HOW TO TERRAFORM MARS:

AN ANALYSIS OF ECOPOIESIS
AND TERRAFORMING
RESEARCH

Jonathan M. Budzik
Dartmouth College
May 2000
Human Biology 1
Professors Buckey, Davies and Sharma

Abstract
Based on only a 4K temperature rise at Mars South Pole, a runaway greenhouse effect
can be initiated on Mars leading to an equilibrium state near the temperature at which
liquid water could exist. The initial temperature rise could be initiated by CFC gases,
other greenhouse gases, or orbiting mirrors in addition to other methods explored in this
paper. Biological methods of increasing the O2 and N2 atmospheric concentrations will
be investigated. These atmospheric changes can ultimately lead to a terraformed planet
habitable by human beings.
Introduction
The purpose of terraforming is to create an uncontained planetary biosphere that would
be fully habitable by humans (Fogg, 1998). The first step in the terraforming continuum (Figure
1) is called ecopoiesis, which is the planetary engineering of Mars to make Mars hospitable for
extremophile microorganisms (Fogg, 1997). In essence, ecopoiesis involves the creation of an
uncontained, anaerobic (no O2) biosphere on Mars (Fogg, 1998). After ecopoiesis, terraforming
can proceed via both biological and technological means (Fogg, 1997). This paper will analyze
the theories proposed for the ecopoiesis of the Red Planet and the establishment of conditions
necessary for plant growth. Conditions for plant growth go beyond ecopoiesis requirements
because plants require some O2 to grow. Finally, terraforming proposals will be analyzed.

Analysis and Discussion

Part I: Ecopoiesis and the Establishment of Conditions Needed for Plant and Bacterial Growth
The process of ecopoiesis requires four main modifications to the Martian environment:

1.) the average surface temperature must increase by approximately 60C; 2.) the mass of the
atmosphere must increase; 3.) liquid water must be available; 4.) surface UV and cosmic ray flux
must be reduced (achieving this last goal will be discussed in the executing terraforming
section) (Fogg, 1998).
If all of these changes are made, Fogg asserts that anaerobic microorganisms could
inhabit the surface of the planet thus completing ecopoiesis (Fogg, 1998). Fogg neglected an
additional requirement that N2 is required for all organisms, as discussed below (McKay et al.,
1991).
Table 1 summarizes the atmospheric goals for ecopoiesis and terraforming (Hiscox &
Thomas, 1997). For plant survival and root respiration, a small amount of oxygen must be made
available (Fogg, 1998). McKay et al. (1991) estimate that it may be possible to make plants
adapt to as little as 1 mbar O2 due to the mitochondrial enzymes high affinity to O2. The amount
of nitrogen in the atmosphere must be increased to prevent oxygen toxicity and spontaneous
combustion, but only up to 10 mbar of N2 is necessary for bacterial nitrogen fixation (McKay et
al., 1991). Most of the trace elements necessary for life have been detected on Mars, and
phosphorus which has not been detected, is also thought to be present (McKay et al., 1991). As a
result, objective 5 for further terraforming is to increase partial pressures of O2 and N2 (Fogg,
1998). In essence, for microbial organisms and plants to survive on Mars, the atmosphere can be
composed of almost pure CO2 with small amounts of N2 and O2.

In consideration of objectives 1 & 2, the mean surface temperature on Mars is 60C or

213K (McKay et al., 1991), while on Earth it is 15C (Thomas, 1997). The mean surface
temperature of Mars must increase by 60C because a habitable planet must have liquid water on
its surface (McKay et al., 1991). In terms of overall atmospheric pressure, Earths atmospheric
pressure is 1 bar, while Mars atmospheric pressure is only 6-10 mbar (Zubrin, 1996). Mars
once had a thicker atmosphere as evidenced by former water channels on Mars surface (Zubrin,
1996). While a substantial part of Mars atmosphere may have been lost in space, some of Mars
former atmosphere remains in the South polar cap which holds dry ice (frozen CO2) and in the
regolith (which also contains CO2) (Zubrin, 1996). Releasing CO2 raises the mean temperature
of Mars (objective 1) and thickens the atmosphere (objective 2) (Zubrin, 1996).
In the north, a permanent CO2 cap does not exist, but in the south such a cap probably
containing only <100 mbar of CO2 may be present but further research is necessary to determine
exactly how much CO2 may be contained in the cap (McKay et al., 1991). Zubrin proposes that
releasing the frozen CO 2 in Mars cap will initiate a process of global warming based on positive
feedback described below (Zubrin, 1996).
Positive feedback means the output of the system enhances what is input to the system
(Zubrin, 1996). The analysis by Zubrin & McKay utilizes a constant called Td, which refers to
the temperature change required to outgas a fraction 1/e of the regolith CO2 (Zubrin & McKay,
1997). If T d is small, then the CO2 is weakly bound in the regolith (McKay et al., 1991). Zubrin
& McKay assumes that Td = 20K (a generous but fair estimate) for the polar and global regolith

(Zubrin & McKay, 1997). Positive feedback is based on the concept that raising the temperature
in an atmosphere increases the vapor temperature of CO2 meaning that more solid CO2 will then
evaporate from polar and global regolith (Zubrin, 1996). If the polar and global regolith hold
CO2, raising the atmospheric temperature by only 4K (i.e. with greenhouse gases or an orbiting
mirror) ultimately leads to an increase in the amount of CO2 outgassed from the polar and global
regolith, which leads to an increase in temperature etc. until a stable equilibrium point is reached
(Zubrin & McKay, 1997). These calculations were based on the assumption that 100mb of CO2
are in the polar regolith and 394mb in the surface (Zubrin & McKay, 1997). Not all of the CO2
would be released from the soil because the soil acts as a dry sponge resisting the loss of CO2,
leading to a net atmospheric pressure of 400mbar, most of which is CO2 (Zubrin & McKay,
1997). The bottom line is that if enough CO2 is present in Mars regolith, an increase in
temperature of 4K will induce this positive feedback mechanism that will raise the mean surface
temperature from 213K to 268K very near the melting point of water (273K), completing a major
goal of ecopoiesis.
Positive feedback is a powerful process: a temperature change of 4K leads to a net
increase in temperature of about 55K. Even with different Td values, Mars atmosphere always
converges on final states with several hundred mbars pressure (Zubrin, 1996).

Plus,

chlorofluorocarbons can be used to enhance positive feedback so that the final global
temperature and atmospheric pressure will be dramatically improved than if no CFCs are used
(Zubrin, 1996). Thus, there are two key variables: (1) Td (which changes the required initial

temperature rise and final equilibrium state) and (2) the amount and effect of CFCs or other
temperature-raising devices like mirrors, where both variables can lead to an increase in mean
temperature necessary for bacterial growth.
Finally, another reservoir for CO2 may be in carbonate rocks that could be released by
biological means (Hiscox & Thomas, 1997).

Taylor (1998) recommends using Matteia

cyanobacteria to release this bound CO2 from carbonate rock.

In order to increase the amount of water vapor available for organisms, melting the polar
caps may release perhaps as much as 5000 km3 of water, which alone is not enough to green the
planet (McKay et al., 1991). However, much larger amounts of water may be in permafrost, or
water may be underground, hundreds of meters below the surface (McKay et al., 1991).

Part II. Terraforming

The atmospheric requirements for microbial and plant growth during ecopoiesis differ
greatly from human requirements. First, >130 mbar of O2 is necessary (Hiscox & Thomas,
1997) and >300 mbar of nitrogen is required as a buffer gas that will prevent oxygen toxicity and
spontaneous combustion (McKay et al., 1991). In addition, the amount of CO2 must be less than
10 mbar because more than 10 mbar leads to toxicity in humans (McKay et al., 1991). Because
human beings cannot tolerate very high CO2 levels, one cannot maintain CO2 levels at several
hundred mbars as was proposed for plant and bacteria habitability of Mars for human survival.
However, models predict that in an earthlike atmosphere with much less than several hundred

mbars of CO2, Mars will be too cold for human habitability (McKay et al., 1991). As a result,
the use of CFCs or other greenhouse gases has been proposed to increase the mean surface
temperature on Mars to counteract the effects of lowering the CO2 concentration required for
human habitability (McKay et al., 1991).

As we earlier saw, CFC use enhances positive

feedback and leads to a higher mean surface temperature on Mars.

Executing Ecopoiesis
First, an initial temperature rise of 4K is required as McKay and Zubrin indicated to
initiate positive feedback. To accomplish this, there are several proposals including orbiting
mirrors, halocarbon production, fusion warhead use, colliding an ammonia asteroid on Mars, and
biological means to establish conditions acceptable for plants, finishing ecopoiesis. As for
terraforming Mars, biological means are the key to replacing the CO2 atmosphere with a warmer
atmosphere richer in O2 and N2.
In regard to the production of CFCs, even if we continually manufacture CFCs on Mars
surface with CFC factories using Mars noble gases in the atmosphere, 3 1012 tons of CFCs
must be produced every year to keep up with decomposition of the CFCs (McKay et al., 1991).
On Earth, we produce 106 tons per year (McKay et al., 1991). The C-Cl bond is very short lived
on Mars because, unlike on Earth, there is no ozone layer to shield the CFCs (Fogg, 1998).
However, Zubrin suggests using variants that lack chlorine (Zubrin, 1996). Perfluoromethane
(CF4) is very long-lived, being stable for >10,000 years, in an upper atmosphere (Zubrin, 1996).

Zubrin estimates that 5,000 MWe of power (the amount of power Chicago uses) would be
needed to produce a trainload of refined materials leading to the required CFC levels (Zubrin,
1996).
Mirrors reflecting light on the poles to raise the mean temperature are another possible
option. Zubrin (1996) estimates that a sail constructed out of asteroidal or Martian moon
material with a mass of 200,000 tons (equal to the mass of a ship) would be required to raise the
temperature by 5K, which could melt the caps and initiate the positive feedback process.
According to Ohanian (1989), the sun emits radiation pressure that exerts forces on objects
because electromagnetic light waves carry both electrical energy and magnetic energy.
Incredibly, it turns out that solar light pressure could balance out the gravitation force of Mars so
that the mirror device would not have to orbit the planet (Zubrin & McKay, 1997). In essence,
the mirror could hover as a statite (Figure 2) concentrating its power steadily on the polar
region (Zubrin & McKay, 1997).
Perhaps fusion warheads are the best option to increase the mean temperature by 4K.
Mole suggests that to trigger the positive feedback mechanism, four 100kg fusion warheads
could be launched from an orbiter (Mole, 1997). Enough dust would be thrown into the air to
cover Mars south polar cap and cause sublimation of the frozen CO2 in the cap, initiating the
positive feedback mechanism (Mole, 1997). Mole (1997) suggests launching the warheads only
after the right wind pattern is detected by the orbiter instruments.

Zubrin and McKay (1997) suggest moving an ammonia asteroid into the surface of Mars,
which would yield energy equal to 70,000 one megaton hydrogen bombs. Ammonia is a
powerful greenhouse gas (Zubrin & McKay, 1997). Professor Gordon Gribble (personal
communication) said that clouds of ammonia float around in deep space so it is conceivable that
asteroids consisting of frozen ammonia may exist. Using nuclear thermal rocket engines, the
asteroid could be driven into Mars, and then a bacteria ecology could be established that would
recycle the nitrogen from ammonia photolysis back into the atmosphere as ammonia (Zubrin &
McKay, 1997). An added advantage to releasing this much ammonia is that it would raise the
planets temperature by 3C and forms a shield that would block UV radiation from the planets
surface (Zubrin & McKay, 1997).

Executing Terraformation
After ecopoiesis, biological means can be employed to continue terraforming by bringing
the surface temperature of Mars to a higher level, increasing the amount of O2 in the atmosphere,
and decreasing the amount of CO2.

The primitive photosynthetic cyanobacterium

Chroococcidiopsis is the most desiccation-resistant cyanobacterium and is the sole

photosynthetic organism in very arid habitats (Friedmann & Ocampo-Friedmann, 1994).
Because Mars is 1.52 times as far from the sun as Earth, the amount of incident sunlight is 43%
that of the Earths incident sunlight but is nonetheless adequate for photosynthesis (McKay et al.,
1991). Quite an extremophile, Chroococcidiopsis caldariorum has been found in Indonesian hot

springs, marine and hypersaline habitats, nitrate caves, extreme arid deserts world-wide, high
Alpine rocks, freshwater, and several lichens as cyanobionts (Friedmann & Ocampo-Friedmann,
1994). A very cosmopolitan organism, C. caldariorum represents an ideal pioneer because it is
desiccation resistant, tolerant to high salinities (5%) and low temperatures (-10C to +10C), and
several fast growing strains have been discovered (Friedmann & Ocampo-Friedmann, 1994). By
spreading glass strips on the Martian surface for use as a dew trap and as a solid substrate for
microbial growth, only a periodic wetting a few times a year would be required after inoculation
(Friedmann & Ocampo-Friedmann, 1994). Chroococcidiopsis is a member of the Cyanobacteria
Kingdom responsible for the conversion of Earths initially anoxic atmosphere to an oxygencontaining atmosphere (Madigan et al., 2000). Likewise, Mars atmosphere could be converted
from an anoxic atmosphere into an oxygen-rich atmosphere by C. caldariorum.
Another possible pioneer organism is the polyextremophile Deinococcus radiodurans,
which is resistant to very high levels of UV radiation (due to its efficient DNA repair
mechanisms), peroxides, and other oxidizers (Slotnick, 2000). In fact, it appears that the only
type of mutation that can harm these bacteria is a deletion by chemicals such as nitrosoguanidine,
which is not repaired as efficiently as other types of mutations (Madigan et al., 2000). Slotnick
(2000) recommends using D. radiodurans to detoxify the soil by engineering a version of the
bacteria that could reduce Fe or Mn ions, decreasing the concentrations of these noxious
chemicals.

Yet a third candidate bacteria terraformer is Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides f. sp.

dentrificans (Hiscox & Thomas, 1997). If nitrogen is present in the Martian regolith, then the
organism could be used to convert nitrite (NO2-) to N2 (Hiscox & Thomas, 1997). Both D.
radiodurans and pseudomonads are heterotrophs, so they could not be introduced until after
photosynthetic organisms have fixed carbohydrates first (Thomas, 1997). Additionally, both
organisms are aerobes, requiring O2, but perhaps facultative anaerobic versions (able to grow
with or without O2) could be genetically engineered (Madigan et al., 2000).
The goal of terraforming is to allow humans to live on Mars. Unfortunately, human
beings are not resistant to UV radiation as is D. radiodurans. The very significant O3 layer on
Earth absorbs UV radiation between 200-300nm and is one of the key reasons we can inhabit
Earth (Hiscox & Lindner, 1997). CO2 only prevents UV radiation of <190nm from reaching the
surface (Hiscox & Lindner, 1997). A column of 110-17 cm-2 layer of ozone is present at the
winter pole on Mars while the ozone column is 110-15 cm-2 over the rest of the planet (Hiscox &
Lindner, 1997). Hiscox and Lindner (1997) estimate that a three order of magnitude increase of
O3 is required so that unprotected bacteria can survive. They (1997) show that ozone on Mars is
produced by the following chemical reaction: O + O2 + M O 3 + M, where M is any atom or
molecule. Thus, increasing the concentrations of O, O2, or M will lead to a rise in the ozone
layer on Mars (Hiscox & Lindner, 1997). Incredibly, O is produced from the photolysis of CO2,
and O2 forms via the following reaction: O + O + M O2 + M (Hiscox & Lindner, 1997).

Increasing the atmospheric pressure will increase O3 production by increasing the concentrations
of O, O2, and M (Hiscox & Lindner, 1997).
Recall that McKay and Zubrin propose to increase the atmospheric pressure by releasing
CO2 from the Martian regolith using either orbiting mirrors or in situ greenhouse gas production.
Ozone is lost by natural mechanisms on Mars, and care must be taken to use a greenhouse gas
that does not degrade ozone (Hiscox & Lindner, 1997). Also, Hiscox & Lindner (1997) assert
that Zubrin & McKay should have considered the O3 greenhouse warming effect in their
calculations of the mean global temperature of Mars with a significant CO2 atmosphere. If the
O3 level is raised to 110-18 cm -2 (required for bacterial survival), then an increase in temperature
of 5-10K will occur above what a pure CO2 atmosphere would produce (Hiscox & Lindner,
1997). An alternative greenhouse gas is SO2, which scientists believe was maintained in a high
concentration in Mars early atmosphere (Yung 1997). Very small amounts of SO2 (0.1 ppmv in
2 bar CO2 atmosphere) lead to significant increases in temperature (10K) (Yung 1997).
Additionally, SO2 provides an effective UV shield for Mars surface (Yung 1997).
Finally, after the introduction of microorganisms, plants could be used to slowly create an
O2-rich atmosphere. Once plants are established, the atmosphere will be converted over 100,000
years from a CO2 rich environment to an O2 rich environment habitable by humans if enough N2
is present (McKay et al., 1991).

Conclusions

By raising the temperature on the poles of Mars using a large mirror or a non-ozone
degrading greenhouse gas that is more effective than CO2 seems to be the best way to
accomplish ecopoiesis. Both SO2 and NH3 appear to be viable options since the articles never
indicated that they destroyed O 3. Even if they did destroy ozone, they both provide effective UV
shields. After the temperature rise, microorganisms can create an environment suitable for
human habitation. The key limiting reagents are N2 and CO2 in the regolith. Hopefully, the
Martian regolith contains nitrate reservoirs that bacteria could convert into N2. Additionally, in
order for McKay and Zubrins runaway greenhouse theory to be practical, there must be weakly
bound reservoir of CO2 in the Martian regolith. These assumptions seem reasonable and more
research is needed to confirm that these conditions are present. If so, then the door to creating a
new branch of human civilization is wide open, waiting for the very first pioneer organism, a
human being, to set foot on the planet and begin this exciting journey of expanding the human
universe!

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank William Kwan for his insight and sharp analytical skills that helped
me ameliorate this paper.

References1
Fogg, M.J. Terraforming Mars: Conceptual Solutions to the Problem of Plant Growth in Low
Concentrations of Oxygen. In From Imagination to Reality: Mars Exploration Studies
of the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society Part II: Base Building, Colonization,
and Terraformation.

Ed. Robert Zubrin, San Diego, CA: American Astronautical

Society, 1997. 283-299.

Fogg, M.J. Terraforming Mars: A Review of Current Research. Advances in Space Research.
Vol. 22, No. 3 (1998): 415-420.
Friedmann, E.I. and R.Ocampo-Friedmann.

A Primitive Cyanobacterium as Pioneer

Microorganism for Terraforming Mars. Advances in Space Research. Vol. 15, No. 3
(1994): 243-246.
Hiscox, J.A. and B.L. Lindner. Ozone and the Habitability of Mars. In From Imagination to
Reality: Mars Exploration Studies of the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
Part II: Base Building, Colonization, and Terraformation.

Ed. Robert Zubrin, San

Diego, CA: American Astronautical Society, 1997. 327-338.

Hiscox, J.A. and D.J. Thomas. Genetic Modification and Selection of Microorganisms for
Growth on Mars. In From Imagination to Reality: Mars Exploration Studies of the
Journal of the British Interplanetary Society Part II: Base Building, Colonization, and

MLA citation style, defined by MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 4th ed. (New York: MLA, 1995)

Terraformation. Ed. Robert Zubrin, San Diego, CA: American Astronautical Society,
1997. 265-281.
Madigan, M.T., Martinko, J.M., and J. Parker. Brock Biology of Microorganisms. Upper Saddle
River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2000.
McKay, C.P., O.B. Toon, and J.F. Kasting. Making Mars habitable. Nature. Vol. 352, No.
6335 (1991): 489-496.
Mole, A.M. Terraforming Mars with Four War-Surplus Bombs. In From Imagination to
Reality: Mars Exploration Studies of the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
Part II: Base Building, Colonization, and Terraformation.

Ed. Robert Zubrin, San

Diego, CA: American Astronautical Society, 1997. 231-237.

Moroz, V.I. Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere of Mars. Advances in Space Research.
Vol. 22, No. 3 (1998): 449-457.
Ohanian, H.C. Physics. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1989.
Slotnick, R.S. Exremophilic Terraforming. American Scientist. 88 (2000): 124-125.
Taylor, R.L.S.

Why Mars? Even Under the Condition of Critical Factor Constrain

Engineering Technology May Permit the Establishment and Maintenance of an

Inhabitable Ecosystem on Mars. Advances in Space Research. Vol. 22, No. 3 (1998):
421-432.
Thomas, David. Biological Aspects of the Ecopoiesis and Terraformation of Mars: Current
Perspectives and Research. In From Imagination to Reality: Mars Exploration Studies of

the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society Part II: Base Building, Colonization,
and Terraformation.

Ed. Robert Zubrin, San Diego, CA: American Astronautical

Society, 1997. 257-264.

Yung, Y.L., Nair, H. and M.F. Gerstell. CO2 Greenhouse in the Early Martian Atmosphere:
SO2 inhibits Condensation. Icarus 130 (1997): 222-224.
Zubrin, R. The Case for Mars. New York: The Free Press, 1996.
Zubrin R.M., and C.P. McKay. Technological Requirements for Terraforming Mars. In From
Imagination to Reality: Mars Exploration Studies of the Journal of the British
Interplanetary Society Part II: Base Building, Colonization, and Terraformation. Ed.
Robert Zubrin, San Diego, CA: American Astronautical Society, 1997. 309-326.

Data Tables and Figures

Table 1: Conditions on Present Day Earth & Mars, and Mars after Ecopoiesis and Terraforming
Parameter
Mean surface
temperature (K)
ppCO2 (mb)
ppO2 (mb)
ppN2 (mb)
UVflux (Wm-2)

Earth
288

Mars
215

Ecopoiesis
280

Terraforming
280

30
210
790
None

7
0.006
0.12
6

>10
10
1-10
Reduction

<10
>130
>300
Zero