Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Web Version
Web Version
Web Version
Edgar Blaustein
(Eds.)
ISBN
3-932298-16-0
Das Werk einschlielich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschtzt.
Jede Verwertung ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlags unzulssig.
Das gilt insbesondere fr Vervielfltigungen, bersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen
und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen.
Copyright 2001 LOG_X Verlag GmbH, Stuttgart.
Projektmanagement: Dr.-Ing. Peter Radgen, Fraunhofer ISI
Umschlaggestaltung: Jrgen G. Rothfu, Neckarwestheim
Druck: Rondo Druck, Ebersbach-Rowlden
Bindung: Waidner GmbH, Fellbach
Printed in Germany
Preface
According to the Kyoto Protocol from 1997, the EU has to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions by 8 % below their 1990 levels until the period of 2008-2012. To
achieve these reduction targets substantial efforts will be required by all sectors.
Two main strategies have been identified, which allow significant emission reductions without harming economic growth. The first is the wider adoption of
energy efficient technologies. Energy efficiency has been a key element in the
energy policy of the European Union since it reduces the emissions related to
energy consumption and, at the same time, saves energy costs and contributes
to extending the remaining lifetime of our natural resources.
Among the cross cutting energy savings technologies, electric motor systems
are by far the most important type of electric load. They are used in all sectors
in a wide range of applications, such as fans, compressors, pumps, or conveyors. Since electricity consumption in electric motor systems account for abut 70
% of all electricity use in the industry sector and since energy costs make up
more than 70 % of the life cycle costs of a motor system, even small improvements in the energy efficiency of motor systems will produce large energy savings across the EU.
Therefore, the EU has supported a number of studies, analysing the market for
energy efficient electric motor applications. This book summarises the findings
of the study on compressed air systems in the EU, while other studies such as a
study on the use of pumps have recently been completed and studies on fans
and on air conditioning systems are in preparation.
As energy savings measures in compressed air systems are highly profitable,
we hope that our propositions on how to stimulate further applications of energy
savings techniques in compressed air systems will be adopted by the European
Com-mission and the national Government of each Member State.
Karlsruhe, February, 5th, 2001.
Peter Radgen
Edgar Blaustein
Fraunhofer ISI
Fraunhofer Institute
Systems and Innovation Research
Breslauer Strasse 48
76139 Karlsruhe, Germany
Peter Radgen, <Peter.Radgen@isi.fhg.de>
Christiane Schmid, <Christiane.Schmid@isi.fhg.de>
DoE
Department of Energetics University of L'Aquila
Localit Monteluco di Roio
67040 L'Aquila, Italy
Roberto Cipollone, <robcip@ing.univaq.it>
Roberto Carapellucci, <robcar@ing.univaq.it>
ECE
ECE International VOF
De Spinhoek 8
7772 PX Hardenberg, Netherlands
Gerard Hurink, <ece_international_vof@hetnet.nl>
Industry representatives
The study team would like to thank Pneurop (the European association of manufacturers and
distributors of compressed air equipment) for their participation in the study. While the many
members of the association who participated are too numerous to list, we would like to make
particular mention of the participation of Henri Ysewijn (President of Pneurop), Guy Van
Doorslaer (SG of Pneurop), Harry Craig and Desmond Wall.
Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................... 25
1.2
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
2.2
2.3
The Simplified Model, the Data Used, and the Results ............. 38
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
II
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
4.2
4.3
5. Analysis of Impacts.................................................................................. 61
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Actions....................................................................................... 82
Advertising Campaign................................................................ 82
Technology Demonstration........................................................ 83
Measuring Campaign................................................................. 84
Contests and Awards................................................................. 84
Dissemination of Information, Training, and Education ............. 86
Life Cycle Costing...................................................................... 88
Labelling and Certification ......................................................... 90
Voluntary Agreements ............................................................... 95
Development of Guidelines for Outsourcing .............................. 98
Economic and Regulatory Actions............................................. 99
Other Possible Actions ............................................................ 102
6.2
6.3
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
III
7.2
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
IV
List of Figures
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Figure 3:
Figure 4:
Figure 5:
Figure 6:
Figure 7:
Figure 8:
Figure 9:
Figure 10: LCC for two different sizes of compressors, indicating the
significance of energy consumption ............................................... 89
Figure 11: LCC of a compressor with variation of electricity prices................. 90
Figure 12: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (covered potential
and implementation time)............................................................. 107
Figure 13: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (costs and covered
potential) ...................................................................................... 108
Figure 14: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (Implementation
time and costs) ............................................................................ 109
Figure 15: Construction of the Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)......... 110
Figure 16: CAS electricity consumption according to scenario ..................... 115
Figure 17: CAS electricity consumption by country, BAU scenario ............... 116
Figure 18: CAS electricity consumption by country, ARP scenario ............... 116
Figure 19: CAS electricity consumption by country, ERP scenario ............... 117
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
List of Tables
Table 1:
Table 2:
Table 3:
Table 4:
Table 5:
Table 6:
Table 7:
Table 8:
Table 9:
Table 10:
Table 11:
Table 12:
Table 13:
Table 16: Increment of Investment costs for each proposed measure .......... 70
Table 17:
Table 18:
Table 19:
Table 20:
Table 21:
Table 22:
Table 23:
Table 24:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
VI
Table 25:
Table 26:
Table 27:
Table 30:
Table 31:
Table 32:
Table 33:
Table 34:
Table 35:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Introduction
Using compressed air in the industrial and service sectors is a common practice, since production, handling and use are safe and easy. Compressed air
accounts for as much as 10 % of industrial consumption of electricity, or over 80
TWh per year in the European Union.
Nonetheless, the energy efficiency of many compressed air systems is low:
case studies show that savings in the range from 5 to 50 % are possible. A
large technical and economic potential for energy savings is not being realised
under current market and decision mechanisms. The study "Compressed Air
Systems in the European Union" has developed recommendations for actions
that could bring about market transformation, in order to realise this potential for
energy and cost savings.
Market characterisation, technical energy savings measures
Compressors are relatively long lived capital goods, with an average lifetime of
13 years for compressors between 10 and 90 kW, and 16 years between 90
and 300 kW. They operate on the average 3500 hours per year. The current
stock of compressors is as follows.
Country
Total
France
43 765
28 885
14 880
Germany
62 000
43 400
18 600
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italy
43 800
30 660
13 140
United Kingdom
55 000
46 750
8 250
Rest of the EU
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Total
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
The market for compressed air systems (CAS) is stable in Europe, with 1 % to
2 % growth in Italy, Greece and Spain, and 0 % growth in the other European
countries.
Performance of CAS depends on the performance of each element, but even
more on overall system design and operation. The economically and technically
feasible energy savings amount to 32.9 %, achievable over a 15 year period. All the technical measures examined are cost effective (payback time of
less than 36 months) in some applications. The most important energy savings
measures are:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Executive Summary
The following table resumes the potential contribution to energy savings of the
technical measures examined.
Energy savings measure
potential
contribution (3)
25 %
2%
0.5 %
25 %
15 %
3.8 %
Upgrading of compressor
30 %
7%
2.1 %
20 %
12 %
2.4 %
20 %
20 %
4.0 %
10 %
5%
0.5 %
50 %
9%
4.5 %
50 %
3%
1.5 %
5%
40 %
2.0 %
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTAL
32.9 %
Table legend: (1) % of CAS where this measure is applicable and cost effective
(2) % reduction in annual energy consumption
(3) Potential contribution = Applicability * Reduction
Energy savings can best be achieved at the time when a new system is built
from scratch. Nevertheless, much can be done at the time of replacement of
major components of an existing system. Furthermore, actions which are related to maintenance and operations, in particular regular filter maintenance and
air leak detection, can be introduced at any moment in the life cycle of a CAS.
Market transformation for greater energy efficiency would impact different actors:
manufacturers of CAS equipment could benefit from expansion of the market for higher quality, better performing equipment, and would have to adjust
their product line accordingly;
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Executive Summary
While the technical measures needed for increased energy efficiency are considered to be more profitable than many other industrial investments, these
measures are not carried out by private enterprises, for reasons which are essentially organisational:
No compressed air cost accounting. CAS electricity consumption is "invisible" to top management, since it is most often a relatively small cost item
for any company. Electricity consumption in general is usually treated as a
general overhead item in company analytical accounting schemes: reducing
this cost item is often not the responsibility of any particular manager.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Executive Summary
Subsidies, particularly for upstream aid in decision making and for audits;
In the view of the study team, these levels of savings constitute very ambitious
targets, which nevertheless could be achieved over a 15 year period. To be
successful, the programmes would have to meet the following conditions:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Zusammenfassung
Zusammenfassung
Einleitung
Der Einsatz von Druckluft in den Industrie- und Dienstleistungsbranchen ist verbreitet, da Erzeugung, Umgang und Nutzung sicher und einfach sind. Auf die
Drucklufterzeugung entfallen in der Europischen Union ca. 10 % des industriellen Stromverbrauchs oder ber 80 TWh pro Jahr.
Trotz dieses hohen Energieverbrauchs ist die Energieeffizienz vieler Druckluftanlagen (DLA) niedrig: Fallstudien zeigen, dass Einsparungen im Bereich zwischen 5 und 50 % mglich sind. Ein groes technisches und wirtschaftliches
Energieeinsparpotenzial wird unter aktuellen Markt- und Entscheidungsmechanismen nicht realisiert. Im Rahmen der vorgelegten Studie wurden Handlungsempfehlungen erarbeitet, bei deren Umsetzung die bestehenden Hemmnisse
abgebaut und berwunden werden knnen, damit dieses Potenzial fr Energieund Kosteneinsparungen in Druckluftanlagen realisiert werden kann.
Marktanalyse und technische Energieeinsparmanahmen
Kompressoren sind relativ langlebige Investitionsgter mit einer durchschnittlichen Lebensdauer von ca. 13 Jahren fr Kompressoren zwischen 10 und
90 kW bzw. 16 Jahren fr Kompressoren zwischen 90 und 300 kW. Sie sind im
Durchschnitt 3 500 Stunden pro Jahr in Betrieb. Nach den Auswertungen der
Arbeitsgruppe sind derzeit in der Europischen Union ca. 321 265 Kompressoren im Einsatz. In der folgenden Tabelle ist die Gesamtzahl der Kompressoren
nach Lndern und Grenklassen zusammengefasst:
Land
Summe
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
Frankreich
43 765
28 885
14 880
Deutschland
62 000
43 400
18 600
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italien
43 800
30 660
13 140
Grobritannien
55 000
46 750
8 250
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Summe
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Zusammenfassung
%
Effizienzgewinn (2)
Gesamtpotenzial (3)
25 %
2%
0,5 %
25 %
15 %
3,8 %
30 %
7%
2,1 %
20 %
12 %
2,4 %
20 %
20 %
4,0 %
10 %
5%
0,5 %
50 %
9%
4,5 %
50 %
3%
1,5 %
5%
40 %
2,0 %
80 %
20 %
16,0 %
Hufigerer Filterwechsel
40 %
2%
0,8 %
SUMME
32,9 %
Energieeinsparmanahme
Neuanlagen oder Ersatzinvestitionen
Legende:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Zusammenfassung
Eine verstrkte Umsetzung von Manahmen zur Steigerung der Energieeffizienz auf Grund der Marktbeeinflussung durch politische Manahmen htte
Auswirkungen auf verschiedene Akteure:
Druckluftanwender mssten gestiegene Kapitalinvestitionen und Wartungskosten in Kauf nehmen, um von reduzierten Energiekosten zu profitieren;
Obwohl die zur Steigerung der Energieeffizienz in Druckluftanlagen notwendigen technischen Manahmen profitabler als viele andere Investitionen in der
Industrie sind, werden diese aus organisatorischen Grnden hufig nicht von
Unternehmen umgesetzt. Diese lassen sich im Wesentlichen in drei Problemgruppen zusammenfassen:
Mangelndes Bewusstsein mglicher Einsparungen. Der obersten Geschftsleitung, die fr die Beschaffungspolitik und Investitionsentscheidungen
verantwortlich ist, fehlt das Bewusstsein fr mgliche Energieeinsparungen.
Manahmen, mit denen die Kosten von Gertebeschaffungen optimiert werden sollen, z. B. Ausschreibungen, bercksichtigen den Stromverbrauch nur
selten.
Komplexe Managementstruktur. Die Verantwortlichkeit fr mgliche Optimierungsmanahmen ist meistens auf mehrere Managementfunktionen verteilt: Herstellung, Wartung, Beschaffung, Finanzierung. Es ist schwierig, auf
dieser Managementebene ber Posten mit niedriger Prioritt wie den Stromverbrauch einen Konsens zu erreichen, der quer ber Abteilungskompetenzen reicht.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Zusammenfassung
liegenden Studie wurden die folgenden mglichen Manahmenvorschlge erarbeitet und bewertet.
Messkampagne, um Nutzern von Druckluftanlagen ein besseres Verstndnis des qualitativen und quantitativen Einsparpotenzials ihrer Druckluftanlagen zu vermitteln;
Lebenszykluskosten, die aufzeigen, dass optimierte umweltgerechte Entscheidungen auch wirtschaftlich optimal sind;
Subventionen, besonders zur Untersttzung bei der Auswahl und Konzeption von Anlagen und fr Audits;
Die einzelnen Manahmen wurden als Handlungsempfehlung in zwei sich ergnzende Programme zusammengefasst.
Das "Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)" (Aufmerksamkeits-Programm; in Anlehnung an das bestehenden EU-GreenLights-Programm) umfasst die Manahmen im Bereich Information und Entscheidungsuntersttzung und knnte Einsparungen bis zu 16,5 % des derzeitigen Stromverbrauchs in Druckluftanlagen aktivieren.
Das "Economic and Regulatory Programme (ERP)" (Manahmen-Programm fr Wirtschaftlichkeit, Vorschriften, Subventionen und Steuern) knnte
zusammen mit dem ARP Einsparungen bis zu 24,7 % initiieren. (Dabei ist zu
beachten, dass das Projektteam das ERP ohne die gleichzeitige Umsetzung
des ARP fr unwirksam hlt.)
Nach Auffassung der Projektbearbeiter, stellt die Umsetzung dieser Einsparpotenziale ein sehr ehrgeiziges Ziel dar, das jedoch ohne weiteres ber einen
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Zusammenfassung
Zeitraum von 15 Jahren erreicht werden kann. Fr einen Erfolg der zu ergreifenden Manahmen ist dabei sicherzustellen, das die Programme den folgenden Rahmenbedingungen gerecht werden:
ausreichendes Personal;
hochrangige politische Untersttzung und Frderung, um eine breite Akzeptanz in der ffentlichkeit zu erzielen;
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
11
Rsume
Rsume
Introduction
Lutilisation de lair comprim dans lindustrie et le tertiaire est courant, sa production et son usage tant faciles et sans danger. Lair comprim reprsente
10 % de la consommation dlectricit de lindustrie, soit plus de 80 TWh pour
lUnion Europenne.
Mais le rendement nergtique de nombreux systmes air comprim est faible : les tudes de cas mettent en vidence des conomies dnergie possibles
de 5 50 %. Les conditions actuelles du march et des mcanismes de dcision ne permettent pas la mise en uvre de cet important potentiel
dconomies dnergie. Ltude "Transformation du march des systmes air
comprim" propose des actions pour transformer le march et raliser le potentiel dconomies dnergie (et de dpenses) identifi.
Caractrisation du march, mesures techniques dconomie dnergie
Les compresseurs ont des dures de vie relativement longues, en moyenne 13
ans pour les compresseurs de puissance comprise entre 10 et 90 kW, 16 ans
pour les compresseurs de puissance de 90 300 kW. Ils sont utiliss en
moyenne 3500 heures par an. Le parc install par pays est indiqu ci-dessous.
Pays
Total
France
43 765
28 885
14 880
Allemagne
62 000
43 400
18 600
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italie
43 800
30 660
13 140
Grande-Bretagne
55 000
46 750
8 250
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Total
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
Le march pour les systmes air comprim (SAC) est stable en Europe, avec
une croissance de 1 2 % en Italie, Grce et Espagne, une croissance nulle
dans les autres pays europens.
La performance dun systme dpend de chaque lment, mais plus particulirement de sa conception gnrale et de son mode dexploitation. Le potentiel
dconomies dnergie, conomiquement et techniquement intressant, est
estim 32.9 %, ralisable en 15 ans. Toutes les mesures techniques examines sont rentables conomiquement (temps de retour de moins de 36 mois),
au moins pour certaines applications. Les mesures les plus importantes sont :
La rduction des fuites
Une meilleure conception du systme
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
12
Rsume
contribution
potentielle (3)
25 %
2%
0.5 %
25 %
15 %
3.8 %
Amlioration du compresseur
30 %
7%
2.1 %
20 %
12 %
2.4 %
20 %
20 %
4.0 %
10 %
5%
0.5 %
50 %
9%
4.5 %
50 %
3%
1.5 %
5%
40 %
2.0 %
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTAL
32.9 %
Lgende:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
13
Rsume
Bien que les mesures techniques pour amliorer lefficacit nergtique soient
plus rentables que beaucoup dautres investissements industriels, ces mesures
ne sont pas mises en uvre par les entreprises prives, pour des questions
essentiellement dorganisation :
Labsence de comptage du cot de lair comprim. La consommation
dlectricit des compresseurs est "invisible" pour la direction, son cot tant
le plus souvent relativement bas. La consommation dlectricit est le plus
souvent incluse dans les frais gnraux : rduire ce cot nest du ressort
prcis daucun responsable.
Le manque dinformation sur les conomies possibles. La direction, responsable des politiques dachat et des dcisions dinvestissement, nest pas
au courant des possibilits dconomie dnergie. Les mesures pour optimiser le cot des achats dquipements prennent rarement en compte la
consommation lectrique.
La complexit des structures de gestion. La responsabilit des prises de
dcision est rpartie entre plusieurs gestionnaires : production, maintenance,
achat, comptabilit. Il est difficile dobtenir laccord de la direction, transversale sur plusieurs services, pour une question aussi peu prioritaire que la
consommation lectrique.
Actions pour diffuser des systmes air comprim performants
Les obstacles la mise en uvre de mesures dconomie dnergie tant essentiellement dus des facteurs organisationnels, lintrieur des entreprises
utilisatrices dair comprim, les solutions doivent toucher ces entreprises et les
amener modifier leur organisation. Lobjectif est de convaincre la direction de
mettre en uvre les programmes ncessaires pour conomiser lnergie. Notre
tude a valu les actions suivantes.
Campagnes dinformation, pour sensibiliser aux consommations dnergie
de lair comprim;
Dmonstration technologique, pour des concepts innovants tels que de
nouvelles connections des tubes pour rduire les pertes, pour le schage de
lair ou la dtection automatique des pertes;
Compagnes de mesures pour que les utilisateurs dair comprim aient une
ide de leurs potentiels dconomie;
Concours et primes pour la conception des systmes;
Diffusion de linformation, formation, sur les conomies possibles des
systmes air comprim;
Analyse en cot global, qui peut montrer lintrt conomique dune solution intressante environnementalement;
Etiquetage et certification la fois des composants et du systme luimme;
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
14
Rsume
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
15
Rapporto Conclusivo
Rapporto Conclusivo
Introduzione
Luso dellaria compressa nel settore industriale e dei servizi pratica comune,
data la semplicit e la sicurezza della sua produzione, gestione ed utilizzo.
Laria compressa costituisce sino al 10 % del consumo industriale di elettricit,
pari a oltre 80 TWh annui nella Unione Europea.
Ciononostante, lefficienza energetica della maggior parte degli impianti di aria
compressa piuttosto bassa: lanalisi di casi reali mostra che sono possibili
risparmi di entit che pu variare fra il 5 e il 50 %. Esiste un significativo
potenziale tecnico ed economico di risparmio energetico che normalmente
sfugge alla percezione nellambito dei correnti processi decisionali e di mercato.
Lo "Studio sulla trasformazione del mercato dei Sistemi di Aria Compressa"
sviluppa alcune raccomandazioni su possibili interventi che potrebbero dar
luogo a reali modificazioni del mercato, cos da concretizzare il suddetto
potenziale di risparmio energetico ed economico.
Caratterizzazione del Mercato e interventi tecnici di risparmio energetico
I compressori daria sono beni dinvestimento con durate relativamente lunghe,
in media 13 anni per compressori fra 10 e 90 kW, e 16 anni fra 90 e 300 kW. Un
compressore opera in media 3500 ore annue. Lattuale parco dei compressori
ripartito come segue.
Paese
Totale
Francia
43 765
28 885
14 880
Germania
62 000
43 400
18 600
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italia
43 800
30 660
13 140
Regno Unito
55 000
46 750
8 250
Resto dellUE
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Totale
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Rapporto Conclusivo
16
% di
risparmio
(2)
contributo
potenziale (3)
25 %
2%
0.5 %
25 %
15 %
3.8 %
30 %
7%
2.1 %
20 %
12 %
2.4 %
20 %
20 %
4.0 %
10 %
5%
0.5 %
50 %
9%
4.5 %
50 %
3%
1.5 %
5%
40 %
2.0 %
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTALE
32.9 %
Legenda:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
17
Rapporto Conclusivo
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Rapporto Conclusivo
18
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
19
Samenvatting
Samenvatting
Inleiding
De toepassing van perslucht in de industrie- en toeleveringsbranche is alom
bekend. De productie, het omgaan en het gebruik van perslucht is
ongecompliceerd. In de Europese Unie wordt circa 10 % van het industrile
elektriciteitsverbruik ingezet voor productie van perslucht ofwel ruim 80 TWh
per jaar.
Ondanks dit hoge energieverbruik is de efficiency van veel persluchtinstallaties
(DLA) laag: praktijkstudies tonen aan, dat besparingen mogelijk zijn tussen 5
50 %. Een hoog technisch en economische besparingspotentieel wordt in de
actuele markt- en beslissingsmechanismen niet bereikt. In het kader van deze
studie worden aanbevelingen uitgewerkt, waarmee bestaande drempels
overwonnen kunnen worden, zodat energie- en kostenbesparingen in
persluchtinstallaties gerealiseerd kunnen worden.
Marktanalyse en technische energiebesparingsmaatregelen
Compressoren zijn relatief duurzame investeringsgoederen met een
gemiddelde levensduur van circa 13 jaar voor compressoren tussen 10 en 90
kW, resp. 16 jaar voor compressoren tussen 90 en 300 kW. De installaties zijn
gemiddeld 3.500 bedrijfsuren per jaar in bedrijf. Volgens de evaluatie van
marktgegevens door de werkgroep, zijn er in de Europese Unie ongeveer
321.265 compressoren in bedrijf. In de volgende tabel is een opstelling
gemaakt naar vermogen en betreffende landen.
Land
Totaal
Frankrijk
43 765
28 885
14 880
Duitsland
62 000
43 400
18 600
35 660
25 685
9 976
Itali
43 800
30 660
13 140
Groot Brittani
55 000
46 750
8 250
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Totalen
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
20
Samenvatting
In de navolgende tabel wordt het energiebesparingpotentieel van de onderzochte technische maatregelen samengevat:
Energiebesparingsmaatregel
%
toepasbaarheid (1)
%
efficiencyvoordeel (2)
Totaalpotentieel (3)
2%
0.5 %
15 %
3.8 %
7%
2.1 %
12 %
2.4 %
20 %
4.0 %
5%
0.5 %
9%
4.5 %
3%
1.5 %
40 %
2.0 %
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTALEN
32.9 %
Legenda:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
21
Samenvatting
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
22
Samenvatting
Lifetime-cyclecosts, welke aantonen, dat geoptimaliseerde en milieugerichte beslissingen ook economisch optimaal zijn;
Het "Economic and Regulatory Programm (ERP)" (Efficiency, voorschriften, subsidies, en belastingprogrammas) kan, samen met de ARP
besparingen opleveren tot 24,7 % (daarbij is aan te merken, dat volgens het
projectteam de ERP zonder het ARP niet kan functioneren).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
23
Samenvatting
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
25
Introduction
Introduction
Using compressed air in the manufacturing and service sectors is a common
practice, since production, handling and use are safe and easy. Aircompressors are thus available in a large variety of types, to match different
user requirements in terms of air quality, volume and pressure. Generating
compressed air accounts for as much as 10 % of industrial consumption of
electricity, and up to 30 % in certain sectors of activity, such as the glass industry. Estimates indicate that compressed air accounts for over 80 TWh of electricity, and 55 million tons of CO2 per year for the EU.
Nonetheless, the energy efficiency of many compressed air systems is low:
case studies show that savings in the range from 5 to 50 % are possible. It is
clear that market functioning at present is not integrating economically feasible
measures into industry choices. In order to achieve the electricity savings and to
make cost effective use of possible improvements, there is a need for a market
transformation.
This document is the final report of the SAVE Compressed Air Systems Market
Transformation Study, which aims to identify measures, policies and programmes which could lead to more energy efficient compressed air systems.
The study adopts a systems approach, taking into account improvements at all
stages of the compressed air use cycle. This type of approach is necessary because the most important actions to improve efficiency involve system issues:
system operations and maintenance practices, in particular to reduce air
leaks and to properly maintain filters;
system design, including optimal pressure choice, compressor controls, piping topology, etc;
recovery of waste heat, which is a design issue related to the integration of
the compressed air system into its industrial environment.
Thus, the study examines technical as well as organisational measures, which
could be cost effective in transforming market functioning. The document is organised according to the tasks of the project work plan:
PHASE 1:
Task 1
Task 2
Task 3
DATA COLLECTION
Characterisation of compressed air systems in the EU
Model energy consumption and growth
Technical and Economic Energy Savings Potential
PHASE 2:
Task 4
Task 5
Task 6
Task 7
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
1.
27
Work on this task was organised with respect to the basic objective of the task:
provide sufficiently accurate information to help identify priority energy savings
measures, and to judge their cost effectiveness.
Data collection was co-ordinated with the other ongoing related SAVE studies:
in particular the Pumps study, the Variable Speed Drive study and the Motors
study.
1.1
The compressed air systems (CAS) market is a capital goods market, characterised by a relatively small number of producers for air compressors (the main
component of CAS). The market is highly segmented, by type of compressor
and power range. Thus, confidentiality of data poses a major problem, because
of the limited number of producers for each category of equipment1.
In order to overcome this difficulty, the study has negotiated an agreement on
data collection with Pneurop, the European Compressed Air Equipment Manufacturers' trade association. According to the terms of this agreement, the study
team will develop data from national sources, essentially from the countries of
team members (France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, with co-operation from
ETSU in the United Kingdom).
A numeric data collection guide was circulated to team members (copy in Appendix 1). This very complete guide was used to obtain existing data. Of course
not all data represented exists in each country. Best available data was used, in
conjunction with optimal industrial statistics extrapolation methods, in order to
create an aggregated skeleton model. This model was submitted to Pneurop
Compressor Committee. After review, a meeting was held (London, 16-17
September, in conjunction with the International Compressed Air Systems conference) in order to further improve the model.
Furthermore, Pneurop has agreed to circulate a qualitative data collection guide
among its members.
A different data collection system was used for those target groups that are not
represented by Pneurop:
1
Statistical confidentiality rules differ from country to country. In general, if a small number of
producers (from 3 to 5) account for a large part of a market, it is considered that publication
of data would violate confidentiality. The solution, from the statistician's point of view, is to
aggregate data with other industries. Unfortunately, this makes it useless for the needs of a
detailed study such as ours.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
28
the high volume turbo compressor market. This is a speciality market. The
study concluded, that because of its nature (very large, custom designed
systems), this market segment is probably of little interest for the energy
savings aims of the study;
distribution networks, in those countries where distributors are not represented by Pneurop member associations;
end users;
energy providers;
For those areas where the study directly collected data, specific data collection
tools have been developed, in the form of data collection guides, attached in
Appendices 2 and 3.
1.2
Numeric Data
The level of numeric data produced by the study is summarised in the following
tables. The data was collected either through direct interviews with producers
and users of CAS, or through a questionnaire designed specifically for Task 2
and distributed to Pneurop and the study group members. With respect to this
questionnaire, only scanty data is available. Furthermore, national data sources
are inconsistent in their classification schemes. For instance, in France, data is
available by power range but not by type of compressors (screw, piston, centrifugal, etc.), whereas in Germany, official statistics are classified by compressor types and volume flows, but not by power. Furthermore, some data may be
confidential, in market segments where less than 5 companies offer products. In
addition, it is difficult to distinguish between process gas compressors and air
compressors. Data collected by the study group comes from bibliography, discussions with manufacturers or associations, comments from experts from industry and university, etc.
According to a decision at the kick off meeting, confirmed in discussions with
Pneurop, the study is focused on CAS within the 10 kW to 300 kW power range.
Smaller units, while very numerous, account for only a small part of total consumption of compressed air. Larger units, above 300 kW, are specifically designed machines. Because of their high cost, they are usually integrated into
well designed and maintained systems, for which the energy efficiency measures covered in this study are not applicable.
The total electricity consumption in the EU for CAS is approximately 80 TWh,
that is to say roughly 10 % of the total electricity consumption in industry. The
study has agreed to the values listed in Table 1. Ademe source is "Prospective
de la consommation d'lectricit dans l'industrie l'horizon 2010, rapport d'enqute sur les moteurs", March 1994, CEREN.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 1:
29
Country
% of
industrial
Source and remarks
electricity
consumption
France
12
11
Germany
14
Italy
12
11
United Kingdom
10
10
Rest of the EU
32
11
32
14
France
Germany
Italy
UK
Rest of the EU
12
10
Figure 1:
The ADEME study allows disagregation of air compressor data by power range.
The British Compressed Air Society proposes values for the United Kingdom.
Afisac proposes some values for Italy, including the range 4-10 kW, which have
been adjusted to the study's target power range. Table 2 presents the number
of installed machines and their division into power ranges.
2
While electricity consumption of CAS in Germany, expressed in absolute terms, is the largest
in any of the European countries, it appears to be the smallest as a percentage of industrial
electricity consumption. This could be due either to a difference in the statistical categories
used in the different countries, or to the specificity of industry activity in Germany.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 2:
30
Country
10-110 kW
110-300 kW3
France
43 765
28 885 (66 %)
Germany
62 000
43 400 (70 %)
Italy
43 800
30 660 (70 %)
United
Kingdom
55 000
46 750 (85 %)
Rest of the EU
116 700
81 700 (70 %)
Total
321 265
Note that while the data for the total number of compressors is derived from
reliable data for France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom, the breakdown between the 2 power ranges depends on extrapolations and estimates.
The study team believes that the above data is an accurate representation of
the situation, given existing data sources. Nevertheless, some contradictory
evidence indicates that the number of large machines might be somewhat lower
than these estimates.
Number of systems
Number
90000
60000
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
30000
0
France
Figure 2:
3
Germany
Italy
UK
Rest of
the EU
There is a large difference between the proportion of large machines in the United Kingdom
and in other countries. This is surprising, given that statistics for the United Kingdom and
France, in particular, are both considered to be of a very reliable nature, resulting from procedures which actually counted over 100 000 machines in the field. The difference might be
due to the size of companies which use CAS in each country.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
31
The other parameters are estimated using data from ADEME, Afisac and Pneurop. We propose:
an average power of
42 kW for compressors between 10 and 110 kW,
132 kW between 110 and 300 kW,
Operating hours vary between countries and years: 3500 hours in Italy, 2700
hours in France in 1990 but only 2000 hours in 1984. Generally speaking, operating hours increase with power. Specific information on age is available: in
France, the average age of installed machines is 11 years and one third of the
stock in the EU is older than 13 years.
1.3
from the CAS users' point of view, the key decision criteria affecting user
choice in purchases. Specifically, how energy consumption issues are (or are
not) integrated into the decision process.
from the CAS manufacturers' and service providers' point of view, how energy efficiency issues (and more broadly, operating costs) are integrated into
sales strategies and practices.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
1.3.1
32
CAS Users
Reliability. Since compressed air is an essential part of the production process for most industrial compressed air users, system reliability is the absolute
primary performance criterion. System breakdown usually equates to lost
production, and is therefore very costly. The cost of lost production is certainly viewed by most users as more important than potential energy savings.
Cost. It seems that cost is the least important performance criterion for users. This is an important result for the study, since the basic ts1ool that must
be used to encourage energy efficiency is cost reduction. Several reasons
seem to explain the low priority which users give to compressed air costs,
even in highly cost competitive industries.
No compressed air cost accounting. In many cases, users are not
aware of compressed air costs. Neither compressed air operating costs,
nor energy for compressed air, appear as distinct items in corporate cost
accounting. Compressed air energy costs are most often included in general overhead costs.
Limited management time. Managers do not feel it is worth their time to
improve energy efficiency, since they feel this would have a negligible impact on total production costs. The idea that compressed air energy costs
are a minor cost item is sometimes false. This issue is thus related to the
preceding issue on lack of information on compressed air energy costs.
Lack of awareness of possible savings. In some cases, even when cost
accounting information on compressed air is available within the organisation, managers with decision making power are not sufficiently aware of
the existence of cost effective energy savings measures.
Complex management structure. Because of the nature of compressed
air energy costs, responsibility for cost reduction measures is often divided
between managers for maintenance, production, purchasing and finance.
Co-ordination between these functions is a problem in all enterprises. It
generally requires very high level decisions to cut across the conflicting
priorities of these functions, and this type of decision is rare for compressed air, which is not viewed as a strategic business issue for users.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
33
1.3.2
industrial gas suppliers (e. g. Linde, Air Liquide, Messer, BOC, Praxair),
Because of its rapidly growing importance in France, ADEME has commissioned a study on
outsourcing, carried out by ADAGE consultants. Much of the information in this paragraph is
drawn from this study.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
34
power utility companies (e. g. Town owned utilities, EnBW, E.ON, HEW,
RWE, EDF).
The strategy of the companies in the first group is to provide an integrated solution for all the industrial gas needs of a plant. They might install a system consisting of a large compressor unit coupled with membrane filtration systems to
provide nitrogen and oxygen as well as compressed air.
The second group of companies also aims for an integrated solution, based on
a variety of energy services, such as cogeneration or trigeneration, combining
electricity, heat and cold, with compressed air.
Finally, power utilities have begun to broaden their range of services, often creating specialised subsidiaries with a full line of compressed air or industrial gas
services.
Outsourcing of compressed air can substantially modify the way in which decisions are made on system design and equipment choice. The actual impact of
outsourcing on energy consumption depends on the specifics of the contractual
arrangement between the client and the service provider.
Since clients' foremost concerns are system reliability and air quality, service
contracts usually have stringent clauses on these 2 elements. Some contracts
provide for a requirement to put repair people in the field within a certain time (4
hours, 8 hours, etc.). Some contracts have penalties if the system stays out of
service for more than a contractually specified period. Service providers generally install telemetering equipment to monitor key system parameters that help
them perform preventive maintenance, so as to prevent breakdowns.
We have chosen to organise our analysis of the energy impact of outsourcing
by elements of the compressed air system: inside the compressor house;
downstream from the compressor house.
1.3.2.1
Because of their large size and technical expertise, compressed air service providers are generally capable of designing and installing optimal systems. The
key to understanding the impact of outsourcing on energy consumption lies with
identifying the specific criteria for optimality applied by the service providers.
This depends on the precise type of contractual arrangement. Several basic
types of contracts exist.
Equipment sales, most often linked to a service contract. The service provider has no incentive to design systems for high energy efficiency.
Leasing of entire systems, almost always in conjunction with a service contract. As with the preceding type of contract, the service provider has no incentive to design systems for high energy efficiency.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
35
Maintenance of the air distribution system is a separate issue from air production. Of course, distribution air leaks constitute one of the major causes of excessive energy consumption.
In some cases, companies who chose to outsource compressed air production
also reduce maintenance staff. In this case, the distribution network may be less
well maintained, and overall system efficiency may drop. On the other hand,
some compressed air service contracts include leak detection (usually as an
"add on" to a basic contract). In this case, overall system efficiency could improve.
Another factor is adaptation to changing needs. A company that outsources
may no longer maintain internal management capacity to detect changes in
compressed air needs. This may be important if compressed air consumption
decreases, in which case downsizing the system could reduce operating costs.
5
Note that compressor efficiency decreases with time. Of course an ageing compressor,
whose efficiency is dropping, will also be prone to breakdown. Thus some aspects of preventive maintenance will also help maintain compressor efficiency.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
1.3.2.3
36
the service provider is paid on the basis of real measured air production;
the service provider is in some way made responsible for the distribution
network efficiency, through a leak detection programme.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
37
2.
2.1
The aim of Task 2 was to build a simple model of energy consumption (named
stock model) for compressed air systems, for the different Member States of the
European Union. This model, using a bottom-up approach, estimates the number of air compressors in the future, the probable rate of growth of their energy
consumption, as well as the past, present and future annual energy consumption.
The number of compressors and the energy consumption in the future are calculated under different market conditions. These market conditions are called
scenarios. In accordance with the other tasks, we use three scenarios, as described later:
2.2
For a type i of compressor sold at the year j, the average unitary yearly consumption Cauy(i) at the year n (j<=n) is
Cauy (i, j ) = P (i, j ) * r (i, j ) * hoa (i, j )
Where:
P(i, j) is the average power of a compressor (type i) sold in year j
r(i, ,j) is the efficiency of a compressor (type i) sold in year j
hoa(i, j)is the number of operating hours of a compressor (type i) sold in year j
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
38
The total electricity consumption for a type i at the year n (Ctot(i,n)) is the sum
of each Cauy(i,j) calculated on all the compressors sold since 1985 and still in
use at the year n
Ctot (typei , yearn ) =
Where:
Sales (i,j)
Remain (i,j,k)
k =1985, n j =1985 , n
2.3
Ctot ( yearn ) =
Ctot ( yearn ) =
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
i = all types
i = all types
SAVE
DoE
ECE
39
a business as usual scenario (BAU), based on the current growth of equipment and no specific improvement on energy efficiency
We will compare the results and the main differences between the scenarios in
terms of energy consumption in Task 7.
The data available
The following tables present the data available, mainly coming from Task 1.
Table 3:
Total
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
France
43 765
28 885
14 880
Germany
62 000
43 400
18 600
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italy
43 800
30 660
13 140
United Kingdom
55 000
46 750
8 250
Rest of the EU
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
71 kW
42 kW
132 kW
Total
Average power
Table 4:
ADEME
Total
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
[TWh]
France
12
Germany
14
10.5
3.5
6.6
2.2
Italy
12
United Kingdom
10
7.5
2.5
Rest of the EU
23
17
Total
80
60
20
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
40
Note: consumption and number of machines for countries other than France,
Germany, Italy and Germany have been estimated according to their percentage in the European electricity consumption. For Greece, Spain and Portugal,
this amounts to, respectively, 1.5, 8.0 and 1.6 %. This method of estimation was
used due to the lack of other data for these countries. Greece, Spain and Portugal are treated separately from other countries, because the number of installed systems is growing in these 3 countries.
Results: Number of installed systems
We indicate here the different hypothesis used by the model for the changes
occurring in the number of installed compressed air systems. The hypothesis
described here are drawn from Task 1.
In the model, the compressed air systems currently running in the EU countries
are called Old systems. Their number decreases from year to year.
Growth rate of the installed compressed air systems is:
2 % for Italy, Greece, Portugal and Spain, for the five years to come, 1 % for
the following five years and afterwards renewal of the stock only,
Systems entering the stock due to the building of new installations are called
New systems in the model.
The renewal of the stock is realised in 15 years; that is to say that 6.7 % of the
systems are retrofitted or upgraded each year. These systems are called Upgraded systems in the model.
These values are presented in the table below. Table 5 summarises the assumption for the calculations.
Table 5:
For 1999
Operating
hours
Country
Average
power
[kW]
1-5
5-10
> 10
France
78
Germany
65
71
Italy
78
United Kingdom
52
Rest of the EU
82
Average value
ADEME
3500
Fraunhofer ISI
71
15
SAVE
Stock
renewal
per year
6.70 %
DoE
ECE
41
Figure 3 shows the number of machines installed until 2015. In 2015, the stock
of installed machines reaches 334010 systems (compared to 321265 today),
that is to say an increase of 4 %. The stock of CAS is the same for all scenarios.
old
upgraded
new
90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
France
Germany
United
Kingdom
Greece,
Portugal,
Spain
Italy
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
Rest of the
EU
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
3.
43
The chain that links the source of electricity to the service rendered consists of:
Drive Compressor Air treatment Network End use device
Controls
Figure 4:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
44
measures are cost effective (that is to say they have a payback time of less
than 36 months6) in some applications.
3.1
Improvement of Drives
The use of high efficiency motors improves energy efficiency. The integration of
adjustable speed drives (ASD) into compressors could lead to energy efficiency
improvements, depending on load characteristics.
With respect to high efficiency motors, the possible gains would be concentrated in new systems, since it appears unlikely that users could be convinced
to retrofit high efficiency motors to existing machines, even at replacement time
for the motor. The biggest differences in motor performance are found in small
machines7. Since these machines are most often sold as stand alone units, it
would appear that energy efficiency labelling might be the most appropriate tool
for achieving these gains. Nevertheless, since most of these machines operate
relatively few hours per year, high efficiency motors would be cost effective for a
limited proportion of machines.
Integration of speed controllers into a CAS would be very cost effective for variable load conditions, considered to be about one quarter of installations. Their
installation would be in great part limited to the sale of new compressors, since
retrofitting adjustable speed drives to existing machines poses a host of technical problems.
In the case of multi-machine installations, the adjustable speed drive would be
integrated into only one of the machines, and would most likely be linked to
some type of sophisticated control technology, which would start and stop fixed
speed machines as well as vary the speed of one machine, so as to adjust output to system demand.
The 36 month cut-off period for payback time is a "quick and dirty" method for defining economic feasibility. Of course more sophisticated accounting/economic tools, such as NPV or
IRR (Net Present Value, or Internal Rate of Return) which take into account the cost of borrowing or raising capital are more accurate. Nevertheless, NPV calculations are time consuming, and must be done in detail to take into account the specificity of the financial situation of a particular enterprise. For the overall evaluation needs of the present study, a payback time criterion appears sufficient, in particular since the term is short, and since current
interest rates are low. The 36 month cut-off period is the upper limit for what industrial enterprises use as decision criterion for energy efficiency investments. Use of sophisticated financial tools (ESCOs, etc.), can make projects with longer payback times feasible. Nevertheless, these tools are only applicable to large projects (for instance a very large compressor
installation).
Note that small machines (< 10 kW) are outside the scope of this study.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
3.2
45
The market segment studied (10-300 kW) is today largely dominated (75 % of
sales) by oil injected screw compressors because of their reliability, simplicity
and relatively low cost. Nevertheless, a large number of alternative technologies
exist: piston, vane, scroll, centrifugal, and turbine compressors all have their
market shares. The choice between oil injected or oil free machines, as well as
between single stage or multi-stage machines constitute other parameters of
choice. Within each family of compressors, there are multiple variants. The following diagram illustrates the major families of compressors.
Source: BCAS/Pneurop
Figure 5:
The optimal choice of compressor technology must take into account the specific needs of the user's compressed air system. This choice can affect the energy efficiency of the system, both in terms of compressor performance, but
also in terms of the multiple interactions with other elements of system design.
In particular, the benefit of multi stage systems for high duty cycle installations
is a point which should be stressed.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
3.3
46
3.4
3.5
By their very nature, compressors generate heat, which can, in some circumstances, be used for other functions. Since this heat is so to speak "free", the
advisability of using it depends on the existence of a thermal load whose characteristics match the available heat, and for which the necessary equipment
(heat exchangers, piping, regulator, backup heat source, ...) are available and
reasonably priced as compared to alternative solutions. Design of waste heat
recovery must assure proper cooling of the compressor. The waste heat from a
compressor is often too low in temperature, or too limited in quantity, to ade-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
47
quately match the needs for industrial process heat. Climate and seasonality
also affect the cost/benefit ratio. Typical applications are more often for space
heating, when a need exists in proximity to the compressor location.
The cost effectiveness of recuperating waste heat depends on the alternate
sources of energy which are available. It might be very cost effective if the alternative solution would be electric heat. It may be less cost effective if natural
gas, waste process heat or waste process gas could be used.
3.6
adjust the degree of oil or dust filtering to match the precise needs of the
system. Over-filtering wastes energy.
add filtering capacity. Increasing the number of filters in parallel decreases air
velocity, thus reducing the pressure drop. This can often be a very cost effective investment, for both new or existing systems.
increase or optimise the frequency of filter replacement. Blocked filters increase pressure drop. Maintenance procedures should include regular
checking of filters, and replacement when necessary. Automatic sensing and
alarm equipment to warn of excessive pressure drop can be very cost effective.
3.7
The basic objective of good system design is to match air pressure, volume and
quality to the needs of the various end use devices. While this can be straight
forward, it can also be very complex if end use devices in the system have differing, or varying, needs. Two examples of system design issues are:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
48
provide adequate filtering for the majority of applications, and add specific
local filtering for those devices which require it;
limit pressure variations in the system. Inadequate control systems can lead
to wide pressure variations, which waste energy. Furthermore, when particular end use devices have very erratic demand characteristics, it can be
useful to install air storage capacity close to these devices, so as to reduce
pressure variations.
3.8
Many end use devices are energy inefficient. For instance in blowing and drying
applications, ventilators can often be used with an energy savings benefit. In
some applications, electrical or hydraulic equipment can cost effectively replace
compressed air end use devices, and be more energy efficient. While equipment manufacturers' catalogues usually state compressed air requirements for
their machines, users do not always take this into account in their purchasing
decisions.
The optimisation of end use devices is one aspect of the system design issue.
While hand held pneumatic tools can be easily replaced by more efficient models, much CAS use results from devices (pistons, motors, etc.) which are components of large fixed machines, for which replacement or upgrading can be
very costly.
3.9
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
49
Source: BCAS/Pneurop
Figure 6:
3.10
An example of a CA network
Reducing air leaks is probably the single most important energy savings measure, applicable to almost all systems. Awareness of the importance of a regular
leak detection programme is low, in part because air leaks are invisible, and
generally cause no damage.
Correct design and installation of the network can greatly diminish air leaks, for
instance through the use of modern, no air loss, condensate draining devices,
or through the specification of high quality, long life quick disconnect couplings.
Nevertheless, the essential issue is one of proper maintenance. Hand held leak
"sniffers" which detect the noise of air leaks can reduce the cost of leak detection.
3.11
Measuring and tracking system performance does not in and of itself improve
energy efficiency. Nevertheless, it is often the first step in improving energy efficiency, for two basic reasons:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
50
Three basic parameters air flow, air pressure, electricity consumption must
be measured and recorded in order to evaluate system performance. While this
seems simple in principle, the interpretation of this data can be difficult, particularly in variable load applications. Measuring air flow also poses technical problems, and retrofitting reliable measuring equipment can be difficult or impossible
if this was not taken into account at the time of system design and installation8.
The study has concluded that medium and large size systems should be designed and installed so as to facilitate the measurement of air flow. Institutional
action to encourage (or even mandate) this might be useful.
Where information on air flow is not available, low cost pressure sensing
equipment can still be very useful, for instance to measure the pressure differential across filters or the pressure loss in the network, or to detect excessive
pressure variation in a system.
3.12
The best opportunity for achieving energy savings is at the time when a new
system is built from scratch. At this moment, the entire range of energy savings
measures is open. Nevertheless, this situation is relatively rare in the context of
European industry. With the shift to a service and information economy, with the
rationalisation of production and merger of production sites, the number of industrial plants is decreasing. Few new plants are being built in Europe, except
in those Member States which are still in a phase of industrialisation.
The most common type of flow meter must be installed in a turbulence free pipe, which must
be several times as long as its diameter. In some systems, no adequate place exists to install the meter.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 6:
51
installation
component
maintenance
replacement
Improvement of drives
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
52
Energy savings
measure
%
%
Potential
applica- gains contribution
bility (1)
(2)
(3)
Comments
Improvement of drives
(high efficiency motors)
25 %
2%
0.5 %
Improvement of drives
(Speed Control)
25 %
15 %
3.8 %
Applicable to variable load systems. In multimachine installations, only one machine should
be fitted with a variable speed drive. The estimated gain is for overall improvement of systems, be they mono or multi-machine.
Upgrading of compressor
30 %
7%
2.1 %
Use of sophisticated
control systems
20 %
12 %
2.4 %
20 %
20 %
4.0 %
10 %
5%
0.5 %
This does not include more frequent filter replacement (see below).
50 %
9%
4.5 %
Reducing frictional
pressure losses (for
example by increasing
pipe diameter)
50 %
3%
1.5 %
5%
40 %
2.0 %
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTAL9
32.9 %
Table legend: (1) % of CAS where this measure is applicable and cost effective
(2) % reduction in annual energy consumption
(3) Potential contribution = Applicability * Reduction
The study team thus concludes that the economically and technically feasible
energy savings amount to 32.9 %. This gain could be achieved over a 15 year
period, since the large majority of major system components are replaced within
this time frame. The possible savings are of course higher in new systems designed from scratch, that in retrofits to existing systems.
Note the potential for savings, 32.9 %, is less than the sum of the savings for individual
measures. The total possible savings must be calculated as a product of efficiency gains.
See Paragraph 5.1, Equation 5.4.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
53
Figure 7 shows the share of these measures on the overall savings potential.
10%
10%
Figure 7:
ADEME
12%
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
4.
55
4. Organisational Aspects
of Energy Savings
It is clear that a large technical and economic potential exists for increasing energy efficiency in compressed air systems. As in many other areas of energy
efficiency, the adoption of energy savings measures for compressed air depends as much on resolving organisational questions as technical questions.
In this chapter, we present preliminary conclusions of the study on the nature of
organisation barriers to CAS energy efficiency, and on one possible method of
overcoming this barrier, through outsourcing.
4.1
There are multiple reasons that explain why business organisations do not
adopt cost effective energy savings measures.
Shortage of capital makes it difficult for companies to invest in more efficient
systems, despite profitable opportunities10. Limited available capital is reserved
for investments that have a clear link to strategic business objectives (expanding sales, etc.).
As noted in the findings from the market characterisation task, most business
organisations do not have analytical cost accounting tools for compressed air
costs. Thus, these costs are not specifically assigned to compressed air users
within the organisation. This leads to the paradoxical situation, that while cost
reduction is generally a high priority for businesses in competitive environments,
reducing compressed air costs is "nobody's problem".
Specialisation of functions within medium and large companies leads to the dissociation between the technical managers who are aware of potential energy
savings, and those in the purchase and finance departments responsible for
investment decisions.
In most businesses, compressed air production is a "house keeping" function
assigned to the maintenance department. The maintenance manager is judged
on the reliability of the production equipment for which he is responsible. Secondarily, he may be judged on the cost of maintenance. On the other hand, the
major cost item of compressed air production is electricity consumption (75 % of
10 The term "profitable investment opportunity" describes an investment whose IRR (internal
rates of return, see footnote 6 on page 44) is higher than the opportunity cost of capital for
the investing company. In this document, the term "profitable" is used as shorthand for "profitable investment opportunity". While "profitable" is less precise, it is used in this non technical text, since it is understandable for most readers.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
4. Organisational Aspects
of Energy Savings
56
overall compressed air costs). But this cost item is almost never considered as
part of the maintenance department budget.
The conclusion of this analysis is that the key to overcoming organisational barriers to improving CAS energy efficiency lies in making the cost of producing
compressed air visible to all levels of management.
The study will examine two radically different approaches to making compressed air costs visible:
4.2
11 Outsourcing is most often limited to the part of the compressed air system inside the com-
business from other activities, and contractualises it so as to have the function performed by
another enterprise specialised in this function. Outsourcing is typically used for very high skill
functions (computer operations, telecommunications, financial planning, project management, etc.) or for very low skill functions (gardening, office cleaning, etc.).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
57
4. Organisational Aspects
of Energy Savings
The last two points are of most concern for the present study. Paradoxically, as
explained above (Paragraph 1.3.2.3), the majority of outsourcing contracts
cover maintenance costs, but not energy costs. In fact, the actual cost per cubic
meter of air is rarely measured. Thus, businesses using outsourcing usually
achieve improved reliability and quality of service, but may pay more for compressed air, without even knowing it.
The study findings at this point seem to show that, while outsourcing in principle
should be a useful tool to improve energy efficiency, in fact, under current contractual practice, this objective is not always being met, and in some cases,
outsourcing can even lead to higher energy consumption (see Paragraph
1.3.2.3).
This finding leads to the conclusion that modifying current outsourcing practices
might be an area for institutional action by the Commission.
4.3
Once these parameters are determined, the technical parameters can be decided upon.
What is the level of detail? Company wide? Factory wide? Profit centre? Production department, or shop level?
How are energy costs broken down? Does electricity appear separately? Is
energy consumption for production separated from administrative consumption? Is compressed air electricity consumption separated from other electricity consumption? Within compressed air consumption, is main drive con-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
4. Organisational Aspects
of Energy Savings
58
Of course, generating greater detail in energy reporting has a cost, which must
be justified by the objectives and the potential savings. Table 8 outlines three
types of measuring systems.
Table 8:
Objective
Metering
Reporting
Maintenance tool.
Note that the Commission has funded several projects, under the "Monitoring
and Target Setting" sub-programme, which lay the technical and organisational
basis for energy accounting systems. Some typical projects, among others, are:
Pilot project for the development and demonstration of Energy Monitoring &
Target Setting in the Meat and Meat Product Industry (SAVE XVII/4.1031/92033, Meat and Livestock Commission). Statistical energy savings and management procedures for monitoring and target setting (M&T) that had been
developed for other high energy using industries was re-shaped to fit meat
companies.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
59
4. Organisational Aspects
of Energy Savings
While these projects lay the groundwork for general energy accounting systems, work remains to be done to treat the specific problems of compressed air
energy accounting.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
5.
61
5. Analysis of Impacts
Analysis of Impacts
technical energy savings measures to improve compressed air system energy efficiency;
EU Commission and Member state actions to encourage market transformation, so that these measures are implemented.
typically, over a ten year period, the total cost of compressed air includes
75 % energy, 20 % capital, and 5 % maintenance (Paragraph 6);
energy efficiency of compressed air systems is often relatively low; air leaks,
for instance, account for 10 to 20 % of the total air usage.
The main technical measures that can improve energy efficiency of compressed
air systems in many installations have been discussed in Task 3, and are summarised in the Table 9.
Table 9:
3. Upgrading of compressors
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
5. Analysis of Impacts
62
All the measures are cost-effective in some applications, even if they are characterised by different applicability and gains (see Table 6). A careful selection
of efficient components can help to save energy, but even greater efficiency
opportunities exist within the compressed air system design, implementation
and maintenance.
The entire set of measures, at their maximum application, defines the technoeconomic potential of the project, as defined in Task 3. To make reasonable
predictions, however, different scenarios have been conceived in Task 6. In the
following, reference will be made to the "Awareness Raising Programme" (ARP)
scenario, corresponding to 50 % of the potential energy savings.
Our "analysis of impacts" will be focused on possible macroscopic modification
of the compressed air market (and of linked markets), subsequent to the introduction of new technologies and improved design and maintenance. This
analysis will cover the influence of these measures on the cost structure of market actors involved and on their market strategy.
We have chosen to organise our analysis of impacts of market transformation
by different actors:
users of CAS;
manufacturers of compressors and CAS equipment;
electric utilities;
engineering consultants and compressed air suppliers.
Together with the energy issues, economic and emission issues should be kept
in mind. The former are considered in the paragraphs dedicated to CAS final
users and electric utilities, while the latter are summarised in the paragraph
dedicated to environmental impact.
In this chapter, some acronyms for energetic and economic parameters have
been used. For the readers convenience, the following Table 10 is a brief
summary. Three different values are used for energy costs, since prices vary
among EU countries, even inside a given country.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 10:
63
5. Analysis of Impacts
(GEC)
(IEC)
(CasEC)
= 2200 TWh/year
= 990 TWh/year
=
80 TWh/year13
(IEF)
(CasF)
(EGF)
(MPF)
= IEC / GEC = 45 %
= CasEC / IEC = 10 %
(ES)
(CasESR) = ES / CasEC
(GESR) = ES / GEC
(EP)
= 0.04 0.06 0.08 /kWh
(low, medium, high)
(Ee)
(F)
(MC)
(OC)
(IC)
(PB)
= CasEC * EP+MC
= IC / (-OC)
13 This figure does not correspond to the CasF cited below. See discussion after Equation 5.1
below.
14 Note that we use simple payback time in this chapters calculations. Given the very short
payback times of measures studied (under 3 years) use of discounted payback would unnecessarily complicate the discussion, without substantially altering the results. (See footnote 6 on payback time, Chapter 3.)
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
64
5. Analysis of Impacts
From the final users point of view, some modifications are expected in the cost
structure:
The Market Penetration Factor (MPFi), there called "applicability" (the subscript i is referred to the considered action);
The Efficiency Gain Factor (EGFi), there called "gain" (the gain in energy
costs is proportional to gain in efficiency).
Table 11:
Efficiency
Gain
Factor (EGF)
25 %
2%
25 %
15 %
Upgrading of compressor
30 %
7%
20 %
12 %
20 %
20 %
10 %
5%
50 %
9%
50 %
3%
5%
40 %
80 %
20 %
40 %
2%
Action
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
65
5. Analysis of Impacts
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Au
st
Be ria
lg
D ium
en
m
a
Fi rk
nl
an
Fr d
a
G nce
er
m
an
G y
re
ec
Ire e
la
nd
U
S
Ja
pa
n
0
Lu
xe Ital
m y
N bo
et
he urg
rla
nd
U
P
s
ni
o
te
r
d tug
Ki
a
ng l
do
m
Sp
a
Sw in
ed
en
EU
15
Figure 8:
15 The high percentage in Luxembourg may be due to the importance of electric steel produc-
ity consumption: in the US, in fact, industry electricity consumption includes also agricultural
electricity consumption.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
66
5. Analysis of Impacts
500
Commercial buildings
Household
Agriculture
Industry
400
300
200
100
Au
st
B e r ia
lg
D iu m
en
m
a
Fi r k
nl
an
Fr d
a
G nce
er
m
an
G y
re
ec
Ire e
la
nd
Lu
xe Ital
m y
N bo
et
u
he rg
r la
nd
U
ni Po s
te
r
d tug
Ki
a
ng l
do
m
Sp
a
S w in
ed
en
Figure 9:
The Compressed air systems Factor (CasF), defined as ratio between electricity
consumed by compressed air systems and total electricity consumption in industry, is approximately equal to 10 %. As an example, the data collected for
Italy reveal an annual electric energy consumption by compressed air systems
of about 15000 GWh which corresponds to about 11 % of the electric energy
consumption in industry (135000 GWh/year).
The Compressed air system Factor (CasF), equal to about 10 %,
as referred in Chapter 1 (Table 1)
The Global Electricity Consumption (GEC): GEC = 2200 TWh/year
(see Figure 9)
The Compressed air systems Electricity Consumption (CasEC):
(5.1)
CasEC = 80 TWh/year
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
67
5. Analysis of Impacts
Using this set of data, the energy savings subsequent to each of the proposed
actions have been evaluated. In particular:
Energy Savings:
ESi = CasEC*EGFi*MPFi
(5.2)
CasESRi = ESi/CasEC
(5.3)
Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for each proposed
measure
Energy
Savings
(ES)
[TWh/year]
Action
CAS Energy
Savings Ratio
(CasESR)
[%]
0.40
0.5
3.00
3.8
Upgrading of compressor
1.68
2.1
1.92
2.4
3.20
4.0
0.40
0.5
3.60
4.5
1.20
1.5
1.60
2.0
12.80
16.0
0.64
0.8
To estimate energy savings deriving from the application of all the proposed
actions, it should be considered that the efficiency gain of each measure acts
on the residual CAS energy consumption, after the previous measures have
been undertaken. Therefore, the resultant energy savings will be:
Energy Savings:
ES = GEC*IEF*CAF*(1-i(1-EGFi*MPFi))
(5.4)
(5.5)
CasESR = ES/CasEC
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 13:
68
5. Analysis of Impacts
Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for the actions
globally considered
Market
Penetration
Factor (MPF)
Action
Efficiency
Gain Factor
(EGF)
1-EGF*MPF
[%]
Drives: high efficiency motors
25
99.5
25
15
96.3
Upgrading of compressor
30
97.9
20
12
97.6
20
20
96.0
10
99.5
50
95.5
50
98.5
40
98.0
80
20
84.0
40
99.2
67.1 %
ES
26.3 TWh/year
CasESR
32.9 %
The evaluated energy savings will determine a decrease in energy costs EC.
Indicating with EP the energy price for CAS users (in /kWh), for the action
globally considered, it will be:
EC = -EP*ES
(5.6)
In the following table, three values of EC are reported, according to the different hypothesis for price (low, medium, high) considered.17
Table 14:
[TWh/year]
EC [Million /year]
26.3
low EP
-1052
medium EP
-1578
high EP
-2104
17 The energy price varies widely among the European countries and in some cases also de-
pends on the time of the day or the season in which energy is required. Three values, 0.04,
0.06 and 0.08 /kWh, have been proposed here as a starting point for further calculations.
Energy market globalisation could bring a levelling of prices, but paradoxically, also wider
price spreads between customers, as a result of individual companies negotiating their energy prices. In addition, energy service providers often package electricity with other services
(heat, refrigeration, ) making it difficult to determine real electricity prices.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
69
5. Analysis of Impacts
These savings should be compared with the global energy costs for CAS users,
which, in the medium price scenario, is:
(5.7)
The application of proposed measures will increase plant complexity and the
frequency of some maintenance tasks. This effect, especially during the first
years, will produce a rise in maintenance costs. The ratio between maintenance
and energy costs in existing plants can be assumed to be equal to about 515 % (Paragraph 6.1.6) for typical CAS systems with low-medium power.
Therefore, estimated maintenance costs are:
(5.8)
(5.9)
(5.10)
For each measure individually considered the decrease in energy costs ECi
will be:
ECi = -EP*ESi
(5.11)
Again, three values of ECi are reported in the following table, according to the
different hypothesis for price considered. Finally, for each action, a decrease in
operating cost is evaluated, assuming the medium value of energy price and
reducing each value by a factor OC/EC = 0.94 calculated from Equation
5.10.
Moreover, to put into practice proposed measures, users would have to increase capital investment in CAS. To evaluate the increment in investment
costs, the payback time (PB) of each action has been estimated. From these
values, it is possible to estimate the global investment costs that European CAS
users should undertake to implement energy savings measures.
18 We have used an estimate for the overall increase in maintenance costs. Of course, some of
the measures would have more impact on maintenance and system complexity than others.
In particular "Reducing air leaks", "More frequent filter changes" or "Waste heat recovery"
could be expected to increase maintenance costs. On the other hand, introduction of adjustable speed drives or sophisticated control systems may decrease the frequency of mechanical failures.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 15:
70
5. Analysis of Impacts
Energy
Savings
Action
low EP
[TWh/year]
medium EP
OC
[Million
/year]
high EP
0.40
-16
-24
-32
-23
3.00
-120
-180
-240
-169
Upgrading of compressor
1.68
-67
-101
-134
-95
1.92
-77
-115
-154
-108
3.20
-128
-192
-256
-180
0.40
-16
-24
-32
-23
3.60
-144
-216
-288
-203
1.20
-48
-72
-96
-68
1.60
-64
-96
-128
-90
12.80
-512
-768
-1024
-721
0.64
-26
-38
-51
-36
Table 16:
IC
[Million ]
-23
12
23
-169
127
-95
18
143
-108
54
-180
90
-23
12
-203
18
305
-68
12
68
-90
18
135
-721
361
-36
18
54
IC [Million ]
1370
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 17:
71
5. Analysis of Impacts
OC [Million /year]
IC
[Million ]
PB
[Months]
-1482
1370
11
OC [Million /year]
5.2
-741
IC
[Million ]
685
PB
[Months]
11
(5.12)
NC = 321000
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
72
5. Analysis of Impacts
(5.13)
Ncas = 107000
NC
NCas
321000
107000
25 %
80250
25 %
Upgrading of compressor
30 %
20 %
21400
20 %
21400
10 %
10700
50 %
53500
50 %
53500
5%
5350
80 %
85600
40 %
42800
Action
26750
96300
Note that while some measures might be rapidly implemented (in particular leak
detection and optimal filter replacement) others measures would most likely be
spread over the approximately 15 year life cycle of major system components.
Globally, the introduction of new technologies for enhancing energy efficiency
will produce a series of modifications on the market of compressors and CAS
equipment:
Modifications on production activity:
new components;
improvement of existing components;
19 This number can be evaluated by a ratio giving the mean number of compressors in use for
each CAS user. From data developed by the study regarding some of the most important
sectors for CAS users (producers of paper, cement, mineral water, glass, steel products,
etc.), it can be estimated the average CAS has about 3 compressors. It is obviously an average value, this ratio being dependent on the size of the enterprise and its main products.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
73
5. Analysis of Impacts
For actions requiring new/upgraded component purchasing, an estimate of annual sales volume can be made, assuming a 15 year life cycle. The results are
reported in the following table.
Table 20:
Annual sale
5350
Speed Controls
1783
Upgraded compressor
6420
1427
1427
5.3
713
Electric Utilities
Ee = EC,
(5.14)
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 21:
74
5. Analysis of Impacts
Action
Ee
[Million/year]
0.40
-24
3.00
-180
Upgrading of compressor
1.68
-101
1.92
-115
3.20
-192
0.40
-24
3.60
-216
1.20
-72
1.60
-96
12.80
-768
0.64
-38
Table 22:
[TWh/year]
Ee
[Million /year]
26.3
-1578
F=ES/(* LHV)
(5.15)
where is the net electric conversion efficiency and LHV is the low heating
value. Assuming a mean value for equal to 39 % and considering methane as
primary fuel (LHV=50 MJ/kg), a fuel consumption reduction of about 4.9
Mtons/year has been estimated. Hence, significant reductions of pollutant emissions are expected.
Table 23:
Fuel savings
ES
[TWh/year]
[Mtons/year]
26.3
4.9
20 For (efficiency in energy production) a mean value of 39 % has been assumed. For Hu
(Lower Heating Value), it has been assumed to burn methane (Hu = 50 MJ/kg).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
75
5. Analysis of Impacts
(5.16)
(5.17)
Table 24:
Global Energy
Savings Ratio
(GESR)
0.40
0.02 %
3.00
0.14 %
Upgrading of compressor
1.68
0.08 %
1.92
0.09 %
3.20
0.15 %
0.40
0.02 %
3.60
0.16 %
1.20
0.05 %
1.60
0.07 %
12.80
0.58 %
0.64
0.03 %
Action
Table 25:
[TWh/year]
GESR
26.3
1.2 %
In the moderate scenario, applying the usual one-half ratio, the following results
are obtained:
21 We have not considered possible avoided investment costs for new electricity generation
facilities.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 26:
[TWh/year]
Ee
[Million /year]
-789
[Mtons/year]
-2.5
GESR
5.4
76
5. Analysis of Impacts
13.15
0.6 %
The adoption of technical measures proposed in Chapter 3 requires the definition of the strategies to be used, which are strictly related to the particular characteristics of the enterprise involved and its CAS services. According to results
shown in Paragraph 1.3.1, which reveal a limited interest of managers to spend
their time on improving energy efficiency, the required analysis is likely to be
delegated to external sources, including manufacturers, distributors and consultants. Hence, the adoption of saving actions could greatly stimulate the market for engineering expertise. However, all parties must be kept up-to-date with
a specific training oriented towards the new energy savings technologies. The
development of the external sources market, therefore, should receive public
incentives, such as training through institutional structures.
Enterprises that produce high efficiency CAS can be expected to implement
processes for assessing customer and future market requirements, in order to
respond quickly to market requirements for both products and services. They
will also require training for personnel employed in this task. A similar trend will
involve all the activities of extraordinary maintenance of CAS equipment. As
mentioned above in Chapter 1, (market analysis), maintenance is often outsourced to enterprises specialised in this function or to CAS producers.
In general, the adoption of new technologies for enhancing the energy efficiency
will produce the following modifications, which involve the market for both design consultants and maintenance services:
new opportunities;
training activities;
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
77
5. Analysis of Impacts
5.5
Environmental Impact
The adoption of the proposed technical measures, enhancing the energy efficiency of CAS, will produce a decrease in their environmental impact. In fact,
the energy savings (ES) allow for reducing the fuel consumption and related
pollutant emissions.
Given the context of recent international agreements (Kyoto protocol), the reduction of CO2 emissions has become a public policy priority. CO2 production
from a power plant depends on the primary fuel employed and on the energy
conversion efficiency. Assuming an average power plant efficiency g = 0.39,
the following specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.) can be calculated:
s.f.c. = 220 grams / kWh for oil fired plants
s.f.c. = 180 grams / kWh for natural gas fired plants
s.f.c. = 370 grams / kWh for coal fired plants.
Considering an average composition for each fuel, the above reported figures
can be translated into CO2 emissions as follows:
720 grams CO2 / kWh for oil fired plants
515 grams CO2 / kWh for natural gas fired plants
890 grams CO2 / kWh for coal fired plants.
Given the large spread in the specific emission among fuels, the reduction of
CO2 emissions will vary between countries. Moreover, the fraction of electricity
produced in power plants without combustion (hydroelectric, nuclear, geothermal, renewable sources) varies.
In Table 27, the electricity production in 1997 is reported for various countries,
distinguishing different energy sources.
22 For instance, compressed air outsourcing is developing rapidly in France, but is rare in the
United Kingdom.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 27:
78
5. Analysis of Impacts
Nuclear
[TWh]
Geothermal
[TWh]
2657.3
Europe
[TWh]
Fossil
fuels
[TWh]
[TWh]
Fossil
fuels
[%]
42.8
2392.7
9002.1
14094.9
63.9
789.7
4.8
1115.2
2443.4
4389.0
55.7
EU 15
323.6
4.3
861.0
1224.3
2413.1
50.7
Austria
37.3
19.5
56.8
34.3
Belgium
1.3
47.4
30.2
78.9
38.3
Denmark
1.2
40.5
41.7
97.1
Finland
11.9
20.9
33.1
65.9
50.2
France
68.1
395.5
42.2
505.7
8.3
Germany
26.3
0.3
170.4
352.5
549.5
64.1
Greece
4.1
39.4
43.5
90.6
Ireland
1.0
19.2
20.2
95.0
46.7
3.9
200.9
251.5
79.9
Luxembourg
0.9
0.3
1.3
23.1
Netherlands
0.5
3.1
82.5
86.1
95.8
13.2
0.1
20.9
34.2
61.1
6.1
98.1
241.1
345.3
69.8
Spain
36.1
55.3
92.4
183.9
50.2
Sweden
68.8
70.2
9.7
148.7
6.5
363.6
17.3
666.4
2761.2
3808.4
72.5
Country
World
Italy
Portugal
United Kingdom
US
Total
It is evident that the reduction of CO2 emissions will be high in countries where
the fraction of electricity produced from fossil fuel power plants is high (Greece,
Italy, Denmark, etc.). Conversely, it can be fairly low in countries where electricity is mainly produced through hydro or nuclear sources (Sweden, France, Luxembourg, etc.). Moreover, the possibilities for reducing CO2 emissions with energy savings actions are strictly related to the mix of fossil fuels (coal, natural
gas, oil) used for the thermoelectric power generation, as well as to the mean
energy conversion efficiency. In the following table, the resulting specific CO2
emissions are reported, with reference to the thermoelectric power generation
(case 1) and to the total electricity production (case 2).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 28:
79
5. Analysis of Impacts
Country
World
957
611
1045
582
EU 15
801
406
Austria
541
186
Belgium
755
289
Denmark
957
928
Finland
893
449
France
700
58
Germany
932
598
Greece
952
862
Ireland
677
643
Italy
656
524
Luxembourg
Netherlands
652
624
Portugal
695
425
United Kingdom
745
520
Spain
868
436
1051
69
939
681
Europe
Sweden
US
It can be readily observed that in the European Union, the specific CO2 emission is rather low, when compared to the European continent as a whole, or
when compared to the whole world or the US. However, inside the Union there
are countries, like Denmark or Greece, where specific emissions are very high,
and therefore any energy savings is highly appealing from the environmental
point of view.
In any case, the absolute values of the CO2 emissions avoided by the previously described interventions are worth examining, in light of the variations between countries. However, for an overall estimate, it appears significant to
evaluate the reduction of CO2 emissions for each energy savings action and the
mean EU value for the specific CO2 emission referred to the total electricity
generation. In Table 29, considering a specific CO2 emission of 406 grams/
kWh, we show the decrease for the 11 measures.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 29:
80
5. Analysis of Impacts
Energy savings and CO2 emission reduction for each of the proposed actions
Energy
Savings (ES)
[TWh/year]
Action
CO2 emission
reduction
[Mtons/year]
0.40
0.16
3.00
1.22
Upgrading of compressor
1.68
0.68
1.92
0.78
3.20
1.30
0.40
0.16
3.60
1.46
1.20
0.49
1.60
0.65
12.80
5.20
0.64
0.26
In the ARP moderate scenario, these data are reduced by one half and the
energy savings will be 13.5 TWh/year and a related emission saving of 5.3
Mtons/year (Table 30).
Table 30:
ADEME
13.5 TWh/year
5.3 Mtons/year
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
6.
81
The basic conclusions of the data collection tasks can be summarised in the
following manner: a large economic and technical potential exists for energy
savings in compressed air systems, estimated at 32.9 % of their current electricity consumption. While the technical measures needed are considered to be
more profitable than many other industrial investments, these measures are not
carried out by private enterprises, for reasons which are essentially organisational:
Electricity consumption in general, and motor system consumption in particular, is usually treated as a general overhead item in company analytical
accounting schemes. Thus reducing this cost item is not the responsibility of
any particular manager.
Since the barriers to the energy efficiency measures are essentially organisational, the solutions must also be organisational. The objective must be to convince high level management to make the decisions necessary to carry out energy efficiency programmes. Experience in national programmes shows that in
companies where this has been done, the results are often outstanding, and
management retrospectively is happy with the decision.
In Chapter 6.1, 14 different actions will be described, which will help to exploit
the existing savings potentials in CAS. These 14 actions where derived from
intensive discussions of the study group, taking into account the view from outside people who are actively working in the compressed air business. To facilitate the reading and understanding of the proposed actions, each action will be
evaluated in a standardised table after a short description of each action. The
criteria for the evaluation used are "cost", "implementation time" and the "covered potential". The cost criteria gives an estimate of the expected cost which
would be born by the Commission or national institutions. The criteria 'implementation time' gives an indication of the time which is necessary to get the ac-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
82
6.1
Actions
6.1.1
Advertising Campaign
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
83
trade organisations. Once this campaign has started and begins to take effect,
more detailed information might have a better chance to reach the targeted
audience. The campaign should be simple, and should be limited to non technical information. Therefore the cost for preparation should be low. In order to
avoid unnecessarily high costs, we would recommend cheap media such as a
WEB site, an email or fax campaign, or flyers and news flashes in newspapers
and technical papers.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.2
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Technology Demonstration
Pilot actions are aimed at only a small proportion of the target group. However,
the results can be used to gain more insight into the handling of compressed air
systems and to orient more detailed research. Pilot actions are also used to
demonstrate "theory" on energy savings in a practical way, comprehensible to
other compressed air system users.
Various programmes already support demonstration actions for energy-efficient
measures and technologies, often including actions targeted at efficient compressed air production and distribution. Examples are the Best Practise programmes in the United Kingdom or the international Centre for the Analysis and
Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies (CADDET)23. The EU is
member of the CADDET team and thus initiatives for further projects might be
supported within the framework of this programme.
Innovative concepts which might be supported include
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.3
84
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Measuring Campaign
A general and major obstacle when introducing energy efficiency is that users
are often not willing or capable of relating general information or measures to
the specific situation in their own company. If they get a cheap and concise
overview of their own situation, it is much easier for them to consider and adapt
savings measures. Thus, a pilot action to overcome this barrier would be a
measurement campaign to give compressed air system users a short description of their savings potential.
The procedure for measurement, including the analysis of the energy and air
consumption in a company might be as follows. Compressed air system users
could apply for support for the measurement expense (e. g. 50 %). The applications would be filed at a national institution24, which would arrange the necessary support. The institution would also be responsible for public relations and
dissemination of results. In addition, the institution would collect statements of
interest from metering institutions and distribute a list to compressed air system
users. The support would be conditioned by an agreement to publicly report on
the results in public (anonymously or as an advertisement for the involved partners).
As a starting point, the measuring campaign could involve a few pre-selected
member countries of the EU. Assuming that a good analysis for one company
costs about 5 000 Euro of which 50 % would be financed through support from
the Commission, the investigation of 3 000 companies would cost 7.5 million
Euro to be financed by the EU. Of course, the actual cost of each individual
system analysis depends on system size and complexity, and would in some
cases cost less or more than 5 000 Euro.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.4
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
24 The EnR agencies of several European countries already administer similar programmes.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
85
lic attention gained during the contest procedure, from press releases and from
the use of the award name and logo for publicity campaigns.
Existing awards are targeted on both users and equipment manufacturers. The
US ENERGY STAR awards can serve as an example for a successfully organised contest where both manufactures and retailers are rewarded. The awards
should "honour organisations that have made notable contributions to energy
efficiency [...]. These awards acknowledge superior technical accomplishment,
public education, implementation, and promotional efforts to realise and raise
consumer awareness of the benefits of ENERGY STAR-labelled products that
result in substantial energy and cost savings and a cleaner environment."25
The analysis of the savings potential in Chapter 3 has shown that the most important benefits can be gained from improved system design rather than from
improving the individual components. Thus, in contrast to existing awards like
the Energy Star award, a compressed air system award should not only include
the improvement of equipment but should be concentrated on the system interactions. For a suitable award, the study group has derived two possible approaches:
Award for the best system design corresponding to the definition of a theoretical user's needs
Both approaches focus on proper system design, yet the contest realisation and
the target groups are quite different. The approaches are explained in more
detail below.
6.1.4.1
Awards for energy or environmental efficient products often lack the possibility
to compare the different submitted examples. The comparison of different compressed air systems is equally difficult, as the systems can vary in size, equipment, required air quality etc. Setting up appropriate criteria for "efficiency"
might thus prove difficult. A possible approach to overcome this problem might
use "standardised" conditions of entry.
The call for tenders would consist of a fictitious example of a system with specific requirements for the produced air: pressure, quality, quantity, load curves.
Participants should deliver solutions which fulfil these needs with less energy
consumption. The assessment of solutions might also take into account environmental and economic aspects.
By linking the contest with the requirements of an existing company or a system
which needs to be replaced or newly built, the contest could serve as sort of a
25 Energy Star Award Rules and Instructions: Year 2000. More and continuously updated in-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
86
public bidding process and the winning of the award might be linked with the
possibility to realise the proposed system.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.4.2
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
A second (parallel) prize could award real system solutions which have been or
are about to be implemented in companies. In this case, the criteria would be
less explicit and the comparison of the filed applications less straightforward.
While, for the first approach, the certification of the function of the workability
and chances for realisation must be carefully considered, in the second approach, the impact on energy consumption of applications would be easy to
prove. The applicants in the first case would be manufacturers (who in most
cases already co-operate with each other, e. g. compressor and dryer and filter
manufacturers) or possibly independent consulting engineers. In the second
approach distributors or compressed air system users are the target group. In
both cases the awards could be rewarded on national and EU level.
As in the first approach, the costs of such a contest would mainly consist of
public relations costs and the prizes for the contest. Again, the benefit of
awarding seems to be rather low as only projects are awarded which would
have been realised anyway. However, the major benefit lies in the broad dissemination of the awarded examples.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
6.1.5
The examination of the organisational barriers has shown that responsibility for
different aspects of the compressed air system is often widely spread within
business organisations. Thus, information tools and training courses need to
address all company levels, from engineering and maintenance staff to management, as well as multipliers like service providers and compressed air system distributors.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
87
Publications: Different kind of publications like leaflets brochures, handbooks, journals and software are issued and distributed by manufacturers,
trade associations, distributors, energy agencies, etc.
Energy audits: Detailed energy analyses are provided by some manufacturers and service providers when new investments in the compressed air system are planned.
Shortcomings of these information and training devices are not the accessibility
but the focussing to the specific needs of the target groups. The interests, the
information network and the reception may differ largely and differences in education, culture, sector membership, size of the company and/or the size of compressed air system should be carefully taken into account when spreading information. For instance, material for maintenance staff should be available in
their mother language whereas information for managers might be usable in
English. Managers usually have access to the internet, e-mail and CD-ROM use
whereas the maintenance staff on the shop floor may not. Information must be
specific to an industry: compressed air needs are, for instance, very different in
the food sector and in glass production.
One way to obtain better dissemination of suitable information to relevant target
groups could be by collecting and grouping all kinds of information in an "information pool" which is accessible to information agents as well as users. Most
information today is available in an electronic form, thus the Internet as a platform open to the general public might be a suitable tool to realise the pool.
Practise examples as well as training material should be offered, and the material should be indexed according to its target groups.
The Commission's EuroDEEM database could serve as an information dissemination tool. It would be possible to include in EuroDEEM modules on the performance and benchmarking of CAS, on good/best practices, on system design
and component selection, etc. EuroDEEM could also serve as an entry point to
a distributed information service, with pointers to information tools maintained,
for instance, by European Energy Agencies or by manufacturers.
Similar considerations can be applied to training seminars and training material.
Seminars represent significant effort and expense, both for those who offer and
those who attend the seminar. The participants can contribute to the seminar
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
88
with their experience and their own specific problems. Nevertheless, most
seminars provide theoretical knowledge. A link to the practise which is important
for many people to absorb knowledge could be achieved if the seminars were
combined with on-site tours. Seminars could take place at the site of a compressed air system user, where more efficient compressed air system use could
be demonstrated in practise (provided that there are enough persons in the
factory interested in attending the seminar, or the factory management is willing
to open their doors to outsiders).
Last but not least, careful design and maintain of compressed air systems
should be part of the basic education of technicians and engineers.
Good quality information and training material is available. Further efforts should focus on favouring more widespread use,
and better fit between information and targeted groups. Integration of information tools with demonstration and pilot actions
would be advantageous.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.6
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Life cycle costing (LCC) methods are one of the basic tools which link purchasing decisions to their long term impact on energy consumption. LCC facilitates
"Challenge" type programmes, in that it allows management to demonstrate that
environmentally optimal decisions are also economically optimal.
As noted earlier, many companies are not aware of costs related to the compressed air system. LCC is a concept that makes the cost of a product visible
over its whole lifetime. In a pure sense, LCC is the assessment of all costs that
are caused by the existence of a specific product. However, for compressed air
systems, three main cost factors should be considered:
Investment Costs: The purchase price of the components of the compressed air system and the cost of their installation.
Energy Costs: Energy Costs are the sum of the yearly electricity costs for
running the compressed air system over the whole lifetime. Energy costs include the consumption of the compressor drive, and also associated services
such as cooling and ventilation. The energy costs can be calculated with the
following formula:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
89
Motor Efficiency Operating Hours pa Load Factor Energy Price (1 + Rise in Prices pa )t
t =1
This formula is however a simplification, as it does not take into account factors
such as the complex load profiles that have to be satisfied by the CAS. While
this simplification may influence the final result of the calculation, the results
should be sufficiently accurate in most cases.
For the calculation of the life cycle costs, a range of parameters can be varied:
share of maintenance cost (on a basis of annual energy cost or on the basis of
initial investment), motor efficiency, operating hours, energy price, rise in energy
price, lifetime, share of idle, part and full-load times. The list makes clear that
results from LCC can only serve as an example for typical compressed air system applications, although they all will show the large importance of the energy
costs (typically 75 % and more of the total costs). The two examples presented
below, for compressors of 15 and 160 kW, represent typical values for CAS (cf.
Chapter 2). The assumptions for the calculations are included in the Figure 10.
The investment costs are based on actual catalogue prices. It should be kept in
mind, that catalogue prices normally represent an upper value for the purchase
price.
Life Cycle Costing - Variation of Power
Operating hours: 4000 h
Power: 15 kW
Lifetime: 15a
Power: 160 kW
15%
(64 k)
21%
(9 k)
- Investment costs:
list price
- Maintenance costs:
5 % of inv. costs pa.;
6%
- Energy costs:
(24 k) motor eff. = 90 %;
load factor = 1;
el. price = 0.06 /kWh;
rise in prices = 0
8%
(4 k)
71%
(31 k)
79%
(332 k)
Investment Costs
Maintenance Costs
Energy Costs
Figure 10: LCC for two different sizes of compressors, indicating the significance of energy consumption
Depending on the average electricity price, the share of energy costs in the total
life cycle costs may vary considerably. However the calculations presented in
Figure 11 show, that even for very low electricity prices the energy costs remain the dominant factor of the life cycle costs.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
90
base case
0.06 /kWh
(+ 33 %)
0.08 /kWh
(+ 67 %)
0.1 /kWh
(+ 100 %)
0.12 /kWh
Electricity Price
Energy Costs
Maintenance Costs
Investment Costs
Compressed air system users could link the findings of LCC sample calculations with their own specific investment decisions if they have a suitable computer software tool at hand to calculate the LCC with their specific parameters.
This could be done with the help of a software tool which provides the calculation scheme. The input would be plant specific parameters or if the user is not
aware of any specific details pre-defined, typical parameters. The result will
be an individual LCC calculation in a graphical form.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.7
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
91
detailed enough to permit informed choice in a variety of operating conditions and with different system design constraints;
sufficiently accurate to permit the identification of the best product for a particular application;
the presentation mode for the information. This often takes the form of a label
which is physically affixed to the product.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
92
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
The study team investigated the possibility of inciting test laboratories to perform comparative testing of CAS components.
Under this approach, laboratories, in co-operation with the most important
stakeholders (users, manufacturers, system designers) would identify those
areas where:
comparative testing could be most useful, since user demand for information
already exists, or can be expected to develop rapidly;
technical problems could be resolved in a satisfactory manner;
the cost of obtaining and publishing product information would be reasonable.
Such a testing programme might be carried out through a co-operative effort
among member states. National institutions (for instance, the members of the
EnR network) could divide up the effort, with each country taking on the responsibility for a subset of an agreed upon list of components.
In order for such a comparative testing programme to be useful, several difficulties would have to be overcome.
Who pays? In the medium term, such product testing might become a self
supporting activity. As users become more aware of energy savings in CAS,
they might be willing to pay for the relevant information (for instance through
trade associations). At the same time, manufacturers might be willing to pay
to have their products tested, so that they appear in those test result publications which will have demonstrated their usefulness to users. Nevertheless,
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
93
in the short term, it would be essential that public authorities (the Commission and member states) "prime the pump" by financing test programmes.
Possible high cost. The cost for carrying out reliable and fair tests would be
very variable for different types of equipment. For certain pieces of equipment (for example large compressors) purchase, transportation and installation can be very costly. For a machine that might be produced in limited series, or even custom built, the cost of testing could not be spread over many
machines, and might be a prohibitively high proportion of the value of the
machine. Laboratory testing would be best fitted for small components produced in large series. For large, limited volume items, perhaps testing could
be done at the factory, in co-operation with a laboratory, or with buyers.
Test conditions. As described above, to be useful, tests would have to
simulate actual operating conditions. For certain types of equipment, a very
large variety of operating conditions would have to be simulated, perhaps
through the use of standardised test cycles (similar to the city/highway protocols for cars).
Expertise. Today, few laboratories are capable of performing comparative
tests on CAS components. To establish laboratories of this nature and familiarise them with the testing procedure required could be a long and expensive process.
6.1.7.1.2 Labelling of Individual System Components
Developing adequate product information systems for CAS components necessitates defining useful categories of products, and the scope of product information, so as to permit users to compare competing products, and to find appropriate responses to the questions raised in creating energy efficient systems.
The pertinent data for the comparison of the energy consumption is the "specific
consumption", expressed in kWh per m3. ISO reference conditions specify
measurement at 20C and 0 %RH (relative humidity).
Meeting variable needs for compressed air
A large portion of CAS must meet varying needs for air. Characterisation of a variable load is of course much more difficult than for a
constant load. The test process for machines and control systems
designed for variable loads necessitates the definition of a limited
number of test protocols, which should be representative of a majority of real systems. The method is similar to the definition of highway
and city driving modes for the testing of automobile fuel consumption.
Recent research has made progress in the definition of standard
variable load profiles, that could be used in testing26.
26 Grant, A.; "Changing attitudes in compressed air usage through developments in variable
speed drives"; in Compressors and their Systems, IMechE Conference Transactions; Professional Engineering Publishing Ltd; London; 1999.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
94
The study group identified two areas where product labelling could be implemented in the short term at a reasonable cost, and where it might prove useful:
For compressors sold with motors covered by existing European motor labelling agreements, the efficiency class of the motor should appear on the compressor nameplate and in catalogue information. In addition, efficiency at full
load and at three-quarter load could be quoted in the catalogue. This could
create an "Intel inside" effect ("eff 1 motor inside").
6.1.7.2
Performance or quality labelling of entire systems is a different (although complementary) approach to pertinent product information for CAS.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
95
In the quality approach, a label might, for instance, certify that the system had
been designed in accordance with good engineering practices, which takes into
account long term energy consumption. Some elements of LCC could be integrated into the requirements for a quality label. In order to cover system operation, which accounts for over half of the potential for energy savings, the label
would have to be renewed periodically. This approach is in some respects
similar to an ISO 9000 or ISO 14000 approach. In fact, possible synergy between ISO, EMAS and a future European compressed air system quality label
should be considered. Much work has already been done to define the "best
practices" which should be respected in the design and operation of CAS.
The performance approach might use "benchmarking" techniques, in which the
energy consumption (or overall cost, including initial cost and operating costs)
of a system would be compared with that of similar systems. This would of
course necessitate some categorisation of systems (including such criteria as
air quality and nature of variable loads). Since the benchmarking of service
functions in industry is becoming increasingly common, senior management
might be easily convinced of the utility of this approach for CAS. One of the
main obstacles to this approach would be to convince users to put into operation the necessary equipment to measure air flow. A weakness of this approach
is that it would focus attention on the production of compressed air. It would be
difficult to treat downstream issues, such as the distribution network, overall
system design, or leak detection.
The motivation for users to request labelling or certification might come from
two sources:
6.1.8
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Voluntary Agreements
barriers; in: E.V.A. the Austrian Energy Agency; Proceedings of the SAVE Conference For
An Energy Efficient Millennium, 8-10 Nov. 1999, Graz
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
96
A consensual target for energy-efficient production, distribution and consumption of compressed air must be developed. The target should provide
28 http://www.eu-greenlight.org
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
97
notable improvements in a given period of time which must lie well above a
pre-defined "business as usual" scenario.
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
The GreenLight programme of the European Commission interprets the voluntary agreement instrument in a different way from most of existing programmes:
it addresses the demand rather than the supply side, that is the users rather
than manufacturers of efficient products. Applying this process to compressed
air systems, that is involving companies which use compressed air, would foster
the systems approach rather than the improvement of stand-alone equipment
(as in the VA concept described in the preceding paragraph).
The Commission would have to define a user charter, containing targets and
procedures for improvement in the production, distribution and consumption of
compressed air within a company. Compressed air system users would become
partners in the programme by announcing their willingness to fulfil the adopted
targets. In exchange, the partners would profit from accompanying actions (information campaigns, etc.)30.
29 A.T. McKane, J.P. Ghislain, K. Meadows; Compressed Air Challenge: Market Change from
the Inside Out; in: ACEEE; Proceedings of the 1999 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry, Washington 1999
30 A pilot action of this type, addressing motor systems in general (fans, pumps, compressors)
was submitted for consideration by the Commission under the SAVE II programme. The proposal was submitted by a consortium of EnR agencies and other partners.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
98
Again, this approach could and should be linked with several other measures, to
create a consistent bundle of actions. However the target group is even more
difficult to approach and a broad application of the programme would be a very
ambitious goal.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.9
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
More and more companies are trying to focus their limited resources (capital,
management time) on their core business. Therefore energy services like heating, cooling, steam production and the delivery of compressed air or other
services are outsourced from the company. Outsourcing is very often initiated
when old equipment must be replaced, because it has become too expensive
(or impossible) to maintain, or because repeated breakdowns have caused loss
of production.
Outsourcing permits companies to delegate a function to a specialised service
provider, under a contract which specifies quality of service, reliability and cost.
However the possible energy savings in CAS are very often not addressed in
outsourcing contracts. Many contracts are written in such a way that neither the
contractor nor the customer have an interest in reducing energy consumption.
This is the case, for instance, when electricity consumption is paid for by the
company, rather than by the service provider. In fact, in many contracts, the
service is paid for as a function of the number of hours of operation of the compressor. Thus, the service provider does not benefit from increased efficiency of
the compressor, or from leak reduction.
Public action could be useful to help potential users of outsourcing services to
better contractualise the delivery of service:
use some type of "ESCO" arrangement, so that the service provider is motivated to engage in measures such as leak reduction, or system reconfiguration which reduce air consumption.
Such action could ensure that energy consumption and energy savings are
considered in outsourcing contracts.
However it should be noted, that the contract for outsourcing of a CAS system
will be in any case an individual contract, which has to take into account the
specific needs of the service provider and the customer and the external conditions such as space availability, location, possibility to contract with other cus-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
99
6.1.10
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Subsidies, to carry out energy audits, or even to pay for part of energy savings investment costs. When the subsidies apply to investment costs, they
often take the form of tax reductions (accelerated depreciation, etc.), or of
special low cost financial mechanisms.
Taxes, on electricity, energy, or on carbon. In the context of the Kyoto Protocol process, discussion of some form of eco-tax is continuing within the EU.
Note that the United Kingdom has recently instituted an interesting combination
of subsidies and eco-taxes. Under the British system, electricity is taxed. But
the tax is refunded to firms which engage in energy savings investments or actions.
Taxes
Fiscal policy is a broad policy question, with a scope much wider than CAS. The
study team wishes to limit its comments to a remark on the potential effect of
energy related taxes on those energy savings measures identified in Chapter 3
of this report.
The study has identified a very large potential for measures
which are highly profitable (3 year maximum pay back time) under current economic conditions (energy prices, taxes, etc.).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
100
Taxes will add only marginal additional costs on the total energy
expenditures and will therefore modify the technical and economic potential for energy savings only slightly.
A small change in energy prices would make investments that
are already highly profitable even more profitable. For the reasons described in Chapter 4, businesses are not seizing these
opportunities. Slightly increasing the profitability would probably
not have much impact on decision making.
Subsidies
The review of experience with subsidies performed by the study team indicates
that subsidies should be placed as far upstream as possible and as a complement to awareness raising programmes. The cost of upstream measures is
much lower, and the impact appears to be larger. For instance a brief prediagnostic for a CAS costs approximately 2 000 Euro. Paying for half of this for
10 % of the 320 000 medium size systems in Europe would thus cost about 30
million Euro, or perhaps 6 million Euro per year if the effort was spread over 5
years31. Experience has shown that this is an effective complement to a programme of actions which aims at raising management awareness of the savings potential, and at interesting management in paying for more comprehensive diagnostics. It is of course important that a follow up of the audit be ensured, to overcome possible internal barriers.
On the other hand, subsidising investments seems to have less impact. Most of
the energy savings investments carried out with subsidies would have been
profitable without the subsidy, and it seems likely that the existence of a subsidy
is not the decisive element which convinces management to consider these investments.
If subsidies are to be considered, experience indicates that they
should be placed as far upstream in the decision process as
possible (that is to say as close as possible to initial decision to
consider energy efficiency in the CAS), and should be closely
linked with awareness raising programmes.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Note that the "medium" estimation for the cost of economic measures is approximate, due to the variable nature of possible measures. A programme of
subsidies or tax rebates might be very expensive, or to the contrary low cost,
31 Note that if such a programme were targeted on those systems which consume the most
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
101
depending on the breadth of the measure. Similarly, taxes can have a small or
large impact, depending on their nature. In fact, from the point of view of public
authorities, taxes can be revenue generating, and thus may have a negative
cost32.
6.1.10.2
Regulations
Regulatory measures are used by governments to impose certain energy savings technologies. This is done routinely in building regulations, for instance.
This approach is being widely used in Europe for boilers. In France, a July 5,
1977 decree instituted a broad system of mandatory energy inspections in industry.
Thus, it would be technically possible to:
require licensing for the installation of new systems, with a procedure that
aimed at imposing a certain number of "good" or even "best" practices in the
design and installation of CAS;
that they can have an overall positive effect, due to the so called "double dividend". This debate is outside the scope of this study.
33 The scope of this study is limited to CAS. Nevertheless, it would seem logical that if a man-
datory inspection system was created, it would not be limited to CAS. A workable system
would probably have a larger scope, for instance all motor driven systems, or all rotating machines, or industrial energy use, ... In this case, the costs would of course be even higher.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
102
reductions. Management tends to look for the lowest cost service provider who
will meet the strict minimum imposed by the regulations. These low cost inspections were rarely sufficiently comprehensive to provide a basis for energy savings investments. Thus, under some conditions, the overall effect of mandatory
inspections may even be negative, since businesses who have paid for one inspection imposed by regulations, are unlikely to pay for an audit of the same
installation to identify energy savings measures. It is interesting to note that in
1998, the French system was sharply reduced in scope.
A priori, it would appear difficult to integrate mandatory regulatory measures
into a programme based largely on awareness building measures. Experience
shows that at the very least, administrative responsibility for awareness building
and regulatory measures has to be assigned to separate agencies. It would appear that consideration of mandatory regulations should be considered if other
types of measures prove insufficient to achieve substantial energy savings.
The study team has concluded that mandatory inspections
and/licensing would be costly, and perhaps of limited effectiveness. In view of evidence collected, it would seem logical to
make a concerted effort to build a voluntary programme based
on awareness raising actions, before considering mandatory
regulatory measures.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.11
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
In the preceding chapters a range of measures have been described which aim
at different target groups, savings potentials and system components. Yet, a
large range of other ideas or instruments exists (e. g. incentives, accounting
and calculation tools, audits), which represent different forms of the described
concepts or were considered not to be practical for the improvement of compressed air systems.
Co-operative procurement as an example, aims to bring together a group of
purchasers which formulate their product requirements and producers which are
willing to compete to fulfil these demands. Procurement shows the producers
that a potential market exists for efficient products. It has been successfully applied in some national initiatives. Procurement applied to the scope of compressed air systems would focus on the improvement of the system components rather on the system itself, and thus miss the major saving option. The
study group therefore concluded that co-operative procurement is not a useful
measure for improving compressed air systems and thus this possibility was not
examined in more detail.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
6.2
103
The following tables summarise the impacts of the described actions, and the
involved target groups.
In Chapter 3, a range of technical and organisational saving options has been
identified which all could improve the overall performance of a compressed air
system. For all saving options estimates of the applicability of the technical
measure and the potential for efficiency gains were conducted to derive the
maximum potential contribution of each option (see Table 7).
The implementation of the described measures involves different target groups
and stakeholders:
Distributors, who sell system components and provide the link between
manufacturers and users;
Industry associations, for those sectors of activity which are major compressed air users;
The groups differ in aim, means, sphere of action, influence, etc. but it is obvious, that the user of CAS will be one of the key-actors that has to be addressed (cf. Table 31).
Each CAS consists of a number of different components. The system can thus
be optimised by improvement of individual components or of the system as a
whole. Each of the measures described in Chapter 6.1 may affect only parts of
the CAS, all system components, or the overall performance ( = whole system).
As the analysis of the savings potentials has shown that the largest potential
exists in the overall system optimisation, the basic actions should address this
issue.
Due to the nature of energy savings in CAS, the bulk of savings would result
from the decisions of several hundreds of thousands of users to implement
profitable energy savings investments and practices, (decisions which are not
being made under current conditions in the market). Note that in this respect,
estimating the prospective impact of measures is of a very different nature from
the impact of other programmes (household appliances, motors) where decision
making is limited to a relatively small number of producers.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 31:
104
Users
Manufacturers
Manuand User
Distributors
and Trade
Others
facturers
Associations
Associations
Advertising Campaign
Technology Demonstration
Measuring Campaign
Table 32:
Affected components
Compressors
Dryers
Filters
Networks
End-use
Devices
Advertising Campaign
Technology Demonstration
Measuring Campaign
System Certification
Vol. Agreement for Manufacturers
Whole
System
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
105
In order to estimate the impact of the proposed EU and member state actions,
these actions have been grouped into two programmes, of a different nature:
Awareness Raising Programme (ARP), which would include all of the information and decision aid measures described in Chapters 6.1.1 to 6.1.9.
This programme would be somewhat similar in nature to the existing EU
GreenLights programme.
Economic and Regulatory Programme (ERP), which would include subsidies, taxes, and regulatory measures. This type of programme would require
EU directives, as well as changes in national law and fiscal policy.
The impact of these programmes would depend on the proportion of users who
would put into practice some energy savings measures, and for these users, the
proportion of potential savings that they would actually realise.
For the awareness raising programme, experience with existing national programmes (for instance ADEME regional pilot programmes or training activities
of the German manufacturers association VDMA) shows that well designed information campaigns can in fact reach a large proportion of industrial users of
medium sized systems. We estimate that in the case of co-ordinated and complementary EU and national programmes, focused on CAS energy savings, that
high level management in almost all industrial firms could be informed of the
potential for savings, and that 60 % of these firms could be motivated to implement an energy savings programme. Experience shows that once a firm undertakes an energy savings programme, a large proportion of possible energy
savings measures are in fact carried out. The study estimates this proportion at
85 %.
Estimating the impact of an economic and regulatory programme is difficult,
since it would depend on the legal basis of such a programme, on the nature of
the administrative practices used to carry it out and on the amount spent on
subsidies or the level of new taxes. It is assumed that the ERP would be put
into practice in addition to the ARP, and would be linked with it in an optimal
way. Under these circumstances, it could be expected that the percentage of
firms acting might increase substantially (from 60 % to 85 %), and that the proportion of measures carried out would also increase slightly (from 85 % to
90 %).
The techno-economic potential identified in Chapter 3 is 32.9 % of current CAS
electricity consumption. To estimate the impact of the two action programmes
proposed, this potential must be multiplied by the percentage of firms acting,
and by the proportion of measures carried out by these firms. Table 33 resumes
these estimates.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 33:
106
% of
measures
carried out
% of
technoeconomic
potential
gained
%
energy
savings
60 %
85 %
51 %
16.8 %
85 %
90 %
77 %
25.2 %
the ARP could stimulate the achievement of half of the techno-economic potential, or 16.5 % of current CAS electricity consumption;
the ARP combined with the ERP would achieve 3/4 of the techno-economic
potential, or 25.2 % of current CAS electricity consumption.
Note that the study team does not believe that an ERP could be effective in the
absence of the ARP. Thus, we have not projected savings for the ERP in isolation.
In the view of the study team, these levels constitute very ambitious targets,
which nevertheless could be achieved over a 15 year period by well designed
and comprehensive programmes. Such programmes, to be successful, would
have to meet the following conditions:
high level political support, in order to favour the active participation of the
private sector;
For a better understanding of the linkages between the different actions and the
related costs, implementation time and the covered potential, the actions have
been grouped into three different diagrams, showing the different sets of
evaluation criteria. Short tabular summaries have been presented after the descriptions of the possible actions.
Figure 12 shows the implementation time for the different actions and the savings potential covered by these actions. Actions that can be implemented
quickly, such as the development of an LCC Tool or the outsourcing guidelines,
will cover only a small share of the total potential. Large saving effects can be
realised on a medium-term with the measuring campaign, and information and
training. Activities orientated to long-term improvements, e. g. the technology
demonstration and system certification will require a significant amount of time
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
107
to be implemented but may have a significant impact. The fiscal and regulatory
measures however will need much time but will have smaller effects than many
other possible actions.
AR Programme
high
Measuring
Campaign
Information and
Training
ER Programme
medium
System
Certification
Vol. Agreement
for Manufacturers
Component
Labelling
Regulations
Advertising
Campaign
Subsidies and
Taxes
low
Covered Potential
Voluntary User
Programme
Technology
Demonstration
LCC Tool
Award for
System Design
Outsourcing
Guidelines
short
medium
long
Implementation Time
Figure 12: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (covered potential and implementation time)
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
108
AR Programme
high
Measuring
Campaign
Information and
Training
ER Programme
medium
System
Certification
Vol. Agreement
for Manufacturers
Component
Labelling
Regulations
Advertising
Campaign
Subsidies and
Taxes
Technology
Demonstration
low
Covered Potential
Voluntary User
Programme
LCC Tool
Award for
System Design
Outsourcing
Guidelines
low
medium
high
Costs
Figure 13: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (costs and covered potential)
6.3
The results of this study have shown, that significant energy savings potentials
exists in CAS throughout Europe. These potentials can be developed, if increased user awareness about the economic savings potentials can be
achieved. Therefore action should be mainly user oriented but should not oversee the influence of other key actors and key factors. As the group of users of
CAS is a very inhomogeneous group of actors, a single isolated action may not
be very effective in achieving any improvement. Therefore, the study group has
decided not to propose single actions but a program of actions which maximise
synergy between the individual actions. This approach would facilitate combining short, medium and long term actions in a program that may run over a period of several years. Thus, awareness of the savings potential in CAS could be
maintained over the long period necessary (15 year replacement cycle for systems) for actions to be effective.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
109
The program should start with the three key actions, "advertising campaign", "information and training" and "measuring campaign" which we
believe are essential components of any action programme.
System
Certification
AR Programme
high
medium
Costs
Voluntary User
Programme
Component
Labelling
Measuring
Campaign
Subsidies and
Taxes
Vol. Agreement
for Manufacturers
Information and
Training
Technology
Demonstration
Award for Installed Systems
low
Award for
System Design
Advertising
Campaign
LCC Tool Outsourcing
Guidelines
short
medium
long
Implementation Time
Figure 14: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (Implementation time and
costs)
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
110
tion, it will prepare the building for further extensions (additional savings potential) which can be exploited in the future, when additional space is required.
Technology
Demonstration
Award for
Installed System
Voluntary
User
Programme
Advertising
Campaign
Award for
System
Design
Outsourcing
Guidelines
LCC
Tool
Information
and Training
Voluntary
Agreement
for
Manufactures
Measuring
Campaign
To make this program work, it is not sufficient to act only on community level but
to have co-ordinated efforts between national and European actions. In addition, all levels of management should be reached in the target group (see
Table 34). This is especially important for the key actions identified by the study
group. Therefore the European Union should set up an European wide programme and encourage the national governments to co-operate on a national
level. The advertising campaign might be integrated in a much larger advertising campaign addressing the rational use of energy or a least the energy savings potentials in motor applications such as compressors (air, gas, refrigeration
plant), fans and pumps.
The priority actions proposed in the ARP with respect to CAS would also gain in
impact if they were inserted into a transversal programme aimed at energy
savings for all motor driven applications in industry. This would in some respects be similar to the insertion of the US DoE "Compressed Air Challenge"
into its "Motor Challenge". A European "Motor Challenge" could serve as a focal
point for actions with respect to compressed air, pumping, ventilation, and other
motor driven applications. It would allow scale economies and synergy between
actions in these areas, since much of the awareness raising work is common to
all these systems.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 34:
111
Action to be performed by
Advertising Campaign
Technology Demonstration
Measuring Campaign
Award for System Design
Award for Installed Systems
Information and Training Material
LCC Tool
Component Labelling
System Certification
Vol. Agreement for Manufacturers
Voluntary User Programme
Outsourcing Guidelines
Subsidies and Taxes
Regulations
EU
National
level
Management level
to be addressed
Top Management
Upper Management
Upper and Middle Management
Top Management
Top Management
The dissemination of the results of this study will be a first step in communicating the large economic savings potential in compressed air systems to the public. The members of the study group who prepared this study will be pleased to
help the European Commission in implementing the proposed awareness raising programme.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
7.
7. Evaluation of the
Impact of Measures
113
This task deals with the evaluation, in terms of energy consumption, of the impact of the programmes for action identified previously.
The model, named a stock model, has been described and developed in
Task 2. It allows the calculation of the impact of the energy savings actions. The
energy savings actions are the ones identified in Task 6. They are organised in
different scenarios, which are described below. The scenarios are different from
the point of view of energy: while they are based on the same stock of systems
the energy policy differs from one scenario to another.
We indicate here the different hypothesis used by the model for the energy scenarios and the results of the model.
7.1
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
7. Evaluation of the
Impact of Measures
114
tion for new and upgraded systems. This value integrates different elements:
efficiency deteriorates with the age of the compressor; the upgrading of the
systems may imply a reduction of the leaks; the new technologies are more efficient; machines are better sized to correspond to needs, etc.
In the ARP scenario, we consider an effort on energy savings allowing reaching
half of the maximum potential identified in Task 6, that is to say 16.5 % reduction in consumption in the year 2015. In this scenario, voluntary actions focused
on awareness raising (in general the easier and least costly actions) are implemented over a 15 year period.
In the ERP scenario, we consider that economic, fiscal and regulatory actions
(mandatory measures, generally more difficult and expensive to implement) are
implemented in parallel with the ARP actions during a 15 year period, in order to
reach three quarters of the maximum potential identified in Task 6, that is to say
24.7 % reduction in consumption at the end of this period.
For each scenario, we calculate the energy consumption, per year and per
country, for each type of system.
7.2
The results are presented in different graphs and tables, showing either the total
consumption, either the change in consumption per country, according to the
scenario.
Table 35:
BAU
1999
2005
2010
2015
ARP
1999
2005
2010
2015
ERP + ARP
1999
2005
2010
2015
Italy
United Greece/Spain/
Rest of EU
Kingdom
Portugal
Total
12
12
12
11
14
14
13
13
12
13
13
13
10
10
10
10
9
10
10
10
23
23
22
22
80
81
80
79
12
11
11
10
14
13
12
12
12
12
12
11
10
9
9
8
9
9
9
8
23
22
20
19
80
77
73
69
12
11
10
9
14
13
11
10
12
12
11
10
10
9
8
7
9
9
8
7
23
21
19
16
80
74
68
61
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
7. Evaluation of the
Impact of Measures
115
riod studied decreases in France, Germany, United Kingdom and the rest of the
EU countries but increases (due to the growth in stock) in Spain, Greece, Portugal and Italy.
Consumption, TWh
90
80
BAU
ARP
70
ERP
60
50
1999
2005
2010
2015
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
7. Evaluation of the
Impact of Measures
116
Consumption, TWh
25
20
15
10
5
1999
2005
2010
France
Italy
Rest of EU
2015
Germany
United Kingdom
Greece, Portugal, Spain
Consumption, TWh
25
20
15
10
5
1999
2005
2010
France
Italy
Rest of EU
2015
Germany
United Kingdom
Greece, Portugal, Spain
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
7. Evaluation of the
Impact of Measures
117
Consumption, TWh
25
20
15
10
5
1999
2005
2010
France
Italy
Rest of EU
2015
Germany
United Kingdom
Greece, Portugal, Spain
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
119
Bibliography
Bibliography
ADEME; Prospective de la consommation d'lectricit dans l'industrie l'horizon 2010, Rapport d'enqute sur les moteurs; March 1994; CEREN
Afisac; 1998
BCAS, Installation Guide: Guide to the Selection & Installatino of Compressed
Air Services, CompAir-Broomwade-Reavell, 1992
Bertholdi P.; Energy efficient equipment within SAVE: Activities, strategies, success and barriers; in: E.V.A. the Austrian Energy Agency; Proceedings of the
SAVE Conference For An Energy Efficient Millennium, 8-10 Nov. 1999, Graz
Bertholdi P., de Almeida A., Falkner H. (ed.); Energy Efficiency Improvements in
Electric Motors and Drives; Springer; 2000
Centre Franais de l'Electricit, La Variation Electronique de Vitesse: Guide
d'utilisation, Paris, 1997 co-edited by ADEME, EDF and GIMELEC
Direction Gnrale des Technologies, de la Recherche et de l'Energie (Wallonie, Belgium), Le Ractif, N 21, September 1999
DoE (Department of Energy, US); Energy Star Award Rules and Instructions:
Year 2000
DoE (Department of Energy, US); Improving Compressed Air System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry; DoE; 1998
DoE (Department of Energy, US); United States Industrial Motor Systems Market Opportunities Assessment: Executive Summary; DoE; 1998
ETSU; Best practices Series;
Compressing Air Costs: Generation;
Compressing Air Costs: Leakage;
Compressing Air Costs: Treatment;
Compressed Air and Energy Use;
Cost & Energy Savings Achieved by Improvements to a Compressed Air
System;
Compressed Air Costs Reduced Automatic Control;
Energy and Cost Savings from Air Compressor Replacement;
Refurbishment of a Compressed Air System;
Compressed Air Savings through Leakage Reduction and the Use of High
Efficiency Air Nozzles;
Compressed Air Leakage Reduction Through the use of Electronic Condensate Drain Traps;
Compressing Air Costs;
Energy Saving in the Filtration and Drying of Compressed Air;
Heat Recovery from Air Compressors.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
120
Bibliography
http://www.caddet-ee.org
http://www.epa.gov/energystar
http://www.eu-greenlight.org
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
121
APPENDIX 1:
Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data
APPENDIX 1:
Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data
Enterprises
Number of enterprises:
16 users
3 service providers
Countries:
Sectors of activity:
Metal products, textile, glass, cement, paper, beverages, brewery, food processing, packaging, wood
products, rubber products
Certification:
Air quality:
7
16
15
4
7
7
1
9
1
2
3
1
5
9
3
6
2
3
3
4
2
6
2
0
2
2
0
0
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
APPENDIX 1:
Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data
122
Cost
Quality
Reliability
1
4
3
10
3
3
5
3
6
5
Legend: each cell indicates the number of enterprises reporting the given importance to the corresponding criterion.
Conclusion: Reliability is clearly the first criterion,
followed by Quality and Cost
Compressors
Number of compressors: 81
Avg. number of
compressors per system: 4+
Types of compressors:
Range of age:
Power range:
11 kW to 3600 kW
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
123
APPENDIX 1:
Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data
Certification
ISO 9001
ISO 14001
Nb of machines
Sector,
activities
CA consumption
Country
620
Energy
cost
It
Metal
products
Drying
It
Textile
It
Metal
products
ISO 9000
8000
It
Glass
ISO 9001
ISO 14001
2400
It
Cement production
6500
It
Paper
production
1800
It
Beverage production
2000
Dessication
It
Beverage production
Fr
Food ind.
Fr
Rubber
Fr
Metals works
Fr
Metals works
Lires
Lires
540
ISO 9001
ISO 14001
Dessication
10
50 000
Euros
Dessication
ISO 9000
Ger Brewery
Drying, filtering,
sterilisation
Ger Packaging
ISO 9000
300
Ger Printing
in process
Refrigeration,
drying
Ger Wood
EMAS
Drying
It = Italy, Fr = France, Ger = Germany
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
APPENDIX 1:
Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data
124
Relative
importance of Relative importance
energy
of operating criteria
vectors
Metal
products
It
Glass
It
Cement
production
It
Paper
production
It
Beverage
production
It
Beverage
production
Fr
Food ind.
Fr
Rubber
Fr
Metals
works
Fr
Metals
works
Ger Brewery
Ger Packaging
Ger Printing
Ger Wood
X
X
Relability
It
Quality
Cost
Electric systems
Textile
Mechanical
systems
It
Hydraulics
Compressed air
Other
Process
Drying
Metal
products
Sector,
activities
Hand tools
Blowing, cleaning
It
Country
Pistons, presses,
other mech. movement
Materials handling
or transport
3
X
2
X
X
X
X
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
APPENDIX 1:
Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data
125
Country
Sector,
activities
Compressor
manufacturer
Power
Flowrate
Pressure
[kW]
[m /h]
[bar]
Type
Age
Control
It
Metal
products
Atlas-Copco
Screw
34
290
It
Textile
Atlas Copco
Vite
30
204
10
25
Atlas Copco
Vite
30
204
10
25
Kaeser
Vite
55
498
10
Metal
Atlas
centrifugal
6000
25
Construction
Ingersoll
centrifugal
2x5000
Glasses
Ingersoll
Screw
24000
10 VSD
Atlas Copco
piston
10
17
It
It
It
Cement
production
It
Paper production
It
Beverage
production
It
Beverage
production
ADEME
Atlas Copco,
Mattei
3595
20 VSD
centrifugal
760
3400
30
Screw,
piston
700
8000
7.5
6 VSD, ...
Screw,
piston, ...
177
1800
7.5
9 VSD, ...
Atlas
screw
90
817.2
9 Electronic
control
Mattei
Rotating
44
420
12 Electronic
control
Mattei
Rotating
44
420
12 Electronic
control
Mattei
Rotating
44
420
12 Electronic
control
Mattei
Rotating
44
420
12 Electronic
control
Atlas Copco
screw
250
2.100
10
15
Atlas Copco
screw
250
2.100
10
12
Atlas Copco
screw
250
2.100
10
10
Atlas Copco
screw
600
4.800
10
Atlas Copco
screw
600
4.800
10
Ingersoll R.
centrifugal
600
4.800
10
Ingersoll R.
centrifugal
700
6.000
10
Ingersoll R.
centrifugal
700
6.000
10
Atlas Copco
Piston
75
960
30
16
Atlas Copco
piston
75
960
30
15
Neumann
piston
200
1.550
30
10
Neumann
piston
200
1.550
30
Thom C.
piston
450
5.600
30
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Country
APPENDIX 1:
Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data
Sector,
activities
It
Beverage
production
Fr
Food ind.
Fr
Rubber
Fr
Metals
works
Fr
Ger Brewery
Ger Packaging
Ger Wood
Thom C.
Power
Flowrate
Pressure
[kW]
[bar]
Type
piston
450
[m /h]
5.600
Screw
Metals
works
Ger Printing
Compressor
manufacturer
126
Age
30
Control
7
700?
6 + 13
5?
AtlasCopco
250
6.2
pressure
Crepelle
550
6.2
Demag
screw
6.2
Nea
piston
40
416
Nea
piston
40
416
Nea
piston
40
416
Nea
piston
23
240
Nehrer
piston
45
361
Nehrer
piston
22
181
Nehrer
piston
15
125
Nehrer
piston
7.5
71
10
Nehrer
piston
7.5
71
10
Nehrer
piston
7.5
71
10
Kaeser
screw
37.5
360
Kaeser
screw
37.5
360
Demag
screw
22
180
Demag
screw
75
720
12
Boge
screw
45
397
18
Boge
screw
45
397
18
Boge
screw
55
416
18
Boge
piston
15
102
15
17
Boge
piston
11
70
15
21
Mahle
piston
15
12
Mahle
piston
1.5
18
10
12
CompAir
Rotary
vane
7.5
72
12
CompAir
Rotary
vane
7.5
72
12
CompAir
Rotary
vane
7.5
72
12
CompAir
Rotary
vane
18.5
185
12
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
APPENDIX 2:
Market Characterisation: Numeric Data
127
APPENDIX 2:
Market Characterisation: Numeric Data
Growth rate
%
France
12
78
Germany
14 10.5
3.5
65
Greece + Spain +
Portugal
35660 25685
9976
6.6
2.2
71
Italy
12
78
United
Kingdom
55000 46750
8250
10
7.5
2.5
52
Rest of the EU
23
17
82
80
60
20
71 42 kW 132 kW
80
Total
Average value
In Greece
In Spain
In Portugal
3500
71
15
Stock renewal
per year (%)
Total
Lifetime years
Country
Consumption
Operating
hours
Number of
air compressors
For 1999
Average
power [kW]
0 6.70
= 1.5 % of the electricity European consumption, so the same ratio for consumption and
numbers of machines
= 8%
= 1.6 %
New systems
= the machines entering the stock, due to the growth rate, with 5 %
consumption less
Replaced systems = the machines replacing the old machines leaving the stock, with 5 %
consumption less
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
STOCK
APPENDIX 2:
Market Characterisation: Numeric Data
Types of
machines
Growth y 1-5
rate
y 5-10
y 10-15
Replacement rate
128
United
Greece,
Kingdom Portugal,
Spain
France
Germany
0
0
0
0.07
0
0
0
0.07
0
0
0
0.07
Italy
Rest of
the EU
0.02
0.01
0
0.07
0.02
0.01
0
0.07
0
0
0
0.07
EU total
Year
1999
Number
All
43765
62000
55000
35660
43800
81040
321265
2000
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
40847
2918
62000
0
57867
4133
55000
0
51333
3667
36374
713
33283
2377
44676
876
40880
2920
81040
0
75637
5403
322854
1589
299847
21418
2001
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
37930
5835
62000
0
53733
8267
55000
0
47667
7333
37101
727
32250
4851
45570
894
39612
5958
81040
0
70234
10805
324475
1621
281426
43049
2002
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
35012
8753
62000
0
49600
12400
55000
0
44000
11000
37843
742
30469
7374
46481
911
37424
9057
81040
0
64832
16208
326129
1653
261337
64791
2003
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
32094
11671
62000
0
45467
16533
55000
0
40333
14667
38600
757
28653
9947
47411
930
35193
12217
81040
0
59429
21611
327815
1686
241170
86646
2004
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
29177
14588
62000
0
41333
20667
55000
0
36667
18333
39372
772
26800
12572
48359
948
32917
15441
81040
0
54026
27013
329535
1720
220921
108615
2005
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
26259
17506
62000
0
37200
24800
55000
0
33000
22000
39766
394
24543
15223
48842
484
30145
18697
81040
0
48624
32416
330413
877
199771
130642
2006
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
23341
20424
62000
0
33067
28933
55000
0
29333
25667
40163
398
22263
17900
49331
488
27345
21986
81040
0
43221
37818
331299
886
178570
152729
2007
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
20424
23341
62000
0
28933
33067
55000
0
25667
29333
40565
402
19960
20605
49824
493
24516
25308
81040
0
37818
43221
332194
895
157319
174875
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
STOCK
129
Types of
machines
France
Germany
2008
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
17506
26259
62000
0
24800
37200
55000
0
22000
33000
2009
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
14588
29177
62000
0
20667
41333
2010
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
11671
32094
2011
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
2012
APPENDIX 2:
Market Characterisation: Numeric Data
United
Greece,
Kingdom Portugal,
Spain
Italy
Rest of
the EU
EU total
40971
406
17635
23336
50322
498
21660
28663
81040
0
32416
48624
333098
904
136016
197081
55000
0
18333
36667
41380
410
15286
26095
50826
503
18775
32051
81040
0
27013
54026
334010
913
114662
219349
62000
0
16533
45467
55000
0
14667
40333
41380
0
12527
28853
50826
0
15386
35439
81040
0
21611
59429
334010
0
92394
241616
43765
0
8753
35012
62000
0
12400
49600
55000
0
11000
44000
41380
0
9768
31612
50826
0
11998
38828
81040
0
16208
64832
334010
0
70127
263884
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
5835
37930
62000
0
8267
53733
55000
0
7333
47667
41380
0
7010
34371
50826
0
8609
42216
81040
0
10805
70234
334010
0
47860
286151
2013
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
2918
40847
62000
0
4133
57867
55000
0
3667
51333
41380
0
4251
37130
50826
0
5221
45604
81040
0
5403
75637
334010
0
25592
308418
2014
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
0
43765
62000
0
0
62000
55000
0
0
55000
41380
0
1492
39888
50826
0
1833
48993
81040
0
0
81040
334010
0
3325
330686
2015
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
0
43765
62000
0
0
62000
55000
0
0
55000
41380
0
1393
39988
50826
0
1711
49115
81040
0
0
81040
334010
0
3103
330907
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
131
APPENDIX 3:
ADEME Data Collection Guide for Compressed Air
Outsourcing
VOS COORDONNEES
nom socit:
adresse:
groupe:
filiale:
fonction(s):
effectif:
activit principale:
volume de production:
clients:
centre technique daffiliation:
certification:
ISO 9000
ISO 14 000
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
EMAS
DoE
ECE
132
mouvement, transport
actionnement de machines, vrins,
presses
soufflage, dpoussirage
schage (prcisez)
petite utilits (visseuses, soufflettes)
process ou autre (prcisez)
hydraulique
[......] %
mcanique
[......] %
lectricit [......] %
air comprim [......] %
froid
chaleur
vapeur
gaz (azote, oxygne)
autre (prcisez)
oui
non
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
133
type de compresseur
puissance et
dbits spcifiques
pression
ge
tat de marche
vitesse lectronique
variable
diamtre
moyen
taux de fuites
ge
Avez-vous observ ou observez-vous actuellement des pertes de productivit lies une qualit non optimale de lair comprim ? Si oui, prcisezen la cause ?
microchute de pression
humidit dans les circuits
huile dans les circuits
particules
et les consquences ?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
134
teneur en huile:
humidit:
point de rose:
particules:
niveau sonore:
autre(s):
Quel est pour vous le prix d'un incident interrompant la fourniture d'air
comprim ( exprimer en perte nette de production, perte ventuelle de
clientle, prix ventuel de rparation des dommages ...) ?
- une micro-coupure:
- une coupure d'une heure:
- une coupure d'une journe:
- une coupure de quelques jours:
Comment apprciez-vous le besoin en air comprim de votre entreprise
dans les annes venir ?
(cochez la case correspondante et prcisez ordre de grandeur)
augmentation ...................................................................................................
stagnation ........................................................................................................
diminution ........................................................................................................
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
135
majeur
moyen
mineur
pour quelles raisons ?
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
oui
non
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
136
personnel interne
spcifiquement affect l'air compripolyvalent
m
personnel
externe
conduite
maintenance
dtection fuites /
pannes
rparation pannes
Autres (prcisez)
Qui exprime le besoin dacheter ou de modifier votre centrale de production dair comprim ? qui est impliqu dans lachat de nouveau matriel ?
le responsable financier
le responsable maintenance
le responsable production
Q 2-2 Avez-vous ralis un audit / diagnostic nergie de votre installation?
non
oui (si oui, rpondez Q. 2. 2)
Avez-vous connaissance dtudes particulires menes sur ce thme par votre
centre technique ? Si oui, veuillez en prciser les principales conclusions et rfrences ?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
137
BARRAULT
AMTECH
AIR LIQUIDE
RECHERCHE
AIR COMPRIME
SOTRATECH
EDF
ENERGIE
P. DUMOULIN
DALKIA
INDUSTELEC
GDF
TRACTEBEL
ELECTRABEL
SOCHAN
CARBOXYQUE
SFEE
Autre (prcisez) ...................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Q 2-2-b Cot et financement
Cot de laudit en F ? ................................................................................
Financement ?
ADEME [
]%
VOUS [
]%
AUTRE [
]%
Q 2-2-c Quelles ont t les conclusions de laudit et des actions ontelles t ralises ?
ralis
non ralis
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
138
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
139
espionnage industriel
autre ....................................................................................................
Q 2-3-c Quels ont t les principaux facteurs dclenchants de cette
dcision ?
audit-diagnostic
dysfonctionnements / pannes
de lourds investissements raliser
augmentation dactivit
exigences particulires de qualit dair
rduction des dpenses dexploitation
cots de maintenance
cots dlectricit
prise de connaissance d'offres commerciales intressantes
autre (prcisez) ...................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q 2-3-d L'externalisation, une dcision de votre groupe
Les autres filiales du groupe ont-elles galement externalis ? Si
oui, lesquelles et quand ?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
140
DALKIA
ELYO
SOCHAN
ELECTRABEL
AIR LIQUIDE
INDUSTELEC
CARBOXIQUE
autre
EDF
GDF
TRACTEBEL
DALKIA
ELYO
SOCHAN
ELECTRABEL
AIR LIQUIDE
INDUSTELEC
CARBOXIQUE
autre
EDF
GDF
TRACTEBEL
DALKIA
ELYO
SOCHAN
ELECTRABEL
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
AIR LIQUIDE
INDUSTELEC
CARBOXIQUE
autre
SAVE
EDF
GDF
TRACTEBEL
DoE
ECE
141
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
142
mensuellement
annuellement
autre (prcisez) ...............................................................................................
Cette rmunration est-elle ?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
143
trs satisfait
satisfait
moyennement satisfait
du
Evaluez-vous vos performances "air comprim" (conomique, nergtique) en continu avec votre prestataire ? Si oui, comment ?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
144
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
145
APPENDIX 4:
Data Collection Guide for Compressed Air Users
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
146
Name of enterprise
Installation visited
Address
Person contacted
Contact
Name
Function or post
Telephone
Fax
Email
Products
Production
Identification of principal product(s) or service(s)
produced
Approximate indication of quantity or volume produced
Clients
Certification
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
147
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
148
Air quality
Type of equipment used
Quality requirements
Requirements for:
Oil
Humidity, dew point
Particles
Other
Do your requirements for air quality correspond to a standard for air quality?
Certification
Noise
Future needs
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
149
System design
Who was responsible for system design?
Design criteria
Was an outside consultant or engineering firm employed for any phase of the design process?
What were the design criteria applied?
Was specific or overall energy consumption a design
criteria?
Were life cycle costs, or overall operating costs among
the design criteria?
Were specific energy savings measures (advanced
control systems, leak detection, multi-stage compressor, multiple pressures, ...) considered?
How were system requirements (quantity, quality, ...)
determined?
Purchase decisions
Competitive bidding
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Responsibility
150
System replacement
Reporting circuit
Nature of Reporting
Profit centers
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
151
Original investment
cost
Overall compressed air Total system operating costs, perhaps broken down by
major categories (maintenance, ...). (Might be exoperating costs
pressed as Euros/year, as Euros/m3 , as percentage of
production costs or as Euros/unit of production of company's product, ...).
Energy costs
Perception of costs
Breakdowns
Quality
Operations problems
Have CAS breakdowns stopped production? Do you
have any figures for the cost of lost production? Expressed as cost/per hour of breakdown, ...
Have compressed air quality problems caused production problems? Quality of product, reject rate, customer
dissatisfaction?
Has the cost of these problems been evaluated?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
152
Recommendations
Results
Leak
Leaks
Do you have an idea of the percentage of air leaks?
Are there any leak detection procedures? (Type, frequency, who carries them out).
Possible savings
Cost reduction
Do you have an estimation of possible savings in the
compressed air function? If so, on what is this estimation based?
Decision process
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
153
Specific measures
What compressed air related energy savings measures has your company considered?
Check if any of the following specific measures have been considered.
Overhaul existing equipment
Replace part of the existing installation
Install additional measuring equipment
Replace compressed air by some other energy source
Install improved control system (perhaps including VSD)
Modify distribution network architecture
Replace piping
Leak detection
Use waste heat
Outsourcing
Other
Specify or comment
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
154
OUTSOURCING
Perception of outsourcing
Has your company considered outsourcing the entire
Outsourcing considcompressed air function? If so, when, and with what
ered?
conclusion.
If you have considered outsourcing, rate the following
Criteria in evaluating
criteria as positive, negative or indifferent in you
outsourcing
evaluation of outsourcing ("+ / / blank")
Concentrate on core activities
Free investment capacity for other activities
Quality of compressed air
Reliability of the compressed air system
Reduced cost of compressed air
Improved cost control
Availability of a single source for several plants
R&D capacity of service providers
Concentrate skilled personnel on other activities
Reduce personnel
Availability of an overall solution, including several gases
Cost of outsourcing
Loss of in house competence
Delay in case of breakdown
Problems with company maintenance personnel
Preventive maintenance
Leak control
Industrial espionage
Experience with outsourcing
(Only applicable if outsourcing is used in the company)
Are you satisfied with outsourcing of the compressed
Satisfaction
air function? Specify.
Payment
Energy costs
Who pays for energy costs? (Specify for motors and for
auxiliary functions such as air drying, compressor
house heating-lighting-ventilation)
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
155
INSTITUTIONAL ACTION
Taxation
Are you aware of the fiscal measures in your country to
Knowledge of fiscal
support for energy effi- encourage energy efficiency measures?
ciency
Do you believe these fiscal measures are effective?
Evaluation of fiscal
Has your company taken their impact into account in
measures
decisions on compressed air related decisions?
European or national support measures
Directorate General XVII (Energy) of the European Union is considering various
measures to encourage energy savings in Compressed Air Systems. Could you
indicate what types of institutional action you believe might be useful?
Usefulness of possible Could you give your opinion of the usefulness of the
following measures under consideration.. Rate the folmeasures
lowing measures as useful, useless or indifferent ("+ /
/ blank")
Labelling. Some kind of product labelling for compressors and air
handling relative to their specific energy consumption.
If you believe that labelling might be useful, what kind of product information would you like to see?
Voluntary agreements by equipment manufacturers to improve the
energy efficiency of compressed air equipment.
Procurement. Organisation of a buyers consortium in your industry,
which would initiate a bidding process for the supply of energy efficient compresses air equipment.
If you believe that a procurement program might be useful, what kind of
specifications would you like to see included in the bidding program?
Dissemination of information, training and education focused on
improving compressed air system energy consumption
Demonstration and pilot actions to identify and demonstrate energy
efficient design, equipment and practices for compressed air systems.
Development of accounting and measurement tools. The SAVE
program has supported research on introducing analytical accounting
methods for electricity use. Do you see similar tools for compressed
air as being potentially useful?
Creation of a standard contractual framework for outsourcing of
the compressed air function, to aid companies in including effective
control of energy costs in outsourcing contracts.
Contests and awards to identify the best performing machine corresponding to a given set of specifications.
Comment
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
157
APPENDIX 5:
Qualitative Data Collection Guide for Equipment
Manufacturers
1.
2.
3.
4.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
158
Name of enterprise
Name of parent company
Address
Contact
Person contacted
Name
Function or post
Telephone
Fax
Email
Products
Clients
General description of market served, including geographic regions, industrial sectors or other end users,
type of client (captive distribution network, independent
distributors, final users, ...).
Who, in general, are your suppliers? Types of companies (component manufacturers, assemblers, ...). Import or European production.
Certification
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Energy efficiency as a
sales argument
159
Sales strategies
Does your product advertising mention the energy efficiency or specific energy consumption of your products?
How are energy consumption criteria integrated into
your sales activities?
Energy savings
products
Training
Does your company provide any specific training programmes or materials focused on energy consumption? If so, is this material aimed at the sales force? Is
it available to end users?
Audits
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
160
Design criteria
In your view, what are the principal design criteria applied by system designers?
Is specific or overall energy consumption a design criteria?
Are life cycle costs, or overall operating costs among
the design criteria?
How were system requirements (quantity, quality, ...)
determined?
Purchase decisions
In your view, how do your clients make purchase decisions? What is the decision process, and who are the
main actors?
Competitive bidding
Maintenance
Does your firm provide after sales service?
If so, to whom (distributor or final user). What is the
function of the people who contact your firm for service
(distributors after sales service technician, final user
production or maintenance department, specialised
maintenance firms, ...)?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
161
Quality of maintenance In your view, are your products generally well maintained in the field? If not, what are the major shortcomings of maintenance?
In general, does the equipment you sell benefit from
regularly scheduled preventive maintenance programmes?
To the best of your knowledge, what proportion of users provide for the following types of maintenance to
their CAS (estimate as quartiles, that is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4
fourths):
Control of leaks
Control of filter pressure drop
Proper operation of condensate traps
Tracking of system performance
Periodic review of system requirements
The first contains measures applicable at the time of system design, or replacement of major components. These options should be considered in
comparison with the design of average quality existing installations.
The second section contains measures having to do with system operation
and maintenance. The enumerated measures should be considered in the
light of existing practices in average quality systems.
For both tables, we would like your opinion on:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
Other _______
%
gains (2)
payback
time (3)
applications (4)
162
Other _______
%
applicability (1)
System installation or renewal
ECE