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Balancing Fundamentals
Balancing Fundamentals
The first patent for balancing technology was filed by Henry Martinson of Canada in 1870, four years after the development of
the dynamo by Siemens. Near the turn of the century, Akimoff (USA) and Stodola (Switzerland) attempted to develop
Martinson's technology and apply it for industrial use. However, it was in 1907 when a modified version of the technology was
patented by Dr. Franz Lawaczek, and offered to Carl Schenck, Darmstadt, Germany, for development. Schenck built the first
industrial two-plane balancer, and subsequently bought exclusive world rights to the dynamic balancing machine in 1915.
Through the years, craftsmanship and quality have been the hallmarks of Schenck products.
Technology advancements gave way to improved sensitivity, frequency selectivity and plane
separation capability. The development of electronics and mechanical/electrical transducers, greatly
reduced balancing time and paved the way for modern balancing technology.
Today Schenck balancing equipment is used with confidence for a wide range of applications - from the smallest rotors for
dental drill instruments to the largest steam turbines in the world. Our precision balancing machines assure accurate,
dependable rotor operation and are available in nearly any configuration for rotors weighing as much as 600,000 lbs.
Fundamentals
of Balancing
Balancing Fundamentals
Definition
According to DIN/ISO 1925 Unbalance is that condition which exists in a rotor when
vibratory force or motion is imparted to its bearings as a result of centrifugal forces.
Why Balance?
An unbalanced rotor will cause vibration and stress in the rotor itself and in its supporting
structure. Balancing of the rotor is, therefore, necessary to accomplish one or more of the
following:
a. Increase quality of product
b. Minimize vibration
c. Minimize audible and signal noises
d. Minimize structural stresses
e. Minimize operator annoyance and fatigue
f. Increase bearing life
g. Minimize power loss
Unbalance in just one rotating component of an assembly may cause the entire assembly to
vibrate. This induced vibration in turn may cause excessive wear in bearings, bushings,
shafts, spindles, gears, etc., substantially reducing their service life. Vibrations set up highly
undesirable alternating stresses in structural supports and housings, which may eventually
lead to their complete failure. Performance is decreased because of the absorption of
energy by the supporting structure. Vibrations may be transmitted through the floor to
adjacent machinery and seriously impair its accuracy or proper functioning.
Causes of unbalance
The excess of mass on one side of the rotor in this figure is called unbalance. In the
example illustrated, it is the "heavy spot". Unbalance may also occur due to lack of mass
(such as a drill hole, porous spot, etc.) in which case it is called the "light spot. Either one
may be caused by a variety of reasons, including the following:
Correction methods
Corrections for rotor unbalance are made either by the addition of mass to the rotor, by the
removal of material, or in some cases, by relocating the shaft axis (mass centering"). The
selected correction method should ensure that there is sufficient space or material to allow
correction of the maximum unbalance which may occur. The ideal correction method
permits a reduction of the maximum initial unbalance to less than balance tolerance in a
single correction step. However, this is often difficult to achieve. The more common
methods described below, e.g., drilling, usually permit a single step reduction of 10:1 in
unbalance if carried out carefully. Milling and grinding are less accurate, unless carried out
in automatic or semi-automatic balancing machines, which have integrated mass correction
devices.
The addition of mass may achieve a reduction ratio as large as 20:1 or higher, provided the
mass and its position are closely controlled. If the method selected for reduction of
maximum initial unbalance cannot be expected to bring the rotor within the permissible
residual unbalance in a single correction step, a preliminary correction is made. Then a
second correction follows to reduce the remaining unbalance to its permissible value.
Addition of Mass
1. Addition of two-component epoxy.
It is difficult to apply the material so that its center-of-gravity is precisely at the desired
correction location. Variations in location introduce errors in correction. This method is
often used in balancing of wound armatures.
2. Addition of bolted or riveted standard washers.
This method is quick, but somewhat limited in accuracy because the washers come in
incremental sizes, i.e., the mass of one washer may vary considerably from the mass of
the next washer of the same type and size. This method is often used in balancing of AC
motor rotors.
3. Addition of premanufactured weights.
The same limitations as in (2) apply. A typical application is addition of spring clips to the
blades of automotive A/C blower wheels.
4. Addition of cut-to-size weights.
This is practiced on drive shafts, for instance, by resistance welding the weights to the
outside rotor surface. Welding provides a means of attaching a wide variety of correction
masses at any desired angular locations. Care must be taken that welding heat does not
distort the rotor.
Removal of Mass
1. Drilling.
Material is removed from the rotor by a drill which penetrates the rotor to a measured
depth, thereby removing the intended amount of material with a high degree of accuracy.
A depth gage or limit switch can be provided on the drill spindle to ensure that the hole is
drilled to the desired depth. This is probably the most effective method of unbalance
correction.
2. Milling, Shaping, or Fly Cutting.
This method permits accurate removal of mass when the rotor surfaces, from which the
depth of cut is measured, are machined surfaces, and when means are provided for
accurate measurement of cut with respect to those surfaces; used where relatively large
corrections are required.
3. Grinding.
In general, grinding must be considered a trial-and-error method of correction. It is
difficult to evaluate the actual mass of the material, which is removed. This method is
usually used only where the rotor design or material does not permit a more economical
type of correction.
Mass Centering
Such a procedure is used, for instance, to reduce initial unbalance in crankshaft castings or
forgings. The shaft is mounted in a balanced cage or cradle, which in turn, is rotated in a
balancing machine. The shaft is adjusted radially with respect to the cage until the
unbalance indication for the combined shaft and cradle assembly is within a given
tolerance. At this point the principal inertia axis of the shaft essentially coincides with the
shaft axis of the balanced cage. Center drills, guided along the axis of the cage, then drill
the shaft centers and thereby provide an axis in the crankshaft about which it is in balance.
The subsequent machining of the crankshaft is carried out between these centers.
Because material removal is uneven at different parts of the shaft, the machining operation
will introduce some new unbalance. A final balancing operation is, therefore, still required.
It is generally accomplished by drilling into the crankshaft counterweights. However, final
unbalance corrections are small and balancing time is significantly shortened. Furthermore,
final correction (usually by drilling) does not exceed the material available for it, nor does it
reduce the mass of the counterweights to a level where they no longer perform their proper
function, namely to compensate for the opposed throws and crankpins of the crankshaft.
Units of unbalance
Unbalance is measured in ounceinches, graminches, or grammillimeters, all having a
similar meaning, namely a mass multiplied by its distance from the shaft axis, i.e., its
"radius". An unbalance of 100 gin, for example, indicates that one side of the rotor has an
excess mass equivalent to 10 grams at a 10 inch radius, or 20 grams at a 5 inch radius.
Types of unbalance
The following paragraphs explain the four different types of unbalance as defined by the
internationally accepted ISO Standard No. 1925 on balancing terminology. For each of the
four mutually exclusive cases an example is shown, illustrating displacement of the principal
axis of inertia from the shaft axis caused by the addition of certain unbalance masses in
certain distributions to a perfectly balanced rotor.
a. Static Unbalance
Static Unbalance
Static unbalance exists when the principal axis of inertia is displaced parallel to the shaft
axis. This type of unbalance is found primarily in narrow, disk-shaped parts such as
flywheels and turbine wheels. It can be corrected by a single mass correction placed
opposite the center-of-gravity in a plane perpendicular to the shaft axis, and intersecting the
CG.
Static unbalance, if large enough, can be detected with gravity-type balancing devices, for
instance, a pair of precision ground knife edges. If the knife edges are level, the rotor will
turn until the heavy spot reaches the lowest position.
The use of knife edges for the detection of unbalance is very limited because of the
following:
The device can only indicate the angle of unbalance, not the amount of unbalance.
The amount of unbalance can only be estimated and corrected by trial-and-error.
The accuracy is limited by the friction between knife edge and journal.
Static unbalance can be measured more accurately by centrifugal means on a balancing
machine than by gravitational means on knife edges or rollers. Static balancing by gravity is
satisfactory only for relatively slowly revolving, disk-shaped parts or for parts that are
subsequently assembled into a larger rotor, which is then balanced dynamically as an
assembly.
b. Couple Unbalance
Couple Unbalance
Couple unbalance is that condition for which the principal axis of inertia intersects the shaft
axis at the center of gravity. This condition arises when two equal unbalances are
positioned at an axial distance on a rotor and spaced 180 from each other. Since this rotor
will not rotate when placed on knife-edges, a dynamic method must be employed to detect
couple unbalance.
Couple unbalance is expressed in units of gram-millimeter2 (abbreviated gmm2),
graminch2 (abbreviated gin2), ounceinch2 (abbreviated ozin2), or similar, wherein the
second length unit refers to the distance b between the two planes of unbalance.
This type of unbalance cannot be corrected by a single mass in a single correction plane. At
least two masses are required, each placed in a different transverse plane (perpendicular to
the shaft axis) and 180 opposite to each other. In other words, a couple unbalance needs
another couple to correct it. In the example for instance, correction could be made by
placing two masses at opposite angular positions on the main body of the rotor. The axial
location of the correction couple does not matter as long as its value is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the unbalance couple.
c. Quasi-Static Unbalance
Quasi-Static Unbalance
Quasi-static unbalance is that condition of unbalance for which the central principal axis of
inertia intersects the shaft axis at a point other than the center of gravity. It represents the
specific combination of static and couple unbalance where the angular position of one
couple component coincides with the angular position of the static unbalance. This is a
special case of dynamic unbalance.
Note that the single unbalance mass in the first figure represents the same quasi-static
unbalance as the 3 masses in the second!
d. Dynamic Unbalance
ynamic unbalance, is that condition in which the central principal axis of inertia is neither
parallel to, nor intersects with the shaft axis. It is the most frequently occurring type of
unbalance and can only be corrected (as is the case with couple unbalance) by mass
correction in at least two planes perpendicular to the shaft axis. Dynamic unbalance is a
combination of static unbalance and couple unbalance, where the angular position of the
static unbalance relative to the couple unbalance is neither 0 nor 180.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
ISO 1925:2001 Mechanical vibration -- Balancing -- Vocabulary
ISO 1940-1:1986 Mechanical vibration -- Balance quality requirements of rigid rotors -Part 1: Determination of permissible residual unbalance
ISO 1940-2:1997 Mechanical vibration -- Balance quality requirements of rigid rotors -Part 2: Balance errors
ISO 2041:1990 Vibration and shock -- Vocabulary
ISO 2371:1974 Field balancing equipment -- Description and evaluation (withdrawn)
ISO 2953:1999 Mechanical vibration -- Balancing machines -- Description and evaluation
(available in English only)
ISO 2954:1975 Mechanical vibration of rotating and reciprocating machinery -Requirements for instruments for measuring vibration severity
ISO 3719:1994 Mechanical vibration -- Symbols for balancing machines and associated
instrumentation
ISO 4866:1990 Mechanical vibration and shock -- Vibration of buildings -- Guidelines for
the measurement of vibrations and evaluation of their effects on buildings
ISO 5343:1983 Criteria for evaluating flexible rotor balance (withdrawn)
ISO 5344:1980 Electrodynamic test equipment for generating vibration -- Methods of
describing
equipment characteristics
ISO 5348:1998 Mechanical vibration and shock -- Mechanical mounting of accelerometers
ISO 5406:1980 The mechanical balancing of flexible rotors (withdrawn)
ISO 7475:2002 Mechanical vibration -- Balancing machines -- Enclosures and other
protective measures for the measuring station (available in English only)
ISO 7626-1:1986 Vibration and shock -- Experimental determination of mechanical
mobility -- Part 1: Basic definitions and transducers
ISO 7626-2:1990 Vibration and shock -- Experimental determination of mechanical
mobility -- Part 2: Measurements using single-point translation excitation with an attached
vibration exciter
ISO 7626-5:1994 Vibration and shock -- Experimental determination of mechanical
mobility -- Part 5: Measurements using impact excitation with an exciter which is not
attached to the structure
ISO 7919-1:1996 Mechanical vibration of non-reciprocating machines -- Measurements on
rotating shafts and evaluation criteria -- Part 1: General guidelines
ISO 7919-2:2001 Mechanical vibration -- Evaluation of machine vibration by
measurements on rotating shafts -- Part 2: Land-based steam turbines and generators in
excess of 50 MW with normal operating speeds of
1500 r/min, 1800 r/min, 3000 r/min and 3600 r/min
ISO 7919-3:1996 Mechanical vibration of non-reciprocating machines -- Measurements on
rotating shafts and evaluation criteria -- Part 3: Coupled industrial machines
ISO 7919-4:1996 Mechanical vibration of non-reciprocating machines -- Measurements on
rotating shafts and evaluation criteria -- Part 4: Gas turbine sets
ISO 7919-5:1997 Mechanical vibration of non-reciprocating machines -- Measurements on
rotating shafts and evaluation criteria -- Part 5: Machine sets in hydraulic power generating
and pumping plants
NATIONAL STANDARDS
ANSI S2.7-1982
(R1997)
ANSI S2.60-1987
(R1997)
ANSI S2.42-1982
(R1997)
ANSI S2.38-1982
(R1997)
ANSI S2.19-1989
(R1997)
SAE Documents
ARP587B : Balancing Machines - Description and Evaluation Horizontal, Two-Plane, SoftBearing Type for Gas Turbine Rotors
ARP588B : Balancing Machines - Description and Evaluation Vertical, Single-Plane, SoftBearing Type for Gas Turbine Rotors
ARP1134 : Adapter Interface - Turbine Engine Blade Moment Weighing Scale
ARP1202 : Balancing Machines, Dynamic, Ball Type Slave Bearings for Rotor Support
ARP1382 : Design Criteria for Balancing Machine Tooling
ARP4048 : Balancing Machines - Description and Evaluation Horizontal, Two-Plane, HardBearing Type for Gas Turbine Rotors
ARP4050 : Balancing Machines - Description and Evaluation Vertical, Two-Plane, HardBearing Type for Gas Turbine Rotors
ARP4162A Balancing Machine Proving Rotors
:
ARP4163 : Balancing Machines, Tooling Design Criteria (as of 7-2003 being worked on,
will supersede ARP 1382)
ARP5323 : Balancing Machines - Description and Evaluation Vertical, Single-Plane, HardBearing Type for Gas Turbine Rotors
ARP510A : Moment Weight of Turbine and Compressor Rotor Blades