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Einstein Theory of 032414 MBP
Einstein Theory of 032414 MBP
Einstein Theory of 032414 MBP
DO
64741
OUP- 880-5-8-74-10,000.
No.
^''l
Accession No.
Author
of
marke4
/>eiow,
THE
EINSTEIN
THEORY
OF
RELATIVITY
Boofcs
by L
/?.
ancf H. G. Lieber
NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
GALOIS AND THE THEORY OF GROUPS
THE EDUCATION OF
MITS
C.
T.
WITS
AND LOGIC
INFINITY
GOODBYE
MR.
(WITH INTRODUCTION BY
L.
R.
LIEBER)
COMEDIE INTERNATIONALE
THE
EINSTEIN
THEORY
OF
RELATIVITY
Text By
LILLIAN
R.
LIEBER
Drawings By
HUGH GRAY
LIEBER
HOLT, RINEHART
New
AND WINSTON
L.
R.
and
H. G. Lieber
duce
In
of
this
Canada,
Canada,
Limited.
First Edition
October 1945
Second Printing, April 1946
Third Printing, November 1946
Fourth Printing, November 1947
Fifth Printing, May 1950
S/xtfi Printing, March 1954
Seventh Printing, November 1 957
Eighth Printing, July 1958
Ninth Printing, July 1959
Tenth Printing, April 1960
Eleventh Printing, April 1961
Twelfth Printing, April 1964
Thirteenth Printing, November 1966
Firsf Printing,
1975
85251-0115
Printed in the United States of America
To
Man.
PREFACE
In
this
book on
mathematics
to
HELP
NOT to HINDER
and
perhaps then
we should
say:
Many
"popular" discussions of
Relativity,
all,
what
What
in
it is
all
about.
sounds "mystical"
in
ordinary language.
On
there are
many
discussions,
experts only.
vii
We
believe that
there
is
a class of readers
who
mathematics
to follow a simple mathematical presentation
of a domain new to them,
built from the ground up,
with sufficient details to
bridge the gaps that exist
FOR THEM
in
both
kind of reader.
viii
CONTENTS
PREFACE
Part
I.
II.
III.
-THE
SPECIAL THEORY
INTRODUCTION
IV. The
V. The
Remedy
31
39
VIII.
20
The
Four-Dimensional
tinuum
Some Consequences
44
Remedy
Space-Time
Con-
57
of the Theory of
69
Relativity
IX.
83
Summary
87
The Moral
Part
II
GUIDE TO PART
91
II
95
X. Introduction
101
107
Non-Euclidean World!
113
XIV. What
XV. The
Is
127
a Tensor?
Effect
on Tensors
of a
Change
Coordinate System
XVI.
in the
1
41
150
160
A Physical
167
Illustration
XX.
XXI. The
XXII.
XXIII.
Our
Last Detour
200
at Last
206
Einstein's
Law
of Gravitation
21 3
of Einstein's
Law
of Gravitation
Is
219
with Newton's
XXVII.
How
Can the
Einstein
Law
of Gravitation Be
227
Tested?
Difficulties
237
Pudding"
255
266
of the
272
of Mercury
XXXII.
Deflection of a
Ray
XXXIII.
Deflection of a
Ray of
XXXIV. The
78
191
XXVI. Comparison
187
Little g's
XXV.
173
of Light
Light, cont.
Phenomena
XXXV. Summary
283
289
299
303
The Moral
THE ATOMIC
276
to
Know?
BOMB
310
318
Parti
INTRODUCTION.
I.
In order to appreciate
the fundamental importance
of Relativity,
it is
how
necessary to
it
Whenever
in
know
arose.
11
a "revolution
takes place,
any domain,
always preceded by
it is
a tension,
time being.
What was
11
the "revolutionary
Let us summarize
It
Relativity
it
Theory?
briefly:
light
waves
are transmitted
is
of course
NOT the
chemical ether
by anybody,
11
about "wave-lengths
in connection with the radio.
Now,
there
if
is
an ether,
NOT travel
THROUGH
just as a
through
feels an
still air,
air
wind blowing
in his face.
And
This
a
in
Chapter
II.
by A.
in
M
article
Aberration of Light",
S.
Eddington,
the Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th ed.
the ether,
it
seemed
that
1
At
this
point
Einstein took
and decided
up the problem,
that
11
a natural "conspiracy
must be a natural
LAW
And
operating.
to answer the question
what is
he proposed
as to
his Theory of
two papers,
1905 and the other
in
Relativity,
in
published
one
this law,
in
1915.*
then
made
by means
of
it
he succeeded
in:
now
published
in
one volume
by
see
we
SOME
(3)
(5) Explaining
QUITE INCIDENTALLY
a famous discrepancy in astronomy
which had worried the astronomers
for
many
(This also
years
is discussed in
ALL
many SPECIFIC
that
outstanding difficulties
UNRELATED,
and
knowledge
have led to
been so powerful
though based on so FEW assumptions.
has
As we
shall see.
II.
On
page 4 we referred to
now
set themselves.
see
very clearly
it
will
in
mind,
be helpful
first
has studied
elementary algebra:
Imagine a river
in which there is a current flowing with
velocity v,
in the direction indicated
by the
Now
for a
man
From
to
to
'Published
swim
B and back
in
arrow:
to
the
or
from
if
C and back
to
the distances
AB
to
AB and AC are
equal,
AC perpendicular to it?
Let the man's rate of swimming
and
in still
be represented by c /
then, when swimming against the
from
his rate
to
water
current,
would be only
whereas,
the current,
would, of course, be c
v.
would be a/(c
v),
where a represents the distance
and the time required
for the trip
from
would be a/(c
to
v).
Consequently,
the time for the round
ti
or
Now
ti
let us
=
=
trip
a/(c
2ac/(c
would be
/)
+
v
a/(c
v)
).
see
how
from
to
AB ;
trip
C and back
to
would take.
If he headed directly toward C
,
the current would carry him downstream,
and he would land at some point
to the left of C in the figure on p. 8.
Therefore,
in order to arrive at
he should head
just far
for
some point
enough upstream
In
other words,
the water could
be kept
until
he swam
own
from
if
to
at his
still
rate c
iojC
2
ex
\r
Consequently/
the time required
for the journey from
to
would be a/Vc^- v ,
where a is the distance from
Similarly,
in
A,
it is
10
to
method
the same
by
of reasoning,
2
from
to
C and back
would be
fa
In
Then we
get:
ti
and
fa
c/
ti
_
A,
to
= 2a/vV -
order to compare
and
Vc
f-
y\
more
easily,
2
.
2a/3
/c
2a/3/c.
Vc
the
is
less than
Therefore
that
IT
t\
the numerator).
is greater than
fa ,
is,
TAKES LONGER TO
AND
BACK.
C-r
^-
HB
11
A,
AioB and
back,
swimmer did
Now,
And,
therefore/ as before/
ti
and
ti
= 2a0Yc
= 2a|S/c.
0)
(2)
Where
and
*2 is
Q.
therefore,
and t> are found experimentally/
then
by dividing (1)
the value of /? would
And
since
by (2),
be easily obtained.
= c/V c
-T
2
,
That
is,
OF THE EARTH
Now
12
ti
ti
this
Obviously
result,
The Dutch
physicist, Lorentz,
then suggested the following explanation
of Michelson's strange result:
owing
and
this
to
its
WHEN
SHRINKS
electrical structure,
IT
IS
MOVING,
contraction occurs
MOTION.*
AMOUNT
v
(where /3 has the value c/Vc
Thus a sphere of one inch radius
ellipsoid when
shortest semi-axis
becomes an
with
its
(now only
it is
as before).
moving,
Hence
it
is
often referred to as
11
13
in
thus:
a erection
to the
the distance
AB (=
on
a)
becomes a/jS ,
and ti becomes 2a/3/c
p. 8,
instead of 2a/3 /c ,
so that now ft
t2
just as the
One
experiment requires.
might ask
how
it is
AB was
shorter than
AC
this
explanation
of the
Michelson-Morley experiment
the natural objection may be raised
that an explanation
for the express
which
is
purpose
14
invented
JUST
too
And
difficulty,
artificial
Consequently,
Lorentz undertook to examine
his contraction
hypothesis
other connections,
to see whether it is in harmony also
with facts other than
in
in
1904,
To present
let us
first
re-state the
form
argument
as follows:
vt
15
with velocity v
Let
and
V"
Now
as indicated
move along X,
move parallel to
above
V.
earth,
say Michelson,
is
trying to
the time
measure
At
the
moment
when the
ray of light
starts at
that
Y and Y
suppose
coincide,
and A coincides with D /
and while the light has been traveling to B
the axis
moved
has
the distance vt
it
DB = x and AB =
Then,
we have x'
if
x',
vt.
(3)
This
is
the
NOT agree
Applying now
the
v).*
phenomenon
*Since
vf.
ct,
consequently x'
=x-
vt
is
16
equivalent to a/(c
v)
t.
proposed by Lorentz,
x should be divided by /3,
so that equation (3) becomes
r
x7/3
or
x'
Now
- vt
- vt).
(x
as stated
on
p.
(4)
other fads,
5,
facts,
where /3 , t , v , x , and c
have the same meaning as before
But what is t?!
Surely the time measurements
in the two systems are not different:
Whether the
origin
is
at
or at
TIME-READINGS.
In
t'
was a
because
in
it
helped to give
But obviously
NO
As
had
results
facts.
for
him
PHYSICAL MEANING.
it:
could be persuaded
artificial way,
wrong to begin with
and then making them gain or lose permanently,
the effect of his supposed artificiality
17
would
just
counterbalance
!*
Thus,
the equations finally proposed
by Lorentz
are:
Note
x'
z'
(x
vt)
that
5)
are the
same
The equations
are
known
and z
just
given
as
respectively.
as
y, z,
t'
coordinate system
moving with constant velocity
in a
v,
And,
as
we
saw,
NO
PHYSICAL MEANING,
*See the
article
on
Relativity in the
19
Let us
now
RE-EXAMINATION OF THE
III.
FUNDAMENTAL
IDEAS.
according to Einstein,
did not merely demand
explanations of a certain number
of isolated difficulties,
complete examination
of fundamental ideas
was necessary.
In
he
other words,
felt that there was something
physics,
rather than a
And
mere
superficial difficulty.
so he undertook to re-examine
our ideas of
LENGTH
and
20
is
most illuminating,
as
we
But
shall
first
why
now
let us
see.
and mass
length, time
are fundamental,
Everyone knows
that
TIME,
DEPENDS UPON
the units of
LENGTH
and TIME.
Similarly,
since acceleration
is
DEPENDS UPON
the units of velocity and time,
and therefore ultimately upon
the units of
LENGTH
and TIME.
Further,
since force
is
measured
by the product
of
DEPENDS UPON
the units of mass and acceleration,
MASS, LENGTH
And so on.
In
all
upon
and TIME,
other words,
measurements
depend
in
MASS, LENGTH
That
is
physics
primarily on
and TIME.
why
21
where C stands
for
system,^
"centimeter"
Let us
now
return to
Einstein's re-examination of
Suppose
that
two observers
at
BY
MEANS OF
SIGNALS,
93 000 000
miles
and
is
22
now,
it
if
when
his
12:08
read
will
and, of course,
from
later,
that his
But
let us
now imagine
in
Now
let
be
sent
as before:
S sends
Say,
minutes.
23
If
Fs watch
it
will read
when
is in agreement with
12:09
that of
5,
and
Now 5
and
is
will therefore
it
reach him
in
say, in 7 minutes.
Fs message
Thus S receives
at 1 2:1 6,
just as before.
Now
5 and F
if
UNAWARE
are both
of their motion
(and, indeed,
we
in
are
undoubtedly moving
ways
so that
that
we
this
assumption
is far from being an imaginary one.)
5 will not understand
Of
course, this
only
is
Fs
we know,
an apparent error
because, as
it is
really
and not
to
any
due
in
watch,
to the motion,
at all
error in
Fs
watch.
who
what
is
"really" going on
does not
and
in
exist,
that all
human observers
24
the universe,
which 5
is,
namely,
that of not knowing
about the motion in question,
and therefore
being OBLIGED to conclude
that 's watch is wrong!
And
therefore,
the message
5 sends
suppose
j4,B,C,ctc.,
all
of
whom
5 and
all
are at rest
WITH RESPECT
TO
Now
let us
when
how many
25
fish
is
swimming about
To measure
in a
tank?
to
its
SIMULTANEOUSLY otherwise,
the mark 6 is
for,
if
made
at a certain time,
B
/
V-
then the
in
fish
allowed to swim
at
some
at the
later
has reached
by
the arrow,
head
time,
C,
which would be a
Now
suppose
after their
fish-story
indeed!
clocks are
all in
undertake to measure
the length of a train
26
which
is
moving through
their universe
2 o'clock sharp,
whichever observer happens to be
at 1
place where
the front end of the train,
at the
arrives at that
to
A'9
moment,
SIMULTANEOUSLY,
their clocks
in
being
made
namely
at
12
o'clock,
all
Let us
now
talk to the
people on the
train.
Suppose, first,
that they are unaware of their motion,
and that, according to them,
A f B f ^, t etc., are the ones who are moving,
a perfectly reasonable assumption.
And suppose that there are two clocks
one
and
on the
in
method
by
the
NOT
27
train,
signals
since they
"know"
A, B , C,
claim that
it is
that
belonging to A, 8, C,
which were set wrong.
What
is
who
ones
are moving,
the clocks
etc.,
difference of opinion?
When
the clocks of
and B
say,
and
at that instant
and B
marks were
made
simultaneously;
but the people on the train
that the clocks of
do not admit
and 8
set,
NOT
and
made SIMULTANEOUSLY,
that, therefore,
LENGTH
of the train
NOT correct.
Thus,
train
simultaneously,
28
will
Hence we see
before.
that
MOTION
prevents agreement
in
the
setting of clocks,
and, as a consequence of
this,
Similarly,
we
as
shall
see on p. 79,
motion also
affects
And
all
same object.
since,
we mentioned on
as
of the
p.
21,
depend upon
length, mass,
it
seems
and time,
that
be agreement
any measurements made
by different observers
who are moving with different
velocities!
Now, of course,
observers on the earth
partake of the various motions
to which the earth
is
its
subject
axis,
Hence
it
would seem
observations
that
made by people on
29
the earth
some
no mere
single ailment,
evidenced by the
Michelson-Morley experiment alone,
but was sick from head to foot!
as
Did he
HE
find a
remedy?
DID!
IV.
So
far,
then,
we
THE REMEDY.
see that
and
all
observers,
that
Einstein introduced
a
more
PRACTICAL
notion of time
by means
of
SIGNALS.
DISCARDING
31
the
is
LENGTH
and
is
of an object
a (act
III.)
measurement of length
that the
DEPENDS UPON
THE STATE OF MOTION OF THE MEASURER.
Thus two observers,
moving
DO NOT
LENGTH
is
say that
OBJECT,
but rather a
RELATIONSHIP between
OBJECT and the OBSERVER.
And similarly for TIME and MASS
the
In
(Ch.
III.).
other words,
from
it is
this
point of view
NOT CORRECT to
x'
say:
vt
is
*We do
Michelson made
ANY
CLASSICAL PHYSICIST
32
),
namely,
length of the arm AB of the apparatus
the Michelson-Morley experiment
THE
in
And
to
what relationships
relationships
between
Now
must
we
They
are:
FACT
(1):
It is
impossible
words,
impossible to detect our motion
relative to the ether.
it is
33
shown by the
Michelson-Morley experiment,
THIS
FACT
(2):
IS
FACT.
moving or
stationary.
Let us examine
more
this
it is
statement
fully,
To do
it
means.
this,
on the
front end,
say, a whistle.
Suppose that the velocity, u ,
of a bullet shot from the gun,
as
Now
(fired
it,
so,
from the
MOVING train)
compare with
34
that
MOVING
on the other
relatively to the
which
in
is
it
Are they
train,
medium/ the
air,
traveling?
same?
the
No!
The velocity of the
bullet,
is
its
given to
it
by
but, in
addition,
has an inertia! velocity, v ,
which it has acquired from
the motion of the train
and which
is
shared
by
all
But
in
wave
a series of pulsations,
(which
alternate condensations and rarefactions of the air
is
in rapid succession),
the first condensation formed
in
travels
the train
So
is
that this
has only
and does
its
moving or not.
condensation
own
NOT
velocity
have the
due to the motion of the
inertia!
velocity
train,
medium
35
(that
is,
whether
and whether
it is
air
or water/ etc.,
both cases:
CASE
Both
Tram
I.
trains at rest.
jt.
-ft.
CASE
Both
trains
II.
v
UfV
u 4*.
in
Case
Thus/
the bullet has
v feet
in
II.,
moved
one second
36
v.
Thus
one second.
we
see that
I.,
Expressing
it
II.
algebraically,
ut
II.,
this fact
is
true of
POINT.
ALL, WAVE
MOTION,
As a matter
it DOES,
and
that
FACT
Now,
it
is
(2)
of
FACT,
what
on
is
meant by
p. 34.
as a result of this,
appears,
by
diagram on p. 36,
that
relatively to the
we should
for
MOVING
train
then have,
sound
x'
(u
v)t
37
t.
(Case
II.)
we could
then calculate v
the velocity of the train.
And,
'
and t,
we should
then have,
consequence of
as a
x'
where
is
(c
FACT
(2)
on p 34,
v)t
out
in
space)
the velocity of the earth
relatively to this stationary observer
and v
is
and hence
ABSOLUTE
the
Thus
we should be
able
to determine v.
But
FACT
this contradicts
(1),
according to which
it is
IMPOSSIBLE
Thus
it
to determine v.
APPEARS
that
FACT
(2) requires
the velocity of light
MOVING EARTH
RELATIVELY TO THE
to
be
whereas
*FACT
FACT
(1)
(1) requires
may be
The velocity of
RELATIVE TO
c,
and
to
be
c.*
re-stated as follows:
light
A MOVING
must be
it
NOT
vt
for otherwise,
38
OBSERVER
And
Or,
If,
stating
it
another way:
one second,
moves from E
in
the earth
to E'
then
FACT(1)
E'/.
requires that
to c ( = 1
be equal
while
EL be
Now
86,000 miles)
FACT
it is
FACTS
EACH OTHER!
Let us therefore see how,
the light of the discussion in Ch. III.
(1) and (2) can be shown to be
in
FACTS
NOT
contradictory.
V. THE
We
according to the
facts,
stationary or
light
moving
medium
relatively to the
in
light
which
MOVING
or relatively to a
it
travels,
observer
(See p. 37).
Let us express these
(acts algebraically,
for
K writes
and K'
ct
writes x'
(6)
(7)
ct',
both using
assumed
at the instant
that
when
SAME
is
40
shown
and that/
as
moved
to the right,
in
in
the light/
which
has reached
all
points at
K,
and hence
all points on the circumference
of the circle having the radius
W claims that he
But
who
is
ct.
the one
and
has
moved
TO THE
LEFT/
And
this
when he
is
what he means
says
x'
How
ct'.
41
We
may be
willing
K to
the
left
result.
,-?
K and K
'
as their centers!
One
This
the
of
them must be
another
is
way
right
of stating
FACTS
Now,
(1)
at last,
we
p. 39).
are ready
Although
K claims
at the instant
that
when
on the other
side,
still,
K says
arrival of
the light at
C and
A),
K'
So
that
(see p. 28).
when
K says that
the arrival of the lisht at
(rather than at C and A)
C and B
ARE SIMULTANEOUS,
his
statement
11
for
K's clocks at
C and A
do
p. 25),
Ai
when
when
C,
and
as
C,
instant,
K claims.
Hence we see
that
two
have
NOT
in
been
the
one system
set
in
in
That
If
we
is,
using signals
in order to set clocks which are
43
each other,
at a distance from
and
at their destinations
are influenced
by
becomes
THERE
clear that
NO
IS
due
to
INEVITABLE
differences
the setting of
various systems of clocks.
in
We
now
in a
see
not
as
at all
it
But
is
mysterious or unreasonable,
seemed
to
be
we must now
at
first.
find out
when applied
QUANTITATIVELY,
And now
VI.
In
the
by
last
chapter
two fundamental
we reached
expressed
that
FACTS
(p. 34),
the conclusion
in
the equations
x
and
we saw
starting with
x'
=
=
ct
(6)
ct'
(7)
44
NOT
are
if
contradictory,
they appear to be
(as
we remember
at
first),
that there
is
in
We
relationships
And
is
all
the mathematics
we need
for this
boy knows..
=0
x'
ct'
x'
ct'
x
and
0.
Therefore
where X
is
X(x
(8)
ct)
a constant.
x'
ct'
/x
we
x'
get:
and
ct'
where a
Let us
in
now
(X
(x
(9)
ct)
= ax - feet
= act-fex
-f-
ju)/2
and b
(10)
(11)
(X
and
terms of v
and /C
(the relative velocity of
the
of
light.
velocity
,
and c
45
),
fe
ju)/2.
This
done
is
the following
in
ingenious manner:*
From (10)
when x =
,
then x = bet/ a
but x'
And
(12)
in this
case
that
is
K to
K! ,
is,
relatively to K.
Therefore x
Comparing
this
v
Let us
now
vt.
with (1 2),
(13)
/Cgetsx'
Hence
K and
K'.
first:
or
get
be/a.
Take
we
ax (from (10)),
K says
x'/a.
(14)
that
11
46
K should
x,
by a/
divide his x
in particular,
ifx'-1,
says that
is
K"s
unit of length
unit.
K,
But
att'
0,usins(11)
says
fex=act
(15)
(1
5)
becomes
6x
ac(ax
62^2
"x
ax
ax
x')/6c
from which
x'
And
since 6/a
a(1
6 /a
y/c from
(16)
)x.
(1 3),
(16) becomes
a(1
vVc-)x.
other words,
K' says:
In order to get the "true" value,
(17)
In
K should
multiply his x
a(1
x',
by
v /c).
In particular,
ifx- 1,
K says
then
f('s
unit
that
2
is
really a(1
vr/c
Thus
47
) units
long.
make
to
a "correction.*
And indeed,
although the two observers,
K and
/(',
may
in different
forms,
still
the
MAGNITUDE
of the "correction"
motion
this
a(1
equation
a
*Note
we may
(1 7)
for a
v /c
,
we
write
).*
get
= c/V?~-v*.
NOT obtained
is
by
ALGEBRAIC SUBSTITUTION
from (14) and (17),
but is obtained by considering that
the CORRECTIONS advised by K and K'
in (14) and (17), respectively,
must be equal in magnitude
as pointed out above.
Thus in (14) K says:
"You must multiply your measurement by 1/a",
whereas in (1 7) K' says:
48
(1
Note
is
/?
on
p. 1
Substituting in (10)
this value of a
we
x'
which
the
is
first
ay from (13),
0x - |8vf
/3(x-rt)
=
=
x'
or
fee
get
(18)
Furthermore,
from
(1
=
=
8) and /
\x'
we
get
=
=
ct'
or
t'
Or, since
ct
ct'
- vt)
- vt/c).
P(ct
/3(t
x/c,
t'
/3(t
vx/c ),
(19)
which
is
K and
Let
/C'
X (X ) axis/
7
own
his
We
cylinder
is
OUTSIDE
by
Einstein
NOT
49
in
And
the
first
namely,
x'
is
/3(x
vt)
so written
NOT
as Lorentz
due
to the differences
And
in
made by
the measurements
K and
/C
(see p. 45).
Einstein writes
t'
NOT because
/3(t
it is
just a
vx/c
mathematical
trick
(see p. 19)
the differences
of the
two observers.
And
that
is
wrong/
each one,
by
using his
arrives at the
own measurements,
same form
*This shrinkage,
occurs only
in
it
will
be remembered,
50
1 3).
when he expresses
as, for
K says
when
and
a physical fact,
example,
=
=
ct
ct' ,
says x'
they are really agreeing as to
the
of the propagation of light.
LAW
And similarly,
K writes any
if
and
we apply
if
when
expressed in terms of
7
the measurements made by /C ,
we
it is
find that
the law
is still
the same,
Hence
each observer
may
use his
own measurements
AND EQUAL
SUCCESS
formulating
THE
LAWS OF NATURE,
or,
formulating the
of the universe,
the
which remain unchanged
quantities
namely,
in spite of the change in measurements
in
INVARIANTS
due
Thus,
we
can
now
K and K
appreciate
undergo change,
are not affected
one
to the
of
in
"But
and was
be
state
referred
or the other
"
relativity old/
it
Thus a person
in a train
into a station
moving
looks at another
and imagines
whereas
And
by
train
own
his
which
is
at rest,
he cannot
is
is
moving
at rest.
the same as
is
just
if
his train
Surely
it
would be
were really
at rest.
this fact,
and other
similar ones,
must have been observed
other words,
RELATIVELY
to an observer
on the
train
at rest or in uniform*
motion,
course
if
the motion
is
not uniform,
but "jerky",
things on the train would jump around
and the observer on the train
would
certainly
that his
own
know
train
was not
at rest.
53
as stated
we
on
36
p.
see that
has the
same velocity
the
in
one involved
and
WAS
Now Einstein
EXTENDED this
so that
it
Einstein.
principle
to
would apply
phenomena
electromagnetic
Thus,
according to
this
extension of
by making measurements on
the motion of
But
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.
why should
be such
why had
a great
it
this
extension
achievement
54
BECAUSE
it
whereas,
the above-mentioned extension of
the principle of relativity
requires that EL should be equal to c
(compare the case of the bullet on p. 36).
In other words,
the extension of the principle of relativity
to electromagnetic
phenomena
of the principle
to electromagnetic
phenomena
55
UNIFORM
We
see
shall
how
later
STILL FURTHER,
to the case in which
K and
K?
that
is,
move
ACCELERATION,
with an
CHANGING
And, by means
velocity.
of this generalization/
which he called
the
GENERAL
theory of relativity,
he derived
A NEW LAW OF
GRAVITATION/
and
is
than
Newtonian
law,
of which the latter
first
approximation.
But before
we must
how the
we
first
can discuss
see
ideas which
this in detail
we have
already presented
were put into a
remarkable mathematical form
by a mathematician named Minkowski.
work
was essential to Einstein
This
in
as
56
VII.
CONTINUUM.
Einstein's results
which led to
The General Theory of Relativity,
resulting in a
NEW
It is
now
clear
9)
that
measurement, x ,
one coordinate system
depends upon BOTH x and
and that
a length
in
also
depends upon
Hence^
t'
BOTH
t in
another,
x and
t.
as
is
a closer connection
other words,
57
in
is
NOT a
universe of points,
but rather,
this
is
UNIVERSE OF EVENTS,
happens
AND at a
place
certain time.
Now,
since
its
may be
place
designated
three numbers,
by
namely,
the
By
(using
FOUR NUMBERS
TO CHARACTERIZE
just as
AN
EVENT,
we need
Thus
we
we may
say that
live in a
four-dimensional world.
This
does
that
we
but
is
that
we
NOT
mean
live in four-dimensional
Space,
only another way of saying
live in
A WORLD OF
rather than of
and
it
EVENTS
POINTS only,
takes
58
it,
FOUR
numbers to designate
Now
if
an event
is
designated
by
x, y, z,
f ,
in a
shows how to
find
moving
In
studying "graphs
every high school freshman learns
how
to represent a point
coordinates, x and y,
using the Cartesian system of coordinates,
by two
that
is,
two
straight lines
When
new
y'
coordinate system.
the high school boy above-mentioned
goes to college,
and studies analytical geometry,
he then learns how to find
60
/ H
fl
.-.
't^-
J
6
and
finds this to
x
anc
=
=
be expressed
x'cosfl
x'sinfl
as follows:*
/sine
/cos0 /
*Seep. 310.
61
(20)
show how
to
go
more closely,
we
Thus
/
t
Or,
if,
that
is,
x'
t'
|8(x
/3(t
for simplicity,
taking
the distance traveled
vt)
2
vx/c
).
we
take c
by
light in
one second,
we may
we wish
say that
to
Let us
first
= /3(x- vt))
= P(t- vx)f
x and
t ,
that
1,
that therefore
62
1,
we
get
x
and
Before
=
=
fat
j8(t'
+ vt')
+ vx') }
)
'
we 90 any further,
moment
let us linger a
In
(22),
it is
speaking,
tells K the same thing,
namely that K must divide x by
and he
x
x
/? ,
vt'.
Indeed,
quite in accord
with the discussion in Chapter VI.,
this is
in
which
it
was shown
that
each observer
gives the other one
precisely the same advice!
Note
that the
only difference
+
in
is
that
y becomes
63
right*'
(+
left*' (
v),
v).
Otherwise,
their claims are precisely identical;
and
now
Let us
return to the
and (20):
Minkowski pointed out
comparison
of (22)
if,
in
t is
and
that
(22),
by
replaced
t'
by
IT
(where
= V
1 ),
IT',
x
IT
=
=
/3(x'
=
-
frt'
/?(//
+ ivr')
+ VX')
or
/ X
\ IT
Or (by
I/V
+
+
/3x'
/3r'
i/3vr'
fivx'.
Finally,
64
by
*-
i):
=
=
\ r
EXACTLY
]8
and
sin0 for
become
these equations
x'cosfl
x'sinfl
r'sinfl )
r'cosfl j
like (20)!
other words,
observes a certain event
In
ff
and
finds that
and
x, y, z
',
observing the
SAME
event,
system
are x',
y, i ', r
shows
to
that
to the other
it is
merely necessary
to rotate the
*Since
is
11)
See
p.
25 of "Non-Euclidean Geometry/'
book by H. G. and L. R. Lieber.
another
Note
that sin
cos
+
2
(-
i/5v)
= F -
v ),
1/(1
r being taken equal to
since
/3
V=
(see p. 62).
65
(1
thus:
= y and z
y
took (p. 65)
f
that
(remembering
And
since
we
and
ifiv
then
tan
That
z').
= cos e
= sin
=
iv.
is,
depends upon v
,
f
K and K
And
/x
(
=
=
(x
)
7
(x
cos
sin
2xYsin0
2x r $infl
/
+ (rj
costf + (r')
cosfl
sin
cos
2
fl
then, obviously,
x
or (since
y
2
+r =
2
(x')
= /
and z
= (xT
(rj
66
),
+ (y? + (z ) +
7
(rj
Now,
it
will
be remembered
that x*
y represents
and
between
and similarly,
in
also represents
the square of the distance between two points.
)C
Thus, also,
+r+
r represents
1 *
And,
just as in
plane geometry
whether
we
use
is,
*>
= (xj
67
(yj
(although x does
and y does
in
So,
NOT
NOT
equal
equal /).
x',
three dimensions,
x2
= (x7
(yj
(zj
and, similarly,
as we have seen on p. 66,
the "interval" between two events,
in our four-dimensional
K or
/C',
measures
That
is
it.
to say,
example/
and time measurements,
agree on other things:
their length
they
(1)
(2)
DO
p,
51)
Etc.
In other words/
although length and time
are
no longer
INVARIANTS,
like the
ARE
invariants
in this
theory.
These
68
SAME
value
NOT
do not
of the
but rather
certain mathematical relationships
same
We
in
shall see,
discussing
how
Relativity,
fruitful
Minkowski's view-point of a
four-dimensional Space-Time
World
proved to be.
VIII.
We
if
RELATIVITY.
two observers,
K and K , move
f
UNIFORM
69
their
are different;
we promised
In this
also to
show
that their
chapter
we
different.
shall discuss
mass measurements,
as well as other
measurements which
depend upon
these fundamental ones.
We
already
know
that
if
an object moves
direction parallel to
the relative motion of K and
in a
We
also
in a
direction
know
that
PERPENDICULAR
motion of K and K
to
the relative
there
is
NO difference
LENGTH
and,
in
the
p. 50),
in this case,
For this
PERPENDICULAR
direction
= 2a/c
(seep. 12).
Now
is
this argument
supposed to be from the point of view
of an observer
DOES take
who
70
as
K tells
K SHOULD be written.
it
Whereas
in his
own
system,
2a/c
t.
Therefore
t'
|8f
From
a
this
we
see that
body moving
with velocity u
PERPENDICULAR
appear to K and K to
in this
direction,
will
have
different velocities:
Thus,
Since u
where
and
c/
d/t and
u'
c/'/f'
represent
the distance traversed by the object
</'
measured by K and
and since J = </'
as
(there being
LENGTH
respectively;
NO difference
measurements
in
in this direction
see p. 70)
f
and
then
i/
Similarly,
since a
u /t
71
where a and
accelerations of the
as
we
body,
K and
measured by
/(',
respectively,
find that
In like
manner
we may
and time.
THREE
is
MASS
Einstein found
into the
game.
approach
Then,
just as the
old concept of
(three-dimensional)
FOUR-DIMENSIONAL SPACE-TIME.
And, when
an amazing
this is
done
vista will
come
into view!
CONSERVATION LAWS OF
CLASSICAL PHYSICS:
this means that
no mass can be created or destroyed,
72
one weighs
all
is
burned,
same
as the
We
ASm =
2m
TOTAL
is the
mass, and A, as usual,
stands for the "change", so that
= o says that the change in
ASm
mass
total
is
zero, which
is
the
in
very
convenient, brief, exact form!
(2) Conservation of Momentum: this says that
if there is an exchange of momentum
TOTAL
is
momentum BEFORE
collision
SAME
the
as the
TOTAL
after collision:
A2mv =
o.
dynamo
And
if,
in
by
friction,
TOTAL
BEFORE
is
the
Now,
and
73
KINETIC energy,
expressible thus:
When
2
Conservation of Kinetic Energy: AS^mv
(a special case of the more general Law);
some
changed
is
into
5^ o.
this?
You
(a)
they
NEW Conservation
Laws
for
Momentum and
INVARIANT
IDENTIFICATION
of
ATOMIC BOMB
(see p. 318).
Remembering
c/V c
you
see that,
when v
is
is
74
equal to
small relatively to
2
v negligible, then
factor, ft,
merged
Energy Lawl
IMPORTANCE
of
MIND
all this
PREDICT happenings
Here
Some
is
MAGIC
readers
for
may be
may
prefer to
II
previously unknown!
you!
able to understand
and
come back
to
it
of this book:
Physics, are:
And,
these
if
we
replace x, y, z
become,
in
0-1,2,3).
JxjJt
Similarly, the
m.c/x,/c/t
momentum components
(/= 1,2,3)
=o
But (24)
is
are:
NOT an
Law
(/= 1,2,3)
invariant
75
under
is:
(24)
=o
0=1,2,3,4)
(25)
c/s
itself invariant
and
(i.e.
to 4-dimensional
SPACE-TIME,
we must
use
instead of
s for
t.
NEW LANGUAGE OF
Consider
Then
is
only the
first
A{33m.c/xi/c/s}
NEW
the
(26)
Conservation Law,
holds whereas (24) does
makes
BECOMES
And
= 1,2,3)
(i
Momentum
(26)
SPACE-TIME!
3 components of (25):
first
(24), as
the
taking
now,
it
/3
and
c/s
NOT/
= c/f ,
should!
FOURTH
component
233)
of (25),
and
we
substituting
c/t//J
mc/Vl
is
for </s,
mc.c/Vc
v /c or mc(1
v or
"*
(27)
/c )
we
/,
Since
by
2
/c/0
= cVt2 -
c/s
dividing
(c/s
3 v
cp + j.^ + j-^ +
get
c/t
(c/x
+ c/y + c/z
2
and taking
v anc/
c/s/c/t
76
-j,
2
we
get
A/1
(see p. 233).
1 //S
(1
+
And,
2
by c, we get me
multiplying
I.
(28)
^mv
2
.
Hence, approximately,
2
A{Z(roc
Now,
if
then A2/nc
which
is
is
2
|/nv )}
o.
(29)
Law
the Classical
of the
Law
Furthermore,
for
A{2|mv
hence also
A2mc ^
2
c being a constant, c
2
}
^o
that
(see p. 74)
o or
2
A2m ^
any
loss in kinetic
energy
is
compensated
for
CLASSICAL
Physics itself!
this
from
viewpoint
Thus,
even in Classical Physics
NEW
the
Mass
of a
varies with
body
changes
is
in
NOT a
its
we
realize that
constant but
energy
77
we
shall
by
and, multiplying
c as before,
A{2mc /3j =
2
we
get
o for the
NEW
we saw above,
reduces to
NEW
of a
for
body
showing
is:
v.
ENERGY
gives fo
= me
(30)
that
ENERGY
and
MASS are
Furthermore,
even a
SMALL MASS^m,
LARGE
amount of
equivalent to a
2
since the multiplying factor is c ,
is
ENERGY,
less
terrific
that
amount
of energy
Hence
the
Although
stunned us
ATOMIC BOMB!
this terrible
all
gadget has
78
(p.
318)
the
is
POWER
behind
it
human
MIND
itself.
the
REAL
In
1901 (before
Relativity),
is
perfectly intelligible,
(where
c/s
for it quantitatively!
instead of c/t,
dtj(3) brings in
NEW
in
RELATIVITY
which
velocity,
LANGUAGE,
c/Xj/c/t,
the idea of
and makes
it
Many
c/s
by
writers
c(t/j8 in
correction
in
terms of
on Relativity replace
(26) and write it:
A{Sinj8.(/Xj/(/t}
Though
o,
putting the
on the m.
this of
course gives
p.
291.
79
K1-2,
CLASSICAL LANGUAGE,
and
He
Einstein himself
does not
learning a
we should
like this.
we
are
before
We
we
CLASSICAL
LANGUAGE
11
"feel
meaning.
must learn to "feel" modern and talk modern.
its
When
at
field
at a given instant.
The
relationship
between
expressed mathematically
by
the well-known
Maxwell equations
Now,
if
moving
primed system,
80
is
NOT an INVARIANT
for the
and
two observers/
similarly
is
also
NOT AN INVARIANT
MAXWELL EQUATIONS
has the same form for
both observers;
just as, on p. 68,
though x does
equal x'
f
and y does
equal y
NOT
NOT
still
Thus
the
which
Relativity,
(1)
It
(2)
By the addition
of
namely,
the extension of
the principle of relativity
*
See
the
Einstein's
first
paper (pp. 52
bo>k mentioned
in the
&
53)
in
footnote on p. 5.
81
ELECTROMAGNETIC
to
possible
the above-mentioned revision
by
see p. 55),
of fundamental units
it
phenomena*
made
explained
ISOLATED
many
experimental
results
As,
example,
(3)
ONE LAW
we
II
shall
the
the
as a
point for
starting
GENERAL THEORY,
"Why
BASED
on
but it must 30
and hold also
facts that are
So
(a
be
facts,
known
facts
for
still
TO
BE discovered.
an ASSUMPTION
really only
most reasonable one, to be sure
that
since
it
it
is
now known),
in
NEW
82
facts
which, again,
by means
ONE
of only
other assumption,
FURTHER
led to
NEW IMPORTANT
RESULTS,
IX.
It is
POINT OF LOGIC
AND A SUMMARY
interesting here
by
In
and number
to which
we
shall
then refer
and new,
by
NUMBER:
(1)
(2)
(3)
It is
that time
are absolute,
that
is,
are the
same
by the operational
fact (see p.
that
83
31)
(p. 34).
are
NOT absolute,
We
(1)and(2)
are contradictory IF (3)
NOT
but are
(3)
is
is
retained
contradictory IF
replaced by (4).
(Ch. V.)
Hence
may
it
NOT
be
two statements
MUST
be
NOT contradictory,
EITHER
contradictory or
without specifying the
ENVIRONMENT
Thus,
in the presence of (3)
(1) and (2)
ARE
contradictory,
whereas,
in the presence of (4),
the very same statements (1) and (2)
are
NOT contradictory.*
We
may now
briefly
summarize
and (4)
are the fundamental ideas in
(1), (2)
it,
and,
since (1)
and (4)
are
embodied
in (5) 7
two
POSTULATES
*Similarly
84
of
is
that
an intimate connection
EMPHASIZED
who showed
by Minkowslo,
that
may be regarded
r plane
from one set of rectangular axes to another
the Lorentz transformation
as a rotation in the
in a
86
THE
1.
MORAL
local
of
a different viewpoint.
By examining
certain
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
LOCAL MEASUREMENTS,
and finding those relationships which
remain unchanged in going from
2.
INVARIANTS
By emphasizing the
of our universe.
fact that
and
that the
that
only
PRACTICAL
notions of time
by some method
shows
of signals,
that
'Idealism" alone,
11
is, "a priori
thinking alone,
cannot serve for exploring the universe.
that
On
and not
universal,
87
and
that
only certain
THEORETICAL RELATIONSHIPS
are universal,
the Einstein Theory shows also that
practical
is
measurement alone
for
In short,
a judicious combination
PART
II
A
I.
The
II
give
XV
introduce
Chapters XIII, XIV, and
the fundamental mathematical ideas
which
will
be needed
and important.
XVI
Chapters
to
XXII build up
the actual
that
NEW
run any
The amazing
machine.
POWER
of this
TENSOR CALCULUS,
EASE with which
and the
new
it is
operated,
IV.
this
though
at
first
complicated
91
behind
is
its
REALLY
V.
seeming simplicity,
then
SIMPLIFIED.
and show
what the machine has accomplished.
Then there are
a
SUMMARY
and
THE
MORAL
92
INTRODUCTION,
In Part
I,
moving
UNIFORM
with
velocity
can formulate
the laws of the universe
"W!TH
11
even though
view
their points of
are different,
and their actual measurements
do not
agree.
to
11
'TACTS of
INVARIANTS.
are the
the
the universe,
"LAWS
11
of the universe.
know
1
God/
why
And
it
therefore
seems most
to call
fitting
THOSE
relationships
95
"THE
laws,"
which are
VALID
from
DIFFERENT
viewpoints,
taking into consideration
all experimental data
known up
Now,
must be emphasized
it
Theory,
only that change of viewpoint
was considered
UNIFORM
velocity
by
Einstein
in his first
paper*
published
in
1905.
Subsequently, in 1916*,
he published a second paper
which
in
he
GENERALIZED
the idea
to include observers
moving
with a
(that
and
"the
It
CHANGING
is,
that
with an
is
why
it is
GENERAL
was shown
velocity
ACCELERATION),
called
11
Theory of
in Part
Relativity.
that
to
make
possible
&
Co., London.
96
for
it
required
a fundamental
to
in
change
Physics
remove the
APPARENT CONTRADICTION
between
certain
EXPERIMENTAL FACTS!
Namely,
OLD
that
is,
it is
to the
time
idea
is
NEW
all
observers)
idea that
measured
RELATIVELY
just as the
to an observer,
ordinary
space coordinates, x , y , z,
are measured relatively to
a particular set of axes.
SINGLE new
This
idea
was SUFFICIENT
to accomplish the task
undertaken
in
We
shall
now
see that
again
by the addition of
ONLY ONE
more
idea,
called
the
made
possible
GENERAL
Theory.
why
may
ask
ONLY ONE
was added?
Are
97
And
not desirable
is it
the adequateness
of a
is
new
scientific
theory
judged
(a)
By
its
correctness, of course,
its
SIMPLICITY.
and
(b)
By
SIMPLICITY!
he
will say,
iJBut,"
Has
it
of being unintelligible
to all but a very few experts?"
Of course
"SIMPLE does
11
"simple to everyone/*
but only in the sense that
*lndeed,
it
everyone
WHO
some
mathematics.
book.
98
if
all
known
physical (acts
number
a large
in
now
Let us
what
of these facts
the
is
see
meant by
"The Principle
and what
it
of Equivalence/*
accomplishes.
It is impossible to refrain
from the temptation
to brag about
it
a bit
in anticipation!
And
to say that
possible,
Einstein derived
A NEW LAW OF
which
is
GRAVITATION
QUITE INCIDENTALLY,
experimental
which were
facts
left
unexplained
by the older
theory,
and which had troubled
the astronomers
for a
long time.
And, furthermore,
the General Theory
PREDICTED
NEW
FACTS,
this is of
But
to
let us
show
get to work
all this.
99
Suppose
that a
man, Mr. K,
lives in a
away
spacious box,
from the earth
and from
all
so that there
other bodies,
is no force of gravity
there.
And
suppose that
p.
100)
We
We
us.
notice that
he has
And
of course
we know
that
101
relatively at rest to
it
in
way/
to him, everything
is
actually
at rest.
Suddenly he
30 the
lets
Now we know
tray.
move upward
continue to
with
CONSTANT velocity/*
we
and, since
also
know
is
an
ACCELERATION,
we expect
will catch
and
hit
And,
that the
box
floor
it.
we
of course,
see
this
actually happen.
Mr.
K also
sees
but explains
it
it
happen,
differently,
still
the floor;
and
"A
force of gravity.
attributes this to
11
Now K begins
He
11
is
an attraction
*Any moving
with
object
CONTINUES
CONSTANT speed
some
it is
in a
to inertia,
stopped by
external force,
example.
102
to
move
and
its
strength
proportional to
is
their "gravitational
and
masses/
and
bodies offer
and he concludes
is
proportional to the
"inertial
And
mass" of
body.
ANY
SAME
FALLS
that
In
SAME
acceleration,
by
is
which
body
has,
supposed to be
JUST BIG
ENOUGH TO OVERCOME
if
Mr.
K is
IN
very intelligent
103
ALL
BODIES!
Newtonian
physicist,
he says,
"How
properties of a
two
distinct
body should
this
it
if
relativist,
my way
Mr.
of looking at
phenomena.
outside,
and
to this
happenings
motion
rather than to
a force of gravity
am doing.
His explanation and mine
as
are equally
good,
is
"let
me
continues:
try to
the viewpoint of
f
my good
though
He
neighbor, K ,
have never met him.
would
of course see
104
hit
and
it
might release,
ENTIRELY
NATURAL
to
him
at a
EXPERIMENTATION
my Newtonian
as
he would predict
that this
And
MUST
ancestors did/
PRIORI
be the
case.
so,
although the
facts are
explainable
in either
way,
K"s point of view
is
my
neighbor's viewpoint!
we do
We
explanations
is
"really" correct.
105
we may
EQUIVALENT,
as Einstein did.
And,
we
as
this
(or
is
it
said in Chapter X.
new Law
of Gravitation which
NEWTON'S LAW,
and
NEW
merits which
Newton's Law did not have.
has additional
As we
shall see,
106
XII.
NON-EUCLIDEAN WORLD.
Granting, then,
the Principle of Equivalence,
according to which Mr. K may replace
11
"How
A
In
new Law
is:
help us to derive
11
of Gravitation?
this
answer to which
we
a
does
he learned
in
elementary physics
in
high school:
11
familiar to
in
Any
if
everyone
he swings
in a vertical
plane
is
down!
actually upside
And
fall
pail
he knows that
the water
WILL
fall
out
good dousing.
107
If
at
it
on a moving object
an angle to this motion,
will change the course of the object,
a force acts
and we say
the
body
that
has acquired an
ACCELERATION,
even though its speed may have
remained unchanged!
This can best be seen with the aid of
the following diagram:
If
AB
(both
in
and
if
the object
is
moving with
represented by AC
due to the fact that
some
a velocity
pulled it out of
then obviously
its
course,
108
BC
had to be "added" to
11
AB
AC,
'
BC
Thus
is
And,
>ACand AB.
since
ACCELERATION
defined as
is
even
if
equal
that
AB
and
AC happen
be
to
in length,
is,
even
if
has merely
it
changed in DIRECTION
shows that there is an ACCELERATION!
Thus,
if
an object moves
in a circle/
an acceleration since
it is
Now
lives
is
its
always changing
direction.
imagine a physicist
a disc which
who
on
Being a physicist,
he is naturally curious about the world,
and wishes to study it,
we
tell
him
that
11
*This distinction
is
between "speed
discussed on page
28.
109
and "velocity"
he
is
he can formulate
"WITH
is
but
is
that
in
which
11
a "force of gravity
is
acting
felt this
a revolving disc
11
"force ?!).
tackle a problem:
We
see him
He
wants to
become interested
know whether
in circles:
same
are in the
He
draws two
a large
circles,
one and
a small
one
(concentric with
the axis of revolution of the disc)
and proceeds to measure
and circumferences.
their radii
When
he measures the
larger circumference,
we know,
from a study of
the Special Theory of Relativity*
that he will get a different value
WE
should get
measurements of the
radii,
"See Part
of this
book.
110
IN THE DIRECTION OF
and not in a direction which
PERPENDICULAR
(as a radius
MOTION,
is
is).
value
his
is
around a small
is
small
circle,
is
therefore
negligible.
And
he
so, finally,
it
NOT
are
Do we
him
that
is
and
he
On
is
wrong?
is
to study Physics
Not
he
that this
that
in
tell
on
a revolving disc?
at all!
the contrary,
being modern
"That is quite
relativists,
all right,
we
say
neighbor,
for
now
a revolving disc,
there are
Just as
which we need
Spherical Trigonometry,
in
which
isNOTlSO
111
if
we might
as
demand
naively
after
In short/
we
by
can,
the Principle of Equivalence,
regard
which
as a system in
it
11
a "force of gravity
is
acting,
gravitational field
Non-Euclidean geometry,
rather than Euclidean,
is
applicable.
We shall
how
now
illustrate
the geometry of
a surface or a space
may be
studied.
and
its
Law
of Gravitation
consequences.
XIII.
Let us consider
first
Everyone knows
that
on such
a plane
Namely,
113
that
Conversely,
it is
true that
IF the distance
on
is
a surface
given
by
2
(1)
y>
THEN
MUST BE
EUCLIDEAN PLANE,
the surface
Furthermore,
it is
obvious that
ALONG
to
THE CURVE:
114
is
no longer
and of course
CANNOT write
we
If,
here
however,
we
and 8,
the curve
AB
is
so nearly
a straight line,
that
we may
ABC as
in
actually regard
does hold.
115
c/s
c/x
done
is
and
its
three sides
c/y ,
in
So
that here
we have
2
c/s
(2)
Which
and
is
still
</x
c/y
characteristic of
be found convenient
x and y
and
xi
xi
by
, respectively,
so that (2) may be written
It
will
to replace
c/s
(3)
Now
on
c/x L
c/xA
such as,
the surface of a sphere, for
example?
Let us take
two points on
this surface,
and 8
by
its
latitude
and longitude:
116
**"^^ \
TV
Let
Df be
the meridian
from which
longitude
is
measured
And
and
let
DK be
latitude of
are, respectively,
the
number
the arcs
of degrees in
^F and AG
(or in the
117
a and
0).
are, respectively,
the
number
the arcs
of degrees in
CF and BK.
is
between
If
and
B.
is
sufficiently small,
we may
en
consider
it
to lie
in
this little
region,
and the sides of the triangle
to be straight lines
(as
on page
1 1
ABC
5).
Then,
since the angle at
is
a right angle,
we have
AB*
(4)
And now
what
if
this
let us
A? +
BC*-
see
expression becomes
we change
in
(4)
(in the
Obviously
AB
118
be
FAC,
Similarly
BC
=/?$.
Therefore, substituting
in (4),
we have
2
c/s
(5)
tJc?
And, replacing a by
may be written
xi
and
by
j8
this
c/s
(6)
i>c/x?
tfdxt
will
show
that
*any
that
an
high
if
arc,
radians in
And
it,
then
therefore
120
on the sphere,
the expression (or
is
as
c/s
surface
always hold,
and
is
this a
way
to distinguish
That
if
between them?
is,
we know
is
Euclidean or not?
Or does
it
To answer
let us
this,
121
now
xand y
are
represented
by
X and Y axes,
each other.
find
and
Of
course
we
can,
for,
by the well-known
Law of Cosines in Trigonometry,
we
can represent
122
by:
Or,
for a
2xy cos
a.
</$
c/x
c/y
-2c/x</ycosa.
And, if we again
replace x and y
by
xi
this
and X2
respectively,
becomes
2
c/s
(7)
Here we see
even on
if
Jxl
that
c/s
it
was before.
we had used
polar coordinates
on a Euclidean plane,
or
(8)
Euclidean plane,
And,
c/x
Js
c/x
+ x?
(See page
24)
123
2 c/xrc/X2-cosa.
verify this,
are
(1)
OP
Then (8)
is
obvious from
o
124
OX.
Hence we see
that
depends upon
(a)
BOTH
pF SURFACE
the
KIND
we
and
(b) the particular
COORDINATE SYSTEM.
We
shall
soon see
that
whereas
is
not sufficient
of this expression
help us to
DOES
For
this
know
this.
deeper examination
we must know
how,
from the expression for
the sVcalled
c/s ,
"CURVATURE TENSOR
of the surface.
are tensors?
Of
HOW
Let us see.
125
11
XIV.
The reader
is
WHAT
no doubt
1
scalar
is
TENSOR?
familiar
11
and "vector.
IS
which
a quantity
whereas
a
vector has
Thus,
if
we
say that
70
there
Fahrenheit,
is
NO
obviously
DIRECTION
to this temperature,
and hence
TEMPERATURE
is
SCALAR.
But
if we
say that
an airplane has gone
east,
VECTOR,
whose
MAGNITUDE
and whose
is
DIRECTION
100 miles,
EAST.
is
Similarly,
a
person's
AGE
is
SCALAR,
whereas
127
the
VELOCITY
VECTOR,*
is
moves
and so on;
the reader can easily
find further
examples
and vectors.
of both scalars
We
shall
some
now
discuss
quantities
TENSORS.
And,
when we have
we
a
illustrated
SCALAR
is
TENSOR
TENSOR
whose
RANK
ZERO,
is
and
a
VECTOR
and we
a
is
shall
see what
whose RANK
meant by
is
is
ONE,
Thus
*A
distinction
is
made between
often
the former
Thus when
is
we
SCALAR,
the latter a
are interested
is
ONLY
moving,
its
DIRECTION of motion,
we must then speak of its SPEED,
but if we are interested ALSO in
DIRECTION,
we must speak of its VELOCITY.
Thus the SPEED of an automobile
would be designated by
"Thirty miles an hour,"
but
its
VELOCITY would be
EAST."
128
its
VECTOR.
in
of which
"SCALAR
11
and
"VECTOR
11
are
SPECIAL CASES.
Before
we
discuss
consider
Suppose
that
we have
X'
Drop
to the X-axis.
AC
is
BC
a perpendicular
from
and CB
that
X-component oF AB
the /-component of
the
is
for,
we know
as
from
AC
and CB also
acts
on
And
that
>AC and
AB
the
same
alone.
why
is
CB
it,
is
are called
the
"components"
Of
course
if
of
AB.
we had used
would now be
AD and
DB.
other words,
the vector AB may be broken up
In
into
components
various ways,
in
we
use
THREE
rather than
we
two
axes
in
SPACE
in a
plane,
can break up a vector
into
THREE components
as
shown
in
the diagram
1 31 .
on page
130
D
By dropping the perpendicular BD
from 8 to the XY-plane,
and then drawing
the perpendiculars
X and
to the
we have
DC and DE
axes, respectively,
namely,
and, as before,
the components
depend upon
Let us
now
illustrate
Suppose we have
at
a rod
there
due
As
is
to
a certain strain
some
force acting on
131
it,
AB
all
directions.*
Now,
(that
is
if
is,
the
STRESS
the
FORCE
at the point A
causing the strain at
represented
both
in
by/B
*When
an
breaks
object finally
under a sufficiently great strain,
it does not fly into bits
as
it
would do
if
and
in all directions,
132
A)
and
we
if
are interested to
the effect of
know
this force
upon
CDEF (through A} f
the surface
we
SINGLE
not on a
vector,
TWO vectors:
but on
Namely,
one vector,
AB ,
(call
whose
question;
/AG),
direction will indicate
ORIENTATION
the
in
of the surface
In other words,
the effect of a force upon a surface
on the force
depends
but
NOT ONLY
ALSO on the
size
Now, how
can
we
CDEF,
will represent
itself
surface.
indicate
by
If
a line?
we draw
in the
obviously
in
a line through
CDEF ,
we can draw
plane
many
this line
different directions,
and there
is
no way
BUT,
if
we
PERPENDICULAR
such a line
is
UNIQUE
133
CDEF,
and
CAN
therefore
be used
of the surface
CDEF.
we draw
a vector,
direction perpendicular to
and of such a length that
Hence,
if
in a
CDEF
then obviously
this vector
AG
indicates clearly
ORIENTATION
CDEF.
Thus.
the
STRESS
at
TWO vectors,
TENSOR
Let us
now
of
RANK TWO.
convenient way
find a
order to
do
And,
in
let us
consider the
upon
represented
Now
if
OG,
in
so,
stress,
F,
perpendicular to
ABC
then,
134
z
c
it is
that the
X-component
of
36)
OG
the projection
And
the
08C
of
ABC upon
similarly,
7 and
Z components
of
OG
respectively.
135
the XZ-plane.
To show
both
in
that
OK represents OBC
T
That
is
it
does so
in direction
obvious,
since
OK
is
perpendicular
As
we
must
now show
to
OBC
(see p.
34).
that
OK _ OBC
OG ABC'
(a)
x cos
between
of a given surface
is
equal to
136
by
planes).
But
this
06
GO/C
OK
ZGOKisOK/OG.
and cos
OBC _ OK
OGABC
the force
Now,
if
which
is itself
acts
we
on
F,
a vector,
ABC ,
can examine
its
total effect
by considering
separately
the effects of its three components
fx i fy i
upon
EACH
and
fz
OBC,OAC*ndOAB.
Let us designate these projections
by dSx
is
the
respectively.
Now,
since fx
(which
acts
upon
X-component of F)
one of the three
EACH
above-mentioned projections,
let us
due
to this
upon
component alone
by
Pxx
Pxy
Pxz
respectively.
We
must emphasize
137
the
So
that
TOTAL FORCE
MULTIPLYING
the
the
surface.
PRESSURE by
obtained by
is
AREA
the
of the surface.
PXX dSx
gives the force acting upon
the projection dS,
due to the action of f,
ALONE.
Note
the
DOUBLE
subscripts in
'
PXX
The
first
Pxy
PXZ
one obviously
that
emanate
all
f.,
alone;
whereas,
the second subscript designates
the particular projection upon which
the pressure acts.
Thus
p/.v
means
Etc.
It
And,
pxx'dSx
+ Pxy'dSy + pxz'd
similarly,
~
>y
Pyx'dSx -f Pyy'dSy
+ Pyz'J
and
fx
'
PZX dSx
'
~\~
138
fzy dSy
+p
zz
dS
Hence
TOTAL
the
STRESS, F,
F=(x+(y +
?,
or
i
+ Pyx
+ PZX
Thus
we
'
'
'
cr jj/
~r PXZ
'
'
see that
not
just a vector,
with three components in
stress
is
30)
THREE-dimensional space.
in
Such a quantity
is
called
Later
It is
if
we
tensor suffice:
obvious that
we were
instead of with
three-dimensional space,
a tensor of rank
FOUR
instead of 3
3 as above.
And, in general,
if we are dealing
with
n-dimensional space,
139
'
'
dSz
C/S2
C/Sz
two
a tensor of rank
has n components
as
SQUARE
array
39.
Whereas,
in
n-dimensional space/
VECTOR
Thus,
VECTOR
has
in
in a
PLANE
TWO components/
THREE-dimensional space
THREE
it
has
components/
and so on.
Hence,
the components of a
VECTOR
SINGLE ROW;
instead of in a
SQUARE ARRAY
TENSOR of RANK TWO.
as in the case of a
Similarly,
n-dimensional space
3
of rank THREE has n components,
and so on.
in
TENSOR
To sum
In
up:
n-dimensional space,
and so on.
The importance of
tensors
in Relativity
become clear
we 90 on.
will
as
140
CHANGE
IN
ON TENSORS OF
THE COORDINATE
SYSTEM.
In Part
we had
of this
occasion to mention
141
by
=
=
(y
w
/
Ov
as
is
known
x co$0
y
x sin0 + / cos0
to
of
now
see
what effect
this
Let us
change
in
upon
a vector
and
its
components.
and
its
as
142
SYSTEM
Obviously
is
c/s itself
of coordinate system,
COMPONENTS
but the
of
</s
in
are
as
DIFFERENT,
we have already pointed out
on page
Now
are
if
30.
x and y
in
one system
143
in the other,
x' and
the relationship between
these four quantities
and
is
given
And
we
can,
by
differentiation*,
and c/y
and
7
c/x' and c/y
between
c/x
It
will
in
be noticed,
equations (9),
that
BOTH
Hence
namely
the
affect x.
TOTAL
change
in
x,
c/x ,
will
depend upon
(a)
Partially
namely
TWO causes:
in x',
c/x' ,
and
(b) Partially
in y',
namely
c/y
fAssuming of course
that the
in (9)
144
in
In
other words,
to express the
NEW,
in
terms of the
OLD,
original ones,
x and y ,
way around.
ax
ex
where a,
It
x' ==
<
N
(10)
'
will
c,
fc,
be even
+ 6y
+ dy
,
are functions of 0.
better
(11)
x
'
x2
621X1
and /);
The advantage
not only that
easily
of this notation
we
d
is
can
GENERALIZE
to
n dimensions
two-dimensional statements,
but,
as
we
this
shall
see
later,
notation lends
a beautifully
itself
to
CONDENSED
writing equations,
EASY
to
work with.
145
way
of
Let us
now proceed
with
we
get
=
=
k'
I
\
(1
* 2)
'
C/X2
MEANING
The
ail( 'Xl
"^ ai2C^X2
521C/X1
a 2 2C/X?
UNIT
x'\
due
to
CHANGE
in
xi,
so that
when it is multiplied by
the total change in xi , namely
we
get
THE
THE
And
612
c/xi ,
CHANGE
CHANGE
similarly in
IN
IN
DUE TO
*(
* ALONE.
a^cfa,
represents
the change in xi
and therefore
PER UNIT
CHANGE
and
x / namely dx
in
gives
THE
THE
CHANGE
CHANGE
DUE TO
ALONE.
IN x{
IN x2
Thus
the
is
TOTAL CHANGE
given
in xi
by
just as
by multiplying the
cost of
ONE APPLE
by
the total
number
of apples,
146
in
x2 ,
ADDING
and
to a similar
this result
one
And
We
similarly for
may
Jx 2
in (1 2).
therefore
replace an
by dx(/dx\
Similarly,
dx{
'
3l2
cl21
9X2
And we may
in
9x2
T~~
OXi
therefore rewrite (1 2)
the form
dx{
j
dx\
*^i H
dx{
f\
OXi
f\
0X2
(13)
</X2
2
9X2 ,
T-'CfXi
+
,
<?X2
T~
0x2
getting a
and
is
what
little
it
wondering
has to
do
with Relativity.
*Note
is
that a
PARTIAL
change
A A
in contrast to
letter
"d"
MJM
d
which designates a
TOTAL
change
147
^22
9x5
"
^
0X2
now
What we can
already say
is
that
concerned with
is
as physicists,
only
in that
they
is
concerned
which remain
INVARIANT
under transformations of
coordinate systems.
Now,
as
a vector
such an
INVARIANT/
and, similarly,
tensors in general
are such
INVARIANTS,
becomes
to find out
*See
p.
96.
149
Besides,
as
we
CHARACTERIZES
which
And
a space.
then
in this world
what paths the planets take,
and in what path
it
and so on.
And
of course
these are
things which
all
can be
VERIFIED BY EXPERIMENT.
XVI.
Before
we go any
more
further
let us write
briefly
thus:
-**
(,4)
*FOUR-dimensional, since
each event
its
THREE
the
TIME
(see Part
is characterized by
space-coordinates and
of its occurrence
I.
150
147
(although
it
equations
we
since, as
its
TWO
give
possible values,
and 2
we have
c/x[
and
on the
c/Xj
we
just as
did
in
left,
(13);
namely
and 2
(keeping the
cr
constant in any
the resulting two terms
must be
Thus, for
(1
\i
ADDED
/i
together.
and
one equation)
<r
4) becomes
it
dxi
dx(
-dxi
j
-dx2,
0x2
dxi
just like
dxi
and, similarly,
by
taking
ju
we
get
If
dx2
which
Thus
is
we
the
is
still
3X2 I
T-'cfxi
OXi
SECOND
all
of (13).
further abbreviation
introduced
by
5X 2 J
+ -OX
I
equation
see that
(14) includes
omitting
the symbol 2,
151
-ax2
in (13).
member
be understood
will
),
is to be made
SUBSCRIPT.
Hence we may
d
<Jx'
*"
(15);
U
dx
'*-<lx
*'
dx.
which
we
know
shall
of (14)
that
SUMMATION
ON THAT
in
<r
example,
the right-hand
TWO </s
means
And
that
2a
understood.
is
now, finally,
c/xi and cfe
since
are the
components of
UNPRIMED
let us
c/s in
the
system
and
by
respectively.
NOT confuse
SUPERSCRIPTS
EXPONENTS -
thus >4
SUBSCRIPT,
namely,
to distinguish the
components
why we use
SUPERSCRIPTS instead
Just
will
appear
of subscripts
152
c
v
And
the components of
PRIMED
in the
now be
will
c/s
coordinate system
written
1
(1
And
so,
if
5)
we have
that
a certain vector
A"
is,
a vector
becomes
and
whose components
in a certain
and
coordinate system,
we change
if
are
to
a
in
accordance with
(16)
the
in
tells us
what
the
be
same vector
will
components of
this
new (PRIMED)
coordinate system.
change given
ANY transformation
of coordinates:*
Thus
a point in
one-to-one correspondence.
154
be
in
in
(11),
and suppose
that
xj
x!2
ft
(xi
x2/ ....)
ft
=f>(xa )
etc.
Or, representing
this entire
set of
by
equations
Xp
Ifj.
\Xa)f
^
~
HI
J
OXi
OXi
or, since
ft
x{
If
afl
JJ J'CTX2 ~r
T" ^
0X2
=
{
r-~
OXi
C/Xi
'
C/X2
0X2
Hence
gives the
manner of transformation
dxa
to
mentioned
in
the footnote on
54).
page
And
in fact
DEFINED
TO
BE
is
VECTOR,
or rather,
A CONTRAVARIANT
the meaning of
etc.
of the vector
VECTOR -
"CONTRAVARIANT"
155
will
appear
forget that
in
different,
the vector
itself is
INVARIANT
an
under the
transformation of coordinates
may
represent
a three- or four- or
n-dimensional vector,
since
that
all
is
M and
Thus,
may
(r
if
=
JLI
we have
but
if
is
necessary
number
to indicate the
of values that
take.
1
2 and
<r
two-dimensional vector/
1 , 2 , 3 , and a = 1
2
,
and so on.
For the case M
3 and
(7
= 1,2
THREE EQUATIONS
the right-hand
each have
in
which
members
THREE
terms:
(JX[
3*2
/!
-A
ux-2
0x3
dXo
fa'
I*
-A-+ -
r
}
0x3
axi
156
5x 3
Similarly
we may now
give
or of
any other
rank.
Thus
a contravariant tensor of rank
two
defined as follows:
is
(17)
TWICE
occur
we
understood that
must
SUM
= 1
= 1
3.
3;
But
NO SUMMATION
on the a and
since neither of
TWICE
to
is
be performed
j8
them occurs
in a single
term/
so that
any
particular values of
cv
and p
ANY ONE
For example,
for the case
1 , /3
VECTOR
is
TENSOR
of
RANK ONE.
157
equation.
(1 7) gives the
_
~
,,
/\
<9x[
'
V~~
equation:
dxs
~ All
'
r\
"I
dx[
" dxj
'
..
12
'
9X3 9xi
*.
AV
7 and
that
??!.
<5
THREE
possible values:
which resulted
NINE
1,2,3,
in
whereas
a =
and
ft
And now
there will
NINE
Thus
/3
1,2,3,
be
such
(1
a and
since
EQUATIONS
in all.
7) represents
we
if
are considering
three-dimensional space.
Obviously
(17)
for
two-dimensional space,
will represent
right.
Whereas,
in
four dimensions,
as
we must have
in
Relativity*
p. 1 50.
158
dx
?.
9X3 9X3
9X3 9X2
be observed
9x2 9x3
dx dx
l.
Jl
__
9x2 9x2
+ ^.^./31 +
dx! 3*2
'
9xi 0x3
6x2 9xi
will
9xi 0x2
9xi 9xi
It
'
(17)
will represent
And
in
general,
n-dimensional space,
in
RANK TWO,
a tensor of
defined by (17),
consists of
in
Similarly,
a contravariant tensor of
is
RANK THREE
defined by
A'-to-l^-^-A
vXp ox? dx
(18)
ff
and so on.
As
before,
the
number
of equations represented
by (18)
right in each,
depend upon
the dimensionality of the space in question.
But
when he
how
are
will
see
in
MANIPULATED,
be
he
will
we
really delighted,
159
XVII.
For example,
take the vector (or tensor of rank one)
2
1
and
having the two components
in a
Af
plane,
And
let
6 be another
such vector.
Aa
of
we
and B
a
,
obtain a quantity
also having
two components,
namely,
A +
1
B and
A +B
2
and C
respectively.
Let us
now prove
also a vector:
Since A*
its
is
a vector,
law of transformation
(19)
/V
(20)
B'
is:
M"(see
^--B\
ox,
160
we
get, in full:
lAli
*.
/I
^
AH
f\
0X2
OXi
and
B/l
^ Xl
.....
TT
Dl
D
~r
1
axi
^ Xl D2
-D .
0x2
gives:
Similarly,
6x2
dxi
Both these
results are
included
in:
Or
c^^-e.
dx
(21)
Thus
we
see that
the result
a
is
VECTOR
(see p. 155).
higher ranks.
Furthermore,
note that (21)
QUITE
may be obtained
MECHANICALLY
AS
IF
A SINGLE equation
containing only
SINGLE term on the right,
161
instead of
A SET OF EQUATIONS
EACH CONTAINING
SEVERAL TERMS
ON
THE RIGHT.
AUTOMATICALLY
be properly added.
This
in
Thus,
to multiply
A'
(22)
by
M'
^
""^^
(23)
we
(A, /.,,/*
= 1,2)
(24)
0-g.g.C*
(X //t/
that
correctly
the result of multiplying (22)
by (23).
By "multiplying (22) by (23)"
we mean that
EACH equation of (22) is to be
multiplied
EACH
by
equation of (23)
163
,/3-1,2X
which
in
the
in
ordinary algebra.
way
in
would be done
this
Thus,
we
must
first
multiply
by
f \r
fj
We
8 et,
(25)
9xi 9xi
9x2 9xi
9xi 9xi
-
ox* 0x2
Similarly
we
shall set
three
respectively,
A'T,
Now, we may
by
taking X
=
,
/*
since no summation
[that
in
is,
is
neither X nor
indicated on X and
/x
is
repeated
164
But since
a and
ft
OCCUR TWICE
each
in
and
and 2
SUMMED,
we
except that
by
the simpler
Similarly,
replace A'B**
symbol C
a^
/?
by
we
taking A
1 , /*
*.
in
(24),
as before,
And
, /*
last.
COMPLETELY
the product of (22) and (23)!
Of
in
course,
three-dimensional space,
THREE
each containing
THREE
that either
allows for
A" B
FOUR
or C<*
components:
Namely, AW or C
AW or C",
AW or C
and AW or C
11
21
22
would then
NINE
consist of
each containing
NINE
But
this result
is still
And,
by
represented
of course,
(24)!
four dimensions
in
SIXTEEN
WHOLE
SETS
containing
MANY
as
EASILY
as
OF EQUATIONS
we
simple monomials
TERMS IN EACH,
multiply
in
elementary algebra!
Furthermore,
see from (24)
we
that
the
is
also a
RANK
gives a tensor of
RANK TWO.
In general,
if
and n
respectively,
are multiplied together,
the result
a
is
TENSOR OF RANK m
n.
called
OUTER
multiplication,
166
to distinguish
it
another process
from
known
as
INNER
multiplication
which is also important
in
Tensor Calculus,
and which we
XVIII.
But
first
shall
PHYSICAL ILLUSTRATION.
let us discuss
a physical illustration of
^This
is
to
CONTRAVARIANT tensors
discussed on pages
55ff.
167
We
may
then speak of
Now,
NOT a
obviously
is
density
directed quantity,
but a
SCALAR
And
So
that
if
we
by ^
designate
A,
the density at
then
^ and ^
.
--
-"--
dxi
dx2
represent, respectively,
Thus, although
a
\l/
DIRECTED
NOT
quantity,
the
CHANGE
the
DIRECTION
and
itself is
in
IS therefore a
DOES
depend upon
DIRECTED
whose components
quantity,
are
9xi
Now
let us
see
what happens to
this
quantity
We
is
when
-d\[/
r
9x1
Now
if
we have
d\l/
,
in
terms o!
d$
9xi
3x2
three variables,
say^^andz,
169
d\l/
,
9x2
in
CANNOT
FOUND
BE
x,
DIRECTLY,
may be found by
multiplying
the change
change
in
in
y,
in
y per
unit
by
or,
..
(26)
In
cfz
Jy
cfx~d[ydx-
we have
A change in x( will
BOTH
xi
and the
affect
and x2 (see
p.
145),
resulting changes in XL
and
X2
hence
Note
that here
on the
we
instead of only
ONE,
have
TWO
terms
right
BOTH
and these
whereas
in
xi
as in (26),
in x{
and x2
in turn
BOTH
affect ty,
(26),
change in x affects y/
which in turn affects z ,
and
that
Note
is all
the curved
since
there was to
it.
also that
all
"d"
is
used throughout
170
in
(27)
are
PARTIAL
changes
by
in
change
this influence
x2/
may be
similarly represented
by
And, as before,
we may combine (27) and (28)
by means of the abbreviated notation:
And,
finally,
writing
A^
4
for the
J'in
represented
two components
C/ JC
\
and
>A ff
we may
(30)
0*^ =
Al-jfrA.
CXM
If we now compare
we note a
on the
the reciprocal of
the coefficient on the right
right in
(30)
is
in
171
(16),
NOT satisfy
(16).
the definition of
is
(16)
in
A CONTRAVARIANT VECTOR
And
we
ONLY.
in
(30)
introduce to the reader
A COVARIANT
Note
VECTOR.
that
and
As
as
one case
SUPERscripts
in
the other.*
before (page
1 56),
represent a vector in
any number of dimensions,
depending upon the range of values
(30)
may
given to
and
for
JJL
and
0"
ANY transformation
of coordinates.
Similarly,
A COVARIANT
is
defined
and so on,
TENSOR OF RANK
TWO
by
COMPARE
and
and
(31)
(17).
CONTRAST
carefully
which the
are in the
PRIMES
in
the coefficients
DENOMINATORS
172
XIX.
MIXED TENSORS.
is
Thus, the
SUM
of
A\
r-~7*.n a
ox\
and
Sx=
"
dx(
is
c=
3x
Also,
the operation defined on page
as
is
166
OUTER MULTIPLICATION
the same for
covariant tensors:
Thus, the
OUTER PRODUCT
A(
^-A a
and
is
dx a
Furthermore,
it is
COVARIANT tensor by
CONTRAVARIANT one,
thus,
173
of
61
OUTER PRODUCT of
the
A(
=
|J.
A.
and
is
(32)
C/5;:=
^'-ax"'
C'-
NEITHER
NOR a
called
It is
a covariant
MIXED TENSOR
More
the
of rank
TWO.
generally,
OUTER PRODUCT
of
and
is
rfr
That
if
***
is,
any two
tensors of ranks
and n,
respectively,
are multiplied together
so as to form their
OUTER PRODUCL
is a TENSOR
the result
of rank
175
m+
is
hence,
the rank of their outer product, (35),
5.
is
Furthermore,
is
MIXED
tensor,
and
indices of contravariancef
mi
m^ = m),
and suppose the tensor of rank n
(such that
has
indices of covariance*
and n 2 indices of
contravariance/f"
then,
their outer
product
will
be
MIXED
+m
tensor having
indices of covariance*
indices of contravariance.f
mi
and
m2
All
in
rt2
this has
Thus,
(33) has
ONE
ONE
(5),
TWO
and
<5);
similarly,
TWO
*
SUBscripts.
t SUPERscripts.
176
/?)
ONE
index of contravariance
(K),
has
THREE
We
indices of contravariance
(,
/3,
K) O
although
it
takes
many words
to
is
extremely
EASY
DO them
A*
is
simply
C$
and B75
MANY*
And
each having
And
MANYj
obtained by
multiplying
is
*Namely, EIGHT
for
TWENTY-SEVEN
SIXTY-FOUR
two-dimensional space;
for three-dimensional,
for four-dimensional,
and so on.
tFour for two-dimensional space,
NINE
SIXTEEN
and so on.
177
EACH
EACH
equation of (33)
by
one of (34),
resulting in a SET of equations, (35),
containing
THIRTY-TWO
equations for
two-dimensional space,
FORTY-THREE
for
three-dimensional space,
for
four-dimensional space,
and so on.
And
all
with a
And
yet
11
it
as easily as
pushing a button.
CONTRACTION
XX.
This powerful
AND
DIFFERENTIATION.
and
the
TENSOR CALCULUS,
and Levi-Civita
about 1900,
and was known to very few people
in
until Einstein
Since then
it
made use of
become
widely known,
and we hope that
will
make
it
it.
has
this little
book
intelligible
even to laymen.
178
make
What
is its
of it?
We
CURVATURE TENSOR,
from which
Einstein's
is
Law
of Gravitation
obtained.
7 by a,
obtaining
^~f
f\<x
By
-\
dx a dx x dxM
**"
52),
member is to be summed on
(36) now represents
the left-hand
so that
TWO
only
equations instead of eight,*
each of which contains
TWO terms
on the
left
instead of one;
furthermore,
on the RIGHT,
a occurs twice
we must sum on a
since
for
here,
Now,
*Secp. 177.
180
when
DIFFERENT
from X,
then
dx, dx^
dx
__
dxa dxx
__
dxx
BECAUSE
the x's are
other
NO variation of x
is
with respect to
a
DIFFERENT
namely xx
x,
Thus coefficients of
will all
and
be
will
when A
ZERO
make
BUT
When A =
A?
v.
then
dx,
dx
dxx dx'a
dx'a 3xx
dxl dx x
Thus (36) becomes
A'
(37)
which we must
sum on the right
for X and M
in
g-^
still
To make
all this
let us write
clearer,
out explicitly
'\
!?
+ A'?
+ A'f =
|^
UXi
(A\
Al
by
l
(37):
^ + A?)
+ ^ (A? + Al
2
(Al
OX'2
f (A? +
UXi
181
^l
).
may be
Thus (37)
08)
written
more
briefly:
c-g-e
where
C'^/T + ^T,
C = A'\ + X?
2
and
C2
In
A[
422
other words,
ALIKE
in
(33),
we have REDUCED
a tensor of rank
a tensor of rank
THREE
ONE.
to
is
or
as
CONTRACTION,
is called/
leads again to
it
TENSOR,
and
it is
obvious that
two of the
partial derivatives in
the coefficient
We
how
shall
see
important
Now,
we form
if
in
later
the
the
this
process ot contraction
OUTER PRODUCT
(p. 1
of
75)
is.
two
tensors,
is
then,
by
as
contracting this
mixed tensor
shown above,
we
an
INNER PRODUCT
in
is
called
contrast to
OUTER PRODUCT.
their
Thus the
OUTER
is
now,
we
if
product of
A*
and B7
Ck
(see page
77);
in this result
replace
7 by
|8 ,
obtaining
CS, or
then
D
A*
Da
an
is
(see pages
INNER
and B\
if
uv
dy
c/x
dv
c
j,
c/x
f?f*
c/x
A* = ^'A',
OXff
differential calculus
183
to
product of
We
80
82),
with respect to
we
x,' ,
get:
Or, since
dA
dA* dxr
=
dxT
mixed tensor
And,
this
in certain
of rank two.
special cases,
so that
in
SUCH
cases,
differentiation of a tensor
whose rank
is
dx.
in
(39)
are constants,
as in (13)
on page 147,
184
In
when the
then
ordinary differentiation of a tensor
leads to a tensor.
BUT, IN
GENERAL,
and
IN
NOT constants,
so,
GENERAL
differentiation of a tensor
does
as
is
NOT
give a tensor
evident from (41).
BUT
there
is
a process called
COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION
ALWAYS
which
and which we
leads to a tensor,
We
the
IMPORTANCE
the
"FACTS
11
of our universe
And, besides,
we shall have to employ
COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION
in deriving
185
t/
-
the long-promised
CURVATURE TENSOR
and
EINSTEIN'S
LAW OF GRAVITATION
XXI.
THE
To explain covariant
we must
first
LITTLE
g's.
differentiation
back
to chapter XIII;
which
in
it
namely, c/s ,
takes on various forms
depending upon
(a) the surface in question
and
(b) the coordinate system used.
But now,
with the aid of the remarkable notation
which
we
ALL
in
we have
since explained,
can include
the
SINGLE
expression
Jf = g^Jx^Jx9ff
(42)
and, indeed,
this holds
NOT ONLY
ANY
c/s
for
SURFACE,
FOUR-dimensional,
187
or, in general,
represents
1,2,
obtaining
c/s
(43)
guc/xi-c/Xi
'
C/Xi
g2lC/X2
ju
and
+
+
gi>c/xrc/x2
'
g22C/X>
C/X2 /
TWICE
the term on the right
in
requires
Of
in
SUMMATION
may be
course (43)
2
c/s
(44)
(42)
on both
/*
and
p.f
written:
giic/x?
g, 2 c/xic/X2
we
find that
=
ffll
=
I ff!2
jjfel
is,
a point at
matter
is
which
actually located
In other words,
f42) holdr. for any region
Pee page 1 52.
AROUND
matter.
the upper
and
"2"
NOT a
since (44)
is
is
really an
exponent
SUPERSCRIPT
an
NOT
22
on page 120,
Similarly, in (6)
gu
in
and,
=*
gn
(7) on
1, 912
r\
ffi2
g2 i
, 322
/?*
page 123,
= -cos a,
- cos
a, g2i
g2 2
1,
and so on.
Note
that gi2
and
And
indeed,
in
have
general
9?"
in
g?i
SAME value.
the
9w
THREE-dimensional space:
2
c/s
(45)
guc/xi
gi2C/xrc/x2
Thus,
gisc/xrc/xs
4- g>2]dx2-dxi
in particular,
Euclidean three-space,
using the common rectangular coordinates,
we now have:
for ordinary
gn
and
all
g22
gas
1 /
THIS
PARTICULAR CASE,
c/s
c/s
and
c/x?
c/x
c/xl
c/y
similarly for
higher dimensions.
189
c/xi
c/z
and
It is
any such
(which
is
set of g's,
represented
by gv)
constitutes
COMPONENTS
the
and;
of a
TENSOR,
in fact, that
is appropriately
designated with
SUBscriptsf:
TWO
Let us
now
briefly
the story so
sum up
far:
By introducing
the Principle of Equivalence
Einstein replaced the idea of
M
a
force of gravity"
by the concept of
a geometrical space (Chap. XII).
And
is
the
is
since a space
characterized
knowledge
by
its
g's,
essential to a study of
how
things
and hence
move
in
the space,
essential
to an understanding of
Einstein's
Law
of Gravitation.
*Seep.313.
tSeep.172.
190
XXII.
As we
to derive the
Einstein Law of Gravitation,
we must employ
COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION.
COVARIANT DERIVATIVE
the
Now,
known
as
CHRISTOFFEL SYMBOLS*
which are functions of the tensor g^
discussed
in
chapter XXI,
set
g^
we
which
shall
now
describe:
For simplicity,
ourselves for the
moment
let us limit
to
TWO-dimensional space,
that
is,
let us
take
/x
2 and v
FOUR
components,
namely,
the four coefficients on the right
in
(44).
And
in a
let us
SQUARE ARRAY,
thus:
ff21
which
Now
is
called a
since gt2
*Named
for the
ff22
MATRIX.
921
(see page
89)
mathematician, Christoffcl.
191
of a terror
this
is
called a
SYMMETRIC MATRIX,
since
it
is
IF
is,
the
one which
starts
in
we now
by SINGLE bars,
shown in the following:
as
we
a
get what
is
known
as
DETERMINANT.*
carefully
DISTINGUISH between
*The reader probably knows that
a square array of numbers
with single bars on each side
is
called a determinant,
that its value is found thus:
and
at =*J
I
TWO
described
in
any book on
college algebra.
193
SINGLE
bars
DOUBLE bars:
FORMER a DETERMINANT
The
and has
is
SINGLE
VALUE
way
mentioned
Whereas
as
the
is
in
DOUBLE-barred
a set of
array
SEPARATE
"elements,"
NOT to
be COMBINED
They may be just
in
any way.
which,
as
we mentioned on page
90,
COMPONENTS
of a tensor.
or,
still
g.
better, simply
And now
let us
Oi
by
form a
2)
g.
new
square array
in
COFACTOR*
of
EACH ELEMENT
on page 193
by the value of the whole determinant,
of the determinant
namely, by g,
thus obtaining the corresponding element of
the
NEW array.
194
The
COFACTOR
of a given element
of a determinant
is
found by
out
striking
determinant which
is left
over,
or
prefixing the sign
according to a certain rule:
Thus,
in
the determinant
523
4
6
1X7-8X0 = 7-0 = 7.
is:
is:
and so on.
Note
that in the
first
case
we
we
prefixed a
The
rule
prefix a
the
is:
or
according as
NUMBER
from the
(that
is,
go
element
first
the
of steps required to
one
in
EVEN
ODD,
or
respectively/
thus to
MINUS
But
prefixed before
all this is
explained
in
'
more thoroughly
any book on
college algebra.
195
Let us
now 90 back
bottom of
p.
194.
new array,
we shall designate by
This
which
g"
TENSOR,
and,
this
time,
A CONTRAVARIANT
TENSOR
OF RANK TWO.
That
it is
also
SYMMETRIC
We
can
now
of the Christoffel
which
is
It
and
In
designated
is
symbol
we need.
symbol
by
{^v, \]
for:
other words,
combined
as
shown
in
(46)
and multiplied by
the
components
Thus,
in
of the tensor
g^
two-dimensional space,
196
since
we
a each have
the values
1 ,
(11
*
1){
a 11
<J
9n
4-
1-1
dxi
\dxi
9n
^T
dxi
12
and
SEVEN
values of
obtained by allowing M
to take
Note
on
their
and X
two values
for each.
that in evaluating
above,
{11 ; 1
on the a,
take on BOTH values, 1,2,
}
SUMMED
we
allowing
to
BECAUSE
if
EACH TERM
and
a TWICE,
SUMMATION
Now
that
we know
the meaning of
X},
we
its
new Law
Ar
is
of Gravitation.
with respect to
is
one,
COVARIANT DERIVATIVE
DEFINED
(47)
xr
as:
dA.
^-{r,aM..
197
52).
can be shown to be a
It
in fact/
it is
TENSOR
A,T
Similarly,
we have
if
represented
its
by
Aa ,
COVARIANT DERIVATIVE
with respect to x,
is
<
the
TENSOR:
48 >
K.
+ln
r]
*.
Or,
starting with tensors of rank
we have
TWO,
A:,
COVARIANT
',*See p.
60
DERIVATIVE:
of
1
A.
S.
the
1930
Eddington,
Edition.
198
COVARIANT tensor, A. ,
COVARIANT DERIVATIVE:
we
Arrp
And
set the
AA
{*P/
-jT^
UXp
Ar
*}
\Tp / *}
A,
COVARIANT DERIVATIVES
of tensors of higher ranks.
TENSOR
having
Of
course since
a tensor,
we may
find
which
is
then the
to
be
constants,
example,
which case
we have
(see p.
88)
so that
=
flfll
l2
, ff21
199
22
of
all
constants,
then obviously
the Christoffel symbols here
are
ZERO,
all
is
zero,
symbol
so that (47)
That
is,
becomes simply
~~
in this case,
becomes
is
NOT so
XXIII.
IN
GENERAL
form
its
with respect to x r
(49)
A,
covariant derivative
:
A =
- K!A.(seep.197).
200
derivative
of
with respect to
(50)
xp
!<rp, e)
rp
A, -
[rp,
ej
obtaining
a
SECOND
which
is
covariant derivative of
Aa
COVARIANT TENSOR
OF RANK THREE.
Substituting (49) in (50),
we
get
A,,,
l/
^ff
T.-*-
ffr'/
9A
^^a
^7"
UJ\p
- AA
^
i
<
{"/
"I
v/JCp
dA,
or
202
A,.
If
we had
the
in
REVERSE
order,
namely,
FIRST with respect to xp
and THEN with respect to xr
we would
|f
M<rT
+
{<7T,e}
is
ax~
{tp,a} A.
Vf\a
{pT'tlfc
which
3
)
'
+,f!PT /
(T6 /
A,
again
Now,
comparing (51) with (52)
we
they are
Let us see:
3 Ar
in
d~A
each
j
,- ,
V- ^-~ and T
dx dx/
dxTdxp
is:
ff
respectively.
These,
by ordinary
calculus,
203
The
is
of (51)
the same as
the
FOURTH
term of (52)
TWICE
implies a
(or e)
in
SUMMATION
Similarly for
the
FOURTH
term of (51)
Then
2x
a (unction of
example, z
v
v"
dx-dy
and
is
2y
2xy,
(treating
(treating
x and /
y as constant)
as constant).
And,
THEN
we would
get
= 2x
(treating
as constant)
\0
and
7,
dydx
the
SAME FINAL
And
t
An
(treating
this is true
IN
index which
y as constant)
result.
GENERAL.
is
"dummy"!
204
is
called a
does not
this Christoffel
symbol:
SYMMETRIC,
that
is,
ft,
g,M (see
page
is
89).
the same
But the
are
NOT equal
Hence by
to
terms of (51)
we
subtraction
in
(52).
get
\
{^
A*
Aa
oxp
or
(53)
And
of tensors
gives a result which is itself a tensor (see page 161)
the left-hand member of (53) is
A COVARIANT
But,
now,
since
An
is
*Seepa 9 e196.
205
its
coefficient;
in
square brackets,
bracketed expression
must be a
it
MIXED
tensor of
RANK FOUR,
on inner multiplication by A.
since
of rank
is
THREE;
and indeed
it
AT LAST
is
the long-promised
CURVATURE TENSOR
and
known
is
( P a 8 e187),
as
we may
so that
its
it
carefully
appreciate
XXIV.
OF WHAT USE
IS
THE CURVATURE
TENSOR?
In
the
first
place
we must remember
it
is
the expression
in
in
if
that
square brackets
which,
we
206
and so on,
accordance with
the definition on page 196,
(crp, e}
their values in
we
find that
we have
an expression containing
First
and second
of the g's
partial derivatives
in
How many
c/s
(see p.
87)
components does
Obviously
that
under consideration.
if we are
studying
two-dimensional surface,
Thus,
a
so that B*TP
sixteen components.
Similarly,
three-dimensional space
in
4
would have 3 or 81 components,
and so on.
it
in
FOUR-dimensional continuum
44
We
add
hasten to
or
256 components!
that
In
the
if,
in this tensor,*
*That
in
first
place,
in
square brackets
207
we interchange r and p ,
the result is merely to change
its
sign.J
Hence,
of the possible 16 combinations of r and p
only 6 are independent:
This
is
in itself
we
that
so interesting
here for a moment:
shall linger
a,,;j ,
- 1,2,3,4),
(wherea=
And
(that
suppose
is,
as follows:
a-2t
322
a23
324
ast
332
a;j;}
331
641
^42
^43
44
that a a)3
a reversal of the
a fta
two
subscripts
in
only
in a
hence,
the above array becomes:
324
323
324
SIX
distinct quantities
instead of sixteen.
Such an array
is
called
ANTISYMMETRIC.
tThc reader would do well to compare this expression
with the one obtained from it by an interchange of r and
p throughout.
208
Compare
this
SYMMETRIC
And so,
come back
we now have
to
on page 193.J
on page 208,
to the discussion
combinations of r and p
six
to
array
be used with
<r and
a,
96 components
sixteen combinations of
giving
16
or
instead of 256.
Furthermore,
it can be shown
that
we
this
number
to 20.*
20 components and
has only
Now
let us
consider for a
IMPORTANCE
the great
in the study of spaces.
fThus
in
an
whereas,
Note
were
it
in a
that
if
a/3
of this tensor
matrix
we have
SYMMETRIC
the
256!
moment
ANTISYMMETRIC
ap =
NOT
first
matrix
matrix
on
p.
we have
208
SYMMETRIC,
would reduce to
TEN
distinct elements,
would
NOT
in
be zero
*See A. S. Fddington's
The Mathematical Theory of Relativity,
209
Suppose we have
Euclidean space
more dimensions,
and suppose we use
of two, three, or
Hence,
since the derivative of a constant
zero
is
and, therefore,
the components of the
all
curvature tensor
will be zero too,
because every term contains
a Christoffel
BUT,
if
in
are
all
zero,
obviously
its
components
in
And
in
so,
we cannot
cfe
whether
Euclidean or not,!
an examination of the curvature tensor
(which of course is obtained
from the coefficients
the space
in
tell
is
*Sec page
JScc page
1
1
c/s )
89.
25.
210
used
is
in setting
up
cfs
Thus,
we
whether
all
116
or (7) or (8) on
page 123,
of which represent
ON A
EUCLIDEAN PLANE,
we
three cases
in all
is
true
coordinate systems
and
*To have
a clear idea of
He
must bear
911
in
for (8) on
B?TP =
mind that here
1,
312
=
g-2i
o,
p.
123.
gfc^xj,
given
also that
by
all
that the
meaning of [ap 1
<r
p
1
etc.
and 2,
is
two-dimensional;
and he must not forget to
SUM
ANY
211
1]
etc.
Thus
is
B; rp
(54)
NECESSARY
condition
be
EUCLIDEAN.
It
this
is
also a
SUFFICIENT
condition.
other words,
given a Euclidean space,
In
be zero,
AND
is
used,.
CONVERSELY,
We
shall
how
the
is
now see
new Law
EASILY
from
of Gravitation
derived
this tensor.
(54) replace p
by a ,
obtaining
(55)
Since
in
a appears
twice
we
must,
0.
left,
sum on a,
213
LAW
t\
SIXTEEN equations
corresponding to the
values of <r and r
only
4X4
four-dimensional continuum.
in a
when er = r
(55) becomes
Thus,
Bin
Similarly for
we
<r
Bin
1 ,
+
=
Bin
B?u
Bi24
0.
get
0121
Bl22
Bi23
and so on,
16
for the
We
possible combinations of
<r
and r
may
G =
(56)
ffr
B's
as
In
other words,
by
CONTRACTING
which
we
is
B,' rp ,
namely,
FOURTH rank,
SECOND rank,
a tensor of the
ffT
as explained
on page 182.
by
But
this
is
startled
sudden announcement.
let us
carefully,
is
behind
its
innocent simplicity,
215
and why
the
In
it
Law
it
deserves to be called
of Gravitation.
on page 205.
Hence,
when we contracted
by replacing p by a
we
it
Gar represents
the following expression:
\
(57)
{era, e}
which,
by
(er, a}
r\
{<"",
{aa, a]
{err,*}
{,<*},
a]
in turn,
the definition of
an expression containing
first
and second
of the
little g's.
And,
of course,
partial derivatives
different values,
letters in
(57),
namely, a and e,
are mere dummies (see page 204)
216
To get
clearly in
mind
just
the reader
is
advised
symbol
one
by
of the
putting, say
<r
It
and r
to assume,
,4.
NOT
16 DIFFERENT equations
6 are independent.*
new Law of Gravitation
So
is
as
that the
appears at
first.
why do we call it a
Law of Gravitation at all?
But
It
be remembered
will
that a space,
characterized
by
2
its
expression for
cfs
Thus
(56)
is
completely determined by
*Se
p. 242.
217
But,
Principle of Equivalence,
that
is,
how
determines
move
in that
of gravity,
space
other words,
in
determine the
one may
Why
is
still
Law
of Gravitation
ask:
this particular
expression (56)
taken to be the
Law
of Gravitation?
the
SIMPLEST
is
that
expression which
is
ANALOGOUS to
unpleasantly surprised
is
at this reply,
and thinks
made
rather
May we
been
ARBITRARILY!
book
the
CONSEQUENCES
of the
We
WISDOM
will
choice
who
is
be convinced
of this choice,*
appreciate that
part of Einstein's
*The reader
of Gravitation.
of the
and
Law
of Einstein
this
is
GENIUS!
particularly
may
218
He
derived
are the
by Newton,
SAME,
to a
first
approximation,
ALL
and
that the
do
FURTHERMORE,
ADDITIONAL
term in (84)
accounts for the "unusual" path
of the planet Mercury,
the
we
Let us
now
a form
which
XXVI.
COMPARISON OF
EINSTEIN'S
LAW
that,
according to Newton,*
two bodies attract each other
with a force which
is
proportional
219
formula
In this
we
11
(its
and
"center of gravity
r is then precisely
),
is
in
both sides by m%
fc/m
_F_~ __
1
o~~
r"
ni2
according to Newton,
And,
/3l2
the force
We
may
therefore write
(58)
we
are speaking of
it is
a fact that
to support a
it is
hold
body
not necessary to
it
up
all
over,
if its
entire mass
were concentrated
at that point.
220
Now,
acceleration
and
may be
it
is
split
a vector quantity/*
up
into
components:!
OA =
then
and
r;
let
(since
in
Now
it is
if
is
the x-component of a
obvious that
X
a
x
r'
Therefore
Or,
better,
221
at
to
show
is
to the
we
get:
^*
Ay - And,
y=
similarly,
--
3-dimensional space,
in
and,
we would have
By
also
we
differentiation,
--p
Z=
get:
dx
But, since r
(as
is
on page 131
i
if
AB =
dr
= -x
dx
then
r),
'
above equation,
becomes
dx
And,
similarly,
From these we
(59)
get:
3X,ay,az
_
TV"
[-
ox
ay
az
222
left.
This equation
may be
dV
(60)
ax
where
and
is
is
2 "*"
written:
2 "*"
a/
dz
called the
"gravitational potential
obviously (60)
is
*/
obtained from
namely (60),
generally 'known as
the Laplace equation
is
and
is
more
briefly
denoted by
v ^ 2
merely denotesf
that
are to
as
We see
obtained from
223
Whereas (56)
is
a set of equations
which,
a "force
by
of gravity,
the idea of
HOW
REASONABLE
it
is
be evident
when we test it by
will
EXPERIMENT!
It
has
that
been
each
said (on
page 21 5)
Hence,
if
all
zero,
all
be zero;
obviously
NOT true:
Namely,
even
it
if
all
zero,
925
we know
But
to have the
that,
fi's all
zero
implies that
the space
is
Thus,
if the condition for Euclidean
space
is
fulfilled,
namely,
= V/
Ba ~
Off Tp
then
G<rT
automatically follows/
thus
is
Euclidean space.
But, more than
since
this,
NOT NECESSARILY
does
that the
imply
are zero,
fi's
hence
can be true
EVEN
IF
THE SPACE
IS
NOT EUCLIDEAN,
namely,
in the space around
body which
Now
but
all this
still
"How
Law
be
one
can
this
new
of Gravitation
tested
EXPERIMENTALLY?"
226
and,
as every child
when
now knows/
were
his predictions
and caused
all fulfilled,
a great stir
would
like to
know
Law
is
of Gravitation
applied to them.
Thai
is
what
XXVII.
we
shall
show
HOW CAN
next.
THE EINSTEIN
GRAVITATION
We
G, r
represents Einstein's
Law of Gravitation/
new
7.
227
LAW OF
BE TESTED?
,u
In
order to test
law
this
we must obviously
substitute in
it
other words,
we must know
what
first
Now,
if
we
use
we know
in
that
EUCLIDEAN
two-dimensional
space
we have
2
c/s
c/r
+ rW.*
Similarly,
for three-dimensional
EUCLIDEAN
we have
space
the well-known:
2
c/s
c/r
+ rW +
sinW</>
c/x?
Jxl
+ Jx]
(on pa g c 189),
to polar coordinates
with the aid of the diagram
by changing
on page 230.
*See page 123
229
where
xi
X2
xs
=
=
=
=
x
r
y
z
= 01 = OMcos
cos
POM
= LM =
= PM =
cos
OM sin
r
cos
0.
And,
for
<t>
</>
4-dimensional space-time
230
<
r sin ^
r sin
cos
<
sin
we have
2
fc/s
(61 a) or
2
= -
(where xi
and c
as
we
Note
c/x?
- xl^ -
= -
[c/s
Jr
r, x2
rW - fWe/fl-cfy +
2
x?sinVc/xi
= 0, x =
9, x3
-f c/xi
four-dimensional space
in
Cartesian coordinates,
c/s
in
dy
</z
67
But 7 on page
we showed
Jx
that
order to get
in
space-time
in this
with
form/
all
we had
the time, t,
BUT to take T
i
=
=
NOT
= -
equal to
ict* where
from which
2
c/r
= - cW,
*As
a matter of fact,
11
in
we
"Special Relativity,
took r
it,
we
also took c
otherwise,
1/
we must
take r
=
231
ict.
c/r
And,
furthermore,
is
c/t
always found to be
c/y
c/z ),
therefore,
to
of imaginary,
it is
c/s
which
in
-c/x
-Jy
-c/z
+cW,
polar coordinates,
becomes (61
a).
formula
still
applies to
EUCLIDEAN
which
the
is
space-time,
involved in
SPECIAL
theory of Relativity*
UNIFORM
But now,
in the GENERAL theory (page 96)
NON-EUCLIDEAN
space-time
what expression
shall
In
we
for
c/s
use?
the
it is
first place
reasonable to assume that
(61 b)
Js
= -
e* </x?
e* (xldxl
+
(where Xi
*See Part
X2 / Xa / X4 represent
of this book.
233
e'c/x
$, and
t,
respectively,
and A
IJL
and
BECAUSE:
(A) we do not include product
of the form
cfa
cfxi
terms
more generally,
of the form dx c/xr where
or,
ff
(which
ARE
included
in
cr
(42), p. 187)
since
seems
that
our universe
is
(a)
ISOTROPIC and
(b)
HOMOGENEOUS:
That
is,
the
SAME
ALL DIRECTIONS
and
(a)
IN
(b)
Now,
how does
dx JxT where
ff
<r
Well, obviously,
a term like c/rc/0
(or C/0-C/0 or c/rc/(/>)
would be
for 6 (or
different
</>
or r) positive or negative,
and, consequently,
the expression for
would be
in
different
c/s
if
we
turn
opposite directions
234
And
c/s
ANY point
from
And
so
we
HOMOGENEITY.
see that
it is
reasonable
to have in (61 b)
2
we
substitute
+c/0 or
c/0, etc.
Similarly,
2
c/s /
we are considering
STATIC condition,
moment
we must
to
is
changing
moment,
+dtand
-c/f/
other words,
we must not include
in
etc,
In short
where
or
^T,
dx -dxr where
ff
(B)
The
in
factors
x
,
the coefficients
, e",
(7
T.
are inserted
*Cf.(61a)and(61b).
235
is
now
NON-EUCLIDEAN.
Hence they are so chosen as to
allow freedom to adjust them
to the actual physical world
/since they are variables),
jnd yet
iheir
FORM
is
be easy
such that
in
them
making the necessary adjustment-
as
we
it
will
to manipulate
shall see.*
Now,
(61 b) can
by
be somewhat
simplified
replacing
2
e*x?
and taking
by
x( as a
(x() ,
new
coordinate,
(62)
c/s
= -
e\/x?
And we now
xldxl
- xrsinWx2 +
have to find
e and e"
in
terms of xi.j
may be found
in
R. C. Tolman's
Relativity
p.
239
Thermodynamics
& Cosmology,
ff.
236
e'-c/x4
we
telling
him
that
many
will
we
we
'
it
suggest that
Einstein
255
on.
SURMOUNTING THE
XXVIII.
So
far,
LOT OF FUN!
DIFFICULTIES.
then,
the following values:
we have
SLI
and gar
x
/ ff22
when
Furthermore,
the determinant
is
= cr
g33
x?
r.
= -
x?sin
simply equal to
x2 , g44
principal diagonal,
237
e*
since
ail
Hence
Also 7
in this case,
and
T
g*
We
in
when a
r.
Now we
shall
see
how
ONLY
THREE!
First let us
show
that
is
SYMMETRIC,}:
and therefore
*See the chapter on determinants
in any college algebra,
to Find out
a
how
to evaluate
M
tSee the definition of g on page 196.
193.
{Seepage
239
Gar =
reduces to
instead of sixteen/
v and r each take
as
their values
To show
TEN
equations
on
,2/3,4.
this,
we must remember
that
By
on
and let us examine {act, a}
which occurs in (57):
ffT
p.
216;
But,
that
remembering
the presence of
in
term
a and
TWICE
EACH
(after
multiplying out)
SUM
on
implies that we must
the reader will easily see that
many
and
a and
that
we
shall qet
Furthermore,
v
the definition of g" on page 196,
the reader may also verify the fact that
by
2ff
where g
And,
is
dg
dg
240
Similarly,
/} =
:->-
v-gr.
log
we
get:
<\
G =
(63)
We
can
{er, a}
ffT
{era, e}
now
easily see
jar, aj
sixteen/
the
In
first
place/
{er, a]
{re, a}
Hence,
by
the
its
interchanging a and r ,
first term of (63) remains unchanged,
two
*Notc
factors
that
we might
but since g
is
V +
always negative
g,
= -y,
(we shall show on p. 252 that X
4
2
and therefore g on p. 239 becomes
xi -sin X2)
it is more reasonable to select v
g f which
will
make
new Law
REAL
in
of Gravitation,
241
(since
as
And,
the second, third and fourth terms of (63)
are also unchanged by
Thus, if we arrange
the 16 quantities in
in a
We
have
this
is
JT
just
Gn
Gi2
Gis
vJ21
tf22
VJ23
Gsi
Gs2
633
G41
642
Gl3
shown
we
We
G
\3
G
6
that
SYMMETRIC
square array:
to
matrix.*
10 equations
said before.
shall
how
is further reduced
SIX equations.!
(63)
to only
is
thinking
no great consolation,
particularly if he realizes
are
still
flf
by A. S. Eddington,
the 1930 edition.
24*
ONE
is
of the equations
(63)
just
Is
really like!
(don't forget to
Is
in
is
this a subtle
do
to
I)
him?
mental torture
by which we
alternately frighten
The fact is that
we do want
to
make him
by the knowledge
it
his
courage too
that
He
the
if
final
With
it.
this
we shall
how the
apology,
now proceed to indicate
further simplification
takes place.
In
we
for the
It is
Greek
letters.
obvious then
243
all
three
Thus:
be
(a) those in
Greek
ffo-
a}
0-<r ,
or
and
(d) those of the form
{err ,
p}.
Now, by
and, as usual,
we must sum on a.
But since the only g's which are not zero
are those in which
and,
237)
in that case,
flT*=1/ff~
(P- 239).
Hence
f
_
(jcr,
a }}
dS
_ jL( v~
^'l
Adx
2g
(T
5x
<y
ff
and therefore
which,
(a)
by elementary
{<r<r,<r}
calculus, gives
=
^
244
log
---d 9~-
9~
4-r ~^-
gro.
\
I
3x,/
Similarly,
+
*"-' = Mi!*-"
2
Vox,
Here the only values
keep the outside
and since r
(for otherwise
we
of
a =
ra
we
get
or
/L\
(b)
Likewise
{CTT.T}
(c)
log grr
and
(d)
Let us
{<rr
now
/P }=0.
Thus, take,
in
Then
case (a),
{11/1}
x
Butgn= -c
hence {11
which,
cr
r)
^7
lo
33n
(Seep. 239).
i}=l.|og(-O
by elementary
-Hdx
that
factor
will
1dx,
calculus, gives
245
L
V
4
A represents
where
since xi
r (see
or
dr
6x1
page 233),
Similarly,
i4
in,
if
*-J
But, since
in taking a PARTIAL derivative
with respect to one variable,
all the other variables are held constant,
hence
and therefore
(22,2} =0.
And,
likewise,
{33 ,3)
Now,
take
first (r
= {44,41=0.
2
then
{11
2}
= -
^
x2
= -
gn
~
2flL> 2
only/
hence {11,2}
and so on.
Let us see
we
shall
*Se
taken,
how many
have
Obviously
is
=0,
specific values
in all.
(a) has
specific cases,
page 234.
246
~3x2
1 ,2,3,4,
namely, <r
which have already been evaluated above.
r can have 3 of
here a
(for
its
r)
possible 4
values
have 12 cases,
and
reduces to
this
Hence
[TV , p\
24
cases,
(see p. 204),
1 2.
in all
there are
40
cases.
(64)
'Remember
that
x2
Note
that
~=%
/=
oxi
Now,
or
in (63),
when we
Greek
letters
this
final
simplified result,
hasten to add that
the BEST is yet to come!
we
Just
how
Gii is obtained,
the
reader how
showing
to
on a. and e
and which terms drop out
(because they contain zero factors}
SUM
will be found
on page 31 7.
in
V,
And,
similarly (or the other G's.
Here we give
the equations which result
after the zero terms have been
eliminated.
248
Gu=
11,1} {11,1}+
13, 3} {31,3}
12, 2} {21, 2}
14,4)141,4}
0.
Similarly,
,3] (83,3)
0.
= 2{33 1}{13,3}
/
+ 2{33,2}{23,3}
-ST {33,11-ir
133, 2}
0.
,1}
{14,41-(44,1}
0.
0.
249
we now
If
substitute
these equations
the values given in (64),
in
we
get
424
0*
"
""
xv - -
Similarly
G =
33
sin
0-e-
0.
and
\"
v"
0.
d X
250
(/
X')
sin
cotfl
cotfl
FOUR.
to
Note
also that
independent
hence now the equations are
THREE.
And
now, dividing
we
44
by
e*~
Gn
result to
get
A'
(65)
d\
or
T"
or
Therefore,
by
where
/ is a
dv
T"
dr
= ~
'
integration,
(66)
= - /
= -
constant of integration.
But, since
at
an
infinite distance
from matter,
251
that
is,
hence,
if
(61 b)
is
as of course
we
0.
other words,
In
since,
when
X also equals
,
/ , too, must be zero.
Hence
\=-v.
(67)
(68)
If
we
and
we
+n/) =
e'(1
put
1.
get
dy
^~
or
"
dv
dr
or
+ fy =
1.
252
This equation
may now be
easily integrated/
obtaining
(70)
Thus
we have succeeded
in finding
and
e an
e'
we
write (69):
or
or
T_ = -Jr
cf
1-7
'
we
can
now
variables,
integrate both sides
thus:
7)
log (1
= -
log r
+ constant;
or
log r (1
7)
constant,
and therefore
r (1
We
may
constant.
then write
r (1
from which
7)
we
A
1
7)
= 2m
get
2m
.
253
in
terms of xi
e"
=7 = 1- 2m/r = -
1/e
2/n/x,
= - 7-i</r2 - rV0 2
ctf
(71 )
r sin
c/</
And
xi /
x2
x3
x4
hence
the
the
THREE
remaining equations:
Gn =
are
now
the
little
We
can
fully
G =
33
and
G =
44
determined by
of (71).
now proceed
it
really applies
XXIX. "THE
The
first
test
is
we
live in.
naturally
to see what
the
new Law
of Gravitation
body
1 *
"naturally
moves
255
11
if it is
by some
for
As,
a
its
on
force acting
course
it:
example,
body moving on
Similarly,
according to Einstein
if it
moves "freely
the surface of a
it
11
on
SPHERE
is,
along the
GEODESIC
namely,
along a great
And,
circle.
Now
our problem
is
to find out
what
is
the geodesic
in
move
order to find
"Calculus of Variations/
so that we cannot go info details here.
But
we
257
we have given
two points, A and B
on
further.*
join
thus:
B
Now,
which of
It is
But
how do we
set
up
problems
in
other cases?
G. A.
Bliss.
problem see
"The Mathematical Theory of
Relativity/ by A. S. Eddington,
p. 59 of the 1930 edition.
(3)
Or
"The Absolute
by
Differential Calculus/
T. Levi-Civita.
258
Well,
we know
that
if
on
a short arc
any
of these paths
by
is represented
then
f.
c/s ,
f
JA
And
this of
any one
How
course applies to
do we now
select from
to B.
among
these
the geodesic?
This
problem is similar to
one with which the reader
undoubtedly
is
familiar,
namely,
if
f(x),
y for which
16
an "extremum" or a "stationary.
is
in
259
a
and/ (or
all
we must have
these/
dy/dx
or
<fr=ffo)-c/x
(72)
where x,
is
or
c.
Similarly/
to
the geodesic
we
would make
rB
f
JA
a stationary.
This
is
expressed
in
(73)
c/s
by
JA
analogously to (72).
To
find the
satisfying (73),
is
260
maximum
minimum
or
in
ordinary calculus,
and we
(74)
W .,
the
first
place,
Euclidean space
a would have
three possible values:
since we have here
1,2,3,
x3 /
furthermore,
by choosing
Cartesian coordinates,
we would have
(see page
==
ffll
522
89):
ff33
/i
and
& =
for
and therefore
261
in
Now, if in (75)
we replace c/s by
it
dt
becomes
(76)
which
-0
a short
is
way
(*
of writing
(77)
But what
the
*lf
is
PHYSICAL MEANING
we
of (77)?
who
consider an observer
such a
that
way
C/Xl
C/X2
other words,
an observer who
C/X3
in
is
traveling with
moving object,
and for whom the object
standing
is
therefore
with reference to
still
c/s
or
c/s
or
c/s
That
c/s
is
becomes
2
c/x4
2
c/t
c/t.
to say,
of the nature of "time/"
becomes
often called
it is
for the
"time"
moving object
itself.
262
= 1,2,3)
that,
motion,
v=s/t,
where v
a
it
t
If
is
a distance of 5 feet in
seconds.
the motion
we
NOT
is
uniform,
can, by means of
by
Or,
if
AT AN INSTANT,
ds/dt
x, /, and z
are
on the
and
Z
X, Y,
axes, respectively,
and vx , vy , and vz are
the projections of v
on the three axes,
the projections of
then
in the
~e/x
dy
__
di
abridged notation,
v,
where we use
xi, X2 , Xs
instead of
x, y, z,
and
, va
vi ,
v2
('=1,2,
instead of
vx ,vv ,Vz'
Furthermore,
since acceleration
is
263
3)
we have
Jv
or
(78)
Thus (77)
=^
<T
tr-1
V*
*
1.2
2
*
3)
*/
states that
must be zero,
and hence the acceleration
must be zero, thus:
itself
or
From
this
we
by
set,
integrating,
a constant,
or
-r
a constant,
and therefore
by
integrating again,
s
which
A
In
is
= at+
b,
the equation of
STRAIGHT
LINE.
other words,
for a geodesic,
namely, (74),
are applied to the special case of
(act that
264
in this special
case
THE GEODESIC
IS
STRAIGHT
We
and
NOT DISAPPOINTED
is
LINE!
DELIGHTED
is
so familiar to him;
and we hope
gives him
it
a friendly feeling of
confidence
in (74)!
And
of course
he must
realize
since
the
it
contains
little g's
and
for
since
cr
any dimensionality,
may be
any number of
given
values.
In particular,
in
our four-dimensional
non-Euclidean world,
(74) represents
the path of an object moving
in the presence of matter
is
THE PATH OF
PLANET
for!
*Seep. 190.
265
XXX.
MORE ABOUT
THE PATH OF
PLANET.
A
Of
a
course (74)
only
is
GENERAL
expression,
and does not yet apply to
and
which apply
in
specific case
in a
Now
in
(64)
we have
in
, r
and 7
we
is
known
and
<?}
terms of
in
6.
= 7
in
a}
and
a}
in
terms of
0.
in
mind
that
FOUR
equations,
266
as
<J
its
takes on
FOUR
Taking
first
we
have,
(or one of the equations of (74),
the following:
/-rn\
(79)
And
since
now,
a and
/?
+{^} dx
.
dxa
^
-
each occur
TWICE
the second term,
must sum on these as usual,
so that we must consider terms
in
we
containing, respectively,
from
to 4.
and
{33,2}
= -
sin0-co$0.
{21,2}
{12,2}.
267
fftfYk
(80)
If
in
1 dr dd
+ -.._.-
tm fl. eoi
..
,/</</>
=0.
coordinates
that
7T/2
in
the plane
then
-j-
and cos0
di
and hence
and hence
thus
that
showing
ir/2
is
in a
plane.
according to Einstein,
must move in a plane,
just as in
Newtonian physics.
further,
us
(80),
it
263
For
<T
1 ,
(79) becomes
Or
But since
we have chosen
7r/2
then
In
~-r
hence
And
for
a-
this
and
sin0
1 ,
equation becomes
similarly,
(79) sives
( 82 )
as
and
we
for
cr
as as
4,
get
(83)
+F f**
^
or
as as
269
o.
And now
from (81), (82), (83), and (71),
tosether with (70),
we
get*
2
c/
___
m
A
(84)
==
and u
1/r.
is,
not constrained
and
is
in a
sense,
by any
external force,
therefore,
analogous to a
straight line in
Newtonian physics.
But it must be remembered
that in Einsteinian physics,
owing to the
Principle of Equivalence (Chapter XI),
an object is
constrained by any external force
NOT
even when
it
is
moving
in
example,
a planet
moving
86
in
A.
S.
a planet.
Relativity/'
270
by
From
we
point of view
this
in
Newtonian physics,
as mentioned on page 270,
but rather with
the equations representing
the path of a planet
in
Newtonian physics,
which, of course,
the planet is supposed to
under the
in
move
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
of the sun.
it
in
been shown
Newtonian physics
has
body
that a
moves
in
an ellipse,
And
e/
u
,
jLTsi
~r u
*
r
is
m
TO
(85)
where
__
-
"
the distance
271
is
4> is
in
time
We
t.
notice at once
They
IDENTICAL EXCEPT
for
3mu2,
</s
Thus
the
we
see that
are really
a first approximation to
why
is
they worked so
satisfactorily
for so long.
Let us
how
now
see
the situation
is
affected
by
Owing
3mu2
(84) is no longer an ellipse
but a kind of spiral
in
is
NOT
retraced
p.
OF MERCURY.
262.
272
makes
but
is
complete revolution,
shifted as
shown
in
in
which
is,
at
at
6
C
and so on.
273
In
other words,
does not 30
a planet
by means
of (84).*
be
MEASURED
experimentally,
and therefore can serve
as a
method
of
TESTING
the Einstein theory
in actual fact.
Now
it is
when
a planetary orbit
is
obvious that
very nearly
this shift in
CIRCULAR
the perihelion
not observable,
this is unfortunately
the situation with
most of the planets.
There is one, however,
is
and
in
which
this shift
IS
measurable,
namely,
the planet
MERCURY.
in the
274
ONLY ABOUT
43
would be
some
shift in
the
perihelion.
But the amount of shift
due to this cause
has long been known to be
531 seconds of arc per century,
whereas observation shows
that the actual shift is
574 seconds,
thus leaving a shift of
UNACCOUNTED FOR
in
the
Newtonian theory.
Think of the
DELICACY
275
of the measurements
by
that
by
is
represented
the
And
above
figure!
this figure
was known
to astronomers
It
And
then
NOT AT ALL
ALSO,
in
(84)
XXXII.
DEFLECTION OF
We
in
saw
A RAY OF
LIGHT.
evidence
*See Part
I.:
the Special Theory of Relativity.
fFor the details of the calculation which leads
from (84) to this correction of perihelion shift,
see p. 88 of the
1930
edition of
A.
S.
Eddington.
276
by
in
connection with
the
shift of
the perihelion of
was already
at
Mercury
hand
now
consider
of the theory,
but
this
time
but was
PREDICTED BY
the theory.
This
was
in
connection with
will
be remembered
that
be along
in that
will
a geodesic
Whereas,
according to classical physics,
the force of gravitation
could be exerted
NOT
upon
a ray of light.
277
it
it
in a straight line,
*
as required by classical physics?
Now
to
it is
make
obviously impossible
observation
this
since
whose
would make
to
look
And
it
in that
so
it
impossible
direction at
all.
was necessary
however,
*lf,
were considered
light
be
to
the sun
WOUL6
have
the
AMOUNT of deflection
calculated even
on
this basis,
we
shall
show
with experiment,
later (see p.
287).
278
itself:
when
but
the sun
its
glare
so that the
is
up in the sky
hidden by the moon,
is
stars
become
plates/
stars
could be compared
with their positions in the sky
when the sun is
present.
NOT
279
/A
F
the path of a ray of light,
from a star, v4 ,
when the sun is
in that part of the sky.
AOE ,
NOT
And,
also,
IS present,
280
so that,
star
APPEARS to
be
at B.
Thus,
if such photographs
AND
IF
they showed
AND
the
IF
MAGNITUDE
of the displacements
would
constitute
of
in favor
Let us
now determine
We
that
1
in
which applies
2
c/s
we now
we get
if
in
EUCLIDEAN
cW
divide
(c/x
this
c/y
expression
but
Jx c/y </z
"~T i ~~r i ~~r
space-time,
2
are
281
+
by
c/z )/
2
cfc ,
of
= c
Now
when
1*
happens to be
a light-ray,
then v
and we
get,
FOR LIGHT,
c/$ = 0.
NON-EUCLIDEAN
world,
containing matter?
It
will
be remembered (see
p.
118)
that in studying a
small region,
we were aided by
the Euclidean plane which
practically coincided with
the given surface in
that small region.
we
can,
282
And
will
hence
apply
our
in
it
And
now,
we
on page 261 ,
a geodesic,
shall obtain
A RAY OF
THE PATH OF
LIGHT.
DEFLECTION OF A
LIGHT
(Continued)
XXXIII.
XXX
given on page
led to (74),
showed
260
the
And
in
now,
order to find
the path of
A RAY OF
we must add
as
we
LIGHT,
= 0,
pointed out
in
Chapter XXXII.
in
Substituting c/s
the second equation of (84),
283
RAY OF
that
we
get
first
which
is
the required
PATH OF
And
by
A RAY OF
LIGHT.
this,
integration*
+
for the equation of the curve
on
page 280.
Now,
since
a (page 280)
is
may be
and
so,
becomes
And,
*For details see page
A.
S.
the
1930
90
of
Eddinston's
"The Mathematical Theory of Relativity/'
edition.
284
(see any
book on
tan
Analytics):
mi
~~~
__
OL
iii2
we
get
from which
it is
4/?m
tana
4m 2 -fl2
easy to find
sin
4m
4m2/R
And, a being
its
value
equal to
so that
in
sin
small,
radian measure
is
we now have
/O/A
(86)
4m
=
R
+ 4mVR
Now,
what
is
in
in
which
R =
and
is its
mass?
285
Since
and
R = 697,000
m=
kilometers,
1.47 kilometers
4m 2 may be
neglected by
comparison with
/?,
4m
from which
we
easily get
a =
In
it
.75 seconds.
other words,
was predicted by
in
consequently
A would
APPEARtobeatB,
a star at
a displacement of
an angle of 1.75 seconds!
If
moment
to consider
an angle of one
is
MINUTE,
and again
one-sixtieth of that
is
286
an angle of one
he
will realize
SECOND,
how
displacement of
small
is
.75 seconds!
Furthermore,
according to the Newtonian theory,*
the displacement would be
only half of
And
that!
this
it is
TINY
difference
all
theories.
perhaps he
how
small
is
is
disappointed to learn
the difference
in scientific
faith
method,
he should,
ON
be
all
THE CONTRARY,
the
more
with
filled
experimental work
IS
in
astronomy
SO ACCURATE
that
p.
278.
287
that
they
DO distinguish
between the two theories and
decide in favor of the
DO
Einstein theory,
as
shown by the
is
following figures:
The
British
to Sobral
gave
expeditions, in 1919,
and Principe,
1.98"
0.1
2"
and
1.61 "0.30",
respectively;
values which have since
been
who
using
obtained,
two
different cameras,
1.72"
in
So
that
by now
beyond
question.
in
on page 275.
288
0.1 5",
We
cannot
refrain,
GERMAN
I,
scientist,
and yet,
the British scientists,
without any of the
stupid racial prejudices then
(and
alas! still)
rampant
in
the world,
by
OF THE "CRUCIAL
PHENOMENA.
We
were completely
verified
by
experiment:
(1)
One, concerning
the shift of
And
it
must be remembered
was
289
11
to
this shift,
it
QUITE INCIDENTALLY!
(2) The other, concerning the bending
of a ray of light as it
passes near the sun.
It was never suspected
before Einstein that
a ray of light
when
passing
would be bent.*
It
was
for the
first
PREDICTED by
time
this
theory,
was actually
verified
by experiment,
QUANTITATIVELY as well as
QUALITATIVELY (see Chap. XXXIII).
Now there was still another
consequence of this theory which
could be tested experimentally,
according to Einstein.
In order to appreciate
we must
it
the sunlight,
band of
different colors,
like a rainbow,
will appear on the wall
where
The explanation of
this
on
phenomenon
p.
278.
290
is
quite simple,
as
may be seen
When
beam
of white light,
SD,
ABC,
NOT continue in
SAME direction, D,
does
the
but
is
bent.*
Furthermore,
if it is
"composite"
like sunlight or
which
is
light,
composed
light,
of
bending of
a light ray
called "refraction,"
to
do
with
291
each constituent
BC,
of the prism,
XY
as
shown,
namely, red,
being deflected least.
Hence the rainbow-colored spectrum.
Now,
if
obviously,
the light from 5
is
1
"monochromatic/
that
is,
light of a
SINGLE
wave-length only,
instead of "composite,"
like sunlight,
we have
instead of a "rainbow/*
on
XY
we
said above,
Now
may be obtained
sodium.
292
And
This
explained as follows:
DEFINITE period
of vibration,
it,
disturbance being
a light-wave of definite
wave-length
corresponding to
the period of vibration,
thus giving rise to
a
DEFINITE color
which
i
is
visible in
DEFINITE
And
so,
if you look at a
spectrum
you can tell from the bright
just
lines in
it
what substances
are present at 5.
Now
then,
according to Einstein,
since each atom has
a definite period of vibration,
it is
measure
for
as
an "interval"
c/s.
be
the interval between
the beginning and end of one
and eft the time this takes,
Thus take
c/s
to
vibration,
such that
dr=
S=
d<t>
= 0,
293
that
is,
whom
the atom
is
vibrating at
= yd?
7 =
where
c/s=
or
2/n
---
Vydt,
(see p. 253).
Now,
if
is
we
for
and
and, similarly,
if an atom of the substance
is
and
to
be
Thus
7 DEPENDS upon
But since ds
is
judged by an observer
consequently
INDEPENDENT
of the location
of the atom/
then, since
294
obviously
eft
would have
to
be
DIFFERENT
period of vibration,
DIFFERENT
wave-length,
DIFFERENT
light of a
a bright line in a
And now
let us
see
HOW MUCH of
change
in
and whether
by
the
it is
borne out
facts:
respectively,
then
or
295
Now
Tearth is
very nearly
hence
cfc
&
V^un
_
~
<(
2m
R
J,
m*
_
!l
m.*
7?
we
qet
get
LONGER
slightly
when
when
it
is
it
is
period of vibration
near the sun than
near the earth,
and hence a
LONGER
slightly
wave-length
and therefore
its
lines
should be
a little toward the
SHIFTED
RED end
was so
slight,
is
very small
m and R
on
296
p.
286).
it
made
difficult.
very
announced
this result
(1917)
were doubtful,
and this caused many physicists
to doubt the validity of the
Einstein theory,
in spite of its other triumphs,
which we have already discussed.
in
1927,
made by Evershed
definitely settled the issue
FAVOR OF THE
IN
EINSTEIN THEORY.
Furthermore,
experiments were performed
similar
Adams
by W.
S.
on the
star
known
as
LARGE MASS
thus
and
SMALL
RADIUS,
S7eft
much
+r
larger than
experimentally.
Here too
the verdict was definitely
IN
So
FAVOR OF THE
that
EINSTEIN THEORY!
to-day
297
all
EXPLAINED
PREVIOUSLY KNOWN FACTS
(1) IT
(seep. 103).
EXPLAINED FACTS
as:
an electron
(3) IT
when
in
motion. f
PREDICTED FACTS
light ray
passing near the sun (see Ch. XXXII).
(b) The shift of lines in
the spectrum (see p. 296).
(a)
when
(c)
in turn,
led to the
ATOMIC BOMB!
(Seep. 318
And
by
ff.)
all this
using
VERY FEW
and
*See Part
I,
298
11
VERY REASONABLE
hypotheses (see p. 97),
in the slightest degree
"far-fetched" or "forced."
not
And
We
has
trust that
the reader
been led by
book
this little
and to appreciate
the great breadth and
fundamental importance of
XXXV. SUMMARY.
I.
In
the
SPECIAL
Relativity
Theory
SPECIAL
conditions,
view
the
II.
In
democratic
hold also for
this
result
was found to
299
in
I.
FACTS.
III.
To accomplish
this
PRINCIPLE
OF EQUIVALENCE,
by which
the idea of a
FORCE OF GRAVITY
was replaced by
the idea of the
CURVATURE OF
SPACE.
TENSOR CALCULUS,
by means of which
the
V.
CURVATURE TENSOR
was derived.
the
THREE CRUCIAL
PHENOMENA
beautifully!
300
THE
MORAL
THE
MORAL
can
we
in science,
not learn from
THE SCIENTIFIC
WAY OF
and
HOW
There
is
it
achieves
is
THINKING,
capable
of,
SUCCESS:
NOTHING ABSOLUTE
We
by more human,
OBSERVATIONAL
concepts.
303
in science.
II.
But what
we observe
is
profoundly influenced by
the state of the observer,
and therefore
various observers get
widely different results
even
in their
measurements of
However,
in spite of these differences,
various observers may still
AND EQUAL
SUCCESS,
LAWS
of the universe.
305
IV. To accomplish
this
we need
MORE MATHEMATICS
THAN EVER BEFORE,
MODERN, STREAMLINED, POWERFUL
MATHEMATICS.
307
V. Thus
a combination of
PRACTICAL REALISM
(OBSERVATIONALISM)
and
IDEALISM (MATHEMATICS),
TOGETHER
have achieved SUCCESS.
VI.
And
knowing
MAN-MADE,
we know
that
NOT
made
in
science
WANTONLY,
BUT CAREFULLY
AND CAUTIOUSLY
the
by
BEST
the world
may be changed
309
as easily
WOULD YOU
LIKE
TO KNOW?
ON PAGE
(20)
ARE DERIVED:
x
.'.
=
=
=
a cosfl
(x'
x'
(x'
fc)
y' tanfl)
cos?
cos0
cos0
y' sinf?.
\f
^+
y^c-fc/^
sinfl
COSC^
cosO
/
= -+
i
/.
x' sinfl
(*
x smO
+ / cos0.
'
co$0
61
HOW
THE
FAMOUS MAXWELL
EQUATIONS LOOK:
X Y Z represent the
f
of the
components
ELECTRIC FORCE
at a point x , y , z in
an electromagnetic field/
at a
given instant,
t,
of the
MAGNETIC FORCE
at the
at
311
III.
HOW TO JUDGE
WHETHER A SET OF QUANTITIES
A
IS
We
TENSOR 9R NOT:
various criteria:
may apply
and rank
given
Or
(2) See
if it is
the
two
of
tensors.
Or
(3) See if it satisfies
the following theorem:
A QUANTITY WHICH
ON INNER MULTIPLICATION
as follows:
Given
that
XA a
is
known
to
be
a contravariant vector,
for
any choice
of
To prove
Now
X
XA a
that
since
is
Aa /
a tensor:
is
a contravariant vector,
it
(X Aft) =
(XA a );
312
X
y
A's
but
hence, by substitution,
Ayr Af _
/A/9
dx,;
dXfl
'
dx y ox a
Ary
/i/sA
or
j/
S\0
But
/A^
3x5 3x^
Ay\I
"^
6xT 3xa
/y/
VA
TV~~
_ ^
v,
hence
XI _
which
C'X^
~
'
C/X0
ax T oxa
y
A
satisfies (1 7),
X must be a
CONTRAVARIANT TENSOR
OF RANK TWO.
And
Thus if XA = B, y
then X must be a tensor of
the form
/
C^
and
if
then
XA* =
X must
the form
be
rp /
a tensor of
Barp
and so on.
Now
let us
the set of
is
show
that
little g's in
(42)
a tensor:
313
Knowing
that
SCALAR i.e.
is
c/s
(see p. 128),
then
the right-hand
member
of (42)
is
also
but
c/x, is,
by
(1
5) on p.
A CONTRAVARIANT
52,
VECTOR,
hence,
A COVARIANT
TENSOR
OF RANK ONE.
And, again,
since C/XM is
a contravariant vector,
then,
by the same theorem,
g^ must be
A COVARIANT
TENSOR
OF RANK TWO,
and therefore
it is
with
as
appropriate to write
TWO SUBscripts
in anticipation
of
this proof.
314
it
IV.
BE
EXPRESSED IN
KILOMETERS:
The reader may be
surprised to
is expressed
14
consider its "dimensionality
terms of the fundamental units of
we must
in
is
L/T;
the "dimensionality" of
2
an acceleration is i/7 ;
and so on.
Now, in Newtonian physics,
the force of attraction which
the sun exerts
being
where
upon the
earth
is
and
also,
j,
hence
fcmm'
2
or
_ m ,.
j
m = v r2-
i.
Therefore,
315
the "dimensionality" of
,,
L
= V
'r
is
And now
we
if
the time
a distance of
and
M
kilometer
one kilometer/
of time
(thus
we may express
the "dimensionality" of
3
2
L /T or simply /
in
then
thus
we may
mass also
So
far as
in
thus:
express
kilometers.
considerations of
encountered
this
idea of
"dimensionality"
(which,
by
the way,
important tool
is
a very
in scientific
thinking),
he
Dr.
will
A. N. Lowan,
published by
the Galois Institute of Mathematics
of
Long
Island University in
Brooklyn, N. Y.
316
V,
HOW
Gu LOOKS
IN FULL:
13,3)131,31
If
this
mathematics
BE SURE
PAGES
BORES you
TO READ
318-323!
317
THE ATOMIC
We
saw on
p.
78
that the
BOMB
energy
at rest,
is:
= me
tells us
into
ENERGY
How
Now,
so long as
is
constant,
m,
and
this
is
the situation
AN ATOM
when
the
by
scientists like
Meitner, Frisch,
318
terms,
"bombard
to
It
was
Finally
11
atoms.
shown
when
that
this loss in
to a
thus released
When
by
Einstein
the
fission!
the acquisition of
by
the
new
terrific
ENEMY of the
sources of
human
power
race,
PREVENT
instead of
by
future wars
those
who
set out to
Thus the
ATOMIC BOMB
was born
in
And now
the U.S.A.
that a practical
method
has
been developed,
the
MORAL
We MUST
is
obvious:
realize that
it
has
become
GADGETS,
WITHOUT UNDERSTANDING
in
the MORALITY which
is
319
SAM,
for short.
These are
NOT
mere
idle words.
We
must
AND DANGEROUS
that SAM
amoral
FALSE
DOCTRINE
is
and
is
Good
We
indifferent to
and
Evil.
must
lc
have
wise guys
refused to take it
but
many
seriously,
its
meaning!
And
now, we are
getting
ANOTHER CHANCE-
SAM
is
now
also
warning us that
MUST
UNDERSTAND
we
MORALITY
the
for
it,
as
a source of gadgets!
for
"The Education of
IC
Mits"
321
which
and
in
NOT ENOUGH,
will NOT satisfy SAM.
For he
is
desperately trying
to prevent us from
merely picking
his
pockets
the
Good/
the Beautiful
which are
in his
mind and
heart,
And, moreover,
he
is
giving
new and
meanings to
clear
So
DO NOT
BE
AN
ANTI-SAMITE,
or
SAM
will get
you
with his
atomic bombs,
his cyclotrons/
and
all his
new
whatnots.
He
if
is
so anxious to
only
we would
BEFORE
IT
IS
HELP
us
listen
TOO
LATE!
323
SOME
INTERESTING READING:
London.
(2) The
original
ment:
paper
D.
Carmichael.
"An
Introduction
L. Bolton.
to
Pub. by
Published by Peter
the Theory
E. P.
S.
Dutton
of
&
Relativity"
Co., N. Y.
by
Jeans.
Absolute
Calculus" by
Son, London.
Differential
Pub. by Blackie
&
A.
T.
Bliss.
Levi-
Open
(11) "The
Meaning of Relativity"
Princeton University Press, 1945
by Albert
Einstein.
324