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Kuliah 12 Analisis Deskriptif Dan Inferensi
Kuliah 12 Analisis Deskriptif Dan Inferensi
Analisis Statistik
Analisis Statistik
Matlamat pemprosesan data ialah untuk
mendapatkan maklumat yang berguna dan
bermakna daripada data.
Aras ukuran
pembolehubah
Maklumat
populasi atau
sampel
Nominal,
Ordinal, Sela,
Nisbah
Statistik keperihalan
atau deskriptif
Statistik Inferensi atau
pentakbiran
STATISTIK
FUNGSI
DESKRIPTIF
INFERENSI
UJIAN
Menghuraikan ciri-ciri
pemboleh ubah.
Ia digunakan untuk membuat
kesimpulan mengenai data
numerikal.
Tidak membuat generalisasi
daripada sampel kajian
kepada populasi di mana
sampel diambil.
Menghurai perhubungan
antara pemboleh ubah.
Menghuraikan ciri-ciri
sampel yang dipilih daripada
populasi.
Membuat generalisasi ciriciri sampel mengenai
populasinya.
Statistik Deskriptif
Merupakan statistik yang digunakan untuk
menghuraikan ciri-ciri pembolehubah.
Statistik deskriptif menggunakan petunjuk
seperti min, sisihan piawai, medium, mod,
taburan normal dan skor z untuk
menyatakan ciri-ciri sesuatu pembolehubah.
untuk
Teknik
Langkah-Langkah :
1.
2.
3.
PENGUKURAN
KECENDERUNGAN MEMUSAT
Dilakukan dengan menggunakan satu nilai untuk
mewakili satu set data.
Measures of central tendency provide descriptive
information about the single numerical value that is
considered to be the most typical of the values of a
quantitative variable.
Three common measures of central tendency
are the mode, the median, and the mean.
Istilah-istilah penting
Min atau purata purata arithmetik dan
didapati dengan menjumlahkan skor-skor di
dalam taburan skor dan dibahagikan dengan
jumlah bilangan skor
Taburan Normal
Min
Penengah
Mod
Sisihan piawai
Petunjuk pengukuran yang utama dalam
penyelidikan untuk menyatakan keserakan
skor-skor dalam sesuatu taburan. Ia
digunakan pada data skala sela dan nisbah.
Sisihan piawai menunjukkan jumlah purata
sesuatu nilai atau skor individu tersisih
daripada skor min dalam sesuatu taburan.
Varians
Varians juga digunakan untuk mengenal
pasti keserakan skor-skor dalam satu
taburan. Varians merupakan kuasa dua bagi
nilai sisihan piawai.
If you said Set B is more spread out, then you are right! The
numbers in set B are more "spread out"; that is, they are
more variability. All of the measures of variability should give
us an indication of the amount of variability in a set of data.
We will discuss three indices of variability: the range, the
variance, and the standard deviation.
Range (Sela/Julat)
A relatively crude indicator of variability is the range
(i.e., which is the difference between the highest
and lowest numbers).
Maximum score Minimum score
For example the range in Set A shown above is 7,
and the range in Set B shown above is 90.
Set A. 93, 96, 98, 99, 99, 99, 100
Set B. 10, 29, 52, 69, 87, 92, 100
Contoh
Mata Pelajaran
Pelajar 1
Pelajar 2
Pelajar 3
KH
54
64
70
BM
62
25
71
BI
86
88
74
Sains
74
72
74
Mat
65
95
72
Sej
82
65
78
PJK
84
98
68
Jumlah
507
507
507
72.42
72.42
72.42
Skor Min
Contoh
Bil mata
pelajaran
Minimu
m
Maksimum
Jumlah
Skor
Min
SP
Pelajar 1
54
86
507
72.42
11.43
Pelajar 2
25
98
507
72.42
29.20
Pelajar 3
68
78
507
72.42
3.02
Peratusan
Dengan menggunakan peratusan,
penyelidik dapat menyatakan peratusan
setiap jenis data untuk menyatakan
perhubungan antara pembolehubah.
Analisis peratusan biasanya dinyatakan
bersama dengan nilai frekuensi.
Perubahan peratusan
Perubahan peratusan biasanya digunakan
untuk membandingkan frekuensi dalam
peratusan bagi aktiviti yang berlaku dalam
satu masa yang tertentu dengan satu
masa lain (digunakan dalam kajian
longitudinal)
Contoh
Kes salah laku tahun 2008 dan 2009
Salah laku
2008
2009
Perbezaan
%
Merokok
16
25
56.25
Kes
tumbuk
12
18
50.00
Mengugut
66.67
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Bertujuan
4.
5.
Sampling Distributions
One of the most important concepts in inferential statistics is
that of the sampling distribution. That's because the use of a
sampling distributions is what allows us to make
"probability" statements in inferential statistics.
A sampling distribution is defined as "The theoretical
probability distribution of the values of a statistic that
results when all possible random samples of a particular
size are drawn from a population." (For simplicity you
can view the idea of "all possible samples" as taking a
million random samples. That is, just view it as taking a
whole lot of samples!)
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is the branch of inferential statistics that is concerned
with how well the sample data support a null hypothesis and when the We
use hypothesis testing when we expect a relationship to be present; in other
words, we usually hope to nullify the null hypothesis and tentatively accept the
alternative hypothesis null hypothesis can be rejected in favor of the
alternative hypothesis.
The null hypothesis is usually the prediction that there is no relationship
in the population.
The alternative hypothesis is the logical opposite of the null
hypothesis and says there is a relationship in the population.
Probability Value
The probability value is a number that is
obtained from the SPSS computer printout. It
is based on your empirical data, and it tells
you the probability of your result or a more
extreme result when it is assumed that there
is no relationship in the population (i.e., when
you are assuming that the null hypothesis is
true which is what we do in hypothesis testing
and in jurisprudence).
Significance Level []
Aras Signifikan
Satu darjah yang boleh diterima oleh penyelidik untuk membuat
keputusan sama ada menolak atau menerima hipotesis nol.
The significance level is just that point at which you would consider a
result to be "rare." You are the one who decides on the significance level
to use in your research study. It is the level that you set so that you will
know what probability value will be small enough for you to reject the
null hypothesis.
The significance level that is usually used in education is .05.
If your probability value is less than or equal to the significance level
(e.g., .05) then you will reject the null hypothesis and tentatively accept
the alternative hypothesis. If not (i.e., if it is > .05) then you will fail to
reject the null. You just compare your probability value with your
significance level.
Aras Signifikan [] :
Aras Signifikan [] :
The significance level is just that point at
which you would consider a result to be
"rare." You are the one who decides on
the significance level to use in your
research study. It is the level that you set
so that you will know what probability
value will be small enough for you to
reject the null hypothesis.
The significance level that is usually used in
education is .05.
Aras Signifikan [] :
Aras Signifikan [] :
Parametric Test
A statistical test that involves making
assumptions about estimates of
population characteristics, or
parameters.
3.
4.
Rule 1:
If
Probability value significance
level (i.e. p )
Then
Reject the null hypothesis
And
Conclude that the research finding
is statistically significant
Rule 2:
If
Probability value > significance
level (i.e. p > )
Then
Fail to reject the null hypothesis
And
Conclude that the research finding
is not statistically significant
More explanation..
When the null hypothesis is true you can make the correct
decision (i.e., fail to reject the null) or you can make the
incorrect decision (rejecting the true null). The incorrect
decision is called a Type I error or a "false positive"
because you have erroneously concluded that there is an
effect or relationship in the population.
When the null hypothesis is false you can also make the
correct decision (i.e., rejecting the false null) or you can
make the incorrect decision (failure to reject the false null).
The incorrect decision is called a Type II error or a "false
negative" because you have erroneously concluded that
there is no effect or relationship in the population.
Membandingkan frekuensi
Ujian-T
Ujian-T
Ujian-T
Seorang petani ingin menguji baja jenama baru untuk pokok jagung.
Sebanyak 15 pokok jagung dipilih secara rawak daripada ladangnya
dan diberikan baja jenama baru. Purata pertumbuhan jagung di
ladangnya untuk tempoh dua minggu ialah 45cm. Selepas dua
minggu, dia mengukur pertumbuhan 15 pokok jagung yang diberikan
baja baru. Ujian-t dilakukan untuk melihat sama ada baja baru itu
berkesan atau tidak.
Membandingkan lebih
daripada dua kumpulan data
sela atau nisbah
ANOVA
Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is a set
of statistical procedures used
to explain or predict the
values of a quantitative
dependent variable based on
the values of one or more
independent variables.
In simple regression,
there is one quantitative
dependent variable and
one independent
variable.
In multiple regression,
there is one quantitative
dependent variable and
two or more independent
variables.
Perhubungan antara
pemboleh ubah bersandar
dengan pemboleh ubah
bebas
Ujian Korelasi
Ujian Korelasi
Ujian Korelasi
Dua persoalan
Apakah persamaan yang mewakili
perhubungan antara pemboleh ubah-pemboleh
ubah?
2. Apakah kekuatan perhubungan antara
pemboleh ubah-pemboleh ubah tersebut?
1.
Ujian Korelasi
Ujian Korelasi
Ujian Korelasi
Ujian Korelasi
Contoh:
Kekuatan korelasi
Sangat kuat
Kuat
Sederhana
Lemah
Sangat lemah
00
Tiada korelasi
Pie Chart
Bar Graphs
A bar graph uses vertical bars to represent the data. The
height of the bars usually represent the frequencies for
the categories that sit on the X axis. The X axis is the
horizontal axis and the Y axis is the vertical axis. Bar
graphs are typically used for categorical variables.
Histograms
A histogram is a graphic that shows the frequencies and shape that
characterize a quantitative variable.
Line Graphs
A line graph uses one or more lines to depict information about one or more
variables.
A simple line graph might be used to show a trend over time
Scatterplots
A scatterplot is used to depict the relationship between two quantitative
variables. Typically, the independent or predictor variable is represented
by the X axis (i.e., on the horizontal axis) and the dependent variable is
represented by the Y axis (i.e., on the vertical axis).