CHAPTER1

Hans Oersted

Relationship of magnetism and electricity that served as the

foundation of theory for electromagnets
Most important electrical effect is the magnetic effect

Michael Faraday

Theory of electromagnetic induction

Current Carrying conductor would move when placed in a
magnetic field

James Maxwell

Electromagnetic Theory of light

Andre Ampere

Demonstrated that there are magnetic effects around every

current carrying conductor and that these conductors act like a
magnet

Kamerlingh Onnes

Superconductivity

Faradays Law

Whenever a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, an emf is induced

in it

Faradays 1st Law

The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the

rate of change of flux linkages

Faradays 2nd Law

Whenever the flux linking a coil or current changes, an emf is

induced in it

Coulumbs 1st Law

Force between 2 magnetic poles is directly proportional to their

strengths

Coulumbs 2nd Law

Force between 2 magnetic poles id inversely proportional to the

distance between them

Childs Law

Current in a thermionic diode varies directly with the three

halves power of anode voltage and inversely with the square of
distance between the electrodes

Wiedmann-Franz
Law

Ratio of the thermal conductivity to the electric conductivity is

directly proportional to the absolute temp for all metals

Curies Law

The magnetic susceptibilities of most paramagnetic materials

are inversely proportional to their absolute temperatures

Curie-Weiss Law

Law relating the M and E susceptibilities and the absolute

temperature

Ewings theory of
Ferromagnetism

Theory of ferromagnetic phenomena which assumes each atom

is a permanent magnet which can turn freely about its center
under the influence of applied fields and magnets

Amperes Theorem

States that a current flowing in a circuit produces a magnetic

field at external points equivalent to that due to a magnetic
shell whose bounding edge is the conductor and whose
strength is equal to the strength of current

Right hand rule

Also called corkscrew rule

End Rule

If looking at any one end of a solenoid, the direction of current

is found to be clockwise then the end under observation is a

south pole
Helix Rule

If a solenoid is held by the right hand with the fingers pointing

to the direction of the current flow, the outstretched thumb will
point to the north pole

Unit Pole

A pole which when placed in air from a similar and equal pole
repels it with a force of 1/4pi newtons

Magnetic Pole

Point in a magnet where the intensity of the magnetic lines of

force is max

Magnetic Axis

Straight Line passing through 2 poles of a magnet

Dia

Ur<1 U<Uo ; air, H, bismuth, gold, antimony, copper, zinc,

mercury, silver

Para

Ur>1 U>Uo ; aluminum, platinum, manganese, chromium,

oxygen
Greatest % of materials

Ferro

Ur>>1 U>>Uo ; cobalt

10^-10 m

Diameter of atom

10^-15 to 10^-16
m

Diameter of atomic nucleus

1.1 x 10^-8 cm

Diameter of Hydrogen Atom

Permeance

Reciprocal of Reluctance / Analogous to conductance

Coercivity

Amount of magnetizing force to counter balance the residual

magnetism

Leakage Factor

Ratio of flux in iron to flux in air (iba iba yung tawag sa book at

sa coaching)
Intensity
Magnetism

The flux density produced in it due to its own magnetism

Hysteresis

Lag between B and H

Ferrites

Non metallic materials that have ferromagnetic properties

Air Gap

Air space between magnets

Keeper

Used to maintain the strength of magnetic field

Moving electrical
charge

Where all magnetic field originates from

Stationary Electrical
Charges

Magnetic field does not interact with this

Uniform

Magnetic field inside a solenoid

Current Carrying
Wire Loop

Resembles the magnetic field of a bar magnet

North

A current is flowing east along a power line. If the earths field

is neglected, the direction of the magnet below it is

revolution

When a wire loop is rotated in a magnetic field, the direction of

the induced emf changes every

Domain

Group of magnetically aligned atoms

Toroid

Electromagnet with its core is in the form of a close magnetic

ring

Hall effect

Small voltages generated by a conductor with current in an

external magnetic field
Effect which is generally used in the gaussmeter to measure
flux density

Edison effect

Emission of e- from hot bodies

Wiegand effect

Ability of a mechanically stressed ferromagnetic wire to

recognize rapid switching of magnetization when subjected by
a dc magnetic field

Wall Effect

Contribution to the ionization in an ionization chamber by efrom the walls

Bridgman effect

Phenomenon when current passes through an aristropic crystal,

there is an absorption of heat due to the non uniformity in
current distribution

Hydrogen

Simples atom to exist; it is a diamagnetic material

Germanium

32p+, 32e- and 40n = 72Ge32 =

(AtomicWeightGeAtomicnumber)

Atomic Mass

Sum of proton and neutrons (di ko sure pero eto nakalagay e)

Atomic Number

# of protons or # of electrons

72.6

Ge exact atomic weight

28.09

Si exact atomic weight at 300K

# of protons

Determines the atomic # of an element

Copper

34n

Metallic bonding

Atom bonding due to the force of attraction between groups of

+ ion and ion

Motor Action

Physical motion resulting from the forces of magnetic field

Flux linkages

= flux x # of turns

Electron Volt (eV)

Customary energy unit in atomic and nuclear physics

Joule, Watt-sec,
KW-h

Units of electrical energy

KW-h

Practical unit for electrical energy

Ion

An atom or group of atoms carrying a net electrical charge

Thermionic
emission

Evaporation of e- from a heated surface

Amber

Greek word for electron

Plasma

Charged Gases

Exclusion Principle

Principle that states that each e- in an atom must have a

different set of quantum numbers

Pauli Exclusion
Principle

Principle that states that only 2 e- with differebt spins are

allowed to exist in a given orbit

Radio Freq

Common application if an air-cored choke

Ohms Law

For linear circuits (AC,DC)

Crystalline Solid

One of the solid structures in which the position of the atoms

or ins are predetermined

Amorphous

Solid with no defined crystal structure; also called noncrystalline

Permits mechanical
Clearance

Reason for air gaps between rotor and stator

Van der Waals Bond

Formed when there exist distant electronic interaction between

opposite charges present in the neighboring atoms or
molecules

Atomic Packing
Factor

Measures compactness of crystal = atom volume/cell volume

Madelung Constant

Corrects the electrostatic forces of the more distant ions in an

ionic solid

Creepage

Conduction of electricity across the surface of a a dielectric

Aurora

Corona discharge

1.15 to 1.25

Leakage coef for electrical machines

Astrionic

Science of adapting electronics to aerospace flight

Air

Has straight BH curve passing through the origin

Soft iron

BH curve not straight

Using material with

narrow hysteresis
loop

Reduces hysteresis loss

Silicon steel

Least hysteresis loop area

Unlimited

# of compounds in nature

Ohm-m

SI unit for specific resistance

Siemens / Mhos

SI / CGS for conductance

Siemens/m

SI for conductivity

Resistivity
Temperature

For Conductors

2 Wb/m^2

Typical saturation flux density for most magnetic materials

insulators

Temp coefficient of resistance is NEGATIVE;

Temp coefficient of resistance is directly proportional to T;
R is inversely proportional to T

semiconductors

Temp coefficient resistance is NEGATIVE

conductors

Temp coefficient resistance is POSITIVE;

Temp coefficient of resistance is inversely proportional to T;
R is directly proportional to T

Temp coefficient
resistance

Dependent on nature and temp of material

Tells how much the R changes for a change in T

+ temp coef

Manganin, Tungsten Filament

- temp coef

Electrolytes, carbon

.0034

Temp coef of resistance of pure gold

.0038

Temp coef of resistance of silver

.0039

Temp coef of resistance of lead

Almost 0

Eurekas Temp coefficient resistance

Silicon Carbibe

Ohms law cannot be applied to this material

10x

Hot R = ___x Cold R

Neutral

A body under ordinary conditions

Dielectric constant
or
Specific Inductive
Capacity

Another name for relative permitivitty

Breakdown
Volatage

Another name fore Dielectric Strength (V/mil)

Magnetic
conductivity

Another name for permeability

1/(oo) = c2

Relationship of Eo and Uo and c (light velocity)

1 and 10

Dielectric constant of most materials

Mica

Insulating material used in an electric ion

Porcelain

Insulating material used in voltage transformers

Earphones

Uses permanent magnets

Motors

Uses temporary magnets

+ to -

Conventional Flow

- to +

Electron Flow

P true power

VAR

Q reactive power

VA

S apparent power

Power factor

Cos = P/S

Reactive factor

Sin = Q/S

Voltage
Magnification Factor

Q Factor of Series resonant circuit

Current
Magnification Factor

Q factor of // Resonant Circuit

Voltage Resonance

Series Resonance

Current Resonance

Parallel Resonace

Ionization Current

Results from free electrons

ELI

Series Resonace / Acceptor Circuit

ICE

Parallel Resonance / Rejector Circuit

ELI by exactly 90
deg

Pure inductance

ICE by exactly 90
deg

Pure capacitance

ELI by less than 90

deg

RL

CHAPTER2

ICE by less than 90

deg

RC

Reactance = 0

If I and V are in phase for an AC circuit

0.707

Current is ____ times the max current at half power points of a

resonance curve

Gang Capacitor

Variable Capacitor which the C is varied by varying the plate

area

Trimmer Capacitor

A variable capacitor in which C is varied by changing distance

between plates

55 ohm-cm

Specific resistance of pure Ge

60 ohm-cm

Resistivity of pure Ge under standard conditions

55 ohm-cm

Specific resistance of pure Si

Leading or Lagging

Power factor of series RLC at its half power points

Leading pf

Capacitive Load

Lagging pf

Inductive Load

Separation of the
half power points

Meaning of BW in series RLC

Effective Value

Most important value of a sinewave

Faradic current

An intermittent and non symmetrical alternating current like

that obtained from the secondary winding of an induction coil

Stray Capacitance

Capacitance that exists not through design but because 2

conducting surfaces are relatively close to each other

1.73

Peak factor of a triangular wave

Triangular Wave

Peakiest waveform

Independent to
each other

Reason for // connection of appliances in homes

Appliances have
different current
ratings

Reason why not in series connection of appliances in homes

Sinusoidal

Most popular waveform

Square wave

Most common non sinusoidal waveform

Ideal Current
Source (parallel r)

Infinite internal resistance

Zero internal conductance

Ideal Voltage
Source
(series r)

Zero internal Resistance

Infinite internal conductance

Ideal Ammeter
(in series to the
circuit)

R is 0

Ideal Voltmeter
(in // to the circuit)

R is infinite

Resonance Curve

Frequency VS Current

Reactance Chart

Estimates the resonant freq and to find the reactance at any

freq for any value of C or I

Edge Effect

Refers to the outward curving distortion of the lines of force

near the edges of 2 // metal plates that form a capacitor

The narrower the

passband

(For Series RLC), the higher the Q

Internal Heating

Leakage resistance in a capacitor results to

Phase

The_____ of an alternating quantity is defined as the fractional

part of a period or cycle through w/c the quantity has advanced
from a selected origin

3.7K

Metal tin becomes a superconductor at this temp

It has a varying
magnetic field

Reason why AC can induce voltage

Exponential Law

Charging of capacitor through a resistance obeys _______

Sinewaves

The factor 0.707 for converting peak to rms applies only to

_____

Joule

Term to express the amount of electrical energy stored in a

electrostatic field

Breakdown Voltage

Refers to the lowest voltage across any insulator that can

cause current flow

Blocks DC current

Capacitor

47 ohms

Preferred value of resistor (among the choices which are 520,

43K and 54K)

Electrolytic
capacitor

Most suited for dc filter circuits;

Highest cost per uF;
Only Capacitor used in DC circuits;
Used in Transistor amplifiers

Variable Capacitor

Used air dielectric

Barium Strontium
Titanite Dielectric

Also called ceramic

Surge Voltage

Max voltage that can be applied across a capacitor for a short

period of time

Voltage

It is used as the reference phasor for // AC circuits

It has reactance in
radio freq circuits

Disadvantage of wirewound resistors

Manganin

Most common material for wirewound

Temp coef

Indicated by the first band for a 5band method of capacitor

color coding

Rate at which
electrons pas a
given point

Determines the magnitude of an electric current

Q of 10

Means that the energy stored in the magnetic field of the coil is
10x the energy wasted in the resistance

770V

Neon lamp ionizes at approx _____

Anticapacitance
Switch

Switch designed to have low capacitance between terminals

when open

Bifilar Resistor

Resister wound with a wire doubled back on itself to reduce

inductance

Alloy

Fusion of elements without chemical action between them

Vpeak

Used in calculating max instantaneous power

Vrms

Used in calculating Vave

Maximum
capacitance

Happened when movable plates of gang capacitor overlaps the

fixed plates

Thevenins Theorem

Used for analysis of Vacuum tubes

Phasor

Rotating vector whose projection can represent either current

or voltage

# of e- in 4th orbit of copper atom

8 e-

Each atom in a Si Crystal has _____ in its valence orbit

32 p+

Silicon Atom has ____

More slowly

e- in the largest orbit travel _______ than the e- in smaller

orbits

Intrinsic
semiconductor

Pure Semiconductor

Extrinsic
semiconductor

Doped semiconductor;
2 Ohm-cm = resistivity

2mV/C

For Ge or Si diodes, the barrier potential decreases _____

Piecewise Linear
Model

A diode modeling circuit which considers the threshold voltage,

Rave and switch as the diodes equivalent

Diffusion and drift

2 mechanisms by which holes and electrons move through a Si

crystal

Diffusion

Random motion due to thermal agitation in the movement of

h+ and e- in a Si crystal

Drift Current

Happens when charges are forced to move the electric field of

a potential difference

Carrier Drift

Mechanism for carrier motion in semicon

Zener and Avalance

Effects

Two possible breakdown mechanism in PN jxn diodes

Zener Breakdown

Electric field in the depletion layer increases to the point where

it can break covalent bonds and generate electron-hole pairs

Avalanche
Breakdown

(In semiconductors) this takes place when the reverse bias

exceeds a certain value;
Happens when the minority carriers that cross the depletion
region under the influence of the electric field gain sufficient KE
to be able to break covalent bonds in atoms

Avalance effect

Occurs are higher reverse voltages

Diffusion or Storage

Is the forward bias capacitance of a diode

CHAPTER3

Capacitance
Lifetime

Amount of time between the creation and disappearance of a

free electron

Recombination

Annihilation of e- and h+;

Merging of e- and h+

Transit time

Time taken by e- or h+ to pass from emitter to collector

Reverse recovery
time

Time taken by a diode to operate in the reverse to forward

condition;
Time it takes to turn off a FB diode;
= storage time + transition interval from F to R bias

Insulator

At room temp, silicon acts like a ______

Compound Semicon

Gallium Arsenide, Alluminum Arsenide and Gallium Phosphide

are classified as ______-

Increase electric
conductivity

Purpose of adding impurities

Ptype semicon

Silicon doped with trivalent impurity;

Holes are majority carriers

Ntype semicon

Silicon doped with pentavalent impurity;

Electrons are majority carriers

Trivalent Atom

Acceptor Atom;
Boron, Indium, Gallium,

Pentavalent Atom

Donor Atom;
Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bimsuth

N type

Forms when the # of free e- in a doped semiconductor is

increased;
Forms when pentavalent atom is added

P Type

Forms when the # of free e- in a doped semiconductor is

reduced
Forms when trivalent atom is added

PN crystal

Other name for Jxn Diode;

Commonly rated by its PIV and max forward current;
Max forward current is limited by Jxn Temperature

Dipole

Each pair of + and ions at the jxn is called _____

Barrier Potential

Inversely proportional to temp

High field emission

Creation of free electrons through a zener effect

Intensity of electric
field

Zener effect depends on this

Forward current

Most impt diode parameter which gives the current value a

diode can handle without burning

Reverse Breakdown
Voltage

Maximum reverse voltage that can be applied before current

surges

Esaki Diode

Tunnel Diode;
Principal char is that it has negative resistance region;

Widely used in oscillators, switching networks and pulse

generators
Schotty Diode

Most impt application is digital computers

Shocklet Diode

No depletion layer

Bulk resistance

Sum of the P and N regions resistances;

rB = (V-VT)/I

VAristors

Are transient suppressors

Varactor Diode

Also known as epicap, varicap, voltage-variable capacitance,

voltacaps;
Used for tuning the Receivers and is normally operated at
reverse biased

Point Contact diode

Used metal cat whiskers as its anode;

Classified as hot carrier diode

PIN diode

Used in RF switches, attenuators and other phase switching

devices

Bulk resistance
decreases in
semiconductors

If doping increases, ___________

High Resistance

Lightly doped semiconductors have ____

Less than 1 ohm

Typical bulk resistance of rectifier diodes

Transition region
capacitance

The reverse bias diode capacitance is termed as ______

LED

Equivalent to a optocoupler ;
Typical operating current is 10mA;
Voltage drop is 1.5V;
Constructed using Gallium Arsenide;
Gives light when FB

LAD

A photodiode which conducts current only when FB and is

exposed to light;
Also called photodiode

IR emitters

Solid state GaAs devices that emit a beam of radiant flux when
FB

Optocoupler

Also known as optoisolator

Second
approximation

(for diodes) an equivalent ckt of a diode in which it is

represented as a switch series with barrier potential

Third approximation

(for diodes) an equivalent ckt of a diode in which it is

represented as a switch in series with a resitance

Negative voltage
supplies

Needed for PMP voltage divider bias

16.7 ms

Halfwave signal (1/60Hz)

8.33 ms

Fullwave signal (1/120Hz)

40.6%

Max rectification efficiency of HW

81.2

Max rectification efficiency of FW

MOSFET

Highest Zin;
Sometimes called Insulated Gate FET

FET

Has least noise level;

Has higher Zin compared to BJT due to its input which is
reverse biased

uA

Typical leakage current in a PN jxn

Ohms

Resistance of a FB PN jxn

Derating Factor

Shown on a data sheet that tells how much you have to reduce
the power of a device

Dember Effect

Or Photodiffusion effect;
The creation of voltage in a conductor or semicon by
illumination of one surface

Bulk Effect

Effect that occurs within the entire bilk of a semiconductor

material rather than a localized jxn

Skin Effect

Increases the resistance of wires at high frequencies

Anotron Diode

A cold cathode glow-discharge diode having a copper anode

and a large cathode of sodium or other material

BARITT Diode

A microwave diode in which the carriers that transverse the

drift region are generated by minority carrier injection from a
FB jxn instead of being extracted from the plasma of avalanche

Spacistor

Multiple terminal solid state device similar to transistor that

generates frequencies up to avout 10,000 Mhz by injecting eor h+ into a space charge layer

Zener Diode

Principal char is that its voltage is constant under conditions of

varying current;
Used as a voltage regulator or reference voltage

Voltage multiplier

Converts AC to DC, where the DC output can be greater than

the AC input

Photoconductive
Cell

Or Photoresitive device

Emitter Resistor

Most commonly used for biasing a bipolar jxn transistor

Silicon

Not a good conductor;

Has the smallest leakage current

% Ripple

= (Vac / Vdc) x 100

Ripple Voltage

= (rZ / (rZ+rS)) x V

Holes

As a general rule, _____ are found only on semiconductors;

An incomplete part of an electron pair bond;
Vacancy left by free electrons

Isotopes

A nuclei with common # of p+ but different # of neutrons

Series Capacitors

In power supplies, circuits that are employed in separating AC

and DC components and bypass AC components around the
load are called _______

Emitter Follower

Av is low and usually less than 1;

Circuit

Ai is High;
input is in-phase with output;
Employs 100% negative feedback;
Used for impedance matching;
Equivalent to CC amplifier

BJT / transistors

Current controlled device;

Largest region is the Collector Region

FET

Voltage controlled device;

Has 5v pinch off voltage;
FET transcoductance = IC/VGS ;
Square Law Devices;
At cut-off, the depletion layers are touching

Transistors

Converts DC power to AC power

Power Transistors

Made in large sized to disspate more heat

Power amplifiers

Input is DC

Oscillators

Converts DC power to AC power

Ohmic

Equivalent if transistor at saturation in JFET is ______

IGFET

Another name for MOSFET

CMOS

Easily damaged by static charges

Saturation region

Used by FET (EMOSFET) to act as an amplifier

Triode region and

Saturation Region

Used by FET (EMOSFET) to act as a switch

10uF

Coupling capacitor value in RC coupling;

Coupling capacitor (Cc) must be high enough to prevent
attenuation of low freq

Qpoint /
OperatingPoint

Point of intersection between a diode characteristic and a load

line;
Intersection of dc and ac load lines

Luminous Efficacy

Measure of the ability of any LED to produce lumens per

applied watt of energy

Scale Current

Another name is Saturation Current

Input Char Curve

A graphical representation in a transistor where the IE is

plotted against the variable VEB for constant VCB

Output Char Curve

A graphical representation in a transistor where the Ic is plotted

against the variable VCB for constant IE

RC coupling

Used in low level, low noise audio amplifiers to minimize hum

pick up from stray magnetic fields

Transformer
Coupling

Major advantage is permitting power to be transformed from

the relatively high output impedance of the first stage to the
relatively low input impedance of second stage

1.12eV(Si) and
0.72eV(Ge)

From these conditions, it can be said that less # of electronhole pair will be generated in Si than in Ge

0.135 m2/V-s

Electron mobility in silicon

Harold Black

Invented feedback amplifier in 1928

Always points to N
and away from P

Arrows in semiconductor symbols

CE circuit

Conventional amplifier

Junction and Point

Contact

Structural category of a semiconductor diodes

Threshold Voltage

Turns on an enhancement-device

DMOSFET

Acts mostly as a FET;

Can operate in D and E

EMOSFET

Can only operate in E

Heat dissipation

Most important factor of a power transistor

Collector Efficiency

Most important consideration in power amplifiers

Drift transistor

Has a high frequency cut off due to its low inherent internal
capacitance and low electron transit time

Poor frequency
response

Results when transistors are used as video amplifiers

Fission

Break up of nuclei into nuclear fragments that are nuclei

themselves

Neutrino

Zero charge and zero mass

EG => 5eV

Energy gap for insulators

EG = 1.1eV

Energy gap for Si semiconductors

EG => 0.67eV

Energy gap for Ge semiconductors

Bound Electrons

Tightly holds the 8 e-

25mV

Thermal Voltage at room temp;

Thermal voltage causes holes in intrinsic semiconsuctors

8.62 x 10^-5 eV/K

Boltzman constant

Voltage divider Bias

Preferred form of biasing a FET

VGS(OFF) = VGS(ON)

For N-channel EMOSFET

Beta

CE gain
= IC/IB

Alpha

CB gain
= IC/IE

CHAPTER4
Collector has reverse
bias

Reason why a transistor amplifier has high output impedance

Gain-BW product

Considered as an amplifier figure of merit

Logic probe

In an oscilloscope, it is used to indicate pulse condition in

digital logic circuit

Logic analyzer

Used to sample and display systems signal

Oscillators

Produces undamped oscillations

Biasing

Establishes a fixed level of current or voltage in a transistor

AF transformer

It is shielded to prevent induction due to stray magnetic

fields
Amplitude Distortion

Or harmonic distortion

Frequency

Ear is not sensitive to this

RC coupling

To separate bias of 1 stage to another stage;

Used for voltage amplification;
Av is constant over mid frequencies;
Most economic type of coupling;
Not used to amplify extremely low freq because electrical size
of the coupling capacitor becomes very large;
Type of coupling used in the initial stage of a multistage
amplifier;

Transformer coupling

Used in power amplifiers;

Provides high freq because DC resistance is low;
Used when load resistance is very low;
Type of coupling used in the final stage of an amplifier;
Introduces frequency distortion;
Most expensive type of coupling;
Provides high gain because it employs impedance matching;
Can be used either in Voltage or Power amplifiers

DC coupling

Best freq response;

Used to amplify dc signals in multistage amplifier;
Achieves minimum interference in freq response

Klystron Oscillator

Used in order to produce freq in the microwave region

Step Down
Transformer

Used for impedance matching;

It is also used as the output transformer in power amplifiers

Gives distorted
output

Disadvantage of impedance matching

Campbell and Wagner

Where the basic concept of electric wave filter originated

10Khz

Freq that produces highest noise factor

Coupling Capacitor

The input capacitor in an amplifier

Bigger

AC load line slope is ____ then DC load line slope

At least 2 transistors

Used by multistage amplifier

Generator Output
level is kept constant

To obtain the frequency response curve of an amplifier

Relaxation oscillator

Type of oscillator where the frequency is determined by the

charge and discharge of RC networks used in conjunction
with amplifiers or similar devices

GPS

Instrument used to measure ones location in terms of

coordinates

1/( 4(LC) )

Cutoff freq for constant-k high pass filter

The smaller the %VR

The better!

Thin base

Transistor should have a _____ to have more Av

Darlington Pair

Its advantage is that it increases overall Beta Gain

Independent

A feedback network is _______ of frequency

Feedback Networks

They employ resistive networks

Positive Feedback

Employed by Oscillators;

Negative Feedback

Employed by amplifiers
Reduces distortion;
Reduces gain;
Increases BW of an amplifier;
The sacrifice factor is (1+A)

Feedback factor ()

Is always less than 1;

= (1/Af) (1/A)
= Vf / V

Approx gain of an
amplifier with
negative feedback
(Af)

Reciprocal of feedback factor;

= 1/

(A) in negative
feedback

Very much greater than 1 to obtain good gain stability

Power Again (Ap)

= Av x Ai;
Main consideration in the output stage of an amplifier

Crossover network

A pair of filter common on a high fidelity system which

separates audio freq band signals into 2 separate groups
where one is fed to the tweeter and the other to the woofer

Armstrong circuit

Simplest variable freq sinusoidal oscillator

10uF

Typical value of Coupling capacitor

50uF

Typical value of emitter bypass capacitor in a CE multistage

amplifier

Re, re and

Input R of CE amplifier is affected by ________

Out of phase (180

deg)

Output is always _______ with the input signal in a CE

amplifier

Zero

Phase difference between collector voltage and signal voltage

in CE amplifier

Increase Av

Purpose of emitter bypass capacitor in CE amplifier is to

_____

LC oscillator

Used only in/for high freq

RC Oscillator

Used only in/for low freq

Sine wave oscillator

Composed of 1 or more amplifying devices with some freq

determining networks introducing + feedback

Hartley Oscillator

Used commonly in Radio Rx

Crystal Oscillator

Used commonly in Radio Tx;

Fixed frequency oscillator;
Has fewer loses and will generate alternating emf longer than
LC circuit when shock excited

Tuned Amplifier

Operated in Class C;

Used in Radio freq

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Frequency stability of the oscillator output is maximum

________;
Employs both + and feedback;
Used in signal generators in laboratories;

Hum in the circuit

A pulsating DC applied to the power amplifier causes ______

Low Output

Important limitation of Crystal Oscillator

High Q

Reason why crystal oscillator freq is very stable

More than 10,000

Typical Q of a crystal

Push Pull amplifer

Commonly employed at the output stage of an amplifier

X axis

Cutting perpendicular to end to end;

Electrical axis;
Connects the corners of the crystal

Y axis

Cutting perpendicular to face to face;

Mechanical

+ temp coef

When crystal freq increases with temp

- temp coef

When crystal freq decreases with temp

Zero temp coef

When crystal freq doesnt change with temp

More battery
consumption

Low efficiency of a power amplifier results in ______

Buffer Amplifier

Used for minimum loading and minimum mismatch

Hand capacitance

If you move towards an oscillating circuit, its freq changes

because of the ______

Ic becomes maximum

When transistor is at saturation

Maximum voltage
appears across
transistor

When transistor is at cut-off

At minimum

In an LC circuit, when the Capacitor energy is at max, the

inductor energy is _____

AC load line

The operating point in a transistor amplifier moves along

______ when AC signal is applied

Power stage

Also called output stage in an amplifier

DC

At zero signal conditions, a transistor sees _____ load

Sum of AC and DC

The current in any branch of a transistor amplifier that is

operating is the _____

CMRR = infinity

For an ideal differential amplifier

To set up an
operating point

The purpose of dc conditions in a transistor is _____

To avoid drop in gain

The purpose of an emitter capacitor is _____

Collector Supply

The Poutput of a transistor amplifier is more than the Pinput due

to the additional power supplied by _______

Low

When a transistor feeds a load of low R, its Av is _____

25%

Max collector efficiency of Resistance Loaded Class A power

amp
50%

Max collector efficiency of Transformer coupled Class A power

amp

RF amplifiers

Class C amplifiers are used as

Driver stage

Employs class A amplifiers

1NPN, 1PNP
transistor

Complementary-symmetry amplifier

Increases Input
Impedance,
Decreases Output
Impedance

Negative voltage feedback

Decreases Input
Impedance,
Increases Output
Impedance

Negative Current Feedback

ID

The Quiescent current of a FET amplifier is _____

AND gate

The frequency response of the combined amplifier can be

compared with an ______

CHAPTER 6
DArsnoval

Best type of meter movement

Wattmeter

A dynamometer type which has uniform scale;

Dynamometer

Most expensive;
Mainly used as wattmeter;
Can be used for AC or DC works

Permanent Magnet
Moving Coil
Instruments

Can only be applied to DC work only;

The reason why its scale is uniform is because it is spring
controlled;
Springs provide the controlling force;
Most sensitive instrument

Moving Iron
instruments

Considered as attraction and repulsion instruments;

Typical IFS is 50mA;
Typical VFS is 50mV;
Uses squared scale;

Induction watt-hr
meter

Most commonly used induction type of instrument

Watt-hour meter

Is an integrating type of instrumenr

Rest

When both deflecting and controlling torque act, the pointer

of an indicating instrument comes to ______

Deflecting force

(for analog ins) Causes the moving system to deflect from its
zero position

Controlling force

(for analog ins) Ensures that the deflection of the pointer for

a given value of measured quantity always has the same

value
Damping force

(for analog ins) Quickly brings the moving system to rest in

its final position

Damping and
Controlling Torques

Opposes the deflecting torque

Damping torque is
zero

If the pointer is in the final deflected position

Thermocouple

Instrument where output voltage is proportional to the

temperature;
An ammeter used to measure high freq currents

Thermistor

Type of resistor used to measure temp changes with change

in resistance

Never

When should a fuse be replaced by a higher rated unit?

Pulse width

Time interval that a waveform is High or low is _____ of the

signal

Pulse delay

Time delay between pulses

Period

The interval of a pulse from start to end

CRT

Heart of CRO (cathode ray oscilloscope)

Wheatstone Bridge

Measures resistance accurately;

Balanced if there is no current the flows through the load;
R1/R2 = R3/R4

Potentiometer Bridge

Measures Voltage accurately

Maxwell Bridge

Measures unknown inductance with in terms of known

capacitance;
Used to measure medium coils (1<Q<10)

Wien Bridge

Measures capacitance

Electrostatic
voltmeter

Not operated by passage of current;

Used for measuring high direct voltages (say 10KV);
Used exclusively as voltmeters

Conductor and Non

magnetic material

Disc is made of ______ is eddy-current damping

Peak to Peak Value

Oscilloscope provides easy measurement of _____

1V at 10mW

DC voltage provided by a diode sensor

0.1nW to 10mW

Typical power range of diode sensor

Less the 10mV

DC voltage provided by a thermal converter

0.1 to 100mW

Typical power range of a thermal converter

0.1uW to 100mW

Typical power range of a thermocouple sensors

Hot wire instrument

_____ has a squared scale.

Horizontal Scale

For Time Measurement, _____ of the scope is used.

Vertical Center

When the vertical input is 0, the electron beam may be

positioned at the _____ of the screen.

Vertical Scale

_____ is calibrated in V/cm or mV/cm for amplitude

measurements.
Grid-dip meter

Measures tank circuit frequency

Milliamter

Operates in the magnetic attraction-repulsion principles

Multimeter

Provides RMS measurements for sinusoids

Kelvin electrostatic
meter

Fluid friction damping is applied to _______

Negligible

The temp coef of resistance of a shunt material is _____

Manganin

Shunts are generally made of ____

Aluminum

Pointers are generally made of ____

Zero adjust

Used to balance both halves of the difference in amplifier or

cathode coupled amplifier in VTVM

DMM

Type of meter that provides precise reading of V,I,R where

there is generation of samples at the input and feeds it to a
digital read-out

Sensitivity

The smallest signal that can be reliably measured in VTVTM

RSH

= (IFS x Rm)/(IT IFS)

Lissajous Pattern

Pattern displayed by the oscilloscope which has steady state

char

At half of full

Indicating instruments are assumed to be most accurate at

_____ part of the scale.

At far right

0 mark is located ______ for a simple ohmmeter

Resolution

The smallest change in applied stimulus that will indicate a

detectable change in deflection in an indicating instrument

Rm = internal resistance

CHAPTER 7
Inductor

Cannot be fabricated in IC

To produce change in
output when an input
voltage equals a
reference voltage

Purpose of comparator in OP-AMP

OP-AMP

Mostly uses positive feedback;

High Zin, Low Zout, BW is infinity, open loop gain is infinity;
Most commonly used type of linear IC;
50mW typical power dissipated of OP-AMP;
500mW absolute max rating for OP-AMP interval power
dissipation
1V/us typical slew rate of OP-AMP
30V absolute max rating for an OP-AMP differential input
voltage
20dB/decade rate of gain reduction in OP-AMP
80nA typical input bias current of 741 OP-AMP
25mA short circuit current output of 741 OP-AMP

0.5V/uS slew rate of 741 OP-AMP

2 - # of power supplies required by 741 OP-AMP
OP-AMP magnitude
comparator circuit

Doesnt use feedback

OP-AMP input bias

current

Is the average of the 2 base currents

uA741C OP-AMP

Is used for commercial purposes;

Its CMRR = 70dB

Voltage follower

An OP-AMP circuit that has its output tied directly to the

inverting terminal

Summing Point in an
OP-AMP

A terminal of the OP-AMP where the input resistors are

commonly connected

Ratio of Rf/R must be

equal to the
reciprocal of the
number of inputs

Condition to convert a summing amplifier to an averaging

amplifier

Negative

The summing amplifier has 2 or more input and its output

voltage is proportional to the _______ of the algebraic sum
of its input voltages.

Power BW

The highest undistorted freq output of an OP-AMP for a given

slew rate and peak voltage

Less than 1W

Power dissipation of most low power linear IC

2 mega ohms

Typical input resistance of the OP-AMP when measured under

open loop

555 timer

Most popular IC in used in timing circuits;

Can be used in monostable and astable applications

Square wave clock

_____ is an astable multivibrator (relaxation oscillator)

RC synthesis

Technique used to eliminate the need for inductive elements

in monolithic IC

Single-Stone

Monos / Lithos

SSI

Up to 9 gates

MSI

10 to 100 gates

LSI

More than 100 gates

VLSI

More than 1000 gates

BIFET

IC OP-AMP that combines FETS and Bipolar transistors

Relaxation oscillator

Operates on the principle of the charge and discharging of a

capacitor

Digital IC

Possesses digital signals

Linear IC

Possesses analog signals

Thick Film and Thin

Film

We can use ____ and _____ if higher power ICs are needed.

Common Mode signal

Signal that is applied with equal strength to both inputs of a

differential amplifier or an OP-AMP

-55 to +125 deg
Celsius

Military and space IC

-25 to +85 deg

Celsius

Industrial IC

0 to +70 deg Celsius

Commercial IC

Military and Industrial

After assembly, the ICs are tested and classified as either

______.

DIP packaging

Low in cost;
Tiniest packaging known;
Ruggedly resists vibration

ICs advantages over

discrete devices
(soldered devices)

Lower cost;
High reliability;
Smaller in size

VCO

It exhibits a freq that can be varied with a DC control voltage

Av = Rc / 2Re

Voltage gain of a differential amplifier

The difference in VBE

values

Source of output offset voltage

manufacturer

Letter-prefix code indicates the ______

Packaging type

Letter-suffix code indicates the _________

D, J, N

Most common packaging type

packaging suffix for Plastic DIP for surface mounting on a PC

board

P,N

packaging suffix for Plastic DIP for insertion in sockets

packaging suffix for Ceramic DIP

1.5 mils x 3 mils

Typical dimension of a MOSFET in a single chip IC

3 mils x 4.5 mils

Typical dimension of a DIODE in a single chip IC

4 mils x 6.5 mils

Typical dimension of a BJT in a single chip IC

It has an inherent
current limiting

Advantage of a shunt regular type over a series regulator

type

Flat response

Type of response that characterizes a single pole low pass

filter

Single RC circuit

The term pole refers to a ________ in terms of circuit

component.

Stray wiring
capacitance

Unwanted capacitance between connecting wires and ground

1M transistors

Intel i486 32 bit microprocessor has _________ on a single

chip

Trip point

It is the value of the input voltage that switches the output

comparator or Schmitt trigger

Virtual ground

Type of ground that appears at the inverting input of an OPAMP that used negative feedback

CCD (charge-coupled
Capacitor)

1969; by WS Boyle and GE Smith

0.5 to 15GHz

Microwave ICs cover the freq range

The inverting input is

connected to the +5V

In a 5V level detector circuit, ______________

Ground

To use a comparator for zero-level detection, the inverting

input is connected to the ___

Czochralsky Pulling
technique

Most common method used for the growth of single crystals

for IC farbrication

Compensating
Capacitor

Prevents oscillations inside an OP-AMP