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    Aerodynamics Introduction

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    Aerodynamics 1

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    Aerodynamics Introduction

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    Aerodynamics 1

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    of 34
    SYMBOLS Tux following list is intended to show the most frequent conventional meaning with which certain symbols are used in this book. ‘The list is not exhaustive nor does it preclude some symbols being used in other senses (which are always defined). ‘The numbers in brackets indicate the section where the meaning is first used or explained, A aerodynamic force (1-01) A aspect ratio (1-13) a,a’ slope of the (Cz, 2) graph for finite aspect-ratio (11-24) ; inter- ference factors (13-4) ca slope of the (Cz, 2) graph for two-dimensional motion (7-13) b span (1-1) e chord (I-11, 1-12) ; speed of sound (1-5) C cross-sectional area of a wind tunnel (14-4) Or lift coefficient, Cp drag coeflicient, ete. (1-73) D drag (1-02) ag acceleration due to gravity and its magnitude (20-01, 25) i square root of — 1 (3-4) i,j,k unit vectors along the z-, y-, z-axes (11-1) J rate of advance coefficient (13-42) K circulation (5:5) L lift (1-02) l typical length (1-71) : F in Joukowski transformation (641) M pitching moment (1-73) ; Mach number (1-71) unit normal vector (931) ~ pressure (1-4); aerodynamic pressure (2-13); angular velocity of rolling (19-2) engine torque (131) air velocity and speed (1-21); angular velocity of pitching (19-0) Reynolds’ number (1-71) position vector (1-21) apa angular velocity of yawing (19-2) plan area of wings (1-13) absolute temperature (2:5) ; propeller thrust (13:1) time cet u,v, 0 Terese rr sans dete nves syMnoLs components of air speed (3:11) velocity of airoraft, and aircraft speed (1-01, 1-71) weight of aircraft (1-01) complex potential (3-7); velocity of downwash (11-21); wing ; loading (18-31) ‘components of aerodynamic force (5-4) x + iy, complex variable (3-4) incidence, angle of attack (1-15) absolute incidence (7-13) ; angle of side-slip (18-33); Y(1 ~ Mg!) (15-4) angle between Axes I and IL (7-14); gliding angle (1-02) dihedral angle (196) ; ratio of specific heats (15-01) circulation (11-2) aerofoil characteristic (11-53) angle of downwash (11-24); complex variable (17-12) wind tunnel interference angle (14-4) vorticity vector (9:3) £ + é in conformal mapping (3:6) efficiency of a propeller (15-1) strength of a vortex (4+11) ; propeller characteristic (13-42) ‘Mach angle (16-1); relative aircraft density (20-2) kinematic viscosity (1-6) ratio of length of circumference of a circle to its diameter impulsive pressure (3°31) air pressure at infinity (5-32) air density (1-3) summation (1-71) aerofoil characteristic (11-51) ; propeller characteristic (13-42) ; unit of time (20-21) velocity potential (3°31) stream function (3:1) angular velocity of aircraft (20-01) angular speed of propeller (13:1) ; force potential (2:11) surface vorticity (96) ; angular velocity (20-1) magnitude of vorticity (3-21) ; angular speed ,2 1.8 tig tke en alpha beta gamma delta epsilon zeta eta theta iota kappa lambda mu 2s mw 7 B&R DA . a THE GREEK ALPHABET A B nu xi omicron pi tho sigma tau upsilon phi chi omega wy 3 9 > 30 ¢ ee xR F 2 See BRUM DTROM 21-5) THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY 417 21-5. The equation of continuity. If we consider a particle of air of infinitesimal volume dr and density p at time ¢ the mass of this particle does not change as it moves about, and therefore a) San) This is one form of the equation of continuity or conservation of mass, If the volume expands, p decreases, and vice versa, in such a way that (1) is always satisfied. Another point of view is the following. Consider a fixed closed surface S imagined drawn in the fluid (air). If n is the unit in- ward normal to the element dS the rate at which mass flows into the surface through the boundary is 2) f pqn dS. ‘The mass of the air within the volume V enclosed by Sis @) [ee Assuming that no air is created or annihilated within S (no sources or sinks), the mass can only increase by flow through the boundary. Equating (2) to the time rate of increase of (3) we get a Zl para a8 = ~ ltt = | earas =~ J, oe by Gauss’s theorem. ‘Thus op re + Vea) ao Since the surface S can be replaced by any arbitrary closed surface drawn within it, we must have, at every point, ap (4) at Vieq) = 9 which is another form of the equation of continuity. If the motion is steady, ap/at = 0 and therefore 6) V(eq) = 0. pape eee eee eae eee eee cee which is another form of the equation of continuity. If the motion is steady, ap/at = 0 and therefore 6) V(pq) = 0. If the air is in addition regarded as incompressible, we have (6) Vq=90, and if the motion is irrotational so that q = — V4, we get Laplace's equation (3311) ap ap a Vv cP Vb = a5 + ays t ae = Observe that (5) can be written in the form pV4+ (GV)p = 9 Using 21-3 (14), in the case of irrotational motion this becomes a, , a ep (7) TeV sus tea te Ps =0. 21-6. The equation of motion. Consider the air which at time ¢ occupies the region interior to a fixed closed surface S (fig. 21-5) which lies entirely in the fluid (air), By Newton’s second law of motion the total force acting on this mass of air is equal to the rate of change of linear momentum. The force is due to (i) the normal pressure thrusts on the boundary, (ii) the external force (such as gravity), say F per unit mass. ‘Thus f pnd + f Fodr= ‘| qpar. (9) ) dt Jy) a =f par J a Now, il, ee [ne “Mar + [ad (oa, and the last integral vanishes by 21:5 (1). Also, by Gauss’s theorem, i) pndS = -| Vpdr. es ” Therefore iI ( Fo - Vp- oa) dr =0. Since the volume of integration is entirely arbitrary, the integrand must vanish at every point, and therefore dq _ 1 a F-3Ve 3-6. Conformal mapping. Let us take two complex variables C=Eti, cnztiy and the corresponding Argand diagrams which we shall call the ¢-plane and the zplane respectively. Let f(£) be a holomorphic function of { in the region R {plane an = plane exterior to a simple closed curve C, that is to say, exterior to the region shaded in fig. 3-6 (i). We can then establish a correspondence between points of this region and points of the z-plane by means of the relation (1) z=f. Since f(¢) is holomorphic, it is one-valued and therefore to each point { there corresponds a unique point z, and as £ describes the curve C, « will describe a corresponding curve A in the z-plane which is the map in the z-plane, of the curve C, given by the mapping function f(C). We shall assume that the mapping function is so chosen that A is a simple closed curve and that the points of the region R of the ¢-plane exterior to @ map into points of the region S of the z-plane exterior to A. Moreover, we assume that the mapping is biuniform, that is to say, that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the points exterior to C and the points exterior to A. These conditions will be satisfied in all the applications which we shall make.* Now referring to fig. 3:6 (ii), let do, ds be infinitesimal ares of any two corre- sponding curves in the two planes and put dl = doe, dz = dso, * For further details and proofs the reader is referred to Milne-Thomson, Theoretical Hydro- | dynamics, Chapter V. : 34) CONFORMAL MAPPING 63 From (1) we have dz =a. f'(d) and so if f’(C) = met, we have dsc = mdo eto), and therefore @) ds= mde, O=ote a of 7 afte Z = [plane eplane Fie. 26 (i. ‘These relations show (a) that the angle at { between any two curves passing through { is equal to the angle at 2 between their maps, and (6) that the element of are of the map in the 2-plane is m times the element of are of the curve in the ¢-plane. It follows that any small region round { maps into a geometrically similar small region round 2, the linear scale, or magnification, of the mapping being m = | ’(Z)|, (and therefore being in general variable from one part of the plane to another). For this reason the mapping given by (1) is said to be conformal. Observe that the conformal character of the mapping breaks down at any point for which f’(¢) is zero or infinite. 3:8. Application of conformal mapping. Consider a mapping of the {-plane on the z-plane by (1) 2=f(), such that the region R exterior to C’ in the {-plane maps into the region S exterior to A in the 2-plane, see fig. 3:6 (i). Then the contour C’ maps into the contour 4. Let a fluid motion in the region 2 of the Z-plane be given by the complex potential @) wa w= d+ Then at corresponding points £ and z given by (1), w and therefore ¢ and take the same values. Now C is a boundary, and so a streamline, and therefore yb = k, a constant, at all points of C. Since A corresponds point by point with C, y = & at all points of 4. Therefore 4 is a streamline of the motion given by (2) and (1) together in the z-plane. The actual form of the complex potential in terms of z would be got by eliminating { between (1) and (2), but it is often preferable to look on £ as a parameter and forgo the elimination. Thus to find the velocity at Q in the z-plane corresponding with P in the {plane, we have dw dw dt aka and therefore tug — ivg = (up — ivp)/f’ (2). 5:5. The theorem of Kutta and Joukowski. An aerofoil at rest in a uniform wind of speed V, with circulation K round the aerofoil, undergoes a lift KpV perpendicular to the wind. The direction of the lift veotor is got by rotating the wind velocity vector through a right angle in the sense opposite to that of the circulation. Proof. Since there is a uniform wind, the velocity at a great distance from the aerofoil must tend simply to the wind velocity, and therefore if | z| is sufficiently large, we may write dw AB L -s = - Vet +o tate. a a zg tat 92 ‘THE THEOREM OF KUTTA AND JOUKOWSKI where a is the incidence. Thus w= Vers — Aloges Bs ..., Fig. 55. and since there is circulation K, we must have iK 2 -A=<, ® 4-3 for log z increases by 2i when we go once round the aerofoil in the positive sense. From (1) and (2) we get dw\? yea , 1K Ve" K* + 8n* BV el (=r tests mare If we now integrate round a circle whose radius is sufficiently large for the expansion (3) to be valid, the theorem of Blasius gives (see 3:52), X-i¥=hipx oni ( ret = ~iKp Ver, so that, changing the sign of #, () X + iY = ikp Ve-™ = Kp Veto, Comparison with fig. 5:5 shows that this force has all the properties stated in the enunciation, QE. Notes. (i) The theorem was discovered independently by Kutta (1902), and by Joukowski (1906). (ii) The lift is independent of the form of the profile. (iii) Observe that in applying the rule for the direction of the lift, the velocity vector must be drawn from the origin in the direction of the velocity. (iv) If the aerofoil is regarded as moving in air otherwise at rest, the lift is got by rotating the velocity vector of the aerofoil through a right angle in the same sense as the circulation. (v) The theorem of Blasius applied to (3) gives the moment about the: origin (3) M = real part of 2ripBVeis, CHAPTER VI JOUKOWSKI’S TRANSFORMATION 61. Joukowski’s transformation. The simplest form of the trans- formation is a) ratte where [is a real constant. By means of it we can map any selected region of the {plane on the z-plane. In aerodynamic practice the region mapped is generally that exterior to a circle in the ¢-plane. plane. per zplane. Let us denote corresponding points in the L- and z-planes by the same letter with, and without, suffix 1. In particular the points S,, H, given by { = 1, and {= -l, will map into the points S, H, given by z= 2I, z= — 21, These points play an important part in the geometry of the mapping. From (1) we get at once by subtracting 21 _ pe @) po cee g 1g -1)? whence arg(e ~ 21) = 2argit ~ 0) — argé, Je - 2) = A which in the notation of fig. 6-1 means that 8) x= 2x1 — Op SP = S,P*/0P, Thus, if y, and 8, increase from 0 to 2m, so does x. Similarly, by adding 21 to each side of (1) we get _@+9 (4) 2421 » @ = 2, - 0, HP = H,P,/OP,. From (3) and (4) we see that (6) LSPH = x - w = Uy, — &) = 228,P\H; S,P2 + HP _ 208, + 20P* 6 — SP + MP _ 208y i (6) SP + HP ae ap From (3) and (4) we see that 6) LSPH = x ~ © = 2x, - @) = 225,P; _S,P2 + HyP;? _ 208,2 + 20P? (6) SP + WP =e = by the theorem of Apollonius, since OP, is a median of the triangle S,P,H. 98 JOUKOWSKI’S TRANSFORMATION (4 We also notice that for large values of | £| we have 2 = (nearly, so that th distant parts of the planes are undistorted by the mapping. This property important, for it implies that a uniform wind in one plane will appear as th same uniform wind in the other. The scale of the mapping is given by dz ze #=)!-3 which vanishes when { = lor ~1. Thus the points §,, H, are points where mapping ceases to be conformal so that we must not map any region to whi these points are interior, though they may appear on the boundary. 611. Circles with centre at the origin. zplane. Fra. 6-11, ' Let us apply Joukowski’s transformation to circles whose centre is at the] origin in the {-plane. We shall consider only circles to which the points S,, Hy! are not external (see 61). 4 If P, is on one of the circles, say F,, we have from 6-1 (6) i SP + HP = constant, since OP, is constant. Thus P describes an ellipse F whose foci are S and H. Similarly if P, desoribes a larger circle such as G,, P will describe a larger ellipse G, which shows that points exterior to F, map into points exterior to F. ‘Thus the Joukowski transformation (1) maps circles in the ¢-plane whose centre is the origin into confocal ellipses in the z-plane. As a particular case, the circle E, on S,H, as diameter maps into the straight line SH. This is readily seen from 6-1 (5), for in this case 4 $,P\H, = 7/2 and therefore < SPH = 7, 80 that P moves on the line SH. Tt now appears that the transformation will map the region external to any one of the circles on the region external to the corresponding ellipse. In particular the region external to the circle E, which passes through S, and H/, maps into the region external to the line SH. In the language of our subject the circular cylinder typified by the circle H; is transformed into the rectangular aerofoil, of chord 4, typified by the line SH. 62. Joukowski fins, rudders, and struts. Fig, 6-2. Instead of mapping a circle whose centre is the origin, let us take a circle Ry whose centre C is on the real axis and which passes through H,, and which encloses S,. Then the circles Z,, @, with centres at the origin can be drawn to touch R, at H, and at 4,, the second point at which R, meets the real axis. Clearly the map of R, must lie between the maps of B, and @, and the map of Ry will resemble the map of £, in the neighbourhood of H and the map of G, in the neighbourhood of A. Thus the circle R, maps into a symmetrical profile with a blunt nose at 4 and a cusp at H, the trailing edge. Such shapes are suited to form the profiles of fins, rudders and struts where symmetry is desirable. 63. Circular arc profiles. Fig. 6-3. Let us transform a circle of radius a whose centre C is on the imaginary axis and which passes through S, and Hy. Let us introduce the useful practice of marking the map on the same Argand diagram as the circle, so that the figure shows points of both the z- and Z-planes. 100 CIRCULAR ARC PROFILES If 4CH,S, =e, we have, from 6-1 (5), «SPH = 228,P\H, =» since < 8,CH, at the contre is equal to 248,P,H, at the circumference, , Thus when P, describes the major arc $,B,H, in fig. 6-3 the « SPH rent constant and therefore P describes a circular are SBH. When P, describes minor are from H, to 8,, P moves back again* along HBS. In this way we a profile which consists of the circular are SBH described twice. From equal angles it is clear from the figure that CH, is parallel to BH If M is the centre of the are SBH, ea ~ sine ~ Sine ~ Ja — 2)" The camber (1-14) of this profile is OB_10B_ “4 ~ 20H ~ }tane = chien D 2 so that for small camber ¢ must be small. This means that OC is then st compared with /, in other words that the centre C of the circle to be transforr is near to O. a circle of radius @ which passes through the point H, but whose centre C is 6-4, The general Joukowski profile. This is obtained by Serre on either the real or the imaginary axis. If CH, meets the imaginary axis at C’, the circle whose centre is C’ ané radius C'H, will transform in a circular are as shown in fig. 6-4. This circulat are forms the skeleton of the profile obtained from the circle, centre C. If Cit near to 0’ this profile will enclose the are SH and not depart far from it at any point ; the profile will be thin. ‘The greater the distance C0’ the thicker will be the profile. The actual construction of such a profile can easily be carried out * For if P,O meets the circle again at P,, OP,.OP, = 1 and therefore the map of P, is the reflexion in OB of P and thus lies on the are HBS. oa] THE GENERAL JOUKOWSKI PROFILE 101 by the general method to be described in 6-51. Fig. 6-51 (c) shows the details of such a construction. "To examine the nature of the profile at H, observe that the transformation can be written zt2 (6+)? 7 za C= Near H, and H we can write C+ l= re¥, 2+ = Rex, where r and R are infinitesimal and therefore (1) gives = Rete = rel approximately, so that taking arguments co) xt = 26. If we draw a semicircle, centre H, radius r, on the tangent to the circle at Hy and outside the circle, we ean go round H/, on this semicircle from M, to W, in fig, 4. In this passage 0 increases by ~ and therefore x increases by 27. Thus there is a cusp at H, the two branches touching the same tangent. Also at M,, 0 = jx + ¢ and therefore from (2) x = 2¢, which is the inclination of the tangent at the cusp to H,S,. ‘The existence of the cusp could also be explained on the basis of the reasoning of 62, 7-02. Origin at the centre of the circle. In some cases it is convenient to take the origin of coordinates, in both the f-plane and the z-plane, at the centre C of the circle which is to be transformed. If C is the point = s,z = 5 (see e.g. fig. 6-4), we effect the transformation by writing { + s,z + ¢ in place of{andz, The transformation 7-01 (2) then becomes Ae ea | If| £| is large, expansion of each term by the binomial theorem gives Ce (i) t e We also note that the transformation (1) can be reversed to give 2 w2-S-..22(1-9-...) @) fa2-4 wee Se ods a result which can easily be verified to this degree of accuracy by substitution in (1). 7-03, Some properties of profiles obtained by transforming a) circle. If a is the radius of the circle, C its centre, and ¢ the chord of the profile, defined as the longest line which can be drawn to join two points of the profile, we state, without proof, the following properties : (i) ¢> 2a > 4e, ie. the diameter of the circle cannot exceed the chord nor be less than half the chord. (ii) If we draw a circle centre C and radius 2a, the whole profile lies entirely inside this circle. The thinner and flatter the profile the closer it approaches this circle ; the extreme case is the fat aerofoil (6-11). (iii) If r is the radius of a circle which lies entirely inside the profile and if d is the distance of its centre from any point of the profile, then Fie. 7-03. (d+ 7 ao. (iv) The centre C is clearly the centroid of the circumference of the circle, radius a, supposed uniformly weighted. If ds, is an arc of the circle and ds the corresponding are of the profile, and if we suppose ds to carry the same load a8 ds,, then C is the centroid of the profile thus weighted. It follows that C is interior to every convex curve which encloses the profile. da> 122 CENTRE OF PRESSURE 7-3. Centre of pressure. If AH is the chord of the aerofoil (taken as the double tangent in ie 7-3 (a)), the point P where the line of action of the lift Z meets the chord ig a APSA Fro. 7-3 (a). Fic. 7-3 (b). called the centre of pressure. The position of the centre of pressure thus depends on the particular choice of chord. The centre of pressure cogficient is defined by 0, —AP __ Kistance of centre of pressure from leading edge of chord > AH” length of chord : One of the desirable properties of an aerofoil is that the travel of the centre of pressure in the working range of incidence should not be large. The positions of P for varying incidence can be obtained at once by drawing tangents to the metacentric parabola. When Axes I and II coincide we have seen (7-2) that a centre of lift exists, namely the focus. The existence of a centre of lift does not imply the existence of a fixed centre of pressure unless the chord is chosen to pass through the centre of lift (fig. 7-3 (b)). 731, Centre of pressure of a Joukowski rudder. \ Ay a {plane. zplane, Fis. 731. LIU LEMP Such a rudder is obtained by transforming a circle of radius a whose centre Cis on the real axis. Let OC =f, then OM, =a — f and the transformation is (@- fe zatt 7a] CENTRE OF PRESSURE OF A JOUKOWSKI RUDDER 123 Clearly, from the symmetry of the profile, Axos I and II coincide, and so shore is a conte of lift which is also a fixed contre of pressure if we take the axis of symmetry HA as chord. We then have t= - OH, 24=04, t= -(e-fh bamerh oe dH omy ~ ty ate + Ott, - 2 . Cay z Ca, age fee =f5 "(0 -fte .). Thus if f/a is small we have ¢ = 4 nearly. Again, if F is the focus, we have and 80 from 7-2, AF = 0A - (OC + CF) Se ; : some 0, = AF eR a a (La (fl e ‘This is an exact result, but if f%/a* is small we see that C, = }. The point whose distance from the leading edge of the chord is /4 is called the guarter-point of the aerofoil. In the case of a symmetrical Joukowski aerofoil the quarter-point is, to a good approximation, the centre of pressure. The centre of pressure of a flat aerofoil is at the quarter-point (cf. 7-2), a8 is seen by putting f = 0, and therefore coincides with the focus. In the case of unsymmetrical aerofoils the quarter-point @Q of the chord may be used as a convenient reference point. If P is the centre of pressure, taking moments about P gives PQ.L + Mg=9, Mg is the moment about Q and PQ is positive when P is aft of Q. Thus ing by 4pV’%? we get (Cy - 8) Cz = - Omg: whe 7-6. Karman-Trefftz profiles. These may be regarded as a generalisa- tion of the Joukowski profiles, ‘They have the constructional advantage that the ousp is replaced by a sharp point at which there are two distinct tangents. The Joukowski transformation (6-1) can be written, from 6-1 (2) and (4), a8 2-4 _¢- zea CoH 76) KARMAN-TREFFTZ PROFILES 129 ‘The required generalisation is obtained by replacing 2 by k, where & <2, so that () z Ge MO” C+ DF when = 2.we get the Joukowski profiles. Referring to fig. 7°6 (a), let us put arg? - =x» arg +1) =a, arg(2- y=, arg(z + HM) =, the points S,, H,, 8, H being (1,0) and (41,0). Tt follows from (1) that arg (z — kl) — arg (z + hl) = karg (¢ - l) - karg(l +) or @) x > @ = hy ~ @,). Note that when P, is below the real axis x,, «2, are greater than 7 and x, ~ w, is, negative. Let us transform the circle | {| = I whose centre C is therefore at the origin. Using one Argand diagram for { and g, if P; and P correspond we have from (2) applied to fg. 76 (a), SPH = k S,P,H, WE Fro. 78 (a), As P, describes the upper semicircle S,P,H, remains constant and equal to 7/2 so that SPH remains constant and equal to kn/2. Thus P describes a circular are also above the real axis and passing through S, H. When P, describes the lower semicircle, x; - w, = — 7/2 and so x - = ~ kw/2. Therefore P describes a circular arc through S and H which is the Teflection in the real axis of the first circular arc. Observe that the nearer k is to 2 the nearer the angle kz/2 to 7 and the flatter the two arcs just obtained. ‘The angle between the tangents at the point H is 27 ~ km, as is easily seen by considering what happens to SPH when P, moves along the upper semi- circle to coincide with ae 130 KARMAN-TREFPTZ PROFILES j 1 If we transform a circle centre the origin but whose radius is larger thay ‘i fe eee H the sharp points disappear and we get a profile of elliptical appearance 4 Li pe SAC Fra, 76 (0). rounding the two circular ares of fig. 7-6 profile. (a) which form, as it were, the core of th The transformation of a circle whose centre is on the real axis and whiel MUM KT Fro. 7-6 (¢} Passes through H, but enoloses S, (see fig. 7-31) leads to a symmetrical profik with the same core suitable for a rudder, strut or fin, Fre. 76 (a), If the circle to be transformed passes through S, and H, but has its centre on the imaginary axis the reasoning given above still applies to show that a8 P, describes the major are SNH, the angle in which is, say, , then P describes +The dotted circle in fg. 76 (6). KARMAN-TREFFTZ PROFILES 131 18) anare through S, H the angle in which is ke. Likewise when P, describes the minor are, P will describe an are through § and H the angle in which is on - A(w - €) The angle at the point H enclosed by the tangents is, as pefore, (2 - A) 7. Thus the transformed profile is pounded by two circular ares, crescent shaped as in fig. 7-6 (d), of biconvex as in fig. 7-6 (a). Jf we displace the cen- tre of the given circle to lie on neither axis we get a profile of which the eres- cent is the core. Sine the angle be- tween the tangents at H is (2 - k)z, it follows that (2 - k)a <7 for H to be a sharp point, i.e. we must have k> 1. From (1) we get ,_trp'+0- Expanding by the binomial theorem we get oe Fic. 76 (e). (2) Since 1 — Iso dz/df tends to zero like ] + £, and, therefore, as was shown in 6 there is a cusp at the point corresponding with f = - 1. If we wish to have sharp point at which the tangents enclose the angle (2 — k) a we put, inste of (2), (3) w= (t+ 2 "(-2)0-9)..(1- 4). and for large values of | {| we have Pt Bt cy here ) AS Nl- my ~ - ty. Integrating this we get SS é and this is unsuitable for a transformation of the type for which 2>f infinity on account of the presence of the logarithm. Therefore we must ha A=0. The condition A = 0 means that the origin is the centroid of unit placed at v;, v,..., ¥, and a mass (k — 1) units at the point —J. Since to an aerofoil profile none of the zeros of dz/df may be outside the circle it follor that the origin must be inside the circle, and indeed inside every convex contot which encloses the zeros. In the Joukowski case, n = 1, k 2, the origin the centroid of unit masses placed at — J and 1. As a simple case consider n = 2,k = 2. Then £=(-D0-D (=D) team and therefore integrating and omitting the irrelevant constant Re eh, - zalt a YON MISES PROFILES 138 To satisfy the condition v, + v, = 1 we may put vy = H(L + de®), vp = HL — Ae), where Aand vare real. We then get 1(3 + Net) BCL Atet™) © ent Oe) To get the direction of the second axis, as in 7-14, we put Tet = Y2(3 + deer), so that, equating real and imaginary parts and reducing, 3 (8) coty = cot 2v + s;coseo 2, L? = FE[At + 9 + 6A? 008 Qu)? ‘The inclination of Axis IT to the real axis (7-14) is 2, and the distance of the focus from the centre is Z¥/a. If ¢ is the inclination of Axis I to the real axis, the pitching moment with respect to the focus will be positive or negative according as Axis II is above or below Axis I in the sense explained in 7-2, i. according as 4/2 > € or

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