YOGYAKARTA, JUNE 2008

MM DARISSALAM

1. Angkatan 71
Teknik Geologi UGM
(8 years + 3 months)

2. Oil Industry
1.
2.

24+ years in 7 oil coys.)

7 years Petroleum Consultant

3. Terakhir
PSC Tropik Energi

References & Sources of Presentation Materials

Shlumberger : Oil Field Review, Short Courses & Promotions slides,

Manuals, Publications, etc.
Baker Hudges : Publications & Manuals
Halliburton : Published slide and books
Publications & In-house Training materials from: TOTAL, Chevron,
Texaco etc.
AAPG & SPE journals & slides bank
Literatures:

Development Geology P Dikey

Development Geology Reference Manuals AAPG
Petroleum Engineering Hand Books: Amyx, Craft, Campbel, etc.
Log Analysis Books : Batteman, Dewan, Helander etc
Petroleum Reservoir, Stratigraphy and Tectonic Books : ..

Note : Due to the rush preparation of these presentation slides, the sources and
references are not noted yet.

PRESENTATION OUTLINE
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

INTRODUCTION
WELLSITE GEOLOGY
LOG INTERPRETATION
WELL TESTING
PETROLEUM RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
VI. CORRELATIONS & MAPPING
VII. RESERVES ESTIMATION
VIII. RESERVOIR SIMULATION
IX. PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT
X.
RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT &
PROJECT ECONOMIC

I. INTRODUCTION
1.

COURSE OBJECTIVE

2.

UPSTREAM PETROLEUM INDUSTRY &

DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST

3.

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

4.

SOURCE ROCKS & MATURATION

HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
CAP ROCKS / SEALS
STRUCTURE / TRAP
RESERVOIR ROCKS & FLUID

DRILLING

COURSE OBJECTIVE
To introduce participants the general
petroleum industrial processes and
especially during oil/gas field
development phase
To provide participants the basic of
petroleum development/production
geology as entry provisions into
upstream petroleum industry
Sharing knowledge and silaturachmi

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY SECTORS

Concession Acquiring
&
EXPLORATION

UPSTREAM
HIGH RISK
HIGH REWARD
HIGH INVEST.
Transporting Petroleum

DEVELOPMENT
&
PRODUCTION

Offshore
Platform

Oil Field

Oil Field

Tanker
Pipeline

Refinery
Pipeline

Consumers
Tank Truck

Local
Distributor

Railroad Tank Cars

Mobil

Mobil

Industrial
Customers

DOWNSTREAM

24803

TRANSPORTATION
Refining Petroleum

LOW RISK
LOW REWARD
HIGH INVEST.

Fuel Gas
Gasoline
Kerosene
Jet Fuel

OIL REFINEMENT /
PROCESSING

Heating
Oil
Crude Oil
Vapor

Liquid Crude Oil

Lubricating
Oil
Residual Products
Asphalt,
Heavy Fuel Oil 24803

G&G STUDY
SEISMIC SURVEY
DRILLINGS
PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT

G&GR STUDY
DEV. DRILLING, WORKOVER
PRODUCING, EOR etc.
ADL SEISMIC
MARKETING

EXPLORATION PHASE

DEVELOPMENT PHASE

UPSTREAM PETROLEUM
LIFE CYCLE
PRODUCTION

CONVENTIONAL

TIME

DEVELOPMENT

EXPLORATION

SECONDARY
RECOVERY

ABANDONMENT

PRODUCTION

CONVENTIONAL

Development
Development &
& Operation
Operation Geoscientists
Geoscientists
Exploration
Exploration
Geoscientists
Geoscientists

Geophysicists
Geophysicists
TIME
EXPLORATION
DEVELOPMENT

SECONDARY RECOVERY

ABANDONMENT

SYNERGIC TEAM
IN UPSTREAM OIL INDUSTRY

Production Engineer

Surface Prod. Eng.,

Processing Eng.,
Transportation
Eng. & Marketing

DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST

Geologists & Reservoir Engineer

Reservoir Characterization
Reserves Estimation
Reservoir Optimization

Petroleum Development Geology

Development Geology = Production Geology = Reservoir

Geology

Hybrid discipline: geology on the field and reservoir scale.

Principal Responsibilities of The Development Geologist
(DG):

Estimation of Volumetric Reserves

Justifying drilling & workover options to improve recovery
Plan and acquisition geological data while drilling & production
Providing a framework for maximum financial return for his
company

DG requires good knowledge of many disciplines :

Structural Geology.
Stratigraphy and sedimentology.
Reservoir engineering.
Drilling methods and engineering.
Petrophysics.
Laboratory for rock and fluid
Seismology.
Petroleum Economics and management.

What is a petroleum exploration &

development geologists?
EXPLORATION GEOLOGIST

DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST

DISCOVERS HYDROCARBON
RESERVES
Technical and functional expertise
on regional geology (basin /
petroleum system analysis, tectonic
and stratigraphy), geophysical
(acquisistion, processing and
interpretation), computer and other
technical

DEVELOPES & PRODUCES

HYDROCARBON
Technical and functional expertise
on reservoir geology, log
interpretation, detailed correlation
& mapping of flow unit, basic
petroleum engineering, drilling, field
operation, computer and other
technical

Additional: Financial awareness understanding the business. Project

management, team work, achieving results skills Interpersonal,
communication, serving skills

WHY COMPANY SHOULD HAVE

A DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST

+ Engineers, Geologists and

Geophysicists dont just specialize in
different fields, they think in different
ways.

+ There is a communication problem:

the development geologist must be
able to bridge the gap.

Bridging the Disciplines

Enhanced operational efficiencies through new,
multi-disciplinary workflows

E&P Management

Drilling
Engineering

Geoscience

Geophysical Processing

Reservoir
Engineering

responsibility of the DG in

PREDEVELOPMENT EVALUATION
After field discovery :
Evaluate field for
reserves, well
placement and
design criteria.

responsibility of the DG in

DEVELOPMENT DRILLING
DG is responsible for:
Initiating development
well recommendations
Decide what reservoir
geological data should
be collected and prepare
the geological prognosis
Monitoring these wells
during drilling
Adjusting development
plans as wells are drilled

responsibility of the DG in

WELL SURVEILLANCE
Generally handled by the reservoir engineer (RE)
However, when performance is not as expected or when
remedial work is required (workover, stimulation &
optimization) the DG inputs geological constraint.
RE & DG work together to
evaluate unusual reservoir
performance.
RE & DG then make
remedial recommendations

responsibility of the DG in

FIELD STUDIES
One of the most important
roles of the DG :
Re-evaluation of old fields
and recognition of new
opportunities in these
fields.
This role will become
increasingly important in
the future as reserves
decrease.
Improved oil recovery as
well as enhance oil
recovery.

CONCLUSION

Development geology is not only a

rewarding, but a lucrative field for the
small and independent operator.

In the future, this field (which

requires skills in many oil/gas fields)
will become more important as
reserves decline.

The bottom line in all petroleum

exploitation is financial and
economic evaluations require input
from many disciplines: the DG must
have these skills.

The most important ability is

RESERVES ESTIMATION and
RESERVOIR OPTIMIZATION.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

SOURCE ROCKS & MATURATION

HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
CAP ROCKS / SEALS
STRUCTURE / TRAP
RESERVOIR ROCKS

Petroleum System Processes

Generation - Burial of source rock to temperature and
pressure regime sufficient to convert organic matter into
hydrocarbon
Migration - Movement of hydrocarbon out of the source
rock toward and into a trap
Accumulation - A volume of hydrocarbon migrating into
a trap faster than the trap leaks resulting in an
accumulation
Preservation - Hydrocarbon remains in reservoir and is
not altered by biodegradation or water-washing
Timing - Trap forms before and during hydrocarbon
migrating

Petroleum System Processes

Gas
Cap
Oil

Entrapment
Accumulation

Water

Seal Rock
Reservoir
Rock

Migration
120 F
Source
Rock

Generation

350 F
2480

SOURCE ROCKS
Hydrocarbon originates from
minute organisms in seas and
lakes. When they die, they sink to
the bottom where they form
organic-rich "muds" in fine
sediments (usually become gray
black shale).
These "muds" are in a reducing
environment or "kitchen", which
strips oxygen from the sediments
leaving hydrogen and carbon.
The sediments are compacted to
form organic-rich rocks with very
low permeability.
The hydrocarbon can migrate
very slowly to nearby porous
rocks, displacing the original
formation water.

The principal zone of oil formation

during the thermal generation of
petroleum hydrocarbons

If the temperature is too

low, the organic material
cannot transform into
hydrocarbon.
If the temperature is too
high, the organic material
and hydrocarbons are
destroyed.

HYDROCARBON MIGRATION

Hydrocarbon migration takes place in two stages:

Primary migration - from the source rock to a porous rock. This is a
complex process and not fully understood. It is probably limited to a
few hundred metres.

Secondary migration - along the porous rock to the trap. This occurs
by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamics through a
continuous water-filled pore system. It can take place over large
distances.

CAP ROCK
A reservoir needs a cap rock.

Impermeable cap rock keeps the

fluids trapped in the reservoir.
It must have zero permeability.
Some examples are:
Shales.
Evaporites such as salt or anhyhdrite.
Zero-porosity carbonates.

TRAPS
GENERAL

The reservoir form depends on the

depositional environment and post depositional
events such as foldings and faulting.
The criteria for a structure is that it must have:
Closure, i.e. the fluids are unable to
escape.
Be large enough to be economical.

STRUCTURAL TRAPS
Structural traps are formed where the space for
petroleum is limited by a structural feature
Tilted fault-block traps are formed where the upward flow of the
petroleum is prevented by impermeability along the fault plane
and by an overlying cap or seal: common in the North Sea.
Anticlinal traps are
formed by folding
in the rocks.
Unconformity
traps are
generated where
an erosional break
in the stratigraphic
succession is
followed by
impermeable
strata.

SALT DOME TRAP

Salt Dome traps are caused when "plastic" salt is forced upwards.

The salt dome pierces through layers and compresses rocks

above. This results in the formation of various traps:

In domes created by formations pushed up by the salt.

Along the flanks and below the overhang in porous rock abutting
on the impermeable salt itself.

STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS

Stratigraphic

traps are traps

created by the
limits of the
reservoir rock
itself, without
any structural
control.

PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS

DEFINITION
A body of porous and permeable rock
containing oil and gas through which
fluid may move toward recovery
opening under the pressure existing or
that may be applied. (Amyx, 1960)

TYPE OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

D Sedimentary:
Clastic ; eg. Sandstone, Conglomerate
Non Clastic ; eg. Limestone, Evavorite.

D Igneous:
Plotunic ; e.g. Granite
Volcanic ; eg. Basalt
Volcanic Clastic : eg Tuff, Breccia.

D Metamorphic:
eg. Marble, gneiss, quartzite, slate etc.

Reservoir Rocks

Reservoir rocks need two properties to be successful:

1. Pore spaces able to retain hydrocarbon.

2. Permeability which allows the fluid to move.

DEFINITION OF POROSITY
Porosity = =

Vp
Vb

Vb Vma
Vb

POROSITY SANDSTONES

The porosity of a sandstone depends on the packing arrangement

of its grains.
The system can be examined using spheres.
In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore
space accounts for 26% of the total
volume.

With a Cubic packing

arrangement, the pore space fills
47% of the total volume.
In practice, the theoretical value is rarely
reached because:
a) the grains are not perfectly round, and
b) the grains are not of uniform size.

POROSITY AND GRAIN SIZE

A rock can be made up of small grains or
large grains but have the same porosity.
Porosity depends on grain packing, not the
grain size.

PORE-SPACE CLASSIFICATION
Total porosity, t =

Total Pore Space

Bulk Volume

Effective porosity, e =

Interconnected Pore Space

Bulk Volume

Very clean sandstones : t = e

Poorly to moderately well -cemented intergranular
materials:
t e
Highly cemented materials and most carbonates:
e < t

DIAGENESIS

The environment can also involve subsequent alterations of the

rock such as:
Chemical changes.
Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. An
example is the replacement of some of the calcium atoms in
limestone by magnesium to form dolomite.

Mechanical changes - fracturing in a tectonically-active region.

CARBONATE POROSITY TYPES

Carbonate porosity is very heterogeneous. It is classified into a

number of types:

Interparticle porosity: Each grain is

separated, giving a similar pore space
arrangement as sandstone.
Intergranular porosity: Pore space is
created inside the individual grains
which are interconnected.
Intercrystalline porosity: Produced by
spaces between carbonate crystals.

Mouldic porosity: Pores created by the

dissolution of shells, etc.

CARBONATE POROSITY TYPES

Fracture porosity:
Pore spacing created by the
cracking of the rock fabric.

Channel porosity:
Similar to fracture porosity
but larger.

Vuggy porosity:
Created by the dissolution
of fragments, but
unconnected.

CARBONATE POROSITY
Intergranular porosity is called "primary
porosity".
Porosity created after deposition is called
"secondary porosity".
The latter is in two forms:
Fractures
Vugs.

FRACTURES

Fractures are caused when a rigid rock is strained beyond its

elastic limit - it cracks.

The forces causing it to break are in a constant direction,

hence all the fractures are also aligned.

Fractures are an important source of permeability in low

porosity carbonate reservoirs.

VUGS

Vugs are defined as non-connected pore space.

They do not contribute to the producible fluid total.
Vugs are caused by the dissolution of soluble
material such as shell fragments after the rock has
been formed.
They usually have irregular shapes.

PERMEABILITY
The rate of flow of a liquid through a
formation depends on:
The pressure drop.
The viscosity of the fluid.
The permeability.

The permeability is a measure of the ease at

which a fluid can flow through a formation.
The unit of measurement is the Darcy.
Reservoir permeability is usually quoted in
millidarcies, (md).

DARCY LAW

K = permeability, in Darcies.
L = length of the section of rock, in centimetres.
Q = flow rate in centimetres / sec.
P1, P2 = pressures in bars.
A = surface area, in cm2.
= viscocity in centipoise.

PERMEABILITY AND ROCKS

In formations with large grains, the permeability is
high and the flow rate larger.

PERMEABILITY AND ROCKS

In a rock with small grains the permeability is less
and the flow lower.

Grain size has no bearing on porosity, but has a

large effect on permeability.

ANISOTROPY

Horizontal Permeability
Vertical Permeability

K
K

V
H

K
K

The permeability in the horizontal direction is controlled by the

large grains.
The permeability in the vertical direction is controlled by the
small grains

CLASTIC
RESERVOIRS
Sandstone usually has
regular grains; and is
referred to as a
grainstone.
Porosity : Determined
mainly by the packing and
mixing of grains.
Permeability : Determined
mainly by grain size and
packing, connectivity and
shale content.
Fractures may be
present.

CARBONATE
RESERVOIRS
Carbonates normally have
a very irregular structure.
Porosity: Determined by
the type of shells, etc. and
by depositional and postdepositional events
(fracturing, leaching, etc.).

LIMESTONES

Permeability: Determined
by deposition and postdeposition events,
fractures.
Fractures can be very
important in carbonate
reservoirs.

DOLOMITES

 Schlumberger 1999

DRILLING
Making a hole or well to
make access into
reservoir and to
produce hydrocarbon
(oil & gas) from
subsurface.
To collect the
subsurface geological
and reservoir
data/information for
further hydrocarbon
exploration as well as
development.

Christmas
Tree

Pipeline to
Flow
Process
and
Storage
Surface
Casing

Cement
Intermediate
Casing

Cement
Production
Casing
Tubing
Completion
Fluid
Packer

Cement

Oil or Gas Zone

Well
Fluids

Perforations

OIL EXTRACTING HISTORY

In the earliest day of oil
production, oil was
collected from surface
seepages.
Mine shafts were dug to
make a well (like water
well in Java) to produce
shallow oil.
In the early 19th century
peoples developed cable
tool drilling

DRILLING
TYPE OF DRILLING :
Cable Tool Drilling
Rotary Rig Drilling
TYPE OF RIG :
Onshore drilling rigs
Semi-submersible rigs
Jack-up units
TYPE OF WELL DRILLING :
Conventional Drilling
Directional Drilling
Slant Drilling

CABLE TOOL
DERRICK

JACK UP UNIT
A jack-up unit is a barge with legs that can be
lowered or raised. The barge is towed to the
drilling location with its legs in the raised
position. Once in position, the legs are lowered.
When they reach the sea-bed, the barge's body
is hoisted above the water, creating a stable
drilling platform. The length of the legs
determines the depth of water in which a jackup barge can be used. They can generally be
used in up to 100 meters of water. Jack-up
barges are widely employed in the relatively
shallow waters of the North Sea's Southern
basin.

SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE RIG
A semi-submersible drilling rig is normally a selfpropelled working platform supported by vertical
columns on submerged pontoons. By varying the
amount of ballast water in the pontoons, the unit
can be raised or lowered in the water.
A semi-submersible vessel is normally held in
position by up to eight very large anchors, or by
dynamic positioning: computer controlled
directional propellers to keep the vessel stationary
relative to the sea-bed, compensating for wind,
wave or current.
Semi-submersibles can drill in water depths to 300
meters or more all year round.

SETTING UP THE RIG

Depending upon the remoteness of the

drill site and its access, equipment may be
transported to the site by truck,
helicopter or barge.
Some rigs are built on ships or barges for
work on inland water where there is no
foundation to support a rig (as in marshes
or lakes).
Once the equipment is at the site, the rig
is set up. Here are the major systems of
a land oil rig:
Power System
Mechanical System
Rotating Equipment
Casing
Circulation System
Derrick
Blowout Preventer

RIG EQUIPMENT

POWER AND MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Mechanical system - driven

by electric motors
hoisting system - used for
lifting heavy loads; consists of
a mechanical winch
(drawworks) with a large
steel cable spool, a block-andtackle pulley and a receiving
storage reel for the cable
turntable - part of the drilling
apparatus

Power System
large diesel engines - burn
diesel-fuel oil to provide the
main source of power
electrical generators powered by the diesel engines
to provide electrical power

RIG EQUIPMENT

THE DERRICK

Derrick - support structure: holds

the drilling apparatus
tall enough to allow new
sections of drill pipe to be
added to the drilling apparatus
as drilling progresses
Blowout preventers and Rams high-pressure valves (located
below the rotary table or on the
sea floor)
seal the high-pressure drill
lines and relieve pressure
when necessary to prevent a
blowout (uncontrolled gush of
gas or oil to the surface, often
associated with fire)
Can shut off either the annular
space (between pipe and well)
or the complete hole.

RIG EQUIPMENT

ROTATING EQUIPMENT

Rotating equipment - used for rotary

drilling
swivel - large handle that holds the weight of
the drill string; allows the string to rotate and
makes a pressure-tight seal on the hole
kelly - four- or six-sided pipe that transfers
rotary motion to the turntable and drill string
turntable or rotary table - drives the rotating
motion using power from electric motors
drill string - consists of drill pipe
(connected sections of about 30 ft / 10 m)
and drill collars (larger diameter, heavier
pipe that fits around the drill pipe and places
weight on the drill bit)

Drill bit(s) - end of the drill that actually cuts

up the rock; comes in many shapes and
materials (tungsten carbide steel, diamond)
that are specialized for various drilling tasks
and rock formations
Casing - large-diameter concrete pipe that
lines the drill hole, prevents the hole from
collapsing, and allows drilling mud to
circulate

RIG EQUIPMENT

THE MUD CIRCULATION PROCESS

There's more to drilling than simply
rotating the bit.
Fluid is circulated while the drilling
proceeds.
Powerful pumps move the fluid down
the pipe, through the bit and back to
the surface, carrying the cuttings and
other debris with it.
Thus, on a rotary rig (unlike the cable
tool), drilling can be continuous as
stopping to bail the cuttings is no
longer required.
The drilling mud also stabilizes the
walls of the hole.

RIG EQUIPMENT

CIRCULATION SYSTEM

Circulation system - pumps drilling

mud under pressure through the kelly,
rotary table, drill pipes and drill collars
pump - sucks mud from the mud pits
and pumps it to the drilling apparatus
pipes and hoses - connects pump to
drilling apparatus
mud-return line - returns mud from hole
shale shaker - shaker/sieve that
separates rock cuttings from the mud
shale slide - conveys cuttings to the
reserve pit
reserve pit - collects rock cuttings
separated from the mud
mud pits - where drilling mud is mixed
and recycled
mud-mixing hopper - where new mud is
mixed and then sent to the mud pits

RIG EQUIPMENT

THE
DRILLSTRING

CONTROLLING
THE WEIGHT ON THE BIT

The weight is held partly by

the hook etc. If not, the drill
bit wouldnt turn! Collars are
added to the drill string to
add more weight
Hence the driller can control
the weight on the bit by
adding/ removing collars or
by raising/lowering the
swivel tackle.

TYPE OF BIT - Which bit?

Largest bit is used first, decreasing with depth

For each formation & depth have a particular set of
jet sizes, gallons per minte, pump strokes per minte,
minimum annular velocity (speed mud returns at to
keep the hole clean), bit hydraulic horsepower.
Hence the hydraulic and bit programs work in
tandem to most efficiently drill the well giving best
cost per foot, drilling time, minimum down time.

CONTINUING THE DRILLING PROCESS

Drilling continues in stages:
Drill
run and cement new casings, then drill again.

When the rock cuttings from the mud reveal the oil sand
from the reservoir rock, the final depth may have been
reached.
At this point, the drilling apparatus is removed from the
hole and perform several tests to confirm this finding:
Well logging - lowering electrical and gas sensors into the hole
to take measurements of the rock formations
Drill-stem testing - lowering a device into the hole to measure
the pressures, which will reveal whether reservoir rock has been
reached
Core samples - taking samples of rock to look for characteristics
of reservoir rock

DRILLING PROBLEMS

Other Drilling Problems

WELL COMPLETION TYPE

PRODUCING
SAND

1. Openhole Completion
PRODUCTION
STRING

Openhole completion
merupakan penyelesaian
sumur dimana casing
dipasang hanya sampai di
atas zona produktif
(interest zone). Jadi sumur
diproduksi dengan kondisi
terbuka di sepanjang zona
produksi.

CASING

CEMENT

PACKER

PRODUCING
LAYER

CASING SHOE

2. Liner Completion
Ada dua model penyelesaian sumur
menggunakan Liner Completion :

2. Perforated Liner Completion

Metode penyelesaian sumur dengan
melakukan pemasangan liner dan
disemen pada zona produktif yang
kemudian dilaksanakan pelobangan
(perforated) pada zona-zona yang
paling produktif

CASING
CEMENT
PACKER
PRODUCING LAYER

1. Screen Liner Completion

Casing diset sampai di atas zona
produksi yang kemudian
digabungkan dengan kombinasi liner
dan screen yang tidak disemen di
seluruh permukaan zona produksi

PRODUCTI
ON STRING

LINER HANGER
CASING SHOE
OIL SAND

SLOTTED LINER
LINER SHOE

3. Perforated Casing Completion

CASING
CEMENT

PACKER
PRODUCING LAYER

Perforated casing
completion adalah
penyelesaian sumur
dengan menutup semua
zona produktif dengan
menggunakan casing
dan disemen kemudian
dilakukan perforasi
(pelubangan) pada
daerah-daerah produksi
di lubang sumur

PRODUCTION
STRING

OIL SAND
PERFORATION

CASING SHOE

PRODUCING WELL
COMPLETION
THE MAST (CHRITMAST-TREE)
Setelah pemboran dinyatakan
berhasil dan mendapatkan minyak
atau gas, maka di kepala sumur
dipasang chritmas tree yang
didefinisikan sebagai rangkaian
dari valve dan fitting yang
digunakan untuk control produksi
dan disambungkan dengan bagian
atas tubing head. Pertama kali
christmas tree digunakan untuk
tekanan aliran rendah dan
menengah dari suatu sumur,
dimana rangkaian dari tees,
elbows, nipples, valve yang dibeli
secara terpisah dan dirangkaikan
jadi satu di lokasi.

Wellsite geology is hybrid of

appllied geology on oil and gas well
drilling, its study rock cuttings and
wireline logs from oil and gas wells
to determine what rock formations
are being drilled into and how the
drilling should proceed.
Wellsite Geologist is geologist in
charge on data acquisition from oil
and gas well drilling operation.
They are required to monitor vital
operations during the course of the
well, make sure that the well
program are carried out perform
formation evaluation activities to
ensure the well is drilled and
evaluated in the most safe, efficient
manner, and cost-effective. They
also liaise with drilling engineers,
petroleum engineers and mud
logging geologist during the course
of projects.

JOB PORPOSES

JOB SPIRIT

TEAM WORK IN RIG SITE

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

COMPANY MAN
WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
DRILLING ENGINEER
TOOLPUSHER & RIG CREW
MUDLOGGING CREW
MUD & CHEMICAL ENGINEER & CREW
CEMENTING ENGINEER & CREW
WIRELOGGING ENGINEER & CREW
TESTING ENGINEER & CREW
OTHER SERVICES ENGINEERS & CREW
SUPPORTING CREW

THE RULERS
IN RIG SITE
COMPANY MAN
LEADER &DECISION MAKER

GEOLOGIST

IN SMALL COMPANY
CO. MAN ALSO AS
DRLG. ENG.

DRLG ENG.

MUD LOGGING
MWD & LOGGING
WIRELINE LOGGING
CORING
WELL TESTING

CHEMICAL & CEMENTING

DIRECTIONAL
WELL COMPLETION

TOOL PUSHER
DRILLING
RIG MAINTENANCE

WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
GENERAL DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES

1.

Supervision of Formation Evaluation

contractors (Mud Logging Geologists,
MWD Logging Engineers, Wireline
Logging Engineers, Coring and Well
Testing Personnel)

2.

Logistics concerning the formation

evaluation contractors and their
equipment

3.

All safety aspects for the well and

personnel during these evaluation
operations

4.

Quality control of all evaluation results

and logs prior to accepting the data or
logs from those contractors

5.

Providing relevant correlation and well

data to those contractors during their
operations

6.

Checking all reports and logs from the

evaluation contractors prior to sending
them to oil company offices

WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
GENERAL DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES
7.

Monitoring and supervising the

collecting, processing and dispatching
of formation evaluation samples

8.

Safe-guarding the collection, storage

and transmission of information and
reports at the wellsite

9.

Wellsite interpretation of the formation

evaluation data

10. Checking and occasionally approving

and signing of service reports and
invoices of the formation evaluation
contractors
11. Keeping the drilling superintendent
and operations geologist fully
informed of all formation evaluation
operations

WELL PROGNOSIS AND

PROSPECT DESCRIPTION
Wellsite Geologist should be
completely familiar with all
aspects of the drilling
prognosis. Particular attention
should be paid to any sections
which may require geological
decisions.
1. Determination of Primary and
Secondary Objectives
2. Determination of Casing Points
3. Detection of Overpressured
Intervals
4. Detection of Lost Circulation
Zones

WELL PROGNOSIS AND

PROSPECT DESCRIPTION
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Correlation and Detection of Marker Horizons

Determination of Geologic Basement or Economic Basement
Selection of Logging Run Intervals
A complete set of correlation logs and reports should be compiled
Near by wells mudlogs, lithlogs and wireline logs should be used
as sources of information

REGIONAL GEOLOGY PREPARATION

FOR WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
to anticipate if it should deviate from the prognosis

Nature and depth of basement within the

basin
Geologic age of the section
Depositional environments and expected
lithologies
Tectonic setting within the basin
Formation pressure anomalies
Hydrocarbon occurrences within the basin
Basin correlations

RIGSITE INFORMATION SOURCES USES

Wireline Logging Unit

VSP Used to look ahead, formation top confirmation

RFT Fluid sampling, Pressure determination, Oil/Water/Gas
gradients
Resistivity Water Saturation, Porosity, Hydrocarbon evaluation
Density & Neutron Lithology confirmation, Correlation, Porosity,
Overpressure detection, Gas/Oil contacts
Sonic Porosity, Mechanical properties, Overpressure
Dipmeters Structure, Well trajectory, Facies analysis,
Sedimentology
Sidewall Cores Biostratigraphy, Geochemistry, Lithology
confirmation, Hydrocarbon evaluation

Mud-Logging Unit

Cuttings Geochemistry, Lithology, Correlation, Density, Calcimetry,

Hydrocarbons, Shale Factor (C.E.C.), Hole Stability, Bit Condition
Hydrocarbons Total gas, Chromatograph, Gas Ratios, Connection
gases, Trip gases, Oil shows
Gases CO2, H2S
Engineering Dxc, Torque, Drill Rate, Formation Pressures

RIGSITE INFORMATION SOURCES USES

MWD/FEMWD unit data
Directional Borehole Trajectory (MWD), Dogleg
Severity
Gamma Ray Lithology Determination, Shale
Content,
Resistivity Correlation, Hydrocarbon Evaluation,
Pressure Indication, Sw Estimations
Density Lithology, Correlation, Pressure Indication,
Gas/Oil Contact
Others
Coring Biostratigraphy, Reservoir analysis,
Porosity, Permeability

WELLSITE GEOLOGIST RESPONSIBILITIES

IN WIRELINE LOGGING OPERATION
To ensure satisfactory results, the Wellsite
Geologist will be responsible for:

Safety aspects during logging operations

Organizing personnel and equipment
logistics
Logging Quality Control and Data
accuracy
Carry out quick look log interpretation and
reporting to operation geologist.

QUICK LOOK LOG ANALYSIS

Existence and depth of known markers.
Top and bottom of each reservoir interval
Gross & net thickness for each reservoir
interval
Type of hydrocarbon and hydrocarbon/water
contacts
Average and range of calculated porosity
and water saturation values for each interval
Rw in the clean, water-bearing formations
Propose well test intervals

WELLSITE GEOLOGIST TEAM

IN MUDLOGGING UNIT

THE TEAM MUDLOGGING CREW:

MUDLOGGING GEOLOGIST (MUDLOGGER)
PRESSURE ENGINEER / DATA ENGINEER
SAMPLE CATCHER

MUDLOGGING GEOLOGIST
CUTTING & CORE DESCRIPTION, HYDROCARBON SHOW,
POROSITY ETC.

PRESSURE ENGINEER & DATA

RECORD, MONITOR & ANALYSE THE DRILLING PARAMETERS
SUCH AS ROP, RPM, WOB, TORQUE,
MUD DATA: MUD TANK LEVEL (MUD LOOS & GAIN), MUD
WEIGHT IN/OUT, TEMPERATURE IN/OUT
MUD PUMP DATA : CAPACITY, EFICIENCY, VOLUME IN ETC.

SAMPLE CATCHER
COLLECT AND PREPARE SAMPLE FOR MUDLOGGING
GEOLOGIST

MUDLOGGING UNIT

TYPE OF SAMPLE

DRY SAMPLE
obtained from the washed samples collected from the 80-mesh
sieve. A heat source is used for drying purposes.
Several precautions when drying samples are:
DO NOT oven dry oil-based mud samples
Do not over-dry samples, because they will burn (the burning can be
mistaken for oil staining)
Clay samples should not be oven dried - only air dried

WET SAMPLE
collected at the shale shaker. Normally the drilling fluid is not
rinsed off.

GEOCHEMICAL SAMPLE
These samples require special treatment.
A bacteriocide (i.e. Zepharin Chloride) is necessary to prevent the
growth of bacteria which can form additional gas. The samples are
normally sealed at the wellsite, and shipped separately.

CUTTINGS DESCRIPTION
Each lithology should be accurately described, and
that observations recorded in the following order:
a. Rock Type

g. Sorting

b. Classification

h. Luster

c. Color

i. Cementation/Matrix

d. Hardness/Induration

j. Visual Porosity

e. Grain Size

k. Accessories/Inclusions

f. Grain Shape

l. Oil Show Indications

Usually major oil company has own cutting description manual and its
standar legend.

COMPARISON CHARTS FOR VISUAL ESTIMATION OF

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

PARTICLE SHAPE
ROUNDNESS VS SPHERICITY

EVALUATION OF HYDROCARBON SHOWS

GAS SHOW

EQUIPMENTS
chromatograph
CO2 detection
H2S detection (in exploration & rich sulfur basin)
total gas detectors that monitor for N, various sulfides and
H may also be used

The amount of gas recorded is dependent upon many

variables, including;
Volume of gas per unit volume of formation
Degree of formation flushing
Rate of penetration
Mud Density and Mud Viscosity
Formation pressure
Gas trap efficiency
Gas detector efficiency
Variability of mud flow rate

GAS SHOW EVALUATION

True Zero Gas:

The value recorded by the gas detectors when pure air is passed over the detection block
(generally done during calibration). To ensure a stable zero mark, the detectors should be zeroed
prior to drilling, at casing points, logging points, etc.

Background Zero Gas:

The value recorded by the gas detectors when circulating, off-bottom, in a clean, balanced bore
hole. Any gases monitored will be from contaminants in the mud or from gas recycling. This value
is the baseline from which all gas readings are referenced for the striplog and mud log, but not
plotted on the logs. This value will change with respect to changes in the mud system (adding
diesel) and hole size, and should be re-established periodically.

Background Gas:
This is the gas recorded while drilling through a consistent lithology. Often it will remain constant,
however, in overpressured formations this value may show considerable variation. This is the gas
baseline which is plotted on the striplog and mud log.

Gas Show:
This is a gas reading that varies in magnitude or composition from the established background. It
is an observed response on the gas detector and requires interpretation as to the cause. Not all
gas peaks are from drilled formation, some may occur as post-drilling peaks.

Connection Gases:
Gas peaks produced by a combination of near-balance/ under-balanced drilling and the removal of
the ECD by stopping the pumps to make a connection. They are often an early indicator of drilling
overpressured formations. These should be noted, but not included as part of a total gas curve.

Trip Gases:
Gas peaks recorded after circulation has been stopped for a considerable time for either a bit trip
or a wiper trip. As with connection gases, substantial trip gases can indicate a near balance
between the mud hydrostatic pressure and the formation pressure, they should be recorded but not
included as part of a total gas curve.

WELL 123

SAMPLE:

MUD LOGGING

SAMPLE:
MUD LOGGING

Mud-logging Geologist Corner

WIRELINE LOG
1. WHAT IS WELL LOGGING:
1. WELL LOG IS A CONTINUOUS RECORD OF MEASUREMENT MADE IN
BORE HOLE RESPOND TO VARIATION IN SOME PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF ROCKS THROUGH WHICH THE BORE HOLE IS
DRILLED.
2. TRADITIONALLY LOGS ARE DISPLAY ON GIRDED PAPERS SHOWN IN
FIGURE.
3. NOW A DAYS THE LOG MAY BE TAKEN AS FILMS, IMAGES, AND IN
DIGITAL FORMAT.
2. WIRELINE LOGGING IS PERFORMED WITH A SONDE LOWERED INTO THE
BOREHOLE OR WELL
3. 2 TYPES OF WIRELINE LOGGING :
1. OPEN HOLE LOGGING
2. CASED HOLE LOGGING
4. INTERPRETATION METHODS
1. QUALITATIVE
2. QUANTITATIVE
1. MANUAL
2. COMPUTERIZED

LOG INTERPRETATION
LITHOLOGY
TOP SAND

SAND THICKNESS
SAND PROSITY
PERMEABILITY
FLUID SATURATIONS

IS A PROCESS OF USING WELL LOGS TO

EVALUATE THE CHARACTERISTIC OF
FORMATION :

STORAGE CAPACITY porosity,

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

fluid saturations and net pay

thickness
FLUID PROPERTIES density, fluid
type, fluid contacts, API gravity,
water resistivity & salinity,
temperature, GOR
structural/dip/fracture, geologic
environtment, facies characteristic,
top/bottom reservoir,
heterogeneities, distribution
PRODUCTIVITY : permeability, water
cut, GOR and rate (estimated)

LOG INTERPRETATION
Log interpretation should provide answers to questions on:

LOG INTERPRETATION
IS PART OF RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION PROCESS WHICH
SHOULD BE INTEGRATED WITH THE FOLLOWING SURVEY
AND ANALYSIS:
DRILLING OPERATION LOGS:
CUTTING ANALYSIS, MUD ANALYSIS, DRILLING DATA COLLECTION
(PRESSURE, GAS READING, PENETRATION RATE ETC.) AND
ANALYSIS.

CORRING & CORE ANALYSIS :

SIDE WALL CORE & FULL HOLE CORE
VISUAL LITHOLOGY DESCRIPTION, HYDROCARBON SHOWS,
POROSITY, PERMEABILITY, FORMATION FACTOR, SATURATION
ETC.

PRODUCTIVITY TEST :
RFT, MDT, DST, PRODUCTION TESTS

GEOLOGY & GEOPHYSICAL :

SURFACE GEOLOGY, SEISMIC SURVEY & INTERPRETATION ETC.

RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION

LOGGING UNITS
LOGGING UNIT CONTAINS:
logging cable
winch to raise and lower
the cable in the well
self-contained 120-volt
AC generator
set of surface control
panels
set of downhole tools
(sondes and cartridges)
digital recording system
Open Hole Logging :
1. The traditional wireline
logging
2. Logging While Drilling
3. Logging on drill pipe

WELL
LOGGING
Logging Job Sequences :

Rig-up logging unit

LOGGING UNIT

Tool run in hole

WIRELINE

The system is on but never be

used for log interpretation

Pull-out and logging

SONDE / TOOL

Check Tool and system

Wellsite Geologist (WG) will
perform system & tool quality
control
Safety meeting

WG is the witness, checks the

logging speed and quality.
WG has authority to stop, refuse
and re-logging when necessary

Rig-down the logging unit.

Print the result

WG signs the services ticket
containing type of services and
charges

SAMPLE :

OPEN HOLE LOG

SP, GR, AIT, SONIC,
DENSITY & NEUTRON

RHOZ

AIT

NPHI

SP
GR

DT

1. SP SPONTANEOUS
POTENTIAL LOG
2. GR GAMMA RAY LOG
3. ELECTRICAL LOG
INDUCTION, LATERAL,
SPHERICAL FOCCUSS, MICRO
LATERAL ETC
4. NEUTRON LOG CNL, SNP
5. DENSITY LOG LDT
6. SONIC LOG BHC
7. OTHERS : FMI (DIPMETER &
IMAGING), NMRI (Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance Immaging,
TEMPERATURE LOG, CALLIPER
LOG, ETC.

SP
SP results from electric
currents flowing in the
drilling mud.
There are three sources of
the currents, two
electrochemical and one
electrokinetic.
Membrane potential largest.
Liquid - junction potential.
Streaming potential smallest.

SP LOG READING
The SSP is the
quantity to be
determined.

It is the deflection
seen on the SP from
the Shale Base Line
(zero point) to the
Sand Line (max.
deflection)

SP USES

Differentiate potentially porous and

permeable reservoir rocks from
impermeable clays.

Define bed boundaries, top &

bottom of the layer.

For geological correlation

Give an indication of shaliness

(maximum deflection is clean;
minimum is shale).

Indicate vertical grain size

distribution

Determine Rw (formation water

resistivity) in both salt and fresh
muds.
R mfe
SSP

= k log

we

SP DEFLECTIONS
CORRESPOND TO
Rmf & Rw VALUES

SHALE BASE LINE

SP scale
+

SP Borehole
Effects

Baseline shifts: These can occur when there are beds

of different salinities separated by a shale which does
not act as a perfect membrane.

SP Surface Effects

The SP can be affected by a number of surface effects as it relies on

the fish as its reference electrode.
Power lines, electric trains, electric welding, close radio
transmitters:
All these create ground currents which disrupt he "fish reference
causing a poor, sometimes useless, log.

GR -

Principles

The Gamma Ray log is a

measurement of the formation's
natural radioactivity.
Gamma ray emission is produced by
three radioactive series found in the
Earth's crust.
Potassium (K40) series.
Uranium series.
Thorium series.
Gamma rays passing through rocks
are slowed and absorbed at a rate
which depends on the formation
density.
Less dense formations exhibit more
radioactivity than dense formations
even though there may be the same
quantities of radioactive material per
unit volume.

GR USES
Bed definition top,
bottom, thickness
Shalliness content
and net thickness, The
minimum value gives
the clean (100%) shale
free zone, the maximum
100% shale zone.

NEUTRON TOOLS

The first neutron tools used a chemical neutron source and

employed a single detector which measured the Gamma Rays
of capture. They were non-directional. The units of
measurement were API units where 1000 API units were
calibrated to read 19% in a water-filled limestone. The tool was
badly affected by the borehole environment.

The second generation tool was the Sidewall Neutron Porosity

(SNP). This was an epithermal device mounted on a pad.

The current tool is the Compensated Neutron Tool (CNT). The

latest tool is the Accelerator Porosity Sonde (APS), using an
electronic source for the neutrons and measuring in the
epithermal region.

NEUTRON
USES
POROSITY &
LITHOLOGY
with density log
HYROCARBON
INDICATION
The tool measures
hydrogen index

DENSITY
The Density Tools use a chemical gamma ray source
and two or three gamma ray detectors.
The number of gamma rays returning to the detector
depends on the number of electrons present, the
electron density, e.
The electron density can be related
to the bulk density of the minerals
by a simple equation.

e = ( 2Z/A )
Where Z is the number of
electrons per atom and A is
the atomic weight.

DENSITY
Uses

The density tool is extremely

useful as it has high accuracy
and exhibits small borehole
effects.
Major uses include:
Porosity.
Lithology (in combination
with the neutron tool).
Mechanical properties (in
combination with the sonic
tool).
Acoustic properties (in
combination with the sonic
tool).
Gas identification (in
combination with the neutron
tool).

Density Porosity

ma
ma

ma

(1

b
f

There are two inputs into the porosity equation: the matrix
density and the fluid density.
The fluid density is that of the mud filtrate.

 The sonic tools create an

acoustic signal and measure

how long it takes to pass
through a rock.
By simply measuring this time
we get an indication of the
formation properties.
The amplitude of the signal
will also give information
about the formation.

SONIC TOOL

SONIC -BHC

A simple tool that uses a pair of transmitters and four receivers

to compensate for caves and sonde tilt.
The normal spacing between the transmitters and receivers is
3' - 5'.
It produces a compressional slowness by measuring the first
arrival transit times.
Used for:

Correlation.
Porosity.
Lithology.
Seismic tie in /

time-to-depth
conversion.

ARRAY SONIC

Multi-spacing digital tool.

First to use STC processing.

Able to measure shear waves

and Stoneley waves in hard
formations.

Used for:
Porosity.
Lithology.
Seismic tie in /

time-to-depth conversion.
Mechanical properties (from shear and compressional).
Fracture identification (from shear and Stoneley).
Permeability (from Stoneley).

Porosity 1
It reacts to primary porosity only, i.e. it does not "see the
fractures or vugs.
The basic equation for sonic porosity is the Wyllie Time
Average:

= t

log

t
t

log
f

(1

t
t

ma
ma

ma

Porosity 2
Raymer Gardner Hunt.
This formula tries to take into account some irregularities
seen in the field.
The basic equation is:
1
t

(1

t ma

)+

A simplified version used on the Maxis is:

= C

log

t
t

log

C is a constant, usually taken as 0.67.

ma

DETECTING
OVERPRESSURED
ZONE WITH THE
SONIC LOG
OVERPRESSURED ZONE

Lithology & Porosity

Determination

Schlumberger 1999

Lithology Tools
Most tools react to lithology - usually in conjunction
with the porosity.
Major lithology tools are:
Neutron - reacts to fluid and matrix.
Density - reacts to matrix and fluid.
Sonic - reacts to a mixture of matrix and fluid, complicated
by seeing only primary porosity.
NGT - identifies shale types and special minerals.
Geochemical logging, identifies 10 elements; K, U, Th, Al, Si,
Ca, S, Fe, Gd, Ti
From these the exact mineralogy can be computed.

Crossplot Solution
Porosity and
Lithology
Determination
from
Litho-Density* Log
and CNL*
(Compensated Neutron
Log)

Schlumberger Chart

The plot is a straight line from the matrix point to the 100% porosity,
water point. It is scaled in porosity.

2.48

Porosity 13 %
75% sand & 25% limestone

12

ELECTRICAL
RESISTIVITY LOGS

Resistivity Theory
The resistivity of a substance is a measure of its ability
to impede the flow of electrical current.
Resistivity is the key to hydrocarbon saturation
determination.
Porosity gives the volume of fluids but does not
indicate which fluid is occupying that pore space.
Current can only pass
through the water in the
formation, hence the
resistivity depends on:
Resistivity of the
formation water.
Amount of water present.
Pore structure.

Resistivity Model

Smov = Sxo - Sw

NORMAL Tools
The voltage measured at M is proportional to the
formation resistivity.
This electrode configuration is the Normal tool.
The distance between the A and M electrodes.
The spacing determines the depth of investigation
and hence the resistivity being read.

NORMAL and LATERAL Tools

The Lateral device used
the same principle.
The difference is in
electrode configuration
and spacing.
Problems came from "thin
beds" when the signature
of the curve was used to
try and find the true
resistivity.

This figure shows some of the "signature curves" for the

interpretation of lateral and normal devices in thin beds.
A library exists plus the rules to extrapolate the measured value to
the true resistivity of the bed.

Laterolog Applications
Measures Rt.
Standard resistivity in high resistivity
environments.
Usable in medium-to-high salinity muds.
Good results in high contrast Rt/Rm.
Fair vertical resolution (same as porosity tools).
LATEROLOG LIMITS :
Cannot be used in oil-based muds.
Cannot be used in air-filled holes.
Poor when Rxo > Rt.

MSFL Principle
Uses:
Rxo measurement in
water-based muds.
Correction for deep
resistivity tools.
Sxo determination.

This tool uses a set of 5 electrodes

which focus the signal into the
invaded zone just beyond the mud
cake.

Limits:
Rugose hole.
Oil-based mud.
Heavy or thick mud
cake.

INDUCTION LOGS

Schlumberger 1999

Induction Logs

Induction Principle

Uses
IL Uses and Limits
Measures Rt saturation
Hydrocarbon content
indications & fluid contacts
Bed definition, lithology,
shalliness
Correlation
Abnormal pressure

Ideal in fresh or oil-based

environments.
Ideal for low resistivity
measurements and when Rxo >
Rt.

examples 3

10000.0

Cable tension (TENS)

(LBF)

0.2

SFL unaveraged (SFLU)

(ohmm)

0.2

Medium resistivity (ILM)

(ohmm)

0.2

Deep resistivity (ILD)

(ohmm)

0.0

.2

90 Inch investigation
(ohmm)

2000

.2

10 Inch investigation
(ohmm)

2000

.2

20 Inch investigation
(ohmm)

2000

.2

30 Inch investigation
(ohmm)

2000

.2

60 Inch investigation
(ohmm)

2000

2000.0
2000.0
2000.0

The AIT logs (2' vertical resolution) read correctly in this zone giving a hydrocarbon profile.
The DIL logs are ambiguous as the SFL (electrical log) longer reading shallow because Rxo
is less than Rt

Saturation

The saturation of a formation represents the amount of a given

fluid present in the pore space.
The porosity logs react to the pore space.
The resistivity logs react to the fluids in the pore space.
The combination of the two measurements gives the saturation

Sw = S w irr
water

oil

Matrix

Sw "free"

So = S oresidual

So"free"

Resistivity Theory
Current can only pass through the water in the
formation, hence the resistivity depends on:
Resistivity of the formation water.
Amount of water present.
Pore structure.

Basics 1
F

R
R

0
w

F: Formation Resistivity Factor.

At constant porosity F is constant.
As porosity increases, Ro decreases and F decreases.

Experiments have shown that F is inversely proportional to m.

m: is called the "cementation exponent".

a: is called the "lithology" constant.

Basics 2
S

n
w

R
R

0
t

Saturation can be expressed as a ratio of the

resistivities:
where n is the "saturation exponent", an empirical constant.
Substituting for Ro:

n
w

FR
R

w
t

Substituting for F:

n
w

Rw
Rt

Saturation Equation
S

n
w

Rw
Rt

The Archie equation is hence very simple. It links porosity and

resistivity with the amount of water present, Sw.
Increasing porosity, , will reduce the saturation for the same
Rt.
Increasing Rt for the same porosity will have the same effect.

Invaded Zone
The same method can be applied to the invaded zone.
The porosity is identical, the lithology is assumed to be
the same, hence the constants a, n, m are the same.
The changes are the resistivities which are now Rxo and
Rmf.
Rmf is measured usually on surface and Rxo is
measured by the MSFL tool.
The equation is then:

n
xo

aR

mf

xo

Ratio Method

Dividing for Sxo and Sw, with n set to 2

S
S

w
xo

mf

t
w

Observations suggest:

R
R

xo

1
2

xo

1
5

Hence:

R
=
R

xo
mf

R
R

t
w

5
8

Archie parameters

Rw
m
n
a

= resistivity of connate water.

= "cementation factor", set to 2 in the simple case.
= "saturation exponent", set to 2 in the simple case.
= constant, set to 1 in the simple case.

All the constants have to be set.

In clastics the values are usually measured for each reservoir.
Values could be
m = 1.8

n = 2,

a=1

An often quoted old formula, the Humble Equation uses:

m = 2.15,

n = 2,

a = 0.62

Rw determination
Rw is an important parameter.
Sources include:
Formation water analysis
Local tables / knowledge.
SP.
Resistivity plus porosity in water zone.
RFT sample.
From Rxo and Rt tools.

Rw from Rwa
If Sw = 1, the saturation equation can become:

Assuming simple values for a, m, n.

Procedure is to:
Compute an Rwa (Rw apparent) using this
relationship.
Read the lowest value over a porous zone which
This is the method employed by all computer based
interpretation systems.

Rw from resistivity
In a water zone Sw = 1, thus the alternative
saturation equation becomes:

The value of Rmf is measured;

Rxo and Rt are measured, the value of Rw can be
calculated.

Effects of parameters
Example of variations in the Archie parameters

n
w

Rw
Rt

The following are measurements

POR = 25%, Rt = 5 ohm-m, Rw = .02 ohm-m
Assuming a simple formation with
a = 1, m = 2, n = 2
Sw = 25%
Changing n to 2.5, changes the Sw to 33%
Changing m to 3 changes Sw to 50%
Hence the choice of these constants is important

Shaly Sand Evaluation

Schlumberger 1999

Shales
Porosity

Clean formation

Structural shale

Porosity

Porosity

Matrix

Matrix

Laminar shale

Dispersed shale

Porosity

Matrix

Shale

Shale

Porosity

Shale

Shale

Matrix

Matrix

Shale and Logs

Shales have properties that have

important influences on log
readings:
They have porosity.
The porosity is filled with salted
water.
They are often radioactive.
Resistivity logs exhibit shales as
low resistivity zones.
Neutron porosity logs exhibit
shales as high porosity.
Density and sonic logs react to
the porosity and matrix changes.
Gamma ray logs react to shale
radioactivity.

Shale Volume
The volume of shale must be computed to
correct the tool readings.
This is achieved using simple equations
such as:
V

cl

cl

GR
GR

SP
SP

log
max

log
max

GR
GR

SP
SP

min
min

min
min

Shale Volume

Shale and Saturation

The Archie equation has to be changed to
take account of the shale effect.
The shale looks like low resistivity so
another term is added to the equations.
The result is an equation which will can be
used to compute water saturation in shaly
sands.
All these equations return to Archies
equation if there is no shale present.

Saturation Equations
Indonesia Equation

=
V

V cl

1
2

cl

Nigeria Equation
1
R

Waxman-Smits Equation

1
R

cl

1 .4
cl

=
t

BQ

aR

2
w

Dual Water Equation

C

m
t

n
wt

S
S

wb
wt

(C

wb

cl

1
R

n
w

EXAMPLE :

PROCESSED LOG

POROSITY & SATURATION

CALCULATION RESULTS
OPEN HOLE LOG

PROCESSED LOG

FLUID
ANALYSIS
SATURATION

VOLUME

DUAL WATER MODEL DEFINITIONS

hydrocarbon

total
porosity

t
fluids
unit
volume

far
water
bound
water
dry
clay

solids

clean
matrix

hy
effective
porosity

wf

wf+ hy

wb
Vdcl

Vcl
wet clay

Clean to Shale
t
SAND

Matrix

Far Water

t
Matrix

t
Matrix

Dry Colloid

t
SHALE

Dry Colloid

Bound water

Well Test Objectives

1. Identify and Obtain reservoir fluids; oil, gas
& water
2. Determine basic reservoir parametes;
productivity (PI), permeability(k), skin (S),
initial Resv. Pressure (P*) & Resv. Temp.
3. Well potential & deliverability (gas well) : It
may be mandatory to proof field
commerciality
4. Boundary & irregular conditions Reservoir
(GOC, OWC & Reservoir Limit)

WELL TESTING METHODS

HOLE CONDITION:
OPEN HOLE
CASED HOLE

TOOLS RUN IN HOLE :

WIRELINE TESTING : RFT, MDT & DST (IT WAS)
PRODUCTION TEST WITH COMPLETION STRING
IN PLACE : DST

WELL TESTING SCHEMATIC

at
Cased Hole

Surface Test Equipment

Subsea Safety
Equipment

Downhole Test
Equipment & Tool
DST & TCP

DOWNHOLE TESTING EQUIPMENT

Open-Hole Sampling Equipment

RDT & RCI are equivalent with RFT/MDT
Formation Test Tool (FTT) sample
chambers hold 420cc to 3 gallons of
reservoir fluid depending on make and
model.
Open hole samples aid production and
facility designs and are sometimes used
for PVT studies.

Baker RCI

Halliburton RDT

1ST GENERATION

RFT
REPEATED FORMATION TESTER
- unlimited pressure survey
- 1 to 2 fluid sampling

2ND GENERATION

MDT
MODULAR FORMATION DINAMIC
TESTER
- unlimited pressure survey
- many fluid sampling (unlimited?)
- able to identify fluid type
- able to replace(pump out)
unrequired fluid sample
SCHLUMBERGER

DOWNHOLE TESTING
EQUIPMENT

RFT / MDT

Mud pressure

Reservoir pressure

Build-up pressure

Example RFT Record

Wireline Open Hole Testing

RFT/MDT/RDT/RCI/etc.

To identify the reservoir

pressure
To identify the fluid content
To estimate the permeability
To estimate the productifity
To define the fluid contact (OWC,
OGC and GWC if any)

Fluid Contact Determination

with fluid gradient from RFT
Oil
Gra

er
at

7
.36
nt 0
die

t
i/f
ps

depth

33
.4

OWC

water

RFT depth

pressure

/ft
psi

t0
en
di
ra
G

oil

Performing Well Test

with DST

Clean up (flow)
Shut-in
Main flow (one period or
flow-after-flow, flowing
test with 4 to 5 different
choke size)
Main Build up (shut-in)

Selective Layer Testing

26

20 ft @ 500

17 1/2

9 5/8 @ 15500
12 1/4

Layer A

Layer B
8 1/2

7 @ 17690

Example :
TEST STRING
DST & TCP

[ [psia]
psia]

Example :

4050
4050

Pressure Testing Result

K = 375 mD
S = 21 P = 4200 psia

Pressure, psia

Build up data analysis

Sanding Control
Test

Production Period
[[Mscf/D]
M scf /D]

45000
45000

Build up period
rates
40
40

60
60

80
80

Testing time, hrs

100
100

120
120

Well Productivity
IPR plot

3500

1500

Pressure, psi

AOFP = 344 MMscf/d

CGR = 24.5 STB/MMscf/d

Tested gas and condensate rates can be

increased to 125 MMscf/D and 3100 BPD

Gas Rate, Mscf/d

50000

1.5E+5

2.5E+5

2.5E+5

3.5E+5

Testing Risk
Factors
Layers communication due to
poor cement bond
High pressure and temperatures
(over 350F)
Pressure and fluid loss through
packers
Annulus-tubing fluid
communication
Water coning or sanding
Layers crossflow

THE ROLE of
WELLSITE/DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST (DG)
in WELL TESTING
OPEN HOLE TESTING

CASED HOLE TESTING

with RFT/MDT

with DST

DG Propose/selects the testing/perforation sand, interval and depth

Estimate the reservoir fluid contents and its static pressure
Provide the reservoir rock parameter for testing analysis such as lithology, porosity
and permeability if any (from log, or qualitative)
Stop the testing when unsafe operation

Testing Engineer (TE) decision

Decide testing duration

TE decide flow & shut-in periods. TE also

selects choke size for flow testing.

Select taken fluid sample

TE decide fluid sampling methods. And

responsible for fluid sample handling

As Operation Witness will validate &

analyse the result

TE is prime Operation Witness and will

validate & analyse the testing result.
DG & TE will be along selecting the
perforation method

PERFORATION
1.

THROUGH CASING GUN

Hyperjet/HSD(high shot density)

2.

THROUGH TUBING GUN Enerjet

3.

TCP (Tubing Conveyed Perforation)

GUN TYPES

DG and/or Wellsite
Geologist Responsibilities
in Perforation Job
1.

Define the perforation intervals at

porous zone & hydrocarbon zone
(pay zone.

2.

Evaluate and prepare the perforation

design such as gun type, size, SPF
(shot per ft), Spacing (angle between
two shots), charge/explosive type;
penetration deep and entrance hole.

3.

Perforation environment (fluid type

in the hole); using mud or brine
water or special completion fluid,
under/over balance.

4.

Witness the gun loading, correlation,

shooting result (whether all charges
exploded or not) SAFETY FIRST

PERF. At Net pay

THE RESERVOIR

PETROLEUM
RESERVOIR
ROCK PROPERTIES
FLUID PROPERTIES
PRESSURE
RESERVOIR DRIVE

ROCK PROPERTIES
Rocks are described by three properties:
Porosity - quantity of pore space
Permeability - ability of a formation to flow
Matrix - major constituent of the rock
note: porosity & permeability has been discussed partially in
Chapter I. Introduction

PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids
Absolute Perm: When the medium is completely
saturated with one fluid, then the permeability
measurement is often referred to as specific or absolute
permeability
Effective Perm: When the rock pore spaces contain
more than one fluid, then the permeability to a particular
fluid is called the effective permeability. Effective
permeability is a measure of the fluid conductance
capacity of a porous medium to a particular fluid when
the medium is saturated with more than one fluid
Relative Perm: Defined as the ratio of the effective
permeability to a fluid at a given saturation to the
effective permeability to that fluid at 100% saturation.

DARCYS LAW
p2

p1

L
q
Direction of flow

q
L
k=

A ( p1 p 2 )
k = permeability
(measured in darcies)
k/ =
kh/ =

L = length
q = flow rate
p1, p2 = pressures
A = area perpendicular to flow
= viscosity

DARCYS LAW:
RADIAL FLOW
rw.

2kh( P Pw )
q=
ln r / rw
h = height of the cylinder (zone)
P = pressure at r
Pw = pressure at the wellbore

PERMEABILITY POROSITY
CROSSPLOT
Sandstone A1

Limestone A1
Permeability (md)

100

1000
100

10

10
1
1
0.1

0.1
0.01

0.01
2

10

14

Porosity (%)

10

14

18

CALCULATING RELATIVE
PERMEABILITIES
Oil

Water

Gas

ro

rw

rg

eo

ew

k
eg

Relative Permeability Curve

IRREDUCIBLE WATER SATURATION

In a formation the minimum saturation induced by
displacement is where the wetting phase becomes
discontinuous.
In normal water-wet rocks, this is the irreducible water
saturation, Swirr.
Large grained rocks have a low irreducible water
saturation compared to small-grained formations
because the
capillary
pressure is
smaller.

TRANSITION ZONE

The phenomenon of capillary pressure gives rise to the

transition zone in a reservoir between the water zone and the
oil zone.
The rock can be thought of as a bundle of capillary tubes.
The length of the zone depends on the pore size and the
density difference between the two fluids.

 Take a core 100% watersaturated. (A)

Force oil into the core
until irreducible water
saturation is attained
(Swirr). (A-> C -> D)
Reverse the process:
force water into the core
until the residual
saturation is attained. (B)
During the process,
measure the relative
permeabilities to water
and oil.

Relative
Permeability

FLUID SATURATIONS

Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation

Initially, pore space filled 100% with water
Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps
Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces and gravity
Connate water saturation remains in hydrocarbon zone

Fluid saturation is defined as the fraction of pore volume

occupied by a given fluid

Definitions
Sw = water saturation
So = oil saturation
Sg = gas saturation
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg

Saturations are expressed as percentages or fractions, e.g.

Water saturation of 75% in a reservoir with porosity of 20%
contains water equivalent to 15% of its volume.

SATURATION
Amount of water per unit volume = Sw
Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume = (1 - Sw) =
Sh

(1-Sw)
Sw

Hydrocarbon

Water
Matrix

RESERVOIR PRESSURE
Lithostatic pressure is caused by the
pressure of rock, transmitted by grain-tograin contact.
Fluid pressure is caused by weight of
column of fluids in the pore spaces.
Average = 0.465 psi/ft (saline water).
Overburden pressure is the sum of the
lithostatic and fluid pressures.

RESERVOIR PRESSURE
Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled by the
gradient in the aquifer.
High pressures exist in some reservoirs.

Reservoir Pressure Calculation

RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE GRADIENT

The chart shows three possible temperature gradients. The

temperature can be determined if the depth is known.
High temperatures exist in some places. Local knowledge is important.

FLUIDS IN A RESERVOIR
A reservoir normally contains either water or
hydrocarbon or a mixture.
The hydrocarbon may be in the form of oil or
gas.
The specific hydrocarbon produced depends
on the reservoir pressure and temperature.
The formation water may be fresh or salty.
The amount and type of fluid produced
depends on the initial reservoir pressure,
rock properties and the drive mechanism.

HYDROCARBON COMPOSITION

Typical hydrocarbons have the following composition in Mol Fraction

Hydrocarbon

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6+

Dry gas

.88

.045

.045

.01

.01

.01

Condensate

.72

.08

.04

.04

.04

.08

Volatile oil

.6-.65

.08

.05

.04

.03

.15-.2

Black oil

.41

.03

.05

.05

.04

.42

Heavy oil

.11

.03

.01

.01

.04

.8

Tar/bitumen

The 'C' numbers indicated the number of carbon atoms in the molecular chain.

1.0

HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE
The major
constituent of
hydrocarbons is
paraffin.

HYDROCARBON CLASSIFICATION

Hydrocarbons are also defined by their weight and the Gas/Oil ratio. The
table gives some typical values:
GOR

API Gravity

Wet gas

100mcf/b

50-70

Condensate

5-100mcf/b

50-70

Volatile oil

3000cf/b

40-50

Black oil

100-2500cf/b

30-40

Heavy oil

10-30

Tar/bitumen

<10

HYDROCARBON GAS
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane,
CH4. Some heavier gases make up the rest.
Gas can contain impurities such as
Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S and Carbon
Dioxide, CO2.
Gases are classified by their specific
gravity which is defined as:
"The ratio of the density of the gas to that
of air at the same temperature and
pressure".

FLUID PHASES
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.: gas or
oil.
In a reservoir oil and gas exist together at equilibrium,
depending on the pressure and temperature.
The behaviour of a reservoir fluid is analyzed using the
properties; Pressure, Temperature and Volume (PVT).
There are two simple ways of showing this:
Pressure against temperature keeping the volume constant.
Pressure against volume keeping the temperature constant.

PVT Experiment

PHASE DIAGRAM SINGLE COMPONENT

The experiment is conducted at different temperatures.
The final plot of Pressure against Temperature is made.
The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the Bubble Point
and Dew Point.
(For a single component they coincide.)

Volatile Oil

Black Oil

Dewpoint line

Dewpoint line

80

60

50

40

30

% Liquid
790

20

90

% Liquid

50

10

33

30

le
bb
Bu

lin

B
ub
bl
ep
oi
nt
lin
e

Black Oil

int
po

Volatile oil
Pressure

Critical
point

80 9
0
7
60 0

40

Pressure, psia

Pressure path
in reservoir

10

20

Separator

Separator

Dew

t li
poin

ne

Temperature

Temperature, F

Pressure path
in reservoir

Pressure path
in reservoir

Pressure path
in reservoir

1
Retrograde gas

THE FIVE
RESERVOIR
FLUIDS

Critical
1 point

Pressure path
in reservoir

% Liquid

Critical
point

Temperature

Retrograde Gas

Dew
poi
nt

% Liquid
2

Separator
Temperature

Wet Gas

50
25
1

Separator

Dry gas

30
1

25

Bu
bb
l
lin epo
30 e int

15

20

% Liquid

Pressure

De
w

Wet gas

line

lin
e
po
int

Pressure

De
w

lin
e

4
300

Critical
point

Bu
bb
le
po
in
t

Pressure

po
in
tl

in
e

Separator
Temperature

Dry Gas

THREE GASES - WHAT ARE THE

DIFFERENCES?
Dry gas - gas at surface is same as gas in
reservoir
Wet gas - recombined surface gas and
condensate represents gas in reservoir
Retrograde gas - recombined surface gas
and condensate represents the gas in the
reservoir but not the total reservoir fluid
(retrograde condensate stays in reservoir)

FIELD IDENTIFICATION

Initial
Producing
Gas/Liquid
Ratio, scf/STB
Initial StockTank Liquid
Gravity, API
Color of StockTank Liquid

Black
Oil
<1750

Volatile
Oil
1750 to
3200

Retrograde
Gas
> 3200

Wet
Gas
> 15,000*

Dry
Gas
100,000*

< 45

> 40

> 40

Up to 70

No
Liquid

Dark

Colored

Lightly
Colored

Water
White

No
Liquid

*For Engineering Purposes

LABORATORY ANALYSIS

Phase
Change in
Reservoir
Heptanes
Plus, Mole
Percent
Oil
Formation
Volume
Factor at
Bubblepoint

Black
Volatile
Retrograde
Oil
Oil
Gas
Bubblepoint Bubblepoint Dewpoint

> 20%

20 to 12.5

< 12.5

Wet
Gas
No
Phase
Change
< 4*

< 2.0

> 2.0

*For Engineering Purposes

Dry
Gas
No
Phase
Change
< 0.8*

PRIMARY PRODUCTION TRENDS

Time

GOR

GOR

Time

Time

Time

Dry
Gas

Time

No
liquid

Time

API

API

Time

Wet
Gas

API

Time

API

GOR
API

Time

Retrograde
Gas
GOR

Volatile
Oil
GOR

Black
Oil

No
liquid

Time

BLACK OIL FLUID PROPERTIES

Sample : DRY GAS FLUID PROPERTIS

FVF

Formation
Volume Factor

Fluids at bottom hole

conditions produce
different fluids at
surface:
Oil becomes oil plus
gas.
Gas usually stays as
gas unless it is a
Condensate.
Water stays as water
with occasionally
some dissolved gas.

FLUID VISCOSITY

FLUID & FORMATION

COMPRESSIBILITY

DRIVE MECHANISMS

A virgin reservoir has a pressure controlled by the local

gradient.
Hydrocarbons will flow if the reservoir pressure is sufficient to
drive the fluids to the surface (otherwise they have to be
pumped).
As the fluid is produced reservoir pressure drops.
The rate of pressure drop is controlled by the Reservoir Drive
Mechanism.
Drive Mechanism depends on the rate at which fluid expands
to fill the space vacated by the produced fluid.
Main Reservoir Drive Mechanism types are:
1.
2.
3.

Water drive.
Gas cap drive.
Gas solution drive

Water Invasion

Water invading an oil zone, moves

close to the grain surface, pushing
the oil out of its way in a pistonlike fashion.

The capillary pressure gradient

forces water to move ahead faster
in the smaller pore channels.

The remaining thread of

oil becomes smaller.

It finally breaks into smaller

pieces.

As a result, some drops

of oil are left behind in
the channel.

Water Drive
Oil producing well

Oil

Zone

Water

Water

Cross Section

Water moves up to fill the "space"

vacated by the oil as it is produced.

Bottom Water Drive

Oil producing well

Oil

Zone
Water

Cross Section

Water moves up to fill the "space"

vacated by the oil as it is produced.

Water Drive 2

This type of drive usually keeps the reservoir pressure fairly

constant.
After the initial dry oil production, water may be produced. The
amount of produced water increases as the volume of oil in the
reservoir decreases.
Dissolved gas in the oil is released to form produced gas.

Gas Invasion
Gas is more mobile than
oil and takes the path of
least resistance along
the centre of the larger
channels.
As a result, oil is left
behind in the smaller,
less
permeable,
channels.

Gas Cap Drive

Gas from the gas cap expands to fill the space

vacated by the produced oil.

Gas Cap Drive 2

As oil production declines, gas production increases.

Rapid pressure drop at the start of production.

Solution Gas Drive

After some time the oil in the reservoir is below

the bubble point.

Solution Gas Drive 2

An initial high oil production is followed by a rapid decline.

The Gas/Oil ratio has a peak corresponding to the higher
permeability to gas.
The reservoir pressure exhibits a fast decline.

GRAVITY DRAINAGE
Gas
Gas
Oil
Gas

Point C

Oil
Point B

Oil
Point A

Recovery = to 60% of OOIP

Drives General
A water drive can recover up to 60% of the oil in place.
A gas cap drive can recover only 40% with a greater
reduction in pressure.
A solution gas drive has a low recovery.

Gas/oil Ratio Trends

5

Solutiongas drive

Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

Gas-cap drive
3

Water drive

20

40

60

80

100

Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place

Average Recovery Factors

Drive Mechanism

Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Water drive
Gravity-drainage
drive
Drive Mechanism

Volumetric reservoir
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive

Average Oil Recovery

Factors,
% of OOIP
Range
Average
5 - 30
15
15 - 50
30
30 - 60
40
16 - 85
50
Average Gas Recovery
Factors,
% of OGIP
Range
Average
70 - 90
80
35 - 65

50

Drive Problems
Water Drive:

Water can cone upwards and be

produced through the lower
perforations.

Gas Cap Drive:

Gas can cone downwards and be

produced through the upper
perforations.
Pressure is rapidly lost as the gas
expands.

Gas Solution Drive:

Gas production can occur in the

reservoir, skin damage.
Very short-lived.

Secondary Recovery

Secondary recovery covers a range of techniques used to

augment the natural drive of a reservoir or boost production at
a later stage in the life of a reservoir.
A field often needs enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques to
maximise its production.
Common recovery methods are:
Water injection.
Gas injection.

In difficult reservoirs, such as those containing heavy oil, more

advanced recovery methods are used:

Steam flood.
Polymer injection.
CO2 injection.
In-situ combustion.

Secondary
Recovery 2
water injection

gas injection

 To demonstrate reservoir
properties in a plan view
projection with objectives to
promote optimal field
development.
The maps will be used for
well placement, reserves
calculation, reservoir
performance monitoring.
Mapping is part of reservoir
characterization, therefore
the results of which very
depend on the experts
working knowledge in
applied geologic models

WELL PLACEMENT

 TOP/SURFACE MAPS :
Structure Map
Fault Map
Unconformity Map

Carried out by DG

THICKNESS MAPS :
Isopachous Map Gross & Net

OTHERS & COMBINED MAPS :

Isoporosity Map
Pressure Map
Productivity Map
Net to Gross Sand Map

- Isopermeability Map
- Saturation Map
- Shale Map
- Etc.

MAPPING

CONCEPTUAL WORKFLOW
DATA

PROCESSING
PROCESING

REGIONAL
GEOLOGY

1. GEOLOGIC MODEL

SEISMIC
WELL LOGS
CORE & CUTTING
ANALYSIS
WELL TESTS &
PRESSURE
FLUID ANALYSIS
PRODUCTION
DATA

PRODUCTS

INTERPRETATION,
ZONATION,
INTEGRATION,
CORRELATION,
ANALYSIS
&
DEFINE VALUES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

FACIES
STRATIFICATION
CONTINUITY
TRENDS
TECTONIC

2. GEOLOGICAL MAP
1.
2.
3.
4.

STRUCTURE
ISOPACH
FAULTS/BARIER
UNCONFORMITY

3. RESERVOIR MAP
1. NET PAY
2. POROSITY
3. PERMEABILITY
4. PRESSURE
5. PRODUCTIVITY

BASIC KNOWLEDGE
FOR RESERVOIR CORRELATION & MAPPING
LOG ANALYSIS (electro-facies, reservoir parameters,
stratigraphy, structure, etc.)
SEISMIC INTERPRETATION (structure, reservoir
continuity, hydrocarbon indications)
SEDIMENTARY FACIES, DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS & SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
MODELS OF BASINS & RESERVOIRS, AND ALSO
REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF THE MAPPED FIELD
trends of sedimentation & major tectonic and its
ramifications
BASIC RESERVOIR ENGINEERING pressure regime,
models, fluid propertie and production performance.
BASIC COORDINATE SYSTEMS/GEOMETRY &
STEREOMETRY base map, well trajectory, lease
boundary etc.

LOG ANALYSIS
FOR RESERVOIR CORRELATION & MAPPING
LITHOLOGY / FACIES IDENTIFICATIONS &
MARKERS DETERMINATION continuity, consistency,
missing sections & repetition sections (faults or overturn)

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
VERTICAL ZONATIONS
TOP & BOTTOM
FLOW UNIT

FLUID CONTACTS OWC, GOC & GWC

RESERVOIR PARAMETERS Por, Perm, Sw etc
NET PAY THICKNESS DETERMINATIONS

BASIC CURVE SHAPE OF SP & GR

for facies & sedimentary environment determinations

DIP METER
dip patterns and its
geologic association

DIPMETER USES :
Structural dip & fault determinations.
Facies, type of sands & its trends
interpretations (micro resistivity
Fracture identification
Sedimentary structure can be
identified with processed Dipmeter or
FMI (formation imaging)

FMI fulbore formation micro imager

RAB resistivity at the bit

SEISMIC FOR RESERVOIR GEOLOGY

Aid in :
Reservoir facies mapping reservoir distribution : lithology,
isopach etc 3D
Reservoir properties mapping porosity
Locating / define fluid contacts
Monitoring fluid fronts 4D
Sructure & stratigraphic interpretations

Seismic methods :

2D Seismic
3D seismic
VSP
Well to well seismic
Time-lapse seismic monitoring etc.

EXPLOSIVE

LAPISAN BATUAN

EXAMPLE

VSP

VSP
(Vertical Seismic Profiling)

SLB, OFR, 2007 Autumn

Example :

Comparison of VSP & Seismic Results

SURFACE SEISMIC IMAGE

SURFACE SEISMIC IMAGE

TIES WITH VSP

SLB, OFR, 2007 Autumn

3D Seismic

Basic of 4D Seismic

Example

: 4D Seismic uses

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
AND SEDIMENTARY FACIES

Distinctive and Common Sedimentary

Facies Associations
Vertical successions
principally identified
by lithology,
associations and
vertical arrangement
of sedimentary
structures
indicative of
particular
sedimentary
depositional
environments

CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

(DIAGRAM BY R.G. LOUCKS AND C.R. HANDFORD, UNPUBLISHED)

SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY CONCEPTS

Sequence stratigraphy highlights the role of allogenic controls on

patterns of deposition, as opposed to autogenic controls that
operate within depositional environments
Eustasy (sea level)
Subsidence (basin tectonics)
Sediment supply (climate and hinterland tectonics)

COMPONENTS OF SEQUENCES

SLB, OFR, JAN93

GROSS

NET

NET PAY

 A MAPABLE PORTION OF THE TOTAL RESERVOIR

WITHIN WHICH GEOLOGICAL AND PETROPHYSICAL
PROPERTIES THAT AFFECT THE FLOW OF FLUIDS
ARE CONSISTENT AND PREDICTABLY DIFFERENT
FROM THE PROPERTIES OF OTHER RESERVOIR
ROCK VOLUME ( mod. EBANK, 1987)
A specific volume of reservoir, may be composed of
one or more lithologies and any nonreservoir rock
types
Correlative and mappable at the interwell scale
Zonation is recognizable on wireline logs
May be in communication with other flow unit

LEVELS OF
RESERVOIR
HETEROGENETY
(fluviatil rock)

GEOLOGICAL AND PETROPHYSICAL DATA

USED TO DEFINE FLOW UNITS
Core Lithofacies

Core Pore
Plugs Types

Petrophysical
Data

Gamma Ray Flow

Log
Units

Capillary
vs k Pressure

5
4
3

Schematic Reservoir Layering Profile

in a Carbonate Reservoir
Baffles/barriers
SA -97A

Flow unit

SA -251
3150

3200

SA -356 SA -71 SA -344

3150

3100

SA -371

3100

SA -348
3250

SA -346

SA -37

3150

3100
3200
3200

3150
3200

3300

3150

3250

3200

3150

3250
3250
3300

3250

3200

3250

3250

3200
3300
3350

3300

3250

3300
3250

3350

3350

From Bastian and others

E
BASED ON :
PRODUCTION TESTINGS the most
reliable methods
LOGS (electrical logs combined with FDC &
CNL)
PRESSURE SURVEY pressure gradient
from RFT
SEISMIC hydrocarbon indications

Fluid Contact Determination

with fluid gradient from RFT
Oil
Gra

er
at

7
.36
nt 0
die

t
i/f
ps

depth

33
.4

OWC

water

RFT depth

pressure

/ft
psi

t0
en
di
ra
G

oil

CORRELATIONS
Reservoir Correlation is part of pre-mapping works
of reservoir to locate and trace the lateral
distribution, continuity, geometry of reservoirs and
its flow unit.
Correlation should be carried out based all the
available data, a sedimentological and stratigraphic
model of the reservoirs.
Some pre-correlation works notes:
Wireline log will be the basic data and will be calibrated and
integrated with other data analysis results such as core
analysis especially.
Vertical profile analysis of well data should be carried out
previously to establish the facies, sequences and
sedimentary environment.
Zonation of lithology and flow unit, and also marker
inentifications should be geologically sound.
Define the zone top & bottom, zone thickness (gross & net)
etc.

Tips for Correlation

Stratigraphic Cross Section is the best demonstration of a
correlation results.
The section should show reservoir lateral and vertical facies
changes, markers continuity, missing & repetition sections,
completion & prod. testing notes, etc.
Good markers can be organic shale, coal/lignite, limestone beds,
glauconite, siderite etc. which has good continuity and
correspond to the geologic events such as maximum flooding,
emmergence etc.
Start the correlation with the whole log section of individual well,
make zonation based on electro facies then define all markers
and zones of interest. Indicates any missing and repetition
section. Then carry out a detail correlation of objective reservoirs.
For reservoir connectivity indication use also fluid contents and
contacts, pressure data and production performance data
Prepare a good tabulation (database) of geologic data such as
depth of top & bottom of reservoir, net & gross thickness, faults
depth etc.

CORRELATION
PROBABILISTIC to DETERMINISTIC

After EA Arief S, IPA, 2001

LATIHAN

D
C

LATIHAN

WELL #123

WELL #456
B

OIL

OWC

OIL

LATIHAN

WELL #123

WELL #456
B

OIL

OWC

OIL

LATIHAN

WELL #123

WELL #456
B

OIL

OWC

OIL

Tip for Reservoir Mapping

Prepare a good base-map based on coordinates of
wells and seismic shot points (line & BM).
Plot the data accurately then start contouring from
the highest positions for structure and refer to
seismic maps.
Stucture contour should be stop whenever
cross/meet the fault plane. Consider the fault
throws and missing/repetition sections for the next
blocks contouring.
For isopach maps initiate with facies map
construction then followed with isopach contouring.
Understand the contouring principles such as no
crossing contour etc.

-1 2
00

00
0
-1 00
-11

- 1 20

-1
00
0

-1
0

00

0
0
0
-1 00
1
-1 0 0
2
-1

00
1
-1

00
1
-1

00
0
-1

-1
20
0
-13
00
-1 2
00

-11
0
- 1 0
00
0

00
2
-1

00
1
-1

20

30

0
0

20

10

20

10

10

20

10

30
20

PLAN VIEW

-1700
-1600
-1500

-1400
0
-130

-1000
-1100
-1200
-1300

-1400
-1500
-1600

- 17
- 16 00
-15 000
- 14 0
- 1 00
- 123 00
- 1 00
- 101 00
00

-1700

SECTION VIEW

NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION

STRUCTURE MAP

1010

1000
1020

1030

1040
1050

OWC @ 1050
mss

Contour unit in meter sub-sea

Contour interval 10 m

NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION

0m

ISOPACHOUS MAP

5m
10 m

15 m

15 m
10 m
5m
0m

Contour unit in meter

Contour interval 5 m

NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION

0m

NET PAY MAP

5m

1050
1030

10 m

1040
1020

15 m

10

1010

15
5

10 m
5m
0m

Contour unit in meter

Contour interval 5 m

FAULT MAP

n
w
o
d

SURFACES OF FAULTS X AND Y

WEST-EAST CROSS SECTION

UNCON

Y
FORMIT

B
A

nd
a
S

nd
a
S

AS

Sa
nd

an
d

STRUCTURE MAP OF A SAND

ISOPACHOUS MAP OF A SAND

NET PAY MAP OF A SAND

STRUCTURE MAP OF B SAND

ISOPACHOUS MAP of B SAND

NET PAY MAP OF B SAND

NET OIL

NET GAS

FAULT ANALYSIS
SEALING OR NON SEALING
Can be based on :
Log analysis
Well test data
Pressure build-up analysis
Interference test
Production data
Using radioactive tracer
Core & Rock Cutting
Correlation & Sratigraphic analysis

ALLAN DIAGRAM

Disagregated
& cemented

Phillosillicatesmear
framework

clay-smear
fault rocks

A
B
C
A
D

E
C
F
E

Allan Diagram for non-sealing fault

OIL

OIL

UP BLOCK
UP BLOCK

OIL

DOWN
BLOCK
DOWN BLOCK
OIL
Common Oil Water Contacts

WATER
WATER

NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION

0m

NET PAY MAP

5m

1050
1030

10 m

1040
1020

15 m

10

1010

15
5

10 m
5m
0m

Contour unit in meter

Contour interval 5 m

 The most important role of a DG is to:

estimate the oil and gas reserves that may
be discovered in a particular venture.
keep track of the reserves in all past
ventures.

THE 4 BASIC RESERVES ESTIMATION

METHODS
1. Educated Guess and/or Comparison
with nearby production.
2. Static Reserves Estimates

Volumetric Calculations

3. Dynamic Reserves Estimates

Decline Curve Analysis

Material balance calculations
Reservoir Simulation

THE EDUCATED GUESS and/or

COMPARISON OF NEARBY PRODUCTION
Consider a region where production is from a
highly fractured tight formation or where
poroperm heterogeneity is unpredictable.
Volumetric calculations are largely
meaningless.
A way to estimate potential production from
a well is to consider those nearby.
Generally, such a wildcat well will not
perform better than the nearest wells: best to
estimate cautiously

VOLUMETRICS
Most accurate and widely used methods of reserves
estimation.
Carried out by geologists as they are based on
geological structure and isopach maps.
Rock volumes are established that are assumed to
contain hydrocarbons (e.g. seismic bright spot).
Can be a simple volume calculation or a complex net
gas or net oil isopach approach, determined by
structure contours modified by fluid contacts and net
isopachs (net reservoir thickness map).
Accuracy of volumetrics depends on data for porosity,
saturation, net thickness, areal extent, formation
volume factor, integrity of those data within a reservoir.

Volumetric Method
RR = 7758 x A.t x (1 Sw) x FVF x RF

Amount of oil in reservoir

RR
7758

=
=

=
=
=
=
=

A
t

(1-Sw)
FVF
Bo/Bg

RF

Amount of recoverable oil

Recoverable Reserves
conversion from acreft to barrels (if vol. in
m3. this conversion number is eliminated)
area of porous rock, acre
thickness in feet
porosity,%
water saturation of reservoir
Formation Volume Factor (1/Bo & 1/Bg)

reservoir volume / surface volume (vr / vs )

Recovery Factor

HOW TO DETERMINE
ROCK VOLUME
Most rock volumes established through use of
net gas and net oil isopachs (net pay map).
Constructed from superimposing of net isopach
map and structure contour maps then cut
(reduced) it with well defined OWC and/or GOC.
Calculate the volume of net pay map by
planimeter (or digitizer table) and/or grid square
counting

HORIZON MAP
(Superimposed Structure and Net Isopach Maps)
0m

5m
10 m

15 m

10 m
5m
0m

NET PAY MAP

Rock Volume Calculations

2 methods :
1. PYRAMID

2. TRAPEZOIDS

A
h
n
t

:
:
:
:

area, m2 or acre
isopach/contour interval, m or ft
contour number (0 n)
avg. thickness above the top of max. thickness

FVF

Formation Volume Factor

RF
Recovery Factor

Usually RF determination is carried out by

Reservoir Engineer.
Mainly based on the reservoir drive, rock
properties and fluid properties.
For oil with effective water drive the
primary recoveries are in 25 40 % range
(max. 75%).
For gas with gravity drainage, water drive
and depletion drive can provide RF > 80%.

Average Recovery Factors

Drive Mechanism

Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Water drive
Gravity-drainage
drive
Drive Mechanism

Volumetric reservoir
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive

Average Oil Recovery

Factors,
% of OOIP
Range
Average
5 - 30
15
15 - 50
30
30 - 60
40
16 - 85
50
Average Gas Recovery
Factors,
% of OGIP
Range
Average
70 - 90
80
35 - 65

50

SOURCES
OF
DATA

Decline Curve Analysis

(Reservoir Engineers jobs)

After wells have been producing for a while:

The rate of production is graphed
Generally 6 months 1 year after start of
production
Good reserves estimates can be derived.
Often compared with volumetric technique
results.
Can be done by well, by a group of well, by
block, by reservoir, by field

Decline Analysis Results

Determine remaining recoverable reserves
under natural depletion rate.
To forecast production under existing
conditions
Limitation:
The degree of the accuracy is depend on the
reliability of the production data.

DECLINE
CURVE
EQUATIONS

Production Plots
1. A plot of log(q) vs t is
Q
Q

Linear if decline is exponential

Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic (n>0) or harmonic

2. A plot of q vs Np is
Q
Q

Linear if decline is exponential

Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic(n>0) or harmonic

3. A plot of log(q) vs Np is
Q
Q
Q

Linear if decline is harmonic

Concave downward if decline is hyperbolic (n<1) or exponential
Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic with n>1.

4. A plot of 1/q vs t is
Q
Q
Q

Linear if decline is harmonic

Concave downward if decline is hyperbolic (n<1) or exponential
Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic with n>1.

Example. Exponential decline

Example. Exponential decline

Rate, stb/d

10000

q = 6049.1e

-0.0524 t

1000

Slope=-D 1/quarter year

100
0

10

20

30

40

time (quarter year)

50

60

Example. Exponential decline

Example. Rate decline with production

7000
6000

q = -0.4301Np + 5768.7

q stb/d

5000
4000

Reserves

3000
2000

q abondonment
1000
0
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

Cum. prod, MSTB

12000

14000

Example. Harmonic decline

12000

40

Rate (stb/d)

30
8000
25
6000

20
15

4000
10
2000

0
0

Time (years)

10

12

14

16

Cum. Production (MMstb)

35

10000

Example. Hyperbolic decline

Hyperbolic Decline curve
10000
9000
8000

q STB/D

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0

50

100

150

200
days

250

300

350

MATERIAL BALANCE
of a Petroleum Reservoir
(Mostly carried out by Reservoir Engineer)
z General Concept of Material Balance.

a. Initial reservoir conditions.

z From: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering

Amyx, Bass, and Whiting (1960).

b. Conditions after producing Np STB of oil,

and Gp SCF of gas, and Wp STB of water.

z Material Balance: Key Issues

Must have accurate production measurements (oil, water, gas).

Estimates of average reservoir pressure (from pressure tests).
Suites of PVT data (oil, gas, water).
Reservoir properties: saturations, formation compressibility, etc.

RESERVOIR SIMULATION (RS)

Reservoir Modelling: primarily the reservoir
engineers job.
RS applies the concepts and techniques of mathematical modeling to the analysis of the behavior of
petroleum reservoir systems.
In a narrower sense refers only to the hydrodinamics of flow within reservoir.
In a larger sense refer to the total petroleum
system which includes the reservoir, the surface
facilities, and any interrelated significant activity, and
economic
The basic flow model the partial differential
equations using finite difference methods which
govern the unsteady state flow of all fluid phases in
the reservoir medium.

RESERVOIR SIMULATION
INPUT

PROCESSED
in the BLACK BOX

OUTPUT

Rock data
Reserves

Fluid data
Production data

Reservoir model

Pressure data

Plan of reservoir
depletion

Flow rate data

Mechanical &
operational data
Miscellaneous
data

RESERVOIR
SIMULATOR

Production
forecast
Optimum
production

Reservoir link with surface facility

The Role of DG
in Reservoir Simulation
Prepare the array input data (maps) of individual flow
unit : structure (top & bottom), isopach (net & gross),
porosity, permeability, rock compressibility etc.
Advising to simulation engineer in the designing of
the grid model and layer divisions.
Trace and established in the model grid the
existence of faults, horizontal and vertical barriers
permeability.
During the history matching of production, pressure
etc., DG advises to simulation engineer in allowable
geological modification such as thickness, structure,
rock properties and volumetric reserves.

RESERVES CLASIFICATIONS
PROVED :
Estimated to reasonable certainty. Often based on
well logs but normally requires actual production or
formation tests.
Proved developed reserves
Reserves that are expected to be recovered from existing wells

Proved undeveloped reserves

To be recovered by new drilling, deepening wells to a new
reservoir or where additional finance is required to produce

PROBABLE RESERVES
Less certain than proved but can be assessed to
some degree of certainty. May include logging
estimates, improved recovery technique estimates

POSSIBLE RESERVES
Not as certain as probable reserves and can only be
estimated to a low degree of confidence.

UNPROVED RESERVES Resources

RESERVES CLASSIFICATIONS

Decision Making: protocol

Despite these defined terms, there is still some latitude in their

application. In general, we use this:

Proved Reserves = minimum case economics. Financial

investment is based on proved reserves.

Proved + Probable Reserves = most likely case

economics. Internal company decisions usually based on this.

Proved +Probable + Possible Reserves = maximum

case economics. This is the best that could reasonably happen
for a venture. Companies try to sell ventures based on this.

MM DARISSALAM, YOGYAKARTA JUN. 08