project we are measures for cohesion in Object-Oriented
(OO) software reflect particular interpretations of cohesion
and capture different aspects of it. In existing approaches the
cohesion is calculate from the structural information for
example method attributes and references. In conceptual
cohesion of classes, i.e. in our project we are calculating the
unstructured information from the source code such as
comments and identifiers. Unstructured information is
embedded in the source code. To retrieve the unstructured
information from the source code Latent Semantic Indexing is
used. A large case study on three open source software
systems is presented which compares the new measure with
an extensive set of existing metrics and uses them to construct
models that predict software faults. In our project we are
achieving the high cohesion and we are predicting the fault in
Object Oriented Systems.
Keywords- Software cohesion, textual coherence,
prediction, fault proneness,, Latent Semantic indexing.
fault
I.INTRODUCTION
Software modularization, Object oriented decomposition is
an approach for improving the organization and
comprehension of source code. In order to understand OO
software, software engineers need to create a well
connected representation of the classes that make up the
system. Each class must be understood individually and,
then, relationships among classes as well. One of the goals
of the OO analysis and design is to create a system where
classes have high cohesion and there is low coupling
among them. These class properties facilitate
comprehension, testing, reusability, maintainability, etc.
A.Software Cohesion
Software cohesion can be defined as a measure of
the degree to which elements of a module belong together.
Cohesion is also regarded from a conceptual point of view.
In this view, a cohesive module is a crisp abstraction of a
concept or feature from the problem domain, usually
described in the requirements or specifications. Such
definitions, although very intuitive, are quite vague and

make cohesion measurement a difficult task, leaving too
much room for interpretation. In OO software systems,
cohesion is usually measured at the class level and many
different OO cohesion metrics have been proposed which
try capturing different aspects of cohesion or reflect a
particular interpretation of cohesion.
Proposals of measures and metrics for cohesion
abound in the literature as software cohesion metrics
proved to be useful in different tasks, including the
assessment of design quality, productivity, design, and
reuse effort, prediction of software quality, fault prediction
modularization of software and identification of reusable of
components.
B.Approaches for Cohesion
Most approaches to cohesion measurement have
automation as one of their goals as it is impractical to
manually measure the cohesion of classes in large systems.
The tradeoff is that such measures deal with information
that can be automatically extracted from software and
analyzed by automated tools and ignore less structured but
rich information from the software (for example, textual
information). Cohesion is usually measured on structural
information extracted solely from the source code (for
example, attribute references in methods and method calls)
that captures the degree to which the elements of a class
belong together from a structural point of view. These
measures give information about the way a class is built
and how its instances work together to address the goals of
their design. The principle behind this class of metrics is to
measure the coupling between the methods of a class.
Thus, they give no clues as to whether the class is cohesive
from a conceptual point of view (for example, whether a
class implements one or more domain concepts) nor do
they give an indication about the readability and
comprehensibility of the source code. Although other types
of metrics were proposed by researchers to capture
Page 256
different aspects of cohesion, only a few metrics address

the conceptual and textual aspects of cohesion.
We propose a new measure for class cohesion, named the
Conceptual Cohesion of Classes (C3), which captures the
conceptual aspects of class cohesion, as it measures how
strongly the methods of a class relate to each other
conceptually. The conceptual relation between methods is
based on the principle of textual coherence. We interpret
the implementation of methods as elements of discourse.
There are many aspects of a discourse that contribute to
coherence, including co reference, causal relationships,
connectives, and signals. The source code is far from a
natural language and many aspects of natural language
discourse do not exist in the source code or need to be
redefined. The rules of discourse are also different from the
natural language.
Lack of cohesion implies classes should probably

be split into two or more sub/classes.
Any measure of disparateness of methods helps

identify flaws in the design of classes.
Low cohesion increases complexity, thereby

increasing the likelihood of errors during the development
process.
C3 is based on the analysis of textual information in the

source code, expressed in comments and identifiers. Once
again, this part of the source code, although closer to
natural language, is still different from it. Thus, using
classic natural language processing methods, such as
propositional analysis, is impractical or unfeasible. Hence,
we use an Information Retrieval (IR) technique, namely,
Latent Semantic Indexing (LSI), to extract, represent, and
analyze the textual information from the source code. Our
measure of cohesion can be interpreted as a measure of the
textual coherence of a class within the context of the entire
system.
Cohesion ultimately affects the comprehensibility of source
code. For the source code to be easy to understand, it has to
have a clear implementation logic (that is, design) and it
has to be easy to read (that is, good language use). These
two properties are captured by the structural and conceptual
cohesion metrics, respectively.
III.PROPOSED C3
II.RELATED WORKS
A.STRUCTURAL METRICS
We study the cohesion metric LCOM
B.Henderson-Sellers [2] of object oriented programs. The
LCOM metric is based on the assumption, that if methods
and instance variables of a class are interconnected, then
the class is cohesive. If a method x uses instance variable y,
then x and y are interconnected. Henderson-Sellers defined
the metric LCOM* that is similar to LCOM, but has a fixed
scale. Briand.et al observed that the scale of LCOM* is
from 0 to 2, and gave a refined version of this metric with
scale from 0 to 1. Other similar cohesion metrics are LCC
and TCC, and CBMC. Good surveys of cohesion metrics
have been made by Briand et al and Chae et al .
Cohesiveness of methods within a class is

desirable, since it promotes encapsulation.
B.Formula for Lcom5

lcom=((((1/a)*Mu)-m)/deno);
Mu-count for fields, m-methods length, a-fields
Length, deno=1-m;
lcom51=lcom*lcom;
lcom5=Math.sqrt (lcom51);
LSI [4] is a corpus-based statistical method for inducing

and representing aspects of the meanings of words and
passages (of the natural language) reflective of their usage
in large bodies of text. LSI is based on a
Vector Space Model (VSM) as it generates a real-valued
vector description for documents of text. Results have
shown that LSI captures significant portions of the
meaning not only of individual words but also of whole
passages, such as sentences, paragraphs, and short essays.
The central concept of LSI is that the information about the
contexts in which a particular word appears or does not
appear provides a set of mutual constraints that determines
the similarity of meaning of sets of words to each other.
LSI was originally developed in the context of IR as a way
of overcoming problems with polysemy and synonymy that
occurred with VSM approaches. Some words appear in the
same contexts and an important part of word usage patterns
is blurred by accidental and inessential information. The
method used by LSI to capture the essential semantic
information is dimension reduction, selecting the most
important dimensions from a co-occurrence matrix (words
by context) decomposed using singular value
decomposition (SVD) . As a result, LSI offers a way of
assessing semantic similarity between any two samples of
text in an automatic unsupervised way.
LSI relies on an SVD of a matrix (word _ context) derived
from a corpus of natural text that pertains to knowledge in
the particular domain of interest. According to the
mathematical formulation of LSI, the term
combinations that occur less frequently in the given
document collection tend to be precluded from the LSI
subspace. LSI does noise reduction, as less frequently
co-occurring terms are less mutually related and, therefore,
less sensible. Similarly, the most frequent terms are also
eliminated from the analysis. The formalism behind SVD is
rather complex and too lengthy to be presented here.
Page 257
Once the documents are represented in the LSI subspace,

the user can compute similarity measures between
documents by the cosine between their corresponding
vectors or by their length. These measures can be used for
clustering similar documents together to identify
concepts and topics in the corpus. This type of usage is
typical for text analysis tasks.
This metric provide as an accurate calculation of cohesion

of classes by using c3.Figure 4.2 reveals the measurement
of cohesion using C3.
A.Advantages
1. We can predict the Cohesion.
2. We can predict the particular system is cohesive or not.
B.Formula for C3
For every class C, the conceptual similarity between the
methods mk and mj.
C3=Mk*Mj /[Mk]2*[Mj]2
K=1, 2, 3n; n: up to n comments
j=2, 3..n; n: up to n comments
IV.COMPARISION
Structural metrics are calculated from the source code
such as references and data sharing between methods of a
class belong together for cohesion. It define and measure
relationships among the methods of a class based on the
number of pairs of methods that share instance or class
variables one way or another for cohesion. This metric
bring only approximate value of cohesion .Figure 4.1
reveals the measurement of cohesion using Lcom5 .
Fig.4.1 PROCESS OF LCOM MEASURE
In proposed System unstructural information is retrieved

from the source code like comments and identifiers.
Information is retrieved from the source code using Latent
Semantic Indexing.
FIG 4.2 PROCESS OF C3 MEASURE
. Here the cohesion is calculated for structured information

using LCOM5 method and for unstructured information
using Conceptual Cohesion of Classes .Then the results are
compared and C3 method gives the accurate cohesion
value. With the help of C3 and existing metrics we are
achieving the high cohesion and low coupling
V.CONCLUSION
Classes in object-oriented systems, written in different
Programming languages contain identifiers and comments
which reflect concepts from the domain of the software
system. This information can be used to measure the
cohesion of software. To extract this information for
Cohesion measurement, Latent Semantic Indexing can be
used in a manner similar to measuring the coherence of
natural language texts. This paper defines the conceptual
cohesion of classes, which captures new and
complementary dimensions of cohesion compared to a host
of existing structural metrics. Principal component analysis
of measurement results on three open source software
systems statistically supports this fact. In addition, the
combination of structural and conceptual cohesion metrics
defines better models for the prediction of faults in classes
than combinations of structural metrics alone. Highly
cohesive classes need to have a design that ensures a strong
coupling among its methods and a
coherent internal description.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the management of
Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology,
Virudhunagar, India for granting permission to undertake
this work. Our thanks are due to the Head of the
Department of Computer Science and Engineering of
Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology for
allowing us the use of the laboratories and computing
facilities.
Page 258
VI.REFERENCES
[1] Andrian Marcus, Denys Poshyvanyk, and Rudolf Ferenc,Using
Conceptual of Classes for Fault prediction in object oriented
system.IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SOFTWARE ENGINEERING,
VOL. 34, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 2008.
[2] B. Henderson-Sellers, Software Metrics. Prentice Hall, 1996.
[3] E.B. Allen, T.M. Khoshgoftaar, and Y. Chen, Measuring Coupling
and Cohesion of Software Modules: An Information-Theory Approach,
Proc. Seventh IEEE Intl Software Metrics Symp.,pp.
124-134, Apr. 2001.
[4] A. Marcus, A. De Lucia, J. Huffman Hayes, and D. Poshyvanyk,
Working Session: Information-Retrieval-Based Approaches in Software
Evolution, Proc. 22nd IEEE Intl Conf. Software Maintenance,
pp. 197-199, Sept. 2006.
[5]P.W. Foltz, W. Kintsch, and T.K. Landauer, The Measurement of
Textual Coherence with Latent Semantic Analysis, Discourse Processes,
vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 285-307, 1998.
Page 259
On the Investigations of Design,Implementation,

Performance and Evaluation issues of a Novel BDSIIT Stateless IPv4/IPv6 Translator
1
Hanumanthappa.J.1,Manjaiah.D.H.2,Aravinda.C.V.3
Teacher Fellow, Dos in CS, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore, INDIA.
2
Reader &Chairman, Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri, Mangalore, INDIA.
3
M.Tech. KSOU. Manasagangotri, Mysore, INDIA.
hanums_j@yahoo.com
ylm321@yahoo.co.in
aravinda.cv@gmail.com
Abstract.
Today, the Internet consists of native IPv4 (IPv4-only), native
IPv6 and both IPv4/IPv6 dual networks. Currently both IPv4
and IPv6 existing protocols are considered as incompatible
protocols. Unfortunately IPv4 and IPv6 are incompatible
protocols when both the versions are available and the users of
internet want to connect without any restrictions, a transition
mechanism is required. Since a huge amount of resources have
been invested on current IPv4 based Internet, how to smoothly
transit the Internet from IPv4 to IPv6 is also a great
tremendous and interesting research topic. During the time of
migration from IPv4 to IPv6 networks, a number of transition
mechanisms have been proposed by IETF to ensure smooth,
stepwise and independent changeover. The development of
Internet Protocol Version 6(IPv6), in addition to being a
fundamental step to support growth of Internet is at the base
of the increase IP functionality and Performance. It will enable
the deployment of new applications over the Internet, opening
a broad scope of technological development.BD-SIIT is one of
the transitional technique which is mentioned in the IETF
draft to perform the transition from IPv4/IPv6.We implement
the BD-SIIT transition algorithm. The Stateless Internet
Protocol/Internet Control Messaging Protocol Translation
(SIIT) [RFC2765] is an IPv6 transition mechanism that allows
IPv6-only hosts to talk to IPv4-only hosts. The mechanism
involves a stateless mapping or bidirectional translation
algorithm between IPv4 and IPv6 packet headers as well as
between Internet Control Messaging Protocol version
4(ICMPv4) and ICMPv6 messages. SIIT is a stateless IP/ICMP
translation, which means that the translator is able to process
each conversion individually without any reference to
previously translated packets. Most IP header field
translations are relatively simple however; there is one issue,
namely, how to translate the IP addresses between IPv4 and
IPv6 packets. The NS-2 simulator is used to implement the
BD-SIITmechanism
I.
INTRODUCTION.
1 .Importance of IPv6 based 4G Networks and On-going

work.
The IPv4/IPv6 transition process always occurs in
deploying IPv6 based services crosses the IPv4 Internet.
The IETF Next Generation Transition Working Group
(NGtrans) has proposed many transition mechanisms to
enable the seamless integration of IPv6 facilities into
current networks. It also addresses the performances of
various tunneling transition mechanisms used in different
networks. The effect of these mechanisms on the
performance of end-to-end applications is explored using
metrics such as transmission latency, throughput, CPU
utilization, and packet loss. This synopsis also looks into
usage of Internet protocol version 6(IPv6) in one of the
network architecture defined by Moby Dick research
project. The Moby Dick has more straight forward
approach. It takes Physical and Data link layer transmission
functionalities of different access network as given
exchange all existing all higher-level tasks by fully IPbased mechanisms. The Moby Dick was a three year
European Union (EU) information Society Technologies
(IST) project finished in December 2003.Project name
Moby Dick has derived from the word Mobility and
Differentiated Services in a Future IP Network. The main
aim of the Moby Dick was to study and test IPv6 based and
QoS enabled mobility architecture comprising Universal
Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS), Wireless
Local Area Networks (WLAN), and wired Local Area
networks (LAN) based on Ethernet. The Moby Dick
project presents field evaluation results of an IP-based
architecture for a 4G True-IP network. Moby Dick
demonstrated the seamless integration of three disciplines
like QoS, AAA and IP Mobility over a heterogeneous
network infrastructure focusing on three access
technologies (WLAN, Ethernet, and TD-CDMA).The
Moby dick architecture incorporates Mobile IPv6, Fast
handovers, AAA- control (Authentication, Authorization
and Accounting).The migration from circuit-switched to IP
Page 260
based technologies and the growing role of mobility pave

the way to a next generation Integrated network. The
Importance of IP-based communication has already been
identified in UMTS as well as in EDGE/IMT-2000 which
proves an IP packet service using tunneling mechanisms
but still employing access mechanisms of second
generation networks.4G networks scenarios IP is used to
glue all different link-level technologies, deploying
technology un-aware protocols for mobility or quality of
service (QoS).4G architectures should be able, thus, to
embrace almost any wireless access technology available.
This paper presents the field results obtained in the MobyDick
architecture,
an
IP-based
4th
Generation(4G)architecture
for
heterogeneous
environments covering UMTSlike TD-CDMA wireless
access technology, wireless and Ethernet LANs.This is
one of the first implemented leader approaches to a 4G
network thus a key contribution to this research work. The
MIND (Mobile IP based network developments) project
which was the follow-up of the BRAIN (Broadband radio
access over IP networks) project was focused in mobility
aspects, as well as ad-hoc, self-organizing, and meshed
networks. The LONG project [ ] on IPv6 transition and
deployment issues and Moby dick profited from some of
the outcomes of that project. Nevertheless LONG didnt
aim at deploying a native IPv6 4G system, as Moby Dick
did.
2. The IPv6 Transition.
An IPv6 transition mechanism is a method to connect the
hosts/networks using the same or different IP protocols
under some specific IPv6 transition environment. The
Internet protocol was started in early 1980.In the early
s1990s the Internet was growing some temporary solutions
were offered in order to cover the fast growth in number of
Internet users such as NAT, CIDR.At the Same time IETF
began working to develop a new Internet Protocol namely
IPv6 which was designed to be a Successor to the IPv4
Protocol. The main reason for designing this new Internet
protocol(IPv6) was the need to increase the number of
addresses(address spaces).The IPv6 address was designed
with a 128-bit address scheme instead of 32-bit scheme in
IPv4.So,the number of
possible addresses in IPv6 is
3.4X1038 unique addresses.IPv6 will have enough to
uniquely address every device (example Tele phone, Cell
phone,mp3 player,hosts,routers,bridges etc) on the surface
of earth with full end-to-end connectivity(about 32
addresses per square inch of dry land).In addition IPv6 is
designed
to
support
IPSec,Scalability,Multimedia
transmissions,Security,Routing, Mobility, Real time
applications like audio,video,Cryptography techniques like
encryption and Decryption, Large address space, Better
support for QoS,Stateless and Stateful address
configuration, Enhanced support for Mobile IP and Mobile
computing devices, Increased number of multicast
addresses and improved support for multicast, New
protocol for neighboring node interaction, and New header

format that is designed to keep header overhead to a
minimum etc.Over all IPv6 was carefully thought out
designed and was designed with future applications in
mind. But the question now is whether it is possible for
these two IPv4, IPv6 to work together smoothly and in an
easy way? The answer is yes because the IETF IPng has
proposed several mechanisms to be suitable for both
Internet protocols to coexist. Some of the transition
mechanisms work by encapsulating IPv6 packets in IPv4
packets then transporting them via an IPv4 network
infrastructure and others work by operating dual IPv4/IPv6
stacks on the hosts or edge routers to allow the two
versions of IPv4 and IPv6 to work together. Researchers
designing new transition mechanisms in order to develop a
proper mechanism, to be used in the transition from IPv4
from IPv6 and vice versa which overcomes some of the
shortcomings that may appear in some proposed
mechanisms. Some of the transition mechanisms work by
encapsulating IPv6 packets in IPv4 packets then
transporting them via an IPv4 network infrastructure and
others work by operating dual IPv4/IPv6 stacks on the
hosts or edge routers to allow the two versions of IPv4 and
IPv6 to work together. Researchers designing new
transition mechanisms in order to develop a proper
mechanism, to be used in the transition from IPv4 from
IPv6 and vice versa which overcomes some of the
shortcomings that may appear in some proposed
mechanisms.
III. Related Work.
3.1. How the BD-SIIT (Bidirectional Stateless Internet
Protocol/Internet control messaging Protocol Translation
(SIIT) works.
In this paper we proposed a new transition algorithm
called BD-SIIT.This is also a new type of transition
mechanism. As we Know that SIIT(Stateless Internet
Protocol/Internet
control
messaging
Protocol
Translation(SIIT) is an IPv6 transition mechanism that
allows IPv6 only hosts to talk to IPv4 only hosts. This
mechanism contains a Stateless mapping or a
bidirectional
mapping
(bidirectional
translation
algorithm) between IPv4,IPv6 packet headers as well as
ICMPV6 and ICMPv4.Our new proposed BD-SIIT(new
transition system) depends on the understanding of the
received datagram, capturing the header, Identifying the
header, Verification of the header, Transformation of the
datagram to the destination environment, and then
transmitting the datagram to the destination
address.In,fact the proposed system deals with a Bidirectional operation that leads to convert the received
datagram to the destination environment, depending on
the address mapping ID value generated by DNS46 in
order to be used in our proposed transition system
between IPv4 and IPv6 protocols [29] [30] [31].BD-SIIT
Page 261
requires the assignment of an IPv4 address to the IPv6only host, and this IPv4 address is used by the host in
forming a special IPv6 address that includes this IPv4
address. The mechanism which is intended to preserve
IPv4 address rather than permanently assigning IPv4
addresses to the IPv6 only-hosts. The method of
assignment is one of the scope of BD-SIIT and also RFC

2765 also suggests that DHCP is basis for the
Temporary IPv4 address assignment
Fig.1: BD-SIIT Translation process
The BD-SIIT has been proposed and designed in order to

support the Bi-Directional communication sessions to be
initiated by an IPv6 node which is located in the native IPv6
network and vice versa. The BD-SIIT Translation algorithm
consists of the following two steps.
1. The First component explains V4-V6 Domain name System
(DNS46) server that identifies the two public IPv4 and IPv6
addresses statistically or dynamically for each IPv4/IPv6
communicating system.
Stage-1: IPv6 Packet Transmission.

Stage-2:IPv6-to-IPv4 mapping calculation and Address
mapping.
Stage-3:IPv6-in-IPv4 Header Translation
Stage-4:IPv4
Packet
Transmission.
2. The Second component explain the V4-V6 enabled gateway
does the address mapping between an IPv4 and an IPv6
addresses as Well as header conversion between IPv4 and
IPv6 packet headers
3.2. BD-SIIT Data Transmission from Source to Destination

(end to end) Process:-
Fig.3: Data Packet Transmission from Source to Destination (End-toEnd).

Fig.2: Translation of IPv6 header to IPv4 header.
The Data Packet transmission process for BD-SIIT is clearly

defined in Fig.3.The BD-SIIT Translation mainly occurs due to
the following four stages 1, 2, 3, and 4.
3.2. An Architecture of BD-SIIT.

As mentioned in Fig.1.the BD-SIIT architecture consists of
the DNS46(IPv4-IPv6 DNS),the IPv4-IPv6 enabled router, the
IPv4 hostnames which are located in the IPv4 zone only, and
the IPv6 host names which are located in the IPv6 zone only.
Page 262
The BD-SIIT translation process can perform by using two

techniques like (1) directly with in the end system. (2)Within a
Network-based device.
Fig.4: Network based BD-SIIT Translation process.
As shown in Fig.4.the BD-SIIT the upper layer protocols like

TCP and UDP in transport layer can be passed through the
translator relatively unscathed. For ex:-The BD-SIIT
translation has been designed such that that TCP and UDP
pseudo header checks sums is not affected by the translation
process. While using BD-SIIT translation can cause some
problems with various applications like FTP and embedded
IP address in higher layer protocols and it requires the
necessity of addition application specific application layer
gateways in the translation process [29].
3.3. Working Procedure of BD-SIIT Transition.
As we know that BD-SIIT is a stateless IP/ICMP translation.
The BD-SIIT translator is able to process each conversion
individually, without any reference to previously translated
packets. Although most of the IP header field translations are
relatively very simple to handle, however one of the issue
0
79
80-Zero bits
Sl.No
1
2
3
80
related with BD-SIIT translator is how to map the IP

addresses between IPv4 and IPv6 packets.
A. The role of IPv6 mapped address in BD-SIIT Translator.
BD-SIIT resides on an IPv6 host and converts an outgoing
IPv6 headers into IPv4 headers, and incoming IPv4 headers
into IPv6.To perform this operation the IPv6 host must be
assigned an IPv4 address either configured on the host, or
obtained via a network service left unspecified in RFC
2765.When the IPv6 hosts wants to communicate with an
IPv4 host, based on DNS resolution to an IPv4 address, the
BD-SIIT algorithm recognizes IPv6 address as an IPv4
mapped-address as shown in Fig.3.The one of the mechanism
to translate the resolved IPv4 address into an IPv4 mapped
address is provided by Bump-in-the stack(BIS)or Bump-inthe API(BIA) techniques[30].
95
FFFF(16 bits)
96
127
32 bits(IPv4 Address)
Fig.5:IPv4-mapped-IPv6 address.
Table.1: Address mapping IPv6/IPv4.
IPv6 Address
IPv4 Address
Address mapping value
ABC2::4321
195.18.231.17
1
ABC2::4321
195.18.231.17
2
ABC2::4321
223.15.1.3
37
1
2`
Table.2:DNS46 Corresponding to IPv4 and IPv6.

Address
IPv4 Address IPv6 Address DNS
mapping value
212.17.1.5
---B
4
223.15.1.3.
1C::DACF
Y
37
Sl.No
Table.3: Address mapping IPv4/IPv6.

IPv4 Address
IPv6 Address Address mapping value
Sl.No
195.18.231.17
210.154.76.91
223.15.1.3.
ABC2::4321
ABC2::4321
ABC2::4321
3.4. The BD-SIIT A Novel Transition Address-mapping

algorithm for the forward operation.
1
2
37
Based on the presence of IPv4-mapped-IPv6 address as the

destination IP address the BD-SIIT algorithm performs the
header translation as described in Algorithm-1 and
Page 263
Algorithm-2 to obtain an IPv4 packet for transmission via

data link and Physical layers. The Fig.4.shows the Protocol
.
stack
view
of
BD-SIIT
Fig.5: Protocol Stack view of BD-SIIT.
The following steps show the forward operation during the

migration from IPv4/IPv6.
Algorithm-1:-IPv4->IPv6: Forward operation.
1. When Host X belongs to X-zone initiates a request
(Query message) to DNS46 in order to get the IP-address
of Host Y which belongs to IPv6 zone.
2. When DNS46 receives a query message as a request
then its checks its (Table-2) to identify whether Host Y has
an IPv6 address which is unknown for the Host X.The
DNS46 knows that the whole IPv6 zone has a public IPv4
address (like NAT method) i.e. 195.18.231.17 address in
the destination address field of IPv4 header then forwards
it via a network.
3. Simultaneously, the DNS46 sends another message to
V4-V6 enabled router in order to update table-3.
4. When the Host X receives requested address of Host Y,
immediately creates the IPv4 packet, inserting
195.18.231.17 address in the destination address field of
IPv4 header then forwards it via network.
5. When the IPv4 packet is arrived to V4-V6 enabled
router, then the router identifies a packet and verifies that a
destination
Address is a public address with mapping value 2 that
indeed refers ABC2::4321 IPv6 address (as shown in table3).Then the
V3-V4 enabled router which updates Table-1 then creates
its new IPv6 packet which is based on IPv4 packet, and
forwards it to
Its destination in IPv6 Zone.
6. When Host Y accepts the packet then it starts to process
it successfully without getting any problem.
Algorithm-2:-IPv6->IPv4: Feedback operation.
The following steps show the feedback operation from
IPv6-IPv4 zone one which is illustrated in Figs.1. And 5.
[Note:-Consider Host X as a Client and Host Y as a

Server. If the Client A sent a HTTP get command to
retrieve a web page from the server Y.].[As shown in
Fig.7.steps 1- 6.
1. As a response for the received command from a client X,
server Y creates packet(s) then forwards them via a
network to the client X using the public IPv6 zone
address(ABC2::4321) as a destination address.
2. When V4-V6 enabled router receives a packet which has
been sent by Server Y, then it verifies its Table-1,Table3,depending on the addressing mapping value like 37 in
our scenario, it refers to 220.12.145.10 as a Sender address
in Table-2 and 223.15.1.3 as a destination address in
Table-2 instead of instead of 1C:: DACF and ABC2::4321
IPv6 rely.
3. After that, the V4-V6 enabled router creates a new IPv4
packet, based on the accepted IPv6 packet then forwards it
to the destination (Client X).
4. When the Client X receives the IPv4 packet, its starts to
process successfully without any problem.
Algorithm-3:-BD-SIIT Algorithm of IPv4 header
Conversion to IPv6 header conversion.
1. When BD-SIIT allows IPv6 hosts which do not contain
permanently, assigned IPv4 address
2. When the IPv6 host tries to communicate with IPv4 host
3. Then BD-SIIT handles the IP address translation between
IPv4 and IPv6.
4. If IPv6 address type=0: FFFF: v4 {print IP address as
an IPv4-mapped-IPv6 address. It is mainly used to
mapping IPv4 host addresses to IPv6 addresses.}
5. If the IPv6 address type=0: FFFF: 0:v4 {Print IP address
as an IPv4 translated (compatible) address.}
Page 264
Fig.6: BD-SIIT, IP Forward address translation, IPv6 to IPv4.
The Fig.6.shows the IP address translation process IPv6 to

IPv4 with IPv4-mapped-IPv6 address and an IPv4
translated (compatible) address. The IPv6 host has obtained
a temporary address-v4temp-for use in communicating
with the IPv4 host. The Fig.6.very briefly illustrates the
operation of IP address translation in going from the IPv6
host, using an IPv4 translated address to the IPv4 host. The
translation of the remaining field is straight forward with a
couple of exceptions. If there is no IPv6 fragment header,
the IPv4 header fields are set as follows [31] [32].
Algorithm-4:-BD-SIIT.Algorithm for the Forward Header
conversion IPv6->IPv4.
If version=4 {proceed to set Internet Header Length=5,}
Else if {proceed to set type of service and precedence= by
default copied from the IPv6 header traffic class field},
Else if {proceed to set total length=pay load length value

from IPv6 header+IPv4 header length.},
Else if {proceed to set Identification=0},
Else if {proceed to set Flags=the more fragments flag is
set=0}
Else if {proceed to set Dont Fragment flag=1},
Else if {proceed to set Fragment offset=0},
Else if {proceed to set TTL=Hop limit value copied from
IPv6 header - 1.},
Else if {proceed to set Protocol=next header field copied
from IPv6 header},
Else if {proceed to set Header Checksum=Compute once
IPv4 header has been created.
Else if Source IP address=low order 32 bits of IPv6 Source
address field (IPv4 translated address field)
Else Destination IP address=Low order 32 bits of IPv6
Destination address field (IPv4 mapped address field)}
Fig.7: BD-SIIT, IP Reverse address translation, IPv6IPv4.
Algorithm-5: BD-SIIT.Algorithm for the Reverse Header

conversion IPv4->IPv6.
If version=6{proceed to set version=6}
Else if {proceed to set Traffic Class= IPv4 header ToS bits},
Else if {proceed to set Flow label=0},
Else if {proceed to set Pay Load Length=IPv4 header Total
length value-(IPv4 header length+IPv4 options}, Else if
{proceed to set next header =IPv4 header protocol field

value}
Else if {proceed to set hop limit=IPv4 TTL field value-1},
Else if {proceed to set Fragment offset=0},
Else if {proceed to set source address =0:0:0:0: FFFF:
/80.Concatenated with IPv4 header source IP address},
Destination IP address=0:0:0:0:0: FFFF: /96 concatenated
with IPv4 header destination address.}[31][32]
Page 265
Fig.8: BD-SIIT hosts connection IPv6-IPv4 operation using TCP Protocol.
IV. Implementation & Performance Metrics.

We implemented our proposed BD-SIIT translation system
and tested it by varying the number of packets sent as well
as the transmission rate for each communication system.
We have tested comparison between EED(end-enddelay)of
IPv4-IPV4 and IPv6-IPv6 communication
session, A Comparison between the throughput(v4-to-v4 ,
and
v6-to-v6) communication sessions, Round trip
time(RTT) for each data packet of varying sizes, DNS
response time, the total transmission time with TCP and
UDP Protocols.
In this paper we are mainly measured two important
metrics like throughput and Endto End delay for BD-SIIT.
Throughput: We calculated the throughput performance
metric in order to identify the rate of received and
processed data at the intermediate device (router or
gateway)during the simulation period. The mean
throughput for a sequence of packets of specific size is
calculated by using equations 1 and 2.
--------(1)
Where Thrj=
------------ (2)
Where Thrj is the value of the throughput when the packet j

is received at intermediate device like DSTM gateway, BDSIIT Gateway, v4/v6 Router and N is the number of received
packets at intermediate device, Pr is the no of packets. At
intermediate device and Pg is the number of packets created
by source host.
2. End-to-End Delay (EED)
As we know that to calculate the performance evaluation of
various novel transition mechanisms EED plays an important
role. The mean EED for a sequence of packets of specific size
is calculated as follows.
-------(3)
Where as EEDk=Tdk-Tsk-----(4)
Where EEDk is the End-to-End delay of packet k, Tsk is the

generated time of packet k at source workstation and Tdk is
the received time of the packet k at the destination
workstation, Nr is the total number of received packets at the
destination workstation and Mean EED.
4.1. Simulation Results and Discussions.
The following table (Table-1)shows the simulation
parameters, which are used to calculate the performance
measurements using ns-2 simulation environment when each
packet arrival follows a Poisson process with rate =2
.Table-4: Simulation parameters.

Sl.No
1
2
3
4
5
Simulation parameters.
Buffer Size
Propagation delay
Payload Size
Very traffic Loads
Queue Management Scheme
Scenario-1The simulation results for scenario one present in

the EED and throughput result when a direct link connection
between either IPv4 workstations in IPv4 only network or IPv6
Value
500 Packets.
10ms
200 Bytes
6~240 Nodes.
Drop tail
workstations in IPv6 network is conducted through IPv4/IPv6

router. The results are illustrated in Fig.9.andFig.10.
Page 266
Fig.9: The comparison between EED of v4-to-v4 and v6-to-v6 communication sessions.
source and destination hosts compared with the IPv4 that

allows these processes to be performed by all the
Intermediate devices, which fall between the source and
destination hosts. The Fig.9.also shows that the difference
between the v4-to-v4 EED and v6-to-v6 EED results is
very small and the differences increases when the number
of connected workstations increases as well. The v6-to-v6
EED is suddenly increases because of network congestion
and when the number of connected nodes becomes more
i.e. greater than 200.On the other hand the following
Fig.10. Shows a Comparison between the v4-to-v4 and v6to-v6
throughput
results.
From Fig.9.the simulation results shows that the v4-tov4

EED is definitely less than v6-to-v6 EED.In fact there may
be so many reasons which explains why this happens. The
first reason is the difference between IPv6 header (40
Bytes) and the IPv4 header (20 Bytes) and it causes more
traffic overhead especially when the IP packet payload is
small. The Second reason is the size of IP packet payload is
fixed, in all communication sessions, this means no
fragmentation process is needed, which leads to reduce the
benefit from the IPv6 feature that allows the fragmentation
and defragmentation processes to be performed by only
Fig.10: A Comparison between the throughput (v4-to-v4, and v6-to-v6)

communication sessions.
VI. References.
4.2. DNS Response Time:The DNS Response Time (DNSRT) metric shows that the
time needed to calculate, the communication session
between the two end systems which are located the two
heterogeneous networks.
The DNS Response time can be calculated by using the
equation (1)
Where Transtime = Transmission time of a Packet is the link

number between the two nodes, and Proctime = Processing
time, j is the node number and M is the total number of
nodes.
V. Conclusions.
In this paper we have proposed our novel BD-SIIT
Transition mechanism. The Simulation results shows the
impact of the translation process, that contains performing
of address mapping as well as the header translation process
which are needed for each incoming and outgoing packet to
and from the BD-SIIT translator. The BD-SIIT novel
transition concentrated on identifying, determining,
5.
translating and forwarding packets between the two different
network environments (IPv6 and IPv4 zones).Our proposed
new BD-SIIT reduces the size of packet compared with the
6.
encapsulation method in the tunneling algorithm.
1. Hanumanthappa.J.,Manjaiah.D.H.,IPv6 and IPv4 Threat reviews with

Automatic Tunneling and Configuration Tunneling Considerations
Transitional Model: A Case Study for University of Mysore Network,
International
Journal
of
Computer
Science
and
Information(IJCSIS)Vol.3.,No.1,July-2009,ISSN 1947-5500,Paper ID:
12060915]
of
IPv4
Network
2. Hanumanthappa.J.,Manjaiah.D.H.,Transition
Applications to IPv6 Applications[TIPv4 to TIPv6],Proceedings of IEEE
International Conference on emerging trends in computing(ICETiC2009),Virudhunagar,Tamilnadu 8-10,January 2009,INDIA.[Paper ID 234].
3. Hanumanthappa.J. Manjaiah.D.H., Tippeswamy.K. An Overview of

Study on Smooth Porting Process
Scenario during IPv6 Transition
[TIPv6] , Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on the IEEE
International Advance Computing Conference IACC-2009 on March 5-8 at
Patiala, Punjab [Paper ID IEEE-APPL-1278]
1)
4. Hanumanthappa.J.,Manjaiah.D.H.,A Study on Comparison and
Contrast between IPv6 and IPv4 Feature Sets Proceedings of
International Conference on Computer Networks and Security(ICCNS2008),Pune,Sept 27-28th,2008,[Paper code CP 15].
5.RaEd AlJaafreh, John Mellor, Mumtaz Kamala,A Novel
IPv4/IPv6 transition mechanism which support transparent
connections.
6.Behrouz A.Forouzan,Third Edition,TCP/IP Protocol Suite .Atul
Kahate,Cryptography
and
Network.Security,Tata McGraw-
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top-down
approach
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7.Moby dick project: Mobility and Differentiated services in a future
IP network: Final project report, 4.4.2004.
7. J.Wiljakka(ed.,)Analysis on IPv6 transition in 3GPP
networks,draft-ietf-v6ops-3gpp-analysis- 04.txt,Internet
draft,
work in progress
8. MIND:Mobile IP based network developments, IST Project,
http://www.mind-project.org. [20].NOMAD: Integrated networks
for Seamless and Transparent service Discovery, IST Project,
http://www.ist-moby Dick.org.
9. Moby Dick: Mobility and Differentiated services in a future IP
Network, IST Project, www.ist.mobydick.org.
10. John.J.Amoss and Daniel Minoli, Handbook of IPv4 to IPv6 Transition:
methodologies for institutional and Corporate Networks. Auerbach
Publications.
11. S.G.Glisic Advanced Wireless Communications, 4G Technology. John
Wiley Chichester,2004.
12. Juha wiljakka ,Jonne Soninnen,Managing IPv4 to IPv6 Transition
Process in Cellular Networks and Introducing new Peer-to-Peer
Services.
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mechanism.IEEE,West Lafayette,USA,v(1):10911098
Transition
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and Routers. OMNeT++Discrete Event Simulation.
15. L. Toutain
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20.
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IPv6 transition. Internet draft, <draft-ietf-ngtranns-dti-00.txt>
E.Nordmark, Stateless IP/ICMP translation algorithm (SIIT), RFC
2765, February 2000.
Raed AlJaafreh, John mellor,Mumtaz Kamala,A Novel IPv4/IPv6
transition mechanism which support transparent connections.
TimRooney,IPv4/IPv6Transition
strategies
,Director,
Product
management, BT Diamond IP.John.J.Amos
and Daniel
Minoli,Handbook of IPv4 to IPv6 Transition Methodologies for
Institutional and Corporate Networks
Jivika Govil,Jivesh Govil, Navkeerat Kaur, Harkeerat Kaur, An
examination of IPv4 and IPv6 Networks: constraints, and various
transition mechanisms.
K.K.Ettikan, et al.Application Performance Analysis in Transition
mechanism from IPv4 to IPv6,Multimedia
University(MMU),Jalan
Multimedia,
June
2001.
porject.SHISA,2006,http://www.mobileip.jp/
21. J.Bound,
Mysore-06 and currently pursuing Ph.D in Computer

Science and Engineering, from Mangalore University
under the supervision of Dr.Manjaiah.D.H on entitled
Design and Implementation of IPv6 Transition
Technologies for University of Mysore Network
(6TTUoM). His teaching and Research interests
include Computer Networks,Wireless and Sensor
Networks, Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks, Intrusion
detection
System,
Network
Security
and
Cryptography,Internet Protocols,Mobile and Client
Server Computing,Traffic management,Quality of
Service, RFID,Bluetooth,Unix internals, Linux
internal, Kernel Programming,Object Oriented
Analysis and Design etc.His most recent research
focus is in the areas of Internet Protocols and their
applications.He received his Bachelor of Engineering
Degree in Computer Science and Engineering from
University
B.D.T
College
of
Engineering,Davanagere,Karnataka(S),India(C),Kuve
mpu University,Shimoga in the year 1998 and Master
of Technology in CS&Engineering from NITK
Surathkal,Karnataka(S ),India (C) in the year 2003.He
has been associated as a faculty of the Department of
Studies in Computer Science since 2004.He has
worked as lecturer at SIR.M.V.I.T,Y.D.I.T,S.V.I.T,of
Bangalore. He has guided about 250 Project thesis for
BE,B.Tech,M.Tech,MCA,MSc/MS.He has Published
about 15 technical articles in International ,and
National Peer reviewed conferences. He is a Life
member of CSI, ISTE,AMIE,IAENG,Embedded
networking group of TIFACCORE in Network
Engineering,ACM,Computer
Science
Teachers
Association(CSTA),ISOC,IANA,IETF,IAB,IRTG,etc.
He is also a BOE Member of all the Universities of
Karnataka,INDIA.He has also visited Republic of
China as a Visiting Faculty of HUANG HUAI
University of ZHUMADIAN,Central China, to teach
Computer Science Subjects like OS and System
Software and Software Engineering,Object Oriented
Programming With C++,Multimedia Computing for
B.Tech Students. in the year 2008.He has also visited
Thailand and Hong Kong as a Tourist.
Dual Stack Transition mechanism,draft-bound-dstm-exp-
1.txt,april,2004,http://www.dstm.info.
Mr.Hanumanthappa. J. is Lecturer at the

DoS in CS,University of Mysore, Manasagangothri,
Dr.Manjaiah.D.H D.H. is currently

Reader and Chairman of BoS in both
UG/PG in the Computer Science at
Dept.of Computer Science,Mangalore University, and
Mangalore.He is also the BoE Member of all Universities
of Karnataka and other reputed universities in India.He
received Ph.D degree from University of Mangalore,
Page 268
M.Tech. from NITK,Surathkal and B.E.,from Mysore

University.Dr.Manjaiah.D.H D.H has an extensive
academic,Industry and Research experience.He has
worked
at
many
technical
bodies
like
IAENG,WASET,ISOC,CSI,ISTE,and ACS. He has
authored more than -25 research papers in international
conferences and reputed journals. He is the recipient of
the several talks for his area of interest in many public
occasions. He is an expert committee member of an
AICTE and various technical bodies. He had written
Kannada text book,with an entitled, COMPUTER
PARICHAYA ,for the benefits of all teaching and
Students Community of Karnataka.Dr.Manjaiah D.Hs
areas interest are Computer Networking & Sensor
Networks, Mobile Communication, Operations Research,
E-commerce, Internet Technology and Web Programming
Aravinda.C.V.,currently
pursuing
M.Tech(I.T) K.S.O.U., Manasagangotri,
Mysore-06.He received M.Sc ., M.Phil in
Computer Science.He has worked as a
Lecturer in the following institutions.
1.CIST, Manasagangotri,Mysore,
2.Vidya Vikas Institute of Engg and Technology,Mysore.
3.Govt First Grade college,Srirangapatna and Kollegal.
He has published two papers in National Conference
hosted by NITK,Surathkal,Mangalore.
Page 269
The Role of IPv6 over Fiber (FIPv6): Issues,

Challenges and its Impact on Hardware and Software
1
Hanumanthappa.J.1, Manjaiah.D.H.2, Aravinda.C.V.3

Teacher Fellow, Dos in CS, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore, INDIA.
2
Reader & Chairman, Mangalore University, Mangalagangotri, Mangalore, INDIA.
3
M.Tech. KSOU. Manasagangotri, Mysore, INDIA.
hanums_j@yahoo.com
ylm321@yahoo.co.in
aravinda.cv@gmail.com
Abstract
The Internet protocol was started in early 1980.In the
earlys1990s the Internet was growing some temporary
solutions were offered in order to cover the fast growth in
number of Internet users such as Network address
translation (NAT), CIDR (Classless Inter domain Routing).At
the Same time IETF began working to develop a new Internet
Protocol namely IPv6 which was designed to be a Successor to
the IPv4 Protocol. This paper proposes the new concept of
error handling at network layer (layer-3) instead of data link
layer (layer-2) in ISO/OSI reference model by adopting new
capabilities and by using IPv6 over Fiber. This paper also
shows how to reduce the over head In terms of header
processing at data link layer by eliminating cyclic redundancy
check (CRC) field by using IPv6 over Fiber. Therefore we can
also prove that ISO/OSI model contains 6 layers instead of 7
layers.
Key words: IPv4, IPv6, CRC, Ethernet, FCS.
I.
Introduction to IPv6
In the last 20 years, the internet undertook a huge and

unexpected explosion of growth [].There was an effort to
develop a protocol that can solve problems in the current
Internet protocol which is in the current internet protocol
which is in Internet protocol version 4(IPv4).It was soon
realized that the current internet protocol the IPv4, would
be inadequate to handle the internets continued growth.
The internet Engineering task force (IETF) was started to
develop a new protocol in 1990s and it was launched IPng
in 1993 which is stand for Internet protocol Next
Generation. So a new generation of the Internet Protocol
(IPv6) was developed [7], allowing for millions of more IP
addresses. The person in charge of IPng area of the IETF
recommended the idea of IPv6 in 1994 at Toronto
IETF[1].But mainly due to the scarcity of unallocated IPv4
address the IPv4 protocol cannot satisfy all the
requirements of the always expanding Internet because
however its 32 bit address space being rapidly exhausted[2]

alternative solutions are again needed[3].It is reported that
the unallocated IPv4 allocated IPv4 addresses will be used
with 6 to 7 years short period[2].The Long term solution is
a transition to IPv6[5]which is designed to be an
evolutionary step from IPv4 where the most transport and
application layer protocol need little or no modification to
the work. The deployment of NAT [3] can alleviate this
problem to some extent but it breaks end to end
characteristic of the Internet, and it cannot resolve the
problems like depletion (exhaustion) of IPv4 addresses.
1.1. Features of IPv6.
The main reason for designing this new Internet
protocol(IPv6) was the need to increase the number of
addresses(address spaces).The IPv6 address was designed
with a 128-bit address scheme instead of 32-bit scheme in
IPv4.So,the number of
possible addresses in IPv6 is
3.4X1038 unique addresses.IPv6 will have enough to
uniquely address every device (example Telephone, Cell
phone,mp3 player,hosts,routers,bridges etc) on the surface
of earth with full end-to-end connectivity(about 32
addresses per square inch of dry land).In addition IPv6 is
designed to support IPSec, Scalability, Multimedia
transmissions, Security, Routing, Mobility, Real time
applications like audio,Video,Cryptography techniques like
encryption and Decryption, Large address space, Better
support for QoS.
1.2. Data Link error handling function.
In this paper performance can be measured in many ways,
including transit time and response time. Transit time is the
amount of time for a message to travel from one device to
another
Page 270
.
Fig.1:An Exchange using the OSI model.
Transit Time (TT) =Time taken from Source to

Destination. [17].Response Time (RT) =Elapsed time
between an inquiry and response [17].Performance is also
evaluated by two networking metrics like throughput and
delay
Fig.2: The Interaction between layers in the ISO/OSI model.
1.3. Layered architecture.

The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers
physical(layer1),Data
link(layer2),Network(layer3),
Transport(layer4), Session(layer5), Presentation(layer6),
Application layer(7), To reduce the design complexity,
computer networks follow a layered architecture[1].Each
layer clearly defines based on the previous layers and has a
set of well defined functions with clear cut boundaries.
Also with layered architecture the implementation details
of each layer is independent of other layers.Fig.2.shows
the layers involved when a message is sent from device A
to device B.As a message travels from A to B it may pass
through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate
nodes usually involved only the first three layers of OSI
model. Each layer defines a family of functions distinct
from those of the other layers. By defining and localizing

functionality in this fashion, the designers created an
architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible. Most
importantly the ISO/OSI model allows complete
interoperability between otherwise incompatible systems.
Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services
of the layer just below it. The processes on each machine
that communicates at a given layer are called peer-to-peer
processes. The passing of the data and network information
down through the layers of the sending device and back up
through the layers of the receiving device is made possible
by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. Layers
1, 2 and 3physical, data link and network are the network
support layers. Layers 5, 6, and 7session, presentation and
application can be thought of as the user support layers.
The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in
software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and
Page 271
software except for the physical layer, which is mostly

hardware. In Fig.1. Which gives an overall view of the OSI
layers, D7 means the data unit at layer 7.The process starts
at layer 7, then moves from layer to layer in descending,
sequential order.At each layer commonly a header or trailer
can be added to the data unit. At each layer the packet is
encapsulated with a header that contains control
information to handle the data received at other side by the
corresponding layer. This paper also states that how take
care of error handling function very efficiently by reducing
the overall packet processing time, and thus improve the
transmission of IPv6 packets. This can be achieved by
utilizing the characteristics or capabilities of the

communication medium used to transfer data, and by
improving the existing error handling mechanisms at the
lower layer. In Data communication and networking and
computer networks the errors are broadly divided into
single bit error and Burst errors. The term single-bit error
means that only 1 bit of a given data unit (such as a byte,
character or packet) from 0 to 1.The Fig.4.shows Burst
error with Length 5.The most important common
approaches to detect the errors are parity check(pc),Cyclic
redundancy check(CRC) and Checksum.[17][19]
Fig.3: Single-bit error.
Fig.4: Burst error of Length 5.
Fig.5: Error Detection methods.
The errors that are detected by either redundancy, parity

check, or cyclic redundancy check, or checksum can be
corrected by with two types of mechanisms called
Automatic repeat request(ARQ),and Forward error
correction(FEC).This paper is organized as follows: We
briefly described Introduction to IPv6 in 4G networks and
its on-going work in Section 1.We described,IPv6
transition in terms of 4G in section-2.Section-3 clearly
specifies related work meant for the translation of
IPv4/IPv6 BD-SIIT a novel transition algorithms. Finally
we concluded the whole paper in section 4.
III. The ISO/OSI Packet Transmission.

The ISO/OSI and TCP/IP are the two most important
popular network architectures that have been widely used.
The ISO/OSI reference model has remained as a popular
model for its simplicity, and clarity of its functions where
the TCP/IP was a more working model that is popularly
used over the Internet. The Fig.6.shows the Transport layer
communication process. The data from the user on the
sender side, passes through a series of layers before it is
transmitted over the internet to reach the other
machine(recipient side) .On the receiver side data received
Page 272
by the Physical layer goes up to the application layer, by

neglecting the header in each layer. It can be observed from
the Fig.6.the original length of the data remains same, but

the length of the header increases with each layer.
Fig.6: The Transport layer communication process.
3.1. IPv6 Packet format
.
Fig.7: The IPv6 Packet format.
The IPv6 packet consists of IPv6 base header, extension

headers, and upper layer protocol data unit.IPv6 base
header is of fixed size, and is of 40 bytes in length. Payload
length may change due to the presence of extension
headers. The IPv6 packet format can also support for
multiple extension headers and the use of extension header

is optional. The IPv6 based header consists of 8 fields as
shown in the Fig.7.Extension headers are inserted into the
packet only if options are needed. They are processed in
the order in which they are present.
Fig.8: The Ethernet Frame Format.
3.2. Error handling aspects and its issues by using CRC in

Data link layer.
1011000 is a code word and when cyclically left shifted

then 0110001 is also a code word.
CRC is one of the most popular error detection

mechanisms that are currently being used at data link layer.
Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one extra
property. In a cyclic code if a code word is cyclically
shifted then the result is another code word. For ex if a
3.2.1. Cyclic redundancy check.
CRC is a cyclic code method to correct errors in networks

like LAN and WANs.CRC is a popular method used
simple to implement in binary hardware, and easy to
analyze mathematically and are particularly good at
Page 273
detecting common errors caused by noise in transmission

channels. In our proposed method by removing CRC from
the Ethernet frame format and fix it in the IPv6 packet
format of the extension header at network layer of ISO/OSI

model. The Fig.9.shows the novel IPv6 packet format [17].
IV. Network layer error checking Methodology (FIPv6EH)
Fig.9:IPv6 novel packet format with CEH (CRC Extension header).
3.3. Applications of CRC.

1.Cyclic codes performing very good performance in
detecting single-bit errors, double errors, an odd number of
errors, and burst errors.
2. CRC is easy to implement in hardware and software.
3. CRC is very fast to correct errors when implemented in
hardware.
4. Cyclic code has made a good candidate for many
networks [17].
In this, paper we considered to place error detection in the

network layer to check IPv6 whole packet including header
and payload. The error detection (check) method used will
be same as CRC method that is currently being used with
the existing systems. The CRC extension header (CRCEC)
is a new IPv6 extension header to handle error detection for
the entire IPv6 packet shown in Fig.9.
Simulation Scenario-1: The first simulation states that
when sender generates an IPv6 packet, and the
corresponding FIPv6EC (CRCEC) code to be inserted to
the IPv6 packet format as CRCEC.The packet with
CRCEH is sent through a network with a topology as
mentioned in Fig.10.The routers are mainly used to connect
sender host and a recipient host will not verify the FIPv6H
(CRCEH) instead it will identify the next route of the
packet. When the receiver upon receiving the packet will
verify the CRCEH (FIPv6EH) in its network layer to check
whether the packet is error free, and then deliver to the
upper layers. If suppose the received packet contains an
error it will be discarded and wait for retransmission [21].
Fig.10: Novel FIPv6EH Error detection model in Network Layer.
Simulation-2: Second simulation also covers error control

in data link layer, the sender generates the IPv6 packet
without, any extension header inside. It is embedded in
data link layer with header and trailer. The FCS in the
trailer is actually CRC-32 code generated from the whole
frame. The Fig.10.shows when the intermediate node-1
which is also called router-1 receives a packet, and verifies
the CRC code inside, when the verification process
generated no code in the packet then only the packet is
processed to next router-2 of a network layer. Each time
the bad packets are rejected and then the receiving station
will be waiting for the retransmission of a packet. This
process will continue in all the intermediate routers, which
connects the sender with receiver. We have analyzed from

the simulation scenario-1 and scenario-2 there is no error
control in data link layer and it takes place only at the end
workstations, and will not be done at every routers.
V. Performance Evaluation Metrics and Simulation
Parameters.
In this paper we have calculated two performance
evaluation metrics like throughput, end-to-end delay. The
throughput can be calculated as follows. The throughput is
a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network. Although at first glance throughput and
Page 274
bandwidth in bits per second seem the same, but totally

there are different. The bandwidth is a total measurement
of a link; the throughput is an actual measurement of how
fast we can send data. We measured the throughput
performance metric value in order to find out the rate of
received and processed data at the router (intermediate
device) during the time of simulation. The mean
throughput for a sequence of packets of specific size can be
calculated by using the formula
-----(1)
whereas
Thri=Paccept/Pcreated*100%----(2)
Where Thri is the throughput value when the packet i is
accepted at the intermediate device like router. and n is
the total number of packets received packets at the router,
and Prec is the number of received packets at router and Pcrea
The below Table-1 shows the Simulation results that are
mainly used to calculate, the Performance measurements
.
is the number of packets created by the source hosts, and

the mean throughput is the mean value for each
communication.
Latency (Delay):
The latency or delay defines how long the entire message
takes to completely arrive as at the destination from the
time the first bit is sent out from the source. Therefore we
can conclude latency is made up of four important
components: Propagation time, Transmission time,
Queuing time and Processing delay.
Delay=Propagation time (Pt) +Transmission time (Tt)
+Queuing time (Qt) + Processing delay (Pd).
Where Pt=Distance/Propagation speed.
Transmission Time=Message Size/Bandwidth.
Queuing time=Time needed for each Intermediate or n
devices to hold the message before it can be processed
using the NCTUNS5.0 Simulator and emulator.The

Simulation parameters as shown in the Table-1
Table-1: Simulation parameters.

Simulation
Value
Parameters
1.Buffer Size
200 packets
2.Delay
5ms
3.Pay load size
100 Bytes
4.Vary traffic load
6~150 nodes.
5.Queue
mngt
Drop tail
Scheme
V. Challenges, necessity and Impact of IPv6 over Fiber on
Hardware and Software.
5.1. Challenges of IPv6 over Fiber.
1. To minimize the header overheads by handling
efficiently similar or redundant functionalities among
layers.
2. To maximize the performance of data transmission in
terms of packet data rate, throughput, and bandwidth
utilization.
3. To maximize the efficiency of operations for data
transmission.
4.To propose a new new frame work by simplifying the
existing network models like ISO/OSI and TCP/IP model
through possible changes in data link layer and network
layer.
5. By collapsing data link layer and network layer for

similar functions and try to eliminate redundant functions.
6. It is also possible to enhance performance of IPv6 packet
transmission in terms of frame rate, throughput and
bandwidth.
7. To Simplify the ISO/OSI layered architecture by
reducing the size of the data link layer header or removing
it completely [21].
5.2. Necessity of IPv6 over Fiber.
1. Ellimination of MAC addresses.
2. Discard Data Link layer.
3. No framing process.
4. Increase speed transfer.
5. Reduce Worm and Virus outbreak.
6. Efficiency can be increased and Buffering can be
reduced.
Page 275
7. ARP currently being used is not required.

8. Data is encapsulated into many headers.
9.26 bytes of Data Link Layer header for each frame.Max
data size in each frame is 1500 bytes. Some amount of frame
size is allocated for the headers and it is waste of bandwidth
[21].
3. Layer 3 switches will experience faster packet

processing
4. Routing Table will consist of IPv6 Address and smaller
routing table entry.
5. No MAC address to IP mapping is required resulting in
router performing faster and more efficient [21].
5.3. Impact of IPv6 over Fiber on Hardware.
5.4. Impact of IPv6 over Fiber on Dual Stack.
The impact of IPv6 over Fiber can updates some of the

changes in hardware. The following are some of the
changes in IPv6 over Fiber.
1. Only drivers can be re-written for NIC.No changes
required for manufacturing NIC.
2. Layer 2 switches will be obsolete or will have to run
dual stack.
1. Once a new architecture is in its placeman dual stack is

required to process the packets transmitted from both
current architecture as well as new architecture.
2. The initiated protocol will automatically choose the
appropriate stack.
3. This will be an international standard to be used by all
Internet applications especially for real time applications
[21].
Fig.11:IPv6 over Fiber.

VI. Conclusions.
In this paper we have proposed our new concept of error
handling mechanism like FIPv6EH at network layer instead
of at Data link layer with the help of various salient
features of IPv6 protocol and the various characteristics
features of high speed communication networks like Fiber.
This paper not only enhances the error handling issues at
network layer along with that its exploits very briefly
Challenges and Impact of IPv6 over Fiber on Hardware as
well as Software. The proposed FIPv6EH reduces the
overhead by eliminating CRC field from its frame header
and placing it in the extension header in the Network layer
instead of doing header processing at data link layer. The
proposed concept will enhance the performance of packet
transmission. As we know that Data link layer and
Network layer in ISO/OSI model are the two important
lower layers where the IPv6 protocol is in between
neighboring nodes. This paper also states that error
checking at the packet will be more efficient than at frame
level by using advanced technology and todays faster
routers.
References
[1]. Manjaih .D.H. Hanumanthappa.J,2008,A Study on Comparison
and Contrast between IPv4 and IPv6 Feature sets.In Proceedings of
ICCNS08, 2008,Pune,297-302.
[2]. Manjaih.D.H.,Hanumanthappa.J.,2008,Transition of IPv4
Network Applications to IPv6 Applications,In Proceedings of
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001,TamilNadu,INDIA-35-40.
[3]
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NCWNT-09, 2009, Nitte-574 110, Karnataka, INDIA18-22.
[4] Manjaih.D.H.,Hanumanthappa.J.,2009,Economical and Technical
costs for the Transition of IPv4 to-IPv6 Mechanisms [ETCTIPv4 to
ETCTIPv6],In
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NCWNT-09,2009,Nitee574110,Karnataka,INDA-12-17.
[5]. Manjaih.D.H. Hanumanthappa.J. 2009, Smooth porting process
scenario during the IPv6 transition, in
Proceedings of IACC09,
March 6-7, Patiala, Punjab, INDIA.
[6] Manjaiah. D. H. and Hanumanthappa.J. IPv6 over IPv4 QoS metrics in
4GNetworks: Delay, Jitter, Packet Loss Performance, Throughput and
Tunnel Discovery mechanisms. Proceedings of NCOWN-2009, RLJIT,
Doddaballapur, Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA, August-21-22-pp.122-137.
[7] Hanumanthappa. J. And Manjaiah.D.H.A Study on IPv6 in IPv4
Static Tunneling threat issues in 4G Networks using OOAD Class and
Instance Diagrams in Proceedings of the International Conference on
Emerging trends in Computer science and Information
technology(CSCIT-2010)organized by Dept.of.CS and Information
Technology,Yeshwant ahavidyalaya,Nanded,Maharashtra,India,(2010).
[8] Hanumanthappa.J. and Manjaiah.D.H.An IPv4to-IPv6 Threat
reviews with Dual Stack Transition mechanism Considerations a
Transitional threat model in 4G Wireless in Proceedings of the
International Conference on Emerging trends in Computer science and
Information technology (CSCIT-2010)organized by Dept of CS and
Information
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Mahavidyalaya,Nanded,Maharashtra,India,(2010).
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Manjaiah.D.H. and Hanumanthappa.J,IPv6 and IPv4 Threat
review with Automatic Tunneling and Configuration Tunneling
Considerations Transitional Model: A Case Study for University of
Mysore NetworkInternational Journal of Computer Science and
Information Security (IJCSIS), Vol.3, (2009).
[10] S.Deering and R. Hinden Internet Protocol Version 6(IPv6)
Specification, RFC 2460, December 1998.
[11]. J.Postel, INTERNET PROTOCOL, RFC 0791, September 1981.
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[12] S.Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Third Edition, Prentice Hall

Inc., 1996, pp.686, 413-436,437-449.
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[15] Kurose.J. & Ross.K. (2005)Computer Networking: A top-down
approach featuring the Internet.3rd Ed, (Addison Wesley).
[16] S.Hagen:IPv6 essentials, Orielly, July 2002, ISBN-0-5960-01258.
[17]
Behrouz A Forouzan, Fourth edition Data communication and
Networking, pp-7-8.
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S.Shukla and N.W.Bergmann, Single bit error correction
implementation in CRC-16 on FPGA, in proceedings of
The IEEE International conference on Field-Programmable technology,
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J.Davies, Understanding IPv6, Microsoft press, Washington:
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[20] T.Parnell, Building High Speed networks, First edition, Mc-GrawHill, 1999.
[21]
Raja Kumar Murugesan, Dr.Rahmat Budiarto, Prof.Sureswaran
Ramadass, Enhanced performance of IPv6 packet transmission over Fibre.
Mr.Hanumanthappa. J. is Lecturer at
the DoS in CS,University of Mysore,
Manasagangothri, Mysore-06 and currently pursuing
Ph.D in Computer Science and Engineering, from
Mangalore University under the supervision of
Dr.Manjaiah.D.H
on
entitled
Design
and
Implementation of IPv6 Transition Technologies for
University of Mysore Network (6TTUoM). His teaching
and Research interests include Computer Networks,
Wireless and Sensor Networks, Mobile Ad-Hoc
Networks, Intrusion detection System, Network
Security and Cryptography, Internet Protocols, Mobile
and
Client
Server
Computing,Traffic
management,Quality of Service,RFID,Bluetooth,Unix
internals, Linux internal, Kernel Programming,Object
Oriented Analysis and Design etc.His most recent
research focus is in the areas of Internet Protocols and their
applications.He received his Bachelor of Engineering
Degree in Computer Science and Engineering from
University
B.D.T
College
of
Engineering
,Davanagere,Karnataka(S),India(C),Kuvempu
University,Shimoga in the year 1998 and Master of
Technology
in
CS&Engineering
from
NITK
Surathkal,Karnataka(S ),India (C) in the year 2003.He has
been associated as a faculty of the Department of Studies in
Computer Science since 2004.He has worked as lecturer at
SIR.M.V.I.T,Y.D.I.T,S.V.I.T,of Bangalore. He has guided
about
250
Project
thesis
for
BE,B.Tech,M.Tech,MCA,MSc/MS.He has Published
about 15 technical articles in International ,and National
Peer reviewed conferences. He is a Life member of CSI,
ISTE,AMIE,IAENG,Embedded networking group of
TIFACCORE
in
Network
Engineering,ACM,Computer
Science
Teachers
Association(CSTA),ISOC,IANA,IETF,IAB,IRTG,etc.H
e is also a BOE Member of all the Universities of
Karnataka,INDIA.He has also visited Republic of China
as a Visiting Faculty of HUANG HUAI University of
ZHUMADIAN,Central China, to teach Computer
Science Subjects like OS and System Software and
Software Engineering,Object Oriented Programming
With C++,Multimedia Computing for B.Tech Students.
in the year 2008.He has also visited Thailand and Hong
Kong as a Tourist.
Dr.Manjaiah.D.H D.H. is currently Reader and
Chairman of BoS in both UG/PG in the Computer
Science
at
Dept.of
Computer
Science,Mangalore
University,
and
Mangalore.He is also the BoE Member of
all Universities of Karnataka and other
reputed universities in India.He received
Ph.D degree from University of Mangalore, M.Tech.
from
NITK,Surathkal
and
B.E.,from
Mysore
University.Dr.Manjaiah.D.H D.H has an extensive
academic,Industry and Research experience.He has
worked
at
many
technical
bodies
like
IAENG,WASET,ISOC,CSI,ISTE,and ACS. He has
authored more than -25 research papers in international
conferences and reputed journals. He is the recipient of the
several talks for his area of interest in many public
occasions. He is an expert committee member of an
AICTE and various technical bodies. He had written
Kannada text book,with an entitled,COMPUTER
PARICHAYA,for the benefits of all teaching and
Students Community of Karnataka.Dr.Manjaiah D.Hs
Networks,
Mobile
Communication,
Operations
Research, E-commerce, Internet Technology and Web
Programming.
Aravinda.C.V.,currently
pursuing
M.Tech(I.T)
K.S.O.U.,
Manasagangotri, Mysore-06.He received M.Sc ., M.Phil
in Computer Science. He Worked has Lecturer at Various
Institutions :1) CIST University Of Mysore
Manasagangothri Mysore.2) Vidya Vikas Institute Of
Engineering and Techonology Mysore.3) Govt.First
Collge Srirangapatna,Mandya District .4) Govt First
College Kollegal ,Chamrajanagar Distirct. 5) Worked has
Technical Co-ordinator NIIT Gandhi Bazar,Bangalore.
He has published two National Papers hosted by NITK
Surthkal Mangalore, DK.
Page 277
Localized CBIR for Indexing Image Databases

D.Vijayalakshmi 1, P. Vijayalakshmi 2
1,2
Faculty of Kamaraj College of Engg and Technology, Virudhunagar, Tamilnadu, India.

vijikcet@gmail.com,
dviji.kcet@gmail.com,
3
P.Jeyapriya 3
Final B.Tech, IT, Kamaraj College of Engg and Technology, Virudhunagar.
Abstract: At present, research has been focused on image

indexing techniques based on global feature distributions.
However, these global distributions have limited discriminating
power because they are unable to capture local image details.
Localized image retrieval is required when it is preferred to
index image databases based on the similarity metrics. Wavelet
represents images at various resolution levels. A high wavelet
coefficient at a coarse resolution corresponds to a region with
high global variations and vice versa. In this paper, we present
wavelet based localization for indexing image databases
employing color and texture features. The feature vectors thus
computed is unique and has sharp discrimination power in
various image regions. The new system performs better in
terms of computational time and storage requirements as
compared to the global feature approaches. The potential
applications
include automatic image classification, video
retrieval and video data management
Keywords, Wavelet Decomposition, Image indexing, feature
extraction, Matching Criteria, localization.
I. INTRODUCTION
Many picture libraries use keywords as their main form
of retrieval often using indexing schemes developed inhouse, which reflect the special nature of their collections. A
good example of this is the system developed by Images to
index their collection of stock photographs .Users should be
able to explore images in a database or video clips by visual
similarities. Structuring and visualizing digital images are
based on their content similarities. Currently, many content
based image retrieval techniques have been developed to
incorporate higher-level feature extraction capabilities, but a
lot of work remains to be done. Ultimately, feature-extraction
techniques, combined with other techniques are expected to
narrow down the gap between relatively primitive features
extracted from images and high-level semantically-rich
perceptions by humans. Many picture libraries use keywords
as their main form of retrieval often using indexing
schemes developed in-house, which reflect the special nature
of their collections. Index terms are assigned to the whole
image, and the main objects. When discussing the indexing
of images and videos, one needs to distinguish between
systems which are geared to the formal description of the
image and those concerned with subject indexing and
retrieval. The former is comparable to the bibliographical

description of a book. However, there is still no one standard
in use for image description, although much effort is being
expended in this area by a range of organizations such as the
Museum Documentation Association.
Access to a desired image from a repository might thus
involve a search for images depicting specific types of object
or scene, evoking a particular atmosphere, or simply
containing a specific texture or pattern. Potentially, images
have many types of attribute which could be used for
retrieval, including:
the presence of named individuals, locations, or events
(e.g. the Queen greeting a crowd);
subjective emotions one might associate with the image
(e.g. happiness); meta data such as who created the image,
The last decade has seen the appearance of a number of
commercial image data management systems. These systems
normally store representations of pictorial documents (such
as photographs, prints, paintings, drawings, illustrations,
slides, video clips, and so on) in static archival databases, and
incorporate multimedia database management systems in the
storage of, and provision of wider access to, these
repositories. Current image indexing techniques have much
strength. Keyword indexing has high expressive power it
can be used to describe almost any aspect of image content. It
is in principle easily extensible to accommodate new
concepts, and can be used to describe image content at
varying degrees of complexity.
There is a wide range of available text retrieval software to
automate the actual process of searching. But the process of
manual indexing, whether by keywords or classification
codes, suffers from two significant drawbacks. Firstly, it is
inherently very labor-intensive. Indexing times quoted in the
literature range from about 7 minutes per image for stock
photographs at Getty Images, using their in-house system, to
more than 40 minutes per image. Secondly, manual indexing
does not appear to be particularly reliable as a means of
subject retrieval of images. Markey had found that, in a
review of inter-indexer consistency, there were wide
disparities in the keywords that different individuals assigned
Page 278
to the same picture. The advantage of all these techniques is

that they can describe an image at varying levels of detail
(useful in natural scenes where the objects of interest may
appear in a variety of guises), and avoid the need to segment
the image into regions of interest before shape descriptors can
be computed. Despite recent advances in techniques for
image segmentation, this remains a troublesome problem.
Wavelet Decomposition
The continuous wavelet transform of a 1-D signal f(x)
is defined as
(W a f )(b ) = ( x )
a, b
( x )dx
----------1
where the wavelet b , a is computed from the mother
wavelet by translation and dilation,
a , b( x ) =
1
(( x a ) / b )
|a|
----------
-2
the mother wavelet satisfies the constraint of having zero
mean. The eq. (1) can be discretized by restraining a and
b to a discrete lattice. Typically it is imposed that the
transform should be non-redundant, complete and constitutes
a multi resolution representation of the original signal. In
practice, the transform is computed by applying a separable
filter bank to the image where denotes the convolution
operator, ) 2 , 1 ( 1 , 2 denotes the down sampling along
the rows (columns) and I = A0 is the original image, H and G
are low pass and high pass filters, respectively. The n A is
obtained by low pass filtering and is referred to as the low
resolution (Approximation) image at scale n. The 3 n 2 n 1 n
D , D , D are obtained by band pass filtering in a specific
direction(Horizontal, Vertical and Diagonal, respectively)
and thus contain directional detail information and is referred
to as high resolution(Detail) images at scale n. The original
image I is thus represented by a set of sub images at several
scales. This decomposition is called Pyramidal wavelet
transform decomposition or discrete wavelet decomposition
(DWT). Every detail sub image contains information of a
specific scale and orientation. The spatial information is
retained within the sub image. In the present paper, the
features are obtained using Haar Wavelet (Fig. 1.), which is
given by
1 0<=t <=1/2
(t) =1 1/2<=t <=1

0 otherwise
---------------3
2. RELATED WORK
Visualization technique of images with more continuous
scenes
described in this article have a wide range of
potential applications, for example, data mining in remote
sensing images and image retrieval from film and video
archives. This methodology is suitable on a sample of images
with more continuous scenes, for example, video segments,
so that we will be able to keep track of the impact of various
feature-extraction techniques more closely [1]. A proposal is
presented for constructing an efficient image sharing system,
in which a user is able to interactively search interesting
images by content-based methods in a peer-to-peer network.
A distributed variant of the Tree-Structured Self- Organizing
Maps (TS-SOM) by incorporating the essence of DHT is
presented. Compared with the existing approaches, this
method has the following advantages: many operations can
be performed on the 2-D lattice instead of the highdimensional feature space, which significantly saves the
computing resource; the TS-SOM-like hierarchical search
speeds up the information lookup and facilitates the use of
large Self-Organizing Maps; a query can involve more than
one
feature simultaneously. The current design is
considered for the tree-structured index with fixed levels and
fixed size at each level. It is not feasible for some huge other
network communities during their evolving stages. Many
details, for instance the image normalization and the system
strategy have not been considered due to the limit of time and
space [2]. In another paper, an extraction of signatures, to
determine a comparison rule, including a querying scheme
and definition of a similarity measure between images is
proposed. Several querying schemes are available: regionbased searching, where the retrieval is based on a particular
region in the image, or searching by specifying the color
histogram or object shape of the images,
significant
semantic information is lost. Principal component analysis is
used to represent and retrieve images on the basis of content
which reduces the dimensionality of the search to a basis set
of prototype images that best describes the images. Each
image is described by its projection on the basis set; a match
to a query image is determined by comparing its projection
vector on the basis set with that of the images in the database,
the detection performance is transform variant [3]. Here,
images are normalized to line up the eyes, mouths and other
features. The eigenvectors of the covariance matrix of the
face image vectors are then extracted. These eigenvectors are
called eigen faces. Raw features are pixel intensity values Ai.
Each image has n m features, where n, m are the
dimensions of the image. Each image is encoded as a vector
G of these features. Compute mean face in training set and
detected [4]. A technique for automatic face recognition
based on 2D Discrete Cosine Transform (2D-DCT) together
with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is suggested.
Applying the DCT to an input sequence decomposes it into a
Page 279
weighted sum of basis cosine sequences. A block size of

1616, 3232 and 6464 are chosen to be further
transformed using PCA. The DCT transformed face images
using the different block sizes are transformed into a lower
order feature size using the PCA to get a feature vector of 25
features. Two other block sizes are chosen to be further
transformed using PCA; namely a 3232 and a 6464 DCT
coefficients so as to see the effect of changing the block size
on the recognition rate. Also, a feature vector of 25 features
is calculated in each case. The recognition
rate depends
on a chosen threshold based on the security level of the
application. Two important aspects are investigated namely
the False Accept rate (FAR) and the False Reject Rate (FRR).
The FAR is the success probability of an unauthorized user to
be falsely recognized as a legally registered user [5], [6].A
technique for representing shapes for the purpose of image
retrieval is proposed. The proposed representation is a
contour based approach. Canny operator is used to detect the
edge points of the image. The contour of the image is traced
by scanning the edge image and re-sampling is done to avoid
the discontinuities in the contour representation. After the
object contour has been detected for an object, the central
point of the object, the centroid of an object is computed. The
resulting image is swept line by line and the neighbor of
every pixel is explored to detect the number of surrounding
points and to derive the shape features. In this method, when
the color image database is considered for comparison
71.17% retrieval efficiency is obtained for top 20 retrievals.
Shape feature requires extraction of a region or object, in
itself a complicated problem. Accurate shape detection
requires human intervention because methods like
segmentation are very difficult to completely automate [7].
Retrieving images based on color similarity is achieved by
computing a color histogram for each image that identifies
the proportion of pixels within an image holding specific
values. Current research is attempting to segment color
proportion by region and by spatial relationship among
several color regions. The main idea of appearance- based
approach is to represent the images in terms of their
projection onto a low-dimensional space called eigen space is
presented. The projection of the images onto this space is
called the eigen images. Principal components as sequence of
image vectors are computed incrementally, without
estimating the covariance matrix and transforming these
principal components to the independent directions that
maximize the nonGaussianity of the source. This algorithm
takes input image finds the non-Gaussian vector
(eigenvector) which is passed as input to the ICA
(independent component analysis) algorithm. The nonGaussian components will be updated using an updating rule
from the previous component values in a recursive way.
IPCA (incremental principal component analysis) returns
the estimated eigenvectors as a matrix that represents
subspaces of data and the corresponding eigen values as a
row vector, Fast ICA searches for the independent directions

where the projections of the input data vectors will maximize
the non-gaussianity. The nearest neighbor algorithm is used
to evaluate the object recognition technique [8], [9]. Four
different approaches to color texture analysis are tested on the
classification of images from the VisTex database. The first
method employs multi spectral approach, in which texture
features are extracted from each channel of the RGB color
space. The second method uses HSV color space in which
texture features are extracted from the luminance channel V
and color features from the chromaticity channels H and S.
The third method uses YCbCr color space, in which texture
features are extracted from the luminance channel Y and
color features from the chromaticity channels Cb and Cr. The
last one uses gray scale texture features computed for a color
Image [10]. In another paper, we present a localized CBIR
system, ACCIO! , that uses labeled images in conjunction
with a multiple-instance learning algorithm to first identify
the desired object and weight the features accordingly, and
then to rank images in the database using a similarity measure
that is based upon only the relevant portions of the image
[11].
A number of indexing schemes use
classification codes rather than keywords or subject
descriptors to describe image content, as these can give a
greater degree of language independence and show concept
hierarchies more clearly. Local feature-based image matching
was done in two steps. The first step of the feature detection
is key point or interest point detection. The second step
involved computing descriptors for each detected interest
point. Descriptors were used for matching key points of the
input image with key points in the logo database. For logo
recognition the descriptor had to be distinctive and at the
same time robust to changes in viewing conditions. The
features were to be resilient to changes in illumination, image
noise, uniform scaling, rotation, and minor changes in
viewing direction. The descriptor must
minimize the
probability of mismatch and finally,
it should also be
relatively easy and fast to extract the features and compare
them against a large database of local features. Based on
these requirements and the reported robustness in other
research projects, Scale Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT)
was used in [12]
3. PROPOSED WORK
Here , we have used YUV colour spaces in order to obtain
one channel containing the luminance information and two
others containing chrominance information. The conversion
of RGB to YCbCr color model is shown in the eqn (4).
Discrete wave let decomposition is employed and is shown in
the Fig 3.1. Here, we have chosen Haar wavelet for wavelet
decomposition. And its representation is shown in the Fig 3.2.
The four quadrants coefficients of the images are obtained.
The correlation between approximation and horizontal
coefficients, approximation and vertical coefficients and
approximation and diagonal coefficients are computed. A
Page 280
high wavelet coefficient at a coarse resolution corresponds to

a region with high global variations and vice versa. In this
paper, we present wavelet based localization for indexing
image databases employing color and texture features In
addition to colour and texture features and other statical
features are also computed. The feature vectors have sharp
discrimination power in various image regions. Texture
features are computed from the luminance channel. The first
order statistical features namely, mean and standard
deviation, are computed from the chrominance channel. The
following equations transform RGB in [0, 1] to Y Cb Cr in
[0,255].
4. FEATURE EXTRACTION
The co-occurrence histograms are constructed across
different wavelet coefficients of an image and its complement
decomposed up to 1-level. All combinations of the image
quadrants of wavelet coefficients of image and its
complement are considered to compute the correlation
between various coefficients.
From the normalized
cumulative histogram, color and texture
features are
extracted employing equation ( 5), (6) and (7).
256
Mean :
nchi
nch =
i =1
256
.5
Slope : S nch = Slope of the regression line fitted
.....4
. across the sample points

- --------------6
256
Mean Deviation: Dnch =
|nchi nch|
i=1
256
-----------7
FIG . 3.1. WAVELET DECOMPOSITION
Algorithm indexing and Retrieval

Get image
Apply multilevel wavelet decomposition
Extract color and texture features
Compute feature vector
Train all images
Get Test image
Localize a Image segment to be indexed
Compute test feature vector
Apply matching criteria and search
Retrieve and index all images that matches
5. ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In this paper, wavelet based localization for Indexing Image

databases are implemented. The paper implemented in RSI
IDL 6.3 environment. The project is tested on standard
images for indexing the color face images shown in the Fig
5.1. Localized portion of the face images used to index the
image database. They are nose and eye images and they are
shown in Fig 5.2 and 5.3. The experimental results of
indexing for nose and eye image are shown in Fig 5.5 and
5.6. The objective metrics of retrieval algorithm are
computed and are shown in Table 5.2. Also, success and
failure rate of retrieval algorithm are computed and shown in
Table in 5.1.
FIG 3.2 HAAR WAVELET REPRESENTATION
Page 281
FIG 5.3 TRAINED AND UNTRAINED TEST

EYE IMAGES
FIG 5.4 SNAPSHOT OF OUTPUT SCREEN
FIG 5.1 TRAINED FACE IMAGE DATA BASE
FIG 5.5 INDEXED OUTPUT FOR NOSE IMAGES
Fig 5.2 TRAINED AND UNTRAINED NOSE

IMAGES
Page 282
[5] Application of DCT Blocks with Principal Component Analysis for Face
Recognition MAHA SHARKAS, Proceedings of the 5th WSEAS Int. Conf.
on Signal, Speech And Image Processing, Corfu, Greece, August 17-19,
2005 (pp107-111).
[6] Face Recognition Using the Discrete Cosine Transform, Ziad M. Hafed
and Martin D. Levine, International Journal of Computer Vision 43(3),
167188, 2001, c _ 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands
[7] Image Retrieval using Shape Feature, S.Arivazhagan, L.Ganesan,
S.Selvani
dhyananthan , International Journal Of Imaging Science And
Engineering (IJISE) , ISSN: 1934-9955,Vol.1,No.3, July 2007.
[8] Appearance Based 3D Object Recognition Using IPCA-ICA, V.K
Ananthashayana and
Asha. V, International Archives of the
Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and spatial Information Sciences. Vol.
XXXVII. Part B1, Beijing 2008.
[9] Statistical Appearance Models for Automatic Pose Invariant Face
Recognition, M.Saquib Sarfraz and Olaf Hellwich, 978-1-4244-2154-1/08/
c2008 IEEE.
[10] Localized Content Based Image Retrieval, Rouhollah Rahmani, Sally A.
Goldman, Hui Zhang, Sharath R. Cholleti, and Jason E. Fritts IEEE
Transactions On Pattern
Analysis And Machine Intelligence, Special
Issue, November 2008.
FIG 5.6 INDEXED
OUTPUT FOR
EYE IMAGES
6. CONCLUSION
A novel method for indexing the image databases employing
the wavelet features obtained from the coefficients of an
image has been presented. The experimental results obtained
is good in Y Cb Cr color spaces and provides better retrieval
results. The Haar wavelets are chosen since they are more
effective in texture representation compared to other
wavelets. From the Table 5.1 and 5.2 , the robustness of the
proposed feature set for indexing image data base is proved.
The experimental results demonstrate the worth of the
proposed method for indexing of image databases and the
results are encouraging. It can be enhanced in future as an
intelligent system by employing genetic algorithm or neural
Networks.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Similarity-Based Image Browsing, Chaomei Chen, George Gagaudakis,
Paul Rosin
Brunel University, Cardiff University, U.K, funded by the
British research council EPSRC
(GR/L61088 and GR/L94628).
[2]
Interactive Content-based Image Retrieval in the Peer-to-peer Network

Using SelfOrganizing Maps, Zhirong Yang, HUT T-110.551 Seminar
on Internetworking 2005- 04-26/27
[3] Principal Component Analysis for Content-based Image Retrieval,
Usha Sinha, and
Hooshang Kangarloo, Radio graphics 2002; 22:12711289.), RSNA, 2002
[11] Wavelet Based Features for Color Texture Classification with

Application to Cbir
P.S.Hiremath, S. Shivashankar, and Jagadeesh Pujari,
IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security,
VOL.6 No.9A, September 2008
[12] Content-based Image Retrieval, John Eakins, Margaret Graham,
University of Northumbria at Newcastle
Precision rate %
Recall Rate %
CBIR
90.2
92
FGNET
85.3
89
IRDS
85
90
Database
TABLE 5.1 COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS NOSE
Database
Success
Failure rate
rate in %
in %
CBIR
90.2
9.8
FGNET
85.3
14.7
IRDS
85
15
[4].Content-Based
Image
Retrieval,
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/academic/class/15385-06/lectures/.
Page 283
Ta
Architecture Evaluation for Web Service Security

Policy
Joshi.vinayak.B [1]
Dr. Manjaiah D. H [2]
Hanumathappa.J [3]
Research scholar
Reader Computer Science
Lecture, computer Science
Mangalore University
Mangalore University
University of Mysore
Mangalore, India
vbjj@rediffmail.com
Mangalore, India
ylm321@yahoo.co.in
Mysore, India
hanums_j@yahoo.com
Abstract
Web Services can be published, discovered and invoked over the
web. Web Services can be implemented in any available technology
but they are accessible through a standard protocol. With web
services being accepted and deployed in both research and
industrial areas, the security related issues become important. In
this paper, architecture evaluation for web service on negotiating a
mutually acceptable security policy based on WSDL (web service
description language). It allows a service consumer to discover and
retrieve a service-providers security policy for service requests and
allows a service-consumer to send its own security policy for service
responses to the service-provider. The service consumer combines
its own policy for service requests with that of the service provider
to obtain the applied security policy for requests, which specifies
the set of security operations that the consumer must perform on
the request. The combining takes place in such a way that the
applied security policy is consistent with both the consumers and
providers security policies. The service provider also combines its
own policy for responses with that of the consumer, to obtain the
applied security policy for responses [1].
Nayak.Ramesh.Sunder [4]
A.P, ShreeDevi Institute of
Technology
kenjar,
Mangalore, India
ramesh.nayak.spi@gmail.com
have more control for the access and the updating of

information, and the reliability of the registry content. We
concentrate here on one key issue, providing security in Web
services architecture. In this paper, we evaluated a technique
for deriving mutually acceptable quality of protection for
exchanges between a service provider and a service consumer.
The WSDL document of a web service would include a
security policy description representing the types of security
operations that are required and supported by the Web-service
for its SOAP message exchanges with consumers. However,
since Web-service consumers may themselves be
implemented as a web service, both the consumer and
provider of the service may have a security policy defined in
their WSDL documents. This implies that there is a need for
the web service consumers and providers to agree on the
applied security policy to be used to protect the SOAP
message exchange between them [6].
2. System Overview
1. Introduction
Web services are reusable Web components with their

programmatic interfaces described in WSDL [4].WSDL is a
XML format standard for describing the interface of a web
service. The WSDL description gives information about what
exactly a web service does, how to invoke its functions and
where to find it. Universal Description, Discovery, and
Integration (UDDI) is a registry standard, which allows
organizations to publish and discover Web Services using
standardised methods. The UDDI is an industry initiative to
provide a platform-independent framework for creating a
UDDI Business Registry [9]. There are currently several
providers of UDDI registers called UDDI Operators. The
UDDI specification defines a set of datastructures and an
Application Programming Interface (API) for registering and
finding businesses. The UDDI specification also allows
organizations to create their own UDDI registries in order to
2.1 Agent Based Web Service Discovery

Web service discovery can be performed based on a web
service security policy using agents. It consists of a ser-vice
provider, a service consumer and a UDDI to include a
discovery agent and security agent and use an augmented
UDDI that contains security policy information to allow
secure web service discovery (as shown in Figure1). The
discovery agent acts as a broker between a service consumer,
a UDDI registry and a security policy that helps to discover
secure web services that satisfy the consumer security
requirements.
2.2 Security Agent

The security agent describes the security requirement that
service provider needs to be registering their WSDL into the
Page 284
registry. Web service security test case describe a testing

methodology for web service security and outline a process
that can be adopted to evaluate web service security
requirements. Test case can be classified according to
different categories of threat faced by web services. Security
policy can be represented in the UDDI registry by a tModel,
which is typically used to specify the security policy details of
a web service. In the tModel, each security policy is
represented by a keyed Reference, which contains the name of
a security attribute as key Name, and associated method.
3. Process Model
The model works with the exception that the containers
hosting the consumer and provider classes emit a SOAP
message, which is intercepted by the security service. The
consumer and provider classes could provide the <Security
Mechanisms> and <Security Services> elements to their
security services, in a WSS header, with the security service
module identified as the target role. Alternatively, the security
service could obtain the <Security Mechanisms> and
<Security Services> elements directly on its own. WSDL
binding to support the publication of the security policy in the
case that a provider offers a secured interface. Specifically,
elements called <Security Mechanisms> and <Security
Services> are associated with message definitions in the
services WSDL instance. In addition, we specify a WSS
header for conveying the consumers policy for service
responses using the same element definitions. The <Security
Mechanisms> element describes a set of security mechanism,
which may be applied to one or more nodes of the SOAP
document. Additionally, parameters of a security mechanism
may be specified in the element [1].
Figure 1. Web service discovery using agents

2.2 Discovery Agent
A discovery agent receives service requests containing
specifications for functional and security requirements from
the service consumer, finds the services that meet the
specified criteria, and then returns a list of services to the
consumer in the order of priority. Discovery should be based
on web service security polices for concerned request. The list
of available services will be return to the service consumer in
order. This avoids the overhead of discovery mechanism to
search secure web services over UDDI registry for consumers
needs. This approach that allows a service consumer to
discover and retrieve a service providers security policy for
service requests and allows a service consumer to send its own
security policy for service responses to the service provider.
The service consumer combines its own policy for service
requests with that of the service provider to obtain the applied
security policy for requests, which specifies the set of security
operations that the consumer must perform on the request. The
combining takes place in such a way that the applied security
policy is consistent with both the consumer and provider
security policies [1]. Likewise, the service provider combines
its own policy for responses with that of the consumer, to
obtain the applied security policy for responses.
Figure 2. Model for web service security policy
Page 285
Input: User request with specified security criteria

Output: Secure match set of services from UDDI
u(h): Select all the services which matches the
functionality requirements of user request that exists
in UDDI.
Let u(h)={ws1,ws2..wsn}wss (h):
Choose the set of services which have been registered
in UDDI with security specifications.
Let wss(h)={ws1(s), ws2(s), .wsi(s)}
Step 1 : For each web services wsi in u(h)
//find the services that match the QOS requirements
Step 2: QoS based Selection=Qos_Match (u(h) , QWS
Parameters);
Step 3 : If wss(h) requirements specified then
Step4 :{Secuirty_Search=Security_Match
(QoS_Search,wss(h) specified);
Step5 : If wss(h) ratings found then
//find the services that matches security criteria
Step6 : return output of available services in wssi in u
(h) according to criteria rank}
Step7 :{Else return the output of available services
wsi in u (h)}
step), testing (2step), and reporting (1step). It generates a

number of outputs such as: a prioritised list of quality
attributes, a list of architectural decisions made, a map linking
architectural decisions to quality attributes, lists of risks and
non-risks, and lists of sensitivities and tradeoffs.
4.2 ATAM Process Phase 1
Step 1 - Presenting the ATAM Process
ATAM stands for Architecture Tradeoff Analysis Method. It is
a method that tells how well an architecture satisfies particular
goals by providing insight of how quality goals interact and
how they trade off.
Step 2 - Present Business Drivers
Due to the increase of business-to-business communication
between different organizations over internet resources, the
current architecture will provide secure service connection
establishment between service consumer and provider with
added security policy.
Suggest the service provider to accept the service consumer
requirements to add new security features to perform secure
tasks.
Architecture Drivers
The major quality attribute are as below
Pri
ority
1
Quality
Attribute
Driver
Security
The proposed architecture is evaluated by the Software

Architecture Tradeoff Analysis Method (ATAM).All the
scenarios corresponding to each application of the secure web
service discovery and retrieval are listed and evaluated. The
steps corresponding to ATAM for evaluating the web service
security are described as follows
Interoperability
4.1 ATAM: Secure Web Service Discovery
Availability
We put ATAM to the test on our architecture and discuss the

findings based on the outputs generated which include lists of
risks, non-risks, sensitivities, and tradeoffs made. The findings
show that secure web service discovery and retrieval
architecture can greatly benefit from using ATAM by
revealing its strengths and weaknesses before evolving the
architecture further. ATM comprises of 9 steps grouped into
four phases: presentation (3step), investigation and analysis (3
Performance
Figure 3. Service discovery algorithm

4. Evaluation of Proposed Architecture
Rationale
It is a major concern to
this
area
of
the
architecture because it
should
support
authentication,
encryption, Integrity and
non
reputation
over
different communication
channel and platform
model.
The registry must be able
to interact with the
provider servers to be
able to operate.
The service should be in
need to run at any time
even
system
failure
occurs over registry or
service provider.
Continues user request
will affect the system
response.
we
will
establish
the
user
connection based on
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token request.
Step 3 - Presenting the ATAM Process

Step 4 - Identify Architecture Approaches
Integrity
Authentication
Non-reputation
Layering
Rationale
Trade-offs
It
organizes
the
system in hierarchical
structure that allows
for
easy
system
modification.
Security
potentially
reduced risk
Scenario#: 1
Attribute(s)
Environment
Stimulus
Arch decision
Sensitivity
Tradeoff
Step 5 - Quality Attribute Utility Tree

I=Importance
D=Difficulty to achieve
H, M, L = high, medium, low
Risk
Quality
Attribut
e
Performance
Attribute
Refinement
Scenarios
(I, D)
Response Time
Overheads
of
trapping
user
events must be
imperceptible to
users.
At peak load the
service should be
able to perform
transaction with
limited time.
Users' information
shall only be
visible
to
(M, L)
Throughput
Security
Confidentiality
(H, M)
(H, M)
(H, M)
Step 6 - Architecture elicitation and analysis
Important Approaches of the Secure Web Service

Architectural
Approach
administrative
users
of
the
system and it is
encrypted before
transmitting to the
server.
The
System
resists
unauthorized
intrusion
and
modification
of
data.
This enables the
user to access the
service
with
required token
It verifies the
signed
information from
valid user
(M,M)
Non risk
Scenario#: 2
Attribute(s)
Environment
Stimulus
(H, L)
Response
Scenario: Separate User Interface

Usability
Normal operations
Service Consumer can add their own
required security policy to the existing
security policy of service provider
Reasoning
The present of physical buttons and clear
messages display.
Complexity of the physical interface
design. Due to the limited space on
panel or the box, design must have to be
simple and neat but understandable to
the user.
The label on the buttons fades out after
being pressed many times. This may
apply same policy to server more than
once.
Not apply here.
Scenario: Language neutral

Security
Normal operations
The proposed architecture should
support for implementation in any
language. Changing the implementation
language should not affect any
components in architecture.
Not apply here
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Arch decision
Sensitivity
Tradeoff
Risk
Non risk
Reasoning
It support all data format conversion
between different platform
Need different data format for any
platform
New data format cannot be supported
Not apply here.
Arch decision
Sensitivity
Tradeoff
Risk
Non risk
Scenario#: 3
Attribute(s)
Environment
Stimulus
Response
Arch decision
Sensitivity
Tradeoff
Risk
Non risk
Scenario#: 4
Attribute(s)
Environment
Stimulus
Response
Arch decision
Sensitivity
Tradeoff
Risk
Non risk
Scenario#: 5
Attribute(s)
Environment
Stimulus
Response
Scenario: Confidentiality
Security
Normal operations
Certificate authority has to provide
security token to authenticate
Intermediary has no way to read the
message while establishing connection
with service provider
Reasoning
The encryption algorithm.
More computation time and resource
used. Performance is the tradeoff with
Security.
Not apply to architecture, but the
Encryption algorithm itself, if it is not
complex enough, could be hacked by
brute force.
Not apply here.
Scenario: Integrity
Security
Normal operations
Unauthorized user without security
token cannot able to access the service
available in the registry
Identity Certificate are required to
verify the user authentication
Reasoning
Identity certificate
Need resource to map data,
Performance, but not too much.
Provide certificate to user in more
secret
Not apply here.
Scenario: Authorization
Security
Normal operations
Service ticket has way to establish
trust relationship with more than one
security domain
utility certificate are required to
Scenario#: 6
Attribute(s)
Environment
Stimulus
Response
Arch decision
Sensitivity
Tradeoff
Risk
Non risk
verify the user authorization

Reasoning
Utility certificate
More computation time and resource
used, Performance, but not too much.
secret
Not apply here.
Scenario: Non-reputation
Security
Normal operations
Utility has key certificate to form
signed message to verify the user
utility key certificate are required to
verify the user sign information
Reasoning
Utility key certificate
Need signed key information for
operation response
secret
Not apply here.
Risk themes:
Heavily load on the service provider web server leads to
return of result to the consumer must be unavailable. This leads
to server unavailable.
Certificate Verifier should verify their security token before
access the service available in the registry. While during
modification of the web service by the service provider add on
failure may occur. Required service may be unavailable to the
consumer for particular time.
Inconsistencies:
Security has no way to identify the web security policies in
efficient manner.
Service provided has to provide secure interface to add new
security features with the existing provided security policy for
applied security policy otherwise consumer has no way to add
their own security requirements.
It is risky for transferring service ticket to consumer for
accessing the service that available in the registry. This may
be available to other without proper criteria.
Step 7: Scenario Prioritization

The following table prioritizes the Quality Scenarios for the
secure web service discovery and retrieval architecture. The
Scenario # refers to the scenario being referenced.
Page 288
5. Conclusions
Universal Description Discovery and Integration has no way
to identify the secure web services when multiple service
providers are now providing similar functional services. With
an increasing number of web services providing similar
functionalities, security has become one of the most critical
issues. An evaluated architecture called agent based web
service discovery to automate secure web service discovery
for negotiating a mutually acceptable security policy based on
WSDL for both consumer and provider in dynamic nature.
6. References
[13] Zahid Ahmed, Martijn de Boer,, Monica Martin, Prateek
Mishra, Dale Moberg, Web-Services Security Quality of

Protection, Version 0.9 22 Nov 2002.
[14] Kassem Saleh and Maryam Habil, The Security
Requirements Behavior Model for Trustworthy Software,

International MCETECH Conference on e-Technologies 2008
pp 235 - 238.
[21] Tiantian Zhang, Junzhou Luo, Weining Kong An Agent-
based Web Service Searching Model, 9th International

Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work in
Design Proceedings pp 390 295.
JOSHI VINAYAK.B is currently doing

research in the computer science at Dept. of Computer
Science, Mangalore University, and Mangalore. He received
M.Tech. From Mysore university. and master of computer
science from Karnataka university Dharwad joshi has already
published 4
international conference and 5 national
conference papers..He has an extensive academic, Industry
and Research experience. His areas interest are Computer
Networking & Sensor Networks, Mobile Communication,
security and reliability, E-commerce, Internet Technology
and Web Programming
[15] Janette Hicks, Madhusudhan Govindaraju, Weiyi Meng,
Enhancing Discovery of Web Services through Optimized

Algorithms IEEE International Conference on Granular
Computing 2007 pp 685 - 698.
[16] Colin Atkinson, Philipp Bostan, Oliver Hummel and
Dietmar Stoll, A Practical Approach to Web Service

Discovery and Retrieval, IEEE International Conference on
Web Services (ICWS 2007).
[17] Janette Hicks, Madhusudhan Govindaraju, Weiyi Meng,
Search Algorithms for Discovery of Web Services, IEEE

International Conference on Web Services (ICWS 2007).
[18] Artem Vorobiev and Jun Han, Specifying Dynamic
Security Properties of Web Service Based Systems, IEEE

Computer Society 2006.
[19] Slim Trabelsi Jean-Christphe Pazzaglia Yves Roudier,
Secure Web Service discovery: overcoming challenges of

ubiquitous computing, Proceedings of the European
Conference on Web Services (ECOWS'06).
Dr. MANJAIAH.D.H is currently Reader and

Chairman, Department of Computer Science Mangalore
University, Mangalore. He received PhD degree from
University of Mangalore, M.Tech. From NITK, Surathkal
and B.E., from Mysore University. Dr.Manjaiah D.H has an
extensive academic, Industry and Research experience. He
has worked at many technical bodies like IAENG, WASET,
ISOC, CSI, ISTE, and ACS. He has authored more than - 45
research papers in international conferences and reputed
journals. He is the recipient of the several talks for his area of
interest in many public occasions and International and
National conferences. He is an expert committee member of
an AICTE and various technical bodies. Dr .Manjaiah. D.Hs
Networks, Mobile Communication, Operations Research,
E-commerce,
Internet
Technology
and
Web
Programming.
[20] David Geer, Taking Steps to Secure Web Services,
Technology News October 2003.
Page 289
Mr.HANUMANTHAPPA.J. is Lecturer at the

DoS
in
CS,University
of
Mysore,Manasagangothri,Mysore-06
and
currently pursuing Ph.D in Computer Science
and Engineering, from Mangalore University
under the supervision of Dr.Manjaiah.D.H on entitled Design
and Implementation of IPv4to- IPv6 Transition Scenarios for
4G-Networks.
Nayak Ramesh Sunder is currently working

as Assistant Professor in department of Cs & E in Shreedevi
Institute of technology, Kenjar, Mangalore. He received
M.Tech. From Mysore University. and Bachelor of
Engineering from Karnataka university Dharwad. Ramesh has
already published 2 national conference papers..He has
10years of academic, and Research experience. His areas
interests are Computer Networking & Mobile
Communication, security and reliability, E-commerce,
Internet Technology and Web Programming
Page 290
Rule Analysis Based On Rough Set Data

Mining Technique
P.Ramasubramanian
Professor & Head,
Dept. of CSE
Dr.G.U.Pope College of Engg.,
Sawyerpuram 628251.
Tamilnadu India.
prams_2k2@yahoo.co.in
V.Sureshkumar
Professor,
Dept. of CSE
Velammal Engg. College,
Chennai.
Tamilnadu India.
lakshmikumarvs@gmail.com
P.Alli
Professor & Head
Dept. of CSE
Velammal College of Engg
& Tecchnology, Madurai.
Tamilnadu India.
alli_rajus@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Rough Set theory is a new mathematical tool to deal with
representation, learning, vagueness, uncertainty and
generalization of knowledge. It has been used in machine
learning, knowledge discovery, decision support systems
and pattern recognition. It is essential for professional
colleges to improve competitive advantage and increase in
placement performance. Students are a key factor for an
institutions success. In this paper, we use a ROSE system
to implement the rule generation for students placements.
Keywords: Data Mining, Decision Support, Human
resource development, Knowledge Discovery, Rough set
theory.
1. INTRODUCTION
Many researchers provide important methods for
human resource management. Since 80s people have
been product-oriented; most employees just need skills
to produce, which is the idea of job-based human
resource management. In 1973, the evaluation idea and
technology was "work as the center". Today students
do not need to pursue only their studies but also to
undergo soft skills training. The objective of this
research is to find out a compromising solution that
satisfies both the institution and students, and finds out
what kind of features and behaviors of students who
can build good relationships with an institution. The
results of this research will be used to guide institution
as they are useful in providing a good strategy for
human resource development and customer relationship
management
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 reviews
basic concepts of rough sets. The mathematical model
employed here is briefly illustrated. Section 3 is spent
to explain the problem tracked in this paper. Its results
are discussed in Section 4. At the end in section 5
several remarks of this paper is given.
2. INTRODUCTION TO ROUGH SET
Velammal College of Engineering & Technology, Madurai
Z. Pawlak, a Polish mathematician, put forward Rough

Sets Theory (RST) in 1980, which is a data reasoning
method. In recent years, it has been rapidly developed
in the field of intelligent information processing. Rough
sets theory has many advantages. For instance, it
provides efficient algorithms for finding hidden patterns
in data, finds minimal sets of data (data reduction),
evaluates significance of data, and generates minimal
sets of decision rules from data. It is easy to understand
and offer straightforward interpretation of results [37].
The rough sets theory has fundamental importance in
artificial intelligence (AI) and cognitive science,
especially in the areas of machine learning, knowledge
acquisition, decision analysis, knowledge discovery
inductive reasoning, pattern recognition in databases,
expert systems, decision support systems, medical
diagnosis, engineering reliability, machine diagnosis,
travel demand analysis and data mining. Rough set
theory provides a new different mathematical approach
to analyze the uncertainty, and with rough sets we can
classify imperfect data or information easily. We can
discover the results in terms of decision rules. So in this
research, we use rough set theory to analyze the human
resource problem.
Information System:
An information system, denoted by IS, and defined by
IS = (U,A,V,f), where U consists of set of finite objects
and is named a universe and A is a finite set of
attributes {a1,a2, ,an}. Each attribute a belongs to a set
A, that is, a A. fa: U Va, where Va is a set of values
of attributes. It is named a domain of attribute a.
In Table 1, there are 10 objects. The set of condition
attributes is {English Medium, Financial Status, and
Soft Skills), the set of decision attributes is
{Placement}.
Page 291
Example:
Table 1: Sample Data Set
Objects
Attributes
a1
English Medium
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
a2
Financial
status
Low
Low
Medium
High
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
High
The value of the English Medium has two values

namely Yes or No. The value of the Financial Status is
calculated on the basis of Parents monthly income and
additional income. The value of the Personality
Development is calculated on the basis of student
performances in Subject depth, Communication skills,
Participation in seminar, Public, social activities, and
Co-curricular activities. In the above table,
U= {1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {a1, a2, a3}
a1 = {Yes, No}
a2 = {Low, Medium, High}
a3 = {Low, Medium, High}
D = {Low, Medium, High}
Lower and Upper Approximations
A method to analyze rough set is based on the two basic
concepts that are lower and upper approximations. Let
U be any finite universe of discourse. Let R be any
equivalence relation defined on U. The pair (U,R) is
called the approximation space. This collection of
equivalence classes of R is called as knowledge base.
Let X is a subset of elements in universe U, that is, X
U. Now, we consider a subset B in Va, i.e., B Va. The
lower approximation of P, denoted as PX , can be
defined by the union of all elementary sets xi contained
in X.
a3
Soft Skills
Decision
D1
Placement
Medium
Low
High
Low
Low
Medium
High
High
Low
Medium
High
Low
Medium
Low
Low
Medium
High
High
Medium
Low
The upper approximation of P, denoted as PX , can be

defined by a non-empty intersection of all elementary
sets xi contained in X. The lower and upper
approximations are defined respectively as follows:
{
}
PX = {x i U [x i ]ind (p) X }
PX = x i U [x i ]ind (p ) X
B X = {X U | K B ( x) X }
B X = {X U | K B ( x) X }
where xi is an elementary set contained in X,
1,2,,n.
The ordered pair
i =
(PX, PX ) is called rough set. In
general, PX X PX. If PX = PX then X is

called exact. The lower approximation of X is called the
positive region of X and is denoted by POS(X) and the
complement of upper approximation of X is called the
negative region of X and is denoted by NEG(X). Its
boundary is defined as BND(X) = PX PX. Hence,
it is trivial that if BND(X)= , then X is exact.
In the theory of rough sets, the decision table of any
information system is given by T=(U,A,C,D), where U
is the universe of discourse, A is a set of primitive
features, C and D are the subsets of A, called condition
and decision features respectively.
Page 292
For any subset P of A, a binary relation IND(P), called

the
indiscernibility
relation
is
defined
as
IND(P)={(x,y) U U : a ( x) = a ( y ) for all a in P}
The Rough set in A is the family of all subsets of U
having the same lower and upper approximations.
Usually rough set theory are explored using the
decision tables i.e., information tables.
Core and Reduct of Attributes:
Core and reduct attribute sets are two fundamental
concepts of a rough set. Reduct can minimize subset
and make the object classification satisfy the full set of
attributes. The core concept is commonly used in all
reducts [11]. Reduct attributes can remove the
superfluous attributes and give the decision maker a
simple and easy information. There may be more than
one reduct attributes. If the set of attributes is
dependent, we are interested in finding all possible
minimal subsets of attributes which have the same
number of elementary sets.
The reduct attribute set affects the process of decision
making, and the core attribute is the most important
attribute in decision-making. If the set of attributes is
indispensable, the set is called the core, which is
defined as
RED( P) A
COR(B) = RED(P)
Decision Rules:
The information system in RST is generally expressed
in terms of a decision table. Data in the table are got
through observation and measurement. Its rows
represent objects, and its columns represent attributes
divided into two sets, i.e, a condition attributes set and a
decision attributes set. RST reduces the decision table,
and then produces minimum decision rules sets. The
general form of RST rules can be expressed by
RULE : IF C THEN D
where C represents conditional attributes and their
values, D represents a decision attributes and their
values. Though the decision rules we can minimize the
set of attributes, reduct the superfluous attributes and
group elements into different groups. In this way we
can have many decision rules, each rule has meaningful
features. The stronger rule will cover more objects and
the strength of each decision rule can be calculated in
order to decide the appropriate rules.
3. CASE STUDY ON HRD OF PROFESSIONAL

COLLEGES
A questionnaire has been built based on the several
analysis we provided, in an educational institution. In
this research we obtained answers of 25 questions of 60
students from various disciplines. These questions are
named attributes which characterize each students.
When students have good command over English
language it always helps an institution to get a
placement and to earn more admissions in the next
academic year. Nevertheless, it is difficult to find out
whether the students have a good command over
English language. This issue is an important one in
every institution, but for the head of an institution/
department is hard to recognize who has good
command over English and his interaction with
institutions, his/her class mates and faculties. Therefore,
we place a focus on the answer of the question: Do
you have a good command over English with your class
mates/faculty?
Let us denote an answer of student i to this question (i =
1,2,...,10) as Ai . The objective of this research is to
clarify what kind of pattern of other answers to the
questionnaires results in some value of Ai , that is,
Yes, I have a good command over English , no, I
have not a good command over English, High, I have
a good soft skills and Personality development, and
Good financial constraints, Medium, I have a little bit
knowledge of soft skills and financial constraints and
Low, I have no soft skills and financial constraints.
We investigate all the answers of 10 selected students
based on his/her class performance in various
disciplines and find out the latent structure of the
answers as head of the institution and institution can
provide effective functions to motivate their students. In
the analysis, we firstly processed the data that are
obtained from questionnaires by ROSE [8,9].
Table 1 shows the lower and upper approximations
obtained by a rough set analysis. This result has the
accuracy of 1.000. This means the target set is definable
on the basis of an attribute set [3,4]. Attribute Ai ( i = 1,
2, , 10) Do you have a good command over English
with your teachers and class mates? is named as a
decision attribute. The values that Ai (i = 1, 2, , 10)
takes are 1 (yes) and 2 (no). There are 7 YESs and 3
NOs.
Figure 2: ROSE with the result of decision rule
Page 293
Class
number
1
2
Number
of objects
3
7
Lower
approx.
3
7
Upper
approx.
3
7
accuracy
1.0000
1.0000
Table 2 : Lower and Upper Approximations

Table 2 illustrates that the upper and lower
approximations are equivalent. Therefore, there is no
uncertainty in the classification of classes D =1 and
D = 2. When decision rules are obtained, the
decision rules can help a decision maker to get more
information about human resource.
students behavior, in this way the head of an

institution can differentiate features into many
groups and each group of its own policies. Through
the ROSE, we can obtain the results, which are
shown in figure 2.
Core and Reducts

In rough set analysis, the core contains the attributes
that are the most important one in the information
table. In this study all three condition attributes are
included in the core. This indicates that any attribute
that is necessary for perfect approximation of the
decision classes and removal of any of them leads to
the decrease of the quality of approximation.
Reducts, also called minimal sets, contain no
redundant information. In this study, 4 reducts,
shown in Table 3, were obtained for the coded
information table. The length of reducts is 2~3 and is
smaller than that of the original set. They represent a
reduced set of attributes that provide the same
classification quality of the decision attribute as the
original set of condition attributes.
Table 3: Reducts for the coded information Table
No.
Reduct
{English, Soft Skills}
#1
{English, Finance}
#2
{Finance, Soft skills}
#3
{English, Finance, Soft Skills
#4
Decision Rules induction
We used LEM2 methodology in ROSE system to
reduce the information table and got 7 rules. Rough
set analysis provides computation intelligence to the
problem of classification. Each rule has its own
elements. Those elements are the features of these
rules. We want to find out the typical rules that can
cover most of the students and help decision makers
to get the ideal picture of
There are 5 decision rules that have good placement

with organizations and 2 decision rules that have bad
placement with organizations. This decision table
stands for students behaviors in the English
Language communications, Financial stability of
parent/Guardian, and Soft skills development in an
institutions. More than half of the students in an
institution, have better communication skills, soft
skills and such features, when they have good
placement in organizations.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
From the rules 6 and 7 we can understand that when
students have better placement opportunity in an
institution in the IT corporations, they also have
positive thinking and behaviors. They understand a
whole system of an institution and contact with
people of their teachers to learn more soft skills,
personality development, and improve more
communication skills.
So, the head of an institution should pay attention on
how to make them contribute continually and
increase their motivation to make more placement
opportunity for their students. In rules 1 and 2 the
students with bad communication and soft skills
development with their teachers, classmates and
public. Adequate training is required for those
students. Those who do not improve his/her skills,
they never get a placement. They are advised to
attend various lectures or seminars and carrier-up,
and knowledge of various training etc.
Those negative features mean that students do not
care about their jobs and do not want to make
achievements. The institution of such students must
find out the reason and push them back to work.
Those positive and negative decision rules let us
Page 294
know what kind of features and behaviors can bridge

between institution and placement.
Students have good relationship with staff and
engage themselves to gain recognition and have
activities that give the person a sense of contribution.
As students try to become better, they work harder to
find out their abilities. Those students always want
to learn new things and know more information
about their technology. Therefore, such students will
play a central role in their placements. Students, who
have a bad relationship with teachers, only care
about themselves whether they will be employed or
not. It means that, they think everything for
themselves. Therefore, they do not want placement.
They also do not think that they are students.
Therefore, those students have no interest in doing
anything out of their duty. The head of the institution
has to assure placement of their students. In this
way, an institution can have effective staff. The
institution also has to take care of the students who
have good relationship with teachers, help them do
their work correctly, sometimes give them some
challenges and rewards to increase their motivation.
No matter whether the students have good or bad
relationship with teachers, they are the human
resource of an institution. So, the head of the
institutions can give those two groups with different
functions. But it is always not easy to divide people
into groups, so the heads of the institutions can
recognize their staff according to the result of rough
set theory. In this research we give a clear function
to make students differentiable.
5. CONCLUSION
In summary, rough sets theory is a new method for
analyzing, inducing, studying and discovering of
data. It puts forward a method of student placement
assistance based on rough set theory. We have
collected data for one college corresponding to the
attributes and formulated the problem of finding
placements using ROSE system. This formulation
can be extended to a large number of colleges. The
rule analysis in ROSE system for placement of
students is equivalent to the rule generation in rough
set theory that was presented in[10].
REFERENCES
[1]. Azibi, R., and Vanderpooten, D. Construction
of rule-based assignment models, European
Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 138, No. 2.
Pages 274-293, 2002.
[2]. Cascio, W.C. Managing Human Resources:

Productivity, Quality of Work
Life, Profits,
McGraw- Hill, New York, 1992.
[3]. Pawlak, Z. Rough sets, International Journal
of Computer and Information Science, Vol. 11, No.
5. Pages 341356, 1982.
[4].
Pawlak Z., Rough Sets, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1991.
[5].
Pawlak, Z, Rough set and data analysis,
Proceedings of the Asian 11-14 Dec.. Pages 1 6,
1996.
[6].
Pawlak, Z.. Rough classification, Int. J.
Human-Computer Studies, Vol. 51, No. 15. Pages
369-383, 1999.
[7]. Pawlak, Z. , Decision networks, In: Rough
Sets and Current Trends in Computing by Shusaku
Tsumoto, Roman Slowinski, Jan Komoroski, Jerzy
W. Grzymala-Busse (Eds.), Lecture Notes in
Artificial Intelligence (LNAI), Vol. 3066, No. 1.
Pages 17, 2004.
[8].
Predki, B., Slowinski, R., Stefanowski, J.,
Susmaga, R. and Wilk, Sz., ROSE - software
implementation of the rough set theory, In:
L.Polkowski, A.Skowron (eds.), Rough Sets and
Current Trends in Computing, Lecture Notes in
Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 1424, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin. Pages 605-608, 1998.
[9]. Predki, B., and Wilk, Sz., Rough set based
data exploration using ROSE system, In: Z.W. Ras,
A. Skowron (eds.). Foundations of Intelligent
Systems, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence,
Vol. 1609. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Pages 172-180,
1999.
[10]. Ramasubramanian.P, Iyakutti.K, Thangavelu.P,
Mining Analysis of Computing Rule Confidence in
Rough Set Theory, Proceedings of National
Conference on Networks, Image and Security,
Organized by Noorul Islaam College of Engineering
in association with The Institution of Engineering
and Technology, YMS Chennai Network, Pages
.102 106, 2008.
[11]. Shinya Imai et. Al: Rough set approach to
Human Resource Development, vol. 9, No.2, May
2008.
About the Authors
P.Ramasubramanian, is Professor
and Head in the Department of
Computer Science and Engineering
in
Dr.G.U.Pope College of
Engineering,
Sawyerpuram,
Tamilnadu, India. He obtained his
Bachelor and Master degree in
Computer Science and Engineering from
M.K.University, Madurai in the year 1989 and 1996
respectively. He is doing Ph.D in Madurai Kamaraj
Page 295
University, Madurai. He has over 21 years of

Teaching Experience and authored 15 books and 20
research papers in International, National Journals
and Conferences. His current area of research
includes Data Mining, Data Ware housing, Neural
Networks and Fuzzy logic. He is a member of
various societies like ISTE, International
Association of Engineers, Computer Science
Teachers Association, International association of
Computer Science and Information Technology and
Fellow in Institution of Engineers (India). Email:
2005.rams@gmail.com, prams_2k2@yahoo.co.in.
V.Sureshkumar is Professor in the
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering in Velammal Engineering
College, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
He obtained his Bachelor degree in
Elecronics and Communication Engg.,
from M.K.University and Master
degree in Computer Science and Engineering from
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli in
the year 1991 and 2002 respectively. He is doing
Ph.D in Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai. He
has over 18 years of Teaching Experience and
published 12 research papers in International,
National Journals and Conferences. His current area
of research includes Fuzzy logic, Neural Networks
and Data Mining. He is a life member of ISTE.
Email: lakshmikumarvs@gmail.com
P.Alli received her Ph.D

degree in Computer Science
from
Madurai
Kamaraj
University, Madurai, India.
She obtained her B.E degree
in
Electronics
and
Communication
Engineering
from
Madras
University and M.S. in Software System from BITS,
Pilani. She worked as Professor and Head,
Department of Information Technology, Faculty of
Engineering,
Avinashilingam
University,
Coimbatore for 12 years. She is at present Professor
and Head, Department of Computer Science and
Engineering , Velammal College of Engineering
and Technology, Madurai. Her research interests
include statistical image processing, image
segmentation, image enhancement, medical image
analysis and novel image reconstruction algorithms.
She is especially specializing in the development of
adaptive filtering technique techniques for magnetic
resonance imaging. Email: alli_rajus@yahoo.com
Page 296
A Robust Security metrics for the e-Healthcare

Information Systems
Said Jafari#1, Fredrick Mtenzi#2, Ronan Fitzpatrick#3, Brendan OShea#4
School of Computing, Kevin Street, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland.
1
Said.kavula@student.dit.ie
2
fredrick.mtenzi@dit.ie
3
ronan.fitzpatrick@comp.dit.ie
4
brendan.oshea@comp.dit.ie
Abstract The application of computer based and
communication technologies in the healthcare domain has
resulted in a proliferation of systems through healthcare. These
systems whether in isolation or integrated, are generally referred
to as e-healthcare information systems.
Protection of healthcare information has become an increasingly
complex issue with the widespread use of advanced technologies,
complexity of healthcare domain and the need to improve
healthcare services. The huge amount of information generated
in the process of care, must be securely processed, stored and
disseminated to ensure a balanced preservation of personal
privacy versus its utility for overall improvement of healthcare.
The general IS security protection approaches are available to
address a wide range of security concerns. However, the
healthcare domain has unique security concerns that have to be
uniquely addressed. Understanding these specific security and
privacy challenges shall enable selection, development,
deployment and assessment of IS security approaches relevant for
the healthcare domain. One of the primary tasks should be
identifying the unique security concerns in the domain.
This paper discusses among others the unique security and
privacy concerns in the healthcare domain and proposes
metrics that address the challenges presented. The main
contribution of the paper is the demonstration of the
development of the security metrics for the healthcare domain.
Keywords security metrics, security measurement, e-health
security, security assessment, e-healthcare security.
VII.
I. INTRODUCTION
The application of computer based and communication

technologies in the healthcare domain has resulted in a
proliferation of systems through healthcare. These systems
whether in isolation or integrated, are generally referred to as
e-healthcare information systems. They range from clinical
information systems such as laboratory, radiology, surgical,
doctor consultation, critical care, to hospital administration
routines such as stores management, facilities management,
financial management, and human resource management.
Among the key motivation that led to embrace IT in
healthcare include the need to reduce medical errors,
controlling escalating healthcare costs and providing
efficient healthcare services [1]-[3]. However, digital

information has much higher security risks than its
counterpart paper based. Once information is digitised,
processing (copying, editing, deleting, searching for a
particular data of interest, linking of data attributes to
determine a particular meaningful pattern) becomes easier
and timeless. Additionally, the physical presence of an
invader which was once a significant factor is no longer a
necessary condition for launching an attack. The magnitude
of security risks in digital information rose faster. This is a
general observation that cut across all elements of the
Information Technology Functional Services Ecosystem (ITFSE) described in section II.
Information systems that are 100% secure do not exist, at
least to date. This is because software which is a life blood
of any information system is buggy [4]-[6]. The discussion
on the topic of insecurity of software; reasons and
consequences are well documented in the literature [7], [8],
and are not the aim of this paper either. Also, there are
human users in the security chain who are referred to as the
weakest link in the chain [9], [10].
The general IS security approaches are available to address a
wide range of security concerns. However, the healthcare
domain offers unique security concerns that have to be
addressed specifically. Understanding these specific security
and privacy challenges shall enable development, selection,
deployment and assessment of IS security approaches
relevant for the healthcare domain. The relevance as used
in this context refers to the best possible options that
consider the security risks of the domain in order to provide
reasonable, cost-effective and justifiable protection. One of
the primary tasks should be identifying the unique security
concerns in the domain.
This paper discusses the unique security and privacy
concerns in the healthcare domain and provides metrics that
capture the challenges presented. The main contribution of
the paper is to demonstrate the development of security
metrics for the healthcare domain.
Page 297
The rest of the paper is organised as follows: Section II

discusses the holistic view of security as mapped from the
proposed IT Functional Services Ecosystem. Section III
presents a review of literature that addresses security and
privacy issues in healthcare information systems. Section IV
outlines and explains specific e-healthcare security and
privacy challenges. Section V covers issues related to
measurements and metrics. It includes examples of the
metrics derived to address some of the presented challenges.
Section VI provides conclusion and future work.
VIII.
IX. II. IT FUNCTIONAL SERVICES ECOSYSTEM (IT-FSE) AND
SECURITY THINKING
Information Technology is the hub that connects nearly all

human activities. This is illustrated in figure 1. The
proliferation of automation and advancement in networking
technologies has affected the way we look at implemented
systems in different domains. Systems which were once
considered different now have lots in common, particularly
in the security context. This is because the same information
infrastructures for data storage and data communication are
used across them. In that way security problems that affect
one entity in the IT-FSE can affect other entities as well.
Based on this view, it is fair to have general security
approaches that address security concerns as experienced by
all entities. Tools were also developed in the same line of
thinking. Firewalls, passwords, encryption algorithms, and
even security protocols such as secure socket layer among
others; all are designed to be application domain neutral.
When thinking of technical controls, all available tools are
generic. That is, as far as security is concerned, technically
all systems should think alike.
In the contemporary security thinking, it is suggested that

security is not merely a technical problem, so its problems
cannot be solved by technical solutions alone [9], [11]. This
understanding has broadened the security view to include
personnel and organisational issues [9], [11]. The security
field has progressed in terms of its scope and sophistication
of security tools. The market is flooded with these tools for
any organisation to use. However, despite this proliferation
of tools, reports on security breaches increase [12], [13].
This trend suggests that a thoughtful effort should
continuously be applied to address security issues
particularly in application domains that involve sensitive
information like healthcare domain.
In the following section, a review of literature that addresses
security and privacy issues is presented. The review shall
lead to identification of healthcare unique security and
privacy challenges.
X. III. RELATED WORK
Researches in healthcare security and privacy issues are
considered and they are organised in four broad interrelated
categories. These categories include policy models, design
architectures for databases and communication networks,
access control, and requirement elicitation with its modelling
techniques.
I. A. Policy Models
In the first category, Anderson [14], [15] proposed a
security policy model for clinical information systems. The
model strongly considers consent propagation and
enforcement to elevate privacy property. Threats and risks to
the patient confidentiality, integrity and availability of the
personal health information are also discussed.
B.
Database and Networks Architectures
In the second category, Agrawal et al [16], [17] introduced
the database architecture and prototype to address privacy
problems
for
sensitive personal information. This
technology is known as the Hippocratic Database,
engineered in accordance to the ten designed principles
proposed by author in the effort to address key issues in
privacy management. Also, network architecture for
healthcare are prototyped [3].
C. Access Control
In the third category, Blobel [18] discussed specifications
for privilege and access for healthcare. Gritzalis and
Lambrinoudakis [19] propose a role-based access control
security architecture to provide authentication and
authorisation in web-based distributed system in the context
of health care unit (HCU). In this work, security
requirements for designing a secure architecture for
interconnecting healthcare systems are discussed. Also, in
Rstads PhD thesis [20] access control requirements are
discussed and identify the dynamic nature of access control
in healthcare as a result of the unpredictable, dynamic and
individual care process.
Page 298
D. Requirements Engineering
The fourth category is concerned with requirements
elicitation. Blobel [21] presented a framework to facilitate
security analysis and design for health information systems.
Tools such as those described in unified modelling language
(UML), object orientation and component architecture are
defined to suite the healthcare environment. Also, the
framework utilised generic security model and a layered
security scheme to address the challenge imposed by security
enhanced health information system. Cysneiros in [22],
presents requirements elicitation techniques that are useful
for compliance with the constraints imposed by several
peculiarities intrinsic to this domain. The techniques
discussed aim to assist in selecting a proper requirement
elicitation approach. Matousek in [23] introduces the basic
security and reliability considerations for developing
distributed healthcare systems in healthcare.
Based on the above review, there is large body of research
specialised in healthcare domain in attempts to address
various concerns. This indicates the domain has unique
challenges. However, what is unique requirement other than
wrapping on the sensitivity of information is not clearly
featured in many literature reviewed. This paper includes
literature [14]-[26] that in one way or another pointed and
elaborated the nature of sensitivity and how to address the
challenges. In the following section, a summary and
discussion of these challenges are presented.
XI. IV. HEALTHCARE SECURITY AND PRIVACY CHALLENGES

Healthcare information systems capture, store, process, and
disseminate information across their components. This
information is sensitive. Protection of this information and
information systems is vital for successful healthcare
delivery. Failure of protection mechanisms or inadequate
The healthcare domain in the information age, presents

unique security and privacy challenges different from others
[5]-[14]. These challenges as described in the following
subsections, make protection of healthcare information
systems a daunting task. Understanding them, provide a
locus for enhancement of protection mechanisms as well as
its assessment. Table 1 contains a summary of challenges
and their associated security risks or threats organised into
three main categories. The categories considered include
information needs, nature of healthcare service delivery and
laws, rules and regulations.
A. Information Needs
In the first category, information need is considered. It is
well known that the primary function of healthcare services
is provision of care to patients and supporting public health.
Patient care requires capturing of detailed information about
the patient for identification, longitudinal and cross-section
information for supporting evidence-based care delivery
[24]. Addressing this demand becomes a significant
challenge in the course of balancing protection versus
accessibility of information. This could lead to information
aggregation risks, a situation where more people have access
to many records [14], [15].
B. Nature of Healthcare Service Delivery
The second category is the nature of healthcare service
delivery. The following are challenges and their associated
risks for this category.
The nature of work requires collaboration among multioccupations communities (e.g., physicians, nurses,
technicians, and administrative staff) [25]. In some cases,
duty of care is accomplished in teams (for example in
operation theatres). The work is often non-routine, so it is
difficult to pre-schedule events and activities [25].
Page 299
Emergencies, exceptions and other contingencies in similar

scenarios complicate standardisation of workflows and
impose risks to accountability enforcement.
Autonomy is another natural feature in healthcare
environment. Service departments, clinicians and patients
operate as autonomous entities with their own knowledge,
ethics, beliefs and goals [26]. Harmonising conflicting
security and privacy requirements in an autonomous culture
is difficult and could be source of risks.
Healthcare service utilises different technologies that
generate heterogeneous data. Integrating these tools increase
attack surface. Also, the sheer volume of people in
healthcare environment imposes a threat to physical security
[24].
C. Laws, Rules and Regulations
The third category is concerned with laws, rules and
regulations that healthcare organisations have to comply
with. Among the sources of security requirements include
governing laws, ethical rules and regulations applicable to
the area of occupancy. Balancing the demand for multiple
compliances is difficult and imposes significant risks to
information protection controls.
The discussed challenges and risks provide additional
considerations during elicitation of security and privacy
requirements and goals. As the focus of this paper is metrics
development, the security and privacy requirements and
goals are main inputs. Meaningful measurements and metrics
for security are based on security goals [27]. For
measurements to yield value, security requirements and
goals must be properly formulated within the considerations
of the unique challenges of the application domain. In the
section V, security assessments and metrics for healthcare
domain are considered.
XII.
V. SECURITY ASSESSMENT AND METRICS
A. The Need for Metrics

Healthcare stakeholders such as patients and clinicians need
to have confidence in the systems they are interacting with in
the duty of care. These systems have to be justifiably secure
for users to have trust in them [28]. Security metrics provide
insights to efforts engaged to accomplish security goals and
illuminate anomalies or weaknesses in the security controls
implemented [29]. They offer evidence of the security level
to justify security claims and demonstrate compliances when
required. The overall helpfulness of metrics covers a wide
range of security and privacy decision making; particularly
in the balance between security, privacy and access to
information in supporting clinical operations, research, and
public health, as the main concerns of healthcare domain.
B. Security Metrics
Clear and precise articulation of security and privacy
challenges in the healthcare domain forms the basis for
understanding the security and privacy requirements.

Requirements portray security goals. Good metrics are goal
driven [27], [30]. Based on the unique challenges presented
in table 1, security metrics for healthcare should also
incorporate the unique peculiarities of the application
domain. Table 2 provide examples of the metrics and criteria
to be considered for measurements based on the observation
made on table 1.
The terms metric, base metric, derived metric and
threshold as used in this paper are borrowed from the
international measurement standard (ISO/IEC 27004) [31].
However, this new standard does not use the term metric, it
uses measure instead. We have taken the liberty to
synonymise the terms based on our experience on usage of
these terms in previous and similar standards [32], [33].
Therefore, the terms are defined as follows:
1.
Metric variable to which a value is assigned as the
result of measurement.
2.
Base metric measure defined in terms of an
attribute and the method for quantifying it.
3.
Derived metric measure that is defined as a
function of two or more values of base measures.
4.
Threshold target, or patterns used to determine the
need for action or further investigation, or to describe the
level of confidence in a given result.
The sample metrics and criteria presented in table 2,
consider some of the challenges presented in table 1 such as
those leading to information aggregation concerns and
accountability. For details on how the challenges in table 1
are related to metrics in table 2, follow the superscripts
cross-reference on table 1, 2 and 3. The metrics provided are
those which can be captured automatically after
accomplishment of care. The reasons for automating these
metrics include eliminating human biases in data gathering
and computations, ensuring reproducible experiments and
comparison of results.
These metrics (in table 2) calculate the Information loss
Factor, a derived metric named InfoLossFactor () designed
to monitor suspicious use of patient information as used in
the duty of care. Also, it can be used to provide evidence
against claims of illegal information disclosure, or indicating
weakness in security controls deployed for protecting
information. To derive this metrics, the following
assumptions are considered:
1.
All transactions are captured in the audit trails and
the integrity of the audit trails has no doubt. The system
under monitoring considered is a clinical information
system, in hospital settings where the number of patients
attending for care is reasonably higher than clinicians.
2.
Patients records are accessed in the duty of care
involving patients whose records are accessed. This
assumption may seem unrealistic; however it serves to
demonstrate our proposed metrics.
3.
Database maintenance functions such as update,
backup are not included in the metrics proposed.
Page 300
To enable derivation of the formulas, terms were proposed

by authors. Table 3 provides brief interpretation of terms
used in table 2, source of data and technique for data
extraction.
The values of the thresholds provide reasonable computed
value if no suspicious indication is spotted. For instance,
InfoLossFactor () (in this case) its threshold is 7, to
represent a secure information accesses. However the
computed value of can increase if individual thresholds of
base metrics are exceeded. The increase indicates a
suspicious information access may have occurred. A
different explanation can be considered on the computed
value of 1 in equation (7); in a reasonable situation, its value
should approach zero, indicating fewer service departments
are involved in exchanging patients information. In the
computation of , the value of 1 is taken as zero (its
magnitude has no significant contribution in the in the
overall equation).
While not addressed in this paper, setting minimum values
for thresholds is of paramount. When computed values go
below stated values, different insight can be spotted; either
there are significant changes in work flows or the
assumptions made on the formulas to compute metrics
values are wrong. Also, it should be understood that not all
of the challenges highlighted in table 1 can be properly
addressed by technical metrics. The effort should be made to
automate as many as possible.
C. Metrics Evaluation Strategy
Evaluation of metrics is important to any proposed metrics.
The evaluation strategy for our metrics is based on the use of
principles outlined. We borrowed some of these principles
from Heinrich et al [34] and Reiter et al [35]. However,
these principles were designed for evaluation of DataQuality metrics and authentication metrics respectively; they
fit for our metrics too. A compiled list of principles is as
follows:
Principle 1: Meaningful output the metrics should

strive to measure what they are intended to measure [34],
[35].
Principle 2: Feasibility the metrics should exhibit

practicality based on determinable inputs and ease of
application [34], [35].
Principle 3: Aggregation individual values of

metrics can be summed up to few values meaningfully [34].
Principle 4: Precision the extent that repeatable

concise results can be demonstrated for several
measurements taken under similar condition [36], [37].
Principle 5: Cost effective metrics data must be

inexpensive to gather in terms of time and cost, preferably
gathered automatically [29], [37].
Demonstration of these principles against our proposed
metrics is beyond the scope of this paper. However, it is
evident that our metrics do comply to some of these

principles straight away.
As security controls, standards, laws and regulations for
healthcare are developed specifically to address the
challenges of this domain, the same attention should be
engaged in developing assessment approaches and metrics to
measure the degree of protection offered by the proposed
approaches.
XIII.
VI. CONCLUSION
Protection of healthcare information has become an
increasingly complex issue with the widespread use of ICT,
complexity of healthcare domain and the need to improve
healthcare services. The huge amount of information
generated in the process of care, must be securely stored,
processed and disseminated to ensure a balanced
preservation of personal privacy versus its utility for overall
improvement of healthcare services.
The general IS security approaches are available to address a
wide range of security concerns. However, the healthcare
domain offers unique security concerns that have to be
addressed specifically.
In this paper, we have discussed the unique challenges
imposed on security and privacy of information as enhanced
by an array of factors in the healthcare domain and proposed
sample of the security metrics to assess the
degree to which those challenges can be controlled.
Understanding these specific security and privacy challenges
shall enable selection, development, deployment and
assessment of IS security policies, tools and approaches
relevant for the healthcare domain.
As part of future work, on the basis of the presented security
and privacy challenges, the development of metrics and
criteria to be used in the assessment of the information
protection in healthcare domain will be extended.
XIV.
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Page 302
Face Detection Using Wavelet Transform And

Rbf Neural Network
M.Madhu1, M.Moorthi2, S.Sathish Kumar3, Dr.R.Amutha4
1, 2, 3 Research Scholar,
Sri Chandrasekhardendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya University, Kanchipuram, India.
4. Professor and Head of the Department
Sri Venkateswara college of Engineering, Chennai, India.
msskm10@gmail.com, ramutha@svce.ac.in
Abstract
Face Recognition is an emerging field of
research with many challenges such as physical
appearance where faces does not share the same
physical features, face acquisition geometry that is, how
the images are obtained and what environment the face
imaged, illumination, pose and occlusion and so on. The
main objective of this paper is to recognize the given
face image from the database using wavelets and neural
networks. DWT is employed to extract the input
features to build a face recognition system and neural
network is used to identify the faces.
In this paper, discrete wavelet transforms are used to reduce
image information redundancy because only a subset of the
transform coefficients are necessary to preserve the most
important facial features such as hair outline, eyes and mouth.
We demonstrate experimentally that when DWT coefficients
are fed into a feed forward neural network for classification, a
high recognition rate can be achieved by using a very small
proportion of transform coefficients. This makes DWT-based
face recognition much faster than other approaches.
Key words: Face recognition, neural networks, feature
extraction, discrete wavelet transform
Introduction
Face recognition approaches on still images can be
broadly grouped into geometric and template matching
techniques. In the first case, geometric characteristics of
faces to be matched, such as distances between different
facial features, are compared. This technique provides
limited results although it has been used extensively in the
past. In the second case, face images represented as a two
dimensional array of pixel intensity values are compared
with a single or several templates representing the whole
face. More successful template matching approaches use
Principal Components Analysis (PCA) or Linear
Discriminant Analysis (LDA) to perform dimensionality
reduction achieving good performance at a reasonable
computational complexity/time. Other template matching
methods use neural network classification and deformable
templates, such as Elastic Graph Matching (EGM).
Recently, a set of approaches that use different techniques
to correct perspective distortion are being proposed. These
techniques are sometimes referred to as view-tolerant. For

a complete review on the topic of face recognition the
reader is referred to [1] and [2].
Neural networks have been widely applied in pattern
recognition for the reason that neural-networks-based
classifiers can incorporate both statistical and structural
information and achieve better performance than the simple
minimum distance classifiers [2]. Multilayered networks
(MLNs), usually employing the backpropagation (BP)
algorithm, are widely used in face recognition [3].
Recently, RBF neural networks have been applied in many
engineering and scientific applications including face
recognition [4][5].
The paper is organized as follows. The DWT is presented
in Section 2.1. Section 2.2 presents the NN classifier for
face recognition. The simulation results are given in
Section 3, and finally the conclusion is drawn in Section 4.
Proposed method
Wavelet Transform
In this paper, we proposed to modify the DCT approach
with the wavelets. The DCT has several drawbacks.
Computation of the DCT takes an extremely long time and
grows exponentially with signal size. In this case, we used
the Haar wavelets, representing the simplest wavelet basis.
We employed the non standard decomposition, which
alternates between row and column processing, allowing a
more efficient coefficients computation. The proposed
algorithm uses these coefficients as inputs for the Neural
network to be trained.
But the DWT has a distinct advantage; The DWT, in
essence, can be computed by performing a set of digital
filters which can be done quickly. This allows us to apply
the DWT on entire signals without taking a significant
performance hit. By analyzing the entire signal the DWT
captures more information than the DCT and can produce
better results.
The image is separated into four sub images. The bottom
left, bottom-right and top-right show the high-frequency
detail of the image. The top left quadrant contains the low
frequency or lower detail portion of the image; we can see
that most of the information is in this portion.
Page 303
Gaussian activation function. The response of such

function is non negative for all values of x. The function is
defined as,
f(x) = exp(-x2)
The training algorithm
Figure 1.DWT sub band structure
Thus, the DWT separates the images high frequency

components from the rest of the image, resizes the
remaining parts and rearranges them to form a new
decomposed image. The coefficients of the decomposed
image are given to the neural network as input for training
and recognition.
Neural Networks
A Neural Network is used in order to significantly reduce
the computation time, false recognition rate of the system.
The architecture of RBF Network consist of 3 layers they
are input, hidden and output layers as shown in Fig 2.2
1
Input layer
45
Hidden layer
Step 1: Initialize the weights

Step 2: While stopping is false do step 3 to step 10.
Step 3: For each input do step 4 to step 9
Step 4: Each input unit xi= i=1----n.
Receives input signals to all units in the layer above
(hidden unit)
Step5: Calculate the radial basis function
Step 6: Choose the center for the RBF, the centers of
chosen from the set of input vectors. A sufficient number
of centers have to be selected in order to ensure adequate
sampling of the input vector space.
Step 7: The output of the unit vi(xi) in the hidden layer.
vi(xi) = exp (xji ^ -xji) 2 / i2
Where
xji^ = center of the RBF unit for input variables
i2 = width of the ith RBF unit
Xji = j th variable of input pattern
Step 8: Initialize the weights in the output layers of
network to some random value.
Step 9: Calculate the output of the network
Ynet= wim vi (xi)+ wo
Where
H= number of hidden layer
Ynet= output value of mth node in output layer for the nth
incoming pattern.
Wim = weight between ith RBF unit and mth output node
Wo = biasing term at mth output node
Step 10: Calculate error and test the stopping condition.
The following flow diagram shows the new approach for
face detection using wavelet decomposition and Neural
networks,where DWT is used for the extraction of features
from facial images and recognition is done using neural
network.
Output layer
LOAD
DATABASE
Figure 2.Architecture of RBF Neural Network
It is a multilayer feed forward network. There exists n

number of input neurons and m number of output
neurons with hidden layers existing between the input
and output layers. The interconnection between the
input and hidden layers forms hypothetical
connection and between the hidden layer and output
layers forms weighted connections. The training
algorithm is used for the update of weights in all the
interconnection.
LOAD QUERY
IMAGE
WAVELET
DECOMPOSITIO
FEATURE
TRAIN THE
FACE DETECTED
The important aspect of the RBFN is the usages of

activation function for computing the output. RBF uses
Page 304
Figure 3. Flow Diagram
Conclusion
Thus for both the database and query images Haar

wavelet is applied for decomposition and the wavelet
coefficients are taken for calculating the features and these
are taken as input to the NN for training and recognization.
Finally, the recognized image is obtained.
Results
The following shows the input image loaded for detection
In this paper, a new approach for face detection has been

proposed by using wavelet decomposition and Neural
networks,where DWT is used for the extraction of features
from facial images and recognition experiments were
carried out by using neural network. The ORL database
images are used for conducting all the experiments. Facial
features are first extracted by the DWT which greatly
reduces dimensionality of the original face image as well as
maintains the main facial features. Compared with the
well-known DCT approach, the DWT has the advantages
of data independency and fast computational speed. The
presented Neural Network model for face recognition with
a focus on improving the face recognition performance by
reducing the input features. Simulation results on ORL face
database also show that the proposed method achieves high
training and recognition speed.
References
[1] Zhao, W.,
Figure 4. Input Image
The following shows the wavelet decomposed image of the

input image
Figure 5. Wavelet decomposed face image
The following shows the simulation results of the detected

face
Figure 6 Simulation result of the detected face
Chellappa R., Rosenfeld A. and Phillips P.J.: Face

Recognition: A literature survey. Technical Report CART-TR-948.
University of Maryland, Aug. 2002.
[2] Chellappa R., Wilson, C.L., and Sirohey, S.: Human and machine
recognition of faces: A survey, Proc. IEEE, 83(5): 705C740, 1995.
[3] Valentin D., Abdi H., Toole, A. J. O., and Cottrell, G. W.:
Connectionist models of face processing: A survey, Pattern Recognit., 27:
1209C1230, 1994.
[4] Er, M. J., Wu, S., Lu, J., and Toh, H. L.: Face recognition with
radial basis function (RBF) neural networks, IEEE Trans. Neural Netw.,
13(3): 697C710, 2002D
[5] Yang F. and Paindavoine M.: Implementation of an RBF neural
network on embedded systems: Real-time face tracking and identity
verification, IEEE Trans. Neural Netw., 14(5): 1162C1175, 2003.
[6] Kwak., K.-C., and Pedrycz., W.: Face Recognition Using Fuzzy
Integral
and Wavelet Decomposition Method, IEEE Trans. on SMC-B, 34(4):
1667-1675, 2004.
Mr.M.Madhu is pursuing his Ph.D

program at Sri Chandrasekhardendra
Saraswathi
Viswa
Mahavidyalaya
University, Kanchipuram. He completed
his B.E degree in Electronics and
Communication Engineering in the year
2001 and M.E Applied Electronics in the
year 2006, at Arulmigu Meenakshi Amman College of
Engineering, Kanchipuram, Chennai, India.
He has 7 years of teaching experience and he is currently
working as Assistant Professor in the department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering at Rajiv
Gandhi College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur, Chennai.
He has published and presented many papers in National
and International Conference in the area of Image
processing. His research interests are Image Segmentation,
Image Compression and Image detection, speech
processing.
Page 305
Mr.M.Moorthi is pursuing his Ph.D

program at Sri Chandrasekhardendra
Saraswathi
Viswa
Mahavidyalaya
University, Kanchipuram. He completed
his B.E degree at Arulmigu Meenakshi
Amman College of Engineering,
Kanchipuram, in Electronics and
Communication Engineering in the year 2001 and M.E
Medical Electronics in the year 2007 at Anna University,
Guindy campus, Chennai, India.
He has 9 years of teaching experience and he is currently
working as Associate Professor in the department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering at Prathyusha
Institute of Technology and management, Chennai. He has
published and presented many papers in National and
International Conference in the area of Image processing.
His research interests are Image Segmentation, Image
Compression and Image detection.
Mr.S.Sathish Kumar is pursuing his Ph.D program at Sri

Chandrasekhardendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya
University, Kanchipuram. He completed his B.E degree in
Electronics and Communication Engineering in the year
2001 and M.E Applied Electronics in the year 2006 , at
Arulmigu Meenakshi Amman College of Engineering,
Kanchipuram, Chennai, India.
He has 9 years of teaching experience and he is
currently working as Associate Professor in the department
of Electronics and Communication Engineering at
Prathyusha Institute of Technology and management,
Chennai. He has published and presented many papers in
National and International Conference in the area of Image
processing. His research interests are Image Segmentation,
Image Compression and Image detection, speech
processing.
Page 306
An Clustering approach based on Functionality of

Genes for Microarray data to find meaningful
associations
Selvanayaki M#1, Bhuvaneshwari V#2
#

Coimbatore-641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
1
slv_nayaki@yahoo.com
bhuvanesh_v@yahoo.com
Abstract Bioinformatics is the science of storing, extracting,
Molecular Function. A functionally meaningful cluster
contains many genes that are annotated to a specific GO
organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and utilizing information
terms. The paper aims to cluster microarray data of yeast
from biological sequences and molecules. Microarrays consist
based on the functionalities of genes based on GO ontology to
of large numbers of molecules (often, but not always, DNA)
find meaningful associations of genes from the dataset.
distributed in rows in a very small space. Clustering methods
provide a useful technique for exploratory analysis of
microarray data since they group gene with similar
functionalities based on GO Ontology. In this paper, Gene
Keywords Bioinformatics, Data Mining, Microarray, GO
Ontology is used to provide external validation for the
clusters to determine if the genes in a cluster belong to a
Ontology, Clustering.
specific Biological Process, Cellular Component and
2
I. INTRODUCTION
Data mining is the non-trivial process of identifying valid,
novel, potentially useful, and ultimately understandable
patterns in data [3]. Data mining is a larger process known
as knowledge discovery in databases (KDD). Data mining
is the process of discovering meaningful, new correlation
patterns and trends by shifting through large amount of
data store in repositories, using patterns recognition
techniques as well as statistical and mathematical
techniques. Bioinformatics is the application of computer
technology to the management of biological information.
Computers are used to gather, store, analyze and integrate
biological and genetic information which can be applied to
gene-based drug discovery and development. The need for
Bioinformatics capabilities has been precipitated by the
explosion of publicly available genomic information
resulting from the Human Genome Project [4].
numbers of genes interact with each other and how a cell's

regulatory networks control vast batteries of genes
simultaneously. It is also called a DNA chip or a gene chip.
It is the technology used to obtain a genomic profile [15].
GO (Gene Ontology) is a controlled vocabulary used to
describe the biology of a gene product in any organism.
There are three independent sets of vocabularies or
ontologies that describe the molecular function of a gene
product, the biological process in which the gene product
participates, and the cellular component where the gene
product can be found. The ontology is represented as a
network, a directed acyclic graph (DAG), in which terms
may have multiple parents and multiple relationships to
their parents. In addition, each term inherits all the
relationships of its parent(s).
Bioinformatics and data mining provide exciting and

challenging researches in several application areas
especially in computer science. Bioinformatics is the
science of managing, mining and interpreting information
from biological sequences and structures [6]. Data are
collected from genome analysis, protein analysis,
microarray data and probes of gene function by genetic
methods. Microarray is a new way of studying how large
Various data mining techniques can be used in microarray

clustering analysis such as hierarchical clustering,
classification, k-means algorithms, genetic algorithm,
association rules and self organization map [20]. The
objective of the paper is to use the data mining technique,
k-means clustering for microarray data to group genes with
similar functionalities based on GO Ontology. The
proposed idea is to compare clustering of genes based on
original microarray data and clusters based on functionality
of genes derived using GO ontology measures.
Page 307
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides the

literature study of the various clustering algorithms using
microarray. Section 3 explores the k- means algorithm
methodology for clustering. In section 4 the implemented
results for the yeast dataset are analyzed and validated
within the go ontology functionalities. The final section
draws the conclusion of the paper.
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This section provides the details of the literature study from
various papers related to microarray cluster analysis
methods and techniques. Microarray technology has
become one of the indispensable tools that many biologists
use to monitor genome wide expression levels of genes in a
given organism [7]. The data from microarray experiments
is usually in the form of large matrices of expression levels
of genes (row) under different experimental conditions
(columns). Different methods have been proposed for the
analysis of gene expression data including hierarchical
clustering, self-organizing maps, and k-means approaches.
In [5], Cheremushkin E.S. et al. describe partitioned
clustering techniques used to find a close optimal solution.
This work was aimed at the developed and implementation
of a clustering algorithm based on fuzzy c-means in
association with genetic algorithm. In [2], Gruzdz A. et al.
proposed association rule is used to discover mutations in
colon cancer diseases. In [10], Sukjoon Yoon et al.
identification of the change of gene expression in
multifactorial diseases, such as breast cancer is a major
goal of DNA microarray experiments. In [15], Bolshakova
et al. cluster validity methods to estimate the number of
clusters in cancer tumor datasets. This estimation approach
support biological and biomedical knowledge discovery.
In [12], John Sikorski et al. proposed microarray
technology to determine the relationships between genes,
those that are differentially or coordinately expressed under
specific conditions. In [13], LI Guo-qi et al. had developed
classifier method to predict unknown function of genes in
the microarray dataset on different levels. In [15], Robert
S.H. et al. describes a new clustering method based on
Linear Predictive Coding to provide enhanced microarray
data analysis. In this approach, spectral analysis of
microarray data is performed to classify samples according
to their distortion values. The technique was validated for a
standard data set.
In [8], Eisen et al. proposed hierarchical clustering is
probably the most extensively used microarray data mining
techniques, using one of several techniques to iteratively,
starting with one gene, combine genes with their nearest
neighbor, gradually building clusters and associations of
clusters, resulting in a hierarchical tree. Distance between
clusters is defined by the distance between their average
expression patterns. In [20], Ka Yee Yeung et al. cluster

analysis was used to identify genes that show similar
expression patterns over a wide range of experimental
conditions in yeast. Such genes are typically involved in
related functions and are frequently co-regulated.
In [19], Taraskina et al. presented a clustering method used
to indentifying biologically relevant groups of genes. This
paper developed an algorithm of fuzzy c-means family,
designed for clustering of microarray data and distance
matrices with genetic algorithm as optimization. Genetic
algorithm use to find a close optimal solution to the
problem of clustering. Euclidian distance method is used to
calculate distance between genes.
In [18], Sterhan Symons et al. proposed machine learning
techniques are applied to microarray data, for diagnostic
purposes. Especially in cancer diagnostics microarray
classification tools are used cancer subtype discrimination
and outcome prediction.
In [9], Gao Cong et al. has developed two new efficient
algorithm, RERII and REPT, to explore the row
enumeration space to discover frequent closed patterns. In
[14], Manoranjan Dash et al. proposed novel feature
selection method used for large number of genes. Feature
selection is a preprocessing technique that finds an optimal
subset of informative features from the original set. In [1],
Ben-Dor et al. discussed approaches to identify patterns in
expression data that distinguish two subclasses of tissues
on the basis of a supporting set of genes that results in high
classification accuracy.
III. METHODOLOGY
Gene ontology is a collection of controlled vocabularies
that describes the biology of a gene product. It consists of
approximately 20,000 terms arranged in three independent
ontology: Biological Process, Cellular Component, and
Molecular Function [17]. Gene ontology is used to provide
external validation for the clusters to determine if the genes
in a cluster belong to a specific Cellular Component,
Molecular Function or Biological Process. A functionally
meaningful cluster contains many genes that are annotated
to a specific GO terms. The main idea of the paper is
clustering microarray data based on functionalities.
The following information is downloaded from the
website. The Yeast Saccharomyces Cerevisiae Dataset is
downloaded from National Center for Biotechnology
Information Gene Expression Omnibus (NCBI GEO)
website. The Yeast microarray data contains about 6400
Genes (e.g. YALO51W, YALO54C) with their
corresponding Yeast values (0.1650, 0.2720). The file
yeastgenes.sgd and GO ontology was obtained from the
GO annotation website.
Page 308
The proposed methodology as given in Fig. 1 is used for

analyzing microarray data to infer association of genes
based on the clustered results using k means algorithm. The
framework consists of three phases. In the first phase is
preprocessing of microarray data is done, in the second
phase the genes are mapped based on functionality using
GO ontology.
The clustering is done in the third phase using k means
algorithm for the proposed approaches on the original
dataset and the dataset based on the functionality of genes.
The clustering results are analyzed for finding the
association between genes in the microarray dataset.
TABLE I. EXPRESSED GENES (3677)
The yeast microarray data gene is mapped with SGDgenes

structure to find the genes that are expressed in microarray
yeast data to map with the SGDgo. After mapping, 3677
genes were found to be expressed in the yeast dataset.
B) Mapping genes based on functionality
SGDann is a master structure of Yeast microarray data is
shown in Fig 2. It contains the parameters namely
SGDaspect, SGDgenes, SGDgo. The entire microarray data
are mapped with this structure (SGDgenes) and the
microarray data is splitted based on the functionality of
gene using GO ontology. For each gene the corresponding
functionality of genes are found (Biological Process,
Cellular Component, and Molecular Function). All the
genes with same functionality are grouped for the
corresponding Yeast values from the microarray dataset.
The three dataset are constructed with 1079 records for
biological process, 1445 records for cellular component
and 1153 records for molecular function from the original
microarray data are shown in Fig 3, Fig 4 and Fig 5.
Fig 1.
Framework to infer association of genes
A) Preprocessing microarray data

The preprocessing phase consists of two main processes
that are removal of noisy data and mapping of microarray
data and SGD go.
1) Removal of noisy data
The yeast microarray data contains 6400 genes, with null
values and empty genes. In the preprocessing step the
empty spots and null values are removed using the
knnimpute method. After removal of empty genes from the
dataset then there are about 6314 genes used for further
analysis.
Fig 2. SGDann Structure
2) Mapping of microarray data and SGD go

SGDann is the master structure of the yeast genes
containing all the information about the yeast data with
37794 yeast related genes. The SGDgenes column is alone
extracted from the structure to map with the microarray
data proposed in the work. The snapshot of microarray
genes with SGDgenes is shown in Table 1.
Page 309
Fig 3. Biological process (1079)
C) Clustering using k-means algorithm

1) Vector Space Model
Vector space model (or term vector model) is a standard
algebraic model for representing documents (and any
objects, in general) as vectors of identifiers, such as, for
example, index terms. It is used in information filtering,
information retrieval, indexing and relevancy rankings. Its
first use was in the SMART information retrieval system.
A document is represented as a vector. Each dimension
corresponds to a separate term [10]. The definition of term
depends on the application. Typically terms are single
words, keywords, or longer phrases. Several different ways
of computing these values, also known as (term) weights,
have been developed. One of the best known schemes is tfidf weighting (tf-term frequency, idf-inverse document
frequency).
The vector space model similarity measure is computed as
the Euclidean distance from the query to each document
[11]. The main idea of subspace (vector space model)
clustering is to find a subset of genes and a subset of
conditions under which these genes exhibit a similar trend
[16].
2) Input matrix
The microarray data after preprocessing has 3677
expressed genes with yeast values. The expressed genes
values are taken as input for vector space model. The
snapshot of input matrix is shown in Table 2.
TABLE II. INPUT MATRIX
Fig 4. Cellular Component (1445)
The above matrix is used to find the similarity distance

using k-means algorithm. The distance is calculated using
the formula given below
Fig 5. Molecular Function (1153)
The k-means algorithm is implemented in third phase on

these datasets to determine the association between genes.
In this equation distance examines the root of square

difference between coordinates of a pair of objects x and y.
3) Distance matrix
Page 310
The corresponding distance matrix generated for the given

input matrix is shown in Table 3.
TABLE III. DISTANCE MATRIX
The distance matrix is given as input for the k-means

algorithm. The basic k-means algorithm is defined below.
4) K-means algorithm Pseudo code
Fig 6. Yeast Microarray Dataset
The entire microarray dataset is mapping based on the

functionality. After mapping to get 1079 for biological
process, 1445 for cellular component and 1153 for
molecular function are shown in Fig 7.
Fig 7. Mapping gene based on functionality
VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

A) Results
The implemented results for the yeast dataset are analyzed
and validated within the go ontology functionalities to find
association between genes. The original microarray data
has only genes. These genes are mapped with SGDgenes to
get the expressed genes for the original microarray dataset.
The number of genes in the dataset is shown in the Table 4.
TABLE VI. DATASET
Dataset
Number of genes
SGDgenes (master structure)

Yeast microarray data
After removal of empty genes
Expressed genes
37794
6400
6413
3677
Biological Process
1079
Cellular Component
1445
Molecular Function
1153
B) Analysis of K-Means Algorithm

1) Clustering on original microarray data
The 20 cluster were generated on the microarray dataset
and after preprocessing of microarray dataset using kmeans algorithm. The snapshot of the gene generated in the
two different dataset is shown in Table 5. The count of
genes was different in both the cluster generated for
microarray data with and without preprocessing of
microarray data.
The yeast microarray dataset contain 6400 genes. After

removal of empty genes from the dataset then there are about
6314 genes are shown in Fig 6.
Page 311
TABLE V. CLUSTERING ON ORIGINAL MICROARRAY DATA
2) Clustering microarray data based on functionality
The same sets of microarray gene YAL054C, YAL034C,

YBL043W were grouped in different clusters before and
after preprocessing. The cluster 6 contains the above said
genes grouped with 670 genes before preprocessing the
cluster 14 contains the same genes grouped with 350 genes.
The genes are clustered based on the ontology

functionality that is Biological Process, Cellular
Component and Molecular Function. These clusters were
generated based on GO Ontology using k-means algorithm
as shown in Table 6.
The same set of gene (YAR068W, YGR207C) was

clustered in Biological Process, Cellular Component and
Molecular Function but with different count value. The
gene YAR068W, YGR207C was clustered in the count
value of 140 genes for Biological Process, 80 genes for
Cellular Component and 130 genes for Molecular
Function. Some of the genes are clustered only in two
functionality. For example, the gene YEL048C, YMR259C

was clustered in the count value of 65, 120 genes for
Biological Process and Cellular Component alone. The
pictorial representations of Table 6 are shown in Fig 8.
Page 312
Fig 8. Number of cluster based on different functionality
The clustering method proposed help to find

association of genes across various functionality. For
each functionality (Biological Process, Cellular
Component, Molecular Function) GOid are used to
find association between genes. Each functionality
having more then one genes are shown in Table 7.
TABLE 7. DIFFERENT FUNCTIONALITY GENES
The three functionalities show that different sets of

clusters can be generated from the dataset using
different set of genes. The first two functionalities
(Biological Process and Molecular Function) are
taken and compared with genes to find out the
meaningful associations of genes from the dataset.
By clustering and analyzing the clusters based on the
two functionalities the following genes YAR029W,
YBR074W, YBR096W, YBR138C, YBR235W,
YBR239C, YBR241C, YBR255W, and YCR015C
are found to be have association. The clusters
generated for the two functionalities are shown in Fig
9.
Fig 9.Association of genes Biological and Molecular Functionality
The association of genes clustered using two

functionalities the biological and molecular with their
goid is shown in Table 8.
TABLE 8. ASSOCIATION BETWEEN GENES GOID
Page 313
transporter or pore. The goid 15075 is a molecular

function. It catalysis of the transfer of an ion from
one side of a membrance to the other. The goid
22891 is also a molecular function it enables the
transfer of a specific substance or group of related
substances from one side of a membrance to the
other. The biologically meaningful unknown function
is grouped based on functionalities.
In our analysis of the clustered results we have
found that the set of genes grouped based on the goid
8150, 3674 always occur together and they have a
unknown biological and molecular function. The
cluster approach based on fucntionalty helps to finds
the meaningful clusters rather than grouping the
original dataset.
The genes were grouped based on the goid
8150 and 3674, where the first belongs to biological
process and the second go belobgs to molecular
function. The genes grouped with goid 8150 belong
to unknown function of biological process. Which
describes any process specifically pertinent to the
functioning of integrated living units: cells, tissues,
organs, and organisms. The gene clustered with goid
3674 is an unknown molecular function and it
describes the actions of a gene product at the
molecular level. The following goid 6810, 15075 and
22891 have a different functionality.
The goid 6810 is a Biological Process; it
describes the directed movement of substances (such
as macromolecules, small molecules, ions) into, out
of, within or between cells, or within a multicellular
organism by means of some external agent such as a
V. CONCLUSION
Grouping of Microarray data with similar
functionalities in genes are grouped based on Go
ontology and is implemented using the data mining
clustering technique the K-means algorithm. In the
proposed work the microarray data was extracted for
functionality for Biological Process and Molecular
Function and implemented and tested the clusters for
analyzing meaningful associations. The work
proposed helped to find the association of genes
using the clustering algorithm based on GO Ontology
and from the study we conclude that the clustering
based on functionality of genes have meaningful
associations than directly clustering the dataset.
[8]
REFERENCES
[1] A. Ben-Dor, R. Shamir, and Z. Yakhini, Clustering
gene expression patterns in J Comput Biol 6(34):281-97.
[2] A.Gruzdz, A.Ihnatowicz, J.Siddiqi, and B.Akhgar,
Mining Genes Relations in Microarray Data
Combined with Ontology in Colon Cancer Automated
Diagnosis System, Vol.16, Nov 2006, ISSN 13076884.
[3] Arun. K. Pujari, Data Mining Techniques,
Universities press (India) Limited 2001, ISBN-817371-3804.
[4] Bradley Coe and Christine Antler, S po t yo ur g en es
an ov erview of th e micr oarr ay, August
2004.
[5] Cheremushkin E.S, The Modified Fuzzy C-Means
Method for Clustering Of Microarray Data.
[6] Daxin Jiang, Chun Tang, and Aidong Zhang, Cluster
Analysis for Gene Expression Data: A Survey, IEEE
Transactions on knowledge AND Data Engineering,
Vol 16, No. 11,
November 2004.
[7] D. Jiang, Ch. Tang, A. Zhang, Cluster Analysis for
Gene Expression Data: A Survey, IEEE, Vol. 16, no.
11, November 2004.
Eisen MB, Spellman PT, Brown PO, Botstein D:

Cluster analysis and display of genome- wide
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[9] Gao Cong, Kian-Lee Tan, Anthony K.H. Tung, Feng
Pan, Minning Frequent Closed Patterns in Microarray
Data. In Proc. ACM SIGKDD Int,l Conf. On
Knoweldge Discovery and Data mining (KDD), 2003.
[10] Georage Tsastaronis and Vicky Panagiotopoulo, A
Generalized Vector Space Model for Text Retrieval
Based on SemanticRelatedness Proceedings of the
EACL 2009 Student Research Workshop, Pages 70-78,
2 April 2009 2009 Association for Computational
Linguistics.
[11] G. Salton, A. Wong, and C.S. Yang, A Vector Space
Model for Automatic Indexing, Communications of
the ACM, Vol. 18, no. 11, Pages 613-620.
[12] John Sikorski, Mining Association Rules in
Microarray Data, Bioinformatics, 19, 2003.
[13] LI Guo-qi, Sheng Huan-ye,Classification analysis of
microarray data based on Ontological engineering,
journal of Zhejiang Univ Sci A 2007 8(4): 638-643.
[14] Manoranjan Dash and Vivekanand Gopalkrishnan,
Distance Based Feature Selection for Clustering
Microarray Data, PP. 512-519, 2008 SpringerVerlag Berlin Heidelberg 2008.
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[15] Nadia Bolshakova, Francisco Azuaje, Padraig

Cunningham, An integrated tool for Microarray data
clustering and cluster validity assessment, 2008.
[16] Pankaj Chopra, Jaewoo Kang, Jiong Yang, Hyung Jun
Cho, Heenam, Stancey and Min-GOO Lee,
Microarray data mining using landmark gene-guided
clustering, BMC Bioinformatics,
2008, 9:92,
February 2009.
[17] Pasquier. C. The : Ontology driven analysis of
microarray data. Bioinformatics 20(16), 2636-2643,
2004.
(www.Wisegeek.com/what
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microarray.htm.)
[18] Stephan Symons and Kay Nieselt, Data Mining
Microarray Data- Comprehensive Benchmarking of
Feature Selection and Classification Methods, 2007.
[19] Taraskina A.S The Modified Fuzzy C-Means Method
for Clustering Of Microarray Data.
[20] Yeung K, Medvedovic M, Bumgarner R: Clustering
gene-expression data with repeated Measurements
Genome Biology 2003.
Page 315
An Energy Efficient Adavanced Data

Compression And Decompression Schemes For
Wsn
G.Mohanbabu#1, Dr.P.Renuga#2
Lecturer, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, PSNA CET, Anna University
#2
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, TCE, Anna University
#1
Kgbabu73@yahoo.com
2
preee@tce.edu
Abstract - Efficient utilization of energy has been a core area

of research in wireless sensor networks. Sensor nodes
deployed in a network are battery operated. As batteries
cannot be recharged frequently in the field setting, energy
optimization becomes paramount in prolonging the batterylife and, consequently, the network lifetime. The
Communication module utilizes a major part of the energy
expenditure of a sensor node. Hence data compression
methods to reduce the number of bits to be transmitted by the
communication module will significantly reduce the energy
requirement and increase the lifetime of the sensor node. The
present objective of the study contracted with the designing of
efficient data compression algorithm, specifically suited to
wireless sensor network.
Keywords Wireless sensor network, Data compression,
Huffman algorithm.
I. INTRODUCTION
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) comprises of several
autonomous sensor nodes communicating with each other
to perform a common task. A wireless sensor node consists
of a processor, sensor, communication module powered by
a battery. Power efficiency is considered to be a major
issue in WSN, because efficient use of energy extends the
network lifetime. Energy is consumed by the sensor node
during sensing, processing and transmission. But almost
80% of the energy is spent in the communication module
for data transmission in sensor network[1]. Sensor
networks have a wide range of application in temperature
monitoring, surveillance, bio medical, precision
agriculture. Failure of sensor node causes a partition of the
WSN resulting in critical information loss. Hence there is
great interest shown by the many researchers in extending
the lifetime of sensor nodes by reducing the energy
required for transmission. Several algorithms have been
proposed for energy efficient wireless sensor network in
literature. The spatio-temporal correlations among sensor
observations are a significant and unique characteristic of
the WSN which can be exploited to drastically increase the
overall network performance. The existence of the above
mentioned correlation in sensor data is exploited for the
development of energy efficient communication protocols
well suited to WSN. Recently there is a major interest in
the Distributed Source Compression (DSC) algorithm

which utilizes the spatial correlation in a sensor network
for data compression. WSN application requires dense
sensor deployment[1] and as a result of this, multiple
sensors record information about a single event. Therefore
it is unnecessary for every sensor node to send redundant
information to the sink node due to the existence of high
spatial correlation. Instead a smaller number of sensor
measurements might be adequate to communicate the
information to the sink with certain reliability. In[2] a
distributed way of continuously exploiting existing
correlations in sensor data based on adaptive signal
processing and distributed source coding principles is
discussed. In[6,8] hardware architecture for data
compression using adaptive Huffman algorithm for data
compression is proposed. In[3,4,7] also the spatial
correlation in sensor data is exploited for the data
compression. Though research has progressed in the area of
data compression, not many have worked in lossless
algorithms for wireless sensor networks. Compression
algorithms are mainly for data storage and therefore simple
and application specific algorithms are required for
resource constrained sensor nodes. In[5] a simple
compression algorithm based on static Huffman coding
particularly suited for memory and computational resource
constrained wireless sensor node is proposed. This
algorithm exploits the temporal correlation in sensor data
and the algorithm computes a compressed version using a
small dictionary. In[5], to design the dictionary, the
statistics of the data are required, unlike in real time,
statistics of the data will change depending on the event.
Therefore the objective of the study is to design a simple
algorithm to compress sensor data which does not require
prior knowledge of the statistics of sensor data and the data
compression is performed adaptively based on the temporal
correlation in sensor data.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
To establish a modified algorithm for data compression in
wireless sensor network, the following simple and adaptive
algorithms were simulated and compared.
Page 316
Simple Huffman algorithm

In the simple Huffman algorithm proposed in[5], each
sensor node measure mi is converted by an ADC to binary
representation ri using R bits, where R is the resolution of
the ADC. For each new measure mi, the compression
algorithm computes the difference di = ri - ri-1, which is
input to an entropy encoder. The encoder performs
compression losslessly by encoding differences di more
compactly based on their statistical characteristics. Each di
is represented as a bit sequence bsi composed of two parts
si and ai, where si gives the number of bits required to
represent di and ai is the representation of di. Code si is a
variable length code generated by using Huffman coding.
The basic idea of Huffman coding is that symbols that
occur frequently have a smaller representation than those
that occur rarely. The ai part of the bit sequence bsi is a
variable length integer code generated as follows:
If di>0, ai corresponds to the ni lower-order bits of the
direct representation of di
If di<0, ai corresponds to the ni lower-order bits of the
twos complement representation of (di-1).
If di=0, si is coded as 00 and ai is not represented.
The procedure used to generate ai guarantees that all the
possible values have different codes. Once bsi is generated,
it is appended to the bit stream which forms the
compressed version of the sequence of measures mi. Here
<<si,ai>> denotes the concatenation of si and ai. Since
transmission of a bit needs energy comparable to the
execution of thousand instructions, just saving only a bit by
compressing original data corresponds to reduce power
consumption[5]. We observe that the proposed algorithm is
simple but has an important drawback. In order to assign
probability, the statistics of sensor data must be known
already. Hence this algorithm may not be suitable for real
time sensor data.
III. ADAPTIVE HUFFMAN ALGORITHM
Huffman coding requires prior knowledge of the
probabilities of the source sequence. If this knowledge is
not available, Huffman coding becomes a two pass
procedure: the statistics are collected in the first pass and
the source is encoded in the second pass. In the Adaptive
Huffman coding procedure, neither transmitter nor receiver
knows anything about the statistics of the source sequence
at the start of transmission. The tree at both the transmitter
and the receiver consists of a single node that corresponds
to all symbols Not Yet Transmitted (NYT) and has a
weight of 0. As transmission progresses, nodes
corresponding to symbols transmitted will be added to the
tree and the tree is reconfigured using an update procedure.
Considering a simple 4 bit ADC representation for each
data, then before the beginning of transmission, a fixed 4 or
5 bit code depending whether the symbol is positive or

negative is agreed upon between the transmitter and
receiver. The actual code consists of two parts: The prefix
corresponding to the code obtained by traversing the tree
and the suffix corresponding to 4 or 5 bit binary
representation corresponding to positive or negative data
respectively. In the process of coding, the probability for
the incoming source sequence is assigned as the elements
get in to the tree formed. This gives rise to a problem
where the elements which come in the initial stages of tree
formation having lesser probability hold smaller codes.
Thereby, the compression ratio obtained is lesser. The
pseudo code for adaptive Huffman algorithm is shown in
Fig. 1.
module adaptivehuffman_encode (diff, btree)
createroot()
search (diff, btree)
if(node present)
incrementnode->wt
code = traverse(node)
else
prefix = traverse (nyt)
if(diff>=0)
suffix = diff4
if (diff<0)
suffix = diff5
code =<<prefix, suffix>>
nyt->lchild = createnyt()
nyt->rchild = createnode (diff)
nyt = nyt>lchild
endif
update (btree)
balance (btree)
endmodule
Fig.1 : Pseudo code of adaptive Huffman encoding algorithm.
Using Adaptive Huffman algorithm, we derived

probabilities which dynamically changed with the
incoming data, through Binary tree construction. Thus the
Adaptive Huffman algorithm provides effective
compression by just transmitting the node position in the
tree without transmitting the entire code. Unlike static
Huffman algorithm the statistics of the sensor data need not
be known for encoding the data. But the disadvantage in
this algorithm is its complexity in constructing the binary
tree which makes it unsuitable for sensor nodes.
Modified adaptive algorithm
In static and dynamic algorithms, the ultimate objective of
compression was achieved with fixed and dynamic
probabilities respectively. The main disadvantage of Static
Huffman algorithm is that, we do not have the prior
knowledge of the incoming source sequence. Also the
statistics of sensor data may be varying. In Adaptive
Page 317
Huffman algorithm, though the probabilities are assigned

dynamically, because of the increased number of data
available in the source sequence, the number of levels and
hence the number of bits transmitted increases and is found
to be effective only for very frequently and first occurring
data. The binary tree construction is based on the order of
arrival of incoming data. Hence, both static and adaptive
Huffman algorithms are observed to have some drawbacks.
The proposed Modified Adaptive Huffman algorithm
overcomes the disadvantages of both static and dynamic
Huffman algorithm by combining the advantages of the
two algorithms and ultimately increasing the compression
ratio. The algorithm uses a tree with leaves that represent
sets of symbols with the same frequency, rather than
individual symbols. The code for each symbol is therefore
composed of a prefix (specifying the set, or the leaf of the
tree) and a suffix (specifying the symbol within the set of
same-frequency symbols). The Binary Tree is constructed
with the incoming elements and the codes framed by
traversing the tree as in Adaptive Huffman algorithm.
Elements are grouped as nodes and codes are specifically
assigned as in Static Huffman algorithm. At every update
the weights at every level is checked and updated such that
the higher weights will be occupying the initial stages of
the tree.
{0} NYT
1
12001000800600400200-
{-0.3, -0.2, 0.2, 0.3}

{-0.1, 0.1}
This enhances the performance in two ways:

It reduces the number of levels in the tree.
It brings the maximum possible elements to the top

level of the tree.
Binary tree construction
50454035302520151050
Adaptive
Huffman
Binary tree construction used in the algorithm is shown in

Fig. 2, where each node consists of set of elements. The
temporal correlation in sensor data only the difference of
the sensor data di = ri-ri-1 is encoded. Consider for
example the set {-0.2, 0.1, 0.3} is transmitted. Initially the
encoder will have only the NYT node. Since -0.2 occurs
for the first time, it is transmitted as 10010 and a new node
Fig.3 : Compression analysis in terms of No. of bits transmitted.
Modified Adaptive
Huffman
Fig.2 : Binary Tree
Static
Huffman
NYT
Modified Adaptive
Huffman
Original Data
Adaptive
Huffman
Static
Huffman
NYT
{-0.3, -0.2, 0.2, 0.3}
which contains this data is inserted. When the next data 0.1
arrives, the tree is traversed in search of the node1 which
contains the data 0.1 in the binary tree. Since the node is
not available, the code corresponding to NYT node i.e., 0 is
transmitted, followed by 1 corresponding to the data 0.1..
So the code transmitted is 01. For the next data is 0.3, the
tree is traversed in search of the node 2 containing the data
0.3. Since node 2 is already available in the tree, the prefix
corresponding to node traversal 1 is transmitted. The binary
representation of the array index containing the data is
transmitted as suffix i.e., 11 corresponding to 3 which is
the array index containing the data 0.3 is transmitted. So
the code is transmitted is 111. Initially the algorithm starts
with subsets each having different probability. But this
does not require to transmit the tree prior to
decompression.
In the proposed algorithm, once we reach a leaf while
decoding, we know how many bits are there still to be read
and that allows us to make a single operation to get a bit
string which is readily converted to an integer.
Page 318
Fig. 4 : Compression Ratio
Compression ratio
Compression ratio is calculated as defined in[5]. The
formula used for compression ratio analysis is given as
follows:
Compression ratio = 100(1- compressed size/original size)
Compressed size is the number of bits obtained after
compression and original size will be the total number of
bits required without using compression algorithm.
The performance of the modified adaptive Huffman, static
and adaptive Huffman compression algorithm were
analyzed in terms of compression in number of bits
required for transmission is shown in fig. 3 and
compression ratio of each algorithm is shown in fig. 4.
IV.CONCLUSION
[2]
Chou, J. and K. Ramachandran, 2003. A distributed and adaptive
signal processing approach to reducing energy consumption inn sensor
networks. Proceeding of the INFOCOM 22nd Annual Joint Conference of
the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies, Mar. 30-Apr. 3, IEEE
Xplore
Press,
USA.,
pp:
1054-1062.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1208942
[3]
Tang, C., C.S. Raghavendra and K.V. Prasanna, 2003. An energy
efficient adaptive distributed source coding scheme in wireless sensor
networks. Proceeding of the IEEE International Conference on
Communications, May 11-15, IEEE Xplore Press, USA., pp: 732-737.
DOI: 10.1109/ICC.2003.1204270.
[4]
Ye, Q., Y. Liu and L. Zhang, 2006. An extended DISCUS scheme
for distributed source coding in wireless sensor networks. Proceeding of
the International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking
and Mobile Computing, Sept. 22-24, IEEE Xplore Press, Wuhan, pp: 1-4.
DOI: 10.1109/WiCOM.2006.286
[5]
Francesco Marcelloni, 2008. A simple algorithm for data
compression in wireless sensor networks. IEEE. Commun. Lett., 12: 411413. DOI: 10.1109/LCOMM.2008.080300
[6]
Lin, M.B., J.F. Lee and G.E. Jan, 2006. A lossless data
compression and decompression algorithm and its hardware architecture.
IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integrat. Syst., 14: 925-936. DOI:
10.1109/TVLSI.2006.884045
[7]
Pradhan, S.S., Julius Kusuma and K. Ramachandran, 2002.
Distributed compression for dense microsensor networks. IEEE. Signal
Proc. Mag.,19: 15-60. DOI: 10.1109/79.985684
[8]
Cesare, A., Romolo Camplani and C. Galperti, 2007. Lossless
compression techniques in wireless sensor networks: Monitoring
microacoustic emissions. Proceeding of the IEEE International Workshop
on Robotic and Sensor Environments, Oct. 12-13, IEEE Xplore Press,
Ottawa, Canada, pp: 1-5. DOI: 10.1109/ROSE.2007.4373963
[9]
http://www.mass.gov/dep/water/resources/
A simple algorithm namely modified adaptive Huffman

algorithm which does not require prior knowledge of the
statistics of sensor data is proposed for data compression in
the sensor network. The data compression is performed
adaptively based on the temporal correlation in the sensor
data. This modified adaptive Huffman encoding algorithm
effectively combines the advantages of static and adaptive
Huffman algorithms to provide effective compression by
reducing the number of levels in the binary tree. The
implementation of this algorithm shows better compression
ratio than adaptive Huffman algorithm. Since the number
of levels is restricted, this algorithm requires less
computation than adaptive Huffman which is an important
requirement for wireless sensor nodes. This algorithm
outperforms the static and adaptive Huffman algorithm in
providing better performance in terms of number of bits
transmitted.
Future Work
The proposed work can be implemented and
tested using Beagle board advanced multi core DSP
processor and the hardware results can be verified and
compared with the software simulation results.
V.REFERENCES
[1]
Akylidiz, I.F., W. Su, Y. Sankarasubramaniam and E. Cayirici,
2002. Wireless sensor networks: A survey. Comput. Networks, 38: 393422. DOI:
10.1016/S1389-1286(01)00302-4
Page 319
Active Noise Control: A Simulation Study

#
Sivadasan Kottayi#1, Narayanan N.K.*2

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Technology Department, Yanbu Industrial College,
Yanbu Al-Sinaiyah, Yanbu, KSA
1
sivadasankottayi@yahoo.com
* School of Information Science & Technology, Kannur University, Kerala, India.

2
csirc@rediffmail.com
AbstractIn the last decade active noise control has

emerged as a viable technology for cancellation of low
frequency noise. This paper explains the basic principle of
active noise control and a detailed account of broad band feed
forward active noise control system together with the
necessity of nullifying the secondary path as well as acoustic
feedback problems. A simulation study of active noise control
system for a passenger train cabin, an example of broad band
ANC has been carried out using the noise signal collected
from an air conditioned train cabin. Though it is a
multichannel ANC problem having different types of
complexities, it has been simplified with certain assumptions
and simulated for a single channel using different adaptive
algorithms. Among the five algorithms tried, normalized
LMS algorithm is found working well in this environment.
KeywordsActive noise control, Adaptive noise

cancellation, Adaptive systems, Digital Signal
Processing applications
I. INTRODUCTION
Active noise control (ANC) is an emerging
research area in engineering & technology having
numerous applications. It promises viability of numerous
quality products. One of the most successful ANC
products in the market is active noise cancelling headset
which reduces undesired noise going to human ears. This
increases the work efficiency of factory & aerospace
employees. The advent of high speed cost effective Digital
Signal Processing chips enhances the feasibility of many
ANC products [1,2,3] which in turn increases the comfort
of human beings while they are at home, travelling or in
office. Sound frequencies audible to human ears lie in the
frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 KHz. However, only a
certain band of frequencies is pleasurable to human ears.
The hustle and bustle of market places, noise in buses and
trains, rumble of air- conditioners, hissing of fans - all
make human beings exhausted. Such disturbing noises
need to be eliminated.
II. SCHEMES FOR ELIMINATING NOISE
There are two types of noises: high frequency
noise and low frequency noise. High frequency noise can
be reduced through conventional passive method [4],
which employs heavy barriers to block the transmission of
sound and also use certain acoustic materials to absorb
sound energy. However, these techniques are found less
effective at low frequency (< 500Hz) as to stop such kind

of noise one need to have barriers with large width, which
are expensive and often difficult to implement. Heavy and
bulky barriers are prohibited in aerospace applications. In
the case of mobile telephony, it is arduous to attend the
incoming telephone calls in a noisy environment.
Moreover, when you make a telephone call in such an
environment, the surrounding noise also propagates along
with the voice signal to the destination, which is also not
desirable. In all these situations conventional passive
techniques cannot be applied, but noise can be eliminated
electronically via active noise control.
III. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ACTIVE NOISE CONTROL
Active noise control (ANC) is based on
destructive interference between two sound fields: one is
the original or primary sound source, which has to be
eliminated and the other is secondary sound source or
control signal generated by the Electronic Controller,
having the same frequency of primary sound but 180 out
of phase, propagated through a loudspeaker to interfere
with the primary sound so that both signals get cancelled
by themselves. Since sound propagation is considered to
be linear and the principle of superposition is applicable to
it, their acoustic pressures cancel themselves. However,
how much an Active Noise Control is effective depends
upon the location of the sensing microphones and the
secondary signal source. It also depends upon the acoustic
environment as to whether the pressure wave propagates
freely in air or is enclosed within a confined space.
Destructive interference is most effective when two sound
fields are accurately aligned in space over an acoustic
wavelength.
IV ACTIVE NOISE CONTROL TECHNIQUES
In ANC two types of control techniques are in practice
one is Feedback ANC and the other is feed forward ANC.
Both the techniques are explained below.
A. Feedback ANC
Feedback control approach was first tried for
active noise cancelation by Olson and May [5] in the year
1953. A physical illustration of such a system in a
ventilation duct is shown in Fig. 1 and its equivalent
electrical block diagram is shown in Fig. 2. In Fig. 2 e
represents the signal derived from the monitor (error)
microphone, which is the combined effect of the
Page 320
disturbance d and the output of feedback loop. W was a

simple gain and phase inversion circuit described by Olson
and May. The electrical transfer function from loudspeaker
input to microphone output S is called secondary or error
path. It contains the electro acoustic response of the
loudspeaker, electro acoustic response of error microphone
and the acoustic characteristics of the path between
loudspeaker and error microphone. The transfer function
between the disturbance or primary source and measured
error is thus
Secondary
source
Monitor
microphone
Primary
Source
Duct
Loudspeaker
Fig. 1
Electronic
controller
A single channel feedback ANC System in a duct
microphone. Noise cancelling head set, which is one of the

most successful ANC products in the market works on this
principle as the proximity of eardrum is close to error
microphone. However, most of the other applications
except purely periodic disturbances, Feedback ANC is not
successful because of the restriction of placing error
microphone close to secondary source. This is another
major disadvantage of Feedback ANC. Therefore, Feed
forward ANC is widely used for active noise cancellation.
B. Feed-forward ANC
Feed forward ANC can be further divided into
Broad-band feed forward ANC and Narrow band feed
forward ANC. In this paper we concentrate on broad band
feed forward ANC as the paper study about the noise inside
a passenger train cabin, which is considered as broad band.
The noise we hear inside an air-conditioned train cabin is a
composite noise consists of engine sound, body vibration,
track sound, sound of air-conditioner and the noise made
by passengers. A broad band ANC system that has a single
reference microphone, single secondary signal source and
single error
microphone is shown in Fig. 3. Signal
processing time of the controller must be equal to the time
taken by the acoustic signal to reach from the reference
sensor to the secondary source; or else the ANC system
may not be effective in reducing the noise.
d
Loudspeaker
+
S
Fig. 2
Equivalent electrical block diagram

could be increased
in the feedback path
without limit causing the overall transfer function of the
feedback loop to become small. The feedback loop forcing
e to be small compare to d will be to cancel acoustic
pressure at the error microphone as required for active
noise control. However, the frequency response of the
secondary path
can never be made perfectly flat
and free from phase shift. The loudspeaker introduces
considerable phase shift.
The acoustic path from
loudspeaker to microphone involves some delay due to the
acoustic propagation time and this will also introduce an
increasing phase shift in the secondary path. If the phase
shift in the secondary path approaches 180, the negative
feedback described above becomes positive feedback and
the control system become unstable is a disadvantage of
Feedback ANC. If the system is digital as it is imperative
for implementing adaptive control, delay in secondary path
will be much more due to the process delay of A/D
converter, anti-aliasing filter, D/A converter and
reconstruction filter. Due to this reason feedback ANC is
normally implemented using analog circuit and secondary
source (loudspeaker) should be placed very close to error
Primary
Source
Secondary
source
Error
microphone
Reference
microphone
Anti-aliasing
filter and
A/D
t
D/A converter
& reconstructtion filter
Anti-aliasing
filter & A/D
converter
Digital
filter
Fig. 3
A Feed forward
Adaptive ANC
Algorithm
The broad band feed-forward ANC system shown in Fig. 3

is illustrated in an adaptive system identification
configuration as in Fig. 4, in which an adaptive filter W(z)
is used to estimate an unknown plant P(z). The primary
path P(z) consists of an acoustic response from the
reference sensor to the error sensor where the noise
attenuation is to be realized. If the plant is dynamic,
adaptive algorithm has to continuously track time
variations of the plant dynamic. In Fig. 4, E(z) = 0 after
adaptive filter W(z) converges. We then have W(z) = P(z)
for X(z) 0. Which implies that the adaptive filter output
y(n) is identical to the primary disturbance d(n). When
d(n) and y(n) are acoustically combined, the residual error
is e(n) = d(n) y(n) = 0 which results in perfect
Page 321
cancellation of both sounds based on the principle of super

position.
More insight into the system reveals that we have to
compensate secondary path transfer function S(z) from y(n)
to e(n) which includes D/A converter, reconstruction filter,
power amplifier, loudspeaker, acoustic path from
loudspeaker to error microphone, error microphone,
preamplifier, anti-aliasing filter and A/D converter. All
these components add noise and delay in generating
cancelling signal y(n). A scheme suggested by Morgan [6]
x(n)
Unknown
Plant P(z)
d(n)
e(n)
y(n)
Digital
filter W(z)
Fig. 4
x(n)
System identification view point of ANC
Adaptive
filter
W(z)
(z)
e(n)
d(n)
Unknown
Plant P(z)
S(z)
y(n)
LMS
Algorithm
Fig. 5 Block diagram of ANC system using the FXLMS
algorithm.
to solve this problem is to place an identical filter in the
reference signal path as shown in Fig. 5 to weight update of
LMS algorithm which realizes the Filtered X-LMS
(FXLMS) algorithm [7]. FXLMS algorithm for active
noise control has been derived by Burgess [8] as
In ANC applications, S(z) is unknown and must be
. Therefore, the
estimated by an additional filter
filtered reference signal is generated by passing the
reference signal through this estimate of the secondary path
as
is the estimated impulse response of the

where
. With in the limit of slow
secondary path filter
adaptation, the algorithm will converge with nearly 90 of
and S(z). Of-line modeling and
phase error between
online modeling can be used to estimate [1] S(z).
Another problem in feed-forward ANC is the
radiation of cancelling signal y(n) towards the reference
microphone, resulting in a corrupted reference signal x(n).
The coupling of the acoustic wave from the canceling
loudspeaker to the reference microphone is called acoustic
feedback.
The feedback component of the reference
microphone signal can be cancelled electronically using a
feedback neutralization filter
, which model the
feedback path. The models
and
can be
estimated simultane-ously by using the offline modeling
technique [1]
The noise field in a reasonably large enclosure, for
example, a train compartment is more complicated than a
narrow duct. The sound field inside a passenger train cabin
is created by standing waves rather than propagating waves
and depends on the superposition of a number of acoustic
modes. A mode is characterized by the number of
wavelengths that fit along one dimension of the enclosure.
Theoretically, each mode contains fundamental frequency
plus infinite number of harmonics [9]. For perfect
multichannel active noise control, infinite number of
microphones are essential to sense each harmonic and also
infinite number of loudspeakers are required for sending
control signals, which is practically impossible to
implement.
However, many microphones and
loudspeakers, well placed throughout the enclosure are
needed to make the enclosure reasonably quiet. Situations
will be worsened when the characteristics of primary signal
changes with time as it is very common in ANC
applications. The spectrum of the sound inside a train
compartment changes when it passes through a tunnel or
over a bridge. Thus a good ANC system able to tackle
such situations is quite challenging. To encounter such
conditions, a multichannel adaptive noise control system
should be devised with suitable adaptive control algorithm,
which can generate secondary signals for nullifying the
noise.
Primary
source
P
+
+
F
S
M
x(n)
d(n)
y(n)
e(n)
J
M
Page 322
Block diagram of a multiple channel feed forward acoustic

ANC system that includes secondary path as well as
feedback path is illustrated in Fig. 6. The system has J
reference sensors, K cancelling signals to drive the
corresponding secondary sources and M error sensors. The
wide arrows represent an array of signals (acoustic or
electrical) that are symbolically expressed as vectors.
primary path transfer function
Matrix P represents
Pmj(z) from the primary source to each error sensor output
secondary path
em(n). The matrix S represents
transfer function Smk(z) from K secondary sources to M
feedback
error sensors. Also the matrix F represents
path transfer function Fjk(z) from K secondary sources to J
reference sensors. There are
possible feed forward
channels, each demanding a separate adaptive filter and
adaptive filters are presented by the matrix W.
these
Full description of a multiple channel ANC using FXLMS
algorithm is given in [1].
V. SIMULATION STUDY OF ACTIVE NOISE
CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A PASSENGER TRAIN
CABIN
Active noise control of a closed chamber like train
cabin is a multichannel system problem as explained
earlier. However, for study purpose only one channel has
been considered and simulated using matlab. The primary
noise x(n) has been collected inside an air-conditioned train
compartment. Thousand samples with sampling interval of
0.001 second are used for simulation. The primary path
transfer function is modeled as low pass filter which is
achieved using matlab command b=fir1(n,Wn), returns row
vector b containing n+1 coefficients. This is a hamming
window based linear phase filter of order n with
normalized
cut off frequency Wn. In simulation the order of the filter
is fixed as 32.
In an ANC system, secondary path introduces
delay as well as noise in control signal y(n) which is due to
the electronic subsystems, loud speaker and error
microphone explained earlier. For simplicity, instead of
estimating the secondary path transfer function S(z), one of
its most important features of introducing noise in y(n) is
taken into consideration and hence random noise has been
added with control signal y(n). Matlab command n =
0.02*randn(1000,1)
generates a scaled version
of
normally distributed random numbers of
matrix
with mean = 0 , variance = 1 and standard deviation = 1,
which represents electronics noise of secondary path. The
electronic noise added to control signal is approximately
1% of the train noise. The delay factor is not considered in
simulation as it can be compensated while practically
implementing the system by proper placement of secondary
sources and error microphones. The feedback path transfer
function F(z) has been omitted in this simulation study as it

is assumed that secondary source is made directing
towards error microphone as well as the reference sensor is
assumed as directional microphone and placed in the
opposite direction of loudspeaker. These assumptions
made us to eliminate feedback problem.
TABLE I
SIMULATION RESULTS
Diff.
algorithms
Resultant noise inside the train cabin for different values of

=0.25
=0.26
=0.27
=0.28
=0.29
=0.30
-23.56
=1.8
-23.67
=1.9
-23.79
=2.0
-24.02
=2.1
-23.62
=2.2
-17.70
=2.3
-26.65
=0.08
-27.01
=0.09
-27.19
=0.10
-27.60
=0.11
-27.94
=0.12
-27.79
=0.13
-23.26
=0.006
-23.80
=0.007
-23.67
=0.008
-24.61
=0.009
-25.10
=0.01
-25.25
=0.02
-15.90
=0.004
-16.14
=0.005
-16.57
=0.006
-16.55
=0.007
-16.77
=0.008
-15.84
=0.009
-16.42
-16.30
-16.11
-15.57
-14.78
-14.73
LMS
NLMS
SDLMS
SELMS
SSLMS
The ANC system in this environment has been

simulated on a digital computer using different control
Primary noise (x)

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Signal value
Fig. 6 Block diagram of an adaptive multiple-channel

feed forward ANC system with feedback paths.
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
100
200
300
400
500
600
Signal samples
700
800
900
1000
Fig 7 Original noise in side the cabin

Fig. 8(a) Resultant noise when NLMS algorithm is used
(-27.94 dB for =2.2)
algorithms [1,10]
namely LMS adaptive algorithm,
Normalized LMS adaptive algorithm, Signed data LMS
adaptive algorithm, Sign error LMS adaptive algorithm,
Sign- sign LMS adaptive algorithm. In each case
performance of the system has been evaluated on the basis
of the minimum output power of the resultant noise (error
signal) after the destructive interference between primary
and secondary noise. In all cases the simulation has been
done by keeping the length of the adaptive filter as 32 taps.
Just for an example, the matlab command ha=adaptfilt.lms
(32,mu) constructs a 32nd order FIR LMS adaptive filter.
The parameter mu is the step size of adaptive filter. By
adjusting the value of mu the optimum performance of the
filter can be achieved. In the same manner ANC systems
using other algorithms are simulated and their performance
Page 323
Fig. 8(c) Resultant noise when LMS algorithm is used

(-24.02) for =0.28)
plot of Error signal (e)
0.6
0.5
0.4
Signal value
is tabulated in Table-1 for different values of . . The

primary signal is shown in Fig. 7. The error signals
obtained while using different algorithms mentioned above
are depicted in Fig. 8(a-e). Among the five control
algorithms experimented, NLMS algorithm performed well
in this environment. It could reduce the train cabin noise to
a minimum level of -27.94 dB
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.2
0
0.15
Signal value
-0.1
0.1
100
200
300
400
500
600
Signal samples
700
800
900
1000
Fig. 8(d) Resultant noise when SELMS algorithm is used

(-16.77 dB for =0.01)
0.05
0.6
-0.05
100
200
300
400
500
600
Signal samples
700
800
900
1000
0.5
0.4
Signal value
0.3
0.25
Signal value
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.15
0
0.1
-0.1
0.05
100
200
300
400
500
600
Signal samples
700
800
900
1000
-0.05
100
200
300
400
500
600
Signal samples
700
800
900
1000
Fig. 8(b) Resultant noise when SDLMS algorithm is used

(-25.25 dB for =0.13)
0.3
0.25
Signal value
0.2
0.15
Fig. 8(e) Resultant noise when SSLMS algorithm is used

(-16.42 dB for =0.004)
VI. CONCLUSION
A single channel ANC system for passenger train
cabin has been simulated using the real signal collected
from an air-conditioned train cabin. Simulation study
reveals that normalized LMS algorithm works well in this
environment compare to other experimented algorithms as
it could reduce more cabin noise. The study can be
extended by incorporating the estimated transfer functions
of secondary path as well as acoustic feedback path in the
system together with problems associated in a multichannel
ANC system.
0.1
0.05
-0.05
100
200
300
400
500
600
Signal samples
700
800
900
1000
Page 324
REFERENCE
[ 1]
S.M. Kuo and D.R. Morgan, Active Noise Control Systems
Algorithms and DSP implementations. New Yourk: Wiley, 1996.
[ 2]
S.J. Elliott and P.A. Nelson, Active Noise Control, IEEE
Signal Processing Magazine, October 1983.
[3]
Colin H. Hansen, Understanding active noise cancellation,
Spon Press, London, 2001
[4]
L. L. Beranek and I. L. Ver, Noise and Vibration Control
Engineering Principles and applications. New York, Wiley, 1992.
[5]
Olson H.F & May E.G Electronic sound absorber, Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, 25, pp 1130-1136, 1953.
[6]
D.R. Morgan, An analysis of multiple correlation cancellation
loops with a filter in the auxiliary path, IEEE Trans. Acoust., speech,
Signal Processing, Vol. ASSP-28, pp. 454-467, Aug. 1980.
[7]
B. Widrow and S.D. Stearns, Adaptive Signal Processing.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1985.
[8]
J.C. Burgess, Active adaptive sound control in a duct: A
Computer simulation, Journal of Acoust. Soc. of America, vol. 70, pp.
715-726, Sept. 1981.
[9]
Stephen J. Elliott, Down with Noise, IEEE Spectrum, June
1999.
[10]
Monson H. Hayes, Statistical Digital Signal Processing &
Modeling. John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
Page 325
Texture Segmentation Method Based On

Combinatorial Of Morphological And Statistical
OperationsUsingWavelets
V.Vijayapriya1, Prof.K.R.Krishnamoorthy2
1 M.E, CSE, Anna university,Trichy /2 HOD, Dept. of ECE, SACS MAVMM Engineering College, Madurai.
vvijayapriyame@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Segmentation process for texture analysis is widely used for
pattern recognition, industrial automation, biomedical image
processing and remote sensing. Segmentation based on
combinations of morphological and statistical operation is
preferred in this project on wavelet transform images.The
features like shape, size, contrast or connectivity makes
attractive usage of mathematical morphology and can be
considered for segmented oriented features.In order to get a
better performance with wavelet transform for haar, db1, db6,
coif6 and sym8 the system proposes derived equation on dilation,
erosion, mean and median which results in segmentation.The
process divides the wavelet combinatorial segmentation
algorithm in to 3 groups based on type of operation and number
of operations. The method using wavelet transform is applied on
Brodatz Texture which results in good segmentation. The 500
Brodatz Texture image considered for performance Analysis
which is compared with derived equations and filters in order to
get a segmented results. The segmented results are used in
comparative study with Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR)
technique.
Keywords: Discrete Wavelet transform, morphological and
statistical operation, filter analysis.
I.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of the present work is to explore the

improved version of wavelet based texture segmentation
derived by (a) the method used for the construction of the
multiresolution image with morphological operations, and (b)
the combinatorial coefficient selection process designed to
emphasize the information that is most important in the
segmentation process.
1.1 Overview of texture analysis

Texture analysis is an important issue in many areas like
object recognition, image retrieval study, medical imaging,
robotics, and remote sensing. Despite the development of a
family of techniques over the last couple of decades, there are
only a few reliable methods. Multiresolution techniques seem
to be attractive for many applications. In this study, present an
approach based on the discrete wavelet transform and

morphological concept. We integrate the framework of
Brodatz texture images with the transform coefficients to
obtain a flexible method for texture segmentation. Compared
to intensity (spatial domain), the wavelet coefficients appear
to be more reliable with respect to noise immunity and the
ease of feature formation
The wavelet transform is a multi-resolution
technique, which can be implemented as a pyramid or tree
structure and is similar to sub-band decomposition. There are
various wavelet transforms like Haar, Daubechies, Coiflet,
Symlet and etc. They differ with each other in the formation
and reconstruction. The wavelet transform divides the original
image into four subbands and they are denoted by LL, HL, LH
and HH frequency subbands. The HH subimage represents
diagonal details (high frequencies in both directions ), HL
gives horizontal high frequencies (vertical edges), LH gives
vertical high frequencies (horizontal edges), and the image LL
corresponds to the lowest frequencies. At the subsequent scale
of analysis, the image LL undergoes the decomposition using
the same filters, having always the lowest frequency
component located in the upper left corner of the image. Each
stage of the analysis produces next 4 subimages whose size is
reduced twice when compared to the previous scale. i.e. for
level n it gives a total of 4+(n-1)*3 subbands. The size of
the wavelet representation is the same as the size of the
original. The Haar wavelet is the first known wavelet and was
proposed in 1909 by Alfred Haar. Haar used these functions to
give an example of a countable orthonormal system for the
space of square integrable functions on the real line. The
Daubechies wavelets (1992) are a family of orthogonal
wavelets defining a discrete wavelet transform and
characterized by a maximal number of vanishing moments for
some given support. With each wavelet type of this class,
there is a scaling function which generates an orthogonal
multiresolution analysis.
Page 326
II. METHODOLOGY
Input
image
The figure 1.1 consists of three blocks with arrow

indicating the process between the blocks. Each block
represents a separate module.
DWT(FILT
ERSELECTI
ON
MORPHOLOGICAL
SEGMENTATIONSYST
EM
Figure 1 overview of the project

2.1 Wavelet Transform for Image Analysis
(a) DWT
The first module of the project is concerned with the
implementation of the image decomposition using Lifting
wavelet Transform, where the input images are divided in to
four number of coefficients like Approximation, Horizontal,
Vertical and Diagonal.
(b) Filter selection
Selecting the appropriate wavelet filter for achieving
good segmented result where used orthogonal filters such as
Haar, Daubechies, Symlet and Coiflet filters.
2.2 Morphological and Statistical Operation
The second module of the project is concerned with the
morphological operations using Erosion and Dilation and
statistical operations using Mean, Median filters with some
randomly selected coefficients as alpha, beta and gamma for
getting high quality segmentation.
2.3Segmentation system
The third module is concerned with comparative
analysis of the Brodatz texture image segmentation using
DWT for 500 set of standard images. The images used in this
analysis were obtained from internet. The Eight types of
segmented results are evaluated by using PSNR and Distortion
Measure technique to identify the quality of segmented
images among haar, daubechies, coiflet and symlet wavelet
filters.
III. RELATED WORK
The concept of morphology proposed many

segmentation algorithms based on the orientation and type of
Structuring Element (SE). But this paper advocates a new
method of segmentation of images, based on combinatorial
approach of mathematical morphology and primitive
statistical operations. A gray level image typically consists of
both bright and dark object features with respect to size or
scale. The basic objective of the present segmentation
algorithm is to isolate or sketch out the most optimal contours
of these bright and dark features. [1]
One of the most popular filter pairs is the 9/7
biorthogonal pair of Cohen, Daubechies, and Feauveau,
which is adopted in the FBI finger-print compression
standard. Present a technique to rationalize the coefficients
of wavelet filters that will preserve biorthogonality and
perfect reconstruction. Furthermore, most of the zeros at z =
-1 will also be preserved. These zeros are important for
achieving regularity. The rationalized coefficients filters
have characteristics that are close to the original irrational
coefficients filters. Three popular pairs of filters, which
include the 9/7 pair, will be considered [2].
IV. PROPOSED WORK
The present project advocates a new method of
segmentation of images, based on combinatorial approach of
mathematical morphology and primitive statistical operations.
The segmentation results depend upon the
combinatorial coefficients of , and . This dependency is
restricted to 95% by keeping the condition > and > .
S[i,j]=*D[i,j]-*E[i,j]- *(D[i,j]-E[i,j])
.(3.1)
S[i,j]=*D[i,j]-*E[i,j]- *(D[i,j]+E[i,j]) .(3.2)

D [i, j], E [i, j] represents Dilated and Eroded
values of the 33 mask respectively, S [i, j] represents
segmented grey level value of the mask. The group two
combinatorial segmentation is represented by equations (3.3)
and (3.4).
S[i, j] =| *D[i, j] * E[i, j] * Avg | (3.3)
S[i, j] =| *D[i, j] * E[i, j] * Med | (3.4)
Where > and > , Avg represents average
value of the 33 mask and Med represents median value of
the 33 mask. The segmentation of group three forms from
the two operations of morphology and/or statistics. The
mathematical representation for group three combinatorial
segmentation is given in equations (3.5), (3.6), (3.7) and (3.8).
S[i, j] = [ *D[i, j] *Avg]
(3.5)
Page 327
S[i, j] = [ *Avg *E[i, j]]
(3.6)
25
Eq3
20
S[i, j] =[ *D[i, j] *Med]
(3.7)
S[i, j] = [ *Med *E[i, j]]
(3.8)
10
Where . This is needed to keep the

resultant value of equations (3.5), (3.6), (3.7) and (3.8) as
positive.
V.
DISCUSSION
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
AND
The comparative analysis of various wavelet filters

using wavelet transforms has been performed for
Approximated value and detailed value with the combinatorial
coefficients 431 is analyzed.The PSNRvalue for one level
decomposition has been performed.
Eq1
Eq7
Eq5
Eq6
Eq8
Approxim ation
Eq 4
Eq3
25
Eq4
20
15
10
5
Eq 1
Eq7
Eq6
Fig3 Approximation and detailed coefficients segmentation

ofcoif6filterusingalpha=4,peta=3,gama=1
Eq 3
Eq1
Eq1
Detailed
Eq8
Eq 6
EQ5
Eq7
Eq3
Eq5
Eq6 Eq8
Eq2
Eq4
Eq6
Eq7
Eq8
EQ5 Eq 7
Eq 1 Eq 3 Eq 5 Eq7
Eq 2 Eq 4
Eq 6 Eq 8
EQ5
Eq8
Detailed
15
10
Eq4
-5
20
Eq2
30
25
Eq3
Eq1
30
5
0
Eq4
15
Approximation
Detailed
Approxim ation

ofsym8filterusingalpha=4,peta=3,gama=1
Fig4 Approximation and detailed coefficients

segmentationofDb6filterusingalpha=4,peta=3,gama=1.
Inf
5
4
Eq3
25
Eq4
1.458
20
1.722
-1.883
15
10
0
EQ5
Eq1
Eq3
Eq2
Eq4
Eq6
Eq8
-1
Eq7
Eq1
Eq7
Eq5
Eq6
Eq8
-2
Db1
Detailed
Db6
Sym 8
Coif6
0
Approximation
Fig5Segmentation2resultPSNRvaluecomparisionofHaar
withDb1,Db6,sym8andcoif6usingalpha=4,peta=3,gama=1

ofDb1filterusingalpha=4,peta=3,gama=1
Page 328
conference. Acoust, Speech, Signal Processing, Volume. 6, page

no. VI513. April. 2003
VI. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

The comparative analysis of various wavelet filters using
wavelet transforms has been performed for Approximated
value and detailed value with the combinatorial coefficient
431 is analyzed. A graph was drawn for PSNR vs filter, from
the graph obtained that the db1 filter provides better
performance over the remaining filter.
The comparative analysis of various wavelet filters for
Detailed value and approximated value with various
combinatorial coefficients has to be performed with PSNR
and Distortion measure techniques.
[10]
Michael Weeks, Digital Signal Processing Using MATLAB and

Wavelets, 2007 Edition. Infinity Science Press LLC. (An imprint
of Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd.)
[11]
JuHan, Kai-Kuang Ma, Rotation invariant and scale-invariant

Gabor features for texture image retrival, science direct image
and vision computing 25 page no. 1474-1481, 2007.
[12]
Dogu Baran Aydogan, Markus Hannula, Tuukka Arola, Jari

Hyttinen. Texture based Classification and Segmentation of
Tissues using DT-CWT feature extraction methods, 21st IEEE
International Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems.
page no. 614-619, 2008.
REFERENCES
[1]
Vijayakumar.V, Raju.U.S.N and Narasimha Rao.A.

Wavelet based texture segmentation based on
combinatorial of Morphological and Statistical
operations. IJCSNS International Journal of
Computer Science and Network Security , volume
Page no 176-180 August 2008
[2]
Jianyu Lin and Mark J. T. Smith New Perspectives and

Improvements on the Symmetric Extension Filter Bank for
Subband/Wavelet Image Compression -IEEE Transactions on
signal processing, volume. 17, NO. 2, page no 177 - 189 February
2008.
[3]
Balasingham.I and Ramstad, Are the Wavelet T.A Transforms the

Best Filter Banks for Image Compression? research article,
Hindawi Publishing
Corporation EURASIP Journal on
Image and Video Processing, page no 1-7, Article ID 287197,
2008.
[4]
Sweldens.W, The lifting scheme: a coustom-design construction of

biorthogonal wavelets appl. Comut.harmon.anal.volume no.
3,page no.186-200, 1996
[5]
sweldens.w, the lifting scheme: a construction of second generation

wavelets, SIAM J. Math.Anal,page no .511-546,1997.
[6]
Torsten Palfner and Erika Muller, effects of symmetric periodic

extension for multiwavelet filter banks on image coding. IEEE
Institute of telecommunications and information technology
university of Rostock, Germany,1999.
[7]
Bryan E. Usevitch, A tutorial on modern lossy wavelet image

compression: foundations of JPEG 2000 IEEE signal processing
magazine, September 2001.
[8]
[9]
Soman K.P and Ramachandran K.I,Insight into

wavelets from theory to practice, 2006 edition.
Prentice hall of India private limited.
Adiga A, Ramakrishnan K. R, and Adiga B. S A Design and
implementation of orthonoramal symmetric wavelet transform
using PRCC Filter Banks-in proceeding IEEE International
Page 329
Fpga Design Of Routing Algorithms For Network

On Chip
R.Anitha#1, Dr.P.Renuga#2
Lecturer, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, PSNA CET, Anna University, India
#2
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, TCE, Anna University, India
#1
anitha_rvs@yahoo.co.in
2
preee@tce.edu
Abstract: In this paper, we present a methodology to develop

efficient and deadlock-free routing algorithms for Networkon-Chip (NoC) platforms that are specialized for an
application or a set of concurrent applications. The proposed
methodology, called the Application- Specific Routing
Algorithm (APSRA), exploits the application-specific
information regarding pairs of cores that communicate and
other pairs that never communicate in the NoC platform to
maximize communication adaptivity and performance.
Based on the selected network topology, outgoing packets are
switched either directly to the East/West router outputs or to
the second crossbar for the North/South router outputs.
Incoming packets that arrive through the North/South ports
that are connected to the second crossbar are switched
directly to the attached node element, but packets arriving
through the East/West ports must be switched from the first
crossbar to the second crossbar in order to reach the attached
node element. In this paper we store the Routing table in
compressed form in the router. Hence the number of gates
required is reduced. In future also we perform the Routers
data compression by using Modified Run length encoding
which makes the fast data transfer.
1. INTRODUCTION
Network on chip has emerged as a dominant paradigm for
the synthesis of multicore SoCs they are generally viewed
as the ultimate solution for the design of modular and
scalable communication architectures and provide inherent
support for the integration of heterogeneous core through
the standardization of the network boundary. The network
topology and routing algorithm used in the underlying onchip communication network are the two important
aspects. A highly adaptive routing algorithm has a potential
of providing high performance, fault tolerance and uniform
utilization of network resources. Generally routing
algorithms providing high adaptiveness guarantee freedom
from deadlock by means of virtual channels (VCs).For
arbitary network topologies, a relatively large number of
VCs could be required to provide deadlock freedom, high
adaptivity, and shortest paths. However the use of the VCs
introduces some overhead in terms of both additional
resources and mechanisms for their management. To limit
such overhead, some proposals try to minimize the number
of VCs required to obtain a high degree of adaptivity. For
these reasons, we believe that reducing as much as possible
the number of VCs required to provide deadlock-free

routing and, at
the same, guaranteeing a high degree of adaptiveness must
be considered one of the primary concerns in the NoC
domain. In this paper, we present a methodology to design
highly adaptive routing algorithms for NoC architectures
that do not require the use of any VCs. In order to develop
efficient, highly adaptive, deadlock-free and topologyagnostic routing algorithms. We call algorithms developed
using this information as Application-Specific Routing
Algorithms. The APSRA methodology is general, in the
sense that it is not designed for a given/fixed network
topology.
2. APSRA DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Communicatio
T
Applic
ation
T
Task
T
Ta
sk
T
1
T
2
Mappi
ng
Topology Graph
T
l
I
P
P
7
APSR
Compres
sion
C
C
P6
Cb
dS C
Rout
i
Compre
ssed
Configure/Rec
Fig. 1. APSRA Design Methodology
The APSRA design methodology is depicted in fig.1. It

gets as inputs the application modeled as a task graph and
the network topology modeled as a topology graph. Using
Task Mapping information, APSRA generates a set of
routing tables that not only guarantee both the reachability
and the deadlock freeness of communication among tasks
Page 330
but also try to maximize routing adaptivity. A compression

technique can be used to compress the generated routing
tables. Finally, the compressed routing tables are uploaded
to the physical chip.
2.1. ARCHITECTURAL IMPLICATIONS OF APSRA
(TL,BR,Colo
InReg
ion
Top
cfg
setup
dst
InReg
ion
Top
2.2. ROUTING TABLE COMPRESSION
hit
ao
Admissible
Outputs
Dem
dst
addr
ao
cfg
setup
dst
cfg
additional degree of freedom in routing algorithms as they

can be reconfigured at runtime to adapt to the current
traffic condition or offline to manage network topology
variation due to manufacturing defects. A disadvantage is
that a table can take a large space if many destination
addresses should be stored. That is, in such an
implementation, the cost (silicon area) of the router will be
proportional to the size of the routing table.
hit
We proposed a method to compress the routing table to

reduce its size such that the resulting routing algorithm
remains deadlock free and has high adaptivity. The basic
idea of the compressing method is shown in Fig.3 Let us
suppose that the routing table associated to the west input
port of node X is that shown in Fig. 3a.
setup
ao
cfg
setup
InReg
ion
Top
dst
hit
Enco
der
M:lg
Data
En
Cfg=(TL,BR,Col
setup
dat
Re
TL
Data
En
Re
BR
color
InReg
ion
ao
hit
dat
En
Re
Fig. 2. Block diagram of the Architectural

Implications of APSRA
One way to implement the routing function is to design it

in hardware logic (also known as the algorithmic
approach). In this case, there can, e.g., be a state machine
that takes the current node address, the destination address,
and some status information stored in the router as inputs
and outputs the admissible out ports. Another way to
implement the routing function is to use a routing table.
The index to the table, where the admissible outputs are
stored, is the destination address or a function of the
destination address. The values of the table are dependent
on which router it is I Implemented. The algorithmic
approach comes at the cost of a loss of generality with
respect to the table-based approach. In fact, the algorithm is
only specific to one topology and to one routing strategy on
that topology. On the other hand, this mechanism turns out
to be more efficient (area wise and performance wise) than
table-based routing. However, routing tables introduce an
Dest.
Admissible
Outputs
North, East
East
South, East
South, East
South, East
South, East
South
South
East
Fig. 3. (a). Routing Table before

Compression
A B
A B
R
1
C D
F
G H I
C D
E
F E
G H I
R
2
Fig. 3. (b). Color based Clustering
Page 331
asserted, the address input is used to select the region to be

configured. Configuring a
Dest.
Admissible
Outputs
North, East
East
R1
South, East
R2
South
East
Fig. 3. (c). Compressed Routing Table
Since we are considering minimal routing, the destination

node for a packet received from the west port will be in the
right part of the NoC. Now, let us suppose to associate a
color for each one of the five possible sets of admissible
output directions. For instance, we mark with color Red
(Green/Blue) all the destination nodes that, to be safely
reached, needs that a packet in the west input port must be
forwarded through the North (South/East) output port.
Similarly, we mark with color Purple (Yellow) all the
destination nodes that, to be safely reached, needs that a
packet in the west input port must be forwarded through
the North or East (South or East) output channels. The left
side of Fig. 2b shows the set of destinations colored on the
basis of the information stored in the routing table. The
next step is to perform a color-based clustering of the
destination nodes by means of rectangular regions. The
right side of Fig. 2b shows an example of such a clustering.
The basic idea of the compression technique is that it is no
longer necessary to store the set of all the destinations, but
only the set of Clusters, as shown in Fig. 2c. If a small loss
in adaptivity is allowed, a cluster merging Procedure can
be used to increase the compression ratio. For instance, in
Fig. 13c, clusters R1 (yellow) and R2 (green) can be
merged to form a single cluster R3 (yellow) whose
destinations can be reached by using only the east output
port. As reported i[55], in practical cases, using from four
to eight clusters is enough to cover all practical traffic
scenarios without any loss in adaptivity. Using from two to
three clusters gives a small reduction in adaptivity, which
translates to less than 3 percent performance degradation as
compared to uncompressed routing tables. From the
architectural viewpoint, the logic to manage the
compressed routing table is very simple. Fig. 3 shows the
block diagram of the architecture implementing the routing
function that uses the compressed routing table. For a given
destination, the block extracts from the compressed routing
table the set of admissible outputs. The input port setup
allows us to configure the router. When the setup is
region means storing attributes characterizing the region

(top right, bottom left, and color) into the compressed
routing table. The block In Region checks if a destination
dst belongs to a region identified by its top-left corner (TL)
and its bottom-right corner (BR). If this condition is
satisfied, the output assumes the value of the color input,
and output hit is set.
2.3. Table-Based Implementation
A. Area Overhead Analysis
To evaluate the overhead in silicon area due to the use of
routing table with respect to routing logic, we designed in
VHDL and synthesized by using Synopsys Design
Compiler for a UMC 0:13-_m technology library the
following blocks:
Routing function: It is the block that gives the set of
admissible outputs for the current node and a given
destination. We designed three different blocks that
implement the XY routing function, the Odd-Even routing
function, and the routing-table-based routing
function. The first two are pure combinatorial logic. The
latter one, whose block diagram is depicted in Fig. 14,
contains memory elements also.
With regard to the routing-table-based routing block, we
considered two different instances able to manage four
regions (RT4) and eight regions (RT8), respectively.
Input FIFO_5. They are the FIFO buffers at the input of
each router. For a mesh-based network topology, there are
five FIFO buffers in total.
Crossbar: It is a general 5 _ 5 crossbar block that allows us
to simultaneously route non conflicting packets.
Arbiter: It is a general arbiter that manages the situation
where several packets simultaneously want to use the same
output. In this case, arbitration between these packets has
to be performed. We used
a round-robin policy. Table 3 reports the silicon area for
each of the main blocks of a router for three different
routers Implementing XY routing, Odd-Even routing, and
table-based routing, respectively. With regard to the latter,
two different implementations able to manage compressed
routing tables with a budget of four (RT4) and eight (RT8)
table entries have been considered. The cost overhead of a
routing table implementation based on the proposed
compression technique and architecture represents only a
small fraction of the overall router cost.
Page 332
3. APSRA SIMULATED OUTPUT

SimulationResultsForSouthwestPort
SimulationResultsForEastPort
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have proposed a topology agnostic
methodology to develop efficient APSRA for NoCs. Our
methodology not only uses the information about the
topology of communicating cores but also exploits
information about the concurrency of communication
transactions Routing algorithms generated by the APSRA
method has even higher performance and adaptivity
advantage over other deadlock-free routing algorithm. The
APSRA methodology uses a heuristic to remove the
minimum number of edges in the channel dependency
graph to ensure deadlock-free routing. A straightforward
table implementation may not be practically useful, since
the table size grows with the number of nodes in the
network. Therefore, we have also proposed a technique to
compress tables such that the effect on the original routing
algorithm is minimal.
[1] A. Ivanov and G.D. Micheli, The Network-on-Chip

Paradigm in Practice and Research, IEEE Design and Test
of Computers, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 399-403, Sept.-Oct. 2005.
[2] S. Kumar, A. Jantsch, J.-P. Soininen, M. Forsell, M.
Millberg, J. Oberg, K. Tiensyrja, and A. Hemani, A
Network on Chip Architecture and Design Methodology,
Proc. IEEE CS Ann. Symp. VLSI, p. 117, 2002.
[3] W.J. Dally and B. Towles, Route Packets, Not Wires:
On-Chip Interconnection Networks, Proc. 38th Design
Automation Conf. (DAC 01), pp. 684-689, 2001.
[4] F. Karim, A. Nguyen, and S. Dey, An Interconnect
Architecture for Networking Systems on Chips, IEEE
Micro, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 36-45, Sept.-Oct. 2002.
[5] P.P. Pande, C. Grecu, A. Ivanov, and R. Saleh, Design
of a Switch for Network on Chip Applications, Proc.
IEEE Intl Symp. Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 03), vol.
5, pp. 217-220, May 2003.
[6] T. Bjerregaard and S. Mahadevan, A Survey of
Research and Practices of Network-on-Chip, ACM
Computing Surveys, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 1-51, 2006.
[7] P.P. Pande, C. Grecu, M. Jones, A. Ivanov, and R.
Saleh, Performance Evaluation and Design Trade-Offs for
Networkon- Chip Interconnect Architectures, IEEE Trans.
Computers, vol. 54, no. 8, pp. 1025-1040, Aug. 2005.
[8] D. Linder and J. Harden, An Adaptive and FaultTolerant Wormhole Routing Strategy for k-Ary n-Cubes,
IEEE Trans. Computers, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 2-12, Jan. 1991.
[9] C.J. Glass and L.M. Ni, The Turn Model for Adaptive
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5. REFERENCES
Page 333
Creating Actionable Knowledge within the

Organization using Rough set computing
Mr.R..Rameshkumar #1 , Dr. A. Arunagiri *2 , Dr.V .Khanaa #3 , Mr.C.Poornachandran
=4
# Information System Department,Bharat University,

Selaiyur,Chennai 600073, T.N,India.
1
ramesh116@hotmail.com
drvkannan62@yahoo.com
* EEET Department,Yanbu Industrial College,

Yanbu Al- Sinaya , Yanbu, KSA.
2
aarunagiri@yic.edu.sa
= Department of Computer Science,Government Arts College,

Nandanam,Chennai, India.
4
cpooranachandran@hotmail.com
Scalable from 2 to many experts.
Abstract
For a management consultant in order to successfully assist
an organization in creating new actionable knowledge
(knowledge that is used to create value), the consultant must
be aware of a knowledge dimension called Coalescent
knowledge. The process for creating actionable knowledge in
this dimension is a dialogue process. For example, product
development is guided by several expert knowledge including
critical process relationships which are dynamic, derived
from experience and are often nonlinear. A new inductive
learning intelligent technique called Rough set theory, which
is to be used along with coalescent knowledge is described and
proposed. The frame work of the classic management has
been discussed and is modified using the Rough set theory
method.
Keywords : Actionable Knowledge,

knowledge, Rough Set , Critical Process
Coalescent
Morgan etal updated the knowledge creation theory

documented by Nonaka and Takkeuchi, [2] and is
expressed in Table 1:
Changes to the Nonaka & Takkeuchi (NK) knowledge
Creation theory
Process/Mode
New Knowledge
Transition
Transition Form
Form
Socialization
Tacit-to-Tacit
Tacit to Coalescent
Externalization
Tacit to Explicit
Coalescent to
Explicit
Combination
1.0 Introduction
For a management consultant to successfully assist an
organization in creating new actionable knowledge
(knowledge that is used to create value), the consultant
must be aware of a new knowledge dimension called
Coalescent knowledge (Morgan, Morabito, Merino,Reilly,
2001). Knowledge in the Coalescent dimension has the
following attributes:
Created via a dialogue process involved group of experts
The knowledge is visible, expressible, shared and virtual
Can be private or public knowledge
Can be used to create a sustainable competitive advantage
Facilitates the opportunity for group of experts to act as if
they have one mind (decide by rough set ) to accomplish
organizational objectives
NK Knowledge
Internalization
Explicit to
Explicit to
Explicit
Coalescent
Explicit to Tacit
Coalescent to Tacit
Table 1
2.0 Rough Set Theory
The concept of rough sets has been introduced by Zdzislaw
Pawlak in the early 1980s as a new concept of set used in
many application and research. The Rough Set theory is an
important part of soft computing. The methodology is
concerned with the classificatory analysis of imprecise,
uncertain or incomplete information or knowledge
expressed in terms of data acquired from experience. It
generates output as a list of certain and possible rules. It is
Page 334
formalized through the simple concepts of lower and upper

approximation, which are in turn defined on the basis of
set. The Rough set theory is enhancements of Neural
networks, genetic algorithms, clustering ,support vector
machines, regression models, etc.
Combination
Socialization
Internalization
Expert
No.1
Rough Set
Explicit
Coalescent
. Tacit
3.0 Updated Knowledge Creation Process

According to Morgan etal The first process in creating
knowledge is the socialization. In this process, an
individual shares his or her tacit knowledge with another
individual or a group via some form of dialogue and/or
observation [1], [2], In any dialogue and/or observation,
each individual brings his or her tacit knowledge and
references/links to explicit knowledge. For this analysis, it
is assumed that the exchange of knowledge will be via
dialogue. During the dialogue process, the first individual
tries to define his/her tacit knowledge for the second
person(s). This process requires the use of fields of
interaction. The second person(s) then links their
knowledge base to the knowledge being communicated.
This is a repetitive action until the first and second
person(s) agree on a common set of constructs, which
defines the knowledge being communicated. The process
has now created a shared virtual knowledge, which only
exists between the individuals involved in the dialogue.
This knowledge is shared and not codified, so it does not
fall within the definition of tacit or explicit knowledge.
The consultant can use the knowledge creation process
flow that includes the interaction of people in the
organization at a high level [1] to analyze the organization
potential for creating knowledge in the coalescent
dimension
..
4.0 Refined Knowledge Creation Process
Figure 2 shows the Refined knowledge creation process
that includes the interaction of people or (experts) in the
organization.
.
.
.
Expert
No. N
Socialization
Externalization
Internalization
RefinedKnowledgeCreationProcessFlow
Figure2
In the refined knowledge creation process[2], the creation

of new tacit knowledge does not require the inclusion of
explicit knowledge. As Coalescent knowledge matures it
can be externalized via codification to become explicit
knowledge which may be private or public. If there is only
one Expert in the tacit dimension, then that expert would
have both Tacit and Coalescent knowledge. If it requires to
internalize some explicit knowledge, then the explicit
knowledge would be converted to Coalescent knowledge.
The Coalescent knowledge is shared between the expert
and the creators of the explicit knowledge. Although the
creators are not actively participating in the dialogue, the
expert doing the internalization assigns them a virtual role.
Knowledge that is shared by two or more experts can be
considered communal knowledge.
The formation of Coalescent knowledge from tacit
dimension will be certain when the dimension includes
minimum number of experts. Whereas the uncertainty
arises in the knowledge creation process within the
organization when the tacit dimension involves many
number of experts.
Since the Rough set deals with the uncertainties, it can be
effectively used to refine the Coalescent dimension and to
make the actionable knowledge more certain.
The Rough set can make use of different experts tacit
knowledge derived from similar organization in order to
refine the uncertainty problems.
5.0 Classic Management Process

The classic management process is comprised of four subprocesses: Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Controlling
(PLOC)[5]. The controlling and planning sub-processes are
connected through a feedback loop to ensure that the
objectives of the plan are being met. The controlling
function compares performance to the standards set in the
planning process. If deviations are detected, the
information is feed back to the planning process for
changes in the plan that will cause the standards to be met.
During the controlling and/or planning processes, an
Page 335
evaluation should be performed to determine why there

was a deviation from standards.
Class i cManagementProcess
Planning
Leading
Organizing
Controlling
Feedback
Loop
(PLOC)
Figure3
6.0
Modified Classic Management process by Rough Set
theory
By adopting the critical reflective practice principals as
defined by Van Aswegen (1998)[6] to an
open group dialogue format, management consultant could
make use of the Coalescent knowledge derived from the
tacit dimension. Based on the formation of the uncertainty
problems, the Coalescent knowledge can be refined by
implementing the rough set concept in order to eliminate
the uncertainty and to minimize the deviation from the
standards.
Knowledge Creation Theory, Paper presented at the First

International Conference on
Knowledge Management, co-sponsored by Academy of
Management, ISEOR, University
[2] Nonaka, Ikujiro and Takeuchi, 1995, The Knowledge
Creating Company, Oxford University
Press, New York, NY.
[3] Pawlak,Zdzislaw (1991). Rough sets: Theoretical
Aspects of Reasoning About Data. Dordrecht: Kluwer
Academic Publishing. ISBN 0-7923-1472-7.
[4] Morabito, Joseph, Sack, Ira, and Bhate, Anilkumar,
1999, Organization Modeling Innovate
Architectures for the 21st Century. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ.
[5] Freeman, R.E., and Stoner, J.A.F., 1989, Management.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 4th Edition.
[6] Van Aswegen, Elsie Johanna, 1998, Critical Reflective
Practice: Conceptual Exploration and
Model construction (Emancipatory Learning, Naturalistic
Inquiry), Dissertation, University of
South Africa, South Africa
[7] Komorowski, J. et al., 1999. Rough sets: A tutorial. In
S.K. Pal and A. Skowron (eds.), Rough Fuzzy
Hybridization: A New Trend in Decision-Making. Springer,
pp. 3-98.
ModifiedClassicManagementProcess
CriticalReflectivePractice
Figure4
7.0 Conclusion :
This paper describes the concept of tacit knowledge
dimension and the formation of Coalescent knowledge
from tacit dimension. As the tacit dimension increases, the
uncertainty problem is eliminated through Rough set
method. The concept of Classical Management Process is
explained and is modified by the refined Coalescent
knowledge through Rough set in order to minimize the
deviation between the reference and the actual outcome.
References:
[1] Morgan, Morabito, Merino, and Reilly, 2001, Defining
Coalescent Knowledge: A Revision of
Page 336
COMPVAL A system to mitigate SQLIA

S. Fouzul Hidhaya1 , Dr. Angelina Geetha2
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Vandalur,
Chennai -600048, Tamil Nadu, India.
1
fouzul_hameed@yahoo.com
2
anggeetha@yahoo.com
Abstract - In this Internet Era, Web Applications are a boon to

the business to customer data exchange. The web applications
are directly linked to the database and so the web applications
are used as a interface to carry out the SQL Injection Attacks
on the databases. This paper discusses a novel method to
mitigate the SQL Injection Attacks. This system has two
processes running in parallel. The actual process of retrieving
the data from the database is done in parallel with the process
of syntactically analyzing the query statement. The intended
output and the actual output of the data are compared and
validated and the corresponding HTTP response is framed.
This system provides a double check for the SQL injection
attack and from them the experimental results it has been
proved effective and has imposed a average overhead of 15
milliseconds when tested on the web applications.
Keywords - SQL Injection, Vulnerabilities, Web application
security, Security threats, Web application vulnerability.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Business to customer (B2C) data exchanges like the online
shopping, banking. gaming, ticket booking, travel booking
etc. has been made feasible by the web applications. Web
application work with a back-end database to store or
retrieve data. These data are accepted from the user or
retrieved from the database to be given to the user
dynamically by embedding them in a HTML code. The
input supplied by the user could be benign or malicious. If
the data is malicious, undesired data could be extracted
from the database. This type of attack is called the SQL
injection attack (SQLIA).
An example of SQL Injection is given here. A SQL
injection attack occurs when an attacker causes the web
application to generate SQL queries that are functionally
different from what the user interface programmer
intended. For example the application contains the
following code,
Query = SELECT * FROM members WHERE login
='+
request.getParameter(login)+ And
password= + request.getParameter(password)+
;
In this code the web application retrieves user
inputs from login and password, and concatenates these
two user inputs into the query. This is used to authenticate
the user. If the attacker enters admin into the login filed
and xyz OR 1=1 into the password field. Now the query
string will be,
SELECT * from members WHERE name=admin
AND password=xyz OR 1=1
In this case, the password field, which should have only
one string, is replaced with sub strings, which will finally
lead to the retrieval of the data of the administrator which
is undesirable.
An effective and easy method, for detecting and
protecting existing web applications from SQL Injection
Attack, is need of the moment, which will help the
organizations to be secured against these attacks. Detection
or prevention of SQLIA is a topic of active research in
industry and academia. The most commonly injection
mechanisms [13] are
1.
Injection through user input.
2.
Injection through cookies
3.
Injection through server variables
4.
Second order injection
The proposed attack works on injection through user input.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2
discusses the related work carried out in this area, Section 3
illustrates the system design. Section 4 evaluates the
effectiveness of the proposed approach and Section 5
concludes the paper.
II.
RELATED WORK
Researchers have proposed a wide range of techniques to
address the problem of SQL Injection. These techniques
range from development best practices to fully automated
frameworks for detecting and preventing SQLIAs[12]. One
technique being used to mitigate SQLIA is the defensive
coding practice. Since the root cause for the SQL injection
vulnerabilities is insufficient input validation, the straight
forward solution for eliminating these vulnerabilities is to
apply suitable defensive coding practices, like Input type
checking, encoding of inputs, pattern matching and
identification of all input sources. But defensive coding is
prone to human error and is not as rigorously and
completely applied as automated techniques. While most
developers do make an effort to code safety, it is difficult
to apply defensive coding practices correctly to all sources
of input.
Page 337
functionalities of the application, and stores them in the

repository named the Prototype document. In the normal
phase(Section 3.2), the HTTP request is interpreted by the
HTTP Interceptor and then sent to the web application
which retrieves the data from the database and with this
data the web application frames the HTTP response. In the
validator phase (Section 3.3), the HTTP Interceptor sends
the Intercepted HTTP request to the Query Interceptor.
Here the query is extracted and send to the parse tree
generator and the syntax analyzer. The parse tree
generator generates the parse tree for the query and sends
to the syntax analyzer. Syntax analyzer compares the query
from the query interceptor and the query database and
extracts the user input and applies this user input to the
comparator phase (Section 3.4). If the request is marked as
benign the HTTP response is immediately send to the user.
If the request is marked as malicious by the syntax analyzer
then the comparator compares the intended output for the
query and the actual output that is retrieved from the
database. If they are the same then requested data is send
in the HTTP response. Else a data unavailable response
is send in the HTTP response.
Researchers have proposed a range of techniques to assist

developers and compensate for the shortcomings in the
application of defensive coding. The black box testing
methodology used in WAVES[6], which uses a web
crawler to identify all points in web application that can be
used to inject SQLIAs. It uses machine learning approaches
to guide its testing. Static code checkers like the JDBCchecker[4] is a techniques for statically checking the type
correctness of dynamically generated SQL queries. This
will be able to detect only one type of SQL vulnerability
caused by improper type checking of input. Combined
static and dynamic analysis like the AMNESIA [5] is a
model based technique that combines static analysis and
runtime monitoring. AMNESIA interprets all queries
before they are sent to the database and checks each query
against the statically built models.
SQLGuard [3] and SQLCheck [10] also check queries at
runtime to see if they conform to a model of expected
queries.
Taint
based
approaches
like
the
WebSSARI[8]detects input-validation-related errors using
information flow analysis. In this approach, static analysis
is used to check taint flows against preconditions for
sensitive functions.
Livshits and Lam [7] use information flow technique to
detect when tainted input has been used to construct a SQL
query. Security gateway [9] is a proxy filtering system that
enforces input validation rules on the data flowing to a web
application.
SQLRand [2] is an approach based on instruction-set
randomization. It allows developers to create queries using
randomized instruction instead of normal SQL keywords.
A proxy-filter intercepts queries to the database and derandomizes the keywords.
III.
I.
Web application
Prototype
document
Figure 2: Query Extractor
SYSTEM DESIGN
System Architecture
Figure 1 : COMPVAL System Architecture
The main system architecture of COMPVAL is illustrated

in Figure 1. This system could be divided into four phases,
Query extractor, normal phase, validator phase and the
comparator phase. The query extractor phase extracts the
query from the web application code to cover all the
Query Extractor
II.
Normal Phase
The normal phase is similar to the general operation of the
web application without any SQLIA detecting mechanisms.
The HTTP interceptor intercepts the HTTP request sent by
the user and sends the request to the web application. The
web application then sends the request to the database and
retrieves the data. This data is then framed as a HTTP
response and instead of sending it to the user the response
here is send to the comparator for evaluation.
C.
Validator phase
In this phase, the intercepted HTTP request is send to query
interceptor and the query is extracted from the HTML and
send to the parse tree generator and the syntax analyzer.
The syntax analyzer uses XSLs pattern matching.
The syntax analyzer works as follows:
1.
Accepts the query from the query
interceptor and tokenizes the query.
Page 338
2.
Transforms the query into XML
format.
3.
Uses the XSLs pattern matching
algorithm to find the prototype model
corresponding to received query.
4.
From the prototype query it
identifies the user input data.
5.
Receives the parse tree from the
parse tree generator and fits in the nonleaf nodes.
6.
Validates the resulting parse tree
using the validation algorithm and
identifies if the query is benign or
malicious.
7.
Sends the prototype query and the
result to the comparator.
1)
XSLs Pattern Matching : When the query is
submitted by the query interceptor, the query is first
analysed and tokenized as elements. The prototype
document contains the query pertained to that particular
application and it also has the intended output for each
query model.
For example, as explained in section 1, the input query is,
SELECT * FROM members WHERE login=admin
AND password=XYZ OR 1=1
When this query is received this is converted into XML
format using a XML schema. The resulting XML would
be,
<SELECT>
<*>
<FROM>
<members>
<WHERE login= admin>
<AND password= XYZ>
<OR 1=1>
</OR>
</AND>
</WHERE>
</members>
</FROM>
</*>
</SELECT>
Using the pattern matching the elements is searched so that
the nested elements is similar to query tokens. The
corresponding matching XML mapping is,
<SELECT>
<identifier>
<FROM>
<identifier>
<WHERE id_list= userip>
<AND id_list=userip>
</AND>
</WHERE>
</identifier>
</FROM>
</identifier>
</SELECT>
When the match is found, the corresponding prototype
query would be,
SELECT identifier FROM identifier WHERE identifier
op userip AND identifier op userip
which will be used to identify the user input data. This
search is less time consuming because the search is based
on text and string comparison. The time complexity is
O(n). This helps in increasing the effectiveness of the
program and reduces the latency time.
2)
Syntax analyzer: The syntax analyzer uses the
prototype query model to recognize the user inputs and the
this inputs are inserted in the parse tree which is generated
by the parse tree generator. Now the syntax analyzer has
the parse tree and the user inputs. Figure3 represents the
parse tree for the benign query in section I. Every user
input string can find a non-leaf node in the parse tree, such
that its sub-tree leaf nodes comprise the entire user input
string. An example application of the parse tree generator
is given in figure 4. This algorithm for identifying
malicious output is used in SQLProb[14].This system uses
the validation algorithm to validate if the request is benign
or malicious. The password field is parsed into the set
Uni=1 (leaf(ui)) with five leaf nodes: XYZ, OR, 1, = and 1.
The analyzer algorithm is given in Table 1. Next, we do
depth-first-search from these five leaf nodes. The traversed
paths intersect at a non-leaf node, SQLExpression. Finally,
we do breath-first-search from SQLExpression to reach all
the leaf nodes of the parse tree, which is a superset of
Uni=1(leaf(ui)) implying that the input string ui is malicious.
The algorithm described above takes quadratic time,
because step 2 and step 3 take time of n h, where n is the
number of leaf nodes parsed by ui, and h is the average
number of layers from leaf nodes to nl node in the parse
tree. In addition, step 4 takes time complexity for a breathfirstsearch is O(n2). Therefore, the overall time complexity
is O(n2).
3)
Comparator Phase: The validator phase sends the
result, indicating if the request is benign or malicious
depending on the analyses it carried out, to the comparator.
The comparator now has the results retrieved from the
database and if the analyzer had certified that the request is
benign without any delay the requested data is immediately
send to the user. If the request is analyzed to be malicious,
the comparator extracts the intended output of the model
query from the Prototype document and compares it with
the actual output from the application encoded in the
HTTP response is database. If the result is the same, the
requested data is send to the user as HTTP response. Else
HTTP response with a Data not available reply is sent to
the
user.
Page 339
SELECT * From members WHERE login=admin and password=xyz
SELECT
select_list
identifier
FROM
Table_list
WHERE
Where_cond
identifier
SQLExpression
SQLAndExpression
*
members
SQLAndExpression
SQLAndExpressio
selectItem
ID
factor
Operator
login
selectItem
ID
ID
factor
Operator
password
admin
ID
XYZ
Figure 3: Parse tree for benign query
SELECT * From members WHERE login=admin and password=xyz
SELECT
select_list
identifier
FROM
Table_list
identifier
Where_cond
SQLExpression
members
SQLAndExpression
SQLAndExpression
SQLAndExpressio
selectItem
factor
ID
WHERE
Operator
ID
SQLAndExpressio
factor
factor
Operator
ID
ID
ID
Operator
1
login
admin
factor
selectItem
password
ID
XYZ
OR
Figure 4: Parse tree for malicious query
Page 340
IV.
A.
EVALUATION
Experimental Setup
The test suite used to attack is AMNESIA attack test suite

[5]. This suite has a list of string patterns which are both
benign and malicious.
Using these attacks on the web application COMPAL
achieved 100% detection rate and was able to prevent the
malicious string patterns from extracting data from the
database. The performance metric taken into consideration
is the response time per web request. For every web
request, the delay varied depending upon the query and its
alignment. The response time for each web application
used is shown in figure 5.
TABLE I
VALIDATION ALGORITHM
if Uni=1(leaf(ui))
Umk=1leaf(node)k) then Return
True;
else Return False;
end
end
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Actual
COMPVAL
st o
re
ir
ok
pd
Bo
Em
Po
rt a
R e s p o n s e ti m e i n S e c
6.
7.
8.
V.
CONCLUSION
COMPVAL, as indicated in section 1, is a novel system
used to detect SQLIAs efficiently. The proposed system
does not make any changes to the source code of the
application and so the source code need not be known to
COMPVAL. The proposed system the detection and
prevention of SQLIA is fully automated. Prototype of
COMPVAL was designed to measure the performance
factor and it worked successfully with 100% detection rate.
In future work, the focus will be on benchmarking the
system with standard algorithm and studying of alternate
techniques for the detection and prevention of SQLIA
using dynamic analysis.
REFERENCES
Data:Parse Tree Tree(qi) and the set of

user input UI(qi)
Result:True if the query is an SQLIA, or
False if otherwise
1. for every user input UIi,j in
UI(qi)
2. do depth-first-search upward
from every leaf node leaf(ui)
parsed from UIi,j , according to
SQL grammar G;
3. Searching stops when all the
searching path intersect at a
non-leaf node nl node;
4. do breath-first-search
downward from nl node until
reaching all m leaf nodes
leaf(node)k;
5.
Figure 5: The comparative response time
Web Applications
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Burp
proxy.
[Online].
Available:
http://www.portswinger.net/proxy.
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JJTree.
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Page 342
Integrating the Static and Dynamic Processes in

Software Development
V. Hepsiba Mabel#1, K. Alagarsamy*2, Justus S$3
#
Fatima College, Maryland

Madurai
1
hepsi.mku@gmail.com
Madurai Kamaraj University

Madurai
alagar_samy54@rediffmail.com
Velammal College of Engineering & Technology

Madurai
3
justus.dr@gmail.com
Abstract Software development is caught up in bunch of

processes that involve project, product and people. Organizations
those are into the development of software products and
providing software solutions are bound by sets of processes that
governs the activities of the project as well of the organizations.
CMM and other standards serve as very important guidelines to
companies that are in the software development.
The entire processes are based on the IDEAL model, and those
processes are defined static processes. Also, recent researches in
Knowledge management show that knowledge based processes
are deemed dynamic in nature and help the processes to improve
over period of times. However, these processes are required to be
integrated into one group or framework, where the practitioners
will find their entire set of processes derived and defined in the
CMM levels might be easy to improvement. In this work, we
have integrated the static and dynamic process sets into one
framework and have partially implemented them in companies
who are interested in practicing the framework.
Keywords Software Processes, Process Framework, CMM.
I. INTRODUCTION
The static and dynamic processes involved in the development
of software products are of significant concern in research and
in practice. Since most of the activities involved in software
development are loosely coupled they need to be integrated to
form a single framework. Since the beginning of software
development and software engineering in the early 1960s,
research on the activities and the processes governing the
design and development of software products are active; and
to till date they are active.
However, it is studied from the literature [3], [7] [12] [23],
[26], [30], and case studies only a limited number of
publications are available for the processes that governs in
software development, when compared to other areas of
research. Also there is a need for a rigorous study on the
process sets and key process areas that forms the capsule of
the process standards and maturity models. This notion of

process and process set is a dynamic entity, because the
process of software development is world wide and it crosses
all continental and cultural backgrounds. Hence the process
sets defined by [2] [22], are not standardized internationally.
However, we need to bring the KPAs and process sets, both
defined and tailor-made, into one single framework. This
work deals in detail the formation of the single framework.
Organizations involved in software development are
concerned with delivery of quality software products within
the specified timeline. Development of a software product is a
time-based, distinct activity which is termed as project. A
project is governed by a set of defined and tailor-made
processes that controls the quality end-product and ensures
that the product is delivered ontime and without overruns on
the budget. To enable all the implicit processes involved in
software development, project leaders and managers need to
have a decision supportive intelligent system that falls into a
framework for improving their software developmental
processes.
Motivation of the Work
When in the early years of software development, there was
only a limited steps and algorithms governing the
developmental processes. As years and decades passed by the
software development industry faced with numerous
processes, processes that are anticipated, expected and
unexpected, were evolved. These processes defined and
regulated were not adopted by the industry for its lack in
flexibility. Hence the organizations attempted to tailor-make
the processes according to their organizations need and
projects requirements.
While most of the processes defined and standardized by
Software Engineering Institute [26], [30], were acceptable by
software developing companies, many were deemed to be
redefined and refined as years passed by. This is commended
Page 343
by the global, local markets, competitors, governments

policies and other factors that arise internally and externally.
Out of these changes, the software development companies
and the research institutes were able to identify the two
dimensions of the entire process sets. They are classified
based on the nature of the processes as Static Processes and
Dynamic Processes [2].
Both these process sets are formally validated by international
research institutes. However the static and dynamic process
sets stand alone in the practicing platform. Organizations
prefer the static processes than dynamic one for their
simplicity and ease of implementation and practice [23].
Although it is encouraging and result reaping, dynamic
processes are recommended. This is because, dynamic
processes yields good results, and provides and wider scope
for process improvement.
Hence we attempt in this work to integrate these two process
sets and form a single framework of processes, that will help
the organizations in building up their process base and leaves
better opportunity for process improvement.
Related Works
As pointed out earlier, research works on software
development processes have found a prominent position.
Software Engineering Institutes [26], [30] is the major role
player in proposing standards like CMM, CMMI. CMM
family of standards speaks on the refinement of processes and
the level of maturity with which the processes have improved.
ISO9000 family is a very specialized set of standards which
mainly focuses on the processes in the management of
software processes and their improvement. SPICE,
ISO/IEC12207, BOOTSTRAP and Rational Unified Process
(RUP) are other similar standards which centers the processes
and the collection of processes [12]. But organizations follow
these standards just as a roadmap for their journey in the
process improvement programs.
Research literatures and papers on processes sets and areas
cover a wide variety of topics with regard to integration and
improvement [1], [2], [7], [11], [14], [24], [31]. Similar works
on processes sets are still in research and study.
process becomes better defined and more consistently

implemented throughout the organization.
Software process capability describes the range of expected
results that can be achieved by following a software process.
The software process capability of an organization provides
one means of predicting the most likely outcomes to be
expected from the next software project the organization
undertakes.
Software process performance represents the actual results
achieved by following a software process. Thus, software
process performance focuses on the results achieved, while
software process capability focuses on results expected.
Software process maturity is the extent to which a specific
process is explicitly defined, managed, measured, controlled,
and effective. Maturity implies a potential for growth in
capability and indicates both the richness of an organization's
software process and the consistency with which it is applied
in projects throughout the organization.
As a software organization gains in software process maturity,
it institutionalizes its software process via policies, standards,
and organizational structures. Institutionalization entails
building an infrastructure and a corporate culture that supports
the methods, practices, and procedures.
A. Basics of Software Processes

A software process can be defined as a set of activities,
methods, practices, and transformations that people use to
develop and maintain software and the associated products
[23] (e.g., project plans, design documents, code, test cases,
and user manuals). As an organization matures, the software
Processes and Maturity Levels

The formula for success of a software development
organization lies in the continual improvement of its processes
and leveraging its effectiveness for business excellence [18].
As discussed previously, the learning in the organization
builds knowledge and warehouses which are the help guides
for process improvement. Initiating an improvement program
in the organization starts from the individual; that is when the
individual realizes his improvement, will he appreciate the
need for the organizations improvement. Organizations
improvement is primarily based on the improvement in the
processes. Here we consider the improvement of software
process.
Software process is defined as a set of activities that begins
with the identification of a need and concludes with the
retirement of a product that satisfies the need; or more
completely, as a set of activities, methods, practices, and
transformations that people use to develop and maintain
software and its associated products [15]. To improve the
software development process, it is necessary to evaluate the
success of the project and avoid repeating problems in the
future.
The CMM addresses these latter, less well-understood, issues
in an effort to improve the software development process [10].
Each represents an improvement in the software process. An
organizations software capability can be improved by
advancing through these five stages or levels. The CMM helps
organizations to select improvement strategies based on
current process maturity status and to identify critical issues in
quality and process improvement [26]. To help small
organizations, possessing only limited resources, to reach the
CMM level 3 and improve certain helpful tips are formulated
Page 344
II. PROCESSES IN SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT

The process of developing software has also been under
research and practice since the evolution of software. The
processes and activities involved in software development is
systematic and unique endeavor that use sound engineering
principles in order to obtain reliable, quality software product
in an economically managed timeline.
based on the discussions given by Kathleen [15]. It is

observed from surveys, the SMBs in Chennai, India, are
content with what they are performing. But when they
complete for global projects they fail because they have never
opted for CMM standards in any of the developmental
strategies of business process. If at all they attain CMM level
3, they are content in that level because of lack of action plans
and further improvement initiatives. The levels of process
maturity for improving organizations is given in table 1.
Organizations planning for an improvement endeavor will
have to identify the business and developmental process that
addresses organization goals, thus identifying the key-process
areas. The accepted process sets has to be tailored according
to the requirement of the project or for the implementation of

activities that support specific needs, resulting in a process
protocol. Then lies the real process improvement that is goal
oriented and knowledge driven, leading to CMM
improvement level 3. Beyond this the organization has to
extend its process set by refining them, ensuing in process
reusability. When the componential process sets are combined
and externalized they result in the regeneration of new process
sets called hybrid processes, thus leading the organization to
the highest level of process optimization. All of these states of
maturity are driven by the activities of knowledge
management.
TABLE I
LEVELS OF PROCESS MATURITY
Process Maturity
Levels
Process Initiation
Process
Development
Process
Improvement
Process Extension
Hybrid Processes
Initial State
Actions
Implementation
Static
Address Goals
Process Set
Develop Activities
Dynamic
Process
Improved
Process Set
Componential
Dynamic
Processes
Use dedicated
resources
Refine Processes
and Sets
Plan and apply
Engineering
Practices
Activities for
Specific needs
Use Tools for
improvement
Expand to other
projects
Derive new process
sets
Result
Identified KPAs
Process Set
CMM level
improvement
Process reusability
Process regeneration
and improvement
Static Processes
The processes involved in software development are deemed
for practice and improvement. Still some of the processes
remain unchanged and they are termed as Static Processes.
These processes mainly deal with the developmental activity
of the software and the processes that govern them. There may
be many factors that influence them, but whatever be the
external factors these processes have to remain static
throughout the software development life cycle [4]. Attempt to
change these static processes is not advised, because that may

lead to unwarranted, irreversible damage to the project or
product or to the organization.
A process set identified in the second process maturity level is
often static. This set will be the basis for all the other derived
and hybrid processes that may arise during the future
endeavors of the organization [8]. While this static process set
is static and cannot be changed, they are deemed for
improvement during maturity level 3 and the following
improvement programs.
Table 2 lists the set of static processes. The five set of
processes identified and defined are termed as static. They are
bound within the scope of the project and are subject to be
refined but not changed. This set of processes is defined based
on the IDEAL model [16], [23]. The IDEAL model, framed
for SPI program, has led to the derivation of a knowledge
driven model which focuses on the acquisition of explicit
knowledge through externalization and its conversion to tacit
knowledge through internalization and continuous learning
[10], [17]. Though many KM tools comprise, both smaller,
specific applications, and enterprise level tools, the urge to
provide a compelling learning environment should be felt
[19].
Page 345
III. A SINGLE PROCESS FRAMEWORK

The discussion in the previous chapter on the processes and
their integration with the maturity levels in software
development would well be a basis for the integration of the
two sets to activities, static and dynamic. The proposal and the
practice of static activities by software organizations improve
in their maturity level. But the proposal, practice and the
promotion of dynamic activities helps the organization to
improve software processes based on knowledge gained over
the years of experience and the concept of sharing them [2].
This chapter deals in detail the two sets of processes and
integrating them.
TABLE II
STATIC PROCESS SET
Phases of the Process

Set
Development of
Software
Maintenance of the
end product
Software Processes
Production Processes
Management Processes
Static Processes
Design and Coding Processes
Finish the product on time and
within budget
Finished product maintenance
process
Expires at the end of the scope
Stick on to the processes
defined for development and
maintenance
Document preparation
processes
Populate Repositories
Plan and Control
Use Decision support tools
Hence a need-based learning process is introduced in the

establishing phase of KDM through packaging, which
resolves the setback of knowledge sharing. In the Acting
phase, the derived knowledge is executed through effective
planning, based on the earlier experiences and lessons learnt
from previous similar projects.
B. Dynamic Processes
In continuance with the definition of static processes, there
arises certain processes as a result of improvement or
refinement. These newly identified processes are dynamic
processes as they are subject to refinement then and there
whenever required and demanded by the project or by the
organization. This set of processes involves and demands the
required component called interaction and sharing.
Exchange of intellectual property and experience gained over
the years are the major driving catalysts for the dynamic
process set. Transfer of knowledge and experience through
tacit or explicit or even implicit will take place in this domain
of processes. This set of activities is derived based on the
knowledge driven model proposed in [2]. More often these set
of activities are practiced and promoted in the fourth and fifth
process maturity level and keeps going for betterment and
refinement.
The dynamic process set consists of the following processes.
Table 2 mentions them. Most or even all of the dynamic
activities, mentioned in the table, are specific and centered on
knowledge and its associated components.
TABLE III
DYNAMIC PROCESS SET
Phases of the Process

Set
Development of
Software
Maintenance of the
end product
Software Processes
Dynamic Processes
Interaction and Sharing of
resources
Exchangeability of gained
experience
Document revision &
refinement
Interaction within the
Production Processes
Management Processes
development team
Improvement and Generation
of new processes
Codify data to repositories
Generate feedback to the
development team
Interaction with project
leaders
Share expertise knowledge
Generate hybrid processes
While static activities are derived from CMMI or other

existing conventional standards, dynamic activities are based
on interactions of knowledge workers and knowledge users,
and knowledge activities like codification and populating the
knowledge repositories, which in later phases help the
management in institutionalizing and implementing the newly
found hybrid knowledge for planning and controlling the
process improvement program [1], [30]. The dynamic
activities are always driven by the knowledge generated by the
experiences and lessons learnt from earlier and similar
projects. The knowledge based components in the software
development organizations lay spread in their existence and
there seems to be a gap among them in the organizational
chart. But functionally they stay integrated in their operational
platform. Integrating the components across the nature of data
repositories, cultural, continental and psychological
differences of the knowledge workers and users remains a
great challenge of the SPI program [31], [32]. The process
activities, both static and dynamic, serve as a link in
integrating the components according to the procedures that
organizations adopt for the software process improvement.
It is inferred that the dynamic knowledge driven activities
have a significant impact on the software processes, identified
for improvement. This can be verified by measuring the
functionality of the knowledge components that endure
integration.
In a wider spectrum, there are 22 process areas [10], where all
of them can be designated to be the set of activities either as
static or dynamic. Conceptually, the degree of impact of the
dynamic components on these processes is proportional to the
estimated functional effort of the integrated components.
More precisely, higher the degree of interaction among the
components more the dynamic processes (activities) is
involved in action, causing the entire set of processes to
improve. Operation and implementation of this knowledge
centered SPI program is a major challenge development
companies confront with in practice.
C. Integrating the Processes into Framework
An attempt to integrate the two divisions of Processes is an
important task and is a careful endeavor which requires a
better understanding of the entire process sets.
1) Development of Software: The static processes associated
with this phase is design and coding and to finish the software
product in time and within the budget. While design and
coding are matters concerning technical talk, the later part
Page 346
finishing the product within time and budget is the great

challenge that is prevailing since the start of the software
development. Due to these two serious issues software
projects are subject to failure or partial completion [13], [31].
Finishing a successful project is the requirement and demand
from the project mangers. One of the measures of project
success is completing the project within timeline and without
budget overrun. This problem can be solved only when the
dynamic set of activities;
Interaction, Sharing of resources
Exchanging the gained experience

The design tools and techniques, the coding methodologies
and documents are the resources that are subject to be shared
among the team members and also among project groups. The
exchange of knowledge and experiences gained over the years
by senior managers and tech leads should be shared among the
team members. This experience will help the juniors and the
lower-level work groups to finish their development and
coding in time and also within the budget.
A study in software companies show that this kind of sharing
through knowledge management systems help the
organization improve the productivity of the project teams and
of the individuals [19], [20].
2) Software Processes: Whenever a software project has been
initiated, the project planning phase does several important
things. Among them a few are
defining the processes and
choosing appropriate process models

The processes that are associated with the development of
software are identified and defined at the earlier stages of
software development life cycle. Then choosing an
appropriate model for the software development is an
important task the project mangers are confronting with.
In practice we could see that out of the 13 process models
available in literature [10], the practitioners often choose just
two or three and customize them according to the requirement
of the nature of the project. This activity of choosing the
process models is termed as static activity because this is
usually just declaring and defining the process models which
are usually a common and a routine practice.
However this alone is not sufficient for the software product
to be successful. One has to be highly dynamic and active
while in the process of software development. Hence
interaction among the team members and across the levels of
hierarchy of people involved in the same project is required.
This creates newer ideas and innovative concepts of software
development. The interaction among the team members and
among the members involved in the project leads to the
development of newer processes, which we deem as hybrid
processes [28]. The existing and the hybrid processes are
subject to improvement as time moves on and the interaction
increases.
3) Production Processes: Production in software development
is the number of lines of code generated during the
construction of code and also the amount of work done in a
given time frame. This includes finished product along with
the necessary designs and the document files. Documentation

is an embedded process in the process of software
development.
Every project under progression should posses a knowledge
repository. This is an additional document and the forth
coming knowledge management system for the project and for
the organization. The process of populating the repositories is
the requirement for any project that considers itself serious
and which contributes to the future of the organization. These
two processes are termed as static because they are required
components for the project.
The repositories are populated with information which is then
analyzed, processed and codified as knowledge units in the
knowledge management systems (KMS). The codification of
the information to be represented as knowledge unit is a
dynamic process, because information that is generated during
the project progress has to be identified and should be sent for
codification in the KMS. This generated knowledge units in
the KMS will help the system to generate feedback to the
developers tuning them to produce quality softwares and
documentation processes.
IV. FINDINGS FROM IMPLEMENTING THE FRAMEWORK
This section shows the findings from the experiments that are
conducted as implementation part of the process framework.
Critical Success Factors
Table 4 shows the list of CSFs cited in the literature and in
CSF interviews. These factors are listed in alphabetic order in
the table 4 and are associated with the numbers in the figure 1.
The most frequently cited factor in the literature is staff
involvement, i.e. 46%.
TABLE IV
CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS - ANALYSIS
Critical Success
Factors
Creating process
action teams
Interactions
Formal
Methodology
Experimenting
SPI
Process
Awareness
Process
Ownership
Hybrid
Processes
Staff
Involvement
Tailoring
processes
Occurrence in
Literature (n=47)
Frequency
%
7
26
Occurrence in
Practice (n=23)
Frequency
%
2
9
12
-
21
-
5
8
22
35
15
13
24
12
52
37
12
26
11
24
46
10
54
18
28
This suggests that in involvement of staff can play a vital role

in the implementation of improvement programs. Other
Page 347
frequently cited factors in the literature are Process ownership

(37%), and tailoring processes (28%). It shows that
practitioners consider their involvement, process ownership,
and tailoring imperative for the successful implementation of
improvement programs. The results also show that staff time
and resources and creating process action teams are also
important factors. A quarter of the literature cited reviews,
experienced staff, clear and relevant process goals and
assigning of responsibilities.
methodology
Lack of
resources
Organizational
politics
Time pressure
50
35
29
12
52
36
17
Fig. 2 Critical Barriers in Process Framework
Fig. 1 Critical Success Factors in Process Framework
Table 4 shows that, like the literature, the most frequently

cited factors in the interviews are staff involvement and
processes awareness, i.e. cited 54% and 52% respectively.
Two new methodsawareness and formal methodology
have been identified in our empirical study which has not been
identified in the literature. Other frequently cited factors are
resources, staff involvement and experienced staff. Other
factors are less frequently cited in the interviews.
Critical Barriers
Our aim of identifying critical barriers is to understand the
nature of issues that undermine the process framework
implementation programs. Table 5 shows the list of critical
barriers cited in the literature and an empirical study.
The results show that most of the practitioners in literature
consider lack of resources a major critical barrier for the
implementation of SPI. The results also suggest that in
practitioners opinion time pressure and inexperienced staff
can undermine the success of SPI implementation programs. It
shows that practitioners would prefer to avoid organizational
politics during the implementation of process framework.
TABLE V
CRITICAL BARRIERS - ANALYSIS
Critical
Barriers
Inexperienced
staff
Lack of
awareness
Lack of
formal
Occurrence in
Literature (n=14)
Frequency
%
5
36
Occurrence in
Practice (n=23)
Frequency
4
%
17
10
43
12
52
Staff involvement is ranked highest in CSF interviews, i.e.

54%. Two new critical barrierslack of formal methodology
and lack of awarenesshave been identified in our empirical
study which has not been identified in the literature. The
second most cited critical barrier in CSF interviews is lack of
support. The critical barrier lack of resources is cited 35%
in the CSF interviews. Comparison of the critical barriers
provides evidence that there are some clear similarities and
differences between the findings of the two sets. There are
barriers in common, i.e. inexperienced staff, lack of resources,
lack of support, organizational politics, and time pressure.
There are also a number of differences between the findings.
For example, changing the mindset of management and
technical staff and staff turnover have not been cited in
our empirical study but these barriers are present in the
literature. Similarly, lack of awareness of SPI and lack of
formal methodology are critical in our empirical study but
have not been identified through the literature. This shows that
practitioners, who took part in our study, are more concerned
about SPI awareness activities and implementation
methodology.
Implications of the Process Framework
In the previous sub-section we dealt with three subdivisions
that commend the static and dynamic processes. This
framework we have derived out of integrating the two process
sets are left for discussion and validation, which is presented
in the following sections.
1) Comment on the Framework Now we put the key process
area in the process framework up for discussion. The first
question that needs to be answered is whether a software
developers success relies on static or dynamic processes. In
the commercial cases encountered and presented in this work
50%-70% of their effort in software development rely on the
existing, well-defined static processes. However to keep their
production in the uprising, they need to work on the dynamic
Page 348
processes and help the development processes improve over

time and experience.
In the case of open source products, where many of the users
of the product are also developers, testers, and quality
assurance team members, the same premise on the process
framework holds. Since framework is a process focused one,
the improvement of these processes will lead to better
productivity. The second thought is whether this process
framework could be followed with relevant to software
development.
2) Validation of the Process Framework Usability is formally
defined as the The extent to which a product can be used by
specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness,
efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use
(ISO/DIS-9241-11, 1994). The goal of a usability analysis is
to pinpoint areas of confusion and ambiguity for the user
which, when improved will increase the efficiency and quality
of a users experience (ISO/DIS-9241-11, 1994).
In order to measure the usability of our framework
implementation maturity model we will be using the following
three goals or criteria: 1) ease of learning, 2) ease of use and
3) satisfaction. In order to validate our process framework we
are planning an expert panel review process. Similar process
has been used by Beecham and Hall (2003) for the validation
of requirements process improvement model. An expert panel
questionnaire will be sent along with the description of the
process framework.
This feedback will be analyzed and enhanced version of the
framework will be produced based on the evaluation feedback.
After the expert panel review process we are also planning to
conduct a case study in a software development company in
order to validate and test the framework in the real world
environment.
We opt to draw a roadmap by integrating the processes that

are deemed for improvement and continuous monitoring. The
SPI implementation framework is in its initial stage of
development and needs further improvement and evaluation.
A case study will be conducted in order to test and evaluate
this framework and to highlight areas where this framework
can be improved.
V. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS

In this work a Process Framework for Software Development
is presented that has the potential to help companies assess
and improve their process improvement program. This
framework is extracted from CMMI and is based on CSFs and
critical barriers identified through literature and an empirical
study. For the development of this framework we have
analyzed the experiences, opinions and views of practitioners
in order to identify factors that have a positive or negative
impact on the implementation of a improvement programs.
However, this model needs further improvement and
evaluation. An expert panel review will be conducted in order
to get feedback from different practitioners. Based on the
evaluation feedback enhanced version of the maturity model
will be produced.
Future Works: A case study will also be conducted in order to
validate and test this process framework in practice. Our
ultimate aim of conducting empirical study and developing
maturity model was to develop a SPI implementation
framework. We have used our empirical findings and designed
a framework for guiding the design of effective
implementation strategies for software process improvement.
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Page 350
Exploiting Parallelism in Bidirectional Dijkstra

for Shortest-Path Computation
R. Kalpana#1, Dr. P.Thambidurai#2, R. Arvind kumar #3, S. Parthasarathi #4, Praful Ravi #5
#
Department of Computer Science & Engineering , Pondicherry Engineering College

Puducherry, India
1
rkalpana@pec.edu
Abstract The problem of finding a shortest path between

two given nodes in a directed graph is a common task
which is traditionally solved using Dijkstras algorithm
[1]. There are many techniques available to speedup the
algorithm while guaranteeing the optimality of the
solution. Almost all of these speed-up techniques have a
substantial amount of parallelism that can be exploited to
decrease the running time of the algorithm. The rapidly
evolving field of multiprocessing systems and multi-core
processors provide opportunities for such improvements.
The main focus of this paper is to identify features of the
Bidirectional search speed-up technique suitable for
parallelization and thereby reduce the running time of the
algorithm.
Keywords Dijkstras Algorithm,
algorithm, running time, speed-up
Graph
Theory,
parallel
VI. INTRODUCTION
Computing shortest paths is a basic operation which finds
application in various fields. The most common
applications[2] for such a computation includes route planning
systems for bikes, cars and hikers, and timetable based
information systems for scheduled vehicles such as buses and
trains. In addition to these, shortest path computation also
finds its application in spatial databases and even in web
searching.
The core algorithm that serves as the base for the above
applications is a special case of single-source shortest-path
problem on a given directed graph with non-negative edge
weights called Dijkstras algorithm[1]. The particular
graphs[3], [4], [5] considered for the above applications are
huge and the number of shortest path queries to be computed
within a short time is huge as well. This is the main reason for
the use of speed-up techniques for shortest-path computations.
The focus of these techniques is to optimize the response time
for the queries, that is, a speed-up technique is considered as a
technique that reduces the search space of Dijkstras algorithm
by using pre-computed values or by using problem specific
information. Often the underlying data contains geographic
information, that is, a layout of the graph is easily obtained. In
many applications the given graph can be considered static

which enables preprocessing.
Another possibility for improving the runtime of speed-up
techniques is to identify the regions, if any, that are suitable
for parallel processing. It is observed that the various speed-up
techniques posses, to varying extents, operations that are
possible candidates for parallel execution. Coupled with the
improvement of processing capabilities of todays modern
systems the time required for computing shortest path can be
effectively reduced. Also the speed-up techniques are such
that, combination of two or more techniques is possible and
the effective speed-up achieved by the combination is
increased.
In this paper, a study of the various speed-up techniques is
made and the possible parallel regions present in speed-up
techniques are analyzed. Experiments [6] were carried out to
analyze the performance of a particular speed-up technique
with the parallelism present in it utilized in different ways.
The Parallelization adapted in Highway node routing [6] for
solving shortest path problem gives a very good speedup
compared to that of sequential algorithm. The bidirectional
search is considered as one of the basic speedup techniques,
which improves the speedup by searching the graph both
forward and reverse. Using the OpenMp constructs with
LEDA library the speedup of the algorithm is improved.
VII.
PRELIMINARIES
The formal definitions and a brief description of Dijkstras
Algorithm are given in this section.
A. Definitions
A graph G is a pair (V, E), where V is the set of nodes /
vertices and E V V is a set of edges, where an edge is an
ordered pair of nodes of the form (u, v) such that u , v V .
Usually the number of nodes V is denoted by n and the
number of edges E is denoted by m.
For a node u V , the number of outgoing edges
{( u , v ) E } is called the degree of the node.
Page 351
A path in graph G is a sequence of nodes (u 1 ,..., u k ) so that

(u i , u i +1 ) E for all 1 i < k . A path in which u 1 = u k is
called a cycle or cyclic path.
Given the edge weights l : E R , the length of the path
P = ( u 1 ,..., u k ) is the sum of the lengths of its edges
l ( P ) :=
1 i < k
l ( u i , u i +1 ) .
For two nodes s , t V , a shortest s-t path is a path of minimal

length with u 1 = s and u k = t . The distance d ( s , t ) between s
and t is the length of the shortest path s-t.
A layout of a graph G = (V , E ) is a function L : V R 2 ,
that assigns each node a position in R 2 . A graph is called
sparse if m = O (n ) .
B. Shortest Path Problem
Consider a directed graph G = (V , E ) whose edge weights
are given by a function l : E R . The single-source singletarget shortest path problem is to find a shortest s-t path from
a source s V to a specified target t V . The problem is
said to be well defined for all pairs, if G doesnt contain cycles
with negative lengths. If negative weights are present but not
negative cycles, using Johnsons algorithm, it is possible to
convert the original edge weights l : E R to non-negative
weights l ' : E R 0+ that results in the same shortest paths.
So it is safe to consider that edge weights are non-negative.
The Dijkstras algorithm[1] maintains, for each node u V , a
label dist(u) with the current distance values. A priority queue
Q contains the nodes that form the search around source s.
Nodes can be either unvisited, in the priority queue or already
visited. In the computation of shortest path it has to be
remembered that u is the predecessor of v if a shorter path v
has been found. Dijkstras algorithm is used for computing
shortest paths from a single source to all other nodes in the
graph. If only one shortest path is required to a given target
t V , the algorithm can halt when the target is eliminated
from the priority queue.
The time complexity of the algorithm is decided by the
priority queue chosen for implementation. For usual graphs,
Fibonacci heaps, provide the best theoretical worst-case time
of O ( m + n log n ) . Binary heaps also result in the same time
complexity for sparse graphs. It is to be noted that binary
heaps are easier to implement and also performs better in
many practical situations. It is arguable that a better speed-up
technique reduces the search front and the priority queue will
be of lesser importance in such a case.
A. Bidirectional Search
In bidirectional search[2] a normal or forward variant of the
algorithm starting at the source and a reverse or backward
variant of the algorithm starting at the destination are run
simultaneously. The backward variant of the algorithm is
applied to the reverse graph, that is, a graph having the same
node set V as the given graph and the reverse edge set
E = {(u , v ) | ( v , u ) E }. The algorithm can be terminated
when a node has been labeled permanent by both the forward
and backward searches. The shortest path can be obtained by
combining the path obtained in the forward search with the
one obtained in backward search.
B. Goal-Directed Search
This technique [2], [8] alters the priority of the active nodes to
change the order in which the nodes are processed. More
precisely a potential p t (v ) depending on a target t is added
to the priority dist (v ) . So the modified priority of a node
v V is given by dist ( v ) + p t ( v ) . With an appropriate
potential the search can be directed to the target thereby
reducing the running time and at the same time finding a
shortest path.
An alternate approach to modify the priority, is to change the
edge lengths so that the search is directed towards the target
t. In this case, the length of an edge ( u , v ) E is replaced by
l ' (u , v ) = l (u , v ) p t ( v ) + p t (u ) . It can be easily verified
that a path from s to t is a shortest s-t path according to l ' , if
and only if it is a shortest s-t path according to l.
C. Multilevel Approach
This speed-up technique has a preprocessing step in which the
input Graph G is decomposed into l + 1 levels ( l 1) and
enriched with extra edges which represent shortest path
between certain nodes[2],[9],[10]. The decomposition of the
graph depends on the selected nodes Si, at level i such
that S 0 := V S 1 K S l . The decomposition of the node
sets can be based on various criteria. Selecting desired number
of nodes with the highest degree in the graph, works out to be
an appropriate criterion.
Three different types of edges are added to the graph: upward
edges, going from a node that is not selected at a particular
level to a node selected at that level, downward edges,
connecting selected to non-selected nodes and level edges,
connecting selected nodes at one level.
For finding a shortest path between two nodes, it is sufficient
to consider a smaller subgraph of the multilevel graph.
VIII.
RELATED WORK
There is a high volume of ongoing research on shortest paths.
The basic speedup techniques and the combined speedup
techniques [2], [4], [7] for Dijkstras algorithm that usually
reduce the number of nodes visited and running time of the
algorithm in practice which are discussed here.
D. Shortest-Path Containers
This speed-up technique requires a preprocessing computation
of all shortest-path trees. For each edge, e E , a node set,
S (e ) , to which the shortest path begins with e is
computed[2],[11]. By using a layout, for each edge e E , the
bounding box of S ( e ) is stored in an associative array C with
Page 352
index set E. The preprocessed information is used for

determining if a particular edge will be present on a shortest
path to a given target.
E. Combination of speed-up Techniques
The different speed-up techniques mentioned above can be
combined in with each other, which further improve the
efficiency during shortest path combination. Some of the
combinations were implemented and analyzed[2]. Reach
based routing[12] is also combined with many of the basic
techniques.
IX. OPENMP
This section contains parallel programming constructs used to
achieve parallelism. OpenMP is an Application Programming
Interface (API)[13] for portable shared memory parallel
programming. The API allows an incremental approach to
parallelize an existing code, so that portions of a program can
be parallelized in successive steps. There is a marked
difference between OpenMP and other parallel programming
paradigms where the entire program must be converted in one
step.
A. Fork and Join Model of OpenMP
Multithreaded programs can be written in different
ways that allows complex interaction between threads.
OpenMP provides a simple structured approach to
multithreaded programming. OpenMP supports a fork-join
programming model as shown in Fig. 1.
to assign work to them according to the strategy specified by

the programmer.
B. Features provided by OpenMP
OpenMP provides the following features that can be utilized
by a user (i) create teams of threads for parallel execution (ii)
specify how work must be shared among the threads (iii)
scope for variables (iv) synchronization constructs. Creating a
team of threads is achieved using parallel construct.
#pragma omp parallel [clause [[,] clause]]
Structured block
Although this construct ensures that computations in
the associated parallel region are performed in parallel, it does
not distribute the work among the threads in a team. There is
an implied barrier at the end of the parallel region that forces
all threads to wait until the work inside the region has been
completed.
There are three work sharing constructs available in
OpenMP.
1)
#pragma omp for
Used for sharing iterations in a loop
2)
#pragma omp sections
Specify different work for each thread individually
3)
#pragma omp single
Allow only one thread to execute the enclosed region
OpenMP
provides
many
constructs
for
synchronization. Locks are also supported.
The shortest path problem is solved in parallel with OpenMP
in [6]. Although there is improvement in speedup, there are
many speedup techniques which can be parallelized and the
performance can be improved.
X. SPEEDUP TECHNIQUES
The modules in bidirectional search are segregated in such a
way that the phases where the parallelism can be applied are
identified. Those portions are executed in parallel using
OpenMP based on the Multicore architecture.
Fig. 1 Fork-Join programming model of OpenMP
In this approach, the program starts as a single thread of

execution. Whenever an OpenMP parallel construct is
encountered by a thread while it is executing the program, it
creates a team of threads (this is the fork), becomes the master
of the team, and collaborates with the other members of the
team to execute the code enclosed by the construct. At the end
of the construct, only the original thread continues; all others
terminate (this is the join). Each portion of code enclosed by a
parallel construct is called a parallel region.
OpenMP expects the application developer to give a
high-level specification of the parallelism in the program and
the method for exploiting that parallelism. The OpenMP
implementation will take care of the low-level details of
actually creating independent threads to execute the code and
A. Bidirectional Search
The bidirectional search[4] algorithm has a considerable
portion of its operations suitable for parallel execution.
Initialization (Forward Search) [IFS]
Initialization (Backward Search) [IBS]
Node Selection (Forward Search) [SFS]
Distance updation (Forward Search) [UFS]
Node Selection (Backward Search) [SBS]
Distance updation (Backward Search) [UBS]
Fig. 2, Bidirectional Search. The inner box with

dash-dot line indicates a loop.
Page 353
The various modules for bidirectional search is outlined in

Fig. 2, and detailed in Algorithm 1. In bidirectional search two
searches are carried out simultaneously: a forward variant of
the algorithm, starting from the source, and a reverse variant
of the algorithm, starting from the target. The reverse variant
of the algorithm is applied to the reverse graph. The search
terminates when a node is marked permanent by both
searches. In this scenario, the forward and reverse searches are
mutually independent to certain extent, except for the set
perm which contains permanent nodes marked by both.
search process. Figure 3, describes bidirectional search in

which only the updation of neighbor distance values is
parallelized.
IFS
IBS
SFS
SBS
//Initialization phase
for all nodes u V set dist ( u ) :=
UFS
UBS
initialize priority queue Q with source s and
dist ( s ) := 0
for all nodes u V set rdist (u ) :=
initialize priority queue rQ with target t and
Initialization parallelized
using OpenMP Sections
rdist ( t ) := 0
initialize a perm to empty set
// Node selection phase begins
while priority queue Q and rQ are not empty
{
get node u with smallest tentative distance dist(u) in Q
if( u = t or u perm ) halt.
add u to perm
get node ru with smallest distance rdist(ru) in rQ
if( ru = s or ru perm ) halt.
add ru to perm
// update phase forward search
for all neighbor nodes v of u
set new-dist := dist(u) + w(u, v)
update dist(v) of forward priority queue Q
// update phase reverse search
for all neighbor nodes rv of ru
set new-dist := rdist(ru) + w(ru, rv)
update dist(rv) of reverse priority queue
rQ
}
Algorithm 1: Bidirectional Dijkstras Algorithm
B. Bidirectional Search with parallelized updates

There are two regions where parallelism can be exploited. The
initialization of required data structures for both forward and
reverse searches can be performed in parallel, that is, data
level parallelism can be adopted. The parallel bidirectional
algorithm is given in Algorithm 2. The initialization of both
forward and reverse search can be parallelized.
Another operation that lends itself to parallelization is the
updation of distance values, for the neighbors, of a node
which is marked permanent. In this region also data
parallelism is possible. It is to be noted that another possibility
for parallelism is to run both the forward and reverse variants
of the algorithm simultaneously as independent threads of the
Updates parallelized using

OpenMP Sections
Fig. 3, Bidirectional Search with parallelized updates
//Initialization phase
# pragma omp section
{
initialize forward priority queue Q with dist(u)= and
dist(s)=0
}
{
initialize reverse priority queue rQ with rdist(u)= and
rdist(t)=0
}
initialize perm array with empty set
//Node selection phase begins
While (priority queue Q and rQ are not empty)
{
get node with min dist(u) in Q and assign it to u
if (u==t or u perm) then exit else add u to perm
get node with min rdist(u) in rQ and assign it to ru
if (ru==s or ru perm) then exit else add ru to
perm
//Update phase forward search
{
for all neighbor nodes v of u
set new-dist := dist(u) + w(u, v)
update dist(v) of forward priority queue Q
}
//Update phase reverse search
{
for all neighbor nodes rv of ru
set new-dist := rdist(ru) + w(ru,rv)
update dist(rv) of reverse priority queue rQ
}
}
Algorithm 2: Bidirectional Search with parallelized updates
XI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Page 354
Dijkstras algorithm, the bidirectional search and the

bidirectional search technique with parallelized updates were
implemented and the results were analyzed.
The different algorithms mentioned were implemented in C++
with the help of LEDA library. The graph and priority queue
data structures as well as other utilities such precise time
measurements provided by LEDA were used in the
implementation. For parallelizing the regions of code in
bidirectional search the OpenMP API was utilized. The use of
OpenMP helped to maintain a single source for both the
sequential and parallel versions of the algorithm.
The code was compiled using GNU C++ Compiler (g++
version 4.2) and the experiments were performed on an Intel
Core2Duo machine (2.20 GHz) with 1 GB RAM running on
Ubuntu GNU/Linux 8.04 (kernel version 2.6)
The main result of this work is shown in Fig. 5. The running
time of the different algorithms is plotted (along y-axis)
against the number of nodes (along x-axis). The graphs
generated were random graphs with the number of edges in
O(n), that is, the graphs generated were sparse.
The experiments were conducted for 30 runs, and the results
of running time of the algorithm are tabulated in Table 1.
From Fig. 5, it is observed that the bidirectional search
reduces the running time of Dijkstras algorithm by a factor of
2.2 while the parallelized bidirectional search reduces the
runtime by a factor of 3.1.
Run
No.
1
Nodes
1000
0.001
0.0015
Parallel
Bi+Dij
0.003
5000
0.0115
0.006
0.0055
10
10000
0.0295
0.014
0.013
15
15000
0.0495
0.0225
0.0175
20
20000
0.0685
0.036
0.023
25
25000
0.103
0.043
0.0305
30
30000
0.126
0.05
0.0355
1.692
0.7695
0.546
0.0564
0.0257
0.0182
2.1988304
09
3.098901
Total Runtime (30

runs)
Average Runtime
Speed-Up
Dij
Bi+Dij
TABLE V
RUNNING TIME IN DIJKSTRA AND BIDIRECTIONAL DIJKSTRA WITH
PARALLELIZED UPDATES
Fig. 5. Runtime comparison of the different speed-up techniques

Alg 1 Traditional Dijkstra
Alg 2 Bidirectional Dijkstra
Alg 3 Bidirectional Dijkstra with updates parallelized
RRun No.
Nodes
Dij
Bi+Dij
1000
576
55
5000
2103
134
10
10000
4190
170
15
15000
7263
236
20
20000
11633
271
25
25000
11932
202
30
30000
14692
275
238203
6020
7940.1
200.6666667
Total Vertex Visit Count (30

runs)
Average Vertex Visit Count
Speed-Up
39.56860465
TABLE IVI
NUMBER OF NODES VISITED IN DIJKSTRA AND BIDIRECTIONAL DIJKSTRA
The experiments were conducted for 30 runs, and the results

of Number of nodes visited of the algorithm are tabulated in
Table II.
Fig 6. plots the number of nodes visited during shortest path
computation, using Dijkstras algorithm, against the number
of nodes available in the graph. Similarly the graph in Fig. 6
takes into account the number of nodes visited during shortest
path calculation using bidirectional search in Dijkstras
algorithm.
Page 355
No.of Nodes visited during shortest path computation
[2] Martin Holzer, Frank Schulz, Dorothea Wagner, and Thomas Willhalm,
Combining Speed-up Techniques for Shortest-Path Computations, ACM
Journal of Experimental Algorithmics, Vol. 10, Article No. 2.5, 2005.
[3] Johnson, D. B, Efficient algorithms for shortest paths in sparse networks,
Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery,1959, 113.
16000
No.of Nodes Visited
14000
[4] Frederikson, G. N, Fast algorithms for shortest paths in planar graphs with
applications, SIAM Journal on Computing, 16(6), 1987, 10041022.
12000
10000
8000
Dij
Bi+Dij
6000
[5] Agarwal. R. and Jagadish, H. V, Algorithms for searching massive

graphs, IEEE Transaction son Knowledge and Data Engineering, 6(2),1994,
225238.
[6] , Dominik Schultes, Johannes Singler, Peter Sanders, Parallel Highway
Node
Routing,
A
Technical
Report,
Feb,2008.
algo2.iti.kit.edu/schultes/hwy/parallelHNR.pdf
4000
2000
0
1000
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
No.of Nodes
[7] Willhalm, T, Engineering shortest paths and layout algorithms for large
graphs., Ph.D.thesis, Faculty of Informatics, University of Karlsruhe, 2005
[8 Andrew V.Goldberg, Chris Harrelson, Computing the Shortest Path: A*
Search Meets Graph Theory, Microsoft Research, 1065 La Avenida,
Mountain View, CA 94062. 2005
Fig. 6. Number of nodes visited during shortest path computation

Dij Dijkstras Algorithm
Bi+Dij Bidirectional Dijkstra
The result will be the same for Bidirectional Dijkstra with

updates parallelized. It is observed that the number of nodes
visited during shortest path computation is comparatively less
in bidirectional search. The Number of nodes visited in
Bidirectional Dijkstra is reduced by a factor of 40.
XII.
CONCLUSION
The speed-up technique for Dijkstras algorithm reduces the
runtime of the algorithm while retaining optimality. Even
though the number of nodes visited during bidirectional search
and bidirectional search with updates parallelized are the
same. The running time is still reduced in the case of
bidirectional search with updates parallelized. Also the speedup techniques can be combined to increase the speed-up
considerably. These techniques lend themselves for
parallelization which can be effectively utilized in large
applications like route planning systems, time table
information systems, etc., where multi-core processors are
utilized so that the system efficiency can be improved.
Locks can be applied during parallelizing the bidirectional
Dijkstra for special case of graphs.
[9] Peter Sanders and Dominik Schultes , Highway Hierarchies Hasten Exact
Shortest Path Queries, , ESA 2005, LNCS 3669, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg 2005, 568579..
[10] Holzer, Hierarchical speedup techniques for shortest path algorithms, M,
Tech. report, Dept of Informatics, University of Konstanz, Germany, 2003.
[11] Dorothea Wagner and Thomas Willhalm, Geometric Containers for
Efficient Shortest-Path Computation, ACM Journal of Experimental
Algorithmics, 10(1.3), 2005.
[12] Gutman. R.J, Reach-based routing: A new approach to shortest path
algorithms optimized for road networks, In Proceedings of the Sixth
Workshop on Algorithm Engineering and Experiments and the First
Workshop on Analytic Algorithmics and Combinatorics, 2004.
[13] OpenMP Website (http://www.openmp.org)
REFERENCES
[1] Dijkstra. E. W , A note on two problems in connection with graphs, In
Numerische Mathematik. Vol. 1. Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 1959, 269271.
Page 356
Hiding Sensitive Frequent Item Set by Database

Extension
B. Mullaikodi, M.E#1,Dr. S.Sujatha M.E.*2,
#
Computer Science and Engineering Department, Anna University, Trichy

1
SMK_PRS2007@Yahoo.com
Abstract -Sharing data among organizations

often leads to mutual benefit. Recent technology in
data mining has enabled efficient extraction of
knowledge from large databases.
This, however,
increases risks of disclosing the sensitive knowledge
when the database is released to other parties. To
address this privacy issue, one may sanitize the original
database so that the sensitive knowledge is hidden.
Sensitive knowledge hiding in large transactional
databases is one of the major goals of privacy
preserving data mining.
A novel approach that
performs sensitive frequent item set hiding by applying
an extension to the original database was proposed.
The extended portion of data set contains transactions
that lower the importance of the sensitive patterns,
while minimally affecting the importance of the nonsensitive ones. We present the border revision to
identify the revised border for the sanitized database
and then we compute the minimal size for the extension.
The hiding process involves the construction of a
Constraints Satisfaction Problem, by using item sets of
revised borders and its solution through Binary Integer
Programming.
Keywords Privacy preserving data mining, knowledge
hiding, association rule mining, binary integer programming.
I. INTRODUCTION
A subfield of privacy preserving data mining is
knowledge hiding. The paper presents a novel approach
that strategically performs sensitive frequent itemset hiding
based on a new notion of hybrid database generation. This
approach broadens the regular process of data sanitization
by applying an extension to the original database instead of
either modifying existing transactions, or rebuilding the
dataset from scratch. The extended portion of the dataset
contains a set of carefully crafted transactions that achieve
to lower the importance of the sensitive patterns to a degree
that they become uninteresting from the perspective of the
data mining algorithm, while minimally affecting the
importance of the nonsensitive ones. The hiding process is
guided by the need to maximize the data utility of the

sanitized database by introducing the least possible amount
of side-effects, such as (i) the hiding of non-sensitive
patterns, or (ii) the production of frequent patterns that
were not existent in the initial dataset. The released
database, which consists of the initial part (original
database) and the extended part (database extension), can
guarantee the protection of the sensitive knowledge, when
mined at the same or higher support as the one used in the
original database. The approach introduced in this paper is
exact in nature. On the contrary, when an exact solution is
impossible, the algorithm identifies an approximate
solution that is close to the optimal one. To accomplish the
hiding task, the proposed approach administers the
sanitization part by formulating a Constraint Satisfaction
Problem (CSP) and by solving it through Binary Integer
Programming (BIP).
II. KNOWLEDGE HIDING FORMULATION
This section provides the necessary background regarding
sensitive itemset hiding and sets out the problem at hand,
as well as the proposed hiding methodology.
A. Frequent Itemset:
Let I = {i1, i2, ., iM} be a finite set of literals,
called items, where M denotes the cardinality of the set.
Any subset I I is an item set over I. A transaction T over
I is a pair T = (tid, I), where I is the item set and tid is a
unique identifier, used to distinguish among transactions
that correspond to the same item set. A transaction
database D = {T1, T2, ....TN} over I is an
N x M table consisting of N transactions over I carrying
different identifiers, where entry Tnm = 1 if and only if the
mth item (m [1, M]) appears in the nth transaction (n
[1, N]). Otherwise, Tnm = 0. A transaction T = (tid, J)
supports an item set I over I, if I J. Let S be a set of
items; notation p(S) denotes the powerset of S, which is the
set of all subsets of S.
Page 357
Given an item set I over I in D, sup (I, D) denotes the

number of transactions T D that support I and freq(I, D)
denotes the fraction of transactions in D that support I. An
item set I is called large or frequent in database D if and
only if its frequency in D is at least equal to a minimum
threshold mfreq. A hybrid of Apriori and FP-Tree
algorithms are proposed to be used to find the frequent
item set.
A hybrid of Apriori and FP-Tree algorithms are proposed
to be used to find an optimized set of frequent item set.
1) The Apriori Algorithm - Finding Frequent Itemsets
Using Candidate Generation:
Apriori is an influential algorithm for mining frequent

itemsets for Boolean association rules. Apriori employs
an iterative approach known as a level-wise search,
where k-itemsets are used to explore (K+1) itemsets.
First , the set of frequent 1-itemsets is found. This set is
denoted L1. L1 is used to find L2, the set of frequent 2itemsets , which is used to find L3 , and so on, until no
more frequent k-itemsets can be found. The finding of
each Lk requires one full scan of the database.
To improve the efficiency of the level-wise
generation of frequent itemsets, an important property
called the Apriori property, i.e., all nonempty subsets of a
frequent itemset must also be frequent, is used to reduce
the search space. A two step process join and prune actions
are used to find Lk from Lk-1.
If the conditional FP-tree contains a

single path, simply enumerate all the patterns
B.Hiding methodology
To properly introduce the hiding methodology, one needs
to consider the existence of three databases, all depicted in
binary format. They are defined as follows:
Database Do, is the original transaction database

that, when mined at a certain support threshold msup, and
leads to the disclosure of some sensitive knowledge in the
form of sensitive frequent patterns. This sensitive
knowledge needs to be protected.
Database Dx ,is a minimal extension of Do that is

created by the hiding algorithm during the sanitization
process, in order to facilitate knowledge hiding.
Database D ,is the union of database Do and the

applied extension Dx and corresponds to the sanitized
outcome that can be safely released.
TABLE 1
Sample : Sanitized Database D as a Mixture of the Original Database DO
and the Applied Extension DX
2) FP-Growth Algorithm-Mining Frequent patterns without

candidate generation :
Frequent pattern growth or simply FP-growth adopts a
divide-and conquer strategy as follows: compress the
database representing frequent items into a frequent pattern
tree, or FP tree, but retain the itemset association
information and then divide such a compressed database
into a set of conditional databases, each associate with one
frequent item, and mine each such database separately.
TABLE 2
Major steps to mine FP-tree
Sample : Frequent Item Sets for DO and DX at msup = 3 (for table 1)
1)
Construct conditional pattern base for each node
in the FP-tree
2)
Construct conditional
conditional pattern-base
FP-tree
from
each
3)
Recursively mine conditional FP-trees and grow
frequent patterns obtained so far
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Given the sanitized database D, its original version DO, and

the produced extension DX , the quality of database D is
measured both in the size of DX and in the number of
binary variables set to 1 in the transactions of DX (i.e.,
the distance metric). In both cases, lower values correspond
to better solutions.
III. HYBRID SOLUTION METHODOLOGY
Definition 3 (ideal solution).

A solution to the hiding of the sensitive item sets is
considered as ideal if it has the minimum distance among
all the existing exact solutions and is obtained through the
minimum expansion of DX. In that sense, ideal is a solution
that is both minimal (with respect to distance and size of
extension) and exact.
A. Computation of size of database extension
C. Border Revision
Database DO is extended by DX to construct database D. An

initial and very important step in the hiding process is the
computation of the size of DX. A lower bound on this value
can be established based on the sensitive item set in S,
which has the highest support. The rationale here is given
as follows: by identifying the sensitive item set with the
highest support, one can safely decide upon the minimum
number of transactions that must not support this item set
in DX, so that it becomes infrequent in D.
The rationale behind this process is that hiding of a set of

item sets corresponds to a movement of the original
borderline in the lattice that separates the frequent item sets
from their infrequent counterparts , such that the sensitive
item sets lie below the revised borderline. There are four
Lower bound Q is
sup( I N , DO )
Q=
N +1
mfreq
.1
Equation (1) provides the absolute minimum number of

transactions that need to be added in DX, to allow for the
proper hiding of the sensitive item sets of DO. However, this
lower bound can, under certain circumstances, be insufficient

to allow for the identification of an exact solution, even if one
exists. To circumvent this problem, one needs to expand the
size Q of DX as determined by (1), by a certain number of
transactions. A threshold, called safety margin (denoted
hereon as SM), is incorporated for this purpose. Safety

margins can be either predefined or be computed
dynamically, based on particular properties of database DO
and / or other parameters regarding the hiding process.
B. Exact and Ideal Solutions

Definition 1 (feasible/exact/approximate solution).
A solution to the hiding of the sensitive knowledge in DO is
considered as feasible if it achieves to hide the sensitive
patterns. Any feasible solution, introducing no side effects
in the hiding process, is called exact. Finally, any non exact
feasible solution is called approximate.
possible scenarios involving the status of each item set I prior

and after the application of border revision:
C1 :
Item set I was frequent in DO and remains frequent in D.
C2 :
Item set I was infrequent in DO and is infrequent in D.
C3 :
Item set I was frequent in DO and became infrequent in D.
C4 :
Item set I was infrequent in DO and became frequent in D.
Since the borders are revised to accommodate for an exact
solution, the revised hyper plane is designed to be ideal in
the sense that it excludes only the sensitive item sets and
their supersets from the set of frequent patterns in D,
leaving the rest of the item sets in their previous status as in
database DO.
The first step in the hiding methodology rests on
the identification of the revised borders for D. The hiding
algorithm relies on both the revised positive and the
negative borders, denoted as Bd+ (F1D) and Bd (F1D),
respectively. After identifying the new (ideal) borders, the
hiding process has to perform all the required minimal
adjustments of the transactions in Dx to enforce the
existence of the new borderline in the result database.
Definition 2 (database quality).
Page 359
more, by carefully selecting the item sets of set C, the

hiding algorithm ensures that the exact same solution to the
one of solving the entire system of inequalities is attained.
This is accomplished by exploiting cover relations existing
among the item sets in the lattice.
Set C is chosen appropriately to consist of all the item sets
of the revised border. The proposed hiding algorithm is
capable of ensuring that if (3) and (4) are satisfied for all
the item sets in C, then the produced solution is exact and
is identical to the solution involving the whole system of
the 2M 1 inequalities. Cover relations governing the
various item sets in the lattice of DO ensure that the
formulated set of item sets C has an identical solution to
the one of solving the system of all 2M 1 inequalities for
D.
Fig. 1 An sample item set lattic demonstration (a) the
original border and the sensitive item sets, and (b) the
revised border for Table1
D. Problem Size Reduction

To enforce the computed revised border and identify the
exact hiding solution, a mechanism is needed to regulate
the status (frequent versus infrequent) of all the item sets in
D. Let C be the minimal set of border item sets used to
regulate the values of the various uqm variables in DX.
Moreover, suppose that I C is an item set, whose
behavior we want to regulate in D. Then, item set I will be
frequent in D if and only if sup (I, Do) + Sup(I, Dx) m
freq x (N+Q), or equivalently if
Q
Sup (I,DO) +
uqm
mfreq x (N + Q) (3)
q =1 i M I
equivalently if
Q
sup (I,DO) +
uqm < mfreq x (N + Q) ...(4)
q =1 i M I
Inequality (3) corresponds to the minimum number of

times that an item set I has to appear in the extension DX to
remain frequent in D. On the other hand, (4) provides the
maximum number of times that an item set I has to appear
in DX to be infrequent in database D. To identify an exact
solution to the hiding problem, every possible item set in P,
according to its position in the latticewith respect to the
revised bordermust satisfy either (3) or (4). However, the
complexity of solving the entire system of the 2M _ 1
inequalities is well known to be NP-hard . Therefore, one
should restrict the problem to capture only a small subset
of these inequalities, thus leading to a problem size that is
computationally manageable. The proposed problem
formulation achieves this by reducing the number of the
participating inequalities that need to be satisfied. Even
The cover relations that exist between the item sets of Bd+
(F`D) and those of F`D. In the same manner, the item sets
of Bd (FD) are generalized covers for all the item sets of P \
(Bd+ (F`D) {}). Therefore, the item sets of the positive
and the negative borders cover all item sets in P.
Optimal solution set C: The exact hiding solution, which is
identical to the solution of the entire system of the 2M 1
inequalities, can be attained based on the item sets of set
C = Bd+ (F`D) Bd (F`D)
Based on (7), the item sets of the revised borders Bd+ (F`D)
and Bd (F`D) can be used to produce the corresponding
inequalities, which will allow for an exact hiding solution
for DO.
D. Handling of Suboptimality
Since an exact solution may not always be feasible, the
hiding algorithm should be capable of identifying good
approximate solutions. There are two possible scenarios
that may lead to nonexistence of an exact solution. Under
the first scenario, DO itself does not allow for an optimal
solution due to the various supports of the participating
item sets. Under the second scenario, database DO is
capable of providing an exact solution, but the size of the
database extension is insufficient to satisfy all the required
inequalities of this solution. To tackle the first case, the
hiding algorithm assigns different degrees of importance to
different inequalities. To be more precise, while it is crucial
to ensure that (4) holds for all sensitive item sets in D, thus
they are properly protected from disclosure, satisfaction of
(3) for an item set rests in the discretion of ensuring the
minimal possible impact of the sanitization process to DO.
This inherent difference in the significance of the two
inequalities, along with the fact that solving the system of
all inequalities of the form (4) always leads to a feasible
solution (i.e., for any database DO), allows the relaxation of
Page 360
the problem, when needed, and the identification of a good

approximate solution.
To overcome the second issue, the hiding algorithm
incorporates the use of a safety margin threshold, which
produces a further expansion of DX by a certain number of
transactions. These transactions must be added to the ones
computed by using (1). The introduction of a safety margin
can be justified as follows: Since (1) provides the lower
bound on the size of database DX , it is possible that the
artificially created transactions are too few to accommodate
for the proper hiding of knowledge. This situation may
occur due to conflicting constraints imposed by the various
item sets regarding their status in D. These constraints
require more transactions (or to be more precise, more item
modifications) in order to be met. Thus, a proper safety
margin will allow the algorithm to identify an exact
solution if such a solution exists. The additional extension
of DX, due to the incorporation of the safety margin, can be
restricted to the necessary degree. A portion of transactions
in DX is selected and removed at a later point, thus
reducing its size and allowing an exact solution. Therefore,
the only side effect of the use of the safety margin in the
hiding process is an inflation in the number of constraints
and associated binary variables in the problem formulation,
leading to a minuscule overhead in the runtime of the
hiding algorithm.
E. Formulation and Solution of the CSP

A CSP is defined by a set of variables and a set of
constraints, where each variable has a nonempty domain of
potential values. The constraints involve a subset of the
variables and specify the allowable combinations of values
that these variables can attain. Since in this work all
variables involved are binary in nature, the produced CSP
is solved by using a technique called BIP that transforms it
to an optimization problem. To avoid the high degree of
constraints, the application of a Constraints Degree
Reduction(CDR) approach is essential. On the other hand,
the resulting inequalities are simple in nature and allow for
fast solutions, thus adhere for an efficient solution of the
entire CSP. The proposed CSP formulation is
F. Validity of Transactions
The incorporation of the safety margin threshold in the
hiding process may lead to an unnecessary extension of DX.
it is possible to identify and remove the extra portion of DX

that is not needed, thus minimize the size of database D to
the necessary limit. To achieve that, one needs to rely on
the notion of null transactions, appearing in database DX. A
transaction Tq is defined as null or empty if it does not
support any valid item set in the lattice. Null transactions
do not support any pattern from P \ {}.
Apart from the lack of providing any useful information,
null transactions are easily identifiable, thus produce a
privacy breach in the hiding methodology. They may exist
due to two reasons: 1) an unnecessarily large safety margin
or 2) a large value of Q essential for proper hiding. In the
first case, these transactions need to be removed from DX,
while in the second case the null transactions need to be
validated, since Q denotes the lower bound in the number
of transactions to ensure proper hiding.
After solving the CSP, all the null transactions appearing
in DX are identified. Suppose that Qinv such transactions
exist. The size of database DX will then equal the value of
Q plus the safety margin SM. This means that the valid
transactions in DX will be equal to = Q + SM Qinv. To
ensure minimum size of DX , the hiding algorithm keeps
only k null transactions, such that
k = max (Q - , 0) k = max (Qinv SM, 0).
As a second step, the hiding algorithm needs to ensure that
the k empty transactions that remain in DX become valid
prior to releasing database D to public. A heuristic is
applied for this purpose, which effectively replaces null
transactions of DX with transactions supporting item sets of
the revised positive border. After solving the CSP in Fig. 2,
the outcome is examined to identify null transactions.
Then, the null transactions are replaced with valid ones,
supporting item sets of Bd+ (F`D).
IV. EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION
The algorithm was tested on different datasets using

different parameters such as minimum support threshold
and number/size of sensitive itemsets to hide. The
thresholds of minimum support were properly set to ensure
an adequate amount of frequent itemsets, among which a
set of sensitive itemsets were randomly selected. We
compare the solutions of the hybrid algorithm against three
state-of-the-art BBAs: the BBA, the Max-Min 2 algorithm,
and inline algorithm at terms of side effects introduced by
the hiding process. The hybrid algorithm consistently
outperforms the three other schemes, with the inline
approach being the second best. An interesting insight from
the conducted experiments is the fact that the hybrid
approach, when compared to the inline algorithm and the
heuristic approaches can better preserve the quality of the
Page 361
border and produce superior solutions. Indeed, the hybrid

approach introduces the least amount of side effects among
the four tested algorithms.
V. CONCLUSION
A novel, exact border-based hybrid approach to sensitive

frequent item set hiding, through the introduction of a
minimal extension to the original database was presented.
A hybrid approach of combining Apriori and FP_Tree was
done to find optimized frequent item set.
This
methodology is capable of identifying an ideal solution
whenever one exists, or approximate the exact solution and
the solution of this approach is of higher quality than
previous approaches.
REFERENCES
[1]
Aris Gkoulalas Divanis, Vassilios S. Verykois, (May 2009)
Exact Knowledge Hiding through Database Extension IEEE
Transaction on Knowledge and Data Engineering, Vol. 21, No. 5,
[2] Gkoulalas-Divanis. A and Verykios. V.S, (Nov. 2006) An Integer
Programming Approach for Frequent Itemset Hiding, Proc. ACM Conf.
Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM 06), pp. 748-757,
[3] Oliveira. S.R.M. and Zaane. O.R.,, (2003) Protecting Sensitive
Knowledge by Data Sanitization, Proc. Third IEEE Intl Conf. Data
Mining (ICDM 03), pp. 211-218.
[4] Sun. X and Yu. P.S, (2005) A Border-Based Approach for Hiding
Sensitive Frequent Itemsets, Proc. Fifth IEEE Intl Conf. Data Mining
(ICDM 05), pp. 426-433.
[5] Verykios. V.S., Emagarmid. A.K., Bertino. E., Saygin. Y, and
Dasseni. E, (Apr. 2004) Association Rule Hiding, IEEE Trans.
Knowledge and Data Eng., vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 434-447,
Page 362
Denial of service:
New metrics and
Their measurement
Dr.KannanBalasubramanian1, Kavithapandian.P2
Professor, Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamilnadu, India.1
II M.E [CSE], Anna University, Thiruchirapall, Tamilnadu, Indiai.2
kavithaasm@yahoo.com, muthukumar_ssce@yahoo.com
Abstract - In this paper, we propose a novel, user-centric

approach to DoS impact measurement. Our key insight is that
DoS always causes degradation of service quality, and a
metric that holistically captures a human users QoS
perception will be applicable to all test scenarios. For each
popular application, we specify its QoS requirements,
consisting
of
relevant
traffic
measurements
and
corresponding thresholds that define good service ranges. We
observe traffic as a collection of high-level tasks, called
transactions. Each legitimate transaction is evaluated
against its applications QoS requirements; transactions that
do not meet all the requirements are considered failed. We
aggregate information about transaction failure into several
intuitive qualitative and quantitative composite metrics to
expose the precise interaction of the DoS attack with the
legitimate traffic.
KeywordsNetwork-level
security
and
protection,
communication/networking and information technology,
computer systems organization, measurement techniques,
performance of systems.
I. INTRODUCTION
Denial of service (DoS) is a major threat. DoS severely
disrupts legitimate communication by exhausting some
critical limited resource via packet floods or by sending
malformed packets that cause network elements to crash.
The large number of devices, applications, and resources
involved in communication offers a wide variety of
mechanisms to deny service. Effects of DoS attacks are
experienced by users as a severe slowdown, service quality
degradation, or service disruption.
DoS attacks have been studied through network simulation
or testbed experiments. Accurately measuring the
impairment of service quality perceived by human clients
during an attack is essential for evaluation and comparison
of potential DoS defenses, and for study of novel attacks.
Researchers and developers need accurate, quantitative,
and versatile DoS impact metrics whose use does not
require significant changes in current simulators and
experimental tools. Accurate metrics produce measures of
service denial existing metrics agree with human
perception of service denial. .
We demonstrate that our metrics meet the goals of being

accurate, quantitative, and versatile 1) through testbed
experiments with multiple DoS scenarios and rich
legitimate traffic mixes, 2) through OPNET simulations
and 3) through experiments involving human users.
This projects contributions are threefold: 1) We propose a
novel approach to DoS impact measurement relying on
application-specific QoS requirements. Although our
proposed metrics combine several existing approaches,
their novelty lies in a) the careful specification of traffic
measurements that reflect service denial for the most
popular applications and b) the definition of QoS
thresholds for each measurement and each application
class, based on extensive study of the QoS literature. 2) We
aggregate multiple measurements into intuitive and
informative DoS metrics that can be directly applied to
existing testbed experiments and simulations, and to a
variety of DoS scenarios. 3) We demonstrate that our
metrics accurately capture human perception of service
denial by conducting experiments with human users.
II. WORK FLOW
To build a network model the workflow centers on the
Project Editor. This is used to create network models,
collect statistics directly from each network object or from
the network as a hole, execute a simulation and view
results.
A. Data Flow Diagram

Interactive
Application
QOS
Measurement
Introduce
DOS
Calculate
DOS Metrics
Analysis Traffic
UDP Bandwidth
Flood
Analysis
Graph
Representation
Page 363
III. Existing metrics

Prior DoS research has focused on measuring DoS through
selected legitimate traffic parameters:
1. Packet loss,
2. Traffic throughput or goodput,
3. Request/Response delay,
4. Transaction duration, and
5. Allocation of resources.
A. Packet Loss
Loss is defined as the number of packets or bytes lost due
to the interaction of the legitimate traffic with the attack or
due to collateral damage from a defenses operation. The
loss metric primarily measures the presence and extent of
congestion in the network due to flooding attacks. It cannot
be used for attacks that do not continually create
congestion, or do not congest network resources at all.
Examples of such attacks are pulsing attacks, TCP SYN
floods attacks that target application resources, and
vulnerability attacks that crash applications and hosts.
Further, the loss metric typically does not distinguish
between the types of packets lost, while some packet losses
have a more profound impact than others (for example, a
lost SYN versus data packet) on service quality.
B. Throughput
Throughput is defined as the number of bytes transferred
per unit time from the source to the destination. Goodput is
similar, but does not count retransmitted bytes. Both are
meaningful for TCP-based traffic, which responds to
congestion by lowering its sending rate.
C. Request/Response delay
Request/response delay is defined as the interval between
the time when a request is issued and the time when a
complete response is received from the destination. It
measures service denial of interactive applications (e.g.,
telnet) well, but fails to measure it for non-interactive
applications (e.g., email), which have much larger
thresholds for acceptable request/response delay. Further, it
is completely inapplicable to one-way traffic (e.g., media
traffic), which does not generate responses but is sensitive
to one-way delay, loss and jitter.
D. Transaction duration
It is the time needed for an exchange of a meaningful set of
messages between a source and a destination. This metric
depends heavily on the volume of data being transferred

and whether the application is interactive and congestion
sensitive. It accurately measures service denial for
interactive applications such as Web browsing. For oneway traffic, such as media streaming that may not respond
to congestion and runs over UDP,transaction duration will
not be affected by the attack. Duration of many
noninteractive transactions can be extended without
causing service denial because humans expect that such
transactions may occur with some delay.
E. Allocation of resources
Allocation of resources is defined as the fraction of a
critical resource (usually bandwidth) allocated to legitimate
traffic vs. attack traffic. This metric does not provide any
insight into the user-perceived service quality. Instead it
assumes that the only damage to legitimate traffic is
inflicted by the lack of resources, and is only applicable to
flooding attacks.
IV. PROPOSED METRICS

We now introduce several definitions needed for DoS
impact metrics. The client is the host that initiates
communication with another party, which we call the
server.
Definition 1. A conversation between a client and a server

is the set of all packets exchanged between these two hosts
to provide a specific service to the client, at a given time. A
conversation is explicitly initiated by a client application
(e.g., by opening a TCP connection or sending a UDP
packet to a well-known service) and ends either explicitly
(a TCP connection is closed, UDP service is rendered to
the client) or after a long period of inactivity. If several
channels are needed to render service to a client, such as
FTP control and data channels, all related channels are part
of a single conversation.
Definition 2. A transaction is the part of a conversation that
represents a higher-level task whose completion is
perceptible and meaningful to a user. Transaction usually
involves a single request-reply exchange between a client
and a server, or several such exchanges that occur close in
time. A conversation may contain one or several
transactions.
Definition 3. A transaction is successful if it meets all the
QoS requirements of its corresponding application. If at
least one QoS requirement is not met, a transaction has
failed. Transaction success/failure is the core of our
proposed metrics.
Page 364
Interactive applications such as Web, file transfer, telnet,email (between a user and a server), DNS, and ping involve
a human user requesting a service from a remote server,
and waiting for a response. Their primary QoS requirement
is that a response is served within a user-acceptable delay.
Research on human perception of Web traffic delay shows
that people can tolerate higher latencies for entire task
completion if some data is served incrementally.
Media applications such as conversational and streaming
audio and video have strict requirements for low loss,low
jitter, and low one-way delay. These applications further
involve a media channel (where the audio and video traffic
are sent, usually via UDP) and a control channel (for media
control). Both of these channels must provide satisfactory
service to the user. We treat control traffic as interactive
traffic requiring a 4-second partial delay.
Chat applications can be used for text and media transfer
between two human users. While the request/response
delays depend on human conversation dynamics,the receipt
of user messages by the server must be acknowledged
within a certain time. This delay requirement as a 4-second
threshold on the round-trip time between the client and the
server. Additionally, we apply the QoS requirements for
media applications to the media channel of the chat
application.
DoS Metrics
We aggregate the transaction success/failure measures into
several intuitive composite metrics. Percentage of failed
transactions (pft)
This metric directly captures the impact of a DoS attack on
network services by quantifying the QoS experienced by
users. For each transaction that overlaps with the attack, we
evaluate transaction success or failure applying Definition
3. A straightforward approach to the pft calculation is
dividing the number of failed transactions by the number of
all transactions during the attack. This produces biased
results for clients that generate transactions serially.
because in some experiments it may be useful to produce a

single number that describes the DoS impact. But we
caution that DoS-level is highly dependent on the chosen
application weights and thus can be biased.
QoS-ratio
It is the ratio of the difference between a transactions
traffic measurement and its corresponding threshold,
divided by this threshold. The QoS metric for each
successful transaction shows the user-perceived service
quality, in the range (0, 1], where higher numbers indicate
better quality. It is useful to evaluate service quality
degradation during attacks. We compute it by averaging
QoS-ratios for all traffic measurements of a given
transaction that have defined thresholds.
The failure ratio

It shows the percentage of live transactions in the current
(1-second) interval that will fail in the future. The failure
ratio is useful for evaluation of DoS defenses, to capture
the speed of a defenses response, and for time-varying
attacks. Transactions that are born during the attack are
considered live until they complete successfully or fail.
Let A be a client that initiates some conversation with
server B. A request is defined as all data packets sent from
A to B, before any data packet is received from B. A reply
is defined as all data packets sent from B to A, before any
new request from A.
The DoS-hist metric

It shows the histogram of pft measures across applications,
and is helpful to understand each applications resilience to
the attack.
The DoS-level metric

It is the weighted average of pft measures for all
applications of interest: DoS-level =kpft(k).wk, where k
spans all application categories, and wk is a weight
associated with a category k. We introduced this metric
Figure illustrates request and reply identification, and

measurement of partial delay, echo delay, and whole delay.
We specify two types of delay requirements for e-mail,
Web, telnet, and file transfer transactions where a user can
utilize a partial response:
1) Partial delay measured between receipts of any two data
packets from the server. For the first data packet, partial
delay is measured from the end of a user request and
2) Whole delay measured from the end of a user request
until the entire response has been received. Additionally, a
Page 365
telnet application serves two types of responses to a user: it

echoes characters that a user types, and then generates a
response to the user request.
The echo generation must be faster than the rest of the
response, so we define the echo delay requirement for
telnet transactions. We identify the echo delay as the delay
between a users request and the first response packet.
V. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Topology
Four legitimate networks and two attack networks are
connected via four core routers. Each legitimate network
has four server nodes and two client nodes, and is
connected to the core via an access router.
Links between the access router and the core have 100Mbps bandwidth and 10-40-ms delay, while other links
have 1-Gbps bandwidth and no added delay. The location
of bottlenecks is chosen to mimic high-bandwidth local
networks that connect over a limited access link to an over
provisioned core. Attack networks host two attackers each,
and connect directly to core routers.
UDP flood Attack

This attack can deny service in two ways:
1) By generating a large traffic volume that exhausts
bandwidth on bottleneck links (more frequent variant) and
2) By generating a high packet rate that exhausts the CPU
at a router leading to the target. We generate the first attack
type: a UDP bandwidth flood. Packet sizes had range [750
bytes, 1.25 Kbytes] and total packet rate was 200 Kbps.
TCP SYN flood Attack

Another popular attack with both attackers and researchers
is the TCP SYN flood. It denies service by sending many
TCP SYN packets that consume OS memory at the target.
This attack can be largely countered if the target deploys
the TCP SYN-cookie defense, which allocates memory
only after the three-way handshake is completed.
VI. SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION
1) Programming in OPNET
Figure Experimental topology

shows the traffic patterns. Traffic patterns for IRC and
VoIP differ because those application clients could not
support multiple simultaneous connections. All attacks
target the Web server in network 4 and cross its bottleneck
link, so only this networks traffic should be impacted by
the attacks
Background Traffic
Each client generates a mixture of Web, DNS, FTP, IRC,
VoIP, ping, and telnet traffic. We used open-source servers
and clients when possible to generate realistic traffic at the
application, transport, and network level. For example, we
used an Apache server and wget client for Web traffic, bind
server and dig client for DNS traffic, etc. Telnet, IRC, and
VoIP clients and the VoIP server were custom-built in Perl.
Clients talk with servers in their own and adjacent
networks.
OPNET is a simulator built on top of a discrete event

system. It simulates the system behavior by modeling
each event happening in the system and processes it by
user-defined processes. It uses a hierarchical strategy to
organize all the models to build a whole network. The
hierarchy models entities from physical link
transceivers, antennas, to CPU running processes to
manage queues or running protocols, to devices
modeled by nodes with process modules and
transceivers, to network model that connects all
different kinds of nodes together.
OPNET also provides programming tools for us to
define any type of packet format we want to use in our
own protocols. Programming in OPNET includes the
following major tasks: define protocol packet format,
define the state transition machine for processes
running the protocol, define process modules and
transceiver modules we need in each device node,
finally define the network model by connecting the
device nodes together using user-defined link models.
Page 366
Sample Node and Link configuration without attacks

Failure ratio for transaction
Sample Node and Link configuration with attacks
Life diagram of failed transaction
Transaction cdf with respect to loss
QoS degrade measure for failed transaction
VII.CONCLUSION
Our metrics are usable and they offer the real opportunity to compare and
contrast different DoS attacks and defenses on an objective head-to-head
basis. This work will advance DoS research by providing a clear measure
of success for any proposed defense, and helping researchers gain insight
into strengths and weaknesses of their solutions.
REFERENCES
[1] B.N. Chun and D.E. Culler, User-Centric Performance Analysis of
Market-Based Cluster Batch Schedulers, Proc. Second IEEE Intl Symp.
Cluster Computing and the GridProc. Second IEEE/ACM Intl Conf.
Cluster Computing and the Grid (CCGRID 02), May 2002.
Page 367
[2] CERT Advisory CA-1996-21 TCP SYN Flooding and IP Spoofing

Attacks, CERT CC, http://www.cert.org/advisories/CA-1996- 21.html,
1996.
[3] M. Guirguis, A. Bestavros, and I. Matta, Exploiting the Transients of
Adaptation for RoQ Attacks on Internet Resources, Proc. 12th IEEE Intl
Conf. Network Protocols (ICNP 04), Oct. 2004.
[4] A. Kuzmanovic and E.W. Knightly, Low-Rate TCP-Targeted Denial
of Service Attacks (The Shrew versus the Mice and Elephants), Proc.
ACM SIGCOMM 03, Aug. 2003.
[5] S. Kandula, D. Katabi, M. Jacob, and A. Berger, Botz-4-Sale:
Surviving Organized DDoS Attacks that Mimic Flash Crowds, Proc.
Second Symp. Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI),
2005.
Page 368
High Performance Evaluation of 600-1200V, 140A Silicon Carbide Schottky Barrier Diodes and
Their Applications Using Mat Lab
Manickavasagan K, P.G. Student, 401, Adhipraskthi Engineering College.
Melmaruvathur, Tamil Nadu-603319.
kmanickavasagan@gmail.com
Abstract - High performance evaluation of a 600-1200 V / 140 A range Sic schottky Barrier Diode and their applications
is experimentally evaluated. The SiC Schottky Barrier Diode
(SBD) is commercially available in the 600-1200 V / 1-40 A
range. The main advantage of a high voltage SiC SBD lies in
its superior dynamic performance in this respect: (a) The
reverse recovery charge in the SiC SBD is extremely low (< 20
nC) and is the result of junction capacitance, not stored
charge.
Furthermore, unlike the Si PiN diode, it is
independent of di/dt, forward current and temperature. (b)
Higher junction temperature operation up to 175C, (c)
Reduction in the number of MOSFETs by 50%, (d) Faster
switching up to 500 kHz to reduce the EMI Filter size and
other passives, and (e) Reduction or elimination of the active
or passive snubber. The performance of a 600 V, 4 A silicon
carbide (SiC) Schottky diode is experimentally evaluated. A
300 W boost power factor corrector with average current
mode control (PFC) is considered as a key application.
Measurements of overall efficiency, switch and diode losses
and conducted electromagnetic interference (EMI) are
performed both with the SiC diode and with two ultra-fast,
soft-recoveries, silicon power diodes, and the recently
presented. The paper compares the results to quantify the
impact of the recovery current reduction provided by SiC
diode on these key aspects of the converter behavior.
Keywords: (SBD) SiC Schottky Barrier Diode, (SiC) silicon
carbide, Galium Arsenide (GaAs)
1.
Introduction
I should bring out my taughts and ideas through this

paper in order to convey the topic. High performance
evaluation of a 600-1200 V / 1-40 A range Sic schottky
Barrier Diode and their applications is experimentally
evaluated. Such that increase of power density is one of
the main tasks for power electronics today: system sizes
shall be reduced although in general the power output of
the user applications increases. There are two ways to meet
this challenge: 1. Reduction of losses by more efficient
power electronic devices; 2. reduction of active and passive
components number, weight and size, generally by
increasing switching frequencies.
Unfortunately, Silicon (Si) bipolar diodes always show

significant switching losses due to their reverse recovery
behavior, especially at elevated temperatures as occurs in
operation. Unipolar (pure Schottky) diodes on Si can
only be made for voltages up to about 100V. To overcome
this silicon limit, high band gap semiconductors have come
into focus during the last few years. Galium Arsenide
(GaAs) and Silicon Carbide (SiC) Schottky diodes have
been made with breakdown voltages up to 600V and even
several thousands of Volts respectively without (or more
precisely with extremely small) reverse recovery. These
devices are available for several years now, and their
advantages have been shown in numerous applications.
The power electronic systems operating in the 600-1200
voltage range currently utilize silicon PiN diodes, which
tend to store large amounts of minority carrier charge in the
forward-biased state. The stored charge has to be removed
by majority carrier recombination before the diode can be
turned off. This causes long storage and turn-off times. The
prime benefits of the SiC SBD lie in its ability to switch
fast (< 50 ns), with almost zero reverse recovery electron
mobility than 6H-SiC. charge and the high junction
temperature operation. The 600 V GaAs SBDs can be
made but suffer from limitations with regards to the high
junction temperature operation and 5x bigger foot-print for
the same current rating. The comparable Silicon PiN diodes
(Si SBDs are not viable in the 600 V range because of their
large on-state voltage drops) have a reverse recovery
charge of 100-500 nC and take at least 100 ns to turn-off.
This places a tremendous burden on other switching
elements in the system in terms of the required forward
safe operating area and the switching losses incurred.
2. Electronic Properties
Although there are about 170 known crystal structures,
or polytypics of SiC, only two (4H-SiC and 6H-SiC) are
available commercially. 4H-SiC is preferred over 6HSiC
for most electronics applications
because it has higher and more isotropic electron mobility
than 6H-SiC. Table 1 compares the key electronic
Page 369
properties of 4H-SiC to Si and GaAs. The higher

breakdown electric field strength of SiC
enables the potential use of SiC SBDs in 600-2000 V
range. Specific benefits of SiC electronic properties are:
The 10x higher breakdown electric field strength of SiC
reduces the specific on resistance compared to the Si and
GaAs SBDs. This is illustrated in Fig. 1. At
600 V, a SiC SBD offers a Ron of 1.4 m-cm2, which is
considerably, less than 6.5 m-cm2 for a GaAs SBD and
73 m-cm2 for a Si SBD. This means that the SiC SBD
will have a much smaller foot-print.
The higher band gap results in much higher schottky
metal-semiconductor barrier height as compared to GaAs
and Si, resulting in extremely low leakage currents at
elevated junction temperatures due to reduced thermionic
electron emission over the barrier.
The very high thermal conductivity of
SiC reduces the thermal resistance of the die.
3.
SiC Schottky Diodes
Fig. 2 shows a typical temperature dependent forward

characteristic of a 10 A / 600 V 4H-SiC SBD. The onresistance increases with temperature due to the reduction
in the electron mobility at elevated temperatures. The diode
shows 10 A at a VF of 1.5 V at 25C. The current reduces
to approximately 5.7 A at the same VF at 200C. This
negative temperature coefficient of forward current allows
us to parallel more than one die in a package without any
unequal current sharing issues. This behavior is unlike high
voltage Si PiN diodes. Fig. 3 shows the reverse
characteristics of the 10 A / 600 V SBD. The typical
leakage current is less than 50 A at 600 V at 25 C which
increases to 70 A at 200C a very nominal increase for
such a wide temperature range. The devices were packaged
in plastic TO-220 packages with a thermal impedance of
1.1C/W. The current de-rating curve for a packaged part is
shown in Fig. 4. These parts are rated for a maximum
junction temperature of 175C. For a case temperature of up
to 150C, the junction temperature remains below 175C.
When the case temperature is above 150C, the current has
to be appropriately de-rated to keep the junction
temperature below 175C.
The reverse capacitance vs. voltage curve is shown in
Fig. 5. At 10 V reverse bias, the input capacitance is about
240 pF, which drops to 90 pF at 100 V and saturates to 50
pF above 300 V. This capacitance is comparable to low
voltage Si Schottky Diodes.
The turn-off characteristics of the 10 A/600 V 4H-SiC
SBD are compared with a Si FRED at different
temperatures (Fig. 6). The SiC diode, being a majority
carrier device, does not have any stored minority carriers.

Therefore, there is no reverse recovery current associated
with the turn-off transient of the SBD. However, there is a
small amount of displacement current required to charge
the Schottky junction capacitance (< 2 A) which is
independent of the temperature, current level and di/dt. In
contrast to the SiC SBD, the Si FRED exhibits a large
amount of the reverse recovery charge, which increases
dramatically with temperature, on-current and reverse di/dt.
For example, the Qrr of the Si FRED is approximately 160
nC at room temperature and increases to about 450 nC at
150C. This excessive amount of Qrr increases the
switching losses and places a tremendous burden on the
switch and diode in typical PFC or motor control
applications. In a switching application, the diode will be
subjected to peak currents that are greater than the average
rated current of the device. Fig. 7 shows a repetitive peak
forward surge current of 50 A at 25C for the 10A / 600 V
SiC SBD. This 60 Hz half sine wave measurement
indicates a repetitive peak current of 5X the average.
The quality of the SiC wafers has been continuously
improving over the last 5 years. It is now possible to make
larger area chips. Fig. 8 shows an example of a single SiC
SBD chip rated at 600 V / 30 A. This device showed a
leakage current of 70 A at a reverse bias of 600 V. As was
mentioned before, the negative temperature coefficient of
the current makes it possible to easily parallel several chips
in a single package without encountering current sharing
problems.
An example is shown in Fig. 9, where three chips of the
type shown in Fig. 8 were packaged together to provide an
80 A / 600 V part. This package had a leakage current of
125 A at 600 V and 25C. This demonstrates that the SiC
SBD technology is scalable to higher currents. While the
material is continuously improving, relatively high current
parts can be obtained now by paralleling several chips in a
package.
4. Reliability of the SiC SBD

SiC is inherently a very robust and reliable material. Our
600 V SBDs have undergone extensive reliability testing
and can be used as an example of SiC device reliability. To
date the diodes have completed a total of 145,000 device
hours of High Temperature Reverse Bias Testing (HTRB),
11,000 device hours of continuous current burn in
testing, and 35,000 device hours of power cycle testing
with no failures. The HTRB testing involved seven
separate lots with test conditions of -600 volts DC at a
temperature of 200C. The burn in was done at the rated
device forward current, with the device junction
temperature held at 200C. The power cycle consisted of 7
Page 370
minute on/off cycles (3.5 min. on / 3.5 min off) with the
on-current set to the device rated current, a maximum
junction temperature of 175C and a junction temperature
delta of greater than 100C during the cycle.
5. Power Factor Correction (PFC)

One of the largest applications for SiC Schottky
rectifiers in the near future is in the continuous conduction
mode (CCM) power factor correction (PFC) circuit. In
traditional off-line AC-DC power supplies used in
computer and telecom applications, the AC input sees a
large inductive (transformer) load which causes the power
factor to be substantially lower than 1. A PFC circuit
allows the AC input line to see near-unity power factor, as
required by new legal
requirements. As shown in Fig. 10, chopping the full
wave rectified input with a fast switch (MOSFET), and
then stabilizing the resulting DC waveform using a
capacitor accomplishes this function. When the MOSFET
is ON, it is necessary to prevent the current to flow from
the output capacitor or the load through the MOSFET.
Hence, when the FET is ON, the Diode is OFF, and vice
versa. During the switching transient when the Diode is
turning OFF and the MOSFET is turning ON, the reverse
recovery current from the Diode flows into the MOSFET,
in addition to the rectified input current. This results in a
large inrush current into the MOSFET, requiring a
substantially large sized MOSFET, than that required if the
Diode had no reverse recovery current. This large
MOSFET represents a substantial cost in this circuit. These
switching losses also limit the frequency of operation in the
circuit, and hence its cost, size, weight and volume. A
higher frequency would allow the size of the passive
components to be correspondingly smaller. Many fast
silicon rectifiers also show snappy reverse recovery,
which results in a large EMI signature, which are also
unacceptable to the new European requirements. A fast
rectifier with smooth switching characteristics will allow
for high efficiency PFC circuits, which also comply with
new legal requirements.
A 4H-SiC diode is such a rectifier. This near-zero
reverse recovery SiC Schottky rectifier offers low
switching losses while still showing comparable on-state
performance of conventional silicon rectifiers. Due to the
majority carrier transport properties of these rectifiers, they
show only a capacitive current during their turn-off
transient, which flows through the power MOSFET. In
order to measure the benefit of these high performance
rectifiers, a 250 Watt PFC test circuit was compared with
an ultrafast Silicon Diode as well as SiC SBD. This test
circuit used a 14 A, 500 V International Rectifier MOSFET
(IRFP450), and a 6 A, 600 V ultrafast IR Si PiN diode
(HFA08TB60). The input voltage was kept at a constant
120 V RMS, and the output voltage was 370 V DC. The
operating frequency was 90 kHz, and the gate resistance at
the MOSFET was 50 . The current rating of the
MOSFET was higher than the average rating to
accommodate the reverse recovery current of the diode,
and to maintain a high efficiency of the circuit. Under full
load condition, a 600 resistor was utilized, while at half
load condition, 1200 was used. Voltage and current
measurements were taken on both the MOSFET as well as
the diode, in order to estimate the power losses in these
components. The input and output power was also
measured to calculate the efficiency of the circuit. Under
full load conditions, the temperature on the MOSFET case
was measured with and without an external fan on the
device. After all these measurements were taken using the
ultrafast Si diode, they were repeated using Crees 4 A, 600
V SiC SBD.
Fig. 11 shows the comparison of the switching energy
losses per switching cycle in the MOSFET and Diode
under half load and full load conditions. Further, the turnON and turn-OFF losses within each device are separated.
Under half load conditions, the total switching losses
decrease by about 25% from 266 J to 200 J when the Si
diode is replaced by SiC SBD. The 50% decrease during
Diode turn OFF losses, and 27% decrease during MOSFET
turn ON are primarily responsible for this overall reduction
in losses when a SiC SBD is used in the circuit as
compared to when a Si diode is used. The MOSFET turn
OFF losses and Diode turn ON losses are similar when Si
and SiC Diodes are used in this circuit.
Under full load conditions, Diode turn OFF losses
decrease by 44%, MOSFET turn ON losses decrease by
39%, and Diode turn ON losses decrease by 29% when a
SiC diode is used in this circuit as compared to a Si diode.
The MOSFET turn OFF losses remain similar in both
cases. An overall decrease of 27% in switching losses is
measured when the circuit uses a SiC diode as compared to
a Si diode. It is worth noting that diode turn ON losses are
significantly lower as compared to Si PiN diodes under full
load conditions because of a slower turn ON process in a
PiN diode as compared to a SBD under higher current
operation. These results also show that the dominant
reduction in switching losses occurs due to the small
reverse recovery losses in the SiC diode as compared to the
case with Si diodes. Fig. 13 shows the comparison of the
measured efficiency of the entire PFC circuit between Si
and SiC diodes. At half load condition, the circuit
efficiency increases from 88.4% with the Si diode to 95%
with the SiC diode. At full load condition, the circuit
efficiency increases from 90% with the Si diode as
compared to 93% with the SiC diode. Ostensibly, the
slightly higher on-state losses in the SiC SBD result in the
relatively smaller gain in the overall circuit efficiency
under full load operating condition.
Page 371
Fig. 14 shows the measured MOSFET case temperature

as a function of time after initial power up. Initially, the
devices were in thermal equilibrium at room temperature.
This measurement was done when a full load operating
condition was impressed on this circuit. Two conditions
were used for these measurements: the first was without a
fixed position and speed fan, for case cooling (in air
condition); and the second was with such a fan. With no
fan, the temperature does not stabilize even after 15
minutes of the circuit power up. However, the temperature
on the MOSFET was 41oC lower (86oC vs. 127oC) when a
SiC SBD was used as compared to when a Si diode was
used. When the fan was used for appropriate thermal
dissipation, the MOSFET case temperature was only 40oC
when a SiC SBD was used as compared to 50oC when a Si
PiN diode was used. This increases the thermal
headroom a circuit designer needs for more rugged
operation of the circuit. Based on the measurements
presented above, the most significant system advantages
offered by SiC SBDs vis--vis Si PiN diodes in a PFC
circuit are higher circuit efficiency and lower FET case
temperature. These advantages can be very effectively
harnessed for lowering the cost of the circuit. For a given
efficiency, a higher frequency of operation of the circuit
can result in smaller (and hence cheaper) inductors and
MOSFETs, which are typically the most expensive
components in the PFC circuit. For an identical case
temperature, a smaller and cheaper MOSFET and heat
sinks can be used in the circuit. Another simple circuit
modification to lower the total circuit losses involves
reducing the gate resistor of the MOSFET.
A higher gate resistor is used in typical PFC circuit in order
to limit the di/dt in the Si PiN diode, which might result in
excessive reverse recovery current, and EMI emissions.
Since SiC SBDs can operate under very high di/dt, a
smaller MOSFET gate resistance can be utilized. Such a
modification will result in lowering the MOSFET turn-OFF
losses, which showed little change with direct replacement
of SiC SBD with Si PiN diode in the PFC circuit described
above.
FIGURES
Fig:1
Fig:2
6. TABLES AND FIGURES

TABLE 1
KEY ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF Si,
Property
Silicon
Band gap,Eg(eV)
1.12
Electron mobility
1400
Hole mobility,n
450
Intrinisic carrier
1.5*1010
concentration,
Electron mobility, p(cm2/vs)
1.0
Critical breakdown electicfield, Ecrit(MV/cm)
0.25
Thermal conductivity,(W/cm*K) 1.5
GaAs, and 4H-SiC

GaAs
4H-SiC
1.5
92000
400
2.1*106
1.5
3.26
800
140
5*10-9
3.26
0.3
2.2
0.5
3.0-3.8
Page 372
Page 373
7. Software In Mat Lab Programming

MATLAB provides the foundation for making progress
in vital areas of engineering and science. Over one million
people around the world use MATLAB to help them
develop cancer therapies, search for new sources of energy,
make our cars safer and more fuel-efficient, and explore
outer space. By combining a powerful numeric engine and
technical programming environment with interactive
exploration and visualization tools, MATLAB has become
the language of technical computing.
MATLAB is a high-level technical computing language
and interactive environment for algorithm development,
data visualization, data analysis, and numeric computation.
Using the MATLAB product, I can solve technical
computing problems faster than with traditional
programming languages, such as C, C++, and Fortran.
I can use MATLAB in a wide range of applications,
including signal and image processing, communications,
control design, test and measurement, financial modeling
and analysis, and computational biology. Add-on toolboxes
(collections of special-purpose MATLAB functions,
available separately) extend the MATLAB environment to
solve particular classes of problems in these application
areas.
MATLAB provides a number of features for
documenting and sharing our work. I can integrate our
MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and
distribute our MATLAB algorithms and applications. For
solving such researching tasks modern sensitive equipment
and powerful software environment needed. I chose Mat
lab for its advantages: Easy to use and to create programs
Big set of built-in functions for experimental data
processing
External hardware interfaces Good
visualization facilities
Note: All Program will Explain in conference presentation
with simulation output. Example Programming as given
below.
Page 374
% C-V Performance of Schottky diode

V=[0:4];
%PhiB=[0.452 0.428 0.446];
%A=[1.6*10^(-6) 1.6*10^(-6) 1.6*10^(-6)];
q=1.6568e-025;
Nd=10^(-3);
C1=1.6*10^(-6)*sqrt((q*Nd)./((2*0.452)-V));
C2=1.6*10^(-6)*sqrt((q*Nd)./((2*0.428)-V));
C3=0.64*10^(-6)*sqrt((q*Nd./(2*0.446)-V)); %figure
figure,plot(V,C1,':*r',V,C2,'--og',V,C3,'-.k');
xlabel('Diode Voltage (V)');
ylabel('Capacitor (C)');
legend('SBD1','SBD2','SBD3')
C-V Performance of Schottky diode output
Switching Pulse For (Ms And Ms1)
Output Voltage
8. Hardware simulation Mat lab result
Output Current
Output Current
Ac Input Voltage
Page 375
[4] F. Philippen, B. Burger, A New High Voltage Schottky Diode based
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
th
th
on Silicon Carbide (SiC) EPE 2001 Conf. Proc., Graz, August 27 - 29 ,

2001.
8. CONCLUSION
It may be concluded that SiC SBDs offer significant
advantages over silicon PiN diodes in power electronic
applications such as PFC. SiC SBDs are commercially
available in 600-1200 V, 1-10 A range and can be utilized
today to enhance the performance of the PFC circuit by
improving the efficiency, reducing the switching losses in
the diode and the MOSFET, reducing the MOSFET case
temperature and reducing the number of MOSFETs.
Additionally, they can be used to simplify or even
eliminate the snubber circuits, reducing the heat sink size,
or increase the frequency and reduce the size of the
magnetic components. In a typical 250 W PFC circuit, an
overall decrease of 27% in switching losses is measured
when the circuit uses a SiC diode as compared to a Si
diode. At full load condition, the circuit efficiency
increases from 90% with the Si diode as compared to 93%
with the SiC diode. Silicon Carbide is a wide band gap,
high breakdown field material allowing high voltage
Schottky diodes to be made. SiC Schottky diodes with 300,
600 and 1200-volt are commercially available at CREE.
The 600-volt diodes are available with 1, 2, 4, 6, 10 and
20-amp current ratings. The 1200-volt diodes are available
with 5, 10 and 20-amp current ratings. The main advantage
of a high voltage SiC Schottky diode lies in its superior
dynamic performance. Schottky diodes are majority carrier
devices and thus do not store charge in their junctions. The
reverse recovery charge in the SiC Schottky diode is
extremely low and is only the result of junction
capacitance, not stored charge. Furthermore, unlike the
silicon PiN diode, the reverse recovery characteristics of
SiC Schottkys are independent of di/dt, forward current and
junction temperature. The maximum junction temperature
of 175C in the SiC Schottkys represents the actual
operational temperature. The ultra-low junction charge in
SiC Schottkys results in reduced switching losses in a
typical hard switched CCM PFC boost converter
application.
[5] M. Coyaud, J. P. Ferrieux, C. Schaeffer et al.: "Performances of SiC

Schottky Rectifier in Power Factor Correction", Proc. of the 2001 IAS
Annual Meeting., October, 2001, pp. 370-375.
[6] M. Trivedi, K. Shenai, "Hard- and Soft-Switching Buck Converter
Performance of High-Voltage 4H-SiC and Si P-i-N Diodes", Proc. of the
2001 IAS Annual Meeting., October, 2001, pp. 391-395.
[7], S. Buso, G. Spiazzi: Conducted EMI Issues in a 600-W Single Phase
Boost PFC Design, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 36,
No. 2, March/April 2000, pp. 578-585.
10. AUTHORS INFORMATION
K. MANICKAVASAGAN
Place
: 169, Irumbedu Village &Post, Vandavasi Taluk,
Kildodungalur, Tiruvannamalai District; Tamil Nadu, India-604403.
Date of Birth
: 30/07/1969
UG Studied in Name of college: Crescent Engg. College Vandalur, R.No:

92387,Chennai.Pin:600 048. Tmail Nadu, India.
9. References
[1] I. Zverev, M. Treu, H. Kapels, O. Hellmund, R. Rupp,
SiC Schottky rectifiers: performance, reliability and key application,
th
th
EPE 2001 Conf. Proc., Graz, August 27 - 29 , 2001.

[2] M.E. Levinshtein et al., High voltage SiC diodes with small recovery
th
time, Electronics Letters, 6 July, 2000, vol. 36, no 14, pp. 1241-1242.
[3] W. Wright et al. Comparison of Si and SiC diodes during operation in
th
three-phase inverter driving ac induction motor, Electronics Letters, 7

June, 2001, vol. 37, no 12, pp. 787-788.
Page 376
A Cascade Data Mining Approach for Network

Anomaly Detection System
Seelammal.C
Department of Information Technology
Kalasalingam University, India.
c.seelammal@klu.ac.in
Abstract As the number of networked computers grows,

intrusion detection is an essential component in keeping
networks secure. Recently data mining methods have gained
importance in addressing network security issues, including
network intrusion detection a challenging task in network
security. This paper, proposes Heuristic+C4.5, a method
to cascade heuristic clustering and the C4.5 decision tree
learning methods for classifying anomalous and normal
activities in a computer network. The heuristic clustering
method first partitions the training instances into clusters
using similarity. The decision tree on each cluster refines the
decisions by learning the subgroups within the cluster. To
obtain a final decision on classification, the decisions of the
heuristic and C4.5 methods are combined using nearest
consensus rule. For the evaluation experiments on was
conducted on 99KDDcup data set of computer networks.
Results show that the detection accuracy of the
Heuristic+C4.5 method is high at low false-positive-rate on
KDD.
KeywordsAnomaly Detection, Classification, Decision Trees,
Heuristic Clustering
I.
INTRODUCTION
With rapid development in the computer based technology,
new application areas for computer networks have emerged
in Local Area Network and Wide Area Network .This
became an attractive target for the abuse and a big
vulnerability for the community. Securing this
infrastructure has become the one research area. Network
intrusion detection systems have become a standard
component in security infrastructures. Intrusion detection
is the process of monitoring the events occurring in
a computer system or network and analyzing them for
signs of intrusions, defined as attempts to compromise the
confidentiality, integrity, availability, or to bypass the
security mechanisms of a computer or network.
There are generally two types of attacks in network
intrusion detection. In misuse detection, each instance in a
data set is labeled as normal or intrusion and a learning
algorithm are trained over the labeled data. . An anomaly
detection technique builds models of normal behavior, and
automatically detects any deviation from it, flagging the
latter as suspect. Attacks fall into four main categories[8]
they are Denial of Service (DoS) is a class of attacks

where an attacker makes some computing or memory
resource too busy or too full to handle legitimate requests,
A remote to user (R2L) attack is class of attacks where an
attacker sends packets to a machine over a network, then
exploits machines vulnerability to illegally gain local
access a user, User to root exploits is a class of attacks
where an attacker starts out with access to a normal user
account on the system and is able to exploit vulnerability to
gain root access to the system. Probing is a class of attacks
where an attacker scans a network to gather information or
find known vulnerabilities.
The main reason for using Data Mining Techniques for
intrusion detection system is due to the enormous volume
of existing and newly appearing network data that require
for processing. The data accumulated each day by a
network is huge. Several data mining techniques such as
clustering, classification, and association rules are proving
to be useful for gathering different knowledge for intrusion
detection.
Unsupervised Anomaly Detection (UAD) algorithms have
the major advantage of being able to process unlabeled data
and detect intrusions that otherwise could not be detected.
The goal of data clustering, or unsupervised learning, is to
discovery a natural grouping in a set of patterns, points,
or objects, without knowledge of any class labels.
II.
RELATED WORKS
Network-based computer systems play increasingly vital
roles in modern society, security of network systems has
become important than ever before. As an active defense
technology, IDS (Intrusion Detection Systems) attempts to
identify intrusions in secure architecture. In 1970s, the U.S
Department of Defense outlined security goals for audit
mechanisms, among which were allowing the discovery of
attempts to bypass protection mechanism.
Over the past years there are many different types of
intrusions, and different detectors are needed to detect
normal and anomalous activities in network. Some
Clustering algorithms have recently gained attention in
related literature, since they can help current intrusion
detection systems in several respects.
Page 377
Several existing supervised and unsupervised anomaly

detection schemes and their variations are evaluated on the
DARPA 1998 data set of network connections [3] as well
as on real network data using existing standard evaluation
techniques.
Recently, anomaly detection has been used for
identifying attacks in computer networks [1], malicious
activities in computer systems and misuse in web systems
[6], [7]. A more recent class of Anomaly Detection
Systems developed using machine learning techniques like
artificial neural-networks [8], Kohonens self organizing
maps [9] fuzzy classifiers [10] and others [7] have become
popular because of their high detection accuracies at low
false positives. Data mining for security knowledge [2]
employs a number of search algorithms, such as statistical
analysis, deviation analysis, rule induction, neural
abduction, making associations, correlations, and
clustering.
Another data mining approach [6] for intrusion detection is
the application of clustering techniques for effective
intrusion .How ever , the existing works that is based on
either K-Means or K-Medoids have two shortcomings in
clustering large network datasets namely number of
clusters dependency and lacking of the ability of dealing
with character attributes in the network transactions.
Among these the number of clusters dependency suggests
that the value of K is very critical to the clustering result
and should be fixed before clustering.
Trained a Hidden Markov Model [7] implemented on the
trained datasets that he used to train instance-based learner.
Fixed-width and k-nearest neighbor clustering techniques
[4] to connection logs looking for outliers, which represent
anomalies in the network traffic. A more recent class of
IDS developed using machine learning techniques like
artificial neural networks, Kohenens self organizing maps,
fuzzy classifiers, symbolic dynamics [10], and multivariate
analysis.
However, the ADS related studies cited above have
drawbacks: the majority of these works evaluate the
performance of anomaly detection methods with single
machine learning techniques like artificial neural-networks,
pattern matching, etc., have high false positive rates. While
recent advances in machine learning show that fusion [15],
selection [15], and cascading [20] of multiple machine
learning methods have a better performance yield over
individual methods.
This paper, presents a novel anomaly detection method,
called Heuristic+C4.5, developed by cascading two
machine learning algorithms: 1) the heuristic clustering and
2) the C4.5 decision tree learning. In the first stage,
heuristic clustering is performed on training instances to
obtain disjoint clusters. Each heuristic cluster represents a
region of similar instances, similar in terms of Euclidean
distances between the instances and their cluster centroids.
In the second stage of Heuristic+C4.5, the heuristic method
is cascaded with the C4.5 decision tree learning by building
an C4.5 decision tree using the instances in each heuristic

cluster. For the evaluation experiments are performed on
99KDDcup dataset. Performance evaluation of the
Heuristic+C4.5 cascading approach is conducted using
measures:
1. Detection accuracy or true positive rate (TPR),
2. False positive rate (FPR),
3. Precision, and
4. Total accuracy (or accuracy),
The performance of Heuristic+C4.5 is empirically
compared with the performance of individual heuristic
clustering and the C4.5 decision tree classification
algorithms.
A. Contributions of the Paper

The contributions of the paper are enumerated as follows.
The paper presents a novel method to cascade the heuristic
clustering and C4.5 decision tree learning methods for
classifying data from normal and anomalous behaviors in a
computer network.
This paper evaluates the performance of Heuristic+C4.5
classifier, and compares it with the individual heuristic
clustering and C4.5 decision tree methods using three
performance measures. The paper presents a novel method
for cascading two successful data partition methods for
improving classification performance. From an anomaly
detection perspective, the paper presents a high
performance anomaly detection system.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: In Section
3, briefly discuss the heuristic clustering and C4.5 decision
tree learning-based anomaly detection methods. In Section
4, present the Heuristic+C4.5 method for anomaly
detection. In Section 5, discuss the experimental results and
in the final section
conclude the work and future
directions.
III.
ANOMALY DETECTION WITH HEURISTIC

CLUSTERING AND C4.5 DECISION TREE
LEARNING METHODS
In this section, briefly discuss the heuristic [2] clustering

and the C4.5 decision tree classification [10] methods for
anomaly detection.
A.
Anomaly Detection with Heuristic Clustering
This section, describes the heuristic algorithm, and

illustrates how to apply this algorithm to generate detection
models from audit data. Here audit data refers to preprocessed time-stamped audit records, each with a number of
attributes.
1) Data Preprocessing: Depending on the monitoring data

and the data mining algorithm, it may be necessary or
Page 378
beneficial to perform cleaning and filtering of the data in

order to avoid the generation of misleading or inappropriate
results. Disturbances can be noise, known changes such as
dependencies on the time of day, missing data fields in some
of the data records etc.
2) Notations of Some Terms: Some notations needed in
heuristic clustering algorithm are
Notation1: Let H = {H1 , H 2 ,...., H m } be a set of
attribute
values, the m is number of attribute values.
Some attribute values in KDD are duration,
srcbytes, dest-bytes, flag, etc..,
Notation 2: Let H = H N UH s and
HN I HS =
where HN is the subset of numerical attribute (e.g., no of
bytes),
and HS is the subset of character attribute.
(e.g.,
service, Protocol).
Notation 3: Let, ei = ( hi1 , hi 2 ,.....him ) , ei is a record, the
m is
number of attribute values and hij is the value of
Hm
Notation 4: E = {e1 , e2 ,....., en } , E is the set of
records; n is the number of packets.
3) Heuristic Clustering Algorithm (HCA): In the HCA

algorithms no need to fix the value of K (K-means) in the
beginning of clustering. A novel heuristic clustering
technology is used to determine the number of cluster
automatically. For clustering, similarity between ei and every
center of cluster is calculated. Sim(ei,Cj) and the similarity
between every center of cluster Sim(C), if the minimal of
Sim(ei,Cj) is more than the minimal of Sim(C) , create a new
cluster, and the center of cluster is ei , otherwise insert the ei
into Cj.
Step 1. Confirm two initial
cluster centers by
algorithm search ( ).
Step 2. Import a new record ei.
Repeat 3 to 5
until no more records.
Step 3. Compute the similarity
by algorithm
Similar
(),
and
find
Min( Sim(ei , C j )), Min( Sim(C )).

Step 4.If Min( Sim(ei , C j )) > Min( Sim(C ))
then
Ck +1 = {e j }, C = {C1 , C2 ,...., C k +1}

create a new cluster, and the ei is the
center of the new cluster.
Else C j = C j U {ei } , insert ei into Cj.

4) The Method of Computing Similarity:The audit data
consists of numerical attribute (e.g. the receive Bytes) and
character attribute. (e.g. Protocol ).But whether k-Means or
K-medoids all lack the ability of dealing with character
attribute. The HCA algorithm resolves this problem by
processing the character attribute using the method of
attribute matching.
The similarity of character attributes using equation (1) let
ei and ej be two records in the E. all containing m attributes
(including P character attributes), the nhik and nhjk is the
number of hik and hjk respectively.
(nhik + nhjk )
*A
hik * nkjk )
k =1
p
Sim P (ei,ej ) =
(n
(1)
if (hik=hjk) then A= 0 else A=1.

The similarity of numerical attribute (to the numerical
attribute, still use the classical Euclidean distance to
computer similarity)
q
Sim N (ei , e j ) = sqrt ( | hik hjk |2
(2)
k =1
The similarity of two records (including similarity of

numerical attribute and similarity of character attribute)
Sim(ei, ej ) = Sim N (ei, ej ) + Sim P (ei, ej )
(3)
5) The Center of Cluster:A cluster are represented by its

cluster center .In the HCA algorithm, the algorithm Count
( ) is used to compute the cluster center. The center of a
cluster is composed of the center of numerical attributes
and character attribute.
Let P= (PN + PS), and P= (P1, P2,., Pm) where PN is the
center of numerical attribute, the Ps is the center of
character attribute,
n
P N i = (1 / n) hji
(4)
j =1
i = 1,2,...., p( p <= m)
The hji is the numerical attribute. The Ps is a frequent
character attribute set which consists of q (q = m-p) most
frequent character attribute.
Page 379
6) The Initial Center of Clustering: In the beginning of

clustering, confirm two initial center of clustering by the
algorithm Search ( ).
AlgorithmSearch_m (E,l).
Importdata set E,the number of sampling l
Outputinitial center m1,m2.
(1) Sampling E, get S1,S2,..,Sl
(2)For i=1 to l do
miCount_m(Si)
(3)For i=1 to l do
mCount_m(mi)
// m=center {m1,m2, m3..ml}
(4) m1=m , m2=max (Sim (m, mi))
7) Detection Rule: A method is proposed to detect
anomaly that does not either depend on the population ratio
of the clusters. In our labeling method, assume that center
of a normal cluster is highly close to the initial cluster
centers vh which are created from the clustering.
In other words, if a cluster is normal, the distance
between the center of the cluster and vh will be small,
otherwise it will be large. For each cluster center Cj (1 j
k), calculate the maximum distance to vh. Then calculate
the average distance of the maximum distances. If the
maximum distance from a cluster to vh is less than the
maximum average distance, finally label the cluster as
normal. Otherwise, label as attack. Fig.1 shows how we
can detect the anomaly instances.
Fig. 1 Assigning Scores to IDS
B. Anomaly Detection with C4.5 Decision Tree

In this section, a brief introduction of the classification
algorithms used in the IDS, i.e., the C4.5 algorithm for
building decision trees.
C4.5 Algorithm: A classifier, which is a function (or

1)
model) that assigns a class label to each data item described
by a set of attributes, is often needed in these classification
tasks.
There are quite a few machine learning approaches for
generating classification models, among which decision
tree learning [2] is a typical one. As an example, C4.5 in
[2] builds a decision tree where each internal node denotes
a test on an attribute, each branch represents an outcome of
the test, and leaf nodes represent classes or class
distributions. The top-most node in a tree is the root node.
The tree is a model generated by the classification
algorithm. In order to classify an unknown sample, the
attribute values of the sample are tested against the
decision tree. A path is traced from the root to a leaf node
that holds the class prediction for that sample. The C4.5
algorithm builds a decision tree, from the root node, by
choosing one remaining attribute with the highest
information gain as the test for the current node.
In this paper, a later version of the C4.5 algorithm, will be
used to construct the decision trees for classification. The
specific algorithm is given below. The reader is referred to
[2] for further details.
Algorithm: Generate_decision_tree.
Generate a decision tree from the given training data.
Input: training samples, represented by discrete/continuous
attributes; the set of candidate attributes, attribute-list.
Output: a decision tree
Method:
(1) create a node N;
(2) if samples are all of the same class, C,
then
(3) return N as a leaf node labeled with the
class C;
(4) if attribute-list is empty then
(5) return N as a leaf node labeled with the
most common class in samples;
(6) select test-attribute, the attribute among
attribute-list with the highest information
gain;
(7) label node N with test-attribute;
(8) for each known value ai of test-attribute
(9) grow a branch from node N for the
condition test-attribute = ai;
(10) let si be the set of samples in samples
For which test-attribute = ai;
(11) if si is empty then
(12) attach a leaf labeled with the most
common class in samples;
(13) else attach the node returned by
Generate_decision_tree (Si, attributelist).
Page 380
2)
Attribute Selection: The information gain measure
used in step (6) of above C4.5 algorithm is used to select
the test attribute at each node in the tree. Such a measure is
referred to as an attribute selection measure or a measure of
the goodness of split. The attribute with the highest
information gain is chosen as the test attribute for the
current node. This attribute minimizes the information
needed to classify the samples in the resulting partitions.
Such an information-theoretic approach minimizes the
expected number of tests needed to classify an object and
guarantees that a simple (but not necessarily the simplest)
tree is found.
Information Gain: Imagine selecting one case at
3)
random from a set S of cases and announcing that it
belongs to some class Cj. The probability that an arbitrary
sample belongs to class Cj is estimated by
Pi =
freq(cj , s )
|s|
This represents the difference between the information

needed to identify an element of T and the information
needed to identify an element of T after the value of
attribute X has been obtained. Thus, it is the gain in
information due to attribute X.
Gain Ratio Criterion:The notion of information gain
4)
introduced earlier tends to favor attributes that have a large
number of values. For example, if we have an attribute D
that has a distinct value for each record, then Info(D,T) is
0, thus Gain(D,T) is maximal.
To compensate for this, it was suggested in [2] to use the
following ratio instead of gain. Split info is the information
due to the split of T on the basis of the value of the
categorical attribute D, which is defined by
n
| Ti |
|T |
SplitInfo( D) =
* log 2 i
(9)
|
T
|
|
T
|
i =1
And the gain ratio is then calculated by
(5)
Where | S | denotes the number of samples in the set S and

o the information it conveys is log2 Pi bits. Suppose
probability distribution P = {p1, p2,, pn} is given then
the information conveyed by this distribution, also called
the entropy of P, is well known as If a set T of records is
partitioned into disjoin
n
Info( P) = Pi log 2 Pi
(6)
i =1
If a set T of records is partitioned into disjoint

exhaustive classes C1 ,C2 , ,Ck on the basis of the value of
the categorical attribute, then the information needed to
identify the class of an element of T is Info(T) = Info(P) ,
where P is the probability distribution of the partition (C1
,C2 , ,Ck). First partition T on the basis of the value of a
non-categorical attribute X into sets T1 ,T2 , ,Tn , then
the information needed to identify the class of an element
of T becomes the weighted average of the information
needed to identify the class of an element of Ti , i.e. the
weighted average of Info(Ti) ,
n
|T |
Info( X , T ) = i * Info(Ti )
|T |
i =1
(7)
GainRatio( D, T ) =
Gain( D, T )
SplitInfo( D, T )
(10)
The gain ratio, expresses the proportion of useful

information generated by split, i.e., that appears helpful for
classification. If the split is near-trivial, split information
will be small and this ratio will be unstable.
To avoid this, the gain ratio criterion selects a test to
maximize the ratio above, subject to the constraint that the
information gain must be large, at least as great as the
average gain over all tests examined.
HEURISTIC +C4.5 METHOD FOR ANOMALY
DETECTION
Heuristic -based anomaly detection method are first applied
to partition the training pace into k disjoint clusters C1, C2
. . . Ck. Then, an C4.5 decision tree is trained with the
instances in ach Heuristic cluster. The Heuristic method
ensures that each training instance is associated with only
one cluster. However, if there are any subgroups or
overlaps within a cluster, the C4.5 decision tree trained on
that cluster refines the decision boundaries by partitioning
the instances with a set of if-then rules over the feature
space.
The decisions of the Heuristic and C4.5 decision tree
methods are combined to give a final Decision. The overall
architecture of the cascade intrusion detection system is
shown in fig 2. For combining the Heuristic and C4.5
decision tree methods, this paper proposes a rule called
Nearest-consensus rule.
IV.
The information gain, Gain(X ,T ) , is then defined as
Gain( X , T ) = Info(T ) Info( X , T )
(8)
Page 381
1. TPR or recall is the percentage of anomaly instances

correctly detected,
2. FPR is the percentage of normal instances incorrectly
classified as anomaly,
3. Precision is the percentage of correctly detected
anomaly instances over all the detected anomaly instances,
Training instances
Cluster
d1
<
DT 1
Cluster
2
d2 <
Cluster n
The experiment demonstrates the clustering can detect the

unknown attacks and generate the new intrusion pattern
.. dn
DT 2
The classification of normal and abnormal classes has been

represented in the form of a matrix called Confusion matrix
as given in Table I.
DT k
automatically.
TABLE I
Fig. 2 Overall Architecture of Cascade Anomaly Detection System
CONFUSION MATRIX
A. Nearest-Consensus Rule
For clusters C1,C2 . . .Cn formed by applying the heuristic
clustering method on the training instances, r1, r2 . . . rn be
the centroids of C1, C2, . . .Ck, respectively. Calculate the
distances (d1, d2 ,. dn ) among centroids.
In the Nearest-consensus rule, the decision of the nearest
candidate cluster in which there is consensus between the
decisions of the Heuristic and the C4.5 decision tree
methods.
EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS
V.
In this section discuss experiment with the heuristic
clustering using the 10% subset of KDD-99 data. The data
in the experiment was acquired from the 1998 DARPA
intrusion detection evaluation .They set up an environment
to acquire raw TCP/IP dump data for a local-area
network(LAN) simulating a typical U.S.Air Force LAN.
More than 200 instances of 58 attack types were launched
against victim UNlX and Windows NT hosts in tree weeks
of training data and two week of test data. For each TCP/IP
connection, 41 various quantitative and qualitative features
were extracted. Attacks fall into four main categories:
DOS: denial of service
R2L: unauthorized access from a remote machine
U2R: unauthorized access to local super user
(root)
Probing: surveillance and other probing
This dataset was acquired from the 1998 DARPA intrusion
detection evaluation program consists of 11000
connections and 22 types of intrusions in the test set.
The test set consists of 9 subtests .In heuristic clustering the
relations between categorical and continuous features are
handled naturally, without any forced conversions (kmeans) between these two types of features. The decision
tree on each cluster refines the decisions by learning the
subgroups within the cluster.
Actual \
Normal
Predicted
Abnormal
Class
Normal
True positive (TP)
False negative (FN)
Abnormal
False positive (FP)
True negative (TN)
The detection rate is computed using the equations
DetectionRate =
TN
* 100
( FN + TN )
FP
* 100
(TP + FP)
(12)
( FP + FN )
* 100
(TP + FP + FN + TN )
(13)
(11) FalsePositiveRate =
ErrorRate =
The experimental results obtained from the experiments

conducted on 10% of the KDD dataset using Cascading
without nearest consensus rule is given in Table II.
The results obtained from heuristic clustering based
average intrusion detection accuracy is 85.05 percent at a
false-positive-rate of 10.08 percent on 10% subset of the
training dataset KDDcup1999.
The results obtained from C4.5 based average intrusion
detection accuracy is 83.21 percent at a false-positive-rate
of 9.28 percent.
The experimental results obtained from three experiments
conducted on 10% of the KDD dataset using Cascading
with Nearest Consensus (NC) rule is given in Table III.
The following measures are used for evaluating the

performance
Page 382
TABLE II
Iteration
RESULTS FOR CASCADE ANOMALY DETECTION WITHOUT NC

RULE
Iteration
Training
Detection
False
Error
instances
Rate
Positive
Rate
Training
Detection
False
Error
Instances
Rate
Positive
Rate
Rate
Rate
415
90.9%
2.8%
3.4%
820
85.7%
2.5%
2.9%
415
78.1%
5.0%
7.2%
1200
80.0%
4.4%
5.4%
820
80.0%
4.4%
7.0%
3000
80.0%
6.4%
7.5%
1200
79.4%
4.2%
7.3%
5200
83.3%
2.4%
3.1%
3000
77.7%
6.8%
10.1%
6130
85.7%
1.9%
2.7%
5200
82.0%
6.3%
9.3%
7117
83.3%
3.1%
3.9%
6130
80.5%
5.9%
8.7%
8045
77.7%
6.1%
7.3%
7117
80.4%
6.4%
9.4%
9300
87.5%
2.8%
3.6%
8045
79.5%
6.7%
10.5%
11245
85.7%
5.3%
5.4%
9300
82.6%
5.5%
7.6%
11245
80.4%
6.4%
10.7%
95.00%
90.00%
From Table II, it is observed that the average detection rate

is 83.98%, the average false positive rate is 3.77% and the
average error rate is 4.52% for intrusion detection by
cascading without Nearest Consensus rule using KDD
dataset. From Table III, it is observed that the average
detection rate is 89.98%, the average false positive rate is
3.77% and the average error rate is 4.52% for intrusion
detection by cascading without Nearest Consensus rule
using KDD dataset.
8.00%
85.00%
Detection rate
7.00%
6.00%
80.00%
5.00%
FPR
75.00%
4.00%
3.00%
70.00%
0
9
2.00%
iteration
without NC rule
with NC rule
1.00%
Fig. 3 Performance of the heuristic + C4.5 method without Nearest

Consensus ( NC-Rule)
TABLE III
RESULTS FOR CASCADE ANOMALY DETECTION WITH NC
RULE
0.00%
0
Iteration
without NC rule
with NC rule
Page 383
Fig. 4 Performance of the heuristic + C4.5 method with Nearest

Consensus (NC-Rule)
From Fig.3, Fig.4 it is observed that the cascading with NC

has better performance in terms of Detection rate and false
positive rate.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS
VI.
This paper Network intrusion detection with heuristic
clustering and C4.5 incorporates the idea of applying data
mining techniques to intrusion detection system to maximize
the effectiveness in identifying attacks, thereby helping the
users to construct more secure information systems. The main
advantage of our algorithm is that the relations between
categorical and continuous features in KDD are handled
naturally, without any forced conversions (k-means)
between these two types of features. C4.5 decision tree
built on each cluster learns the subgroups within the cluster
and partitions the decision space into finer classification
regions; thereby improving the overall classification
performance.
For future work, we need to verify performance of the
clustering algorithm over real data and make a new
benchmark dataset for intrusion detection, because KDD
Cup 1999 dataset was generated in the virtual network and
the attacks included in it are greatly old-fashioned.
Future works carried out for evaluating the
performance of anomaly detection methods with new
clustering, labeling, cascading
various data mining
methods with dataset drawn from various application
domains.
security
,
IEEE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is supported by Bose of Anna University for
his support in completion of this work. Special thanks to
Sam D Raj Kumar for their efforts in evaluating the
system. Finally I am also very thankful to the reviewers for
their detailed reviews and constructive comments, which
have helped to significantly improve the quality of this
paper.
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Page 384
Membrane Computing - an Overview

R.Raja Rajeswari #1, Devi Thirupathi *2
#
Assistant Professor of Computer Science,

M.V.M Govt Arts College(W),
Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India.
1
ganesh_akash@yahoo.com
*
Head Incharge,
Department of Computer Applications,
Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu, India.
2
tdevi@buc.edu.in
Abstract Membrane Computing is an emerging natural

computing paradigm that emulates membrane operations on
an imaginary membrane platform to solve computational
problems. P Systems form the base for Membrane computing
and there are three types of P Systems, Cell like P Systems,
Tissue like
P Systems and Neural like P Systems.
Transition P Systems or
P Systems, in general belong to
the first category, Cell like
P Systems which simulate
a living cell for computing. This research paper gives an
introduction to P Systems based on a preliminary survey of
existing literature.
Keywords Membrane Computing, P Systems, Membrane
Structure, Evolution Rules, Generative Device.
I. NATURAL COMPUTING
Nature has always fascinated mankind through all
its processes. Inspired by Nature, many inventions have
happened: from aeroplanes that simulated birds to
computers which simulate brain. Now after the buzz of
Information and Communication technologies, this is the
age of Nano-technology which closely resembles Natures
technology. Nano-technology is engineering of nano
particles, i.e. particles of size 1 to 100 nm (1 nm = 10 -9 m).
Examples of Nano particles are atoms, Zinc oxide particles
and DNA molecules. If nature is closely observed, it can
be inferred that any natural process is a nano process at
basic level. (e.g.) Raindrops are formed using nano
particles called condensation nuclei. And a pumpkin under
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) will fascinate
anyone with marvellous nano structures which cannot be
artificially manufactured. Thus Nature has been the source
of inspiration behind any man made technology.
Computer scientists were also fascinated by Nature which

led to the budding of a new branch in computer science
called Natural Computing or Biologically Inspired
Computing. Natural computing dates back to the evolution
of Neural networks and Genetic algorithms which emulate
brain and genetic operators in computer science
respectively, long back.
Recent trends in Natural
Computing saw the use of Swarm Intelligence in Soft
computing and the budding of a new branch called
Molecular computing. Molecular computing is a branch of
Computer Science which is instigated by the biomolecular
interactions in living organisms. There are two forms of
molecular computing: (i) DNA computing and (ii)
Membrane computing.
DNA Computing
DNA Computing [6] is computing with DNA
strands to solve computational problems. Its history dates
back to 1994, when the Computer Scientist Adleman
solved the famous NP - complete problem, Hamiltonian
Path Problem using DNA strands in a test tube. The
advantages of DNA Computing are its massive parallelism
and eco-friendly nature, which reduces the environmental
hazards posed by conventional computers to nature and
hence comes close to Green Computing. Its main draw
backs are huge requirements of DNA and errors due to
DNA operations, when it comes to practical
implementation. But theoretically DNA Computing has
developed well and has given solutions to NP Complete
class problems of Computer Science.
D.
E.
Membrane Computing
The Second form of Natural computing, Membrane
Computing does the computing in an imaginary membrane
Page 385
platform. It simulates the molecular interactions inside the

cell and also the membrane operations. An initial survey on
existing literature [1] infers the following results. Gheorge
Paun [7] who initiated this field in 1998 defined Membrane
computing as Membrane computing is a branch of
Natural computing which abstracts computing models from
the structure and the functioning of living cells, as well as
from the organization of cells in tissues or other higher
order structures. The next section discusses the P Systems
which form the basis for Membrane Computing as defined
in [8], [9] and [10].
II. P SYSTEMS
P Systems form the basic models of Membrane Computing
and there are three main types of P systems: 1 Cell like P
systems, 2 Tissue like P systems and 3 Neural like P
systems. The first type is developed with cell and its basic
ingredients as the base. Tissue like P systems simulate
several one membrane cells evolving in a common
environment. Neural like P systems are similar to Tissue
like P systems but they have also a state which controls the
evolution. And cell like P systems are the ones which are
addressed simply as P systems or Transition P systems in
general. There are many variants of this P system like P
systems with Symport / Antiport rules. But this research
paper attempts only to analyze P Systems or Transition P
Systems briefly. The three fundamental features of cells
which are used in this computing model are: Membrane
Structure, Multisets of chemical compounds and Evolution
Rules which are analogous to Functions, Variables and
Statements in a Programming Language.
A. Membrane Structure
The fundamental ingredient of a P system is the
membrane structure as depicted following as a Venn
diagram in Fig 1.
2
1
region
3
elementary membrane
environment
Fig.1 Example
A membrane structure is a hierarchically arranged set of

membranes, contained in a distinguished external
membrane. Several membranes can be placed inside the
skin membrane. A membrane without any other membrane
inside it is said to be elementary. Each membrane
determines a compartment, also called region, the space
delimited from above by it and from below by the
membranes placed directly inside, if any exists. Usually the
membranes are identified by labels from a given set of
labels. The symbolic representation of the above said
membrane structures is
1 [ 2[ ] 2 3 [ ] 3 4 [5[]5]4]1.
The number of membranes in a membrane structure is
called the degree of the membrane structure.
B. Evolution Rules
In the basic P system, each region contains a
multiset of symbol objects which correspond to the
chemicals swimming in a solution in a cell compartment.
The objects evolve by means of evolution rules [4] which
are also localized, associated with the region of the
membrane structure. And there are three main types of
rules: 1 Multiset rewriting rules (evolution rules) 2
Communication rules and 3 Rules for handling
membranes.
And Transition P systems use only the first type
rules. They are of the form u where u and are
multisets of objects. Also we can add target indications like
here, in, out to the rules indicating here is the same region,
in goes immediately into a directly lower membrane and
out indicates that the object has to exit the membrane, thus
becoming an element of the same region surrounding it.
(eg) aab (a, here) (b, out) (c, here) (c, in)
After using this rule in a given region of a
membrane structure, two copies of a and one b are
consumed and one copy of a, one of b and two of c are
produced; one a and one c remain in the same region, new
copy of b exits the membrane and one c enters into one of
child membranes.
The above said rules with atleast two objects in
the L.H.S. are called cooperative rules. Rules of the form
ca c, where c is a catalyst are called catalytic rules.
Rules of the form a v where a is an object and v is a
multiset are called non cooperative.
Rules of the form u , where denotes the
action of membrane, dissolves the corresponding
Page 386
12 2 1
w1 = aac
w2 = a
R1 = { r1 : c---> (c, in2),
r2 : c .---> (b, in2)}
P1 = { r1 > r2 }
R2 = {a --> (a, out), ac --> )
P2 =
membrane.
Also in a P system rules are used in the
maximally parallel manner, non deterministically choosing
the rules and the objects. A sequence of transitions
constitutes a computation. A computation is successful if it
halts, it reaches a configuration where no rule can be
applied to the existing objects, and the output region i0 still
exists in the halting configuration. If the output region
specified is an internal region, then it is called an internal
output.
And the objects present in the output region in the
halting configuration is the result of the computation. If io
= 0, then count the objects which leave the system during
the computation and this is called as external output. A
possible extension of the definition is to consider a terminal
set of objects, T and to count only the copies of objects
from T, present in the output region. Thus basically a P
system computes a set of numbers. And a system is said to
be propagating if there is no rule which diminishes the
number of objects in the system.
III. DEFINING TRANSITION P SYSTEMS
A transition P system of degree n, n>1 is a construct
= (V, , w1, .... wn, (R1, P1) .....(Rn, Pn), i0), where :
i)
V is an alphabet; its elements are called
objects
is a membrane structure of degree n, with
ii)
membranes and the regions labeled in a one to one manner
with elements in a given set.
wi, 1 i n are strings from V* associated
iii)
with the regions 1, 2 .... n of ;
Ri, 1 i n, are finite sets of evolution rules
iv)
over V associated with the regions 1, 2 n of ; Pi is a
partial order relation over Ri 1 i n specifying a priority
relation among rules of R i.
An evolution rule is a pair (u,v) which denotes u
v where u is in V and v = v or v = where v is a
string over (V x { here, out} ) U (V x { inj /1 j n } ) and
is a special symbol not in V. The length of u is called the
radius of the rule u
v) i0, is a number betwen 1 and n which specifies the
output membrane of
Example :
A P system of degree 2 can be defined as follows:
= (V, , w1, w2, (R1, P1) , (R2, P2) , 1),
V = { a, b, c, d}
= [[ ] ]
Generally a P system can be used for solving two

types of tasks: as a generative device start from an initial
configuration and collect all sets of natural numbers
describing the multiplicities of objects from an output
membrane or ejected from the membrane system at the
end of a successful computation; and as a decidability
device: introduce a problem in an initial configuration, in a
specific encoding and look for the answer after a specified
number of steps. The next section introduces an example
for this [3].
IV. P SYSTEM AS A GENERATIVE DEVICE
Consider the P system of degree 4.
=(V, M, w1, w2, w3, w4, (R1, P1), (R2, P2), (R3, P3), (R4,
P4), 4)
V = { a, b, b, c, f},
M=[ [ [ ] [ ] ] ]
1 23 34 4 2 1
w1 = , R1 = , P 1 =
w2 =
R2 = {b ---> b, b ---> b (c, in4)},
P2 ={ r1> r2), r1 : ff --> af, r2 : f --> a },
w3 = af,
R3 = { a--> ab, a --> b , f --> ff},
P3 =
w 4 = , R 4 = , P4 =
af
a ---> ab'
a ---> b' 8
f ---> ff
b' --> b
b --> b c(c, in 4 )
ff --> af > f --> a8
4
3
2
1
Page 387
Fig.2 Initial configuration
Initially w1 = , w2 = as shown in Fig.2. Hence start

with 3. Here the variables objects are a, f and the rules
that can be applied are
. 1
a ab
. 2
a b
f ff
. 3
Using rules 1 and 3 parallely after n steps
n>= 0, abn and 2n occurrences of f can be obtained.
Now apply rules 2 & 3. That results in bn+1 and 2n+1
occurences of f. And Membrane3 is dissolved and the
objects pass onto Membrane2. At this moment rules of
Membrane3 becomes inactive and rules of Membrane 2
are active.
Applying rules bb, ffaf parallely yields bn+1 and the
number of f occurrences gets divided by two. In the next
step, from bn+1, n+1 occurrences of c are introduced in
membrane 4 using the rule b-b(c,in 4). At the same time,
the number of f occurrences is again divided by two. This
can be continued and at each step further n+1 occurrences
of c are introduced in the output membrane.
This can be done n+1 steps: n times when the rule ffaf
and once when the rule fa is used. In this moment,
Membrane2 is dissolved and no further step is possible.
The obtained configuration is [1a2n+1bn+1[4 c(n+1)2 ]4 ]1
Consequently N()={m2/ m 1}
Thus the above P System collects in its output membrane
different values of m2, m>=1. The words theres plenty of
room at the bottom of Richard Feynman for Nano science,
suit Membrane Computing also.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I record my sincere thanks to Prof. Kamala Krithivasan,
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IITM,
Chennai for kindling my interest in Membrane Computing.
Also
I
express
my
regards
to
Dr.Mrs.A.Pethalakshmi, Head, Department of Computer
Science,M.V.M Govt Arts College(W), Dindigul who
constantly encouraged all my research activities.
REFERENCES
[10] P Systems webpage. [Online]: http://ppage.psystems.eu
[11] Bernardini.F, Membrane Systems for Molecular Computing and
Biological Modelling, Ph.D thesis, Department of Computer Science,
University of Sheffield, Sheffield, 2005.
[12] Krishna.S.N, Languages of P Systems, Ph.D thesis, Department
of Mathematics, IIT Madras, Chennai, 2001.
[13] Madhu.M, Studies of P Systems as a model of cellular
computing, Ph.D thesis, Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai, India, 2003.
[14] Oswald.M, P Automata, Ph.D thesis, Faculty of Computer
Science TU Vienna, Vienna, Austria, 2003 .
[15] Paun.Gh et al, DNA Computing New Computing Paradigms, Texts
in Theoretical Computer Science, 1998.
[16] Paun.Gh, Computing with membranes, Journal of Computer
System Sciences, 2000.
[17] Paun.Gh et.al.,A guide to membrane Computing, Theoretical
Computer Science, 2002.
[18] Paun.Gh, Introduction to Membrane Computing,
Proc.
Membrane
Computing Workshop, 2004.
[19] Paun.Gh, Membrane Computing. An Introduction, Springer,
Berlin, 2002.
V. CONCLUSIONS
Through this research paper, a preliminary review
of membrane computing has been done. And membrane
computing can be applied in computer science to simulate
distributed computing environment and in solving NPComplete Class of problems. Also there are many variants
[5] of this basic P system and some variants are used in
modeling operating system. With the advent of Cloud
Computing and its huge parallel processing power, P
systems can facilitate development of a parallel processing
language.
Also in BioNano technology, Membrane
Computing is used to model biological processes [2]. Still
there are many avenues where membrane computing can be
applied.
Page 388
Entrustment Based Authentication Protocol For

Mobile Systems
R.Rajalakshmi1 R.S.Ponmagal2
1. Senior Lecturer, CSE, MAM College of Engineering
2. Lecturer, CSE, Anna University Tiruchirapalli
ABSTRACT - The aim of the paper is to describe the

development of
an efficient entrustment-based
authentication protocol for mobile communication
systems .A backward hash Chain Method is Proposed
to use to ensure the authentication messages in offline
authentication process in Visited Location Register
(VLR), which includes the reduction in Computational
Cost. The Entrustment-Based Protocol is claimed to
provide non-repudiation in on-line and off-line
authentication. The efficient Protocol preserves the
security properties of the original scheme and reduces
the computational cost in Mobile Station (MS).
authentication processes. This weakness is that any legal

VLR can forge authentication messages without the help
of the mobile user. The Entrustment protocol achieves
non-repudiation in both on-line and off-line
authentication processes, and thus avoids the weakness
described above.
1. INTRODUCTION
Mobile systems provide mobile users with global
roaming services. To support that, numerous
authentication approaches employ the public-key system
to develop their protocols. A private authentication
protocol to prevent the home location register(HLR)
from eavesdropping on communications between the
roaming station (MS) and the visited location register
(VLR).Due to hardware limitations, MS cannot support
heavy encryption and decryption, and therefore wastes a
lot of time in exponential computations. Lee and Yeh [5]
proposed a delegation based authentication protocol to
solve the problems of data security, user privacy,
computational loads and communicational efficiency in
PCSs. Their protocol also adopted the public-key system
to achieve the security requirements. To increase the
communicational efficiency, and save authentication
time, their protocol employs off-line authentication
processes; such that VLR does not need to contact HLR
frequently, and can rapidly re-authenticate MS.
Therefore, compared with, the protocol of Lee and Yeh
not only has a lower computational load for MS than
related approaches such as GSM and MGSM [5][6][7],
but also provides greater security. Though the protocol
of Lee and Yeh exhibits non repudiation in on-line
authentication process, it still has a weakness in off-line
2. METHODOLOGY OF ENTRUST MENT BASED

AUTHENTICATION PROTOCOL
The enhanced protocol employs a backward hash chain
to provide authentication and non- repudiation in off-line
authentication processes.
Setup: HLR and MS have their private/public key pairs
(x, v) and (,K), respectively. The key pair (,K) is also
stored in the MSs SIM card. Besides, MS generates
random number n1, pre-computes a hash chain h(1)(n1),
h(2)(n1), . . . , h(n+1)(n1) and stores them in its
database, where h(1)(n1) = h(n1) and h(i+1)(n1)
=h(h(i)(n1))
for i = 1, 2, . . ., n.
2.2 On-line authentication
Step 1. MSVLR: K MS sends K to VLR.
Step 2. VLRMS: n2, IDV
VLR generates a random number n2 and sends n2 and
IDV to MS.
Step 3. MSVLR: r, s, K,N1, IDH, IDV MS generates
a random number t, picks N1 =h(n+1)(n1) stored in its
database, signs N1, n2 and IDV , and sends r, s,K,N1,
IDH and IDV to VLR, where r = gt (mod p) and s =
h(N1_n2_IDV ) + t r (mod q).
Step
4.VLRHLR: [N1_n2_K]KHV IDH, IDV If
VLR successfully verifies the received messages by
checking gs = vKK)h(N1_n2_IDV )rr (mod p), then
sends [N1_n2_K]KHV , IDH and IDV to HLR.
Otherwise, VLR rejects MSs request.
Step 5. HLRVLR: [[N1, n3, IDV ]_n2_l_C1]KHV ,
IDH, IDV HLR decrypts [N1_n2_K]KHV and obtains
K. If he successfully searches the corresponding in its
database according to K, then he computes C1 =
h(N1_n2_n3_) and l = N1, where n3 is a random
number, and sends [[N1, n3, IDV ]_n2_l_C1]KHV ,
IDH and IDV to VLR.
Step 6. VLRMS: [N1, n3, IDV ], IDVVLR decrypts
[[N1, n3, IDV ]_n2_l_C1]KHV and obtains [N1, n3,
IDV ], n2, l and C1. Then he checks n2 and l, sets the
Page 389
Key Words: - Mobile station, security,

computational cost, non- repudiation.
VLR,
current session key SK = C1 used by VLR and MS, and

forwards [N1, n3, IDV ] and IDV to MS. Finally, MS
decrypts [N1, n3, IDV ], checks N1 and computes the
current session key SK = C1.
In the on-line authentication process, VLR connects with
HLR when MS accesses the network through VLR and
demands authentication. HLR also leaves secure
authentication tokens with MS and VLR in this process.
The off-line authentication process means that VLR need
not contact HLR frequently, and can rapidly authenticate
MS by verifying the secure token when MS accesses the
network through VLR again. A newly token used for
next authentication is simultaneously generated by using
the old token.
2.3 Off-line authentication
MSVLR: [h(ni+1)(n1)]Ci
MS picks h(ni+1)(n1) stored in his database and sends
[h(ni+1)(n1)]Ci to VLR for i = 1, 2,., n, Where a
predefined constant n is the limited times of off-line
authentications, On receiving the authentication message
from MS, VLR checks whether h(h(ni+1)(n1)) and l
are equal, updates l = h(ni+1)(n1) and computes the
session key Ci+1 = h(l,Ci). He also updates the count i =
i + 1 and checks i n. For example, let n = 5. After the
on-line authentication, MS stores h(4)(n1), h(3)(n1), . . .
, h(1)(n1) in his/her database; VLR obtains the
authentication token l = h(5)(n1); and C1 is the session
key shared between MS and VLR. Subsequently, in the
first off-line authentication, on receiving the
authentication message [h(4)(n1)]C1 from MS, VLR
checks h(h(4)(n1)) =?l and updates l = h(4)(n1) for the
second offline authentication. Finally, MS and VLR
have the common session key C2 = h(l,C1).
Accordingly, MS and VLR are able to use the same
method
to
execute
the
subsequent
offline
illustrates the concept of delegation. In a business

corporation, the manager uses his private key to sign a
document and his staff can verify the document based on
his public key. If the manager cannot sign a document
because the is away on business, he can delegate his
signature authority to his trustworthy assistant to sign
the document without giving the assistant his private
key. His staff verifies that the document is still based on
his public key. This authorized signature technique is
called proxy signature. This new type of digital signature
gave us the inspiration for our model. The assistant is
authorized to sign the document when the manager is
absent, but the staff can still use the managers public
key to verify the document. This implies that, even if the
staff can distinguish the signature of the assistant from
that of the manager, the staff cannot know the real
identity of the assistant. The manager cannot deny the
signature if a dispute arises. Of course, the manager
should have the ability to identify a dishonest assistant.
The previous example can be applied to our model. HLR
gives MS the power to sign and VLR can verify the
signature based on the public key of HLR. VLR can
only verify the legality of MS but it does not know the
real identity of MS. The model can provide user privacy
and non_ repudiation features, and key management is
easier than in the pure public-key system model since
only the public key of HLR should be managed. Fig. 2
illustrates the concept of our model.
authentications.
Fig 1. Communication systems

3. CONCEPT OF DELEGATION
In order to introduce our scheme, it is necessary to
briefly describe the concept of delegation. Our method is
inspired by the Proxy signature, which is the delegation
of the power to sign messages. The following example
3.1. User Identity Privacy

GSM, MGSM and public-key based protocols provide
weak user identity privacy since MS must deliver his
real identity to the network for authentication. In our
protocol, the real identity of MS is never transmitted
over the entire network for authentication purposes.
Because we use pseudonym generated by HLR in the
registration phase to represent the identity of MS in the
network, no one except HLR can obtain any information
about the identity of MS. Even VLR can only verify the
legality of MS based on the public key of HLR, nothing
about the identity of MS but only implies that MS is
authorized by HLR. Hence, our scheme provides
stronger user identity privacy than GSM, MGSM and
public-key based protocols.
3.2. Non - repudiation
GSM and MGSM are based on the secret-key system, so
they cannot provide the feature of non - repudiation. No
doubt, public-key based systems can greatly benefit by
Page 390
the non - repudiation feature of the public-key

cryptosystem.
In our scheme, each MS gets a different pair key from
HLR in the registration phase. The key implies the
authorization from HLR. This authorization makes VLR
transfer his trust in HLR to the requested legal
pseudonym MS. Because only HLR has the ability to
authorize MS to sign on his behalf, HLR cannot deny
this in the event a disputation occurs. Of course, HLR
has the ability to identify the misused MS. Thus, our
scheme can also provide the feature of non - repudiation.
3.3. Mutual Authentication between MS and VLR
GSM and MGSM only provide the mechanism for VLR
to authenticate MS, and the public-key based protocols
can provide mutual authentication services. In our
scheme, it is easy for VLR to authenticate MS by
verifying the proxy signature made by MS using the
proxy key authorized by HLR. If MS is authenticated by
VLR. On the other hand, MS can authenticate VLR by
decrypting the message received in Step 6) of the on-line
authentication phase to get and checking whether is the
same as what he sent to VLR in Step 3) of on-line
authentication phase. Because HLR is trustworthy, only
the legal VLR can decrypt the message received from
HLR to get the correct. There is no way for an attacker
to pretend to be a legal MS or VLR. Besides, without
knowing the secret keys and, impersonating HLR is
impossible. Thus, our protocol can provide mutual
authentication service between MS and VLR.
Furthermore, MS gets a proxy pair key from HLR over a
secure channel in the registration phase. The relation
between the pair key and the corresponding real identity
of the MS are protected in a secure database located in
the HLR. In our scheme, MS uses the proxy key to sign
and VLR is responsible to verify the MS according to
(3). If a MS-A acquires MS-Bs pseudonym and
impersonates B to ask authentication request, (3) cannot
hold since MS A has no idea about Bs proxy key.
Therefore, this impersonating attack cannot succeed. In
the off-line authentication process, MS generates the
message and sends it to VLR. VLR decrypts the
message to get. It is very difficult to compute according
to, since is a one way hash function which is relatively
easy to compute, but significantly harder to reverse [14].
If any attacker tries to replay this message to pass the
authentication process, he cannot succeed since VLR
will find out that the value does not equal to which is
updated to. If any attacker tries to forge this message to
pass the authentication process, he cannot succeed since
the message is encrypted by a session key which is
different from time to time and only known to MS and
VLR. For security considerations, it is not reasonable to
do off-line authentication all the time. Hence, a
predefined constant should be set to a reasonable
constraint on the times to do off-line authentication.
3.4. Key Management
In public-key-system-based protocols, the verification of

MS is based on the public key of MS. However, it is not
easy to do so in practice. Because there are many mobile
users in the system, the complexity of the public-key
infrastructure (PKI) will be introduced into such
protocols. In our protocol, HLR authorizes MS to sign
the message and VLR is merely needed to verify MS
based on the public key of HLR. The number of HLR is
much less than that of MS, so the complexity of PKI is
dramatically reduced. Besides, theoretically, the key of
HLR must be more strictly defined and protected than
that of MS, and it should be a long-term key that can be
used without being frequently updated. Key
management will become easier than in the protocols
based on public-key systems.
The key management of GSM and MGSM is also easy
since secret key is a long-term key kept permanently in
the SIM card. If HLR has to change its public/private
key pair for some security reason, he should generate a
new proxy key pair for each user and send the key to the
corresponding user securely. This situation is the same
as when CA changes its public/private key pair [16]; the
old certificates, which CA signed before, should be
collected back and destroyed, and the new certificates
must be generated for the users. There seems to be no
good solution to avoid this ugly situation. However,
compared to the original public-key-based protocols, the
key management of our protocol is much easier since the
number of HLRs public key is much less than that of
MSs in public-key-system-based protocols and the
public key of HLR is not necessarily updated frequently.
4. ANALYSIS BETWEEN EXISTING SYSTEM

AND PROPOSED SYSTEM
Previous Scheme:
Token i and tokeni+1 are independent.HN can forge
token i.
Have not non-repudiation
Charge Problem:Mobile users deny has used services
and refuse to pay.
Overcharge mobile users for services that he did not
request.
Proposed Scheme:
All token i are chained by backward hash-chain and are
decided by MS.
HN cannot forge token I;Have non-repudiation ;PreCompute and reduce the computational cost in MS.
5. CONCLUSION
The weakness of the delegation based authentication
protocol which cannot exhibit non-repudiation in offline authentication processes. The proposed Entrustment
authentication protocol provides Online and Offline
authentication In the Entrustment based authentication
protocol; MS uses a backward hash chain to guarantee
Page 391
that no-one can forge the authentication messages to

trick HLR and provides security.
REFERENCES
[1] H.-Y. Lin, Security and authentication in PCS,"
Comput. Elect. Eng.,vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 225-248, 1999.
[2] A. Merotra and L. Golding, Mobility and security
management in the GSM system and some proposed
future improvements, Proc. IEEE, vol. 86, pp. 14801496, July 1998.
[3] M. Long, C.-H. Wu, and J. D. Irwin, Localised
authentication for internet work roaming across wireless
LANs, IEE Proc. Commun., vol. 151,no. 5, pp. 496500, Oct. 2004.
[4] T.-F. Lee, C.-C. Chang, and T. Hwang, Private
authentication techniques for the global mobility
network, Wireless Personal Commun. vol. 35, no. 4,
pp. 329-336, Dec. 2005
[5] W.-B. Lee and C.-K. Yeh, A new delegation-based
authentication protocol for use in portable
communication systems, IEEE Trans. Wireless
Commun., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 57-64, Jan. 2005.
[6] M. Rahnema, Overview of the GSM system and
protocol architecture," IEEE Commun. Mag., pp. 92100, Apr. 1993.
Page 392
Modeling A Frequency Selective Wall For Indoor

Wireless Environment
Mrs. K.Suganya1 , Dr.N.Suresh Kumar2 , P.Senthil Kumar3,
1
suganrakku@gmail.com
1. Assistant Professor III, Velammal College of Engg and Tech, Madurai
2.Principal, Velammal College of Engg and Tech, Madurai
3. Research Scalor , Bharath University Chennai.
ABSTRACT:
People today are demanding a communications
infrastructure that is both secure and mobile. Meeting both
these requirements cause considerable challenge. Currently,
mobile communication networks and systems are designed
on the basis of detailed analysis of RF coverage and
capacity requirements. Security and privacy issues can be
addressed through good design, but eavesdropping
remains a real vulnerability
An emerging technology named FSS (frequency selective
surface) is increasingly being proposed as an answer to the
deployment of secure wireless systems for indoor wireless
environments, taking advantage of innovative techniques in
building design and the use of attenuating materials. FSSs
could be deployed to allow certain frequencies to propagate
into a room, while reflecting other frequencies.
In this paper we analyzed a Frequency Selective Surface
(FSS) attached onto existing common construction material
at certain distance that transforms it into frequency
selective filtering wall which isolates indoor wireless
system from external interference.
INTRODUCTION
The interference between the co-existing indoor
wireless systems is becoming an important issue.
Unwanted interference not only degrades system
performance but also compromise security. Interference
mitigation can be achieved using advance signal processing
or antenna design but in indoor environments, a simpler
and more effective approach may be to physically modify
the propagation environment. More specifically, a building
wall might be transformed into frequency selective (FS)
filter which filters
cost FSwall can be created by covering a building wall with

a custom designed frequency selective surface (FSS). The
custom designed FSS
discussed here is constructed using conducting aluminum

foil square loops, with loop dimensions shown fig.1. A
bandstop response can be obtained with attenuation of
about 50dB greater than that of an uncovered wall and the
resonant frequency. This could permit a substantial
interference reduction and thus much better signal to
interference ratio (SIR), and accordingly a better system
performance. However [1] also indicates that a response of
a FS structure is highly dependent on substrate (i.e., the
wall board) and the illumination angle.
I.
out undesired interference (e.g., 2.4GHz WLAN signals),

but still allows other desired signals (e.g., cellular
telephone, TV & radio broadcasting) to pass through as
usual. This is the ultimate research reported in this paper
[2]. In [1] it has been demonstrated that a simple and low
BFSS
BWALL
CFSS DFSS
DWALL
AAIR
BAIR
CAIR
DAIR
AFSS
AWALL
CWALL
Fig.1. the matrix cascading technique, as applied to the

FSS problem in this paper. Each layer is characterized by
an ABCD matrix.
The angle sensitivity is, to some extent a function of the
FSS pattern and is under the control of the FSS design
engineer. However the properties of building walls are not.
For practical reason, it would be ideal if the wall and FSS
cover could be modeled independently, and cascaded to
Page 393
obtain the combined performance. Modeling a FSS with a

simple equivalent circuit has been investigated in [4].
II.
FACTORS
INFLUENCING
THE
FSS
PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN
The performance and behavior of the FSS filters depends
on the following factors. The conductivity of the FSS
conductor. The geometry of the FSS element (shape, with
of conductive strip lines, proximity of conductive strip
lines, thickness of conductor). The permittivity of the FSS
substrate. The period of the FSS array. The number of FSS
arrays when these are employed in a cascade. The electrical
distance between the FSS arrays in cascade configurations.
The choice of element types in hybrid FSS configuration.
The finite number of periods and the metallic frames
surrounding the FSS window.
III.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT METHOD
Equivalent circuit modeling is the preferred modeling
technique used in this research. Although it can only be
used for linear polarization and is limited to certain element
shapes, it offers the designer a quick and simple way to
evaluate possible FSS solutions without intensive
computing. EC modeling is ideal for use as an initial tool in
FSS design. Each layer of square loop FSS can be
represented by an equivalent circuit with an inductive
component in series with a capacitive components. The
FSS is modeled by separating the square loop elements into
Vertical and horizontal strips (gratings). For TE wave
incidence, the vertical strips Contribute to the inductive
impedance in the equivalent circuit, where the value L is
calculated according to equation 1.
XL/Z0=L=d/p*F (p, 2s,,).
...(1)
Similarly, the horizontal gratings correspond to the
capacitive component and the C value is calculated
according to equation 2.
BC/ZO=C=d/p*4*F (p, g,,)*eff..( 2)
p
c
c
Equivalent circuit model for the square loop FSS. The field
F is given by,
F(p,w,,)=p/*cos[ln(cosec(w/2p))+
G (p, w,,)]
G (p, w,,)] =
{0.5*(1-)[(1-()/4) (A+ + A_)+4 A+ A_]}
{[1(/4)] +[(1+ (/2) (^4/8)] (A++A_) + 2^6 A+
A_}
A ={1/[1(2psin /)-(p cos /) ]}-1
=sin (/2p)
It was suggested that with sufficient spacing (comparable
to a wavelength), the mutual influence between a wall and
its FSS cover can be neglected. This paper considers the
minimum spacing required between the FSS and the wall in
order that they may be modeled as acting essentially
independently.
IV.
SIMULATION
AND
CASCADING
MATRICES
The measurements presented in this paper were simulated
at S band frequency. The frequency responses of FS
structure were obtained at various illumination angles. The
transmission (S21) and reflection (S11) coefficient of both
the FSS cover and existing wall are obtained.
Simulations were preceded with different air spacing
between the FSS and wall surface (0, 10 and 20mm). The
FSS and wall should act sufficiently independent for simple
wave propagation.
V.
INTERACTION BETWEEN FSS AND
WALL.
The simulations of FS wall performance at 0 signal
incidence with air spacing is shown in fig.3. When the air
spacing is 0mm fr for FS wall is at 2GHz from the designed
fr at 2.4GHz which suggest that the overall response was
significantly influenced by the wall structure conversely
when the air is increased to 10mm or 20mm, fr did not shift
from 10GHz. Therefore, 10mm air spacing provides
sufficient independence to ensure insignificant interaction
between FSS and the wall.
VI.
RESULTS
The simulation carried with 10mm air spacing at 0
incidence is obtained at 2.15 GHz with 50dB attenuation.
Fig .2. Square loop FSS and the appropriate equivalent

circuit.
Page 394
Fig.6. FSS with 0degree incidence and 10mm air spacing

Fig.3. FSS alone in air
At other incident angles discrepancy in fr value occurs.
This suggests that at 0mm intervening air spacing, the FSS
response is greatly influenced by the wall. The FSS and the
wall interact with each other in a complicated manner.
Such interaction detunes the performance of FSS and
prevents the FS wall from being modeled by cascading the
effects of the FSS and the wall individually.
By increasing the air spacing to 10mm the
response is obtained for the predicted frequency. At 0
incidence the
resonance occurs at 2.4GHz. In other words, the FSS

characteristics are preserved, with the FSS remaining
unaffected by the difficult-to-model dielectric properties of
the wall. This indicates that the interaction between the
FSS and the wall is almost insignificant with 10mm air
spacing. More specifically, the air spacing allows the FSS
and the wall to be treated independently, and to be
represented by the FSS and the wall matrices. Accordingly,
the proposed matrix cascading technique can be adopted
for modeling such a FS wall. Increasing the air spacing to
20mm, yields no additional performance benefit over a
10mm spacing.
The FSS matrix is multiplied directly with the
wall matrix. The focus has been placed on determining the
minimum air spacing required, so that the FSS and the wall
can act independently without influencing the
fundamental response of each other. Provided that the
wall is not highly reflective, the impedance transformation
caused by the 10mm air section is regarded as insignificant
in the investigation considered here.
VII.
Fig.4 FSS with 0degree incidence and 0mm air spacing
Fig.5. FSS with 0degree incidence and 5mm air spacing
APPLICATION OF FSS.
Selective shielding of the electromagnetic interference
from high power
microwave heating machines adjacent to wireless
communication base-stations.
Selective shielding of frequencies of communication in
sensitive areas (military
installations, airport, police etc.). Protection from harmful
electromagnetic radiation especially in the 2-3GHz band
arising externally (wireless communication base stations)
or internally (microwave ovens) in the domestic
environment, schools, hospitals etc.
Control of radiation at unlicensed frequency bands (e.g.
Bluetooth applications,2.45GHz). Pico cellular wireless
communications in office environments such as the
Personal Handy-phone System in offices whereas to
improve efficiency each room needs to prevent leakage of
radio waves into another room. This implies that windows,
floor and ceiling need to be shielded. Isolation of unwanted
Page 395
radiation. FSS windows can be incorporate in trains to

prevent mobile phone frequencies.
Note: that in the above applications one wishes to prevent
certain frequency bands of
Electromagnetic radiation to be transmitted whereas others
are required to pass
(frequencies related to emergency services for example).
Hence the use of a
broadband shielding material is not an option.
Fig8. 5mm 45deg
VIII.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
It is concluded that 10mm air spacing is sufficient to
provide independence between the FSS cover and the wall.
This allows engineers to focus on designing a FSS with
desired response without knowledge of the specific
properties of each building/office wall. The wall material
may affect the absolute attenuation but not the frequency
selectivity. However, the spacing required could be reduced
down to almost 0mm with an appropriate FSS design and
careful choice of dielectric substrate to provide the spacing
rather than air. The future works are concerned with
simulating the FSS surface with various structures.
REFERENCES
Fig7. 5mm 15deg
Fig7. 5mm 30deg
[1]
G.H.H.Sung,
K.W.
Sowerby
and
A.G.Williamson, The impact of frequency selective
surfaces applied to standard wall construction materials.
Proc.IEEE 2004 Antennas Propag.
[2]
A.Newbold, Designing buildings for the wireless
age. Compat. Contn. Eng. J., vol.15.
[3]
G.H.H.Sung, K.W. Sowerby, Modeling a lowcost frequency selective wall for wireless friendly indoor
environments.IEEE Antennas and wireless propagation
letters.vol.5.2006.
[4]
G.H.H.Sung, K.W. Sowerby and
A.G.Williamson, Equivalent circuit modeling of
a frequency selective plasterboard wall. In Proc.IEEE
2005 Antennas Propag.Symp., vol.4A. 2005.
[5]
D.M.Pozar, Microwave Engineering. AdisonWesley.1990.
[6]
An investigation into the feasibility of designing
frequency selective windows employing periodic structure
C.Mias, C.Oswald and C.Tsakonas- The Nottingham Trent
University.
Page 396
A Multi-Agent Based Personalized e-Learning

Environment
13
2
T. Vengattaraman1, A. Ramalingam2, P. Dhavachelvan3, R.Baskaran4,

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, India.
Department of Master in Computer Applications, Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College, Puducherry, India.
4
Department of Computer Science, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India.
Abstract Personalizing e-learning services becomes more
important and it is needed for learners when e-learning

takes place in an open and dynamic environment. It is of
great importance to provide personalized e-learning
services which can automatically adapt to the interests and
levels of learners. In this paper, we propose the
personalization of e-learning services with multiple
feedback measures and adapting at individual level also at
group level using multi agent architecture. Multiple
feedback measures are collected from the user and stored in
user profile. The feedbacks are adapted using an adaptation
algorithm and thereby providing personalized e-learning
content to the individual user and group of users.
VI. INTRODUCTION
E-learning is being viewed as an important activity in the
field of distance and continuing education. It offers obvious
advantages for e-learners making access to educational
resource at any time or at any place. With the development
of e-learning technologies, learners can be provided more
effective learning environment to optimize their learning.
Web personalization is an advanced stage in the e-learning
systems evolution and it alleviates the burden of
information overhead by tailoring the information
presented based on an individual users needs. The learners
have different learning styles, objectives and preferences,
fact that leads to different efficiency and effectiveness from
individual to individual [1]. Hence all the learners can't be
treated in a uniform way. So there is a need for
personalized system which can automatically adapt to the
interests and levels of learners.
A promising approach towards the personalization of
e-learning services is user profiling. User profile includes
interests, levels and learning patterns can be assessed
during the learning process. Based upon the profile,
personalized learning resource could be generated to match
the individual preferences and levels.
User profiling finds its importance in recommendation
systems. Typically a recommender system compares the
user profile to some reference characteristics to find
similarity and differences and thereby provide suggestions
to the users. For personalized search, user profiles can be
used for re-ranking the results returned to the user.

Comparing to recommender systems and personalized
search, user profile is important and it is needed in elearning as it is a continuous process.
Feedback is the information the user receives from the
system as the result of his or her action. It occurs in elearning not only in the assessment process, but can be
provided to a student during navigation through learning
materials, communication and collaboration with other
students. Even the alerts and remainders that often appear
in the e-learning system can be considered as feedback [2].
Mostly e-learning systems are personalized using either
implicit or explicit feedbacks. In Implicit profiling, the
user's behavior is tracked automatically by the system
whereas in explicit profiling each user is asked to fill in a
form when visiting the website. In our approach we are not
following either of these methods. Instead we combine
multiple feedback measures to get accurate and more
complete user profiles for personalization. The learners
with common interests and levels can be grouped, and
multiple feedbacks of one person can serve as the guideline
for information delivery to the other members within the
same group. By adapting multiple feedbacks, personalized
effective e-learning content can be delivered at the
individual level and at the group level. Individual
adaptation means that feedback is adapted to each student
based on their characteristics. Group adaptation means
adapting the feedback to common characteristics of a group
of users.
RELATED WORK AND LITERATURE SURVEY
VII.
Many approaches uses semantic Web or Web service
technologies to provide dynamic as well as personalized
support for learning objectives. Few approaches [3][4] are
concerned with bridging learning contexts and resources by
introducing semantic learning context descriptions. This
allows the adaptation to different contexts based on
reasoning over the provided context ontology, but does not
provide solutions for building complex adaptive learning
applications by reusing distributed learning functionalities.
Some proposals [5] follows the idea of using a dedicated
personalization web service which makes use of semantic
learning object descriptions to identify and provide
Page 397
appropriate learning content. Integration of several

distributed learning services or service allocation at runtime
is not within the scope of this approach. The related
research on a Personal Reader Framework (PRF)
introduced in [6] and [7] allows mediation between
different services based on aconnector service.
The work described in [8] utilize semantic web as well as
web service technologies to enable adaptation to different
learning contexts by introducing a matching mechanism to
map between a context and available learning data.
However, neither it considers approaches for automatic
service discovery nor it is based on common standards.
Hence, the reuse and automatic allocation of a variety of
services or the mediation between different metadata
standards is not supported [9].
Whereas the majority of the described approaches enable
context-adaptation based on runtime allocation of learning
data, all of them do not enable the automatic allocation of
learning functionalities neither it does enable the
integration of new functionalities based on open standards.
Nevertheless, all approaches do not envisage mappings
between different learning metadata standards to enable
interoperability not only between learning contexts but also
between platforms and metadata standards.
VIII.
APPROACHES TO PERSONALIZATION OF ELEARNING SERVICES
Many approaches to personalization of e-learning services

consider re-authoring of existing learning material.
Mechanisms that facilitate the reuse of learning content
increase the life span of the e-learning content but they are
too expensive. To reduce the implementation overhead of
the designer it is imperative to facilitate the maximum
reuse of learning resources.
The fulfilment of the individual needs of each user
learning personalization, educational content re-usability
on large scale content reuse, assurance of the
communication between e-learning systems as well as with
other human resources management systems
interoperability are the main objectives of the researches in
this domain. The following subsections explain about the
research works carried out by different authors in
personalization of e-learning systems.
A. Personalized E-learning system
Blochl et al [10], proposed an adaptive learning system
which can incorporate psychological aspects of learning
process into the user profile to deliver individualized
learning resource. The user profile is placed in multidimensional space with three stages of the semantic
decisions: cognitive style, skills and user type. However,
both the means to acquire user's feedback and the

algorithms to update user profile have not been addressed
in the presentation.
SPERO is a [12] based on the IEEE Learning Technology
Systems Architecture (LTSA). It could provide different
contents for the foreign language learners according their
interests and levels. The problem of SPERO system is that
it is largely using questionnaires and e-surveys to build
user profiles, which costs the users too much extra work.
B. Recommendation Systems
User profiling is the key process of recommendation
systems, which collect user feedback for items in a given
domain and assess user profiles in terms of similarities and
differences to determine what to recommend. Depending
on underline technique, recommendation systems can be
divided into collaborative filtering-based content-based
[11] and hybrid approaches. Classified by means to acquire
feedback, they can be categorized as explicit rating,
implicit rating and no rating needed [11] systems. In fact,
user's feedbacks are so important that only very few
content-based recommendation systems require neither
explicit rating nor implicit rating. For example, Surflen is a
recommendation system using data mining techniques to
assess the association rules on web pages through users
browsing history without the feedbacks. However, it's hard
to find user's exact interests just based on the browsing
history, since it always happens that users open a page they
don't like or just by mistake. This problem becomes even
more severe in the situation that the system is sparsely
used.
Many methods of user profiling are heavily depending on
the user feedbacks to construct user profiles. The feedback
can be assessed explicitly by rating, or implicitly by the
user behaviors such as print and save. The major drawback
of existing e-learning platform is personalization with
implicit feedbacks and explicit feedbacks. The proposed
approach is trying to improve the personalized content
delivery to the e-learners.
C. Feedback Adaptation
Individual adaptation means that feedback is adapted to
each student and his/her individual (combination of)
characteristics [12]. For example, the individual
characteristics could include the users knowledge of the
subject being studied (knowledge of the main concepts,
formulas, etc) and the number of mistakes the user makes
during the testing. The time and the way of feedback
presentation could be personalized to these individual
characteristics. For example, if the user has started to make
some mistakes more often the system can present the
feedback more often and include more detailed
explanations in the feedback (compared to the feedback
given to a user who only occasionally makes a mistake).
The information that is presented in the feedback can be
Page 398
also personalized by relating to concepts that are already

mastered by the user.
Group adaptation supposes that the system adapts the
feedback to common characteristics of a group of users.
For example, they can be grouped according to their
learning style. Immediate feedback could be presented in a
brief form for active users, while detailed elaborated
feedback could be presented to reflective learners. Another
example of the group adaptation of feedback is
personalization of the feedback to students who has passed
the same courses before. The feedback could include
references to the previous course (if the student has passed
it) or the detailed explanation (in the case the material
might be unknown to the user as s/he has not taken the
course).
IX. PROPOSED APPROACH
In our approach, we propose the personalization of elearning services with multiple feedbacks and adapting
feedbacks at individual level and group level using multiple
agents. Knowledge about a user inferred from user
interactions with the e-learning systems is stored in user
profile and they are used to adapt offered e-learning
resources and guide a learner through them. The learning
material is accessible as other information sources on the
web. Hypertext interlinks related pieces of information and
allows the user to browse through the information space.
The links are provided either explicitly, encoded by authors
of the pages, or they generated automatically based on the
test. Generating links automatically based on user profiles
is an attractive option. However, it creates challenges as
well.
The data which are collected about the user can be
classified into two types: static data and dynamic data. The
static data are those which are not altered during the
student-system interaction. The dynamic data are that
changes according to the student learning progress and with
the system interaction.
The static data comprises five different parts. They are
personal, personality, cognitive, pedagogical and
preference data. Each one is an aggregation of student
characteristics, which are not usually changed during an elearning session.
Personal data comprises the biographical information about
the student, and can be easily obtained from the course
enrolment form. These information are:
Student name
Students professional activities
List of degree and qualifications

The personality data models the student characteristics that
represent the type of person the student is. These
characteristics can be inferred from personality tests. The

attributes of personality data are:
Personality type
Concentration skills based on the average time

spent in the learning contents.
Collaborative work skills based on the
participation in group works

Relational skills based on the interactions with
students and teacher.

The cognitive data models the student characteristics that
represent the type of cognition the student possess. These
characteristics can e inferred from cognitive tests. Based on
the cognitive data, the contents can be tailored to meet the
student needs. The cognitive data are
Cognitive style
Level of experience the student possesses in using

the e-learning system
Student experience in using computers

The pedagogical data defines the student characteristics
that deal directly with the learning activity. This data
intends to model the students behavior in learning
situations, comprising two personal properties
Learning style
Learning approach
The preference data stores a set of student preferences
regarding the system customization. Most of the
preferences are gathered from the student, but some of
them are defined by the system administrator. The
attributes are:
Preferred presentation format
Preferred language for content display
Web design personalization
Video speed
Sound volume
The dynamic data comprises two sets of data. They are

performance data and the student knowledge data. The
performance data comprises level of motivation,
confidence for e-learning, ability to formalize and
comprehend course concepts, global performance level by
the student in the course, level of effort spend by the
student in the course, and portfolio that stores all the results
obtained by the student in the current course. Data is
constantly being gathered in order to keep an updated data
and this data can be collected from the student-system
interaction.
The student knowledge data comprises of the concepts
referred in the course, students progress regarding the
knowledge concepts describes the knowledge that the
student must possess for the current course and must
possess until the end of the course. This set of data also
gathers information about the students progress during the
course sessions. This data is also gathered from the studentsystem interaction.
User profile which includes user preferences contains three
versions of profile data. They are:
Page 399
Initial login profile
Learners skill profile

Learners type profile
Initial profile formed on first time login and based on the

query answered by the learner. It can be dynamically
changed over a period of time, because of every action of
learner is monitored and updated in learner profile.
The feedbacks which are stored in user profile can be
adapted to provide personalized e-learning service to the
users. For adapting feedback, a feedback adaptation
algorithm is proposed.
X. IMPLEMENTATION
The development of e-learning platform can be done with
java. Basically an e-learning platform consists of login
validation service module, registration service module, etest service module. Apart from this, in our project we are
adapting multiple feedbacks for providing personalized elearning content to the individual user and group of users.
For this we are going to propose an algorithm for
adaptation of feedbacks. Our proposed system consists of
profiler service, learner service, monitoring service,
feedback service, content service, adaptation service. The
fig. 1 depicts the system architecture using multiple agents.
C. Learner service
The learner service consists of login service,
registration service, pre assessment test service.
1) The login service: The login service module consists of
on-line registration, validation. Before taking online
course, the student has to register and do the validation.
The validation part consists of checking the values with the
database and validating it. After validation, the student can
take online course.
2) The registration service: The registration service
module consists of registering the form if the user is a new
user. Usually the user has to get registered with the website
before taking the online course.
3) The pre assessment service: The pre assessment test
module provides the on line test to the e-learners in order to
check for the level of the learners in the subjects. The test
marks will be calculated and his efficiency will be rated
based on the marks.
D. The profile service
The profile service consists of two tasks. They are
assessment of expertise level, providing guideline for
delivery. The levels of learners are determined by the
average preferences. The webpage user has read on any
topic which could have different levels in terms of
beginning, intermediate and advanced. The information
delivery to individual user and group of users is done by

adaptation algorithm.
E. Feedback extraction
The feedbacks are extracted to make a final assessment of
user preference. The feedbacks which are employed in
system including reading time, scroll, print/save and
relational index.
Reading time: return 1 if user read pg longer than
t, where t is a predefined threshold; 0 otherwise.

Scroll: return 1 if the number of user scrolls
(either mouse or keyboard pageup/pagedown) on pg is

greater than pies, where s is a predefined threshold; 0
otherwise.
Print/save: return 1 if user prints/saves pg; 0
otherwise.
System
Interface (GUI)
Profiler service
(Agent)
Learner Service
(Agent)
Content
Service (Agent)
Monitoring
service (Agent)
Profile
Database
Feedback
service (Agent)
Adaptation
service (Agent)
elational index: return 1 if keywords of pg appear in user's

chatting history ch more than t times, where t is a
predefined threshold; 0 otherwise.
Fig. 1 System Architecture
F. Feedback service
Feedback service consists of collecting multiple feedbacks
such reading time, no of scroll, no of print/save and
relational index on chatting history and storing it in user
profile.
Page 400
G. Adaptation service
The feedbacks which are maintained in user profile can be
adapted and provided to the individual user and group of
users. The adaptation service consists of adaptation
algorithm which adapts the contents and provides the
personalized content to the e-learners.
H. Adaptation algorithm
The web pages are organized by the topics which are
structured in e-content ontology. Each topic is attached
with several keywords.
XI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A prototype system has been implemented and multiple
feedback measures are recorded for feedback extractor.
From the feedback we obtained the learning performance
curve over various iterations and the fig.2 shows the
improvements. For system training purpose, we ask a
group of students to do the following experiments:
Step 1: Select a topic such as Data Structures
and Object Oriented Programming, let the students

indicate their levels on it in terms of beginning,
intermediate, or advanced.
Step 2: Evaluate the performance.
Step 3: Prepare proficiency profile for each

student and store it in database.
Step 4: Customize the learning content based on

the proficiency profile.
Fig. 2
measures are collected from the user and stored in user

profile. The feedbacks are adapted using an adaptation
algorithm and thereby providing personalized e-learning
content to the individual user and group of users. The
experimental results show that there is a great improvement
in the learning curve.
REFERENCES
[20] Zhang Yin, Zhunag Yueting, WU Jiangqin, Personalized
Multimedia Retrieval in CADAL Digital Library, Advances in
Multimedia Information Processing - PCM 2008, Volume 5353/2008, pp703-712, 2008.
[21] Okkyung Choi, SangYong Han, Personalization of Rule-based
Web Services, Sensors 2008, 8(4), pp-2424-2435, 2008.
[22] Knight, C., Gaevi, D., & Richards, G., An Ontology-Based
Framework for Bridging Learning Design and Learning Content,
Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 9 (1), pp-23-37, 2006.
[23] M. Baldoni, C. Baroglio, V. Patti, and L. Torasso, Using a
rational agent in an adaptive web-based tutoring system, In Proc. of the
Workshop on Adaptive Systems for Web- Based Education, 2nd Int. Conf.
on Adaptive Hypermedia and Adaptive Web-based Systems, pp- 43-55,
Malaga, Spain, 2002.
[24] M. Baldoni, C. Baroglio, I. Brunkhorst, N. Henze, E. Marengo and
V. Patti, A Personalization Service for Curriculum Planning, ABIS
2006 - 14th Workshop on Adaptivity and User Modeling in Interactive
Systems, Hildesheim, pp-17-20, October 9-11 2006.
[25] Henze, N., Personalized e-Learning in the Semantic Web.
Extended version of 4, International Journal of Emerging Technologies
in Learning (iJET), Vol. 1, No. 1, pp-82-97, 2006.
[26] Nicola Henze, Peter Dolog, and Wolfgang Nejdl, Reasoning and
Ontologies for Personalized E-Learning, Educational Technology &
Society, Vol. 7, Issue 4. pp-82-97, 2004.
[27] Schmidt, A., Winterhalter, C., User Context Aware Delivery of ELearning Material: Approach and Architecture, Journal of Universal
Computer Science (JUCS), vol.10, no.1, pp-28-36, January 2004.
[28] Simon, B., Dolog., P., Mikls, Z., Olmedilla, D. and Sintek, M.,
Conceptualising Smart Spaces for Learning. Journal of Interactive Media
in Education, Special Issue on the Educational Semantic Web,
ISSN:1365-893X [http://wwwjime. open.ac.uk/2004/9], 2004.
[29] Martin Blchl, Hildegard Rumetshofer, Wolfram, Individualized
E-Learning Systems Enabled by a Semantically Determined Adaptation of
Learning Fragments, Proceedings of the 14th International Workshop on
Database and Expert Systems Applications, pp-640, 2003.
[30] Xiaobin Fu, Jay Budzik, Kristian J. Hammond, Mining navigation
history for recommendation, Proceedings of the 5th international
conference on Intelligent user interfaces, United States, pp-106 - 112,
2000.
[31] Xin Li and S. K. Chang, A Personalized E-Learning System Based
on User Profile Constructed Using Information Fusion, The eleventh
International Conference on Distributed Multimedia Systems (DMS'05),
Banff, Canada, pp. 109-114, Sep.2005.
Learning Improvement Graph
The experimental results show improved learning curve.

We used scoring in the range of 1 to 5 for each student; the
overall performance of the students improves in the
subsequent iterations.
CONCLUSION
XII.
This paper proposes the personalization of e-learning
services with multiple feedback measures and adapting at
individual level also at group level. Multiple feedback
Page 401
Identification in the E-Health Information

Systems
Ales Zivkovic
University of Maribor
FERI Maribor
ales.zivkovic@uni-mb.si
Abstract
Fast development of health informatics promise to offer new
services supported with information technology. Different
stakeholders in the public health care systems are already
using partially integrated solutions in order to exchange
electronic health records. Patient identification is one of the
key elements in the future electronic health systems. While
technology provides several solutions for patient
identification, processing of personal data related to health is
strictly regulated. The paper addresses some of the most
common issues in regard to privacy, discuss technical
opportunitiesin the identification problem space and presents
current identification solution in Slovenia.
1. Introduction
The use of most information systems depends on user
identification. The purpose of identification is
representation of the user or another system to the
information system being used. Based on the identification,
the information system will allow or deny access to the
system or one of its parts. With the integration of
information systems, high availability of e-services and
ubiquitous solutions, the importance of identification
mechanisms and efficient authorization schemes is also
becoming more and more important. The identification
mechanisms should guarantee first level security to the
information systems as well as the user, while the
authorization prevents unauthorized access to the
information, data and services.
The costs of public health care schemes are substantially
increasing and governments are calling for new strategies
[1]. One of the solutions is open integrated electronic
health system that is able to exchange the information
between all stakeholders in the public health care system.
The key stakeholders are:hospitals, medical centers, health
centers, insurance companies, government, patients,
employers, pharmacies, drugstores, pharmaceutical
companies, health care professionals (i.e. doctors, nurses,
pharmacists) and others. The central part of the electronic
health system is electronic health record (EHR), the
electronic document that contains the comprehensive data
of the past and present physical and mental state of health
of an individual. The EHR is highly sensitive in regard to
personal data protection as well as confidentiality, safety
and accuracy. The identification plays an important part in
fulfilling these requirements. The three basic principles of
identification are [2]:
Something you have - the user poses something
that is then used for identification since other people do not

have this. For example EHR smart card, hardware key
generator andpublic key certificate.
Something you know - the identification element
is secret information that is known only to the user of the

system. For example password, paraphrase and Personal
Identification Number (PIN).
Things you are - the principle is based on the
physical characteristics or behavior of the user that can be

used for identification. For example voice recognition,
fingerprint, biometric signature, palm and hand print
recognition, iris and retina recognition.
The most common principle in use today is "something you
know" since passwords and PIN numbers are widely used
for computer and system login while ATM machines and
mobile phones require PIN identification. The principle is
simple to implement, easy to use and inexpensive. The only
disadvantage is password vulnerability. Therefore it is
better to implement and use other identification
mechanisms.
The paper is organized as follows. The second section
gives a brief overview of the standards and regulations in
health informatics and identification. In section three,
technical solutions for user identification are described and
compared. Section four gives an overview of the recent
identification solution in Slovenian public health system.
Section five concludes the paper.
2. Standards and Regulations

There are many standards, laws and directives related to
protection of personal data, security, identification, health
information systems and biometrics. The aim of this
section is to point out some of the related standards and
regulations and provide the overview of the legal
framework in Slovenia.
The ISO/DIS 21091:2008 Health informatics - Directory
services for security, communications and identification of
professionals and patients [3] standard is aimed at
providing key requirements for secure communication of
the health care professionals in conducting clinical and
administrative functions. The standard extends the public
key infrastructure with additional requirements for its
efficient use within the health care transactions. The health
care directory includes the information about valid
certificates, certificate revocation lists (CRL), identification
Page 402
of individual roles within the health care system, trust

chains and secure communication over the public
networks. The directory services are using the X.500
framework. The specification also defines the directory
security managementframework where the following
standards should be considered for protection of the
directory infrastructures: ISO 22600-2, ISO/IEC TR
13335-1 and Control Objectives for Information and
Related Technologies (COBIT) [4].
According to the Technical specification CEN/TR 15872
Health informatics - Guidelines on patient identification
and cross-referencing of identities [5], the accuracy of
identification and information is essential requirement
within the healthcare information system. The individual
needs to be uniquely identified in order to ensure
appropriate and relevant care. Currently the patient may
have several identifiers (i.e. domestic health care identifier,
international insurance identifier while traveling,
temporary identifiers for various medical services outside
the public health care system) corresponding to different
geographical locations, different health care organizations
and services. Consequently, different identifiers increase
the risk of identification error and potentially compromise
the patient's safety. The quality of identification ensures
that health care professionals have access to patient
information, facilitating closer coordination and continuity
of care and improving medical service in terms of
preventive as well as follow-up activities. In the technical
report, the solution for providing continuity of medical care
and patient data exchange that is based on the reliable
consolidation of different identities in the patient identifier
domain. It also provides solutions for cross-referencing of
identities when the medical professionals needs to access
all patients data that resides in different information
systems managed by different health organizations.
The main legal instrument of EU data protection law Directive 95/46/EC [6], defines health information as
sensitive data. Sensitive data cannot be processed unless
the subject of the data (the patient in case of the EHR)
gives explicit consent, or another exemption applies.
Article 8 of the Directive expressly provides that Member
State laws may prohibit the processing of certain sensitive
data, irrespective of the individual's consent. Without
obtaining consent, organizations may only process the
following data:
Data necessary for exercising the organization's
obligations or rights related to employment.

Data necessary to protect the vital interests of the
individual when the individual is physically or legally

incapable of giving consent.
Data necessary for the establishment, exercise or
defense of legal claims.

Data necessary for the purposes of preventive
medicine, medical diagnosis, the provision of care or

treatment or the management of health-care services, and
where those data are processed by a health professional
subject to professional secrecy or by another person subject

to an equivalent obligation of secrecy.
Data that were clearly made public by the
individual itself.
In addition, the processing of sensitive data generally
requires prior approval from national data protection
authorities. In Slovenia, the law requires the approval of
the Information Commissioner. In Italy a detailed security
policy document is required, and specific technical
requirements must be met. In Spain, the processing of
health-related data triggers a requirement for more rigorous
security measures under Royal Decree 994/1999. After the
Member States have implemented the exceptions
differently and inconsistently, theEuropean Commission
Report on the implementation of the Data Protection
Directive (95/46/EC [6]) recognized the problem and the
Data Protection Working Party, an independent European
advisory body on data protection and privacy, issued the
Working Document on the processing of personal data
relating to health in electronic health records (EHR).The
document provides guidelines on the interpretation of the
applicable data protection legal framework for EHR
systems,
presents
the
general
principles
and
recommendations on eleven topics namely respecting self
determination, identification and authentication of patients
and health care professionals, authorization for accessing
EHR in order to read and write in EHR, use of EHR for
other purposes, organizational structure of an EHR system,
categories of data stored in EHR and modes of their
presentation, international transfer of medical records, data
security, transparency, liability issues and control
mechanisms for processing data in EHR.
In 2004 Slovenia adopted the Personal Data Protection Act
[7] that determines the rights, responsibilities, principles
and measures to prevent unconstitutional, unlawful and
unjustified encroachments on the privacy and dignity of an
individualin the processing of personal data. The
enforcement of the law is under the supervision of the
Information Commissioner of Republic of Slovenia. In
2008 the commissioner issued two important guidelines
[8]:
Guidelines for safeguarding the personal data in
1.
the Hospital Information Systems (HIS) and
Guidelines regarding the use of biometric
2.
technologies.
In the first guideline the commissioner points out that the
logging of user interaction could be at different levels: (1)
change log, (2) data access log and (3) full audit trail.
While the law does not require the audit trail, technically it
is possible to implement it within the HIS. The second
level is mandatory for sensitive data and must be
implemented regardless of the circumstances. The use of
group login accounts is not advisable and should be used
only in special cases (i.e. emergency team). However, for
these exceptions additional measures should take place
Page 403
making clear who were the members of the emergency

team in the particular time frame. The second guideline
first explains the difference between identification and
authentication. When implemented with biometric
techniques, both approaches are treated equally and may be
used only when it is impossible to fulfill the same aim with
other means. The use must be regulated. In the public
sector the biometric solutions may be used for entering
working premises or work registration. In private sector,
the use is allowed only when higher security measures are
required for protecting people or trade secrets. It can be
used only for company employees with prior written
notice. Before introducing the biometric, the company must
acquire approval from the government supervisory office.
According to the Slovenian and EU laws the biometric data
are always treated as sensitive personal data.
3. Technical Solutions
Something you know (usernames and passwords, PIN) is
the most widely used identification principle for accessing
IT resources today. The administrator or the system itself,
using the algorithm, sets the username and password for
the new user. The user can later partially (only password)
or fully (username and password) change it. This
identification principle has several drawbacks:
Reliability of identification - when the system
receives the correct username and password it only knows

that the identification data matches the data in the database.
It can not guarantee that the person that entered the data to
the system is the right person. The data could be stolen or
the user gives it to someone else in order to perform the
task for him.
Insufficient control - even if the company
introduced the password policy, there are many problems

when used in practice (i.e. the password length,
complexity, the password change frequency, storing the
passwords).
The compromised password detection - usually it
is quite difficult to detect that the password was

compromised. The attacker could use the stolen data for
days, months or even years before anybody founds out. The
compensation control would be to change the password
regularly to prevent long time exposure. The system could
also try to recognize unusual logins (after the premises
were closed, weekends).
3.1 Biometric identification
The biometric identification could be divided into two
subgroups:
Physiological biometry - includes the methods that

use physiological properties of the person like fingerprints,
iris and retina recognition and palm geometry. The
variability of the properties in this group is very low.
Behavioral biometry - uses person's behavioral
patterns. In this group are voice, typing and handwriting.

The biggest problem of the methods in this group is high
variability of the property being measured for

identification. The recognition accuracy is also lower in
comparison to the physiological biometry. The variability
could be due to the changes a person is going through (i.e.
illness, stress). The advantage is better user acceptance.
The biometric identification has several advantages:
the biometric properties are unique,
the property can not be transferred to another

person,
it can not be forgotten, lost or stolen,
it is difficult to copy or forge,
it can be used when person is unconscious and

it is hard for someone to hide or change the
property.
Therefore, the use of biometric identification could be
more appropriate in healthcare systems for some users (for
example children, senior users and people with disabilities)
and special use cases (for example emergency).
4. Identification in the Slovenian Health System
In the year 2000 the Health Insurance Institute of Slovenia
(ZZZS) [9] introduced the Slovene Health Insurance Card
(KZZ) [9] as the official document applied in the
implementation of the rights deriving from the compulsory
and voluntary health insurance in Slovenia. Slovenia was
the first country to introduce an electronic card at a national
scale within the EU. The common EU member countries
objective is to introduce an electronic document applicable
within a country and across its borders. The Slovenian card
is issued, free of charge, to every person upon the first
regulation of the compulsory health insurance status in
Slovenia and is used for the identification of the policy
owner, the patient, as well as the health service providers.
The card is made of plastic, measures 8.5 x 5.5 centimeters
and has the chip with the following data:
thecard owner data,
thedata about the mandatory insurance policy,

thedata about the voluntary health insurance,
the data about the personal doctor,
the data about the medical accessories,

the data about the owner decision regarding the
organ donation in case of death,

the data about the issued medicine and
the payer's data.

The access to the data is granted only together with the
authorized professional card owned by the medical staff
(doctors, nurses, physicians, chemist). In October 2008 the
ZZZS issued the new KZZ card that will replace the old
KZZ card.
Page 404
Figure 1: The new Slovene Health Insurance Card (KZZ)

with the reader on the right
In addition to the data on the old KZZ card, the new KZZ
card includes the digital certificates issued by the ZZZSCA and has additional space for two additional personal
certificates (2x2048 bits). The default certificate issued by
the ZZZS is used for accessing the health insurance on-line
system, while the additional personal certificates could be
used for accessing other resources on the web. Figure 1
shows the new card (left) and the card reader (right).
Figure 2: The software for the management of the new

Slovene Health Insurance Card
On Figure 2 the software for the managements of the KZZ
card is presented. The screenshot shows the available space
on the card, the certificates status,the card type and the data
stored on the card. While the old card was used as the data
carrier, the new card is used as the identification element the key for accessing the health data. This change enables
on-line access to the patients' data using digital certificates.
In the future the card will be integrated with the Electronic
Health Record (EHR), e-prescription and authorizations
within the health information systems (i.e. patients waiting
lists) as well as integration with the identity card.
5. Conclusion
The identification is becoming one of the most important
elements of the future IT-based solutions. The paper
discusses legal as well as technical issues of the
identification in the health care domain. Slovenia was the
first EU country that introduced the electronic health
insurance card on the national scale. The second-generation

card was recently put into production enabling better
security and introduction of new e-health services. While
the biometric identification might be better solution for the
healthcare domain, the strong national and EU regulations
prevents IT solution providers to use the technology in the
Health Information Systems (HIS). Consequently, the
Health Insurance Institute of Slovenia decided to use
smartcard solution together with the digital certificates. In
the future the integration with the identity card is
anticipated.
References
1.
Working Document on the processing of personal
data relating to health in electronic health records (EHR),
WP131, 2007
Ramesh Subramanian, Computer Security,Privacy
2.
and, Politics-Current Issues Challenges and Solutions, IRM
Press,2008
ISO/DIS 21091:2008 Health informatics 3.
Directory services for security, communications and
identification of professionals and patients
ISACA, Control Objectives for Information and
4.
related Technology(COBIT), version 4.1, IT Governance
Institute, 2007
CEN/TR 15872 Health informatics - Guidelines
5.
on patient identification and cross-referencing of identities
Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament
6.
and of the Council,
http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/privacy/docs/95-46ce/dir1995-46_part1_en.pdf (accessed March 19, 2010)
Personal Data Protection Act (Slovenia),
7.
http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/privacy/docs/impleme
ntation/personal_data_protection_act_rs_2004.pdf
(accessed March 19, 2010)
Information Commissioner (Slovenia),
8.
http://www.ip-rs.si/ (accessed March 19, 2010)
Health Insurance Institute of Slovenia,
9.
http://www.zzzs.si/indexeng.html
Page 405
Privacy Preserving Distributed Data Mining

Using Elliptic Curve Cryptography
M.Rajalakshmi#1, T.Purusothaman*2
#
Department of CSE/IT, Senior Grade Lecturer, Coimbatore Institute of Technology,

Coimbatore,Tamilnadu, India
1
raji_nav@yahoo.com
Department of CSE/IT, Assistant Professor,Government College of Technology,

Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
2
purushgct@yahoo.com
Abstract Association rule mining is one of the most

investigated fields of data mining. When it occurs on
distributed data, privacy of participating parties becomes
great concerns. Distributed association rule mining is an
integral part of data mining aimed at extracting useful
information hidden in distributed data sources. As local
frequent itemsets are globalized from various data sources,
sensitive information pertaining to the individual data source
needs high protection. Different privacy preserving data
mining approaches for distributed environment have been
proposed but they all suffer from privacy, computation
complexity and communication overhead. The proposed
method finds global frequent itemsets in a distributed
environment with minimal communication among sites and
ensures higher degree of privacy with Elliptic Curve
Cryptography(ECC). The experimental results shows that
ECC is more secure than RSA cryptography and generates
global frequent itemsets without affecting mining
performance and confirms optimal communication among
sites
Keywords distributed data mining, privacy, secure multiparty
computation, frequent itemsets, sanitization, cryptography
1. Introduction
Major
technological
developments
and
innovations in the field of information technology have
made it easy for organizations to store a huge amount of
data within its affordable limit. Data mining techniques
come in handy to extract valuable information for strategic
decision making from voluminous data which is either
centralized or distributed [1], [11].
The term data mining refers to extracting or mining
knowledge from a massive amount of data. Data mining
functionalities like association rule mining, cluster
analysis, classification, prediction etc. specify the different
kinds of patterns mined. Association Rule Mining (ARM)
finds interesting association or correlation among a large
set of data items. Finding association rules among huge

amount of business transactions can help in making many
business decisions such as catalog design, cross marketing
etc. A best example of ARM is market basket analysis.
This is the process of analyzing the customer buying habits
from the association between the different items which is
available in the shopping baskets. This analysis can help
retailers to develop marketing strategies. ARM involves
two stages
i) Finding frequent itemsets
ii) Generating strong association rules
1.1 Association Rule Mining: Basic

concepts
Let I = {i1,i2im} be a set of m distinct items. Let D denote
a database of transactions where each transaction T is a set
of items such that T I. Each transaction has a unique
identifier, called TID. A set of item is referred to as an
itemset. An itemset that contains k items is a k-itemset.
Support of an itemset is defined as the ratio of the number
of occurrences of the itemset in the data source to the total
number of transactions in the data source. Support shows
the frequency of occurrence of an itemset. The itemset X is
said to have a support s if s% of transactions contain X.
The support of an association rule XY is given by
Support = (Number of transactions containing
XUY)/(Total number of Transactions)
where X is the antecedent and Y is the consequent.
An itemset is said to be frequent when the number of
occurrences of that particular itemset in the database is
larger than a user-specified minimum support. Confidence
shows the strength of the relation. The confidence of an
association rule is given by,
Confidence = (Number of transactions
Containing XUY) (Total number
of Transactions containing X)
Page 406
1.2 Distributed Data Mining

In the present situation, information is the key factor which
drives and decides the success of any organization and it is
essential to share information pertaining to an individual
data source for mutual benefit. Thus, Distributed Data
Mining (DDM) is considered as the right solution for many
applications, as it reduces some practical problems like
voluminous data transfers, massive storage unit
requirement, security issues etc. Distributed Association
Rule Mining (DARM) is a sub-area of DDM. DARM is
used to find global frequent itemsets from different data
sources distributed among several sites and interconnected
using a communication network.
In DARM, the local frequent itemsets for the given
minimum support are generated at the individual sites by
using data mining algorithms like Apriori, FP Growth tree,
etc.[1], [11]. Then, global frequent itemsets are generated
by combining local frequent itemsets of all the
participating sites with the help of distributed data mining
algorithm [5], [2]. The strong rules generated by distributed
association rule mining algorithms satisfy both minimum
global support and confidence threshold.
While finding global frequent itemset, local frequent
itemsets at individual sites need to be collected. Due to that
the participating sites know the exact support count of
itemsets of all other participating sites. However, in many
situations the participating sites are not interested to
disclose the support counts of some of their itemsets which
are considered as sensitive information. Hence the privacy
of sensitive information of the participating sites is to be
preserved [8]. In such cases, classical data mining
solutions cannot be used. Hence, Secure Mutiparty
Computational (SMC) solutions can be applied to maintain
privacy in distributed association rule mining [16]. The
goal of SMC in distributed association rule mining is to
find global frequent itemset without revealing the local
support count of participating sites to each other.
The subsequent sections of the paper are organized as
follows. Firstly, related existing works are reviewed.
Secondly, the proposed approach and
its performance evaluation are discussed. Lastly, a suitable
conclusion and future work for maintaining privacy is
attempted.
2. Related Work
While practicing data mining, the database community has
identified several severe drawbacks. One of the drawbacks
frequently mentioned in many research papers is about
maintaining the privacy of data residing in a data source

[6], [20]. Privacy preserving data mining provides methods
for finding patterns without revealing sensitive data.
Numerous research works are underway to preserve
privacy both in individual data source and multiple data
sources.
There are two broad approaches for privacy-preserving
data mining namely data sanitization [21] and Secure
Multiparty Computation (SMC) [10], [16]. A few
representative works in SMC is discussed in this section.
The concept of Secure Multiparty Computation (SMC)
was introduced in [22]. In many applications the data is
distributed between two or more sites, and for mutual
benefit these sites cooperate to learn the global data mining
results without revealing the data at their individual sites.
The basic idea of SMC is that this computation is secure if
at the end of the computation no party is unaware about the
other participating sites except its input and the results.
The secure computation protocols are presented in
the form of combinational circuit [9]. The idea is that the
function F to be computed is first represented as a
combinational circuit and then the parties run a short
protocol to securely compute every gate in the circuit.
Every participant gets corresponding shares of the input
wires and the output wires for every gate. Here the size of
the protocol depends on the size of the circuit, which
depends on the size of the input. This is inefficient for large
inputs as in data mining.
In paper [18] Vaidya et al. proposed a method for privacy
preserving association rule mining in vertically partitioned
data. Each site holds some of the attributes of each
transaction. An efficient scalar product protocol was
proposed to preserve the privacy among two parties. This
protocol did not consider the collusion among the parties
and was also limited to boolean association rule mining.
In [14] Kantarcioglu et al. proposed a work to preserve
privacy among semi-honest parties in a distributed
environment. It works in two phases assuming no collusion
among the parties. But in some real life situations collusion
is inevitable. The first phase identifies the global candidate
itemsets using commutative encryption (RSA algorithm)
which is computationally intensive and the second phase
determines the global frequent itemsets. This work only
determines the global frequent itemsets but not their exact
support counts.
An algorithm using Clustering future (CF) tree and secure
sum is proposed to preserve privacy of quantitative
association rules over horizontally partitioned data [17] and
fixing of proper threshold value for constructing the CF
tree is not easy. The efficiency of the algorithm is
Page 407
unpredictable since it depends on the threshold value

chosen to construct the CF tree. The present analysis
proposes a novel, computationally simple and secure
multiparty computation algorithm for semi-honest parties.
One basic condition for any cryptosystem is that the system

is closed, i.e. any operation on an element of the system
results in another element of the system. In order to satisfy
this condition for Elliptic curves it is necessary to construct
non-standard addition and multiplication operations.
3. Problem Definition
To encrypt P, a user picks an integer, k, at random and

sends the pair of points
(k*BP, P+k*PUBKEY)
Let S1, S2 Sn. be the set of participating sites where n>2.

Let D1,D2Dn be the data sources of sites S1, S2 Sn
respectively which are geographically distributed and let I
= {i1,i2im} be a set of items. Each transaction T in Di
such that T I, where i=1 to n. Li be the local frequent
itemset generated from a participating site Si and G be the
global frequent itemset. To generate the global frequent
itemset G, each site needs to send its respective support
counts of its local frequent itemsets to the other
participating sites. The intended goal of this proposed
approach is to discover the global frequent itemsets without
revealing the sensitive information of all the participating
sites.
4. Proposed Approach
A new approach is proposed in this paper to
estimate the global frequent itemsets from multiple data
sources while preserving the privacy of the participating
sites. All sites in the mining process are assumed as semihonest. The semi-honest parties are honest but try to learn
more from received information. Any site can initiate the
mining process. To protect sensitive information of each
participating site, elliptic curve cryptography and
randomization are applied.
4.1 Overview of Elliptic Curve

Cryptography (ECC)
Many cryptographic algorithms and protocols have been
proposed to encrypt and decrypt data. Among the
algorithms, ECC is proved as more secured cryptographic
technique. Also it is computationally efficient than RSA
and Diffie-Hellman [23]. The use of elliptic curve groups
over finite fields as a basis for a cryptosystem was first
suggested by Koblitz [24]. The elliptic curve approach is a
mathematically richer procedure than standard systems like
RSA. The basic units for this cryptosystem are points (x,y)
on an Elliptic curve, E(Fp), of the form
Y2 =x3+ax+b, with x,y,a,b~Fp ={1,2,3 ....... p-2,p-1}
Where Fp is a finite field of prime numbers.
To decrypt this message you multiply the first component

by the secret key, s, and subtract from the second
component,
(P+ k*PUBKEY ) - s*(k*BP) = P+k*(s*(BP)) - s*(k*BP)
=P
We then reverse the embedding process to produce the
message, m, from the point P. This system requires a high
level of mathematical abstraction to implement.
4.2 Secure Mining of Support Counts

Our proposed method finds the global frequent
itemsets without disclosing the support counts of individual
sites. Algorithm 1 given below computes global candidate
itemsets in a secured manner using ECC technique.
Algorithm 2 computes the globally frequent itemsets using
random number addition.
Algorithm 1
Input: n local frequent itemsets. Each set, denoted by Ai
(1 i n), belongs to each party. s is the Threshold support.
Si denotes the local storage of each party. A1 denotes the
commoner, i.e. i=1.LL is the count of locally frequent
itemsets received so far by the commoner. Initially LL=0.
CLL is the total count of locally frequent itemsets.
Output: UiAi (1in), that is the set union of locally
frequent itemsets (Global candidate itemsets).
1. Compute the locally frequent itemsets at each site.
Make an entry in the local storage, Si of each party.
2. Encryption traversal:
Encrypt the locally frequent itemsets using the
public key of the commoner say pub1.
Send the encrypted message to the next party,

which encrypts the locally frequent itemsets using its
public key and forwards the result to the next site and the
process continues until it reaches the commoner again.
3. Decryption traversal:
Decrypt the message using the private key of the

commoner say priv1.
Send the decrypted message to the next party,

which decrypts the message further using its private key
and forwards the result to the next site and the process
continues until it reaches the commoner again.
Page 408
4. Increment LL
If any received subset is not present in the local storage Si
Then add to Si
5. The process ends when LL equals CLL at the
commoner.
The above algorithm meets the requirement that no party
can determine any itemsets owner. Initially, each of the
participating sites generates their locally frequent itemsets
using any of the frequent itemset generation algorithms like
Apriori, FP growth tree algorithm, etc. The generated
locally frequent itemsets at each site, denoted as Ai, are
added to the local storage, Si of respective sites.
The purpose of the local storage is to avoid the infinite
looping of any itemset before reaching the commoner. This
is accomplished by forwarding any received itemset by
verifying its presence in the local storage. Thus the local
storage ensures that any itemset will pass through all the
participating sites only once, that is at the worst case.
The count of locally frequent itemsets generated at each of
the participating sites is calculated to determine the end of
the Algorithm 1. For this, the commoner chooses a random
number to be added with its count of locally frequent
itemsets. This value is sent to the next participating site,
which adds its count of locally frequent itemsets to the
received value and forwards the result to the next site. The
process is repeated until all the participating sites have
added their counts of locally frequent itemsets and when
the value reaches back the commoner, it subtracts the
random number to get the count of all locally frequent
itemsets. It is denoted as CLL.
The commoner maintains the count of received itemsets
(LL). On receiving any forwarded itemset, the commoner
increments LL and if it is not present in the local storage,
an entry is made. If it is present already then the received
itemset is discarded. Thus the commoner removes the
redundancies. When the other sites receive any forwarded
itemset, it is verified with the respective local storage and if
an entry is present, then the itemset is directly forwarded to
the commoner, else an entry is made and the itemset is
forwarded to random destinations. Thus we avoid the
repeated looping of any itemset.
The end of Algorithm 1 is when the commoners count of
received itemsets (LL) reaches CLL. The commoners local
storage contains the union of the locally frequent itemsets
of all the participating sites.
The following algorithm privately computes the
globally supported itemsets [5].
Algorithm 2
Input: Global candidate itemsets. Number of participating
sites n >= 3. The site initiate the mining process can be the
commoner.
The commoner calculates the global database size

1.
as follows:
Add any random number R to the local database

size.
Send the value to the next party, which adds its

local database size to the received value and forwards the
resulting value to the next site and the process continues
until it reaches the commoner again.
The commoner subtracts R from the received
value to get the global database size.
2. For each item i in S1 do

Add a random number to the local support count
of I and send it to the next site. The next site adds its
support count for i to the count and sends it to the next site
and this process continues till the count reaches the
commoner.
End for.
The global support percentage of an itemset, X is
calculated as summation of local support over all the
participating sites, 1in divided by the summation of the
database size (DB) over all the participating sites, 1in.
The commoner securely calculates the global support count
of each itemset in the union of locally frequent itemsets.
For each itemset in the union, the commoner the next site.
The process is repeated until it reaches back the commoner.
The commoner calculates the global support percentage for
every itemset in the union. Those itemsets whose support is
greater than or equal to the threshold support form the set
of globally frequent itemsets.
5 Performance
Evaluation
Distributed environment with three participating sites was
simulated to evaluate the performance of the proposed
algorithm. At each site, a P-IV, 2.8 GHz, 2 GB RAM
machine is run on Windows operating system. The
proposed method is implemented using Java and MSAccess. Three different data sources of size 10K, 50K, and
100K are synthetically generated to study the performance
of the proposed work. The local frequent itemsets of the
participating sites which are the inputs for the algorithm is
generated by using the FP tree algorithm for supports
varying from 10% to 30%.
5.1 Timing analysis
Output: Global frequent itemsets.
Page 409
Graph in Fig. 1 shows that the time taken to encrypt and

decrypt the local frequent itemsets using existing RSA
D|=100k,|I|=12,ATL=9; No. of sites = 3
60
140
50
120
100
40
Time (in sec.)
Tim e (in Sec.)
|D| = 10k, |I| = 10, ATL=7; No. of sites = 3
RSA
30
ECC
20
10
80
RSA
60
ECC
40
20
10
20
30
10
Cryptographic Technique and Our proposed ECC

Technique. The result shows that the ECC cryptographic
technique is more efficient than the existing cryptographic
technique.
Fig. 1.1 Time complexity for Encryption and
Decryption of 10K data source
30
Fig 1.3 Time complexity for Encryption and Decryption of 100K data
source
5.2 Accuracy analysis

Accuracy is one of the main objectives of privacy
preserving distributed data mining. Table 1 shows the
number of global frequent itemsets generated by both
methods that use traditional RSA method and proposed
ECC method. Both are found to be identical.
|D|=50k,|I|=10,ATL=7; No. of sites = 3

140
120
Time (in Sec.)
20
Support (%)
Support (%)
100
80
RSA
60
ECC
40
20
0
10
20
30
Support (%)
Fig. 1.2 Time complexity for Encryption and

Decryption of 50K data source
TABLE 1
Accuracy comparison of traditional RSA and proposed ECC methodology
Data set
10K
50K
100K
Support
No. of Sites
10%
20%
10%
20%
3
3
3
3
10%
20%
3
3
Total No. of Global Frequent Itemsets

RSA
ECC
1023
1023
320
320
231
231
175
175
60
10
60
10
Accuracy
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
Page 410
6 Conclusion and
Future Work
Several existing algorithms for preserving privacy in a
distributed environment have been analyzed and an
efficient algorithm for the same has been proposed and
implemented. This proposed method uses a mathematically
rich procedure of cryptography namely the elliptic curve
cryptography. The proposed model believes that the
participating sites are semi honest. We can extend the
proposed model to work even for dishonest parties. The
proposed model works for only homogeneous databases.
We can improve the system to work even for
heterogeneous databases where the attributes of the
participating sites are different.
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Page 411
Harmonics In Single Phase Motor Drives

And Energy Conservation
Mustajab Ahmed Khan#1, Dr.A.Arunagiri #2
#
EEET Department, Yanbu Industrial College,

Royal Commission ,Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
1
mustajab@yic.edu.sa
aarunagiri@yic.edu.sa
Abstract The modern electric power systems that include

non-linear loads may experience power quality problem. Nonlinear loads draw current that cause power quality problems
such as harmonic distortion. Harmonic problems are mainly
due to substantial increase of nonlinear loads such as the
Switched mode power supplies(SMPS),Uninterrupted power
supplies, Variable speed drives using power electronic devices
or microprocessor and power electronic controllers in AC/DC
Transmission links. In this paper Electronic regulators,
resistive type regulators for single phase induction motors
used in fans are analyzed for harmonic analysis and energy
saving. A proposed capacitive type regulator is also analyzed
and compared with the existing regulators.
Keywords DAS, Triplens , Harmonics, Regulators,FFT.
1.
INTRODUCTION
The harmonics and power saving schemes study in this

paper are based on single phase induction motor in fan
loads. A fan regulator is a means of regulating the fan
speed in order to achieve the desired air velocity. It is
interfaced between the single phase supply and the single
phase induction motor which drives the fan blades and
effects change in speed . At present the electronic type
regulators are increasingly being used in place of the
resistive type regulator on account of power savings.
compactness, step less speed regulation . However,
electronic regulators operate at low power factor and
generate high level of harmonics. While the low power
factor operation will mean extra burden on the supply
system for the supply of reactive power, the harmonics
generated cause overheating of the motor which could lead
to reduction in fan life. Further, electronic regulator cause a
typical humming sound, disturbance in TVs, tape recorder
and interference with the telecommunication networks. It is
therefore necessary to examine the fan regulators critically
from two angles namely, it's energy consumption potential
and its side effects. With this in mind, the capacitive type
regulator was developed and its performance determined
and compared with other regulators like the resistive type

and electronic type.
2.
HARMONICS
Harmonics are integral multiples of the fundamental

frequency. Devices causing harmonics are present in all
industrial, commercial and residential, installations.
Harmonics are caused by non-linear loads. A load is said to
be non-linear when the current it draws does not have
shape as the supply voltage. Devices comprising power
electronics circuits are typical non-linear loads. Such loads
are increasing frequently and their percentage in overall
consumption is growing steadily. Examples include
industrial equipment (Welding machines, arc furnaces.
Induction furnaces rectifiers),variable-speed drives for
Asynchronous and DC motors, office equipment (PCs,
photocopy machines, fax machine), household appliances
(television sets, microwave ovens, fluorescent lighting,
etc.) and UPS.
2.1
Effects of Harmonics:
In distribution systems, the flow of harmonics reduces

power quality and consequently causes a number of
problems:
overloads on distribution systems due to the
1.
increase in the rms current.
2.
overloads on neutral conductors due to the
summing of third-order harmonics and triplens created by
single-phase loads.
overloads, vibrations and premature ageing of
3.
generators, transformers, motors, etc., transformer hum.
overloading and premature ageing of capacitors in
4.
power factor correction equipment.
distortion of the supply voltage, capable of
5.
disturbing sensitive loads.
Page 412
6.
disturbances on communications networks and
telephone lines.
The harmonics most frequently encountered (and
consequently the most troublesome) on three-phase
distribution systems are the odd-order harmonics (3rd, 5th,
7th, etc.).Utilities monitor harmonic orders 3, 5, 7, 11 and
13. It follows that conditioning of harmonics is imperative
up to order 13 and ideally should include harmonics up to
order 25.
2.2
Selection of measurement devices:
The conventional resistive type regulator controls the

speed by suitably dropping the voltage across the resistance
in series with the motor thus causing considerable power
loss.
3.2
Electronic regulator:
Digital analyzers, based on recent technology, provide

sufficiently accurate measurements for the indicators
presented above. Other measurement devices were used in
the past.
The solid state fan regulator is triac based. It operates on

the principle of the firing angle control of the triac which
consumes negligible power. Delayed firing angle of the
triac causes chopping of the current to reduce the voltage
across the motor and hence reduced the speed. This feature
which results in energy conservation. However, the non
linear operating nature of the electronic circuitry is the
main causes of harmonic generation .
2.2.1
3.3
Functions of Digital Analyzers:
Capacitive type:
The microprocessors used in digital analyzers calculate the

values of the harmonic indicators (power factor, crest
factor, distortion power, THD), offer a number of
additional functions (correction, statistical detection,
management of measurements, display, communication,
etc.), when they are multi-channel devices, provide
simultaneously and nearly in real time the spectral
breakdown of voltage and current.
It is a step type regulator like the resistive type . It's power

consumption is near to zero at all speeds and there is no
waveform distortion. The system operates near unity power
factor or slightly leading power factor . This type of
regulator can be used for single phase motors of exhaust
fans, mixers and grinders .
2.2.2
Operating principle of Digital Analyzers and dataprocessing techniques:
A sample of different types of regulators was chosen for

evaluation. The following parameters of the different fan
regulators where measured by using the data acquisition
system(DAS), software from LabVolt, laptop, and the
comparative analyses of the results were done.
Analogue signals are converted into a series of digital

values. On the basis of the digital values, an algorithm
implementing the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) calculates
the amplitude and the phases of the harmonics over a large
number of observation time windows. Most digital
analyzers measure harmonics up to the 20th or 25th order
for calculation of the THD. Processing of the various
values calculated using the FFT algorithm (smoothing,
classification, statistics) can be carried out by the
measurement device or by external software.
3.4
Methodology of the evaluation:
current drawing by the regulator and the fan

1.
combination .
power consumption by the regulator .
2.
3.
voltage and current harmonics (THD(V),THD(I))
Power factor of the circuit.
4.
On the basis of analysis results, it may be necessary to:

Derate any future equipment installed.
1.
Quantify the protection and harmonic-filtering
2.
solution that must be installed.
Compare the values measured to the reference
3.
values of the utility (harmonic- distortion limits,
acceptable values, reference values).
3.5
3.5.1
Measurement and Analysis:

Electronic control of the Single phase motor fan:
Figure 1:Electronic type regulator.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DIFFERENT

3.
TYPES OF REGULATORS
3.1
Resistive type:
Page 413
V1
100.5 110.
7
90 110.
6
75.7 110.
6
60.5 110.
6
45 110.
6
30.2 110.
6
15 110.
6
7 110.
6
0 10.6
1
V2
W2
cos THD THD N

(V)
(I)
(rpm)
I1
W1
0.11
9
0.13
1
0.14
3
0.14
3
0.14
7
0.14
7
0.14
7
0.14
6
0.14
9
7.6 67.9 7.45 0.76

0
6
9.65 77.5
0.84
9.6
2
12.3 89.3 12.1 0.91
2
7
6
3
12.3 89.3 12.1 0.91
2
7
6
3
15.3 104. 15.2 0.98
0
9
0
2
15.9 108. 15.7 0.99
1
4
3
16.1 109. 15.9 0.99
5
4
7
8
16.2 110. 16.0 0.99
3
1
7
9
16.4 109. 16.4 0.99
6
9
0
9
2.9
66.8 730
62.4 850
54
1200
2.9
43.5 1500
2.6
31.3 1715
3.6
19.9 1805
4.2
10.3 1835
3.6
6.3 1860
3.3
4.9 1880
Table 1: Measurements of the Electronic type

regulator.
(V1-Supply Volts,I1-Input Current ,W1-Input
Power,
W2-Motor Power,V2-Motor Volts)
Figure 3. Current harmonic spectrum for (I1)( =45 deg)
Figure 4. Voltage harmonic spectrum(obtained

from DAS).
3.5.2 Resistive type:
Figure 2.Current and voltage waveform.( =45deg)

Figure 5: Resistive type regulator.
Page 414
Table 2. Measurements of the Resistive type regulator
V1
I1
110
109.7
110.3
110.7
110.7
W1
0.1
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
V2
Cos() %THD %THD N

(V)
(I)
(rpm)
6.25 0.998
1.6
5.1
722
7.8 0.998
1.6
4.5
870
9.8 0.997
1.1
3.9 1100
11.95 0.997
2.2
4.3 1360
16.64 0.987
2.8
4.1 1880
W2
10.8 64
11.85 71
13.34 81.24
14.61 90.7
16.63 110.6
Figure 8:plot of THD(V) Vs Speed

3.5.3 Capacitor regulator for fan:
Figure 9: plot of THD(I) Vs Speed
Figure 6 : Capacitive type regulator
V1
I1
W1
V2
W2
120
120
120
120
120
120
0.09
0.124
0.133
0.136
0.141
0.152
5.45
10.65
12.33
12.72
14.46
17.2
61
86
94
94
102.8
113
5.45
10.65
12.33
12.72
14.46
17.2
Cos() %THD
(V)
0.5
1.5
0.675 1.4
0.778 1.5
0.781 1.7
0.857 1.2
0.942 1.6
%THD
(I)
5.6
4.1
3.8
5.6
3.4
4.7
N(rpm)
690
1278
1450
1545
1700
1940
Table 3: Measurements of the capacitive type regulator
Figure 10: plot of input Power Vs Speed

4
Figure 7 :plot of power factor Vs Speed
CONCLUSION
The results of the evaluation are summarized as :

It is found the power loss in the resistive type is of the
order of 5 Watts per fan . Capacitive or electronic type can
have power saving of about 4.5 watts. per unit. As the fan
load is huge, the overall power saving will be enormous.
Capacitive type regulator has low level of harmonic in both
voltages (1-2%) and current which is less than 5%. The
electronic regulator has a level of THD about 5% for
voltage and (6to 60)% for current .Capacitive and
electronic type regulators have better energy saving
potential, but an electronic regulators is a source of
Page 415
harmonic. Capacitive type regulators has no noise

problems which exist in electronic regulators at low speed.
REFERENCES
[57] Francis De La Rosa, Harmonics and Power
Systems,2006, CRC Press.
[2]
Effects of harmonics on equipment, IEEE
Transactions, April 1993,Vol 8.
[3]
George Wakelah,2000 Harmonics in power
systems, their causes,effects and mitigation, Department
of electrical & comp.engg-,Mexico University.
[4]
Roger C Dugan,Electrical power Systems
Quality, McGraw-Hill,New York,1996,pp.130-133.
Page 416
Improvement towards efficient OPFET detector

Jaya V. Gaitonde, Rajesh B. Lohani
Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Goa University
Goa Engineering College, Farmagudi-Ponda-Goa-India

vupgaitonde@rediffmail.com, rblohani@gec.ac.in
AbstractOPFET(Optical Field Effect Transistor) is an

useful device for optical communication and as photo
detector. This paper discusses some performance issues of the
device under various conditions.
KeywordsOPFET, photodetector, switching time, Noise
Equivalent Power(NEP), Signal to Noise Ratio(S/N).
I . INTRODUCTION
At present, optical fiber communication plays an important
role in cable communication technology for wideband,
multimedia and high-speed applications [3] [5]. In order to
be able to manufacture wireless terminals for optical fiber
links at reasonable cost, good agreement must be achieved
between the photo-detector and the millimeter-wave
circuit, as well as small size and low weight. When a GaAs
MESFET device is optically illuminated, absorption
phenomena take place at the gatedrain and gatesource
regions, which induce both photoconductive and
photovoltaic effects. The performance of a GaAs MESFET
can be significantly enhanced by scaling down the device
geometry. The radiation is allowed to fall on the semitransparent Schottky gate of the device. When light is
turned on the parameters such as threshold voltage,
channel charge, channel current, channel conductance and
gate to source capacitance reach the steady state value at a
lesser time than that when light is turned off. The device
performance is greatly improved by shortening the gate
length. The OPFET performance is also dependent on the
NEP(Noise Equivalent Power) and signal to noise
ratio(S/N)[4]. It is understood that the received optical
signal generates electron-hole pair in the semiconductor
resulting in the modulation of the channel conductivity due
to photoconductive effect and channel conductance through
a development of a forward photovoltage due to
photovoltaic effect. The electrical parameters such as
threshold voltage, drain-source current, gate capacitances
and switching response affect the OPFETs performance.
The diffusion process introduces less process-induced
damage compared to ion-implantation, which suffers from
current reduction due to a large number of defects
introduced by ion-implantation process.
The photocurrent peak value, peak-time and discharge-time

are some of the performance factors. The frequency
response of OPFET is dependent upon transit time and the
RC time constant of the device.
II.
THEORY
The schematic structure of OPFET is as shown in fig. 1a.
Fig. 1 a. Cross-sectional view of an OPFET [2].
The schematic structure of the ion-implanted GaAs OPFET

with back illumination is shown in Fig.1b and 1c for the
two cases.
Fig.1. b Schematic structure of the device with fiber inserted partially into
the substrate [8].
Fig 1 c Schematic structure of the device when the fiber is inserted up to
the substrate-active layer interface [8].
Page 417
Fig.!. d Schematic structure of the opaque gate device [5].

Fig1.e Schematic structure of the device which is illuminated everywhere
on the surface [5].
With the improvement on the process technology, a short

gate-length MESFET device can be fabricated. The
radiations are allowed to fall on the schottky gate as well as
between the spacing between the source-gate & gatedrain
, allowing more absorbtion. The gate-controlling capability
will be reduced by the penetration of the electric field from
the sidewall at both sides of the gate, and the threshold
voltage of a short gate-length device will be influenced by
the drain bias.
The drain current Ids has been calculated by numerically
integrating the charge in the channel region given by
(1)
Ids= orZn/d[Vgs-Vth-V(x)]E(x)
where o and r are the permittivity of the air and GaAs , d
is the gate length, Z is the device width, n is the field
dependent mobility of electrons in the channel length, Vgs
is the gate-to-source voltage, V(x) is the potential
distribution in the channel, E(x) is the electric field in x
direction.
The RC time constant has been obtained by
RC= Cgs/gm
where Cgs is the gate to source capacitance and gm is the
transconductance.
The frequency response of a GaAs MESFET depends upon
the transit time and the RC time constant of the device. The
transit time is the finite time required for the carriers to
travel from the source to the drain. For short channel
devices, the transit time is usually small compared to the
RC time constant resulting from the input gate capacitance
and the transconductance. In the presence of illumination,
the RC time constant is affected significantly by the

incident optical power.
The responsivity of the device has been obtained from
R()= Iph/Popt
where Iph is the photoresponse current and Popt is the
incident optical power. is the operating wavelength.
The photocurrent gain M is given by
M= Iph/IL
where Iph is the photoresponse current and IL is the primary
current. The photoresponse current is the difference
between the drain current in the illuminated condition and
that in the dark condition.
The primary current IL is given by
IL= qPoptA/hv
where q is the electronic charge, is the quantum
efficiency, Popt is the incident optical power, A is the
illuminated device area, h is the Plancks constant and v is
the frequency of incident radiation.
The threshold voltage Vth of an optically biased MESFET
is given by
Vth= Vth0 sech( k1Lg/2)A1s
where Vth0 is the threshold voltage for a long channel
optically biased MESFET given by
Vth0=Vbi-Vop-q/e[(Nd-Rtp/b)(b2/2)-Qtn((b+1/)exp(-b)1/)]
where A1s is the first term of the Fourier coefficient for
excess sidewall potential at the source side of the gate, Nd
is the uniform donor impurity concentration in the channel,
R is the surface recombination rate, b is the thickness of
the active layer, Q is the incident photon flux density, tn is
the lifetime of the electron, tp is the lifetime of the hole,
is the absorption coefficient per unit length, k1 is the eigen
value of the Greens function in the gate region, and Lg is
the gate length. Vbi is the built-in potential at the Schottky
gate contact, and Vop is the photovoltage developed at the
Schottky junction due to illumination.
The switching time of an OPFET depends on the active
channel thickness and corresponding impurity flux density
of the diffusion process. The switching time t is computed
for different active layer thickness expressed by the
following equation
t=[L(QBn-Vop-Vgs)1/2]/[Vs[(qNdavga2/2)1/2-(QBn-VopVgs)1/2]] (2)
Finally, the switching time t as a function of impurity flux
density Qdiff can be expressed by following equation:
t=[L(QBn-Vop-Vgs)1/2]/[Vs[(Qdiffq(D1t1)1/2/2()1/2)1/2(QBn-Vop-Vgs)1/2]] (3)
where q is the electronic charge, L is the channel length,
Ndavg is the average channel doping concentration, a is the
active layer thickness, Qdiff is the impurity flux density
during diffusion process, D1 is the diffusion constant for
diffusion process, t1 is the diffusion time, Vgs is the gate to
source voltage, QBn is the indium tin oxide Schottky barrier
height, Vop is the photo induced voltage, Vs is the
saturation velocity.
Page 418
When a GaAs MESFET device is optically illuminated,

absorption phenomena take place at the gatedrain and
gatesource regions, which induce both photoconductive
and photovoltaic effects. In front illumination, the radiation
is allowed to fall on the semi-transparent Schottky gate of
the device. For opaque gate, the light is incident through
the gate-drain and gate-source spacings. In the case of back
illumination, two cases are considered: one in which the
fiber is inserted partially into the substrate and the other, in
which the fiber is inserted upto the active layersubstrate
interface. The later case represents improved absorption in
the active layer of the device.
In Fig.1b ,the fiber is inserted partially into the substrate so
that the absorption takes place in both substrate and active
region. In Fig1c, the fiber is inserted up to the junction of
the substrate and the active layer where photo-absorption
takes place in the active region only. The drain-source
current flows along the x-direction and the illumination is
incident along the y-direction of the device. Electron-hole
pairs are generated due to absorption of photons in the
neutral substrate region, the active layer-substrate depletion
region, the neutral channel region and the schottky junction
depletion region. The optically generated electrons move
toward the channel and contribute to the drain-source
current when a drain-source voltage is applied while the
holes move in the opposite direction. When these holes
cross the junction a photo-voltage is developed. This
voltage being forward biased reduces the depletion width
of both the junctions.
The current is enhanced due to absorption more in

the active channel region.
Fig. 2. switching time versus Active layer thickness for dark and optical
illumination condition.
Equation (2) is used to compute the switching time as a

function of the device active layer thickness a for dark and
optical illumination conditions. The result illustrated in Fig.
2 shows that the switching time under dark condition
abruptly decreases with respect to increasing device active
layer thickness. The switching time is also reduced under
optical illumination condition. Therefore it is observed that
the transition from dark to illuminated condition of the
OPFET significantly changes the switching time for certain
device active layer thicknesses.
The drain-source current is significantly enhanced for the

device when the fiber is inserted up to the active layer
substrate junction than the case where finite substrate effect
is taken into account.
Under back illumination the number of carriers generated
at the active layer-substrate depletion region is more than
that in the gate depletion region.
For opaque gate, two photo-voltages are developed: one
across the Schottky junction due to generation in the side
walls of the depletion layer below the gate and the other
across the channel-substrate junction due to generation in
the channel-substrate depletion region. There is no
generation of electron-hole pairs just below the gate.
When the device is illuminated over the entire surface, i.e.
on the gate and between the spacing of gate-source and
gate-drain, two photo-voltages are developed, one at the
Schottky junction and one at the active-layer substrate
junction.
III.
Fig 3 switching time versus impurity flux density .
The characteristics of switching time as a function of

impurity flux density have been determined by using the
equation (3) and the plot is illustrated in Figure3. The
switching time is shown to be abruptly decreasing initially
for increasing impurity flux densities and still decreasing
but less dramatically with respect to continued increase in
impurity flux density. The plot indicates that the switching
characteristics change with low, moderate and high
impurity deposition on the silicon during diffusion process.
Most of the optically generated carriers should originate
within the Schottky depletion region (gate depletion) for
both high quantum efficiency and high switching speed,
and in addition, the depletion region must not be so wide
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Page 419
that the transit time of the carriers limits the frequency

response.
It is also seen from the two graphs that the switching time
required for back illumination is less compared to other
cases. This is because for the back illumination case, there
is enhanced absorption in the active region.
IV.
Microwave and optical technology letters / vol. 26, no. 4, August 20 2000
[8]. Nandita Saha Roy and B. B. Pal
Frequency-Dependent
OPFET
Characteristics
Improved Absorption under Back Illumination.
Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 18, No. 4, April 2000.
with
[9]. Nandita Saha Roy, B. B. Pal, and R. U. Khan

Analysis of GaAs OPFET with Improved
Optical Absorption under Back Illumination.
IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, Vol. 46, No. 12, December 1999.
CONCLUSION
Some methods of increasing the performance of OPFET

are studied. It is found that the performance of the device is
increased by reducing the switching time with the increase
in the active layer thickness and the impurity flux density.
Also, the device with back illumination, having reduced
switching time may be considered as an useful device for
the design of high speed optical detector and radio
frequency optical switch in communication.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors thanks Dr. B.B. Pal , ITBHU, and Mr. Vivek
Kamat, DTE Goa for providing constant help and
encouragement and necessary guidance.
REFERENCES
[1] Shubha Rani Saxena, R. B. Lohani, R. U. Khan, B. B. Pal.
Generalized dc model of GaAs optical field effect transistor considering
ion-implanted profile.
[2]. S.N. Chattopadhyay, N. Motoyama, A.Rudra, A.Sharma, S. Sriram,
C.B. Overton and P. Pandey.
Optically controlled silicon MESFET modeling considering diffusion
process.
Journal of semiconductor technology and science, vol.7, no.3, September,
2007.
[3]. K. Balasubadra1, A. Arulmary, V. Rajamani, K. Sankaranarayanan.
Two dimensional numerical modeling and simulation of a uniformly
doped GaAs MESFET photodetector.
Journal of Optical Communications
29 (2008) 4
[4]. P. Chakrabarti, Vinayak Jha, Pankaj Kalra, and Gaurav Gupta.
Noise modeling of an optically controlled MESFET(OPFET).
Microwave and optical technology letters / vol. 33, no. 2, April 20 2002
[5] Nandita Saha Roy, B. B. Pal, and R. U. Khan, Frequency-Dependent
Characteristics of an Ion-Implanted
GaAs MESFET with Opaque Gate Under Illumination, Journal of
lightwave technology, vol. 18, no. 2, February 2000.
[6]. M.A. Alsunaidi_, M.A. Al-Absi
Influence of electrode parameters on the performance of optically
controlled MESFETs.
M.A. Alsunaidi, M.A. Al-Absi / Optics & Laser Technology 40 (2008)
711715
[7]. M. Madheswaran, V. Rajamani, and P. Chakrabarti Quasi-twodimensional simulation of an ion-implanted GaAs MESFET
photodetector.
Page 420
Enhancing Temporal Privacy and SourceLocation Privacy in WSN Routing by FFT

Based Data Perturbation Method
R.Prasanna Kumar#1, T.Ravi*2
#
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Anna University

Jothipuram, Coimbatore
1
kumarprasanna.r@gmail.com
KCG College of Technology

Karapakkam, Chennai
2
travi675@gmail.com
Abstract Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an emerging
technology that shows great promise for various futuristic

applications both for mass public and military. The
sensing technology combined with processing power and
wireless communication makes it lucrative for being
exploited in abundance in future. The inclusion of wireless
communication technology also incurs various types of
security threats. Although the content of sensor messages
describing events of interest may be encrypted to
provide confidentiality, the context surrounding these
events may also be sensitive and therefore should be
protected from eavesdroppers. An adversary armed with
knowledge of the network deployment, routing algorithms,
and the base-station (data sink) location can infer the
temporal patterns of interesting events by merely
monitoring the arrival of packets at the sink, thereby
allowing the adversary to remotely track the spatiotemporal evolution of a sensed event. One of the most
notable challenges threatening the successful deployment
of sensor systems is privacy. Although many privacyrelated issues can be addressed by security mechanisms,
one sensor network privacy issue that cannot be
adequately addressed by network security is sourcelocation privacy.
Keywords WSN, FFT, temporal privacy, source location
privacy, perturbation
INTRODUCTION
Many data mining applications deal with privacy sensitive
data. Financial transactions, health-care records, and network
communication traffic are some examples. Data mining in
such privacy-sensitive domains is facing growing concerns.
Therefore, we need to develop data mining techniques that are
sensitive to the privacy issue. This has fostered the
development of a class of data
mining algorithms that try to extract the data patterns without

directly accessing the original data and guarantees that the
mining process does not get sufficient information to
reconstruct the original data. This paper considers a class of
techniques for privacy preserving data mining by value
perturbation perturbing the data while preserving the
underlying probabilistic properties. It explores FFT based
perturbation-based approach , a well-known technique for
masking the data using transformation noise. This approach
tries to preserve data privacy by adding transformation noise,
while making sure that the noise still preserves the signal
from the data so that the patterns can still be accurately
estimated.
1. TEMPORAL AND SOURCE LOCATION PRIVACY BY FFT: A
BRIEF OVERVIEW
1.1 DATA PERTURBATION
Data perturbation approaches fall into two main categories,

which we call the probability distribution approach and the
value perturbation approach. The probability distribution
approach replaces the data with another sample from the same
(estimated) distribution or by the distribution itself. On the
other hand, the value perturbation approach perturbs the
values of data elements or attributes directly by some additive
or multiplicative noise before it is released to the data miner.
Some randomized methods for categorical data may also be
classified under this category.
One of the main problems of the traditional additive
perturbation and multiplicative perturbation is that they
perturb each data element independently, and therefore the
similarity between attributes or observations which are
considered as vectors in the original data space is not well
preserved. Many distance/similarity based data mining
applications are thus hurt.
1.2 LOCATION PRIVACY
Page 421
Location privacy is an important security issue. Loss of

location privacy can enable subsequent exposure of identity
information because location information enables binding
between cyberspace information and physical world entities.
For example, web surfing packets coming out of a home in a
Mesh network enable an eavesdropper to analyse the surfing
habits of one family if the source location of those packets can
be determined. In a wireless sensor network, location
information often means the physical location of the event,
which is crucial given some applications of wireless sensor
networks. A wireless sensor network can be a low duty cycle
network. Often, traffic has a strong correlation with a certain
event at certain time. This gives big advantages to an
eavesdropper since he does not need sophisticated techniques
to discriminate traffic among different events. In this paper,
we study the source location privacy problem under the
assumption of one single source during a specific period.
However, we need to point out that such a scenario can
happen in a real wireless sensor network.
1.3 TEMPORAL PRIVACY
Temporal privacy amounts to preventing an adversary from
inferring the time of creation associated with one or more
sensor packets arriving at the network sink. In order to protect
the temporal context of the packets creation, it is possible to
introduce additional, random delay to the delivery of packets
in order to mask a sensor readings time of creation. Although
delaying packets might increase temporal privacy, this
strategy also necessitates the use of buffering either at the
source or within the network and places new stress on the
internal store-and-forward network buffers.
1.4 FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM
A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an efficient
algorithm to compute the discrete Fourier transform
(DFT) and its inverse. We use a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
based method for data perturbation, and compare it with the
Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) based method. The
experimental results show that the FFT based method can
obtain similar performance as SVD based method in
preserving privacy as well as maintaining utility of the data,
however, the computational time used by the FFT based
method is much less than the SVD based method. We
conclude that the FFT based method is a very promising data
perturbation method. The most well known FFT algorithms
depend upon the factorization of N, but (contrary to popular
misconception)
there
are
FFTs
with
O(N log N) complexity for all N, even for prime N. Many
FFT algorithms only depend on the fact that is an Nth
primitive root of unity, and thus can be applied to
analogous transforms over any finite field, such
as number-theoretic transforms.
2. RELATED WORK
There exists a growing body of literature on privacy sensitive
data mining. These algorithms can be divided into several
different groups. One approach adopts a distributed

framework. This approach supports computation of data
mining models and extraction of patterns at a given node by
exchanging only the minimal necessary information among
the participating nodes without transmitting the raw data.
Privacy preserving association rule mining from homogeneous
[9] and heterogeneous [19] distributed data sets are few
examples. The second approach is based on data-swapping
which works by swapping data values within same feature [3].
There is also an approach which works by adding random
noise to the data in such a way that the individual data values
are distorted preserving the underlying distribution properties
at a macroscopic level. The algorithms belonging to this group
works by first perturbing the data using randomized
techniques. The perturbed data is then used to extract the
patterns and models. The randomized value perturbation
technique for learning decision trees [2] and association rule
learning [6] are examples of this approach. Additional work
on randomized masking of data can be found elsewhere [18].
This paper explores the third approach [2]. It points out that in
many cases the noise can be separated from the perturbed data
by studying the spectral properties of the data and as a result
its privacy can be seriously compromised. Our primary
contribution is to provide an explicit data perturbation method,
based on Fast Fourier Transformation.
3. DATA PERTURBATION METHODS
The desired perturbation methods must preserve the
privacy, and at the same time, must keep the utility of the data
after the perturbation [14]. We propose a FFT based method
for data perturbation in this section, and also review the SVD
based method.
FFT BASED DATA PERTURBATION
3.1
We propose a FFT based method for data perturbation in this
section, and also review the SVD based method.
In order to perform FFT (Fast Fourier Transform), a given
matrix A, whose size is M x N, must be first transformed so
that the width and height are an integer power of 2. This can
be achieved in two ways, scaling the matrix up to the nearest
integer power of 2 or zero padding to the nearest integer
power of 2. The second option was chosen in this paper to
facilitate comparison with the original matrix. Suppose the
A
M
N.
padded new matrix is A
A with size of M
M xN
There is a DC (Dominant Component) corresponding to zero
frequency in Fourier Transform, which represents the average
value across the whole matrix. The DC is located at F(O, O).
However, in order to perform the filtering more easily on the
transformed matrix, it is more easy to move the DC to the
center of the transformed matrix ie. F(M/2, N/2). This can be
achieved by multiplying each entry (x, y) of the original
A
A with size
matrix by ei(xY) . Now the new matrix matrix is A
M
N
of M
M xN
N.
After the DC is centred, the forward Fast Fourier Trans form
is performed to get the transformed matrix F. With the
transformed matrix F, low-pass filtering or high-pass filtering
Page 422
is performed to distort the transformed matrix in the frequency

domain to get a filtered matrix FFF. Then, the inverse Fast
Fourier Transform is performed on the filtered matrix FFF to
B
obtain a distorted matrix B. Because this distorted matrix B
B is
bigger in size than the original given matrix A, we only pick
B
B, which is denoted
the up-left corner of the distorted matrix B
by B so that the resulting matrix has the same size M x N as
the original matrix.
3.2 SVD BASED DATA PERTURBATION
Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) is a popular method in
data mining and information retrieval. SVD based methods
have been proven to be efficient in keeping both data privacy
and data utility when used as data perturbation methods ,
however, the time complexity of performing SVD
perturbation is o(n3). This limits the size of the data that SVD
based methods can be applied on.
4. PERFORMANCE METRICS
In this section, we describe the performance metrics
used in this paper to compare the data perturbation methods.
4.1 PRIVACY PRESERVATION METRICS

This measure is given by Var(X -Y) where X
represents a single original attribute and Y the distorted
attribute. This measure can be made scale invariant with
respect to the variance of X as S = Var(X - Y)/Var(x). The
above measure to quantify privacy is based on how closely the
original values of a modified attribute can be estimated. We
use PM to denote privacy metric in this paper, where PM is
the average of the S for all attributes in a data.
4.2 DATA PERTURBATION METRICS

RP is used to denote the average change of rank for
all the attributes. RK represents the percentage of elements
that keep their ranks of magnitude in each column after the
perturbation. The metric CR is defined to represent the change
of rank of the average value of the attributes. Similarly as RK,
CK is defined to measure the percentage of the attributes that
keep their ranks of average value after the perturbation.
4.3 UTILITY METRICS
The data utility metrics assess whether a data keeps
the performance of data mining techniques after data
perturbation, e.g., whether the distorted data can maintain the
accuracy of the data mining techniques such as classification,
clustering, etc. In this paper, we choose the accuracy in
Support Vector Machine (SVM) classification as the data
utility metric.
test whether the classification algorithm can keep its

performance on distorted data. The above data perturbation
methods are also compared on their ability to protect the
privacy of data.
COMPARISON OF
PERTURBATION METHODS
5.1
FFT
AND
SVD
BASED
DATA
Table I shows the performance of two data

perturbation methods: FFT and SVD. The performance of
these two methods varies with different Rank, CutOff or
Cutratio parameters. Here we choose Rank to be 10 for SVD,
Cutoff = 0.95 and Cutratio = 0.9 for FFT. The parameters are
chosen so that the SVM classification can obtain the highest
accuracy. The two methods have similar capability in
preserving data privacy. They have the same value for PM,
CP, and CK. Both of the methods obtain the perfect value for
PM, and CK, which means they are powerful in keeping the
privacy of data. FFT is a little better than SVD for RP, and
SVD is a little better than FFT in RK. The accuracy of
classifying the original data is 0.8125. We can get the same
accuracy by using FFT. The privacy accuracy of applying
SVD is slightly lower than FFT, which is 0.8114. Next we
compare the time cost in perturbing the original data. It costs
8.79 seconds for SVD but only 3.24 seconds for FFT. As we
have shown in previous sections, FFT excels SVD in time
cost.
5.2 INFLUENCE OF CUTRATIO AND CUTOFF IN FFT
In this section, we analyze the influence of parameters on the
performance of FFT based data perturbation method. We use
two parameters for FFT, CutOff and CutRatio. Figure 1 shows
the influence of cut ratio on the some of the privacy and utility
measures. Here we keep the parameter CutOff to be 0.95. CP,
CK and PM are not affected by CutRatio for the data in use
and CK and PM always maintain the perfect value. With the
decrease of CutRatio, RK steadily goes down and the
Accuracy of classification reduces too. However, RP increases
and obtains the highest value when CutRatio = 0.7 and
decreases afterwards. If we keep the value of CutRatio
unchanged and decrease CutOff , the Cutoff are similar to
what we have described.
5.3 INFLUENCE OF RANK IN SVD
Figure 2 illustrates the influence of Rank on the performance
in the SVD-based methods. Like with FFT, CP, CK and PM
are not affected by rank to make sense of data. and PM are not
affected by Rank for the data in use. With the decrease of
Rank in SVD, Accuracy and RK decreases while RP
increases. This means using smaller Rank can improve the
ability of SVD in preserving privacy, as the data is more
distorted. However, using smaller Rank may also sacrifice the
utility of the data as the accuracy of classification may
decrease.
5. EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS

We have conducted experiments to test the
performance of the SVD based and FFT based data
perturbation methods. SVM classification are applied on the
original data as well as the data distorted by each method to
Page 423
with Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) based perturbation

method. The experiments show that FFT based method is
similar to SVD based method in preserving privacy and
keeping utility of data. However, the computational time used
by the FFT based method is much less than the SVD based
method. We conclude that the FFT based method is a very
promising data perturbation method.
REFERENCES
[1] Hillol Kargupta and Souptik Datta Qi Wang and
Krishnamoorthy Sivakumar On the Privacy Preserving
Properties of Random Data Perturbation Techniques
[2] R. Agrawal and R. Srikant. Privacy-preserving data
mining.
Accuracy VS Cut ratio
Accuracy VS Rank
Cut ratio Vs RP
Rank Vs RP
Cut ratio Vs Rk
Rank Vs Rk
Fig 1: Influence of parameters in FFT

SVD
Fig 2: Influence of parameters in
XIII.
TABLE I
COMPARISON OF FFT AND SVD BASED DATA PERTURBATION
METHODS.
Data
P
M
RP
RK
CP
C
K
SV
D
FFT
918.982
6
921.536
5
0.003
6
0.010
0
5.2308
2
5.2308
2
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Page 425
Theoretical Nvestigation Of Size Effect On

The Thermal Properties Of Nanoparticles
K.Sadaiyandi# 1 and M.A.Zafrulla Khan#2
#1
Department of Physics, Velammal College of Engineering and Technology

Madurai 625 009, India
#2
Department of Physics, Udaya School of Engineering, Vellamodi
Ammandivilai, Nagercoil - 629 001, India
#1
ksadaiyandi111@yahoo.co.in, #2 zafrulla63@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: In the present work the size dependent Melting

Temperature (Tm), Debye Temperature ( D ) and Mean Square
Displacements (MSDs) of Tungsten nanoparticles are
determined. First, the size dependent melting temperatures and
Debye temperatures are calculated by following liquid drop
model. The size dependent lattice contraction is properly
accounted following Qi and Wang. Secondly, the size dependent
melting temperatures and Debye temperatures for Tungsten
nanoparticles are calculated from the recently reported
molecular dynamic simulation studies on specific heat capacities.
The calculated values by the two methods are agreeing well,
which supports the determination of size dependent melting
temperature and Debye temperature by the liquid drop model by
accounting lattice contraction. The procedure is extended to
determine the MSDs of Tungsten nanoparticles for sizes ranging
from 2nm to 30nm at 300K.
Key Words: Nanotungsten, melting temperature, Debye
temperature, Mean Square Displacement, liquid drop model,
lattice contraction.
are high density, hardness, melting temperature, elastic

modulus and conductivity in conjunction with the low thermal
expansion. The combination of these unique properties
explains the diverse applications of tungsten ranging from
home lighting to thermonuclear fusion first wall protection [4,
5]. With nanoscale tungsten powders available at a reasonable
cost, its usage will increase greatly and a new approach is
required to balance the size dependent advantages against the
temperature dependent limitations. Therefore, it is of great
importance to understand the thermal stability of tungsten
nanoparticles for their applications at higher temperatures.
The Debye Temperature ( D ) of nanocrystals is an
essential physical quantity to characterize many material
properties such as thermal vibrations of atoms and phase
transitions. Also the Einstein temperature and volume
expansion coefficient are related with D . Hence, if the size
The study of nanocrystalline materials is an active

area of research in physics, chemistry and materials sciences
[1,2]. While numerous techniques are known to produce
nanostructures, it is much more difficult to determine the
properties of such small collections of atoms. Different
physical properties such as mechanical strength, plasticity,
melting, sintering and alloying ability, diffusivity, chemical
reactivity and the mode of crystal growth have been found
depend upon particle size. Size dependent melting point
depression of small particles has been studied for many years
both theoretically and experimentally [3]. The technical
advantages of the low melting temperatures of small particles
are (i) the ability to fuse nanoparticles to form a film at a
relatively low temperature, (ii) possibility of soldering at
relatively low temperatures using nanoparticles, (iii)
possibility of controlling the growth process of nanoparticles
by controlling the deposition or substrate temperature.
Tungsten along with its alloys and compounds,
occupies a unique position in material science. The material
properties that make tungsten attractive to the metals industry
effect on D is known, the size effect on other related

properties can be easily determined. As experimental and
theoretical investigations in this direction are very less, it is
planned to determine the size effect on the Debye
Temperature ( D ) and Mean Square Displacements (MSDs)
of tungsten nanoparticles.
Melting temperature (Tm) of nanogold with particle
sizes in the range 20 to 50 is studied experimentally and
theoretically by Buffat and Borel [6]. They proposed a
phenomenological model to determine the melting
temperature of particles with different sizes. Also Jiang. et. al
[7] introduced a simple model, free of any adjustable
parameter, for the size dependent melting of nanocrystals.
Recently Nanda et. al. [8] derived an expression for the size
dependent melting of low dimensional systems following the
liquid drop model [9]. Although the results from [6,7,8] are in
good agreement with experiments they have not properly
accounted the size dependent lattice contraction. Recently
Sadaiyandi [10] calculated the melting temperatures and
Debye temperatures of Au, Ag and Al nanoparticles from
liquid drop model proposed by Nanda et. al [8] by properly
accounting the size dependent lattice contraction. As the idea
Page 426
I.
INTRODUCTION
proposed by Sadaiyandi [10] is simple and successful, it is

planned to determine the melting temperatures of tungsten
nanoparticles by the same method. From the calculated values
of melting temperatures, the size dependent Debye
temperatures and MSDs are determined by the Lindemann
theory [11].
Recently Amitava Moitra et al [12] reported the size
dependent specific heat capacities of tungsten nanoparticles at
different temperatures by molecular dynamic simulation.
From the reported values of specific heat capacities the size
dependent Debye temperatures and melting temperatures are
determined by the idea proposed by Reisland [13]. The
calculated values are in good agreement with the values
arrived from the first method [10] which supports the
determination of melting temperatures of nanoparticles by
liquid drop model by considering the lattice contraction.
II.
LIQUID DROP MODEL FOR SIZE

DEPENDENT MELTING
One of the successes of the liquid drop model lies in
providing an intuitive explanation for the phenomenon of
spontaneous fission of some nuclei. Atomic clusters and
nanoparticles being finite systems, their properties are
dominated by the surface atoms, there fore their binding
energy can be effectively represented by the volume and
surface dependent term as in the liquid drop model. From this
point of view the melting of atomic clusters and nanoparticles
can be understood by scaling the cohesive energy to the
melting temperature. Based on the liquid drop model [9],
Nanda et al [8] derived an empirical relation for the size
dependent melting temperature of nanoparticles (Tm) in terms
of bulk melting temperature (Tmb) as,
Tm = Tmb
6v 0
0.0005736d
Tm
= 1
Tmb
d
(1)
(2)
where v0 is the molar volume, d is the diameter of the particle

and represents the coefficient of surface energy of the
material. Here the particle shape is assumed to be spherical.
For a nanomaterial with general shape, the size dependent
melting, in general, can be written as
Tm
= 1
Tmb
zd
(3)
with z = 1, 3/2, and 3 for nanoparticles , nanowires, and thin

films. In equation (3), d represents the diameter in case of
nanoparticles and nanowires, whereas it represents the
thickness in case of thin films.
Similar expressions for size dependent melting for
spherical nanoparticles has also been derived from
thermodynamic arguments [6, 14] and from a model based on
surface phonon instability [15]. Using the known values of vo,
and Tmb, the values of for different elements are

estimated by Nanda et al [8] and are tabulated in Table-1.
Nanda et al [8] compared their results with the theoretical
predictions of Jiang et al [16] and found that both the models
[8,16] are consistent for Pb thin films.
1)
III.
SIZE DEPENDENT LATTICE PARAMETERS

It is proved experimentally and theoretically that the
lattice parameters of nanoparticles depend on the particle size
[17-21]. For an isolated nanoparticle, the lattice constants are
often measured to contract. Montano et al [22] measured the
nearest neighbor distance of isolated silver particles with sizes
from 2.5 nm to 13 nm and found a noticeable contraction in
the nearest neighbor distance. Also, the model developed by
Jiang et al [23, 24] based on the Laplace Young equation
supports the size induced lattice contraction. Recently Qi and
Wang [25] developed a simple model to account for the size
and shape dependent lattice parameters of metallic
nanoparticles. They have assumed that a nanoparticle is
formed in the three steps. First a particle is taken out from an
ideal bulk crystal without changing structure. Secondly the
surface tension contracts the particle little elastically and
thirdly a nanoparticle is formed in equilibrium. By minimising
the sum of the increased surface energy and the elastic energy,
Qi and Wang obtained a formula to calculate the lattice
parameters of metallic nanoparticles as
a
1
=
a
1 + Kd
where,
K=
(4)
(5)
here, a - is the lattice constant , is the shape factor and is

equal to one for a spherical particle and G is the shear
modulus. Qi and Wang [25] found that the values obtained by
them for Au, Ag and Al are in good agreement with the
experimental values [26-28]. Also Molecular dynamic
simulation studies on the size and shape dependent lattice
parameters of unsupported small Pt nanoparticles [29]
conclude that for transitional metallic nanoparticles, size is the
main factor, which affects the lattice parameter.
IV.
SIZE DEPENDENT MELTING
TEMPERATURE CONSIDERING LATTICE
CONTRACTION
In the present work, the size dependent lattice
constants for the tungsten nanoparticles are
TABLE I
SURFACE ENERGY ( ), BULK MELTING TEMPERATURE (Tmb), BULK MOLAR
VOLUME (vo) AND ( ) FOR TUNGSTEN [8]
Page 427
J/m2 at
298 K
2.753
Tmb K
vo x 10-6
m3
3680
9.53
nm
0.772
determined by equation (4). As the model proposed by Qi and

Wang [25] assumes that a particle is taken from a bulk crystal
without changing the structure, for the formation of
nanoparticle, one can imagine that a nanoparticle can have the
same structure as that of its bulk counter part. Also the
contraction in the lattice constant will lead to the change in
molar volume of the nanoparticle [10]. Hence from the
corrected values of lattice constants obtained from equation
(4), new molar volumes are determined for sizes ranging from
2nm to 30nm. The size dependent melting temperatures for
tungsten nanoparticles are determined from equation (1), by
incorporating the volume contraction and the results along
with the results obtained from specific heat calculations are
shown in fig-1.
disturb them and the melting process initiates. Quantitative

calculations based on the model are not easy, hence
Lindemann offered a simple criterion that the melting might
be expected when the root mean square displacement exceeds
a certain threshold value ( namely when the amplitude reaches
at least 10% of the nearest neighbor distance). Although
experiments confirm that the Lindemann criterion is not very
accurate, it lends strong support to the idea that the magnitude
of vibrational amplitude dominates the phenomenon of
melting. Also Lindemann model for vibrational melting is
adequate for simplest structures i.e. assemblies of closed
packed atoms. Further, there are some discrepancies regarding
the Tm dependence of D . One opinion is that D varies
linearly with Tm [31] and the other suggests a square root
dependence of D on Tm according to Lindemann Criterion of
melting [11]. Since there are more supporting evidences for
the square root dependence [16], the size dependent D and
MSDs are determined by the Lindemann theory.
Following Lindemann theory, Reisland [13] derived
the expressions for the Debye temperature and mean square
displacement for a bulk crystal as
M elting temperatu re (K)
4000
T
D = C Lind m2
mv 0 3
3600
3200
Liquid Drop
Model
From Sp.ht
2800
2400
2000
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1/size (nm)
Fig.1 Size dependent melting temperature for nanotungsten. It can be seen

that the melting temperatures determined from the idea proposed by
Sadaiyandi [10] and the melting temperatures calculated from specific heat
data [13] are agreeing well.
u2 =
9h 2 T
mk B 2D
(6)
(7)
where m is the atomic mass and CLind is the Lindemann

constant and is equal to 200 for nonmetals and 137 for metals.
T is the temperature at which the MSDs are calculated.
Studies on the lattice structure of nanocrystalline
samples by means of XRD and Massbauer spectroscopy
showed that the lattice structure of the nanometer sized
crystallites deviates from the equilibrium state. The deviation
may be classified as (i) distorted lattice structures in pure
elements and stoichiometric line compounds , and (ii)
formation of metastable phase below a critical crystalline size.
The lattice distortion in various nanocrystalline materials is
manifested by a significant change in lattice parameter [32]
and corresponding change in molar volume. Hence the
expression for D of a bulk crystal can be used for a
nanocrystalline material by substituting the size dependent
molar volume and melting temperature.
Determination of size dependent D from specific
V.
DEBYE TEMPERATURE AND MEAN
SQUARE DISPLACEMENTS
The forces between the atoms are reflected in the
Debye temperature and it is useful to have this as a reference
to characterise a crystal. The Debye temperature is a measure
of the vibrational response of the material and therefore
intimately connected with properties like the specific heat,
thermal expansion and vibrational entropy [30]. Lighter inert
gas solids melt below their D while the other crystals remain
solids above it. The first theory explaining the mechanism of
melting in the bulk was proposed by Lindemann [11], who
used vibration of atoms in the crystal to explain the melting
transition. The average amplitude of thermal vibrations
increases when the temperature of the solid increases. At some
point the amplitude of vibration becomes so large that the
atoms start to invade the space of their nearest neighbors and
heat measurements by Herr et al [33] showed that D

decreases significantly for nanocrystalline materials. The
depressed Debye temperature in nanocrystalline sample
implies a decrease in the cohesion of atoms in the
nanocrystallites, which agrees well with the measured grain
Page 428
VI.
SIZE DEPENDENT MELTING
TEMPERATURE AND DEBYE TEMPERATURE
FROM SPECIFIC HEAT MEASUREMENTS
The specific heat capacity Cv of a solid according to
Debye approximation is given as [13],
x
where
x =
1.3E-02
1.2E-02
1.1E-02
1.0E-02
9.0E-03
8.0E-03
7.0E-03
6.0E-03
0
x e
C v = 9 Nk B x x
dx
2
0 (e 1)
3
1.4E-02
M S D x 10 -22 m 2
size dependence of lattice parameter [34].

In the present
work the size dependent Debye temperatures are determined
from equation (6) by substituting the newly calculated melting
temperatures and the size dependent MSDs are determined
from equation (7) for tungsten nanoparticles. The results along
with the results obtained from specific heat calculations are
shown in fig-2 and fig-3.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
1/size (nm)
(8)
Fig.3 Size effect on the MSDs of tungsten nanoparticles at 300K. The MSD
values are increasing with respect to the reduction in size. Also it can be seen
that the size effect is dominant below 10nm.
D (T )
(9)
where, N- is the Avogadro Number and kB is the Boltzmann

constant and D (T) is the Debye temperature at a particular
temperature.
The right hand side of eqn (8) is determined by Simpsons rule
for different values of x (from 1 to 100). For improving
accuracy the intervals are taken as smaller. A permanent
tabulation is formed connecting the x values and right hand
side of eqn.(8).
290
The values of specific heat capacities are collected from

[12] for tungsten nanoparticles with sizes 8nm, 10nm and
12nm at different temperatures. The x value corresponding to
the collected specific heat at a particular temperature is
obtained from the permanent tabulation. Knowing the values
of x and T, the corresponding values of D (T) are calculated
from eqn (9). Now a graph is drawn connecting T and D (T).
When the curve is extrapolated to meet the Y axis (i.e. T =
0K), the Y intercept gives the Debye temperature of the solid.
In order to improve the accuracy, the Y intercept is
determined by second order least square fitting method. The
fitting curves are shown in fig.4, fig.5 and fig.6 for tungsten
with particle size 8nm, 10nm and 12nm.
270
20000
260
Liquid drop
model
From Sp.Ht.
250
240
230
220
210
200
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
1/Size
0.4
0.5
0.6
Debye Tem perature (K)
Debye Tem perature (K)
280
16000
12000
8000
4000
(nm)
Fig.2 Size dependent Debye temperature for nanotungsten. It can be seen that
the Debye temperatures determined from the idea proposed by Sadaiyandi
[10] and the Debye temperatures calculated from specific heat data [13] are
agreeing well.
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Temperature (K)
Fig.4 Debye temperature for nanotungsten with size 8nm. Points are the
calculated values. The solid line is the fitting curve. The fitted value of
is
271K
Page 429
VII.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Determination of size dependent
D from specific
heat measurements by Herr et al [33] showed that D
decreases significantly for nanocrystalline materials. The
depressed Debye temperature in nanocrystalline sample
implies a decrease in the cohesion of atoms in the
nanocrystallites, which agrees well with the measured grain
size dependence of lattice parameter[34].
20000
D e b y e T e m p e r a tu r e (K )
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
fig.2, it can be seen that the values of melting temperatures

and Debye temperatures obtained by the two methods are
agreeing well, which shows that the size dependent melting
temperatures can be determined by liquid drop model
proposed by Nandha et al [8] by considering the idea of size
dependent lattice contraction proposed by Qi and Wang [25].
Also fig.1 shows that the melting temperature and
Debye temperature of Tungsten decreases with the reduction
in size which is in agreement with the earlier predictions [33].
Fig.3 shows the size dependent MSDs at 300K for
nanotungsten. It shows that the MSD values are increasing
with reduction in size and also it can be seen that the size
effect on MSDs is predominant in the sizes ranging from 2nm
to 10nm. When the size is above 20nm the changes are too
small to be neglected.
CONCLUSION
VIII.
The size effect on D for tungsten nanoparticles is
determined (i) by the liquid drop model considering the size
dependent lattice contraction [10] and (ii) from the available
specific heat data [12, 13]. The calculated values by the two
methods are agreeing well, which supports the determination
of size dependent melting temperature and Debye temperature
by the liquid drop model by accounting lattice contraction.
The procedure is extended to determine the MSDs of
Tungsten nanoparticles for sizes ranging from 2nm to 30nm at
300K.
Temperature (K)
is
273.5K.
2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to acknowledge the management
of Velammal College of Engineering and Technology,
Madurai and Udaya School of Engineering, Nagercoil for
constant encouragement.
18000
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16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
1000
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Temperature (K)
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is
278K.
In the present work the size dependent melting

temperature and Debye temperature are determined by liquid
drop model and specific heat calculations. From fig.1 and
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Page 431
Dynamic Key Management to minimize

communication latency for efficient group
communication
Dr.P.Alli 1 , G.Vinoth Chakkaravarthy 2 , R.Deepalakshmi 3
1
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Velammal College of Engg.&Tech,Tamilnadu , India

3
1
alli_rajus@yahoo.com, 2 vc_04@yahoo.co.in, 3 deepajeyaseelan@yahoo.com
2
Abstract:
Introduction:
Group key management is one of the basic building blocks in

securing Group Communication (GC), the majority of
research in this area mainly concerned with increasing the
security while minimizing cryptographic computation cost.
Due to the reliable GC platform, network delay is amplified
by necessary acknowledgments between the group members.
The bottleneck is shifted from computation to communication
latency. In this paper, a new Virtual Binary Tree Technique
(VBT) to specific group key agreement is proposed which
supports dynamic group membership and handles network
failures. VBT communication-efficient and secure against
hostile eavesdroppers and various attacks specific to group
settings. In VBT, common group key is generated based on
the share taken from each participant and transmitted to all
participants in the team. The member, who is having the group
key, is allowed to communicate with other members in the
group. Communication latency occurs while authentication is
carried out every time between the team of users is reduced.
To make this scheme as a dynamic one, when a new user
arrives, a new shared secret key is formed , when a person
leaves from the group , their share is taken from the existing
shared secret key and new shared secret key is formed based
on the contents of existing participants and it is broadcasted.
So the person who left from the team is prevented to
participate in the communication .Thus VBT assures the
confidentiality of the team with minimum communication
latency.
Security is an important requirement in reliable group

communication over open networks in order to prevent
intruder attack. The majority of research in group key
management was mainly concerned with increasing the
security while minimizing cryptographic computation cost.
But heavyweight computation such as large number arithmetic
that forms the basis of many modern cryptographic algorithms
is the greatest burden imposed by security protocols.
However, the continuing increase in computation power of
modern workstations speed up the heavyweight cryptographic
operations. In contrast, communication latency has not
improved appreciably. Due to the reliable group
communication platform, network delay is amplified by
necessary acknowledgments between the group members [2].
However, the continued advances in computing power have
not been matched by a decrease in network communication
delay. Thus, communication latency, is increasingly
dominating the key setup latency, replacing computation delay
as the main latency contributor. Hence, there is a need to
minimize the size of messages and especially the number of
rounds in cryptographic protocols.
Keywords: communication latency, group key, dynamic

membership, member join, member leave, Diffie-Hellman key
exchange , confidentiality
The bottleneck shift from computation to communication

latency prompts us to look at cryptographic protocols in a
different light: allowing more liberal use of cryptographic
operations while attempting to reduce the communication
overhead. The proposed scheme in this paper is efficient to
avoid such latency with out minimizing cryptographic
operations. We consider a protocol, is formed by a virtual tree
based approach that extends the 2-party Diffie-Hellman key
exchange and supposes the formation of a secure static
group[2].This protocol involves heavy computation and
communication requirements: O(n) communication rounds
and O(n) cryptographic operations are necessary to establish a
shared key in a group of n members. We extend it to deal
Page 432
with dynamic groups and network

communication-efficient manner
failures
in
Cryptographic Properties:
The following cryptographic properties is assured in the group
key formation[2].
Group Key Secrecy:

It guarantees that it is computationally infeasible for a
passive adversary to discover any group key.
Forward Secrecy:
It guarantees that a passive adversary who knows a contiguous
subset of old group keys cannot discover subsequent group
keys.
Backward Secrecy:
It guarantees that a passive adversary who knows a contiguous
subset of group keys cannot discover preceding group keys.
Key Independence:
It guarantees that a passive adversary who knows any proper
subset of group keys cannot discover any other group key not
included in the subset.
Backward and Forward Secrecy properties assume that the
adversary is a current or a former group member. From our
definition of shared secret key , it would be more desirable to
guarantee that any bit of the group key is unpredictable. Thus
group key secrecy guarantees that it is computationally
infeasible for a passive adversary to distinguish any group key
from random number.
Proposed tree based group key generation:

The proposed tree structure for group communication [6] is
shown in figure: 1. Here all the nodes will be allotted with a
value. The leaf nodes are members Ml,M2.....Mn. A member's
value is obtained from root node to its member leaf node. By
evaluating the values in the nodes, group key is formed for
communication. Then the key is broadcasted across the tree
structure to all its nodes. In a proposed scheme called Group
Key Management Protocol (GKMP) [1] , the entire group
shares the same key called as session-encrypting key (SEK).
Figure 1. Tree for Group key formation

The tree has two types of nodes: leaf and internal. Each leaf
node is associated with a specific group member. An internal
node IN(i) always has two children: another (lower) internal
node IN(i-1) and a leaf node LN(i). The exception is IN(1) which
is also a leaf node corresponding to M1. Each leaf node LN(i)
has a session random ri chosen and kept secret by Mi. The
blinded version thereof is bri = ri mod p. Every internal node
IN(j) has an associated secret key kj and a public blinded key
(bkey) bkj = kj mod p. The secret key ki (i > 1) is the result
of a Diffie-Hellman key agreement between the nodes two
children (k1 is an exception and is equal to ri.), which is
computed recursively as follows:
ki = (bki-1)ri mod p = (bri)ki-1 mod p = ri ki-1 mod p if i > 1.
The group key with the root node is :
K4 =
The root (group) key is never used directly for the
purposes of encryption. Instead, such special-purpose subkeys are derived from the root key, e.g., by applying a
cryptographically secure hash function to the root key. All
bkeys (bki) are assumed to be public.
Group Key Agreement:
A comprehensive group key agreement solution must handle
adjustments to group secrets subsequent to all membership
change operations in the underlying group communication
system.
The following membership changes are considered: Single
member changes include member join or leave, and multiple
member changes include group merge and group partition.
Join occurs when a prospective member wants to join a group
[6].
Leave occurs when a member wants to leave (or is forced to
leave) a group[6].
Member joins:
Consider, initially the group has n users {M1,M2. Mn}.
When the group communication system announces the arrival
of a new member, both the new member and the prior group
members receive this notification simultaneously. The new
Page 433
member Mn+1 broadcasts a join request message that contains

its own bkey bkn+1 Upon receiving this message, the current
groups sponsor Mn refreshes its session random, computes
brn, kn, bkn and sends the current tree BT(n) to Mn+1 with all
bkeys. Next, each member Mi increments n = n + 1 and
creates a new root key node IN(n) with two children: the root
node IN(n-1) of the prior tree Ti on the left and the new leaf
node LN(n) corresponding to the new member on the right.
Note that every member can compute the group key since:
All existing members only need the new members

blinded session random.
The new member needs the blinded group key of the
prior group.
Step 1: The new member broadcasts request for join
Mn+1
brn+1 = r n+1
event from the group communication system, each remaining

member updates its key tree by deleting the nodes LN(d)
corresponding to M d and its parent node IN(d) The nodes
above the leaving node are also renumbered.
The former sibling IN (d-1) of M d is promoted to replace
(former) Mds parent. The sponsor Ms selects a new secret
session random, computes all keys (and bkeys) just below the
root node, and broadcasts BT(s) to the group. This information
allows all members (including the sponsor) to recompute the
new group key.
Step 1: Every member
updates key tree as described above,
removes all keys and bkeys from the sponsor node to

the root node
C = { M1, . Mn }
Step 2: Every member

updates key tree by adding new member node and
new root node,

removes bkn,
The sponsor Mn additionally
generates new share rn and computes brn, kn, bkn

broadcasts updated tree BT(n)
The sponsor Ms additionally

generates new share and computes all (keys, bkeys)
and broadcasts updated tree BT(s)

C { Md }
BT(s)
Ms
Step 2: Every member computes the group key using BT(s)
C U { M n+1 } = {M1 , .., M n+1 } BT(n) Mn

Step 3: Every member computes the group key using BT(n)
Figure 3. Leave operation

The leave protocol provides forward secrecy since a former
member cannot compute the new key owing to the sponsors
changing the session random. The protocol also provides key
independence since knowledge of the new key cannot be used
to derive the previous keys; this is, again, due to the sponsor
refreshing its session random.
Figure 2.Tree update in join
Member Leaves:
From a a group of n members when a member
M d (d n) leaves the group. If d > 1, the sponsor Ms is the
leaf node directly below the leaving member, i.e., M d-1.
Otherwise, the sponsor is M2. Upon hearing about the leave
Performance analysis and communication efficiency:

The above VBT key management system is analyzed with an
existing key management schemes TGDH .The overhead of
the TGDH protocol depends on the tree height, the
balancedness of the key tree, the location of the joining tree,
and the leaving nodes. The number of modular
Page 434
exponentiations for a leave event in the VBT depends on the

location of the deepest leaving node.
Map",Information and Communications University (ICU), 584, Hwaam-Dong, Yuseong-gu, Daej eon, 305-732, Korea.
Conclusion:
[2] Yongdae,Perrig and Tsudik, "Group Key Agreement

efficient in communication", IEEE transactions on computers,
Oct 2003.
The proposed key management scheme VBT instantly

generates a key. The key is computed as a function of all
current group members participates in the communication. In
this scheme, the currently operating valid users only can take
part in communication and it ensures the presence of users
without much difficulty. This scheme supports all dynamic
peer group operations: join, leave. Furthermore, it easily
handles cascaded (nested) membership events and network
failures. Hence the proposed VBT ensures that the efficient
communication between the groups with less delay with out
minimizing cryptographic computations.
[3] Yair Amir, Yongdae Kim, Cristina Nita-Rotaru, and Gene

Tsudik. On the performance of group key agreement
protocols Technical Report CNDS-2001-5,
[4] David A. McGrew and Alan T. Sherman, " Key
Establishment in Large Dynamic Groups Using One- Way
Function Trees" Cryptographic Technologies Group, TIS
Labs at Network Associates, May 20, 1998.
[5] C.Becker and U.Wille. "Communication complexity of
group key distribution. In 5th ACM Conference on Computer
andCommunications Security, November 1998.
References:
[1] Sang won Leel, Yongdae Kim2, Kwangjo Kiml "An
Efficient Tree-based Group Key Agreement using Bilinear
[6] Dr.K.Duraiswamy, S.P.Shantharajah Key Management

and Distribution for Authenticating Group Communication
IEEE transactions on computers,2006
Page 435
Integrated Biometric Authentication Using Finger

Print And Iris Matching
A.Muthukumar1 and S.Kannan2
1. Faculty, Dept of ECE, Kalasalingam University,muthuece.eng@gmail.com

2. Faculty, Dept of EEE, Kalasalingam University,kannaneee@rediffmail.com
1
muthuece.eng@gmail.com
Abstract
A biometric measures an individual's unique physical or
behavioral characteristics in order to recognize or
authenticate his identity. Biometric identification is made
up of two stages: enrolment and verification. Automatic
and reliable extraction of minutiae from fingerprint
images is a critical step in fingerprint matching. The
quality of input fingerprint images plays an important
role in the performance of automatic identification and
verification algorithms. Error-correcting codes are
proposed as a means of correcting iris readings for
authentication purposes. This paper presents a technique
that combined with a bimodal biometric verification
system that makes use of finger print images and iris
images. Each individual verification has been optimized
to operate in automatic mode and designed for security
and authentication access application.
1. INTRODUCTION
Fingerprint based identification has been one of the most
successful biometric techniques used for personal
identification. Each individual has unique fingerprints. A
fingerprint is the pattern of ridges and valleys on the finger
tip. A fingerprint is thus defined by the uniqueness of the
local ridge characteristics and their relationships. Minutiae
points are these local ridge characteristics that occur either at
a ridge ending or a ridge bifurcation[1]. A ridge ending is
defined as the point where the ridge ends abruptly and the
ridge bifurcation is the point where the ridge splits into two
or more branches. Automatic minutiae detection becomes a
difficult task in low quality fingerprint images where noise
and contrast deficiency result in pixel configurations similar
to that of minutiae. This is an important aspect that has been
taken into consideration in this project for extraction of the
minutiae with a minimum error in a particular location.
Fig 1: Finger print and Iris

In this paper, error-correcting codes are proposed as a means
of correcting iris readings for authentication purposes. We
store a hashed version of an individual's biometric template
(along with check digits) to verify their identity. A major
advantage of this approach is that it is unnecessary to store
the individual's biometric template explicitly, a situation
which puts the biometric at risk from dishonest systems
operators. Given that the potential theft of biometrics is one
of the main objections to their usage, any such increase in
security is highly desirable.
If a valid message is defined to be a codeword, then a code is
the set of all code words. The code distance, d, is the
minimum number of bits which differ between any two
code words. If
d=2t+ 1,
(1)
then up to 2t errors can be detected and up to t of these
corrected; if there are t errors or less, the corrupted
codeword is
Page 436
2.1.1.Pre-Processing
IRIS
Fin
ger
prin
t
Edge
detect
ion
Norm
alisati
on
Norm
alisat
ion
Frequ
ency
and
Orient
ation
Iris
Matc
hing
using
Corre
i
Mask
Gener
ation
and
Match
Comb
ine
Iris
and
The input image is segmented from the background which

ensures the removal of noise. For this, the whole image is
divided into blocks of size 1616 and the variance of each
block is computed. The variance is
then compared with the threshold value. If the variance of a
block is less than the threshold value, then it is deleted from
the original figure. This process is carried out for the whole
image. The image obtained from the above step is then
normalized to get the desired variance of the given image.
The normalized image is given by
Fig 2: Overview of the proposed work

automatically closer to one valid codeword than any other,
but if there are more than t errors, there is no way of knowing
to which codeword one should correct[3]. Therefore, a good
code has as large a code-distance as possible, as this enables
more errors to be corrected. Each codeword in the code is of
the same length, usually represented by n. It is divided into
k information bits and (n - k) check digits. Such a code is
known as a systematic (n, k) code. As suggested
by their
name, check digits are used to correct the corrupted
codeword to its original value. Finger print with false
minutiae removal was
studied for enhancement of
image[1],[2].Then iris with error correcting codes used for
improving the image enhancement and edge detection of the
image[3],[4].
2.PROPOSED WORK
M0 + v(VAR0(I(i, j) - M)2 /(VAR))
if I(i, j) > M
G(i, j) =
M0 - v(VAR0(I(i, j) - M)2 /(VAR))
otherwise
where I(i,j) denotes the gray-level value at pixel (i, j), M and
VAR denote the estimated mean and variance of I
respectively and G(I,j) denotes the normalized gray-level
value at pixel (i, j).
and VAR0 are the desired mean and variance values
respectively.
The estimation of the orientation of the image is then carried
out as the next step. The whole image is divided into blocks
of size 1616 and the local orientation in the figure is
computed by
The whole problem is divided into the following three steps:

1. Pre-Processing
2. Normalization
3. Post-Processing(matching)
This fig.2 shows the details of the first step named preprocessing which gives an insight into the process that has
been followed by the enhancement of the inputs fingerprint
and iris images.
2.1FINGER PRINT MATCHING

In this section , image is segmented and it is
normalized using gabor filtering are explained. Then in PostProcessing ,how the false minutiae removed was explained.
Vx(i,j) =
Vy(i,j) =
i +/2
j+/2
u =i -/2
v = j -/2
i +/2
j+/2
2x(u, v)y(u, v)
( x(u, v) y(u, v))
u =i - /2
v = j - /2
(i, j) = 0.5 tan (Vx(i,j)/Vy(i,j))

1
where (i, j) is the least square estimate of the local ridge

orientation at the block centered at pixel (i, j).
The angles between the blocks are then smoothened by
passing the image through a low pass filter as follows.
X [k ] =
1 1
G(u, v), k = 0,1,...l 1
d =0
Page 437
u=i+(d-(/2))cosO(i,j)+(k-(l/2))sinO(i,j),
v=i+(d-(/2))sinO(i,j)+((l/2)-k)cosO(i,j),
The following method is adopted for the calculation of the
frequency of the local blocks. X-signatures of each block are
computed along the direction perpendicular to the orientation
angle in each block. The window used for this purpose is of
size 1632. The frequency is then computed by the distance
between the peaks obtained in the X-signatures. The window
for this is given by the formula
X [k ] =
1 1
G(u, v), k = 0,1,...l 1
d =0
u=i+(d-(/2))cosO(i,j)+(k-(l/2))sinO(i,j),
2.1.3Post-Processing
The minutiae points obtained in the above step may contain
many spurious minutiae. This may occur due to the presence
of ridge breaks in the given figure itself which could not be
improved even after enhancement. This results in false
minutiae points which need to be removed. These unwanted
minutiae points are removed in the post-processing stage.
False minutiae points will be obtained at the borders as the
image ends abruptly. These are deleted using the segmented
mask. As a first step, a segmented mask is created. This is
created during segmentation carried out in the stage of preprocessing and contains ones in the blocks which have higher
variance than the threshold and zeros for the blocks having
lower variance. Finally after enhancing and false removal of
the minutiae, then finger print is matched with the template to
give the person is authenticated or not. This is first matching
output of this paper.
v=i+(d-(/2))sinO(i,j)+((l/2)-k)cosO(i,j),
2.2.IRIS MATCHING
In general, the frequency of image constitutes has a certain

frequency for the hole image and hence the above step can be
omitted if the global frequency of the given figure is known.
In this section , image is segmented and it is

normalized using gabor filtering are explained. Then in PostProcessing ,how the error correcting are added and how the
matching was occurs was explained.
As the next step, each block is filtered

along the direction of the orientation angle using the value of
the frequency obtained for each block. A Gabor filter is used
for this process and a suitable value of local variances is
taken for carrying out the process of filtering. A Gabor filter
takes care of both the frequency components as well as the
spatial coordinates. The inputs required to create a Gabor
mask are frequency, orientation angle and variances along x
and y directions. Filtering is done for each block using the
local orientation angle and frequency. Pre-processing of the
image is completed by the steps as mentioned and the
enhanced image is obtained.
2.1.2.Normalization
The next step after enhancement of the image is the
extraction of minutiae. The enhanced image is binarised first
in this step. The skeleton of the image is then formed. The
minutiae points are then extracted by the following method.
The binary image is thinned as a result of which a ridge is
only one pixel wide. The minutiae points are thus those
which have a pixel value of one (ridge ending) as their
neighbor or more than two ones (ridge bifurcations) in their
neighborhood. This ends the process of extraction of
minutiae points.
2.2.1.Pre-Processing & Normalization

In this paper, an improved means of matching iris readings
was proposed; however, prior to this stage, the segmentation
and image processing stages must take place and in this
paper, use of Daugman's concept was strongly recommended
algorithm for this purpose. Thus, an Iris Code and
corresponding mask are produced, but we do not
subsequently employ his technique of Hamming Distance
measurements for iris matching. The 256-byte mask contains
the locations of bits to be omitted from the reading because
of occlusions by eyelids, eyelashes and so on. The enrolment
reading is strictly controlled by an operator; occlusions which
occur in the enrolment mask are extremely likely to re-occur
in subsequent readings. Therefore, bit positions included in
the enrolment mask are automatically ignored in all further
readings for this user, and we "reduce" the iris reading to its
valid bits only. This reduced iris data acquired at enrolment
becomes the k information bits of a codeword. Check digits
are calculated
in the usual manner, and the codeword is then hashed and
stored in the user's file. Here also first the input image is
segmented from the background which ensures the removal
of noise with various filters of Prewitt, Laplace and canny
operator A Gabor filter is used for this process and a suitable
Page 438
value of local variances is taken for carrying out the process
of filtering. A Gabor filter takes care of both the frequency
components as well as the spatial coordinates. The inputs
required to create a Gabor mask are frequency, orientation
angle and variances along x and y directions. Filtering is
done for each block using the local orientation angle and
frequency. Pre-processing of the image is completed by the
steps as mentioned and the enhanced image is obtained.
Normalization is done by same process which done in finger
print process.
Fig.3 Original Fingerprint Image
2.2.2Post-Processing
If we choose to work with a Reed-Solomon code over
GF(28), this has a maximum length of 255 octets. The
ground field of 28 lends a natural ease to dealing with octetbased calculations, an obvious advantage when working with
bytes of data. A further advantage is that it is of characteristic
two, which means that the operations of addition and
subtraction are identical. This greatly simplifies arithmetic in
the field, allowing us to make use of the XOR (exclusiveOR) function.
Let the code length, n, be equal to 255, the maximum value it
can attain in this code.
The number of information symbols, k, cannot be
greater than 200, as we know that this is the maximum
number of valid bytes in a good Caucasian image. In
addition, the check digits are effectively unhidden and thus
could be accessed by an unscrupulous systems operator. As
such, we must ensure that their number does not exceed n/2,
as otherwise this would allow the codeword to be deciphered.
Finally after finding the results of finger print and iris
matching which will given to xor operation to prove that both
finger print and iris will be come from same person in order
to authenticate the user.
Fig.4 Normalized Image
Fig.5 Enhanced Image-Gabor Filtering

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The original image of the finger print is
given as input which was shown in Fig.3. Then the image
was normalized using Gabor filtering and it was enhanced
which was shown in fig.4,5.After enhancing the image, the
false minutiae was removed and the given image is matched
with stored image for matching which is shown in Fig.6,7.
Fig.6 Minutiae obtained after deleting spurious minutiae at
the borders
Page 439
Fig.7Final extracted Minutiae after applying the windowing

technique
The original image of the Iris is given as
input which was shown in Fig.8. Then the image was
converted into gray scale image which is normalized using
Gabor filtering with various operators like laplacian , prewitt
and it was enhanced which was shown in fig.9-13.After
enhancing the image, the error detecting codes are combined
with the binary image and that image is matched with stored
image for matching..
Fig.10 Prewitt filter
Fig.11 Laplacian filter
Fig.12 Normalized image

Fig.8 Original Image
Fig.12 Enhanced image using edge detection

Fig.9Gray scale image
Page 440
4.CONCLUSION
The main benefit of this method is its fast running speed. The
method identifies the unrecoverable corrupted areas in the
fingerprint and removes them from further processing. By
treating the enrolment iris reading as a codeword, and the
verification reading as a corrupted codeword, we have shown
that it is possible to reliably match iris readings using ReedSolomon codes. Such an approach provides greater security
than matching algorithms currently in use, as it only requires
that a hashed version of the iris reading be stored, rather than
an explicit template.
5.REFERENCES
[1] D.H. Ballard, Generalizing the Hough Transform to
Detect Arbitrary Shapes, Pattern Recognition, vol. 13, no. 3,
pp. 111-112,1997
[2] A. Ross, J. Shah, and A. Jain, Towards Reconstructing
Fingerprints
from Minutiae Points, Proc. SPIE Conf.
Biometric Technology for Human Identification II, pp. 68-80,
2005
[3]
J. Daugman. High confidence visual recognition of
persons by a test of statistical independence IEEE
Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence,
vol.15,no.11, 1148-1161, Nov 1993.
[4] J. Daugman. How iris recognition works, IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology,
vol.14 no.1, 21-30,Jan 2004.
[5] A. K. Jain, L. Hong, S. Pantanki and R. Bolle, An
Identity Authentication System Using Fingerprints, Proc of
the IEEE, vol.85, no.9,1365-1388, 1997
Page 441
A New Frame Work For Analyzing Document

Clustering Algorithms
Mrs. J. Jayabharathy* and Dr. S. Kanmani**
*Senior Lecturer, Department of Computer Science & Engineering
**Professor & Head, Department of Information Technology
Pondicherry Engineering College, Puducherry, India
bharathyraja@pec.edu
kanmani@pec.edu
ABSTRACT
Nowadays all paper documents are in electronic
format, because of quick access and smaller storage. So, it
is a major issue to retrieve relevant documents from the
larger database. Clustering documents to relevant groups
is an active field of research finding various applications
in the fields of text mining, topic tracking systems,
intelligent web search engines and question answering
systems. This paper proposes a frame work for
comparing the existing document clustering algorithm.
From the frame work, the details regarding the
algorithms, their capabilities, evaluation metrics, data set
and performance of the various methods are analyzed.
From the analyses it is revealed that majority of the
researches consider vector space model for document
representation, F-measure, Isim & Esim , Precision and
Recall are the frequently used metrics. Document
clustering still has future scope in incremental document
clustering, semi-supervised clustering, ontology based
clustering, topic detection and document summarization.
KEY WORDS Text mining Document clustering
unsupervised learning Semi-supervised learning
ontology.
INTRODUCTION
Information extraction plays a vital role in todays
life. How efficiently and effectively the relevant documents
are extracted from World Wide Web is a challenging
issue[16].
As todays search engine does just string
matching, documents retrieved may not be so relevant
according to users query. A good document clustering
approach can assist computers in organizing the document
corpus automatically into a meaningful cluster hierarchy for
efficient browsing and navigation, which is very valuable for
overcoming the deficiencies of traditional information
retrieval methods. If documents are well clustered, searching

within the group with relevant documents improves
efficiency and reduces the time for search. A good document
clustering algorithm should have high intra-cluster similarity
and less intercluster similarity. i.e the documents with the
clusters should be more relevant compared to the documents
of other clusters[12].
Document Clustering is an unsupervised approach, in which
documents are automatically grouped into predefined number
of groups based on their content. Document clustering
methods are categorized as partitioning, hierarchical, densitybased, grid-based, model-based and etc. In this paper we
mainly concentrate on partitional and hierarchical based
clustering methods. This paper gives detailed view about the
various document clustering algorithms with respect to the
similarity measures, data set and performance metrics.
The following section discusses about the procedure of
general document clustering algorithm, section 3 gives the
detailed survey of document clustering algorithms. Section 4
gives the overview of the proposed framework for comparing
the existing document clustering algorithms. Section 5
concludes the paper and discusses about the challenges in
document clustering.
A GENERAL
CLUSTERING
PROCEDURE
FOR
DOCUMENT
Document clustering problem could be expressed as follows:

Let N be the total number of documents to be clustered. The
set D={D1, D2, .DN} be the set of N documents [25]. The
documents are grouped into non-overlapping clusters C= {
C1, C2, .Ck} where k denotes the number of groups formed.
C1U C2U.U Ck = D, Assume Ci and Ci Cj =
where i j.
Widely used document representation methods are VectorSpace Model (VSM), Multiword term, Character N-gram
Page 442
representation are some the existing representation models.

VSM is identified as the most widely representation for
documents. Using VSM, the document d is represented by
the term-frequency (tf ) vector dtf = (tf1; tf2; : : : ; tfm),
where tfi is the frequency of the ith term in d.
Currently, the TF-IDF (Term Frequency times Inverse
Document Frequency) model is the most popular model. In
the TF-IDF model, a term ti is weighted by its frequency in
the document tfi times the logarithm of its inverse document
frequency, i.e., tfi * log2(N/n), where N is the number of
documents in the collection and n is the number of
documents where the term ti occurs at least once. Using the
TF-IDF model, terms that appear too rarely or too frequently
are ranked lower than the other terms. Widely e-documents
suffer from high dimensionality; document representation
[15] is itself a challenging issue.
Usually document sources are of unstructured format,
transforming these unstructured documents to structured
format requires some preprocessing steps. Figure 1.
Represents the sequence of steps involved in document
clustering.
Commonly used pre-processing steps are
Tokenization: Tokenization is the process of mapping
sentences from character strings into strings of words. For
example, the sentence This is a Survey Paper could be
tokenized into \This, \is, \a, \Survey, \Paper.
Data cleaning: Non-textual information, such as HTML
tags, punctuation marks and digits, are removed from the
document.
Stopwords removal: Stop words are typical frequently
occurring words that have little or no discriminating power,
such as \a", \about", \all", etc., or other domain-dependent
words. Stopwords are often removed.
Stemming: Removes the affixes in the words and produces
the root word known as the stem [17]. Typically, the
stemming process will be performed so that the words are
transformed into their root form. For example connected,
connecting and connection will be transformed into connect.
Most widely used stemming algorithms are Porter [21], Paice
stemmer [ 20], Lovins [19], S-removal[18]
Figure 1 General Procedure for Document Clustering

Document Clustering methods [3] are categorized as
partitioning, hierarchical, graph-based, model-based and etc.
Partitional Clustering It divides the data objects into nonoverlapping subsets (clusters) such that each data object is in
exactly one subset. Hierarchical clustering is a set of nested
clusters organized as a hierarchical tree. In this approach, a
hierarchy is built bottom-up by iteratively computing the
similarity between all pairs of clusters and then merging the
most similar pair. Graph based model This algorithm
transforms the problem so that graph theory can be used [4].
In this approach, the objects (documents or words) to be
clustered can be viewed as a set of vertices. Two vertices are
connected with an undirected edge of positive weight based
on certain measurement. In the clustering process, a set of
edges, called edge separator, are removed so that the graph is
partitioned into k pair-wise disjoint sub-graphs. Objective of
the partitioning is to find such separator with a minimum sum
of edge weights.
Clustering algorithms are based on certain similarity
measures [2]. There are many different ways to measure how
similar are the two documents. Similarity measures are
highly dependent on the choice of terms to represent text
documents. Accurate clustering requires a precise definition
of the closeness between a pair of objects, in terms of either
the pair-wise similarity or distance. Cosine similarity and
Jaccard correlation coefficient are widely used similarity or
Page 443
distance measures. Euclidean distance and entropy are being

applied to calculate pair-wise distance between objects in
clustering.
CLUSTERING ALGORITHMS
This section gives a detailed survey of recent work in
document clustering.
Benjamin C.M Fung et al [1] elaborated Frequent
itemset based hierarchical clustering [22] technique for
addressing the problems in hierarchical document clustering.
This technique uses frequent item sets to construct clusters
and to organize clusters into a topic hierarchy. They have
experimentally evaluated FIHC and compared with
Hierarchical Frequent Term based clustering (HFTC)
proposed by Beil, Ester & Xu, [23] and Unweighted Pair
Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPMA) proposed by
Kaufman & Rousseuw, [24]. This paper concludes that
FIHC outperforms well with respect to time, accuracy and
scalability.
A quantitative and qualitative method was
introduced by Yi Peng et al [5] which extract phrases/noun
from the documents for clustering. Two hypotheses are
designed as follows 1. Instead of single word, this approach
uses noun/phrases and words representation and used an
optimization method from CLUTO tool kit to group the
documents. 2. More meaningful subject headings of
document collection could be obtained by merging the
similar, smaller clusters instead of generating larger clusters
directly. The data set considered for clustering is Data
Mining and Knowledge Discovery Publications. This data set
was clustered as 8-way and 100-way category using CLUTO
tool kit and Intra-cluster similarity and Inter-Cluster
similarity are considered as performance metrics. The author
concludes that the clustering documents using phrase/word
representation generates more meaningful appropriate
clusters compared to single word representation and merging
smaller and similar documents yields more relevant
documents.
A framework named SS-NMF (Semi Supervised
Non-negative Factorization) which incorporates user defined
constraints for document clustering was proposed by Yanhua
Chen et al [6], users are able to provide supervision for
clustering in terms of must-link and cannot link-link pairwise
constraints. An efficient iterative algorithm had been
considered for computation of symmetric tri-factorization of
the document-document similarity matrix to infer the
document clusters. MEDLINE Database, Reuters-21578
Text Collection and Foreign Broadcast Information Service
Data are the data sets utilized. This SS-NMF frame work has
been compared with supervised and semi-supervised
clustering algorithms k-means, kernel k-means, Spectral

Normalized Cuts, Non-negative Factorization (NMF), Semisupervised kernel k-means (SS-KK), semi supervised
spectral clustering with normalized cuts (SS-SNC).
Confusion Matrix and Accuracy as evaluation metrics and
concludes that SS-NMF works better than other supervised
and unsupervised algorithms.
Jiangtao Qiu [7] et al proposed a Topic Oriented
Semantic Annotation algorithm. The author considers semisupervised document clustering approach. Users need
should be represented as multi-attribute topic structure. Using
the topic structure, the next step is to compute topic semantic
annotation for each document and topic semantic similarity
between documents. Ontology based Document topic
semantic annotation (ODSA) algorithm was proposed for
computing topic semantic annotation for each document.
They have also proposed a dissimilarity function using which
the dissimilarity matrix have to be constructed. The
dissimilarity of two documents is their topic-semantic
dissimilarity in topic oriented document clustering. Then the
documents are clustered using proposed Optimizing
Hierarchical clustering algorithm which is based on
agglomerative hierarchical document clustering algorithm.
They have also proposed a new cluster evaluation function
DistanceSum. In this paper, a comparison between ODSA
and Term Frequency and Inverse Document Frequency
(TFIDF) representation have been experimented and proved
that ODSA takes less time for constructing dissimilarity
matrix when compared to TFIDF. They have also assessed
the quality of the cluster using the F-measure as the
performance metric, i.e. the clustering algorithm based on
ODSA and TFIDF have been experimented and judged.
The discovery of Topic by Clustering Keywords
without any prior knowledge was proposed by Christian
Wartena and Rogier Brussee [8]. Identification of most
informative keyword is done by using natural probability
distributions and the documents are clustered according to
various similarity functions like Cosine similarity, JensenShannon divergence distance between document distribution
and term distribution. A collection of 8 Wikipedia topics are
considered as data set. Considering F-measure as the
performance metrics, the experiments show that distribution
of terms associated with keyword gives better results.
An Active Learning Framework for Semisupervised document clustering with language modeling [9]
proposed by Ruizhang Huang and Wai Lam incorporates user
defined constraints for clustering. This paper mainly deals
with semi-supervised document clustering. This framework
concentrates on pair-wise constraints for user provided
information i.e. user can provide hierarchical constraints for
Page 444
indicating the parent to child relationship between

documents. Using these constraints the clustering processes
learns actively. Also they have devised a gain function for
selecting document pairs. Instead of document represented as
bag of words they include term-term dependence relationship
using term co-occurrences. Term- Term dependency is used
for estimating the terms related to the same cluster. A
collection of documents from 20-newsgroup corpus, Reuters
RCV1 corpus TDT3 (Topic detection and Tracking) are taken
as dataset for experiments. NMI (Normalized Mutual
Information) and Pair-wise F-measure are considered as
performance evaluation metrics and compares the proposed
framework with Active semi-supervision for pair-wise
constrained clustering algorithm and concludes that the
proposed approach outperforms.
Document Clustering Description Extraction and its
Applications [10] is a problem of labeling the clustered
documents. This paper mainly focuses on automatic labeling
concept based on machine learning. Clustering problem
transformed into classification for labeling the clusters.
Considering two Benchmark models Baeline1 and Baseline1
and SVM (support vector machine), Multiple Linear
Regression (MLR) and Logistical regression models (Logit)
machine learning approaches are considered for labeling.
More than 2,000 academic documents from Information
centre for Social Sciences of RUC were taken as the dataset
for experiments. Considering Precision, recall and F1 value
as performance metrics, the author justifies that SVM
outperforms better compared to the other models. Baseline1
model behaves worst compared to five models.
Yanjun Li et al [13] propose two clustering
algorithms, Clustering based on Frequency of Words
(CFWS) and Clustering based on Frequency of Word
Meaning Sequence (CFWMS) instead of considering bag of
words representation. Word is the one which is simply
represented in the document, whereas word meaning is the
concept which expressed by synonyms of word forms. Word
meaning sequence is the sequence of frequency of the word
occurring in the documents. Authors have addressed many
issues document representation, dimensionality reduction,
labeling the clusters, overlapping of clusters. They preferred
Generalized suffix tree for representing the frequency words
in each documents. Dimensionality is reduced because of
word meaning representation instead of words. CFWS is
evaluated to be better algorithm compared to bi-secting kmeans and FIHC with respect of accuracy, overlapping
cluster quality and self labeling features. CFWMS achieves

better accuracy when compared to CFWS, and modified
Bisecting k-means using background knowledge (BBK)[11]
Another significant topic in document clustering is
document summarization, gives only the main points of the
original document. This helps the user to grasp the contents
of the entire documents in a moment. Ontology Enchanced
clustering based summarization of medical documents[16]
was proposed by Kokilavani and Balasubramanie. They have
chosen MESH descriptor set for matching string and used kmeans algorithm for clustering. The summary generated was
evaluated using Precision and Recall as metrics.
Khaled B. Shaban [11] proposed a new frame work
namely a Semantic Approach for Document clustering,
which adopts meaning based representation of text, and their
use in measuring similarities between documents using the
knowledge representation structure. Author has used
Semantic Graph Model (SGM) for document representation,
which is similar to graph based representation. SGM is based
on syntactic and symantic information extracted from the
documents. For comparative analysis the author takes Vector
Space Model and evaluated the performance with respect to
F-measure, Entropy, overall similarity and concludes that
keywords alone cannot give better cluster quality. He has
also proposed a similarity measure precisely for semantic
based mining.
FRAME WORK FOR ANALYZING THE EXISTING
DOCUMENT CLUSTERING TECHNIQUES
This study mainly highlights the recent research work in the
field of document clustering. This paper mainly focuses
about the proposed frame work for comparing various
document clustering techniques. The comparative study is
based on the survey, which is made by analyzing the existing
algorithms, considering the topics like Document clustering
technique, Data set used for experiments, Performance
metrics and summarization about the performance of the
proposed technique. Column 1 in this frame work states the
title of the survived papers. Frame work, algorithm and
techniques which are discussed in the existing papers are
stated in column 2. The 3rd column gives the details of the
data set which is considered for conducting the experiments.
Metrics considered by the authors for performance evaluation
are given in column 4. The concise details about the
performance of the algorithms are listed in column 5.
Page 445
PROPOSED FRAME WORK

PAPER TITLE
ALGORITHM/
TECHNIQUES
DATA SET
METRICS
PERFORMANCE
Recent Trends in
Data Mining (DM):
Document
clustering of DM
Publications
2005
K-means
Implemented
in
CLUTO - Toolkit
1436
papers
from different
data
mining
publications
Human
Inspection
Forms 47 clusters according

to the category
Hierarchical
Document
Clustering - 2006
Frequency Itemsetbased Hierarchical

clustering
(FIHC)
100k
documents
F-measure
Improved
Accuracy
A Hybrid Strategy
for Clustering Data
Mining
Documents- 2006
A
qualitative
method
which
extract noun/phrases
instead of words
from the documents.
Books, thesis &

Publications of
Data
mining
and knowledge
discovery 1626
papers.
Isim Intracluster s
Similarity
Esim intercluster
similarity
Clustered into 8 and 100

categories and concluded that
100way clustering gives
quality clustering- Human
inspection
Incorporating User
Provided
constraints
into
Document
clustering's - 2007
SS-NMF : semi
supervised
nonnegative
matrix
factorization
framework
MEDLINE
Database,
Reuters-21578
Text Collection
and
Foreign
Broadcast
Information
Service Data
Confusion
matrix
Accuracy
metric
Concludes that SSNMF

outperforms
well
when
compared
with
semi
supervised and un supervised
clustering methods
Topic
Oriented
Semi- Supervised
Document
Clustering - 200
7
Ontology
based
Document
topic
semantic annotation
(HOWNET
ontology knowledge
base)
Chinese
web
pages about Li
Ming same
name different
personality
football player
who
belongs
different clubs
Time analysis
for computing
Dissimilarity
matrix and
Dimensionality
analysis
Compares with TFIDF w.r.t

time
(construction
of
dissimilarity matrix )
And dimensionality analysis
(less)
A
document
Clustering
and
Ranking system for
Exploring
MEDLINE
CLUTO tool kit
Society
of
surgical
oncology
Bibliography
10 categories of
Document
clustering is a
part
of
Information
retrieval in this
This framework retrieves

reduced set of articles
because of clustering, topic
extraction
and
ranking
methods
Bisecting
K
means
clustering
algorithm
Scalability
and
Page 446
PAPER TITLE
ALGORITHM/
TECHNIQUES
DATA SET
METRICS
citations - 2007
Spectroscopy
cancer
paper
Text
Document
Clustering based
on Frequent word
meaning sequences
Clustering based on
Frequent
Word
Sequences(CFWS)
and
Clustering
based on Frequent
Word
Meaning
Sequences
(CFWMS)
CLUTO kit
9
categories
from
Reuters
data set, Classic
data set and
200 documents
from
search
engine results.
F-measure
Purity
CFWS & CFWMS has

better accuracy compared to
Bisecting
K-means
and
Frequent
Itemset
based
Hierarchical
clustering(FIHC)
Similarity
Measures for Text
Document
Clustering
Similarity measure
Euclidian, Jaccard
coefficient,Cosine
simiarity, Pearson
correlation
coefficient, Average
Kullback Leibler
Divergence
20 newsgroups,
Classic
academic
papers, wap
web pages,
web knowldege
base - webkb
Purity
Entropy
Except Euclidian other S.M

are quite similar.
Jaccard and Pearson are
slightly better with higher
purity value
Research
Field
Discovery Based
on Text Clustering
Newman
Fast
clustering algorithm
for network model
Research
proposals
of
National
Natural Science
and Foundation
3423 relevant
proposals
Modularity
Gives insight of the year wise

research field .
Topic Detection by
Clustering
Keywords
Identifies
most
informative
keyword
by
Probability
,
Clustering
using
Bisecting K-means
algorithm
Wikipedia
articles
of
various
categories like
architecture,
popmusic etc
F-measure
Implemented
using
3
similarity measures like
Cosine,
Jensen
shanon
divergence for term and
document
distribution.
Jensen shanon for term gives
better result
PERFORMANCE
Page 447
PAPER TITLE
ALGORITHM/
TECHNIQUES
DATA SET
METRICS
PERFORMANCE
An
Active
Learning
Framework
for
Semi-supervised
document
Clustering
with
language modeling
DevisedGain
Function
for
selecting documents
pairs,
Language
Model, Term-Term
dependence instead
of bag of words
Designed
a
Framework
Active Semi
20 newsgroups,
Reuters
newswire
stories
And
TDTTopic detection
and detection
project
F-measure
Proposed Active Semi gives

better clustering performance
Document
Clustering
Description
Extraction and its
Applications
Uses
Machine
Learning approach
like SVM, Multiple
Linear Regression
Model and Two
Benchmarks
Baseline1 and 2 for

Cluster Description
Documents
from
Information
Center
for
Social Science
of RUC 2000
documents
Precision
Recall
SVM
performs
better
compared to other
4
Machine Learning methods
A
Semantic
Approach
for
Document
Clustering
A
Framework
designed Parses
document
syntactically,
Semantically
converts
to
Semantic
Graph
Model
Algorithm KNearest Neighbor,
HAC, Single Pass
Clustering
Reuters
Set
F-measure
Entropy
Quality
of
Clustering
outperforms well compared
to VSM
Ontology
Enhanced
Clustering Based
Summarization of
Medical
Documents
K- means and MesH

ontology descriptor
for
matching
sentences
for
summarization
PubMed
documents
Precision
Recall
MesH
descriptor
based
summarization gives better
summarization
Data
NMI
(Normalized
mutual
information)
Page 448
PAPER TITLE
ALGORITHM/
TECHNIQUES
DATA SET
METRICS
PERFORMANCE
Text
Document
Clustering Based
on Neighbors
3 methods : 1. new
method for selecting
initial
cluster
centroid
2. Similarity links
and cosine
3. Heuristic function
for
spiting
the
cluster
Reuters
and
MEDLINE
F-measure
Purity
Compared with K-Means,

Bisecting K-Means and with
proposed techniques. Gives
better results.
A Comparison of
Document
Clustering
Technique - 2000
Similarity Measure
Centroid,
UPGMA and Inter
cluster similarity
Reuters,
web AceA Web Agent
for Document
Categorization
and Exploration
F-measure
Compares Bi-secting kmeans is better than UPGMA

and K-means.
From the study it is inferred that more than 70% of the

document clustering algorithms are based on Partitional and
hierarchical based algorithms. It is understood that k-means
for document clustering dominates in late 1990s. Later Bisecting k-means algorithm produces good cluster quality
compared to k-means.
Recent researches mainly
concentrates on Ontology based document clustering
techniques. It is also inferred that supervised document

clustering techniques drives more importance than normal
clustering algorithms. Nowadays we have broad scope in
supervised document clustering, topic detection and in
ontology based document clustering. From the survey it is
understood that most of the document clustering algorithms
are implemented in CLUTO tool kit.
Page 449
P recision&
R ecall
35
C onfusionmatrix
30
25
Inter&Intraclus
similarity
20
E ntrophy&
Modularity
NMI
15
Misclassification
index
10
P urity
5
F measure
0
ME T R IC S
Figure 2 Percentage of Metrics considered for documents clustering algorithms

The graph in Figure 2 states the various metrics
considered in document clustering in X-axis and percentage
of references in Y-axis. More than 30% of the document
clustering algorithms concentrates on Intra and Inter cluster
similarity measure. 30% of the authors prefer Precision and
Recall which gives the quality about the document relevancy.
20% of the document clustering algorithm considers Fmeasure and Purity as performance metrics. Around 10%, the
qualities of some clustering techniques are evaluated by
Human intervention. 5% to 10% researchers consider
(Normalized mutual information) NMI, Modularity,
Confusion matrices as performance metrics.
Figure 3 shows about the choice of data sets for
document clustering with the percentage of usage. From the
frame work it is analyzed that majority of the researchers
attention has been drawn by 20 newsgroups and MEDLINE
data set for experiments. Data documents from Reuters
which has categories like ORGs, PEOPLE, PLACES etc has
received next importance. Wikipedia document sets receive
next priority. PubMed and other data sets receive next
precedence. From the analyzes it is understood that recent

researchers mainly concentrate on semi-supervised.
Page 450
35
30
25
R euters
20
20News group
15
Medline
10
W kipedia
C las s ic
P ubmed
D atas ets forexperiments

Figure 3 Data sets for documents clustering algorithms
CONCLUSION
In this paper a frame work to compare existing document
clustering algorithms was proposed, which gives the
summarization of recent research work on various algorithms
in document clustering. This frame work precisely states the
details about the algorithms, data sets, metrics and
performance. Document clustering still has scope in various
issues like incremental document clustering, semi-supervised
clustering, topic detection and in document summarization.
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Bamshad Mobasher. Clustering based on
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on Data Mining Workshop (ICDMW06). 2006.
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Detection by Clustering Keywords, IEEE -19th
International Conference and Expert System
Application,2008
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Framework
for
Semi-supervised
document
Clustering with language modeling, Data &
Knowledge Engineering,Elesiver 2008.
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Xu, Document Clustering Description Extraction
and its Applications, Computer Processing of
Oriental Languages. Language Technology for the
Knowledge-based Economy, 22nd International
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Document Clustering, Journal of Software 2009.
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Page 452
Optimization of Tool Wear in Shaping Process by

Machine vision system
Using Genetic Algorithm
S.Palani G.Senthilkumar S.Saravanan J.Ragunesan
1. Professor, Mechanical department, Mount Zion Engineering College, Pudukkottai.
Subbaiah_palani@yahoo.co.in
2. Lecturer, Mechanical department, Velammal Engineering College, Madurai.

Senthilghandhi@ymail.com
3. Student, Mechanical department, Sudharsan Engineering College, Pudukkoattai.

Saravanaa212@gmail.com
3. Student, Mechanical department, Sudharsan Engineering College, Pudukkoattai.

Nesan.mar03@gmail.com
Abstract
Optimization has significant practical importance
particularly for operating in machines. In order to
increase the accuracy of finishing product the tool must
be in good condition always as much as possible. The
cutting tool must be in good condition when go for high
precision of components i.e. the tolerance is very closer
there the optimized cutting conditions were needed. To
achieve good condition of tool, the machining parameters
like speed, feed, depth of cut and average gray intensity
level should be optimized. This paper aims to find out the
safety cutting conditions for minimizing the tool wear by
applying the optimized input parameters using genetic
algorithm technique.
Introduction
The growing demand for product quality and economy
necessity have forced incorporation of monitoring the process
parameters in automated manufacturing systems. The greatest
limitation of automation in the machining operation is tool
wear. If the tool wear increases then the tool life will be
minimum. So the tool wear has been optimized by selecting
the optimal cutting parameters such as speed and depth of
cut. The main machining parameters which are to be
considered as variables of the optimization are speed and
depth of cut, the required output is minimum tool wear.
The optimization of tool wear is very important in modern
machining processes. The cutting tool is the most critical part
of the machining system, and recent advances in tool
technology mean that many traditionally difficult materials
can now be more readily machined. Added to his, the desire

for faster, more flexible manufacturing systems to improve
productivity places even greater demands on cutting tools.
Reliable wear data can be used not only for adaptive process
control and optimization. Tool wear monitoring can also be
used to determine the optimum conditions for a given
machining process, such as finding the most economical
cutting speed. The optimum set of these three parameters are
determined for a particular job-tool combination of High
Speed Steel-Mild Steel during which optimizes the tool wear.
Many graphical and analytical techniques were initially used
for optimization. Some of them are overcome by numerical
optimization methods which may be either simplex or
gradual based methods. These and other similar numerical
optimization techniques have been found to give reasonably
accurate results only for simply problems. But in the case of
highly nonlinear optimization problems, the numbers of
iterations are required to get optimum point, thus consuming
significant computation time. So an alternative method for
optimization is probabilistic methods. Genetic Algorithm is
searches from a population and gives a set of reasonably
good solution to the user.
Computer vision technique
Computer vision techniques have many particular advantages
to offer when used for tool wear optimization. The
measurement is non-contacting. And the magnification can
also be obtained based on the power of the lens used. Hence
clarity of the image obtained is more. Computer vision
techniques were used to include a parameter affecting the
Page 453
tool wear i.e. the gray levels. With the given speed, feed, and
depth of cut, shaping operation is performed on work piece,
and the image of this tool is captured through the machine
vision system. The image is imported to the computer and
image processing techniques, the average gray level is found
out.
Genetic algorithm
A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search technique used in
computing to find exact or approximate solutions to
optimization and search problems. Genetic algorithm is a
global population search technique based on the operations of
natural genetics and mimics the natural biological process.
Genetic algorithm first encodes all variables into a finite bit
binary string called as chromosomes. Chromosomes
represent a possible solution of chromosomes are formed.
Each chromosome is decoded and is evaluated according to
the fitness function.
Fig: Structure of Genetic algorithm
Input parameters
Table: Datas for computing the regression equation
The following equation called as the regression equation and

it is used as fitness function in Genetic programming.
TW = - 0.779 - 0.000733 S +
12.5 F + 1.44 D + 0.00221
AG + 0.00131 sd - 20.8 fd
Page 454
Training parameters
Comparison of measured tool wear

with GA predicted tool wear
Experimental results
The result shows the average error of the prediction of tool

wear in shaping using GA is 2.761 % i.e. the accuracy is
97.239%
Optimized cutting conditions
Page 455
Conclusion
In this research an adaptive Genetic algorithm has been used
to predict the optimum cutting conditions of a tool and tool
wear in machining operation by employing the GA learning
algorithm. The following conclusions can be drawn from this
research. The reason for introducing the Genetic algorithm
network technique in the present study is that the machining
process is complex and uncertain in
nature; the present machining theories are not adequate for
the purpose of practical problem.
References
1. Alegre.E, Alaiz.R, Barreiro.J & Ruiz.J, Assessment and
visualization of machine tool wear using computer
vision.(2008)
2. C.Flix Prasad, S.Jayabal & U.Nataraajan.Optimization of
tool wear in turning using genetic algorithm. (2007)
3. C.Bradly & Y.S.Wong. Surface texture indicators of tool
wear-A machine vision approach.(2001)
4. Sukhomay pal, P.Stephan Heyns, Burkhard H. Freyer,
Nico J.Theron & Surjya K.Pal. Tool wear monitoring and
selection of optimum cutting conditions with progressive tool
wear effect and input uncertainties.(2009)
5. H. H. Shahabi & M. M. Ratnam. Assessment of flank wear
and nose radius wear from workpiece roughness profile in
turning operation using machine vision. (2008)
6. Rick Riolo and Bill Worzel. Genetic Programming
Theory& Practice.(2006)
7. Wen-Tung chein & Chung-shay Tsai. The investigation on
the prediction of tool wear and determination of optimum
cutting conditions in machining of stainless steel.( 2003)
8. D.Venkatesh, KKannan & R.Saravanan. A Genetic

Algorithm based model for the optimization of machining
process.(2009)
9. R.Saravanan, PAsokan & MSachidhanandham. Multi
objective GA approach for optimization of tool wear.(2002)
Page 456
A Comparative Study Of Various Topologies And

Its Performance Analysis Using Wdm Networks
P. Poothathan1, S. Devipriya2 , S. John Ethilton3
P.Poothathan1 ,Department of Physics, Velammal College of Engg. Tech., Madurai-9, India. poobalan123@gmail.com.
S.Devipriya2 , Department of Physics, Velammal College of Engg. Tech., Madurai-9, India. devipriya_ps@yahoo.co.in
S.John Ethilton3 ,Department of Physics, Velammal College of Engg. Tech., Madurai-9, India. ethilton@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Optical wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) networking
technology has been identified as a suitable candidate for future
wide area network (WAN) environments, due to its potential
ability to meet rising demands of high bandwidth and low latency
communication. Networking protocols and algorithms are being
developed to meet the changing operational requirements in future
optical WANs. Simulation is used in the study and evaluation of
such new protocols, and is considered a critical component of
protocol design. In this paper, we construct an optical WDM
network simulation tool, which facilitates the study of switching
and routing schemes in WDM networks. This tool is designed as an
extension to the network simulator ns2. In this work, the
effectiveness of the proposed approach has been verified through
numerical example and simulated results for various network
scenarios, such as ring, mesh and interconnection topologies and
we analyse the blocking probability of distributed light path
establishment in wavelength-routed WDM networks with no
wavelength conversion. We discuss the basic types of connection
blocking: i) due to the dimension of the network. ii) due to offered
network load. iii) due to network load in Erlang and Packet delay
due to load in Erlang.
Key words: Optical Networking, WDM network, topology,
simulator, blocking probability, delay.
I. INTRODUCTION
Optical fiber communications was mainly confined to
transmitting a single optical channel until the late 1980s.
Because the fibre attenuation was involved, this channel
required periodic regeneration, which included detection,
electronic processing, and optical retransmission. Such
regeneration causes a high-speed optoelectronic bottleneck and
can handle only a single wavelength. After the new generation
amplifiers were developed, it enabled us to accomplish highspeed repeaterless single channel transmission. A WDM system
enables the fiber to carry more throughputs. By using
wavelength-selective devices, independent signal routing also
can be accomplished. Two common network topologies can use
WDM, namely, the mesh and the ring networks. Each node in
the mesh has a transmitter and a receiver, with the transmitter
connected to one of the central passive meshs inputs and the
receiver connected to one of the meshs outputs. WDM
networks can also be of the ring variety. Rings are popular
because so many electrical networks use this topology and
because rings are easy to implement for any network
geographical configuration.
In an ideal WDM network, each user would have its own
unique signature wavelength. Routing in such a network would
be straightforward. This situation may be possible in a small
network, but it is unlikely in a large network whose number of
users is larger than the number of provided wavelengths. In
fact, technologies that can provide and cope with 20 distinct
wavelengths are the state of the art. There are some
technological limitations in providing a large number of
wavelengths, for instance: due to channel broadening effects
and non-ideal optical filtering, channels must have minimum
wavelength spacing. Wavelength range, accuracy, and stability
are extremely difficult to control. Therefore, it is quite possible
that a given network may have more users than available
wavelengths, which will necessitate the reuse of a given set of
wavelengths at different points in the network. The same
wavelength could be reused by any of the input ports to access a
completely different output port and establish an additional
connection. This technique increases the capacity of a WDM
network. The recent emerge of high-bit rate IP networking
application is creating the need for on demand provisioning of
wavelength routing with service - differentiated offering within
transport layer. To fulfill these requirements, different WDM
Page 457
optical network architecture has been proposed. For servicedifferentiated offering network, an accurate engineering of
WDM span design is needed. So the factors such as additive
nature of signal degradation, limited cascade ability of optical
components and traffic dependent signal quality should be
taken into account for accurate WDM span design.
probability with network dimension, network load and delay

etc. The following topologies have been studied in our project:
In order to demonstrate that our approach performs better

than that reported in the literature and to investigate the
performance of algorithms, we must resort to simulation studies
based upon the ns-2 Network Simulator. Not able to find a
suitable simulator that could support our proposed DWP
algorithm, we designed and developed a simulator to implement
routing and wavelength assignment in all-optical networks for
various topologies such as ring , mesh and interconnected rings.
1.RING TOPOLOGY
Ring
Mesh and
Interconnected rings.
Ring networks are less connected and consequently need less

messaging, which in turn generally assures faster convergence
towards destination, and hence decreases computation time. We
considered rings for topologies where varying network size
would not significantly vary the performance (i.e., for
bidirectional rings only two paths exist independently of the
ring size).
WDM optical networks have gained prime importance due to

the rapid growth of internet and the ever increasing demand for
voice and video transmission. By allowing several channels to
be routed on the same fiber on different wavelengths, the
capacity of each link is increased tremendously. However this
also calls for more efficient planning before provisioning
lightpaths.
The recent advent of high bit rate IP network applications is
creating the need for on demand provisioning of wavelength
routed channels with service differentiated offerings within the
transport layer. To fulfill these requirements different optical
transport network architectures have been proposed driven by
fundamental advances in WDM technologies. The availability
of ultra longreach transport and all optical switching has
enabled the deployment of all optical networks. While being
attractive for their transparent and cost effective operation all
optical networks require accurate engineering of WDM spans to
meet the requirements of dynamic wavelength routing.
The additive nature of signal degradation, limited cascade
ability of optical components and traffic dependent signal
quality are some of the reasons that make the provisioning of on
demand wavelength channels a challenging task.
1.1 Nodes Ring Topology

Here, we study a 9-node bi-directional ring topology as
shown in Figure1.1, of which the properties per wavelength and
network element are shown. As it can be seen from the results,
the method DWP, being a multipath strategy, yields superior
results for the given service. This is because DWP method
yields several feasible paths, out of which the best can be
selected, in contrast to the non-DWP is checked on remaining
requirements (transmission degradation, reliability).
To overcome the problems of analog WDM design,

electronic regeneration is deployed at optical switching nodes in
the so called opaque optical networks. However electronic
regeneration can also impose limitations on the wavelength
routing, such as delay accumulation, reliability reduction and
increase in the operational cost. These issues become
particularly
critical
if
service
requirements
force
multidimensional optimization such as maximum reliability and
minimum transmission degradation. We analyze the blocking
Page 458
1.2 Snapshot of the simulation for 9 node ring topology
Fig. 1.2 shows the 9 node WDM network ring topology

generated by the topology generator along with a snapshot of
the simulation run. The bandwidth and the number of
wavelengths on each multi-wavelength link are configured by
the specified values. The propagation delay of each link is
generated at random by the topology generator. The exponential
session traffic pairs are randomly distributed amongst all nodes,
which are displayed by the packet flows in nam.
In the snapshot the update events of the virtual topology are
captured and displayed in chronological order in the annotation
panel of the main window by the event monitor. For instance, at
7.009009s, a light path is created for the traffic session 0, from
node 0 to node 5 and the lightpath is established on the shortest
path (path1) between source and destination without
wavelength conversion.
2. MESH TOPOLOGY
the shortest path according to a certain constraint is two hops,

we include only paths up to three hops (plus one hop). The
path length limitation as used here reduces the algorithm
convergence time, by avoiding messages handling information
about paths with hop lengths larger than the limit.
Note that the number of hops is an intrinsic variable of the
adapted Bellman-Ford algorithm and is therefore advantageous
to use, but additionally also a limitation on the used constraints,
possibly combined by some cost-function, might be used to
further reduce the number of candidate paths.
In this example, we assume only nodes and links as network
elements. All nodes have the same properties per wavelength
along the network. Transmitters and receivers are modeled as
ideal. Due to the full connectivity, compared to the 9-node ring
network, this network is analyzed for higher loads. Also we
assume that reliability to be constant over time. Here, two
versions of DWP are used, one which uses a reduced set of
feasible paths, where DWP is used for wavelength allocation
only, and whiles the other considers all feasible paths, i.e.
where DWP is used for routing and wavelength allocation.
We next consider the example of a nine-node mesh network,

where a reduced set of pre-routed paths is introduced. To limit
the number of candidate feasible paths we define a hop limit
that automatically adapts to different connection requests and
network loads.
2.2 Snapshot of the simulation for the 9 node mesh topology
3. INTERCONNECTED RING TOPOLOGY
2.1.Mesh Topology
Therefore we use a limit relative to the number of hops of the

shortest path found, according to a single constraint. For
example, if a limit is defined in terms of number of hops and if
As an example of strong practical importance, we study

interconnection of networks, where, as specifically shown in
Figure 3.1, six ring networks are interconnected (denoted as 6
x 5). We believe that interconnected networks will be
increasingly important to study, since they will have to deal
with a variety of network technologies and architectures,
originating from different vendors and service providers. To
analyze
interconnected
networks
with
differentiated
Page 459
transmission impairments and service requirements, we
consider an example where networks are designed with four
different link types and the three link Parameters that are
considered for routing: transmission degradation, reliability and
delay.
4. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
In order to demonstrate that our approach performs better
than that reported in the literature and to investigate the
performance of algorithms, we must resort to simulation studies
based upon the ns-2.0 Network Simulator.
Not able to find a suitable simulator that could support our
proposed DWP algorithm, we designed and developed a
simulator to implement routing and wavelength assignment in
all-optical networks for various topologies such as ring , mesh
and interconnected rings. The simulator accepts input
parameters such as the number of nodes in the network, link
information with weight, number of wavelengths per fiber,
connection requests.
3.1 6x5-nodes network of interconnected rings

Figure 3.1 shows the distribution of different link types (Type
A, B, C, and D) along the example networks. . For the 6x5
network, we assumed five-node rings using links of Type A
only. They are interconnected by two node disjoint links of
Type B. Two link types are used for their long-haul
interconnection: Type C for connections to the next closest
neighbors, and Type D for connections diagonally
Some of the calls may be blocked because of the

unavailability of free wavelength on links along the route from
the source to the destination. The ratio of the total number
rejected requests (blocked calls) to the total number of light
path requests in the network is defined as the blocking
probability. The output of the simulator is the blocking
probability for the specified parameters along with the detailed
information of connections. All these parameters can be
initialized before running the simulations to obtain results for a
given selection of parameters. Extensive simulations are then
carried out for every combination of parameters of interest and
the results are obtained
.
4.1 Blocking probability Vs Number of nodes

4.1 Blocking probability Vs Number of nodes
3.2 Snapshot of the simulation for the 6x5 nodes interconnected
rings topology
When we analysis the call blocking probability with size of

the network (Number of nodes), the blocking probability
becomes almost constant with number of nodes. But the graph
Page 460
shows that DWP methods are useful for mesh networks, while
they bring less benefit for rings.
With increasing number of nodes, the blocking probability
decreases for mesh, and increases for ring networks. This is due
to that DWP can use one alternative path only in bi-directional
ring structures, which is N-n hops long (being number of nodes,
being length of the shortest path), with which, if selected, even
more network resources get allocated.
The call blocking probabilities are obtained as a function of

the traffic load arriving at the network for all topologies. Here,
the traffic arrival rate, traffic holding time and other conflicts
are kept constant. Then the graph is plotted between the load
and the blocking probability. There is no blocking probability
for low load arriving at the network for all network topologies.
When the arrival load to the system will be increased, leading to
a remarkable increase in the blocking occur in the Performance
Analysis of Constraint Based WDM Networks using DWP
Algorithm network due to the offered load.
4.2 Delay due to Network size

The time delay is obtained as a function of the network size for
various network topologies such as ring and mesh. Here, the
traffic load and other conflicts such as traffic arrival rate and
traffic holding time are kept as constant. Then graph is plotted
between the number of load and delay time. In the simulation,
we observed that, at low network size, the delay time I s low for
ring network and higher for mesh network. As the network size
increases the delay time increases for ring network than the
mesh network.
4.3 Blocking probability Vs Load

The mesh network shows lower blocking probability for higher
loads compared with other network topologies.
4.4 Blocking due to conflicts (Traffic arrival rate & Traffic
holding time)
Figure 4.2 Time delay Vs Number of nodes
This is due to the fact that with larger ring networks, larger
amounts of network resources are allocated and cause delay of
future calls whenever a service is accommodated and also DWP
can use one alternative path only in bi-directional ring
structures while it can use more candidate paths in mesh
structure.
4.3 Blocking due to Load
4.4 Blocking probability Vs network load in Erlang
Page 461
The call blocking probabilities are obtained as a function of
load in Erlang for the network for all topologies. Here, the
traffic load and other conflicts are kept constant. Then the graph
is plotted between the load in Erlang traffic and the blocking
probability.
At low arrival rates, primarily the load on the network causes
blocking; however, as the load in Erlang increases by increasing
the traffic arrival rate while the offered load remains constant,
the blocking due to load doesnt increase by much. However,
the blocking due to conflicting connection requests increases as
expected and becomes the dominant source of blocking for
networks with low loads. We also observe that, in the
simulation, the blocking due to load increases slightly as the
arrival rate increases. Although the offered load remains
constant, the actual network utilization is increasing, since
connections, which are blocked still reserve network resources
for a short period of time, leading to a slight increase in
blocking probability. Furthermore, during the connection setup
process when resources are being reserved, the reserved
resources will go unused for a short period of time before the
connection can begin transmitting data. This resource
reservation overhead will be higher when the connections are
established for shorter time duration, and the number of
connections being established is higher. Thus, as the arrival rate
increases, the overall load in the network will tend to increase.
4.5 Delay due to Conflicts Load in Erlang
Then graph is plotted between the delay time and the load in
Erlang. The load in Erlang is increased by increasing either
traffic arrival rate or traffic holding time. In the simulation, we
observed that, the delay time increases with load in Erlang. This
is due to the fact that, larger amounts of network resources are
allocated and cause delay of future calls whenever a service is
accommodated.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we proposed a new approach to constraintbased path selection for dynamic routing and wavelength
allocation in optical networks based on WDM. Our approach
considered service-specific path quality attributes, such as
physical layer impairments, reliability, policy and traffic
conditions. Here we considered dynamic routing method.
Although this method requires a long set of time, it is more
efficient than other methods term of blocking probability. To
validate the network modeling, we presented the detail of the
revised OWns architecture, which is designed to fulfill the key
characteristic of WDM network and we implemented the
behavior of DWP algorithm for dynamic routing and wave
length assignment problem for various networks such as ring,
mesh and interconnected topologies with no conversion and we
compared the behavior of blocking probability and packet delay
for various network topologies. The study of blocking and delay
is very useful to know about the suitable topology for various
network sizes, traffic offered load and load due to conflicting
factors of a network.
The time delay is obtained as a function of the load in Erlang

for various network topologies such as ring and mesh. Here,
the traffic load and other conflicts are kept as constant.
4.5 Blocking probability Vs Packet delay
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) A. Jukan, and Gerald Franzl, Path Selection Methods With
Multiple Constraints in Service-Guaranteed WDM Networks
IEEE/ACM TRANSACTIONS ON NETWORKING, vol
12,pp.59-71(2004).
2) A. Jukan and H. R. van As, Service-specific resource
allocation in WDM networks with quality constraints, IEEE J.
Select/AREAS COMMUNICATION, vol 18, pp. 2051
2061(2000).
3) J. P .Jue and Gaoxi Xiao, Analysis of Blocking Probability
for Connection Management Schemes in Optical Networks,
IEEE/ ACM TRANSACTIONS ON NETWORKING,vol 17,
pp.1546-1550(2005).
4) Ashwin Sridharan and Kumar N. Sivarajan, Blocking in
All-Optical Networks,IEEE/ACM TRANSACTIONS ON
NETWORKING, vol. 12,pp.384- 396 (2004).
Page 462
5) Paramjeet Singh,Ajay K. Sharma, Shaveta Rani, Routing
and
wavelength
assignment
strategies
in
optical
networkswww.sciencedirect.com/
OPTICAL
FIBER
TECHNOLOGY,vol.13, pp. 191197(2007).
6) Vinh Trong Le, Xiaohong Jiang, Yasushi Inoguchi, Son
Hong Ngoa, Susumu Horiguchib, A novel dynamic survivable
routing in WDM optical
networks with/without sparse wavelength conversion
www.sciencedirect.com/ OPTICAL SWITCHING AND
NETWORKING, vol.3,pp. 173190(2006).
7) C. Siva Rain Murthy and Mohan Guruswamy Chapter 4
Wavelength Rerouting Algolithms," WDM OPTICAL
NETWORKS Concepts De-sign
and Algorithms", PHI 2002.
8) R. Ramaswami, et al., Optical Networks: A Practical
Perspective, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc., 2002.
Mr. P. Poothathan, Senior Lecturer, Department of Physics,
Velammal College of Engg. & Tech., Madurai, completed his
M.Sc. Physics from Madurai Kamaraj University. He received
his M.Tech.
degree in Optoelectronics & Optical
communication from Rajiv Gandhi Techincal Univerisity,
Bhopal. He is having a rich 14 years of teaching experience. He
published many papers in various national and international
conferences. His areas of interest are optical communication
and Nano-computing.
Ms. S. Devipriya, she received her M.Sc., and M.Phil degrees
in Physics from the Pondicherry University, India, She is
currently working as a Lecturer in the Department of Physics at
Velammal College of Engg. & Tech., Madurai. She is having a
teaching experience of 5 years and her research areas of interest
are nonlinear Physics and Nanotechnology. She is an University
rank holder in II position in her M.Sc. Physics.
Dr. S. John Ethilton, Assistant Professor & Head, Department
of Physics, Velammal College of Engg. & Tech., Madurai. He
completed his M.Sc. Physics from Madurai Kamaraj University.
He obtained his doctoral degree from Manonmaniam
Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli. He is having totally 10
years of teaching experiences. He is having 3 international
publications and 1 national publication. His research interests
are Nanotechnology and fuel cells.
Page 463
Modeling of Cutting Parameters for Surface

Roughness in Machining
M. Aruna#1, P. Ramesh Kumar#2
#
Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Velammal College of Engineering and Technology,
Madurai, India.
1
mar@vcet.ac.in
rameshkumaredu@gmail.com
Abstract In the present-day research, Response Surface

Methodology is used to investigate the relationships and
parametric interactions among the three controllable variables,
namely cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut, on the Surface
roughness. Experiments are conducted on EN 24 steel with
Ceramic inserts. To study the proposed second-order polynomial
model for Surface roughness, the central composite experimental
design is used to estimate the coefficients of the three factors,
which are believed to influence the Surface roughness in
Machining process. The response was modeled using a Response
Surface Model based on experimental results. The significant
coefficients are obtained by performing Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) at 5% level of significance. It was found that Cutting
speed and feed rate have significant effect on the Surface
roughness. This methodology is very effectual, needs only 20
experiments to levy the conditions, and model sufficiency was
very satisfactory.
Keywords Response Surface Methodology (RSM), ANOVA,
Central Composite Design (CCD)
I.
INTRODUCTION
There is a heavy demand for the advanced materials with
high strength, high hardness, high temperature resistance and
high strength to weight ratio, in the present-days
technologically advanced industries like, Automobile,
Aeronautics, Nuclear, Gas Turbine Industries etc. This
necessity leads to evolution of advance materials like High
strength alloys, Ceramics, Fibre-reinforced composites etc. In
machining of these materials, conventional manufacturing
processes are increasingly being replaced by more advanced
techniques, and it is difficult to attain good surface finish and
close tolerance. The appropriate range of feeds and cutting
speeds, which provide a satisfactory tool life, is very limited
[1,2].
Machinability of material provides an indication of its
adaptability to be manufactured by a machining process. In
general, machinability can be defined as an optimal
combination of factors such as low cutting force, high material
removal rate, good surface integrity, accurate and consistent
workpiece geometrical characteristics; low tool feed rate and
good curling of chip and breakdown of chips [3].
Therefore, it is troublesome to establish a model that can

accurately predict the performance by correlating the process
parameters. The optimum processing parameters are very
much essential to boost up the production rate by a large
extent and to shrink the machining time, since the advance
materials are costlier, when compared to ordinary materials.
Improving the surface quality in the advance materials is still
a challenging problem.
Little research has been reported about machining on
EN 24 steel using Surface Response Methodology. In this
work, surface response approach is used for development
of a model and analysis of surface roughness, with cutting
speed, feed rate and depth of cut as input parameters. A
Central Composite Design (CCD) for combination of
variables and response surface method (RSM) has been
used to analyze the effect of the three parameters [4,5].
The ceramic cutting tools can be operated at higher
cutting speeds than carbides and cermets for increased
productivity and material removal rates. Experiments are
conducted on hardened EN 24 steel with the hardness 40
HRC using toughened alumina cutting tool and Ti[C,N]
mixed alumina ceramic tool. Flank wear models are
developed and tool life analysis is done using the models
[6]. Also, Experiments are conducted on S.G.Iron
workpiece in a high speed lathe. The machinability of the
S.G.Iron with ZTA cutting tool was evaluated in terms of
the surface finish of the turned workpiece, flank wear of
the cutting tool insert and cutting force during machining.
The surface finish increases with cutting speed and the
flank wear increases with cutting time and cutting speed [7].
The Taguchi and Shainin experimental design processes are
also available for obtaining optimum cutting parameters.
But still, it seems that the RSM approach would yield much
better results. [8].
II.
EXPERIMENTATION
A number of experiments were conducted to study the
effects of various machining parameters on Machining
process. These studies have been undertaken to investigate
the effects of cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut on
Page 464
surface roughness. In this work, EN 24 steel is considered
as work piece material and its composition is given
inTable1.
TABLE. 1
COMPOSITION OF EN 24 STEEL
Si
Mn
Cr
Mo
Ni
0.35-0.45 0.01-0.35 0.45-0.7 0.9-1.4 0.2-0.35 1.25-1.75
Designation: 40 Ni 2 Cr 1 Mo 28
In these methods, there is a possibility that the experiments

will stop with fairly few runs and decide that the prediction
model is satisfactory. Experiments have been carried out on
the machining set up and the data were collected with respect
to the influence of the predominant process parameters on
surface roughness. 20 experiments are conducted and the
value of surface roughness with design matrix is tabulated in
the Table.3.
TABLE. 3
PLANNING MATRIX OF THE EXPERIMENTS WITH THE OPTIMAL
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
III.
RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY
Response surface methodology (RSM) is a collection of
mathematical and statistical techniques that are useful for
modelling and analysis of problems in which output or
response influenced by several variables and the goal is to find
the correlation between the response and the variables. It can
be used for optimising the response [9,10,11]. It is an
empirical modelization technique devoted to the evaluation of
relations existing between a group of controlled experimental
factors and the observed results of one or more selected
criteria. A prior knowledge of the studied process is thus
necessary to achieve a realistic model.
The first step of RSM is to define the limits of the
experimental domain to be explored. These limits are made as
wide as possible to obtain a clear response from the model.
The cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are the
machining variables, selected in this investigation. The
different levels retained for this study are depicted in Table 2.
In the next step, the planning to accomplish the
experiments by means of Response Surface Methodology
(RSM) using a Central Composite Design (CCD) with three
variables, eight cube points, four central points, six axial
points and two centre points in axial, in total 20 runs are
carried out. Total number of experiments conducted with the
combination of machining parameters is presented in Table 2.
The levels of significant are depicted in this Table. The
Central Composite Design is used, since it gives a
comparatively accurate prediction of all response variables
related to quantities measured during experimentation. CCD
offers the advantage that certain level adjustments are allowed
and can be used in two-step chronological response surface
methods [12].
Run
Ra (m)
1.00000
-1.00000
1.00000
0.678
-1.00000
1.00000
-1.00000
0.589
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
1.366
1.68179
0.00000
0.00000
0.510
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.866
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
1.051
1.00000
-1.00000
-1.00000
0.483
0.00000
0.00000
-1.68179
0.716
1.00000
1.00000
-1.00000
0.983
10
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.516
11
-1.68179
0.00000
0.00000
0.561
12
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.983
13
-1.00000
-1.00000
-1.00000
0.489
14
0.00000
0.00000
1.68179
0.733
15
0.00000
1.68179
0.00000
0.689
16
0.00000
-1.68179
0.00000
0.438
17
-1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.923
TABLE. 2
DIFFERENT VARIABLES USED IN THE EXPERIMENTATION AND THEIR LEVELS
18
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.899
19
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.466
20
-1.00000
-1.00000
1.00000
0.456
Variable
Cutting Speed (m/min)

Feed rate (mm/rev)
Depth of cut (mm)
Coding
A
B
C
Level
1
2
3
(-1)
(0)
(1)
80
110 140
0.04 0.06 0.08
0.4 0.45 0.5
The mathematical model is then developed that illustrate

the relationship between the process variable and response.
The behaviour of the system is explained by the following
empirical second-order polynomial model.
Page 465
= b x +b x + b x + b x + b x + b x +b x +b x .
2
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
12 12
13 13
23 23
11 11
(1)
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the adequacy of the

model is then performed in the subsequent step.
TABLE. 4
ANOVA TABLE FOR SURFACE ROUGHNESS, ESTIMATED REGRESSION
Source
Regression
DF
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
0.49487
0.494868
0.054985
0.76
0.652
Linear
0.24668
0.246681
0.082227
1.14
0.378
Square
0.23974
0.239742
0.079914
1.11
0.390
Interaction
0.00844
0.008445
0.002815
0.04
0.989
Residual Error
10
0.71925
0.719246
0.071925
Lack-of-Fit
0.13928
0.139282
0.027856
0.24
0.928
Pure Error
0.57996
0.579963
0.115993
Total
19
1.21411
F value indicates that the variation of the process parameters

makes a big change on the surface roughness and p denotes its
TABLE. 5
COEFFICIENTS FOR SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Term
Coef
SE Coef
Constant
0.87157
0.10938
7.968
0.000
0.03663
0.07257
0.505
0.625
0.12522
0.07257
1.726
0.115
0.03226
0.07257
0.445
0.666
A*A
- 0.09969
0.07065
-1.411
0.189
B*B
-0.08979
0.07065
-1.271
0.233
C*C
-0.03286
0.07065
0.465
0.652
A*B
0.01925
0.09482
0.203
0.843
A*C
-0.02375
0.09482
-0.250
0.807
B*C
0.01100
0.09482
0.116
0.910
R-Sq = 40.76% R-Sq(adj) = 0.00%
The ANOVA Table for the curtailed quadratic model for

surface roughness is shown in Table 4. The F ratio is
calculated for 95% level of confidence. The value which are
less than 0.05 are considered significant and the values greater
than 0.05 are not significant.
Table 4 indicates that the model is adequate since P values
of lack-of-fit are not significant and F-statistics is 0.24. This
implies that the model could fit and that it is adequate.
From Table 5, the reduced model results indicate that the
model is significant (R2 and adjusted R2 are 40.76% and 0.0%,
respectively). The R2 value indicates that the machining
parameters explain 40.76% of variance in surface roughness.
This value indicates that the presented model fits the data well.
The p-value shows that the model, linear terms and
squared terms are non significant at -level of 0.005 influence
on surface roughness. The results predicted by regression
model are compared with experimental measurements. Larger
percent contribution on surface roughness. Also, owing to the

p-value of interaction is 0.928(>0.05), one can easily deduce
that the interactions of distinct design variables are not
significant. In other words, the most dominant design
variables have minimum interaction with others in the current
text.
The final response equation for surface roughness is given
as follows.
Surface roughness=0.720+0.0366A+0.125B+0.0323
(C2)
The final model tested for variance analysis (F-test)

indicates that the adequacy of the test is established. For
analysing the data, the checking of goodness of fit of the
model is very much required. The model adequacy checking
includes the test for significance of the regression model, test
for significance on model coefficients, and test for lack of fit.
For this purpose, analysis of variance (ANOVA) is
performed. The fit summary recommended that the quadratic
model is statistically significant for analysis of surface
roughness. This implies that the proposed model is adequate
to illustrate the pattern of surface roughness.
IV.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The effect of the machining parameters (cutting speed,
feed rate and depth of cut) on the response variable surface
roughness has been evaluated by conducting experiments. The
results are put into the Minitab software for further analysis.
Figure.1 shows the estimated response surface for surface
roughness in relation to the process parameters of cutting
speed and feed rate.
It can be seen from the figure, the surface roughness tends
to increase, significantly with increase in feed rate and
maximum surface roughness is obtained at medium speeds.
Page 466
Also in Fig. 1, in the 3D graphics, it can be seen that when the
cutting speed is low and the feed rate is high the surface
roughness is in its maximums. The 3D surface graphs for the
surface roughness which have curvilinear profile in
accordance to the quadratic model are obtained and the
adequacy of the model is thus verified.
Surface Plot of SURFACE ROUGHNESS vs B, A

Hold Values
C 0
In the Fig. 2, between the cutting speed and feed rate, with
their elliptical shape, there is a strong, positive, second degree
relationship.
V.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study develops surface roughness models for
three different parameters namely cutting speed, feed rate and
depth of cut for machining process of EN 24 steel using
response surface method. The second-order response models
have been validated with analysis of variance. It is found that
all the three machining parameters and some of their
interactions have significant effect on surface roughness
considered in the present study. With the model equations
obtained, a designer can subsequently select the best
combination of design variables for achieving optimum
surface roughness. This eventually will reduce the machining
time and save the cutting tools.
References
0.75
[1]
FA CE ROUGHNESS
0.50
0.25
1
0
0.00
-2
-1
-1
0
A
[2]
-2
[3]
[4]
Fig. 1 Surface plot of surface roughness vs B, A
Fig. 2 Example
of of
anSURFACE
unacceptable
low-resolution
Contour Plot
ROUGHNESS
vs B, A image
1.5
Fig. 3 Example of an image with
1.0
0.5
SURFACE
ROUGHNESS
< 0.2
0.2 0.4
acceptable resolution
0.4 0.6
0.6 0.8
> 0.8
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
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[9]
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[11]
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A
0.5
1.0
1.5
Fig. 2 Contour plot of surface roughness vs B, A
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22nd & 23rd July 2010

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