Chapter

5
The
Integumentary
System

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Introduction to the Integumentary System

The integumentary system consists of skin, hair, nails, and various glands
The integument is the largest system of the body
16% of body weight
1.5 to 2 m2 in area
The integument is made up of two parts:
Cutaneous membrane (skin)
Superficial epithelium called epidermis
Underlying connective tissue called dermis
Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) made of loose connective
tissue attaches integument to deeper structures (muscle, bone)
Hypodermis is not
considered part of
integumentary system
Location of
hypodermic injections
Accessory structures
originate in dermis and extend
through epidermis to skin
surface
Include hair, nails, and glands

Functions of Integument
The integument has 5 major functions:
Protection: covers and protects underlying tissues and organs from
impacts, chemicals, and infections
Also prevents loss of body fluids
Temperature Maintenance: skin maintains normal body temperature
by regulating heat exchange with environment (insulation and
evaporation)
Synthesis and Storage of Nutrients: epidermis makes vitamin D3
(aids in calcium uptake)
Dermis also stores large reserves of lipids in adipose tissue
Sensory Reception: receptors detect touch, pressure, pain, and
temperature
This information is then relayed to nervous system
Excretion and Secretion: integumentary glands excrete salts, water,
and organic wastes
Specialized glands of breasts secrete milk

5-1 The epidermis is

composed of strata (layers)
with various functions

Epidermis
Epidermis consists of stratified squamous epithelium

containing several different cell layers

Thick skin: contains 5 layers of cells (keratinocytes)
Found on palms of hands and soles of feet
Thickness of ~ 0.5mm (paper towel)

Thin skin: contains 4 layers of keratinocytes

Covers the rest of the body
Thickness of ~0.08mm (wall of plastic sandwich bag)

Epidermis is avascular
Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from capillaries in the dermis

Epidermis
Structures of the Epidermis
The five strata of keratinocytes in thick skin
From basal lamina to free surface:
Stratum germinativum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum granulosum

Stratum lucidum
Stratum corneum

Stratum Germinativum

Deepest epidermal layer is called the stratum germinativum (or stratum

basale)
Hemidesmosomes attach this layer to basement membrane
Basement membrane separates epidermis from loose connective
tissue of dermis
Form epidermal ridges that extend into dermis
Dermal projections called dermal papillae extend upward between
adjacent ridges
Increase surface area for diffusion of nutrients between dermis
and epidermis
Contours of skin follow ridge patterns
Ex) Form complex whorls
in thick skin that make up
fingerprints
Increases surfaces
area of skin
Increases friction to
ensure secure grip

Stratum Germinativum
Stratum germinativum is the layer where new cells are generated and
begin to grow (germinative layer)
Has many germinative (stem) cells

Division of these cells replace cells that are lost or shed at

epithelial surface
Also contains melanocytes

Cells that have cytoplasmic processes extend between

epithelial cells
Synthesize melanin, the brown, yellow-brown, or black
pigment that colors skin
Receptors in this layer also provide information about objects

touching the skin

Intermediate Strata
Intermediate strata include 3 layers
2nd layer of epidermis is called the stratum spinosum (the spiny layer):
Produced by division stem cells in stratum germinativum
Contains 8-10 layers of keratinocytes bound by desmosomes
Accumulation of desmosomes causes cells to shrink until
cytoskeletons stick out (spiny)
Cells also begin to synthesize keratin in this layer
3rd layer of epidermis is called the stratum granulosum (the grainy
layer)
Consists of cells displaced from stratum spinosum
Cells in this layer have stopped dividing
Begin making large amounts of the protein keratin
Keratin is extremely durable and water-resistant
Coats surface of skin and forms basic structure of hair,
calluses, and nails
Also forms horns, hooves, and feathers
4th layer of epidermis is called stratum lucidum (the clear layer)
Found only in thick skin of palms and soles
Contains flattened, densely-packed cells filled with keratin

Stratum Corneum
The most superficial layer of epidermis is called the stratum
corneum (the horn layer)

Consists of 15-30 layers of flattened and dead cells with large

amounts of keratin (keratinized or cornified cells)
These cells remain tightly connected by desmosomes
Cells are therefore shed
in large groups or sheets

rather than individually

Surface of stratum corneum is
dry and waterproof
Unsuitable for growth of many
microorganisms

Skin Life Cycle

It takes 2-4 weeks for cells to move from stratum
germinativum to stratum corneum
Cells die as they are displaced from oxygen and nutrients
Also become increasingly packed with keratin as they move

Dead cells usually remain in stratum corneum for 2

additional weeks before they are shed
Replaced by new layers arriving from underlying strata as these
superficial layers are lost

Occurs on all exposed skin surfaces except eyes

5-2 Factors influencing skin color

are epidermal pigmentation and
dermal circulation

The Role of Pigmentation

Skin color is the result of interaction between pigments in epidermis and
blood flow in dermis
Epidermis contains varying amounts of 2 pigments:
Carotene: orange-yellow pigment
Present in orange vegetables (carrots, squashes)
Eating large amounts of these vegetables can cause lightskinned individuals to appear orange
Accumulates in epidermal cells and fatty tissues of the dermis
Can be converted to vitamin A
Vitamin A is required for normal maintenance of epithelial
tissue and for synthesis of photoreceptor pigments in eyes
Melanin: yellow-brown or black pigment produced by melanocytes in
stratum germinativum
Stored in transport vesicles
called melanosomes
Melanocyte activity
increases in response to
sunlight exposure
Freckles represent areas of
greater melanin production

Melanin and UV
Melanin helps prevent skin damage by absorbing UV radiation before
it reaches deep layers of epidermis and dermis
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation causes DNA mutations and burns that
lead to cancer and wrinkles
Melanin concentrates around nuclear envelope and absorbs
UV radiation before it can damage nuclear DNA
Long-term damage can still result from repeated exposure to
sunlight
Global depletion of ozone in upper atmosphere has caused
a sharp increase in rate of skin cancers like malignant
melanoma
Skin color depends on melanin
production, not on the number
of melanocytes
Albinism results from lack of
melanin production by
melanocytes

Skin Color and Dermal Circulation

Dermal circulation also contributes to skin color
Oxygenated red blood contributes to skin color:

Blood vessels in dermis normally give skin a reddish tint that is

most apparent in lightly-pigmented individuals
Skin reddens even further when blood vessels dilate from heat

Skin pales if blood flow decreases as a result of temporary

blood vessel constriction
Cyanosis: bluish skin tint caused by sustained reduction in
circulatory supply
Apparent in areas of thin skin (lips, ears, beneath nails)
Can be caused by extreme cold or circulatory (heart
failure) and respiratory (asthma) disorders

5-3 Sunlight has detrimental

and beneficial effects
on the skin

The Epidermis and Vitamin D3

Limited exposure to sunlight is very beneficial
In presence of UV radiation, epidermal cells in stratum
spinosum and stratum germinativum convert a cholesterolrelated steroid into vitamin D3
Liver and kidneys convert vitamin D3 into calcitriol:
Calcitriol is a hormone that aids absorption of calcium
and phosphorus by small intestine
Insufficient vitamin D3 can lead to abnormally weak and
flexible bones (rickets)

Types of Skin Cancer

Interaction between sunlight and skin cells can sometimes result in
different forms of skin cancer
Some skin cancers rarely metastasize and can usually be
removed surgically:
Basal cell carcinoma: most common form of skin cancer that
originates in stratum germinativum (basal) layer
Squamous cell carcinoma: involves more superficial layers of
epidermal cells
Malignant melanomas are extremely dangerous in comparison
Usually begin as moles that can appear anywhere on the body
Cancerous melanocytes then grow rapidly and metastasize
through the lymphoid
system
Outlook for long-term
survival depends on
when condition is
detected and treated

5-4 The dermis is the

tissue layer that
supports the epidermis

The Dermis
The Dermis is located between epidermis and subcutaneous layer
Anchors epidermal accessory structures (hair follicles, sweat
glands):
Has two major components:
Outer papillary layer: consists of loose connective (areolar)
tissue that supports and nourishes the epidermis
Contains capillaries and nerves supplying the skin surface
Has dermal papillae projecting between epidermal ridges

Deep reticular layer: consists of interwoven meshwork of

dense irregular connective tissue containing both collagen and
elastic fibers
Elastic fibers provide flexibility
Collagen fibers limit flexibility to prevent tissue damage
Collagen fibers also extend into subcutaneous layer
below
Contains larger blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerve
fibers

Other Components of the Dermis

Dermis also contains mixed cell populations of connective tissue
proper
Epidermal accessory organs also extend into the dermis
Include hair follicles and sweat glands
Other organ systems communicate with skin through their
connections to the dermis
Both the papillary and reticular layer contain blood vessels
(cardiovascular system), lymphatic vessels (lymphoid system) and
nerve fibers (nervous system)
Blood vessels provide nutrients and oxygen and remove
carbon dioxide and waste products
Lymphatic vessels help local
tissues defend and repair
themselves after injury or
infection
Nerve fibers control blood
flow, adjust gland secretion
rates, and monitor sensory
receptors

5-5 The hypodermis is tissue

that connects the dermis to
underlying tissues

The Hypodermis
The subcutaneous layer or hypodermis is located below the dermis
Not actually part of integumentary system
Important in stabilizing position of skin relative to underlying tissues
while allowing independent movement
Is connected to the reticular layer of integument by connective tissue
fibers
Has few capillaries and no vital organs

Make it useful as the site of subcutaneous injections using

hypodermic needles
Consists of loose connective (areolar) tissue with many fat cells
Adipose tissue provides infants with layer of baby fat that helps
reduce heat loss
Fat cells also serves as energy reserve and shock absorber to
support active lifestyles of younger children
Distribution of subcutaneous fat changes after puberty
Men accumulate fat at neck, upper arms, along lower back, and
over buttocks
Women accumulate fat in breasts, buttocks, hips, and thighs

5-6 Hair is composed of

keratinized dead cells that
have been pushed
to the surface

Hair
Hair, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and nails

are integumentary accessory structures

Located in dermis
Project through skin surface
Hair: nonliving structure produced in organs called hair follicles
Project above skin surface almost everywhere on human body
Exceptions include sides and
soles of feet, palms, sides of
fingers and toes, lips, and

portions of external genital

organs

Hair Follicles and Hairs

Hair follicles project deep into dermis and often extend into subcutaneous
layer
Walls of each follicle contain all cell layers found in epidermis
Base of follicle consists of a peg of connective tissue containing
capillaries and nerves called the hair papilla
Epithelium at base of follicle forms a cap over this hair papilla
Hair is formed by repeated division of epithelial stem cells
surrounding the hair papilla
Hair lengthens as daughter cells are pushed toward the surface
About halfway to skin surface,
these cell also undergo
keratinization and die
Marks the boundary between
the hair root (portion that
anchors hair into skin) and
hair shaft (the portion of hair
we see)

Structure of Hair Follicles

Each hair shaft is made of 3 layers of dead, keratinized
cells
Cuticle: surface layer made of an overlapping, shinglelike layer of cells
Cortex: middle layer of hair shaft
Both the cuticle and cortex contain thick layers of
hard keratin that gives hair its stiffness
Medulla: deepest layer of hair shaft
making up the core of hair
Contains a
flexible
soft keratin

The Hair Growth Cycle

Hairs grow and are shed according to the hair growth cycle
Hairs in scalp grow for 2-5 years at a rate of ~0.3mm/day
The follicle of these hairs may then become inactive for a
comparable amount of time
When another growth cycle begins, the follicle produces a
new hair
Causes old hair to be pushed to the surface and shed
Variations in growth rate and length of hair growth cycle
account for differences in uncut hair length among
individuals
Other differences in hair appearance result from the size
of follicles and shapes of hairs
Ex) Straight hairs are round when viewed in cross
section while curly ones are rather flat

Functions of Hair
Functions of Hair
Hairs on scalp:
Protect scalp from UV light
Cushions light blows to head
Insulate skull
Hairs guarding orifices (nostrils, ear canals, eyes)
Help prevent entry of foreign particles
All hairs are sensitive to very light touch
Provides an early warning system that may help prevent injury
Arrector pili muscles extend from papillary
dermis to connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each hair follicle
These muscles pull of hair follicles when
stimulated, forcing hair to stand up
Contraction may be caused by
emotional states (fear, rage) or as a
response to cold (goose bumps)

Hair Color
Hair color reflects differences in type and amount of
pigment produced by melanocytes at hair papilla
Different forms of melanin produce hair colors that
range from black to red
These pigment difference are genetically determined
Hormonal and environmental factors also influence hair
Hair color lightens as pigment production decreases
with age
White hair results from both lack of pigment and
air bubbles within hair shaft
Hair color is described as gray as proportion of
white hairs increases

5-7 Sebaceous glands and

sweat glands are
exocrine glands found in the skin

Sebaceous Glands
Sebaceous Glands (oil Glands): holocrine glands that discharge an oily
lipid secretion into hair follicles or onto skin surface
Caused by contraction of arrector pili muscle
Squeezes the gland and forces
the oily secretion into the hair
follicle and onto surrounding
skin
Secretion is called sebum
Lubricates hair and skin and inhibits bacterial growth
Sensitive to changes in concentrations of sex hormones
Secretions accelerate at puberty, causing individuals with large
glands to be prone to acne during adolescence
Acne occurs when sebaceous ducts become blocked and
secretions accumulate, causing inflammation and a raised
pimple
Include sebaceous follicles: large sebaceous glands that discharge
sebum directly onto the skin
Located on face, back, chest, nipples, and external genitalia

Apocrine Sweat Glands

The skin also contains 2 types of sudoriferous (sweat) glands:
apocrine and merocrine sweat glands
Apocrine sweat glands: secrete their products into fair follicle in
armpits, around nipples, and in the groin
Originally thought to use apocrine method of secretion
We now know that they rely on merocrine secretion
These glands begin producing sweat at puberty
Sweat becomes odorous when bacteria break it down
as a food source
In most mammals, this odor is an
important form of communication
In humans, this odor is masked by
deodorants and antiperspirants
Antiperspirants contain astringent
compounds that contract skin and
sweat gland openings, decreasing
the quantity of secretion

Merocrine Sweat Glands

Merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands: coiled tubular glands that
discharge their secretions directly onto skin surface
Far more numerous and widely distributed than apocrine
glands
Ex) Adult skin contains 2-5 millions of these glands
Palms and soles have the highest numbers of
merocrine glands (500/square centimeter)
Sweat (perspiration) produced by
merocrine glands is 99% water
Also contains a mixture of
electrolytes (NaCl), organic
nutrients, and waste products
(urea)
Sodium chloride gives sweat its
salty taste

Merocrine Sweat Gland Function

Primary function of merocrine secretions is to cool skin surface
and lower body temperature
Excessive perspiration, however, can lead to problems
Perspiration results in excretion of water and electrolytes
from the body
Perspiration may exceed 1 gallon/hour when all
merocrine sweat glands are working at maximum rate
Can cause dangerous fluid and electrolyte loss
Sweat also provides protection from environmental hazards
Dilutes harmful chemicals in contact with skin
Flushes microorganisms from skin surface
Also contains molecule with antibiotic properties called
dermicidin
Provides additional protection from microorganisms

Modified Sweat Glands

The skin also contains other types of modified
sweat glands with specialized secretions
Mammary glands in breasts are similar in structure
to apocrine sweat glands
These glands secrete milk

Ceruminous glands in passageway of external ear

have specialized secretions
Combine with those of nearby sebaceous glands to form
earwax

5-8 Nails are keratinized

epidermal cells that protect
the tips of fingers and toes

Nails
Nails: form on dorsal surfaces of fingers and toes
Protect exposed tips and limit distortion when subjected to
mechanical stress
Nail body is made of dead cells packed with keratin
Covers a recessed level of epidermis called the nail bed
Nail production occurs in a deep epidermal fold not visible from the
surface called the nail root
Portion of the stratum corneum of this
fold extends over exposed nail near
root, forming the cuticle (eponychium)
Underlying blood vessels give nails
their pink color
These vessels may be obscured
near the root, leaving a pale
crescent called a lunula

5-9 Several steps are involved

in repairing the integument
following an injury

Repair of Skin Injuries

Skin can regenerate even after considerable damage
because stem cells are present in both its epithelial and
connective tissue components
Division of these stem cells produces epidermal and
dermal cells
Process can be slow and complicated
Infection and fluid loss can result when large surface
areas are involved
Relative speed and effectiveness of repair varies
depending on type of wound
Slender, straight cuts called incisions may heal
relatively quickly
Scrapes that involve larger areas, known as
abrasions, need more time to heal

Repair of Skin Injuries

There are 4 stages in the regeneration of skin following an
injury:
Step 1: Bleeding occurs at site of injury immediately
after being incurred
Mast cells in this region trigger the inflammatory
response
Results in enhanced
blood flow to
surrounding regions
and attraction of
phagocytes

Repair of Skin Injuries

There are 4 stages in the regeneration of skin following an injury:
Step 2: A blood clot (scab) forms temporarily at the surface to restore
integrity of epidermis and restrict additional entry of microorganisms
Clot consists mainly of a network of fiber proteins called fibrins that
form from blood proteins during the clotting response
Cells of stratum germinativum rapidly divide and begin to migrate
along sides of wound to replace missing epidermal cells
Macrophages and newly-arrived phagocytes patrol damaged area of
dermis and clear away debris and pathogens
If the wound covers an extensive area or
involves a region of thin skin, dermal repairs
must be underway before epithelial cells can
cover the surface
Fiber-producing cells (fibroblasts) and
connective tissue stem cells divide to
produce mobile cells that invade deeper
areas of injury
Epithelial cells lining damaged blood
vessels follow these fibroblasts as they
begin to divide to form capillaries
Combination of blood clot, fibroblasts, and an extensive capillary
network is called granulation tissue

Repair of Skin Injuries

There are 4 stages in the regeneration of skin
following an injury:
Step 3: One week after injury:
The clot dissolves
Number of capillaries
declines
Fibroblast activity has
formed an extensive
meshwork of collagen
fibers in the dermis

Repair of Skin Injuries

There are 4 stages in the regeneration of skin following an
injury:
Step 4: After several weeks, the scab is shed and the
epidermis is complete
These repairs do not restore integument to its original
condition:
Dermis now contains an abnormally large number of
collagen fibers and relatively
few blood vessels
Severely damaged hair follicles,
sebaceous and sweat glands,
muscle cells, and nerves are
seldom repaired and instead
replaced by fibrous tissue
Leads to the formation of an
inflexible, fibrous,
noncellular scar tissue that
will gradually elevate the
overlying epidermis

Scar Formation
Process of scar formation is highly variable
Surgical procedures performed on fetuses do not leave
scars
In some adults, especially those with dark skin, scar
tissue formation may continue beyond requirements of
tissue repair
Results in a flattened mass of scar tissue called a
keloid
Begins at injury site and grows into surrounding
dermis
Covered by shiny, smooth epidermal surface
Most commonly develop on upper back,
shoulders, anterior chest, and earlobes

Effects of Burns
Burns are a type of skin injury that can have many causes
Include exposure of skin to heat, radiation, electrical
shock, or strong chemical agents
Severity of injury depends on depth of penetration and total
area affected
Larger affected areas correlate with greater impact on
integumentary function
The most common classification of burns is based on the
depth of penetration (see below)

5-10 Effects of aging include

dermal thinning, wrinkling, and
reduced melanocyte activity

Effects of Aging
Aging affects all components of the integument and causes several
major changes:
Skin injuries and infections become more common
Due to thinning of epidermis and decline in stem cell activity
The sensitivity of the immune system is reduced
Number of macrophages and other immune system cells
residing in the skin decreases by ~50%
Muscles become weaker, and bone strength decreases
Related to reduced calcium and phosphate absorption caused
by a 75% decline in vitamin D3 production
Sensitivity to sun exposure increases
Less melanin is produced as melanocyte activity declines
The skin becomes dry and often scaly
Due to declines in glandular activity, sebum production, and
perspiration

Effects of Aging
Aging affects all components of the integument and causes
several major changes (continued):
Hair thins and changes color
Follicles stop functioning or produce thinner, finer hairs
These hairs are gray or white due to decreased melanocyte
activity
Sagging and wrinkling of the skin occur
Dermis becomes thinner and elastic fiber network decreases
in size
Effects are most pronounced in areas exposed to sun
The ability to lose heat decreases
Blood supply to dermis is reduced
Sweat glands become less active
Skin repairs proceed relatively slowly
Repairs can take twice as long as those of a young adult
Recurrent infection may occurs because these repairs are
so slow

5-11 The integumentary

system provides protection for
all other body systems

Importance of the Integumentary

System
Protects and interacts with all organ
systems

Changes in skin appearance are used to

diagnose disorders in other systems

The Integumentary System

in Perspective

Functional Relationships Between

the Integumentary System and Other Systems

The Skeletal System

The Skeletal System

provides structural support
The Integumentary System
synthesizes vitamin D3, essential
for calcium and phosphorus
absorption (bone maintenance
and growth)

The Muscular System

The Muscular Systems facial
muscles pull against skin of face,
producing expressions important
in communication
The Integumentary System
synthesizes vitamin D3 , essential
for normal calcium absorption
(calcium ions play an essential
role in muscle contraction)

The Nervous System

The Nervous System controls

blood flow and sweat gland
activity for thermoregulation;
stimulates contraction of
arrector pili muscles to elevate
hairs
The Intergumentary Systems
receptors in dermis and deep
epidermis provide sensations of
touch, pressure, vibration,
temperature, and pain

The Endocrine System

The Endocrine System includes

the sex hormones that stimulate
sebaceous and apocrine gland
activity, and develop secondary
sexual characteristics; suprarenal
hormones alter blood flow to skin
and mobilize lipids from fat cells
The Integumentary System
synthesizes vitamin D3, precursor
of calcitriol, a hormone produced
by the kidneys

The Cardiovascular System

The Cardiovascular System
provides oxygen and nutrients;
delivers hormones and cells of
immune system; carries away
carbon dioxide, waste products,
and toxins; provides heat to
maintain normal skin
temperature
The Integumentary Systems
mast cells produce localized
changes in blood flow and
capillary permeability

The Lymphatic System

The Lymphoid System assists

in defending the integument by
providing additional
macrophages and mobilizing
lymphocytes
The Integumentary System
provides physical barriers that
prevent pathogen entry;
macrophages resist infection;
mast cells trigger inflammation
and initiate the immune reponse

The Respiratory System

The Respiratory System

provides oxygen and eliminates
carbon dioxide
The Integumentary Systems
hairs guard entrance to nasal
cavity

The Digestive System

The Digestive System Provides

nutrients for all cells and lipids
for storage by adipocytes
The Integumentary System
synthesizes vitamin D3, needed
for absorption of calcium and
phosphorus

The Urinary System

The Urinary System excretes

waste products, maintains
normal body fluid pH and ion
composition
The Integumentary System
assists in elimination of water
and solutes; keratinized
epidermis limits fluid loss
through skin

The Reproductive System

The Reproductive Systems
sex hormones affect hair
distribution, adipose tissue
distribution in subcutaneous
layer, and mammary gland
development
The Integumentary System
covers external genitalia;
provides sensations that
stimulate sexual behaviors;
mammary gland secretions
provide nourishment for
newborn infant