Alasdair MacIntyre

Arts & Sciences Professor of Philosophy, Duke

University (19951997).

Alasdair Chalmers MacIntyre (born 1929) is a

Scottish[1] philosopher primarily known for his contribution to moral and political philosophy but known also
for his work in history of philosophy and theology. He
is Senior Research Fellow at the Centre for Contemporary Aristotelian Studies in Ethics and Politics (CASEP)
at London Metropolitan University, and an Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame.
During his lengthy academic career, he also taught at
Brandeis University, Duke University, Vanderbilt University, and Boston University. Macintyres After Virtue
(1981) is widely recognised as one of the most important works of Anglophone political philosophy in the 20th
century.[2]

He has also been a visiting professor at Princeton University, and is a former president of the American Philosophical Association. In 2010, he was awarded the Aquinas
Medal by the American Catholic Philosophical Association.
From 2000 he was the Rev. John A. O'Brien Senior Research Professor in the Department of Philosophy (emeritus since 2010) at the University of Notre Dame, Indiana
USA. He is also Professor Emerit and Emeritus at Duke
University. In April 2005 he was elected to the American
Philosophical Society, and in July 2010 became Senior
Research Fellow at London Metropolitan University's
Centre for Contemporary Aristotelian Studies in Ethics
and Politics.

Biography

MacIntyre was born on 12 January 1929 in Glasgow, to

John and Emily (Chalmers) MacIntyre. He was educated at Queen Mary College, London, and has a Master of Arts from the University of Manchester and from
the University of Oxford. He began his teaching career in 1951 at Manchester University.[3] He taught at
the University of Leeds, the University of Essex and
the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom, before moving to the US in around 1969. MacIntyre has
been something of an intellectual nomad, having taught
at many universities in the US. He has held the following
positions:

He has been married 3 times. From 1953 to 1963 he was

married to Ann Peri, with whom he had two daughters.
From 1963 to 1977 he was married to Susan Willans,
with whom he had a son and daughter. Since 1977 he has
been married to philosopher Lynn Joy, who is also on the
Philosophy faculty at Notre Dame.

Henry Luce Professor, Wellesley College (1980),

This peculiarly modern understanding largely concerns

MacIntyres approach to moral disputes. Unlike some
analytic philosophers who try to generate moral consensus on the basis of an ideal of rationality, MacIntyre presents a historical narration of the development of
ethics to illuminate the modern problem of incommensurable moral notionsi.e., notions whose value can not
be reduced to a common measure. Following Hegel and
Collingwood he oers a philosophical history (which
he distinguishes from both analytical and phenomenological approaches to philosophy) in which he concedes from
the beginning that there are no neutral standards available by appeal to which any rational agent whatsoever
could determine the conclusions of moral philosophy.[5]

2 Philosophical approach

MacIntyres approach to moral philosophy has a number

of complex strains that inform it. Although his project
Professor of History and Ideas, Brandeis University is largely characterised by an attempt to revive an Aristotelian conception of moral philosophy as sustained by
(1969 or 1970),
the virtues, he nevertheless describes his own account of
Dean of the College of Arts and Professor of Phi- this attempt as a peculiarly modern understanding of
losophy, Boston University (1972),
the task.[4]

W. Alton Jones Professor, Vanderbilt University

(1982),
Professor of Philosophy, University of Notre Dame
(1985),
Professor of Philosophy, Vanderbilt University
(1985),
Visiting scholar, Whitney Humanities Center, Yale
University (1988),
McMahon-Hank Professor of Philosophy, Notre
Dame (1989), and
1

3 MAJOR WRITINGS

Indeed, one of MacIntyres major points in his most famous work, After Virtue, is that the failed attempt by
various Enlightenment thinkers to furnish a nal universal account of moral rationality led to the rejection of
moral rationality altogether by subsequent thinkers such
as Charles Stevenson, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Friedrich Nietzsche. On MacIntyres account, it is especially Nietzsches utter repudiation of the possibility of moral rationality that is the outcome of the Enlightenments mistaken
quest for a nal and denitive argument that will settle
moral disputes into perpetuity by power of a calculative
reason alone and without use of teleology.[6]

MacIntyre was inspired to change the entire direction

of his thought, tearing up the manuscript he had been
working on and deciding to view the problems of modern
moral and political philosophy not from the standpoint
of liberal modernity, but instead from the standpoint of
... Aristotelian moral and political practice.[9]

More generally, according to MacIntyre, it is the case

that moral disputes always take place within and between
rival traditions of thought that make recourse to a store
of ideas, presuppositions, types of arguments and shared
understandings and approaches that have been inherited
from the past. Thus even though there is no denitive
way for one tradition in moral philosophy to vanquish
and exclude the possibility of another, nevertheless opposing views can call one another into question by various means including issues of internal coherence, imaginative reconstruction of dilemmas, epistemic crisis, and
fruitfulness.[7]

largely incompatible conceptions of justice are the outcome of rival and largely incompatible forms of practical rationality. These competing forms of practical rationality and their attendant ideas of justice are in turn
the result of socially embodied traditions of rational
inquiry.[11] Although MacIntyres treatment of traditions
is quite complex he does give a relatively concise definition: A tradition is an argument extended through
time in which certain fundamental agreements are dened and redened in terms of both internal and external
debates.[12]

In general terms, the task of After Virtue is to account

both for the dysfunctional quality of moral discourse
within modern society and rehabilitate what MacIntyre
takes to be a forgotten alternative in the teleological rationality of Aristotelian virtue ethics. MacIntyres thought
is revolutionary as it articulates a politics of self-defence
By contrast, MacIntyre is concerned with reclaiming var- for local communities that aspire to protect their practices
ious forms of moral rationality and argumentation that and sustain their way of life from corrosive eects of the
claim neither ultimate nality nor incorrigible certainty capitalist economy.[10]
(the mistaken project of the Enlightenment), but nevertheless do not simply bottom out into relativistic or
Which Rationality?
emotivist denials of any moral rationality whatsoever (ac- 3.2 Whose Justice?
(1988)
cording to him, the mistaken conclusion of Nietzsche,
Sartre, and Stevenson). He does this by returning to the
tradition of Aristotelian ethics with its teleological ac- Main article: Whose Justice? Which Rationality?
count of the good and moral persons, which was originally rejected by the Enlightenment and which reached MacIntyres second major work of his mature period
a fuller articulation in the medieval writings of Thomas takes up the problem of giving an account of philosophAquinas. This Aristotelian-Thomistic tradition, he pro- ical rationality within the context of his notion of traposes, presents the best theory so far, both of how ditions, which had still remained under-theorized in Afthings are and how we ought to act.
ter Virtue. Specically, MacIntyre argues that rival and

3
3.1

Major writings
After Virtue (1981)

Main article: After Virtue

Probably his most widely read work, After Virtue was
written when MacIntyre was already in his fties. Up until that time, MacIntyre had been a relatively inuential
analytic philosopher of a Marxist bent whose inquiries
into moral philosophy had been conducted in a piecemeal way, focusing rst on this problem and then on that,
in a mode characteristic of much analytic philosophy.[8]
However, after reading the works of Thomas Kuhn and
Imre Lakatos on philosophy of science and epistemology,

Much of Whose Justice? Which Rationality? is therefore engaged in the task of not only giving the reader examples of actual rival traditions and the dierent ways
they can split apart, integrate, or defeat one another (e.g.
Aristotelian, Augustinian, Thomist, Humean) but also
with substantiating how practical rationality and a conception of justice help constitute those traditions. MacIntyre argues that despite their incommensurability there
are various ways in which alien traditions might engage
one another rationally most especially via a form of immanent critique which makes use of empathetic imagination to then put the rival tradition into epistemic crisis
but also by being able to solve shared or analogous problems and dilemmas from within ones own tradition which
remain insoluble from the rival approach.[13]
MacIntyres account also defends three further theses:
rst, that all rational human inquiry is conducted whether
knowingly or not from within a tradition; second, that the
incommensurable conceptual schemes of rival traditions

3
do not entail either relativism or perspectivism; third, that
although the arguments of the book are themselves attempts at universally valid insights they are nevertheless
given from within a particular tradition (that of Thomist
Aristotelianism) and that this need not imply any philosophical inconsistency.

3.3

central thesis of this book that the virtues that

we need, if we are to develop from our animal condition into that of independent rational
agents, and the virtues that we need, if we are to
confront and respond to vulnerability and disability both in ourselves and in others, belong
to one and the same set of virtues, the distinctive virtues of dependent rational animals[15]

Three Rival Versions of Moral Inquiry

(1990)
Engaging with scientic texts on human biology as well

Three Rival Versions of Moral Inquiry was rst presented

by MacIntyre as part of the Giord lecture series at the
University of Edinburgh in 1988 and is considered by
many the third part in a trilogy of philosophical argumentation that commenced with After Virtue. As its title implies, MacIntyres aim in this book is to examine
three major rival traditions of moral inquiry on the intellectual scene today (encyclopaedic, genealogical and
traditional) which each in turn was given defence from
a canonical piece published in the late nineteenth century (the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopdia Britannica,
Nietzsche's Genealogy of Morals and Pope Leo XIII's
Aeterni Patris, respectively). MacIntyres book ultimately
conducts a complex series of both interior and exterior
critiques of the encyclopaedic and genealogical positions
in an attempt to vindicate philosophical Thomism as the
most persuasive form of moral inquiry currently on oer.
His critique in chapter IX of Nietzsche's and Foucault's
genealogical mode as implicitly committed to an emancipatory and continuous notion of self which they cannot
account for on their own terms has been of particular inuence.

as works of philosophical anthropology, MacIntyre identies the human species as existing on a continuous scale
of both intelligence and dependency with other animals
such as dolphins. One of his main goals is to undermine
what he sees as the ction of the disembodied, independent reasoner who determines ethical and moral questions autonomously and what he calls the illusion of selfsuciency that runs through much of Western ethics culminating in Nietzsche's bermensch.[16] In its place he
tries to show that our embodied dependencies are a denitive characteristic of our species and reveal the need for
certain kinds of virtuous dispositions if we are ever to
ourish into independent reasoners capable of weighing
the intellectual intricacies of moral philosophy in the rst
place.

4 Virtue ethics

MacIntyre is a key gure in the recent surge of interest

in virtue ethics, which identies the central question of
morality as having to do with the habits and knowledge
concerning how to live a good life. His approach seeks
to demonstrate that good judgment emanates from good
character. Being a good person is not about seeking to
3.4 Dependent Rational Animals (1999)
follow formal rules. In elaborating this approach, MacInWhile After Virtue attempted to give an account of the tyre understands himself to be reworking the Aristotelian
virtues exclusively by recourse to social practices and the idea of an ethical teleology.
understanding of individual selves in light of quests MacIntyre emphasises the importance of moral
and traditions, Dependent Rational Animals was a self- goods dened in respect to a community engaged
conscious eort by MacIntyre to ground virtues in an ac- in a 'practice'which he calls 'internal goods or
count of biology. MacIntyre writes the following of this 'goods of excellence'rather than focusing on
shift in the Preface to the book: Although there is indeed practice-independent obligation of a moral agent
good reason to repudiate important elements in Aristo- (deontological ethics) or the consequences of a partictles biology, I now judge that I was in error in supposing ular act (utilitarianism). Before its recent resurgence,
an ethics independent of biology to be possible.[14]
virtue ethics in European/American academia had been
More specically, Dependent Rational Animals tries to
make a holistic case on the basis of our best current
knowledge (as opposed to an ahistorical, foundational
claim) that human vulnerability and disability are the
central features of human life and that Thomistic
virtues of dependency are needed for individual human
beings to ourish in their passage from stages of infancy
to adulthood and old age.[9] As MacIntyre puts it:

primarily associated with pre-modern philosophers

(e.g. Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas). MacIntyre has
argued that Aquinas' synthesis of Augustinianism with
Aristotelianism is more insightful than modern moral
theories by focusing upon the telos ('end', or completion)
of a social practice and of a human life, within the
context of which the morality of acts may be evaluated.
His seminal work in the area of virtue ethics can be
found in his 1981 book, After Virtue.

It is most often to others that we owe our

survival, let alone our ourishing ... It will be a

MacIntyre intends the idea of virtue to supplement, rather

than replace, moral rules. Indeed, he describes certain

4
moral rules as 'exceptionless or unconditional. MacIntyre considers his work to be outside virtue ethics due
to his armation of virtues as embedded in specic, historically grounded, social practices.[17]

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
nomenological instead of being analytic, and the focus is
on ontology rather than moral philosophy.

Fuller accounts of MacIntyres view of the relationship

between philosophy and religion in general and Thomism
and Catholicism in particular can be found in his essays
Philosophy recalled to its tasks and Truth as a good
(both found in the collection The Tasks of Philosophy) as
5 Politics
well as in the survey of the Catholic philosophical tradi[22]
Politically, MacIntyres ethics informs a defence of the tion he gives in God, Philosophy and Universities.
Aristotelian 'goods of excellence' internal to practices
against the modern pursuit of 'external goods, such as
money, power, and status, that are characteristic of rule- 7 Bibliography
based, utilitarian, Weberian modern institutions. He has
been described as a 'revolutionary Aristotelian' because
1953. Marxism: An Interpretation. London: SCM
of his attempt to combine historical insights from his
Press, 1953.
Marxist past with those of Aquinas and Aristotle after
his conversion to Catholicism. For him, liberalism and
1955 (edited with Antony Flew). New Essays in
postmodern consumerism not only justify capitalism but
Philosophical Theology. London: SCM Press.
sustain and inform it over the long term. At the same
1966 A Short History of Ethics. London and New
time, he says, Marxists have always fallen back into relYork: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Second edition
atively straightforward versions of Kantianism or utili1998.
tarianism and criticises Marxism as just another form
of radical individualism, saying about Marxists, as they
2004 (1958). The Unconscious: A Conceptual Analmove towards power they always tend to become Weysis, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
berians. It is this reality of modern individualism in all
its forms that gives MacIntyres critique its urgency and
1959. Diculties in Christian Belief. London: SCM
power. Informed by this critique, Aristotelianism loses
Press.
its sense of elitist complacency; moral excellence ceases
to be part of a particular, historical practice in ancient
1965. Humes Ethical Writings. (ed.) New York:
Greece and becomes a universal quality of those who unCollier.
derstand that good judgment emanates from good character. It has been argued that MacIntyres thought is unable
1967. Secularization and Moral Change. The
to provide a coherent and eective model for a justiable
Riddell Memorial Lectures. Oxford University
and politically stable political order, due to its neglect of
Press.
political theology.[18]
1969 (with Paul Ricoeur). The Religious Signicance of Atheism. New York: Columbia University
Press.
6 Religion
MacIntyre converted to Roman Catholicism in the early
1980s, and now does his work against the background
of what he calls an "Augustinian Thomist approach to
moral philosophy.[19] In an interview with Prospect,
MacIntyre explains that his conversion to Catholicism occurred in his fties as a result of being convinced of
Thomism while attempting to disabuse his students of its
authenticity.[20] Also, in his book Whose Justice, Which
Rationality? there is a section towards the end that is perhaps autobiographical when he explains how one is chosen by a tradition and may reect his own conversion to
Roman Catholicism.[21] Parallel recent developments in
the methods of philosophical research, which carry resonances with MacIntyres take on Thomism are witnessed
with a modern approach to Avicennism (the historical
legacies that were built upon the philosophy of Avicenna;
Ibn Sina) as embodied in the works of Nader El-Bizri in
connection with Islam, even though the orientation is phe-

1970. Herbert Marcuse: An Exposition and a

Polemic. New York: The Viking Press.
1970. Marcuse. London: Fontana Modern Masters.
1971. Against the Self-Images of the Age: Essays on
Ideology and Philosophy. London: Duckworth.
2007 (1981). After Virtue, 3rd ed. University of
Notre Dame Press.
2002 (with Anthony Rudd and John Davenport).
Kierkegaard After Macintyre: Essays on Freedom,
Narrative, and Virtue. Chicago: Open Court
1988. Whose Justice? Which Rationality?. University of Notre Dame Press.
1990. Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry. The
Giord Lectures. University of Notre Dame Press.

5
1990. First Principles, Final Ends, and Contemporary Philosophical Issues. Milwaukee: Marquette
University Press.
1995. Marxism and Christianity, London: Duckworth, 2nd ed.
1998. The MacIntyre Reader Knight, Kelvin, ed.
University of Notre Dame Press.
1999. Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human
Beings Need the Virtues. Chicago: Open Court.

9 References
[1] Kelvin Knight, The MacIntyre Reader, Notre Dame Press,
1998, Interview with Giovanna Borradori, pp. 25556
[2] Lackey, 1999, What Are the Modern Classics? The
Baruch Poll of Great Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, The Philosophical Forum, Vol.30, Issue.4
[3] Hauerwas, Stanley (October 2007). The Virtues of Alasdair MacIntyre. First Things. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
[4] After Virtue, (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame
Press, 3rd edn, 2007) xii.

2005. Edith Stein: A Philosophical Prologue, 1913

1922. Rowman & Littleeld Publishers.

[5] After Virtue, 3, xiii.

2006. The Tasks of Philosophy: Selected Essays,

Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.

[7] After Virtue, xiixiii

2006. Ethics and Politics: Selected Essays, Volume

2. Cambridge University Press.

[6] After Virtue, 257

[8] The Tasks of Philosophy: Selected Essays, Vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) viii
[9] Ibid.

2008 (Blackledge, P. & Davidson, N., eds.), Alasdair MacIntyres Early Marxist Writings: Essays and
Articles 19531974, Leiden: Brill.

[10] Paul Blackledge; Kelvin Knight (15 June 2011). Virtue

and Politics: Alasdair MacIntyres Revolutionary Aristotelianism. University of Notre Dame Press. p. 31. ISBN
978-0-268-02225-9. Retrieved 21 December 2012.

2009. God, philosophy, universities: A Selective History of the Catholic Philosophical Tradition . Rowman & Littleeld.

[11] Prcis of Whose Justice? Which Rationality?" in MacIntyre Reader, ed. Kelvin Knight (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998) 107.

2009. Living Ethics. Excerpt, The Nature of The

Virtues. Minch & Weigel.

[12] Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (Notre Dame, IN:

University of Notre Dame Press, 1988) 12.
[13] Ibid., 361362.

The End of Education: The Fragmentation of the

American University, Commonweal, 20 October
2006 / Volume CXXXIII, Number 18.

[14] Dependent Rational Animals (Chicago: Carus Publishing,

1999) x,
[15] Ibid., 1, 5
[16] Ibid., 127

See also

[17] MacIntyre, On having survived the academic moral philosophy of the twentieth century, lecture of March 2009

Virtue Ethics

[18] Thaddeus J. Kozinski (2010). The Political Problem of

Religious Pluralism: And Why Philosophers Can't Solve It.
Lexington Books. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7391-4168-7. Retrieved 18 April 2013.

Aristotelian ethics
Communitarianism
Modernity
Rationality
John F. X. Knasas
American philosophy
List of American philosophers

[19] Solomon, David. Lecture 9: After Virtue, International

Catholic University: Twentieth-century ethics
[20] http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/2010/10/
alasdair-macintyre-on-money/
[21] See pages 393395 of Whose Justice, Which Rationality?" 1988.
[22] The Tasks of Philosophy: Selected Essays, Vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); God, Philosophy and Universities (Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littleeld Publishers, 2009)

11

10

Further reading

D'Andrea, Thomas D., Tradition, Rationality and

Virtue: The Thought of Alasdair Macintyre, Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006.
Bielskis, Andrius, Towards a Post-Modern Understanding of the Political: From Genealogy to
Hermeneutics, Basingstoke, New York: PalgrameMacmillan, 2005.

Nietzsche or Aristotle?" in Giovanna Borradori,

The American philosopher: Conversations with
Quine, Davidson, Putnam, Nozick, Danto, Rorty,
Cavell, MacIntyre, Kuhn (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1994) 137152.

11 External links
Bibliographies of MacIntyre by:

Horton, John, and Susan Mendus (eds.), After MacIntyre: Critical Perspectives on the Work of Alasdair
MacIntyre, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994.

Scott Moore, Baylor University.

William Hughes at the Wayback Machine
(archived 6 September 2007), University of
Guelph.

Knight, Kelvin, Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and

Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Cambridge:
Polity Press, 2007.
Knight, Kelvin, and Paul Blackledge (eds.), Revolutionary Aristotelianism: Ethics, Resistance and
Utopia, Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius, 2008.

Centre for Contemporary Aristotelian Studies

in Ethics and Politics (CASEP)
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
Clayton, Edward. "Political Philosophy of
Alasdair MacIntyre"

Lutz, Christopher Stephen, Reading Alasdair MacIntyres After Virtue, New York: Continuum, 2012.
Lutz, Christopher Stephen, Tradition in the Ethics
of Alasdair MacIntyre: Relativism, Thomism, and
Philosophy, Lanham, MA: Rowman and Littleeld,
2004.
Murphy, Mark C. (ed.), Alasdair MacIntyre, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Myers, Jesse, Towards Virtue: Alasdair MacIntyre
and the Recovery of the Virtues, 2009
Nicholas, Jeery L. Reason, Tradition, and the
Good: MacIntyres Tradition-Constituted Reason
and Frankfurt School Critical Theory, UNDP 2012.
Perreau-Saussine, Emile : Alasdair MacIntyre: une
biographie intellectuelle, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2005.
Seung, T. K., Intuition and Construction: The Foundation of Normative Theory, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. See chapter six: Aristotelian
Revival.

Lutz, Christopher. "Alasdair Chalmers MacIntyre (overview)"

International Society for MacIntyrean Enquiry.
Schwein, Mark R. (1991) "Alasdair MacIntyres
University", First Things. Review of Three Rival
Versions of Moral Inquiry.
Cowling, Maurice (1994) "Alasdair MacIntyre, Religion & the University," The New Criterion 12:6.
Oakes, Edward T. (1996) The Achievement of Alasdair MacIntyre," First Things
Times Literary Supplement: "Review of Selected
Essays Vols. I & II" by Constantine Sandis.
Hauerwas, Stanley (2007) The Virtues of Alasdair
MacIntyre," First Things
MacIntyre, Alasdair (2004) The Only Vote Worth
Casting in November
Dahlstrom, Daniel O. (2012) Independence and
the Virtuous Community, critique of MacIntyres
Dependent Rational Animals (1999) in Reason
Papers: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Normative
Studies 34.2, October 2012, pp. 7083

Skinner, Quentin. The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty, Machiavelli and Republicanism, edited
by Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner and Maurizio Viroli; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990,
pp. 293309 (critique of MacIntyres After Virtue)
11.1

10.1

Interviews with MacIntyre

'The Illusion of Self-Suciency' in A. Voorhoeve

Conversations on Ethics (Oxford University Press,
2009).

EXTERNAL LINKS

Online videos of MacIntyre giving

lectures

A Culture of Death Notre Dame Center for

Ethics and Culture, Fall 2000
Catholic Instead of What?" Notre Dame Center
for Ethics and Culture, Fall 2012

11.1

Online videos of MacIntyre giving lectures

What Makes a Painting Religious?" Notre Dame

Center for Ethics and Culture, Fall 2004
On having survived the academic moral philosophy
of the twentieth century (scroll down) Lecture at
University College, Dublin, 2009
Newmans Idea of a University Lecture at the
Las Casas Institute, Oxford U, 2009
Ends and Endings Lecture delivered at The
Catholic University of America for the series The
Issue of Truth In Honor of Robert Sokolowski
Philosophical Education Against Contemporary
Culture Lecture at Duquesne University, 2010
Intolerance, Censorship, and Other Requirements
of Rationality Lecture at London Metropolitan
University, 2010
Ends and Endings Lecture at Catholic University, 2009

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Alasdair MacIntyre Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alasdair%20MacIntyre?oldid=636220670 Contributors: Hermeneus, Darkwind, Poor Yorick, Buridan, Joy, Worlds wanderer, Fredrik, Goethean, Timrollpickering, Milkbadger, Bnn, Michael Devore, Maclyn611,
Gadum, Hythlodayeus, Calwatch, Flex, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Kaszeta, Chalst, Wareh, Pearle, Jumbuck, Lectonar, SlimVirgin,
Batmanand, SteinbDJ, Stemonitis, Woohookitty, Magister Mathematicae, Porcher, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, WouterBot, AllyD, Gdrbot,
Uriah923, KSchutte, LaszloWalrus, Chick Bowen, Isolani, RL0919, Ario, Jmurphee, Homagetocatalonia, Nikkimaria, Mais oui!, Tom
Morris, Sardanaphalus, Mohsens, Britannicus, Tony164, Cwdaniels, Wilson Delgado, Bluebot, DHN-bot, Andrewseal, Hgilbert, Thorsen,
Ohconfucius, Coredesat, Berks105, Neddyseagoon, Bsm15, Mtstroud, Skapur, ErikNorvelle, Peter1c, Gregbard, Cydebot, Jleito, Mirrormundo, PKT, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Slaweks, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Chubbles, Emeraldcityserendipity, BenTremblay, Fayenatic london,
D. Webb, Skomorokh, Dsp13, Bahar101, Texandomer, Magioladitis, Aithon, Waacstats, Chkno, Philosophy Junkie, JaGa, Anarchia,
CommonsDelinker, MikeND05, Bill Clark, Kelvin Knight, Plasticup, STBotD, Inwind, Sokoljan, TXiKiBoT, Mercurywoodrose, Swisswiss, Broadbot, Rcb1, Se16teddy, Vojvodaen, Neo-Thomist, Schlier22, Caroline Myers, Jpardey01, Vdorta, Darthoutis, Comte de Maistre,
Sjgknight, Dawillia, Lethanhhai1971, Milbo, Segevar, Addbot, Mia-etol, Lightbot, JEN9841, Iawas, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT,
Citation bot, Eumolpo, ArthurBot, Capricorn42, Chilonga, JanDeFietser, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Uhhhhhno, FreeKnowledgeCreator,
Adam9389, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Editor563, Dwight.lindley, Full-date unlinking bot, JoeCarter888, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Stevenliuyi, MrElyBlack, Rockthenarb, Canadian1982, Phronetic, Spicemix, Jorgeofburgos, ClueBot NG, RakiSykes, Obi-Wan-Ky,
BG19bot, Anthrophilos, Eb7473, Spinazo, Dfdieteman, VIAFbot, Gmilanese, Moagim, Monkbot, Xasedrosa, RSA1966 and Anonymous:
139

12.2

Images

File:Alasdair_MacIntyre.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Alasdair_MacIntyre.jpg License: CC

BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/seanoconnor365/3351618688/in/set-72157615114247195/ Original artist: Sean
O'Connor
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg License: LGPL
Contributors:
Nuvola_apps_kdict.svg Original artist: Nuvola_apps_kdict.svg: *Nuvola_apps_kdict.png: user:David_Vignoni
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

12.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0