Running Head: The Adult Learner

The Adult Learner & The Online Learning Experience

Hector Escalante
The University of the Pacific

Running Head: The Adult Learner

The Adult Learner & The Online Learning Experience
An Introduction
In the 1950s, Malcolm Knowles blazed the adult learning theory trail when he introduced
the premise that adults learned differently from children. He borrowed the term andragogy
from Edward Lindeman (McLean, 2006) and created a framework for adult educators to better
serve the adult learner (Knowles, 1970). However, that was 54 years ago. According to research
conducted within the last 15 years, adult learners have changed a lot (Howell, 2003). Adult
learning experts (Merriam & Bierema, 2014) believe that adult learners look for solutions and
value autonomy (Howell, 2003), which sets them apart for P-12 learners. Adults tend to seek
meaningful experiences and teachable moments (Peers, 1999) that are applicable to their daily
life experiences.
The United States has a long history of adult education, starting with military training,
The YMCA, and some public schools (Tweedle, 2000). The voluntary nature of adult learning
alone sets adult learners apart from p-12 learners (Peers, 1999). Furthermore, technology is also
an intervening variable that changes everything. Furthermore, adult learning in the workplace
also affords many new potential areas of focus relating to how adults learn best (McLean, 2000).
The Internet revolution and the ubiquitous nature of technology have dramatically
changed the learning environment for the adult learner over the last 50 years. Technology is
radically changing the educational landscape (Howell, 2003; McLean 2006). According to
Merriam and Bierema, (2014) 6.1 million adults took online courses or programs in 2010. This
is a large population of learners that need to be understood.
There is a fairly large amount of research that indicates eLearning compliments adult
learning (Barbour, McLaren, & Zhan, 2014). Yet, there is still quite a bit of controversy

Running Head: The Adult Learner

regarding the value of online learning (McLean, 2006). Many American educators still consider
online learning somewhat controversial (Jones & Pritchard, 2000) even though prestigious
Australian colleges and universities have been offering online programs for many years (Jones &
Pritchard, 2000). The Australian educational community has settled this controversy long ago;
however, America still struggles with determining the value of an online education (Howell,
2003).
The purpose of this literature review is to explore the characteristics of the contemporary
adult learner, reexamine who the adult learner is, and how an online environment affects how an
adult learns. I also begin a discussion about adult learners in the workplace. My focus is
eLearning and the adult learner. Because there isnt much current research about the adult learner
in the workplace, and his/her attitudes about online learning, many of the articles I reviewed
focused on eLearning in higher education. In short, this literature review is a synthesis of several
articles regarding adult learning in the eLearning environment, trends and an identification of
gaps in this field. I also make an attempt to tie this research to adult learning in the workplace
environment. There is a lack of academic literature when it comes to defining who the adult
learner is in the workplace and also their experiences and perceptions of online learning;
consequently, this area of discussion is brief.
Terms like adult learner, traditional and non-traditional learners get tossed around
in educational research a lot (Merriam & Biereman, 2014). However, what is in a label and to
whom do these labels refer? For example, who is the postmodern adult learner and how does he
or she learn best? In my literature review I attempt to explore who adult learners are, discuss
whether they have changed over the last 50 years, how eLearning environments such as hybrid

Running Head: The Adult Learner

classes, online degrees and online learning platforms might affect how an adult learn higher
education and the workplace.
How Adults Learns: The Pedagogy vs Andragogy Controversy
Adult learning theories have been around since the 1920s (Merriam, 2001); consequently,
as I delved into eLearning, adult education and learning in the workplace, adult learning theory
often was the first point of discussion and a common theme of most articles regarding how adults
learn in an online environment. Learning theories in general tend to include adults; however, a
unique set of assumptions about adult learners tends to separate adults from the traditional P-12
student (McLean, 2006). We must first define what it means to be an adult? Age is not
necessarily an accurate indicator of adulthood, because some college preparation programs start
in high school, where students are under the age of 18 (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). Merriam &
Brockett provide a clear definition we can apply here. They state that adults are those whose
age, social roles, or self-perception, define them as adults (8). This definition also applies to our
concept of adult education because adult education focuses on activities designed to help adults
learn (Merriam & Bierema, 2014).
As mentioned in the introduction, the term andragogy is commonly used to refer to the
adult learner (Knowles, 1970; Tweedle, 2000). Andragogy, as opposed to pedagogy,
distinguishes adult learners from P-12 learners (Knowles, 1970). According to Malcolm
Knowles, the father of andragogy, adult learners incorporate a different set of skills than children
do when they learn, so traditional pedagogical ideas dont always apply to adults (Abubakar &
Chehime, 2013). Knowles contrasted how adults and children learn, and posited that adults learn
best when certain criteria are met (Knowles, 1970; Merriam, 2001). Knowles (1970) believed
adult learners have an independent concept of self, rely on life experiences to understand new

Running Head: The Adult Learner

learning experiences, learn best when roles are incorporated, are internally motivated, and can
apply problem-solving to real-life applications (Knowles, 1980; Merriam, 2001). Some educators
would argue that adults and children learn exactly the same way (McLean, 2006). After all, a
child can exhibit all of these characteristics described in andragogy. However, adult education
and adult learners are still a major topic that experts from many fields continue to study and
discuss (Tweedell, 2000).
Traditionally speaking, adult learners are learners in later stages of adolescence
(Tweedell, 2000) who voluntarily attend class to somehow improve their lives (Peers, 1999). The
question that keeps surfacing is, has the traditional adult learner changed much over the years?
Some believe the adult learner has not changed much (Chu, R., Chu A., Weng. C. & Chia,
L.2012). Yet, the rapid advances in technology alone have altered the way adults learn. For
example, social networking, smart phones and other smart devices are changing life-style habits
and possibly learning habits of a large population of Americans (Merriam & Bierema).
Researchers such as Esteban Vasquez-Cano, are exploring the didactic resources provided to
learners through smartphones and other digital devices (2014). Smartphones are quickly gaining
a place in the traditional higher educational classroom (Vasquez Cano, 2014). If adult learners
are different and need different structures to learn, one must ask. has technology and the use of
mobile learning and open source platforms impacted how adults learn in any way? Before
delving into eLearning and the adult learner, it is important to discuss experiential learning and
self-directed learning because these two learning philosophies reoccurred as themes in the
articles I reviewed. It was clear in my reading that several adult learning experts believe that
adults learn best when experiential learning and self-directed learning are employed (Chu R. et
al, Dewey, 1938; Tweedell, 2000).

Running Head: The Adult Learner

While this review is a not a literature review of learning theories, briefly describing
experiential learning and self-directed learning will be helpful as I strive to understand who adult
learners are and how they learn in different environments. Experiential learning finds its roots in
John Deweys educational philosophies and theories (Dewey, 1938; Tweedell, 2000).
John Dewey was an early and prominent figure in education in the early 1900s, and is important
because he challenged the traditional ideas and methodologies regarding teaching and learning.
For Dewey, learning was about the experience and not the imposition of learning (Dewey, 1938).
Dewey believed that adults learned best when they could apply what they learned to their daily
lives. His emphasis on the learner and "reflection" to solve problems and improve intelligence
paved the way for a cognitive approach to curriculum design (Saetler, 2000). Why is this
important? Deweys contribution to experiential learning is often tied to adult education and the
life-long learning movement (Dewey, 1938; Tweedle, 2000; Chu et al, 2012). Hence, when we
discuss who the adult learner is and how she learns, experiential learning is an integral part of
this conversation.
Self-directed learning is another important and reoccurring theory to consider when
discussing adult learners. Researchers have found that adults learn best when they have
significant autonomy during the learning process (Abubakar, A., & Chehime, H.). Researchers
are asking if self-directedness is a prerequisite for adult learners, especially in the online
learning environment (Chu et al, 2012). The basic concepts of self-directed learning are
autonomy, initiative, independence and love of learning (Chu et al, 2012, p. 208). Some may
argue that the same criteria could be applied to all learners (Hallett, R., 2014). However, as we
consider the online environment in adult education, self-directed learning becomes a necessary
prerequisite for learning to occur (Chu et al, 2012). Furthermore, if the definition of an adult

Running Head: The Adult Learner

learner is that she is someone who voluntarily learns (McLean, 2000), self-directed learning
needs to be part of this discussion, and more needs to be learned about how adults employ selfdirected learning to challenging learning contexts such as online learning (Abubakar, A., &
Chehime, H.). There is some discussion as to how researchers could apply self-directed learning
to adult learning theory going forward (Merriam, 2001), and if self-directed learning ignores the
social contexts, while focusing too much on the individual learner. Regardless, both experiential
and self-directed learning are important learning philosophies that remain vital to the research
and discussion regarding the adult learner.
The Adult Learner in the eLearning Environment
Educational researchers such as Peter Saettler (1990) have written volumes about
educational technology. It is a huge topic. However, as I focused my literature review on the
adult learner in the eLearning environment, I began to discover reoccurring themes as well as
gaps in the research. First of all, there are several terms for online education, and there are
various combinations of those terms. For example, online learning that includes some face-toface instruction is called Blended Learning (Perez, V, Perez C, & Ariza, L., 2011). Flipped
classrooms are also a new form of learning context that utilizes multi-media to help students
learn (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). Distributed learning is also referred to as distance
education, distance learning, distributed education, and eLearning (Merriam, S. &
Bierema, L., 2014; Salkin, 2008). According to the Sloan Consortium, online learning is an
online course as one with at least 80% of the course delivered online without face-to-face
meetings (Dykman & Davis, 2008, p. 11). Salkin defines online education as the
communication over distance between teacher and student mediated by print or some form of
technology designed to bridge the separation between teacher and student in space or time

Running Head: The Adult Learner

(2008, p. 3). Going forward, I will use the term eLearning, while keeping both the Sloan-C
definition and the Salkin definition as a context for the term.
There is currently an incredible demand for eLearning opportunities in higher education
(Merriam & Bierema, 2014). An annual report titled Going the Distance: Online Education in
the United States, reports that online enrollment is at an all time high (Allen & Seaman, 2011,
p. 11). Allen & Seamans Going the Distance 2011 report states that 6.1 million students
have taken at least one online course in the year 2010, and Thirty-one percent of all higher
education students now take at least one course online (Allen & Seaman, 2011, p. 11). Access
to online learning in higher education is on a steady increase. According to Jacqueline Moloney,
millions of students in higher education take advantage of eLearning opportunities (2010).
Indeed, adult learners can earn entire degrees, including postgraduate degrees online (Moloney,
2010; Merriam & Bierema, 2014). What is interesting about eLearning and the adult learning is
that there are some researchers who believe that the traditional adult learner has changed because
of technology (Barbour, McLaren, & Zhang, 2012). According to Barbour et al, most higher
education students are now non-traditional, and 60% of these students are over twenty-five
years old (2012, p. 24). This was not the case 20 years ago (Allen & Seaman, 2011). Of course,
20 years ago, students were not using technology the way they are today. As noted earlier many
of these non-traditional students take advantage of eLearning. What is drawing adults to
eLearning opportunities, and what perhaps, discourages them from eLearning? My review of the
literature revealed clearly delineated trends when it comes to the adult learner and eLearning.
Higher education institutions are fighting for resources and are being required to accommodate
increasing demands with less resources (Prinsloo & Slade, 2014). eLearning platforms are one
answer to this challenge. Online learning potentially reaches a larger audience. Furthermore,

Running Head: The Adult Learner

traditional colleges are on a decline and for-profit higher education institutions are growing
(Hoffman & Borengasser, 2011).
Benefits of Online Learning
According to researchers who bridge the worlds of adult learning and eLearning (Liaw &
Huang, 2002; Frey & Alman, 2003), there are clear advantages for adults to learn in an
eLearning environment. For example, the incredible demand on institutions of higher education
have forced many well known universities to consider online learning (Howell & Lindsay,
2003). Major universities such as Stanford and The University of Pittsburg have launched online
degrees with success (Frey & Alman, 2003).
Online learning has come a long way, and the stigma associated with online learning is
beginning to dissipate (Jones & Pritchard, 2000).Today, some online learning experiences are
more interactive than in-seat courses (Allen & Seaman, 2011). Yet, there is still resistance to
eLearning in the United States in higher education (Daneshgar &, VanToon, 2009). We will
discuss this further in a different section. Further benefits of eLEarning include, remote access,
autonomy for the learner, increased exposure to globalized populations, efficient distribution of
course materials, and opportunities to incorporate experiential learning and self-directed learning
(Barbour & Zhang, 2012; Frey & Alman, 2003; Prinsloo & Slade, 2014; Salkin, 2008).
The ubiquitous nature of the Internet and incredible advancements in technology (Howell
& Lindsay, 2003) have situated eLearning in higher education as a powerful trend that should not
be ignored (Hoffman & Borengasser, 2011). As eLearning platforms such as Blackboard,
SAKAI and eCampus gain exposure and use, the anxiety often associated with using technology
to teach and learn is beginning to dissipate (Liaw & Huang, 2002). Students who were surveyed
regarding technology and online learning at the University of Hawaii were not concerned with

Running Head: The Adult Learner

the use of technology. The researchers found that both faculty and staff exhibited a lack of
concern regarding eLearning opportunities (Hoffman & Borengasser, 2011). Certainly, a trend in
my literature review is that eLearning is gaining acceptance and is changing the landscape of
higher education (Staley & Trinkle, 2011; Stella & Gnanam, 2004). A final point to be made
regarding what researchers are saying regarding eLearning and its benefits to adult learners is
that there is an increasing demand for digital literacy in the workforce. Digital literacy describes
a persons ability to distinguish between reliable sources and biased opinion (Salkind, 2008, p.
13). Some higher education institutions are beginning to require digital literacy as a graduation
requirement (Howell & Lindsay). eLearning naturally lends itself to the development of digital
literacy because a learner in an online learning environment is required to do much reading and
synthesizing of material on his or her own. This requires a tremendous amount of digital literacy.

Disadvantages & Challenges of online learning

As is true of any area of inquiry or research, there are multiple views regarding online
learning. eLearning researchers often bemoan eLearning and its shortfalls, and in extreme cases,
even predict the demise of higher education (Prinsloo & Slade, 2014). As noted earlier,
thousands of students now take advantage of eLearning (Moloney & Burks, 2010), but that
doesnt mean that all is well with online education. For example, eLearning is initially more
expensive than brick and mortar courses (Howell & Lindsay, 2003) because of the cost of
technology and training involved. The amount of infrastructure needed to run a learning platform
is often daunting. Howell and Lindsay refer to a study from the department of education in
Colorado, which reports that there is little to no difference between the cost per student taking an
online course verses an in-seat or face-to-face course (2003). Learning management systems

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Running Head: The Adult Learner

dont run themselves, and often challenge even the most technologically savvy faculty and
student (Howell & Lindsay, 2003). There is also much discussion regarding the use of eLearning
to unbundle higher education to account for rising costs (Barbour M., McLaren A., Zhang, L,
2014; Staley & Trinkle, 2011). The disruption in higher education caused by open source
technology is considered by some to be damaging to traditional higher education values and
quality (Prinsloo & Slade, 2014). In an article titled Educational Triage in Open Distance
Learning: Walking a Moral Tightrope, Prinsloo & Slade discuss the creative destruction facing
higher education and the reinvention of the university (2014, p. 307). The introduction of
MOOCs and open source learning platforms such as Moodle has radically changed the adult
learning environment (Prinsloo & Slade, 2014). Anyone with access to the Internet can take a
Stanford course, if he or she is disciplined enough to learn what they need to learn. These
learners do not receive a degree, but they do potentially learn something. This notion of learning
without a degree challenges the very core of American higher education. Researchers such as
Staley and Trinkle compare the current state of higher education to the restaurant market (2011).
Adult learners have choices, depending on their taste and budget. There is much to be discovered
about the impact of open source education on the topography of higher education.
Other significant disadvantages and obstacles to eLearning include a feeling of isolation
on the part of students and faculty, which leads to resistance to technology, the lack of
community amongst students, cognitive overload, lack of physical cues, and low retention rates
(Barbour & Zhang, Howell & Lindsay, 2003; Prinsloo & Slade, 2014; Salkin, 2008).
After reviewing several journals, books and articles, I am acutely aware of a need for me
to narrow my focus in future literature reviews as dictated by the gaps that I discover. The adult
learner and eLearning are two large topics. My aim is to narrow my focus to who the adult

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Running Head: The Adult Learner

learner is in the online learning environment and what potential advantages and disadvantages
eLearning presents to the adult learner. The following is a review of the gaps discovered as I
attempted to synthesize my readings.
Findings
While adult learners may appear to be an easily categorized group of people, it is still
somewhat of a vague term. At what point does a person become an adult? As stated earlier in this
literature review, Merriam & Brockett define adults as those whose age, social roles, or selfperception, define them as adults (2014, p.8). This definition works, but I believe that
generational differences, culture and socioeconomic status are also factors to be considered when
defining the 21st century postmodern adult in higher education. The Sloan-C report (Dykman &
Davis, 2008) and the Going the Distance report (Allen & Seaman, 2011) provide
comprehensive data regarding trends in online learning, but I didnt see clear definitions of who
the adult learner is in online learning today. According to the most recent National Center for
Educational Statistics, there are nearly nine million students in higher education over the age of
25 (Johnson et al, 2014, p. 98). Who are these students and have they changed much over the last
50 years. In short, as McLean states, "adult learning isn't understood very well. In spite of
decades of research, adult educators and human resource development practitioners still have
imperfect understandings of adult learning, and researchers continue to search for a unitary
theory of adult learning" and a clear definition of who the adult learner is in the 21st century
(McLean, 2006).
There is some research regarding how adult learners feel about eLearning, (Barbour &
Zhang, 2014), but most research focuses on the effectiveness of eLearning, retention rates, cost,
and not so much on who the adult learner is. If adults learn differently than children, adults will

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Running Head: The Adult Learner

require a different approach, especially in the online environment (Tweedle, 2000). To develop
this approach, it is important to consider what motivates an adult to learn and how nontraditional
environments such as eLearning, impact adult learner engagement. Chu et al, studied students in
Internet learning environments (Chu et al, 2012), and found that gender, student grade and prior
usage of the Internet affected how well the adult learner responded to eLearning. However, I
believe that more information needs to be gathered regarding culture, generation, and prior
online learning experience of the adult learner to be determine how adults learn in an eLearning
environment.
A third major gap that I encountered was the current unclear acceptance or rejection of
the term Andragogy. McLean writes that andragogy has never been fully accepted as a viable
learning theory (2000). Andragogy has been around for many years, popularized by Malcolm
Knowles (1970). His first book was published in 1950, titled The Modern Practice of Adult
Education. Yet, today it is unclear to me if andragogy is still considered a collection of
unproven assumptions or a viable adult learning theory (McLean, 2006, p. 419). A Google
Scholar search using the key word andragogy results in several articles relating to human
resource development, but not much on higher education or current definitions or modifications
to andragogy definitions. Also, asking how eLearning affects or impacts definitions of andragogy
is important to explore.
A fourth and final gap to consider is the use of technology to teach adults in the
workplace, also known as human resource development. There is some research regarding
workplace learning (McLean, 2008; Frey & Alman, 2003) but not much that is academic in
nature. According to Australian researchers Daneshgar and VanToon, Great emphasis and
recognition has been given to the potential of lifelong learning in the new millennium and the

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Running Head: The Adult Learner

vast body of research on eLearning in Higher Education. However, little to-date research has
been undertaken to review eLearning in the workplace (2009, p. 16). Adult educators and
researchers such as Laura Bierema and Sharan Merriam write at length regarding the adult
learner and organizational development (2008;2014). Bierema writes extensively about learning
in the workplace, emotional intelligence and human resource development (2008). However,
there is a lack of research about how eLearning affects knowledge retention in the workplace.
The lack of interaction in eLearning is a limitation that adult educators should consider and is a
point of further exploration (Frey & Alman, 2003). With that said, the advancement of
technology is bridging the gap between face-to-face and online learning. Some researchers as
early as the 1990s (Dede, 1997) believed that virtual education would be comparable and
possibly surpass face-to-face learning.
Recommendations
My recommendations are to focus on settling on an adult learning theory I best support
and can apply to my research. My initial investigation of adult learners and eLearning exposed
me to experiential learning (Tweedle, 2000) and self-directed learning (Chu et al, 2012;
Merriam, B. 2001). For further research or literature reviews, I would also like to explore
transformative learning theory and how it applies to the postmodern adult and eLearning
environments (Chu et al, 2012). Im also recommending that I identify exactly who an adult
learner is and how experts in adult education determine who this group of learners is. The term
adult learner is defined differently depending on context and source. Lastly, applying adult
learning theory to eLearning in the workplace is an area to explore. Developing a framework that
best fits adult learners, eLearning, and the workplace is a priority as I continue to research this
large area of inquiry.

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Running Head: The Adult Learner

Concluding Thoughts
The articles Ive read have taken me down an interesting and twisting journey. Wading
through the myriad of resources is daunting. There is a sensation of just not getting to the bottom
of the pile while identifying articles and books to read on adult learning in the online
environment. It is clear to me that I chose a broad area of investigation that needs to be narrowed
and focused while keeping my questions broad. I focused on adult learners and eLearning in
higher education. Id like to include workplace learning in this discussion, but it only broadens
the focus for this literature review; therefore, was not a major topic in this review. While adult
learning theories were not a key area of focus, I found that most discussions regarding adult
learners include adult learning theories and definitions of adult learners. There is much
opportunity to explore adult learning theories and their current application to online learning and
adult learning in the workplace. There is also opportunities to identify who adult learners are and
how they feel about eLearning in higher education and in the workplace.
Synthesizing several articles and four books revealed several themes and gaps. Of all the
themes that emerged. I was especially drawn to who adult learners are and how eLearning affects
learning in higher education and in the workplace. My review of current literature left me
wanting to know more about this area. There is a need to continue researching the application of
adult learning theories to this group of learners. As I move forward with my area of research
interest, the application of good research, and the need to find what I am most passionate about, I
can see clearly that adult learners and eLearning will be key to my focus. I am passionate about
teaching adults, and I am extremely curious about technology and its affects on learning.

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Running Head: The Adult Learner

To better visualize the themes and gaps I discovered during my literature review, I have
included the following chart to serve as a visual and quick reference, both for the reader and for
my own point of reference for future research and inquiry.
The Adult Learner and eLearning Environments Chart
Themes

Gaps

Recommendations &
Questions to Ask

Identification and definition

of adult learners in higher
education

Variations of online
learning structures and
applications in higher
education
Variations of adult learning
theories and varying
opinions regarding their
application to adult
learning.

Trends in higher education

include a call to utilize
eLearning opportunities to
meet competing demands
by learners

Benefits of eLearning & the

value of online education

A clear definition and

description of postmodern
adult learners & research
identifying who adult
learners are
A clear definition of online
learning.

Have adult learners changed

over the last 10 years? If so,
in what ways? How can I
can more insight into this
area of inquiry?
How is eLearning defined
today?

Determination of
acceptance of andragogy
and other adult learning
theories or philosophies.
There is no one accepted
adult learning theory in
practice today.
Affect of eLearning on the
adult learner. It is unclear
how online learning
environments affect the way
the learner assimilates
information and gains
meaning from this
information.
There are copious amounts
of information regarding the
benefits of online learning.
What is yet to be discovered
is how well online learning
is being accepted in
America. Several for-profit
institutions offer online
degrees; however,
traditional institutions of

How do educators and

educational researchers feel
about andragogy? Do adults
and children really learn
differently? This could be
an area of research.
Does technology affect how
the adult learner learns? Is
eLearning conducive to
adult learners, given that
online learning requires the
participant to be selfdirected and self-motivated?
How do educators and
educational researchers feel
about online degrees? Is
there still a stigma
associated with earning an
online degree?

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Running Head: The Adult Learner

Challenges associated with

online learning

higher education are slower

to get on board the
eLearning machine.
The articles I read regarding
online learning tended to
provide more disadvantages
than advantages to online
learning. A potential gap is
determining how much of
these identified
disadvantages are driven by
the stigma associated with
eLearning programs.

How have educational

technology experts
addressed challenges
associated with online
learning.

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Running Head: The Adult Learner

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