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Ericksonkoppenhaver
Ericksonkoppenhaver
.
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Karen
A. Erickson_
David A. Koppenhaver
Developing
literacy
for
program
severe
children
with
disabilities
instruction
in this
in the active
resulted
program
participation
of severely disabled
students in reading and writing
teachers who
view you as a capable
and see literacy as an important part
of your instructional
program,
you are likely
have
learner
activities.
seldom
activities,
even
more
and
reading
rarely
or listening
composing
to text
text
It's
is
otherwise
the
just
same
as
you
stream classrooms.
one or more
assistive
different
disabilities
that make
your world
by your
severe
disabilities,
speech impairments,
hearing or visual impair
ments,
cognitive
delays, or seizures. Your par
ents have likely been so overwhelmed
since
nondisabled
peers: physical
and
your birth with your medical,
therapeutic,
basic care needs, that literacy has been a lesser
676
The Reading
Teacher
Vol.
48, No.
May
A national
network
of state
has been
estab
technology
projects
to make
and
teachers
your parents
of the latest and greatest
technology
to compensate
available
for your developmen
tal differences.
are in
Insurance
companies
lished
aware
1995
?1995
international
(pp.676-684)
Association
Reading
stumbling
It
blocks.
of the people
as a capable
closest
learner,
appropriate
instruction.
of the research
supporting
current
This
ar
the two
severe
speech
impair
to communicate.
way
Four children could talk, but unfamiliar
listen
ers had a difficult
them.
time understanding
vide
access
to instruction
and
learning.
The
the classroom
ments
Computer,
language.
One
preschool,
Inc.,
computers
without
keyboards.
Later,
20525
Mariani
Avenue,
Developing
a literacy
program
677
Table 1
A primer of technology
High technology
Adaptive Firmware Card (AFC): The AFC is used to adapt software and allow individuals to access the computer
through input devices other than the standard keyboard.
Dedicated communication device: This is a form of high technology designed for face-to-face
communication
by
individuals who are unable to speak. The devices are portable, typically have speech output, and have symbol sets
that can consist of pictures, icons, words, phrases, letters, or some combination. With special equipment, many of
these devices can be connected to a computer forword processing or other classroom applications.
Peripheral devices: These take a variety of forms (e.g., touch screen mounted on monitor or enlarged keyboards).
All are intended to adapt a computer insome way to meet the needs of the child.
Scanning programs: The computer presents an item, or a row of items, one at a time and a single switch is activat
ed to indicate a desired choice. This allows an individual with minimal physical control to use a computer.
Single switch: A device such as a button or a lever completes an electronic circuit when pressed. When used with
a computer, pressing or activating the device equates with a keystroke or multiple keystrokes on the standard key
board.
Speech synthesis or speech feedback: Typically this is produced through an external speaker plugged into a com
into speech to
puter. Many newer computers have internal speakers that translate text and computer messages
provide auditory feedback to the user.
Unicorn Board: A large, touch-sensitive membrane that can be programmed to represent one key (about 18" x
"
24") or as many as 128 keys (1 x 1 ").
Light technology
Communication
boards: Light technology communication boards use the same type of symbols as dedicated com
munication devices. Children using communication boards point with fingers, headsticks, or eyes at words, letters,
or pictures alone or incombination to represent their thoughts to listeners.
Loop tape: A loop tape is best known for its use inanswering machines. The audio tape has no end and typically
holds a message
between 15 and 45 seconds
in length. Used ina standard tape player, the loop tape will run con
isactivated.
tinuously when the machine
Talking switch: A tape recorder is used with a switch so that itcan be turned on and off via a single movement. A
is recorded (e.g., "Turn the page") on an answering machine
message
loop tape that allows it to be played repeat
edly without rewinding.
a means
students with
of
nology
provided
on a moment-to-moment
communication
ba
sis. Pictures,
line drawings, printed words, and
are some examples
recorders
of the light
tape
1
used.
Table
technology
provides definitions
of the technology
used in this ar
terminology
ticle.
More
than the technology
and
important
was
com
administrative
the
overall
support
mitment
of the team of professionals
and para
to find
who
worked
professionals
together
success.
to
As
ways for the children
experience
the classroom
teacher, one of us (Erickson)
a speech therapist, two
and an aide. This classroom
teacher assistants,
staff and other members
of the educational
an integrated,
team provided
child-centered,
worked
full-time
with
678
The Reading
Teacher
Vol.
48, No.
May
and meaningful.
Whenever
students
possible,
at
without
all.
any adaptations
participated
oc
This transdisciplinary
not
did
approach
cur naturally.
The professionals
struggled
through "turf" issues, conflicting
pedagogies,
and divergent
theoretical bases, while holding
onto a common
to the children.
commitment
were held
For the first 2 months,
meetings
twice weekly. Typically
the needs of one child
were
at
each
All of the
addressed
meeting.
team members
shared goals and objectives,
and plans were made
for integrating
them
the instructional
these
throughout
day. During
and plans
meetings,
priorities were discussed,
to train one another were de
for professionals
vised.
an exam
daily lesson plans provide
this integrated
lesson
The
approach.
included not only academic activities, but
The
ple
of
plans
also incorporated
considerations
positioning
the
For
children
with severe
throughout
day.
is
often an im
physical disabilities,
positioning
1995
software
therapy program.
Some
when
In much
pist made
direct therapy time. When
the theme
the therapist used
week was insects,
thera
during
for the
a book
insects to motivate
the students to keep
their heads up while
lying prone on elbows.
In the pool, the therapist placed letters on the
to
children
edge of the pool and encouraged
reach for a specified letter. Whenever
possible,
about
the
they
activities.
completed
of goals, the actual
Given
the integration
structure of the class was quite simple. The
cen
morning
began with group time which
tered on calendar
activities.
The children
learned the days of the week, months
of the
and
basic
and
skills.
year,
counting
patterning
to
In addition,
learned
their
they
recognize
stories were being read,
names, attend while
when
respond
called
upon,
and myriad
other
when
necessary.
was spent
remainder
of the morning
on individual
off-the-shelf
computers
using
The
systematic,
arts and math.
daily
an Adaptive
When
Firmware
Card
needed,
was used, and the computer was programmed
to accept
switch or
input through a single
Board
In
Unicorn
Table
the
(see
1).
general,
children used the same software regardless of
physical
ability and mode of computer access.
in language
were
activities
Group
noons. The most successful
held
in the after
in
group activities
all
acting out favorite books. Because
of the children were disabled,
skits could be
the move
time consuming.
Choreographing
volved
were
in general
slower. However,
therapy
students
to make
instruction
participate
independently.
was another
favorite
Cooking
activity.
in the room, and all the
There was a kitchen
to participate.
children were provided a means
large chart served as a recipe book. Corre
communication
boards were made,
sponding
dients
need to use a
they would eventually
the computer
for communication
purposes.
the day, children had oppor
Throughout
tunities to interact with print. They learned to
see themselves
as competent
and gained cred
within
the
school
The stu
ibility
community.
as readers and writers.
dents were emerging
knew
They
letter names
could
cor
and letter-sound
in
read common words
respondences,
their environment,
text that
could comprehend
was read to them, and could use a different
Initial refinements
and students were proud of their
at the end of that first year,
accomplishments
team was not satisfied.
but the educational
In
Teachers
to move beyond
the game-type
software
and teacher-directed
activities of the first year,
order
Developing
a literacy
program
some
in the structure
changes
necessary.
were
The
phasize reading
child directed
teacher directed
made
program
teachers
of the program
to em
resolved
and
up of four basic
com
literacy
computer
activities.
and
teacher-directed
Synthesizer
the screen.
words
as they appeared
in bold print on
The
teacher entered
individual
to be spelled
and controlled
dictated
and an adult
the children
writing,
an
This
to see
students
gave
typed.
opportunity
a good writer
on
the
computer.
composing
Other
activities
involved
group
computer
and
drawing, coloring,
story programs.
A closer
reactive.
the number
of repetitions,
ber of words
and
re
the adaptations
first
of school
very
Children
day
were asked
endar report on the computer
in a teacher-directed
ticipating
instead
group
of par
activity.
the previous
short
year to write
the weather,
date, and any
about
and introduced
to stories. After
read
comprehension
questions
ing, they answered
devices.
verbally or with communication
was strength
The computer
component
through daily use of a computer program
called Spell-a-Word
(Cooper, 1992). This soft
a means
ware provided
for teaching children
in an inter
about spelling and word patterns
active way. The children saw and heard words
ened
680
The Reading
Teacher
Vol.
48, No.
May
the implementation
of the
learning illustrates
program.
Erica.
Erica, 6, had cerebral
palsy. She
she started
in the class,
weeks,
of school,
Erica
(manufactured
began
the
by
communication
for people
devices
who
that provide
are unable
to
output
The
speak or whose
speech is unintelligible.
Touch Talker is a programmable
with
system
a keyboard
of icons and letters. The
composed
speech
on
icons have multiple
meanings
depending
are
the context in which
used
and
the
oth
they
er keys that are selected. For example,
there is
an icon that is a calendar of the month of July.
On top of the calendar is an American
flag and
some fireworks.
Selection
1995
to herself
Ini
and to classmates.
repeatedly
a
two
the
selection
of
icons
produced
tially,
on
a
text
Once
of
all
the
single page.
reading
a strong
in reading
interest
she developed
use
we
to
to
the single
teach
her
books,
began
word
functions
to read word
for word
during
reading activities.
Erica was a major contributor
during our
in Table
group activities. The icons and words
of some typical contribu
2 provide examples
Table 2
Erica's
communication
Icons selected
&
via
the Touch
Talker
by Erica:
>
"call"
"mom"
"eat"
by Erica:
&
"mom"
M
"boy"
"music"
isClint Black."
directed
Erica
in a class
for children
little academic
progress
with mental
retardation
in the 3 previous
years. In less than 6 months
and literacy-enriched
this technologywith
as a reader
she began emerging
curriculum,
lack of success may
and writer. Her previous
deficits
than
have been due less to cognitive
to an inability to communicate
and
effectively
a
com
When
she
had
available
interactively.
system that could be understood
that was less physically
others
and
taxing,
by
and writing abilities improved.
her motivation
that she could be a suc
Erica demonstrated
munication
cessful
learner.
more
Casey. Casey required considerably
A
than
Erica.
classroom
nonspeak
adaptations
with cerebral palsy, she relied
ing 5-year-old
on a wheelchair
for mobility
and had virtually
use of her hands. The team was
no functional
a way for Casey
to use a
a
but she had
switch consistently,
dependable
response. Casey could respond to
eye-pointing
unable
yes/no
to identify
questions
by smiling
and looking
up for
for
yes and looking down or not responding
no. Undoubtedly,
this interaction
technique
but it pro
limited her language development,
means
a quick and nontaxing
of re
vided
sponse.
Another
means
Casey's
message
was
of response
involved
her
communication
partner
finger spelling;
(e.g., the teacher or an aide) indicated two re
the initial letter of each
sponses by forming
at the hand with the let
looked
hand.
Casey
by
to her choice. She also used
ter corresponding
a variety of eye-pointing
displays on Plexiglas.
interpreted
by follow
Casey
ing switch
pared
shared news
from home
Developing
a literacy
program
681
Whenever
the news
were
for
motivating
an
adult
whenever
intently
Casey.
read to her. During directed reading, we asked
that she could answer using
Casey questions
read
the eye-pointing
system. For individual
a
books
with
used
often
ing, Casey
taped
Books
extremely
She listened
screen.
boards.
pointing
of communication
of initial
sounds,
functional
incorporated
and she was
means
her knowledge
fascinated with
that Casey
switch
books. Had
dictable.
to a typical curriculum
should not be exposed
or receive direct instruction until she had a for
mal communication
system in place, we would
language
available
Because
to her. Any
picture-based
array of messages
vide. Consequently,
the staff predicted would be need
vocabulary
were
before groups met. These
ed
constructed
were
with Casey prior
boards
often previewed
to the actual lesson in order to foster her lan
guage
and background
development
knowl
have missed
what
literacy
Casey's
skills would
not like
meet
to literacy-based
posure
What
we
experiences.
learned
edge.
in group
Casey also participated
use
a
the
of
switch.
During
through
she frequently
the switch
operated
activities
cooking,
that pro
switch
vided power to the appliances. Talking
as
be
such
those
used
for
es,
daily messages
to
tween home and school,
allowed
Casey
chime in on the repeated lines of books. While
last-minute changes in activities and schedules
did not allow for the construction
of elaborate
boards, talking switches could
be created quickly and provided a means of in
teraction in a variety of situations.
used many
of the same computer
Casey
communication
much
to ask
and the means
program,
comment
and
about
their
experi
questions
ences with print. Four of the eight children re
to their neighborhood
turned
elementary
educational
schools.
The
intentions
of
the
teacher
and
to use
once
communication
system
pointing
the letters of the alphabet;
therefore,
of the computer use was not to master
682
work
The Reading
Teacher
Vol.
48, No.
the goal
the let
May
prepared
The
transition
of the students.
diffi
They have encountered
to
rules
and
school
adjusting
dealing
to adapt and of
that continue
with programs
ten water down curriculum
instead of provid
culties
1995
in the stan
ing alternative ways to participate
one of the
dard curriculum. As of this writing,
students who has been in the neighborhood
to the segregat
school for a year is returning
ed center.
imize
the difficulties,
however, we firm
Despite
ly believe efforts to integrate children with se
eracy
where
use
and
teachers
in an environment
learning
are held accountable
for acade
that children
it is expected
goals,
will learn to read and write. In the segregated
and contin
classroom
program we developed
ue to study, success was due to the program's
mic
where
to good
resemblance
classroom
instruction.
solu
nondisabled
peers have always done daily
more widely
tools and fewer
accessible
an
tations. In
integrated setting, with the
children
tools we provided,
of supportive
with
pro
their
adap
kinds
with
methods.
education
wings
nationwide
Instead
dren with
of feeling overwhelmed
by chil
severe disabilities
and the technolo
and support
that expertise
trained
reading
professionals,
Given
equate differences
or means
capabilities
in the children's
of communica
in intelligence,
differences
interest,
or academic
Stephen Hawking,
capabilities.
uses a
famous physicist,
the internationally
and talks and writes
wheelchair
for mobility
device.
via a dedicated
communication
your typical wait time or give
advance knowledge
disabilities
us
of the question(s)
you will ask. Children
devices, whether
ing communication
high or
Increase
students
with
of regu
and frustrations
and reading teachers as they be
gin to teach all children to read and write:
Work
the child's
closely with
speech
the difficulties
lar educators
to reach a balance
of nonspeaking
child-centered
between
teacher
that make
activities
students
activities
needs
vocabulary
to
easier
predict and
a
that can provide
to observe
their progress.
Children
are, like all children, unique in
and skills.
their interests, knowledge,
students with and without dis
Encourage
abilities to interact directly with each other and
with you. Provide training for students without
in how to be good listeners to chil
disabilities
so that you do not be
dren with disabilities,
come a full-time
interpreter.
window
with
disabilities
Contact
the Center
of Literacy
and
education
opportunities;
Developing
current re
a literacy
program
3
and assessment
search, instruction
strategies;
and other resources. The address is: CB#8135,
at Chapel Hill,
of North Carolina
University
is a research
Erickson
assistant
and Disability
North
Carolina
of
Literacy
for
University
at the Center
at the
Studies
at Chapel Hill.
directs
this Center. Erickson
Koppenhaver
at
be
contacted
CB#8135,
University
of
may
at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina
NC 27599-8135, USA.
References
Coleman,
P.P.
(1991).
lost: A qualitative
Literacy
analy
severe
and
speech
impairments.
physical
R.J.
software].
[computer
(1992). Spell-a-Word
and Associates.
Point, CA: R.J. Cooper
J. (1987). The old oak tree. New York: Modern.
Chapel Hill.
D.A.,
Koppenhaver,
instruction
eracy
lit
and
be. Topics
Disorders,
13 (2), 1 -15.
tations and
in Language
of preschoolers
and
of parents
priorities
Disorders,
13(2), 33-46.
teachers.
Topics
Fairfield,
CT: Queue,
Inc.
INTERNATIONAL
READING ASSOCIATION
Literacy ina ChangingWorld:
Choices andChallenges
-
-#-*
16thWORLDCONGRESS
ON READING
Prague, Czech Republic
July 9-12, 1996
February 2-4,1996
Hilton and Towers
Washington
Washington,
call
D.c.
For more
the
contact
information,
Conferences
IRA,
Division,
800 Barksdale Rd., PO Box 8139,
USA.
Newark, DE 19714-8139,
Telephone:
800-336-READ,
302-731-1600,
IB
684
The Reading
Teacher
Vol.
48, No.