03-Chapter - 3 Motors PDF

Notes
Chapter - 3
Electrical Utilities
3.1
Electrical Motors
Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. There are
basically 3 types of motors:
1.
2.
3.
AC Induction Motors
AC Synchronous Motors
DC Motors
The detailed classification of electric motors is given below :

Electric Motors
A.C. Motors
D.C. Motors
Brushless D.C
Brush D.C
Shunt Wound
Separately Excited
Series wound
Compound wound
Single Phase Three phase/polyphase

Shaded pole
Induction
Reluctance
Split Phase
Squirrel cage
Linear
Induction
Synchromous
Slip ring
Synchronous
Electric motors are inherently very efficient. Their efficiencies vary from 85%
to 95% for motors of sizes ranging from 10 HP to 500 HP. It is still possible to
improve the efficiency of these motors by 1 to 4% by improving the design of motor
.
3.1.1
Power Consumption in Motors
a)
Efficiency and Power Factor
The power consumed by a 3-phase AC motor is given by

Power Input =
3 x Voltage x Current x Power Factor
If the voltage is in Volts and the current in Amperes, the power will be in Watts (w).
The power in Watts divided by 1000 is kilowatts (kW). The power input to the
motor varies with the output shaft load.
Electrical Power input (kW) =
Mechanical Shaft Output x 100

Motor Efficiency (%)
Electrical Power input (KVA) =
Power Input (kW) x 100

Power Factor
Variations of motor efficiency and power factor with load are shown in Fig. 3.1
Torque speed and current speed characteristics of different types of rotors are
shown in Fig.3.2. The load vs full load current is shown in Fig. 3.3. The following
may be noted from these curves.
75
3.
4.
5.
6.
% Efficiency & Power Factor
7.
100
1.0
90
0.9
80
0.8
70
0.7
60
0.6
50
0.5
40
0.4
30
0.3
20
0.2
10
0.1
100
90
SMALL MOTOR
(BELOW 25 HP)
80
% Full Load Current
2.
The motor efficiency remains almost constant upto 50% load. Below 50% load,
the efficiency drops significantly till it reaches zero at 0% load.
At a particular operating voltage and shaft load, the motor efficiency is fixed by
design, it cannot be changed externally.
The power factor reduces with load. At no load the p.f. is in the range of 0.05 to
0.2 depending on size of the motor.
At no load, the power consumption is only about 5% or so, just sufficient to
supply the iron loss, friction and windage losses.
The no load current is however of the order of 30% to 50% of full load current.
This amount of magnetizing current is required because of air gap in the motor.
The starting torque is 100% to 200%, the maximum torque is 200% to 300% of
rated torque.
The starting current remains at a high value of more than 500% of rated current
upto 75% to 80% speed and then drops sharply.
70
60
LARGE MOTOR
(25 HP & ABOVE)
50
40
30
20
25
75
50
100
% Load (Shaft Power)
Fig 3.3 : Current v/s Load

3.1.2
pf
1.
Importance of Motor Running Cost-Life Cycle Costs
Motors can run without problems for 20 years or more with good protection and
routine maintenance. However, if they are running inefficiently, it is worthwhile
replacing them as running costs are much more than first costs. Motors can be
considered as consumable items and not capital items, considering the current
energy prices. The importance of running cost can be seen from Table 3.1. The
following points may be noted:
Table 3.1 : Importance of Motor Running Cost
0
0
25
50
75
100
% Load j
Efficiency
7.5
Motor Rating (kW)
+ Power Factor
Low
Efficiency
Fig 3.1 : Load vs Efficiency & Power Factor.
37
High
Efficiency
Low
Efficiency
High
Efficiency
Efficiency
0.86
0.88
0.92
0.93
Power Input (kW)
8.72
8.52
40.22
39.78
Running Hours
6000
6000
Energy Input (kWh)
52320
51120
6000
241320
6000
238680
Running Cost
209280
204480
965280
954720
Running Cost (Rs.) for 10 years
2092800
2044800
9652800
9547200
First Cost (Rs.)

First Cost as % of Running cost
for 10 years
12000
12000
70000
70000
0.57
0.59
0.72
0.73
(Rs.) per Annum (@Rs. 4.00/ kWh)
1.
2.
Fig 3.2 : Performance with Tee Bar, Deep Bar, Trapezoidal and Double Cage
Rotors
76
Even a small motor of 7.5 kW consumes, at full load, electricity worth Rs. 20
lakh in 10 years. Similarly, a 37 kW motor consumes about Rs. 1 crore worth of
electricity in 10 years.
The first cost is only around 1% of the running cost for 10 years, hence running
costs are predominant in life cycle costing.
77
3.
4.
Even a small difference in efficiency can make a significant difference in

running cost.
When economically justified, motors may be replaced, even if these have
been recently installed.
3.1.3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Energy Saving Opportunities in Motors
The main energy saving opportunities in motors can be summarized as follows:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Stopping idle or redundant running of motors.

Matching motor with the driven load (sizing of motors)
Operation of under-loaded Delta connected motor in Star connection.
Soft starters with Energy Saving Features.
Use of Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
Improving drive transmission efficiency
Use of high efficiency motors
Improvement in motor drive systems
Current (star)
Current (Delta)
Power factor (star)
Power factor (Delta)
Efficiency (star)
Efficiency (Delta)
Speed (star)
Speed (Delta)
Change overline
Oversized Motors lead to the following problems:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Fig. 3.4 : Motor Performance in Delta and Star Connections
Higher investment cost due to larger size.

Higher running cost due to decrease in efficiency.
Higher maximum demand due to poor power factor.
Higher cable losses and demand charges.
Higher switchgear cost.
Higher space requirement.
Higher installation cost.
Higher rewinding cost (in case of motor burnout)
Table 3.2 Shows the effects of oversized motors on the energy bill and
investment
Table - 3.2 : Increased Costs due to Oversized Motors

Motor Rating (kW)
15
30
55
Motor Load Requirement (kW)

Motor Efficiency %
Input Power (kW)
Input Energy (kWh)
(for 6000 hrs/ annum)
Motor Power Factor
Input KVA
Energy Difference (kWh)
Increase in Running Cost (Rs.)
Investment (Rs.)
Increase in Investment (Rs.)
15
89
16.85
101100
15
89
16.85
101100
15
84
17.85
107100
0.89
18.93
25000
-
0.75
22.44
55000
0.50
35.70
6000
24000
95000
30000
70000
The following suggestions are made :

1. If a motor is oversized and continuously loaded below 30% of its rated shaft
load, the motor can be permanently connected in Star.
2. If the motor is normally loaded below 30% but has a high starting torque
requirement, then the motor can be started with a suitable starter and, after
overcoming the starting inertia, be automatically switched from Delta to Star,
using timer control or current sensing. If the load is below 30% most of the
time, but if the load exceeds 50% sometimes, automatic Star-Delta changeover
Switches (based on current or load sensing) can be used. But, if the
changeover is very frequent the contactors would get worn out and the savings
achieved may get neutralised by the cost of frequent contactor replacements.
3. If the motor is nearly always operating above 30% of the rated load and
sometimes runs below 30% load, a careful analysis is required before
installing any arrangement for operation in star connection at light loads.
Case Study 1: Delta' to 'Star' connection in Vegetable Oil Works
Brief
A 25 hp/18.5 kW motor was driving a cooling water circulation pump. The motor
was 30% loaded. It was decided to connect the delta connected motor in star. The
electrical measurement before & after connection of motor from 'delta' to 'star' is
given below:
Parameters
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
Power Factor
Power Input (kW)
Speed (rpm)
78
79
Before
Implementation
(Delta)
415
18.5
0.5
6.72
1469
After
Implementation
(Star)
415
9.5
0.87
5.96
1454
Saving /
Improvement
9.0
0.37
0.76
Energy Saving
Energy Saving
Energy Savings
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback Period
:
:
:
:
0.76 kW i.e. 11.3%

6080 kWh
Rs.5000
10 months
Annual savings
Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
:
:
:
:
1,16,000 kWh
Rs. 0.47 Million
Rs. 0.5 Million
13 months
Case Study 2: Use of Soft Starter to Facilitate Large Motor Starting with Power
Supply from Captive D.G. Set
Case Study 4: High Efficiency Gear in Place of Low Efficiency Gear (for a
Reactor with Worm Gear )
Brief
Energy Saving
Measurements made in a continuous chemical process plant, where a soft starter

was introduced to reduce the starting kick when the motor is started on D.G. set, are
high-lighted below :
: 250 hp Air Compressor
: 250 hp, 415 V, 3-Phase, 1500 rpm, 313 A
Application
Motor Details
Starting Using Star/Delta Starter
Initial Starting kick
Maximum Starting Current
Continuous Current
: 1800 A for 2 Sec. (Direct)

: 480 A (star) / 536 A (delta)
: 278 A
: Current Limit - 200% ; Ramp Time - 30 seconds

: 685 A which Reduces to 155 A in 30 seconds
Low efficiency
gear
Worm gear
Saving/Improvement
Motor Rating (kW)
7.5
3.75
3.75
Actual Motor
3.75
3.75
3.0
3.0
0.75
0.75
Input (kW)
Case Study 5:
Starting With Soft Starter :

Settings
Starting Current Kick
Parameter
Use of High Efficiency Motors in a Textile Plant
Brief
The Ring Frame motor rating was 40 kW. A standard efficiency motor was
compared with an energy efficient motor as given in table below:
Energy Saving
Standard Motor vs EE Motor
Benefits : Starting current kick reduced by about 60%. Any dip in voltage at the
main busbar of DG Set is reduced. The expenditure on maintenance of the motor
and the attached mechanical load is also reduced.
Description
Case Study 3 : VFD for Cooling Tower Pump in a Chemical Plant
Motor rating, kW
40
40
Efficiency %
92
94.5
96.22
92.54
44
44.5
2.187
2.080
Annual electricity saving, kWh
9564
Pay back period on extra

cost of EE motor, months
Brief
Energy consumed, kWh/doff

This is a case study from a chemical plant manufacturing resins, used for
manufacturing paints. A cooling tower with a 125 HP pump was used for
process cooling applications. In the existing system, flow variation was through
closing/opening valves at the end use points.
Also, in the existing system, the return water line of the cooling tower was throttled
to control the flow. After installation of an inverter to control the motor speed, this
valve was fully opened, thus eliminating the throttling losses.
Weight of yarn per doff

Specific energy consumption,
kWh/kg yarn
Motor Rating : 125 hp, 415 V, 170A, 2975 rpm.
Valve position
20% open
Power consumption
53.5 kW
Fully open
40 kW
Power Saving
13.5 kW
80
81
Standard
Energy Efficient
(Low Eff) Motor
(EE) Motor
Table shows comparative data of super efficient motors developed by one

manufacturer.
Energy Efficiency Estimates for Emerging Motor Technologies

Table 3.3 : Energy Efficiency Estimates for Emerging Motor Technologies
Super Efficient Motor
Output
Frame Size
Supply System
RPM
Efficiency
Fan
Ambient
Taking annual running hours
Input kW at full load
Input kW difference
Unit Rate (Rs/kWh.)
Annual Savings
Net Unit Price (Rs.)
Price difference
Payback
3.1.4
Standard Motor
Super Efficient Motor
15 kW
160 L
415 V +_ 6%; 50 Hz V +_ 3%
1445
89%
Plastic
40 C
7165
16.85
15 kW
160 L
415 V +_ 10%; 50 Hz V +_ 5%
1475
93%
C.I
50 C
7165
16.13
0.72
4
20,635
32200
10,260
19 months
21940
-
Energy Savings (%)
Notes
New Motors
Superconductor
2 to 10
Higher efficiencies at partial load
Copper Rotor
1 to 3
5% has been reported
Switched Reluctance
Permanent Magnet
5 to 10
Written Pole
3 to 4
Controls
MagnaDrive
Up to 60
Savings are great compared to

non- ASDs. Compared to ASDs
(Ajustable speed drive )energy
savings will be less.
PAYBACK drive
Up to 60
Savings are great compared to non

-ASDs. Compared to ASDs energy
savings will be less.
Advanced ASDs
Savings are compared to

conventional ASDs
Emerging New Motor Systems
Emerging motor system improvements can be categorized into the following three
areas of development opportunities:
1.
Technology
Upgrades to the motors themselves, for example:

(Source : LBNL :Energy Efficient Techologies for Industries)
super conductive motors

permanent magnet motors
copper rotor motors
switched reluctance (SR) drives
written pole motors
very low loss magnetic steels
3.2
2. System design optimization and management, such as:
end use efficiency improvements

use of premium lubricants
advanced system design and management tools
3. Controls on existing systems, for example:
3.1.5
multi-master controls on compressors

sensor based controls
advanced adjustable speed drives with improvements like
regenerative braking, active power factor correction, better torque/speed
control.
Electric Furnaces
Electricity is a very clean but costly fuel for heating and melting applications. There
are number of advantages in electricity use like improved product quality due to
absence of fuel impurities, excellent power control, clean environment (pollution is
transferred to central power station) and high efficiency at end use point. But since
conversion efficiency of fuel to electricity is only 35% at the power station, the
overall efficiency from fuel to end use heating is likely to be 15 to 25%. Hence
keeping the overall energy scenario in view, electricity should be used for only
special heating applications. Fuel should be used directly to the extent possible. For
many conventional heating applications like billet heating and heat treatment,
alternate fuels, especially natural gas where available, must be considered. Many
companies have changed over from electric heating to heating by other fuels to
reduce costs.(However for Induction and Arc Furnances no alternatives are
presently available ) Table 3.4 gives the inter-fuel substitution.
Potential Energy Savings
Primary specific electrical energy savings for particular motor applications are
summarized in Table 3.3.
82
83
Table - 3.4 : Interfuel Substitution : Cost of Alternative Fuels

Energy Source
Cost
Heat Value
Coal
Oil
Natural Gas
Electricity
Rs. 2000/MT
Rs. 20/Kg
Rs. 8/Nm3
Rs. 4.50/kWh
4000 kCal/Kg.
10000 kCal/Kg.
9000 kCal/Nm3
860 kCal/kWh
Energy Balance
Cost Per
1000 kCal
Rs. 0.50
Rs. 2.00
Rs. 0.88
Rs. 5.23
Electricity is used in arc furnaces, induction furnaces, heat treatment furnaces, billet
heaters, ovens, infrared heaters, etc.
Case Study 6 : Replacement of Electric Oven by Gas Fired Oven in an
Engineering Industry
Energy
Percentage
(kWh/tonne)
(%)
Input Energy
660
100
Useful Heat
380
58.5
Coil I R
130
20
Radiation Losses
97.5
15
Conduction Losses
34
5.2
Other Unaccounted
18.5
1.3
Table-3.6 : Heat Balance of a Heat Treatment Furnaces (Bell Type)
Brief
Energy Input
822.75 kWh
Heat In Charge
167.00 kWh
Surface Heat Losses Energy
Electrical Oven
LPG Fired Oven
Existing Oven : 18 kW Rating
Cost of Electricity / hr : 0.11 kW

X Rs. 5.00 = Rs. 0.55 (For Auxillaries)
Cost of Electricity/hr : 18 kW x Rs. 5= Rs. 90 Cost of LPG/hr : 1.55 Kg x Rs. 25

= Rs. 38.75
Total Running Cost/hr : Rs. 90.00
Total Running Cost / hr = Rs. 39.30
Savings per Hour
= 90.00 - 39.30 = Rs. 50.70 (56%)
Annual Savings:
= Rs. 50.70 x 24 hours x 25 Days x 12

Rs. 63,000
Payback Period
3 Months
204.00 kWh
Outer Bell
136.10 kWh
Inertia Loss
250.90 kWh
Inner Bell Inertia Loss
44.50 kWh
Unaccounted Loss
20.25 kWh
Table-3.7 : Heat Balance in the Arc Furnace

kWh/Liquid Metal Tonne
Steel Plant 1: 170 T
Furnace
Steel Plant 2 : 30 T
Furnace
Energy Input
= Rs. 3,65,040
Cost of LPG Fired Oven
Soaking Heating
Electrical Energy
426
682
Carbon Combustion
126
126
Other Chemical Reactions
70
70
Combustion of Graphite Electrodes
48
64
Total
Energy Output
670
942
(exothermic)
3.2.1 Heat Balance and Energy Saving Opportunities

In order to estimate the efficiency of furnaces and also to identify major losses, a
heat balance is useful. A heat balance gives information on the energy input, useful
energy and major losses.
Table -3.5 : Energy Balance of Coreless Induction Furnaces
Material
Crucible Capacity
Production Capacity
Power
Volt
:
:
:
:
:
Grey Iron
3200 Kg
1600 kg/hr.
733 kW
968 volts
Useful Heat in Liquid Metal
392
426
Exhaust Gases
104
120
Sensible Heat in Slag
57
76
Electrical Losses
47
60
170
Conduction, Radiation
40
60
12
Losses During Operation
84
Heat Losses ---Electrodes
12
Unaccounted Losses
18
18
Total
670
942
85
Table - 3.8 : Energy Balance of a Continuous furnace (Heat treatment furnace

conveyor system)
Energy Balance
Energy (kWh)
Percentage
Total Energy Input per hour
37.4
100
Losses Through Insulation
3.8
10
Losses in Cooling Zone
13.0
Losses Due to Conveyor
8.6
23
Useful Heat
10
27
Unaccounted Losses*
10
27
Energy Saving
Annual energy saving
Investment
Payback period
: 30,000 kWh
: Rs.61,000/: 13 months
3.2.2 Energy Savings by Operational Features
a) Reduction of internal volume of the oven to match the basket size.

b) Proper sealing of the door to reduce the heat loss.
c) Repair of the rear wall of the oven, which had developed cracks, to reduce
heat loss.
d) Reduction of weight of basket from 30 kg to 10 Kg.
e) Use of ceramic fibre insulation in place of fire bricks to reduce starting time
and reduce thermal inertia.
a) Operate at full power and capacity as far as possible to get as high a utilization
rate as possible. Poor capacity utilization of electric furnaces cause a large
wastage of energy. Holding periods can be kept to a minimum. Separate
holding furnaces can sometimes be useful.
b) Minimise tapping time and frequency to reduce radiation losses and to reduce
operation at low power levels.
c) Charging system should be such that charging time and frequency are
minimised. Possibility of charge compacting and preheating can be explored.
d) Molten metal handling and transfer system including ladles can be designed in
such a fashion that transfer time and loss in temperature are minimised. Ladle
preheating system lead to savings. Well insulated ladles are also necessary.
e) Opening of furnace lids, slagging door etc. must be minimised.
f) For heat treatment furnaces, production can be so planned that once a furnace is
started, it can be utilised continuously, otherwise a lot of energy is wasted in
heating the furnace itself. Capacity utilisation is also very important.
g) For many heat treatment applications, it may be worthwhile collecting jobs so
that full capacity utilisation is achieved.
h) Weight of jigs and fixtures for heat treatments should be minimised.
i) Surface temperature may be kept at 45oC to 60oC for heat treatment furnaces to
reduce radiation losses.
j) Process parameters, like heat treatment cycle time and temperatures, have to be
checked.
It was decided to replace the 28 kW oven with a smaller 12 kW oven. The important
difference between the old oven and the new oven are highlighted in Table below.
Case Study 8 : Electrical Energy Conservation in a Foundry through

operational improvement .
* Mostly due to convective heat loss due to cold air ingress

Case Study 7 : Replacement of an Inefficient, Oversized Oven
Brief
In a fuse gear industry, the major energy consuming equipment was an oven used
for drying ink on ceramic parts and softening of brass components. During the
energy audit, some measures suggested to reduce the energy consumption were;
Comparison of Performance of Old and New Ovens
Brief
The plant is equipped to produce about 350 tonnes of Malleable Iron and S.G. Iron
Castings per month.
Steel scrap is melted in two 4 tonne / 1150 KVA mains frequency furnaces. The
product mix consists of a large number of relatively low and medium weight
castings. Moulds are made on automatic moulding machines (Pneumatic). The
castings are shot blasted, annealed in electric furnaces (600 kW). Fettling and
grinding also uses pneumatic tools. These are fed by two compressors of 93 kW
each, working one at a time.
The present production level is around 220 Tonnes / month. Energy consumption is
about 700,000 kWh/month with a maximum demand of around 2700 kVA.
Approximate percent consumption of major equipments are given in the Table
below.
86
87
% Distribution Among Major Loads On A Typical Day
% of Total
load
Total
load
100
Melting
Furnaces
60
Annealing
furnaces
17.14
Compressors
11.48
Sand
Plant
2.55
Other
Loads
6.52
Case Study 10: Modification Annealing Ovens in a cable manufacturing industry

Lighting
2.28
Energy saving was achieved through operational improvement like compacting the
scrap and loading it with crane, closing the furnace lid, shutting off the ventilation
fans for capacitor cooling during favorable ambient conditions etc.
Energy Saving
Brief
A cable manufacturing industry, has several annealing ovens, which account for a
significant portion of the electricity consumption. A 317 kW oven is used for
annealing aluminum conductor in large drums. The oven was large for the jobs
being handled. It was redesigned for the job, cutting ceiling height and the
insulation was changed to ceramic fibre. The observations are as follows :
Parameters
Parameter
Saving/Improvement
Before
After
Implementation
Before
After
Implementation
Implementation
SEC (kWh / T)
900
700
( - ) 200
Charging time (hrs.)
10
(-)6
Production
Annual Saving (kWh)
( - ) 1,22,070
(Charges per day)
Radiation loss (kWh/day)
500
( - ) 1,00,000
Ventilator fan for
15
NIL
Energy Consumption (kWh)
Savings/Improvement
Implementation
1930
500
( - ) 1430
8.5
3.5
( - ) 5.0
3.0
5.0
(+ ) 2.0
Time needed (hrs.)

(5 Tonne charge)
( - ) 30,000 kWh/annum
Energy saving
capacitors (HP)
Case Study 9: Replacement of inefficient arc furnace with induction furnace
Annual Savings
Investment
Payback period
: Rs. 1.2 Million

: Rs. 0.25 Million
: 3 months
Brief
3.3 Compressed Air System
Background : A leading automobile components casting foundry had two indirect

arc furnaces of capacity 30kg and 80kg respectively. These furnaces were used for
producing specialized automobile components. Smaller capacities of the existing
furnace meant the number of melting batches was high and correspondingly the
fixed heat loss component was very high.
Compressed air is one of the most expensive utilities in manufacturing facilities.

First used more than a century ago in pneumatic drills for mining, compressed air
has now become an indispensable and a productivity improvement tool for a
number of applications ranging from air powered hand held tools to advanced
pneumatic robotics. Cost of energy in the compressed air is at least 5 times that of
electricity. The energy content in compressed air is further reduced by pressure drop
in distribution systems, leakage etc. as shown in fig.3.5. Hence it is important to
manage generation, distribution and utilisation of compressed air from energy
efficiency viewpoint.
These inefficient arc furnaces were replaced with one medium frequency (3000 Hz)
induction furnace of capacity 125 kW, having two pots 50 kg and 100 kg
respectively. The 50-kg pot is rated at 90 kW while for the 100-kg pot rating is
125 kW.
Energy Saving :
Particulars
Monthly energy
consumption
Metal tapped per month
No of heats per month
Specific energy
consumption per Mt.
Annual energy
consumption
Cost of energy
Annual energy savings
Annual cost savings
Investment incurred
Payback period
Units
Before implementation
(Indirect arc Furnaces)
After
impleme
ntation
Improve
ment
%
Improve
ment
8267
12447
60
kWh
30 kg
IAF
14434
80 kg
IAF
6280
Total /
avg.
20714
Kg
No
kWh
13970
438
968
2100
27
2990
16070
465
1085
13974
330
592
-2096
-135
494
-13
-29
60
kWh
173208
75360
248568
99204
-149364
-60
Rs
kWh
Rs
Rs
Years
621816
270542
892359
-536217
-60
356142
149364
536217
1000000
1.86
2
Fig . 3.5 : Energy Flow Diagram
88
89
3.3.1 Analysis of Compressed Air System

3.3.1.1 Data Collection
As a first step towards managing energy use in compressed air system, the
following information should be collected. This exercise if done systematically can
be extremely useful for identifying energy saving potential.
1) Specifications of each compressor such as capacity, pressure, motor ratings
etc.
2) Loading and unloading pressure setting of each compressor
3) How many compressor normally operate and whether any shift-wise or daily
variation in number of compressors operated
4) Collect data on end- use of compressed air in the plant, such as : Pressure, flow,
end use, dryers, regulators, etc.
5) Pipe size and its layout
The pump-up test described above gives only an estimate of the compressor
capacity and cannot be considered as very accurate. It is only a simple practical
method under site conditions with minimal instrumentation. A more scientific
method of conducting the pump-up test with proper installed instrumentation is
available in IS:5456-1985.
The power consumption can be measured with portable power meter or energy
meter and the specific power consumption (kW/100cfm) can be calculated. Some
of the common causes of higher Specific Power Consumption are:
-
Poor inter-cooler performance.

Malfunctioning of discharge and/or suction valves.
Worn out piston rings.
Choked suction side filters.
Case study 11 : Installing Refrigeration dryers in Compressed Air system
3.3.1.2 Analysis Of Equipment and System Performance

The following actions need to be taken to estimate the compressed air system
parameters:
a) Estimation of capacity of each compressor
b) Measurement of power input to the compressor at full load and part load
conditions
c) Estimation of total compressed air leakage in the plant and section-wise
leakage estimation if possible
d) Conduct a survey of compressed air leakage points by soap solution method or
by using ultrasonic leakage detector.
e) Estimate pressure drops in headers.
f) Loading & unloading pressures and loading and unloading time of
compressors .
3.3.1.3 Estimation of Capacity of Compressors
The ideal method of estimating air compressor capacity is to use flow meters. In the
absence of flow meters, the capacity can be estimated on site by the Pump-Up test.
The compressor capacity can then be estimated by using the following formula:
(P2 - P1) x Vr x Tc
Pa
t
Where,
Brief
It is recommended to replace absorption type air dryer with refrigeration type dryer
as absorption dryer uses 10% - 15% purge air for re-generation of desicant .
Energy Saving
Saving Obtained by installing Refrigeration Dryer in Compressor
Parameter
Actual load (kW)
Total running hours / year
Annual Energy consumption
(kWh)
Annual savings (Rs.)

Investment (Rs.)
Payback period (years)
Before
Implementation
16.6
1800
After
Implementation
14.11
1800
Saving /
Improvement
2.49
-
29880
25398
4482
15780
94000
6
Case Study 12 : Installation of automatic drain traps in compressed air network

Brief
Q=
Q = Capacity of the air compressor, Nm3/min

P1 = Initial pressure, (kg/cm2 a )
P2 = Final pressure, (kg/cm2 a )
Pa = Atmospheric pressure (kg/cm2 a )
Vr = Receiver volume, m3(including piping from compressor to receiver and up
to receiver outlet valve and also oil separator volume for screw compressors)
t = time taken to raise the pressure from P1 to P2, minutes
Tc= Temperature correction factor (= Tr/Ta)
Tr = Air temperature in receiver, K (i.e. C + 273 )
Ta = Ambient temperature, K (i.e. C + 273 )
90
In an engineering unit, moisture traps were found stuck up in either open or closed
condition thus making a loss of compressed air continuously or corroding of
pipeline and other networking devices. On rectifying the faults, savings were as
under:
Energy Saving
Particulars
Annual total energy savings, kWh
Annual Cost savings, Rs. (million)
Cost of implementation Rs. (million)
Simple payback period (months)
91
Actual energy savings

84,000
0.42
0.10
3
Case Study 13 : Improving the performance of 500 cfm reciprocating compressor

Brief
In an engineering company, plant was having 3 nos - air compressors of IR make.
All the three compressors were run continuously totaling to air requirement of 980
cfm. While the performance of 2 nos air compressors of 240 CFM each was found
satisfactory, the 3rd compressor of 500 cfm was performing sub standard. The
volumetric efficiency was only 87 % and the power consumption was more (20
kW/100 cfm) as against 19.4 kW/100 cfm. Efficiency of the compressor 3 had gone
down. By improving the performance of this compressor, one compressor of 240 cfm
was totally stopped. After maintenance the savings effected were as under:
Leakage tests can be done separately for each section of the plant by isolating the
supply to compressed air to the remaining sections of the plant during the leakage
test.
Case Study 14 : Cost of compressed air leakage from holes at different
pressures

74,000
0.340
0.100
4
QxT
T+ t
Where,
Q = Compressor capacity, in m3/min (as estimated from the pump-up test)
T = Time on load ,min
t = Time on unload, min
Leakage points can be identified from audible sound. For small leakage, ultrasonic
leakage detectors can be used. Soap solution can also be used to detect small
leakage in accessible lines. The following points can help reduce compressed air
leakage:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Reduce the line pressure to the minimum acceptable.

Selection of good quality pipe fittings.
Provide welded joints in place of threaded joints.
Sealing of unused branch lines or tappings.
Provide ball valves (for isolation) at the main branches at accessible points.
Install flow meters on major lines.
Avoid installation of underground pipelines to avoid corrosion & leakage.
92
0.211
0.0207
744
1/32
0.845
0.083
2981
Cost of Wastage,
Rs. (for 8000 hrs/year)
@ Rs. 4.50/kWh
3.38
0.331
11925
1/8
13.5
1.323
47628
1/4
54.1
5.3
190865
1/64
0.406
0.069
2485
1/32
1.62
0.275
9915
1/16
6.49
1/8
26
4.42
159120
1/4
104
17.68
636480
At 7 bar (100 psig) pressure
Leakage of compressed air is a major reason for the poor overall efficiency of
compressed air systems. It may be noted that, at 7 bar (100 psig), about 100 cfm air
leakage is equivalent to a power loss of 17 kW i.e. about Rs. 0.62 million per annum.
Air Leakage in m3/min, q =
1/64
1/16
3.3.1.4 Estimation Of Air Leakage Level
The leakage level can be estimated by observing the average compressor loading
and unloading time, when there is no legitimate use of compressed air on the shop
floor.
Power
Wasted kW
At 3 bar (45 psig) pressure
Energy Saving
Particulars
Simple payback period (months)
Air Leakage
Scfm
Orifice Diameter
(in inches)
1.10
39719
Estimation of Pressure Drop

The pressure loss from the air compressors to the end-use points may be kept at as
low a level as possible, i.e., below 0.3 to 0.5 bar.
The air compressors should be located close to the equipment requiring large
quantum of air for reducing pressure drops. If the end-uses are spread over a large
area, a ring main header can help reduce pressure drop. The pressure drop in
pipelines is approximately proportional to the square of the air velocity. The
pressure loss can also be calculated for straight pipe lines by the following formula
Pressure drop (in bars) = 7.5 x 10 4 x Q1.85 x L
d5 x p
where,
Q = Air flow in m3 /min. (Free air)
L = Length of pipeline (m)
d = Inside diameter of pipe, mm
p = Initial pressure, bar (absolute)
Case Study 15 : Pressure drop calculation for a 3" header and a 4" header
for a flow of 100 scfm and a pressure of 7 bar, based on the
above equation
93
Brief
3.3.2 Identifying Energy Saving Opportunities

Description
Units
Inlet pressure
bar, abs
It is very important to have a systematic approach for saving energy in compressed

air system. The fundamentals of this approach are basically:
Air flow
scfm
100
100
1.
Length of pipe
meter
100
100
Pipe inside dia. mm
75
100
Pressure drop
bar
2.1
0.5
psi
30.9
7.3
3" Header
4" Header
Normally, the velocity of compressed air should not be allowed to exceed 6 m/s.
Pipe fittings like valves, elbows & no. of bends etc. also contribute to additional
pressure losses.
Case Study 16 : Pressure Drop (in bar) In different Pipe sizes of 100 ft. Length
Brief
Nominal FAD, cfm

pipe size (Free Air
(in inches) Delivery)
Line Pressure, psig

40
50
75
100
125
150
10
4.39
3.70
2.68
2.09
1.72
1.46
2
3
4
20
50
100
0.54
0.43
0.41
0.46
0.36
0.34
0.33
0.26
0.25
0.26
0.20
0.19
0.21
0.17
0.16
0.18
0.14
0.14
200
0.24
0.21
0.19
0.16
0.14
0.11
Manage end use of air. This includes proper understanding of end use
requirement, often termed as the ultimate goal to be achieved.
2. Match the system with the end use requirement in the most efficient way.
3. Improve the efficiency of compressors and related equipments through
maintenace.
4. Scouring (moisture removal) by compressed air can be replaced by high
pressure blowers. The energy saving can be 80%.
5. Material conveying applications can be replaced by blower systems or
preferably by a combination of belt/screw conveyers and bucket elevators.
6. For applications like blowing of components, use of compressed air amplifiers,
blowers or gravity-based systems may be possible.
7. Use of compressed air for cleaning should be discouraged.
8. Replacement of pneumatically operated air cylinders by hydraulic power
packs can be considered.
9. Use of compressed air for personal comfort cooling can cause grievous injuries
and is extremely wasteful. If a " hose pipe is kept open at a 7 bar compressed
air line for personal cooling for at least 1000 hours/annum, it can cost about
Rs. 1.0 lakh/annum. Operating cost of a 1.5 TR window air conditioner
for the same period would be only about Rs. 12,000/- per annum.
10. Use vacuum systems in place of venturi system.
11. Mechanical stirrers, conveyers, and low-pressure air may mix materials
far more economically than high-pressure compressed air.
12. Air conditioning systems can cool cabinets more economically than
vortex tubes that cool by venting expensive high pressure air.
Case Study 18 :
Installation of VSD on a compressor to avoid the compressed

air blow-off in the system
Brief
Case Study 1 7 : Reduction in pressure drop in the compressed air.
Brief
A leading bulk drug company has three reciprocating compressors having the
capacity of 280 cfm and the corresponding power consumption was 58 kW at 7.5
kg/cm2. The actual air requirement at user end was only 6.0 kg/cm2. The pressure
drop in the system was taking place of the order of 1.5 kg/cm2. On analysis, it was
found that high pressure drop in the system was due to under sizing of the piping.
The existing(2") piping was replaced by suitable sized piping (3"). Overall saving
in energy was as under:
Energy Saving
Particulars

3
Energy Saving
Particulars
Payback period (years)
The chemical plant has five process fermentors, where the compressed air is used as
raw material and as well as for the agitation. Five large compressors in use were of
reciprocating, single stage, double acting, horizontal, non-lubricated type having
the capacity of 4000 m3/hr, rated pressure 1.5 kg/cm2, rated motor 200 kW. In view of
the variations in the load and the energy lost due to bleed off, variable speed drive
was installed to adjust the speed based on requirement.

35,000
0.123
0.25
2
94
Average bleed air quantity(m /hr)
1320
Annual total energy savings, million kWh
0.580
1.52
2.0
Payback period (months)
16
95
Case Study 19 :
Energy saving in compressed air system by eliminating

artificial demand
Case Study 21 : Monitoring of air consumption using hour meter installed at

compressor motor and reduction of air leakages
Brief
Brief
In a manufacturing industry, compressed air is the major utility used in many

applications. The industry has 2 centrifugal compressors of 3000 cfm each and 3
reciprocating compressors of 1000 cfm each. 1 centrifugal compressor and 2
reciprocating compressors are always running totaling to 5000 cfm. It was
observed that there was a fluctuation of pressure from 98 psi to 67 psi. Two
intermediate control stations each of 4500 cfm have been installed which reduced
the fluctuation of pressure from 31 psi to 2 psi. Energy saving potential was as
under:
In a paper and pulp industry, for supplying instrument air, two compressors working
at 10 kg/cm2 and 1 m3 per minute were running. The air leakage in the system
increased and the air compressors started running for more than 20 hrs a day to meet
the requirement. Upon installation of the hour meters, it became easy to monitor the
running hours of compressors and also estimate the air consumption as well as
leakages .The leakages were arrested and also a reduction in total running hrs of
compressors was achieved . Savings effected were as under:
Energy Saving
Energy Saving
Particulars
Particulars
Annual total energy savings, million kWh
0.873
2.9
2.0
Case Study No. 20 : Saving due to pressure optimization
75,000
Annual savings, Rs. (million)
0.3
Cost of implementation Rs.
2,000
<1
Case Study 22 : Arresting of air leakages in an automobile unit
Brief
Brief
In an automobile plant, it was reported that the maximum air pressure requirement
at machine end is 6.5-7.0 kg/cm2 but plant is maintaining 7.0- 8.5 kg/cm2.
Generating higher pressure than required is a loss of power i.e roughly 4% loss in
maintaining 1 kg/cm2 higher pressure. The details of losses are as follows:
Energy Saving
Pressure requirement
: 6.5-7.0 kg/cm2
Pressure maintained
: 7.0-8.5 kg/cm2
Rated Compressor power
: 75 kW for 458 cfm compressor
Rated Avg. compressor power
: 65 kW
( ON and OFF load)
Avg. compressor power (ON and OFF load)
after reduction in pressure by 1 kg / cm2 : 62.4 kW
Particulars
Annual total energy savings,kWh
Annual Cost Savings, Rs.
Cost of Implementation
Payback Period

10,000
61,000
Nil
Immediate
96
A leading automobile unit, which produces 2 wheelers, has seven large compressors
with a rated output of 7500 cfm. Compressors consume about 60 lakh units annually
(i.e about 12 % of total power consumption). The compressed air is mainly used in
pneumatic tools, instruments, control valves. During the recently concluded energy
audit, it was observed that the leakage in the system was 1400 cfm, which was
about 20% total air consumption. After arresting the leakages, the savings to the
company were as under:
Energy Saving
Particulars
0.864
3.0
0.2
Payback period (month)
97
3.4
Pumps, Blowers, Fans & Variable Speed Drives
Pumping of water and blowing of air are very basic needs. This can be done by
either positive displacement systems like reciprocating pumps, gear pumps, roots
blowers etc. or by the centrifugal pumps and blowers. Centrifugal devices do not
use a rubbing barrier as in positive displacement equipments but depend upon the
kinetic energy imparted to water or air due to rotating motion. They are used in
majority of applications needing FLOW due to their inherent reliability,
ruggedness and reasonably good efficiency.
Basic energy is proportional to the product of FLOW and TOTAL PRESSURE
HEAD. The head is mainly friction head and static head.
The static head is a function of choice of location and inherent system design while
the friction head varies inversely with fifth power of pipe diameter and other flow
passages as also to the square of FLOW. The friction based energy is thus decided
by CUBE OF FLOW.
The equations relating rotodynamic pump performance parameters of flow, head
and power absorbed, to speed are known as the Affinity Laws and are as follows:
Q N
H N2
3
P N
Where:
Q = Flow rate
H = Head
P = Power absorbed
N = Rotating speed
Efficiency is essentially independent of speed
Flow: Flow is proportional to the speed
The operation of fan is similar. There is no static head. The head in the heat
exchanger is small compared to head lost in ducts, bends and dampers. In addition
to the elegant universally applicable variable speed method of capacity control, we
can use variable pitch designs and inlet guide vane control for fans.
3.4.1 Energy Saving in Pumps
Basically, for an ideal system with given piping, the open valve system
characteristics should cut the pump curve at BEP flow (Best Efficiency Point Flow).
But this is rarely possible. Hence, a practical system suffers in varying degrees by :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Loss due to drop in efficiency of the pump for off duty point operation.
Loss in throttling valve to some extent.
Piping size of historical value and layout which can be changed.
A pump of old design which has room for improvement.
An old heat exchanger, where the design emphasis may be on lesser material
content (low first cost) and smaller space giving relatively higher drop for same
function.
It is very important to realise that the effects of flow may be proportional to first
power of Q (heat exchangers have even Q0.8), so that reduction in flow by even
marginal percentage brings about considerable energy savings.
An unquestioned Static Head can be altered in some cases by re-layout and
other innovative changes.
Very large drop (relative) in throttling valve which can be minimised or
eliminated.
There is a fair chance of improving new working point pump efficiency to
increase savings.
The methods for saving energy by altering the pump characteristic are briefly as
under :
H1/H2 = (N1) / (N2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Power (kW): Power is proportional to the cube of speed
Case Study 23 : Eliminating Throttling Losses by Use of Variable Speed Drive
kW1 / kW2 = (N1) / (N2)
Brief
Optimizing the energy efficiency of a pumping system needs attention, action and
investments to use the highest possible pump efficiency, to use the pump around its
Best Efficiency Point (BEP) which is at a unique flow, to minimize pipe and
exchanger losses, minimize/eliminate use of valves and select Minimum Needed
Flow under ALL operating conditions. This may call for variable flow systems in
many cases to suit operation or to SAVE energy. Changing flow will need retuning
the system for optimization.
Figure below shows a system with an unthrottled flow of 12000 lpm and a variation
upto 6000 lpm. The pump efficiency figures are shown on the head-flow curve. The
best efficiency of 85% is at 12000 lpm which is lowered to 69% at 6000 lpm. Static
head is 10 metres. The throttled operation parameter are shown in the Table below.
Q1 / Q2 = N1 / N2
Head: Head is proportional to the square of speed
By trimming the impeller i.e. reduction in impeller diameter.

By changing the impeller to get a different characteristic.
By a change of blade angle in axial flow type if that feature exists/or installed.
By changing the pump if the change is drastic/also for more efficiency.
By change of Speed - Most elegant and universally applicable method.
By stopping of pump, if parallel operation is properly planned.
Incorporating efficient pump and method of flow capacity control at the design
stage or as a retrofit by using variable speed, trimming of impellers, variable pitch
designs (axial flow), changing impellers and change of pumps along with minimal
flow concept and better (bigger) heat exchangers, summarises the total concept of
energy saving measures.
98
99
Case Study 24 : Modification of Pumps at a Fertilizer Plant :

Brief
An in-house energy audit by Technical Services department revealed mismatches
due to insufficient data at design stage or extra safety margins. A large number of
impellers were trimmed. In the Ammonia plant, 6 numbers of cooling water pumps
of 960 kW motors were being operated to maintain cooling water pressure at 5
Kg/Sq. cm. Gauge. After the system study, it was decided to operate at lower head
and higher flow. One heat exchanger at a height was served with a booster pump.
This measure saved 500 kW. Table below summarises different saving measures
resulting in a saving of 774.4 kW.
Energy Saving
Modification on Pumps at a Fertilizer Plant
Description Power
Throttling Losses and Savings By Use of Variable Speed

Pump Performance With Throttling Control
Flow lpm
System Pressure (m)
Pump Pressure (m)
Pump Efficiency (%)
Pump Input (kW)
Motor Load (%) F.L
Motor Input (kW)
Starter Efficiency (%)
Input (kW)
12000
23.50
23.20
86.00
53.58
97.41
90.00
59.53
99.80
59.65
9000
17.93
27.50
79.50
50.87
92.49
89.60
56.77
99.80
56.88
6000
13.35
29.50
69.00
41.92
76.20
89.00
47.10
99.80
47.20
Original Data
After Modification
Flow
Dia
Cons.
Head
Flow
Dia
Cons.
Head
Saving
M3/hr
Mm
kW
M3/hr
Mm
kW
kW
Condensate
150
321
159
220
150
291
130
180
29
Hot Condensate
150
346
83
175
150
320
70.2
150
12.8
C/X - 102 Conds.
82.1
258
57
155.3
82.1
202
35
146
22
C/X - 701 Conds.
60.2
250
45
158
60.2
203
27
95
18
C/X - 101 Conds.
102
280
63
158
102
NA
38
95
20.2
D.M. Transfer
125
306
60
128
125
294
55.4
118
20.5
Treated Ammonia Conds. 186
350
125
102.6
186
320
104.5
86
20.5
Treated Amm. Conds.
350
125
102.6
186
320
104.5
86
20.5
186
Additionally
1.
2.
Energy Saving
The same system was equipped with an inverter with 97.5%, efficiency changing to
89.5% at reduced load (See Table below).
Ammonia CW pump was totally stopped saving 500 kW .

One G.S.W. pump was stopped due to inter-connection of C.W and G.S.W,
thereby saving 80 kW.
Case study 25 :
Pump Performance With Variable Speed
Replacing the inefficient pumps with energy efficient pumps

matching the characteristics with the others connected in
parallel
Brief
Flow lpm
System / Pump Pressure (m)
Pump Efficiecny (%)
Pump Input (KW)
Motor RPM
Motor Load % F.L.
Motor Input (kW)
Controller Efficiency %
Input (kW)
Savings Inputs (kW)
% Saving (Throttled - Input)
12000
23.50
86.00
53.58
1450
97.40
93.70
57.18
97
58.95
0.70
1.12
9000
17.93
85.50
31.02
1210
56.40
93.60
33.14
94
35.25
21.63
38.03
6000
13.35
78.00
16.78
1000
30.50
90.00
18.64
89.50
20.83
26.37
55.80
100
In one of the Jal Board boosting stations, there were 6 nos pumps-3 of 125 HP and
other 3 of 100 HP pumps. While the 125 HP pumps were giving their efficiency near
to the rated efficiency of 58 %, the 100 HP pumps were giving efficiency in the range
of 13% to 19 %. The efficiency had gone down as these were run in parallel with 125
HPpumps, which were having different characteristics. Further, the head
generated by these pumps was much higher than required as the flow was being
throttled.
Energy Saving
Replacement of 100 HP pump by energy efficient pump with VFD
Energy saving
Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
101
:
:
:
:
0.185 Million kWhr

0.74 Million
1.2 MIllion
20 months
Case study No. 26 : Use of one high capacity pump in place of 4 nos of small
capacity chilled water pumps
Brief
No. of Pumps in parallel
Capacity of pumps
Valve throttled
New pumps (1 no.)
: 4 (20 HP each)
: 20.5 lps, 43.75m
: 60%-80%
: 50 HP
Instead of 4 nos. of Pumps, one big pump of 50 HP motor and energy efficient pump
was installed. Savings effected were as follows:
Energy Saving
Annual cost saving
Investment in modification
Simple payback
3.4.2
: 0.123 Million kWhr

: Rs 0.637 Million
: Rs 0.370 Million
: 7 months
System Operation and Energy Saving Methods for Blowers/Fans :
Fig. 3.6 shows a fan performance curve for flow reduction from 0.66 per unit to
0.50 per unit. The system head characteristic does not have static head in the case of
blowers and fans. The system resistance consists of dampers, ducts with bends etc.
and diffusers or such other equipments. The system curve follows the expression
KQ2 which is a parabola starting from origin.
3.
By Inlet guide vane - Introduces prerotation to add tangential velocity at inlet

to improve entry conditions with reduced flow. Better compared to dampers.
Changing to better suited blower/fan.
By changing blade angle in axial flow fans if applicable.
By changing the speed, which is applicable to all blowers/fans.
By stopping redundant fans/blowers.
Improved design FRP fans for cooling towers have given 10% to 30% savings.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Case study 27 : Replacement of Inefficient fans

Brief
The test results for the individual fans show that there is mismatch between fan
selection and the exact requirements and the operating static pressure of these fans
is between 13% and 60% of the rated pressure and the flow of fans is between 90%
and 150% of the rated flow. This mismatch has resulted in low operating efficiency
of the fan system. It is suggested to replace the low efficiency fans with high
efficiency fans.
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Fan Name
% of Flow
Cooler fan A
Cooler fan B
Cooler fan C
Air fan
Reverse fan
Mill fan
Cement fan
ESP fan
89.78
127.36
86.74
119.32
99.65
35.03
19.41
30.99
% of Static
Pressure
55.65
45.84
59.09
27.99
27.00
39.08
13.43
13.54
Static
Efficiency
55.00
65.10
58.84
36 .88
16.93
18.70
4.19
9.97
Energy Saving
Calculation for kVA Savings by Changing the Fan Motor (OnlyCooler Fan-1 is
taken for example)
Parameter
Power consumption
(kW)
Power factor
Annual saving (Rs.)
Before
Implementation
108
After
Implementation
78
Saving/
Improvement
( - ) 30
0.80
-
0.85
-
( + ) 0.05
( + ) 4,92,480
Fig 3.6 : Fan Performance with Variable Speed Operation

All the points listed under pumps are applicable to blowers/ fans. The loss in
damper at reduced flow is shown in Fig. 3.6 by shaded areas. Due to absence of
static head, a larger proportion of energy is dissipated in dampers. Capacity control
saving methods are listed below alongwith energy related comments:
1.
2.
By outlet damper - Reduces energy use but relatively large damper loss.
By inlet damper - Reduced suction reduces effective density to give reduced
head/flow. Better compared to outlet damper.
102
* The impeller power for the new fan is calculated by taking 10% margin in present
flow. 15% margin in present static pressure and 90% fan efficiency for cooler than
(for other fans - 75% fan efficiency)
Total energy saving for all the fans in above table (kWh/t clinker) : 1.037
Annual saving
: Rs.2.2 Million
Investment
: Rs.2.4 Million
Payback period
: 13 months
103
Case Study 28: Speed Reduction of Vacuum Blowers and Agitators in Pulp &
Paper Industry
Brief
(a) Some of the vacuum blowers of PM 1 were being operated with dampers closed
to a greater degree. The blowers are belt driven. The pulley sizes are changed
to reduce the speed of the fans.
(b) Speed reduction was carried out on new bleached high density tower agitator.
(c) The plant personnel decided to operate the blower at 2100 rpm and keep the
damper fully open. After implementation, the power consumption was
measured to be 17.4 kW.
Energy Saving
(a) Annual Saving
Investment
Payback period
: Rs. 0.12 Million

: Rs. 0.1 Million
: 10 months
(b) Annual Saving

Investment
Payback period
: Rs.93000
: Rs.15000
: 2 months
(c) Energy Saving

Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
:
:
:
:
:
Energy saving
Average running kW of ID fan with VFC
Average running kW of ID fan with VFD
Energy saved/day (42 x 24 hours)
Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
:
:
:
:
:
:
55 kW
13 kW
1008 kWh
Rs. 0.647 Million
Rs. 1.2 Million
2 years
Case Study 31: Installation of Variable Frequency Drive for Control of ID Fans
in place of Inlet Damper Control in Pulp & Paper Industry
Brief
50 tph AFBC boiler was provided with 2 nos. ID fans. The furnace draft was being
controlled by varying the inlet damper position of ID fans. Each ID fan is driven by
90 kW motor, 750 rpm. The normal damper opening when boiler was at full load
awas 55%. It was decided to install 2 nos. 90 kW VFDs for fan control.
Energy Saving
16 kWh
96000 kWh
Rs. 0.48 Million
Nil
Immediate
Power consumption before VFD

Power consumption after VFD
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback period
:
:
:
:
:
84 kW (each motor)
58 kW (each motor)
Rs. 0.75 Million
Rs. 1.1 Million
18 months
Case Study No. 32 : VFD in Pump in Paper Plant
Case study 29 : Interconnection of Blowers in the plant
Brief
Brief
Industry
Application
Motor Rating
:
:
:
Previous System
Problem Observed
1. Excess Water drained & hence wastage of water

2. Energy loss due to drain control
3. Mechanical wear & tear
Present System
Water outlet controlled by varying the speed of AC

motor using V.F.D.
There are 7 nos. of 3000 cfm (6" head) blower for machine exhaust. It is suggested
to inter-connect the blower with damper so that minimum number of blowers can be
run common to all machines and can also be run independently if required.
Energy Saving
Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
: Rs. 1,62,940
: Rs. 25000
: 2 months
Paper
Pump (Water Suction)
3 Phase AC Induction Motor
Rating : 130 HP - Volt : 415 V
Current : 160 A - RPM : 1440
Motor was run through Star-Delta Starter
Case Study 30 : Replacement of Variable Speed Fluid Coupling (VFC) with

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) in Pulp & Paper industry
Brief
The variable fluid coupling was replaced with a variable frequency drive for I.D.
fan of soda recovery boiler, for furnace draft control. The fan was operating
around 740 rpm, whereas motor speed was 970 rpm. Recognizing the efficieny
difference between VFC and VFD, VFD was installed to replace VFC.
104
Previous System
Present System
105
Freq
(Hz)
50
25 to 40
Amp.
kW
100
40 to 50
60
40
Water m3 / hr.
130
130
Drain Valve
50 to 70 open
100% (Average)
Energy Saving
Actual capacity of 100 kW motor
Actual requirement for process
Without drive power consumption
With AC Drive power consumption
Energy Saving
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback period
Option (a)
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
500 m3/hr
130 m3/hr
60 kW
40 kW
480 kWh/day
Rs 0.65 Million
Rs 0.325 Million
5 months
3.4.3 Sample Calculations

A)
An industrial fan with measured flow rate of 90 m3/s has 80 mm WC static

pressure developed across it. The motor power drawn is 120 kW and motor
efficiency of 86%. We first find out the fan static efficiency.
For the above fan, the bagfilter in the system was replaced with ESP
(Electrostatic Precipitator). The pressure drop across the bagfilter was 65 mm
WC. With ESP, pressure drop was 20 mmWC. Flow rate increased by 20%.
The original flow can be obtained by two options:
a)
Impeller trimming
b) Reduced RPM with pulley diameter change
New Flow rate, Q2
= 90 x 1.2
= 108 m3/hr
Pressure developed across fan, H2
= 80-(65-20)
= 35 mm WC
New fan static efficiency
= 68 -5
= 63%
For flow Q1 = 90 m3/s, H1 =?, Q2 = 108 m3/s and H2= 35 mm WC
(Q2/ Q1)2 = (H2/H1)
(108/90)2 = (35/H1)
H1 = (90/108)2 x35
= 24 mm )
Power developed at fan shaft
= 90 x 24
102 x 0.63
= 33.61 kW
New impeller diameter (D2)
Considering the fan law
(D1 / D2) = (Q1/Q2) = (N1/N2)
D1 = 70 mm, Q1=108, Q2 = 90, D2 = 58 mm, N1= 850 RPM
New impeller diameter, D2
= 58 mm
New RPM
= 90/108 x 850
= 708 RPM
Option (b)
For option (a), if original impeller size were 70 mm in diameter, what would be
the new impeller diameter if efficiency drops by 5%?
For option (b), what would be the required reduction in RPM if fan was
originally running at 850 RPM and efficiency at reduced RPM is expected to
be 66%?
We finally find out the differential energy savings between the two options at
8760 hours/annum and at Rs.4 / unit.
Motor power drawn
Power input at fan shaft (BHP)
= 120 kW
= 120 x 0.86
= 103.2 kW
Flow, Q1
= 90 m3/s
Pressure developed across fan, H1 = 80 mm
Original impeller diameter (D1) = 70 mm
Original RPM
= 850 RPM
Fan static efficiency
= Flow x Pressure developed across fan x100
102 x Power developed at fan shaft
= 90 x 80 x 100
102 x 103.2
= 68 %
106
Efficiency at reduced RPM

Power developed at fan shaft
Differential power savings
= 66%
= 90 x 24
102 x 0.66
= 32.08 kW
= 1.53 / 0.86 x 8760 hours/annum x Rs.4 / kWh
= Rs. 62340
B) A centrifugal pump pumping water operates at 35 m3/hr and at 1440 RPM. The
pump operating efficiency is 68% and motor efficiency is 90%. The discharge
pressure gauge shows 4.4 kg/cm2. The suction is 2m below the pump
centerline. If the speed of the pump is reduced by 50 % estimate the new flow,
head and power
Flow
= 35 m3/hr
Head developed by the pump = 44 - (-2) = 46 m
Hydraulic Power = Q (m3/s) x Total head, hd - hs (m) x (kg/m3) x g (m2/s)/1000
Power drawn by the motor = (35/3600) x 46 x 1000 x 9.81
1000 x 0.68 x 0.9 (i.e. efficiency of pump & motor)
= 7.2 kW
Flow at 50 % speed Q2
:
35 / Q2 = 1440/720
Q2
= 17.5 m3/hr
Head at 50 % speed H2
:
46 / H2 = (1440/720)2
H2
= 11.5 m
Power at 50 % speed P2 :
7.2/kW2 = 14403 / 7203
P2
= 0.9 kW
107
3.5 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning System

Refrigeration systems are used for process cooling by chilled water or brine, ice
plants, cold storage, freeze drying, air-conditioning systems etc. The refrigerant
temperatures for process cooling applications may range from 15C to as low as 70C.
Comfort air-conditioning requires refrigerant temperatures in the range of 0C to
5C. Air-conditioning generally implies cooling of room air to about 24C and
relative humidity of 50%-55%.
In some applications, air-conditioning involves humidification of air up to 70%80% relative humidity (as in textile industry) or dehumidification of air to less than
20% (e.g.in some pharmaceutical industries, rooms housing sophisticated
electronic equipment, storage rooms for hygroscopic materials etc.).
The other commonly used and easily understood figure of merit is

Specific Power Consumption
=
Power Consumption (kW)
Refrigeration effect (TR)
A lower value of Specific Power Consumption implies that the system has better
efficiency.
3.5.1.1 Specific Energy Consumption in Refrigeration andAir-conditioning Systems
Table 3.9 shows the figures of merit for Vapour Compression systems using
reciprocating and centrifugal compressors. Table 3.10 shows the figures of merit for
steam heated and also direct natural gas / LDO fired absorption chillers; here, in
addition to COP and EER, the specific steam consumption in kg/hr/TR is mentioned.
Table 3.9 : COP, EER & Specific Power for Vapour Compression Systems (for
chilled water at 8oC with water cooled condensers)
Capacity TR
There are types of refrigeration system :

a)
Vapour Compression System
b)
Vapour Absorption System
Power kW
COP
EER Btu/hr/W Specific Power kW/TR
Open Type Reciprocating Compressors
Vapour compression machines are used extensively for refrigeration. This system
requires motive power to drive a compressor, which is supplied by an electric motor
or engine.
With increasing electricity prices, there is renewed interest in Absorption
Refrigeration machines, wherein heat is used for cooling. Users having waste heat
or economical heat energy sources are using the absorption chillers.
10.78
6.62
5.75
19.7
0.61
32.20
21.38
5.32
18.2
0.66
48.30
32.06
5.32
18.2
0.66
64.40
42.75
5.32
18.2
0.66
Semi-hermetic Reciprocating Compressors

9.26
7.00
4.62
15.8
0.76
13.90
12.10
4.03
13.8
0.87
42.00
34.50
4.28
14.6
0.82
6.00
20.5
0.59
2.9 to 2.3
7.8 to 10
1.2 to 1.5
Open Type Centrifugal Compressors

563.67
3.5.1 Energy Consumption in Refrigeration Systems
329.94
Window Air-conditioners & Split Units
The cooling effect of refrigeration systems is generally quantified in tonnes of

refrigeration.
1 Tonne of Refrigeration (TR)
1.8 to 2.3
Note : The above data is based only on the compressor power consumption,
auxiliary power for pumps, fans etc. is excluded.
= 3023 kcal/hr
= 3.51 kWthermal
= 12000 Btu/hr
The commonly used figures of merit for comparison of refrigeration systems are
Coefficient of Performance (COP), Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) and Specific
Power Consumption (kW/TR). The definition of these terms are given below.
If both refrigeration effect and the work done by the compressor (or the input
power) are taken in the same units (TR or kcal/hr or kW or Btu/hr), the ratio is
COP = Refrigeration Effect
Work done
If the refrigeration effect is quantified in Btu/hr and the work done is in Watts, the
ratio is
EER
1.5
= Refrigeration Effect (Btu/hr)

Work done (Watts)
Higher COP or EER indicates better efficiency.
108
Table 3.10 : COP, EER & Specific Power for Vapour absorption Systems (for
chilled water at 8oC with water cooled condensers)
Capacity TR
Steam pressure Steam cons.

kg/cm2
K=Kg/hr.
Single Effect Chiller (Steam heated)

3.0
2101.0
240
Double Effect Chiller (Steam heated)
100
8.0
490.2
155
8.0
736.5
270
8.5
1284.0
500
8.0
2296.0
Double Effect Chiller (Direct fired)
3
78
27.3 m /hr
natural gas
150
54.6
lit/hr LDO
109
COP
EER
Btu/hr/W
Specific
steam cons.
Kg/hr/TR
0.61
2.10
8.75
1.10
1.13
1.13
1.17
3.76
3.86
3.86
4.00
4.90
4.75
4.76
4.59
0.96
3.28
0.96
3.27
0.35
m3/hr/TR
0.36
lit/hr/TR
Comments :
(b)
a)
The approximate thumb rule is that for every 1oC higher temperature in the
evaporator, the specific power consumption will decrease by about 2% to 3%.
Well designed and well maintained vapour compression systems, using

reciprocating compressors, for chilled water at about 8C have COP of 4 to
5.8, EER in the range of 14 to 20 Btu/hr/W and Specific Power Consumption
in the range of 0.61 to 0.87 kW/TR. It may be noted that Open-type
compressors are more efficient than semi-hermetic compressors.
Operate at Higher Temperature
(c )
Accurate Measurement and Control of Temperature
b) Centrifugal compressors, which are generally used for cooling loads about 150
TR, can have COP of about 6, EER greater than 20 and Specific Power
Consumption of 0.59 kW/TR.
When the refrigeration system's cooling capacity is significantly more than the
actual cooling load, expansion valve control based on superheat sensing often leads
to supercooling, resulting in an energy penalty due to unnecessarily lower
temperature and also lower COP at lower temperatures.
c)
(d) Reduce Air-conditioning Volume and Shift Unnecessary Heat Loads
Double Effect Absorption chillers at about 8C have COP in the range of 1 to

1.2, EER in the range of 3.3 to 4 Btu/hr/W. The Specific Steam Consumption
of double effect machines is in the range of 4.5 to 5.25 kg/hr/TR, at a steam
pressure of 8 to 8.5 bar. The specific fuel consumption figures of directly fired
double effect chillers are 0.35m3/hr/TR (natural gas) and 0.36 lit/hr/TR (LDO).
In comparison with compression system, it can still save energy cost if waste
heat or any other cheaper alternative fuel is available.
(e)
3.5.2 Energy Saving Opportunities

(a)
Avoid Refrigeration & Air-conditioning to the Extent Possible
Minimise Heat Ingress
The system efficiency of both vapour compression and absorption systems is

critically dependent on the performance of the heat exchangers i.e. evaporator,
condenser and cooling tower. Any deterioration in these equipment leads to huge
energy penalties.
Use Evaporative Cooling for Comfort Cooling in Dry Areas :

Use Cooling Tower Water at Higher Flows for Process Cooling :
(f)
Table 3.11 : Effect of Evaporator and Condenser Temperatures on Refrigeration

Machine Performance
Evaporator
Temperature
o
C
+5
-5
Condens er Temperature o C
Capacity
+35
151
94
+40
143
102.7
+45
135
110.6
+50
127
117.8
Sp.Power (kW/TR)
0.62
0.72
0.82
0.93
Capacity (TR)
129
118
111
104
Power cons. (kW)
90
96.8
103
108.9
Sp.Power (kW/TR)
Capacity (TR)
Power cons. (kW)
0.70
103
84.2
0.82
96
89.6
0.93
90
94.7
1.05
84
99.4
Sp.Power (kW/TR)
0.82
0.93
1.05
1.19
110
Check and Maintain Thermal Insulation

Insulate Pipe Fittings & Flanges
Use Landscaping to the Reduce Solar Heat Load
Reduce Excessive Window Area
Use Low Emissivity (Sun Control) Films
Use Low Conductivity Window Frames
Provide Insulation on Sun-Facing Roofs and Walls.
Provide Evaporative Roof Cooling
Use Doors, Air-Curtains, PVC Strip Curtains
Use High Speed Doors for Cold Storage
Using Favourable Ambient Conditions
Capacity (TR)
Power cons. (kW)
Unnecessary heat loads may be kept outside air-conditioned spaces.

Use False Ceilings
Use Small "Power Panel" Coolers
Use Pre-Fabricated, Modular Cold Storage Units
Use Cooling Tower Water Directly for Cooling in Winter

Design New Air-conditioning Systems with Facility for 100% fresh air
during winter
Use Ground Source Heat Pumps
(g) Use Evaporators and Condensers with Higher Heat Transfer Efficacy
Use Heat Exchangers with Larger Surface Area

1C higher temperature in the evaporator or 1C lower temperature
in the condenser can reduce the specific power consumption by
2 to 3%.
Use Plate Heat Exchangers for Process and Refrigeration Machine
Condenser Cooling
Plate heat exchangers have a temperature approach of 1oC to 5oC instead
of around 5oC to 10oC for shell and tube heat exchangers.
Avoid the Use of Air Cooled Condensers for large cooling loads .
Use evaporative Pre-coolers for Air-cooled Condensers
111
Case Study 33 : Replacement of Existing Evaporator with a New Evaporator

with Better Heat Transfer Efficacy
The methods used for air purging are :
Brief
After achieving the saving by reduction in speed of compressors, a decision was

taken to replace the existing "Ammonia Evaporator Coil in Tank" with "Shell &
Tube Heat Exchanger". The comparative measurements are as follows.
Parameter
Power consumption (kW)
Operating hrs./day
Energy Consumption
(kWh/day)
Before
Implmentation
39.9
10
323
After
Implementation
32.3
6.7
267
Saving /
Improvement
7.6
3.3
56
Brief
:
:
:
:
18371 kWh
Rs. 82670
Rs. 0.12 Million
1.5 years
3.5.2.1 Energy Saving Opportunities in Normal Operation
Use Building Thermal Inertia

Put HVAC Window Air Conditioners and Split Units on Timer or
Occupancy Sensing Control
Interlock Fan Coil Units in Hotels with Door Lock or Master Switch
Improve Utilisation Of Outside Air.
Maintain Correct Anti-freeze Concentration
Install a Control System to Co-ordinate Multiple Chillers.
Permit Lower Condenser Pressures during Favourable Ambient
Conditions.
Optimise Water/Brine/Air Flow Rates
Defrosting : The most widely used methods for defrosting are:
1. Shutting down the compressor, keeping the fan running and allowing
the space heat to melt the frost.
2. Using out side warm air to melt the frost after isolating the coil from
the cold room.
3. Using electric resistance heaters in thermal contact with the coil.
4. Bypass the condenser and let the hot gas into the evaporator to melt
the frost.
5. Spray water on the coils to melt the frost.
Match the Refrigeration System Capacity to the Actual Requirement
Monitor Performance of Refrigeration Machines
3.5.2.2 Maintenance to Ensure Energy Efficient Operation
Purging of non-condensibles plays an important role in maintaining the efficiency

of refrigeration machines.
Case Study 34 : Modification in Chilled Water Pumping System
Energy Saving
Annual savings
Annual savings
Investment
Payback period
Direct venting of the air-refrigerant mixture, which is a primitive manual

technique.
A small compressor draws a sample of the refrigerant gas and compresses
the mixture, condensing as much as possible of the refrigerant, and vents
the vapour mixture that is now rich in non-condensibles.
A low temperature evaporator, in-built in the system, condenses most of
the refrigerant from the refrigerant-air mixture drawn from the condensor
or receive and vents the non-condensibles. This method does not require
a separate compressor and is used widely.
Clean Fouled Heat Exchangers

Specify Appropriate Fouling Factors for Condensers
Do Not Overcharge Oil
Purging the Condenser of Air
112
The chilled water system had primary (chiller side) and secondary (process side)
pumps with a hot well and cold well arrangement. Since the chilled water
requirement for the plant was reasonably steady, it was decided to eliminate the
primary pump and connect the warm chilled water from the secondary side directly
to the chiller, bypassing the hot well. In view of the increased pressure requirement,
a new, efficient pump of appropriate head requirement was recommended. The
power consumption scenario before and after this change is as follows:
Energy Saving
Parameter
Operating hrs. of primary pump
(hrs.)
Energy consumption (kWh/day)
Operating hrs. of secondary
pump (hrs.)
Energy consumption (kWh/day)
Total power consumption
(kWh/day)
Before
Implementation
10
After
Implementation
NIL
Saving /
Improvement
-
85
24
NIL
24
271
356
139
139
132
217
Case study 35 : Replacement of inefficient condensers of central AC plant of

administrative building of a corporate house
Brief
In the administrative building, there are two compressors installed by a company.
Each compressor is of 60 TR rating as per normal perception of the operating staff.
Originally there were two 10 HP pumps for circulation of condenser cooling water
and the cooling was achieved by spray nozzles. Subsequently an induced draft
cooling tower was installed for condenser water cooling. Further one 15 HP pump
was put in parallel to existing 10 HP pumps because of poor cooling and high
discharge problem, it was thought that the water supply was inadequate. There are
two independent DX coils (Air Handling Units).
113
During the study the pressures, temperatures & water flow in the cooling water
circuit were measured. It was observed that there was a high discharge pressure
and low suction pressure due to heavy scaling in condenser.
Consequent upon study, the condensers were replaced. Valves were replaced with
butterfly valves and cooling coils were cleaned. Filters of AHU units were also
replaced.
Energy Saving
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback period
:
:
:
:
21275 kWh
Rs. 75,000
Rs. 0.16 Million
2 years
Case study 36 : Savings due to stopping bypass through idle pumps and idle
condensers.
Brief
In an automobile plant, condenser water was flowing through the idle pumps and
the idle condensers resulting in loss of head as the valves had broken down and
were passing. By stopping by-pass though idle pumps and idle condensers the
energy savings was as follows :
Energy Saving
Annual Energy Saving
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback
3.5.3
:
:
:
:
Periodically clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles.

Install new nozzles to obtain a more uniform water pattern.
Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill.
On old counterflow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with
new square spray ABS practically non-clogging nozzles.
Replace slat type drift eliminators with low pressure drop, self
extinguishing, PVC cellular units.
Follow manufacturer's recommended clearances around cooling towers
and relocate or modify structures that interfere with the air intake or
exhaust.
Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.
Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan
balance.
Use a velocity pressure recovery fan ring.
Consider on-line water treatment.
Restrict flows through large loads to design values.
Shut off loads that are not in service.
Take blow down water from return water header.
Optimise blowdown flow rate.
Send blowdown water to other uses or to the cheapest sewer to reduce
effluent treatment load.
Install interlocks to prevent fan operation when there is no water flow.
Replace ordinary Aluminium fans by more energy efficient
aerodynamically designed FRP fans (Fibre Reinforced Plastic).
Case study 37 : Replacement of existing metal (aluminum alloy) blades by FRP

blades for cooling towers.
2760 kVAh
Rs.979800
Nil
Immediate
Brief
The cooling tower specification is given below:
Cooling Towers
In many plants, after the cooling tower has been in service for a few years, the need
for improving its performance is felt. This may be due to:
a) Deterioration of efficiency of the cooling tower,
b) Deterioration in the efficiency of the heat exchangers (coolers, condensers
etc.) at the end-use side,
c) Additional heat rejection due addition of equipment, plant capacity etc.
Two parameters, which are useful for determining the performance of cooling
towers, are the Temperature Range and Temperature Approach.
Sl.
No.
1.
Location
Cooling Plant
Cooling tower
Specification
Capacity
200 TR
Fan M otor Rated

Power (kW)
Actual
Power kW
11.5
5.93
Replace the aluminum blades by new energy efficient FRP blades. By using FRP
blades there will be a minimum saving of 10% in the energy.
Savings obtained by conversion of aluminium blades to FRP blades.
Energy Saving
3.5.3.1 General Tips to Save Energy in Cooling Towers

-
Control cooling tower fans based on leaving water temperatures.

Control the optimum temperature as determined from cooling tower
and chiller performance data.
Use two-speed or variable speed drives for cooling tower fan control if the
fans are few. Stage the cooling tower fans with on-off control if there are
many.
Turn off unnecessary cooling tower fans when loads are reduced.
Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to
fouling.
Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins.
114
Actual power on cooling tower fan motor

: 5.93 kW
Percentage of power savings by conversion to FRP blades : 10%
Working hrs/ day
: 24
Working days/ year
: 355
Tariff (Rs./unit)
: Rs. 3.53
Annual saving
:
5.93 x 0.10 x 24 x 355 = 5,052,36 kWh
Annual saving @ of Rs 3.53/kWh
: Rs.17,834
Investment
: Rs.10,000
Payback period
: 7 months
115
Case study 38 : Installation of automatic temperature controller in the cooling

tower systems.
Brief
0
Install automatic temperature controller for cooling towers (28-30 C). The
controller switches off the fan when the cold well temperature goes below the set
temperature and switches on when temperature goes above the set temperature (2830 0C).
Energy Saving
Parameter
Annual Power
Consupmtion (kWh)
Before
Implementation
114423
After Implementation
80096
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback period
3.6
Saving/
Improvement %
30%
: Rs.137300
: Rs.50000
: 5 months
3.6.2.1 Variation of losses during operation

The losses vary during the operation of a transformer due to loading, voltage
changes, harmonics and operating temperature.
Case Study 39: Parallel operation of transformers in a Tea Industry
Brief
Energy Audit for Tea Factories making C.T.C. Tea, was conducted. Power is
received at 22 kV and 11 kV by separate lines. This is stepped down by two 500 kVA
Transfromer 22 kV/433V which feeds segregated loads.
The typical loss figures for 500 kVA transformers are 1660 W for no load and
6900W as load losses for 100% load. It was recommended to parallel both
transformers for a total 500 kVA load on secondary side. Also, cut off one
transformer from H.V. side in lean season and holidays when the load is 5% to
below 25%.
Calculations
Energy Savings in Transformers
Transformer is the most efficient equipment in an electrical system. Distribution

transformers are very efficient, with efficiencies of 97% or above. It is estimated
that transformer losses in power distribution networks can exceed 3% of the total
electrical power generated. In India, for an annual electricity consumption of
about 500 billion kWh, this would come to around 15 billion kWh.
3.6.1
3.6.2 Transformer Operation
Losses in Transformers
Transformer losses consist of two parts: No-load loss and Load loss
1. No-load loss (also called core/iron loss) is the power consumed to sustain the
magnetic field in the transformer's steel core. Core loss occurs whenever the
transformer is energized; core loss does not vary with load. Core losses are
caused by two factors: hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis loss is
that energy lost by reversing the magnetic field in the core as the magnetizing
AC rises and falls and reverses direction. Eddy current loss is a result of
induced currents circulating in the core.
2. Load loss (also called copper loss) is associated with full-load current flow in
the transformer windings. Copper loss is power lost in the primary and
secondary windings of a transformer due to the ohmic resistance of the
windings. Copper loss varies with the square of the load current. (P = IR)
For a given transformer, the manufacturer can supply values for no-load loss, PNOLOAD, and load loss, PLOAD. The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, At any load level can
then be calculated from:
PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD + (%Load/100) x PLOAD
For total load of 500 kVA, there are three options.

a) Only one transformer takes full 500 kVA Load.
Losses = 1 . 66 ( No L oad) + ( 500 /500 ) 2 x 6 . 9 k W ( l oad l osses )=8.56 kW
b)One transformer takes segregated 300 kVA while second takes 200
kVA segregated load.
Losses = 1 . 66 + ( 300 /500 )2 x 6 . 9 + 1 . 66 + ( 200 /500 ) 2 x 6 . 9 k W=6.90 kW
c) Both are paralleled to take 250 kVA each.
Losses = 2 (1.66 + (250/500)2 x 6.9) kW= 6 .77 kW.
Thus on major load, the losses are minimum by paralleling both transformers.
Operation at part load during lean season :
a) Two paralleled transformers
Losses = 2 { 1 . 66 + ( 0 . 25 /2 ) 2 x 6 . 9 } = 3 . 54 k W at 25 % load
Losses = 2 { ( 1 . 66 ) + ( 0 . 05 /2 ) 2 x 6 . 9 } = 3 . 33 k W at 5 % load
b) Only one transformer is energized
Losses = 1 . 66 x ( 0 . 25 ) 2 x 6 . 9 = 2 . 09 k W at 25 % load
Losses = 1 . 66 x ( 0 . 05 ) 2 x 6 . 9 = 1 . 68 k W at 5 % load
Thus losses are minimum at low loads using only one transformer .
Where transformer loading is known, the actual transformers loss at given load can
be computed as:
2
kVA Load
= No load loss + Rated kVA x (full load loss)
116
The tariff was kVA of M. D. x R s . 60 + R s . 0 . 89 x k Wh + R s . 150 meter rent.

The total annual consumption for the factory was 1.85 Million kWh per year
and the electricity bill was Rs 2.04 Million giving Rs 1.10/kWh as average cost.
117
Saving in load losses =
Energy saving
[( pf1 ) - 1 ]
2

Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
(Per unit loading as per kW) 2 x Load losses at full load x
: 1000 kWh
: Rs.10000
: Nil
: Immediate
Thus, if p.f. is 0.8 and it is improved to unity, the saving will be 56.25% .
Case study 40 : Reallocation of the load of transformer
3.6.2.2 Energy Saving by optimum -utilisation of transformers
Brief
Table 3.12 summarises the variation in losses and efficiency for a 1000 kVA
transformer and also shows the difference in losses by using a 1600 kVA
transformer for the same. The 1000 kVA transformer has a no load loss of 1700
watts and load loss of 10500 Watts at 100% load. The corresponding figures for
1600 kVA transformer are 2600 Watts and 17000 Watts respectively. Loading is by
linear loads. Temparatures assumed equal.
Presently there are 3 numbers of transformers in a plant. From the data given it can
be seen that Transformer No.3 i.e. 1250 kVA transformer is loaded only 28.70% i.e.
359 kVA against 1250 kVA. It is recommended to shift the load to a lower capacity
transformer of 750 kVA which is lying idle.
Transformer
Table 3.12 : Comparison of transformer losses

TRANSFORMER-1
1000 kVA, No load losses = 1700 W
Per unit
TRANSFORMER-2
1600 kVA. No load
losses = 2600 W
Difference
in losses,
W
1
2
3
4
Rated
kVA
2000
2000
1250
750
Voltage
Current
Loading kVA
440
440
440
440
1200
1280
471
-
914.94
953.29
358.87
-
Loading
%
45.72
47.66
28.70
Idle
Savings obtained by reallocating transformer No.3 load to idle transformer:
Load
Load
losses
Total
losses
Output
kW
Efficiency
%
Load
losses, W
Total
losses,
W
0.1
105
1805
100
98.23
60
2660
861
0.2
420
2120
200
98.9 5
265
2865
745
0.4
1680
3380
400
99.16
1062
3662
282
0.6
3780
5480
600
99.09
2390
4990
-490
0.8
6720
8420
800
98.96
4250
6850
-1570
1.0
10500
12200
1000
98.18
6640
9240
-2960
Calculations
The efficiency of 1000 kVA transformer is maximum at about 40% load. Using a
1600 kVA transformer causes under loading for 1000 kW load. The last column
show the extra power loss due to oversized transformer. As expected, at light loads,
there is extra loss due to dominance of no load losses. Beyond 50% load, there is
saving which is 2.96 kW at 1000 kW load.
The saving by using a 1600 kVA transformer in place of a 1000 kVA transformer at
1000 kW load for 8760 hours/annum is 25930 kWh/year @ Rs .5.0/kWh, this is
worth Rs 0.129 Million. The extra first cost would be around Rs 1.5 Million. Hence
deliberate oversizing is not economically viable.
3.6.2.3 Reduction of losses due to improvement of power factor
Transformer load losses vary as square of current. Industrial power factor vary
from 0.6 to 0.8. Thus the loads tend to draw 60% to 25% excess current due to poor
power factor. For the same kW load, current drawn is proporational to kW/pf. If
p.f. is improved to unity at load end or transformer secondary, the saving in load
losses is as under.
118
Transformer Loading:
Existing average load

Existing transformer No.3 rating
Percentage loading of TR : 3
Recommended Transformer rating with respect
to average load
Copper loss for existing 1250 kVA transformer
= 358.87 kVA
= 1250 kVA
= 28.70%
= 750 kVA
= (0.2870)2 x 6 x 24 x 330
= 3914 kWh
= 0.59 kW
(where 6 kW = full load copper loss of existing 1250 kVA transformer-considering
330 days 24 hrs operation in a year)
Iron loss for 1250 kVA transformer
= 2.5 x 24 x 365 = 21900 kW
(Where 2.5 kW = iron loss for1250 kVA transformer)
Total loss for 1250 kVA transformer
= 21900 + 3914 kWh

= 25814 kWh
On replacement of 1250 kVA transformer with 750 kVA transformer, the average
loading of 750 kVA transformer will be
= 359 = 47.85%
750
Copper loss for 750 kVA transformer
=(0.4785)2 x 4 x 330 x 24
= 7255 kWh
(where 4 kW = full load copper loss of 750 kVA transformer-considering operating
hours 24 for 330 days)
Iron loss for 750 kVA transformer
= 1.95 x 365 x 24
= 17082 kWh
(where 1.95 kW = iron loss for 750 kVA transformer)
Total losses for 750 kVA transformer
119
= 7255 + 17082
= 24337 kWh
Monetary saving
Investement
Payback period
Energy Saving
Savings in kWh
Annual Savings @ Rs.4.20 per kWh
Case study 41:
= 25814 24337
= 1477 kWh
=1477 x 4.20
= Rs. 6203
Operating the two transformers in parallel to reduce

transformer losses.
Brief
3.7
Energy Savings in Lighting
Lighting energy consumption contributes to 20 to 45% in commercial

buildings and about 3 to 10% in industrial plants. Most industrial and
commercial energy users are aware of energy savings in lighting systems.
Significant energy savings can be realized with a minimal investment of capital and
common sense.
Power is received from the electricity board and 3 nos. of 10000 kVA, 33kV/ 433
volts transformer are installed for stepping it down to 433 volts for plants
distribution. Each transformer feeds its own P.C.C. and facility is available to run
the transformer in parallel.
Now the transformers are run independently and the loads in them are not
balanced. The load on the T.R. 2 and 3, which were in service, was monitored for 24
hrs.
These transformers have their maximum efficiency at 25 to 50% of loading. As per
monitoring, transformer 3 is loaded around 50% and transformer 2 is loaded at
less than 25% of their respective rated capacities both operating outside their
maximum efficiency ranges.
These transformers were run in parallel.
Total losses before parallel operation

Total losses after parallel operation
Energy saving by parallel operation
Monetary saving/yr.
Operation
Load on each transformer in day time
Load on each transformer in night time
Investment
Payback period
Table 3.13 : Recommended lighting levels
Illuminance Examples of Area of Activity

level (lux)
General Lighting for
rooms and areas used
either
infrequently
and/or casual or
simple visual tasks
General lighting for

interiors
Energy Saving
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
: Rs.52,000
: Nil
: Immediate
75.2 kW
64.5 kW
4035 kWh
Rs.14,204
24. x 365 hrs
66% - 77%
15% - 20%
Nil
Immediate
20
Minimum service illuminance in exterior

circulating areas, outdoor stores , stockyards
50
70
Exterior walkWays & platforms.

Boiler house.
100
Transformer yards, furnace rooms etc.
150
Circulation areas in industry, stores and stock

rooms.
Minimum service illuminance on the task.
200
300
Medium bench & machine work, general

process in chemical and food industries,
casual reading and filing activities.
450
Hangers, inspection, drawing offices, fine

bench and machine assembly, colour work,
critical drawing tasks.
1500
Very fine bench and machine work,

instrument & small precision mechanism
assembly; electronic components, gauging &
inspection of small intricate parts (may be
partly provided by local task lighting)
3000
Minutely detailed and precise work, e.g. Very

small parts of instruments, watch making,
engraving.
Case study 42 : Power saving by optimizing transformer operation in large

Government building
Brief
Additional localised
lighting for visually
exacting tasks
One transformer is dedicated to one separate annexe building, the other 4 nos are
connected in the configuration of 2 each on east and west wing of the buildings.
Switching off one transformer each on west and east wing load during weekly off
days and transferring the load on the other transformers in line shall save the the
no-load losses of the transformer & the maximum efficiceny of the other 2
transformers can be attained by loading at 40-50 % load.
(Source : CIE, IES)

Indian standards IS 3646 & SP-32 describes the illuminance requirements at
various work environments in detail.
Energy Saving
3.7.1.1 Use Natural Day Lighting
Energy Saving per hour

Total energy saving
: 2kW
: 13,000 kWh
120
3.7.1 Energy Saving Opportunities
The utility of using natural day lighting instead of electric lighting during the day is
well known, but is being increasingly ignored especially in modern air121
conditioned office spaces and commercial establishments like hotels, shopping

plazas etc. Industrial plants generally use daylight in some fashion, but
improperly designed day lighting systems can result in complaints from
personnel or supplementary use of electric lights during daytime.
Light pipe: This is a reflective tube that brings clean light from the sky into a
room, no need for lighting or incandescent bulbs. These are aluminium tubes
having silver lining inside. One 13" light pipe can illuminate about 250 sq.ft of
floor area with an illuminance of 200 lux. A 9" dia pipe can give the same
iilluminance over a 100 sq.ft area.
A 4 ft length of light pipe of the above size provides a daytime average of 750 watts
worth of light in June, 250 watts in December. If the pipe length increases to 20 ft,
50% of the light reaches the surface. These are expensive, costing between 150
to 250 dollars and is one of the emerging technologies in day lighting.
Case study 43 : Installation of solar energy systems in canteen/guest houses
Brief
Solar water heaters in canteen were installed in place of electric heaters. By
installing these heaters, at least 8 months in an year, solar energy could be used.
Existing heaters were retained for supplementing these units in case of bad weather
or rainy season.
Energy Saving
Annual saving
Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
: 0.216 Million kWh

: Rs. 0.68 Million
: Rs. 0.45 Million
: 8 months
3.7.1.2 De-lamping to reduce excess lighting

De-lamping is an effective method to reduce lighting energy consumption. In some
industries, reducing the mounting height of lamps, providing efficient
luminaires and then de-lamping has ensured that the illuminance is hardly
affected. De-lamping at empty spaces where active work is not being performed is
also a useful concept.
Table 3.14 :Information on Commonly Used Lamps

Lamp Type
3.7.1.4 Selection of High Efficiency Lamps and Luminaires

Details of common types of lamps are summarised in table 3.14 below. From
this list, it is possible to identify energy saving potential for lamps by replacing
with more efficient types.
Color
Lamp
Rendering Life(hrs)
Index
8 to 17
100
1000
Tungsten Halogen
(Single ended)
75,100,150,500,1000,2000
(no ballast)
13 to 25
100
2000
Tungsten Halogen
(Double ended)
200,300,500,750,1000,1500,
2000 (no ballast)
16 to 23
100
2000
Fluorescent Tube lights

(Argon filled)
20,40,65
(32,51,79)
31 to 58
67 to 77
5000
Fluorescent Tube lights

(Kryptonne filled)
18,36,58
(29,46,70)
38 to 64
67 to 77
5000
Compact Fluorescent
Lamps
(CFLs) (without
prismatic envelope)
Compact Fluorescent
Lamps
(CFLs) (with
prismatic envelope)
5, 7, 9,11,18,24,36
(8,12,13,15,28,32,45)
26 to 64
85
8000
9,13,18,25
(9,13,18,25)
i.e. rating is inclusive of
ballast consumption
48 to 50
85
8000
Mercury Blended Lamps
160 (internal
ballast, rating is
inclusive of
ballast
consumption)
18
50
5000
High Pressure Mercury

Vapour (HPMV)
38 to 53
45
5000
Metal Halide Lamps

(Single ended)
80,125,250,400,1000,2000
(93,137,271,424,1040,2085
)
250,400,1000,2000
(268,427,1040,2105)
51 to 79
70
8000
Metal Halide Lamps

(Double ended)
70,150,250
(81,170,276)
62 to 72
70
8000
High Pressure Sodium

Vapour Lamps (HPSV)
70,150,250,400,1000
(81,170,276,431,1060)
69 to 108
25 to 60
>12000
Low Pressure Sodium

Vapour
Lamps (LPSV)
35,55,135
(48,68,159)
90 to 133
Source : Best Practice Manual-Lighting : MEDA
122
Efficacy
(including
ballast losses,
where
applicable)
Lumens/Watt
General Lighting Service 15,25,40,60,75,100,150,200,

(GLS) (Incandescent bulbs) 300,500 (no ballast)
3.7.1.3 Task Lighting

Task Lighting implies providing the required good illuminance only in the
actual small area where the task is being performed, while the general illuminance
of the shop floor or office is kept at a lower level; e.g. Machine mounted lamps or
table lamps.
Lamp Rating in Watts

(Total Power including
ballast losses in Watts)
123
--
>12000
Table- 3.15 Summarises the replacement possibilities with the potential savings.
Table 3.15: Savings by Use of More Efficient Lamps
Case study 46 : Conversion of High pressure mercury vapour lamp and

Halogen lamp with High pressure sodium vapour lamp.
Brief
Lamp type
Power saving
Sector
Existing
Domestic/Commercial
Industry
Industry/Commercial
GLS
GLS
GLS
TL
HPMV
HPMV
Replace by
100 W
*CFL
25 W
13 W
*CFL
9W
200 W Blended 160 W
40 W
TLD
36 W
250 W HPSV 150 W
400 W HPSV 250 W
Watts
75
4
40
4
100
150
75
31
20
10
37
35
Energy Saving
Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
* Wattages of CFL includes energy consumption in ballasts.
(Source : Website of Bureau of Energy Efficiency)
Case study 44:
High pressure mercury vapour lamp of 250W & 400W capacity, halogen lamp of
500 W were used for street lighting in a manufacturing plant. 250W and 400W High
pressure mercury vapour lamp used for street lighting could be replaced with 70W
& 150W High pressure sodium vapour lamp respectively. 500W Halogen lamps
used for street lighting and outside the factory could be replaced with 70W Highpressure sodium vapour lamp.
Replacement of Incandescent lamps and blended mercury

vapor lamps by compact fluorescent lamps (CFL)
: Rs.97,700/: Rs.20,000
: 3 months
Case study 47 : Replacement of filament type indicating lamps by LED type

indicating lamps, assuming 0.8 as load factor:
Brief
The lighting conversion efficiency of the incandescent lamp is 13.8 lumens per watt
which is very low. Blended mercury vapor lamps of 160 W installed had much
higher luminous intensity than required. Blended lamps were very inefficient and
the lighting conversion efficiency was only 18 lumens per watt. Replaced
incandescent and blended type mercury vapor lamps with CFL.
Energy Saving
Investment
Payback period
: Rs. 2.07 Million

: Rs. 1.24 Million
: 8 months
Case study 45 : Utilization of natural light by installing translucent sheets

for roofs in plant.
Brief
Fluorescent lamps were used to illuminate 100 rooms even during daytime, since
natural lighting was not sufficient. Plant had already installed translucent sheets
in many offices and wanted to install in other offices in a phased manner. Installed
translucent sheets in the roofs to utilize natural lighting. After installing
translucent sheets, lamps could be switched off for 8 hrs a day.
Energy Saving
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback period
Brief
In a refractory manufacturing unit, there were 150 nos of 10 W filament type lamps
for indication purpose. These used to be glowing for 24 hrs for all the days of the
year. It was consuming 1.2 kW. The total energy consumed was 10512 units on
yearly basis. During the energy audit, it was decided that these can be replaced by
LED type lamps consuming only 1 w power. After replacement by 10 nos of 1 W
LED lamps, the total consumption became of 1051 units per year. The saving
annually was observed of 9461 units, resulting in monetary saving of Rs 0.43 lakh
per year (Rate of Rs 4.50 per unit).
Energy Saving
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback period
3.7.1.5 Reduction of Lighting Feeder Voltage

Fig. 3.7 shows the effect of variation of voltage on light output and power
consumption for fluorescent tube lights. Similar variations are observed on other
gas discharge lamps like mercury vapour lamps, metal halide lamps and
sodium vapour lamps. Table-3.16 summarises the effects. Hence reduction
in lighting feeder voltage can save energy, provided the drop in light output is
acceptable.
: Rs.21,500
: Rs.20000
: 11 months
124
: Rs.43,000/: Rs.15000/: 4 months
125
Case Study 48 : Use of lighting voltage controller to reduce lighting energy

consumption
Brief
A paper manufacturing plant has a connected lighting load of nearly 370 kW. This
consists of fluorescent fittings, HPSV,HPMV & CFL lamps for plant, office
and area lighting. The lighting load is fed from 3.3 kV bus by 4 nos. of LT
transformers. These transformers have lighting loads apart from other loads.
Each transformer is connected to a Lighting circuit Distribution box. The
total actual load varies between 300 to 350 kW during night. Meters are
fitted at each DB to measure power consumption.
The voltage levels at lighting DBs vary between 225 & 240 V. Lighting loads
consume less power at lower voltages. The installation of lighting voltage
controllers, of different kVA, on each DB brought down the lighting
consumption by 20%. The output voltages were set at 210 V.
Energy Saving
Fig 3.7: Effect of Voltage Variation on Fluorescent Tube light Parameters

Table 3.16 : Variation in Light Output and Power Consumption
Particulars
Fluorescent lamps
Light output
Power input
HPMV lamps
Light output
Power input
Mercury Blended lamps
Light output
Power input
Metal Halide lamps
Light output
Power input
HPSV lamps
Light output
Power input
LPSV lamps
Light output
Power input
10% lower voltage
10% higher voltage
Decreases by 9 %
Decreases by 15 %
Increases by 8 %
Increases by 8 %
Decreases by 20 %
Decreases by 16 %
Increases by 20 %
Increases by 17 %
Decreases by 24 %
Decreases by 20 %
Increases by 30 %
Increases by 20 %
Decreases by 30 %
Decreases by 20 %
Increases by 30 %
Increases by 20 %
Decreases by 28 %
Decreases by 20 %
Increases by 30 %
Increases by 26 %
Decreases by 4 %
Decreases by 8 %
Decreases by 2 %
Increases by 3 %
No. of DB lighting circuits

Total Power consumption
: 4
: 338 kW
After installation
Total Power consumption
Annual Total energy savings
Annual Cost savings
Cost of Implementation
Simple payback period
: 275 kW
: 0.245 Million kWh
: Rs. 0.49 Million
: Rs. 1.24 Million
: 2 .5 years
Case study 49 : Installation of Automatic Voltage Regulator (Energy Saver) in

Lighting Circuit.
Brief
The lighting to the plant was provided mainly by discharge lamps like blended
mercury vapour lamps, sodium vapour lamps and fluorescent lamps. In discharge
lamps, the light output is roughly proportional to the input voltage. A reduction in
voltage of about 5% does not cause a proportional reduction in light output. The
light output is reduced marginally by 2%, but there is a substantial reduction of
about 10% in power consumption. Similarly, a higher voltage does not give
proportionally higher light output, but the power consumed is substantially high.
The lighting & other electrical loads were segregated into different circuits and
energy saver was connected to the lighting load only. The total lighting load worked
out to 900 kW. Nearly 25% of lighting energy consumed could be saved by installing
Energy Saver.
Energy Saving
Annual Energy saving
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback period
126
127
:
:
:
:
7,68,960 kWh (considering 10% saving)

Rs 3.5 Million
Rs 3.2 Million
11 months
3.7.1.6 Electronic Ballasts

Conventional electromagnetic ballasts (chokes) are used to provide higher
voltage to start the tube light and subsequently limit the current during
normal operation. Table-3.17 shows the approximate savings by use of electronic
ballasts.
Table - 3.17 : Savings by use of Electronic Ballasts
Type of Lamp
Twilight switches can be used to switch the lighting depending on the

availability of daylight. Care should be taken to ensure that the sensor is installed
in a place, which is free from shadows, light beams of vehicles and
interference from birds. Dimmers can also be used in association with photocontrol; however, electronic dimmers normally available in India are
suitable only for dimming incandescent lamps. Dimming of fluorescent tube
lights is possible, if these are operated with electronic ballasts; these can be
dimmed using motorised autotransformers or electronic dimmers (suitable for
dimming fluorescent lamps; presently, these have to be imported).
With Conventional
Electromagnetic Ballast
With Electronic
Ballast
Power Savings,
Watts
Infrared and Ultrasonic occupancy sensors can be used to control lighting in

cabins as well as in large offices. Simple infrared occupancy sensors are now
available in India. However ultrasonic occupancy sensors have to be imported.
53
81
42
11
75
In developed countries, the concept of tube light fixtures with in-built

electronic ballast, photo-controlled dimmer and occupancy sensor is being
promoted as a package.
40 W Tubelight
70 W HPSV
3.7.1.9 Exterior Lighting Control
Electronic ballasts have also been developed for 20W and 65W fluorescent tube
lights, 9W & 11W CFLs, 35W LPSV lamps and 70W HPSV lamps. These are now
commercially available.
Use a lighting control panel with time clock and photocell to control exterior
lighting to turn on at dusk and off at dawn and turn non-security lighting off
earlier in the evening for energy savings.
Case Study 50:
Case study
Use of Electronic Ballasts at Electrical Switchgear

Manufacturing Plant
Brief
No. of electronic blasts
Hours/annum operation
Brief
: 24000
: 2400
Energy Saving
Annual Energy Saving through electronic ballast
Annual additional saving due to
reduced heat load on air-conditiong (kWh)
Total annual energy saving
Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
51 : Installing Photo Electric Controls in identified areas to

control artificial lighting
: 8,83,200 kWh
: 1,39,100
:
:
:
:
10,22,300 kWh
Rs 6.29 Million
Rs 3.6 Million
7 months
3.7.1.7 Low Loss Electromagnetic Chokes for Tube Lights
The lighting in the plant was mainly provided by fluorescent lamps. The shop areas
were provided with north light in the roof which provided good lighting in the shop
floor during day time when sky was clear. Apart from this, the machines were also
provided with work lights. In spite of all these provisions the shop artificial lights
were always switched on.
Segregated lighting and fan circuits provided distribution boards exclusively for
lighting. Installed photo electric switches to switch off light in identified areas.
Energy Saving
Annual Energy saving
Annual saving
Investment
Payback period
:
:
:
:
43,800 kWh
Rs.1,57,000/Rs.80,000/6 months
The loss in standard electromagnetic choke of a tube light is likely to be 10 to 15

Watts. Use of low loss electromagnetic chokes can save about 8 to 10 Watts
per tube light. The saving is due to the use of more copper and low loss
steel laminations in the choke, leading to lower losses.
Case study 52 : Providing Day Light Switches to control lamps in identified

areas.
3.7.1.8 Timers, Twilight Switches & Occupancy Sensors
Brief
Automatic control for switching off unnecessary lights can lead to good energy
savings. Simple timers or programmable timers can be used for this purpose.
The process area of the plant was provided with enough lighting by means of
Fluorescent Lamps. Fluorescent lamps were ON throughout the day. It was
observed that translucent sheets were not provided in the roof.
The timings may have to change, once in about two months, depending upon the
season. Use of timers is a very reliable method of control.
128
129
Installed Day Light Switches to switch off lamps and provided translucent sheets in
the roof to get natural light in daytime.
Energy Saving
Annual Saving
Investment
Payback period
Energy Saving
Annual saving
Investment
Payback Period
Case Study 53:
:
:
:
:
2,74,176 kWh
Rs.11,67,990
Rs.68000/1 months
Street lighting modifications at Municipal Corporation
Brief
Conventionally, streetlight planning in a Municipal Corporation was not
systematic - it was normally quantity based and not lighting design based.
Photometric & Installation terms were totally ignored and the Selection criteria
for Lamps & Luminaires ignored.
The corporation realized the need for uniform & required level of illumination
with increased energy efficiency. As a part of this innovation, they decided to
develop street lighting on new roads in a scientific and systematic manner by
implementing "Code of practice for lighting of Public thoroughfares IS 1944
(Part I & II), 1970".
During different seasons street light ON / OFF timings are changed.
The ON time varies from 6:00 pm during winters to 7:45 pm during summers.
The OFF time varies from 7:15 am during winters to 5:30 am during summers.
It is necessary to fix ON / OFF timings for the entire year according to sunset
and sunrise timings.
For this purpose annual programmable time switches are preferable

rather than the conventional manual ones to switch ON & OFF exactly at the
required timings throughout the year.
Pole height (m)

Meters Mounting height
Span between Poles
Over hang (m)
Meters Angle of Tilt (degrees)
Wattage of Luminaries
No. of poles
No. of HPSV lamps
Cost of Installations (Rs.)
Annual Electrical Consumption
(kWh)
Average Illumination
Before
Implementation
8.5 to 10
7 to 8
30
1.5 to 3
15
250
33
66
7,57,100
74,500
Less than10 Lux
After
Implementation
8.5 to 10
10
42
0.9 to 1.25
5o-10 o
250
22 (33% reduction)
44
5,90,000 (22%
saving)
50,100
(32.75%
saving)
30 Lux with 40%
uniformity
130
24400 kWh
Rs.167100
Rs. 240 Million for 21 major roads
54 months
3.7.1.10 T5 Fluorescent Tube Light

The Fluorescent tube lights in use presently in India are of the T12 (40w)
and T8 (36W). T12 implies that the tube diameter is 12/8" (33.8mm), T8
implies diameter of 8/8" (26mm) and T5 implies diameter of 5/8" (16mm). This
means that the T5 lamp is slimmer than the 36W slim tube light. The advantage of
the T5 lamps is that due to its small diameter, luminaire efficiencies can be
improved by about 5%. However, these lamps are about 50mm shorter in length
than T12 and T8 lamps, which implies that the existing luminaires cannot be
used. In addition, T5 lamp can be operated only with electronic ballast.
Case Study 54 : Use of T5 fluorescent lamps in Pharmaceutical industry
Brief
Prior to the installation of T5 lamps, the administration, Clean room and R&D
areas of the plant were using T8 (36W) lamps. There were about 1500 lamps
altogether. The lamps were having electromagnetic ballasts which consume about
12 watts/lamp.
After consultations with the manufacturer of T5 tube lights, a deferred
payment scheme was evolved where in the cost of the lamp will be repaid in 12
months. Warranty was also given for 12 months, during which if a lamp fails, free
replacement is ensured. The price of one T5 lamp was Rs 875/-.
Energy Saving
Power consumption of 36w T/L
Power consumption of 28 w T5 T/L
Energy saving per T/L
Annual savings
Investment
Payback period
Almost 5 to 10% savings are achieved by using annual programmable time

switch.
Parameter
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
48 W
29 W
19 W
0.13 Million kWh
Rs 0.6 Million
Rs. 1.2 Million
2 years
3.7.1.11 Lighting Maintenance

Maintenance is vital to lighting efficiency. Light levels decrease over time because
of aging lamps and dirt on fixtures, lamps and room surfaces. Together, these factors
can reduce total illumination by 50 percent or more, while lights continue drawing
full power. The following basic maintenance suggestions can help prevent this.
Clean fixtures, lamps and lenses every 6 to 24 months by wiping off the dust.
Replace lenses if they appear yellow.
Clean or repaint small rooms every year and larger rooms every 2 to 3
years.
Consider group re-lamping.
131
3.8
Energy saving can be achieved in homes and our day-to-day life by adopting the
following simple measures.
Towards Energy Efficient Homes
Home uses of energy constitute the following:
3.8.2
For cooking (LPG, kerosene, electricity, biogas, biomass)

For lighting (electricity, kerosene, biogas)
For heating (electricity, kerosene, coal, biomass)
For cooling (electricity, use of home gadgets)
For transportation (petrol, diesel, electricity)
3.8.1
Electricity
Consumption level of some of the commonly used household electrical appliances

is given in the following table-3.18.
Table 3.18 : Electricity Consumption of Electrical Appliances
Appliances
Instant Geyser
Immersion Rod
Air Conditioner
Air Cooler
Fan
Refrigerator
Electric Kettle
Hot plate
Oven
Toaster
Iron
Incandescent Lamp
Fluorescent Lamp
Slim Tube
Compact Fluorescent Lamp
TV
Vacuum Cleaner
Desktop Cleaner
Capacity
3000 Watt
1000 Watt
1500 2500 Watt
170 Watt
60 Watt
200/300/500 Watt
1000 2000 Watt
1000 1500 Watt
1000 Watt
800 Watt
750 Watt
100/ 60/ 40 Watt
40/ 20 Watt
36 Watt
7/ 9/ 11/ 13 Watt
180 Watt
800 Watt
120 Watt
Consumption
3 units/ hour
1 unit/ hour
8.5 14.5 units/ day
1.7 units/ day
0.6 unit/ day
2/3/5 unit/ day
1 2 units/ hour
1 1.5 units/ hour
1 unit/ hour
0.8 unit/ hour
0.65 0.75 unit/ hour
0.5/ 0.3/ 0.2 unit/ day
0.28/ 0.15 unit /day
0.26 unit/day
0.06-0.09 unit/ day
0.2 unit/ hour
0.8 unit/ hour
0.13 unit/ hour
The following appliances typically can be attributed as electricity guzzlers:
Air conditioner
Electric Water heater
Refrigerator
Washing machine
Television
Incandescent lamp
Computer
Use natural lighting during the day.

Replace incandescent lamps with a CFL. Payback period of CFL assuming its
cost as Rs. 110/- is less than 6 months.
Switch off the light when not in use.
Use 28W tubelight in place of 40W tubelight.
Replace the conventional choke with electronic blast.
Use electronic regulators for energy saving.
Lubricate the fans regularly.
3.8.3
Rational use of energy does not mean that we sacrifice the need for comfortable
existence. Rational use of energy strictly means to use the available energy more
efficiently and avoid wastage of energy when a particular appliance is not in use.
Energy saving potential in a typical house is 20%-25%. If the electricity bill is Rs.
2000/- p.m., one saves about Rs. 400/- p.m. by proper use of electrical appliances.
132
Washing Machine
Using the machine at full load, the water consumption remains the same
irrespective of load of clothes.
Switch on the washing machine after loading.
Put off the machine from the main switch after use.
Same about 15%-20% of power by setting thermostat to 500C.
3.8.7
Rational Use of Energy
Refrigerator
Use stabilizer with refrigerator & set the voltage to 220 volt.
Check the gaskit to avoid ingress of heat from outside.
Avoid frequent opening of refrigerator door.
Do not place the refrigerator in kitchen or congested area.
Regular defrosting to avoid ice accumulation in the freezer.
Cool the food before putting it in the refrigerator.
Purchase 'Star' rated Energy Efficient Refrigerators only.
3.8.6
Electric Water Heater
Change of heating element every 5 to 6 years.

Set the thermostat at 50 0C to save power.
Put on the water heater only 15 minutes before use.
3.8.5
Air-conditioner
Use stabilizer with air conditioner & act the voltage to 220 V.
Clean the filters, condenser coils and thermostat at regular intervals.
Avoid frequent opening of doors and windows.
Avoid direct sunlight in the air conditioned space.
Installation of reed screens in air-conditioners.
Save Re. 1/- per hour by setting the room temperature to 250C.
Purchase 'Star' rated energy efficient Air Conditioners only.
3.8.4
Lighting & Fans
Television
Switch off the TV from the main switch and not through remote control.
Don't leave TV on stand-by mode as it consumes around 80 watts of power
even when not being viewed.
133
3.8.8 Computers
D. Air Conditioning
System:
1. Effectiveness of
existing Units is
only 64% and
8,10,000 kWh
specific power
consumption is high
2. Cooling water
and chilled
1,20,000 kWh
water is flowing
in idle Units.
Switch on the computer when required to be used .

Don't leave the computer in stand-by mode when not in use as in stand-by
mode, it consumes 60 watts of power (monitor plus CPU) while no useful work
is being done.
3.9
Energy Audit Study Conducted by PCRA
Case Study 55 : Energy Audit of a Bank's Head Quarter building in New Delhi
Brief
Review of Electricity Bills, Contract Demand & Power Factor

Study of DG Set
Study of Motor Loading
Study of Illumination
Study of Air Conditioning System
Energy Savings
Sl Equipment /
No. Observation
Reason
Expected Savings Expected Savings

per annum
per annum
(kWh/kVAh, kL)
(Rs in lakh)
Expected
Investment
(Rs in Lakh)
Payback
Period
Action Required
Power Factor is
poor and is
sometimes leading
B. DG Set:
1. Specific Power
Generation of DG
sets very low.
C. Illumination:
1.
2.
Use of energy
efficient lights
Use of 28 W, T5
tube lights
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
A. Load Management:
1.
5.88
Nil
-Keep the idle

Units isolated
Immediate by closing the
appropriate
valves.
References
Punjab National Bank- with its beginning in April, 1895 at Lahore- is at present one
of the foremost banks in India with a network of 4500 offices, serving more than 3.7
crore customers and having a business turn over exceeding Rs 1,94,000 crores. The
focus areas during the Energy Audit were:
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
-Install Screw
Chillers of
39.69 75.00 23 months total 600 TR
capacity
4,23,420 kVAh
12 kL of HSD
11,497 kWh
2,26,000 kWh
20.75
3.96
0.56
11.07
4.00
Minimal
0.14
16.00
3 months -Monitor and Maintain

Power Factor.
- Connect capacitors through
APFC (Automatic Power
Factor Controller
- Install capacitors of 800
kVAR.
-The engine needs service.
Consult the dealer or
Immediate
manufacturer
- Replacing existing
incandescent and
3 months
halogen lamps with CFLs
18 months
Replacing existing
2000 nos. of tube lights
with 28 W T/L having
electronic chokes.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
134
Designing with Light- A lighting Handbook - Anil Walia-International

Lighting Academy
Handbook of Functional requirements on Industrial Buildings-SP-32- Bureau
of Indian Standards
Energy Savings in Electric Motors : PCRA
Energy Savings in Electric Furnaces : PCRA
Energy Savings in Compressed Air System : PCRA
Energy Savings in Pumps, Fans & Variable Speed Drives : PCRA
Energy Savings in Refrigeration & Air Conditioning System : PCRA
Energy Audit Reports of PCRA
IS : 325 - "Three Phase Induction Motors - Specifications"
IEC: 60034 (1to 18) - Rotating Electrical Machines
IS : 4722 - Rotating Electrical Machines
IS: 8789 - Values of Performance characterstics for Three-Phase Induction
Motors
IS : 12615 - Induction Motors :Energy Efficient Three-Phase squiral cagespeficiation
IS : 13555 - Guide for selection & Application of Three-phase A.C. Induction
Motors for different types of driven equipment.
NEMA MG-1 : National Electrical Mnaufacturers Association, USA
EEMA -19 : Energy Efficeint Indution Motors - Three phase - squiral cage
Preformance, Selection & Application of Large A.C. Motors by Devki Energy
Consultancy Pvt. Ltd., Vodadora
Induction Machines by P.L. Alger
Electrical Machies by M. Mostenko
'Industrial Furances' (Book), E.I. Kazantsev, Mir Publishers, Moscow.
'Handbook of Electrical Heating for Industry': C.James Erickson, IEEE Press The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., (IEEE), New York
'Efficient Use and Management of Electricity in Industry' Devki Energy
Consultancy Pvt. Ltd, Vadodara.
'Energy Audit Manual' (Series No.1) - 'Steel Foundary', National Productivity
Council, New Delhi.
'BCIRA' Publication - UK
'Industrial Furnaces' W.Trinks - M.H. Mawhinney - John Wiley
'Induction Heating Handbook' John Davies & Peter Simpson - Mcgraw Hill
Compressed Air System - A Guidebook on Energy and Cost Saving, E.M.
Talbott, The Fairmont Press Inc., Zilburn, USA.
Compressors-Selection & Sizing, Boyce & Brown, Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houstonne, USA
135
29. 'Pump Hand Book'-I.J. Karassik, WC Krutzsch, W.H. Fraser, J.P. Messina,
McGraw Hill International.
30. 'Analysis of Water Distribution Systems'- T.M. Walski CBS Publishers, Delhi.
31. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning' - W.F. Stoecker and J.W. Jones - Tata
McGraw Hill.
32. 'Technology Menu for Efficient Energy Use'-National Productivity Council,
India and Centre for Energy and Enviornmental- Studies of Princetonne
University.
33. 'Good Practice Guide No. 2' - Energy Efficiency Office, Deptt. of Energy, U.K.
34. 'Energy Saving, with Adjustable Frequency Drive'- Allen Bradley Publication.
35. Saving Electricity in Utiltiy Systems of Industrial Plants, Devki Energy
Consultacny Pvt. Ltd., Vadodara.
36. Industrial Refrigeration Handbook, Wilber F. Stoeker, McGraw Hill .
37. Refrigeration and Air conditioning, M. Prasad, New Age International (P) Ltd.
38. ASHRAE Handbooks, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
39. Cooling Tower Technology- Maintenance, Upgrading and Rebuilding, Robert
Burger, The Fairmont Press Inc., Georgia, USA
40. Low-E Glazing Design Guide, Timothy E. Johnson, Butterworth Architecture.
41. Best Practice Manual - Electric Motors Transformers, Lighting : MEDA.
42. Energy Efficient Technologies for Industries, LBNL ,USA.
43. Bureau of Energy Efficiency-Course Material for Energy Manager/Auditor.
44. Websites/Product Information CDs of the following manufacturers:
1. www.energymanagertraining.com
2. Cromptonne Greaves Lighting Division
3. Bajaj Electricals
4. GE lighting, USA
5. Watt Stopper Inc, USA
6. Vergola India Ltd
7. Lighting reasearch centre, USA
Section 3
Energy Conservation
in the
Hydrocarbon sector
Chapter - 4
Chapter - 5
Chapter - 6
Chapter - 7
136
Refining Sector
Exploration & Production
LPG Bottling Plants
Marketing Terminals/ Depots

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Notes

The detailed classification of electric motors is given below :

Single Phase Three phase/polyphase

Power Consumption in Motors

Efficiency and Power Factor

The power consumed by a 3-phase AC motor is given by

3 x Voltage x Current x Power Factor

Mechanical Shaft Output x 100

Electrical Power input (KVA) =

Power Input (kW) x 100

% Efficiency & Power Factor

% Load (Shaft Power)

Fig 3.3 : Current v/s Load

Importance of Motor Running Cost-Life Cycle Costs

Motor Rating (kW)

Fig 3.1 : Load vs Efficiency & Power Factor.

Power Input (kW)

Energy Input (kWh)

Running Cost (Rs.) for 10 years

First Cost (Rs.)

(Rs.) per Annum (@Rs. 4.00/ kWh)

Even a small difference in efficiency can make a significant difference in

Energy Saving Opportunities in Motors

The main energy saving opportunities in motors can be summarized as follows:

Stopping idle or redundant running of motors.

Oversized Motors lead to the following problems:

Fig. 3.4 : Motor Performance in Delta and Star Connections

Higher investment cost due to larger size.

Table - 3.2 : Increased Costs due to Oversized Motors

Motor Load Requirement (kW)

The following suggestions are made :

0.76 kW i.e. 11.3%

Measurements made in a continuous chemical process plant, where a soft starter

: 1800 A for 2 Sec. (Direct)

: Current Limit - 200% ; Ramp Time - 30 seconds

Motor Rating (kW)

Starting With Soft Starter :

Use of High Efficiency Motors in a Textile Plant

Case Study 3 : VFD for Cooling Tower Pump in a Chemical Plant

Annual electricity saving, kWh

Pay back period on extra

Energy consumed, kWh/doff

Weight of yarn per doff

Motor Rating : 125 hp, 415 V, 170A, 2975 rpm.

Table shows comparative data of super efficient motors developed by one

Energy Efficiency Estimates for Emerging Motor Technologies

Super Efficient Motor

Super Efficient Motor

Energy Savings (%)

Higher efficiencies at partial load

5% has been reported

Savings are great compared to

Savings are great compared to non

Savings are compared to

Emerging New Motor Systems

Upgrades to the motors themselves, for example:

super conductive motors