Power Electronics and Control in

Grid-Connected PV Systems

ECEN 2060

Grid-Connected PV System
One possible grid-connected PV system architecture
IPV

DC input
VPV , I PV

PPV = VPV I PV

iac

+
PV
array

VPV

AC output
+

Power
electronics
converter

vac

AC
utility
grid

v ac (t ) = 2VRMS sin (t )
iac (t ) = 2 I RMS sin (t )

Pac = VRMS I RMS

pac (t ) = vac iac = VRMS I RMS (1 cos(2t ))

Functions of the power electronics converter

Operate PV array at the maximum power point (MPP) under all conditions
Generate AC output current in phase with the AC utility grid voltage
Achieve power conversion efficiency close to 100%
P
V
I
converter = ac = RMS RMS
PPV
VPV I PV
Provide energy storage to balance the difference between PPV and pac(t)
Desirable features
Minimum weight, size, cost
High reliability
ECEN2060

Power Electronics for Grid-Connected PV System

One possible realization:
Energy-storage
capacitor

IPV
+
PV
array

VPV

iac
+

+
Boost
DC-DC
converter

VDC

Single-phase
DC-AC
inverter

DC-DC control

vac

AC
utility
grid

DC-AC control

Boost DC-DC converter

Set the PV operating point (VPV, IPV) to MPP

Efficiently step up VPV to a higher DC voltage VDC

DC-AC inverter

Efficiently generate AC output current iac in phase with the AC grid voltage vac

Balance the average power delivery from the PV array to the grid, Pac = Ppv * DC-DC * DC-AC
Energy storage capacitor C

Balance the difference between the instantaneous power pac(t) and the average power

The system must be disconnected from the grid if the utility loses power
ECEN2060

DC-AC Inverter Control

One possible realization:
Energy-storage
capacitor

IPV
+
PV
array

VPV

iac
+

+
Boost
DC-DC
converter

VDC

Single-phase
DC-AC
inverter

DC-DC control

vac

AC
utility
grid

DC-AC control

= IRMSref

The control variable for the DC-AC inverter is the RMS current reference IRMSref
The inverter output current iac(t) is controlled so that it is in phase with the grid voltage vac(t)
and so that its RMS value equals the reference:

IRMS = IRMSref
One possible current control approach, based on a comparator with hysteresis, has been
discussed in class, see Intro to Power Electronics notes

ECEN2060

Simulation model: pv_boost_dcac_averaged.mdl

ECEN2060
6-module PV Array
Ipv

1000

PV module (I)

Insolation

Vout (boost) = VDC

Ppv

Ipv

PV module (I)

Insolation

Boost

Vpv

PV1

Insolation

Vg

Vpv
Ppv

Vout

DC-DC
(averaged, C)
current control D

Set Boost Iref to

operate PV array
at MPP

Iout

4.95

Iref

ef f iciency

PV module (I)

Ipv = Iref

PV current

Vpv

Duty

Boost scope

ef f iciency

Vpv
Vpv

Ppv

PV module (I)

Insolation

(averaged)

D
pin

PV module (I)

Insolation

3.94

Boost efficiency

iin
Duty
pin
pin, pout
pout

Iref

Set DC-AC Iref

to balance
the power, i,e
to keep VDC
constant

IRMSref

Average output AC power

1
s

Vpv

510.8

Ppv

Integrator(pout)

103.2
Vpv
Vpv

Integrator(pin)

Pout

fac_out

DC-AC average power

and efficiency

1
s

472.8

60

Ppv

PV5

PV module (I)

iac

DC-AC Inverter

Pout boost

Boost DC-DC

Ppv

PV output power

Ipv

iin

v ac

Vpv

PV4

Ipv

inverter

pout

Product
Ipv

iac

492.6

Pout

Ppv

PV3

DC-AC

Iref

0.9643
Insolation

v ac
Vdc

Vout

PV2

Ipv

DC-AC
scope

199.8
Vpv

60
fac_in

0.9586
Compute
efficiency

DC-AC Efficiency
493.2
Pin
Average input AC power

Insolation

Ppv

PV6

Add

ECEN2060
PV + Boost DC-DC + DC-AC inverter averaged model

Ipv = Iref

ECEN2060

How to achieve average power balance?

Simulation example:
6-module (85 W each) PV array with full sun (1,000 W/m2 insolation)
PV array operates at MPP: Ppv = 6*85 W = 510 W
AC grid RMS voltage: 120 V
Run simulations for 3 different values of IRMSref and observe boost output voltage Vout(t) = VDC(t)

IRMSref = 3.4 A

IRMSref is too low

Pac < Ppv
VDC increases

IRMSref = 4.4 A

IRMSref is too high

Pac > Ppv
VDC decreases

IRMSref = 3.94 A

IRMSref is just right

Pac Ppv
VDC starts at 200 V
and returns to 200 V

ECEN2060

Tac = AC line period (1/60 seconds)

Average Power Balance by Automatic Feedback Control

IPV

iac
+

+
PV
array

VPV

Boost
DC-DC
converter

+
Single-phase
DC-AC
inverter

VDC

DC-DC control

vac

AC
utility
grid

IRMSref

VDCref
compensator

Voltage VDC is sensed and compared to a reference value VDCref (e.g. VDCref = 200 V)
The difference VDC VDCref is the error signal for the feedback controller
If the error is positive, i.e. if VDC is greater than VDCref, the compensator increses IRMSref
If the error is negative, i.e. if VDC is less than VDCref, the compensator decreases IRMSref
In steady-state, IRMSref adjusted by the automatic feedback controller is just right so that
VDC = VDCref, error signal is zero, and the average power Pac delivered to the AC grid
matches the power generated by the PV array
Stability, dynamic responses and realizations of feedback controllers are topics beyond the
scope of this class. These topics are addressed in Circuits, and more advanced Control
and Power Electronics courses
ECEN2060

Energy storage
Energy-storage
capacitor

IPV
+
PV
array

VPV

iac
+

Boost
DC-DC
converter

Pac pac(t)
C

VDC

Single-phase
DC-AC
inverter

DC-DC control

vac

AC
utility
grid

DC-AC control

Pac p ac (t ) = Pac Pac (1 cos 2t ) = Pac cos 2t

Pac > pac(t), capacitor C is charged up

vDC
Pac < pac(t), capacitor C is discarged
Capacitor C provides energy storage necessary to balance instantaneous power delivered to the grid
Magnitude of the resulting voltage ripple VDC at twice the line frequency (2 x 60 = 120 Hz) depends
on the average power Pac and capacitance C
ECEN2060

Energy storage capacitor C

Pac pac (t ) = Pac Pac (1 cos 2t ) = Pac cos 2t
Pac > pac(t), capacitor C is charged up

vDC
Pac < pac(t), capacitor C is discarged

Energy supplied to the capacitor during the time when Pac > pac(t), i.e. when the capacitor
is charged from VDCmin to VDCmax
Tac / 8

/2

ac

/ 2

P
EC = Pac cos 2t dt = ac
2
T / 8

cos d =

Pac

This energy must match the change in energy stored on the capacitor:

E C =

VDC max + VDC min

1
1
2
2
CV DC

CV
=
C
(
V

V
)
CVDC VDC
max
DC min
DC max
DC min
2
2
2

Solve for the ripple voltage:

CV DC VDC =
ECEN2060

Pac

VDC =

Pac
CV DC
9

Energy storage analysis example

DC-AC inverter input voltage: VDC = 200 V
Average power delivered to the grid: Pac = 600 W
Find C so that VDC = 40 V (i.e. +/-10% of the DC voltage at the input of the DC-AC inverter)
Solution:

CV DC VDC =
C=

Pac

Pac
600 W
=
= 200 F
VDCVDC 40 V * 200 V * 2 60 Hz

Note that the energy supplied (or absorbed) by the capacitor is relatively small:

EC =

Pac

600
= 1.6 J
2 60

The total energy stored on the capacitor is also small

EC =

1
2
CVDC
= 4J
2

This example illustrates the need for only relatively small energy storage in a gridconnected system, easily accomplished by a capacitor, in sharp contrast to stand-alone
PV systems that require very significant energy storage (e.g. batteries)
ECEN2060

10

Maximum Power Point (MPP) Tracking

Energy-storage
capacitor

IPV
+
PV
array

VPV

iac
+

+
Boost
DC-DC
converter

Single-phase
DC-AC
inverter

VDC

DC-DC control

vac

AC
utility
grid

DC-AC control

Choices for the Boost DC-DC control variable:

Duty cycle D
Input current reference Iref
Input voltage reference Vref

The objective of the MPP tracking algorithm is to adjust the DC-DC control
variable so that the PV array operates at the maximum power point
In the example discussed here:
It is assumed that the Boost output voltage Vout = VDC is constant
Iref is used as the control variable for the Boost DC-DC converter
PV array current ideally tracks the Boost input current reference: IPV = Iref
ECEN2060

11

Reminder: PV array characteristic

Example: six 85 W modules in series, full sun
Ipv [A]

ECEN2060

20

40

60

80

100

120

Vpv [V]

12

Ppv as a function of Vpv

Example: six 85 W modules in series, full sun
Ppv [W]

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

ECEN2060

20

40

60

80

100

120

Vpv [V]

13

Ppv as a function of Ipv = Iref

Example: six 85 W modules in series, full sun
MPP
Ppv [W]

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

Ipv = Iref [A]

Objective: adjust Ipv = Iref to operate at MPP

ECEN2060

14

Simple perturb and observe MPP tracking algorithm

MPP
Initialize Iref, Iref, Pold

500
450

Ppv

400
350

Measure Ppv

300
250
200

YES

150

Ppv > Pold ?

100
50
0
0

NO

Ipv = Iref

Always step Iref in the

direction of increasing Ppv

Change
direction

Continue
in the
same
direction

Iref = Iref

Iref = Iref +Iref

Pold = Ppv

ECEN2060

15

MATLAB code: MPP tracking algorithm initialization

Initialize Iref, Iref, Pold

Measure Ppv

YES

NO

Ppv > Pold ?

Change
direction

Continue
in the
same
direction

Iref = Iref

Iref = Iref +Iref

Pold = Ppv

ECEN2060

16

MATLAB code: MPP tracking algorithm

Initialize Iref, Iref, Pold

Measure Ppv

YES

NO

Ppv > Pold ?

Change
direction

Continue
in the
same
direction

Iref = Iref

Iref = Iref +Iref

Pold = Ppv

ECEN2060

17

Simulation model: pv_boost_mpp_Iref.mdl

Insolation 1-5

Ipv

S1
(time varying)
1000
S1-5
(constant)

ECEN2060
6-module PV Array
85 x 6 = 510 W DC system
PV module (I)

Insolation

Select
insolation
for modules
1-5

103.4

Vpv

1 time unit = 1 minute

Vpv

Ppv

0.9644

4.94

PV1

Ipv

ECEN 2060 PV array with

MPP tracking
Boost DC-DC converter

PV voltage

PV module (I)

Insolation

200

Ipv

Vout

Vout
Vpv

Vpv

Vpv

Iout
Boost
DC-DC
(averaged)
Pout
Iref control

Boost efficiency
Pout

Vg

ef f iciency

ef f iciency

Ppv
Iref

PV2

Duty

Boost DC-DC
Ipv

PV module (I)

Insolation

Ppv

PV3

Vpv
Ppv

Ipv

PV module (I)

Insolation

MPPT Iref

Vpv

Iref 1

4
Select
controller

Iref
(constant)

Insolation

PV MPP
scope

Iref

Ppv

PV module (I)

Vpv

PV power

Ppv

510.8

PV5

Insolation 6

Iref

Compute
Ppv

PV4

Ipv

Vpv

MPP tracking
controller
MPPtrackIref.m

Vpv

Ppv
PV energy [kWh]

Ipv

S6
(time varying)
1000
S6 (constant)

PV module (I)

Insolation

1
s

Vpv
Ppv

PV6

Select
insolation
for
module 6

Ipv

Integrate
Ppv

Add
1

Ppv
Pout, Ppv , Pideal
Ppv
ideal

Epv

kWh (pv)

Iref

Ipv = Iref

5 modules

4.081

-K-

Ideal PV energy [kWh]

-K85/1000

Ppv
ideal

1
s
Integrate
Pideal

-KConvert to
kWh

4.087
Eideal

Integrate
Pout
1
s

kWh (out)
-K-

Output energy [kWh]

3.936
Eout

1 module

ECEN2060

18

MPP tracking operation

Boost DC-DC converter duty cycle D

PV array voltage Vpv

Boost DC-DC converter input current reference, Iref = Ipv

PV array output power Ppv compared to ideal Ppv @ MPP

ECEN2060

19

The Future of

Grid-Connected PV Systems
Ipv, Vpv

Ipv, Vpv

PV

Converter

PV

Converter

Ipv, Vpv

Controller

Ipv, Vpv

Controller

Ipv, Vpv

Ipv, Vpv
Converter

PV

Converter

PV

Inverter
Ipv, Vpv

Controller

Ipv, Vpv

Ipv, Vpv

60 Hz AC
Utility

Controller

Ipv, Vpv

PV

Converter

PV

Converter

Ipv, Vpv

Controller

Ipv, Vpv

Controller

Innovations in system
architecture, control,
and power electronics
circuit design

Scalable modular power electronics: distributed DC-DC conversion

Much improved performance in the presence of module mismatches or partial shading
Ongoing projects in the Colorado Power Electronics Lab (CoPEC) at CU ECE Dept led
by Prof. Erickson
ECEN2060

20

Module-Integrated DC-DC Converter (MIC)

for the Smart PV Roofs

ECEN2060

21