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Hydrology and Groundwater Notes
Hydrology and Groundwater Notes
Hydrology and Groundwater Notes
Testmasters
Table of Contents
Hydrology _____________________________________________________________ 4
Hydrology and the Hydrologic Cycle ___________________________________________ 4
Components of the Hydrologic Cycle Storages and Flows________________________________ 5
Precipitation _______________________________________________________________ 7
Storm Characteristics ______________________________________________________________ 7
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves ____________________________________________ 7
Synthetic Rainfall Distributions from the NRCS________________________________________ 10
Double-Mass Analysis of Point Precipitation __________________________________________ 12
Estimating Missing Point Precipitation Data ___________________________________________ 13
Converting Point Precipitation to Areal Precipitation ____________________________________ 14
Evapotranspiration ________________________________________________________ 16
Evaporation from an Open-Water Body ______________________________________________ 16
Reservoirs ________________________________________________________________ 17
Water Supply Reservoirs __________________________________________________________ 17
Reservoirs for Flood Control and Other Uses __________________________________________ 18
Total Runoff Hydrograph Separation into Direct Runoff and Baseflow _____________ 53
Unit Hydrograph Method for Converting Effective Rainfall into a Direct Runoff
Hydrograph ______________________________________________________________ 55
Determination of a Unit Hydrograph from a Total Runoff Hydrograph ______________________ 55
Convolution of Effective Rainfall with the Unit Hydrograph to Generate Direct Runoff Hydrographs
______________________________________________________________________________ 57
Generating Unit Hydrographs of Different Duration (tr) __________________________________ 59
NRCS Synthetic Unit Hydrograph___________________________________________________ 62
Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 66
Aquifers__________________________________________________________________ 66
Aquifer Characteristics _____________________________________________________ 67
Permeability, Conductivity, Transmissivity ____________________________________ 68
Averaging Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity on Layered Aquifers _________________________ 70
Constant Head Permeability Test____________________________________________________ 71
Variable or Falling Head Permeability Test____________________________________________ 72
Empirical Formulas for Estimating Hydraulic Conductivity or Permeability __________________ 73
Unsaturated Zone__________________________________________________________ 75
Darcys Law ______________________________________________________________ 76
Well Drawdown in Aquifers _________________________________________________ 77
Steady-State Well Discharge for an Unconfined Aquifer _________________________________ 77
Steady-State Well Discharge for a Confined Aquifer ____________________________________ 78
Transient or Unsteady Well Discharge for a Confined Aquifer_____________________________ 80
Hydrology
Hydrology and the Hydrologic Cycle
Water balance equation The change in storage per unit time on a control volume
(e.g. area, watershed, reservoir etc.) equals the sum of the inflows minus the sum
of the outflows from the control volume.
S
= Qin Qout
t
S = t ( Qin Qout ) = Vin Vout
Qin
Qout
Over a long period, positive and negative water storage variations tend to balance
and the change in storage S may be disregarded.
Precipitation Includes rain, snow and other forms of water falling from the
atmosphere in liquid or solid phase into the land and oceans.
Transpiration Water from the soil is absorbed by plant roots and eventually
discharged into the atmosphere through little pores in the leaves called stomata. It
is a side effect of the plant needing to open its stomata in order to obtain carbon
dioxide from the air for photosynthesis. Transpiration cools plants and allows
flow of nutrients from the plants roots to its stems and leaves.
Infiltration Movement of water from the land surface to the upper layers of the
soil. It is usually the major abstraction from rainfall during a significant runoffproducing storm.
Percolation Movement of water through the subsurface down to the water table.
Overland flow Portion of runoff that travels over the surface of the ground to
reach a stream channel and through the channel to the basin outlet. This process
occurs relatively quickly.
Surface runoff Includes all overland flow as well as precipitation falling directly
onto stream channels.
Subsurface runoff Portion of runoff that travels under the ground to reach a
stream channel and to the basin outlet. It includes: a) interflow, and b)
groundwater runoff.
saturated zone towards a stream channel. This process is slower than surface
runoff.
Baseflow, base runoff, delayed runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a
stream location which is composed of contributions from: a) groundwater runoff,
and b) delayed interflow. Baseflow is the result of water accumulating from
previous storms and being released over an extended period of time.
Direct runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a stream which is caused
by and directly following a rainfall or snowmelt event. It consists of: a) overland
flow, and b) quick interflow
Precipitation
Precipitation is one of the most important components of the hydrologic cycle as it
connects the atmospheric component of the hydrologic cycle with the land and ocean
components. It includes rain, snow and other forms of water falling from the atmosphere
in liquid or solid phase into the land and oceans.
The most common types of rain gages are the tipping-bucket gage, and the weighing rain
gage. Data collected from these gages can be plotted as a hyetograph, which is a plot of
the amount of precipitation (volume or intensity) that falls as a function of time.
Storm Characteristics
The characteristics of a storm, namely depth, duration, intensity and distribution, affect
the watershed response to the rainfall event.
Depth Amount of precipitation that falls (usually in or cm).
Duration Length of a storm (usually min, hr or day)
Intensity Depth of rainfall per unit time (usually in/hr or cm/hr). Rainfall intensity
changes continuously throughout a storm, but it may be averaged over short time
intervals or over the entire storm duration.
Distribution Describes how rainfall depth or intensity varies in space over an area or
watershed
nk
1
1
P{exactly K of F events in n years} = C kn 1
F F
where
n!
C kn =
k!(n k )!
The probability of at least one event of recurrence interval F occurring in n years
is:
P{at least one F event in n years} = 1- P{exactly 0 F events in n years}
1
= 1 1
F
The longer the duration of a storm, the lower its average intensity.
High-intensity storms happen infrequently (have a large return period).
Steel formula
When using the rational formula to compute peak runoff rate for storm drainage design, t
is usually taken as the time of concentration, tc, for the drainage area.
The constants K and b can be obtained by performing an I-D-F analysis of historical
precipitation data. These constants have been developed for 7 rainfall regions in the US
and can be used in the absence of local historical precipitation data (Table 20.2 of the
CERM, 10th ed. Lindeburg, 2006).
10
11
12
Original data
Data adjusted to
reflect conditions
prior to the break
90
80
70
60
b
break
50
Data adjusted to
reflect conditions
after the break
40
30
a
20
1
10
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
13
P=
i =1
N
i =1
Ai Pi
Ai
14
3. The sum of #2 is computed and divided by the total drainage area to compute
the weighted average precipitation.
N
P=
i =1
N
i =1
Ai Pi
Ai
15
Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (actual evapotranspiration, AET) is the combined processes by
which water is transferred to the atmosphere from open water surfaces and vegetation. It
consists of evaporation, which is the amount of water vaporized into the atmosphere from
open water surfaces and land areas, and transpiration, which is the amount of water
absorbed by plants and crops and eventually discharged into the atmosphere through the
plants stomata. The source of water for the plants and crops can be from the unsaturated
and saturated zones.
During larger storm events, the intensity of precipitation is much larger than the rate of
evapotranspiration. Therefore, evapotranspiration is commonly ignored or lumped with
other abstractions when analyzing the water budget during and immediately following a
storm event. For longer and drier periods, evapotranspiration becomes a significant
component of the water budget.
Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is a measure of how much the atmosphere controls
evapotranspiration independent of the surface hydrologic conditions. It is the quantity of
water evaporated from an idealized extensive free water surface per unit area, per unit
time under existing atmospheric conditions.
Moisture deficiency limits the actual evapotranspiration rate, therefore AET < PET.
The largest errors in the evaporation pan method are due to the assumed pan
coefficient. Therefore, the method is usually useful to provide long-term ballpark
estimates of evaporation and to analyze the variability of evaporation.
The method is more appropriate for very shallow water bodies. For large water
bodies, it may necessary to adjust for heat storage and energy advection.
16
Reservoirs
In an ideal world, the quantity, timing, quality, and distribution of available water would
match human needs. Unfortunately, freshwater is scarce in many parts of the world,
threatening human health, limiting agricultural and industrial production, and causing
ecological degradation. It is estimated that less than 3/4 of a percent of the total volume
of water on Earth is freshwater stored in aquifers, the vadose zone, lakes, streams,
wetlands, and the atmosphere. On the other hand, excess water at the wrong time and
location, can cause catastrophic flooding.
Reservoirs serve multiple purposes that are directly related to the quantity, timing, quality
and distribution of water. These include flood control, water supply, water quality,
groundwater recharge, sediment control. Secondary purposes include recreation, wildlife
habitat enhancement, etc.
17
Rippl diagram
Cumulative inflow
Cumulative demand
70000
60000
Minimum
required
reservoir
capacity
= 32,160 ac-ft
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
Ja
n9
M 6
ar
-9
M 6
ay
-9
Ju 6
l -9
Se 6
pN 96
ov
-9
Ja 6
n9
M 7
ar
-9
M 7
ay
-9
Ju 7
l -9
Se 7
pN 97
ov
-9
Ja 7
n9
M 8
ar
-9
M 8
ay
-9
Ju 8
l -9
Se 8
pN 98
ov
-9
Ja 8
n9
M 9
ar
-9
M 9
ay
-9
Ju 9
l -9
Se 9
pN 99
ov
-9
Ja 9
n0
M 0
ar
-0
M 0
ay
-0
Ju 0
l -0
Se 0
pN 00
ov
-0
0
Date
18
Rainfall
Effective
Rainfall
Stream
and/or
reservoir
routing
hydrologic or
hydraulic
routing*
Direct
Runoff
Hydrograph
Basin
Routing
Downstream
hydrograph*
Rainfall
Peak
discharge
Model
Effective
Rainfall
Model
Effective
Rainfall
Peak
discharge
19
Infiltration Movement of water from the land surface to the upper layers of the
soil. It is usually the major abstraction from rainfall during a significant runoffproducing storm.
Direct runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a stream which is caused
by and directly following a rainfall or snowmelt event. It consists of: a) overland
flow, and b) quick interflow. It contributes rather quickly to streamflow.
To quantify this lag or travel time between effective rainfall and direct runoff, a basin
routing model is used. One such model is a unit hydrograph, which describes the shortterm response of a watershed to a unit volume of effective rainfall applied uniformly over
the entire watershed at a constant rate for a unit time. It includes contributions to
streamflow immediately following a rainfall event (i.e. only includes contribution from
direct runoff and excludes baseflow). The unit hydrograph is assumed to encapsulate all
the combined physical characteristics of the basin and that of the storm. Based on the
effective rainfall and the basin routing model the direct runoff hydrograph reaching a
stream is produced. Alternatively, if only the peak of the direct runoff hydrograph is of
interest, a peak discharge model can be used.
In addition to the direct runoff, a stream receives inflows from the subsurface. This
component of the streamflow hydrograph is known as baseflow or delayed runoff since it
20
has a much longer travel time than the direct runoff. The source of this flow is from
water that infiltrated during previous storm events and percolated down into the
groundwater, where it flowed through the unsaturated and saturated zones until it
discharged into a stream.
Baseflow, base runoff, delayed runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a
stream location which is composed of contributions from: a) groundwater runoff,
and b) delayed interflow. Baseflow is the result of water from previous storms
accumulating below the water table and being released over an extended period of
time.
Percolation Movement of water through the subsurface down to the water table.
The streamflow hydrograph may be routed through a stream network and/or reservoir by
means of a hydrologic or a hydraulic routing model.
Surface runoff Includes all overland flow as well as precipitation falling directly
onto stream channels.
o Overland flow Portion of runoff that travels over the surface of the ground
to reach a stream channel and through the channel to the basin outlet. This
process occurs relatively quickly.
21
Subsurface runoff Portion of runoff that travels under the ground to reach a
stream channel and to the basin outlet. It includes: a) interflow, and b)
groundwater runoff.
o Interflow, throughflow, subsurface storm flow Portion of subsurface runoff
that travels laterally through the unsaturated zone or through a shallow
perched saturated zone towards a stream channel. This process is slower than
surface runoff.
o Groundwater runoff Portion of subsurface runoff that comes from
infiltration and subsequently percolation down to the water table and
eventually reaches a stream channel. This process occurs relatively slowly.
Direct runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a stream which is caused
by and directly following a rainfall or snowmelt event. It consists of: a) overland
flow, and b) quick interflow. It contributes rather quickly to streamflow.
Baseflow, base runoff, delayed runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a
stream location which is composed of contributions from: a) groundwater runoff,
and b) delayed interflow. Baseflow is the result of water from previous storms
accumulating below the water table and being released over an extended period of
time.
Precipitation
Evaporation
Evapotranspiration
Direct runoff
Interception
and
depression storage
Infiltration
Interflow
Unsaturated zone
storage
Percolation
Groundwater
(saturated zone)
storage
Baseflow
Subsurface runoff
Evaporation
Overland flow
Streamflow
Evaporation
22
Recession limb
Crest
Rising limb
Discharge
A typical simplified hydrograph resulting from a storm event is shown below. It consists
of a rising limb, a crest, and a recession limb. The shape of the rising limb is a function
of both the basin properties and the character of the rainfall. The crest contains the peak
flow rate when all parts of the basin are contributing to runoff at the outlet. At the end of
the crest there is an inflection point that corresponds to the moment when overland flow
stops contributing and discharge is due to flow from detention storage, interflow and
groundwater flow. At some point on the recession limb, the contribution from detention
storage ceases and all the discharge is due to baseflow (i.e. delayed interflow and
groundwater flow). This point marks the end of the direct runoff hydrograph.
Time
Simplified total runoff hydrograph
23
Standard flood, standard project flood (SPF) Flood that can be selected from set
of most extreme combinations of meteorological and hydrological conditions,
which is typically characteristic of the region, but excludes extremely rare
combinations of events. The peak discharge of a SPF is generally 40-60% of that
of a PMF for the same basin.
Design flood, design basis flood (DBF) Flood used for design of a particular
project. Usually less severe than the PMF due to economical considerations.
(i.e. minimizes the average annual cost of the project including annualized
construction costs, operation and maintenance, monetary flood damages).
24
Travel time (tt) Time it takes for water to travel from one location to another
Time base of a hydrograph (tb) Time from the beginning to the end of the direct
runoff or unit hydrograph.
Lag time, basin lag (tl) Time between centroid of effective rainfall to center of
mass of runoff or to the peak of runoff.
Time to peak (tp) Time from the beginning of rainfall to the center of mass or
runoff or to the peak runoff.
Time of concentration (tc) Time for a drop of water to flow from the
hydraulically most remote point in the watershed to the outlet and includes travel
time for sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, channel flow and sewer flow.
Additional definitions are given below
Time of Concentration
Various definitions are given below:
Time for a drop of water to flow from the hydraulically most remote point in the
watershed to the outlet and includes travel time for sheet flow, shallow
concentrated flow, channel flow and sewer flow.
Time required, with uniform rain, for 100% of a tract of land to contribute to
direct runoff at the outlet.
Excess rainfall release time or wave travel time. Time required for runoff to
arrive at the outlet from the most remote point of a watershed after rainfall ceases.
Time from the end of excess rainfall generation (overland flow supply) to the
inflection point of the hydrograph on the recession limb.
Note that it is unusual for the time of concentration to be less than 0.1 hr when using the
NRCS method or less than 10 minutes when using the rational method.
NRCS Method:
Based on the first definition, the NRCS developed the following equations to compute the
time of concentration:
t c = t sheet + t shallow + t channel / sewer
tc = time of concentration
25
Sheetflow, laminar flow Flow regime in which fluid motion is smooth and
orderly, and in which adjacent layers slip past each other with little mixing
between them. The movement of water across a surface in a sheet-like mass
instead of within channels or streambeds.
0.007(nL) 0.8
P20.5 S 0.4
26
After a maximum of 300 ft, sheetflow usually becomes shallow concentrated flow
(swale/ditch flow).
Rill Long, narrow depression or incisions in soil resulting from erosion caused
by increased velocities. It is common on agricultural and unvegetated ground.
Rills may eventually form gullies.
The average velocity for shallow concentrated flow can be determined from the following
figures based on the surface cover and the land slope.
t shallow =
Lshallow
v shallow
27
Average velocities for estimating travel time for shallow concentrated flow
Source: NRCS TR-55 (1986)
28
Average velocities for estimating travel time for shallow concentrated flow
Source: Hydrology & Hydraulic Systems (Gupta, 1995)
The travel time for channel and sewer flow can be obtained by dividing the channel or
sewer length by the flow velocity obtained from either the Mannings or the HazenWilliams equation. If the pipe or channel dimensions and flow depth are known, the
velocity can be readily obtained from Mannings or Hazen-Williams equation. If the
channel or pipe is to be sized, an iterative trial-and-error solution is required, since the
size of the pipe or channel and its velocity are related.
L
t channel / sewer = channel / sewer
vchannel / sewer
tchannel/sewer = travel time for channel and sewer flow
Lchannel/sewer = length for channel and sewer flow
vchannel and sewer flow = velocity for channel and sewer flow
29
Mannings n
0.011
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.40
30
31
6
5
4
3
Index
2
1
Abstractions
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
time (min)
32
The index is obtained by subtracting the runoff volume obtained from a direct runoff
hydrograph from the total rainfall during a storm such that:
DRV = [max(0, i )]* t * Ad
DRV = direct runoff volume (volume under direct runoff hydrograph)
i = rainfall intensity during period
= phi index
t = time interval of rainfall intensity data
Ad = drainage area
33
P
Q
F+Ia
Precipitation (P)
Cumulative amount
10
Abstractions (F+Ia)
6
Q
4
Pt
F
Ia
Ia
0
0
0.1
0.2
ta
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
time
( P Ia )2
P + S Ia
If initial abstraction, Ia, cannot be determined, the NRCS recommends using Ia = 0.2S, in
which case:
( P 0 .2 S ) 2
Use only if initial abstraction cannot be determined
Q=
( P + 0 .8 S )
The maximum retention, S, can be obtained from an index called the Curve Number
(CN), which ranges from 0 to 100 with higher values indicating higher runoff potential.
34
1000
S =
10
CN
CN =
1000
10 + S
23CN II
10 + 0.13CN II
When the watershed varies in soil type, antecedent moisture condition, or land cover a
composite curve number is used, which is computed as the weighted areal average of the
curve number for each region of the watershed. Alternatively, the runoff can be
computed for each region individually and then added.
N
CN =
Ai CN i
i =1
i =1
Ai
N = number of regions, i = region index, Ai = area for region i, CNi = curve number for
region i, CN = composite curve number for the watershed
35
Several factors, such as the percentage of impervious area and the means of conveying
runoff from impervious areas to the drainage system, should be considered in computing
CN for urban areas (Rawls et al., 1981). For example, do the impervious areas connect
directly to the drainage system, or do they outlet onto lawns or other pervious areas
where infiltration can occur?
36
When impervious area is less than 30%, obtain the composite CN from the
equation below or by entering the right half of Figure 2-4 with the percentage of
total impervious area and the ratio of total unconnected impervious area to total
impervious area. Then move left to the appropriate pervious CN and read down to
find the composite CN. For example, for a 1/2-acre lot with 20 percent total
impervious area (75 percent of which is unconnected) and pervious CN of 61, the
composite CN from figure 2-4 is 66. If all of the impervious area is connected, the
resulting CN (from figure 2-3) would be 68.
PIm p
(98 CN P )(1 0.5 R )
CN C = CN P +
100
Use if there is some unconnected impervious area AND total impervious area is
< 30%
CNC = composite curve number
CNP = curve number for pervious area
PImp = percentage of impervious cover
R = ratio of unconnected impervious area to the total impervious area
37
Hydrologic condition
38
Antecedent
Moisture
Condition
AMC I
AMC II
AMC III
Description
< 1.4
0.5 1.1
1.4 2.1
> 1.1
> 2.1
39
40
41
42
43
44
Rational Formula
Method in used in the 1890s for determining peak discharge. Due to its simplicity, it is
the preferred method in storm drainage design practice for small urban and rural
watersheds.
Assumptions:
It is based on the assumption that when the duration of a storm of steady, uniform
rainfall intensity equals the time of concentration, all parts of a watershed are
contributing simultaneously to discharge at the outlet. At this moment, the runoff
rate matches the effective rainfall rate. Therefore, the method only applies for
storms of duration greater than the time of concentration.
Assumes that the return period of the runoff event is the same as the return period
of the precipitation event.
Applicability:
Method is applicable to small watersheds (less than several hundred acres), but is
seldom used for areas greater than 1-2 mi2.
Q p = CiAd
45
Source: Civil Engineering Reference Manual for the PE Exam, 10th Ed. (Lindeburg,
2006)
Average coefficients for composite areas may be calculated on an area weighted basis
using:
N
C=
C A
i =1
N
A
i =1
46
N = number of regions, i = region index, Ai = area for region i, Ci = runoff coefficient for
region i, C = composite runoff coefficient
Several equations have been developed to correlate the NRCS curve number, CN, to the
Rational Formula runoff coefficient, C:
Rossmiller (1981)
CN = NRCS curve number
T = recurrence interval (years)
S = average land slope (%)
I = average rainfall intensity (in/hr)
P = fraction imperviousness
47
Cf
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.25
48
49
Adjustment factor (Fp) for pond and swamp areas that are spread throughout the
watershed
Source: NRCS TR-55
50
51
52
Recession Curve Method Based on the following equation for the recession
curve:
Qt = Qo K t
Qt = discharge at t time units after Q0
Q0 = initial discharge at time 0
K = recession constant (< 1.0)
It consists of selecting periods with no rainfall in between storms and plotting the
ratio of two consecutive flow values (Qt and Qt+t). The ratios Qt+ t / Qt are
plotted with respect to time and the slope of the best fit line is taken as K (Qt+ t /
Qt = K). Once the slope is obtained, the baseflow recession curve can be plotted
starting at the beginning of direct runoff by taking this flow value as Qt and
marching forward in time.
Alternatively, when the total runoff hydrograph is plotted on semilogarithmic
paper (with log of Q on the y-axis), the tail part of the rising limb will plot as a
straight line. This straight line can be extended back in time under the total runoff
hydrograph to approximate the baseflow.
Arbitrary Method 2 Extend recession curve from start of direct runoff (point
A) down to a point C under the peak. Connect point C to D by a straight line.
Point D on the hydrograph occurs N days after the peak:
N = aA 0.2
N = number of days after the peak when direct runoff ceases
A = drainage area
A = 0.8 if A is in km2, or 1.0 if A is in mi2
53
54
55
TPeff =
'
(Q
DR
t )
Ad
or
QDR
TPeff
'
QUH
1
56
57
One inch of effective rainfall of one hour duration (a) produces the
unit hydrograph shown in (b).
1.2
1 in
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
1 hr unit hydrograph
Time (hr)
Time (hr)
b) 1 hr unit hydrograph
800
Discharge (cfs)
700
600
550
500
400
400
300
200
200
200
1 inch
100
100
50
0
0
25
7
0
8
Q (cfs)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
25
0
Time (hr)
c) Effective rainfall hyetograph
Effective rainfall (inches)
1.2
1 in
Effective rainfall
hyetograph
1
0.8
0.6
Time (hr)
0.5 in
Peff (in)
1
2
3
0.4
0.2
0.5
1
0
0
1
2
Time (hr)
800
Discharge (cfs)
700
600
Individual hydrographs
(cfs) due to Peff of
550
500
400
400
1 in
300
275
200
0.5 in
200
100
200
200
100
0
0
Time (hr)
100
50
0
1
100
25
50
12.5
7
25
0
8
0
9
Time (hr)
e) Total direct runoff hydrograph
800
750
Discharge (cfs)
700
600
500
500
475
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.5 in
0
100
275
200
100
50
25
12.5
0
Total
DRH (cfs)
1 in
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
25
0
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
100
475
750
500
250
125
62.5
25
0
400
1.5 in
300
250
200
100
125
100
62.5
25
0
0
0
9
Time (hr)
58
1.2
1 in
The unit hydrograph of 3 hour duration can be obtained by assuming 3 backto-back storms of one hour duration producing 1 inch of effective rainfall each
(c).
The unit hydrograph is then lagged 2 times by 1 hour (d) and the
ordinates are added to obtain the total watershed response (e) due to a total of 3
inches of effective rainfall occurring over 3 hours. The unit hydrograph for a
3 hour event with a total of 1 inch of effective rainfall (f) is then obtained by
dividing the direct runoff hydrograph produced in (e) by 3.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
1 hr unit hydrograph
Time (hr)
Time (hr)
b) 1 hr unit hydrograph
Discharge (cfs)
1200
1000
800
600
550
400
400
200
200
200
1 inch
100
50
0
0
25
7
0
8
Q (cfs)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1400
10
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
25
0
Time (hr)
c) Effective rainfall hyetograph
Effective rainfall (inches)
1.2
1 in
1 in
1 in
Effective rainfall
hyetograph
Time (hr)
0.8
1
2
3
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
3
Time (hr)
59
Peff (in)
1
1
1
1400
Discharge (cfs)
1200
1000
800
1 in
1 in
600
550
550
400
400
400
200
200
200
200
200
100
400
200
0
1 in
550
200
100
50
100
50
25
50
25
0
25
0
Time (hr)
Time
(hr)
Discharge (cfs)
1200
1150 1150
1000
800
750
700
600
3 in
400
350
200
200
0
175
75
0
0
10
25
9
0
10
Time (hr)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 in
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
25
0
1 in
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
25
0
Total
DRH
(cfs)
1 in
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3 hr
unit
hydrograph
(cfs)
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
25
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
200
750
1150
1150
700
350
175
75
25
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
0
67
250
383
383
233
117
58
25
8
/3=
f) 3 hr unit hydrograph
1400
Discharge (cfs)
1200
1000
800
600
400
383
250
200
0
233
117
67
0
0
383
1 in
58
7
25
8
8
9
0
10
Time (hr)
S-hydrograph Method This method allows for the generation of any duration
unit hydrograph from an existing unit hydrograph. It is developed by infinitely
lagging an existing unit hydrograph by its duration and adding the ordinates. This
produces a hydrograph resulting from an infinite storm with effective rainfall
intensity equal to the reciprocal of the unit hydrograph duration. For example, by
continuously lagging by 4 hours a unit hydrograph of 4 hour duration, a 4-hour Shydrograph resulting from an infinite storm with effective rainfall intensity of
0.25 in/hr is developed.
The resulting hydrograph has the shape of an S, hence its name, and eventually
flattens out to a constant outflow rate equivalent to the effective rainfall. If a
uniform effective rainfall intensity is applied for an infinitely long time over a
basin, the basin will achieve an equilibrium state in which the maximum storage
capacity of the basin is attained and therefore inflow (effective rainfall) equals
outflow (runoff). This is the basis of the rational formula.
60
1400
1400
1200
1200
Discharge (cfs)
Discharge (cfs)
a) 1 hr unit hydrograph
1600
1000
800
600
550
400
400
200
200
200
1-hr S-hydrograph
1000
1-hr Unit hydrographs
800
600
400
200
100 50
25
7
0
8
10
11
12
800
Difference (3 inches)
600
400
11
12
600
400
383 383
250
200
0
0
10
11
12
0
0
117
2
1 in
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
25
0
1 in
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
25
1 in
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0 +
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
1 in
+
+
+
+
+
+
58
25
8
8
9
0
10
Time (hr)
1 in
0
200
550
400
200
100
50
25
0
233
67
Time (hr)
15
12
800
14
11
1000
200
13
10
1200
Discharge (cfs)
Discharge (cfs)
1000
12
1400
1-hr S-hydrograph
lagged by 3 hours
1200
11
1600
1400
10
d) 3 hr unit hydrograph
1600
Time
(hr)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Time (hr)
Time (hr)
0
200
550
400
200
100
1 in
+
+
+
+
+
0
200
550
400
200
1 in
1 in
1 in
1-hr Shydrograph
(cfs)
0
200
750
1150
1350
1450
1500
1525
1525
1525
+
+
+
+
0
200 +
550 +
400 +
0
200 +
550 +
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0 =
200 =
Lagged 1
hr Shydrograph
(cfs)
Diff.
0
200
750
0 1150
200 1150
750
700
1150
350
1350
175
1450
75
1500
25
25 +
50 +
100 +
200 +
400 +
550 =
1525
1525
0 +
25 +
50 +
100 +
200 +
400 =
1525
1525
0 +
25 +
50 +
100 +
200 =
1525
1525
0 +
25 +
50 +
100 =
1525
1525
0 +
25 +
50 =
1525
1525
0 +
25 =
1525
1525
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
3-hr UH
0
67
250
383
383
233
117
58
25
8
0 /3=
To produce a 1-hr S-hydrograph from a 1-hr unit hydrograph (a), the unit hydrograph is lagged by 1 hour
an infinite number of times and the ordinates are added (b). The S-hydrograph approaches a constant
value, which is equal to the effective rainfall.
The 1-hr S-hydrograph is lagged by 3 hours and the difference between the ordinates of the two Shydrographs is divided by 3 (c ) to obtain the 3-hr unit hydrograph (d).
61
The factor 484 is called the peaking factor, which essentially controls the volume of
water on the rising and recession limbs. The 484 value is a default value but it can be
modified based on the following:
General
Description
Peaking
Factor
Limb Ratio
(Recession to
Rising)
Urban areas;
steep slopes
575
1.25
Typical SCS
484
1.67
Mixed urban/rural
400
2.25
300
3.33
200
5.5
100
12
Hydrograph peaking factors and recession limb ratios (Wanielista, et al. 1997)
62
S =
10
CN
63
Time
Ratios
Curvilinear
Discharge
Ratios
(t/tp)
(q/qp)
Mass
Curve
Ratios
(Qa/Q)
Triangular
approximation
Discharge
Ratios
(q/qp)
0.0
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.1
0.030
0.001
0.100
0.2
0.100
0.006
0.200
0.3
0.190
0.012
0.300
0.4
0.310
0.035
0.400
0.5
0.470
0.065
0.500
0.6
0.660
0.107
0.600
0.7
0.820
0.163
0.700
0.8
0.930
0.228
0.800
0.9
0.990
0.300
0.900
1.0
1.000
0.375
1.000
1.1
0.990
0.450
0.940
1.2
0.930
0.522
0.880
1.3
0.860
0.589
0.820
1.4
0.780
0.650
0.760
1.5
0.680
0.700
0.701
1.6
0.560
0.751
0.641
1.7
0.460
0.790
0.581
1.8
0.390
0.822
0.521
1.9
0.330
0.849
0.461
2.0
0.280
0.871
0.401
2.2
0.207
0.908
0.281
2.4
0.147
0.934
0.162
2.6
0.107
0.953
0.042
2.7
0.097
0.958
0.000
2.8
0.077
0.967
3.0
0.055
0.977
3.2
0.040
0.984
3.4
0.029
0.989
3.6
0.021
0.993
3.8
0.015
0.995
4.0
0.011
0.997
4.5
0.005
0.999
5.0
0.000
1.000
64
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
Q/Qp
0.600
0.500
inflection
point
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.67
2.5
2.0
1.7
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.000
t/tp
65
Groundwater
Aquifers
Confined or artesian aquifer Water flows down in a recharge area and gets
trapped under a confining impermeable unit (e.g. clay, granite). Water is under
pressure due to weight of upgradient water and confinement under impermeable
layer. Drilling a well will cause water to flow upwards to a level above the top of
the aquifer called the piezometric head. If the confining pressure is high enough,
water will flow to the surface under artesian pressure (artesian well).
Artesian well Well drilled on a confined aquifer where the confining pressure is
high enough, so that water will flow to the surface under artesian pressure.
Gravity well Well drilled on an unconfined aquifer (hits the water table).
Water table or phreatic surface Surface beneath which all interconnected pore
space in the soil is filled with water or fully saturated. At the water table the
pressure head is equal to the atmospheric pressure (Pgage = 0).
66
Perched water table Aquifer that occurs above the main regional water table
when the descent of water percolating from above is blocked by an impermeable
lens.
Piezometric height Height to which water will rise when a well is drilled in a
confined aquifer; corresponds to the hydrostatic pressure.
Infiltration Movement of water from the land surface to the upper layers of the
soil.
Percolation Movement of water through the subsurface down to the water table.
Aquifer Characteristics
67
Effective or open porosity (ne, dimensionless) Porosity available for flow = total
volume of interconnected pore space / total volume of soil.
SI units
Medium properties:
k = intrinsic or specific permeability (L2)
Fluid properties:
= mass density (M/L3)
= absolute or dynamic viscosity (M/Lt)
= specific weight = g (M/t2L2)
g = gravitational acceleration (L/t2)
kg
g c
= specific weight = g/gc (M/t2L2)
K=
US units
T = transmissivity (L2/t)
K = hydraulic conductivity (L/t)
68
Kz
Kz
Kx
Homogeneous, isotropic
Kx
Homogeneous, anisotropic
Kz
Kz
Kx
Heterogeneous, isotropic
Kx
Heterogeneous, anisotropic
69
(m K )
(m )
i
KZ =
Flow
direction
m1
K2
m2
Kx = ( m1 * K1 + m2 * K2 ) / (m1 + m2)
(m )
(m / K )
i
K1
K1
m1
K2
m2
Flow
direction
KZ = ( m1 + m2 ) / (m1/K1 + m2/K2)
70
K = hydraulic
conductivity (L/t)
V = volume of water
collected (L3)
L = length of
specimen (L)
A = cross sectional
area of soil specimen
(L2)
h = head difference
(L)
i = hydraulic gradient
= h/L (L/L,
dimensionless)
t = duration of water
collection (t)
Qin
Qout
h
Area
A
Porous
stone
filter
water
collected
71
K=
a L h1
ln
At h2
h
a L
= 2.303
log 10 1
At
h2
K = hydraulic
conductivity (L/t)
a = cross-sectional area
of the standpipe or
burette (L2)
A = cross sectional
area of soil specimen
(L2)
L = length of soil
specimen (L)
t = time (t2 t1) (t)
h1 = head in standpipe
at time t1 (L)
h2 = head in standpipe
at time t2 (L)
Area a
h2
Area
A
outlet
head kept
constant
h1
Porous
stone
filter
water
collected
72
Note: Hazen formula is valid for effective grain sizes from 0.1 to 3 mm. Recommended
C values for Hazens formula are given below:
Material
very fine sands (poorly sorted) or fine sand with appreciable fines
medium sand (well sorted) or coarse sand (poorly sorted)
coarse sand (well sorted and clean)
C
40-80
80-120
120-150
Specific storage (Ss, 1/L) Volume of water that a unit volume of aquifer releases
from storage for a unit decline in hydraulic head.
Ss =
73
Specific retention (Sr, dimensionless) Ratio of the volume of water that will be
retained in an aquifer against the pull of gravity to the total volume of the aquifer.
This volume of water is also called pendular water.
ne = Sy + Sr
ne = effective porosity
Sy = specific yield
Sr = specific retention
Notes:
In general, the coarser the material, the lower the specific retention and the
more closely the specific yield approaches total porosity.
Clay has a very high porosity (pores are small but numerous) but a very low
specific yield (high specific retention) due to strong molecular attraction
between clay particles and water (large contact area). Permeability is low
through clay because large surface areas results in increased friction and pores
are not well connected.
74
SC = specific capacity
Q = discharge rate
s = aquifer drawdown at the well
Unsaturated Zone
Field capacity or drained upper limit Amount of water held in the soil when
percolation (gravity-driven flow) of water has stopped.
Plant available water Amount of water between the permanent wilting point and
the field capacity, which is available to plants.
75
Darcys Law
q = Ki
h
i=
L
Q = KiA
q = specific discharge (L/t)
Q = total discharge (L3/t)
A = gross flow area measured at right angles to the direction of flow (L2)
i = hydraulic gradient (change in hydraulic head h over distance L) (L/L,
dimensionless)
h = change in hydraulic head (represents the frictional energy loss due to flow through
media) (L)
K = hydraulic conductivity (L/t)
Applicability:
Darcys Law holds for saturated and unsaturated flow, steady-state and transient
flow, flow in aquifers and aquitards, flow in homogeneous and heterogeneous
systems, flow in isotropic and anisotropic media, flow in rocks and granular
media.
Applicability at extremely low and high hydraulic gradients has been questioned
Reynolds number (Re) must be less than 1:
qDmean
Re =
76
pumping Q
well
r2
r1
s1
s2
water table
Unconfined
aquifer
y1
y2
Note: The pumping well itself can be taken as one of the observation wells, in which
case r1 equals the radius of the pumping well r.
The cone formed between the original water table location and the water table
location after pumping is called a cone of depression. A cone of depression is formed
when water is pumped from a well faster than it can be replaced.
K ( y12 y 22 )
Q=
r
ln 1
r2
77
observation
wells
r2
r1
s1
s2
Potentiometric
surface
Confined
aquifer
y1
y2
y0
78
Note: The pumping well itself can be taken as one of the observation wells, in which
case r1 equals the radius of the pumping well r.
The cone formed between the original location of the potentiometric surface and its
location after pumping is called a cone of depression. A cone of depression is formed
when water is pumped from a well faster than it can be replaced.
Q=
2 T ( y1 y 2 ) 2 T ( s2 s1 )
Thiem equation: confined aquifer, steady-state
=
r1
r1
ln
ln
r2
r2
79
u=
e z dz
(Table 21.3 CERM)
z
r2S
r2S
=
4 Kbt 4Tt
sr,t = aquifer drawdown at radial distance r from the well and after pumping from time
t (L)
r = radial distance measured for pumping well centerline (L)
t = time since beginning of pumping (t)
Q = discharge rate (L3/t)
T = aquifer transmissivity (L2/t) = K*b
K = aquifer hydraulic conductivity (L/t)
b = saturated aquifer thickness (L)
W(u) = well function See table 21.3 Civil Engineering Reference Manual (10th ed.
Lindeburg, 2006)
S = aquifer storage coefficient (dimensionless)
When u < 0.01, the well function can be simplified to:
W(u) = -0.5772 ln(u),
Q 2.25Tt
in which case sr ,t =
ln
4 T r 2 S
Jacobs equation
Assumptions:
Aquifer is confined at the top and bottom, and has an infinite horizontal extent
Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform thickness over the area
influenced by the well
Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal over the area
influenced by the well.
Aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate.
Fully-penetrating well screened over the entire thickness of the aquifer to
ensure purely horizontal flow.
System is not yet at equilibrium
Drawdown is small with respect to aquifer thickness b so that flow is mostly
horizontal
80
81
82
83
84
Table of Contents
Hydrology _____________________________________________________________ 3
Breadth Problems __________________________________________________________ 3
Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 11
Breadth Problems _________________________________________________________ 11
Hydrology ____________________________________________________________ 17
Depth Problems ___________________________________________________________ 17
Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 25
Depth Problems ___________________________________________________________ 25
Hydrology
Breadth Problems
1. What are the effects of urbanization on the hydrologic cycle?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2. What happens to the shape of the unit hydrograph if the effective rainfall duration is
doubled?
a. The base time of the unit hydrograph is halved.
b. The base time of the unit hydrograph will be lengthened and the peak will be
lowered so that the volume of the unit hydrograph remains constant.
c. The peak of the unit hydrograph will be doubled.
d. The unit hydrograph will have two peaks.
e. The ordinates (flows) of the unit hydrograph will increase by 2 units.
3. What is detention storage?
a. Fraction of precipitation that is retained on buildings and plants and is
eventually evaporated.
b. Fraction of precipitation that is trapped in puddles, ditches, and other surface
depressions from where it evaporates or infiltrates into the soil.
c. Fraction of precipitation that is stored temporarily on the land surface en route
to a stream.
d. Fraction of precipitation that infiltrates into the unsaturated zone and from
there moves to a stream channel.
e. Fraction of precipitation that infiltrates and percolates down to the water table
and from there moves to a stream channel.
4. What is the direct runoff volume in acre-ft generated by the storm whose hyetograph
is given below if the index is 1.2 in/hr and the area of the watershed is 20 acres?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
500 acre-ft
5 acre-ft
30 acre-ft
180 acre-ft
6 acre-ft
Rainfall Hyetograph
7
6
5
4
3
6.0
Index
5.0
5.0
2
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
time (min)
5.1 inches/hour
1.7 inches/hour
2.0 inches/hour
4.4 inches/hour
2.8 inches/hour
time interval
1:20 PM to 1:40 PM
1:40 PM to 2:00 PM
2:00 PM to 2:20 PM
2:20 PM to 2:40 PM
2:40 PM to 3:00 PM
3:00 PM to 3:20 PM
3:20 PM to 3:40 PM
3:40 PM to 4:00 PM
4:00 PM to 4:20 PM
4:20 PM to 4:40 PM
4:40 PM to 5:00 PM
5:00 PM to 5:20 PM
5:20 PM to 5:40 PM
5:40 PM to 6:00 PM
6:00 PM to 6:20 PM
Average
Intensity
(in/hr)
0.0
0.2
0.6
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.3
2.0
1.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.0
7. An urban community has an area of 52 acres, of which 15% is concrete with a runoff
coefficient of 0.85, 30% is shingle roof with a runoff coefficient of 0.75, 20% is
asphalt with a runoff coefficient of 0.90, and the rest is lawn areas with a runoff
coefficient of 0.2. If the community receives rainfall from a storm of average
intensity of 2 inches/hour, what would be the expected peak runoff from the storm in
acre-ft/hour?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4.6 ac-ft/hr
6.2 ac-ft/hr
52 ac-ft/hr
62.7 ac-ft/hr
5.2 ac-ft/hr
8. What is the total effective rainfall in inches produced by the storm described above if
its duration is 5 hours?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
1.2 inches
6.0 inches
5.2 inches
10.0 inches
0.25 inches
c. Timeseries of discharge resulting from one unit of rainfall for a unit time over
a particular watershed.
d. Timeseries of discharge resulting from one unit of effective rainfall for a unit
time over a particular watershed.
e. Timeseries of discharge resulting from one unit of effective rainfall for a unit
time over any watershed.
10. Which of the following is NOT a rainfall abstraction?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Infiltration
Interception
Depression storage
Detention storage
Evapotranspiration
0.15 inches
0.52 inches
0.98 inches
0.65 inches
16.6 inches
Reading time
12:00 PM
12:10 PM
12:20 PM
12:30 PM
12:40 PM
12:50 PM
1:00 PM
1:10 PM
1:20 PM
1:30 PM
1:40 PM
1:50 PM
2:00 PM
2:10 PM
2:20 PM
Cumulative
gage
weight
(mg)
18.0
25.0
100.0
150.0
217.0
230.0
350.0
480.0
720.0
910.0
1000.0
1040.0
1050.0
1055.0
1060.0
13. A storm of 1-hour effective rainfall duration hits a watershed, which is characterized
by the 1-hour unit hydrograph shown below. Five hours after the beginning of runoff,
the discharge measured at the watershed outlet is 325 cfs. What is the effective
rainfall in inches and the total direct runoff volume in acre-ft produced by the 1-hour
effective rainfall event?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Q (cfs)
0
217
563
424
220
125
50
25
0
14. For the problem above, what is the peak runoff in cfs?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
220 cfs
563 cfs
572 cfs
1464 cfs
1610 cfs
15. A storm producing 5 inches of rainfall falls over a watershed during its dormant
season. The watershed has the landuse distribution shown in the table below. The
watershed consists of silty clays with a clay hardpan. The total rainfall for the 5 days
prior to the storm was 1.5 inches. For this storm the initial abstractions were
determined to be 0.25 inches. What is the expected overland flow supply in acre-ft?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
0.62 acre-ft
56 acre-ft
50 acre-ft
670 acre-ft
38 acre-ft
Area
(acres)
Landuse
50
33
27
25
10
10
1,700 acre-ft
200 acre-ft
5,000 acre-ft
25,000 acre-ft
12,000 acre-ft
Rippl diagram
Cumulative inflow
Cumulative demand
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
Ja
n9
M 6
ar
-9
M 6
ay
-9
Ju 6
l -9
Se 6
pN 96
ov
-9
Ja 6
n9
M 7
ar
-9
M 7
ay
-9
Ju 7
l -9
Se 7
pN 97
ov
-9
Ja 7
n9
M 8
ar
-9
M 8
ay
-9
Ju 8
l -9
Se 8
pN 98
ov
-9
Ja 8
n9
M 9
ar
M 99
ay
-9
Ju 9
l -9
Se 9
pN 99
ov
-9
Ja 9
n0
M 0
ar
M 00
ay
-0
Ju 0
l -0
Se 0
pN 00
ov
-0
0
Date
17. The table below shows the normal precipitation for the month of August at eleven
gages in a flat interior watershed. During a storm event which occurred on August
17, 2006, gage D failed. What was most likely the precipitation at gage D during the
storm event in inches/day?
Site
A
C
B
D
H
I
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
August
August 17,
Normal
2006
Precipitation precipitation
(in/mo)
(in/day)
6.5
2.1
4.7
1.1
5.3
1.4
5.0
-4.9
1.1
5.1
1.3
3.8
0.8
6.2
2.0
6.4
2.1
6.6
2.2
7.2
2.7
1.2 inches/day
3.0 inches/day
1.0 inches/day
1.4 inches/day
0.6 inches/day
18. The table below shows the annual precipitation at five stations in a watershed. Data
at station A is suspect. This data is plotted as a double mass-curve and a breakpoint is
identified in 1969. Assuming that the correct slope is the most recent slope, what
would be the correct 1967 annual precipitation at station A in inches/year?
45.6 inches/year
63.6 inches/year
32.7 inches/year
58.7 inches/year
92.1 inches/year
Double-mass curve
1000.0
900.0
800.0
Cumulative precipitation for station A (in)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
700.0
1.06
600.0
500.0
400.0
300.0
200.0
0.76
Breakpoint in 1969
100.0
1
0.0
0.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
500.0
600.0
700.0
800.0
900.0
1000.0
Year
Mean of
Stations B, C,
D, E (in/yr)
Cumulative
for mean of
B, C, D, E (in)
Cumulative
for A (in)
1965
44.7
50.8
41.7
62.2
54.1
52.2
52.2
44.7
1966
38.2
42.0
55.7
52.4
53.8
51.0
103.2
82.9
1967
45.6
57.1
55.0
65.6
57.1
58.7
161.9
128.4
1968
40.2
54.3
44.2
47.1
56.3
50.5
212.4
168.7
1969
32.3
49.4
49.9
61.4
42.9
50.9
263.3
201.0
1970
79.4
49.8
84.8
72.5
75.5
70.6
333.9
280.4
1971
62.9
52.5
65.1
54.5
65.4
59.4
393.3
343.2
1972
41.3
36.6
44.5
40.2
54.2
43.9
437.2
384.5
1973
63.6
44.1
49.1
56.7
61.7
52.9
490.1
448.1
1974
51.8
56.5
41.8
65.5
61.0
56.2
546.3
499.9
1975
58.2
42.6
48.1
53.7
44.4
47.2
593.5
558.1
1976
51.6
60.0
53.3
60.0
62.4
58.9
652.4
609.7
1977
68.9
68.9
58.9
53.0
62.6
60.8
713.2
678.6
1978
63.7
55.9
67.8
56.5
67.7
62.0
775.2
742.3
1979
68.7
53.1
65.1
67.5
64.3
62.5
837.7
811.0
1980
46.8
46.9
43.7
43.4
50.4
46.1
883.8
857.8
10
Groundwater
Breadth Problems
1. What is the soil permanent wilting point?
a. Excess water left in the soil when percolation has stopped
b. Volume of water yielded when an unconfined aquifer is drained by gravity per
unit surface area per unit of drawdown.
c. Amount of water held in the soil that is unavailable to plants
d. Ratio of the volume of water that will be retained in an aquifer against the pull
of gravity to the total volume of the aquifer.
e. Soil moisture content at which transpiration is at its maximum (potential)
2. If a well is drilled on a confined aquifer, water will rise to the:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Piezometric height
Height of the water table
Top of the confining unit
Phreatic surface
Land surface
3. An unconfined aquifer has a specific yield of 4%, a specific retention of 41%, and a
total porosity of 50%, what is the percentage of unconnected pore space?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
44%
5%
37%
9%
4%
20,000 ft/day
500 ft/day
50 ft/day
2 ft/day
1 ft/day
11
4,300 gal/ft/day
400 gal/ft/day
750 gal/ft/day
42,300 gal/ft/day
32 gal/ft/day
6. What is the rate of advection or seepage velocity in ft/day for the flow line shown
below if the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 50 ft/day, its porosity is 0.3 and
its effective porosity is 0.2?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
0.02 ft/day
0.13 ft/day
13 ft/day
675 ft/day
0.20 ft/day
H = 20.0 ft
A
H = 7.0 ft
L = 3.2 mi
Lake
7. Based on the figure above, how many years will it take a contaminant spilled at point
A to reach the lake if the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 50 ft/day, its
porosity is 0.3 and its effective porosity is 0.2? Note: Assume that the contaminant
only migrates by advection.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
84,500 years
85 years
232 years
360 years
36 years
12
d. From point A to point B since pressure head is greater at point A than at point
B
e. There is no flow since elevation of point B is higher than point A which
compensates for larger pressure head at point A
HpA
HpB
B
ZB
ZA
Datum
Hp = pressure head
Z = elevation
9. What is the definition of specific retention?
a. Change in aquifer water volume per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit
change in hydraulic head.
b. Volume of unconnected pore space to the total soil volume
c. Same as the specific yield for an unconfined aquifer
d. Volume of water yielded when an unconfined aquifer is drained by gravity.
e. Ratio of the volume of water that will be retained in an aquifer against the pull
of gravity to the total volume of the aquifer.
13
10. What is the specific capacity of the aquifer shown below in gal/ft/day if the aquifer
has reached steady-state, the well diameter is 1 ft, the water table elevation at the well
is 12 ft, the aquifer recovers its original thickness of 15 ft at 1,000 ft from the well,
and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 3X10-5 ft/s?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
215 gal/ft/day
29 gal/ft/day
54 gal/ft/day
87 gal/ft/day
240 gal/ft/day
Land surface
elevation
pumping
well
D = 1 ft
observation
well
1000 ft
Sand
water table
Sand
12 ft
b = 15 ft
14
11. What is the coefficient of permeability (inches/hour) of the sand sample shown
below if 1.25 gallons of water were collected in 5 minutes, the sample diameter is
4 inches and its length is 3.5 inches?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3X10-2 inches/hour
26.8 inches/hour
6X10-4 inches/hour
40.0 inches/hour
1.5X10-3 inches/hour
Water is
added
Porous
stone filter
4 ft
Soil sample
Water is
collected
1 ft
Datum
15
12. Neglecting friction and minor losses on the pipe and fittings of the permeameter
shown below, what is the total head, elevation head and pressure head (measured
from the datum) in feet at point C in the middle of the soil sample?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Qin
4 ft
Area
A
L
1 ft
Porous
stone
filter
water
collected
Datum
Not to scale
16
Hydrology
Depth Problems
1. On a specific month, a managed reservoir with an area of 500 acres, receives
structural inflows averaging 23.29 cfs, structural outflows averaging 3.33 cfs, and
looses 100 acre-ft/month to the groundwater. An evaporation pan nearby records a
monthly pan evaporation of 6.5 inches/month. The calibrated pan coefficient is 0.72.
The reservoir starts with a storage of 1000 acre-ft and ends up with a storage of 2500
acre-ft at the end of the month. What is the rainfall over the reservoir in
inches/month?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4.7 inches/month
5.8 inches/month
1.2 inches/month
16.1 inches/month
14.2 inches/month
17
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
0.12
0.24
0.57
0.45
0.66
5. A small urban watershed located in Florida has a time of concentration of 3 hours and
the landuse distribution shown below. If the stormwater drainage system for the
community is to be designed based on a 100 year storm frequency, what would be the
expected peak runoff in cfs?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
69 cfs
43 cfs
12 cfs
35 cfs
256 cfs
Material
Concrete
Shingle roof
Asphalt
Lawn areas
Area
C
6.8
12.0
7.2
14.0
0.90
0.75
0.90
0.25
6. What is the probably of at least one event of 20 year frequency occurring in 50 years?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
1%
33%
92%
5%
20%
3.8 inches
3.6 inches
2.1 inches
3.3 inches
4.1 inches
18
Station
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Thiessen
Polygon
Area, A
(mi^2)
825
917
679
1,508
623
1,014
1,200
P (in)
3.8
3.5
4.1
3.4
3.7
2.8
2.6
B
A
G
F
3.80 inches
0.71 inches
5.10 inches
0.78 inches
6.90 inches
19
time (hrs)
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
Incremental
Precipitation
(inches)
0.5
0.9
1.5
2.1
1.1
0.8
0.3
0.1
9. Based on the problem above, what is the difference (inches) between the effective
rainfall for AMC II and AMC III for the period from 5-6?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
10. The 1-hour unit hydrograph for a watershed is given below. What is the peak runoff
in cfs for the 3-hour unit hydrograph?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
423.5 cfs
1270.5 cfs
141.2 cfs
295.2 cfs
192.5 cfs
1 hr unit
hydrograph
Q
Time (hr)
(cfs)
0
0.0
1
154.0
2
423.5
3
308.0
4
154.0
5
77.0
6
38.5
7
19.3
8
0.0
11. The 1-hour unit hydrograph for a watershed is given below. What is the time in hours
and magnitude in cfs of the peak runoff generated by the storm with effective rainfall
shown below?
20
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Q (cfs)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.0
270.0
742.5
540.0
270.0
135.0
67.5
33.8
0.0
Effective rainfall
hyetograph
Time (hr)
1
2
3
Peff (in)
0.3
1.2
0.2
12. A residential area with 1 acre average lot size has a percent impervious of 28% and
50% of the impervious area is unconnected. The Curve Number for the pervious area
is 61. What is the composite Curve Number?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
69
80
62
75
85
13. A very flat rural watershed with an area of 1,700 acres has an average slope of 1%, a
Curve Number of 77, and the distance from the watershed outlet to the basin divide is
10,750 ft. For a 1-hour synthetic unit hydrograph, what is the approximately the
runoff in cfs at hour 2.0?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
27 cfs
78 cfs
0.3 cfs
380 cfs
145 cfs
14. What is the time of concentration to the outlet (hours) for the watershed shown
below?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.8 hours
1.6 hours
0.8 hours
1.4 hours
0.4 hours
21
A
Overland flow
B
Trapezoidal channel
15. Using the NRCS graphical peak discharge method, what is the peak discharge in cfs
for a watershed with an area of 1.25 mi2, a time of concentration of 2 hours, and an
average curve number of 69? The 24-hour cumulative rainfall is 3 inches and the
watershed is characterized by type II rainfall distributions? Note: 3% of pond and
swamp areas are NOT included in the time of concentration.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
312 cfs
107 cfs
155 cfs
116 cfs
173 cfs
22
16. The 1-hour S-hydrograph for a watershed is shown below. What is the peak flow for
the 3-hour unit hydrograph?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
350 cfs
556 cfs
2212 cfs
586 cfs
1668 cfs
Time
(hr)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
290
1088
1668
1958
2103
2176
2212
2212
2212
10
2212
17. The streamflow measured at the outlet of a 300 acre watershed during a storm event
is tabulated below. Assuming a constant baseflow of 20 cfs, what is the effective
rainfall in inches produced by the storm?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
12.9 inches
1 inch
12.2 inches
11.6 inches
9.3 inches
Time (hr)
Total
Streamflow
(cfs)
20
101
567
1127
898
493
256
138
74
27
10
20
23
18. An agricultural field is drained by a ditch which runs north to south as shown below.
What is the peak runoff (cfs) produced at point 2 if the rainfall intensity for a 1 in 100
year storm is given by the equation below?
i (in/hr) = 350 / (tc + 40) where tc is in minutes
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
16.7 cfs
30.1 cfs
37.7 cfs
31.6 cfs
35.1 cfs
Overland
flow time
(min)
45
ID
Area (acres)
Runoff
Coefficient C
15
0.15
23
0.30
15
0.08
55
20
0.25
30
POINT 1
POINT 2
D
POINT 3
24
Groundwater
Depth Problems
1. What is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity (gal/day/ft2) of the aquifer shown
below?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
0.02 gal/day/ft2
313 gal/day/ft2
1.2 gal/day/ft2
30 gal/day/ft2
2 gal/day/ft2
Flow
direction
K1 = 103 gal/day/ft2
10 ft
K2 = 10-2 gal/day/ft2
17 ft
K3 = 1 gal/day/ft2
5 ft
25
68 gal/day/ft2
610 gal/day/ft2
530 gal/day/ft2
2490 gal/day/ft2
680 gal/day/ft2
Q = 50,000
gal/day observation
wells
pumping
well
1,000 ft
100 ft
Clay layer
15 ft
Sand layer
12.5
ft
14.5 ft
5. What is the hydraulic conductivity in ft/s of the soil sample shown below if the water
level in the standpipe drops as shown in a period of 30 minutes?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
26
1 in
18 in
12 in
4 in
8 in
outlet
head kept
constant
Porous
stone
filter
water
collected
6. What is the storativity of the confined aquifer shown below if the hydraulic
conductivity is 500 gal/day/ft2 and the well diameter is 2.0 feet?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.8 * 10-4
1.1 * 10-3
2.1 * 10-3
3.4 * 10-2
1.2 * 10-2
pumping
well
Q = 0.6 MGD
Clay layer
Potentiometric
surface
150 ft
70 ft
Sand layer
27
Water draining out of the pores when the water table falls
Water draining out of the unconnected pores
Compression of the material
Expansion of the water
Water comes from both compression of the material and expansion of the
water
28
Table of Contents
Hydrology _____________________________________________________________ 3
Breadth Problems __________________________________________________________ 3
Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 10
Breadth Problems _________________________________________________________ 10
Hydrology ____________________________________________________________ 13
Depth Problems ___________________________________________________________ 13
Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 22
Depth Problems ___________________________________________________________ 22
Hydrology
Breadth Problems
1. What are the effects of urbanization on the hydrologic cycle?
E: All of the above
2. What happens to the shape of the unit hydrograph if the effective rainfall duration is
doubled?
B: The base time of the unit hydrograph will be lengthened and the peak will be
lowered so that the volume of the unit hydrograph remains constant.
3. What is detention storage?
C: Fraction of precipitation that is stored temporarily on the land surface en route to a
stream.
4. What is the direct runoff volume in acre-ft generated by the storm whose hyetograph
is given below if the index is 1.2 in/hr and the area of the watershed is 20 acres?
B: 5 acre-ft
t (min)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
max(0,i-phi)
(in/hr)
0
0
0.3
0.8
1.8
3.8
3.8
4.8
1.8
0.8
0
max(0,i-phi) *
dt
(in)
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.13
0.30
0.63
0.63
0.80
0.30
0.13
0.00
Sum=2.98
2.98*20/12
=4.97
in
ac-ft
6. Based on the rainfall intensity data below, what is the maximum hourly precipitation
in inches/hour?
B: 1.70 inches/hour
Average
Intensity
(in/hr)
0.0
0.2
0.6
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.3
2.0
1.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.0
time interval
1:20 PM to 1:40 PM
1:40 PM to 2:00 PM
2:00 PM to 2:20 PM
2:20 PM to 2:40 PM
2:40 PM to 3:00 PM
3:00 PM to 3:20 PM
3:20 PM to 3:40 PM
3:40 PM to 4:00 PM
4:00 PM to 4:20 PM
4:20 PM to 4:40 PM
4:40 PM to 5:00 PM
5:00 PM to 5:20 PM
5:20 PM to 5:40 PM
5:40 PM to 6:00 PM
6:00 PM to 6:20 PM
inches for
20 minute
interval
0.00
0.07
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.43
0.67
0.60
0.20
0.17
0.13
0.07
0.03
0.00
cumulative
inches
0.27
0.52
0.75
0.95
1.13
1.50
1.70
1.47
0.97
0.50
0.37
0.23
0.10
7. An urban community has an area of 52 acres, of which 15% is concrete with a runoff
coefficient of 0.85, 30% is shingle roof with a runoff coefficient of 0.75, 20% is
asphalt with a runoff coefficient of 0.90, and the rest is lawn areas with a runoff
coefficient of 0.2. If the community receives rainfall from a storm of average
intensity of 2 inches/hour, what would be the expected peak runoff from the storm in
acre-ft/hour?
E: 5.2 ac-ft/hr
52
Material
Concrete
Shingle roof
Asphalt
Lawn areas
acres
% of area
15%
30%
20%
35%
= Total area
Area (ac)
7.8
15.6
10.4
18.2
C*A
0.85
0.75
0.9
0.2
6.6
11.7
9.4
3.6
0.6
average C =
Sum(C*A)/Sum(A)
average effective rainfall intensity = (average C)*I =
0.6*2
(average C)*I*A =
0.6*2*52 =
62.7
5.2
1.2
in/hr
ac-in/hr
ac-ft/hr
8. What is the total effective rainfall in inches produced by the storm described above if
its duration is 5 hours?
B: 6.0 inches
average effective rainfall intensity = (average C)*I =
total effective rainfall = (average C)*I*storm duration = 1.2*5 =
1.2
6.0
in/hr
inches
Reading
time
12:00 PM
12:10 PM
12:20 PM
12:30 PM
12:40 PM
12:50 PM
1:00 PM
1:10 PM
1:20 PM
1:30 PM
1:40 PM
1:50 PM
2:00 PM
2:10 PM
2:20 PM
Cumulative
gage
weight
(mg)
18.0
25.0
100.0
150.0
217.0
230.0
350.0
480.0
720.0
910.0
1000.0
1040.0
1050.0
1055.0
1060.0
Cumulative
rainfall
(mm)
1.80
2.50
10.00
15.00
21.70
23.00
35.00
48.00
72.00
91.00
100.00
104.00
105.00
105.50
106.00
Cumulative
rainfall (in)
0.07
0.10
0.39
0.59
0.85
0.91
1.38
1.89
2.83
3.58
3.94
4.09
4.13
4.15
4.17
True
Incremental
rainfall (in)
True
incremental
rainfall (in)
0.03
0.30
0.20
0.26
0.05
0.47
0.51
0.94
0.75
0.35
0.16
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.37
0.25
0.33
0.06
0.59
0.64
1.18
0.94
0.44
0.20
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.65
inches
= 0.06 inches + 0.59 inches
Incremental
Volume
(ft^3)
Q (cfs)
217
390,600
563
1,404,000
424
1,776,600
220
1,159,200
563*2.6=
1464
cfs
125
621,000
325/125=
2.6
inches
50
315,000
25
135,000
0
Total Volume
45,000
5,846,400
349.0
acre-ft
134.2
Watershed Area
1,610.6
=0.5*(0+217)*3600
ft^3
acre-ft
2.6*1610.6/12=
acres
=134.2*12
14. For the problem above, what is the peak runoff in cfs?
D: 1464 cfs
563 cfs/1 inch = Y/2.6 inches Y = 1464 cfs
15. A storm producing 5 inches of rainfall falls over a watershed during its dormant
season. The watershed has the landuse distribution shown in the table below. The
watershed consists of silty clays with a clay hardpan. The total rainfall for the 5 days
prior to the storm was 1.5 inches. For this storm the initial abstractions were
determined to be 0.25 inches. What is the expected overland flow supply in acre-ft?
B: 56 acre-ft
Area (acres)
Landuse
50
33
CN for
AMC
II,
HSG
D
CN III
87
23CN II
=
10 + 0.13CN II
93.9
CN
(AMC
III,
HSG
D)*A
4695.0
92
96.4
3179.8
77
88.5
2389.7
25
95
97.8
2444.1
10
84
92.4
923.5
98
99.1
991.2
80
90.2
451.0
27
10
5
160
94.2
=Weighted average CN
=sum(CNIII*A)/sum(A)
S = 1000/CN - 10 = 1000/94.2 - 10 =
Q = (P-Ia)^2
(P+S-Ia)
=(5-0.25)^2
(5+0.62-0.25)
0.62
inches
4.20
672.3
56.0
inches
acre-in
acre-ft
Rippl diagram
Cumulative inflow
Cumulative demand
25000
20000
Minimum
required
reservoir
capacity
= 11,911 ac-ft
15000
10000
5000
Ja
n
-9
M 6
ar
M 96
ay
-9
Ju 6
l-9
Se 6
pN 96
ov
-9
Ja 6
n9
M 7
ar
M 97
ay
-9
Ju 7
lSe 97
pN 97
ov
-9
Ja 7
n9
M 8
ar
M 98
ay
-9
Ju 8
l-9
Se 8
pN 98
ov
-9
Ja 8
n9
M 9
ar
-9
M 9
ay
-9
Ju 9
lSe 99
pN 99
ov
-9
Ja 9
n0
M 0
ar
M 00
ay
-0
Ju 0
l-0
Se 0
pN 00
ov
-0
0
Date
17. The table below shows the normal precipitation for the month of August at eleven
gages in a flat interior watershed. During a storm event which occurred on August
17, 2006, gage D failed. What was most likely the precipitation at gage D during the
storm event in inches/day?
A: 1.2 inches/day
Only gages B, C, E, F are close enough and evenly spaced enough to be included in
normal ratio.
Gage
B
C
D
E
F
P
4.7
5.3
5.0
4.9
5.1
1.1
1.4
-1.1
1.3
Sum (P/N)=
P/N
0.23
0.26
0.22
0.25
0.98
1.2
in/day
18. The table below shows the annual precipitation at five stations in a watershed. Data
at station A is suspect. This data is plotted as a double mass-curve and a breakpoint is
identified in 1969. Assuming that the correct slope is the most recent slope, what
would be the correct 1967 annual precipitation at station A in inches/year?
B: 63.6 inches/year
Since the most recent slope (after 1969) is the correct one, the precipitation at station
A prior to 1970 is corrected by multiplying it by the ratio of the new to the old slope
(1.06/0.76).
Then PA (1967) = 45.6 * 1.06 / 0.76 inches/year = 63.6 inches/year
Year
Mean of Stations
B, C, D, E (in/yr)
Cumulative
for mean
of B, C, D,
E (in)
Cumulative
for A (in)
Slope
Corrected
annual
precipitation
at station A
(in/yr)
1965
44.7
50.8
41.7
62.2
54.1
52.2
52.2
44.7
0.86
32.0
1966
38.2
42.0
55.7
52.4
53.8
51.0
103.2
82.9
0.75
53.3
1967
45.6
57.1
55.0
65.6
57.1
58.7
161.9
128.4
0.78
63.6
1968
40.2
54.3
44.2
47.1
56.3
50.5
212.4
168.7
0.80
56.1
1969
32.3
49.4
49.9
61.4
42.9
50.9
263.3
201.0
0.63
1970
79.4
49.8
84.8
72.5
75.5
70.6
333.9
280.4
1.12
1971
62.9
52.5
65.1
54.5
65.4
59.4
393.3
343.2
1.06
1972
41.3
36.6
44.5
40.2
54.2
43.9
437.2
384.5
0.94
1973
63.6
44.1
49.1
56.7
61.7
52.9
490.1
448.1
1.20
1974
51.8
56.5
41.8
65.5
61.0
56.2
546.3
499.9
0.92
1975
58.2
42.6
48.1
53.7
44.4
47.2
593.5
558.1
1.23
1976
51.6
60.0
53.3
60.0
62.4
58.9
652.4
609.7
0.88
1977
68.9
68.9
58.9
53.0
62.6
60.8
713.2
678.6
1.13
1978
63.7
55.9
67.8
56.5
67.7
62.0
775.2
742.3
1.03
1979
68.7
53.1
65.1
67.5
64.3
62.5
837.7
811.0
1.10
1980
46.8
46.9
43.7
43.4
50.4
46.1
883.8
857.8
1.01
45.1
------------
Groundwater
Breadth Problems
1. What is the soil permanent wilting point?
C: Amount of water held in the soil that is unavailable to plants
2. If a well is drilled on a confined aquifer, water will rise to the:
A: Piezometric height or potentiometric surface
3. An unconfined aquifer has a specific yield of 4%, a specific retention of 41%, and a
total porosity of 50%, what is the percentage of unconnected pore space?
B: 5%
n = ne + unconnected pore space
ne = Sy + Sr
Then unconnected pore space = n ne = n (Sy + Sr) = 50% - (4% + 41%) = 5%
4. What is a reasonable value for the hydraulic conductivity in ft/day of a well-sorted
coarse sand aquifer with an effective grain size of 0.1 inch?
A: 20,000 ft/day
Using the Hazen formula:
K=
k g
(1.08 * 10 -9 ft 2 ) * (62.3 lbm/ft 3 ) * (32.2 ft/s 2 )
k
=
=
= 0.00328 ft / s
gc
(2.050 * 10 -5 lbf s / ft 2 ) * (32.2lbm ft / s 2 / lbf )
T = K*b = (0.0328 ft/s) * (20 ft) = 0.06564 ft2/s (1 gal/0.13368 ft2) * (3600 s/hr) * (24
hr/day) = 42,426 gal/ft/day
6. What is the rate of advection or seepage velocity in ft/day for the flow line shown
below if the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 50 ft/day, its porosity is 0.3 and
its effective porosity is 0.2?
E: 0.20 ft/day
q
v pore =
ne
i=
h
= (20 7) ft / (3.2 mi) * (1 mi / 5280 ft) = 0.000769 ft/ft
L
11
10. What is the specific capacity of the aquifer shown below in gal/ft/day if the aquifer
has reached steady-state, the well diameter is 1 ft, the water table elevation at the well
is 12 ft, the aquifer recovers its original thickness of 15 ft at 1,000 ft from the well,
and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 3X10-5 ft/s?
A: 215 gal/ft/day
The aquifer is unconfined, then the following equation applies:
K ( y12 y 22 )
Q=
r
ln 1
r2
Setting K = 3X10-5 ft/s, y1 = 12 ft, y2 = b = 15 ft, r1 = 1 ft / 2 = 0.5 ft, r2 = 1000 ft, s=
15 ft 12 ft = 3 ft
Q=
* 3 * 10 5 (12 2 152 )
= 0.00100436 ft3/s = 86.78 ft3/day = 649.1 gal/day
0.5
ln
1000
12
Hydrology
Depth Problems
1. On a specific month, a managed reservoir with an area of 500 acres, receives
structural inflows averaging 23.3 cfs, structural outflows averaging 3.3 cfs, and looses
100 acre-ft/month to the groundwater. An evaporation pan nearby records a monthly
pan evaporation of 6.5 inches/month. The calibrated pan coefficient is 0.72. The
reservoir starts with a storage of 1000 acre-ft and ends up with a storage of 2500 acreft at the end of the month. What is the rainfall over the reservoir in inches/month?
E: 14.2 inches/month
Reservoir area
Structural inflows
Structural
outflows
Loss to
groundwater
Evaporation
Total outflows
Initial storage
Final storage
Change in
storage
500
acres
1400.3
acre-ft/mo
= 23.3
cfs
198.33
acre-ft/mo
= 3.3
cfs
100.00
195.00
493.3
acre-ft/mo
acre-ft/mo
1000.0
2500.0
acre-ft
acre-ft
1500.0
acre-ft
=6.5*0.72*500/12
acre-ft/mo
ft/mo
inches/mo
13
85
20
3
1.5
0.4
C=
year
%
in/hr
0.45
5. A small urban watershed located in Florida has a time of concentration of 3 hours and
the landuse distribution shown below. If the stormwater drainage system for the
community is to be designed based on a 100 year storm frequency, what would be the
expected peak runoff in cfs?
B: 43 cfs
40
Material
Concrete
Shingle roof
Asphalt
Lawn areas
C*A
6.12
9
6.48
3.5
0.63
Steel's formula: i = K/(tc+b)
Florida is in Zone I, then for a 100 year return period: K=367, b=33
with tc=3 hr=180 min
i = 367/(180+33) =
1.72 in/hr
average effective rainfall intensity = (average C)*I =
0.63 * 1.72 in/hr =
(average C)*I*A =
43.2
43.2
1.08
in/hr
ac-in/hr
cfs
14
6. What is the probably of at least one event of 20 year frequency occurring in 50 years?
C: 92%
P{at least one 20 year event in 50 years}=
=1-(1-1/20)^50=
0.92
92%
Station
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
P (in)
3.8
3.5
4.1
3.4
3.7
2.8
2.6
Total Area =
P=
22519.9/6766
3.3
Thiessen
Polygon
Area, A
(mi^2)
825
917
679
1,508
623
1,014
1,200
6,766
P*A
3,135
3,210
2,784
5,127
2,305
2,839
3,120
22,520
= Sum (P*A)
inches
78.0
89.1
1.2
Cumulative
Q (inches) =
time (hrs)
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
Incremental
Precipitation
(inches)
0.5
0.9
1.5
2.1
1.1
0.8
0.3
0.1
Cumulative
Precipitation
P (inches)
0.5
1.4
2.9
5
6.1
6.9
7.2
7.3
( P Ia )2
P + S Ia
0
0.2
1.3
3.3
4.3
5.1
5.4
5.5
Incremental
Q (inches)
0.00
0.20
1.14
1.93
1.05
0.78
0.29
0.10
15
9. Based on the problem above, what is the difference (inches) between the effective
rainfall for AMC II and AMC III for the period from 5-6?
A: 0.06 inches with AMC III generating more effective rainfall
CNII =
S for AMC II = 1000/CNII - 10 =
time (hrs)
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
Incremental
Precipitation
(inches)
0.5
0.9
1.5
2.1
1.1
0.8
0.3
0.1
78.0
2.8
Cumulative
Precipitation
(inches)
0.5
1.4
2.9
5
6.1
6.9
7.2
7.3
0.71
0.78
0.06
Cumulative
Q (inches)
0
0.1
0.9
2.5
3.5
4.2
4.5
4.5
Incremental
Q (inches)
0.00
0.11
0.79
1.62
0.95
0.71
0.27
0.09
inches
inches
inches
10. The 1-hour unit hydrograph for a watershed is given below. What is the peak runoff
in cfs for the 3-hour unit hydrograph?
D: 295.2 cfs
1 hr unit hydrograph
Time (hr)
Effective rainfall
hyetograph
Peff (in)
Time
(hr)
1
1
1
0
1
2
0.0
154.0
423.5
+
+
0.0
154.0
308.0
154.0
3
4
308.0
154.0
+
+
423.5
308.0
+
+
77.0
38.5
19.3
0.0
5
6
7
8
9
77.0
38.5
19.3
0.0
+
+
+
+
154.0
77.0
38.5
19.3
0.0
+
+
+
+
+
Q (cfs)
0
1
2
0.0
154.0
423.5
3
4
5
6
7
8
Time (hr)
1
2
3
10
1 in
1 in
3 hr
unit
hydrograph
(cfs)
Total
DRH
(cfs)
1 in
0.0
=
=
=
0.0
154.0
577.5
/3=
/3=
/3=
0.0
51.3
192.5
154.0
423.5
=
=
885.5
885.5
/3=
/3=
295.2
295.2
308.0
154.0
77.0
38.5
19.3
=
=
=
=
=
539.0
269.5
134.8
57.8
19.3
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
179.7
89.8
44.9
19.3
6.4
0.0
0.0
/3=
0.0
16
11. The 1-hour unit hydrograph for a watershed is given below. What is the time in hours
and magnitude in cfs of the peak runoff generated by the storm with effective rainfall
shown below?
B: 1107 cfs at hour 3
1 hr unit hydrograph
Time (hr)
Q (cfs)
Effective rainfall
hyetograph
Time (hr)
Individual hydrographs
(cfs) due to Peff of
Peff (in)
Time (hr)
0.3
1.2
0.2
0
1
2
0.0
81.0
222.8
+
+
0.0
324.0
+
+
1
2
3
0.3 in
1.2 in
Total
DRH (cfs)
0.2 in
0
1
2
0.0
270.0
742.5
540.0
162.0
891.0
4
5
6
7
8
270.0
135.0
67.5
33.8
0.0
4
5
6
7
8
9
81.0
40.5
20.3
10.1
0.0
+
+
+
+
+
648.0
324.0
162.0
81.0
40.5
0.0
+
+
+
+
+
10
0.0
=
=
=
0.0
81.0
546.8
54.0
1107.0
148.5
108.0
54.0
27.0
13.5
6.8
=
=
=
=
=
=
877.5
472.5
236.3
118.1
54.0
6.8
0.0
0.0
12. A residential area with 1 acre average lot size has a percent impervious of 28% and
50% of the impervious area is unconnected. The Curve Number for the pervious area
is 61. What is the composite Curve Number?
A: 69
% impervious =
28%
= Pimp
% of unconnected
impervious = 100 *
unconnected/total
impervious =
50% = R
CN for pervious
area =
61 = CNp
CNc = CNp+(Pimp/100)*(98-CNp)*(1-0.5*R) =
69
13. A very flat rural watershed with an area of 1,700 acres has an average slope of 1%, a
Curve Number of 77, and the distance from the watershed outlet to the basin divide is
10,750 ft. For a 1-hour synthetic unit hydrograph, what is the approximate runoff in
cfs at hour 2.0?
B: 78 cfs
NRCS synthetic unit hydrograph
Ad =
1,700
acres
Y=
Very flat rural --> peaking factor =
L=
2.7
1
100
10,750
mi^2
%
ft
17
CN =
S = 1000/CN - 10 =
tlag = (L^0.8)*(S+1)^0.7/(1900Y^0.5) =
tp = 0.5*tr+tlag=
Qp = 100*Ad/tp =
t/tp
t (hr)
Q/Qp
77
2.99
2.33
2.83
95.5
hr
hr
cfs
Q
(cfs)
0.0
0.0
0.000
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.030
2.9
0.2
0.6
0.100
9.6
0.3
0.8
0.190
18.1
0.4
1.1
0.310
29.6
0.5
1.4
0.470
44.9
0.6
1.7
0.660
63.0
0.7
2.0
0.820
78.3
14. What is the time of concentration to the outlet (hours) for the watershed shown
below?
D: 1.4 hours
Segment A-B:
First 300 ft:
Sheetflow
L = 300 ft
Landuse = short grass, then n = 0.15
2-yr, 24-hr rainfall = 0.8 inches
S = 2%
tsheet = 0.007*(n*L)^0.8/(P2^0.5)/(S^0.4) =
Remaining 900 ft:
hrs
0.25
hrs
L = 900 ft
Landuse = short grass
S = 2%
vshallow =
1.0 ft/s
Read from graphic
tshallow = Lshallow/vshallow = 900/1.0 = 900 sec =
Segment B-C:
5,000 ft of
0.79
L = 5,000 ft
Base = 10 ft
Side slope =
1:1
Channel slope = 2%
Water depth = 3 ft
Manning's n = 0.1
Manning's equation:
18
A = 39 ft^2
Pw = 18.5 ft
R = 2.1 ft
vchannel = 1.49/n*(R^0.66)*(S^0.5) =
= 1.49/0.1*(2.1^0.6666)*(0.02^0.5)
tchannel = Lchannel/vchannel =
5000/3.46 =
tc = tsheet + tshallow + tchannel = 0.79 hrs + 0.25 hrs + 0.40 hrs =
3.46
ft/s
1445
sec =
1.44
hrs
0.40
15. Using the NRCS graphical peak discharge method, what is the peak discharge in cfs
for a watershed with an area of 1.25 mi2, a time of concentration of 2 hours, and an
average curve number of 69? The 24-hour cumulative rainfall is 3 inches and the
watershed is characterized by type II rainfall distributions? Note: 3% of pond and
swamp areas are NOT included in the time of concentration.
D: 116 cfs
P24 =
Ad =
tc =
CN =
S = 1000/CN 10 =
Q=
( P Ia )
3
1.25
2
69
4.5
inches
mi^2
hours
0.67
0.90
0.30
185
0.75
116.1
inches
inches
inches
P + S Ia
Ia = 0.2S =
Ia/P =
Qu =
Fp =
Qp =
19
hrs
16. The 1-hour S-hydrograph for a watershed is shown below. What is the peak flow for
the 3-hour unit hydrograph?
B: 556 cfs
Time
(hr)
Lagged
1-hr Shydrograph
(cfs)
3-hr
UH
Diff.
/3=
1
2
290
1088
290
1088
/3=
/3=
97
363
1668
1668
/3=
556
1958
290
1668
/3=
556
5
6
7
8
9
2103
2176
2212
2212
2212
1088
1668
1958
2103
2176
1015
508
254
109
36
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
/3=
338
169
85
36
12
10
2212
2212
/3=
17. The streamflow measured at the outlet of a 300 acre watershed during a storm event
is tabulated below. Assuming a constant baseflow of 20 cfs, what is the effective
rainfall in inches produced by the storm?
D: 11.6 inches
Time (hr)
Total
Streamflow
(cfs)
20
20
101
20
81
145,800
567
20
547
1,130,400
1127
20
1107
2,977,200
898
20
878
3,573,000
493
20
473
2,431,800
256
20
236
1,276,200
138
20
118
637,200
74
20
54
309,600
27
20
109,800
10
20
20
Baseflow
(cfs)
DRH (cfs)
DR
Volume
(ft^3)
12,600
Total DRV
12,603,600
289.34
ft^3
acre-ft
0.96
ft
11.57
in
20
18. An agricultural field is drained by a ditch which runs north to south as shown below.
What is the peak runoff (cfs) produced at point 2 if the rainfall intensity for a 1 in 100
year storm is given by the equation below?
i (in/hr) = 350 / (tc + 40) where tc is in minutes
E: 35.1 cfs
Time of concentration to point 2 is made of:
overland flow time of concentration = max(tc A, tc B)
= max (45 min,15 min) =
ditch flow from point 1 to point 2 =
45 min
6.24 min
51.24 min
L = 1,000 ft
Base = 10 ft
Channel slope = 2%
Water depth = 2 ft
Manning's n = 0.1
Manning's equation:
A = 20 ft
Pw = 14 ft
R = 1.43 ft
vchannel = 1.49/n*(R^0.66)*(S^0.5) =
= 1.49/0.1*(1.43^0.6666)*(0.02^0.5)
tchannel = Lchannel/vchannel = 1000/2.67 =
Intensity:
I = 350 / (tc + 40) = 350 / (51.24 + 40) =
2.67 ft/s
374.5 sec =
6.24 min
3.84 in/hr
Area (acres)
Runoff Coefficient C
15
0.15
2.25
23
0.30
6.9
Total area =
Peak flow:
Qp = (average C)*I*A =
0.24*3.84*38 =
average C = sum
(C*A)
38 /sum(A) =
C* A
0.24
35.1 cfs
21
Groundwater
Depth Problems
1. What is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity (gal/day/ft2) of the aquifer shown
below?
A: 0.02 gal/day/ft2
Layer
1
2
3
Sum (m) =
m (ft)
10
17
5
32
K
(gal/day/ft^2)
1000
0.01
1
Keq (gal/day/ft^2)
m/K
0.01
1700
5
1705
=32/1705=
=Sum (m/K)
0.02
12.5
100
14.5
1,000
50,000
K=
Q*ln(r1/r2)/pi()/(y1^2y2^2)=
678.6
ft
ft
ft
ft
gal/day
gal/day/ft^2
22
5. What is the hydraulic conductivity in ft/s of the soil sample shown below if the water
level in the standpipe drops as shown in a period of 30 minutes?
C: 9.4 * 10-6 ft/s
standpipe diameter d =
standpipe area a =
0.25*pi*d^2
sample diameter D =
sample area A =
0.25*pi*D^2
sample length L =
initial water level h1 =
final water level h2 =
time t =
K = a*L*ln(h1/h2)/(A*t) =
K=
1
0.79
4
12.57
8
18
12
30
0.00676
9.4E-06
in
in^2
in
in^2
in
in
in
min
in/min
ft/s
6. What is the storativity of the confined aquifer shown below if the hydraulic
conductivity is 500 gal/day/ft2 and the well diameter is 2.0 feet?
A: 2.8 * 10-4
This is a case of transient pumping, then Theis equation most be used.
Q
Q
sr ,t =
W ( u)
W ( u) =
4 T
4 Kb
Solving for W(u):
4Kbs r ,t 4 * * 500 gal / day / ft 2 (70 ft )(150 ft 120 ft )
W (u ) =
=
= 22
Q
0.6 * 10 6 gal
23
24