8.1.1 Block Diagram of Electronic Communication System Answer following questions after reading this topic 1. Draw and explain the block diagram of electronic communication system. 2. What is noise? Any electronic communication system can be represented in its basic form, as shown in the Fig. 82. Fig. 8.2 Block diagram of communication system The basic components of communication systems are transmitter, a communication channel or medium, and a receiver. Noise is inherently present in the channel or medium. It gets added to the information being communicated. ‘The elements of communication system are as follows : © Information * Transmitter * Communication channel or medium * Noise * Receiver Information The communication systems communicate messages. The mi information sources. The two main sources of information are the ideas emanating from the human brain and changes in any physical environment. It may contain human voice, picture, code, data, musie and their combinations. The amount of information contained in any given message is measured in bits or dits. To have a better communication system, selective, but all information must be communicated with no redundancy since we know no real information can be conveyed by a redundant message. Transmitter The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium. Most of thetimes message that comes from information source is non-electrical and therefore it is not suitable for immediate transmission. Such messages need to be coded or processed before transmission and also require suitable transducers to convert them into electrical signals. The built-in circuitry such as decoders, encoders, transducers, etc. in the transmission makes incoming information suitable for transmission and subsequent reception. The most of the transmitters have built-in amplifier circuits. These circuits amplify the incoming signals (information) before transmission which help in faithful reception of the transmitted information at the receiver end Communication channel The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is transmitted from one place to another. The communication medium can be a pair of conducting wire, coaxial cable, optical fibre cable or free space. Noise Noise is random, undesirable rlectric energy that enters the communication system via the medium and interferes with the transmitted message. Some noise is also produced in the receiver. Noise can be either natural or man-made. Natural noise includes noise produced in nature, eg. from lighting during rainy season, or noise due to radiations produced by the sun and the other stars. Man-made noise is the noise produced by electric ignition systems of cars, electric motors, fluorescent lights, ete. Noise is one of the serious problems of electronic communication. It cannot be completely eliminated. However, there are ways to deal with noise, and reduce the possibility of degradation of signal duc to noise. Recolver A receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to the original information. It consists of amplifier, detector, mixer, oscillator, transducer and so on. 8.1.2 Classification of Communication Systems 1. Explain the classification of communication system, 2. Define simplex, half duplex and full duplex communication Most likely andl Important systems, 3. Define analog and digital communication systems. 4. Define wireless and wired communication systems. 5. What is baseband communication ? What are its limitations? 6. What ls modulation?Classification based on the transmission technique used Baseband transmission : Although digital transmission can be made up of signal that originated in digital form, such as computer data; analog signals can be converted into digital form and then transmitted. Regardless of whether the original information signals are analog or digital, they are all referred to as “baseband signals”. In a communication system, the original information signals (bascband signals) may be transmitted over the medium. Putting the original signal directly into the medium is referred to as “baseband transmission”. The common example is telephony, especially for the local ealls. Here the voice signal, converted into electrical form, is placed on the wires and transmitted over some distance to the receiver. In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied directly to coaxial cables for transmission to another computer. Limitations of baseband transmission There are many instances when the baseband signals ae incompatible for ditect transmission over the medium. For example, vaice signals cannot travel longer distances in air, the signal gets attenuated rapidly. Hence for transmission of baseband signals by radio, modulation technique has to be used. Transmission using modulation When we want to travel from one city to another city we prefer travelling by bus or by car, or by train or by plane rather than walking throughout. That means we prefer some kind of carrier which takes us to the destination. Similarly, in electronic communication system, a high frequency signal called the carrier signal is used to transmit baseband signal to the destination. Here, modulation technique is used to transmit the information signal. In the modulation process, the baseband signal (such as voice, video etc.) modifies carrier signal (high frequency sine wave signal). At the receiving end, the information signal is separated from carrier signal.8.3 Wired and Wireless Communication Systems Answer following questions after reading this topic 1, Explain the wired communication. 2. Explain the wireless communication. Most beely and, Important Questions We have seen that depending on the type of communication medium the communication system can be classified as : * Wired communication or Line communication. «Wireless communication or Radio communication. 8.3.1 Wired Communication In its simplest form, the medium may simply be a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to another, The common examples are telegraphy and telephony, where actually two physical wires or conductors are run between the transmitter and receiver. Nowadays, the communication medium for telephony is a fiber-optic cable, carrying the message on a light wave. ‘The coaxial cables are preferred over a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to other. They provide greater bandwidth, lower losses and much lower crosstalk. The fiber optic cable is a logical extension of coaxial cable, which allows high operating frequencies and provides even greater bandwidths. Optical fibers are used for light and infrared transmissions. An optic fiber is a piece of very thin, highly pure glass, with an outside cladding of glass that is similar but, because of a slightly different chemical composition, has a different refractive index. This is known as a step index fiber, with a core diameter in the range of 2 to 200 jim. The communication system with fiber optic cables are virtually immune to crosstalk and electromagnetic interference, unlike coaxial cables. They are also cheaper than systems with coaxial cables. 8.3.2 Wireless / Radio Communication Radio is the broad general term applied to any form of wireless communication ‘between two points. Radio communication is @ wireless communication, requiring no physical wires between transmitter and receiver to carry the signal; on the contrary, the signal is sent through free space or air, Radio communication essentially requires two antennas, one at transmitting end and the other at the receiving end. Using transmitting antenna, the transmitter transmits the signal over a carrier wave in the form of electromagnetic waves into the free space. The receiver picks up the signal by means of receiving aerial and separates the signal from the carrier. The medium attenuates the signal and causes it to appear much lower in amplitude at the receiver. Considerableamplification of the signal, both at the transmilter and the receiver, becomes essential for successful communication. Radio communication makes possible communication over very very long distances, even from earth to moon. 8.4 IEEE / Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum Answer following questions after reading this topic What is electromagnetic spectrurn ? . Define frequency and wavelength. Mostly and |. What is radio frequency ? Important |. Draw the radio frequency spectrum. Questions Whet are the applications of following frequency bands in communication fietd ? ) LF il) ME iti) VHF iv) UHF In wireless communication, clectromagnetic waves are used as a media of transfer of information. Thus in such a communication, the information signal is converted into the electromagnetic signal before transmission. The electromagnetic waves consist of both electric and magnetic fields and they can travel a long distance through space. The range of all possible frequencies of EM waves is called the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. The Fig. 8.5 shows the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum, shown in the Fig. 8.5 extends from just below the frequencies used for modem radio (at the long-wavelength end) to gamma radiation (at the short-wavelength end), covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometres down to fractions of the size of an atom. It is commonly said that EM waves beyond these limits are uncommon, although this is not actually true. In our universe the short wavelength limit is likely to be the Planck length, and the long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, though in principle the spectrum is infinite. See Fig, 8.5 on the next page. 8.4.1 Frequency and Wavelength ‘The frequency is defined as the number of cycles of a waveform per second. It is expressed in hertz. * Wavelength is defined as the distance travelled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle. Electromagnetic energy at a particular wavelength has an associated frequency f and photon energy E. Thus, the electromagnetic spectrum may be expressed equally, well in terms of any of these three quantities. They are related according to the equations Wave speed (c) = Frequency x Wavelength8.5 Need for Modulation Answer following questions after reading this tople jique. ) Most likely and Important We have seen that baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium and therefore we have to use modulation technique for the communication of baseband signal. The advantages of using modulation technique are as given below : + Reduces the height of antenna * Avoids mixing of signals 1, What is the necessity of modulation? 2. Explain the advantages using modulation techni Increases the range of communication * Allows multiplexing of signals + Allows adjustments in the bandwidth + Improves quality of reception. 1, Reduces the height of antenna ‘The height of the antenna required for transmission and reception of radio waves in radio transmission is a function of wavelength of the frequency used. The minimum height of the antenna is given as 2/4. The wavelength 2 is given as, As ain where _¢ is the velocity of light and fis the frequency. From the above equation it can be casily noticed that at low frequencies wavelength is very high and hence the antenna height. For example, consider the baseband signal with f=15 kHz. Then c Height of antenna = Ta 3x10 15x10? x4 = 5000 metresThis 5000 metres height of a vertical antenna is unthinkable and unpracticable. On the other hand, if we consider a modulated signal with 1 MHz frequency in the broadcast band the height of antenna is given as = Wt Height of antenna = 4 ea 3x108 1x10° x4 = 75 metres This height of antenna is practical and such antenna can be installed. 2. Avoids mixing of signals All sound signals are concentrated within the range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The transmission of baseband signals from various sources causes the mixing of signal and then it is difficult to separate at the receiver end. In order to separate the various signals, it is necessary to translate them all to different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (channel); each must be given its own bandwidth commonly known as channel bandwidth. This can be achieved by taking different carrier frequency for different signal source as shown in the Fig. 8.6. Once the signals have been transmitted, a tuned circuit at the receiver end selects the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum it is tuned for. Therefore modulating different signal sources by different carrier frequencies avoid mixing of signals. Signal 1 Modulated Signal? Modulated ‘Signal 3 Medulated | . with carr of with carrier of ‘wth cartier of Signal.t Frequency 100 kHz 200 kHz 300 kHz o 120 kHz ! 1 i i t Signal 2 t Frequency * 01 120 kHz ' frequency Signal 3 sok © © 120i 180k © 220M 280KH2 © 320 ke | | Frequency ; ae (ili 1 Leet Lt Lat o 1 20 kHz ‘Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3 5 . bandwidth bandwidth bandwidth Fig. 8.6 Modulation avoids mixing of signals3. Increases the range of communication At low frequencies radiation is poor and signal gets highly attenuated. Therefore baseband signals cannot be transmitted directly over long distance. Modulation effectively increases the frequency of the signal to be radiated and thus increases the distance over which signals can be transmitted faithfully. 4, Allows multiplexing of signals The modulation permits multiplexing to be used. Multiplexing means transmission of two or more signals simultaneously over the same channel. The common examples of multiplexing are the number of Television channels operating simultaneously or number of radio stations broadcasting the signal in MW and SW band, simultaneously. The different signals from different stations can be separated in the receiver since the carrier frequencies for these signals are different. lt is commonly known as tuning the receiver to the desired station. By tuning process, the desired signal is selected and at the same time, other unwanted signals are rejected. 5. Allows adjustments in the bandwidth Bandwidth of a modulated signal may be made smaller or larger than the original signal. Signal to noise ratio in the receiver which is a function of the signal bandwidth can thus be improved by proper control of the bandwidth at the modulating stage. 6. Improves quality of reception The signal communication using modulation techniques such as frequency modulation, pulse code modulation reduce the effect of noise to great extent. Reduction in noise improves the quality of reception.Types of modulation: Modulation > Continuous-wave modulation Pulse modulation ! ! Amplitude modulation Angle modulation Pulse-analog Pulse-digital | Modulation modulatio: | | KN 4 PCM DPCM DM DSB-SC SSB VSB PAM | | PWM/PDM/PLM Frequency modulation Phase modulation WB FM NB FMAmplitude Modulation Objectives After reading this chapter you can: Recognize an AM signal in the time domain (oscilloscope display), the frequency domain (spectral display), or in trigonometric equation form. Do analysis of AM signal and calculate modulation index and percentage of modulation. Calculate the upper and lowersidebandsand their power requirements of an AMsignal. Do voltage and current calculation in AM wave Calculate modulation index and power requirements of an AM signal for modulation by several sine waves. Describe nonsinusoidal modulation. Understand AM modulator and demodulator circuits. Draw and describe the block diagram of AM transmitter with high level and low level modulation. Explain the AM broadcast transmitter and its requirements. Inchapter 1 we have seen the definition and meaning of modulation in general as well as the need for modulation and different types of modulation. The oldest and simplest form of modulation is AM. In this chapter AM is discussed in detail. 2.1 Amplitude Modulation In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by the modulating signal. Here, information signal is the modulating signal and high frequency signal which is being modulated is the carrier signal. Formally, AM is defined as system of modulation in which the instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal. Fig. 2.1 shows a single frequency sine wave modulating a higher frequency carrier signal. Looking at Fig. 2.1 we can see that the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant during modulation process but its amplitude varies in accordance with the modulating signal. (6)given below.Instantaneous value of carrier signal e. = Esinat where e- = instantaneous amplitude E, = maximum amplitude @¢ = 2nf, = angular frequency and fe = frequency of carrier signal Instantaneous value of amplitude modulated signal Using above given mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals, we can create a new mathematical expression for the complete modulated wave, as given below Eam = Ec tem = Ep tEm sinamt vem =Emsin ot The instantaneous value of the amplitude modulated wave can be given as cam = Eam sind = Ea sinegt = (Eo +E sinamt) sin act 2.1.2 Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation for Sinusoidal AM Looking at Fig. 2.1 we can visualize that something unusual (distortion) will occur if Emm is greater than E.. Therefore, the modulating signal voltage E,, must be less than the carrier voltage E, for proper Amplitude Modulation. This relationship between the amplitudes of the modulating and carrier signals is important and it is expressed in terms of their ratio, commonly known as modulation index (m). It is also called modulation factor, modulation coefficient or the degree of modulation. The m is the ratio of the modulating signal voltage to the carrier voltage : The modulation index is a number lying between 0 and 1, anditis very often expressed as a percentage and called the percentage modulation. 2.1.3 Frequency Spectrum of the AM Wave The modulated carrier has new signals at different frequencies, called side frequencies or sidebands, occur in the frequency spectrum directly above and below the carrier frequency. fusp = fet+fm fuss = fe —fm The upper sideband is called fygp and lower sideband is called fpsp.‘Now we will see the existence of sideband frequencies in the amplitude modulated wave with mathematical expression. Let us recall the expression for the instantaneous value of the amplitude modulated wave : CAM = (Ec +Em Sinomt) sin oct ef) We know that, ma Eo Ee Em = mE ‘Substituting value of Ej, in equation we get, CAM = (E_ tmE, sinwmt) sinagt = E,(14msinomt) sinagt -.(2) = E,sinagt+mE, sinwmtsin act «(3) Equation (3) can be further expanded, by means of the trigonometrical relation : [sina sinb= Zoos (a) coe +8} togive TEE cos{e—Om)t | (4) ee Lower side band Upper side band = E,sinw,t+ mee COS(e ~ Wyn Jt - carrier Looking at equation 4, we can say that first term represents unmodulated carrier and ‘two additional terms represents two sidebands. The frequency of the lower sideband (LSB) is f, —f,,, and the frequency of the upper sideband (USB) is f, +fp- Bandwidth of AM wave We know bandwidth can be measured by subtracting lowest frequency of the signal from the highest frequency of the signal. For amplitude modulated wave it is given by, Bw = fusp-fisp = (fe + fm) (fe fm) Therefore the bandwidth required for the amplitude modulation is twice the frequency of the modulating signal. Ex.2.1: Calculate the modulation index and percentage modulation if instantaneous voltages of modulating signal and carrier are £0 sin ryt and 50 sin wet, respectively. = Fm 50 a Percentage modulation = 0.8x100 = 80% Sol. ; Modulation index m =0.8Ex. 2.2: The tuned circuit of the oscillator in a simple AM transmitter employs a 40H coil anda 12 nanofarad (nF) capacitor. If the oscillator output is modulated by audio frequency of SkHz, what are the lower and upper sideband frequency artd the bandwidth required to transmit this amplitude modulated wave ? i 2nJLC 95, 40% 107 x12«10 = 230kHz fusp = 23045 =235 kHz fusp = 230-5 = 225 kHz Bandwidth = fysg-fusp = 235-225 = 10 kHz Sol: f= 2.1.4 Representation of AM Wave In this section we are going to represent AM wave in frequency domain as well as in time domain. 2.1.4.1 Frequency Domain Fig. 2.2 shows the frequency spectrum af AM wave. Here, horizontal axis represents frequency, and the vertical axis represents the amplitudes of the signals, A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency is referred to as a frequency domain display. Frequency f& fuse = erty) = ert ——~! Bandwidth= = =—— 1 Bat 2hy Fig. 2.2 Frequency spectrum of AM wave 2.1.4.2 Time Domain The appearance of the amplitude modulated wave can be seen in its time domain display. Fig. 2.3 shows the amplitude modulated wave in time domain. Here, horizontal axis represents time, and the vertical axis represents the amplitude of the signals. A plot of signal amplitude versus time is referred to as a time domain display. They are what you see displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope.Fig. 2.3 Amplitude modulated wave As shown in the Fig. 2.3 the positive and negative peaks of the carrier waveform are interconnected with an imaginary line to recreate the exactshape of the modulating signal. This imaginary line on the carrier waveform is known as the envelope, and it is the same as the modulating signal. 2.1.4.3 Calculating the Modulation Index using AM wave We know that, m= a, with this relation we can calculate the modulation index from © the amplitude modulated waveform, as shown in the Fig. 2.3. Looking at Fig. 2.3 we can write, B= “nasi 0) and E, = Emax -Em w) By substituting value of E,, in equation 2 we get, w Big -(Fanjtan) = 2Emax - Emax +Emin 2 Emax +E mi E, = =a Sain 3)Now dividing equation 1 by equation 3, Em _ (Emax Emin )/2 fc (Emax + Emin )/2 We have, m= Ee E Em m= --(4) +E min ation 4 gives the standard method for calculating modulation index from the ampli ae P oduleted "9 aveform which may be displayed on the screen of the oscilloscope. Ex.23: Show the AM modulated waveform for the modulation index 0.75, 1 and 1.25. Sol.: a) Form =075¥* yy 2125 t « Fig. 8.11 (c) For m = 1.25 8.7.4.4 Concept of Overmodulation In the previous example we have seen that when modulation index is 1.25, amplitude modulated wave is distorted. This distortion is due to overmodulation. In AM wave overmodulation takes place when modulation index exceeds 1, ie. when V,,>V,. In overmodulated AM wave for some part of time, amplitude of wave is zero and during this time, the amplitude of the carrier signal is not proportional to the amplitude of modulating signal. This results loss of information in the AM wave and hence the overmodulation must be avoided. 8.7.4.5 Trapezoidal Display of AM Wave We have seen in the time domain display we get the AM envelope on the screen of the oscilloscope and we can measure the modulation index of the AM wave. There is an another improved method for the measurement of modulation index directly on an oscilloscope. This method is known as trapezoidal method. In this method, modulated wave is applied to the vertical deflection circuit of the oscilloscope and the modulating signal is applied to the horizontal deflection circuit. With these connections we get the display as shown in the Fig. 8.12.2.4.4 Phasor Representation of AM with Carrier Figure 2.5 shows the phasor representation of an AM with carrier, mVe Om Vandt) mac 2 Fig. 2.5 Phasor representation of AM with carrier It is the easy way of representation of an AM wave, where V, is the carrier wave phasor, taken as reference phasor, The two side bands having a frequency of (@,+ @,,) and (0, - @,,) are represented by two phasors rotating in opposite directions with angular frequency of @,, The resultant phasor is V(r). Itdepends on the position of the side-band phasor and carrier wave phasor. 2.4.5 Degrees of Modulation The modulating signal is preserved in the envelope of amplitude-modulated signal, Only if Vo SV then, m <1 m=V, a where V,, = Maximum amplitude of modulating signal, and V, = Maximum amplitude of carrier signal. There are three degrees of modulation depending upon the amplitude of the message signal relative to carrier amplitude. 1, Under-modulation 2. Critical modulation 3. Overmodulation 1. Under-modulation In this case, the modulation index ism,< I, ie. ve < Me I shown in Figure 2.6. Here, the envelope of an AM signal does not reach the zero-amplitude axis. Hence, the message signal is fully preserved in the envelope of an AM wave. This is known as under- modulation. An cnvelope detector can recover the message signal without any distortion.Vaal!) 5 7" ill i lit dal i, 4 08 I, i tl a My EET TET! | ! r 1 | 16 Fig.2.6 Under-modulation 2. Critical Modulation In this case, the modulation index is m, = 1, ie, V,,=V,. Itis shown in Figure 2.7, Here, the envelope of the modulating signal just reaches the zero-amplitude axis. The message signal remains preserved. This is known as critical modulation In this case also, the modulated signal can be recovered by using an envelope detector without any distortion, Maaa(t) 2 ast { in : : [ os - ol A 05 | = 1 =15 [ 7—+ r t -2l Fig.2.7 Critical modulation 3. Overmodulation In this case, the modulation index is m,> 1, ie, V,, > V,. Itis shown in Figure 2.8. In overmodulation, the message signal cannot be fully recovered without any distortion. Vaal) n | I I | | | | | Fig. 2.8 Over-modulation2.1.5 Average Power for Sinusoidal AM We have scen that, AM wave has three components : Unmodulated carrier, lower sideband and upper sideband. Therefore the total power of AM wave is the sum of the carrier power, P, and powers in the two sidebands Pysp, and Pigg. It is given as Prowt = Pe +Puse +Pisp 2 2 2 Ecar” , Exsp” , Esp’ R R R where all three voltages represent r.m.s. values, and resistance R is a characteristic impedance of antenna in which the power is dissipated. 1. Carrier power The carrier power is given as, 2 Boas p= Eso (fe /2) R The average carrier power = 2. Power in side band Similarly, average power for two sidebands can be given as. Eso 2 Pisp = Puss =—>— me, }? (a) et eee tbe V2 | "R + ESB m? E2 Psu =Puss = GR From the above equation we can realize that transmission efficiency increases as modulation index increase. In other words, we can say that increase in modulation index increase the information power (Pisg +Pugg) in the total power. As a result strong signalis received at the receiving end for large modulation index. Hence, it is desirable to have higher modulation index. However, to avoid overmodulation it should be less than 1. 252 Pysp =Fusp = ——e = «—& ER 2R 1 “9 We know that, 3. Total power The average total power Pyoig) = This equation relates the total power of amplitude modulated wave with the power of unmodulated carrier. The maximum possible value of m in the amplitude modulated wave is 1, therefore from above equation it can be seen that the maximum total power of amplitude modulated wave is 1.5 Pp.It has been shown earlier that when a carrier is modulated with a single sine wave, the resulting frequency spectrum consists of a carrier and two side bands. It has also been shown in this Section that total power contained in a modu- lated wave is given by 2 P. =P, [1+ par (14) where P, is total power, P, carrier power and m is the modulation index. At 100% modulation the total power Py = Po (i+4) = 32 Pc. The carrier contains 2/3 of the total power but it contains no information. The carrier can be suppressed without any detriment to information carrying capacity of the modulated wave thereby resulting in a saving of 66% of the total power. The carrier can, of course, be reconstructed at the receiver. 2 The power contained in the two side bands is P, i and both the side bands carry the same information and are mirror image of each other. If only one of the side bands is transmitted it will result in a further saving of 50% of the remaining power after the carrier is suppressed. The system in which one of the sidebands is suppressed is called the Single- sideband or SSB. If the carrier and one of the sideband is suppressed the system is called Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier System (SSB-SC). This system has many advantages and has been adopted by many communi- cation systems. Besides saving considerable amount of power, it results in bandwidth saving and can transmit good quality communication signal at low power and narrow bandwidth.4. Modulation index interms of Pog.) and Py Using above equation we can represent modulation index in terms of Pro.) and P, m? We know that, Protaa = Pe ie 2 Phot 2 y4M7 R 2 mm , Mout, 2 Pe5. Transmission effeciency The transmission efficiency of the AM wave is defined as the ratio of the transmitted power which contains the information (i.e. sum of lower side band and upper sideband power) to the total transmitted power (Potal)- Transmission efficiency = y = ise +Fuse Protal :, The percentage transmission efficiency is given as 2. % n= — 5x10 % 24m Ex. 24: An audio frequency signal 10 sin 2 nx 5001 is used to amplitude modulate a carrier of 50sin 2-105, Calctlate i) Modulation index ii) Sideband frequencies iii) Amplitude of each sideband frequencies iv) Bandwidth required 2) Total power delivered to the load of 6000 vi) Transmission efficiency (Dec-94) Sol.: i) Modulation Index: Given em = lsin2nx500t ee = 50sin2InxlO>t ‘ Em.= 10 and E, =50We know that, Modulation Indexm = Em = 10 FE, 50 = 02 and percentage modulation = 02x100 = 20% ii) Sideband frequencies Given: Om = 2nx500 . fm = 500 Hz and @ = 2nx10% ‘ f= 100 kHz fuse = fe +fm = 100kHz +500 = 100500 Hz = 100.5 kEtz and fisn = fe —fm = 100 kHz-500 = 99500 Hz = 99.5 kHz iii) Amplitude of each sideband frequencies Amplitude of upper and lower sidebands = mE, _ 0.250 2 z =5V iv) Bandwidth required Bw = fuss ~fisp = 10500-99500 = 1000Hz v) Total power delivered into a load of 600.2 p 2 2 We know that, Pros = ee (! =| = £50? (02)? 2« 600 2 = 2.125 watts vi) Transmission efficiency 2+m(02)? ~ 2402) = 0.0196 s % 1 = 0.0196 «100 = 196% Ex.2.5: A 400 watt carrier is modulated to a depth of 80%. Calculate the total power in the modulated wave. Sol. : fea 3 nie a = 528 watts Ex. 2.6: A broadcast transmitter radiates 20 kilowatts when tre modulation percentage is 75. How much of this is carrier power ? Also calculate the porwer of each sidebands We know that Protat P, = Sideband power is given as 2 2 n (0.75y = p,| 2 |=156) f=) sa ( 4 ) ( 4 = 22kW Puss = Pisp = 2.2kW 2.1.6 Effective Voltage and Current for Sinusoidal AM. We can calculate power dissipated in the load in three ways : P= Ext P= E7/R P=PR where E is the voltage at the antenna, I is the antenna current in rms value and Ris the characteristic resistance of the antenna. Using above relations we can write power equation in terms of voltage as followsWe know that, We have seen voltage and power relations for sinusoidal AM wave but, it is important to note that it is difficult to measure the voltage at the antenna. As a result, the first two formulas are rarely used in transmitter measurements. Current in an antenna is easier to measure because accurate radio-frequency current meters are available. Therefore, by using third formula (P= 17 R) with known antenna current and antenna characteristic resistance one can easily calculate power. Like a relation between carrier power and AM wave power, we can relate current due to carrier and current due to complete AM wave. Let us consider |, is the unmodulated carrier current and I-7o,,) is the total or modulated current of the AM transmitter. We know that Prowt = (tow)? *R and P= (Ig)? xR The relation between carrier power and AM wave power can be written as Pro 2) .m2 B 2 Grout)? *R _ m2 (ic)?*R 2 2 - Coa)” |. m? 1 2 2 - {Total 148 orThe above equation gives the relation between total AM current and the unmodulated carrier current. Using above equation, wecan represent modulation index in terms of total AMcurrent and unmodulated carrier current. Modulation index in terms of current We have, Total = Ex.2.7: The total antenna current of an AM transmitter is 5A. If modulation index is 0.6, calculate the antenna current when only the carrier is sent. Sol.: We know that Tow = le le = witty - tee yu 1429 2 2 = 46A Ex. 2.8: The rns antenna current of an AM transmitter increases by 15% over its unmodulated value, when sinusoidal modulation by 1kHz signal is applied. Determine the modulation index. Sol. ; We know that,Itis given that ‘owt = 3 u [3225-1] = [064s = 08 " 2.1.7 Modulation by Several Sine Waves Uptil now we have considered only one modulating signal but in practice there can be more than one modulating signals modulating the carrier simultaneously. Let us consider there are two modulating signals Cm = Em sino t m2 = Emp sinwn2t Total modulating signal = em) +¢m2 = Ep) sin gy t + Ep sin © ¢ EaM = Ee + Ey) SiN @yy t+ Eygg SIN Oyqp and CaM = (E, tEmy sin@y t+ Eg sin an? t)sinmet = Be (+my sino) tm sin ag t) sinact After expansion with trigonometric relation sinasinb = 5 [costa -b)-cos(a-+ bj] we get, cam = Ec sina, t+"! Fe COS (We = Wm) )t mie ane cos (oe +m) t+ me © cos (ta — m2) t m s - © 608 (a + eom2)tSo with two modulating signals we get four additional frequencies, two upper sideband frequencies (f; + fy) and fe + fyq2 )and two lower sideband frequencies (f. ~ fmt and fo -fm2)- Assuming fq carrier frequency component of the carrier wave (b) A)Vq £08 @9f =» modulating frequency component of the modulating wave (c) ApV2 costar = AV? (ee) = ZAvE + sav cosas There is a de component and a carrier frequency second-harmonic component. (4) AgV2 cos*angt => AV? (522) = days + dav cos2@,t There is a de component and a modulating frequency second-harmonic component. (ec) 2AVV pq COS Of COS af => ArV_Vn [COS (C9, + Wp)t + COS (CD. — Cyy)t] The first part is the upper sideband term of frequency given by (co, + @,) and the second is the lower sideband term of frequency given by (4, ~ (iq). Thus Eq. (15.43) gives rise to six terms of different frequencies in addition to the de components. The load in this case is a tuned circuit tuned to the carrier frequency w,. Hence it will respond to a narrow frequency band centred about m,. If ©,, « @,, the tuned circuit load will mainly respond to the frequency components (@, — @,), @,, and (@, + @,,). The remaining terms in the current expression will not produce enough output voltage across the load. Hence the desired diode current (mainly effective to produce the output voltage across the load) is¥, (F) = (ay A212) + a, (1) +a, mF (1) +A, [1+ (2a, A, da, ) m)] cost, f+ (@, A? /2) cos (2,1) VA) “| BPE + 0 Om 20 De— Wy Wee * Dy 2a, « Fig. 3.13 Spectrum of voig = AV €0S 0.1 + AzV Vy COS(@, + q)# + A2V-Voq COSC, ~ Def = AV, COS G1 + 2Ag¥.Vq COS Of COS gt 2A)V, = Av,|1+—* out) Ot i ( td ee = AV,(1 + m COS @,t) COs 03. (15.44) where the modulation index = 2AaVe Ay ‘The modulated output voltage is then given by Vo = igh; = A,V,R\(1 + m COS @pt) cos wt (15.45) where R, is the impedance of the tuned circuit at resonance.DEMODULATION OF AM WAVES The process of extracting a baseband (modulating) signal from the modulated signal is known as demodulation. As stated earlier, AM signals with large carrier are detected by using the envelope detector, The envelope detector employs circuits that extract the envelope of the AM wave, Evidently, the envelope of the AM wave is the baseband signal. However, a low-level modulated signal can be-detected by using square law detectors in which a device operating in the non-linear region is used to detect the baseband signal. Thus, we can categorize the detectors into two parts: (i) Square law detectors, and (ii) Envelope detectors. Square Law Detectors. Square law detectors are used for detecting low level modulated signals (say below | V) so that ‘operating region of device-characteristic is restricted te non-linear region. The circuit is very similar to square law (non-linear) modulator. The only difference is in filter circuits. Ina detector, the filter is a low-pass filter instead of a bandpass filter. A simple square law detector is shown in Fig. 5.6.1(a). The non-linear characteristic, modulated input voltage and resulting diode current waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.6.1(b). The d.c, source Vis used to adjust the operating point. The operation is limited to the non-linear region due to which the lower half portion of the current waveform is compressed. This causes envelope distortion, The average value of the diode current does not remain constant, rather it varies with time as shown in Fig. 5.6.1(b). The distorted diode current is given by the non-linear (square law) relation, i= aye + aye" where e is input modulated voltage, e= E.(l+m, cos@,,1) cos ot Hence, a, [E, (+, cos @,) cos w.1]+ a, [E_(1+m, cos @,1) cos @.1]° (5.6.1) The expansion of Eq. 5.6.1 reveals the presence of the components 2@,,2(@, +a),,),@,, and 20, besides the input frequency terms. This current is passed through a low pass filter which allows to pass the frequencies upto @,, and suppress the other higher components. Thus, the bascband signal with frequency «,, is recoveredvolt) = aA. (1+K, mit) Jcos(2nft) + a2 [A (1+Ka(b) cos(2aft)] = a,A, [1 + k, m’0)] cos (2x f,t}+ a2[A.? (1+2Kq m(i)+ K.?m?(t))cos? (2nkt)] = a, A, [1 + K, m(t)] cos (2m f, &) + Ferd [2 2K, m+ Ky? m2 (9) [1+ cos(4nt)] cos’ = ff +cose29)]f() =A [1 + m.cos@mt | cosect 2) which may be written as: A A f (t)= Acosa,t + cose, +@,, f+ 7 cos(, -o,,)t — ...(3) 1. Square-law detection of DSBC signals The output of a square-law detector is of the form: yr ..-(4) where x = input signal.Substituting eq. (3) in (4) yields: 12 A? mA? Sf? (t)= 4? cos? @,t+ _ cos?(, + @, Jt po cos*(@, —a,, ¥ +mA? cos@,t-cos(@, + @,, )¢+ mA? cos w,t- cos(w, — @,, t > mA? + cos(@, +©,, ¥ cos(@, — @,, Jf which may be arranged as: 2 2 42 m = [1+ cos 2(@, —o,, 2 2 42 °C 23 haeneoud it a 1+cos2(@, +, \t]|+ 5 i 3 i +O, mA” 2 2 5 [cos(2@. +,, tf +cos ,t] + si [cos(2e, —O, t+ cos o,,t] nO) zs mA? [ ] cos2@.¢ + cos2@,,t The output of the square-law detector contains AF and RF components. After filtering out the latter we are left with: 2 42 cos 20,,¢ ...(6) ie D(t)=m4’ cos o,f + The first term resembles the modulation. The second term constitutes a distortion component.AM te) Fig. 5.6.1 Square Law Detector: (a) Circuit Diagram, (b) Characteristics Distortion The non-linear characteristics of the diode produces additional frequency components. Frequencies centered about @, and 2@, are easily suppressed by using a low pass filter, as they are far away from @,,. But 20, is very close to @,, and hence it cannot be totally suppressed by the low pass filter. Therefore, component 20, intraduces distortion. This distortion term 2@,, cannot be completely eliminated and is always present as distortion. Thus, a square law detector cannot provide a distortionless AM detection. However, the degree of distortion is low as the magnitude of the component 2),, is much less than the amplitude of the desired component ©,,.Envelope Detector An envelope detector is a simple and yet highly effec- tive device that is well-suited for the demodulation of a narrow-band AM wave (i.e., the carrier frequency is large compared with the message band- width), for which the percentage modulation is-less than 100%. Ideally, an envelope detector produces an output signal that follows the envelope of the input signal waveform exactly; hence, the name. Some version of this circuit is used in almost all commercial AM radio receivers. Figure 7.8a shows the circuit diagram of an envelope detector that consists of a diode and a resistor-capacitor filter. The operation of this envelope detector is as follows. On the positive half-cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward-biased and the capacitor C charges up rapidly to the peak value of the input signal. When the input signal falls below this value, the diode becomes reverse-biased and the capacitor C discharges slowly through the load resistor R,. The discharging process continues until the next positive half-cycle. When the input signal becomes greater than the voltage across the capacitor, the diode conducts again and the process is repeated. We assume that the diode is ideal, presenting zero impedance to current flow in the forward-biased region, and infinite impedance in the reverse-biased region. We further assume that the AM wave applied to the envelope detector is supplied by a voltage source of internal impedance R,. The charging time constant R,C must be short compared with the carrier period 1/f,, that is, RC <+ (7.26) Hence, the capacitor C charges rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to the positive peak when the diode is conducting. On the other hand, the discharging time constant R,C must be long enough to ensure that the capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor R, between positive peaks of the carrier wave, but not so long that the capacitor voltage will not discharge at the maximum rate of change of the modulating wave, that is, 1 1 I <€RC< Ww (7.27)c Rk Output fa) s(t) (b) Envelope detector output t fe} Figure 7.8 Envelope detector. (a) Circuit diagram. (b) AM wave input. (c) Envelope detector output. where W is the message bandwidth. The result is that the capacitor voltage or detector output is very nearly the same as the envelope of the AM wave, as illustrated in Figs. 7.86 and c. The detector output usually has a small ripple (not shown in Fig. 7.8c) at the carrier frequency; this ripple is easily removed by low-pass filtering.Amplitude + = fete —> ——— =e = = —_. ——. — = => Oo 01 02 03 O04 05 06 07 O8 09 ‘Time (microseconds) (a) Amplitude | 0 Of 02 03 O04 OS 06 07 O8 09 ‘Time (microseconds) ib) Fig. 3.18 (a) AM signal input to the envelope detector and (b) the envelope detector output (thick fine) when the RC time constant bas a moderate valueAmplitude 03 04 05 06 0,7 Time (microseconds) Fig. 3.19 Envelope detector oulput (thick line) when the RC time constant is too small Le + 4 Amplitude Time (microseconds) Fig. 3.20 Envelope detector output (thick line) when the RC time constant is too high. Note the “diagonal clipping effect”melnin 20MHz ANALOG SCOPE SMART AUTOSET wo oe | en oe3.3.5 AM Superheterodyne Receivers Superheterodyne principle is the process of operation on modulated radio waves to obt similarly modulated waves of different frequencies. This process includes the use of an input signal with the local oscillator signal which determines the change of frequency, A superheterodyne receiver may be defined as one in which one or more changes of frequency take place before the AF signal is extracted from the modulated wave. A receiver i which the change of frequency takes place twice before detection is usually called a double superheterodyne receiver. In superheterodyne receivers, the modulated signal of the carrier frequency (f,) is fed to a circuit called mixer to which is also fed the voltage at frequency (f,) generated by a local oscillator. As a result, the output of the mixer stage is a voltage of frequency (fi,). which is the difference of the signal frequency /,, and the local oscillator frequency f,, This difference frequency is called Intermediate Frequency (IF). The signal frequency and the local oscillator frequency can be varied by using ganged tuned capacitors in these stages. This results in a mixer output that has a constant frequency irrespective of the frequency to which the receiver may be tuned. Thus, IF is fixed for a receiver. It should be noted that the IF signal is exactly similar to the modulated signal and the only difference is in their carrier frequencies. The IF amplifiers, being tuned voltage amplifiers, use transformers in the input and output circuits. Each of these transformers consists of a pair of mutually coupled tuned circuits. With these fixed-frequency tuned circuits as plate load, the IF amplifiers provide most of the gain and selectivity to the receiver. As the gain and selectivity of IF amplifiers remain constant at all incoming signal frequencies, the sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver is fairly uniform over the entire frequency range. The block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver is shown in Figure 3.11. Amol Amplifier Ampiiier [*] Amplifier Ce Hmm Honda om fe | t Loudspeaker Local Oscillator Fig. 3.11. Block diagram of supetheterodyne receiverAn important feature of the superheterodyne receiver is the Automatic Gain Control (AGC) circuit. The need for this circuit is as follows. The receiving antenna is continuously bombarded with different RF signals whose amplitudes could vary between a few microvolts (for weak stations) to a few millivolts (for strong stations). The receiver is usually designed to have a high gain (good sensitivity) so that even weak signals can produce an appreciable output. However, when one subsequently tunes toa strong station, this high gain results in overloading of the amplifiers leading to distortion and poor intelligibility. The AGC circuit helps to maintain a fairly constant output voltage level over a wide range of input RF signal levels. Recall that the output of the envelope detector contains the desired modulating signal riding on a DC voltage. Clearly, the DC voltage is proportional to the input RF signal strength. The AGC circuit is a simple lowpass RC circuit which blocks the modulating signal and lets the DC voltage through. This DC voltage is used to vary the gain of the IF amplifier(s) and sometimes even the RF amplifier(s). When tuning to a strong station, the AGC signal is a high DC level which is injected into the previous amplifier stages such that the input junction forward bias of the active devices is reduced and hence the overall gain of the receiver falls. The problem with the above “simple AGC” technique is that even very weak signals are subjected to reduction in gain. This problem is overcome by adding additional circuitry to provide a delayed AGC, In this case, the AGC circuit causes gain reduction only if the input signal strength is above a certain threshold level. For weak signals, there is no reduction in gain.Antenna AM with f, ‘Amplified AM signal replaced by IF Canter. f, Fig. 12.27 Block diagram of superheterodyne receiver